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Análisis del Neoliberalismo en México desde una perspectiva histórica.
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ÍNDICE GENERAL
Introducción
2
Definición, Definición , antecedentes y su arranque en el escenario mundial Definición
3
Arranque mundial
5
Antecedente histórico en México
6
Desarrollo del neoliberalismo en México Entorno de crisis previo.
8
Miguel de la Madrid Hurtado (1982-1988)
9
Carlos Salinas de Gortari (1988-1994) (1988-1994)
13
Ernesto Zedillo Ponce de León. (1994-2000)
22
Vicente Fox Quesada (2000-2006)
31
Felipe de Jesús Calderón Hinojosa (2006-2012)
40
Conclusiones
56
Anexo I
59
Anexo II
60
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Análisis del Neoliberalismo en México desde una perspectiva histórica. Carlos E. Martínez Guerra
Introducción
Qué es el neoliberalismo en México? Responder a este planteamiento es el principal detonador que
¿
inspiro en mí la concepción de este ensayo. Estos conceptos conceptos de “neoliberal”, “neoliberalismo “neoliberalismo económico”, “política neoliberal” y términos semejantes que a menudo escuchamos o leemos de diversas fuentes, pero que algunos no tenemos una idea clara de cómo este modelo político-económico afecta el desarrollo de nuestro país (por ejemplo el actual entorno de crisis financiera que aqueja no solo a México, sino al mundo entero); y en lo particular cómo nos afecta cotidianamente ya sea con la pérdida de empleo, una menor capacidad de bienestar con nuestro sueldo (déficit en en el poder adquisitivo), un mediocre mediocre fomento al ahorro y un seductivo estímulo al consumo que pudiera dar lugar a un sobre-endeudamiento, sobre-endeudamiento, entre otros. No es mi intención encontrar el hilo negro de la política o la economía nacional, nacional, ni mucho menos, sería demasiado pretencioso e irónico de mi parte, siendo un arquitecto y no un politólogo, o un economista, además del hecho hecho de que existen desde hace hace más de 20 años numerosas numerosas referencias como libros, libros, ensayos, ensayos, editorial editoriales, es, tesis, tesis, reportajes, reportajes, intern internet et etc., etc., que explican explican a detalle detalle el fenómeno fenómeno del del neoliberalismo. Más bien, intentaré hacer un estudio exploratorio, basado en un análisis de los diversos sucesos históricos que influyeron en la implementación de dicho modelo en México y en el resto del mundo. Dicho anális análisis is está está fundamenta fundamentado do a partir partir de múltiples múltiples referencias referencias como las las anteriorm anteriormente ente citadas citadas.. Es así como pretendí darle forma y sustento a las ideas expresadas en el el presente ensayo. ensayo. Ideas que formulen formulen a partir partir de de dicha dicha explor exploraci ación, ón, su su origen origen filo filosóf sófico ico e históri histórico, co, sus prom promoto otores res,, su evol evoluci ución ón y sus sus consecuencias. Para analizar el desarrollo pleno de este modelo neoliberal neoliberal en México, lo haré haré enfocado a partir de las diversas políticas políticas o planes de desarrollo sexenales, a partir de de la presidencia presidencia ejercida por Miguel de la Madrid Madrid (1982-1988), esto debido a que fue fue a partir de la misma misma cuando se considera históricamente la introducció introducción n en México México del del modelo modelo neolib neoliberal, eral, hasta culminar culminar con el régimen régimen actual actual presidi presidido do por Felipe Felipe Calderón (2006-2012). Finalmente quisiera quisiera aclarar que, si acaso, acaso, el único propósito que pretendo al exponer el presente ensayo, no es otro sino el compartir todo lo descubierto descubierto a partir de dicha investigación, además de fomentar fomentar el interés en profundizar acerca de estos temas y otras tantos relacionados, relacionados, de tal manera que fortalezca un poco nuestra memoria, que para algunos de nosotros resulta ser algo olvidadiza, para otros distraída, fácilmente confundible, o una combinación de todas.
Monterrey, N.L. México a 11 de agosto de 2009
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Análisis del Neoliberalismo en México desde una perspectiva histórica. Carlos E. Martínez Guerra
Definición, antecedentes antecedentes y su arranque en el escenario escenario mundial Definición Encontrar una definición al término neoliberalismo resulta algo difícil dado su complejidad intrínseca, su vigencia en los círculos de poder mundiales (aunque algunos economistas como Joseph E. Stiglitz Stiglitz , premio Nobel Nobel de Economía Economía en 2001, vaticinan vaticinan el comienzo comienzo de su fin debido en parte a la crisis actual actual iniciada a finales de 2007 durante la administración Bush Jr.), además de su constante evolución ¿Cómo definir plenamente algo que sigue mutando, adaptándose a sus circunstancias globales y locales a t ravés del tiempo? De cualquier cualquier forma, y aunque pareciera pareciera algo redundante iniciaré iniciaré por describir describir su origen etimológic etimológico. o. Neolibera Neoliberalis lismo mo es un neologism neologismo o “una palabra palabra nueva” nueva” compuesta compuesta por por su prefijo prefijo “neo”, que que viene viene del griego “neos” “neos” (nuevo) (nuevo) y su sufijo sufijo “liberalism “liberalismo” o” del latín latín “liberalis” “liberalis” o “liber” “liber” (libre, (libre, lo que no no está está preso, ni oprimido, ni esclavizado). esclavizado). Pareciera que a partir de conocer su etimología podríamos intuir su significado: un un “nuevo liberalismo”, ese ese liberalismo liberalismo del siglo XIX que marcó la consolidación consolidación de muchas naciones tanto europeas, europeas, como americanas que recién estrenaban su su independencia. independencia. Recordemos a nuestro más célebre liberal: Benito Juárez. Sin embargo, este significado significado sugerido no aplica en su totalidad para poder definir definir este término, término, si bien bien toma algunas algunas ideas del del liberalismo liberalismo económi económico co del siglo siglo XIX, como mas adelante explicaré, explicaré, no es suficiente para poder comprender su significado. significado. Más bien se refiere al término inglés “liberalisation” “liberalisation” o “liberalization” “liberalization” cuyo significado significado según divers diversos os diccio diccionar narios ios en econom economía ía es: es: “Una política que promueve una liberalización de la economía limitando la intervención del Estado identificada identificada a veces con la posición del del laissez faire (expresión francesa francesa que liter literalmen almente te significa significa "dejar hacer") hacer") hacia los asuntos asuntos económ económicos icos en los los que pue puede de actuar actuar para a yudar yudar a que la la economía economía de mercado mercado trabaje de una una manera más eficien eficiente. te. Esto Esto puede puede inclui incluirr la privatización y la desregulación”.
Para David Harvey (sociólogo (sociólogo urbano e historiador historiador social, doctor por la Universidad Universidad de Cambridge) Cambridge) en su ensayo ensayo titulad titulado o “Neolibe “Neoliberalis ralism m as Creative Creative Destruc Destruction” tion” el neoliberal neoliberalismo ismo es: …”una teoría de prácticas políticas y económicas que proponen que el bienestar humano puede ser logrado mejor mediante la ma ximización de las libertades empresariales dentro de de un marco institucional caracterizado ca racterizado por derechos derechos de propiedad privada, libertad individual, mercados sin trabas, y libre comercio”. También señala que: “El intervencionismo del Estado en los mercados (una vez creados) debe limitarse a lo básico porque el Estado no puede puede posiblemente posiblemente poseer poseer suficiente información información como para a nticiparse a señales del mercado (precios) (precios) y porque poderosos intereses inevitablemente deformarán e influenciarán las intervenciones del Estado
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Análisis del Neoliberalismo en México desde una perspectiva histórica. Carlos E. Martínez Guerra
puede inferir la característica utópica de esta definición definición dadas las circunstancias económicas económicas actuales que nos demuestran demuestran lo contrario. contrario. James Petras (sociólogo estadounidense, doctorado por la Universidad de California en Berkeley) tiene una concepción desmitificada del término como él mismo lo señala señala en una conferencia para para una universidad chilena en 2007: “Sobre el neoliberalismo, pienso que hay una gran mistificación, particularmente sobre los conceptos básicos que uno escucha y que circulan en los medios intelectuales, académicos y políticos. Es la idea de que el neoliberalismo está contra el intervencionismo estatal, oponiendo a eso la idea de que el mercado es el gran árbitro de la política económica. Eso es totalmente falso. Lo que debemos entender es que el neoliberalismo es sumamente activo y abusa del Estado como instrumento de política. Interviene Interviene en todos todos los países, socializando la deuda, transfiriendo la deuda deuda privada al sector estatal y forzando a los ciudadanos a asumir las responsabilidades por una deuda adquirida por el sector privado. El Estado interviene sobre la locación de recursos dentro del presupuesto, canalizando recursos hacia los sectores exportadores, orientando su política salarial; interviene la política laboral bajando los salarios y las condiciones de trabajo, etc. Entonces, hay tanto intervencionismo estatal como antes. Hay tanto estatismo ahora como antes. La diferencia es la composición, la definición de clase que orienta el nuevo estatismo. La orientación del nuevo estatismo está dirigida hacia la reconcentración de intereses hacia arriba; y antes el estatismo nacional y popular estaba orientado a la redistribución de intereses hacia abajo. Las clases dominantes ahora están orientadas hacia el mercado mundial, donde miran la mano de obra como un costo y no como un potencial consumidor. (...) En otras palabras, el problema fundamental no es enfocar el mercado, sino analizar las clases que a partir del Estado interviene intervienen, n, para definir cómo funciona funciona el mercado. No hay mercado libre. Lo que hay es un mercado condicionado por la estructura social y la concentración de poder. Hay que dejar de mistificar, hablando del mercado como si fuera una entidad independiente de la estructura social”.
Resumiendo, utópicamente el neoliberalismo es considerado considerado como una teoría política que busca el bienestar individual, el libre mercado y una una mínima intervención intervención del Estado. Pero en la realidad el
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Análisis del Neoliberalismo en México desde una perspectiva histórica. Carlos E. Martínez Guerra
Describir dichas ideologías ideologías en su conjunto sería motivo de otro ensayo, de tal forma que que enunciaré enunciaré solo algunas de ellas: -El liberalismo clásico del del siglo XIX, tomando en cuenta algunos de los criterios económicos económicos del economista escocés Adam Smith Smith (1723-1790) relacionados con la concepción de la la iniciativa privada o la limitación limitación del crecimiento del Estado Estado y su intervención. - Las teorías del economis economista ta austriaco austriaco Friedrich Friedrich von Hayek (1899-1992), (1899-1992), considerado considerado por algunos algunos autores en economía como el “padre del neoliberalismo”. Hayek concibe una intervención mínima del Estado, desregulando, privatizando, disminuyendo programas sociales (como las subvenciones a la vivienda vivienda o a la seguridad seguridad social social y restringiend restringiendo o al poder poder sindical), sindical), todo esto lo expresa expresa en el escrito escrito “La constitución de la Libertad” Libertad” publicado en 1960. Hayek toma parte activa en la fundación fundación de la “Sociedad del Monte Pelegrino” en 1947 (llamada así por la localidad suiza en la que se instaura). Se reúnen en torno a ella diversos intelectuales que llegarían a ser los generadores de ideas que influirían a partir de ese momento en las políticas de Estado de numerosos países desarrollados. -El monetarismo, que es una teoría macroeconómica impulsada en la década década de los 70 por el economista economista estadounide estadounidense nse Milton Milton Friedman Friedman (1912-2006) (1912-2006) y la la escuela escuela de economía economía de Chicago. Chicago. Dicha teoría analizaba el concepto de “inflación” (aumento de los precios), la cual es considera considera por Friedman como un problema monetario (hay más dinero en la calle que el que debería debería haber en las reservas de un Banco Central, de manera que no está respaldado). Asimismo, advierte que se deben deben reducir los gastos del gobierno si no hay una suficiente recaudación recaudación de impuestos (déficit público).
Arranque Arranque mundial mundial Se puede puede considerar considerar histórica históricamente mente a Gran Bretaña, Bretaña, durante durante la administraci administración ón de la primer ministro ministro
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Análisis del Neoliberalismo en México desde una perspectiva histórica. Carlos E. Martínez Guerra
(particularmente la clase media) que resultó sumamente afectada. Fueron sucedidos entonces por gobiernos con tendencias “social demócratas” (la social social democracia es una ideología política que, entre otras cosas, pugna por darle mayores atribuciones al Estado, de manera manera que garantice una una adecuada protección social social a sus sus ciudadanos). ciudadanos). Los eligió una población ansiosa de mejorar sus condiciones de vida, vida, en EE.UU. EE.UU. con el presiden presidente te Jimmy Carter (1977-1981) (1977-1981) y en Gran Bretaña Bretaña con con el Primer Primer Ministro Ministro James Callaghan (1976-1979). Ambos gobiernos tampoco pudieron mejorar sus economías, inclusive empeoraron durante su mandato, reflejándose en un aumento de la inflación y en un mayor índice de desempleo. Se pudiera entonces deducir deducir el éxito que pocos pocos años después, a finales finales de esa década y principios de los 80 del del siglo pasado, pasado, tuvieron tuvieron los los gobiernos gobiernos de tendenci tendenciaa conservado conservadora ra de Thatcher Thatcher y Reagan Reagan (paradójic (paradójicament amente e sus políticas políticas económicas económicas no lo eran) y cómo sus políticas políticas neoliberal neoliberales es comenzaron comenzaron a entrar en vigor en sus respectivos respectivos países países con gran ímpetu. ímpetu. Dichas políticas consistieron, consistieron, entre otras cosas: en en una reducción de la intervención del Estado en la economía, y recortes en los programas de ayuda social (como salud, salud, educación educación,, vivienda). vivienda). En el caso particul particular ar de Inglaterra, Inglaterra, se inició inició la privatizaci privatización ón del petróleo, petróleo, comunicaciones, transporte y la supresión de más de un millón de viviendas sociales. A pesar de la mejora económica que hubo hubo en estos países con la implementación implementación de dichas medidas, el costo social de las mismas fue demasiad demasiado o alto, caracteriza caracterizado do por un un elevado elevado índice índice de desempl desempleo, eo, incremento incremento de la deuda deuda en la población (estimulada por el crédito ya sea al consumo consumo o las hipotecas), aumento en las desigualdades desigualdades (muchos más pobres y muy pocos ricos) y la subsecuente marginación. En base a lo anteriormente anteriormente expuesto, se puede apreciar un notable paralelismo paralelismo en la historia política y económica de ambas naciones, naciones, así como el alto costo pagado por la mayoría de sus sus habitantes, y que posteriormente afectarían al mundo entero ante la implementación de tal modelo neoliberal que, como ha quedado de manifiesto, cercena desde sus raíces el desarrollo social de una nación.
Anteceden Antecedente te histórico histórico en México
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Análisis del Neoliberalismo en México desde una perspectiva histórica. Carlos E. Martínez Guerra
(principal (principalmente mente hacia hacia los EE.UU. EE.UU. y en menor proporció proporción n hacia Europa) Europa),, sino además, además, también también proveerían proveerían la tan necesaria mano de obra para poder poder llevar a cabo el el proceso productivo capitalista. Este sector de la población mexicana dio dio lugar a un importante fenómeno: el el éxodo rural, gracias al cual algunos de ellos dejarían de ser ser campesinos y pasarían a convertirse en el proletariado que habitaría y, a su vez, fortalecería el desarrollo de las cada vez más importantes importantes urbes industriales del ulterior ulterior siglo XX. Todo este auge industrial (siderurgia, producción producción de insumos y mercancías, mercancías, minería, extracción extracción de petróleo, etc.), y de infraestructura (ferrocarril, (ferrocarril, red eléctrica, red telegráfica, una incipiente red telefónica, telefónica, caminos, caminos, presas, presas, etc.) se llevó llevó a cabo principalm principalmente ente como consecue consecuencia ncia del gran gran impulso que que dio el régi régime men n de Porf Porfir irio io Díaz Díaz a la figu figura ra de las las conc conceesion siones es (so (soci cied edad ades es anó anóni nima mas) s) tan tanto to a inve invers rsio ioni nista stass nacionales como como a extranjeros. Así, en los albores del siglo XX, México se consolidaba consolidaba como una incipiente incipiente nación que abrazaba un modelo capitalista capitalista propio de la segunda revolución revolución industrial, industrial, aunque también es cierto que el régimen porfirista le dio un gran impulso al sector sector agrícola, no obstante, la industria se llegaría llegaría a afianzar afianzar y a crecer a un ritmo superior superior al agrícola agrícola durante durante el transcurso transcurso del siglo XX, lo que paulatiname paulatinamente nte daría lugar al modelo modelo neoliberal actualmente vigente en nuestro país. Cabe señalar que esta paulatina transición transición se dio a pesar de de los múltiples fenómenos políticos, políticos, económicos y sociales ocurridos a lo largo del siglo XX, que parecería hubiesen afectado en forma negativa la consolidac consolidación ión del del capitalis capitalismo mo en México México y, en consec consecuenci uencia, a, la instauraci instauración ón del del modelo modelo neolibe neoliberal, ral, repace repacemos mos:: fenóme fenómeno noss tales tales como como la lucha lucha revolu revoluci ciona onaria ria de 1910 1910 (origi (originad nadaa a partir partir de de los múltip múltiples les abusos abusos derivados derivados de la galopante galopante corrupción corrupción que que caracteriz caracterizó ó al régimen régimen porfirista porfirista y a su clase clase oligárquica) oligárquica);; la subsecuente promulgación promulgación de la Constitución de 1917 (que (que entre otras cosas enunciaba una serie de derechos sociales como mejoras al trabajo asalariado, educación, salud, reparto de tierras ejidales, etc.); la gran recesión mundial de 1929, coloquialmente conocida como como “jueves negro” (la cual fue una crisis que tuvo su origen debido en parte a una política de dinero fácil: alta demanda de créditos, una casi ausencia del ahorro y desmedida desmedida especulación —increíblemente semejante a lo que ocurrido en nuestros nuestros días— y que fue promovida por los banqueros de Wall Wall Street y por por la Reserva Federal Norteamericana); la política
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Análisis del Neoliberalismo en México desde una perspectiva histórica. Carlos E. Martínez Guerra
Desarrollo del neoliberalismo en México Entorno Entorno de crisis previo. previo. La crisis internacional de los años setenta del del siglo pasado marcó de manera negativa el desarrollo económico de México durante durante los dos sexenios previos al de Miguel de la Madrid. Dicha crisis acaba con el “Milagro “Milagro Mexicano”, Mexicano”, o “Modelo “Modelo de Desarrollo Desarrollo Estabiliza Estabilizador”, dor”, el cual consistía consistía en en una serie de políticas políticas económica económicass y sociales sociales ejerci ejercidas das en en México México de 1940 1940 a 1970, y que que básicame básicamente nte radicaba radicaban n en un “proteccionismo” estatal que buscaba el crecimiento económico del país “desde adentro” fomentando la exportaciones y controlando las importaciones, reflejándose en una protección arancelaria y subsidios a la producción industrial nacional frente a la importación de mercancías, inversión inversión pública en infraestructura, apoyo a la producción agrícola y a su exportación, exportación, un tipo de de cambio estable estable de $12.50 pesos por dólar dólar y una prudencia gubernamental evitando evitando el endeudamiento mas allá de sus posibilidades. Bajo la presidencia presidencia de Luis Echeverría Álvarez (1970-1976) comienzan los estragos de la ya tan mencionada crisis crisis internacional de la época y de una política estatal deficiente que se caracterizaba por proyectos de crecimiento insostenibles y un desdén hacia la inversión privada. Todo esto impactó a nuestro país principalmente principalmente a través de un un desmesurad desmesurado o endeudamien endeudamiento to externo externo del orden orden de unos $4,262 millones millones de dólares dólares al inicio inicio de su sexenio sexenio,, hasta alcan alcanzar zar la increíb increíble le cifra cifra de $19,600 millones millones de de dólares dólares (deuda (deuda externa externa pública) pública) al final final de su mandato mandato.. El tipo de cambio cambio pasó de los los $ 12.50 pesos pesos por dólar, estable estable desde el “Milagr “Milagro o Mexican Mexicano”, o”, a un monto de $22.00 pesos por dólar, es decir, una devaluación del del peso de un 76%. Desafortunadamente Desafortunadamente estas cifras tan alarmantes no concluirían en la presidencia de su sucesor José López Portillo (1976-1982), al contrario, se agravaron aún más. Desde el principio de su mandato, López Portillo garantizó como prioridad de su gobierno la
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Análisis del Neoliberalismo en México desde una perspectiva histórica. Carlos E. Martínez Guerra
su sexenio) en abril de 1981, descendió descendió hasta alcanzar los $32.50 dólares por barril al 1 de abril abril de 1982. Entre sus últimas acciones antes de dejar dejar la silla silla presidencial presidencial destacaron: la nacionalización nacionalización de la banca privada en septiembre de 1982 (dicho de otra forma; los bancos pasaron a ser propiedad del del Estado), la instauración de un un tipo de cambio cambio ficticio ante una inminente devaluación, y la firma de una una carta compromiso con el Fondo Fondo Monetario Internacional para garantizar el pago de la deuda deuda externa. Todo esto refleja, refleja, en parte, la arbitrarieda arbitrariedad d con que se tomaban muchas muchas de las decisione decisioness clave para la recuperaci recuperación ón económica económica del país país y que cobraron cobraron su factura factura a un precio precio muy muy alto: la la deuda deuda externa externa pública pública pasó de los los $19,600 millones millones de dólares, dólares, heredados heredados del sexenio sexenio anterior, anterior, a unos $58,874 millone milloness de dólares dólares en 1982. La devaluación del peso se incrementó alrededor de un 581%, pues de un valor que fluctuaba fluctuaba aproximadam aproximadamente ente los $22.00 pesos pesos por por dólar dólar al inicio inicio de su su mandato, mandato, se disparó disparó a unos $150.00 pesos por dólar al concluirlo. Irónicamente lo anteriormente anteriormente expuesto inevitablemente nos hace recordar aquella frase célebre que José López Portillo pronunció pronunció en una entrevista a extranjeros en 1981: "Defenderé el el peso como un perro". Sin embargo, los inversionistas en México dudaban de de la viabilidad del programa económico de la administrac administración ión López López Portillo, Portillo, lo que dio lugar lugar a una fuga masiva masiva de los capitales capitales hacia hacia el extranjero extranjero durante durante 1981 y 1982 (el último de su sexenio) agravando aun más la crisis en el país. Concluyendo: Perro que ladra, no muerde, —pero si ahuyenta—.
Miguel de la Madrid Hurtado (1982-1988) (1982-1988)
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Análisis del Neoliberalismo en México desde una perspectiva histórica. Carlos E. Martínez Guerra
nacionalizados; 8) política cambiaria cambiaria “realista”; 9) reestructuración del sector burocrático para volverlo más eficiente y 10) reformas constitucionales para reafirmar reafirmar la Rectoría del Estado Estado dentro de la economía mixta. En general, general, los lineamien lineamientos tos del PIRE PIRE consistieron consistieron en un recorte recorte al gasto público, público, una inversión inversión controlada en actividades productivas y que generaran empleo, alza de los intereses para atraer capital, increm increment ento o en los los impuest impuestos os (por (por ejemp ejemplo lo el IVA IVA pasó pasó de un 10 a un 15%) 15%) y una elimin eliminaci ación ón de subvencion subvenciones es hacia los productos productos de la canasta canasta básica. Por otro lado, a sólo dos días de haber tomado posesión como presidente de la República, Miguel de la Madrid envió al Congreso de la Unión un par de iniciativas iniciativas para modificar la Constitución, Constitución, las cuales cuales fueron aprobadas y entre las modificaciones realizadas realizadas llaman la atención las relacionadas a los artículos 25 y 134 constitucionales. El nuevo artículo 25 incluyó principios principios muy alejados de los ideales de la Revolución Mexicana. El papel de administrador administrador que tenía el Estado mexicano fue suprimido, así como su facultad de ser productor directo de bienes y servicios servicios para dejarle solamente solamente la facultad de dictar las normas a partir de las cuales deberían desarrollar sus actividades los particulares, en otras palabras, se sentaron las bases para convertir al Estado mexicano en algo similar al Estado vigilante pero apartado de la actividad económica, como lo propone el neoliberalismo. En cuanto al artículo 134, referente a la la adquisición y disposición de recursos recursos económ económicos icos del Estado, Estado, se modificó modificó partien partiendo do de un principi principio o establec establecido ido en derech derecho o constitucional de que que lo que no está expresamente expresamente facultado no lo puede realizar realizar la autoridad. Así se incluyó incluyó
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Análisis del Neoliberalismo en México desde una perspectiva histórica. Carlos E. Martínez Guerra
seguía bajo esa característica de insolvencia, dejaría dejaría de ser sujeto a crédito ante la comunidad comunidad internacional, lo que hubiera hubiera dado lugar a un paro en la actividad industrial de nuestro país, de manera que el entonces entonces Secretario Secretario de Hacienda, Hacienda, Jesús Silva Silva Herzog Herzog durante durante los últimos últimos días del sexenio sexenio de López Portillo, Portillo, acepta acepta la tutela tutela del FMI FMI al firmar firmar una “Carta Comprom Compromiso iso”” en septiemb septiembre re de 1982. 1982. El gobierno gobierno del del presidente presidente De la Madrid “hereda" dicho compromiso y debería garantizar garantizar el cumplimiento, en un plazo no mayor mayor a 3 años (1983 a 1985), de una serie de obligaciones obligaciones dictadas por dicho organismo: -
Crecim Crecimien iento to sost sosteni enido do de de la produc producció ción n y el empleo empleo.. Supera Superació ción n del del dese desequ quili ilibri brio o en el sect sector or exte extern rno. o. Abat Abatim imie ient nto o de de la la inf infllació ación. n. Fortalecimi Fortalecimiento ento de las finanzas finanzas públic públicas, as, de modo que que el déficit déficit del sector sector público, público, como como porcentaje del PIB, disminuyera de 8.5% en 1983 a una cifra de 3.5% para 1985. Reducción Reducción de de la deuda deuda extern externa; a; pues pues no debería debería exceder exceder los 5 mil mil millon millones es de dólares dólares en 1983. 1983. Revisi Rev isión ón y adec adecua uació ción n del del siste sistema ma tribut tributari ario. o. Elevación Elevación de precio precioss y tarifas tarifas de biene bieness y servici servicios os ofreci ofrecidos dos por por el sector sector public publico. o. Racionaliz Racionalización ación del gasto, gasto, mediante mediante la revisió revisión n de de los programas programas de inversión inversión no prioritarios prioritarios y la racionalización de los subsidios. Foment Fomento o al ahor ahorro ro a través través de tasa tasass de interé interéss aatrac tractiv tivas. as. Fome Foment nto o al des desar arro rollllo o de mer merca cado do de de valo valore res. s.
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Análisis del Neoliberalismo en México desde una perspectiva histórica. Carlos E. Martínez Guerra
hasta un 59% a principios de 1985), además también hubo un incremento del del PIB (de una tasa del -4.7% a principios 1983 incrementa 10 puntos hasta alcanzar alcanzar un +4.7% durante el tercer trimestre de 1984). Estas alentadoras muestras de recuperación se desmoronarían por una serie de acontecimientos que marcarían un lamentable retroceso en la recuperación recuperación económica del país. Para empezar, los préstamos otorgados a México por el FMI y el Banco Mundial Mundial tuvieron un costo demasiado alto para el patrimonio nacional, nacional, ya que además además de sus altas tasas tasas de interés, interés, llama la atención atención el hecho hecho de que una de las las tantas condicion condiciones es de pago pago exigidas exigidas a México, México, era el que los ingresos ingresos por concepto concepto de las ventas ventas petroleras petroleras mexicanas deberían ser depositados en la Reserva Federal de Estados Unidos. Más claro, imposible. Ahora bien, bien, tomemos en cuenta cuenta que la deuda deuda externa externa pública pública pasa de $58, 874 millone milloness de dólares dólares en 1982 1982 a una nueva cifra récord de $81,000 millones de dólares en 1988. Este nuevo e impresionante incremento en la deuda deuda externa externa pública pública se puede puede explicar, explicar, en parte, parte, a partir de una una baja en en los precios precios del del petróleo petróleo (de (de un promedio promedio de de $30.00 $30.00 dólares dólares por barril barril en 1982, 1982, baja baja hasta hasta alcanzar alcanzar los $13.50 $13.50 dpb en 1988); 1988); el terrible terrible sismo de 1985 donde se perdieron miles de vidas e impactó fuertemente la economía nacional por los inherentes inherentes daños daños materiales materiales que sufrió sufrió la capital capital del país; el desplome desplome de un 70% de la Bolsa Mexicana Mexicana de Valores Valores en 1987 que agravó aún aún más la crisis crisis mexica mexicana; na; un crecimien crecimiento to del PIB PIB promedio promedio de 0.22% 0.22% (dicho (dicho en otras palabras, palabras, no hubo crecim crecimiento iento)) y una caída caída del PIB per cápita cápita de -10.07% en 1988, y por último, último, sin ser menos importante, la devaluación del peso frente al dólar, de una cotización a inicios del sexenio (1982) de $161.35 pesos por dólar, pues llega llega alcanzar una cotización record de $2,295.00 pesos por dólar, dólar, en
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Análisis del Neoliberalismo en México desde una perspectiva histórica. Carlos E. Martínez Guerra
los subsidios (apoyos estatales) en los productos productos de la canasta básica básica y en los servicios públicos como como el transporte, o la reducción del gasto público público en programas sociales como el financiamiento financiamiento a la vivienda popular, o el incremento de la recaudación recaudación fiscal (mayores impuestos). impuestos). Finalmente Finalmente,, no debe sorpre sorprendern ndernos os el costo costo político político que tuvo tuvo que comenzar comenzar a pagar pagar el gobierno gobierno mexicano y su partido oficial, el PRI. Le cobraron factura sus dos presidencias populistas y corruptas (1970 a 1982) progenitoras de las peores crisis conocidas hasta entonces en nuestro país, o la puesta en marcha del modelo modelo neoliberal neoliberal durante durante el sexenio de De la Madrid, modelo modelo que demostró demostró ser incapaz incapaz de neutralizar neutralizar los estragos estragos de la crisis crisis y su desigualda desigualdad d social. social. El régimen priísta priísta comienza comienza a padecer padecer una crisis crisis de legitimidad legitimidad en las siguientes siguientes y muy controv controvertid ertidas as eleccione eleccioness presidenc presidenciales iales de 1988. La célebre célebre “caída “caída en el sistema” sistema” de cómputo para el conteo de votos anunciada anunciada por el entonces Secretario de Gobernación, Manuel Bartlett Díaz, ponía en duda duda la legitimidad legitimidad del del triunfo triunfo del candidat candidato o presidencial presidencial priísta priísta Carlos Carlos Salinas Salinas de Gortari frente frente al candida candidato to Cuauhté Cuauhtémoc moc Cárde Cárdenas nas Solórz Solórzan ano o (hijo (hijo del ex preside president ntee Lázaro Lázaro Cárdena Cárdenas). s). Cárden Cárdenas as Solórzano había logrado unificar a la izquierda mexicana en un solo partido: el Frente Democrático Nacional Nacional (FDN), (FDN), siendo siendo su candid candidato ato a la presid presidenc encia ia y que antes antes de la “caída “caída del sistem sistema” a” se perfil perfilaba aba,, según según las cifr cifras as en los los prime primero ross con conte teos os,, como como el posi posibl blee venc venced edor or de las las elec elecci cion ones es pres presid iden enci cial ales es en ese ese tan tan polémico polémico 6 de julio. julio. Si realment realmentee las ganó, ganó, nunca nunca lo sabremo sabremos, s, ya que, que, siendo siendo presiden presidente te de la repúbli república, ca, Salinas mandó quemar todos los paquetes electorales de aquellas elecciones elecciones de 1988. Y es que, en efecto, se había iniciado la “caída del sistema” presidencialista presidencialista del PRI tal y como se le conocía hasta entonces, con
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Análisis del Neoliberalismo en México desde una perspectiva histórica. Carlos E. Martínez Guerra
Universidad de Yale, fue designado Secretario de Programación y Presupuesto y en 1992 Secretario de Educación Pública; Jaime Serra Puche, Doctor en Economía por por la Universidad de Yale, Yale, fue designado Secretario de Comercio Comercio y Fomento Industrial; y Pedro Aspe Armella, Doctor en Economía por el el Instituto Tecnológico de Massachussetts, fue designado Secretario de Hacienda y Crédito Público. Como podemos apreciar, apreciar, los miembros miembros de este “dream-team” “dream-team” tecnócrata tecnócrata ocuparon ocuparon los puestos más importantes importantes dentro dentro del gabinete gabinete salinista, salinista, de manera manera que no fue extraño el gran impulso impulso que tuvo el proyecto proyecto neoliberal neoliberal mexicano mexicano mencionado al principio de este párrafo. Parecería entonces que los dioses por fin le sonreían a México y a su tan necesario desarrollo con el arribo de tan distinguido Presidente de la República y sus altamente calificados colaboradores. Ahora sí saldríamos de la crisis, la desigualdad desigualdad social y el subdesarrollo que arrastrábamos desde antaño. Pero desafortunadamente, como todos lo sabemos, la historia fue otra completamente distinta.
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Análisis del Neoliberalismo en México desde una perspectiva histórica. Carlos E. Martínez Guerra
Por otro lado, en lo referente referente al saneamiento saneamiento de las finanzas finanzas públicas públicas,, la administración administración salinista salinista aceleró aceleró la política política privatiza privatizadora dora para desmantelar desmantelar al sector público, público, comenzada comenzada durante durante el sexenio sexenio anterior, anterior, concentrándose ahora en todas las grandes empresas del Estado, de las cuales destacaban: -
Telmex, Telmex, que que en manos del gobierno gobierno había había demostrad demostrado o ser una compañía compañía prest prestadora adora de servici servicios os muy deficiente y al borde de la quiebra, quiebra, es subastada y adquirida por Grupo Carso de Carlos Slim Slim Helú. Durante los años posteriores a su privatización, Telmex se ha ha caracterizado por su crecimien crecimiento to en cuanto cuanto a su cobertura cobertura nacional, nacional, pero también también por sus prácticas prácticas monopólica monopólicass en un principio y después oligopólicas en el mercado mexicano. mexicano. Llama la atención que justo justo antes y poco después después de su su privatizaci privatización ón se increm incrementaro entaron n las tarifas tarifas telefónic telefónicas as en el país a tal tal grado que en la la actua actualid lidad, ad, a pesar pesar de que que ha ido dismi disminuy nuyend endo o paulat paulatina inamen mente te el prec precio io de de las las mis en Méxic Méxic el servic servicio io telefó telefónic nic es de los los más co n el mundo, mundo, segú según n la
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Análisis del Neoliberalismo en México desde una perspectiva histórica. Carlos E. Martínez Guerra
De esta forma, el gobierno mexicano había logrado no sólo sanear su deuda interna, sino además había demostrado con hechos hechos su evidente intención de desregular los principales sectores productivos productivos del país: telecomunicaciones, telecomunicaciones, petroquímica, ferrocarriles y carreteras, puertos puertos y aeropuertos, minería y el sector agrícola. agrícola. México México “abría sus puertas” puertas” al libre mercado mercado internacional internacional,, el escenario escenario ya estaba listo para la puesta en marcha del proyecto presidencial más ambicioso de Carlos Carlos Salinas de Gortari: el Tratado de Libre Libre Comercio de América América del Norte Norte (TLCAN) y ¿Por qué no? la posible entrada de México al primer mundo. En febrero de 1990, tras una gira de trabajo por Europa que culminó culminó en la reunión anual anual del Foro Económico Mundial Mundial en la ciudad ciudad de Davos, Suiza, Suiza, Carlos Salinas Salinas de Gortari Gortari narra en su libro: “México: un paso difícil a la modernidad” una anécdota ocurrida durante esas fechas fechas que marcaría históricamente históricamente el rumbo económico y de la política política exterior en nuestro país:
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Análisis del Neoliberalismo en México desde una perspectiva histórica. Carlos E. Martínez Guerra
- Sexta parte: Propiedad Intelectual. - Séptima parte: Disposiciones Disposiciones Administrativas Administrativas Institucionales. Institucionales. - Octava parte: Otras Disposiciones. Disposiciones. En teoría, los tres países involucrados en dicho acuerdo se comprometerían a promover el empleo empleo y el crecimie crecimiento nto econó económico mico en en América América del del Norte, Norte, confirmab confirmaban an su creencia creencia de que que el TLCAN TLCAN permitiría permitiría aumentar la competitividad competitividad en las empresas de sus sus respectivos países países protegiendo el medio ambiente. También promoverían el desarrollo sostenible, fomentarían la protección de los derechos laborales, y se eliminarían progresivamente los impuestos a la importación de bienes y mercancías. Hipotéticamente, este Tratado no contemplaría en lo absoluto los temas relacionados relacionados a la exploración, refinamiento, producción, procesamiento o distribución del petróleo y sus derivados. Dicho de
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Análisis del Neoliberalismo en México desde una perspectiva histórica. Carlos E. Martínez Guerra
EE.UU.) en parte a que desde un principio principio no se consideró adecuadamente adecuadamente la existencia existencia de asimetrías entre los tres países, o dicho de otra forma, las enormes diferencias que existen en cuanto a las capacidades económicas, tecnológicas tecnológicas o productivas, productivas, evidentemente más avanzadas en Canadá Canadá y en Estados Unidos. Unidos. Para entender entender un un poco mejor mejor estas estas “asimetrí “asimetrías”, as”, basta con darle un un vistazo vistazo al siguient siguientee cuadro cuadro hecho hecho por economistas de la revista electrónica Vector Económico: (www.vectoreconomico.com.mx) MEXICO, ESTADOS UNIDOS Y CANADA: ASIMETRIAS Población (miles) (2001) Población rural (miles) Población agrícola (miles) 2
Presión demográfica (hab/ km )
México
Estados Unidos
Canadá
100,368
285,926
31,015
25,555
64,539
6,535
23,064
6,162
766
51
30
3
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Análisis del Neoliberalismo en México desde una perspectiva histórica. Carlos E. Martínez Guerra
como lo demuest demuestra ra el súbito súbito auge en el el crédito crédito PyME del del gobierno gobierno foxista foxista en 2003. Además, Además, se esperaba esperaba que dicha inversi inversión ón en México por parte de éstas transnaci transnacionale onaless fomentaría fomentarían n el consumo consumo de materias primas nacionales, pero no ha sido así, se han inclinado por insumos de otros países más competitivos, de manera que nuestro país solo se ha limitado a ser una maquiladora de componentes importados con su
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Análisis del Neoliberalismo en México desde una perspectiva histórica. Carlos E. Martínez Guerra
Ante esta notoria tendencia a la importación en lugar de la producción, los pequeños agricultores mexica mexicanos nos se han visto visto forzad forzados os a dejar dejar sus tierra tierrass y a emigrar emigrar ilegalm ilegalment entee hacia hacia los Estad Estados os Unidos Unidos para, para, paradójicam paradójicamente, ente, en en muchos de los los casos dedicarse dedicarse a la agricultura agricultura en aquel aquel país como mano de obra obra barata. Las exportaciones de las frutas y hortalizas solo han beneficiado cuantos produc
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Análisis del Neoliberalismo en México desde una perspectiva histórica. Carlos E. Martínez Guerra
inmemoriales a una inmensa mayoría de nuestra población. Como dice el verso de una canción: “Todo se derrumbo”. Tal vez el presidente presidente Salinas se había confiado confiado demasiado de su “liberalismo social” social” encarnado en su “Programa Nacional de Solidaridad” (Pronasol), como un medio “eficaz” para ami las inherente
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Análisis del Neoliberalismo en México desde una perspectiva histórica. Carlos E. Martínez Guerra
supuestamente $85,435 millones millones de dólares atribuidos al sexenio salinista en 1994 a unos $100,993 millones de dólares en 1995, y además Zedillo se ve forzado a implementar una devaluación del 93% del peso frente al dólar, o sea, de los ficticios ficticios $3.41 “nuevos pesos” por por dólar a un tipo de cambio promedio de $6.60 pesos por dólar.
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Análisis del Neoliberalismo en México desde una perspectiva histórica. Carlos E. Martínez Guerra
(Grupo (Grupo Caliente-Cas Caliente-Casino inos, s, administrado administradoss por sus hijos), hijos), con una fortuna personal personal estimada estimada en ese entonces entonces en unos $3,000 millones millones de dólare dólares; s; la famili familiaa de Carlos Slim Helú (Grupo (Grupo Carso: Carso: Telmex.) Telmex.) con $6,600 millones de dólares; dólares; la familia de Emilio Emilio Azcárraga Milmo (Grupo (Grupo Televisa), con $5,400 millones de dólares; la familia de Lorenzo y Marcelo Zambrano (Grupo (Grupo Cemex), con $3,100 millones de dólares la familia de
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Análisis del Neoliberalismo en México desde una perspectiva histórica. Carlos E. Martínez Guerra
Ane Anexo I
GRAFICA ELABORADA POR EL AUTOR EN BASE A DATOS DE: - INEGI. Estadísticas Estadísticas Históricas Históricas de México. México. Cuarta Cuarta Edición, Año 2000, 2000, 2 Tomos. Tomos. - BANCO DE MÉXICO. Indicadores Económicos y Financieros, Sector Sector Finanzas Públicas. Balanza de Pagos. CE101 - Posición de deuda externa bruta. http://www.banxico.org.mx
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Análisis del Neoliberalismo en México desde una perspectiva histórica. Carlos E. Martínez Guerra
Anexo II
GRAFICA ELABORADA POR EL AUTOR EN BASE A DATOS DE: - Székely Miguel. “Pobreza y Desigualdad en México entre 1950 y 2004”. SEDESOL, 2005. - Consejo Nacional de Población. CONAPO. “Evolución de la pobreza por por ingresos nacional, 1992 a 2008”. 2009 - Estimaciones del CONEVAL con base en las ENIGH de 1992, 2000, 2006 y 2008
POBREZA ALIMENTARIA: incapacidad para obtener una canasta básica alimentaria, aun si se hiciera uso de todo el
ingreso disponible en el hogar en comprar sólo los b ienes de dicha canasta. POBREZA DE CAPACIDADES: CAPACIDADES: insuficiencia del ingreso disponible para adquirir el valor de la canasta alimentaria y efectuar
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Fuentes Bibliográficas Análisis del Neoliberalismo Neoliberalismo en México desde una perspectiva histórica
Fuentes Bibliográficas
http://www.economist.com/research/Economics/alphabetic.cfm?letter=L http://www.economyprofessor.com/economictheories/laissez-faire.php http://www.elpais.com/articulo/empresas/fin/neoliberalismo/elpepueconeg/20080720elpnegemp_6/Tes Sandoval, Carlos. “Liberalismo y Neoliberalismo”. El Diario de Hoy. El Salvador. Publicado 1 de junio 2005. http://www.elsalvador.com/noticias/2005/06/01/editorial/edi3.asp
Harvey, David. Neoliberalism as Creative Destruction. Destruction. The ANNALS of the American American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 610, No. 1, 21-44 (2007) http://www.culturaypolitica.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/02/neoliberalismo-e-identidad.pdf http://www.cnnexpansion.com/economia/2008/10/21/mexico-acelera-rescate-de-empresas http://www.jornada.unam.mx/2008/12/10/index.php?section=opinion&article=030a1eco http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoliberalismo Rivero, Adolfo. ¿Qué es el neoliberalismo? http://www.neoliberalismo.com/ques.htm
Diccionario de la lengua española © 2005 Espasa-Calpe: neoliberalismo. Diccionario de la lengua española © 2005 Espasa-Calpe: monetarismo. Boneau, Denis. París (Francia). 30 de enero de 2005. Voltaire, édition internationale. http://www.voltairenet.org/article123311.html http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Nixon http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Heath http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Callaghan
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Fuentes Bibliográficas Análisis del Neoliberalismo Neoliberalismo en México desde una perspectiva histórica
http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher http://www.ojosdepapel.com/Blogs/JuanAntonioGonzalezFuentes/Blog/Unas-claves-para-entender-elNeoliberalismo-Reagan-y-Thatcher Meyer, Lorenzo. "Liberalismo autoritario. Las contradicciones del sistema político mexicano." Ed. Océano de México, Primera edición, 1995, México. De la Peña, Sergio. “La formación del capitalismo en México”. Siglo XXI Editores. Págs: 36, 48, 58, 123,129, 157, 169,178,207 Cerutti Mario. “Burguesía y capitalismo en Monterrey”. 1850-1910. Fondo Editorial de Nuevo Leon. Págs: 6, 29, 60, 119, 149, 150. Flores Rangel, Juan José. “Historia de México II”. Ed. Thomson, 2003. México. Capítulo 4. Medina Peña, Luis. “Hacia el nuevo Estado, Estado, México, 1920-1994. Fondo de Cultura Económica. México, 2006. http://www.jornada.unam.mx/2004/02/18/008n1pol.php?origen=politica.php&fly=1 Fuentes de montos en los periodos 1940- 2008 de deuda externa, externa, tipo de cambio cambio y porcentajes relacionados: relacionados: -
Paridad Paridad Peso-D Peso-Dólar: ólar: Banco de México. México. Serie histórica histórica diaria del tipo tipo de cambio cambio peso-dól peso-dólar. ar. CF373. CF373.
-
Deuda Externa Externa 1940-1 1940-1989, 989, INEGI INEGI Estadísti Estadísticas cas Históricas Históricas de México, México, página página 658 658
-
Deuda Externa Externa Historia, Historia, "Pagó México 80,000 80,000 millones millones de dólares dólares en 6 años", años", J.Jesús J.Jesús Rangel Rangel M., Excelsi Excelsior or marzo marzo de 1987. 1987.
-
Deuda Externa Externa Pública 2002-2009: 2002-2009:
Banco de México. Indicadores Económicos y Financieros, Sector Finanzas Públicas. Balanza de Pagos. CE101 - Posición de deuda externa bruta. Clasificación Clasificación por residencia. http://www.banxico.org.mx
http://www.bibliojuridica.org/libros/1/153/11.pdf Ibáñez Aguirre, José Antonio. Calva, Jose Luis. “México: ciclos de deuda y crisis del sector externo. Ed. Instituto de Análisis y Propuestas Sociales”. México. Pág: 80. Cupolo, Marco. “Petróleo y política en México y Venezuela”. Ed.Universidad Ed.Universidad Simón Bolívar. Venezuela1ª edición. edición. Colección Tesis, Serie Ciencias Sociales, 1996. Pág. 129. http://www.elsiglodetorreon.com.mx/noticia/296641.presupuesto-de-egres http://www.elsiglodetorre on.com.mx/noticia/296641.presupuesto-de-egresos-deja-sin-pension-a-ex.h os-deja-sin-pension-a-ex.html tml http://www.banxico.org.mx/sistemafinanciero/inforgeneral/hisbancmex/Hissinbanca.pdf Producto Interno Bruto, Inflación y demás estadísticas relacionadas (1980-2009):
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Fuentes Bibliográficas Análisis del Neoliberalismo Neoliberalismo en México desde una perspectiva histórica
http://www.coparmex.org.mx/contenidos/publicaciones/Entorno/2007/ene07/7ene07.pdf Espinosa, Cortes, Luz María. “Sector agropecuario y alternativas comunitarias de seguridad alimentaria y nutrición en México”. Ed. Plaza y Valdés. México, 199. Págs: 81, 82, 83. http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlos_Salinas_de_Gortari http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabinete_de_Carlos_Salinas_de_Gortari http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuel_Camacho_Sol%C3%ADs http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luis_Donaldo_Colosio_Murrieta http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernesto_Zedillo_Ponce_de_Le%C3%B3n http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaime_Serra_Puche http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro_Aspe_Armella http://www.juridicas.unam.mx/publica/librev/rev/gac/cont/34/trb/trb2.pdf http://www.banxico.org.mx/sistemafinanciero/inforgeneral/hisbancmex/Hissinbanca.pdf http://www.el-universal.com.mx/notas/411851.html http://www.ejournal.unam.mx/ecu/ecunam9/ecunam0904.pdf http://www.bibliojuridica.org/libros/3/1206/15.pdf Salinas De Gortari, Carlos. México: Un paso difícil a la modernidad. Ed. Plaza y Janés. México 2000. http://www.fina-nafi.org/esp/integ/chronologie.asp?langue=esp&menu=integ El Tratados de Libre Comercio de América del Norte. Editorial Miguel Ángel Porrúa y grupo editorial SECOFI. http://www.ircamericas.org/ http://www.economia.gob.mx/?P=5200_5205_1 http://www.economia.gob.mx/work/snci/negociaciones/tlcan/pdfs/comercio_antesdespues_tlcan.pdf http://vectoreconomico.com.mx/files/pdfs/10022003.pdf http://www.elcotidianoenlinea.com.mx/pdf/14711.pdf
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Fuentes Bibliográficas Análisis del Neoliberalismo Neoliberalismo en México desde una perspectiva histórica
http://vectoreconomico.com.mx/files/pdfs/29032004.pdf http://www.elfinanciero.com.mx/ElFinanciero/Portal/cfpages/contentmgr.cfm?docId=26031&docTipo=1&orderby=d ocid&sortby=ASC Salinas De Gortari, Carlos. México: La década perdida 1995-2006: Neoliberalismo y Populismo en México. Ed. Debate. México 2008. http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crisis_econ%C3%B3mica_de_M%C3%A9xico_de_1994 http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history.do?action=Article&id=138 http://www.depfe.unam.mx/p-cientifica/coloquio-erdal/11DSarahiAngelesLtt.pdf http://revistas.colmex.mx/revistas/7/art_7_909_6222.pdf http://www1.worldbank.org/finance/assets/images/Crisis_Man.pdf http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/1995/08/02/ 000009265_3961008053108/Rendered/PDF/multi0page.pdf Tafolla, Rolando; Aguilar, Sergio; Benítez , José. Problemas sociales, económicos y políticos de México. Ed. UNAM. México 2006 World Bank . Infrastructure Privatization Technical Assistance Assistance Project. Report No. T-6590-ME. T-6590-ME. Technical Annex. World Bank . Financial Sector Restructuring Restructuring Loan. LOAN NUMBER 3911-ME. Guarantee Agreement. World Bank . Financial Sector Restructuring Restructuring Loan. LOAN NUMBER 3911-ME. Loan Agreement. http://www-azc.uam.mx/publicaciones/gestion/num7/art1.htm
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Fuentes Bibliográficas Análisis del Neoliberalismo Neoliberalismo en México desde una perspectiva histórica http://zedillo.presidencia.gob.mx/pages/vocero/boletines/com02.html http://www.cre.gob.mx/registro/resoluciones/1996/res01096.pdf http://www.elsemanario.com.mx/news/news_display.php?story_id=6618 http://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/ref/lrart27_rp/LRArt27_RP_ref03_13nov96_ima.pdf http://www.cnnexpansion.com/manufactura/actualidad/2008/04/04/factores-que-inhiben-la-ied-en-mexico http://www.diputados.gob.mx/cronica57/contenido/cont2/fobapro1.htm http://www.pgr.gob.mx/cmsocial/bol98/nov/b0030998.htm http://www.proceso.com.mx/noticias_articulo.php?articulo=64027 http://www.banxico.org.mx/sistemafinanciero/inforgeneral/hisbancmex/Hissinbanca.pdf http://www.jornada.unam.mx/2007/12/22/index.php?article=007n1pol§ion=politica http://www.derechoshumanos.org.mx/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=721 http://www3.diputados.gob.mx/camara/content/download/115723/313256/file/CEFP_Presentacion_FARAC.pdf http://www.cefp.gob.mx/intr/edocumentos/pdf/cefp/cefp0152004.pdf http://www.elsiglodetorreon.com.mx/noticia/645.david-penaloza-no-alcanzara-libertad.html http://www.bnamericas.com/news/infraestructura/Juez_absuelve_a_presidente_de_Tr http://www.bnamericas.com/news/infraest ructura/Juez_absuelve_a_presidente_de_Tribasa_de_cargos_de_fraude ibasa_de_cargos_de_fraude http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/nacion/170124.html http://www.lajornadamorelos.com/opinion/articulos/67243?task=view http://www.ife.org.mx/documentos/OE/prontuario2006/p04.html
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Fuentes Bibliográficas Análisis del Neoliberalismo Neoliberalismo en México desde una perspectiva histórica
http://www.pps.sse.gob.mx/html/que_son.html http://www.pps.sse.gob.mx/html/preguntas_frecuentes.html http://catarina.udlap.mx/u_dl_a/tales/documentos/mepi/de_l_ma/apendiceF.pdf http://ppi.worldbank.org/index.aspx www.cefp.gob.mx/intr/edocumentos/pdf/cefp/cefp0832007.pdf http://www.foodandwaterwatch.org/world/latin-america/water-privatization/mexico/multinacional-francesa-quiereel-agua-de-mexico World Bank . Decentralized Infrastructure Development Programmatic Loan. Project P080149. Report No: AB36. 2003. http://www.senado.gob.mx/content/sp/memoria/content/estatico/content/boletines/boletin_27.pdf http://www.enronfraud.com/ http://ppi.worldbank.org/resources/ppi_glossary.aspx. http://ppi.worldbank.org/index.aspx http://www.pemex.com/index.cfm?action=news§ionID=8&catID=40&contentID=1304 http://www.salacomunicacion.unionfenosa.es/view_object.html?obj=3772,c,18699 http://www.elsiglodetorreon.com.mx/noticia/23363.generan-electricidad-empresas-extranjeras.html World Bank . MODERNIZATION OF THE WATER AND SANITATION SECTOR LOAN, Report No: 32795-MX. 200 5. http://www.depfe.unam.mx/p-cientifica/coloquio-erdal/11DSarahiAngelesLtt.pdf
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Fuentes Bibliográficas Análisis del Neoliberalismo Neoliberalismo en México desde una perspectiva histórica
http://www.oecd.org/document/15/0,3343,en_2649_33773_40952463_1_1_1_1,00.html http://www.conapo.gob.mx/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=324&Itemid=251 http://estadis.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/321312.html http://www.univision.com/content/content.jhtml?cid=1782882 IRREGULARIDADES EN EL PROCESO ELECTORAL 2006: http://www.ife.org.mx/documentos/proceso_2005-2006/cuadernos/inicio.html http://www.inegi.org.mx/est/contenidos/espanol/sistemas/conteo2005/default.asp?s=est&c=10398 http://www.conapo.gob.mx/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=36&Itemid=234
http://www.el-universal.com.mx/notas/371430.html http://www.terra.com.pr/noticias/articulo/html/act475932.htm http://www.el-universal.com.mx/notas/373167.html http://www.ife.org.mx/documentos/proceso_2005-2006/cuadernos/inicio.html
ONU. World Economic Situation and Prospects 2006. FMI. Perspectivas de la Economía Mundial. Abril de 2006 http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/editoriales/36204.html http://www.el-universal.com.mx/notas/391372.html http://www.presidencia.gob.mx/prensa/?contenido=28362
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Fuentes Bibliográficas Análisis del Neoliberalismo Neoliberalismo en México desde una perspectiva histórica
http://www.banxico.org.mx Deuda Externa Pública 2006-2008: BANXICO Indicadores Económicos y Financieros, Sector Finanzas Públicas. Balanza de Pagos. CE101 - Posición de deuda externa externa bruta. Clasificación por residencia. http://www.banxico.org.mx http://pnd.presidencia.gob.mx/ http://www.cronica.com.mx/nota.php?id_nota=304331 http://www.presidencia.gob.mx/gabinete/?contenido=15023 http://www.el-universal.com.mx/notas/480345.html Banco de México. Serie histórica histórica diaria del tipo de cambio peso-dólar. peso-dólar. CF373. Periodo 01/01/2008-31/12/2008 SHCP. Informes sobre la situación económica, las finanzas públicas y la deuda pública. Primer trimestre 2009. INEGI. Encuesta Nacional de Ocupación y Empleo (ENOE). Población de 14 años y más. más. Período 2007-2009.
World Bank. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development International Finance Corporation. ”Country Partnership Strategy for the the United Mexican States for the period period FW2008-2013. Report No 42846-MX. http://www.presidencia.gob.mx/prensa/?contenido=36426 World Bank . State Judicial Modernization Supporting Access to Justice Project. Loan Agreement. LOAN NUMBER 7250-ME http://www.presidencia.gob.mx/prensa/?contenido=29079 http://www.conafor.gob.mx/ World Bank . Environmental Services Project.Loan Project.Loan Agreement. LOAN NUMBER 7375-ME http://www.ecoportal.net/layout/set/print/content/view/full/69502/(printversion)/1
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Fuentes Bibliográficas Análisis del Neoliberalismo Neoliberalismo en México desde una perspectiva histórica
http://www.pemex.com/files/content/situacionpemex.pdf http://www.pemex.com/files/content/diagnostico.pdf Cámara de diputados. Centro de estudios de las finanzas públicas. “Gasto Programable del Sector Público Presupuestario en Clasificación Administrativa, 1980-2006”. http://www.cefp.gob.mx/intr/bancosdeinformacion/historicas/gasto_publico/gastopublico.html www3.diputados.gob.mx/camara/content/download/184240/439932/file/AnalisisJurInicRE.pdf http://www.cnnexpansion.com/actualidad/2008/10/23/aprueban-en-lo-general-plan-energetico Constitución Política de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos. Banco de México. Cuenta Corriente de la Balanza de Pagos 2008. United Nations. Accounting, Valuation and Privatization”. 1993. ”
Ángeles Cornejo, O. Sarahí. “Crónica de una muerte anunciada: La reforma energética propuesta por el gobierno de Calderón”. Dimensión Económica, Revista Digital, Instituto Instituto de Investigaciones Investigaciones Económicas, Vol. 1, núm. cero. UNAM.