Stoicism: the crib sheet Who were the Stoics? - Stoicism first arose in 300 BC BC in Athens. Athens. The founder was was Zeno of Citium. - Stoics were very influenced by Socrates, Socrates, who had died a century earlier. earlier. Like Socrates, they believed that virtue is sufficient for happiness - in other words, you can always find happiness and contentment within, no matter how difficult the external situation. - Stoicism was and is an incredibly incredibly practical philosophy, philosophy, which was meant to be not just studied, but practiced and lived. - It was designed as a sort of therapy therapy for the emotions, which would would help people cope with suffering and adversity. - It was the main inspiration for Cognitive Behavioural Behavioural Therapy Therapy (CBT) which is the most evidence-based form of therapy, therapy, and which you can get for free in the NHS if you’re suffering from depression, anxiety or other emotional problems. Through CBT, CBT, Stoic ideas have helped millions of people to overcome emotional problems. - Stoics used to teach in the agora agora or marketplace of Athens, to whoever wanted wanted to listen. The name ‘Stoicism’ comes the painted colonnade or stoa poikile underneath underneath which they taught. - When the Roman Empire conquered conquered the Greek Greek city-states, Roman culture became very influenced by Greek culture. Stoicism, in particular, was very popular with the Roman elite, and most of the surviving books of ancient Stoicism are by Roman Stoics. - The three most famous Roman Stoics were: Epictetus Epictetus - he was a slave in the time of Nero, who was then granted his freedom and became a famous philosopher. philosopher. He was often in trouble with the Roman authorities because he was so independent-minded, and was exiled twice from Rome. Today, you can read his Discourses, which are brief talks he gave to his students. Seneca the Elder Elder - he was tutor to the emperor Nero and became the top politician in Rome, before falling out with Nero (who was mad) and being forced to commit suicide. He wrote several Stoic essays, including On Anger and and On the Shortness of Life , as well as a series of Stoic letters to a young friend who was interested in philosophy. Marcus Aurelius - he was emperor of the Rome, the most powerful man in the world. This was a difficult
Marcus Aurelius
job, and Marcus spent spent the last ten years of his life fighting the rebellious barbarians at the border of his empire (you can see him doing this in the film, Gladiator). During that time, he kept a philosophical journal, which survives today as the Meditations , one of the most beautiful books of philosophy. philosophy. Stoicism Today Stoicism has always attracted fans and followers, because it’s such a useful and practical life-philosophy. Today, more and more people are rediscovering it and using it in i n their life. Famous modern fans of Stoicism include the magician Derren Brown, former president Bill Clinton, and Doctor Who’s assistant Clara Oswald, who is fond of quoting Marcus Aurelius!
So how can we practice Stoicism today? Here are eight great ideas from Stoicism that t hat you can try out.
1) ‘It’s not events that cause us suffering, suffering, but our our opinion about about events’ (Epictetus)
People often think ‘Stoic’ means ‘suppressing your emotions behind a stiff upper lip’. This is not what ancient Stoicism meant. The Stoics thought we could transform emotions by understanding how they’re connected to our beliefs and attitudes. Often what causes us suffering is not a particular adverse event, but our opinion about it. Notice how sometimes we have a very strong emotional reaction to an event, and then we change our perspective on it, and this changes how we feel about it. Our emotions are connected to how we interpret events, and we can change our interpretation. This gives us some control over how we feel.
2) Our automatic interpretations of events are not always true. We can learn to be more detached from them, and to question them. Every day, we’re making interpretations of events, but we’re not always conscious of these interpretations. They often happen rapidly and automatically, through something called ‘self-talk’, which is like a running commentary going through our minds. We don’t usually notice our self-talk, or question it. We assume that our automatic judgements about the world are it’s not. It’s more like always 100% accurate and true. But it’s a lazy, prejudiced and slightly hysterical newscaster, who always jumps to conclusions and never checks its facts sort of like an inner Daily Mail. Imagine if you had an inner Daily Mail which you always believed - you’d end up very disturbed, frightened and angry! CBT has identified some of the ways we can misinterpret situations, which can cause us unnecessary unnecessary emotional suffering. suffering. For example, we might ‘catastrophize’, which means jumping to the worst possible conclusion about a situation. We might ‘mind-read’, which means thinking we know exactly what another person thinks about us, based on not very much evidence. We might ‘fortune-tell’, which means thinking that because a situation is difficult now, now, it will always be that difficult. We might ‘personalize’ taking things very personally, personally, like if someone is a bit grumpy we might take it as a direct personal insult. We can learn to examine our unconscious assumptions and interpretations, by becoming more mindful, and by asking ourselves questions. This is what Socrates tried to teach people, and it’s what the Stoics try to teach as well. Epictetus told his students: ‘do not allow yourself to be carried away by the intensity [of your impression]: but say, say, 'Impression, wait for me a little. Let me see what you are, and what you represent. Let me test you.' We can ask, for example: - is this definitely the correct correct interpretation? might I be misinterpreting misinterpreting it? - where’s where’s the evidence evidence for it? - is this way of looking at the situation situation helpful? - if my interpretation is accurate, accurate, what practical steps can can I take to deal with it?
3) We can’t control everything that happens to us, but we can control how we interpret it Epictetus was a slave in the Roman Empire, which meant he had very little control over his external life. Yet Yet he discovered a way to stay resilient even in chaotic situations. He divided all of human life into two zones - Zone 2 are the things in life over which we don’t have complete control. Zone 1 are the things in life li fe over which we do have complete control.
Zone 2 - things in life over which we don’t have complete control
Zone 1 - things in life over which we do have control
What things in life are beyond our complete control? The government? The economy? economy? Other people? Our bodies? Our reputation? Epictetus thought all external things are beyond our complete control. We have some control over them, but they’re all subject to changing circumstances. The only thing that is in our complete control is our own beliefs, our attitudes. We cause ourselves needless suffering suffering when we get disturbed about things that are beyond our control, and when we try to force the world to be exactly like we want it to be. We also cause ourselves suffering when we fail to take responsibility for our own beliefs. The way to stay resilient, Epictetus believed, was to focus on what’s in our control, while accepting the things that are beyond our control.
4) See the the bigger bigger picture picture We are like film directors. We can choose how we perceive events, whether to zoom in and do a ‘close up’ on them, or whether to zoom out and do a wide-angle long-shot. We can choose how long we focus on an event. We can choose what to focus on. All of this gives us some control over how we feel. You know the expression ‘to make a mountain out of a mole-hill’? That happens when we focus really closely on an event and ‘catastrophize’ about about it, making it a really big deal when perhaps it’s not worth the bother. The Stoics believed we can train ourselves to do the opposite, by widening our perspective, ‘seeing the bigger picture’, getting a perspective on things. Is it so bad? Will it be like that forever or is it temporary? Can we accept it and focus our attention on something more positive? They practiced an exercise called The View From Above, where they zoomed out their perspective further and further, further, until they saw their life from the t he perspective of the universe. Suddenly, Suddenly, their own particular problems didn’t seem such a big deal. Our minds are capable of comprehending the cosmos, and this can be a useful perspective to take if we’re feeling a bit stressed or anxious - take a trip into space!
Alternately, Alternately, we can choose to distract ourselves, stop ruminating on something that’s t hat’s disturbing us, and just focus on something else - go for a walk, play a game, see some friends. It’s up to you - you’re the director.
5) The importan importance ce of good habits habits Humans are creatures of habit. Most of our thinking and behaviour happens automatically, through habits. So if we’re going to change ourselves, we need to change our habits. This takes practice. A thought thought becomes a habit through repetition, and through actually acting on it. Here are some ways the Stoics turned their philosophy into habits: - Ma Maxi xims ms Stoics used maxims as a way to turn a thought into a habit. A maxim is a saying or proverb which is easy to remember. For example, Marcus Aurelius wrote maxims maxims like: ‘Life itself is but what you deem it’, or ‘Waste no more time arguing what a good man should be. Be One.’ An example of a modern Stoic Stoic maxim is ‘Keep Calm and Carry On’. We can repeat these maxims to ourselves, stick them up as posters in our bedroom, or write them down in a little handbook that we carry around. The more we repeat them, the more they become stored in our memory and part of our automatic self-talk. Marcus Aurelius wrote: ‘Our mind becomes dyed with the colour of its habitual thoughts. Soak your mind, therefore, in these ideas.’ - Keep Keep a journa journall We often sleepwalk through the day, day, on automatic pilot. How do we know what we’ve done, and if we’re making progress in weakening bad habits and strengthening good habits? The journal is a good way of doing that - the Stoics kept journals 2,000 years ago, and today modern psychotherapy often recommends using one as well. Epictetus said that if we’re trying to get rid of a bad temper, for example, we should count the number of days we’ve managed not to t o lose our temper. And if we manage to go 30 days without losing our rag, then we know we’re beginning to make progress. - Find role-mod role-models els The Stoics often used role-models as a way to teach virtues, and also to warn of vices. This could be inspiring figures from history or from fiction, who act in a way we want to emulate. The more we soak our imagination in their example, the more we might embody their virtues. Who are your great role-models, and what virtue do they excel at?
- Get out of the classroom and and practice! practice! Epictetus said: ‘We might be fluent in the lecture-room, but drag us out into practice and we’re miserably shipwrecked.’ The real test of your philosophical ability is not an essay or an exam, but how you actually behave in real-life examples. Do you over-react if something doesn’t go your way? Do you treat people with consideration and respect? The best way to change our habits of thinking is to change our habits of behaviour. If you’re nervous about public speaking, for example, the best way to conquer this fear is
through practice. Then, eventually, eventually, the fear is reduced as we become ‘desensitized’ to the experience and realize it’s not so bad. And if a particular talk goes badly, badly, so what? No big deal. Who cares what the audience thinks anyway!
7) Virtue enables us to flourish even in adversity All the previous main points are quite instrumental and value-neutral – that’s why CBT has taken them up and turned them into a scientific therapy. But Stoicism wasn’t just a feel-good therapy, it was an ethics, with a specific definition of the good life: we flourish as human beings when we live in accordance with virtue. They believed if you found the good life not in transient externals like wealth or power but in doing the right thing, tthen hen you’d always flourish and be at peace, because doing the right thing is always in your power. Viktor Frankl was a prisoner in the Auschwitz concentration camp during World War II. He had very little control over his situation, but he decided: ‘Everything can be taken from a man but one thing: the last of the human freedoms - to choose one’s attitude in any given circumstances.’ He chose not to be broken or dragged down by the barbarism of the Nazis, but to try and be a good person and to assert his moral freedom. His time t ime in Auschwitz actually became a time of moral growth. Often the most difficult times in our life are the times when we discover the greatest moral strength within ourselves. What is your moral purpose in life? li fe? The more you focus on that higher purpose, the more you’ll be able to cope with the everyday ups and downs of life. Keep focused on your higher goals, just like a sailor navigating through rough seas by focusing on a star. 8) Widen your circle of concern to include all humanity The Stoics pioneered the theory of cosmopolitanism – the idea that we have ethical obligations not just to our friends and family, but to our wider community, and even to the community of humanity. Being a cosmopolitan means being a citizen not just of your city or country, but of humanity as a whole. We’re connected to all humans because we all have consciousness consciousness - perhaps we’re connected to all beings as well (this is what Buddhists think). They are members of our family, family, so we should treat them well, even if i f they look or behave differently to us. A useful exercise here, as Martha Nussbaum has suggested, is the Stoic exercise of the ‘widening circles’, imagining all the different wider communities that we’re a part of. God?
Philosophy club
Here are some things your class or philosophy club could discuss. Remember to be respectful and try to give reasons for your view-point! Can philosophy really change us and help us live l ive better and happier lives? Do you agree with the Stoics that we have some control over our emotions? Have you ever changed your perspective on a situation, and has that changed how you felt about it? Have you ever changed a deep-seated bad habit? Is Stoicism a bit too pessimistic about how much we can control external events? Are there times when we shouldn’t accept external things, but should i nstead struggle to change them? Can one be a Stoic political activist? Do you think you can live a good life li fe even in a bad society? To To what extent is individual flourishing connected to a flourishing society? Stoicism is a very rational philosophy, philosophy, but are there t here some important things it leaves out, which aren’t so rational? For example, what about dancing, music, poetry, love? We value these things but they’re not exactly ‘rational’, are they? Stoicism was eclipsed by Christianity. Why Why was that? What things did Christianity take from Stoicism? And And what things did it add, which Stoicism left out?
Finally, Finally, here is an exercise your class might like to try out. I call it Bias Bingo - on the first page is a list of typical ‘cognitive biases’ which can cause us suffering. Then, in ‘Socrates’ Case-book’, see if you can notice these biases in the people’s self-talk.
Bias 1) Catastr Catastrophi ophisin sing: g: ‘This ‘This is a tota totall disast disaster’ er’ 2) Fortune-telle Fortune-teller’s r’s error: ‘I’ll never have any friends friends and will always be this miserable’ 3) Maximization / minimization: ‘Everyone else’s life is perfect while there’s absolutely nothing good about mine’ 4) Emotional reasoning: ‘I feel terrified therefore this really is a terrifying situation’. 5) Mind-reader’s error: ‘She hates me, I just know it’ 6) Focusing on the negative / disqualifying the positive: ‘Getting the job was a fluke, I bet I mess it up soon.’ 7) Personalizing: ‘Why does it always rain on me?’ 8) Labeling: ‘I’m a loser. Always have been, always will be.’ 9) Focusing on what’s out of your control: ‘I’ll never be happy, because of my awful childhood.’ 10) Musturbating: ‘I must do this presentation perfectly, because my boss must approve of me.’
Dear
Socrates ‘Why won’t he call? I sent him an email suggesting the cinema hours ago. He clearly doesn’t value me at all . I’ll never find a husband and will probably die alone and miserable. All my friends are so happily married, I’m the only one left on the shelf!
‘This presentation is going to be a disaster, and then I’ll get fired. The audience can tell how incredibly nervous I am. I must pull myself together, I must be impeccable, or else I’m a total loser.
I mustn’t show people how bad I’m feeling inside, otherwise they’ll think I’m a total weirdo, and I’ll end up getting the sack. Everyone else seems fine at work - it’s just me who’s the screw-up. And I’ll always be a screw-up. Everything’s been ruined since Susan left.
Further reading Primary texts: Marcus Aurelius, Meditations Epictetus, Discourses, Enchiridion Seneca, Letters to a Young Stoic On the Shortness of Life On Anger
Secondary texts: Pierre Hadot, Philosophy as a Way of Life John Sellars, Stoicism Donald Robertson, The Philosophy of CBT Jules Evans, Philosophy for Life and Other Dangerous Situations Patrick Ussher, Stoicism Today Useful blog links: The Stoicism Today Today blog has lots of useful interviews and personal stories. For example: The Stoic Mayor, about Sam Sullivan, who used Stoicism to cope with an accident that left him paralysed as a teenager, and went on to become mayor of Vancouver. http://blogs.exeter.ac.uk/stoicismtoday/201 http://blogs.exeter .ac.uk/stoicismtoday/2013/12/01/features-the-s 3/12/01/features-the-stoic-mayor/ toic-mayor/ How the US Army is using Stoic philosophy to teach its i ts soldiers resilience: http://www.spectator http://www .spectator.co.uk/features/68644 .co.uk/features/6864438/fighting-spirit/ 38/fighting-spirit/ A TED TED talk on Stoic philosophy helped me overcome PTSD when I was in my early twenties: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XuwY XuwYvFlNGns vFlNGns In terms of ‘seeing the bigger picture’, your class might enjoy this video interview with the astronaut Edgar Mitchell: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= https://www .youtube.com/watch?v=KE-PUTVULFg KE-PUTVULFg For another practical exercise, students might want to follow the Stoic Week manual, trying out the exercises every day, and then sharing on a blog or YouTube, how Stoicism helped them (or didn’t!), using the hashtag #Stoicweek
