Structural Reviewer

STRUCTURAL 'I*+# '-++"!(E E)* 'I*+# '-++"!(E /& "0E! H)NG

PROPERTIES OF FORCES

1"0E!H)NGING 1"0E!H)NGI NG E)*2

3)N(I#E0E! E)*

MAGNITUDE

the amount of force, N

DIRECTION

refers to the orientation of its path or line of action. It is usually described by the angle that the line of action makes with some reference.

SENSE

refers to the manner in which it acts along its line of action

+!"++E 3)N(I#E0E! E)*

1indeterminate2

3"N(IN"-' E)*

FORCE SYSTEM INTERNAL FORCES TYPES COPLANAR

all acting in a single plane of a vertical wall

PARALLEL

all having the same direction

CONCURRENT

all having their lines of action intersect at a common point.

MOMENT

force x distance moment can be about any point called

MOMENT ARM

CENTER OF MOMENT

distance from center of moment to force shortest or perpendicular distance from the center of moment to line of action of force.

pulls away from 4oint pushes towards 4oint for connections

ASTM )*E!I3)N '"3IE( '"3IE( $"! (E'(ING (E'(ING )N *)(E! *)(E!I)#' I)#' ACI )*E!I3)N 3"N3!E(E 3"N3!E(E IN'(I(-(E )ccording to )3I )3I code, I the strain strain in concrete reaches reaches 6mm 5.556 17conc8 5.5562, 78

KINDS OF LOADS CONCENTRATED CONCENTRAT ED LOADS

example is a beam supporting a column

UNIFORM LOADS

a series of uniform concentrate concentrated d loads, but for 5 or more uniformly spaced concentrated loads.

OTHER LOADS

varying load, moment load

TYPES OF SUPPORT HINGE !"##E! $I%E& !E'(!)INE

TYPES OF BEAMS

TENSION COMPRESSION SHEAR

9555

It begins to crack AISC )*E!I3)N IN'(I(-(E IN'(I(-(E $"! '(EE# 3"N'(!-3(I" 3"N'(!-3(I"N N If a grade :5 steel 1fy8 :5ksi8 ;9;*pa2 reaches a strain 5.55<9 it begins to yield of 1<.9mm2

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FEATURES OF A STRAIN STRESS DIAGRAM: STRESS== STRAIN DIAGRAM STRESS a graphic representation of the relationship between unit stress values and the corresponding unit strains for a specific material 9. PROPORTIONAL LIMIT maximum stress which the material springs back to the original length when the load is released <. ELASTIC LIMIT maximum stress below which the material does does not return to its original length but has incurred a permanent deformation we call permanent set 6. YIELD YIELD POINT the stress wherein the deformation increases without any increase in the load. (he material at some portion shows a decrease in its cross section ;. ULTIMATE STRENGTH the maximum stress that can be attained immediately before actual failure or rupture

RUPTURE STRENGTH stress at which material specimen breaks ALLOWABLE STRESS the maximum unit stress permitted for a material in the design of a structural member, usually a fraction of the material>s elastic limit, yield strength, or ultimate strength. )lso called ALLOWABLE UNIT STRESS, WORKING WORKING STRESS . ELASTIC RANGE the range of unit stresses for which a material exhibits elastic deformation ELASTIC DEFORMATION a temporary change in the the dimensions or shape of a body body produced by a stress stress less

the property of a material that enables it to deform in response to an applied force and to recover its original si?e and shape upon removal of the force MALLEABILITY the ability of a material to regain and rebound to original shape when the load is released TOUGHNESS the property of a material that enables it to absorb energy before rupturing, represented by the area under the stress= strain curve derived from a tensile test of the material. uctile materials are tougher than brittle materials. MODULUS OF ELASTICITY a coefficient of elasticity of a material expressing the ratio between a unit stress and the corresponding unit strain caused by the stress, as derived from Hooke>s law and represented by the slope of the straight line portion of the stress= strain line diagram. )lso called COEFFICIENT OF ELASTICITY, ELASTIC MODULUS PERMANENT SET the inelastic strain remaining in a material after complete release of the stress producing deformation YIELD STRENGTH the stress necessary to produce a specific limi ting permanent set in a material, usually 5.<@ of its original length when tested in tension. ield strength is used to determine the limit of usefulness of a material having a poorly defined yield point. )lso called OOR STRESS! STRAIN- RATE EFFECT the behavior an increased rate of load application can cause in normally ductile material TEMPERATURE EFFECT TEMPERATURE the brittle behavior low temperatures can cause in a normally ductile material STRESS RELAXATION the time= dependent decrease in stress in a constrained material under a constant load









the internal resistance or reaction of an elastic body to external forces applied to it. Eual to the ratio of force to area and and expressed in units of force force per unit of cross= sectional area. )lso called UNIT STRESS .

STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES OF A36 STEEL: *aximum allowable stress 1$v2 in shear is 9;.A ksi *aximum allowable stress 1$b2 for bending is <; ksi *odulus of elasticity 1E2 is
PROPERTIES OF A MATERIAL TENSION the act of stretching or state of being pulled apart, resulting in the elongation of an elastic body TENSILE FORCE an applied force producing or tending to produce tension in an elastic body AXIAL FORCE a tensile or compressive force acting along the longitudinal axis of a structural member and at the centroid of the cross section, producing axial stress without bending, torsion or shear also called A"IAL LOAD LOAD AXIAL STRESS the tensile or compressive stress that develops to resist axial force, assumed to be normal to and uniformly distributed over the area of the cross section. )lso called DIRECT STRESS, NORMAL TRESS

TENSILE STRESS the axial stress that develops at the cross section of an elastic body to resist the collinear tensile forces tending tending to elongate elongate it. TENSILE STRAIN the elongation of a unit length of material produces by a tensile stress ELONGATION a measure of ductility of a material, expressed as the percentage increase in length of a test specimen after failure in tensile test REDUCTION OF AREA a measure of ductility of a material, expressed as the percentage decrease in cross= sectional area of a test specimen after rupturing in a tensile test TENSILE STRENGTH the resistance of a material to longitudinal stress, measured by the minimum amount of longitudinal stress reuired to rupture the material STRAIN the deformation of a body under the action of an applied force. 'train is a dimensionless uantity, eual to the ratio of the change in si?e and shape to the original si?e and shape of a stressed element. STRAIN GAUGE an instrument for measuring minute deformation in a test specimen caused by tension, compression, bending or twisting. )lso called E"TENSOMETER YOUNG’S MODULUS a coefficient of elasticity of material expressing the ratio of longitudinal stress to the corresponding longitudinal longitudinal strain caused by the strain.









COMPRESSIVE STRAIN the shortening of a unit length of material produced by a compressive stress

EFFECTIVE LENGTH the depth of concrete section measured from the compression face to the centroid of the tension reinforcement

SHEAR the lateral deformation produced in a body by an external force that causes one part of the body to slide relative to an ad4acent part in a direction parallel to their plane contact. SHEAR FORCE an applied force producing or tending to produce shear in the body SHEARING FORCE an internal force tangenial to the surface on which it acts, developed by a body in response to shear, shearing in a vertical plane necessarily involves shearing in a hori?ontal plane and vise versa SHEARING STRESS the force per unit area developed along a section of an elastic body to resist a shear force. )lso called S#EAR STRESS, TANGENIAL STRESS

COVER the amount of concrete reuired to protect steel reinforcement from fire and corrosion, measured from the surface of the reinforcement to outer surface of the concrete section BOND STRESS the adhesive for per unit area of contact between reinforcing bar and the surrounding concrete developed at any section of a flexural member HOOK a bend or curve given to develop an euivalent embedment length, used where there is insufficient room to develop in adeuate embedment embedment length STANDARD HOOK a B5F, 96AF, 9D5F bend made at the end of a reinforcing bar according to standards

SHEARING STRAIN the lateral deformation developed in a body in response to shearing stresses, defined as the tangent of the skew angle of the deformation.

ANCHORAGE any of various means, as embedment length or hooked bars, for developing tension or compression in a reinforcing bar on each side of critical section in order to prevent bond failure or splitting

SHEAR MODULUS OF ELASTICITY a coefficient elasticity of a material, expressing the ratio between shearing stress and the corresponding shearing strain produced by the strain. )lso called MODULUS OF RIGIDITY, MODULUS OF TORSION

CRITICAL SECTION the section of a flexural concrete member at a point of maximum stress, a point of inflection, or appoint within the span where tension bars are no longer needed to resist stress

BENDING the bowing of an elastic body as an external force is applied transversely to its length. ending is the structural mechanism that enables a load to be mechanism that enables a load to be channeled in a direction perpendicular to its application.

BALANCED SECTION a concrete in which the tension reinforcement theoretically theoretically reaches its specified yield strength as the concrete concrete in compression reaches its assumed assumed ultimate strain

TRANSVERSE FORCE a force applied perpendicular to the length of a structural member, producing bending and shear

OVERREINFORCED SECTION a concrete section in which the concrete in compression reaches its assumed ultimate strain before the tension reinforcement reaches its specified yield strength. (his is a dangerous condition since failure of the section could occur instantaneously without









the shearing stress developed along cross section of a beam to resist transverse shear, having a maximum value at the neutral axis and decreasing nonlinearly toward the outer faces

BEAM BEAM a rigid structural member designed to carry and transfer transverse loads across spaces supporting elements SPAN the extent of space between two supports of a structure CLEAR SPAN the distance between inner faces of the support of a span EFFECTIVE SPAN the center to center distance between the supports of a span BENDING MOMENT an external moment tending to cause part a structure to rotate or bend, eual to the algebraic sum of the moments about the neutral axis of the section under consideration RESISTING MOMENT an internal moment eual and opposite to a bending moment, generated by a force couple to maintain euilibrium of the section being considered considered DEFLECTION the perpendicular distance a spanning member deviates from a true course under transverse loading, increasing with load and span, and decreasing with an increase in the moment of inertia of the section of the modulus of elasticity of the material NEUTRAL AXIS an imaginary line passing through the centroid of the cross section of a beam, other member sub4ect to bending, along which no bending bending stresses occur BENDING STRESS a combination of compressive and tensile stresses developed at a cross section of structural member to resist transverse force, having a maximum value at the surface furthest from the neutral axis

HORIONTAL SHEARING the shearing stress developed to prevent slippage along longitudinal planes of a beam under transverse loading, eual to any point to the vertical shearing stress at that point. )lso called LONGITUDINAL S#EARING STRESS FLEXURE FORMULA a formula defining the relationship between bending moment, bending stress, and the cross sectional properties of a beam. ending stress is directly proportional to bending moment and inversely proportional proportional to the moment of inertia of a beam section. MOMENT OF INERTIA the sum of the products of each element of an area and the suare of its distance from a coplanar axis of rotation. *oment of inertia is a geometric property that indicates how the cross sectional area of structural member is distributed and does not reflect the intrinsic physical properties of a material SECTION MODULUS a geometric property of a cross section, defined as the moment of inertia of the section divided by the distance from the neutral axis to the most remote surface. LATERAL LATERA L BUCKLING the buckling of a structural member induced by compressive stresses acting on slender portion insufficiently rigid in the lateral direction STRESS TRA!ECTORIES lines depicting the direction but not the magnitude of the principal stresses in a beam SHEAR DIAGRAM a graphic representation of the variation in magnitude of the external shears present in a structure for a given set of transverse loads and support conditions concentrated loads produce external shears which are constant in magnitude between the loads uniformly distributed loads produce linearly varying shears









a net resultant of shear forces that acts vertically upward on the left part of the structure being considered NEGATIVE SHEAR a net resultant of shear forces that act vertically downward on the left part of the structure being considered POSITIVE MOMENT a bending moment that produces moment that produces a concave curvature at a section of a structure INFLECTION POINT a point at which a structure changes curvature from convex to concave or vise versa as it deflects under a transverse load theoretically an internal hinge and therefore a point of ?ero moment NEGATIVE MOMENT a bending moment that produces a convex curvature at a section of a structure SIMPLE BEAM a beam resisting on simple supports at both ends which are free to r otate and have no moment resistance. )s with any statistically determinate structure, the values of all reactions, shears, and moments for a simple beam are independent of its cross sectional shape and material CANTILEVER BEAM a pro4ecting beam supported at only one fixed end CANTILEVER a beam or other rigid structural member extending beyond a fulcrum and supported by a balancing member or a downward force behind the fulcrum OVERHANGING BEAM a simple beam extending beyond one of its supports. (he overhanging overhanging reduces the positive moment at midspan while developing a negative moment at the base of the cantilever over the support

fixed end and continuous beams are indeterminate indeterminate structures for which the values of all reactions, shears and moments are dependent not only on span and loading but also on cross sectional shape and material HAUNCH the part of a beam that is thickened or deepened to develop greater moment resistance. (he efficiency of a beam can be increased by shaping its length in response to the moment and shear values which typically vary along its longitudinal axis SUSPENDED SPAN a simple beam supported by the cantilevers of two ad4oining spans with pinned construction 4oints at points of ?ero moment. )lso called hung span EFFECTIVE LENGTH the distance between inflection points in the span of a fixed end or continuous beam, euivalent in nature to the actual length of simply supported beam











COLUMN COLUMN a relatively slender structural member designed primarily to support axial, compressive loads, applied at the member ends.

POST

the radial distance from any axis to a point at which the mass of a body could be concentrated without altering the moment of inertia of the body about that axis. $or a structural section, the radius of gyration is eual to the suare root of the uotient of the moment of inertia and the area (he higher the radius of gyration of a structural section, the more resistant the section is to buckling. In determining the cross= sectional shape of a column, the ob4ective is to providethe necessary radius of gyration about the different axes. $or an asymmetrical cross section, buckling will tend to occur about the weaker axis or in the direction of the least dimension

a stiff vertical support especially a wooden column in timber framing

BUCKLING the sudden lateral or torsional instability of a slender structural member induced by the action of a compressive load. uckling can occur well before the yield stress of the material is reached

LONG COLUMN a slender column sub4ect to failure by buckling rather than by crushing

SHORT COLUMN a thick column sub4ect to failure by crushing rather than by buckling. $ailure occurs when the direct stress from an axial load exceeds the compressive strength of the material available in the cross section. )n eccentric load, however, can produce bending









COMBINED STRESSES ) set of tensile and compressive compressive stresses resulting from the the superposition of axial and bending stresses at a cross section of a structural member, acting in the same direction and eual at any point to their algebraic sum.

ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE a soil pressure acting on any structure that will tend to push the structure wherein the structure or a wall tends to move away from the soil ACCELEROGRAPH is an instrument which measures the velocity and acceleration of an earthuake in the ground

KERN (he central area of any hori?ontal section of a column or wall within which the resultant of all compressive loads must pass if only compressive stresses are to be applied beyond this area will cause tensile stresses to develop in the section. )lso called kern area.

KERN POINT ) point on either side of the centroidal centroidal axis of a hori?ontal hori?ontal column or wall section defining the limits of the kern area.

LATERAL BRACING

ANCHOR BOLTS a round, steel bolt embedded in concrete or m asonry used to hold down machinery, steel columns or beam casting, shock beam plates and engine heads BALANCED DESIGN is one which both the concrete and the steel are so proportioned as to work to their full working stresses when the member carries its full allowable load BATTER PILES are piles at an inclination to resist forces that are not critical. (his is also known as brace pile or spur pile









COLD !OINT formed when a concrete surface hardens before the next batch o f concrete is placed

GUNITE is a rich cement mortar which is applied by spraying under high air pressure

CREEP he tendency of most material to move or deform over time under a constant load (he amount of movement varies enormously depending upon the material. (he area that is highly stressed will move the most. (he movement causes stresses to be redistributed. COUNTER 1inner in retaining wall2 COUNTER 1inner a cantilever wall that is reinforced with a masonry structure extending upward from the foundation or from the inner face of the retaining wall to provide additional resistance to thrust and are placed at regular intervals. 1uttress if outer2 COFFER DAM a temporary watertight enclosure around an area of water or water bearing soil, in which construction is to take place, bearing on a stable statum at or above the foundatio foundation n level of new construction. (he water is pumped from within to permit free access to the area DIAPHRAGM

GRADE BEAM a concrete beam placed directly on the ground to provide foundation for the superstructure GRANOLITHIC FINISH a surface layer or granolithic concrete which maybe laid on a base of either fresh or hardened concrete GRILLAGE is a footing which consist of steel beams arranged to distribute a concentrated load to the supporting masonry or soil DISTRIBUTION OF HORIONTA HORIONTAL L SHEAR design analysis reuirement, considered as the basis for the structural design of structures where the total lateral forces are distributed to the various vertical









is the constant which, within the proportional limit, express ratio between the unit stress to the unit strain. It is the measure of the relative abilities of the different materials of construction to resist deformation under stress within proportional limit MODULUS OF RESILIENCE is a measure of the capacity of the material to absorb energy without danger of being permanently deformed MOMENT OF RESITA RESITANCE NCE is the internal resisting moment of a beam. It is opposite in sense to the bending moment but of the same magnitude

PROPORTIONAL LIMIT is the highest unit stress for which the deformation of a body is proportional to the stress. eyond this point, permanent deformation occurs REDUNDANT MEMBER is any framed structure or truss, is one which maybe omitted in the structure without affect in the possibility of analy?ing the frame or truss by ordinary static method of computations such as the counter diagonal diagonal truss RIP-RAP consist of rough stones of various placed compactly or irregularly to prevent scour by water and protect material which maybe washed out by the water

MORTAR is a mixture, composed of one part of +ortland cement and one part of clean sand, used as a filter MULLION is a vertical member between two portions of window sash usually designed to resist wind load and not vertical load. It is different from muntin, which is smaller member

SAGROD structural member in the steel truss framing that counteracts forces in compression because of high probability of the purlins to deflect and bend down during purlin installation.









TRANSFORMED SECTION is one in which the flexural steel is conceived to be replaced by large area of imaginary concrete which can take tension. (his gives a homogeneous section of concrete to which ordinary beam analysis may be applied

BASE SHEAR is the total designed lateral force or shear at the base of the structure BEARING WALL SYSTEM 1shear type2 is a structural system without a complete vertical load carrying space frame

TREMIE is a watertight pipe 655 mm to :55 mm in diameter with a flared top used in depositing concrete under water UNDERPINNING is an art of placing new foundation under old foundation VIBRATOR is an oscillating power operated machine used to agitate fresh concrete so as to eliminate gross voids including entrapped entrapped air and to produce intimate contact with form surfaces and embedded materials VOID- CEMENT RATIO

BOUNDARY ELEMENT is an element at edges of opening or at the perimeters of shear walls or diaphragm BRACED FRAME is an essentially vertical truss system of the concentric or eccentric type which is provided to resist lateral forces BUILDING FRAME SYSTEM is an essentially complete space frame which provides supports for gravity loads CONCENTRIC BRACED FRAME is a braced frame in which the members are sub4ected primarily to axial forces



















ANCHORAGE









plain or reinforced concrete element cast elsewhere than its final position in the









specified minimum yield strength or yield point or reinforcing in *pa

'( ))

=for concrete cast and permanently exposed to earth such as footings









1a.2









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