Construction of Residential Building
CONTENT 1. Introduction of residential building 1.1.
Definition
1.2.
History
1.3.
Modern Codes
2. Types of residential building 2.1Single Family Homes 2.2 Condominiums 2.3 Co-ops 2.4 Townhouses 2.5 Multi-family units 2.6Land
3. Parts of residential building 3.1 Lot
3.2 Flat work 3.3 Structure 3.4 Systems 3.5 ENCLOSURE 3.6 TRIM AND FINISHES 3.7 FIXTURES AND EQUIPMENT 3.8 OUTDOOR ELEMENTS
4. Construction of residential building 4.1 Construction 4.2 Definitions 4.3 Types of construction projects 4.4 Construction processes 4.5 Authority having jurisdiction 4.6 Industry characteristics 4.7 Safety 4.8 History
5.Complete Architectural Drawing 5.1 layout plan
5.2 Foundation X-Section 5.3 Plan 5.3.1 Ground floor Plan 5.3.2 First floor Plan 5.4 Furniture Drawing 5.5 Sewerage Drawing 5.6 Electric Drawing 5.6.1 Electric Legend 5.7 Front Elevation 5.8 X-Section of front Wall
References
Title of Project
CONSTRUCTION OF RESIDENTIAL BUILDING By Muhammad Muddaser
Roll No. CHW-1401
Naveed –Ur-Rehman
Roll No. CHW-1402
Project is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for degree of
B.TECH(Hons) IN CIVIL TECHNOLOGY
SUPERIOR COLLEGE OFTECHNOLOGY
Lahore
Supervisory committee
___________________
_________________
Internal Supervisor
External Supervisor
CH:1 1.1DEFINE RESIDENTIAL BUILDING
A residential area is a land use in which housing predominates, as opposed to industrial and commercial areas. Housing may vary significantly between, and through, residential areas. These include single-family housing, multi-family residential, or mobile homes.Zoning for residential use may permit some services or work opportunities or may totally exclude business and industry. It may permit high density land use or only permit low density uses. Residential zoning usually includes a smaller FAR (floor area ratio) than business, commercial or industrial/manufacturing zoning. The area may be large or small. OR In certain residential areas, largely rural, large tracts of land may have no services whatever, thus residents seeking services must use a motor vehicle or other transport, so the need for transport has resulted in land development following existing or planned transport infrastructure such as rail and road. Development patterns may be regulated by restrictive covenants contained in the deeds to the properties in the development, and may also result from or be reinforced by zoning. Restrictive covenants are not easily changed when the agreement of all property owners (many of whom may not live in the area) is required. The area so restricted may be large or small.
1.2 BRIEF HISTORY OF RESIDENTIAL BUILDING Ancient Codes Building Codes have a long history going back 4000 years. The “Code of Hammurabi”, circa 1780 BC, contains what are generally considered the first written laws concerning building construction. The “Code of Hammurabi” consisted of 282 laws. Laws 228 thru 233 dealt with building construction:
228. If a builder builds a house for someone and completes it, he shall give him a fee of two shekels in money for each sar of surface. 229. If a builder builds a house for someone, and does not construct it properly, and the house which he built falls in and kills its owner, then that builder shall be put to death. 230. If it kills the son of the owner the son of that builder shall be put to death. 231. If it kills a slave of the owner, then he shall pay slave for slave to the owner of the house. 232. If it ruins goods, he shall make compensation for all that has been ruined, and inasmuch as he did not construct properly this house which he built and it fell, he shall re-erect the house from his own means. 233. If a builder builds a house for someone, even though he has not yet completed it; if then the walls seem toppling, the builder must make the walls solid from his own means. Unlike today’s building codes, the laws in “The Code of Hammurabi” and most other ancient codes detail what the consequences of a building failure should be instead of specifying how a building is to be built. One ancient code that specifies how a building should be built can be found in the Bible book of Deuteronomy, chapter 22 verse 8 which states: “In case you build a new house, you must also make a parapet for your roof, that you may not place bloodguilt upon your house because someone falling might fall from it.” Archeological fragments of Greek and Roman laws have been found to contain evidence of buildings being required to be inspected during construction.
1.3 Modern Codes
Modern building codes have shifted from specifying punishments for building failures and poor construction to mandating requirements that make a building structurally safe, energy efficient, and sanitary to occupy. 1189 - Mayor of London, Henry Fitz- Elwyne issued an ordinance known as the
“Assize of Buildings.” The ordinance was generally referred to as a “planning act” although it contained parts concerning the construction of structures. 1631 - City of Boston fire prevention ordinance bans wood chimneys and thatch roof coverings. 1666 - The Great London Fire resulted in the London Building Act of 1667. This act set forth requirements for the construction of party walls and required the outside of all buildings to be made of brick and/or stone. 1678 - City of Boston building laws require slate or tile roofs and brick walls. 1788 - Old Salem (now Winston-Salem, NC) writes first known formal US Building Code 1844 - The London Building Act of 1844 required drainage improvements, sufficient street widths to ensure adequate ventilation, regulation of explosives, and required Inspectors be appointed to supervise the act. The Metropolitan Building Office was established in 1845. 1859 - Baltimore passes its first building code. 1865 - New Orleans enacts a law requiring inspections of public places. 1867 - Due to the large influx of immigrants over the years and barely tolerable living conditions in tenement buildings, the City of New York enacts a “Tenement Housing Act”. This act requires fire escapes and a window for every room. 1875 - As a result of the Chicago fire of 1871 the City of Chicago enacts ordinances regulating building construction and fire prevention. An apartment (in American English) or a flat (in British English) is a selfcontained housing unit (a type of residential real estate) that occupies only part of a building. Such a building may be called an apartment building, apartment house (in American English), block of flats, tower block, high-rise or, occasionally mansion block (in British English), especially if it consists of many apartments for rent. In Scotland it is often called a tenement, which has a pejorative
connotation elsewhere. Apartments may be owned by an owner/occupier by leasehold tenure or rented The term apartment is favored in North America (although flat is used in the case of a unit which is part of a house containing two or threeunits, typically one to a floor) and also is the preferred term in Ireland. The term flat is commonly, but not exclusively,
used in the United most Commonwealth nations.
Kingdom, Singapore, Hong
Kong and
In Malaysian English, flat often denotes a housing block of lesser quality meant for lower-income groups, while apartment is more generic and may also include luxury condominiums. This usage has also been appearing in British English where apartment is used to denote expensive 'flats' in exclusive and expensive residential areas in, for example, parts of London such as Belgravia and Hampstead. In Australian English, the term flat was traditionally used, but term apartment is also frequently used, as is "unit," short for "home unit".
the
Tenement law refers to the feudal basis of permanent property such as land or rents. It may be found combined as in "Messuage or Tenement" to encompass all the land, buildings and other assets of a property. In the United States, some apartment-dwellers own their own apartments, either as co-ops, in which the residents own shares of a corporation that owns the building or development; or in condominiums, whose residents own their apartments and share ownership of the public spaces. Most apartments are in buildings designed for the purpose, but large older houses are sometimes divided into apartments. The word apartment denotes a residential unit or section in a building. In some locations, particularly the United States, the word connotes a rental unit owned by the building owner, and is not typically used for a condominium.
In the England and Wales, some flat owners own shares in the company that owns the freehold of the building as well as holding the flat under a lease. This is commonly known as a "share of freehold" flat. The freehold company has the right to collect annual ground rents from each of the flat owners in the building. The freeholder can also develop or sell the building, subject to the usual planning and restrictions that might apply. This does not happen in Scotland, where long leasehold of residential property was formerly unusual, and is now not possible.[1]
In some countries the word unit is a more general term referring to both apartments and rental business suites. The word is generally used only in the context of a specific building; e.g., "This building has three units" or "I'm going To rent a unit in this building", but not "I'm going to rent a unit somewhere." In Australia, a unit refers to flats, apartments or even semi-detached houses. Some buildings can be characterized as mixed use buildings, meaning part of the building is for commercial, business, or office use, usually on the first floor or first couple of floors, and there are one or more apartments in the rest of the building, usually on the upper floors.
CH:2 TYPES OF RESIDENTIAL OF BUILDING
Before buying any home, it’s important to consider your lifestyle, and what your needs will be in the next five to ten years. That’s especially the case when it comes to choosing what type of home to purchase. Redfin.com allows you to narrow your search based on the types of home you are interested in, but for those who aren’t clear on the differences, here’s a handy guide to the benefits and drawbacks of each type of residential building.
2.1 Single Family Homes
2.1.1. Definition: Single family homes (often abbreviated as SFH) are homes built on a single lot, with no shared walls. Sometimes there’s a garage, attached or detached. 2.1.2. Plus Sides: This type of home tends to offer more privacy than condos and townhomes, which often share walls. They also tend to be
larger, and possibly come with front and back yards. Since you don’t share the property with anyone else, you are free to express yourself with any type of home
design you choose. They also tend to have a more reliable resell value than condos and townhomes. 2.1.3 Downsides: The downside is that they generally require a lot more maintenance, and all of the cost for that falls on the shoulders of the homeowner. With condos and townhomes, you share the costs involved with yard maintenance, plumbing, roofing, etc.
2.2 CONDOMINIUMS
2.2.1 Definition:
Condominiums (or condos for short) are single units within a larger building or community. The unit often shares a wall or two with other units. They generally come with homeowners’ associations (HOAs), which require the residents to pay monthly or yearly dues. Condos are popular in urban, high-density areas, where there are many restaurants and shops. 2.2.2 Plus Sides: The benefits of living in a condo include low responsibility on the homeowner’s part to contribute tomaintenance and upkeep. For example, if the roof goes out, you share the costs with other residents, instead of paying for the whole thing yourself. In addition, some condos offer gyms, lounge areas, pools and other amenities that you might not be able to afford or have space for in a single family home.
2.2.3Downsides: Condo homeowners’ associations often limit the types of remodeling you can do, and there can be pet and rental restrictions as well. HOAs want uniformity and safety; you don’t want one homeowner replacing doors and windows if they’re not to a high standard, or safely installed! In addition, because you share a space with others, there’s not as much privacy, and you need to be extra cautious of disturbing your neighbors because they are so close.
2.3 CO-OPS
2.3.1 Definition: Co-ops are very similar to condos, but they’re a different way to hold a title of a shared building. With a condo, you own the space within your unit, but with a coop, everyone owns the building together. Because of the shared responsibility, there’s often an interview process to become part of the community. 2.3.2 Plus Sides: Co-ops tend to take on the maintenance as a community, so they tend to have lower HOA dues. They also tend to be less expensive than comparable condos. 2.3.3 Downsides: You share financial responsibility of the whole building with your neighbors, which means if someone stops paying their mortgage on a co-op, the bank can foreclose on the whole building. It can be more difficult to get a loan for a co-op than a condo; most require more money down, and some banks won’t support it.
2.4TOWNHOUSES
2.4.1 Definition:
Townhouses are a hybrid between a condo and a single family home. They are often multiple floors, with one or two shared walls, and some have a small yard space or rooftop deck. They’re generally larger than a condo, but smaller than a single family home. 2.4.2 Plus sides: Townhomes often have more privacy than a condo might afford. Some have HOAs or joint maintenance agreements to share upkeep costs. They tend to be more affordable than a single family home.
2.4.3 Downsides: Townhomes don’t usually have shared amenities like a gym or a pool. They’re not as private as a single family home.
2.5 MULTI-FAMILY UNITS
2.5.1 Definition: Multi-family homes are the least common of the residential types. They can be anything from a duplex to a four-plex; anything more becomes commercial. They could be row house style or multiple floors. Multi-family units could also be apartment style flats, but usually each unit has its own separate entrance. The distinction between multi-family units and condos is that the units can’t be purchased individually; there’s one owner for the whole building.
2.5.2Plus sides: People who look for these are usually people looking for an investment property. They can live in one unit, and rent out the others for income, or rent all units. Compared to a condo, there are fewer people you’re sharing your building with and it tends to be more private and quiet. You may also have some yard space. 2.5.3 Down sides: Like a townhome, they’re a hybrid between a single family home and a condo. They tend to be smaller than single family homes, and less private. If you’re renting one, the maintenance costs go to the landlord, but if you own one, as the landlord, you’re bearing all the costs for maintenance, plus the time commitment of finding renters.
2.6 LAND
2.6.1 Definition: Just land, no home of any type. 2.6.2 Plus sides: The sky is the limit; you can do whatever you want to improve the property. Build whatever home you’d like, or grow/raise crops or animals (within local restrictions).
2.6.3 Down sides: Land can be difficult to purchase in terms of financing. It tends to require a much larger down payment, and fewer lenders are available for someone looking to finance a land purchase. Banks like to know that there’s going to be someone living on it, and that it will be improved. It’s easier to know what a property is going to be used for when you see a structure sitting on it. Also, it may not come with utility hookups, so you’re responsible for bringing gas, water, sewer, electricity to the land to build a structure. For more information on residential building types and buying or selling a home, check out my video series in the SFGate Home Guide section:
Ch: 3 PARTS OF RESIDENTIAL BUILDING Throughout the Home Building process you will need to be familiar with the various parts of the home. As a broad overview, we have broken the elements into eight categories as follows:
1. Lot 2. Flat work 3. Structure 4. Systems 5. ENCLOSURE 6. TRIM AND FINISHES 7. FIXTURES AND EQUIPMENT 8. OUTDOOR ELEMENTS
Let's take a look at each one of these categories and see what specific elements may be included in each.
3.1LOT This is pretty self-evident. It’s the land your home will sit upon. more 3.2 FLAT WORK This part includes all the flat concrete work in your home including slab, basement floor, walks, driveway, patio, etc.
3.3 STRUCTURE The structure of your home is an extremely important "part" of the home. It's what makes the home stand up! The structure carries the weight of the home to its supporting element the ground. It is convenient to think of these structural "parts" in the order in which they support the load of the house. This is also the order in which they are constructed - from the bottom up. So learning them in this order helps you start to think in terms of the construction sequence Footings Foundation Floor Walls Ceiling Roof The following is a brief description of what is included in each of these parts of the structure of your home. Footings The Footings are where the house ground.Everything is supported by
meets the thefootings.
Footings (or footer) may be poured concrete, caisson piers, gravel, or even a turned-down portion of a slab. Which one you would use is determined by the area you live in, the soils conditions, local building code requirements, and by the recommendations of your
architect
or
structural
engineer.
Foundation The Foundationconsists of the foundation walls(sometimes called “stem” walls) and other vertical elements needed to support the floor (piers and steel columns). Foundation walls may be formed concrete, treated wood, masonry (brick or concrete block) or nonexistent - in the case of slab construction, where the walls go up directly on top of thickened portions of the slab.
3.4 SYSTEMS The Plumbing, Electrical, and Mechanical - heating, ventilating, air conditioning (HVAC) - are the three major systems of the home. Included within the electrical system would be the security, communication, and entertainment systems for your home.
3.5 ENCLOSURE The Enclosure is a category we have included to hold those elements which form the surfaces or as we sometimes say, the “skin” of the home. These would include the drywall; windows and doors; exterior sheathing, siding, and veneer; and roofing shingles.
You could even include the flooring in this category. There is a gray area here, because some of these items also impart structural integrity to their underlying structural system, i.e. the OSB (oriented strand board) sheathing applied to the exterior walls stiffens them.
3.6 TRIM AND FINISHES This part contains all of the interior trim(base mould, casing, crown mould, chair rail, etc.), exterior trim (shingle mould, skirt board, corner stiles, shutters, etc.), ceiling treatment, carpet and tile, paint and wallpaper, and so forth. 3.7 FIXTURES AND EQUIPMENT Here are yourappliances, cabinets, hardware (door, window, and bath), mirrors, fireplace, garage door opener, etc.
3.8 OUTDOOR ELEMENTS This category includes all the outdoor elements not included elsewhere. This may include the sprinkler system, landscaping, decks, and so forth. Please note that the placement of some items is somewhat arbitrary. For example, “patios” could be placed in “Flat Work” or "Outdoor Elements!" The idea is not to legalistically categorize very item in your home, but to understand the broad categories of elements and how they all work together to form the whole!
Ch:4 Construction of residential building .
In large construction projects, such as thisskyscraper in Melbourne, cranes are essential. 4.1 Construction is the process of preparing for and forming buildings[1] and building systems. [2] Construction starts with planning,
design, and financing and continues until the structure is ready for occupancy.
Far from being a single activity, large scale construction is a feat of human multitasking. Normally, the job is managed by a project manager, and supervised by a construction manager, design engineer, construction engineer or project architect. For the successfulexecution of a project, effective planning is essential. Those involved with the design and execution of the infrastructure in question must consider the zoning requirements, the environmental impact of the job, the successful scheduling, budgeting, construction site safety, availability and transportation of building materials, logistics, inconvenience to the public caused by construction delays andbidding, etc.
4.2 Definitions
4.3 Types of construction projects
4.4 Construction processes
4.5 Authority having jurisdiction
4.6 Industry characteristics
4.7 Safety
4.8 History 4.2Definitions Construction is a very general term meaning the art and science to form material or immaterial objects, systems or organizations,[3] and comes from
Latin constructionem (fromcom- "together" and struere "to pile up") and Old French construction.[4] Construction is used as a verb: the act of building, and a noun: how a building was built, the nature of its structure. Construction is often used as a synonym with building in its verb tense. As a noun, Russell Sturgis distinguished between architecture as being artistic structure, where a building is unadorned and can be "poor... commonplace, ugly, insufficient,
or otherwise of small importance; "[1] and the use of the word construction as meaning built using scientific principles in a highly skillful way. The distinction between a building and a non-building structure is not always clear but is sometimes determined if the structure has walls or by its size or use. The Oxford English Dictionary includes that structure may be used for a large or imposing building.
4.3Types of construction projects Military residential unit construction by U.S. Navy personnel in Afghanistan In general, there are nine types of construction:[citation needed] 1. Residential building construction 2. Light commercial construction 3. Multi-family construction 4. Health-Care construction 5. Environmental construction 6. Industrial construction 7. Institutional construction 8. Heavy civil construction Each type of construction project requires a unique team to plan, design, construct and maintain the project. Building construction Building construction is the process of adding structure to real property or construction of buildings. The vast majority of building construction jobs are small
renovations, such as addition of a room, or renovation of a bathroom. Often, the owner of the property acts as laborer, paymaster, and design team for the entire project. However, all building construction projects include some elements in common – design, financial, estimating and legal considerations. Many projects of varying sizes reach undesirable end results, such as structural collapse, cost overruns, and/or litigation. For this reason, those with experience in the field make detailed plans and maintain careful oversight during the project to ensure a positive outcome.
The National Cement Share Company ofEthiopia's new plant in Dire Dawa. Commercial building construction is procured privately or publicly utilizing various delivery methodologies, including cost estimating, hard bid, negotiated price, traditional, management contracting, construction management-at-risk, design & build and design-build bridging. Residential construction practices, technologies, and resources must conform to local building authority regulations and codes of practice. Materials readily available in the area generally dictate the construction materials used (e.g. brick versus stone, versus timber). Cost of construction on a per square meter (or per square foot) basis for houses can vary dramatically based on site conditions, local regulations, economies of scale (custom designed homes are often more expensive to build) and the availability of skilled tradespeople. As residential construction (as well as all other types of construction) can generate a lot of waste, careful planning again is needed here.
Residential construction The most popular method of residential construction in North America is woodframed construction. Typical construction steps for a single-family or small multifamily house are:
Develop floor plans and obtain government building approval if necessary
Clear the building site
Pour a foundation with concrete
Build the main load-bearing structure out of thick pieces of wood and possibly metal I-beams for large spans with few supports. See framing (construction)
Add floor and ceiling joists and install subfloor panels
Cover outer walls and roof in particleboard or plywood and vapor barrier.
Install roof shingles or other covering for flat roof
Cover the walls with siding, typically vinyl or wood, but possibly stone or other materials
Frame out interior walls with wooden 2x4s
Add internal plumbing, HVAC, electrical, and natural gas utilities
Building inspector visits if necessary to approve utilities and framing
Install interior drywall panels and fiberglass insulation to make walls and ceilings
Install bathroom fixtures
Spackle, prime, and paint interior walls and ceilings
Additional tiling on top of drywall for wet areas, such as the bathroom and kitchen backsplash
Install final floor covering, such as floor tile, carpet, or wood flooring
Install major appliances
Unless the original owners are building the house, at this point it is typically sold or rented. New construction techniques and sustainability As efficiency codes have come into effect in recent years, new construction technologies and methods have emerged. University Construction Management departments are on the cutting edge of the newest methods of construction intended to improve efficiency, performance and reduce construction waste. New techniques of building construction are being researched, made possible by advances in 3D printing technology. In a form of additive building construction, similar to theadditive manufacturing techniques for manufactured parts, building printing is making it possible to flexibly construct small commercial buildings and private habitations in around 20 hours, with built-in plumbing and electrical facilities, in one continuous build, using large 3D printers. [5] Working versions of 3D-printing building technology are already printing 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) of building material per hour as of January 2013, with the next-generation printers capable of 3.5 metres (11 ft) per hour, sufficient to complete a building in a week. [6] Dutch architect JanjaapRuijssenaars's performative architecture 3D-printed building is scheduled to be built in 2014.[7] In the current trend of sustainable construction, the recent movements of New Urbanism and New Classical Architecture promote a sustainable approach towards construction, that appreciates and develops smart growth, architectural tradition and classical design.Thisis in contrast to modernist and shortlived globally uniform architecture, as well as opposing solitary housing estates and suburban sprawl.[10] Both trends started in the 1980s.
4.3Construction processes Design team
Shasta Dam under construction in June 1942 In the modern industrialized world, construction usually involves the translation of designs into reality. A formal design team may be assembled to plan the physical proceedings, and to integrate those proceedings with the other parts. The design usually consists ofdrawings and specifications, usually prepared by a design team including surveyors, civil engineers, cost engineers (or quantity surveyors), mechanical engineers, electrical engineers, structural engineers, fire protection engineers, planning consultants, architectural consultants, and archaeological consultants. The design team is most commonly employed by (i.e. in contract with) the property owner. Under this system, once the design is completed by the design team, a number of construction companies or construction management companies may then be asked to make a bid for the work, either based directly on the design, or on the basis of drawings and a bill of quantities provided by a quantity surveyor. Following evaluation of bids, the owner typically awards a contract to the most cost efficient bidder. The modern trend in design is toward integration of previously separated specialties, especially among large firms. In the past, architects, interior designers,
engineers, developers, construction managers, and general contractors were more likely to be entirely separate companies, even in the larger firms. Presently, a firm that is nominally an "architecture" or "construction management" firm may have experts from all related fields as employees, or to have an associated company that provides each necessary skill. Thus, each such firm may offer itself as "one-stop
shopping" for a construction project, from beginning to end. This is designated as a "design build" contract where the contractor is given a performance specification and must undertake the project from design to construction, while adhering to the performance specifications. Several project structures can assist the owner in this integration, including designbuild, partnering and construction management. In general, each of these project structures allows the owner to integrate the services of architects, interior designers, engineers and constructors throughout design and construction. In response, many companies are growing beyond traditional offerings of design or construction services alone and are placing more emphasis on establishing relationships with other necessary participants through the design-build process. The increasing complexity of construction projects creates the need for design professionals trained in all phases of the project's life-cycle and develop an appreciation of the building as an advanced technological system requiring close integration of many sub-systems and their individual components, including sustainability. Building engineering is an emerging discipline that attempts to meet this new challenge. Financial advisors Trump International Hotel and Tower (Chicago)
September 14, 2007 (3 months before completion) Construction projects can suffer from preventable financial problems. Underbids happen when builders ask for too little money to complete the project. Cash flow problems exist when the present amount of funding cannot cover the current costs for labour and materials, and because they are a matter of
having sufficient funds at a specific time, can arise even when the overall total is enough. Fraud is a problem in many fields, but is notoriously prevalent in the construction field[citation needed]. Financial planning for the project is intended to ensure that a solid plan with adequate safeguards and contingency plans are in place before the project is started and is required to ensure that the plan is properly executed over the life of the project. Mortgage bankers, accountants, and cost engineers are likely participants in creating an overall plan for the financial management of the building construction project. The presence of the mortgage banker is highly likely, even in relatively small projects since the owner's equity in the property is the most obvious source of funding for a building project. Accountants act to study the expected monetary flow over the life of the project and to monitor the payouts throughout the process. Cost engineers and estimators apply expertise to relate the
work and materials involved to a proper valuation. Cost overruns with government projects have occurred when the contractor identified change orders or project changes that increasesd cost, which are not subject to competition from other firms as they have already been eliminated from consideration after the initial bid.[11] Large projects can involve highly complex financial plans and often start with a conceptual estimate performed by a building estimator. As portions of a project are completed, they may be sold, supplanting one lender or owner for another, while the logistical requirements of having the right trades and materials available for each stage of the building construction project carries forward. In many Englishspeaking countries, but not the United States, projects typically use quantity surveyors.
Legal aspects
This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
Main article: Construction law
Construction along Ontario Highway 401, widening the road from six to twelve travel lanes A construction project must fit into the legal framework governing the property. These include governmental regulations on the use of property, and obligations that are created in the process of construction. The project must adhere to zoning and building code requirements. Constructing a project that fails to adhere to codes does not benefit the owner. Some legal requirements come from malum in se considerations, or the desire to prevent things that are indisputably bad – bridge collapses or explosions. Other legal requirements come from malumprohibitum considerations, or things that are a matter of custom or expectation, such as isolating businesses to a business district and residences to a residential district. An attorney may seek changes or exemptions in the law that governs the land where the building will be built, either by arguing that a rule is inapplicable (the bridge design will not cause a collapse), or that the custom is no longer needed (acceptance of live-work spaces has grown in the community). A construction project is a complex net of contracts and other legal obligations, each of which all parties must carefully consider. A contract is the exchange of a set of obligations between two or more parties, but it is not so simple a matter as trying to get the other side to agree to as much as possible in exchange for as little as possible. The time element in construction means that a delay costs money, and in cases of bottlenecks, the delay can be extremely expensive. Thus, the contracts must be
designed to ensure that each side is capable of performing the obligations set out. Contracts that set out clear expectations and clear paths to accomplishing those expectations are far more likely to result in the project flowing smoothly, whereas poorly drafted contracts lead to confusion and collapse.
Legal advisors in the beginning of a construction project seek to identify ambiguities and other potential sources of trouble in the contract structure, and to present options for preventing problems. Throughout the process of the project, they work to avoid and resolve conflicts that arise. In each case, the lawyer facilitates an exchange of obligations that matches the reality of the project. Interaction of expertise
Apartment complex under construction inDaegu, South Korea Design, finance, and legal aspects overlap and interrelate. The design must be not only structurally sound and appropriate for the use and location, but must also be financially possible to build, and legal to use. The financial structure must accommodate the need for building the design provided, and must pay amounts that are legally owed. The legal structure must integrate the design into the surrounding legal framework, and enforce the financial consequences of the construction process.
Procurement Procurement describes the merging of activities undertaken by the client to obtain a building. There are many different methods of construction procurement; however the three most common types of procurement are traditional (design-bid-build), design-build and management contracting.
There is also a growing number of new forms of procurement that involve relationship contracting where the emphasis is on a co-operative relationship between the principal and contractor and other stakeholders within a construction project. New forms include partnering such as Public-Private Partnering (PPPs) aka private finance initiatives (PFIs) and alliances such as "pure" or "project" alliances and "impure" or "strategic" alliances. The focus on co-operation is to ameliorate the many problems that arise from the often highly competitive and adversarial practices within the construction industry. Traditional Main article: Design–bid–build This is the most common method of construction procurement and is well established and recognized. In this arrangement, the architect or engineer acts as the project coordinator. His or her role is to design the works, prepare the specifications and produce construction
drawings, administer the contract, tender the works, and manage the works from inception to completion. There are direct contractual links between the architect's client and the main contractor. Any subcontractor has a direct contractual relationship with the main contractor. The procedure continues until the building is ready to occupy. Design-build
Construction of the Phase-1 (first Havelock City Project, Sri Lanka
two
towers)
of
the
This approach has become more common in recent years, and involves the client contracting a single entity to both provide a design and to build that design. In some cases, the design-build package can also include finding the site, arranging funding and applying for all necessary statutory consents.
The owner produces a list of requirements for a project, giving an overall view of the project's goals. Several D&B contractors present different ideas about how to accomplish these goals. The owner selects the ideas he or she likes best and hires the appropriate contractor. Often, it is not just one contractor, but a consortium of several contractors working together. Once these have been hired, they begin building the first phase of the project. As they build phase 1, they design phase 2. This is in contrast to a design-bid-build contract, where the project is completely designed by the owner, then bid on, then completed. Kent Hansen pointed out that state departments of transportation usually use design build contracts as a way of progressing projects when states lack the resources. In such departments, design build contracts are usually employed for very large projects.
Management procurement system In this arrangement the client plays an active role in the procurement system by entering into separate contracts with the designer (architect or engineer),
the construction manager, and individual trade contractors. The client takes on the contractual role, while the construction or project manager provides the active role of managing theseparate trade contracts, and ensuring that they complete all work smoothly and effectively together.
Management procurement systems are often used to speed up the procurement processes, allow the client greater flexibility in design variation throughout the contract, give the ability to appoint individual work contractors, separate contractual responsibility on each individual throughout the contract, and to provide greater client control.
4.5 Authority having jurisdiction
Construction of the Rivers Towers building in Cúcuta, Colombia
In construction, the authority having jurisdiction (AHJ) is the governmental agency or sub-agency that regulates the construction process. In most cases, this is the municipality where the building is located. However, construction performed for supra-municipal authorities are usually regulated directly by the owning authority, which becomes the AHJ.
Construction on the Federal Reserve building in Kansas City, Missouri Before the foundation can be dug, contractors are typically required to verify and have existing utility lines marked, either by the utilities themselves or through a company specializing in such services. This lessens the likelihood of damage to the existing electrical, water, sewage, phone, and cable facilities, which could cause outages and potentially hazardous situations. During the construction of a building, the municipal building inspector inspects the building periodically to ensure that the construction adheres to the approved plans and the local building code. Once construction is complete and a final inspection has been passed, an occupancy permit may be issued. An operating building must remain in compliance with the fire code. The fire code is enforced by the local fire department. Changes made to a building that affect safety, including its use, expansion, structural integrity, and fire protection items, usually require approval of the AHJ for review concerning the building code. 4.6 Industry characteristics
In the United States, the industry in 2014 has around $960 billion in annual revenue according to statistics tracked by the Census Bureau, of which $680 billion is private (split evenly between residential and nonresidential) and the remainder is government.[13] As of 2005, there were about 667,000 firms employing 1 million contractors (200,000 general contractors, 38,000 heavy, and 432,000 specialty); the average contractor employed fewer than 10 employees. [14] As a whole, the industry employed an estimated 5.8 million as of April 2013, with a 13.2% unemployment
rate.[15] In the United States, approximately 828,000 women were employed in the construction industry as of 2011.[16] Career
Helicopter view of the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) Operations Support Facility (OSF) construction site
Ironworkers erecting the steel frame of a new building at Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston
A truck operator at Al Gamil, the largest construction company in Djibouti. There are many routes to the different careers within the construction industry. These three main tiers are based on educational background and training, which vary by country:
Unskilled and semi-skilled – General site labor with little or no construction qualifications.
Skilled – Tradesmen who've served apprenticeships, typically in labor unions, and on-site managers who possess extensive knowledge and experience in their craft or profession.
Technical and management – Personnel with the greatest educational qualifications, usually graduate degrees, trained to design, manage and instruct the construction process.
Skilled occupations include carpenters, electricians, plumbers, ironworkers, masons, and many other manual crafts, as well as those involved in project management. In the UK these require further education qualifications, often in vocational subject areas. These qualifications are either obtained directly after the completion of compulsory education or through "on the job" apprenticeship training.[17] In the UK, 8500 construction-related apprenticeships were commenced in 2007.[18] Technical and specialized occupations require more training as a greater technical knowledge is required. These professions also hold more legal responsibility. A short list of the main careers with an outline of the educational requirements are given below:
Quantity surveyor – Typically holds a bachelor's degree in quantity surveying. Chartered status is gained from the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors.
Architect – Typically holds 1, undergraduate 3 year degree in architecture + 1, post-graduate 2 year degree (DipArch or BArch) in architecture plus 24 months
experience within the industry. To use the title "architect" the individual must be registered on theArchitects Registration Board register of Architects.
Civil engineer – Typically holds a degree in a related subject. The Chartered Engineer qualification is controlled by theEngineering Council, and is often achieved through membership of the Institution of Civil Engineers. A new university graduate must hold a master's degree to become chartered; persons with bachelor's degrees may become an Incorporated Engineer.
Building services engineer – Often referred to as an "M&E Engineer" typically holds a degree in mechanical or electrical engineering. Chartered
Engineer status is governed by the Engineering Council, mainly through the Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers.
Project manager – Typically holds a 4-year or greater higher education qualification, but are often also qualified in another field such as quantity surveying or civil engineering.
Structural engineer – Typically holds a bachelor's or master's degree in structural engineering. A P.ENG is required from the Professional Engineers Ontario (Canada). New university graduates must hold a master's degree to gain chartered status from the Engineering Council, mainly through the Institution of Structural Engineers (UK).
Civil Estimators are professionals who typically have a background in civil engineering, construction project management, or construction supervision.
In 2010 a salary survey revealed the differences in remuneration between different roles, sectors and locations in the construction and built environment industry. [19] The results showed that areas of particularly strong growth in the construction industry, such as theMiddle East, yield higher average salaries than in the UK for example. The average earning for a professional in the construction industry in the Middle East, across all sectors, job types and levels of experience, is £42,090, compared to £26,719 in the UK.[20] This trend is not necessarily due to the fact that more affluent roles are available, however, as architects with 14 or more years
experience working in the Middle East earn on average £43,389 per annum, compared to £40,000 in the UK. [20] Some construction workers in the US/Canada have made more than $100,000 annually, depending on their trade.
4.7Safety
At-risk workers without appropriate safety equipment Construction is one of the most dangerous occupations in the world, incurring more occupational fatalities than any other sector in both the United States and in the European Union.[22][23] In 2009, the fatal occupational injury rate among construction workers in the United States was nearly three times that for all workers.[22] Falls are one of the most common causes of fatal and non-fatal injuries such as harnesses and guardrails and procedures such as securing ladders and inspecting scaffolding can curtail the risk of occupational injuries in the construction industry.[24] Other major causes of fatalities in the construction industry include electrocution, transportation accidents, and trench cave-ins.[25] Other safety risks for workers in construction include hearing loss due to high noise exposure, musculoskeletal injury, chemical exposure, and high levels of stress.[16]
4.8History
A picture of a building under construction in India.
The first huts and shelters were constructed by hand or with simple tools. As cities grew during the Bronze Age, a class of professional craftsmen, like bricklayers and carpenters, appeared. Occasionally, slaves were used for construction work. In theMiddle Ages, these were organized into guilds. In the 19th century, steam-powered machinery appeared, and later diesel- and electric powered vehicles such as cranes, excavators and bulldozers. Fast-track construction has been increasingly popular in the 21st century. Some estimates suggest that 40% of construction projects are now fast-track construction. [26]
Ch5 . Complete Architectural Drawing 5.1 Layout plan
5.2 Foundation X-Section
5.3.1 Plan (Ground floor plan)
5.3.2 First floor plan
5.4 Furniture Drawing
5.5 Sewerage Drawing
5.6.1 Electric Drawing
5.6.2 Electric Legend
5.7 Front Elevation
5.8 X-Section of Front Wall
