Red edfish fish
November, Novemb er, 2012 (Issue #17)
A Stunning Stunning Marine Tankbuste Tankbuster r
the French Grunt
the dreaded Red Slime algae! algae!
Tropical
Marine
Pests
Sea salt explained!
Synodontis catf ish!
Redfish Red fish contents
4
About
5
Off the Shelf
6
Upside-down de-down Catf ish
16
The French Grunt
17
Redslime Algae
20
The Salt of Life
29
Reefkeeping Journal: Part VI
37
Community listing
redfishmagazine.com.au
Email:l: enquiries@redf ishmagazine.c ishmagazine.com.au om.au Web: redf ishmagazine.c ishmagazine.com.au om.au Facebook: Fac ebook: fac facebook.c ebook.com/redf om/redf ishmagazine Twit witter: ter: @redf ishmagazine Redf ish Publishing. Redfish Publishing. Pty Pt y Ltd. PO Box 109 Berowra Heights, NSW, Australia, 2082. ACN: 151 463 759 Eye Candy Contents Page Page Photos courtesy: (Top row. Left to Right) ‘orange f ish’ by Joel Kramer ‘Tomini Tang’ by Nomore3xfive @ flickr ‘Flamee Hawkf ish’ by Nomore ‘Flam Nomore3xf 3xf ive @ f lic lickr kr ‘Iguana, Galapagos’ by Kathy (kthypryn @ flickr) ‘Arowana’ by Cod _Gabriel @ flickr (Bottom row. Left to Right) ‘Ray’ by Cod_Gabriel @ flickr ‘mushrooms’ by Nomore3xfive @ flickr ‘Barcelona aquarium’ by Alain Feulvarch ‘starfish’ by Ryan Vaarsi ‘Online0333 Aquarium’ by Neil McCrae ‘Online0 McCrae
The Fine Print Redf ish Magazine Magazine General Advice Warning
The advice contained in this publication is general in nature and has h as been prepared without understanding your personal situation, experience, setup, livestock and/or environmentall conditions. environmenta This general advice is not a substitute for, or equivalent of, advice from a professional aquarist, aquarium retailer or veterinarian. Distribution
We encourage you to share our website address online, or with fr iends. Issues of Redfish Magazine, however, may only be distributed via download at our website: redfishmagazine.com.au
About Red About Redfish fish Redfish is a free-to-read magazine for fishkeeping enthusiasts. At Redfish Redf ish we believe in the free exchange of of information informat ion to facilitate success by aquarium and pond hobbyists. Each month Redfish Magazine will bring you dedicated sections on tropical, coldwater, marine and ponds.
Opinions & Views
Opinions and views contained herein are those of the authors of individual individual ar ticles and are not necessarily those of Redf ish Publishing. Publishing. Ownership and copyright
Redfish Magazine is © 2011 Redf ish Publishing. Publishing. Pty Pt y Ltd. Ltd. PO Box 109 Berowra Heights, NSW, Australia, 2082. ACN: 151 463 759
Redfish was founded in early 2011 by Jessica Drake, Nicole Nic ole Saw Sa w yer, Julian Corlet and David Midgley. Midgley. We hope you enjoy this, this, the 17th issue of Redf ish.
Photo courtesy courtesy:: (matt)
About « Redsh Magazine 2012:17 » 4
Off the Shelf Aqua One Arctic Arct ic Chil Chiller ler Maintaining a stable aquarium is one of the keys to ongoing success with marine aquariums. The Aqua One Arctic Chiller uses a titanium coil for efficient cooling, with a microprocessor driven digital control control unit to make control easy and accurate. LED live temperature display and control unit allows easy and accurate control of the built in thermostat. thermos tat. The display shows the aquarium temperature to withi wit hinn 0.1°C and the control control panel allows temperature control in increments of 1°C with wi th temperature tempera ture variance of 1, 2 or 3°C between switching on and off. The chiller can also be calibrated to ±1.5°C from the factory calibrated ibrated setting. set ting. Aqua One Arctic Arc tic Chill Chillers ers will, will, on average, a verage, reduce the water temperature withi wi thinn the aquarium by up to 7-8°C 7-8°C below the ambient ambient temperature outside out side the aquarium based on aquarium aquar ium suitabilit suitabilityy recommendations. Aqua One products are widely available available at most mos t quality pet retailers. retailers. To To f ind your nearest retailer, visit www.aquaone.com.a w ww.aquaone.com.auu
Aqua One Wavemak Wavemaker er 1500, 1500, 3500 3500 & 8000 800 0 Replicate Replicate your inhabitant’s natural na tural environment with Aqua One Wavemaker! Aqua One Wavemaker creates alternating wave patterns in the aquarium, replicating the natural na tural water movement found on coral coral reefs. The pumps provide provide high flow f low rates through a wide outlet resulting resul ting in gentle f low over a large area within within the aquarium with low power consumption. Features Features & Benefits: Benefi ts: • • • • •
Low power consumption Replicate Replicate the aquarium inhabitant’s inhabitant’s natural environment Easy, no fuss set up Durable mounting bracket to keep pump in place Safe & quiet operation
Aqua One products are widely available available at most mos t quality pet retailers. retailers. To To f ind your nearest retailer, retailer, visit w ww.aquaone.com.au
Off the shelf « Redsh Magazine 2012:17 » 5
BY JESSICA DRAKE
UPSIDE-DOWN UPSIDE-D OWN CA CATFISH TFISH From the aspiring beginner to the serious hobbyist there is a species to suit just about every budget, level of expertise and style of aquarium...
Synodontis ocellifer . Photo by Budi Lukman. Tropical « Redsh Magazine 2012:17 2012: 17 » 6
Introduction
The genus Synodontis contains approximately approximately 150 species, all of which are found in Africa. Their range extends through most freshwater rivers and lakes south of the Sahara, including the famous Rift Lakes and the Nile river system. Many species of Synodontis have have become popular in the aquarium trade, and for good reason. Generally these sh are hardy, peaceful and tolerant of a wide range of water conditions. Whilst none of the species are brightly coloured they are nonethe less striking and interesting sh in form, patterning and behaviour. These sh are true catsh (Siluriformes), having the characteristic large bony skulls and reduced swim bladder belonging to this order. Whilst many catsh have what appear to be scales (actually cer
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Synodontis are are distributed throughout sub-Saharan Africa, mostly in riverine habitats. Tropical « Redsh Magazine 2012:17 2012: 17 » 7
bony plates called ”scutes” ”scutes”), ), Synodontis have have none and simply have a protectant layer of mucus over their soft skin. Like most catsh they also have prominent barbels - long “whiskers” which are sensory organs, used for locating food and investigating their environment. Synodontis are are commonly known as “squeakers”, a name which refers to their ability to produce
a squeaking sound from their pectoral ns, usually when they are disturbed. This sound may be loud enough to be heard through the glass of an aquarium! It is usually observed when the sh are netted from the water, but may be used by the sh to communicate with one another. They are also often called “upside down catsh” owing to the curious habit of many species to spend some or even virtually all their time swimming upside down.
Environmental conditions
This genus of sh can be separated into two distinct groups which have differing water water require ments. Riverine Synodontis are are naturally found in waters which range in pH from around 6.0 to 7.5 and which can generally be described as soft. These riverine species can, however, be kept perfectly healthy in much harder, alkaline water up to a pH of 8.0 if they are acclimatised slowly, which means that they may sometimes be kept with African Rift Lake cichlids. The other group of Synodontis are are those that actually do come from the Rift Lakes. This group require hard alkaline water of a pH range from 7.5 to 9.0 and are, of course, ideal occupants for a Rift Lake biotope. Unlike the riverine Synodontis they they cannot be acclimatised to water conditions outside of that which is found in their natural habitat and thus cannot be kept in soft, acidic water.
This phylogenetic tree shows the relationships of genera within the family Mochokidae. Figure by Thomas R. Vigliotta. Tropical « Redsh Magazine 2012:17 2012: 17 » 8
All Synodontis come come from tropical areas in Africa and require require a water temperature range of about 22-26 degrees C. Most species of Synodontis found found in the aquarium trade grow to around 20 cm in length and thus require a minimum aquarium size of 150L, with the dimension of the longest side being at least 120cm. Smaller species can of course be kept in a smaller aquarium but as these can be very active sh they still require a minimum aquarium size of 75L. A wide variety of ma terials may be used as substrate or furniture for the aquarium, but avoid using anything which is very rough or has sharp edges so as to avoid damage to their delicate barbels and scaleless skin. These sh are generally nocturnal and may be shy during the day. To encourage them to be seen provide plenty of cover in the form of rocky caves (for Rift Lake species) or logs (for riverine species). This may seem counterintuitive, but instead of hiding constantly in these areas, once settled in, the sh will actually feel more comfortable moving around the aquarium if they know there is always somewhere safe to duck into as they please. Riverine species also prefer more subdued lighting and may not venture out during the day if lighting is too harsh. Generally, all Synodontis can can be considered to be placid sh which will get on well with a great variety of other tank mates. A by no means exhaustive list of sh that can be kept with Synodontis includes includes loaches, Congo tetras, larger barbs, cichlids, gouramies, angel sh, Plecostomus and and larger Australian natives (including the larger species of rainbow sh), so long as the water conditions are appropriate to all species being considered. Even small Synodontis species species can hold their own against larger sh. They should not, however, be kept with very small sh as they may eat them. They will mix well with other Synodontis , even those of different species and sizes and are usually happier and more active when kept in groups of at least three. When kept with other Synodontis either either of the same or different species there may be some territory disputes but this should not
Malebo pool, which is adjacent to Kinshasa, seen here from a satellite, is a large water body in the Congo that is host to numerous Synodontis species. species.
Matadi is southwest of the Kinshasa and the Malebo pool, on the west coast of Congo. Here in the slower sections of the Congo River (above) numerous species of Synodontis can can be found including: S. acanthomias , S. caudalis , S. nummifer and and S. notata .
- One of the best known species in the hobby, Syno - dontis euptera dontis euptera , is widespread occurring in the Chad, Niger, Volta and White Nile basins along with the Benue River (shown above) in Nigeria.
Tropical « Redsh Magazine 2012:17 2012: 17 » 9
Synodontis acanthopercus acanthopercus . a dead specimen of Synodontis Photo by Thomas R. Vigliotta.
Synodontis albolineatus albolineatus . a dead specimen of Synodontis Photo by Thomas R. Vigliotta.
Synodontis Synodontis Synodontis congicus congicus . a dead specimen of Synodontis Photo by Thomas R. Vigliotta.
Synodontis avitaeniatus avitaeniatus . a dead specimen of Synodontis Photo by Thomas R. Vigliotta.
a specimen of Synodontis Synodontis acanthoperca . Photo by Thomas R. Vigliotta.
a dead specimen of Synodontis angelicus . Photo by Thomas R. Vigliotta.
Tropical « Redsh Magazine 2012:17 20 12:17 » 10
amount to anything more than just chasing behaviour. Occasionally individual sh may become aggressive to another Synodontis in in the same aquarium. Usually this is due to the sh being kept in too small an aquarium but sometimes it is a “personality clash” where two sh are simply never going to get on with each other. When they are moved it is often found that these individuals that fought with each other will then live peacefully with other individual Synodontis .
Feeding and health
In their natural habitat these sh are nonspecialised bottom feeders. They eat every thing from insect larvae, snails, worms and crustaceans to even vegetable matter such as detritus and algae. This ability to eat such a wide variety of foods helps them adapt to the changing environmental situations they experience seasonally. It also makes them easy to feed - they will accept virtually anything including ake, pellets, frozen or live worms and brine shrimp as well as algae wafers. For the best of health give a varied diet, in particular, riverine species do best when some vegetable based food is offered along with a mostly meat based diet. They are often voracious eaters and such is their keenness for food that they may often be trained to take food from their keepers hand. Overfeeding can be a serious issue for these sh - it can lead not only to obesity but also to poor water quality. A sh that is being fed too much can potentially produce more faeces than a lter can cope with, leading to toxic levels of ammonia, nitrite or nitrate in the water. In general these sh are hardy and experi ence few health problems. Like all tropical aquarium sh they may be affected by the common parasite Ichthyophthirius (“Ich” or “whitespot”) but but unless it is conned to the the gills this is usually easily seen at an early stage on their scaleless skin, giving an op portunity to treat the disease as early as possible. Whilst they may occasionally display scratches or abrasions on their body these should heal rapidly and without scarring. In situations where there is poor water quality they will often develop deep, ugly ulcers on
Synodontis leopardina Synodontis leopardina is is a widespread species, occur-
ing in Angola, Botswana, Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Photo by Frederick Hermanus Van der Bank.
Synodontis euptera Synodontis euptera showing showing its beautiful dorsal n
with its extended laments. This species is widely available and often underappreciated. Keep it with docile tankmates such as larger barbs or gouramis.
The behavour that gives these sh their common Synodontis nigriventris nigriventris in name, this is Synodontis in the typical inverted pose. The species often swims like this under leaves, logs and other overhangs. Photo by Budi Lukman. Tropical « Redsh Magazine 2012:17 20 12:17 » 11
their body. This occurs when, being stressed, the sh is no longer able to produce a protectant mucus layer, which is essential for healing those occasional small abrasions. Synodontis are are resilient and even when quite large ulcers are seen, so long as water quality and conditions are improved, the sh will heal well without any other specialised treatment in most cases. Pro longed periods of poor water quality will lead to worsening of these ulcers and eventual death of the sh. When given good, stable water conditions they may be very long lived, there are many reports of Synodontis of a variety of species living to beyond 30 years of age. An important word of caution caution when handling these sh: all Synodontis have have dorsal spines and pectoral ns which are extremely sharp - not only at the point but also all along the edge of the n. The ns can easily slice open a hand and the spines can inict a painful injury as some people may react to the mucus on the spine when it breaks the skin. When catching these sh try to herd them into a cup or container to avoid handling them directly. Sometimes this is not possible and a net must be used. Once netted inside the aquarium gently bring the sh to the surface. Try to avoid having the sh panic as it will get its spines tangled in the net. Use a folded wet handtowel to wrap under the sh and support it whilst it is out of the water. This will keep the sh calm and protect your hands. Release the sh gently - in most cases they will untangle themselves. Sometimes entanglement entanglement can’t be avoided so be prepared to cut the sh out of the net - but remember not to touch those sharp ns! The spines and ns are also especially effec tive at puncturing even very sturdy plastic bags so it is best to transport medium to large speci mens in a bucket with a tight fitting lid.
Breeding
Almost all Synodontis available available in the aquarium trade are bred via specialised hormone injec tion techniques on small scale commercial sh farms. Most, including all the riverine species, are egg scatterers which are reluctant to breed in the connes of even a very large aquarium. There is some evidence for riverine species that it is the inuence of cool, fresh ooding rains in the monsoon season which prompts them to breed. This has led to some attempts by hobbyists to induce Synodontis to to breed by administering large volume cold water changes, however this has not been successful as yet and carries the risk of causing stress and shock to the sh. There are two species of Tanganyikan Synodontis which have been successfully bred in the home aquari um on a regular basis, further discussion on this subject can be found below.
Riverine species Synodontis nigriventris
This is the most well known and widely available of the Synodontis . It is usually simply known as the upside down catsh as it is really does spend almost all its time swimming or resting upside down. In its native habitat in the Central Congo basin it feeds upside down at the surface of the water on insect larvae and also uses this swimming technique to access the underside of leaves where it can scrape off algae. One of the smaller species, with a maximum length of 10cm, upside down catsh are suitable for smaller aquaria than most Synodontis . They are social and are happiest when kept in small shoals of at least three individuals. At rest they prefer to hang upside down with their bellies pressed against an overhang so providing some logs and shelter for these sh is important for their comfort. This species is much less damaging to delicate plants than the larger Synodontis species and is a suitable occupant for most planted aquaria. They are placid and will get on well with a huge variety of other species of tropical aquarium sh. Their small size, ease of care, af fordabilityy and intriguing behaviour make them an ideal choice for just about anyone including fordabilit fairly inexperienced sh keepers. Tropical « Redsh Magazine 2012:17 20 12:17 » 12
Synodontis decorus
One of the largest of the species kept in aquaria this is a gentle giant which reaches at least 30cm in length when mature and thus needs to be kept in a fairly large aquarium. Placid and less territorial compared to other Synodontis , nonetheless their size means they are not easily bullied by more aggressive sh. They come from an area in the Congo river basin known as the Malebo or Stanley Pool. Several species of Synodontis are are found here including the some of the most attractive and highly sought after, of which this is one. It has a particularly clear pattern ing of large spots on the body contrasting contrasting with bold stripes on the tail and dorsal n which also boasts a long trailing lament. This n extension may get nipped off by less than friendly tank mates; this will do no harm but does not look as nice! Despite being large this species has a reputation for being shy. Generally S. decorus will will be happiest when given a large cave or PVC pipe to rest in and when kept with others of its own kind or another Synodontis species. species. With a varied natural diet of crustaceans, insect larvae and algae this species is not fussy and will accept most foods. They are hardy and easily kept in typical riverine conditions. conditions. Once very expensive, these sh have become a little easier to nd in aquarium stores and whilst they are still not cheap they certainly have become more affordable. affordable.
Synodontis eupterus
This is one of the more commonly available Synodontis , it is seen at a range of prices in stores depending on size but can usually be found fairly cheaply as young sh. They are found in the wild in the White Nile area of the Chad basin. Juveniles sport a very attractive striped “network” pattern which changes gradually to discrete polka dots over the body. Adults have beautiful ex tended laments on the dorsal n which give rise to the common name for this species, “feath ern catsh”. These laments will not be quite so impressive if this species is kept with other types of “nippy” sh. S. eupterus is is a medium sized Synodontis which which grows to 20cm in length over a period of three
to four years in the average aquarium. They are generally unfussy and easy to care for and al though a pH range of 6.0-7.0 is preferred they may be acclimatised to water with a pH of up to 8.0. This is one species which can be quite greedy and is prone to overeating and obesity.
Synodontis flavitaeniatus
This species is one of the most attractive and highly sought after. The beautiful yellow striped - pattern and yellow belly is contrasted against the typical olive/grey body colour of most Syno - dontis but but in healthy specimens an unusual purple tint is present. These colours will fade dra matically in stressed sh but the colour will return quickly when the sh are happy again. In their natural habitat in the Malebo pool of the Congo they are reputed to grow to 15cm but are rarely found to be bigger than 8cm long in captivity. S. avataeniatus is is a less forgiving species in terms of water conditions than most Synodontis .
They do not tolerate poor water quality and although they are riverine, strangely they seem to perform better in water of higher pH than would be expected. They do not like the pH to be lower than 6.5 and will be healthier in conditions of pH 7.0 to 8.0. This species is particularly non-aggressive. non-aggress ive. Rarely available, they are expensive to buy individually but really need to be kept in groups of a minimum of three or four to be happy, so a large budget is required if you wish to keep them!
Tropical « Redsh Magazine 2012:17 20 12:17 » 13
Synodontis angelicus
Synodontiss angelicus is Synodonti is another very beautiful species from the Malebo pool in the Congo.
With its gorgeous pattern of clear orange spots and striped ns it commands a high price and is unfortunately not very commonly available. Hormone breeding on sh farms increased the number of sh being sold at one point but sadly most of these were hybrids and nowhere near as attractive as the “real thing”. Despite the price and rarity this species is no more difcult to keep than any other riverine Synodontis . It is generally very placid (although certain individuals may be bullies) and reaches a size of 20cm in length.
Rift Lake species Synodontis multipunctatus
This species is found throughout Lake Tanganyika, often in large shoals in surprisingly deep water. All of the Tanganyikan species have a similar appearance, however S. multipunctatus is easily distinguished from other species by its white unspotted belly and comparably large, prominent eyes. Although they are relatively small (up to 16cm in wild caught specimens - of ten only to 12cm in the aquarium) they are very active and prefer to be kept in shoals of four upwards so a fair amount of space is required. A large aquarium with lots of rocky decoration and a sandy substrate is ideal. They are excellent companions for most of the Rift Lake cichlids. Like all Synodontis they they have a varied natural diet and will just about any food offered, they are also excellent snail eaters. Perhaps the most fascinating aspect of these sh is their method of reproductio reproduction n known as “cuckoo spawning”. A pair of these sh will hang around the spawning pit of a mouth brooding cichlid. Normally a female cichlid will drop an egg into the pit and her courting male will rush in and fertilise it. She will then pick up the egg Synodontis multipunctata is is a beautifully patterned in her mouth and repeat this process until species within the Synodontis genus. genus. Unlike most she can hold no more. She will then hold species in the group it is a brood parasite that uses the clutch of eggs safely in her mouth until mouthbrooding cichlids to raise its young. they have hatched and the fry can swim Photo by Mario Rubio García for themselves. When the “cuckoo catsh” (as they are known) spot a mating pair of cichlids the female cuckoo will dart in and eat the cichlids egg, replacing it with her own. The male cuckoo catsh will quickly fertilise it and in the confusion the female cichlid will generally pick up this egg as if it were her own. She will still manage to also pick up plenty of her own eggs along with the cuckoos. The cuckoo eggs hatch quickly - before those of the cichlid. The newly hatched cuckoos then proceed to eat the cichlid eggs and fry - if these run out they may even cannibalise each other. On this diet they grow rapidly and swim out of the cichlids mouth when they are ready. These sh have been spawned regularly in many private Australian aquariums. Owing to the nature of this method of spawning it’s necessary not only to have healthy male and female S. multipunctatus but but also to have a colony of suitable mouth brooding cichlids in the same aquar - ium. Species that work well for this purpose include Cyrtocara moorii (“blue (“blue dolphin”), Aulono - Tropical « Redsh Magazine 2012:17 20 12:17 » 14
cara spp. spp. (“peacocks”) and most Malawi mbuna species. Although these sh are regularly bred
and supplied locally clutch sizes are small and growth of free swimming fry is slow - this, coupled with the popularity of these sh keeps their price moderately high. Despite this, they are a well worth considering for most Rift Lake biotopes or as a fascinating breeding project for the more advanced aquarist.
Synodontis petricola
This is the smallest of all the Synodontis - exceptionally cute at only 6-7cm in length for mature specimens, it comes from the northern end of Lake Tanganyika. The spotted body patterning is somewhat variable variable but all individuals have a bold white edge to the ns. They are very peace ful and unlikely to harass any tank mates, yet despite their small size they can hold their own against larger and more aggressive cichlids. S. petricola likes likes to be kept in groups and is a very active species requiring plenty of room to move about even though they are not a large sh. They have been shown to reproduce via both the cuckoo method and simple egg scattering; this is one of the species that can be bred by the hobbyist in the home aquarium, using either meth od. They are less frequently available available than S. multipunctatus but but are well worth snapping up if you can nd them.
Conclusion
There is something for everyone to be found within this amazing genus of catsh. From the aspiring beginner to the serious hobbyist there is a species to suit just about every budget, level of expertise and style of aquarium. As these sh are generally long lived and often “friendly” it is common for them to become more than just “decoration” for an aquarium and instead a much loved pet. If you feel there’s room in your aquarium for an “upside down squeaker” or four, choose your species wisely and the reward will be a fascinating sh keeping experience.
Synodontis ocellifer . Photo by Budi Lukman.
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The French Grunt Family: Haemulinae Scientific name: Haemulon flavolineatum Maximum size: 30cm (more commonly to 20cm) Distribution: The species has a reasonably limited distribution, occurring in the tropical western Atlantic. Throughout the Caribbean and the Central American coast. The species is found in reef habitats, commonly associated with Acropora and other branching corals. Behaviour: The species is a schooling species. Most adults occur on the reef, though younger schools are abundant in sea-grass areas. General Aquarium care: Grunts and Sweetlips are beautiful fish. They are not, however, for beginners and their care requires significant experience and expertise in the hobby. Their size also dictates that they should be kept in only very large home aquaria and not all hobbyists are in a position to accommodate their needs. Specific Aquarium Requirements: For a small school of individuals, and this species does better in a group, a minimum aquarium volume should be over ~500 litres (130 gallons). Larger aquariums are clearly much better. As generalist carnivores, they should probably not be kept in reef aquaria and are better suited to either fish only or fish only with live rock style Top : Detail of the beautiful colouration of this aquariums. That said, sessile invertebrates don’t species. Middle: Kept in small groups in the typically make up much of the French Grunt diet aquarium, keepers of these fish will observe this (they mostly feed on crabs, polychaete worms behaviour regularly amongst individuals from the school. Its a territorial display that is used to and other mobile invertebrates) and some people communicate dominance dominance in the school. Bothave successfully housed the species with cortom: In the wild, French Grunts are often found als. Do so, however, at your own risk and with in large schools that congregate about oversome considerable caution. hangs in the reef. Most individuals in these large Of the Grunts, the French Grunt is arguably the best choice. It’s a strikingly coloured fish that feeds eagerly (and even greedily) and adapts comparatively well to aquarium life.
schools are 15-20cm in length. While the species grows larger in captivity (to 30cm) these very large individuals individuals are not as common in the wild.
Marine « Redsh Magazine 2012:17 » 16
Red slime Algae Red slime. slime. Vir Vir tuall tuallyy all all marine aquarists k now about it. Speak about it with wi th hobbyists and you get the sense they’re giving you some distance, just in case it is contagious. But wha t exactly is this menace, how do you get it and what do you do once you’ve got it in your aquarium. Surprisingly, none of these questions have good answers. Most people seem to know it’s not an algae, they’ll tell you with confidence that it’s a Cyanobacteria (a blue-green algae), but this is an important distiction, it’s more than just a name, and has some important implications for its removal from the aquarium! While I’m no expert, a look at the filaments under the microscope suggests that red slime is most probably a species of Oscillatoria . Oscillatoria are are a group of photosynthetic bacteria. Most species in the group, including including the Red Slime growing in my aquarium forms long unbranched u nbranched f ilaments, which are motile and move within a kind of gelatinous sheath when you view them under the microscope. The Red Slime common in reef tanks, produces a slimey biof biofilm ilm (a kind of gel-like matrix) matr ix) under which the actual ac tual algal algal cells cells grow. This is evident without withou t a microscope, as bubbles of ox ox ygen becomed trapped beneath the biofilm as they form. There are lots of Oscillatoria species, species, though judging by the similar similar photos on the web and in samples the aquariums I’ve observed, I suspect that just a handful of species are pests in the aquarium. Like all bacteria, Red Slime needs macronutrients and micronutrients to survive, in addition to these compounds (or elements) all all Oscillatoria species species are photosynthetic. pho tosynthetic. The species is colonial colonial and requires relatively slow water flow to establish its biofilm and grow. One can use these requirements against this pest to limit their growth in the aquarium. Pests « Redsh Magazine 2012:17 » 17
Nutrients Like all living organisms, Oscillatoria require require macro and micronutrients to grow. In aquaria settings, Red Slime is anecdotally associated with poor water chemistry and this seems to be bourne out by enough history to suggest it is very likely correct. This may not always be due to neglect by the aquarist but in some instances may be related to the age of the aquarium and its microbiological maturity. New aquariums, it follows are more likely to attract Oscillatoria overgrowth overgrowth than mature ma ture systems. Keeping phosphorus and nitrogen to a minimum is thus not only good for your corals - but it’s good in keeping Cyanobacteria at bay. I’ve seen suggestions that silicates might be an issue too, I don’t really buy it. Oscillatoria ≠ diatom. dia tom. The use of a good skimmer, sk immer, slow paced cycling cycling (ie: increasing your biological biological load slowly), adequate adequa te denitrating denitra ting potential (in the form of live rock, DSBs DSBs etc) and chemical filtration systems are your primary tools in this battle.
Light Unlike Unlike the dinof lagellate algae within coral coral tissues, species photosynthesise only using Oscillatoria species chlorophyll a, phycoerythrin -- in the case of red coloured Oscillatoria - -- and some carotenoids. carotenoids. Dinof Dinof lagellates in contrast use chlorophylla a & c and carotenoids in dinoflagellates. The implication implication here should be obvious, the light that is mos t advantageous for grow th of CyCyanobacteria peaks in the violet-blue and orangered zones of the visible spectrum. There’s been some suggestion that aging bulbs tend towards these ex tremes and keeping your bulbs fresh (par ticularly if you’re running r unning T5s/M T5s/MHal Hallilide de lamps) has been suggested as part of regimes to combat
Pests « Redsh Magazine 2012:17 » 18
overgrow overgrow th of Oscillatoria .
Flow Good circulation is generically important in the reef aquarium. As it happens it also helps limit the growth of Oscillatoria . The growing Oscillatoria colony colony produces a biofilm under which the filaments grow, fast current makes formation of this biofilm more challenging and assists in the fight.
Chemicals There are a range of chemicals chemicals on the market mar ket to combat combat Cyanbacteria. yanbac teria. Mos t will will also effect the other microbes in the aquarium. It’s all a question of dose and biochemistry. These work - but talk to a trusted trus ted retailer retailer or hobbyis t before you apply these treatments - and we aware a ware that if you don’t address the underlying issues (nutrients/light/flow), Oscillatoria will will be back.
Manual removal Do try tr y and remove all all the colonies of Oscillatoria you you can. You’re removing biomass which is rich in nitrogen and phosphorus. It helps. Honest. That said, don’t stir up your DSB too much, it’s counterproductive.
Slimeivores There are reef janitors that will eat Oscillatoria colonies. colonies. Chibanarius digueti (the (the Mexican Red Leg Hermit) along with Cerith snails are good critters for Oscillatoria control. control.
Close Red slime control is part of reefkeeping. Most new aquariums encounter this organism, and older aquariums (sometimes as NO3 accumulates) also are prone to outbreaks. Multifasciated approaches are required to successfully control control this organism in the aquarium. aquar ium. Just one of the above points po ints is unlikely unlikely to be enough or be a long lasting las ting defence. defence. With persistence, persis tence, control control over Oscillatoria is is possible sible and sucesss is assured. Don’t be afraid. Pests « Redsh Magazine 2012:17 » 19
the salt of life by Aaron Sewell
Marine « Redsh Magazine 2012:17 » 20
S
eawater is made up of a myriad of elements from common elements such as sodium and calcium to gold, arsenic and radium. This article will discuss many of the more important chemicals found in the ocean, how they interact and how, or if, they are important in marine aquaria. The total salt content of seawater seawater is 35 part per thousand (denoted as 35‰), a measure that is difcult to measure directly for the average aquarist. Instead, we measure the specic gravity which is the relative uid density based on the fact that add ing salts to water will increase the overall density of the solution. The specic gravity measures the weight of 1L of water in kilograms. 1L of fresh water weighs 1kg, giving it a specic gravity of 1.000 at 4°C. As water cools or as salinity goes up, the specic gravity rises. This means that for water that has a salinity of 35ppt and a temperature of 26°C, we aim to maintain the specic grav ity at 1.026. The other method used to calculate salt content of water is the use of a refractometer. As the salinity increases, the refractive index also increases. What this means is when light hits the water, it will bend (or refract) more in more saline water. We can measure the refraction and use that as an indicator of salt content.
Table 1. The 40 most abundant elements and their concentration in typical seawater. Element
Symbol
[Conc.] (ppm)
Hydrogen
H
110000
Oxygen
O
883000
Chlorine
Na
19400
Sodium
Cl
10800
Magnesium
Mg
1290
Sulphur
S
904
Calcium
Ca
411
Potassium
K
392
Bromine
Br
67
Carbon
C
28
Nitrogen
N
15
Fluorine
F
13
Strontium
Sr
8
Boron
Br
4.45
Silicon
Si
2.9
Argon
Ar
0.45
Lithium
Li
0.17
Rubidium
Rb
0.12
Phosphorus
P
0.088
Iodine
I
0.064
Barium
Ba
0.021
Molybdenum
Mo
0.01
Nickel
Ni
0.0066
Zinc
Zn
0.005
Iron
Fe
0.0034
Arsenic
As
0.0026
Vanadium
V
0.0019
Aluminium
Al
0.001
Titanium
Ti
0.001
Copper
Cu
0.0009
Major, minor and trace elements
Selenium
Se
0.0009
The salt content of seawater is made of up of 3 groups, the major, minor and trace elements. The major elements are those in table 2 that comprise over 99.9% of the salt content and are generally dened as major by having a concentration greater than 1ppm. Minor elements are less dened but the generally accepted cut-off is immediately after iron (see table 1). All other elements are considered to be trace elements. For the most part, the major elements are those that we control directly in aquariums, monitoring elements such as calcium, mag-
Tin
Sn
0.00081
Manganese
Mn
0.0004
Cobalt
Co
0.00039
Antimony
Sb
0.00033
Cesium
Cs
0.0003
Silver
Ag
0.00028
Krypton
Kr
0.00021
Chromium
Cr
0.0002
Neon
Ne
0.00012
Once the salt content of the water is at an appropriate level, we can then look at what makes up the salts in the water and how they interact. Table 1 shows the breakdown of the elemental composi tion of the 40 most common elements in seawater. This does not just include salts but also the water itself (note hydrogen and oxygen at the top of the table). Table 2 shows the 11 most common ions that make up over 99.9% of the salts in seawater. Not surprisingly, this list contains 3 of the most common ions we focus on in calcium, magnesium and bicarbonate (the primary constituent of car bonate alkalinity (aka carbonate hardness).
Marine « Redsh Magazine 2012:17 » 21
Table 2. 99.9% of the salts in seawater. I on
Symbol
[Conc.] (ppm)
[Conc.] (ppm)
Chloride
Cl-
19345
55.03
Sodium
Na+
10752
30.59
Sulphate
SO42-
2701
7.68
Magnesium
Mg2+
1295
3.68
Calcium
Ca2+
416
1.18
Potassium
K-
390
1.11
Bicarbonate
HCO3-
145
0.41
Bromide
Br-
66
0.19
Borate
BO33-
27
0.08
Strontium
Sr2+
13
0.04
Fluoride
F-
1
0.003
Photo by Sean Naber Marine « Redsh Magazine 2012:17 » 22
nesium and potassium and dosing as required. On the other end of the scale, trace elements are often elements that are essential in such small quantities that they must be present but are highly toxic at concentrations even a few times higher than their natural levels. Trace elements may be a limiting factor in many biological processes but dosing these elements with no accurate method of measuring their concentrations can be highly risky ri sky..
Hydrogen Being one of the two components of water, it is unsurprising that hydrogen tops the list of elements in seawater. However, the element is also found in many important ions that affect overall water chemistry. Primarily, hydrogen, along with oxygen in the form of hydroxide (OH-) and hydronium (H3O+) ions, dictate the pH of a solution. As the concentration of hydronium ions increases, the pH decreases and vice versa. However, outside of this, hydrogen has fairly limited interactivity with other important elements.
Oxygen Oxygen readily reacts with other elements and for this reason, it is commonly found in many negatively charged ions such as carbonate/bicarbonate, carbonate/bicarbonate, phosphate, nitrite and nitrate that we as aquarists take note of. In most ions containing oxygen, it is not the oxygen that denes the properties of the ion so we do not generally focus on this aspect of the ion (or salt if there is precipitation).
Sodium chloride is the best known component in sea salt and the most abundant salt on evaporation. The salt you buy for the table is sodium chloride, though often it includes agents to stop it clumping and Iodine to help prevent goiter in humans.
Sodium, Potassium and Chloride These 3 simple ions that make up a large portion of the salt content of seawater generally move as free ions and have little interaction with other ions. It is unsurprising then that they have little inter action with other ions. Sodium and potassium do have some interaction with sulphate and carbonate and it is the latter of these t hese that is part of the reason that higher salt concentrations facilitate higher lev els of carbonates. As sodium binds with carbonate ions (as soluble sodium carbonate) it prevents free carbonates from being exposed to calcium ions which result in precipitation of calcium carbon ate. While sodium and chloride are almost never monitored by aquarists, a trend has begun to test for and regulate potassium levels. Little data exists to support the need to maintain natural levels of potassium but some anecdotal evidence suggests corals produce more vibrant colours when levels
Potassium (shown above), and fellow alkali metal sodium, are both highly reactive and combust violently on exposure to air. Their ions are very abundant in sea water and are essential for life. Photo by: Jurii Marine « Redsh Magazine 2012:17 » 23
are maintained at around 380-400ppm. In general though, when other elements are supplemented, they are usually paired with one of these 3 ions (or occasionally sulphate in the case of magnesium) due to the fact that signicant changes in the con centration of the paired ion (such as calcium, iron or iodine) will have an insignicant effect on concentrations of these ions. For example, raising cal cium levels by 20ppm (around 5%) using calcium chloride (CaCl2) will increase chloride levels by 35ppm or 0.0018%.
Carbon Despite carbon being a common element that is found in countless forms and the basis for all life, the most common forms found in seawater are either carbonate or bicarbonate which together make up the carbonate alkalinity. In marine aquariums, carbonates and bicarbonates play 2 vital roles. The rst is as a pH buffer with higher alkalinity levels equating to both higher and more stable pH val ues. The second is as a foundation for calcica tion. Corals, as well as many molluscs, crustaceans (such as barnacles), worms (such as tubeworms) and even calcareous algae, lay down a calcium carbonate shell or skeleton. In the aquarium, this depletion must be monitored and carbonates must be replaced. There are many methods of carbon ate replacement, most commonly used are direct dosing, calcium reactors and kalkwasser (limewater). Direct dosing is the most simple and is prob ably the most popular method given the rise in popularity of dosing pumps. This involves dosing of carbonate/bicarbonate salts such as sodium bi carbonate. Calcium reactors work by introducing carbon dioxide into a recirculating chamber full of calcium carbonate media. The carbon dioxide dis solves producing carbonic acid and subsequently reducing the pH within the chamber which causes the calcium carbonate to dissolve. Kalkwasser is calcium hydroxide which is dissolved in fresh wa ter. When the hydroxide ion reacts with the car bon dioxide in the water, bicarbonate is produced through the following reaction: OH- + CO2 -> HCO3Organic carbon is also an important food source for bacteria. Popularity of organic carbon dosing, primarily in the form of vodka, sugar and vinegar dosing, has increased greatly in recent years. Bacteria consume various chemicals including phos phates and nitrates but often the limiting factor in their ability to consume larger quantities is other
Carbonates, like this sodium hydrogen carbonate, play an important role in buffering seawater against acifification. Its presence is vital , without it sealife would not exist. Carbonates are widespread on the earth, being the basis of limestone, marble, coral and molluscan skeletons and shells.
Carbonates are removed from the aquarium water by a range of aquatic creatures including molluscs molluscs like those shown above. Coralline algae when growing optimally can rapidly pull carbonates from the water column so sufficient carbonate hardness is important for successful aquarium husbandry.
Marine « Redsh Magazine 2012:17 » 24
necessary nutrients, primarily in the form of organic carbon, which is naturally found at extremely low levels on the reef and also in most marine aquaria.
Magnesium Magnesium is utilised by many marine organisms, primarily as a component when laying down shell or skeleton. However, there are a couple of rea sons why this may not be out of necessity. Firstly, magnesium is chemically/atomically very similar to calcium and may simply be utilised because it behaves like a calcium ion and is therefore easily used in place of calcium. Secondly, it is the 4th most abundant ion by mass (3rd by number) in seawater and therefore given the fact it behaves so much like calcium, organisms will utilise it simply due to opportunity. This is evidenced by the fact that as magnesium levels in seawater have changed throughout history, the concentrations of magnesium in coral skeletons and deposits of other calcifying organisms has changed proportionally.
In the aquarium though, our primary concern with respect to magnesium is its ability to keep carbon ates and bicarbonates in solution in the presence of high calcium levels. In absence of other salts, calcium and carbonate/bicarbonate ions readily react and precipitate as calcium carbonate. Mag nesium ions form weak bonds with carbonate and bicarbonate ions resulting in soluble magnesium carbonate/bicarbonate molecules which prevent precipitation of calcium carbonate and therefore allow higher concentrations of both ions in the water.
Sulphur Despite sulphur (as sulphates) constituting over 7% of the ions in seawater, seawater, it is not a signicantly important element with respect to biological processes in plants, animals and algae. It is however, important in the denitrication process in some denitrifying bacteria. Hydrogen sulphide (a smell many people associate with estuaries and mangrove forests) is one of the by-products of anoxic metabolism and occurs in areas where dissolved oxygen is absent such as in sand beds, inside live rock or in specially designed nitrate reducing l ters. The process of denitrication is important in the aquarium because the benecial result is a conversion of nitrate into nitrogen gas where it is removed from the water by diffusion.
Magnesium is vital for photosynthesis. Seagrass (top) is increasingly popular in the marine hobby as people look to new challenges. challenges. Whether you’re you’re growing macmacroalgae for nutrient export or for show, magnesium is equally important. Ulva californica (middle) is a good choice for nutrient export from the well lit refugium. Chlorodesmis fastigiata , aka Turtle Grass (bottom) is a rather beautiful fine, clumping macroalgae for the experienced reefer. Growing alongside the Turtle Grass are some rather lovely red coloured macroalgae.
Marine « Redsh Magazine 2012:17 » 25
Calcium Of all elements found in seawater, calcium is prob ably the most rigorously tested in established reef aquariums. While calcium levels in seawater usu ally sit around 410-420ppm, many aquarists aim to maintain a level of around 450ppm for 2 rea sons. Firstly, increased calcium levels along with sufcient carbonate alkalinity and other nutrients can result in higher growth rates and secondly, uctuations or more specically, sudden drops, in calcium levels do not result in levels falling below those of seawater. Calcium in conjunction with carbonates, as calci um carbonate either in the form of aragonite (cor als and most mollusc shells) or calcite (bryozoans, calcareous algae, sponges and some bivalves), makes up the bulk of the foundation for most shells and skeletons in marine organisms and is therefore t herefore in high demand. What this means is that regular monitoring and dosing (in the forms discussed under Carbonates) is required in most aquariums as water changes are not sufcient to replace all the depleted ions.
Phosphorus
Sulfur and sulfate reducing bacteria (SRBs) like this Desulfovibrio vulgaris , are common in marine aquariums. SRBs can reduce sulfur and sulfate in the aquarium to H2S. They are strict anaerobes, that is oxygen is poisonous to these taxa. These species occur in the anoxic sections of the aquarium, at the bottom of the DSB, within liverock and in similar habitats. They produce metal sulfides (which are typically insoluble) as a byproduct of their metabolism. These dark coloured compounds can be seen accumulating at the base of DSBs. In addition to sulfur reduction, some species are involved in H2 production, typically in symbiosis with a H2-consuming organism.
The most common form of phosphorus in an aquarium is phosphate, the bane of many aquarists’ exis tence. Phosphorus, along with carbon and nitrogen, make up the most important elements for plant and algae growth. Given carbon and nitrogen are gen erally fairly readily available in most aquariums, elevated phosphate levels usually result in growth of nuisance algae. However, given the symbiotic zooxanthellae found in corals is also algae, aquar ists with low nutrient systems may nd phospho rus to be a limiting factor f actor in coral growth. Phosphate is found in 3 forms (in varying concentrations dependent on pH), orthophosphate – PO 43-, hydrogen phosphate – HPO42- and dihydrogen phosphate – H2PO4-. In seawater, phosphorus is found in many forms, including both organic and inorganic forms. It is the inorganic form (phosphate) which is most readily taken t aken up by algae and is also a potential calcication inhibitor in cor als. Orthophosphate is similar enough to carbon ate that corals will lay down calcium phosphate in their skeleton but it is also dissimilar enough that once it has been layed down, it misshapes the crys talline structure of the aragonite that subsequent layers are difcult to lay down over the top.
Phosphorus is critical for cell-division as it , along with ribose sugars, forms the DNA backbone. Marine « Redsh Magazine 2012:17 » 26
Iodine It has long been considered fact that iodine is po tentially toxic to many organisms; its widespread use as an antiseptic/antibacterial agent supports this idea. However, it must be noted that there is iodine the element and iodine the molecule (I 2). It is the molecular form that is potentially toxic and in recent years, supplementing iodine in the form of iodide (I -) and iodate (IO3-) has become more common, especially with an increase in availability of commercial iodine test kits. Various organisms including macroalgae, worms, tunicates, gorgonians and crustaceans all utilise iodine and it can therefore be rapidly depleted in an aquarium. However, it is important to note that while crustaceans and other “higher” order organisms organisms utilise iodine, this is usually accounted for through diet and not taken directly from the water column.
The trouble with excess phosphate is that it is readily consumed by rapidly growing pest species. Here Red Slime Algae (a cyanobacterium) cyanobacterium) grows across the coral sand. If nutrients are lot lowered, this species can grow over rocks, smothering corals.
Strontium Strontium is often added into commercial calcium additives as well as trace element supple ments (despite strontium being a major element, not a trace element) which seems to have driven the belief that strontium is important for coral growth. Unfortunately there is little scientic data to support or dismiss this claim, though the data the does exist suggests strontium is incor porated into coral skeleton simply because of its presence. What this means is that strontium to calcium ratios in coral skeletons are proportional to their ratios in the water. Because, like magnesium, strontium is chemically very similar to calcium, it is likely that strontium carbonate is laid down purely by accident. While there is little data relating to strontium toxicity in marine organisms, there is data that shows strontium is highly toxic to many freshwater organisms and therefore it is suggested that strontium levels should not be raised above natural seawater con centrations.
Seaweeds, like nori - dried Porphyra algae - are a great source of iodine. Readily available at most Asian supermarkets, supermarkets, small pieces can be fed and are relished by herbivorous fish and invertebrates. Photo by Paul Downey
Iron, copper, molybdenum, manganese & aluminium These metals are all present in seawater at varying levels and while they are all important biologically, they are also all highly toxic at elevated levels. For example, copper is an important element in all living cells and is readily absorbed by most organisms, however, at high concentrations it is used as a parasiticide and is known to be lethal to all invertebrates (as well as vertebrates at even higher concentrations). All All these ele ments can be found in most commercially available trace element supplements but unfortunately test kits for most are unavailable for most (or unavailable at the resolution we require i n the case of copper) which makes dosing these elements somewhat risky. Marine « Redsh Magazine 2012:17 » 27
Natural seawater vs synthetic salts An age old argument in relation to source water for marine aquariums is whether it is best to use natural sea water or mix synthetic salt with RO (reverse osmosis) water. The fact is there are benets and drawbacks to both and there really is no clear winner. Even from a purely chemical perspective (ignoring potential parasites or planktonic food sources), there are arguments to be made in favour of each. Synthetic salts are often produced with benecially elevated levels of calcium, magnesium and alkalinity though the impurities which are often the sources of many minor and trace elements may result in trace elements being signicantly higher or lower that natural levels. When looking at and comparing synthetic salts, most people look at the major components (Ca, Mg and alkalinity) as a sign of a good salt. I would recommend (assuming a full chemical analysis is available) ensuring levels of potassium, iron, copper and other less targeted elements are as close to seawater levels as possible as the calcium, magnesium and alkalinity levels are much easier (and cheaper) to alter after the water is in the aquarium.
Conclusion As research into functions of elements, ions and molecules in biological processes becomes more readily available and as equipment to monitor these different chemicals comes onto the market, aquarists can get ever closer to not only replicating a natural marine environment but even being able to create an optimum marine environment. It was only a matter of a few years ago that the majority of aquarists were testing little more than what is tested in ffreshwater reshwater aquariums plus calcium and magnesium. Now we are able to monitor iodine, strontium, potassium and iron levels with a reasonable degree of accuracy despite the low resolutions we are dealing with. Despite the many complex chemical reactions that occur in a marine aquarium, the overall complexity of chemical monitoring is actually relatively r elatively basic. There is, however, a connection which means that a signi cant change in one component can have a more complex effect that impacts the entire water chemistry.
Marine « Redsh Magazine 2012:17 » 28
First Time at Sea
a re re e f k e e p i n g jo j o u rn a l
Seve Se venn month mo nthss in, i n, everyt eve rythi hinn g is goi g oi n g well we ll. Thi T hiss mont m onthh I’d I’ d lik e to co c o ver ve r two tw o topi to pics cs in a bit b it of deta d eta il.il. Th T h e fif i rst is D SBs a n d th t h e se s e con d is a uto m ated at ed RO R O top to p -u p s, a ne n e w sys sy st e m I’ve i n st a lled lle d i nto the su mp of my AquaRee AquaR ee f 350 350.. I’ve t a lked lk ed brie b rieff ly a bout bo ut DSBs D SBs be b e for fo re, I shou sh ould ld be b e hon h on e st he h e re a n d de d e cla cl a re I’ m a big fan fa n of th t h e DSB D SB.. My rea rea son so n s ar a re n ’t ju st abo a bout ut re re e f k e e pi n g eith e ithee r - by pr p rofe of e ssion ssi on I wor w orkk with wit h a n a e ro bic bi c bac ba ct e ria - I f i n d th t h e se org org a n is ms rat rathh e r fasci fa sci n ati at i n g a n d hop h opee fully fu lly I can ca n convey conve y so m e of my my enth e nth u sia si a m for fo r th t h e s e critte rs in i n thi t hiss in i n st a llm ll m e nt of F TAS. TAS. F i rst, by way wa y of o f te t e rmi rm i n olog ol ogyy I sh s h ould ou ld clea cl ea r up u p so m e misc mi scon on cept ce ptioionn s a bout te t e rms. rm s. Th e re ’s a diffe diff e re n ce betwe bet weee n a n oxic oxi c a n d a n a e ro bic bi c. An A n oxic ox ic de d e scribe sc ribess an a n envi e nvirron m e nt th at’s at ’s devo d evoid id of of oxyg ox ygee n, an a n a e ro bic bi c de scribe sc ribess a type ty pe of o f bac ba ct e ria l (ma i nly) met m etaa bolis bo lis m th t h at doe d oess not n ot i nvolve oxyox y ge g e n. I sa s a y ma m a i nly beca be cauu se so m e eu e u k a ryotic ryot ic or o rg a n is ms (t(t h ose os e or o rg a n is ms with w ith me m e m bra bra n e bou bo u n d st st ruc ru ct u re s, eg. e g. nu n u cleu cle u s, chloropl chl oroplaa sts etc et c, in i n sid si d e th t h e i r cell) ce ll) a re capa ca pable ble of livi li vi n g u n d e r an a n oxic oxi c con dition diti onss a n d, in a dditio dd ition, n, the th e re ’s a wh w h ole ol e oth ot h e r gr g roup ou p of o f si n gle-ce gl e-celle lledd org org a n is ms (ca (calle lledd Ar A rcha ch a ea) nu n u m e rous ou s ta t a xa fr f ro m which wh ich a re capa ca pable ble of gr g rowt ow t h in i n th t h e ab a b se n ce of o f oxyg ox ygee n. In I n d e ed th t h e re ’s a se s e con d pie pi e ce of o f te t e rmi rm i n olog ol ogyy I sho s houu ld exp e xpll a i n. Th T h e te t e rms rm s ‘st ‘st rict’ rict’ a n d ‘facu ‘fa cull tat t ative ive’’ ar a re oft of t e n app a pplie liedd to or o rg a n is ms ca pable pa ble of a n a e ro bic bi c gr g rowt ow t h. What Wh at th t h e se t e rms rm s re re fer fe r to is i s th t h at so s o m e or o rg a n is ms (eg. ar a rcha ch a eal ea l meth m ethaa n oge og e n s, clos clo st ridi a, sulfu su lfurr- a n d su lfate-r lfate- redu ed u cin ci n g bac ba ct e ria (SR B) etc) etc) ha h a ve stst rictly rictly a n a e ro bic bi c met m etaa bolis bo lis ms. To To th t h e se st rict rict an a n a e ro bes be s, oxyg ox ygee n is pois po ison onou ouss an a n d will wi ll ge g e n e ra lly kill th t h e se org org a n is ms fai fa i rly rara pidly. pi dly. In co mpa rison, ris on, or o rg a n is ms th t h at ar a re facu fa cullt ative at ive a n a e ro bes be s (e(e g. Ps Ps e u do mon mo n a s spe sp e cie s -- th t h e re ar a re ma m a n y) a re capa ca pable ble of gr g rowt ow t h un u n d e r oxic ox ic (oxy (oxygg e n conta cont a i ni n g) or o r an a n oxic ox ic con co n dition diti ons.s. This Th is sou s ou n ds lik li k e a whol wh olee lot of o f ja rg on, I kn k n ow, ow, but it he h e l p s de scribe sc ribe th t h e ki n d of pr p roce sse ss e s org org a n is ms a re u n de rt a ki n g a n d th t h e pl p l a ces ce s you yo u ma m a y fif i n d th t h e m in i n you y ou r aqu a qu a riu m. In I n th t h e re re e f aqu a quaa riu m th t h e re ar a re, perh pe rhaa p s su rprisi rp risi n gly, lots lot s of pl p l a ces ce s th t h at a re free of o f oxyg ox ygee n (t(t h e in i n side si de of live li ve rock rock,, withi wit hinn th t h e DSB D SB for fo r exa ex a mple mp le)). I’ve a n n o tat t ated ed th t h e pic pi ct u re ove o verle rleaf af of o f my de d e e p sa n d bed be d so you y ou ca n get g et a fee fe e l for fo r th t h e ki n d of or o rg a n is ms (thei th eirr meta bolisms) bolisms) an a n d the pr p rocesse s that a re occu occu rrin rrin g riright now in i n my su mp. mp. Blog « Redsh Magazine 2012:17 » 29
Marine
Coral Reef
MODEL
VOLUME
DIMENSIONS
Aqua Aq uaRe Reef ef 30 300 0
300L 30 0L
102 L x 52 D x 73 73/8 /88 8 cm H
Aqua Aq uaRe Reef ef 40 400 0
400L 40 0L
132 L x 52 D x 73 73/8 /88 8 cm H
AquaReef 275
275L
70 L x 70 D x 77/79 cm H
Wa W ater co colu lumn mn
s n o r c i m 0 0 4 0 0 1 ~ e z i s n i a r g . e l b r a m d e h s u r C . ) ” 6 5 ( h t p e d l a t o t m c 5 1 2 1
e n o z c i x O
e n o z c i x o p y H
Faculta Facultatively tively anaerob ana erobic ic & Microaerophilic bacteria Cyanobacteria H2S oxidising bacteria
H2S oxidation
NO3- diffusion
e n o z c i x o n A
N2
Production
H2S
SO42- diffusion
Production
Purple sulfur bacteria
sulfate-reducing bacteria
a portion of my deep sand bed (DSB) with zones and major chemistry marked. The red arrows show worm and other microinvert activity as burrows in the oxic zone, which extends (occassionally) into the hypoxic (low O2) zone. Note the dark colour in the sulfate reducing zone and the pink colouration of the purple sulphur bacteria, all in the anoxic zones of the DSB. Blog « «Redsh Freshwater RedshMagazine Magazine2012:17 2012:9 »» 31 14
In I n thi t hiss phot ph otoo you yo u can ca n clea cle a rly see se e th t h e variou va riou s zon zo n e s form fo rmii n g in i n th t h e de d e e p sa n d bed. be d. St St a rti n g at th t h e base ba se you yo u can ca n se s e e th t h e sa n d is a gr g re y colou co lou r. At set s etuu p th t h e enti e ntirre sa n dbed dbe d was wa s a bright brig ht white colou col ou r. Th T h e da d a rk colou co lou ratio at ionn is du d u e to t h e pr p rodu ction ti on of o f met m etaa l su s u lfid lfi d e s, which wh ich a re in i n solu so lu ble a n d ar a re pr p re cipit ci pitat atii n g in i n thi t hiss zon zo n e. In I n all a ll th t h e a n oxic oxi c zon zo n e s (ie: (ie: th t h e bla bl a ck SR S R B la l a y e r, an a n d th t h e on e a bove bo ve)) H2S H 2S ca n be pr p rodu ced. I thi t hinn k H2S H 2S pr p rodu ction ti on ma m a k e s ma m a n y aqu a qu a rists ne n e rvou s, an a n d with wit h so m e good g ood rea rea son so n as a s it’s a reaso rea sonn a bly toxic tox ic ga g a s. It It is, howe ho weve verr, oxidi oxi diss ed at t h e a n oxic ox ic-- hypox hy poxicic i nter te rfa ce and a nd I suspec su spectt lilittle ac a ctu a lly lly ma kes ke s itit out out of the DSB D SB.. The Th e other oth er ga s being bei ng produ produced ced in th t h e s e an a n oxic ox ic zon z on e s is nitr n itrog ogee n ga g a s. This Th is occu o ccu rs via vi a th t h e us u s e of a g e n e calle ca lledd nitr n itrog ogee n a se which, wh ich, to to put it si mply mp ly,, conver conve rts nitr n itrat atee to t o nitr n itrog ogee n ga g a s (vi (viaa a bu n ch of o f inte i nterm rmed edii ate at e s). Thi T hiss cons con s u mpti mp tion on of of nitr n itrat atee a n d su lfate at a t th t h e a n oxic ox ic zon z on e crea creatt e s a diffu diff u sion si on gr g ra die di e nt acr a cros osss th t h e DSB D SB whic wh ichh “dr “d ra ws” th t h e s e comp co mpou ou n ds dow d ownn war wa rds. Th T h e hypo hy poxi xicc (low (lo w oxyg ox ygee n) zon zo n e conta cont a i n s a di ver ve rse a rra rra y of mic m icrro bes. be s. At th e de d e e pes pe st se s e ction ti on of thi t hiss zon zo n e (sh (show ownn as a s a brownis brown ishh ban ba n d in i n th the pho p hoto to a bove bo ve)) th t h e H2S H 2S oxid ox idisisee rs live, live, while wh ile t h e re re st of th t h e zon zo n e is ho h o m e to t o a host h ost of mic m icrroae oa e rophi op hilic lic (loving (lovi ng low O2) O2) microbe microbess. The Th e zone zon e sees se es rel relativel ativelyy little little stirrin stirringg fro fro m burrowi burrowing ng orga orga nis ms as the t he low oxyge n con concentr centration ation ten te n ds to deter dete r their the ir for fo ra gi n g a n d th t h e sa n d is lik li k e ly la rg e ly devoi de voidd of th t h e i r nor n orm m a l food ite ms. Th T h e oxic ox ic zon z on e is, by contr co ntraa st, a high dive d iverrsity zon z on e with wit h a host h ost of micr mi croioi nver nve rt e brat bratee s, pr p rotoz ot ozoa oa an a n d oth ot h e r org org a n is ms. I’ve ma m a rked rk ed variou va riou s worm wo rm tr t ra ils with w ith red red a rrow rrowss to high h ighly ly the th e i r exte n sive si ve diggi dig gi n g, a ctive ti vely ly tu rning in g the top la yer ye r. This tu rning ni ng of the th e top lay er is importa importa nt an d allows mater mate rial ia l to ente enterr the sa n d bed be d (wh (which ich ca n beco be com m e block blo cked ed with w ithout out th t h e s e diggi dig gi n g or o rg a n is ms). ms). Ma M a n y a qua qu a rists ar a re quite qu ite ob o b se ssive ssi ve a bout bo ut en e n su rin ri n g th t h e re is e n ou g h org org a n is ms to t o tu t u rn thi t hiss la l a y e r an a n d in i n d e ed thi t hiss is a n impo i mporrta nt aspe ct of DSB D SB ca ca re, itit is worth worth me m e ntion ntio n i n g th t h at th t h e la l a y e r itse its e lf is ho h o m e to ma m a ny
an assortment of protists. Similar organims are common in the upper, oxic layer of the DSB Blog « Redsh Magazine 2012:17 » 32
hu h u n d reds ed s of th t h ousa ou sa n ds of o f sm s m a ll pr p rotists ot ists (orga orga nis ms like a moebas moe bas)) which do move th t h e gr g ra i n s micr mi cros oscop copicic dista d ista n ces. ce s. In I n su m m a ry, DSB’s DSB ’s a re well we ll wor wo rt h con sid si d e rin ri n g, th t h e y ca n be u n sightly sig htly -- but i nstalled nsta lled rere mote mot e ly (i(i n a su mp, mp, or even eve n rere mot m otee from th t h e su s u mp) mp) th t h e y work wo rk equ e quaa lly well we ll a n d thi t hiss dr d ra w back ba ck ca n be ea e a sily si ly avoi a voide ded. d. For For n e wcom wco m e rs, or pe p e ople op le not n ot ver ve rs ed i n th t h e micr mi croo biolog bio log y of of th t h e DSB D SB.. All of o f Ron Ro n Shi m e k’s k’ s mat m atee rial, ria l, in i n clu din di n g his hi s book boo k ar a re well we ll wor wo rt h rea rea din di n g. If you ’ve bee be e n ha h a vi n g issu is su e s with wit h nitr n itrat atee in i n st a llin lli n g a re re m ote ot e DSB D SB might mig ht jus ju st pr p ro vid vi d e a solut so lutioion! n!
ABOUT THE THE AUTHO AUTHOR R David Mi Midgley dgley When he’s not editing Redfish Magazine, David Midgley is a scientist who has a PhD in Microbial Ecology and works with microbes in the subsurface. He lives in Sydney, Australia with his wife, kids, cats and now - Reef Aquarium.
The two floats of the V2 Auto Top Up Plus System, installed in my sump.
Ch a n gi n g tr t ra cks ck s com co m plet p letee ly, ly, I th t h ou g ht I shou sh ould ld me m e ntion ntio n my i n st st a llat ll atioionn of a V 2 Auto A uto Top Top Up U p Plu Pl u s sys sy st e m. Thi T hiss sys sy st e m from TMC T MC Aqu Aq u a riu m is a n affo af forrd a ble solut so lutioionn for fo r topp to ppii n g up u p you y ou r re re e f aqu a qu a riu m su s u m p th t h oug ou g h it would wou ld work wo rk equ e quaa lly well wel l in in a freshwa fres hwatt e r sys sy st e m. Th T he the V2 Auto Top Up Plus System (left) comes with two sys sy st e m com co m e s pack pa ckaa g ed floats to detect a change in water level. with wit h two tw o float f loat switc s witchh e s. Alon Alo n g with wit h a sm s m a ll (but eff e ffici iciee nt) water wate r pu mp t h at a dds dd s wate wat e r from a rese res e rvoir voi r to t h e a qua qu a riu m. In I n st a llat ll atioionn is ea e a sy a n d th t h e sys sy st e m is e ffe ctive ti ve.. I you y ou’’ re looki loo kinn g to cut c ut back ba ck on o n add a ddii n g RO R O ma m a n u a lly this thi s sys sy st e m ma m a y well we ll wor wo rt h a look! loo k!!! Blog « Redsh Magazine 2012:17 » 34
photo by Khantipol
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Advanced Advanced Aquarist
http://w ww.advancedaquarist.com
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Anglia Reef Club ub http://w ww.angliareefclub.or ww.angliareefclub.org.uk/ g.uk/ Bracknell Aquarist Society http://bracknellaquaris t.wordpress.com/ t.wordpress.com/ Bris tol Aquarists Society http://w ww.bris tol-aquarists.org.uk/ Bris tol Tropical Fish Club ub http://w ww.bris toltropicalfishclub.org.uk/ toltropicalfishclub.org.uk/ British Cichlid Cichlid Association http://w ww.bri tishcichlid.org.u tishcichlid.org.uk/ k/ British Killifish Association http://w ww.bka.org.uk/ British Koi Keeeper’s Society Society (BKKS) See website for UK sections http://w ww.bkks.co.uk/ ww.bk ks.co.uk/ Catf ish Study Group http://w ww.catf ishstudygroup.org/ Dunstable & District Distric t Aquarist Society http://w ww.ddas.co.uk/ Federation of Nor thern Aquarium Societies (FNAS) See website for list of associated clubs http://w ww.fnas.org.uk/ Greater Manchester Cichlid Cichlid Society http://w ww.nekrosoft.co.uk/gmcs/ ww.nek rosoft.co.uk/gmcs/ Hounslow & District Aquarists Society http://my web.tiscali.c web.tiscali.co.uk/hounslowf o.uk/hounslowf ish/ Ilford Ilford &Distr &District ict Aquarists & Pondkeepers Pondkeepers Society Society http://w ww.ilfordaquarists.co.uk/ Preston and District Distric t Aquatic Society http://w ww.nor thtrop.co.uk/preston.html thtrop.co.uk/preston.html Reigate and Redhill Redhill Aquarist Society http://w ww.networ kclub.co.uk/rras/ kclub.co.uk/rras/ Ryedale Aquarist Society http://w ww.r yedaleaquaristsociety.co.uk/ Southend Leigh and District Aquarist Society http://w ww.southendaquarist.co.uk/ ww.sou thendaquarist.co.uk/ Strood and District Distric t Aquarist Society http://w ww.s troodaquarist.co.uk/ Scotland
Federation of Scottish Aquarist Societies. See website for list of associated clubs Aberdeen Fish Keeper’s Club ub Greenock Greenock & District Distric t Aquarist Society Fair City Aquarist Society Union of Scottish Aquarists Aquarist s Capital Aquarist Society, Edinbourgh nbourgh Dundee & District Distric t Aquarist Society Glenrothes Glenrothes Aquarist Society Grangemouth Grangemouth Aquarist Society Lanarkshire Aquarist Society Musselburgh Musselburgh & District Distric t Aquarist Society Per Per th Aquarist Society Poecilia ia Aquarist Society Workington orking ton & District Distric t Aquarist Society
http://w ww.scottishaquaris t.co.uk/scottish_aquarium_society.htm t.co.uk/scottish_aquarium_society.htm http://sites.google.com/site/aberdeenfishkeepersclub/ http://w ww.scottishaquaris t.co.uk/greenock&distric t.co.uk/greenock&distric t_as.htm http://w ww.faircityaquaris ww.faircityaquaris tsociety.co.uk/ http://w ww.f ishwebusa.co.uk/ ishwebusa.co.uk/ http://w ww.scottishaquaris t.co.uk/capital_aquarist t.co.uk/capital_aquarists_society.htm s_society.htm http://w ww.scottishaquaris t.co.uk/dundee&distric t.co.uk/dundee&distric t_aquarist_society.htm http://w ww.scottishaquaris t.co.uk/glenrothes_aquarist_society.htm t.co.uk/glenrothes_aquarist_society.htm http://w ww.scottishaquaris t.co.uk/grangemouth_aquaris t.co.uk/grangemouth_aquarist_society.htm t_society.htm http://w ww.scottishaquaris t.co.uk/lanarkshire_aquaris t.co.uk/lanarkshire_aquarist_society.htm t_society.htm http://w ww.scottishaquaris t.co.uk/musselburgh_a_s.htm burgh_a_s.htm http://w ww.scottishaquaris t.co.uk/perth_aquaris t_society.htm http://w ww.scottishaquaris t.co.uk/poecilia_sc t.co.uk/poecilia_scotia.htm otia.htm http://w ww.scottishaquaris t.co.uk/workington_as.htm
Wales
Newpor t & District Distric t Aquarist Society
http://kimnp19.tripod.com/ http://kimnp19.tripod.com/
Ireland
Irish Midlands dlands Aquatic Society
http://midlandsaquatic.weebly.com/i http://midlandsaquatic.weeb ly.com/index.html ndex.html
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Photo by Hobvias Sudoneighm Community « Redsh Magazine 2012:17 » 36
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