“ TEACHING - LEARNING PROCESS : CHARACTERISTIC AND AND LIMIT LIMI TATION TIO N OF BEHAVIOUR BEHAVIOURIST IST , COGNITIVI COGNI TIVIST ST AND HUMANISTIC APPROACH TO LEARNING ”
TEACHING LEARNING PROCESS
Introduction We are passing through a great transition. The old is becoming obsolete and new is still in the process of emergence. The old ways of learning & teaching is found to be too rigid & too out-dated. A greater opportunity of psychological principle is being truly demanded. It has been urged that the training of the young requires on the part of teacher a deep psychological knowledge. Teaching-learning process is the heart of education. On it depends the fulfillment of the aims & objectives of education. It is the most powerful instrument of educ ation to bring about desired changes chan ges in the students.
Teaching learning are related terms. In teaching teaching - learning process, the teacher, teacher, the learner, the curriculum & other variables are organized in a systematic way to attain some pre-determined goal
Let us first understand in short about learning, teaching and then teaching-learning relation. Learning can be defined as the relatively permanent change in an individual's behavior or behavior potential (or capability) as a result of experience or practice (i.e., an internal change inferred from overt behavior). This can be compared with the other primary process producing relatively permanent change-maturation --that results from biological growth and development. Therefore, when we see a relatively permanent change in others, or ourselves we know that the primary cause was either maturation (biology) or learning (experience). As educators, there is nothing we can do to alter an individual’s biology; the only influence open to use is to provide an opportunity for students to engage in experiences that will lead to relatively permanent change.
the purposeful direction and management of the learning process. process. Note Teaching then, can be thought of as the purposeful that teaching is not giving knowledge or skills to students; teaching is the process of providing opportunities for students to produce relatively permanent change through the engagement in experiences provided by the teacher. Definition of learning given by various psychologists: Daniel Bell - Learning is modification due to energies of organism and environment impinging on • the organism itself. Gates - Learning is modification of behaviour through experience. • Crow – Crow - Learning involves the acquisition acquisition of habits, knowledge and attitude. • Ruch - Learning is a process, which which bring about changes in the individual way of responding as a • result of contact with aspects of environment. Skinner – Learning as acquisition and retention. • Encyclopedia of Education Research - Learning refers to growth of interest, knowledge and skills • and to transfer these to new situation.
Definition of teaching given by various psychologists: H.C. Morrison – Teaching is an intimate contact between a more mature personality ans a less • mature one which is designed to further the education of the latter. J. Brubacher Brubacher – Teaching is an arrangement and manipulation of a situation in which there are gaps • and obstructions, obstructions, which an individual individual will seek to overcome overcome and from in which he will learn in the course of doing so. B.O. Smith – Teaching is a system of actions involving an agent, an end in view, and a situation • including two sets of factors – those over which the agent has no control (class size, size of classroom, physical characteristics of pupil etc.) and those that he can modify (way of asking questions or ideas gleaned.) Edmund Amidon – Teaching is defined as an interactive process, primarily involving classroom • talk, which takes place between teacher and pupil and occurs during certain definable activities. T.F. Greens – Teaching Teaching is a task of a teacher, which is performed for the development of a child. •
Essential aspects of the teaching-learning process
It is informative to examine the ideal teaching-learning process, as proposed by Diana Laurillard (Laurillard, 1993; Laurillard, 1994). She argues that there are four aspects of the teaching-learning process: (a) (a) Disc Discus ussi sion on - betw betwee een n the the teac teache herr and and lear learner ner.. (b) Intera Interacti ction on -
betwee between n the lear learner ner and and some some aspect aspect of of the worl world d define defined d by the the teacher teacher..
(c) Adapta Adaptatio tion n-
of the the worl world d by the teacher teacher and action action by the the lear learner ner..
(d) Reflect Reflection ion on the the lear learner ner's 's perfor performan mance ce by both both teac teacher her and learne learnerr. She then considers how different educational media and styles can be described in these terms. For example, a text book represents a one-way flow of knowledge from the teacher's conceptual knowledge to the student's conceptual knowledge. A lecture or tutorial may be seen the same way, but there is a possibility of meaningful discussion between teacher and learner. Discussion Teacher’s Conceptual Conc eptual Knowledge
Reflection on Student
Student’s Student’s Conceptual Knowledge
Adaptation of World
Teacher’s Constructed World
Adaptation of Action
Interaction
Reflection on Interaction
Student Experimental Knowledge
Figure : Essential aspects of the ideal teaching-learning process
TEACHING PROCESS Approaches, Attitudes, Behaviour, Behaviour, Materials, Modes of Learning
COURSE DESIGN Content, Organization, Aims & Expectation, Teaching and Learning Methods
INPUT FACTORS Student characteristics characteristics Teacher characteristics Institutional characteristics characteristics And Culture
TEACHING LEARNING LEARNING OUTCOMES
ENVIRONMENT LEARNING CLIMATE Psychosocial Environment Physical Environment
STUDENT APPROACH TO LEARNING
ASSESSMENT & EVALUATION Aproaches, Practices, Purposes And Foci
Figure: Teaching - Learning Environment
According to Burton in the figure above 1) 2) 3) 4)
Teaching can become become effective effective only only by relating relating it to process process of learning. learning. Teaching objective objective cannot cannot be realized realized without without being related related to learning learning situation situation.. We may create and and use teaching teaching aids to create create some appropriate appropriate learning learning situati situation. on. The strategies strategies and devices devices of teaching teaching may be selected selected in such such a manner that the the optimal objectiv objectives es of learning are achieved 5) To understand understand principles, principles, goals, goals, objectives objectives of education in right right perspective. perspective. 6) Appropriate Appropriate learning learning situation situation condition condition may be created created for congenial congenial and effective effective teaching. teaching.
Lets take a short glimpse of the Approaches to Learning Theories :
Behaviourist
Cognitivist
Humanist
Thorndike, Pavlov, Pavlov, Watson, Guthrie, Hull, Tolman, Skinner
Koffka, Kohler, Lewin Lewin,, Piaget,
Maslow, Rogers
View of the learning process
Change in beh behaviour
Intern ernal mental proce ocess A personal act to fulfil (including insight, information potential. processing, memory, perception
Locus of learning
Stimuli in external environment
Inte Intern rnal al cogni cogniti tive ve stru struct ctur urin ing g
Affe Affect ctiv ivee and cogni cogniti tive ve needs
Purpose in education
Produce behavioural change in desired direction
Develop capacity and skills to learn better
Become self-actualized, autonomous
Educator's role
Arranges environment to elicit desired response
Structures content of learning activity
Facilitates development of the whole person
Manifestations in adult learning
Behavioural objectives
Cognitive development
Competency -based education
Intelligence, learning and memory as function of age
Skill development and training
Learning how to learn
Aspect Learning theorists
Ausubel, Bruner , Gagne
Andragogy Self-directed learning
SOURCE: http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-learn.htm http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-learn.htm
Behaviourist Behaviourist learning as pioneered by Watson (1913) who developed the stimulus-response model. He assert asserted ed that that people people learn from from observ observing ing each each other other and as a result result of this this observ observati ation on produc produces es a behavioural change. The change is driven by the external environment of the learner and requires repetition
and reinforcement. Thorndike further asserted that learning was impacted by the learner recognizing the positive consequences of the behavioural change and that learning would occur when the brain could systematically link together behaviours into patterns (Saettler 1990).
The History of Behaviourism •
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Pavlov (1903) published the results of an experiment on conditioning after originally studying digestion in dogs. Watson (1913) launches the behavioural school of psychology (classical conditioning), publishing an article, "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views Views It". Watson and Rayner (1920) conditioned an orphan called Albert B (aka Little Albert) to fear a white rat. ". Thorndike (1905) formalised the " Law of Effect ". Skinner (1936) (1936) wrote wrote "The Behavi Behavior or of Organi Organisms sms"" and introd introduced uced the concept conceptss of operant operant conditioning and shaping. B.F. Skinner (1948) published Walden II in which he described a utopian society founded upon behaviorist principles. Bandura (1963) (1963) publish publishes es a book called called the "Socia "Sociall Leaning Leaning Theory" Theory" which which combine combiness both both cognitive and behavioral frameworks. B.F. Skinner (1971) published his book Beyond Freedom and Dignity, where he argues that free will is an illusion.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING *John Watson Behaviourism as a movement in psychology appeared in 1913 when John Broadus Watson published the classic article Psychology 'Psychology as the behaviourist views it '.'. Watson believed that all individual differences in behaviour were due to different experiences of learning. He famously said: “Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select - doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations and the race of his ancestors”. ancestors”. (Watson, (Watson, 1924, p. 104) Watson proposed that the process of classical classical conditioning conditioning (based on Pavlov’s observations) was able to explain all aspects of human psychology. Everything from speech to emotional responses were simply patterns of stimulus and response. Watson denied completely the existence of the mind or consciousness.
* Pavlov and Classical Conditioning
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The nineteenth-century Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov was looking at salivation in dogs in response to
being fed, when he noticed that his dogs would begin to salivate whenever he entered the room, even when he was not bringing them food. However, when Pavlov discovered that any object or event which the dogs learnt to associate with food (such as the food bowl) would trigger the same response, he realised that he had made an important scientific discovery, discovery, and he devoted de voted the rest of his career to studying stud ying this type of learning. Ivan Pavlov and his studies of "classical conditioning" have become famous since his early work between 1890-1930. Classical conditioning is "classical" in that it is the first systematic study of basic laws of learning / conditioning. involves es learnin learning g to associa associate te an Classical Classical conditioning conditioning involv uncondit unconditione ioned d stimulu stimuluss that that alre alread ady y bri brings ngs abou aboutt a particular response (i.e. a reflex) with a new (conditioned) stimulus, so that the new stimulus brings about the same response. Pavlov developed some rather unfriendly technical terms to describe this process. The unconditioned stimulus (or UCS) is the object or event that originally produces the reflexive / natural response. The response to this is called the unconditioned unconditioned response response (or UCR). The neutral stimulus (NS) is a new stimulus that does not produce a response. Once the neutral stimulus has become associated with the unconditioned stimulus, it becomes a conditioned conditioned stimulus (CS). The conditioned response (CR) is the response to the conditioned stimulus. OPERANT CONDITIONING * B.F. Skinner
Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work was based on Thorndike’s law of effect . In the late nineteenth century, psychologist Edward Thorndike proposed the law of effect. The law of effect states that any behavior that has good consequences will tend to be repeated, and any behavior that has bad consequences will tend to be avoided. In the 1930s, B. F. Skinner, extended this idea and began to study operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences. Operant responses are often new responses. Just as Pavlov’s fame stems from his experiments with salivating dogs, Skinner’s fame stems from his experiments with animal boxes. Skinner used a device called the Skinner box to study operant conditioning. A Skinner box is a cage set up so that an animal can automatically get a food reward if it makes a particular kind of response. The box also contains an instrument that records the number of responses an animal makes. make s. Psy Psychol chologi ogists sts use sev severa erall key ter terms ms to dis discus cusss oper operant ant con condit dition ioning ing pri princi nciple ples, s, inc includ luding ing reinforcement and reinforcement and punishment punishment .
Reinforcement
Reinforcement is delivery of a consequence that increases the likelihood that a response will occur. Positive reinforcement is the presentation of a stimulus after a response so that the response will occur more often. Negative reinforcement is the removal of a stimulus after a response so that the response will occur more often. In this terminology, positive and negative don’t mean good and bad. Instead, positive Instead, positive means adding a stimulus, and negative means removing a stimulus.
Punishment Punishment is the delivery of a consequence that decreases the likelihood that a response will occur. Positi Pos itive ve and neg negati ative ve puni punishm shment entss are anal analogou ogouss to pos positi itive ve and nega negativ tivee rei reinfo nforce rcemen ment. t. Positive punishment is the presentation of a stimulus after a response so that the response will occur less often. Negative punishm punishment ent is the removal of a stimulus after a response so that the response will occur less often.
Reinforcement helps to increase a behavior, behav ior, while punishment helps to decrease a behavior.
Looking at Skinner's classic studies on pigeons’ behaviour we can identify some of the major assumptions of behaviourists approach . • Psychology should be seen as a science, to be studied in a scientific manner. Skinner's study of behaviour in rats was conducted under carefully controlled laboratory conditions. observable behaviour behaviour , as opposed to internal • Behaviourism is primarily concerned with observable events like thinking and emotion. Note that Skinner did not say that the rats learnt to press a lever because they wanted food. He instead concentrated on describing the easily observed behaviour that the rats acquired.
• The major influence on human behaviour is learning from our environment. In the Skinner study, because food followed a particular behaviour the rats learned to repeat that behaviour, e.g. classical and operant conditioning. • There is little difference between the learning that takes place in humans and that in other animals . Therefore research (e.g. classical conditioning) can be carried out on animals (Pavlov’s dogs) as well as on humans (Little Albert). Skinner proposed that the way humans learn behaviour is much the same as the way the rats learned to press a lever.
Here's a comparison of classical and operant conditioning:
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (A)
OPERANT CONDITIONING Thorndike / Skinner
Pavlov / Rescorla classical conditioning (Hilgard and Marquis, 1940) also called respondent conditioning co nditioning (Skinner, 1938)
operant conditioning (Skinner, 1938) also called instrumental conditioning (Hilgard and Marquis, 1940)
(B) What kind of regularities are learned?
those that the animal can't control relations between stimuli out in the world
those that the animal can control relations between animal's behavior and its consequences
(C) What are the relevant events and in what sequence must they occur?
CS - US/REINFORCEMENT - UR/CR S - REINF – R
(discriminative) stimulus - response - REINFORCEMENT S - R - REINF
(D) Does reinforcement depend on the animal's behavior / response?
No - presented independent of behavior
Yes - contingent on behavior according acco rding to reinforcement schedule
(E) Is the response elicited or emitted?
Elicited - US causes UR; animal is forced to respond
Emitted - reinforcement doesn't cause response; animal responds at will
(F) What is the nature of the response to be made?
reflex or other visceral response (i.e., in tissues and organs) usually involuntary
action or skeletal response (e.g., movement of limbs) usually voluntary
(G) What does the animal "learn"?
Learns a signal, i.e., that US is coming (CS->US)
Learns a behavior, i.e., one that brings about a reinforcement
(H) What is the principle or mechanism governing the conditioning process?
Rescorla (and us): contingency / dependency of US on CS (Pavlov: contiguity / frequency of CS-US pairing)
law of effect: utility or consequences of response (contiguity's role: delay of reinforcement weakens response)
Behaviourism Psychology Summary
Key Features • • • • • •
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Methodology
Stimulus - Response Classical Conditioning & Operant Conditioning Reinforcement & Punishment (Skinner) Objective Measurement Social Learning Theory (Bandura) Nomothetic
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Ethical Considerations
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Reductionism
Basic Assumptions
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Lab Experiments Edward Thorndike (the cat in a puzzle box) Skinner box (rats & pigeons) Pavlov’s Dogs Bandura Bobo Doll Experiment
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Areas of Application
Psychology should be seen as a science, to be stud studie ied d in a scie scient ntif ific ic manne mannerr (usu (usual ally ly in a laboratory) Beha Behavi viour ouris ism m is prim primar aril ily y conc concer erne ned d with with observ observable able behavio behaviour ur,, as opposed opposed to intern internal al events like thinking and emotion Behaviour is the result of stimulus – response (i.e. all behaviour, no matter how complex, can be be reduc reduced ed to a simp simple le stim stimul ulus us – resp respon onse se association)
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Gender Role Development Behaviour Therapies (e.g. Flooding) Phobias Addictions (Aversion Therapy) Scientific Methods Relationships Language
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Moral Development
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Behavi Behaviour our is determ determine ined d by the environ environmen mentt (e.g. conditioning)
Strengths
Weaknesses •
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Scientific Highly applicable (e.g. therapy) Emphasizes objective measurement Many experiments to support theories Ident dentiified fied com compar parison isonss bet between ween anim animal alss (Pavlov) and humans (Watson & Rayner Little Albert)
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Ignores mediational processes Ignores biology (e.g. testosterone) Too deterministic d eterministic (little free-will) Experiments – low ecological validity Huma Humani nism sm – can’t can’t compa compare re anim animal alss to humans Humanism - rejects scientific method (low ecological validity) Reductionist
Cognitivist Cognitivist learning is concerned with the internalisation of mental processes. The ability to review a situation and act knowingly. Cognitivists accept some of the concepts developed in the behaviourist model of lear learni ning ng but but beli believ evee that that the the lear learni ning ng actua actuall lly y occur occurss thro throug ugh h the the human human brai brain n proce process ssin ing g and and reorganising the data it receives. Cognitive approach highly influential in all areas of psychology (e.g. biological, social, behaviourism, development etc).
The History of Cognitive Psychology
* Norbert Norbert Wiener (1948) published Cybernetics: or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine, introducing terms such as input and output. ou tput. * Tolman (1948) work on cognitive maps – training rats in mazes, showed that animals had internal representation of behaviour. be haviour. * Newell and Simon’s development of the General Problem Solver. * In 1960 1960,, Miller foun founded ded the the Cent Center er for for Cogni Cogniti tive ve Studi Studies es at Harv Harvar ard d with with famo famous us cogni cogniti tivi vist st developmentalist, Jerome Bruner. * Ulric Neisser (1967) (1967) publis publishes hes "Cognitive Cognitive Psychology" Psychology" , which marks the officical begining of the cognitive approach.
Cognition literally means, “knowing”. In other words, psychologists from this approach study cognition which is ‘the mental act or process by which knowledge is acquired.’ They focus on the way humans process information, looking at how we treat information that comes in to the person (what behaviourists would call stimuli) and how this treatment leads to responses. In other words, they are interested in the variables that mediate between stimulus/input and response/output. The main areas of study in cognitive psychology are: perception, attention, memory and language. * Jean Piaget
Jean Piaget (1896—1980) was a Swiss scholar who beg an to study children’s intellectual development at the beginning of the twentieth century. Early in his career Piaget worked for Albert Binet who was involved in the development of early IQ tests. Piaget’s job was to give children questions and to score their answers as correct or not. What intrigued Piaget was not so much whether the children could answer the questions correctly but the fact that children of similar ages were making similar mistakes and that children’s thinking was qualitat qualitative ively ly differ different ent from adult adult thinki thinking. ng. In other other words, words, the way a child child made made sense sense of and interpreted the world was very different from that of an adult. This will come as no surprise to anyone who has spent spent any time time with with an inqu inquis isit itiv ivee 4-ye 4-year ar-o -old ld.. From From this this insi insight ght Piag Piaget et went went on to devel develop op a comprehensive theory of intellectual development. Piaget’s Piaget’s theory is a stage theory. theory. The stages of cognitive development according to Piaget are: • • • •
Sens Sensori ori-mo -moto torr stage stage (birt (birth h to age age 2) Pre-o Pre-oper perati ation onal al sta stage ge (ag (ages es 2—7 2—7)) Concre Concrete te operati operational onal stage stage (ages (ages 7—11) 7—11) Formal Formal operatio operational nal stage stage (ages (ages 11—12+) 1—12+)
Sensori-motor stage (0-2)
This stage sees the emergence of schemas, the development of object permanence and general symbolic function. Object permanence is the ability to realise that objects/people exist in space and time even if we cannot see them. General symbolic function includes the beginning of language, make-believe play and deferred imitation. Deferred imitation is the ability to imitate in the absence of the object or event.
Pre-operational stage (2—7)
One of the key achievements achievements of the sensori-motor sensori-motor stage was the emergence of general general symbolic function, function, and it is this ability to use language, to imitate and to engage in pretend play that really takes off and expands during the pre-operational years. However, for all the accomplishments of children within these years, Piaget noted limitations in regard to logical thinking. Limitations include the inability to decentre and conserve and faulty views in regard to egocentrism. Piaget defined this not as being selfish but as being unable to take another’s point of view or simply believing that everyone sees the world as you do. When a child can see the world from another person’s point of view, the child is said to have the ability to decentre. To decentre involves the cognitive ability to hold and understand two apparently opposing views. Conservation involves the realisation that an object remains the same even though its appearance changes. Conservation can apply to concepts such as substance, length, number, liquid and area. However, in support of Piaget’s views, older children do solve these conservation problems with greater ease, reflecting a qualitative change in thinking. Concrete operational stage (7—11) and formal operational stage (11+)
Piaget stated that for every weakness in the p re-operational stage there is strength in the concrete operational stage. Children have acquired mental operations. They have acquired logical rules regarding addition, subtraction and reversibility. Children will pass the tests of conservation. Conservation of substance, length, number and liquid is achieved for most children by 6 or 7, with conservation of area not being achieved until age 9 or 10. However, Piaget felt that there was still more to acquire in that operations could only be carried out if the objects were actually present or imaginable, hence the stage of concrete operations. Children at this stage would not be able to think in terms of abstractions; this ability, the culmination of the development of logic, would be achieved during the formal operational stage.
LIMITATIONS
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Poor Poor enviro environmen nmental tal stimul stimulus us Poor Poor heredit hereditary ary environ environmen mentt Lack of proper proper attenti attention, on, assimil assimilation ation etc. etc. on the part of the learners learners.. Defect Defective ive teach teaching ing –lea –learni rning ng mater material ialss Low level level of lear learner’ ner’ss intel intellig ligence ence
Cognitive Psychology Summary
Key Concepts •
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Medi Mediat atio iona nall Proce rocessses ses (proc proces esss stimulus and response) Information Processing Approach
Methodology
betw betwee een n
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Lab Experiments Introspection (Wundt (Wundt)) Memory (Jacobs Digit Span)
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Computer Analogy Introspection (Wundt) Nomothetic (studies the group) Schema
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Machine Reductionism
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Computer Modelling
Areas of Application
Cognitive psychology is a pure science, based mainly on laboratory experiments. Behaviour can be largely explained in terms of how how the the mind mind oper operat ates es,, i.e. i.e. the the info inform rmat atio ion n processing approach. The mind works in a way similar to a computer: inputting, storing and retrieving data. Mediational Mediational processes processes occur between stimulus and response.
Strengths •
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Interviews (Kohlberg, Piaget) Case Studies (KF, HM ) Observations (Piaget)
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Gender Role Development Eyewi ewitness Testimony / Cogn ognitive Interview Memory,, Attention Memory Attention,, Perception etc. Child Development (Piaget (Piaget)) Cognitive Behavioual Therapy Problem Solving (Artificial Intelligence)
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Moral Development (Piaget)
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Weaknesses
Scientific Highly applicable (e.g. therapy therap y, EWT) Combines easily with approaches: Behaviourism + Cog Cog = Soci Social al Lear Learni ning ng Biol Biolog ogy y + Cog Cog = Evolutionary Psy Many empirical studies to support theories
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Ignores biology (e.g. testosterone) Experiments - low ecological validity Humanism - rejects scientific method Behavi Behaviour ourism ism - can’t can’t object objective ively ly study study unobservable behaviour Introspection is subjective
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Machine reductionism
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Humanistic The humanistic model asserts the basic concern for human growth is learning (Smith 1999). The bestknown pioneer of the humanist phenomenon is Maslow, can, thus, be seen as a form of self-actualization, it contributes to psychological health (Sahakian 1984 in Merriam and Caffarella 1991: 133). This learning model links most clearly into the concept of self directed learning. That we are motivated, responsible for and directed to learn by b y our own motivations. The History of Humanistic Psychology
* Maslow (1943) developed a hierarchical theory of human motivation. * Rogers (1946) (1946) publis publishes hes Signif Significa icant nt aspect aspectss of client client-ce -cente ntered red therapy therapy (also (also called called person person centred centred therapy).
* In 1957 and 1958, at the invitation of Abraham Maslow and Clark Moustakas, two meetings were held in Detroit among psychologists who were interested in founding a professional association dedicated to a more meaningful, more humanistic vision. * In 1961, with the sponsorship of Brandeis University, this movement was formally launched as the American Association for Humanistic Psychology. Psychology. * The first issue of the Journal the Journal of Humanistic Psychology appeared in the Spring of 1961.
Humanism generally is associated with beliefs about freedom and autonomy and notions that "human beings are capable of making significant personal choices within the constraints imposed by heredity, personal history, history, and environment" (Elias & Merriam, 1980, p. 118). Humanist principles stress the importance of the indivi individua duall and specif specific ic human human needs. needs. Among the major major assump assumptio tions ns underl underlyi ying ng humanis humanism m are the following: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)
Human nature nature is inherently inherently good; good; Individuals are free and autonomous, thus they they are capable of making major personal choices; Human potential potential for growth and development development is virtually virtually unlimited; unlimited; Self-concept plays an important role in growth and development; Individuals Individuals have an urge toward self-actua self-actualizati lization; on; Reality is defined defined by each person; person; and and Individuals have responsibility to both themselves and to others (Elias & Merriam, Merriam, 1980).
There are several shared elements between the humanist orientation and the behaviorist beha viorist paradigm: 1. Learning Learning should should focus on practica practicall problem problem solving. solving. 2. Learner Learnerss enter enter a teachi teachingng-lea learni rning ng settin setting g with with a wide wide range range of skills, skills, abilitie abilities, s, and attitu attitudes des,, and these needs to be considered in the instructional planning process. 3. The learn learnin ing g envir environm onmen entt shoul should d allow allow each each lear learne nerr to proceed proceed at a pace pace best best suited suited to the individual. 4. It is important important to help learners learners continuous continuously ly assess assess their progres progresss and make feedback a part of the the learning process. 5. The learner's learner's previous previous experience experience is an invaluable invaluable resource resource for for future learning learning and thus thus enhancing enhancing the value of advanced advanc ed organizers or making clear the role for mastery of nec essary prerequisites Both Rogers and Maslow regarded personal growth and fulfillments in life as a basic human motive. This means that each person, in different ways, seeks to grow psychologically and continuously enhance himself or herself. This has been captured by the term self-actualisation , which is about psychological growth, fulfillments and satisfaction in life. However, Rogers and Maslow both describe different ways of how selfactualization can be achieved As described by Gage and Berliner (1991) there are five basic objectives of the humanistic view of education: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Promote Promote positive positive self-direct self-direction ion and independence independence (development (development of the regulatory regulatory system) system);; Develop the ability ability to take responsibi responsibility lity for what what is learned (regulato (regulatory ry and affective affective systems) systems);; Develop creativity creativity (divergent (divergent thinkin thinking g aspect aspect of cognition); cognition); Curiosity Curiosity (explorato (exploratory ry behavior, behavior, a function function of imbalance imbalance or dissonance dissonance in any of the systems); systems); and An interest interest in the arts arts (primarily (primarily to to develop the affecti affective/emo ve/emotional tional system) system)..
According to Gage and Berliner (1991) some basic principles of the humanistic approach that were used to develop the objectives are: 1. Students Students will learn learn best what they want and need to know. That is, when they have developed developed the skills of analyzing what is important to them and why as well as the skills of directing their behavior towards those wants and needs, they will learn more easily and quickly. Most educators and learning theorists would agree with this statement, although they might disagree on exactly what contributes to student motivation. 2. Knowing Knowing how to learn is more important important than acquiring acquiring a lot of knowledge. In our present society society where knowledge is changing chang ing rapidly, rapidly, this view is shared b y many educators, especially those from a cognitive perspective. 3. Self-e Self-eval valuat uation ion is the only meaningfu meaningfull evaluat evaluation ion of a studen student's t's work. The emphasis emphasis here is on intern internal al develop developmen mentt and self-r self-regul egulati ation. on. While While most most educat educators ors would would likely likely agree agree that that this this is impor importa tant nt,, they they woul would d also also advoc advocat atee a need need to devel develop op a stud studen ent' t'ss abil abilit ity y to meet meet exter external nal expectations. This meeting of external expectations runs counter to most humanistic theories. 4. Feelings Feelings are as important important as facts. Much work from the humanistic humanistic view seems seems to validate this this point and is one area where humanistically-oriented educators are making significant contributions to our knowledge base. 5. Students Students learn best in a non-threatening non-threatening environment environment. This is one area where humanistic humanistic educators educators have had an impact on current educational practice. The orientation espoused today is that the environment should by psychologically and emotionally, as well as physically, non-threatening. However, there is some research that suggests that a neutral or even slightly cool environment is best for older, highly motivated students.
Humanistic Psychology Summary
Key Concepts • • • •
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Methodology
Qualitative Research Idiographic Approach Congruence Thee Sel Th elf f (e.g (e.g.. self self-w -wor orth th,, self self-i -ima mage, ge, self self actualisation) Holism (e.g. study to whole person)
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Qualitative Methods Case Studies Informal Interviews Q-Sort Method (Stephenson, 1953) Problems with Qualitative Data Open-ended Questionnaires
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Hierarchy of needs Maslow
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Free Will
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Areas of Application
Huma Humans ns have have free free will will;; not not all all beha behavi viou ourr is determined. All individuals are unique and have an innate (inb (inbor orn) n) driv drivee to achi achiev evee thei theirr maxi maximu mum m potential A proper understanding of human behaviour can only only be achi achieve eved d by study studying ing human humanss - not not animals. Psycho Psychology logy should should study study the indivi individual dual case case (idiographic) rather than the average performance of groups (nomothetic).
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Inter-rater/coder reliability
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Client Centred Therapy Qualitative Methods Abnorm Abnormal al Behavio Behaviour ur (incong (incongrue ruent, nt, low self-worth) Education
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Gender Role Development
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Weaknesses
Shifted the focus of behaviour to the individual / whole person rather than the unconscious mind, genes, observable behaviour etc. Humanistic Humanistic psychology psychology satisfies satisfies most people's people's idea idea of what what bein being g human human mean meanss becau because se it values personal ideals and self-fulfilment. Qualitative data gives genuine insight )and more holistic information) into behaviour be haviour.. Highlights Highlights the value of more individualisti individualisticc and idiographic methods of study
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Unscientific – subjective concepts E.g. E.g. cann cannot ot obje object ctiv ivel ely y meas measur uree self self-actualisation Humanism ignores the unconscious mind Behavio viouri urism – hum human and animal behaviour can be compared Qualitative data is difficult to compare Ethno Ethnoce cent ntri ricc (bia (biase sed d towa toward rdss Weste estern rn culture) Their belief in free will is in opposition to the deterministic laws of science.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Teaching-Learning Process
1. Bruner, J. (1960, 1977) The Process of Education, Education, Cambridge Ma.: Harvard University Press. 97 + xxvi pages Think 2e , New , New York: 2. Dewey, J. (1933) How (1933) How We Think 2e York: D. C. Heath. 3. Gagné, R. M. (1985) The Conditions of Learning 4e, Learning 4e, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. 308 + viii pages. Being 2e, New York: 4. Maslow, A. (1968) Towards a Psychology of Being 2e, 5. Skinner, B. F. (1973) Beyond (1973) Beyond Freedom and Dignity, Dignity, London: Penguin. 6. Krashen, S. D. (1982) Principles (1982) Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition, Acquisition, Oxford: Pergamon. Behaviorist
1. Hartley, J. (1998) Learning (1998) Learning and Studying. A research perspective, perspective, London: Routledge.
2. Hergenhahn, B. R. and Olson, M. H. (1997) An (1997) An Introduction Introduction to Theories Theories of Learning Learning 5e, 5e, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. guide, San Francisco: 3. Merriam, S. and Caffarella (1991, 1998) Learning 1998) Learning in Adulthood. A comprehensive guide, Jossey-Bass. 4. Skinner, B. F. (1973) Beyond (1973) Beyond Freedom and Dignity, Dignity, London: Penguin. 5. Tennant, M. (1988, 1997) Psychology 1997) Psychology and Adult Learning , London: Routledge. 6. Watson, Watson, J. B. (1913) 'Psychology as the behavourist views it', Psychological it', Psychological review 20: 158. Cognitivist
1. Bruner, J. (1960, 1977) The Process of Education, Education, Cambridge Ma.: Harvard University Press. Learning 4e, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. 2. Gagné, R. M. (1985) The Conditions of Learning 4e, Winston. perspective, London: Routledge. 3. Hartley, J. (1998) Learning (1998) Learning and Studying. A research perspective, 4. Merriam, S. and Caffarella (1991, 1998) Learning 1998) Learning in Adulthood. A comprehensive guide, guide, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 5. Piaget, J. (1926) The Child's Conception of the World , London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. It is difficult to know which of Piaget's 50 or more books to choose here - but this and The Origin of Intelligence in Children are classic starting points. H. E. Gruber and J. J. Voneche (1977) The Essential Piaget: an interpretative reference and guide, guide, London is good collection. See, also, M. A. Boden's (1979) Piaget , London: Fontana for a succinct introduction.
Humanistic
1. Kolb, D. A. (1984) Experiential (1984) Experiential Learning , Englewood Cliffs, NJ.: Prentice Hall. 2. Maslow, A. (1968) Towards a Psychology of Being 2e, New York: Van Nostrand. See, also, Maslow (1970) Motivation and Personality 2e, New York: Harper and Row. 3. Merriam, S. and Caffarella (1991, 1998) Learning 1998) Learning in Adulthood. A comprehensive guide, guide, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 4. Rogers, C. and Freiberg, H. J. (1993) Freedom (1993) Freedom to Learn (3rd edn.), New York: Merrill 5. Kirschenbaum and V. L. Henderson (eds.) (1990) The Carl Rogers Reader , London: Constable. 6. Tennant, M. (1988, 1997) Psychology 1997) Psychology and Adult Learning , London: Routledge.
