Raj Board Class 12 Book - Computer Vigyaan

AglaSem School

dEI;wVj foKku&2 d{kk XII la;kstd % MkW- uhjt HkkxZo ,lksfl;sV~ izkQ s slj o foHkkxk/;{k] dEI;wVj foKku foHkkx egf"kZ n;kuUn ljLorh fo’ofo|ky;] vtesj ys[kd % vt; flga xksM+ MkW- fjrq HkkxZo ,lksfl;sV~ izksQslj o foHkkxk/;{k] dEI;wVj foKku foHkkx izoDrk fV- ts- ,l- dkWyst] dksVk efgyk bathfu;fjax dkWyst] vtesj Hkjr dq ekj izoDrk vkZ;Hkê dkWyt s ] vtesj

izQqYy pUnz u:dk izoDrk vxzoky dkWyst] esM+rk

jkts’k dqekj frokjh lgk- ftyk ifj;kstuk leUo;d ftyk f’k{kk vf/kdkjh] izk-f’k-] vtesj

ek/;fed f’k{kk cksMZ jktLFkku] vtesj

AglaSem School

dEI;wVj foKku&2 d{kk XII la;kstd % MkW- uhjt HkkxZo ,lksfl;sV~ izkQ s slj o foHkkxk/;{k] dEI;wVj foKku foHkkx egf"kZ n;kuUn ljLorh fo’ofo|ky;] vtesj ys[kd % vt; flga xksM+ MkW- fjrq HkkxZo ,lksfl;sV~ izksQslj o foHkkxk/;{k] dEI;wVj foKku foHkkx izoDrk fV- ts- ,l- dkWyst] dksVk efgyk bathfu;fjax dkWyst] vtesj Hkjr dq ekj izoDrk vkZ;Hkê dkWyt s ] vtesj

izQqYy pUnz u:dk izoDrk vxzoky dkWyst] esM+rk

jkts’k dqekj frokjh lgk- ftyk ifj;kstuk leUo;d ftyk f’k{kk vf/kdkjh] izk-f’k-] vtesj

ek/;fed f’k{kk cksMZ jktLFkku] vtesj jktdh; fo|ky;ksa esa fu%’kqYd forj.k gsrq

AglaSem School

¬˝ÁÃôÊÊ ÷Ê⁄UÃ ◊⁄UÊ Œ‡Ê „ÒU– ‚◊SÃ ÷Ê⁄UÃËÿ ◊⁄U ÷Êß¸-’Á„UŸ „Ò¥U– ◊Ò¥ •¬Ÿ Œ‡Ê ‚ ¬˝◊ ∑§⁄UÃÊ/∑§⁄UÃË „Í°U ÃÕÊ ◊È¤Ê ß‚∑ Ë Áfl¬È‹ ∞fl¢ ÁflÁflœ ÕÊÁÃÿÊ¥ ¬⁄U ªfl¸ „ÒU– ◊Ò¥ ß‚∑§ ÿÊÇÿ „UÊŸ ∑§ Á‹∞ ‚ŒÒfl ¬˝ÿàÔŸ ∑§⁄UÃÊ ⁄U„Í°UªÊ/∑§⁄UÃË ⁄U„Í°UªË– ◊Ò¥ •¬Ÿ ◊ÊÃÊ-Á¬ÃÊ, •äÿÊ¬∑§ ∞fl¢ ‚◊SÃ ’«∏UÊ¥ ∑§Ê ‚ê◊ÊŸ ∑§L°§ªÊ/∑§L°§ªË ÃÕÊ ¬˝àÿ∑§ √ÿÁQ§ ∑§ ‚ÊÕ Á‡ÊCÔUÃÊ ‚ √ÿfl„UÊ⁄U ∑§L°§ªÊ/∑§L°§ªË– ◊Ò¥ •¬Ÿ Œ‡Ê ∞fl¢ Œ‡ÊflÊÁ‚ÿÊ¥ ∑§ ¬˝ÁÃ ÁŸDÔUÊ ’ŸÊ∞ ⁄UπŸ ∑§Ë ¬˝ÁÃôÊÊ ∑§⁄UÃÊ/∑§⁄UÃË „Í°U– ◊⁄UË ¬˝‚ÛÊÃÊ ∑§fl‹ ©UŸ∑§ ∑§ÀÿÊáÊ ∞fl¢ ©UŸ∑§Ë ‚◊ÎÁh ◊¥ „UË „ÒU– Ó ¬˝∑§Ê‡Ê∑§ ∑§ Á„UÃ ◊¥ ‚flÊ¸Áœ∑§Ê⁄U ‚È⁄UÁˇÊÃ la L dj.k % iz f r;ka

12 2012 20

%

jktLFkku ljdkj }kjk jktdh; fo|ky;ks a es a fu% fu%’’kqYd forj.k gsrq cksMZ }kjk miyC/k djk, x;s 58 th-,l-,e- Øhe 2007 ,oa 130 th-,l-,e1848/2007 okWo isij IS :1848 6956 1973 iz;qDrA doj isij IS : 6956/1973

eqn zd %

AglaSem School

¬˝ÁÃôÊÊ ÷Ê⁄UÃ ◊⁄UÊ Œ‡Ê „ÒU– ‚◊SÃ ÷Ê⁄UÃËÿ ◊⁄U ÷Êß¸-’Á„UŸ „Ò¥U– ◊Ò¥ •¬Ÿ Œ‡Ê ‚ ¬˝◊ ∑§⁄UÃÊ/∑§⁄UÃË „Í°U ÃÕÊ ◊È¤Ê ß‚∑ Ë Áfl¬È‹ ∞fl¢ ÁflÁflœ ÕÊÁÃÿÊ¥ ¬⁄U ªfl¸ „ÒU– ◊Ò¥ ß‚∑§ ÿÊÇÿ „UÊŸ ∑§ Á‹∞ ‚ŒÒfl ¬˝ÿàÔŸ ∑§⁄UÃÊ ⁄U„Í°UªÊ/∑§⁄UÃË ⁄U„Í°UªË– ◊Ò¥ •¬Ÿ ◊ÊÃÊ-Á¬ÃÊ, •äÿÊ¬∑§ ∞fl¢ ‚◊SÃ ’«∏UÊ¥ ∑§Ê ‚ê◊ÊŸ ∑§L°§ªÊ/∑§L°§ªË ÃÕÊ ¬˝àÿ∑§ √ÿÁQ§ ∑§ ‚ÊÕ Á‡ÊCÔUÃÊ ‚ √ÿfl„UÊ⁄U ∑§L°§ªÊ/∑§L°§ªË– ◊Ò¥ •¬Ÿ Œ‡Ê ∞fl¢ Œ‡ÊflÊÁ‚ÿÊ¥ ∑§ ¬˝ÁÃ ÁŸDÔUÊ ’ŸÊ∞ ⁄UπŸ ∑§Ë ¬˝ÁÃôÊÊ ∑§⁄UÃÊ/∑§⁄UÃË „Í°U– ◊⁄UË ¬˝‚ÛÊÃÊ ∑§fl‹ ©UŸ∑§ ∑§ÀÿÊáÊ ∞fl¢ ©UŸ∑§Ë ‚◊ÎÁh ◊¥ „UË „ÒU– Ó ¬˝∑§Ê‡Ê∑§ ∑§ Á„UÃ ◊¥ ‚flÊ¸Áœ∑§Ê⁄U ‚È⁄UÁˇÊÃ la L dj.k

%

iz f r;ka

%

ewY; ¼vadksa esa½ %

2012 20 12

:i;s

¼’kCnksa esa½ % cksMZ }kjk miyC/k djk, x;s 58 th-,l-,e- Øhe 2007 ,oa 130 th-,l-,e1848/2007 okWo isij IS :1848 6956/1973 doj isij IS : 6956 1973 iz;qDrA

eqn zd %

AglaSem School

izkDdFku dEI;wVj foKku fo"k; dks ,sfPNd fo"k; ds :i esa ysus okys fo|kfFkZ;ksa ds fy, ;g iqLrd fy[kh xbZ gSA dEI;wVj ds mi;ksx ls ge lc Hkyh Hkkafr ifjfpr gSAa viuh vko';drkvksa ds vuq:i ge bldk mi;ksx djuk pkgrs gSa rks bl fo"k; dh xgu tkudkjh gksuk vko';d gSA dEI;wVj iz;ksDrk ds e/; laokn LFkkfir djus esa vkWijsfVax flLVe dh egRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk gSA fofHkUu izdkj dh izkxs kz feax Hkk"kkvksa ds mi;ksx ls ge viuh vko';drkuqlkj izkxs kz e cuk ldrs gSAa C++ izkxs kz fex dh vko';drk lkW¶Vos;j ds fodkl ds fy, c<+rh tk jgh gSA iqLrd dks ljy cukus ds fy, Hkk"kk dks cksypky dh fgUnh esa fy[kk x;k gSA Hkk"kk dh dfBurk fo"k; dks le>us esa ck/kd uk cus bl gsrq vaxt s z h 'kCnksa dk iz;ksx chp&chp esa fd;k x;k gSA rduhdh 'kCnkoyh Hkh ;Fkkor j[kus dk iz;kl fd;k x;k gSA ;g iqLrd fo"k; dk v/;;u djus okys fo|kfFkZ;ksa ds fy, lgk;d fl) gksxh ,slk iw.kZ fo'okl gSA

& ys[kdx.k

AglaSem School

fo"k; lwph INDEX bdkbZ 1 % C++ Programming v/;k; 1 vkWCtSDV vkWfj;UVsM izkx s zkfeax v/;k; 2 dUlVªDVj rFkk MsLVªDVj v/;k; 3 QaD’ku rFkk vkWijsVj vksojyksfMax

1 - 40 41 - 50 51 - 69

bdkbZ 2 % Data Structure v/;k; 4 O;wg

70 - 86

bdkbZ 3 % Data Base and SQL v/;k; 5 MkVkcsl o ,lD;w,y dk ifjp;

87 - 128

bdkbZ 4 % Boolean Algebra v/;k; 6 cwfy;u ,ytscjk

129 - 141

bdkbZ 5 % Communication and Open Source Software v/;k; 7 lapkj vkSj usVodZ dh vo/kkj.kk, v/;k; 8 osc dk ifjp; v/;k; 9 vksiu lkslZ lkW¶Vos;j

142- 173 174 - 203 204 - 220

AglaSem School 1

v/;k;&1 vkWCtSDV vkWfj;UVsM izksxzkfeax (Object Oriented Programming) vkWCtSDV vkWfj;UVsM izksxzkfeax dh ewy /kkj.kk (Basic concepts of Object Oriented Programming) izksfltjy Hkk"kk vkWCtSDV vkWfj;UVsM izksxzkfeax blfy, fodflr dh xbZ D;ksafd igys tks izksfltjy Hkk"kk,¡ C, FORTRAN, vkSj Pascal languages Fkh] muesa cafn’ks FkhA blfy, bu Hkk"kkvksa esa izR;sd dFku ;g crkrk gS fd dEI;wVj dks dqN djuk gSA buiqV fMokbl ls buiqV ysuk] fQj buiqV MkVk ij izkslSl djuk] vkmViqV iznf’kZr djuk bR;kfnA izksfltjy Hkk"kk esa izksxkz e funsZ’k vkSj dFkuksa dh lwph gksrh gSA

fp= 1 Arrangement of global and local variable tc izksxkz e cgqr cM+k gks tkrk gS] rks og NksV& s NksVs ;wfuV esa rksM+ fn;k tkrk gSA bl dkj.k ls izksxkz e dks ljy cukus ds fy, QaD’ku dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA izksfltjy izksxkz e dks QaD’ku esa ck¡Vk tkrk gS vkSj izR;sd QaD’ku esa Li"V mís’; dk Li"Vhdj.k rFkk vU; QaD’ku ls tqMk+ o ds fy, Li"V fn’kk funsZ’k gksrs gSA izksxkz e dks QaD’ku esa rksM+us ds fopkj dks vkxs eksM~;wyl esa c<+k;k x;k gS ftlesa QaD’ku ds lewg lfEefyr gksrs gSaA izksfltjy Hkk"kk dh leL;k %& ;gka nks izdkj dh leL;k,a gS% izFke] QaD’ku fcuk #dkoV ds Xykscy MkVk i<+ ysrk gSA f}rh;] MkVk vkSj QaD’ku dk vkil esa dksbZ lkaetL; ugha gksrkA izksfltjy iSjkfMxe okLrfod lalkj dk detksj ekWMy izLrqr djrk gSA Xykscy MkVk izkfs ltjy izkx s kz e es]a tks fd C esa fy[kk x;k gS] ogka nks izdkj ds MkVk gksrs gSA yksdy MkVk QaD’ku esa Nqis gksrs gS] tks flQZ QaD’ku ds fy, gh dke esa vkrs gSA yksdy MkVk QaD’ku ds vf/kd utnhd jgrk gS rFkk vU; QaD’kuksa }kjk ifjofrZr gksus ls lqjf{kr jgrk gSA tc fdlh MkVk dks nks ;k nks ls vf/kd QaD’ku i<+rs gS rks ;g lp gS fd mu MkVk dks izkx s kz e esa Xykscy cukuk pkfg,A Xykscy MkVk dks izksxzke dk dksbZ Hkh QaD’ku i<+ ldrk gSA ,d cM+s izksxzke esa dbZ Xykscy QaD’ku rFkk dbZ Xykscy MkVk gksrs gSA yksdy rFkk Xykscy osfj;scy dk vjSateSUV fp= 1 esa fn[kk;k x;k gSA

AglaSem School 2

Fig. 2 Procedural paradigm

izksfltjy iSjkfMxe esa ;g leL;k gS fd QaD’ku rFkk MkVk ds chp esa dkQh tqM+ko gksrs gSA lHkh QaD’ku tks MkVk ij dk;Z djrs gSa] oks mudks #ikarfjr djrs gS tSlk fp= 1A esa fn[kk;k x;k gSA izR;sd vkWCtSDV vksfj,fUVM Hkk"kk esa dqN vko’;d vo/kkj.kk,a gS] tks bl izdkj gS% vkWCtSDV (Objects): vkWCtSDV vksfj,fUVM izksxzkfeax Hkk"kk esa vkWCtSDV ,d ewy ju Vkbe fo|ekurk (entity) gSA nwljs ’kCnksa esa ge ;g dg ldrs gS fd vkWCtSDV ,d Dykl dk mnkgj.k gSA izR;sd vkWCtSDV i`Fkd eSEcj ¼dsoy ukWu LVsfVd½ osfj;scy j[krs gSA ge Dykl ds ftrus pkgsa mrus vkWCtSDV cuk ldrs gSA Dykl (Classes): Dykl vkWCtSDV dk Iyku]
fp= 2 MkVk ,ClVªSD’ku (Data Abstraction): ,ClVªDS ’ku ,d fcuk foLr`r #i ls le>k, fo’ks"krkvksa dks izLrqr djus dh dyk gSA ;g ,DlhMSUVy xq.kksa dk izR;k[;ku (Ignore) dj vko’;d lwpukvksa dks nsrk gSA ;g crkrk gS fd ,d vkWCtSDV D;k gS vkSj og D;k djrk gS] ;g] ;s ugha crkrk gS fd og dk;Z dks dSls djsxk\ MkVk ,udSilwys’ku (Data Encapsulation): ,d ,dy Dykl esa MkVk vkSj QaD’ku dks can djuk] ,udSilwy’s ku dgykrk gSA ;g fNih gqbZ lwpuk (information hiding) ds uke ls tkuh tkrh gSA Dykl ds eSEcj] vkWCtSDV ls ckgjh cnyko ds dkj.k fNis jgrs gSA ;g vkWCtSDV dks ckgjh n[kynkath ls jksdrh gSA

AglaSem School 3

bugSfjVSUl (Inheritance): ;g ,d ,slh izfØ;k gS ftlesa ,d Dykl ds vkCtSDV nwljh Dykl ds vkCtSDV ds xq.kksa (members) dks izkIr djrk gSA ;g gk;j,sfddy oxhZdj.k dh vo/kkj.kk dks ikyuk djrk gSA nwljs ’kCnksa esa ge ;g dg ldrs gS fd bugSfjVSUl eSEcj (variable vkSj methods) dks gk;j,fddy lEcU/kksa ds lkFk mUgsa ,d ls vf/kd Dyklksa ds chp ck¡Vrh gSA tks Dykl nwljs dks bugSfjV djrh gS og fMjkbo Dykl dgykrh gS rFkk tks Dykl bugSfjfVM gksrh gS ¼nwljh Dykl ls½] og csl Dykl dgykrh gSA ikWfyeksjfQte vkSj vksojyksfMax (Polymorphism and Overloading): os D;k MkVk Vkbi vkWijsV dj jgs gS] bl ij fuHkZj jgrs gq, ge vkWijsVj vkSj QaD’ku dks fofHkUu rjhdksa ls mi;ksx dj ldrs gSA ;g izfØ;k ikWfyeksjfQte ¼,d ,slh pht ftlds fofHkUu izk#i gS½ dgykrh gSA tc Hkk"kk esa iwoZ ekStnw vkWijsVj ¼tks Lor% fizfefVo MkVk Vkbi ij dk;Z djrsa gSa½ fdlh u;s MkVk ¼;wtj }kjk ifjHkkf"kr½ ij dk;Z djus dks l{ke gks rks mls vkWijsVj vksojyksfMax dgrs gSA tc ,d ls vf/kd QaD’ku dk uke leku gks rFkk muds vkX;wZeUs V dk MkVk Vkbi fHkUu gks ;k vkX;wZeUs V dh dqy la[;k fHkUu gks] rks bls QaD’ku vksojyksfMax dgrs gSaA QaD’ku vksojyksfMax ,d izdkj dh ikWfyeksjfQte gS tks OOPs dh egRoiw.kZ fo’ks"krk Hkh gSA vksojyksfMax nks izdkj dh gksrh gS% 1- dEikbyVkbe (early binding) rFkk 2- ju Vkbe (late binding)A fj;wtsfcfyVh (Reusability): tc ge ,d Dykl dks fy[k ysrs gSa] fMcx (debug) dj ysrs gS] rS;kj dj ysrs gS rks bls vU; izksxkz ej dks muds vius izksxzke esa iz;ksx djus gsrq ns nsrs gSA ;g izfØ;k fj;wtfs cfyVh dgykrh gSA ;g fcYdqy mlh rjg gS ftl izdkj fdlh izkfs ltjy Hkk"kk esa QaD’ku dh ykbczsjh fofHkUu izksxkz e esa tksM+h tkrh gSA OOP esa bugSfjVSUl dh vo/kkj.kk fj;wtfs cfyVh dk egRoiw.kZ fopkj izLrqr djrh gSA ,d izksxzkej igys ls ekStn w Dykl fcuk ifjofrZr fd, ys ldrk gS rFkk blesa dqN vfrfjDr lqfo/kk rFkk {kerk mldks bugSfjV djds tksM+ ldrk gSA ;g dk;Z ubZ fMjkboM Dykl }kjk igys ls ekStnw Dykl ¼csl Dykl½ }kjk iw.kZ fd;k tk ldrk gSA ubZ Dykl iqjkuh Dykl dh {kerk dks bugSfjV dj ysrh gS ijUrq Loa; ubZ lqfo/kk tksM+us ds fy, Lora= gksrh gSA C++ dk ifjp; (Introduction of C++): C++ ,d vkWCtSDV vksfj,fUVM izksxkz feax (OOP) Hkk"kk gSA bls Bjarne Stroustrup us New Jersey, Murrary Hill esa AT&T Bell Laboratories esa 1979 esa fodflr fd;k FkhA C++, C Hkk"kk dk foLr`r #i gSA izkjEHk esa bldk uke “C with Classes” FkkA 1983 esa bldk uke cnydj C++ dj fn;k x;kA C++ dk fopkj buØhesUV vkWijsVj (++) ds uke ls vk;k gSA ;g C Hkk"kk dk lqij lSV gSA C++ esa lcls egRoiw.kZ lqfo/kk tks C Hkk"kk ds cnys esa tksM+h xbZ gS og Dykl] vkWCtSDV] bugSfjVSUl] vkWijsVj rFkk QaD’ku vksojyksfMax gSA C++ ds vkWCtSDV vksfj,fUVM fo’ks"krk ds dkj.k ;g gesa izksxzke dks lkQ] foLr`r #i esa rFkk ljy j[kj[kko ls fy[kus dh lqfo/kk iznku djrk gSA C esa Åij&uhps
ljy C++ Dykl (A Simple C++ Class): vkWCtSDV vksfj,fUVM izksxzkfeax esa Dyklksa dks vkWCtSDV cukus ds fy, cuk;k tkrk gSA ;g MkVk ¼ftls eSEcj osfj;scy dgrs gS½ rFkk dksM ¼ftls eSEcj eSFkM dgrs gSa½ dks j[krh gSA C++ esa ge osfj;scy dks dgh ij Hkh ?kksf"kr dj ldrs gSa] tgk¡ bldk

AglaSem School 4

mi;ksx gksrk gS] mlds fcYdqy iklA Eg. :# include # include class X { private: int a; int sqr(int a) { return a*a; } public: int b; int twice(int i) { return 2*i; } void disp(int x) { int p=sqr(i); int q=twice(p); cout< class Abc { int i ; // by default all members are private private: int j; // explicit declared as private protected: int k; // explicit declared as protected public: int l; // explicit declared as public Abc( ) { // zero argument constructor cout << “ Calling Zero Argument Constructor”;

AglaSem School 5 i = j = k = l = 0; } Abc( int a) { // one argument constructor cout << “ Calling One Argument Constructor”; i = j = k = l = a; } void read( ) { cin>> i >> j >> k >> l; } void show( ) { cout<<“i = “<< i <<“ j = “<< j <<“ k = “<< k <<“ l = “<< l; } ~Abc( ) { // destructor cout<< “Calling Destructor”; } }; // semicolon is must void main ( ) { Abc obj1; // creating object and calls zero argument constructor Abc obj2(3); // creating object and calls one argument constructor obj1.read(); // reading the private member through public method obj1.show(); // display private member on screen through public method }

C++ dh Dykl esa lHkh eSEcj Lor% izkbosV izdkj ds gksrs gS vFkkZr~ ge budks Dykl ds ckgj ugha i<+ ldrsA eSEcj dks ge fofHkUu ,lsl eksfMQk;j (private, protected, and public) }kjk ?kksf"kr dj ldrs gSA izkbosV eSEcj Dykl ds vUnj

gh i<+s tkrs gSa] izksVSfDVM eSEcj Dykl ds vUnj rFkk fMjkbo Dykl esa Hkh i<+s tkrs gSa rFkk ifCyd eSEcj] dgha ij Hkh i<+s tk ldrs gSaA lkekU;r;k eSEcj osfj;scy dks ge izkbosV ?kksf"kr djrs gS rkfd dksbZ Hkh mUgsa nq?kZVuko’k cny uk ldsA lkekU; eSEcj eSFkM dks ge ifCyd ?kksf"kr djrs gSa rkfd dksbZ Hkh mUgsa Dykl ds ckgj i<+ ldsA eSEcj eSFkM dks bl izdkj ls fy[kk tkrk gS fd os eSEcj osfj;scy dks ,d lqfuf’pr (well-defined) rjhds ls i<+ ldsA Dykl esa ?kksf"kr lHkh eSFkM bu ykbu ¼ywi dk iz;ksx ugha djrs] vU;Fkk Lor% gh vkWQ&ykbu cu tkrs gS½ izdkj ds gksrs gSA Dykl esa dqN ,sls fo’ks"k eSFkM gksrs gSa tks Lor% fu"ikfnr gksrs gS ;s dalVªDVj rFkk fMLVªDVj gksrs gSA dalVªDVj vkWCtSDV mRiUu ds oDr Lor% fu"ikfnr gksrk gS rFkk bls eq[; #i ls eSEcj osfj;scy dks bfuf’k;ykbt djus] Mk;uSfed eSeksjh ,yksd’s ku djus rFkk Qkby LVªhe dks [kksyus ds fy, mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA fMLVªDVj rc fu"ikfnr gksrs gS tc vkWCtSDV Ldksi ls ckgj tkrk gSA bldk eq[; mi;ksx eSeksjh dks eqDr djuk rFkk Qkby LVªhe dks can djuk gksrk gSA Dykl ds lHkh eSEcj djyh czSdVs (curly braces) { } esa fy[ks tkrs gS rFkk lsehdkWyu (semicolon) ls [kRe gksrs gSa tks Dyksflax czsfll (closing braces) ds ckn yxrh gS] vkSj ;g vko’;d gSA C++ ds izkx s kz e ds ’kq#vkr esa “iostream.h” gSMj Qkby tksMr+ s gSA ;g gSMj Qkby igys ls ?kksf"kr LVªhe vkWCtSDV cin vkSj cout j[krh gSA bu iwoZ ?kksf"kr vkWCtSDV dk mi;ksx buiqV rFkk vkmViqV dk;Z ds fy, fd;k tkrk gS tSls C esa scanf() vkSj printf() QaD’ku dk dk;Z gksrk gSA buiqV rFkk vkmViqV vkWijsVj (Input and Output Operators): buiqV rFkk vkmViqV (I/O), << vkSj >> vkWijsVj C++ ds fizfefVo MkVk Vkbi dks gS.My djus esa l{ke gSA buiqV vkWijsVj (Input operator):

fp= 3 buiqV vkWijsVj cin >> i ;

// single variable input

AglaSem School 6 cin >> i >> j >> k;

// multiple variables input

buiqV vkWijsVj >> dks ge ,DlVªSD’ku (extraction) ;k xSV Ýkse vkWijsVj (get from) dgrs gS] ftldk mi;ksx LVS.MMZ buiqV fMokbl (keyboard) ls MkVk izkIr djds osfj;scy esa LVksj djuk gSA ;gka cin ,d iwoZ ?kksf"kr LVS.MMZ buiqV LVªhe dk vkWCtSDV gSA ;g iostream.h gSMj Qkby esa ?kksf"kr fd;k x;k gS] tks C ds scanf() QaD’ku ds lerqY; gS tSlk fp= 3 esa crk;k x;k gSA vkmViqV vkWijsVj (Output operator):

fp= 4 vkmViqV vkWijsVj cout << i; // single variable output cout << i << j << k; // multiple variables output cout << “ i = “<< i; // string literal and variable both output cout << (i*j+k); // expression value output

vkmViqV vkWijsVj << dks bulj’ku ;k iqV Vw (put to) vkWijsVj dgrs gS ftldk mi;ksx LVS.MMZ vkmViqV fMokbl ¼eksfuVj½ ij MkVk Hkstus ds dke vkrk gSA ;gk¡ cout ,d iwoZ ?kksf"kr LVS.MMZ vkmViqV LVªhe dk vkWCtSDV gS] ftls iostream.h gSMj Qkby eas ?kksf"kr fd;k x;k gSA ;g C ds printf() QaD’ku ds lerqY; gS] tSlk fp= 4 esa n’kkZ;k x;k gSA cout << endl << i;

equivalent to

cout << “\n” << i;

;gk¡ endl (end of line) ,d eSfuiqysVj gS] tks U;wykbu ‘\n’ dSjsDVj dks fizaV djrk gSA # include # include void main() { clrscr(); int val1,val2,sum; cout<<"Enter first value"; cin>>val1; cout<<"\nEnter second value"; cin>>val2; sum=val1+val2; cout<<"\nThe sum of the given value is:"; cout<
mijksDr mnkgj.k esa cout LVsVeSUV ds okLrfod iSjkehVj dks nk;sa rjQ ls ck;ha rjQ Hkstk tkrk gSA C++ dhoMZl (C++ keywords): fdlh Hkk"kk esa dhoMZl fjtoZ gksrs gSA ge mudk vkbMsUVhQk;j fy[kus esa mi;ksx ugha dj ldrsA lHkh dhoMZ NksVs v{kj rFkk ,d gh ’kCn ds gksrs gSA mUgsa fjtoZ oMZ ds uke ls Hkh tkuk tkrk gSA C++ esa 48 dhoMZl gSA dh oMZ dks fdlh izdkj dh gSMj Qkby ¼,d Qkby tks fQDl izdkj dh phtsa j[krh gS tSls ykbczsjh QaD’ku izkVs ksVkbi] dkWUlVSUV ?kks"k.kk] LVªDpj ?kks"k.kk] ;wfu;u dh ?kks"k.kk rFkk Dykl dh ?kks"k.kk gksrh gS½ dh vko’;drk ugha gksrhA vxj dksbZ dhoMZ dks vkX;weZ Us V pkfg, tks iSjkfFkfll yxkus dh vko’;drk ugha gksrh tSlk QaD’ku dks vkX;weZ Us V nsus ds oDr gksrh gSA int i = 10, size; size = sizeof i; size = sizeof (i); ü

ü

// correct statement // correct statement

AglaSem School 7 C++ ds dh oMZl esa vf/kdka’k C Hkk"kk ds dh oMZl gS dqN u;s dh oMZ tksMs+ x, gS ftuesa

vf/kdka’k OOP’S ds fy,

gSA

dh oMZ dk igyk lewg MkVk Vkbi gS C++ ds eq[; MkVk Vkbi fp= esa fn[kk;s x;s gSA bUVhxzy MkVk Vkbi signed vkSj unsigned izdkj ds gksrs gSaA lHkh bUVhxzy MkVk Lor% signed izdkj ds gksrs gSA

fp= 5 MkVk Vkbi char:

;g gS ,d fizfefVo (built-in) MkVk Vkbi gSA tks dSjsDVj osfj;scy dks ?kksf"kr djus ds fy, iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA C++ esas dSjsDVj osfj;scy ,d ckbV dk gksrk gSA Lor% ;s signed gksrk gSA char c = ‘A’; int:

;g ,d fizfefVo MkVk Vkbi gSA ;g dh oMZ 16 fcV fQDlM iksbUV U;wefs jd (bUVhtj) osfj;scy dh ?kks"k.kk djus esa mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA int i = 10; short:

;g fizfefVo MkVk Vkbi gSA ;g dh oMZ 16 fcV ’kksVZ fQDlM iksbUV U;wefs jd ¼bUVhtj½ ?kks"k.kk djus esa iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA short int i = 10; long:

;g fizfefVo MkVk Vkbi gSA tks 32 fcV fQDlM iksbUV U;wefs jd osfj;scy dh ?kks"k.kk djus esa dke vkrk gSA long a = 10L;

AglaSem School 8 float:

;g fizfefVo MkVk Vkbi gS tks 32 fcV flaxy fizfltu ¶yksfVax iksbUV U;wefs jd osfj;scy dh ?kks"k.kk djus ds fy, dke esa vkrk gSA ;g IEEE754 dksfM a ax rduhdh dks] uEcj dks iznf’kZr djus ds dke esa ysrk gSA float f = 23.4f; double:

;g fizfefVo MkVk Vkbi gS tks 64 fcV Mcy fizfltu ¶yksfVax iksbUV U;wefs jd osfj;scy dh ?kks"k.kk djus ds dke esa vkrk gSA ;g IEEE754 dksfMax rduhdh dks] uEcj dks iznf’kZr djus ds dke esa ysrk gSA Lor% ¶yksfVax iskbUV fyVjy Mcy izdkj dk gksrk gSA double d = 23.5; signed:

izR;sd _.kkRed fQDlM iksbUV U;wefs jd eku dks dEI;wVj esa 2’s dEiyhesUV esa izLrqr fd;k tkrk gSA lkbUM uEcj /kukRed eku ds lkFk&lkFk _.kkRed eku dks Hkh LVksj djrs gSA bUVhtj ?kks"k.kk Lor% signed izdkj dh gksrh gSA signed dks ge float vkSj double osfj;scy dh ?kks"k.kk ds lkFk ugha yxk ldrsA bldk osfj;scy dh ?kks"k.kk ds oDr iz;ksx gksrk gSA int i; signed int i; unsigned:

// by default signed // explicit declared as signed

bldks Hkh osfj;scy dh ?kks"k.kk ds lkFk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA bUVhxzy osfj;scy dh ?kks"k.kk ds oDr bldk iz;ksx gksrk gSA unsigned data flQZ /kukRed eku gh LVksj djrs gSA unsigned char c; unsigned int i; void:

;g dh oMZ void iksbUVj dh ?kks"k.kk esa mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS] bldk mi;ksx QaD’ku ds fjVuZ Vkbi rFkk QaD’ku ds vkX;wZeUs V esa Hkh fd;k tkrk gSA vxj QaD’ku dk vkX;wZeUs V void izdkj dk gSA rks og ;g n’kkZrk gS fd QaD’ku ’kwU; vkX;wZeUs V okyk gSA vxj QaD’ku ds fjVZu izdkj esa void gS rks og ;g n’kkZrk gS fd QaD’ku dqN Hkh fjVZu ugha dj jgk gSA void *v; void abc( int i) ; int abc(void); goto:

// void point declaration // function returns nothing // zero argument function

;g vudaMh’kuy daVªky s LVsVesUV gS] tks fcuk dksbZ daMh’ku tkaps fn, x, yscy ij daVªky s Hkstrk gS ;g C++ izksxzke dh 200) break; stmt2; } stmt3; for(intialize;condition;update) { stmt1; if(val>2000) break; stmt2; } stmt3; do { stmt1;

AglaSem School 9 if(val>2000) break; stmt2; } while(text expression); stmt3; continue:

;g dh oMZ ywi (for, do-while, while) dks vxys bVjs’ku (iteration) ij ys tkrk gS vkSj cph gqbZ ckWMh dks NksM+ s LVsVesUV esa iz;ksx djrs gS vU;Fkk bldk dksbZ eryc ugha jgrkA nsrk gSA ge ges’kk bls if daVªky while(test expression) { stmt 1; if(val>200) continue; stmt2; } stmt3; for(intialize;condition;update) { stmt1; if(val>2000) continue; stmt2; } stmt3; do { stmt1; if(val>2000) continue; stmt2; } while(text expression); stmt3; return:

;g dh oMZ QaD’ku ls ykSVus ds fy, iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA ;g QaD’ku }kjk x.kuk dh xbZ eku dks cqykus okys izksxkz e dks Hkstrk gSA lkekU;r;k ge bls QaD’ku dh ckWMh ds var esa iz;ksx djrs gSA vxj bls vafre ykbu ls igys iz;ksx fd;k tk, rks og if daVªky s LVsVesUV ds vUnj gksuk pkfg,A int abc() { int i=2; i = i*2;

int abc() { int i=2; return i*i;O

return i;P }

cout<< i; }

int abc(int n) { int i=2; if ( n>3) { return n; P } return i+n; P }

if:

bl dh oMZ dk mi;ksx daMh’kuy daVªky s LVsVeSUV fy[kus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA ;g daVªky s LVsVeSUV dh ckWMh dks fu"ikfnr djus ds fy, daMh’ku dh tk¡p djrk gSA ge yksftdy ,Dliz’S ku ds lkFk&lkFk vFkZefS Vd ,DlizS’ku dks Hkh daMh’ku

AglaSem School 10 ds fy, iz;ksx dj ldrs gSA yksftdy ,DlizS’ku cwfy;u (Boolean) eku nsrk gS] ftls lh/kk daMh’ku esa iz;ksx dj ldrs gSA vFkZefS Vd ,DlizS’ku U;wefs jd eku nsrk gS] vxj U;wefs jd eku ’kwU; gS rks daMh’ku FALSE gksxh vU;Fkk daMh’ku TRUE gksxhA vf/kdrj (1) lkoZHkkSfed TRUE rFkk (0) lkoZHkkSfed FALSE gksrk gSA # include # include void main() { clrscr(); int A,B,C; cout<<"Enter first value"; cin>>A; cout<<"\nEnter second value"; cin>>B; if(a>10&&B<15) { C=(A-B)*(A+B); cout<<"\nThe result is:"<
dbZ ckj ge ckWMh dk fu"iknu true ;k false nksuksa daMh’ku ds oDr djuk pkgrs gS tcfd lk/kkj.k if LVsVeSUV ,d le; esa fdlh ,d ckWMh dk gh fu"iknu djrk gS (either true or false)A ;g dh oMZ if daVªksy LVsVeSUV dh false ckWMh dks fy[kus ds fy, dke esa fy;k tkrk gSA # include # include void main() { clrscr(); int choice,counttemp,temp; cout<<"Temprature Conversion menu"; cout<<"1. Fahrenheit to celsius"; cout<<"2. Celsius to Fahrenheit"; cout<<"Enter choice"; cin>>choice; if(choice==1) { cout<<"\n"<<"Enter temprature in Fahrenhiet"; cin>>temp; counttemp=(temp-32)/1.8; cout<<"The temprature in Celsius is:"<>temp; counttemp=1.8*temp+32;

AglaSem School 11 cout<<"The temprature in Fahrenhiet is:"<
bl dh oMZ dk mi;ksx switch daVªky s LVsVeSUV fy[kus esa fd;k tkrk gSA switch dks pquus okyk ,DlizS’ku bUVhxzy (char, int, or long) izdkj dk gksuk pkfg,A case:

bl dh oMZ dk mi;ksx switch daVªksy LVsVeSUV ds vkWI’ku fy[kus esa iz;qDr fd;k tkrk gSA default:

bldk mi;ksx switch daVªky s LVsVeSUV esa default dsl fy[kus esa fd;k tkrk gS] ;g dsl rc fu"ikfnr gksrk gS tc vU; dsl dh eSfpax ugha feyrh gSA # include # include void main() { clrscr(); int dow; cout<<"Enter number of week's day(1-7)"; cin>>dow; switch(dow) { case 1:cout<<"\n Sunday"; break; case 2:cout<<"\n Monday"; break; case 3:cout<<"\n Tuesday"; break; case 4:cout<<"\n Wednesday"; break; case 5:cout<<"\n Thursday"; break; case 6:cout<<"\n Friday"; break; case 7:cout<<"\n Saturday"; break; default:cout<<"/nWrong no.of day"; break; } getch(); } for:

bl dh oMZ dk mi;ksx ywi esa fd;k tkrk gS] tc gesa ywi osfj;scy dk nk;jk (range) ekywe gksA blds rhu Hkkx gksrs gS% 1- bfu’kykbZt’s ku Hkkx ¼tks flQZ ,d ckj gh fu"ikfnr gksrk gS tc daVªksy ywi esa izos’k djrk gS½] nwljk Hkkx daMh’ku gksrh gS vxj daMh’ku TRUE gS] rks gh ywi dh ckWMh dk fu"iknu gksxk rFkk rhljk Hkkx ,DlizS’ku gksrk gS tks ywi osfj;scy dks ifjofrZr djus ds dke esa fy;k tkrk gSA

AglaSem School 12 # include # include void main() { clrscr(); int l; for(l=1;l<=10;++l) { cout<<"\n"<
bl dh oMZ dk mi;ksx ywi (do-while vkSj while) fy[kus esa fd;k tkrk gSA ywi dh ckWMh rHkh fu"ikfnr gksxh tc daMh’ku true gksxhA # include # include void main() { clrscr(); int i,num,fact=1; cout<<"\nEnter integer"; cin>>num; i=num; while(num) { fact=fact*num; --num } cout<<"The Factorial is"<
bl dh oMZ dk mi;ksx ywi fy[kus esa fd;k tkrk gS tks ckWMh dk fu"iknu ,d ckj vo’; djrk gS] pkgs ’kq#vkr esa daMh’ku false gksA # include # include void main() { clrscr(); char ch='A'; do { cout<<"\n"<
AglaSem School 13 }while(ch<='Z'); getch(); } auto:

;g ,d ,lsl eksfMQk;j gS tks fd vkWVksefs Vd Vkbi osfj;scy dh ?kks"k.kk djus ds dke esa vkrk gSA vkWVks osfj;scy LVSd esa ?kksf"kr fd, tkrs gSA bUgsa yksdy osfj;scy Hkh dgrs gSA QaD’ku esa ?kksf"kr osfj;scy Lor% “auto” izdkj ds gksrs gSSA void main() { int a; // by default auto type auto int a; // explicit declared as auto type } static:

;g ,d LVksjst Dykl gS] static osfj;scy ghi ¼Xykscy½ eSeksjh esa cuk;k tkrk gSA Static osfj;scy dk Ldksi iwjs izkx s zke rd jgrk gSA ge yksdy static osfj;scy ¼czSfdV ds vUnj½ vkSj Xykscy LVsfVd osfj;scy ¼fcuk czSfdV ds½ ?kksf"kr dj ldrs gSA yksdy LVsfVd osfj;scy rc mRiUu gksrs gS tc QaD’ku dks igyh ckj cqyk;k tkrk gSA vxj bls bfu’kykbZt ugha djsa rks ;g Lor% zero ls bfu’kykbZt gks tkrk gSA nwljh ckj rFkk vU; ckj QaD’ku dks cqykus ij ;g ckj&ckj mRiUu ugha gksrkA tc ge QaD’ku ls ckgj vkrs gSa rks ;g ;wtj ls fNi tkrk gS ijUrq eSeksjh ls ugha gVrkA vxyh ckj tc okfil QaD’ku esa izos’k djrs gS rks ;g iqu% iqjkuh eku ds lkFk okfil lkeus vk tkrk gSA blls ;g rkRi;Z gS fd yksdy LVsfVd osfj;scy iqjkuh ifjofrZr eku dks lqjf{kr j[krk gS tks vxyh ckj QaD’ku cqykus ij dke esa vkrh gSA Non-static Local Variable: void abc( ) { int i = 0; // non-static variable created in stack memory, // in each function call it created newly cout<< i; i++; // automatic cleared from stack, when control comes out } void main( ) { abc( ); abc( ); abc( ); } OUTPUT: 0 0 0 Static Local Variable: void abc( ) { static int i; // static variable created in heap memory in first // function call, and auto initialize with zero cout<< i; i++; // not cleared from heap, when control comes out } void main( ) { abc( ); abc( ); abc( ); } OUTPUT: 0 1 2

Xykscy LVsfVd osfj;scy Lor% gh mRiUu gksrs gS tc izksxkz e dks yksM fd;k tkrk gSA bls dsoy ,d gh izksxkz e esa i<+k tk ldrk gS vFkkZr~ Xykscy osfj;scy flQZ ,d gh L=ksr Qkby esa Xykscy gksrs gS ftlesa oks ?kksf"kr fd;s tkrs gS tks iw.kZ izkt s Ds V

AglaSem School 14

esa Xykscy ugha gksrsA int i=10; // non-static global variable static int j; // static global variable void main( ) { cout<< i << j; } register:

;g dh oMZ ,d LVksjst Dykl gSA ;g eSeksjh osfj;scy dh MqIyhdsV izfr ekLVj dkWih ¼tks ges’kk eq[; eSeksjh esa jgrh gS½ dk ekbØksizksll S j ds jftLVj esa cukrk gSA MqIyhdsV izfr cukus ds i’pkr~ osfj;scy dks ges’kk ekbØksizksll S j ds jftLVj ¼MqIyhdsV izfr½ ls gh i<+rk gS uk fd ekLVj dkWih ¼eSeksjh ls½ ls i<+rk gSA ;g cgqr lkjk le; cpkrk gS D;ksafd eSeksjh dh vis{kk jftLVj ls eku cgqr tYnh i<+k tk ldrk gSA dk;Z ds var esa vafre ifjofrZr eku dks ekLVj dkWih ij fy[k nsrk gSA bl izdkj dh LVksjst Dyklsl dks ge ywi osfj;scy ds fy, mi;ksx djrs gSA register long int i; for(i=1; i < 9999999; i++) { cout<
eYVhizksll S j okrkoj.k esa ,d gh osfj;scy dks ,d ls vf/kd izksll S j ds chp ckaVk (share) tkrk gS tSlkfd lSekQksj (semaphore)A bu osfj;scy dks ge jftLVj osfj;scy ugha cuk ldrs D;ksfa d MkVk leku#irk j[kuh gksrh gS ge bUgsa volatile ?kksf"kr djrs gSa rkfd ekbØksizkslSlj bls bldh ekLVj dkWih ¼eSeksjh ls½ ls gh i<+sA pkgs dEikbyj dksbZ Hkh vksIVhekbts’ku fof/k dk iz;ksx djsA ;g LVksjst Dykl dEikbyj dks LihM vkIVhekbts’ku fof/k ds nkSjku osfj;scy dks jftLVj izdkj dk cukus ls jksdrk gSA volatile int flag = 1; extern:

izkstDS V ds MoyieSUV esa ,d izkstSDV esa ,d ls vf/kd L=ksr Qkbysa tksM+h tkrh gSA ,d L=ksr Qkby ds Xykscy osfj;scy dks nwljh L=ksr Qkby esa Xykscy ?kksf"kr ugha dj ldrs D;ksafd tc ge izkstDS V ¼lHkh Qkby ds lkFk½ dks dEikby djsaxs rks og =qfV nsxkA blfy, ge nwljh L=ksr Qkby esa bls extern ?kksf"kr djsaxs tks ;g n’kkZrk gS fd ;g osfj;scy izkstDS V dh fdlh vU; L=ksr Qkby esa Xykscy ?kksf"kr fd;k gqvk gSA fdlh L=ksr Qkby ds LVsfVd Xykscy osfj;scy rFkk yksdy osfj;scy dks vU; L=ksr Qkby esa extern ?kksf"kr ugha fd;k tk ldrk] dsoy ukWu LVsfVd Xykscy osfj;scy dh extern izdkj ds ?kksf"kr fd;s tk ldrs gSA SourceFile1.cpp int i; // non-static global var

SourceFile2.cpp extern int i; P

static int j; // static global var.

extern int j;

void main( ) { int k; // local var.

O O

extern int k; void fun( ) { cout< class:

;g Dykl dks ifjHkkf"kr djus ds fy, dke vkrk gS tks ckn esa ;wtj fMQkbUM MkVk Vkbi dh rjg dke vkrh gSA lkekU;r;k ge Dykl dks eq[; QaD’ku ls igys fy[krs gSA class { private: int i; public: void read() { cin>> i; } void show() { cout<< i; } };

AglaSem School 15 inline:

;g dh oMZ vkWQykbu QaD’ku dks bu ykbu ¼vkWu ykbu½ cukus ds dke vkrk gSA bu ykbu QaD’ku NksVk vkSj ljy gksrk gSA bu ykbu QaD’ku esa ge ywi dk iz;ksx ugha dj ldrsA QaD’ku dks cqykus ds oDr oks fdlh izdkj ds LVSd dk;Z dk mi;ksx ugha djrsA oks dEikbys’ku ls igys foLr`r (extend) fd, tkrs gSA vFkkZr~ dEikbyj QaD’ku cqykus dh txg ij QaD’ku dh ckWMh j[krk gSA inline float areaOfTriangle( int b, int h) { float area; a = (b*h)/2.0; return area; } this:

// simple program which // have no loop

;g ,d iksbUVj gS ftlds }kjk ju Vkbe ds oDr fdlh vkWCtSDV ds ,MjSl dks i<+k tk ldrk gSA this vkWijsVj }kjk ge fdlh Dykl ds eSEcj ¼osfj;scy vkSj eSFkM½ dks ® (arrow) }kjk i<+ ldrs gSA tc Dykl ds eSEcj osfj;scy dk uke QaD’ku ds vkX;wZeUs V ds uke ds leku gks rc Hkh bldk mi;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gSA tc ge fdlh yksdy osfj;scy dk uke eSEcj osfj;scy ds uke ls j[k nsrs gS rks ml oDr eSEcj osfj;scy fNi tkrk gSA ge “this” dh oMZ dk mi;ksx flQZ ukWuLVsfVd eSFkM esa gh dj ldrs gS D;ksafd ukWuLVsfVd eSEcj izR;sd vkWCtSDV ds fy, vyx gksrs gSa tcfd LVsfVd eSEcj iwjh Dykl ds fy, gksrs gS] uk fd ,dy vkWCtSDV ds fy,A class Abc { private: int i; // member variable public: Abc( int i) { this-> i = i; // store local variable i into member variable i cout << this-> i; // display member variable i cout << i; // display local variable (argument) i } }; new:

;g ,d ;wujh ¼ftlesa ,d gh vkWijsUM@MkVk gks½ vkWijsVj gSA bldk mi;ksx fdlh osfj;scy rFkk vkWCtSDV dks ju Vkbe Mk;ufed eSeksjh vkoaVu ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA ck¡Vh xbZ eSeksjh xkjcst (garbage) eku j[krh gSA bldks fdlh izdkj dh ,DlifyflV (explicitly) Vkbi dkfLVax dh vko’;drk ugha gksrhA delete:

;g Hkh ,d ;wujh dh oMZ gS] tks U;w vkWijsVj }kjk vkoafVr eSeksjh dks eqDr djrk gSA ;g vkWCtSDV rFkk osfj;scy nksuksa ls eSeksjh eqDr djus ds dke vkrk gSA int *a = new int[5]; // allocating memory to variable, not require casting Abc *obj = new Abc(5); // allocating memory to object, not require casting delete a; delete obj; operator:

// free memory whose address with variable a // free memory whose address with object obj

;g dh oMZ fizfefVo (built-in) vkWijsVj dks Dykl ds fy, vksojyksM djrk gSaA ge vksojyksM vkWijsVj ds fpUg ds uke ls eSEcj eSFkM ?kksf"kr djrs gSa rFkk mlds izkjEHk esa operator dh oMZ dk mi;ksx djrs gSA class Abc { private: int i; public: Abc( ) { i = 0; } Abc(int i) { this-> = i;}

AglaSem School 16 Abc operator + (Abc x) { return Abc(i + x.i); }

// overload “+” binary operator

}; virtual:

bl dh oMZ dk mi;ksx ju Vkbe ikWfyeksjfQte (polymorphism) ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA ;g fMjkbZoM Dykl ds vksojjkbM (override) ¼csl Dykl dk eSFkM tks fMjkboM Dykl esa mlh izksVksVkbi }kjk iqu% ?kksf"kr fd;k x;k gks½ eSFkM dks csl Dykl ds vkWCtSDV ls i<+us dh LohÑfr iznku djrk gSA ge blls virtual QaD’ku ?kksf"kr dj ldrs gS ¼tks miyC/k rks gksrk gS] ijUrq okLrfod #i esa ugha½ bldk iz;ksx ,ClVªDS V eSFkM fy[kus esa fd;k tkrk gS] ftls ’kq) virtual QaD’ku ¼,slk QaD’ku ftlesa dksbZ ckWMh ugha gksrh½ Hkh dgrs gSA ’kq) virtual QaD'ku izksVksVkbi esa ge ’kwU; (0) vlkbu dj nsrs gS rkfd dEikbyj dEikbys’ku ds oDr fdlh rjg dh =qfV uk nsA class Abc { public: int i; virtual void show( int i) { // virtual function cout<< i; } virtual read (int i) = 0; // pure virtual function }; friend:

bl dh oMZ dk mi;ksx fdlh Dykl ds fy, friend QaD’ku ?kksf"kr djus esa fd;k tkrk gS tks fdlh Dykl ds izkbosV eSEcj dks vkmVlkbM ¼tks lkekU;r;k lEHko ugha gS½ ls i<+us dh {kerk j[krk gSA tcfd ;g fdlh Dykl ds izkbosV eSEcj dks flQZ vkWCtSDV }kjk gh i<+ ldrk gS] uk fd lh/ks eSEcj eSFkM dh rjgA bls Dykl dk eSEcj ugha ekuk tk ldrkA bls eq[; QaD’ku ls fcuk fdlh vkWCtSDV ds dkWy fd;k tk ldrk gS vFkkZr~ bls QaD’ku~y uksVs’ku esa dkWy fd;k tkrk gSA ;g ;wujh rFkk ckbujh vkWijsVj dks vksojyksfMax djus ds Hkh dke vkrk gSA ;wujh vkWijsVj vksojyksfMax ds fy, ge ,d vkX;wZeUs V rFkk ckbujh vkWijsVj vksojyksfMax ds fy, ge nks vkX;weZ Us V ikl djrs gSA #include #include class demo { public: int a,b; inline void max(int a,int b) { cout<<(a>b?a:b); } }; void main() { clrscr(); int x,y; cin>>x,y; demo bo; ob.maxi(x,y); getch(); }

AglaSem School 17 try:

;g dh oMZ ,DlSI’ku gSaMfyx ds dke vkrk gSA ge try CykWd esa ,sls LVsVeSUV fy[ksaxs tks ,DlSI’ku Fkzks (throw) dj ldrs gSA catch:

bl dh oMZ dk mi;ksx try CykWd }kjk QSads x, fofHkUu ,DlSI’ku dks idM+us (catch) ds dke vkrk gSA throw:

;g dh oMZ ,d vkWijsVj gSA tc fdlh izdkj dh =qfV dk irk pyrk gS rks Vªkb CykWd ls ,DlSI’ku QSadus ds dke vkrk gSA void main() { int a, b, c, d; cin>> a >> b; try { c = a / b; if (c == 0) { throw 10; } else { d = a / c; } } catch (int e) { cout<< “Divide by Zero Exception”; } } template: bl dh oMZ dk iz;ksx tSufjd (generic) QaD’ku rFkk tSufjd Dykl fy[kus ds dke vkrk gSA ,d ls vf/kd

vksojyksfMM QaD’ku ftldk yksftd leku gks rFkk flQZ MkVk Vkbi vyx gks] dks ge ,d QaD’ku esa fy[k ldrs gS] ftls tSufjd QaD’ku dgrs gSA // Overloaded function Without template // Overloaded function converted // Function for Integer value Swapping // into generic func. using template void swap(int *a, int *b) { template int temp; void swap(T *a, T *b) { temp = *a; T temp; *a = *b; *a = * b; *b = *temp; *b = temp; } } // Function for float value Swapping void main() { void swap(float *a, float *b) { int i=10, j=20; float temp; swap(&i, &j); temp = *a; cout<< i << j; *a = *b; float a=1.2, b=3.4; *b = *temp; swap(&a, &b); } cout<
AglaSem School 18 private:

;g ,d ,lsl eksfMQk;j gS tks Dykl esa izkbosV eSEcj dh ?kks"k.kk djus esa mi;ksx esa fy;k tkrk gS] ftls Dykl ds ckgj ugha i<+ ldrsA Dykl ds lHkh eSEcj Lor% izkbosV gksrs gSA dalVªDVj ¼,d ,slk eSFkM tks vkWCtSDV mRifÙk ds oDr Lor% eSEcj osfj;scy dks bfuf’kykbZt djrk gS½ rFkk fMlVªDVj ¼,slk eSFkM tks vkWCtSDV ds Ldksi ls ckgj tkus ij Lor% dkWy gks tkrk gS rFkk vkWCtSDV dks u"V djrk gS½ dks ge izkbosV ?kksf"kr ugha dj ldrs D;ksafd bUgsa ge ges’kk Dykl ds ckgj ls dkWy djrs gSA bldk mi;ksx fMjkboM Dykl }kjk csl Dykl dks bugSfjV djus esa Hkh fd;k tkrk gS tks ;g n’kkZrh gS fd ge Xykscy Ldksi esa fMjkboM Dykl ds vkWCtSDV }kjk csl Dykl ds ifCyd eSEcj dks ugha i<+ ldrsA class Abc { int i; // by default it is private private: int j; // explicit declared as private Abc( ) { } // constructor can’t declared as private void show() { cout<< i << j; // within class we can access pvt. (any) member } ~Abc( ) { } // destructor can’t declared as private }; void main ( ) { { // creating new scope Abc obj( ); // calls zero argument constructor during object creation obj.i = 10; // can’t access private member from outside the class obj.j = 10; // can’t access private member from outside the class } // Automatic call destructor when object leaves from scope } protected:

;g ,d ,lsl eksfMQk;j gS] bldk mi;ksx fMjkboM Dykl esa csl Dykl ds eSEcj dks i<+us ds fy, fd;k tkrk gS ftls lkekU;r;k ukWu lc Dykl esa ugha i<+ ldrsA protected eSEcj Lo;a dh Dykl ds lkFk&lkFk fMjkboM Dykl esa Hkh i<+s tk ldrs gSA // Base class Declaration class Base { protected: int i; // declared as protected void read() { cout<< i; // within class we can access protected. member } }; // Drived class Declaration, which Inherit ”Base” class class Drived : public Base { void show() { i = 10; // we can access base class protected member } }; void main ( ) { Base b; // base class object Drive d; // drive class object b.i = 10; // can’t access protected member from outside the class d.j = 10; // can’t access protected member from outside the class } public:

;g ,d ,lsl eksfMQk;j gS] blds mi;ksx ls Dykl ds eSEcj dks dgha ij Hkh i<+k tk ldrk gSA ifCyd eSEcj dks Lo;a Dykl esa] fMjkboM Dykl esa rFkk ukWu&lc Dykl ¼Xykscy Ldksi½ esa i<+k tk ldrk gSA bldk mi;ksx fMjkboM Dykl }kjk csl

AglaSem School 19

Dykl dks bugSfjV djus esa Hkh fd;k tkrk gS tks ;g n’kkZrh gS fd Xykscy Ldksi esa fMjkbo Dykl ds vkWCtSDV }kjk csl Dykl ds ifCyd eSEcj dks i<+ ldrs gSA // Base class Declaration class Base { public: int i; // declared as public void read() { cout<< i; // within class we can access public member } }; // Drived class Declaration class Drived : public Base { // Inherit Base class as public void show() { i = 10; // we can access base class public member } }; void main ( ) { Base b; // base class object Drive d; // drive class object b.i = 10; // can access public member from outside the class d.j = 10; // can access public member from outside the class } struct:

bl dh oMZ dk mi;ksx ;wtj fMQkbaM MkVk Vkbi ?kksf"kr djus esa fd;k tkrk gSA LVªDpj esa ?kksf"kr lHkh eSEcj Lor% ifCyd izdkj ds gksrs gSA C++ ds LVªDpj esa ge eSEcj osfj;scy ds lkFk&lkFk eSEcj eSFkM ¼QaD’ku½ Hkh ?kksf"kr dj ldrs gSA ,lsl eksfMQk;j (protected, private) dk iz;ksx djds Lor% ,lsl gksus okyh lqfo/kk ¼ifCyd½ dks cnyk tk ldrk gSA fdlh LVªDpj dks nwljs LVªDpj }kjk bugSfjV fd;k tk ldrk gS rFkk bls Dykl }kjk Hkh bugSfjV fd;k tk ldrk gSA bldk eq[; mi;ksx MkVk LVªDpj ,Iyhds’ku ¼tSls fyad&fyLV] LVSd] D;w] Vªh] xzkQ bR;kfn½ esa gksrk gSA LVªDpj dk lkbt mlds izR;sd QhYM ds lkbt ds ;ksx ds cjkcj gksrk gSA struct S1 { int i; // by default public member private: int j; // explicit declared as private member protected: int k; // explicit declared as protected member public: int l; // explicit declared as public member }; struct S2 : public S1 { // inherit structure by another structure int p; }; class Abc : public S1 { // inherit structure by class public: void xyz( ) { i = 10; O // can’t access private member j = 10; k = 10; l = 10; }

AglaSem School 20 }; void main( ) { S2 x; x.i = 10; x.j = 10;

O O

// can’t access private member

x.k = 10; // can’t access protected member x.l = 10; x.p = 10; cout << sizeof(S1); // size equal to sum of all fields = 8 bytes }

Self Reference Structure: ,slk LVªDpj ftldh QhYM Loa; izdkj ds uksM dk ,MjSl j[krh gks] self reference structure

dgykrk gSA bldk mi;ksx MkVk LVªDpj ,Iyhds’ku esa fd;k tkrk gSA typedef struct node { int info; struct node *next; // self reference type field } NODE; void main( ) { NODE header; NODE n; header.next = &n; // point to self type node address }

Bit Field Structure: ge LVªDpj dh QhYM dk lkbt fcVl ¼;wtj dh bPNkuqlkj½ esa j[k ldrs gSA bl izdkj ds LVªDpj dks

fcV QhYM LVªDpj dgrs gSA bldk eq[;r;k mi;ksx dEI;wVj xzkfQDl ,Iyhds’ku esa fd;k tkrk gSA struct BitField { int a : 3; // data range -4 to +3 int b : 4; // data range -8 to +7 unsigned int c : 5; // data range 0 to +31 }; void main( ) { BitField s; cout<< sizeof(BitField); // size is 12 bits = 2 bytes s.a = 2; s.b = 4; s.c = 30; cout<<“ “<
bl dh oMZ dk mi;ksx ;wtj fMQkabM MkVk Vkbi ?kksf"kr djus esa fd;k tkrk gSA ;wfu;u esa ?kksf"kr lHkh eSEcj ifCyd izdkj ds gksrs gSA C++ esa ge ;wfu;u esa eSEcj osfj;scy ds lkFk&lkFk eSEcj eSFkM dh Hkh ?kks"k.kk dj ldrs gSA ,lsl eksfMQk;j (protected, private) }kjk ;wfu;u ds eSEcj dh Lor% ,lsl dks cnyk tk ldrk gSA ;wfu;u dks nwljs ;wfu;u }kjk ;k Dykl ds }kjk bugSfjV ugha fd;k tk ldrkA ;wfu;u dk lkbt mldh lcls cM+h QhYM ds lkbt ds leku gksrk gSA ;wfu;u dh izR;sd QhYM ,d dkWeu eSeksjh dks ck¡Vrh (share) gS] ijUrq fdlh ,d le; esa ge fdlh ,d QhYM esa gh eku LVksj dj ldrs gSA ;fn ge fdlh nwljh QhYM esa eku LVksj djsa rks igys ls LVksj dh xbZ QhYM dk eku gV tkrk gSA union S1 { char c; private: int i; protected: float f;

// union declaration with tag “S1” // by default public member // explicit declared as private member // explicit declared as protected member

AglaSem School 21 public: double d; // explicit declared as public member, and this field is its largest field of 8 bytes }; void main( ) { S1 x; cout << sizeof(S1); // size equal to largest filed d = 8 bytes x.c = 10; x.i = 10; O // can’t access private member x.f = 10; x.d = 10;

O

// can’t access protected member

}

Anonymous Unions: fcuk VSx }kjk ;wfu;u dh ?kks"k.kk dks anonymous unions dgrs gSA blds izR;sd eSEcj dkWeu txg dks ck¡Vrs gSA blds eSEcj dks fcuk MkWV vkWijsVj ds i<+k tk ldrk gSA Xykscy anonymous union dks ges’kk static izdkj

ls ?kksf"kr fd;k tkuk pkfg,A Global Anonymous Union

Local Anonymous Union

static union { // no tag int i; float f; };

void main ( ) { union { // no tag int i; float f; }; i = 10; f = 23.4; }

void main( ) { i = 10; cout<
;g dh oMZ ;wtj fMQkbaM MkVk Vkbi ?kksf"kr djus ds fy, mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA ;g mifLFkr MkVk Vkbi ds fy, u;k vkbMsUVhQk;j ?kksf"kr djus ds dke vkrk gSA tks ckn esa osfj;scy dh ?kks"k.kk djus esa mi;ksx esa fy;k tkrk gSA typedef struct node { int info; struct node *next; } NODE; enum:

typedef char Byte; typedef int Word; typedef long DWord;

;g ;wtj fMQkbaM MkVk Vkbi dh ?kks"k.kk esa mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS rFkk bls buqejsfVM MkVk Vkbi ds uke ls Hkh tkuk tkrk gSA bldk mi;ksx bUVhtj dkWUlVSaV dh Jà[kyk dh ?kks"k.kk djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA enum Boolean { false, true };

mijksDr mnkgj.k esa false dk eku 0 (zero) rFkk true dk eku 1 (one) gSA Boolean ,d ;wtj fMQkbaM MkVk Vkbi gS ftls ge ckn esa osfj;scy dh ?kks"k.kk djus ds fy, mi;ksx dj ldrs gSA sizeof:

;g ,d vkWijsVj gS tks fdlh osfj;scy ;k MkVk Vkbi ds lkbt dks ju Vkbe Kkr djus ds fy, mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA eq[;r;k bldk mi;ksx Mk;ufed eSeksjh ,yksd’s ku ds oDr fdlh MkVk Vkbi dk lkbt Kkr djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA int i=10; cout<< sizeof i ;

P

// size of variable i is 2 byte

AglaSem School 22 cout<< sizeof ( i ); cout<< sizeof int; cout<< sizeof (int);

P O P

// size of variable i is 2 byte // give data type name in parentheses // size of variable int data type is 2 byte

const:

bl dh oMZ dk mi;ksx dkWUlVSUV dh ?kks"k.kk djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA dkWUlVSUV dh ?kks"k.kk ds oDr ge dkWUlVSUV vkbMsUVhQk;j dks fyVjy ls vo’; bfuf’kykbZt djrs gS vU;Fkk og =qfV nsrk gSA const float PIE=3.14;

P

const float PIE;

O

asm:

bl dh oMZ dk mi;ksx C/C++ Hkk"kk ds izksxkz e esa ,lSEcyh Hkk"kk ds izksxkz e fy[kus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gS vFkkZr~ bldk mi;ksx low-level izksxzke fy[kus esa fd;k tkrk gSA void main( ) { int i = 10, j; asm { MOV AX, i // move value of variable i in register AX MOV j, AX // move value of register AX in variable j } cout<< “i=”<< i <<“ j=”<< j; }

C++ vkWijsVj (C++ Operators): C++ vkWijsVj ds lewg dh /kuh gSA C Hkk"kk ds lHkh vkWijsVj C++ esa Hkh oS/k gSA C++ dqN vkWijsVj dks ubZ ifjHkk"kk

Hkh nsrk gS] bl izfØ;k dks vkWijsVj vksojyksfMax dgrs gSA Ldksi fjtksY;w’ku vkWijsVj (Scope Resolution Operator) ;s vkWijsVj eSEcj ds nk;js dk fu.kZ; ysrs gS fd og Xykscy {ks= ls i<+k tk, ;k Dykl ds vUnj ds Ldksi ls i<+k tk,A :: Global Scope:

tc ge fdlh yksdy osfj;scy ds uke dh ?kks"k.kk Xykscy osfj;scy ds uke ls dj nsrs gS rks Xykscy osfj;scy fNi tkrk gSA bl fLFkfr esa ge Xykscy osfj;scy dks fdlh QaD’ku esa Xyksc] Ldksi] fjtksY;w’ku] vkWijsVj dks osfj;scy ds uke ls igys yxkdj i<+ ldrs gSA bldh ,lksfl,VhfoVh ¼vFkkZr~ leku izkFkfedrk okys ,d ls vf/kd vkWijsVj miyC/k gks rks muesa ls igys fdls fu"ikfnr fd;k tk,xk½ nk;sa ls cka;s gSA int i = 10; void main( ) { int i = 20; cout<< i ; cout<< ::i ; }

// global variable // local variable // display local variable // display global variable

:: Class Scope:

bldk mi;ksx vkWQ ykbu eSEcj eSFkM dh ?kks"k.kk esa fd;k tkrk gSA ;fn csl Dykl vkSj fMjkbo Dykl esa eSEcj dk uke leku gks rks blds }kjk fMjkboM Dykl esa csl Dykl ds leku uke okys eSEcj dks i<+k tk ldrk gSA bldh ,lksfl,VhfoVh (associativity) cka;s ls nka;s gSA class Base { public: int i; void show( ); }; void Base :: show( ) {

// prototype of off-line member method // off-line member function member method

AglaSem School 23 cout << i; } class Drived : public Base { public: int i; void show(int i) { cout << i; // local variable access cout << this-> i; // dorived class member variable access cout << Abc::i; // base class member variable access };

MkVk dks ykus okys vkWijsVj (Operators for fetching data) ( ) Function call

bldk mi;ksx fdlh QaD’ku dks okLrfod iSjkehVj ¼vkX;wZeUs V½ ikl djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA bldk mi;ksx fdlh vkWijsVj dh Lor% (default) ojh;rk Øe dks cnyus esa Hkh fd;k tkrk gSA bldh ,lksfl,VhfoVh cka;s ls nka;s gSA double d = sqrt(23.5); int a = 2 * (3 + 4);

// used for passing parameter to function // plus(+) operator solve first, its default // precedence changed

[ ] Array subscription

bl vkWijsVj dk mi;ksx array dh fdlh fo’ks"k subscript (element) dks i<+us esa fd;k tkrk gS rFkk bldk mi;ksx array dh ?kks"k.kk djus esa Hkh fd;k tkrk gSA int a[5]; // array declaration b = a[2] +3; // reading from array subscript a[2] = b + c; // writing to array subscript ( ) Type construction

Vkbi dkfLVax ,d izdkj ds MkVk dks nwljs izdkj esa cnyrh gSA C++ nks izdkj ds Vkbi dkfLVax LohÑr gksrh gSA ,d ikjEifjd Vkbi dkfLVax ftlesa MkVk Vkbi dks iSjkfFkfll ds chp fy[kk tkrk gS ¼mlh rjg tSls C esa gksrk gS½ nwljh Vkbi dalVªD’ku esa ,d vkX;wZeUs V okyk fizfefVo ;k ;wtj fMQkbaM MkVk Vkbi dk dalVªDVj dkWy djrs gSA int a = (int) 5.4; // traditional casting, also used by C int a = int (5.4); // It is type construction for primitive data type Direct member

bl vkWijsVj dk mi;ksx ukWu iksbaVj osfj;scy }kjk LVªDpj] ;wfu;u rFkk Dykl ds eSEcj dks i<+us esa fd;k tkrk gSA struct Abc{ int i; }; void main() { // non-pointer var Abc x; x.i = 10; cout< Indirect member

union Abc{ int i; }; void main() { // non-pointer var Abc x; x.i = 10; cout<
class Abc { public: int i; }; void main() { // non-pointer var Abc x; x.i = 10; cout<
bl vkWijsVj dk mi;ksx iksbaVj osfj;scy }kjk LVªDpj] ;wfu;u rFkk Dykl ds eSEcj dks i<+us esa fd;k tkrk gSA struct Abc{ int i;

union Abc{ int i;

}; void main() { // pointer var

}; void main() { // pointer var

class Abc { public: int i; }; void main() { // pointer var

AglaSem School 24 Abc *x; x->i = 10; cout<i;

Abc *x; x->i = 10; cout<i; }

}

Abc *x; x->i = 10; cout<i; }

;wujh vkWijsVj (Unary Operator) ,sls vkWijsVj ftlesa ,d gh vksijsUM gksrk gS ¼tks cka;s ;k nka;s Hkkx esa yxk;k tkrk gS½] dks ge ;wujh vkWijsVj dgrs gSA ;fn bls cka;s Hkkx esa yxk;k tk, rks mls izh fQDl #i dgrs gS rFkk ;fn bls nk;sa Hkkx esa yxk;k tk, rks bls iksLV fQDl #i dgrs gSA iksLV fQDl ;wujh vkWijsVj dh ,lksfl,VhfoVh cka;s ls nka;s gksrh gSA tcfd izh fQDl ;wujh vkWijsVj dh ,lksfl,VhfoVh nka;s ls cka;s gksrh gSA iksLV fQDl ;wujh vkWijsVj dh ojh;rk izh fQDl dh rqyuk esa vf/kd gksrh gSA Prefix form: Postfix form:

operator operand operand operator

++ (Increment)

bl vkWijsVj dk mi;ksx izh fQDl rFkk iksLV fQDl nksuksa esa fd;k tkrk gSA ;g osfj;scy ds eku dks 1 (one) ls c<+krk gSA izh fQDl #i esas ;g igys eku dks 1 ls c #include #include #include void main() void main() { { int a = 2, b; int a = 2, b; b = ++a; b = a++; cout<< a <<“ “<< b; cout<< a <<“ “<< b; } } OUTPUT: 3 3 OUTPUT: 3 2 Postfix have higher priority than prefix. a = a+++b; is equivalent to a = a++ + b; -- (Decrement)

bl vkWijsVj dk mi;ksx izh fQDl rFkk iksLV fQDl nksuksa esa fd;k tkrk gSA ;g osfj;scy ds eku dks 1 ls ?kVkrk gSA izh fQDl #i esa ;g igys eku dks 1 ls ?kVkrk gS rRi’pkr~ mls izfØ;k esa iz;ksx djrk gS tcfd iksLV fQDl esa igys mi;ksx djrk gS fQj eku dks 1 ls ?kVk nsrk gSA Prefix form: #include #include void main() { int a = 2, b; b = --a; cout<< a <<“ “<< b; } OUTPUT: 1 1

Postfix form: #include #include void main() { int a = 2, b; b = a--; cout<< a <<“ “<< b; } OUTPUT: 1 2

iksLV fQDl vkWijsVj dh ojh;rk izh fQDl ls vf/kd gksrh gSA a = a---b;

is equivalent to

a = a-- - b;

increment (++) vkSj decrement (--) vkWijsVj dk mi;ksx ge dkWUlVSUV] fyVjy] ,DlizS’ku rFkk QaD’ku ds lkFk ugha dj ldrsA ;s vkWijsVj Loa; osfj;scy ds eku dks Hkh ifjofrZr dj nsrs gSA int a = 2, b = 3; const int MAX=10; a = b++;

P

// can use with variable

AglaSem School 25

O O O

a = (a + b)++; a = MAX++; a = 23++;

// can’t use with expression // can’t use with constant // can’t use with literal

a = size(30)++; O // can’t use with function ~ (1’s complement)

;g fcV okbl ;wujh vkWijsVj gS tks fn, x, MkVk dk 1’s dkEiyhesUV Kkr djus ds fy, iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA ;g fn, x, vkWijsUM ds lHkh fcVl dks dkWEiyhesUV dj nsrk gSA bldk izh fQDl #i esa iz;ksx gksrk gSA int i = 10; i = ~i; ! (Logical NOT)

i = 0000 0000 0000 1010 ~i = 1111 1111 1111 0101

;g yksftdy ;wujh vkWijsVj gS ftldk vkWijsUM fjys’kuy vkSj vFkZefs Vd ,DlizS’ku (Nonzero U;wefs jd eku true vkSj zero false gksrk gS½ gksrs gSA bls ges’kk izh fQDl #i esa iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA ;g vksijsUM ds eku dks true ls false vkSj false ls true esa cnyrk gSA if ( ! (2<0) ); if ( ! (2>0) ); & (Address of)

// 2<0 is false, it convert into true condition // 2>0 is true, it convert into false condition

;g ju Vkbe esa fdlh osfj;scy rFkk vkWCtSDV dk ,MjSl irk yxkrk gSA bldk mi;ksx fdlh QaD’ku dks jSQjSUl }kjk vkX;wZeUs V Hkstus esa fd;k tkrk gSA int a = 10; int *p = &a; // address of variable a is stored in pointer variable p a = abc(&a); // passing argument by reference to function abc() * (De-reference)

;g fn, x, ,MjSl ls eku dks ykus ds dke vkrk gS] bldk iksbUVj osfj;scy ?kksf"kr djus esa mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA ;g iksbUVj osfj;scy ds ges’kk izh fQDl esa yxrk gSA int a = 10; int *p = &a; // used for pointer variable declaration cout << *p; // display value whose address stored in variable p + (Unary plus)

lHkh U;wefS jd eku Lor% /kukRed gksrs gSAa blfy, bl vkWijsVj ds mi;ksx dk dksbZ vksfpR; ugha gSA int a = 4, b; b = +a; cout<
int a = -4, b; b = +a; cout<
;g vkWijsVj nh xbZ eku dk mi;ksx djus ls igys fpUg (sign) dks cny nsrk gS ijUrq osfj;scy Loa; dk eku oSlk gh jgrk gSA int a = 4, b; b = -a; cout<
int a = -4, b; b = -a; cout<
;g C Hkk"kk dh rjg ikjEifjd Vkbi dkfLVax gSA Vkbi dkfLVax eq[;r;k nks izdkj dh gksrh gS% izFke bEIyhflV dkfLVax (implicit casting) tks NksVs lkbt ds MkVk dks cM+s lkbt esa vius vki cny nsrk gS bl ifjorZu esa NksVs lkbt ds MkVk dk sign fcV ¼tks ges’kk MSB fcV gksrk gS½ cM+s lkbt ds MkVk dh [kkyh txg esa Hkj tkrk gS] vFkkZr lkbu fcV c<+ tkrk gS tSlkfd fp= 6(a) esa dSjsDVj ls baVhtj dh bEIyhflV dkfLVax fn[kkbZ xbZ gSA

AglaSem School 26

6(a)

6(b)

nwljh ,DliyhflV dkfLVax gS tks cM+s lkbt ds MkVk dks NksVs lkbt esa Vkbi dkfLVax vkWijsVj dk mi;ksx djds cnyrh gSA bl ifjorZu esa cM+s lkbt ds MkVk ds vfrfjDr MSB fcVl dkfLVax ds oDr NksM+ (discard) fn, tkrs gS tSlkfd fp= 6(b) esa n’kkZ;k x;k gSA sizeof

;g vkWijsVj fdlh osfj;scy ;k vkWCtSDV ds }kjk iz;qDr dh tkus okyh dqy eSeksjh dks crykrk gSA ;g Mk;ufed eSeksjh ,yksd’s ku ds oDr ju Vkbe lkbt Kkr djus ds fy, mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA vkWCtSDV dk lkbt mlds ukWu LVsfVd eSEcj osfj;scy ds lkbt ds ;ksx ds cjkcj gksrk gSA void main( ) { int i; cout<
class Abc { int i; static int j; float f; }; void main( ) { Abc x; cout<< sizeof(x); // size is 6 bytes }

;g vkWijsVj osfj;scy rFkk vkWCtSDV dks ju Vkbe ghi (heap) Mk;ufed eSeksjh vkoafVr djus ds fy, mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA ;g C Hkk"kk ds malloc() QaD’ku dh rjg dk;Z djrk gSA vUrj bruk gS fd malloc() ,d QaD’ku gS tcfd “new” ,d vkWijsVj gS rFkk bls ,DliyhflV Vkbi dkfLVax vkSj fdlh gSMj Qkby dh vko’;drk ugha gksrhA Memory allocation for variable Memory allocation for Object int *i = new int; Abc *x = new Abc; float *f = new float; Abc *y = new Abc(4); // calls one argument // constructor

bl vkWijsVj dk mi;ksx djds ge ,d Mk;eSU’kuy (1D) ;k cgq Mk;eSU’kuy (2D) Mk;ufed ,Sjs ¼ftlds lkbt dk fu/kkZj.k fu"iknu ds oDr gksrk gS½ mRiUu fd;s tk ldrs gSA 1 D dynamic array int *a, n; cin >> n; a = new int[n];

2 D dynamic array int **a, row, col; cin >> row >> col; a = new int*[row]; // allocate memory for rows for(int i=0; i
AglaSem School 27 a[i] = new int[col]; // allocate memory for cols } delete and delete[ ]

;g vkWijsVj ju Vkbe fdlh osfj;scy ;k vkWCtSDV dks vkoafVr eSeksjh eqDr djus ds dke vkrk gSA ;g C Hkk"kk ds free() QaD’ku ds leku dk;Z djrk gS] vUrj flQZ bruk gS fd free() ,d QaD’ku gS rFkk “delete” ,d vkWijsVj gS bls fdlh izdkj dh gSMj Qkby dh vko’;drk ugha gksrhA void main ( ) { int *i = new int; Abc *obj = new Abc; delete i; delete obj; }

delete[ ] vkWijsVj }kjk fdlh Hkh ,Sjs dks delete fd;k tk ldrk gS tc ge ,Sjs dks delete djsa rks bldk syntex delete s ds vanj ,Sjs dh Mk;eSu’ku ikl djus dh vko’;drk ugha gSA [ ] expr gh gksuk pkfg,A czSdV void main ( ) { char *p; p = new char[10]; // allocate 10 chars array delete[ ] p; // delete 10 chars array }

eSEcj MhjSQjsUl vkWijsVj (Member Dereference Operator) class Abc { public: int i; }; void main( ) { int Abc::* p = &Abc::i; // pointer to member variable i Abc x; // non-pointer type object Abc *y = new Abc; // pointer type object x.*p = 10; // direct member dereference y->*p = 20; // indirect member dereference cout << endl << x.*p; cout << endl << y->*p; } ::* iksbV a j Vw esEcj (Pointer to member)

ge Dykl ds eSEcj dk ,sMjSl ys ldrs gS vkSj ge iksbVa j osfj;scy dks vlkbu dj ldrs gSA ,MjSl dks & vkWijsVj ¼Dykl Ldksi ds lkFk½ dks Dykl uke ds lkFk mi;ksx djds izkIr fd;k tk ldrk gS] mijksDr izkx s kz e esa Abc::* ls ;g rkRi;Z gS fd “pointer-to-member of Abc class” vkSj &Abc::i ls ;g rkRi;Z gS fd “address of the member variable i of Abc class”A int Abc::* p = &Abc::i; // pointer to member variable i * Mk;jSDV eSEcj MhjsQjSUl (Direct member dereference)

bl Mk;jSDV fMfjQjSflax vkWijsVj dks eSEcj dks ,lSl djus ds fy, mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS] tc vkWCtSDV Lor% esa eSEcj iksbUVj dk mi;ksx fd;k x;k gks tSlk x.*p mnkgj.k esa iz;ksx fd;k x;k gSA x.*p

= 10;

// direct member dereference ->* buMkbjsDV eSEcj MhjsQjSUl (Indirect member dereference)

buMkbjsDV MhsjsQjsfUlax vkWijsVj dks eSEcj dks i<+us ds fy, rc iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gS tc iksbUV vkWCtSDV rFkk eSEcj nksuksa gh iksbaVj izdkj ds gks tSlk y->*p mnkgj.k esa iz;ksx fd;k x;k gSA y->*p = 20; // indirect member dereference ckbujh vkWijsVj (Binary operator)

ckbujh vkWijsVj ds nks vksijsUM gksrs gS% ,d cka;s Hkkx esa rFkk nwljk nka;s Hkkx esa gksrk gSA vkWijsVj dks infix #i esa iz;ksx fd;k

AglaSem School 28

tkrk gS] bldh ,lksfl,VhfoVh (associativity) cka;s ls nka;s gksrh gSA vxj ckbujh vkWijsVj ds nksuksa vksijsUM fofHkUu lkbt rFkk fofHkUu izdkj ds gS rks os Lor% gh Vkbi izeksV gks tkrs gSA NksVs lkbt dk vksijsUM cM+s lkbt esa vkSj bUVhxzy vksijsUM ¶yksfVax iksbaV esa cny tkrk gSA operand1 operator operand2

vFkZesfVd vkWijsVj (Arithmetic operator): ,sls vkWijsVj tks vFkZefs Vd dk;Z djus ds fy, iz;qDr fd, tkrs gks rFkk ifj.kke dks baVhxzy #i esa nsrs gks] vFkZefs Vd vkWijsVj dgykrs gSA ;s fdlh Hkh fizfefVo MkVk Vkbi ij mi;ksx fd, tk ldrs gS tcfd % (modulo) vkWijsVj dks dsoy bUVhxzy MkVk (char, int, long) ij iz;Dq r fd;k tk ldrk gS uk fd ¶yksfVax iksbUV (float, double) ij] % vkWijsVj esa ifj.kke dk lkbu (sign) igys ¼cka;k½ vksijsUM ds leku gksrk gSA dEI;wVj ds ALU esa % vkWijsVj ds fy, lh/kk dksbZ gkMZo; s j ugha gksrkA ;g fuEu izdkj ls csfld vkWijsVj dk mi;ksx djds gy gksrk gS% x % y is equivalent to x – (x/y)*y

fMfotu vkWijsVj esa vxj bUVhtj eku dks bUVhtj ls Hkkx ns rks ifj.kke ges’kk bUVhtj esa gh vk,xkA mnkgj.k ds fy, 5/2 gy gksus ij 2 nsrk gS u fd 2.5] D;ksafd ;g dk;Z fQDlM iksbUV ALU }kjk lEiw.kZ fd;k tkrk gSA budh ojh;rk ;wujh vkWijsVj ls de gksrh gSA

fp= 6

AglaSem School 29 Priority

Operator

Operation / Purpose Examples

Result

(1)

*

Multiplication

5*2

10

5.0*2.0

10.0

Division

5/2

2

2/5

0

5.0/2.0

2.5

5/2.0

2.5

5.0/2 5%2 2%5 -5%2 5%-2 -5%-2 5.0%2.0 5+2 5.0+2.0 5-2 3.0

2.5 1 2 -1 1 -1 ERROR 7 7.0 3

/

(2)

%

Modules (Remainder)

+

Addition

-

Substraction 5.0-2.0

O

f’k¶V vkWijsVj (Shift Operator): ;g fcV okbl vkWijsVj gS ;g vkWijsVj dsoy bUVhxzy vksijsUM ds lkFk gh iz;ksx fd, tkrs gSA igyk vksijsUM ;g crkrk gS fd ge fdldks shift djuk pkgrs gS rFkk nwljk vksijsUM ;g crkrk gS fd ge fdruh ckj f’k¶V djuk pkgrs gSA operand1

shift operator

operand2

<< ck;ak f’k¶V (Left shift)

;g cka;s vksijsUM ds lHkh fcVl dks cka;h rjQ nka;s vksijsUM ds eku ds leku ckj (times) f’k¶V djrk gSA LSB [kkyh fcV esa zero (0) izos’k djrk gS rFkk ckgj tk jgk MSB fcV u"V gks tkrk gS tSlk fp= 7 esa n’kkZ;k x;k gSA ,d ckj cka;k f’k¶V djuk ls rkRi;Z gS fd eku dks 2 ls xq.kk djukA ;g vkWijsVj C++ Loa; ds }kjk vksojyksM fd;k

fp= 7 x;k gS bldks iwoZ ?kksf"kr vkmViqV LVªhe ds vkWCtSDV (cout) }kjk LØhu ij MkVk iznf’kZr djus ds dke vkrk gSA int i = 10; i = i << 1; // one time left shift all bits of variable i cout <> nk;ka f’k¶V (Right shift)

;g vkWijsVj cka;s vksijsUM ds lHkh fcVl dks nka;h vksj nka;s vksijsUM ds eku ds leku ckj (times) f’k¶V djrk gSA ckgj tkus oky LSB fcVl u"V gks tkrh gS rFkk [kkyh gks jgs MSB fcV dks okfil lkbu fcV ls Hkj fy;k tkrk gS vFkkZr~ nka;k f’k¶V MkVk ds lkbu dks lEHkky dj j[krk gS tSlk fp= 8 esa fn[kk;k x;k gSA ;g vkWijsVj C++ Lo;a ds }kjk Hkh

AglaSem School 30 vksojyksM fd;k x;k gS] bls iwoZ ?kksf"kr buiqV LVªhe vkWCtSDV cin ds lkFk dh cksMZ ds lkFk MkVk izkIr djus ds fy, iz;ksx

fd;k tkrk gSA

fp= 8 int i = 10; i = i >> 1; cout <> i; i = i >> 2.3;

// one time right shift all bits of variable i // display 5 // overloaded for input purpose // wrong, can’t use float as operand

fjys’kuy ¼dEiSjhtu½ vkWijsVj [Relational (comparison) Operator]: bl vkWijsVj dk mi;ksx fdUgha nks vFkZefs Vd ,DlizS’ku dks feykus (comparison) ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA ;g fjtYV dk Boolean eku (true or false) esa nsrk gSA bldh ojh;rk vFkZefs Vd vkWijsVj ls de gksrh gSA bldk mi;ksx eq[;r;k daMh’kuy daVªky s LVsVeSUV (if, for, while, … bR;kfn) esa daMh’ku dks tk¡pus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA void main ( ) { float f = 0.7; // 0.7 is double, so cast it to float and truncate some data if (f < 0.7 ) { // f is auto type promoted, and add zero on extra bits cout << “True”; // these extra bits are not equal to truncated bits } else { cout << “False”; } } OUTPUT: True Priority

Operator

Operation / Purpose

Examples

Result

(1)

<

less than

<=

less than equal to

>

greater than

>=

greater than equal to

== !=

equal to not equal to

5<2 2<5 2<=5 5<=2 5>2 2>5 2>=1 1 >=2 5==2 5 !=2

false true true false true false true false false true

(2)

fcVokbl vkWijsVj (Bitwise Operator): bu vkWijsVj dk mi;ksx fn, x, MkVk ds ,dy (individual) fcV~l ij dk;Z djus ds fy, iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA ;g vkWijsVj dsoy baVhxzy MkVk (char, int and long) ij dk;Z djrk gSA fcV~okbl vkWijsVj dh foLr`r tkudkjh fp= 9 esa n’kkZ;h xbZ gSA

AglaSem School 31

fp= 9 ykWftdy ¼’kkWVZ lfdZV½ vkWijsVj [Logical (short ckt.) Operator]: ;g U;wure ojh;rk Øe okys ckbujh vkWijsVj gS tks fjys’kuy ;k vFkZefs Vd ,DlizS’ku dks tk¡pus ds dke esa vkrs gSAa nks izdkj ds yksftdy vkWijsVj gksrs gS% && (logical AND) vkSj || (logical NOT)A bUgsa ’kkWVZ lfdZV vkWijsVj ds uke ls Hkh tkuk tkrk gSA blesa nwljs vksijsUM dks rHkh gy djrs gSa tc izFke vksijsUM vafre mÙkj dks nsus esa vl{ke gksrk gSA && (Logical AND)

bl vkWijsVj esa ;fn izFke vksijsUM true gS rc gh nwljk vksijsUM gy djsxk vU;Fkk ughaA ;fn igyk vksijsUM false gS rks fcuk nwljs vksijsUM dks gy fd, ge vafre gy crk ldrs gS vkSj og false gh gksxkA int a=2, b=3; // 1st operand is true, so // it will solve 2nd operand if (a
int a=2, b=3; // 1st operand is false, so // it will not solve 2nd operand if (a>b && ++a
|| (Logical OR)

bl vkWijsVj esa ;fn igyk vksijsUM false gksrk gS rc gh ;g nwljs vksijsUM dks gy djrk gSA vxj izFke vksijsUM true gS rks gesa nwljs vksijsUM dks gy djus dh vko’;drk ugha iM+rh vkSj ge vafre mÙkj crk ldrs gS og true gh gksxkA

AglaSem School 32 int a=2, b=3; // 1st operand is true, so // it will not solve 2nd operand if (a
int a=2, b=3; // 1st operand is false, so // it will solve 2nd operand if (a>b || ++a
VuZjh ¼daMh’kauy½ vkWijsVj [Ternary (Conditional) Operator] ,sls vkWijsVj ftlesa rhu vksijsUM gksrs gS ternary operator dgykrh gS] bls daMh’kuy vkWijsVj Hkh dgrs gSA izFke vksijsUM daMh’ku] nwljk vkSj rhljk vksijsUM ,DlizS’ku ;k LVsVeSUV gksrk gSA operand1 ? operand2 : operand3

;g vkWijsVj ;wtj ÝSUMyh ugha gS blfy, ge blds lerqY; if-else daMh’kuy daVªky s LVsVeSUV dk mi;ksx djrs gSA bldh ,lksfl,fVfoVh cka;s ls nka;s gksrh gSA int a, b, c; cin >> a >> b; c = a>b ? a : b; cout << c;

int a, b, c; cin >> a >> b; if (a>b) { c = a; } else { c = b; } cout << c;

vlkbueSUV vkWijsVj (Assignment Operator) ;g vkWijsVj fdlh osfj;scy] fyVjy] dkWUlVSUV] ,DlizS’ku ;k QaD’ku ds eku dks osfj;scy esa LVksj djus ds fy, iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA vlkbueSUV vkWijsVj ds cka;s Hkkx esa ges’kk osfj;scy dk gh iz;ksx djsaxAs bls nks Hkkxksa esa foHkDr fd;k x;k gS% ljy rFkk dEikm.M vlkbueSUVA ljy vlkbueSUV vkWijsVj (=) dsoy eku dks osfj;scy esa LVksj djrk gSA ;g fdlh izdkj dh Vkbi dkfLVax ugha djrkA bldh ,lksfl,VhfoVh nka;s ls cka;s gksrh gSA double a, b = 3.3; const double PIE = 3.14; a + b = b; a = b; P sin(30) = a+b; a = 2.3; P a = b + 1.3; P PIE = a + b; 2.3 = a + b; a = PIE; P a = sqrt (9.0); P

O // can’t use expression on LHS O // can’t use function on LHS O // can’t use constant on LHS

O // can’t use Literal on LHS

ge ,d eku dks ,d ls vf/kd osfj;scy esa fdlh ,d le; esa LVksj djok ldrs gSA bl izdkj vlkbueSUV vkWijsVj dk mi;ksx bfuf’kykbZt’s ku (initialization) esa gksrk gSA a = b = c = d = e = 10;

lkekU;r;k ge vlkbueSUV vkWijsVj ds cka;s Hkkx esa fdlh vkWijsVj dk mi;ksx ugha dj ldrs tcfd izh fQDl bUØhesUV vkSj fMØhesUV vkWijsVj dk mi;ksx dj ldrs gSA iksLVfQDl bUØhesUV fMØhesUV dk mi;ksx ugha dj ldrsA int a = 2, b = 3, c = 4; ++a = ++b = ++c = 5; P // correct cout << a <<“ “<< b <<“ “<< c;

int a = 2, b = 3, c = 4; a++ = b++ = c++ = 5; O // Wrong a-- = b-- = c-- = 5; O // Wrong

OUTPUT: 5 5 5

mijksDr mnkgj.k esa vkWijsVj dks nka;s ls cka;h fn’kk esa gy djrk gSA igys ;wujh dks gy djrk gS rRi’pkr~ vlkbueSUV dksA blfy, mijksDr mnkgj.k esa ;wujh vkWijsVj dk gy ij dksbZ izHkko ugha iM+rkA Compound Assignmnet: ;fn vlkbueSUV vkWijsVj ds nka;s rFkk cka;s Hkkx esa leku osfj;scy dk mi;ksx fd;k gS rks mls dEikm.M vlkbueSUV esa cnyk tk ldrk gSA ftlds fy, ge nka;s Hkkx okys osfj;scy dks gVkdj mlds ckbujh vkWijsVj dks vlkbueSUV ds izhfQDl esa fcuk [kkyh LFkku ds yxk nsrs gSA dEikm.M vlkbueSUV ,DlizS’ku dks nka;s ls cka;s LVksj djus

AglaSem School 33

ds fy, Lor% dkfLVax mi;ksx dj ysrk gS ¼vxj bldh vko’;drk gks rksA½ Simple assignment

Equivlent Compound Assignment

a=a+b a=a-b a=a*b a=a/b a=a%b a = a <> b a=a&b a=a^b a=a|b

a += b a -= b a *= b a /= b a %= b a <<= b a >>= b a &= b a ^= b a |= b

vlkbueSUV ds nkSjku C++ }kjk ,DlizS’ku gy djus dk rjhdk (Way of solving expression by C++ during Assignment)

;g osfj;scy dh ?kks"k.kk ds oDr rFkk ckn esa LVksj djus okys ,DlizS’ku dks vyx&vyx rjhds ls gy djrk gSA osfj;scy dh ?kks"k.kk ds oDr vlkbueSUV djuk (Assignment during variable declaration): 1. ckbujh vkWijsVj ds vksijsUM ds eku dks cka;s ls nka;h fn’kk dh rjQ j[krk gS rFkk vkWijsUM dk eku j[krs oDr ;wujh (++, --) vkWijsVj dks Hkh gy dj ysrk gSA iksLVfQDl ;wujh vkWijsVj vksijsUM esa eku j[kus ds i’pkr~ gy gksrk gS tcfd izh fQDl ;wujh vkWijsVj igys gy gksrk gS ckn esa vkWijsUM esa eku j[krk gSA 2. ckbujh vkWijsVj ds vkWijsUM dk eku j[kus ds i’pkr~ ;g ckbujh vkWijsVj dks mudh ojh;rk ds vuqlkj gy djrk gSA (means *,/,% solve first, after that it solve +,-) int a = 2; int b = a++ + ++a + a++ * a + a; // storing exp. value during dec. cout <
dks gy ugha djrkA 3. ;g ckbujh vkWijsVj dks mudh ojh;rk ds vuqlkj gy djrk gSA rFkk iksLV fQDl vkWijsVj dks gy ugha djrkA 4. gy dh xbZ eku dks cka;s Hkkx ds osfj;scy esa LVksj djrk gSA 5. var esa lHkh iksLV fQDl vkWijsVj dks gy djrk gSA int a = 2, b; b = a++ + ++a + a++ * a + a; // storing exp. value after dec. cout <
ge baVhxzy osfj;scy esa Boolean eku (true, false) LVksj dj ldrs gSA baVhtj esa true dks LVksj djrs oDr og 1 (one) esa cny ysrk gS rFkk false dks LVksj djrs oDr 0 (zero) esa cny ysrk gSA int a = 5 < 3; // condition is false, so it stores zero into a int a = 5==3; // condition is false, so it stores zero into a int a = 5!=3; // condition is true, so it stores one into a

,DlSI’ku QSadus okyk vkWijsVj (Exception throw Operator) bl vkWijsVj dk mi;ksx try CykWd ls fdlh ,DlSI’ku dks QSadus (throw) ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA QSadk x;k ,DlSI’ku lgh catch LVsVeSUV }kjk idM+ fy;k tkrk gSA ;fn QSads x, ,DlSI’ku dk catch djus okys MkVk Vkbi ls lgh feyku ugha gks ikrk gS rks og lgh feyku ds fy, Lor% Vkbi izeksV djrk gS tc rd lgh feyku u gks tk,A

AglaSem School 34 try { if ( a=b cout<< “ Double type exception cached”; }

dksek vkWijsVj (Comma Operator) ;g lcls fuEu ojh;rk dk vkWijsVj gS ftldk iz;ksx ,d ls vf/kd daMh’ku] ,d ls vf/kd bfuf’kykbZt’s ku rFkk ,d ls vf/kd ,DlizS’ku fy[kus ds mi;ksx esa vkrk gSA bldk mi;ksx ,d ls vf/kd osfj;scy rFkk vkWCtSDV dh ?kks"k.kk esa Hkh fd;k tkrk gSA int a, b, c; // multiple variable declaration Abc obj1, obj2, obj3; // multiple object declaration // Multiple initialization, conditions, and expression in for loop for (int i, j, k ; i<2, j<3, k<4 ; i++, j++, k++ ) { } while (a<2, b<3, c<5) { }

;fn ge ywi esa ,d ls vf/kd daMh’ku dk mi;ksx djrs gSa rks vafre nak;h daMh’ku gh ywi dks pykus ds dke vkrh gSA vU; cka;s Hkkx dh daMh’ku dk dksbZ mi;ksx ugha gksrkA mijksDr while ywi esa ;fn c<5 daMh’ku true gS rks gh ywi tkjh jgsxk pkgs a<2 ;k@vkSj b<3 false cu tk,A bldk mi;ksx ,d ls vf/kd vlkbueSUV esa Hkh fd;k tkrk gS tks vlkbueSUV dks nka;s ls cka;s rFkk dksek vkWijsVj dks cka;s ls nka;s gy djrk gSA int a=1, b=2, c=3, d=4, e=5; a = b = (c = 5, d = c+3, e = 6); cout <
mijksDr mnkgj.k esa vlkbueSUV rFkk dksek vkWijsVj fuEu izdkj ls gy gksrs gS% 1. 2. 3. 4 5

first second third fourth fifth

c=5 c = d+3, means c = 5+3, so d=8 e=6 b = 6, means last assignment in ( ) a = b, means a=6

,ytSfczd ,DlizS’ku dk C++ ds ,DlizS’ku esa ifjorZu (Algebraic Expression to C++ Expression Conversion)

vius jkstejkZ dh leL;k dks gy djus esa ge ges’kk ,ytSfczd lw= dk mi;ksx djrs gSaA ;g lw= lh/ks dEI;wVj }kjk gy ugha fd;s tk ldrs blfy, gesa budks C++ Hkk"kk ds ,DlizS’ku esa ifjofrZr djuk vfuok;Z gksrk gSA ,ytSfczd ,DlizS’ku dks C++ ,DlizS’ku esa ifjofrZr djus ds fu;e fuEu izdkj gS% 1. ,ytSfczd fpUg rFkk dkWUlVSUV dks ljy vaxst z h ’kCn esa cny ysuk pkfg, tks dh cksMZ ;k C++ ds dSjsDVj lewg esa miyC/k ugha gS a b g p q h

ALPHA BITA GAMA PIE THITA NITA

w y f W µ d

OMEGA CYE PHY OMEGA MUE DELTA

AglaSem School 35 s

l

NEW

LEMDA

2. fuEu lwfp ds vuqlkj ,ytSfczd QaD’ku dks lerqY; C++ QaD’ku esa cny ysuk pkfg,A lHkh ykbczjs h QaD’ku math.h gSMj Qkby esa miyC/k gSA fact(n) ;wtj fMQkabM QaD’ku gS tks C++ dh ykbczsjh esa ugha gSA Algebraic Function

Equivalent C++ Function

Example

Result

Öx ëxû éxù ïxô sin x cos x sin-1x cos-1x ex logex log10x xy ën

sqrt(x) floor(x) ceil(x) mod(x) sin(x) cos(x) asin(x) acos(x) exp(x) log(x) log10(x) pow(x,y) fact(n)

sqrt(9.0) floor(2.99) ceil(2.001) mod(-23.3) sin(30.0) cos(30.0) asin(0.2) acos(0.2) exp(3.0) log(2.0) log10(2.0) pow(2.0,3.0) fact(3)

3.0 2 3 23.3 -0.988 0.154 0.201 1.369 20.08 0.693 0.301 8.0 6

3. ;fn fMohtu (/) vkWijsVj ds lkFk baVhxzy fyVjy dk mi;ksx fd;k x;k gS rks mls ¶yksfVax iksbUV fyVjy esa cny ysuk

pkfg,A bl izdkj ge baVhtj fMokbM ckb baVhtj ls cp ldrs gS] tks ges’kk ifj.kke baVhtj esa gh nsrk gSA a/3

convert into

a / 3.0

4. fMohtu vkWijsVj ds va’k rFkk gj ,Dlizs'ku dks isjsfU;fll esa fy[k ysuk pkfg,A 5. ge fdrus Hkh iSjkfFkfll iz;ksx dj ldrs gSa ¼tc vko’;drk gksA½ 6. ’kq# gksus okys rFkk can gksus okys czSfdV leku gksus pkfg,A 7. Lor% dHkh Hkh eYVhfQds’ku ugha gksrk blfy, gesa eYVhiyhds’ku ds fy, (*) vkWijsVj dk mi;ksx djuk pkfg,A s (s-a) (s-b) (s-c) s*(s-a)*(s-b)*(s-c)

// wrong // correct

8. C++ QaD’ku dks vkX;wZeUs V@eku Hkstus ds fy, ges’kk isjsfU;fll dk iz;ksx djuk pkfg,A sqrt 9 sqrt (9)

// wrong // correct

9. vlkbueSUV (=) vkWijsVj ds cka;s Hkkx esa ges’kk osfj;scy dk iz;ksx djuk pkfg,A dsoy izh fQDl bUØhesUV] fMØhesUV

vkWijsVj cka;s Hkkx esa ekU; gksxkA a + b = c + d; // wrong a = c + d – b; // correct ++a = c +d - b; // correct

10. dkWUlVSUV dks ges’kk cM+s v{kjksa esa fy[kuk pkfg;s rkfd bls osfj;scy ls fHkUu izdkj ls igpkuk tk ldsA ,d ls vf/kd ’kCnksa okys dkWUlVSUV ds uke ds chp vUMjLdksj (_) dk iz;ksx djuk pkfg,A a = b + pie; // bad way a = b + PIE; // best way to use a = b + MAX_NO; // multiple words constant

11. osfj;scy rFkk dkWUlVSUV dk uke dk;Z ls feyrk&tqyrk gksuk pkfg,A ge iwjk uke ;k dk;Z ds uke dk igyk v{kj dk

iz;ksx dj ldrs gSA jSUMe rFkk csrqdk uke iz;ksx ugha djuk pkfg,A ,d ls vf/kd ’kCnksa okys osfj;scy ds uke esa ’kCn dk igyk v{kj cM+k gksuk pkfg, tSls f=Hkqt dk {ks=Qy Kkr djus ds fy, ge fuEu izdkj ls uke dk iz;ksx djsax%s int a; int area; int AreaOfTriangle;

// best way for naming // best way for naming // best way for naming

AglaSem School 36 int x;

// bad way for naming

Examples: Sr. No

Algebraic Equation

Equivalent C++ Expression

1.

x + Öy --------- p a 2 + b3

((x+sqrt(y)) / ((pow(ALPHA,2) + pow(BITA,3)))* PIE

2.

expx + ex ---------Öxy ÷ l

(floor(x) + exp(x)) / (sqrt(pow(x,y)) / LEMDA)

3.

|x|* sinq ------------a +b+g

(mod(x) * sin(THITA)) / (ALPHA + BITA + GAMA)

4.

1 1+ -------------1 1 + --------1+x

5.

x + max_no ---------------!n ÷ p

1 + 1 / ( 1 + 1 / ( 1 + x ))

(x + MAX_NO) / (fact(n) / PIE)

uSlVsM+ daVªksy LVsVeSUV (Nested Control Statement) ge fdlh daVkª y s LVsVeSUV dh ckWMh esa vU; fdrus Hkh daVªky s LVsVeSUV fy[k ldrs gS] bl izdkj dh O;oLFkk dks uSlfVM daVªky s LVsVeSUV dgrs gSA ge fdrus Hkh uSlfVM Lrj dk mi;ksx dj ldrs gSA uSlfVM daVªky s LVsVeSUV dk iz;ksx fdlh leL;k esa ,d ls vf/kd daMh’ku tk¡pus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA vanj okyk daVªky s LVsVeSUV rHkh fu"ikfnr gksrk gS tc ckgj okyk daVªky s LVsVeSUV true gksA vanj ds daVªky s LVsVeSUV esa fy[ks x, LVsVeSUVl rHkh fu"ikfnr gksrs gS tc nksuksa ¼vanj vkSj ckgj½ gh daMh’ku true gks If within if dks uSlfVM if, switch within switch dks uSlfVM switch rFkk for within for dks uSlfVM for dgrs gSA Nested if if ( condition1) { // outer if ———— if (condition2) { // inner if ———— } ———— }

Nested switch switch(exp1) { // outer switch ———— switch(exp2) { // inner switch ———— } ———— }

ge uSlfVM for ywi esa fdlh ,d for ywi esa fdrus Hkh for ywi fy[k ldrs gSa tcfd izR;sd for ywi dk osfj;scy vyx&vyx gksuk pkfg,A for (int i=1; i<=10; i++) { // outer for loop with loop variable i for(int j=2; i<=5; j++) { // inner for loop with different loop variable j cout<< j <<“X”<< i <<“=”<< i * j;

AglaSem School 37 } }

jsQjsUl osfj;scy (Reference Variable) igys C esa nks izdkj ds osfj;scy gksrs gS%a ukWu&iksbUVj rFkk iksbUVj osfj;scyA C++ ,d u;s izdkj ds osfj;scy izLrqr djrk gS ftls jsQjsUl osfj;scy dgrs gSA ;g iwoZ ?kksf"kr osfj;scy dks vyVjusVho uke (alias) nsrk gS vFkkZr~ ge ,d gh eSeksjh yksd’s ku dks ,d ls vf/kd uke ns ldrs gSA ge ?kks"k.kk ds oDr osfj;scy ds uke ls igys & fpUg dk iz;ksx djrs gSA ;g ?kks"k.kk ds oDr fdlh osfj;scy }kjk vo’; bfuf’kykbZt gksuk pkfg,A jsQjsUl osfj;scy dks ,SMªl vlkbZu gksus okys osfj;scy ds ,SMªl ls leku gksrk gSA data_type & ref_var_name = variable_name; int a = 10; int &p = a; // create ref./alias of variable a cout <
ge vLFkk;h rkSj ij dkaLVSUV] fyVjy dks jSQjsUl osfj;scy esa vlkbu dj ldrs gS tcfd ge dkaLVSUV dks cny ugha ldrsA const int MAX=10; int &p = MAX; // temp. assign MAX to p cout<
jSQjsUl osfj;scy dks fdlh ,Sjs ds lClfØIV uEcj dk ,fy;kl cuk ldrs gS] tSlkfd lkekU; osfj;scy esa cukrs gSA int a[10] = {0}; // initialize all elements with zero int &p = a[2]; // create alias of array subscript no 2 cout<
bldk eq[; mi;ksx QaD’ku dks vkX;wZeUs V jSQjsUl }kjk Hkstus esa fd;k tkrk gS] dkWih dalVªDVj esa bls Lo;a dh Dykl ds vkWCtSDV ds jSQjsUl }kjk ikl fd;k tkrk gSA Argument by value void swap(int a, int b){ int temp; temp = a; a = b; b = temp; } void main() {

Argument by Pointer void swap(int *a, int *b){ int temp; temp = *a; *a = *b; *b = temp; } void main() {

Argument by Reference void swap(int &a, int int temp; temp = a; a = b; b = a; } void main() {

&b){

AglaSem School 38 int a=2, b=3; swap(a, b); cout<
int a=2, b=3; swap(&a,& b) cout<
int a=2, b=3; swap(a, b); cout<
C++ Dykl ds mnkgj.k (Examples of C++ Class) 1. C++ esa ,d izksxkz e fyf[k;s tks vk/kkj rFkk Å¡pkbZ dk mi;ksx djrs gq, fdlh f=Hkqt dk {ks=Qy Kkr djsa\ #include class Triangle { private: int base, height; float area; public: void read() { cin>>base>>height; area = (base*height)/2.0; } void show() { cout<<"Area = "<
OUTPUT: Area = 7.5 OUTPUT: Area = 10.5

2. C++ esa izkx s zke fyf[k, tks fdlh fo|kFkhZ dk ifj.kke iznf’kZr djs ftlesa vf/kdre vad 50 gks\ #include class Result { private: int marks; // marks obtained out of 50 float pert; // percentage public: void read() { cin>>marks; pert = (marks/50.0)*100.0; } void show() { if (pert<33.0) { cout<<"Fail"; }else if (pert>=33.0 && pert<50.0) { cout<<"Pass"; }else if (pert>=50.0 && pert<60.0) { cout<<"Second Division"; }else if (pert>=60.0 && pert<75.0) {

AglaSem School 39 cout<<"First Division"; }else { cout<<"First with Hons."; } } }; void main() { Result obj; obj.read(); obj.show(); } INPUT: 15 INPUT: 19 INPUT: 27 INPUT: 32 INPUT: 45

OUTPUT: OUTPUT: OUTPUT: OUTPUT: OUTPUT:

Fail Pass Second Division First Division First with Hons.

vH;kl iz’u cgq p ;ukRed iz ’u& 1. fuEu izksxzke [k.M dk vkmViqV D;k gksxk\ int i=130; char c = i; i = c; cout << i;

(v½ 130 (c) -130 (l) -126 2. fuEu izksxzke ds [k.M dk vkmViqV D;k gksxk\ int a=1, b=2, c=3, d=4, e; a = b = (c=2, d= 3, e=c+d); cout << a; (c) 3 (l) 4 (v½) 2

(n) 126

(n) 5

3. fuEu izksxzke ds [k.M dk vkmViqV D;k gksxk\ int i=2; cout << ++i << "," << i++ << "," << i; (c) 3,3,4 (l) 4,2,2 (n) 4,4,4 (v½) 2,3,4 4. fuEu izksxzke ds [k.M dk vkmViqV D;k gksxk\ int a=2, b=3, c; c = a+++b; cout << c; (c) 4 (l) 5 (n) 6 (v½) 3 5. fuEu izksxzke ds [k.M dk vkmViqV D;k gksxk\ int a=2, b=5, c; c = a+------b; cout << c; (c) 3 (l) 4 (n) 5 (v½) 2 6. fuEu izksxkz e ds [k.M dk vkmViqV D;k gksxk\ for(int a=2 , b=3 ; a<4 , b<6 ; a++ , b++); cout << a<< "," << b; (v½) 2,3 (c) 3,4 (l) 4,5 (n) 5,6

AglaSem School 40 7.

fuEu izksxkz e ds [k.M dk vkmViqV D;k gksxk\ int a = 2; if ( !0<0 ) { a = 3;} else { a = 4; } a++; cout << a; (v½) 3 (c) 4

8.

(n) 6

fuEu izksxkz e ds [k.M dk vkmViqV D;k gksxk\ int a=2==3; a++; cout << a; (v½) 0

9.

(l) 5

(c) 1

(l) 2

(n) 3

fuEu izksxkz e ds [k.M dk vkmViqV D;k gksxk\ int a = 2; float b = 0.9; if(b < 0.9) { ++a = 3; } else { ++a = 4; } cout << a; (v½) 2 (c) 3

(l) 4

(n) 5

10. fuEu izksxkz e ds [k.M dk vkmViqV D;k gksxk\ int a = 12; int b = 012; int c = 0x12; cout << (a+b+c); (c) 12 (l) 36 (n) 40 (v½) 0

vfry?kq Ù kjkred iz ’ u& 1. fdUgha pkj ;wujh vkWijsVj ds uke nhft,A 2. fdUgha pkj ckbujh vkWijsVj ds uke nhft,A 3. fdUgha pkj vlkbueSUV vkWijsVj ds uke nhft,A 4. fdUgha nks eSeksjh fMjSQjSUl vkWijsVj ds uke nhft,A 5. fdUgha pkj vkWijsVj ds uke nhft, tks MkVk dks ykus esa dke vkrk gSA y?kqÙkjkred iz ’u& 1. Dykl dks ifjHkkf"kr dhft,A 2. vkWCtSDV dks ifjHkkf"kr dhft,A 3. ,udSilwys’ku dks ifjHkkf"kr dhft,A 4. bugSfjVSUl dks ifjHkkf"kr dhft,A 5. iksfyeksjfQTe dks ifjHkkf"kr dhft,A fuca / kkRed iz ’ u& 1. vytScfjd ,DlizS’ku dks C++ ,DlizS’ku esa ifjofrZr djus ds fy, pkj fu;eksa dks fyf[k,A 2. scanf() QaD’ku vkSj cin esa vUrj crykb;saA 3. printf() QaD’ku vkSj cout esa vUrj dks crykb;sA 4. C++ Hkk"kk ds fofHkUu ,lsl eksfMQk;j dks crykb;sA mÙkjekyk 1. l 6. l

2. n 7. l

3. l 8. c

4. l 9. c

5. l 10. n

AglaSem School 41

v/;k;&2 dUlVªDVj rFkk MsLVªDVj (Constructors and Destructors) dbZ ckj ge vkWCtSDV mRiUu gksus ds rqjUr ckn rFkk vkWCtSDV ds u"V gksus ds iwoZ dqN dk;Z djuk pkgrs gSA C++ dh Dykl esa nks ,slh lqfo/kk gS ftuds }kjk ge mijksDr dk;Z dj ldrs gSA ;g dUlVªDVj vkSj MsLVªDVj gSA dUlVªDVj Lor% gh fu"ikfnr gks tkrk gS tc vkWCtSDV mRiUu gksrk gSA blh izdkj MsLVªDVj Hkh Lor% fu"ikfnr gksrk gS tc vkWCtSDV u"V gksrk gS ;k Ldksi ls ckgj ¼ckn esa ftldh dksbZ vko’;drk u gks½ pyk tkrk gSA ;s Dykl ds fo’ks"k izdkj ds eSEcj QaD’ku gksrs gSA bu lqfo/kkvksa ds }kjk ;g ;wtj ds fy, lqfo/kktud gksrk gS fd vkWCtSDV mRifÙk ds le; Lor% gh bfuf’k;ykbt gks tkrk gS rFkk u"V gksus ij Lor% gh lHkh L=ksr eqDr dj nsrk gSA dUlVªDVj (Constructors) dUlVªDVj ,d eSEcj eSFkM gS tks vkWCtSDV dh mRifÙk ds oDr Lor% gh fu"ikfnr gksrk gSA dUlVªDVj vkWCtSDV dks mRifÙk ds oDr Lor% bfuf’kykbZt djus dh lqfo/kk iznku djrk gSA bls vkWCtSDV dk Lor% bfuf’kykbZt’s ku Hkh dgrs gaSA ;g vkWCtSDV mRifÙk ds rqjUr ckn fu"ikfnr gksrk gS] bldk uke Dykl ds uke ds leku gksrk gSA bls vksojyksM dj ldrs gaSA bldk dksbZ Hkh fjVZu Vkbi ugha gksrk] ;g Lor% Dykl ds izdkj dks gh fjVZu djrk gSA ;g ges’kk ckgj ls gh cqyk;k tkrk gS blfy, bldk ,lsl eksfMQk;j izkbosV ugha gksuk pkfg,] blfy;s ge mls vf/kdrj ifCyd j[krs gaSA vxj ge dksbZ Hkh dUlVªDVj ugha fy[krs gaS rks dEikbyj Lor% gh ’kwU; vkX;wZeUs V dUlVªDVj fcuk fdlh dher ij iznku dj nsrk gSaA tSls gh ,d ckj ’kwU; vkX;wZeUs V ds vykok vU; dUlVªDVj cuk fy;k tkrk gS rc dEikbyj gesa ’kwU; vkX;wZeUs V dUlVªDVj iznku ugha djrkA fofHkUu izdkj ds dUlVªDVj fp= 1 esa n’kkZ;s x;s gSA // A class without Constructor # include class Abc { private: int a; public: void show() { // member method cout<
// A class with constructor # include class Abc { private: int a; public: Abc(void) { // constructor cout<<“Executing Const.”; } }; void main() { Abc obj; // call zero argument // constructor }

OUTPUT: Garbage value

OUTPUT: Executing Const.

dUlVªDVj QaD’ku dh fuEu fo’ks"krk,a gksrh gSa % 1. mudk uke Dykl ds uke ds leku gksuk pkfg,A 2. mudk ,lsl eksfMQk;j ifCyd gksuk pkfg,A 3. mudk dksbZ Hkh fjVZu Vkbi ugha gksuk pkfg,A ;gk¡ rd fd void Hkh ugha gksuk pkfg,A os Lor% Dykl Vkbi dks fjVZu

AglaSem School 42

djrs gSaA 4. bUgsa vksojyksM fd;k tk ldrk gSA 5. Mªkbo Dykl }kjk os bugsfjV (inherit) ugha fd;s tk ldrs] mUgsa Mªkbo Dykl ds dUlVªDVj ls cqyk;k tk ldrk gSA 6. ;s vkWCtSDV mRifÙk ds rqjUr ckn fu"ikfnr gksrs gSaA 7. ;s vkWQykWbu eSFkM dh rjg Hkh fy[ks tk ldrs gaSA 8. os virtual ¼,slk eSFkM ftldh dksbZ ckWMh ugha gksrh] ckWMh dks Mªkbo Dykl esa ?kksf"kr fd;k tkrk gS virtual eSFkM dgykrk gS½ izdkj ugha gks ldrsA iSjkehVjkbtM dUlVªDVj (Parameterized Constructors) ge vkWCtSDV mRifÙk ds oDr eSEcj osfj;scy dks fofHkUu eku ls bfuf’k;ykbt djokuk pkgrs gSaA ;s eku dUlVªDVj }kjk Hksts tkrs gSAa bl izdkj ds dUlVªDVj dks iSjkehVjkbtM dUlVªDVj dgrs gS] vFkkZr~ ,sls dUlVªDVj tks eku dks vkX;wZeUs V dh rjg ysrs gS] iSjkehVj dUlVªDVj gksrs gSaA ’kwU; vkX;wZesUV dUlVªDVj (Zero Argument Constructor): ’kwU; vkX;wZeUs V dUlVªDVj ¼fcuk iSjkehVj½ vkWCtSDV mRifÙk ds oDr fofHkUu eku iznku ugha djrsA vxj ;wtj fdlh izdkj dk dUlVªDVj ugha fy[krk gS rks ;s Lor% gh dEikbyj }kjk mRiUu gks tkrs gSA # include class Abc { private: int a; public: Abc( ) { cout<
O

// Give error

}

’kwU; vkX;wZeUs V dUlVªDVj Lo;a gh eSEcj osfj;scy dks eku iznku djrk gSA cqykus okys izksxzke }kjk fdlh izdkj dk eku ugha Hkstk tkrkA ,dy vkX;wZesUV dUlVªDVj (Single Argument Constructor) bl izdkj ds dUlVªDVj vkWCtSDV mRifÙk ds oDr ,d iSjkehVj ysrs gSa vkSj og iSjkehVj eSEcj osfj;scy dks bfuf’k;ykbt djus ds fy, iz;ksx esa fy;k tkrk gSA # include class Abc { private: int a; public: Abc(int a ) { cout<a = a; // use “this” pointer if member variable and local

AglaSem School 43 // variable have same name } void show() { cout<
O P P P P

// can’t automatic create zero constructor now // calls one argument constructor, supply value 4 // calls one argument constructor, supply value 5 // calls member method // calls member method

}

mijksDr mnkgj.k esa geus ’kwU; vkX;wZeUs V dUlVªDVj ugha cuk;k gS dsoy ,dy vkX;wZeUs V dUlVªDVj gh cuk;k gSA blfy, bl ifjfLFkfr esa dEikbyj gekjs fy, ’kwU; vkX;wZeUs V dUlVªDVj ugha cuk,xkA ;fn dUlVªDVj ;k eSFkM ds yksdy osfj;scy dk uke eSEcj osfj;scy ds leku gks rc eSEcj osfj;scy fNi tkrk gSA blfy, ge eSEcj osfj;scy dks i<+us ds fy, “this” iksbUVj dk iz;ksx djrs gSaA f} vkX;wZesUV dUlVªDVj (Two Argument Constructor) bl izdkj ds dUlVªDVj vkWCtSDV mRifÙk ds oDr nks iSjkehVj ysrs gS tks eSEcj osfj;scy dks bfuf’kykbt djus ds dke vkrs gSaA # include class Abc { private: int a, b; public: Abc(int a, int b) { cout<a = a; this->b = b; } void show() { cout<
P P P P

// calls two argument constructor, supply values 3 & 4 // calls two argument constructor, supply values 5 &, 6 // calls member method using object y // calls member method using object z

}

fMQkWYV vkX;wZesUV dUlVªDVj (Default Argument Constructor) ;g lEHko gS fd dUlVªDVj dks fMQkWYV vkX;wZeUs V fn, tk ldrs gS vxj dkWfyax izkx s zke fMQkWYV vkX;wZeUs V ikl ugha djrk gS rks fMQkWYV eku ls eSEcj osfj;scy dks Lor% bfuf’kykbt dj nsrk gSA # include

AglaSem School 44 class Abc { private: int a, b, c; public: Abc(int a=10, int b=20, int c=30 ) { this->a = a; this->b = b; this->c = c; } void show() { cout<
dUlVªDVj vksojyksfMax (Constructors Overloading) ,d ls vf/kd dUlVªDVj ftuesa fofHkUu iSjkehVj ;k fofHkUu izdkj ds vkX;wZeUs V gks dUlVªDVj vksojyksfMax dgykrk gSaA dUlVªDVj vksojyksfMax }kjk ge fofHkUu MkVk ds lkFk vkWCtSDV dh mRifÙk dj ldrs gSaA # include class Abc { private: int a,b,c; public: Abc( ) { cout<a = this->b = this->c = a; } Abc(int a, int b ) { cout<a = a; this->b = b; this->c = a + b; } Abc(int a, int b, int c ) { cout<a = a;

AglaSem School 45 this->b = b; this->c = c; } void show() { cout<
dkWih dUlVªDVj (Copy Constructor) ,slk dUlVªDVj tks Lo;a dh Dykl dk jsQjsUl ysrk gks dkWih dUlVªDVj dgykrk gSA geus cgqr ckj vlkbuesUV vkWijsVj iz;ksx fd;k gS tks ,d vkWCtSDV dks eSEcj ckb eSEcj (member by member) nwljs esa dkWih djrk gSA ;g vlkbueSUV vkWijsVj dk fMQkWYV dk;Z gSA obj2 = obj1;

ge ,d vkWCtSDV ls nwljs vkWCtSDV dks vkWCtSDV mRifÙk ds oDr bfuf’kykbt djok ldrs gSaA dEikbyj u;k vkWCtSDV2 (obj2) cukrs oDr vkWCtSDV1 (obj1) dks eSEcj ckb eSEcj dkWih djrk gSA ;g dkWih dUlVªDVj dk fMQkWYV dk;Z gSA dkWih dUlVªDVj }kjk dkWih bfuf’kykbts’ku dk dk;Z djokus dks dkWih bfuf’kykbtsa’ku dgrs gSaA Abc obj2(obj1);

;fn ge tfVy izdkj dh dkWih djokuk pkgrs gS] rks gesa dkWih dUlVªDVj Lo;a }kjk (explicit) fy[kuk gksxkA dkWih dUlVªDVj Lo;a dh Dykl ds vkWCtSDV dks jSQjsUl }kjk vkX;weZ Us V ysrk gS vFkkZr~ dkWih dUlVªDVj Lo;a Dykl izdkj ds vkWCtSDV }kjk vU; vkWCtSDV dks bfuf’kykbt djokrk gSA # include class Abc { private: int a; public: Abc(int a) { this->a = a; } }; void main( ) { Abc obj1(10); Abc obj2(obj1); // compiler invoke default copy constructor free of cost Abc obj3 = obj2; // compiler invoke default copy constructor free of cost obj1 = obj2; // compiler invoke default assignment operator free of cost }

ge fdlh ,d vkWCtSDV dks nwljs vkWCtSDV }kjk ifjHkkf"kr rFkk bfuf’k;ykbt djus ds fy, fuEu nks dFkuksa dk iz;ksx djrs gSa %

AglaSem School 46 Abc obj2(obj1); Abc obj3 = obj2;

// copy initialization // copy initialization, alternative syntax

mijksDr nksuksa rjhds dkWih dUlVªDVj ds gSa tks vius vkWX;weZ Us V dks u;s vkWCtSDV esa dkWih djrs gSaA ;g vlkbueSUV vkWijsVj tSlk gh gSa ijUrq vUrj ;g gS fd dkWih dUlVªDVj u;k vkWCtSDV Hkh rS;kj djrk gSA # include class Abc { private: int a; public: Abc( ) { } // zero argument constructor Abc(int a) { // one argument constructor this->a = a; } Abc (Abc &obj) { // copy constructor a = obj.a*2; cout<
mijksDr izksxkz e esa dUlVªDVj vksojyksfMax gSA dkWih dUlVªDVj Abc Dykl ds vkWCtSDV dks jSQjsUl dh rjg vkX;wZeUs V ysrk gSA Abc (Abc &obj) { } P // correct copy constructor ge dkWih dUlVªDVj esa vkX;wZeUs V dks eku (value) }kjk ugha Hkst ldrsA Abc (Abc obj) { } O // wrong copy constructors tc fdlh QaD’ku dks vkWCtSDV eku (value) }kjk Hkstk tkrk gS rks dkWih dUlVªDVj dkWy gksrk gSA ;g vkWCtSDV dh

MqIyhdsV izfr cukrk gS ftls og QaD’ku mlesa iz;ksx djrk gSA void func (Abc obj) ;

// argument by value to function

;fn QaD’ku dks vkWCtSDV jSQjsUl ¼;k iksbUVj½ }kjk Hkstk tk, rks dkWih dUlVªDVj dkWy ugha gksrkA void func(Abc *obj);

// argument by pointer to function

Mk;ukfed dUlVªDVj (Dynamic Constructors) vkWCtSDV mRifÙk ds oDr dUlVªDVj eSeksjh ,yksd’s ku dk dk;Z Hkh djus ds fy, iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA ;g flLVe dks lgh le; ij lgh eSeksjh izR;sd vkWCtSDV dks iznku djrk gSA eSEcj osfj;scy dks vkWCtSDV mRifÙk ds oDr eSeksjh ,yksdVs djus okys dUlVªDVj dks Mk;ukfed dUlVªDVj dgrs gSaA // Program for reading and concatenation of multiple words string # include # include class String { private: char *name; int size; public:

AglaSem School 47 String () { name = NULL; size = 0; } String (char *str) { // dynamic constructor size = strlen(str); name = new char[size+1]; strcpy(name,str); } void read() { cin.get(name, 80); // read multiple words string } void join(String &s1, String &s2) { // concat two string size = s1.size + s2.size; delete name; name = new char[size+1]; strcpy(name,s1.name); strcat(name,s2.name); } void show() { cout<
MsLVªDVj (Destructors) ;g ,d ,slk eSEcj eSFkM gS tks vkWCtSDV ds Ldksi ls ckgj gksus ij mls u"V dj nsrk gS bldk uke Dykl ds uke ds leku gksrk gS ijUrq izh fQDl esa ~ (tilde) fpUg dk iz;ksx djrs gSa] bldk dksbZ Hkh fjVZu Vkbi ugha gksrk ;gka rd fd void Hkh ugha gksrkA ge MsLVªDVj dks vksojyksM ugha dj ldrsA ;g ges’kk ifCyd gksuk pkfg, D;ksafd tc vkWCtSDV dh dksbZ t#jr ugha gksrh rc ;g Lor% gh ckgj ls fu"ikfnr gksrk gSA lkekU;r;k ;g eSeksjh eqDr djus ¼tks dUlVªDVj us ,yksdVs dh gS½] [kqyh Qkby dks cUn djus ds dke vkrk gSA // Program for 1D dynamic array creation, reading, printing and sorting # include # include class Array { private: int *a; int n; public: Array(int n ) { // dynamic constructor this->n = n; a = new int[n]; // dynamic allocate memory to 1D array

AglaSem School 48 cout <>a[i]; } } void Array::sort() { for(int i=0; ia[j]) swap(a[i], a[j]); } } } void Array::print() { for(int i=0; i
AglaSem School 49

ÝSaM QaD’ku (Friend Functions) MkVk fNikus rFkk MkVk ,udSIlwys’ku dh vo/kkj.kk ds vuqlkj ge ckgj ls izkbosV rFkk izksVDs VsM eSEcj dks ugha i<+ ldrsA ,d QaD’ku tks fdlh Dykl ds izkbosV eSEcj dks vkWCtSDV }kjk ¼uk fd lh/kk eSEcj eSFkM dh rjg½ i<+ ldrk gS] ÝSM a QaD’ku dgykrk gSA ,sls QaD’ku ds izksVksVkbi “friend” dhoMZ }kjk QaD’ku ds uke ds izh fQDl esa yxkus ls ?kksf"kr fd;k tkrk gSA QaD’ku dh ifjHkk"kk Dykl ds ckgj lk/kkj.k vkWQykWbu eSFkM }kjk fy[kh tkrh gSA ÝSM a QaD’ku Dykl ds lnL; ugha gksr]s os lkekU; ckgjh QaD’ku gksrs gSa ftudks dqN fo’ks"k vf/kdkj feys gksrs gSA os Dykl ds Ldksi esa ugha jgrs] mUgsa vkWCtSDV rFkk Dykl ds uke ds }kjk lySD’ku vkWijsVj (. or ->) }kjk ugha i<+k tk ldrkA os dsoy QaD’kuy uksVs’ku }kjk gh i<+s tkrs gSa] bUgsa vkWijsVj vksojyksfMax ds fy, Hkh iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA # include class Abc { private: int a; public: Abc() {a = 0;} Abc(int a) { this->a = a;} friend void fFunc(Abc); // prototype }; void fFunc(Abc obj) { obj.a += 10; P // access private member though object a = 10; cout <fFunc(obj);

O

O

// can’t access private member direct

P O

// always call in functional notation // can’t call through object // can’t call through object

} OUTPUT: 20

vH;kl iz’u cgq p ;ukRed iz ’u& 1. Abc Dykl ds fy, dkSulh dUlVªDVj ?kks"k.kk lgh gS\ (v) void Abc ( ) { } (c) Abc Abc( ) { } (l) private: Abc( ) { } (n) Abc::Abc( ) { } 2. dkSulk dUlVªDVj izdkj xyr gS\ (v) copy constructor (c) parameterized constructor (l) super constructor (n) dynamic constructor 3. dkSulk dFku fdlh izdkj dk dUlVªDVj ugha cqykrk\ (v) Abc obj1(obj2); (c) Abc obj1 = obj2; (n) obj1 = obj2; (l) var = func(obj1); 4. Abc Dykl ds fy, dkSulk MsLVªDVj lgh gS\ (v) void ~Abc ( ) { } (c) Abc ~Abc( ) { }

AglaSem School 50 (l) private: ~Abc( ) { } (n) Abc::~Abc( ) { } 5. dkSulk ÝSaM QaD’ku (func) lgh gS\ (v) obj.func(obj); (c) obj->func(obj); (l) func(obj) (n) func();

vfry?kq Ù kjkÙked iz ’ u 1. nks dUlVªDVj izdkj crkb;s\ 2. dUlVªDVj ds nks mi;ksx crkb;s\ 3. MsLVªDVj ds nks mi;ksx crkb;s\ 4. dkWih dUlVªDVj dkWfyax ds nks rjhds crkb;sA 5. ÝSaM QaD’ku dSls dkWy fd;k tkrk gS\ y?kq Ù kjkÙked iz ’ u 1. dc vkSj D;ksa dUlVªDVj cukuk pkfg,\ 2. dc vkSj D;ksa MsLVªDVj cukuk pkfg,\ 3. dc vkSj D;ksa dkWih dUlVªDVj cukuk pkfg,\ 4. dc vkSj D;ksa ÝSM a QaD’ku cukuk pkfg,\ 5. dUlVªDVj fy[kus ds fy, fofHkUu ck/kkvksa (restrictions) dks crkb;s\ fuca / kkRed iz ’ u 1. dUlVªDVj vksojyksfMax dk mi;ksx djrs gq, ljy Dykl cukb;sA 2. ,d Dykl fyf[k, tks dkWih dUlVªDVj dk mi;ksx djrs gq, fLVªax dh dkWih djsA 3. ,d Dykl fyf[k, ftlesa Mk;ufed dUlVªDVj fMQkWYV vkX;wZeUs V ysrk gksA 4. dUlVªDVj ij fVIi.kh fyf[k,A 5. ÝSM a QaD’ku ij fVIi.kh fyf[k,A mÙkjekyk 1. (n)

2. (l)

3. (n)

4. (n)

5. (l)

AglaSem School 51

v/;k;&3 QaD’ku rFkk vkWijsVj vksojyksfMax (Function and Operator Overloading) MkVk Vkbi vkWijsVj D;k dj jgs gS] bl ij fuHkZj jgrs gq, ge vkWijsVj vkSj QaD’ku dks fofHkUu rjhdksa ls mi;ksx dj ldrs gSA ;g izfØ;k ikWfyeksjfQTe ¼,d ,slh pht ftlds fofHkUu izk#i gS½ dgykrh gSA tc Hkk"kk esa iwoZ ekStnw vkWijsVj ¼tks Lor% fizfefVo MkVk Vkbi ij dk;Z djrsa gSa½ fdlh u;s MkVk ¼;wtj }kjk ifjHkkf"kr½ ij dk;Z djus dks l{ke gksa] rks mls vkWijsVj vksojyksfMax dgrs gSA tc ,d ls vf/kd QaD’ku dk uke leku gks rFkk muds vkX;wZeUs V dk MkVk Vkbi fHkUu gks ;k vkX;wZeUs V dh dqy la[;k fHkUu gks] rks bls QaD’ku vksojyksfMax dgrs gSaA QaD’ku vksojyksfMax ,d izdkj dh ikWfyeksjfQte gS tks OOP dh egRoiw.kZ fo’ks"krk Hkh gSA vksojyksfMax nks izdkj dh gksrh gS% 1- dEikbyVkbe (early binding) rFkk 2- ju Vkbe (late binding)A QaD’ku vksojyksfMax (Function Overloading) ge cgqr ls QaD’ku cukrs gS ftudk uke leku gksrk gS ijUrq vkX;wZeUs V fyLV ¼dqy vkX;wZeUs V fHkUu] fHkUu MkVk Vkbi½ fHkUu gksrh gSA QaD’ku] dkWy esa iz;qDr dh xbZ vkX;wZeUs V fyLV ds vuqlkj QaD’ku fofHkUu dk;Z djrk gSA dqy vkX;wZeUs V rFkk vkX;weZw Us V MkVk Vkbi ds vuqlkj lgh QaD’ku cqyk;k tkrk gS ;g QaD’ku dkWfyax ds oDr vksojyksMsM QaD’ku dk fjVZu Vkbi ugha pSd djrkA QaD’ku dkWy djrs oDr lcls igys okLrfod iSjkehVj dh lgh rqyuk djrk gSA vxj rqyuk ugha gks ikrh gS rks og Vkbi izeks’ku dk iz;ksx djrk gSA // Overloaded Function prototypes int add(int a, int b); // prototype 1 int add(int a, int b, int c); // prototype 2 double add(double a, double b); // prototype 3 double add(int a, double b); // prototype 4 double add(double a, int b); // prototype 5 add add(int a); // prototype 6 // Functions calls cout< # include class AreaOfTriangle { private: float a; public:

AglaSem School 52 // Calculate area using base and height of triangle void area(float base, float height) { a = (base*height) / 2.0; cout<a = sqrt(s*(s-a)*(s-b)*(s-c)); cout<
vkWijsVj vksojyksfMax (Defining Operator Overloading) C++ esa ge miyC/k vkWijsVj dks ;wtj fMQkbaM MkVk Vkbi ds fy, fo’ks"k vFkZ ?kksf"kr dj ldrs gSA bl O;oLFkk dks ge vkWijsVj vksojyksfMax dgrs gSA vksojyksMsM vkWijsVj dh ojh;rk] ,lksfl,VhfoVh (associativity) vkSj fluVSDl (syntax) ogh gksrk gS tks fcYV bu MkVk Vkbi ds lkFk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA ge “operator” dhoMZ ds fo’ks"k eSEcj QaD’ku ftldk uke vkWijsVj tSlk gks] ds izhfQDl esa yxkrs gS bl izdkj ds QaD’ku dks vkWijsVj QaD’ku (operator function) dgrs gSA vkWijsVj QaD’ku dk izk#i fuEu izdkj gS: returnType className :: operator op (argument list) { Function body // task defined for operator }

tgk¡ returnType fjVZu gksus okyh QaD’ku eku rFkk op vksojyksM gksus okyk vkWijsVj gSA op ls igys operator dhoMZ dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA ;gka operator op QaD’ku dk uke gSA vksojyksfMax ;wujh vkWijsVj (Overloading Unary Operators) ;wujh vkWijsVj vksojyksfMax esa vkWijsVj QaD’ku dks ’kwU; vkX;wZeUs V pkfg,A iksLV fQDl ;wujh vkWijsVj esa ,d int izdkj dk Meh vkX;wZeUs V Hkstuk iM+rk gS ftlls dEikbyj izh fQDl rFkk iksLV fQDl ;wujh esa vUrj Kkr djrk gSA Increment (++) and decrement (--) operator overloading: # include class Abc { private: int a,b;

AglaSem School 53 public: Abc() { a=b=0; } Abc(int a, int b) { this->a = a; this->b = b; } void show() { cout< class Abc { private: int a,b; public: Abc() { a=b=0; } Abc(int a, int b) { this->a = a; this->b = b; } void show() { cout<
AglaSem School 54 // Prefix Unary Negation Operator overloading Abc operator - () { return Abc(-a, -b); } }; void main() { Abc a(2,3), b; b = -a; a.show(); b.show(); } OUTPUT: a=2 b=3 a=-2 b=-3 6.4.3 Complement (~) operator overloading: # include class Abc { private: int a,b; public: Abc() { a=b=0; } Abc(int a, int b) { this->a = a; this->b = b; } void show() { cout<
vksojyksfMax ckbujh vkWijsVj (Overloading Binary Operator) ckbujh vkWijsVj vksojyksfMax esa vkWijsVj QaD’ku dks ,d vkX;wZeUs V pkfg,A ck;sa Hkkx dk vkWijsUM] vkWijsVj QaD’ku (operator function) dks dkWy djrk gS rFkk nk;sa Hkkx dk vkWijsUM vkX;wZeUs V esa ikl gksrk gSA Bianry plus(+) and minus(-) operator overloading: # include class Abc { private: int a,b;

AglaSem School 55 public: Abc() { a=b=0; } Abc(int a, int b) { this->a = a; this->b = b; } void show() { cout<
vksojyksfMax vlkbueSUV vkWijsVj (Overloading Assignment Operator) vlkbueSUV vkWijsVj ckbujh vkWijsVj (binary operator) vksojyksfMax dh rjg gh gSA vkWijsUM QaD’ku dks ,d vkX;wZeUs V pkfg,A cka;s Hkkx dk vkWijsUM vkWijsVj QaD’ku (operator function) vkX;wZeUs V esa ikl fd;k tkrk gSA # include class Abc { private: int a,b; public: Abc() { a=b=0; } Abc(int a, int b) { this->a = a; this->b = b; } void show() { cout<
AglaSem School 56 b = obj.b; // update the member with passing object return *this; // return current object address } // Compound Assignment Operator overloading Abc operator += (Abc obj) { a += obj.a; // update the member with passing object b += obj.b; // update the member with passing object return *this; // return current object address } }; void main() { Abc a(1,2), b(3,4), c, d; c = d = a; c.show(); d.show(); d += a; d.show(); } OUTPUT: a=1 b=2 a=1 b=2 a=2 b=4

vksojyksfMax vkWijsVj ds fu;e (Rules of overloading operators) gesa vkWijsVj vksojyksfMax ds oDr dqN fu;eksa dh ikyuk djuh iM+rh gS] tks fuEu izdkj gS% 1. ge . (dot), :: (scope resolution), ?: (conditional), .* (direct member dereference), .-> (indirect member dereference), vkSj sizeof vkWijsVj dks vksojyksM ugha dj ldrsA 2. ge vkWijsVj dh ojh;rk ugha cny ldrsA 3. ge vkWijsVj ds dqy vkX;wZeUs V ugha cny ldrsA 4. ge vksojyksMM s vkWijsVj esa fMQkWYV vkX;wZeUs V ugha ikl dj ldrsA 5. ge dsoy miyC/k vkWijsVj dks gh vksojyksM dj ldrs gS u;k vkWijsVj ugha cuk ldrsA 6. vksojyksMsM vkWijsVj (overloaded operator) esa de ls de ,d vkWijsUM gksuk vko’;d gS vkSj og ;wtj fMQkbaM ¼Dykl dk vkWCtSDV½ izdkj dk gksuk pkfg,A 7. ge vkWijsVj dk ewy mís’; ugha cny ldrs] tSls ge + vkWijsVj dks (*, multiplication) ds fy, iz;Dq r ugha dj ldrsA 8. ;wujh vkWijsVj (unary operator) dksbZ vkX;wZeUs V ugha ysrk ijUrq iksLV fQDl esa int izdkj dk Meh vkX;wZeUs V ?kksf"kr fd;k tkrk gSA 9. ckbujh vkWijsVj esa ges’kk eku dks fjVZu djok;k tkuk pkfg,A 10. ÝSM a QaD’ku }kjk dqN vkWijsVj dks vksojyksM ugha fd;k tk ldrkA

bUgs j hVs a l Inheritance bUgsjhVsl a ,slh izfØ;k gS ftlesa igys ls cuh gqbZ Dykl dks vk/kkj ekurs gq, ubZ Dykl cukbZ tk ldrh gSA blls ubZ Dykl esa igys ls cuh gq, DYkkl ds eSEclZ Lor% vk tkrs gSaA mnkgj.k ds fy, eku ysrs gSa fd geus fo|kFkhZ ds vadksa dk ;ksx Kkr djus ds fy, ,d Dykl cuk j[kh gSA vc ;fn fo|kFkhZ ds vadksa dk izfr'kr Hkh Kkr djuk gks rks mlh Dykl esa ifjorZu djus ds LFkku ij ge ,d u;h Dykl cuk ldrs gSa ftlesa ;ksx Kkr djus okyh Dykl dks bUgsfjV fd;k tk ldrk gS D;ksafd izfr'kr vad Kkr djus ds fy, vadksa dk ;ksx ekywe gksuk vko';d gS rFkk ;g ;ksx igys ls cuh gqbZ Dykl esa ekStwn gSA jh;wtfs cfyVh (reusability) vkWCtsV vksfj,aVsM izkx s zkfeax dk ,d egRoiw.kZ xq.k gSA blesa ,d ckj fy[ks x, dksM dks iqu% vko';drk ds vuqlkj vyx&vyx Dyklksa esa iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gSA og DYkkl tks igys ls ekStwn gS rFkk ftls bUgsfjV fd;k tkuk gS mls isjsaV Dykl (parent class), lqij Dykl (super class) ;k csl Dykl (base class) dgrs gSaA rFkk og Dykl ftlesa igys ls cuh gqbZ

AglaSem School 57 Dykl dks bUgsfjV fd;k tkrk gS mls pkbYM Dykl (child class), lc Dykl (sub class) ;k fMjkbOM Dykl (derived class) dgrs gSAa C++ esa bUgsjhVsal eq[; :i ls fuEu ikap izdkj ds gksrs gSa & * flaxy ysoy bUgsjhVsal (Single Level Inheritance) * eYVh ysoy bUgsjhVsal (Multi Level Inheritance) * eYVhiy bUgsjhVsal (Multiple Level Inheritance) * fgjkjfddy bUgsjhVsal (Hierarchical Inheritance) * gkbfczM bUgsjhVsal (Hybrid Inheritance) bUgsjhVsal ds eksM (Modes of Inheritance) fdlh isjsaV Dykl dks fuEu rhu eksM~l (modes) esa ls fdlh ,d eksM esa bUgsjhV fd;k tk ldrk gSA * ifCyd eksM (public mode) * izkbosV eksM (private mode) * izksVsDVsM eksM (protected mode) ifCyd eksM (public mode) ;fn fdlh isjsaV Dykl dks ifCyd eksM esa bUgsfjV fd;k tkrk gS rks isjasV Dykl ds % * lHkh ifCyd eSEclZ pkbYM Dykl ds ifCyd eSEclZ gks tkrs gSaA * lHkh izksVsDVsM eSEclZ pkbYM Dykl ds izksVsDVsM eSEclZ gks tkrs gSAa * izkbosV eSEclZ bUgsfjV ugha gksrs gSaA ifCyd eksM esa fd, tkus okys bUgsjhVsal dk izk:i fuEukuqlkj gksrk gS % class parent_class_name { ............. ............. ............. }, class child_class_name : public parent_class_name { ............. ............. ............. }, izkbosV eksM (private mode)

;fn fdlh isjsaV Dykl dks izkbosV eksM esa bUgsfjV fd;k tkrk gS rks isjasV Dykl ds % * lHkh ifCyd eSEclZ pkbYM Dykl ds izkbosV eSEclZ gks tkrs gSaA * lHkh izksVsDVsM eSEclZ pkbYM Dykl ds izkbosV eSEclZ gks tkrs gSaA * izkbosV eSEclZ bUgsfjV ugha gksrh gSaA izkbosV eksM esa fd, tkus okys bUgsjhVsal dk izk:i fuEukuqlkj gksrk gSA % class parent_class_name { ............. ............. ............. }, class child_class_name : private parent_class_name { ............. ............. ............. }, izksVsDVsM eksM (protected mode)

;fn fdlh isjsaV Dykl dks izksVsDVsM eksM esa bUgsfjV fd;k tkrk gS rks isjsaV Dykl ds % * lHkh ifCyd eSEclZ pkbYM DYkkl ds izksVsDVsM eSEclZ gks tkrs gSaA

AglaSem School 58 * lHkh izksVsDVsM eSEclZ pkbYM Dykl ds izksVsDVsM eSEclZ gks tkrs gSAa * izkbosV eSEclZ bUgsfjV ugha gksrs gSaA izksVsDVsM eksM esa fd, tkus okys bUgsjhVsl a dk izk:i fuEukuqlkj gksrk gS % class parent_class_name { ............. ............. ............. }, class child_class_name : public parent_class_name { ............. ............. ............. }, izkbosV eksM (private mode)

;fn fdlh isjsaV Dykl dks izkbosV eksM esa bUgsfjV fd;k tkrk gS rks isjasV Dykl ds % * lHkh ifCyd eSEclZ pkbYM Dykl ds izkbosV eSEclZ gks tkrs gSaA * lHkh izksVsDVsM eSEclZ pkbYM Dykl ds izkbosV eSEclZ gks tkrs gSaA * izkbosV eSEclZ bUgsfjV ugha gksrh gSaA izkbosV eksM esa fd, tkus okys bUgsjhVsal dk izk:i fuEukuqlkj gksrk gSA % class parent_class_name { ............. ............. ............. }, class child_class_name : protected parent_class_name { ............. ............. ............. }, ysoy bUgsjhVsal (Single Level Inheritance)

flaxy flaxy ysoy bUgsjhVsal esa dsoy ,d isjsaV Dykl rFkk ,d pkbYM Dykl gksrh gSA bls fp= ds :i esa fuEukuqlkj n'kkZ;k tk ldrk gSA A B

flaxy ysoy bUgsjhVsal

(Single Level Inheritance)

flaxy ysoy bUgsjhVsal dk izk:i fuEukuqlkj gksrk gS % class A { ............. ............. ............. }, class B : mode A { .............

AglaSem School 59 ............. ............. },

eYVh ysoy bUgsjhVsal (Multilevel Inheritance) eYVh ysoy bUgsjhVsal esa fdlh pkbYM DYkkl dks iqu% fdlh u;h Dykl esa bUgsfjV fd;k tk ldrk gSA bls fp= ds :i esa fuEukuqlkj n'kkZ;k tk ldrk gSA A B C

eYVh ysoy bUgsjhVsal

(Multi Level Inheritance)

mijksDr fp= esa A Dykl] B Dykl ds fy, isjsaV Dykl gS rFkk B Dykl] C Dykl ds fy, isjsaV Dykl gSA blh izdkj B Dykl A Dykl ds fy, pkbYM DYkl gS rFkk C Dykl B Dykl ds fy, pkbYM Dykl gSA eYVhbugsjhVsal dk izk:i fuEukuqlkj gksrk gS % class A { ............. ............. ............. }, class B : mode A { ............. ............. ............. }, class C : mode B { ............. ............. ............. }, eYVhiy bUgsjhVsal (Multiple Inheritance)

A

B C

eYVh bUgsjhVsal

(Multiple Inheritance)

eYVhiy bUgsjhVsal esa ,d ls vf/kd isjaVs Dykl rFkk dsoy ,d pkbYM DYkkl gksrh gSA nwljs 'kCnksa esa ge ;g dg ldrs gSa fd eYVhiy bUgsjhVsal esa ,d fMjkbOM Dykl ,d ls vf/kd csl Dyklst dks bUgsfjV dj ldrh gSA bls fp= ds :i esa fuEukuqlkj n'kkZ;k tk ldrk gS %

mijksDr fp= esa A Dykl rFkk B Dykl] C Dykl ds fy, isjsaV Dykl gSA eYVhiy bUgsjhVsal dk izk:i fuEukuqlkj gksrk gS % class A { ............. .............

AglaSem School 60 ............. }, class B { ............. ............. ............. }, class C : mode A, mode B { ............. ............. ............. }, fgjkjfddy bUgsjhVsal (Haerarchical Inheritance)

fgjkjfddy bUgsjhVsal esa ,d isjsaV Dykl rFkk ,d ls vf/kd pkbYM Dykl gksrh gSA nwljs 'kCnksa esa ge ;g dg ldrs gSa fd gkbjkdhZdy bUgsjhVsal esa ,d ls vf/kd fMjkbOM Dykl dh dsoy ,d gh csl Dykl gksrh gSA bls fp= ds :i esa fuEukuqlkj n'kkZ;k tk ldrk gSA

fgjkjfddy

mijksDr fp= esa A Dykl] B Dykl rFkk C Dykl ds fy, isjsaV Dykl gSA fgjkjfddy bUgsjhVsal dk izk:i fuEukuqlkj gksrk gS % class A { ............. ............. ............. }, class B : mode A { ............. ............. ............. }, class C : mode B { ............. ............. ............. }, gkbfczM bUgsjhVsal (Hybrid Inheritance)

A B

C

gkbjkdhZdy bUgsjhVsal

(Hierarchical Inheritance)

,d ls vf/kd izdkj ds bUgsjhVsal dks ;fn ,d lkFk iz;ksx esa fy;k tk, rks bls gkbfczM bUgsjhVsal djrs gSa mnkgj.k ds fy, ;fn fgjkjfddy rFkk eYVhiy bUgsjhVsl a dk iz;ksx lkFk&lkFk fd;k tk, rks bls gkbfczM bUgsjhVsl a gh dgk tk,xkA eYVh ysoy rFkk eYVhiy bUgsjhVsl a dk iz;ksx lkFk & lkFk fd;k tk, rks bls Hkh gkbfczM bUgsjhVsl a gh dgk tk,xkA fgjkjfddy rFkk eYVhiy bUgsjhVsl a dk iz;ksx djds gkbfczM bUgsjhVsl a dks fuEu fp= esa n'kkZ;k x;k gSA

AglaSem School 61 A B

C D

gkbfczM bUgsjhVsal

(Hybrid Inheritance)

mijksDr fp= esa A Dykl] B Dyko ,oa C Dykl ds fy, isjsaV Dykl gS rFkk B Dykl ,oa C DYkkl D Dykl ds fy, isjsaV Dykl gSA gkbfczM bUgsjhVsal dk izk:i fuEukuqlkj gksrk gSA class A { ............. ............. ............. }, class B : mode A { ............. ............. ............. }, class C : mode A { ............. ............. ............. }, class D : mode B, mode C { ............. ............. ............. }, Data file handling T;knkrj program Qkby

ds lkFk dk;Z djrs gSa D;ksfa d Qkby lwpukvksa dks lqjf{kr djrh gSA dbZ izkslslj Qkby dks cukrs gSA MkVkcsl izksxzke lwpukvksa dh Qkby dks cukrs gSA dEikbyj ewy Qkby dks i<+rk gS rFkk excutable Qkby cukrk gSA bl izdkj ;g og Qkby gS tks izksxzke ds ihNs dk;Z djrh gSA ^Qkby ckbV dksM dk lewg gS tks fdlh LVksjst ra= tSls Vsi] eSXusfVd fMLd ij lqjf{kr jgrh gSA C++ esa] Qkby esa buiqV@vkmViqV vkWijs'ku fd lqfo/kk C++ dh LVS.MMZ ykbczsjh }kjk nh tkrh gSA * fstream.h gSMj Qkby & stream ckbV dk ,d lrr~ Øe gksrh gSA C++ esa input/output vkWijs'ku dkWUlksy ds leku gh gksrs gSAa stream ,d lkekU; uke gS tks MkVk ds flow dks fn;k tkrk gSA fofHkUu izdkj dh stream fofHkUu izdkj ds data flow dks n'kkZrh gSA izR;sd stream ,d Dykl ¼oxZ½ ds lkFk lEcfU/kr gksrh gS ftlesa memer function rFkk mudh ifjHkk"kk gksrh gSA tSls instream Dykl ¼oxZ½ fMLd ij Qkby ds input dks n'kkZrh gSA og stream tks izksxzke esa MkVk dks Hkstrh gS input stream dgykrh gSA

AglaSem School 62

fp= file handling fuEu

izdkj ls fofHkUu Qkbyksa dks lapfjr djrk gS &

fp= MkVk Qkby & tSlk fd ge tkurs gSa fd Qkby lwpukvksa dks LFkkbZ :i ls lqjf{kr djrh gSA ;g leku :i ls MkVk Qkby ij Hkh ykxw gksrk gSA MkVk Qkby nks izdkj ls lqjf{kr dh tkrh gS & (1) VsDLV Qkby (2) ckbZujh Qkby (1) ;g ASCII :i esa lwpukvksa dks lqjf{kr djrh gSA blesa izR;sd ykbu ,d eq[; character EOL (End of line) ls vyx dh tkrh gSA (2) ;g Qkby lwpukvksa dks mlh :i esa lqjf{kr djrh gS ftl :i esa mls eSeksjh esa lqjf{kr fd;k tkrk gSA blesa izR;sd ykbu ds fy;s dksbZ Hkh i`FkDdj.k ugha gksrk gSA Qkby vksiu o Dykst djuk & C++ esa fdlh Hkh Qkby dks [kksyus ds fy;s loZizFke ,d stream dk gksuk vfuok;Z gSA ;g rhu izdkj dh gksrh gS & input, output, input/output. input stream cukus ds fy;s mls instream class esa ?kksf"kr djuk gSA output stream cukus ds fy;s bls ofstream class esa ?kksf"kr djuk gksxkA og stream tks input vkSj output nksuksa dk;Z djrh gS mls fstream class esa ?kksf"kr djuk gksxkA ,d ckj stream cukus ds i'pkr~ vxyk dk;Z mls file ds lkFk tksM+uk gSA blds ckn Qkby izkslsflax ds fy;s rS;kj gks tkrh gSA

AglaSem School 63 Qkby dks nks ek/;eksa }kjk [kksyk tkrk gS & (1) stream class ds ØaLVªDVj dks vkCtsDV ds lkFk gh ?kksf"kr fd;k tkrk gS vFkkZr~ og vkCtsDV ds lkFk gh dk;Z djuk izkjEHk dj nsrk gSA ;g fuEu izdkj fd;k tkrk gS & * Data file dks input file ds :i esa [kksyus ds fy;s geas file stream dk ,d vkCtsDV cukuk gksxkA tSls instream input_file ("Data file") mijksDr dFku input file uke dk ,d vkCtsDV ?kksf"kr dj nsrk gSA object dk uke dk;ZdÙkkZ Lo;a gh cuk ldrk gSA bl izdkj nksuksa MkVk dks ljyrk ls mi;ksx esa fy;k tk ldrk gSA

bl izdkj Qkby dks i<+us fuEufyf[kr dFku dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS & charch; input - file >>ch; floot amt; input - file >> amt;

blh izdkj ;fn ge write Qkby cukuk pkgrs gSa rks gesa output file cukuh gksxhA bls Hkh nks ek/;eksa }kjk fd;k tkrk gS & (1) ofstream dk ,d object cukdj tks fd output stream ds lkFk gksA (2) ml object dks fdlh fu/kkZfjr Qkby ls tksMd + jA tSls & ofstream output file (ABC") mijksDr dFku ,d output file uked vkWCtsDV dks cukrk gSA input vkSj output dk dk;Z lekIr gksus ds i'pkr~ vkCtsDV Lor% gh u"V gks tkrk gSA bls ge fuEufyf[kr dFku }kjk Hkh u"V dj ldrs gSa & input file . close ( ); output file . close ( ); (2) dqN

ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa gesa ,d ls T;knk Qkby ,d gh le; esa [kksyus dh vko';drk gksrh gSA ;g dk;Z bl ckr ij fuHkZj djrk gS fd ;g Qkby fdl izdkj dke esa yh tkuh gSA ;fn izksxzke nks Qkbyksa dh ,d lkFk izkslsflax pkgrk gSA rks gesa izR;sd lrr~ izkslsflax dks pkgrh gS rks ,d gh stream }kjk dk;Z fd;k tk ldrk gSA bl izdkj object cuk;k rks tkrk gS ijUrq mls dksbZ izkjfEHkd eku ugha fd;k tkrk gSA tSls & instrem filin ; filin . open ("ABC . dat"); " " " filin . close ( ); filin . open ("xyx.dat"); " " " filin . close ( );

mijksDr dksM nks Qkbyksa dks lrr~ :i [kksy ldrk gSA ;g ;kn j[kk tk;s fd izFke Qkby dks can djus ds ckn gh nwljh Qkby dks [kksyk tk;sA

AglaSem School 64 Qkby dk lrr~ input/output vkWijs'ku & file stream vius lkFk vusd ,sls QaD'ku dks j[krh gS tks input / output vkWijs'ku dks fuHkkrs gSaA QaD'ku get( ) o put ( ) ,d character dks handle dj ldrs gSaA getline QaD'ku ,d le; esa vusd character dks handle dj ldrk gSA read ( ) o write ( ) QaD'ku ckbujh MkVk dks CykWd ds :i esa i<+ o fy[k ldrs gSaA * get ( ) o put ( ) - byte ij dk;Z djrs gSaA get ( ) byte MkVk dks i<+rk gS rFkk put ( ) byte MkVk dks fy[krk gSA get ( ) dbZ izdkj gksrs gSa tSls & istream & get (char & ch); ostream & put (char ch);

#include #include int main() { char ch; ifstream fin; fin.open(“master”,ios:: in || ios::binary); if(!fin) { cout<<”cannot open file\n”; return 1; } while (fin) { fin.get(ch); cout <
mls izkIr djrs gh u"V dj nsrk gSA

u"V ugha djrk gS tcfd getline()

AglaSem School 65 read ( ) o write QaD'ku & ;g Qkby esa i<+us o fy[kus dk ,d vU; mik; gS ftls fuEu izdkj ls fy[kk tkrk gS & istream & read ((char*) & buf, int size of (buf)) ostream & read ((char*) & buf, int size of (buf))

#include #include #include struct customer { char name[51]; float balance; }; int main( ) { c1rscr( ); customer savac; strcpy(savac.name, "Sandeep Arora"); savac.balance = 21310.75; ofstream fout; . fout.open("Saving",ios :: out | ios :: binary); { cout< < "File can;t be opened \n"; return 1; } fout.wrlte((char *) & savac, sizeof(customer)); fout.c1ose( ); ifstream fin; fin.open("Saving", ios :: in I ios :: binary); fin.read((char *) & savac, sizeof(customer)); cout < < savac.name; cout < <" has the balance Rs." < < savac.balance < <"\n"; fin.c1ose( ); return 0; }

Qkby ds IokabVj o Qkby ,Dlsl & izR;sd Qkby nks IokabVj dks ysrh gS( get pointer vkSj put pointer tks mlh le; dh fLFkfr dks crkrh gS fd file dks read fd;k tkuk gS ;k write fd;k tkuk gSA ;g IokaVj esa random vuojr~ ,Dlsl dh lqfo/kk nsrs gSaA vFkkZr~ Qkby dHkh Hkh] fdlh Hkh] fuf'pr fLFkfr ij fcuk lrr~ ,Dlsl fd;k tk ldrk gSA dqN ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa random ,Dlsl ykHknk;d gksrk gSA random ,Dlsl dks fuEu QaD'ku }kjk ifjofrZr fd;k tkrk gS & seekg ( ) o tellg ( ) - ;g QaD'ku gesa get pointer dks fu/kkZfjr rFkk tk¡p djus dh lqfo/kk nsrk gSA ;g ifstream ds fy;s dk;Z djrk gSA seekp ( ) o tellp ( ) - ;g QaD'ku put pointer ds vkWijs'ku dks fuHkkrk gSA ;g ofstream vkCtsDV ds fy;s dk;Z djrk gSA tSls& 1. ifstream fin ; 2. ofstream fout ; 2. fin . seekg (30) ; 3. fout . seekp (30) ; 1. ;gk¡ fin input stream dk vkCtsDV gSA 2. ;gk¡ fout output stream dk vkCtsDV gSA 3. fin vkCtsDV }kjk] seekg, get pointer dk mi;ksx dj ckbV ua- 30 ij tk;sxkA 4. fout vkCtsDV }kjk] seekp, put pointer dk mi;ksx dj ckbV ua-30 ij tk;sxkA

vk/kkjHkwr ckbujh Qkby vkWijs'ku & 1. Qkby ls MkVk dh [kkst & ge ckbujh Qkby dks [kksy dj fdlh eq[; fjdkMZ dh [kkst dj ldrs gSa fd og Qkby esa gS ;k

AglaSem School 66 ughaA ;g nks ek/;eksa }kjk fd;k tkrk gS & (1) tks fjdkMZ LVªDpj }kjk cuk;s x;s gSa (2) tks fjdkMZ Dykl ¼oxZ½ }kjk cuk;s x;s gSAa struct stru { int rollno; char name[25] char Class[4] float mark5; char grade; } s1; int m; char found = ‘n’; ifstrream fin(“stu.dat”, ios :: in | ios :; binary); cout<<“Enter Roll Number to be searched for”; cin>>m; while(!fin.eof()) { fin.read((char *) & s1, sizeof (stu)); if(s1.rollno==m) ........... found = ‘y’ break; } if(found== ‘n’) {: : } 2. Qkby essa MkVk

layXu djuk & MkVk dks Qkby esa izfof"V djkus ds fy;s nks izdkj dh vo/kkj.kkvksa dks mi;ksx esa fy;k tkrk

gS & (1) (2)

Qkby dks vkmViqV eksM esa [kksyuk Qkby dks ios :: app eksM esa [kksyuk

struct stru { int rollno; char name[25] char Class[4] float mark5; char grade; public: void getdata() {: : } void putdata() {: : } int get mo() { return rollno; }s1; ifstrream fin(“stu.dat”, ios :: in | ios :; binary);

AglaSem School 67 cout<<“Enter Roll Number to be searched for”; cin>>m; while(!fin.eof()) { fin.read((char *) & s1, sizeof (stu)); if(s1.rollno==m) ........... found = ‘y’ break; } if(found== ‘n’) {: : } 3. NaVh Qkby esa

MkVk izfof"V & NaVh gqbZ Qkby esa MkVk dks izfo"V djkus ds fy;s loZizFke gesa mldh fLFkfr dks tkuuk t:jh gS] mlds i'pkr~ mls Qkby esa mldh fLFkfr ij dkWih djuk gksxk rFkk 'ks"k fjdkMZ dks Hkh dkWih fd;k tk;sxkA * loZizFke gesa fuf'pr fLFkfr dks [kkstuk gksxkA * Kkr fLFkfr ij MkVk dks dkWih fd;k tk;sxkA * uohu fjdkMZ dks vLFkkbZ file dks tksM+uk pkfg,A * Delete dek.M }kjk ml file dks tksM+uk pkfg,A * vafre pj.k esa nksuksa gh Qkby dks u;s uke }kjk ?kksf"kr fd;k tkrk gSA 4. Qkby ls MkVk fudky nsuk & fjdkMZ dks fMfyV djus ds fy;s fuEu pj.kksa esa dk;Z djrs gSa & * loZizFke ml fLFkfr dk irk yxk;k tkrk gS tgk¡ ls fjdkMZ dks fMfyV djuk gSA * lkFk gh og fjdkMZ ftUgsa fMfyV ugha djuk gS mUgsa vLFkkbZ Qkby esa lqjf{kr fd;k tk;sxkA * vLFkkbZ Qkby esa fMfyV fd;k tkus okyk MkVk lqjf{kr ugha fd;k tkrk gSA * ewy Qkby dks fMfyV dj fn;k tkrk gSA * vc vLFkkbZ Qkby dks rename dj nsaxsaA 5. fdlh Qkby esa MkVk dk la'kks/ku & file ds fdlh Hkh MkVk dks ifjofrZr djus ds fy;s eq[; pj.k ;g gS fd] fjdkMZ ftls ifjofrZr djuk gS] mldk izkjfEHkd irk fn;k tk;sA ifjofrZr gksus ds ckn IokaVj iqu% izkjfEHkd fLFkfr ij vk tk;sxk & class stru { int rollno; char name[25] char Class[4] float mark5; char grade; public: void getrno() {: : } void putrno() {: : } int get mo() { return rollno; } void modify(); } s1; stream fio;

AglaSem School 68 fio.open(“stu.dat”, ios :: in |ios::out | ios :; binary); int m; cout<<“Enter Roll Number to be searched for”; cin>>m; long pos; while(!fio.eg()) { pos=fio.tellg(); fio.read((char*) & s1, sizeof (s1)); if(s1.getrno()==m) { s1.modify(); fio.seekg(pos); fio.write((char*) & s1, sizeof (s1)); } }

vH;kl iz’u cgq p ;ukRed iz ’u& 1. dkSulh ckbujh vkWijsVj vksojyksfMax lgh gS\ (v) Abc operator + (Abc, Abc); (c) Void operator + (Abc); (l) Abc operator + (Abc); (n) Abc operator + (Abc x = 10); 2. dkSulh iksLV fQDl;wujh vkWijsVj vksojyksfMax lgh gS\ (v) Abc operator ++ (Abc); (c) Abc operator ++ (int); (l) Abc operator ++ ( ); (n) void operator ++ (int); 3. dkSulk dFku vkWijsVj vksojyksfMax esa xyr gS\ (v) operator dhoMZ iz;ksx djukA (c) sizeof dks vksojyksM dj ldrs gSA (l) new dks vksojyksM dj ldrs gSA (n) delete dks vksojyksM dj ldrs gSA 4. dkSulk vkWijsVj vksojyksM ugha dj ldrs\ (v) ~ (c) += (l) .* (n) new 5. dkSulk vkWijsVj vksojyksM dj ldrs gSa\ (v) :: (c) ?: (l) ->* (n) & vfry?kq Ù kjkÙked iz ’ u& 1. nks ugha vksojyksM gksus okys vkWijsVj ds uke crkb;sA 2. nks vksojyksM gksus okys vkWijsVj ds uke crkb;sA 3. ckbujh vkWijsVj vksojyksfMax esa fdrus vkX;wZeUs V ikl djrs gS\ 4. ;wujh vkWijsVj vksojyksfMax esa fdrus vkX;wZeUs V ikl djrs gS\ 5. vkWijsVj vksojyksfMax ds fy, iz;qDr gksus okys dhoMZ dk uke fnft,A 6. Qkby

D;k gS\ 7- Qkby dks open djus ds nks ek/;e crkb;s\

AglaSem School 69

8- input o output stream D;k gS\ 9- seekg ( ) dk mi;ksx D;k gS\ 10- C++ esa binary Qkby VsDLV Qkby ls fdl izdkj fHkUu gS\ 11- stream D;k gS\ y?kq Ù kjkÙked iz ’ u 1. dc vkSj D;ksa vkWijsVj dks vksojyksM fd;k tkrk gS\ 2. dc vkSj D;ksa QaD’ku dks vksojyksM fd;k tkrk gS\ 3. iksLV fQDl rFkk fiz fQDl vksojyksfMax esa dEikbyj vUrj dSls Kkr djrk gS\ 4. D;k ge u;k vkWijsVj u;s fluVSDl ls vksojyksM djk ldrs gS\ 5. D;k ,d ls vf/kd leku uke okys QaD’ku dk flQZ fjVZu Vkbi fHkUu gksus ls vksojyksfMax gksrh gS\ 6- instream o ofstream esa vUrj crkvksaA 7- read ( ) o write ( ) QaD'ku esa vUrj crkvksAa 8- get ( ) o get line ( ) QaD'ku esa vUrj crkb;sA 9- file dk vkdkj byte esa iznf'kZr djus ds fy;s program cukb;sA 10- Data dks binary o text esa lqjf{kr djus ij D;k fo"ks'krk;sa feyrh gSA fuca / kkRed iz ’ u 1. iksLV fQDl +++ vksojyksfMax dk mi;ksx djrs gq, ljy Dykl cukb;sA 2. ,d Dykl fyf[k, tks vkWijsVj vksojyksfMax dk iz;ksx djrs gq, fLVªx a dh dkWih djsA 3. ,d Dykl fyf[k, ftlesa deikm.M vlkbueSUV vkWijsVj dks vksojyksM fd;k x;k gksA 4. ;wujh vkWijsVj vksojyksfMax ij fVIi.kh fyf[k,A 5. QaD’ku vksojyksfMax ij fVIi.kh fyf[k,A mÙkjekyk 1. (n)

2. (c)

3. (c)

4. (l)

5. (n)

AglaSem School 70

v/;k;&4

O;wg (Array) ;g ,d ,slh lajpuk gS ftlesa ekuksa dks Øekxr lqjf{kr fd;k tkrk gS rFkk mudk çdkj leku gksrk gS A bUgsa lqjf{kr djus ds fy;s ge eseksjh ds Øe dk mi;ksx djrs gS A ;g nks çdkj ds gksrs gSa & 1½ ,d foeh; O;wg 2½ f} foeh; O;wg 1½ bl çdkj ds O;wg esa ekuksa dks LrEHk ;k iafDr fdlh ,d çdkj ls lqjf{kr fd;k tkrk gS A tSls %& Syntax :datatype array_name[size]; ;gkW data type lqjf{kr fd;s tkus okys ekuksa dk çdkj gS rFkk array name ge viuh lqfo/kk vuqlkj j[k ldrs gSaA size ekuksa dks la[;k ij fuHkZj djrh gS A tSls %& int a[5]; ;gk¡ lqjf{kr gksus okys eku integer datatype ds gS] (array) O;wg dk uke ‘a’ gS rFkk blesa 5 eku lqjf{kr fd;s tk

ldrs gS A Insert element in array O;wg esa fdlh vo;o dh izfof"V djukA

fp= 1 #include #include void main() { int *p,n,item,pos; clrscr(); cout<<"\nEnter the number of elements in the array: ; cin>>n; p=new int[n+1]; cout<<"\nEnter the elements: \n"; for(int i=0;i>p[i]; cout<<"\nThe entered elements are: \n\n";

AglaSem School 71 for(i=0;i>item; cout<<"\nEnter its position: "; cin>>pos; for(i=n;i>=pos;i--) p[i]=p[i-1]; p[pos-1]=item; n++; cout.flush(); cout<<"\nThe modified array is:\n\n"; for(i=0;i
O;wg esa [kkst djuk %& ge O;wg esa Mkys x;s ekuksa esa ls fdlh eq[; eku dks [kkst ldrs gS & Program search an element O;wg esa vo;o dks çfof"V djuk %& ge O;wg esa fdlh eq[; eku dks fu/kkZfjr LFkku ij tksM ldrs gS ;g dk;Z nks ek/;eksa }kjk fd;k tkrk gS & 1- fu/kkZfjr LFkku ij vo;o dks çfof"V djuk A 2- fu/kkZfjr eku ls iwoZ ;k i’pkr~ esa vo;o dks çfof"V djuk A #include #include void main() { clrscr(); int ar[10],n,num,no; cout<<"Enter size of the array: "; cin>>n; cout<<"Enter array element: "<>ar[i]; } cout<<"Elements of array: "<>num; for(i=0;i
AglaSem School 72 break; } else { no=1; continue; } } #include #include void main() { int a[5],i; int ele,temp=0,pos=0; clrscr(); cout<<"enter the array elements\n"; for (i=0; i<5; i++) cin>>a[i]; cout<<"Enter the element to be search\n"; cin>>ele; // searching for the element for (i=0; i<5; i++) { if (a[i]==ele) { temp=1; pos=i; } } if (temp==1) cout<<"Element found<
O;wg ls futh rRo dks gVkuk %& ge O;wg esa lqjf{kr ekuksa esa fdlh dks Hkh ml LFkku ls gVk ldrs gS A ;g dk;Z nks ek/ ;eksa }kjk fd;k tkrk gS & 1½ fu/kkZfjr LFkku ij ls vo;o dks gVkuk A 2½ fu/kkZfjr eku ls iwoZ ;k i’pkr~ ds vo;o dks gVkuk A

AglaSem School 73 #include #include #include void main() { clrscr(); int arr[5]={1,2,3,4,5}, pos,i; cout<<"enter postion to delete num. from: "; cin>>pos; for(int i=pos; i<=4;i++) { arr[i-1]=arr[i]; arr[i-1]=0; } cout<
NaVkbZ %& ge O;wg esa lqjf{kr fd;s x;s eku esa fdlh çeq[k eku dks [kkst ldrs gSa A ;g dk;Z rhu ek/;eksa }kjk fd;k tkrk gSA ¼1½ Insertion ¼çfof"V NkaV½

#include #include #define size 6 void insertion_sort(int x[],int length) { int key,i; for(int j=1;j
AglaSem School 74 { key=x[j]; i=j-1; while(x[i]>key && i>=0) { x[i+1]=x[i]; i--; } x[i+1]=key; } } int main() { clrscr(); int A[25]; int size,i; int x; cout<<"Enter size of list"; cin>>size; cout<<"Enter numbers"; for(x=0;x>A[x]; } cout<<"NON SORTED LIST:"<
¼2½ Selection ¼p;u NkaV½ void selectionSort(int *array,int length)//selection sort function { int i,j,min,minat; for(i=0;i<(length-1);i++) { minat=i; min=array[i]; for(j=i+1;j<(length);j++) //select the min of the rest of array { if(min>array[j]) //ascending order for descending reverse

AglaSem School 75 { minat=j; //the position of the min element min=array[j]; } } int temp=array[i] ; array[i]=array[minat]; //swap array[minat]=temp; } } void printElements(int *array,int length) //print array elements { int i=0; for(i=0;i<10;i++) cout<
¼3½ Bubble ¼cqn cqn NkaV½

fp= 6

AglaSem School 76 #include using namespace std; int compare(int, int); void sort(int[], const int); void swap(int *, int *); int compare(int x, int y) { return(x > y); } void swap(int *x, int *y) { int temp; temp = *x; *x = *y; *y = temp; } void sort(int table[], const int n) { for(int i = 0; i < n; i++) { for(int j = 0; j < n-1; j++) { if(compare(table[j], table[j+1])) swap(&table[j], &table[j+1]); } } } int quantity; int* tab; int main() { cout << "Input quantity: "; cin >> quantity; tab = new int [quantity]; cout << "Input numbers: \n\n"; for (int i = 0; i < quantity; i++) { int x = i; cout << "#" << ++x << ": "; cin >> tab[i]; } cout << "\nBefore sorting: "; for (int i = 0; i < quantity; i++) { cout << tab[i] << " "; } cout << "\nAfter sorting: "; sort(tab, quantity); for(int i = 0; i < quantity; i++) { cout << tab[i] << " ";

AglaSem School 77 } return 0; } Merge 2 array :- fdlh nks jSf[kd O;wgksa dk laJ`[kyuA #include #include void main() { int a[20],b[20],c[40],n,m,i,j,k,temp,item; clrscr(); cout<<"Enter no. of elements for a:"; cin>>n; cout<<"Enter the elements for a:"; for(i=0;i>a[i]; cout<<"Enter the no. of elements for b:"; cin>>m; cout<<"Enter the elements for b:"; for(i=0;i>b[i]; for(i=0;i < n;i++) c[i]=a[i]; for(i=n,j=0;i < n+m;i++,j++) c[i]=b[j]; for(i=0; i < n+m; i++) { for(j=i; j { if(c[i]>=c[j]) { temp=c[i]; c[i]=c[j]; c[j]=temp; } } } cout<<"Merged array is:"<< endl; for(i=0; i < n+m; i++) cout<< c[i]<< endl; getch(); }

}hfoe; O;wg ,d ,slh lajpuk gS tks ftlesa iafDr rFkk LrEHk nksuks gh gksrs gS ;g ,d gh data type ds gksrs gSA Syntax datatype array_name [row size] [column size]; Eg. int a[4][5]; mijksDr mnkgj.k esa a uke ,d }hohe; O;wg cuk;k x;k gS ftls 4 iafDr o 5 LrEHk gSA

2D Array:- ¼}h foeh; O;wg½

AglaSem School 78

#include const int ROW=4; const int COLUMN =3; void main() { int i,j; int Exforsys[ROW][COLUMN]; for(i=0;i>Exforsys[i][j]; } cout<<"\n\n\n"; cout<< " COLUMN\n"; cout<< " 1 2 3"; for(i=0;i
AglaSem School 79 Enter value of Row 3, Column 1:70 Enter value of Row 3, Column 2:80 Enter value of Row 3, Column 3:90 Enter value of Row 4, Column 1:100 Enter value of Row 4, Column 2:110 Enter value of Row 4, Column 3:120 COLUMN 1 2 3 ROW 1 10 20 30 ROW 2 40 50 60 ROW 3 70 80 90 ROW 4 100 110 120 Add 2 D array :- ¼nks foeh; O;wg½ ekyk js[kh; la[;kad eku okys nks N x M O;wgks dk ;ksxA #include #include #include class matrix { int a[4][4],b[4][4],i,j,x,y; public: void getvalues(); void displaysum(); }; void matrix::getvalues() { cout<<"Enter the size of the row and column "; cin>>x>>y; if(x!=y) { cout<<"The size of the row and column should be equal"; getch(); exit(0); } cout<<"Enter values for the matrix A\n"; for(i=0;i>a[i][j]; cout<<"Enter the values for matrix b\n"; for(i=0;i>b[i][j]; } void matrix::displaysum() { cout<<"The sum of matrix A and B is\n"; for(i=0;i
AglaSem School 80 } } void main() { clrscr(); matrix m; m.getvalues(); m.displaysum(); getch(); } OUTPUT: Enter the size of the row and column 2 2 Enter values for the matrix A 9 5 7 3 Enter the values for matrix b 9 3 1 5 The sum of matrix A and B is 18 8 88

¼nks foeh; O;wg½ ekyk js[kh; la[;kad eku okys nks N x M O;wgks dk vUrjA include #include #include void main() { int a[10][10],b[10][10],c[10][10],i,j,m,n,o,p,q,ip; cout << "Enter row and column of ‘a’ matrix:\n"; cin>>m>>n; cout << "Enter row and column of ‘a’ matrix:\n"; cin>>p>>q; cout<<“Input matrix-a\n”; for(i=0;i>a[i][j]; } } cout<<“Input matrix-b\n”; for(i=0;i
AglaSem School 81 { cin>>b[i][j]; } } cout<<“Matrix-a\n”; for(i=0;i #include #include void main() { int a[10][10],b[10][10],c[10][10],i,j,m,n,o,p,q,ip;

AglaSem School 82 cout << "Enter row and column of ‘a’ matrix:\n"; cin>>m>>n; cout << "Enter row and column of ‘a’ matrix:\n"; cin>>p>>q; if(n==m) cout << "Matrix can be multiplied"; else { cout<<“Matrix can not be multiplied”; exit(0); } cout<<“Input matrix-a\n”; for(i=0;i>a[i][j]; } } cout<<“Input matrix-b\n”; for(i=0;i>b[i][j]; } } cout<<“Matrix-a\n”; for(i=0;i
AglaSem School 83 c[i][j]=c[i][j]+(a[i][ip]*b[ip][j]); } } } cout<<“Difference of a and b Matrix:\n”; for(i=0;i
,d ,slk structure gS tks MkVk dks fo’ks"k izdkj ls ,Dlsl djrk gS vkSj LIFO (last in first out) rduhd dk mi;ksx djrk gSA stack vo;o dh izfof"V djus rFkk gVkus ds fy, ,d gh var dk mi;ksx djrk gSA ftls top dgk tkrk gSSA stack esa izfof"V ds fy, push rFkk vo;o dks gVkus ds fy, pop dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA stack es ;fn vo;o ds izfof"V ds fy, LFkku fjDr u gks rks mls OVERFLOW dh fLFkfr dgk tkrk gS vkSj ;fn mlesa ,d Hkh vo;o u gks rks mls UNDERFLOW dgk tkrk gSA #include using namespace std; const int MAX_SIZE = 100; class Stack { private: int data[MAX_SIZE]; int top; public: Stack() { top = -1; } void Push(int element) { if ( top >= 100 ) { cout << "Stack overflow" << endl; return; } top++; data[top] = element; } void Pop() { if ( top == -1 ) { cout << "Stack underflow" << endl; return; } top--; } int Top() {

AglaSem School 84 return data[top]; } }; int main() { Stack s; // Push elements s.Push(100); s.Push(200); // Top element cout << s.Top() << endl; // Pop s.Pop(); }

Infix dks Postfix esa ifjofrZr djus ds fy, stack dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS rFkk blesa vkWijsVj dh izkFkfedrk dks Hkh /;ku esa j[kk tkrk gSA

(Queue) iafDr ,d ,slh MkVk lajpuk gS tks fd FIFO (First in First Out) ij dk;Z djrh gSA blesa izfof"V ds fy, “rear” vUr dk rFkk vo;o dks gVkus ds fy, “front” vUr dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA (Queue) iafDr ij izpkyu ¼izfof"V rFkk gVkuk½ rFkk bldk C++ esa dk;kZUO;u : -

#include using namespace std; const int MAX_SIZE = 100; class Queue { private: int data[MAX_SIZE];

AglaSem School 85 int front; int back; public: Queue() { front = -1; back = -1; } void Add(int aData) { if ( back >= MAX_SIZE ) { cout << "Queue is full" << endl; return; } back++; data[back] = aData; cout << "Added element: " << aData << endl; if ( front == -1 ) { front = 0; } } int Delete() { if ( front == -1 ) { cout << "Queue is empty" << endl; return NULL; } int tmp = data[front]; if ( front == back ) { // Reset the queue front = -1; back = -1; } else { front++; } return tmp; } }; int main() { Queue q; q.Add(100); q.Add(200); q.Add(300); q.Add(400); cout << "Delete element: " << q.Delete() << endl; cout << "Delete element: " << q.Delete() << endl; cout << "Delete element: " << q.Delete() << endl; cout << "Delete element: " << q.Delete() << endl; cout << "Delete element: " << q.Delete() << endl; }

AglaSem School 86 OUTPUT:Added element: 100 Added element: 200 Added element: 300 Added element: 400 Delete element: 100 Delete element: 200 Delete element: 300 Delete element: 400 Queue is empty Delete element: 0

vH;kl iz'u cgq p ;ukRed iz ' u 1.LIFO dk iwjk uke gS : (v) Last in First out (l) Late in First out 2. FIFO dk iwjk uke gS : (v) First in Forward out (l) First in First out 3. Stack ,d (v) File (l) Data Structure 4.O;wg ----------------- çdkj ds gksrs gSa (v) 1 (l) 3

(c) Last in Forward out (n) Late in Forward out (c) Forward in Forward out (n) Forward in First out (c) Database (n) Header (c) 2 (n) 4

vfry?kq Ù kjkRed iz ' u 1- ge O;wg esa lqjf{kr ekuksa esa fdl izdkj gVk ldrs gS \ 2- ge O;wg esa lqjf{kr fd;s x;s ekuksa dks fdl izdkj [kkst ldrs gSaA y?kq Ù kjkRed iz ' u 1- O;wg esa lqjf{kr ekuksa dks fdrus ek/;eksa }kjk gVk ldrs gS 2- O;wg esa lqjf{kr ekuksa dks fdrus ek/;eksa }kjk [kkst ldrs gSaA 3- p;u NkaV fdls dgrs gSa\ fuca / kkRed iz ’ u 1- O;wg esa lqjf{kr ekuksa dks gVkus dk program cukb;sA 2- O;wg esa lqjf{kr ekuksa dks [kkstus dk program cukb;sA mÙkjekyk 1. v 2. l 3. l 4. c

AglaSem School 87

v/;k;&5 MkVkcsl o ,lD;w,y dk ifjp; (Introduction to Database and SQL) User interface :

gkykafd cgqr ls ;wtj MkVkcsl dk mi;ksx djrs gSaA ysfdu dqN ;wtj MkVkcsl dks mi;ksx esa ysus ds fy;s DoSjh ySaXost dk mi;ksx djrs gSAa T;knkrj ;wtj MkVkcsl dk mi;ksx djus ds fy;s fuEu Vwy dke esa ysrs gSaA ftUgsa ÝaUV ,sUM Vwy Hkh dgk tkrk gSA ;s Vwy fuEu izdkj gSa %& 1. Forms and Graphical user Inteface:

;g Vwy ;wtj dks oSY;w ,sUVj djus dh vuqefr iznku djrs gSa] ftuds }kjk igys ls crk;s x;s dk;Z dks iwjk fd;k tkrk gSA blds ckn flLVe DoSjh dks ,sfXtD;wV djrk gS vkSj ;wtj ds crk;s x;s QkWjesV esa fjtYV dks vkmViqV ds :i esa nsrk gSA xzkfQDy ;wtj bUVjQsl ;wtj dks vklkuh ls mi;ksx esa ykus okys Vwy miyC/k djkrs gSaA izksxzkej xzkfQDy ;wtj bUVjQsl dks osc czkmtj dk ÝUV,s.M ds :i esa iz;ksx djds rS;kj dj ldrk gSA ;g blds fy;s vU; izksxzkfeax Hkk"kkvksa ds }kjk miyC/k djk;s tkus okys QWkeZ vkSj nwljh lqfo/kkvksa dk mi;ksx dj ldrk gSA bu lqfo/ kkvksa dks ,Iyhds’ku izksxzkfeax bUVjQsl (API) dgk tkrk gSA ftuesa java,Swing fotqvy csfld ;k fotqvy lh $ $ dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA osc czkmtj esa HTML ls fMtkbZu fd;s x;s QkWeZ dk mi;ksx cgqrk;r ls fd;k tkrk gSA 2. Report Generator :

;g Vwy ;wtj ds fy;s igys ls fMtkbZu dh xbZ fjiksVZ esa orZeku MkVk dk mi;ksx djus dh btktr nsrk gS ;gka fjiksVZ dk QWkjesV igys ls fu/kkZfjr gksrk gSA bl QkWjesV esa oSY;wt ml le; mi;ksx fd;s tkus okys MkVkcsl ds vuqlkj mi;ksx gksrh gSa] vkSj fo’ys"kd rFkk eSut s j fdlh fjiksVZ Hkfo"; dh :i js[kk rS;kj djus ds fy;s dke esa ysrs gSaA bl fjiksVZ ds vk/kkj ij vxys fu.kZ; fy;s tkrs gSaA fjiksVZ tujsVj Vwy] ,sls Vwy gSa ftuds }kjk ;wtj ds ]}kjk i
;g Vwy ;wtj dks Interchangively MkVk dk mi;ksx djus o mudk fo’kys"k.k djus dh vuqefr iznku djrs gSaA mijksDr lHkh bUVjQsl flQZ fdlh DoSjh Hkk"kk dk mi;ksx djrs gSaA ftlds }kjk MkVkcsl flLVe rd ;wtj dh fMek.M Hksth tk lds] vkSj MkVkcsl fMek.M ds vuq:i MkVk miyC/k djk ldasA Web Interface to Database :

vktdy osc }kjk ÝUV,s.M ds :i esa fo’ks"k dk;Z fd;s tk jgs gSa ftlds cgqr ls dkj.k gS]a osc czkmtj ,d lkoZHkkSfed Ý.V,s.M dh rjg dk;Z djrk gSA ftleas nqfu;k ds fdlh Hkh Hkkx ls Hksth xbZ lwpukvksa (BackEnd) ds :i esa fn[kkbZ tkrh gSAa ;g Ý.V,s.M fdlh Hkh dEI;wVj ij fcuk fdlh fo’ks"k izksxkz e dks dke esa fy;s mi;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gS vkSj blls fofHkUu izdkj ds MkVkcsl dks tksMk tk ldrk gSA oso czkmtj ,d LVsVhd VkbZi dk Ý.V,s.M miyC/k djkrk gSA Underlying database (BackEnd):

bUVjfjysVsM MkVk dk lewg MkVkcsl dgykrk gSA ;g MkVkcsl fdlh ,sUVjizkbt ls lEcfU/kr lwpuk dk lap; djrs gSAa MkVkcsl flLVe dk izkFkfed dk;Z ,d mi;ZqDr rjhdk miyC/k djkuk gS ftlds }kjk MkVkcsl esa lwpukvksa dks lap; fd;k tk lds o vko’;drk iM+us ij mi;ZDq r lwpukvks d a ks izkIr fd;k tk ldsA MkVkcsl flLVe cMh ek=k esa lwpukvksa dks O;ofLFkr

AglaSem School 88

djus dk rjhdk gSA blds vUrxZr lwpukvksa dks fdl izdkj laxzg fd;k tk lds] mudk
tSlk fd geus ns[kk fd ,Iyhds’ku dh vko’;drkuqlkj ge ;wtj bUVjQsl ÝUV,.M rFkk MkVk lap;u cSd,.M djus gsrq MkVkcsl dke esa ysrs gSaA ;s Front End and Back End ;wtj o izksxzkej viuh vko’;rkvksa dks /;ku esa j[krs gq, fu/kkZfjr djrs gSa buds fy;s dkSulh izksxkz feax ySaXost ;k ,Iyhds’ku izksxkz e mi;qDr gksxkA lk/kkj.kr% fdlh Hkh DBMS izksxkz e esa Front End and Back End vyx&vyx okrkoj.k esa cuk;s tkrs gSa vkSj mUgsa vyx&vyx VsLV djds ,d lkFk dk;Z djus gsrq tksMk+ tkrk gSA blh fØ;kfof/k dks Integrated user interface and Database dgk tkrk gSA ;wtj bUVjQsl RkFkk MkVkcsl dks ,d lkFk dk;Z djus ds fy;s nksuksa dk bUVªhxzs’ku fd;k tkuk vko’;d gSA osc loZj ij Ý.V,s.M izkslsflax djus ds fy;s osc loZj dks dke esa fy;k tkrk gSA ftlesa java Servlets, java Server page (JPS) or Active Server Page dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA Application of Database: 1. Inventory control :

bl rjg ds ,Iyhds’ku esa Database esa Products ds ckjs esa tkudkjh lap; dh tkrh gSA ftlds }kjk cktkj esa izkM s Ds V csps o [kjhns tkrs gSaA bl rjg ds MkVkcsl izkM s sDV ID uke] [kjhn] ewY;] [kjhn fnukad ] fcdk mRikn] mudk fjvkWMjZ ysoy LVksj djrs gSaA bl rjg ds MkVkcsl dk v/;;u djus ij mRiknd o fjVsyj Hkfo"; ds ckjs esa vuqeku yxk ldrs gSa fd mUgsa dkSulk mRikn dc o fdruk cukuk gS] eaxkuk gS vkSj mUgsa cspus ds volj dgka o dc fey ldrs gSaA 2. Financial accounting :

QkbusfU’k;y vdkm.fVax ds {ks= esa MkVkcsl dk mi;ksx mi;qDr miHkksDrk dks pquus ds fy;s fd;k tkrk gS rFkk mudk iwjk fooj.k j[kk tkrk gSA iqjkus MkVk dk mi;ksx djds vuqeku yxk;s tkrs gSa fd fdlh miHkksDrk dks fdruk Finance fd;k tk ldrk gS vkSj mlds Finance dks pqdkus dh D;k&D;k laHkkouk,a gks ldrh gSaA D;k oks miHkksDrk fo’oluh; gksxk vFkok ughaA ;s lHkh fu.kZ; ysus ds ckn fo’kys"kd mfpr miHkksDrk dk pquko djrs gaSA blesa miHkksDrk dh vkfFkZd fLFkfr] ekfld vk;] O;;] iwoZ yksu] f’k{kk Lrj] bR;kfn dh tkudkjh MkVkcsl esa lap; djrs gSaA 3. Pay-Accounting System :

blesa MkVkcsl dk eq[; mi;ksx fofHkUu deZpkfj;ksa dh ewy osru dVkSfr;ka] osru o`f)] HkÙks rFkk o`f) fnukad] fy;s x;s yksu bR;kfn ds ckjs esa tkudkjh j[k mudh osru iphZ fudkyuk gksrk gSA ftlls fdlh izdkj dh xyfr;k¡ gksus dh lEHkkouk de gks tkrh gSaA blds vykok fdlh deZpkjh dh vyx&vyx le; ij fdruh osru o`f) gqbZ D;k dVkSfr;ka gqbZ dh tkudkjh izkIr dh tkrh gSA 4. Invoicing Managment System :

bl izdkj ds flLVe esa MkVkcsl dks fofHkUu izdkj ds ysu&nsu] fcfyax] ds’kcqd] esUVsuUs l o fofHkUu izdkj ds LVsVesUV izkIr djus ds fy;s dke esa fy;k tkrk gSA vyx&vyx [kkrksa o enksa ds [kpZ]s izkfIr;kas ls lEcfU/kr lwpukvksa dks lap; djds mudh vyx&vyx djksa o C;kt bR;kfn dh x.kuk,aa dh tkrh gSa vkSj lEiw.kZ ys[k cuk;s tkrs gSAa 5. Personal Mangment System/HRD System :

bl izdkj ds flLVe esa fofHkUu Jsf.k;ksa ds vk/kkj ij vyx&vyx ;kstukvksa ls lEcfU/kr MkVkvksa dks ladfyr djds mlds vk/kkj ij fofHkUu tu mi;ksxh ;kstukvksa dks ykxw fd;k tkrk gS rFkk mu ;kstukvksa ds izHkkoksa ds vk/kkj ij u;h ;kstukvksa ds ckjs esa fu.kZ; fy;s tkrs gSaA

AglaSem School 89 6. Fees managment System :

bl rjg ds flLVe fofHkUu f’k{kk laLFkkuksa esa fo|kfFkZ;ksa dh Qhl dk ys[kk tks[kk j[kus ds fy;s dke esa fy;s tkrs gSaA ftlls fofHkUu M~;wt] fofHkUu enksa dh Qhl rFkk M~;w fnukad dk irk yxk;k tk ldrk gSA Qhl dh jlhn fizUV djus rFkk vyx&vyx dkslZ ds vuqlkj Qhl Lor% x.kuk dh tkrh gSA vkSj mlds vk/kkj ij fofHkUu dkslZst ls vk; o O;; dks tkuk tk ldrk gSA 7. Result Analysis System :

bl izdkj ds flLVe esa fofHkUu ijh{kkvksa ds ifj.kke fudkyus muds vk/kkj ij fofHkUu Js.kh Kkr djus esa MkVkcsl dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA fdlh ijh{kk ifj.kke dks Kkr djus ds fy;s fofHkUu le; ij gq, VsLV muds iw.kkZd sa o izkIrkadksa ds vk/kkj ij izfr’kr fudkys tkrs gSaA vkSj mlds vuqlkj Jsf.k;ka] vf/kdre vad gj fo"k; esa] vf/kdre o U;wure vad VksVy o gj fo"k; esa izfr’kr ikl o Qsy fo+|kfFkZ;ksa dh x.kuk;as dh tkrh gSAa 8. Addmission Managment System :

bl flLVe esa MkVkcsl esa izos’k ds fy;s vk;s QkeZ dh lwpuk;sa lap; dh tkrh gSAa mlds i’pkr fofHkUu fu;eksa ds vk/kkj ij izo’s k gsrq ik=rk dks tkapk tkrk gSA vkSj mlds ckn izo’s k gsrq ik= lHkh izo’s kkfFkZ;ksa dks NkaVk tkrk gSA blds i’pkr vkj{k.k ds vk/kkj ij izos’k lwfp;ka cuk;h tkrh gSaA vkSj izos’k uk ysus dh fLFkfr esa gksus okys vU; izos’k ds fy; dqy lhVksa ds vk/kkj ij osfVax fyLV rS;kj dh tkrh gSA 9-Insurence Management System : bl flLVe esa fofHkUu esSustj^];wfuV eSustj]],Q-lh rFkk fQYM esa dk;Z djus okys vius }kjk fd;s x;s O;olk; dk fglkc j[krs gSa vkSj mlds vuqlkj vius y{; dks izkIr djus ds iz;kl djrs gSaA fofHkUu dkWy ij tkus dh rkfj[k rFkk fofHkUu dkWy ij D;k izksxzsl gwbZ budk fglkc j[krs gsASa buds vk/kkj ij fu"dZ’k fudkys tkrs gSa fd fdl O;fDr dks dkSu lh ikWfylh vkWQj dh tk;s o fdl ,fj;k ;k Lrj ds yksx dkSulh ikWfylh dks ysus ds mRlqd gksxasA MkVkcsl eSustesaV flLVe MkVkcsl eSustesaV flLVe ,d ,slk flLVe gS tks MkVkcsl dks eSust djrk gS vFkkZr fdlh MkVkcsl dk lqfu;ksftr fof/k }kjk çcU/ku djuk MkVkcsl eSut s esVa flLVe dgykrk gSA de ls de ç;Ru esa mi;ksxh lwpuk,¡ MkVkcsl eSut s esVa flLVe }kjk gh çkIr dh tk ldrh gSA bl ç.kkyh ¼System½ esa MkVk dks tksMu+ k] gVkuk ;k mls cnyuk fdlh vU; ç.kkyh ls vklku gS A Mh-ch-,e-,l- dk çkFkfed y{; ,slk okrkoj.k çnku djuk gS] tks fd lqfo/kktud ,oa MkVkcsl lwpuk dks LVksj djus ,oa fjVªkbo djus ds ;ksX; gksA MkVkcsl eSustesaV flLVe ds Qk;ns % 1- MkVkcsl ls dkQh gn rd MkVk jhMaMsalh ¼MkVk MqIyhds’ku½ ?kVkukA 2- MkVkcsl ls cM+h gn rd MkVk laca/kh vfu;ferrk dks fu;U=.k djukA 3- MkVkcsl ls vklkuh ls MkVk dks Access djuk A 4- MkVk ds fc[kjko dks jksdukA 5- MkVk dks lqjf{kr j[kukA Data Models ¼MkVk ekW M Yl½ MkVk ekWMy ,sls fHkUu ekWMy gksrs gSa] ftudk mi;ksx MkVkcsl dks fMtkbu djus esa gksrk gSA MkVk fMtkbu esa MkVk dk o.kZu] MkVk fjys’ku’khi] MkVk dh Hkk"kk fo"k; tkudkjh vkSj daflLVVsl a h dULVªsUV~l tSlh ckrsa ’kkfey gksrh gSA fofHkUu LVªDpj vkSj vewrZrkvksa ¼,DLVªsD’kUl½ ds lkFk fofHkUu MkVk ekWMy çLrkfor fd, x, gS A DATA MODELS

Record based Data Models

Object based Data Models

Entity Relationship Data Model

Relational Data Model

Object Oriented Data Model

Network Data Model

Semantic Data Model

Hierarchical Data Model

fp= 1 MkVk ekWMYl

AglaSem School 90

vkWCtsDV vk/kkfjr MkVk ekWMYl % ykWftdy o O;w ysoy ij vkWCtsDV vk/kkfjr ykWftdy ekWMYl dk mi;ksx MkVk dks fMLØkbo djus ds fy, ç;qDr gksrk gS A mudh fof’k"Vrk bl rF; esa gS fd os dkQh yphyh ij vk/kkfjr gS] tks ewyHkwr vkWCtsDV ftUgsa ,aVhVht dgk x;k gSS ds laxzg ls cuk gqvk gS A bl le> esa bu vkWCtsDVl ds vkilh laca/k Hkh vkrs gS A ,d ,aVhVh fj;y oYMZ dh ,slh oLrq ;k y{; gS] tks vU; oLrqvksa ls fHkUu gS A fdlh vkWCtsDV esa ,aVhVht dks ,VªhC;wV~l ds lsV ls of.kZr fd;k tkrk gS A dbZ ,aVhVht dk vkilh la?k gh fjys’ku’khi dgykrk gS A ,d gh çdkj dh lHkh ,aVhVht ds lsV vkSj ,d gh çdkj dh fjys’ku’khi ds lsV dks Øe’k% ,aVhVh lsV vkSj fjys’ku’khi lsV dgrs gS A ,aVhVht vkSj fjys’ku’khi ds vykok E-R ekWMy dqN daLVªsUV~l dks Hkh çnf’kZr djrk gS A MkVkcsl dks ftuds vuq:i gksuk pkfg, A ;g ,d egRoiw.kZ daLVªUs V gS A eSfiax dkMZufyVht] ,aVhVht dh og la[;k crkrh gS] ftuls fjys’ku’khi lsV ds tfj;s vU; ,aVhVh tksM+h tk ldrh gS A MkVkcsl dks vkWojvkWy ykftdy
fp= 2 E-R Models ¼2½ vkWCtsDV vksfj;aVsM MkVk ekWMy %& E-R MkVk ekWMy dh rjg] vkWCtsDV vksfj;saVsM ekWMy vkWCtsDV ds laxzg ij vk/kkfjr gS A vkWCtsDV esa blds baLVsUl osfj;scYl esa laxzfgr osY;wt gksrh gS A vkWCtsDV esa dksM lac/a kh ckWMht gksrh gS] tks vkWCtsDV ij vkWijsV gksrh gS A dksM dh bu ckWMht dks esFkM dgrs gS A vkWCtsDV ftlesa leku çdkj dh osY;wt vkSj leku çdkj dh esFkM gksrs gS] dks vkil esas Dyklst ¼Jsf.k;ksa½ esa xzqi fd;k tkrk gS A Dykl vkWCtsDV ds fy, ,d çdkj dh MsfQus’ku gS A VkbZi MsfQus’ku ls cuk MkVk o esFkM dk ;g dkWEchus’ku çksxzkfeax ysaXost ,CLVªsDV MkVk VkbZi ds leku gS A ,d ek= mik; ftlls ,d vkWCtsDV nwljs vkWCtsDV ds MkVk dks ,Dlsl dj ldrk gS A og ml vU; vkWCtsDV ds esFkM dks cqykuk ¼invoke½ gh gSA ;g fØ;k vkWCtsDV dks eSlst Hkstuk dgykrh gSA bl izdkj fdlh vkWCtsDV dh esFkM dk dkWy baVj Qsl ml vkWCtsDV ds ckg; :i ls n’kZuh; fgLls dks ifjHkkf"kr djrk gSA vkWCtsDV dk vakrfjd fgLlk] bLVsUl osfj;scYl vkSj esFkM dksM ckgjh rkSj ij utj ugha vkrs gSA bldk ifj.kke f}Lrjh; MkVk ,CLVsD’ku esa fudyrk gSA E-R ekWMy dh ,aVhVht ds foijhr izR;sd vkWCtsDV dh viuh loZ/kk fHkUu igpku gksrh gSA tks blesa fufgr osY;wt ls Lora= gksrh

AglaSem School 91

gSA bl çdkj ,d gh osY;w okys nks vkWCtsDV fcYdqy fHkUu gksrs gSaA fMfLVªDVj vkWCtsDV vkbMsUVhQk;j ds vlkbZuesaV ds }kjk HkkSfrd Lrj ij vkWOtsDVl ds chp fHkUurk cuk,a j[kh tkrh gSA fjdkMZ vk/kkfjr MkVk ekWMYl % fjdkMZ vk/kkfjr ykWftdy ekWMy dk mi;ksx ykWftdy o O;w ysoy ij MkVk fMLØkbo djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA vkWCtsDV vk/kkfjr MkVk ekWMy ds foifjr mudk mi;ksx MkVkcsl ds vksojvkWy ykWftdy LVªDpj dks LislhQkbZ djus vkSj bEiyhesaVs’ku dk mPp Lrjh; fMLØI’ku miyC/k djkus nksuksa ds fy, gksrk gS A fjdkMZ vk/kkfjr ekWMyksa dks ,slk uke blfy, fn;k x;k gS] D;ksafd MkVkcsl dks dbZ çdkj ds fQDl QkWjesV fjdkWM~Zl esa <+kyk tkrk gS A çR;sd jsdkMZ Vkbi r; laLFkk esa QhYM ;k ,VªhC;wV dks fMQkbu djrk gS vkSj çR;sd QhYM vkerkSj ij fQDl yEckbZ dk gksrk gS A r; yEckbZ okys fjdkWMZ dk mi;ksx MkVkcsl ds HkkSfrd Lrjh; fØ;kUo;u dks ljy cuk nsrk gS A fjys’ku] usVodZ vkSj fgjkjdhdy ekWMy ;s rhu :i O;kid :i ls Lohdk;Z jsdkWMZ vk/kkfjr ekWMy gSA fjys’kuy MkVk ekWMYl % ;g ekWMy MkVk vkSj mu MkVk ds chp lac/a kksa dks n’kkZus ds fy, Vscy ds laxzg dk mi;ksx djrk gS A çR;sd Vscy esa dbZ dkWye gksrs gS vkSj çR;sd dkWye dk fof’k"V uke gksrk gS A bl fp= esa rhu Vscy ls cus fjys’kuy MkVkcsl dk uewuk fn;k x;k gS A Customer Table Customer ID

Customer Name

Customer Adress

Customer City

101

Raj Kumar

C-12, Shyam Nagar

Jaipur

102

Pooran Singh

142, Chopasani

Jodhpur

103

Parfull Naruka

Aasha Ganj

Ajmer

104

Bharat Kumar

Ram Nagar

Udaipur

105

Vijay Kumar

166, Shiv Nagar

Kota

106

Ram Singh

200/ USD Colony

Delhi

107

Vikas Kumar

North Street

Ajmer

Account Table Account No.

Balance

A-10001

50,000

A-20001

25,000

A-20016

35,000

A-40007

1,45,000

A-40013

1,35,000

A-50000

70,000

A-50020

85,000

Depositer Table

AglaSem School 92 Customer ID

Account No.

101

A-10001

102

A-20001

103

A-20016

104

A-40007

105

A-40013

106

A-50000

107

A-50020

;gk¡ çFke Vscy Customer, Customer ds ID, uke] irk] ’kgj ds ckjs esa tkudkjh nsrh gS] tcfd nwljh Vscy vdkmUV] vdkmUV ua- o cSysal dh tkudkjh nsrh gS A fdUrq nksuksa Vscy ds e/; Depositer Table ds ek/;e ls fjys’ku LFkkfir fd;k x;k gSa A çFke Vscy esa ls Customer ID o f}rh; Vscy esa Account No. ,d Unique dkWye gks budh lgk;rk ls ge nksuksa VscYl esa fjys’ku dk irk dj ldrs gSaA fjys’kuy MkVkcsl cgqr ’kfDr’kkyh gksrh gS] D;ksafd MkVk dSls lacfa /kr gks ;k bls MkVkcsl ls dSls fudkyk tk;sxk A fjys’kuy ekWMy ds xq.k 1- lai.w kZ MkVk Vscy ds :i esa çnf’kZr fd;k tkrk gSA 2- MkVk ds e/; fjys’ku’khi dks dkWye osY;w ls n’kkZ;k tkrk gSA 3- ;g MkVkcsl es Qsjcny dh fLFkfr esa ,Iyhds’ku izkx s zke cnyko ykus dh vko’;drk dks lekIr dj nsrk gSA 4- ;wtj dks MkVkcsl dk mi;ksx djus ds fy, HkkSfrd jpuk Lo:i dh Bhd&Bhd tkudkjh gksus dh vko’;drk ugha gksrh gSA 5- HkkSfrd jpuk Lo:i es fd, x, fdlh Hkh Qsjcny ds f[kykQ ;wtlZ dks laj{k.k feyrk gSA 6- fjys’kUl dh iafDr;ksa dks Tuples o dkWye dks ,VªhC;wV ¼Attributes½ ds :i es mYysf[kr fd;k tkrk gSA 7- fjys’ku dk çR;sd xq.k dk viuk fof’k"V eku gksrk gSA 8- ,VªhC;wV ;k dkWye ds fy, osY;w ]osY;wt ds lsV esa ls fudkyh tkrh gSA bl lsV dks Mkseus dgrs gSA fjys’kuy ekWMy ds ykHk 1-
AglaSem School 93

,l- D;w- ,y dk ifjp;% ,l-D;w-,y- ,d ukWu izkl s htjy Hkk"kk gSA ;g MkVkcsl ij dfBu DoSjh nsus dh lqfo/kk iznku djrh gSA SQL esa mi;ksxdrkZ ¼;wtj½ dksa crkuk gksrk gS fd D;k MkVk pkfg,] fcuk ;g crk;s fd MkVk dSls izkIr fd;k tk;sA ,l-D;w-,y- dk iwjk uke LVªDpMZ DoSjs h ySXas ost gS vkSj ;g MkVkcsl ls dE;wfudsV djus ds mi;ksx esa yk;h tkrh gSA ;g vesfjdu us’kuy LVS.s MMZ baLVhV~;wV ¼ANSI) ekud dEI;wVj Hkk"kk gS tks fd fjys’kuy MkVkcsl esustesaV flLVe ds fy;s MkVk ,Dlsl ,oe~ MkVk ds cnyko ds mi;ksx esa yk;h tkrh gSA ,l-D;w-,y- LVsVesUV~l dk mi;ksx MkVkcsl esa MkVk ds viMsV ;k ns[kus ¼fjVªho½ ds fy;s fd;k tkrk gSA ;g fjys’kuy MkVkcsl esSustesaV flLVe ds lkFk dke djrh gSA fjys’kuy MkVkcsl esustesaV flLVe esa MkVk VscYl esa ,df=r ¼LVksj½ fd;k tkrk gSA MkVkcsl VscYl dk ,d laxgz .k gSA Vscy esa fjdkWMZ gksrs gS ,oe~ fjdkWMZ esa QhYM gksrs gSaA Vscy ds izR;sd fjdkWMZ dk LVªDpj leku gksrk gSA ,l-D;w-,y- MkVkcsl ds fofHkUu izksxzkeksa tSls ,e-,l- ,Dlsl] bUxzsl] Mh-ch-2] buQksfeZDl] ,e-,l-,l-D;w-,y- loZj] vkWjsdy] lkbZcl s ,ao ,lD;w,y vkfn ds lkFk iz;ksx dh tkrh gSaA ekud ,l-D;w-,y- dek.M tSls fd lysDV] viMsV] fMyhV] fØ;sV ,oe~ MªkWi vkfn dk iz;ksx lkekU;r% MkVkcsl dh lHkh vko’;drkvksa dh iwfrZ ds fy;s fd;k tkrk gSA ,l-D;w-,y- dks lkekU;r% rhu mi Hkk"kkvksa esa ckaVk tk ldrk gSA MkVk MsfQus’ku ySXaost ¼DDL) esa lkekU;r% fØ;sV ,oe~ MªkWi dek.M gksrs gSa tks fd MkVkcsl ,oe~ MkVkcsl ds vkWCtsDV ¼VscYl] O;w] bUMsDl½ vkfn cukus ds dke vkrs gSaA ,d ckj MkVk LVªDpj r; gksus ds i’pkr~ ;wtj MkVk esSuhiqy’s ku ySaXs ost ¼DML) dk mi;ksx djrk gS ftlesa fd lkekU;r% bUlVZ] fjVªho ,oe~ eksMhQkbZ dek.M gksrs gSa tks fd MkVk dks ekWMhQkbzZ djus ds mi;ksx esa fy;s tkrs gSaA MkVk dUVªksy ysaSXost dk mi;ksx MkVkcsl ds j[k&j[kko ds fy;s gksrk gS ftlesa fd xzkUV ,oe~ fjoksd dh Lohd`fr MkVkcsl vkWCtsDV~l ds fy;s nh tkrh gSA

,lD;w,y ¼Sql½ dk ifjp;% ,lD;w,y ,d fjys’kuy MkVkcsl esSustesaV flLVe ¼vkjMhch,e,l½ gSA bldks eqDr L=ksr vuqKki= ¼Open Source license½ ds rgr tkjh fd;k x;k gSA blesa ekud Lrj dh ,lD;w,y ¼LVªDpMZ DoSjh ySaXost½ dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS tks fd MkVkcsl esa MkVk Mkyus ds fy,] ns[kus ds fy, ,ao izfd;k ds fy, mi;ksx dh tkrh gSA ,lD;w,y cgqr gh rst] lqjf{kr] fo’oluh; ,ao yphyh Mhch,e,l gSA ftldk mi;ksx O;olkb;ksa ,ao vU; izfr"Bkuksa }kjk fd;k tk jgk gSA ;g ,d cgqr gh izfl) eqDr L=ksr vuqKki= ds rgr tkjh dh xbZ MsVkcsl gS D;kasfd ;g eq¶r esa ¼fcuk dksbZ ewY; fn;s½ miyC/k gSA ,ao ;g fHkUu fHkUUk vkWijsfVax flLVe ij dk;Z djrh gSA ,lD;w,y dk mi;ksx fHkUu fHkUu izdkj ds dk;ksZ ¼,Iyhds’kUl½ ds fy;k tkrk gS ysfdu bldk eq[;r% mi;ksx osc ,Iyhds’kUl ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA

,lD;w,y(Sql) dh fo’ks"krk,sa% •

;g eqDr L=ksr vuqKki= ¼Open Source license½ ds rgr tkjh dh xbZ MsVkcsl gS ,oa ;g eq¶r esa ¼fcuk dksbZ ewY; fn;s½ bu gkml mi;ksx ds fy, miyC/k gSA

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;g cgqr gh rst] lqjf{kr] fo’oluh; ,ao yphyh gSA ;g cgqr cMs MsVk ij cgqr rst dk;Z djrh gsSA

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;g bUMsDl ,ao ckbZujh vkWCtsDVl dks leFkZu nsrh gSA

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,lD;w,y ds }kjk ,lD;w,y MkVk ySXosat dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA ,lD;w,y dk lkslZ dksM ¼Source Code½ miyC/k gksrk gS vkSj bldks iqu% dEikby ¼recompile½ fd;k tk ldrk gSA

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;g C ,ao C++ Hkk"kk esa fy[kh x;h gSA

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;g fHkUu fHkUu vkWijsfVax flLVel ¼OS½ dks liksVZ ¼support½ djrh gSA ;g dbZ Hkk"kkvksa tSls PHP, C, C++, JAVA, PERL etc.dks liksVZ ¼support½ djrh gSA

AglaSem School 94

MkVk MsfQus’ku ySaXost ¼Mh-Mh-,y½ % MkVk MsfQus’ku ySXas ost dk mi;ksx MkVkcsl ,oe~ MkVkcsl vkWCtsDV~l tSls fd VscYl] O;w ,oe~ b.MsDl vkfn dks fØ;sV ,oe~ MªkWi djus ds fy;s fd;k tkrk gSA ;g ,lD;w,y dk Hkkx gS tks MsVkcsl cukus ,oa gVkus ds fy, vuqefr iznku djrk gSaA blesa bUMsDlst dks ifjHkkf"kr dj ldrs gSa] VscYl ds e/; fyad dks LislhQkbZ dj ldrs gSa ,oe~ MkVkcsl VscYl ij izfrcU/k yxk ldrs gSaA MkVk MsfQus’ku ySaXost ds izeq[k dk;Z fuEu gS%& 1- ubZ Vscy@ MkVkcsl cukuk 2- Vscy@MkVkcsl esa ifjorZu dj++uk 3- Vscy@MkVkcsl dks MªkWi djuk 4- bUMsDl cukuk 5- bUMsDl dks MªkWi djuk

,lD;w,y }kjk lefFkZr MhMh,y dFku % MkVkcs l cukuk MkVkcsl cukus dk dek.M fuEukuqlkj gS& Create Database [IF NOT EXISTS] ; mijksDr dek.M ds }kjk Åij fn;s x;s uke dh MkVkcsl cukbZ tk ldrh gSA ;fn Åij fn;s x;s uke ds MkVkcsl iwoZ esa gh cuh gqbZ gS rks bl dek.M }kjk ubZ MkVkcsl blh uke ls ugha cusxhA ;fn [IF NOT EXISTS] vkWI’ku dk mi;ksx ugha fd;k x;k gS ,oa mijksDr uke dh MkVkcsl iwoZ esa gh miyC/k gS ,slh fLFkfr esa ;g =qfV lans’k nsxk ,oa MkVkcsl ugha cuk;sxkA

ubZ MkVkcsl cukuk% school uke ls ubZ MkVkcsl cukuk& create DATABASE IF NOT EXISTS school; mijksDr dek.M ds }kjk school uke ls ubZ MkVkcsl cukbZ xbZ gSA vc ;fn flLVe ij miyC/k MkVkcsl ns[kuk pkgrs gSa rks fuEu dek.M dk mi;ksx fd;k tk,xkA show databases; mijksDr dek.M nsus ij ;g Ldwy MkVkcsl ds lkFk&lkFk vU; miyC/k MkVkcsl ds ukeksa dh lwph miyC/k djk;sxkA ubZ Vscy cukus ls iwoZ ;g Bhd jgsxk fd MkVk ds izdkj dh tkudkjh dh tk;saA

MkVk ds izdkj& Vscy cukrs le; QhYM Vkbi ,ao QhYM lkbt dh tkudkjh gksuk cgqr gh egRoiw.kZ gSA ,lD;w,y esa fHkUu&fHkUu izdkj ds MkVk Vkbi dk mi;ksx fd; tkrk gSA ;g eq[;r% rhu Jsf.k;ksa esa foHkkftr fd;s tk ldrs gSA 1 String data types 2 Numeric data types 3 Date & Time data types

String Types: CHAR(M) – ;g ,d fuf’pr yEckbzZ dh fLVaªx ds fy, mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA ;g 1 ls 255 djsDVj rd laxzg.k ¼LVksj½ dj ldrk gSA M fLaVªx dh yEckbZ crkrk gSA ,oa fMQkYV yEckbZ 1 gSA VARCHAR(M) – ;g Hkh fLaVªx MkVk Vkbi ds fy, mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS ,oa ;g ifjorZuh; yEckbZ ¼1 ls 255 djsDVj½ dk laxgz .k dj ldrk gSA VARCHAR ] CHAR dh vf/kd yphyh Form gSA M fLaVªx dh yEckbZ crkrk gSA BLOB or TEXT – ;g Hkh fLVaªx MkVk Vkbi gSA BLOB(Binary Large Objects) BLOB dk mi;ksx cgqr vf/kd ckbZujh MkVk tSls fd bZest ;k vU; rjhds dh Qkby dk laxgz .k djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA ;g vf/kdre 65535 djsDVj rd laxfz gr dj ldrk gSA

AglaSem School 95

LONGBLOB or LONGTEXT ;g Hkh fLaVªx MkVk Vkbi gS rFkk ;g vf/kdre 4294967295 djsDVj rd laxfz gr dj ldrk gSA MEDIUMBLOB or MEDIUMTEXT ;g Hkh fLaVªx MkVk Vkbi gS rFkk ;g vf/kdre 16777215 djsDVj rd laxzfgr dj ldrk gSA TINYBLOB or TINYTEXT ;g Hkh fLaVªx MkVk Vkbi gS rFkk ;g vf/kdre 255 djsDVj rd laxfz gr dj ldrk gSA ENUM – ;g Hkh fLaVªx MkVk Vkbi gSA ;g ,d vkbZVel dh lwph cukrk gSA ftlesa ls fdlh ,d dks vki ds }kjk p;u fd;k tkrk gSA ;g uy Hkh gks ldrk gSA mnkgj.k ds rkSj ij ;fn vki fdlh QhYM esa E ;k F ;k G esa ls pkgrs gSA rks ENUM (‘E’,’F’,’G’) QhYM cuk;saA ;g ;k rks E ;k F ;k G esa ls p;u djsxk ;k uy eku ysxkA SET ;g Hkh fLaVªx MkVk Vkbi gSA ;g fufnZ"V lwph esa ls ,d ;k ,d ls vf/kd eku dks p;u djus dh lqfo/kk nsrk gSA tSls fd transport SET (“jeep”, “scooter”) NOT NULL ; mijksDr transport QhYM esa “jeep” “scooter” “jeep,scooter “ eku vk ldrk gSA vf/kdre 64 eku fufnZ"V fd;s tk ldrs gSA fdlh QhYM esa lsV MsVkVkbZi ls miyC/k lwph ls ,d ls vf/kd eku Hkh laxfz gr fd;k tk ldrk gSA tcfd ENUM DATA TYPE }kjk dsoy ,d gh eku laxzfgr fd;k tk ldrk gSA

Numeric Data Types: INT – ,d iw.kkZad eku tks fd fpfUgr vFkok fcuk fpUg dk gks ldrk gSA fpfUgr dh lhek,sa &2147483648 ls 2147483647 rd gksrh gSA ;fn fcuk fpUg ds gS rks lhek,as 0 ls 4294967295 rd gksxhA BIGINT ,d cMk iw.kkZd a eku tks fd fpfUgr vFkok fpUg fcuk gks ldrk gSA fpfUgr dh lhek,sa 9223372036854775808 lsa 9223372036854775807 rd gksrh gSA ;fn fcuk fpUg ds gS rks lhek,as 0 ls 18446744073709551615 rd gksxhA bldk vkdkj 8 ckbZV dk gksrk gSaA MEDIUMINT ,d e/;e vkdkj dk iw.kkZd a tks fd fpfUgr vFkok fcuk fpUg ds gks ldrk gSA ;fn fpfUgr gS rks lhek,sa &8388608 ls 8388607 rd gksrh gSA ;fn fpUg fcuk gS rks lhek,as 0 ls 16777215 rd gksrh gSA bldk vkdkj 3 ckbZV dk gksrk gSA SMALLINT NksVs vkdkj dk iw.kkZd a fpUg vFkok fcuk fpUg gks ldrk gSA ;fn fpfUgr gS rks lhek,as -32768 ls 32767 rd gksrh gSA ;fn fpUg fcuk gS rks lhek,sa 0 ls 65535 rd gksrh gSA bldk vkdkj 2 ckbZV dk gksrk gSA TINYINT vfr NksVs vkdkj dk iw.kkZad fpUg vFkok fcuk fpUg gks ldrk gSA ;fn fpfUgr gS rks lhek,sa -128 ls 127 rd gksrh gSA ;fn fpUg fcuk gS rks lhek,as 0 ls 255 rd gksrh gSA bldk vkdkj 1 ckbZV dk gksrk gSA FLOAT(M,D) ¶yksfVax IokabV la[;k fcuk fpUg ds ugha gks ldrhA ;gka (M) la[;k dh yEckbZ rFkk (D) n’keyo ds ckn ds vadks dh la[;k gSA ;fn ifjHkkf"kr ugha fd;k x;k gS rks ;g Lor% 10]2 gksrh gS] tgka nks n’keyo ds ckn ds vadks dh la[;k gSa rFkk 10 la[;k ds dqy vad gS ¼n’keyo lfgr½ bldk vkdkj 4 ckbZV gksrk gSA DOUBLE(M,D) Mcy izfl’ku ¶yksfVax IokabV la[;k Hkh fcuk fpUg ds ugha gks ldrh gSA ;gka (M) la[;k dh yEckbZ rFkk (D) n’keyo ds ckn ds vadks dh la[;k gSA ;fn ifjHkkf"kr ugha fd;k x;k gS rks ;g Lor% 16]4 gksrh gS] tgka 4 n’keyo ds ckn ds vadks dh la[;k gSAa 16 la[;k ds dqy vad gS ¼n’keyo lfgr½ bldk vkdkj 8 ckbZV gksrk gSA

AglaSem School 96

DECIMAL(M,D) – vuiSDM ¶yksfVax IokbaV la[;k Hkh fcuk fpUg ds ugha gks ldrh gSA izR;sd Mslhey ,d ckbV dks iznf’kZr djrk gSA bldk vkdkj 8 ckbZV gksrk gSA ¼M½ rFkk ¼D½ dk eku iznf’kZr djuk vko’;d gSA DECIMAL dk lekukFkZd NUMERIC gSA

Date and Time data types : DATE DATE dk QksjesV YYYY-MM-DD gS rFkk bldh lhek,sa 1000-01-01 ls 9999-12-31 rd gSA bldk vkdkj 3 ckbV dk gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ November 28th, 1986 QhYM esa 1986-11-28 ds :i esa laxzfgr gksxkA DATETIME blesa fnukad rFkk le; dk la;kstu YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS QksjesV esa gksrk gSA ftldh lhek,sa 100001-01 00:00:00 ls 9999-12-31 23:59:59 rd gksrh gSA bldk vkdkj 8 ckbV dk gksrk gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ 30 vDVwcj] 1986 ds nksigj ckn ds le; 5%45 dks 1986-10-30 17:45:00 ds :i esa laxfz gr gksxkA TIMESTAMP bldk QksjesV iwoZ DATETIME dh rjg gh gksrk gS ijUrq & rFkk ¼hyphen½ dk mi;ksx ugha gksrkA mnkgj.kkFkZ 30 fnlEcj 1986 ds nksigj ckn ds 3:30 cts dks 19861230153000 ( YYYYMMDDHHMMSS ) :i esa laxfz gr gksxkA bldk vkdkj 4 ckbV gSA TIME ;g le; dks HH:MM:SS QksjesV esa laxzfgr djrk gSA bldk vkdkj 3 ckbV gSA YEAR(M) ;g o"kZ dks 2 vad ;k 4 vad ds QksjesV esa laxfz gr djrk gSA ;fn nks vad esa iznf’kZr fd;k tkrk gS rks YEAR 1980 ls 2079 ds fy, ¼80 ls 79½ gksxkA ;fn 4 vadks esa iznf’kZr fd;k tkrk gS rks 1980 ls 2079 gksxkA Lor%¼default½ gh bldk vkdkj 4 vadks esa rFkk bldk eSeksjh oMZ lkbt 1 ckbV dk gksrk gSA

izfrcU/k (Constraints): Constraint specifications }kjk fdlh Hkh Vscy esa vfrfjDr ‘'krsZ@izfrcU/k@pSd yxk;s tk ldrs gSa vkSj budks Mh-ch-,e-,l- Lor% gh ykxw djrk gSA fdlh Vscy ij fuEu izfrcU/k (constraints) yxk;s tk ldrs gaS & izkbZejh dh (Primary key) izfrcU/k& izkbZejh dh] Vscy ds ,d ;k ,d ls vf/kd QhYM dk lewg gksrk gS tks fd izR;sd fjdkWMZ dks Vscy esa vyx ls iznZf’kr djrk gS rFkk mudh osY;w ls MkVk dk fjVªhoy o viMsfVax 'kh?kz laHko gks tkrk gSA izkbZejh dh ,d vf}rh; eku gksrk gS ftlds }kjk Vscy ds izR;sd fjdkWMZ dks çFkd Kkr fd;k tkrk gSA bl izfrcU/k ls ;g lqfuf’pr fd;k tkrk gS fd izR;sd fjdkWMZ esa izkbZejh dh dk eku vyx&vyx gSA ;fn izkbZejh dh dk eku ,d leku fn;k tkrk gS rks Vscy esa MkVk Lohdkj ugha fd;k tk;sxkA blesa uy oSY;w dks ntZ ugha fd;k tk ldrk gSA mnkgj.k % Alter table titles ADD Constraint pk_titleid PRIMARY KEY (title_id); bleas pk_titleid izfrcU/k izkbZejh dh title_id dkWye ij title Vscy esa yxk;k x;k gSA ;wfud (UNIQUE) izfrcU/k rcU/k— ;wfud }kjk ;g n’kkZ;k tkrk gS fd izR;sd iafä ds fy;s dkWye fo’ks"k dk eku vf}rh; gSA Vscy dh izR;sd iafä esa bl dkWye dh osY;w vyx&vyx gksrh gSA Unique constraint }kjk ;g lqfuf’pr fd;k tkrk gS fd Vscy dh izR;sd iafä esa ml dkWye dh vyx&vyx osY;w gSA ;g bUMsDl Lor% gh fØ;sV gks tkrk gSA ;g izfrcU/ k ml dkWye ij Hkh yxk;k tk ldrk gS tks fd NULL oSY;w ysrk gksA ;g izfrcU/k ,fUVVh baVsfxzVh dks lqfuf’pr djrk gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ% Alter table stores ADD Constraint uk_storeid UNIQUE store_id;

AglaSem School 97

mijksDr mnkgj.k }kjk izfrcU/k uk_storeid dkWye store_id ij yxk;k x;k gSaA mnkgj.kkFkZ% CREATE TABLE job ( job_id smallint PRIMARY KEY, min_amt int NOT NULL CHECK (min_amt>=1000), max_amt int NULL );

mijksDr mnkgj.k esa izfrcU/k CHECK dkWye min_amt ij yxk;k x;k gS ftlesa MkVk ntZ djrs le; ;g lqfuf’pr fd;k tk;sxk fd min_amt dkWye dk eku 1000 ds cjkcj ;k vf/kd gksA ukWV uy (NOT NULL Constraint) izfrcU/k— blds }kjk ;g ns[kk tkrk gS fd fdlh dkWye fo’ks"k esa uy osY;w ugha gksA ;g ;wtj dks ml dkWye esa eku Mkyus ds fy, ck/; djrk gSA Constraints dks dHkh Hkh Vscy cukus ds i’pkr~ vkSj Vscy cukrs le; add/disable/enable/drop fd;k tk ldrk gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ% CREATE TABLE job ( job_id smallint PRIMARY KEY, min_amt int NOT NULL max_amt int );

mijksDr mnkgj.k esa izfrcU/k NOT NULL dkWye min_amt ij yxk;k x;k gS ftlesa MkVk ntZ djrs le; ;g lqfuf’pr fd;k tk;sxk fd min_amt dkWye dk eku NULL ugha gksuk pkfg,A

Vscy cukuk MkVkcsl cukus ds i’pkr MkVkcsl esa Vscy dk fuekZ.k djuk gS tks MkVk dks laxfz gr djds j[k ldsA Vscy cukus ds dek.M%

CREATE [TEMPORARY] TABLE [IF NOT EXISTS] [(create_definition,...)] [table_options] [select_statement] table-name esa u;h Vscy dk uke gksrk gSA ;fn mDr uke dh Vscy igys ls miyC/k gS rks ml uke ls Vscy fØ;sV ugha gksxhA [IF NOT EXISTS] vkWI’ku dke esa ugha fy;k tk jgk gS vkSj fn;s uke dh Vscy igys ls gS rks

dEI;wVj Error nsxk rFkk Vscy fØ;sV ugha gksxhA TEMPORARY vkWI’ku dke esa fy;k tk jgk gS rks tks Vscy cusxh og MsVkcsl ds orZeku dusD’ku rd gh miyC/k jgsxh tSls gh dusD’ku lekIr gksxk Vscy Hkh lekIr gks tk;sxhA column-name fdlh Hkh Vscy esa vf}rh; gksrk gSA data-type }kjk ml dkWye esa fdl izdkj dk eku j[kk tkuk gS crk;k tkrk gSA Vscy dk fuekZ.k fdlh vU; nwljh Vscy ls Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gS ;fn ge nwljh Vscy ds dkWyEl dks dke esa ys jgs gaSA • NOT NULL/NULL dk mi;ksx QhYM esa MsVk gksuk vko’;d gS vFkok ugha] bls iznf’kZr djrk gSA •

DEFAULT option dk mi;ksx Lor% fl) eku dks fu/kkZfjr djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA

AglaSem School 98

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Integer MsVk VkbZi okys dkWye esa AUTO-INCREMENT attribute dk mi;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gS tks buiqV NULL gksus ij vius&vki gh dkWye ¼QhYM+½ ds eku dks ,d ls c<+k nsrk gSA

•

PRIMARY KEY attribute ml dkWye ¼QhYM+½ ds fy, mi;ksx gksrk gS ftls ge MsVk dks 'kh?kz ,Dlsl djus ds fy, Index ds :i esa ysuk pkgrs gSA

CREATE TABLE command mi;ksx djus ls igys use db_name command dk mi;ksx djrs gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ% use school; Database changed Create table student( Rollno INT NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY, Studentname VARCHAR(30),fname VARCHAR(30), dob datetime, Class CHAR(10), sect CHAR(5)); mijksDr command }kjk school Database essa table student fØ;sV gks jgh gSA ftlds dkWye ¼QhYM½ ROLLNO, STUDENTNAME, FNAME, DOB, CLASS and SECT gSAa ;gak ROLLNO dkWye Primary Key ds fy, dke vk jgk gSA vU; mnkgj.k% vc vU; Vscy Marks fuEu mnkgj.k }kjk dh xbZ gSA ftlesa ROLLNO, MARKS rFkk SUBJECT QhYM gSS CREATE TABLE MARKS (ROLLNO INT, MARKS INT, SUBJECT CHAR(30)); ;s ns[kus ds fy, dh Vscy fØ;sV gqbZ vFkok ugha SHOW TABLES command dke vkrh gSA ;s dek.M MsVkcsl esa mifLFkr Vscyksa dh fyLV dks iznf’kZr djrh gSA show tables; mijksDr dek.M ls fuEu ifj.kke izkIr gksxkA student marks

MsVkcsl esa cnyko ¼¼Altering the Database½½ MsVkcsl esa v|ru ds fy, fuEu dek.M dk mi;ksx djrs gSA ALTER {DATABASE} [db_name] alter_specification [alter_specification]......

ALTER DATABASE dek.M }kjk ge MsVkcsl ds y{k.kksa ¼ characteristics ½ esa cnyko dj ldrs gSA ;s y{k.k db.opt Qkby esa LVksj gksrs gSA fuEu mnkgj.k }kjk MsVkcsl dh ,d Qkby Sample1 ds vkdkj dks c
AglaSem School 99

modify file (NAME=sample1, SIZE=10MB);

Vscy esa cnyko ¼¼Altering the Table½%½% Vscy esa cnyko dk lkekU; Syntax fuEu izdkj ls gsS ALTER TABLE tbl_name alter_specification [, alter_specification] ...

ALTER TABLE dek.M }kjk ge Vscy ds LVªDpj esa cnyko dj ldrs gSA bl dek.M }kjk ge Vscy ds dkWyEl dks tksMuk] cnyuk rFkk gVk ldrs gS] index dks fØ;sV vFkok gVk ldrs gS] dkWye dk vFkok Vscy dk uke cny ldrs gSA fuEu mnkgj.kksa }kjk ge Vscy ds fofHkUu cnykoksa dks le> ldrs gSA Vscy dk uke cnyus ds fy, ALTER TABLE old_name RENAME TO new_name; SHOW tables;

mDr dek.M dk ifj.kke student rFkk marks gksxkA ALTER TABLE student RENAME to student_data; SHOW tables; mDr dek.M dk ifj.kke student_data rFkk marks gksxkA fuEu mnkgj.k Vscy esa u;k dkWye tksMus dks iznf’kZr djrk gS ALTER TABLE tbl_name ADD column_name column_type; vf/kd dkWye tksMus ds fy, ALTER TABLE tbl_name ADD (column_1 column_type, column_2 column_type); DESCRIBE student; Field Rollno Studentname Fname dob Class

Type Int (10) insigned Varchar (30) Varchar (30) datetime CHAR (10)

Null NO YES YES YES YES

Key PRI

Default

Extra

ALTER TABLE student -> ADD Age numeric (3); DESCRIBE student; Field Rollno Studentname Fname

Type Int (10) insigned Varchar (30) Varchar (30)

Null NO YES YES

Key PRI

Default

Extra

AglaSem School 100

dob Class Sect Field Rollno Studentname Fname dob Class Sect Age

datetime CHAR (10) CHAR (5) Type Int (10) insigned Varchar (30) Varchar (22) datetime CHAR (10) CHAR (5) Decimal (3,0)

YES YES YES Null NO YES YES YES YES YES YES

Key PRI

Default

Extra

Key PRI

Default

Extra

Key PRI

Default

Extra

fuEu mnkgj.k Vscy ls dkWye gVkus ¼DROP½ dks iznf’kZr djrk gSA ALTER TABLE tbl_name DROP COLUMN column_name; DESCRIBE student; Field Rollno Studentname Fname dob Class Sect Age

Type Int (10) insigned Varchar (30) Varchar (22) datetime CHAR (10) CHAR (5) Decimal (3,0)

Null NO YES YES YES YES YES YES

ALTER TABLE student DROP COLUMN Age; DESCRIBE student; Field Rollno Studentname Fname dob Class Sect

Type Int (10) insigned Varchar (30) Varchar (22) datetime CHAR (10) CHAR (5)

Null NO YES YES YES YES YES

MsVkcsl dks gVkuk ¼¼Dropping the Database½%½% DROP DATABASE SCHOOL: bl dek.M dk iz;ksx lko/kkuh ls djuk pkfg, D;ksafd ;g lEiw.kZ MsVkcsl dks gh gVk nsrh gSA dsoy dqN fjdkMZl~ dks gVkus ds fy, DML dh DELETE command dk iz;ksx gksrk gSA MsVkcsl dks DROP djus dk syntax fuEu izdkj gS% DROP {DATABASE | SCHEMA} [IF EXISTS] db_name;

AglaSem School 101

mDr dek.M MsVkcsl dh Vscy lesr MsVkcsl dks lekIr dj nsrk gSA ;fn “ IF EXISTS” option dke esa ugha fy;k tk jgk gS rFkk MsVkcsl miyC/k ugha gS rks Error message iznf’kZr gksxkA ekuk fd geus emp1 uke dk MsVkcsl fØ;sV fd;k gqvk gSA SHOW DATABASE; mDr dek.M dqy MsVkcsl dh fyLV emp1 ds lkFk iznf’kZr djrk gSA DROP DATABASE IF NOT EXISTS EMP1; SHOW DATABASE; mDr dek.M emp1 ds vykok miyC/k MsVkcsl dh fyLV iznf’kZr djsxh] D;ksafd emp1 MsVkcsl gV x;k gSA

Vscy dks gVkuk ¼¼Dropping the Table½%½% Data Definition Language dh fu.kkZ;d dek.M gS DROPA ;s dek.M MsVkcsl vkWCtsDV~l dks gVkus ds dke vkrh gSA Vscy Drop djus dh dek.M dk Syntax fuEu gSA DROP [TEMPORARY] TABLE [IF EXISTS] tbl_name; ;g dek.M MsVkcsl ls ,d ;k ,d ls vf/kd Vscy dks gVkus ds dke vkrh gSA ;g dek.M Vscy ds MsVk rFkk ifjHkk"kk nksuksa dks gh gVk nsrh gSA ;fn “ IF EXISTS” option dke esa ugha fy;k tk jgk gS rFkk Vscy miyC/k ugha gS rks Error message iznf’kZr gksxkA ;fn TEMPORARY keyword dke esa fy;k tk jgk gS rks dek.M vLFkk;h Vscy ¼temporary tables½ dks gVk;sxkA ;g dek.M py jgs dk;Z lEiknu dks lekIr ugha djrk gS rFkk ;g vfHkxe vf/kdkj ¼access right½ dks Hkh tkap ugha djrk gS D;kasfd temporary table dsoy client ij gh n’kZuh; gS blfy, vfHkxe vf/kdkj dh tkap vko’;d ugha gSA ;fn TEMPORARY keyword dke esa ugha fy;k tk jgk gS rks DROP TABLE command Lor% gh orZeku esa lfØ; vfHkxe ¼transaction½ dks Commit dj nsrk gSA Example: DROP TABLE MARKS; DROP TABLE STUDENT; mijksDr dek.M ls marks rFkk student Vscy gVk fn;s x;s gSA

Vscy dk uke cnyuk ¼¼Rename the Table½%½% Vscy dk uke cnyus dk lkekU; Syntax fuEufyf[kr gS% RENAME TABLE tbl_name TO new_tbl_name, tbl_name2 TO new_tbl_name2 ... bl dek.M }kjk ge ,d ;k ,d ls vf/kd Vscy ds uke cny ldrs gSA uke cnyus dk dk;Z Lor% gh bl izdkj gksrk gS fd uke cnyrs le; dksbZ vU; thread Vscy dks ,Dlsl ugha dj ldrkA mnkgj.kkFkZ% SHOW TABLES; mDr dek.M MsVkcsl esa mifLFkr lHkh Vscy dh fyLV dks iznf’kZr djrk gSA ekuk emptemp uked Vscy dks emp_temp1 uke ls ifjofrZr djuk gS rc fuEu dek.M dk mi;ksx gksxkA RENAME TABLE EMPTEMP TO EMP_TEMP1;

AglaSem School 102

;g dek.M emptemp dk uke emp_temp1 uke ls ifjofrZr dj nsxkA Index: gesa cgqr cMs MsVk dks fcuk le; u"V fd;s ,Dlsl djuk gksrk gSA Index }kjk Vscy ls MsVk dks 'kh?kzrk ls ,Dlsl djuk laHko gSA fdlh Vscy esa Index iafDr;ks dks vfr’kh?kzrk rFkk fuiq.krk ls ,Dlsl djus ds fy, fØ;sV fd;s tkrs gSA fdlh Hkh Vscy esa ,d ;k ,d ls vf/kd dkWye ij Index fØ;sV djuk laHko gS rFkk izR;sd Index dks uke nsuk vko’;d gSA mi;ksxdrkZ ¼Users½ Indexes dks ugha ns[k ldrs gSa] os dsoy DoSjht dh xfr rst djus ds fy, budk mi;ksx djrs gSa Unique Index: ;s dek.M Unique Index fØ;sV djus ds dke vkrh gSA ;gak Unique Index dk eryc gS fd fdUgh nks iafDr;ks ds Index dk eku leku ugha gksrkA CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name ON table_name (column_name); “column_name”ml dkWye dk uke gS ftl ij Index fØ;sV fd;k x;k gSA Simple Index: ;s dek.M Vscy esa Simple Index fØ;sV djus ds dke esa vkrk gSA ;agk UNIQUE keyword gVk;k x;k gS vr% Index ds eku dh iqujkZo`fr ¼ duplicate values ½ laHko gSA CREATE INDEX index_name ON table_name (column_name); gVkuk: Index dks gVkuk Index dks gVkus ds fy, DROP INDEX dek.M dke esa yh tkrh gSSA DROP INDEX [ON ]; Index dks fØ;sV djus ds fy, vko’;d Alter dek.M fuEu izdkj ls gS% • ALTER TABLE tbl_name ADD INDEX index_name (column_list): ;g lkekU; Index gS ftlesa dksbZ Hkh eku ,d ls vf/kd ckj vk ldrk gSA • ALTER TABLE tbl_name ADD UNIQUE index_name (column_list): ;g dek.M ,slk Index fØ;sV djrh gS ftlesa Index ds eku vyx&vyx (unique) vko’;d gS ¼ijarq NULL eku ,d ls vf/kd ckj vk ldrs gSa½ • ALTER TABLE tbl_name ADD PRIMARY KEY (column_list) : ;g dek.M PRIMARY KEY fØ;sV djrh gSA ftldk rkRi;Z gS KEY esa vyx&vyx (unique) eku gksxas rFkk dksbZ Hkh eku NULL ugha gksus pkfg,A • ALTER TABLE tbl_name ADD FULLTEXT index_name (column_list): ;g ,d fo’ks"k FULLTEXT index fØ;sV djrk gSA tks fd text-searching esa dke vkrk gSA egRoiw .kZ fcUnq y% ,d ukWu izkslhtjy Hkk"kk gSA ;g MkVkcsl ij dfBu DoSjh nsus dh lqfo/kk iznku djrh gSA SQL esa ,lD;w,y mi;ksxdrkZ ¼;wtj½ dksa crkuk gksrk gS fd D;k MkVk pkfg,] fcuk ;g crk;s fd MkVk dSls izkIr fd;k tk;sA ,l-D;w-,y- dk iwjk uke LVªDpMZ DoSsjh ySsaXost gS vkSj ;g MkVkcsl ls dE;wfudsV djus ds mi;ksx esa yk;h tkrh gSA ;g vesfjdu us’kuy LVSs.MMZ baLVhV~;wV ¼ANSI) ekud dEI;wVj Hkk"kk gS tks fd fjys’kuy MkVkcsl esustesaV flLVe ds fy;s MkVk ,Dlsl ,oe~ MkVk ds cnyko ds mi;ksx esa yk;h tkrh gSA ,l-D;w-,y- LVsVesUV~l dk mi;ksx MkVkcsl esa MkVk ds viMsV ;k ns[kus ¼fjVªho½ ds fy;s

AglaSem School 103

fd;k tkrk gSA ;g fjys’kuy MkVkcsl esSustesaV flLVe ds lkFk dke djrh gSA fjys’kuy MkVkcsl esustesaV flLVe esa MkVk VscYl esa ,df=r ¼LVksj½ fd;k tkrk gSA MkVkcsl VscYl dk ,d laxgz .k gSA Vscy esa fjdkWMZ gksrs gS ,oe~ fjdkWMZ esa QhYM gksrs gSaA Vscy ds izR;sd fjdkWMZ dk LVªDpj leku gksrk gSA ,l-D;w-,y- MkVkcsl ds fofHkUu izksxzkeksa tSls ,e-,l- ,Dlsl] bUxzsl] Mh-ch-2] buQksfeZDl] ,e-,l-,l-D;w-,y- loZj] vkWjsdy] lkbZcl s ,ao ,lD;w,y vkfn ds lkFk iz;ksx dh tkrh gSaA ekud ,l-D;w-,y- dek.M tSls fd lysDV] viMsV] fMyhV] fØ;sV ,oe~ MªkWi vkfn dk iz;ksx lkekU;r% MkVkcsl dh lHkh vko’;drkvksa dh iwfrZ ds fy;s fd;k tkrk gSA ,l-D;w-,y- dks lkekU;r% rhu mi Hkk"kkvksa esa ckaVk tk ldrk gSA MkVk MsfQus’ku ySXaost ¼DDL) esa lkekU;r% fØ;sV ,oe~ MªkWi dek.M gksrs gSa tks fd MkVkcsl ,oe~ MkVkcsl ds vkWCtsDV ¼VscYl] O;w] bUMsDl½ vkfn cukus ds dke vkrs gSaA ,d ckj MkVk LVªDpj r; gksus ds i’pkr~ ;wtj MkVk esSuhiqy’s ku ySaXs ost ¼DML) dk mi;ksx djrk gS ftlesa fd lkekU;r% bUlVZ] fjVªho ,oe~ eksMhQkbZ dek.M gksrs gSa tks fd MkVk dks ekWMhQkbzZ djus ds mi;ksx esa fy;s tkrs gSaA MkVk dUVªksy ysaSXost dk mi;ksx MkVkcsl ds j[k&j[kko ds fy;s gksrk gS ftlesa fd xzkUV ,oe~ fjoksd dh Lohd`fr MkVkcsl vkWCtsDV~l ds fy;s nh tkrh gSA

,lD;w,y % ,d fjys’kuy MkVkcsl esSustesaV flLVe ¼vkjMhch,e,l½ gSA bldks eqDr L=ksr vuqKki= ¼Open Source license½ ds rgr tkjh fd;k x;k gSA blesa ekud Lrj dh ,lD;w,y ¼LVªDpMZ DoSjh ySaXost½ dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS tks fd MkVkcsl esa MsVk Mkyus ds fy,] ns[kus ds fy, ,ao izfd;k ds fy, mi;ksx dh tkrh gSA ,lD;w,y cgqr gh rst] lqjf{kr] fo’oluh; ,ao yphyh Mhch,e,l gSA ftldk mi;ksx O;olkb;ksa ,ao vU; izfr”Bkuksa }kjk fd;k tk jgk gSA ;g ,d cgqr gh izfl) eqDr L=ksr vuqKki= ds rgr tkjh dh xbZ MsVkcsl gS D;kasfd ;g eq¶r esa ¼fcuk dksbZ ewY; fn;s½ miyC/k gSA ,ao ;g fHkUu fHkUUk vkWijsfVax flLVe ij dk;Z djrh gSA ,lD;w,y dk mi;ksx fHkUu fHkUu izdkj ds dk;ksZ ¼,Iyhds’kUl½ esa fy;k tkrk gS ysfdu bldk eq[;r% mi;ksx osc ,Iyhds’kUl ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA MkVk ds izdkjCharacter (String) CHAR(M) VARCHAR(M) BLOB OR TEXT TINYBLOB OR TINYTEXT MEDIUMBLOB OR MEDIUMTEXT LONGBLOB OR LONGTEXT ENUM SET Numeric TINYINT SMALLINT INT BIGINT MEDIUMINT FLOAT DECIMAL DOUBLE Datetime DATE DATETIME TIMESTAMP

AglaSem School 104 TIME YEAR

Constraint specifications }kjk fdlh Hkh Vscy esa vfrfjDr 'krsZ@izfrcU/k@pSd yxk;s tk ldrs gS vkSj budks Mh-ch,e-,l- Lor% gh ykxw djrk gSA § Primary key § UNIQUE § REFERENCE § CHECK § NOT NULL ,lD;w , y Qa D ’kUl Sql Functions Functions, SQL/Sql dh eq[; fo’ks"krk gS vkSj bls fuEufyf[kr dk;ksZa dks djus ds fy;s iz;qDr fd;k tk ldrk gsSA ü ü

MkVk ij fofHkUu x.kuk;sa djus ds fy, fdlh fof’k"V MkVk lsVS vFkok MkVk lsSV ds lewg dks ifjofRkZr djus ds fy,A

ü

fdlh fof’k"V iafDr vFkok iafDr;ksa ds lewg dks ifjoZfrr djus ds fy,A

ü ü

dates and numbers ds izn’kZu ds fy, QkjesfVax djukA data types ds dUotZu ds fy,A

Function rFkk Operator leku :i ls dk;Z djrs gaSA nksuksa gh ,d vFkok vf/kd ifj.kke n’kkZrs gSa vkSj 'kwU; vFkok vf/kd argument ysrs gaSA

la[;kRed QaD’ku (Numeric Functions) : ;g dsoy numeric input ysrs gaS rFkk numeric output nsrs gssSa bu functions dks select statement rFkk vU; statements ds lkFk iz;qDr dj ldrs gaSA ABS() Function QaD’ku dk mi;ksx fdlh Hkh la[;k dh fuisZ{k eku fudkyus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA tSls fd SELECT ABS(-30)( bldk ifj.kke 30 izkIr gksxkA CEIL() Function bl QaD’ku dk mi;ksx fdlh Hkh la[;k dk U;wure baVhtj eku ysus ds fy;s djrs gS tks fd nh gqbZ la[;k ds cjkcj ;k vf/kd gksrk gSA tSls fd SELECT CEIL(10.6)+( bldk ifj.kke 11 izkIr gksxkA FLOOR() Function bl QaD’ku dk mi;ksx fdlh Hkh la[;k dk vf/kdre baVhtj eku ysus ds fy;s djrs gS tks fd nh gqbZ la[;k ds cjkcj ;k de gksrk gSA tSls fd SELECT FLOOR(10.6)+( bldk ifj.kke 10 izkIr gksxkA SELECT FLOOR(-10.6); bldk ifj.kke &11 izkIr gksxkA

AglaSem School 105

MOD() Function bl QaD’ku dk mi;ksx 'ks"kQy fudkyus ds fy;s gksrk gS tks fd izFke la[;k esa f}rh; la[;k ds Hkkx nsus ds i’pkr 'ks"k jgrh gSA tSls fd SELECT MOD(25,10) ( bldk ifj.kke 5 izkIr gksxkA POWER(m,n) Function ;k POW(m,n) bl QaD’ku dk mi;ksx la[;k (m)ds ?kkr (n) dk ifj.kke izkIr djus ds fy, djrs gSA tSls fd SELECT POWER(4,2) ( bldk ifj.kke 16 izkIr gksxkA ROUND(n[,m]) Function bl QaD’ku dk mi;ksx fdlh Hkh la[;k (n) dks ¼m½ LFkku rd jkm.M djus ds fy;s gksrk gSA blesa m dk baVhtj gksuk vko’;d gSA tSls fd SELECT ROUND(10.645,2) +( bldk ifj.kke 10-64 izkIr gksxkA SIGN(n) Function QaD’ku dk mi;ksx fdlh Hkh la[;k (n) dk eku &1 nsrk gS ;fn n dk eku 'kwU; ls de gksrk gS] n dk eku 0 nsrk gS ;fn n dk eku 0 gks vkSj 1 nsrk gS ;fn n dk eku 0 ls vf/kd gksA tSls fd SELECT SIGN(-30) ( bldk ifj.kke &1 izkIr gksxkA SQRT(n) Function QaD’ku dk mi;ksx fdlh Hkh la[;k (n) ds oxZey w dk eku nsrk gSA tSls fd SELECT SQRT(16) ( bldk ifj.kke 4 izkIr gksxkA TRUNCATE(n[,m]) Function QaD’ku dk mi;ksx fdlh Hkh la[;k (n) dks n’keyo ds m LFkku rd NksMdj i’pkr dh leLr n’keyo fcUnqvksa dks gVk nsrk gSA tSls fd SELECT TRUNCATE(10.645,2) ( bldk ifj.kke 10-64 izkIr gksxkA SELECT TRUNCATE(10.645,0); bldk ifj.kke 10 izkIr gksxkA fLVªx a QaD’ku (String Functions) : ;g dsoy character input ysrs gS rFkk numeric o character output nsrs gssSa bu functions dks select statement rFkk vU; statements ds lkFk iz;Dq r dj ldrs gSA bu QaD’kUl dks uhps of.kZr LVwMUs V Vscy dk mnkgj.k ysdj le>k;k x;k gSA ROLLNO

STUDENTNAME

FNAME

DOB

CLASS

10001

VINOD

SHRI DL AGRAWAL

07/10/1965

MBA

AglaSem School 106 10002

MANAN

SHRI VINOD AGRAWAL

16/11/1995

V

10003

SURESH

SHRI DL AGRAWAL

25/06/1960

XII

10004

RUBAL

DR. VINAY GOYAL

27/11/1989

XI

10005

DHRUV

SHRI SHIV KUMAR

06/11/2000

I

10006

RANJANA

SHRI VINOD AGRAWAL

19/04/1971

Ph.D

10007

RADHIKA

SHRI VINOD AGRAWAL

14/08/2003

PLAY

Case Conversion function: LOWER() Qyu ¼ Function½½

bl QaD’ku }kjk fdlh Hkh‘'kCn ;k iafDr ds lHkh v{kjksa dks NksVs v{kjksa esa cnyk tkrk gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ% SELECT LOWER(FNAME ) FROM STUDENT WHERE ROLLNO=10005; mijksDr dek.M ds }kjk LVwMUs V Vscy ls FNAME ij ;g QaD’ku yxk;k x;k gS lkFk gh ,d 'krZ ;g yxkbZ x;h gS fd ifj.kke dsoy mlh dk ns ftldk ROLLNO 10005 gksA bldk ifj.kke fuEu izkIr gksxkA FNAME shri shiv kumar UPPER() Qyu ¼Function½

bl QaD’ku }kjk fdlh Hkh 'kCn ;k iafDr ds lHkh v{kjksa dks cMs+ v{kjksa esa cnyk tkrk gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ% SELECT UPPER (FNAME ) FROM STUDENT WHERE ROLLNO=10003; mijksDr dek.M ds }kjk LVwMsUV Vscy ls FNAME ij ;g QaD’ku yxk;k x;k gS lkFk gh ,d 'krZ ;g yxkbZ x;h gS fd ifj.kke dsoy mlh dk ns ftldk ROLLNO 10003 gksA bldk ifj.kke fuEu izkIr gksxkA FNAME SHRI DL AGRAWAL

String Manipulation function Concat() function bl QaD’ku dk mi;ksx fofHkUu QhYMks ls izkIr ifj.kkeksa dks tksMus ¼Combine½ ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA CONCAT(str1, str2, str3, ...);

mnkgj.kkFkZ% SELECT CONCAT(‘My’, ‘S’, ‘QL’); Output: Sql INSTR(STR, SUBSTR) Qyu ¼ Function½½

bl QaD’ku ls fdlh Hkh 'kCn@iafDr esa pkgs x;s v{kj dh izFke ckj mifLFkfr dh fLFkfr dk irk yxk;k tkrk gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ% SYNTAX INSTR(STR, SUBSTR)

EXAMPLE INSTR(‘HARDDISK’, ‘DISK’)

RESULT 5

AglaSem School 107 INSTR(‘COMPUTER’, ‘HARDDISK’)

0

LENGTH() Qyu ¼Function½

bl QaD’ku }kjk fdlh Hkh 'kCn@iafDr dh yEckbZ crkbZ tkrh gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ% SYNTAX

EXAMPLE

RESULT

LENGTH(char)

LENGTH(‘alpha’)

5

mijksDr mnkgj.k iafDr dh dqy yEckbZ crkrk gSA LPAD() Qyu ¼Function½ bl QaD’ku }kjk ck;ha rjQ vfrfjDr v{kj ;k v{kjksa ds lewg dh HkjkbZ (insert) dh tkrh gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ% SYNTAX

EXAMPLE

LPAD(char1,n,[char2])

LPAD(‘alpha’,10,’*’)

RESULT *****alpha

mijksDr mnkgj.k esa char1 ds ck;ha rjQ vfrfjDr v{kj char2 dh HkjkbZ dh x;h gS rFkk char1 dh dqy yEckbZ n(10) gSA LTRIM() Qyu ¼Function½

;g QaD’ku fdlh Hkh 'kCn dss igys ds [kkyh LFkkuksa dks gVk nsrk gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ% SYNTAX

EXAMPLE

LTRIM(STR)

LTRIM(‘

RESULT HOLIDAY’)

‘HOLIDAY’

mijksDr mnkgj.k esa char ds ck;ha rjQ ds v{kj set ls rhu LFkku rd feyrs gSA ftudks mijksDr QaD’ku }kjk gVk;k x;k gSA REPLACE() Qyu ¼ Function½

;g QaD’ku iafDr ds lHkh v{kjksa dks vkWI’ku 2 ls cny nsrk gS tks v{kj iafDr esa vkWI’ku 1 ls feyrs gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ% SYNTAX

EXAMPLE

RESULT

AglaSem School 108 REPLACE(line,option1[,option2]) REPLACE (‘man & woman’,’a’,’e’) men & women

mijksDr mnkgj.k esa line es fLFkr option1 esa miyC/k v{kj dks option2 ds v{kj ls cnyk x;k gSA RPAD() Qyu ¼Function½

bl QaD’ku }kjk nk;ha rjQ vfrfjDr v{kj ;k v{kjksa ds lewg dh HkjkbZ dh tkrh gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ% SYNTAX

EXAMPLE

RESULT

RPAD(char1,n,[char2])

RPAD(‘alpha’,10,’*’)

alpha*****

mijksDr mnkgj.k esa char1 ds nk;ha rjQ vfrfjDr v{kj char2 dh HkjkbZ dh x;h gS rFkk char1 dh dqy yEckbZ n(10) gSA RTRIM() Qyu ¼Function½

;g QaD’ku fdlh Hkh 'kCn ds vUr esa fLFkr [kkyh LFkkuksa dks gVk nsrk gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ% SYNTAX

EXAMPLE

SELECT RTRIM(STR)

RTRIM(‘HOLIDAY

RESULT ‘) ‘HOLIDAY’

SUBSTR() Qyu ¼Function½

bl QaD’ku }kjk fLVªx a esa ls lc&fLVªax fudkyh tkrh gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ% SYNTAX SUBSTR(char,m,[n])

EXAMPLE SUBSTR(‘RAMSITA’,2,3)

RESULT AMS

mijksDr mnkgj.k esa char ds LFkku 2 (m) ls lcfLVªax dh yEckbZ 3 (n) v{kj dh ysdj ifj.kke fn;k x;k gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ% SELECT SUBSTRING(‘MATHEMATICS’,5,6); RESULT - ‘EMATICS’

Date Functions : lHkh date functions }kjk date data type ifj.kke fn;k tkrk gS dsoy month_between function dks NksMdj tks fd vadh; la[;k esa ifj.kke nsrk gSA

AglaSem School 109 LAST_DAY() Qyu ¼ Function½

bl QaD’ku }kjk crk;s x;s ekg dh vfUre frfFk dks Kkr fd;k tkrk gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ% SYNTAX

EXAMPLE

RESULT

LAST_DAY(n)

LAST_DAY(SYSDATE)

31-JAN-2006

mijksDr mnkgj.k esa SYSDATE tks fd tuojh ekg lu~ 2006 dh gS }kjk tuojh 2006 ds ekg dh vfUre frfFk tks fd 31 tuojh 2006 Kkr dh x;h gSA SELECT LAST_DAY(‘2006-01-31’) RESULT

NULL

CURDATE() Qyu ¼ Function½½

;g QaD’ku }kjk orZeku rkjh[k dks ‘YYYY-MM-DD’ ;k ‘YYYYMMDD’ QksjesV esa iznf’kZr djrk gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ% select curdate(); 2009-01-03 CURTIME() : ;g QaD’ku }kjk orZeku le; dks ‘HH:MM:SS’ or ‘HHMMSS’ QksjesV esa iznf’kZr djrk gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ% select curtime(); 18:38:09 DATEDIFF(expression1,expression2) : expression1 vkSj expression2 nksuks fnukad ;k fnukad le; QksjesV esa gksrs gSaA ;g QaD’ku nksuks fnukadks ds vUrj dks fnukas dh la[;k ds :i esa crkrk gSA dsoy fnukad okyk Hkkx gh x.kuk esa dke vkrk gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ% select datediff(‘2007-2-10 17:33:25’,’2007-1-1'); 40 DATE_ADD(datetime, INTERVAL expression datetimetype) ;g QaD’ku fn;s x;s eku ¼INTERVAL½ dks fnukad ¼datetime½ esa tksM+ dj iznf’kZr djrk gSA select date_add(‘2007-1-13’, interval 15 day); 2007-01-28 ADDDATE(‘2008-1-10’,INTERVAL 10 DAYS); ‘2008-01-20’ ADDDATE()rFkk DATE_ADD functions lekukFkZd gSA

AglaSem School 110

SUBDATE(date,INTERVAL expr unit), SUBDATE(expr,days) ;g QaD’ku fn;s x;s eku ¼INTERVAL½ dks fnukad ¼datetime½ esa ls ?kVk dj iznf’kZr djrk gSA

select date_sub(‘2007-1-14’, interval 10 day); ‘2007-01-04’ DAYNAME(date) : ;g QaD’ku nh xbZ fnukad ds fnu ds uke dks iznf’kZr djrk gSA select dayname(‘2010-04-22’); Thursday DAYOFMONTH(date) or DAY(date) : ;g QaD’ku nh xbZ fnukad ds fnu dks vad ds :i esa ¼1 ls 31 ds chp½ iznf’kZr djrk gSA QaD’ku DAY() rFkk DAYOFMONTH() lekukFkZd gSA select dayofmonth(‘2007-01-04’); 4 DAYOFWEEK(date) : ;g QaD’ku nh xbZ fnukad ds lIrkg ds fnu dks vad ds :i esa ¼1 ls 7 ds chp½ iznf’kZr djrk gSA select dayofweek(‘2007-01-03’); 4 DAYOFYEAR(date) : ;g QaD’ku nh xbZ fnukad dks o"kZ ds fnu ds :i esa ¼1 ls 366 ds chp½ iznf’kZr djrk gSA select dayofyear(‘2007-07-09’); 190 MONTH(date) : ;g QaD’ku nh xbZ fnukad ds eghus dks vad ds :i esa ¼1 ls 12 ds chp½ iznf’kZr djrk gSA select month(‘2007-09-09’); 9 MONTHNAME(date) : ;g QaD’ku nh xbZ fnukad ds eghus ds uke dks iznf’kZr djrk gSA select monthname(‘2007-09-09’); September

AglaSem School 111

NOW() : ;g QaD’ku orZeku fnukad o le; dks iznf’kZr djrk gSA ftldk QksjesV YYYYMMDDHHMMSS

‘YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS’ or

select now(); 2007-01-04 14:56:15 STR_TO_DATE(str,format) ;g QaD’ku str esa nh xbZ iafDr dks format esa fn;s x;s QksjseVs ds vuqlkj fnukad ;k le; ;k fnukad rFkk le; ds :i esa iznf’kZr djrk gSA ;fn str iafDr esa fnukaad ;k le; ds vuq:i eku ugha gS rks null eku iznf’kZr gksrk gSA ;g QaD’ku DATE_FORMAT()ds foijhr gSA SELECT STR_TO_DATE(’01,5,2003’,’%D,%M,%Y’); ‘2003-05-01’ mijksDr mnkgj.k ds QksjesV esa %D fnu dks ,%M eghus dks rFkk %Y lky dks iznf’kZr djrk gSA DATE_FORMAT() function ;g QaD’ku fnukad rFkk le; ds MsVk dks fofHkUu QksjesV esa iznf’kZr djrk gSA DATE_FORMAT(date,format) mijksDr syntax esa date ,d ekU; fnukad gS rFkk format fnukad dks iznf’kZr djus dk QksjesV gSA Format %b %d %m %Y

Description eghus ds uke ‘'kCnksa esa eghus dk fnu vadks esa (00-31) eghuk vadks esa (00-12) o"kZ pkj vadks esa

Example: DATE_FORMAT(NOW(),’%m-%d-%Y’) Result : 11-04-2008 Example: DATE_FORMAT(NOW(),’%d %b %y’) Result : 04 Nov 08

Data type conversion functions ;s QaD’ku fn;s x;s eku dks fofHkUu mi;ksxksa ds fy, ,d MsVk VkbZi ls nwljs MsVk VkbZi esa cnyus ds dke vkrs gSaA ;g QaD’ku select rFkk vU; dFkuksa ¼ statements ½ ds lkFk mi;ksx esa vkrs gSA bEifyflV ¼¼Implicit) :ikUrj.k ¼¼Conversion½: ;g :ikarj.k os gS tks fcuk CAST ;k CONVERT QaD’ku ds dke esa vkrs gSA

mnkgj.kkFkZ% ,d iafDr (string) dks iw.kZ la[;k esa cnyuk SELECT 1+’12’; 13

AglaSem School 112

;gak iafDr (string) *12* dks la[;k(Numeric) esa cny dj in ¼expression½ dk ifj.kke 13 Hkh la[;k esa izkIr gqvk gSA mnkgj.k % la[;k dk iafDr esa :ikraj.k SELECT CONCAT(1,’ALPHA’); ‘1 ALPHA’ ,DlfIyflV ¼¼Explicit) :ikUrj.k ;s :ikraj.k os gS tks CAST ;k CONVERT QaD’ku dks dke esas ysdj fd;s tkrs gSA CAST(expr AS type) QaD’ku CAST() QaD’ku ,d MsVk Vkbi ds eku dks ysdj nwljs MsVk Vkbi ds eku esa cnyrk gSA

mnkgj.k % la[;k dk iafDr esa :ikraj.k ;k Casting SELECT 12, CAST(12 as CHAR); 12, ‘12’ CONVERT(expr,type) QaD’ku CONVERT ,d in ls eku ysdj nwljs MsVk Vkbi esa cny nsrk gSA 1)SELECT (‘1999-05-15 00:00:00’ AS date) as DATE1 Date1 1999-05-15 Aggregate QaD’ku :

;s QaD’ku dbZ records ls eku ysdj ifj.kke dh x.kuk djus ds dke esa vkrs gSA ;s eq[; ikap izdkj ds gksrs gSaA 1. COUNT(x) 2. SUM(x) 3. AVG(x) 4. MIN(x) 5. MAX(x)

x dh Hkjh gqbZ ekuksa dh x.kuk djrk gSaA x ds ekuksa dks tksMrk gSA x ds ekuksa dk vkSlr fudkyrk gS] null values dh mis{kk djrs gq, x ds U;wure eku dks iznf’kZr djrk gSA x ds vf/kdre eku dks iznf’kZr djrk gSA

mnkgj.kkFkZ% 1.

SELECT COUNT(*) FROM marks WHERE marks >90; 5

2.

SELECT sum(marks) as ‘TOTAL’ FROM marks ; WHERE rollno=10002; TOTAL

AglaSem School 113 357 3.

SELECT AVG(marks) FROM marks; 91.43

4.

SELECT MIN(marks) FROM marks; 80

5.

SELECT MAX(marks) FROM marks; 99

xzqi QaD’ku ¼¼Group Functions½½ % xzqi QaD’ku }kjk izkIr ifj.kke ,d ;k ,d ls vf/kd iafDr;ksa ds lewg ij fuHkZj djrk gSA ;g QaD’ku select rFkk vU; dFkuksa ¼ statements ½ ds lkFk mi;ksx esa vkrs gSA fjdkWMZl dk lewg cukuk % Group by Clause The GROUP BY clause }kjk fdlh Vscy dks ,d ;k vf/kd milewg esa feyk djds] ml milewg esa dksÃ Hkh expr leku gksrk gS vkSj ml milewg esa dksÃ eku gksrk gSA GROUP BY clause esa ,d ls vf/kd dkWye gks ldrs gSAa mnkgj.kkFkZ uhps fn;k x;k gS fd fo|kfFkZ;ksa dks d{kk] oxZ] ,oe~ fo"k;kuqlkj mi lewg esa cuk;k tk ldrk gS& SYNTAX SELECT * from student GROUP BY CLASS lc DoSjh ¼¼Sub Query½½: lc DoSjh SQL/Sql dk fodflr :i gSa rFkk Sql }kjk lefFkZr gSA lc DoSjh esa ,d DoSjh dk ifj.kke nwljh DoSjh dk Hkkx gksrk gSaA ;g okLro esa ,d select statement ds vUnj nwljk select, insert, update ;k delete statement gksrk gSA Subquery egRroiw.kZ gS D;ksafd §

Subquery }kjk ;g vklku gks tkrk gS fdlh Hkh DoSjh dks VqdMksa esa foHkDr djuk ,oa VqdMksa dks iqu% tksMdj ,d djukA

§ dqN Dosjht dks fcuk lcDosjh dk mi;ksx fd;s Sql esa ifjHkkf"kr ugha fd;k tk ldrk gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ SELECT * FROM MARKS WHERE ROLLNO = SUDENTNAME=’MANAN’);

(SELECT

ROLLNO

FROM

student

WHERE

mDr mnkgj.k esa geus student table esa ls euu dk jksy uEcj fy;k gS rFkk izkIr ifj.kke dh rqyuk marks table ds jksy uEcj ls dh gS D;ksfad marks table esa uke miyC/k ugha gSA blfy;s geus uke ds vk/kkj ij jksy uEcj dks student table ls fy;k gS rFkk jksy uEcj dks marks table es buiqV dh rjg iz;qDr fd;k gsA izkIr ifj.kke uhps fn;k x;k gSA ROLLNO

SUBJECT

MARKS

10002

SCIENCE

90


MATHS

85

10002

ENGLISH

90

10002

HINDI

85

,dkf/kd VscYl ls MkVk dk izn’kZu djuk@ izkIr djuk gekjs ikl nks VscYl student rFkk marks ifjf’k"V esa fn;s x;s MkVkuqlkj gS& nksuksa esa gh vf}rh; key rollno gSA fuEu Dosjh dh lgk;rk ls MkVk dk fMLiys nksuksa Vscy ls fd;k tk ldrk gS SELECT student.rollno, student.studentname, marks.marks, marks.subject FROM student, marks WHERE student.rollno=marks.rollno; izkIr ifj.kke uhps fn;k x;k gSA rollno

studentname

marks

subject

10001

VINOD

60

HINDI

10001

VINOD

75

ENGLISH

10001

VINOD

55

MATHS

10002

MANAN

90

SCIENCE

10002

MANAN

85

MATHS

10002 10002

MANAN MANAN

90 85

ENGLISH HINDI

bl izdkj ,dkf/kd Vscy ls MkVk dk fMLiys fd;k tk ldrk gSA ge comparison operators dk iz;ksx 'krkasZ esa dj ldrs gaSA 1.

=

equal to

2. 3.

> <

greater than less than

4.

>=

greater than or equal to

5. 6.

<= <>

less than or equal to not equal to

7.

LIKE

string comparison test

comparison operators ds mnkgj.k uhps fn;s x;s gSA 1.

SELECT * FROM student WHERE ROLLNO=10004; ROLLNO STUDENTNAME 10004

RUBAL

FNAME

DOB

DR. VINAY GOYAL

CLASS 27/11/1989

XI

AglaSem School 115

2.

SELECT * FROM student WHERE ROLLNO>10005; ROLLNO STUDENTNAME

3.

4.

5.

FNAME

DOB

CLASS

10006

RANJANA

SHRI VINOD AGRAWAL

19/04/1971

10007

RADHIKA

SHRI VINOD AGRAWAL

14/08/2003 PLAY

Ph.D

SELECT * FROM student WHERE ROLLNO<10004; ROLLNO

STUDENTNAME

FNAME

DOB

CLASS

10001

VINOD

SHRI DL AGRAWAL

10002

MANAN

SHRI VINOD AGRAWAL 16/11/1995

V

10003

SURESH

SHRI DL AGRAWAL

XII

07/10/1965

MBA

25/06/1960

SELECT * FROM student WHERE ROLLNO<>10004; ROLLNO

STUDENTNAME FNAME

DOB

10001

VINOD

SHRI DL AGRAWAL

07/10/1965

MBA

10002

MANAN

SHRI VINOD AGRAWAL

16/11/1995

V

10003

SURESH

SHRI DL AGRAWAL

25/06/1960

XII

10005

DHRUV

SHRI SHIV KMAR

06/11/2000

I

10006 10007

RANJANA RADHIKA

19/04/1971 14/08/2003

Ph.D PLAY

SHRI VINOD AGRAWAL SHRI VINOD AGRAWAL

CLASS

SELECT * FROM student WHERE ROLLNO>=10004; ROLLNO

STUDENTNAME

FNAME

DOB

CLASS

10004

RUBAL

DR. VINAY GOYAL

27/11/1989

XI

10005

DHRUV

SHRI SHIV KMAR

06/11/2000

I

10006

RANJANA

SHRI VINOD AGRAWAL

19/04/1971

Ph.D

10007

RADHIKA

SHRI VINOD AGRAWAL

14/08/2003

PLAY

6. SELECT * FROM student WHERE ROLLNO<=10004; ROLLNO STUDENTNAME 10001

VINOD

FNAME SHRI DL AGRAWAL

DOB 07/10/1965

CLASS MBA

AglaSem School 116

7.

10002

MANAN


V

10003

SURESH

SHRI DL AGRAWAL

25/06/1960

XII

10004

RUBAL

DR. VINAY GOYAL

27/11/1989

XI

SELECT * FROM student WHERE FNAME LIKE ‘SHRI VI%’; ROLLNO

STUDENTNAME FNAME

DOB

CLASS

10002

MANAN


V

10006

RANJANA


Ph.D

10007

RADHIKA


PLAY

Mathematical operators 1. + Addition 2. -

Subtraction

3. * 4. /

Multiplication Division

5. %

Modulo

Mathematical operators ds mnkgj.k uhps fn;s x;s gaS 1.

SELECT * FROM marks where (marks+2) =100; ROLLNO

SUBJECT

MARKS

10001

MATHS

98

2. SELECT * FROM marks where (marks-2) >90;

3.

ROLLNO

SUBJECT

MARKS

10001

ENGLISH

95

10001 10002

MATHS MATHS

98 99

SELECT * FROM marks where marks*2<=180; ROLLNO

SUBJECT

MARKS

10001

HINDI

90

AglaSem School 117

4.

5.

10002

SCIENCE

80

10002

ENGLISH

90

10002

HINDI

88

SELECT * FROM marks where marks/2>45; ROLLNO

SUBJECT

MARKS

10001

ENGLISH

95

10001

MATHS

98

10002

MATHS

99

SELECT * FROM marks where (marks+2) =100; ROLLNO

SUBJECT

MARKS

10001

HINDI

90

10001

ENGLISH

95

10001

MATHS

98

10002

SCIENCE

80

10002

MATHS

99

10002

ENGLISH

90

10002

HINDI

88

DISTINCT keyword dk iz;ksx djds nksgjko dks gVk;k tk ldrk gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ 1) SELECT DISTINCT rollno FROM marks; ROLLNO 10001 10002 USE AND, OR TO SPECIFY MULTIPLE CONDITIONS mnkgj.kkFkZ 2) SELECT * FROM marks WHERE marks > 90 OR rollno =’10002’;

AglaSem School 118 ROLLNO

SUBJECT

MARKS

10001

ENGLISH

95

10001

MATHS

98

10002

SCIENCE

80

10002

MATHS

99

10002

ENGLISH

90

10002

HINDI

88

3) SELECT * FROM marks WHERE subject=’HINDI’ AND marks < = 90; ROLLNO

SUBJECT

MARKS

10001

HINDI

90

10002

HINDI

88

4) SELECT * FROM marks WHERE marks BETWEEN 95 AND 99; ROLLNO

SUBJECT

MARKS

10001

ENGLISH

95

10001

MATHS

98

10002

MATHS

99

Sorting of data 5) SELECT * FROM student ORDER BY studentname; * By default fjsdkMZl dks c
ROLLNO

STUDENTNAME

FNAME

DOB

CLASS

10005

DHRUV

SHRI SHIV KUMAR

2000-07-01

I

10002

MANAN

SHRI VINOD AGARWAL 1995-10-16

V

10007

RADHIKA


PLAY


RANJANA


Ph.D

10004

RUBAL

VINAY GOYAL

1989-11-27 XI

10003

SURESH

SHRI DL AGARWAL

1960-06-25 XII

10001

VINOD

SHRI DL AGARWAL

1965-07-10 MBA

MkVk eS uhiqys’ku ySX ao st Data Manipulation Language

MkVk eSuhiqy’s ku ySXaost Data Manipulation Language (DML) }kjk MkVkcsl dh lwpuk dks fjVªho] tksM ,oe~ cny ldrs gSA DML dek.M~l dk mi;ksx mi;ksxdrkZ }kjk fu;fer MkVkcsl ds dk;Z ds nkSjku fd;k tkrk gSA DoSjh rFkk viMsV dek.Ml SQL ds DML dk Hkkx gS rFkk MySQL }kjk lefFkZr gSA lkekU; rkSj ij dke vkus okys DML dek.M~l fuEu gS& n

SELECT - Database esa laxfz gr lwpuk dk retrieval.

n

UPDATE - Database esa laxzfgr lwpukvksa dks modify djukA

n

DELETE - Database esa ls lwpukvksa dks delete djukA

n

INSERT INTO - Database esa u;h lwpukvksa dks Mkyuk ¼insertion½

SQL }kjk lefFkZr DML dFku% INSERT MySQL esa INSERT dek.M dk mi;ksx orZeku Vscy esa fjdkWMZl dks tksMus ds fy;s fd;k tkrk gSA ekuk fd ge student table esa fdlh student dk fjdkWMZ tksMuk pkgrs gS rks gesa fuEu izdkj ls dek.M fy[kuk gksxk& INSERT INTO STUDENT VALUES (10001,’VINOD’,’SHRI DL AGRAWAL’,’07/10/1965’,’MBA’ ); mijksDr dek.M ls LVwMUs V Vscy ds ROLLNO, STUDENTNAME, FNAME, DOB, CLASS QhYMksa esa Øe’k% 10001,’VINOD’,’SHRI DL AGRAWAL’,’07/10/1965’,’MBA’ ds eku bUlVZ gks tkrs gSA blh izdkj vU; fjdkWMZl Hkh tksMs tk ldrs gSaA vU; fjdkWMZ bUlVZ djrs gq;s fuEufyf[kr Vscy cuk;saA ROLLNO STUDENTNAME

FNAME

DOB

CLASS

10001

VINOD

SHRI DL AGRAWAL

07/10/1965

MBA

10002

MANAN

SHRI VINOD AGRAWAL

16/11/1995

V

310003

SURESH

SHRI DL AGRAWAL

25/06/1960

XII

10004

RUBAL

DR. VINAY GOYAL

27/11/1989

XI

10005

DHRUV

SHRI SHIV KMAR

06/11/2000

I

10006

RANJANA

SHRI VINOD AGRAWAL

19/04/1971

Ph.D

10007

RADHIKA

SHRI VINOD AGRAWAL

14/08/2003

PLAY

blh izdkj ekDZl Vscy esa Hkh MkVk bUlVZ dj ldrs gSA INSERT INTO marks values (10001,90,’Maths’); mijksDr dek.M ls ekDlZ Vscy ds ROLLNO, SUBJECT, MARKS QhYMksa esa Øe’k% 10001,90,’Maths’ ds eku bUlVZ gks tkrs gSa A

AglaSem School 120

blh izdkj vU; fjdkWMl Z Hkh tksMs tk ldrs gSA blh izdkj fjdkWMZ bUlVZ djrs gq;s fuEufyf[kr Vscy cuk;saA ROLLNO

SUBJECT

MARKS

10001

HINDI

90

10001

ENGLISH

95

10001

MATHS

98

10002

SCIENCE

80

10002

MATHS

99

10002

ENGLISH

90

10002

HINDI

88

SELECT SELECT dek.M dks lkekU;r% MySQL esa cgqrk;r ls iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA ;g fdlh Hkh vkWijs’kuy MkVkcsl ls mi;ksxdrkZ ¼users½ dks okafNr MkVk retrieve djus ds fy, mi;ksx gksrk gSSA ge School database esa student table dk ,d mnkgj.k ysrs gSaA uhps of.kZr mnkgj.k Vscy esa miyC/k leLr lwpuk dks fn[kkrk gSA ;gk¡ asterisk (*) dk mi;ksax MySQL esa wild card dh rjg fd;k tkrk gS ftlls fd Vscy esa miyC/k leLr lwpuk dk p;u gks tkrk gSA mnkgj.k 1 .

SELECT * FROM student; mijksDr dek.M ls fuEu ifj.kke izkIr gksxkA ROLLNO STUDENTNAME

FNAME

DOB

CLASS

10001

VINOD

SHRI DL AGRAWAL

07/10/1965

MBA

10002

MANAN

SHRI VINOD AGRAWAL

16/11/1995

V

10003

SURESH

SHRI DL AGRAWAL

25/06/1960

XII

10004

RUBAL

DR. VINAY GOYAL

27/11/1989

XI

10005

DHRUV

SHRI SHIV KMAR

06/11/2000

I

10006

RANJANA

SHRI VINOD AGRAWAL

19/04/1971

Ph.D

10007

RADHIKA

SHRI VINOD AGRAWAL

14/08/2003

PLAY

mnkgj.k 2 SELECT * FROM marks; mijksDr dek.M ls fuEu ifj.kke izkIr gksxkA ROLLNO

SUBJECT

MARKS

10001

HINDI

90

10001

ENGLISH

95

10001

MATHS

98

10002

SCIENCE

80

10002

MATHS

99

10002

ENGLISH

90

10002

HINDI

88

AglaSem School 121

;fn vki fdlh lwpuk dk dsoy dqN gh fgLlk pkgrs gSa rks vki mldks fuEufyf[kr dek.M }kjk izkIr dj ldrs gaSA mnkgj.k ds fy, ;fn vki 10005 ls de vFkok cjkcj rollno okyksa dh lwpuk student table ls pkgrs gS rks fuEu dek.M }kjk izkIr fd;k tk ldrk gSA SELECT * FROM Student WHERE ROLLNO<=10005; mijksDr dek.M ls fuEu ifj.kke izkIr gksxkA ROLLNO

STUDENTNAME FNAME

DOB

CLASS

10001

VINOD

SHRI DL AGRAWAL

07/10/1965

MBA

10002

MANAN

SHRI VINOD AGRAWAL

16/11/1995

V

10003

SURESH

SHRI DL AGRAWAL

25/06/1960

XII

10004

RUBAL

DR. VINAY GOYAL

27/11/1989

XI

10005

DHRUV

SHRI SHIV KMAR

06/11/2000

I

WHERE clause dk mi;ksx lwpuk dks pkgs x;s ØkÃVsfj;k ds vuqlkj izkIr djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA bl DykWt ds }kjk pqus gq, fjdkWMksZ rFkk QhYMksa dks izkIr fd;k tk ldrk gSA mnkgj.k ds fy, gesa ,sls fjdkWMksaZ dks pquuk gS ftuesa ekDlZ QhYM dk eku 90 ;k blls vf/kd gS rks gesa fuEu izdkj ls dek.M fy[kuk gksxkA SELECT * FROM marks WHERE marks >=90; mijksDr dek.M ls fuEu ifj.kke izkIr gksxk ROLLNO

SUBJECT

MARK

10001

HINDI

90

10001

ENGLISH

95

10001

MATHS

98

10002

MATHS

99

10002

ENGLISH

90

blh izdkj fuEu mnkgj.k esa ge student Vscy dk og fjdkWMZ pquuk pkgrs gSa ftlesa STUDENTNAME QhYM dk eku ‘MANAN’ gSA SELECT * FROM student WHERE studentname=’MANAN’; mijksDr dek.M ls fuEu ifj.kke izkIr gksxkA ROLLNO

STUDENTNAME

FNAME

DOB

CLASS

10002

MANAN

SHRI VINOD AGRAWAL

16/11/1995

V

UPDATE UPDATE command dk iz;ksx lkekU;r% fdlh iafDr ds fdlh QhYM ds eku dks cnyus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA ;fn ge izR;sd fo|kFkhZ dks izR;sd fo"k; esa 2 vad crkSj cksul ds nsuk pkgrs gSsa rks fuEufyf[kr dEkk.M }kjk bl dk;Z dks 'kh/kz fd;k tk ldrk gSA

AglaSem School 122

mnkgj.k 1 UPDATE marks SET marks=marks+2; mijksDr dek.M ls fuEu ifj.kke izkIr gksxkA ROLLNO

SUBJECT

MARKS

10001

HINDI

92

10001

ENGLISH

97

10001

MATHS

100

10002

SCIENCE

82

10002

MATHS

101

10002

ENGLISH

92

HINDI

100

10002

mijksDr ifj.kke ds QhYM MARKS dks ns[kus ij ;g izrhr gksrk gS fd izR;sd jksy uEcj ds ekDlZ esa iwoZ ds vadksa esa nks vad tksMd + j ifj.kke fn[kk;k x;kA mnkgj.k 2 blh izdkj ;fn ge iqu% ekDlZ Vscy esa fn;s x;s ekDlZ esa ls nks vad de djuk pkgrs gaS rFkk iwoZ dh fLFkfr esa Vscy dks j[kuk pkgrs gSa rks fuEu dek.M }kjk ;g dk;Z fd;k tk ldrk gSA UPDATE marks SET marks=marks-2; mijksDr dek.M ls fuEu ifj.kke izkIr gksxkA ROLLNO

SUBJECT

MARKS

10001

HINDI

90

10001

ENGLISH

95

10001

MATHS

98

10002

SCIENCE

80

10002

MATHS

99

10002

ENGLISH

90

10002

HINDI

98

mijksDr dek.M ls ekDlZ QhYM dk ifj.kke mnkgj.k 1 esa n’kkZ;s x;s vadksa ls nks vad de gSA

DELETE bl dek.M dk mi;ksx fdlh fjdkWMZ ;k fjdkWMZ ds lewg dks gVkus ds fy;s fd;k tkrk gSA ;fn ge rollno 10002 ds fjdkWMZ dks gVkuk pkgrs gS rks DELETE command dks WHERE clause ds lkFk iz;Dq r djds ekDZl Vscy ls gVk;k tk ldrk gSA blds fy;s fuEu dek.M mi;ksx esa ysx& s DELETE FROM marks WHERE rollno=10002; blds i’pkr SELECT * FROM MARKS dek.M dks nsus ij fuEu ifj.kke izkIr gksxkA ROLLNO

SUBJECT

MARKS


HINDI

90

10001

ENGLISH

95

10001

MATHS

98

mijksDr ifj.kke ls ;g fofnr gksrk gS fd Vscy esa iwoZ esa miyC/k jksy uEcj 10002 dk MkVk [kRe gks x;k gSA bl izdkj Vscy ls MkVk dks gVk;k tk ldrk gSA

O;w (View): O;w dk mi;ksx Vscy esa ls MkVk fjVªho djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA DoSjh okLrfod MkVk ij dk;Z djrh gSa tks fd Vscy esa LVksj jgrk gSA O;w ,d opqZvy Vscy gksrh gS tks fd lysDV LVsVesUV }kjk rS;kj gksrh gSA O;w esa iafä ,oa dkWye nksuksa gh gksrs gSa tSlk fd Vscy esa gksrs gaSA O;w esa ogh QhYMl gksrs gSa tks QhYM okLrfod Vscy esa gksrs gSAa QhYMksa dh la[;k Select dFku ij fuHkZj djrh gSA O;w ls MkVk dks i
• •

O;w dk lkekU;r% mi;ksx vukf/kd`r ;wtj ls MkVk dks lajf{kr djuk gSA iafä;ksa dks Vscy esa ls fQYVj djrk gSA

O;w ds ykHk :

• • • •

;wtj dks vklkuh ls ifj.kke ¼vkmViqV½ nsrk gSA ;wtj dks vklkuh ls MsVk nsrk gSA Moyij }kjk MkVk fjVªhcy dks jksdk tk ldrk gSA Moyij }kjk vklkuh ls ,Iyhds’ku dks esUVsu fd;k tk ldrk gSA

Syntax

CREATE VIEW view_name AS SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE condition; Drop view: O;w dks gVkus ds fy, fuEu dek.M mi;ksx djrs gS% DROP VIEW ;

Index: gesa cgqr cMs MsVk dks fcuk le; u"V fd;s ,Dlsl djuk gksrk gSA Index }kjk Vscy ls MsVk dks 'kh?kzrk ls ,Dlsl djuk laHko gSA fdlh Vscy esa Index iafDr;ks dks vfr’kh?kzrk rFkk fuiq.krk ls ,Dlsl djus ds fy, fØ;sV fd;s tkrs gSA fdlh Hkh Vscy esa ,d ;k ,d ls vf/kd dkWye ij Index fØ;sV djuk laHko gS rFkk izR;sd Index dks uke nsuk vko’;d gSA mi;ksxdrkZ ¼Users½ Indexes dks ugha ns[k ldrs gSa] os dsoy viuh DoSjht dh xfr rst djus ds fy, budk mi;ksx djrs gSaA Index ds izdkj% 1- Hash indexes: Hash indexes rqY;rk [kkst ¼Equality search½ ds fy, ftlesa dkWye ds eku fHkUu&fHkUu ¼Unique½ gks ds fy, cgqr rst dk;Z djrs gSA visf{kr MsVk dks izkIr djus ds fy, blesa izkIr fMLd CykWd dh la[;k cgqr de ¼,d vFkok nks½ gksrh gSA ijUrq Hash indexes range queries ds fy, fuiq.krk ls dk;Z ugha djrs gS D;ksafd os clustering indexes ugha gSA ,d

AglaSem School 124

jsUt ds varxZr MsVkcsl vkbZVe fMLd ij ikl&ikl LVksj ugha gksrs D;ksfa d muds Hash eku cgqr fHkUurk fy;s gq, gks ldrs gSA 2- B+tree indexes: B+tree indexes rqY;rk [kkst ¼Equality search½ rFkk jsat DoSjht nksuksa ds fy, fuiq.krk ls dk;Z djrh gSA ;|fi ;s rqY;rk [kkst ds fy, Hash indexes ftrus rst xfr’khy ugha gSA

MkVkcsl vkWCtsDV~l (Database Objects) : Database Objects dk la/kkj.k RDBMS }kjk fd;k tkrk gSA eq[;r% lkjs gh Database Objects MkVkcsl esa txg ?ksjrs gaSA dqN MkVkcsl vkWCtsDV nwljs MkVkcsl ds vkWCtsDV~l dks Hkh j[krs gSA VscYl gh ,slk MkVkcsl vkWCtsDV gS ftlesa ;wtj dk MkVk j[kk tkrk gS vkSj ;wtj VscYl dks lh/ks gh ,Dlsl dj ldrk gSA MkVkcsl vkWCtsDV~l dk uke cukrs le; fn;k tkrk gS vkSj budk uke fu;ekuqlkj fn;k tkrk gSA lHkh MsVkcsl vkWCtsDV~l ,d fØ;sVj rFkk vkWuj j[krs gS fuEufyf[kr MkVkcsl vkWCtsDV~l gSa %& Ø clusters Ø columns Ø constraints Ø database Ø database links Ø indexes Ø rollback segments Ø savepoints Ø tables Ø tablespaces Ø users Ø views MkVkcsl vkWCtsDV ds uke nsus ds fu;e ü MkVkcsl vkWCtsDV dk uke 64 djsDVj ls T;knk yEck ugha gksuk pkfg,A ü dksVs’ku ekdZ uke esa mi;ksx ugha gksrk gSA ü uke dh 'kq:vkr v{kj ls gksuh pkfg,A ü uke MySQL fjtoZ oMZ~l esa ls ugha gksuk pkfg,A ü uke esa v{kj tSls fd A-Z,0-9,_,#,$ gks ldrs gSaA ¼#,& dk mi;ksx ugha fd;k tkuk pkfg,s½

ü mlh uke dk iqu% mi;ksx ugha fd;k tkuk pkfg, ;fn iwoZ esa mlh vkWuj }kjk fdlh MkVkcsl vkWCtsDV dk uke mi;ksx esa ys fy;k x;k gSA vU; tkudkfj;ka %&

§ § §

iwjs ,oe~ o.kkZRed uke dk mi;ksx djsaA ,d opuh; (Singular) uke dk mi;ksx djsaA fdlh Hkh ,d ,fUVVh dks n’kkZus ds fy;s ,d gh uke dk iz;ksx djsaA

SQL DDL/DML Syntax

AglaSem School 125 Statement

Syntax

AND / OR

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE condition AND|OR condition

ALTER TABLE (add column)

ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name datatype

ALTER TABLE (drop column)

ALTER TABLE table_name DROP COLUMN column_name

AS (alias for column)

SELECT column_name AS column_alias FROM table_name

AS (alias for table)

SELECT column_name FROM table_name AS table_alias

BETWEEN

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE column_name BETWEEN value1 AND value2

CREATE DATABASE

CREATE DATABASE database_name

CREATE INDEX

CREATE INDEX index_name ON table_name (column_name)

CREATE TABLE

CREATE TABLE table_name (column_name1 data_type, column_name2 data_type,.......)

CREATE UNIQUE INDEX

CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name ON table_name (column_name)

CREATE VIEW

CREATE VIEW view_name ASSELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name

WHERE condition DELETE FROM DELETE FROM table_name (Note: Deletes the entire table!!) or DELETE FROM table_name WHERE condition DROP DATABASE

DROP DATABASE database_name

DROP INDEX

DROP INDEX table_name.index_name

DROP TABLE

DROP TABLE table_name

GROUP BY

SELECT column_name1,SUM(column_name2) FROM table_name GROUP BY column_name1

AglaSem School 126 HAVING

SELECT column_name1, SUM(column_name2) FROM table_name GROUP BY column_name1 HAVING SUM(column_name2) condition value

IN

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE column_nameIN (value1,value2,..)

INSERT INTO

INSERT INTO table_name VALUES (value1, value2,....) or INSERT INTO table_name (column_name1, column_name2,...) VALUES (value1, value2,....)

LIKE

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE column_name LIKE pattern

ORDER BY

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name ORDER BY column_name [ASC|DESC]

SELECT

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name

SELECT *

SELECT * FROM table_name

SELECT DISTINCT

SELECT DISTINCT column_name(s) FROM table_name

SELECT INTO (used to create backup copies of tables)

SELECT * INTO new_table_name FROM original_table_name or SELECT column_name(s) INTO new_table_name FROM original_table_name TRUNCATE TABLE(deletes only TRUNCATE TABLE table_name the data inside the table) UPDATE

UPDATE table_name SET column_name=new_value [, column_name=new_value] WHERE column_name=some_value

WHERE

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE condition

egRoiw.kZ fcUnq

AglaSem School 127

MkVk esU;wiqys’ku ySXaost ¼DML) • SELECT - Database esa laxzfgr lwpuk dk retrieval djukA • UPDATE - Database esa laxzfgr lwpukvksa dks modify djukA • DELETE - Database esa ls lwpukvksa dks delete djukA • INSERT INTO - Database esa u;h lwpukvksa dk insertion djukA View- O;w dk mi;ksx Vscy esa ls MkVk fjVªho djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA DoSjh okLrfod MkVk ij dk;Z djrh gSa tks fd Vscy esa LVksj jgrk gSA O;w ,d opqZvy Vscy gksrh gS tks fd lysDV LVsVesUV }kjk rS;kj gksrh gSA O;w esa iafä ,oa dkWye nksuksa gh gksrs gSa tSlk fd Vscy esa gksrs gaSA O;w esa ogh QhYMl gksrs gSa tks QhYM okLrfod Vscy esa gksrs gSaA QhYMksa dh la[;k Select dFku ij fuHkZj djrh gSA O;w ls MkVk dks i
• •

O;w dk lkekU;r% mi;ksx vukf/kd`r ;wtj ls MkVk dks lajf{kr djuk gSA iafä;ksa dks Vscy esa ls fQYVj djrk gSA

O;w ds ykHk :

• • • •

;wtj dks vklkuh ls ifj.kke nsrk gSA ;wtj dks vklkuh ls MkVk nsrk gSA Moyij }kjk MkVk fjVªhcy dks jksdk tk ldrk gSA

Moyij }kjk vklkuh ls ,Iyhds’ku dks esUVsu fd;k tk ldrk gSA Index: gesa cgqr cMs MsVk dks fcuk le; u"V fd;s ,Dlsl djuk gksrk gSA Index }kjk Vscy ls MsVk dks 'kh?kzrk ls ,Dlsl djuk laHko gSA fdlh Vscy esa Index iafDr;ks dks vfr’kh?kzrk rFkk fuiq.krk ls ,Dlsl djus ds fy, fØ;sV fd;s tkrs gSA fdlh Hkh Vscy esa ,d ;k ,d ls vf/kd dkWye ij Index fØ;sV djuk laHko gS rFkk izR;sd Index dks uke nsuk vko’;d gSA mi;ksxdrkZ ¼Users½ Indexes dks ugha ns[k ldrs gS]a os dsoy viuh DoSjht dh xfr rst djus ds fy, budk mi;ksx djrs gSAa

vH;klkFkZ iz’u oLrqfu"B iz’u 1 Mh-,e-,y- ds }kjk vki D;k dj ldrs gSa\ (v) MkVk dks ,UVj ,oe~ ,fMV (c) fjiksVZ~l cuk ldrs gS (l) mijksDr nksuksa dk;ksZ ds fy, (n) mijksDr esa ls dksbZ ughaa 2 Mh-Mh-,y- ds }kjk vki D;k dj ldrs gSa\ (v) MkVk dks ,UVj ,oe~ ,fMV (c) MkVkcsl vkWCtsDV dks fØ;sV o MªkWi (l) mijksDr nksuksa dk;Z dj ldrs gS (n) mijksDr esa ls dksbZ ughaa 3 ,l-D;w-,y- fdl izdkj dh Hkk"kk gS\ (v) ukWu izkslhtjy ySXaost (c) izkslhtjy ySXaost (l) e’khu ySXoa st (n) mijksDr esa ls dksbZ ughaa 4- ,l-D;w-,y- dks fdruh mi&Hkk"kkvksa esa ckaVk x;k gS\ (v) nks (c) rhu (l) vkB (n) ik¡p 5- fuEu esa ls RDBMS dkSulk gSS\ (v) Sql (c) MS excel (l) DBASE (n) mijksDr esa ls dksbZ ughaa

AglaSem School 128

vfr y?kqÙ kjkRed iz’u 1 lysDV dek.M dk D;k mi;ksx gS\ 2 viMsV dek.M dk D;k mi;ksx gS\ 3 fMyhV dek.M dk D;k mi;ksx gS\ 4 Vscy dk LVªDpj ns[kus gsrq dkSulh dek.M dk mi;ksx djsxas \ 5 Vscy]MsVkcsl rFkk dkWye ds uke dh vf/kdre yEckbZ fdrus v{kjksa dh gS\ 6- MEDIUMINT MkVk VkbZi dk mi;ksx D;k gSS\ 7- VARCHAR MkVk VkbZi dk D;k mi;ksx gS\ 8MsV MsVk VkbZi esa TIMESTAMP dk D;k mi;ksx gksrk gS\ y?kq Ù kjkRed iz ’ u 1 bUlVZ bu Vw dek.M dk D;k mi;ksx gS\ 2 O;w D;k gksrk gS\ 3 fdlh Vscy ds leLr fjdkWMZl dks iznf’kZr djus ds fy, dek.M fy[kssa\ 4 MySQL }kjk mi;ksx fd;s tkus okys indexes ds izdkjksa dk o.kZu dhft,\ 5- dULVªUs V D;k gksrs gSa\ 6- vkYVj dek.M dk D;k mi;ksx gksrk gS\ 7- MªkWi dek.M dk D;k mi;ksx gksrk gS\ fucU/kkRed iz ’ u 1 VscYl esa ls dqN MkVk dks dSls fjVªho fd;k tkrk gS\ mnkgj.k lfgr o.kZu djsaA 2 Mh-,e-,y- dek.M~l dk foLr`r o.kZu dhft,A 3 MkVkcsl vkWCtsDV~l ds uke nsus ds fu;eksa dk o.kZu dhft,A 4 VIEW dks mnkgj.k lfgr le>kb;s\ 5- Sql ds D;k ykHk gSS\ 6- ekbZ-,l-D;w-,y- dk o.kZu dhft,A 7- Sql ds fofHkUu MkVk VkbZi dkSu&dksSu ls gS\ 8- ,d Vscy cukb, ftlesa izkbZejh dh ds lkFk&lkFk ,d vU; QhYM ij ukWV uy dk izfrcU/k fn;k x;k gksA mnkgj.k lfgr o.kZu djsaA 9- fuEu dh O;k[;k dhft,A (i) ;wfud dkULVªsUV (ii) jsQjsUlst dkULVªsUV (ii) ukWV uy dkULVªsUV mÙkjekyk 1 v 2 ¼c½ 3 ¼v½ 4 ¼c½ 5 ¼v½

AglaSem School 129

v/;k;&6 cwfy;u ,ytscjk (Boolean Algebra) cwfy;u ,ytscjk loZizFke tktZ cwfy;u ds }kjk lu~ 1849 esa izfrikfnr fd;k x;kA cwfy;u ,ytscjk ,d rF;kRed ,ytscjk gS rFkk lkekU;r;k rkfdZd vkWijsVj NOT, AND, OR vkfn esa iz;Dq r gksrk gSAa ykWftdy pj dsoy nks eku TRUE (1) vFkok FALSE (0) xzg.k dj ldrk gSA cwfy;u ,ytscjk ykWfTkd lfdZV dks iznf’kZr djus ds fy;s iz;qDr gksrk gSA ;g ,d fMftVy ykWftd lfdZV dks cukus rFkk ,usykbt djus dk cgqr 'kfDr'kkyh vkStkj gSA cwfy;u ,ytsfczd O;atd dks Kkr ,oa ljy djus ds fy;s cwfy;u ,ytscjk iz;Dq r gksrk gS ftlls dfBu fMftVy fudk; dks lLrk] ljy rFkk Hkjksles Un cuk;k tk ldrk gSA vk/kkjHkwr ykWftdy vkWijs'kUl dks cukus ds fy;s tks bysDVªkfud ifjiFk iz;qDr gksrs gS mUgs ykWftdy xsV dgk tkrk gSA

cwfy;u fLFkjkad %& ,ytscjk ds vo;oksa vFkkZr~ FALSE (0) rFkk TRUE (1) dks cwfy;u fLFkjkad dgk tkrk gSA

cwfy;u pj %& ,ytscjk vo;oksa dks iznf'kZr djus ds fy;s tks ladsr dke esa vkrs gS mu ladrs ks dks cwfy;u pj dgk tkrk gS ;s pj dsoy 0 vFkok 1 eku xzg.k dj ldrs gS mnkgj.kkFkZ tSls X, Y, Z vkfnA

cwfy;u vkWijsVj ¼ykWftd xsV½ %& rhu izdkj ds vk/kkjHkwr ykWftd xsV AND, OR ,oa NOT gSA bu ykWftd xsVksa dks vk/kkjHkwr cwfy;u vkWijsVj Hkh dgk tkrk gSA ,d fMftVy ifjiFk tks fd ladrs ks (Signals) dks tkus nsrk gS vFkok jksdrk gS xsV dgykrk gSA ;g xsV ladrs ks dks rHkh tkus nsrk gS tc dqN rkfdZd 'krasZ larq"V gksrh gaS blfy;s bls ykWftd xsV Hkh dgk tkrk gSA AND GATE%& ;g xsV nks vFkok vf/kd buiqVks dk rkfdZd xq.ku djrk gSA ;g xsV nks vFkok nks ls vf/kd buiqV rFkk ,d vkmViqV j[krk gSA bl xsV dh vkmViqV 1 (High) rHkh gksrh gS tc bldh lHkh buiqVsa 1 (High) gksA nks buiqVksa (A, B ) ds AND xsV dh vkmViqV (Y) fuEu izdkj iznf'kZr dh tk ldrh gSA Y=A.B tgk¡ MkWV (.) AND vkWijs'ku dks iznf'kZr djrk gSA nks buiqVksa ds AND xsV ds rkfdZd ladrs dks fp= la[;k 1 rFkk buiqV ,oa vkmViqV lEcU/k dks lkj.kh& 1 esa n'kkZ;k x;k gSA

A B

Y=A.B

fp= 1 AND xsV

AglaSem School 130 Truth Table AND Gate

lkj.kh 1

fp= 2 AND xsV dk fLofpax ifjiFk AND xsV ds fLofpax ifjiFk dks fp= la[;k 2 esa n'kkZ;k x;k gSA bldh dk;Ziz.kkyh esa ge ns[krs gS fd cYc rHkh tysxk tc A rFkk B nksuksa fLop cUn gksx a s vU;Fkk cYo ugha tysxkA ;g ifjiFk A AND B xsV dh dk;Z iz.kkyh dks Bhd izdkj ls le>krk gSA

+

OR GATE %& nks vkSj vf/kd buiqVksa dk ykWftdy ;ksx OR xsVVds }kjk fd;k tkrk gSA OR xsV nks vkSj nks ls vf/kd _

(Bulb) buiqV rFkk ,d vkmViqV j[krk gSA OR xsV dh vkmViqV 0 (low) dsoy rc gksrh gS tc OR xsV dh lHkh buiq Vas 0 (low)

gksrh gSA OR gate dh nks buiqVksa (A,B) dh vkmViqV (Y) dks fuEu izdkj iznf'kZr fd;k tk ldrk gSA

Output

Y=A+ B tgk¡ Plus (+) OR vkWijs'ku dks iznf'kZr djrk gSA nks buiqVksa ds OR xsV dk ykWftdy ladrs fp= la- 3 esa n'kkZ;k x;k gS ,oa buiqV vkmViqV lEcU/k dks lkj.kh& 2 esa n'kkZ;k x;k gSA Truth table of OR GATE

A B

Y=A+B

fp= 3

lkj.kh 2

AglaSem School 131

fp= 4 OR xsV dk fLofpax lfdZV OR xsV dk fLofpax ifjiFk ¼fp= la- 4½ OR xsV dh dk;Ziz.kkyh dks n'kkZrk gSA mijksDr ls ge ns[krs gS fd dksbZ Hkh buiqV fLop A vFkok B ds can ¼1½ gksus ij cYc ty tk;sxkA nksuksa fLopksa A rFkk B ds can gksus ij Hkh cYc tysxk ysfdu nksuksa fLopksa ds [kqys ¼0½ gksus ij cYc ugha tysxkA NOT GATE %& ;g xsV buoj'ku (Inversion) vkWijs'ku iwjk djrk gSA bldks dkWEiyhesUVj (Complementor) ds uke ls Hkh tkuk tkrk gSA ;g mPp ¼1½ ykWftd ry dks fuEu ¼0½ ykWftd ry esa rFkk fuEu ¼0½ ykWftd ry dks mPp ¼1½ ykWftd ry esa ifjorZu djrk gSA ;g ,d buiqV dk xsV gSA bl xsV dh vkmViqV (Y) dks buiqV (A) esa fuEu izdkj n'kkZrk gSA

Y=A' ;gk¡”A', NOT vkWijs'ku dks iznf'kZr djrk gSA ;fn NOT xsV dh buiqV A gS rks bl xsV dh vkmViqV A' gksxhA NOT xsV dk ykWftdy ladrs fp= la- 5 esa n'kkZ;k x;k gS ,oa buiqV] vkmViqV lEcU/k dks lkj.kh &3 esa n'kkZ;k x;k gSA A

BA gate TruthY=A table of NOT fp= 5 V

V

+

-

B

A

(Bulb) Output Y

(Bulb) Y Output

lkj.kh 3

fp= 6 NOT xsV dk fLofpax lfdZV NOT xsV dk fLofpax ifjiFk fp= la- 6 esa n'kkZ;k x;k gS bl ifjiFk esa cYc rFkk fLop dks lekukUrj esa tksM+k x;k gS tc fLop [kqyk (A=0) gksxk rc cYc tysxk Y=1 gksxk rFkk tc fLop cUn (A=1) gksxk rc cYc ugha tysxk vFkkZr Y=0 gksxkA

AglaSem School 132

;wuholZy xsV (Universal Gates) %& os ykWftd xsV~l ftudh lgk;rk ls fdlh Hkh dkWEchus'kuy ifjiFk vFkok fMftVy fudk; dks fcuk fdlh vU; xsV dh lgk;rk fy;s dsoy ,d gh xsV ls cuk;k tk ldrk gS rks mu ykWftd xsVksa dks ;wfuolZy xsV dgrs gSA ;s gSA (i) NAND Gate (ii) NOR Gate NAND Gate %& ;g xsV AND xsV rFkk NOT xsV ds la;kstu ls curk gS vFkkZr~ ;g AND xsV dh vkmViqV dk O;qRØe (Complement) gksrk gS fp= la- 7 esa NAND xsV dk ladsr iznf'kZr fd;k x;k gSA NOT vkWijs'ku dks iznf'kZr djus ds fy;s ccy (Bubble) iz;qDr fd;k x;k gSA nks buiqVksa ds NAND xsV dk cwfy;u O;atd (Expression) Y=(A.B)' gksxkA buiqVksa ,oa vkmViqV dk lEcU/k lkj.kh&4 esa n'kkZ;k x;k gSA A B

Y=(A.B)'

fp= 7 Truth Table NAND Gate

lkj.kh A4

Y=(A+B)' B NOR xsV%& NOR xsV] OR xsV ,oa NOT xsV ds la;kstu ls curk gS ;g OR xsV dk O;qRØe (Complement) gksrk gSA

NOR xsV dk ladrs fp= la- 8 esa fn[kk;k x;k gS ;g OR vkWijs'ku ds i'pkr~ NOT vkWijs'ku dks n'kkZrk gS NOT vkWijs'ku dks n'kkZus ds fy;s ccy (Bubble) iz;Dq r gqvk gSA nks buiqVksa ds NOR xsV dk cwfy;u O;atd (Expression) Y=(A+B)' gksxkA buiqVksa ,oa vkmViqV dk lEcU/k lkj.kh&5 esa n'kkZ;k x;k gSA

fp= 8 NOR xsV

lkj.kh&5

cwfy;u ,ytscjk ds fu;e dfBu cwfy;u O;atdksa dks gy djus ds fy;s dqN fuf'pr ,oa vPNh rjg fodflr fu;eksa dh ikyuk djuh gksrh

AglaSem School 133

gSA fdlh Hkh cwfy;u O;atd esa de ls de pjksa dh la[;k] ykWftd ifjiFk ds ewY; rFkk dfBurk (Complexity) dks /kVkrh gSA cwfy;u fu;e fuEu izdkj le>k;s x;s gaS & Øe fofues; (Commutative) fu;e fu;e%& ;g fu;e n'kkZrk gS fd vkWijsVj ij ykxw pjksa dk Øe cnyus ij mldk ifj.kke ugha cnyrk gS vFkkZr~ ;fn A o B pjkas dks vkil esa cny fn;k tk;sa rks vkmViqV (Y) dk eku ifjofrZr ugha gksxkA ;g fuEu izdkj le>k tk ldrk gS%& Y = A+B = B+A Y = A.B = B.A lkgp;Z (Associative) fu;e fu;e%& ;g fu;e n'kkZrk gS fd tc ,d ckbujh vkWijsVj ¼$ ;k - ½ nks ls vf/kd pjkas ij ykxw gksrk gS rks fdUgh Hkh nks pjksa dk lewg cuk;s tkus ls mlds ifj.kke eas dksbZ ifjorZu ugha gksxkA bl fu;e dks lkgp;Z fu;e dgrs gSaA ;g fuEu izdkj ifjHkkf"kr fd;k tkrk gS & A + (B+C) = (A+B) +C A.(B.C) = (A.B).C caVu dk fu;e (Distributive Law) % & ;g fu;e n'kkZrk gS fd ,d pj ,oa nks pj tks fd $ vkWijsVj ls tqMs gSa ds chp xq.ku ¼-½ vkWijsVj gS rks bldk ifj.kke ogh gksxk tks fd ,d pj xq.ku vkWijsVj ¼-½ ls nwljs nksuksa pjkas ds xq.ku ds i'pkr~ cwfy;u ;ksx ls vkrk gS vFkkZr~ bls fuEu izdkj le>k tk ldrk gSA A.(B+C) = A.B + A.C cwfy;u ,ytscjk dh vk/kkjHkwr F;ksje (Theorems) (i)

(ii)

(iii)

A+0=A Input A 0 1

Truth Table L.H.S. A+0 0+0=0 1+0=1

R.H.S.(Output) A 0 1

Input A 0 1

Truth Table L.H.S. A.1 0.1=0 1.1=1


Input A 0 1

Truth Table L.H.S. A+1 0+1=1 1+1=1

R.H.S.(Output) 1 1 1

A.1=A

A+1=1

AglaSem School 134

(iv)

(v)

(vi)

(vii)

A.0=0 Input A 0 1

Truth Table L.H.S. A.0 0.0=0 1.0=0


Input A 0 1

Truth Table L.H.S. A+A 0+0=0 1+1=1


Input A 0 1

Truth Table L.H.S. A.A 0.0=0 1.1=1


Input A 0 1

Truth Table L.H.S. A+A' 0+1=1 1+0=1


Input A 0 1

Truth Table L.H.S. A.A' 0.1=0 1.0=0


Input A 0 1

Truth Table L.H.S. (A')' (0')'=0 (1')'=1


A+A=A

A.A=A

A+A'=1

(viii) A.A'=0

(ix)

(x)

(A')'=A

A+AB = A L.H.S. = A+AB = A (1+B) =A

[Q (1+B)=1]

AglaSem School 135 (xi)

A+A'B = A+B L.H.S. = A+A'B = A.1+A'B = A(1+B)+A'B = A + AB + A'B = A + B (A+A') =A+ B

(xii)

[

A + A' = 1]

A+BC = (A+B) (A+C) L.H.S. = A+B.C = A.1+B.C = A(1+B) +B.C = A + A.B + B.C = A (1+C)+ AB+BC = A +AC+AB+BC = A.A+AC+AB+BC = (A+C) (A+B)

fMeksxZu dh F;ksje (Theorem) fMeksxZu dh izFke F;ksje crkrh gS fd nks ;k vf/kdQpjksa ds xq.kuQy dk O;qRØe (Complement) izR;sd pj ds O;qRØeksa ds ;ksx ds cjkcj gksrk gSA vFkkZr~ (A.B.C....)'=A'+B'+C'...

fMeksxZu dh f}rh; F;ksje crkrh gS fd nks ;k vf/kd pjks ds ;ksx dk O;qRØe izR;sd pj ds O;qRØe ds xq.kuQy ds cjkcj gksrk gS vFkkZr~ (A+B+C....)'=A'.B'.C'...

bu F;ksjeksa dks Truth Table dh lgk;rk ls fl) fd;k tk ldrk gSA Duality

fl)kUr%& F;ksje ;k Duality dk fl)kUr%

cwfy;u ,ytscjk dh vk/kkjHkwr F;ksjeksa ds izs{k.k ls /;ku vkrk gS fd ,d O;atd dks nwljs izk:i ds O;atd esa ifjofrZr fd;k tk ldrk gS (i)

vkWijs'ku *$* dks vkWijs'ku - ,oa vkWijs'ku - dks ^$^ }kjk cnyus ,oa

(ii)

0 dks 1 ls cnyus ,oa 1 dks 0 ls cnyus ij bl izdkj ge dg ldrs gS fd (i) $ dks - ls cnyus (ii) - dks $ ls cnyus (iii) 0 dks 1 ls cnyus

AglaSem School 136 (iv)

1 dks 0 ls cnyus

bl izdkj ,d izdkj ds O;atd ls nwljs izdkj dk O;atd cuk;k tk ldrk gS tks F;ksje bl izdkj lec) gS mu F;ksjeks dks Dual F;ksje rFkk bl fl)kUr dks duality fl)kUr dgrs gSA fuEu dks fl) dhft;sA Eg.1 (AB+AC)' +A'B'C=A'+B'C'

gy%

L.H.S.= (AB+AC)'+A'B'C =(AB)'.(AC)' +A'B'C

[Demorgan's Theorem]

=(A'+B').(A'+C')+A'B'C =A'.A' +B'.A'+A'.C' +B'.C'+ A'B'C =A' +B'.A'+A'.C' + A'B'C +B'.C' = A'(1+B'+C'+B'C)+B'C'

= A'+B'C'

Eg. 2 (AB'(C+BD)+A'B').C=B'C

gy%

L.H.S.=(AB'(C+BD)+A'B').C =(AB'C+AB'BD+A'B')C [Q BB'=0]

=(AB'C+0+A'B')C = AB'CC+A'B'C = AB'C+A'B'C

Eg. 3

= B'C(A+A')

[ A+A'=1] Q

=B'C = R.H.S

Hence Proved

(AB+BC+CA)' = A'.B'+ B'.C'+A'.C' L.H.S. =(AB+BC+CA)'

= (AB)'.(BC)'(C.A)' = (A'+B') (B'+C')(C'+A')

[ (AB)'=A'+B']

= (A'B'+B'B'+B'C'+A'C') (C'+A') =A'B'C'+A'B'A'+B'B'C'+B'B'A'+B'C'C'+B'C'A'+A'C'C'+A'C'A' = A'B'C'+A'B'+B'C'+A'B'+B'C'+A'B'C'+A'C'+A'C' = A'B'C'+A'B'+B'C'+C'A' = A'B'(C'+1) + B'C'+C'A' = A'B' +B'C' + C'A'

= R.H.S. Hence Proved.

Eg. 4

AB+CD=(A+C) (B+C) (A+D) (B+D)

gy%

L.H.S. = AB+CD = (AB + C) (AB + D)

[

= (C+A.B) (D+A.B) = (C+A) (C+B)(D+A)(D+B)

X+YZ = (X+Y) (X+Z)]

AglaSem School 137 =(A+C) (B+C) (A+D) (B+D) = R.H.S.

fuEu dks ljy dhft;s Eg. 5

Y=AB+AB'

gy

Y=AB+AB' = A(B+B)' =A

[ (B+B')=1]

Y=A Eg. 6

Y = (A+C) (A'B'+B) (C'+AB)'

gy:

Y= (A+C) (A'B'+B) (C'+AB)' = (AA'B'+CA'B'+AB+BC) (C'+AB)' = (0+A'B'C+AB+BC) (C'+AB)' = (A'B'C+AB+BC) ((C')'.(AB)') = (A'B'C+AB+BC) (C.(A'+B')) = (A'B'C+AB+BC) (CA'+CB') = A'B'CCA'+ABCA'+BCCA'+A'B'CCB'+ABCB'+BCCB' = A'B'C+0+A'BC+A'B'C+0+0 = A'C(B'+B+B') = A'C

Eg. 7

Y= ((AC+B')((A+C)'+B))'

gy

Y= ((AC+B')((A+C)'+B))'

Q

=((AC+B')(A'.C'+B))' =(ACA'C'+ABC+A'B'C'+B'B)' =(0+ABC+A'B'C'+0)' = (ABC+A'B'C')' =(ABC)' . (A'B'C')' = (A'+B'+C').(A+B+C)

[Demorgan's Theorem]

=(A'+B'+C').(A+B+C) Eg. 8

fuEu cwfy;u vfHkO;fDr dks ljy dhft;s ,oa ykWftd ifjiFk fp= cukb;s Y=AB'+(AC)'+A'B'C' = AB'+A'+C'+A'B'C' = AB'+A'+C'(1+A'B') = AB'+A'+C' = (A+A') (B'+A')+C' = 1.(B'+A')+C' Y=A'+B'+C'

[

X+YZ = (X+Y) (X+Z)]

AglaSem School 138 A Y=A'+B'+C'

B C

Eg. 9 fuEu cwfy;u vfHkO;fDr dks ljy dhft;s ,oa ykWftd ifjiFk fp= cukb;sA Y=C((ABC)'+AB'C)

gy: Y= C((ABC)'+AB'C) = C(A'+B'+C'+AB'C) = A'C+B'C+CC'+AB'CC = A'C+B'C+0+AB'C = A'C+B'C(1+A) = A'C+B'C = C(A'+B') = C (AB)'

fofHkUu ykWftd xsVksa dks NAND xsVksa }kjk cukuk NOT xsV

A BA A B A B

(A.B)'Y=A' Y=((A.B)')'=A.B Y=A+B Y

C

;g xsV NAND xsV dh lgk;rk ls fuEu izdkj cuk;k tk ldrk gS% A

Y=(A.A)'=A'

AND xsV B A

Y=A.B

;g xsV NAND xsV dh lgk;rk ls fuEu izdkj cuk;k tk ldrk gS%

OR xsV

;g xsV NAND xsV dh lgk;rk ls fuEu izdkj cuk;k tk ldrk gS%

AglaSem School 139 A B

A' Y=(A'.B')'=A+B B'

fofHkUu ykWftd xsVksa dks NOR xsVksa }kjk cukuk NOT xsV

;g xsV NOR xsV dh lgk;rk ls fuEu izdkj cuk;k tk ldrk gS% A

Y=(A+A)'=A'

AND xsV B A

Y=A.B

;g xsV NOR xsV dh lgk;rk ls fuEu izdkj cuk;k tk ldrk gS%

AA A A B B C B C

OR xsV

A B

Y=A+B

A'A'Y=A'

B' (BC)'

;g xsV NOR xsV dh lgk;rk ls fuEu izdkj cuk;k tk ldrk gS% A

(A+B)'

Y=((A+B)')'=A+B

B

Eg. 10 fuEu Qyu dks dsoy NAND xsV dh lgk;rk ls cukb;saA Y= (A+BC)

Y=A+BC Y=(A'.(BC)')' =A+BC Y=(A'+B')'=A.B

AglaSem School 140 Eg. 11 fuEu Qyu dks dsoy NOR xsV dh lgk;rk ls cukb;saA Y(A, B, C) = (A + B + C) (A + C)

A B C

(A+B+C)'

((A+B+C)'+(A+C)')' =(A+B+C).(A+C)

A (A+C)'

C

Eg. 12 fuEu Qyu dks dsoy NOR xsV dh lgk;rk ls cukb;sA Y= AB+BC A

A' (A'+B')'=A.B

B

B'

C

C'

B

B'

(AB+BC)'

((AB+BC)')' =AB+BC

(C'+B')'=C.B

egRoiw.kZ fcUnq cwfy;u ,ytscjk% ,d rF;kRed ,ytscjk gSA cwfy;u fLFkjkad % FALSE (0) rFkk TRUE (1) cwfy;u fLFkjkad gSA cwfy;u pj% ,ytscjk vo;oks dks iznf'kZr djus okys ladrs cwfy;u pj dgykrs gSA vk/kkjHkwr ykWftd xsV % rhu izdkj ds vk/kkjHkwr ykWftd xsV NOT, AND ,oa OR gSA ;wfuolZy xsV% fdlh Hkh fMftVy fudk; dks dsoy ,d izdkj ds xsVksa ls cuk;k tk ldrk gS rks ml xsV dks ;wfuolZy xsV dgrs gS ;s nks gksrs gSA (i) NAND

(ii) NOR

cw f y;u fu;e% 1- Øe fofues; fu;e A+B=B+A vFkok A.B=B.A 2- lkgp;Z fu;e A+(B+C)=(A+B)+C vFkok A.(B.C)=(A.B).C 3- caVu dk fu;e A.(B+C) = A.B+A.C 4- fMeksxZu F;ksje (A.B.C. .....)' = A'+B'+C'+ ...... ,oa (A+B+C+ .....)' = A'.B'.C'. .......

vH;kl iz'u cgq p ;ukRed iz ' u 1- fuEu esa ls cwfy;u fLFkjkad gS& ¼v½ 0 ¼c½ 1 ¼l½ mijksDr nksuks ¼n½ dksbZ Hkh ugha 2- fuEu esa ls cwfy;u pj dk eku gks ldrk gS&

AglaSem School 141

¼v½ 0 ¼c½ 5 ¼l½ 4-3 ¼n½ x 3- AND xsV dh vkmViqV gksrh gS ftldh buiqV A o B gS& ¼v½ A+B ¼c½ A.B ¼l½ (A.B)' ¼n½ dksbZ ugha 4- ,d OR xsV ftldh buiqV A o B gS dh vkmViqV gksxh& ¼c½ A'+B' ¼v½ A.B ¼l½ A+B ¼n½ A'.B' 5- fuEu esa ls vk/kkjHkwr ykWftd xsV gS& ¼v½ NAND ¼c½ NOR ¼l½ XOR ¼n½ AND 6- fuEu esa ls ;wfuolZy xsV gS& ¼v½ AND ¼c½ OR ¼l½ NOT ¼n½ NAND 7- ;fn Y=A+A' gks rks Y dk eku gksxk& ¼v½ 1 ¼c½ 0 ¼l½ A ¼n½ A' 8- ;fn Y=A+A gks rks Y dk eku gksxk& ¼v½ 0 ¼c½ 1 ¼l½ A ¼n½ 2A 9- ;fn (A.B.C......)' = A'+B'+C'+.... gks rks ;g F;ksje dkSulh gS& ¼v½ Øe fofues; ¼c½ vk/kkjHkwr F;ksje ¼l½ caVu fu;e ¼n½ fMeksxuZ F;ksje 10- ;fn Qyu Y=A+1+A'+1 gks rks Y dk eku gksxk& ¼v½ 1 ¼c½ 0 ¼l½ A ¼n½ A' vfry?kq Ù kjkRed iz ' u 11- Duality F;ksje D;k gSa\ 12- fMeksxZu F;ksje D;k gS\ 13- vk/kkjHkwr xsV dkSu&dkSu ls gS\ 14- ;wfuolZy xsV fdls dgrs gS\ 15- NAND, NOR ds ykWftdy ladsr D;k gS\ y?kq Ù kjkRed iz ' u 16- AND xsV ds fLofpax ifjiFk dks le>kb;saA 17- OR xsV dks ;wfuolZy xsV dh lgk;rk ls cukb;sA 18- Øe fofues; fu;e dks T.T. (Truth Table) dh lgk;rk ls le>kb;sA fucU/kkRed iz ' u 19- Qyu Y=A+BC' dk ykWftd ifjiFk cukb;sA 20- Qyu Y=AB+A'B'+AB' dks ljy dhft;sA 21- AND ,oa OR dks dsoy NOR xsV dh lgk;rk ls cukb;sA mÙkjekyk 1- l 2- v 3- c 4 l 5-n 6-n 7- v 8- l

9- n

10- v

AglaSem School 142

v/;k;&7 dE;wfuds’ku vkSj usVodZ dh vo/kkj.kk,as (Communication and Network Concepts) Evaluation of Network: Computer Network ;k Network : & Computer network, different izdkj ds computer rFkk devices dk collection gksrk gS tks vkil esa ,d nqljs ls communication channels }kjk connected gksrs gSA ;s different computers rFkk devices vkil esa data dk vknku iznku djrs gS rFkk resources dh sharing Hkh djrs gSA • Networks dks mudh characteristics ds vuqlkj dbZ izdkj ls ckWV ldrs gS& • Connection method ds vuqlkj 1. Wired technologies 2. Wireless technologies • Physical scope ds vuqlkj 1. LAN – Local Area Network 2. MAN – Metropolitan Area Network 3. WAN – Wide Area Network • Backbone Networks 1. Global area networks 2. Internet 3. Internets and extranets 4. Overlay networks Purpose of Network : – Network dh vko’;drk ;k network ls ykHk fuEu gSA bUgh vko’;drk ds dkj.k network dks use fd;k tkrk gS& 1) Facilating communications : Network ds }kjk nks ;k nks ls vf/kd computers ;k other electronic devices ds chp data ;k lqpuk dk vknku iznku fd;k tk ldrk gSA 2) Sharing Hardware: Network ds }kjk fdlh Hkh hardware device tks network esa connect gks dks sharing dj ldrs gSA ex-shared network printer dh lgk;rk ls document dks print djukA 3) Sharing files, data and information: Network }kjk fdlh Hkh computer ( tks dh network ls tqMk gks) dh file rFkk mlesa j[kk data ,oa information dks share fd;k tk ldrk gSA 4) Sharing software: Network ls tqMs computers ds software dh vkil esa sharing dh tk ldrh gSA 5) Information Preservation: Preservation dk vFkZ gksrk gS& safe djuk ;k lqjf{kr j[kuk vr: network }kjk ,d computer dh information dks nqljs computer ij share djds lqjf{kr j[k ldrs gSA vxj ,d computer [kjkc Hkh gks tkrk gS rc Hkh bldh information nqljs computer ij lqjf{kr fey tk;sxhA 6) Security: Network ds }kjk dsoy selected users dks gh allow djds ge network dh security cM+k ldrs gSA 7) Speed-up: D;ksfd network esa ,d ls vf/kd computers gksrs gS vr: network esa izR;sd work speedly perform gksrk

gSA Computer network ds fuekZ.k dh ’kq#vkr 1969 esa gqbZ Fkh rFkk blls igys 1960 esa united states dh Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA) }kjk united states ds lqj{kk foHkkx ds fy, ,d network cuk;k xk;k Fkk ftls Advanced Research Project Agency Network(ARPANET) uke fn;k x;kA ;g nqfu;k dk lcls igyk computer network FkkA

AglaSem School 143 ARPANET:

;g

nq f u;k

dk

lo Z i zFke

network Fkk t ks packet switching ij based FkkA ;g packet switching, Lincon Laboratory ds Lawrence Roberts }kjk design dh xbZ Fkh rFkk bl network dks United states ds Department of Defense Advance Research Project Agency (DARPA) rFkk Massachusetts Institute of Technology us feydj cuk;k FkkA Internet : Internet, Internetwork ’kCn dk short form gSA Internet dks WWW ;k World Wide Web ds uke ls Hkh

tkuk tkrk gSA • Internet : Internet different networks dk network gS tks network gS tks millions of computers dks vkil esa connect djrk gSA ;k millions of computers,100 ls vf/kd countries esa QSys gS tks data, news rFkk opinions dk vknku iznku djrs gSA • Internet esa fdlh Hkh izdkj dk centralized control ugha gSA vr: internet dh design decentralized izdkj dh gSA Internet ls connect izR;sd computer dks host, end system, end point dgrs gSA • Internet ds fy, standard Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA Internet ds }kjk world ds dbZ private, public, academic, business rFkk government network vkil esa connected gSA • Internet ds }kjk use vkus okyh common services fuEu gS& WEBSITES

BLOGGING

Instant Messaging Social Networking Supply Chains Financial services

Internet Forums Online Shopping Business to- Business Services

Internet ij gksus okyk lEiw.kZ dk;Z websites ds }kjk gksrk gS rFkk fdlh Hkh website dks internet ij run djus ds fy,

fuEu vko’;drk gksrh gS %& 1) Domain Name System: Website dk uke tks fd WWW. ls izkjaHk gksrk gSA 2) IP Address: Internet Protocol Address tks fd fdlh Hkh computer dk iqjs world esa unique no. gksrk gSA ;g vko’;drk ISP (Internet Service Provider) }kjk iw.kZ dh tkrh gSA ISP izR;sd website dks URL (Unifrom Resource Locator) iznku djrk gS tks fd Domain name system (DNS) }kjk website ds uke ds fy, iz;qDr gksrk gSA INTERSPACE: bldk iq.kZ uke Interactive System For Pattern Analysis, Classification and Extrasment gSA ;g lsok forfjr communities esa iqjs concept dks navigate djrk gSA 1997-2000 esa DARPA }kjk izkstDs V ij fjlpZ fd;k x;kA bl izkstDs V

ds rgr okLrfod fo’o dh lwpukvksa ds lxzag dh flesaUVhd cukus dk dk;Z fd;k x;k gSA • Interspace prototype ds fuEu pkj component gS& • Concept Space Services • Automatic domain specific • Categary Map services. • Concept Extractor Interspace ds Prototype ls intractive,semantic ,scalable ,d fo"k; dk domain,type and size dh lwpuk iznku djrk gS A Intenet rFkk ARPANEN ds }kjk ge file rFkk dqN lwpuk Packet ds form esa ,d flLVe ls nwljs flLVe rd VªkalfeV dj ldrs gS Aijarq interspace ls ge lHkh izdkj dh information concepts dh ,d lkFk iwjh community esa navigate dj ldrs gS A blesa lHkh fo’o dh lwpukvksa dk semantic index cuk;k x;k gS A Interspace lkWQVos;j dh lgk;rk ls ,d space domain dh lwpuk navigate dj ldrs gS A

AglaSem School 144

fp= 1 & baVjusV dk fodkl Switching Techniques : Switch : – Switching ,d technique gksrh gS ftlds }kjk computer network esa ,d computer ls izkIr data dks nwljs computer network rd switch ;k send fd;k tkrk gS A Computer network eas data dh switching gsrq fuEu switching techniques dke esas yh tkrh gS % 1½ Circuit Switching 2) Packet Switching 3) Message Switching 4) Cell Switching 1½ Circuit Switching: Circuit switching esa nksuksa devices (source rFkk destination device) vkil eas physically connected gksrs gSaA • Example: public phone network • blesa nksuks devices ds chp communication channel ( ;k circuit) curk gSaA • budsa chp communication gksrk gSaA vr: bls circuit switching dgrs gSaA • circuit switching esa constant bit delay gksrk gSA

fp= 2 & lfdZV fLofpax 2) Packet switching: • Packet switching esa nksuks devices (source rFkk destination device) vkil esa physically connected ugha gksrs gS rFkk nksuks devices dsa chp communication channel (;k circuit) dk fuekZ.k Hkh ugha gksrk gSA • Packet switching esa nksuks devices dsa chp data dk vknku iznku packets dsa :i esa gksrk gSaA Example: x.25 Technique, TCP/IP Packet switching, ,d digital networking communication method gSa tks all transmitted data dk group cukdj mls suitable size dsa blocks esa divide djrk gSa ftUgsa packet dgrsa gSa rFkk bu packets dks vyx&2 bit rate ij shared network dh lgk;rk lsa ,d computer ls nqljs computer rd transmit djrk gSAa Packet switching dsa fuEu nks method gks ldrs gSa& • Connection oriented packet switching • Connection less packet switching

AglaSem School 145

fp= 3 & isdVs fLofpax Message switching: Message switching okLrfod :i ls data communication esa use yh tkrh gSaA Example: “store and forward” paper tape relay system E-mail delivery voice-mail delivery ftl izdkj computer communication esa packet switching dke esa dh tkrh gSaA mlh izdkj tele communication esa message switching dke esa yh tkrh gSaA 1) Cell switching: Cell switching, packet switching ds leku gh gksrh gSa ijUrq blesa packet dh size fuf’pr ugha gksrh gSAa cell based networks tSlsa ATM (Asynchronous transfer mode) vkfn dsa fy, cell swiching dke esa yh tkrh gSaA Cell switching dsa }kjk digital voice rFkk data signal nksuks izdkj ds signals dh switching possible gSaA CONCEPT OF CHANNEL Communication channel source rFkk destination dks ,d iFk ls tksMrk gS tks MkVk ;k flXuy dk MkVk gkbos gksrk gSA pSuy dk MkVk transmission rate, baud rate ls ifjHkkf"kr djrs gSA izR;sd pSuy viuh ,d MkVk transmission dh {kerk j[krk gS ftls ge bit rate ;k bandwidth dgrs gSA

pSuy fuEu #i ls iznf’kZr fd;s tk ldrs gSA • ,d system ls nqljs system ds e/; connection gksrk gSA • ;g ,d transmission media gks ldrk gSA • ;g source rFkk destination ds e/; ,d rkfdZd (logical) connection Hkh gks ldrk gSA • ;g ,d radio frequencies dk lewg gks ldrk gSA • ;g nks system ds e/; wireless ls tksM ldrk gSA ;s lHkh channel nks ikVhZ;ksa ds e/; fuEu modes ls data transfer dj ldrk gSA Simplex: bl fo/kh esa dsoy izs"kd MkVkA lqpuk dk izlkj.k dj ldrk gSA xzkgh bl fof/k es izs"kd dks MkVk Hkst ugh ldrk gS vFkkZr bl fof/k esa MkVk dk transmission ,d gh fn’kk esa gksrk gSA

fp= 4 & flEIysDl eksM • Half Duplex mode: bl esa MkVk dk transmission nksuks rjQ dj ldrs gS ijUrq ,d le; es dsoy ,d gh fn’kk es MkVk transmission dj ldrs gSA

fp= 5 & v)Z MqIysDl eksM Example: Waki-taki }kjk ckrphr • Full Duplex Mode: bl fof/k esa ,d gh le; esa nksuks fn’kkvksa esa MkVk dk vknku&iznku fd;k tk ldrk gSA

AglaSem School 146

fp= 6 & MqIysDl eksM CONCEPT OF BANDWIDTH fdlh signal dks ge time-domain ;k frequency domain esa iznf’kZr djrs gSA Bandwidth ,d Frequency dh ijkl gS tks signal dh High/Low Frequencies dk varj gksrk gS A vFkkZr nks frequency ds e/; ds varj dks Bandwidth dgrs gS A

fp= 7 &csaMfoFkz xzkQ Bandwidth = F2 – F 1 Bandwidth dusD’ku dh {kerk iznf’kZr djrh gS A ftl dusD’ku dh cSaMfoFk vf/kd gksrh gS rks vf/kd frequency band ikl dj ldrk gS A vr% vf/kd performance vkrh gS A bldks ge Hz esa ekirs gS A ,d second fdrus cycle

ikl dj ldrk gS A Hz : ;g ’kCn1930 esa international Electronical commissiom }kjk fn;k x;k Fkk A tks frequency ds ekius dk ek=d gSA ,d lsd.M ess pSuy ls xqtjus okys signal cycle dh la[;k gksrh gS A KHz ;- pSuy 1000 pdz ¼cycle) ,d second esa pass djuk gS A MHz 1000 KHz dks 1 MHz dgrs gS vFkkZr~ ,d fefy;u cycle dks ,d lSd.M esa ikl djrk gSA

Bit Rate: fMftVy flXuy ds fy, bandwidth dh rjg data transfer dks bit rate dgk tkrk gSA MkVk transmission dh rate bit

dh la[;kvksa ij vk/kkfjr gSA ,d second esa transmited bits dh la[;k dks ml channel dh bit rate dgrs gSA bls ge bit per second (bps) esa ekirs gSA Apriodic digital signal esa bit internal dh term esa MkVk dh jsV ekirs gSA Bit interval: Bit interval ,d bit dks transmit djus es yxs le; dks dgrs gS vr:

Kbps: Kilo Bit Per Second vFkkZr 1000 bps ,d second esa 1000 bits transmit gksrh gSA

AglaSem School 147 Mbps: Mega bit per second vFkkZr 1000 kilo bit per second transmit gksrh gS ;k 1000×1000 bit per second Hkh

fy[k ldrs gSA Gbps: Giga bit per second = 1000Mbps = 1000×1000Kbps = 1000×1000×1000 bit per second transmit gksrh gSA Tbps: Tera bit per second vFkkZr 1000 Gbps gksrh gSA Baud Rate: ;g rate analog signal ds fy, ifjHkkf"kr dh tkrh gSA signal voLFkk ifjoZru (Rate of change of state of the signal) dgykrk gSA lkekU;r: bldh xfr 19200 baud gksrh gSA • ;g MsVk dh xfr ekius ds fy, “ ,d second esa lapkfjr electrical ladrs ksa dh la[;k” dks ,d baud dgrs gSA ge MkVk jsV rFkk baud rate esa lEcU/k fuEu rjg ls ifjHkkf"kr dj ldrs gSA S = C × N × 1/r N= Data rate (MkVk jsV ) bps R = Signal element C= Case factor S= Baud rate Transmission Media nks ;k nks ls vf/kd flLVe ds Communication ds fy, gesas Physical Media dh vko’;drk jgrh gS tks fd ISO/ TCP/IP Protocal ds Physical layer ij operate gksrk gS A

fp= 8 & Vªkl a fe’ku ehfM;k Vªkl a fe’ku ehfM;k dks ge nks Categories esa ckV ldrs gS A 1½ Guided media 2½ Unguided media Guided media: - Guided media ds }kjk ge nks system dks Physical connect djrs gS A blesa izdkj ds ehfM;k mi;ksx djrs gS A 1½ Twisted Pair Cable 2½ Coaxial Cable 3½ Fiber optics 1½ Twisted Pair Cable : ;g dscy nks pkyd ¼lkekU;r% dkWij½ ls cus wire ls cuh gksrh gS A nksuks wire pkyd ds Åij insulator yxk jgrk gS A mu nksuks wire dks twist dj fn;k tkrk gS A blesa ls ,d wire source ls destination rd data signal ysdj tkrk gS rFkk nwljk Ground gksrk gS A Twisted Pair dks ge fuEu izdkj ls oxhZdr ` dj ldrsa gSUTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair):- ;g Cable lkekU;rk% mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS A bl dh lajpuk fp+=kuqlkj %& nks pkyd ij insulator yxk jgrk gsS rFkk mudks twist vFkkZr Zig-Zag Pattern esas cukdj ml ij IykfLVd ds Cover ls overlap dj nsrs gS ftlls ge shield dh rjg dke ysrs gS A ;g ehfM;k lLrk gksrk gSA

AglaSem School 148

fp= 9 & Unshielded Twisted Pair STP (Shielded Twisted Pair) :Shielded Twisted Pair IBM (International Business tool) daiuh ds }kjk Develop dh xbZ bl rjg dh cable esa nks conductor dks insulator ls cover dj djrs gS vkSj twisted cable cukdj ml ij ,d metal shield /kkrq doj ls seal dj nsrs gS rFkk metal shield ij plastic cover p
Bandwidth

Data rate

A/D

Use

UTP-I UTP-2 UTP-3 UTP-4 UTP-5 UTP-6 UTP-7

Very low <2MHz <16 MHz <20 MHz <100 MHz <200 MHz 600 MHz

< 100 Kbps up to 2Mbps up to 10 Mbps up to 20 Mbps up to 100 Mbps up to 200 Mbps up to 600 Mbps

Analog Analog/D Digital Digital Digital Digital Digital

Tele T-1 Line LAN LAN LAN LAN LAN (draft)

Performance :Twisted Pair dh Performance decibal/miles esa ekih tkrh gS A de nwjh ds fy, ;s cable signal dks de izHkkfor djrh gS vf/kd nwjh gksus ij signal dh strength esas deh vk tkrh gS A UTP/STP dh Performance mldh eksVkbZ ij Hkh fuHkZj djrh gS A tSls eksVkbZ c
mi;ksx % & 1½ TP cable VsyhQksu esa MkVk pSuy rFkk voice ds fy, use gksrh gS A 2½ ;s cable DSL (Digital subscriber line) esa mi;ksx dh tkrh gS ftlls teephone companies mPp MkVk jsV ij data transfer djus ds fy, dke vkrh gS A 3½ LAN esa lkekU;rk% ;s cable use gksrh gS A blesa UTP Cat-5 and CAT-6 vkSj rFkk 10 Base –T, 100 base-T use dh tkrh gS A ¼ 2½ Coaxial Cable :- Coaxial cable dh ljpuk fp= esa fn[kkbz xbZ gS A ;s cable TP ls Higher Frequency ds signal dks transmit dj ldrh gS D;ksafd bldh ljapuk twisted pair ls vyx gS A bles nks pkyd gksrs gS A ,d pkyd central core gksrk gS tks insulating mettar ls covered jgrk gS A nwljs conductor dks bl rjg ls yxkrs gS fd mldk central point igys pkyd dk Central point gksrk gS A

AglaSem School 149

fp= 10 & Coaxial Cable Standards : Radio Government (RG) us coaxial cable ds ekud Js.khxr fd;k x;k gS A izR;sd RG uEcj (Cable) ,d unique HkkSfrd specification dk set gksrk gS A Category

Impedance

RG-59 RG-58 RG-11

75 50 50

Use ‘

Cable –TV Thin Ethernet Thick Ethernet

Coaxial cable Connector :vkt dy coaxial cable ds bayone –Neill-concelman (BNC) Connector mi;ksx gksrk gS A ;s rhu izdkj ds gksrs

gS A 1½ BNC

2½ BNC-T

3) BNC –Terminator Performance : TP ls Coaxial cable dk attenuation cgqr vf/kd gksrk gS A vr% ;g TP ls mPp Bandwith ij dke djrk gS A Performance of Coaxial Cable fp=kaul q kj ns[kk tk ldrk gS A Attenuation(dB/miles) Application : (1) Coaxial Cable izkjaHk esa telephone network esa mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS tks ,d coaxial 10,000 voice channel rd ys tk ldrh gS A ¼2½ RG 59 TV dsoy ds :i mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS A ¼3½ RG-58 rFkk RG-11 Ethernet yksdy ,fj;k net work ds fy, mi;ksx gksrk gS Aftuls mPp bandwith vksj mPp

MkVk jsV ij dke dj ldrs gS A

fp= 11 & Coaxial Cable dk mi;ksx esa telephone network

AglaSem School 150

¼3½ Fiber optics :Fiber optics dscy cgqr iryh gksrh gS A ftldks dh dkWp dh iryh uyh ;k IykfLVd dh iryh uyh dk mi;ksx djrs gq, signals dks izdk’k ds :i esa lapfjr djrs gS A Optical Fiber dh lajpuk %& ,d glass ;k plastic core dks Cladding tks fuEu ?kuRo dk dkW¡p gksrk gS ds }kjk doj fd;k tkrk gS A tc nks fHkUu ?kuRo ds inkFkksZ esas izdk’kh; signal dks Hkstk tkrk gS rks fHkUu ?kuRo ds dkj.k Light che viorZu dh ctk; ijkoZfrr gks tkrh gS A Fiber Optics iw.kZ vkUrfjd ijkoZru dh vo/kkj.kk ij vk/kkfjr gS A Propagation Mode :- orZeku rduhd esa fibre optics nks rjg ds ljap.k rjhds gS A (I) Multi mode :- bl rjhds ess ,d ls vf/kd Light beam core esa ls fofHkUu iFk ls Propagate gksrs gS A ;s nks izdkj ds gksrs gS A I) Step- Index multimode :- blesas core inkFkZ dh ?kuRo dsUnz ls fu;r jgrk gS A izdk’kh; fdj.k lh/kh pyrh gS A tc rd oks core rFkk cladding ds interface rd uk igqpus rd tc core rFkk Cladding dh lgr ij igqprh gS rks ijkorZu dks.k ls ijkofrZr gks tkrh gS A ;g vpkud ijkofrZr izHkko ds dkj.k bldks step index dgk tkrk gS A II) Graded index :- bl izdkj ds mode essa core inkFkZ dh ?kuRo core ds dsUnz ls lrg dh vksj tkus ij fujUrj ?kVrk tkrk gS] ftlds dkj.k izdk’k dh fdj.k dk ijkoZru dks.k vpkud u gksdj ,d lr~r ifjoZru gksrk gS ]ftlls signal esas overlapping vk tkrh gS vFkkZr~ step-index dh ctk; graded-index esas signal de ’kq) gksrk gS A

¡¡¡¡~~

fp= 12 %& Optical Fiber

fp= 13 & Single Mode (b) Step indexing mode (c) Graded index 2½ Single Mode : - blesas ge Step indexing mode dks gh mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gsS ftlesa core inkFkZ dk diameter ¼O;kl ½ de gksrk gsS A buesa highly focus Light source ls izdk’k dh fdj.k dks Single mode fiber optics esas mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS A ftlls {kSfrt fn’kk esa signal path esa travel djrk gS A Advantages :1) Fiber optic mPp MkVk jsV rFkk cs.MfoFk ds signal transmit djds ds dke vkrs gS A 2) blesas signal dh rhozrk esas dksbZ deh ugha gksrh A yach nwfj;ksa dk Hkh bl ij dksbZ vlj ugha gksrk gSA 3) Signal esa fdlh izdkj dk fo|qqr pqEcdh; izHkko gLr{ksi ugha gksrk A 4) ;g cgqr gYdh rFkk iryh ufydk gksrh gS A Disadvantage 1) Fiber optics ,d ubZ rduhd gSA vr% installation and Maintenance ij vf/kd [kpkZ rFkk dq’ky vfHk;ark dh

AglaSem School 151

vko’;drk gksrh gS A 2) vU; media dh rqyuk bldh ykxr vf/kd gksrh gS A Unguided Media Electromagnatic wave dks fcuk fdlh Physical media dh lgk;rk ls gh lapkfjr fd;k tkrk gS A bl izdkj ds Communication dks wireless lapkj dgrs gS A blesa electronics LisDVªe fp= esa n’kkZ;k x;k gSA

1] Ground (Hkw&lapj.k) jsfM;ksa rjaxs i`Foh dh fuEu okrkoj.k ds }kjk lpafjr gksrh gSA blesa ge 2MHz vko``fr ls de ds Signal dh Strength ij fuHkZj djrk gS A 2. Sky Propagtion ¼vkdka’kh; lpj.k½ Radio rjax ls Åij dh vko``fr;ksa dks vk;u e.My esa fodfjr djrs gS rFkk vk;u e.My esa mifLFkr vk;uksa ds dkj.k singal ijkofrZr gksdj i`Foh ij vkrs gSA bl izdkj ds lpaj.k ls vf/kd nwjh rd fuEu power Signal Hkst ldrs gSA 3. Line of sight ¼ykbZu vkWQ lkbZV½ %& bless mPpko`fr ds ladsr lh/ks ,d ,sfUVuk ls nwljs ,sfUVuk ds e/; signal

VªkalfeV fd;s tkrs gS A blessa nksuksa ,fUVuk ,d fn’kk esa fu;r gksrs gS A

fp= 14 & Communication using terrestrial microwave Radio:- fo|qr pqEcdh; LisDVªe esa Radio wave rFkk Micro wave dh frequency ds vuqlkj oxhZdr` fd;k x;k gS A 3 KHz ls 1 GHz rd lkekU;rk% Radio wave dgykrh gS A ;g waves omini directional gksrh gS A tc ,fUVuk Radio wave VªkalfeV djrk gS rks ;s signal lHkh fn’kkvksa esa lpafjr gksrk gS A vr% sender rFkk receive ,fUVuk dks fdlh fo’ks"k fn’kk esa fLFkj ;k position djus dh vko’;drk ugha gksrh gS A Radio rjaxs fo’k"ksdj os rjaxs tks Sky Propagation use djrh gS A mudh yach nwjh ds broad casting ds dke vkrh gS A tSls FM Radio . Low and medium vko``fr;ka jsfM;ksa wave fnokj dks ikj dj ldrh gS A ;g xq.k dk ykHk Hkh gS A tc AM Use djrs gS rks vkSj gkfu Hkh gksrh gS A tc bldks digital signal esa use djrs gS A Application :- Ominidirection vfHky{k.k ds dkj.k Radio wave broad casting rFkk FM,AM,TV,Corldless Phone and Paging system esa dke vkrh gS A Microwave :- Electromagnetic LisDVªe esa 1GHz ls 300 GHz dh ijkl dks microwave dgrs gS A ekbZØksoso ;wuhMkbjsD’kuy ¼Unidirectional½ gksrh gS A tc microwave dks ,sfUVuk ls lpafjr fd;k tkrk gS rks ,fUVuk dks ,d fn’kk esa fLFkj fd;k tkkrk gS A ;s wave LOS ¼ykbZu vkWQ lkbZV½ lapj.k djrh gS A vr% ,fUVuk ;qDr Vkojksa dks ,d nwljs ds fn’kk esa mPp vko`f` r dh rjaxs fnokj dks ikj ugha dj ldrh vr% receiver building ds vanj gksus ij budk mi;ksx ugha dj ldrk gS A Antenna – Microwave dks Unidirection ,fUVuk dh vko’;drk gksrh gS tks ,d fn’kk esa signal dks Hkstrh gS A ;s nks izdkj dh gksrh gS %

AglaSem School 152

1½ Panabolic isjkcksfyd fM’k 2½ Horn dish ¼gkWu fM’k½ 1½ Panabolic dish : - ijoy; dh ‘T;kfefr ij vk/kkfjr gS A lHkh lkekUrj :i ls vkus okys Signal dks ;g dish ijkofrZr dj ,d txg focus dj nsrk gS A 2½ Horn dish :- ;g dish fn[kus esa ,d gksuZ dh rjg gksrh gS A blds oØkdkj flj ls ,d izdk’kh; signal deflect gksdj lekUrj fdj.ks signal ds :i esa lpfjar gksrh gS A

fp= 15 & Point-to-Point link via satellite microwave Appication: Microwave dk mi;ksx Cellular ,Satellite rFkk radar ,WLAN ds fy, mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS A 3½ Infrared :- Infr Red Signal dh vko``fr 300GHz -400 IHz gksrh gS rFkk budh rjaxns/;Z 1mm ls 770 mm gksrh gS rFkk blfy, bUgsa short range communication ds fy, mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS A High Frequency dh otg ls fnokj ugha Hksn ldrs gS a bl y{k.k ls ,d System ls nwljs System esa gLr{ksi ugha gksrk gS A ge infrared dks ge building ds ckgj use ugha dj ldrs gS A D;ksafd lw;Z fdj.kksa esa buQzkjsM fdj.ks gksrh gS tks communication easa ck/kk iznku djrh gS A mi;ksx %& blds }kjk ge fMftVy MkVk dks mPPk MkVk jsV ds signal dks transmit dj ldrs gS A Ir DA ( Infrared Datea Association) us infrared ds dqN ekud fn;s gS rFkk budks wireless Keyboard .mouse vkfn devices esa mi;ksx fy;k x;k gS A mnkgj.k% dqN manufacturer PC esa dqN fo’ks"k iksVZ iznku djkrk gS tks 75 Kbps rFkk 8mt. rd dke djrk gS A vkt dy bl iksVZ dh Data rate 4 Mbps gS A

AglaSem School 153 Network Devices Network devices dks network equipments Hkh dgk tkrk gSaA & Network devices osa devices, equipments ;k unit gksrs gS tks computer network esa data dk vknku iznku djusa ds fy, use fy, tkrs gSAa Example: Router, bridge, switch, hub, repeater, etc. &Network devices esa ge fuEu devices dk v/;;u djsaxsaA 1)Modem 2)RJ 45 Connector 3)Ethernet card 4)Hub 5)Switch 6)Gate way 1) MODEM: (Modulator-demodulator) • Modem ’kCn modulator lsa Mo rFkk demodulator lsa dem dks vkil esa tksM dj cuk;k x;k gSAa • Modem ,d device gksrk gSA tks analog carrier signals dks modulator dj digital information esa encode djrk gSa rFkk iqu: digital information dks demodulator analog carrier signal esa decode djrk gSaA • Modem dk eq[; m)s’; gksrk gS ,sls signals produce djuk ftUgsa ,d computer lsa nqljsa computer rd vklkuh

lsa rFkk de [kpsZ lsa Hkstk tk ldsaA • Example: Voice band modem: ;g Modem personal computer (PC) dsa digital data dks telephone channel dh voice frequency range esa electrical signals, telephone libes ds }kjk ,d computer lsa nqljsa computer rd vklkuh lsa transmite fd;sa tk ldrsa gSa ,oa receiver side ij vklkuh lsa demodulator dj original digital data izkIr fd;k tk ldrk gSA

fp= 16 & ekWMse 2) RJ 45 Connector – RJ 45 = Registered Jack 45 (Diagram RJ 45 Connector) • RJ 45 ,d Physical connecting device gS tks Local exchange carrier ;k Long distance carrier ds fofHkUu izdkj ds telecommunication vkSj data equipment dks vkil esa connect djus ds fy, use fy;k tkrk gS A Registered Jack ds vU; mnkgj.k gS RJ 11, RJ 14, RJ 21, RJ 48 • RJ 45 single line connector gS A • RJ 45 connector, commonly network cabling rFkk telephone application ds fy, use fy;k tkrk gS A • RJ 45 dks vf/kdre use 10 base –T rFkk 100 Base –T X Ethernet connections ds lkFk fd;k tkrk gS A RJ 45 essa total 8 pin gksrh gS A ftUgsa Pin 1 to Pin 8 ls tkuk tkrk gS

AglaSem School 154

fp= 17 & RJ-45 Connector 1. Request to send 2. Data Terminal Ready 3. Ground 4. Transmit Data 5. Receive Data 6. Data carrier Detect 7. Data set ready 8. Clear to send 3) Ethernet Card –(NIC) Ethernet card dks network interface card ¼NIC) Hkh dgk tkrk gS A Ethernet card hardware device ;k ,d izdkj dk network adapter gksrk gS tks Ethernet standard ds high speed network connection dks support djrk gS A Purpose :– Ethernet card dh lgk;rk ls ,d computer network ls communicate dj ldrk gS A ;g device OSI Model esa layer 1 (Physical Layer) rFkk Layer 2 (Data Link Layer) dh rjg dk;Z djrk gS A ;g MAC Addresses dh lgk;rk ls Low Level addressing System iznku djrk gS A MAC Addresses :– izR;sd Ethernet card dk unique 48 bit serial number gksrk gS A tks MAC Address dgykrk gS A ;g MAC Address (IEEE) Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers }kjk ekU;rk izkIr gS A ;g Card,Physical Layer rFkk data link layer standards }kjk required electronics circuitry dks implement djrk gS A

fp= 18 &usVodZ baVjQsl dkMZ bl card esa RJ 45 ,BNL ;k Sockets cus gksrs gS tgka network cable dks connect fd;k tkrk gSA bu card ij LED Hkh yxh gksrh gS tks ;g indicate djrh gS fd card ij yxk network active gS ;k deactive : 4½ Hub :Hub dks Ethernet hub ,active hub ;k repeater hub ds uke ls Hkh tkuk tkrk gS A Hub ,d device gksrk gS tks multiple twisted pair or fiber optic Ethernet devices dks vkil esa tksMrk gS rFkk bUgsa signle network segment Provide djrk gS A Hub OSI Model esa Layer 1 (Physical Layer) ij dk;Z djrk gS A Hub ,d Multiport reporter dh rjg dk;Z djrk gS tks ,d computer ls izkIr data dks hub ls connected vU; lHkh computer dks transmit djrk gS A

AglaSem School 155

fp= 19 & gc D;ksafd hub vius ikl vk;s lHkh funsZ’k (data and information) dks lHkh computer dks transfer dj nsrk gS vr% ;g fdlh Hkh izdkj ls network transfer dks control ugha djrk gS A vr% hub ls cus network dh size rFkk ,d network esa yxs maximum hub dh limit fix gksrh gS A vkt dy market esa dual speed hubs Hkh miyC/k gS tks fd switch dh lgk;rk ls 10 Mbps dh speed iznku djrs gS A (5) Switch :Switch dks network switch ;k switching hub ds uke ls Hkh tkuk tkrk gS A Switch – Switch ,d computer networking device gS tks fofHkUu network Computer (different computer & other devices) dks vkil esa connect djrk gS A

fp= 20 & 24 iksVZ fLop fp= 21 & 48 iksVZ fLop Switch dh inks category cuk;h tk ldrh gS A 1½ Network bridge 2½ Multi Switch 1½ Network bridge :- os Switch tks OSI Model dh Layer 2 (data link Layer) ij data dh Processing ;k routing djrs gS A Network bridges dgykrs gS A 2½ Multi Switch :- os Switch tks OSI Model dh Layer 3 (Network Layer) ;k above ij data dh Switching djrs gS A Multi Layer switch dgykrs gS A Switch dh working lk/kkj.k hub dh working ls vyx gksrh gS A tgka hub esa ,d source ls izkIr data ;k information hub ls connected lHkh devices dks send dh tkrh gS ogha switch esa source computer ls izkIr data ;k information destination address ds vuqlkj dsoy destination computer ;k destination device dks gh transmit dh tkrh gS A Switch dh lgk;rk ls Network ds traffic dks Hkh control fd;k tk ldrk gS A OSI Model dh different layer miyC/k gS % s ds vuqlkj fuEu Swithes 1) Layer 1 Switch 2) Layer 2 Switch 3) Layer 3 Switch

AglaSem School 156 4) Layer 4 Switch 5) Layer 7 Switch bu lHkh switches dh working mudh layer ds vuqlkj vyx&vyx gksrh gS A (6) Gate way: Computer Network esa dke vkus okys devices tSls protocol translators ,Impedance Matching devices ,Rate Coverters ,Fault Isolators ,signal Translators vkfn gateway dgykrs gS A Generally Protocal Covertor dks Gate way dgk tkrk gS A Protocal Convertor ,d device gksrk gS tks ,d protocol stack dks nwljs Protocal stack esa convert djrk gS

A Protocal Convertor ,OSI Model dh lHkh Layers ij dk;Z dj ldrk gS A Gate way ,d Network Ponit dh rjg gksrk gS A tks fd nwljs Network ds fy, entrance dh rjg dk;Z djrk gS A Host computer ;k gateway fdlh Hkh Internet ds fy, node ;k stopping point dh rjg dk;Z djrs gS A ;fn nks ,sls networks dks vkil esa connect djuk gS tks fd vyx&vyx Protocol stack ij based gks rks muds chp network gateway yxkuk vfrvko’;d gS A Example : Internet to bit Gateway . Topology – (Network topology) Network ;k computer Network: Different computer rFkk devices dk collection tks vkil esa interconnected gks, ,d nqljsa ls vusd channels ds }kjk communicate djrs gks rFkk users ds chp resources dh sharing iznku djrs gks network ;k computer network dgykrk gSaA Network topology: Network topology ,d layout pattern gksrk gS tks computer network ds fofHkUu elements dsa chp interconnection dks n’kkZrk gSA & (fofHkUu elements- different computers and other devices tks network esa connected gks) & Network topology nks izdkj dh gks ldrh gSA Physical topology, logical topology & Physical topology dk vFkZ gS network dh physical design ftlesa different devices, mudh location rFkk cable installation ‘’kkfey gSAa & Logical topology dk vFkZ gS network esa data fdl izdkj transfer gksrk gSA & Network topology fuEu izdkj dh gks ldrh gS& 1) Bus (point-to-multipoint) topology 2) Star topology 3) Tree topology Bus topology: & tc LAN esa bus topology use dh tkrh gS rks izR;sd machine single cable ds lkFk connected gksrh gSA & izR;sd computer ;k server single cable ls fdlh izdkj ds connector ls connect gksrk gSA & source computer ls Hkstk x;k signal nksuks fn’kkvksa esa bus cable ls connected lHkh computers dks tc rd transmitte fd;k tkrk gS rc rd fd MAC address ;k IP address okyk destination computer mu signals dks receiver

u dj ysA & D;ksafd bus topology esa dasoy ,d cable gh lHkh machines gks vkil esa connect djrh gS vr: ;g topology de [kfpZyh gS, ysfdu dsoy ,d cable gksus dh otg ls [kjkc gksus ds chances Hkh c<+ tkrs gSaA Bus topology nks izdkj dh gksrh gSA 1. Linear bus 2. Distributed bus | Linear bus topology :- ,slh bus topology ftlesa dsoy nks gh endpoints gks linear bus topology dgykrh gSA Distributed bus topology :- ,slh bus topology ftlesa nks ls vf/kd endpoints gks distributed bus topology

dgykrh gSA

AglaSem School 157

fp= 22 & cl VkWiksyksth Star topology: tc LAN esa star topology use dh tkrh gS rks izR;sd host ,d central hub ds }kjk connect gksrk gSA izR;sd network host rFkk central hub ds chp point to point connection gksrk gS A star topology esa fofHkUu computer ds chp transmitte fd;k x;k laiw.kZ data central hub ls gksdj xqtjrk gSA Advantages :– 1) Star topology esa u;s computer dks connect djuk T;knk vklku gSA 2½ Design rFkk implementatioin esa ;g easisest topology gSA Disadvantages :– 1) D;ksafd laiw.kZ data single hub ls gksdj tkrk gsS rks hub ds [kjkc gksus ls laiw.kZ networking can gks tkrh gS A Star topology nks izdkj dh gksrh gS A

fp= 23 & LVkj VkWiksyksth Extended star, Distributed star Extended star topology :- ,slh star topology ftlesa ,d ;k ,d ls vf/kd hub gksrs gS tks central hub dh rjg dk;Z djrs gS A vxj ;g hub [kjkc gks tk;s rks networking :d tkrh gS A Distributed star topology :- ,slh star topology ftlesa ,d ;k ,d ls vf/kd hub gksrs gS ysfdu dksbZ Hkh hub,central hub dh rjg dk;Z ugha djrk gS A vr% fdlh ,d hub ds [kjkc gksus ls networking ij vlj ugha iMrk

gS a Tree topology Tree topology dks hierarchy Network ds uke ls Hkh tkuk tkrk gsS A * Tree topology es ,d central root node gksrk gS A tks ,d ;k ,d ls vf/kd nodes ls connected gksrk gS A Root node ,top level of hierarchy rFkk connected nodes,one level of hierarchy dgykrs gS A bl izdkj nodes ds chp ,d hierarchy maintain dh tkrh gS A ;s one ¼;k first½ level of hierarchy node ,d ;k ,d ls vf/kd vU; nodes ls connected gksrs gS tks second level

AglaSem School 158 of hierarchy dgykrs gS A bl izdkj nodes ds chp ,d hierarchy maintain dh tkrh gSA

fp= 24 & Vªh VkWiksyksth • Network dks tree topology esa connect djus ds fy, de ls de 3-level of hierarchy gksus t:jh gS D;kasfd vxj dsoy ,d root of hierarchy gksus t:jh gS D;ksafd vxj dsoy ,d root node vksj ,d hierarchy gksxh rks og topology,star topology dgyk;sxh A • Tree topology esa No.of nodes ,no. of hierarchy level ds cjkcj ;k de ugha gks ldrk gSA • Tree topology esa nks nodes ds chp cuus okys point to point connection dh la[;k Hkh total nodes dh la[;k ls de gksuh pkfg, A • Tree topology esa nks lower nodes ds chp gksus okyk data transfer ,d higher level node las gksdj xqtjrk gS A Categories of Network :- dEI;wVj usVodZ dks mls nwjh ds vuqlkj oxhZdr ` fd;k tk ldrk gS A ;s rhu rjg ds gksrs gS

1) LAN – (Local Area Network) :- LAN esa fdlh guided media dk mi;ksx djds nks ;k nks ls vf/kd dEI;wVj system dks HkkSkfrd :Ik ls tksMrs gS A ;g ,d izkbZosV usVodZ gS ftldks ge ,d building ;k company Campus ;k College/University Campus esa Setup dj ldrs gS rFkk izkjafHkd esa LAN esa data transmission rate 4 to 16 Mbps gksrh Fkh A vkt LAN ds }kjk fofHkUu Js.kh ds }kjk 10-100 Mbps rd lapkfyr gksrk gS A mnkgj.k LAN ds fofHkUu :i ls 10 Mbps ls 100 Gbps rd MkVk VªkalQj dj ldrs gS tSls & Ethernet,token bus ,token ring ,FDDI vkfn ds }kjk ge ;g MkVk jsV achive djrs gS A

fp= 25 & ykWdy ,fj;k usVodZ LAN Personal Computer rFkk workstation ds e/; fjlkslZ Harware,software rFkk data dks share dj ldrs gS A fdlh Hkh system dks tksMus ds fy, system ,d Network Interface Card dh vko’;drk gksrh gS A ftlls RJ45 connector yxk jgrk gS a MAN :- Metropolitan Area Network tks LAN rFkk WAN ds e/; dk Network gS A ;s Network ,d city ;k town dks doj djrk gS A MAN Kilometer rd implement fd;k tk ldrk gS A ;g user dh high speed

AglaSem School 159 connectivity dh vko’;drk dks iwjk djrk gS A mnkgj.k % Telephone companies MAN dk ,d Hkkx gS tks user dks high speed DSL Line miyC/k djokrh gS A blesa Transsmission media ds :i esa Coaxial cable dk mi;ksx dh tkrh gS A Mostly MAN internet ds fy, mi;ksx gksrk gS A ftlesa ISP (Internet Services Provider) viuh services dks enduser rd MAN ds }kjk iznku djrk gS A tSls DSL ,Lease line rFkk Fibre optics Lines vkfn WAN : Wide Area Network :- ;g Network iwjs Geographical Area dks cover djrk gS A bls nks rjg ds Network

esa oxhZd`r fd;k tk ldrk gS A 1½ Switched WAN 2½ Point to Point WAN Switched WAN :- tks end system dks tksMrk gS rFkk lkekU;r% Router rFkk Switched dk mi;ksx djrs gq, fofHkUu LAN s rFkk WAN’s dks tksMrk gS A Point to Point WAN :- ;g end system dks ISPs dh ykbZu ls fofHkUu izdkj ds LANs vkSj MANs dks tksMrk

gS A

fp= 26 & okbZM ,fj;k usVodZ PROTOCOLS Computer Communication esa ,d system ls nwljs system rd data transfer djus ds fy, ;k nks ikfVZ;ksa ds e/ ; lwpuk vknku&iznku djus ds fy, muds e/; interface gksuk vko’;d gS A vr% data ;k information tranasfer djus ds fy, bl concept dh vko’;drk gksrh gS ftls Protocal dgrs gS A Defination: - Protocol is a setup of rules and regulation of transmission of data . Protocal :- lwpuk ;k MkVk dks transfer djus dk rules and regulation dk laxzg gksrk gS A Protocal : ds fuEu vo;o gksrs gS 1) Syntax 2) Semantic 3) Timing Syntax :- ;g data dks represent djus dk structure vkSj format gksrk gS A ftldks nwljs system follow djus gS A tSls ,d eSlst infamas esa first 8-bit data receiver dk address j[krk gS A ckdh information dh rjg gksrh gS A Semantic :- ;g information bits dks interpret djus ds fu;e ifjHkkf"kr djrk gS A Timing :- ;g protocol dh sending vkSj receive speed dks define djrk gS A ISO/OSI Model :- ISO reference modal 1984 esa ,d ;wjksi dh international organization for standardization }kjk cuk;k x;k Aa blesa 7 Layer architecture cuk;k ftlls izR;sd Layer nwljh Layer dks serivces iznku djrh gS A bls ge OSI open system interconnection Hkh dgrs gS A Physical Layer :- ;g Layer lcls uhps jgrh gS A ftl ij Physical media connected jgrk gS A ;g Layer data bits stream dh electrical signal esas ifjofrZr dj mls physical media raw bits transfer djrh gS A 1½ Physical media dks devices ls interface djokrh gS A ;g ys;j Physical ehfM;k dh define djrh gS A 2½ Data dks bit dh form esa iznf’kZr dj tks ,d 0 o 1 dh stream curh gS vkSj bls electrical form esa physical media ij Hkstrh gS A 3½ Data rate : ;g ys;j transmission dh data rate dks ifjHkkf"kr djrh gS A vFkkZr~ ;g Layer define djrh gS

AglaSem School 160

dh per second fdruh bit transmit djuh gS A 4½ Physical Layer line configuration tSls Pont to Point connection ,multi point commed rFkk share link cukuk gS A 5½ ;g layer data transmission os rjhds Hkh ifjHkkf"kr djrh gS A tSls data simplex mode ,Half duplex,full duplex,mode vkfn A

fp= 27 & ISO/OSI Layer Models Data Link layer : - ;g 2 uEcj dh ijr gS A ;g MkVk dh error free cukrh gSA bllas fuEu dk;Z gksrs gS:1½ Forming :- Data link Layer vius Åij dh layer tks network layer gksrh gS A mlls data stream ysrh gS vkSj fuf’pr bits dk group cukrh gssS A ftUgsa frame dgk tkrk gS a • Physical addressing :- ;g ys;j destination dk physical address header ds :i esa MkVk ds lfgr attach djrh gS A ftlls ;g fuf’pr gksrk gS fd packets ;k frame ckgjh network dk gS ;k leku Network dk gS Aa • Flow of Control : TData ds flow dks control djrk gS A Sender dh data rate rFkk receiver dh data rate ls de gS rks data rate dks manage djrh gS A • Error Control :- data dks fo’oluh;rk ls VªkalQj djrs ds fy, Data link layer mrnk;h gksrh gS A ;fn dksbZ frame damage gks tkrk gS ;k [kks tkrk gS rks data link layer mldks recognize djrh gS rFkk re-transmission djrh gS a Network:- source ls destinatioin system ds e/; packet dk Vªkalfe’ku dh ftesnkjh network layer dh gksrh gS A bl ys;j dk dk;Z network ij packet dh delivery reliabitly ds lkFk VªkalfeV djus dk gS A fuEu dk;Z djrh gsS & 1½ Logical addressing :- Physical address pakets dk data link layer ifjHkkf"kr djrh gS A ;fn packet ,d network boundry ls ikj gksrk gS rks physical address implement djus esas ck/kk vkrh gS rks network physical address dks change dj ,d logical address implement djrk gS A 2½ Routing :- nks ;k nks ls vf/kd network dk lewg gks rks mUgsa tksMus ds fy, network Device router dk mi;ksx ysrs gS tks packet dks travel@tkus dk iFk iznku djrk gS A Destination rd igqapus dk path network layer }kjk device fd;k tkrk gS A Transport Layer :- ;g protocol dh fourth layer gS tks message dks process to process deliver djus dk mrjnk;h gksrh gS A Process ,d aplication gksrh gS tks source machine ;k ,d system ij fu"ikfnr gksrh gS A ftl izdkj network layer ,d packet dh deliver djus dk dk;Z djrh gS mlh rjg transport layer iwjs message dks delivery ds fy, mrjnk;h gksrh gS A dk;Z % 1- Service point addressing :- Computer izk;% cgqr ls program ,d lkFk run ¼fu"kikfnr½ djrk gS A vr%

AglaSem School 161 transport layer ,d fdlh process dks ,d dEI;wVj ls nwljs dEI;wVj ij Vªkl a Qj djrk gS A ftldh entry transport layer leader esa gksrh gS ftldks Service point address dgrs gS A 2- Connection Control : ;g ijr connection oriented vkSj connectionless approach provide djkrh gS A Connection oriented igys destinatioin ls dusD’ku session cukrk gS rFkk packet dks transfer djus ds ckn Ssession dks terminal djrk gS A 3- Segmentation and reassembly :- Message dks ;g ijr Segment esas ckaVrh gSAgj Segment dk ,d sequence number gksrk gS ftlls receiver system dks transport layer bl segaments dss sequence number ds vuqlkj O;ofLFkr dj message dks receive djrs gS A Session Layer :- ;g Layer Physical layer dks viuh services iznku djrh gS bls network Mk;yksx daVªksyj Hkh dgrs gS A ;fn communication system ds e/; interaction cukrk gS A Maintain djrk gS rFkk muds e/; flUØksukbatDs ’ku

djrk gS A Presentation Layer : ;g Layer Commicatioin system ds data format,syntax o semantx dh information dks exchange djrh gS A Application Layer :- ;g Layer user rFkk system ds chp interfacing djokrk gS A interface djus ds chp interfacing djokrk gS A Interface djus ds fy, vU; protocols dh lgk;rk ysrs gS A tSls E-mail,FTP,HTTP telenet,SMTP rFkk DNS Service dk mi;ksx dj ;wtj rFkk communication entity ds e/; Bridge cukrs gS A TCP/IP Transmission Control Protocal :- ;g pkj ys;j protocol gS A fp=kuqlkj blesa igyh layer physical layer gksrh gS tks ISO model dh layer rFkk ys;j 2 fey dj TCP/IP refernce ekWMy dh Physical layer curh gS A (ISO ds layer 2 ds Functions esa i
gS A 5½ ;g layer data transmission os rjhds Hkh ifjHkkf"kr djrh gS A tSls data simplex mode ,Half duplex,full duplex,mode vkfn A 6½ Forming :- Data link layer vius Åij dh layer tks network layer gksrh gS A mlls data stream ysrh gS vkSj fuf’pr bits dk group cukrh gssS A ftUgsa frame dgk tkrk gS a 7½ Physical addressing :- ;g ys;j destination dk physical address header ds :i esa MkVk ds lfgr attach djrh gS A ftlls ;g fuf’pr gksrk gS fd packets ;k frame ckgjh network dk gS ;k leku Network dk gS aA 8½ Flow of Control : TData ds flow dks control djrk gS A Sender dh data rate rFkk receiver dh data rate ls de gS rks data rate dks manage djrh gS A 9½ Error Control :- data dks fo’oluh;rk ls VªkalQj djrs ds fy, Data link layer mrnk;h gksrh gS A ;fn dksbZ frame damage gks tkrk gS ;k [kks tkrk gS rks data link layer mldks recognize djrh gS rFkk re-transmission djrh gS a 10½ Physical addressing :- ;g ys;j destination dk physical address header ds :i esa MkVk ds lfgr attach djrh gS A ftlls ;g fuf’pr gksrk gS fd packets ;k frame ckgjh network dk gS ;k leku Network dk gS Aa 11½ Flow of Control : TData ds flow dks control djrk gS A Sender dh data rate rFkk receiver dh data rate ls de gS rks data rate dks manage djrh gS A

AglaSem School 162 12½ Error Control :- data dks fo’oluh;rk ls VªkalQj djrs ds fy, Data link layer mrnk;h gksrh gS A ;fn dksbZ frame damage gks tkrk gS ;k [kks tkrk gS rks data link layer mldks recognize djrh gS rFkk re-transmission djrh

gS a Network Layer : TCP/IP internet work yksdy ,fj;k usVodZ ;k okbZM ,fj;k usVodZ gks ldrk gSA TCP/IP dh

usVodZ ys;j dks fuEu izksVksdkWy Support djrs gS % 1½ IP baaVjusV izkVs ksdkWy 2½ ARP Address resolution protocol 3½ RARP Reverse address Resolution 4½ ICMP internet control message Protocal 5) IGMP-Internet Group Message Protocal IP : iSdsV dks vyx&vyx :V ls Hkstrk gS rFkk bl isdV s dks datagram dgrs gS rFkk ARP vkSj RARP nksuks Protocals yksftdy rFkk fQftdy d a drss dk duotZu djrs gS A ICMP IGMP nks vyx&vyx usVodZ ij Vªkalfe’ku esa help djrk gS A Transport Layer :- Transport Layer message dh delivery djus dk mrjnk;h gksrk gs A blesa nks izdkj ds

izkVs ksdky gksrs gS A 1½ TCP (Transmission control protocol) 2½ UDP (User datagram Protocal) TCP izksVksdkWy Connection oriented izksVksdky gksrk gS ftlesa Packets/Datagram dks VªkalfeV ds fy, Physical connectioin cukrk gS rFkk data dk Vªkl a fe’ku ds ckn connection dks VfeZusV Hkh djrk gS A UDP izksVksdky Connectionless approach gksrh gS A ftlesa datagram dk broadcasting djrs gS A Port number ds vuqlkj datagram igqaWprk gS A Application :- ;g Layer user rFkk system ds chp interfacing djokrk gS A interface djus ds chp interfacing djokrk gS A Interface djus ds fy, vU; protocols dh lgk;rk ysrs gS A tSls E-mail,FTP,HTTP telenet,SMTP rFkk DNS Service dk mi;ksx dj ;wtj rFkk communication entity ds e/; Bridge cukrs gS A

fp= 28 & TCP/IP Protocol Layers FTP (file Transfer Protocal ) ;g Protocal ,d e’khu ls nwljh e’khu ij QkbZy transfer djus ds fy, dke vkrk gS A ;g izksVksdky QkbZy VªkalQj djus dh izfØ;k crkrk gS A TCP/IP supported usVodZ ij QkbZy Vªkl a Qj lkekU;r% ;s protocol dke vkrk gS A FTP dykbaV loZj ls vyx gksrk gs ;g protocol nksuksa remote machine ds chp nks izdkj ds connection cukrk gS A ,d cata ttransfer djus ds fy, rFkk nwljk daVªky s information j[krk gS A connection dk session izkjaHk rFkk terminate ij control djrk gS A FTP data ds fy, port number 20 rFkk 21 port No. control connection ds fy, use gksuk data connection izR;sd file ds transfer ds fy, open rFkk close gksus rd data connectioin dbZ ckj open o close gks ldrk gS A bldks access

AglaSem School 163

djus ds fy, fdlh machine ds exploer ds address bar esa ftp:// navigate djus ij oks user rFkk password ds fy, prompt djrk gS A fQj ge windows ds normal operation dj ldrs gS A Public data ds fy, user name rFkk password dh vko’;drk ugha A

fp= 29 & QkbZy VªkalQj izksVksdkWy Telnet :-

;g izkVs ksdky user dks nwljh machine ij logic djus esas lgk;rk djrk gS A Telenet – Tel- telecommunication rFkk net –network ls fy;k x;k gS A bls network terminal protocol Hkh dgrs gS A tks internet ;k yksdy ,fj;k network dk mi;ksx djrs gq, remote ,machine ij login djrk gS A ;g TCP/IP protocol supported user dks login djrk gS A VsyusV ,d client server izkVs ksdky gS tks TCP ij vk/kkfjr gS A Client lkekU;r% port 23 ij host ;g service provide djrk gS A usVodZ esa security gksuk t:jh gS A vr% internet ;k public network ij telnet dk mi;ksx ugha djuk pkfg, D;kasafd ;g inecrupted session create djrk gS A user fdlh remote machine dks access ds fy, command prompt ij ;k run tab ij tkdj fuEu command line use djrs gS A >telnet < host IP address> ;g user name rFkk password rFkk switch ds configure ;k setup djus ds fy, mi;ksx gksrk gS A User Logoff ;k Logout command ls session lekIr dj ldrs gS A

fp= 30 & VsyusV izkVs ksdkWy Point –to- Point Protocol (PPP) :lkekU;rk% ;g izkVs ksdkWy Dedicated iFk ds }kjk nks ;k nks vf/kd usVodZ dks tksMus ds fy, dke vkrk gSA orZeku esa bldk mi;ksx VsyhQksu ykbZu ls dEI;wVj baVjusV pykus ds fy, use fd;k tkrk gS A blds fy, PPP Protocol dks Install

fd;k tkrk gS A Mk;y&vi dusD’ku bldk ,d mnkgj.k gS A fuEu inksa ls baVjusV dusDV dj ldrs gS A 1- Dial-up vkbZdkWu ij fDyd djrs gS A 2- Internet service Provider dk No. Dial djrs gS A 3- Login name vkSj Password Mkyrs gS A

AglaSem School 164

4- Password verify gksus ds ckn internet izkjaHk gksrk gS A Internet : Internet, Internetwork ’kCn dk short form gSA Internet dks WWW ;k World Wide Web ds uke ls Hkh tkuk tkrk gSA • Internet : Internet different networks dk network network gS tks millions of computers dks vkil esa connect djrk gSA ;k millions of computers,100 ls vf/kd countries esa QSys gS tks data, news rFkk opinions dk vknku iznku djrs gSA • Internet esa fdlh Hkh izdkj dk centralized control ugha gSA vr: internet dh design decentralized izdkj dh gSA Internet ls connect izR;sd computer dks host, end system, end point dgrs gSA • Internet ds fy, standard Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) Transmission Control Protocil/Internet Protocol dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA Internet ds }kjk world ds dbZ private, public, academic, business rFkk government network vkil esa connected gSA • Internet ds }kjk use vkus okyh common services fuEu gS& WEBSITES Instant Messaging Social Networking Supply Chains Financial services

BLOGGING Internet Forums Online Shopping Business to- Business Services

Internet ij gksus okyk lEiw.kZ dk;Z websites ds }kjk gksrk gS rFkk fdlh Hkh website dks internet ij run djus ds fy,

fuEu vko’;drk gksrh gSA 1) Domain Name System: Website dk uke tks fd WWW. ls izkjaHk gksrk gSA 2) IP Address: Internet Protocol Address tks fd fdlh Hkh computer dk iqjs world esa unique no. gksrk gSA ;g vko’;drk ISP (Internet Service Provider) }kjk iw.kZ dh tkrh gSA ISP izR;sd website dks URL (Unifrom Resource Locator) iznku djrk gS tks fd Domain name system (DNS) }kjk website ds uke ds fy, iz;qDr gksrk gSA Mobile communication: 19 ’knkCrh esa igyh mobile services develop gqbZA;g services cgqr fuEu quality rFkk poor speed quality de {kerk dh FkhA Mobile comm. ,dy mPp {kerk dk VkUlehVj rFkk mPPksa Vkoj ij ,sfUVuk dsa }kjk achieve fd;k x;kA 1970 vkSj 1980 esa mobile system NksaVk rFkk de otuh vkSj sophisticated gks x;kA blsa mobile communication dh nqfu;k esa bls first generator dgk x;k (1 G) ftUgsa AMPS dgk tkrk gSaA Cellular system dsa vHkko: fn;s x;sa fp=kuqlkj (MS) & Mobile station: ;g mobile handset gksark gS]a tks nqljsa userdsa lkFk communicate (lEizs.k) djus ds fy, mi;ksx djrs gSAa Cell: izR;sd eksckby lsok dk ,d {ks= gksrk gSa ftls cell dgk tkrk gSaA lkekU;r: 5-20 km gksrk gSaA Base station: izR;sd cell ds ikl ,d ,fUVuk Vkoj gksrk gSa tks NksVs vkWfQlks }kjk dUVªksy fd;k tkrk gSA MSC (Mobile switching center): lHkh base station ,d cMs office center ds }kjk dUVªky s fd;s tkrs gSA ftUgs

eksckby fLofpxa lsUVj dgrs gSA Mobile system transmitting and receiving: fdlh Hkh call dks transmit djus ds fy, fuEu in follow djrs gSaA • dkyWj 10 vdksa dk code (phone-number) nckdj send cVu nckdj gSAa MS (Mobile system): [kkyh lksuy dks Ldsu djds mles strong signal Hkst dj number send djrk gSAA • Base LVs’ku uEcj dks eksckby fLofpxa lsUVj ¼MSC) dks Hkst nsark gSA • eksckby system ds }kjk dUVªky s psuy dh lgk;rk ls eksckby identification uEcj ckszM dkLV djrk gSA bls paging dgrs gSA • MS dks reverse channel ds }kjk respond djrk gSaA • BS MSC dks ,d acknowledgement Hkst nsrk gS nksuks ds e/; handshaking ds cknA MSC: ;s fdlh [kkyh channel dks call assign dj nsrk gS vkSj call connect gks tkrh gSA Receiving : lHkh mobile station paging flXuy dks detect djrs jgrs gSA GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication) :GSM ,d digital lsyy w j dE;wfuds’ku system fo’o dk ekud gS ftles fuEu rhu system gksrs gksA1.

AglaSem School 165 Switching system: bl Hkkx esa GSM dsa CALL vkSj user ds functions vkrs gS tks fuEu izdkj ls gSA • Subscriber ds data dh permanently lax a zfgr djrk gS A • nwljs VsyhQksu system dks tks call djus rFkk call receive djus okyksa dks daaVªksy djrk gS A • ;g system eksckbZ Qhy user dh nwljs network agnet vFkkZr~ rorming lsok Hkh iznku djrk gS A • ;g user dh user dh igpku dk authentication iznku djrk gS • ;g [kjkc mobile station rFkk unauthorized user ds dkWYl dks ckf/kr djrk gS A 2.Base System : - bl system lHkh radio wave ds lacaf/kr lHkh dk;Z fuEu nks inksa ds }kjk fd;s tkrs gS % 1. Base station controller (BSC) 2. Base transceiver station (BTS) 1. BSC: lHkh daVªksy QD’ku rFkk Physical fyDal tks mobile swithing centre rFkk BTS ds e/; gksrk gS iznku djrk

gS A 2. BTS & ;g system eksckby station ds e/; interface dks handle djrk gS A budk xzqi BSC daaVªksy djrk gS A budk eq[; dk;Z call dks handover djuk gS rFkk ekscy configuration data j[kuk rFkk radio frequency dks daVªky s djrk gS A 3. Operation and support system :- bl Hkkx esa cellular network dh daVªksfyax rFkk eksfuVfjax gksrh gS A ;g usVodZ dk overview iznku djrk gS rFkk fofHkUu operation dk GSM vyx&vyx HkkSxksfyd {kS= dk ,d cell cukrk gS tks fd ,d CGI }kjk igpkuk tkrk gS A CGI (Cell Gloal Idenlity) number fn;k tkrk gS bl cell ds xzzqi ds }kjk Locatiion iznku dh tkrh gS Mobile system transmitting and receiving fdlh Hkh cell dks transmit djus ds fy, fuEu in follow djrs gS • dkWyj 10 vadksa dks code (Phone-number) send cVu nckrk gS A Ms (mibile system) [kkyh pSuy dh Ldsy djds mles strong signal Hksatdj number send djrk gS • Base LVs’ku uEcj dks eksckby fLofpax lsaVj (MSC) dks Hkst nsrk gS A • MSC ;g call lHkh base flLVe dks Hkst nsrk gS A • Eksckby system ds }kjk respond djrk gS A • BS MSC dks ,d aacknowledgement Hkst nsrk gS A nksuksa ds e/; handshaking ds ckn MSC ;s fdlh [kkyh channel dks call assign dj nsrk gS vkSj call connect gks tkrh gS A

fp= 31 &GSM Communicatioin Receving: 1.lHkh mobile station paging flXuy dh detect djrs jgrs gS A 2- isftax ds ckn MSC dks fjlhoj acknowledgement Hkst nsrk gS A 3- nksuksa MSCs handshaking dj nksuksa mobile dks connect dj nsrk gS A Modem dks generally mudh speed ds vuqlkj ckaVk tkrk gS Modem dh speed dk vFkZ gS fn;s x;s le; varjky esa modem }kjk transfer fd;s x;s data dk amount ftldh unit bit per second ;k bps gksrh gS A Other exmple of modem – Narrow –band modem (phone line dia up modem)

AglaSem School 166 Broad –band modem Mobile Modems & Router Radio Modems GSM fuEu izdkj ds lsoka, iznku djrk gS % • Voice mail • Short Message services • Braod casting • Fax mail • Call Farwarding,call hold,call waiting • Closed user fgroup etc. • DTMF (Dual Tone Multi Frequency) CDMA CDMA code divison multiple access tks fofHkUu jsfM;ks rduhd dk mi;ksx dj mPp ekud ij pSuy dk

mi;ksx djrk gSaA ,d physical chennal ij multiple user dks channel dks mi;ksx djus dh lsok iznku djrk gSA blesa og fofHkUu izdkj dh fo’ks"k dksfMxa Ldhe dh eYVhIysfDlax dj vftZr djrk gSA tSls TDMA (time divison multiple access) tks time dks ckVrh gSaA FDMA (Frequency divison multiple access) tks LisDVªe dh frequency dks ckVrk gks mlh izdkj CDMA ,d signaling dh form esa gksrk gS tks mPp MkVk jsV vkSj csUMfoMFk ij dke djrk gSA • CDMA MkbjsDV sequence LizsM LisDVªe ij vk/kkfjr gSA • pSuy dk separation G chip ds }kjk fd;k tkrk gS rks gj pSuy dks ,d code ns nsrs gSA bldk mi;ksx feyVjh esa usfoxs’ku ds fy, rFkk (GPS) Global Positiong esa System esa mi;ksx ysrs gSaA WLL WLL dk vFkZ gS& wireless local loop ;g service PSTN tks ?kjksa esa telephone landline phone lsa wireless services fix djrk gS tks subscriber loop dks landline dks radio system ds lkFk tksM + rk gSA ;g telephone connection dks fcuk cable ds access djus dh lsok iznku sjrk gSA • WLL ,d lEizs"k.k dh fof/k gSa tks radio rjaxksa dk user rFkk service provider ds e/; transmission djrh gS ctk, copper wire ;k optical Qkbcj dsA • WLL landline pphone lsa vPNh okW;l xq.kork iznku djusa ds fy, cuk;k x;k gSA • Wireless local loop esa ESAT business vf/kd re 6 Mbps (2 Mbps ds xq.kkad) esa iznku djrk gSA

fp= 32 & ok;jysl ykWdy ywi WLL dsa ykHk:

• • • • • •

;g ,d ls vf/kd services delivered djrk gSaA ;g nqljh wireless lsokvksa lsa de dher ij available gksrk gSA ;g vf/kd ek=k esa MkVk transfer djus ds dke esa vkrk gSA tSls IP rFkk Qzse fjys ;g LAN rFkk internet; enternet vkSj wide area network dks c
3G: Third Generation rduhd mobile dh f}rh; ih
AglaSem School 167 deploy dh xbZ gSA tSls bZ&yfuZx LVksd vuarj.k vkfnA;g 3Mbps rd dh data rate rd downloading speed iznku djrk gS tks 2G technology ls vR;f/kd gSA ;g rduhd CDMA rduhd ij vk/kkfjr gS rFkk 2G orZeku esa GSM TDMA (IS136) rFkk CDMA (IS-45A) ekud ij vk/kkfjr gS ftlesa FkksMk vf/kd rduhd lq/kkj ls 2.5G esa GPRS rFkk EDGE CDMAone (IS-95B) fd;k bu lHkh rduhdks ds lkFk 3G ekud esa W-CDMA, CDMA-2000, UWC-136 TD-CDMA/ TD-SCDMA, DECT technology dksa tksMk x;k gSA

fp= 33 & eksckbZy ihf<;ka 2G spectrum dh voice signal vko``fr ijkl 30&200Hz ijUrq 3G spectrum esa ;g ijkl voice ds fy, 300Hz3300Hz rd gksrh gS rFkk ;s 3000Hz (3KHz) rd dh bandwidth iznku djrk gSA lkekU;r% 3G lsok ds mi;ksx ds fy, 15&20 MHz bandwidth dh vko’;drk gksrh gS tks 2G lsok esa 30-200 KHz gSA UK ljdkj us 3G spectrum ds vuqlkj license iznku fd;s x;s gSA

fp= 34 & ykbZlsal vkWQ U.K Government 3G devices fofHkUu mode esa dke dj ldrk gSA Tunneling mode esa 3G ;qfDr ,d lsa vf/kd devices lsa connect gks ldrk gS, tSls 3G Mobile lsa laptop, computer system vkSj vU; communication devices esa Modem dh rjg dke djrk gSA Application Mode esa tks Lao; ds platform ij lsok ju djrk gSA 3G Phone SMS, WAR JAVA vkfn application run dj ldrk gSA SMS :;g service mobile ds }kjk iznku dh tkrh gSA Short message services text ds NksVs & VqdMs dks ,d Mobile ls nqljs Mobile ij transfer djrh gSA bl text ds NksVs & NksVs VqdMsa dks Short Message dgrs gSA Blesa ,d Mobile mi;ksx drkZ message compose phone dk keypad dk mi;ksx dj type djrk gS rFkk mls home location register dks Hkst nsrk gSA tgkW ij central system receiver dks
AglaSem School 168

fp= 35 & ‘’kksVZ eslst lfoZlt s iz.kkyh Voice mail Voice mail lsok ls ge communication dks 24 & ?kaVs online jg ldrs gSA ;g ,d mail box iznku djrk gSA ;fn ge telephone ls fdlh dkWy dks receive ugha dj ikrs gS rks ;g caller dks ,d voice message record dk option iznku djrk gS ftlesa caller viuk message NksM nsrk gSA tc Hkh ge phone mi;ksx djrs gS rks gesa voice message dk indication nsrk gS vkSj mls ge play dj lqu ldrs gSA ;g answer machine dh rjg gksrk gS rFkk service provider ds loZj ij ,d memory LFkku gksrk gS tgkWa caller viuk message save dj ldrk gSA voice mail fuEu izdkj dh lsok iznku djrk gS&fdlh vU; mail box message forward dj

ldrs gSA

• fdlh Hkh voice message dks broadcast dj ldrs gSA • ,d lkFk ,d lsa vf/kd O;fDr dks message send dj ldrs gSA • ;s message vius storage ;qfDr ij Hkh save dj ldrs gSA

Electonic –Mail ( E-mail) :;g services baVjusV lfoZl izksokbMj (Provider) }kjk iznku dh tkrh gS A User viuk VsDlV Meassage dh edit dj mls internet ij ,d e-mail address ij Hkstrk gS A ;g text message electronic signal esa ifjofrZr gksdj usVodZ ij VªkalQj gks tkrk gs A bl lsok dks electronic mail dgrs gS A ;g ,d dusD’ku jfgr lsok gS tks TCP/IP Suite dk mi;ksx djrh gS rFkk information packet ds :i esa VªkalfeV gksrh gS A blesa sender rFkk receiver nksuks ds ikl ,d email address gksuk pkfg, A tks mail server ij viuk account jftLVj djuk gksrk gS A User dh lkjh lwpuk rFkk muds esu MkVk bl mail server ij jgrk gsS A Example : yahoo mail,G-mail.hotmail vkfn mail server lkekU;rk use gksrs gS A bu server ij igys user viuk ,dkmaVsaV cukrk gS rFkk ,d mailing address pqurk gS A tSls [email protected] / [email protected] vkSj server ij jftLVj gks tkrk gS A server email address rFkk password iznku djrk gS A tks user dh lwpuk ds vk/kkj ij gksrk gS A bl ID rFkk Password ls Login dj e-mail Hkst ldrk gS A a Qj cgqr gh rst xfr ls gksrk gS A dqN gh seconds esa message raceiver ds ikl ykHk % Speed – E-mail ds Vªkl

igqap tkrk gS A 2½ Low cost : bl dh dksbZ cost ugha yxrh gS iajrq tc internet pykrs gS rks mldk cost yxrk gS A 3½ ;g isij jfgr okrkoj.k iznku djrk gS A CHAT

bls ge online textual talk Hkh dgrs gS A ;g e-mail communication ls csgrj lapkj gS A blesa sender vkSj receiver nksuksa vkWu&ykbu VsDlV dh VªkalQj djrs gS A nks ,d nwljs ls Half duplex mode esa ,d user data transfer djrk gS A ckn esa nwljh vkSj text type djds send djrk gS A Internet dusD’ku ds ckn chating lkWQVos;j dh vko’;drk jgrh gs tSls yahoo messenger,gtalk,msn messenger etc vkfn vktdy bldk mi;ksx fjlpZ odZ ds fy, djrs gS A Problem discussion / solution Internet chat ds }kjk gh gksrs gS A Video Conferencing (VC):- fofM;ksas dkWUQzsfU’kax ,d ohfM;ksa ds leku yksdfiz; gSA ftlesa ge fo’o esa dgha ij Hkh call dj ldrs gS A ftl ij u dsoy ge cksy gh ugha ldrs cfYd ckrphr ds nkSjku LCD ;k monitor ij ge ns[k Hkh ldrs gS ftl rjg vktdy BSNL dh 3G lsok esa Video call esa gksrk gS A vFkkZr~ fo’o esa fdlh ls real-time connect djrk gS rFkk blesa dksbZ ck/;rk ugha vkrh gS tSls nwjh]lhek]le; vkfn A Video Conferencing esa nksuks user ds ikl monitor ,headphone rFkk web camera gksuk vko’;d gS rFkk high speed internet line dh vko’;drk gS A ;g lsok fctusl esas cgqr mi;ksxh gksrh gS A ehfVax :e esa VC equipment yxs jgrs gSA tSls POLYCOM System vkrk gS A ftlls video conferencing laHko gS A blesa ,d web camera yxk jgrk gS tks specific angles ij ?kqe ldrk

AglaSem School 169

gS rFkk speaker rFkk ohfM;ksas monitor ;k LCD vkSj ,d caller yxk jgrk gS A ,d le; esas ge dbZ ¼Location) LFkkuksa ij VC connect djds czksMdkfLVax dh tk ldrh gS A ykHk % & 1- fdlh Hkh O;fDr dh vfr’kh?kz ftlesas le;]LFkku dk dksbZ egRo ugha gS 2- Video conferencing dbZ LFkkuksa ij ,d lkFk conversation dj ldrk gS A 3- blesa ,d virtual white board ftl ij yksx vius&vius LFkkuksa ls vius fopkj fy[k ldrs gS A 4-VC ds }kjk power point presentation dk foT;wvy fMLiys ds }kjk izR;sd lgHkkxh dk /;ku [khaprk gS A gkfu : • ;g facility egaxh gksrh gSaA ;fn lLrsa easa bls mi;ksx djrs gSa vFkkZr vPNsa quality ds equipments rHkk ISAN line ugha gksrs fofM;ks rFkk vkWfM;ks dh xq.kork esa dHkh gksrh gSa ftlls vPNsa rjg lsa lEizs"k.k ugha gks ikrk gSaA • dqN rjhds tks O;fDr nqjh ds lkFk vPNs ls O;Dr ugha dj ikrs gSaA tc vki dejs esa cSBs gS rFkk presentation nsa jgsa gks lqUus okyks ls vkidk eyes contact ugha gks ikrk gS tks ge web cam lsa izkIr dj ldrs gSAa NETWORK SECURITY :Data transfer djus ds fy, ge transmission media mi;ksx djrs gS rFkk ,d computer ls nqljs computer ij MkVk dks Hkstrs gS rFkk bu nks computer ds vykok vU; O;fDr bu MkVk dks access dj ldrk gSA vr: gesa computer network ij MkVk dh security vko’;d gksrh gSA ok;jl : Computer virus

,d ok;jl [kqn dks nksgjkus okyk ,d izksxzke gS tks fdlh vU; fØ;kUo;u&;ksX; dksM ;k nLrkostksa esa Lo;a dh izfr;ksa dks izfo"V djds QSyrk gSA vr% ,d dEI;wVj ok;jl Hkh Lo;a dh thfor dksf’kdkvksa esa izfo"V djds QSyusokys fdlh tSfod ok;jl dh rjg gh dk;Z djrk gSA gkykafd buesa ls dqN gkfujfgr gksrs gSa ;k dsoy >kalk nsus ds fy, cuk, tkrs gSa] ysfdu vf/kdka’k dEI;wVj ok;jlksa dks nqHkkZoukiw.kZ ekuk tkrk gSA oeZ : Computer worm fdlh ok;jl dh rjg] ,d oeZ Hkh Lo;a dks nksgjkus okyk ,d izksxzke gksrk gSA ,d oeZ fdlh ok;jl ls bl :i esa vyx gS fd ;g iz;ksDrk ds n[ky ds fcuk gh dEI;wVj usVodksZ ij izlkfjr gksrk gSA ,l ok;jl ds foijhr bls Lo;a dks fdlh iwoZ fufeZr izksxzke ds lkFk tksMu+ s dh vko’;drk ugha gksrhA cgqr ls yksx Þok;jlÞ vkSj ÞoeZÞ ’kCnkofy;ksa dks feyk nsrs gSa vkSj Lor% izlkfjr gksus okys fdlh Hkh izksxzke dk o.kZu djus ds fy, bu nksuksa dk iz;ksx djrs gSaA Vªkstu gkWlZ : Trojan horse dkssbZ Vªkstu gkWlZ ,d ,slk izksxzke gksrk gS] tks dksbZ ,d dk;Z djrk gqvk fn[kkbZ nsrk gS] tcfd okLro esa og dksbZ vU; dk;Z dj jgk gksrk gSA ,d Vªkstu gkWlZ dk iz;ksx fdlh dEI;wVj ra= ds fy, ,d xqIr }kj dh LFkkiuk djus ds fy, fd;k tk ldrk gS] rkfd dksbZ ?kqliSfB;k ckn esa vfHkxe izkIr dj ldsA ¼;g uke j{kdksa dks /kks[kk nsdj vUnj ?kqliSB djus ds vo/kkj.kkRed :i ls leku dk;Z okys Vªkt s u ;q) ds ?kksM+s ls fy;k x;k gSA½ ,aVh Likbos; j izk sxz ke ,aVh Likbos;j izksxzke Likbos;j ls nks rjhdksa ls eqdkcyk dj ldrh gS & 1- os Likbos;j lkW¶Vos;j dks vkids dEI;wVj esa bLVkWy djus ls okLrfod le; lqj{kk iznku dj ldrs gSA bl rjg ds Likbos;j lqj{kk mlh rjg ls dk;Z djrs gSa ftl rjg ,aVh ok;jl lqj{kk djrk gSA 2- ,aVh Likbos;j lkW¶Vos;j izksxzke dk mi;ksx ,sls fdlh Likbos;j lkW¶Vos;j dk irk yxkus ;k mls nwj djus ds fy, fd;k tk ldrk gSA tks vkids dEI;wVj ij baLVkWy fd;k x;k gSA vkerkSj ij bl rjg ds Likbos;j lqj{kk dk mi;ksx djuk cgqr vklku gS vkSj ;s cgqr yksdfiz; gSaA bl Likbos;j lqj{kk lkW¶Vos;j vki lkIrkfgd] nSfud ;k ekfld rkSj ij vkids dEI;wVj dks LdSu dj mlesa bLVkWy fd, x, fdlh Likbos;j lkW¶Vos;j dk mldk irk yxkus vkSj dEI;wVj ls mls nwj djus ds dke ij yxk ldrs gSaA 3- bl rjg ds izksxzke Windows iathdj.k lkefxz;ks]a izpkyu ra= Qkbyksa vkSj baLVkWy fd, x, izkx s zke dk fujh{k.k djrk gS vkSj Qkbyksa vkSj izfof"V;ksa tks Likbos;j ?kVdksa dh lwph ls esy [kk tk,] mUgsa nwj djrk gSA Likbos ; j LikbZos;j ekyos;j dk ,d izdkj gS tks dEI;wVj ij baLVkWy fd;k tkrk gS vkSj mi;ksxrkZvksa dh xSj tkudkjh esa muds ckjs esa lwpuk,a ,d= fd;k djrk gSA Likbos;j dh mifLFkfr vkerkSj ij mi;ksxdrkZvksa ls fNih gksrh gSA Likbos;j ’kCn ls irk pyrk gS fd ;g ,d lkW¶Vos;j gS tks mi;ksxrkZ ds dEI;wVj ij xqIr :i ls fuxjkuh j[krk gS] tcfd Likbos;j dk dke egt fuxjkuh ls Hkh dgha T;knk gSA Likbos;j fofHkUu izdkj dh O;fDrxr tkudkjh bdV~Bk djrk gS tSls fd baVjusV lfQZax dh vknrsa vkSj ftu lkbVksa ij tk;k tkrk gSA exj] Likbos;j vfrfjDr lkW¶Vos;j baLVkWy djds vkSj osc czkmtj dks

AglaSem School 170

iqu% funsZf’kr djus tSls vU; rjhdksa ls mi;ksxdrkZ ds dEI;wVj ds fu;a=.k esa Hkh gLr{ksi dj ldrk gS] ftlls dusD’ku dh xfr] vyx&vyx gkseist dh xfr vkSj baVjusV ;k vU; izksxzkeksa dh dk;Z{kerk /kheh gks tkrh gSA laØe.k ds jkLrs Likbos;j ok;jl ;k oeZ ds :i esa lh/ks fdlh dEI;wVj esa ugha QSyrkA vkerkSj ij laØfed iz.kkyh nwljs dEI;wVj esa lapkfjr gksus dk iz;kl ugha djrh gS] blds ctk;] Likbos;j mi;ksxrkZ dh detksfj;ksa ds ek/;e ls ;k lkW¶Vos;j dh Hks|rk ds nksgu ds ek/;e ls iz.kkyh ij gkoh gksrk gSA T;knkrj Likbos;j mi;ksxdrkZ dh tkudkjh ds cxSj baLVkWy fd, tkrs gSAa pwafd os Likbos;j ds baLVkWy ds izfr pkSdl jgus gS]a D;ksafd vxj os tkurs gSa fd ;g muds dke ds ekgkSy esa [kyy iSnk djsxkA vkerkSj ij Likbos;j ds forjd izksxzke dks mi;ksxh mikns;rk ds :i esa izLrqr djrs gSa] mnkgj.k ds fy, Þosc xfro)ZdÞ ds :i esa ;k ,d ennxkj lkW¶Vos;j ,tsUV ds :i esa mi;ksxdrkZ rqjUr ’kd fd, cxSj fd ;s uqdlku dk dkj.k cu ldrs gSaA lkW¶Vos;j MkmuyksM vkSj baLVkWy djrs gSa mnkgj.k cksath cM+h osc czkmtj ;k vU; lkW¶Vos;j esa lqj{kk lqjkx ds tfj, dqN Likbos;j fuekZrk iz.kkyh dks laØfer dj nsrs gSaA tc Likbos;j fuekZrk ds }kjk fu;af=r fdlh osc ist dk mi;ksxdrkZ ekxZ funsZ’ku djrk gS] ist esa fufgr dksM czkmtj ij geyk dj nsrk gS vkSj Likbos;j dks MkmuyksM vkSj baLVkWy fd, tkus ds fy, ck/; djrk gSA

LiS e

LiSe ml izdkj ds bZey s dks dgrs gSa rks Fkksd esa Hkstk tkrk gS] fcuk ekaxs ;k cqyk;s vk tkrk gS] ftlesa izk; foKkiu Hkjs gksrs gSa tc ls bZey s dk fodkl gqvk gS LiSe ,d leL;k cuh jgh gS] [kkl rkSj ij 1990 ds n’kd ls ;s bZey s iz;ksxdjrk dks ijs’kku djrh gS] mldk le; rFk /ku cjckn djrh gS] viSzy 2008 ds ,d v/;;u ls irk pyrk gS fd gj jkst de ls de 100 vjc LiSe Hksth tkrh gky gh esa csgrj fQYVj lsok [kkl rkSj ij th esy is ds pyrs ;s de vkus yxh gS LiSe Hkstus ds fy, irs pSV:e ls] osc lkbZV ls ;k ok;jl ds iz;ksx ls ,d= fd, tkrs gSaA LiSe ls rkRi;Z bysDVªkWfud eSlsftax flLVe }kjk ,d lkFk vusd eSlst Hkstuk gSA lcls lkekU; izdkj dk LiSe bZ&esy LiSe gSA blds vfrfjDr Hkh vusd izdkj ds LiSe gksrs gS tks fuEu izdkj gS& s LiSe½ & bUgsa Unresticted Bulk Email (UBE) ;k tad esy Hkh dgrs gSA bZ&esy LiSe] ok;jl ¼1½ E-mail Spam ¼bZey bUQsoVsM vFkok oeZ baQsDVsM esy esa vki rd Hkstrk gSA tc mls dEI;wVj ij [kkstk tkrk gS rks ;g eSyhf’k;l izksxzkeksa dks dEI;wVj ij bULVkWy dj nsrk gSA CYBER LAW :;g law tks cyber space dks pykrk gSAcyber space dks ge fuEu izdkj ls ifjHkkf”kr dj ldrs gS&

• • • • •

dEI;wVj dk ,d lewg computer ds network dk ,d lewg

internet computer data computer dks software dk lewg fuEu computer ds contact dh security ds fy, cyber law cuk;k x;k gSA Hkkjrh; cyber law lwpuk rduhd vf/kfu;e 2000 ds rgr dqN data rFkk network dks operate ds fu;e fn;sa x;sa

ftlesa lsa dqN bl rjg ls ifjHkkf"kr djus gSA & v/;k; II vf/kfu;e ds rgr subscriber viusa electronic record ds digital signature ds }kjk affix dj ldrk gSA dksbZ O;fDr ,d public key ds }kjk ls record access dj ldrk gSA Chapter IV: Regulation rFkk izekkf.kr vf/kdkfjrk dks c
AglaSem School 171

,d djksM rd dk ;k blls de pktZ djrk gSA FIREWALL Firewall ,d software ;k hardware gksrk gS tks fdlh computer system dks internet ls tksMus ij other system ls data dks protect djrh gSA • Firewall internet ls local area network ;k computer ij vkus okyh lqpuk dks filter djrk gSA • system administration security ds fu;e ifjHkkf"kr dj internet ls vkus okys vpkgsa lqpuk dks jksd ldrk gS rFkk vius system dks vuvFkksjkbTM access ls jksdrk gSA • Firewall vius private network dks public access ls jksdrh gSA

fp= 36 &QkW;jokWy flLVe Firewall lqpuk dks fuEu izdkj ls filter dj ldrh gSA • Packet filtering: ;g vkus okys rFkk tkus okys MkVk dk analysis dj network ij packets dks Hkstrk gS ;k izkIr

djrk gSA • Proxy service: vius home PC ;k network dks internet ls tksMus ds fy, ,d gateway yxkrs gS ftls proxy server dgrs gS tks ,d firewall dh rjg gh dke djrk gSA ;g lsok ls data lh/kk sender rFkk receiver ds ikl uk tkdj proxy server ij store gksrk gSA • IP address blocking: Firewall ls fdlh Hkh DNS rFkk system dk IP address block dj ldrh gSA • Port blocking: Firewall fdlh fo"ks’k port tSls HTTP rFkk FTP ds port 80 rFkk 20 gS rks bidh services dks block dj ldrh gSA • Firewall fdlh fo"ks’k ’kCn ls Hkh packet filtering ds }kjk lqpuk dks jksd ldrk gSA • Firewall dds }kjk ge fjekksV yksfxu,SMTP vFkkZr E-Mail sensation dks hacking rFkk virus rFkk micro vkSj spam mail lsa Hkh cpkrh gSA Example: CISCO Firewall 501 NetGear FV5318 D-Link DFL300 Netscreen 25 vkfn] Cookies

dqfdt VsDLV dk dqN Hkkx gksrk gS tks website user dh hard-disk ij store gksrh gSA ;g lwpuk uke value pair ds :i esa lxzfa gr gksrh gSA platform esa cookies lkekU;r c:\windows\cookies esa lxzfa gr gksrh gSA dqN website bu file esa user ID store j[krh gS rFkk dqN website user ID ds lkFk &2 mudk ls’ku Hkh LVksj djrh gS fd user websites ls fdruh ckj internet gqvk gSA COOKIES fuEu izdkj ls dk;Z djrh gS& • tc ,d user explore es URL vFkkZr wensite dk address type djrk gS rks browser bldh dqfdt dks hard disk esa nq
AglaSem School 172 Hacker and Cracker Computer network area esa data dh lqj{kk ,d research ds {ks= esa jgk gSA Data security dks cuk;sa j[kusa ds fy,

fofHkUu izdkj dh rduhdh mi;ksx dh tkrh gSA gsdj ,d expert computer programer ;k hardware expert gksrk gS tks fdlh Hkh network rFkk computer system dh security dks rksM+rk gSSA Computer hacker ethics lhek es jgdj fdlh network dh security rksMdj mls vf/kd secure cukus ds iz;kl djrs gS ftlls fdlh company ds network dh security dh {kerk c
vH;kl iz'u

1. usVoZdks dk usVoZd dgykrk gS \ ¼v½ ARPANET ¼c½ INTERNET l½ INTERSPACE ¼n½ mi;qDr lHkh 2. fuEu fLofpax rduhd esa ,d fuf'pr iFk esa MkVk lpfjra gksrk gS \

¼v½ eSlst fLofpxa ¼c½ isdVs fLofpxa ¼l½ lfdZV fLofpxa ¼n½ lsy fLofpxa 3. fdlh fMftVy pSuy dh {kerk ekih tkrh gS \ ¼v½ fcV izfr lsd.M ¼c½ lsEiy izfr lsd.M ¼n½ dksbZ Hkh ugha ¼l½ Cycle izfr lsd.M 4. Coaixal-Cable dks tksMus ds fy, dusDVj mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS \ ¼c½ RJ-45 ¼v½ RJ-11 ¼l½ BNC Connector ¼n½ RJ-45 Male 5. ekbdzko s so LisDVªe dh ijkl gksxh \ ¼c½ 1 Ghz - 300Ghz ¼v½ 3 Khz-300 Ghz ¼l½ 300 Khz- 400Ghz ¼n½ dksbZ Hkh ugha 6. og ;qfDr tks ,ukykWx flXuy dks fMftVy es ;k fMftVy dks ,ukykWx es ifjofrZr djrh gS \ ¼v½ gc ¼c½ fLop ¼l½ jkmVj ¼n½ eksMe 7. nks ;k nks ls vf/kd dEI;wVj dks wireless ls tksMus ds fy, mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS \ ¼c½ WAN ¼v½ LAN ¼l½ MAN ¼n½ dksbZ Hkh ugha 8. ,d gh rkj ij lHkh dEI;wVj dks tksM+us ij VkWiksyksth dgykrh gS \ ¼v½ Vªh ¼c½ LVkj ¼l½ gkbfczM ¼n½ cl 9. fdl izkWVksdksy dh lgk;rk ls ge ,d e'khu dks fdlh vU; e'khu ij yksfxu dj ldrs gS \ ¼c½ PPP ¼v½ FTP ¼l½ Telnet ¼n½ cl 10. WLL gS \ ¼v½ ok;jysl ys.M ykbu ¼c½ oYMZ ys.M ykbu ¼l½ ok;jysl ykWdy ywi ¼n½ oYMZ ykWdy ywi 11. eksckby dh r`rh; ih
AglaSem School 173

¼l½ bysDVªkfs ud MkVk lpkj.ka

¼n½ mi;qZDr lHkh

13. Cookies dk mi;ksx djrs gS %

¼v½ MkVk dks VªkalfeV djus ds fy, ¼c½ osclkbZV dks lQZ djus ds fy, l½ MkVk dks loZj esa Hkstu esa ¼n½ buesas ls dksbZ ugha A vfryÄq R jkRed iz ' u 1. ARPANET dk iw.kZ uke D;k gS \ 2. eSlst fLofpxa rFkk lÆdV fLofpxa esa nks vUrj crkvks \ 3. ckWM jsV dks ifjHkkf"kr djks \ 4. okWM jsV rFkk MkVk jsV esa lEcU/k lw= fyf[k;s \ 5. vkWfIVdy QkbZcj fdl |Vuk ij dk;Z djrh gS \ 6. Infrared dks LisDVªe ijkl fyf[k;s \ 7. Coaixal Cable ds fofHkUu ekud dks fy[kks \ 8. Gateway dk D;k dk;Z gksrk gS \ 9. bFkjusV ds fofHkUu :Ikksa dks le>kvks \ 10. Vªh VhikWyksth ds ykHk crkvks \ 11. LAN, MAN, WAN dk iq.kZ uke fy[kks \ 12. Internet rFkk Interspace esa D;k vUrj gS \ 13. Point-to-Point (PPP) Protocol dk mi;ksx crkvks \ 14. SMS rFkk Voice-Mail esa vUrj lfgr le>kvks \ 15. Video Conferencing ds ykHkksa dks crkb;s \ 16. Hackers rFkk Cracker D;k gksrs gS \

yÄq R jkRed iz ' u

1. bUVjLisl dks le>kb;s rFkk bldk fodkl fdl izdkj gqvk \ 2. lÆdV fLofpxa dks le>krs gq,s mlds ykHk dk o.kZu djks \ 3. pSuy D;k gksrk gS rFkk MkVk lpj.k esa ;g fdl izdkj mi;ksxh gS \ 4. MkVk jsV dks le>krs gq,s mles fofHkUu dks le>kvks \ 5. vkWIVhdy Qkbcj ls lpj.k ds fofHkUu rjhdks dks le>kvks \ 6. Unguided media ds LisDVªe dk o.kZu djks \ 7. gc rFkk fLop ds fp= lfgr o.kZu djrs gq,s muesa vUrj dks le>kvks \ 8. bFkjusV dh fofHkUu Js.kh;k crkrs gq,s mudk mi;ksx fyf[k;s \ 9. dEI;wVj esa cl LVkj rFkk Vªh Vksiksyksth esa vUrjks dk o.kZu djks \ 10. FTP dh dk;Z iz.kkyh dks le>kvks \ 11. E-Mail D;k gSA blesa mi;ksx gksus okysa Protocols dks le>kvks \ 12. SMS dh dk;Z iz.kkyh le>krs gq,s vk/kqfud fo'o esa fdl rjg ekuo thou esa mi;ksxh gS \ 13. CDMA D;k gSA fdl rjg ls vU; flLVe ls vyx gS le>kb;s \ 14. usVoZd flD;wfjVh D;k gS, ;g computer ds fy, D;ksa vko';d gS \ 15. dqdht fdl izdkj ls mi;ksx drkZ ds fy, mi;ksxh gS \ fucU/kkRed iz ’ u 1 dEU;wVj usVoZd D;k g rFkk buVjusV dks le>krs gq, blds mns';ks dk o.kZu djks \ 2 iSdV fLofpxa D;k gSA fp= lfgr le>kn;s vkSj og lÆdV fLofpxa ls fdl izdkj ls fHkUu gS \ 3 ge VªkUlfe'ku ehfM;k dk mi;ksx D;ks djrs gS rFkk fdrus izdkj ds gksrs gSA o.kZu djks \ 4 TCP/IP Protocol D;k gSA bldh lHkh layer ds dk;ksZ dks of.kZr djks \ 5 usVoZd dh Js.kh;ks dks le>krs gq, LAN, MAN, WAN dk o.kZu djks \ 6 Wireless/Mobile communication dks le>krs gq, budh dk;Z iz.kkyh dks le>kb, \ 7 eksckby flLVe es GSM dh egRRk crkrs gq, 3G ds fodkl rFkk ykHk dks of.kZr fdth,\ 8 Video conferencing D;k gS ? ;g fdl izdkj ls vk/kqfud nqfu;k esa mi;ksxh gS vkSj D;ksa \ 9 lkbZcj ykW dks le>kb;sa rFkk gsdj vksj Øsdj esas vUrj crkrs gq, muds dk;ksZ ij izdk'k Mkfy,A 10 varj fyf[k;s % 1) Bandwidth & Data Rate 3) SMS & Chat

2) Hub & switch 4) FTP & Tele net

AglaSem School 174

v/;k;&8 osc dk ifjp; (Introduction to Web) oYMZ okbM osc ¼WWW) djhc 50 o"kksZa ls yksx ,d ,sls MkVkcsl dk liuk ns[k jgs Fks tks fd oSf'od Kku (Universal knowledge) ,oa lwpukvksa dks j[krk gks rFkk ftlds ek/;e ls fo'o ds yksxksa dks vkil esa tksM+k tk ldsA ;g liuk vc iwjk gks pqdk gS] bl rduhd dh [kkst dh tk pqdh gSA bl rduhd dk uke gS World Wide Web (WWW) A oYMZ okbM osc ,d izdkj dk MkVkcsl gS tks iwjs fo'o esa QSyk gqvk gSA WWW dk fopkj fLoV~tj+ yS.M esa 1989 esa CERN ¼ijek.kq vuqlU/kku dk ;wjksfi; dsUnz½ }kjk iznku fd;k x;k FkkA CERN v.kq HkkSfrd fo"k; ij vuqlU/kku djrh FkhA osc dk mn~Hko bl vko';drk dks /;ku esa j[kdj fd;k x;k Fkk fd fofHkUu ns'kksa ds oSKkfud ijLij fujUrj cnyrs jgus okys MkWD;weUs V] fjiksZV] MªkbaZx rFkk QksVkst vkfn ds lkFk leUo; LFkkfir dj ldsAa loZizFke tqMs gq, MkWD;weUs V okys osc dk izLrko ekpZ 1989 esa CERN ds ,d HkkSfrd foKkuh fVe cuZjyh }kjk vk;kA 1994 esa CERN rFkk MIT us WWW Consortium dk lsV&vi djus ds fy;s ,d ,xzhesUV lkbu fd;kA bl laLFkk dk xBu osc dk vkxs foLrkj djus ds fy;s] izksVksdksy ekud cukus ds fy;s rFkk fofHkUu lkbVks ds chp vkilh lkeatL; c<+kus ds fy;s fd;k gSA bldh osc lkbV http://www.w3.org gSA mlds ckn ls gtkjks dEiuh ,oe~ ;wfuoflZVh us bl dUlksfVZ;e ls lEcU/k LFkkfir fd;kA WWW izksVksdksy ds lk/kkj.k lewg ij vk/kkfjr ,d ,slh baVjusV lsok gS] tks fdlh fo'ks"k :i ls dkufQxMZ loZj dEI;wVj dks bUVjusV ds }kjk MkWD;weUs V ,d ekud rjhds ds Hkstrk gSA osc ds ekud fofHkUu dEI;wVj IysVQkeZ ¼tSls UNIX, Windows 98, Windows 2000 rFkk Windows NT½ ij izksxzke dks ,slh lqfo/kk iznku djrk gS fd og dEI;wVj loZj ls vkus okys lwpuk dks ,d vPNs QksesZV esa fn[kk ldsaA bl izdkj ds izksxzke dks osc czkmt+j dgrs gSaA osc czkmt+j dks dke esa ysdj WWW us fdlh Hkh osc lkbV ds fy;s ;g laHko dj fn;k fd og vius ikl dbZ lkjs ist+ esa lwpuk j[k lds ftlesa VsDLV] lkmaM] fiDpj vkSj ;gk¡ rd fd ohfM;ks ds lkFk esa nwljs ist+ dks tksM+us okys fyad Hkh gksA fdlh Hkh fyad ij fDyd djus ij ;wtj ds lkeus ml fyad ls tqMk+ gqvk ist+ rqjUr gh vk tkrk gSA oYMZ okbM osc vkSj baVjusV] nksuksa ,d leku ugha gSa ijUrq os ,d nwljs ls lEcfU/kr rFkk ,d nwljs ij vkfJr gSaA okLro esa oYMZ okbM osc baVjusV dk lclsV gS] ftldks ge baVjusV dk xzkfQdy&baVjQsl dg ldrs gSaA ;g gedks lwpukvksa dks ,lsl (Access) djus ds u;s&u;s rjhdksa ds ckjs esa tkudkjh iznku djrk gS ftlds }kjk yksx vkil esa ,d nwljs ls tqM+ ldrs gSA WWW ds eq[; xq.k /keZ fuEu fyf[kr gSA blesa gkbZij VsDLV buQkWjes'ku flLVe gksrk gS% gkbZij VsDLV buQkWjes'ku flLVe ds ihNs eq[; mn~n's ; ;gh gS fd VsDLV dks ,d vke iqLrd dh Hkk¡fr ,d n`<+ rFkk jsf[k; LVªDpj esa i<+us ds ctk;s vki ,d Nksj ls nwljs Nksj rd vklkuh ls tk ldsaA vkidks blesa vf/kd tkudkjh feyrh gSA vki vklkuh ls ihNs tk ldrs gSa] nwljs VkWfid ij tk ldrs gSa rFkk ml VsDLV dks i<+ ldrs gSa ftls vki ml le; i<+uk pkgrs gSa tks WWW ij miyC/k gSA WWW gedks mruh lwpuk iznku djrk gS ftruh ge vius thou Hkj esa ugha ipk ldrs ,oe~ fyad nsus ds vusd rjhds iznku djrk gSA rkdh vki pkgs tSls czkmt dj ldsaA ;g xzkfQdy rFkk vklku gS% vc osc VsDLV ds lkFk xzkfQDl] lkmaM rFkk ohfM;ks dks fn[kkus dh {kerk Hkh j[krk gSA vf/kd uohu czkmtj rks eYVhfefM;k ls twM+h gqbZ ,fIyds'ku Hkh fn[kk nsrs gSaA lcls vf/kd vge~ ckr ;g gS fd ;g lc dk;Z vR;f/kd vklku gksrk

AglaSem School 175

gS & dsoy vkils ,d fDyd nwjA vki fDyd djrs tkb;s vkSj ;g vkidks ,d fyad ls nwljs fyad] ,d ist ls nwljs ist rFkk vyx&vyx lkbZV rFkk loZj rd ewo djk ldrk gSA ;g ØkWl IysVQkeZ gS% ;fn vki bUVjusV ls tqM+s gq, gSa rks vki oYMZ okbZM osc dks Hkh ,lsl dj ldrs gSaA oYMZ okbZM osc fdlh ,d gh rjg dh e'khu vFkok fdlh ,d gh dEiuh }kjk cukbZ xbZ e'khu ls c¡/kk gqvk ugha gSA osc iw.kZ :i ls Økl&IysVQkeZ gksrk gSA Økl&IysVQkeZ gksus dk vFkZ gS fd vki osc dks fdlh Hkh dEiuh ds gkMZos;j ij fdlh Hkh vkWijsfVax flLVe ds lkFk rFkk fdlh Hkh izdkj ds fMLIys ds lkFk ,lsl dj ldrs gSaA os c foHkkftr gS % osc bruh vf/kd ek=k esa lwpuk blfy;s iznku djrh gSa D;ksafd og bUQkWe's ku gtkjksa osc lkbZV ij fc[kjh gqbZ jgrh gSA izR;sd osc lkbZV vius ikl miyC/k lwpuk ds fy;s Lisl j[krh gS] ckdh lwpuk mls nwljh osc lkbZV dks fyad djds fey tkrh gSA fdlh Hkh bUQkWe's ku pkgus okys dks ek= ml osc lkbZV ij tkuk gksrk gS ftldh lwpuk og ns[kuk pkgrk gSA lwpuk ns[kus ds fy;s vkidks mls ckj&ckj bUlVkWy djus dh ;k ckj&ckj fMLd cnyus dh vko';drk ugha gksrh cfYd mls dsoy lkbZV ij ikWbVZ djus dh vko';drk gksrh gSA osc xfr'khy gS& ftu O;fDr;ksa us dksbZ lkbZV cukbZ gS] og mls dgha Hkh vkSj fdlh Hkh viMsV dj ldrs gSa D;ksfd osc ij vkus okyh lwpuk mlh lkbZV ij gksrh gS ftlus og lwpuk izdkf'kr dh gSA ;fn vki ml lwpuk dks czkmt dj jgs gSa rks vkidks ml lwpuk dk dksbZ u;k otZu yksM djus dh vko';drk ugha gS vkSj u gh vi&MsV bUQkWes'ku ek¡xus ds fy;s rduhdh lgk;rk dh vko';drk gSA blds fy;s vkidks ek= viuk czkmtj [kksydj ml lkbZV dk ,Mªsl gh nsuk gSA vkids ikl Lor% dh lkjh ifjofrZr lwpuk vk tkrh gSA mnkgj.k ds rkSj ij vkikph (Appachi) uked osc loZj tksfd LoSfPNd yksaxks ds lewg }kjk fodflr ,oe~ tk¡pk x;k gSA mlesa oks lHkh xq.k ekStnw gS tks ,d cM+s O;olkf;d loZj esa miyC/k gSa vkSj eq[; ckr ;g gS fd ;g fu%'kqYd miyC/k gSA osc baVjsfDVo gS& baVjsfDVfoVh vius osc loZj ls ckrphr djus dh ;ksX;rk gSA Vsyhfotu ds foijhr] osc baVjsfDVo gksrk gSA bldk vFkZ gS fd gesa osc ij dgha vkSj tkus ds fy;s ;k fdlh nwljs ist dks [kksyus ds fy;s dsoy fyad dks lysDV djuk gksrk gSA mnkgj.k ds fy;s] istksa ds lkFk baVjsfDVfoVh djokus okys QkWeZ Hkh gks ldrk gS ftUgsa vki Hkj ldrs gSaA QkWeZ esa VsDLV ckWDl gks ldrs gSa tgk¡ vki dqN VkbZi dj ldrs gSa] jsfM;ks cVu gks ldrs gSa ftlesa vki dbZ vkWI'ku esa ls ,d vkWI'ku pqu ldrs gSa ;k fQj esU;w vkbZVe gks ldrs gSa ftuesa ls vki vkbZVe pqu ldrs gSaA tc ;g QkWeZ lcfeV fd;k tkrk gS rks lkjh lwpuk ml loZj rd pyh tkrh gS tgk¡ ij oks ist cuk, x, gSAa QkWeZ ds vfrfjDr Hkh osc ds fodkl gksus ls ;g vf/kd mUur xq.k/keZ vkSj lqfo/kk,a iznku djrk gSA tkok ,oe~ 'kkdosc vkidks osc ist esa gh iwjk izksxzke vkSj xse 'kkfey djus fd lqfo/kk iznku djrk gSA 3&Mh nqfu;k ds fodkl ds dkj.k vkidks o vkids i<+us okyks dks czkml dh ,slh lqfo/kk iznku djrh gSA tSls vki okLrfod dejs esa ;wgha yksxksa ls fey jgs gksA vr% osc ,d ek/;e gS ftlds }kjk yksxksa rd igq¡pk tk ldrk gS ,oe~ lkjh nqfu;ka ds yksxksa ls ckrphr fd tk ldrh gSA

osc czkmt+j (Web Browser) osc czkmt+j og izksxkz e gS ftldk mi;ksx djds vkids ikl miyC/k lwpukvksa dks istks ds ek/;e ls ns[krs gSAa czkmt+j dks ;nk dnk osc DykbaV ;k baaVjusV usfoxs'ku Vwy ds uke ls Hkh iqdkjk tkrk gSaA osc ij fLFkr MkWD;weUs Vdks osc ist dgrs gSA fdlh Hkh lkbV dk igyk osc ist ftlds lkFk vkxs Hkh osc istks dh iwjh Js.kh gks] dks ge ml osc lkbV dk gkse ist dgrs gSaA bu istksa dks fdlh ;wtj dks fn[kkus dk dk;Z czkmt+j dk gksrk gSA vr% czkmt+j og izksxzke gS]a ftls osc rFkk ;wtj ds chp baVjQsl djus ds fy;s dke esa fy;k tkrk gSA ;g osc ist+l s dks fMLiys djrk gS rFkk fofHkUu osc istks esa vklkuh ls usfoxsV djus dh lqfo/kk iznku djrk gSA ;g osc lkexzh dks i<+us] lso djus] MkWmuyksM djus] dkWih ;k fizaV fudkyus] esy Hkstuk ;k izkIr djus] foftVsM lkbZVksa dk bfrgkl fjdkMZ djus rFkk fdlh ,Mªl s ij cqd ekdZ yxkus dk dk;Z djrk gSA gj izdkj ds dEI;wVj flLVe ds fy, osc czkmt+j dh foLr`r Jà[kyk miyC/k gSA dqN izpfyr osc czkmt+j Internet Explorer, Netscape Navigator rFkk Mosiac gSA fdlh Hkh osc czkmt+j ds fuEu dk;Z gksus pkfg,A

AglaSem School 176

1- dksbZ URL ,Mªsl nsus ij og ml lwpuk dks ,lsl djus ;ksX; gksuk pkfg,A czkmt+j HTTP izksVksdksy dk mi;ksx dj fn;s osc ,Mªsl ij dE;wfudsV dj ldsA 2- D;ksafd osc ml lwpuk dks Hkh lapkfyr djrk gS tks FTP ;k Gopher loZj esa gks] Usenet news posting esa gks ;k bZ&esy gks vr% czkmt+j dks bu loZj ls Hkh dE;wfudsV djuk pkfg,A osc ls MkWD;weUs V izkIr djuk ,oe~ mudh QkWesZfVax vkids flLVe ds vuqlkj djuk gh nks eq[; dk;Z gS tks czkmt+j dh dk;Zfo/kh esa vkrs gSA ;g bl ckr ij fuHkZj djrk gS tks czkmt+j vki mi;ksx yk jgs gSa vkSj mlesa vUrZfufgr] xq.k/keZ ftlds vuqlkj vki eYVhfefM;k QkbZy ju dj ldrs gSa] tkok ,IysV dks ns[k ,oe~ laokn dj ldrs gSa ;k vU; vf/kd mUur xq.k/keZ mi;ksx dj ldrs gSa] tks dksbZ fo'ks"k czkmt+j iznku djrk gSA

blds vuqlkj ,d ;wtj vius LFkkuh; dEI;wVj ij czkmt+j izkx s zke izkjaHk djrk gS rFkk p;fur lwpuk dks fu;fU=r djus gsrq czkmt+j ls lEiZd djrk gSA czkmt+j lwpuk ysus ds fy, ,d DykbV dh rjg dk;Z djrk gSA gj ckj tc ;wtj czkmt+j ds ,Mªsl QhYM esa dksbZ ,Mªsl nsrk gS rks czkmt+j mlesa fNih gqbZ lanHkZ lwpuk dks i<+rk gSA blh lwpuk ds vk/kkj ij og r; djrk gS fd mls fdl fjeksVZ loZj dks lEidZ djuk pkfg, rFkk ml loZj ls dkSu lh lwpuk DykbV }kjk ekaxh xbZ gSA czkmt+j ,d ckj esa flQZ ,d gh fjeksZV loZj ls lEidZ djrk gS og ml loZj ls lEidZ LFkkfir djrk gS o lwpuk dk ist fudkyrk gS ,oa lwpuk dks ;wtj ds ikl igq¡pk nsrk gSA vr% osc czkmt+j ,d cgqmi;ksxh] cgqvk;keh lk¶Vos;j iSdt s + gS ftldk fuekZ.k ,lsl djus] MkWmuyksM djus ,oe~ eYVhfefM;ka gkbZij MkWD;weUs V ¼ftUgsa osc ist dgrs gS½a ] dks fn[kkus ds fy, gksrk gSA fdlh osc lkbV ls tqMus ds in fuEukuqlkj le>k,s x;s gSA 1- vki loZiFz ke osc lkbV dk URL Vkbi ,Mªsl ckj esa djs tSls www.rajasthanboard.com 2- vkidk czkmt+j osc loZj ls lEcU/k LFkkfir djus dk iz;kl djrk gSA 3- osc loZj Request izkIr djrk gS rFkk og dqdht ;wtj dks Hkstrk gSA 4- osc lkbV ls mldk gkse ist] osc loZj ls vkids ihlh ij MkWmuyksM gksrk gSA 5- osc czkmt+j }kjk osc ist fn[kk;k tkrk gS ,oe~ czkmt+j o loZj ds e/; lEcU/k rksM+ fn;k tkrk gSA uksV% dqdht+ loZj }kjk ;wtj ds czkmt+j ds Hksts tkus okys MkVk lewg dk VqdM+k gS ,oe~ ;g tc Hkstk tkrk gS rc ;wtj loZj lkbZV dks foftV djrk gSA ;g ,d rjg osc fd igpku lwpuk gS] gj osc lkbZV vius izdkj ls vkidh igpku lwpuk nsrh gS rkfd og vkidks vxyh foftV esa igpku ldsaA

osc loZj (Web Server) osc loZj czkmt+j dks osc ist vkSj osc lkbVl miyC/k djkus esa ,d vge~ Hkwfedk fuHkkrk gSA osc loZj ,d ,slk dEI;wVj vkSj izksxzke gS tks fo'o Hkj ds osc czkmt+j ls vkus okyh Request ds mÙkj nsus ds fy, mÙkjnk;h gksrk gSA dbZ cM+h

AglaSem School 177

dEifu;ksa dk viuk Lo;a dk osc loZj gksrk gS ysfdu vf/kdka'k dEifu;k¡ osc loZj fdjk;s ij ysrh gSA osc ij HTML ist ns[kus ds fy, osc loZj dks ,lsl djuk vko';d gksrk gSA ;g osc loZj dk gh dk;Z gksrk gS fd og baVjusV ds ek/;e ls vkus okys osc czkmt+j ds dusD'ku dks xzg.k djs rFkk Request fd;s tkus ij mi;qDr HTML ist vius DykbaV rd igqpk nsaA ;g dk;Z HTTP izksVksdksy ds ek/;e ls fd;k tkrk gSaA osc loZj lnSo baVjusV ls tqMk gksuk pkfg, D;ksfd baVjusV dks ge dHkh Hkh dke esa ys ldrs gSA loZj dk dk;Z dj jgs dEI;wVj ij baVjusV dusD'ku dh xfr viS{kkd`r vf/kd gksuh pkfg,A lkFk gh og dEI;wVj ,d lkFk vkus okyh dbZ lkjh Request dks Hkh iwjk dj ldus ;ksX; gksuk pkfg,A og dEI;wVj tks osc istks dks] Mk;sDVªh ,oe~ Qkbyksa ds :i esa j[krk gS ,oe~ QkbZy dks i<+us ds fy;s nsrk gS ^^loZj^^ dgykrk gSA ;g lwpuk iznkrk dh rjg O;ogkj djrk gS ,oe~ vko';drkuqlkj lwpuk iznku djrk gSA loZj dEI;wVj ,d fo'ks"k lk¶Vos;j pykrk gS ftls osc loZj dgrs gS ;g fuEu lqfo/kk,a iznku djrk gSA 1- osc lkbV eSustesUV 2- lwpuk iznku djus gsrq DykbUV ls Request izkIr djukA 3- DykbUV dh Request ds vuqlkj lwpuk iznku djuk ,oe~ vko';d ist n'kkZukA dqN izpfyr lk¶Vos;j ftUgaas loZj ju djrk gS rkfd DykbUV dh Request ij lwpuk iznku dh tk lds tSls baVjusV buQkWesZ'ku loZj ¼aIIS½] vikph osc loZj] usVLdsi loZj ,oe~ ekbØkslk¶V] ilZuy osc loZj bR;kfnA loZj ds izdkj fofHkUu izdkj ds loZj lkW¶Vos;j ¼MkVk csl loZj] usVodZ loZj vkfn½ gksrs gS tksfd fofHkUu izdkj dh lqfo/kk,]a fofHkUu izdkj ds DykbaV dks iznku djrs gSA fo'ks"kdj osc loZj ,d izdkj dk HTTP loZj gS ,oe~ bldk dk;Z HTTP izkVs ksdksy dh lgk;rk ls DykbaV ds czkmt+j lkW¶Vos;j dks lwpuk fHktokuk gksrk gS DykbUV dk czkmt+j Request Hkstrk gS ,oe~ loZj HTML MkWD;weUs Viznku djrk gSA vFkkZr loZj Request izkIr djrk gS ,oe~ okil mldk Response Hkstrk gSA ,d osc loZj fuEu fyf[kr dk;Z djrk gS% 1- ;g CGI ¼dkWeu xsVos bUVjQsl½ ,fIyds'ku dks CGI fLØIV pykus dk vkxzg djrk gS ;g fLØIV dqN ckgjh NksVs izksxzke tSls MkVkcsl yqdvi ;k laokn okys QkeZ bR;kfn ju djrk gSA 2- loZj lkW¶Vos;j dkWfUQxz's ku QkbZys rFkk lqj{kk ds fy;s mi;ksxh lkW¶Vos;j j[krk gS rkfd osc lkbV dks fofHkUu izdkj ls eSust+ fd;k tk ldsA osc loZj lkW¶Vos;j dh dk;Z iz.kkyh osc czkmt+j lkW¶Vos;j lwpuk dh Request loZj dEI;wVj ij Hkstrk gS tgk¡ ij loZj izksxzke Hksth xbZ Request ds vuqlkj dk;Z djrk gSA czkmt+j }kjk Hksth Request ds lkFk ;g Hkh crk;k tkrk gS fd og fdl izdkj dk QkbZy QkWesZV ysrk gSA ;fn czkmt+j fdlh HTML QkbZyds ckjs esa iwNrk gS rks osc loZj igys ml QkbZy dks [kkst dj fudkyrk gS fQj QkbZy ds lkFk gSMj tksM+rk gS vksj mls czkmt+j rd Hkst nsrk gSA ;fn czkmt+j us fdlh fo'ks"k MkWVk csl dh lwpuk ekaxh gS rks osc loZj CGI ¼dkWeu xsVos baVjQsl½ ds }kjk bls MkWVk csl rd igqpk nsxkA ;gka ij bl MkWVk csl esa Request ds vuqlkj ifj.kke
AglaSem School 178

miyC/k (Live) jgsA ;fn gekjs ikl Qqy VkbZe bUVjusV dusD'ku ugha gS ;k fQj ge le;≤ ij dEI;wVj cUn djuk pkgrs gSa rks mldk mi;ksx osc loZj ds :i esa u djsaA blh rjg ls ;fn gekjh e'khu vDlj [kjkc gks tkrh gS ;g cgqr vf/kd lk¶Vos;j ds lkFk gS ;k vf/kd yksdy usVodZ Vªfs Qd ds dkj.k cgqr /kheh gks tkrh gS rks mlds oSdfYid mik; djs] tSls ,d nwljk dEI;wVj Hkh mlh lkbZV ij MsMhdsVM s loZj ds :i esa jgsA 3- le; % osc loZj 'kq: gksus esa dqN le; ysrk gSA ;fn ge blls flQZ ist~l s gh loZ ¼nsuk½ djuk pkgrs gSa rks blesa le; rks vf/kd ugha yxrk gS ij dqN [kpkZ gSA bu ist~l s gks ge MkVkcsl ls ykdj nsaxs ;k dqN nwljs ,M&bUl izksxzkEl bULVky djsaxs ;k pyk;saxs ftlesa vf/kd le; yxsxk D;ksfa d istt s Hkh loZ djuk gksxk o lkFk gh flD;qfjVh dk Hkh /;ku j[kuk gksxkA 4- {kerk% ;fn gekjk osc loZj bUVªkusV ij flQZ lkekU; HTML MkWD;weaVs ~l o dqN gh xzkfQDl nsrk gS ;k fQj ;g flQZ VSLV djus ds mn~n's ; ls gS rks ;g lc dksbZ Hkh dEI;wVj dj ldrk gSA ijUrq ;fn cgqr vf/kd VªsfQd ;k cgqr vf/kd ,lsl dh ckr djsa rks gesa ;g /;ku j[kuk gksxk fd gekjk dEI;wVj ;g lc fu;af=r dj ldrk gS ;k ugha vkSj mls viMsV fd;k tk ldrk gS ;k ughaA 5- csdvWi % ;fn ge Lo;a dk gh loZj pyk jgs gSa rks fdlh Hkh izdkj ds fy;s ge Lo;a tokcnkj gksaxsA ;fn gekjs flLVe dh gkMZ fMLd [kRe gks tkrh gS rks ge ,slh fLFkfr esa gksus pkfg, fd MkVk dks fdlh Hkh rjhds ls iqu% izkIr fd;k ldsA

osc izksVksdksy (Web Protocol) izksVksdksy ,d fu;e ;k dqN fuf'pr fu;eks dk lewg gksrk gS tks fofHkUu Hkkxksa ds chp dE;wfuds'ku dk okrkoj.k iznku djrk gSA mnkgj.k ds rkSj ij ekuoh; laokn ,d fuf'pr Hkk"kk o O;kdj.k ds fcuk lEHko ugha gSA izksVksdksy fuEu lqfo/kk,a iznku djrk gS% 1- Vªkl a fe'ku ehfM;k O;ofLFkr gS ;k ugha \ 2- usVodZ vo;o ,d nwljs ls tqM+h gS ;k ugha\ 3- fdruk vkSj dc MkWVk gLrkarfjr gks jgk gS\ osc ij lwpukvksa ds vknku&iznku ds fy, ftu izksVksdksy dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS] mUgsa osc izksVksdksy dgrs gSA bu izksVksdksYl ds ek/;e ls fofHkUu osc ist] osc loZj ls czkmt+j rd Hksts tkrs gSA vr% osc izksVksdksy loZj rFkk czkmt+j ds e/; lEcU/k LFkkfir djus esa egRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk fuHkkrk gSA lwpukvksa ds vknku&iznku ds fy, osc ij dqN izksVksdksy tSls fd TCP/IP, PPP, HTTP, FTP, Simple Mail Transfer Protocol vkfn dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gS A HTTP

¼gkbij VsDLV VªkalQj izksVksdkWy½

;g mu fu;eksa dk lewg gS tks nks ;k nks ls vf/kd dEI;wVjksa ds chp gkbZij VsDLV dks VªkUlQj djrs gSaA HTTP ,d rduhd gS] tks ;wtj ds }kjk fdlh gkbZij VsDLV fyad dks lysDV fd;s tkus ij lEcfU/kr MksD;weUs Vl dks [kksyrk gS] pkgs og dgha Hkh gksA osc MksD;weUs Vl dks QkesZfVax rFkk fyafdax ds fy, HTML esa ekdZ fd;k tkrk gS osc loZj }kjk HTTP dks bUgha HTML Coded istks dks fn[kkus ds fy, mi;ksx esa yk;k tkrk gSA HTTP ,d LVsVySl izkVs ksdksy gS tgk¡ dh osc czkmt+j] oso loZj ls lEcU/k LFkkfir djrk gS ,oe~ vko';d QkbZy MkWmuyksM djrk gS mlds ckn lEcU/k foLFkkfir dj nsrk gSA czkmt+j lk/kkj.kr;k QkbZy dh gkbZij Request HTTP ds GET Method dks mi;ksx dj TCP ds iksVZ 80 ij djrk gSA ftlesa fd dbZ lkjh HTTP Request ,oe~ gsMj tksfd VªkUtsD'ku eSFkM~ ¼GET, POST, HEAD bR;kfn½ crykrk gS ,oe~ loZj dks DykbaV dk lkEFkZ; n'kkZrk gSA loZj Response esa dbZ lkjs HTTP Response gsMj tksfd n'kkZrs gSa fd D;k VªkatDs 'ku lQy gS] fdl izdkj dk MkVk Hkstk tk jgk gS] loZj dk izdkj vkSj var esa ek¡xk x;k MkVk nsrsa gSA ;g ISO ekud ij vk/kkfjr ,d Nonproprietary, Platform Independent rFkk Open Document Architecture gS ;g vdsys dEI;wVj] ysu] osu rFkk baVjusV ij leku :i ls dk;Z djrk gSA URL

( ;wuhQkeZ fjlksZl yksdsVjj) URL nksuks ds ckjs esa lwpuk j[krk gS] ¼djus dk rjhdk ,oe~ fjlksZl ds ckjs esa lwpuk½A ;g osc czkmt+j ds }kjk www

AglaSem School 179

ij fdlh MkWD;weUs V ;k ist ls tksM+us vFkkZr lEcU/k LFkkfir djus ds dke vkrk gSA blesa vkidks ;g Hkh irk ugha gksrk dh fjlksZl fQftdyh dgk¡ ij gSA ,d lk/kkj.k URL fuEu izdkj fn[kkbZ nsrk gSA http://www.rajasthanboard.com URL dk izFke Hkkx vFkkZr dkWyksu ¼%½ ls iwoZ dk Hkkx ,lsl djus dh fo/kh dks crkrk gSA osc ij lkekU;r;k ;g http gksrh gS ysfdu ;g ftp ;k gopher Hkh gks ldrk gSA bldk f}rh; Hkkx tks dkWyksu ¼%½ ds ckn fjlksZl dks crkrk gS blesa nks Lys'k ¼//½ ds ckn dk VsDLV loZj dk uke crkrk gS vkSj ,d Lys'k ¼/½ ds ckn QkbZy vFkok Mk;jsDVªh ftlls vki tqM+s gq, gS crkrk gSA vxj vki fdlh MkD;weUs V ls tqMu+ k pkg jgs gSa rks ;g lkekU;r;k -html foLrkjd j[ksxk tksfd gkbZij VsDLV

ekdZvi ysaXost+ gSA URL ges'kk Case-Sensitive gksrs gS vr% vkidks ges'kk vij dsl] yksvj dsl ,oe~ flEcYl dk fo'ks"k /;ku j[kuk gksxkA izR;sd ist ij osc dk ,d ;wfud ,Mªsl gksrk gS tksfd URL dgykrk gSA mnkgj.k ds :i esa mi;qDr URL fuEu Vscy esa le>k;k x;k gSA http://www.rajasthanboard.com / contents / admission.asp

mnkgj.k http://

vFkZ izkVs ksdksy

http://www.bser.com/

MkWeuS use

Contents/

Mk;jsDVªh dk ikFk QkbZy dk uke

admission.asp

fooj.k http ,d izksVksdksy gS tks osc ist dks bl URL ij Hkstrk gS ;gk¡ www vFkkZr oYMZ okbZM osc bser ,d dEI;wVj dk uke gS tgk¡ ij loZj izksxzke ,oe~ ist j[ks gq, gSA com ,d laxBu dk izdkj gS ¼tSls .org, .edu, .gov bR;kfn½ ;g ,d Mk;jsDVªh gS ftlesa ist j[ks gq, gSa ;g pkgh x;h QkbZy dk uke gSA

gkbZij VsDLV ekdZvi ysXosat+ ¼HTML½½ tks ysXosat+ osc istks dks fodflr djus ¼cukus½ esa dke vkrh gS gkbZij VsDLV ekdZvi ysXosat¼HTML½ dgykrh gSA HTML gh oks ysXosat+ gS tks czkmt+j }kjk le>h tkrh gSA osc istksa dks ge HTML MkWD;weUs V Hkh dgrs gSaA bUVjusV ds fy, HTML dk [kkst fVe cuZlZyh us dh FkhA ;g ,d fo'ks"k dksMks dk lewg gS ftldk iz;ksx vki vius vkys[k esa lkt&lTtk o :i dks fu;fU=r djus vkSj nwljh lwpukvksa ds lkFk fyad dk;e djus ds mn~ns'; ls djrs gSa bldh okLro esa ogha Hkwfedk gS tks fdlh eksVj dkj dks cukus ds fy, iz;qDr LVhy vkSj ;a=ksa dh gksrh gS HTML dks ,d vU; Hkk"kk SGML (Standard Generalized Mark Up Language) dk mi lewg dg ldrs gSAa SGML 1910 esa IBM ds }kjk fodflr fd xbZA bldk mn~ns'; ml leL;k dks [kRe djuk FkkA tks fd MkWD;weUs Vl dks fofHkUu gkMZos;j IysVQkeZ o vkWijsfVax flaLVe esa Hkstus esa vkrh FkhA HTML ds iw.kZ Lo:i ds izR;sd v{kj dk o.kZu fuEu izdkj gSA Hyper 'kCn ;g crkrk gS fd HTML esa vkus okyk VsDLV ,d iqLrd dh Hkkafr Linear ¼,d gh fn'kk esa½ ugha gksrk gSa bldk vFkZ gS fd tc vki baVjusV ij dk;Z dj jgs gksrs gS vkSj vkidh viuh :ph okyk dksbZ MkWD;weUs Vns[kuk gS rks vki lh/ks gh ogka igqWp ldrs gSA ;g dk;Z gkbZij fyad ds }kjk gksrk gS bldk vFkZ ;g gS fd baVjusV ij MksD;wesUVl ns[kus dk dksbZ fu/kkZfjr Øe ugha gksrk gS ¼,d iqLrd dh rjg½A gkbZij 'kCn Linear ,dne foifjr gSA WWW ij ge dksbZ Hkh ist ns[k ldrs gSA Text ;g crkrk gS fd ge ftu QkbZy ij dk;Z djrs gS muesa dsoy VsDLV gh fy[kk tk ldrk gSA Markup dk vFkZ gS fd osc ist cukus ds fy, ge loZizFke VsDLV VkbZi djrs gS rr~i'pkr ml VsDLV dh Marking djrs gSaA nwljs 'kCnksa esa HTML dksfMax djrs le; ;g crkuk gksrk gS fd] dkSu lk VsDLV cksYM fd;k tkuk gS] dgka ij dksbZ best yxkuh gS bR;kfnA ;g dk;Z vki Vsx yxkdj djrs gSaA Vsx, osc czkmt+j dks ist fn[kkrs le; ;g funsZ'k nsrs gS fd

AglaSem School 180

mDr ist dks dSls iznf'kZr djuk gSA Language dk vFkZ gS fd ge viuk dk;Z djus ds fy;s ,d ysXosat +dks mlds lHkh izk:i ds lkFk dke esa ys jgs gSaA ;gk¡ ;g xkSj fd;k tkuk vko';d gS fd ;g Basic, Fortran ;k C tSlh dksbZ izksxzkfeax ysaXost+ ugha gSaA ;g ,d fLØifVax ysXosat+ s fd;k tkrk gSA gS ftlesa Marking ds }kjk osc MkWD;weUs Vdks dUVªky HTML MkWD;wesUV fdlh Hkh VsDLV ,MhVj ¼VI ,MhVj] uksVisM bR;kfn½ dk mi;ksx djds Iysu VsDLV QkbZy ¼ASCII½ :i esa cukbZ tkrh gSA bUgsa lso djus ds fy, ge .htm ;k .html foLrkjd ds :i esa iz;qDr djrs gSaA bl rjg ;s ,d osc ist ds :i esa lso gksrs gSa bl dk;Z ds fy, ;gk¡ dksbZ Hkh oYMZ izkslslj iz;qDr dj ldrs gSa tksfd MkWD;wesUV dks ^^flQZ VsDLV ykbu czsDl ds lkFk^^ lso djrk gSA fdlh Qkby dks osc czkmt+j esa ns[kus ds fy, ;g vko';d gS fd lEiw.kZ .html foLrkjd ds lkFk lso djs ;gh osc ist ds :i esa iznf'kZr gksrk gSA HTML MkWD;wesUV cukus ds fofHkUu rfjds gksrs gS ;fn vkidks HTML vPNh rjg ls vkrh gS vki fdlh VsDLV ,fMVj dks iz;qDr dj mlds vanj HTML dksfMax dj csgn vkdZ"kd ist cuk ldrs gSaA ;gk¡ dqN HTML ,fMVj Hkh gksrs gS tks fd gekjs fy, dksfMax Hkh djrs gSA bldsfy, gedks dekaM+ dk flUVsDl ;kn j[kus dh vko';drk ugha gSA dqN izpfyr HTML ,fMVj gS tSls ekbØkslkW¶V ÝUVist] ,Mksc ist fey] gkWVMkax bR;kfnA HTML ds cgqr ls otZu Hkh vk, gSa eq[;r% HTML 2.0, HTML 3.0, HTML 3.2, HTML 4.0 gSA HTML MkWD;wesUV dh lajpuk izR;sd osc ist dbZ Hkkxksa ls feydj cuk gksrk gSAa ;g Hkkx gh fdlh HTML VsDLV MkWD;weUs V lajpuk dk eq[; vo;o gksrs gSA HTML MkWD;weUs V ds ;g vo;o Vsx }kjk iznf'kZr fd;s tkrs gSA VSx dks ges'kk dks.kd dks"Bdks () esa cUn fd;k tkrk gSA lkekU;r;k Vsx tksMk+ s (
&
) esa miyC/k gksrs gS tksfd fdlh Vsx dh 'kq:vkr ,oe~ vUr dk funsZ'k iznku djrs gSA tksMs+ okys Vsx esa LVkVZ Vsx () Vsx ds izHkko dh 'kq:vkr ,oe~ ,.M Vsx () blds izHkko s dks lekIr djrk gS dqN Vsx ,fdd (Singular or Stand Alone) Vsx Hkh gksrs gaS mnkgj.k ds rkSj ij (
) Vsx ykbu esa czd Mkyrk gS bl Vsx dks fdlh lkFkh Vsx dh vko';drk ugha gSA Vsx ,d funs'Z k gS tks MkWD;weUs V ds VsDLV esa gh vUrZfufgr gksrs gS ,d HTML Vsx czkmt+j dks ladrs nsrk gS fd mldks LØhu ij flQZ VsDLV fn[kkus ds vykok dqN vkSj Hkh djuk gSA ;g VSx czkmt+j esa fn[kkbZ ugha nsrs fdUrq budk mi;ksx VsDLV dk vkdkj c vkSj leku gS) ds :i esa fy[k ldrs gSAa HTML MkWD;weUs V Free-Format gksrs gS vFkkZr dksfMax fy[krs le; dgha Hkh Lisl] Vsc rFkk ykbu czd s dk mi;ksx dj ldrs gSAa lHkh WWW czkmt+j lHkh Vsx dks lg;ksx ¼Support½ ugha djrs gSA ;fn czkmt+j fdlh Vsx dk liksVZ ugha djrk gS rks ;g ml Vsx dks flQZ udkj nsrk gSA izR;sd HTML MkWD;weUs V dh n`<+ lajpuk gksrh gSA fdlh Hkh MkWD;weUs Vesa fuEu ewy Vsx gksrs gSAa .................................. .................................. .................................. ..................................

lk/kkj.kr;k Notepad esa Vkbi gksus okys HTML MkWD;weUs Vesa bu Vsx dks Øeokj fuEu rjhds ls fy[kk tkrk gS& MkWD;weUs Vdk title ;gk¡ fy[kk tk,xk

czkmt+j esa fn[kkbZ tkus okyh okLrfod lwpuk ;gk¡ fy[kh tk;sxh

AglaSem School 181

uksV % dqN HTML Vsx dks vfrfjDr lwpuk dh vko';drk gksrh gS mnkgj.k ds rkSj ij ;fn dksbZ best+ dks LØhu ij j[kuk gS rks best+ dk vykbesUV ¼VkWi] fefMy ;k ckWVe½ Hkh crk ldrs gSA HTML Vsx dks tks vfrfjDr lwpuk iznku dh tkrh gS oks Vsx dk ,VªhC;wV ¼Attribute½ dgykrh gS ,VªhC;wV Vsx ds Bhd ckn esa Lisl NksM+dj fy[ks tkrs gSA ,d lkFk dbZ ,VªhC;wV Hkh Lisl NksM+dj yxk ldrs gSA izR;sd HTML MkWD;weUs V dks nks Hkkxksa HEAD ,oa BODY esa foHkDr dj ldrs gSA HEAD ist dh igpku ls lEcfU/kr lwpuk j[krk gS BODY MkWD;weUs V dh okLrfod fn[kkbZ tkus okyh lwpuk j[krh gSA blesa iz;Dq r Vsxks dk o.kZu fuEu izdkj gSA

;g n'kkZrk gS fd ,d HTML MkWD;weUs V gSA lHkh html MkWD;weUs V bl Vsx ls 'kq: vkSj [kRe gksrs gSaA MkD;wesUV esa tksMu+ s okyh esVk lwpuk,¡ tSls % MkWD;wesUV dk VkbZVy] dh&cMZ~l] lpZ baftu Økofyax ds fy, fooj.kkRed lwpuk,¡] bR;kfn ds fy, ,d daVsuj ¼ik=½ dk fuekZ.k djrk gSA ;g MkWD;wesUV ds fy, VkbZVy fuekZ.k dk dk;Z djrk gSA tks Hkh bl Vsx ds vUnj fy[krs gSa] czkmt+j mls VkbZVy ckj esa fn[kkrk gSA MkWD;weUs V ds dUVsUVl~ ¼tSls VSDLV] best bR;kfn½ ds fy, ,d daVsuj ¼ik=½ dk fuekZ.k djrk gSA ;g og txg gS] tgka ij oks vo;o ge bulVZ djrs gSa] tks okLro esa LØhu ij fn[kkbZ nsaA

fofHkUu HTML vo;o HTML osc ist dks cukuk o osc czkmlj esa ns[kuk %& HTML MkWD;weUs V dk ,d mnkgj.k uhps fn;k x;k gSA bldks Notepad esa fuEu HTML code Vkbi djsa %& my first web page Hello ! I Love My India

mijksDr dksfMax dks Notepad esa Vkbi djus ds ckn bldks lso dj ysAa lso djrs le; QkbZy ds uke esa .htm ;k .html foLrkjd yxk nsa] tSls my page.htm vc czkmt+j dks bl ist esa [kksyaAs Vsx Vsx ,d lkekU;r;k mi;ksxh Vsx gS] ftls vki HTML nLrkost ds Hkkx esa fy[krs gSaA blesa ist ds ckjs esa dqN ,slh vfrfjDr lwpuk gksrh gS tks Vsx es ugha fy[kh gksrh gSA vf/kdka'k lpZ baftu vkidks ;g lqfo/kk nsrs gSa fd vki dk Vsx dk mi;ksx ist ds ckjs esa laf{kIr lwpuk rFkk dqN eq[; 'kCn ¼keywords½ ns ik,saA Vsx dk mi;ksx ist ds ckjs esa vfrfjDr lwpuk;sa nsus esa gksrk gSA ;g lwpuk lpZ baftu }kjk ml ist dks

[kkstus esa iz;qDr gksrh gSA lpZ baftu bl lwpuk ds vk/kkj ij gh ml ist dks fcuk iwjs ist dks MkmuyksM+ fd, oxhZdr` djrk gS rFkk mldh igpku djrk gSA Vsx ds lkFk dqN ,VªhC;wV Hkh dke esa yk, tkrs gSa] tks fuEu gSa&

AglaSem School 182

,Vª h C;w V http-equiv name

content

Li"Vhdj.k ;g ,VªhC;wV osc czkmt+j ;k loZj dks vkns'k nsrk gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ] http-equiv="refresh" ,d u, ist dks Lor% gh yksM+ dj nsrk gSA bldk mi;ksx ;g r; djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gS fd nLrkost ds ckjs esa fdl izdkj dh lwpuk content attribute esa vk,xhA mnkgj.kkFkZ] Name="author" crkrk gS fd ys[kd dk uke ;k ID content esa gSA ;g http-equiv ;k Name esa nh xbZ lwpuk dh okLrfod osY;w gksrk gSAa

VkbVy ,oa QqVj (Titles and footers) VkbVy (Title) ,d osc ist dk VkbVy og gksrk gS tks mlds ckjs esa cxSj vf/kd 'kCn bLrseky djs cryk,A bls ge VkbVy Vsx dh lgk;rk ls izkIr djrs gaSA tks VsDLV .... ds e/; fn[kk;k tk,xk ogha czkmt+j foUM+ks dh VkbVy ckj esa fn[kk;k tk,xkA ;gk¡ VkbVy vk,xk QqVj (Footer) Bhd mlh izdkj tSls VkbVy dks ge czkmtj foUM+ksa dh VkbVy ckj esa n'kkZrs gS dqN ,slh lwpuk Hkh gksrh gS tks osc ist ds QqV ¼uhps½ ij j[kh tkrh gSA lkekU;r;k fdlh MkWD;weUs V ist ds QqV ij j[kh tkus okyh lwpuk tSls dkWih jkbV lwpuk] ist cukus okys dk lEiZd lw= vkfnA
;gk¡ QqVj vk,xk
bl Vsx dks vkn'kZ :i esa osc ist ij n'kkZ, tkus okys VsDLV lkezxh dh vfUre ykbu ds ckn j[kuk pkfg,A fdUrq ge pkgs rks bls MkWD;wesUV ds BODY Hkkx esa dgh Hkh j[k ldrs gSA bl Vsx esa fy[kk x;k VsDLV ges'kk Italics fn[kkbZ nsrk gSA mnkgj.k ;g VkbVy gS
;g QqVj gS

dyj lsfVax (Color Setting) ge BODY Vsx ds ,VªhC;wV~l fd lgk;rk ls csdxzkmUM] VsDLV vkSj fyad dk dyj cny ldrs gSaA ,VªhC;wVl ~ ,sls dksM oMZ gksrs gS tks bl vk'k; ls HTML Vsx ds Hkhrj Mkys tkrs gS rkfd mDr Vsx dk dk;Z iwjh rjg fu;fU=r fd;k tk ldsaA Vsx fuEu ,VªhC;wV~l ysrk gSA ,Vª h C;w V ~ l Li"Vhdj.k Bgcolor fMQkYV csdxzkmUM dyj dks ifjofrZr djrk gS] tks Hkh dyj bl Vsx ds lkFk crk;k x;k gksA ;wtj dyj dks crkus gsrq mldk uke vFkok mldk gSDlk Msfley dyj dksM+ iz;qDr dj ldrk gSA Background bl ,VªhC;wVl ~ esa ml .jpg ;k .gif file dk uke fn;k tkrk gS ftls HTML MkWD;wesUV ds i`"B Hkkx esa yxkuk gSA ;g besat lai.w kZ MkWD;wesUVij QSy tkrh gSA Text bl ,VªhC;wVl ~ ls body ds characters ds fMQkYV dyj esa ifjorZu fd;k tk ldrk gSA

AglaSem School 183

izk:i%

mnkgj.k%

vf/kdrj czkmt+j dk iwoZfu/kkZfjr csdxzkmUM dyj lQsn gksrk gS rFkk VsDLV dk dyj dkyk gksrk gSA jax fdlh Hkh osc lkbV dks csgn vkd"kZd cuk nsrs gSaA HTML MkWD;weUs Vesa VsDLV ;k csdxzkmUM dk jax cnyus ds fy, vkidks ,d 6-digit code dh vko';drk gksrh ftlds igys "#" fpUg gksrk gSA bl dksM+ esa "#RRGGBB dk :i fufgr gksrk gS tgka RR dk vFkZ yky jax dh vf/kdrk ls gS] GG dk vFkZ gjs jax dh vf/kdrk ls rFkk BB dk vFkZ uhys jax dh vf/kdrk ls gSA fdlh Hkh dyj dksM+ ds fy, gSDlk Msfley uacj flLVe (0 - 9 -A-F) ;gka FF jax dh vf/kdrk rFkk 00 U;wure gSA uhps dqN ewy dyj dksM+ fn;s x;s gSa& #000000 #FF0000 #00FF00 #0000FF #00FFFF #FFFFFF

- Black - Red - Green - Blue - Green + Blue = Cyan - Red + Green + Blue = White

VsDLV QkWesZfVax (Text Formatting) is jkxz kQ czsd ,d [kkyh ykbu ges'kk VsDLV lkexzh ds isjkxzkQ dks vyx djrh gSA tks Vsx ;g dk;Z djrk gS oks
gSA bl Vsx ds vkus ij czkmt+j ubZ ykbu ij] igyh okyh ykbu o ubZ ykbu ds e/; ,d ykbu NksM+dj vk tkrk gSA mnkgj.k% ABC Technologies
106, Shakti Appartments, Kandhi Vali (East), Mumbai - 400050.

vkmViq V % ABC Technologies 106, Shakti Appartments, Kandhi Vali (East), Mumbai - 400050.

ykbu cz sd% tc VsDLV ubZ ykbu ls 'kq: gksus dh vko';drk iM+s ¼[kkyh ykbu cxSj NksM+s½ rks
dks iz;qDr djuk pkfg,A ;g Vsx flQZ ubZ ykbu dh 'kq:vkr ij ys tkrk gSA mnkgj.k% ABC Technologies
106, Shakti Appartments,
Kandhi Vali (East),
Mumbai – 400050.

vkmViq V % ABC Technologies 106, Shakti Appartments, Kandhi Vali (East), Mumbai-400050.

lSD'ku gsfMax (Section Headings) fdlh MkWD;weUs V ds ist lkekU;r;k lSD'ku o lc lSD'ku esa foHkDr gksrs gSA ¼tSls dh ist esa gSfMax o lc gSfMax gks ldrs

AglaSem School 184

gS½ ftUgsa fo'ks"k :i ls ¼n` gS ,oe~ fuEure Lrj dk
gSA lHkh rjhdksa esa ;g Boldface fn[kkbZ nsrh gSA fdUrq mldh lkbZt gSfMax ds Lrj pquus ij fuHkZj djrh gS tSls fd
ls
A tSls tSls uEcj c<+rk gS okLro esa mldh lkbZt de gksrh tkrh gSA mnkgj.k%
Level two heading

Level three heading

Level four heading

vkmViq V %

Level two heading Level three heading Level four heading

MªkbaZx ykbu (Drawing Lines)
Vsx {kSrht ds lekukarj ykbu (Rule) [hkaprk gSA ;g Vsx vxj crk;k tk, rks iwjs ist ds vkj ikj Hkh {kSrht

ds lekukarj ykbu [khap ldrk gS bl Vsx ds ,VªhC;wV fuEu izdkj gS% Li"Vhdj.k ,Vª h C;w V ALIGN czkmt+j dh LØhu ij ykbu dks vykbu djrk gS tks fMQkWYV :i ls LØhu ds lsUVj esa gksrh gSA ALIGN = “LEFT” ALIGN = “RIGHT” ALIGN = “CENTER” SIZE

Rule dh lkbZt ifjofrZr djrk gSA

WIDTH

Rule dh pkSM+kbZ lsV djrk gSA bls ge fiDly dh la[;k ;k LØhu dh okLrfod pkSMkbZ

dk izfr'kr esa Hkh iznf'kZr dj ldrs gSAa mnkgj.k% Welcome to our Web site.

vkmViq V %

VsDLV LVkby (Text Style) VsDLV LVkby okys VsDLV v{kjksa dks fo'ks"k :i iznku djrs gSA cksY M (Bold) ;g VsDLV dks Boldface rjhds ls n'kkZrk gSA blesa ....... mi;ksx esa vkrs gSaA mnkgj.k% Welcome to our home page!

vkmViq V % Welcome to our home page!

bVkfyDl (Italics) ;g VsDLV dks bVkfyDl rjhds ls n'kkZrk gSA blesa ....... mi;ksx esa vkrs gSaA mnkgj.k% Welcome to our home page!

AglaSem School 185


vUMjykbu (Underline) ;g VsDLV dks vUMjykbu n'kkZrk gSA blesa ....... mi;ksx esa vkrs gSaA mnkgj.k% Welcome to our home page!


vU; VsDLV izHkko (Other Text Effects) lsUVfjax (Centering) ....... Vsx dk mi;ksx ge buds e/; vkus okys VsDLV] besat] :y rFkk vU; dksbZ ist

vo;o dks lsUVj djus ds fy, djrs gSA mnkgj.k% An image table or text

vkmViq V % An image table or text

lc fLØfIVax (Subscripting) lc fLØIV vo;o dh dksfMax ds fy, _o Vsx ds e/; VsDLV dks j[kk tkrk gSA tksfd lkekU; VsDLV ls FkksM+k uhps gksrk gSA ;s vo;o xf.kfr; lehdj.kks ,oe~ lw=ksa ds fy, mi;ksxh gSA mnkgj.k% H₂O

vkmViq V % H 2O

lqij fLØfIVax (Superscripting) lqij fLØIV vo;o dh dksfMax ds fy, ô Vsx ds e/; VsDLV dks j[kk tkrk gSA tksfd lkekU; VsDLV ls FkksM+k Åij ,oa NksVk gksrk gSA ;s vo;o xf.kfr; lehdj.kks ,oe~ lw=ksa ds fy, mi;ksxh gSA mnkgj.k% A²+ B²

vkmViq V % A 2+B 2

fyLV (List) fcuk Øe okyh fyLV (Bullets) ;g fyLV
Vsx ls 'kq: gksrh gS ,oe~
ij lekIr gksrh gS fyLV dk izR;sd vkbaVe
Vsx ls 'kq: gksrk gSA
Vsx ds ,VªhC;wV dks fuEu izdkj n'kkZ ldrs gSAa

s nsxkA Type = “FILLROUND” Bksl o`r dh vkd`rh okyk cwyV Type = “SQUARE” Bksl oxZ dh vkd`rh okyk cwysV nsxkA

AglaSem School 186

mnkgj.k%

Apple
Orange
Banana

vkmViq V % •

Apple

•

Orange

•

Banana

Øe okyh fyLV (Numbering) ;g Øe okyh fyLV
Vsx ls 'kq: gksrh gS ,oe~
ij lekIr gksrh gS fyLV dk izR;sd vkbaVe
Vsx ls 'kq: gksrk gSA
Vsx ds ,VªhC;wV dks fuEu izdkj n'kkZ ldrs gSA TYPE mi;ksx esa vkus okyh uEcfjax Ldhe dks dUVªky s djrk gS Type = "1" (1,2,3....) okyh uEcfjax nsxkA Type = "A" (A,B,C....) okyh uEcfjax nsxkA Type = "a" (a,b,c....) okyh uEcfjax nsxkA Type = "I" (I,II,III....) okyh uEcfjax nsxkA START uEcfjax Øe dks ifjofrZr djrk gSA dksbZ Hkh U;wefs jd osY;w lsV dj ldrs gSA ftlls 'kq: gksuk gSA VALUE uEcfjax Øe dks ifjofrZu Øe fyLV ds e/; esa djrk gSA ;g
Vsx ds lkFk crk;k tkrk gSA mnkgj.k%

Apple
Orange
Banana

vkmViq V % B. C. D.

Apple Orange Banana

ifjHkk"kk okyh fyLV (Definetion List) ifjHkk"kk fyLV ds eku
o
Vsx ds e/; fn[kkbZ nsrs gSaA ifjHkk"kk fyLV nks Hkkxksa esa foHkDr jgrh gSA
Vsx ds ckn fn[kkbZ nsrk gS ifjHkk"kk in ifjHkk"kk fooj.k
Vsx ds ckn fn[kkbZ nsrk gS mnkgj.k%

ME
It means Mechanical Engineering
EE
It means Electrical Engineering

AglaSem School 187

vkmViq V % ME It means Mechanical Engineering EE It means Electrical Engineering

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MkWD;wesUVksa~ dks fyad djuk (Linking Documents) HTML gesa nwljs MkWD;weUs V ,oe~ best ls fyad djus dh lqfo/kk nsrk gSA fdlh osc ist esa mifLFkr VsDLV ds Hkkx ;k best ij fDyd djus ij vU; osc ist vFkok best [kqyrh gS tks bl izdkj dk fyad iznku djrk gS og gkbij VsDLV] gkbij fyad ;k gkWVLikV dgykrk gSA fyad ds MhQkYV dyj cnys tk ldrs gSaA fyad ds bu dyj dks cnyus gsrq rhu ,VªhC;wV Vsx ds lkFk n'kkZ, tkrs gS oks fuEu gSaA LINK bl Vsx ds lkFk dksbZ Hkh dyj crkdj gkbij fyad dk fMQkYV dyj cny ldrs gSaA ;wtj+ blds fy, dyj dk uke vFkok mldk gsDlkMsfley dksM crk ldrk gSA

AglaSem School 188 ALINK (Active Link) bl Vsx ds lkFk dksbZ Hkh dyj crkdj ,fDVosVsM gkbij fyad dk fMQkYV dyj cny ldrs

gSaA ;wtj+ blds fy, dyj dk uke vFkok mldk gsDlkMsfley dksM crk ldrk gSA VLINK (Visited Link) bl Vsx ds lkFk dksbZ Hkh dyj crkdj o gkbij fyad tks foftV dj fy;k x;k gS dk fMQkYV dyj cny ldrs gaSA ;wt+j blds fy, dyj dk uke vFkok mldk gsDlkMsfley dksM crk ldrk gSA osc ist esa fyad Vsx ls cuk, tkrs gaSA ds e/; dqN Hkh fy[kk gks og gkbij fyad@gkWV LikV cu tkrk gSA fdlh gkbij fyad ij fDyd djus ij] og fdlh vU; osc ist ;k best ij pyk tkrk ¼Navigate ½ gSA ftl MkWD;weUs V ij tkuk gks mls n'kkZuk vko';d gSA blds fy, Vsx dk HREF ,VªhC;wV dk mi;ksx dj vxys osc ist vFkok best dks n'kkZ,xsaA iz k :i%

gkbij fyad nks izdkj ds gksrs gSa ckgjh MkD;weUs V ls fyad djuk vFkok mlh MkD;weUs V esa fdlh fo'ks"k LFkku ij fyad djuk ¼tEi½A ckgjh MkWD;wesUV lanHkZ (External Document References) mnkgj.k% Visit my Home Page

;gk¡ Visit my Home Page ,d gkbij fyad cu tk,xk tks fd nwljs MkWD;weUs V details.htm ls fyad dj nsrk gSA tks fd mlh dk;Zdkjh Mk;jsDVªh esa miyC/k gSA ;fn Qkby mlh Mk;jsDVªh esa miyC/k ugha gS rks mldk fjysfVo ;k ,clksY;wV ikFk crkuk i<+rk gSA gkbij fyad ;wtj+ dks u, osc ist dh 'kq:vkr esa ys tkrk gSA dqN le; ;g Hkh vko';d gksrk gS fd fdlh u, ist dh fo'ks"k ¼crkbZ xbZ½ yksd's ku ij igqpk tk,A fdlh osc ist dh fo'ks"k yksds'ku ij igqapus ds fy, ,adj uke lsVvi djuk iM+rk gSA ,adj gkbij fyad ls osc ist dh fdlh crkbZ xbZ yksd's ku ij igqapkrs gSaA osc ist esa fdlh fo'ks"k yksd's ku ij igqapus ds rjhds dks la{ksi esa nks inksa esa dj ldrs gSA in ,d % osc ist esa tgka igqapuk gS ml yksd's ku dh igpku djuk o mldk uke nsukA Vsx dk NAME ,VªhC;wV dk bLrseky djds ;g dj ldrs gSA iz k :i%

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;g igqapus okyh yksds'ku ij myloc uke ls igpkurk gSA in nks% tc ges fdlh crk;s x, osc ist ij fdlh crkbZ xbZ yksd's ku ij igqpuk gks rks ges ftl osc ist ij tkuk gks mlds uke ds vykok ml osc ist ftl ij tkuk gks mldh yksd's ku dk uke Hkh vko';d gSA ;g fuEu izdkj fd;k tkrk gSA iz k :i% < A HREF =”file_name.htm # location_name”>……

mnkgj.k%

Visit My Home Page

;gka Visit My Home Page ,d gkbij fyad cu tk,xk ,oe~ ;g details.htm Qkby ds myloc uked yksd's ku ij ys tk,xk A vkUrfjd MkWD;wesUV lanHkZ (Internal Document References) dqN le; ;g vko';d gksrk gS fd mlh MkWD;wesUV dh fofHkUu yksd's ku ij igq¡pk tk,

AglaSem School 189

a D;ksafd fdlh crkbZ xbZ yksd's ku ij ig¡qpuk gS vr% iwoZ dh rjg bls nks inksa esa djuk vko';d gSA tSls fd yksds'ku dks mlds uke ls igpkuuk fQj ml uke ls yksd's ku ij ig¡p q ukA ;gk¡ vUrj flQZ ;g gS fd file_name.htm vc vHkh dke vk jgh (Current) QkbZy gSA çk:i% …………

vFkkZr file_name.htm dk # fpUg ls iwoZ ugha gksuk n'kkZrk gS fd ;gk¡ mlh leku MkWD;weUs V esa igqpuk vko';d gSA fdUrq ;gk¡ ;g iDdk dj ys fd HTML QkbZy dk yksd's ku dk uke crk;k x;k gksA

best gkbij fyad dh rjg (Images as Hyper Links) ftl izdkj VsDLV gkbij fyad dh rjg O;ogkj djrk gS] mlh izdkj best Hkh gkbij fyad dh rjg O;ogkj dj ldrh gSA tSlk ns[kk x;k gS fd Vsx ds e/; esa dqN Hkh Mkyk tk,] ;g gkWVLikV cu tkrk gSA blh izdkj Vsx dks ds chp j[kdj ,d best dks Hkh gkWVLikV cuk;k tk ldrk gSA Vsx best dks LØhu ij j[krk gS D;ksfd Vsx ds e/; gS] vr% ;g gkWVLikV cu tkrk gSA mnkgj.k%

;gk¡ mouse.gif gkWVLikV dh rjg O;ogkj djxh vkSj details.htm QkbZy ij ys tk,xhA best esi (Image Map) tc fdlh best ij gkbij fyad cuk;k tkrk gSa rks best ds fdlh Hkh Hkkx esa fDyd djus ij ;g Vsx esa crk, MkWD;weUs Vij ys tkrk gSA ;fn best cM+h gS vkSj ,d gh best ls ,d ls vf/kd MkWD;wesUV fyad djus dh vko';drk gks rks ;gk¡ ,d rduhd gS tks best dks fofHkUu Hkkxksa esa foHkDr djrh gS vkSj gj Hkkx ls vyx MkWD;weUs V fyad djrh gS og rduhd best esi gSA fdlh best ij best esi cuk, ,oe~ iz;qDr fd;s tkrs gaS rkfd mlesa crk, x, Hkkx fdlh fHkUu QkbZy@best ls fyad fd, tk ldsA fdlh best esi ds ;s fyUdM~ {ks= mlds gkWV Hkkx dgykrs gSaA izR;sd gkWV Hkkx fdlh ,d filename.htm ls lEcfU/ kr jgrk gS tc ;g gkWV Hkkx fyad gksrk gS rks czkmtj ml filename.htm ij ys tkrk gSA best esi cukuk Hkh nks inks dk izkl s sl gSA in ,d % best esi cukuk vFkkZr best dks fofHkUu {ks=ksa esa ckVukA blds fy, Vsx dk bLrseky djrs gSA Vsx NAME ,VªhC;wV ysrk gS ftlds }kjk HTML QkbZy esa esi dks lanfHkZr fd;k tk ldrk gSa çk:i % Vsx ds e/; Vsx crk;k tkrk gSA ;g Vsx best ds vUnj dksbZ fo'ks"k Hkkx ifjHkkf"kr djrk gSA Vsx fofHkUu ,VªhC;wV ysrk gSA ;s ,VªhC;wV fuEu gSA SHAPE ml Hkkx dh vkd`fr fuEu esa ls dksbZ Hkh gks ldrk gSA jsDVsaxy] lfdZy] ikWyhxu] fMQkYVA COORDS Åij crkbZ 'ksi fofHkUu funsZ'kkad isjkehVj ysrh gSA ,d jsDVsaxy pkj funsZ'kkad ysxk % X1, Y1, X2, Y2 ,d LkfdZy nks ;k rhu funsZ'kkad ysxk% dsUnz fcUnq] lfdZy ifjefr ds funsZ'kkad o f=T;kA ,d ikWyhxu rhu ;k vf/kd funsZ'kkadks ds tksM+s tks ikyhxu ds Hkkx dks crkrs gS mls ysxkA ,d fMQkYV 'ksi dksbZ isjkehVj ugh ysrh ;g best ds ml Hkkx dks tks Vsx esa ugha

AglaSem School 190 HREF

crk;k x;k gS dks n'kkZrk gSA ;g] .htm file dk uke, tks fdlh fo'ks"k ,fj;k ls lEcfU/kr gS] ysrk gSA

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in nks % ;g best esi dks fdlh fo'ks"k ¼crkbZ xbZ½ best ls lEcfU/kr djrk gSA blds fy, Vsx ,d ,VªhC;wV tksfd USEMAP dgykrk gS] ysrk gSA og best esi dk uke ,d osY;w dh rjg ysrk gS vkSj mlls lEcfU/kr best ds esi LisflfQds'ku esa iz;ksx (Apply) djrk gSA ;g osY;w ges'kk # fpUg vius iwoZ j[krh gSA iz k :i%

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osc ist cukus dh dyk eq[;r% mlds leLr Vsx o Vsx ,VªhC;wVl ~ ¼tgka iz;qDr gks½ dh dk;Ziz.kkyh tkuus esa fufgr gSA ;g dyk vko';drk vuqlkj cgqrlkjh VsDLV lwpuk dks QkesZV djus ,oe~ osc lkbV ij mi;ksx esa ysus esa vko';d gSA blds fy, fuEu n`"VkUrh; mnkgj.k mi;ksxh gSA Illustration Example 1 Example Program
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AglaSem School 191

ASP (Active Server Page) ,s - ,l- ih-¼,fDVo loZ j is t ½ ASP ,d microsoft technology gS tks internet vkSj web pages ds chp interaction djkrh gSA ;g dsoy HTML Language dk ,d extension gS tks server side ij execute gksrh gSA blesa client - Browser dk use ugha gksrk gSA blesa lkjk dke server ij gh gksrk gSA For eg. client dh request ij server HTML page generate djrk gS ftls client directly, client Browser ij ns[k

ldrk gSA ASP dk use djds ge web pages generate (cuk) ldrs gSa vkSj information dks dynamically display dj ldrs

gSA ASP dk iwjk uke Active Server Pages gSA tSlk fd blds uke ls gh irk pyrk gS fd ;g ,d server side programming application gSA ASP esa client, web-server ds ikl viuh request Hkstrk gSA server ml request dks iwjk djrk gS vkSj vkmViqV dks client browser ds ikl Hkst nsrk gS vkSj client mls browser ij ns[k ldrk gSA

SERVER (ASP)

PROCESSING AT SERVER SIDE

CLIENT BROWSER

Server - Side Processing

fp= 1 & Client - Side Processing

AglaSem School 192 ASP file dk extension .ASP gksrk gS vkSj ;g file server ij Hksts tkus ls igys execute gks tkrh gS vkSj vko';d lwpukvksa dh client side ij izLrqr djrh gSA ;g file, text editor esa (Notepad) esa cuk;h tkrh gS vkSj save djrs le; "Filename. asp" ls IIS (Internet Information Services) ls cus folder (www root) esa save dh tkrh gSA ASP dh fo'ks" krk,¡& 1- ;g lwpuk,¡ j[kus esa enn djrk gS vkSj server ls iwjh lwpuk,¡ access djus esa enn djrk gSA 2- ;g server Lrj ij user dh vko';drkvksa ds vuqlkj vyx&vyx processes dks perform djus esa enn djrk gSA 3- ;g Active-XData objects ds lkFk dke djrk gS ftlls vfrfjDr fØ;kdyki miyC/k gks ldsA 4- ;g web ij Server application esa dke esa yh tkrh gS ftlls gesa online lqfo/kk fey tkrh gSA 5- ;g nwljh script languages dh rqyuk esa compatible gSA ASP Code ASP ds code rks fuEu izdkj ls fy[krs gSa& syntax : < % ............... % > ;g delimiter dke esa fy;k tkrk gSA ASP esa tks Hkh code fy[kk tkrk gS blh delimiter ds vUnj fy[ks tkrs gSA Example : < % @ LANGUAGE = VBScript + % > < % Hello World % > < % = now %> Note : < % @ LANGUAGE = VBScript % > bl statement ls irk pyrk gS fd ge ASP esa code fy[k jgs gSaA vxj ge ;g code dke esa ugha ysrs gSa rks ;g By default VBScript language ekuh tkrh gSA ASP dks close djus ds fy;s script tag dke esa fy;k tkrk gS& Syntax : %> Example :First. asp < % @ LANGUAGE = VBScript % > < % name="yeshu"Assign the name string Value to the name variable % > < % "Hi" & name % >
< % = "This is my first ASP file" % > ASP dh file By_default Active server_document ds :i esa save gksrh gS ;g icon document Left side ij cuk

gksrk gSA

fp= 2 & Output Diagram

AglaSem School 193 ASP code dks execute (Run) djus dk rjhdk & ASP ds code dks dsoy server machine ij gh run fd;k tk ldrk gS ;fn ge PC ij ;g run djkuk pkgrs gS rks gesa IIS dh vko';drk gksrh gSA IIS - (Internet Information Service) service }kjk ge PC dks local Host cukdj ASP esa cuh gqbZ file dks client machine ij run djk ldrs gSaA Client e'khu dks Host cukus ds fy;s fuEufyf[kr pj.kksa dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS& 1. Start Button - Setting option control panel vkSj Add/Remove Program Icon dk pquko djsaA 2- Add / Remove Windows Components esa ls Add / Remove window dk p;u djsaA 3- ;g window compnents dh fyLV n'kkZ;sxh blesa ls IIS ds check box dks pquuk iM+sxkA blds ckn ok ij click

djsAa 4- blds ckn Inetpub uke dk QksYMj C:\drive ;k root directory esa cu tk;sxkA 5- blds vUnj ,d sub directory gksrh gS ftldk uke wwwroot gksrk gSA 6- blds ckn ge wwwroot directory esa vius uke dk folder cuk;saxs vkSj asp esa cuh gqbZ file dks vius uke ds folder esa save djsxsaA 7- cuh gqbZ asp file dks run djus ds fy;s ge brower window esa fuEufyf[kr URL dk mi;ksx djrs gSA URL = "http:// localhotst/foldername/file name. asp" 8- Enter djus ij file esa cus gqbZ code dk output gesa browser ij iznf’kZr gks tkrk gSA ASP dh mi;ksfxrk &

1- ;g Qkbyksa dks rFkk lwpukvksa dks lk>s esa j[kus o mi;ksx djus esa enn djrk gSA bl dEI;wVj dks Server dgk tkrk gSA 2- ;g loZj ysoy ij fdlh okafNr dk;Z ds fy;s mi;ksxh gksrk gSA 3- ;g vU; izkslsl dks djus ds fy;s ActiveX data vkCtsDV dh enn ysrk gSA 4- ;g online lqfo/kk;sa miyC/k djkus esa mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA 5- ;g VB Script ds vykok Hkh vU; izksxzkfeax Hkk"kkvksa dks lg;ksx djrk gSA mijksDr mi;ksfxrkvksa dk vUr ugha gS D;ksafd ASP vkt edge-marked technology ds :i esa dk;Z dj jgk gSA PHP ¼ykbusDl osc loZj ij½ PHP okLro esa Personal Home page tools gS tks Hypertext preprocessor ds :i esa tkuk tkrk gSA bl rduhd dks ASP ds LFkku ij Script cukus esa dke esa fy;k tkrk gSA ftldk Interpreter vklkuh ls miyC/k gSA ;g eq[; :i ls Linux web servers ds fy;s mi;ksx esa ykbZ tkrh gSA PHP Script dks HTML ds lkFk dke esa fy;k tkrk gSA ftl osc loZj }kjk PHP Scripts dks Interpret fd;k tkrk gS] og PHP loZj dgykrk gSA fdlh PHP dh QkbZy dks .PHP, .PHP3, ;k PHTML vuqyXu fn;k tkrk gSA ASP dh gh rjg PHP dks Hkh Mk;usfed HTML ist cukus esa dke esa fy;k tkrk gSA JSP

tkok loZj ist ,d VsDuksyksth gS ftls servlets ds lg;ksx ls web page esa dUVªksfyax o appearence ds fy;s dke esa fy;k tkrk gSA Servelet NksVs izksxzke gksrs gSa tks web pages dks ;wtj rd Hkstus ls igys Modify fd;k tkrk gSA bls Servelet Application Program Interface ds uke ls Hkh tkuk tkrk gSA Variables & Constants

pj vkSj vpj Variables :- Variables ,d container ds leku gksrs gSa ftlls ge vius data store djrs rFkk gSa mls change ¼cny½

Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gSA Variable Declaration :< % dim X, Y, % > DIM :- Variable declaration esa ge DIM commond dks use esa ysrs gSaA DIM dk iwjk uke dimensions gksrk gSA Variabel Initialization :X = 20 Example : < % DIM X, Y X = 20

Initialization

AglaSem School 194 T=X*X

Manipulation

X=Y*X

Assigning

%> ge variable esa data dks store dj ldrs gSa initialization ds le; ijUrq variable dk declaration vkSj initialization ge

,d lkFk ugha dj ldrs gSaA tSls mnkgj.k ds fy, & Example : < % Roll no = 100 Name = 'Naman' % >

;gh lgh gSA Example : < % DIM Roll no = 100 DIM Name = "Name" % > ;g mnkgj.k xyr gSa D;ksafd blesa declaration vkSj initialization nksuksa ,d lkFk gks jgs gSaA * Data Types :- ;g t:jh ugha gS dh tks data ge variable esa store dj jgs gSa oks ,d number ¼la[;k½ gh gksA og data fdlh Hkh rjg dk gks ldrk gS tSls dh fdlh dk uke] irk] tUe fnukad vkfnA blfy, fdl rjg dk data gesa variable esa store djuk gS] bls irk yxkus ds fy, gesa data type mi;ksx esa ysus iM+rs gSaA Asp language esa fuEufyf[kr izdkj ds data type iz;ksxksa esa fy, tkrs gSaA * Variant :- yxHkx lHkh languages esa data variables fdlh Hkh ,d specified type ds data dks gh store djrs gSAa Example : int X, Y; char ch; bl mnkgj.k esa X, Y variable dsoy integer type dh value dks gh store djsxas vksj ch variable dsoy character value dks gh store djsaxsA ijUrq VB script language gesa ,d ,slk feature nsrh gS] ftlesa ge ,d gh variable esa vyx & vyx type dk data store dj ldrs gSaA

tSls dh mnkgj.k ds fy, & < % DIM X X = 12 X = "hello world" %> Note : ;fn fdlh Variable X esa ,d number value assigned dh xbZ gS rks ;g automatically gh integer data type cu tk;sxk vkSj ckn esa blh X variable esa ,d string store djk;h xbZ gS rks ;g vc automaically or implicitly gh string data type dgyk,xkA Bydefault ftrus Hkh variable VB scipt code esa fy[ks tkrs gSa og variant type ds dgykrs gSaA *VB Script Data Type : Table 1 ASP Script Data Type ________________________________________________________________________ Sub Type Range and value Description Storage Size ________________________________________________________________________ Byte Number value ranging for 0-255(no decimals) 1 byte Integer Number value ranging for -32,768 to 32,768 (no decimals) 2 byte Long Number value ranging for -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,648 (no decimals) 4 byte Single Floating-Point Number ranging from (-3.402823E38 to-1.401298E-45) to (1.401298E-45 to 3.402823E38) 4 byte Double Floating-Point Number ranging from (1.79769313486232E to -4.94065645841247E-324) to (4.94065645841247E-324 to 1.79769313486232E to) 8 byte String A set/sequence of Characters that can go up to 2 billion in length 10 byte Date Date ranging from january 1,100 to December 31, 9999 8 byte Boolean True/False 2 byte

AglaSem School 195 Currency Number ranging from -922,337,203,685,477.5808 to 922,337,203,685,477.5808 8 byte Object Object reference 4 byte ________________________________________________________________________ 1. Integer :- Integer data type dsoy number dks gh store djrk gS] ;g n'keyo (decimal) or floating point la[;kvksa dks sotre ugha djrk gSA Size 2 bytes Range -32, 768 to 32, 767 Example : 1,76.5, 48 Ö 22.88 × 2. Long :- ;g data type fcYdqy integer type dk tSlk gh gksrk gS ijUrq ;g integer ls Hkh T;knk data store dj

ldrk gSA Size Range

-

4 bytes 2147483648 to 2147483648

Example : 71890 3. Single & Double : - ;g data types n'keyo (decimal) la[;kvksa dks store djrs gSaA tSls dh mngkj.k ds fy, & 989 Single :Size 4 bytes Range (3.402823E38 to -1.401298 E - 45) to (1.401298E - 45 to 3.402823 E 38) Double :Size 8 bytes 4. String :- String data type vkSj nwljs data type esa ;g varj gS dh nwljs data types flQZ numbers gh store djrs gSa tcfd string data type alphnumeric values dks stores djrs gSaA tSls dh gesa dksbZ address ;k fdlh dk uke store djuk gS rks ge string data type dks dke esa ysxsaA Example : Name "Sahil" Size 10 bytes 5. Date :- ;g data type, date dks store djus ds fy, iz;ksx esa fy;k tkrk gSA data dks ges'kk # ds vUnj enclosed

fd;k tkrk gSA Example : Date of birth # 04/12/1978 # Size 8 bytes Note : vxj ge data dks # ds vUnj enclosed ugha djsaxs rks computer bls ,d expression le>sxk vkSj buds chp esa tks (hash) dk fpUg gS oks Hkkx ds fpUg dh rjg dk;Z djsxkA 6. Boolean :- Boolean rjg dk data type dsoy nks gh value dks store djrk gsA og value lgh vkSj xyrA (True or False) Size 2 Bytes 7. Currency :- ;g data type real uEcj vkSj floating point la[;kvksa dks gh store djus ds dke esa vkrk gS ijUrq blesa

n'keyo ds ckn dsoy 2 la[;k,¡ gh vk ldrh gSAa Constants :- tSlk dh buds uke ls gh irk pyrk gS fd constants dh value dHkh Hkh change ugha gksrh gSA ,d ckj tc budks value assigned dj nh tkrh gS rks iwjs program esa budh value leku gh jgrh gSA constant variable dks declared djus ds fy, gesa const key_word iz;ksx es ysrs gaSA Example : < % const varname = 1967 % >

AglaSem School 196

vc varname uked ds variable dk eku ges'kk 1967 gh jgsxkA bls ge cny ugha ldrs gSa D;ksafd ;g constant gSA Constant Variable dk eku ges'kk declaration ds le; esa fn;k tkrk gSA * Imiplicit & Explicit Declarations :- cgqr lkjh languages ¼Hkk"kkvksa½ ds vUnj compiler vkSj parser xyrhvksa dks code esa iz;ksx esa ysrs gSa ij mls declare ugha djrs gSaA Example : <%X 20 Y 12 Z X+Y%> bl code essa X vkSj Y variable esa value assign dh tk jgh gS] tcfd blesa X, Y Variable dks declare ugha fd;k x;k rks bl code esa compile error ¼xyrh½ crk,xkA ysfdu VB Script language bydefault gesa ,slk feature nsrh gS ftlesa vxj ge variable dks declare u Hkh djsa rks og bls implicitly declare dj nsxkA Example :< % @ LANGUAGE = VBScript % > <% Rate = 20 Principal = 300 Time_yrs = 10 Simp_intrst = (Principal * Rate * Time_yrs)/100 <% < % =Simp_intrst%> (/HTML) Explicit Declaration :- vxj ge code esa explicit declaration ds option dk iz;ksx djrs gS rks gesa variable dks DIM keyword dk iz;ksx djds declare djuk t:jh gksrk gS ojuk compiler code esa xyrh crk,xkA Example : < % @ LANGUAGE = VBScript % > < %Option Explicit % > <% DIM Rate, principal, Time_yrs, Simp_intrst Rate = 20 Principal = 300 Time_yrs = 10 Simp_intrst = (Principal * Rate * Time_yrs)/100 <% < % =Simp_intrst%> Naming Conventions :- VB script ds vUnj gesa variable ds data type dks crkuk ;k fy[kuk t:jh ugha gksrkA

AglaSem School 197

blls ge fdlh Hkh rjg dh value variable esa store dj ldrs gSaA ysfdu blls programmers dks leL;k vkrh gSA og lh/ ks ;g crk ugha ldrs dh variable us fdlh rjg ds eku dks store fd;k gSA bl leL;k ds fuokj.k ds fy, ge prefix dke esa ysrs gSaA blesa ge variable ds vkxs ge i yxk nsA ftlls dh le> esa vk tk, dh ;g integers variable gSA Table 2 Prefix for Different Data Types Data Type of the variable

Prefix

Example

Integer Long Single Double String Date Boolean Currency Array Object

i int sng dbl str dt bol/bool cur arr obj

RoolNo IngSequence sngtempratjre dblexpense strname dtjoining boolflag cursalary arremployee objcontent

Operators & Expressions

vWkijsVj vkSj ,Dlizs’ku Operators :- VB script ASP dh ,d default language gSA blesa dbZ operation gksr s s gSA ftUgsa declare djus dh

vko';drk ugha gksrh gS mUgsa ge lh/ks gh dke esa ys ldrs gSA Example : <%Z=X+Y%>

;gka X, Y vkSj Z operands gS ftu ij tksM+ vkSj assignment operation fd;k x;k gS vkSj +, = nksuksa operators gS tks fd operation (task) djus ds fy;s dke esa fy;s x;s gSA Operator og symbol ¼fpUg½ gS tks fd dqN fo'ks"k dke dks djus ds fy;s dke esa fy;s tkrs gS tSls fd $ tksMus ds fy;s & ?kVkus ds fy;sA Operands :Operands Variables ;k constants ;k value gksrh gS ftu ij ge operation (task) perform djrs gSA Categories of Operators : 1. Arithmetic Operators 2. Comparison Operators 3. Logical Operators 4. String Operators 1. Arithmetic Operators : lkekU;r% tksM (+), ?kVkuk (-), xq.kk (×), Hkkx (/) gksrs gaSA ;g ckbujh operators dgykrs gSaA ftUgsa dke esa ysus ds fy;s nks operands dh vko';drk gksrh gaSA Unary operators og operators ftUgsa dke esa ysus ds fy;s dsoy ,d operand dh gh vko';drk gksrh gSA Unary operators : Unary dk vFkZ ,d Unary + operator : ;g operator variable ds igys yxk;k tkrk gS tks fd [kqn dh value dks represent djrk gSA Example : 10 for < % a = 10 % > -5 for < % a = -5 % > bl izdkj Li"V gS fd result vkSj argument dh value nksuksa leku gSA Unary (-) operator : ;g operator variable ds igys yxk;k tkrk gS tks Negative value dks represent djrk gSA ;fn operand dks value positive gS rks result negative gksxkA Example : 10 for < % a = -10 % > -5 for <%a=5%>

AglaSem School 198 Binary Operators : (Binary dk vFkZ nks) 1. Addition (+) - Operator : blds fy;s nks operands dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS ,d nk;ka vkSj ,d ck;ka operand. Example : < % S = 10 + 27 % > mijksDr mnkgj.k esa ck;ka operands 10 vkSj nk;ka operand 27 gS bldk ifj.kke 37 gksxkA 2. Binary Substraction Operator (-) : blds fy;s Hkh nks operands ,d ck;ha vksj rFkk nwljh nk;ha vksj gksrs gSa dh vko';drk gksrh gSA Example : < % S = 27 - 10 % >

bldk ifj.kke 17 gksxkA 3. Multiplication Operator (*) : ;g operator nks operands dks xq.kk djus ds fy;s dke esa fy;k tkrk gSA Example : < % X = 8.5 Y=7*X%> bldk ifj.kke Y = 7 * 8.5 = 59.5 gksxkA 4. Division Operator (/) : ;g operator nks operands dk Hkkx djus ds fy;s dke vkrk gSA Example : < % = 70 / 13 % >

bldk ifj.kke 5-38 gksxkA 5. Modules Operators, Mod ('ks " kQy ) ;g operator nks operands ;k values ds Hkkx ds 'ks"kQy dks izkIr djus ds fy;s dke esa fy;k tkrk gSAS Example :

< % = 131 mod 3 % >

43 3 131 12 11 9 2

ifj.kke 2 gksxkA tks fd 'ks"kQy gS cka;h vksj dh value dks nk;ha vksj fd value ls Hkkx nsus ij izkIr gqvkA 6. Power operator ^ :- ¼?kkr½ ;g operator igys operand dks nk;ha vksj ds operand ds number ds cjkcj xq.kk djrk gSA Example : < % = 2^ 3 % > eryc (means) 2 ^ 3 = 2 × 2 × 2 = 8 Comparison Operators VB Script vkSj ASP esa dbZ comparison operators gS ftUgsa Relatioship operators Hkh dgk tkrk gS tks fd rqyuk djus ds fy;s dke esa fy;s tkrs gS ;g nks values dh rqyuk ;k lEcU/k crkus esa dke vkrs gSA Example : 1. Greater than (>) ¼cMk½ 2. Greater than equal to ( > = ) (cMk ;k cjkcj) 3. Less than (<) (NksVk) 4. Less than equal to ( < = ) (NksVk ;k cjkcj) 5. Not equal to ( < > ) (vleku) 6. equal to (=) (cjkcj) ;g Hkh ckbujh operators gksrs gSA

AglaSem School 199 Table 1 Results of these comparison operation

X 4 2 2

Y 2 4 2

X
X>Y TRUE FALSE FALSE

X <= Y FALSE TRUE TRUE

X >= Y TRUE FALSE TRUE

X =Y FALSE FALSE TRUE

X <> Y TRUE TRUE FALSE

Logical Operators Logical Operators comparison operators dks tksM+us (combine) ds dke vkrs gSA ;g lk/kkj.k comparisom expression dks tfVy expression esa cnyus ds fy;s dke vkrs gSAa N% izdkj ds Logical operators gksrs gS tks bl izdkj gS& 1. AND Operator :- ;g nks comparison expression dks tksMrk gS vkSj True (1) vkSj False (0) mRrj nsrk gS tks fd operands ij fuHkZj djrk gSA ;fn nksuksa operands true gksrs gSa rks ;g true mRrj djrk gS vU;Fkk false. Syntax : Left Opernad AND Right Operand Table 2 Truth Table for AND Opertator

P FALSE FALSE TRUE TRUE

Q FALSE TRUE FALSE TRUE

P AND Q FALSE FALSE FALSE TRUE

Example : X > 20 AND Y < 10 If x = 10 (False) (True) = False Y=5 rc first condition false ¼xyr½ vkSj nwljh condition lgh gksxh ,slh fLFkfr esa AND operator false (xyr) (return)

mŸkj nsxkA 2. OR Operator :- ;g Hkh comparison expression dks tksMus ds dke vkrk gS vkSj true (1) rc return djrk gS ;fn ,d Hkh operand true gSaA ;fn nksuksa operands false gS] rks ;g false return djrk gSA Syntax : Left operand OR Right operand Example : X = 10 Y=5 X > 20 OR Y < 10 (False) OR (True) = True Table 3 Truth Table for OR Opertator P FALSE FALSE TRUE TRUE


P AND Q FALSE TRUE TRUE TRUE

3. NOT Operator :- ;g ,d unary (,d) Operator gS D;ksafd ;g dsoy ,d operand ij gh dk;Z djrk gS vkSj ;g negation operator (ukdkjkRd) gSA tks fd true dk false vkSj false dk true mÙkj nsrk gSA Syntax : NOT operand Example : < % X = 17

AglaSem School 200 Y=4%> 1. < % = NOT X < Y % > = NOT False True Table 4 Truth Table for NOT Opertator

Q FALSE TRUE

Not Q TRUE FALSE

4. XOR Operator :- ;g exclusive OR dh (short form) laf{kIr :i gS ;g nks comparison operator dks tksM+us ds dke vkrk gS vkSj output true return djrk gS ;fn ,d Hkh operand true gSA Table 5 Truth Table for XOR Opertator

P FALSE FALSE TRUE TRUE


P AND Q FALSE TRUE TRUE FALSE

Example : (i) (ii)

< % X = 25 Y=-5%> < % = X > Y XOR Y > = 0 % > = True XOR False = True < % = X > Y XOR Not (Y > = 0) %> = True XOR True = False

Example : X = 10 Y=5 X > 20 (False)

OR OR

Y < 10 (True) = True

Syntax : Left operand XOR operand 5. EQV Operator :- EQV Operator XOR Operator ls foijhr gksrk gSA ;fn nksuksa Operands True gks rks gh ;g true return djrk gS vU;Fkk nksuksa false gks rks true return djrk gS nksuksa vyx&vyx nksuksa ij ;g false return djrk gSA Syntax : Left operand EQV right operand Table 6 Truth Table for EQV Opertator P FALSE FALSE TRUE TRUE


P AND Q FALSE FALSE TRUE TRUE

6. IMP Operator :- ;g ,d order sensitive operator gS ¼Øe ds vuqlkj½ tks fd logical implication dks perform djus ds dke vkrk gSA Operands dk Øe bl operator ds use dks izHkkfor djrk gSA Syntax : Left operand Imp Right operand Table 7 Truth Table for IMP Opertator

AglaSem School 201 P FALSE FALSE TRUE TRUE


P AND Q TRUE TRUE FALSE TRUE

Implication esa False False gks ldrk gS] False True Hkh gks ldrk] True True gks ldrk gS ysfdu True False ugha

gks ldrkA STRING OPERATORS String Operators dk mi;ksx String Operands ij fd;k tkrk gSA ;g Operator dsoy String Operands ds lkFk gh

dke vkrk gSA nks izdkj ds string operators gksrs gS& & (For concatenation) (tksMuk) +

(For string concatenation) (String tksMus ds fy,) nksuksa operators dk string dks tksMus dk dke djrs gSa ysfdu nksuksa ftl izdkj dke djrs gS og rjhdk vyx gksrk gSA & (concatenation) operator : ;g operator nwljs operand dks igys operand ds ihNs tksMus ds dke vkrk

gSA Example : < % A = "Hello" B = "World" % > < %A&B %>

ifj.kke % Hello World ;g operator u dsoy string dks tksMrk gS cfYd variables, uEcj vkSj data variable dks Hkh tksM ldrk gSA Example : < % Z = 18 % > < % = "Anjali" & Z % >

ifj.kke Anjali 18 + string operator : ;g operator dsoy string operands ds lkFk gh dke gh dke djrk gS & operator dh rjg ;g vyx&vyx data type ds lkFk dke ugha djrk gSA Example : < % A = "Hello" B = "Amit" % > < %A+B % > ifj.kke Hello Amit bl izdkj ;g Hkh igys operand ds ckn nwljs operand dks tksM+ nsrk gSA nksuksa dk eq[; vUrj ;g gS fd & concatenation operator nwljs data type ds lkFk dke dj ldrk gS ysfdu string + concatenation operator dsoy string operator ds lkFk gh dke djrk gS vU; data type ds lkFk ;g error generate djrk gSA Expressions Expression : tc ,d ;k T;knk operations ,d lkFk ,d gh operators vkSj operands dh form esa fy[ks tkrs gSA operands constants vkSj varicable nksuksa gks ldrk gSA Example : < % Temp_fahrnht = (9/5)* Temp_ celsius) + 32% >

AglaSem School 202 Table 8 Precedence order list of various operator ________________________________________________________________________ Precedence Operator Name of the Operator ___________________________________________________________________________________ Highest ^ Power Operator *, /,\ Multiplication, Division and Integer Division Operators Mod Modulus Operator +, Addition and subtraction Operators &,+ String Operators =, <>, <=, >=, <, > Comparison Operators Not Logical Negation Operator And" Logical Conjunction operator OR Logical Disjunction operator XOR Logical Exclusion Operator EQV Logical equivalence Operator Lowest IMP Logical Implication Operator ___________________________________________________________________________________ mijksDr expression esa rhu operators mudk operation perform djrs gSaA igys (9/5) run gksxh D;ksafd og left operand gksxh vkSj blds ckn bldk ifj.kke +operator ds lkFk run gksxk vkSj vafre ifj.kke vk;sxkA VB Script ohchfLØIV VBScript ,d fLØfIVax ySaXost gS] ftls fotqvy csfld uked çksxzkfeax ySaXost ls Msjkbo fd;k x;k gS] vr% ;g vU; fLØfIVax ySaXost tSls JScript, C# bR;kfn dh rqyuk esa lh[kus esa vklku gS A VBScript ,d bUVjçsVsM ySaXost gS( vr% blesa fy[ks x, çksxzkeksa dks mlh bUok;esUV esa ju fd;k tk ldrk gS] ftlesa bldk bUVjçsVj bUlVky gks A VBScript dk ç;ksx dj istksa dks bUVªSfDVo cukus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gS A VBScript ds dksM dks HTML ds lkFk lfEefyr :i ls ç;ksx dj istksa ds dUVsUV~l dks LVSfVd ds ctk, ,fDVo cuk;k tk ldrk gS A fofnr gks fd VBScript, ASP istksa dks fØ,V djus ds fy, fMQkYV ySaXost gS A vki VBScript ds lkFk mi;qDr daVªksYl dk ç;ksx dj osc istksa ij 3-D ,fues’ku çHkkoksa dks Hkh fØ,V dj ldrs gSa] ftlls vki vius osc istksa dks dgha vf/kd vkd"kZd cuk ldrs gSa A VBScript vkSj HTML dk la;qDr ç;ksx dj fØ,V fd, ,d osc ist dks

n’kkZ;k x;k gS] rFkk bl osc ist ds dksM dks n’kkZ;k x;k gS] tks ;g n’kkZrk gS fd bUVªSfDVo osc istksa dks fØ,V djus ds fy, fdl rjg VBScript dk ç;ksx fd;k tkrk gS A

vH;kl iz'u cgq p ;ukRed iz ' u 1- www gS \ (v) MkVk csl (c) bUVjusV (l) v vkSj c (n) dksbZ ugh 2- ml izksVksdksy dk uke crk;s tks w ij MkVk ,lsl djus ds fy, iz;qDr gksrk gSA (v) HTML (c) HTTP (l) v vkSj c (n) dksbZ ugha 3- fuEu esa fo"ke (Odd) oLrq NkfV,\ (v) bUVjusV ,DlIyksjj (c) usV Ldsi usfoxsVj (l) foMkst+ 2000 (n) ekst+d s 4- ,d osc dusD'ku j[krk gS\ (v) MsaLdVkWi ;k DykabV dEI;wVj (c) baVjusV ,lsl izksokbZMj (l) dE;wfuds'ku usVodZ (n) mijksDr lHkh 5- gkWLV dEI;wVj MsLdVkWi dEI;wVj ls bl izdkj fHkUu gS fd ;g lHkkyrk gS\ (v) eYVhIyl dusD'ku (c) flaxy dusD'ku (l) uks dusD'ku (n) mijksDr lHkh 6- osc ist cukus ds fy, D;k vko';d gS\ (v) VsDLV ,fMVj (c) osc czkmtj

AglaSem School 203 (l) v vkSj c

(n) dksbZ ugh

7- fuEu esa ls fdl Vsx dh lgk;rk ls isjkxzkQ cuk, tkrs gS\ (v) (c) (l)
(n) dksbZ ugha 8- fuEu esa ls dkSu lk Vsx bVkfyDl djus ds fy, gS\ (v) (c)
(l) (n) dksbZ ugha 9- osc ist ds fdl Hkkx esa Vsx mi;ksx esa vkrk gS\ (v) gSfMax (c) ckWMh (l) QqVuksV (n) dksbZ Hkh txg 10- Vsx fdrus izdkj ds gksrs gS\ (v) 4 (c) 3 (l) 2 (n) 1 11- HTML Vsx can jgrs gS\ (v) dks.kd dks"Bdksa esa (c) dks"Bdksa esa (l) ea>ys dks"Bd esa (n) dksbZ ugha vfry?kq m RrjkRed iz ' u 1- URL dk mnkgj.k fy[ks\ 2- fofHkUu osc czkmt+j ds uke lwph c) djs\a 3- fuEu laf{kIr izk:i dk foLrkj fdft,\ (v) URL (c) HTTP (l) FTP (n) WWW 4- osc lkbZV dks dgk¡ ij j[kuk pkfg,\ 5- osc loZj D;k gS\ 6- osc ist esa fiDpj bUlVZ djus ds fy, dkSu lk Vsx mi;ksxh gS\ 7- fdlh osc ist esa vki lcfLØIV fdl izdkj fy[k ldrs gS mnkgj.k fnft,\ 8- osc ist esa QkesZfVax ds fy, mi;ksxh dekaM lwph c) djsaA 9- HTML esa dkSu ls fiDpj QkWesZV ekU; gS\ y?kq mRrjkRed iz'u 1- fdrus izdkj ds lsD'ku gSfMax gksrs gS] mnkgj.k nhft,\ 2- Vsx fdl izdkj dk;Z djrk gS] mnkgj.k ls le>kb,\ 3- Øe okyh fyLV cukus dk izk:i fyf[k;s ,oe~ blds uEcfjax Øe dks cnyus dk ,VªhC;wV Hkh crkbZ,A 4- <IMG> Vsx ds leLr ,VªhC;wV~l ds lkFk izk:i fyf[k,\ 5- best esi }kjk dkSu dkSu lh 'ksi ys ldrs gS crkb,\ fucU/kkRed iz ' u 1- ,d MkWD;weUs V dk fuekZ.k fdft, ftlesa ckgjh MkWD;wesUV ds nks fyad gks ftlesa igyk fyad ckgjh MkWD;weUs V ds izkajHk ij ys tk, ,oe~ nwljk fyad crkbZ xbZ fdlh fo'ks"k txg ij ys tk,A vko';d Assumption bLrseky djsaA 2- fdlh HTML MkWD;weUs V cukus ,oe~ ju djus ds fy, vko';d in crk,A 3- fuEu osc ist dks cukus ds fy, vko';d HTML fLØIV fy[ksaA List1 A. Part 1 B. Part 2 C. Part 3 List2 ¨ Part 1 ¨ Part 2 ¨ Part 3 4- osc czkmt+j ds D;k dk;Z gS\ ;g fdl izdkj dk;Z djrk gS\ 5- WWW in dks ifjHkkf"kr fdft,A blds fofHkUu xq.k/keZ D;k gS\ 6- URL in ls vki D;k le>rs gS\ dkSu dkSu ls Hkkx feydj URL fuekZ.k djrs gSaA mnkjg.k lfgr le>kb,A 7- osc loZj pquus ds eq[; vk/kkj fy[ks\ osc loZj] osc czkmt+j ls fdl izdkj fHkUu gS\ mRrjekyk 1 (v) 2- (c) 3 (l) 4- (n) 5- (v) 6- (l) 7- (l) 8- (l) 9- (v) 10- (l) 11- (v) AglaSem School 204 v/;k;&9 vksiu lkslZ lkW¶Vos;j Open Source Software(OSS) le; ds lkFk bUQksjes’ku VsDuksyksth ds {ks= esa egRoiw.kZ ifjorZu vk jgs gSaA VsDukyksth ds u, fl)kUr] tSls osc lsok,¡ vkSj fxzM daI;wfVax] mUufr ds vfro`gr lqvolj izznku dj jgs gSAa bu uohu izkS|ksxhdh dk lkeF;Z] bysDVªksfud O;olk; ds :ikarj.k esa] vf}rh; gSA blh izzdkj vkus okys le; esa] vksiu lkslZ lkW¶Vos;j Hkh u, fo’o esa izk.kk/kj ¼vfr egRowi.kZZ½ Hkqfedk fuHkk,xsaA ekuo thou ds lexz bfrgkl esa foKku vkSj dyk dk fodkl] dYiuk] fl)kUrksa] vuqla/kku] fparu vkSj fopkjksa ds lgHkktu dk gh ifj.kke gSA dYiuk dhft,] vxj egku oSKkfud tSls vYcVZ vkbUlVhu] Fkksel ,Mhlu] eSMe ekWjh D;wjh vkfn vxj vius vkfo"dkjksa ij ekfydkuk ¼izksizkbVjh½ gd j[krs] vius vkfo"dkjksa dks VªM s ekdZ ;qDr djrs rks D;k vkt ekuo bruh mUufr dj ikus esa l{ke gks ikrkA iqjkru dky ls Kku dk vknku&iznku djus dh] Kku dks lkoZtfud djus dh ijEijk jgh gS vkSj ;gh otg gS fd ekuo us Kku&foKku vkSj izk| S ksfxdh ds {ks= esa vn~Hkqr izxfr dh gS ijUrq vkt dEI;wVj lkW¶Vos;j ds {ks= esa ykblsal lkW¶Vos;j dk mi;ksx] Kku dh LoNanrk Nhu jgk gSA vksiu lkslZ lkW¶Vos;j dEI;wVj Kku dks ijk/khurk ls LoPNanrk dh vksj ys tkus okyk ,d vfr fof'k"V vkUnksyu gSA mnkgj.k % ykbuDl vksijsfVax flLVe] fxEi] VDl isUV] MySQL, vksiuvksfQl-org, vkfnA lk/kkj.kr% vksiu lkslZ lkW¶Vos;j og dEI;wVj izksxzke gS ftldk lkslZ ¼lzksr½ dksM mi;ksxdÙkkZ ¼;wtlZ½ vkSj MsosyilZ }kjk iz;ksx vkSj :ikUrj.k ds fy, miyC/k gSA lkekU;r% vksiu lkslZ lkW¶Vos;j dk fuekZ.k yksd lgdk;Z ls gksrk gS vkSj vksiu lkslZ lkW¶Vos;j Lora=rkiwoZd miyC/k Hkh gksrk gSA vU; 'kCnksa esa] vksiu lkslZ lkW¶Vos;j dks fuEufyf[kr rhu vis{kkvksa dk vuqlj.k djuk pkfg,A 1- forfjr fd, x, lkW¶Vos;j dk iqufoZrj.k fcuk fdlh izfrcU/k ds fd;k tk,A 2- lkW¶Vos;j dk lkslZ dksM miyC/k gksuk pkfg, ftlls fd lkW¶Vos;j izkIr djus okyk O;fDr@ny mlesa bPNkuqlkj cnyko dj lkW¶Vos;j dks :ikarfjr dj vius mi;qDr cuk ldsA 3- ewyHkwr lkW¶Vos;j ds :ikarfjr izk:i (version) dks ewyHkwr lkW¶Vos;j ls vyx uke fn;k tk,A vksiu lkslZ lkW¶Vos;j ds ykHk % la'kks/kuksa 1- :ikarj.k dh lqfo/kk % dbZ O;kikfjd laxBu ;k ljdkjh egdeksa dks lkW¶Vos;j esa fo'ks"khd`r dh vko';drk gksrh gS ftlls fd lkW¶Vos;j fof'k"V vis{kkvksa dks iwfjr djus esa l{ke gks ik,A vksiu lkslZ lkW¶Vos;j ;g lqfo/kk iznku djrk gSA mnkgj.k ds fy, NSA (National Security Agency) us Lo;a dk lqjf{kr fyuDl izk:i rS;kj fd;k gSA AglaSem School 205 2- Cost effectiveness : OSS ds mi;ksx ls ykblsal Qh ls lxBuksa dks eqfDr fey tkrh gSA bl cpr dks laxBu viuk ewyHkwr lqfo/kkvksa dks lqn`<+ djus esa yxk ldrk gSA 3 - iksVZsfcfyVh cfyVh% OSS IySVQkeZ bUMisaMsUV gksrs gSA ;s dbZ rjg ds gkMZos;j vkSj lkW¶Vos;j ij dke dj ldrs gaSA fdlh fof’k"V lkWQ~Vos;j dk iz;ksx djus ds fy, fdlh fof’k"V gkMZos;j ;k lkW¶Vos;j IysVQkeZ dh vko’;drk ls ge eqDr gksrs gaSA 4- ykblsUl % OSS GNU tujy ifCyd ykblsal (GPL) ds varxZr iathd`r gksrs gSaA bls dkWihsjkbV dk foykse dkWihysQ~V Hkh dgk tkrk gSA bruh vktknh iznku djus ds dkj.k] bu lkW¶Vos;j dks Lora= lkW¶Vos;j Hkh dgrs gSA vksiu lkslZ lkW¶Vos;j dh Hkwfedk % vksiu lkslZ lkW¶Vos;j dh lwpuk izkS|ksfxdh vkSj m|ksx&O;kikj ds {ks= esa egRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk gSA OSS fdlh ,d dEiuh }kjk fufeZr ugha gksrkA ;g rks ,d leLr leqnk; ds ;ksxnku ls fufeZr gksrk gS vkSj ;g dbZ ¶ysolZ esa miyC/k gksrk gSA mnkgj.k ds fy,] fyuDl vkUnksyu ,d O;fDr ls 'kq: gqvk] ftlesa tUn gh dbZ izksxzkej tqM+rs pys x,A bu izkx s zkej us] tks fo'o ds fofHkUu Hkkxksa ls Fks] baVjusV dk mi;ksx dj] ,d lkFk feydj dk;Z fd;k vkSj fyuDl & ,d Js"B vksiu lkslZ IysVQkeZ dh jpuk dhA blh izdkj vksiu lkslZ lkW¶Vos;j dh fofHkUu ifj;kstukvksa ij dk;Z gks pqdk gS vksj vU; dbZ dk;kZfUor gks jgh gaSA ;g ifj;kstuk,¡ fodklijd gaS vkSj budk dksbZ ifjHkkf"kr vUr ugha gksrkA dbZ 'kSf{kd ifj;kstukvksa esa tSls fo'ofo|ky; vuqla/kku lqfo/kk,¡] dbZ cqfu;knh ifj;kstukvksa esa tSls vksijsfVax flLVe] ,sfIyds'ku lkW¶Vos;j] database dk fuekZ.k vkSj gtkjkas fof'k"V :i ls dke vkus okyh ifj;kstukvksa esa vksiu lkslZ lkW¶Vos;j dk iz;ksx gks jgk gSA FLOSS/FOSS (Free / Libre Open Source Software / Free & Open Source Software) : s zkelZ ds vukSipkfjd lewg ds lgdk;Z ls fufeZr gksrk gSA bu lkW¶Vos;j FOSS og dEI;wVj lkW¶Vos;j gS tks fd izkx dk lkslZ dksM ykblsal fu%'kqYd gksrk gS vr% ;g :ikUrj.k vkSj lq/kkj dks izsfjr djrs gSaA ;gk¡ ij Ýh lkW¶Vos;j dk vFkZ izfrca/k&jfgr vkSj fu%'kqYd lkW¶Vos;j ls gSA tcfd vksiu lkslZ lkW¶Vos;j dk vFkZ lgdk;Z ls fufeZr lkW¶Vos;j ls gSA FOSS tks fd nksuksa gh ifjizs{; ds xq.kksa ¼Qk;nks½a dks lekfo"V djrk gS] O;kid Lohd`fr vftZr dj jgk gSA FOSS ds dqN mnkgj.k % ykbuDl Operating Sysem, OpenOffice.org tks fd Microsoft Office ds leku gS] MySQL tks fd Open Source MkVkcsl eSustesUV flLVe gS] buds vfrfjDr Hkh dbZ FOSS fufeZr gks pqds gSa vkSj lQyrkiwoZd O;kikfjd vkSj ljdkjh laxBuksa esa mi;ksx fy, tk jgs gSaA GNU : GNU, GNU’s Not Unix dk iqujkorhZ vkfnof.kZd 'kCn gSA ¼,d ,slk vkfnof.kZd 'kCn ftlesa ,d v{kj mlh vkfnof.kZd 'kCn dks n'kkZrk gSsa½ GNU ifj;kstuk ,d Ýh lkW¶Vos;j] lewg lgdk;Z ifj;kstuk gS] tks fd 27 flrEcj] 1983 dks fjpMZ LVkWyeSu }kjk MIT esa ?kksf"kr dh xbZ FkhA bl ifj;kstuk dk y{; Fkk] i;kZIr Ýh lkW¶Vos;j cukuk ftlls fdlh izki s kbVsjh lkW¶Vos;j ds fcuk bLrseky fd;k tk ldsA tuojh] 1984 esa GNU vksijsfVax flLVe ds fuekZ.k dh igy gqbAZ 1992 esa bl y{; dh iwfrZ gqbZ tc fyuDl duZy dks GNU dk vk/kkj cuk;k x;kA blfy, dbZ oSKkfud ekurs gSa fd bl OS dks GNU / Linux ;k GNU Linux OS dgk tkuk pkfg,A GNU Project dk orZZeku dk;Z gS u, lkW¶Vos;j cukuk] tu&tkx`fr vkSj u, rF;ksa dk vknku&iznku djukA AglaSem School 206 FSF - Free Software Foundation Ýh lkW ¶ Vos ; j QkmUMs'ku ,d ykHk&fujsis{k laLFkk gS tks 4 vDVwcj] 1985 dks fjpMZ LVkWyeSu }kjk laLFkkfir dh xbZ FkhA bl laLFkk dk y{; gS] Ýh lkW¶Vos;j vkanksyu tks ,d dkWfiys¶V&vk/kkfjr vkanksyu gS] dks izksRlkfgr djukA fjpMZ LVkWyeSu dEI;wVj lkW¶Vos;j dks cukus] forj.k djus vksj :ikUrj.k djus dh loZHkkSe vktknh dk izpkj djuk gh bl vkanksyu dk y{; gSA FSF, eklkpqlsV~l] USA esa fuxfer gSA OSI - Open Source Initiative OSI ,d ykHk&fujis{k laLFkk gS tks vksiu lkslZ O;k[;k dh ns[k&js[k vkSj izpkj esa lefiZr gSA ;g laLFkk Qjojh] 1998 esa czwl isjUl vksj ,fjd jse.M }kjk xfBr dh xbZ FkhA vksiu lkslZ dk ewy fl)kUr cM+k gh ljy gSA tc dbZ izksxkz e fo'o ds fofHkUu Hkkxksa ls] baVjusV }kjk] feytqydj lkslZ dksM dks i<+dj] mlesa lq/kkj djrs gSa rks lkW¶Vos;j fodflr gksrk gSA izksxzkej mlesa nks"k fudkyrs gSa] mudk fuokj.k djrs gSa vkSj ;g lc bruh 'kh?kzrk ls gksrk gS ftldh ge ijEijkxr] :f<+xr lkW¶Vos;j fuekZ.k i)fr ls dYiuk Hkh ugha dj ldrsA bl Rofjr mUeqDr fodklewyd izfØ;k ls] ikjEifjd lhfer izfØ;k dh rqyuk esa dgha mUur lkW¶Vos;j curs gSaA OSI ;gh rF; O;kolkf;d fo'o dks le>kuk pkgrk gSA W3C - (World Wide Consortium) fVe&cuZlZ yh W3C ,d vUrjk"Vªh; laLFkk gS tgk¡ laLFkk ds lnL;] iw.kZdkfyd deZpkjh vkSj tu leqnk; ,d lkFk osc ekun.M ds fuekZ.k ds fy, dke djrs gSaA fVe&cuZlZ yh tks fd osc ¼baVjusV½ ds vkfo"dkjd gSa vkSj QS¶jh tSQs tks fd eq[; fu"iknu vf/kdkjh (CEO) gSa] fd vxokuh esa W3C dk y{; oYMZ okbM osc dks mlds iw.kZ lkeF;Z rd igq¡pkuk gSA W3C izkVs ksdksy fuekZ.k vkSj funsZ'kd fl)kUrksa dk fodkl dj osc ds nh?kZdkfyd fodkl dks lqfuf'pr djrk gSA fuEufyf[kr vkn'kZ W3C ds dk;Z dks fn'kk nsrs gSa] AglaSem School 207 1- osc lHkh ds fy, % osc dh lkekftd mi;ksfxrk gS fd og ekuo lapkj vkSj okf.kT; dks l{ke cukrk gS vkSj Kku ds vknku&iznku ds lqvolj nsrk gSA W3C dk eq[; mn~ns'; bu lqfo/kkvksa dks tulk/kkj.k rd igq¡pkuk gS] pkgs os dksbZ Hkh gkMZos;j] lkW¶Vos;j] ;k usVodZ ljapuk mi;ksx esa yk jgsa gksa] pkgs os fdlh Hkh lH;rk] fdlh Hkh HkkSxksfyd fLFkfr] dksbZ Hkh Hkk"kk cksyus okys] ;k fHkUu 'kkfjjhd ,oa ekufld {kerk ds gksaA 2- osc lHkh ij gk gks % osc dks ,sDlsl ¼igq¡p½ djus okys ;=ksa dh x.kuk vc dkQh c<+ xbZ gSA eksckby Qksu] LekVZ Qksu] ilZuy fMftVy vflLVUl (PDA) ;gk¡ rd fd dqN ?kjsyw midj.k Hkh osc dks ,sDlsl dj ldrs gSAa bu ;=ksa esa o`f)] W3C dk ,d mn~ns'; gSA 3- osc xgu ikjLifjd vknku&iznku ds fy, % osc dh 'kq:vkr ,d lapkj lk/ku ds :i esa gqbZ FkhA dbZ o"kksZa rd osc ,d ‘jhM vksUyh’ lk/ku FkkA ijUrq vc Cyksx] fofd vksj lks'ky usVofdZax ls osc esa lwpuk vkSj Kku ds vknku&iznku dks ,d ubZ fn'kk feyh gSA ;g lc W3C ds lqn`<+ ljapuk vkSj :ijs[kk fl)kUrksa dh otg ls gh gks ik;k gSA 4- osc fo'okl ls iw.kZ % tSls&tSls lks'ky usVodhZx a vkSj bysDVªkWfud okf.kT; (e-commerce) esa o`f) gks jgh gS] oSls&oSls osc ij lqj{kk vkSj cpko dk eqnn~ k mB jgk gSA W3C osc dks ,d lqj{kk vkSj fo'okl ls iw.kZ lk/ku cukus ds fy, vxzlj gSA vc ge vksiu lkslZ lkW¶Vos;j ds ewyHkwr fl)kUrksa] mldh Hkwfedk vkSj mldh egÙkk ls voxr gks pqds gSaA vkb, vc dqN vU; 'kCnksa ij fopkj djsaA ÝhoSj % ÝhoSj ¼Ýh $ lkW¶Vos;j½ og dEI;wVj lkW¶Vos;j gS tks fu%'kqYd mi;ksx ds fy, miyC/k gSA ;g mu izkis kbVjh lkW¶Vos;j ds fy, mi;qDr gksrk gSS tks fcuk fdlh 'kqYd ds miyC/k gksrs gSaA bUgsa baVjusV ls fcuk fdlh 'kqYd ds MkmuyksM fd;k tk ldrk gSA ÝhoSj dk ykblsal mi;ksx ds izdkj tSls futh] O;fDrxr] 'kSf{kd O;kolkf;d mi;ksx ds vk/kkj ij izfrca/k yxkrk gSA ;g ykblsal lkW¶Vos;j dh izfrfyfi vkSj forj.k ij Hkh izfrca/k yxkrk gSA ÝhoSj vkSj Ýh lkW¶Vos;j vyx&vyx 'kCn gSa vkSj os fHkUu lkW¶Vos;j dks bafxr djrs gSAa Ýh lkW¶Vos;j esa mi;ksx] forj.k vkSj :ikUrj.k dh LoPNanrk gksrh gS tcfd ÝhoSj dsoy 'kqYd eqDr gksrk gSA ÝhoSj ds dqN mnkgj.k gSa % ekbØkslks¶V dk bVajusV ,Dlizksyjj ÝhoSj dk lokZf/kd izpfyr mnkgj.k gSA vU; mnkgj.k gS fou,Ei fefM;k Iys;j vkSj ekbØkslks¶V dk QksVks LVksjhA 'kSjoSj % 'kSjoSj] tks Vªkby oSj vkSj MseksoSj ds uke ls Hkh tkuk tkrk gS] og izksikbVjh lkW¶Vos;j gS tks fcuk fdlh 'kqYd ds ,d lhfer vof/k ds fy, mi;ksxdÙkkZvksa dks miyC/k gksrk gSA ;g ewy lkW¶Vos;j ls dk;kZRedrk] miyC/krk ;k mi;qDrrk esa lhfer gksrk gSA ewy :i ls 'kSjoSj dk vkSfpR; [kjhnkj dks iw.kZ lkW¶Vos;j ds ykblsal dh [kjhnkjh ls igys ml lkW¶Vos;j dk mi;ksx dj mldh mi;ksfxrk ij[kus dk volj nsuk gSA ;g îgys VªkbZ djsa fQj [kjhnsa* ds fl)kUr ij vk/kkfjr gSA tc 'kSjoSj dh vof/k lekIr gks tkrh gS rks og izksxzke Lor% gh pyuk can gks tkrk gS tc rd fd mldk ykblsal [kjhnk tk,A ^Ýh Vªkby* ;k ^Vªkby ojtu* 'kSjoSj ds gh |ksrd gSA 'kSjoSj ds dqN mnkgj.k % dSLijLdkbZ ,UVhokbjl fDyd ghy ,UVhokbjl] ,Ydksgksy & CD & DVD ;a=kuqdj.k (emulator) lkW¶Vos;j ds Ýh Vªkby ojt+u baVjusV ij vklkuh ls miyC/k gaAS dbZ ckj ÝhoSj] 'kSjoSj vkSj Ýh vkSj vksiu lkslZ lkW¶Vos;j esa Hksn Li"V ugha gks ikrkA ÝhoSj vkSj 'kSjoSj esa lkslZ dksM dks ,Dlsl ugha dj ldrsA vr% bu lkW¶Vos;j dk tuleqnk; }kjk :ikUrj.k lEHko ugha gSA ;gh Hksn ewy :i ls bu rhuksa dks ,d&nwljs ls Li"V djrk gSA izksizkbVjh lkW¶VoSj % izksikz bVjh 'kCn ySfVu ds “izksikz bVl” proprietas 'kCn ls mRiUu gqvk gS] ftldk vFkZ gS] lEifÙkA os dEI;wVj izksxzke tks muds MsoyilZ ;k izdk'kd dh lEifÙk gS] ftUgsa muds ykblsal vuqca/k ds rgr u rks mldh izfrfyfi cukbZ tk ldrh gS vkSj uk gh forfjr fd;k tk ldrk gSA lkekU;r% lHkh O;kolkf;d lkW¶Vos;j izksizkbVjh lkW¶Vos;j gh gSA izksikz bVjh lkW¶Vos;j foØsrk lk/kkj.kr% lkslZ dksM dks viuk O;kikfjd jgL; ekurs gSaA dqN izfl) izksizkbVjh lkW¶VoSj ds mnkgj.k gSa % ekbØkslkW¶V foUMksl] foUMkst ¶yS'k Iys;j] vMksc QksVks'kkWi] xwxy vFkZ vkfnA AglaSem School 208 LFkkuh;dj.k : vkt cktkj esa dbZ vUrjk"Vªh; lkW¶Vos;j miyC/k gSa tks gj izdkj ds dk;ksZa dks djus esa l{ke gaAS lkekU;r% os lHkh vaxt sz h Hkk"kk esa fufeZr gSaA tSlk fd gesa Kkr gS fd vaxzsth Hkk"kk fo'o ds dqN gh ns'kksa esa cksyh vkSj le>h tkrh gSA lkW¶Vos;j esa Hkk"kk ds cU/ku ds dkj.ko'k dEI;wVj foKku vkSj lkW¶Vos;j dk mi;ksx lhfer gks x;k gSA bl Hkk"kk dh lhek dks rksM+ dj gh dEI;wVj dks tu lkekU; ds fy, mi;ksxh cuk;k tk ldrk gSA Localisation ;k LFkkuh;dj.k vUrjk"Vªh; lkW¶Vos;j dks LFkku ;k Hkk"kk fof'k"V ds vuqdy w cukus dh izfØ;k gSA ;g Hkk"kk ds vuqokn vkSj LFkkuh; ?kVdksa ds lkW¶Vos;j esa lekos'k ls laHko gSA UNICODE (Universal / Uniform / Unique Character Encoding) : lkW¶Vos;j ds LFkkuh;dj.k ds fy, lkW¶Vos;j dk LFkkuh; Hkk"kk esa izLrqrhdj.k vfuok;Z gSA gj Hkk"kk dk ,d laizrhd leqPp; (character set) gksrk gS ftlesa ml Hkk"kk dk gj la[;k] gj v{kj lfEefyr gksrk gSA UNICODE ,d ,dy v{kj ladr s u i)fr (character oncoding scheme) gS tks gj Hkk"kk ds gj v{kj dks gj IysVQkeZ ds fy, lfEefyr djrh gSA ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) character set 256 character dk ladsru dj ldrk gSA tcfd UNICODE set dgha vf/kd la[;k esa v{kjksa dk ladrs u dj ldrk gSA UNICODE orZeku dh eq[;r% lkjh thfor Hkk"kkvksa vkSj oSKkfud fpUgksa dks lfEefyr djrk gS tSls vjsfcd] ckaxyk] fgUnh] Ýsp a ] bVSfy;u] tkikuhl] rfey] rsyqxq vkfnA dbZ vkSj yxkrkj tqM+ jgh gSaA OSS dh tkudkjh izkIr djus ds i'pkr~ vc dqN OSS dk v/;;u djrs gSAa 1- Linux : fyuDl ,d Ýh ;qfuDl dh rjg dk Operating System gS tks ewy:i lss Linus Torvalds }kjk fufeZr gS ftlesa nqfu;k&Hkj ds MsoyilZ us lg;ksx fd;kA ;g lkW¶Vos;j GNU General Public License (GPL) ds vUrxZr fufeZr gS vkSj bldk lkslZ dksM lHkh dks Lora=rk ls miyC/k gSA orZeku esa lSadM+ks dEifu;k¡ vkSj laxBu vkSj brus gh ,dy MsoyilZ us fyuDl esa vius vuw:i la'kks/ku dj blds dbZ izk:i (versions) foeksfpr fd, gSaA Linus Torvalds fyuDl Lora=rk ls forfjr gksus ds lkFk&lkFk] fyuDl dh dk;kZRedrk] vuqdwyuh;rk vkSj et+cwrh us fyuDl dks izksikz bVjh ;qfuDl vkSj ekbØkslks¶V Operating System ds fodYi ds rkSj ij LFkkfir fd;k gSA fyuDl dk mi;ksx ?kj vkSj vkWfQl MsLdVksi Operating System o loZj Operating System esa dkQh gks jgk gSA fyuDl Operating System dks ekbØksfpi esa lfUufgr fd;k tk ldrk gS vksj blh :i esa ;g Operating System dbZ midj.kksa vkSj ;a=ksa esa Hkh bLrseky gks jgk gSA vksiuvkWQhl.org, eksft+yk osc czkmt+j vksj dbZ mi;ksxh ,fIyds'ku lkW¶Vos;j fyuDl ds lkFk mi;ksx yk, tkrs gSaA fyuDl dk baLVksys'ku Hkh vklku gS vkSj mldk j[k&j[kko HkhA VDl fyuDl dk 'kqHkadj izrhd] ,d fyuDl isUxfou] VDl gSA fyuDl us vxLr] 1991 ls tc Linus Torvalds us bls fufeZr fd;k Fkk lss vc rd cgqr izxfr dh gSA ,dy MsoyilZ] fo'ofo|ky; ds Nk=ksa] laxBuksa us viuh t:jrksa ds eqrkfcd fyuDl AglaSem School 209 dks la'kksf/kr fd;k vkSj ;gha ls fyuDl ds ^fMLVªhC;w'kUl* dk tUe gqvkA fyuDl ds lSdM+ks distributions miyC/k gS vkSj dbZ vU; yxkrkj cu jgsa gSaA fyuDl fMLVªhC;w'kUl ds dqN mnkgj.k] Red Hat Linux, Ubuntu Linux Boss (Bharat Operating System Solutions) tks fd Hkkjr esa CDA }kjk fufeZr gqvk gS] PC quest linux vkSj dbZ vU;A ljdkj vkSj O;olk; uhao ifj;kstukvksa esa fyuDl dks fuEufyf[kr dkj.kksa ls mi;ksxh ekurs gaS % 1- eYVhIysVQkeZ leFkZu % O;olk; vkSj ljdkjsa le; ds lkFk ,dkf/kd gkMZos;j architecture ij lkW¶Vos;j ds mi;ksx dh Hkwfedk le> jgs gSAa mnkgj.k ds fy, linux lsy Qksu ls lqij dEI;wVj rd lHkh hardware platforms ij pyk;k tk ldrk gSA bl rjg dk yphykiu] dkWiksjsV ;k foHkkxh; foy; gsrq] lqj{kk vko';drkvksa gsrq ;k vU; fdlh fo'ks"k dkj.kksa ls] vfuok;Z gSA 2- lqj{kk % dqN O;olk;ksa vkSj ljdkjksa dk ekuuk gS fd] OSS dksM dh varfuZfgr ;kaf=dh ns[kus ds fy, l{ke dj jgs gSa ftlls dksM dh fo'oluh;rk vkSj lqj{kk esa mudk fo'okl c<+rk gSA fyuDl viuh ifjiDork vkSj eq[; lkW¶Vos;j foØsrkvksa ds 'kkfey gksus dh otg ls vf/kd lqjf{kr gS D;ksafd lqj{kk esa pwd vkSj =qfV;ksa dks <w<+us vkSj gy djus ds fy, cM+h la[;k esa fo'oHkj esa MsoyilZ baVjusV ds tfj, feytqy dj dke dj jgs gSAa 3- fyuDl ,d vkfFkZd fodkl ds lk/ku ds :i esa % fodkl'khy ns'kksa esa OSS dk mi;ksx dj ?kjsyw lkW¶Vos;j mn~;ksx dks izksRlkgu fey jgk gSA LFkkuh; dkjksckfjd xfrfof/k;ksa esa OSS lkW¶Vos;j ds bLrseky ls rsth vkrh gSA fo'o “j dh ljdkjsa fyuDl ;ksX;rk dsUnzksa dh LFkkiuk] dkS'ky fodkl vkSj fuos'k ds fy, dsUnz fcUnw ds :i esa dk;Z dj jgh gSAa vkb,] vc ge dqN fyuDl dh dek.Ml dh dk;Z iz.kkyh ns[ksa & fyuDl dk Qkby lajpuk ¼LVªDpj½ fuEu izdkj dk gksrk gSA lsEiy fyuDl dk Qkby LVªDpj fyuDl ds funsZ’kksa dks Terminal esa $ prompt ds ckn fy[kk tkrk gSA dqN Mk;jsDVjh dek.M~~l % 1- djUV ¼orZeku½ MkbjsDVjh dks igpkuuk] pwd dek.M ( print working directory ) $ pwd < Enter > / usr / bin $ AglaSem School 210 ;gka] / user / bin og MkbjsDVjh gS ftlesa ;wlj orZeku eas dke dj jgk gSA 2- djUV MkbjsDVjh dks cnyuk] cd dek.M (change directory ) $ cd / user / games < Enter> $ pwd < Enter> / user / Games $ cd dek.M ls ;wlj dh working directory cny xbZA vc ;wlj / user / Games es dk;Z djsxkA 3- ubZ MkbjsDVjh cukuk] mkdir dek.M ( make directory) $ mkdir Alladdin < Enter > $ bl dek.M ls Alladdin uke dh MkbjsDVjh] djUV MkbjsDVjh esa cu tk,xhA ijUrq ;g ubZ MkbjsDVjh] djUV MkbjsDVjh ugha curhA bls djUV MkbjsDVjh cukus ds fy, cd dek.M dk mi;ksx djsaA 4- MkbjsDVjh dks gVkuk ] rmdir dek.M ( remove directory ) $ rmdir Alladdin < Enter > $ bl dek.M ls Alladdin MkbjsDVjh fMyhV (Delete) gks tk,xhA ,d MkbjsDVjh dks rHkh fMyhV dj ldrs gSa tc] (a) og MkbjsDVjh [kkyh gks ¼mlesa dksbZ QkbYl ;k lc&MkbjsDVjhl u gks½ (b) og djUV MkbjsDVjh u gksA 5- MkbjsDVjh dh fo"k;&oLrq ns[kuk] ls dek.M (list) $ ls < Enter> bl dek.M ls djUV MkbjsDVjh esa ftrus Hkh QkbYl vkSj lc&QksYMlZ gSa] mudh lwph izLrqr gks tk,xhA dqN Qkby dek.Ml %& 1- Qkby dh fo"k;&oLrq ns[kuk] cat dek.M ( concatenation) $ cat data 1 < Enter> A sample file $ 2- Qkby dks dkWih djuk ] cp dek.M (copy) $ cp data1 data3 < Enter> $ bl mnkgj.k esa data1 dh fo"k;&oLrqq ,d ubZ Qkby data3 eas dkWih gks tkrh gSA 3- Qkby dks gVkuk] rm dek.M (remove) $ rm data1 < Enter> $ bl dek.M ls data1 uke dh Qkby fMyhV gks tkrh gSA 4- Qkby dks ewo djuk] mv dek.M (move) $ mv /user/data/data2 / user/Games/ < Enter> $ bl mnkgj.k esa data2 Qkby Data QksYMj ls gV dj Games QksYMj esa ewo dj xbZA bu mnkgj.kksa ls ;g Li"V gS fd fyuDl dks manage djuk dkQh ljy vkSj lqfo/kkiw.kZ gSA Open Source OS ds v/;;u ds i'pkr~~ vkb, dqN Open Source Application lkW¶Vos;j ds ckjs esa Kkuo/kZu djsaA 2. eksft+yk QkbjQksDl osc czkmt+j % Mozilla Firefox ,d Ýh vksiu lkslZ web browser gS tks fd fo'oHkj esa izpfyr gSA Firefox, Microsoft Windows, AglaSem School 211 Linux, Mac OS X, Free BSD vkSj dbZ vU; IysVQkeksZa lfgr fofHkUu Operating System ij pyrk gSA uohure QkbjQksDl esa VSCM czkmftax] orZuh tk¡p live bookmarking, futh browsing, MkmuyksM manager dh lqfo/kk,¡ miyC/k gSaA QkbjQksDl esa Hkh vU; OSS dh Hkkafr :ikUrj.k lEHko gSA ,slh dbZ fo'ks"krk,¡ baVjusV ij miyC/k gSaA ;g O;kid p;u QkbjQksDl mi;ksxrkZvksa dks vkdf"kZr djrk gSA 3. My SQL : My SQL fo'o dk lokZf/kd izpfyr Open Source Database Software gSA vc rd My SQL dh 100 yk[k ls Hkh vf/kd izfr;k¡ MkmuyksM vkSj forfjr dh tk pqdh gSA bldh csgrj xfr] fo'oluh;rk vkSj mi;ksx esa vklkuh ds lkFk My SQL, Web, nwjlapkj dEifu;ksa vkSj IT eSustl + Z ds fy, ialnhnk fodYi cu x;k gSA My SQL ize[q k vM+puksa] tSls j[k&j[kko] vk/kqfud Online applications, dk iz'kklu vkfn] dks nwj djrk gSA nqfu;k dh lcls cM+h vkSj rsth ls izxfr djrh lxBusa My SQL dk mi;ksx dj le; vkSj /ku dh cpr djrh gSa vkSj viuh mPp ek=k Websites, O;kikj iz.kkfy;ksa vkSj software dks 'kfDr iznku djrh gaSA m|ksx esa vxz.kh Yahoo, YouTube, Google, Nokia, Wikipedia vkfn My SQL dk mi;ksx dj jgs gSaA MySQL esa MkVkcsl cukuk] Vscy cukuk vkSj Dosjh cukuk ,d vklku izfd;k gSA mnkgj.k ds fy,] ge ,d SCHOOL uke ls MkVkcsl cuk,ax]s mlesa ,d Vscy STUDENT cuk,axs] mlesa dqN fjdkMZl insert dj queries cuk,asxsA AglaSem School 212 PostgreSQL : PostgreSQL dks nqfu;k dk lcls mUur MkVkcsl ekuk tkrk gSA PostgreSQL ,d ’kfDr’kkyh vksiu lkslZ vksCtsDV&fjys’uy MkVkcsl iz.kkyh gSA bldk 15 o"kksZa ls vf/kd le; ls lfØ; fodkl gks jgk gSA bldh lajpuk us fo’oluh;rk MsVk v[kaMrk vkSj ’kq)rk ds fy, ,d etcwr izfr"Bk vftZr dh gSA ;g fyuDl] ;qfuDl vkSj foUMkst lfgr lHkh ize[q k vksijsfVax flLVe ij pyrk gSA blesa QkWju dh] joins, views, triggers vkSj stored procedures ds fy, iw.kZ leFkZu gSA ;g dbZ Hkk"kkvksa esa vf/kdka’k MkVkVkbi tSls INTEGER, NUMERIC, BOOLEAN, CHAR, miyC/k gS vkSj SQL : 2008 ds VARCHAR, DATE vkSj TIMESTAMP blesa lfEefyr gSaA ;g fp=] /ofu ;k ohfM;ks dks Hkh lap;u djus esa l{ke gSA blesa C / C++, JAVA, NET, PERL, PYTHON, RUBY, ODBC ds fy, izkx s zkfeax baVjQsl Hkh miyC/k gSA bldk MksD;wesUVs’ku Hkh vlk/kkj.k gSA PostgreSQL ikbUV&bu&Vkbe fjdojh] VscyLisl usLVM VªkUlSD’ku] vkWuykbu vR;k/kqfud cSd&vi] ifj"d`r query Iykuj vkfn lqfo/kkvksa dk nkok djrk gSA ;g MkVk dh ek=k vkSj ;wtlZ dh la[;k] nksuksa gh {ks=ksa esa vR;f/kd Scalable gSA PostgreSQL esa eSfDlee Vscy 32 TB rd ,d fjdkMZ 1.6 TB rd] ,d QhYM 1GB rd gks ldrk gSA Postgre SQL us vius mi;ksxdrkZvksa ls cgqr iz’kalk izkIr dh gSA blus loZJs’B MkVkcsl ds dbZ iqjLdkj Hkh vftZr fd, gSaA 5. Pango:- Pango iSaxks ’kCn xzhd ’kCn pan] ftldk eryc gS ‘lHkh’ vkSj tkikuh’kCn ‘go’ ftldk vFkZ gS Hkk"kk ls feydj cuk gSA iSaxksa ,d vksiu lkslZ dEI;wfVax iqLrdky; gS tks lkWQ~Vos;j MsoyilZ }kjk fo"k;&oLrq dks mPp xq.koRrk ls izLrqr djus es mi;qDr gksrk gSA ;g lkW¶Vos;j cgqHkk"kh fo"k;&oLrq dks leFkZu nsrk gSA bldks fofHkUu ÝUV&,.M&cSd ,s.M~l ds lkFk iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gS ftlls iSaxks dks Øzksl IysV@QkeZ mi;ksfxrk dk leFkZu feyrk gSA iSaxks ls izLrqr fo"k;&oLrq fHkUu vkWijsfVax flLVe tSls fyuDl] ,Iiy] ekbØkslksQ~V foUMksl vkfn ij leku izLrqr gksrh gSA iSaxks UNICODE dk lajpukRed <kapk gS tks vUrjk”Vªh; fo’k;&oLrq dk izfriknu djrk gSA ,d ckj ,d Hkk"kk dk AglaSem School 213 bysDVªksfud vuqokn gks tk, rks mlls osc dh lkexzh rS;kj dh tk ldrh gSA fQj mlls lkW¶Vos;j Hkh fodflr fd, tk ldrs gS vkSj muds fy, lkW¶Vos;j Hkh fodflr fd, tk ldrs gSa vkSj muds fy, leFkZu Hkh miyC/k djk;k tk ldrk gSA bl izdkj ,d Hkk"kk dks ;qfudksM ds ek/;e ls vuqokfnr djus ls vUrjk"Vªh;dj.k vkSj LFkkuh;dj.k dks izksRlkgu feyrk gSA nqfu;k esa 150 ls vf/kd Hkk"kk,a] 25 fofHkUu ys[ku iz.kkfy;ksa ds ek/;e ls O;Dr dh tk ldrh gSaA gj Hkk"kk ds fof’k"V xq.k gksrs gSaA iSaxsk orZeku esa thfor fdlh Hkh Hkk"kk dks fMftVy :i esa izLrqr dj ldrk gSAA iSaxks 2004 esa open source initiative ds fy, iqjLd`r fd;k x;k FkkA 6- vksiu vksfQl. org vksiuvksfQl.org] lkekU;r% OOo ;k OpenOffice ds uke ls izpfyr ,d vksiu lkslZ ,fIyds’ku lqbV gS ftlds eq[; ?kVd oMZ izkslsflax] LizsM’khV] izslsUVs’ku] xzkfQDl vkSj MkVkcsl ds fy, iz;qDr gksrs gSaA ;g lkS ls vf/kd Hkk"kkvksa esa miyC/ k gS vkSj fHkUu vkWijsfVax flLVe esa mi;qDr gks ldrk gSA ;g vklkuh ls baVjusV ls MkmuyksM fd;k tk ldrk gS vkSj Lora=rk ls fdlh Hkh dk;Z ds fy, iz;qDr fd;k tk ldrk gSA ;g ,d varjk"Vªh; [kqys ekud izk:i esa vkids lHkh MkVk (Data) dks i<+ ldrk gS vkSj LVksj Hkh dj ldrk gSA ;g vU; vkfQl lkQ~Vos;j dh Qkbyksa dks Hkh [kksy vkSj fy[k ldrk gSA ;g lkQ~Vos;j 20 lky ls vf/kd le; ls fufeZr gks jgk gSA bldh fo’oluh;rk dk dksbZ eqdkcyk ugha gSA ;g lkW¶Vos;j oks lc djrk gS tks vki ml lkW¶Vos;j ls djkuk pkgrs gaS vkSj og Hkh ftl rjg ls vki pkgrs gSA vksiuvksfQl.org dks lh[kuk vklku gSA vxj vki dksbZ vU; vkWfQl iSdst bLrseky dj jgs gSa rks vki lh/ks gh vksiu vksfQl esa dk;Z dj ldrs gSaA ;g lkW¶Vos;j Ýzh gS] vklkuh ls miyC/k g]S vki ftrus pkgs mrus dEI;wVjksa ij bls pyk ldrs g,Sa ?kjsyw] O;kolkf;d] ’kSf{kd] ’kklu izcU/k fdlh Hkh dk;Z ds fy, bldk mi;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gS vkSj bldk fcuk fdlh izfrcU/k ds forj.k fd;k tk ldrk gSA 7. Apache Server : vWikph loZj vikph HTTP loZj ifj;kstuk lg;ksxkRed lkW¶Vos;j ds fodkl ds fy, ,d iz;kl gSA bl ifj;kstuk dk mn~ns’; ,d et+cwr] okf.kfT;d vkSj vktknh ls miyC/k lzkrs dksM dk;kZUo;u ds fy, ,d HTTP osc loZj cukuk gSA ;g ifj;kstuk la;qDr :i ls nqfu;kHkj esa fLFkr Lo;a lsodksa ds ,d lewg }kjk fd;k tkrk gSA ;g ifj;kstuk vWikph] lkQ~Vos;j QkmaMs’ku dk fgLlk gSA vWikph loZj ,d eap gS ftl ij O;fDr vkSj laLFkk,a fo’oluh; iz.kkfy;ksa dk fuekZ.k dj ldrs gS] tks iz;ksxkRed iz;kstuksa vkSj fe’ku egRoiw.kZ iz;kstuksa esa mi;qDr gks ldsaA vkWuykbu izdk’ku ds midj.k gj fdlh ds gkFk esa gksus pkfg,A blh ls osc esa mUufr gksxhA vWikph dk izFke izk:i 1995 esa fodflr fd;k x;k FkkA 2009 esa vikWph loZj 10 djksM+ osc lkbV ds ehy ds iRFkj dks ikj djus okyk igyk osc loZj cukA ;g lkQ~Vos;j dbZ vksijsfVax flLVe ds fy, miyC/k gS tSls GNU ] fyuDl] ;qfuDl] lksykfjl] Ýzh BSD, Mac OSX, ekbØkslksQ~V vkfnA vizsy 1996 ls vWikps mi;ksx esa fy;k tkus okyk lokZf/kd yksdfiz; loZj lkW¶Vos;j gSaA uoEcj 2010 rd vikWps us fo’o dh 59-36 izfr’kr osc lkbVksa dks lsok,¡ iznku dh gaSA ;g fo’o dh 10 yk[k O;Lrre osc lkbVksa esa ls 66-56 izfr’kr osc lkbVksa ds fy, iz;qDr gksrk gSA 8- VkWedSV % AglaSem School 214 vikWph VkWedSV ,d vksiu lzkrs loZyVs dUVsuj gS tks vikWph lkWQ~Vos;j Qkm.Ms’ku (ASF) }kjk fufeZr fd;k x;k gSA loZyVs ,d NksVk lk izksxkz e gS tks loZj ij py ldsA VkWedSV lu ekbØksflLVe ds tkok loZyVs vkSj tkok loZj istl + (ISP) ds funs’kksZa dks ykxw djrk gSA ;g ,d ’kq) tkok HTTP osc loZj okrkoj.k iznku djrk gS ftl ij tkok dksM dk fØ;kUo;u gks ldsA VkWedSV vkSj vikWph osc loZj esa varj gSA vikWph osc loZj HTTP osc loZj dks C esa ykxw fd;k x;k gSA VkWedSV ,d ,fIyds’ku loZj gS tks tkok loZysV~l dks dk;kZfUor djrk gS vkSj JSP dksfMax okys osc ist izLrqr djrk gSA VkWedSV dk ckbujh vkSj L=ksr dksM izk:i] nksuksa gh vikWph osc lkbV ij miyC/k gSaA VkWedSV dks LVSaM vyksu] vkarfjd osc loZj ds lkFk iz;ksx yk;k tk ldrk gS vkSj bls vU; osc loZj tSls vikWph] ekbØkslksQ~V dk baVjusV bUQksjes’ku lZoj (IIS) usVLdsi ,UVjizkbt+ lZoj vkSj ekbØkslksQ~V ilZuy loZj ds lkFk Hkh mi;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gSA 9. PHP : PHP ,d fLØzfIVax Hkk"kk gS tks ewyr% Mk;ukfed osc istksa dks cukus ds fy, fMt+kbu dh xbZ FkhA ;g dek.M ykbu baVjQsl {kerk dks ’kkfey djrh gS vkSj LVSaMvyksu xzkfQdy ,fIyds’kUl esa bldk iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gSA PHP ,d O;kid :i ls iz;qDr lkekU; mn~ns’; okyh fLØfIVax Hkk"kk gS] tks fo’ks"k :i ls osc MsoyiesaV ds vuqdy w gS ftls HTML ds lkFk iz;qDr fd;k tk ldrk gSA vke rkSj ij ;g osc loZj ij pyrh gS] ftldh lajpuk PHP dksM dks vkxe dh rjg ysus vkSj osc ist dVsaV dks fuxZe dh rjg nsus ds fy, dh xbZ gSA ;g vf/kdka’k osc loZjksa vkSj yxHkx gj vkWijsfVax flLVe ,oa IysVQkeZ ij eqQ~r esa foLr`r dh tk ldrh gSA PHP 20 yk[k ls vf/kd osclkbVksa vkSj 1 yk[k osc loZjksa ij laLFkkfir gSA PHP lewg] mi;ksxdrkZvksa ds vius Lo;a ds mi;ksxkFkZ] fuekZ.k] euialn rjhds ls cukus vkSj foLr`r djus ds fy, iwjk L=ksr dksM iznku djrk gS egRoiw.kZ osc lkbV PHP esa fy[ks vkSj tksM+ x, gSa tSls Qslcqd] fofdihfM;k] ;kgw] oMZizsl] ;wV~;wc vkfnA PHP okD;&foU;kl ¼flUVS D l½ PHP dsoy vius ifjlhedksa ¼MhfyfeVlZ½ ds Hkhrj dksM dh in&O;k[;k djrk gSA blds ifjlhedksa ds ckgj tks Hkh gksrk gS og lh/ks fuxZe ds fy, Hkstk tkrk gS vkSj PHP }kjk in&foU;kl ¼,fDlD;wV½ ugha gksrk gSA lcls vke ifjlhed gS < ? PHP vkSj ? > tks Øe’k% [kqys vkSj can ifjlhed gSaA mnkgj.k ds fy, ] < html > < head > < title > PHP Trial , </ title > < /head > < ? php echo Hello, welcome to PHP ;?> </body > </html > blh rjg ls] AglaSem School 215 < html > < head > < ? php echo < title> My First PHP Script ?; ?> This is generated by PHP
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This is static HTML/p> bl PHP fLdzIV dks first.php ds uke ls lso dj osc loZj ij viyksM dj nsaA tc bl ist dks osc czkmtj esa ns[ksaxs

rks og dqN fuEu izdkj ls fn[kkbZ nsxkA

10- ikbFku %

ikbFku ,d lkekU; mn~n’s ; mPp Lrjh; izksxzkfeax Hkk"kk gS ftldh lajpuk dksM dh fo’oluh;rk ij tksj nsrh gSA ikbFku dk mn~ns’; mYys[kuh; ’kfDr ds lkFk cgqr Li"V flUVsDl gSA ikbFku ,dkf/kd izksxkz feax ifjizs{;ksa dks leFkZu nsrk gSA ;g ,d iw.kZr% xfr’khy (Dynamic) izdkj dh iz.kkyh vkSj Lor% Le`fr izcU/ku ;kstuk dk vuqlj.k djrh gSA vU; Mkbukfed Hkk"kkvksa dh Hkkafr ikbFku dk mi;ksx ,d fLØfIVax Hkk"kk ds :i esa fd;k tkrk gSA ijUrq ikbFku xSj fLØfIVax lUnHkksZa esa Hkh iz;qDr dh tkrh gSA ikbFku dk fØ;kUo;u Lora= vkSj [kqyk L=kssr lkW¶Vos;j gSA ;g ,d leqnk; vk/kkfjr fodkl ds ekWMy ij fufeZr gSA ikbFku dk fodkl vkSj laj{k.k ikbFku lkW¶Vos;j Qkm.Ms’ku uke dh ,d ykHk fujis{k laLFkku djrh gSA ikbFku bUVjfizVlZ dbZ vkWijsfVax flLVe ds fy, miyC/k gSA ikbFku dh ,d egRoiw.kZ fo’ks"krk gS Mkbukfed use jstY;w’ku tks esFkM (Method) vkSj osfj,scy (Variable) ds ukeksa dks izksxzke ,fDlD;w’ku ds le; cka/krk gSA ge lHkh dks Kkr gS fd baVjusV Kku dk HkaMkj gSA FOSS dh mUufr esa baVjusV dk cgqr egRoiw.kZ ;ksxnku jgk gSA vkb,] ge dqN vksiu lkslZ ls lEcfU/kr osc&lkbVl dk v/;;u djsaA www. sourceforge.net

AglaSem School 216

;g usVodZ osclkbV vksiu lkslZ lkW¶Vos;j dk dks"k gSA ;gka ij vksiu lkslZ lkWQ~Vos;j dks MkmuyksM Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gS vkSj uohu vksiu lkslZ lkW¶Vos;j ds ckjs esa tkudkjh gSA bl osclkbV esa 27 yk[k MsoyilZ] 260000 vksiu lkslZ lkWQ~Vos;j ifj;kstukvksa ij dke dj jgs gSaA izfrfnu bl osclkbV ls 2]000]000 MkmuyksM~l gksrs gSaA ;g la[;k,a fnu izfrfnu c<+ jgh gSaA bl osclkbV ij vkidks gj izdkj ds] fofHkUu mi;ksxksa esa vkus okys lkQ~Vos;j miyC/k gaSA

www. opensource.org

;g osclkbV OSI organization dh osclkbV gSA ;gka ij vksiu lkslZ bfuf’k,fVo (OSI) ds /;s; ds ckjs esa tkudkjh miyC/k gSA vksiu lkslZ dh ykblsUl izfØ;k] vksiu lkslZ dh f’k{kk] esfyax fyLV~l vkSj dbZ rjg dh tkudkjh vkidks bl osc lkbV esa feysxhA vxj vki vksiu lkslZ lkWQ~Vos;j eas dke dj jgs gSa vkSj vki dksbZ iFk&izn’kZd ryk’k dj jgs gSa rks bl osc lkbV ij

AglaSem School 217

vkidks dbZ jkg fn[kkus okys yksx feyasxsA vki bl lewg dk fgLlk cudj vius lokyksa ds tokc [kkst ik,axsA www. linux.com

;g ,d def’kZ;y (commercial) osclkbV gS ftlesa vkidks fyuDl dh uohure [kcjsa feysaxhA fyuDl dk MkWD;weUs Vs’ku] VqVksfj;Yl] fofM;ksl vkfn vkidks bl osclkbV esa miyC/k gksxaAs fyuDl esa dSfj;j] fyuDl ds Vªsfuax izksxkz El vkSj Dykll] fyuDl dk O;olk; esa iz;ksx] fyuDl esa ukSdjh dh miyC/krk,a vkSj dbZ vU; mi;ksxh tkudkjh bl osclkbV ij miyC/k gSA fyuDl ds fofHkUu fMLVªhC;w’kUl dh tkudkjh ] fyuDl dh fdrkcsa] fyuDl dE;wfuVh] CyksXl vkSj Qksje~l Hkh ;gka ij izkIr gSaA vki bl osc&lkbV esa jsftLVj dj blds esEcj cu ldrs gSaA fyuDl dk Hkfo";] orZeku] mldh mUufr dk ekxZ] lHkh dqN bl osclkbV ij miyC/k gSA www.linuxindia.org

;g osclkbV fyuDl&bf.M;k laxBu dh osclkbV gS tks Hkkjr ds fyuDl ;wtlZ dh ,d laxBuk gSA bl osclkbV ij vkidks dbZ izdkj dh esfyax fyLV~l miyC/k gksxhaA tSls fd tujy] gsYi] izkx s zkEklZ] fMLd’kUl vkfnA izR;sd esfyax fyLV esa vkidks fyuDl ds Hkkjr esa mi;ksx ls lacf/kr tkudkjh izkIr gksxhA vki pkgsa rks vki mu esfyax fyLV~l esa lcLØkbc Hkh dj ldrs gaSA ,slk djus ls vki ml lewg dk ,d lnL; cu tk,axsA bl izdkj vkidks Hkkjr ds vU; fyuDl mi;ksxdrkZvksa ls lEidZ esa jgus dk volj izkIr gksxkA vkidh fyuDl lEcfU/kr leL;kvksa dk gy Hkh vkidks izkIr gksxkA ;gka ij vksiu ppkZvksa esa lfEefyr gksdj fyuDl ds fo"k; esa viuk Kku&o/kZu dj ldrs gaSA www.gnu.org

AglaSem School 218

;g GNU ifj;kstuk laxBu dh osclkbV gSA ;gka ij vkidks GNU dh fopkj/kkjk] ykblsUl iz.kkyh] MkD;wesUVs’ku miyC/k gksxkA GNU/LINUX fMfLVªC;w’kUl dh lwph esa ls vk;sA viuk eupkgk lkWQ~Vos;j MkmuyksM dj ldrs gSa ;gka ij FSF ds ckjs esa Hkh lwpuk izkI; gSaAvki FSF esa ’kkfey gksdj Ýh lkW¶Vos;j dh izxfr esa viuk ;ksxnku ns ldrs gSaA vki dksbZ lkWQ~Vos;j fufeZr dj jgs gSa rks vkidks ;gka dbZ MsoyelZ dk lg;ksx izkIr gksxkA blds vykok GNU vksijsfVax flLVe dk MkmuyksM Hkh ;gka ij lEHko gSA ;g osc lkbV dbZ Hkk"kkvksa tSls ikWfy’k] LiSfu’k] Mp vkfn esa miyC/k gSA www.openrdf.org

rdf ( Resource Description Framework ) W3C ifjokj dk ,d lnL; gSA bldk mi;ksx lwpuk dk izfr:i rS;kj

djus esa gksrk gS tks fd osc ij dk;kZfUor dh tkrh gSA ;g osclkbV ,d dE;wfuVh osclkbV gS tks Sesame dh izxfr dks lg;ksx djrh gSA Sesame MkVk (data) dks LVksj] fu"df"kZr o Dosjh djus ds fy, ,d vksiu lkslZ :ijs[kk gSA ;gka ij ;wltZ vkSj MsoyilZ fey ldrs gSa] ppkZ dj ldrs gSa] iz’u iwN ldrs gSa vkSj Sesame ls lEcfU/kr fdlh Hkh leL;k dk fuokj.k ik ldrs gSaA bl osc lkbV ij sesame ls lEcfU/kr lkW¶Vos;j dks MkmuyksM Hkh dj ldrs gaSA bl ij MkD;weUs Vs’ku] esfyax fyLV~l T;knkrj iwNs x, lokyksa ds tokc] lkW¶Vos;j IyxbUl vkSj ,DlVsa’kUl Hkh miyC/k gSA

vH;kl iz'u cgq p ;ukRed iz ' u 1. ,d vksiu lkslZ dEI;wfVax iqLrdky; dk uke gS & (a) Openoffice org (c) Unicoal 2.

(b) My SQL (d) Pango

vksiu lkslZ lkW¶Vos;j ds D;k ykHk gSa\ (a) :ikUrj.k dh lqfo/kk (b) Portability (c) Clot effectivencs (d) mijksDr lHkh

AglaSem School 219 3-

fuEufyf[kr esa ls dkSulk lkW¶Vos;j] vksiu lkslZ lkW¶Vos;j dk mnkgj.k ugha gS\ (a) My SQL (c) Mozilla ...................

4.

(b) Pestyre SQL (d) Photoshop

fjpMZ LVkWyeSu us fuEu esa ls dkSulh laxBu dh ljpuk dh\ (a) OSI (c) W3C

(b) FSF (d) buesa ls dksbZ ugha

vikWph VkWedSV ,d vksiu lkslZ & (a) osc czkmtj gS (b) ljZysV daVsuj gS (c) fLØfIVax Hkk"kk gS (d) mijksDr esa ls dqN Hkh ugha 6. fyuDl dk fuekZ.k ewy :i ls fdUgksaus fd;k gS\ (a) fyul VksjokYM~l (b) fjpMZ LVkWyeSu (c) fVe DuZlZ yh (d) mijksDr lHkh us 7. vksiu vksfQl .org dk mi;ksx dj ge D;k dj ldrs gSa\ (a) MkWD;weUs V cuk ldrs gSa (b) izsts+UVs'ku cuk ldrs gSa (c) LizsM'khV cuk ldrs gSa (d) mijksDr lHkh dj ldrs gSa 8. GPL D;k gS\ (a) ,d lkW¶Vos;j (b) ,d ykblsUl (c) ,d vkWijsfVax flLVe (d) ,d dEI;wVj lkbfUVLV 9. vksiu lkslZ lkW¶Vos;j dk fyuDl ds lkFk&lkFk foUMksl vkWijsfVax flLVe ij Hkh mi;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gSA (a) gk¡ (b) ugha 10. Unicode D;k gS\ (a) ,d lkW¶Vos;j (b) v{kj ladsru i)fÙk (c) loZj (d) mijksDr esa ls dqN ugha vfryÄq RjkRed iz ' u 1. vksiu lkslZ lkW¶Vos;j dh ifjHkk"kk nhft,A 2. vkisu lkslZ lkW¶Vos;j ds pkj mnkgj.k nhft,A 3. fuEufyf[kr dh ifjHkk"kk] nks mnkgj.kksa lfgr nhft, & (1) ÝhjSV (2) 'kSjosj (3) izksizkbVjh lkW¶Vos;j (4) LFkkuhdj.k (5) iquhdksM 4. fuEufyf[kr dks foLrkfjr dj fyf[k, & 5.

(1) FOSS (2) GNU (3) OSI (4) W3C (5) FSF 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

vksiu lkslZ lkW¶Vos;j dh fdUgha nks osclkbV~l ds uke fyf[k,A OSI dh laxBuk fdlus dh Fkh\ FSF dk y{; D;k gS\ baVjusV dk vkfo"dkj fdUgksaus fd;k\ fyuDl dh Com dek.M dSls dk;Z djrh gS\ ls dek.M ls D;k gksrk gS\ vkt ds ;qx esa vksiu lkslZ lkW¶Vos;j dh D;k Hkwfedk gS\ vksiu lkslZ lkW¶Vos;j IySVQkeZ&bUMisUmsUV gksrs gSaA bl okD; dk D;k rkRi;Z gS\ vksiu lkslZ lkW¶Vos;j dks ^Lora= lkW¶Vos;j* Hkh dgrs gSaA D;ksa\ OSS vkSj FOSS esa D;k varj gS\ GNU ifj;kstuk ds fo"k; esa laf{kIr esa fy[ksa\ FSF vkSj OSI tSlh la[;k,¡ fdl fn'kk esa dk;Zjr gSa\ ÝhoSj vkSj Ýh lkW¶Vos;j esa varj Li"V dhft,A lkW¶Vos;j dks izksikz bVjh djus ls D;k uqdlku gS\ lkW¶Vos;j dks LFkkuh; Hkk"kk esa cukus ls D;k ykHk gksxsaA ASCII vkSj UNICODE esa D;k varj gS\

AglaSem School 220

yÄq R jkRed iz 'u 1. fyuDl ds vusd fMfLVªC;w'kUl ds miyC/k gksus dk dkj.k mnkgj.k lfgr le>kb,A 2. vksiu lkslZ lkW¶Vos;j ds ykHk foLrkj ls le>kb,A 3. W3C la[;k ds vkn'kksZ dks Li"V dhft,A 4. ljdkjh] O;kolkf;d vkSj fuft ifj;kstukvksa ds fy, fyuDl dks mi;ksxh ekuk tkuk gSA D;ksa\ 5. HySQL D;k gS\ MySQL ds izpfyr gksus ds dkj.kksa dks le>k,¡A 6. Pootgre SQL ds ckjs esa 50&60 'kCnksa esa fyf[k,A 7. PHP D;k gksrh gS\ fdl {ks= esa PHP dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA PHP dh mi;qDrrk ds dqN mnkgj.k nhft,A 8. VkWedSV vksj vkWikph osc loZj ds ckjs esa fyf[k,A 9. vksiu vkfQl] org fdl izdkj dk lkW¶Vos;j gS vkSj bldk mi;ksx dgk¡ fd;k tkrk gS\ fucU/kkRed iz ' u 1. vksiu lkslZ lkW¶Vos;j ds ykblsal ds ckjs esa foLrkj ls crk,¡A 2. fyuDl dh 4 Mk;jsDVjh dek.M~l mnkgj.k lfgr le>kb,A 3. www.fourceforge.net osclkbV vkius ns[kh gksxhA bl osclkbV dh mi;ksfxrk ij izdk'k MkysaA 4. MySQL esa fuEufyf[kr ds fy, funsZ'k nhft, & (i) ,d 'company' uke dk MkVkcsl cukb,A (ii) bl MkVkcsl esa ,d 'employees' uke dh Vscy cukb,A Emp.no

Name Age Iesignation (iii) bl Vscy esa 6 fjdkMZ Insert dhft,A Emp.no Name Age Iesignation E001 Ankita Varma 30 SE E002 Naman Dixit 23 SE E003 Surbhi Verma 25 SE E004 Tarun Kumar 42 TM E005 Vinayak Sharma 38 TL E006 Vivek Mathur 34 TL (iv) ftu employees dh age 30 ls vf/kd gS] muds uke fn[kkb,A (v) TL designation okys employees dh lkjh details fn[kkb,A (vi) 35 lky ls de mez okys TL designation ds employees ds uke fn[kkb,A

vksiu lkslZ vkanksyu ds fo"k; ij ,d ys[k fyf[k,A vksiu lkslZ lkW¶Vos;j esa :ikarj.k dh lqfo/kk gksrh gSA bl lqfo/kk ds Qk;ns vkSj uqdlku ij izdk'k MkysaA vkids fopkj ls izksizkbVjh vkSj vksiu lkslZ lkW¶Vos;j esa ls dkSu lk csgrj gS vkSj D;ksa\ Ýh lkW¶Vos;j] vkisu lkslZ lkW¶Vos;j vkSj ÝhoSj ds e/; vUrj dks Li"V djsaA mnkgj.k lfgr le>k,¡A irk dhft, fd Hkkjr dh dkSulh O;kolkf;d vkSj ljdkjh laLFkk,¡ vksiu lkslZ lkW¶Vos;j dk iz;ksx dj jgh gSaA mudh ,d lwph rS;kj djsaA 10. dbZ yksxksa dk ekuuk gS vksiu lkslZ lkW¶Vos;j ds fy, i;kZIr rduhdh lg;ksx miyC/k ugha gSA bl fo"k; ij vki vius fopkj izdV dhft,A 11. bl ikB esa mYysf[kr vksiu lkslZ lkW¶Vos;j ds vykok ¼chl½ 20 vU; vksiu lkslZ lkW¶Vos;j ds ckjs esa irk yxkb, vkSj mudh lwph rS;kj dhft,A 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Raj Board Class 12 Book - Computer Vigyaan

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