Progress of Malaysian Women

The Pr Pr o gr ess ess of Malays Mal aysii an Wom Women en Si nce Ind Ind ependenc epend ence e 1957 - 2000

Publi ubl ished by:  by:  Minis Mini st ry of Women and Fa Family mil y De Developm velopment ent Level 1-4, Block lo ck E Bukit uki t Perdana Governm Government ent Office ff ice Comp Complex lex Jalan alan Dato’ Dat o’O Onn 50515 Kuala Kuala Lumpur Lump ur Tel:03-29630095 Fax:03-26938498 E-mail -mail:in :[email protected]. kpw k.gov.my my Website:www.kpwk.gov.my

With it h funding fundin g support support from:  f rom:  United Unit ed Nat Nat ions io ns Develop Development ment Programme rog ramme (UND (UNDP P), Malaysi Malaysia,S a, Sing ngapor apore e and and Brunei runei Darus Darussalam Pub ublilis shed Sept eptember ember 2003 ISBN:983-41432-0-6 Print ri nted ed by: by : Bar Code Code Desig Design n Network Net work

Copyrigh opyr ightt © 2003 Ministry of Women and and Family Develop Development ment.. All Righ Rightt Reser eserved. ved. Reques equest for permiss permission t o reprint any material should should be directed dir ected to t o the t he Minist Minist ry of Women and Family Development.

CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY FOREWORD

Pag e vii  x 

CHA HAPTE PTER R 1 - INTRODUCTION NTRODUCTION I. BACKGROUND II. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY III. METHODOLOGY IV. OVERVIEW OF THE REPORT V. GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT PLANNIN ING G VI ADM AD MIN INISTR ISTRATIVE MACHI ACHINER NERY FORTHE ADVANCEMENT OF WOMEN VII. II. LEGAL STATUS OF WOMEN - Women under the t he Federal ederal Cons Constt itut it ution ion - Emp Employm loyment ent Legislat egislation ion and Women - Ot Ot her Laws Laws Aff Affec ectt ing in g t he St St at us of Women Women VIII. CONCLUSION

14  14  16  17  18  19 

CHAPTER 2 - EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF WOMEN I. INTRODUCTION II. FORMAL EDUCATION - Enro Enrolm lment ent in Primary rim ary and Secondary School Schools s - Female Female Enrolm nro lment ent in Technical Technical and Vocational ocati onal Edu Educati cation on - Tertiary erti ary Educa duc at ion - Education Attainment of Rural Women - Internation Internat iona al Comp Compa arison in Educ Educa at iona ion al Att ainment inm ent III. III. NON-FO -FORMAL MAL EDUCATION ION AND TRAIN ININ ING G IV. FUTURE CHALLENGES V. RECOMMENDATIONS VI. CONCLUSION

33  33  33  34  37  39  42  42  43  47  50  51

CHA HAPTE PTER R 3 - WOME WOMEN AND AND THE EC ECONOMY ONOM Y I. INTRODUCTION II. TREND NDS S IN W WO OMEN'S MEN'SECONOMIC NOMIC PARTIC ICIP IPATION ION - Women in the t he La Labou bourr For Force ce - Emp Emplo loyment yment St atu atus s of Wom omen en - Emp Employm loyment ent by Secto Sectorr - Emp Employm loyment ent by Occupati Occupational onal Categor Category y - Pot Potent ential ial Grow Growtt h Areas: Areas: Wom omen en in i n Busin usines ess sa and nd Prof rofess ession onal al Services ervi ces

53  53  54  54  55  56  61

23  26  26  27  28  30 

64 

The Progres Progr ess s of Women Women Since in ce Independen Indep endence ce

III. IV. V.

- Wom omen en Entrepr nt repreneurs: eneurs:F From Micro-E Mi cro-Ent nterpr erprise ises s t o Small Small and Medium Medi um En t erpri erpris ses (SME (SMEs s) FUTURE CHALLENGES RECOMMENDATIONS CONCLUSION

CHA HAPTE PTER R 4 – WOME WOM EN AND AND HEALTH I. INTRODUCTION II. GENERAL HEALTH STATUS - Indica Indi catt ors of Hea Health lt h S Stt at us - Mat Mat ernal ernal Mortalit y - Nutrit Nutri t iona ion al S Stt at us of Women - Fertilit ertil it y Trends III. III. REPRODU DUC CTIV IVE E HEALT ALTH SERVIC ICE ES - Famil Family y Plann Plannin ing g - Antena Ant enatt al and Post ost partum part um Care - Management of Cervical and Breast Cancers IV. HEALT ALTH CO CONC NCE ERNSIN THENEW MIL MILL LENN NNIU IUM M - Healt Health h Ne Needs eds of Older ld er Wom Women en - Domest Domest ic Violence Viol ence - Menta Ment al Healt Health h - The HIV HIV// AIDSEpidem pi demic ic V. FUTURE CHALLENGES VI. RECOMMENDATIONS VII. CONCLUSION

65  67  70  72  73  73  74  74  74  76  78  79  79  80  80  82  82  83  84  86  87  89  90 

CHAPTER 5 – WOMEN IN DECISION MAKING AND POWER SHARING 9 3  3  I. INTRODUCTION 93  II. TREND NDS S IN LEAD ADE ERSHI HIP P AN AND D PO POWER SHARIN ING G 94  - Pol Polititical ical Membership and Leadership Leadership 94  - Pol Polititical ical Candi Candidacy dacy 96  - Elect Elected ed Off Offices ices and Appoint Appoi ntment ments s 97  - Represent epresentati ation on in i n the t he St St ate at e A As ssemblies embl ies 99  - Share Share of Lea eadership dership and Decisio Decision-Making n-Making Posit ositio ions ns in t he Publ Public ic Sect Sector or 99  - Key Key Management Management Posit ositio ions ns in t he Pub Publilic c Sect ect or 99  - Appoint Appoi ntment ments s in t he Foreign Foreign Service ervice 101 - Represent epresenta at ion in Local Local Authori Aut horitt ies 101 - The Grass Grassroot root s Level Level 103 

III. IV. V.

- Management Management Posit ositio ions ns in t he Pri Priva vatt e Sector ecto r - Non-Government Organiza rganizatt ions io ns (NG (NGO),T ), Trade Unions Unio ns and Coop oopera eratt ives - Part Partici icipat patio ion n iin n NG NGO Os - Parti Participati cipation on in i n Tra Trade de Unions - Representation in Cooperatives FUTURE CHALLENGES RECOMMENDATIONS CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

104  105  105  106  108  108  111 112  115 

LISTS OF BOXES Box 1.1 1.2 1.3 2.1 3.1

5.1 5.2

Ti t l es Page Mala Ma lay ysia’ ia’s First irst Lady, dy, Dato’S to’ Seri Dr Dr. Siti Has Hasma mah h bt. Mo Mohd hd.. Ali  – An Inspi Inspiri ring ng Rol Role e Mo Model del for f or Malaysian Malaysian Women Women 12  Definitio tion of Di Discriminatio tion 30  Selec lected Releva levant nt D De eclara larations tions and Action Action Pla Plans ns Signed igned by the t he Government Government of Malaysia Malaysia 31 Scaling ling Up Up Mic Microro-Enterpri nterpris ses,De ,Depa partme rtment nt of Agr Agric icultu ulture re 46  Datuk Muh uha aiya iyani Sha hams msudd uddin, in,F Fou ounde nderr and and Mana nagin ging g Director of Muhaiyani Securities Sdn Bhd and Deputy Chairpers hairp erson on of t he Kuala Kuala Lum Lumpu purr Stock Excha Exchang nge e 66  Dato’Sha to’Shariz riza at Abdul Abdul Ja Jalil – An Ad Adv voca ocate and and Sol Solic icitor itor,, an Eminent mi nent Corpor or porate ate Fig Figure ure and a Cabin Cabinet et Mini Mi nis st er 91 Tan Sri Sri Da Datuk Nura uraiza izah Abd Abdul ul Ha Hamid – A Wom Woma an of Dist Dist incti in ction on in i n the t he Publ Public ic Service Service 113 

LIST OF FIGURES Fi g ur e 2.1 2.2 2.3

Ti t l e Page Primary rimary Sc Schoo hooll Enro Enrolme lment nt by Se Sex, Malays laysia ia,,19 1957 57– –200 000 0 34  Secondary ondary Sc Schoo hooll Enro Enrolme lment nt by Se Sex, Ma Mala lay ysia, ia,19 1957 57– –20 2000 00 35  Perce rcenta ntage ge of Ma Males les and Fe Fema male les s in Prima Primary ry and Secondary econd ary School chools, s,Malays Malaysiia,1957–2000 36 

2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.1 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 3.1 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 5.1 5.2

Number umber of of Stude Students nts Enrolle nrolled d in Year Six to Form Form Five by Sex,1991–1995 Enrolme nrolment nt in Voc Voca ational tional and and Te Technica hnical Sc Schoo hools ls by Se Sex, Malaysia,1957–2000 Propor roportion tion of of Fe Fema male le:: Ma Male le Students tudents in Voc Voca ationa tional and and Technica echni call School chools s, Malaysia Malaysia 1957–2000 Enrol nrolme ment nt in Tertiary rtiary Ins Institutions titutions by Se Sex, Malay laysia, ia, 1957–2000 Proportion roportion of Ma Males les and Fe Fema male les s in Tertiary rtiary Education, ducation, Malaysia,1959–2000 Enrolme nrolment nt in Engine ngineering Cours ourse,Mala e,Malays ysia ia,,19 1991 91– –19 199 98 Output of Gra Gradua duates tes in Enginee ngineering,Ma ring, Mala lays ysia ia,,l991– l991–19 1998 98 Educa ducational tional Attainme Attainment nt of Women omen by Stra Stratum, tum, Ma Mala lays ysia ia,, 1970,1980 and 1991 Number umber of Students Students in Adult Adult Educa Education tion Cla Clas sses by Se Sex, Malaysia,1958–1967 Literac iteracy Rate by Se Sex,Ma x, Mala lays ysia ia,,19 1970 70– –20 2010 10 Perce rcenta ntage ge Distribu istribution tion of Employe mployed d Pe Person rsons s by Occupatio ccupation n and Gender, Malays Malaysiia,1957–2000 a,1957–2000 Matern terna al Morta Mortality lity per per 1, 1,000 Liv Live e Births irths. 1956–2000 Life Expe pec ctanc tancy y at at Birth in Mala Malay ysia by Se Sex,19 x,1957 57– –20 2000 00 Number umber of of Pa Pap Sme mea ars Read by the Minis Ministry try of He Health, 1982–1998 Num umbe berr of Reported ported Ca Cases of Dom Dome estic Viol Viole ence nce, 1984–1997 Num umbe berr of Suicide uicide and Self-inf lf-inflicte licted d Injur Injury yC Ca ases in Malaysia by by Sex Sex Num umbe berr of of W Wom ome en Liv Living ing with with HI HIV and AI AIDS,and De Deaths in Women Women from f rom HI HIV V/ AID AIDS S Perce rcenta ntage ge of Wom ome en in Electe lected d Offic Office es/Appoi /Appointe nted d Offices,Malaysia,1959–2001 Wom ome en in Top M Ma ana nage geme ment nt in the Malays laysian ian For Fore eign Service 1992,1994 and 1999

37  37  38  39  40  41 41 42  43  44  63  75  76  81 84  85  86  98  101

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY i.

Efforts forts to forge forge greater greater gender equality have res resulted in Mal Malaysian women achieving significant significant progress progress in key soci socio-economic area areas since Mal Malaysia gained indepen independence in 1957. 1957. However owever, despite the prog rogress ress made, made, new con concerns on the role and status of wom women have emerged that t hat could coul d adversely adversely affect affect the t he parti participation ti on of wom women in t he eco econ nomy and social spheres heres. In light li ght of this t his,, the Govern overnm ment of Mallaysia, the Un Ma United Nations Devel Development Programme Programme (UNDP) and the Uni United Nations Pop Population Fund (UNFPA) jointly undertook a study to docu document and eval evaluate the progress progress of women in Ma Mallaysia during the peri period od 1957–2000.

ii.

This study is intended to cap capture the achievem achievements of women in educat ion,healt h,economy,politics and power sharin sharing,and decision makin king. Secon condary data from the Dep Departm rtment of Statistics Statistics surveys and administrati administrat ive reco records rds from govern governm ment agencies and nongovern overnm menta nt al orga organisation ations s are used used for for the t he st st udy.The udy.The repo report rt for the study contains contains five chapter chapters, wit h chapt chapters ers 2 to 5 ass assess essing ing the t he prog rogress of women in specific key areas while chapter 1 highlight s the Government’s initiatives taken to advance women in devel velopment. nt.

iii.

Devel Development planning pl anning for t he advancement ent of women was was introd ntrodu uced in the Sixth Sixth Mal Malaysia Pla Plan, which has a chapter on the t he devel velopment of wom women. The Sixth Plan and subsequent plans conta nt ain st rat rat egies t o incorpo rp orate rate wo wome men n in t he process process of devel velopment in line with the object objectiives of the Nat Nat ional ional Vision Vision Policy on Women (NPW). (NPW). Equita quit able sha sharing ring of o f res resources and access to oppo port rtunit unitie ies s for men and and wome w omen n forms forms one of the the objecti objectives of the NPW. The form formu ulation and implementation implement ation of an action plan to ope perati rationali onalis se the th e NP NPW durin uring g the t he Seve Seventh nth Mal Malaysi aysia P Pllan res resulted in the implementation implementation of more coh coherent rent and focused programmes programmes to inte nteg grat rate women in dev d eve elopment and elevat elevate their their st st at us. Significant prog rogress has also been made in the setting up of the req required red institutional and administrati administrat ive mac machinery hinery to t o plan, plan, coo coordi rdinate, implement and monitor the devel development of wo wom men. These hese iinclud nclude e t he Mini Minis st ry of Women Women and and Fa Family mil y D Dev evelopm elopment ent,, t he Depa Depart rtment ment

of Women Affairs (HAWA) (HAWA), the Na Nationa ti onall Advi Advisory Council for the Inte nteg gration of Women in Devel Development (NACIWID) and the Nati Nat ional Council of Women’s n’s Organi sat ions ion s (NC (NCWO). In add ddit ition ion,, t he enactment of new laws and the continuous continuous review and amendment of existing legislation have been underta undert aken to pres preserve, rve, rei reinforc force e and pro p rote tect ct the t he rirights ht s and legal stat status us of wo wom men. iv. iv.

Mal aysian ysian w om omen en have benefi t ed from fro m i ncreased ncreased acces access s to education and training as indicated by the improvem improvement in their lit eracy racy rates and net enro enrollment at all levels of education since 1957. The enrol enrolment of female students at the prim primary level increased by more than t han three th ree and a half half t imes im es during dur ing t he period 1957–200 1957–2000. 0.At At t he secondary lev l eve el,the enrol enrolment of female students increased by more tha th an 36 ttimes imes to reach reach a tota ot al enrol enrolment of 985 985,,69 692 2 st students udent s in 2000. With it h reg regard to enrol enrolment in tec technical and vocational school schools the per percentage of male students has always been higher than female students student s. The enrol enrolment of Mal Malaysian women in tert tertiiary inst inst itut it utions ions ref reflected the evo evolut lution ion of tert tertiiary educat educat ion in Ma Mallaysia, which has been gradually expanding in total number and rel relat ive terms, especia pecially lly afte ft er 19 1970 70.. In 195 959, 9, fema female le underg undergraduates tes comprised 10.7 per cent of the total student enrolment in the Universit niversity y of Ma Malay laya a, but increa increased to t o 51.3 51.3 per cent cent of t he tot to t al enrolment in local local universit universities ies by 20 2000 00.. Non-formal educ educa at ion in t he form form of adult dul t educa educat ion, home econo economics mics and entre entrep pren reneuria rial training programmes has improved the literacy rates of rural women and enabled them to acquire new knowledge and skil skills. Despite the increasing number of female student enrol enrolment at at the t he prim rimary, ry, secon condary and tert tertiiary level levels, the th e concent centration ration of fem female st udents in non-te non-t echnical courses is a major area of con concern. rn.

v.

The parti part icipat ion of women in the t he labour labour force force has been increa increasing since 1957,t 1957,t hey are are eng engaged aged in paid employ empl oym ment or are are empl employe oyerrs, self-employed and unpaid family workers workers in all econ economic sector ctors. Overa veralll, fema female le employ employm ment accou accounted for 34.7 per cent cent of tot tot al employm oyment in 2000 as com compared to t o only onl y 24.5 24.5 pe per cent cent in 1957. 1957.A An analysis ysis of female employ employm ment by oc occupational categ category also shows a rising rising trend t rend of women moving into i nto occ occupations ion s that req require p o st secondary educa educat i on. Howeve owever, t he ma majj ori t y of women are concentra oncent ratt ed in low-s low -skill killed ed and and low-w lo w-wa aged occupat occupation ions s. They are are

under- rep repres resented in top managerial and decision-making posts in both the th e public and private private sector sectors. Gender-specific issues that continue to hinder the progress progress of women in the econ economy include traditional gender con construct ructs s, sex role stere stereo otyping and gender divis divi sion of wo w ork, rk, multiple mult iple roles roles of wom women, ge gend nder er segme segment ntation ation and st rat ratification, and gender discr discriimination at work work.. To add ddres ress s these hese issues, more con concrete rete steps will have to be taken so that wom women’s invo nvolvem vement in the t he labour labour ma market rket and co corporate rporate world world can be more significant cant and m mea eaningf ningfu ul. vi.

Improvem rovement in the health status of Mal Malaysian women in the last four decades has been the key to their wel well-being and acti act ive parti rt icipation in the econ economic, po pollit ical and social devel development in the cou country nt ry.. Efforts forts in expanding and developing health servi services ces t arge rgeted at women w omen and the t he fa family mi ly ha have been been succe succes ssful in red reducing the incidence of deaths arising from com co mmunicable and noncommunicable able dis disea ease ses s. The ave average rage life expe expec ct ancy of wom women increas reased ffro rom m 58.2 yea years rs in 1957 to 75 years years in 2000. The matern materna al morta rtality rate,a direct direct indicator of wom women’s rep reprod odu uct ive he hea alth, lt h,h has declined by ten tenfold to 0.2 per 1,000 live births after 43 years of indepe pen ndence. Ho Howe weve verr, ne new w health health concerns are emerging and these include the health needs of older wom women, occ occurre rrence of domesti domestic c violenc violence e, mental disorders and increased incidence of HIV/AIDS HIV/ AIDS cas cases.

vii.

Malaysian wom Mal women’s share in power sharing and decision-making in politics and the econ economy has been on an upward upward trend since indepe pen ndence. There has been an increm incremental increase in wom women vot vot ers, membership in pol polit ical parti part ies, political can candidates tes, and appo poiintm ntments to elected and appoi appointed offices offices. However owever, a gender gender gap still exists between between men and women in terms terms of access to highlevel positions and parti part icipation in decision-maki decision-makin ng.T g. The numbe numb er of women holding top management posts in the civil servi service and corpora rporatte s sec ecttor is i s still rel relatively vely small. small.G Gender barriers leadin leading g to t o the t he under-rep repres resentation ntation of women in decision-making and power powersharing positions include cultural and institutional factor factors, gender roles roles and ethnicity ethnicit y, po pollit ical culture, culture, limited platfo platform rm for women in pollit ical parti po part ies, lack of a crit crit ical cal mass mass, and gender-blind gender-bl ind element elements s in rec recrui ruitment and prom promot ion.

Dato’ Seri Shahrizat Shahrizat Ab A b dul Jalil Minis Mini st er of Women and Family Develop Development ment Malaysia

Since in ce independence, independence, wom women en in Ma Mala lays ysia ia have actively cti vely contrib cont ribut uted ed towards t he develop development ment of tthe he count countrr y. Over Over the past past four f our decades, decades,we we have have see een n significant improvements in the status of women and in gender equality. The educational educati onal att at t ainment of women is i s at a higher leve level, their part part icipat ion in t he labour labou r force has increa in creas sed and legis legi slation lat ion t hat grants nt s equal opportunities for women and respect for their human rights has been adop doptt ed in Malays Malaysia. ia. The count count ry now has a growing grow ing numb n umber er of w women omen Minis Mini st ers and policy pol icy makers. makers.

This report documents the achievements of women in Malaysia since the count ry at at t ained independ i ndependenc ence e in 1957 1957 and and allow allo w us a look loo k into into t he past past t o gain inva i nvalu lua able bl e lesson lessons s. I sincerely hope h ope tha th at t his repo report will wil l be an important source of information to everyone who has the interest of Mallaysian Ma ysian women w omen in t heir heart hearts.The s.The repo report als also t akes kes tthe he op oppo port unity to

honour hono ur Malays Malaysian ian women wom en who were pioneers pi oneers in t heir respecti respective ve fields field s and achieved achieved succ succes ess s, all in ttheir heir own ow n terms t erms.. The acc accomp omplilis shments hment s of thes t hese e women will definitely be an inspiration to other women in Malaysia to st rive for great great er height heigh t s.

While hil e the t he progres pro gress s att atta ained in ed by women w omen in i n Malays Malaysia ia is remark remarka able bl e, t here is st ill il l room for fo r improvement imp rovement in i n cert certa ain areas areas, especia especialllly y in scienc science e and t echn echnol olog ogy y. We cann cannot ot affo afford rd t o bas b ask k in t he succes success ses we have have achieved achieved t hus far. far. We must must ne never ver forget forg et that t hat the t he gains made to da d at e may be rev revers ersed ed should houl d indi in diff ffere erence nce,, compla compl acency cency or negl neglig igenc ence e set in. in .

The journey to enhance women's status in Malaysia is a continuing one becaus because e we have have an an impor im portt ant role rol e to play p lay in supp support ortin ing g Vis Vision ion 202 2020, 0,tt hat is, is, t he Government Government's 's aim for f or Malays Malaysia ia to achieve achieve a developed develop ed count country ry st atu atus s by the t he year year 2020.

The report report would w ould not have come t o fruition fruit ion without wit hout the t he support and coop oopera eratt ion from indivi i ndividuals duals and organiza organizat ions, ions, t he pub public lic and and priva pri vatt e sect ect ors, ors, and the t he non-government non-g overnmental al organisat organisat ions ion s.Therefore .Therefore,, I wou would ld like li ke t o extend my sin since cere re app apprec reciati iation on especia especialllly y to t o the t he Economi Economic c Plannin Planning g Unit of t he Prime Prime Minis Mini st er's De Departmen partmentt , members of t he St St ee eering ring Commit t ee ee,, t he Unit ed Nat Nat ions ion s Development Developm ent Programme (UND (UNDP P) and the t he United Unit ed Nat Nat ions ion s Population Fund (UNFPA) for the assistance rendered in preparing this report.

Thank Yo You.

July ul y 2003

The Progres Progr ess s of Women Sin Since ce Independen Indep endence ce

Box 1.1: Malaysia’ Malaysia’s s Fir Firs st La Lad d y, Datt o’ Seri Dr Sit Da Sit i Has Hasma mah h bt . Mohd. Ali — An Inspi Inspiri ring ng Rol Role e Mo Model del for f or Malaysian Women Women Dat o’ Seri Dr Sit Dat Sitii Has Hasma mah h bt. bt . Mo Moh hd. Al i ,wi fe of the the Prime Min Minist er of Mal Malaysi ysia, is a medical doctor. doctor.S She w wa as t he sec secon ond d Ma Mallay woman to grad graduate from the Facult y o off Med Medicine,Un e,Uniiver versit y o off Mal Malaya in Sin Singapo pore re in 19 1955,and 55,and in i n a way way,set the reco record rd for women wo men in her time. ti me. She a attt rib ributed her medical achievem achievement to the fore fores sight of her father who encou encouraged his children to excel in their studies by sending them to the best school schools. She wast he firs firstt wom woma an to t o be be app appo ointed nted a medica medicall offi offic cer in the th e Mate Maternal rnal and Child hild He Healt alth h De Dep partm rt ment in the st state of Keda Kedah, h,whi whic ch had a high incidence incidence of povert poverty y in the t he e early arly days days aft afte er indepe in depen ndence (1950s to 1960s). 1960s).In 1974, 1974,s she was was the first woman to be appoi appointed as the State St ate Maternal Maternal and Child Hea Healt h Officer.The r.Therea reafte fterr, she became became aware aware of the t he needs needs of wo wom men, t he ma majori jority ty of whom were were illitera illiteratt e, suffering fering from ill health and living in extreme ext reme poverty. poverty. Due to poor education as well as inadequate infras infrastruct ructu ure, re, includi including ng hea health lt h servi rvices ces, t hey were were res resorting rt ing to t radit raditiona ionall birth birt h at att endants nt s. Acc According t o her her, in the t he early early days days,, many women died during childbirth from a lack of health servi rvices.S s. St illbirths and infant morta mort ality we were re common occ occurre rrences ces. Dis Diseases like tuberculosis tuberculosis plagued the peo people, especially the children children. Women we were re ignorant rant of tthe he met met hods of family family planning. This prom prompted her and her husband husband to t o pion pione eer the t he sett setting ing up of t he Keda Kedah h Fa Family mily Pla Plannin nning g Ass Associ ociat ion, a non-govern non-governm ment orga organisation offering offering family planning servi services to wom women, thus providin pr oviding g them t hem a means means to plan their their preg pregnancies. Her effo Her efforts rt s in in promoting promoti ng the t he hea health lth of w wome omen n is evi evident in seve everal articles she wrote rote on the soci socio-economic factors associ associated with preg pregnancy and childbea be aring in Mal Malaysia.She has been acco accorded rded acad academic mi c recognit recognition ion as ref reflected cted by her appoi appointm nt ment as the Cha Chancellor of the Multimedia Uni Univer versity in 1997 and the honorary honorary doctorates doctorates she has rec received not just from local (Uni (Univer versiti Kebangsaan Mal Malaysia) but also from foreign foreign universities (Indiana Uni Univer versit y, USA and Uni Univer versit y of Vi Victori toria a, Canada). In 1992, she was chose chosen n as on one e of the s six ix Co Corere-Group Initiators of First Ladies t o champi champion on the t he economic economic adva advance ncement ment of rural women,a women,and in 19 1995 95,, she

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The Progres Progr ess s of Women Sin Since ce Independen Indep endence ce

assumed t he chairmans chairmanship hip of tthe he Regiona egion al St St ee eerin ring g Comm Commit ittt ee on the t he Economic Advancement of Rural and Island Women for the Asia Pacific Region egio n (RSC-AP). -AP).In In 1996,s 1996, she ttoo ook k over the t he helm hel m of the Inte Int ernational rnational Stee Steerin ring Committee on the Economic Advancement of Rural Women (ISC) as its pres resident. nt. According cording to t o her,j her,jus ustt be befo fore re indepen independence the cou country nt ry was waspre preoccupied occupied wit h pos po st -war reco recon nstructi ruction on and and durin during g that t hat time, t ime,hea healtlth h st st atus was static.Hea c.Healt h servi rvices were were mainly provided through a limited number of govern governm ment dispe pen nsaries (in urban as well as rural rural area areas). There has been significant significant progress rogress made in health servi services after indepen independence. ce. This his is ref reflected in improvem rovements nt s in hea healtlth h statis stati st ics and the eas easy a ava vaiilability of serv serviices,even in rem remote and rural rural area areas. The prog progres ress s is partly part ly due du e to the the pe pea ace that has prevailed since indepen independence which had allowed the Government to channel continuous efforts into development development in i n all fields. fields. Educat ducat ion has bee been n an an import imp orta ant contribut contri buting ing fact fact or. She sa says, ys, “ The woma wom an of t oday is educated educated so that t hat she ca can be be econom economica icalllly y independent ind ependent.. She is also lso healt healthy hy and and is i s able bl e to ta t ake bet bettt er care care of t he family.S family. Social ocial and cultura cult urall barriers like marrying young, ha having ving big families and having to deal with negative attitudes of men can be overcome overcome when w hen women w omen are educated.” On tthe he progres progress s of wo wom men,she sa says,“ ys,“W Wom omen en need to t o recognise recognise t hat we have have gained so so much through t hrough the t he ha hard rd work work of our pred predecessors;w ;we e nee need not fight for what we have but they had to fight every every inch of the way.The way.Therefo refore,we re,we must must rec recog ogn nise,gi ,give credit credit and be b e grat grat eful to t he men and and women w omen who have made ma de it po pos ssible.Women e.Women must acknowledge cknowledge that we nee need to t o work work toge toget her wit h men,a men,and t ogether we will be b e effect effect ive part partners ners in developm development.” ent.” Dato’ Seri Dr Sit Dato’ Sitii Ha Has smah sa said t hat t he fut fu t ure challenges for Ma Malay lays sian women include competition competit ion among among women, wom en, expos exposure ure t o and and keeping keeping abrea reast with wit h men in t he area area of info i nform rma at ion tec technolog ogy y (IT) (IT),,and devel development of entrepreneurs entrepreneurship hip among women. w omen.T The concerns concerns for women also also include i nclude married ma rried women w omen having having t o cope wit h their t heir caree careers rs and families, coping with wit h children who are bett er educa educatt ed than their parent parents s, and the t he impact impact of HIV/AIDS on women,children and men.

Source: ource: Personal inte nt erview, rvi ew,J July uly 2001 2001

The Progress of Women Since in ce Independen Indep endence ce

Chap haptt er 1 INTRODUCTION

I. BACKG BACKGR ROUND 1.0 1.01 The role and status status of women women in Ma Malays laysia ia ha hav ve undergone undergone a profound rofound change since Mal Malaysi ysi a g ai ned indepe in depen ndence in 19 1957 57.. Wit h increas increased acc acces ess s t o educat educat ion, ion ,employment emplo yment opp opport ortuni unitt ies and and changes changes in t he socio-cult socio-cultural ural envir environm onment, ent, Ma Malay lays sian women wom en have have progres progr ess sed a and nd participated participat ed effect effect ively in all aspect pect s of de deve velop lopment ment of t he count country ry.W .Wit ithin hin a period of 43 yea years they have made inroads into in to all areas reas of de d evelopment velopm ent and spheres spheres of lif l ife. e. Particularly rt icularly encouraging is i s t he progres progr ess s made by women in many many key key area areas s such as as educa educat ion, hea healt lth, h, employment employment , and parti rt icipation ti on in powe powerr-sharing and in the decision-making proces processes. Changes in the legal and institutional framework have also been made to protec prot ectt , preserve preserve and sa safeguard feguard their t heir right s and iimpr mprove ove t heir st st at us. us. As Malays Malaysia ia evolves from fr om a sub subs sistence agr agricul icultt ural economy econom y to t o a knowledg know ledgeebased based economy economy,, women will wil l continue cont inue to t o be a primary force force influenc influ encing ing t he development of future generations of Malaysians as well as an important econom economic ic resource resource.. Changes in t he socio-cult socio-cultural ural environment, environ ment, which whi ch have have helped to shape shape th the e profile of Malays Malaysian ian women toda tod ay, will wil l continue cont inue to impa imp act women in develop development. ment. 1.02 1.02 The 2 200 000 0 Popula Populati tion on Ce Census nsus indica indicates that about about 49.1 9.1 per per ce cent or 11.4 million of the total population were women,with 52.6 per cent in the age group 24 yea years rs and below,ind below, indica icatt ing a young young female female population popu lation.. The proportion of the female population has increased slightly compared to 48.4 48. 4 per cent cent in 1957. Women have a longer lon ger life li fe expectancy expectancy,, 75 yea years rs compa omp ared to t o 70. 70.2 yea years for men m en in 2000. 2000.Due Due to t heir longer l onger lif l ife e span, span,tt he proportion of women in the 65 years and above age group has increased from fro m 2.8 per cent cent in 195 1957 7 to 4.2 4.2 per cent cent in 2000. The healt health h status statu s of women has also lso improved i mproved since since 19 1957 57,, for exa example, mpl e,tt he maternal maternal mort alit y rate decli declined ned from f rom 2.81 2.81 per 1,000 1,000 live li ve birt hs in 195 1957 7 tto o 0.2 0.2 in 2000.W 2000. With it h increased access to education and employment opportunities,women are entering the labour market and marrying at a later age.The mean age of t he firs fi rstt marriage marriage for men and women w omen ha h as risen risen since 1957 1957,when ,when the t he mean mean age for f or men wa w as 23. 23.8 8 years years and and 19. 19.4 4 years years for wom women. en. For wom women, en, it ha h as risen to 22.3 years in 1980 and 25.1 years in 2000.

The Progres Progr ess s of Women Women Since in ce Independen Indep endence ce

1.03 As t he country nt ry progresses progresses towards towards achieving greater greater gender equality equalit y, t he role of the th e Government has been supp support ortive,p ive,pre-e re-emin minent ent and cont inuous. In particular, t he Government has provided provid ed an ena enabli bling ng environment for the advancement of women at both the national and interna int ernatt ional levels levels.. At t he na natt ional le l evel, vel, t he formulation form ulation of t he Na Nat ional Policy oli cy on Women Women (NP (NPW) in 1989 marked marked a t urning urni ng poin p ointt , enunciating enunciati ng for t he firs fir st time t ime clea clearr guidelines guid elines for the t he effect effect ive participa particip at ion of women in t he country count ry’’s develop development ment.T .Therea hereaft fter er,, t he five-y fi ve-yea earr national nati onal develop development ment plans pl ans prescri bed sp ecif ecific ic st rategies rategi es and meas measures, includi in cluding ng t he est est ablis bli shment of appropriate pprop riate mecha mechanis nisms ms and and inst inst itut it utional ional fra f ramework mework to to prog ressi vely ass assimi im i late wom women en into in to t he mains main st ream ream of socia oci al and economic conomi c act i vi t i es. Desp i t e t he p rog res ress made and new meas measures int in t roduced, new concerns concerns on the t he st st at us and pos p osit ition ion of o f women wo men as as well as old old is i ssues contin cont inued ued tto o prevail prevail du duri ring ng t he period peri od 1991–2000.T 1991–2000.The he issues issues are multifarious mult ifarious:: violence against gainst women, wom en, poverty povert y amongst mongst fema female-he le-hea aded households, t he need need for for childca chil dcare re facil facilitities ies and suppo support for working working mot mother hers s, t he “t riple load” load” or burden burden tha t hatt wome w omen n ha have ve t o c ca arry; work-a work-and-fa nd-family mily conflicts cts, sexual ha haras rassment at the workp workpllace, and t he under-re under-rep pres resenta nt at ion of women w omen in polit p olit ics and d dec ecis ision-mak ion-making ing posit positions ions.. Accordin ccording g to t o gender resea researchers rchers and and ana analysts lysts,, t he root cause cause of t hese hese iss issues is t he inabil in abilitity y of the t he Malays Malaysian ian societ society y at large l arge to to understand un derstand and handle hand le “gender prob p roblems lems””. Malaysian soci society continued continued to perc perce eive the rol role, responsibilities and rel at ionshi ionship p bet wee ween n men and wom women en acco ccording rdin g t o t he t radi t i onal minds mind set, et,bas based ed on t he tra t radit ditional ional family model m odel where wh ere a male male bread-win bread-winner ner heads hea ds t he family and the t he wife wif e is a full-t full -tim ime e homemaker homemaker.T .The he family famil y st st ructure ruct ure has changed over time particular in the 1990s.The trend shows an increa increase of nuclear families with dual incom income; and the t he Popu Populati lation on Cens Census us 200 2000 0 indica ind icatt es t ha hatt 58 pe perr cent cent of working wor king women w omen are are married. married.W Working singl single e women and worki w orking ng mot mothers hers have have specifi specific c needs needs which require requi re a diff di ffere erent nt supp upport ort syst yst em. em.D During uri ng the t he same period, global gl obal “gender issues issues”” were also lso rais raised ed,, culminating culminatin g in i n the t he Beijing Beijing De Decla clara ratt ion and Plan Plan of Action, Act ion, calli calling ng on all governments to implement gender sensitivity training that would enabl ena ble e planners pl anners t o fformu ormula latt e gender-respon gender-respons sive poli p olicies cies and pr p rogrammes. ogrammes. 1.04 At t he internati rnational onal level the t he Gove Govern rnm ment showed its it s com commit ment to promote the development of women by being signatory to several i nte nt ernat ional convention nt ions s on women, i ncluding ncludin g th e Fourth rt h Worl d Conference on Women (Beijing,1995).The Conference identified 12 critical areas of con concern cern for the t he adva advan ncement of wom women.The areas included poverty, poverty,

The P Prog rogres ress s of Women Since in ce Independen Indep endence ce

educati cat ion, healt h, economy, my, po power wer sharing and decis decisio ion-ma n-maki kin ng, and inst inst itut it utional ional mechanis mechanisms ms.. As a follow-up follow -up to t o the t he Beijing Beijing Conference onference on Wom omen en Pl us 5 and t aking ki ng cognisance of t he nee need d t o have a more com compreh rehensive and integ integrated database of inform information ation on Mal Malaysi ysian women, t he Gove Government rnment of Malays Malaysia ia in collabora collaboratt ion wit wi t h the t he Unit United ed Natt ions Na io ns Devel op ment Prog ro gramme (UN (UNDP DP)) and t he Uni t ed Na Natt i ons Popu opulati lation on Fund Fund (UNF (UNFPA) und undert ertook ook t his st st udy t o document d ocument and eva evaluate luat e t he progres pro gress s of women w omen in Ma Mala lays ysia ia coverin covering g t he period perio d 1957–2 1957–2000 000..

II.OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 1.05 1.05 The ma main in purpose purpose of the study study is to chronic chronicle le the progre progres ss ma made de by women in Malaysi ysia, wit h s spec pecial ial focus focus on four key key a are rea as: healt h, educat cat ion and trai ni ng, emp l oyment, power-sharing and pol i t ical involvement. involvement . The st st udy covers t he period 195 1957– 7–200 2000. 0. The benchmark for meas measuring uri ng wom women en’s ’s progres prog ress s is gender gender equa equ alit li t y, which whi ch is the extent and depth dept h of prog ress ress made by women in relation ati on t o t hat achieved chieved by Malays Ma laysian ian men. The st st udy wil w illl d demons emonstt rate the t he linkage li nkages s bet betwee ween n national nati onal policy pol icy initiatives init iatives and the t he ad ad vance vancement ment of women as well as identify ident ify fut future ure challenges challenges.. Specifi pecifica cally, lly,tt he st st udy will w ill underta undert ake the follow fol lowing: ing: •

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provide an overview of the progress of women in Malaysia since independence; docu ocument t he progres progress s made i n selected key areas, namely, educat i on, heal t h, emp loyment, politic politi cs and power-sharing t hrough roug h basic basic indica indi catt ors of qualit quali t y of life li fe such as acce acces ss to to educa educat ion,hea ion,health lt h facili facilitt ies and economic economic opport oppo rtunit unities ies;; review and analyse the integration of women in the nation’s develop development ment in i n terms t erms of policy p olicy thrus t hrustt s, key key programmes programmes/ projec proj ectt s and activities as well as institutional support;and capture the achievements of women in Malaysia in other areas such uch as as economics conomics,, politics polit ics,, socia ociall deve development and law law ; and w herever rever applic ppl ica ab l e, singling ingli ng out pro mi nent women wit h outs out st anding ndi ng a achieve chievements ments and contribut contri butions. ions.

The P Prog rogres ress s of Women Sin Since ce Independen Indep endence ce

III.METHODOLOGY 1.06 This stud tudy y relies relies he hea avily on secondary da data ta from exi st i ng government st at ist ist ics – cens census us data,labour data,labour force sur veys veys,, vita vit al statis stati st ics of the country – and departmental records from government agencies and minist ries, non-governmenta nt al org ani sat ions io ns and research ins in st itut it utio ions ns.. These inform informa ation ti on sources sources provided provi ded wom wo men-specific pecif ic data dat a as well well as gen genderderdisaggregated data for the construction of key indicators for the period 1957–20 1957–2000. 00.K Key indi in dica catt ors were comp compililed ed for the t he st st atu atus s of wom women’s en’s health, healt h, acces ccess s t o educat educat ion and trainin t raining, g, and employment empl oyment,, as well as particip part icipa at ion in politics and decision-making.The study also used information and data culled from official of ficial document documents s, resea research rch publica publi catt ions and and reports report s from relevant relevant agencies.T gencies.The he paucity paucit y of gender-dis gender-di saggrega ggr egatt ed data limit li mit s t o some some extent t he analyt analytica icall aspect aspect of t his hi s report in specif specific ic area areas s. An except exception ion is the census and labour force surveys undertaken by the Department of Statistics. 1.07 1.07 In a addition, ddition,da data ta was was also lso collecte collected d using using the ca case study approa approac ch where prominent women, who have have contri contribut buted ed signifi signific cantly nt ly in the t heir ir areas reas of specialis pecialisa at ion, were int in t erviewed. erviewed. Two women high achie achieve vers rs in decision decision-mak -makin ing g and pow power-s er-sharing haring position posit ions s were interviewed int erviewed as role rol e models mod els for young wom women en in Malaysia. Malaysia. 1.08 Apa part rt from the qua quantit ntita ative ana nalys lysis is using using time-s time-se eries ries da data ta to show t rends in wom women en’s ’s progres pr ogress s, t his hi s st udy also also attempt att empts s t o analys analyse e the th e progres prog ress s qualit quali t at ively by performing perform ing in-dept i n-depth h analys analyses es of certain pertinen pert inentt gender-s gender-sensit ensitive ive indic ind icators ators.. For inst inst ance, nce, t he high percentage percentage of women wo men enrolled roll ed in unive uni vers rsit it ies is furt fu rther her analysed nalysed t o see wh whe et her wo men undergraduates are mainly enrolled in women-traditional programmes (tha (th at is, purs pur suing uin g degrees in education educati on and other ot her soft soft sciences ciences) or in nonnon traditional programmes (such as engineering and computer sciences). Women’s participation in the professional or higher-level (administrative and managerial) managerial) occupati occupational onal categories categor ies and the th e male-female male-female ra r at io wit wi t hin hi n a profes prof ess sion io n are used used to t o ass assess ess t heir prog progres ress s in emplo emp loyment yment.. The number numb er and share of top-l t op-le evel vel d dec ecision-making ision-making pos p osit ition ions s assumed by b y wo women men wer w ere e further analysed to measure the gender gap.To measure the achievement of women in i n polit p olit ics, ics, t he commonl commonly y used used gender-s gender-sensit ensitive ive indica indi catt or is t he women’s share of parliamentary seats.

The Progres Progr ess s of Women Women Since in ce Independen Indep endence ce

IV. OVE OVERVI VIE EW OF THE RE REPORT PORT 1.09 This repor reportt is divide divided d into five cha hapter pters s. Cha hapter pter 1 highli highlights ghts the government initiatives taken to advance women in important sectors of develop development ment,, such as as t he Na Nat iona ion al Poli Policy cy on Women (1989) (1989) and the t he Nat ional Act Act ion Plan. A list list of recent recent amendments to exis existt ing legislation legislation t hat have affected ct ed wo men’s advancement and wel l -being bein g are also also highlig high lighted. hted.T This cha chapt pter er als also o highli hi ghlight ghts s t he Governme Government nt’’s commitment commit ment at t he interna int ernatt iona ion al level. level. Chapters hapt ers 2 to 5 discus discuss s t he progres prog ress s of w women omen in various vario us key areas. areas. 1.10 Cha hapte pterr 2 foc focuse uses on educ educa ation and and traini training ng of of wom wome en, with highli hig hlight ghts s on women w omen’’s achievement chievement in educa educat ion at vario various us levels levels of formal for mal schooling chooli ng and trainin t raining g.The .The trends tr ends in enrolment enro lment rates, ates, or the t he ra rat io of male to to female st st udent enrolment enrolm ent at various variou s levels levels of education, educati on, are analys analysed ed to meas measure changes changes in educat educat iona ion al att at t ainment in ment of wom women en and and gender gaps in educa educat ion.O ion. Ot her indic indi cat ors used used to highli hi ghlight ght t he educa educatt ional atta att ainment of women for the 1957–2000 period include the ratio of female to male st udents udent s in t echnica echnicall and vocatio vocationa nall educat educat ion, as well as enrolment in t echni cal and non non-te -techni cal cal degree prog pr ogramm rammes es at tert i ary level s. This chapt chapter er als also o ident id entif ifies ies t he iss issues, ues, gender barriers and constraint s encountered by b y women wo men in i n education educati on and t raining rainin g.There .There is also also a discus discuss sion on wom women en’s ’sacces ccess s t o non-for non -formal mal educat educat ion and trainin t raining g. Indic Indi cat ors used used to meas measure the th e ad vanceme vancement nt of wom women en in t his hi s area include women’ w omen’s s overall participation in training as well as in specific types of training offered by various agencies. 1.11 In cha hapt pte er 3,wome 3, women’ n’s achieve hieveme ments nts in e ec conomic activitie tivit ies s for the period perio d 195 1957– 7–200 2000 0 are given promi pr ominenc nence.T e.The he chapter chapt er elaborates elaborates the t he trends t rends in women’s women’s participation participati on in t he labour labour force, force, by indus in dustt ry and and occupati occupationa onall cat cat egory,in egory, in comparis comp arison on t o men.W men. Women’s omen’s progr progres ess s is as assess essed b by y analysin analysing g t he trends and tthe he gender gender gap gap in t he empl employment oyment st st at us, us, employment pattern patt ern and and skills as as well as t heir unta unt apped pot p otential ential and low labour force particip part icipa at ion rat rat e. Gender-specifi ender-specific c iss issues and const const raints raint s associat ociat ed wit wi t h women’s work and product pr oductivit ivity y are are als also o identi id entified fied.. 1.12 Chapt er 4 trac traces t he prog pro gress ess of wo wom men’s n’s hea healtlth h since in ce indepe indepen ndence using using standard standard morta mort ality lit y and and morbidi morb iditt y indic indi cat ors. ors. It shows shows how wom women en in Mal ays aysia ha h ave made great strides stri des in achi achievin eving g a higher hig her level l evel of hea healt lt h

The P Prog rogres ress s of Women Since in ce Independen Indep endence ce

st atus over the past four decades so that today tod ay their morta mort ality and morbidity rates are almost on par if not below that of some of the deve de velop loped ed count countries ries.. This impres imp ress sive progres pr ogress s is, is, in part, due to healt health h p rog rammes that th at inco in corpo rated t he risk approach approach st rate rategy and t he conf onfid ident ential ial enqu enquiry iry on the t he maternal maternal deat deat h app approac roach. h. The chapt chapter er also also highlight highl ights s how t he provis provision ion of rura ru rall healt health h servic services es ha has s contribut contri buted ed tto o the t he improve improveme ment nt of the t he he hea alth lt h st st at us of wome w omen n in t he c countr ountry y. It cauti cautions ons women wom en agains againstt several everal emerging hea healt lth h issues issues,, which whi ch they t hey have to face face as as t hey ent enter er the th e new new mill mi llennium ennium.. These hese iss issues include in clude concerns concerns for the t he healt hea lth h of older women wom en as as well as adolesce dolescent nts s, t he threa t hreatt of infectious infectio us diseases including HIV/AIDS,domestic violence,and mental and emotional healt hea lth h problems prob lems affecting ffectin g women wom en due in pa p art t o their t heir dual and and competing competi ng role rol e as as mo mott hers and and wi wives ves and ttheir heir role rol e as as employee empl oyees s. 1.13 In cha hapte pterr 5, women’s pa part rt i ci pation in de dec cisio ision-m n-ma aking king and power-sharing positions is assessed by analysing the trends and quality of women’s women’s involvement invol vement in poli p olitt ics, ics, and as as polit pol itica icall appoint appoi ntee ees s as well as participants participant s in t he public publ ic servic service e sec sectt or. The number and and d dis istt ribut rib ution ion of female executives in the private sector as well as in non-governmental organisa org anisatt ions io ns (NG (NGO Os) are are also also includ in cluded ed in t he analysis analysis.The .The findi fin ding ngs s confir conf irm m the wide disparity that exists between men and women in leadership and decis decision-mak ion-making ing pos po sitions.T it ions.The he majori majoritt y of women involve in volved d in polit poli t ics, ics,and as emplo yees yees in t he privat p rivate e sector, ect or, coop oopera eratt ives and and NGO NGOs prima prim arily ril y held lower ranking ranking posit positions ions.. The author ut hor at at t ribut ribu t es t he low participa parti cipatt ion of women in top decision-making or power- sharing positions to the strong influence of t radi raditt iona ion al thi t hinki nking ng that t hat “men are are leade leaders rs,, women are are fol followe owerrs”. In general,this traditional gender ideology permeates the thinking process in the t he selec selectt ion of candi candidat dat es for leaders leadership hip or decision decision-mak -making ing position posit ions s.

V. GEND GENDE ER AN AND D DE DEVELOPMENT VELOPMENT PLA PLANN NNIING 1.14 1.14 Efforts in ec economic and soc socia iall deve developme lopment nt in Mala Malays ysia ia be bega gan n witt h tthe wi he impl im pleme ement nta at ion of t he First First Five-Yea ive-Yearr Plan Plan (1956– (1956–196 1960) 0) on the t he eve eve of t he country’ count ry’s s independence ind ependence.This .This pla pl an and t he subse subsequent quent de developm velopment ent pla pl ans concent concentrrated on sus sustt aining ini ng econom economic ic growt h,phys h,ph ysica icall d de evelop velopment ment,, di versi f i cat ion of agri cul t ure and indus indu st rial devel op ment wi witt h t he ob j ect i ves ves of expanding expanding employment opp oppo ortuni rt unitt ies and income impro im prove vement ments s. The New New Economi Economic c Policy oli cy,, launched in 1971, 1971, emphasis emphasised ed nat ional unit y an and d na natt ion-building ion-buil ding throug h a t wo-p ronged st rat rat egy of

The Progress of Women Since in ce Independen Indep endence ce

eradicating poverty regardless of race and restructuring society so as to eliminate the identifica identi ficatt ion of race race wit h economic economic funct funct ions. ions. None of the t he development development plans, plans, however, however, ga gave ve any any spec special ial at at t ention entio n to t o issues issues and strategies for the advancement of women until the Sixth Malaysia Plan (1991 (1991-–1 -–1995 995). ). It was t he firs fir st t ime that t hat a five-yea five-year develop development ment pla pl an had included in cluded a chapt chapter er detailing detaili ng programmes prog rammes and pro pro je  jects for the th e deve development of w women. omen. The chapt chapter er als also o conta cont ains in s specific pecifi c st st rat rat egies t o effectively effecti vely incorporat incorporat e women in t he proc pr oces ess s of deve d evelop lopment ment in accorda accordance nce wit h the t he objectives of the National Policy on Women (NPW),which are as follows: •

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to ensure equitable sharing in the acquisition of resources and information as well as access to opportunities and benefits of deve de velop lopmen mentt , for men m en a and nd women;a women;and to integrate women into all sectors of national development in line with their abilities and needs in order to improve the quality of life l ife,, eradic radicate ate povert poverty y, abolish bolish ignora i gnorance nce and illit i llite erac racy and and ensure a peaceful and prosperous nation.

1.15 While t he Sixth xt h P Plan lan recogn recognis ised ed women wo men as as an impo imp orta rt ant econ economic res resource ource, it identifie identifi ed the t he following cons constt raint raints s which were inhibit ing the t he involvement involvement of women w omen in economic activi activitt ies: ies: •

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t he dua duall and, and, oft ofte en, competing competing res responsibili ponsibiliti tie es of family family and and caree careerr rest rest rict t he mobilit mobi lit y and and increas increased participa particip at ion of women in the t he labour mar mar ket ket ; gender diffe gender diff eren rences in schools not only tran translat e into occ occupat ional differe ferent ntiiat ion la l at er;it r; it also lso limits limi ts the ada adapt pta abilit bili t y and and parti part icipat ion of women in the labour market market ; social norms and prejudices regarding the role and status of women wom en in soci et y and in t he labour market market rest rai rai n t heir involvement involvement in economi economic c activi activitt ies; ies; women with children, who are financia financially lly dependent dependent on t he heir ir husbands, are parti part icularly rly vulnera vul nerab b le in cas cases of d omest omestic viol violence ence.. The lack lack of skills skills very very often oft en limit s t heir options opt ions,, t hus prevent preventing ing t hem from fro m sec securi uring ng alterna alt ernatt ive sour source ces s of income; i ncome;

The Progres Progr ess s of Women Women Since in ce Independen Indep endence ce

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wom en are oft women of t en p ercei ved as secondary ea earn rne ers w ho on onll y supplement family incomes rather than as co-earners whose economic act act ivit ivi t ies are crucial crucial t o t he family. Consequent l y, income-generat rat ing programmes programmes t arge arget ed at at the th e women general generally reinforce t heir home-make home-makerr roles, roles, providing providi ng few opport op portunit unities ies for t he acquisit acquisition ion of new n ew and and more m ore market marketa able bl e skills kill s; t he lack lack of appropr appr opria iate te management management t raining rainin g and the t he cons consequen equentt ab sence of pro fessi onal ism, i nad eq uat e acces access s t o credit credi t and a paucity of rel relevant vant marke markett inform informa at ion also also hinder hin der the t he part partiicipat ion of women in t he e ec conomy; and the th e working rki ng environment is generally not con conducive to t he sust ust ained employment of wives w ives and mo mott hers. hers. This limits limit s t he t raining raining oppor oppor tun unitities ies available available and hampers career career devel development. nt . The sepa eparr at ion of home from t he workplac workp lace e and and t he fixed hours of w work ork const const itut it ute e addi additt ional drawbacks drawbacks t hat preclude prolonged female female part participatio icipation n in the t he labour labour market.

1.16 The hes se iss issue ues s provide provided d the ba bac ckdrop kdrop for the Gove overnment to formul ate strat trat egi es, and plan for the sett etting ing up of an approp riate institutional structure to enhance the social,legal and economic position of wo women men in the t he next next deca decade de.. The formulation of o f an an Act Act ion Plan Plan to operation rati ona al i se t he NP NPW W in t he Seventh nt h Mal aysi aysi a Plan refl ected ct ed t he Government’s efforts to address these constraints and commitment to include women as equal partners in nation building.The areas included in t he Act Act ion Plan are: •

st rengthening rength ening t he na natt ional machinery machinery for the int egra egrat ion of women in developm development; ent;

•

rais raising ing pub publilic ca aw w areness and sensitivity towards towards issues rel relat ing to wom wo men;

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mobil mob ilis ising ing t he NGO NGOs t o increa i ncreas se their t heir efficienc effi ciency y and effec eff ectt iveness iveness in undertaking socio-economic programmes;

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encouraging positive action for the advancement of women in various fields;and

The Progres Progr ess s of Women Women Since in ce Independen Indep endence ce

•

promoting promot ing t he role of of wome w omen n in family family deve development. lopment.

1.17 The impleme implementa ntation tion of of the Action Pla Plan, n, a pionee pioneering effort ffort tha t hatt forma form ally ll y began began in 1990, had res result ed in more coherent coherent and focus fo cuss sed programmes programmes t o int in t egrat egrat e women in deve d evelopm lopment ent and furt f urther her elev eleva at e their st at us in societ ociet y.H y. However owever,, t here are are st st ill const const raint raints s t hat limi l imitt progress progress. At t he st st art of this t his 21 21s st cent century, ury, t he socia sociall and and economic economic st st at us of women wom en relative to men is still not satisfactory and the disparity may become greater due to the effects of globalisation and use of information and communica ommuni catt ion tec t echnolo hnology gy (ICT (ICT). In view view of tthes hese e ga gaps ps,, st rat rat egies egies to enhance the role of women in development were included as one of the key poli po licy cy thru t hrus st s of t he Nat Nat ional io nal Vision Vision Policy ol icy (NVP (NVP) 2001–20 2001–2010. 10.T The NV NVP st at es t ha hatt opp opport ortunit unities ies in employment, empl oyment, busines business s and socia sociall act act ivities ivit ies will be ma made de a ava vailable ilable without wit hout gender gender bias, bias, t hus promoting promoti ng equity in opport opp ortunit unities ies for bot b oth h men and women.W women. Women’s omen’s economic economic participa parti cipatt ion is to be enhanced through the provision of greater access to training and retraining, more extens ext ensive ive use use of flexible working hours, hours, t he provis provision ion of crèches crèches as well as facilit facili t ies to ena enabl ble e them t hem t o wo w ork from fro m home. hom e. Entrepreneurship among women will be promoted actively by providing greater access to information,financial and technical resources. 1.18 To ope opera rationa tionalis lise e the NVP in the medium medium term, term, strateg trategie ies s and progr programmes ammes are cont cont ained in i n the t he Eig Eight hth h Malays Malaysia ia Plan Plan (2001–20 (2001–2005). 05). The st rat rat egies egies for t he ad ad vance vancement ment of women focus f ocuss sed on the t he followin foll owing: g: •

•

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increa increasing female female participa parti cipatt ion in t he labour market; market; providing more education education and t raining raining opportunit opport unities ies for women to meet the demands of the knowledge-based knowledge-based econ economy and improve their upward upward mobility mobilit y in the t he labour labour mar mar ket ket ; enhancin enhancing g wom women’ en’s s involvement invol vement in business business; reviewing laws and regulations that inhibit the advancement of women; improving imp roving furt her the hea health lt h st st at us of women; wom en; reducing reducing the incidence incidence of p pov ove erty rt y among female-hea female-headed ded hous households; eholds;

The P Prog rogres ress s of Women Sin Since ce Independen Indep endence ce

•

st rengt rengthening hening res research activit cti vities ies to increas increase part icipat ion of women in development and enhance enhance their well-being;and well-being;and

•

st rengt rengthening hening the t he nati national onal machine machinery ry and the t he inst inst itut it utional ional ca capacity for the t he a ad d vance vancement ment of women. w omen.

1.19 1.19 The Action Pla Plan,Na n,Nati tiona onall Vis Vision ion Policy Policy and various various other st st rategies tegies to promote gender equality and progress of women represent formal and continui nt inuing ng effo rts rt s t aken ken by t he Government under t he vari ous devel velopment plans plans.. Their heir coh coherent rent and effecti ve implemen imp lementt ation will determine the extent ext ent and depth dept h of t he incremental incremental progres progr ess s of women w omen in Malaysia in the years ahead.

VI . ADM INSTRA RATI TIVE VE MACHI NERY FOR THE ADVANCEM ENT OF WOMEN 1.20 The impleme implement nt ation of poli ci es, st rate rategies gies and prog programmes requires a suppo support rtive ive inst inst itut it utional ional st st ructure and appropria appropri at e admi adminis nistt rat rat ive machinery ma chinery.. Significa igni ficant nt progress progress ha has s bee been n ma m ade in t he sett setting ing up of t he required inst inst itut it utional ional and and admin adminis istt rative machinery machinery t o plan, coordina oordi nate, te, i mpl ement and monit or devel opment programmes rammes for women. The establishment of the Ministry of Women and Family Development in Februar y 2001 marks t he culmi cul minati nation on of effo rt s t o ass assign ig n women’s deve de velop lopment ment and iss issues t o a spec specifi ific c ministry. The e es st ablis bli shment of this t his new ne w minis mini stry tr y rep repres resents nt s an impo im port rta ant change change in the th e mindse mindset of pol policymaker kers who have be b ecome more gender-sens gender-sensit itive. ive. Current l y, t he inst inst itutiona itut ionall structure for women and development can be categorised into planning, coordi nat ing and moni to ring ri ng (Mini st ry of Women and Fami l y Deve De velopm lopment), ent), advisory dvisory and planning p lanning (Na (Nat ional Advisory Advisory Council Council on t he Integration Integrat ion of of W Women omen in Developm Development ent), ), advocacy dvocacy (Na (Natt iona ion al C Council ouncil of Women’s Organi sat i ons), coord i nation ati on and mo moni nitt oring ri ng (HAW (HAWA) and impleme imp lement nta at ion (line minis mini st ries and depa d epart rtments ments,, semi-government emi-government and non-- government organis non or ganisa at ions ion s). 1.21 The Mini Minist ry of Women and Fami Familly Deve Develo lopment  pment is t he lead agency t o undert ake gender responsi ve planning and po licy formul ation ti on fo r women. It is respo pons nsib ible le for t he inte int egrati ration on of wom wome en in t he nat i onal development development proc p roces ess s t hrough coordination, coordinati on, monit oring and and eva evaluation, luati on, planning and and po p olicy form formu ulat ion,and repo report rting ing to t o the t he Gove Govern rnm ment.I nt .Itt s major

The Progres Progr ess s of Women Sin Since ce Independ Indep endence ence

ob je  jecti ctive is to mainstream women in nation-building and stren strengt hen t he family institution by integrating gender into all aspects of planning and development.To nt .To ensure that gender and family per perspe pect ctiives are int inte egrated rated into int o national nati onal policies pol icies,, it und undert erta akes coordin oord ina at ion on o n gender issues issues between between Government overnm ent agencies, agencies, NGO NGOs, t he private private sec sectt or and commun comm unitities ies as well wel l as audits existing legislation and regulations that affect the interests of women. Its functions als also o include in clude increa increasing opport oppo rtunit unities ies for women women to upg pgra rade de their t heir soci socio-economic conomi c st statu atus, and provid providing ing educat educat ion and training training opportunit opport unities ies t o women to t o support support its it s planning functions. functions. To support support its it s planning functions funct ions,, it underta undert akes kes resea research rch and and de development velopment in gender, gender, population popu lation,,family de deve velopm lopment ent and reproductive reproduct ive healt health. h.It It also lso act act s as t he secretariat for the National Advisory Council for the Integration of Women in Development (NACIWID) and is the national contact networking with inte ntern rnational ational agencies dealing with wom women’s issues as well as the secret secret aria riat for regiona region al and inte in tern at i ona onall agencies agencies pertaini rt aining ng t o women’s n’s programmes. 1.22 HAWA is a ma major jor depa departme rtment nt under under the Minis Ministry try and and the main main cont ontrib ribut utor or to t o the t he planning proces process of tthe he Minist Minist ry.It ry. It wa w as firs fir st set up as t he Women’s Aff Affairs airs Dep Departm rt ment under u nder the Min Minist ry of Labo abou ur,being res respo pon nsible for the t he coordi coordina natt ion of t he deve developm lopment ent of women. w omen. It also lso acted acted as as t he secret ecreta ariat t o the t he Na Nat iona ion al Advis Advi sory Council Council.. In 1978 1978 it was t ransferred ransferred to to the Implementation and Coordination Unit (ICU) in the Prime Minister’s Department Depart ment.I .In n 1983,it 1983,it was re-des re-desig ignat nated ed as a s sec ecret retariat ariat named HAW HAWA in t he Admi ni st rat rat ion io n and Fi nance Division of t he Prime ri me Mi ni ster’s Depart Depa rtment ment.. Since in ce 1983 1983 H HA AWA has un underg dergone one severa severall chang changes. es.In In 1990,it 1990,it became a government department in the Ministry of National Unity and Social Deve Develop lopment, ment, but was pla pl aced ced under und er the th e M Mini inis st ry of Women Women and Family mil y Developm Development ent upo upon n it i t s est est ablishment in February 2001. 2001.T The major respons responsibi ibilit lities ies of HA HAW WA are are,, among ot hers, hers, t o impleme imp lement nt t he ca capacit pacity y develop me ent nt programmes programmes and pro j ects for wo wom men, organis rganise e gen gende derr sensi t i sat ion prog pro grammes and gender gend er p lanning lannin g courses courses t o enhance awareness wareness about wo women’ men’s s concerns among po polilicy cy makers makers,, planners pl anners and programmers, programmers, and provide skills skills in integr int egra at ing iss issues in developm development ent planning and and policy poli cy formula formul at ion. 1.23 The National Ad v  vi  i  s  so    ry ry Council on t he Integration rat ion of Women omen i n  Develop Developm ment (NAC (NACIWID), a consul t at i ve and advi sory body to t he Governm overnment ent and non-go no n-gove vernm rnment ent organis or ganisa at ions ion s, was est est ablished ablished in 1976

The Progres Progr ess s of Women Since in ce Independen Indep endence ce

in acc accordanc ordance e wit h t he United nit ed Nat ions’ ions’ Resolut esolution ion on integrating women into int o the t he mains mainstt ream ream of t he deve developm lopment ent proces process. Its It s members, members, who are app ppoin ointt ed by the t he Minister of Women Women and and Fa Family mi ly Dev Development elopm ent,, are dra dr awn from fro m women wo men leaders leaders in the t he commu communit nit y, NGO NGOs, profes pro fess siona ion al bodies bod ies,, p olit oli t ical ical parties part ies,, and the t he private pr ivate sector sector as well as academicians cademicians and retired reti red civil servant ervants s. NA NAC CIWID IWID a acts cts as as t he main b ody t hrough hrou gh wh which ich women-related w omen-related iss issues are channell channelled ed to t o the t he releva relevant authori aut horitt ies, and plans pl ans and eva evaluates luat es activit cti vities ies of women’ w omen’s s organisat organisat ions ion s. Besid esides es promot pro moting ing and encouraging resea research rch acti activit vities ies,, it also communica commun icatt es wi witt h relevant relevant organisat organisat ions ion s wi witt hin hi n and wi with thout out the th e count ry t o pro mot e na natt ional and inte int ernat i onal understanding. 1.24 The National Council of Women’s Organizations (NCWO) is a nonpolilitic po tica al, non-religious and non-communal orga organisat ion, and acts acts as the umbrella orga organisat ion for wom women en NGO NGOs in Ma Mala lays ysia. ia.At At present present,, t he NC NCW WO has more than t han 200 200 welfa welf are, re, polit pol itica ical,prof l,profes ess siona ion al and labour orga org anisat nisat ions ion s affiliated ffi liated to it , including includi ng a number of active active and and import imp orta ant organisa organisat ions. The NCW NCWO’s main role rol e is t o be b e a consul consultt ative ati ve and and advisory body bo dy t o women’ w omen’s organisat organisat ions ion s and to t o bring bri ng all thes t hese e organi organis sat ions ion s tog togeth ether er.. It also lso has a Commission for Action on the National Policy for Women and state level committees. 1.25 There are various various major orga organisations implementing women in developme ment (WID (WID)) programmes. The hes se include include the Communi ty Deve Devel opment Divisio Division n (KE (KEMAS), MAS), t he Nation at ional al Popul at ion io n and Famil y Develop De velopment ment Board (NPF (NPFDB DB), ),tt he Depart Department ment of Agricult Agri culture ure (DOA) (DOA) and the t he Federal Land Land Develop Developmen mentt Autho Aut hori ritt y (FE (FELD LDA). A). KEMAS’s prog pr ogramm rammes es on women focus mainly on family development including home economics such as nut nutrit rition ion and fa f amily mil y hea healt lth h at the th e village level level, wo work rk--orie riented classes such as tailoring and handicrafts and agriculture aimed at producing food for the t he family or the t he market, market,a and prepre-school programmes programmes such such as est establishin ablishing g communit y pre pre-school child-care child-care cent centres res and a adult dult lite lit eracy racy progra program mmes.The s.The cult ural ral,social,economic and demographic factors which affect women in developm develo pment ent are address addressed thr t hroug ough h act act ivit ivi t ies un undert dertake aken n by NPF NPFPB. It also also promotes population and family development as well as reproductive healt h-rel related con concerns.The rns.The DOA and FELDA carry carry out out programmes programmes mainly mainl y on family famil y deve development,im nt,improvem rovement of the t he qua qualit lity y of life, life, entre nt rep pren reneurship of ta t arget rget grou groups, and incom income-generat rat ing in g activit activities ies such as trai raining,f g, financial assist ance and other ot her input inp uts s for fo r t he benefit benefi t of wo men,pri marily ril y i n FELDA DA’’s

The Progress of Women Since in ce Independen Indep endence ce

agricultural schemes/estates.

VIII.LE VI .LEGAL STATUS OF WOME WOMEN 1.26 Women’s legal legal stat tat us wit h regard to citiz it ize enshi p, educat i on, employm oyment, nt,lega legall rig rights ht s and status in ma marria rriage,di ,divorce vorce,,and the th e guard guardiianship of children are embodied in the Federal Constitution as well as in other legislation legislation which w hich have have bee been n enacted enacted from t ime to t o time. t ime. Considera onsiderable ble legislat legislat ive changes changes have have tta aken plac pl ace e over t ime, ime , especia especialllly y af af t er 195 1957. 7. Ne New w laws have been enacted while existing laws and legislation are cont contiinuously beiing reviewe be reviewed d and and amended amended to t o preserve preserve,, reinforce reinforce and and prot pr otec ectt t he rights right s of women. wom en.T The adop adoptt ion of t he Women and Girl Girls s’ Protec rot ectt ion Act 1973 and its it s 19 1987 87 amendments amendments,, t he impleme imp lement nta at ion of t he Domes Domest ic Violence Violence Act Act 1994 19 94 in 199 996, 6, and the int rodu roduction cti on of the th e Code of Practi ce on t he Preventio nt ion n and Ha Hand ndliling ng of Sexual exual Ha Hara ras ssment in the Workp Workpllace are examples of legislati legislat ive meas measures ures t arget rget ed at at prote prot ect ing the t he dignity of women. Ame mendments ndments t o other pertinent act act s and laws laws such uch as as t he Emp mployment loyment Act 195 1955 5 and the t he improved im proved provisions pr ovisions of t he Income Tax Act 1967 196 7 are are aimed aimed at safeguarding feguardin g t he econom economic ic int in t eres erest s of w women. omen. Women under und er t he Fede Federal ral Const onst it ut ion 1.27 1.27 Mala Ma lay ysian ian wome women’ n’s s rights as citizens itizens to participa participate te in the political political and adminis admini strat rat ive life of the t he nati nation on are are implicit im plicitly ly recognise recognised d and guar gu ara ante ntee ed by the t he Federa Federall Cons Constt itut it ution ion,,wh which ich st st ates und under er A rticle rt icle 8, claus clause e 1,t 1,t hat “all  persons are equal before the law and entitled to the equal protection of the  lause 2 furt fur t her provides provi des t hat “except as expressly authorised by this  law” . Clause Constitution,there shall be no discrimination against citizens on the ground  only of religion, religi on,rac race e, de des scent cent or place of birt bi rth h in any law or in i n the t he appointme appoint ment  nt  to any office or employment under a public authority or in administration of  any law relat relating ing to t o the t he ac acquisit quisition, ion, holding or dispos dispositition ion of any prope property rt y or  t he es establis abli shing or carrying on of any trade trade,, busines business s, p ro fe  fe s s i o  on  n   ,  voc vocat ion,or  hi s clause clause does not contain a spec specific provision against e m p  pl  l oy  o   y m e  en    t ” . This gender-based discrim discrimination and may allow for prot prot ecti ctive disc discrimination rimination against women under the Employment Act.The omission was rectified on 2 August August 200 2001, 1, when t he De Dewan wan Rakyat kyat app pproved roved an amendment t o Article Arti cle 8(2) 8(2) t o include t he word,“g rd, “gender” in t he cate categories referr referred ed t o in t he claus clause e, which whi ch now reads“ t he here re shall be no discriminat discrimination ion against against citize cit izens  ns  on the t he ground only of religion, religi on, race race, de des scent cent,, place of birt birth h and gende genderr in any  n’s ri ghts ht s are, are, t herefo re, re,n n ow expl explicit icitly ly st ated in t he Fed eral law…”  Women’s

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Constitution. 1.28 The Gove Governme rnment nt ha had da als lso o tta aken ken steps steps to accord equa equall status status to women wom en under t he Consti Constitt ution’ ut ion’s provis pr ovision ions s for t he award award of citize cit izens nshi hip p and permanent permanent res residence.U idence. Under A rticle rt icle 15 of t he Cons Constt itut it ution, ion, no condit conditions ions were imposed upon foreign wives of citizens to apply for citizenship. How owev eve er, a subsequ ubsequent ent amendm amendment ent made in 196 1962 2 included inclu ded vari ous condit ondi t ions, ions, including includi ng tthe he “good chara character” cter” requirement requirement for foreign wives w ives of citizens when applying for citizenship.By another amendment to Clause 2 of Article 15,citizen rights could be acquired by any child of a citizen.This amendment puts women on par with men as regards the granting of automatic ut omatic citiz citi zenship enship of children child ren born to t o them. t hem.Ho Howeve weverr, foreign spous spouses es of Malays Malaysian ian women wo men are denied denied such right ri ghts s based based on t he as assumpt ump t ion t hat, upon marria marriage, women would fol follow their t heir husba husbands nds to the th eir home h ome co countri nt rie es. With the constitutional amendment of Article 8 (b),steps have been taken to rem remove t he differe differential ntial trea treat ment reg regarding rdin g the t he a acquis cquisit ition ion of citizen citizenship rights by the foreign spouses of Malaysian women (as announced by the Deputy Prime Minister cum Minister of Home Affairs on Women’s Day 2001). Emp mplo loyment yment Legislati on and Women 1.29 The Employment (revised in i n 1981, 1994 and 1999) 1999) is t he mpl oyment Act 1955 (revised major legislation legislation which whi ch regulates regulates all labour relat relat ions, ions, and cert certa ain parts app pply ly equall equally y to t o men m en and women,s w omen,such uch as contrac cont ractt s of service, ervice, wage wages s, rest rest hours hour s, hours hour s of work, wor k,hol holid ida ays, ys, annu nnua al leave leave, sick leav leave e, t ermination erminat ion and laylayoff benefit benefit s.There .There are,h are,howev owever er,, specifi pecific c parts in the t he Act,which Act, which pertain only o nly t o women, such uch as as ma matt erni rnity prot prot ection and night work work.. There is no st ipulat ion in tthe he Act Act which w hich prohibit prohib its s employers paying paying lower wages wages to t heir women wo men emp emplo loye yees es,, as compared to ma m ale workers wor kers,, for doin d oing g the t he sa same amount of work. w ork.W Women in t he privat privat e sector ecto r may therefore be subj subjec ectt t o wage dis di scrimination. criminatio n.In In t he p publi ublic c sec sectt or,howeve or,ho wever,w r,women omen have have equal equal pay for equa equ al w work.At ork.At present, present,women women in i n the t he priv pri vat e sec sectt or also also do not n ot ha have ve any any legal redress redress aga against inst wa w age dis di scriminati crimi nation. on. Part VIII of t he Empl Employment oyment Act 1955 19 55,,“Prohib “Prohibit ition ion Agains Againstt Nightw igh twork” ork” st ates t ha hatt no employe emplo yerr sha shallll require female female employe empl oyees es t o w work ork betw b etwee een n 10 o’clock in t he evening evening and 5 o’clock in the t he morning in the t he agricultural gricultural or indust indust rial rial se sectors. ctors. Howeve owever, t he Emp mploym loyment ent Women Shif Shiftt Workers Regulation egulat ions s 197 1970 0 st st ipulates ip ulates t hat “any  female empl employee oyee employed mployed in i n shift hift work in any approved undertakin undertaking g which  operat es at l east ast t wo shift s pe perr day may work wor k at such times t imes wit hin t he hours