OLD ENGLISH LITERATURE A general view of England in the early times to 1066 England is one of the world’s main centres of civilization. In general and in particular, it has a leading position in spreading English culture. More Moreov over er,, Engl Englis ish h lang langua uage ge,, whic which h is the the tong tongue ue of comm commer erce ce,, indust industry ry,, busine business, ss, movie movies, s, telev televisi ision on and scienc science, e, is more more widel widely y spoken than any other language. Great Britain consists of England, Scotland and Northern Ireland. The first inhabitants of Britain were the Celts who came from Central Europe about 600 BC or earlier. A commonly accepted theory of their invasions is that they came in two or three distinct waves. The first group, called the Gales, spoke a type of language similar to that found today in the Scottish highlands. Another group, known as the Brythons, prob probab ably ly came came abou aboutt 40 400 0 BC. BC. They They push pushed ed back back the the Gael Gaels s and and occupied the eastern and southern parts of the island. Survivals of their language are found among modern Welshmen.
Celtic Civilization Civilization The earliest Celts were in the bronze stage of development, but later Celtic immigrants brought with them knowledge of iron working, with its its acco accomp mpan anyi ying ng arti artisa sans ns and and craf crafts tsme men. n. Trad Trade, e, indu indust stry ry and and agriculture flourished, as did sheep and cattle raising. The tribal form of government prevailed, with a king or chief over each group, and with class distinctions. The Celtic religion, known as Druidism, was a form form of natur nature e wors worshi hip, p, whic which h peop people led d ever everyt ythi hing ng in natu nature re with with spirits, emphasised the oak tree and allowed some human sacrifices. The The prie priest stly ly leade leaders rs acte acted d prop prophe hets ts,, su supe perv rvis ised ed the the offe offeri ring ng of sacrif sacrifice ices, s, presid presided ed over over triba triball meetin meetings, gs, arbitr arbitrate ated d dis disput putes es and trained new priests. Incidentally, this was the only form of education that existed.
The Roman Conquest and Occupation In the beginning of the 1st century AD there came the Roman conquest and their occupation of Britain which lasted until the beginning of the 5th century. The Romans ruled Britain with the aid of their army. They conquered the southern and central parts of the largest island and established a number of colonies and towns. The towns were built for military or commercial purposes and served as centres for the diffusion of Roman civilization. A number of large estates were established also, with with their their Roman Roman master masters s and native native slaves. slaves. The Romans Romans built built an exce excell llen entt sy syst stem em of mili militar tary y roads roads,, most most of whic which h radi radiat ated ed from from Page 1 of 25
London. They promoted agriculture, commerce, mining and industry, and introduced new methods of products in all of these occupations. They introduced the Christianity, which survived after they were gone. They introduced the Latin language, and words from it found their way into the native languages. They taught these people how to build and furnish better houses. The The Roma Roman n legi legion ons s depa depart rted ed from from Brit Britai ain n in 41 410. 0. As the the Roma Romans ns checked checked the development development of natives, natives, political politically ly and otherwise, otherwise, they made possible the greater success of the Anglo-Saxon invaders. These later barbarians destroyed much of the Roman occupation, and are therefore difficult to estimate. Such material things as roads, walls and plants remained; but only one institution, Christianity, survived.
The Anglo-Saxon Invasion of Britain (450-1066) After the Romans, in the middle of the 5 th century, there came the Angl An glo-S o-Sax axon on inva invasi sion on of Brit Britai ain n whic which h was was a phase phase of a grea greatt folk folk migration that had started a few centuries earlier and was to continue for several more. Among the numerous Germanic tribes, The Angles, Saxons, and Jutes played the most important part in the conquest of the British Isles. Orig Origin inall ally, y, thes these e trib tribes es prob probabl ably y live lived d near near the the Balt Baltic ic Sea, Sea, in the the regions now called Denmark, Holstein and Schleswig. These early Germans belonged to the Teutonic or Nordic race and were just passing into the agricultural stage of civilization. They were largebone boned, d, stro strong ng,, fier fierce ce-f -fig ight htin ing, g, fair fair-h -hai aire red d peop people le.. Amon Among g thei theirr occupa occupatio tions ns were were farmi farming, ng, tradin trading g and seafar seafaring ing,, but war was also also common and piracy was not unknown. They showed a higher respect for women than most barbarians have shown and they seemed to be genuine lovers of nature and the outdoors. Although strong believers in personal freedom, they were also loyal followers of a chosen leader. The Germanic invaders of Britain had a tribal form of government with a chief or king to lead.
The First Kingdoms By the 5th century, the German tribes were expanding to Britain. Jutes occu occupi pied ed Kent Kent,, in the the sout southe heas ast, t, but but did did not not expa expand nd very very far. far. The The Saxons settled in the territory just above and south of river Thames, where they established three kingdoms. The Angles spread out north of the the Stou Stourr and and west west of Wash Wash,, and and like likewi wise se esta establ blis ishe hed d thre three e kingdoms. Page 2 of 25
The largest and most important of these kingdoms were Kent in the 6th century, Northumbria in the 7th, Mercia in the 8 th and Wessex in the 9th century. During During the years 828-1066, 828-1066, we have the Danish invasions. invasions. The Danes or Vikings as they were called were another Germanic group that in many respects resembled the Anglo-Saxon invaders of four centuries earlier. For years, they attacked the kingdoms of Britain causing them many troubles. One of the first who for a time united all the kingdoms of southern England and beat off those new Germanic invaders – the Viking, was Alfred, king of Wessex from 871-899. The Danes continued to attack Britain, and thus we have the rule of the the Dani Danish sh King King,, Canu Canute te (101 (10166-10 1035 35). ). Upon Upon the the deat death h of Canu Canute te,, English nobles crowned Edward the Confessor as the king of England. Although he was not an able sovereign, he was very religious and well loved. loved. He had dealin dealings gs with with Willi William am of Norman Normandy, dy, who will will attack attack England in 1066.
The Triumph of Christianity Christianity Although various groups of Germans readily accepted Christianity after they came in contact with it, the original invaders were pagans and remained so for some time. The early Germans worshipped the forces of nature, personified in their gods, some of whose names now appear in the the day days of the the week week.. Tin Tin (Tue (Tuesd sday ay)) was was the the god god of war. war. Thor Thor (Thu (Thurs rsday day), ), wash wash the the god god of stor storm, m, Wode Woden n (Wed (Wedne nesda sday) y) was was the the supreme god and the ancestor of kings, and so on. However, in 597 AD the Roman Roman Cathol Catholic ic missio missionar nary, y, August Augustine ine,, appear appeared ed in Kent Kent with with monks to convert the pagan Germans of that kingdom. They converted King Ethelbert (560-616) and made his capital, Canterbury, the home of the archbishop and the centre of religion in the country. East Anglia was converted during the next half century, as were Sussex, Wessex and Mercia. The Roman and Celtic churches differed in several ways. The Celtic chur church ch did did not not ackn acknow owle ledg dge e the the Pope Pope as its its head, head, and and its its litu liturg rgy y differed in several aspects from that of the Roman church. There were also also othe otherr diff differ eren ence ces. s. For For some some time time,, ther there e were were seri seriou ous s riva rivalr lry y between the two groups; but in the synod of Whitby in 664, King Oswy decided in favour of the Pope, and a church for all England was thus reco recogn gnis ised ed.. Theo Theodo dore re of Tars Tarsus us was was sent sent to comp comple lete te the the work work of organisation and consolidation and he worked successfully at his task. Presently the Roman form of Christianity was the only form in the British Isles.
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That triumph brought England in closer touch with the continent of Europe and gave the English church a firmer organisation.
ANGLO-SAXON LITERATURE (600-1066) General Characteristics of Anglo-Saxon Literature
The history of a national literature is a part of the whole national story, a kind kind of a nati nation onal al mirr mirror or,, whic which h sh show ows s the the stag stages es of nati nation onal al develo developme pment. nt. Howeve However, r, the earlie earliest st form form of Englis English h litera literatur ture e has perished. Nothing definite remains of the songs or stories s tories possessed by the Brythons, whom Caesar found in the southern England, and next to noth nothin ing g of the the cent centur urie ies s of Roma Roman n occu occupat patio ion. n. We know know noth nothin ing g whatsoever of Old English poetry in its rudest shape. The fragments fragments we possess possess are not those of a literature literature in the making, The Ruin Ruin and The for for the the poe poets of Beowulf , and Widsith , of The Seafarer knew what they wished to say, and said it without a trace of struggle for word or form. Whether what survives is the best, we have no means of knowing. All that earliest (manuscripts).
literatu ature
consis sists
of
four
ancient
volumes
The first manuscript is that of Beowulf from the 10th century with Judith in it. This manuscript is safely preserved in the British Museum, and was published for the first time in 1815. The second, the Exeter Book, preserved in the Cathedral library at Widsit ith, h, Deor Deor’s ’s Lame Lament nt,, The The Exet Exeter er,, incl includ udes es old old eleg elegie ies: s: Wids Wanderer, The Seafarer, The Ruin, The Wife’s Complaint and The Husband’s Message, as well as the Christian poems like the Christ, Juliana and The Phoenix. This manuscript was published for the first time in 1842. The third, the Junian Manuscript , preserved at Oxford, contains the Chr Christi istian an poe poems, ms, which hich are are assu assume med d to be Caedm aedmon on’s ’s poem poems s described by Bede. Here the following poems take place: Genesis, Exodus, Daniel and Christ . The fourth, the Vercelli Book , is found in the Cathedral library at Vercelli in 1822. The copy of the manuscript was published in Rome in 1913 and includes the following Christian poems: Andreas, Elene, The Fates of the Apostles, The Soul and the Body , and A Dream of the Rood . The The earl earlie iest st lite litera ratu ture re has has much much to do with with life life and Page 4 of 25
journeys that were a constant struggle against a severe and pitiless element. Most of Old English poetry is religious and was written by monks, but a few few pie pieces ces are are earl arly sec secular ular.. They They were ere mainl ainly y com compose posed d by wandering minstrels, who travelled from castle to castle, sang about the the lege legend nds s of form former er time times, s, and and crea create ted d new new song songs s to reco record rd contemporary events. They wrote didactic religious poetry, songs of heroic heroic advent adventure ures, s, and songs songs of love, love, which which became became an impor importan tantt topic in later English poetry. In these very old songs we can see how with rude implements the peasants scratch the soil, in hope of the harvest, greet the earth in lines like these below, perhaps some of the oldest in English language: Hal wes pu, folde, fira modor, beo pu growende on godes faepme; Fodre gefylled firum to nytte. Hale be thou Earth, Mother of men! Fruitful be thou in the arms of the god. Be filled with thy fruit for the fare-need of man! Though not properly preserved, this literature has some literal value. It main mainly ly cons consis ists ts of poet poetry ry,, whic which h may may be divi divide ded d into into Old Old (Pag (Pagan) an) Poetry and New (Christian) Poetry. But both Anglo-Saxon poetries are written with the same verse – stressed and alliterative . As for the stylistic stylistic figures figures mostly mostly synonymie synonymies, s, metaphors, metaphors, epithets, epithets, hyperbolas hyperbolas etc. were used, whereas the rhyme, stanza or refrain were rare. This poetical form seems to be suitable mostly for writings of epic motives; therefore, it was used more than other forms. Pagan poetry was oral and was created even in the continent before the coming of Anglo-Saxons to the island. This poetry started to be written in the 10 th century by anonymous poets. They were wandering poets in Europe called troubadours, whereas, in England they were called Gleemen or Scops, who sang mostly war songs in the palaces of army commanders. We also also have have lyric lyric and liturg liturgic ical al poetry poetry called called charms, created by peasants, which became a part of peasant folklore.
PAGAN POETRY
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Pagan poetry, which is a part of Anglo-Saxon poetry, is the oldest one and mostly consists of short poems called elegies. These elegies are parts of long epic songs, which according to their plots are elegies. The first among them is Widsith, where the minstrel (wanderer poet) give gives s us glim glimps pses es of his his life life in abou aboutt 15 150 0 line lines. s. What What the the mode modern rn reader reader catche catches s in Widsith is a glim glimps pse e of a poet poet’s ’s joy joy and and grie grief f appealing humanly across the centuries.
Deor’s Lament is a song of poet’s own misfortunes, illustrated by the equally hard lot (destiny) of others who once were happy. The song has an optimistic constant refrain: That passed away, so may this. The Wanderer , an elegy in 115 lines, is the lament of a man who has lost his protecting lord, and wanders over the waters to find a resting place. The Seafarer is a song in 120 lines and shows the hardship of ocean life and the great love of Anglo-Saxons for the ocean. The Ruin is a remarkable song because it takes us away from the sea and describes the downfall of some great place or rich city – very probably the Roman-built city in Bath. The imperfection of the Exeter manuscript makes this poem difficult to read and adds to the obscurity of other sort pieces like The Wife’s Complaint and The Husband’s Message, which both, perhaps, are the part of an epic story about the loss of happiness. But the most important narrative poem of 3183 lines in Old English Lite Litera ratu ture re,, tran transm smit itte ted d in a 10th centur century y manusc manuscri ript, pt, now safely safely preserved in the British Museum after many damaging adventures, is Beowulf . It tells of two major events in the life of the Geatish hero Beowulf: The first first when when,, in his his yout youth, h, he figh fights ts and and kill kills s firs firstt Gren Grende del, l, a monster who has been attacking Heorot, the palace of the Danish king Hrothgar, and then Grendel’s mother, who comes the next night to avenge her son. The second event takes place 50 years later. Beowulf, who had been the king of Geats for a long time, fights a dragon that has attacked his people, in a battle in which both Beowulf and the dragon are mortally wounded. The historical period of the poem’s event can be dated in the 6th century, but much of the material of the poem is legendary. Beowulf is the the most ost impo mportant tant monu monum ment ent of early arly Eur Europe opean civilization. Apart from its pre-eminence in this period, the poem is remarkable for its sustained grandness of tone and for the brilliance of Page 6 of 25
its style, both in its nice diction and in the association of the elements of its plot.
CHRISTIAN POETRY Christ Christian ian poetry poetry was create created d after after the coming coming of AngloAnglo-Sax Saxons ons to Engl Englan and d and and afte afterr thei theirr rece receiv ivin ing g of Chri Christi stian anit ity. y. This This poet poetry ry was was created in monasteries; therefore, it is religious and didactic. The The firs firstt Engl Englis ish h poet poet is Caed Caedmo mon, n, who, who, as Bede Bede tell tells s us in his his Ecclesiastical Ecclesiastical History , dwelt until midlife in the monastery of Whitby. The Then n in a vision sion he was call alled by nam name, and and when hen he awok awoke e, remembered them and made others like them. Bede, a careful and exact historian, tells us that Caedmon turned into song the story of Genesis and Exodus, the settlem settlement ent of the chosen chosen people people in the Promised Land, the life and death of the Saviour, and the revelation of the judgment to come.
Caedmon wrote between years 650-670. 650-670. The following poems that tha t are in the the Junian Manuscript are assume assumed d to be Caedmo Caedmon’s n’s poems: poems: Genesis, Exodus and Daniel , together with three Christ poems – The Fallen Angels, The Harrowing of Hell and The Temptation. Caedmon is considered to be the father of Anglo-Saxon artistic poetry. Cynewulf (750) is another important poet who lived in the 8 th century. He was a wanderer poet who mostly sang to aristocracy. It is supposed that he wrote the poems that are in the Exeter Manuscript , such as Christ Christ,, Julian Juliana, a, Elene, Elene, Andrea Andreas, s, The Fate Fate of the the Apostl Apostles, es, A Dream of the Rood etc.
Cynewulf’s work work repres represent ents s an advance advance in cultur culture e upon upon the more more primi primitiv tive e Caedmo Caedmonia nian n poems. poems. Much Much of it shows shows acquai acquainta ntance nce with with Latin originals and seems to exhibit a more conscious effort to attain artistic form. ANGLO-SAXON PROSE Much of the older literature of Christian England is written in Latin. Therefore, we have Latin writings and Anglo-Saxon writings in England.
Latin writings in England Gildas (Gildas the Wise) was the first Latin writer. He was a prophet, who was born about 500 and wrote his De Excidio Britanniae before Page 7 of 25
547. In this book, he describes the difficult position of Brythons during the Anglo-Saxon invasion. The The firs firstt impo import rtant ant Engl Englis ish h writ writer er of Lati Latin n is Aldhelm, bish bisho op of Sherborne, who died in 709. What does remain from his works is a large body of Latin compositions – verses, riddles, letters and a treatise on virginity – De Laudibus Virginitatis , written first in prose, and then in hexameters. The most outstanding and the best of Anglo-Saxon writers is Bede (The Venerable Bede) – 673-735. His works are too numerous. Many of them them are are the theolo ologic gical, al, but but the the othe otherrs cov cover a wide wide range ange of kno knowledge. He has written nearly 40 works, mostl stly biblical comm commen enta tari ries es.. His His most most impo import rtan antt work work is his his hist histor oric ical al writ writin ing: g: Ecclesiastical History of the English Race (Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum), which was finished in 731. It is a Latin history of the English people with many data for Anglo-Saxons and their culture.
Alcuin (735–804) is also a famous name of Latin writers. He wrote liturgical, grammatical and philosophical works. Anglo-Saxon Writings Probably one of the most important in the history of literature and of Anglo-Saxon culture was King Alfred (849-901). Though never King of England, he was a thoroughly English king, making his narrow plot of ground in Wessex the model of what a kingdom should be. In order to help England in its cultural development, he brought many scholars, teache teachers rs and began began himsel himselff to transl translate ate Latin Latin works. works. Theref Therefore ore,, he translated Cura Pastoralis by Gregory the Great, Bede’s History , the Histo Historia ria Advers Adversus us Pagano Paganos s by Span Spanis ish h hist histor oria ian n Oros Orosiu ius, s, De Consolatione Philosophiae by Boethius etc. Ignoring the values of his translations, Alfred omitted much and made additions of great value. The most notable work inspired, though not written, by Alfred is the Old Englis English h Chroni Chronicl cle e. The There we have have sy syst stem emat atic ic recor ecords ds of important events during Alfred’s time. The Chronicle is remarkable both both as the the firs firstt cont contin inuo uous us hist histor ory y of a west wester ern n nati nation on in its its own own language and as the first great book in English prose. The account of years 893-897, covering the struggles with Danes in southern England, is a mast asterpi erpiec ece e of hist histor oriical cal narr arrativ ative. e. Ther here is also also a lot lot of information about the King’s life. The Chronicle also contains a great
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number of interesting songs of the time; therefore, its importance in historical, linguistic and literary term is enormous. Prose writers after King Alfred mostly wrote religious works. One of them is Aelfric (955-1022), a monk by profession, who wrote about 80 homilies (sermons). His Collaquy is well known and it is designed to instruct young scholars in the daily speech of the monastery. Diff Differ eren entt from from Aelf Aelfri ric c in mann manner er was was Wulfstan ( -10 -1023), the Arch Archbi bish shop op of York York,, who who also also wrot wrote e homi homili lies es,, abou aboutt 53 53.. The The most most famous is the address known as Sermo Lupi ad Anglos, in which he describes the damages that Danish invaders caused to the country.
NORMAN CONQUEST TO CHAUCER (1066-1340) General Characteristics of the Period After After the Anglo-S Anglo-Saxo axon n invasion invasion,, in 10 1066 66 England England was once more more invaded and conquered by Normans, who came from Scandinavia at the the begi beginn nnin ing g of the the 10th centur century, y, and settle settled d in northe northern rn part part of France. Their culture and their language (French) were quite different from from the AngloAnglo-Sax Saxon. on. Theref Therefore ore,, the conque conqueror rors s impor imported ted French French lang languag uage e and Fren French ch lite litera rary ry idea ideal, l, toge togeth ther er with with thei theirr laws laws and and administration. The native language was kept alive only by the lower classe classes s of popula populatio tion. n. Within Within two centur centuries ies,, Norman Norman kings kings brough broughtt tradesmen and artisans from France and Denmark, who contributed to the development of economy and flourishing of towns. However, this brou brough ghtt no chan change ge to mise misera rabl ble e cond condit itio ions ns of the the peop people le,, and and espe especi cial ally ly of the the peas peasant ants. s. Alth Althou ough gh in this this peri period od,, we have have the the disappearance of slavery and leaving the peasants free from the taxes by their landlords. Rich nobles and the clergy presented a great force, which often was in conflict with kings. Kings were often in conflict with feud feudal als s and and the the chur church ch,, who who want wanted ed to be abov above e the the king king.. Thes These e conf confli lict cts s ofte often n ende ended d with with murd murder er.. Ther Theref efor ore, e, the the arch archbi bish shop op of Canterbury, Thomas Becket was murdered during the rule of Henry II (1154-1189). In order to stop the self-will of the feudals, as well as King John John the the freq freque uent nt conf confli lict cts s amon among g the the nobl nobles es and citi citize zens ns,, King Lackland (1199-1216) Libertatum in 1215, (1199-1216) announced Magna Carta Libertatum according to which no free man was to be detained or punished before he is judged properly.
Duri During ng the the Norm Norman an Conq Conque uest, st, we have have the the esta establ blis ishm hmen entt of firs firstt Univer ersi sity ty of Ox Oxfo ford rd was univ univer ersi siti ties es in Engl Englan and. d. Thus Thus,, the the Univ Page 9 of 25
Universit sity y of esta establ blis ishe hed d in 11 1167 67,, and and sh shor ortl tly y afte afterw rwar ards ds the the Univer Cambridge was was open opened ed in 12 1209 09.. Norm Norman an inva invade ders rs brou brough ghtt thei theirr language with them and it became the tongue of the Court circles. Among the common people, English language survived and finally the two became one. Latin was the language of church, law and learning. The total fusion has made Modern English rich in French and Latin words. This fusion ended by the end of the 13th century, but for another hundred years, French remained as the language of schools, courts and of the Parliament. Only during the reign of Edward III (13271377), English was accepted in schools, courts and in the Parliament, and then became the official language of England.
LITERATU LITERATURE RE FROM NORMAN NORMAN CONQUEST CONQUEST TO CHAUCER CHAUCER (1066(10661340) During During this this period period,, liter literatur ature e was develo developed ped in three three langua languages ges:: in Latin and French, which were very rich, as well as in Anglo-Saxon, which appears around the 13th century.
Literature in Latin During this period, this literature was richer than it was before and ther there e are are more more work works s than than in Fren French ch or Engl Englis ish. h. They They are are most mostly ly chronicles, theological and philosophical works were used as a good source of the themes for English literature and for the development of philosophy in England.
Literature in French This literature was mainly bound to the court. Minstrels sang songs on different topics in the court, in order to amuse the courtiers and keep chivalry ideals of mediaeval. They mostly sang about the bravery of knights in honour of their ladies; therefore, they had an epic character. This literature also has a lot of fantasy within. It talks about dragons, fairies (nymphs) etc., which was the general characteristic of European literature. Among the writers who wrote in French and lived in the English Court, we can mention Beniot de Saint Maure . He is famous for his Roman de Troie where he, besides other stories, works out the story about the love between Troilus and Criseyda, which plot was worked out later by many English writers.
Mary de France is also a writer of this period who wrote a number of stories about King Arthur. Page 10 of 25
Literature in English Norma Norman n Conq Conque uest st anno announ unce ced d the the end end of An Angl glo-S o-Sax axon on lite litera ratu ture re.. th th Therefore, during the 11 and 12 century there was almost no works in this language. Only in the 13th century, there appear some religious and dida didact ctic ic work works s with withou outt any any arti artist stic ic valu value. e. Some Some lyri lyrica call song songs s th th written in the 13 and 14 century are the only ones that have any artistic value. They are anonymous and short, describing the nature in spring and slight feelings of love. Both, the theme and the metrical form, are similar with those in French literature. Among them, usually Cuckoo Song is mentioned where the life and joys of it are presented when the whole life begins to awake in spring.
THE AGE OF CHAUCER AND MIDDLE AGES (1340-1500) General Characteristics of the Period
FOURTEENTH CENTURY ENGLAND
The Black Death In 1348-1349, a disastrous plague swept over England, carrying death and destruction. The great decrease in population increased wages, gave more freedom to the serfs, destroyed farming and caused the land land to decl declin ine e in value alue.. It disr disrup uptted indus ndusttry and and trade ade and and depo depopu pula late ted d whol whole e vill village ages. s. In vain vain did did the the Parl Parlia iame ment nt pass pass the the Statut Statute e of Labou Labourer rers s (1351 (1351)) to preven preventt wages wages from from advanci advancing. ng. Some lords broke up their manors, and others commuted the services of their labourers to money payments instead of following the earlier practice of paying in work and produce.
The Peasants’ Revolt, 1381 Many Many causes causes contr contribu ibuted ted to this this outbre outbreak. ak. The genera generall hard hard times times resulting from the Black Death and the Hundred Years’ War fostered a rebellious spirit and the opposition to the poll taxes of 1379 and 1380 furthered it. Then the revival of old feudal dues hurt the poorer classes Page 11 of 25
in the country. The higher wages brought about by the Black Death only only enfo enforc rced ed the the appe appeti tite tes s of the the peas peasan ants ts for for more more wage wages s and and freedom. Outbreaks occurred first in Essex and Kent; and soon the Tyler, were rebels rebels,, led by Wat Tyler were marc marchi hing ng on Lond London on and and burn burnin ing g houses of lawyers, officials and landlords as they went. Richard II (1377-1399) met them and promised relief, but this did not stop them. Finally, Wat Tyler and other leaders of the movement were were killed killed and the revolt revolt collap collapsed sed.. It was the first first great great Englis English h rebellion of labour against capital and it failed to better the conditions of the peasant. Education and Literature The The univ univer ersi siti ties es of Oxford and Cambridge , which had been established earlier, were now making their influence felt among the upper classes. Grammar schools existed at some of the convents and were supported by fees. Many religious manuals, sermons, chronicles and poems were appearing not to mention numerous romances on the French French model model and miracl miracle e plays. plays. Chauce Chaucerr was writi writing ng his immort immortal al poetry in English language, and Piers Plowman appeared.
Declining Influence of the Church With the rise of universities and other centres of education, the church no longer had a monopoly of learning or leaders. Moreover, newly rich city and country dwellers now rivalled monasteries and bishoprics for wealth. Many including churchmen themselves, complained of loose living living among among the clergy, clergy, and of vice vice and immorali immorality ty there there was an abundance. All these caused many critics directed toward the church.
John John Wycli Wycliffe ffe (1324(1324-138 1384) 4) voiced voiced the growin growing g opposi oppositio tion n to the church. He began his attacks on the church while he was yet a teacher at Oxford and continued them through his writing, many of which were in English. He was against the collection of Papal taxes in England and the ownership of property by the church, denied the temporal power of the clergy and attacked abuses that existed. He also began to question church church doctrines, doctrines, questioned questioned the authority authority of the Pope and set up the Bible as the man’s sole guide. His translation of the Bible into English was perhaps his most important writing. His doctrines later influenced Martin Luther and many others. For these reasons, Wycliffe is regarded as the forerunner of the Reformation. The Hundred Years’ War The term “Hundred Years’ War” is a misnomer, for a series of wars occurred, not just one war; and these wars lasted, counting intervals of peace, peace, from from about about 1336 to 1453 – more more than than a hund hundre red d year years. s. Page 12 of 25
However, historians have been unable to find a better name than the above-mentioned. The results of this “war” were the following: England lost its French possessions. Parliament, in return for grants of money to prosecute the war, war, incr increa ease sed d its its powe powerr cons consid ider erabl ably. y. Merc Mercha hant nts s beca became me more more prosperous and feudal nobles less so. The freemen rose in prestige, after having more than held their own with the lords in struggle; and even the serfs gained ground. From the military standpoint, the wars struck a deathblow at the old feudal style of fighting on horseback and emph emphas asis ised ed infa infant ntry ry,, guns guns and and yeom yeomen en sold soldie iers rs.. Reli Religi giou ousl sly, y, the the struggles hurt the church in England, for during much of the period the Papal capital was at Avignon, France, and the ruling Popes were under the French influence.
The Wars of the Roses, 1450-1485 As soon as the Hundred Years’ War ended, there came a period of inside wars between the mighty feudals known as the Wars of the Roses during 1450-1485. 1450-1485. Actually, this was a war between two dynasties – between the houses York k (The (The Re Red d Ro Rose se)) and Lanc Lancas aste ter r (The (The Whit White e Ro Rose se)), of Yor respectively of the two rival houses, in order to be in charge of the Henry y VII VII Tudo Tudor r defeated Rich Richar ard d III III at crow crown n of Engl Englan and. d. Henr Bosworth Field in 1485. This battle ended the Wars of the Roses and gave England a new line of rulers, the Tudors. During this period, the Parliament had lost most of the gains it had previously made. The nobles too, had lost much of their power, for many had been killed and othe others rs had had been been disc discre redi dite ted. d. Peop People le were were tire tired d of diso disord rder er and and anarchy; hence, their mood welcomed a strong line of kings who could restore order and prosperity, even if that meant despotism.
LIFE IN THE XV CENTURY Literature Chaucer had died, and none with equal ability had taken his place; but he had many imitators. In the field of poetry, two or three men stood out prominently. One of these, John Lydgate, wrote lengthy poems with little colour on philosophical and romantic subjects. In general, the poet poetry ry of the the peri period od stre stress ssed ed mora moral, l, roma romant ntic ic and and semi semi-r -rel elig igio ious us Thomas them themes es and and lack lacked ed corr correc ectt mete meter. r. In pros prose e writ writin ing, g, Sir Thomas Malory is most prominent with his Le Morte d’Arthur .
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Education Oxford University acquired some permanent buildings and a library. Several new colleges appeared at Oxford and Cambridge. The clergy still dominated the universities, but an increasing number of laymen were attending. The inns of court, which had been founded earlier, were were now now flou flouri rish shin ing. g. The The tuto tutori rial al sy syst stem em of lear learni ning ng prev prevai aile led, d, College, whic especially especially at Eton College which h was was foun founde ded d in 1220, or soon afterward.
Social and Economic Conditions Women were being educated privately and were taking an increased interest in family and business life. There was quite a bit of prosperity among among the merchan merchants ts and the country country gentry gentry.. The export export of wool wool declined, but the manufacture and export of woollen cloth increased. Trading organizations flourished. The king became interested in trade and someti sometimes mes borrow borrowed ed money money with with custom customs s duties duties as securi security. ty. Under Under the sti stimul mulus us of trade trade and indust industry ry,, towns towns grew grew rapidl rapidly y and improved in general their systems of law and order of their government. WILLIAM LANGLAND (c. 1330-1400) We know almost nothing about his life. It is known that he was a priest and from his works, it may be seen that he was clever, proud, and very disappointed with the social circumstances of his age and that he loved the truth very much. His best work is The Vision of William Concerning the Plowman. There are three versions of this work: A. B. C.
It has 10 parts with 2567 lines, written c. 1362. It has 20 par parts with 7242 lines, nes, written ten in 1376 and is considered as the best and It has 20 parts with 7357 lines, written c. 1394.
In his his work work,, Lang Langla land nd is dire direct ct in sp spee eech ch and and very very simp simple le.. Form Formal al artist artistic ic perfec perfectio tion n for him is not impor importan tant, t, but the ideolo ideologic gical al and dida didact ctic ic aim. aim. For For Lang Langla land nd it is not not impo import rtan antt how how he is sayi saying ng something, but what he is saying.
The Vision of Piers the Plowman is an allegory. It describes how one morning in May the poet falls asleep in Malvern Hills and has a vision of a Tower where the Truth dwells, and on the other side “ a fair
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field full of folk ” where all the order of human society can be seen about their business. There are also allegoric characters as the Holy Church, Conscience, Lady Mede, Falsehood, Reason, Seven Deadly Sins etc. In the second vision, we have Piers the Plowman who shows the poet the way to the Truth who is at the same time Piers’ master. He knows this way through his friends Conscience and Reason. It is interesting that Langland has chosen a simple peasant as a leader for this way to the truth. In othe otherr vers versio ions, ns, Lang Langla land nd sink sinks s into into reli religi gion on and and myst mystic icis ism m and presents the three levels of Christian life.
Do Well – Do Better – Do Best represent the consciences of a man, truth, work and love towards the relatives. Above these three levels, Langland puts Christ as the symbol of perfection; whereas on earth, Piers the Plowman presents that perfection, who at the same time is the symbol of peasants and of human community. Here lies Langland’s social note and his originality. Through Pier, the Plowman Langland shows the importance of the rural man and of his work. He criticises the society of his age. He criticises the king for not understanding, the clergy for bad behaviour, thieves and lazy people for laziness etc. The only sympathy he shows is for the lowest levels of the population. THE PEARL POET An anonymous poet is assumed to have written the following poems: Pearl, Purity, Cleanness and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight .
Pearl is a long poem in 1212 lines. It is a poetical vision in dream, which describes the grief of a father for his lost daughter. There he sees a maiden seated in Paradise whom he recognises as his daughter. She blames him for his excessive grief and describes her blessed state. He argues with her about the justice that makes her queen of Heaven when she died so young. Convinced by her, he plunges into the river in an attempt to join her, and awakes, comforted and reassured of his faith in God. The form and language of the poem are extremely brilliant.
Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is also a long poem, even longer than the first one, in 2500 lines. It is a story about Sir Gawain who survi survive ves s all all the the chal challe leng nges es of the the Gree Green n Knig Knight ht and and of his his wife wife – Page 15 of 25
Morgana (the witch). This is a vivid narration with many descriptions of the seasons.
JOHN GOWER (c. 1330-1408) John Gower is an English poet, a contemporary of the poet Geoffrey Chaucer. He probably belonged to a prosperous Kentish family fa mily and was a landholder in Suffolk and Norfolk.
Confessio Confession n Amantis Amantis (Confession (Confession of a Lover, Lover, c. 1390) 1390) is Gower’s greatest and best-known work and is a standard of Middle English . It is a collection of tales illustrating the vices that may accompany love, told by a lover to a priest. In turn, the priest initiates the poet in the concept of courtly and Christian love. Besides the long poems, Gower wrote minor poems in English, French and Latin. His contribution to Middle English was great.
GEOFFREY CHAUCER (1340?-1400) Chaucer is not merely the greatest English poet of medieval times, he is one of the greatest English poets of all times. The Concise Cambridge History of English Literature) ( The We do not know the exact date of Chaucer’s birth, but it must have been a few years before the middle of the century. He was the son of John Chaucer, a wine merchant. He was married and is presumed to be the father of two sons. Virtually the only evidence we have of his life is the fragmentary information regarding his career at the court and in the diplomatic service. He was very active, and in some ways, it is quite surprising that he ever had time to devote himself to literature (in fact, several of his poems are unfinished). He entered the court while still a boy and served as a page to Princess Elizabeth, daughterin-law of Edward III. In 1359, while with the army in France, he was captured and imprisoned until the following year. He participated in peace negotiations with France in 1360 and obviously served the king well, since he was granted a life pension in 1367, and defined as a well well-b -bel elov oved ed pers person onal al atte attend ndan ant. t. In the the year years s that that foll follow owed ed,, he undert undertook ook a number number of diplom diplomati atic c missio missions ns abroad abroad,, in partic particula ularr to Italy where he visited Genoa and Florence, which were undoubtedly a powe powerf rful ul stim stimul ulus us for for his his lite litera rary ry acti activi vity ty.. He then then occu occupi pied ed an administrative post in London (Controller of Customs) and lived in a house above the city wall, at Aldgate. Further missions to France and Italy followed, but problems at court in 1386 led to his withdrawal from Lond London on,, alth althou ough gh by 13 1389 89 he had retu return rned ed,, appoi appoint nted ed to a more more Page 16 of 25
important job as Clerk of the King’s Works. During this period, until the end of his life, he worked on The Canterbury Tales, regarded as his mast maste erpiec piece e. He died died in 1400 and and was was hono honour ured ed by bur burial in Westminster Abbey. Chaucer’s literary works are divided into three periods:
1. French period (to 1372). In this period, there are mostly some translations and some short lyrical poems, as well as two of his original works: The Book of the Duchess and Roman de la Rose . The book of the Duchess was written on the death of Lady Blanche, wife of John of Gaunt, the most powerful member of the royal family during the later years of the reign of Edward III. It is in the form of a dream-allegory, a popular genre in the Middle Ages. 2. Italian period (1372-1385). In this period, a great influence of Italian Italian liter literatur ature e is obviou obvious s to Europe European an and Englis English h litera literatur ture. e. The influence of Dante and Boccaccio is great both in themes and in artistic trea treatm tmen ent. t. Unde Underr thei theirr infl influe uenc nce, e, he deve develo lops ps more more his his arti artist stic ic indiv individu iduali ality ty and his attitu attitude de toward towards s the life. life. Chrono Chronolog logica ically lly The House of Fame is his first work in this period. It is also an unfinished dream-allegory in more than 2.000 lines and borrows extensively from foreign influences. Parliame ament nt of Fowles Fowles, another There There follows follows The Parli another dream-alle dream-allegory gory that deals with the meeting of all birds on St Valentine’s Day to choose their mates. With its memorable opening, it is the first poem in which we meet the true Chaucerian qualities – the happily blended humour and and pat pathos, hos, the the adop adopttion ion and and yet yet tran transc sce enden ndenc ce of medi edieval eval comm common onpl place aces s (the (the drea dream, m, the the cata catalo logu gue e of tree trees s and bird birds, s, the the classical digressions, and so on), as well as the faculty of composition, which makes the poem a poem, and not a mere copy of verses. The Legend of Good Women is his last dream-allegory, which is an unfinished collection of tales about famous and unhappy ladies. The prologue is the best and most interesting part of the poem and the most personal where Chaucer deals with his private life. Troilus and Criseyde is the outstanding piece of this period. It is his longest (8.000 lines) complete work and has been compared with the modern psychological novel because of its deep analysis of love. It deal deals s with with the the love love affa affair ir betw betwee een n Cris Crisey eyde de,, the the daug daught hter er of a fortuneteller who predicted the fall of Troy, and Troilus, the son of King Priam. After some complicated manoeuvres, they consummate their love and live in happiness until they are separated after an exchange of prisoners between the Greeks and the Trojans. Criseyde refuses to Page 17 of 25
run away with Troilus, saying that she will find a way to be reunited with him, but instead she becomes the mistress of a Greek. Troilus, mad with grief, is killed in battle. The The whol hole Chau Chauce cerr’s work ork in the pre previous ious two two per periods iods can can be cons consid ider ered ed as a peri period od wher where e Chauc Chaucer er was was reac reachi hing ng his his arti artist stic ic English period period (1385-14 (1385-1400) 00), he maturity. maturity. Therefore, Therefore, in the third English reache reaches s his his zenit zenith h relea releasin sing g himsel himselff from from the foreig foreign n influe influence nce and turning towards the English spirit. Besides other works, here we have his masterpiece The Canterbury Tales. The plan of collecting tales and uniting them by a central idea is one of The Arab Arabia ian n Nigh Nights ts and the sto stock methods of the world. The Decameron are two of the most famous examples. It is unnecessary, therefore, to seek for either a special or a general original of The Canterbury Tales. The thing was in the air of the time, when tales had to be told and pilgrims were many.
The Canterbury Tales is Chaucer’s most celebrated work probably designed about 1387 and extending to 17.000 lines in prose and verse. The General Prologue describes the meeting of 29 pilgrims in the Tabard Inn. The host, Harry Bailly, proposes that the pilgrims should short shorten en the the road road by tell tellin ing g four four stor storie ies s each each,, two two on the the way way to Canterbury and two on the way back. The work is incomplete; only 23 pilgrims tell stories, and there are only 24 stories told together. In the scheme, the stories are linked by narrative exchanges between the pilgrims and by prologues and epilogues to the tales. The Canterbury Tales is sketched out, but not filled in. the only clear string of connection from first to last is the pervading personality of the Host, who who give gives s a unit unity y of char charac acte terr to the the whol whole e work work,, invi inviti ting ng,, crit critic icis isin ing, g, admi admiri ring ng,, deno denoun unci cing ng,, but but alwa always ys keep keepin ing g hims himsel elff in evid eviden ence ce.. What What is cert certai ain n is that that the the coup couple lets ts,, espe especi cial ally ly of the the Prologue, are the most accomplished, various, thoroughly mastered verses that we find in Chaucer himself or in any English writer up to his time. The ever-present humour of the work cannot be missed. The stories cover nearly the whole ground of medieval poetry. The Knight’s Tale is high romance on full scale, told in heroic couplets. The tales of the Reeve and Miller are examples of the story of ordinary life with a farcical tendency. The Man of Law’s Tale returns returns to romance, romance, but it is pathetic romance, told in rhyme royal. Chaucer, in some respects as mode modern rn as Dick Dicken ens, s, is here here medi mediev eval al.. The The pilg pilgri rims ms,, it sh shou ould ld be observed, are neither bored by Melibeus nor shocked by the Wife of Bath. The Monk’s Tale, may be intended as a set-off to the frivolous description of that ecclesiastic in the Prologue .
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With The Canterbury Tales we reach, for the first time in this story, the literature of everyman, that is to say, the kind of work that belongs to the same world as the work of Shakespeare and Dickens. It is idle to suppose that such expressions of the medieval mind as Confessio Amantis will ever be widely enjoyed. The best of The Canterbury Tales can be enjoyed by the people who enjoy Pickwick Papers and The Tempest . Chau Chauce cerr was one one of thos those e who who (lik (like e Shak Shakes espe pear are) e) extr extrac acts ts the the maxi maximu mum m of pers person onal al nour nouris ishm hmen entt from from read readin ing. g. He knew knew Lati Latin n authors, he was familiar with French and Italian literature, and he knew Englis English h romanc romances es which which he parodi parodied. ed. He was a man of origi originat nation ion genius, and this gift, combined with his reading, enabled him to bring to ripeness the art of writing. Chaucer is no strange. He comes as naturally as Shakespeare does in the line of progress. His humour, like Shakespeare’s, is kindly and never cruel. It is broad and unashamed; but it never sides with evil or mocks at good. He really understands people and their place in the world, and he could bring his crowd of pilg pilgri rims ms toge togeth ther er with with comp comple lete te su succ cces ess. s. To the the deve develo lopm pmen entt of English as the means and matter of creative art, he rendered true service, and he has fully earned his traditional title of father of English literature. In his works, he mostly used the great stanza called rhyme royal . seven-lin lined ed decasy decasyll llabi abic c stanz stanza a rhymed That is to say the sevenababbcc.
LITERATURE OF THE XV CENTURY After a very rich literature in the previous period, with the exception of the XI and XII century, in the XIII century a real vacuum is felt as far as the creative literature is concerned. Probably the reason of this lies in the destruction of the Court, which besides other things was also the cultur cultural al centre centre.. This This sit situat uation ion was direct directly ly caused caused by the decay decay of feudal system, as well as by the Wars of the Roses. This is the period where there are no literary works and if there were any, they had no literary value. Among writers after Chaucer, John Lydgate (c. 13701450) can be mentioned with his Troy-Book , very appreciated at that time whereas today almost forgotten. In this this peri period od,, apar apartt from from the the lite litera rary ry lite litera ratu ture re,, folk folk lite litera ratu ture re blossoms, especially the poetry. Its representatives, the anonymous writers, write usually love songs and songs dedicated to the knights, as well as on the fantastic topics, which in England were called popular ballads. For a long time these ballads were sung among the people Page 19 of 25
slowly changing their form and becoming as a product of collective work. The first collection of ballads appeared in 1630, which remained unknown. Later this collection was found by Bishop Thomas Percy, who published it in 1765 as his own work under the title “Reliques of the Ancient English Poetry”. The American professor F. J. Child published the complete collection of 350 ballads, in nearly 1300 versions, by the end of XIX century. Otherwise, all these ballads can be collected into certain cycles, but because of their topics, they are divided into several groups. The first group mainly consists of historical ballads like Chevy Chase, which deals with the murder of two noble heroes – Percy, the English hero, and Douglas, the Scottish one. Sir Patrick Spans also belongs belongs to this group of ballads, which is about a brave captain, who ends his life in the waves of the sea fulfilling his job. The second group of ballads ba llads consists of love and family affairs, covered with a tragic veil. Among them, we distinguish Edward , which is about a son who on his mother’s request kills his father and The Douglas Tragedy where where a father father and brothe brothers rs chase chase the eloped eloped daught daughter, er, respectively sister, so that they all find their death tragically in the end. Among these ballads, the most horrible is the ballad Babylon , which is about an outlaw who attacks three girls, rapes and kills the first one, does the same to the second one and when he approaches the third one he recognises that they were his sisters and then he commits suicide. The The third third group group consis consists ts of fantast fantastic ic ballad ballads s like like Sweet William’s Ghost , which is about a dead lover who now as a ghost comes after his beloved. Then we have Thomas the Rhymer , whom the fairies take to their kingdom and The Demon Lover , which deals with an unfaithful wife whom the devil, transformed as her lover, takes her to hell. The last group was and still is the most popular cycle of ballads about Robin Hood , which deal with the bravery of the legendary and noble hero from Sherwood Forest . All ballads were written in the same metrical form called The Ballad Stanza, which consists of four lines where the second and the fourth lines are rhymed. The narration itself is direct with little decorations. The stories are full of horrible and tragic scenes, but at the same time, they praise and glorify the bravery, nobleness, love, faith etc. Page 20 of 25
DEOR’S LAMENT Deor’s Lament is an old English poem of the 10 th century AD. This poem poem is pres preser erve ved d in Exet Exeter er book. book. It is an eleg elegy, y, comp compos osed ed of 42 Alliterative lines, which are divided into seven unequal sections. Deor’s Lament is a song about the poet’s own misfortunes, which are illustrated by the equally hard destiny of others who once were happy. Deor’s suffers because he is estranged from his lord, but comforts himself with the thought of fate’s habitual unkindness. In this elegy, the poet compares himself to figures from Germanie legends. All of them went through hard times had many troubles but all that is gone, and that’s why this song has an optimistic constant refrain: “That passed away, so may this.” THE SEAFARER The most original elegiac poem is The Seafarer, in which are found both the defects and merits of these poems. The Seafarer consists of 124, and it is preserved in Exeter Book . This poem is divided in two parts:
The first part (1-64 lines) is elegiac, and the second is didactic. The elegiac part of the poem begins as narrative of an old Seafarer and it tells about life in the sea, with all its heavy cares versus carefree life on land. Yet, whether the poem is monologue or dialogue, nothing can destroy the picture of those dark northern seas, where the torment of cold is added to the tumult of waves and winds. All through the poem is heard the sound of the sea, the mistress of the island-race. In this poem are described both, Pagan and Christian ideas about overcoming loneliness and suffering. The speaker constructs another opposition – between himself and the comfortable city dweller who cannot know of seafarer’s suffering. In the central theme of the poem, the speaker displa dis plays ys a lis listt of earthy earthy human human virtue virtues. s. Pride Pride,, greatn greatness ess,, boldne boldness, ss, youth, seriousness and grace, and he emphasises that these virtues will all disappear.
The second part (64-124 lines) – Didactic theme is predominant in the poem’s second half. Here the speaker announces that the joys of accepting God’s will far exceed any form of wealth or earthly pleasure. This section grows less personal and becomes mostly theological in nature. Desc Descri ribi bing ng thre three e ways ways of deat death, h, the the sp spea eake kerr says says that that no man man is certain how life will end, and the best praise for the warrior is in the Page 21 of 25
afterlife. The poet is also focused on the spiritual aspect of life after death, and how the soul knows no earthly comforts: the soul removed from the body feels nothing and cares nothing for fame, so according to the poem, wealth and fame are meaningless in the next world. The final, concluding section of the poem is the most religious part of “The Seafarer”. The speaker admonishes that God and Fate are more powerful than any person person’s ’s will. will. Accord According ing to the seafar seafarer, er, people people should should always always consider God’s purpose and think of their final resting place in heaven. The poem ends in a prayer of praise to God, the eternal creator of earth and its life.
THE WANDERER The wanderer is an elegiac poem, which is preserved in Exeter Book . The poem way predates the manuscript by hundreds of years. Some scholars believe that the poem was composed around the time when the Anglo-Saxons were converting to Christianity, though others would date it as much as several centuries later, about 10th century. The poem is composed of 115 lines, and it is written in alliterative mete meter, r, like like most most Old Old Engl Englis ish h poet poetry ry.. It is a dark dark poem poem,, sad sad and and depressed. The The poet poet descri describes bes the lament lament of a man who has lost his protecti protecting ng lord and wanders over the waters to find a resting place. On the ship, carrying him after the Wanderer dreams that he is with his lord again, but but wake wakes s to cold cold and and lone loneli line ness ss,, to a worl world d of wint winter er woe woe and and labouring seas. He remembers the day when he served his lord, feasted together and received precious gifts. Yet fate turned against him when he lost his lord, kinsmen and comrades in battle and was driven to exile. However, the speaker reflects upon life while spending years in exile, and to some extent, he has gone beyond his personal sorrow. The earthly glory glory” is pres degene degenerat ration ion of “earthly presen ente ted d as inev inevit itab able le in the the poem, contrasting with the theme of salvation through faith in God, which is introduced half way through the poem. The The Wander Wanderer er vividl vividly y descr describe ibes s his loneli lonelines ness s and yearn yearning ing for the bright days past, and concludes with an admonition to put faith in God, “in whom all stability dwells ”.
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The Wanderer is possibly the most debated Old English poem in terms of its meaning, origin and even the translation of some words.
BEOWULF Beowulf is the most important narrative poem in Old English Literature, which depicts most vividly the tribal life and rites of ancient days. It is a heroic and epic poem written by an unknown Anglo-Saxon poet. It is transmitted in a 10th century manuscript, now safely preserved in the British museum, and was published for the first time in 1815. It is comp compos osed ed of 31 3183 83 line lines s and and it is divi divide ded d in thre three e sect sectio ions ns according to his fights. The verse is alliterative, stressed and without rhyme. The historical element of the story carries us back to the first half of the 6th century. The scene is laid in the Danish Island and in South Sweden, land of the Geats. The hero is a man of war, strong-armed and daring, developing by degrees into the ideal king who dies to save his people. Beowulf crosses the sea with a few valiant Geats to help Hrothgar, king of Danes, whose hall of Heorot is desolated by the monster Grendel, who comes to seize one of Hrothgar’s thanes. Beowulf lies in wait in Hrothgar’s hall, and in a terrible wrestle tears away an arm from the monster, who escapes to his lair to die. But, Grendel’s mother comes the next night to avenge her son and Beowulf fights and kills her. Fifty years later, Beowulf who, for a long time has been king of the Geats, goes to fight a dragon that has attacked his people. In that battle Beowulf receives his own death wound from the dragon, and dies happy in the thoughts that his last fight has saved his people and won for them the golden treasure. Beowulf consists as we see, of three narratives, and leads true unity. Moreover, the stones are too much alike, first as all three monsters are drawn with the same vagueness. Beow Beowul ulff is also also the the most most impo import rtan antt monu monume ment nt of earl early y Euro Europe pean an civilization. The poem is rewritable for its sustained grandness of tone and for the brilliance of its style, both in nice diction and in association of the elements of its plot.
BEOWULF FINAL SCENE
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The conclusion of the epic begins with a nostalgic and elegiac moment when Geats go to Beowulf’s body. Beowulf lays dead, and the dragon, too. The poet emphasizes the dragon’s beauty and grace of movement, illu illust stra rati tion on that that the the beast beast was was magn magnif ific icen entt in its its own own nigh nightt and and a worthy watch for the great hero. The poet’s admiring words about the dragon glorify Beowulf’s feat in slaying such a creature. Beowulf’s death was a punishment and doom for his people and Geats are well aware of what the law of Beowulf’s protection means to them; they will surely become targets of attacks. Wiglaf recounts Beowulf’s lost request and reaches the people to build his funeral pyre. With seven of the greatest Geatish thanes, Wiglaf returns to the dragon’s lair to collect the treasure that Beowulf bought with his life. The pyre is built high, according to Beowulf’s wishes. The body is laid in and the fire is lit - its roar competes with the weeping. A Geatish woman laments Beowulf’s death and grieves about the war-torn future that she foresees for her people. The Geats place Beowulf’s remains on a cliff high above the sea in a barrow that will be visible to all passing ships. Sorrowfully, they recount that their king was kind and generous to his people, and eager for fame. The existence existence of the poem itself is a testament testament to Beowulf’s Beowulf’s virtue, virtue, in which warriors would rather die than live in shame.
PIERS PLOWMAN (William Langland) Piers Plowman is an allegory opening with a dream that shows the least least touch touch of foreign foreign influe influence nce.. It is a poem poem of the 14th century and there are three successive versions of this work: The first version seems to be written in 1362 (2567 lines – 10 parts) The second version has 20 parts with 7242 lines, written c. 1376 The third version is written about 1394 (7357 lines – 20 parts) •
•
•
It has been questioned whether the three versions were written by one hand, or two, or even three. Page 24 of 25
P. Plowman is at first a picture of the world as it is, followed by a picture of the world as it might be. The poem is written to edify; in intention, it is never artistic and is rarely so in fact, but the qualities of though thoughtt and heart, heart, which which ins inspir pire e it lend lend the exhort exhortati ation on streng strength. th. Moreover, the writer’s rude vitality and irony make some of his scenes intensely alive and full of movement. One May morning, the poet falls asleep on the Malvern Hills ; he sees in a vision a “field full of folk ”, ”, rich and poor, workers and idlers, nobles and merchants, priests etc. In the confusion appears the lady, Holy Church who exhorts them to seek the best thing – the truth, but no one kno knows the way to find it, then P. Plowman make akes his appearance. He explains the way they must follow and offers to be their guide if they will first help him to plough his half-acre. Those who refuse are forced to work through hunger. The poem in its first form ends here, with the dreamer’s awakening in the second vision we have P. Plowman who shows the poet the way to the truth. truth. He knows knows this this way through through his friends friends Conscience and Reason. It is interesting that Langland has chosen a simple peasant as a leader for this way to the truth. Piers the Plowman presents that perfection, which at the same time is the symbol of peasants and of the human community.
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