SA Reviewer Chapter 1 What is sociology? -
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Logus (science or study) & Socius (group or partners) Deals with the study of groups Patterns of behavior evolve from groups. Relationships are developed Joseph Fichter “Sociology is the scientific study of patterned human behavior” Sociology was first used by Auguste Comte (French) – discussed by social philosophers Quarreled over heredity or environment made man what he was Talked of “social soul” more religious and philosophic than scientific Rodney Stark “sociology deals with the study of the patterns and processes of human relations” Microsociology – group life in close-up Macrosociology – larger view of society (fundamental patters and processes of large scale social relations) Sociology = GROUP SOCIAL BEHAVIOR Deals with the study of people living in interdependence Lundberg “sociology is a body of scientific knowledge with theories based on scientific investigations and observations rather than on armchair speculations”
Sociology as a Science -
Science systematized body of knowledge or facts Sociology systematized or organized body of facts about patterns of human interactions
Areas of Sociology 1. Social Organization – study of various social institutions, groups, stratification & etc 2. Social Psychology – human nature as an outcome of group life (man’s reference to group life) 3. Social Change and Social Disorganization – study of the change in culture and relations and the disruption that may occur in society – current social problems 4. Human Ecology – nature and behavior of a given population and its relationships to the group’s present social institutions
5. Population or demography – Concerned with the study of population number, composition, change and quality as it influences economic, political and social system 6. Sociological theory and method – applicability and usefulness of the principles and theories of group life as bases for the regulation of man’s social environment 7. Applied Sociology – utilizes findings of pure sociological research Anthropology -
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Logos (study) & anthropos (man) Branch of knowledge which deals with the scientific study of man, his works, his body, his behavior and values in time and space Physical, social and cultural development and the appearance of human beings on earth Central concern is the study of man
Branches of General Anthropology 1. Physical Anthropology – Also known as biological Anthropology (man’s physical characteristics and processes in biological changes) eg. Racial history, paleontology 2. Cultural Anthropology – or Social Anthropology, study of culture, technology, religion, family life and etc i. Ethnography – pure description of the culture of a people or an ethnic group (customs) general patterns of their life ii. Ehtnology – analysis, comparison and contrast of cultures of people – why people today differ in the past (evolution/development of culture) uses observation – archaeologists work with fragmentary remains iii. Social Anthropology – higher level of abstraction than ethnology, evolves generalizations about social life iv. Cultural Anthropology – total life of man in time and space 3. Archaeology – study of man’s culture and society in the past – evaluating using fossils (remnants with organic life) and artifacts (manmade) study cultural changes (excavations) a. Historical Archaeology – remains of recent people who left written records 4. Linguistics – refers to the systematic study of recorded and unrecorded languages all over the world – relationship of language and culture
a. Historical Linguistics – languages change over time and how they may be related b. Descriptive or Structural Linguistics – how contemporary languages differ c. Sociolinguistics – study of how language is used in actual speech Culture – product of man’s association with other men Relationship with other Social Sciences a. Psychology – processes occurring within the individual b. History – study of past events c. Economics – study of a single social institution d. Political Science – study of politics or government e. Sociology – human context of what they are attempting to explain Relationship between Sociology and Anthropology -
Both interested in social issues Anthro used to be exotic and queer to Westerners Sociology allows sampling of the subject Anthropology is more on observation Both synthesize and generalize data about human behavior and social systems
Methods of Inquiry in the Two Sciences 1. Empirical Investigation – knowledge should be obtained through direct experiences or observation 2. Objectivity – data must be presented, analyzed and interpreted independently – give account of things as they are and not what they ought to be 3. Ethnical Neutrality – related to objectivity (neutral in interpreting findings) 4. Sociological Imagination – W. Wright Mills personal use of sociological imagination – enables the individual to examine his own experiences by locating himself in the period in which he lives and studying his personal life against events in society Pure Science – search for knowledge for its own sake (discover truth) Applied Science – using scientific knowledge to solve practical problems Science Investigation
a. Identification of the Problem b. Gathering of Data – provide a simulation of a model that can be shown to correspond certain principles 1. Observation – using different senses 2. Participant Observation – staying and living in the community being studied (researcher lives with the group being studied without them knowing that they are being studied) 3. Interview – Structured or Unstrcutured interview, questions could be open ended or close ended 4. Historical method – in need of background information on people 5. Comparative Method – similarities and differences between societies with regard to such particular aspects like marriage, family and etc 6. Archival research – utilizes old records and documents kept in archives (events in the past) 7. Content Analysis – technique for analyzing message context and message handing c. Analysis of Data – researcher makes inferences about certain phenomena Relevance of Socio and Anthro 1. Understand culture and society 2. See us as part of larger social patterns 3. Why people in different groups behave the way they do 4. Our group is different from others 5. Promote national unity and progress and international understanding Chapter 2 Anthropology started only around the 20th century Modern Anthro was pioneered by Lewis Morgan, Sir Edward Tylor and Herbert Spencer (armchair theorists – ideas that were not taken from direct involvement/experiences) Higher research – Franz Boas and Alfred Kroeber followed by Malinowski, Radcliffe-Brown and Linton Henri Saint Simon 0 wrote his ideas on the science of society which he discussed with Auguste Comte (French Philosopher) Auguste Comte
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coined sociology “science of the associated life of humanity” Man’s intellectual development is an evolutionary process Law of Three Stages a. Theological or Fictitious b. Metaphysical or Abstract c. Scientific or Positive Committed to Positivism or Empirical Investigations Sociology as the queen of the social sciences Divisions were: a. Social Statics – study of the structure of Society b. Social dynamics – social evolution and change c. Influenced by Industrial revolution
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Karl Marx -
Emile Durkheim – concept of anomie or normlessness – social integration and suicide
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Auguste Comte
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Father of Sociology Influenced by the events of the French Revolution Left his home at the age of 16 Met saint simon but ended their relationship in bitterness Cerebral hygiene – not reading other’s works to cleanse the mind and formulate own thoughts Positive Philosophy – 6 volumes – first published – used sociology for the first time. Wanted to use the word “social physics” – hoped to improve society by studying and reorganizing society Positive Polity (his major work) Divided his work as social statics and social dynamics Law of 3 stages
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Second founder of sociology Acquired advance education through reading Became an editor of the Economist Wrote Social Statics (First Sociology Textbook) Application of Darwin’s theory of evolution to social life “survival of the fittest” Human societies evolved from simple forms to complex forms
Emile Durkheim
Concentrated on social conflict Met Friedrich Engels – wrote The Communist Manifesto together Social change was brought about through “the process of conflict between 2 opposing classes” Struggle between the oppressed and the oppressors Material conditions were the core of class conflict Conflicting interests would inevitably lead the oppressed to overthrow their oppressors Dreamed of a classless society Wrote 3 volutes of Das Kapital
Max Weber -
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Herbert Spencer -
“heir of Comte” France’s first Sociology Professor Focused on Social forces that hold society together – social solidarity 2 types of societal solidarity a. Mechanical solidarity (provided by similar tasks) b. Organic solidarity (based on differences – interdependent tasks) Suicide – talked about suicide the different forms *check notebook* Also well known for Division of Labor in Society , the Elementary forms of Religious life
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The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism examined how belief systems might affect people’s actions Protestant Ethic (admonishments to achieve salvation through hard work) influence capitalism Introduced the Verstehen method – must ascertain the subjective meanings that people attach to their own behavior aside from the objective methods (sympathetic understanding) Analysis of bureaucracy, organizational structure that is prevalent in modern societies
Ferdinand Toennis -
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Most important writing was the Gemeinshaft and Gesselshaft (typology of social groups and even types of societies) All social relations are creations of human will, there are 2 types
Essential will – basic, instinctive, drives human activity b. Arbitrary Will – deliberate, Purposive form of volition, determines human activity Essential will dominates the life of peasants Arbitrary characterizes the activities of businessmen A group may arise because of: a. Sympathy among members b. To attain a definite end Gemeinschaft – expression of the will Gesselschaft – arbitrarily willed group (eg. State and city) a.
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George Simmel -
Philosophy of money Society cannot be understood as a psychic entity independent of individual minds Theoretical Abstraction – bringing together instances that are seemingly so dissimilar that only a few minds could have grasped those common features
Edward Tylor -
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New science of ethnology Early History of Mankind and the Development of Civilization Primitive Culture Anahuac of Mexico and the Mexicans Ancient and Modern (first book) – record of a journey he made Invention of the word animism (belief in spiritual beings) Stress on material culture, attempts of statistical correlations
William Graham Sumner -
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President of the American Sociological Society Author of Folkways and the Science of Society Folkways are habits of the individual and customs of the society which arise from efforts to satisfy needs Known as a realist
A.R. Radcliffe Brown -
A founding father of Modern Social Anthropology Andaman Islanders, Social Organization of Australian Tribes and Structure and Function of Primitive Society
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Instrumental in making anthropology a university subject Primary function of ritual is by giving expression to the collective sentiments of a society (topic of first book – inspired by Durkheimian hypothesis) 2 important things to be found out about any ritual procedures: a. What it means to the people who have it b. What its social consequences are
Thornstein Veblen -
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Theory of the Leisure Class Intense appreciation for the virutes of workmanlike performance and for labor-saving machinery Mankind has a tendency towards craftsmanship Industrial arts always prevailed “higher learning in America” a memorandum on the conduct of universities by businessmen (based on participant observation) Emphasis in size,scale and function of educational institutions The Theory of Leisure Class – status consciousness and social emulation
Bronislaw Malinowski -
Made detailed first hand observations of the major activities of the Trobriand islanders Linguistic texts were superb, fuller than any collected at the time Wrote in vivid personal style, often describing his own adventures in field work
Pitirim Sorokin -
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Has a vast macroscopic conspectus (summary) rather than a detailed survey of limited, particular problems Society, Culture and Personality – returned to staple topics of much sociological writings such as groups, classes, roles, social structure and etc
Talcott Parsons -
Structure of Social Action – reviewed the works of a number of prominent social theorists Attempted to lay down foundations of a general theory of social action provide solutions to the Hobbesian problem of social order
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Action was not to be conceived as completely free but was grounded in and circumscribed by norms and ultimate principles of action (values) His theory concerns the universals of social life Any real social system consists of: a. Individuals b. Individuals interacting with others on a basis of minimal degree of complementary expectation c. These individuals interact by a shared system of beliefs, standards and symbols
Development of Sociology and Anthropology in the Philippines -
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Ethnographic data was provided by Pigafetta, Loarca, Placencia and etc 1914 Beyer elevated Anthropology as an academic discipline in UP Fr. Valentin Marin introduced Sociology in 1896 Serafin Macaraig – 1939, first Filipino to receive a doctorate degree in Sociology Philippine Sociological Society (1952) objectives: a. Increase knowledge about social behavior b. Gather data on social problems c. Train teachers and researchers in sociology d. Develop cooperation and unity among social scientists in the Philippines 1960 – Research Foundation of Philippine Anthropology and Archaeology was established Factors of the development of Sociology (Catapusan and Catapusan) a. Considerable efforts to define and to determine the fields of sociology b. Specialization in subject matter c. Sociological principles being employed in the analysis of situations d. Perfecting sociological investigations
Chapter 3 Culture -
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Culture derived from Latin “cultus” – civilization The human person has a long period of dependency and has to be taken care of by people around him “Culture refers to that complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, law, customs and any other capabilities and habits
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acquired by man as a member of society.” – Edward Tylor Design for living or a road map that guides the behavior of members of a society Man’s social heritage from one generation to another Interrelated network of norms and roles Encompasses modes of thinking, feeling and acting commonly found in a society Patterns, explicit and implicit – behavior acquired and transmitted in symbols Product of human interaction People’s ability to learn from the group to which they belong
Types of Culture a. Material Culture – physical objects or artifacts (things that humans create) (concrete and tangible things) b. Non-material culture – words people use, habits they follow, laws, the meaning and substance inherent in culture Components of Culture 1. Norms – guides or models of behavior which tells us what is proper and which are appropriate a. Folkways – customary patterns of everyday life that specify what is socially correct and proper in everyday life (frequent repetitive petty acts) (considered right way but not rigidly enforced by society) – sanctions are petty, raising of the eyebrows, disapproval or embarrassment b. Mores – extremely important and vital for survival, define what is morally right and wrong, embody the code of ethics – sanctions are severe, imprisoned, ostracized (commit murder, treason and such) c. Laws – norms that are enforced formally by a special political organization – components of culture regulating or controlling the people’s behavior and conduct i. Enacted by authorities that can use force if necessary ii. Result of conscious thought and deliberate planning iii. More adaptable
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Corresponding punishment to the violation
2. Values – standards we use to evaluate the desirability of things – defines what is right, good and moral – values of society shape its normative system Value orientation of most societies: a. Achievement and success b. Activity and Work c. Moral Orientation d. Humanitarianism e. Efficiency and Practicality Values that are held highly by Filipinos a. Emotional closeness and Security in the family b. The authority value c. Economic and Social Betterment d. Patience, Suffering, Endurance In the core values taught in school, human dignity is given the highest regard 3. Language – system of symbols that have specific and arbitrary meaning in a given society – greatest advantage of human beings 4. Fashions, fads, crazes – short-lived social norms with which people are expected to comply with – prestige of the person depends on this
Characteristics of a culture -
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Culture is learned and acquired – not instinctive Culture is shared and transmitted – man transmits by ideas Culture is social – group product developed by many persons interacting in a group Culture is ideational – man forms ideas and uses them to assign meanings to his environment and experiences Culture gratifies human needs – likely to utilize a habit which gratifies him in some way – culture to satisfy biological and sociological needs Culture is adaptive – all cultures are dynamic – changing in time Culture tends toward integration – culture will exhibit a tendency toward a coherence of its elements – culture is adaptive
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Culture is cumulative – over time culture is created and enhanced
Adaptations of Culture (accdg to Joseph Fichter) 1. Parallelism – independent development of a culture characteristic in two widely separated cultures 2. Diffusion – common process of patters and traits pass back and forth from one culture to another 3. Fission – when a long established society breaks up into two or more independent units 4. Convergence – fusion of two or more cultures into a new one which is somewhat different from its predecessors The two most important adaptations are Fission and Convergence Functions of Culture -
Culture as a category – man is able to segregate things that must occupy his priority Culture as a tool in prediction – understanding how the human organism will react to its environment
Modes of Acquiring Culture -
Man possesses the ability to learn his cultural environment a. Imitation – socialization plays a very important role in the development of every individual – possible because of the examples set by the social environment b. Indoctrination – take the form of formal teaching c. Conditioning – social norms prevailing in social and cultural times – acquires beliefs, values, behavior and etc – further enhanced by a system of reward and punishment
Cultural Variability Ethnocentrism – universal phenomenon, arises from the fact that cultures differ and each culture defines reality differently – taking one’s own culture and comparing it to another’s Cultural Relativity – William Graham Sumner – no universal moral standards of right and wrong and good and bad for evaluating cultural phenomena – standards are relative to culture – judging behavior according to its cultural context
Other Concepts of Cultural Significance -
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Subcultures – differ from the large society in a variety of ways including language, special vocabulary and etc Culture shock – all humans tend to believe that their way of life is the “right” way – exposed to other cultures, their own values are shaken Cultural Lag – William Ogburn – inability of a given society to adopt a culture immediately as a result of the disparity in the rate of change between the material and non-material elements of the culture Cultural Dualism – Corpuz - acknowledges the firmly established influences of the East, however influences on the West are also dominant – East- West dualism (example: the Philippines)
**breeze through here since sir said that you should focus on chapters 1-3 and the theories** Chapter 4 Group – 2 or more people guided by a set of norms/coming together Social Group – 2 or more people who interact recurrently in a patterned way and who recognize that they constitute a distinct social unit 3 meanings are implied at the word group a. Set of individuals with similar characteristics (social category – sharing of traits) b. Individuals who meet occasionally (1. Common presence 2. Minimum awareness of other) c. Specific number of individuals (common association, awareness of others, socially shared goals) Social aggregates – people who happen to be in the same place but share little else Statistical group – people classified together because they share characteristics Common Bases for Groups 1. 2. 3. 4.
Common Ancestry – “blood groups” Territorial Proximity Bodily Characteristics Common interests
Basic Classifications of Social Groups (Cooley for primary Fichter for secondary) a. Primary Group – intimate face to face relationships and close association and cooperation (with emotional investment) Basic primary groups (family, children’s play groups, and community group) b. Secondary Group – relationships are impersonal and widely separate knowledge In- groups – members use a point of reference their definition of who they are is closely related Out-group- those who do not belong to the in-group are part Informal group- spontaneously out of interactions of two or more persons, no explicit rules, do not have specific objectives Formal group – with purpose and objectives that are explicitly labeled Gemeinschaft and Gesselsschaft – Ferdinand Toennis Gemeinschaft – relationships are close, durable and highly valued by members, high degree of conformity unity of similarity “mechanical society” (no specialization much) Gesselscchaft – impersonal and segmented – elaborate division of labor, governed by contract, highly specialized roles Verbindungsnetzchaft (Richmond) – social and communication networks (post industrial society) Social facilitation – individual is stimulated by the presence of others Social Inhibition – presence of others blocks or retards one’s performance Sociometry – diagramming social relationships, understand hwo people interrelate in social relationships in which everyone knows everybody else Social Networks – a person’s social network consists of people he/she is directly or indirectly linked to Dimensions of Groups 1. Size 2. Structure (patterning of actual behavior) (formal or informal)
3. Nature of Goals 4. Identifiability of members 5. Cohesiveness (degree to which members of the group cooperate) (linked to ethnocentrism) 6. Leadership styles Formal Structure: Bureaucracy Bureaucracy -
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social structure with clearly defined partners of activity – related to organization’s purpose Pyramid of personnel who conduct, rationally, the work of a large organization (specialization, merit appointment, impersonality, chain of command)
Weber’s Model of Bureaucracy - Called the ideal type 1. Clear cut division of labor 2. Hierarchical delegation of power and responsibility 3. Rules and Regulations 4. Impartiality 5. Employment based on Technical Qualifications 6. Distinction between public and private spheres (personal life is different from work life) Bureaucracy Today 1. Alienation – people are too focused on the jobs that they are specializing in that they don’t get to interact with others 2. Ritualism – may take the rules too literally 3. Incompetence – Peter Principle – rewards good work with advance not because qualified (tries to hide incompetence by being ritualistic)
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Chapter 5 -
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Social Interaction refers to the process by which people act and react in relation to others Language, gestures and symbols are used Frameworks in Interaction a. Defining the situation b. The Presentation of Self c. Negotiation order Types of Social Interaction a. Cooperation – 2 or more strive for fulfillment b. Conflict – direct struggle between individuals
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c. Competition – agreement on the means that can be used to pursue an end d. Negotiation – agree to social exchange into a mutually satisfactory agreement e. Coercion – use of physical force like that between a group, involvue use of social sanctions such as ridicule, excommunication and etc Elements of Social Interaction a. Status – where a person fits in society (depends on opportunity structure) i. Ascribed status – received at birth or involuntary assumed ii. Achieved status – assumed voluntarily with efforts iii. Master status – dominates over others, exceptional importance b. Roles – patterns of expected behavior attached to a particular status i. Socialization – interacting with people more experienced than them c. Role strain, Role Conflict and Role exit i. Role Ambiguity – unclear expectations Symbolic Interaction – George Herbert Mead Dramaturgical approach – view social interaction as role performers acting on stage Impression management – try to show that our role that we are pursuing is genuine Social Construction of Reality – individuals creatively shape reality through social interaction Ethnomethodology – study of the everyday, common sense understandings that people have of the world around them Networks – web of relationships that connect individuals a. Clique – completely connected (everyone’s close) b. Orbit – radially connected (interactions revolve around one key person) c. Chain – Chain connected (dependent) d. Ring – Rim Connected (connected in 2 links or less) Influences Social Interaction a. Goals and Motivation b. Situation or Context c. Norms or Rules Types of Social Interaction a. Non-verbal Behavior – body language – kinesics
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b. Unfocused and focused interaction – unfocused (2 people just happen to be in each other’s presence) focused (have goals in mind) c. Group – any number of people with similar norms, values and expectations (serve as link between individuals and the larger society) i. Dyad – smallest possible group ii. Triad – 3 persons – possibility of a coalition – suffer a loss of a member Social Institutions – ordered social relationships that grow out of the values, norms and statuses of those who organize (eg family, education, economic, religious and political) Social Organization – pattern of social relationships among individuals and groups in society
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Chapter 6 -
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Socialization – child learns intellectual, physical and social skills needed to function as a member in society a. Objective Socialization – society acting upon the child b. Subjective Socialization – society transmits its culture from one generation to the next and adapts the individual to the accepted and approved ways of organized social life Importance of Socialization a. Vital to culture – socialization transmits culture to each generation b. Vital to personality – personality development of individual c. Sex role differentiation – shaping sex roles Response – Interaction between the learner and the thing learned Symbol – anything used to represent something else Types of Social Interaction a. Exchange – do something for each other with expecting a reward in return b. Cooperation – act together to promote common interests i. Spontaneous – arises from the needs of a certain situation ii. Traditional – passed on from one generation to the next iii. Directed – joint effort under the control of people in authority
Contractual – each person’s specific obligations are clearly spelled out c. Conflict – struggle with one another for some commonly prized object or value d. Coercion – type of conflict where another party is stronger than the other e. Competition – confine conflict with agreed upon rules Dynamics of Socialization a. Functional Approaches – functionalism children are relatively unformed, developed through socialization b. Symbolic Interaction – meaning that people attach to their words and actions (use symbols to convey meaning) – Cooley – looking glass self (presentation, identification, and subjective interpretation) c. Conflict Theory and Socialization – domination of one social class over another (Karl Marx) conflict between capitalists and workers – Sigmund Freud social and biological conflict (primal drives of sex and aggression) – ego finds rational and acceptable ways to satisfy biological cravings Stages of Socialization a. Erik Erikson – feelings people develop toward themselves b. Sigmund Freud – Psychoanalysis – what happens during childhood affects them as adults c. Jean Piaget – Cognitive development stages, children acquire new ways of thinking and new schemes based on environment d. George H. Mead – founder of symbolic interaction – social being of self e. Lawrence Kohlberg – six stages of moral development iv.
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Chapter 7 -
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People’s relations a. Relation by status b. By roles c. By process Social Processes – refers to patterned forms of social interaction a. Conjunctive Processes – patterns of related interaction through which person are drawn together and become more integrated i. Cooperation
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ii. Accommodation iii. assimilation b. Disjunctive Processes – people are pushed farther apart and become less solidaristic i. Conflict ii. Contravention iii. Competition Accommodation – minimum working arrangement that enables people to continue their activities even when they are not in complete agreement and harmony with each other a. Domination b. Truce c. Compromise d. Conciliation and Mediation – third party is selected to reconcile the differences (recommendation by third party, not always accepted) e. Arbitration – settling disputes through the efforts of a third party (solution of the third party will be acceptable to both sides before hand) f. Toleration – without formal agreement – put up with each other without modifying the patterns of others Assimilation – 2 or more persons or groups accept and perform one another’s pattern of behavior (communication is essential) a. Amalgamation - refers to the inter-marriage of persons Conflict – disjunctive social process (desire to secure a scarce goal) Contravention – opposing persons prevent each other from attaining an objective whether or not they want it for themselves Acculturation – societies of different culture are modified through fairly close and long continued contact but do not blend with one another (2 way process)
