THESIS REPORT ON
ADJUSTMENT PROBLEMS OF FEMALE TEACHERS AT POSTGRADUATE DEPARTMENTS IN UNIVERSITY OF PESHAWAR
By
AMBREEN MAHMOOD LALA RUKH M.A (Final Sociology)
DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF PESHAWAR Session: 2006 – 2007
ii
In the Name of Allah The Most Beneficent, The Most Merciful
APPROVAL SHEET Research Conducted By: AMBREEN MAHMOOD
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LALA RUKH
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M.A. Sociology
Approved By: PROF. DR. RASHID KHAN Chairman, Department of Sociology University of Peshawar.
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Supervised By: DR. NIAZ MUHAMMAD Lecturer, Department of Sociology, University of Peshawar
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External Examiner
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Remarks
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Grade Obtained
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Dated:
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CHAPTER – 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1
EDUCATION
Educ Educat atio ion n has has been been perc percei eive ved d to be a sign signif ific ican antt inst instru rume ment nt in improving the status of women and consequently there have been efforts to improve the access of girls and women to education. For a country which has acce accept pted ed the the goal goal of a demo democr crat atic ic,, egal egalit itar aria ian n soci societ ety, y, prom promot otio ion n and and development of women's education is foregone commitment. Policy makers have recognized that, apart from the political structure, corrective legislation and economic economic transfor transformat mation ion,, the formal formal educat education ion system system has to be made more democratic and change- oriented. For modernizing India, high hopes have been pinned on education as a signif significa icant nt determ determina inant nt of aspira aspirati tion. on. Technol Technology ogy,, product productivi ivity ty and mobility. In fact, it is a fundamental prerequisite for participation in the various developmental activities of society. The level of recognition of the crucial significance of education for women is dependent upon societal expectations of women's roles. In 1986, based on the perspectives provided in its document. National Policy on Education (NPE), the Government of India prepared a Plan of Action to meet the challenge of the technology revolution envisaged in the coming two decades. The document states that, without adequate measures for the spread of education, 'the chasm of economic disabilities, regional imbalances, and social injustice will widen further. resulting in the building of disintegrative tensions'. Studies on women's education during the period 1984-87 have to be reviewed in this context. In the earlier three surveys, the topic of women's education was not presented as a special area but was covered under other areas, e.g. History of Educati Education, on, Admini Administr strati ation on of Educat Education ion Guidan Guidance ce and Counsel Counsellin ling. g. It is gratifying that the fourth survey treats studies in this field as a separate area, 1
despite the fact that the number of studies reported in it during the current survey period is much less than that in the earlier period. In the third survey, 51 51 studies have been recorded as related to women's education; during the current survey only 33 studies have been noticed. It would would be usefu usefull to disc discuss uss the the issue issue of gende genderr just justic icee thro through ugh education before we delineate the various aspects of women's education which deserve attention. 1.2 1.2
THE TH E CON CONCE CEPT PT OF EQ EQUA UALI LITY TY IN EDUC EDUCAT ATIO ION N
In a developing developing country like ours the obvious inequality inequality of women visa-vis men is subsumed under the more pervasive inequality between various sections of society. Further, in Indian society, where stratification through caste is a marked marked featur feature. e. Where Where privil privileges eges and discri discrimin minati ation on get entren entrenche ched d through custom and usage, acceptance of equality of status and opportunity becomes a significant landmark Where economic and social inequalities are widespread, the importance of educational equality as a goal assumes special importance. It becomes a very serious issue as to how wide are the opportunities for entry into the portals of knowl knowled edge ge;; how more more and and more more perso persons ns from from disa disadv dvan anta tage ged d sect sectio ions ns of society can be given access to education4n the context of this chapter the index of progress is how many more 1.3 1.3
DEVE DEVELO LOP P ENT ENT OF WO WOME MEN' N'S S EDUC EDUCAT ATIO ION N
In India, since the 19th century, century, when the first voice was raised raised against the inferior status of women in society, social reformers gave high priority to women's education. With the establishment of the Bethune School in Calcutta in 1949 1949,, and and a few few indi indige geno nous us effo effort rtss in Guja Gujara ratt and and Maha Mahara rash shtr traa at establ establish ishing ing school schoolss for girls girls during during the same same period period,, first first steps steps toward towardss acceptance of women's education were taken (Desai-Raj, 1987). Though the liberal reformers recognized the value of education for girls, its content and the levels to which girls were educated was very much determined by their limited 2
notion of women's role in the family. They believed that, in the gigantic task of transformation of society in which educated middle-class men were involved, women, if given education, would not only appreciate the changes taking place in the society but would also collaborate in hastening the process of change. They never envisaged any change chan ge in the traditional wife/mother role of women. However, it goes to the credit of these social reformers that they were able to generate a climate of acceptance of the value of giving education to girl girlss (Nat (Nates esen en (ed) (ed),, ND.) ND.);; Karv Karve, e, D.K. D.K. (193 (1936) 6);; Rana Ranade de,, M.G. M.G. (190 (1902) 2);; Mazumdar, Veena 1985). In spit spitee of ferv ferven entt plea pleass made made by soci social al refo reform rmer ers, s, the the spre spread ad of women's education was not striking. Duri During ng the the nati nation onal alis istt upsu upsurg rge, e, part partic icul ular arly ly afte afterr the the thir thirti ties es,, a signi signifi fica cant nt chan change ge was was init initia iate ted d when when wome women n took took an acti active ve part part in the the nationalist nationalist movement movement and built up organizatio organizations ns where the need for education education was constantly stressed. Of course, during this phase too, there was not much change in the role perception of women, yet it was being gradually realized that education is an asset in their wider participation. In comparison with earlier periods, during this phase more women went to schools and colleges, a few more entered the profession's of teaching, medicine and law. But in spite of some of thee advances the growth of women's education has been very slow. On the eve of independence, only about eight per cent of women were literate, 25 per cent cent of the rele relevan vantt age groups groups were were in element elementary ary cla ss es and an d ba rely re ly five per cent in middle schools. A meagre 18,675 girls, around ten per cent of the total enrolment, were in higher education. Even Even afte afterr inde indepe pend nden ence ce,, ther theree has has been been a very very wide wid e gap gap between the avowed goal of equality equality of access to educ educaation an and its its realization. Though education has been considered crucial for development, the empi empiri rica call real realit ity y is not not very very enco encour uragi aging ng.. The The gende genderr bias bias in spre spread ad of education is quite evident. In 1981 over 45 per cent of girls in the 6-11 age group, over 75 per cent of the 12-14 age group and over 85 per 3
cent of the 15-17 age group were out of school as compared compared to 20 per cent, 57 per cent and 71 per cent of boys in the respective age groups. The proble problem m gets gets compoun compounded ded with with region regional al imbal imbalanc ances. es. In Kerala Kerala,, female literacy is as high as 73 per cent, whereas in Rajasthan not even 12 per cent of women are literate. In fact, because of the regional disparity, special efforts have been suggested for promoting women's education in nine states which have been declared educationally backward. This imbalance further gets acc accent entuat uated whe when n the the rur rural dimension is added. According to the 1981 census, female literacy in rural area was 17.96 while in urban areas it was was 47.8 47.82 2 per per cent cent.. The The pict pictur uree is not not diff differ eren entt at scho school ol leve level. l. At the the secondary level, while only 13 per cent of the girls in the relevant age group are in school, only a meagre 17 per cent of these 1.4 1.4
OBJE OB JECT CTIV IVES ES OF WO WOME MEN' N'S S EDUC EDUCAT ATIO ION N
One of the important issues with regard to women's education is-Why do girls need to be educated? As mentioned earlier, for centuries women's role has been perceived as that of wife or mother. In the traditional structures. where upper caste women, by and large, were not expected to participate in spher spheres es of life life beyo beyond nd the the fami family ly,, form formal al educ educat atio ion n was was not not consi conside dere red d essential. As Aparna Basu mentions. Whereas education of males was directly related to employment, female education had no economic function. It is, therefore, not surprising that when the Bombay Government undertook an enquiry into the state of indigenous education in the 1820s, in the reports received from the Collectors, Judges and Commissioners, there was no mention of a single female scholar attending any of the common schools of the province' (Basu, Chanana, 1988). Everyone believed that the skills necessary for performing household chores, or for productive work could be learnt within the precincts of the family. Hence the need for education for a woman is only realized when she is 4
required to participate in wider social activities. Further, the role of edu cation is appreciated when values of individualism liberalism, personality growth and iden identi tity ty devel develop opme ment nt are are part part of the the group group etho ethos. s. The The need need for for women women's 's education was therefore first articulated during the 19 th century, century, when liberal liberal ideology dominated amongst the intelligentsia. The social reformers though, vehemently lobbied for women's education. However, for them its objectives were confined to developing efficiency in performing their traditional roles. Over the years, due to a variety of factors, education for future economic participation and for widening of knowledge have been accepted as additional objectives of girls' education. Due to the middle class bias of educational structures, poorer sections of the society somehow do not feel the relevance of formal education. A number of studies in urban slums have borne out that formal schooling has a marginal role in the lives of girls there. The girls are needed to help with housework and, therefore, one mother said, 'why should I waste my time and money on sending my daughter to school where she will learn nothing of use? What does the Hindi Hindi alpha alphabe bett mean mean to her? her?'' (Kar (Karle leka kar, r, 1983 1983 ). On the the othe otherr hand hand,, the the demonstrative effect of education providing opportunities of better jobs creates a feeling among poor people that, if education is given to girls, they
will be
able able to impr improv ovee thei theirr stat status. us. Maid Maidse serv rvan ants ts,, part partic icul ular arly ly,, aspi aspire re for for thei their r daughters to have jobs other than domestic work. Unfo Unfort rtun unat atel ely, y,
the the
incr increa easi sing ngly ly
high higher er
mini minimu mum m
educ educat atio iona nall
requirements for any kind of employment leads to frustration. as many of the girls are unable to complete their education. It may also be mentioned that the objec objecti tive vess of educ educat atio ion n are are diff differ eren entt for for diff differ eren entt clas classe ses; s; they they are are also also dependent upon levels of education (Desai and Raj, 1987). In short, social roles of girls define their educational needs and goals. Not only is the instrumental value of education different for boys and
5
1.5 1.5
WOME WO MEN' N'S S EDU EDUCA CATI TION ON AND AND SOC SOCIA IAL L SYS SYSTE TEM M
As mentioned earlier, the educational process needs to be looked from a sociological point of view, as this is likely to provide insights into the operation for social factors vis-a-vis education. One of the important concepts in the socio sociolo logy gy of educ educat atio ion n is the the view viewin ing g of the the educ educat atio iona nall syst system em as not operating in isolation, but being affected and affecting other sub-system like polity, economy, family, personality, etc. Further, it is also useful to look at the subsub- syst system em of educa educati tion on as comp compos osed ed of inst instit itut utio ions, ns, person personnel nel and and the the norm normat ativ ivee stru struct ctur uree of soci societ ety y. The The soci societ etal al conc concep eptts of role roles, s, stat status us,, expectations, aspirations, values-all affect the educational structure. Moreover, the phenomenon of social change as affecting the educational system in a variety of ways needs to be understood. Similarly, women's education is not an isolated, in dependent activity but a phenomenon affected by social forces. Conse Consequ quen entl tly, y, whil whilee deal dealin ing g with with women' women'ss educ educat atio ion. n. we have have to understand the role and status of women teachers, women students and women administrators. Further when education is considered as a subsystem, it is pertinent to know how family, economy or polity affects woman's education. For instance, in access, selection of courses, options available in career, etc., the pressure from the family is crucial. 1.5 1.5
WOME WO MEN' N'S S EDUC EDUCAT ATIO ION N AND AND SOCI SOCIAL AL STR STRUC UCTU TURE RE
Avail Availabi abili lity ty of educ educat atio iona nall stru struct ctur ures es affe affect ctss women' women'ss educ educat atio ion n signifi significan cantly tly.. While While avail availabi abili lity ty of schools schools,, adequat adequatee number number of teache teachers, rs, faci facili liti ties es,, etc. etc. affe affect ctss both both boys boys and and girl girls, s, the the const constra rain ints ts oper operat atee more more effectively in the case of girls. Quite a few studies have shown that lack of middle schools at walking distance, unavailability of women teachers, substandard teaching, and absence of certain support structures like creches, have led to dropping out of girls from the education system. Educati Educational onal instit instituti utions ons refle reflect ct and reinfo reinforce rce gender gender differ difference encess in various ways. Separate schools and classes for girls and boys, content of the 6
syllabi and textbooks in which the dictomy of masculine and feminine roles is projected and, finally, encouragement given to the study of certain subjects like home science and discouragement of girls going in for the science stream or plyin plying g footba football ll are few exampl examples es which which indica indicate te the streng strengthe thenin ning g of sex stereotyping at the school level. Though studies on students belonging to coeducational and single- sex schools are available, most are descriptive and do not investigate why girls in co-ed schools behave in a docile manner and why they are aggressive in singlesex sex
scho school ols. s.
Vibh Vibhaa
Part arthas hasarat arathy hy''s
exp experi eriment ment
on
gene genera rati tion on
of
a
non-discriminatory atmosphere is worth noting. She says, 1396 Neera Desai. 1.6 1.6
SOCI SO CIAL ALIZ IZAT ATIO ION N AND AND WO WOME MEN' N'S S EDU EDUCA CATI TION ON
We have been emphasizing so far the links between education and other social systems. The sub-system of economy affects education through cost struct structure ures, s, provid providing ing econom economic ic opportu opportunit nities ies in certai certain n direct direction ion enabli enabling ng institutions to avail of certain facilities, encouraging skills to be developed which are necessary for economic activities, etc. Likewise, family and kinship have a determining influence on women's education. As Leela Dube mentions. Gender roles are conceived, enacted and learnt within a complex of relationships. A family structure, at a given point of time is not just a function of demography, it also reflects the rules of recruitment and marital residence and the normative and actual patterns of rearrangement of the family in the process of the replacement of the old generation by the new. Second, there is something beyond actual composition of a family unitits 'configuration of role relationships' and 'specific' and 'objective' contribution of members to the business of living-that goes into the apportionment of family resources, gender based and age-based division of work. and the conceptions of; of; and and trai traini ning ng for, for, futu future re role roless of male male and and fema female le chil childr dren en'' (Dube (Dube in Chanana, 1988). 7
The The impo import rtan antt poin pointt to note note is the the over overar arch chin ing g sign signif ific ican ance ce of socialization on the lives of girls and women. The process is so intertwined and subtle that it determines motivations, expectations, perceptions and attitudes to formal education of girls and women as students and as teachers. Again the socialization of others, such as parents, policy makers. educators, influences the curri curricu culu lum, m, orga organi niza zati tion on scho school ols, s, the the avai availa labi bili lity ty of subje subject ct choi choice cess in school/college and the role models. The sexual division of labour that allots the major responsibility to women for family and child care, irrespective of their work roles, results in a woman balance 1.7
PROBLEMS FACED BY WOMEN
The The proc proces esss of gett gettin ing g knowl knowledg edgee and and skill skill invo involv lves es a number number,of ,of situations which may pose problems for girls taking education. The problems could be grouped into following six categories:
Problems related to psychological adjustment
Problems in connection with employment of educated women w omen
Problems of scheduled caste and scheduled tribe girl
Problems in connection with institutional structures, such as school or college
Problems of dropping out of the education system
Problems of women in the non-formal system.
1.8
PROBL PROBLEM EMS SI IN N CONN CONNEC ECTIO TION N WIT WITH H PSY PSYCH CHOL OLOG OGIC ICAL AL ADJUSTMENTS
Girl students often stiffer a traumatic experience when they enter an educati educationa onall insti institut tution ion.. The sharpne sharpness ss in the differ differenc encee of the environ environss is experienced when a girl enters college, the trauma is accentuated if she has studied in a segregated school and goes to a co-ed college. Adjustment has to be the alien environment, to methods of teaching, to distance felt about the 8
teachers, to requirements of self-reliance and such other situations. The cosy, supportive, family-like atmosphere of the school is constantly missed. Girls who are well adjusted may not find the new environment challenging, but girls who are maladjusted feel much disturbed. Unfortunately, the- realization that entry into school/college is likely to cause trauma is absent among parents and the community with the result that the entire issue is ignored or side tracked. In the present survey we have four studies belonging to this category. It has been noticed that those girls who have a well- adjusted family setting do not suffer any problems. But when the values and practices of family and college are divergent, problems emerge. For instance, rural girls face more adjustment problems than the urban girls. Another study was conducted in the area of attitude attitude of adjusted adjusted and maladjusted maladjusted girls towards towards religion. religion. concept of equality and family planning. It is a sad commentary on the modem girls that the the findi findings ngs sugge suggest st that that the the majo majori rity ty of girl girlss were were unawa unaware re of cert certai ain n problems. Very few knew about even the process of. 1.9 PROBLEMS I N AND EDUCATION
CO NNE CT IO N
WITH EMPLOYMENT
The relationship between employment and education is quite complex. Education per se cannot create employment. It has to respond to the demands made by changes in the labour market, as the utilization of skills produced by the education system depends on the absorptive capacity of the economy, One One of the the stri striki king ng feat featur ures es in post post-i -ind ndep epen ende denc ncee Indi Indiaa is the the phenomenal increase in the number of employed women among the middle class. The rate of growth of higher education for women has been faster than that of men, though either in absolute numbers of as a proportion of total enrolment, women continue to lag behind. Educated woman-power has been incr increa easi sing ng and and simu simult ltan aneo eousl usly y ther theree is an incr increa ease se in the the tert tertia iary ry sect sector or providing opportunities for administrative jobs. Developmental activities and welfare work have also brought a noticeable expansion of various professions.
9
Along with these macro changes, there have been attitudinal changes, resulting in less resistance to women going out to work. Of course, acceptance is not without conditions. Entry into employment is determined by whether the job has social prestige: whether it is below that of the husband; whether it would involve mixing with men, whether it coincides with children 's needs, etc, Furthe Further, r, quite quite a few studies studies have have shown shown that that employ employmen mentt does not mean mean autonomy or authority. As mentioned earlier, the employment of educated women does not mean liberation from domestic responsibilities. The strains of attending to dual role have been clearly brought out in many sociological studies, One of the consequences of the dual burden and the priority of family responsibility has been underscoring of achievement and promotion. In the present survey we have only two studies on this crucial topic. One is of job satisfaction among teachers. clerks, mechanics and 'medical personnel. This This study study has also also trie tried d to compa compare re attit attitud udes es of those girls who are in voca vocati tion onal al scho school ols. s. In most most of the the fact factor orss like like job job sati satisf sfac acti tion on.. vocational attitudes and vocational interest they were affected by different variables. A noteworthy finding is that school achievement was negatively correlated with the occupational aspirations of girls in vocational courses. The second study purports to examine the changing status of working women in Bihar. Though currently, women have a poor employment status there, the researcher hopes that, with the, growth of. 1.1 1.10
PROB OBLE LEM MS OF SCH SCHEDU EDULE LED D CAST STE E AND SCHED CHEDUL ULE ED TRIBE STUDENTS
Whereas the problems of women taking education are quite formidable. the problems faced by backward class girls are over more complex and serious. In their case. the effects of caste, class and gender get compounded. Access to education for them is very limited, with the result that very few girls coming from these groups are able to reach even the college stage. There is a feeling that reservation reservation of seats and preferenti preferential al treatment benefit benefit S.C. students but 10
empirical reality is quite different. It has been seen in various studies that there is minimum enrolment of S.C. girls. Further, there are hierarchies among the schedu schedule led d cast caste. e. Elit Elites es among among thes thesee group groupss secur securee advan advanta tage gess while while the the majority number face deprivation. In the present survey, there is only one study on the problems of S.C. pos postg tgra radu duat atee girl girls. s. The The stud study y poin pointts out out that that the the majo majori rity ty of girl girlss in postgr postgradu aduate ate classe classess come come from from good educat education ional al and economi economicc parent parental al background. background. The study reiterates reiterates the experience experience of discrimidiscrimi- nation which the S.C. girls undergo in terms of residence, friends, and extra-curricular activity. 1.11
PROBLEMS OF WOMEN EDUCATION S Y S T E M
IN
THE
NON-FORMAL
In third world countries, the role of formal education as a democratizing agent and as a means for upward mobility has been seriously questioned. In terms of accessibility and content, the formal system seems to favour the upper and middle classes against the rural masses. Realizing the inadequacy of the formal system to reach out to the vast majority of poor people, a number of efforts are being made to reach out to the masses. Nonformal education is one such measure. In such programmes, besides 1.1 1.12
PROB OBLE LEM MS IN STRUCTURE
CONN ONNECT ECTION WITH INST STIT ITU UTIO TIONAL
One of the major limitations of the education system is the defective institutional structure. Schools and colleges are well known for their inadequacy in terms of facilities, space, opportunities and democratic atmosphere. Though this problem is faced, both by male teachers and female teachers, the implications are more severe for the latter in a patriarchal social system. As observed earlier, infrastructural constraints affect educational attainment. One of the striking lacunae is the organization of teacher education. A curriculum which was formed decades ago continues in many teacher education institutions. The elabor elaborate ate train training ing has no releva relevance nce to classr classroom oom needs. needs. For innova innovati tive ve pract practice icess in a changi changing ng envir environm onment ent and requir requireme ements nts,, no encou encourag rageme ement nt is provided. Thus the gruelling training is forgotten when the teacher enters the
11
classr classroom oom.. In the present present survey survey there is one one study study on probl problems ems of teache teacher r education for women. Though there has been a steady growth of institutions for training, the politics of school management and lack of physical facilities pose serious hurdles for women teachers. There is an urgent need to design teacher education from a sensitive, innovative innovative and flexible perspective.
There are two studies covering the non-formal system. One examines the expect expectati ations ons of girls girls studyi studying ng at such such centre centres. s. The study study reveal revealss that, that, besides the usual subjects, special training in craft education is given to girls. The vestige of formal formal education still lingers lingers in terms of an expressed need for examination and tests. It has also been pointed out that the classes are running in very very congest congested ed spaces spaces and continu continuee to suffer suffer from from lack lack of facili facilitie tiess like like electricity and water. The other investigation is in the area of comparative study of attitudes of adult adult lite litera rate tess and and illi illite tera rate tess towar towards ds earl early y marr marria iage ge and and fami family ly size size in Bhubaneswar. Unfortunately, the title is misleading in the sense that literates incl include ude prof profes essi sion onal als, s, which which is a very very wide wide cate catego gory ry.. Cons Conseq eque uent ntly ly,, the the comparison appears to be un- fair. To infer from a sample of 100 women that education has a significant effect on attitude towards family size and marriage age is rather hazardous. 1.1 .12
ACADEM IC ACHIEVEM ENT ANDW OMEN
In the educati educational onal proces process, s, academ academic ic achiev achieveme ement nt is of paramo paramount unt significance. In present-day society, individual achievement largely leads to status and power rather than the ascribed qualities. In the formal system of education, academic achievement at school or in college provides possibilities of acce access ss to powe powerr posit positio ions ns.. The The form formal al educ educat atio ion n syst system em has has its its own hierar hierarchy chy based based on' academ academic ic achiev achievem ement ent and perfor performan mance. ce. It has been been gradually realized that, in the case of girls, academic achievement is not fully determined by the efforts made by the educand for achievement, but value is placed on academic achievement by the society. Though middle-class boys too have to face pressures of various kinds while pursuing academic excellence, the 12
probl problems ems of girls girls are more severe. severe. Further. Further. even though though the syndrome syndrome of achievement does not operate heavily on girls. yet the fear that failure may result in withdrawal from school generates gen erates an anxiety psychology in girls. Ther Theree
are are
vari variou ouss
corr correl elat ates es of
achi achiev evem emen ent, t, like like
pers person onal alit ity y
socioeconomi socioeconomicc status, status, backwardness backwardness and failure, failure, affectivity affectivity and others. others. In the present survey, we have three studies in the area of academic achievement of girls. One study refers to the role of guidance and counselling on academic achievement. 1.13
PROGRAM MES
W OM EN'S 'S
FOR
PROMOTING
EDUCATIO ION
The government of India has, at various periods, declared its concern for women's women's educati education. on. In the place place of the lukewarm lukewarm attit attitude ude of the colonial colonial masters, the rulers of independent India have exhibited a positive attitude to women's education. Besi Besides des appoi appoint ntin ing g comm commis issi sion onss and comm commit itte tees es to look look into into the the problems of women's education at different time in the post- independence period, efforts are being made to introduce special schemes for facilitating access to education for girls. Despite all these efforts, it has been observed that girls are very much behind the boys. In the recent formulation of a Programme of Action as a part of the national policy on education, the policy makers have recognized that, in the rural areas, girls are kept busy in various household chores like looking after siblings and house care, fetching fuel. fodder and water, or in earning a day's wage. Therefore, special support-services in terms of chil child d care care,, incr increa ease sed d drin drinki king ng wate waterr suppl supply, y, midd midday ay meal mealss and and other other nutrition programmes, need to converge with the objective of universalization of educ educat atio ion n (Pro (Progr gram amme me of Actio Action. n. 1986) 1986).. Unle Unless ss rigo rigoro rous us mesur mesures es to implement these programmes are taken, the realization of universal literacy will be a mirage. The present survey covers three studies in this area. One attempts to evaluate the effect of incentive schemes of S.C. and S.T. girls. The study aimes 13
to examine examine the effect effect of differ different ent incent incentives ives like free free uniforms, uniforms, textbooks, textbooks, boarding and lodging facilities etc. on enrolment. The findings indicate that the incentives had a more positive effect on boys than on girls. A seco second nd stud study y anal analys yses es the the impa impact ct of the the exte extens nsio ion n educ educat atio ion n programme on women. with special reference to family life education. The study revealed that those who had no schooling and came from a low income level appreciated the literacy component of the activities, while those who had some schooling and belonged to a higher income group favoured participation in activiti activities es of educationa educationall content. content. The infrastruct infrastructural ural facilities facilities were very poor poor.. The The findi findings ngs indi indica cate ted d that that,, for for succe success ssfu full impl implem ement entat atio ion n of the the progr programm amme, e, it was necessa necessary ry to monito monitorr field field staff, staff, utiliz utilizati ation on of existi existing ng institutions and build up participation of the community. The third study is a published report of a project which aimed at testing the effica efficacy cy of the integr integrate ated d child child develo developme pment nt (ICD) (ICD) progra programme mme.. The moth mother er-c -chi hild ld cent centre re servi service ce gave gave the the best best resul results ts in term termss of payo payoff ffss in knowl knowled edge ge,, posi positi tive ve atti attitu tude de to chil child d care care and and adopt adoptio ion n of more more rati rationa onall practices. The programme also helped in reducing nutritional deficiencies.
14
CHAPTER-2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2.1
TEACHER
The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. In education, teachers are those who teach students or from from whom pupils learn, often in a school. The objective is typically a course of study, lesson plan, or a practical skill, including learning and thinking skills. The different ways to teach are often referred to as the teacher's pedagogy. When deciding what what teac teachi hing ng meth method od to use, use, a teac teache herr will will need need to cons consid ider er stud student ents' s' backgr background ound knowled knowledge, ge, enviro environme nment, nt, and their their learni learning ng goals goals as well well as standardized curricula as determined by the relevant authority. The teacher should also be able to deal with students with different abilities and should also be able to deal with learning disabilities. Many times, teachers swill have to do their their job outsid outsidee of the the classr classroom oom by accompa accompanyi nying ng student studentss on field field trips. trips. They also supervise study halls, help with the organization of school functions, and serve as supervisors for extracurricular activities _ ;
A teacher writes on a blackboard in an American college.
15
Related positions
A teacher who is positioned to help the student in a particular subject, is in some cultures called a "tutor".
A teach teacher er or traine trainerr from from whom a student learns learns a great great deal may be called a "mentor".
2.2
UNIVERSITY TEACHERS
Teachers in college are called instructors or lecturers. In the United States, the term "professor" is usually applied to college or University teachers who have received their Ph.D., while instructors or lecturers have received their Masters degree, and usually are pursuing their Ph.D. Professorial rankings from Assistant Professor through Full Professor that may be defined differently at various institutions. The rank of American university instructors depends in part on the amount of relevant and publishable research completed over time. An "assi "assist stant ant prof profes essor sor"" is typi typica call lly y requi require red d to have have comp comple lete ted d extensive research seminars at the post- graduate level and have written and defended the dissertation. The Ph.D. is almost always required. 2.3 2.3
TEACHING AS AS A PROFESSION
Teac Teache hers rs are are cons consid ider ered ed prof profes essi siona onals ls on par par with with physi physici cian anss and and lawyers because they are often required to obtain specialized education and professional licensure. In most cultures, teaching is referred to as a profession. Arguments for this include the respect that is felt for teachers in some cultures, the existence of a body body of spec specia iali lised sed prof profes essi sion onal al knowl knowled edge ge,, and and code codess of ethi ethics cs.. In Cana Canada da some some prov provin ince cess such such as Ontar Ontario io and and Brit Britis ish h Colu Columb mbia ia opera operate te a 'College of Teachers' established by legislation to serve and protect the public interest interest through certifying, certifying, governing and enforcing the standards standards of practice practice for the teaching profession.
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The College's functions include setting out clear standards of practice, provi providin ding g for the ongoing ongoing educat education ion of teache teachers, rs, invest investiga igatin ting g compla complaint intss involv involving ing member members, s, conduct conducting ing hearin hearings gs into into allegat allegation ionss of profes profession sional al misconduct and taking appropriate disciplinary action and accrediting teacher education programs. Teac Teache hers rs in publ public icly ly fund funded ed scho school olss in thes thesee prov provin ince cess must must be members in good standing with the College. Many private schools also require their teachers to be College members. 2.4 2.4
WORLD TEACHERS’DAY
UNESC UNESCO O inau inaugu gura rate ted d Worl World d Teac Teacher hers' s' Day Day on 5 Octo October ber 1994 1994 to celebrate and commemorate the signing of the Recommendation Concerning the Status of Teachers on 5 October 1966. World Teachers' Day also highlighted the Recommendation Concerning the Status of Higher Education Teaching Personnel adopted in 1997. Some countries or regions regions such as Taiwan also celebrate celebrate Teacher's Day as a national national holiday. holiday. In Brazil and Chile, it is celebrated on October 15, while in India it is celebrated on the 5th of September. In Brunei, it is celebrated on September 23. In Turkey it is celebrated on 24 th November since 1928. North Cyprus also celebrates this day. In Malaysia, it is celebrated on 16 May. 2.5
RELIGIOUS TEACHER
In Hinduism, a spiritual teacher is known as a guru. Traditionally, a spiritual seeker would revere his or her guru highly, and demonstrate utmost submission and humility through menial service in order to prove worthy to be a recipient of esoteric knowledge from the guru. The term "teacher" can also refer to any religious person who preached a religious dogma. The figure Jesus of Nazareth was often referred to as a teache teacher. r. This This is true true of other other religi religious ous figure figuress beside beside Christ Christian ian advoca advocate tes. s. Buddh Buddhaa and and Conf Confuc uciu iuss both both were were consi conside dere red d lear learned ned teac teache hers rs as well well as religious men. Often these teachers would have a group of followers that would 17
travel and live with their teacher and leader. The Prophet Mohammad is often referred to as both a teacher and a warrior of the faith. 2.6
EDUCATION
Education is the application of pedagogy, a body of theoretical and applied research relating to teaching and learning. It draws on other disciplines such as psychology, philosophy, computer science, linguistics, neuroscience, sociology and anthropology. It sets up a curriculum to educate people, usually the the youn young. g. Scho School olin ing g can can beco become me syst system emat atic ic and and thor thorou ough gh.. Some Someti time mess educa educati tion on syst system emss can can be used used to prom promot otee doctr doctrin ines es or idea ideals ls as well well as knowledge, and this can lead to abuse of the system. Life-long or adult education have become widespread in many countries. I lowever, education is still seen by many as something aimed at children, and adult education is often branded as adult learning or lifelong learning. Adult education takes on many forms, from formal class-based learning to self-directed learning. Lending libraries provide inexpensive informal access to hooks and other self-instru self-instructiona ctionall materials materials.. Many adults have also taken advantage of the rise in computer ownership and internet access to further their informal education.
Primary education
Secondary education
Higher education and academia
2.7
ALTERNATIVE EDUCATION
Alte Altern rnat ativ ivee educ educat atio ion, n, also also known known as non-t non-tra radi diti tion onal al educa educati tion on or educational alternative, is a broad term which may be used to refer to all forms of education outside of traditional education (for all age groups and levels of educati education) on).. This This may includ includee both both forms forms of educat education ion designe designed d for studen students ts with special needs (ranging from teenage pregnancy to intellectual disability) and and form formss of educ educat atio ion n desi design gned ed for for a gene genera rall audi audien ence ce whic which h empl employ oy alternative educational philosophies and/or methods. 18
Alternativ Alternatives es of the latter type are often the result of education education reform and are are root rooted ed in vari various ous philo philosop sophi hies es that that are are comm commonl only y funda fundame ment ntal ally ly different from those of traditional compulsory education. While some have stro strong ng poli politi tica cal, l, scho schola larl rly, y, or philo philosop sophi hica call orie orient ntat atio ions ns,, othe others rs are are more more informal informal association associationss of teachers teachers and students students dissatisfie dissatisfied d with certain aspects of tradit tradition ional al educat education ion.. These These altern alternati atives ves,, which which includ includee charte charterr schools schools,, alternative schools, independent schools, and home-based learning vary widely, but often emphasize emphasize the value of small class size, close relationshi relationships ps between between students and teachers, and a sense of community. In certain certain places, especially especially in the United United States, States, the term alternative may largely refer to forms of education catering to "at risk" students, as it is, for exampl example, e, in this this defini definiti tion on drafte drafted d by the Massac Massachuse husett ttss Depart Departmen mentt of Education. [I ] (http://www.doemass.orglalted/about.ht (http://www.doemass.orglalted/about.html? ml? section – definition) 2.8
SELF-EDUCATION
Education curriculum
A kindergarten classroom in Afghanistan. Academic disciplines
An academic discipline is a branch of knowledge which is formally taught, either at the university, or via some other such method. Functionally, disciplines are usually defined and recognized by the academic journals in which which rese resear arch ch is publ publis ishe hed, d, and and by the the lear learne ned d socie societi ties es to whic which h thei their r pract practit ition ioners ers belong belong.. Profess Professors ors say school schooling ing is 80% psycho psycholog logica ical, l, 20% physical effort. Each discipline usually has several sub-disciplines or branches, 19
and distinguishing lines are often both arbitrary and ambiguous. Examples of broad areas of academic disciplines include the natural sciences, mathematics, computer science, social sciences, humanities and applied sciences. 2.9
EDUCATION PR PROCESS
Learning modalities
There has been a great deal of work on learning styles over the last two decades. Dunn and Dunn focused on identifying relevant stimuli that may influence learning and manipulating the school environment, at about the same time as Joseph Renzulli recommended varying teaching strategies. Howard Gardner identified individual talents or aptitudes in his Multiple Intelligences theories. Based on the works of Jung, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and Keirsey's Temperament Sorter focused on understanding how people's personality affects the way they interact personally, and how this affe affect ctss the the way indi indivi vidu dual alss resp respond ond to each each othe otherr with within in the the lear learni ning ng environment. The work of David Kolb and Anthony Gregore's Type Delineator follows a similar but more simplified approach. Educa Educati tion on can can be physi physica call lly y divi divide ded d into into many many diff differ eren entt lear learni ning ng "modes" but the learning modalities are probably the most common
Kinesthetic learning based on hands-on work and engaging in activities.
Visual learning based on observation and seeing what is being teamed.
Auditory learning based on listening to instructions/information. Depen Dependi ding ng on thei theirr pref prefer er r ed learn learning ing modalit modality, y, differ different ent teach teaching ing
techniques have different levels of effectiveness. Effective teaching requires a variet variety y of teachi teaching ng methods methods which which cover cover all three three learn learning ing modali modaliti ties. es. No matt matter er what what thei theirr pref prefer erenc ence, e, stud studen ents ts should should have equal opportuni opportunitie tiess to learn in a way that is effective for them. Teaching
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Teachers need the ability to understand a subject well enough to convey its essence to a new generation of students. The goal is to establish a sound knowledge base on which students will be able to build as they are exposed to differ different ent life life experi experienc ences. es. The passin passing g of knowled knowledge ge from from generat generation ion to generat generation ion allows allows studen students ts to grow grow into into useful useful member memberss of societ society. y. Good teache teachers rs are able able to transl translat atee inform informati ation, on, good judgme judgment, nt, experi experienc ence, e, and wisdo wisdom m into into a signi signifi fica cant nt knowl knowled edge ge of a subje subject ct that that is under underst stood ood and and retained by the student. Parental Involvement
Parental Parental involvemen involvementt is an important important element in a child's child's educational educational development development.. Early and consistent consistent parental involvement involvement in the child's life, for example by reading to children at an early age, teaching patterns, interpersonal communicati communication on skills, skills, exposing exposing them to diverse diverse cultures cultures and the community community around around them, them, and educat educating ing them them about about a healt healthy hy lifest lifestyle yle,, is critic critical. al. The socialization and academic education of a child are aided by the involvement of the student, parent(s), extended family, teachers, and others in the community. Parent involvement is more than the parent being the field trip helper, or the lunch lady. Parents need to be asked about how their child learns best. They need to share share their their career career expert expertise ise with with the childr children. en. Today' Today'ss educat educators ors need need to remember that parents are the child's first and foremost teacher; parents, too, are experts, and teachers should learn from them. Academic achievement and parental involvement are strongly linked in the research. Many schools are now beginning parental invol vement programs in a more organized fashion. In the US this has been led in part by the No Child Left Behind legislation from the US Department Dep artment of Education. 2.10 2.10
EDUC EDUCA ATION TIONAL AL TECH TECHNO NOLO LOGY GY
Inexpensive technology is an increasingly influential factor in education. Computers and mobile phones are being widely used in developed countries to 21
both both comple complemen mentt establ establish ished ed educat education ion practi practices ces and develop develop new ways ways of learning such as online education (a type of distance education). This gives students the opportunity to choose what they are interested in learning. The prol prolif ifer erat atio ion n of comp comput uter erss also also mean meanss the the incr increa ease se of progr program ammi ming ng and and blogging. Technology offers powerful learning tools that demand new skills and understanding understandingss of students, students, including including Multimedia Multimedia literacy literacy,, and provides provides new ways ways to enga engage ge stud studen ents ts,, such such as clas classr sroom oom manag managem emen entt softw softwar are. e. Technology is being used more not only in administrative duties in education but but also also in the the inst instru ruct ctio ion n of stude student nts. s. The The use of tech technol nologi ogies es such such as PowerPoint and interactive whiteboard is capturing the attention of students in the classr classroom. oom. Technolo Technology gy is also also being being used used in the assess assessmen mentt of studen students. ts. One One exam exampl plee is the the Audi Audien ence ce Resp Respon onse se Syst System em (ARS (ARS), ), whi which allo allows ws immediate feedback tests and classroom discussions.
Primary School in "open air". Teacher (priest) with class from the outskirts of Bucharest, around 1842.
Information and communication technologies applied to education
Information and communication technologies (ICTs) are a "diverse set of tools and resources used to communicate, create, disseminate, store, and manage manage inform informati ation. on. These These techno technolog logies ies inclu include de comput computers ers,, the Intern Internet, et, broadcasting technologies (radio and television), and telephony. Ther Theree is incr increa easi sing ng inte intere rest st in how comp comput uter erss and and the the Inte Intern rnet et can can improve education at all levels, in both formal and non-formal settings. Older ICT technologies, such as radio and television, have for over forty years been used for open and distance learning, although print remains the 22
cheapest, most accessible and therefore most dominant delivery mechanism in both developed and developing countries. The use of computers and the Internet is still in its infancy in developing countries, if these are used at all, due to limited infrastructure and the attendant high costs of access. Usually, various technologies are used in combination rather than as the sole delive delivery ry mechan mechanism ism.. For exampl example, e, the Kothma Kothmale le Commun Community ity Radio Radio Internet Internet uses both radio broadcasts and computer computer and Internet technologie technologiess to facilitate the sharing of information and provide educational opportunities in a rural community in Sri Lanka. The Open University of the United Kingdom (UKOU), established in 1969 as the first educational institution in the world wholly dedicated to open and distance learning, still relies heavily on print based materials supplemented by radio, television and, in recent years, online programming. Similarly, the Indira Gandhi National Open University in India combines the use of print, recorded audio and video, broadcast radio and television, and audio conferencing technologies. 1131 2.11 2.11
EDUC DUCATION TH THEORY
Philosophy of of E d u c a t i o n
The philosophy of education is the study of the purpose, nature and ideal content of education. Related topics include knowledge itself, the nature of the know knowin ing g mind mind and and the the huma human n subj subjec ectt, prob proble lems ms of auth author orit ity, y, and and the the relationship between education and society. At least since Locke's time, the phil philos osoph ophy y of educ educat atio ion n has has been been link linked ed to theo theori ries es of deve develo lopm pmen enta tall psychology and human development.
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Fundamental purposes that have been proposed for education include:
1.
The The enter enterpr pris isee of civi civill socie society ty dep depen ends ds on educ educat atin ing g young young peop people le to to becom becomee respon responsib sible le,, though thoughtfu tfull and enterp enterpris rising ing citize citizens. ns. This This is an intr intric icat ate, e, chal challe leng ngin ing g task task requ requir irin ing g deep deep under underst stan andi ding ng of ethi ethica call principles, moral values, political theory, aesthetics, and economics, not to mention an understanding of who children are, in themselves and in society.
2.
Prog Progrress ess in ever every y prac practtical cal fiel ield depen epends ds on havi aving capac apaciitie ties that hat scho school olin ing g can can educ educat ate. e. Educ Educat atio ion n is thus thus a mean meanss to fost foster er the the indivi individua dual's l's,, societ society's y's,, and even even humani humanity' ty'ss future future develo developme pment nt and prosperity. Emphasis is often put on economic success in this regard
3.
One One's indiv indiviidual dual dev develop elopme ment nt and and the the capa apacity city to ful fulfill fill one' one's own own purposes can depend on an adequate preparation in childhood. Education can can thus thus atte attemp mptt to give give a firm firm foun foundat datio ion n for for the the achi achiev evem emen entt of personal fulfillment. The better the foundation that is built, the more successful the child will be. Simple basics in education can carry a child far.
The nature, origin and scope of knowledge
A cent centra rall tene tenett of educ educat atio ion n typi typica call lly y incl includ udes es "the "the impar imparti ting ng of knowled knowledge. ge."" At a very very basic basic level level,, this this purpose purpose ultimate ultimately ly deals deals with with the natur nature, e, orig origin in and and scop scopee of knowl knowled edge ge.. The The bran branch ch of phil philoso osophy phy that that addresses these and related issues is known as epistemology. This area of study often focuses on analyzing the nature and variety of knowledge and how it relates to similar notions such as truth and belief While the term, knowledge, is often used to convey this general purpose of education, it can also be viewed as part of a continuum of knowing that ranges from very specific data to the highest levels. Seen in this light, the continuum may be thought to consist of a general hierarchy of overlapping levels of knowing. Students must be able to connect new information to a piece 24
of old information to be better able to learn, understand, and retain information. This continuum may include notions such as data, information, knowledge, wisdom, and realization. 2.12 2.12
PSYC PSYCHO HOLO LOGY GY OF OF EDUC EDUCAT ATIO ION N
Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settin settings, gs, the effect effective ivenes nesss of educat education ional al interv intervent ention ions, s, the psycho psycholog logy y of teaching, teaching, and the social psychology psychology of schools as organizations. organizations. Although the terms terms "educa "educatio tional nal psychol psychology ogy"" and "school "school psycho psycholog logy" y" are often often used used inte interc rcha hang ngea eabl bly, y, resea researc rche hers rs and and theor theoris ists ts are are like likely ly to be ident identif ifie ied d as educational psychologists, whereas practitioners in schools or school-related settin settings gs are identi identifie fied d as school school psycho psycholog logist ists. s. Educat Education ional al psycho psycholog logy y is conce concern rned ed with with the the proc proces esse sess of educ educat atio iona nall atta attain inme ment nt in the the gener general al popula populati tion on and in sub-pop sub-popula ulati tions ons such such as gifted gifted childr children en and those those with with specific disabilities. Educ Educat atio iona nall psyc psycho holo logy gy can can in part part be unde unders rsto tood od thro throug ugh h its its relationship with other disciplines. It is informed primarily by psychology, bearing bearing a relationsh relationship ip to that discipline discipline analogous analogous to the relationship relationship between medicine and biology. Educational psychology in turn informs a wide range of speci special alit itie iess
with within in educ educat atio iona nall
stud studie ies, s, incl includ udin ing g
inst instru ruct ctio ional nal desi design gn,,
educati educationa onall techno technolog logy, y, curric curriculu ulum m develo developme pment, nt, organi organizat zation ional al learni learning, ng, special education and classroom management. Educational psychology both draws from and contributes to cognitive science and the learning sciences. In universities, departments of educational psychology are usually housed within faculties of education, possibly accounting for the lack of representation of educational educational psychology content in introductor introductory y psychology psychology textbooks (Lucas, Blazek, & Raley, 2006).
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2.13 2.13
ECON ECONOM OMIC ICS S OF OF EDU EDUC CATIO ATION N
Education and economic growth
If we look at a sorted sorted list of nations nations with the highest level of secondary schooling we would notice these to be the richest countries in the world, based on GDP per capita capita.. High High rates rates of educat education ion are essenti essential al for countries countries to achieve high levels of economic growth. In theory poor countries should grow faster than rich countries because they can adopt cutting edge technologies already tried and tested by rich countries. But economists argue that if the gap in education between a rich and a poor nation is too large, as is the case between the poorest and the richest nations in the world, the transfer of these technologies that drive economic growth becomes difficult, thus the economies of the world's poorest nations stagnate. 2.14 2.14
SOCIOL SOCIOLOGY OGY AND AND POLIT POLITICS ICS OF EDUCAT EDUCATION ION
The sociology of education is the study of how social institutions and forces affect educational processes and outcomes, and vice versa. By many, education is understood to be a means of overcoming handicaps, achieving grea greate terr equa equali lity ty and and acqu acquir irin ing g weal wealth th and and stat status us for for all all (Sar (Sarge gent nt 1994) 1994).. Lear Learne ners rs may may be moti motiva vate ted d by aspi aspira rati tions ons for for progr progres esss and and bett better erme ment nt.. Education is perceived as a place where children can develop according to their unique needs and potentialities (Schofield 1999). The purpose of education can be to develop every individual to their full potential. However, according to some sociologists, a key problem is that the educational needs of individuals and marginalized groups may be at odds with existing social processes, such as main mainta tain inin ing g soci social al stab stabil ilit ity y thro through ugh the the repr reprod oduc ucti tion on of inequ inequal alit ity. y. The The underst understand anding ing of the goals goals d means means of educat education ional al sociali socializat zation ion proces processes ses differs according to the sociological paradigm used.
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