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A PROJECT REPORT ON LAW OF OUTER SPACE AND INDIA
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RESEARCH METHODOLOG METHODOLOGY Y
Aims and Objectives:
The aim of the project is to preset a !etai"e! st#!$ coset as !efece i fami"$ "a%& thro#'h 'eera" pricip"es( stat#tes (!ecisios( stat#tes( ame!mets( s#''estios a! !ifferet %riti's a! artic"es) Scope and Limitations:
Tho#'h this is a immese project a! pa'es ca *e %ritte o+er the topic *#t *eca#se of certai restrictios a! "imitatios I %as ot a*"e to !ea" %ith the topic i 'reat !etai") Sources of Data:
The fo""o%i' seco!ar$ so#rces of !ata ha+e *ee #se! i the project, -) Artic"es .) /oo0s 1) We*si *sites Method of Writing:
The metho! of %riti' fo""o%e! i the co#rse co #rse of this research paper is primari"$ aa"$tica") The researchers ha+e #se! !octria" metho! i their research( that is( e2tesi+e #se of "iterar$ so#rces a! materia"s) The researchers mai"$ #se! seco!ar$ so#rces to pro+i!e s#*stace to the research aa"$sis) The researchers ha+e a"so p#t !o% immese effort i or!er to #!ersta! the terms a! cocepts re"ate! to the s#*ject %hich eriche! the st#!$ to a 'reat e2tet) I some case the researchers sha"" *e *o#! to e2tract materia"s !irect"$ from the "iterar$ %or0 of certai a#thors %hich the researchers ite! to a!e3#ate"$ cite a! otif$ i !#e co#rse of time)
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The researchers a"so ite! to co!#ct the st#!$ o a more micro "e+e" i or!er to ma0e the st#!$ more o*jecti+e a! precise i re"atio to 4THE LAW O O!TE" S#A$E A%D &%D&A'( Mode Mode of $itat $itatio ion: n: The researcher has fo""o%e! a #iform mo!e of citatio thro#'ho#t the
co#rse of this research paper)
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CONTENTS
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INTRODUCTION555555555555555555555)67
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LAW OF OUTER SPACE5555555)))555555555)))))68
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DEFINITION 9 DELI:INATION55555555))))55555))6;
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T>E RE
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OUTER SPACE TREAT=(-;?@555555)555555555)-
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INDIABS :ISSION TO T>E :OON5)))55555555))555-7
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CONSENSUS555555555))5555555555555-8
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CONCLUSION555555555)5555555555555-;
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/I/LIO=555555555555555555555)).-
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&%T"OD!$T&O%
O#ter space ma$ *e !efie! as that area of the #i+erse %here the atmosphere of the earth e!s) I other %or!s( %here aeria" so+erei't$ of the state e!s( o#ter space *e'is) It ic"#!es a"" space a*o+e the "o%est peri'ee achie+e! *$ a$ sate""ite p#t ito or*it) Ce"estia" *o!ies a! the moo a"so form parts of space) So far as the 3#estio of air space is cocere! it has *ee ma!e c"ear ear"ier that the state cocere! e2ercise comp"ete cotro" o+er it) The other states ca 'et some ri'hts o+er it o"$ thro#'h some a'reemet of treaties) There is o c#stomar$ r#"e of the iteratioa" "a% i re'ar! to 'i+i' iocet passa'e thro#'h the territoria" air space) As apt"$ poite! o#t *$ E!%ar! Co""is( Co""is( 4States ha+e comp"ete comp"ete "e'a" cotro" cotro" o+er the air space( o+er their territor$ territor$(( other states states ha+e o"$ ri'hts i it as are ac3#ire! of treat$) There is o c#stomar$ ri'ht of iocet passa'e thro#'h territoria" airspace)&At oe time it %as *e"ie+e! that the States e2ercise! so+erei't$ o+er its o#ter space to the #"i #"imi mite te! ! e2te e2tet) t) The The rapi rapi! ! pro' pro're ress ss of scie sciece ce a! tech techo" o"o'$ o'$ has has ma!e ma!e thes thesee +ie% +ie%ss meai'"ess) :a$ efforts ha+e *ee ma!e to coc"#!e iteratioa" a'reemet i re'ar! to the o#ter space) The first phase of the space !e+e"opmets starte! o -st Octo*er -;@( %he the So+i So+iet et Uio Uio "a#c "a#che he! ! its its firs firstt sp#t sp#ti i0) 0) Sice Sice the the effo effort rtss ha+e ha+e *ee *ee ma!e ma!e to achie achie+e +e iteratioa" co,operatio i this fie"!) The ear"$ perspecti+es %ere pro+i!e! *$ j#rists a! ite""ect#a ite""ect#a"s) "s) S#*se3#et" S#*se3#et"$ $ the Uite! Uite! Natios Natios thro#'h thro#'h +ario#s +ario#s reso"#tio reso"#tios s cr$sta""i cr$sta""ie! e! these spec#"atios ito "e'a" pricip"es). As ear"$ as o -1 Decem*er( -;8( the
Edward Collins, International Law in a Changing World, p.173 S.Bhatt, Legal Controls of Oter Spa!e, "1#73$, p. 273 3 %esoltion 134& "'III$ 2
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Peacef#" Uses of O#ter Space from 1@ to ?@) O the same s#*ject( the Assem*"$ passe! other reso"#tios o .6 Decem*er( -;7-;7-((? -? Decem*er( -;7.( a! o -1 Decem*er( -;71)7 The "ast reso"#tio i)e( !ate! -1 Decem*er( -;71( etit"e! 4Dec"aratio of Le'a" Pricip"es
THE LAW O O!TE" S#A$E 4
%esoltion 1721 "')I$ %esoltion 1#*2 "')II$ + %esoltion 1#+2 "')III$ 7 See .- o!. /0++21, 17 e!eer, 1#++, pp. 111& (
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The f#!ameta" pricip"e of air "a% re"ates to the comp"ete so+erei't$ of the s#*jacet state) This is 3#a"ifie! 3#a"ifie! *$ the +ario#s m#"ti"atera" m#"ti"atera" a! *i"atera" *i"atera" co+etios co+etios %hich permit air"iers air"iers to cross a! "a! i the territories of the cotracti' states #!er reco'ie! co!itios a! i the "i'ht of the accepte! re'#"atios) /#t there is a"so aother 3#a"ificatio a! oe that s#*statia""$ mo!ifies the usque and coelu cocept( cocept( %here*$ %here*$ so+erei't$ so+erei't$ e2te!e! e2te!e! o+er the airspace airspace to a #"imite! hei'ht) This cetres #po the creatio a! ! e+e"opmet of the "a% of o#ter space) E+er sice the USSR "a#che! the first earth sate""ite i -;@( space e2p"oratio has !e+e"ope! at a e+er icreasi' rate)8 Sate""ites o% cotro" comm#icatios a! o*ser+atio et%or0s( %hi"e "a!i' ha+e *ee ma!e o the moo a! iformatio see0i' space pro*es !ispatche! to s#r+e$ p"aets "i0e Ge#s Ge#s a! Sat#r) The research materia" 'athere! #po s#ch !i+erse ! i+erse matters as earth reso#rces( ioospheric acti+ities( so"ar ra!iatio( cosmic ra$s a! the 'eera" str#ct#re of space a! p"aet formatios has stim#"ate! f#rther efforts to #!ersta! the at#re of space a! the cosmos); This immese icrease i a+ai"a*"e iformatio has a"so "e! to the !e+e"opmet of the "a% of o#ter space( form#"ati' 'eera""$ accepte! pricip"es to re'#"ate the iterests of the +ario#s states i+o"+e! as %e"" as ta0i' ito acco#t the cocer of the iteratioa" comm#it$ as a %ho"e)
THE DE&%&T&O% A%D DEL&M&%AT&O% DEL&M&%AT&O% O O!TE" S#A$E S#A$E
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-ote the role plaed the - Coittee on the 5ea!efl ses of Oter Spa!e estalished in 1#(& and !onsisting !rrentl of si6t 8e states. 9he !oittee has a Legal S!oittee and a S!ienti! and 9e!hni!al S!oittee. # 9he : has noted, for e6aple, that, ;for pra!ti!al prposes the liit <etween airspa!e and oter spa!e= is !onsidered to e as high as an air!raft !an >.?
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It soo *ecame *ecame appare apparet t that the usque usque ad coelu coelu r#"e( pro+i!i' for state so+erei't$ o+er terri territor toria" ia" airspa airspace ce to a #rest #restri ricte cte! ! e2tet e2tet(( %as ot +ia*"e +ia*"e %here %here space space e2p"ora e2p"orati tio o %as cocere!) To o*tai the i!i+i!#a" cosets of co#tries to the passa'e of sate""ites a! other +ehic"es or*iti' more tha -66 mi"es a*o+e their s#rface %o#"! pro+e c#m*ersome i the e2tr e2trem emee a! a! i prac practi tice ce stat states es ha+e ha+e ac3#i ac3#ies esce ce! ! i s#ch s#ch tra+e tra+ers rsi i') ') This This mea meass that that the the so+erei't$ of states o+er their airspace is "imite! i hei'ht at most to the poit %here the airspace meets space itse"f) Precise"$ %here this *o#!ar$ "ies is !iffic#"t to sa$ a! %i"" !epe! #po techo"o'ica" a! other factors( *#t fi'#res *et%ee 6 a! -66 mi"es ha+e *ee p#t for%ar!)-6 As co+etioa" aircraft are !e+e"ope! to attai 'reater hei'hts( so states %i"" %ish to see their so+erei't$ e2te! to those hei'hts a!( as %e"" as 'e#ie #certait$( this fear of s#rre!eri' %hat ma$ pro+e to *e i the f#t#re +a"#a*"e so+erei' ri'hts has pre+ete! a$ a'reemet o the !e"imitatio of this partic#"ar frotier )-%AT&O%AL LAW
Space "a% a"so ecompasses atioa" "a%s( a! ma$ co#tries ha+e passe! atioa" space "e'is"atio i recet $ears) The O#ter Space Treat$ re3#ires parties to a#thorie a! s#per+ise ati atio oa" a" spac spacee acti acti+i +iti ties es(( ic" ic"#! #!i i' ' the the acti acti+i +iti ties es of o, o,'o 'o+er +erm met eta" a" eti etiti ties es s#ch s#ch as commercia" commercia" a! o,profit o,profit or'aiatio or'aiatios) s) The O#ter Space Treat$ a"so icorporates icorporates the UN Charter *$ *$ referece( a! re3#ires parties to es#re that acti+ities are co!#cte! i accor!ace %ith %ith other other forms forms of iterat iteratio ioa" a" "a% s#ch s#ch as c#stomar$ c#stomar$ iteratio iteratioa" a" "a% "a% the c#stom a! practice of states) The a!+et of commercia" space acti+ities *e$o! the scope of the sate""ite comm#icatios i!#str$( a! the !e+e"opmet of ma$ commercia" spaceports( is "ea!i' ma$ co#tries to cosi!er ho% to re'#"ate pri+ate space acti+ities) The cha""e'e is to re'#"ate these acti+ities i a maer maer that that !oes ot hi!er hi!er or prec"# prec"#!e !e i+est i+estme met( t( %hi"e %hi"e sti"" sti"" es#ri es#ri' ' that that commer commercia cia""
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9he : has noted, for e6aple, that, ;for pra!ti!al prposes the liit <etween airspa!e and oter spa!e= is !onsidered to e as high as an air!raft !an >?, 7* B@IL , 1###, p.(2* 11 Law, !hapter 1*, and see e.g, :AIL,+4, B@IL, See generall Christol, Modern International Law, 1##3, 5.+&#
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acti+ities comp"$ %ith iteratioa" "a%) The !e+e"opi' atios are cocere! that the space fari' atios %i"" moopo"ie space reso#rces) )EOSTAT&O%A"* )EOSTAT&O%A"* O"+&T O"+ &T ALLO$AT&O%
Sate""ites i 'eostatioar$ or*it m#st or*it m#st a"" occ#p$ a si'"e ri' a*o+e the e3#ator( appro2imate"$ 1(866 0m ito space) The re3#iremet to space these sate""ites apart meas that there is a "imite! #m*er of or*ita" Hs"otsH a+ai"a*"e( th#s o"$ a "imite! #m*er of sate""ites ca *e p"ace! i 'eostatioar$ or*it) This has "e! to cof"ict *et%ee !ifferet co#tries %ishi' access to the same or*ita" or*ita" s"ots co#tries co#tries at the same "o'it#!e "o'it#!e *#t !ifferi' !ifferi' "atit#!es) "atit#!es) These !isp#tes are a!!resse! thro#'h the ITU a""ocatio mechaism) Co#tries "ocate! at the Earths e3#ator ha+e a"so asserte! their "e'a" c"aim to cotro" the #se of space a*o+e their territor$) I -;@7( co#tries "ocate! "ocate! at the Earths Earths e3#ator create! the /o'ota /o'ota Dec"aratio( Dec"aratio( i %hich the$ asserte! asserte! their "e'a" c"aim to cotro" the #se of space a*o+e their territor$)
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THE "E)&ME O O!TE" S#A$E
/e$o! the poit separati' air from space( states ha+e a'ree! to app"$ the iteratioa" "a% pricip"es of res res cou couni nis, s, so that o portio of o#ter space ma$ *e appropriate! to the so+erei't$ of i!i+i!#a" states) This %as ma!e c"ear i a #m*er of
The "e'a" re'ime of o#ter space %as c"arifie! *$ the si'at#re i -;7@ of the Treat$ o Pricip"es
See also eneral /ssel resoltions resoltions 1721"')I$ and 1&&4"')III$ See also ;9he Spa!e Aillenni 9he )ienna e!laration on Spa!e and Dan e8elopent? adopted the 9hird nited -ations -ations Conferen!e on the E6ploration E6ploration and 5ea!efl ses of Oter Spa!e 13
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See ao8e, !hapter 3, and B. Cheng, nited -ations %esoltions on Oter Spa!e FInstantG International International Cstoar LawH?, ( Indian ornal of International Law, 1#+(, p.23
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!oes ot esta*"ish as s#ch a precise *o#!ar$ *et%ee airspace a! o#ter space *#t it pro+i!es the frame%or0 for the iteratioa" "a% of o#ter space)- Artic"e Artic"e ? pro+i!es that states states parties parties to the Treat$ a'ree a'ree ot to p"ace i or*it aro#! the earth a$ o*jects carr$i' #c"ear %eapos or a$ other 0i!s of %eapos of mass !estr#ctio( ista"" s#ch %eapos o ce"estia" *o!ies( or statio s#ch %eapos i o#ter space i a$ other maer)
There are( ho%e+er( !isa'reemets as to the meai' ofthis pro+isio)-7 The artic"e *as o"$ #c"ear %eapos a! %eapos of mass !estr#ctio from o#ter space( the ce"estia" *o!ies a! from or*it aro#! the earth( *#t artic"e - !oes emphasise that the e2p"oratio a! #se of o#ter space sha"" *e carrie! o#t for the *eefit a! i the iterests of a"" co#tries a! it has *ee ar'#e! that this ca *e iterprete! to mea that a$ mi"itar$ acti+it$ i space cotra+ees the treat$) treat$)-@ U!er artic"e ?( o"$ the moo a! other ce"estia" *o!ies m#st *e #se! e2c"#si+e"$ for peacef#" p#rposes( a"tho#'h the #se of o f mi"itar$ persoe" for scietific a! other peacef#" p#rposes is ot prohi*ite!) There are miima"ist a! ma2ima"ist iterpretatios as to ho% these pro+isios are to *e #!erstoo!) The former( for e2amp"e( %o#"! ar'#e that o"$ a''ressi+e mi"itar$ acti+it$ is *ae!( %hi"e the "atter %o#"! prohi*it a"" mi"itar$ *eha+io#r) Artic"e Artic"e 7 pro+i!es for iteratioa" resposi*i"it$ for atioa" acti+ities i o#ter space( ic"#!i' the moo a! other ce"estia" *o!ies( %hether s#ch acti+ities are carrie! o *$ 'o+ermeta" a'ecies or *$ o,'o+ermeta" etities( a! for ass#ri' that atioa" acti+ities are carrie! o#t i coformit$ %ith the Treat$) The acti+ities of o,'o+ermeta" etities i o#ter space( ic"#!i' the moo a! other ce"estia" *o!ies( re3#ire a#thorisatio a! coti#i' s#per+isio *$ the appropriate state part$ to the Treat$) Whe acti+ities are carrie! o i o#ter space( ic"#!i' the moo a! other ce"estia" *o!ies( *$ a iteratioa" or'aisatio( resposi*i"it$ for comp"iace %ith the Treat$ is to *e *ore *oth *$ the iteratioa" or'aisatio or'aisatio a! *$ the states parties to the Treat$ participati' i s#ch
or'aisatio)-8
1(
See e.g. Christol, Aodern International Law, !hapter 2. See also Oppenhei?s Oppenhei?s International Law, p.&2& 1+ 9he isse e!ae parti!larl parti!larl !ontro8ersial in the light of the S Strategi! efen!e Initiati8e "Star Wars$, whi!h aied to de8elop a range of antisatellite and antiissile weapons ased in spa!e. 17 See e.g, Aar!oJ, Traite, pp.3+1 J. 1& See e.g, B. Cheng, ;/rti!le )I of the 1#+7 9reat %e8isited?, ornal of Spa!e Law,p.7
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U!er artic"e 8( states retai j#ris!ictio a! cotro" o+er persoe" a! +ehic"es "a#che! *$ them ito space a! #!er artic"e @ the$ remai resposi*"e for a$ !ama'e ca#se! to other parties to the Treat$ Treat$ *$ their space o*jects)-; This aspect of space "a% %as f#rther !e+e"ope! *$ the Co+etio o Iteratioa" Lia*i"it$ for Dama'e Ca#se! *$ Space O*jects si'e! i -;@.( artic"e I- of %hich pro+i!es for the pa$met of compesatio i accor!ace %ith iteratioa" "a% a! the pricip"es of j#stice a! e3#it$ for a$ !ama'e ca#se! *$ space o*jects) Artic"e II pro+i!es for a*so"#te "ia*i"it$ to pa$ s#ch compesatio for !ama'e ca#se! *$ a space o*ject o the s#rface of the earth or to aircraft i f"i'ht( %hereas artic"e III pro+i!es for fa#"t "ia*i"it$ for !ama'e ca#se! e"se%here or to p ersos or propert$ o *oar! a space o*ject) This Co+etio %as i+o0e! *$ Caa!a i -;@; fo""o%i' the !ama'e a""e'e!"$ ca#se! *$ So+iet Cosmos ;?) As a reiforcemet to this e+o"+i' s$stem of state resposi*i"it$( the Co+etio o the Re'istratio of O*jects La#che! ito O#ter Space %as opee! for si'at#re i -;@( comi' ito force i -;@7) This "ai! !o% a series of stip#"atios for the re'istratio of iformatio re'ar!i' space o*jects( s#ch as( for e2amp"e( their p#rpose( p#rpose( "ocatio "ocatio a! parameters parameters(( %ith the Uite! Uite! Natios Natios secretar$ 'eera") I -;;1( the UN
See frther Cheng, Stdies in Spa!e Laws, !h. 17 and 1&
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ao#c ao#ceme emet t re'ar! re'ar!i' i' space space perso persoe" e" i !istr !istress ess as %e"" %e"" as the imme! imme!iat iatee pro+is pro+isio io of assistace) It a"so co+ers search a! resc#e operatios as %e"" as a '#aratee of prompt ret#r) The Co+etio a"so pro+i!es for reco+er$ of space o*jects)
O!TE" S#A$E T"EAT* O ,-./
O Decem*er -;( -;77( the o%e+er( the Treat$ is *i!i' ot o"$ to those States %hich are parties to it *#t to a"" the states i +ie% of the fact that the r#"es re'ar!i' the o#ter space ha! croppe! #p as a c#stomar$ r#"e of iteratioa" "a%) "a%).The Treat$ %as a "a!mar0 o the roa! to%ar!s the esta*"ishmet of a "e'a" re'ime of o#ter space) The a*o+e Treat$( commo"$ 0o% as O#ter Space Treat$( "ai! !o% ma$ pricip"es re"ati' to the acti+ities o o#ter space( ce"estia" *o!ies a! the :oo) Nota*"e amo'st them are fo""o%i' a Free!om Free!om of E2p"orati E2p"oratio o of O#ter Space Space * No,Appropri No,Appropriatio atio of O#ter O#ter Space Space c Peacef#" Peacef#" #ses #ses of O#ter Space ! J#ris!icti J#ris!ictio o of States o+er O*jects O*jects La#che! La#che! e Iteratioa" Resposi*i"it$ for Natioa" Acti+ities Acti+ities f Assistac Assistacee to persoe" persoe" of Space Space Craft Craft ' Promotio of Iteratioa" Iteratioa" Co,operatio i the Use of O#ter Space Other Iteratioa" Co+etios %hich ha+e *ee a!opte! are as fo""o%s& •
The A'reemet o the Resc#e of Astroa#ts( the Ret#r of Astroa#ts a! the Ret#r of O*jects La#che! ito O#ter Space-;78
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The Co+etio o Iteratioa" Lia*i"it$ for Dama'e Ca#se! *$ Space O*jects-;@-
eneral /ssel %esoltion 2222 "''I$, e!eer 1#, 1#++ ). )eres!hetin, ;On the iportan!e of the 5rin!iples of States So8ereignt in International Spa!e Law,? IIL, )ol. 17"1#77$ p.2*4
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The Co+etio o the Re'istratio of O*jects La#che! ito Space for the E2p"oratio or Use of O#ter Space-;@?
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The A'reemet
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Giea Coferece o the E2p"oratio a! Peacef#" Uses of O#ter Space UNISPACE 8. UNISPACE II
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UNISPACE III
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Iteratioa" Space =ear IS=( -;;.
&%D&A0S &%D&A0S M&SS&O% TO THE MOO%
O ..! Octo*er( .668( at 7.. a)m( I!ia "a#che! its spacecraft to the :oo( th#s *ecomi' the 7th atio to eter the e"ite c"#* i this fie"! oce "a#che! i Srihari0ota Pee$a i /a'a"ore %i"" ta0e o+er Cha!ra$aa,I - Prepare Prepare a three !imesioa" !imesioa" at"as of *oth the ear a! far si!e si!e of the moo for a !eeper #!ersta!i') . Co!#ct chemica" chemica" a! miera"o'ic miera"o'ica" a" mappi' of the etire "#ar s#rface s#rface to ascertai ascertai the !istri*#tio of at#ra" reso#rces o the "#ar s#rface) 1 Search for >e"i#m,1( >e"i#m,1( cosi!ere! cosi!ere! amo' the c"earest f#e"s f#e"s 0o% it is sparse"$ sparse"$ a+ai"a*"e a+ai"a*"e o Earth) Accor!i' to the Scietists if he"i#m ca *e haresse! i #c"ear reactors it %i"" 'o o a "o' %a$ i so"+i' EarthBs po%er pro*"ems) Whi"e earth ma$ ha+e o"$ - toes of he"i#m,1( :oo is tho#'ht to cotai #p to mi""io toes( eo#'h to pro!#ce eer'$ for 8666 $ears) ? Search of %ater( %ater( ice ice a! st#!$ "#ar "#ar roc0s) roc0s) The search for %ater is importat) If e+er$thi' e+ er$thi' 'oes %e"" there is the possi*i"it$ p ossi*i"it$ of mae! "#ar "a!i' i .6.6s) Cha!ra$aa,- %i"" remai i moo or*it for t%o $ears) E'ieers %i"" %or0 i shifts to moitor Cha!ra$aa e+er$ mi#te for the e2t t%o $ears) After -!a$s( Cha!ra$aa %i"" eter "#ar or*it 1(8@(666 0m( from earthM %i"" *e cease! cea se! ito a sta*"e or*it -66 0m( a*o+e moo) I!ia th#s *ecame the 7th co#tr$ co#tr$ to"a#ch :oo missio) missio) Others are 7 *$ former USSR a! USA( t%o *$ Japa( oe each *$ E#ropea Space A'ec$ a! Chia)
1(
It is p"ae! that I!ias o moo %i"" *e i .6.6) /$ .6 - I!ia %i"" se! its o% astroa#t ito space)
DRAFT PRINCIPLES ON RE:OTE SENSIN< OF T>E EART> EART> FRO: OUTER SPACE SPACE I a!!itio to the a*o+e co+etios( !raft pricip"es o remote sesi' %as a!opte! i -;87 *$ the Le'a" S#*,Committee of the Peacef#" Uses of the O#ter Space) Later( o Decem*er 1( -;8@( the
PRINCIPLES RELEGANT RELEGANT ON USE OF NUCLEAR POWER SOURCES IN OUTER SPACE SPACE I -;;1( the
CO-SE-SS The COPUOS( Committee for the Peacef#" Uses of O#ter Space( operates o the *asis of coses#s( i!e! a"" i!e! a"" committee a! s#*committee !e"e'ates m#st a'ree o treat$ "a'#a'e *efore it ca *e ic"#!e! i the fia" +ersio of a treat$( a! the committees caot p"ace e% items o their a'e!as #"ess a"" mem*er atios a'ree) Oe reaso that the U)N) space treaties "ac0 !efiitios a! are #c"ear i other respects( is *eca#se it is easier to achie+e coses#s %he "a'#a'e a! terms are +a'#e) I recet $ears( the COPUOS Le'a" S#*committee has *ee 22
eneral /ssel %esoltion 410++ eneral /ssel %esoltion 470+&
23
1+
#a*"e to achie+e coses#s o !isc#ssio of a e% comprehesi+e space a'reemet( a! it is a"so #"i0e"$ that the S#*committee %i"" *e a*"e to a'ree to ame! the O#ter Space Treat$ i the foreseea*"e f#t#re) :a$ space fari' atios seem to *e"ie+e that !isc#ssi' a e% space a'reem a'reemet et or ame!m ame!met et of the O#ter O#ter Space Space Treat Treat$ $ %o#"! %o#"! *e f#ti" f#ti"ee a! time time cos#mi cos#mi'( '( *eca#se etreche! !iffereces re'ar!i' reso#rce appropriatio( propert$ ri'hts a! other iss#es re"ati' to commercia" acti+it$ ma0e coses#s #"i0e"$)
17
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area of the the "a% that that ecomp ecompass asses es atio atioa" a" a! iteratioa" "a% "a% 'o+eri' Space 1a2 is a area acti+ities i o#ter space) space) Iteratioa" "a%$ers ha+e *ee #a*"e to a'ree o a #iform !efiitio of the term Ho#ter space(H a"tho#'h most "a%$ers a'ree that o#ter space 'eera""$ *e'is at the "o%est a"tit#!e a*o+e sea "e+e" at %hich o*jects ca or*it the Earth( Earth( appro2imate"$ -66 0m 7. mi) The iceptio of the fie"! of space "a% *e'a %ith the "a#ch of the %or"!s first artificia" sate""ite *$ the So+iet Uio i Uio i Octo*er -;@) Name! Sputni" ( the sate""ite %as "a#che! as part of the Iteratioa" i'h costs are ot the o"$ factor pre+eti' the ecoomic e2p"oitatio of space it is ar'#e! that space sho#"! *e cosi!ere! as a pristie e+iromet %orth$ of protectio a! coser+atio( a! that the "e'a" re'ime for space sho#"! f#rther protect it from *ei' #se! as a reso#rce for Earths ee!s) De*ate is a"so foc#se! o %hether space sho#"! coti#e to *e "e'a""$ !efie! as part of the 4commo herita'e of ma(&
1&
a! therefore #a+ai"a*"e for atioa" c"aims( or %hether its "e'a" !efiitio sho#"! *e cha'e! to a""o% pri+ate propert$ i space)
1#
+&+L&O)"A#H*
BOOKS
•
/garwal r. D. O.K FInternational Law Dan %ightsGK 14 th Edition 2**7K Central Law 5li!ations
•
:apoor r. S. %. K FInternational Law Dan %ightsGK 17 th Edition 2**#K Central Law /gen!
•
•
Shearer I. /.K FStarMe?s International LawGK 11 th Edition 1##4K O6ford oshi :. C.K FInternational FInternational Law Dan %ightsGK 2**+ EditionK Eastern BooM Copan
WEBSITES ACCESSED
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www. internationa internat ionallaw llaw help help.!o .!o
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www.sh8oong.!o
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www.ritanni!a.!o
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www. law!afe.in
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www. Nornals.!aridge.org
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www.Mlwerlaw.!o
