1.1 THE NATURE OF TASK BASED LEARNING
Traditional learning environments (for example, grammar translation and audio- lingual) are those where the language is taught to a group of foreign or second langu- age learners. In such cases, the focus is on the language itself, rather than on the infor- mation carried out by the language or the way it is processed and used. The teacher’s aim is to assure that students learn the new vocabulary and grammatical rules of the new language. Tas-based learning was first developed by !. "rabhu in #angladore, southern India. "rabhu believed that students may learn more effectively when their minds are focused on the tas, rather than on the language they are using ("rabhu, $%&' as cited in ittlewood, *++) !unan (*++) defines tas as a piece of classroom wor involving learners in a understanding, directing, producing or interacting way in the target language while the students’ attention is focused on activating their grammatical nowledge in order to express meaning, and in which the aim is to express meaning rather than to mani- pulate form. The tas should also have a sense of wholeness, being able to stand alone as a communicative act in its own right with a beginning, middle and an end. The topics discussed in communicative and tas-based environments are generally topics of general gene ral interest to the learner. learne r. Tas-based Tas-based learning involves those instructions in which classroom activities are tass similar to those which learners may engage in outside outside the second language language classroom. classroom. Tass Tass may be complex, complex, for example, creating a school newspaper or easier such as maing a hotel reservation (ightbrown and pada, $%%%). There are not many published examples of complete language programs which claim that they are totally based on formulations of tas-based language teaching. The literature contains mainly descriptions of examples of tas-based activities. #reen ($%&' as cited in /ichards and /oberts, *++$0 *11) maes a broad description of a tas0
“ A language learning task can be regarded as a springboard for learning work. In a broad sense, it is a structured plan for the provision of opportunities for the refinement of know knowlledge edge and and capa capabi billities ties ent entail ailed in a new new langu anguag agee and and its its use use duri during ng communication. Such a work plan will have its own particular objective, appropriate content which is to be worked upon, and a working procedure… A simple and brief exercise is a task, and also are more
complex and comprehensive work plans which reuire spontaneous communication of meaning or the solving of the problems in learning and communicating. An! language test can be included within this spectrum of tasks. All materials designed for language teaching"through their particular organi#ation of content and the working procedures the! assume or propose for the learning of content" can be seen as compendia of task$
#rown (*++$) assumes that in tas-based instruction, the main concern is not the small pieces of language, but rather the practical purposes for which language must be used. 2hereas content based instruction focuses on sub3ect matter content, tas-based instruction focuses on a whole set of real-world tass. 4nd input for tass may come from different sources such as speeches, conversations, narratives, public announcements, cartoon strips, interviews, oral descriptions, etc. 5e also states that tas-based curricula are different from content-based, theme based, and experiential instruction in that the course ob3ectives are more language based. 2hile in tas-based instruction the focus is on communication, purpose and meaning, the goals are linguistics in nature. These goals are not in the traditional sense of 3ust focusing on grammar or phonology, but they include preserving the centrality of functions lie greeting, expressing opinions as well.
$.* THE REASON OF TASK BASED LEARNING 2hy are many teachers around the world moving toward T#6 2hy are they maing the change to T#6 This shift is based on the strong belief that T# facilitates second language ac7uisition (4) and maes * learning and teaching more principled and more effective. This belief is supported by theoretical as well as pedagogical considerations. 2hy choose T# as language teaching method6 2e have to as ourselves that 7uestion, because if we, as language teachers, don’t now which method we are teaching according to or if we do not thin about teaching methodology in relation to the different types of learners, to levels, to materials and last but not least to the learning processes of the individual learner, we might as well not teach. 8ne clear purpose of choosing T# is to increase learner activity T# is concerned with learner and not teacher activity and it lies on the teacher to produce and supply different tass which will give the learner the opportunity to experiment spontaneously, individually and
originally with the foreign language. 9ach tas will provide the learner with new personal experience with the foreign language and at this point the teacher has a very important part to play. The teacher must tae the responsibility of the consciousness raising process, which must follow the experimenting tas activities. The consciousness raising part of the T# method is a crucial for the success of T#, it is here that the teacher must help learners to recognise differences and similarities, help them to :correct, clarify and deepen; their perceptions of the foreign language. %pools"m, www.languages.dk &. 4ll in all, T# is language learning by doing.
1.3 TEACHER AND LEARNER ROLES IN TASK-BASED LEARNING
#oth the students and the teachers have different roles during tas-based learning. 4lthough far from being exhaustive, /ichards and /ogers (*++$0 *1<-*1) explains the roles of the teachers and the students in tas-based learning0 Teacher Roles:
'. Selector and seuencer of tasks : The teacher has an effective role in selecting, ad3usting, and creating tass and then shaping these tass in eeping with learner needs, interests, and language sill levels. (. )reparing learners for tasks : ome training for pre-tas is important for learners. These training activities may contain topic introduction, describing tas instructions, helping students learn or recall useful words and phrases to mae the tas completion easy, and providing partial display of tas process. *. +onsciousness"raising : The teacher uses a mixture of form-focusing techni7ues, which include attention-focusing pre-tas activities, studying the given text, guided exposure to parallel tass, and use of highlighted material. Learer Roles:
'. roup )articipant : The students complete many tass in pairs or small groups. "air or group wor may re7uire some adaptation for those who are more accustomed to wholeclass activities and=or individual wor.
(. -onitor : In Tas #ased earning, tass are used as a means of maing the learning easier. >lassroom activities should be planned in order that students have the chance to observe how language is used in communication. earners themselves need to :attend; not only to the message in tas wor, but also to the form in which such messages typically come paced. *. isk"taker and innovator : ?any tass will re7uire learners to create and interpret messages for which they lac full linguistic resources and prior experience. In fact, this is said to be the point of such tass. The sills of guessing from linguistic and contextual clues, asing for clarification, and consulting with other learners may need to be developed.
1.! THE STAGES OF TASK-BASED LEARNING
Tas-based learning (T#) is typically based on three stages. The first of these is the pre-tas stage, during which the teacher introduces and defines the topic and the learners engage in activities that either help them to recall words and phrases that will be useful during the performance of the main tas or to learn new words and phrases that are essentialto the tas. This stage is followed by what 2illis calls the @tas cycle@. 5ere the learners perform the tas (typically a reading or listening exercise or a problem-solving exercise) in pairs or small groups. They then preparea report for the whole classon how they did the tas and what conclusions they reached. Ainally, they present their findingsto the class inspoen or writtenform. The finalstage is the language focus stage, during which specific languagefeatures fromthe tas andhighlighted and wored on. Aeedbac on the learners’ performance at the reporting stage may also be appropriate at this point. (Tim #owen) Arost (*++) shows these certain stages0 '. )re"task The teacher begins the topic and gives the students clear directions on what they need to do at the tas stage and may help the students recall some language that may be useful for the tas. The pre-tas stage can also contain playing a recording of people doing the tas. This gives the students a clear model of what will be expected from them. The students can tae notes and spend time getting prepared for the tas. 9llis (*++) states that the first phase is pre-tas and explains the various activities that teachers and students can
carry out before they start the tas. The purpose of the pre-tas phase is to prepare students to perform the tas in ways that will help promoting ac7u isition.
(. /ask The students complete a tas in pairs or groups by using the language resources as the teacher monitors and offers support. This second phase includes a lesson that is essentially conversational in nature and the explicit formulation of messages, also includes opportunities for students to tae riss. 4nother process in this phase includes the shared goals and effective scaffolding for the learners’ efforts for communication. *. )lanning tudents set up a short oral or written report to explain the class what happened during their tas. They then practice what they are going to say in their groups. ?eanwhile the teacher is available for the students to as for recommendation to clear up any language 7uestions they may have. 0. eport tudents then report bac to the class orally or read the written report. The teacher chooses the order of when students will present their reports and may give the students some 7uic feedbac on the content. 4t this stage the teacher may also play a recording of others doing the same tas for the students to compare. This phase has some pedagogic goals such as providing a repeat performance of the tas, encouraging reflection on how the tas was performed, and lastly encouraging forms that are problematic to the learner during the tas 1. Anal!sis The teacher then highlights relevant parts from the text of the recording for the students to analyBe. They may as students to notice interesting features within this text. The teacher can also highlight the language that the students used during the report phase for analysis. 2. )ractice Ainally, the teacher selects language areas to practice based upon the needs of the students and what emerged from the tas and report phases. The students then do practice activities to increase their self-confidence and mae a note of useful language.
1." TBL ACTI#ITIES - E$A%&LES
$. Cse the foreign language as much as possible. *. Cse only mother tongue when necessary for explanation of exercises. 1. The pre-tas is meant to help create a good atmosphere for learning without anxiety. Dive words and supporting sentences for students to use. . The pre-tas must supply words, phrases, ideas to support the individual student in the main tas. <. /emember that a pre-tas can be anything from for example0 audio text o a video clip, a brainstorm activity , a small exercise ( cloBe, cross word etc. ) , photos (what do you see6) , webpage ( what do you see6) An!thing that will promote the foreign language and set the minds of the students into a certain context and atmosphere. . The main tas must facilitate a process where each student can activate and use his=her own strategies. '. Teacher role in the main tas0 monitoring the processes of the students woring with the main tas. &. /emember the importance of the last step, the consciousness raising activities. tudents repeat their process and their wor with the main tas E must be performed in class E the process will mae students realiBe that language is diverse and that many different structures and words give meaning and can be used for communication. F'c('o ) shor( s(or'es* e+a,le o:
2hen you wor with fiction and if a text has a straight forward plot, it is easy for you as a teacher to clip up the text and turn the text reading process itself into a common tas between a group of students. The following example is meant to be a main tas, but can be expanded with a tas lie the one described about, using a format for students to fill in. 8bviously the following example should not stand alone, but should be included into a full T#-cycle, lie the one described above.
$. Fivide the text into small sections E logical in relation to the story plot. *. Tae a pair of scissors and cut up the text into the sections you have chosen. It should not be more than - sections. 1.
?ar each section with letters or numbers.
. Fivide the class into groups that match the number of sections. <. ay the pieces of text (the different cut up sections) on the table, text down, in front of each group and let each student in a group pic up one of the pieces. . 4s the students to read their own piece of text by themselves. '. 2hen all students in a group have read their own piece of text, they must give tell the rest of the group what the text says. &. 9verybody in a group must tell about his=her piece of text. %. The group must now try to put the story into the right se7uence.
hort story
4d3ectives=descriptive language
?ain character 8ther characters etting $ etting * "roblems=Themes
In a tas-based approach, however, the practice is more liely to be structured in some way so that there is a recogniBable context, purpose and outcome. This structuring may be achieved in a variety of ways. The common procedure is to use simple 7uestionnaire surveys in which the information gap is created by the students’ own individual experiences and ideas. 8ne example was the survey of students’ sills described earlier. 5ere is another tas exa mple0
Aill in this chart about your classmates’ preferences !ame Aavorite male Aavorite Aavorite TG singer female singer actor or actress
Aavorite TG series
Aavorite place in #ali
4s a written follow-up, students may be ased (individually or in groups) to write a short report on what they have found out about their classmates’ preferences.
1./ THE AD#ANTAGES OF TASK-BASED
4 tas-based lesson usually provides the learner with an active role in participating and creating the activities, and conse7uently increases their motivation for learning. 4 tas-based lesson offers more opportunities for the students to display their thining through their actions. The teacher can also be more open to the needs of the students. T# allows students to use the nowledge they have learnt and apply it productively in the tas context (procedural nowledge). This practical experience helps learners to appreciate why certain academic 7uestions are important and provide an experiential substrate for the development of a further academic discourse. The tas usually re7uires the selection of some ob3ects as an outcome. This can provide a shared focus for which students can wor together. In the process, different participants, including peer learners in the team and the tutor, can pro3ect different views on the same situation and develop meaningful discussion on the matter. The tas will usually generate ob3ects that are also open to cross group evaluation. The students can present their own products and evaluate others. 9veryone can tae part in evaluating the strengths and weanesses of the wor generated within the classroom community. This will induce reflection as well as the development of critical awareness in the students (Hi, *+++).
1.0 THE DISAD#ANTAGES OF TASK-BASED
wan (*++<) states that the claim that Tas-#ased earning is a advanced teaching approach, firmly based on the findings of current theory and research, can not be continuous. The hypotheses fre7uently associated with T#, to the effect that second-language ac7uisition happens totally as a result of noticing during communicative activity, and are controlled by
inflexible developmental se7uences, are supported neither by convincing theoretical argument nor by experimental evidence, and are contradicted by common language-learning experience. T# offers a different rationale for the use of tass as well as different criteria for the design and use of tass. It depends on tass as a primary source of pedagogical input in teaching and lacs of a systematic grammatical or the type of syllabus that characteriBes current versions of T#T. ?oreover, many aspects of T#T have not been 3ustified, such as proposed schemes for tas types, tas se7uencing, and evaluation of tas performance. Therefore, in line with what wan (*++<) suggested above, ac cording to /ichards and /ogers (*++$) the basic assumption of Tas-#ased anguage Teaching, that it provides for a more effective basis for teaching than other language teaching approaches, remains in the domain of ideology rather than fact. 2hile Tas-#ased Instruction may fruitfully develop learners’ authority of what is nown, it is significantly less effective for the systematic teaching of new language. This is especially so where time is limited and out-of-class exposure is unavailable, such as in Turey. This maes tas-based programs inappropriate for most of the world’s language learners. 4ccording to ehan ($%%), tas-based learning holds some dangers if implemented carelessly. 9specially, it is liely to create pressure for instant communication rather than interlanguage change and growth. peaers may resort to use some communication strategies such as paraphrase, repetition, word coinage, etc. Aurthermore !orris, #rown, 5udson, and #on (*++*) argue tas-based learning does not provide any basis for maing interpretations beyond the particular tas=test context and it cannot simulate all of the factors that define actual language use situations. ?oreover, the elicited performances may depend on abilities or nowledge rather than language itself. It should also be said that tas-based interaction is a mainly narrow and learners put great emphasis on communicating meanings, but not necessarily worry about the exact form that they use. Therefore, the whole organiBation of the interaction is e7uipped for establishing a tight and selected focus on the achievement of the tas. There are a large number of different varieties of interaction in the world outside the * classroom, where there is certainly a lot more to communication than performing tass (eedhouse, $%%%).
CONCLUSION
To conclude this article, I would lie to use a simple mnemonic, based on the word tas’ itself, to summarise some of the aims and benefits that we can hope for tas-based learning to achieve. T A S K
ogether ctivate ills
speaing or silently purposefully communicative, cognitive
nowledge
interpersonal from all domains of experience
and
The message is self-explanatory. Together, overcoming the isolation of the traditional classroom, students with their teacher activate their sills and nowledge. 8ften this togetherness may tae the form of overt speaing, but even in silent tass students may eep a sense of the classroom as a learning community. The activity that taes place is not unguided busy-wor’ but purposeful movement towards targets and ob3ectives (both in the overall direction of learning and in terms of specific learning activities). The sills which students perform and develop are communicative and also - particularly as they move into the second and third generations of tass - cognitive and interpersonal. Ainally, the boundary between the classroom and the outside world is increasingly reduced, as the tass encourage students to relate learning to the whole domain of their experience.
REFERENCES:
4li hehadeh 4nd >hristine >oombe. Introduction0 Arom Theory To "ractice In Tas-#ased earning #reen, ?. ($%&'). $. 3earner contribution to task design. In >. >andlin and F. ?urphy (eds.&, 3anguage 3earning /asks (pp.*1-). 9nglewood >liffs, !.J.0 "rentice 5all. #rown, 5. F. (*++$). *. /eaching b! )rinciples. An Interactive Approach to 3anguage )edagog!. 4ddison 2esley ongman, Inc.0 !K. 9llis, /. (*++). The ?ethodology of Tas-#ased Teaching. . Asian 453 6ournal 7 %*&8nline documents at C/ http0==www.asian-efl-3ournal.com=eptL+Lre.php Arost, /. (*++). 4 Tas-based 4pproach. 8n line Focuments at http0==www.teachin<. genglish.org.u=thin=methodology=tasLbased.shtml. 9xposure 8f 0Tas-#ased earning. Dranda Moila, echon ?ar3ory, eon Harla, ?erino Kesenia (*+$) Hen acman . Introduction To Tas-#ased earningthe 2illis ?odel 4nd Gariations Hi, 2. 2. (*+++). I>T 4pplications in Tas-#ased earning. In !. aw and et. al. . +hanging +lassrooms 8 +hanging Schools9 A Stud! of ood )ractices in :sing I+/ in ;ong o., td. !unan, F. (*++). Tas-based language teaching in the 4sia context0 Fefining tas’. $+. Asian 453 6ournal 7 %*&. 8nline documents at C/ http0==www.asian-efl 3ournal.com=eptL+Ldn.php. !orris, J. ?., #rown, J. F., 5udson, T. F., #on, 2. (*++*). 9xaminee abilities and tas %. difficulty in tas-based second language performance assessment. 3anguage /esting '= %0&, 1%<-$&. ightbrown, ". ?. and pada, !. ($%%%). '. ;ow 3anguages are 3earned . 8xford0 8xford Cniversity "ress. "rabhu, !. ($%&'). $$. Second language pedagog!. 8xford0 8xford Cniversity "ress.
/ichards, J. and /odgers, T. (*++$). $*. Approaches and -ethods in 3anguage /eaching . >ambridge0 >ambridge Cniversity "ress. eedhouse, ". ($%%%). Tas-#ased Interaction. $1. 43/ 6ournal 1*%*&, $%-$<. ehan, ". ($%%). 4 Aramewor for the Implementation of Tas-#ased Instruction$. . Applied 3inguistics '> %'&, 1&-* wan, ?. (*++<). egislation by 5ypothesis0 The >ase of Tas-#ased Instruc$. tion. Applied 3inguistics (2 %*&, 1'E+$. 2illiam ittlewood. /ask ?ased 3earning of rammar . anguage >entre, 5ong Hong #aptist Cniversity
II. CO%&ETENC-BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING
2.1 The Na(re o (he %e(ho4 56ha(7
#efore considering competency-based language teaching, it is necessary to clarify what is meant by competency. ?rowici ($%&) defines competencies as follows +ompetencies consist of a description of the essential skills, knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors reuired for effective performance of a real"world task or activit!. /hese activities ma! be related to an! domain of life, though have t!picall! been linked to the field of work and to social survival in a new environment. /ichards and /odgers (*++$) also defines competency as An element of competenc! can be defined as an! attribute of an individual that contributes to the successful performance of a task, job, function, or activit! in an academic setting and@or a work setting. /his includes specific knowledge, thinking processes, attitudes, and perceptual and ph!sical skills. Therefore, competency might be a tas, a role, a function which changes over time, and will vary from context to context. 4ccording to /ichards and /odgers (*++$), >ompetency-#ased 4pproach (>#4) is a teaching approach which focuses on outcomes of learning. It emphasiBes what the learners are expected to do rather than what they are expected to learn about. This approach emerged in the Cnited tates in the $%'+s and can be described as :defining educational goals in terms of precise measurable descriptions of the nowledge, sills, and behaviors students should possess at the end of a course of study. >ompetency-#ased anguage Teaching (>#T) is an application of the principles of >ompetency-#ased 4pproach (>#4) to language teaching. It sees outputs are very important than the learning process (/ichards N /odgers, *++$). This means, starting with a clear picture of what is important for students to be able to do, then organising curriculum, instruction, andassessment to mae sure this learning ultimately happens. The eys to having a competency-based system include developing a clear set of learning
outcomes around which all of the system’s components can be focused, and establishing the conditions and opportunities within the system that enable and encourage all students to achieve those essential outcomes. >#T especially applies to situations in which the learner has to fulfill a particular role with language sills which can be predicted or determined for the relevant context (/ichards N /odgers, *++$). The language used is seen as :a medium of interaction and communication between people; who want to achieve :specific goals and purposes; (/ichards N /odgers, *++$). In other words, without the language used as a means of interaction and communication, the students cannot achieve their goals in learning. It shows how important the language to be performed by students rather than to be understood by them. 4ccording to 4uerbach ($%&) there are eight characteristic features to distinguish the >ompetency-#ased anguage Teaching, such as0 $) It focuses on society related issues. The goal is to teach the language in order to prepare students for the diverse needs of the world. *) It focuses on life sills to underline that language is still taught as a means of communication in practical tass. 1) The focus is on what students can do with language, as well as with certain behaviours. ) The sills taught in the programme should be separated into modules and or into manageable parts, so that the teacher and the students can manage the content and fulfil their ob3ectives. <) The student tests’ results are of public domain, nown and shared by both the students and the teacher. Therefore, students can see their mistaes, correct them and now clearly what behaviours and sills are exp ected of them. ) 9valuation is continuous and permanent, meaning that students are tested before the course to determine what sills they lac, and are tested again after receiving instructions to chec if they have achieved the necessary sills or not. ') ?astery is demonstrated through the achievement of ob3ectives. The evaluation is based on the results obtained from the specific behaviour of the students, rather than by traditional assessment. &) Individualised and focused attention are given to each student, the instructions given by the teacher are not based on time but on the progress that each student maes.
Therefore, the teacher needs to focus on each individual student in order to help in those areas where sills are lacing. >#T is also considering another ey aspect of both language and learning theory is called :mosaic approach to language learning; (/ichards N /odgers, *++$), which assumes that language can be divided into appropriate parts and subparts. >ommunicative competence is then constructed from these subparts put together in the correct order (/ichards N /odgers, *++$). >#T is in some respects similar to >ommunicative anguage Teaching (/ichards N /odgers, *++ $). The syllabus of >#T is designed not around the notion of sub3ect nowledge but around the notion of competency (/ichards N /odgers, *++$,). Therefore, the focus is how the students can use the language instead of their nowledge about the language. chenc ($%'&) points out that the teacher provides a list of competencies which the course is going to deal with, and these are :typically re7uired of students in life role situations;. The fact that >#T is an outcome-based approach also influences the syllabus, especially the ind of assessment which is used. In contrast to :norm-referenced assessment;, which is used in many other teaching approaches and methods, :criterion based assessment; is essential for >#T. tudents have to perform specific language sills which they have already learned during the course. The competencies tested :consist of a description of the essential sills, nowledge, attitudes, and behaviors re7uired for effective performance of a real-world tas or activity;. These performancecriteria form the basis for the assessment.
2.2 The Role o (he %e(ho4 56h87
2.3 The Tech'9es Ho (o Teach 5Ho7
The learning activities used in >#T can be described as systematically designed activities to achieve a certain competence. These activities are real-world tass which :may be related to any domain of life; but especially to survival-oriented and worrelated situations in a new environment. Typical areas, for which such competency-based activities have been developed, are for example Job 4pplication, Job Interview, or 2or chedules. 4ll these areas :can be described as a collection of units of competencies;
which consist of :specific nowledge, thining processes, attitudes, and perceptual and physical sills;. The materials the teacher chooses are mainly :sample texts and assessment tass that provide examples of texts and assessment tass that relate to the competency; (/ichards N /odgers, *++$). These materials are used to provide the students with :the essential sills, nowledge, attitudes, and behaviors re7uired for effective performance of a real-word tas or activity;. 4 great variety of competencies should be improved by these tass. 8n the one hand, nowledge and learning competencies as well as oral competencies are dealt with. 8n the other hand, the materials include tass to improve the reading and writing competencies. 4t the beginning of conducting a course in a competency-based framewor the students have to go through an initial assessment, in which the teacher determines the current proficiency level of the individual student. 4fter this the students are grouped on the basis of :their current 9nglish proficiency level, their learning pace, their needs, and their social goals for learning 9nglish; (/ichards N /odgers, *++$). Aurthermore, a course based on >#T is divided into three stages, which the students have to go through in order to successfully finish the course. 4t tages $ and * the learners deal with competencies which are related to general language. 4t tage 1 the students are grouped on the basis of their learning goals and :competencies are defined according to the three syllabus strands of Aurther tudy, Gocational 9nglish, and >ommunity 4ccess; (/ichards N /odgers, *++$).
2.! The S(re;(hs a4 6ea<esses
2." The Cocls'o
>#T is a method based on functional interaction of language to improve the 7uality in term of assessment. 4nd a focussed on the outputs to learning. #ut on the other hand, >#T is gaining popularity in the whole world. It is argued that through the clearly defined outcomes and the continuous feedbac in >#T, the 7uality of assessment as well as the students’ learning and the teaching are improved. These improvements can be seen on all educational levels, :from primary school to university, and from academic studies to worplace training;. The students can teach each other and help their peers and
themselves to achieve more in physical education. #y giving students responsibility, it can promote higher learning outcomes. Reereces Use4
4uerbach, 9. /. ($%&). >ompetency-based 90 8ne step forward or two steps bac6 T98 Ouarterly *+(1)0 $$ E $<. ?rowici, . ($%&). "ro3ect 2or 9nglish >ompetency-#ased >urriculum. "ortland, 8reg.0 !orthwest 9ducational >ooperative. /ichards, J. >., N /odgers, T. . (*++$). 4pproaches and ?ethods in anguage Teaching (econd 9dition). >ambridge0 >C". chene 94. ($%'&). 4 Duide to Identifying 5igh chool Draduation >ompetencies. "ortland 8/0 !orthwest /egional 9ducational aboratory.
