Pestilence and Disease in the History of Africa
J. N. P. Davies
Fourteenth Raymond Dart Lecture Lecture delivered delivered 23 June, 1976
JOHANNESBURG W!WA!ERSRAND UN"ERS!# PRESS $OR !HE NS!!U!E $OR !HE S!UD# O$ %AN N A$R&A '()(
SBN * +,-(- -- + SSN * *)(/(+',
0 Wit1atersrand University Press2 '()( ' Jan S34ts Aven4e 5**' Johannes64r72 So4th Africa
PRE$A&E The The Inst Instit itut utee for the the Stud Study y of Man Man in Afric Africaa was origi origina nall lly y estab establi lish shed ed to perpetuate and foster the work on Man in Africa initiated by Professor Raymond A. Dart Dart duri during ng his his thir thirty ty-s -six ix years ears tenu tenure re as Prof rofesso essorr of Anat Anatom omy y in the the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. In 1962 it was resolved by the Council of the Institute that authorities of international eminence representative of relevant disciplines be invited invited annually to deliver deliver a Raymond Dart Lecture, the scope of which would would be limited only by that of the Institute itself, namely the study of of man in Africa, past and present, in health and disease. The distinguished contributors to the series so far have included Dr S. H. Haughton, F.R.S., F.R.S., Sir Wilfred le Gros Clark, F.R.S., F.R.S., Dr A. G. Oettl é, Dr M. D. W. Jeffreys, Professor P. V. Tobias, Professor Monica Wilson, Professor Desmond T. Cole, Professor J. Hiernaux, Roger Summers, Professor J. D. Fage, Professor R. J. Maso Mason, n, Pr Prof ofes esso sorr Arthu Arthurr G. Stei Steinb nber erg, g, Pr Prof ofes esso sorr J. S. Weine einerr, Pr Prof ofes esso sorr Theodosius Dobzhansky and Professor Francisco J. Ayala.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We wish to thank Messrs Faber and Faber Ltd for permission to quote from The Diaries of Lord Lugard , 1959, Vols 1, 2 and 3, edited by Margery Pelham.
PESTILENCE AND DISEASE IN THE HISTORY HISTORY OF AFRICA AFRI CA I am grateful to the President and Counil of the Institute for the Stud! of "an in Afria for the in#itation to deli#er this Ra!mond Dart Leture$ %hen in &ganda' I (or)ed for man! !ears (ith Professor P rofessor Ale*ander Ale*ander +allo(a!' +allo(a!' an admirer and one,time olleague of Dart-s' (ho so onstantl! s.o)e of and /uoted him that I (as easil! sedued into thin)ing that I )ne( him #er! (ell$ &nha..il!' &nha..il!' m! .ersonal a/uaintane (ith him (as slight' 0ut m! admiration for the man and his (or) is dee.$ I am therefore most a..reiati#e of this in#itation to s.ea) 1 the more so 0eause t(o .re#ious Dart letures (ere gi#en 0! muh,admired friends of mine2 one (as that great Christian gentleman' the late Dr +eorge Oettl3 (ho' in his oration' gentl! hided me for m! im.etuosit!4 the other (as that seeming,renaissane .ol!math' Professor Phili. To0ias' To0ias' (ho ontri0uted to the high,/ualit! of the Dart letures in a manner (hih those (ho follo( must no( stri#e to emulate$ "! .ur.ose' in this small tri0ute to Ra!mond Dart' is to sur#e! 0riefl! some features of disease and .estilene in relation to as.ets of histor! of the Afrian Continent$ This is a some(hat 0old underta)ing at a time (hen som muh of Afrian histor! is 0eing re#ised and re(ritten' often 0! trained historians (ith 5udgement and 0alane$ This .artiular attem.t' moreo#er' is that of an amateur historian (ho has had all too little time to de#ote to the su05et and (ho' no dou0t' suffers from that amateur historian .ro.ensit! delineated 0! Professor +$ R$ Elton 1 6the readiness to see the e*e.tional in the ommon.lae and to find the unusual ordinar!7$ 8 I ha#e' ne#ertheless' felt moti#ated to underta)e this stud! 0eause of the dearth of material on the to.i (ith the nota0le e*e.tion of the (ritings of Dr Rihard Pan)hurst 9 on Ethio.ia 1 (ritings failitated 0! the .resene there of e*tensi#e historial reords$ ' 5
Elton2 G. R. The Practice of History. History. 8ondon2 &ollins $ontana 8i6rary2 '((2 9.:*. Pan;h4rst2 Pan;h4rst2 R. <. P. P. !he history history of fa3ine fa3ine and 9estile 9estilence nce in Ethi9ia Ethi9ia 9rior 9rior to the fo4ndin7 fo4ndin7 of of Gondar. Gondar. Journal of thio!ian "tudie# 5 "tudie# 5 ='> '(52 9.:). Pan;h4rst2 R. <. P. So3e factors infl4encin7 the health of traditional traditional Ethio9ia. Journal of thio!ian "tudie# "tudie# - ='> '(2 99. :'/)* Pan;h4rst2 R. <. P. $n P. $n %ntroduction %ntroduction to the conomic &i#tory of thio!ia thio!ia from arlie#t arlie#t Time# to 1'((. 1'(( . 8ondon2 8ali6ela Ho4se =distri64ted 6y Sid7e1ic; and Jac;son>2 '('.
A ma5or ma5or .ro0lem of trans,Saharan Afrian histor! is that its soure materials (ere' till reent times' #irtuall! onfined to those from the edges or fringes of Afria' or else ame from the oasional intruder or from fro m (riters in other ontinents$ This has' es.eiall! reentl!' reentl!' led to a great onentration on oral traditions' )ingshi. lists' fol) memories and so on (hih ma!' in s)illed hands' 0e useful' : 0ut an in so man! instanes lead to greater onfusion$ ; %e ha#e' moreo#er' to ontend (ith the frailties of human memor!$ memor!$ In 8<98 a #er! se#ere out0rea) of holera stru) =an>i0ar and the East Afrian oast$ %e %e )no( this 0eause it (as disussed in 0oo)s and .a.ers .u0lished in India$ ?ut (hen' in 8<@' Bames Christie settled do(n in =an>i0ar to stud! holera e.idemis in East Afria he ould find neither loal reords nor reolletion of this e.idemi of onl! !ears earlier$ "uh has' moreo#er' 0een lost' ranging from ma.s and 0oo)s sho(n in "adagasar to earl! Portuguese intruders in 8<' that ould not 0e read' to the atual atual destrution of material oasioned oasioned 0! gro(ing disorders disorders in reent !ears$ ?ut if ontem.orar! historians ha#e not .aid muh attention to the .estilenes and disease in Afria it is 0eause' for the most .art' medial men ha#e failed them$ Suh Afrian medial histories as ha#e 0een (ritten tend to d(ell on .ersonalities' administration and go#ernment' rather than on disease' e.idemis and their onse/uenes$ Dr Cl!de-s 0oo) on Tangan!i)a Tangan!i)a @ and Professor +elfand-s Rivers +elfand-s Rivers of Death< are nota0le e*e.tions$ The sant attention de#oted to .estilene is understanda0le 0eause desri.tions of e.idemis an often 0e uninteresting unless 0oth their immediate and indiret effets on ommunities are studied$ "oreo#er' the nature and 0ases of e.idemis ha#e onl! reentl! 0eome understood$ G "ost are due to an infetious agent$ Some' li)e small.o*' seem to affet onl! humans4 others are .urel! animal diseases4 (hile others affet 0oth man and animals$ ?oth ma!' ma!' indeed' 0e ontinuousl! in#ol#ed' though ertain e.idemis de#elo. onl! (hen man aidentall! 0lunders into a 0iologial nihe in (hih .artiular 0irds' animals' or insets ha#e ha#e esta0lished themsel#es$ The (orld of life is full of of suh nihes from (hih a disease ma! eru.t s.etaularl! as did 0u0oni .lague' O,N!ong fe#er' or as Bohannes0urg reentl! (itnessed' "ar0urg irus irus disease$ E.idemis ma! s.read diretl!' diretl!' from ase to ase' or #ia some intermediate human' animal' or inset arrier$ arrier$ Infetious organisms usuall! ha#e different strains of (idel! differing #irulene$ : , ) + (
"ansina ansina22 J.2 %a4ny %a4ny22 R. and !ho3as !ho3as22 8. ". ". =eds>. =eds>. The &i#torian in Tro!ical $frica. $frica . 8ondon2 O?ford University Press2 for the nternational Africa nstit4te2 '(-. $ree $ree3a 3an/ n/Gr Gren envi vill lle2 e2 G. S. P. )hronolo*y of $frican &i#tory. &i#tory . 8ondon2 O?ford University Press2 '():2 99. @ii/?iii. &hristie2 J. )holera !idemic# in a#t $frica. $frica . 8ondon2 %ac3illan2 '+). A?elson2 A?elson2 E. !he Port474ese Port474ese in So4th East East Africa Africa '-++/'**. '-++/'**. &a9e !o1n2 !o1n2 &.Str4i;2 &.Str4i;2 for the Ernest Ernest O99enhei3er O99enhei3er nstit nstit4te 4te of Port474ese St4dies2 University of the Wit1atersrand2 Johannes64r72 '():2 9. ):. &lyde2 D. D. $. $. &i#tory of the +edical +edical "ervice# in Tan*anyia Tan*anyia.. Dar/es/Salaa32 Govern3ent Printer2 '(5 Gelfand2 %. River# of Death in $frica $frica.. Salis64ry2 Bard1ell2 '(: B4rnet2 $. %. %. -iolo*ical $#!ect# of %nfectiou# Di#ea#e . &a36rid7e University Press2 '(-*.
%hen indi#iduals from di#erse areas are ra.idl! r a.idl! aggregated and 0rought into lose ontat the ensuing ra.id interhange of different strains ma! ause the a.ait! of one strain to 0e e*alted to the .oint (here an e.idemi results$ This is seen (ith meningooi' the ausal organisms of e.idemi meningitis$$ Large sale e.idemis of this disease regularl! s(ee. o#er the su0,Saharan region$ The organisms res.onsi0le are normal inha0itants of the human throat and are usuall! innouous' 0ut their #irulene is enhaned 0! suita0le limati onditions or o#erro(ding among .eo.le from different areas suh as ha..ens (ith arm! reruits$ Ra.id .assage of a disease,.roduing organism from .atient to .atient often' moreo#er' inreases its #irulene$ E.idemis (a* to a .ea) and then (ane as ommunit! resistane rises and the suse.ti0le are )illed off4 in the deremental .hase the #irulene of the organism diminishes' natural reo#eries 0eome more ommon' and the e.idemi soon ends$ High and ra.idl! inreasing .o.ulation densit!' densit!' o#erro(ding' .oor sanitation' ad#erse limati onditions' and .oor feeding all tend to .rodue or e*aer0ate the seriousness of e.idemis$ Con#ersel! Con#ersel!'' s.arsit! of .o.ulation es.eiall! if stati' sunlight' o.en air and good feeding' all diminish the hanes of an e.idemi$ Long isolation' ho(e#er' inreases suse.ti0ilit! to man! diseases' and the introdution of a ne( one to a ommunit! (hih has ne#er 0efore e*.eriened it an .rodue de#astating e.idemis in (hih the the 0runt falls on !oung male male adults$ 8 The im.at of measles in some Paifi P aifi islands and that of small.o* in the Amerias (hih resulted in the e*termination of man! tri0es are .artiularl! note(orth!$ note(orth!$ 88 ?ut there is one essential differene 0et(een the tem.erate and the tro.ial (orlds 1 a differene that annot 0e o#er,estimated$ "ost e.idemis in tem.erate regions are due to 0ateria or #iruses$ Ho(e#er se#ere or lethal' sur#i#ors reo#er' usuall! (ithout disa0ilit! and often (ith lasting immunit!$ "an! e/uall! se#ere and lethal tro.ial diseases are' per contra' contra' ne#er reo#ered from om.letel! (ithout s.eifi treatment (hih often needs to 0e .rolonged$ The disease,.roduing organisms .ersists in the 0od!' ausing ontinuous disa0ilities' anemia' and so on' often (ith reurrent 0outs of the disease$ "alaria' par "alaria' par excellence' excellence' e*em.lifies this' as do shistomiasis and man! other infetions and infestations of Afria$ Indeed' malaria 1 more se#ere' more malignant' and more ontinuousl! ontrated in tro.ial Afria 1 (as a ma5or guard against intrusion into the ontinent$ Together Together (ith limited oastal .lains' and unna#iga0le ri#ers' it .la!ed an essential role in .roteting the interior of Afria from intrusion$ 89 Thus intruders ha#e faed a near 8 .er ent mortalit! or else 0een left #irtuall! ina.aitated$ Ho( intense an onslaught the! faed' e#en (ith aess to /uinine thera.!' thera.!' emerges from Dr H$ Par)e-s estimate' (hen he aom.anied Stanle! on the Emin Pasha Relief E*.edition' '* 6id. '' %cNe %cNeil ill2 l2 W. H. Pla*ue# H. Pla*ue# and Peo!le#. Peo!le#. O?ford2 Blac;1ell2 '()) =Ne1 #or;2 Do46leday2 Do46leday2 '()> '5 Gelf Gelfan and2 d2 %. River# %. River# of Death. Death.
that during the :: months that mem0ers (ere in the Afrian interior interior eah Euro.ean suffered 8 ma5or atta)s of malaria$ 8: The indigenous Afrian (as onl! marginall! more fortunate' ha#ing .urhased .artial immunit! to the the loal strain of malaria .arasites .arasites at the ost of an a..alling a..alling hild mortalit!$ mortalit!$ The immunit! (as' ho(e#er' ho(e#er' limited and (as lia0le to 0rea) do(n under ad#erse irumstanes$ It (as' moreo#er' aom.anied 0! onstant anaemia and hroni enlargement of li#er and s.leen4 and it (as an immunit! onl! to the loal strain$ To To mo#e else(here (as therefore to ourt fresh disease from different strains of the same malarious .arasite$ 8; Thus' (hen loall! immune ?aganda (ent to Eastern &ganda to assist the ?ritish (ith administration and .aifiation' the! suffered se#erel! from the strain of malaria there .re#alent and' (hen gi#en /uinine' de#elo.ed 0la)(ater fe#er as fre/uentl! as did the Euro.eans (ho (ere still more #ulnera0le to malaria$ "alaria thus .ro#ed almost as great a 0ar to loal mass mo#ements (ithin tro.ial Afria8 as it (as to e*ternal in#asion$ It must ha#e .la!ed a ma5or .art in slo(ing do(n mo#ements in Afria' and Euro.ean .enetration (as .rohi0iti#el! e*.ensi#e in terms of life till the .ro.h!lati use of /uinine (as diso#ered$ "alaria must fur ther ha#e limited trade' (hih' though more e*tensi#e and #aried than (as formerl! su..osed' (as su0stantiall! underta)en 0! the hand,to,hand .assage of goods$ Thus' Roger Anste!8 desri0es ho( goods reahed &.oto in the Congo from fro m the Ri#er-s mouth 1 the .oint (hih' for Stanle!' Stanle!' re.resented the limit 0e!ond (hih goods from the Atlanti Atlanti ould not .enetrate$ Carried .artl! 0! anoe and then .assed 0! hand,to,hand e*hange' goods from the oast too) fi#e !ears to reah &.oto 1 a .otential ten,!ear ga. 0et(een order and deli#er! that (ould satisf! no modern house(ife The other disease limiting mo#ement on the ontinent (as animal tr!.anosomiasis s.read 0! tsetse flies$ The flies )illed the trans.ort animals as the! had done from time immemorial$ Reords of these insets are of e*treme anti/uit!$ anti/uit!$ 8@ It is' .erha.s' e#en .ossi0le that that the tsetse' found e#en e#en as fossils in the Oligoene Oligoene shales of Colorado' too) their toll of dinosaur 0lood' dis.la!ing as the! still do a .referene for the saurian #ariet!$ Their earl! geogra.hial distri0ution (as learl! immense 0ut in reent times' (ith .erha.s one signifiant e*e.tion' the! ha#e 0een found onl! in su0, Saharan Afria$ The e*e.tion is Southern Ara0ia (here' in 8G' Ca.tain Carter of the ': Shee2 J. &. Re9ort Re9ort fro3 fro3 Dar;est Dar;est Africa Africa ='++)/'++( ='++)/'++(>. >. +edical +edical &i#tory '* &i#tory '* '(2 9. 5:. '- Blac; troo9s a99ended to British British Ar3y 4nits in West West Africa Africa 6et1een '+,( and '+)- s4ffered s4ffered fro3 a severe :5 9er cent 3or6idity rate. See Hirsch2 &and.oo Hirsch2 &and.oo of /eo*ra!hical and &i#torical &i#torical Patholo*y =trans. Patholo*y =trans. &rei7hton2 &.> 8ondon2 Ne1 Sydenha3 Society2 Society2 '++:/'++2 : vols. ', Gelf Gelfan and2 d2 %. 0orthern %. 0orthern Rhode#ia in the day# of the the )harter $ +edical +edical and "ocial "tudy 1'7'1922 1'7'192 2 O?ford2 Blac;1ell2 '('. On 9. , Gelfand addresses hi3self to the to9ic of 3alaria a3on7 %a;ololo in Barotseland. Barotseland. ' Anst Anstey ey22 R. -ritain and the )on*o in the 0ineteenth )entury2 )entury 2 O?ford2 &larendon Press2 '(5. ') $ord2 J. J. The Role of the Try!ano#omia#e# in $frican colo*y $ "tudy of the T#et#e Fly Pro.lem . O?ford2 &larendon Press2 '()'. !his 3aor historical and 6iolo7ical st4dy 1ill 6e cited freC4ently. freC4ently.
Ro!al Arm! Arm! "edial Cor.s found mem0ers of one s.eies' Glossina tachinoides$ tachinoides $8< It is ertain that the tsetse fl! has li#ed in Afria for as long as has man' and it is a..ro.riate that it aordingl! features in some of the oldest human reords that refer to the ontinent$ It (as a0out 8 ?$C$ that Agatarhides remar)ed that animal hus0andr! (as diffiult in Afria 0eause of the seasonal .resene of .oisonous flies (hih )illed attle 1 an o0ser#ation 0rought 0rought .ainfull! to the attention of the ?ritish Arm! in 8<@ (hen' (hen' in ?ritain-s first inursion into the de.ths of Afria' Ethio.ia (as in#aded and trans.ort animals died in m!riads$ 8G ?ut' if some authorities are orret' orr et' Agatarhides Agatarhides an 0e 9 onsidered a relati#el! modern ommentator ommentator - for in a0out @ ?$C$ The Pro.het Isaiah and his son (arned Jing Aha> near the (ater onduit of the Lord-s (rath2 98 And it shall come come to pass in that day, day, that the Lord Lord shall hiss for the fly fly that is in the uttermost part of the rivers of Egypt. . . %hat genius .rom.ted the om.ilers of the authori>ed #ersion of the 0i0le to use the (ord 6hiss7 (e annot )no($ )no($ It is e*traordinar! that the! should ha#e used the (ord (riting in old dam. Bao0ean England' 0ut it has dra(n the attention of all interested in tsetse fliesto this and follo(ing #erses4 for the (ord used for tsetse flies in #irtuall! all Afrian languages (ould seem to ha#e 0een ins.ired 0! the 6hiss7 sound (hih the! ma)e$ Isaiah gi#es a /uite remar)a0le s)eth of the ha0its of tsetse flies' inluding details of (here the! la! their !oung and the onse/uenes of tsetse fl! ad#ane or retreat$ %here did Isaiah a/uire this )no(ledgeK In Ara0ia or through #isiting the uttermost .art of the ri#ers of Eg!.tK Or (as he dra(ing on )no(ledge still more anient99 dating' .erha.s' from the time (hen Israel ame out of Eg!.tK 9: Read! to de.art 0eause of the threat of Pharoah' the Israelites had in antii.ation segregated their attle in the land of +oshen (hen the fourth and fifthe .lagues of flies and murrain res.eti#el! 0efell the Eg!.tians' )illing their attle$ Did the .lagues re.resent the tsetse fl! and attle tr!.anosomiasisK The first .erson to desri0e the sa#annah tsetse' Glossina morsitans' morsitans ' suggests this e*.lanation' 9; (hih ould a..ear more #ia0le than see)ing to attri0ute the death of the attle to to rinder.est and attle #irus disease$ It onstitutes' if so' an aount of one of the earliest e.idemis in Afrian histor!$ histor!$ '+ '( 5* 5' 55 5:
&arter2 &arter2 R. %. !sets !setsee $ly in Ara6ia. Ara6ia. -riti#h +edical Journal 2 2 '(*. 9. ':(:. 8avera 8averan2 n2 &. 8. A. A. and %esni %esnil2 l2 $. $. Try!ano#ome# and Tyr!ano#omia#e#. Tyr!ano#omia#e# . 8ondon. Ballire. !indall and &o?. '(*). 9. '',. $ord2 J. J. The Role of the Try!ano#omia#e#. Try!ano#omia#e#. sai saiah ah ) '+/5 '+/5, , !o1nsednd2 o1nsednd2 &. H. !. !. !he !setse !setse Pro6l Pro6le3. e3. "outh $frican Journal of 0atural &i#tory : '(5:2 9. ':(. West1ood2 J. O. O6servations on the destr4ctive destr4ctive s9ecies of di9tero4s di9tero4s insects ;no1n in Africa 4nder the na3es of tsetse2 tsetse2 4im. and 4im. and T#alt#alya and T#alt#alya and on their s499osed connection 1ith the fo4rth 9la74e of E7y9t. Proceedin*# Proceedin*# of the 4oolo*ical "ociety, "ociety, London '+ London '+ '+,*2 9. 5,+ 5- 6id.
Indeed the tsetse flies also .rotet Afria from intrusion2 the sa#annah tsetse of the morsitans t!.e morsitans t!.e guarded the .lains4 those of the .al.alis grou.' the (ater ourses at the forest edge$ It is thus that the! emerge into reorded histor! for hel.ing to ontain the sa#annah,0ased )ingdoms of the %estern %estern Sudan from fro m e*.anding too easil! through the forest 0elt of %est Afria to the sea$ Jno(ledge of the (ealth of these great )ingdoms greatl! im.ressed (estern Euro.e and its realit! staggered Cairo (hen the great )ing of "ali' "ansa "usa' (ent in A$ D$ 8:9; on .ilgrimage to "ea and dis.osed of so muh gold as to ause a finanial f inanial u.set not onl! in Cairo 0ut also in the finanial entres of Euro.e$ He 0rought 0a) man! Islami sholars to Tim0u)tu' one of (hom (as later to desri0e ho( a suessor of "ansa "usa-s died of the tsetse,s.read slee.ing si)ness tr!.anosomiasis ommon to those .arts$ Animal tr.anosomes tr.anosomes (ere to )ill the horses of the Sudani )ngdom-s armies (hen the %est %est Afrian forest >ones (ere in#aded$ The horses died ra.idl!4 the men more slo(l!' from tr!.anosomiasis$ The latter had' ho(e#er' ho(e#er' to ontend (ith the numerous other infetions of the forest >one' and it (as these that earned that .art of the oast the dread name of the %hite "an-s +ra#e$ As the old shant! goes2 Beware, Beware, Beware the Bight of Benin or twenty come out of a hundred hundred go in. er! often' not e#en t(ent! ame out$ It (as fundamentall! the tsetse fl!' ho(e#er' ho(e#er' that .osed a ma5or o0stale .re#enting e*tension e*tension of the Sudani )ingdoms )ingdoms to the oast$ It ould' ould' and did indeed' (rea) ha#o on the .lains$ In one instane' lomg distane raiders r aiders from "oroo (ere to lose all their horses4 in anaother' all those of Sierra Leone and +am0ia (ere to 0e eliminated' rendering funtionless the rae,ourses of Freeto(n and ?athurst$ 9 Some indeed learnt to use the tr!.anosome,infested tsetse fl! as a (ea.on of (ar$ The indigenous inha0itants of the Joalit hills in Southern Sudan thus )e.t their ountr! and their attle free from Ara0 in#asion$ The! are re.orted to ha#e e*.osed a fresh .ot of attle 0lood to tsetse flies of the loalit!$ loalit!$ %hen suffiient flies had 0een attrated into the .ot' it (as tem.oraril! sealed' sealed' trans.orted' and then then o.ened among the attle of the in#ading Ara0s$ The attle onse/uentl! de#elo.ed nagana and died and the in#aders (ere om.elled to mo#e a(a!$ a(a!$ It ma! (ell 0e that this earl! form of 0iologial (arfare (as more (idel! used in Afria than (e sus.et$ 9 Had the Sudani )ingdoms firml! esta0lished themsel#es on the %est %est Afrian oast' Afria-s histor! (ould .ro0a0l! ha#e 0een #er! different$ For the Portugese and 5, Dor1ard2 D. &. and Payne2 A. . Deforestation2 the the decline of the the horse and the s9read s9read of the tsetse tsetse fly and ani3al ani3al try9anoso3iasis =Na7ana> in nineteenth cent4ry Sierra 8eone. Journal of $frican &i#tory ' &i#tory ' '(),2 99. 5:(/,. 5 Archi6ald2 Archi6ald2 R. G. !he tsetse tsetse fly 6elt 6elt area area in the N46a 3o4ntain 3o4ntainss of the S4dan. S4dan. $nnal# $nnal# of Tr5 Tr5 +edicine and Para#itolo*y Para#itolo*y 5' '(5+. 9. :(
later Euro.ean #o!agers (ould not' on their #isits' ha#e enountered a series of .ett! loal hiefs 0ut' instead' the re.resentati#es of .o(erful (ell,armed Islami states suh as the! had enountered and (ere 0attling (ith in "oroo$ It seems dou0tful' though' that it (ould ha#e affeted the trans,Atlanti sla#e trade sine these Ara0 states had 0een a#idl! engaged in this aross the Sahara for man! enturies$ 9@ %hile the sla#e trade from ?la) Afria to the Ara0 (orld is indeed of great anti/uit!' 9< (e )no( little of its effets in s.reading disease$ 9G Attention has tended to fous on the Atlanti sla#e trade' (hih esta0lished a t(o,(a! e*hange of diseases 0et(een Afria and Ameria' (ith small.o* small.o* and .ossi0l! !ello( fe#er flo(ing (est and the 5igger flea !unga !unga penetrans penetrans and also .ro0a0l! s!.hilis flo(ing east$ : The onse/uenes to Euro.e and the "iddle East of earlier sla#e trade remains' ho(e#er' o0sure$ Earl! +ree) )no(ledge of -Ethio.ia- (as onfused' and the Negroid .eo.les seem to ha#e 0eome )no(n to the +ree)s rather late$ ?eardsle! :8 has sho(n that in lassial times the artisti re.resentations of the Negro nearl! al(a!s r e.resented him aslee. and ofetn #er! emaiated' and she onsiders this .ose to ha#e 0een on#entional$ Perha.s this is so' 0ut one (onders is ases of slee.ing,si)ness ne#er .enetrated to the +ree) or Roman ities$ There are almost no re.resentations of diseased Afrians Afrians in lassial times e#en in material from the !nial iti>ens of Ale*andria$ Ale*andria$ There' as else(here in Eg!.t' urinar! 0ilhar>iasis e*isted from earl! times' it .resene 1 li)e that of tu0erulosis 1 0eing esta0lished in mummies' (hile re.resentations r e.resentations of a .riest of Ruma sho( (hat seems to 0e a .aral!sed leg resem0ling the lesions .rodued 0! .oliom!elitis$:9 ?ilhar>iasis' li)e malaria' .rodues long,term disa0ilit!$ disa0ilit!$ To the e#il effets e ffets of these t(o ma5or diseases in Afria must 0e added inade/uaies of diet' tsetse influene in limiting attle .o.ulations' .oor soils' and fre/uent famines$ Indeed' most of the foods (hih onstitute the urrent dietar! sta.les of the Afrian .eo.les ha#e 0een de#elo.ed else(here and introdued into the ontinent' and it has .u>>led some in#estigators as to 5ust (hat (ere the dietar! sta.les .rior to the introdution of these foods$ A0undant e#idene ne#ertheless sho(s that dietar! inade/uaies' es.eiall! of .rotein' still .ersist' affeting all' es.eiall! the (eanling hild for (hom no s.eiall!,.re.ared (eaning diets e*isted$ Fed for as long as .ossi0le on the mother-s 0reast' 0ut ultimatel! dis.laed from it' often 0! another hild' the (eanling had to ta)e its hanes (ith (hat it ould seure fr om the adult diet$ This (as 5) 5+ 5( :*
Bovi Bovill ll22 E. E. W. W. The /olden Trade of the +oor#. +oor# . 8ondon. O?ford University Press. '*+. 847ard 847ard22 $lora $lora 8o4isa 8o4isa.. .. $ $ Tro!ical Tro!ical De!endency. De!endency. 8ondon2 O?ford University Press. '(+. 8eys2 N. N. enya. enya. 8ondon2 $ran; &ass. '():. Hoe99li2 R. Parasitic diseases in Africa and the 1estern 1estern he3is9here early early trans3ission 6y the slave trade. trade. $cta Tro!ica Tro!ica S499le3ent '* '((. :' Beards Beardsely ely22 Grac Gracee %. %. The 0e*ro in /ree and Roman )iviliation $ "tudy of the thio!ian5 Ne1 thio!ian5 Ne1 #or;2 R4ssell R4ssell. '() =re9rint of '(5( edition>. :5 Both1ell2 Both1ell2 D. R. and and Sandison Sandison22 A. !. =eds>. =eds>. Di#ea#e# of $nti8uity $nti8uity $ "urvey of the Di#ea#e#, %nurie# and "ur*ery "ur*ery of arly Po!ulation#. Po!ulation#. S9rin7field2 llinois2 &harles &. !ho3as. '().
to result in man! deaths from the onse/uenes of .rotein defiien! )no(n as the s!ndrome of )(ashior)or' )(ashior)or' :: (hih ma! 0e aom.anied 0! #itamin and mineral defiienies$ To To this da!' da!' in .arts of Afria' #irtuall! e#er! hild manifests hanges due to these defiienies$ There are onl! ertain as.ets of this disease s.etrum u.on (hih I shall d(ell here$ One is the hea#! mortalit! aused 0! malaria and other .arasiti diseases and infetions e*aer0ated 0! (ides.read le#els of malnutrition and resultant lo( le#els of immunit! as studies from Bohannes0urg ha#e sho(n$ :; Nota0l! se#ere is the infant and hild mortalit! in Afria that has ontri0uted so stri)ingl! in the .ast to the lo( densit! of .o.ulation$ A seond as.et onerns the different effets aused 0! general malnutrition and .rotein malnutrition )(ashior)or$ One urious feature feature of the latter is the strangel! strangel! inert' misera0le' disinterested and a.atheti state of the se#erel!,affeted hild (ho' if inad#ertentl! left in a .artiular s.ot' (ill remain fi*ed there for hours$ : The first sign of im.ro#ement ma! 0e (hen one an oa* a smile$ This mental state im.ro#es ra.idl! (ith .rotein feeding' so it is lear that .rotein defiien! .romotes a.ath!$ a.ath!$ In the ase of the former' i$e$' alori defiien! or general malnutrition' the affeted are not at all a.atheti 0ut are' on the ontrar!' ontrar!' #er! irate and .rone to #iolene$ %e an thus see (h! famines and lesser food shortages sometimes .rodue #iolene and re#olution (hile' at other times' the! are tolerated in a.ath!$ a.ath!$ This is and as.et (orth! of onsideration of historians$ Ho( muh did this nutritionall!,indued nutritionall!,indued a.ath! ontri0ute to the doilit! of Negro sla#esK The o#erriding onsiderations toda! are the long,term effets of hildhood malnutrition on 0rain and mentalit!' mentalit!' : .artiularl! during the .hase of ra.id 0rain gro(th$:@ The su05et is too large to desri0e here4 suffie it to sa! that it a..ears to ha#e 0een demonstrated in animals animals that malnutrition in the ra.id .hase of 0rain gro(th an ha#e .ermanent effets on 0rain struture$ It is .ossi0le that malnutrition in humans ma! ha#e 0eha#ioural onse/uenes suh as sus.iion of hange and diffiult! in ada.ting to ne( irumstanes' ae.ting ne( ideas' or learning more than one language$ It seems that some of the fators in the 0rain of arni#ores and omni#ores annot 0e 0uilt u. from ereal foods 0ut re/uire om.le* foodstuffs (hih the her0i#ore 0rain does not need4 :< :: !ro1ell2 !ro1ell2 H. &.2 &.2 Davies2 Davies2 J. N. P. P. and Dean2 Dean2 R. $. $. A. :a#hioror. :a#hioror. 8ondon2 Ed1ard Arnold2 '(,-. :- Geeth4ysen2 H.2 Rosen2 E. U.2
2 0utrition =ed.>2 0utrition and +ental Function# Function#.. Ne1 #or;2 Plen43 Press2 '(),. :+ &ra1ford2 %. A. and Sinclair2 Sinclair2 A. J. N4tritional N4tritional nfl4ences nfl4ences in the Evol4tion Evol4tion of the %a33alian %a33alian Brain. n &i6a $o4ndation $o4ndation Sy39osi432 8i9ids2 %aln4trition and the Develo9in7 Brain. A3sterda32 Elsevier2 '()5.
and suh fators ma! .la! a role in the de#elo.ment of man-s 0rain and 0eha#iour$ 0eha#iour$ Finall!' Finall!' (e must remem0er the handia. suffered 0! the hild (ith )(ashior)or (ho 1 so often a.atheti and uninterested 1 is at a deided disad#antage (hen om.ared (ith the 0etter,nourished hild (ho is ati#e' fit' and 0usil! engaged in e*.loring the (or)d a0out him$ There is also e#idene that malnutrition an affet the sha.e of the .el#i 0rim leading to diffiulties in hild0irth$ The fre/uen! of o0stetri disasters in man! Afrian ountries is #er! high$ It is remar)a0le that in the ?un!oro,Jitara )ingdom in &ganda indigenous Afrian medial men learned to .erform Caesarian setions$ Thus the! sa#ed the li#es of 0oth mother and hild at a time (hen the dangers of Caesarian setion in Euro.e (ere onsidered so great that man! eminent o0stetriians ad#ised that these o.erations should ne#er 0e .erformed$ Their earl! .ratie aordingl! merits ela0oration$:G In 8<<; an Edin0urgh medial student' Ro0ert Fel)in' (as tra#elling through ?un!oro (hen' on hearing he (as a medial man' the loal .eo.le as)ed if he (ould li)e to see a Caesarian setion .erformed$ He assented and (as sho(n into a room$ The surgeon (as a0out to ommene o.erating' ha#ing 5ust uttered a r! that had 0een ehoed 0! the ro(d outside$ The (oman had 0een stu.efied 0! 0anana (ine' (hih had also 0een used to (ash her a0domen and the hands and instruments of the o.erators$ A s(ift ut o.ened the 0ell! and the (om0$ The 0leeding .oints (ere sealed 0! toughing lightl! (ith red,hot irons$ After ra.idl! e*trating the hild' the! arefull! remo#ed the .laenta (ith all its mem0ranes and )neaded the the uterus until it ontrated' ontrated' 0ut it (as not not stithed in an! (a!$ The (oman (as turned o#er to drain her a0domen of fluid$ %el %ell, l, .olished s.i)es (ere .ushed .ushed through the (all of the a0domen and trussed trussed together to lose the (ound' (hih (as then o#ered (ith a 0anana .aste hot dr essing and' finall!' finall!' a 0anana leaf$ The (oman' (ho ga#e onl! onl! one small r! throughout' throughout' (as to sur#i#e (ith her 0a0! u. to at least the time of Fel)in-s de.arture nine da!s later$ In the (hole histor! of .rimiti#e mediine' there is no more remar)a0le an e.isode than this' reorded and s)ethed 0! a dour' .reise' unimaginati#e Sottish .h!siian,missionar!$ .h!siian,missionar!$ A .ratised team (as learl! at (or)2 the o.erator had t(o assistants at different le#els of training' and the o.eration itself (as harateri>ed 0! the remar)a0l! effiient use of loal materials 1 the sterili>ing anaestheti 0anana (ine' the red,hot irons' the s.i)es' the .lant fi0re string' and so on$ E/uall! remar)a0le (as the a#oidane of suturing the uterus or of the hea#!,handed use of the red,hot irons to seal 0lood #essels' 0oth of (hih might ha#e .romoted .romoted su0se/uent infetion$ infetion$ All this 0eto)ens a high degree degree of medial and intelletual intelletual so.histiation' and fouses attention on the remar)a0le )ingdom of ?un!oro,Jitara$ For a long time this (as a relati#el! :( Davies2 J. N. P. P. !he develo93ent of of scientific 3edicine 3edicine in the African ;in7do3 of B4nyoro/
.eaeful and sta0le monarh! monarh! in a good food,.roduing food,.roduing area !ielding mil)' mil)' meat and 0ananas' and the irumstanes irumstanes (ere to 0e ondui#e ondui#e to onsidera0le intelletual intelletual and tehnologial de#elo.ment$ The Caesarian setion (as' indeed' not the onl! field in (hih their surger! (as ad#aned$ The! am.utated' o.erated on the hest and head' and sutured a0dominal (ounds as (ell as intestinal lesions$ Nor (ere their medial ad#anes .urel! surgial' for the! #ariolated against small.o* and' muh more remar)a0l!' remar)a0l!' innoulated against :Ga s!.hilis and (ere muh ritii>ed for so doing$ As is so often the ase' (e )no( mre from the stritures of their ritis than (e do from the ?an!oro themsel#es' 0ut (hat the! (ere learl! tr!ing to do (as to .rodue an atta) of non,#enereal s!.hilis in hildhood; of a t!.e ommon in man! .arts of Afria and the su05et of s.eifi stud!' in the ase of the ?ehuanas' 0! Professor Bames "urra!$ ;8 Infetion (as thus indued at a time (hen its manifestations (ould 0e milder than if de#elo.ed in later life and (ithout the additional attendant ris)s of endangering .otentiall! neessar! fighting man.o(er$ man.o(er$ Some Paifi Oean islanders (ere to ma)e the same diso#er!$ diso#er!$ Pratiall! and one.tuall!' one.tuall!' this (as .re#enti#e mediine of a high order and it must ha#e needed a long .eriod of o0ser#ation' e*.eriment' and .u0li health .ro.aganda to .ut into into effet$ %e )no( the! e*.erimented' e*.erimented' ;9 as a remar)a0le letter from "r %$ %$ +rant' Lugard-s old om.anion and one of the earliest go#ernment offiers in &ganda (as to sho($ sho($ Loated in the Ente00e arhi#es' it (as (ritten in the earl! stages of the great slee.ing si)ness e.idemi and dre( attention to an itinerant "un!oro medial man' Yangoma' Yangoma' (ho thought he ould ure slee.ing si)ness$ &nfortunatel! on test this laim (as dis.ro#ed4 0ut the stor! +rant tells is fasinating$ In 8<<; the Ja0a)a Ja0arega' in the fae of an e.idemi 1 .ro0a0l! 0u0oni .lague 1 set Yangoma Yangoma and a (oman assistant the tas) of finding a ure' and si) .eo.le (ere .laed at his dis.osal for test .ur.oses so that de#ised onotions ould 0e e#aluated$ In the area of ad#aned surger!' surger!' 0asi' .erha.s' (as a ?un!oro (or)ing )no(ledge of anatom! 0ased on e*.eriene (ith .ost,mortem e*aminations under the Li)undu ustom$ ;: %hile this ustom' under (hih nero.sies (ere arried out on a large sale' ould ould degenerate into gross su.erstition su.erstition and re#olting .raties' .raties' it ould' in other irumstanes' (ith the detailed searhings in the 0od! it often alled for' allo( :(a 6id. 6id. -* Davies2 Davies2 J. N. P. P. !he history history of of sy9hilis sy9hilis in U7anda. U7anda. -ulletin of the ;orld &ealth or >or "tate Journal of +edicine , +edicine , '(,2 99. 5+:*/:.
o0ser#ers to 0uild u. an e*tensi#e )no(ledge of anatom!$ In ?un!oro the! seem to ha#e ahie#ed this )no(ledge$ Aident' (ar' disease and e.idemis rendered the transmission of their )no(ledge .erilousl! #ulnera0le' ho(e#er' and this (as e*aer0ated 0! the a0sene of (ritten reords$ Among the diseases of (hih mention must 0e made is that of small.o*$ Sine Roman times' the un)no(n Afrian Afrian interior and India (ere to 0e the natural entres from (hih the disease emanated$ ;; The reogni>ed Ethio.ian .andemis ha#e 0een ta0ulated 0! Hirsh ; and Pan)hurst' ; (hile ?udge ;@ has .ointed to the fat that the assoiation of famine (ith small.o* in Ethio.ia has 0een )no(n sine a0out A$ D$ <$ From the 8<9s on(ards' holera (as to enter the .iture' although the earliest )no(n e.idemi (as in 8:; ;< and ma! ha#e 0een onneted (ith an Indonesian I ndonesian out0rea) in 89G$ Sine the first of the holera .andemis' there (ere to 0e reurrent e.isodes of the disease in Afria' though rarel! in %est Afria ;G and ne#er in the Ca.e or South East Afria$ The soure of these out0rea)s (as al(a!s "ea' and no .lae (hih (as less than fifteen da!s sail from the Ara0ian .orts (as free of danger$ Sometimes' a shifting of the monsoon .eriod .roteted =an>i0ar' as it did in 8<' 0ut the same e.idemi tra#elled o#erland to hit that ountr! in 8<G$ That it reahed &ganda (ould a..ear from referenes to it 0! the Ja0a)a "utesa$ It also s(e.t o#er Tangan!i)a Tangan!i)a and its La)e to La)e N!asa and "o>am0i/ue$ It (as enountered 0! Dr Li#ingstone in "an!uemaland 0ut' follo(ing this' this' all traes of it (ere lost$ lost$ These holera e.idemis e.idemis are desri0ed in the 8<@ (ritings of Christie' (ho also details the trade r outes in the interior of East Afria$8 Of #arious diseases' it (as holera and small.o* that made the greatest im.ression on reorders of the time suh as ?urton in Jil(a$ There is (eight! e#idene to suggest that in a single holera e.idemi in Ethio.ia' .er ent of the hildren and eight! .er ent of the adults died' (hilst in others' (hole tri0es (ere eliminated$ 9 %e also )no( ho( se#erel! some armies suffered in Ethio.ia' ho( im.erial am.aigns (ere halted' and ho( life ame to a #irtual standstill4 and an! (ho 0elie#e all this to 0e e*aggerated should read' 0! (a! of esta0lishing an analog!' of the e#ents in Euro.e' Ameria' Ameria' or
--, - -) -+ -( ,* ,' ,5
Hirs Hirsch ch22 A47 A474s 4st. t. &and.oo &and.oo of /eo*ra!hical and &i#torical &i#torical Patholo*y. Patholo*y . 6id. Pan;h4rst2 Pan;h4rst2 R. !he history and and traditional traditional treat3en treat3entt of s3all9o? in Ethio9ia. Ethio9ia. +edical &i#tory ( &i#tory ( '(,2 99. :-:/,,. B4d7 B4d7e2 e2 W. W. E. $ E. $ &i#tory of thio!ia. thio!ia. 8ondon2 %eth4en2 '(5+. Pan;h4rst2 Pan;h4rst2 R. A history history of choler choleraa in Ethio9ia Ethio9ia.. +edical &i#tory '5 &i#tory '5 '(+2 9 55. Bo13an2 Bo13an2 &. &holera &holera in in West West Africa. Africa. a#t a#t $frican +edical +edical Journal : Journal : '(,(2 9. 5'. &hristie2 &hristie2 J. &holera &holera E9ide3ics E9ide3ics in East Africa. Africa. 8ondon2 8ondon2 %ac3illan2 %ac3illan2 '+). Davies2 J. N. P. P. Ja3es &hristie &hristie and the cholera e9ide3ics e9ide3ics of East Africa. a#t Africa. a#t $frican +edical +edical Journal : Journal : '(,(2 9. '. %cNe %cNeil illl2 Pla*ue# and Peo!le#. Peo!le#.
e#en Ca.e To(n during the 8G8< influen>a e.idemi$ : Ho( se#erel! famine' .estilene and endemi disease affeted Afria in the .ast annot 0e measured' 0ut the umulati#e effets annot ha#e 0een other than immense$ There is one great e.idemi' ho(e#er' (hose effets an' to some e*tent' 0e studied$ I refer to the attle .lague$ Ethio.ia 0et(een 8<<< and 8ooti of rinder.est' (hih )illed nearl! all the attle$ Bohn Ford ; has alled it the greatest natural alamit! e#er to ha#e 0efallen the Afrian ontinent' and its effets ha#e no .arallel else(here$ Rinder.est is a #irus disease (hih afflits attle' 0ut other animals are also suse.ti0le$ It is #er! highl! ontagious' s.read 0! diret ontat' and manifests itself in fe#er' restlessness' loss of a..etite and 0lood,stained diarrhoeal and often nasal disharges$ The animal ra.idl! (ea)ens and dies$ There are also #ariations in#ol#ing 0lood,stained disharge disharge from some 0od! orifie (ith (ith the animal oasionall! oasionall! 0eoming maniaal$ The disease has a long histor! and some 0elie#e it (as .resent .r esent in the anient (orld$ It .ossi0l! aused ha#o in the +ree) attle at the siege of Tro! and also ra#aged the Eg!.tian attle 0efore the E*odus$ It (as s.eifiall! reogni>ed in Euro.e fr om the time of the +oths4 and there (as an enormous e.i>ooti in A$ D$ <8' during Charlemagne-s era' (hih s.read as far as ?ritain$ Sine then' moreo#er' e.i>ootis ha#e regularl! ourred es.eiall! (here there (ere lose ontats 0et(een %estern %estern Euro.e and Russia$ Thus' (ith Na.oleon-s retreat from "oso(' "oso(' an e.i>ooti s(e.t Euro.e as did another in 8< after the Crimean %ar$ @ It has 0een reogni>ed r eogni>ed as an infetious disease sine 8@; and its influene on the de#elo.ment of #eterinar! siene and shools has 0een immense$ Prior to 8<;' rinder.est seems ne#er to ha#e entered trans,Saharan Afria from its home in the Russian ste..es$ In the earl! 8<s' ho(e#er' it reahed Eg!.t through attle im.orted from the Crimea and in 8< s.read to %estern Sudan and %est %est Afria$ < The e.i>ooti died out' ho(e#er' 0efore it ould affet Ethio.ia or East and South Afria 1 something that (as to ome onl! later$ later$
,: ,,, , ,)
Anon. Anon. n n En7la En7land nd no1. no1. The Lancet ' ' '()2 9. )(+ $ord2 !he Role Role of the !ry9anos !ry9anoso3ias o3iases. es. Henn Hennin in72 72 %. W. $nimal Di#ea#e# of "outh $frica $frica.. Johannes64r72 &entral Ne1s A7ency2 A7ency2 '(-(2 5nd ed. Ga37 Ga37ee ee22 J. The )attle Pla*ue. Pla*ue . 8ondon2 Hard1ic;2 '+. Hall2 S. S. !he cattl cattlee 9la74e 9la74e of '+,. '+,. +edical +edical &i#tory '(52 99. -,/,+ and !he cattle 9la74e of '+,2 Proceedin*# of the Royal "ociety of +edicine ,+ +edicine ,+ '(,2 99. )((/+'*. ,+ t has 6een traditionally traditionally asserted 1ithin West West Africa Africa that there 1ere earlier earlier e9iFootics of rinder9est rinder9est for 1hich the ndians and the Persians 1ere to 6la3e. See %etta32 R. %. W. W. A short history of rinder9est 1ith s9ecial reference to Africa. Africa. ?*anda Journal , Journal , '(:)/:+2 9. 55.
In 8<<;' ?ritish and Eg!.tian troo.s mo#ed u. the Nile in a 0id to relie#e +ordon' (ho had 0een ut off in Jhartoum 0! the "ahdist "ahdist re#olt$ To feed them attle (ere 0rought in from South Russia$ Russia$ The failure of the relief e*.edition (as follo(ed follo(ed 0! a #irtual sealing of of the Sudan' (here famine' f amine' lousts and small.o* #astl! redued the .o.ulation$ The ?ritish +o#ernment' faed (ith Frenh and +erman +erman e*.ansionist .oliies in Afria' sought to ta)e ta)e off some of the .ressure 0! enouraging enouraging the Italians to ta)e an interest in the Red Sea area$ This resulted in their ou.ation of "assa(a and Jassala$ The Italian troo.s needed meat' and so attle (ere im.orted fro m South Russia 1 a deal .ossi0l! assisted 0! 0! Russian agents then ati#e ati#e (ith Frenh ad#enturers ad#enturers in Ethio.ia$ In 8<. district>. !an7anyi;a !an7anyi;a Notes and Records 5-2 Dec. '(-)2 99. :/5). "ee also "ee also $ord2 The Role of the Try!ano#omia#e#. Try!ano#omia#e#. * Bro1n2 R. As9ects of the scra36le for %ata6eleland. %ata6eleland. n Sto;es2 Sto;es2 E. and 6ro1n2 6ro1n2 R. =eds> !he Ia36esian Past. %anchester University Press2 '(. On 9. 55 there is a reference to the i39ortance of cattle and 3il; in the %ata6ele re7i3ental to1ns. !he c4sto3 of dra1in7 6lood and 3i?in7 it 1ith 3 il; and drin;in7 it ra1 1as an African ha6it ;no1n to the & hinese as early as A. D. +:. See $ree3an/Grenville2 G. S. P. P. !he east African &oast. O?ford2 &larendon Press2 '(52 9.+. ' $ord2 The Role of the Try!ano#omia#e# Try!ano#omia#e#.. 5 847ard2 $. $. D. as cited cited in %etta32 %etta32 A short history history of the the rinder9est.
The e.idemi seemed to gain in #irulene as it s.read$ It s(e.t aross &ganda 0et(een 8i$ In the .astoral areas generall!' the mortalit! (as 0et(een G and G .er ent$ %est Afria (as hit as se#erel! as East Afria' and in Nigeria alone the disease (as said to ha#e (i.ed out the greater ma5orit! of the attle' though its effet on the (ild game seems not to ha#e 0een noted$ The onse/uenes of this de#astation (ere immense$ Almost o#ernight' the greater .art of the (ealth of tro.ial Afria (as s(e.t a(a!$ a(a!$ The attle tri0es had 0een the dominant .o(ers o#er #ast areas and the most militant$ The "asai' the Fulani' the ?ahima and the Tutsi' ruled o#er great num0ers of hum0le .easant agriulturalists$ These attle aristoraies (ere ruined' (ith se#ere .s!hologial onse/uenes$ 6 Attempts were were made, #y some, to fly fly from the disease and preserve preserve their cattle. ulani, ulani, having lost all, or nearly all, their cattle, #ecame demented$ many are said to have dione away with themselves. %ome roamed roamed the #ush calling imaginary cattle. 7 Others 6left their families and wandered unclothed in the #ush, their heads unshaved, eating dust, loo&ing for their dead livestoc& and, we may infer, infer, their sanity 7$ "an! "asai ommitted suiide4 others 0egged for food or sold their hildren as sla#es to tri0es .re#iousl! regarded (ith disdain$
: Henn Henniin72 n72 $nimal Di#ea#e# of "outh $frica. $frica. - 6id. , St &roi?2 $. $. W. W. de. !he $4lani $4lani of Northern Ni7eria. Ni7eria. 8a7os2 Govern3ent Printer2 Printer2 '(-,2 as cited in $ord2 The Role of the Try!ano#omia#e#2 Try!ano#omia#e#2 9. :( Sten Stenni nin7 n722 D. D. J. J. "avannah 0omad#2 0omad#2 8ondon2 O?ford University Press2 for the nternational Africa nstit4te2 nstit4te2 '(,(2 9. ,(.
It (as through this de#astation that Lugard marhed to &ganda in 8
) Si3o Si3on2 n2 N. -et:een the "unli*ht and the Thunder The ;ildlife ;ildlife of enya . 8ondon2 &ollins. '(5. + Perha32 %ar7ery =ed>. !he Diaries of 8ord 847ard. 8ondon2 8ondon2 $a6er and $a6er2 '(,(2 '(,(2 : vols.
It is in these #i#id desri.tions of Lugard-s that (e see the full measure of the atastro.he2 the death of the attle and (ild game' the .rotein shortage' the .ressure on the no( inade/uate ereal .rodution' the unnatural food' the ina0ilit! to ulti#ate' the miser!' miser!' the destrution' and the other .estilenes of man and animals$ These fell on the sur#i#ing attle in the form of another e.idemi disease 1 0o#ine .leuro,.neumonia' G All these (ere to 0e su.erim.osed u.on the onstant ills of Afria 1 the malaria' d!senter! (hih )illed 9' .orters on one Jen!a safari alone' @ and all the other endemi diseases$ On 8< "arh 8#ous (ith death' (as held u.2 6 1e 6 1e is at 'a2am#oni with with 34 followers, is uite uite #lind5 the country has #een swept #y smallpox and +avalli, 'a2am#oni and almost everyone are dead 7 ol :288$ ?ut is the Afrians (ere all too familiar (ith small.o*' the! had no e*.eriene of the 5igger,flea' that age,old .est of Central and South Ameria' (here it sto..ed S.anish armies in their tra)s' tr a)s' and had demorali>ed Frenh troo.s under ?a>aine during "a*imilian-s unha..! #enture$ %hen it first arri#ed in Afria remains unertain$ Hirsh @9 thought it (as in 8<@9 in +a0on and on the Congo oast' 0ut there is e#idene that it (as esta0lished in %est %est Afria as earl! as A$ D$ 888, 8:$ A ne( and ati#e infestation (as' ho(e#er' ho(e#er' im.orted in 8<@9 to Am0ri> in Angola in the 0allast of a ?ritish shi. from fr om Rio' @: and the ne( strain of flea s.read #er! ra.idl! and (ith serious effets$ The im.at on humans (as massi#e (ith (hole lim0s and (omen-s 0reasts rotting off$ Culti#ation Culti#ation (as seriousl! seriousl! im.eded$ At ?u)o0a' Hermann desri0ed desri0ed the .eo.le as (arli)e 0ut deimated 0! small.o*' and so se#erel! atta)ed 0! 5igger, fleas that a har#est ould not 0e rea.ed 0ut (as left standing as no la0our (as a#aila0le$@; ?ut if humans and their attle suffered and died from these .estilenes' then so did one of their enemies$ The tsetse flies' de.ri#ed of their usual foods' sim.l! disa..eared in man! areas 1 some near Bohannes0urg 1 and ne#er returned$ The flies' (hih had so im.eded the earl! settlers' .re#enting them laagering their o*en and o.ening their .arties to destrution' (ere first to diminish and finall! finall! to disa..ear in the the Trans#aal$ Trans#aal$ @ ( !a6le a6lerr2 E. E. &. &. The Far %nterior )hronicle# of Pioneerin* in the +ata.ele and +a#hona )ountrie#5 1'71'79 . &a9e !o1n2 A. A. Bal;e3a2 '(,,2 records the '+,- 84n7 Sic;ness e9ide3ic in the &a9e 1here over '**2*** head of cattle died as did so3e ), 9er cent of those in Natal. )* 8eys2 enya. enya. )' $ord2 The Role of the Try!ano#omia#e# Try!ano#omia#e#22 9. '-* o6serves n
In other areas ho(e#er' ho(e#er' the! reo#ered ra.idl! and a#idl! e*.loited ne( o..ortunities$ %ith %ith attle and therefore their manure gone' the short,ro..ed grass disa..eared and sru0 and shad! thorn thi)ets 1 the fa#oured haunts of the tsetse too) their .lae$ Thus the tsetse flies' and one of their fa#oured food animals' the 0ush .ig' /ui)l! rea..eared' reo#ered' and ad#aned ra.idl! o#er .re#iousl! tsetse,free ountr! thus limiting the areas (here attle ould li#e$ The onse/uenes of this (ere deadl! for the! formed the milieu in (hih a..alling e.idemis of slee.ing si)ness de#elo.ed$ ?ut lea#ing these aside for the moment' this series of atastro.hes that 0efell Afria led to a series of interlo)ing misunderstandings 0et(een the indigenes and the enroahing Euro.eans$ On 98 No#em0er 8ed' rotted (ith famine and disease and' in the .artiular instane of the "asai' an*ious to 0e friends$ That .rime e*.ert in olonialism' Lord Lugard' had no dou0ts on the matter$ The rinder.est' he (rote' 6 in some respects...has respects...has favoured favoured our enterprise. :owerful and warli&e as the pastoral pastoral tri#es are, are, their pride has #een hum#led and our progress facilitated #y this awful visitation. !he advent of the white man had not else #een so peaceful 7$ peaceful 7$@ %riting in his diar! at "tindi-s a.ital in Ja#irondo on ; deem0er 8
) 847ard2 $. $. D. Dis9atch to .B.E.A. &o. fro3 Port Ed1ard2 !oro2 !oro2 ': A474st2 '+(' as C4oted 6y $ord2 $ord2 The Role of the Try!ano#omia#e#. Try!ano#omia#e#.
)t seems li&e it, and if if so the wonder is these people people have not thought thought it was he, and put it down to witchcraft. ) would have expected this, and that they would have all gone for the next white man. )f so, ) suppose they would have mopped us up. ortunate for us they didnt ta&e this view; 6*ol. 6*ol. 3$<=>7. The matter' ho(e#er' ho(e#er' (ent far dee.er than this for the .estilenes (ere follo(ed 0! the .enetration of of Afria Afria 0! far greater num0ers of Euro.eans than e#er 0efore 1 Euro.eans (ho )ne( little of the Afrian .ast$ &ganda-s first High Commissioner (arned of the influ* of tra#ellers to that ountr! in 8G$ The! entered a desolated' de#astated' demorali>ed ontinent$ The! found #ast' em.t!' fertile .lains o#er (hih tsetse flies (ere fast s.reading4 the! found regions r egions in (hih small,sale fighting and raiding (ere ontinuous4 the! found disease and de0ilitation of men and attle e#er!(here' (ith the latter su05et to reurrent e.idemis of rinder.est' 0o#ine .leuro, .neumonia and East Coast Coast fe#er$ fe#er$ The! met (ith (ith reurring famines and food shortages shortages in ountries (here agriultural .raties (ere slo#enl!' slo#enl!' inom.etent' ineffiient and' for the most .art' the (or) of (omen onl!4 and the o0ser#ant (ould ha#e notied e#idene of a0andoned attle )raals and farms$ The fe( areas of high agriultural effiien! li)e &)ere(e Island in La)e itoria' (ere regarded as /uite e*e.tional$ The .enetrating Euro.eans sa( themsel#es as i#ili>ers and 6sa#iours of .eo.le sun) in enturies of 0ar0ari miser!7$ The Afrians' per Afrians' per contra' contra' sa( the Euro.eans as the malignant soures of their multitudinous reent miseries$ 6"utual misunderstanding7' as Bohn Ford has remar)ed' 6(as almost total7' @@ and its onse/uenes endure to this da!$ da!$ For numerous Afrians' mil) #anished from a diet in (hih it had .re#iousl! 0een so im.ortant a onstituent$ A meat sarit! om.ounded the .rotein shortage (ith onse/uenes .re#iousl! e*amined' and .ro#o)ed the feroious (ild game hunting that so alarmed onser#ationists from 8
I ha#e read e*tensi#el! on the (ell,doumented ?la) Death' the .andemi that s(e.t Euro.e in the fourteenth entur!' entur!' and although not all are agreed on its onse/uenes' it is ae.ted that it had immensel! im.ortant effets on the soial' eonomi and .olitial fields all of (hih ha#e 0een am.l! e*.lored 0! historians$ At the ris) of inurring Professor Elton-s ensure' I (ould suggest that the onse/uenes of the great 8<<<,8ooti (ere as momentous and far,reahing as those of the ?la) Death and therefore (orth! of e/ual attention 0! the aademi historian4 !et (here is heK There are go#ernmental re.orts' sattered .a.ers' #arious onsiderations of as.ets of the e.i>ooti in some 0iologial and #eterinar! (or)s' ha.ters in the 0oo)s of s.ortsmen and tra#ellers' 0ut nothing else$ In man! Afrian histor! 0oo)s' rinder.est is not e#en inde*ed$ This is a defiien! for the retifiation of (hih I (ould a..eal$ Time .reludes e*amination of the host of ther diseases in Afria (hih lamour for an assessment of their im.at on its histor! 1 the ma5or .estilenes of meningooal meningitis that s(ee. the southern fringes of the Sahara4 and 0ilhar>ia and its effets' sa!' on Na.oleon-s troo.s on Eg!.t$ Ho( muh did it stand 0et(een na.oleon and the domination of the East he so intensel! desiredK Ho( did famine and small.o* limit the "ahdist domination in the SudanK %hat (ere the effets of the great slee.ing si)ness e.idemis on the histor! of %est %est Afria and of the Congo and Chad 0asinsK There are enormous enormous fields of en/uir! in (hih (hih the first soundings need need to 0e made 0! medial historians$ And are (e finished' if not (ith e.idemi disease' then at least (ith the ma5or .estilenes of men and animalsK animalsK "! miro0iologial olleagues' 5ustl! .roud .roud for the most .art' of the magnitude of their ahie#ements in the last entur!' entur!' are #er! onfident that suh .estilenes (ill not reur$ The! The! ha#e good reasons for this onfidene' 0ut it is one that I do not share$ I 0elie#e that the anteedents of great .estilenes are e#en no( 0uilding u. in the (orld' not least in Afria$ One an onl! s.eulate s.eulate a0out the umulati#e im.liations of e#er,inreasing o#er.o.ulation' the o#erro(ding in large ities' and the #ast and .oor .eri,ur0an shant! to(ns (ith their inade/uate .ure (ater' (ater' sanitar!' sanitar!' and gar0age dis.osal failities and the attendant inset 0reeding that suh irumstanes ha#e as their onse/uene$ %ho )no(s ho( all these fators are influening the )no(n auses of e.idemisK Perha.s the reent out0rea)s of meningooal meningitis in SMo Paulo Cit! are .ortents and (arnings$ And if this is true of the )no(n auses' then (hat of those that are un)no(nK Old diseases reede as ne( ones eru.t' @< and it is not im.ro0a0le that su.er,#irulent organisms organisms ma! 0e 0uilding u. in some eologial nihe under our feet' or in our roofs' or in the (oods and 0ushes around us$ %hat fate holds' a.art from the .otential #illain! of 0iologial (arfare' therefore remains un)no(n$ )+ !he e9ide3ics of E6ola vir4s vir4s disease 1ere 64ildin7 49 in Iaire and the S4dan S4dan as these co33ents 1ere 3ade. 3ade.
%hat does remain ertain is the shado( of famine' the inreasingl! ominous dar)ness of (hih louds the Afrian ontinent .ossi0l! .ossi0l! e#en more se#erel! than it does the rest of the (orld$ Future Afrian famines ha#e long 0een foretold' @G and the last fe( !ears ha#e seen the e#entuation of se#eral$ It ma! 0e' as some ha#e argued' that these ha#e 0een aentuations of the usual .oor nutrition 0ased on under.rodution of food in .oor soils rather than true true famines4 !et the onse/uenes onse/uenes are the same' and (ith famine famine has usuall! ome .estilene$ For (ar' famine' and .estilene are often interlin)ed in a irular .attern of ausation and there are still too man! fators in Afria that (antonl! .ro#o)e them$ Should the! eru.t in the future' future' their im.at is 0ound 1 5ust as as it did in the .ast 1 to influene' (hether su.erfiiall! or .rofoundl!' .rofoundl!' the human destinies and histor! of the ontinent$ This has al(a!s 0een so in Afria sine those remote times (hen man-s anestors' the su05et of Ra!mond Dart-s great diso#eries' .eered from their a#es into the Afrian sunshine and the Afrian dar)ness$ Their .ra!er' ho(e#er e*.ressed' (ould' I 0elie#e' ha#e artiulated the same sentiments as those in the litan!2 rom lightning lightning and tempest5 tempest5 from plague plague pestilence and famine5 from #attle #attle and murder murder,, and from from sudden death, Good Good Lord, deliver us.
)( Paddoc Paddoc;2 ;2 W and and Paddoc Paddoc;2 ;2 P. P. Famine 197@A 8ondon2 197@A 8ondon2 Weidenfeld and Nicolson2 '(+. =A ne1 edition 1as s46seC4ently 946lished 4nder the title !i3e of $a3ines $merica and the ;orld ;orld Food )ri#i#. )ri#i#. Boston2 8ittle2 6ro1n2 '().>
