Keyur D Vasava MBA+Pharmacy Dist :- Narmada ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
“Destiny is not a matter of chance, it is a matter of choice. It is not a thing to be waited for, it is a thing to be achieved.”
(SCM)-SEM-II (GTU) Supply Chain Management
Module I…!!!
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INTRODUCTION
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STRATEGIC VIEW:
1) MEANING, (SCM) is the control of the supply chain as a process from supplier to manufacturer to wholesaler to retailer to consumer. Supply chain management does not involve only the movement of a physical product (such as a microchip) through the chain but also any data that goes along with the product (such as order status information, payment schedules, and ownership titles) and the actual entities that handle the product from stage to stage of the supply chain. SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT
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THERE ARE ESSENTIALLY THREE GOALS OF SCM: to reduce inventory, to increase the speed of transactions with real-time data exchange, to increase revenue by satisfying customer demands more efficiently. WHY IS SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT SO IMPORTANT?
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WHY IS SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT DIFFICULT ? –
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To gain efficiencies from procurement, distribution and logistics To make outsourcing more efficient To reduce transportation costs of inventories To meet competitive pressures from shorter development times, more new products, and demand for more customization
Different organizations in the supply chain may have different, conflicting objectives • Manufacturers: long run production, high quality, high productivity, low production cost • Distributors: low inventory, reduced transportation costs, quick replenishment capability • Customers: shorter order lead time, high in-stock inventory, large variety of products, low prices Supply chains are dynamic - they evolve and change over time
KEY ISSUES IN SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT INCLUDE – DISTRIBUTION NETWORK CONFIGURATION • How many warehouses do we need? • Where should these warehouses be located? • What should the production levels be at each of our plants? • What should the transportation flows be between plants and warehouses? – INVENTORY CONTROL • Why are we holding inventory? Uncertainty in customer demand? Uncertainty in the supply process? Some other reason? • If the problem is uncertainty, how can we reduce it? • How good is our forecasting method? – DISTRIBUTION STRATEGIES • Direct shipping to customers?
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SUPPLY CHAIN INTEGRATION AND STRATEGIC PARTNERING • • • •
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Should products be redesigned to reduce logistics costs? Should products be redesigned to reduce lead times? Would delayed differentiation be helpful?
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND DECISION -SUPPORT SYSTEMS • • • •
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Should information be shared with supply chain partners? What information should be shared? With what partners should information be shared? What are the benefits to be gained?
PRODUCT DESIGN • • •
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Classical distribution in which inventory is held in warehouses and then shipped as needed? Cross-docking in which transshipment points are used to take stock from suppliers’ deliveries and immediately distribute to point of usage?
What data should be shared (transferred) How should the data be analyzed and used? What infrastructure is needed between supply chain members? Should e-commerce play a role?
CUSTOMER VALUE • • •
How is customer value created by the supply chain? What determines customer value? How do we measure it? How is information technology used to enhance customer value in the supply chain?
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CREATING AN EFFECTIVE SUPPLY CHAIN
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Develop strategic objectives and tactics Integrate and coordinate activities in the internal portion of the supply chain Coordinate activities with suppliers and customers Coordinate planning and execution across the supply chain Consider forming strategic partnerships
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A SUPPLY CHAIN IS THE STREAM OF PROCESSES OF moving goods from the customer order through the raw materials stage, supply, production, and distribution of products to the customer. All organizations have supply chains of varying degrees, depending upon the size of the organization and the type of product manufactured. These networks obtain supplies and components, change these materials into finished products and then distribute them to the customer. Managing the chain of events in this process is what is known as supply chain management. Effective management must take into account coordinating all the different pieces of this chain as quickly as possible without losing any of the quality or customer satisfaction, while still keeping costs down. The first step is obtaining a customer order, followed by production, storage and distribution of products and supplies to the customer site. Customer satisfaction is paramount. Included in this supply chain process are customer orders, order processing, inventory, scheduling, transportation, storage, and customer service. A necessity in coordinating all these activities is the information service network. In addition, key to the success of a supply chain is the speed in which these activities can be accomplished and the realization that customer needs and customer satisfaction are the very reasons for the network. Reduced inventories, lower operating costs, product availability and customer satisfaction are all benefits which grow out of effective supply chain management. The decisions associated with supply chain management cover both the long-term and short-term. Strategic decisions deal with corporate policies, and look at overall design and supply chain structure. Operational decisions are those dealing with every day activities and problems of an organization. These decisions must take into account the strategic decisions already in place. Therefore, an organization must structure the supply chain through long-term analysis and at the same time focus on the dayto-day activities. Furthermore, market demands, customer service, transport considerations, and pricing constraints all must be understood in order to structure the supply chain effectively. These are all factors, which change constantly and sometimes unexpectedly, and an organization must realize this fact and be prepared to structure the supply chain accordingly.
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Structuring the supply chain requires an understanding of the demand patterns, service level requirements, distance considerations, cost elements and other related factors. It is easy to see that these factors are highly variable in nature and this variability needs to be considered during the supply chain analysis process. Moreover, the interplay of these complex considerations could have a significant bearing on the outcome of the supply chain analysis process. THERE ARE SIX KEY ELEMENTS TO A SUPPLY CHAIN:
Production Supply Inventory Location Transportation, and Information
THE FOLLOWING DESCRIBES EACH OF THE ELEMENTS: 1. PRODUCTION Strategic decisions regarding production focus on what customers want and the market demands. This first stage in developing supply chain agility takes into consideration what and how many products to produce, and what, if any, parts or components should be produced at which plants or outsourced to capable suppliers. These strategic decisions regarding production must also focus on capacity, quality and volume of goods, keeping in mind that customer demand and satisfaction must be met. Operational decisions, on the other hand, focus on scheduling workloads, maintenance of equipment and meeting immediate client/market demands. Quality control and workload balancing are issues which need to be considered when making these decisions. 2. SUPPLY Next, an organization must determine what their facility or facilities are able to produce, both economically and efficiently, while keeping the quality high. But most companies cannot provide excellent performance with the manufacture of all components. Outsourcing is an excellent alternative to be considered for those products and components that cannot be produced effectively by an organization’s facilities. 5
Companies must carefully select suppliers for raw materials. When choosing a supplier, focus should be on developing velocity, quality and flexibility while at the same time reducing costs or maintaining low cost levels. In short, strategic decisions should be made to determine the core capabilities of a facility and outsourcing partnerships should grow from these decisions. 3. INVENTORY Further strategic decisions focus on inventory and how much product should be inhouse. A delicate balance exists between too much inventory, which can cost anywhere between 20 and 40 percent of their value, and not enough inventory to meet market demands. This is a critical issue in effective supply chain management. Operational inventory decisions revolved around optimal levels of stock at each location to ensure customer satisfaction as the market demands fluctuate. Control policies must be looked at to determine correct levels of supplies at order and reorder points. These levels are critical to the day to day operation of organizations and to keep customer satisfaction levels high. 4. LOCATION Location decisions depend on market demands and determination of customer satisfaction. Strategic decisions must focus on the placement of production plants, distribution and stocking facilities, and placing them in prime locations to the market served. Once customer markets are determined, long-term commitment must be made to locate production and stocking facilities as close to the consumer as is practical. In industries where components are lightweight and market driven, facilities should be located close to the end-user. In heavier industries, careful consideration must be made to determine where plants should be located so as to be close to the raw material source. Decisions concerning location should also take into consideration tax and tariff issues, especially in interstate and worldwide distribution. 5. TRANSPORTATION Strategic transportation decisions are closely related to inventory decisions as well as meeting customer demands. Using air transport obviously gets the product out quicker and to the customer expediently, but the costs are high as opposed to shipping by 6
boat or rail. Yet using sea or rail often times means having higher levels of inventory in-house to meet quick demands by the customer. It is wise to keep in mind that since 30% of the cost of a product is encompassed by transportation, using the correct transport mode is a critical strategic decision. Above all, customer service levels must be met, and this often times determines the mode of transport used. Often times this may be an operational decision, but strategically, an organization must have transport modes in place to ensure a smooth distribution of goods. 6. INFORMATION Effective supply chain management requires obtaining information from the point of end-use, and linking information resources throughout the chain for speed of exchange. Overwhelming paper flow and disparate computer systems are unacceptable in today's competitive world. Fostering innovation requires good organization of information. Linking computers through networks and the internet, and streamlining the information flow, consolidates knowledge and facilitates velocity of products. Account management software, product configurators, enterprise resource planning systems, and global communications are key components of effective supply chain management strategy.
THE ISSUES The supply chain has also been called the value chain and the service chain, depending on the "fad of the moment", or sometimes, we think, the weather, or sun spot activity. Just like anything else, supply chain management is no panacea, nor should it be embraced as a religion. It is an operational strategy that, if implemented properly, will provide a new dimension to competing: quickly introducing new customer zed high quality products and delivering them with unprecedented lead times, swift decisions, and manufacturing products with high velocity. Software companies have jumped on the bandwagon and attempted to claim SCM as their own. However, as with ERP investments, the reality doesn't match the hype. The true restructure of the supply chain starts with the physical elements, not the virtual. Information transfer is critical to swiftly moving parts through the chain of processes, but information is only one of six key elements.
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2) ROLE OF SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT, WHAT IS THE IMPORTANCE OF SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT?
Supply chain management (SCM) is a business practice that aims to improve the way a business sources its raw materials, and delivers it to end users. For any product or service offered by any business, there are usually a number of different business entities involved in the various stages of the supply chain, including manufacturers, wholesalers, distributors and retailers; the last group in a supply chain is consumers. SCM is important for modern businesses because it coordinates and synchronizes activities of partner businesses, giving higher efficiency. The principles of supply chain management are derived from five basic components.
PLAN
Planning is the first and most important strategic function in SCM. The planning process lays down the strategy for managing and handling all resources that are used in providing the service or product that the company is involved in. Planning involves developing a set of metrics that enables the company to maximize efficiency by monitoring the flow of materials through the supply chain. Timely and effective planning makes a company's supply chain more responsive and prepared for contingencies. SCM managers who plan are able to keep costs low, and deliver high quality and high value to customers in time.
SOURCE
Sourcing is the next component that managers consider in SCM. Sourcing involves studying supplier competencies and selecting one, based on one or more criteria. When a supplier is chosen, they must be prepared to deliver goods and services that the businesses need to create their products. Managers in SCM develop policies for pricing, delivery and payment with each supplier, and monitor and improve relationships by using metrics. The SCM managers supervise inventory and execute tasks such as collecting and verifying shipments, sending them to manufacturing plants and authorizing payments.
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MANUFACTURE
The next component involves the actual manufacturing process. SCM managers schedule activities for manufacturing, quality testing, packaging and shipping by coordinating the actions of each and every entity involved in the various related processes. In SCM, manufacturing makes the most use of the metric system, enabling managers to measure quality, output of production and productivity of workers. These are important parameters that can be evaluated, and remedied (if performance is sub-par) to enhance efficiency.
DELIVER
After the manufacturing process comes delivery. SCM managers in the delivery process must synchronize activities of partner businesses involved in the transportation of goods. Sometimes referred to as logistics, delivery is an involved stage requiring large amounts of data from customer orders, warehouses and carriers. For most efficient operation, managers make use of an integrated system, developing a network of warehouses and carrier companies. For the product to reach their customers in time, their carriage must be seamless and without incident, each and every time. The delivery process also involves preparation of an invoicing system for payment receipts.
RETURN
Often the trickiest component in SCM is establishing an efficient system for returns of defective goods. Setting up a responsive and flexible network is a very important aspect of SCM because excess and defective goods should ideally be received by the company as quickly as possible. Defects and excesses are causes for concern for a business's consumers and clients, and as such, accepting goods back ensures future business relationships. Companies that are unable to establish fluent transport of goods back to the warehouse may lose customers and future business opportunities.
3) SUPPLY CHAIN STRATEGY AND PERFORMANCE MEASURES, SUPPLY CHAIN STRATEGIES PUSH-BASED SUPPLY CHAIN PULL-BASED SUPPLY CHAIN PUSH-PULL SUPPLY CHAIN
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MEASURING SUPPLY CHAIN PERFORMANCE KEY PERFORMANCE INDICATORS inventory turnover cost of annual sales per inventory unit inventory days of supply total value of all items being held in inventory fill rate fraction of orders filled by a distribution center within a specific time period
OTHER MEASURES OF SUPPLY CHAIN PERFORMANCE
Process Control used to monitor and control any process in supply chain Supply Chain Operations Reference (SCOR) establish targets to achieve “best in class” performance
………………………………….. MEASURING SUPPLY CHAIN PERFORMANCE TRADITIONAL MEASURES INCLUDE; Return on investment 14
Profitability Market share Revenue growth ADDITIONAL MEASURES Customer service levels Inventory turns Weeks of supply Inventory obsolescence ……………………………………… FINANCIAL MEASURES OF SUPPLY CHAIN PERFORMANCE Financial Measures Market share Stock Valuation Profits ROI Inventory Turns Financial measures are lagging metrics, a result of past decisions Operational, non-financial measures are excellent indicators of process health OPERATIONAL,NON-FINANCIAL MEASURES Cycle time Customer service level order fill rate stock out rate backorder level probability of on time delivery Inventory levels Resource utilization Capacity/Throughput Quality Reliability Dependability/Perform ability Flexibility volume product mix routing delivery time
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LEAD TIME REDUCTION
Cycle time is an all-encompassing measure Provides competitive edge Leads to increased customer satisfaction Leads to reduced inventory, reduced obsolescence and increased quality
COMPONENTS OF SUPPLY CHAIN LEAD TIME
Procurement lead time Manufacturing lead time Distribution lead time Logistics lead time Setup times Waiting times Decision-making times Synchronization times
4) SUPPLY CHAIN DRIVERS AND METRICS,
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1. INVENTORY Convenience: Cycle inventory o No customer buys eggs one by one Unstable demand: Seasonal inventory o Bathing suits o Xmas toys and computer sales Randomness: Safety inventory o 20% more syllabi than the class size were available in the first class o Compaq’s loss in 95 Pipeline inventory o Work in process or transit
2. TRANSPORTATION
Air Truck Rail Ship Pipeline Electronic
3. FACILITIES Production o Flexible vs. Dedicated o Flexibility costs Production: Remember BMW: “a sports car disguised as a sedan” 17
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Service: Can your instructor teach music as well as SCM? Sports: A playmaker who shoots well is rare. Inventory-like operations: Receiving, Prepackaging, Storing, Picking, Packaging, Sorting, Accumulating, Shipping Job Lot Storage: Need more space. Reticle storage in fabs. Cross docking: Wal-Mart
4. INFORMATION Role in the supply chain o o
The connection between the various stages in the supply chain Crucial to daily operation of each stage in a supply chain E.g., production scheduling, inventory levels
Role in the competitive strategy o o
Allows supply chain to become more efficient and more responsive at the same time (reduces the need for a trade-off) Information technology Andersen Windows Wood window manufacturer, whose customers can choose from a library of 50,000 designs or create their own. Customer orders automatically sent to the factory.
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QUALITY OF INFORMATION Information drives the decisions: o Good information means good decisions IT helps: MRP, ERP, SAP, EDI Relevant information? How to use information?
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5. SOURCING Role in the supply chain o Set of processes required to purchase goods and services in a supply chain o Supplier selection, single vs. multiple suppliers, contract negotiation Role in the competitive strategy o Sourcing is crucial. It affects efficiency and responsiveness in a supply chain o In-house vs. outsource decisions- improving efficiency and responsiveness TI: More than half of the revenue spent for sourcing. Cisco sources: Low-end products (e.g. home routers) from China. Components of sourcing decisions o In-house versus outsource decisions o Supplier evaluation and selection o Procurement process: Every department of a firm buy from suppliers independently, or all together. EDS to reduce the number of officers with purchasing authorization. 6. PRICING Role in the supply chain o Pricing determines the amount to charge customers in a supply chain o Pricing strategies can be used to match demand and supply Price elasticity: Do you know yours? 20
Role in the competitive strategy o Use pricing strategies to improve efficiency and responsiveness o Low price and low product availability; vary prices by response times Amazon: Faster delivery is more expensive Components of pricing decisions o Pricing and economies of scale o Everyday low pricing versus high-low pricing o Fixed price versus menu pricing, depending on the product and services Packaging, delivery location, time, customer pick up Bundling products; products and services
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WHY SUPPLY CHAIN METRICS? Several factors are contributing to management’s need for new types of measures for managing the supply chain including: • The lack of measures that capture performance across the entire supply chain. • The requirement to go beyond internal metrics and take a supply chain perspective. • The need to determine the interrelationship between corporate and supply chain performance. • The complexity of supply chain management. • The requirement to align activities and share joint performance measurement information to implement strategy that achieves supply chain objectives. • The desire to expand the “line of sight” within the supply chain. • The requirement to allocate benefits and burdens resulting from functional shifts within the supply chain. • The need to differentiate the supply chain to obtain a competitive advantage. • The goal of encouraging cooperative behavior across corporate functions and across firms in the supply chain. METRICS THE SITE DESCRIBES :
Fill Rate Measure On Time Shipping/Delivery Performance to Promise Backorder Reporting Cycle Time Perfect Order Measure Inventory Turns Inventory Accuracy Transportation Balanced Scorecard
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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SUPPLY CHAIN METRICS AND STRATEGY Implementing a supply chain strategy requires metrics that align performance with the objectives of other members of the supply chain. Managers can no longer focus on optimizing their own firm’s operations. Instead, they need to work collaboratively to generate the greatest mutual gains and savings. Aligned metrics can assist in shifting managers’ focus to attaining the operational goals of the enterprise-wide supply chain . The alignment of metrics enables managers to identify and institutionalize the organizational, operational, and behavioral changes needed to manage the key business processes spanning their network. Aligned metrics can direct management attention and effort to the areas requiring improvement leading to higher levels of performance for the supply chain. By establishing metrics throughout the supply chain, managers will be more likely to reach overall corporate goals and business strategies. Integrating the key business processes across the supply chain is difficult because of the many constituencies, each with their own metrics and individual objectives. Their objectives may have little in common resulting in potential conflict and inefficiencies for the supply chain. Conflicting objectives preclude managers from effectively managing trade-offs across functions as well as across companies.
Supply chain metrics are needed to sustain competitiveness and to differentiate product and service offerings. The commoditization of products and the number of competitive product offerings are forcing management to differentiate the firm’s offerings through increased performance. As a result, managers must examine the supply chain to determine additional revenue opportunities and where they can obtain the greatest leverage to differentiate the brand and/or to eliminate costs. Integrated metrics allow management to assess the overall competitiveness of the supply chain and to determine which internal improvement efforts produce the greatest impact on overall competitiveness.
Supply chain metrics are also necessary to encourage the desired changes in behavior. Rewards and incentives are usually based on performance measurements that are focused internally rather than on the consumer or the supply chain. The metrics used influence the behavior of individuals and determine supply chain performance. The metrics provide the means for management to determine whether the performance of the firm’s supply chain members has improved or degraded and what factors have contributed to the situation. Behavior of managers in individual firms can be modified and controlled through measurements such as increases in value or competitiveness, or through the use of rewards and sanctions
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FRAMEWORK FOR DEVELOPING SUPPLY CHAIN METRICS The framework consists of seven steps: Map the supply chain from point-of-origin to point-of-consumption to identify where key linkages exist. Use the customer relationship management and supplier relationship management processes to analyze each link (customer supplier pair) and determine where additional value can be created for the supply chain. Develop customer and supplier profit and loss (P&L) statements to assess the effect of the relationship on profitability and shareholder value of the two firms. Realign supply chain processes and activities to achieve performance objectives. Establish non-financial performance measures that align individual behavior with supply chain process objectives and financial goals. Compare shareholder value and market capitalization across firms with supply chain objectives and revise process and performance measures as necessary. Replicate steps at each link in the supply
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CRITICAL FACTORS IN SC PERFORMANCE METRICS
Establish performance objectives with customers in mind Consider using order windows as the basis for order fulfillment metrics Reflect reliability issues in the metrics they choose Implement metrics consistently throughout the supply chain Aggregate results as they move up the chain Apply process control techniques to the business process Avoid pitting players in the systems against one another Collect only data you really intend to use Communicate the actions and rational to everyone
HOW CAN YOU USE SUPPLY CHAIN METRICS TO IMPROVE YOUR LOGISTICS OPERATION? Try following these basic steps.... 1. The first step is to identify the metrics that you want to use. Do not use every metric available. Rather, focus on the vital measurements the mean the most to your business. These can be considered your KPI's (key performance indicators). 2. Next, you need to understand the meaning of these metrics. It is not enough for management to simply view these measurements; they must also understand the meaning behind them. 3. The next step is to learn the mechanics behind the measurements. What drives
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them...positive & negative? Try to understand the various factors that influence your results. 4. using this information, identify any weak areas or areas of improvement in your current processes. 5. Set goals based on these improvement areas. The goals should be aggressive, but yet obtainable. Goals can be based on benchmarking against "like" companies or goals can be set to reflect a specific percentage improvement over past performance. 6. Put corrective action in place to improve your processes. Make sure that these corrective actions do not negatively affect other areas. Also, check that all affected areas have a clear understanding of the changes. 7. Monitor your results.
METRICS
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5) OUTSOURCING –MAKE OR BUY
The act of choosing between manufacturing a product in-house or purchasing it from an external supplier. In a make-or-buy decision, the two most important factors to consider are cost and availability of production capacity. An enterprise may decide to purchase the product rather than producing it, if is cheaper to buy than make or if it does not have sufficient production capacity to produce it in-house. With the phenomenal surge in global outsourcing over the past decades, the make-or-buy decision is one that managers have to grapple with very frequently. Factors that may influence a firm's decision to buy a part rather than produce it internally include lack of in-house expertise, small volume requirements, desire for multiple sourcing, and the fact that the item may not be critical to its strategy. Similarly, factors that may tilt a firm towards making an item in-house include existing idle production capacity, better quality control or proprietary technology that needs to be protected. OUTSOURCING Outsourcing decision is basically a financial one. The way in which the software and systems that we need at lower price is outsourcing. It is a simple concept. All the engineering activities are handed over to the third party who is responsible to complete the work at low cost and most probably good quality. At strategic level, decision of outsourcing is based on the fact whether a significant portion of all software work can be contracted to others. At tactical level, decision of outsourcing is based on the fact whether a part or all of a project can be accomplished by sub-contracting the software work. ADVANTAGE OF OUTSOURCING:
Cost savings are achieved by reducing number of people and facilities that support them.
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DISADVANTAGE OF OUTSOURCING:
The company loses some control over the software that it needs. Outsourcing is closely related to make or buy decision. The corporations made decisions on what to make internally and what to buy from outside in order to maximize the profit margins. As a result of this, the organizational functions were divided into segments and some of those functions were outsourced to expert companies who can do the same job for much less cost. Make or buy decision is always a valid concept in business. No organization should attempt to make something by their own, when they stand the opportunity to buy the same for much less price. “MAKE-OR-BUY” DECISIONS • •
Deciding whether to produce a product component “in-house”, or purchase/procure it from an outside source. Issues to be considered while making this decision: – Quality of the externally procured part – Reliability of the supplier in terms of both item quality and delivery times – Criticality of the considered component for the performance/quality of the entire product – Potential for development of new core competencies of strategic significance to the company – Existing patents on this item – Costs of deploying and operating the necessary infrastructure REASONS FOR MAKING
There are number of reasons a company would consider when it comes to making inhouse. Following are a few. 1. 2. 3. 4.
Cost concerns Desire to expand the manufacturing focus Need of direct control over the product Intellectual property concerns 32
5. Quality control concerns 6. Supplier unreliability 7. Lack of competent suppliers 8. Volume too small to get a supplier attracted 9. Reduction of logistic costs (shipping etc.) 10. To maintain a backup source 11. Political and environment reasons 12. Organizational pride REASONS FOR BUYING: Following are some of the reasons companies may consider when it comes to buying from a supplier. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Lack of technical experience Supplier's expertise on the technical areas and the domain Cost considerations Need of small volume Insufficient capacity to produce in house Brand preferences Strategic partnerships
THE PROCESS: The make or buy decision can be in many scales. If the decision is small in nature and has less impact on the business, then even one person can make the decision. The person can consider the pros and cons between making and buying and finally arrive at a decision. When it comes to larger and high impact decisions, usually organizations follow a standard method to arrive at a decision. This method can be divided into four main stages as below.
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1. PREPARATION: 1. Team creation and appointment of the team leader 2. Identifying the product requirements and analysis 3. Team briefing and aspect/area destitution 2. DATA COLLECTION 1. Collecting information on various aspects of make-or-buy decision 2. Workshops on weightings, ratings, and cost for both make-or-buy 3. DATA ANALYSIS 1. Analysis of data gathered 4. FEEDBACK 1. Feedback on the decision made By following the above structured process, the organization can make an informed decision on make-or-buy. Although this is a standard process for making the makeor-buy decision, the organizations can have their own varieties.
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Module II…!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
MANAGING MATERIAL FLOW: 1) INVENTORY MANAGEMENT, INVENTORY -A physical resource that a firm holds in stock with the intent of selling it or transforming it into a more valuable state. INVENTORY SYSTEM- A set of policies and controls that monitors levels of inventory and determines what levels should be maintained, when stock should be replenished, and how large orders should be DEF. - A physical resource that a firm holds in stock with the intent of selling it or transforming it into a more valuable state. Raw Materials Works-in-Process Finished Goods Maintenance, Repair and Operating (MRO)
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REASONS FOR INVENTORIES Improve customer service Economies of purchasing Economies of production Transportation savings Hedge against future Unplanned shocks (labor strikes, natural disasters, surges in demand, etc.) To maintain independence of supply chain NATURE OF INVENTORY: ADDING VALUE THROUGH INVENTORY QUALITY - inventory can be a “buffer” against poor quality; conversely, low inventory levels may force high quality SPEED - location of inventory has gigantic effect on speed FLEXIBILITY - location, level of anticipatory inventory both have effects COST - DIRECT: purchasing, delivery, manufacturing indirect: holding, stockout. HR systems may promote this-3 year postings NATURE OF INVENTORY: FUNCTIONAL ROLES OF INVENTORY Transit Buffer Seasonal Decoupling Speculative Lot Sizing or Cycle Mistakes WHAT IS INVENTORY ?
Stock of items kept to meet future demand
Purpose of inventory management how many units to order when to order
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TYPES OF INVENTORY
Raw materials
Purchased parts and supplies
Work-in-process (partially completed) products (WIP)
Items being transported
Tools and equipment
INVENTORY AND SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT
BULLWHIP EFFECT demand information is distorted as it moves away from the end-use customer higher safety stock inventories to are stored to compensate Seasonal or cyclical demand Inventory provides independence from vendors Take advantage of price discounts Inventory provides independence between stages and avoids work stop-pages
TWO FORMS OF DEMAND
DEPENDENT
Demand for items used to produce final products
Tires stored at a Goodyear plant are an example of a dependent demand item
INDEPENDENT
Demand for items used by external customers
Cars, appliances, computers, and houses are examples of independent demand inventory
INVENTORY AND QUALITY MANAGEMENT
Customers usually perceive quality service as availability of goods they want when they want them
Inventory must be sufficient to provide high-quality customer service in TQM
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INVENTORY COSTS
CARRYING COST
ORDERING COST
cost of holding an item in inventory cost of replenishing inventory
SHORTAGE COST
temporary or permanent loss of sales when demand cannot be met
INVENTORY CONTROL SYSTEMS
Continuous system (fixed-order-quantity)
constant amount ordered when inventory declines to predetermined level
Periodic system (fixed-time-period)
order placed for variable amount after fixed passage of time
OBJECTIVES OF INVENTORY CONTROL 1) Maximize the level of customer service by avoiding understocking. 2) Promote efficiency in production and purchasing by minimizing the cost of providing an adequate level of customer service.
ECONOMIC ORDER QUANTITY (EOQ) MODELS
EOQ optimal order quantity that will minimize total inventory costs
Basic EOQ model
Production quantity model ASSUMPTIONS OF BASIC EOQ MODEL
Demand is known with certainty and is constant over time No shortages are allowed Lead time for the receipt of orders is constant Order quantity is received all at once
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EOQ FORMULA •
Notation D = demand in units per year H = holding cost in dollars/unit/year S = cost of placing an order in dollars Q = order quantity in units Total Annual Cost for Purchase Lots
TCp S ( D / Q) H (Q / 2) EOQ- EOQ
2 DS H
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THE TECHNIQUES USED IN STORE INVENTORY CONTROL. Store / Inventory control technique is the important tool in the hands of the modern management. It is indispensable for each and every manufacturing concern. The following are the important techniques of store control. FIXATION OF VARIOUS STOCK LEVEL: Under this method various stock levels are fixed scientifically to avoid over stocking and under stocking of materials. Over stocking of materials leads to unnecessary blockage of materials and investment and under stocking of material leads to disputation in production. These are the following stock levels which help for planning of materials. ECONOMIC ORDERING QUANTITY: Economic ordering quantity is that quantity of material which are to be ordered in one time in order to minimize ordering cost, carrying cost as well as cost of holding stock. PERPETUAL INVENTORY SYSTEM: Perpetual inventory system is defined as "a system of records maintained by the controlling department which reflects the physical movement of stocks and their current balances." Bin card and store ledger constitute the bedrock of perpetual inventory system. It is a method of recording store after every receipt & every issue and their current balances to avoid closing down the firm for stock taking. To ensure accuracy the physical verification may be made which must have to agree with the balance of Bin 42
Card & store ledger. If there is any discrepancy between the two, it may be adjusted by preparing debit note and credit note. A.B.C. ANALYSIS: A. B. C. analysis is always a better control system. Under this method inventory items are classified in to three categories such as A. B. C. basing upon its value and cost significance. The number of items and the value of each class is expressed as percentage of the total and categorize as under. Items of high value and small in numbers termed as 'A' Items of moderate value and moderate in number is termed as 'B' Items of small in value and large in number is termed as 'C' V.E.D. ANALYSIS: This method is used for control of spare parts. VED is the symbol of 1. Vital spare parts: Are those spares whose cost of stock out is very high. 2. Essential spare parts: Are those spares which are essential for the production to continue. 3. Desirable spare parts: Are those spares which are needed but their absence even a week or more will not lead to stoppage of production. INVENTORY TURNOVER RATIO: Inventory turnover ratio is one of the methods of store control. It indicates how quickly the stocks are converted in to sale. Low inventory turnover ratio indicates the inefficient management in inventory & high inventory turnover ratio is always implies favorable situation. 2) PRODUCTION PLANNING AND SCHEDULING , PRODUCTION PLANNING - It is a production process of looking ahead , anticipating possible difficulties and deciding in advance as how to produce the products. AIM PRODUCTION PLANNING MAINLY AIMS TO PRODUCE…. Right product -> in right quantity -> of right quality -> in right time -> and by the best and least costly method.
STEPS OF PRODUCTION PLANNING.. 43
1.ROUTING It is a process of deciding the Sequence of operations (or ROUTE ) to be performed during the production process. It determines.., What??? When??? How??? PROCEDURE OF ROUTING Conduct an analysis of the product to determine Part/Components/Subassemblies required ., Determine the quality & type of material. Determining the manufacturing operations & their sequence . Determine the Lot size to be produced. Determination of scrap and rejections at each stage of production. Estimate Total cost of production.
2.SCHEDULING Is planning the Total time necessary to perform entire series of operations in a particular sequence . It is mainly concerned with element of time & priorities of a job. Establishment of timetable at which to begin and complete operation. OBJECTIVE : Items are delivered on due date. The production cost is minimum. M.imp
TYPES OF SCHEDULING 44
1. OPERATIONAL 2. MASTER 1.OPERATIONAL SCHEDULING Determines the total time to do a work (Operation) with a given machine or process, details of types of materials, and labour etc. 2. MASTER SCHEDULING It is a list showing how many of each item to make in each period of time in future. The nature of master schedule depends on whether the manufacture is to order to stock. TOOLS OF SCHEDULING
GANTT CHARTS Network analysis/ technique (CPM & PERT) WORK BREAKDOWN STRUCTURE MOTION STUDY (METHOD STUDY) TIME STUDY (WORK MEASUREMENT) JUST IN TIME (JIT)
3. LOADING STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN .., LOAD AND CAPACITY OBJECTIVE : LOAD - Assignment of work to be done in due date CAPACITY OBJECTIVE- Ability to perform work OBJECTIVE It is used to ensure -Efficient utilization of plant and labor -Setting reliable delivery promises In due date
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TYPES OF PRODUCTION -PLANNING AND CONTROL SYSTEMS
Pond-Draining Systems Push Systems Pull Systems Focusing on Bottlenecks
POND-DRAINING SYSTEMS Emphasis on holding inventories (reservoirs) of materials to support production Little information passes through the system As the level of inventory is drawn down, orders are placed with the supplying operation to replenish inventory May lead to excessive inventories and is rather inflexible in its ability to respond to customer needs PUSH SYSTEMS Use information about customers, suppliers, and production to manage material flows Flows of materials are planned and controlled by a series of production schedules that state when batches of each particular item should come out of each stage of production
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Can result in great reductions of raw-materials inventories and in greater worker and process utilization than pond-draining systems PULL SYSTEMS Look only at the next stage of production and determine what is needed there, and produce only that Raw materials and parts are pulled from the back of the system toward the front where they become finished goods Raw-material and in-process inventories approach zero Successful implementation requires much preparation
FOCUSING ON BOTTLENECKS Bottleneck Operations o Impede production because they have less capacity than upstream or downstream stages o Work arrives faster than it can be completed o Binding capacity constraints that control the capacity of the system Optimized Production Technology (OPT) Synchronous Manufacturing
SCHEDULING is an important tool FOR MANUFACTURING AND ENGINEERING , where it can have a major impact on the productivity of a process. In manufacturing, the purpose of scheduling is to minimize the production time and costs, by telling a production facility when to make, with which staff, and on which equipment. Production scheduling aims to maximize the efficiency of the operation and reduce costs. PRODUCTION SCHEDULING TOOLS greatly outperform older manual scheduling methods. These provide the production scheduler with powerful graphical interfaces which can be used to visually optimize real-time workloads in various stages of production, and pattern recognition allows the software to automatically create scheduling opportunities which might not be apparent without this view into the data. For example, an airline might wish to minimize the number of airport gates required for its aircraft, in order to reduce costs, and scheduling software can allow the planners to see how this can be done, by analyzing time tables, aircraft usage, or the flow of passengers.
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Companies use backward and forward scheduling to allocate plant and machinery resources, plan human resources, plan production processes and purchase materials. FORWARD SCHEDULING is planning the tasks from the date resources become available to determine the shipping date or the due date. BACKWARD SCHEDULING is planning the tasks from the due date or required-by date to determine the start date and/or any changes in capacity required. THE BENEFITS OF PRODUCTION SCHEDULING INCLUDE:
Process change-over reduction Inventory reduction, leveling Reduced scheduling effort Increased production efficiency Labor load leveling Accurate delivery date quotes Real time information
3) TRANSPORTATION ,
RAIL low-value, high-density, bulk products, raw materials, intermodal containers not as economical for small loads, slower, less flexible than trucking TRUCKING main mode of freight transport in U.S. small loads, point-to-point service, flexible More reliable, less damage than rails; more expensive than rails for long distance AIR most expensive and fastest, mode of freight transport lightweight, small packages <500 lbs high-value, perishable and critical goods less theft PACKAGE DELIVERY small packages fast and reliable increased with e-Business primary shipping mode for Internet companies
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WATER low-cost shipping mode primary means of international shipping U.S. waterways slowest shipping mode INTERMODAL combines several modes of shipping-truck, water and rail key component is containers PIPELINE transport oil and products in liquid form high capital cost, economical use long life and low operating cost
4) NETWORK DESIGN AND OPERATIONS,
NETWORK DESIGN DECISIONS
Facility role -
flexibility of Toyota since 1997
Facility location -
Amazon.com : a single warehouse in Seattle
Capacity allocation -
Allocating too much poor utilization
-
- Allocating too little
poor responsiveness, high cost
Market and supply allocation -
Amazon.com : built new warehouses due to grown markets
FACTORS INFLUENCING NETWORK DESIGN DECISIONS
Strategic Technological Macroeconomic 50
Political Infrastructure Competitive Logistics and facility costs A FRAMEWORK FOR NETWORK DESIGN DECISIONS PHASE I: STRATEGY CONSIDERATIONS •
Understand where is the main emphasis: –
Cost leadership
–
Responsiveness
–
Product differentiation
•
Who are the key competitors at each target market?
•
Identify constraints on available capital
•
Key mechanisms that will support growth –
Reuse of existing facilities
–
Build new facilities
–
Partner with other companies (mergers and acquisitions are potential options here)
PHASE II: REGIONAL FACILITY CONFIGURATION IMPORTANT FACTORS: REGIONAL DEMAND •
Forecast the demand on a region by region basis
•
Need to study its •
size 51
•
homogeneity
•
Non-homogeneous demand will require a more localized network
•
Frequently the final customization of a product for a particular market is done at a local distribution center •
Labeling
•
Manuals
•
etc.
PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGIES AND ECONOMIES OF SCALE AND SCOPE •
Expensive dedicated production technologies will require large production volumes and therefore a more centralized production network (e.g., chip production).
•
Lower fixed cost facilities can be duplicated more easily (e.g., bottling factories).
•
In case of non-homogeneous demand, technological flexibility facilitates consolidation of production to a few manufacturing facilities.
•
The more cumbersome the transfer of raw material, the closer the facility must be to the source site (e.g., factories processing minerals)
TARIFFS AND TAX INCENTIVES
•
Tariffs: Any duties that must be paid when products and/or equipment are moved across international, state or city boundaries.
•
High tariffs necessitate localized production.
•
Presently, there is a systematic effort to open the markets to global competition through the World Trade Organization Policies (WTO) and regional agreements (NAFTA, MERCOSUR for S. America, ASEAN for Pacific rim, etc.)
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•
Tax incentives: a reduction in tariffs or taxes that countries, states and cities often provide to encourage firms to locate their facilities in specific areas.
•
Free trade zones: Areas where duties and tariffs are relaxed as long as production is used primarily for export (e.g., Taiwan and China’s GuangZhou area) Allows companies to take better advantage of low labor costs.
•
•
Tax incentives can be focusing on certain –
Industries
–
Technologies
–
Regions
Quotas: Limits on import volumes placed by different countries in an effort to protect their local industry. Sometimes there is also some requirement on minimum local content.
INFRASTRUCTURE FACTORS •
Availability of skilled labor
•
Availability of transportation facilities
•
–
Ports
–
Airports
–
Rail
–
Highways
Availability of necessary utilities –
Power
–
Water
–
Sewage
–
Telecommunications / IT
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POLITICAL, EXCHANGE RATE AND DEMAND RISK •
•
POLITICAL RISKS -- NEED FOR: –
Well-defined rules of commerce
–
Independent and clear legal systems
–
Political stability
Exchange rate risks: This risk arises from the fact that companies might incur their costs in one currency and collect their revenues in other currencies. (e.g., Japanese production under an expensive Yen in the late 80’s / early 90’s; the role of an expensive EURO these days for the American economy)
•
Potential protection to exchange rate risk: Build some flexible over-capacity to the regional facilities so that production is shifted to the lower-cost regions.
•
Demand risk: Comes from extensive demand fluctuation due to regional economic crises (e.g., Asia markets between 1996-1998) Plant flexibility is also a potential protection to this type of risk.
COMPETITIVE FACTORS Positive Externalities: Instances where collocation of multiple firms benefits all of them, since
•
•
They share the cost of the necessary infrastructure
•
And the collocation can stimulate demand for all of them
•
Examples: a mall, silicon valley, industrial parks
Locating to “split the market”: For companies that •
Do not have price control, and
•
try to maximize their market share by minimizing their distance from the customer,
PHASES III & IV: SELECTING SPECIFIC LOCATIONS Important factors
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•
Infrastructure
•
Costs –
Labor
–
Materials
–
Facilities
–
Transport
–
Inventory
–
Taxes and Tariffs
FACTORS INFLUENCING NETWORK DESIGN DECISIONS
Strategic – Cost vs. Responsiveness o
ex) Apparel producers, Convenience stores, Discount stores
Technological o
Economies of scale few high-capacity locations
o
ex) Manufacturer of computer chips
o
Lower fixed costs many local facilities
o
ex) Bottling plants for Coca-Cola
Macroeconomic o
Tariffs, Tax incentives, Exchange rate and Demand risk
Political Infrastructure o
availability of sites & labor
o
proximity to transportation terminals, rail service, airports and seaports
o
highway access, congestion, local utilities
Competitive – Close vs. Far
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o
ex) Retail stores in a mall, Supermarkets
Logistics and facility costs 5) DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS DISTRIBUTION REFERS to the steps taken to move and store a product from the supplier stage to a customer stage in the supply chain. Distribution is a key driver of the overall profitability of a firm because it directly impacts both the supply chain cost and the customer experience. Good distribution can be used to achieve a variety of supply chain objectives ranging from low cost to high responsiveness. As a result, companies in the same industry often select very different distribution networks. THE ROLE OF DISTRIBUTION IN THE SUPPLY CHAIN DISTRIBUTION : the steps taken to move and store a product from the supplier stage to the customer stage in a supply chain Distribution directly affects cost and the customer experience and therefore drives profitability Choice of distribution network can achieve supply chain objectives from low cost to high responsiveness Examples: Wal-Mart, Dell, Proctor & Gamble, Grainger
Supply chain costs affected by network structure: o
Inventories
o
Transportation
o
Facilities and handling
DESIGN OPTIONS FOR A DISTRIBUTION NETWORK Manufacturer Storage with Direct Shipping Manufacturer Storage with Direct Shipping and In-Transit Merge Distributor Storage with Carrier Delivery
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Distributor Storage with Last Mile Delivery Manufacturer or Distributor Storage with Consumer Pickup Retail Storage with Consumer Pickup Selecting a Distribution Network Design
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DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS IN PRACTICE The ownership structure of the distribution network can have as big as an impact as the type of distribution network The choice of a distribution network has very long-term consequences Consider whether an exclusive distribution strategy is advantageous Product, price, commoditization, and criticality have an impact on the type of distribution system preferred by customers THE VALUE OF DISTRIBUTORS IN THE SUPPLY CHAIN Distributing Consumer Goods in India Distributing MRO Products Distributing Electronic Components
CHANGING THE DISTRIBUTION NETWORK DESIGN AFFECTS THE FOLLOWING SUPPLY CHAIN COSTS :
• Inventories • Transportation • Facilities and handling 59
• Information FACTORS INFLUENCING DISTRIBUTION NETWORK DESIGN •
Performance of a distribution network should be evaluated along two dimensions
CUSTOMER NEEDS THAT ARE MET (CUSTOMER SERVICE ) •
Response time (Time it takes for a customer to receive an order)
•
Product variety (Number of different products that are offered)
•
Product availability (Probability of having a product in stock)
•
Customer experience (Ease of placing and receiving orders)
•
Order visibility (Ability of customers to track their orders)
•
Return ability (Ease of returning unsatisfactory merchandise)
COST OF MEETING CUSTOMER NEEDS (SUPPLY CHAIN COST ) •
Inventory (All raw materials, WIP, and finished goods)
•
Transportation (Moving inventory from point to point)
•
Facility & handling (Locations where product is stored, assembled, or fabricated)
•
Information (Data and analysis of all drivers in a supply chain)
Module III…!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
MANAGING INFORMATION FLOW: 1) DEMAND FORECASTING , DEMAND FORECASTING is the activity of estimating the quantity of a product or service that consumers will purchase. Demand forecasting involves techniques including 60
both informal methods, such as educated guesses, and quantitative methods, such as the use of historical sales data or current data from test markets. Demand forecasting may be used in making pricing decisions, in assessing future capacity requirements, or in making decisions on whether to enter a new market. METHODS
METHODS THAT RELY ON QUALITATIVE ASSESSMENT Forecasting demand based on expert opinion. Some of the types in this method are,
Unaided judgment Prediction market Delphi technique Game theory Judgmental bootstrapping Simulated interaction Intentions and expectations surveys Conjoint analysis jury of executive method
METHODS THAT RELY ON QUANTITATIVE DATA
Discrete Event Simulation Extrapolation Reference class forecasting Quantitative analogies Rule-based forecasting Neural networks Data mining Causal models Segmentation
SOME OF THE OTHER METHODS A)
TIME SERIES PROJECTION METHODS THIS INCLUDES:
moving average method exponential smoothing method trend projection methods 61
B)
CASUAL METHODS THIS INCLUDES:
chain-ratio method consumption level method end use method
FORECASTING is the process to predict how the future needs, which include the requirement in the size of the quantity, quality, time and location that is required in order to meet the demand for goods or services. DEMAND FORECASTING is the demand for products that are expected to be realized for a certain period in the future. In forecasting we must pay attention to forecasting procedures should be implemented, namely: 1. Determining the purpose of forecasting. 2. Choose the item “independent demand” to be predicted. Plot data into scatter diagram. 3. Selecting “forecasting method” in accordance with the pattern of data for its intended purpose. 4. Counting errors are to be performance of each method used, can be known. 5. The selection of the best method, which has the smallest error rate. 6. Make predictions of future demand, then perform the test verifies that the forecasting results carried out a representative to the past data
IMPORTANCE OF FORECASTS
Forecasts of future demand are essential for supply chain management decisions. Demand forecasts are used in supply chain design, planning as well as in operations. Demand forecasts are used in various subcomponents of supply chain. Production: for aggregate planning, inventory control and scheduling,
Marketing: for new product introductions, promotions, and sales-force allocation
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Finance: Plant and equipment investment decisions, operating budgeting
Personnel: Workforce planning and resulting hiring and layoff. CHARACTERISTICS OF FORECASTS
1. Forecasts may always go wrong. Therefore a rigorous presentation of forecast should include both the expected value and a measure of forecast error. 2. Long-term forecasts are usually less accurate in comparison to short-term forecasts. 3. Aggregate forecasts are usually more accurate in comparison to disaggregate forecasts. For example, forecast of the food consumed by a group of students in a college canteen can be forecasted more accurately than the food consumed by each and every student. FORECASTING METHODS
Forecasting methods fall into four categories 1. Qualitative: The forecasts are based on the human judgement and opinion. Market research falls in this category. 2. Time Series: These methods use historical demand data of an item. 3. Causal: Causal forecasting uses data of multiple variables to forecast demand of an item. 4. Simulation: Simulation methods use what if questions and come out with forecasts. The underlying models for what if analysis are time series or causal models. Even a hybrid model can be used for simulation. When quantitative methods are used for forecast, the effort is to isolate systematic
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component and random component using the available data. The systematic component gives the expected value and the variation around the expected value happens in the future periods due to the random component. STATIC AND ADAPTIVE METHODS OF FORECASTING In a static method, a single forecasting model is applied to the currently available data to derive forecasts for all the future periods for which forecasts are to be generated. In adaptive methods, as new data arrives, the new data is incorporated into the forecasting model to derive forecasts for future periods from then on. BASIC APPROACH TO DEMAND FORECASTING
1. Understand the objective of forecasting: Determine the decisions which are taken based on the forecast. 2. Integrate planning and forecasting in the entire supply chain: Different units in the supply chain should not forecast separately. All the required forecasts have to be generated from uniform premises and tools. 3. Identify major factors that influence the demand: This identification helps in choosing the forecasting technique. 4. Understand and identify customer segments for which you want forecast of demand. 5. Determine the appropriate forecasting technique 6. Establish performance and error measures for forecast.
TIME SERIES METHODS In static methods, estimates of level, trend, and seasonal factor are derived using the past data. These three factors give the forecast of the systematic component for future periods. 64
ADAPTIVE METHODS :
Moving average is an adaptive method. Exponential smoothing is also an adaptive method. Holt model is trend-corrected exponential smoothing model. Winter's model is a trend- and seasonality corrected exponential smoothing model. MEASURES OF FORECAST ERRORS An estimate of the forecast error is to be given along with the forecast of an expected value. As actual values are realized, a forecast error can be calculated and managers perform error analysis to satisfy themselves that the current forecasting method is accurately predicting the systematic component of demand. Contingency plans have to be put in place to account for the predicted forecast error. SOME POPULAR MEASURES FOR FORECAST ERROR ARE: Mean square error Mean absolute deviation Mean absolute percentage error tracking signal
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FACTORS INVOLVED IN DEMAND FORECASTING 1. How far ahead? a. Long term – e.g., petroleum, paper, shipping. Tactical decisions. Within the limits of resources already available. b. Short-term – e.g., clothes. Strategic decisions. Extending or reducing the limits of resources. 2. UNDERTAKEN AT THREE LEVELS: Macro-level Industry level e.g., trade associations Firm level 3. Should the forecast be general or specific (product-wise)? 4. Problems or methods of forecasting for “new” vis-à-vis “well established” products. 5. Classification of products – producer goods, consumer durables, consumer goods, services. 66
6. Special factors peculiar to the product and the market – risk and uncertainty. (e.g., ladies’ dresses) SHORT TERM FORECAST Scheduling of production to avoid problems of over production and underproduction. Proper management of inventories Evolving suitable price strategy to maintain consistent sales Formulating a suitable sales strategy in accordance with the changing pattern of demand and extent of competition among the firms. Forecasting financial requirements for the short period. LONG TERM FORECAST Planning for a new project, expansion and modernization of an existing unit, diversification and technological up gradation. Assessing long term financial needs. It takes time to raise financial resources. Arranging suitable manpower. It can help a firm to arrange for specialized labour force and personnel. Evolving a suitable strategy for changing pattern of consumption. 2) SUPPLY CHAIN DATA MANAGEMENT, SPECIFIC RESPONSIBILITIES INCLUDE IN SUPPLY CHAIN DATA MANAGEMENT:
Develop, review, and strengthen support systems and procedures for logistics management information systems at different levels of the supply pipeline. Develop strategies to address critical challenges affecting quality and timely availability of essential logistics data and improving the management, processing, and use of key logistics data. Mentoring key counterparts in data management. 67
Developing interventions to improve logistics reporting rates and data accuracy. Support the use of Supply Chain Manager software and National Stock Status Database (NSSD). Improving systems and procedures to effectively and routinely update, analyze, and share stock status data and logistics data. Improve availability and use of NSSD data and develop and maintain collaborative relationships with MOH partners and stakeholders. Support routine data sharing. Participate in relevant meetings and technical working groups. Development and/or completion of regular assessment, status, and consumption/logistics reports.
MAIN ACTIVITIES Establish Supply Chain data governance, including: o Extract the Supply Chain data requirements from the defined Supply Chain performance indicators o Structure and manage the (master) data definitions for ease of use in reporting o Create standards and best practices for data recording in the Supply Chain, including data classification and format taking into consideration legislation, industry requirements etc o Ensures that data transfer procedures / mechanisms in the new Supply Chain processes enable data characteristics to be kept intact along the data use o Ensure that all appropriate data back-ups creation are integrated in the Supply Chain processes o Liaise with relevant Supply Chain business stakeholders • Ensure consistent data quality in the Supply Chain ERP system (SAP etc) CHALLENGES Typical product data management challenges are complex, diverse and pervasive, creating a variety of supply chain headaches, including missed orders, long lead times,
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inefficient logistics and excessive inventory, which ultimately contribute to reduced profitability. COMMON CHALLENGES INCLUDE: NO SINGLE SOURCE OF TRUTH: The proverbial organizational silos best describes the state of supply chain operations at many manufacturing firms. Product design, inventory management, supply planning and enterprise resource planning each have their own systems and processes, and there is no consistent process for managing product and materials data across the enterprise - resulting in inconsistent bill of materials data, product nomenclatures, attribute names, types and domain values. Working around all of these system and data problems requires a huge amount of manual effort. LACK OF PRODUCT MODEL FLEXIBILITY AND TRACEABILITY : Part numbers are “intelligent” and over engineered; in other words, every digit in the part number has a coded meaning. For example, if any attribute for a particular part changes, but it does not affect form, fit or function of the part, the part number may still need to be changed if the attribute is included in the part number nomenclature. Therefore, instead of revising the existing part, a new part is created. This cripples the ability to track the revision history and turns data managers away from using revisions effectively to manage parts. MISMATCHED SUPPLY AND DEMAND: Account managers create individual forecasts in Excel and the forecasts are manually consolidated. Unfortunately, the product structures used for forecasting often don’t match supply execution data, which makes it nearly impossible to align supply with demand. This results in batch data processing, workload spikes and fire drills. PARTNER COLLABORATION DEMANDS : Whether it is product design and engineering, manufacturing or logistics, partners expect a tight collaboration process and timely data exchange in agreed-upon format and protocols. Certain industries such as consumer products and retail have stringent requirements to comply with industry standard data exchange protocols such as 1SYNC, UCCnet and Transora. In addition, partnerships with large enterprise customers, contract manufacturers and vendors also put pressure on the operations manager for tailored data preparations and transfers from static apps.
3) INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT INFORMATION IS crucial to the performance of supply chain because it provides the basis on which supply chain managers make decisions.
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INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY consists of the tools used to gain awareness of information, analyze the information and execute on it to increase the performance of the supply chain ROLE OF IT IN A SUPPLY CHAIN Information is a key supply chain driver because it serves as the glue that allows other drivers to work together with the goal of creating an integrated, coordinated supply chain. Information makes the supply chain visible to a manager. With the visibility, a manager can make decisions to improve the supply chains performance. Managers must understand how information is gathered and analyzed. This is where IT comes into play as IT consists of the hardware, software and people throughout a SC that gather, analyze and execute upon information. Thus, the organization needs to be connected and become able to share information in real time and instantaneously. This is not achievable without IT and the tools it offers for organization wide collaboration.
The most typical role of IT in SCM is reducing the function in transactions between supply chain partners through cost-effective information flow. IT is viewed to have a role in supporting the collaboration & coordination of supply chains through information sharing. It can be used for Decision Support. In this instance the analytical power of computers is used to provide assistance to managerial decisions. 70
OBJECTIVES OF IT IN SCM 1) 2) 3) 4)
Providing information, Availability & Visibility. Enabling single point of contact of data. Allowing decisions based on total supply chain information. Enabling collaboration with supply chain partners.
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY FOR SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT •
SOFTWARE SYSTEMS • • • •
•
Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) Electronic Data Interchange ( EDI ) Supply Chain Management Systems (SCM) Customer Relationship Management (CRM)
NETWORK INFRASTRUCTURE •
Internet
ORIGINS OF ERP SYSTEMS
ERP systems grew out of a function called materials requirements planning (MRP) which was used to allocate resources for a manufacturing operation MRP systems software ultimately became very complex allowing for efficiencies of scale not previously possible Even more sophisticated MRP II systems began to replace MRP systems in the 1980s By the early 1990s, other enterprise activities were being incorporated into ERP systems
ENTERPRISE RESOURCE PLANNING SYSTEMS Enterprise resource planning (ERP) is a term used to refer to a system that links individual applications (for example, accounting and manufacturing applications) into a single application that integrates the data and business processes of the entire business. ERP is a s/w that aims to serve as a backbone for the whole business. It integrates key business & management processes to provide an integrated view of the entire organization & the activities that take place within it. 71
ERP systems have emerged to automate business functions and offer an integrated data solution across an org’s infrastructure. It provides the capability to manage & integrate the information & services of departments throughout an entire enterprise. This allows org’s to better manage all their resources, thus achieving cost reduction and efficiency through the integration of all information among various business processes. By combining all the operations within the firm, ERP allows co’s to view the information, cash and material flow.
MAJOR ERP SYSTEMS • • • • •
SAP R/3 Oracle PeopleSoft (have been merged by Oracle) Toyota uses PeopleSoft and SAP Microsoft Dynamics (formerly Microsoft Business Solutions )
ELECTRONIC DATA INTERCHANGE (EDI) EDI is the computer-to-computer exchange of business data in standard formats. In EDI, information is organized according to a specified format set by both parties, allowing a “hands-off” computer transaction that requires no human intervention at either end. 72
EDI standards are developed & managed by the Accredited Standards Committee (ASC) X12. The standards are designed to work across industry & co. boundaries. It permits hundreds of unrelated co’s to communicate & process business transactions electronically. EDI works because it relies on a standard system that everyone can use, developed under the guidelines of the American National Standard Institute (ANSI), USA. The ANSI committee ensures that everyone using a process such as EDI follow the same rule & methods, making the Programme Universally accessible. BENEFITS OF EDI • • • • • • •
Better inventory management. Increased productivity. Reduced costs. Improved business relationships. Improved accuracy. Enhanced customer service. Increased sales.
SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS •
•
SCM is the process of effectively managing the components of an extended value chain—from suppliers, through manufacturing and distribution chain, and to the consumers. SCM information systems use technology to more effectively manage supply chains
•
A TYPICAL SCM SYSTEM MIGHT ADDRESS THE FOLLOWING ISSUES :
• • • • •
Planning Vendor selection Manufacturing Logistics Customer relationship
•
THE TWO BASIC TYPES OF SCM SYSTEM SOFTWARE ARE:
•
Supply Chain Planning software (SCP): Uses mathematical models to predict inventory levels based on the efficient flow of resources into the supply chain
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•
Supply Chain Execution software (SCE): is used to automate different steps in the supply chain such as automatically sending purchase orders to vendors when inventories reach specified levels
CUSTOMER RELATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Customer relationship management (CRM) systems, sometimes called e-CRM systems, use technology to help an e-business manage its customer BASE. CRM allows an e-business to match customer needs with product plans and offerings, remind customers of service requirements, and determine what products a customer has purchased.
THE USE & BENEFITS OF IT 1) Successful companies have developed focused E-business solutions for improving customer service elements that are most important in their business. 2) Improved efficiency allows company personnel's to focus more on the critical business activities. 3) E-business solutions support planning collaboration & improved agility of the supply network. 4) The use of E-business solutions improves the information quality. 5) To gain strategic benefits, the use of IT has to be coupled with process redesign.
INTERNET Internet has a profound impact on SCM. The backbone of SCM is communication & real-time information exchange between various parties involved in the production & distribution of materials. Following are the various SCM activities that have created new Internet opportunities:• •
Online Vendor Catalogue (without human contact). The ability to schedule outbound logistics.
• • • • •
Provide worldwide customer service (24X7). Receive orders from all over the world all the time. Place bids on projects. Pay invoices electronically. The ability to directly communicate. 74
• •
The ability to be more responsive to customer service problems. To reduce service costs & response time.
OR ROLE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN A SUPPLY CHAIN INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (IT) Hardware and software used throughout the supply chain to gather and analyze information – Captures and delivers information needed to make good decisions Effective use of IT in the supply chain can have a significant impact on supply chain performance –
Information is the driver that serves as the “glue” to create a coordinated supply chain Information must have the following characteristics to be useful: o Accurate o Accessible in a timely manner o Information must be of the right kind Information provides the basis for supply chain management decisions o Inventory o Transportation o Facility CHARACTERISTICS OF USEFUL SUPPLY CHAIN INFORMATION o o o o
Accurate Accessible in a timely manner The right kind Provides supply chain visibility
USE OF INFORMATION IN A SUPPLY CHAIN
Information used at all phases of decision making: strategic, planning, operational Examples: 75
o o
Strategic: location decisions Operational: what products will be produced during today’s production run
Inventory: demand patterns, carrying costs, stockout costs, ordering costs Transportation: costs, customer locations, shipment sizes Facility: location, capacity, schedules of a facility; need information about trade-offs between flexibility and efficiency, demand, exchange rates, taxes, etc. THE SUPPLY CHAIN IT FRAMEWORK The Supply Chain Macro Processes o Customer Relationship Management (CRM) o Internal Supply Chain Management (ISCM) o Supplier Relationship Management (SRM) o Plus: Transaction Management Foundation o Below Figure Why Focus on the Macro Processes? Macro Processes Applied to the Evolution of Software
CUSTOMER RELATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT The processes that take place between an enterprise and its customers downstream in the supply chain Key processes: o Marketing o Selling 76
o o
Order management Call/Service center
INTERNAL SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT Includes all processes involved in planning for and fulfilling a customer order ISCM processes: o Strategic Planning o Demand Planning o Supply Planning o Fulfillment o Field Service There must be strong integration between the ISCM and CRM macro processes SUPPLIER RELATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT Those processes focused on the interaction between the enterprise and suppliers that are upstream in the supply chain Key processes: o Design Collaboration o Source o Negotiate o Buy o Supply Collaboration There is a natural fit between ISCM and SRM processes THE TRANSACTION MANAGEMENT FOUNDATION Enterprise software systems (ERP) Earlier systems focused on automation of simple transactions and the creation of an integrated method of storing and viewing data across the enterprise Real value of the TMF exists only if decision making is improved The extent to which the TMF enables integration across the three macro processes determines its value THE FUTURE OF IT IN THE SUPPLY CHAIN At the highest level, the three SCM macro processes will continue to drive the evolution of enterprise software
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Software focused on the macro processes will become a larger share of the total enterprise software market and the firms producing this software will become more successful Functionality, the ability to integrate across macro processes, and the strength of their ecosystems, will be keys to success SUPPLY CHAIN INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN PRACTICE
Select an IT system that addresses the company’s key success factors Take incremental steps and measure value Align the level of sophistication with the need for sophistication Use IT systems to support decision making, not to make decisions Think about the future
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INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY FOR SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT SOFTWARE SYSTEMS
Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) Material Requirements Planning (MRP) Manufacturing Resource Planning (MRP II) Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) Supply Chain Management Systems (SCM) Customer Relationship Management (CRM) Internet-based Software
NETWORK INFRASTRUCTURE Wide Area Network Internet (for E-commerce: B2B, B2C)
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Module IV…!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
SUPPLY CHAIN INNOVATIONS: 1) SUPPLY CHAIN INTEGRATION , SUPPLY CHAIN INTEGRATION “Supply chain integration is process integration upstream and downstream in the supply chain”.
AN INTEGRATED SUPPLY CHAIN (ISC) IS one that has full responsibility across the corporation (including different divisions, business units and geographies) for the planning and management of all activities involved in end-to-end supply chain processes, including direct sourcing and procurement, conversion/manufacturing, and all logistics management activities.
SUPPLY CHAIN INTEGRATION IS DIFFICULT FOR TWO MAIN REASONS (SIMCHI-LEVI ET AL. 2003): First, different companies in the supply chain may have different, conflicting objectives (e.g. suppliers’ desire for long production run in stable volumes against manufacturer’s desire for flexibility). Second, the supply chain is a dynamic system that evolves over time. Customer demand, supplier capabilities, and relationships in the supply chain evolve over time (e.g. customer’s increasing power pressure to produce an enormous variety of high-quality products, ultimately, to produce customized products). REASONS FOR SUPPLY CHAIN INTEGRATION MANUFACTURER’S GOALS
Reduce costs Reduce duplication of effort Improve quality Reduce lead time Implement cost reduction program Involve suppliers early 80
Reduce time to market SUPPLIER’S GOALS
Increase sales volume Increase customer loyalty Reduce cost Improve demand data Improve profitability
ISSUES IN AN INTEGRATED SUPPLY CHAIN Local optimization - focusing on local profit or cost minimization based on limited knowledge Incentives (sales incentives, quantity discounts, quotas, and promotions) - push merchandise prior to sale Large lots - low unit cost but do not reflect sales Bullwhip effect - stable demand becomes lumpy orders through the supply chain OPPORTUNITIES IN AN INTEGRATED SUPPLY CHAIN
Accurate “pull” data Lot size reduction Single stage control of replenishment Vendor managed inventory Postponement 81
Channel assembly Drop shipping and special packaging Blanket orders Standardization Electronic ordering and funds transfer
MEASURES OF INTEGRATION – – – – – – – –
Access to planning system Sharing production plans Joint EDI access / networks Knowledge of inventory levels Packaging customization Delivery frequencies Common logistical equipment / containers Common use of third-party logistics
FACTORS IN FORMING SUPPLY CHAIN RELATIONSHIPS – – – – – – – –
The order winner The method making sourcing decisions The nature of electronic collaboration The attitude to capacity planning Price negotiations Managing product quality Managing research and development The level of pressure
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ACCORDING TO LEE & WHAN (2001), SUPPLY CHAIN INTEGRATION HAS FOUR DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES : 1. INFORMATION INTEGRATION refers to sharing information about important supply chain parameters among the supply chain members. This comprises any type of data (e.g. demand data, inventory data, capacity plans, production and schedules, promotion plans, and shipment schedules) that could influence the actions and performance of the supply chain members; 83
2. PLANNING SYNCHRONIZATION relates to the joint design and execution of plans for product introduction, forecasting and replenishment. In essence, it defines what is to be done with the information that is shared: it is a mutual agreement along the members of the supply chain as to specific actions based on that information. Ideally, all order fulfillment plans are coordinated so that all replenishments are made to meet the ultimate customer demand; 3. WORKFLOW COORDINATION refers to streamlined and automated workflow activities between supply chain members. In contrast to planning synchronization, it defines not just what the firms should do with the shared information, but what should be done with the information that is shared (e.g. procurement activities from a manufacturer to a supplier can be tightly coupled so that efficiencies in terms of accuracy, time, and cost, can be achieved. Product development activities involving multiple companies can also be integrated to achieve similar efficiencies. In the best-case situation, supply chain partners would rely on technology solutions to actually automate many or all of the internal and cross-company workflow steps); 4. NEW BUSINESS MODELS . Adoption of e-business models to supply chain integration includes more than just efficiency progress. Firms are realizing whole new ways of doing business and new business opportunities, which were not previously possible. Logistic flows may change and/or roles and responsibilities of supply chain partners may shift in order to improve overall supply chain efficiency.
INFORMATION SHARING AMONG SUPPLY CHAIN MEMBERS
Reduced bullwhip effect Early problem detection Faster response Builds trust and confidence
COLLABORATIVE PLANNING, FORECASTING , REPLENISHMENT , AND DESIGN
Reduced bullwhip effect Lower Costs (material, logistics, operating, etc.) Higher capacity utilization Improved customer service levels
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COORDINATED WORKFLOW , PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS, PROCUREMENT
Production efficiencies Fast response Improved service Quicker to market
ADOPT NEW BUSINESS MODELS AND TECHNOLOGIES
Penetration of new markets Creation of new products Improved efficiency Mass customization
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SUPPLY CHAIN INTEGRATION
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2) SUPPLY CHAIN RESTRUCTURING , THE GOAL SHOULD BE to simplify the supply chain by first minimising part numbers and financial transactions between the various business entities that make up the supply chain. Next the Supply Chain should be aligned and tiered. Alignment will ensure responsibility for a product or service is focussed and provided by a limited number of 1st tier suppliers. These suppliers should be encouraged to develop themselves so that the tiers below them are under their full control. Simplification makes the supply chain visible and transparent to all links within it and minimize reliance on complex information systems OBJECTIVES • • • •
What What What What
is the magnitude of any potential cost savings? is the likely impact on customer service? are the requirements for executing the new strategy? are the associated business risks?
STEP 1: Identify and select project team participants. STEP 2: Document service requirements. STEP 3: Identify internal sources of data and information. -
Inbound Transportation Costs: Outbound Transportation Costs: Distribution Center (DC) Operating Costs: Inventory Carrying Costs: Supply Chain Administration Costs:
STEP 4: Collect data and information. STEP 5: Identify potential improvement opportunities. • TRANSPORTATION o o o o o
Expand/eliminate the private fleet Leverage more volume through fewer carriers; negotiate deeper discounts nationally Reduce empty miles through the use of better planning tools Centralize route planning nationally; execute locally Bid out selective major traffic lanes
• NETWORK o Consolidate multi-division facilities into one 89
o o o o
Close “x” number of DC’s Exit owning/operating DC’s; use 3PL Strip “each pick” out of DC’s; use wholesalers for that volume Create cross docking facilities
• INVENTORY o Move slow moving SKU’s to single central location o Reduce/eliminate slow/no moving SKU’s o Reduce supplier lead times • ADMINISTRATION o Consolidate all/part of multi division organization structure
STEP STEP STEP STEP STEP
6: Conduct detailed analysis. 7: Summarize preliminary results. 8: Develop business risk framework. 9: Formalize results. 10: Conduct management briefing.
A FRAMEWORK FOR SUPPLY CHAIN RESTRUCTURING There has been much discussion recently by business leaders for the need to restructure corporate supply chains so that they are responsive to the needs of corporations in a dynamic business environment. THE MATERIAL PRESENTED BELOW PROVIDES A FRAMEWORK FOR THE PROCESS OF SUPPLY CHAIN RESTRUCTURING . Supply chain restructuring encompasses significantly more than changes in the supply chain function, like moving to vendor managed inventories or employing electronic reverse auctions. Supply chain restructuring as used here is a fundamental alteration in a supply chain for the firm, affecting all functions and activities. The word 'restructuring' connotes many things to different people. Frequently it is used to suggest streamlining of operations, reducing redundancies, changing relationships with trading partners, etc. THE FRAMEWORK SUGGESTED HERE INCLUDES THIS FOCUS , BUT ALSO ENCOMPASSES A PROACTIVE APPROACH TO RESTRUCTURING THE SUPPLY CHAIN where the appropriate response to the major forces for change is to achieve long-run capability to meet the needs of the firm.
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UNDERSTANDING THE RESTRUCTURING PROCESS
Restructuring of the supply chain needs to be viewed as a process of fundamental rejuvenation throughout the company. The fundamental proposition is that doing things better is necessary, but not sufficient. IT IS ESSENTIAL TO DO BETTER THINGS ! Successful restructuring requires a critical understanding of
1. THE FORCES AND CONSTRAINTS FOR CHANGE - THE WHY? 2. THE PARADIGM SHIFT REQUIRED - THE WHAT? 3. THE IMPLEMENTATION PROCESS - THE HOW? 4. THE PROBLEMS AWAITING SOLUTION - WHAT IS NEXT?
FORCES AND CONSTRAINTS FOR CHANGE (WHY?)
Forces, both internal to the organization and external, mandate fundamental changes in business operations. Constraints, on the other hand, act to either prohibit or limit the restructuring that is undertaken. Together, the forces and constraints constitute the WHY for supply chain restructuring. From all fronts, the forces for change are expected to increase, not decrease, in intensity in the future. Companies need to understand the dynamic forces precipitating change, as well as how constraints are transformed over time, -for forces and constraints both external and internal to the organization. 1. EXTERNAL FORCES AND CONSTRAINTS stem from the environment specific to an entire industry, or to a particular firm within an industry. They include economic, social, and political forces and constraints as well as technological thrusts which impact on all players in an industry. Also included are these same forces as they uniquely impact on a particular firm with its individual set of strengths and weaknesses, both human and physical. For example, economic forces and constraints include actions by competitors, market place dictates for shorter product life cycles, worldwide competition, requirements for improved product features and prices, the demand for smaller lot sizes, the dictates imposed by the trade in 91
consumer products and the competitive might of other firms who have undergone successful restructuring. 2. INTERNAL FORCES for change include any mismatch between the strengths required to compete successfully and the existing inventory of company strengths, a restatement of the overall mission and concomitant strategy for a business unit, or an initiative stimulated by some perceived need for performance improvement. To illustrate, cost structure can be a primary internal force for restructuring. Many firms have great dissatisfaction with their cost structures. 3. INTERNAL CONSTRAINTS include all the forms of resistance to change that include behavior, cultural, technical, financial, etc. Inertia is a major internal constraint against restructuring. Overcoming inertia -that is, surmounting the inherent mismatch between the present deployment of the enterprise resources and the issues of most importance - is a significant constraint in most companies. THE PARADIGM SHIFT (WHAT?)
Successful restructuring requires a well thought out set of objectives. That is, WHAT is the purpose of restructuring and how will the company be different as a result? The paradigm shift can be conceptualized as encompassing three distinct (but related) dimensions:
1. CULTURE includes the broadest, most enduring (and most difficult to change) aspects of business. Existing culture directs and constrains restructuring efforts. Changes in culture are major shifts in the driving forces of a manufacturing company. Included are changes in strategy, mission, fundamental objectives, values held, philosophy and basic policies. Examples encompass shifting from a cost-driven company to one where high quality, time-based competition, shorter product life cycles, partnerships, etc. 2. CONFIGURATION relates to both organizational designs and relationships, and to physical/geographical distributions of people, capital and equipment. Configuration change also includes transforming the definition of the basic tasks or charters of each of the supply chain activity. Inside the factory, configuration changes include regrouping of machines into cells, significant 92
new methods of manufacturing, and major redeployments of overhead personnel. Restructuring typically results in new designs and arrangements with partners. 3. COORDINATION refers to management and control within the business system itself. Restructuring normally requires new flows of information and materials -as well as new sets of managerial responsibilities (Oliff, Arpan and DuBois, 1989). The foundation for restructuring rests on three fundamental resources: people, technology, and information. Restructuring the supply chain can then be defined as: The process of changing significantly anyone or more of the three dimensions (culture, configuration, coordination), through the deployment (or redeployment) of any of the three resources (people, technology, information).
In most cases, restructuring involves all three. People perform different jobs, utilizing new technology, coordinated with new information systems.
1. PEOPLE
is at the heart of most restructuring projects, with the nature of jobs and responsibilities changing fundamentally. Examples include the elimination of managerial layers, replacement of pyramid organizations with flat or network organizations, mobilizing people to undertake new initiatives, and the continuing absorption of what has traditionally been 'staff' work into the basic supply chain infrastructure. DEPLOYMENT
2. TECHNOLOGY
for restructuring often involves a major shift in fundamental supply chain methods and equipment. Examples include flexible machining systems (FMS), e-procurement options, and the transfer of technology from one firm to another. Introduction and successful implementation of these major advances in technology require significant change in the culture of the company. DEPLOYMENT
3. INFORMATION
includes both the development/introduction of new management information systems (MIS) and the obsolescence of existing systems. For example, enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems DEPLOYMENT
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mandate increase integration among key corporate activities, including order entry, manufacturing and distribution within the firm. External linkages using electronic data interchange (EDI) systems and/or the Internet have required firms to determine what business channels will need to be supported.
4. THUS, there is a very close interlinking relationship between the six elements and numerous forces, as depicted in EXHIBIT 1.
EXHIBIT 1: RESTRUCTURING ELEMENTS THE IMPLEMENTATION PROCESS (HOW?) Fundamental changes must be achieved in culture, configuration, and/or coordination by the redeployment of the three resources: people, technology and information. Defining the desired new configuration and the new coordination to be achieved in restructuring is more straightforward than defining the new culture that is to be achieved. But what is fundamentally more difficult is determining the set of steps required to achieve the desired result, i.e. the HOW of responding to the forces, recognizing the genuine constraints, and achieving the desired paradigm shift.
1. TOP-DOWN IMPLEMENTATION efforts are typically directed by senior management. Included are: the decision to restructure, usually based on a careful analysis of the forces and constraints; the overall objectives and 94
approach for the restructuring, perhaps based on scenarios of various actions and competitive responses; an inclusive plan which is not simply an overall goal statement or wish list without adequate attention given to the detailed action steps required; and personal leadership to achieve the desired results and timing. 2. BOTTOM-UP IMPLEMENTATION energies are typically required from a large number of people, in most cases the more the better. Also required is a set of key managers who will lead the implementation process. The changes required in restructuring are usually fundamental. If cultural change is necessary, the new culture can be adopted more quickly if everyone is a part of the implementation process. Approaches to restructuring vary widely. Some firms utilize consultants essentially to serve as 'hatchet men'. Others do the entire job internally. More frequently, some middle ground is found where advice is give by consultants based on seeing other companies undertake similar responses to similar forces.
It is important not to frame the restructuring project minimally. To often this is the case -the project is defined to have the smallest possible impact on the labor force, culture, configuration and coordination. The frequent result is that it becomes necessary to undertake still another major restructuring project, with a combined impact that is far more serious for morale and culture. The approach needs to be based on the long-term competitive posture required, and the changes required to make it a reality.
Invariably, restructuring will require the learning of new values, skill and practices, and the unlearning of old beliefs. For this reason, virtually every restructuring project has to include education and training. In many successful restructuring projects, education and training has, played a major role for the company in the adoption of the new culture. The emphasis is often formally on the issues of configuration and coordination, but the bottom line is culture.
Project teams play a key role in most restructuring undertakings when formal organizational barriers are broken. Education on the fundamental forces and constraints, as well as the paradigm shift (in clearly understandable terminology) is required in order to create a bandwagon effect. It is critical that the organization 95
both understands and believes in its definition of the forces and constraints and its paradigm shift. Too often the paradigm shift is stated as some lofty goal associated with 'getting closer to the customer', but the organization sees it as only costreduction and head-count reduction.
EVALUATION of a restructuring program is a major challenge. The measures of effectiveness for restructuring are often not focused on what is truly important: the ability of the new business entity to compete. All too frequently, the goal is to shed X people or Y dollars of cost by the end of some period Z, or to create a better set of financial statements by next year. While recognizing the primacy of financial measures under certain conditions, the short-run orientation of many companies comes at their long-run expense.
It is difficult to tell whether the results achieved are truly successful, mediocre, or poor, or if short-term results are being achieved at the expense of long- run health. Moreover, it is necessary to take into account the continuing impact of changing forces. Frequently, restructuring requires a new system for performance measurement in the company (Dixon, Nanni and Vollmann, 1990). A VIEW TO THE FUTURE (WHAT IS NEXT?)
Restructuring activities need to be clearly bounded to be tractable. What is to be included or accomplished? It also needs to have a definition of what is and is not to be included. But the WHAT IS NEXT question must also be asked. Too often restructuring is viewed as a one-time adjustment rather than a continuing process. As a particular restructuring effort is taking place, it is important always to be evaluating the next steps. To the extent that this viewpoint can be proactive, it may well help avoid the painful reactive mode of restructuring. 3) AGILE SUPPLY CHAINS, SUPPLY CHAIN AGILITY is an operational strategy focused on inducing velocity and flexibility in the supply chain. A supply chain is the process of moving goods from the customer order through the raw materials stage, supply, production, and distribution of products to the customer. All organizations have supply chains of varying degrees, depending upon the size of the organization and the type of product manufactured. These networks obtain supplies and components, change these materials into finished products and then distribute 96
them to the customer. Included in this supply chain process are customer orders, order processing, inventory, scheduling, transportation, storage, and customer service. A necessity in coordinating all these activities is the information service network. The difference between supply chain management and supply chain agility is the extent of capability that the organization possesses. Key to the success of an agile supply chain is the speed and flexibility with which these activities can be accomplished and the realization that customer needs and customer satisfaction are the very reasons for the network. Customer satisfaction is paramount. Achieving this capability requires all physical and logical events within the supply chain to be enacted swiftly, accurately, and effectively. The faster parts, information, and decisions flow through an organization, the faster it can respond to customer needs. Agile organizations are market-driven, with more product research and short development and introduction cycles. The focus is on quickly satisfying the supply chain, the chain of events from a customer's order inquiry through complete satisfaction of that customer. All physical events are enacted quickly and accurately. The faster materials, information, and decisions flow through an organization the faster it can respond to the demands of the market. The keys are flow and time. The concept of agile supply chains was introduced to transfer and apply the winning strategy of agility to that of supply chains (Harrison et al., 1999). It is a newly accepted unit of business. Agility in the context of supply chain management focuses on “responsiveness” (Lee and Lau, 1999; Christopher and Towill, 2000). Existing literature on agility presents it as a general concept, often linked to manufacturing only. A supply chain provides more practical setting for assessing agile capabilities (Van Hoek et al., 2001). It is unlikely that any single organisation will be able to produce artifacts with correctly configured customization and added value to satisfy a particular emergent market demand. Agility suggests cooperation to enhance competitiveness within organisations. Several authors claim that it is difficult to estimate agility directly in the supply chain (Christopher, 2000; Van Hoek et al., 2001). In order to reduce this significant deficiency, the supply chain is frequently introduced as an area where the agility concept can be applied in operations.
The key elements of an agile approach are very similar to the elements of the agile supply chain. Agility is all about customer responsiveness, people and information, cooperation within and between firms and fitting a company for change. To be truly agile, a supply chain must possess a number of distinguishing characteristics which 97
include: market sensitivity, virtuality, process integration, and networking (KisperskaMoron and Swiercze, 2008: 2). Parallel developments in the areas of agility and supply chain management led to the introduction of an agile supply chain (Harrison et al. 1999, Christopher 2000). While agility is accepted widely as a winning strategy for growth, even a basis for survival in certain business environments, the idea of creating agile supply chains has become a logical step for companies (Ismail and Sharifi 2006:434). Agility in a supply chain is the ability of the supply chain as a whole and its members to rapidly align the network and its operations to dynamic and turbulent requirements of the customers. The main focus is on running businesses in network structures with an adequate level of agility to respond to changes as well as proactively anticipate changes and seek new emerging opportunities. THE ISSUES Supply Chain Agility is in direct opposition with traditional manufacturing approaches characterized by use of economic order quantities, high capacity utilization, and high inventory. It requires radical change. Excess capacity is welcome instead of taboo. Make-toorder capability replaces mass production, and lot sizes of one replace EOQ's. A major issue with Supply Chain Agility is the high capitalization often required for flexibility in the production and assembly areas. However payback periods of 2 years or less are common. AGILE SUPPLY CHAIN: An agile supply chain requires various distinguishing capabilities in order to enrich and satisfy customers. These include: responsiveness, flexibility and adaptability. To be truly agile, an organization must possess the following elements: market sensitive, process integration, network based and virtual (Christopher, 2000). They should be able to be flexible, responsive and adapt to changing market conditions. This can be achieved through collaborative relationship, process integration, information integration, and customer/marketing sensitivity achieving customer satisfied objectives. These include cost, time, competency and speed in the supply chain contributing to competitive advantage of the entire organization. 98
-AGILITY is about the basis of competition, business practices, and corporate structures in the 21st century; – AGILITY is not about developing more technology, although technology will play an important role; – AGILITY is not another way of referring to leanness, flexibility, computer integrated enterprises, or other current buzzwords; – AGILITY is a strategic response, not tactical, and involves building defense against primary competitive forces through cooperation; – AGILITY is a holistic concept; – AGILITY is primarily about adaptability which is achieved through reconfiguration capability. Processes, structures, organization, people, implementation capabilities, etc are the key issues; – AGILITY is a paradigm shift; – AGILITY is a step change innovation not an incremental innovation; – AGILITY holds the promise of a world based on cooperation.
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TO SUSTAIN AND MAINTAIN SUPPLY CHAIN AGILITY , AN ORGANISATION SHOULD:
�� Commit to flexibility and adaptability in regards to your supply chain. Convince those who will implement the necessary programs of its importance. �� Identify the factors involved in past problems with your company's supply chain. Review your business's past history for its biggest problems. �� Implement simple solutions for these problems. �� Design programs for solutions that are not solved simply. Prioritize problems on the basis of which are most likely. Systematically move through these problems. �� Address flexibility and adaptability while moving through the later stages of disaster-proofing your production. Begin by asking for input from all levels of production, even levels below that of managers. �� Centralize responsibility for reviewing plans for change. Those with the responsibility should have a broad base of experience. Involve consulting firms if needed, but critically assess the skills of the consultants such that they fit into your team.
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�� Integrate the newer theories of agile supply chains, specifically those that allow for greater coordination between customers and suppliers, where appropriate. DEVELOPING AN AGILE SUPPLY CHAIN
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4) PRICING AND REVENUE MANAGEMENT,
PRICING IS AN IMPORTANT LEVER to increase supply chain profits by better matching supply and demand. Revenue management is the use of pricing to increase the profit generated from a limited supply of supply chain assets. Ideas from revenue management suggest that a firm should first use pricing to achieve some balance between supply and demand and only then invest in or eliminate assets. Supply chain assets exist in two forms, capacity and inventory. Capacity assets in the supply chain exist for production, transportation, and storage while inventory assets exist throughout the supply chain and are carried to improve product availability. REVENUE MANAGEMENT ALSO COULD BE DEFINED AS the use of differential pricing based on customer segment, time of use and product or capacity availability to increase supply chain surplus. Another definition for revenue management is an order acceptance or refusal process that employ differential pricing strategy and stop sales tactic to reallocate capacity enhance delivery reliability and speed, and realize revenue from change order responsiveness in order to maximize revenue from preexisting capacity
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REVENUE
MANAGEMENT
HAS
A
SIGNIFICANT
IMPACT
ON
SUPPLY
CHAIN
PROFITABILITY WHEN ONE OR MORE OF THE FOLLOWING CONDITIONS EXIST :
-
The value of the product varies in different market segments
-
The product is highly perishable or product wastage occurs
-
Demand has seasonal and other peaks
-
The product is sold both in bulk and the spot market
Revenue management technique has been successfully applied to airline, railway, hotel and resort, cruise ship, health care, printing and publishing. Revenue management has considerable potential for manufacturing operations as well. REVENUE MANAGEMENT FOR MULTIPLE CUSTOMER SEGMENTS Airline seats are good example of market with multiple customer segments. Airline use advance purchase restriction to segment its customer into different fare classes and dynamically adjust their seat capacity assigned to those fare classes as advance sales orders arrive. For instance business travelers are willing to pay a higher fare to travel a specific schedule for convenience and even order at the last minute, while leisure travelers are willing to shift their schedule to take advantage of lower fares. There are two fundamental issues than must be handled to apply the concept of revenue management. First, how to differentiate between two segments and structure its pricing to make one segment pay more than the other. Second, how to control demand such that the lower price segment doesn’t utilize the entire available asset. To differentiate between various segments, the firm must create by identifying product or services attributes that segments value differently. For example, business travelers on an airline want to book at the last minute and only stay just as long as they must. In other hand leisure travelers are willing to book far in advance and adjust the duration of stay. Thus the flexibility on booking and schedule differentiate the business travelers from leisure travelers. For transportation provider the segment can be differentiated based on how far in advance a customer is willing to commit and pay for transportation capacity. Similar separation can also occur for production and storage-related assets in supply chain. To take advantage of revenue management, the supplier must limit the amount of capacity committed to lower price segment even if sufficient demand exist from the lower price segment to use the entire capacity. The basic trade-off here is between committing to an order from a lower price or waiting for a high price to arrive later on. The risks in such situation are spoilage and spill. Spoilage occurs when capacity is wasted because demand from high price doesn’t materialize. Spill occurs if 104
higher price segments have to be refused because capacity has already been committed to lower price segment. A current order from a lower price should be compared to expected revenue from waiting for a higher price buyer and order from lower price buyer should be accepted if the expected revenue from higher price is lower than the current revenue from the lower price buyer. To minimize the cost of spoilage and spill, supplier which working with two customer segments can use the following formula. Assume that the anticipated demand for the higher price segment is normally distributed with mean of DH and standard deviation of σH:
CH = F-1(1-pL/pH,DH,σH) = NORMINV(1-pL/pH,DH,σH). CH = reserve capacity for higher price segment pL = the price for lower segment pH = the price for higher segment The important point here is that the use differential pricing increases the level of asset availability for the high price segment. Another approach to differential pricing is to create different versions of product targeted at different segments. An automobile manufacturer create a highend, a mid-level and low-end versions of the most popular models based on the options provided. This policy allows them to charge differential price from different segment for the same core product. To successfully use revenue management when serving multiple customer segments, a firm must use the following tactics effectively:
Price based on the value assigned by each segment Use different price for each segment Forecast at the segment level
REVENUE MANAGEMENT FOR PERISHABLE ASSETS Any asset that loses value over time is perishable. Fruits, vegetables and pharmaceuticals are perishable. Perishable assets also include products such computer, cell phone, fashion apparel that lose value as new model introduce. There are two revenue management tactics used for perishable assets: -
Vary price over time to maximize expected revenue Overbook sales of the assets to account for cancellations
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The first tactic is suitable for assets such as fashion apparel that have clear date beyond which they lose a lot of their value, apparel designed for certain season doesn’t have much value in the end of the season. The retailer must use effective pricing strategy and forecast impact of price on customer demand to increase total profit. The trade-off here is charge a high price initially and leaving more products to be sold later at lower price or charge a lower price initially, selling more products early in the season and leaving fewer products to be sold at a discount. The second tactic is suitable if customers are able to cancel orders and the value of asset drops significantly after deadline. Airline seats, product designed specially for Christmas, and production capacity at a supplier are examples of this asset. The trade-off is between having wasted capacity because excessive cancellation or having a shortage of capacity because of few cancellations, in that case an expensive backup needs to be arranged. The goal of overbooking is to maximize supply chain profit by minimizing the cost of wasted capacity and the cost of capacity shortage. The following formula is used to set overbooking level for an asset:
CW = p – c CS = b – c s* = Probability (cancellation < O*) = CW = cost for wasted capacity Cs = cost for capacity shortage p = product price c = product cost if cancellations is normally distributed with a mean μc and standard deviation σc, the optimal booking level is given as follows:
O* = F-1 (s*, μc, σc) = NORMINV(s*, μc, σc) If cancellation distribution only known as a function of the booking level (capacity L + overbooking O) to have a mean of μ(L+O) and standard deviation σ(L+O), the optimal overbooking level is shown as follows:
O* = F-1 (s*, μ(L+O), σ(L+O)) = NORMINV(s*, μ(L+O), σ(L+O)) The optimal overbooking level should increase as the margin per unit increases and the level of overbooking should decrease ad the cost of replacement capacity goes up. The use of overbooking will increase asset utilization by the customers.
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REVENUE MANAGEMENT FOR SEASONAL DEMAND One of purposes the use revenue management for seasonal demand is to shift demand from the peak to the off-peak period, thus can get better balance between supply and demand, and also generate higher overall profit. The common and effective revenue management tactic to deal with seasonal demand is to charge higher price during peak period and a lower price during off-peak periods, this tactic result in shifting demand from peak to off-peak period. Some company offer discount and other benefits to encourage customers to shift their demand to off-peak period, one example is Amazon.com that has peak period in December, bringing in short-term capacity is expensive and decrease profit margin. Amazon.com offer discount and free shipping for order that are placed in November, this strategy reduce demand in the peak season and generate a higher profit for Amazon.com. REVENUE MANAGEMENT FOR BULK AND SPOT CUSTOMERS The fundamental trade-off here is similar to the case revenue management for multiple customer segments. The firm needs to decide on the amount of the asset to reserve for spot market (higher price). The reserved quantity will be affected by difference in margin between the spot market and the bulk sale and also the distribution of demand from the spot market. A similar decision needs to be made by purchaser of production, warehousing and transportation assets. The trade-off is between sign on long-term bulk contract with a fixed, lower price but can be wasted if not utilized or buy in the spot market with higher price but never being wasted. The basic decision is the size of the bulk contract. Following is a formula can be used to obtain optimal amount of the asset to be purchased in bulk:
Q* = F-1 (p*, μ, σ) = NORMINV (p*, μ, σ) Where: cB = the bulk rate cS = spot market price p* = probability demand for the asset doesn’t exceed Q* Q* = the optimal amount of the asset to be purchased in bulk The amount of bulk purchase increases if either the spot market price increases or the bulk price decreases. 107
OR THE ROLE OF RM (REVENUE MANAGEMENT) IN THE SCS Revenue management is the use of pricing to increase the profit generated from a limited supply of supply chain assets o
SCs are about matching demand and capacity
o
Prices affect demands
Yield management similar to RM but deals more with quantities rather than prices SUPPLY ASSETS EXIST IN TWO FORMS – Capacity: expiring –
Inventory: often preserved
Revenue management may also be defined as offering different prices based on customer segment, time of use and product or capacity availability to increase supply chain profits Most commonly known example is probably in airline ticket pricing o
Pricing according to customer segmentation at any time
o
Pricing according to reading days for any customer segment
Reading days: Number of days until departure
CONDITIONS FOR RM TO WORK The value of the product varies in different market segments o
Airline seats: Leisure vs. Business travel
o
Films: Movie theater goers, DVD buyers, Cheap movie theater goers, TV watchers.
The product is highly perishable or product waste occurs o
Fashion and seasonal apparel
o
High tech products 108
Demand has seasonal and other peaks o
Products ordered at Amazon.com, peaking in December
o
Supply Chain textbook orders peaking in August and January.
The product is sold both in bulk and on the spot market o
Owner of warehouse who can decide whether to lease the entire warehouse through long-term contracts or save a portion of the warehouse for use in the spot market
o
Truck capacities for a transportation company
RM FOR MULTIPLE CUSTOMER SEGMENTS If a supplier serves multiple customer segments with a fixed asset, the supplier can improve revenues by setting different prices for each segment o
Must figure out customer segments
Prices must be set with barriers such that the segment willing to pay more is not able to pay the lower price o
Barriers: Time, location, prestige, inconvenience, extra service
In the case of time barrier, o
The amount of the asset reserved for the higher price segment is such that quantities below are equal
the expected marginal revenue from the higher priced segment
the price of the lower price segment
USING RM IN PRACTICE Evaluate your market carefully – Understand customer requirements for services and products – Price, flexibility (time, specs), value-added services, etc. – Based on requirements identify customer segments (groups) – Differentiate products/services and their pricing according to customer segments » Dell: » Same product is sold at a different price to different consumers (Private/small or large business/government/academia/health care) 109
» Price of the same product for the same industry varies QUANTIFY THE BENEFITS OF REVENUE MANAGEMENT _ _ _ _ _
Implement a forecasting process Apply optimization to obtain the revenue management decision Involve both sales and operations Understand and inform the customer Integrate supply planning with revenue management 5) GLOBAL SUPPLY CHAIN GLOBAL SUPPLY CHAIN An integrated process where several business entities such as suppliers, manufacturers, distributors, and retailers work together to plan, coordinate and control materials, parts, and finished goods from suppliers to customers. One or more of these business entities operate in different countries.
To compete globally requires an effective supply chain Information technology is an “enabler” of global trade Nations form trading groups No tariffs or duties
ADVANTAGES OF GLOBAL SUPPLY CHAINS
Reduced total costs Inventory reduction Improved fulfillment cycle time Reduce cycle time Increased forecast accuracy Productivity increase Improved capacity Expand international connections Increase intellectual assets Delivery improvement
POTENTIAL GLOBAL SUPPLY CHAIN OBSTACLES Inefficient transportation and distribution systems 110
Market instability Language Barriers Customs Political turmoil Trade imbalances Export surges and recessions COMBATING OBSTACLES
Join nation groups Be innovative Be flexible Research New technology Vertically integrate Form consortiums
DIFFERENT TYPES OF GLOBAL SUPPLY CHAIN MODELS 1. OWN AND MANAGE YOUR OWN INFRASTRUCTURE Pro= Maximum control Con= Heavy costs 2. USE STRATEGIC ALLIANCES Pro= Convenience Large areas covered Con= Unreliable alliance-prone 3. PARTNER WITH AN ASSET -BASED THIRD-PARTY Pro= Operational standards Uniform identity and marketing strength Dedicated mgmt structure Con= Ignorance of complex customs regulations Lack of connections Local economic downturns
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4. PARTNERSHIP WITH A GLOBAL INTEGRATOR OF LOGISTICS SERVICES Pro= Customer friendly In-country knowledge True information systems integration Uniform standards Con= Limited use Less control
GLOBAL SUPPLY CHAINS POSE CHALLENGES REGARDING BOTH QUANTITY AND VALUE : Supply and value chain trends
Globalization Increased cross border sourcing Collaboration for parts of value chain with low-cost providers Shared service centers for logistical and administrative functions Increasingly global operations, which require increasingly global coordination and planning to achieve global optimums Complex problems involve also midsized companies to an increasing degree,
These trends have many benefits for manufacturers because they make possible larger lot sizes, lower taxes, and better environments (culture, infrastructure, special tax zones, sophisticated OEM) for their products. Meanwhile, on top of the problems recognized in supply chain management, there will be many more challenges when the scope of supply chains is global. This is because with a supply chain of a larger scope, the lead time is much longer. Furthermore, there are more issues involved such as multi-currencies, different policies and different laws. The consequent problems include: 1. Different currencies and valuations in different countries; 2. Different tax laws (Tax Efficient Supply Chain Management); 3. Different trading protocols; 4. Lack of transparency of cost and profit. OBSTACLES TO GLOBAL CHAIN TRANSACTIONS
Increased documentation for invoices, cargo insurance, letters of credit, ocean bills of lading or air waybills, and inspections 112
Ever changing regulations that vary from country to country that govern the import and export of goods
Trade groups, tariffs, duties, and landing costs
Limited shipping modes
Differences in communication technology and availability
Different business practices as well as language barriers
Government codes and reporting requirements that vary from country to country
Numerous players, including forwarding agents, custom house brokers, financial institutions, insurance providers, multiple transportation carriers, and government agencies
Since 9/11, numerous security regulations and requirements
GLOBAL SCM FACTORS
Managing extensive global supply chains introduces many complications Geographically dispersed members - increase replenishment transit times and inventory investment Forecasting accuracy complicated by longer lead times and different operating practices Exchange rates fluctuate, inflation can be high Infrastructure issues like transportation, communication, lack of skilled labor, & scarce local material supplies Product proliferation created by the need to customize products for each market
GLOBAL CONSIDERATIONS IN USING SCM
Time differences Language issues Currency exchange rates Tax Different accounting systems
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Internet and security restrictions Culture and religion holidays
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