TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………… 1. Argument…………………………………………………………………………. Argument…………………………………………………………………………. 2. Structure of the P!er …………………………………………………………….. 1. INTRODUCTION TO LE"ICOLO#$…………………………………………. 1.1. Lnguge n% S!eech& #ener' O(er()e*……………………………………… 1.2. Le+)co'og, - Brnch of L)ngu)-t)c-..………………………………………… 2. ORD STUD$…………………………………………………………………. 2.1. The or%. or%. /or!heme ./en)ng. Root. Stem. Aff)+………………………….. 2.2. or% or% #rou!-& Co''oct)on. Phr-' 0er-. S,)ng-. Pro(er-…………………. 2.. A--oc)t)on. Com!r)-on. Re-em'nce& Re- em'nce& /et!hor. /eton,m,. S,nec%oche… 2.3. E+!re--)(ene-E+!re--)(ene-- )n Lnguge& Lnguge& Co''o4u)' Co''o4u)' Lnguge. Lnguge. C')ch5. C')ch5. 6rgon. 6rgon. Argot. S'ng. Eu!hem)-m…………………………………………………………………… 2.7. The Conte+t……………………………………………………………………… . IDIO/S………………………………………………………………………….... .1. Def)n)t)on-………………………………………………………………………. .2. Or)g)n of I%)om-………………………………………………………………… .. The Im!ortnce of I%)om-………………………………………………………. .3. Feture- of I%)om-………………………………………………………………. .7. The Pro'em of Trn-'t)on…………………………………………………...... 3. /ET8ODOLO#ICAL ASPECTS OF TEAC8IN# 0OCABULAR$…………. 3.1. Tech)ng /etho%-……………………………………………………………… 3.2. Tech)ng 0ocu'r,…………………………………………………………… 3.. o or%9/emor):)ng r%9/emor):)ng Techn)4ue-…………………………………………………. Techn)4ue-…………………………………………………. 3.3. P'nn)ng n% Pre!rt)on……………………………………………………….. 3.7. Le--on P'n……………………………………………………………………… 7. TEAC8IN# IDIO/S T8ROU#8 ROLE9PLA$………………………………. ROLE9PLA$………………………………. 7.1. Ro'e9!',)ng - Tech)ng Tech)ng Strteg,…………………………………………… 7.2. C'-- Act)()t)e- U-)ng /etho%/e tho%- of Tech)ng I%)om-…………………………… 7.. Te-t)ng I%)om-…………………………………………………………………… APPENDI"………………………………………………………………………….. A. Eng')-h Eng')-h I%)omI%)om- Re'te% Re'te% to…………… to………………………… …………………………… ………………………… ………… B. Prct)-)ng Prct)-)ng )- ;no*)n ;no*)ng………… g………………………… ……………………………… …………………………… …………….. ..
2 2 7 < < = 1 1 1> 2? 2= 31 33 33 3> 72 7 73 7> 7> ?2 ? ?> <2 <7 <7 <> >< = = 12?
CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………………… BIBLIO#RAP8$……………………………………………………………………
13 13?
1
INTRODUCTION
1. Argument
` Lern)ng 'nguge men- m-ter)ng '' the four 'nguge -@)''-9re%)ng *r)t)ng ')-ten)ng n% -!e@)ng. In or%er to c4u)re the-e -@)''- one h- to 'ern (ocu'r, n% grmm grmmt)c t)c' ' -tructu -tructure- re- ut grmm grmmr r cnnot cnnot e 'erne% 'erne% *)thou *)thoutt gr-!) gr-!)ng ng -ome -ome -)c -)c (ocu'r, f)r-t. Lern)ng (ocu'r, )n !rt)cu'r )- ecom)ng )nforme% out the *or%- the)r funct)on n% men)ng the)r 'nguge n% -emnt)c re't)on-. Se(er' metho%o'og)c' !!roche- to 'nguge tech)ng h(e %e(e'o!e% %e(e'o!e% -)nce the 'te 1=th centur, n% the, re')e% mo-t', on the tech)ng n% 'ern)ng of grmmt)c' -tructure-. There h- een re()(' of )ntere-t )n (ocu'r, tech)ng )n recent ,er- %ue to the recent ()')')t, of com!uter):e% %t-e- of *or%- n% the %e(e'o!ment of ne* !!roche- to 'nguge tech)ng *h)ch re more *or%9centre% Thornur,& () T,!)c' T,!)c' techn)4uetechn)4ue- )n c4u)r)ng c4u)r)ng fore)gn fore)gn 'nguge 'nguge (ocu'r, (ocu'r, m)n', m)n', re-)%e )n %r)'')ng e+erc)-e- t 'o*er 'e(e' e.g. cert)n !ttern )- re!ete% )n -e(er' utternce- re%)ng e+erc)-e- ).e. (ocu'r, )- u-e% )n conte+t n% the men)ng of ne* *or%- )%e%uce% from )t *or@)ng *)th the %)ct)onr, *r)t)ng e+erc)-e- ).e. !ro%uc)ng *r)tten te+t- of %)fferent 'ength )n *h)ch ne*', 'erne% (ocu'r, )- e)ng u-e% etc. Ac4u) Ac4u)r)n r)ng g *)%e *)%e (r)et, (r)et, of )%)om)%)om- )- fetur feturee of (er, (er, r)ch r)ch (ocu (ocu'r, 'r, tht tht -tu%ent- cn get %ur)ng the 'ern)ng !roce--. Eng')-h )- @no*n to e the r)che-t 'nguge concern)ng the numer of )t- *or%-. Be'ong)ng m)n', to the )nform' 'nguge )%)om- cn e oth ch''enge n% n eff)c)ent *, to commun)cte e-!ec)'', )n %,9to9%, -)tut)on-. On the other *, Romn)n -tu%ent- m, f)n% th)- *, of 'ern)ng )%)om- n% )%)om )%)omt)c t)c e+!re-e+!re--)on )on-- r)%g r)%ge e et*ee et*een n the)r the)r mothe motherr tongue tongue n% Eng')-h Eng')-h - -econ% -econ% 'nguge g)(en the fct tht t cert)n !o)nt the, re tem!te% to f)n% e4u)('ent- )n the)r f)r-t 'nguge !!e')ng oth to trn-'t)on or )nter!rett)on. Concern)ng Concern)ng the ro'e9!',) ro'e9!',)ng ng metho% metho% of c4u)r)ng c4u)r)ng Eng')-h Eng')-h )n n )nterct)(e )nterct)(e n% eff)c)ent *, *, -tu%ent- *)'' e (er, )ntere-te% to u-e u-e the)r @no*'e%ge )n !rct)-)ng -!e@)ng -@)''- -)c'',. The techer- m)n ro'e )- to mon)tor the -tu%ent- ct)()t, %ur)ng the)r con(er-t)o con(er-t)on- n- ''o*)ng them to ct the)r ro'e-. The %)'ogue%)'ogue- cn e oth !re9!re!re% !re9!re!re% or on9the9-!ot. Pe%gog)c'', -!e@)ng -uch metho% )- recommen%e% to tho-e -tu%ent- *ho
2
INTRODUCTION
1. Argument
` Lern)ng 'nguge men- m-ter)ng '' the four 'nguge -@)''-9re%)ng *r)t)ng ')-ten)ng n% -!e@)ng. In or%er to c4u)re the-e -@)''- one h- to 'ern (ocu'r, n% grmm grmmt)c t)c' ' -tructu -tructure- re- ut grmm grmmr r cnnot cnnot e 'erne% 'erne% *)thou *)thoutt gr-!) gr-!)ng ng -ome -ome -)c -)c (ocu'r, f)r-t. Lern)ng (ocu'r, )n !rt)cu'r )- ecom)ng )nforme% out the *or%- the)r funct)on n% men)ng the)r 'nguge n% -emnt)c re't)on-. Se(er' metho%o'og)c' !!roche- to 'nguge tech)ng h(e %e(e'o!e% %e(e'o!e% -)nce the 'te 1=th centur, n% the, re')e% mo-t', on the tech)ng n% 'ern)ng of grmmt)c' -tructure-. There h- een re()(' of )ntere-t )n (ocu'r, tech)ng )n recent ,er- %ue to the recent ()')')t, of com!uter):e% %t-e- of *or%- n% the %e(e'o!ment of ne* !!roche- to 'nguge tech)ng *h)ch re more *or%9centre% Thornur,& () T,!)c' T,!)c' techn)4uetechn)4ue- )n c4u)r)ng c4u)r)ng fore)gn fore)gn 'nguge 'nguge (ocu'r, (ocu'r, m)n', m)n', re-)%e )n %r)'')ng e+erc)-e- t 'o*er 'e(e' e.g. cert)n !ttern )- re!ete% )n -e(er' utternce- re%)ng e+erc)-e- ).e. (ocu'r, )- u-e% )n conte+t n% the men)ng of ne* *or%- )%e%uce% from )t *or@)ng *)th the %)ct)onr, *r)t)ng e+erc)-e- ).e. !ro%uc)ng *r)tten te+t- of %)fferent 'ength )n *h)ch ne*', 'erne% (ocu'r, )- e)ng u-e% etc. Ac4u) Ac4u)r)n r)ng g *)%e *)%e (r)et, (r)et, of )%)om)%)om- )- fetur feturee of (er, (er, r)ch r)ch (ocu (ocu'r, 'r, tht tht -tu%ent- cn get %ur)ng the 'ern)ng !roce--. Eng')-h )- @no*n to e the r)che-t 'nguge concern)ng the numer of )t- *or%-. Be'ong)ng m)n', to the )nform' 'nguge )%)om- cn e oth ch''enge n% n eff)c)ent *, to commun)cte e-!ec)'', )n %,9to9%, -)tut)on-. On the other *, Romn)n -tu%ent- m, f)n% th)- *, of 'ern)ng )%)om- n% )%)om )%)omt)c t)c e+!re-e+!re--)on )on-- r)%g r)%ge e et*ee et*een n the)r the)r mothe motherr tongue tongue n% Eng')-h Eng')-h - -econ% -econ% 'nguge g)(en the fct tht t cert)n !o)nt the, re tem!te% to f)n% e4u)('ent- )n the)r f)r-t 'nguge !!e')ng oth to trn-'t)on or )nter!rett)on. Concern)ng Concern)ng the ro'e9!',) ro'e9!',)ng ng metho% metho% of c4u)r)ng c4u)r)ng Eng')-h Eng')-h )n n )nterct)(e )nterct)(e n% eff)c)ent *, *, -tu%ent- *)'' e (er, )ntere-te% to u-e u-e the)r @no*'e%ge )n !rct)-)ng -!e@)ng -@)''- -)c'',. The techer- m)n ro'e )- to mon)tor the -tu%ent- ct)()t, %ur)ng the)r con(er-t)o con(er-t)on- n- ''o*)ng them to ct the)r ro'e-. The %)'ogue%)'ogue- cn e oth !re9!re!re% !re9!re!re% or on9the9-!ot. Pe%gog)c'', -!e@)ng -uch metho% )- recommen%e% to tho-e -tu%ent- *ho
2
re -h, n% h(e %)ff)c %)ff)cu't, u't, )n commun commun)ct )ct)ng )ng the)r the)r though thought-. t-. Once Once the, re )n the)r the)r chrcter- -hoe- the, re re%, to commun)cte n% fee' t e-e )n )nterct)ng *)th the other-. P)r9*or@ tech)ng metho% )- mong the mo-t u-u' n% mo-t eff)c)ent t,!e- of ct)()t)e- u-e% )n !rct)-)ng the 'nguge. Th)- mo%ern metho% g)(e- the -tu%ent- the o!!ortun)t, to get (er, )n(o'(e% %ur)ng the ct)()t, ut )t '-o h- m)n %r*c@ tht )the 'oc@ge )n commun)ct)on %ue to e)ther the -tu%ent- !er-on')t, or the)r 'c@ of mot)(t)on. It )- e(en hr%er no*%,- to mot)(te -tu%ent- )n 'ern)ng fore)gn 'nguge. A'ong - the, -t, )n -choo' the, -ee 'ern)ng - -ometh)ng com!u'-or, n% therefore re-ent )t - -uch. It )- much 'ter )n ')fe *hen the, confront *)th the 'our mr@et or *hen the, ecome )ntere-te% )n em)grt)ng tht the, f)n% n )ntr)n-)c mot)(t)on for 'ern)ng fore)gn 'nguge. A- techer I h(e *)tne--e% th)- 'c@ of mot)(t)on *)th -tu%ent- n% I h(e '-o not)ce% tht *h)'e )n -choo' the, re %)ff)cu't to !er-u%e out the %(ntge- n% o!!ortun)t)e- the m-ter, of fore)gn 'nguge h- to offer. A'though )t h- een -)% tht -tu%ent- ecome mot)(te% *hen the, h(e to !erform )n re' ')fe9')@e -)tut)on- the)r )ntere-t *)'' on', '-t unt)' the t-@ h- een fu'f)''e% e+ce!t )f the, ctu'', h(e to fce -uch -)tut)on-. There There re -e(er' techn)4uetechn)4ue- I h(e ttem!te% ttem!te% to c'-- -o - to get m, -tu%ent-tu%ent)ntere-te% )n u-)ng the Eng')-h 'nguge& !ro()%)ng them *)th (r)ou- t,!e- of (ocu'r, e+erc)-e- -e'ect)ng re%)ng te+t- on to!)c- of the)r cho)ce %o)ng 'ot- of ')-ten)ng ct)()t)e- gett)n gett)ng g them them )n(o'( )n(o'(e% e% )n !roect !roect-- *r)t) *r)t)ng ng )nform )nform' ' rt)c'e rt)c'e-- or !oetr, !oetr, for the -choo' -choo' mg:)ne m@)ng !o-ter- -choo' com!et)t)on- n% rec)t'-. /n, of them re @een on ')-ten)ng -ome of them ')@e %o)ng *r)tten (ocu'r, e+erc)-e- fe*er re )ntere-te% )n re%)ng )n Eng')-h *h)'e (er, -m'' numer of -tu%ent- !refer *r)t)ng t-@-. Ro'e9!', Ro'e9!',)ng )ng - 'ern)ng 'ern)ng ct)()t, ct)()t, !ro()%e!ro()%e- f(our'e f(our'e en()ronment en()ronment of e+!re--)on e+!re--)on for '' -tu%ent- for the etter one- - *e'' - for the *e@er one- efore '' chnce to !rt)c)!te. Stu%ent- gener'', -!e@)ng ')@e to e -omeone e'-e or -ome of them ')@e %rm n% ct)ng. I h(e '-o een 'oo@)ng for goo% metho% of !ro()%)ng m, -tu%ent*)th e-, n% eff)c)ent *, of c4u)r)ng )%)om- )n 'ern)ng Eng')-h -uch - )ntro%uc)ng ne* (ocu'r, *)th the he'! of !)r9*or@ n% %)'ogue-. Te+too@- - re-ource on the other -)%e %o not offer -uch t,!e of ct)()t)e- ut )n (er, -m'' mount. Th)- 'e% me to the %ec)-)on of 'oo@)ng for more re-ource- of -tu%,)ng (r)ou- t,!e- of t-@- -e% on 'ern)ng
)%)om- through ro'e9!', for %)fferent 'e(e'- of -tu%, or %)fferent 'nguge -@)''- n% more )m!ortnt', of u-)ng them )n c'-- - men- of 'nguge tech)ng. The ro'e9!',)ng cn e u-e% )n the !rct)c' !rt of the 'e--on fter the !re-entt)on n% efore the !ro%uct)on or )t cn co(er *ho'e c'-- )n *h)ch the techer )m- to get the -tu%ent- )n(o'(e% )n -!e@)ng ct)()t)e-. /emor):)ng ')-t of )%)om- or e+!re--)on- )- not '*,- the e-t -o'ut)on to 'ern fore)gn 'nguge ut u-)ng them )n con(er-t)on cn e oth funn, n% n e-, *, to rememer them. Stu%ent- *)'' !ro', rememer -uch ct)()t)e- - e)ng e+tror%)nr, for 'ong t)me.
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2. STRUCTURE OF THE PAPER
Th)- !!er )- )nten%e% to %emon-trte the 'rge !!')c)')t, of c4u)r)ng )%)om- )n 'ern)ng the Eng')-h 'nguge - fore)gn 'nguge n% n eff)c)ent metho% of 'ern)ng tht of ro'e9!',)ng. A'though there re 'ot- of re-ource- of )ntro%uc)ng the )%)omt)c e+!re--)on- )n 'ern)ng Eng')-h the ro'e9!',)ng metho% )- -t)'' (er, ')tt'e u-e% )n c'-- there m)ght !!er -ome %)-turnce- mong -tu%ent- n% the techer mu-t e *e'' !re!re% to fce n% (o)% -uch un!'e-nt -)tut)on-. ;no*'e%ge cn e c4u)re% not on', through c'--)c' metho%- of 'ern)ng ut '-o through mo%ern one- -tu%ent- re '*,o!ene% to tr,)ng -ometh)ng ne*. The conc'u-)on *)'' !o)nt out tht greter em!h-)- -hou'% e !'ce% on tech)ng )%)om- - feture- of -!o@en )nform' Eng')-h n% ro'e9!',)ng n )nterct)(e *, of 'ern)ng the Eng')-h 'nguge.
The !!er h- f)(e m)n !rt- ech of them %e')ng *)th %)fferent -!ect- of (ocu'r, the '-t one focu-)ng on the to!)c of m, the-)-. I h(e een u-)ng -uch t,!e- of ct)()t)e- )n c'-- %ur)ng m, re-erch n% I h(e een not)c)ng ho* the, h(e een u-e% , -tu%ent-.
The f)r-t !rt Intro%uc)ng to Le+)co'og, )- -hort )ntro%uct)on )nto the 'nguge n% h)-tor)c' !!roch of u-)ng the 'nguge - men- of commun)ct)on.
The -econ% !rt the or% )- -hort )n-)ght )nto the 'e+)c' -!ect- of the Eng')-h 'nguge -trt)ng *)th the %ef)n)t)on of the *or% n% the men)ng of the *or%- - 'e+)c' un)t-. It cont)nue- *)th r)ef n',-)- of mor!heme- - the m)n)mum crr)er- of men)ng n% *)th the -emnt)c chnge- the *or% un%ergoe- %e!en%)ng on conte+t n% co9te+t. In the E+!re--)(ene-- -uch!ter I ttem!te% -hort com!r)-on et*een c')ch5 rgon rgot -'ng eu!hem)-m - feture- of )nform' 'nguge.
The th)r% m)n !rt of m, !!er )- the m)n )--ue of the to!)c )ntro%uc)ng )%)om- referr)ng to %ef)n)t)on- the)r or)g)n the)r )m!ortnce n% the '-t ut not the 'e-t )--ue the !ro'em of trn-'t)on e-t')-h)ng to *ht e+ten% -hou'% the mother tongue e u-e% )n 'ern)ng the Eng')-h 'nguge - fore)gn 'nguge. 7
The fourth !rt con-t)tute- the /etho%o'og)c' A-!ect- of Tech)ng 0ocu'r, Tech)ng /etho%-. 8ere I too@ )nto con-)%ert)on the %)fferent !r)nc)!'e- of 'nguge tech)ngG'nguge 'ern)ng tht n e+!er)ence% n% tr)ne% techer h- to h(e )n m)n% *hen %e-)gn)ng the !'n for the tech)ng H 'ern)ng !roce--. The gener' frme of tech)ng metho%- n% !!roche- %e(e'o!e% )n the 2 th centur, n% *h)ch 'e% to the !!ernce of n Ec'ect)c A!!roch9 com)nt)on of the !o-)t)(e -!ect- from '' the !re()ou- one- *)'' !rt)cu'r):e )nto (ocu'r, 'ern)ng techn)4ue- n% ct)()t)e- tht re !re-ent', e)ng u-e% )n fore)gn 'nguge c'--e-. P'nn)ng n% !re!rt)on refer- to the -ett)ng of oect)(e- tht re to e fu'f)''e% n% the -e4uence- of -tge- )n fore)gn 'nguge 'e--on. 8ere I '-o )nc'u%e% 'e--on !'n -m!'e tht cn e t@en )nto ccount *hen %e-)gn)ng 'e--on or n ct)()t, *)th)n 'e--on.
The f)fth ch!ter %e'- *)th the tech)ng metho% u-)ng the ro'e9!',. Tech)ng )%)om- through ro'e9!', re!re-ent- the e+!er)ment' -tge n% )t )- ment to !ro(e the !!')c)')t, of ro'e9!',)ng - u-efu' techn)4ue )n tech)ng )%)om-. Te-t)ng I%)om- %e'*)th *,- of --e--)ng the @no*'e%ge c4u)re% , -tu%ent- )n or%er to further )m!ro(e tech)ng n% 'ern)ng techn)4ue-.
I h(e '-o con-)%ere% tht th)- !!er cn e u-e% - tech)ng )% )n c'-- -o the A!!en%)+ cont)n- t*o !rt-& Eng')-h I%)om- Re'te% to %e')ng *)th the e+!'nt)on- of the men)ng- of -er)e- of )%)om- n% )%)omt)c e+!re--)on- n% Prct)-)ng )- ;no*)ng g)()ng *)%e rnge of e+erc)-e- ment to e u-e% on three %)fferent 'e(e'- .
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1. INTRODUCTION TO LEXICOLOGY
1.1.Language an S!ee"#$ Genera% O&er&'e(
Language )- -,-tem of r)trr, ')ngu)-t)c -,mo'-. It con-)-t- of *or%orgn):e% )n -,-tem of grmmt)c' !ttern- e-t')-he% , 'ong u-ge un%er-too% n% u-e% , 'rge -oc)' commun)t, )n the !roce-- of commun)ct)on. The -,-tem of n, 'nguge )- the re-u't of 'ong -!ontneou- n% gr%u' orgn):t)on chrcter):e% , mn, chnge- m%e , )nnumer'e genert)on- )n the !rct)ce of -!e@)ng. One cnnot -tu%, 'nguge )n gener' - there re on', individual languages e.g. English Romanian Russian 'nguge- e)ng %)fferent from ech other. hen -ttement- re m%e out
'nguge- )n gener' the, refer to ')ngu)-t)c- un)(er-'- theoret)c' ent)t)e- *h)ch re-u't from !h)'o-o!h)c' !!roch to 'nguge !ro'em- *h)ch tr)e- to )%ent)f, ')-t of common !ro!ert)e- of -e(er' 'nguge-.
In h)- fmou- Cours de linguistique generale Fer%)nn% %e Su--ure )n-)-te% u!on the conce!t- of langue langage n% parole. The 4uott)on- *)'' e g)(en )n the Eng')-h (er-)on of Su--ure- cour-e& But *ht )- 'nguge langueJ It )- not to e confu-e% *)th humn -!eech langage of *h)ch )t )- on', %ef)n)te !rt though cert)n', n e--ent)' one. It )- oth -oc)' !ro%uct of the fcu't, of -!eech n% co''ect)on of nece--r, con(ent)on- tht h(e een %o!te% , -oc)' o%, to !erm)t )n%)()%u'- to e+erc)-e tht fcu't,……. Fer%)nn% %e Su--ure 1=<3 !.=. E+ecut)on )- '*,)n%)()%u' n% the )n%)()%u' )- '*,- )t- m-ter& I -h'' c'' the e+ecut)(e -)%e -!e@)ng (parole Fer%)nn% %e Su--ure 1=<3 !.1.
Though Fer%)nn% %e Su--ure- %)-t)nct)on- et*een 'nguge -een - -,-tem n% -!eech n% *r)t)ng - ctu' mn)fe-tt)on- of 'nguge *ere fe't , -ome ')ngu)-t- e)ng ')tt'e r)g)% the, h(e rought n )m!ortnt contr)ut)on to the %e(e'o!ment of ')ngu)-t)c- n% )n %ef)n)ng the re-erch f)e'% of the -c)ence of 'nguge. Accor%)ng to Su--ure If *e cou'% emrce the -um of *or%9)mge- -tore% )n the m)n%- of '' )n%)()%u'- *e cou'% )%ent)f, the -oc)' on% tht con-t)tute- 'nguge. It )- -torehou-e <
f)''e% , the memer- of g)(en commun)t, through the)r ct)(e u-e of -!e@)ng grmmt)c' -,-tem tht h- !otent)' e+)-tence )n ech r)n or more -!ec)f)c'', )n the r)n- of grou! of )n%)()%u'-. For 'nguge )- not com!'ete )n n, -!e@er )t e+)-t !erfect', on', *)th)n co''ect)()t,. In -e!rt)ng 'nguge from -!e@)ng *e re t the -me t)me -e!rt)ng& 1 *ht )- -oc)' from *ht )- )n%)()%u' n% 2 *ht )- e--ent)' from *ht )- cce--or, n% more or 'e-- cc)%ent'. Lnguge )- not funct)on of the -!e@er )t )- !ro%uct tht )- !--)(e', --)m)'te% , the )n%)()%u'………. S!e@)ng on the contrr, )- n )n%)()%u' ct. It )- *)''fu' n% )nte''ectu'. Fer%)nn% %e Su--ure 1=<3 !! 1913
Su--ure conce)(e% 'nguge - the -oc)' -)%e of -!eech - the ch)e(ement of -oc)' n% cu'tur' co''ect)()t, of m-- of !eo!'e. It )- true tht e(er, -!e@er mu-t 'ern the -,-tem of the 'nguge he -!e@- the (ocu'r, of tht 'nguge n% the -et of !ttern- tht con-t)tute- )t- grmmt)c' ru'e-. A'though n, -!e@er mu-t fo''o* the -tructure of the 'nguge n% he mu-t u-e )t- (ocu'r, no )n%)()%u' )- 'e to c4u)re %ur)ng h)- ')fe9t)me the com!'ete (ocu'r, of 'nguge or to u-e '' the !o--))')t)e- of com)nt)on of tht 'nguge. The com!'ete )n(entor, of *or%- n% !o--)'e grmmt)c' com)nt)on- )- m-tere% on', , the *ho'e commun)t, -!e@)ng tht 'nguge.
For '' the-e re-on- 'ter ')ngu)-t- tr)e% to en'rge Su--ure- theor, n% the, crete% -ome other ')ngu)-t)c not)on- tht corre-!on% to the Su--ur)n %)chotom,. Such not)on- re code corre-!on%)ng to language n% message corre-!on%)ng to speech. The genert)(e9trn-formt)on' grmmr )ntro%uce% t*o other not)on-& competence n% performance. Accor%)ng to Nom Chom-@, A %)-t)nct)on mu-t e m%e et*een *ht the
-!e@er of 'nguge @no*- )m!')c)t', *ht *e c'' h)- competence n% *ht he %oeh)- performance. A grmmr )n the tr%)t)on' ()e* )- n ccount for com!etence. It %e-cr)e- n% ttem!t- to ccount for the )')t, of -!e@er to un%er-tn% n r)trr, -entence of h)- 'nguge n% to !ro%uce n !!ro!r)te -entence on g)(en occ-)on. The com!etence of the -!e@er9herer cn )%e'', e e+!re--e% - -,-tem of ru'e- tht re'te -)gn'- to -emnt)c )nter!rett)on- of the-e -)gn'-. The !ro'em for ')ngu)-t)c theor, )- to %)-co(er gener' !ro!ert)e- of n, -,-tem of ru'e- tht m, -er(e - the -)- for humn 'nguge tht )- to e'orte )n %et)' *ht *e m, c'' )n tr%)t)on' term- the gener' form of 'nguge tht un%er')ne- ech !rt)cu'r re'):t)on ech !rt)cu'r ntur' 'nguge. Chom-@, Nom 1=<7 !! =91 In the Chom-@,n theor, the re't)on >
et*een com!etence n% !erformnce )- centr' !ro'em - Performnce !ro()%ee()%ence for the )n(e-t)gt)on of com!etence. At the -me t)me !r)mr, )ntere-t )n com!etence ent)'- no %)-regr% for the fct- of !erformnce n% the !ro'em of e+!')n)ng the-e fct-. On the contrr, )t )- %)ff)cu't to -ee ho* !erformnce cn e -er)ou-', -tu%)e% e+ce!t on the -)- of n e+!')c)t theor, of the com!etence tht un%er')ne- )t n% )n fct contr)ut)on- to the un%er-tn%)ng of !erformnce h(e 'rge', een ,9!ro%uct- of the -tu%, of grmmr- tht re!re-ent com!etence. Chom-@, Nom 1=<7 !. 1
Though Nom Chom-@, o*e- much to Su--ure )t )- e()%ent tht )n h)- !!roch he tr)e- to reme%, *ht he con-)%er- to -tn% g)n-t the %e(e'o!ment of h)- theor,. h)'e Su--ure focu-e- on the -tu%, of 'nguge - -,-tem Nom Chom-@, !o)nt- out tht generative grammar )- -,-tem of ru'e- tht re'te -)gn'- to -emnt)c )nter!rett)on- of
the-e -)gn'-. It )- %e-cr)!t)(e', %e4ute to the e+tent tht th)- !)r)ng corre-!on%- to the com!etence of the )%e'):e% -!e@er9herer. The )%e'):t)on )- )n !rt)cu'r tht )n the -tu%, of grmmr *e -trct *, from the mn, other fctor- e.g. memor, ')m)tt)on- %)-trct)on- chnge- of )ntent)on )n the cour-e of -!e@)ng etc. tht )nterct *)th un%er',)ng com!etence to !ro%uce ctu' !erformnce. Chom-@, Nom 1=<7 !. 12
1.2.Le)'"*%*g+ a, a -ran"# * L'ngu',t'",
Le)'"*%*g+ )- tht rnch of ')ngu)-t)c- *h)ch -tu%)e- the (ocu'r, of g)(en 'nguge n% %e'- *)th the -tructure h)-tor, n% men)ng of )t- *or%-. The term lexicology )- of #ree@ or)g)n. It %er)(e- from the *or%- lexicos men)ng *or% n% logos -c)ence tech)ng rnch of 'ern)ng. Somet)me- )n Br)t)-h n% Amer)cn un)(er-)t)e- the !hr-e word study )- u-e% -,non,mou-', *)th the term lexicology ut lexicology )- no*%,- more com!rehen-)(e - )t )nc'u%e- the -tu%, of *or% e4u)('ent-
).e. phrases. Genera% %e)'"*%*g+ con-)%er- *or%- n% !hr-e- e'ong)ng to (r)ou- 'nguge- the -tu%, h()ng thu- gener' chrcter. It tr)e- to e-t')-h linguistic universals !ttern of -tructur' feture- con-)%ere% to common orro*)ng %ur)ng (r)ou- -tge- of %e(e'o!ment e(o'ut)on )n the men)ng of *or%- mor!ho'og)c' n% -,ntct)c' tr)t- n% the)r mo%)f)ct)on- etc. The diachronic approach !erm)t- etter un%er-tn%)ng of 'nguge , )%ent)f,)ng -)c ten%enc)e- of %e(e'o!ment )n the !-t n% con-)%er)ng !ro-!ect- for future %e(e'o!ment. =
The correct un%er-tn%)ng of the h)-tor, of 'nguge )- )m!ortnt )n ch)e()ng -oun% conce!t)on concern)ng the ')ngu)-t)c !ro'em- (o)%)ng r)trr, )nter!rett)onregr%)ng -u!er)or n% )nfer)or form- of 'nguge. No ')ngu)-t)c form cn e con-)%ere% -u!er)or to other- from -tr)ct', ')ngu)-t)c !o)nt of ()e*. The -oc)' -ttu- of ')ngu)-t)c form- )- %)fferent from the)r ')ngu)-t)c funct)on. D)'ect' *or%- for e+m!'e re )n no re-!ect )nfer)or to -tn%r% one- -er()ng commun)ct)on *)th)n the ')m)t- of nt)on' 'nguge or )nternt)on' commun)ct)on. The %)fference )- )n the -ttu- ut - fr correctne-- )- concerne% the, re e4u' to ech other.
The ten%enc, of -!ec)'):t)on mn)fe-te% )n '' f)e'%- of humn ct)()t, e+!')n*h, 'e+)co'og)-t- m, e %)()%e% )nto -!ec)')-t- )n the er')er !er)o%- of 'nguge %e(e'o!ment n% re-ercher- -!ec)'):e% )n !re-ent9%, e(o'ut)on of 'nguge-. Though the former grou! m)ght -eem to %o!t on', the %)chron)c !!roch to 'nguge !ro'em- the, u-e )n fct oth metho%- of re-erch !o)nt)ng out the chrcter)-t)c tr)t- of ech -tge of %e(e'o!ment. On the other hn% the re-ercher of !re-ent9%, Eng')-h mu-t t@e )nto con-)%ert)on the 'te-t %e(e'o!ment- )n 'nguge though h)- *or@ )- -)c'', -,nchron)c the %)chron)c ()e*9!o)nt cnnot e )gnore%. Lnguge h- !-t !re-ent n% future n% n, ')ngu)-t)c theor, )nc'u%)ng the 'e+)co'og)c' one cnnot )gnore them *)thout m)--)ng the !o)nt.
The %)chron)c !!roch !re()'- )n the -tu%, of et,mo'og, the rnch of 'e+)co'og, tht -tu%)e- the *or% or)g)n-. The *or%- )f 'nguge m, e e)ther of nt)(e or)g)n )nc'u%)ng co)nge- -e% on )ntern' re-ource- or the, m, e orro*e% from other 'nguge- )nc'u%)ng translation loans tht )- *or%- n% !hr-e- co)ne% on the -)- of the nt)(e 'e+)c'
re-ource- ut ccor%)ng to fore)gn !ttern- . The et,mo'og)c' -tu%, of *or%- com!r)-e- !hono'og)c' mor!ho'og)c' n% -emnt)c -!ect- - )t m, %e' *)th !hono'og)c' chnge- tht too@ !'ce )n 'nguge oth )n nt)(e n% )n orro*e% *or%- !r%)gmt)c re't)on- mong *or%- n% chngeof men)ng.
The synchronic approach !re()'- )n the lexical morphology of !re-ent9%,
Eng')-h *h)ch -tu%)e- 'e+)c' un)t- !hr-eo'og, *or%9u)'%)ng e.g. derivation 1
composition contraction blending back formation n% ) n semantics the rnch of
'e+)co'og, tht -tu%)e- the men)ng- of *or%- n% !hr-e-. The %)chron)c !!roch cn e )n(o'(e% )n the -tu%, of the chnge- )n the)r men)ng.
Semantics *h)ch h- c4u)re% the 'e%)ng !'ce )n mo%ern 'e+)co'og, m, e )n
)t- turn %)()%e% )nto morphosemantics connecte% *)th mor!ho'og)c' -!ect- of *or%9 men)ng lexicosemantics connecte% *)th the men)ng of 'e+eme- n% syntactic semantics '-o c''e% semantic syntax *h)ch -tu%)e- the taxonomic hierarchies ).e. the
*, sememes mu-t e com)ne% )n or%er to form men)ngfu' n% not non-en-)c' utternce-.
exicologistics %e'- *)th the e+!re--)(e -)%e of 'nguge %)-cu--)ng the -t,')-t)c
('ue- of the (r)ou- 'e+)c' -trt )n 'nguge the funct)on of f)gure- of -!eech n% other -)m)'r -!ect- concern)ng the (ocu'r, of 'nguge.
Another )m!ortnt rnch of 'e+)co'og, )- 'e+)cogr!h, *h)ch %e'- *)th the com!)')ng of %)ct)onr)e-. Intere-t )n 'e+)co'og)c' -tu%, h- een (er, much -t)mu'te% , the *or@ of 'e+)cogr!her- *ho nee%e% theoret)c' -u!!ort )n the)r *or@. The h)-tor, of Eng')-h 'e+)co'og, )- c'o-e', connecte% *)th the %e(e'o!ment of 'e+)co'og, )n Eng'n% ut no*%,- the recent %e(e'o!ment- )n -emnt)c- %eterm)ne mo%)f)ct)on- )n the *or@ of %)ct)onr, m@er- -ugge-t)ng ne* ')ne- of e(o'ut)on *h)ch re 're%, e()%ent )n !'nn)ng of the %)ct)onr)e- of the future.
There re -choo'- of ')ngu)-t)c- *h)ch *ere on', %)chron)c. The, fo''o* the metho%- of re-erch *or@ )m!o-e% , the re!re-entt)(e- of the com!rt)(e metho% -uch n e+m!'e e)ng offere% , the -choo' of -emnt)c recon-truct)on , et,mo'og)-t- from '' o(er the *or'% n% , tho-e *ho -tu%, -emnt)c !r)m)t)(e- 'rge', %)-cu--e% , De-crte- P-c' n% Le)n)t: )n the 1< th centur, n% re()(e% )n the 2 th centur, E. S!)r S*%e-h /. B)er*)-ch Ko'@o(-@) E. Co-er)u . Other -choo'- f(our the -,nchron)c !!roch e.g. the Prgue Schoo' Romn 6@o-on the -tructur' Amer)cn -choo' Leonr% B'oomf)e'% Ch. 8oc@ett ;enneth L. P)@e n% the #ermn -choo' of ')ngu)-t)cre!re-ente% , 6. Tr)er L.e)-gerer n% E. Le)-) or the Eng')-h -choo' re!re-ente% , R. u)r@ S. #reenum n% 6. S(rt()@ - *e'' - the trn-formt)on' genert)(e grmmr -choo' of Nom Chom-@, n% h)- fo''o*er-. 11
The %)-!ute et*een -,nchron)c n% %)chron)c re-ercher- h- ne(er -to!!e% -)nce the !!ernce t the en% of the 1= th centur, of -,nchron)c %e-cr)!t)(e ')ngu)-t)c- n% )tr!)% %e(e'o!ment t the eg)nn)ng of the 2th centur,. 8enr, S*eet the O+for% !honet)c)n *ho )n-!)re% Bernr% Sh* )n cret)ng the fmou- chrcter 8enr, 8)gg)n- )n P,gm')on %emon-trte% )n 1>
Becu-e of )t- 'rge f)e'% of re-erch n% com!'e+)t, of )t- -tu%, 'e+)co'og, !',n )m!ortnt !rt )n the %e(e'o!ment of ')ngu)-t)c- n% )t occu!)e- n out-tn%)ng !'ce mong -oc)' -c)ence-. It- contr)ut)on to the un%er-tn%)ng of the !roce--e- of commun)ct)on )- e--ent)' n% the mo%ern %e(e'o!ment- )n the f)e'% of -emnt)c- h(e 'e% to r!)% !rogre-- )n com!utt)on' ')ngu)-t)c- )nc'u%)ng the f)e'% of mechn)c' trn-'t)on. Future !rogre-- )n the f)e'% of 'e+)co'og, *)'' !erm)t th)- %)-c)!')ne to )ncre-e )tcontr)ut)on to the %e(e'o!ment of -oc)' ')fe n% the e(o'ut)on of ne* techno'og)c' %e()ce- ment to fc)')tte commun)ct)on.
12
2. /ORD STUDY
2.1. T#e /*r. 0*r!#eme. 0ean'ng. R**t. Stem. A').
T#e /*r
The %ef)n)t)on of the *or% - *e cn f)n% )t )n !ebster"s Encyclopedic #ictionary -oun%- - fo''o*-& un)t of 'nguge con-)-t)ng of one or more -!o@en -oun%- or the)r *r)tten re!re-entt)on tht cn -tn% - com!'ete utternce or cn e -e!rte% from the e'ementtht ccom!n, )t )n n utternce , other -uch un)t-. or%- re com!o-e% of one or more mor!heme- *)th re't)(e free%om to enter )nto -,ntct)c con-truct)on- n% re e)ther the -m''e-t un)t- -u-ce!t)'e of )n%e!en%ent u-e or con-)-t of t*o or three -uch un)t- com)ne% un%er cert)n ')n@)ng con%)t)on- - *)th the 'o-- of !r)mr, ccent *h)ch %)-t)ngu)-heblackbird from black bird . or%- re t,!)c'', thought of - re!re-ent)ng n )n%)()-)'e
conce!t ct)on or fee')ng or - h()ng -)ng'e referent re u-u'', -e!rte% , -!ce- )n *r)t)ng n% re %)-t)ngu)-he% !hono'og)c'', - , ccent )n mn, 'nguge-. 1==?& 1?3
Accor%)ng to The Shorter $xford English #ictionary on %istorical &rinciples )t )- An e'ement of -!eech& com)nt)on of (oc' -oun%- or one -uch -oun% u-e% )n 'nguge to e+!re-- n )%e e.g. to %enote th)ng ttr)ute or re't)on n% con-t)tut)ng n u't)mte m)n)m' e'ement of h()ng men)ng - -uch.
!ebster"s Third 'ew nternational #ictionary %ef)ne- )t - A -!eech -oun% or
-er)e- of -!eech -oun%- tht -,mo')-e- n% commun)cte- men)ng *)thout e)ng %)()-)'e )nto -m''er un)t- c!'e of )n%e!en%ent u-e& ')ngu)-t)c form tht )- m)n)mum of form the ent)re -et of ')ngu)-t)c form- !ro%uce% , com)n)ng -)ng'e -e *)th (r)ou)nf'ect)on' e'ement- - ff)+e- *)thout chnge )n the !rt of -!eech.
Accor%)ng to #ic)ionarul limbii rom*ne the *or% )- n e'ement of humn -!eech con-)-t)ng of !honeme or com!'e+ of !honeme- to *h)ch men)ng )- ttche% *h)ch
1
)- ')'e to grmmt)c' u-ge n% *h)ch cn e un%er-too% , humn grou! -tructure% )n h)-tor)c' commun)t,.
No mtter ho* -hort or 'ong *or% )- ).e. of ho* mn, mor!heme- )t con-)-t- *e cnnot )%ent)f, )t )n -e4uence of *or%- tht m@e %)-cour-e un'e-- )t )- @no*n , u)n %(nce. Th)- )m!')e- the @no*'e%ge of the 'nguge *)th)n *h)ch *or%- re )%ent)f)e% or e'-e the, rem)n unrecogn)-e%. Th)- )- %ue to the fct tht ech *or% h- %ou'e fce& symbol n% reference. Other term- e+!re--)ng th)- re't)on-h)! re significant n% signifie form n% meaning or expression n% content . A'' the-e term- h)gh')ght the -me )%e.
0*r!#eme
/or!ho'og, )- the -tu%, of mor!heme- n% the)r rrngement- )n form)ng *or%-. 0*r!#eme, re the -m''e-t men)ngfu' un)t- *h)ch m, con-t)tute *or%- or !rt- of *or%-. The, re -m''e-t or m)n)m' )n the -en-e tht the, cnnot e ro@en %o*n further on the -)- of men)ng - ;tm !ut- )t & mor!heme- re the tom- *)th *h)ch *or%- re u)'t ;tm 1==3 !. 3 4uote% )n 6c@-on n% Am(e' 2 !. 2 . The, re men)ngfu' ecu-e *e cn -!ec)f, the @)n% of re't)on-h)! the, h(e *)th the non9 ')ngu)-t)c *or'%.
e con-)%er the fo''o*)ng )tem-& ct ch)'% *)th -'ee!)ng rmch)r- frmer. A c'o-e e+m)nt)on -ho*- tht cat child n% with cnnot e n',-e% further - -'ee! M )ng rm M ch)r M- n% frm M er. The )tem- cat child with sleep +ing arm chair +s farm n% ,er re '' mor!heme-. Some re -)m!'e *or%- -uch - cat child with sleep arm chair n% farm *h)'e other- re on', !rt- of *or%- -uch - ,ing 9- n% ,er . On the
one hn% the, re m)n)m' -)nce the, cnnot e ro@en %o*n )nto further men)ngfu' un)t- on the other hn% the, re men)ngfu' ecu-e the, cn e-t')-h -t'e re't)on-h)! et*een ech )tem n% the non9')ngu)-t)c *or'% of e+!er)ence. For e+m!'e the reference- of ct frm n% ch)r cn e e+!')ne% , !o)nt)ng or ct)ng out the men)ng )n Th)- )- ch)r or Tht )- frm It )- %ome-t)c n)m' tht goe- m)o*. The men)ng of *)th m, e g)(en - )n com!n, of )n ntgon)-m to tht of ,s - !'ur' *h)'e tht of ,er m, e e+!re--e% - fo''o*-& 9 er com)ne- *)th the !rece%)ng 'e+)c' )tem to %e-)gnte th)ng- or !er-on- *)th funct)on %e-cr)'e )n term- of the men)ng of
13
the !rece%)ng mor!heme. For e+m!'e the men)ng of H er )n farmer n% dreamer )%e-cr)'e )n term- of tho-e of frm n% %rem *)th *h)ch the mor!heme H er )- com)ne%.
/or!heme- tht cn occur 'one - )n%)()%u' *or%- re "free" morphemes. Tho-e tht cn occur on', *)th nother mor!heme re "bound" morphemes. Thu- the mor!hemect frm re free *h)'e9)ng 9- n% 9er re oun% )n%)cte% , the h,!hen 9. An, concrete re'):t)on of mor!heme )n g)(en utternce )- c''e% mor!h. 8ence the form- ct ch)r frm 9)ng 9- n% Her re '' mor!h-.
An e+m)nt)on of numer of mor!h- m, -ho* tht t*o or more mor!h- m, (r, -')ght', n% -t)'' h(e the -me men)ng. For e+m!'e the )n%ef)n)te rt)c'e m, e re'):e% e)ther - a or - an %e!en%)ng on the -oun% not the 'etter t the eg)nn)ng of the fo''o*)ng *or%. /or!h- *h)ch re %)fferent re!re-entt)on- of the -me mor!heme re referre% to - allomorphs of tht mor!heme from #ree@ allo other n% morph form . For e+m!'e& a context (-. an index a battle (-. an apple a union (-. an onion-
The ''omor!h- a n% )t- counter!rt an re mutu'', e+c'u-)(e n% re -)% to e )n com!'ementr, %)-tr)ut)on9 the tot' -et of ')ngu)-t)c conte+t- )n *h)ch g)(en form occur- -omet)me- un%er %)fferent mor!ho'og)c' -h!e-. For e+m!'e the %)-tr)ut)on of the )n%ef)n)te rt)c'e %e-cr)e% o(e m, e %ef)ne% -& a efore con-onnt -oun%- e.g. a tt'e n% an efore (o*e' -oun%- e.g. an !!'e.
e no* turn our ttent)on to the re't)on et*een mor!ho'og, on the one hn% n% -)m!'e com!'e+ n% com!oun% *or%- on the other. S)m!'e *or%- -uch - %oor @no *)'% n)m' re '' free mor!heme-. The, re therefore mor!ho'og)c'', unn',-'e. Com!'e+ or %er)(e% *or%- -uch - spoonful wildish reanimate mentally farmer re forme% from -)m!'er *or%- , the %%)t)on of ff)+e- or -ome other @)n% of mor!ho'og)c' mo%)f)ct)on. The ')m)t)ng c-e for com!'e+ *or%- )- tht of :ero mo%)f)ct)on or con(er-)on - )n answer call n% question *h)ch m, e e)ther noun- or (er- or clean dirty n% dry
*h)ch m, e e)ther %ect)(e- or (er- *)thout the %%)t)on of further -oun%-G'etter-. Com!oun% *or%- or -)m!', com!oun%- re forme% , com)n)ng t*o or more *or%-
17
free mor!heme- *)th or *)thout mor!ho'og)c' mo%)f)ct)on e.g. door+knob cheeseburger pound saver wild+animal+tamer . It -hou'% e !o)nte% out tht the %)-t)nct)on
et*een *or% com!oun% -o')% n% h,!hente% n% !hr-' com!oun% o!en )- not (er, c'er )n Eng')-h. Th)- fct )- ref'ecte% , the )ncon-)-tenc, *)th *h)ch -!ce- n% h,!henre u-e% *)th com!oun%- )n *r)tten Eng')-h 6c@-on n% Am(e' 2 !!. 93
0ean'ng
/en)ng %)fferent)t)on %)ctte- 'mo-t e(er,th)ng t '' the other 'e(e'- of the 'nguge -trt)ng *)th the -ttu- of !honeme- n% f)n)-h)ng *)th the !ur!o-e of commun)ct)on %)-cour-e -t,')-t)c funct)on n% trn-'t)on e4u)('ent. There re t 'e-t t*o !o--)'e t,!e- of men)ng *h)ch cn e con(e,e% , oth mor!heme- n% *or%-& funct)on' men)ng n% nother -ort of men)ng *h)ch for *or%- cou'% e c''e% 'e+)c' men)ng *here- *)th mor!heme- )t )- c''e% %er)(t)on' men)ng.
.unctional meaning )- feture -hre% , oth *or%- n% mor!heme- *h)ch
-)gn'- tht -ome grmmt)c' ctegor, o!erte- t tht !o)nt )n the utternce. For )n-tnce the !!ernce of +ing -)gn'- the !re-ence of the !rogre--)(e -!ect +s h- the tr)!'e men)ng& !'ur' gen)t)(e n% th)r% !er-on -)ngu'r In%)ct)(e Pre-ent. Such *or%- - the an -)gn' %ef)n)tene-- or non9%ef)n)tene-- of *ht fo''o*-.
#erivational meaning )- e+c'u-)(e', n ttr)ute of mor!heme- n% -)gn'- the
mor!ho9-,ntct)c grou! to *h)ch *or% cont)n)ng tht mor!heme e'ong-. For e+m!'e +ness -)gn'- noun gener'', n -trct one +ly %)fferent)te- the gret u'@ of %(er-
n% fe* %ect)(e- from the re-t of the *or%- +ate -ho*- (er %enot)ng ct)()t, of %o)ng -ometh)ng *)th n o!t)on' re!et)t)(e nunce. The-e re not *ht cou'% e c''e% fu'' 'e+)c' men)ng- ecu-e the, %o not %enote not)on-.
exical meaning/ notional meaning or full meaning )- on', n ttr)ute of *or%-
n% refer- to the conce!t not)on or oect *ho-e ment' )mge the, e(o@e. The contr%)ct)on re')e- )n the fct tht -ome *or%- con-)-t of mor!heme ut there )- on', homon,m, et*een mor!heme- n% *or%- con-)-t)ng of mor!heme. A mor!heme )chrcter):e% fun%ment'', , )t- com)ntor, ('ence tht )- , )t- '))')t, to e 1?
ttche% to other mor!heme- *h)ch thu- ecome stems. A *or% %oe- not h(e n, com)ntor, ('ence )t )- -et -tructure to *h)ch noth)ng cn e %%e% n% from *h)ch noth)ng cn e remo(e% n, more. Ttru 22 !. 12
R**t
The root )- the -)c mor!heme from *h)ch *or% )- %er)(e% , !honet)c chngeor re!'c)(e - )n mou-e Hm)ce %r)(e 9 %ro(e H %r)(en *h)ch )- )rre%uct)'e from mor!ho'og)c' ()e*!o)nt )- common to '' *or%- from the -me --oc)t)on grou! fm)', of *or%- n% er- the men)ng of the *or%. In the --oc)t)on grou! synonym synonymic/ synonymics/ synonymity/ synonymicon/ synonymies/ synonymy/ the root )-
-,non,m ecu-e )t )- the e'ement *h)ch rem)n- fter the remo(' of '' endings. Root- re thu- the nece--r, n% -uff)c)ent -tructur' con-t)tuent for *or% to e+)-t the, re free form- )f the, re homon,mou- to *or% )n the 'nguge n% crr, the not)on' men)ng on th)- *or% )nto the ne* *or% the, form.
Stem
The -tem )- the !rt of n )nf'ecte% *or% tht t@e- !rt )n the formt)on of ne* *or% u-u'', more com!'e+ one )n )t- -tructure n% *h)ch rem)n- unchnge% throughout g)(en )nf'ect)on. The -tem m, e e)ther )%ent)c' *)th the root or %er)(e% from the root *)th the he'! of formative suffix.
A')
The ff)+ )- n %%)t)on to the -tem or root )n or%er to u)'% ne* *or%. It )- prefix *hen the %%)t)on -tn%- t the eg)nn)ng of *or% n% )t )- suffix *hen the
%%)t)on -tn%- t the en% of *or%. The !roce-- of u-)ng ff)+e- )- c''e% ff)+t)on. It )- (er, !ro%uct)(e *, of *or%9u)'%)ng )n Eng')-h. Aff)+e- re '' oun% form- n% the, cn e %er)(t)on' or funct)on' ccor%)ng to the t,!e of men)ng the, con(e, n% to the)r funct)on. hen one ff)+ h- een -tr)!!e% *, from the *or% *ht *e ot)n )- the stem of tht *or%. Or !utt)ng )t con(er-e', the -tem of *or% )- tht !rt of )t from *h)ch one cn ot)n the g)(en *or% , %%)ng one more ff)+ to )t. 1<
Ttru e+!')n- the men)ng of -tem )n the fo''o*)ng e+m!'e 22 !. 2 & For )n-tnce -hou'% *e con-)%er the *or% imponderability one !o--)'e -tem of th)- *or% )-9 ponderability *h)'e nother )- )m!on%er)')t,9 The f)r-t -tem )homon,mou- to *or% con-e4uent', )t )- free. Shou'% *e con-)%er )t- homon,m ponderability )t- -tem )- ponderabil 9 oun% -tem t f)r-t -)ght )f one %oe- not con-)%er
the fct tht ecu-e of et,mo'og)c' re-on- … the homon,m, *)th ponderable )- not !!rent.
Root- re con-e4uent', *ht rem)n- of *or% fter '' ff)+e- h(e een remo(e% n% the)r fun%ment' chrcter)-t)c )- tht the, re not further %)()-)'e )nto other con-t)tuent !rt- tht -hou'% h(e men)ng. Un'e-- the, re com)n)ng form- root- h(e not)on' men)ng. The, cn form ne* *or%- , ecom)ng -tem-.
2.2. /*r Gr*u!,$ C*%%*"at'*n. P#ra,a% er,. Sa+'ng,. Pr*&er,
C*%%*"at'*n
)th)n the re of cor!u- ')ngu)-t)c- collocation %ef)ne- -e4uence of *or%- or term- tht co9occur more often thn *ou'% e e+!ecte% , chnce. The term )- often u-e% )n the -me -en-e - ')ngu)-t)c go(ernment. Co''oct)on- %ef)ne- re-tr)ct)on- on ho* *or%- cn e u-e% together for e+m!'e *h)ch !re!o-)t)on- re u-e% *)th go(erne% , !rt)cu'r (er- or *h)ch (er- n% noun- re t,!)c'', u-e% together. An e+m!'e of th)- from /)che' 8'')%, )- the co''oct)on strong tea. h)'e the -me men)ng cou'% e con(e,e% through the rough', e4u)('ent powerful tea the fct )- tht te )- thought of e)ng -trong rther thn !o*erfu'. A -)m)'r o-er(t)on ho'%- for powerful computers *h)ch )- !referre% o(er strong computers.
Co''oct)on- re e+m!'e of 'e+)c' un)t-. Co''oct)on- -hou'% not e confu-e% *)th )%)om- 'though oth re -)m)'r )n tht there )- %egree of men)ng !re-ent )n the co''oct)on or )%)om tht )- not ent)re', com!o-)t)on'. )th )%)om- the men)ng )com!'ete', non9com!o-)t)on' *here- co''oct)on- re mo-t', com!o-)t)on'. 1>
Co''oct)on e+trct)on )- t-@ tht e+trct- co''oct)on- utomt)c'', from cor!u- u-)ng com!utt)on' ')ngu)-t)c-.
Common features
There )- n r)trr, re-tr)ct)on on the -u-t)tut)on of the e'ement- of co''oct)on. e cn -, highly sophisticated n% *e cn -, extremely happy. Both %(er- h(e the -me 'e+)c' funct)on- tht )- %%)ng the %egree of mgn)f,)ng the )m!ct of the %ect)(e sophisticated happy. 8o*e(er the, re not )nterchnge'e. St)'' other %(er- -uch very cn re!'ce oth highly n% extremely.
Syntactic modifiability
Un')@e the mor)t, of )%)om- co''oct)on- re -uect to -,ntct)c mo%)f)ct)on. For e+m!'e *e cn -, effective writing n% write effectively.
Expanded definition
If the e+!re--)on her% often trn-m)tt)ng )t-e'f m)met)c'', the *or%- ecome g'ue% together )n our m)n%-. Cr,-t' c'er m)%%'e mngement nuc'er fm)', n% co-met)c -urger, re e+m!'e- of co''octe% !)r- of *or%-. Some *or%- re often foun% together ecu-e the, m@e u! com!oun% noun for e+m!'e r)%)ng oot- or motor c,c')-t. Co''oct)on- cn e )n -,ntct)c re't)on -uch - (er9oect& m@e n% %ec)-)on 'e+)c' re't)on -uch - nton,m, or the, cn e )n no ')ngu)-t)c'', %ef)ne% re't)on. ;no*'e%ge of co''oct)on- )- ()t' for the com!onent u-e of 'nguge& grmmt)c'', correct -entence *)'' -tn% out - *@*r% )f co''oct)on' !reference- re ()o'te%. Th)- m@e- co''oct)on n )ntere-t)ng re for 'nguge tech)ng. Co''oct)on- m, e set expressions n% free combinations. Set e+!re--)on- re -ucce--)on of *or%- tht mu-t e 'erne% - )f the, *ere -)ng'e *or%. The, cnnot e %)()%e% )nto the)r con-t)tuent e'ement- *)thout %e-tro,)ng the)r men)ng. Bet*een the)r !rt- of -et e+!re--)on there )- n )ntr)n-)c connect)on ).e. )t- e'ement- cnnot e re!'ce% , other e'ement- *)thout chng)ng the men)ng of the rem)n)ng e'ement-. The men)ng 1=
of co''oct)on )- u-u'', e+!re--e% , -)ng'e *or%. From grmmt)c' !o)nt of ()e* co''oct)on- re complex parts of speech.
P#ra,a% er,
A phrasal verb )- com)nt)on of (er n% !re!o-)t)on (er n% %(er or (er *)th oth n %(er n% !re!o-)t)on n, of *h)ch re !rt of the -,nt+ of the -entence n% -o the, re com!'ete -emnt)c un)t. Sentence- m, cont)n %)rect n% )n%)rect oect- )n %%)t)on to the !hr-' (er. Phr-' (er- re !rt)cu'r', fre4uent )n the Eng')-h 'nguge. A !hr-' (er often h- men)ng *h)ch )- %)fferent from the or)g)n' (er. Accor%)ng to Tom /cArthur& ….. the term !hr-' (er *- f)r-t u-e% , Logn Per-'' Sm)th 1=27 )n *h)ch he -tte- tht the OED E%)tor 8enr, Br%'e, -ugge-te% the term to h)m. A'ternt)(e term- for !hr-' (er re com!oun% (er (er9%(er com)nt)on (er9!rt)c'e con-truct)on Am. E. t*o9!rt *or%G(er n% three9!rt *or%G(er %e!en%)ng on the numer of !rt)c'e- n% mu't)9 *or% (er /cArthur 1==2 !!. <29
&hrasal verbs in informal speech
Phr-' (er- re u-u'', u-e% )nform'', )n e(er,%, -!eech - o!!o-e% to the more form' Lt)nte (er- -uch - to get together rther thn to congregte to !ut off rther thn to !o-t!one or to get out rther thn to e+)t.
iteral usage
/n, (er- )n Eng')-h cn e com)ne% *)th n %(er or !re!o-)t)on n% re%er- or ')-tener- *)'' e-)', un%er-tn% !hr-' (er u-e% )n ')ter' -en-e *)th !re!o-)t)on& 8e walked across the -4ure. 2
0er n% %(er con-truct)on- cn '-o e-)', e un%er-too% *hen u-e% ')ter'',& She o!ene% the -hutter- n% looked outside. hen he her% the cr-h he looked up. An %(er )n ')ter' !hr-' (er mo%)f)e- the (er )t )- ttche% to n% !re!o-)t)on ')n@- the (er- to the oect.
diomatic usage
It )- ho*e(er the f)gurt)(e or )%)omt)c !!')ct)on )n e(er,%, -!eech *h)ch m@e- !hr-' (er- -o )m!ortnt. I ho!e ,ou *)'' get over ,our o!ert)on 4u)c@',. or@ hr% n% get ,our e+m)nt)on over with. The ')ter' men)ng of to get o(er )n the -en-e of to c')m o(er -ometh)ng to get to the other -)%e no 'onger !!')e- to e+!')n the -uect- en%ur)ng n o!ert)on or the -tre-- of n e+m)nt)on *h)ch the, h(e to o(ercome. It )- *hen the com)ne% men)ng of (er !'u- %(er or (er !'u- !re!o-)t)on )- tot'', %)fferent from ech of )t- com!onent !rt- tht the -emnt)c content of the !hr-' (er cnnot e !re%)cte% , )t- con-t)tuent !rt- n% -o ecome- much more %)ff)cu't for -tu%ent 'ern)ng Eng')-h to recogn):e.
In her )ntro%uct)on to ongman #ictionary of &hrasal 0erbs/ !hat This #ictionary Contains Ro-emr, Courtne, )nc'u%e- th)r% ctegor,.
I%)om- *h)ch re forme% from !hr-' (er- -uch - let the cat out of the bag . The-e )%)om- re !r)nte% )n he(, t,!e. I%)om- h(e men)ng *h)ch )- %)fferent from the men)ng of the -)ng'e *or%- n% u-u'', h(e f)+e% *or% or%er. Courtne, 1=>=. Courtne, then c)te- mong mn, other e+m!'e- )n the %)ct)onr, -uch !hr-e- -& to add insult to in1ury/ to add fuel to the flames/ to leave someone in the lurch/ to scare someone out of their wits etc. &hrasal verb pattern
A !hr-' (er cont)n- e)ther !re!o-)t)on or n %(er or oth n% m, '-o com)ne *)th one or more noun- or !ronoun-. &article verbs
Phr-' (er- tht cont)n %(er- re -omet)me- c''e% !rt)c'e (er- n% re re'te% to -e!r'e (er- )n other #ermn)c 'nguge-. There re t*o m)n !ttern-& )ntrn-)t)(e n% trn-)t)(e. An )ntrn-)t)(e !rt)c'e (er %oe- not h(e n oect. 21
hen I entere% the room he looked up. A trn-)t)(e !rt)c'e (er h- nom)n' oect )n %%)t)on to the %(er. If the oect )- n or%)nr, noun )t cn u-u'', !!er on e)ther -)%e of the %(er 'though (er, 'ong noun !hr-e- ten% to come fter the %(er& Switch off the ')ght. Switch the ')ght offSwitch off the ')ght- )n the h''*, ne+t to the e%room )n *h)ch the !re-)%ent )- -'ee!)ng.
)th -ome trn-)t)(e !rt)c'e (er- ho*e(er the noun oect mu-t come fter the %(er. Such e+m!'e- re -)% to )n(o'(e )n-e!r'e !hr-' (er-& The g- gave off fume-. not The g- gave fume- off . Accor%)ng to Cambridge nternational #ictionary of &hrasal 0erbs/ 2nglais+ .rancais 1==> -t)'' other trn-)t)(e !rt)c'e (er- re4u)re the oect to !rece%e the
%(er e(en *hen the oect )- 'ong noun !hr-e& I cnnot tell the %og- apart . not I cnnot tell apart the %og-. I cnnot tell the u''%og- n% the !ug- *ho 'oo@ ')@e them apart . 8o*e(er -ome uthor- Fr-er Bruce 1=
The -me'' put them off . not put off them. The, let h)m through. not the, let through h)m. The e+ce!t)on Fr-er Bruce 1=
#or'ch #or'ch 23 !. 3 --ert- tht the !o-)t)on of the nom)n' oect efore or fter the %(er h- -ut'e effect on the %egree to *h)ch the !hr-e h- re-u'tt)(e )m!')ct)on - -een )n th)- e+m!'e )n(o'()ng the -)m!'e (er eat n% the !hr-' (er eat up3 to eat the !!'e neutr' for re-u't . to eat up the !!'e greter !o--))')t, for re-u't . to eat the !!'e up com!u'-or, c')m for re-u't .
22
&repositional verbs
Pre!o-)t)on' (er- re !hr-' (er- tht cont)n !re!o-)t)on *h)ch )- '*,fo''o*e% , )t- nom)n' oect. The, re %)fferent from )n-e!r'e trn-)t)(e !rt)c'e (er- ecu-e the oect -t)'' fo''o*- the !re!o-)t)on )f )t )- !ronoun& On Fr)%,- *e look after our our grn%ch)'%ren. e look after them. them. not look them them after . . The (er cn h(e h(e )t- o*n oect *h)ch *h)ch u-u'', !rece%e- the !re!o-)t)on. !re!o-)t)on. She helped the the o, to n e+tr !ort)on of !ottoe-. )th !ronoun-& She helped h)m h)m to -ome. Pre!o-)t)on' (er- *)th t*o !re!o-)t)on- re !o--)'e& e talked to the m)n)-ter about the the cr)-)-.
&hrasal+prepositional verbs
A !hr-' (er cn cont)n n %(er n% !re!o-)t)on t the -me t)me. Ag)n Ag)n the (er )t-e'f cn h(e %)rect oect& no %)rect oect& The %r)(er got off to to f',)ng -trt. %)rect oect& On'oo@er- !ut the cc)%ent %o*n to the %r)(er- 'o-- of concentrt)on.
&hrasal verbs and modifying modifyin g adverbs
hen mo%)f,)ng %(er- re u-e% 'ong-)%e !rt)c'e %(er- )ntrn-)t)(e', !rt)c'eG%(er !o-)t)on-& 8e unh!!)', looked round . . 8e looked unh!!)', unh!!)', round . . 8e looked round unh!!)',. unh!!)',. The !rt)c'e %(er here )- roun% n% the mo%)f,)ng %(er )- unh!!)',. Roun% )- !rt)c'e ecu-e )t )- not )nf'ecte%9%oe- not t@e ff)+e- n% 'ter )t- form. Unh!!)', )- mo%)f,)ng %(er ecu-e )t mo%)f)e- the (er 'oo@ . )th trn-)t)(e !rt)c'e (er the %(er goe- e)ther efore the (er or fter the oect or !rt)c'e *h)che(er )- '-t& 8e cheerfully picked the the oo@ up. 8e picked up the oo@ cheerfully. not picked cheerfully up the oo@ 2
8e picked the the oo@ up cheerfully. Pre!o-)t)on' (er- re %)fferent from trn-)t)(e !rt)c'e (er- ecu-e the, ''o* %(er%(erto !!er et*een the (er n% the !re!o-)t)on 8e cheerfully looked after the the ch)'%ren. 8e looked after the the ch)'%ren cheerfully. 8e looked cheerfully after the the ch)'%ren. Phr-' (er- com)ne% *)th *h9c'u-e- n% tht9c'u-e-. Sentence- *h)ch )nc'u%e (erM!rt)c'eMoect-M*h9c'u-edictate to h)- c' what the the righ rightt thin thing g to do is trn-)t)(e The The tec teche herr tr)e tr)e-- to dictate c'-- what trn-)t)(e
(erM!re!o-)t)on %)ctte to M )n%)rect oect h)- c'-- M *h9c'u-e *ht the r)ght th)ng to %o )- . /, fr)en fr)en%%- called for me when the time cametrn-)t)(e (erM!re!o-)t)on c''e% for M!ronoun me M)n%)rect oect h)- c'-- M*h9c'u-e *hen the t)me cme . !atch out that you don"t hit ,our he% on the 'o* em.)ntrn-)t)(e (erM%(er *tch out Mtht9c'u-e tht ,ou %ont h)t ,our he% on the 'o* em. Phr-' (er- com)ne% *)th (er9)ng form-& $o $ou cn cntt !re( !re(en entt me from from -ee) -ee)ng ng her her. trntrn-)t )t)( )(ee (er (erM! M!ro rono noun un !re !re(e (ent nt me me M!re!o-)t)on from M(er9)ng form -ee)ng M!ronoun her .
Sa+'ng, an Pr*&er,
Sa+'ng, Sa+'ng, n% n% !r*&er !r*&er,, e'ong to the -me ')terr, genre - the aphorism/ the maxim/ the apophthegm n% the paradox-
h)'e !hor)-m- m+)mm+)m- n% !r%o+e- u-u'', u-u'', )m!', @no*n uthor-h)! e(en )f the u-er %oe- not @no* the)r uthor !ro(er- re common !ro!ert,. Somet)me- the, re noth)ng other thn !hor)-m- m+)m- etc. *h)ch g)ne% 'rge c)rcu't)on n% f)+e% form. In Sh@e-!ereSh@e-!ere- !',- there re -e(er' !hor)-m- *h)ch c)rcu'te - !ro(er-. It )not -ure *hether Sh@e-!ere orro*e% them from !o!u'r *)-%om or )f on the contrr, Sh@eSh@e-!e !erere- 'rge 'rge !o!u' !o!u'r)t, r)t, %eterm %eterm)ne )ne% % the)r the)r %o!t) %o!t)on on n% chnge chnge% % )nto )nto common common !ro!ert,. !ro!ert,.
23
Another )m!ortnt -ource of !ro(er- )- fo'@9'ore. Tht )- *h, mn, !ro(er- n% -,)ng -,)ng-- m, e met )n %)ffer %)fferent ent 'ngu 'ngugege- *)th *)th ')tt'e ')tt'e mo%)f mo%)f)ct )ct)on )on- - *h)'e *h)'e otherother- re ent)re', %)fferent. Re')g)on n% e-!ec)'', the B)'e nc)ent n% me%)e(' cu'ture n% -oc)' ')fe of mn, nt)on- f(oure% the -hr)ng of 'rge -toc@ of !ro(er- *h)'e the chrcter)-t)c- of e(er, nt)on n% the -!ec)f)c nt)on' 'nguge -tructure encourge% %)fference- )n e+!re--)on.
The The term !ro(er !ro(er )- the more more -!ec)f)c -!ec)f)c of the t*o t*o -tre--)ng -tre--)ng the e!)grm e!)grmmt mt)c )c chrcter of the -ttement n% tht )t )- !o!u'r ,*or%. S,)ng )- more gener' !o)nt)ng out f)r-t tht )t )- -ometh)ng tht )- -)%& th)- *, )t cn e ttr)ute% to -!ec)f)c !er-on or e common', re!ete% n% gener'', cce!te% -ttement e.g. !ro(er.
/o-t Eng')-h Eng')-h -,)ng-,)ng- n% !ro(er- cnnot e trn-'te% trn-'te% )nto Romn)n Romn)n *or% , *or% the, mu-t e re!'ce% , the Romn)n e4u)('ent *or% , *or% the, mu-t e re!'ce% , the Romn)n e4u)('ent of the )%)om e.g. A % e+cu-e )- etter thn none9 /) un o -cu: t)c'u)t %ecQt un nero-t)t A % !enn, '*,- come- c@9 Bnu' ru ntot%enu -e ntorce A foo' @no*- more )n h)- o*n hou-e thn *)-e mn )n nother- 9 Un !ro-t t)e m) mu'te %e-!re c- - %ecQt un ne'e!t %e-!re c- 'tu). A'' )- not go'% tht g')tter-9 Nu tot ce :or -e mnQnc Dont cr, o(er -!)'t m)'@ 9 Ce9) fcut e un fcut A- ,ou m@e ,our e% -o ,ou -h'' ')e on )t 9 Cum ) tern) (e) %orm) here there- *)'' there- *, 9 C)ne (re !ote. $ou cnt h(e ,our c@e n% et )t too 9 ) cu (r: un- ) cu -'n)n n !o% nu -e !ote. Dent 1=?= .
Pro(erPro(er- re more o()ouo()ou- )n -!eech n% *r)t)ng *r)t)ng ecu-e there )- n )ncongru)t, )ncongru)t, et*een the ')ter' men)ng of !ro(er n% the conte+t to *h)ch )t refer-. hen *e -, 4ou can"t have your cake and eat it *e re not u-u'', referr)ng to ')ter' c@e. e re u-)ng the !ro(er - gr!h)c *, of -,)ng to -omeone tht the, h(e to choo-e one of t*o o!t)on- the, cnnot h(e the %(ntge- of choo-)ng oth. Pro(er- re!re-ent common cu'tur' fun% of fo'@ @no*'e%ge n% *)-%om tht *e cn c'' on to *rn or re!r)mn% -omeone )n the --urnce tht the, *)'' cce!t the -)- of th)- common *)-%om *here more %)rect !er-on' !!roch *ou'% f)'. Or *e u-e !ro(er- to comment on or 27
come to term- *)th ')fe- e+!er)ence- e.g. 4ou can"t win them all -)% - con-o')%t)on fo''o*)ng %)-!!o)ntment or f)'ure. 8ere re -ome e+m!'e- of !r(er-& e.g. 2 bird in the hand is worth two in the bush H )- u-e% *hen *e m, h(e the o!!ortun)t, of -ome
%(ntge )mme%)te', ut m)ght !refer to *)t for -u!!o-e% greter though , no mencert)n %(ntge )n the future. &eople who live in glass houses shouldn"t throw stones H )t )- u-e% *hen -!e@)ng of -omeone *ho -u!!o-e%', -uffer- from the -me fu't the, re cr)t)c):)ng )n nother. 2 stich in time saves nine H )- u-e% to !er-u%e -omeone to t@e )mme%)te ct)on efore !rocr-t)nt)on m, men tht t-@ *)'' e more %)ff)cu't n% com!'e+ thn )t )- no*.
2.3.A,,*"'at'*n. C*m!ar',*n. Re,em%an"e$ 0eta!#*r. 0et*n+m+. S+ne"*"#e
0eta!#*r
F)gure- of -!eech h(e een --oc)te% for 'ong t)me *)th the )%e of -emnt)c chnge. Ar)-tote' )n The Poet)c- con-)%ere% tht to m@e goo% met!hor- )m!')e% n e,e for re-em'nce *h)ch *- con-)%ere% mr@ of gen)u-.
S)nce the Stg)r)te- remr@ the 'og)co9rhetor)c' c'--)f)ct)on- h(e !ro')ferte%. The, -ho* un4ue-t)on'e %)%ct)c %(ntge- ut on the other hn% the, f)' )n e+!')n)ng the cu-e of -emnt)c chnge-. The )m!ortnce of the -tu%, of met!hor)c trn-fer- of men)ng *- !o)nte% out , 0o--'er *ho -)% tht…)t )- met!hor *h)ch mu-t e the -o'e concern of the ')ngu)-t )n h)- )n(e-t)gt)on of -emnt)c chnge 4uote% , Ste!hen U''mn 1=?< !. 2>
T*o th)ng- cn e connecte% , humn m)n% )n (r)ou- *,-. A f)r-t o()ou- t,!e of --oc)t)on )- tht re!re-ente% , simile e.g. as old as the hills/ as good as gold/ a heart as hard as flint/ cheeks like roses-
/et!hor '-o )n(o'(e- the !roce-- of comparison ut )t )- not n e+!')c)t one )n *h)ch there )- n e+chnge et*een the men)ng- of t*o *or%-. In met!hor *or% )u-e% to men -ometh)ng %)fferent from *ht )t u-u'', men- th)- !henomenon e)ng !o--)'e ecu-e of n )m!')e% re-em'nce. 2?
Accor%)ng to C. ;. Og%en n% I.A. R)chr%- !. 111 hene(er term )-… t@en out-)%e the un)(er-e of %)-cour-e for *h)ch )t h- een %ef)ne% )t ecome- met!hor n% m, e )n nee% of fre-h %ef)n)t)on. Though there )- more )n met!hor thn ')fe *e h(e here n e--ent)' feture of -,mo')c met!hor)c' 'nguge.
In nother %ef)n)t)on I. A. R)chr%- 1=? !. = con-)%er- tht In the -)m!'e-t formu't)on *hen *e u-e met!hor *e h(e t*o thought- of %)fferent th)ng- ct)(e together n% -u!!orte% , -)m!'e *or% or !hr-e *ho-e men)ng )- re-u'tnt of the)r )nterct)on. I.A. R)chr%- %r*- ttent)on u!on the %nger of )nter!ret)ng met!hor on', (er' mtter -h)ft)ng n% %)-!'cement of *or%- *here- fun%ment'', )t )- orro*)ng et*een intercourse of thoughts trn-ct)on et*een conte+t-. Thought )met!hor n% )t !rocee%- , com!r)-on n% the met!hor- of 'nguge %er)(e therefrom.
Ste!hen U''mn 1=?? !. 172 re)nforce- th)- )%e on re'te% !'ne *hen he -,tht … mn, of the mo-t con()nc)ng )mge- )n !oetr, n% e(en )n !ro-e re )n-e!r'e from the )%e the, e+!re-- n% the 'tter cou'% ne(er h(e r)-en *)thout the met!hor )n *h)ch )t )- emo%)e%…. Perh!- one -hou'% go e(en further. Lnguge n% thought re not on', )n%)--o'u'e )ntert*)ne% ut the, m, ctu'', -t)mu'te ech other…..
L)ngu)-t)c met!hor- h(e )n mo-t c-e- %)fferent funct)on' -ttu-. The, %o not re!'ce nme- ut the, re the nme- them-e'(e- - the th)ng t'@e% out h- no other nme. hen one t'@- of radar beam or ra5or"s edge of bluebell rainbow forget+me+not of scarecrow *hen one -,- tht -omeo%, has been brain+washed or
tht -omeo%, -)% a left+handed compliment *hen one c''- -omeo%, Shakespeare Robinson Crusoe 6achiavelli etc. there )- !rct)c'', no *, of -,)ng the -me th)ng
)n nother *, e+ce!t , u-)ng met')ngu)-t)c !roce--. E(en *hen there re -,non,m)c form- the, cn e other met!hor-.
0et*n+m+ an S+ne"*"#e
The term metonymy come- from the #ree@ meta/ men)ng chnge n% onyma/ men)ng nme. Synecdoche )- of #ree@ or)g)n too com)ng from syn men)ng together n% ekdechesthai/ men)ng to rece)(e. 6etonymy )- more gener' term thn synecdoche/ 2<
)nc'u%)ng the 'tter *hen u-e% )n ro% -en-e. 0r)ou- -ource- con-)%er tht meton,m, con-)-t- )n the u-e of the nme of one th)ng for tht of -ometh)ng e'-e *)th *h)ch )t )u-u'', --oc)te%. Th)- cn e -)gn)f)cnt ttr)ute of n oect or nother oect orgn)c'', connecte% to the former.
/eton,m)c' -emnt)c chnge- re -e% on re't)on- *h)ch h(e 're%, een e-t')-he% et*een th)ng- n% *or%- tht )- to -, there )- connect)on et*een *or% or !hr-e n% the oect or )%e to *h)ch )t refer-. The meton,m, board and bed menfoo% -er(e% t t'e n% 'o%g)ng. 7oard *- u-e% for 'ong t)me *)th the men)ng t'e u-e% for me'- bed )- n e--ent)' e'ement )n the ccommo%t)on for re-t t n)ght ).e. for 'o%g)ng. The trn-fer of nme- )- e()%ent', -e% on conce!tu' --oc)t)on- of the contiguity type n% not on tho-e of similarity type. The re't)on- et*een the e'ementre not e-t')-he% through ment' !roce-- tht ')n@- )n%e!en%ent th)ng-. In meton,m, the t*o e'ement- re )n cert)n !ro+)m)t, or contct.
Though (r)ou- mo%ern -tu%)e- concentrte m)n', on the referent)' funct)on on meton,m, on )t- !ro()%)ng un%er-tn%)ng n% ')ngu)-t)c -u-t)tut)on , offer)ng cce-- to nother conce!t one -hou'% ne(er forget tht 'nguge reect- !erfect -,non,m, no mtter )n *ht f)e'% )t ten%- to mn)fe-t )t-e'f. There )- -o'ute', no re-on to crete ne* ')ngu)-t)c -,mo' e )t meton,m un'e-- there )- the -')ghte-t %)fference )n connotation *h)ch concern- the expressive side of language. O()ou-', the one *ho -,- %e has chosen the bottle h- -ometh)ng more to -, thn tht -omeo%, )- u-er of alcoholic drink . E(en )f the stylistic implications m, e -omet)me- o(er'oo@e% , the 'ong u-e of
-ome meton,m- the)r cret)on n% e(en the)r -ucon-c)ou- u-e , -!e@er- h- cert)n -t,')-t)c )m!')ct)on-. To )''u-trte )t one *)'' c'' -omeo%, &hilistine on', one con%emn- !er-on *ho )- unrece!t)(e to or ho-t)'e to*r%- cu'ture n% rt-. )thout the e+!re--)(e %)men-)on n, %)-cu--)on of meton,m, ecome- c%em)c !ure', theoret)c' or -!ecu't)(e n% r)g)%.
/eton,m)e- cn ffect )%)omt)c !hr-e- - *e''. Some gener' e+m!'e- re& to earn one"s bread and butter8 crust/ to give somebody a light/ to give somebody a lift/ to lose one"s head/ to know one"s own mind/ as good as gold/ etc.
2>
Synecdoche )- -!ec)' t,!e of meton,m, con-)-t)ng )n the u-e of the !rt for the
*ho'e of !'ce *ht )t re!re-ent- n% of the *ho'e for the !rt or the genu- )- u-e% for the -!ec)e- n% ()ce (er- e.g. army for -o'%)er eye/ face for !er-on
hand for *or@er n% *or@ roof for hou-e printer"s ink for !r)nte% te+t
sail for -h)! e.g.
8e h- no roof o(er h)- he%. 8e )- Conservative. memer of the Con-er(t)(e Prt, I rememer '' m, atin. The Lt)n 'nguge *h)ch I *- tught.
It- ro% of blood n% ()o'ence. Rome )- m%mn- %rem the !o')t)c' !o*er #. B. Sh* I h(e 'eft fr eh)n% the world the flesh n% the devil"- the -oc)et, the %o%)', !'e-ure- the tem!tt)on #.B. Sh*
In -uch e+m!'e- the )n%)()%u' oect !o--e--e- the chrcter)-t)c- of the c'-- to *h)ch e'ong- or ()ce (er-.
2.4. E)!re,,'&ene,, 'n Language$ C*%%*5u'a% Language. C%'"#6. 7arg*n. Arg*t. S%ang. Eu!#em',m
The f)r-t )m of n, 'nguge )- communication. hen utter)ng -entence n, -!e@er tr)e- to con(e, )nformt)on n% he %oe- th)- , u-)ng *or%- *h)ch re(e' the)r men)ng )n %)fferent conte+t-. But n, 'nguge h- -ome ')ngu)-t)c feture- , men- of *h)ch n, -!e@er m, con(e, more thn )nformt)on. B, u-)ng them he m, e+!re-- n tt)tu%e -ugge-t cert)n tmo-!here or ch)e(e cert)n effect. A'' the-e e'ement- e'ong to the e+!re--)(e -)%e of 'nguge. In Ste!hen U''mnn- *or%-& E(er,th)ng tht trn-cen%- the !ure', referent)' n% commun)ct)(e -)%e of 'nguge e'ong- to the !ro()nce of e+!re--)(ene--. U''mnn 1=?< !. 11 2=
No effect)(e co'our)ng cn e ren%ere% , n, -!e@er !rt from tho-e *h)ch re e+!re--e% , 'nguge *h)ch )- co''ect)(e n% h)-tor)c' cret)on. On the other hn% 'nguge !ro()%e- the -!e@er *)th the nece--r, men- to e+!re-- h)- emot)on- n% tt)tu%e- or *)th the men- c!'e of cret)ng the %e-)re% conte+tu' tmo-!here. The-e men- re foun% )n the !hono'og)c' 'e+)c' n% -,ntct)c' f)e'% out of *h)ch n, -!e@er choo-e- the nece--r, men- ccor%)ng to h)- -@)'' )n u-)ng the g)(en 'nguge. Accor%)ng to the o(e ment)one% f)e'%- the -t,')-t)c -tu%, )- common', cce!te% - -hr)ng three -!ect-& the stylistics of the sound the stylistics of the word n% the stylistics of the sentence. U''mnn 1=?< !. 111
C*%%*5u'a% Language
No ')()ng 'nguge )- -)m!', one -et of *or%- *h)ch cn e u-e% the -me *, )n '' -)tut)on-. The nture of 'nguge )- -uch tht there re n )nf)n)te (r)et, of %)fferent *,- to rrnge )t- e'ement-. ht th)- men- )- tht there re mn, *,- to -, the -me th)ng %e!en%)ng on *here ,ou re *ho ,ou re t'@)ng to n% ho* ,ou fee'. $ou re '' %(nce% tht ,ou %o not t'@ to roommte the -me *, ,ou *ou'% t'@ to ,our room9 mte- mother. $ou %o not t'@ to rten%er the -me *, ,ou *ou'% t'@ to u%ge. $ou %o not refu-e !nhn%'er *)th the -me *or%- ,ou u-e to refu-e -econ% he'!)ng of m-he% !ottoe- t form' %)nner. One of the m)n fctor- *h)ch %eterm)ne *h)ch *or%- n% -tructure- re !!ro!r)te )- the %egree of form')t, of the -)tut)on )n *h)ch ,ou re u-)ng the 'nguge.
One of the mo-t fre4uent', u-e% reg)-ter- )n e(er,%, ')fe )- u-u'', c''e% colloquial language. It )- common', the !o)nt of reference on the )mg)nr, -c'e on *h)ch
(r)ou- ')ngu)-t)c -t,'e- re !'ce%. It- !o-)t)on )- g)(en , )t- !rt)cu'r !'ce mong the other reg)-ter- -)nce )t )- common 'e(e' on *h)ch !eo!'e commun)cte )n -!eech. Though )t h- no much !re-t)ge )n the e,e- of -ome !eo!'e noo%, cn f)n% -!ec)f)c fu't *)th )t. It con-)-t- of 'rge numer of co''o4u)')-m- tht )- *or%- n% !hr-e- tht re -omet)me)%)omt)c n% though !re%om)nnt )n fm)')r n% )nform' -!eech )t )- gener'', (o)%e% )n !o')te con(er-t)on n% u-)ne-- corre-!on%ence. Perh!- th)- )- *h, the u-e of co''o4u)')-m- e-t')-he- cert)n fm)')r)t, et*een the -!e@er n% the ')-tener.
Though h()ng !rt)cu'r u-ge )n #ret Br)t)n n% )n the Un)te% Stte- co''o4u)')-m- re un%er-too% , ner', e(er,one )n the Eng')-h9-!e@)ng *or'%.
C%'"#6
Clich9 h- together *)th 1argon the 'o*e-t 'e(e' of e+!re--)(e force -ome*here
roun% . The former )- '-o he'% - the 'o*e-t )n !u')c e-teem though from !rct)c' !o)nt of ()e* )t )- common', u-e% , n,one.
Clich9 con-)-t- of tr)te or -tereot,!e% !hr-e or e+!re--)on. It h- een often
moc@e% t )n *or@- of (r)ou- *r)ter- ut ne(erthe'e-- )t )- con-)%ere% to !', !rom)nent !rt )n !u')c -!eeche- of %)fferent t,!e-. C')che- m)ght e regr%e% - @)n%- of o--)f)e% co''oct)on-. In cert)n conte+t- the mutu' e+!ectnc, of 'e+eme- h- ecome f)+e%. The re-u't )- 'o-- of men)ng ecu-e there )- no 'onger n e'ement of cho)ce or contr-t. For e+m!'e *e r)%)cu'e e-tte gent- %(ert)-ement- for %e-cr))ng hou-e- - %e-)r'e re-)%ence-. The 'e+eme residence )t-e'f h)gh -t,'e -,non,m for house -eem- to e '*,- ccom!n)e% , desirable )n f)+e% e+!re--)on n% *e re% )t no 'onger - h()ng the men)ng %e-)r'eMre-)%ence ut mere', - !hr!hr-e for house& )t h- ecome c')ch5 of e-tte gent-rgon. S)m)'r', )n !o-t' %(ert)-)ng )n !rt)cu'r the noun owner )- )n(r)', ccom!n)e% , the %ect)(e proud & $ou cou'% e the !rou% o*ner of ……. Other e+m!'e- of c')che- re& a real bargain/ an unbeatable offer/ a genuine price reduction/ difficult decisions/ dangerous precedents/ real progress/ flat refusal .
7arg*n
6rgon )- the techn)c' or e(en -ecret (ocu'r, the chrcter)-t)c )%)om of -!ec)')-t- or *or@er- )n !rt)cu'r ct)()t, or )n n re of @no*'e%ge. In )t- c!c)t, of (ocu'r, of -c)ence rt -ect or !rofe--)on )t h- no e+!re--)(e force for tho-e *ho -!e@ )t ut )t h- g)ne% cert)n !re-t)ge mong out-)%er-. Th)- )- e-!ec)'', the c-e of me%)c' term- the me%)c' rgon e)ng one of the mo-t h)gh', %e(e'o!e%. Though *e cnnot -!e@ no*%,- of the -ecret chrcter of th)- rgon the truth )- tht )t )1
un)nte'')g)'e to tho-e *ho h(e not een tr)ne% to un%er-tn% )t. Though '' -c)ent)f)c f)e'%- %e(e'o! o*n rgon- the-e re u-u'', more cce--)'e thn the me%)c' one. Ne(erthe'e-- term- *h)ch re u-u'', un%er-too% on', , -!ec)')-t- re rther fre4uent. e re to )''u-trte th)- through -ome term- t@en from&
. the field of linguistics -c)ence *h)ch u-u'', h- term)no'og, tht )- e-)', un%er-too%. Such term- re idiolect/ idiosyncracy/ metalanguage/ portmanteau/ fricative/ competence/ performance/ deep and surface structure/ transformation etc.
. the field of literature -uch - picaresque/ bathos/ acrostic/ burlesque/ causerie/ meiosis/ simile/ metaphor/ metonymy etc.
c. the law e.g. ad1udge/ agreed verdict/ aid and abet/ assay/ disapprobation/ electee/ fraud/ 1udgement+roll/ nonconstitutional/ nonliability/ made and signed/ null and of no effect/ successor and assigns etc.
%. political thought e.g. civil society/ deterrence/ good offices/ 1urisprudence/ minimax/ monism/ peace and quiet/ understood and agreed .
Ne(erthe'e-- )t *ou'% e n e+ggert)on to c')m tht e(er, -c)ent)f)c rnch h)t- o*n rgon. In fct mn, of them -hre 'ot of term-. For e+m!'e -t)mu'u-9re-!on-e m, e met t the -me t)me )n the medical 1argon )n the 1argon of biologists or in the pedagogical 1argon-
The nerer the !rofe--)on- the more term- the, *)'' -hre e.g. *r)ter- ourn')-t- e%)tor- n% !r)nter-. The former t*o on the one hn% n% the 'tter t*o on the other hn% h(e more term- )n common thn *r)ter- *)th !r)nter- - on', !rt of *r)ter- rgon co)nc)%e- *)th tht of !r)nter-.
B, rgon the ')ngu)-t often men- h,r)% -!eech of %)fferent 'nguge- or of cert)n c'--. S)'or- for e+m!'e (er, fre4uent', u-e -uch m)+ture *)th the *or%- of the nt)(e-.
A !retent)ou- n% e+oter)c term)no'og, )- often u-e% )n -c)ent)f)c !!er- )n *h)ch Lt)n n% #ree@ term- re un%nt. Th)- cn e-)', f'' )nto gobbledygook/ the 1argon of bureaucrats *h)ch u-u'', )m- t conce')ng thought- n% m@e- 'nguge %)ff)cu't to e
un%er-too% , out-)%er-.
2
In e'e(te% con(er-t)on f-h)on'e *or%- n% !hr-e- e-!ec)'', t@en from French n% It')n ref'ect the t-te of !rt)cu'r grou!- of !eo!'e. It m)ght e *orth ment)on)ng tht th)- ten%enc, )- , no men- - common or *)%e-!re% - )t u-e% to e ecu-e of the gr%u' %ec')ne )n the -ttu- of French - the 'nguge of cu'ture n% ref)nement !r e+ce''ence.
Arg*t
The term- cant n% argot re fre4uent', u-e% *)th the -me -en-e - 1argon. Cant u-u'', re!'ce- three term-& argot 1argon n% slang e)ng thu- the mo-t m)guou- of them ''. 2rgot u-u'', %enote- the -!ec)' (ocu'r, n% )%)om of !rt)cu'r -oc)' grou!
c'-- or !rofe--)on *e m, -!e@ of the argot of sports the argot of teen+agers ut (er, fre4uent', )t refer- to the -!ec)' (ocu'r, n% )%)om u-e% , -ome un%er*or'% grou!- e.g. urg'r- !)c@!oc@et- eggr- etc.
If rgon un%er-too% - !rofe--)on' 'nguge e.g. term- -uch - c-e !tho'og, --ermnn 'oo% count etc. h- no e+!re--)(e force rgot un%er-too% the -!eech of -ome un%er*or'% grou!- )- on the contrr, (er, e+!re--)(e. The -t,')-t)c ('ue of th)- (ocu'r, )- (er, h)gh - *or%- u-u'', e+!re-- the -!e@er- tt)tu%e *h)ch u-t)f)e- the e+ten-)(e u-e of met!hor.
SLANG
S'ng )- -u-et of 'nguge u-e% , one !rt)cu'r grou!. It con-)-t- of *or%n% e+!re--)on- *h)ch *)'' not e foun% )n the %)ct)onr, n% cn e %)-tort)on- of e+)-t)ng *or%- or ent)re', )n(ente% term-. It )- u-e% )n )nform' -)tut)on-. It )- not !!ro!r)te )n form' -)tut)on-.
S'ng )- u-e% , '' @)n%- of !eo!'e *ho -hre -)tut)on- or )ntere-t-. The grou! *h)ch u-e- the-e *or%- re '*,- )n the m)nor)t, n% often u-e -'ng to -et them-e'(e!rt to m@e )t %)ff)cu't for or%)nr, !eo!'e to un%er-tn% them. hen !rt)cu'r ne* e+!re--)on )- @no*n n% u-e% , 'rge mor)t, of the !o!u't)on )t )- no 'onger -'ng
ut !rt of the regu'r 'nguge or u-ge. Note& S'ng n% Inform' Eng')-h re NOT the -me. Some -'ng cn e u-e% )n )nform' -)tut)on- n% -ome of the *or%- tht cn on', e u-e% )n )nform' -)tut)on- re not -'ng-.
S'ng fu'f)'- t 'e-t t*o %)fferent funct)on- %e!en%)ng on *ho-e !o)nt of ()e* ,ou t@e. For the grou!- tht u-e -'ng )t )- *, to -et them-e'(e- !rt to e+!re-them-e'(e- )n %)-t)nct n% )n%)()%u' *, n% -omet)me- to @ee! -ecret- from e)ng @no*n , other-. But for the -oc)et, )n gener' n% the %e(e'o!ment of the 'nguge -'ng !erform- nother ro'e. For the 'nguge -'ng )- ')@e ')ngu)-t)c 'ortor, *here ne* *or%- n% form- cn e te-te% out !!')e% to (r)et, of -)tut)on- n% then e)ther n%one% or )ncor!orte% )nto the regu'r 'nguge. It )- ')@e tr)' !er)o% for ne* *or%-. If the, ''o* !eo!'e to -, -ometh)ng tht cnnot e -)% u-)ng tr%)t)on' 'nguge n% mor)t, of !eo!'e cce!t them then the-e *or%- n% e+!re--)on- o)n the)r regu'r 'nguge.
After !er)o% of et*een fe* month- n% mn, ,er- -'ng )- u-e% , ')m)te% grou!- *)th -ometh)ng )n common. The fr mor)t, ne(er rech the !o!u'r)t, n% 'e(e' of u-e to ecome regu'r *or%- n% re -oon forgotten n% not u-e%. A fe* rech *)%e-!re% u-ge n% cn e foun% )n ech ne* e%)t)on of the !o!u'r %)ct)onr)e-. /n, of the *or%*e u-e e(er,%, n% cn e foun% )n the %)ct)onr, egn ')fe - -'ng. E(en Sh@e-!ere u-e% -'ng.
The mo-t -)gn)f)cnt chrcter)-t)c of -'ng o(er',- *)th %ef)n)ng chrcter)-t)c of 1argon& -'ng )- m@er of )n9grou! -o')%r)t, n% -o )t )- corre'te of humn grou!*)th -hre% e+!er)ence- -uch - e)ng ch)'%ren t cert)n -choo' or of cert)n ge or e)ng memer of cert)n -oc)'', %ef)n'e grou! -uch - hoo@er- un@)e- :: mu-)c)n- or !rofe--)on' cr)m)n'-. ;e)th A''n n% ;te Burr)%ge& .orbidden !ords Cmr)%ge Un)(er-)t, Pre-- 2? S'ng -er(e- the out- - *e!on g)n-t the )n-. To u-e -'ng )- to %en, ''eg)nce to the e+)-t)ng or%er e)ther o@)ng', or )n erne-t , refu-)ng e(en the *or%- *h)ch re!re-ent con(ent)on- n% -)gn' -ttu- n% tho-e *ho re !)% to !re-er(e the -ttu- 4uo re !rom!te% to re!re-- -'ng - the, re !rom!te% to re!re-- n, other -,mo' of !otent)' re(o'ut)on. S'e%% 1=?7
3
hen *e refer……… to foo% - gru )t )- !erh!- hr% to re'):e tht the *or% goe- c@ to O')(er Crom*e''- t)me from er', 1> th centur, come mo n% '-o @noc@ off to f)n)-h n% from er', 1= th centur, the -rc-t)c u-e of c'er - mu%. Pu' Be'e e%)tor of Prtr)ge- Concise #ictionary of Slang and :nconventional English Rout'e%ge1==1
Examples of slang 6ohn A,to 1==> &
$nion 1>= e-!ec)'', )n the !hr-e of one- on)on m% cr:,. 8.# e''-& 8e cme
home one %, -,)ng Tono Bung, t)'' I thought he *- c'en off h)- on)on. &ommy/ pommie/ pom 1=12 . /)n', Au-tr')n n% Ne* Ke'n% often !!')e%
-!ec)f)c'', to n Eng')-h )mm)grnt !o--)', -hort for o-o'ete !omm,grnt ocu'r 'en% of !omegrnte n% )mm)grnt. !hat"s your name 1<7<. U-e% )n %%re--)ng !er-on *ho-e nme )- not @no*n or
rememere%. )'')m Fu'@ner& I- tht -oJ Loo@ here /)-ter ht- ,our nme 1=32. 7abe 1>=> Or)g)n n% m)n', US !!')e% to oth men n% *omen baby )n -me -en-e.
Stn'e, ;uffmn& Th)- /r-. A%)r……. h- -uch hot-,9tot-, cottge-….. $e-ter%, th)A%)r e h- n % )n the !!er. 1=72 #ude 1>> Or)g)n n% m)n', US o(er9ref)ne% mn %n%,. /rt)n Am)-& I th)n@ m, %og
go )te of them *h)te %u%e- 1=>3 ;id 1?= 9 ,oung got *)th the -en-e ch)'%. Lor% Shfte-ur,& P--e% fe* %,-
h!!)', *)th m, *)fe n% @)%-. 1>31 7ud 1?13 Recor%e% )n Br)t)-h Eng')-h )n the 1< th centur, ut no* on', u-e% )n Amer)cn
Eng')-h *here )t re9emerge% )n the m)% 1=th centur, !erh!- re!re-ent)ng ch)'%)-h !ronounc)t)on of rother. .R. Burnett& #m'er-…*ou'% often hn% h)m 4urter… n% -,& @ee! )t u%. 1=? #ough 1>71 H mone, *)th )t- Or)g)n )n US& T)me- Im go)ng c@ to u-)ne-- n% m@e
m,-e'f ')tt'e %ough. 1=?? Cabbage 1= /)n', North Amer)cn often !!')e% -!ec)f)c'', to !!er mone, from
the not)on of e)ng green n% cr)-! ')@e %o''r )''. olly 1=3 Br)t)-h lollipop !!rent', *)th reference to the not)on of the #o(ernment
g)()ng *, mone, ')@e 'o'')!o!-. #*en /offt& There- on', one !er-on r)ng)ng )n the 'o'', )n tht hou-e. 1=<
7
&eanuts 1=? Or)g)n US !!')e% e-!ec)'', to )n%e4ute !,ment -ometh)ng -m'' or
tr)()'. Scot-mn& A -'r, of V ,er )- !enut- for mn t the to! of h) !rofe--)on 1=< 2n arm and a leg 1=7? 9 to e e+!en-)(e. D)', /)rror She nee%e% h'f m)'')on %o''r-
to he'! !, !')mon, to 6u%, Ne'-on. 8er 'e-)n ff)r co-t n rm n% 'eg. 1==2 To pay through the nose 1?<2 9 to !, h)gh !r)ce. The #ur%)n& $ou !, through the
no-e for the -ho* often menu- g)(e no cho)ce n% ,ou re t@en to the c'ener- for *)ne n% e+tr-. 1==2 To cram 1>1 9 to -tu%, hr%. Or)g)n un)(er-)t, -'ng u-e% to %enote )nten-)(e tech)ng or
-tu%, )n !re!rt)on for n e+m from the not)on of forc)ng @no*'e%ge )nto -omeone. E.6. oro)-e& She cn crm for n e+m)nt)on. 1>>1 %ang 1. U-e% )n rnge of m)'% oth- u-u'', e+!re--)ng )rr)tt)on or )m!t)ence9
e+ecute , -u-!en%)ng from ro!e. A.P. 8erert& Im f)::, n% f)er, n% fru)t, n% ten-e -o 'et- h(e -un%e n% hng the e+!en-e. 1=2< .or
Cr,& For #o%- -@e %ont t'@ ''oc@- 6ohn-on-. 1== Call it a day 1=1= %enot)ng -to!!)ng or n%on)ng *ht one )- %o)ng call it half a day
)n -me -en-e 1>> .6ohn Br)ne e'' c'' )t %,…. Dont th)n@ %', of me. 1=?< Trendy 1=?2 Somet)me- u-e% %erogtor)', from tren%M9, f-h)on'e $ne foot in the grave 1?2 9 o'% 6me- P,n& 8e h- t*ent, thou-n% ,er….. An% one
foot )n h)- gr(e 1>>? 2nno #omini 81>>79o'% !!')e% to ,er- of the Chr)-t)n c'en%r from the not)on of the
!--)ng of the ,er-. ike a shot 1>= 9 f-t .E Norr)-& If I cou'% her of n, chnce of em!'o,ment
e'-e*here I% t@e )t ')@e -hot. 1>=3 %it the 1ack+pot 1=33& Im!',)ng -ucce-- %ue to 'uc@ from the not)on of *)nn)ng 'rge
ccumu'te% !r):e )n gm')ng or 'otter,. .leas and itches 1=?< Au-tr')n rh,m)ng -'ng for !)cture *)th n ''u-)on to the (erm)n
)nfe-t)ng che! c)nem-. D.O#r%,& hen too t)re% mn *- 'e to ()-)t… the o!en9 )r f'e-9n)tche-. 1=?> Snap 1>=3 Or)g)n US !!')e% u-u'', to n )nform' or c-u'', t@en !hotogr!h -hort snapshot from the not)on of t@)ng n )n-tntneou- !hotogr!h.
?
For@- 1< Hf)nger- %te% !!')e% e-!ec)'', to the f)nger- - u-e% for !)c@)ng !oc@et- from er')er -en-e9 prongs of a fork . 8rr)-on A)n-*orth& No %umm, hunter h% for@- -o f',. 1>3 7eer belly 1=32 beer gut 1=
Ro'')ng Stone& oo%- !u-e- to tuc@ h)- -h)rt et*een eer e'', n% -)'(er e't uc@'e. 1=?= 1=?=
om c!'e of %e-tro,)ng *ho'e 'oc@ of u)'%)ng-. ;ing ;ong 1=77 U-e% - n)c@nme for n,one of out-tn%)ng -):e or -trength from the
nme of the !e9')@e mon-ter feture% )n the f)'m ;)ng ;ong 1=
C*"9ne+ R#+m'ng S%ang
It )- t,!e of -'ng )n *h)ch *or%- re re!'ce% , *or%- or !hr-e- the, rh,me *)th. Rh,m)ng -'ng h- the effect of o-cur)ng men)ng of *ht )- -)% from out-)%er-. It )- not c'er *hether th)- )- )ntent)on' to h)%e one- men)ng from the '* or to e+c'u%e out-)%er- or *hether )t )- u-t form of grou! on%)ng. The *, rh,m)ng -'ng *or@- %oeten% to e+c'u%e tho-e not )n the @no* - the -u-t)tut)on of one *or% for nother often re')e- on reference to @e, !hr-e *h)ch for the -'ng to e un%er-too% mu-t e @no*n o)nt', , tho-e commun)ct)ng. For e+m!'e to get from 8m-te%- to teeth one mu-t e *re of 8m!-te% 8eth.
There )- no re-on to -u!!o-e tht there *- n, gret con-!)rc, )n the formt)on of rh,m)ng -'ng. Eng')-h -!e@er- )n common *)th other 'nguge- eno, rh,m)ng. E()%ence of th)- re the numerou- %ou'e9*or% form- re%u!')ct)on- crete% from non-en-e *or%- n% co)ne% for no etter re-on thn for the he'' of )t. For e+m!'e ho)t,9 to)t, h)gg'e%,9!)gg'e%, nm,9!m, n)tt,9gr)tt, )t-,9)t-, etc.
Rh,m)ng -'ng )- n e+uernt ')ngu)-t)c form n% ten%- to f'our)-h )n conf)%ent outgo)ng commun)t)e-. Tht )- cert)n true of 0)ctor)n Eng'n% *h)ch )- *here )t or)g)nte%. The er')e-t e+m!'e of rh,m)ng -'ng tht *e cn f)n% )- )n the Eng')-h *r)ter <
E%*r% 6err)nghm @ef)e'%-& A%(enture- )n Ne* Ke'n% 1>37 )n *h)ch he )nc'u%en ccount of the ourne, from the U; to the Southern 8em)-!here& The !rofoun% contem!t *h)ch the *h'er e+!re-- for the lubber of a 1immy+grant - he c''- the em)grnt. ho 6)mm, #rnt *- )- not c'er.
The f)r-t to recor% rh,m)ng -'ng )n n, -,-temt)c *, *ere Ducnge Ang')cu- )n& The 0u'gr Tongue. A #'o--r, of S'ng Cnt n% F'-h Phr-e- u-e% )n Lon%on from 1>= to 1>7= n% , 6ohn Cm%en 8otten )n& A D)ct)onr, of /o%ern S'ng Cnt n% 0u'gr or%- 1>7=.
Ang')cu- )nc'u%e- the-e e+m!'e- '' %te% 1>7<& 2pples and pears9 -t)r 7arnet+.air H h)r 7ird 9 ')me t)me ath+and+plaster 9m-ter $ats and chaff 9 foot!th
8otten- oo@ )nc'u%e-& 7ull and cow H ro* Chevy Chase9 the fce
There m, h(e een mn, e+m!'e- for %)ct)onr, m@er- to recor% , the 1>7 ut ')@e mo-t -'ng the-e *ere -treet 'e(e' term- n% not )n gener' u-ge. Chr'e- D)c@en*rote n rt)c'e on -'ng )n& 8ou-eho'% or%- )n 1>7 n% m%e no reference to rh,m)ng -'ng. 8otten *- the f)r-t to !!', the nme rh,m)ng -'ng to the form )n h)- 1>7= %)ct)onr,& The cnt *h)ch h- noth)ng to %o *)th tht -!o@en , the co-ter9monger- )@no*n )n Se(en D)'- n% e'-e*here - the Rh,m)ng S'ng or the -u-t)tut)on of *or%n% -entence- *h)ch rh,me *)th other *or%- )nten%e% to e @e!t -ecret. I 'ern tht rh,m)ng -'ng *- )ntro%uce% out t*e'(e or f)fteen ,er- go.
The -'ng form *- not @no*n )n the USA unt)' 'te )n the 1= th centur,. There )- n e+m!'e )n the L)m T)me- Democrt Se!t 1>=3 ent)t'e% The S'ng of Lon%on *h)ch %e-cr)e- rh,m)ng -'ng t 'ength n% )- c'er', )nten%e% for n u%)ence *ho re ne* to )t& Rh,m)ng S'ng )- !ecu')r to Eng'n% n% I e')e(e to Lon%on. >
Rh,m)ng S'ng %)% not ecome Coc@ne, Rh,m)ng S'ng unt)' 'ong fter mn, of )t- e+m!'e- h% tr(e''e% *or'%9*)%e. Coc@ne, ccor%)ng to the -tr)ct %ef)n)t)on refer- to tho-e orn *)th)n the -oun% of Bo* Be''-. Coc@ne, Rh,m)ng S'ng )- u-t -horthn% for Lon%on or Eng')-h rh,m)ng -'ng. A- nme Coc@ne, Rh,m)ng S'ng )- 2 th centur,.
The term coc@ne, or)g)n'', ment -omeone *ho *- orn *)th)n the -oun% of the Bo* Be''- of St. /r,9'e9Bo* Church )n Che!-)%e Lon%on u-t %o*n the ro% from St. Pu'- Cthe%r'. In tho-e %,- '' of the c)t, of Lon%on *ou'% h(e een *)th)n tht -oun%.
To%, (er, fe* !eo!'e *ou'% e orn *)th)n the -oun% of Bo* Be''-. The re )'rge', f)''e% *)th n@- f)nnc)' )n-t)tut)on- n% off)ce-. Rh,m)ng -'ng '*,- )n(o'(e- t*o *or%- of the !)r or !hr-e *)'' rh,me *)th the trget *or%. So apples and pears *)'' men stairs linen draper *)'' men paper-
In con(er-t)on on', the f)r-t *or% of the !hr-e *)'' e u-e%& Im u-t go)ng u! the !!'e- or There- not -u-ge 'eft. The men)ng of the !hr-e )- un')@e', to h(e n, re't)on-h)! *)th the men)ng of the trget *or%9 )t )- the rh,me tht )- )m!ortnt. At t)me- there cn e connect)on () humour -uch - 6ae !est for chest/ or trick cyclist for psychiatrist .
Some rh,m)ng -'ng *or%- re u-e% )n e(er,%, 'nguge *)thout !eo!'e re')- )ng the)r or)g)n -uch - :se your loaf . or%- ')@e r-!err, n% Ber@ re '-o u-e% e(er, %, )n !o')te -oc)et, *)thout mo-t !eo!'e re')-)ng *here the, come from. Rh,m)ng -'ng -trte% %e(e'o!)ng from roun% the 'te 1> th centur, n% the er', 1= th centur,. There -eem- to e no %ef)n)t)(e re-on - to *h, )t -trte% ut the mo-t !o!u'r theor)e- re&
1.
It *- %e(e'o!e% - goo%9humoure% o@)ng , Coc@ne,- -o tht out-)%er- -uch the gng- of Ir)-h n()e- *or@)ng on cn' n% r)'*, con-truct)on cou'% not un%er-tn% them. =
2.
It *- -trte% , th)e(e- n% cr)m)n'- to commun)cte )n !u')c *)thout e)ng un%er-too% , out-)%er-.
3.
An o!!re--e% %e(e'o!)ng -ecret 'nguge - %efence me-ure to g)(e them )t more )nner -trength.
In %ue cour-e rh,m)ng -'ng h- come from other -ource-. From Ire'n% come -uch *or%- -& Rory $"6ore9 %oor cowhide9 *)%e ).e. *re of
the)r o*n rh,me-& Steel Rudds9 -!u%-!ottoe- giddy goat 9 totetot'):er mad mick 9 !)c@ lean and fat 9 ht.
There re fe* rre e+m!'e- of the '-t *or% )n the rh,m)ng !hr-e e)ng -!o@en rther thn the f)r-t *or% -uch - trt )n =am tart for -*eethert 'though no* )t ten%- to crr, negt)(e connott)on. Another )- coffee and cocoa for S, -o I -hou'% coco.
The or)g)n- of the rh,m)ng !hr-e- re mn, n% (r)e%. /o-t come from e(er,%, *or%- n% e+!re--)on- -uch - currant bun/ fine and dandy n% $xo cube. Other -ourcere& mu-)c h'' !erformer- #ert)e Lee ;te ;rne, fmou- chrcter- *)th)n Lon%on c)rc'e- n% *or'%9*)%e Chr'e- 6me- Fo+ 8rr, N-h Dr. Cr)!!en !'ce- !rt)cu'r', roun% Lon%on 8m!-te% 8eth A'ert 8'' Brnet F)r Ro)n-on n% C'e(er9 former Lon%on -tore . 7arnay Rudge for u%ge m)ght e from the D)c@en- chrcter or from the 'te 1>th centur, %nce the Brn,. 7ubble and squeak for e@ come- from the %)-h of fr)e% cge n% !ottoe-.
Eu!#em',m
Taboo words n% euphemisms re u-u'', trete% , 'e+)co'og)-t- )n c'o-e
connect)on - ne)ther cou'% e+)-t *)thout the other. The *or% too )- of Po',ne-)n or)g)n n% )t %enote- *or%- e)ther for)%%en to !rofne u-e or nne% or %)-!!ro(e% on groun%- of mor')t, or t-te. The *or% eu!hem)-m #@. euphemismos u-!)c)ou- -oun%)ng goo% on the other hn% %enote- the -u-t)tut)on of n gree'e *or% for one tht )- too hr-h )n%e')cte n% )t )- u-u'', 'e-- e+!')c)t n% more %e')cte term.
3
The too f)e'%- of (ocu'r, ref'ect the too f)e'%- of humn ')fe )n g)(en -oc)et, t g)(en t)me. Po')t)c' eu!hem)-m *h)ch )ncre-e- !ermnent', )- u-e% to !re-ent th)ng- )n m)'%er ')ght )n or%er to ecome cce!t'e e.g. the con4uer)ng of terr)tor, ecome- the absorbing of an area. Author)t)e- re-ort to eu!hem)-m to h)%e the gr()t, of c)rcum-tnce- - )n hostage situation/ sabotage situation/ border incident/ bad cop/ attend the hang+fair !u')c e+ecut)on , hng)ng make redundant .
D)fferent !eo!'e- m, h(e %)fferent too f)e'%- ut gener'', -!e@)ng there re -ome -!here- on *h)ch mo-t !eo!'e- )m!o-e the -me n& re')g)on -*er)ng !rt- n% funct)on- on the o%, %re-- et)ng !h,-)c' %)-)')t, )''ne-- n% %eth -ome !rofe--)on' ct)()t)e- n% -oc)' -ttu-. Th)- enumert)on of the mor f)e'%- )- -)gn)f)cnt of the tt)tu%e to*r%- *or%- n% of the e+!re--)(e 'o% of too *or%-. The re-on- for reect)on m, e (r)ou-& fer e-!ec)'', connecte% *)th re')g)ou- term- the regr% for one- fee')ng- e-!ec)'', connecte% *)th n un!'e-nt or !)nfu' re')t, n% %ecenc, )n the c-e of (u'gr term-. Among -uch eu!hem)-m- there re affair/ liaison/ gigolo/ toy+boy/ massage parlour . E+c)tement n% fun on the other hn% re other !eo!'e- re-on- for u-)ng them.
2.:.
T#e C*nte)t
/n %oe- not u-e *or%- 'one - ent)t)e- ut )ncor!orte% )n !hr-e- c'u-e- n% -entence- )n cert)n -tructure- ment to -er(e commun)ct)on. E(en *hen *or% -eem- to e u-e% 'one )t )- )n fct u-e% )n one9*or% -entence. Th)- one9*or% -entence )- generte% )n ccor%nce *)th cert)n c)rcum-tnce or -er)e- of e(ent- n% )n mo-t c-e- )n conte+t of other *or%- *h)ch !rece%e or fo''o* )t *)th *h)ch )t !!er- *hen )t )- t@en )nto con-)%ert)on. A- 're%, ment)one% *or% m, e !o',-emnt)c the re't)on -oun%9men)ng rem)n)ng (')% for ech men)ng. An e+m!'e *- g)(en , the *or% pipe *h)ch m, h(e -e(er' men)ng-. If *e t@e )nto con-)%ert)on the fct tht mo-t *or%- re !o',-emnt)c n% ech men)ng )- re(e'e% )n cert)n c)rcum-tnce- )t *)'' e o()ou- tht 31
n )n(entor, of n, (ocu'r, cn e on', )f t@)ng )nto con-)%ert)on the *ho'e -et of conte+t- )n *h)ch ech *or% cn !!er. The conte+t )- -)ne 4u non of the enco%)ng9 %eco%)ng !roce--.
The *or% context )- of Lt)n or)g)n. It come- from contextus *h)ch h% the men)ng te+ture- n% men- f)gurt)(e', un)on -tructure n% connect)on. The %ef)n)t)on offere% , The Shorter O+for% D)ct)onr, on 8)-tor)c' Pr)nc)!'e- )- the !rt- *h)ch )mme%)te', !rece%e or fo''o* n, !rt)cu'r !--ge of te+t n% %eterm)ne )t- men)ng. A!rt from th)- %ef)n)t)on *h)ch corre-!on%- to our ')ngu)-t)c !ur!o-e- n% re(e'the narrow sense of the term the context m, e '-o %ef)ne% )n broad sense - the con%)t)on- )n *h)ch -ometh)ng )- u-e% or e+)-t- )n other *or%- -et of th)ng- e(ent- ge-ture- etc. re'te% )n cert)n *,.
If the conte+t )- un%er-too% - n en-em'e )n ccor%nce *)th *h)ch n, -!eech mu-t e con-)%ere% one t@e- )nto ccount the )ntent)on of commun)ct)on *h)ch %eterm)ne- -!ec)' orgn)-t)on of *or%-. Accor%)ng to Tt)n S'm9C:cu !. 2= the ro'e of the conte+t ). to choo-e cert)n *or% n% to %ef)ne more ccurte', )t- men)ng )f the *or% )- !o',-emnt)c one . to )n%)()%u')-e the men)ng , -e'ect)ng from the gener')t, of the not)on tht !rt)cu'r -!ect tht gree- *)th the concrete oect contr)ut)ng to the -!ec)f)ct)on of the men)ng c. to com!'ete the men)ng through (r)ou- -h%e- crete% , the !!')ct)on of the !ecu')r)t, to cert)n mtter -)tute% )n chrcter)-t)c frme %. to g)(e the men)ng -o tht there )- on', one !o--))')t, to un%er-tn% )t ccurte', or to e+!re-- -ometh)ng )n n econom)c' *,.
The conte+t h- %ec)-)(e ro'e )n %)-t)ngu)-h)ng homonyms. %omophones -uch -& fir e(ergreen tree n% fur h)r co(er)ng n)m'- flower !rt of the !'nt *h)ch
!ro%uce- -ee%- n% flour f)ne me' m%e from gr)n m, e %)-t)ngu)-he% )n -!eech on', , the %)fferent conte+t- )n *h)ch the, !!er.
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!ord+order con-)%ere% - n e'ement of conte+t contr)ute- to %)fferent)te
homo!hone- e'ong)ng to %)fferent !rt- of -!eech e.g. cell N -m'' room com!rtment )n 'rger -tructure etc. n% sell 0 g)(e )n e+chnge for mone, dear A% n% dear N fareN n% fair A% heal 0 n% hee'N heard 0 n% herd N etc.
Lnguge chnge- !ermnent', through gr%u' chnge- )n the men)ng of *or%-. /n, -!e@er- ten% to crete ne* -h%e- of men)ng n% th)- !roce-- )- fc)')tte% , the conte+t )n *h)ch the *or%- re u-e%. Ne(erthe'e-- the ten%enc, to )m!o-e ne* men)ng- n% -h%e- )- often -to!!e% , the o'% n% -trong !ttern- e+)-t)ng )n n, 'nguge *h)ch %o not !erm)t them-e'(e- to e re!'ce% e-)', , ne* one-. For e+m!'e the *or% meat once ment foo% )n One mn- met )- nother mn !o)-on Pro(er no* men)ng f'e-h n)m' u-e% for foo% the term rem)n)ng )n the -me semantic field . A- re-u't the conte+t cnnot e u!he'% - e)ng -o'ute. It cnnot he'! the enco%er to !-- e,on% the !o--))')t)e- of (r)t)on of ech *or% tht )- to -, )t )- -uect to the !o--))')t)e- of (r)t)on *h)ch re chrcter)-t)c of the nuc'eu- of ech *or%.
Accor%)ng to S.I. 8,@* !. ?3& A %)ct)onr, %ef)n)t)on…. )- n )n(r)'e gu)%e to )nter!rett)on. or%- %o not h(e -)ng'e correct men)ng the, !!', to grou!- of -)m)'r -)tut)on- *h)ch m)ght e c''e% re- of men)ng. It )- for %ef)n)ng the-e re- of men)ng tht %)ct)onr, )- u-efu'. In ech u-e of n, *or% *e e+m)ne the !rt)cu'r conte+t n% the e+ten-)on' e(ent- %enote% )f !o--)'e to %)-co(er the !o)nt )nten%e% *)th)n the re of men)ng.
Am)gu)t, )n *or%- !',- %)fferent funct)on- )n (r)ou- conte+t-. Am)gu)t, m, h(e the *or-t re-u't- )n -c)ent)f)c *r)t)ng- or %)-cour-e- - the)r !r)mr, funct)on )tht of !rec)-e commun)ct)on. /)-un%er-tn%)ng )n -uch c-e- m@e- commun)ct)on )m!o--)'e n% ren%er- the )%e men)ng'e--. But )n ')terture )n gener' n% )n n, form- of !oetr, )n !rt)cu'r the (r)ou- men)ng- of *or% or !hr-e cn c4u)re m, contr)ute to the gener' !oet)c effect or -ugge-t more com!rehen-)(e )nter!rett)on of -ttement.
3
3. IDIO0S
3.1. De'n't'*n,
An )%)om cn e %ef)ne% - !hr-e *h)ch h- %)fferent men)ng from the men)ng of )t- -e!rte com!onent-. One of the chrcter)-t)c- )- tht ,ou cnnot norm'', chnge the *or%- the)r or%er or the grmmt)c' form- )n the -me *, - ,ou cn chnge non9)%)omt)c e+!re--)on-.
The Encarta !orld English #ictionary g)(e- 3 %ef)n)t)on- for the *or% idiom&
1. f)+e% e+!re--)on *)th non9')ter' men)ng& f)+e% %)-t)nct)(e e+!re--)on *ho-e men)ng cnnot e %e%uce% from the com)ne% men)ng of )t- ctu' *or%-. 2. ntur' *, of u-)ng 'nguge& the *, of u-)ng 'nguge tht come- ntur'', to )tnt)(e -!e@er. -t,')-t)c e+!re--)on& the -t,'e of e+!re--)on of -!ec)f)c !er-on or grou!. 3. %)-t)ngu)-h rt)-t)c -t,'e& the chrcter)-t)c -t,'e of n rt)-t or rt)-t)c grou!.
The *or% idiom come- from the #ree@ )%)om *h)ch men- !ecu')r)t, )n 'nguge $nline Etymology #ictionary/ http38www-etymonline-com 8index-php> term?idiom
I%)om- re *)%e', recogn):e% to e -tum')ng 'oc@ )n the c4u)-)t)on of fore)gn 'nguge - n )%)om )- com)nt)on of *or%- tht h- men)ng %)fferent from n% u-u'', more thn the %%e% men)ng- of the )n%)()%u' e'ement- -e% on the norm' ru'e- of grmmr n% -emnt)c-.
Eng')-h n% Amer)cn uthor- g)(e -o mn, H often )ncongruou-9 %ef)n)t)on- to idioms n% idiomatic English tht )t )- , no men- e-, to %)-entng'e the)r e--ent)'
feture-.
For )'')m Freemn n )%)om )-…… n e-t')-hment *or% or !hr-e *)th -!ec)' men)ng tht )- )n%e!en%ent of the %)ct)onr,- %ef)n)t)on n% fre4uent', of the ru'e- of grmmr - *e''... I%)om- h(e ecome fun%ment' !rt of our 'nguge 33
the, re fre4uent', noth)ng more thn ()gorou- re()t)on- of common !hr-e-….. The, re terror to n, -tu%ent *)th 'og)c' n% or%er', m)n%. /n, of them )n%ee% re e,on% n, commonG -en-)'e e+!'nt)on *hte(er… Other- re -e% on !--gefrom the B)'e Sh@e-!ere on !ro(er- n% )n fct on n,th)ng *h)ch cn e em!'o,e% to con(e, one- thought- r)ef', n% effect)(e', etc Freemn 1=37 !!.<29 <
Tre'e n% 0'')n- %)()%e )%)om- )nto four grou!-& .
.:ngrammatical dioms tho-e )n *h)ch grmmr n% )%)om- %)-gree e.g. t"s me -!ho did you see> Than whom@ try and go/ more than pleased / in less than no time
c. &repositional dioms )m!',)ng the u-e of !re!o-)t)on- )n )%)omt)c !hr-e- e.g. by change/ at least/ after all/ in fact/ in time/ for good/ to fall out/ to hold off/ to lay in-
%. 6etaphorical dioms -e% on met!hor-& a broken reed@ a sly dog 2n 27C of English :sage 1=37
.In 8orn,- #ictionary idiom h- t*o men)ng-& . grou! of -ucce--)on of *or%- tht mu-t e 'erne% - *ho'e ecu-e )t )- %)ff)cu't or )m!o--)'e to un%er-tn% the men)ng from @no*'e%ge of the *or%- con-)%ere% -e!rte', e.g. to give way@ in order to@ to be hard put to it ; . form of e+!re--)on !ecu')r to !eo!'e %)-tr)ct
grou! of !eo!'e countr, or to one )n%)()%u' - the French )%)om 9 'nguge Sh@e-!ere- )%)om e.g the metho% of e+!re--)on u-e% , h)m n% !ecu')r to h)m.
!ebster"s" 'ew !orld #ictionary %ef)ne- )t - fo''o*-& . the 'nguge or %)'ect of
!eo!'e reg)on c'-- etc. . the u-u' *, )n *h)ch the *or%- of 'nguge re o)ne% together to e+!re-- thought c. n cce!te% !hr-e con-truct)on or e+!re--)on contrr, to the u-u' !ttern- of the 'nguge or h()ng men)ng %)fferent from the ')ter' %. the -t,'e of n )n%)()%u'& - the )%)om of Cr','e. In 2
37
./c/or%)e )nc'u%e- un%er )%)om !ecu')r u-e- of !rt)cu'r *or%- n% '-o !rt)cu'r !hr-e- or turn- of e+!re--)on *h)ch from 'ong u-ge h(e ecome -tereot,!e% )n Eng')-h… hen *e -, of *omn tht she has a tongue< *e -eem to -, -ometh)ng tht %oe- not g)(e much )nformt)on. But then th)- e+!re--)on ccor%)ng to )t- common u-ge )n Eng')-h men- tht the *omn -!o@en of h- scolding tongue…
Ag)n on n% upon re common', e4u)('ent- n% re often )nterchnge'e. Thu*e correct', -, e)ther %e acted on my advice or %e acted upon by advice= But though *e cn )%)omt)c'', -,< Carry on business< *e cnnot -, Carry upon business th)- '-t e+!re--)on )- men)ng'e--. ./c/or%)e 1=?2 !.7
A- m, e -een from the fore)gn e+m!'e- the criteria u-e% , the re-!ect)(e uthorre different e.g. Tre'e n% 0'')n- -!e@ out grmmt)c' n% ungrmmt)c' )%)om- )m!')c)t', )n(o'()ng the)r correctne-- or )ncorrectne-- )n one of the %ef)n)t)on- 8orn, !!')e- the -emnt)c cr)ter)on The #u)%e to the Eng')-h Lnguge re-ort- to !-,cho'og)c'9')ngu)-t)c cr)ter).
I%)om- e+)-t )n '' 'nguge-. The, form n )m!ortnt !rt of e(er,one- (ocu'r, n% re u-e% oth )n form' n% )nform' 'nguge. The, re ho*e(er much more common )n )nform' -!o@en Eng')-h. The, -hou'% not e confu-e% *)th slang *h)ch )(er, often )n!!ro!r)te )n cert)n -oc)' -)tut)on-.
Not '' f)+e% !hr-e- re )%)om-. To e+em!')f, close the door )- common f)+e% !hr-e ut )t )- not n )%)om ecu-e ech *or% )n )t )- u-e% )n )t- -tn%r% men)ng. The !hr-e show somebody the door )- n )%)om ho*e(er ecu-e the !hr-e %oe- not men There is the doorA +)t men- make someone leave-
/n, )%)om- re e-, to un%er-tn%. For e+m!'e sweep something under the carpet- If one un%er-tn%- -*ee! -ometh)ng un%er n% cr!et there )- (er,
goo% chnce the, *)'' un%er-tn% the f)gurt)(e men)ng of the )%)om. Other )%)om- -uch - queer in the attic storey m, e more %)ff)cu't to un%er-tn% ecu-e of the)r 'o* fre4uenc, (ocu'r,.
3?
S)nce the *or% idiom %oe- e+)-t n% eno,- -o *)%e c)rcu't)on )n Eng')-h )t- t*o men)ng- idiom )n the -en-e of 'nguge etc. h- no concern here m)ght e )nter!rete% - fo''o*-& 9
)n ro% -en-e n )%)om )- 'ong9')(e% grou! of *or%- chrcter)-t)c of 'nguge -omet)me- )m!o--)'e to trn-'te % ')tterm )nto nother 'nguge com!r)-)ng grmmt)c' co''oct)on- n% !hr-e- fu-)on- un)t- n% free com)nt)on- mo-t of them e)ng -e% on %egr%e% met!hor-
9
)n -tr)ct -en-e n )%)om )- tntmount of !hr-eo'og)c' fu-)on.
An idiom )- *or% or !hr-e *h)ch men- -ometh)ng %)fferent from *ht )t -,-9 )t )u-u'', met!hor. I%)om- re common !hr-e- or term- *ho-e men)ng- re not ')ter' ut re f)gurt)(e n% on', @no*n through the)r common u-e-.
Becu-e )%)om- cn men -ometh)ng %)fferent from *ht the *or%- men. It )- %)ff)cu't for -omeone not (er, goo% t -!e@)ng the 'nguge to u-e them !ro!er',. Some )%)om- re on', u-e% , -ome grou!- of !eo!'e or t cert)n t)me-. The )%)om shape up or ship out < *h)ch )- ')@e -,)ng improve your behaviour or leave if you don"t < m)ght e -)% , n em!'o,er or -u!er()-or ut not to other !eo!'e.
I%)om- re not the -me th)ng - -'ng. I%)om- re m%e of norm' *or%- tht h(e -!ec)' men)ng @no*n , 'mo-t e(er,one. S'ng )- u-u'', -!ec)' *or%- tht re @no*n on', , !rt)cu'r grou!. To 'ern 'nguge !er-on nee%- to 'ern *or%- )n tht 'nguge n% ho* n% *hen to u-e them. But !eo!'e '-o nee% to 'ern )%)om- -e!rte', ecu-e cert)n *or%- together or t cert)n t)me- cn h(e %)fferent men)ng-. In or%er to un%er-tn% n )%)om one -omet)me- nee%- to @no* the cu'ture the )%)om come- from.
To @no* the h)-tor, of n )%)om cn e u-efu' n% )ntere-t)ng ut )- not nece--r, to e 'e to u-e the )%)om !ro!er',. For e+m!'e mo-t nt)(e Br)t)-h Eng')-h -!e@er@no* tht 'o room to swing a cat men- there *- not 'ot of -!ce n% cn u-e the )%)om !ro!er', ut fe* @no* )t )- ecu-e 2 ,er- go -)'or- *ere !un)-he% , e)ng *h)!!e% *)th *h)! c''e% ct on)ne t)'-. A )g -!ce *- c'ere% on the -h)! -o tht the !er-on %o)ng the *h)!!)ng h% 'ot of room to -*)ng the ct.
3<
A etter un%er-tn%)ng of n )%)om )- tht )t )- !hr-e *ho-e men)ng cnnot e un%er-too% from the %)ct)onr, %ef)n)t)on- of ech *or% t@en -e!rte',. In th)- c-e met!hor )- not n )%)om. The men)ng of the -,)ng run ')@e the *)n% cn e un%er-too% , 'oo@)ng the *or%- u! )n %)ct)onr, n% u-)ng -ome common -en-e n% )mg)nt)on n% the conte+t of the !hr-e.
I%)om- re the ref'ect)on of the en()ronment ')fe cu-tom- cu'tur' h)-tor, etc. of the nt)(e -!e@er- n% re c'o-e', --oc)te% *)th the)r )nnermo-t -!)r)t the, re!re-ent n e+treme', )ntere-t)ng n% ('u'e re-ource e4u'', ch''eng)ng for non9nt)(e -!e@er- ')@e for )t )m!ro(e- the)r ')ngu)-t)c -t,'e.
3.2. Or'g'n * I'*m,
#ener'', -!e@)ng n )%)om m, e %ef)ne% - com)nt)on of *or%- tht u!on n',-)- of (ocu'r, n% -,ntct)c' chrcter)-t)c- e)ther con(e,- no )nte'')g)'e men)ng t '' or th)- men)ng %)ffer- from con(ent)on'', cce!te% -en-e m, e -,ntct)c'', e+!')ne% -e% on et,mo'og)c' n% h)-tor)c' or)g)n- %oe- not m@e the e+!re--)on )n 4ue-t)on 'e-- of n )%)om.
Both )n -!o@en n% *r)tten %)-cour-e )%)om- n% e+!re--)on- re re!ete% *)thout n, re' thought of *here the, come from or *h, !eo!'e u-e them. The, re mo-t', u-e% *)thout @no*'e%ge of h)-tor,. e -, th)ng- ')@e no room to swing a cat/ dead as a doornail < e(er, %, *)thout @no*)ng tht the h)-tor, of the e+!re--)on- )- -o r)ch n%
)ntere-t)ng.
/n, of them cn e trce% c@ to the B)'e -ome to Sh@e-!ere. Othere(o'(e% from co''o4u)')-m n% !rct)ce- of the t)me. http388www-suite 11. com8content8sayings+and+idioms+al 1?=1
Some )%)om- re -o -trong', t)e% to the cu'ture n% h)-tor, of the !eo!'e tht generte% them tht the)r -urfce -tructure te''- -tor, tht u-t)f)e- the men)ng )n the)r %e!th. A 'ot of )%)omt)c e+!re--)on- re(e' -tor)e- tht -u%%en', g)(e -en-e to the)r re' men)ng-. An *rene-- of the -ource n% the 'e+)c' re to *h)ch n 3>
)%)om e'ong- cn )''um)nte )t- non9')ter' men)ng n% )n-t)'' )n the 'erner tht n',t)c' men)ng9%eco%)ng !!roch *hen h()ng to confront other un@no*n )%)om-.
St,')-t)c feture- of )%)omt)c e+!re--)on- re '-o connecte% *)th the)r or)g)n-. For e+m!'e )%)om- of B)')c' or)g)n- re more fre4uent )n *r)tten 'nguge *h)'e tho-e or)g)nt)ng from gm')ng u-u'', e'ong to )nform' -!eech.
Con-e4uent', there re mn, )%)om- *)th )ntere-t)ng c@groun%- tht go unnot)ce%. Some re funn,. Other- re u-t !')n -trnge. The %er)(t)on n% men)ng of mn, f)gurt)(e !hr-e cn e trce% c@ hun%re%- of ,er-. 8o*e(er , tr,)ng to 'ern them !er-on )- on the r)ght trc@.
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7arking up the wrong tree9 Th)- -,)ng )- of U.S. or)g)n n% )- thought to h(e come
from hunt)ng for rccoon. Be')e(e% to e from the 1>- )t *- not common for th)nocturn' ct)()t, en% u! )n %og fo''o*)ng f'-e -cent n% - re-u't r@)ng m)-t@en', un%er tree *)th no rccoon h)%)ng )n )t.
7eat around the bush9 /en)ng to e e(-)(e or )n%)rect th)- )- nother hunt)ng
reference *h)ch %te- c@ hun%re%- of ,er- *hen hunt)ng )r%- numer of !rt)c)!nt- )n hunt)ng !rt, *ou'% -t)r u! the )r%- , ')ter'', et)ng u-he- *h)'e other- *)te% re%, to c!ture the f'ee)ng )r%-.
#ead as a doornail 9 The or)g)n of th)- )%)om %te- c@ to the 13 th centur,. It *-
u-e% Sh@e-!ere )n 17= )n ;)ng 8enr, 0I. The e+ct re-on eh)n% the u-ge of %oorn)' )- not 4u)te c'er ut one e+!'nt)on cn e foun% )n cr!entr,. A %oorn)' )- *)%e9he%e% n)' tht once hmmere% through the !rotru%)ng en% of the n)' *ou'% norm'', e ent )n to -ecure )t n% !re(ent )t- remo(' hence the n)'- %e%ne--. ike the #ickens9 /en)ng 'ot or )n 'rge mount- th)- -,)ng h- noth)ng to %o
*)th the *r)ter Chr'e- D)c@en-. A eu!hem)-m for %e()' or %e()')-h D)c@en- *- ')@e', -hortene% form of the *or% %e()'@)n-. 3=
n a pickle9 To e )n !)c@'e )- to f)n% one-e'f )n %)ff)cu't !o-)t)on. It -eem- tht )n
1?11 Sh@e-!ere *- the f)r-t to u-e the ctu' !hr-e )n !)c@'e )n The Tem!e-t 'though the reference- to )'' !)c@'e- n% th)- !)c@'e cn e trce% to the 17-. Eating %umble &ie9 Dur)ng me%)e(' t)me- hum'e !)e or um'e !)e *- n ctu'
%)-h m%e out of entr)'-9 hert ')(er )nte-t)ne- n% the ')@e9 tht *- -er(e% to -er(ntn% 'o*er c'--e-. To h(e to et hum'e !)e men- to e -um)--)(e or !o'oget)c e-!ec)'', *hen %m)tt)ng *rong. S)m)'r to th)- )- Eating crow. %appy as a clam9 The men)ng of th)- -,)ng )- 4u)te o()ou- ut why eh)n% )t-
u-ge t@e- ')tt'e %)gg)ng. Th)- Amer)cn -,)ng u-e% to h'f -econ% h'f& h!!, c'm t h)gh t)%e . D)gg)ng for c'm- h- to e %one t 'o* t)%e )n or%er to h(e n, -ucce--. At h)gh t)%e the c'm- -fe n% -oun% un%er the *ter m@)ng for h!!, c'm. 2 drop in the bucket > /en)ng -m'' )n-)gn)f)cnt !ort)on of the *ho'e th)- )%)om
h- )t- gene-)- )n the B)'e. I-)h 3&17 'ew nternational 0ersion re%- Sure', the nt)on- re ')@e %ro! )n uc@et the, re regr%e% - %u-t on the -c'e- 8e *e)ghthe )-'n%- - though the, *ere f)ne %u-t. 7y the skin of your teeth9 Another O'% Te-tment B)')c' reference men)ng to
re', or nrro*', e'u%e -ometh)ng. In 'ment)ng h)- tr)u't)on- 6o 1=&2 ;ing =ames 0ersionG -tte-& /, one c'e(eth to m, -@)n n% to m, f'e-h *)th the -@)n of
m, teeth. 2 load of codswallop http388clatters-tripod-com8idiom-htm G 'ot of non-en-e ru)-h.
Co%% *- 0)ctor)n u-)ne--mn n% *''o! *- n)neteenth centur, -'ng for eer. In 1><2 8)rm Co%% *ent )nto u-)ne-- -e'')ng 'emon%e )n green ott'e- -e'e% *)th mr'e -to!!er. Beer %r)n@er- thought ')tt'e of th)- ne* %r)n@ n% g(e )t the %er)-or, n)c@nme Co%-*''o!. 7eyond the pale? out-)%e of -oc)et)e- ')m)t-. Not cce!t'e con%uct.
P'e come- from the Lt)n *or% !'um men)ng -t@e. In er', Eng')-h th)- cme to men fence *h)ch -urroun%e% -ometh)ng -uch - cthe%r' or -ome other uthor)t,. In 'ter t)me- )t 'tere% to the ')m)t of !o')t)c' ur)-%)ct)on. L)fe *)th)n !'e *c)()'):e% *here- e,on% )t *- con-)%ere% uncouth n% rr)c. 8ence one cou'% e -)% to e e,on% the !'e. To put a spoke in someone"s wheel ? %e')erte', h)n%er -omeone- !'n-. 8un%re%-
of ,er- go crt*hee'- *ere m%e from -o')% *oo%. The front *hee'- of crt *ou'%
7
h(e ho'e- )n them through *h)ch -!o@e cou'% e thru-t )n or%er to !re(ent or -'o* the crt from runn)ng *, %o*nh)''. 2t the end of my tether t the !o)nt of fru-trt)on or t the en% of one- en%urnce.
A tether )- ro!e *h)ch )- u-e% to re-tr)ct the free%om of gr:)ng n)m'- , t,)ng one en% roun% the)r nec@ n% the other to -t@e )n the groun%. To hang fire to %e', to e !en%)ng
In %,- gone , *hen the m)n chrge )n n rt)''er, !)ece *- -'o* to f)re )t *-)% to e hng)ng f)re. No* the term )- u-e% to %e-cr)e -ometh)ng *h)ch )- he'% u! or %e',e%. $n the grapevine go--)! or rumour through n )nform' chnne'.
In the ,er- fter the )n(ent)on of the Te'egr!h there *- m% ru-h to erect te'egr!h- to - mn, !'ce- - !o--)'e )n the -horte-t t)me. In 1>7= Co'one' Bee !ut ')ne u! et*een P'cu()''e n% 0)rg)n) C)t,. 8e u-e% tree- to crr, the *)re- )n-te% of te'egr!h !o'e-. The)r mo(ement -tretche% n% tng'e% the *)re- unt)' the, fe'' to the groun% 'oo@)ng -)m)'r to the *)'% ()ne- foun% )n C')forn). Dur)ng the Amer)cn C)()' r me--ge- tht *ere rece)(e% () the te'egr!h tht *ere thought to e m)-9 )nformt)on or )nccurte *ere -)% to h(e rr)(e% on the gr!e()ne te'egr!h moc@)ng reference to Co'one' Bee- (enture. To kick the bucket to %)e
In -'ughterhou-e- the r)' on *h)ch !)g- re hung fter -'ughter to %r)n off the 'oo% )- @no*n - the uc@et r. /u-c'e- -!-m fter %eth -omet)me- 'e% to the %e% !)g t*)tch)ng - )f to @)c@ the uc@et r hence the e+!re--)on. Accor%)ng to $xford #ictionary of dioms Second Edition 23 !. 17=the uc@et )n th)- !hr-e m, e !)' on *h)ch !er-on comm)tt)ng -u)c)%e m)ght -tn% @)c@)ng )t *, efore the, hnge% them-e'(e-. Another -ugge-t)on )- tht )t refer- to em on *h)ch -ometh)ng cn e hung u! )n Norfo'@ %)'ect the em from *h)ch -'ughtere% !)g *- -u-!en%e% , )t- hee'- cou'% e referre% to - uc@et.
Though the ')-t of commonly used sayings )- more numerou- thn the %, )- 'ong th)- r)ef ')-t g)(e- ')tt'e )n-)ght - to ho* the-e -,)ng- egn n% e+ct', *ht )t )- thn the, men9 e(en )f not much ')ght )- -he% on *h, the, cont)nue to e )n -uch gret u-e.
71
3.3.T#e Im!*rtan"e * I'*m,
T@)ng )nto con-)%ert)on tht )%)om- re !ttern- of )nform' 'nguge mo-t of the non9nt)(e -!e@er- m)ght f)n% the c4u)r)ng of )%)omt)c e+!re--)on 4u)te *@*r% n% not t hn%. I%)om- re to e 'erne% n% c4u)re% m)n', through 'ot- of !rct)c)ng. Stu%ent- -trt to get fm)')r):e% *)th the (ocu'r, of the Eng')-h 'nguge t n er', ge )n(o'()ng the cogn)t)(e -tructure of m)n% through ()-u' n% u%)t)(e techn)4ue- then the, %e(e'o! the)r @no*'e%ge through !ro%uct)(e metho%-uch - -!e@)ng n% *r)t)ng.
The -!o@en Eng')-h !!e'- mo-t', to -!e@)ng -@)''- *h)ch )n(o'(e- @no*)ng *or%- n% the)r men)ng-. #rmmt)c' -tructure- re un%er-too% *)th the he'! of form' 'ern)ng )n -choo' *h)'e the c4u)-)t)on of e+!re--)on- -uch - -'ng co''oct)on- f)+e% !hr-e- !ro(er- n% )%)om- re mo-t of the t)me t@en from the ')()ng 'nguge the -treet 'nguge tht )- the non9form'G)nform' 'ern)ng.
$oung !eo!'e re more e+!o-e% to -uch -)tut)on- - the, cn get )nto contct *)th %)fferent !eo!'e e'ong)ng to %)fferent c@groun%- or -oc)' -ttu-. The, cn fce -er)e- of -)tut)on- *hen the, h(e to u-e (r)et, of (ocu'r,. The, -!e@ )n cert)n *, to the)r techer- )n %)fferent *, to the)r fm)', n% fr more %)fferent', to the)r !eer-.
Let- t@e 'nguge -tu%ent tten%)ng %)', c'--e-. The, -tu%, the grmmr the form')t)e- the -ut'e %)fference- et*een 'oo@ t n% *tch. The, !ro%uce 'o(e', coherent -entence- n% con(er-t)on-. T@e th)- -tu%ent out of the c'--room n% *, from the te+too@- though n% the, *)'' encounter *or'% of 'nguge tht re@tho-e ru'e-. In %(ert)-)ng on')ne n% )n con(er-t)on 'nguge ecome- fr 'e--tructure%. T@)ng the t)me to un%er-tn% -'ng n% )nform' -!eech m)ght -(e -omeone *ho'e 'ot of confu-)on.
72
3.4. Feature, * I'*m,
I%)om- re chrcter):e% ,&
B- exical complexity
B, 'e+)c' com!'e+)t, of n )%)om )- un%er-too% tht the men)ng of n )%)om )not %er)('e from the men)ng- of )t- )n%)()%u' !rt- n% tht the con-t)tuent- of the )%)om c4u)re ne* men)ng - *ho'e. For e+m!'e the men)ng of e% of n)'- %oe- not h(e n,th)ng to ne)ther *)th e%- nor *)th n)'- )t )- n )%)om referr)ng to !ro'emt)c or uncomfort'e -)tut)on.
H- nvariability8 .ixed form
Th)- men- tht the numer of !r%)gmt)c (r)nt- )f there re n, of n )%)om re ')m)te%. The chrcter)-t)c of f)+e% form g)(e- the )m!re--)on tht the )%)om- re not f'e+)'e ut th)- )- true on', to cert)n e+tent. Some )%)om- %o h(e (r)nt-& grammatical variants
9
m@e the e%Gm@e u! the e%
9
et the u-he-Get roun% the u-he-
lexical variants
9
h)t the ce)')ngGh)t the roof
9
@ee! ,ou on the e%ge of ,our -etG@ee! ,ou on the e%ge of ,our ch)r
syntagmatic variants
9
!ut ,our hou-e )n or%erG!ut ,our o*n hou-e )n or%er
geographical variants
9
-@e'eton )n the c'o-et Amer)cn Eng')-h G -@e'eton )n the cu!or% Br)t)-h Eng')-h
. .igurativeness8 6etaphorical meaning Not '' )%)om- re e4u'', f)gurt)(e. The, cn '-o e ctegor):e% )n %)-t)nct)(e grou!-& 9
-o'ute', non9mot)(te% )%)om-$
fence hanger one *ho h- not m%e %ec)-)on
9
!rt)'', mot)(te% )%)om-&
a fly on the wall n un-een o-er(er or ')-tener
7
9
mot)(te% )%)om-&
not a dry eye in the house e(er,one )- cr,)ng or fee'- -trong emot)on .
/n, )%)om- re met!hor)c' e+!re--)on- *h)ch re )n common u-e. /et!hor ) *, e+!re--)ng -ometh)ng , com!r)ng )t *)th -ometh)ng e'-e tht h- -)m)'r chrcter)-t)c- )t )- concerne% *)th u-)ng *or%- )n -trct *,- rther thn ')ter'. For e+m!'e )n the c-e of the )%)om blood on the carpet ; 'oo% )- met!hor u-e% to refer )n -ome*ht e+ggerte% *, to -er)ou- %)-greement or )t- ftermth. /et!hor)c e+!re--)on- m)ght '-o !ro()%e men- to un%er-tn% conce!t- *h)ch o*)ng to the)r -trct nture m, e %)ff)cu't to %e-cr)e ')ngu)-t)c'',.
4.
Conventionality
I%)om- re con(ent)on'):e% tht )- the)r men)ng or u-e cnnot e !re%)cte% or t 'e-t ent)re', !re%)cte% on the -)- of @no*'e%ge of the )n%e!en%ent con(ent)on- tht %eterm)ne the u-e of the)r con-t)tuent- *hen the, !!er -e!rte', from one nother. The men)ng of n )%)om )- not -tr)ghtfor*r% com!o-)t)on of the men)ng of )t !rt- D)+on 1==< !.3>. A- n e+m!'e *e cou'% t@e a foot in the door < *ho-e men)ng h- noth)ng to %o *)th putting your foot in the door !o-)t)on from *h)ch further !rogre-- )- !o--)'e.
3.:. T#e Pr*%em * Tran,%at'*n
)th more thn 7 'nguge- -!o@en )n the *or'% to%, the nee% for trn-'t)on n% e%ucte% trn-'tor- )- e()%ent9-ome m)ght -, e(en cruc)'. Th)- nee% )- re)nforce% , the )ncre-)ng mo)')t, of !eo!'e n% e(er gro*)ng )nternt)on')t, ne(er efore h(e *e een - much )n contct *)th other cu'ture- n% 'nguge- - *e re to%,. The e(er9 )ncre-)ng e+chnge of )nformt)on )n -uch re- - econom, !o')t)c- n% -c)ence m@ecommun)ct)on et*een %)fferent 'nguge- n% cu'ture- -o'ute', ()t'. A- the *or'% ) ecom)ng more )nternt)on'):e% ech %, '-o 'nguge -@)''- re em!h-):e% more thn e(er. Th)- !henomenon h- re-u'te% )n the fct tht the )m!ortnce of trn-'t)on en'ecommun)ct)on cro-- cu'tur' n% ')ngu)-t)c oun%r)e- n% re)nforce- )ntercu'tur' un%er-tn%)ng. 73
Accor%)ng to Ne*mr@ 1=>1 !. the (er, -)gn- of trn-'t)on cn e trce% c@ - fr - B.C. A !o!u'r ()e* )- tht trn-'t)on )- 'mo-t - o'% - 'nguge )t-e'f *here there h- een 'nguge there h- '*,- een '-o trn-'t)on. De-!)te the fct tht trn-'t)on h- ecome )ncre-)ng', )m!ortnt )n recent %ec%e- trn-'t)on -t)'' cont)nueto e -ome*ht un%er('ue%. The common m)-conce!t)on -eem- to e tht n,one *ho m-ter- nother 'nguge )n %%)t)on to the)r nt)(e one )- '-o c!'e of !ro%uc)ng -mooth trn-'t)on- et*een the-e 'nguge- 4u)te e-)', n% *)thout n, con-)%er'e effort. A- B--nett n% Lefe(ere 1==> !. 2 !ut )t !eo!'e often --ume tht te+t- on', nee% to e trn-ferre% mechn)c'', )nto nother 'nguge *)th the he'! of %)ct)onr)e-. An% -)nce e(er,one cn 'oo@ u! *or%- from %)ct)onr, trn-'tor- *or@ )- often not much ('ue% or !!rec)te%. 8o*e(er *e on', nee% to t@e 'oo@ t -ome ()e*- on the go'- of trn-'t)on to un%er-tn% tht the !roce-- of trn-'t)on )- not -)m!'e n% -tr)ghtfor*r% mtter - one m)ght --ume.
Trn-'t)on )- u-u'', %ef)ne% - !roce-- of -u-t)tut)ng -ource 'nguge te+t , trget 'nguge te+t *here the )m )- to !re-er(e the men)ng n% content of the or)g)n' te+t - ccurte', - !o--)'e. Th)- )- o()ou-', n )mmen-e', -)m!')f)e% %ef)n)t)on of !roce-- *h)ch m)ght -eem re't)(e', -)m!'e on the out-)%e ut )- ctu'', much more com!')cte% !roce-- )n re')t,.
Throughout the h)-tor, of trn-'t)on theor, there h- een con-tnt %ete out ho* f)thfu' the trn-'t)on mu-t e to the or)g)n' te+t n% ho* much free%om the trn-'torctu'', h(e )n the)r *or@. Er')er the em!h-)- *- on trn-'t)ng te+t- - ')ter'', !o--)'e , crefu'', -u-t)tut)ng ech -ource 'nguge *or% , trget 'nguge *or% *h)ch h- the -me men)ng. No*%,- the !ur!o-e of trn-'t)on )- no 'onger to mere', mtch *or%- of one 'nguge , tho-e of nother ut the -tre-- )- no* rther ')% on the funct)on of the te+t B--nett n% Lefe(ere 1==> !.. Free trn-'t)on )- thu- no*%, !referre% to ')ter' trn-'t)on. Free trn-'t)on )m- t con(e,)ng the )nformt)on' content of the me--ge n% !re-er()ng the -t,'e of the or)g)n' ut )t '-o t@e- e4u' not)ce of the trget 'nguge- e+)genc)e-.
No*%,- )t )- '-o common cce!te% )n trn-'t)on theor, tht )n or%er to !re-er(e the men)ng of the me--ge the form mu-t 'mo-t e 'tere% to -ome e+tent. For )n-tnce 77
N)% n% Ter 1=?= !. 17 -tte tht *hen me--ge )n one 'nguge )- trn-ferre% to nother 'nguge )t )- the content *h)ch t@e- !r)or)t, o(er the form n% mu-t therefore e ret)ne% t '' co-t-. In other *or%- the men)ng mu-t e !re-er(e% t the e+!en-e of the form. Trn-'t)on -hou'% therefore '*,- )m t con(e,)ng the men)ng of the or)g)n' me--ge - crefu'', - !o--)'e e(en )f )t men- trn-formt)on- )n the form or chnge- )n the -,ntct)c -tructure. Of cour-e )%e'', the or)g)n' -entence -tructure -hou'% e !re-er(e% ut %ue to %)fference- et*een t*o 'nguge- th)- )- often -)m!', not !o--)'e.
Translating idioms
In '' 'nguge- there re gret numer of )%)om- H un)4ue 'nguge f)+e% e+!re--)on- *ho-e men)ng cnnot e %e%ucte% from the )n%)()%u' *or%- of the !hr-e. S)nce ech 'nguge h- )t- o*n *, of e+!re--)ng cert)n th)ng- )%)omt)c e+!re--)on- re '*,- 'nguge9n% cu'ture9-!ec)f)c. An e+!re--)on )n one 'nguge m, not e+)-t )n -ome other 'nguge or the 'nguge m, h(e (er, %)fferent e+!re--)on to con(e, the -me men)ng. Th)- )- *h, the trn-'t)on of )%)om- m, -omet)me- e rther !ro'emt)c.
Due to the 'nguge9-!ec)f)c nture of )%)om- the)r trn-'t)on cn e -ome*ht ch''eng)ng t t)me-. I%)om- mu-t e recogn):e% un%er-too% n% n',:e% efore !!ro!r)te trn-'t)on metho%- cn e con-)%ere%. One mu-t f)r-t of '' e 'e to -!ot )%)om- from te+t9 )t )- -o'ute', cruc)' tht trn-'tor recogn):e- n )%)om *hen -Ghe -ee- one. The )')t, to )%ent)f, )%)om- )- of enormou- )m!ortnce -)nce the)r men)ng -hou'% ne(er e un%er-too% ')ter'',. The trn-'tor mu-t f)r-t n',:e *ht the *r)ter h)nten%e% to -, efore -Ghe cn e(en th)n@ of trn-'t)ng the e+!re--)on. Accor%)ng to Lr-on 1=>3 !. 13 the f)r-t cruc)' -te! )n the trn-'t)on of )%)om- )- to e -o'ute', cert)n of the men)ng of the -ource 'nguge )%)om.
Therefore the mo-t )m!ortnt )--ue )n trn-'t)ng )%)om- )- the )')t, to %)-t)ngu)-h the %)fference et*een the ')ter' men)ng n% the re' men)ng of the e+!re--)on Ingo 1== !. 23>. Th)- )- *h, recogn):)ng n% e)ng 'e to u-e )%)om- !!ro!r)te', re4u)ree+ce''ent commn% o(er the -ource 'nguge.
7?
It )- thu- on', fter )%ent)f,)ng the non9')ter' men)ng of the )%)om tht trn-'tor cn e(en th)n@ of trn-'t)ng the e+!re--)on )nto the trget 'nguge. In %%)t)on to e)ng 'e to recogn):e )%)om- )n -ource te+t the trn-'tor mu-t '-o e 'e to u-e )%)omf'uent', n% com!'ete', )n the trget 'nguge Lr-on 1=>3 !. 11?. Not on', %oe- trn-'tor nee% to m-ter the -ource 'nguge ut -Ghe mu-t '-o e 'e to e+!re-h)mGher-e'f )n the trget 'nguge f'uent', n% -mooth',. Lr-on ))%. -tre--e- the )m!ortnce of the )')t, to u-e trget 'nguge )%)om- ntur'', ecu-e tht en-ure- tht the trn-'tor cn !ro%uce -mooth n% ')(e', trget 'nguge te+t - *e'' - !re-er(e the -t,')-t)c feture- of the -ource te+t.
In gener' trn-'t)on theor)-t- recogn):e three %)fferent trn-'t)on -trteg)e- for )%)om-& trn-'t)ng n )%)om *)th non9)%)om trn-'t)ng n% )%)om *)th n )%)om n% trn-'t)ng n )%)om ')ter'',. .N)'% n% Ter 1=?= !. 1? e+c'u%e the ')ter' trn-'t)on -trteg, n% -ugge-t three trn-'t)on -trteg)e- for )%)om-& trn-'t)ng )%)om- *)th non9 )%)om- trn-'t)ng )%)om- *)th )%)om- n% trn-'t)ng non9)%)om- *)th )%)om-. N)% n% Ter ))%. c')m tht mo-t fre4uent', -ource 'nguge )%)om- cn on', e trn-'te% *)th trget 'nguge non9)%)om- 'though the, '-o %m)t tht -omet)me- )t )- )n%ee% !o--)'e to mtch -ource 'nguge )%)om , n e4u)('ent trget 'nguge )%)om. N)% n% Ter ))%. '-o !o)nt out tht )%)om- n% other f)gurt)(e e+!re--)on- u-u'', -uffer gret %e' of -emnt)c %u-tment- )n trn-'t)on -)nce n )%)om )n one 'nguge rre', h- the -me men)ng n% funct)on )n nother 'nguge - -uch. The mo-t recommen%e% trn-'t)on -trteg, for )%)om- )- trn-'t)ng them *)th ntur' trget 'nguge )%)om *h)ch h- the -me men)ng - the or)g)n' -ource 'nguge )%)om. I%)om- -hou'% '*,- e trn-'te% *)th -emnt)c'', n% -t,')-t)c'', corre-!on%)ng )%)om )n the trget 'nguge. B--nett9/c#u)re 1=> !. 23 on the other hn% -ugge-t- tht )%)om- -hou'% e trn-'te% on the -)- of the funct)on of the !hr-e& the -ource 'nguge )%)om -hou'% e re!'ce% , trget 'nguge )%)om tht h- the -me men)ng n% funct)on )n the trget 'nguge cu'ture - the -ource 'nguge )%)om h- )n the -ource 'nguge cu'ture. Ne*mr@ 1=>1 !. > !ro!o-e- ,et nother ch''enge for the trn-'t)on of )%)om-& ccor%)ng to h)m the or)g)n' -ource 'nguge )%)om n% )t- trn-'t)on -hou'% e e4u'', fre4uent )n the t*o 'nguge-. 8o*e(er )t -eem- -ome*ht )m!o--)'e to crr, out th)- recommen%t)on )n !rct)ce -)nce )t )- rther %)ff)cu't to e-t)mte the fr e4uenc, of cert)n e+!re--)on- )n cert)n 'nguge-. 7<
4. 0ETHODOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF TEACHING OCA-ULARY
4.1. Tea"#'ng 0et#*,
/etho%o'og, )- the -c)ence of metho%- or o%, of metho%- u-e% )n n ct)()t,. There h- een cont)nu'', gro*)ng *rene-- o(er the '-t %ec%e- of the com!'e+)t, of language teaching . A -oun% theoret)c' frme*or@ h- een e-t')-he% )nc'u%)ng !-,cho'og, !e%gog, n% ')ngu)-t)c-.
.oreign language teaching and learning )- -een from n )nter%)-c)!')nr, !o)nt of
()e* - -c)ence )n )t- o*n r)ght- -e% on the re't)on-h)! et*een theor, n% !rct)ce. )th)n the conce!tu' frme*or@ offere% , -!ec)')-t- three conce!t- emerge - fun%ment'& the foreign language/ the teaching of a foreign language TEFL or TESL tech)ng Eng')-h - -econ% 'nguge9 u-e% - me%)um of )n-truct)on )n the Un)te% Stte- n% the learning of a foreign language.
A'though )t )- rther %)ff)cu't to re@ )nto t*o the tech)ng9'ern)ng !roce-- there )- n orgn)c )nterct)(e re't)on et*een the crr)er of 'nguge the techer n% the rece)(er the 'erner tech)ng cn e %ef)ne% - the ct)()t)e- )nten%e% to r)ng out the 'nguge 'ern)ng. It concern- the techer -trt)ng from the ')ngu)-t)c com!etence n% !e%gog)c' tr)n)ng to the cho)ce of the !ro!er techn)4ue- n% !roce%ure- n% the u-e of the !!ro!r)te u+)')r, mter)'-.
The conce!t of 'ern)ng )n the c-e of fore)gn 'nguge h- to -trt from the %)-!ute on the *, 'nguge- re 'ernt - there h- not een theor, c'er', -tte%. The t*o term- *)%e', u-e% )n recent *or@ 'nguge 'ern)ng n% c4u)-)t)on %o not m@e out the mechn)-m of mother tongue 'ern)ng (er-u- the mechn)-m of fore)gn 'nguge 'ern)ng. If 'ern)ng c4u)r)ng the mother tongue )- 4ue-t)on of gro*th9 tht )- t,!)c' n% ment' %e(e'o!ment9 then 'nguge 'ern)ng )- not mtter of mturt)on )n *h)ch the 'erner )ntern'):e- com!'e+ -,-tem of ru'e- *h)ch re'te u%)t)(e -)gn'to -emnt)c ('ue-.
Lern)ng 'nguge free', n% fu'', )- 'ength, n% effortfu' !roce--. Techercnnot 'ern the 'nguge for the)r -tu%ent-. The, cn -et the)r -tu%ent- on the ro% 7>
he'!)ng them to %e(e'o! conf)%ence )n the)r o*n 'ern)ng !o*er-. Then the, mu-t *)t on the -)%e')ght- re%, to encourge n% --)-t *h)'e ech -tu%ent -trugg'e- n% !er-e(ere- *)th n utonomou- ct)()t,. Some -tu%ent- 'ern not *e'' e(en *h)'e the techer o-er(e-. For tho-e *ho f)n% the t-@ more %)ff)cu't *e -hou'% t 'e-t m@e e(er, effort to en-ure tht the)r language learning )- n eno,'e n% e%uct)on' e+!er)ence.
The !'e for theor, of 'nguge tech)ng r)-e- from the nee% of m@)ng fore)gn 'nguge !rogrmme *or@ eff)c)ent',. The 4ue-t)on of fore)gn 'nguge tech)ng metho%o'og, !!ere% - n )--ue on', )n the 1= th centur, *)th the )ntegrt)on of the fore)gn 'nguge )n the -econ%r, -choo' curr)cu'um. /etho%- n% metho%o'og, )n mo%ern 'nguge tech)ng h(e %e!en%e% on the !ur!o-e of m-ter)ng the fore)gn 'nguge the mter)'- ()''e n% the !r)or)t, of oect)(e-. The-e metho%- h(e een %e')nete% )n ccor%nce *)th the ')ngu)-t)c theor)e- the f)n%)ng- of !-,cho'og)c' re-erch n% '-t *)th the -oc)o9h)-tor)c' con%)t)on of the t)me- tht rought out !rt)cu'r )ntere-t )n fore)gn 'nguge. 8rmer 2< !.? here there *- once con-en-u- on the r)ght *, to tech fore)gn 'nguge- mn, techer- no* -hre the e')ef tht -)ng'e *, %oe- not e+)-t. It )- cert)n', true tht no com!rt)(e -tu%, h- con-)-tent', %emon-trte% the -u!er)or)t, of one metho% o(er nother for '' techer- '' -tu%ent- n% -ett)ng-. Pre-ente% here )- -ummr, of e)ght 'nguge tech)ng metho%- )n !rct)ce to%,& the #rmmr9Trn-'t)on /etho% the D)rect /etho% the Au%)o L)ngu' /etho% the S)'ent , Sugge-to!o%) Commun)t, Lnguge Lern)ng the Tot' Ph,-)c' Re-!on-e /etho% n% the Commun)ct)(e A!!roch. Of cour-e *ht )- %e-cr)e% here )- on', n -trct)on. 8o* metho% )- %o!te% )n the c'--room *)'' %e!en% he()', on the )n%)()%u' techer- )nter!rett)on of )t- !r)nc)!'e-. Some techer- !refer to !rct)ce one of the metho%- to the e+c'u-)on of the other-. Other techer- !refer to !)c@ n% choo-e )n !r)nc)!'e% *, mong the metho%o'og)c' o!t)on- tht e+)-t cret)ng the)r o*n un)4ue 'en%. 8ere )- r)ef !re-entt)on of the tech)ng metho%- - *r)tten , Doggett )n the rt)c'e Eight approaches to language teaching/ %!te% from D)ne Lr-en9Freemn Doggett 1=>?!!. 9?
7=
T#e Grammar>Tran,%at'*n 0et#*
The #rmmr9Trn-'t)on /etho% focu-e- on %e(e'o!)ng -tu%ent- !!rec)t)on of the trget 'nguge- ')terture - *e'' - tech)ng the 'nguge. Stu%ent- re !re-ente% *)th trget9'nguge re%)ng !--ge- n% n-*er 4ue-t)on- tht fo''o*. Other ct)()t)e)nc'u%)ng trn-'t)ng ')terr, !--ge- from one 'nguge )nto the other memor):)ng grmmr ru'e- n% memor):)ng grmmr ru'e- n% memor):)ng
nt)(e9'nguge
e4u)('ent- of trget 'nguge (ocu'r,. C'-- *or@ )- h)gh', -tructure% *)th the techer contro'')ng '' ct)()t)e-.
T#e D're"t 0et#*
The D)rect /etho% ''o*- -tu%ent- to !erce)(e men)ng %)rect', through the trget 'nguge ecu-e no trn-'t)on )- ''o*e%. 0)-u' )%- n% !ntom)me re u-e% to c'r)f, the men)ng of (ocu'r, )tem- n% conce!t-. Stu%ent- -!e@ gret %e' )n the trget 'nguge n% commun)cte - )f )n re' -)tut)on-. Re%)ng n% *r)t)ng re tught from the eg)nn)ng though -!e@)ng n% ')-ten)ng -@)''- re em!h-):e%. #rmmr )- 'erne% )n%uct)(e',.
T#e Au'*>L'ngua% 0et#*
The Au%)o9L)ngu' /etho% )- -e% on the eh()our)-t e')ef tht 'nguge 'ern)ng )- the c4u)-)t)on of -et of correct 'nguge h)t-. The 'erner re!et- !tternunt)' 'e to !ro%uce them -!ontneou-',. Once g)(en !ttern9 for e+m!'e -uect9(er9 !re!o-)t)on' !hr-e9 )- 'erne% the -!e@er cn -u-t)tute *or%- to m@e ne* -entence-. The techer %)rect- n% contro'- -tu%ent- eh()our !ro()%e- mo%e' n% re)nforcecorrect re-!on-e-.
T#e S'%ent /a+
The theoret)c' -)- of #ttegno- S)'ent , )- the )%e tht tech)ng mu-t e -uor%)nte% to 'ern)ng n% thu- -tu%ent- mu-t %e(e'o! the)r o*n )nner cr)ter) for correctne--. A'' four -@)''-9 re%)ng *r)t)ng -!e@)ng n% ')-ten)ng9 re tught from the eg)nn)ng. Stu%ent- error- re e+!ecte% - norm' !rt of 'ern)ng& the techer -)'ence ?
he'!- fo-ter -e'f9re')nce n% -tu%ent )n)t)t)(e. The techer )- ct)(e )n -ett)ng u! -)tut)on- *h)'e the -tu%ent- %o mo-t of the t'@)ng n% )nterct)ng.
Sugge,t*!*'a
Lo:no(- metho% -ee@- to he'! 'erner- e')m)nte !-,cho'og)c' rr)er- to 'ern)ng. The 'ern)ng en()ronment )- re'+e% n% -u%ue% *)th 'o* ')ght)ng n% -oft mu-)c )n the c@groun%. Stu%ent- choo-e nme n% chrcter )n the trget 'nguge n% cu'ture n% )mg)ne e)ng tht !er-on. D)'ogue- re !re-ente% to the ccom!n)ment of mu-)c. Stu%ent- u-t re'+ n% ')-ten to them e)ng re% n% 'ter !',fu'', !rct)ce the 'nguge %ur)ng n ct)(t)on !h-e.
C*mmun't+ Language Learn'ng
In Curren- metho% techer- con-)%er -tu%ent- - *ho'e !er-on- *)th )nte''ect fee')ng- )n-t)nct- !h,-)c' re-!on-e- n% %e-)re to 'ern. Techer- '-o recogn):e tht 'ern)ng cn e threten)ng. B, un%er-tn%)ng n% cce!t)ng -tu%ent- fer- techer- he'! -tu%ent- fee' -ecure n% o(ercome the)r fee')ng- n% thu- he'! them hrne-- !o-)t)(e energ, for 'ern)ng. The -,''u- u-e% )- 'erner9generte% )n tht -tu%ent- choo-e *ht the, *nt to 'ern to -, )n the trget 'nguge.
T*ta% P#+,'"a% Re,!*n,e 0et#*
A-her- !!roch eg)n- , !'c)ng !r)mr, )m!ortnce on ')-ten)ng com!rehen-)on emu't)ng the er', -tge- of mother tongue c4u)-)t)on n% the mo()ng to -!e@)ng re%)ng n% *r)t)ng. Stu%ent- %emon-trte the)r com!rehen-)on , ct)ng out commn%)--ue% , the techer techer !ro()%e- no(e' n% often humorou- (r)t)on- of the commn%-. Act)()t)e- re %e-)gne% to e fun n% to ''o* -tu%ent- to --ume ct)(e 'ern)ng ro'e-. Act)()t)e- e(entu'', )nc'u%e gme- n% -@)t-.
?1
T#e C*mmun'"at'&e A!!r*a"#
The Commun)ct)(e A!!roch -tre--e- the nee% to tech commun)ct)(e com!etence - o!!o-e% to ')ngu)-t)c com!etence& thu- funct)on- re em!h-):e% o(er form-. Stu%entu-u'', *or@ *)th uthent)c mter)'- )n -m'' grou!- on commun)ct)(e ct)()t)e- %ur)ng *h)ch the, rece)(e !rct)ce on negot)t)ng men)ng.
4.2. Tea"#'ng *"au%ar+
H*( 'm!*rtant ', &*"au%ar+@ )thout grmmr (er, ')tt'e cn e con(e,e% *)thout (ocu'r, nothing cn e con(e,e%. Th)- )- ho* the ')ngu)-t D()% )'@)n-umme% u! the )m!ortnce of (ocu'r, 'ern)ng. 8)- ()e* )- echoe% )n h)- %()ce to -tu%ent- from recent cour-eoo@ De''r 8 n% 8oc@)ng D Inno(t)on- LTP 4uote% )n Thornur, 22 !. 1 & If ,ou -!en% mo-t of ,our t)me -tu%,)ng grmmr ,our Eng')-h *)'' not )m!ro(e (er, much. $ou *)'' -ee mo-t )m!ro(ement )f ,ou 'ern more *or%- n% e+!re--)on-. $ou cn -, (er, ')tt'e *)th grmmr ut ,ou cn -, 'mo-t n,th)ng *)th *or%-W
H*( ', &*"au%ar+ %earne@ ;no*)ng *or% )- one th)ng9 ut ho* )- tht @no*'e%ge c4u)re%J In 'ern)ng the)r f)r-t 'nguge the f)r-t *or%- tht ch)'%ren 'ern re t,!)c'', tho-e u-e% for %ae%'ng> tht )- m!!)ng *or%- on to conce!t-9 -o tht the conce!t for e+m!'e of %og h- nme dog or doggie. But not '' four9 'egge% n)m're %og-& -ome m, e ct- -o the ch)'% then h- to 'ern ho* fr to e+ten% the conce!t of %og -o - not to )nc'u%e ct- ut to )nc'u%e other !eo!'e- %og- to, %og- n% e(en !)cture- of %og-. In other *or%- c4u)r)ng (ocu'r, re4u)re- not on', 'e')ng ut "ateg*r''ng -@)''-. F)n'', the ch)'% nee%- to re'):e tht common *or%- ')@e !!'e n% %og cn e re!'ce% , -u!eror%)nte term- ')@e fruit n% animal . An% tht n)m' cn ccommo%te other 'o*er or%er *or%- -uch - cat horse n% elephant . Th)- )n(o'(e- !roce-- of net(*r9 u'%'ng9 con-truct)ng com!'e+ *e of *or%- -o tht )tem- ')@e black n% white o r fingers n% toes o r family n% brother re )nterconnecte%. Net*or@ u)'%)ng
-er(e- to ')n@ '' the 'e'- n% !c@ge- n% ',- the groun%*or@ for !roce-- tht
?2
cont)nue- for - 'ong - *e re e+!o-e% to ne* *or%- n% ne* men)ng- for o'% *or%- 9 tht )- for the re-t of our ')(e-.
In *ht *, )- the %e(e'o!ment of -econ% 'nguge L2 'e+)con n, %)fferent from tht of the f)r-t 'nguge L1J Perh!- the mo-t o()ou- %)fference )- the fct tht , %ef)n)t)on -econ% 'nguge 'erner- 're%, h(e f)r-t 'nguge. An% not on', %o the, h(e the *or%- of the)r f)r-t 'nguge ut the, h(e the conce!tu' -,-tem tht the-e *or%enco%e n% the com!'e+ net*or@ of --oc)t)on- tht ')n@ the-e *or%- one *)th nother. Lern)ng -econ% 'nguge )n(o'(e- oth 'ern)ng ne* conce!tu' -,-tem n% con-truct)ng ne* (ocu'r, net*or@9 -econ% ment' 'e+)con.
4.3. /*r>0em*r''ng Te"#n'5ue
The fo''o*)ng techn)4ue- re -hort', %e-cr)e% , Thornur, )n %ow to Teach 0ocabulary Thornur, 22 !. 23
9
Re!et't'*n$ The t)me9honoure% *, of memor):)ng ne* mter)' )- through re!ete% reher-' of the mter)' *h)'e )t )- -t)'' )n *or@)ng memor,. 8o*e(er -)m!', re!et)ng n )tem the -e of r*te %earn'ng -eem- to h(e ')tt'e 'ong9term effect un'e-- -ome ttem!t )- m%e to orgn):e the mter)' t the -me t)me. But one @)n% of re!et)t)on tht )- )m!ortnt )- re!et)t)on of encounter- *)th *or%. It h een e-t)mte% tht *hen re%)ng *or%- -tn% goo% chnce of e)ng rememere% )f the, h(e een met t 'e-t -e(en t)me- o(er -!ce% )nter('-.
9
Retr'e&a%& Another @)n% of re!et)t)on tht )- cruc)' )- *ht )- c''e% the retr)e(' !rct)ce effect. Th)- men- -)m!', tht the ct of retr)e()ng *or% from memor, m@e- )t more ')@e', tht the 'erner *)'' e 'e to rec'' )t g)n 'ter. Act)()t)e*h)ch re4u)re retr)e(' -uch - u-)ng the ne* *or% )n *r)tten -entence- o)' the !th for future rec''.
9
S!a"'ng$ It )- etter to %)-tr)ute memor, *or@ cro-- !er)o% of t)me thn to m-)t together )n -)ng'e 'oc@. Th)- )- @no*n - the !r)nc)!'e of ',tr'ute !ra"t'"e. Th)- !!')e- )n oth the -hort term n% the 'ong term. hen tech)ng -tu%ent- ne* -et of *or%- for e+m!'e )t )- e-t to !re-ent the f)r-t t*o or three )tem- then go ?
c@ n% te-t the-e then !re-ent -ome more then c@trc@ g)n n% -o on. Aech *or% ecome- etter 'erne% the te-t)ng )nter(' cn gr%u'', e e+ten%e%. The )m )- to te-t ech )tem t the 'onge-t )nter(' t *h)ch )t cn re')', e rec''e%. S)m)'r', o(er -e4uence of 'e--on- ne*', !re-ente% (ocu'r, -hou'% e re()e*e% )n the ne+t 'e--on ut the )nter(' et*een -ucce--)(e te-t- -hou'% gr%u'', e )ncre-e%.
9
Pa"'ng$ Lerner- h(e %)fferent 'ern)ng -t,'e- n% !roce-- %t t %)fferent rte- -o )%e'', the, -hou'% e g)(en the o!!ortun)t, to !ce the)r o*n reher-' ct)()t)e-. Th)- m, men the techer ''o*)ng t)me %ur)ng (ocu'r, 'ern)ng for 'erner- to %o memor, *or@9 -uch - orgn):)ng or re()e*)ng the)r (ocu'r,9 -)'ent', n% )n%)()%u'',.
9
U,e$ Putt)ng *or%- to u-e !refer', )n -ome )ntere-t)ng *, )- the e-t *, of en-ur)ng the, re %%e% to 'ong9term memor,. It )- the !r)nc)!'e !o!u'r)t, @no*n - :se it or lose it-
9
C*gn't'&e e!t#$ The more %ec)-)on- the 'erner m@e- out *or% n% the more cogn)t)(e', %emn%)ng the-e %ec)-)on- the etter the *or% )- rememere%. For e+m!'e re't)(e', -u!erf)c)' u%gment m)ght e -)m!', to mtch )t *)th *or% tht rh,me- *)th )t& e.g. tango8mango. A %ee! 'e(e' %ec)-)on m)ght e to %ec)%e on )t- !rt of -!eech noun %ect)(e (er etc. Dee!er -t)'' m)ght e to u-e )t to com!'ete -entence.
9
Per,*na% *rgan''ng$ The u%gment- tht 'erner- m@e out *or% re mo-t effect)(e )f the, re !er-on'):e%. In one -tu%, -uect- *ho h% re% -entence out cont)n)ng ne* *or%- -ho*e% etter rec'' thn -uect- *ho h% -)m!', -)'ent', reher-e% the *or%-. But -uect- *ho h% m%e u! the)r o*n -entencecont)n)ng the *or%- n% re% them 'ou% %)% etter -t)''.
9
Imag'ng$ Be-t of '' *ere -uect- *ho *ere g)(en the t-@ of -)'ent', ()-u'):)ng ment' !)cture to go *)th ne* *or%. Other te-t- h(e -ho*n tht e-)', ()-u'):e% *or%- re more memor'e tht *or%- tht %ont )mme%)te', e(o@e !)cture. Th)-ugge-t- tht9 e(en for -trct *or%-9 )t m)ght he'! )f 'erner- --oc)te them *)th ?3
-ome ment' )mge. Intere-t)ng', )t %oe-nt -eem to mtter )f the )mge )- h)gh', )mg)nt)(e or e(en (er, ()()% -o 'ong - )t )- -e'f9generte% rther thn c4u)re% -econ%9hn%.
9
0nem*n'",$ the-e re tr)c@- to he'! retr)e(e )tem- or ru'e- tht re -tore% )n memor, n% tht re not ,et utomt)c'', retr)e('e. E(en nt)(e -!e@er- re', on mnemon)c- to he'! *)th -ome -!e'')ng ru'e-& e.g. i efore e e+ce!t fter c- - the !re()ou- !o)nt -ugge-t- the e-t @)n%- of mnemon)c- re often ()-u'.
9
0*t'&at'*n$ S)m!', *nt)ng to 'ern ne* *or%- )- no gurntee tht *or%- *)'' e rememere%. The on', %)fference -trong mot)(t)on m@e- )- tht the 'erner )')@e', to -!en% more t)me on reher-' n% !rct)ce *h)ch )n the en% *)'' !, off )n term- of memor,. But e(en unmot)(te% 'erner- rememer *or%- )f there h(e een -et t-@- tht re4u)re them to m@e %ec)-)on- out them.
9
Attent'*nBar*u,a%$ Contrr, to !o!u'r e')ef ,ou cnt )m!ro(e ,our (ocu'r, )n ,our -'ee! -)m!', , ')-ten)ng to t!e. Some %egree of con-c)ou- ttent)on )re4u)re%. A (er, h)gh %egree of ttent)on c''e% rou-' -eem- to corre'te *)th )m!ro(e% rec''. or%- tht tr)gger -trong emot)on' re-!on-e for e+m!'e re more e-)', rec''e% tht one- tht %ont. Th)- m, ccount for the fct tht mn, 'erner- -eem to h(e @nc@ of rememer)ng -*er *or%- e(en )f the, h(e her% them on', cou!'e of t)me-.
9
Ae"t'&e e!t#$ Re'te% to the !rece%)ng !o)nt ffect)(e ).e. emot)on' )nformt)on )- -tore% 'ong *)th cogn)t)(e ).e. )nte''ectu' %t n% m, !', n e4u'', )m!ortnt ro'e on ho* *or%- re -tore% n% rec''e%. 6u-t - )t )- )m!ortnt for 'erner- to m@e u%gment- out *or%- )t m, '-o e )m!ortnt to m@e ffect)(e u%gment- -uch - #o like the sound and look of the word> #o like the thing that the word represents> #oes the word evoke any pleasant or unpleasant associations>
Lnguge )- -oc)' fct con(ent)on -hre% , '' the memer- of nt)on )t re')e- on gener'', @no*n -,-tem of signs ).e. the -oun%- 'etter- n% *or%- of the ?7
'nguge. The *or%- n% 'rger ')ngu)-t)c un)t- ).e. more com!'e+ -)gn- com)ne )nto 'onger -tretche- of 'nguge9-entence- n% !rgr!h-. The men)ng of the -entence- )g)(en , the men)ng of )t- )n%)()%u' e'ement- n% , the *, the, com)ne to form the 'rger -tretche- of %)-cour-e.
Con-e4uent', 'ern)ng vocabulary )- -)c to the 'ern)ng of fore)gn 'nguge9 ,ou cnnot commun)cte un'e-- ,ou @no* the co%e ,ou ne)ther un%er-tn% *ht otherre tr,)ng to e+!')n nor re ,ou 'e to e+!re-- ,our *)-he- thought- n% fee')ng-. Tht )*h, tech)ng (ocu'r, h- een centr' e'ement )n fore)gn 'nguge tech)ng ho*e(er the *, %)fferent genert)on- of techer- !!roche% tech)ng (ocu'r, h- een 4u)te %)fferent.
hen tech)ng )%)omt)c -!eech the techer mu-t e crefu' out& 9the conventional nture of )%)om- ).e. )%)omt)c !hr-e- h(e een cce!te% - -uch , '' the memer- of the 'nguge commun)t,& 9the or)g)n'G'og)c' men)ng of the !hr-e m, e 'o-t to the mo%ern -!e@er -o tht *e h(e to %)g )n the h)-tor, of the 'nguge to f)n% the e+!'nt)on-& e.g. to kick the bucket to %)e the !hr-e !ro', come- from the !rct)ce of hng)ng !eo!'e ).e.
the, ctu'', @)c@e% the uc@et from un%er the !er-on- feet 9%)fferent 'nguge- m, u-e %)fferent !hr-e-G!hr-e !rt- to refer )%)omt)c'', to the -me not)on& blind as a bat 9 Romn)n& or c o "rt' mo'e 9g)(en the con(ent)on' nture of )%)om- the -tu%ent- mu-t not trn-'te the !hr-e *or% for *or% ut mu-t f)n% )t- idiomatic equivalent & e.g. to fall head over heels in love -e n%rgo-t) 'u'e to make mountains out of mole+hills fce %)n Qnr
rm-r 9the !ro'em of stylistic !!ro!r)c,& 9-ome )%)omt)c e+!re--)on- cn funct)on )n neutr' form' or e(en e'e(te% -!eech& e.g. against all odd - to catch sight of -omeone to grasp the meaning of -ometh)ng to keep a tight grip on one"s emotions to lay hands on -ometh)ng to lose heart to run up a debt to be on the right8wrong track etc.
9ho*e(er mo-t )%)om- re re-er(e% to informal or e(en slangy -!eech& e.g. out of the blue -u%%en', to be tickled pink %e')ghte% as drunk as a lord to drive someone cra5y to fling someone to the lions to shed floods of tears to wind someone
??
around one"s little finger to e-)', mn)!u'te to keep a white coin for a black day etc.
I%)om- mu-t e tught conte+tu'', other*)-e the)r e+ct men)ng n% -t,')-t)c ('ue cnnot e con(e,e%. S)m)'r', themt)c orgn):t)on n% !re-entt)on e.g. n)m' )%)om- )%)om- re'te% to mone, to the *ether to ':)ne-- cn m@e the 'ern)ng of )%)omt)c !hr-e- -,-temt)c n% 'erner9fr)en%',. In term- of !rct)ce %)-crete9!o)nt techn)4ue- cn e u-efu' - the, trget ech )%)om -!ec)f)c'', through re!et)t)on the, 'e% to 'ern)ng n% h)t formt)on. 0):ent' 2> !!.1<>91>7 The ge of our -tu%ent- )- mor fctor )n our %ec)-)on- out ho* n% *ht to tech. Peo!'e of %)fferent nee%- com!etence- n% cogn)t)(e -@)''- *e m)ght e+!ect ch)'%ren of !r)mr, ge to c4u)re much of fore)gn 'nguge through !', for e+m!'e *here- for %u't- *e cn re-on', e+!ect greter u-e of -trct thought.
In *ht fo''o*- *e *)'' con-)%er -tu%ent- t %)fferent ge- - )f '' the memer- of ech ge grou! re the -me. $et ech -tu%ent )- n )n%)()%u' *)th %)fferent e+!er)ence oth )n n% out-)%e the c'--room. Comment- here out ,oung ch)'%ren teenger- n% %u't- cn on', e gener'):t)on-. /uch '-o %e!en%- u!on )n%)()%u' 'erner %)fferencen% mot)(t)on.
If *e cce!t tht %)fferent )nte'')gence !re%om)nte )n %)fferent !eo!'e )t -ugge-ttht the -me 'ern)ng t-@ m, not e !!ro!r)te for '' of our -tu%ent-. h)'e !eo!'e *)th -trong 'og)c'Gmthemt)c' )nte'')gence m)ght re-!on% *e'' to com!'e+ grmmr e+!'nt)on %)fferent -tu%ent m)ght nee% the comfort of %)grm- n% !h,-)c' %emon-trt)on ecu-e the)r -trength )- )n the ()-u'G-!t)' re. Other -tu%ent- *ho h(e -trong )nter!er-on' )nte'')gence m, re4u)re more )nterct)(e c')mte )f the)r 'ern)ng )to e effect)(e.
e h(e to -trt *)th the recogn)t)on of -tu%ent- - )n%)()%u'- - *e'' - e)ng memer- of grou!. E(en *hen c'--e- h(e een -e!rte% )nto %)fferent 'e(e'- not e(er,one )n the grou! *)'' h(e the -me @no*'e%ge of Eng')-h. Some *)'' e etter *r)terthn other- n% -ome *)'' h(e greter or' f'uenc, thn other-.
?<
e nee% to e-t')-h *ho the %)fferent -tu%ent- )n our c'--e- re. To -cert)n the)r 'nguge 'e(e' for e+m!'e *e cn 'oo@ t the)r -core- on %)fferent te-t- n% *e cn mon)tor the)r !rogre-- through oth form' n% )nform' o-er(t)on. Th)- *)'' te'' u- *ho nee%- more or 'e-- he'! )n the c'--. It *)'' )nform our %ec)-)on- out ho* to grou! -tu%ent- together n% )t *)'' t)'or our tech)ng metho%- the mter)'- *e u-e n% the !ro%uct)on *e e+!ect to the 'e(e' *e re *or@)ng *)th. Stu%ent- re gener'', %e-cr)e% )n three 'e(e'-& beginner intermediate n% advanced n% the-e ctegor)e- re further 4u')f)e% , t'@)ng out real beginners n% false beginners. Bet*een beginner n% intermediate *e often c'-- -tu%ent- - elementary.
The intermediate 'e(e' )t-e'f )- often -u9%)()%e% )nto lower intermediate n% upper intermediate n% e(en mid+intermediate. 8rmer 21 !!. <93>
In the current ch!ter *e re -ugge-t)ng numer of ct)()t)e- to %e(e'o! !rct)c' -@)''- of the )%)omt)c e+!re--)on- c4u)-)t)on ccor%)ng to three m)n 'e(e'- of 'erner- ).e. intermediate/ upper+intermediate n% advanced .
There *)'' e t@en )nto con-)%ert)on the 'e(e' of the -tu%ent- @no*'e%ge g)ne% )n the !re()ou- ,er- of -tu%,)ng Eng')-h - fore)gn 'nguge the)r mot)(t)on n% the)r )')t)e- to !!', %)fferent t,!e- of )%)om- )n e(er, %, ')fe -)tut)on-. Strt)ng from the theor, tht )%)om-G)%)omt)c e+!re--)on- re m)n', feture- of )nform' 'nguge the -tu%ent- re ')@e', to u-e them )n S!o@en Eng')-h.
4.4. P%ann'ng an Pre!arat'*n
Before go)ng )nto 'e--on )t he'!- to e c'er out e+ct', *ht the techer *ntto %o. A 'ot )- go)ng to h!!en on the -!ot )n the c'-- H one cn ne(er com!'ete', !re%)ct ho* 'erner- *)'' re-!on% to n,th)ng H ut the etter !re!re% the techer )- the more ')@e', )t )- tht heG-he *)'' e re%, to co!e *)th *hte(er h!!en- Scr)ne(er 1==3 !.33 .
There re -ome gener' re- to con-)%er *hen !'nn)ng& 9
T#e %earner,. )'' the, eno, the 'e--onJ )'' the, enef)t from )tJ
9
T#e a'm,. ht *)'' the 'erner- ch)e(eJ ht m I ho!)ng to ch)e(e m,-e'fJ
?>
9
T#e tea"#'ng !*'nt. ht )- the -uect mtter of the 'e--on H the -@)''- or 'nguge re- tht *)'' e -tu%)e% n% the to!)c- I *)'' %e' *)thJ
9
T#e tea"#'ng !r*"eure,. ht ct)()t)e- *)'' I u-eJ ht -e4uence *)'' the, come )nJ
9
0ater'a%,. ht te+t- t!e- !)cture- e+erc)-e- ro'e9cr%- etc. *)'' I u-eJ
9
C%a,,r**m management. ht *)'' I -,J 8o* *)'' the -et)ng e rrnge%J 8o* much t)me *)'' ech -tge t@eJ etc.
P%ann'ng !r'n"'!%e,
The t*o o(err)%)ng !r)nc)!'e- eh)n% goo% 'e--on !'nn)ng re variety n% flexibility. 0ariety men- )n(o'()ng -tu%ent- )n numer of %)fferent t,!e- of ct)()t,
n% *here !o--)'e )ntro%uc)ng them to *)%e -e'ect)on of mter)'- )t men- !'nn)ng -o tht 'ern)ng )- )ntere-t)ng n% ne(er monotonou- for the -tu%ent-. .lexibility come)nto !', *hen %e')ng *)th the !'n )n the c'--room for n, numer of re-on- *ht the techer h- !'nne% m, not e !!ro!r)te for tht c'-- on tht !rt)cu'r %,. The f'e+)'e techer *)'' e 'e to chnge the !'n )n -uch -)tut)on. F'e+))')t, )- the chrcter)-t)c e+!ecte% from the genu)ne', %!t'e techer.
0a9'ng t#e !%an *rma%$ a"9gr*un e%ement,
In The &ractice of ET 8rmer -tte-& Becu-e there re %)fferent e+m)nt)on -cheme- for techer- H n% ecu-e %)fferent )n-t)tut)on- n% tr)ner- h(e %)fferent !reference- H )t )- )m!o--)'e to -, e+ct', *ht form' !'n -hou'% 'oo@ ')@e or *ht )nformt)on -hou'% e g)(en though X…Y there- '*,- re4u)rement for techer- to %et)' the !roce%ure the, )nten% to fo''o*. 8o*e(er cert)n e'ement- re 'mo-t '*,- !re-ent. 2< !. <1
A'm,& Perh!- the mo-t )m!ortnt e'ement of n, !'n )- the !rt *here the techer -,- *ht h)- )m- re. The-e re the outcome- *h)ch tech)ng *)'' tr, to ch)e(e. The e-t c'--room )m- re -!ec)f)c n% %)recte% to*r%- n outcome *h)ch cn e me-ure%. If *e -, 6y aim is that my students should8canII by the end of the class/ *e *)'' e 'e to te'' fter the 'e--on *hether the )m h- een met or not.
?=
A)m- -hou'% ref'ect *ht *e ho!e the -tu%ent- *)'' e 'e to %o not *e re go)ng to %o. A 'e--on *)'' often h(e more thn one )m.
C%a,, !r*'%e& A c'-- %e-cr)!t)on te''- *ho the -tu%ent- re n% *ht cn e e+!ecte% of them. It cn g)(e )nformt)on out ho* the grou! n% ho* the )n%)()%u')n )t eh(e. A %et)'e% %e-cr)!t)on *)'' e !!ro!r)te *)th -m''er grou!- ut ecome%)ff)cu't to %o ccurte', *)th 'rger c'--e-. 8o*e(er recor% of @no*'e%ge of )n%)()%u' -tu%ent- g)ne% through o-er(t)on home*or@ n% te-t -core- )- )n('u'e )f *e re to meet )n%)()%u' nee%-.
A,,um!t'*n,$ Some tr)ner- n% tr)n)ng e+m- ')@e techer- to ')-t --um!t)onon *h)ch the 'e--on *)'' e -e%. Th)- men- -,)ng *ht the techer --ume- the -tu%ent- @no* or cn %o.
Per,*na% a'm,$ Some tr)ner- n% tech)ng -cheme- -@ techer- to ')-t the)r !er-on' )m- for the 'e--on - *, of !ro(o@)ng -ome @)n% of %e(e'o!ment n% ref'ect)on. Per-on' )m- re tho-e *here the techer -ee@- to tr, -ometh)ng out tht hne(er %one efore or %ec)%e to tr, to %o etter t -ometh)ng *h)ch h- e'u%e% h)m efore. A !er-on' nme m)ght e n this lesson am going to give clearer instructions/ especially when give the students the plan for composition writing .
S9'%% an %anguage *"u,$ Somet)me- techer- -, *ht 'nguge -@)''- the -tu%ent- re go)ng to e focu-)ng on )n the )m- the, %et)'. Somet)me- ho*e(er the techer m, *nt to ')-t the -tructur' funct)on- or (ocu'r, )tem- -e!rte', -o tht n o-er(er cn c'er', -ee *ht the -tu%ent- re go)ng to -tu%,.
T'meta%e 't$ It )- nece--r, to -, *here the 'e--on f)t- )n -e4uence of c'--e- H *ht h!!en- efore n% fter )t. An o-er(er nee%- to -ee tht the techer h- thought out the ro'e of th)- 'e--on *)th)n 'onger !rogrmme. Other )nformt)on *)'' e '-o )nc'u%e% out the @)n% of ct)()t)e- the -tu%ent- h(e een )n(o'(e% )n e.g. contro''e% or commun)ct)(e !)r*or@ or grou!*or@ . A'' the-e fctor- -hou'% )nf'uence the !'nn)ng cho)ce- for the 'e--on.
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P*tent'a% %earner !r*%em, an !*,,'%e ,*%ut'*n,& goo% !'n tr)e- to !re%)ct !otent)' !)tf''- n% -ugge-t *,- of %e')ng *)th them. It '-o )nc'u%e- 'ternt)(e ct)()t)e- )n c-e the techer f)n%- )t nece--r, to %)(ert from the 'e--on -e4uence he h% ho!e% to fo''o*.
Su""e,, 'n'"at*r,& A -ucce-- )n%)ctor m)ght e tht -tu%ent- cn conf)%ent', !ro%uce !rom!te% -entence- out cert)n (ocu'r, t-@. The !o)nt of )nc'u%)ng -ucce-- )n%)ctor- )- tht the techer cn e-)', e('ute )f the 'e--on )m- h(e een ch)e(e%.
e -ugge-t 'e--on !'n - mo%e' to u-e )n c'--.
<1
3.7. LESSON PLAN
C'--& 11 A %(nce% Numer of S-& Te+too@& U!,tream %(nce% Un)t ? Le--on& A 7* /e%% D*ne T)me& 7 m)nute-
I. A)m•
To )ntro%uce (ocu'r, re'te% to t,!e- of o- ern)ng mone, !'ce- of *or@
•
To gree Z %)-gree )n connect)on *)th o o!!ortun)t)e-
•
To he'! S- m@e conte+tu'):e% u-e of e+!re--)on- re'te% to !rofe--)on- n% mone, mtter-
•
To )ntro%uce !hr-' (er- *)th get *or@
•
To !rct)ce mu't)!'e cho)ce ')-ten)ng -@)''-
II. Oect)(e-& t the en% of the 'e--on the S- -hou'% e 'e •
To -!e@ out o- n% mone, )--ue-
•
To re-!on% !o-)t)(e', n% negt)(e', to (r)ou- -ugge-t)on-
•
To @no* cert)n t,!)c' Eng')-h !hr-e- )n connect)on *)th (r)ou- %om)n-
III. Ant)c)!t)on of !ro'em•
S- m, not @no* cert)n )%)om- or f)+e% !hr-e-
•
S- m, not un%er-tn% cert)n *or%- or !hr-e- from the ')-ten)ng !rt
•
S- m, not h(e r)ch (ocu'r, concern)ng f)e'%- of *or@
I0. Tech)ng techn)4ue•
Con(er-t)on
•
Br)n-torm)ng
•
A-@)ng Z n-*er)ng 4ue-t)on<2
•
Interct)on !)r *or@
•
Phr-e mtch)ng
•
/)n% m!-
0. /ter)'-& •
Te+too@
•
C%9!',er
•
F'-h9cr%-
0I. Act)()t)e-
A"t'&'t+ 19D)cu--)on A)m& to gree or %)-gree )n connect)on *)th o o!!ortun)t)e-
Act)()t, S-. Loo@ t the !)cture- n% r)n-torm *ht 4u')t)e- n%
Interct)on t)me S9S9S 1
4u')f)ct)on- re nece--r, for ech. r)te on or%. A. rm, off)cer S9S9S B. techer C. )c,c'e re!)r mn D. %octor T. %)rect- ttent)on to the
m)n
S9S9S
')-t of cert)n o- n% -@- S- to %ec)%e *h)ch -!ect- !!', to the o-ho*n )n !)cture-.
A"t'&'t+ 2> Ro'e9!', A)m& to ct out %)'ogue- -e% on ro'e9!', cr%-
Act)()t, T g)(e- S- %)fferent cr%- cont)n)ng -)tut)on- -e% on %)fferent
Interct)on T)me S9S 27
-!e@)ng to!)c- n% -@- them to ct out %)'ogue- )n front of the
S9S
c'--.
S9S
m)n
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A"t'&'t+ 3>L',ten'ng A)m& To !rct)ce mu't)!'e cho)ce ')-ten)ng -@)''-
Act)()t, T te''- S- the, re go)ng to her -hort e+trct from r%)o re!ort.
Interct)on T)me S 1
Before ')-ten)ng S- 'oo@ t the four 4ue-t)on- n% tr, to !re%)ct *ht
S
the, th)n@ the n-*er )- ')@e', to e& true or f'-e. T !',- the CD. S-
S
m)n
%o the t-@. T !',- the CD g)n )f nece--r,.
A"t'&'t+ 4> Rea'ng< S!ea9'ng A)m& To e+!re-- !er-on' o!)n)on-
Act)()t, In !)r- S- re% the t*o 4uote- n% %)-cu-- -entence-. S- then !ro()%e
Interct)on T)me S9S 7
%ef)n)t)onG !r!hr-e of the 4uote-.
S9S
Suggested 2nswer
S9S
m)n
The f)r-t 4uote )- -,)ng tht *or@ !',- -uch 'rge n% )m!ortnt !rt )n our ')(e- tht !eo!'e often %ef)ne them-e'(e- n% other- , *ht the, *or@ the, %o. The -econ% 4uote )- tr,)ng to !ut -er)ou- !o)nt )n n mu-)ng *, n% -,- tht ,ou cnt e -ucce--fu' *)thout hr% *or@. A"t'&'t+ :>H*me(*r9
Act)()t, Interct)on T)me T -@- S- to *r)te 19*or% !rgr!h out The I%e' 6o S9S S9S S9S
:. TEACHING IDIO0S THROUGH ROLE>PLAY
<3
:.1. R*%e>P%a+'ng A, A Tea"#'ng Strateg+
Ro'e9!',)ng )- tech)ng -trteg, tht f)t- *)th)n the -oc)' fm)', of mo%e'6o,ce n% e)' 2. The-e -trteg)e- em!h-):e the -oc)' nture of 'ern)ng n% -ee coo!ert)(e eh()or - -t)mu't)ng -tu%ent- oth -oc)'', n% )nte''ectu'',.
Ro'e9!',)ng - tech)ng -trteg, offer- -e(er' %(ntge- for oth techer n% -tu%ent. F)r-t -tu%ent- )ntere-t )n the to!)c )- r)-e%. Re-erch h- -ho*n tht [)ntegrt)ng9 e+!er)ent)' 'ern)ng ct)()t)e- )n the c'--room )ncre-e- )ntere-t )n the -uect mter n% un%er-tn%)ng of cour-e content\ Poormn 22 !g. 2. Fogg 21 te''- of co''ege !rofe--or *ho fe't tht h)- h)-tor, c'--e- *ere or)ng n% not )n(o'()ng the -tu%ent-. After tr,)ng out ro'e9!',)ng t,!e gme one -eme-ter he o-er(e% tht -tu%ent- *ere much more )ntere-te% )n the mter)'.
Secon%', there )- )ncre-e% )n(o'(ement on the !rt of the -tu%ent- )n ro'e9!',)ng 'e--on. Stu%ent- re not !--)(e rec)!)ent- of the )n-tructor]- @no*'e%ge. Rther the, t@e n ct)(e !rt. Poormn 22 o-er(e- tht [true 'ern)ng cnnot t@e !'ce *hen -tu%ent- re !--)(e o-er(er- of the tech)ng !roce--\ !. 2. One -tu%ent t Brnr% Co''ege *ho *- enro''e% )n ro'e9!',)ng h)-tor, c'-- -)% [Th)- c'-- tr)c@,ou )nto %o)ng -o much *or@\ Fogg 21. The re-u't of the )n(o'(ement )- )ncre-e% 'ern)ng. Fogg 21.
A th)r% %(ntge to u-)ng ro'e9!',)ng - tech)ng -trteg, )- tht )t techeem!th, n% un%er-tn%)ng of %)fferent !er-!ect)(e- Poormn 22. A t,!)c' ro'e9 !',)ng ct)()t, *ou'% h(e -tu%ent- t@)ng on ro'e of chrcter 'ern)ng n% ct)ng - tht )n%)()%u' *ou'% %o )n the t,!)c' -ett)ng. Poormn 22 foun% [ -)gn)f)cnt )ncre-e mong -tu%ent- )n fee')ng nother]- %)-tre-- - the)r o*n\ !. 3. Ro'e9!',)ng h- '-o een -een to e effect)(e )n re%uc)ng rc)' !reu%)ce /c#regor 1==.
In ro'e9!',)ng the -tu%ent )- re!re-ent)ng n% e+!er)enc)ng chrcter @no*n )n e(er,%, ')fe Scrce'' n% O+for% 1==2. The u-e of ro'e9!',)ng em!h-):e- !er-on' concern- !ro'em- eh()our n% ct)(e !rt)c)!t)on S)'(er Z S)'(er 1=>=.
<7
It )m!ro(e- )nter!er-on' -@)''- Tehn 1=<7 )m!ro(e- commun)ct)on -@)''8u,c@ 1=<7 n% enhnce- commun)ct)on Ett@)n Z Sn,%er 1=<2.
The ro'e9!',)ng !!roch cn e u-e% )n (r)et, of -ett)ng- )nc'u%)ng the c'--room. The !r)nc)!'e eh)n% ro'e9!',)ng )- tht the -tu%ent --ume- !rt)cu'r !er-on')t, of %)fferent !er-on -uch - h)-tor)c' chrcter. Accor%)ng to 6one1=>2 -tu%ent- [mu-t cce!t the %ut)e- n% re-!on-))')t)e- of the)r ro'e- n% funct)on- n% %o the e-t the, cn )n the -)tut)on )n *h)ch the, f)n% them-e'(e-.\
One !o--)'e u-e of ro'e9!',)ng m)ght e to )ntro%uce to!)c u-)ng the -tu%ent-] c@groun% @no*'e%ge -chem to )ntro%uce n% )ntere-t them )n ne* un)t of -tu%, L'o,% 1==>. But !ro', more often ro'e9!',)ng )- u-e% - -trteg, )n *h)ch -tu%ent- u-e the)r c@groun% @no*'e%ge )n %%)t)on to c4u)r)ng ne* )nformt)on out the chrcter )n or%er to etter !', the ro'e L'o,% 1==>.
S@)''e% techer- h(e gener'', u-e% -@)t- !',- ne*-c-t- n% other form- of %rm to mot)(te -tu%ent- *hen ne* )nformt)on )n )ntro%uce%. Ro'e !',)ng ct)()t)ecn e %)()%e% )nto four -tge- Cher)f Z Somer()'' 1==>& 1. Pre!rt)on n% e+!'nt)on of the ct)()t, , the techer 2. Stu%ent !re!rt)on of the ct)()t, . The ro'e9!',)ng 3. The %)-cu--)on or %er)ef)ng fter the ro'e9!', ct)()t, /r@ Sutc')ffe from the Schoo' of Econom)c- t the Un)(er-)t, of the e-t of Eng'n% !ro()%e- e%uct)on' %(ntge- of ro'e !',)ng& Eu"at'*na% a&antage, * u,'ng r*%e>!%a+
From htt!&GG***.econom)c-.'t-n.c.u@G%()ceGro'e!',.htm foun% on A!r)' 1> 22. The e%uct)on' %(ntge- from u-)ng ro'e9!', )n tech)ng )nc'u%e the fo''o*)ng& −
It encourge- )n%)()%u'- *h)'e )n ro'e to ref'ect u!on the)r @no*'e%ge of -uect. A-
-uch ro'e9!', )- n e+ce''ent tech)ng metho% for re()e*)ng mter)' t the en% of cour-e of -tu%,.
−
In%)()%u'- re re4u)re% to u-e !!ro!r)te conce!t- n% rgument- - %ef)ne% , the)r
ro'e. A- ro'e- chnge -o m)ght re'e(nt conce!t- n% rgument-. Stu%ent- m, come - con-e4uence to !!rec)te more fu'', the re'e(nce of %)(er-e o!)n)on n% *here n% ho* )t )- forme%. Prt)c)!t)on he'!- eme% conce!t-. The )m!ortnce of cret)ng n ct)(e 'ern)ng
−
en()ronment )- *e'' recogn):e% )f the oect)(e )- one of %ee! rther thn -urfce 'ern)ng. Ro'e9!',)ng cn m@e ('u'e contr)ut)on )n th)- !roce--. −
It g)(e- ')fe n% )mme%)c, to c%em)c mter)' tht cn e 'rge', %e-cr)!t)(e n%Gor
theoret)c'. −
It cn encourge -tu%ent- to em!th):e *)th the !o-)t)on n% fee')ng- of other- 9
-ometh)ng tht )n the norm' !roce-- of tech)ng )- ')@e', to e m)--e%.
ho mong u- %oe- not rememer enter)ng @)n%ergrten room n% u!on -ee)ng the !', -to(e n% refr)gertor not h(e memor)e- of the)r ,outhJ
Ro'e9!',)ng goe- , mn, nme-& ct)ng )m!ro()-t)on %rmt)c !', !reten% !', -oc)o9%rm etc. )th -m'' ch)'% the ct of ro'e9!', )t-e'f he'!- them 'ern -oc)' ('ue- n% ho* to !erform t-@- norm'', !erforme% for them. Ch)'%ren -et u! m)'@ ott'en% cn- n% m@e e')e(e the, o*n -tore. Ro'e9!', he'!- ch)'%ren rech out-)%e the)r *or'% n% emrce the fee')ng- emot)on- n% !')ght- of other-. It )- *)%e', u-e% )n the 'o*er gr%e- to he'! ch)'%ren e+!'ore the *or'% roun% them.
hen ro'e9!', )- u-e% )n -choo' -ett)ng -tu%ent- e+ten% the)r @no*'e%ge of -uect , re-erch)ng chrcter *)th)n g)(en cour-e of -tu%,. Stu%ent )ntere-t )- r)-e% )n -uect mtter thu- genert)ng )ntere-t *)th)n the -uect Poormn 22. Stu%ent- ecome ct)(e !rt)c)!nt- )n the)r e%uct)on rther thn !--)(e o-er(er-. It ''o*- -tu%ent- to fee' em!th, for other- *hen !ortr,)ng chrcter )n(o'(e% )n turu'ent t)me- )n h)-tor, Ste)n%orf 21.
e -trt our e%uct)on' ourne, ro'e9!',)ng hou-e n% u-u'', en% )t )n -ome -ort of !ro%uct)on of -en)or !',. Ro'e !',)ng )- m)n-t, of e%uct)on tht nee%- to e )ncor!orte% )nto our 'e--on !'n- on regu'r -)-.
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:.2. C%a,, A"t'&'t'e, U,'ng 0et#*, * Tea"#'ng I'*m,
Th)- ch!ter )- ment to g)(e -ome e+m!'e- of ct)()t)e- tht cn e u-e% %ur)ng the Eng')-h c'--e-. Such ct)()t)e- *)'' )n(o'(e metho%- of tech)ng -uch - ro'e9!',)ng -e% on g)n)ng 'nguge com!etence- n% -@)''- re%)ng ')-ten)ng -!e@)ng . The c'-- ct)()t)e- *)'' m@e u-e of (r)ou- tech)ng -trteg)e- mong *h)ch the mo-t fre4uent re !)r9*or@ grou!9*or@ n% gme-. The ct)()t)e- *)'' refer to cert)n grou!- of -tu%ent- )nterme%)te u!!er9 )nterme%)te n% %(nce% n% )nc'u%e (r)et, of tech)ng mter)' n% )%-. Stu%ent- cn !rct)ce g)(en )%)om- re'te% to cert)n to!)c- u-)ng *)%e (r)et, of ct)()t)e-. Let- t@e for e+m!'e time idiomsF)'' )n the fo''o*)ng -entence- u-)ng -u)t'e )%)om-. 1. R)ght no* I %ont h(e mone, to u, ne* cr -o…………….. I h(e to %r)(e -econ%9hn% cr. 2. There )- no nee% to hurr, -o…………………. re'+ n% eno, ,our re@f-t. . I h% noth)ng to %o *h)'e *)t)ng for m, hu-n% t the )r!ort -o I !',e% N)nten%o to…………………………………………………………………… 3. I h(e no )ntent)on of gett)ng mrr)e%……………………………………….. 7. /, o--……………….. *hen I f)'e% to f)n)-h the re!ort ,e-ter%,. ?. …………………… to u, hou-e )n Toronto ecu-e the mortgge rte )re'', 'o*. <. $ou 'oo@ re'', u-,. D)% I………………………………………………J >. $oure ne(er home. hen I c'' ,ou noo%, n-*er- the !hone........... .
/tch the )%)om- to the)r %ef)n)t)on-. 1. for the t)me e)ng 2. to t@e ,our t)me . to @)'' t)me 3. t th)- !o)nt )n t)me 7. to g)(e -omeone hr% t)me ?. the t)me )- r)ght <. to ctch -omeone t % t)me <>
>. n)ne t)me- out of ten
. to ()-)t or c'' !er-on *hen )t )- )ncon(en)ent . to cr)t)c):e or to m@e fun of -omeone c. )t )- goo% t)me to %o -ometh)ng %. u-t for the t)me e)ng tem!orr)', e. not to hurr, f. to *-te t)me *h)'e *)t)ng for -omeone or -ometh)ng to h!!en g. (er, often h. no* t th)- t)me
To en-ure tht -tu%ent- not on', un%er-tn% )%)om- ut '-o 'ern to u-e them the )%)om- re to e !re-ente% )n conte+t for e+m!'e )n -)m!'e con(er-t)on- *here the men)ng of the )%)om )- c'er. To )ntro%uce the )%)om to give someone a hard time the techer cn !re-ent con(er-t)on ')@e th)- one& 6un& 8e, Srh ,ou 'oo@ -%. ht- u!J Srh& e'' I %)%nt !', (er, *e'' to%, %ur)ng (o''e,'' !rct)ce n% m, temmte- *ere not (er, un%er-tn%)ng. The, -)% I *- c'um-, n% h% to focu- more on the gme. The, -)% 79,er o'% g)r' !',e% etter thn me. 6un& OhW Im -orr, the, g(e ,ou -uch hr% t)me.
The -tu%ent- *)'' h(e to gue-- or f)gure out the men)ng of the )%)om. The, cn '-o e -@e% to !ro()%e other e+m!'e- of *ht )t men- to g)(e -omeone hr% t)me.
A"t'ng *ut g'&en 'a%*gue,
A)m-& to !rct)ce ro'e9!',)ng , the u-e of )%)om<=
Lnguge 'e(e'-& u!!er9)nterme%)te n% %(nce% E4u)!ment n% mter)'& *or@-heet-
The -tu%ent- re% the %)'ogue n% tr, to e+!')n the )%)om- )n o'%. Then the, 'oo@ t the !)cture n% -, *ht )%)om )t re!re-ent-.
Chr'e-& So 6me- ho*- the u-)ne-- %o)ngJ 6me-& Not -o goo% o'% o,W I(e een h()ng !ro'em- *)th o'% Rum!ton. Im fr)% Im go)ng to h(e to 1 g'&e #'m t#e **t. Chr'e-& Rum!tonW But he- een runn)ng the fctor, for ,er-W 6me-& $e- Chr'e- I @no* ut he- gett)ng on )t ,ou @no*. 8e- -)+t,9t*o n% 4u)te frn@', I %ont th)n@ he @no*- *ht he- %o)ng n,more. 8e -eem- to h(e turne% )nto 2 'me %uc@ )n recent ,er- H no contro' o(er the *or@force n% *e'' et*een ,ou n% me the com!n,- ee%'ng t#e !'t"#. $ou @no* our !rof)t- re %o*n t*ent, !er cent -)nce -)nce '-t ,er. Chr'e-& #oo%ne-- meW $oure not 3 'n t#e re re ,ouJ 6me-& Cert)n', notW e h(ent 7 #'t r*"9 *tt*m u-t ,etW No *e %ont o*e n,one n,th)ng. ere -t)'' ? 'n t#e %a"9 H for no* t 'e-t. Chr'e-& e'' )t -oun%- ')@e ,oure < !%a+'ng ('t# 're )f ,ou @ee! h)m for much 'ongerW $ou %ef)n)te', nee% to get -omeo%, e'-e to > ,te! 'nt* #', ,#*e,. 6me-& $e- ut *hoJ I nee% -omeo%, *ho- go)ng to run the !'ce *)th = a 'rm #an H not t@e n, non-en-e ,ou @no*J Chr'e-& $e- 4u)te. Do e crefu' though o'% ch!. A h-t, %ec)-)on *ont 1 !a+ '&'en, e')e(e meW
>
-u'%'ng 'a%*gue, a,e *n !'"ture,
A)m-& to u)'% -)tut)on' %)'ogue- n% u-e )%)om- )n !ro!er mnner Lnguge 'e(e'& )nterme%)te u!!er9)nterme%)te n% %(nce% E4u)!ment n% mter)'& !)cture- n% 'c@or%
The go' )- to get -tu%ent- to not on', un%er-tn% )%)om- ut '-o to 'ern ho* to u-e them eff)c)ent',. The techer %)()%e- the c'-- )nto !)r-. Ech !)r of -tu%ent- get- one or t*o )%)om- to *or@ *)th. The, mu-t *r)te con(er-t)on n% u-e th)- )%)om )n )t. The techer *'@- roun% the c'--room to --)-t -tu%ent- n% chec@- for ccurc,. Ech !)r -tn%- efore the)r c'--mte- n% ct- out the con(er-t)on the, *rote. Th)- *, the, not on', !rct)ce u-)ng the )%)om !hr-e- the, her other e+m!'e- from c'--mte- other *,- )n *h)ch the-e )%)om- m, e )nc'u%e% )n con(er-t)on. The techer '-o -@- them to f)n% -u)t'e t)t'e for the)r %)'ogue-.
Sm!'e D)'ogue& ON THE PHONE
Ce')& 8) Rche'. Rche'& Ce')W 8o* *- ,our ')n% %te '-t n)ghtJ Ce')& A*fu'W Roger %ef)n)te', wasn"t my cup of teaW I %ont @no* *h, ;ren thought I% ')@e h)m. Per-on'', I th)n@ -he *- scraping the bottom of the barrel H he *- )ncre%)', ru%e 4u)te horr)% ctu'',W Rche'& Oh %er. ht h!!ene%J Ce')& e'' *e rrnge% to meet t the ;)ng- 8e% for %r)n@ f)r-t ,ou @no* to break the ice. I -hou'% h(e re'):e% I *- in the soup *hen I her% h)m -!e@)ng to
the rm)% Hhe *- -o )m!o')te I 'u-he%W An% the *, he @e!t -ho(e')ng !enut)nto h)- mouth n% t'@)ng t the -me t)me turned my stomach. Rche'& UrghW 8o* *fu'W Ce')& Oh tht *-nt ''W I% m%e re' effort *)th m, h)r n% m@e9 u! n% I% e(en ought ne* %re--. 8e %)%nt -, n,th)ng out ho* n)ce I 'oo@e% H t'@ out casting pearls before swineW An% then u-t efore *e 'eft he @noc@e% m, g'-- of re% *)ne '' o(er me n% %o ,ou @no* *ht he -)%J t"s no use crying >1
over spilt milk"- I -hou'% h(e 'eft there n% thenW 8e cr)t)c):e% m, cr '' the *, to
the re-turnt too -)% )t *- uncomfort'e n% %)%nt go f-t enough ut *hen I -@e% h)m *ht he %ro(e he -)% he %)%ntW Rche'& Soun%- ')@e sour grapes to me. Ce')& u)te. An,*, t the re-turnt he -trte% com!')n)ng tht the met *- as dry as a bone H )t *- %e')c)ou- H n% the -er()ce *-nt u! to scratch H )t *-
fu't'e--. Rche'& So *ht %)% ,ou %oJ Ce')& e'' I 'eft %)%nt IJ
E)!%a'n t#e t't%e$ A D*g`, L'e
A)m-& to )m!', men)ng n% to f)n% e4u)('ent- to Romn)n e+!re--)on to e 'e to not)ce the %)fference- )n men)ng of the t*o e+!re--)on- )n Eng')-h th)- )%)omt)c e+!re--)on cn h(e !o-)t)(e men)ng )n -ome c-e- *here- )n Romn)n )t )- mo-t', u-e% negt)(e', Lnguge Le(e'& )nterme%)te E4u)!ment n% mter)'-& !o-ter- -')%e- !)cture- 'c@or%
The techer cn e)ther !re-ent -ome !)cture- or -')%e- )''u-trt)ng th)- )%)om or cn -@ -tu%ent- to %r* !)cture- g)()ng comment- on the men)ng of the e+!re--)on.
Ta%9'ng ('t# a !ur!*,e
A)m-& to )n(o'(e -tu%ent- )n -!e@)ng -@)''- , -@)ng them to u)'% %)'ogue- on g)(en -)tut)on>2
to !rct)-e ro'e9!', Lnguge Le(e'& u!!er9)nterme%)te n% %(nce% E4u)!ment n% mter)'-& !rom!t cr%Techer %e')(er- the -tu%ent- -ome cr%- cont)n)ng )%)om- n% -@- the -tu%ent- to u)'% %)'ogue- -e% on %)fferent -)tut)on- n )nter()e* t the !o-t off)ce t the c)nem t the %octor- etc. . Then the -tu%ent- *)'' ct )n !)r- )n front of the c'--.
Ient'+'ng ''*m, 'n a %',ten'ng a"t'&'t+
A)m-& to e 'e to !rct)ce ')-ten)ng -@)''to )%ent)f, )%)omto re!ro%uce *ht the, her )n -)m)'r %)'ogueLnguge Le(e'-& )nterme%)te u!!er9)nterme%)te n% %(nce% E4u)!ment n% mter)'-& CD !',er '!to!
The techer !',- the CD once t th)- !o)nt the -tu%ent- *)'' focu- on the un%er-tn%)ng of the ')-ten)ng me--ge the techer !',- the CD for the -econ% t)me *h)'e the -tu%ent- *r)te the )%)om- the, cn her. The -tu%ent- *)'' e -@e% to *r)te %)'ogue- of the)r o*n u-)ng the -me )%)om- )n the ')-ten)ng !rt.
Ient'+'ng ''*m, 'n a rea'ng a"t'&'t+
A)m-& to *or@ on te+t- *h)ch cont)n -er)e- of )%)omto !rct)ce com!rehen-)(e re%)ng through %)fferent t-@Lnguge Le(e'-& u!!er9)nterme%)te n% %(nce% E4u)!ment n% mter)'-& te+t- on *or@-heet- mg:)ne- ne*-!!er- rt)c'e-
Te)t A.
The techer r)ng- *r)tten te+t- )n c'-- *h)ch cont)n )%)om-. The
-tu%ent- *)'' re% them n% )%ent)f, the )%)om- then the, *)'' e -@e% to -o'(e -ome e+erc)-e- -e% on the te+t-.
Coch Coo!er f)n'', 'et me !', go')eW e+c')me% Peter - he rn to h)- !o-)t)on. Come on r)ng the '' to me he ,e''e%. See *ht I %o *)th )tW >
Peter *tche% the ct)on t the other corner en% of the f)e'%. I *on%er *ht )t *ou'% e ')@e !',)ng !rofe--)on' -occer thought Peter. No one *ou'% e(er -core on meW I% e r)chW E(er,*here I *ent @)%- *ou'% *nt m, utogr!hW Tem- *ou'% f)ght o(er *ho got meW E(er,one *ou'% -,…
8IKW Su%%en', the '' thre* o(er Peter- -hou'%er. E(er,one on the tem grone% 'ou%',. Pete get +*ur #ea *ut * t#e "%*u,W ,e''e% Coch Coo!er.
The -tu%ent- *)'' h(e to e+!')n the men)ng of the )%)om )n the te+t Coch Coo!er re'', ment tht……………………………………………
Te)t -. Br)ttn, h% u-t mo(e% to ne* -choo' n% -he *- ner(ou- out her c'--e-. S)nce -oc)' -tu%)e- *- her hr%e-t -uect -he %ec)%e% to t@e her oo@ home e(er, n)ght to -tu%, he%. One %, her techer /r. Snche: nnounce% ere -trt)ng ne* un)t on )n(entor-. Doe- n,one @no* *ho )n(ente% %o:en- of u-e- for !enut-J Br)ttn, 'oo@e% roun%. E(er,one )n the c'-- -eeme% !u::'e% -o -he -'o*', r)-e% her hn%. $e- Br)ttn,J /r. Snche: c''e%. It- #eorge -h)ngton Cr(er -he n-*ere%. $ou #'t t#e na'% *n t#e #eaW /r. Snche: e+c')me%.
/r. Snche: re'', ment……………………………………………………………
0'me A)m-& to )n(o'(e -tu%ent- )n !',)ng ct)()t)eto e 'e to u-e the o%, 'nguge Lnguge Le(e'-& )nterme%)te n% u!!er9)nterme%)te E4u)!ment n% mter)'-& cr%-
The techer *)'' %)()%e the c'-- )n grou!- of four -tu%ent- ech grou! *)'' rece)(e cr% on *h)ch there re *r)tten -ome )%)om- -uch -& n)m'9re'te% )%)om-. The -tu%entfrom ech grou! *)'' m)me the )%)om- )n term- *h)'e the)r o!!onent- gue-- *ht the, re >3
m)m)ng. th)- ct)()t, cn e u-e% t the eg)nn)ng of the c'-- e)ng -u)t'e for *rm9 u! ct)()t, .
A -m!'e- of !rom!t cr%& at t#e *"t*r`, )%)om- to e u-e%9 off colour/ full of beans/ nothing but skin and bone/ as strong as a horse/ going down hill .
T#e "ar, game
A)m-& to !rct)ce )%)om- , !',)ng Lnguge Le(e'-& '' 'e(e'E4u)!ment n% mter)'-& cr%- hn%out- 'c@or%
The techer %)()%e- the c'-- )nto grou!- ech grou! *)'' rece)(e -et of cr%- on *h)ch there re *r)tten h'(e- of )%)om-. The -tu%ent- *)'' h(e to mtch the t*o h'(e- to ot)n )%)om-. If the, %ont f)n% the !ro!er h'(e- to f)n% )%)om- the, *)'' h(e to e+chnge cr%- *)th the)r c'--mte- of other grou!-. After the )%)om- re com!'ete% the -tu%ent*)'' *r)te the *ho'e )%)om- on the 'c@or% n% )n the)r noteoo@-.
Sm!'e- of cr%-&
The apple !ears his heart 7ee"s The man The black sheep
knees my dreams of somebody"s eye of the family on his sleeve
De,"r''ng !'"ture, u,'ng ''*m,
A)m-& to !rct)ce -!e@)ng -@)''to !rct)ce (ocu'r, Lnguge Le(e'-& ''
>7
E4u)!ment n% mter)'-& !)cture- hn%out-
The techer -ho*- fe* !)cture- to the -tu%ent- n% the -tu%ent- *)'' h(e to %e-cr)e them u-)ng )%)om- re'te% to the !)cture.
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><
:.3. Te,t'ng I'*m,
Te-t)ng )- re')'e men- of @no*)ng ho* effect)(e tech)ng -e4uence h- een. Te-t)ng -t)ng !ro( !ro()% )%ee- for form m of fee% fee%c c@ @ oth oth for for 'e 'ern rnerer- n% n% tech techerer-.. /oreo(er te-t)ng h- u-efu' a"9(a,# effect& )f 'erner- @no* the, re go)ng to e te-te% on the)r (ocu'r, 'ern)ng the, m, t@e (ocu'r, 'ern)ng more -er)ou-', Thornur, 22 !. 12=. Te-t)ng cn e -een - !rt of the rec,c')ng of (ocu'r, gener'',. The on', %)fference mn, rec,c')ng e+erc)-e- n% te-t- )- tht on', the 'tter re -core%. 0ocu'r, co(ere% )n the !re()ou- 'e--on -hou'% e te-te% t the eg)nn)ng of the ne+t one. If not the chnce- of ret)n)ng the ne* (ocu'r, re gret', re%uce%. The re() re()e* e* !h-e !h-e-- -hou -hou'% '% gr% gr%u u'', '', e )ncre )ncre-e -e%. %. Techercher- -hou -hou'% '% @ee! @ee! trc@ trc@ of the)r the)r (ocu'r, (ocu'r, )n!ut n% -che%u'e -che%u'e te-t- t o!t)m' o!t)m' t)me-. One more )nform' *, of te-t)ng te-t)ng )to get 'erner- to te-t ech other u-)ng the)r (ocu'r, noteoo@-.
/ore form' te-t)ng m, e re4u)re% t cert)n -trteg)c -tge- )n cour-e. Te-t- of (ocu (ocu'r, 'r, -omet)m -omet)mee- form form !rt !rt of !%a"ement te,t, te,t, or - com!onent of 'agn*,t'" te,t te,t )n %(nce of !'nn)ng cour-e !rogrmme. Such te-t- u-u'', )n(o'(e -ome ttem!t to me-ure e+tent of (ocu'r, @no*'e%ge. Te-t- of a"#'e&ement t the en% of cour-e n% of o(er'' !r*'"'en"+ !r*'"'en"+ - me-ure% , e+tern' e+m)nt)on- -uch - the Cmr)%ge F)r-t Cert)f)cte or TOEFL t,!)c'', )nc'u%e (ocu'r, te-t)ng com!onent. c om!onent. A'' the -!ect- of *or% @no*'e%ge @no*'e%ge cn e re'):e% re'):e% rece!t)(e', rece!t)(e', )n ')-ten)ng n% re%)ng or !ro%uct)(e', )n -!e@)ng n% *r)t)ng . An, (ocu'r, te-t therefore nee%- to t@e )nto ccount the mu't)9%)men-)on' chrcter of *or%9@no*'e%ge& 9
the the *or% *or%- for form m Ho Hoth th -!o -!o@e @en n n% n% *r) *r)tt tten en
9
the the *or *or% %-- me men) n)ng ng or men men)n )ngg-
9
n, n, con conno not tt) t)on on-- the the *or% *or% m)gh m)ghtt h( h(ee
9
*heth *hether er the the *or% *or% ))- -!ec)f -!ec)f)c )c to cert) cert)n n reg)-te reg)-terr or -t,'e -t,'e
9
the *or%*or%- grmm grmmt)c t)c' ' chr chrcte cter)-t r)-t)c)c- H e.g. e.g. !rt !rt of of -!eech -!eech
9
the the *or *or% %-- comm common on co'' co''oc oct t)o )onn-
9
the the *or% *or%- %er)( er)(t t)o )on n-
9
the the *or *or% %-- re' re't t)( )(ee fre fre4u 4uen enc, c,
>>
hether to te-t *)th or *)thout conte+t or to te-t for recogn)t)on or for !ro%uct)on re )--ue- tht re e-t re-o'(e% , t@)ng )nto ccount the !ur!o-e of the te-t n% '-o )t')@e', effect on tech)ng. If the !ur!o-e of the te-t )- to !re%)ct the 'erner- )')t, for e+m!'e then rece!t)(e te-t *)'' e -uff)c)ent. But )t -hou'% '-o e conte+tu'):e% te+t ecu-e re%)ng )n(o'(e- u-)ng conte+t c'ue- to he'! *or@ out *or% men)ng. /oreo(er %e9conte+tu')-e% te-t- re u-u'', e-, to com!', n% mr@ -o the, re therefore (er, !rct)c'e.
e !ro!o-e the fo''o*)ng t,!e of te-t through *h)ch the %(nce% -tu%ent- cn e --e--e%. The te-t cont)n- %)fferent @)n%- of e+erc)-e- n% u-e- )%)om- -tu%)e% on %)fferent !h-e- of 'e--on-. After the --e--)ng - -e--)ng the techer *)'' %)-cu-- the %r*c@- of the -tu%entn% *)'' f)n% -o'ut)on- to reme%, the m)-t@e-.
A. Choo-e Choo-e the correct correct )tem. )tem.
1.e(e %ec)%e% to !ut u,)ng hou-e on the c@ …….. unt)' *e(e -(e% -ome more mone,. A. urner
C. heter
B. o)'er
D. coo@er
2. 6ohn 6ohn h% h% re% re% the the )n-t )n-tru ruct ct)o )on n mnu mnu' ' -e(e -e(er r'' t)me t)me- - ut ut he cou' cou'%n %nt t m@e………. or t)' of )t. A. he%
C. c@
B. front
D. h)n%
. At f)r-t there -eeme% to e no -o'ut)on to the !ro'em. Then /r, -u%%en', -* the………………. . A. ()-)on
C. ')ght
B. g'o*
D. -h)ne
3. It- o()ou- from h)- tt)tu%e tht he h- ………….. on h)- -hou'%er. A. *e)ght
C. @noc@
B. ch)!
D. %ent >=
7. In Eng'n% )t- tr%)t)on' for the fther of the r)%e the foot the ………… for the *e%%)ng. A. t
C. !r)ce
B. )''
D. rece)!t
?. Terr,- e+!'nt)on of *h, he h- three hour- 'te cut no ………. *)th h) o--. A. )ce
C. -'eet
B. -no*
D. fro-t
<. The, -t there for hour- ………… the)r r)n- ut the, cou'%nt come u! *)th -o'ut)on. A. ro-t)ng
C. roc@)ng
B. r@)ng
D. rc@)ng
>. Peter )- -uch …………… 'n@et he hr%', e(er come- out n% *hen he %oe- he '*,- 'oo@- m)-er'e. A. hot
C. o'%
B. *et
D. co'%
=. D()% tr)e% to !ut on r(e ………….. *hen he f)'e% h)- te-t ut ,ou cou'% -ee he *- u!-et. A. -ho*
C. fce
B. 'oo@
D. e+ter)or
1. The %octor g(e Koe c'en…………….. of he'th *hen -he *ent for her ,er', chec@9u!. A. t
C. !!er
B. -heet
D. )''
B. F)'' )n the g!- *)th !hr-e- from the ')-t&
=
a runn'ng att%e< ta%9 ,#*!< ,'t, *n t#e en"e< #*t uner t#e "*%%ar< ,tu"9 t* #', gun,< !ut #'m *n t#e ,!*t< rang #*%%*(< "a%% 't a a+< e%% *n ea ear,< ta9e %+'ng *(n
11. I re'', hte )t *hen !eo!'e ………….. t off)ce !rt)e-. 12. 8e -)% he *- -orr, ut -omeho* h)- e+cu-e-…………….. . 1. A'though h)- !rent- *ere o!!o-e% to h)- %ec)-)on N)ge' ………….. n% ecme n ctor. 13. She tr)e% to *rn them out the com!n, ut her %()ce ………. . The, )n(e-te% n,*, n% 'o-t '' the)r mone,. 17. #eorge '*,- ………… -o )t- %)ff)cu't to @no* *ho-e -)%e he- re'', on. 1?. A !, cut *- !ro!o-e% *h)ch the un)on *ou'% not ………. -o the ne+t %, the, c''e% -tr)@e. 1<. At ?2 Fre% %ec)%e% to …………….. n% !!')e% for er', ret)rement. 1>. There- ………………. et*een Cr' n% m, mother o(er gr%en)ng chore-. The,'' ne(er com!rom)-e. 1=. The 4ue-t)on out the /n)n-ter- !er-on' f)nnce- re'', ………….. n% he tr)e% to e(%e the )--ue. 2. I cou'% -ee -he *- gett)ng …………….. -o I thought I *ou'% @ee! out of her *, )n c-e -he got re'', ngr,.
C. Re*r)te the -entence- u-)ng the *or%- )n o'%.
21. There- no nee% to -en% the com!uter c@ u-t ,et )t- on', norm' to h(e %)ff)cu't)e- )n the er', -tge-. teet#'ng……………………………………………………………………………… 22. Dr)n- Dremer-re'e-e% the)r ne* CD on Thur-%, n% )t- gret %emn%. "a9e,………………………………………………………………………………… … 2. 6oe %ec)%e% tht )t *-nt *orth rgu)ng *)th h)- mnger n% %ec)%e% to oe, the ru'e-. t*e…………………………………………………………………………………… 23. E(er,o%, tru-t- Arthur. 8e- (er, hone-t. 'e…………………………………………………………………………………… =1
27. Dr)n@)ng 'e-- coffee *)'' not re-tore ,our he'th ut )t- cert)n', !o-)t)(e mo(e. ,te!…………………………………………………………………………………… 2?. Loo@ I %ont *nt to cu-e trou'e -)% 6)m ut -ometh)ng nee%- to e %one *at………………………………………………………………………………… 2<.I e')e(e tht -hou'% -o'(e the !ro'em -)% /)@e !utt)ng %o*n h)-cre*%r)(er. tr'"9 ………………………………………………………………………………… 2>. 6ne *nte% to -!e@ ut -he @ne* )t *ou'% e etter )f -he @e!t -)'ent. t*ngue……………………………………………………………………………… 2=. A!!rent', the *or@er- re (er, ngr, out the ne* !ro!o-'-. arm,………………………………………………………………………………… . Tr)-tn *- on', te-)ng *hen he to'% me he% *on the 'otter,. %eg……………………………………………………………………………………..
=2
APPENDI"
A. ENGLISH IDIO0S RELATED TO
1. An'ma%,
2nts in one"s pants. Peo!'e *ho h(e ants in their pants re (er, re-t'e-- or e+c)te%
out -ometh)ng. I *)-h he% re'+. 8e- got nt- )n h)- !nt- out -ometh)ng to%,W 6ake an ass of yourself . If ,ou eh(e -o -tu!)%', tht ,ou !!er r)%)cu'ou- ,ou make an ass of yourself . Tom m%e n -- of h)m-e'f , -)ng)ng 'o(e -ong out-)%e
6u')e- %oor. ike a bat out of hell . If -ometh)ng mo(e- like a bat out of hell )t mo(e- (er, 4u)c@',.
8e gre% the en(e'o!e n% rn ')@e t out of he''. ike a bear with a sore head . If -omeone )- eh()ng like a bear with a sore head the,
re (er, )rr)t'e n% %9tem!ere%. hen h)- tem 'o-t the mtch Br% *- ')@e er *)th -ore he%. 7reak the back of the beast . If -omeone breaks the back of the beast the, -uccee% )n
o(ercom)ng mor %)ff)cu't,. After hour- of effort the techn)c)n- f)n'', ro@e the c@ of the e-t n% turne% the e'ectr)c)t, c@ on g)n. Eager beaver . The term eager beaver refer- to !er-on *ho )- hr%*or@)ng n%
enthu-)-t)c -omet)me- con-)%ere% o(er:e'ou-. The ne* ccountnt *or@- '' the t)me9f)r-t to rr)(e n% '-t to 'e(e9 re' eger e(erW %ave a bee in one"s bonnet . A !er-on *ho has a bee in their bonnet h- n )%e *h)ch
con-tnt', occu!)e- the)r thought-. She- got ee )n her onnet out mo()ng to Ne* $or@. The bee"s knees. If ,ou -, tht -omeone or -ometh)ng )- the bee"s knees ,ou th)n@
the, re e+ce!t)on'', goo%. 6u')e th)n@- -he- the ee- @nee- men- tht 6u')e h- h)gh o!)n)on of her-e'fW 7irds of a feature- To -, tht !eo!'e re )r%- of fether men- the, re (er, -)m)'r
)n mn, *,-. No *on%er the, go on *e'' the, re )r%- of fether. .or the birds- If ,ou th)n@ tht -ometh)ng )- for the birds ,ou con-)%er )t to e
un)ntere-t)ng u-e'e-- or not to e t@en -er)ou-',. T'@)ng out th)- )--ue )- re'', for the )r%-.
=
;ill two birds with one stone- If you kill two birds with one stone ,ou -uccee% )n %o)ng
t*o th)ng- t the -me t)me. B, -tu%,)ng on the tr)n on the *, home e(er, *ee@en% C')re @)''- t*o )r%- *)th one -tone. 7itten by the bug- If ,ou %e(e'o! -u%%en )ntere-t or enthu-)-m for -ometh)ng ,ou re bitten by the bug . /, %% %ec)%e% to t@e u! go'f n% *- )mme%)te', )tten , the
ug. Snug as a bug in a rug- Th)- )- humorou- *, of -,)ng tht ,ou re *rm n%
comfort'e. r!!e% u! )n 'n@et on the -of -he 'oo@e% as snug as a bug in a rug-" ike a red flag to a bull- To -, tht -ttement or ct)on )- like a red flag to a bull
men- tht )t )- -ure to m@e -omeone (er, ngr, or u!-et. Dont ment)on Tom !romot)on to /)@e. It *ou'% e ')@e re% f'g to u''W Take the bull by the horns- It men- tht !er-on %ec)%e- to ct %ec)-)(e', )n or%er to
%e' *)th %)ff)cu't -)tut)on or !ro'em. After numer of ch)'%ren *ere hurt )n the -choo' !',groun% S'', too@ the u'' , the horn- n% c''e% the he%m-ter .ace like a bulldog chewing a wasp- To -, tht -omeone h- a face like a bulldog chewing a wasp men- tht ,ou f)n% them (er, unttrct)(e ecu-e the, h(e
-cre*e%9u! ug', e+!re--)on on the)r fce. Not on', *- he ru%e ut he h% fce ')@e u''%og che*)ng *-!W 2 social butterfly- Th)- term refer- to !er-on *ho h- 'ot of fr)en%- n%
c4u)ntnce- n% ')@e- to f')t from one -oc)' e(ent to nother. 6u')e )- con-tnt', out n% out -he- re' -oc)' utterf',. 2 cat in gloves catches no mice- Th)- e+!re--)on men- tht )f ,ou re too crefu' or
!o')te ,ou m, ot)n *ht ,ou *nt. Negot)te crefu'', ut rememer& ct )n g'o(e- ctche- no m)ceW 2 fat cat- To refer to r)ch n% !o*erfu' !er-on - ft ct men- tht ,ou %)-!!ro(e
of the *, the, u-e the)r mone, or !o*er. The !'ce *- fu'' of ft ct- on the )g ,cht- ike herding cats- Th)- e+!re--)on refer- to the %)ff)cu't, of coor%)nt)ng -)tut)on
*h)ch )n(o'(e- !eo!'e *ho '' *nt to ct )n%e!en%ent',. Orgn):)ng n out)ng for grou! of !eo!'e from %)fferent countr)e- )- ')@e her%)ng ct-W et the cat out of the bag- If ,ou let the cat out of the bag ,ou re(e' -ecret often not
)ntent)on'',. hen the ch)'% to'% her grn%mother out the !'n- for her )rth%, -he 'et the ct out of the g. It *- -u!!o-e% to e -ecretW =3
ike a cat on hot bricks- A !er-on *ho )- like a cat on hot bricks )- (er, ner(ou- or
re-t'e--. The *ee@ efore the re-u't- *ere !u')-he% -he *- ')@e ct on hot r)c@-. ike a scalded cat- If -omeone or -ometh)ng mo(e- ')@e -c'%e% ct the, mo(e (er,
f-t ecu-e the, re fr)ghtene% or -hoc@e%. A- -oon - he -* the !o')cemn he rn off ')@e -c'%e% ct. ike cat and dog- T*o !eo!'e *ho f)ght or rgue ')@e ct n% %og fre4uent', h(e
()o'ent rgument- e(en though the, re fon% of ech other. The, f)ght ')@e ct n% %og ut the,re -t)'' together fter ,er-. !ait for the cat to 1ump- If ,ou wait for the cat to 1ump or to see which way the cat 1umps ,ou %e', t@)ng ct)on unt)' ,ou -ee ho* e(ent- *)'' turn out. She *)te% for
the ct to um! efore -)tt)ng for tht -cho'r-h)!. Raining cats and dogs- If )t- raining cats and dogs )t- r)n)ng he()',. e'' h(e to
cnce' the !)cn)c Im fr)%. It- r)n)ng ct- n% %og-. Chickens come home to roost- If ,ou -, tht chickens come home to roost ,ou men
tht % or emrr--)ng th)ng- -)% or %one )n the !-t , -omeone re no* cu-)ng !ro'em- for tht !er-on. A- tennt- the cou!'e *ere no)-, n% *ou'% eh(e %)-or%er',. No* the, cnt f)n% !'ce to rent. The ch)c@en- h(e come home to roo-tW 2 cash cow- A !ro%uct or -er()ce *h)ch )- regu'r -ource of )ncome for com!n, )-
c''e% cash cow.. 8)- 'te-t )n(ent)on turne% out to e re' c-h co*. Till the cows come home- To -, tht !er-on cou'% %o -ometh)ng till the cows come home men- tht the, cou'% %o )t for 'ong t)me. $ou cn -@ t)'' the co*- come
home ut Im not u,)ng ,ou -cooterW !hy buy a cow when you get milk for free> Th)- e+!re--)on refer- to not !,)ng for
-ometh)ng tht ,ou cn ot)n for free. Somet)me- u-e% to refer to %ec)-)on not to mrr, *hen ,ou cn h(e the enef)t- of mrr)ge *)thout n, comm)tment. Rent )h)gh -o Bo, )- -t)'' ')()ng *)th h)- !rent-. 8e -,-& h, u, co* *hen ,ou cn h(e m)'@ for freeJ Cloud+cuc@oo9land- Th)- e+!re--)on refer- to n )mg)nr, unre')-t)c !'ce *here
e(er,th)ng )- !erfect n% )m!o--)'e th)ng- cn h!!en. An,one *ho th)n@- the-eme-ure- re go)ng to -o'(e the cr)-)- re ')()ng )n c'ou%9cuc@oo9'n%. #ead as a dodo- To -, tht -ometh)ng )- dead as a dodo/ men- tht )t )- *)thout %out
%e% or o-o'ute or h- gone out of f-h)on. The %o%o )- )r% tht )- no* e+t)nct . The f'o!!, %)-@ )- n )n(ent)on tht no* )- - %e% - %o%o.
=7
#og"s life- Peo!'e u-e th)- e+!re--)on *hen com!')n)ng out -)tut)on or o *h)ch
the, f)n% un!'e-nt or un-t)-fctor,. It- %og- ')fe *or@)ng )n the fter9-'e%e!rtment. Every dog has its day- Th)- e+!re--)on men- tht e(er,one cn e -ucce--fu' t
-ometh)ng t -ome t)me )n the)r ')fe. I %)%nt *)n th)- t)me ut I'' e 'uc@, one %,. E(er, %og h- )t- %,W 2s quick as a dog can lick a dish- If ,ou %o -ometh)ng -ur!r)-)ng', f-t or -u%%en',
,ou %o )t as quick as a dog can lick a dish. 8e !c@e% h)- g - 4u)c@ - %og cn ')c@ %)-h. 4ou can"t teach an old dog new tricks- Th)- e+!re--)on men- tht -omeone *ho )- u-e%
to %o)ng th)ng- )n cert)n *, *)'' f)n% )t %)ff)cu't to chnge the)r h)t-. $or grn%fther *)'' ne(er u-e -mrt !hone. $ou cnt tech n o'% %og ne* tr)c@-. et sleeping dogs lie- If ,ou te'' -omeo%, to let sleeping dogs lie ,ou re -@)ng them
not to )nterfere *)th -)tut)on ecu-e the, cou'% cu-e !ro'em-.Loo@9the,(e -ett'e% the)r %)fference-. It- t)me to 'et -'ee!)ng %og- ')eW 6y dogs are barking- hen !er-on -,- tht the)r %og- re r@)ng the, men tht
the)r feet re hurt)ng. I(e een -ho!!)ng '' %,. /, %og- re r@)ng. #onkey work- Th)- e+!re--)on )- u-e% to %e-cr)e the un!'e-nt or)ng !rt- of o.
I %o the %on@e, *or@9 m, o-- get- the cre%)tW 2 lame duck- A !er-on or orgn):t)on tht )- )n %)ff)cu't, n% un'e to mnge *)thout
he'! )- c''e% a lame duck . Some n@- h(e ecome 'me %uc@- recent',.
orgn):e%. e nee% to get our %uc@- )n ro* )f *e *nt our !roect to -uccee%. Take to something like a duck to water- If ,ou take to something like a duck to water
,ou %o )t ntur'', n% e-)', *)thout fer or he-)tt)on. hen So!h)e f)r-t tr)e% -@))ng -he too@ to )t ')@e %uc@ to *ter. Eagle eye -Someone *ho h- eagle eye -ee- or not)ce- th)ng- more e-)', thn other-.
Ton, *)'' he'! u- f)n% )t9 he- got eg'e e,eW Elephant in the room- A !ro'em tht no one *nt- to %)-cu-- ut )- -o o()ou- tht )t
cnnot e )gnore% )- c''e% elephant in the room. Let- fce )t H h)- *or@ )un-t)-fctor,. Tht- the e'e!hnt )n the room tht *e nee% to %)-cu--. .ish out of water- If ,ou fee' ')@e fish out of water ,ou fee' uncomfort'e ecu-e of
n unfm)')r -)tut)on or unfm)')r -urroun%)ng-. A- non9go'fer I fe't ')@e f)-h out of *ter t the c'uhou-e. =?
%ave other fish to fry- A !er-on *ho has other fish to fry h- more )m!ortnt th)ng- to
%o. I %ont th)n@ he'' tten% the off)ce !rt, he- got other f)-h to fr,. There are plenty of other fish in the sea- To -, th)- men- tht there re mn, other
!eo!'e u-t - goo% - the one -omeo%, f)'e% to get. The cn%)%te *e cho-e refu-e% the oJ Ne(er m)n%9there re other f)-h )n the -e. Sounds or smells fishy- If -ometh)ng sounds or smells fishy ,ou re -u-!)c)ou- out )t.
Do ,ou e')e(e *ht -he -)%J 8er -tor, -oun%- f)-h, to me. %appy as a flea in a doghouse- If -omeone )- as happy as a flea in a doghouse the, re
(er, h!!, n% conten%e%. S)nce -he mo(e% to -m''er !rtment m, mother )- h!!, - f'e )n %oghou-e. %ave a frog in one"s throat- A !er-on *ho has a frog in their throat h- %)ff)cu't,
-!e@)ng c'er', ecu-e the, h(e cough or -ore throt. Tech)ng *- %)ff)cu't to%,. I h% frog )n m, throt '' morn)ng.
tretment or )%e- re te-te%. The E%uct)on /)n)-ter h(e een te-te% ne* regu't)onon the -tu%ent- - )f the, *ere the)r gu)ne !)g-. Run with the hare and hunt with the hounds- Th)- e+!re--)on refer- to -omeone *ho
*nt- to -t, on fr)en%', term- *)th oth -)%e- )n 4urre'. Bo '*,- *nt- to @ee! e(er,one h!!, ut Im fr)% he cnt run *)th the hre n% hunt *)th the houn%- th)t)me9the )--ue )- too )m!ortnt. !atch someone like a hawk- If ,ou *tch -omeone ')@e h*@ ,ou @ee! ,our e,e- on
them or *tch them crefu'',. Srh *tche- the ch)'%ren ')@e h*@ *hen -he t@ethem -*)mm)ng. Stir up a hornet"s nest- If ,ou stir up a hornet"s nest ,ou %o -ometh)ng *h)ch cu-e-
commot)on n% !ro(o@e- cr)t)c)-m n% nger. 8)- 'etter to the Bor% -t)rre% u! re' hornet- ne-t. %orse of a different colour- To %e-cr)e !er-on or !ro'em - hor-e of %)fferent
co'our men- e)ther tht the !er-on %oe- th)ng- %)fferent', from the other- or tht the nture of the !ro'em )- ent)re', %)fferent. I e+!ecte% to negoc)te *)th the -'emnger ut the ch)rmn turne% u!9 no* he- hor-e of %)fferent co'our. could eat a horseA To -, tht ,ou cou'% et hor-e men- tht ,ou re (er, hungr,.
Let- get -ometh)ng to et. I m -tr()ng. I cou'% et hor-eW
=<
$ne+hor-e to*n. A !'ce referre% to - one9hor-e to*n )- -m'' or)ng to*n *here
noth)ng much e(er h!!en-. I *)-h m, grn%!rent- %)%nt ')(e )n tht one9hor-e to*n. It- -uch or)ng !'ceW Straight from the horse"s mouth- If ,ou 'ern -tr)ght from the hor-e- mouth ,ou her
out )t %)rect', from !er-on c'o-e', connecte% *)th the -ource of the )nformt)on. 8o* %o ,ou @no* 6c@ h- re-)gne%J I got )t -tr)ght from the hor-e- mouth9 he to'% me h)m-e'fW %old your horses- If ,ou te'' -omeone to ho'% ,our hor-e- ,ou th)n@ the, re %o)ng
-ometh)ng too f-t n% -hou'% -'o* %o*n n% not ru-h )nto further ct)on. 8o'% ,our hor-e-W Dont ru-h )nto th)- *)thout g)()ng )t crefu' thought. !alk into the lion"s den- If ,ou *'@ )nto the ')on- %en ,ou f)n% ,our-e'f )n %)ff)cu't
-)tut)on )n *h)ch ,ou h(e to fce unfr)en%', or ggre--)(e !eo!'e. 8e *- *rne% not to o)n tht c'u ut he -t)'' *'@e% )nto the ')on- %en. 6ore fun than a barrel of monkeys- If -ometh)ng )- (er, mu-)ng or eno,'e ,ou cn
-, )t )- more fun thn rre' of mon@e,-. The T0 4u): *- more fun thn rre' of mon@e,-. 6ake a monkey out of someone- If ,ou hum)')te -omeone , m@)ng them r)%)cu'ou-
or foo')-h ,ou make a monkey out of that person. Tht- enough te-)ng. Dont m@e mon@e, out of h)mW ike a moth to a flame- To -, tht !er-on )- ttrcte% to -omeone or -ometh)ng like a moth to a flame men- tht the ttrct)on )- -o -trong the, cnnot re-)-t. 8e- %r*n to
the c-)no ')@e moth to f'me. 6ouse potato- Th)- term refer- to !er-on *ho -!en%- 'ot of t)me )n front of the
com!uter. /, -on n% h)- fr)en%- re '' mou-e !ottoe-9con-tnt', g'ue% to the com!uterW 2s quiet as a mouse- hen -omeone )- as quiet as a mouse the, m@e no no)-e t ''.
The urg'r *- - 4u)et - mou-e *hen he mo(e% roun% the hou-e. 2s stubborn as a mule- If -omeone )- as stubborn as a mule the, re (er, o-t)nte n%
*)'')ng to ')-ten to re-on or chnge the)r m)n%. 8)- fr)en%- %()-e% h)m to cce!t the offer ut ,ou @no* 6c@9he- - -tuorn - mu'e. 6utton dressed like lamb- Th)- e+!re--)on refer- to m)%%'e9ge% or o'%er *omn
tr,)ng to 'oo@ ,ounger thn her ge %re--)ng )n c'othe- %e-)gne% for ,ounger !eo!'e. The effect %oe-nt -u)t her t ''9 )t h- mutton %re--e% ')@e 'm effect.
=>
'ight owl- Someone *ho )- ')(e', n% ct)(e t n)ght n% goe- to e% (er, 'te )- c''e%
night owl . I *or@ etter )n the e(en)ng- thn )n the morn)ng. /, fr)en%- -, tht Im n)ght o*'. The world is your oyster- Th)- e+!re--)on men- tht ,ou re free n% 'e to eno,
!'e-ure- n% o!!ortun)t)e- tht ')fe h- to offer. She 'eft co''ege fee')ng tht the *or'% *- her o,-ter. &roud as a peacock- A !er-on *ho )- as proud as a peacock )- e+treme', !rou%. hen
h)- -on *on f)r-t !r):e B)'' *- - !rou% - !ecoc@. &igs might fly8when pigs have wings- To -, pigs might fly8when pigs have wings
e+!re--e- %)-e')ef or the )%e tht m)rc'e- m)ght h!!en ut re e+treme', un')@e',. /, grn%mother u,)ng com!uterJ....... $eh n% !)g- m)ght f',W Smell a rat- To -, I smell a rat men- tht ,ou -u-!ect tht -ometh)ng )- *rong or
tht -omeone )- %o)ng -ometh)ng %)-hone-t or )ncorrect. The !o')ce cou'% )mme%)te', -me'' rt out tht !'n. &acked like sardines- If grou! of !eo!'e re packed like sardines the, re !re--e%
together t)ght', n% uncomfort', ecu-e there )- not enough -!ce. The u- *(er, cro*%e%9 *e *ere !c@e% ')@e -r%)ne-. oan shark- A loan shark )- n unuthor):e% !er-on *ho 'en%- mone, t e+treme', h)gh
)ntere-t rte- to !eo!'e *ho re un'e to ot)n 'on from the n@. The ,oung )mm)grnt *- eten ecu-e he *- 'te !,)ng c@ mone, to 'on -hr@. 7lack sheep - The black sheep of the fm)', )- -omeone *ho )- (er, %)fferent from the
other- n% 'e-t re-!ecte% , the other memer- of the fm)',. /, cou-)n 6ohnn, h een to !r)-on t*)ce9 he- the 'c@ -hee! of the fm)',. Snail"s pace- If -ometh)ng mo(e- t snail"s pace )t goe- (er, -'o*',. The o'% mn
*- %r)()ng the cr t -n)'- !ce. 2 snake in the grass- Th)- e+!re--)on refer- to -omeone *ho !reten%- to e ,our fr)en%
*h)'e ctu'', etr,)ng ,ou. I thought I cou'% tru-t m, ne* co''egue ut he turne% out to e -n@e )n the gr--. %ave a whale of time- hen !eo!'e h(e *h'e of t)me the, eno, them-e'(e- (er,
much. e h% *h'e of t)me t the !rt, '-t n)ght. 2 wolf in sheep"s clothing- To %e-cr)e -omeone - a wolf in sheep"s clothing men-
tht 'though the !er-on 'oo@- hrm'e-- the, re re'', (er, %ngerou-. 8e 'oo@- @)n% ut )n fct he- *o'f )n -hee!- c'oth)ng.
==
Cry wolf- To cry wolf )- to c'' for he'! *hen ,ou re not re'', )n %nger. A- re-u't
noo%, e')e(e- ,ou *hen ,ou re'', nee% he'!. I th)n@ th)- )- not -er)ou- !ro'em -o ,ou% etter not cr, *o'f.
2. Part, * t#e *+ Cost an arm and a leg- If -ometh)ng costs an arm and a leg )t )- (er, e+!en-)(e. The
ne* hou-e co-t u- n rm n% 'eg ut *e h(e no regret-.
n% %o 'mo-t n,th)ng to ot)n )t. I% g)(e m, r)ght rm to h(e n !rtment on Centr' Pr@. 2t arm"s length- If ,ou re t n rm- 'ength ,ou %o not ''o* ,our-e'f to ecome too
fr)en%', *)th them. It- not e-, to ecome fr)en%- *)th So!h)e -he ten%- to @ee! e(er,one t rm- 'ength. 7lood/ sweat and tears- A !roect or ct)on *h)ch )n(o'(e- blood/ sweat and tears
re4u)re- 'ot of effort n% hr% *or@. 8)- -ucce-- *-nt %ue to 'uc@ )t *- 'oo% -*et n% ter- '' the *,. !ork your fingers to the bone- A !er-on *ho *or@- the)r f)nger- to the one )-
e+treme', hr%*or@)ng. 8e %e-er(e- h)- -ucce-- he *or@e% h)- f)nger- to the one *hen he -trte% the u-)ne--. 7y the skin of your teeth- To %o -ometh)ng by the skin of your teeth men- tht ,ou u-t
mnge to %o )t ut tht ,ou 'mo-t f)'. 8e !--e% the %r)()ng te-t , the -@)n of h)teeth. 7reak your back- If ,ou *or@ e+treme', hr% or !ut 'ot of effort )nto ch)e()ng
-ometh)ng ,ou break your back to %o )t. If ,ou *nt the o %one *e'' ,ou -hou'% cce!t to !, more. 8e- not go)ng to re@ h)- c@ for -uch 'o* !r)ceW Stab in the back- If -omeone -t- ,ou )n the c@ the, etr, ,ou , %o)ng -ometh)ng
hrmfu' to ,ou *hen ,ou thought ,ou cou'% tru-t them. 8)- e-t fr)en% -te% h)m )n the c@ , (ot)ng g)n-t h)m. $ver my dead body- Th)- e+!re--)on )- u-e% *hen ,ou -o'ute', refu-e to ''o*
-omeone to %o -ometh)ng. /um cn I get m, no-e !)erce%J O(er m, %e% o%,W
%e')erte', )gnore them. After g)()ng m, o!)n)on he g(e me the co'% -hou'%er. $ld head on young shoulder- Th)- e+!re--)on )- u-e% to refer to ch)'% or ,oung !er-on
*ho th)n@- n% e+!re--e- them-e'(e- ')@e n o'%er more9e+!er)ence% !er-on. hen -he 1
her% Em)', *rn)ng her ')tt'e rother to -t, out of trou'e her mum thought& Thtn o'% he% on ,oung -hou'%er-. 7eat one"s brains out- If -omeone beats their brains out the, tr, (er, hr% to
un%er-tn% -ometh)ng or -o'(e !ro'em. /, grn%mother et- her r)n- out e(er, e(en)ng tr,)ng to %o the cro--*or% !u::'e )n the ne*-!!er. &ick someone"s brains- If ,ou !)c@ -@ 4ue-t)on- out !rt)cu'r -uect )n or%er to
ot)n %()ce or )nformt)on. Cou'% *e h(e 'unch togetherJ I% ')@e to !)c@ ,our r)n- out -ometh)ng.
much tht the, cnt get on *)th *ht the,re %o)ng. I% f)n)-h the re!ort more 4u)c@', )f m, co''egue *-nt gett)ng )n m, h)r '' the t)me. et one"s hair down- If ,ou -ugge-t tht -omeone -hou'% 'et the)r h)r %o*n ,ou re
te'')ng them to re'+ n% eno, them-e'(e-. Come onW ere not )n the off)ce no*. $ou cn 'et one- h)r %o*nW 6ake one"s hair stand on end- If ,ou re -o'ute', terr)f)e% of -ometh)ng )t makes your hair stand on end- 6u-t the thought of gett)ng on !'ne m@e- m, h)r -tn% on
en%. Can"t make head or tail of something- If ,ou can"t make head or tail of something/ ,ou
cnt un%er-tn% )t t ''. 6u')e- me--ge *- -o confu-)ng I cou'%nt m@e he% or t)' of )tW %ave your head in the clouds- If ,ou have your head in the clouds ,ou re -o -ore%
, ,our thought- tht ,ou re not !,)ng ttent)on to *ht )- h!!en)ng roun% ,ou. 8e %oe-nt ')-ten to the techer9he- got h)- he% )n the c'ou%- '' the t)meW %ead over heels in love- hen !er-on f''- !--)onte', )n 'o(e *)th nother the, re
-)% to e head over heels in love. Ton,- on', )ntere-t t the moment )- /r). 8ehe% o(er hee'- )n 'o(e *)th herW ;eep a level head- If ,ou keep a level head ,ou rem)n c'm n% -en-)'e no mtter
ho* %)ff)cu't or %)-tre--fu' the -)tut)on m, e. A'' through the h)c@)ng the !)'ot @e!t 'e(e' he%. 2 swelled8swollen head- Someone *ho h- a swelled8swollen head h- ecome !rou% or
conce)te% u-u'', ecu-e of recent -ucce--. Lrr,- !romot)on h- g)(en h)m -*e''e% he%W
11
!et the baby"s head- Th)- e+!re--)on men- to h(e to %r)n@ to ce'erte the )rth of
,. hen h)- f)r-t ch)'% *- orn Tom )n()te% h)- co''egue- to 'oc' r to *et the ,- he%. end an ear to someone- If ,ou 'en% n er to -omeone ,ou ')-ten crefu'', n%
-,m!thet)c'',. /r. Bro*n )- -uch @)n% em!'o,er he '*,- 'en%- n er to h)em!'o,ee-. 6ake one"s ears burn- If -ometh)ng makes your ear burn ,ou re emrr--e% , *ht
,ou her e-!ec)'', )f the con(er-t)on )- out ,ou. The comment- I o(erher% m%e m, er- urn. &lay it by ear- Th)- e+!re--)on men- to )m!ro()-e or ct *)thout !re!rt)on ccor%)ng
to the %emn%- of the -)tut)on. 8e '*,- -uccee%- )n !er-u%)ng the !u')c of h)t'ent , !',)ng , er. 7link of an eye- If -ometh)ng h!!en- in the blink of an eye )t h!!en- ner',
)n-tntneou-', *)th hr%', enough t)me to not)ce )t. The !)c@!oc@et %)-!!ere% )n the ')n@ of n e,e. Catch somebody"s eye- If -omeone catches your eye ,ou f)n% them ttrct)(e. The
!rett, g)r' ner the %oor cught h)- e,e. See eye to eye with someone- To see eye to eye with somebody men- tht ,ou gree
*)th them. The, %ont -ee e,e to e,e on 'ot- of )--ue-. The apple8pear of your eye- If -omeo%, )- the apple8pear of your eye th)- men- tht
,ou ')@e them (er, much. /, grn%-on )- the !!'e of m, e,e. Eyes in the back of one"s head- To -, tht -omeone has eyes in the back of their head
men- tht the, re (er, o-er(nt n% not)ce e(er,th)ng h!!en)ng roun% them. $ou nee% e,e- )n the c@ of ,our he% to 'oo@ fter ,oung ch)'%ren. .east one"s eye on something- If ,ou feast your eyes on something ,ou re %e')ghte%
n% grt)f)e% , *ht ,ou -ee. A- he %ro(e 'ong the co-t he fe-te% h)- e,e- on the eut)fu' -cener,. %alf an eye- If ,ou h(e or @ee! half an eye on -ometh)ng ,ou *tch -ometh)ng
*)thout g)()ng )t fu'' ttent)on. She @e!t h'f n e,e on T0 -creen *h)'e -he * !re!r)ng %)nner. n one"s mind"s eye- If ,ou cn ()-u'):e -ometh)ng or -ee )t )n ,our m)n%- e,e. I cn
-ee the ()''ge )n m, m)n%- e,e ut I cnt rememer the nme.
12
ook someone in the eyes- If ,ou look someone in the eye or the eyes ,ou 'oo@ t them
%)rect', -o - to con()nce them tht ,ou re te'')ng the truth e(en though ,ou m, e ',)ng. 8e (o)%- 'oo@)ng !eo!'e )n the)r e,e-. 8e )- %)-hone-t. Eyes wide open- If ,ou %o -ometh)ng *)th ,our e,e- o!en ,ou re fu'', *re of *ht
,ou re %o)ng. I too@ on the o *)th m, e,e- *)%e o!en -o Im not com!')n)ng. Raise eyebrows- If ,ou raise your eyebrows t -ometh)ng ,ou -ho* -ur!r)-e or
%)-!!ro(' , the e+!re--)on on ,our fce. hen the o-- rr)(e% )n en- there *ere 'ot of r)-e% e,ero*-. Spit in one"s eye- If ,ou spit in one"s eye ,ou tret tht !er-on *)th %)-re-!ect or
contem!t. $our fther r)-e% ,ou the e-t he cou'%. Dont -trt -!)tt)ng )n h)- e,e-. .ive9 finger discount . If -omeo%, get- a five+finger discount the, t@e -ometh)ng
*)thout !,)ng. In other *or%- the, -te'. 8o* cou'% he ffor% tht *tchJ ho @no*-9!erh!- *)th f)(e9f)nger %)-count.
un-ucce--fu' ct)on n% re ner(ou- out tr,)ng g)n. 8e got h)- f)nger- -o %', urnt )n the '-t e'ect)on- tht he %ec)%e% to *)th%r* from !o')t)c-. ;eep your fingers crossed . If ,ou keep your fingers crossed ,ou ho!e tht -ometh)ng
*)'' e -ucce--fu'. Im %o)ng m, %r)()ng te-t tomorro*. ;ee! ,our f)nger- cro--e% for meW 2ll thumbs8 all fingers and thumbs- If ,ou re all thumbs8 all fingers and thumbs ,ou
re *@*r% n% c'um-, n% %o th)ng- )ncorrect',. ou'% ,ou m)n% *r!!)ng for meJ Im '' f)nger- n% thum-W Stick out like a sore thumb- If -ometh)ng sticks out like a sore thumb )t )- (er, o()ou-
or ()-)'e )n n un!'e-nt *,. The mo%ern u)'%)ng -t)c@- out ')@e -ore thum mong the o'% hou-e-. ;eep a stiff upper lip- If !er-on keeps a stiff upper lip the, cont)n the)r emot)on n%
%o not 'et other !eo!'e -ee the)r fee')ng-. hen -he her% the % ne*- -he @e!t -t)ff u!!er ')!. ick8 smack one"s lip- To -, tht !er-on )- licking or smacking their lip men- tht
the, re -ho*)ng tht the, re e+c)te% out -ometh)ng n% re eger for )t to h!!en. The, *ere -mc@)ng the)r ')!- t the )%e of the mone, the, *ere go)ng to m@e. ips are sealed- If ,ou -, tht lips are sealed ,ou !rom)-e not to re(e' -ecret. I
!rom)-e I *ont te'' n,one. /, ')!- re -e'e%W
1
#own in the mouth- hen -omeone )- down in the mouth the, 'oo@ unh!!, or
%e!re--e%. $ou 'oo@ )t %o*n )n the mouth. ht- the mtterJ 6ake your mouth water- Foo% cn make your mouth water *hen )t 'oo@- n% -me''-
e+treme', goo%. Tht %e')c)ou- -me'' from the @)tchen )- m@)ng m, mouth *ter. Take the words out of somebody"s mouth- If ,ou -, e+ct', *ht -omeone e'-e *-
go)ng to -, ,ou take the words out of somebody"s mouth. I ent)re', gree *)th. $ou too@ the *or%- out of m, mouthW 2 millstone around your neck- Someth)ng %e-cr)e% - a millstone around your neck
refer- to !ro'em or re-!on-))')t, tht ecome- ur%en or -ource of *orr,. The mone, he orro*e% ecme m)''-tone roun% h)- nec@. 2 pain in the neck- To refer to !er-on as a pain in the neck men- tht ,ou th)n@ the,
re (er, )rr)tt)ng or nno,)ng. She th)n@- her -)')ng )- !)n )n the nec@ e-!ec)'', *hen -he *nt- to o)n her !rt)e-. 7ite your tongue- If ,ou bite your tongue ,ou tr, not to -, *ht ,ou re'', th)n@ or
fee'. It *- %)ff)cu't for me not to rect. I h% to )te m, tongue.
tongue9'-h)ng. The techer g(e 6erem, tongue9'-h)ng *hen he rr)(e% 'te for -choo'. %old your tongue- If ,ou hold your tongue ,ou -t, -)'ent n% -, noth)ng. The !rt,
*- -u!!o-e% to e -ur!r)-e ut unfortunte', the ')tt'e o, cou'%nt ho'% h)- tongue. $n the tip of your tongue- To -, tht *or% or n n-*er )- on the t)! of ,our tongue
men- tht ,oure -ure ,ou @no* )t ut h(e %)ff)cu't, f)n%)ng )t. ht- the ctor nmeJ )tW I @no* )t9)t- on the t)! of m, tongue. Tongue in cheek- If ,ou %e-cr)e remr@ - tongue in cheek ,ou men tht )t )- not
ment to e t@en -er)ou-', )t )- ment to e funn, or )ron)c. Peter- remr@ *- t@en more -er)ou-', thn )nten%e%. It *- -u!!orte% to e tongue )n chee@. Tongues are wagging- hen tongue- re *gg)ng !eo!'e re eg)nn)ng to go--)! or
-!re% rumour- out -omeone- !r)(te ')fe. The !hotogr!h of the cou!'e tht !!ere% )n mg:)ne re'', -et tongue- *gg)ngW
13
3. C%*t#e,
7elow the belt- An ct)on or remr@ %e-cr)e% - below the belt men- tht )t )-
con-)%ere% unf)r or crue'. Po')t)c)n- -omet)me- u-e !er-on' )nformt)on to h)t the)r r)('- e'o* the e't. Tighten your belt- If ,ou nee% to tighten your belt ,ou mu-t -!en% ,our mone,
crefu'',. Another )''J I'' h(e to t)ghten m, e't th)- monthW :nder one"s belt- If ,ou have something under your belt ,ou h(e c4u)re% e+!er)ence
or h(e -t)-fctor)', ch)e(e% -ometh)ng. $ou(e got to h(e -ome *or@ e+!er)ence un%er ,our e't efore ,ou cn ho!e to get !ermnent o. #ie with one"s boots on- A !er-on *ho dies with their boots on %)e- *h)'e -t)'' 'e%)ng
n ct)(e ')fe. 8e -,- he'' ne(er ret)re. 8e% rther %)e *)th h)- oot- on. %ang up one"s boots- hen -!ort- !',er hangs up their boots the, -to! !',)ng n%
ret)re. Th)- e+!re--)on )- often u-e% to refer to ret)rement )n gener'. D% -,- hego)ng to hng u! h)- oot- t the en% of the ,er. ick someone"s boots- To -, tht one !er-on licks another person"s boots men- tht
the, re tr,)ng to !'e-e tht !er-on often )n or%er to ot)n -ometh)ng. 8e -trte% ')c@)ng h)- o--- oot-. 8e ho!e- he'' get !romot)on -oon. Tough as old boots- If -ometh)ng e-!ec)'', met )- as tough as old boots )t )- hr% to
cut n% %)ff)cu't to che*. cn '-o refer to !er-on *ho )- -trong !h,-)c'', or )n chrcter. e *ere -er(e% -te@ - tough - o'% oot-. Cap in hand- If ,ou -@ something cap in hand ,ou -@ for -ometh)ng )n (er,
re-!ectfu' mnner. The, *ent to the techer c! )n hn% n% -@e% for more to com!'ete the)r !roect. 2 feather in one"s cap- To %e-cr)e -omeone- ch)e(ement - a feather in one"s cap
men- tht )t )- -ometh)ng the, cn e !rou% of. The o(er*he'm)ng ()ctor, of the tem *- fether t one- c! for the mnger. &op one"s clogs- Th)- )- n eu!hem)-t)c *, of -,)ng tht !er-on )- %e%. Noo%,
')(e- )n tht hou-e -)nce o'% Sm !o!!e% h)- c'og-. %ot under the collar- If ,ou get hot under the collar ,ou fee' nno,e% )n%)gnt or
emrr--e%. If n,one cr)t)c):e- h)- !ro!o-'- 6oe )mme%)te', get-hot un%er the co''r. .it like a glove- If -ometh)ng fits you like a glove )t f)t- ,ou !erfect',. I *- 'uc@,W The
f)r-t -@)rt I tr)e% on f)tte% me ')@e g'o(eW 17
%and in glove- T*o or more !eo!'e *ho re )n co''u-)on or *or@ )n c'o-e --oc)t)on
re -)% to e hn% )n g'o(e. After the mtch )t *- %)-co(ere% tht he *- hn% )n g'o(e *)th the referee. %andle someone with kid gloves- If ,ou hn%'e -omeone *)th @)% g'o(e- ,ou tret them
(er, crefu'', or tctfu'', e)ther ecu-e the, re (er, )m!ortnt or ecu-e the, re e-)', u!-et. 8e )- -o %eterm)ne% to ot)n her greement tht he )- hn%')ng her *)th @)% g'o(e-. The gloves are offA Th)- e+!re--)on )- u-e% *hen there re -)gn- tht f)ght )- out to
-trt. The t*o cn%)%te- re out of the)r -et-. The g'o(e- re offW 2t the drop of a hat- If ,ou %o -ometh)ng at the drop of a hat ,ou %o )t )mme%)te', n%
*)thout he-)tt)on. I(e got gret fr)en%-. The,re re%, to he'! out t the %ro! of ht. ;eep something under one"s hat- To keep something under one"s hat men- to @ee!
-ecret. /, o-- h- !rom)-e% me !romot)on ut )t- not off)c)' ,et -o @ee! )t un%er ,our ht. Take one"s hat off to somebody- $ou -, th)- to e+!re-- %m)rt)on for -ometh)ng
-omeone h- %one. I t@e m, ht off to the chefW The me' *- *on%erfu'. Throw (or tossG one"s hat in the ring- If ,ou throw 8toss your hat in the ring ,ou
nnounce tht ,ou re go)ng to enter com!et)t)on or t@e u! ch''enge. 8e f)n'', thre* h)- ht )n the r)ng n% nnounce% tht he *- go)ng to -tn% for the e'ect)on. !ear many hats- Someone *ho wears many hats h- to %o mn, %)fferent t,!e- of t-@-
or !', (r)et, of ro'e-. Our com!n, )- -m'' -o the em!'o,ee- nee% to e f'e+)'e n% cce!t to *er mn, ht-. Caught with your pants down- If ,ou re caught with your pants down ,ou re cught
%o)ng -ometh)ng % or for)%%en. Our ne)ghour- *ere cught )nterfer)ng *)th the)r e'ectr)c)t, metre9cught *)th the)r !nt- %o*n. #eep pockets- A !er-on or orgn):t)on *ho has deep pockets h- 'ot of mone,.
An%,- u-)ne-- )- not %o)ng *e'' t the moment. 8e -,- he nee%- fr)en% *)th %ee! !oc@et. %ave somebody in your pocket- If ,ou h(e )nf'uence or !o*er o(er -omeone ,ou have them in your pocket . 8e *- %ec're% not gu)'t, ut e(er,one @ne* tht he h% the
)nur, )n h)- !oc@et.
1?
$ut of your own pocket- If ,ou !, -ometh)ng out of your own pocket ,ou co(er the
co-t *)th ,our o*n mone,. Bre@f-t )- )nc'u%e% ut ,ou mu-t !, for 'unch out of ,our o*n !oc@et. Suit every pocket- Th)- term refer- to the mount of mone, ,ou re 'e to -!en% or the
!r)ce ,ou cn ffor%. The -tore offer- *)%e rnge of com!uter- t !r)ce- to -u)t e(er, !oc@et-.
generou- !er-on *ho *ou'% g)(e ,ou n,th)ng heG-he o*n- )n or%er to he'! ,ou. /)@e *ou'% g)(e the -h)rt off h)- c@ to he'! fr)en% )n %)ff)cu't,. ;eep your shirt onA If ,ou te'' -omeo%, to keep their shirt on ,ou re -@)ng them to
@ee! c'm. Loo@ *e(e got !'ent, of t)me -o @ee! ,our -h)rt onW Step into someone"s shoes- If ,ou step into someone"s shoes ,ou t@e o(er o or
!o-)t)on he'% , -omeone e'-e efore ,ou. )'')m h- een tr)ne% to -te! )nto h)fther- -hoe- *hen he ret)re-. $n a shoestring- If ,ou %o -ometh)ng on a shoestring ,ou %o )t *)th (er, ')tt'e mone,.
hen I *- -tu%ent I ')(e% on -hoe-tr)ng. %ave an ace up one"s sleeve- If ,ou have an ace up your sleeve ,ou h(e -ometh)ng )n
re-er(e *)th *h)ch ,ou cn g)n n %(ntge. Im *e'' !re!re% for the negot)t)on-. I(e got n ce u! m, -'ee(e. augh up your sleeve- If ,ou laugh up your sleeve ,ou re -ecret', mu-e% t nother
!er-on- !ro'em- or %)ff)cu't)e-. Tom fe't tht h)- e+!'nt)on *- confu-)ng n% tht h)- co''egue *- 'ugh)ng u! h)- -'ee(e. Roll up your sleeves- hen ,ou roll up your sleeves ,ou get re%, for hr% *or@. To
)ncre-e our mr@et -hre *e'' h(e to ro'' u! our -'ee(e- n% f)n% ne* cu-tomer-. 7lack tie event- Th)- e+!re--)on refer- to form' e(ent t *h)ch men re re4u)re% to
*er %)nner c@et or tu+e%o n% 'c@ o* t)e. I nee% to @no* )f )t- go)ng to e c-u' get9together or 'c@ t)e e(ent.
1<
4. C*%*ur,
7lack and white- To -, tht -ometh)ng )- 'c@ n% *h)te men- tht there )- *r)tten
!roof of )t. It- n o')gt)on& It- *r)tten )n 'c@ n% *h)te )n ,our contrct. 7lue in the face- If ,ou %o -ometh)ng unt)' ,oure blue in the face ,ou tr,
un-ucce--fu'', to %o -ometh)ng for 'ong t)me. I e+!')ne% the -)tut)on unt)' I * 'ue )n the fce ut -he *ou'%nt chnge her m)n%. Scream blue murder- Someone *ho screams blue murder -hout- or com!')n- (er,
'ou%', - )f -ometh)ng (er, -er)ou- h- h!!ene%. The cro*% -trte% -crem)ng 'ue mur%er *hen the foot'' mtch *- )nterru!te%. 7lue+e,e% boy. 2 blue+eyed boy )- -omeo%,- f(our)te. 8e- the %)rector- 'ue9e,e%
o,W $ut of the blue- If -ometh)ng h!!en- out of the blue )t h!!en- une+!ecte%',. I h%
ner', g)(en u! ho!e *hen out of the 'ue I *- offere% o. 7rown as a berry- To -, tht -omeone )- as brown as a berry men- tht the, re (er,
tnne%. I et -he ', )n the -un '' %, 'ong %ur)ng her (ct)on t the -e. She *- ro*n - err,. See the colour of somebody"s money- If ,ou *nt to see the colour of somebody"s money ,ou *nt to m@e -ure tht the !er-on )n 4ue-t)on h- enough mone, to !,
efore ,ou cce!t to %o -ometh)ng. I *nt to -ee the co'our of h)- mone, efore -h)!!)ng the goo%-. Show one"s true colours- hen !er-on -ho*- the)r co'or- the)r eh()our re(e'-
the)r re' nture n% -ho*- the)r 4u')t)e- n%Gor *e@ne--e-. In t)me- of cr)-)- !eo!'e -ho* the)r true co'our-.
*h)ch -hou'% not e m)--e%. $ou -hou'% not m)-- th)- go'%en o!!ortun)t, of -)tt)ng for -cho'r-h)! to -tu%, ro%W
-ometh)ng )- c''e% the golden rule. hen tr(e')ng ro% the go'%en ru'e )- to re-!ect the 'oc' cu-tom-.
gr%ener. She re'', h- got green f)nger-.
%o -ometh)ng. ere re%, to 'unch the cm!)gn - -oon - *e get the green ')ght. 1>
8e'en- %e-@mte *- green *)th en(, *hen 8e'en got the h)ghe-t gr%e )n the c'--.
the -mrte-t gu, I(e e(er met. 8e- got 'ot- of gre, mtter. &ink elephants. Th)- term refer- to h''uc)nt)on- or -trnge )mg)nr, th)ng- -een ,
!eo!'e - re-u't of he(, %r)n@)ng or the u-e of nrcot)c-. No more %r)n@- for me !'e- other*)-e I'' e -ee)ng !)n@ e'e!hnt-. Red 9hn%e%. If !er-on )- cught red+handed the, re c''e% *h)'e the, re %o)ng
-ometh)ng *rong or )''eg'. The o, *- cught re%9hn%e% -te')ng choco'te )n the -u!ermr@et. Red tape. The term red tape refer- to off)c)' ru'e- n% ureucrt)c !!er*or@ tht
!re(ent th)ng- from e)ng %one 4u)c@',. If there *-nt -o much re% t!e the com!n, *ou'% e u! n% runn)ng 're%,. &aint the town red . If ,ou paint the town red ,ou go out n% eno, ')(e', e(en)ng )n
r- n)ght c'u- etc. To ce'erte the ()ctor, the tem- -u!!orter- !)nte% the to*n re%. Roll out the red carpet . To ro'' out the re% cr!et men- to g)(e -!ec)' tretment to n
)m!ortnt or honoure% ()-)tor. The mngement )- go)ng to ro'' out the re% cr!et for the ()-)t of the Noe' !r):e *)nner. See red . If -omeone sees red the, -u%%en', ecome (er, ngr, or nno,e% out
-ometh)ng. D)-cr)m)nt)on of n, @)n% m@e- me -ee re%W Silver lining . A silver lining refer- to the goo% or !'e-nt -)%e9effect- of n un!'e-nt
-)tut)on. Every cloud has a silver lining )- !ro(er *h)ch men- tht there )- !o-)t)(e or he'!fu' -)%e to e(er, un!'e-nt -)tut)on. Silver spoon. To -, tht -omeone *- orn *)th silver spoon )n the)r mouth men-
tht the)r fm)', )- (er, r)ch n% !r)()'ege%. ;te *- orn *)th -)'(er -!oon )n her mouth her fm)', )- the r)che-t )n the to*n. !hite Christmas. A white Christmas )- *hen )t -no*- t Chr)-tm- n% the groun% )-
*h)te. e h(ent h% *h)te Chr)-tm- n% the groun% )- *h)te. !hite as ghost8 white as sheet . A !er-on *ho )- white as ghost 'oo@- (er, !'e n%
fr)ghtene%. hen -he -* tht *fu' cc)%ent -he ecme - *h)te - gho-t.
1=
:.F**
2pple+pie order . If -ometh)ng )- n apple+pie order )t )- (er, *e''9orgn):e% or )n
!erfect or%er. The, m%e -ure the hou-e *- )n !!'e9!)e or%er efore the)r !rent- *)'' go nn-W
*)'' go nn-W 7e full of beans. A !er-on *ho )- full of beans )- 'o(e', ct)(e n% he'th,. The %og
*- ')tt'e -u%ue% ,e-ter%, ut -he- fu'' of en- to%,. Spill the beans. If ,ou -!)'' the en- ,ou re(e' -ecret or t'@ out -ometh)ng
!r)(te. Come onW S!)'' the en-W ht %)% he -,J Take the bread out of somebody"s mouth- If ,ou t@e the re% of -omeo%,- mouth
,ou t@e *, the)r men- of ern)ng ')()ng. The %ec)-)on to n -treet (en%or- too@ the re% out of the mouth- of mn, !eo!'e. That takes the biscuitsA Th)- e+!re--)on refer- to -ometh)ng (er, )rr)tt)ng or nno,)ng.
After *)t)ng for n hour *e *ere to'% tht there *ere no -et- 'eft. Tht re'', too@ the )-cu)t-W 7utter someone up- hen ,ou utter -omeone u! ,ou f'tter them or ,ou re (er, n)ce
to them e-!ec)'', )f ,ou *nt to ot)n -ometh)ng. 8e *- -o @een to get the o tht he -!ent h)- t)me utter)ng u! the o--. 2 piece of cake- To refer to -ometh)ng - a piece of cake/ men- tht ,ou con-)%er )t to
e (er, e-,. The Eng')-h te-t *- !)ece of c@e. %ave your cake and eat it- To -, tht -omeone *nt- to have their cake and eat it
men- tht the, *nt the %(ntge- of t*o 'ternt)(e -)tut)on- *hen on', one ) !o--)'e. $ou h(e to m@e 'ot- of -cr)f)ce- to ch)e(e )n ')fe. $ou cnt h(e ,our c@e n% et )tW Sell like hot cakes. Th)ng- tht sell like hot cakes -e'' 4u)c@', or )n 'rge 4unt)t)e-.
Due to the 6nur, -'e- the utumn co''ect)on -o'% ')@e hot c@e-. Champagne taste on beer budget . Someone *ho ')@e- e+!en-)(e th)ng- tht the, cnnot
ffor% h- chm!gne t-te on eer u%get. E( orro*- mone, to u, e+!en-)(e %e-)gner- c'othe-9 chm!gne t-te on eer u%get. 7ig cheese. Th)- refer- to !er-on *ho h- 'ot of !o*er n% )nf'uence )n n
orgn):t)on. Tom- fther )- )g chee-e )n the o)' )n%u-tr,. 11
ike chalk and cheese. T*o !eo!'e *ho re ')@e ch'@ n% chee-e re com!'ete',
%)fferent from ech other. A'though the, re t*)n- the, re ')@e ch'@ n% chee-e. Cheesed off . If -omeone )- chee-e% off *)th -ometh)ng the, re nno,e% ore% or
fru-trte%. 6u')e )- -o'ute', chee-e% off *)th her o. ife is 1ust a bowl of cherriesW Th)- e+!re--)on men- tht ')fe )- !'e-nt n%
uncom!')cte%. No* tht he- ret)re% m, grn%fther often -,- ')fe )- u-t o*' of cherr)e-W $ld chestnut . A -tor, o@e or n )%e tht h- een re!ete% -o often tht )t h- 'o-t )t-
no(e't, )- referre% to - o'% che-tnut. The -tor, out h)- ot c!-):)ng h- ecome n o'% che-tnut. That"s the way the cookie crumbles. Th)- e+!re--)on men- tht )- the *, th)ng- re
n% noth)ng cn e %one out )t9 tht- ')fe. Peo!'e re orn n% %)e tht- the *, the coo@)e crum'e-. Cream rises to the top. Th)- e+!re--)on men- tht -omeone or -ometh)ng e+ce!t)on'',
goo% *)'' e(entu'', ttrct ttent)on or -tn% out from the re-t u-t - crem r)-e- to the to! )n coffee or te. I @ne* ,ou *ou'% -uccee%. A- the -,)ng goe- crem r)-e- to the to!. Cool as a cucumber . A !er-on *ho )- as cool as a cucumber )- !er-on *ho )- not
n+)ou- ut re'+e% n% non9emot)on'. After '' tho-e cr)t)c)-m- from h)- o-- he mnge% to rem)n - coo' - cucumer. 'est egg . If ,ou h(e ne-t egg ,ou h(e re-er(e of mone, *h)ch ,ou !ut -)%e for
future nee%-. Our !rent- con-)%er the mone, from the -'e of the)r hou-e - ne-t egg for the)r o'% ge. %ave all your eggs in one basket . If ,ou have all your eggs in one basket ,ou %e!en%
on one !'n or one -ource of )ncome. If ,ou )n(e-t ,our -()ng- )n one n@ ,ou'' h(e '' ,our egg- )n one -@et. .ood for thought . If -ometh)ng g)(e- ,ou food for thought )t m@e- ,ou th)n@ (er, hr%
out -ometh)ng. The %ocumentr, on !o(ert, )n the *or'% re'', g(e me foo% for thought. ow9hng)ng fru)t. To refer to -ometh)ng - 'o*9hng)ng fru)t men- tht )t )- trget
tht cn e e-)', reche% or go' tht cn e ccom!')-he% *)th m)n)mum of effort. Teenger- re 'o*9hng)ng fru)t for f-h)on'e mo)'e %e()ce-.
111
&lay gooseberry. If ,ou !', goo-eerr, ,ou o)n or ccom!n, t*o !eo!'e *ho h(e
romnt)c re't)on-h)! n% *nt to e 'one. The, )n()te% me to o)n them ut I %)%nt *nt to !', goo-eerr,. Sour grapes. To -, tht -omeone- tt)tu%e )- -our gr!e- men- tht the, re tr,)ng to
m@e other- e')e(e tht -ometh)ng tht the, cnnot h(e )- of no )m!ortnce. hen -he %)%nt get the o -he -)% tht -he *-nt )ntere-te% )n )t n,*, ut tht- u-t -our gr!e-W cing on the cake. If -ometh)ng )- referre% to - icing on the cake )t )- n e+tr enef)t
tht m@e- goo% -)tut)on e(en etter. #oo% ne*-W I got the o…. n% the )c)ng on the c@e )- tht I got com!n, cr tooW 6oney for 1am. A (er, e-, *, of ern)ng mone, )- c''e% money for 1am. A'' ,ou(e
got to %o )- hn% out rochure-. It- mone, for mW t"s no use crying over spilt milk . Th)- e+!re--)on men- tht )t )- u-e'e-- to com!')n or
h(e regret- out -ometh)ng tht )- %one n% cnnot e chnge%. Somet)me- I regret not cce!t)ng the offer ut )t- no u-e cr,)ng o(er -!)'t m)'@.
foo')-h eccentr)c or m%. hen he -* h)- cr %mge% he com!'ete', *ent nut- $live branch. If !er-on or orgn):t)on ho'%- out n o')(e rnch to nother the,
-ho* tht the, *nt to en% %)-greement n% m@e !ece. The !rote-ter- f)n'', cce!te% the o')(e rnch e+ten%e% to them.
!ro%uce- n un%e-)r'e re-u't. 6ne orgn):e% tre-ure hunt )n the !r@ for the @)% ut )t '' *ent !er9-h!e% n% e(er,one *- %)-!!o)nte%. ike two peas in a pod . To -, tht t*o !eo!'e re ')@e t*o !e- )n !o% men- tht
the, re (er, -)m)'r )n !!ernce. It *-nt %)ff)cu't to )%ent)f, the rother-9 the, *ere ')@e t*o !e- )n !o%. %ot potato. To refer to -uect - hot !otto men- tht )- (er, -en-)t)(e n%
contro(er-)' mtter *h)ch )- %)ff)cu't to %e' *)th. The ne* Pr)me /)n)-ter h-nt een confronte% *)th n, hot !ottoe- ,et. Easy as pie . To -, tht -ometh)ng )- easy as pie men- tht )t )- (er, e-, to %o. 8o*
%)% the Eng')-h te-t goJ No !ro'em9)t *- - e-, - !)eW &lum in your mouth. Someone *ho -!e@- *)th n u!!er c'-- ccent )- -)% to h(e plum in their mouth. 8e -!e@- u-t ')@e n r)-tocrt9*)th !'um )n h)- mouthW
112
Couch potato. If ,ou refer to -omeone - couch !otto ,ou cr)t)c):e them for -!en%)ng
'ot of t)me -)tt)ng n% *tch)ng te'e()-)on. Dont e -uch couch !ottoW There re etter *,- of -!en%)ng ,our t)me thn )n front of the T0. 6ouse potato. Th)- term refer- to !er-on *ho -!en%- 'ot of t)me )n front of the
com!uter. /, -on n% h)- fr)en%- re '' mou-e !ottoe-9con-tnt', g'ue% to the com!uter-W Small potatoes- Someth)ng tht )- small potatoes )- con-)%ere% un)m!ortnt or
)n-)gn)f)cnt. 8er f)r-t !u')ct)on *- con-)%ere% -m'' !ottoe- ut her ne* oo@ h'e% to chnge of o!)n)on. The proof of the pudding is in the eating- Th)- e+!re--)on men- tht -ometh)ng ne* cn
on', e u%ge% fter )t h- een te-te%. Im go)ng to tr, out m, ne* D0D !',er. The !roof of the !u%%)ng )- )n the et)ng - *e '' @no*. 7ack to the salt mines- S,)ng tht ,ou h(e to go c@ to the -'t m)ne- )- humorou-
*, of t'@)ng out return)ng to *or@ u-u'', *)th -ome re'uctnce. e get t*o %,off t Chr)-tm- n% then )t- c@ to the -'t m)ne-W Take something with a grain of salt- To -, tht cert)n )nformt)on -hou'% e taken with a grain of salt men- tht ,ou %out the ccurc, of the )nformt)on. I her% tht the
tu)t)on fee- re go)ng to e re%uce% ut tht -hou'% e t@en *)th gr)n of -'t. Soup to nuts- If ,ou %o -ometh)ng from soup to nuts ,ou %o )t '' the *, through from
the eg)nn)ng to the en% ')@e from the f)r-t to '-t cour-e of me' . She to'% u- the *ho'e -tor, from -ou! to nut-. .irst water- Someth)ng tht )- of the f)r-t *ter )- of the f)ne-t or mo-t e+ce!t)on'
4u')t, ')@e e)ng com!re% to %)mon% . The ()o')n)-t g(e !erformnce tht *the f)r-t *ter. %old water- If n e+!'nt)on or rgument %oe- not ho'% *ter )t %oe- not -tn% u! to
cr)t)c' e+m)nt)on n% cn e -ho*n to e unfoun%e%. The re-on- g)(en for the go(ernment- ne* me-ure- u-t %o not ho'% *ter. 6ake your mouth water- Foo% cn m@e ,our mouth *ter *hen )t 'oo@- n% -me''-
e+treme', goo%. Tht %e')c)ou- -me'' from the @)tchen )- m@)ng m, mouth *ter. Test the water8waters- If ,ou te-t the *terG*ter- ,ou tr, to f)n% out ho* cce!t'e or
-ucce--fu' -ometh)ng )- efore ecom)ng )n(o'(e% )n )t. $ou -hou'% go to g,m c'-- to te-t the *ter efore enro'')ng. ( 4ou can"t put G new wine in old bottles- Th)- e+!re--)on men- tht ,ou -hou'% not tr,
to com)ne ne* conce!t- or )nno(t)on- *)th o'% or 'ong9e-t')-he% frme*or@ -,-tem. 11
$ou'' ne(er get tht !rogrm to *or@ on ,our fther- o'% com!uter9,ou cnt !ut ne* *)ne )n o'% ott'e-.
. 0*ne+
7ack+of+the envelope calculation- Th)- e+!re--)on refer- to 4u)c@ !!ro+)mte
c'cu't)on %one )nform'', - on the c@ of n en(e'o!e. I %ont nee% the e+ct mount. $ou u-t g)(e me c@9of9the en(e'o!e. 7et your bottom dollar- If ,ou bet your bottom dollar on -ometh)ng ,ou re -o'ute',
cert)n of )t. 6c@ )- (er, !unctu'. $ou cn et ,our ottom %o''r he'' e there t = oc'oc@ on the %ot. $n the bread line- Peo!'e *ho ')(e on the re% ')ne h(e (er, 'o* )ncome or re',
enough mone, to -ur()(e. Due to recent cr)-)- there re more !eo!'e on the re%')ne thn e(er efore. 7urn your fingers- If ,ou burn your fingers or get ,our f)nger- urnt ,ou -uffer
f)nnc)'', - re-u't of foo')-h eh()our. 8e et '' h)- mone, on tht hor-e he urnt h)- f)nger- g)n. Cash in your chips- If ,ou c-h )n ,our ch)!- ,ou -e'' -ometh)ng e-!ec)'', -hre-
e)ther ecu-e ,ou nee% the mone, or ecu-e ,ou th)n@ the ('ue )- go)ng to f''. An%, c-he% )n h)- ch)!- - -oon - u-)ne-- -trte% to -'o* %o*n. Chicken feed- An mount of mone, con-)%ere% -m'' or un)m!ortnt )- c''e% chicken feed . I got o %ur)ng the ho')%,- ut the !, *- ch)c@en fee%. $ther side of the coin- hen ,ou *nt to ment)on %)fferent or contr%)ctor, -!ect of
-)tut)on ,ou refer to other -)%e of the co)n. The hou-e )- 'o(e', n% -!c)ou- ut the other -)%e of the co)n )- tht )t )- fr from -ho!- n% -choo'-. Cost the earth- If -ometh)ng costs the earth )t )- (er, e+!en-)(e )n%ee%. She *er-
%e-)gner c'othe- tht mu-t co-t the erthW Cut one"s losses- If ,ou en% or *)th%r* from -ometh)ng tht )- 're%, f)')ng )n or%er
to re%uce the 'o-- of mone, t)me or effort )n(e-te% )n )t ,ou cut your losses. The !roect )- he%)ng for f)'ure. Let- cut our 'o--e- efore )t- too 'te. #own payment- hen -omeone m@e- down payment the, !, !rt of the tot'
mount gree% *hen -)gn)ng !urch-e %e' or contrct. Emm n% Pu' re e+c)te%. The, !ut %o*n !,ment on the)r f)r-t hou-e ,e-ter%,. 113
me' or concert. $oung !eo!'e to%, ten% to go Dutch *hen the, go out together. Eat8 dip into one"s savings- If ,ou eat or dip into your savings ,ou -!en% !rt of the
mone, ,ou h(e !ut -)%e for future u-e. I h% to %)! )nto m, -()ng- to h(e the cr re!)re%. .eed the ;itty- If ,ou feed the ;itty ,ou contr)ute to co''ect)on of mone, c''e%
@)tt, )n or%er to he'! goo% cu-e. Come on9e(er, ')tt'e he'!-. $ou cn ffor% to fee% the ;)tt, for goo% cu-eW .eel the pinch- hen -omeone feels the pinch the, eg)n to -uffer from 'c@ of
mone,. )th the %ro! )n tour)-m hote'- n% re-turnt- re eg)nn)ng to fee' the !)nch. $n the house- Someth)ng *h)ch )- on the house )- offere% free of chrge u-u'', )n
r or re-turnt. The ne* o*ner offere% u- %r)n@ on the hou-e. tching ( or itchy G palm- Someone *ho h- itchy palm )- gree%, for mone, for e+m!'e
t)!- or comm)--)on - )f !utt)ng mone, )n the !'m of the)r hn% *ou'% e-e the )tch)ng . 8e- -)% to h(e n )tch)ng !'m9he %oe- noth)ng *)thout !,ment. augh all the way to the bank- A !er-on *ho m@e- 'ot of mone, e-)', e-!ec)'',
through -omeone e'-e- -tu!)%)t, )- -)% to laugh all the way to the bank . If *e %ont -uccee% )n rene*)ng the contrct our com!et)tor- *)'' e 'ugh)ng '' the *, to the n@. ive beyond one"s means- If -omeone lives beyond their means the, -!en% more mone,
tht the, ern or cn ffor%. The co-t of ')()ng *- -o much h)gher )n Ne* $or@ tht he *- -oon ')()ng e,on% h)- men-. 6ake ends meet- To make ends meet men- to h(e enough mone, to ')(e on. It- hr%
to m@e en%- meet on -uch 'o* -'r,. ook8 feel like a million dollars- If ,ou look8 feel like a million dollars ,ou 'oo@G fee'
e+treme', goo%. )th tn n% ne* h)r-t,'e -he 'oo@e% ')@e m)'')on %o''r-. 6oney laundering- hen !eo!'e launder money the, mnge to conce' the -ource of
)''eg'',9ot)ne% mone, -o tht )t )- e')e(e% to e 'eg)t)mte. Cert)n countr)e- h(e een ccu-e% of fc)')tt)ng mone, 'un%er)ng. 6oney doesn"t grow on trees- To -, tht money doesn"t grow on tree- men- tht )t )-
not !'ent)fu' or e-)', ot)ne%. Be crefu' ho* ,ou -!en% ,our mone, D()%. It %oe-nt gro* on tree- ,ou @no*. 6oney for old rope- Th)- e+!re--)on refer- to mone, erne% from t-@ tht re4u)re-
(er, ')tt'e effort. #ett)ng !)% for *ter)ng the gr%en )- mone, for o'% ro!e-. 117
6oney spinner- If n ct)()t, )- money spinner )t )- (er, -ucce--fu' *, of m@)ng
mone,. -h)ng cr- *- 4u)te mone, -!)nner *hen I *- -tu%ent. 6oney talks- It men- tht !eo!'e *)th 'ot of mone, h(e !o*er n% )nf'uence. In our
-oc)et, mone, t'@- 'otW 6ore money than sense- If ,ou h(e more money than sense ,ou h(e 'ot of mone,
*h)ch ,ou *-te , -!en%)ng )t )n foo')-h mnner. 8e ce'erte% the )rth of the , , u,)ng -!ort- cr. 8e- got more mone, thn -en-eW 'ot for love or money- If ,ou -, tht ,ou cnnot or *)'' not %o -ometh)ng for 'o(e or money ,ou men tht ,ou cnnot or *)'' not %o )t un%er n, c)rcum-tnce-. I *ou'% not
tr, ungee um!)ng for 'o(e or mone,W Rake in the money- If ,ou rake in the money ,ou m@e mone, )n 'rge 4unt)t)e-. Bo-
u-)ne-- )- -o -ucce--fu' he- r@)ng )n the mone,. Throw good money after bad- Someone *ho -!en%- %%)t)on' mone, on -ometh)ng tht
*- 're%, con-)%ere% % )n(e-tment )- -)% to throw good money after bad . Bu,)ng -econ%9hn% com!uter n% then -!en%)ng mone, to h(e )t re!)re% )- thro*)ng goo% mone, fter %W 6oney"s worth- If ,ou get ,our mone,- *orth ,ou rece)(e goo% ('ue for the mount
of mone, ,ou -!en%. e ought tr(e' !-- to u-e the !u')c trn-!ort -,-tem n% *e re'', got our mone,- *orth. n for a penny/ in for a pound- Th)- e+!re--)on men- tht once ,ou -trt %o)ng
-ometh)ng ,ou m)ght u-t - *e'' %o )t *ho'eherte%', n% not -to! t h'f9me-ure-. 6oe f)n'', cce!te% to e on the comm)ttee then he cce!te% to e the ch)rmn9)n for !enn, )n for !oun%W he -)%. The penny drops- hen !er-on h- %)ff)cu't, un%er-tn%)ng or re'):)ng -ometh)ng
n% then the penny drops the, f)n'', un%er-tn%. The te-)ng cont)nue% for -ome t)me unt)' the !enn, %ro!!e% n% he re'):e% )t *- o@eW Turn up like a bad penny- If -omeone turns up like a bad penny the, !!er t !'ce or
e(ent *here the, re not *e'come or not *nte%. I tr, to (o)% 6ne ut *hene(er I go -he turn- u! ')@e % !enn,. &ick up the tab- If ,ou pick up the tab ,ou !, the )'' or !, the co-t of -ometh)ng.
There *- ce'ert)on 'unch for the grou! n% B)'' !)c@e% u! the t. &lay the market- If ,ou !', the mr@et ,ou u, -toc@ n% -hre- )n the ho!e of m@)ng
!rof)t *hen ,ou -e'' them. It- '*,- tem!t)ng to !', the mr@et ut )t- more r)-@, t the !re-ent t)me. 11?
.rom rags to riches- If ,ou go from rg- to r)che- ,ou -trt off e)ng (er, !oor n%
ecome (er, r)ch n% -ucce--fu'. B, reno(t)ng o'% hou-e- )n the r)ght !'ce- he *ent from rg- to r)che-. Rob &eter to pay &aul- If !er-on robs &eter to pay &aul the, !, one %et *)th mone,
orro*e% from -ome*here e'-e thu- cret)ng nother %et. D()% orro*e% mone, from fr)en% to co(er h)- o(er%rft t,!)c' c-e of ro)ng Peter to !, Pu'W Saddled with debt- If ,ou re saddled with debt the mount of mone, tht ,ou o*e )-
f)nnc)' ur%en. Be crefu'. If ,ou u, hou-e tht )- too e+!en-)(e ,ou cou'% e -%%'e% *)th %et for mn, ,er-. Scrimp and save- If ,ou scrimp and save ,ou -!en% - ')tt'e - !o--)'e o(er cert)n
!er)o% of t)me )n or%er to -(e mone,. The !rent- -cr)m!e% n% -(e% for ,er- -o tht the)r ch)'%ren *ou'% h(e co''ege e%uct)on. ( &ut G skin in the game- If ,ou put skin in the game ,ou -ho* ,our conf)%ence )n
com!n, , m@)ng con-)%er'e )n(e-tment of f)nnc)' comm)tment. I got goo% ne*- to%,. A!!rent', -er)ou- )n(e-tor )- *)'')ng to !ut -@)n )n the gme. Sting someone for something- If ,ou sting someone for an amount of money ,ou m@e
them !, for -ometh)ng u-u'', n %ece)tfu' mnner. Not on', *- the 'unch or)ng ut I *- -tung for 27V. $n one"s uppers- Someone *ho )- on the)r u!!er- h- (er, ')tt'e mone, or not enough to
co(er the)r nee%-. Becu-e he *- c'er', on h)- u!!er- *hen he *- h)re% he *g)(en n %(nce )n -'r,.
. S#*!!'ng
Shop around- If ,ou -ho! roun% ,ou ()-)t numer of -ho!- -e'')ng -)m)'r rt)c'e- )n
or%er to com!re the !r)ce-. $ou cn u-u'', -(e mone, , -ho!!)ng roun%. Shop till you drop- If ,ou shop till you drop ,ou go -ho!!)ng for 'ong t)me unt)'
,oure e+hu-te%. If ,ou go to Lon%on *)th 6u')e ,ou'' -ho! t)'' ,ou %ro! -o t@e comfort'e -hoe-W 2 shopping spree- If ,ou go on a shopping spree ,ou eno, ')(e', out)ng u-u'', *)th
much -!en%)ng of mone,. ;te eno,- go)ng on -ho!!)ng -!ree %ur)ng the -'e-. Shopping therapy- Th)- term refer- to the )%e tht u,)ng th)ng- cn m@e ,ou fee'
etter. A -ho!!)ng ther!, cn u-u'', cheer u! ore% teenger-.
11<
Talk shop- If ,ou talk shop ,ou t'@ out ,our *or@ or u-)ne-- )n -oc)' -)tut)on
*)th -omeone ,ou *or@ *)th n% m@e the con(er-t)on or)ng for the other- !re-ent. I ne(er go out *)th m, co''egue- ecu-e *e )ne()t', en% u! t'@)ng -ho!. !indow shopping- If ,ou %o -ome *)n%o* -ho!!)ng ,ou 'oo@ t th)ng- )n -ho!
*)n%o*- *)thout ctu'', !urch-)ng n,th)ng. I cnt u, n,th)ng unt)' I get !)% -o Im u-t *)n%o* -ho!!)ng.
. S!*rt,
7e on the ball - If ,ou are on the ball ,ou re *re of *ht )- h!!en)ng n% re 'e to
rect to the -)tut)on 4u)c@',. e nee% -omeone *ho )- re'', on the '' to he% the fun%9r)-)ng cm!)gn. %ave a ball- A !er-on *ho is having a ball )- h()ng goo% t)me or eno,)ng
them-e'(e-. e re'', h% '' t the 6ohn-on- !rt, '-t Stur%,W The ball is in your court- If the ball is in your court )t )- ,our turn to ct ne+t. ht re
,ou *)t)ng forJ The '' )- )n ,our courtW Start the ball rolling- If ,ou start the ball rolling ,ou -trt n ct)()t, )n *h)ch other
!eo!'e *)'' o)n. Let- -trt the '' ro'')ng , c'')ng on our f)r-t -!e@er. That"s the way the ball bounces- Th)ng- %ont '*,- *or@ out - !'nne% n% there-
noth)ng *e cn %o out )t9tht- ')feW. 8e %)%nt get the !r):e he e+!ecte% ut ne(er m)n%9tht- the *, the '' ounce-W .ishing expedition- If -omeone )- on f)-h)ng e+!e%)t)on the, re tr,)ng to ot)n
)nformt)on )n n, *, !o--)'e. The 'unch )n()tt)on *- c'er', f)-h)ng e+!e%)t)on to ot)n )nformt)on out h)- !r)(te ')fe. 2t the this stage of the game- Th)- e+!re--)on refer- to the current !o)nt reche% )n
!roce-- ct)()t, or %e(e'o!)ng -)tut)on. At th)- -tge of the gme I th)n@ n, further )nter(ent)on *ou'% e un*)-e.
too much or eh(e )n n e+ce--)(e *,. e nee% to !re!re the %)n)ng room for Chr)-tm- ut %ont go o(eror% *)th the %ecort)on-W 6ake the cut- If ,ou m@e the cut ,ou rech re4u)re% -tn%r% or -uccee% )n !--)ng
from one roun% of com!et)t)on to nother. After )nten-)(e tr)n)ng Srh m%e the cut n% o)ne% the tem.
11>
&addle one own"s canoe- If ,ou paddle your own canoe ,ou %o *ht ,ou *nt to %o
*)thout he'! or )nterference from n,one. 8)- !rent- thought )t *- t)me for Tom to !%%'e h)- o*n cnoe. &lay the game- If ,ou play the game ,ou cce!t to %o th)ng- ccor%)ng to ru'e- ')%
%o*n , other-. Not '' *e-)te- o*ner- !', the gme. Some %o*n'o% content from other- *)thout !erm)--)on. &lay games game s ( with someone G- If ,ou re not com!'ete', hone-t or eh(e )n *, tht
)- )n-)ncere )n-)ncere e(-)(e or )ntent)on' )ntent)on'', ', m)-'e%)ng m)-'e%)ng ,ou are playing games with someone. Loo@ -to! !',)ng gme- *)th u-. 6u-t te'' u- )f ,oure )ntere-te% )n the !roect or not. Race against a gainst the time- If -omeone )- )n a race against the time the, h(e to *or@ (er,
4u)c@', )n or%er to %o or f)n)-h -ometh)ng efore cert)n t)me. It *- rce g)n-t the t)me to get e(er,th)ng re%, for the !re-entt)on. Ride something out- If ,ou mnge to -ur()(e %ngerou- or n un!'e-nt -)tut)on
,ou ride it out . 8)- u-)ne-- *- h)t , the rece--)on ut he mnge% to r)%e )t out. Riding high- Someone *ho is riding high )- eno,)ng !er)o% of -ucce-- or !o!u'r)t,.
8e- een r)%)ng h)gh -)nce the -ucce-- of h)- '-t f)'m. Sail through through somethingsomething- If ,ou -e'' through -ometh)ng for e+m!'e te-t or n e+m
,ou -uccee% )n %o)ng )t *)thout %)ff)cu't,. 8e- (er, c'e(er. 8e -)'e% through '' h)e+m-. Skating on thin ice- If ,ou are skating on thin ice ,ou re %o)ng or -,)ng -ometh)ng
tht tht cou'% cou'% cu-e cu-e %)-gr %)-greem eement ent or trou' trou'e. e. Dont Dont ment)o ment)on n tht tht -uect -uect %ur)ng %ur)ng the negot)t)on- or ,ou cou'% e -@t)ng on th)n )ce. Swim against the tide- A !er-on *ho )- %o)ng or -,)ng the o!!o-)te to mo-t other !eo!'e swimming against the tide. Perh!- )t- ecu-e -he '*,- -*)m- g)n-t )- -)% to be swimming
the t)%e tht her oo@- re -o -ucce--fu'. Take the wind out of someone"s sails- If ,ou take the wind out of someone"s sails ,ou
m@e them fee' 'e-- conf)%ent , %o)ng or -,)ng -ometh)ng tht the, %o not e+!ect. After Srh- !re-entt)on her o-- m%e -ome negt)(e remr@- tht too@ the *)n% out of her -)'-. Two can play at that game- Th)- e+!re--)on )- u-e% to te'' -omeone tht ,ou cn eh(e
to*r%- them )n the -me un!'e-nt *, tht the, h(e een eh()ng to*r%- ,ou. /, %()ce )- tht ,ou -hou'% not hurt her the -me - -he %)% to ,ou %ont !', t tht gmeW
11=
2 waiting game- A !er-on *ho plays a waiting game %e',- t@)ng n, ct)on or m@)ng
n, %ec)-)on ecu-e the, !refer to *)t n% -ee ho* th)ng- %e(e'o! u-u'', )n the ho!e tht th)- *)'' !ut them )n -tronger !o-)t)on. 8e )- -hre*% u-)ne--mn. 8e h'*,- !',e% *)t)ng gme. =. Tr(e'9Trn-!ort Tr(e'9Trn-!ort
=ump on the bandwagon- If !er-on !er-on or orgn) orgn):t) :t)on on 1umps on the bandwagon the,
%ec)%e to %o -ometh)ng *hen )t )- 're%, -ucce--fu' or f-h)on'e. hen orgn)c foo% ecme !o!u'r cert)n -tore- *ere 4u)c@ to um! on the n%*gon n% !romote !romote )t. n the same boat- If t*o or more more !rt)e!rt)e- re in the same boat the, re )n the -me
un!'e-nt un!'e-nt or %)ff)cu't %)ff)cu't -)tut)on. -)tut)on. hen the fctor, c'o-e% %o*n the *or@er*or@er- '' foun% them-e'(e- )n the -me ot. 6iss the boatbo at- If ,ou miss the boat ,ou f)' to t@e %(ntge of n o!!ortun)t, ecu-e
,ou %ont ct 4u)c@', enough. I mnge% to get m, or%er through efore the en% of the -!ec)' offer9ut I ner', m)--e% the otW ,ou te'' -omeon -omeonee not to rock the boat ,ou re -@)ng them to %o Rock the boat- If ,ou noth)ng tht m)ght cu-e trou'e or u!-et -t'e -)tut)on. After the recent r)ot- )t *%ec)%e% not to roc@ the ot , )ntro%uc)ng -tr)ct me-ure-. 2s much use as a handbrake on a canoe- Th)- e+!re--)on refer- to -ometh)ng *h)ch )-
com!'ete', u-e'e-- or -er(e- no !ur!o-e. )th no e'ectr)c)t, refr)gertor *ou'% e much u-e - hn%r@e on cnoe. &ut the cart before the horse- A !er-on *ho puts the cart before the horse hor se )- %o)ng th)ng-
)n the *rong or%er. Bu)'%)ng -choo' efore @no*)ng the ge of the !o!u't)on ) !utt)ng the crt efore the hor-e. #rive a hard bargain- A !er-on *ho drives a hard bargain '*,- m@e- -ure the, g)n
%(ntge )n u-)ne-- %e'. Be !re!re% for tough negot)t)on- *)th Sturt9 he %r)(e hr% rg)n. #rive someone up the wall- If somebody or something drives you up the wall the, %o
-ometh)ng tht gret', nno,- or )rr)tte- ,ou. I cnt concentrte *)th '' the no)-e9)t%r)()ng me u! the *''W 7ackseat driver- A c@-et %r)(er )- !--enger )n cr *ho g)(e- un*nte% %()ce to
the %r)(er. I cnt -tn% c@-et %r)(er- ')@e m, mother9)n9'*W
12
.ender bender- Th)- e+!re--)on refer- to m)nor cc)%ent )n *h)ch there )- ')tt'e %mge
n% no )nur)e-. It- hr% to e')e(e tht -m'' fen%er en%er cn cu-e mor trff)c mW 6y way or the highway- If ,ou -, to -omeone "it"s my way or the highway ,ou re
te'')ng tht !er-on tht e)ther the, cn cce!t *ht ,ou te'' them to %o or the, 'e(e the !roect. $ou $ou %ont h(e much cho)ce *hen -omeone -,-& It- m, *, or the h)gh*,W %ighways and byways- If ,ou tr(e tr(e'' highways and byways ,ou t@e 'rge n% -m''
ro%- to ()-)t e(er, !rt of countr,. 8e tr(e'e% the h)gh*,- n% ,*,- 'oo@)ng for trce- of h)- nce-tor-. %it and run ( accident G- hen the %r)(er of (eh)c'e h)t- nother (eh)c'e *)thout
-to!!)ng to !ro()%e he'! )%ent)f)ct)on or )n-urnce n% f)'- to re!ort the cc)%ent to the !o')ce the co'')-)on )- c''e% hit and run accident . A h)t9n%9run cc)%ent %e-er(e-er)ou- !un)-hment. tht ,our ouree on the home stretch menmen- tht ,ou re $n the home stretch- To -, tht !!roch)ng the en% of -ometh)ng -uch - t-@ rce or ourne,. Dont g)(e u!9 *ere on the home -tretch no*. =ump the lights- If ,ou cont)nue %r)()ng *hen the trff)c ')ght- turn re% ,ou um! the
')ght-. It- %ngerou- to um! the ')ght-. No *on%er he *- -to!!e% , the !o')ce. .all off the back of a lorry- If ,ou u, goo%- tht have fallen off the back of a lorry the,
re -to'en goo%-. 6u%g)ng , the !r)ce of tht cmer )t mu-t h(e f''en off the c@ of 'orr,W 6ake your way ( to G- If ,ou make your way to %e-t)nt)on ,ou mnge to go there
*)thout %)ff)cu't,. %)ff)cu't,. Dont *orr,. I'' m, *, to ,our home from the -tt)on. ( &ut the G pedal to the metalmetal- hen ,ou put the pedal to the metal ,ou cce'erte or
m@e -ometh)ng go f-ter e-!ec)'', (eh)c'e. If *e !ut the !e%' to the met' *e cou'% get th)- f)n)-he% )n t)me. 2ny port por t in a storms torm- hen ,ou re )n %)ff)cu't, any port in a storm refer- to -o'ut)on
,ou cce!t *h)ch )n norm' c)rcum-tnce- ,ou *ou'% f)n% uncce!t'e. The hote' *-u-tn%r% ut )t *- c-e of n, !ort )n -torm '' the other- *ere fu''. %it the road- hen ,ou hit the road ,ou eg)n eg)n ourne,. ourne,. It- gett)ng gett)ng 'te n% *e(e
got 'ong *, to go. Let- h)t the ro%W Road rage- Aggre--)(e %r)()ng h)t- -omet)me- re-u't)ng )n ()o'ence g)n-t other
%r)(er-. A numer of cr cc)%ent- to%, re re-u't of ro% rge. 121
u- cr etc. It *- )m!o--)'e to f)n% t+) fter the !rt, -o )t *- Shn@- !on, for u-. ike ships that pass in the night- Th)- e+!re--)on )- u-e% to refer to !eo!'e *ho meet
r)ef', n% re not ')@e', to meet g)n. The t*o men met once ')@e -h)!- tht !-- )n the n)ght n% ne(er met g)n. ive out of the suitcase- Someone *ho lives out of the suitcase tr(e'- 'ot mo()ng
from !'ce to !'ce n% )- therefore re-tr)cte% to the content- of the)r -u)tc-e. Srhne* o )n(o'(e- -o much tr(e'')ng tht -he ')(e- out of -u)tc-e mo-t of the t)me. Train of thought- A -e4uence of connecte% )%e- )- c''e% a train of thought . I *-
con-)%er)ng the %)fferent o!t)on- *hen the no)-e out-)%e ro@e m, tr)n of thought.
mone, one tht re4u)re- ')tt'e effort n% )- *)thout r)-@. S)nce the ()''ge h- ecome f-h)on'e he chrge- for e(er, !hotogr!h t@en of h)- hou-e9he- on the gr(, tr)nW Travel light- hen ,ou travel light ,ou tr(e' *)th - ')tt'e 'uggge - !o--)'e. If ,ou
)nten% to go tre@@)ng ,ou% etter tr(e' ')ghtW %itch one"s wagon to a star- Someone *ho hitches their wagon to a star/ h- gret
m)t)on n% )- (er, %eterm)ne% to rech the)r go'. At n er', ge -he %ec)%e% to h)tch her *gon to -tr n% ecome r)ch n% fmou-. $n the wagon- Someone *ho )- on the *gon )- no 'onger %r)n@)ng 'coho'. No *)ne
for me !'e-e. Im on the *gon. 2sleep at the wheel- If ,ou -, tht -omeone )- asleep at the wheel ,ou men tht the,
re not -uff)c)ent', ttent)(e e-!ec)'', t cr)t)c' moment *hen ()g)'nce )- re4u)re%. hen the f)remen rr)(e% too 'te t the -cene the n)ght *tchmn *- ccu-e% of e)ng -'ee! t the *hee'. .ifth wheel- Th)- e+!re--)on refer- to !er-on *ho f)n%- them-e'(e- )n -)tut)on *here
the)r !re-ence )- unnece--r, n% - re-u't the, fee' u-e'e--. E(er,one -eeme% to h(e -!ec)f)c ro'e e+ce!t me. I fe't ')@e f)fth *hee'. The wheels fall off- hen -)tut)on get- out of contro' n% e(er,th)ng -trt- to go
*rong the wheels fall off . The *hee'- fe'' off her creer *hen -he -trte% t@)ng %rugn% cnce'')ng concert-.
122
1. /eat#er
$nce in a blue moon- If -ometh)ng h!!en- once in a blue moon )t occur- (er, rre',.
B)'' h- (er, ')tt'e contct *)th h)- rother. The, -ee ech other once )n 'ue moon. 2 bolt from the blue- To refer to -ometh)ng - a bolt from the blue moon men- tht )t
h!!ene% com!'ete', une+!ecte%. The ch)rmn- re-)gnt)on cme - o't from the 'ue moon. Chill wind of something- If ,ou fce or fee' the chill wind of something ,ou re
eg)nn)ng to encounter the !ro'em- or trou'e )t cu-e. /n, u)'%)ng com!n)e- re fc)ng the ch)'' *)n% of the rece--)on. Cloud on the hori5on- A !ro'em or %)ff)cu't, tht )- !re%)ct'e or -eem- ')@e', to
r)-e )n the future )- c''e% a cloud in the hori5on. The, re h!!)', mrr)e% n% for the moment there !!er- to e no c'ou% )n the hor):on. Cloud nine- A !er-on *ho )- on cloud nine -eem- to e (er, h!!, ecu-e -ometh)ng
*on%erfu' h- h!!ene%. hen the o-- nnounce% m, !romot)on I *- on c'ou% n)neW Come rain or shine- If !er-on %oe- -ometh)ng come rain or shine the, %o )t regu'r',
*hte(er the c)rcum-tnce-. 8e goe- to the g,m c'u e(er, %, come r)n or -h)ne. n the dark- If -omeone )- @e!t or 'eft in the dark out -ometh)ng the, re not )nforme%
out )t. The !er-onne' *ere @e!t )n the %r@ out the merger unt)' the '-t m)nute. .air+*ether fr)en%. Someone *ho ct- - fr)en% *hen t)me- re goo% n% )- not there
*hen ,ou re )n trou'e )- c''e% a fair+weather friend . I thought I cou'% count on B)'' ut I(e %)-co(ere% he- u-t f)r9*ether fr)en%. The heavens open- hen the heavens open )t -u%%en', -trt- to r)n he()',. A- -oon -
the rce -trte% the he(en- o!ene% n% the runner- *ere -o@e%. The lull before the storm- Th)- e+!re--)on refer- to !er)o% of unntur' c'm efore
%)ff)cu't t)me or ()o'ent ct)()t,. The -'e- -trt on 6nur, 1 -t . The 4u)et !er)o% efore tht )- u-t the 'u'' efore the -torm. Reach for the moon- If ,ou reach for the moon ,ou re (er, m)t)ou- n% tr, to
ch)e(e -ometh)ng e(en )f )t- %)ff)cu't. 6enn, )- t'ente% n% m)t)ou- -he '*,ten%- to rech for the moon. Chasing rainbows- Someone *ho )- chasing rainbows )- tr,)ng to get -ometh)ng the,
*)'' ne(er ot)n. She- tr,)ng to get )nto 8r(r% ut I th)n@ -he- ch-)ng r)no*-.
12
!ait for a raindrop in the drought- hen -omeone is waiting for a raindrop in the drought the, re *)t)ng or ho!)ng for -ometh)ng tht h- ')tt'e chnce of h!!en)ng.
For mn, !eo!'e f)n%)ng o the-e %,- )- ')@e *)t)ng for r)n%ro! )n the %rought. t never rains but it pours- Th)- e+!re--)on )- u-e% to comment on the fct tht *hen
-ometh)ng % h!!en- other % th)ng- often h!!en too n% m@e the -)tut)on e(en *or-e. F)r-t he forgot h)- r)efc-e then he 'o-t h)- *''et n% *hen he reche% the cr !r@ h)- cr h% een -to'en )t ne(er r)n- ut )t !our-W 2 storm is brewing- To -, tht a storm is brewing men- tht the tmo-!here )n%)cte-
tht there )- go)ng to e trou'e !ro', *)th outur-t- of nger or emot)on. A- -oon - *e -* Peter- fce *e @ne* there *- -torm re*)ng. 2 storm in a teacup- To refer to -ometh)ng as a storm in a teacup men- tht ,ou th)n@
tht !eo!'e re m@)ng 'ot of unnece--r, fu-- or e+c)tement out -ometh)ng un)m!ortnt. She @e!t o-t)ng out her !roect ut )n m, o!)n)on )t- u-t -torm )n tecu!. n the eye of the storm- If ,ou re in the eye of the storm ,ou re %ee!', )n(o'(e% )n
-)tut)on *h)ch )- %)ff)cu't or contro(er-)' n% ffect- 'ot of !eo!'e. The m)n)-ter *often )n the e,e of the -torm %ur)ng the %ete on the *r )n Ir4. !eather the storm- If ,ou weather the storm ,ou -uccee% )n -ur()()ng %)ff)cu't !er)o%
of -)tut)on. #)(en the current rece--)on the com!n, )- *ether)ng the -torm etter thn -ome other-. 6ake hay while the sun shines- Th)- e+!re--)on )- u-e% - n encourgement to t@e
%(ntge of goo% -)tut)on *h)ch m, not '-t. Succe--fu' -!ort-men re %()-e% to m@e h, *h)'e the -un -h)ne-. Snowed under- Someone *ho )- snowed under h- -o mn, th)ng- to %o u-u'', *or@
tht the, fee' un'e to co!e *)th )t ''. )th the f'u e!)%em)c %octor- n% nur-e- re com!'ete', -no*e% un%er. Teeth chattering- If ,our teeth chatter ,ou re e+treme', co'%. Are ,ou co'%J $our teeth
re chtter)ngW .ace like thunder- If -omeone h- face like thunder the, 'oo@ (er, ngr,. hen D% )-
re'', ngr, he h- fce ')@e thun%erW Tide has turned- hen tren% h- chnge% from one th)ng to nother the tide has turned . Before !eo!'e *nte% to ')(e )n re-)%ent)' -uur- no* the t)%e h- turne% n%
*rehou-e- re e)ng con(erte% )nto f-h)on'e 'oft !rtment-9the t)%e h- turne%.
123
:nder the weather- If ,ou re under the weather ,ou re not fee')ng (er, *e''. ht-
u! *)th ,ouJ $ou -eem to e un%er the *ether. ;now which way the wind blows- Th)- e+!re--)on men- tht )t )- %()-'e to @no*
ho* -)tut)on )- %e(e'o!)ng )n or%er to e !re!re% for chnge- tht re ')@e', to h!!en. Before *e %ec)%e on n,th)ng *e nee% to @no* *h)ch *, the *)n% ) 'o*)ng.
127
B. PRACTISIN# IS ;NOIN#
e -ugge-t (r)et, of ct)()t)e- tht cn e u-e% oth )n the Eng')-h c'--e un%er the techer- -u!er()-)on n% , )n%)()%u'- - n )n%e!en%ent !rct)ce.
The ntermediate
1. F)'' )n the correct co'our-. Then e+!')n the e+!re--)on- )n o'%& 'c@ green *h)te 'ue. 1. So!h)e goe- to the c)nem *n"e 'n a==== m**n. She %oe-nt ')@e )t (er, much. 2. 6c@ fe'' %o*n the -t)r- n% he ',==.an=.. a%% *&er. . Ange' %ef)n)te', #a,==.. 'nger,9e(er,th)ng )n her gr%en gro*- re'', *e''. 3. 8e )- a 't==.>he h-nt got much e+!er)ence )n th)- @)n% of *or@. 7. The @ne* tht )f -he foun% out the truth )t *ou'% hurt her fee')ng- -o the, to'% her a %'tt%e===%'e. ?. She %oe-nt *nt to -, n,th)ng unt)' -he h- -een the fct- 'n===..an == . 2. F)'' )n the g!- *)th the correct *or% from the ')-t n% then e+!')n the men)ng of ech e+!re--)on& en- c@e -ou! !otto nut-he'' te. 1. I thought )t *ou'% e re'', %)ff)cu't to coo@ tht Th) rec)!e ut )n the en% )t *- a !'e"e * …………… 2. The ch)'%ren h(e n! th)- fternoon -o no* the, re u%% * …………… . I %)%nt go to -ee the f)'m *)th A'e+ ecu-e )t %)%nt -oun% ')@e m+ "u! * ………. 3. It- (er, -)m!'e. In ………… '' ,ou h(e to %o )- c'' them n% -ee *ht the, *nt. 7. Lour re't)on- )- )t of a #*t………. )n our off)ce t the moment. ?. hene(er -he o!en- her mouth -he -eem- to %an n'g#t 'n t#e……… F)n% other Eng')-h foo% )%)om- n% !re-ente% them )n c'--.
. F)'' )n the *or%- from the ')-t n% then e+!')n the !hr-e- )n o'%& mouth f)nger -tomch tooth che-t one-. 1. /rt)n 'o(e- choco'te n% )-cu)t- he- re'', got a ,(eet……………. 12?
2. Thn@- for ')-ten)ng. I nee%e% to get t#at * m+……………. . There- -ometh)ng *rong *)th the cr ut I u-t cnt !ut m, …………. on *ht )t )-. 3. Surgeon- nee% t* #a&e a ,tr*ng………… ecu-e the, cnt 'et the -)ght of 'oo% n% )nur)e- u!-et them. 7. Im -ure -ometh)ng )- go)ng to go *rong to%,. I cn ee% 't 'n m+………….. ?. I %)%nt -, tht. P'e-e *n`t !ut (*r, 'nt* m+……….
3. F)'' )n e,e- er- or no-e n% then e+!')n *ht ech of the !hr-e- )n o'% men-. 1. e h(ent !'nne% *ht *ere go)ng to %o *e%% u-t !%a+ 't +…………. 2. Sh'' *e get the )''J I'' tr, n% "at"# t#e (a'ter`, ………….. . A!!rent', /r@ offere% to 'en% her h)- o'% cr ut -he turne #er==.. u! at t#e 'ea. 3. ;te- hou-e )- eut)fu'', %ecorte% -he h- re'', g**===..*r "*%*ur. 7. I fe't ')@e Pete (a, %**9'ng *(n #',………. t u- ut he th)n@- he- more )nte'')gent. ?. hen I to'% her ho* I m)ght e 'e to get her t)c@et to the concert -he (a, a%%………. <. I %ont @no* e+ct', *ht h!!ene% ut I th)n@ t#ere`, m*re t* 't t#an meet, t#e……………. >. It- Ne)'- f)r-t re' o n% he- -t)'' )t (et e#'n t#e…………. =. 8e- th)n@)ng out mo()ng he h- gret f't ut he, !%a+'ng t#r*ug# t#e==. *r 't. 1. I 'oo@e% e(er,*here for m, g'--e- on', to f)n% the, *ere uner m+………. '' the t)me.
7. Com!'ete ech -entence *)th the correct *or% from the ')-t. Then e+!')n ech of the !hr-e-. Are there n, -)m)'r )%)om- )n ,our 'ngugeJ ht re the,J& ht g'o(e -h)rt trou-er- -hoe-. 1. I 'o(e ,our %re-- )t- -uch eut)fu' co'our n% )t 't, +*u %'9e a=====. . 2. E')ne %oe-nt *nt n,o%, to @no* out her ne* o ,et -o 9ee! 't uner +*ur====.. . . She- -o o--,. I th)n@ )t- o()ou- *ho (ear, t#e====. )n her fm)',. 12<
3. I *ou'%nt *nt t* e 'n 0'9e`,===== *hen h)- o-- f)n%- out he *-nt re'', -)c@ '-t *ee@. 7. If the %e' goe- *rong he ', g*'ng t* %*,e #',====.. .
?. /tch the !)r- of *or%- o)ne% *)th n% then u-e the !hr-e- to com!'ete the -entence-& -fe ')(e c'en h)t '* r)ght n% run
or%er t)%, *rong -oun% *e''
1. The m)--)ng c')mer *- foun% t*o %,- 'ter…………… . 2. Ch)'%ren h(e to e tught the %)fference et*een…………… t ,oung ge. . She *- @noc@e% o(er )n n………….. cc)%ent. 3. A !o')cemn- o )- to m)nt)n……………….. . 7. I h(ent -een h)m -)nce he *ent to Amer)c t*ent, ,er- go ut I @no* he-…………. . ?. She -!en%- 'ot of t)me %o)ng hou-e*or@. 8er f't )- '*,-…
<. /tch the )%)om- to the -!ort-& foot'' -*)mm)ng o+)ng. ht %o ,ou th)n@ ech )%)om- men-J 1. to e thro*n )n t the %ee! en%………. 2. to e on the ro!e-………….. . to thro* )n the to*e'……….. 3. to h)t -. e'o* the e't……….. 7. to mo(e the go'!o-t-………… ?. to o+ -. )nto corner……… <. to e out of one- %e!th………. >. to e on the ''…………..
>. /tch the !hr-e- )n o'% to the %ef)n)t)on-. 8(e ,ou got n, -)m)'r )%)om-G!hr-e- )n ,our 'ngugeJ 8o* %o the, com!re *)th tho-e )n the e+rc)-e e'o*J cr)t)c):e
u-, n% ct)(e
ecome %)-!!o)nte%
e @)n%
not -ho* grt)tu%e for
%m)re rem)n c'm
not mo(e
12>
1. I re'', ta9e m+ #at * to tho-e eco9*rr)or-. At 'e-t the, re -tn%)ng u! for *ht the, e')e(e )n. 2. 8e- e+hu-te% he- een *n t#e g* '' %,. . If ,ou u-t #*% ,t'%% for m)nute I cn e+!')n e(er,th)ng to ,ou. 3. She m, -eem -tr)ct ut un%erneth -he h- a #eart * g*%. 7. I %ont @no* *h, -he *- h()ng a g* t Ste(e. It *-nt h)- fu't. ?. En()ronment')-t- mu-tnt %*,e #eart e(en *hen )t -eem- ')@e -ome !eo!'e re )gnor)ng them. <. Im h!!, to he'! her out ut I %ont *nt to e ta9en *r grante. >. /rt)n 9e!t #', #ea n% %)%nt !n)c %e-!)te the cho- roun% h)m.
=. Un%er')ne the correct *or% n% then e+!')n the !hr-e-& 1. Tht- *ht *e ')@e out Phoee. She- *)'')ng to 'en% an ear8eye n% g)(e her %()ce. 2. It- er', days8times ,et. Pete h- not ,et m%e h)- %ec)-)on. . I cnt e')e(e ,oure go)ng on cru)-e th)- -ummer )t mu-t e co-t)ng the fortune8earth.
3. $ou h(e to -ee tht ne* f)'m t the R)'to I *- on the corner8edge of m, -et unt)' the (er, en%. 7. ere f)n%)ng )t re'', %)ff)cu't to m@e en%- meet8together -)nce 6ohn 'o-t h)- o t the fctor,.
1. Un%er')ne the correct *or% n% then e+!')n ech of the !hr-e-& 1. Pu')-h)ng h)- ne* coo@er, oo@ h- rought h)m )nto the !u')c eye8tongue. 2. 8)- grn%!rent- *ou'% te'' h)m '' -ort- of -tor)e- out the good8past o'% %,-. . 6ne )- (er, h!!, *)th her ne* o - chef. She -eem- to h(e foun% her !'ce )n the sky8sun. 3. The com!n, %onte% V 7 to fee% the ch)'%ren *h)ch *- (er, generou- ut unfortunte', %ro! )n the sea8ocean com!re% to *ht the, ctu'', nee%.
12=
The :pper+intermediate evel
1. F)'' )n the g!- *)th one of the n)m'9re'te% )%)om- )n the ')-t& - -tuorn - mu'e et- ')@e hor-e -t)r u! hornet- ne-t *ou'%nt hurt f', the 'c@ -hee! of the fm)',. 1. 8e- -o gent'e he……… *ou'% ne(er hurt n,one. 2. $ou'' ne(er get h)m to chnge h)- m)n%9he-……… (er, o-t)nte. . /, cou-)n 6ohnn, h- een to !r)-on t*)ce9he-……… (er, o-t)nte. 3. e'' h(e to u, 'ot- of foo% ecu-e 6)m- com)ng to 'unch n% he……… h- 'rge !!et)te. 7. I *ou'%nt -, n,th)ng out )t9,ou'' u-t……….. cu-e 'ot of trou'e.
2. F)'' )n the correct )%)om from the ')-t& m)+e% fee')ng- no hr% fee')ng- )n h)gh -!)r)t- cheer u! on c'ou% n)ne. 1. /, -)-ter )- -t)'' ……….. fter her *e%%)ng '-t month. e+treme', h!!, 2. Im -orr, I c''e% ,ou ')r 6ne. Tht- o@,………. no fee')ng- of )tterne--. . A'' the ch)'%ren re…..- )t- the f)r-t %, of the -ummer ho')%,-. h!!, ')(e', 3. 6enn, h%……….. out go)ng to un)(er-)t, -he *- oth e+c)te% n% ner(ou-. conf')ct)ng emot)on- 7. …….W Th)ng- rent - % - the, -eemW %ont 'oo@ -o -%
. F)'' )n the correct )%)om from the ')-t& one man"s meat is another man"s poison/ looked like a drowned rat/ rat race/ smelt a rat-
1. 6on……… *hen -he got cught )n %o*n!our *)thout n umre''. got -o@)ng *et 2. The %etect)(e…….. he %)%nt e')e(e the -u-!ect- -ttement. *- -u-!)c)ou- . After th)rt, ,er- )n u-)ne-- Tom *nte% to get out of the……. n% ret)re% to the countr,. com!et)t)(e *, of ')fe 3. Some !eo!'e eno, ()o'ent -!ort- *h)'e other- hte them9…….. !eo!'e- t-te- re not '*,- the -me.
3. F)'' )n the correct !'nt9re'te% )%)om from the ')-t& thorn in my side/ beat around the bush/ through the grapevine/ lead you up the garden path/ coming up roses/ pushing up the daisies/ gilding the lily/ as fresh as a daisy/ like a weed/ a bed of roses .
1
1. E(en though -he h% een *or@)ng mo-t of the n)ght -he 'oo@e%………. not t '' t)re% 2. $ou cnt e+!ect ')fe to e…………. th)ng- re oun% to go *rong t t)me-. e-, n% !'e-nt . Tht mn h- ecome re'………… I *)-h he% -to! other)ng meW -ource of nno,nce 3. The '-t t)me I -* o'% /r. Sm)th *- f)fteen ,er- go he mu-t e……… , no*. %e% 7. 6ohn %)%nt te'' me he *- gett)ng mrr)e%9 I her% )t……… from go--)! ?. 8e- not to e tru-te% -o %ont 'et h)m……….. %ece)(e ,ou <. )th h)- u-)ne-- h()ng ecome -uch -ucce-- e(er,th)ng -eem- to e………. go)ng (er, *e'' . >. D()% )- gro*)ng……. 8e'' e t*o meter- t'' efore 'ong. e+treme', 4u)c@', =. There- no nee% for ,ou to *er m@e9u!. $oure -o !rett, 're%, tht ,ou *ou'% u-t e……… ttem!t)ng to )m!ro(e -ometh)ng 're%, ttrct)(e 1. P'e-e %ont ……..9u-t te'' me *ht ,ou *nt. (o)% the m)n
7. E+!')n the fo''o*)ng )%)om- then %ec)%e *h)ch e+!re-- !o-)t)(e 4u')t)e- n% *h)ch e+!re-- negt)(e 4u')t)e-& heart of stone/ rotten apple/ as good as gold/ to have one"s heart in the right place/ heart of gold/ pain in the neck/ wolf in sheep"s clothing/ to have a level head/ wouldn"t hurt a fly/ lame duck-
?. Tr, to e+!')n the fo''o*)ng )%)om- then m@e -entence- u-)ng them& bosom buddies/ friends in high places/ fair+weather friend/ make friends/ a friend in need is a friend indeed-
<. E+!')n the fo''o*)ng *ether9re'te% )%)om- then m@e -entence- u-)ng them& under the weather/ make heavy weather of/ weather the storm/ a storm in a teacup/ as right as rain/ come rain or shine/ for a rainy day/ chase rainbows/ put the wind up somebody-
>. F)'' the g!- *)th touch hold or contact then e+!')n the !hr-e- )n the o'%& 1. I h(ent een )n c'--room for ,er- -o Im ')tt'e *ut *===. *)th recent metho%o'og,. 2. I nee% t* get===. * Lur)e n% te'' her tht ton)ght- c'-- )- cnce''e%. 11
. Let- !rom)-e to *r)te or c'' t 'e-t once month -o *e *n`t %*,e==. *)th ech other. 3. The hrour m-ter %*,t=== *)th the -h)!. 7. P'e-e==.. t#e %'ne *h)'e I chec@ to -ee )f the %octor )- )n h)- off)ce. ?. 6ourn')-t- often "*me 'nt*==== *)th fmou- !eo!'e - !rt of the)r o.
=. ht chrcter 4u')t)e- re the fo''o*)ng n)m'- --oc)te% *)th& dog/ mouse/ mule/ lion/ fox/ owl/ snail/ peacock-
. Com!'ete the )%)om-
. No* mtch the %ect)(e- from o(e *)th the)r o!!o-)te- e'o*& f'e+)'e
-tr)ght for*r% mo%e-t foo')-h 4u)c@ co*r%',
no)-, he'th,
c. 8o* *ou'% ,ou %e-cr)e the !eo!'e e'o* u-)ng the )%)om- from .& Someone *ho& t@e- 'ong t)me to %o -ometh)ng )- )nte'')gent n% *e'' )nforme% h- no fer n% )- re%, to fce %nger %oe- th)ng- eh)n% !eo!'e- c@)- (er, rrognt
12
1. In !)r- mtch the !hr-e- to m@e com!'ete -entence-& A 1. I re'', cnt ffor% 2. $ou -hou'%nt h(e -!ent -o much . It re'', )-nt *orth 3. $ou mu-t h(e !)% 7. The, mu-t h(e ought ?. I et )t co-t <. It re'', *- *-te >. e *ere o(erchrge% =. She m@e- ')()ng 1. The, m%e 'ot of mone, B . of t)me n% mone, . ,ou n -o'ute fortune c. , -e'')ng the !)cture- tht -he !)nt%. to go out g)n th)- *ee@ e. u-)ng u! our -()ngf. *hen the, -o'% the)r hou-e g. on the ho')%, h. )t *)th the mone, the, )nher)te% ). for )t on cre%)t . for the t+) fre
11. Choo-e the correct )tem then e+!')n *ht the, men& 1. She %re--e% )n r)ght co'our- -o - to e the centre of piece8attention8one8focus. 2. Scn%' ten%- to hit the roof8road8headlines8newspaper on %)', -)-. . /o-t !eo!'e the-e %,- %emn% etter 4u')t, !ro%uct- n% -o will choose brand8code8first8business nme-.
3. /, first view8impression8look8sight of the ne* -o! o!er *- tht )t *- rther or)ng. 7. There re -ome -t,'e- tht -eem to '-t for e(er *h)'e other- re -)m!', long+ lived8well+lived8short+lived8quick+lived tren%-.
?. Some f)'m -tr- *)'' %o n,th)ng to be in the public service8light8eye8interest . 1
12. Un%er')ne the correct )tem& B- She e'ong- to (er, nc)ent fm)', -he cn trace her8pass into history c@ to the
Normn Con4ue-t. H- A 'rge numer of h)-tor)c' e(ent- h(e t@en !'ce )n the To*er of Lon%on o(er
the centur)e- )t- recorded8steeped in history. D- Ne)' Arm-trong is8made history on 2 th 6u', 1=?= *hen he ecme the f)r-t mn to
*'@ on the moon. J- hen Enr)co Ferm) -!')t he tom )n 1=3 *)thout re'):)ng )t he chnge% the course8route of history. K- #uring8Throughout history )t -eem- tht the re-on- for *r re e--ent)'', the
-me h)-tor, re!et- )t-e'f.
1. Un%er')ne the correct *or% )n ech of the -entence- e'o*. ht %o the !hr-emenJ Are there -)m)'r )%)om- )n ,our 'ngugeJ 1. C')re 'ernt the !oem , heart8mind efore the !re-entt)on. 2. If ,ou *nt to m@e the grade8result ,ou'' h(e to -tu%, (er, hr%. . Im go)ng to learn8teach tht o, a lesson he *ont forget. 3. 6co )- )n a lesson8class of his own h)- *or@ )- '*,- e+ce''ent. 7. Srh )- (er, -tu%)ou-. She- '*,- got her eyes8nose in a book . ?. In !r)mr, -choo' e(er,one c''e% me the teacher"s love8pet ecu-e I '*,- got goo% gr%e-.
. /tch the *or%-. h)ch !hr-e- cn e u-e% to com!'ete the c!t)onJ A
B
t@e
eng)neere%
to+)c
-u!!',
energ,
effect
-hort
*-te
en()ronment'',
%)fference
genet)c'',
e+t)nct)on
m@e
cr)-)-
fce
fr)en%', 13
There re no 'e'-. 8o* re *e -u!!o-e% to @no* *h)ch fru)t h- een……….. J . U-e !hr-e- from !o)nt . to com!'ete the -entence- e'o*& 1. Tonne- of………… )- !ro%uce% e(er, ,er , fctor)e-. 2. The ne* '* regr%)ng hunt)ng *)''………… ne+t month. . Becu-e of !o''ut)on of the)r h)tt mn, n)m' -!ec)e-………… . 3. Foo% )- )n……….. mn, %e(e'o!)ng countr)e-. 7. /o-t……….. goo%- re e+!en-)(e.
13. /tch the -entence- then e+!')n the *or%- )n )t')c-. h)ch of the-e )%)om-G!hr-e- re the -me )n ,our 'ngugeJ A 1. The c)t, centre comes to life 2. Chee-e goes bad )f . She- u-t killing time unt)' 3. $ou'' h(e the time of your life )f 7. A couch potato -!en%?. %aving a sweet tooth )- to B . )t- not @e!t )n the fr)%ge. . ,ou ()-)t u- )n the -ummer. c. 'me for her e)ng o(er*e)ght. %. mo-t of the)r t)me *tch)ng T0. e. her t+) rr)(e-. f. fter m)%n)ght.
. h)ch )%)om- )- )''u-trte% )n the !)ctureJ In !)r- u-e the )%)om to *r)te c!t)on. Com!re ,our c!t)on *)th nother !)r-. h)ch %o ,ou ')@e e-tJ
17
The 2dvanced evel
1. Re% the 'etter n% tr, to e+!')n the )%)om- )n o'%. Der /r, Sorr, L)one' n% I *ere -uch !oor com!n, '-t *ee@en% ut *e *ere oth fee')ng 1J *(n 'n t#e um!,< e-!ec)'', fter f)n%)ng out tht Terr, h% een 2J 9ee!'ng u, 'n t#e ar9 out the -e(er)t, of the com!n,- mone, !ro'em-. I *- -o ngr, *)th h)m. /, o*n rother9 cn ,ou e')e(e )tJ Be')e(e me runn)ng fm)', u-)ne-- 3J ',n`t a%% 't`, "ra"9e u! t* eK An,*, the morn)ng fter ,ou 'eft I *- re%)ng the !!er *hen n %(ert for *ee@ )n countr, cottge 4J "aug#t m+ e+e. It -oun%e% :J r'g#t u! *ur ,treet -o I ment)one% )t to L)one' n% fter 'ot of !er-u%)ng he f)n'', gree% tht *e oth nee%e% to J ta9e t#'ng, ea,+ for )t. e(e een here for f)(e %,- no* n% I fee' -o much etter. It- r)ght J * t#e eaten tra"9 -o L)one' n% I h(e h% enough !ece n% 4u)et to t'@ out the com!n, !ro'em- n% come u! *)th -ome -o'ut)on-. I'' te'' ,ou one th)ng9 Terr, )- go)ng to J "*me *(n t* eart# ('t# a um! *hen *e get c@W Th)- !'ce )- tru', fnt-t)c n% L)one'- J 'n #', e%ement t the moment - the r)(er ner here )- e+ce''ent for f)-h)ng. 8e got u! t 1J t#e "ra"9 * a(n to%, n% returne% t 'unch9t)me *)th n enormou- troutW I% etter go no* - *ere 'e()ng tomorro* n% I h(ent -trte% !c@)ng ,et.
1?
I'' g)(e ,ou r)ng - -oon - *e get c@.
2. /tch the )tem- *)th the )%)om- from E+.1. to re'+ to @ee! - un*re of -th c to e not - goo% - !eo!'e -, % to -to! %rem)ng n% -trt th)n@)ng !rct)c'', e )-o'te% n% 4u)et f *)th)n one- rnge of )ntere-t-G @no*'e%ge g %e!re--e% h (er, h!!,G -u)te% to -)tut)on ) to get -- ttent)on (er, er', )n the morn)ng
1. F)'' )n the g!- *)th !hr-e- from the ')-t& kept in the dark/ caught my eye/ down in the dumps/ all it"s cracked up to be
1. Sm thought he cou'% !-- h)- e+m *)thout -tu%,)ng ut he…………. *hen he f)'e%. 2. 8e *-……………. out h)- -ur!r)-e ret)rement !rt,. . The ne* re-turnt )-nt………………. )t m, 'oo@ n)ce ut the foo% )- *fu'W 3. I ought Ann -ome f'o*er- ecu-e -he 'oo@e%………………………… . 7. The eut)fu' c'othe- )n the -ho! *)n%o*…………………….. -o I *ent )n n% ought %re--.
2. Re*r)te the fo''o*)ng -entence- u-)ng the *or%- )n o'%. Do not chnge the-e *or%)n n, *,. 1. S!e@)ng )n front of n u%)ence cn e ner(e9rc@)ng ut once ,ou ecome ccu-tome% to )t ,ou'' f)n% )t e-,. ,('ng ………………………………………………………………………………… 2. /, !rtment 'oc@ h- 239hour -ecur)t, -,-tem. "%*"9 …………………………………………………………………………………. . Im t)re% of or%)nr, no(e'-. I *nt to re% -ometh)ng or)g)n'. m'%%…………………………………………………………………………………..
1<
3. e %ec)%e% to go to %e-ert )-'n% -o tht *e cou'% e-c!e from our %)', !ro'em-. a(a+………………………………………………………………………………….. 7. I *- e+treme', h!!, *hen I *on f)r-t !r):e. m**n…………………………………………………………………………………
. An-*er the 4ue-t)on- e'o*& 1. Cn -ometh)ng e * t#e eaten tra"9 n% r'g#t u! +*ur ,treet t the -me t)meJ h,G h, notJ 2. If ,ou "ame *(n t* eart# ('t# a um! *ou'% ,ou e 'n +*ur e%ementJ h,G h, notJ . If ,ou %)-co(ere% tht the hote' *here ,ou *ere -t,)ng (a,n`t a%% 't (a, "ra"9e u! t* e *ou'% ,ou get u! at t#e "ra"9 * a(n n% 'e(eJ h,G h, notJ
3. U-e the *or%- m)--)ng from the -entence- e'o* to com!'ete the cro--*or%.
A"r*,, 1 Th)- hote' )-nt '' )t-………… u! to e. 3 The Str 8ote' )- *fu' H -teer…………. of )t. < She @e!t her !rent- )n the………… out her ne* o,fr)en%.
1>
> Th)- (-e cught m,………….. t the nt)4ue -ho!. = I th)n@ the Afr)cn -fr) *ou'% e ,our e-t……….. for ho')%,.
D*(n 2 I -hou'% t@e ho')%, I nee% to get *, from )t…………. . 8e'' come %o*n to……. *)th um! *hen he f)n%- out the truth. 3 $ou cn get -nc@ n,t)me - the coffee r )- o!en roun% the………… . 7 D(e 'o(e- gr%en)ng he- )n h)-………. *hen he- out%oor-. ? The hou-e )- %)ff)cu't to f)n% - )t- off the eten………….. .
7. Th)- cou!'e h- u-t her% tht the)r %ughter )- !'nn)ng on gett)ng mrr)e%. U-e -ome of the )%)om- e'o* %)-cu-- !o--)'e re-on- *h, the, 'oo@ ngr,.
9 he% o(er hee'- )n 'o(e
9 the ee- @nee-
9 the mn of her %rem-
9 to -te' -- hert
9 '' )- f)r )n 'o(e n% *r
9 to -ee e,e to e,e
9 to t)e the @not
9 to %r)(e - roun% the en%
9 the 'c@ -hee! of the fm)',
9 the !!'e of -- e,e
1=
>. S, *hether the )%)om- )n the -entence- e'o* re u-e% correct', or )ncorrect',. Then re!'ce the )ncorrect )%)om- *)th -u)t'e 'ternt)(e. 1. She *- g'&en t#e **t '-t *ee@ n% no* -he h- to f)n% nother o. 2 .Im fr)% ,oure 'n t#e %a"9 g)n /r. 6one- H ,ou o*e the n@ V 7. .8e'en *- a %ame u"9 *hen -he -o'% her !ro!ert, t gret !rof)t. 3 ./n, -tu%ent- %'&e *n a ,#*e,tr'ng *h)'e the, re t un)(er-)t,. 7. In m, o!)n)on u,)ng -econ%9hn% cr )- u-t m*ne+ *(n t#e ra'n. ?. Our com!n, f)n'', -trte% to #'t r*"9 *tt*m fter )t- fourth ,er )n u-)ne-- n% *e !)% off our 'on. <. After Ann- fther ret)re% -he ,te!!e 'nt* #', ,#*e, n% ecme the %)rector of the fm)', u-)ne--. >. I @ne* m, r)(' t'g#tene #', e%t *hen I rece)(e% c'' from h)- '*,er. =. $ou(e een !%a+'ng ('t# 're g)n h(ent ,ouJ $ou h(ent -to!!e% ,*n)ng '' morn)ng. 1 e re'', e%t t#e !'n"# fter -!en%)ng -o much mone, on our ne* hou-e.
=. Choo-e the *or% *h)ch e-t com!'ete- ech -entence. 1. The thought of et)ng r* f)-h turn- m,…………… . A he% B -tomch C 'eg- D e'', 2. 6e--)c *- -cr!)ng the ottom of the…….. for n e+cu-e -,)ng -he h% h)r%re--er!!o)ntment. A g'-- B !)tcher C ug D rre' . D)-, -,- -he %)%nt *nt to e cho-en ut )t- u-t -our…….. -he %)% re'',. A gr!e- B 'emon- C r)-)n- D m)'@ 3. 8ro'% re'):e% too 'te tht he h% -o'% the (n too che!', ut there *- no !o)nt )n………. o(er -!)'t m)'@. A -o)ng B *ee!)ng C -crem)ng D cr,)ng 7. Ste(en tr)e% to tech h)- -on to !!rec)te o!er ut he *- u-t…………. !er'- efore -*)ne. A hur')ng B c-t)ng C thro*)ng D to--)ng
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1. Re*r)te the fo''o*)ng -entence- re!'c)ng the *or%- )n o'% *)th !hr-e- from the ')-t& kick the bucket/ am as blind as a bat/ grinned from ear to ear/ there"s life in the old dog yet/ run out of steam.
1. )thout m, g'--e- I "an`t ,ee an+t#'ng. 2. If I %ont h(e cu! of coffee *)th m, 'unch I e"*me (ea9 an a'nt , three oc'oc@. . E(er,one th)n@- tht /r. 6one- )- out to 'e ut #e`, ,t'%% a%r'g#t 'n ,!'te * #', age. 3. hen Cth, her% tht -he h% een !romote% -he #a a #uge ,m'%e *n #er a"e.
11. Loo@ t the !)cture- e'o* n% -, *h)ch )%)om- re re!re-ente%.
131
. No* u-e the )%)om- to com!'ete the fo''o*)ng -entence-. 1. 6me- @ne* he *ou'% e……………… *hen he re'):e% he *- n hour 'te for the ren%e:(ou-. 2. ;)m -)% C'r- ne* err)ng- m%e her 'oo@ -)'', ut )t *- u-t……………. ecu-e C'r *ou'% h(e 'o(e% to h(e !)r her-e'f. . hen *e *ent to -ummer cm! there *- !rt, on the f)r-t n)ght to he'!…………….. . 3. Tht c@e -me''- %e')c)ou-. It- re'',…………………………………… . 7. /, fm)', %ont !!rec)te rt -o )t *- ')@e…………………….. *hen I too@ them to the /onet e+h))t)on. ?. If ,ou…………………….. *hen u)'%)ng hou-e )t *)'' not e -fe to ')(e )n.
132
CONCLUSION
It )- *e'' @no*n tht (ocu'r, *- un%errte% )n the -tu%, of fore)gn 'ngugen% the mo-t em!h-)- *- !'ce% on c4u)r)ng -tructur' !ttern- *)thout *h)ch )t *-)% 'nguge utternce- cou'% not e con(e,e% )nto me--ge-. Not on', the h)-tor, of 'nguge 'ern)ng ut e-!ec)'', re' ')fe e+!er)ence h- !ro(en th)- *- not ent)re', true. The more (ocu'r, one mnge- to !o--e-- the more !rec)-e', the, cn e+!re-the )nten%e% men)ng.
No*%,- greter )m!ortnce )- g)(en to the -tu%, of fore)gn 'nguge (ocu'r, , -choo' curr)cu'um- - *e'' - , enthu-)-t)c techer- *ho re !reoccu!)e% *)th )m!ro()ng the)r tech)ng -t,'e.
The tech)ng of (ocu'r, h- @no*n )t- o*n %e(e'o!ment -)nce the grmmr9 trn-'t)on !!roch to the commun)ct)(e !!roch though (r)et, of metho%- n% techn)4ue- from the t,!)c' t,!e- of e+erc)-e- )nc'u%)ng mu't)!'e cho)ce *or%mtch)ng f)'' )n n% c'o:e to %)fferent t,!e- of *r)t)ng n% )nc'u%)ng %)'ogue- 'etter- or e--,-.
The current the-)- em!h-)- on the )m!ortnce of tech)ng9'ern)ng )%)om- u-)ng the four 'nguge -@)''-9re%)ng *r)t)ng ')-ten)ng n% -!e@)ng c4u)r)ng the-e -@)''- *)th the he'! of -er)e- of ct)()t)e- regr%)ng the cert)n 'e(e'- the -tu%ent- e'ong to.
Ac4u)r)ng *)%e (r)et, of )%)om- )- feture of (er, r)ch (ocu'r, tht -tu%entcn get %ur)ng the 'ern)ng !roce--. Eng')-h )- @no*n to e the r)che-t 'nguge concern)ng the numer of )t- *or%-. Some -tu%ent- *)'' f)n% un%er-tn%)ng )%)om- n% u-)ng them 4u)te e--ent)' - the, en'rge the)r (ocu'r, n% thu- the)r commun)ct)on -@)''- !!e')ng oth to trn-'t)on or )nter!rett)on. A- )%)om- re m)n', feture of -!o@en Eng')-h the Romn)n -tu%ent- *)'' ne(erthe'e-- u-e them )n !rct)ce *hen gett)ng )nto touch *)th nt)(e -!e@er-. For th)- re-on - techer I
13
h(e !ro!o-e% the tech)ng !roce-- of )%)om- through !rct)c' !er-!ect)(e tht )- the metho%o'og)c' -trteg, c''e% ro'e9!',)ng.
Among the mn, techn)4ue- of tech)ng (ocu'r, I con-)%er ro'e9!',)ng n eff)c)ent n% ttrct)(e tech)ng metho%. Stu%ent- f)n% -uch metho% (er, e+c)t)ng the, re !ut )n %)fferent -)tut)on- to *or@ out %)fferent ct-. D)'ogue- re ment to m@e -tu%ent- )mg)ne ho* the, *ou'% ct )n %)fferent -)tut)on- )n the)r %)', rout)ne.
The techer cn )ntro%uce the ro'e9!',)ng )n the !rct)c' !rt of the 'e--on fter the !re-entt)on n% efore the !ro%uct)on. Or )t cn co(er *ho'e c'-- )n *h)ch the techer )m- to get the -tu%ent- )n(o'(e% )n -!e@)ng ct)()t)e-.
Techer- *ho re )ntere-te% )n the !rogre-- of the)r -tu%ent- *ou'% !ro()%e *hte(er nece--r, re-ource- re ()''e to them )n or%er to en-ure the)r m+)mum c4u)r)ng of @no*'e%ge. A- n Eng')-h techer of h)gh -choo' I h(e ttem!te% to rene* n% m@e n eff)c)ent -e'ect)on of m, tech)ng mter)'- on cont)nuou- -)-. It *- )n or%er to meet m, -tu%ent-e+!ectt)on- n% to )m!ro(e m, tech)ng !erformnce tht I h(e -trte% th)- re-erch on tech)ng )%)om- through ro'e9!',. Stu%ent- nee% )m!u'-e n% mot)(t)on -o - to f)n% them-e'(e- eger to 'ern. Do)ng the -me @)n%- of %r)'' n% e+erc)-e- *ou'% 'e% them )nto ore%om n% 'ern)ng *ou'% ecome %ru%ge.
A- n )n-tructor n% e%uctor I h(e '*,- got to h(e -ometh)ng re%, t hn% to m@e them rece!t)(e to the @no*'e%ge tht )- to e 'erne%. An',:)ng %)fferent tech)ng metho%- I h(e foun% ro'e9!',)ng (er, cce--)'e n% f(our'e *, to g)n m, -tu%ent-)ntere-t. It )- '-o -u)t'e to '' the three 'e(e'- m, -tu%ent- re -)tute% t )nterme%)te u!!er9)nterme%)te %(nce%.
Another !!roch to the c4u)r)ng )%)om- )- to m@e -tu%ent- u-e them )n %)fferent e+erc)-e- n% ct)()t)e-. U-)ng )%)om- cn !!er t %)fferent -tge- of 'e--on& t the eg)nn)ng of 'e--on or *)th)n the 'e--on )n mn, c-e- - fo''o*9u! ct)()t,.
133
The t*o9,er e+!er)ment' -tge h- conf)rme% tht tech)ng )%)om- through ro'e9 !', u-)ng (r)et, of ct)()t)e- n% metho%- re u-efu' )n !rct)c)ng (ocu'r, - *e'' - -tructure-. The, ch''enge the 'erner- )nto e+erc)-)ng the)r memor, )nto n',:)ng the 'nguge !rct)c)ng the)r 'nguge re()-)ng *ht h- een 'erne%.
I mu-t %m)t tht )t *- not e(er, t)me I !re-ente% c'-- *)th -et of )%)om- or te+t cont)n)ng )%)om- tht the, *ou'% rece)(e them enthu-)-t)c'',. There mu-t h(e een %)fferent re-on- for the)r re'uctnce -trt)ng from the %)ff)cu't, of the t-@- the 'c@ of mot)(t)on or ecu-e the, %)% not f)n% them e+c)t)ng or u-efu' to 'o% the)r memor, *)th. To @ee! m, -tu%ent- )ntere-te% )n -uch (ocu'r, )--ue I h(e !ro!o-e% (r)ouct)()t)e- n% t-@- through *h)ch I fo''o*e% the)r !rogre--. For th)- re-on I )nc'u%e% !o--)'e te-t to h(e m, -u%ent-fee%9c@ n% to --e-- the)r !erformnce regr%)ng the c4u)r)ng of )%)om-.
U-)ng )%)om- *)th the he'! of ro'e9!', h- !ro(e% to e n eff)c)ent metho% to m@e m, -tu%ent- *re of the )m!ortnce of )%)om- - mr@- of the -!o@enG)nform' (r)nt of the Eng')-h 'nguge. Bu)'%)ng n% ct)ng %)'ogue- -e% on e(er,%, -)tut)on- *)'' g)(e the -tu%entthe !o--))')t, to e+!re-- them-e'(e- n% to f)n% the r)ght -o'ut)on to %)fferent !ro'em- )n th)- *, the, *ou'% !ro(e the)r )nte'')gence cret)()t, n% )')t, to u-e the fore)gn 'nguge -@)''- *h)ch h(e ecome more n% more !!rec)te% )n the mo%ern !roce-of e%uct)on.
The %(nce% techno'og, no*%,- the cce-- to the )nternet the numeroure-ource- on the mr@et9 Eng')-h te+too@- grmmr oo@- e+m9u)'%er- Eng')-h cour-e- or gme- on CD- n% D0D- m@e n )ncre%)'e offer for the Eng')-h techer *)th mter)'- tht cn e u-e% for tech)ng )n c'--.
I )nten% to cont)nue to u-e the ro'e9!',)ng metho% e(en *)th other ct)()t)e- - I f)n% )t ch''enge for m, -tu%ent- to !!', the)r 'nguge @no*'e%ge )n !rct)ce. I '-o )nten% to @ee! u!9%t)ng m, mter)' %t-e -o - to m)nt)n goo% n% f'uent commun)ct)on *)th the future genert)on- of -tu%ent-.
137
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