Old English grammar 1 Morphology
The grammar of Old English is quite different from that of Modern English, predominantly by being much more inflected. As an old Germanic language, Old English has a morphological system that is similar to that of the hypothetical Proto-Germanic reconstruction, retaining many of the inflections thought to have been common in Proto-Indo-European and also including characteristically Germanic constructions such as the umlaut.
1.1 Verbs Verbs in Old English are divided into strong and weak verbs. Strong verbs indicate tense by a change in the quality of a vowel, while weak verbs indicate tense by the addition of an ending.
Among living languages, Old English morphology most closely resembles that of modern Icelandic, which is among the most conservative of the Germanic languages; 1.1.1 Strong verbs to a lesser extent, the Old English inflectional system is Further information: Germanic strong verb similar to that of modern High German. Nouns, pronouns, adjectives and determiners were fully inflected with five grammatical cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, and instrumental), two grammatical numbers (singular and plural) and three grammatical genders (masculine, feminine, and neuter). First- and second-person personal pronouns also had dual forms for referring to groups of two people, in addition to the usual singular and plural forms.[1] The instrumental case was somewhat rare and occurred only in the masculine and neuter singular; it could typically be replaced by the dative. Adjectives, pronouns and (sometimes) participles agreed with their antecedent nouns in case, number and gender. Finite verbs agreed with their subject in person and number.
Strong verbs use the Germanic form of conjugation known as ablaut. In this form of conjugation, the stem of the word changes to indicate the tense. Verbs like this persist in modern English; for example sing, sang, sung is a strong verb, as are swim, swam, swum and choose, chose, chosen. The root portion of the word changes rather than its ending. In Old English, there were seven major classes of strong verb; each class has its own pattern of stem changes. Learning these is often a challenge for students of the language, though English speakers may see connections between the old verb classes and their modern forms.
The classes had the following distinguishing features to Nouns came in numerous declensions (with deep paral- their infinitive stems: lels in Latin, Ancient Greek and Sanskrit). Verbs came 1. ī + one consonant. in nine main conjugations (seven strong and two weak), each with numerous subtypes, as well as a few additional 2. ēo or ū + one consonant. smaller conjugations and a handful of irregular verbs. 3. Originally e + two consonants. By the time of writThe main difference from other ancient Indo-European ten Old English, many had changed. If C is used to languages, such as Latin, is that verbs can be conjurepresent any consonant, verbs in this class usually gated in only two tenses (vs. the six “tenses” – really had short e + lC; short eo + rC; short i + nC/mC; or tense/aspect combinations – of Latin), and have no syn(g̣ +) short ie + lC. thetic passive voice (although it did still exist in Gothic). Gender in nouns was grammatical, as opposed to the natural gender that prevails in modern English. That is, the grammatical gender of a given noun did not necessarily correspond to its natural gender, even for nouns referring to people. For example, sēo sunne (the Sun) was feminine, se mōna (the Moon) was masculine, and þæt wīf “the woman/wife” was neuter. (Compare modern German die Sonne, der Mond, das Weib.) Pronominal usage could reflect either natural or grammatical gender, when it conflicted.
4. e + 1 consonant (usually l or r, plus the verb brecan 'to break'). 5. e + 1 consonant (usually a stop or a fricative). 6. a + 1 consonant. 7. Other than the above. Always a heavy root syllable (either a long vowel or short + two consonants), almost always a non-umlauted vowel – e.g. ō, ā, ēa, a (+ nC), ea (+ lC/rC), occ. ǣ (the latter with past in ē instead of normal ēo). Infinitive is distinguishable from class 1 weak verbs by non-umlauted root 1
2
1 MORPHOLOGY vowel; from class 2 weak verbs by lack of suffix ian. First and second preterite have identical stems, usually in ēo (occ. ē), and the infinitive and the past participle also have the same stem.
The first preterite stem is used in the preterite, for the first- and third-person singular. The second preterite stem is used for second-person singular, and all persons in the plural (as well as the preterite subjunctive). Strong verbs also exhibit i-mutation of the stem in the second- and third-person singular in the present tense. The third class went through so many sound changes that it was barely recognisable as a single class. The first was a process called 'breaking'. Before ⟨h⟩, and ⟨r⟩ + another consonant, ⟨æ⟩ turned into ⟨ea⟩, and ⟨e⟩ to ⟨eo⟩. Also, before ⟨l⟩ + another consonant, the same happened to ⟨æ⟩, but ⟨e⟩ remained unchanged (except before combination ⟨lh⟩).
stem-change patterns. Rather than inventing and standardizing new classes or learning foreign conjugations, English speakers simply applied the weak ending to the foreign bases. The linguistic trends of borrowing foreign verbs and verbalizing nouns have greatly increased the number of weak verbs over the last 1,200 years. Some verbs that were originally strong (for example help, holp, holpen) have become weak by analogy; most foreign verbs are adopted as weak verbs; and when verbs are made from nouns (for example “to scroll” or “to water”) the resulting verb is weak. Additionally, conjugation of weak verbs is easier to teach, since there are fewer classes of variation. In combination, these factors have drastically increased the number of weak verbs, so that in modern English weak verbs are the most numerous and productive form (although occasionally a weak verb may turn into a strong verb through the process of analogy, such as sneak (originally only a noun), where snuck is an analogical formation rather than a survival from Old English).
The second sound change to affect it was the influence of palatal sounds ⟨g⟩, ⟨c⟩, and ⟨sc⟩. These turned preceding There are three major classes of weak verbs in Old En⟨e⟩ and ⟨æ⟩ to ⟨ie⟩ and ⟨ea⟩, respectively. glish. The first class displays i-mutation in the root, and The third sound change turned ⟨e⟩ to ⟨i⟩, ⟨æ⟩ to ⟨a⟩, and the second class none. There is also a third class explained ⟨o⟩ to ⟨u⟩ before nasals. below. Altogether, this split the third class into five sub-classes: Class-one verbs with short roots exhibit gemination of the final stem consonant in certain forms. With verbs 1. e + two consonants (apart from clusters beginning in ⟨r⟩, this appears as ⟨ri⟩ or ⟨rg⟩, where ⟨i⟩ and ⟨g⟩ are with l). pronounced [j]. Geminated ⟨f⟩ appears as ⟨bb⟩, and that of ⟨g⟩ appears as ⟨cg⟩. Class-one verbs may receive an 2. eo + r or h + another consonant. epenthetic vowel before endings beginning in a consonant. 3. e + l + another consonant. 4. g, c, or sc + ie + two consonants. 5. i + nasal + another consonant.
Where class-one verbs have gemination, class-two verbs have ⟨i⟩ or ⟨ig⟩, which is a separate syllable pronounced [i]. All class-two verbs have an epenthetic vowel, which appears as ⟨a⟩ or ⟨o⟩.
Regular strong verbs were all conjugated roughly the same, with the main differences being in the stem vowel. Thus stelan 'to steal' represents the strong verb conjugation paradigm.
In the following table, three verbs are conjugated. Swebban 'to put to sleep' is a class-one verb exhibiting gemination and an epenthetic vowel. Hǣlan 'to heal' is a classone verb exhibiting neither gemination nor an epenthetic vowel. Sīðian 'to journey' is a class-two verb.
1.1.2
During the Old English period, the third class was significantly reduced; only four verbs belonged to this group: habban 'have', libban 'live', secgan 'say', and hycgan 'think'. Each of these verbs is distinctly irregular, though they share some commonalities.
Weak verbs
Further information: Germanic weak verb
Weak verbs are formed by adding alveolar (t or d) endings to the stem for the past and past-participle tenses. Some examples are love, loved or look, looked. 1.1.3 Preterite-present verbs Originally, the weak ending was used to form the preterite of informal, noun-derived verbs such as often emerge in The preterite-present verbs are a class of verbs which conversation and which have no established system of have a present tense in the form of a strong preterite and a stem-change. By nature, these verbs were almost always past tense like the past of a weak verb. These verbs derive transitive, and even today, most weak verbs are transi- from the subjunctive or optative use of preterite forms to tive verbs formed in the same way. However, as English refer to present or future time. For example, witan, “to came into contact with non-Germanic languages, it in- know” comes from a verb which originally meant “to have variably borrowed useful verbs which lacked established seen” (cf. OE wise “manner, mode, appearance"; Latin
1.2
Nouns
videre “to see” from the same root). The present singular is formed from the original singular preterite stem and the present plural from the original plural preterite stem. As a result of this history, the first-person singular and third-person singular are the same in the present.
3 bēon, its past subjunctive forms from wesan, and its imperative and participle forms from bēon. In late OE and ME, the form earon/earun, from the Old Norse erun, replaced bēoþ and sind (See also List of English words of Old Norse origin).
Few preterite-present verbs appear in the Old English corpus, and the forms marked with an asterisk are unattested 1.2 reconstructions, formed by analogy.
Nouns
In spite of heavy irregularities, there are four groups of Old English is an inflected language, and as such its nouns, pronouns, adjectives and determiners must be declined in similarly-conjugated verbs: order to serve a grammatical function. A set of declined forms of the same word pattern is called a declension. 1. Āgan, durran, mōtan, and witan As in several other ancient Germanic languages, there are 2. Cunnan, gemunan (outside the past tense), and un- five major cases: nominative, accusative, dative, genitive and instrumental. nan 3. Dugan, magan, and genugan 4. Sculan and þurfan Note that the Old English meanings of many of the verbs are significantly different from that of the modern descendants; in fact, the verbs “can, may, must”, and to a lesser extent “thurf, durr” appear to have chain shifted in meaning. 1.1.4
Anomalous verbs
Additionally, there is a further group of four verbs which are anomalous: “want” (modern “will”), “do”, “go” and “be”. These four have their own conjugation schemes which differ significantly from all the other classes of verb. This is not especially unusual: “want”, “do”, “go”, and “be” are the most commonly used verbs in the language, and are very important to the meaning of the sentences in which they are used. Idiosyncratic patterns of inflection are much more common with important items of vocabulary than with rarely used ones. Dōn 'to do' and gān 'to go' are conjugated alike; willan 'to want' is similar outside of the present tense. The verb 'to be' is actually composed of three different stems: The present forms of wesan are almost never used. Therefore, wesan is used as the past, imperative, and present participle versions of sindon, and does not have a separate meaning. The bēon forms are usually used in reference to future actions. Only the present forms of bēon contrast with the present forms of sindon/wesan in that bēon tends to be used to refer to eternal or permanent truths, while sindon/wesan is used more commonly to refer to temporary or subjective facts. This semantic distinction (made only during the present tense) was lost as Old English developed into modern English, so that the modern verb 'to be' is a single verb which takes its present indicative forms from sindon, its past indicative forms from wesan, its present subjunctive forms from
• The nominative case indicated the subject of the sentence, for example: se cyning means 'the king'. It was also used for direct address. Adjectives in the predicate (qualifying a noun on the other side of 'to be') were also in the nominative. • The accusative case indicated the direct object of the sentence, for example: Æþelbald lufode þone cyning means "Æþelbald loved the king”, where Æþelbald is the subject and the king is the object. Already the accusative had begun to merge with the nominative; it was never distinguished in the plural, or in a neuter noun. • The genitive case indicated possession, for example: the þæs cyninges scip is “the ship of the king” or “the king’s ship”. It also indicated partitive nouns. • The dative case indicated the indirect object of the sentence; To whom or for whom the object was meant. For example: hringas þæm cyninge means “rings for the king” or “rings to the king”. Here, the word cyning is in its dative form: cyninge. There were also several verbs that took direct objects in the dative. • The instrumental case indicated an instrument used to achieve something, for example: lifde sweorde, “he lived by the sword”, where sweorde is the instrumental form of sweord. During the Old English period, the instrumental was falling out of use, having largely merged with the dative. Only pronouns and strong adjectives retained separate forms for the instrumental. The small body of evidence available for Runic texts suggests that there may also have a been a separate locative case in early or Northumbrian forms of the language (e.g., on rodi “on the Cross”).[2] In addition to inflection for case, nouns take different endings depending on whether the noun was in the singular (for example, hring “one ring"') or plural (for example, hringas “many rings”). Also, some nouns pluralize by
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1 MORPHOLOGY
way of Umlaut, and some undergo no pluralizing change Some masculine and neuter nouns end in -e in their base in certain cases. form. These drop the -e and add normal endings. Note Nouns are also categorized by grammatical gender – mas- that neuter nouns in -e always have -u in the plural, even culine, feminine, or neuter. In general, masculine and with a long vowel: neuter words share their endings, while feminine words have their own subset of endings. The plural of some declension types distinguishes between genders, e.g., a-stem masculine nominative plural stanas “stones” vs. neuter nominative plural scipu “ships” and word “words"; or istem masculine nominative plural sige(as) “victories” vs. neuter nominative plural sifu “sieves” and hilt “hilts”.
Nouns ending in -h lose this when an ending is added, and lengthen the vowel in compensation (this can result in compression of the ending as well):
Furthermore, Old English nouns are divided as either strong or weak. Weak nouns have their own endings. In general, weak nouns are less complex than strong nouns, since they had begun to lose their system of declension. However, the various noun classes are not totally distinct from one another, and there is a great deal of overlap between them.
A few nouns follow the -u declension, with an entirely different set of endings. The following examples are both masculine, although feminines also exist, with the same endings (for example duru 'door' and hand 'hand'). Note that the '-u/–' distinction in the singular depends on syllable weight, as for strong nouns, above.
Nouns whose stem ends in -w change this to -u or drop it in the nominative singular. (Note that this '-u/–' distinction depends on syllable weight, as for strong nouns, above.)
Descriptions of Old English language grammars often follow the common NOM-ACC-GEN-DAT-INST case order used for the Germanic languages. 1.2.4 Mutating strong nouns 1.2.1
Strong nouns
There are also some nouns of the consonant declension, which show i-umlaut in some forms.
Here are the strong declensional endings and examples for Other such nouns include (with singular and plural nomeach gender: inative forms given): For the '-u/–' forms above, the '-u' is used with a root Masculine: tōþ, tēþ 'tooth'; mann, menn 'man'; frēond, consisting of a single short syllable or ending in a long frīend 'friend'; fēond, fīend 'enemy' (cf. 'fiend') syllable followed by a short syllable, while roots ending in a long syllable or two short syllables are not inflected. (A Feminine: studu, styde 'post' (cf. 'stud'); hnitu, hnite 'nit'; long syllable contains a long vowel or is followed by two āc, ǣc 'oak'; gāt, gǣt 'goat'; brōc, brēc 'leg covering' (cf. consonants. Note also that there are some exceptions; for 'breeches’); gōs, gēs 'goose'; burg, byrg 'city' (cf. 'borexample, feminine nouns ending in -þu such as strengþu ough', '-bury' and German cities in -burg); dung, dyng 'prison' (cf. 'dungeon' by way of French and Frankish); 'strength'.) turf, tyrf 'turf'; grūt, grȳt 'meal' (cf. 'grout'); lūs, lȳs Note the syncope of the second e in engel when an ending 'louse'; mūs, mȳs 'mouse'; neaht, niht 'night' Feminine follows. This syncope of the vowel in the second syllable with loss of -h in some forms: furh, fyrh 'furrow' or 'fir'; occurs with two-syllable strong nouns, which have a long sulh, sylh 'plough'; þrūh, þrȳh 'trough'; wlōh, wlēh 'fringe'. vowel in the first syllable and a second syllable consisting Feminine with compression of endings: cū, cȳ 'cow' (cf. of a short vowel and single consonant (for example, engel, dialectal plural 'kine') wuldor 'glory', and hēafod 'head'). However, this syncope is not always present, so forms such as engelas may be Neuter: In addition, scrūd 'clothing, garment' has the umlauted dative-singular form scrȳd. seen. 1.2.2
Weak nouns
Here are the weak declensional endings and examples for each gender: 1.2.3
Irregular strong nouns
1.2.5 Nouns of relationship 1.2.6 Neuter nouns with -r- in the plural
Other such nouns: ǣg, ǣgru egg (ancestor of the archaic or dialectical form ey, plural eyren; the form egg is a borIn addition, masculine and neuter nouns whose main rowing from Old Norse); bread, breadru 'crumb'; cealf, vowel is short æ and end with a single consonant change cealfru 'calf'; cild 'child' has either the normal plural cild the vowel to a in the plural (a result of the phonological or cildru (cf. 'children', with -en from the weak nouns); phenomenon known as Anglo-Frisian brightening): hǣmed, hǣmedru 'cohabitation'; speld, speldru 'torch'.
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1.3
Adjectives
Adjectives in Old English are declined using the same categories as nouns: five cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, and instrumental), three genders (masculine, feminine, neuter), and two numbers (singular, plural). In addition, they can be declined either strong or weak. The weak forms are used in the presence of a definite or possessive determiner, while the strong ones are used in other situations. The weak forms are identical to those for nouns, while the strong forms use a combination of noun and pronoun endings:
may conceivably be located anywhere in the sentence. The following is a list of prepositions in the Old English language. Many of them, particularly those marked “etc.”, are found in other variant spellings. Prepositions may govern the accusative, genitive, dative or instrumental cases - the question of which is beyond the scope of this article.
2 Syntax
Old English syntax was similar in many ways to that For the '-u/–' forms above, the distinction is the same as of modern English. However, there were some imporfor strong nouns. tant differences. Some were simply consequences of the Note that the same variants described above for nouns greater level of nominal and verbal inflection – e.g., word also exist for adjectives. The following example shows order was generally freer. But there are also differences both the æ/a variation and the -u forms in the feminine in the default word order, and in the construction of negasingular and neuter plural: tion, questions, relative clauses and subordinate clauses. The following shows an example of an adjective ending In addition: with -h: The following shows an example of an adjective ending with -w:
• The default word order was verb-second and more like modern German than modern English. • There was no do-support in questions and negatives.
1.4
Definite articles and demonstratives
Old English had two main determiners: se, which could function as both 'the' or 'that', and þes for 'this’. Modern English 'that' descends from the neuter nominative/accusative form,[3] and 'the' from the masculine nominative form, with 's’ replaced analogously by the 'th' of the other forms.[4] The feminine nominative form was probably the source of Modern English 'she'.[5]
1.5
Pronouns
• Multiple negatives could stack up in a sentence, and intensified each other (negative concord). • Sentences with subordinate clauses of the type “When X, Y” did not use a wh-type word for the conjunction, but instead a th-type correlative conjunction (e.g. þā X, þā Y in place of “When X, Y”).
2.1 Word order There was some flexibility in word order of Old English, since the heavily inflected nature of nouns, adjectives and verbs often indicated the relationships among clause arguments. Scrambling of constituents was common, and even sometimes scrambling within a constituent occurred, as in Beowulf line 708 wrāþum on andan:
Most pronouns are declined by number, case and gender; in the plural form most pronouns have only one form for all genders. Additionally, Old English pronouns preserve the dual form (which is specifically for talking about groups of two things, for example “we two” or “you two” Something similar occurs in line 713 in sele þām hēan “in or “they two”). These were uncommon even then, but the high hall” (lit. “in hall the high”). remained in use throughout the period. Extraposition of constituents out of larger constituents Many of the forms above bear strong resemblances to is common even in prose, as in the well-known tale of their contemporary English language equivalents: for in- Cynewulf and Cyneheard, which begins stance in the genitive case ēower became “your”, ūre became “our”, mīn became “mine”. Hēr Cynewulf benam Sigebryht his rīces ond
1.6
Prepositions
Prepositions (like Modern English words by, for, and with) often follow the word which they govern, in which case they are called postpositions. Also, if the object of a preposition was marked in the dative case, a preposition
Westseaxna wiotan for unryhtum dǣdum, būton Hamtūnscīre; ... (Literally) “Here Cynewulf deprived Sigebryht of his kingdom and West Saxons’ counselors for unright deeds, except Hampshire” (translated) “Here Cynewulf and the West Saxon counselors deprived Sigebryht of his
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2 SYNTAX kingdom, other than Hampshire, for unjust actions”
of subject, object and verb in clause. “I am...” becomes “Am I...”
Note how the words ond Westseaxna wiotan “and the West Saxon counselors” (lit. “and (the) counselors of (the) West Saxons”) have been extraposed from (moved out of) the compound subject they belong in, in a way that would be totally impossible in modern English. Case marking helps somewhat: wiotan “counselors” can be nominative or accusative but definitely not genitive, which is the case of rīces “kingdom” and the case governed by benam “deprived"; hence, Cynewulf can't possibly have deprived Sigebryht of the West Saxon counselors, as the order suggests.
“Ic eom...” becomes “Eom ic...”
2.2 Relative and subordinate clauses Old English did not use forms equivalent to “who, when, where” in relative clauses (as in “The man whom I saw”) or subordinate clauses (“When I got home, I went to sleep”). Instead, relative clauses used one of the following:
Main clauses in Old English tend to have a verb-second 1. An invariable complementizer þe (V2) order, where the verb is the second constituent in a sentence, regardless of what comes first. There are echoes 2. The demonstrative pronoun se, sēo, þat of this in modern English: “Hardly did he arrive when ...”, “Never can it be said that ...”, “Over went the boat”, “Ever 3. The combination of the two, as in se þe onward marched the weary soldiers ...”, “Then came a loud sound from the sky above”. In Old English, however, Preposition-fronting (“The man with whom I spoke”) did it was much more extensive, much as in modern German. not normally occur. If the subject appears first, there is an SVO order, but it Subordinate clauses tended to use correlative conjunccan also yield orders such as OVS and VSO. tions, e.g. In subordinate clauses, however, the word order is completely different, with verb-final constructions the norm, Þā ic hām ēode, þā slēp ic. again as in modern German. Furthermore, in poetry, all these rules were frequently broken. In Beowulf, for ex(word-for-word) “Then I home went, then slept ample, main clauses frequently have verb-initial or verbI.” final order, and subordinate clauses often have verb(translated) “When I went home, I slept.” second order. (However, in clauses introduced by þā, which can mean either “when” or “then”, and where word order is crucial for telling the difference, normal word or- The word order usually distinguished the subordinate clause (with verb-final order) from the main clause (with der is nearly always followed.) verb-second word order). Those linguists who work within the Chomskyan transformational grammar paradigm often believe that The equivalents of “who, when, where” were used only it is more accurate to describe Old English (and other as interrogative pronouns and indefinite pronouns, as in Germanic languages with the same word-order patterns Ancient Greek and Sanskrit. like modern German) as having underlying subject- Besides þā ... þā ..., other correlative conjunctions ocobject-verb (SOV) ordering. According to this theory, curred, often in pairs of identical words, e.g.: all sentences are initially generated using this order, but in main clauses, the verb is moved back to the V2 position • þǣr X, þǣr Y: “Where X, Y” (technically, the verb undergoes V-to-T raising). This is said to explain the fact that Old English allows inversion • þanon X, þanon Y: “Whence (from of subject and verb as a general strategy for forming queswhere/wherefrom) X, Y” tions, while modern English uses this strategy almost only with auxiliary verbs and the main verb “to be”, requiring • þider X, þider Y: “Whither (to where/whereto) X, do-support in other cases. Y” • þēah (þe) X, þēah Y: “Although X, Y” 2.1.1
Questions
Because of its similarity with Old Norse, it is believed that most of the time the word order of Old English changed when asking a question, from SVO to VSO. While many purport that Old English had free word order, this is not quite true, as there were conventions for the positioning
• þenden X, þenden Y: “While X, Y” • þonne X, þonne Y: “Whenever X, Y” • þæs X, þæs Y: “As/after/since X, Y” • þȳ X, þȳ Y: “The more X, the more Y”
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3
Phonology
Main article: Old English phonology The phonology of Old English is necessarily somewhat speculative, since it is preserved purely as a written language. Nevertheless, there is a very large corpus of Old English, and the written language apparently indicates phonological alternations quite faithfully, so it is not difficult to draw certain conclusions about the nature of Old English phonology.
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See also • Middle English • Old English phonology
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Notes
[1] Peter S. Baker (2003). “Pronouns”. The Electronic Introduction to Old English. Oxford: Blackwell. [2] Page, An Introduction to English Runes, Boydell 1999, p. 230 [3] “That”. Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 28 June 2010. [4] “The”. Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 28 June 2010. [5] “She”. Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
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References • Moore, Samuel, and Thomas A. Knott. The Elements of Old English. 1919. Ed. James R. Hulbert. 10th ed. Ann Arbor, Michigan: George Wahr Publishing Co., 1958. • The Magic Sheet, one page color PDF summarizing Old English declension, from Peter S. Baker, inspired by Moore and Marckwardt’s 1951 Historical Outlines of English Sounds and Inflections • J. Bosworth & T.N. Toller, An Anglo-Saxon dictionary: Germanic Lexicon Project
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Further reading • Brunner, Karl (1965). Altenglische Grammatik (nach der angelsächsischen Grammatik von Eduard Sievers neubearbeitet) (3rd ed.). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
• Campbell, A. (1959). Old English Grammar. Oxford: Clarendon Press. • Mitchell, Bruce & Robinson, Fred (2001) A Guide to Old English; 6th ed. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing ISBN 0-631-22636-2 • Quirk, Randolph; & Wrenn, C. L. (1957). An Old English Grammar (2nd ed.) London: Methuen.
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8 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
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Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses
8.1
Text
• Old English grammar Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_English_grammar?oldid=661744023 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Kwertii, Phil Boswell, Benwing, Jimpaz, Smjg, Quiensabe, Kwamikagami, Anthony Appleyard, Angr, Woohookitty, StradivariusTV, Ruud Koot, Steinbach, Doric Loon, DavidFarmbrough, Mandarax, Koavf, RussBot, TEB728, Hayden120, Derek Andrews, Ealdent, Keith-264, Iridescent, RekishiEJ, Bruinfan12, Jonathan W, FilipeS, LaFoiblesse, JamesAM, Redline2200, JaGa, Amitchell125, Robertgreer, Jr mints, Maximillion Pegasus, AlleborgoBot, DasEnde, Fratrep, Mr. Granger, Mild Bill Hiccup, Jtle515, Lotteraner~enwiki, FlavianusEP, Jed 20012, Avoided, Felix Folio Secundus, Addbot, Legobot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Eisfbnore, Walshie79, FrescoBot, Leasnam, Shabidoo, Reviewer23, Socialservice, ClueBot NG, Stardsen, Anumiru, Lugia2453, Zontas, Jan Kaninchen, Latinamnonvoco and Anonymous: 28
8.2
Images
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