Philine Everts FINAL PSYCHOLOGY YEAR 1 STUDY GUIDE BIOLOGICAL LEVEL OF ANALYSIS Outline principles t!t "e#ne te $i%l%&ic!l le'el %( !n!l)sis * OR * E+pl!in %, principles t!t "e#ne te $i%l%&ic!l le'el %( !n!l)sis -!) $e "e-%nstr!te" in rese!rc .t!t is/ te%ries !n"0%r stu"ies - At the BLA, researchers take a reductionist approach, break down complex human physiology and behavior into its smallest components to study - There are are three underlying principles: principles: ! Patterns atterns o" behavior behavior can be inherited inherited## behavior behavior can be innate because it is genetically based $peci%c brain processes, neurotransmitters, neurotransmitters, and hormones hormones can play a role in behavior &" this principle is accepted it is logical to believe that evolution plays a key role in behavior Stu")2 B%uc!r" et !l3 .1445 '! Animal Animal researc research h can provide provide insight insight into human human behavior behavior (nly "easible method at times )an be generali*ed to huimans to some extent because we share a common ancestor, and we have +- similar ./A to apes and 000 to rats! Stu")2 R%sen6,ei& !n" Bennett .1478 1! There There are biological biological correl correlates ates o" behavior# behavior# emotions emotions and behaviors are products o" the anatomy and physiology o" the nervous and endocrine systems Stu")2 9!l"er!u& et !l3 .8557 )(/)L2$&(/ - $u3cient support "or the principles o" the BLA - These principles help to guide guide studies "rom a biological perspective! - &t can be seen that in all three principles, other "actors need to be taken into account be"ore determining these principles as the sole in4uences o" human behavior! - 5iews "rom all levels o" analysis need to be taken into account be"ore reaching a determined decision on in4uences on human behavior! •
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Discuss %, !n" ,) p!rticul!r rese!rc -et%"s !re use" !t te $i%l%&ic!l le'el %( !n!l)sis .(%r e+!-ple/ e+peri-ents/ %$ser'!ti%ns/ c%rrel!ti%n!l stu"ies BLA2 $tates that all cognitions, emotions and behaviors have a - BLA2 $tates physiological basis -et%"s2 6esearchers need to have a method "or - Rese!rc -et%"s2 6esearchers collecting and analy*ing data, they are ways that researchers use and manipulate to conduct their studies
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E+peri-ents2 This E+peri-ents2 This method involves a researcher manipulating an independent variable and measuring its e7ect on a dependent variable while controlling other variables, researchers want to determine a cause and e7ect between the &5 and the .5! Experiments usually gather 8uantitative over 8ualitative data! $trengths: o )ause and e7ect relationship can be measured! measured! (ther variables can be tightly controlled Experiments are easily replicated &t is o"ten cheaper and less time9consuming than other methods &t allows researchers to use complex e8uipment o eaknesses: .emand characteristics may occur: participants try to guess the aims o" the research and act accordingly ;awthorne ;awthorne e7ect: participants act in a way that might sabotage the researchers aims Low ecological validity )on%rmation )on%rmation bias may occur 6esearcher bias may occur o Stu")2 R%sen6,ei& !n" Bennett .1478 C!se Stu")2 &t Stu")2 &t is an in9depth study# it usually "ollows a single case, usually over a longer period o" time! time! 2sually it is longitudinal! longitudinal! )an be a single person or a speci%c group that has the same characteristic that is rare! $ometimes involve natural observations, observations, and includes psychological psychological testing and interviews!
ust one researcher researcher is involved!
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Philine Everts 6esearchers may develop more personal relationships with participants )an=t be replicated so there is low reliability $ocial desirability bias may occur Stu")2 O&"en .855: o C%rrel!ti%n!l Stu"ies: Stu"ies : 2sed to determine i" a relationship between two variables exists exists and i" so, what the relationship relationship is! )orrelation )orrelation can describe a relation but it cannot determine a cause and e7ect relationship! &n a positive correlation, correlation, both variables increase increase at the same time! &n a negative correlation, correlation, one variable variable increases while the other decreases! o $trengths: Allows the researcher to investigate naturally occurring variables that may be unethical or impractical to test experimentally &t allows researchers researchers to easily see i" there is a relationship between variables eaknesses: o Bidirectional ambiguity )orrelation )orrelation is not causation! &t means that there there may be other "actors in play and a cause and e7ect relationship can=t be established! Stu")2 B%uc!r" et !l3 .1445 o .&$)2$$: &n the BLA, experiments are are the most e7ective research research method because they allow a direct cause and e7ect relationship to be established! The others are are bidirectional, which gives gives room to to assume that other "actors are in play, so it doesn=t allow this direct relationship supporting supporting the idea o" the BLA to be established!
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Discuss etic!l c%nsi"er!ti%ns rel!te" t% rese!rc stu"ies !t te $i%l%&ic!l le'el %( !n!l)sis c%nsi"er!ti%ns2 6esearchers must "ollow ethical - Etic!l c%nsi"er!ti%ns2 6esearchers considerations to ensure that the research respects the dignity o" the participants! This not only applies to humans, humans, but animals animals also have guidelines that apply to them! Ti-eline2 human guidelines were created in the +?s and animal - Ti-eline2 human guidelines in ++?s Tesis2 Ethical guielines have been created to protect participants - Tesis2 Ethical participants in psychological research, both human and nonhuman! ;owever, due to the need "or important data to explain behavior, some guidelines may be breached! - ; -!in c!te&%ries2 Hu-!n2 o In(%r-e" C%nsent2 &n"ormed about the nature o" the study and agree to participate Decepti%n2 /ot in"orming participants o" the exact aim, sometimes slight deception can be used i" it doesn=t cause stress to the participant
Philine Everts De$rie#n&2 At the end o" a study, the true aims and purposes must be revealed to the participants! 9it"r!,!l (r%- ! stu")2 Participants Participants should be told they have the right to leave the study at any given time C%n#"enti!lit)2 All C%n#"enti!lit)2 All the in"ormation that is obtained in a study must be con%dential Pr%tecti%n (r%- p)sic!l %r -ent!l !r-2 &t is important to make sure that no harm is one to participants Stu"ies2 Sc!cter !n" Sin&er .14<8 =!&uire et !l3 .8555 Ani-!l o Stu"ies2 R%sen6,ei& !n" Bennett .1478 =!tsu6!,! .8557 Genetic o Anonymity con%dentiality &n"ormed consent and the right to re"use or withdraw Stu"ies C!spi et !l .855; B%uc!r" et !l3 .1445 o
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E+pl!in %ne stu") rel!te" t% l%c!li6!ti%n %( (uncti%n in te $r!in .(%r/ 9ernic>e/ Br%c!/ G!66!ni&!/ !n" Sperr) (uncti%n2 the theory that certain areas o" the brain - L%c!li6!ti%n %( (uncti%n2 the correspond correspond to certain "unctions# in that speci%c areas o" the brain control di7erent di7erent "unctions carried carried out by the brain! There"ore, There"ore, damage to relevant areas o" the brain can cause drastic loss o" that "unction and even more, depending on the individual! - Stu")2 =!&uire et !l3 .8555 o Looks at the locali*ation o" the "unction o" spatial awareness o This study relates relates to locali*ation o" "unction "unction in the brain because it shows how spatial awareness is related to both the le"t and right sides o" the hippocampus as well as the posterior and anterior hippocampus! Usin& %ne %r -%re e+!-ples/ e+pl!in e?ects %( neur%tr!ns-issi%n %n u-!n $e!'i%r .(%r e+!-ple/ te e?ect %( n%r!"ren!line %n "epressi%n
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Neur%tr!ns-itter2 natural chemical messengers produced by our body that transmits in"ormation "rom neuron to neuron! /eurotransmitters have di7erent e7ects on human behavior and underlie behaviors such as mood, mental illness, pleasure, and memory amongst others! Ser%t%nin2 neurotransmitter produced in Pineal land that is o responsible "or emotion, sleep, and mental wellbeing! Stu")2 9!l"er!u& et !l3 .8557 o $hows how the e7ects o" the deprivation o" serotonin on both men and women
Usin& %ne %r -%re e+!-ples/ e+pl!in (uncti%ns %( t,% %r-%nes in u-!n $e!'i%r3 - H%r-%nes2 chemical messengers produced by the endocrine system, a collection o" glands, and they a7ect behavior! $ince they enter directly into the bloodstream, changes in behavior take longer to occur, in comparison to neurotransmitters where the changes are more instantaneous! o O+)t%cin2 B!u-&!rtner et3 !l .855@ (xytocin is stimulated by the pituitary gland, and then produced by the hypothalamus! &t plays a role in social behavior such as trust# higher levels o" oxytocin are correlated with higher levels o" trust! o =el!t%nin2 .8551 The production o" melatonin by the pineal gland is stimulated by darkness and inhibited by light and is responsible "or the regulation o" sleep! &t inhibits other hormones in the body that are associated with wake"ulness
Discuss t,% e?ects %( te en'ir%n-ent %n p)si%l%&ic!l pr%cesses .(%r e+!-ple/ e?ects %( et l!& %n $%"il) r)t-s/ e?ects %( "epri'!ti%n %n neur%pl!sticit)/ e?ects %( en'ir%n-ent!l stress%rs %n repr%"ucti'e -ec!nis-s - ;umans constantly interact with the environment and process in"ormation, stimulating di7erent physiological processes! - P)si%l%&ic!l pr%cesses: Physical and chemical "unctions in the body such as structural development o" the brain, distribution o" grey matter in brain structures, hormonal levels - E?ect 12 Te en'ir%n-ent c!n !'e !n %n $r!in pl!sticit)2 Br!in pl!sticit)2 re"ers to the brain=s ability to rearrange the o connections between its neurons, the changes that occur in the structure o" the brain as a result o" learning or experience! o ;igh levels o" stimulation and numerous learning opportunities at the appropriate times lead to an increase in the density o" neural connections!
Philine Everts Locali*ation o" "unction is true to a certain extent, pats o" the brain are dedicated to a certain "unction however, and these can be redistributed according to environmental demands! o The more a person per"orms a certain activity, the more neural connections are "ormed in the area o" the brain responsible causing a physical change in the brain! o .endritic branching: neurons connecting to create a new traces in the brain every time we learn something new, because the dendrites o" neurons grow in numbers and connect with other neurons o Stu")2 R%sen6,ei& !n" Bennett .1478 &nvestigates the e7ects o" a deprived or enriched environment on neuroplasticity This study showed the e7ect o" the environment on physiology because more enriched environments helped develop neurons in brains o" the rats! ;owever, lacks ecological validity, because the %ndings cannot be generali*ed to humans as the brain and environmental inputs di7er between humans and animals such as rats! - E?ect 82 Te en'ir%n-ent c!n !'e !n e?ect %n %r-%n!l le'els Stu")2 A'er) 8551 o ust one cause and it might also be due, to a certain extent, to genetic in4uence, although there is a relationship with light exposure and hormonal levels! o
Discuss te use %( $r!in i-!&in& tecn%l%&ies .(%r e+!-ple/ CAT/ PET/ (=RI in in'esti&!tin& te rel!ti%nsip $et,een $i%l%&ic!l (!ct%rs !n" $e!'i%r3
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Br!in i-!&in& tecn%l%&)2 extensively used in neuropsychology since it allows researchers to see speci%c brain structures, where certain brain processes take place, and can study the locali*ation o" "unction! These methods are use"ul to researchers because they are able to study the brain o" living people, in a non9invasive manner! &t also allows them to see the relationship between structure and "unction however cannot establish a cause and e7ect relationship! CT .C%-pute" t%-%&r!p) sc!ns2 use a computer to construct images o" the brain "rom a series o" di7erential absorption x9ray scans! The computer reconstructs images "rom a series o" F9ray scans taken "rom various angles! The di7erent angles are use"ul since it allows researchers to remove shadows "rom the image! The images that are made depend on the absorption o" the beam by the tissue it passes through# bone and hard tissue absorb x9rays well, while air and water absorb very little, and so"t tissue is somewhere in between! $ome patients may have to be in>ected with or drink a dye to increase the contrast between normal and in"ected tissues! o $trengths: Provide doctors with a three9dimensional view o" both bone and so"t tissue in one image )an detect tumors and lesions at early stages $cans are 8uick and non9invasive o eaknesses: 6esearchers cannot view brain processes or activity, which makes it hard to study the relationship between biological "actors and behavior and locali*ation o" "unction researchers were only able to detect the tumor and reach conclusions "rom that, but they could not see what processes were taking place in the brain limiting Ganet=s vision! $can re8uires breath holding Possible risk o" causing childhood cancer and leukemia in expecting mothers due to high exposure to radiation Expensive /ot accessible everywhere Stu")2 O&"en .855: o 2sed )T scans to per"orm a case study on Ganet! The scan was use"ul because it was able to detect her brain tumor and she was then diagnosed with ;emineglect PET .P%sitr%n e-issi%n t%p%&r!p) sc!ns2 $cans monitor the metabolism o" a radioactive substance in the brain, which is in>ected into the patient! The radioactive mixture starts to decay, in a process that emits two gamma rays! A set o" detectors, placed around the person=s head, measures the pairs o" gamma rays emitted! )omputers use this data to reconstruct a complete image o" the brain and its most active areas, which are where there is high activity more radioactive substance metabolism! $trengths: o
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Philine Everts 6esult in images with good color contrast .etect tumors and blood clots )an be used to determine the metabolic use o" particular substances on the brain such as neurotransmitters Able to record ongoing activity in the brain by tracing movement o eaknesses: &ncredibly expensive Huite innaccesible since substances must be produced on site &nvolve exposure to ioni*ing radiation gamma rays 6adioactive material may cause allergic reactions in certain people Participants are limited to one in>ection per year &mages can=t be complete without <6& scans Stu")2 Tierne) et !l o Evaluated bilingual language compensation "ollowing early childhood brain damage using PET scans! PET scans were used while participants produced speech and signs (=RI .Functi%n!l -!&netic res%n!nce i-!&in& sc!ns2 provide three9dimensional images o" brain structures through the use o" magnetic %elds and radio waves! The "<6& shows actual brain activity and which areas o" the brain are active when engaged in a behavior! This process works by detecting the changes in blood oxygenation and blood 4ow levels that occur in response to neural activity! hen the brain is more active, it consumes more oxygen and to meet these greater demands, blood 4ow increases to these active areas, displaying this on the image! T o $trengths: .isplays actual brain activity and clearly indicates which areas are engaged in certain behavior, while still displaying the structure o" the brain in a high resolution image 6esearchers can relate anatomy to "unction and "urther study locali*ation o" "unction o eaknesses: $cans cannot establish a cause and e7ect relationship Patient must remain very still Limited accessibility Extremely expensive to purchase and maintain Stu")2 =!&uire et !l3 .8555 o 2sed scans to compare the brains o" London taxi drivers to non9taxi drivers! 2sing "<6& scans,
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Philine Everts region, which then in turn a7ects behavior in terms o" memory! .&$)2$$: Although they each have their own strengths and limitations, "<6& scans are the most e7ective brain imaging technology since they show actual brain activity while also showing structure, with the highest resolution image! This makes it the best brain imaging techni8ue to investigate the relationship between biological "actors and behavior! hile all scans are non9invasive and can display brain structure, the "<6& also shows actual brain activity and indicates what areas are active when engaged in certain behavior! Although, this can also be achieved through PET scans, "<6& scans do not re8uire the in>ection o" radioactive materials or dyes! "<6& scans allows researchers to see the locali*ation o" "unction in the most e3cient and least harming manner while still producing high 8uality resolution images! 9it re(erence t% rele'!nt rese!rc stu"ies/ t% ,!t e+tent "%es &enetic inerit!nce inuence $e!'i%r 9 Re(ers t% te principle human behavior is strongly in4uenced by genetic make9up and genetic inheritance, however, the environment also plays a part 9 Be!'i%r!l &enetics2 deals with understanding how both genetics and the environment contribute to individual variations in human behavior! 9 Genes2 determine and shape us# they are passed down "rom parents to o7spring, and "or this reason it is said that people have a genetic predisposition! A single gene however, is not responsible "or complex behaviors! &nstead, genes are the building blocks that bring about this behavior! 9 C%nc%r"!nce r!tes/ the idea that due to the higher the genetic relationship between twins, the more similar the results should be i" the characteristic being investigated is inherited 9 To study the e7ects o" genetics on behavior, researchers looked at its in4uence on intelligence, a type o" behavior# which is operationali*ed to participant &H scores! 9 enetics in4uence behavior to a great extent, however since there is no single cause and e7ect relationship between genes and behavior, other "actors such as the environment also have a slight in4uence nature vs nurture! * Stu")2 Sc!rr !n" 9ein$er& .1477 !n" H%rn et3 !l .1474 o Environment plays an important role on our behavior as well, it isn=t all inherited * Stu")2 B%uc!r" et =cGue .14@1 o &ntelligence was in4uenced by genetics# any similarity between their &Hs must be due to genetics rather than the environment! * Stu")2 =innes%t! T,in Stu") .B%uc!r" et3 !l 1445 o &n order to investigate the role o" genetics by itsel", identical twins that are raised separately "rom birth must be studied! &dentical twins have a ??- genetic relationship, but i" raised
Philine Everts in separate environments, any similarity beyond that expected by chance in &H must be due to similarity in genetics! o Behavior was in4uenced to a certain extent by genetics, but environment also played a role .&$)2$$: These studies are an e7ective way o" studying the in4uence because they depend on concordance rates! The studies show that there is not one single relationship between genes and behavior and that both genetics and environment play a role! The in4uence is viewed di7erently# some studies indicate that genetics have a greater in4uence while others indicate that environmental "actors have a greater role, which is why the in4uence on behavior can=t only be attributed to genetics! /one o" the studies deny the in4uence o" genetics!
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E+!-ine %ne e'%luti%n!r) e+pl!n!ti%n %( $e!'i%r3 &ntroD Thesis: o Evolutionary psychology is "ounded on the principle that as genes mutate, those that are advantages are passed down through a process o" natural selection! o They aim to explain how certain human behaviors are testimony to the development o" our species over time! o Evolutionary psychologists believe that our behaviors can be explained by survival o" the %ttest which means that advantageous genes are passed down through natural selection! These psychologists believe that disgust is a behaviors that has been genetically passed down through evolution "rom parents to o7spring in order "or them to survive! Paragraph : )harles .arwin o 6esearch in the alapagos &slands and studied the beaks o" beards this lead him to believe in the theory o" natural selection, o survival o" the %ttest, and adaptation! o ;e stated that those who have characteristics which are better suited to their environment will be more likely to breed and thus pass on their traits! ;e wrote a book called I(n the (rigin o" $peciesJ in K+ o where he wrote about his belie"s o" evolution! Paragraph ': hat is disgustM o o $ome who believed that disgust allowed our ancestors to survive long enough to produce o7spring and who in turn passed down that emotion to us! $T2.N: @essler '??O o @essler concluded that the emotion o" disgust is more prevalent in women in their %rst trimester "or their immune system has weakened to accept the new "etus into their body! The emotion o" disgust seems to
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diminish the risk o" disease and there"ore protect the mother and her child! Paragraph 1: o $T2.N: )urtis et all '??C .&$)2$$: o .isgust seems to play a role in breeding and ensuring healthy o7spring o Evolutionary explanation seems to explain why our disgust decreases with age and why it is happening unconsciously, at a genetic bases, and there"ore we cannot "orce ourselves to be disgusted! o ;owever: it is di3cult to prove the "orce o" evolution as evolutionary arguments o"ten underestimate the role o" cultural in4uences in shaping behavior and there"ore it is di3cult to establish a cause and e7ect relationship o statements "rom homo9sapiens are hypothetical because little is known about them
E+!-ine %ne inter!cti%n $et,een c%&niti%n !n" p)si%l%&) in ter-s %( $e!'i%r - Bi%l%&ic!l le'el %( !n!l)sis2 states that all cognitions, emotions and behaviors have a physiological basis - &n"ormation: o To examine the interaction between cognition and physiology in terms o" amnesia, one must %rst understand that: )ognition is the mental process o" ac8uiring and processing o knowledge and understanding through thought, experience and the senses! )ognitive processes include perception, attention, language, memory and thinking! o Physiology is the internal, biological mechanisms o" living organisms the way the organism "unctions - Behavior: Amnesia STUDIES2 R%sen6,ei& !n" Bennett .1478 - Type o" study: Experiment - Aim:
Philine Everts 6ats in enriched environment had increased thickness in the cortex, the "rontal lobe was also heavier than those in a deprived environment o 6ats in a social environment also showed changes in the brain opposed to the isolated rat Evalutation: o $trengths: 6igorously controlled lab experiment so it was possible to establish a cause and e7ect relationship The research is reliable because it has been replicated many times eaknesses: o ;uman brains may not necessarily respond the same as rat brains despite the similar ./A KC9K- and the similarity o" physiology Ethics: ere the rats euthani*ed in a painless mannerM o
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9!l"er!u& et !l3 .8557 - Aim: to investigate the e7ects o" decreased serotonin levels in the brain - ection o" amino acids that limit the transport o" tryptophan across the blood brain barrier, which in turn, decreases serotonin neurotransmission! - @indings: o
Philine Everts $ample: O right9handed "ully licensed male London taxi drivers mean age CC years participated with average o" ' years o" >ob experience <6& scans investigated volumes o" hippocampus structure in o brain and its distribution o" grey matter @indings: o The posterior hippocampi o" taxi drivers were signi%cantly larger in comparison to those o" control sub>ects, the non9taxi drivers! o &n control sub>ects, the anterior hippocampus was larger than in taxi drivers! o &t also showed that the hippocampal volume correlated with the amount o" time spent as a taxi driver, the more time being a taxi driver the larger the right posterior hippocampi was and the smaller the right anterior hippocampi was! Evaluation: o $trengths: /o ethical implications ere able to establish cause and e7ect eaknesses o (nly studied males as a smaller sample o" O matched pairs
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B!u-&!rtner et !l3 .855@ - Aim: To investigate the role o" oxytocin a"ter breaches o" trust in a trust game -
Philine Everts 6esearchers hypothesi*ed that oxytocin may have a role in decreasing "ear reactions via the amygdala that may arise as a conse8uence o" betrayal and our reliance on positive "eedback that can in4uence "uture decisions via caudate nucleus o ;igher levels o" oxytocin correlated with higher levels o" trust since oxytocin decreased "ear reactions that usually come "rom broken trust or betrayal - Evaluation: $trengths o Establish a cause and e7ect relationship ;ighly controlled variables o eaknesses .oes not re4ect natural hormone processes $ome ethical considerations O&"en .855: - Aim: to study a patient named Ganet in order to study a condition known as hemineglect! - ury and the brain didn=t compensate! - Evaluation: $trengths o (gden was able to obtain large amounts o" data with producing no harm to anyone The patients anonymity was secured eakness o Low ecological validity )annot be generali*ed o
Tierne) et !l .8551 - Aim: to evaluate bilingual language compensation "ollowing early childhood brain damage using PET scans! -
Philine Everts 6esearchers wanted to study was i" this had something to do with his ability to speak despite the brain damage which supposedly should have impeded him "rom doing so, he should have had Broca=s aphasia o The man was compared to ' control participants who were all 4uent in sign language! o PET scans were used while participant produced speech and signs! @indings: o
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B%uc!r" et !l3 .1445 - Type o" study: Longitudinal twin study since ++, approximately K??? twins were used - Aim: To determine how much o" our intelligence is attributed to genetics and environment -
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B%uc!r" et =cGue .14@1 - Type o" study: @amily study - Aim: To investigate the role o" genetics in intelligence -
Sc!rr !n" 9ein$er& .1477 !n" H%rn et3 !l .1474 - Type o" study: Adoption study - Aim: to investigate i" the intelligence o" the adopted child is correlated with the intelligence o" the adoptive parents -
Philine Everts $tudied parents that had raised both adopted and natural children - @indings: o There was no signi%cant di7erence in the &H correlation between the adopted children and the parents and the natural children and their parents o Environment plays an important role on our behavior as well, it isn=t all inherited - Evaluation: eaknesses: o The study assumes that all the children had the same upbringing, with the same environments and the same parents Adoption agencies use selective placement, matching the children to their "oster parents $tudy can=t be generali*ed since adoption studies don=t really represent the general population! C!spi et !l3 .855; - Type o" study: longitudinal study - Aim: to investigate the possible role o" the 9;TT gene in depression a"ter experiences o" stress"ul events -
Philine Everts The participants were divided into 1 di7erent groups, ' experimental and control The %rst group was given a pill o" O? mg o" cortisol to take daily The second was given a pill o" C? mg to take daily The control group was given a placebo o The participants were instructed to take the pill every day "or C days @indings o @ound that group did the worst on the memory test and group ' had no memory decrease o They discovered that there cause and e7ect relationship between high levels o" cortisol and a decrease in verbal declarative memory Evaluation: o Ethics: There was no physical harm done since the e7ects o" cortisol are reversible There was in"ormed consent present and a double blind control o $trengths )ontrolled experiment so passible to establish cause and e7ect no harm done since high dosages o" coritisol was reversible o eakness Low ecological validity o
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Fessler 855<2 - Type: Experiment - Aim: to investigate the nausea that women experienced during their %rst trimester o" pregnancy -
Philine Everts $trengths Easily replicable and highly controlled Large sample with wide age range eakness o The data was collected through 8uestionnaires and sel"9 reports may not be reliable This was a 8uasi experiment as the &5 could not be manipulated Curtis et !l 8552 - Type o" study: online survey - Aim: to test whether there were patterns in peopleR=s disgust responses -
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@indings: The human participants made many errors as the speed increased however the chimpan*ees showed remarkable memory "or the distribution o" the numbers, with no di7erences when numbers were shown "or a shorter time period! Evaltuation: o Ethical )onsiderations: /o ethical guidelines were breached! o $trengths: highly controlled o eaknesses )annot necessarily be generali*ed to humans
Sc!cter !n" Sin&er .14<82 - Aim: the aim o" the study was to asses the two9"actor theory o" emotion There are two main hypotheses states: &" a person experiences a condition in which emotions are stimulated also called arousal "or which they have no explanations, they will describe this "eeling as best as possible using cognition! &" a person experiences a condition in which emotions are stimulated and "or which they do have an explanation, they will unlikely describe this "eeling using the alternative cognitions available! - ected with either adrenaline epinephrine# gives similar e7ect as to arousal o A placebo solution no side a7ects a"ter being told they were being in>ected with a vitamin called $uproxin made up in order to see what a7ect it had on visual skills! Each participant was then organi*ed in one o" "our groups# o The adrenalin ignorant, which meant they were given adrenaline but not told what a7ect it would have on the The adrenalin in"ormed which was when they were in>ected with adrenalin but warned o" the Iside e7ectsJ The adrenalin misin"ormed, these participants were given adrenalin in>ections but were told to expect untruth"ul e7ects like numbness The control group, which was in>ected with placebo, showing no e7ects at all but weren=t told what to expect o Then the participants continued to be placed in either a euphoria situation or anger situation with a stooge, who acted as another participant! &n the euphoria situation the stooge plays with items such as rough paper, rubber bands, pencils, "olders and hula9hoops and encourages the participant to >oin! hilst in the anger situation the stooge and the participant are asked to %ll out a %ve9page 8uestionnaire which started innocently but slowly got more personal, at random times the stooge would make comments getting harsher and harsher ending in rage!
Philine Everts The stooge at no point knew what condition the participant was in
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@indings: o The participants who were given the adrenalin in>ections showed a signi%cant increase in sympathetic arousal, measured through pulse rate and sel"9ratings on palpitation, tremor, numbness, itching and a headache apposed to participants who were in>ected with the placebo solution! o &n the euphoria condition the misin"ormed participants were the happiest, due to them not knowing why they "elt the way they did! The in"ormed group "elt the least happy because they actually understood why they "elt a certain way! o &n the anger condition the ignorant group "elt the most in"uriated, and the second angriest group was the group in>ected with placebo! The least in"uriated group was the ones who were in"ormed about the situation! $chachter and $inger believe that the %ndings support their two9"actor theory o" emotion! Evaluation o Ethical )onsiderations: /( in"ormed consent .eception, not in"ormed on the exactDtrue aims o" the study /( protection "rom physical or mental harm $tudy took place be"ore all ethical guidelines were completely set in place $trengths: o ;ighly controlled procedure eaknesses: o Lacked ecological validity $ample was all male college students there"ore not representative /o assessment o" the mood was made prior to the study
)(/&T&5E LE5EL (@ A/ALN$&$ $AHs: Outline principles t!t "e#ne te c%&niti'e le'el %( !n!l)sis3 OR
Philine Everts E+pl!in %, principles t!t "e#ne te c%&niti'e le'el %( !n!l)sis -!) $e "e-%nstr!te" in rese!rc3 &!
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Discuss %, !n" ,) p!rticul!r rese!rc -et%"s !re use" !t te c%&niti'e le'el %( !n!l)sis3 &! &ntro: a! T;E$&$: 6esearchers need to have a method "or collecting and analy*ing data, they are ways that researchers use and manipulate to conduct their studies using multiple methods such as experiments! &&! Experiment: a! This method involves a researcher manipulating an independent variable and measuring its e7ect on a dependent variable while controlling other variables, researchers want to determine a cause and e7ect between the &5 and the .5! Experiments usually gather 8uantitative over 8ualitative data! b! $trengths: i! )ause and e7ect relationship can be established ii! (ther variables can be tightly controlled iii! Experiments are easily replicated c! $T2.N: $peisman et al +K' Discuss etic!l c%nsi"er!ti%ns rel!te" t% rese!rc stu"ies !t te c%&niti'e le'el %( !n!l)sis3 &! &ntro: a! 6esearchers must "ollow ethical guidelines to ensure that all participants are treated in an ethical manner in order to avoid harming participants! /ot only does this apply to humans, but also to animals, which have separate guidelines! b! Gui"elines .-enti%n in in"i'i"u!l p!r!&r!ps2 i! &n"ormed consent: in"ormed about the nature o" the study and agree to participate! ii! .eception: not in"orming participants on the exact aim, sometimes slight deception can be used i" it doesn=t cause stress to the participant iii! .ebrie%ng: at the end o" a study, the true aims and purposes must be revealed to the participants! iv! ithdrawal "rom a study: participants should be told they have the right to leave the study at any given time! v! )on%dentiality: all the in"ormation that is obtained in a study must be con%dential! vi! Protection "rom physical or mental harm: it is important to make sure that no physical or mental harm c! T;E$&$: Ethical guidelines have been created to protect participants in psychological research, both human and nonhuman! ;owever, due to the need "or important data to explain behavior, some guidelines may be breached! d! $T2.N: $peisman et al +OC e!
Philine Everts an uncom"ortable situation! ;owever, this experiment was done in a time period where lots o" un9ethical studies were conducted as ethics were not top o" mind! This study, including the latter, did provide very use"ul in"ormation!
E'!lu!te sce-! te%r) ,it re(erence t% rese!rc stu"ies3 &! &n"ormation: a! A cognitive schema is a network o" knowledge, belie"s, and expectations about particular aspects o" the world! These are built through our own experiences o" li"e, education, and culture! )ognitive psychology operates on the assumption that our developing schemas guide our behavior! &&! $T2.N : Barlett +1' a! @ounder o" schema theory and concluded that people reconstruct the past by trying to %t it into existing schemas sometimes o7ering an inaccurate reconstruction o" the experience! E+pl!in %ne -%"el %( te%ries %( %ne c%&niti'e pr%cess ,it re(erence t% rese!rc stu"ies3 &!
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Thesis: hile both the working memory model and the multi9store model have strengths and limitations, the working memory model is superior as compared to the multi9store model "or it provides more insight into the organi*ation o" memory in human beings! The multi9store model: contains three components, which relate to each other and provides insight on how memory is stored! Atkinson and $hi7rin +OK were the %rst to create and illustrate the model! /evertheless, this model is heavily critici*ed "or being too simplistic and in4exible! This model suggest that memory %rst enters the sensory memory which may store unprocessed in"ormation "or extremely short periods o" time while physical stimuli are no longer available! @rom there, i" attention is applied, this in"ormation may become short9term memory which holds in"ormation "or brie" periods o" time! hen examining short9term memory, it is crucial to take into consideration 1 areas, capacity, duration and encoding! )apacity re"ers to how much in"ormation may be held by the short9 term memory while duration makes re"erence to how long this in"ormation may be stored by short9term memory which has been proven to be very short! &" this in"ormation in short9term memory is then rehearsed, it may be success"ul to move onto long9term memory where large 8uantities o" in"ormation are stored "or long periods o" time! ;ere in long9term memory is where personal memories, belie"s and general knowledge are stored! Also, it must be remembered, that in all stages in"ormation may be "orgotten through decay!
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9it re(erence t% rele'!nt rese!rc stu"ies/ t% ,!t e+tent is %ne c%&niti'e pr%cess reli!$le &! &ntro: A cognitive process is a process that is involved in obtaining and storing knowledge as well as putting it to use including perception, thinking, problem solving, attention, and memory!
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Discuss te use %( tecn%l%&) in in'esti&!tin& c%&niti'e pr%cesses3 <6& provides us with the most in"ormation $T2.N: a! )live earing i! e were able to see the damage that was done to his brain that was causing his anterograde and
T% ,!t e+tent "% c%&niti'e !n" $i%l%&ic!l (!ct%rs inter!ct in e-%ti%n &! &n"ormation: a! Le.oux=s The Emotional Brain (1999) describes two biological pathways o" emotions in the brain! The %rst is a short rout that goes "rom the thalamus to amygdala# the second is a long route that passes via the neocortex and hippocampus be"ore it results in an emotional response! The amygdala receives input
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"rom sensory processing areas in the neocortex and thalamus, and pro>ects these to areas in the brainstem that control response systems such as %ght or 4ight! &t is the connections between the di7erent brain structures that allow the amygdala to trans"orm sensory in"ormation into emotional signals, and to initiate and control emotional responses! b! According to Le.oux, the advantage o" having direct and indirect pathways to the amygdala is 4exibility in responses! $peisman +OC a! $upports Le.oux=s model o" two biological pathways in the brain in that cognitive appraisal involves the hippocampus!
E'!lu!te %ne te%r) %( %, e-%ti%n -!) !?ect %ne c%&niti%n pr%cess3 &! &n"ormation: a! The theory o" 4ashbulb memory was suggested by Brown and Sulik! @lashbulb memory is a special kind o" emotional memory which re"ers to vivid and detailed memories o" highly emotional events that appear to be recorded in the brain as though with the help o" a camera=s 4ash! &&! &ntro: a!
Philine Everts and an enlarged ventricular system! Lastly, Bigler "ound that there was damage to the in"erior "rontal lobe, which in turn caused earing to lose control o" his emotions! earing was le"t with a memory lasting ten to thirty seconds! earing=s condition is unsurpassed, and causes him to lose "ull "unction o" his episodic memory and large parts o" his semantic memory! ;e is unable to interpret and trans"er new in"ormation into long term memory leaving him unable to "ully comprehend the events around him! ;owever, earing continues to play the piano, conduct music, and show a7ection, which is credited to his intact implicit and emotional memory! o This is evidence o" a distributed memory system, which suggests that di7erent areas o" memory are correlated with di7erent locations in the brain! B!rtlett .14;8 o The aim: o" the study was to investigate the e7ect o" schema on participants= recall o" an un"amiliar story! o Procedure: ;e used '? English students as participants and asked them to read a /ative American story entitled Iar o" the hostsJ twice! A"ter minutes they had to reproduce the story "rom memory! 2sing a serial reproduction method, these participants were then asked to reproduce the story a couple o" more times whenever they had the opportunity to come into his laboratory! o @indings: Bartlett "ound characteristic changes in the reproduction o" the story! @irstly, the story became shorter, "rom about 11? words to around K?! $econdly, the story became more conventional and replaced the details that could not be assimilated with the knowledge o" the participants, such as replacing canoes with boats, replacing seal hunting with %shing, and o"ten not recalling the aspect o" the ghosts! Lastly, Bartlett "ound that the story remained a coherent story no matter how distorted it was compared to the original story, this he claimed was because people interpreted the story as a whole both when listening to it and retelling it! o )onclusion: Bartlett concluded that people reconstruct the past by trying to %t it into existing schema meaning that memory is in4uenced by our existing knowledge! The more complicated and "oreign the story, the more likely it is that certain elements or details will be "orgotten or distorted because people try to %nd a "amiliar pattern in experiences, past or new ones! According to Bartlett, memory is an imaginative reconstruction o" experience, which is supported by modern research! L%(tus !n" P!l-er .147 o They investigated the role o" leading 8uestions in recall! The aim o" the experiment was to investigate whether changing
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one word in critical 8uestions would in4uence speed estimates! Procedure: The sample was C students, who watched a %lm o" tra3c accidents and then were asked to estimate the speed o" the car in the %lm! The critical 8uestion or independent variable in the experiment was: about how "ast were the cars going when they hit each other! I;itJ was then replaced by IsmashedJ, IcollidedJ, IbumpedJ, and IcontactedJ in separate trials! Each changed 8uestion was asked to + students o" the C! The dependent variable in the experiment was the estimation o" speed in miles per hour! @indings: The researchers discovered that the speed estimate was in "act a7ected by the words, so that IsmashedJ and IcollidedJ increased the speed! The participants who were asked with the word IsmashedJ had an average speed estimate o" C?!K mph, while the participants who were asked with the word IcontactedJ had an average speed estimate o" 1!K mph! The other words average speed estimates ranged between the two extremes! )onclusion: The researchers concluded that the use o" di7erent leading verbs activated di7erent schemas in the memory o" the individual participant which showed that hearing the word IsmashJ might actually cause the participant to imagine the accident as more severe as compared to participants hearing the word IcollidedJ!
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Aim: To suggest their concept o" 4ashbulb memory! Procedure: They interviewed K? participants about their memories o" the assasinations o" Gohn @! Sennedy,
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Brown and Sulik "ound that people said they had very clear memories o" where they were, what they did, and what they "elt about these public occurrences! The participants recalled the assassination o" G@S most vividly! People in the study were also asked i" they had 4ashbulb memories o" personal events and o" the K? participants, 1 said they had 4ashbulb memories associated with a personal shock such as the death o" a close relative!
)onclusion:
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Brown and Sulik suggested that there may be a special neural mechanism which triggers an emotional arousal because the event is important or unexpected!
Speis-!n et !l3 .14< o Aim: To investigate the extent to which manipulation o" cognitive appraisal could in4uence emotional experience! o Procedure: in this laboratory experiment, the participants watched anxiety9evoking %lms %lm o" an aboriginal initiation ceremony where adolescent boys were sub>ected to unpleasant genital cutting! The %lm was shown with 1 di7erent soundtracks intended to manipulate emotional reactions! The trauma condition was emphasi*ing on mutilation and pain# the intellectuali*ation condition gave an anthropological interpretation o" the ceremony# the denial condition showed that the adolescents as being willing and happy in the ceremony! 6esults: the participants in the trauma condition showed o much higher physiological measures o" stress than other the participants in the two other conditions! An"ers%n !n" Picert .14@7 o Aim: to investigate i" schema processing in4uences both encoding and retrievals o Type o" study: Laboratory experiment o Procedure: Participants heard a story about two boys that decided to not go to school one day and instead go to the home o" one o" them because the house was always empty on Thursdays! The house was described as being isolated and located in an attractive neighbourhood, but also having a leaky roo" and a damp basement! 5arious ob>ects in the house, like a ?9speed bike, colour T5 ,and a rare coin collection were also mentioned in the story!The story that participants heard was based on ' points! The story had been previously rated by a group o" people based on how important the house would be either to a potential house9buyer leaking roo", attractive grounds or a burglar coin collection, nobody home on Thursdays! ;al" o" the participants were asked to read the story "rom the point o" view o" the house9 buyer the buyer schema and hal" "rom point o" view o" burglar burglar schema, which would a7ect the perception o" the story! A"ter reading the story, participants per"ormed a distracting task "or ' minutes be"ore their recall was tested! A"ter another 9minute delay in the experiment, hal" o" the participants were given a di7erent schema, so that those who used the burglar schema in %rst trial were switched to the buyer
Philine Everts schema and vice versa# and the other hal" retained their original schema! 6ecall was then tested again! @indings: o Participants in the group that changed schemas recalled - more points on the second recall test compared to the %rst recall test 6ecall o" points that were directly linked to the new schema increased by ?-, while recall o" points that were important to the previous schema declined The group that kept their %rst schema remembered "ewer ideas in the second trial o )onclusion: $chema processing must have some e7ect at retrieval and at encoding since the new schema could only have in4uenced recall at the retrieval stage People encoded in"ormation that wasn=t relevant to their prevailing schema, since those who had the buyer schema at encoding were able to recall burglar in"ormation when the schema was changed and vice versa The second schema activated in the second retrieval triggered the recall o" other details o" the story Peters%n !n" Peters%n .14:4 Aim: To investigate the duration o" short9term memory, and o provide evidence "or the multi9store model! o Procedure: A lab experiment was conducted in which 'C participants, who were all Psychology students, had to remember trigrams, which are groups o" random 1 syllables! ;owever, since the participants were not meant to be able to rehearse the memori*ation o" the trigrams, the researchers asked them to count backwards in threes or "ours "rom a certain number until told to stop! A"ter counting, participants were asked to recall the trigrams! o @indings: Their %ndings showed that the longer the participants had to count backwards "or, the less trigrams they remembered! K?- o" trigrams were remembered a"ter a 1 second delay compare to ?- remembered a"ter an K second delay! o )onclusion: Peterson and Peterson=s %ndings suggested that short term has a limited duration when rehearsal is prevented! Because rehearsal is prevented, the in"ormation is slowly lost through decay!
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$()&(9)2LT26AL LE5EL (@ A/ALN$&$ SA Outline principles t!t "e#ne te s%ci%cultur!l le'el %( !n!l)sis3 OR E+pl!in %, principles t!t "e#ne te s%ci%cultur!l le'el %( !n!l)sis -!) $e "e-%nstr!te" in rese!rc .t!t i s/ te%ries !n"0%r stu"ies3 ! ;umans are social animals and have a need to belong! a! &n"ormation: The relationship between the individual and the group is bidirectional, as the individual is a7ected by the group, the individual can also in4uence the behavior o" that group! b! $T2.N i! Asch + '! (ur social and cultural environment in4uences our behavior! a! &n"ormation: b! $T2.N: i! Berry +O 1! ;umans have a social sel" and an individual sel"! a! Being a "an o" a sports team C! ;umans beings ideas and views o" the world are resistant to change! a! $tereotypes Descri$e te r%le %( situ!ti%n!l !n" "isp%siti%n!l (!ct%rs in e+pl!inin& $e!'i%r3 &!
&n"ormation: a! Attribution theory is how people interpret and explain causal relationships that happen in the social world! &n other words,
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people are acting as naUve psychologists! $ituational and dispositional "actors are "rameworks used by people to understand and come to terms with other=s behavior! b! $ituational "actors are external "actors that are not e7ected or re4ective o" the person itsel"! External attribution is the process o" assigning the cause o" behavior to some situation or event outside a personVs control rather than to some internal characteristic! c! .ispositional "actors are personal "actors that are in4uenced by the person him or hersel"! &nternal attribution is the process o" assigning the cause o" the behavior to an internal characteristic or "actor! $T2.N: 6oss et al! + a! The %rst error is the "undamental attribution error, which is when people overestimate the role o" dispositional "actors in an individual=s behavior and underestimate the situational "actors!
E+pl!in s%ci!l le!rnin& te%r)/ -!>in& re(erence t% t,% rele'!nt stu"ies3 &! &n"ormation: a! $ocial learning theory: Albert Bandura, a )anadian psychologist developed the social learning theory, $LT! Albert Bandura=s social learning theory suggests that humans learn behavior through observational learning, through watching other models and imitating their behavior! According to Bandura, social learning theory involves the multiple "actors including, attention the person must pay attention to the model, retention the person must be able to remember the behavior that has been observed, motor reproduction the observer has to be able to replicate the action, and motivation learners must want to demonstrate what they have learned! The social learning theory takes into account thought processes and acknowledges the role that they play in learning! There are two type o" observational learning, pure modeling, where no one gets rewards or punishments, and vicarious learning, when others are rewarded or punished in the view o" the learner! &&! $T2.N: Bandura +O &&&! $T2.N: Soni>n et al '??
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De#ne te ter-s cultureJ !n" cultur!l n%r-sJ3 &n"ormation: a! )ulture is a set o" attitudes, behavior, and symbols shared by a large group o" people usually communicated "rom one generation to the next! )ulture is dynamic, meaning that it is constantly changing and evolving! Attitudes are the belie"s o" a culture, behavior are the norms and customs, and symbols
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are the words, gestures, pictures, and ob>ects associated with a culture! b! )ultural norms are behavior patterns that are typical o" speci%c groups! They are passed down "rom generation to generation by observational learning by the groups gatekeepers! )ultural norms include such things as how marriage partners are chosen, attitudes towards the rights o" animals, spanking children, and alcohol consumption! $T2.N: a! Berry +O b! This study demonstrates cultural norms and culture "or it shows the di7erences between two regions and tribes cultures and how that leads to di7erent behaviors! &t also demonstrates how these traits are passed down and become cultural norms!
Usin& %ne %r -%re e+!-ples/ e+pl!in e-icJ !n" eticJ c%ncepts3 &! &n"ormation: a! Lonner de%ned culture as common rules that regulate interactions and behavior in a group as well as a number o" shared values! 2nderstanding the role o" culture on human behavior is essential in a diverse, multicultural world! b! Emic: The emic approach looks at behaviors that are culturally speci%c! c! Etic: Etic approaches to behavior are typically taken with cross9cultural studies where behavior is compared across speci%c cultures! &&! $T2.N: Berry +O a! This is an etic study "or it re"ers to cross9cultural studies looking "or universal or nomothetic rules o" behavior &&&! $T2.N: Bartlett +1' a! Bartlett demonstrated that memory is a universal process and is cross cultural! E+pl!in te (%r-!ti%n %( stere%t)pes !n" teir e?ect %n $e!'i%r3 &! &n"ormation: a! $tereotypes: A stereotype is de%ned as a social perception o" an individual in terms o" group membership or physical attributes! &t is a generali*ation that is made a group and then attributed to members o" that group! b! $ocial &dentity Theory: i! $ocial identity is a person=s sense o" who they are based on their group memberships! ;enri Ta>"el ++ proposed that the groups to which people belong are an important source o" pride and sel"9esteem! roups give us our sense o" social identity, a sense o" belonging! hich can in turn result in stereotypes! ii! Thinking o" ourselves as belonging to one or more groups is needed "or human nature!
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iii! There are three aspects o" the social identity theory: ! The %rst is c!te&%ri6!ti%n! e categori*e ob>ects in order to understand them and identi"y them! &n a very similar way we categori*e people including ourselves in order to understand the social environment! &" we can assign people to a category then that tells us things about those people! '! &n the second stage, s%ci!l i"enti#c!ti%n, we adopt the identity o" the group we have categori*ed ourselves as belonging to! There will be an emotional signi%cance to your identi%cation with a group, and your sel"9esteem will become bound up with group membership! 1! The %nal stage is s%ci!l c%-p!ris%n! (nce we have categori*ed ourselves as part o" a group and have identi%ed with that group we then tend to compare that group with other groups! &" our sel"9 esteem is to be maintained our group needs to compare "avorably with other groups! iv! This is critical to understanding pre>udice, because once two groups identi"y themselves as rivals, they are "orced to compete in order "or the members to maintain their sel"9esteem! $tudy: $heri" +C a! This showed that the three steps o" the social identity theory were responsible "or the "ormation o" stereotypes!
ERs t% SA Descri$e %ne p!rticul!r rese!rc -et%" t!t is use" !t te s%ci%* cultur!l le'el %( !n!l)sis3 &! Thesis: Although there are many research methods are used at the socio9cultural level o" analysis, experiments are most used because they are able to establish a cause and e7ect relationship! &&! Experiment a! Based on the scienti%c method i! ;ypothesis ii! &5 iii! .5 iv! &5 being manipulated v! .esign: &ndependent samples, matched pairs, and repeated measures b! $trengths i! )ontrol variables ii! )ause and e7ect relationship iii! Less expensive iv! Easier to conduct v! Easier to %nd participants
Philine Everts vi! Easier to replicate and test vii! Huantitative .ata c! $tudy: Bargh )hen Burrows ++O Discuss etic!l c%nsi"er!ti%ns rel!te" t% rese!rc stu"ies !t te s%ci%*cultur!l le'el %( !n!l)sis3 &! Thesis: Although many groundbreaking studies were per"ormed in the early +?s9+O?s, due to there being no ethical guidelines, now, with ethical guidelines in place! &&! List o" ethical considerations: a! &n"ormed consent b! Limited deception c! .ebrie%ng d! ithdrawal "rom a study e! )on%dentiality and anonymity "! Protection "rom mental and physical harm &&&! $tudy: $heri" +C a! /o in"ormed consent parents b! Allowed to harm each other c! )overt observation was going on d! )on%dentiality and anonymity was debatable due to pictures published e! /o right to withdraw E+pl!in %ne err%r in !ttri$uti%n3 &!
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&n"ormation: a! (ne error in attribution is "undamental attribution error! This occurs when people overestimate the role o" dispositional "actors, internal "actors, in an individual=s behavior and underestimate the situational "actors, external "actors! b! Attribution is de%ned as how people interpret and explain causal relationships in the social world! An attribution is the end result o" a process in which people use available in"ormation to make in"erences about the causes o" a particular behavior! ;umans have a need to understand why things happen! $tudy: 6oss et al! + a! This study demonstrates that the "undamental attribution error occurs because participants attributed the behavior o" hosts and contestants to dispositional "actors rather than intelligence! E'!lu!te s%ci!l i"entit) te%r)/ -!>in& re(erence t% rele'!nt stu"ies3
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&n"ormation: b! $ocial &dentity Theory: i! $ocial identity is a person=s sense o" who they are based on their group memberships! ;enri Ta>"el ++
Philine Everts proposed that the groups to which people belong are an important source o" pride and sel"9esteem! roups give us our sense o" social identity, a sense o" belonging! hich can in turn result in stereotypes! ii! Thinking o" ourselves as belonging to one or more groups is needed "or human nature! iii! There are three aspects o" the social identity theory: ! The %rst is c!te&%ri6!ti%n! e categori*e ob>ects in order to understand them and identi"y them! &n a very similar way we categori*e people including ourselves in order to understand the social environment! &" we can assign people to a category then that tells us things about those people! '! &n the second stage, s%ci!l i"enti#c!ti%n, we adopt the identity o" the group we have categori*ed ourselves as belonging to! There will be an emotional signi%cance to your identi%cation with a group, and your sel"9esteem will become bound up with group membership! 1! The %nal stage is s%ci!l c%-p!ris%n! (nce we have categori*ed ourselves as part o" a group and have identi%ed with that group we then tend to compare that group with other groups! &" our sel"9 esteem is to be maintained our group needs to compare "avorably with other groups! iv! This is critical to understanding pre>udice, because once two groups identi"y themselves as rivals, they are "orced to compete in order "or the members to maintain their sel"9esteem! ! P6&/)&PLE: ;umans are social creatures and have a need to belong! O! Thesis: Although the theory has a number o" strengths in that it explains how in groups and out groups can be created, it has a ma>or weakness because it cannot predict behaviour or explain why people do not stereotype or "all into in9groups and out9groups! ! $tudy: Ta>"el +O
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Discuss te use %( c%-pli!nce tecniKues3 &n"ormation: a! )ompliance is where a person carries out a re8uest to do something under direct pressure even though that person may not necessarily perceive the pressure! b! (ne example o" a compliance techni8ue is the door in the "ace techni8ue! This is making a re8uest which is the turned down because it is obviously too large! Then make a second smaller re8uest which might well be accepted as the person will "eel that the re8uest has been reduced to accommodate them!
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P6&/)&PLE: $T2.N: )ialdini + a! This study demonstrates how this techni8ue may be e7ective in compliance! Thesis: Although compliance techni8ues are e7ective means o" in4uencing individuals to comply with the demands or desires o" others, there are ethical issues and individual, cultural, and gender di7erences with using these techni8ues! E'!lu!te rese!rc %n c%n(%r-it) t% &r%up n%r-s3 &n"ormation: (ne o" the key ways that a society or culture passes down its o values and behaviors to its members is through an indirect "orm o" social in4uence called con"ormity! o )on"ormity is the tendency to ad>ust one=s behavior in ways that are in agreement with those o" a particular individual or group! P6&/)&PLE: ;umans are social creatures and have the need to belong! $tudy: Asch + Discuss (!ct%rs inuencin& c%n(%r-it)3 &n"ormation: a! (ne o" the key ways that a society or culture passes down its values and behaviors to its members are through an indirect "orm o" social in4uence called con"ormity! b! )on"ormity is the tendency to ad>ust one=s behavior in ways that are in agreement with those o" a particular individual or group! P6&/)&PLE: ;umans are social animals and have a need to belong! $T2.N: Asch + a! roup si*e in4uenced the rates o" con"ormity! E+pl!in te r%le %( %ne cultur!l "i-ensi%n %n $e!'i%r3 &n"ormation: a! )ultural dimensions are the perspectives o" a culture based on values and cultural norms! eert ;o"stede aimed to identi"y traits through the classi%cation o" behavior according to one=s culture! To develop his theory, he conducted a survey o" O?,??? workers at &B< in C? countries and then carried out a content analysis on the responses, "ocusing on the key di7erences submitted by employees in di7erent countries! The trends he noticed he called IdimensionsJ! These dimensions were operationali*ed and then measured "rom a scale o" ?9 ??! P6&/)PLE: $ocial and cultural "actors in4uence behavior! $T2.N: Berry +O a! Berry +O investigated the cultural dimension o" individualism! The dimension o" individualism re"ers to the
Philine Everts degree o" interdependence a society maintains among its members! &n individualistic societies, the ties between individuals are loose# everyone is expected to look a"ter him or hersel"! &n collectivist societies, "rom birth onwards people are integrated into strong, cohesive in9groups! Berry +O demonstrates how one o" the cultural dimensions suggested by ;o"stede in4uences the behavior o" the people in a society!
T(TAL $T2.&E$: Asc 14:1 Aim: anted to %nd out to what extent a person would con"orm to anincorrect answer on a test i" the response "rom other members o" the group was unanimous! Procedure: The participant entered the room where there were six people and the researcher! The men in the room were dressed like businessmen in suits and ties! These men were part o" the study, and they were playing a role unknown to the participants! They were con"ederates, which helped the researcher to deceive the participant! The participants were told that they would take part in a study conducted to investigate visual >udgement! The participants were shown cards with lines on them and were told to pick a separate line that matched the line o" another card! (ut o" the K trials, the con"ederates were instructed to answer incorrectly "or ' o" the trials! @indings: About - o" the participants agreed with the con"ederate=s incorrect responses at least once during the trials! Asch "ound that the mean o" 1'- o" the participants agreed with incorrect responses in hal" or more o" the trials! ;owever, 'C- o" the participants did not con"orm! )onclusion: some argue that this could also be explained in terms o" the Ineed to belongJ Asc 14:: Aim: to see the in4uence o" group si*e on con"ormity Procedure: a replication o" the Asch paradigm with switching numbers o" con"ederates giving incorrect answers @indings: Asch + "ound that with only one con"ederate, >ust 1- o" the participants con"ormed, with two it rose to C- and with 1 it rose to 1'-! roups larger than con"ederates did not increase the con"ormity and with very large groups it even decreased the level o" con"ormity! Berr) 14<7 Aim: Berry +O wanted to investigate the di7erences in con"ormity in di7erent cultures!
Philine Everts Procedure: Berry conducted an experiment, which was a variation o" the Asch con"ormity paradigm experiment, on the Temne people in $ierra Leone and the &nuit people in )anada! @indings: The researchers "ound that Temne showed high con"ormity rates compared to the &nuit people o" )anada! )onclusion: They believed that this was because Temne people=s economy relied on a single crop that is harvested by all people in the community! This re8uires cooperation and coordination o" a large group o" people! This there"ore explains why the Temne culture "ocuses strongly on consensus and agreement! Berry "ound that consensus less important in &nuit culture because their economy is based on continual hunting and gathering, an individual activity! &t is clear to see that the &nuit society is individualistic and the Temne society is collectivist, which had an in4uence on the behavior, in this case, con"ormity o" the people!
T!(el 1471 Aim: The aim o" the experiment was to investigate whether placing people in groups was enough to produce pre>udice between groups o" very similar people even when there is no history or competition between the groups! Procedure: The study was a laboratory experiment! The participants were CK boys "rom Bristol, aged C9, whom knew each other well! The boys were shown slides o" paintings by Paul Slee and assily Sandinsky without knowing the painter and were asked to express their pre"erences! 6andomly, the boys were divided into two groups either the ISlee groupJ or the ISandinsky group!J oint pro%t where boys could give the largest reward to members o" both groups, largest possible reward to in9group where the boys could choose the largest reward "or the member o" their own group regardless o" the reward to the boy "rom the other group, and maximum di7erence where boys could choose the largest possible di7erence in reward between members o" the di7erent groups, in "avor o" the in9group! @indings: A large ma>ority o" the participants in all groups gave more money to members o" their own group than members o" the other group! The experiment clearly demonstrated that the most important "actor in making their choices was maximi*ing the di7erences between the two groups! )onclusion2 @rom the results they were able to conclude that even the most minimal conditions were su3cient to encourage ingroup9"avoring responses and out9group discrimination! Participants picked a reward pair that awarded more points to people who were identi%ed as ingroup members! &n other
Philine Everts words, they displayed ingroup "avoritism! The experiments carried out demonstrated that it showed $&T, $ocial identity theory! Ci!l"ini 147: Aim: to investigate the e7ectiveness o" the Idoor9in9the9"aceJ compliance techni8ue! Procedure: Posing as representatives o" the I)ountry Nouth )ounseling ProgramJ, he and his team stopped university students on campus and asked them i" they would be willing to chaperone a group o" >uvenile delin8uents on a trip to the *oo! K1- initially re"used the o7er! Another time, they stopped studnets and %rst asked i" they would be willing to sign up to work "or two hours per week as counselors "or a minimum o" two years, no one agreed to volunteer! But when they "ollowed with the re8uest to take the >uvenile delin8uens to the *oo approximately ?- o" students agreed! Seri( 14: Aim: udice between two very similar groups by using real li"e scenarios to develop group norms and values and then putting the ' groups in competition with each other! Procedure: $ample o &n +C, '' eleven to twelve9year9old boys took part in a '9week summer camp at the '??9acre Boys $couts o" America camp completely surrounded by 6obber=s )ave $tate Park in the western 2nited $tates! The boys were screened to ensure they were well9ad>usted 9 no neurotic tendencies and no record o" past disturbances in behaviour 9 and came "rom a similar background 9 white, Protestant, stable two9parent "amilies o" the middle socioeconomic level in (klahoma! /one o" the boys knew each other, coming "rom di7erent schools and neighbourhoods! As part o" the matching process, the boys were rated including &H by teachers! (n arrival they were reassessed and matched "or the split, including sporting ability# they were then allocated to one o" ' groups! The researchers acted as camp counsellors! A nominal "ee was charged to parents "or the camp# but they were asked not to visit on the pretext that it might make the boys homesick! .esign o Participant observation 9 a participant observer was allocated to each group "or ' hours per day o (bservation patterns such as those in "riendship groups were noted and studied )ontent Analysis o Tape recordings patterns o" ad>ectives and phrases used to re"er to their own group members and members o" the other group were analysed
Philine Everts Also considered a %eld experiment "or there were variables that were manipulated Procedure o Each group, initially unaware o" the other=s presence, had their own cabin and were independent, camping out, cooking, improving swimming places, carrying canoes over rough terrain to water and playing various games o Each group soon developed a distinctive set o" ideas and rules about how to behave! &n one group it became the norm to act tough, swear a lot and not complain about small in>uries! The other group swam in the nude and made any expression o" homesickness taboo! o Each group had a name 9 W6attlers= and WEagles= respectively 9 and a 4ag "or their group! The researchers gave the ' groups caps and t9shirts with their group names on to increase this sense o" group identity! They became cohesive groups, with low9 ranking and high9ranking members! o A"ter a week the groups were made aware o" each other! o The researchers observed that in9groupDout9group terms began to be used! hen they watched a %lm together, they sat in their own distinct groups! o The ' groups wanted to play each other at baseball which enabled the researchers to introduce a competition: a grand tournament comprising ten sporting events, plus cabin cleanliness awards and acting events! The boys were told that the best per"orming group in the tournament would receive a trophy, C9bladed knives and medals! Even be"ore the tournament began, the groups were insulting o each other 9 eg: “Ladies, frst” 9 and even %ghting physically with each otherX $oon epithets such as Wsneaks=, Wcheats=, bums=, Wcowards= and Wstinkers= were being used in re"erence to members o" the other group! Terms like W"riendly=, Wtough= and Wbrave= were used "or their own group members! The 6attlers in particular became concerned about encroachment on what they considered their territory o The researchers manipulated the points so they could control the competition! hen the 6attlers won a tug o" war competition, the Eagles responded by burning their 4ag! The 6attlers retaliated by raiding the Eagles camp amid scuYesX and damaging their property 9 overturning beds and ripping out mos8uito netting! ith some Whelp= "rom the researchers, the Eagles won 9 but their pri*es, when awarded, were stolen by the 6attlers! o &n written tests at the end o" the second week those in the in9 group were considered W"riendly=, Wtough= and Wbrave= while those in the out9group were described in terms such as Wsneaky=, Wbums= and Wcowards=! )omparison stage o" social identity theory (ther evidence o" in9group bias included, during the bean o collecting task, members o" one team consistently o
Philine Everts overestimating the numbers o" beans collected by boys in their team and consistently underestimating the amount collected by the other team! o The researchers reduced hostility between the two groups by replacing the competitive goals with goals that could only be achieved by members o" the two groups co9operating together! @irst the researchers arranged "or the water supply to break down! They turned o7 the valve and then placed ' large boulders over it, blaming vandals "or the problem! @irst each group explored the pipeline separately# then they came together and >ointly located the source o" the problem! hen they restored the water supply, they cheered together! $econdly the two groups were told that the camp could not a7ord to take them to see a %lm most boys had high on their list o" pre"erences! The two groups got together and worked out how they could get the money together >ointly and see the %lm! @inally the lorry due to transport their "ood on an outing to )edar Lake some distance away wouldn=t start by arrangement o" the researchers 9 so the boys got the tug9 o"9war rope and pulled together to get it to start! @indings An in9group pre"erence shown by the boys in each group increased substantially when explicit competition between them was introduced! The introduction o" common ob>ectives over a period o" days reduced "riction e8ually substantially! ;ow well these Wcooling down= strategies worked was indicated that the boys chose to travel home on a single bus when o7ered the opportunity "or the two groups to travel separately! hen a stop was made "or re"reshments, one group used their last Z pri*e money to buy malted milks "or all the boys!
R%ss et !l 8557 Aim: anted to see i" student participants would make the "undamental attribution error even when they knew that all the actors were simply playing a role! Procedure: Participants were randomly assigned to one o" three roles: a game show host, contestants on the game show, or members o" the audience! The game show hosts were instructed to design their own 8uestions and then the audience watched the show through the series o" 8uestions! hen it was over, the audience was asked to rank the intelligence o" the people that had played a role! @indings:
Philine Everts The game show host was consistently ranked the most intelligent, even though they were aware that this person was assigned the role randomly and that this person had come up with their own 8uestions! )onclusion: The researchers concluded that participants "ailed to attribute the role o" a person=s situation, the "act they had written the 8uestions, and instead attributed the person=s per"ormance to their disposition, intelligence! B!n"ur! 14<1 Aim: The study aimed to test i" children will imitate aggression modeled by an adult and to examine i" children were more likely to imitate same sex models! ;ypothesis: Participants who are exposed to an aggressive model will show more aggression than participants are exposed to a non9 aggressive model! $econdly, participants who observe aggression "rom a same sex model will expose greater aggression than participants who observe a non9same sex model! Laboratory Experiment .esign:
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Philine Everts /o model ' girls and ' boys A"ter watching the models, the children were individually placed in a room with toys but were soon a"ter told that those toys were "or other children to play with, arousing aggression within the children! They were then placed in the room with the Bobo doll! The child was allowed to play in this room "or '? minutes while the researchers observed herDhim "rom behind a one9way mirror! The researchers marked observations in a span o" 9second intervals, giving 'C? responses "or each child! @indings: )hildren exposed to aggressive behavior imitated the same aggression physically and verbally, with the violent behavior by boys was in4uenced signi%cantly more by an aggressive male model than by an aggressive "emale model! irls were more likely to imitate verbal aggression while boys showed more physical aggression )onclusion: These results support Bandura=s social learning theory!
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%nin et !l 8557 Aim: anted to test the hypothesis that violent video games are especially likely to increase aggression when players identi"y with violent game characters! Procedure: ' .utch adolescent boys with low education ability were randomly assigned to play a realistic or "antasy violent or nonviolent video game! /ext, they competed with an ostensible partner seemingly a true partner, but in reality a stooge on a reaction time task in which the winner could blast the loser with loud noise through headphones the aggression measure! Participants were told that high noise levels could cause permanent hearing damage! ;abitual video game exposure, trait aggressiveness, and sensation seeking were controlled "or! @indings: As expected, the most aggressive participants were those who played a violent game and wished they were like a violent character in the game! These participants used noise levels loud enough to cause permanent hearing damage to their partners, even though their partners had not provoked them! )onclusion: These results suggest that identi"ying with violent video game characters makes players more aggressive! Players were especially likely to identi"y with violent characters in realistic games and in games in which they "elt immersed! B!rtlett 14;8
