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Traducción de A r ie l D i l o n
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THOMAS NAGEL
LA POSIBILIDAD DEL ALTRUISMO
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Primera edición en inglés, 1970 Primera Primera edición en español, 2004
Nagel, Thomas La posibilidad del altruismo / Thomas Nagel; trad. de Ariel Dilon. — México : FCE, 2004 160 160 p . ; 23 23 x 17 cm — (Colee. (Co lee. Filosofí Filosofía) a) ISBN 968-16-7212-7 1. Altruismo 2. Ética 1. Dilon, Ariel, tr. II. Ser III. t LC BJ1474 .N3 Dewey 171 N318p
Diseño de portada: R/4, Rogelio Rangel Se prohíbe la reproducción total o parcial de esta obra — incluido incluido el diseño tipográfico tipográfico y de portada— , sea cual fuere el medio, electrónico o mecánico, sin el consentimiento con sentimiento por escrito del editor. editor. Comentarios Come ntarios y sugerencias: sugerencias:
[email protected] Conozca nuestro catálogo: www.fondodeculturaeconomica.com
Título original: The Possibilicy of A Icruism ISBN: 0-691-02002-7 © Pr i n c e t o n U n iv i v e r s it i t y P r e s s
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PREFACIO Expuse Expuse una tesis sobre este tema tem a para la licenciatura en filosofía en Oxford en 1960, y otra para el doctorado en filosofía en Harvard en 1963. Partes del material material fueron presentadas en seminarios s eminarios en Berkeley Berkeley y Princeton o fueron vistas vistas por amigos de otras universidades universidades en mimeógrafo. mimeógrafo. Agradezco Ag radezco a num e rosos rosos profesores, profesores, estudian estu diantes tes y colegas po r sus sus críticas y sugerencias. El mayor reconocimiento lo debo a Gilbert Harman, Robert Nozick, David Wiggins y especialmente a Joh n Rawls, Rawls, quien supervisó mi disertación en Harvard y ha tenido una influencia permanente sobre mis ideas filosóficas desde la época en que yo era estudiante en Comell. El primer borrador de este libro fue escrito en 1966-1967, cuando obtuve una beca Guggenheim, y estoy profundamente agradecido a la Fundación Guggenheim Guggenh eim por haber hecho posible ese periodo de de tiempo libre. libre. T.N. Princeton University, septiembre de 1969
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POST SCRIPTUM Este libro defiende la pretensión de que sólo son aceptables las razones objetivas y de que las razones razones subjetivas subjetiv as sólo son so n legítimas si pueden derivarse de las objetivas. A hora hor a pienso que, en realidad, realidad, el argumento establece establece una con clusión diferente: que hay razones objetivas que corresponden a todas las subjetivas. Esto E sto no implica imp lica por sí mismo que todas las razone razoness sean objetivas. objetiv as. Persiste la posibilidad de que las razones subjetivas originales, a partir de las cuales se han generado las otras, retengan cierta fuerza independiente y no estén completamente incluidas incluidas en ellas. Lo que d a origen a un sistema paralelo lelo de razones objetiv ob jetivas as es la necesidad de evitar la disociació n motivac m otivacional ional entre los puntos de vista personal e impersonal. Pero una disociación radical puede evitarse sin subordinar completamente lo personal a lo impersonal. A menos que que se excluya cualquier grado de disociación disocia ción,, las razones razones subjetivas subjetiva s que que proporciona nuestro punto de partida pueden continua r ejerciendo una legítima influencia independiente en las vidas de aquellos que reconocen también razones objetivas paralelas, pues el punto de vista personal podría conservar su poder luego de que las reclam aciones del punto de vista impersonal hubieran sido reconocidas. El sistema de razones resultante, aunque más complicado, todavía puede explicar la posibilidad del altruismo. Marzo de 1978
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P r im e r a
Pa r t e
ÉTICA Y MOTIVACIÓN HUMANA
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I. LOS FUNDAMENT FUNDAMENTOS OS DE DE LA MORAL s i . A sí como hay exigencias racionales para el el pensamiento, hay también exigencias racionales para la acción, y el altruismo es una de ellas. Este libro defiende defiende una concepció co ncepción n de la ética y, por ende, una concepc ión de la naturaleza humana según las cuales algunos importantes principios morales plantean al deseo y a la acción c ondicion es racionales que derivan derivan de una exigen cia básica de altruismo. El altruismo en sí depende del reconocimiento de la realidad de otras personas y de la capacidad equivalente de verse a sí mismo como un simple individuo entre muchos. Concibo la ética como una rama de la psicología. Mis postulados conciernen a sus fundamentos fundamentos,, o a su base motivacional última. última. S i las exigencias de la ética son racionales, eso implica que el motivo para someterse a ellas debe ser tal que ignorarlo resultaría resultaría contrario con trario a la razón. razón. Es necesario necesari o demostrar, demostrar, por lo tanto, que la susceptibilidad a ciertas influencias motivacionales, incluido el altrui altruismo smo,, es una condición con dición de la racionalidad, racionalidad, así como com o se considera una con dición de la racionalidad raciona lidad la capacidad capacid ad para aceptar acept ar ciertos argumentos teóricos. teóricos. La visión que se presenta presenta aquí se opone no sólo al relativismo ético, sino a toda pretensión de que los postulados éticos apelan a nuestros intereses: tanto el interés propio como el interés que podamos tener en otras cosas u otras personas. El altruismo, que a mi modo de ver subyace a la ética, no debe confundirse
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Ib
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Uno puede escapar a una exigencia racional si deja de cumplir sus condiciones de alguna manera. Se está entonces autorizado a dispensarse, y los terrenos permisivos dependen depend en del principio princ ipio general del cual se sigue sigue la aplicaapli cación particular de la exigencia. Ese principio puede aplicarse a su vez en virtud tud de un principio aun más general, general, además adem ás de las condiciones adicionales, y si esas condiciones no se dan, escapar es de nuevo posible. Pero la retirada debe llegar a su fin en algún punto: uno debe encontrar una exigencia (no necesita ser condicional, condi cional, puesto que puede haber sido la original) origin al) de la cual cual no sea posible escapar excusándose. e xcusándose. Es natural suponer que es e sa suerte de de principio la que debe subyacer a la ética, si es que existe. También es natural asumir que la empresa de justificación justificación debería enfocarse en estas exigencias básicas, produciendo, de este modo, un sistema ético con un respaldo respaldo motivacional motivac ional de acero sólido. Pero Pero semejante programa está condenado desde el comienzo. Pues si justificamos una exigencia, es en los términos de un principio del que se deriva esa exigencia, quizá con la ayuda de condiciones cond iciones adicionales. ad icionales. Pero tal principio debe representar representar por sí mismo una exigencia; de lo contrario, aquello que se aduce que justifica tampoco lo será. Por lo tanto, cualquier exigencia que establezcamos para justificar no será será nunca fundamental. S e necesita algo más allá de la justificación. §3. Asumo que una exigencia normativa sobre la acción debe tener correspondientemente un respaldo motivacional estricto. Si la ética ha de contener exigencias prácticas, la teoría de la motivación, específicamente la teoría de la motivación racional, debe contener conclusiones que sean igualmente inevitables. Puede pensarse que esto excluye el factor del deseo de un papel esencial en los fundamentos de la ética (aunque es un misterio cómo podría
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l.OS EUNDAMENTOS EUND AMENTOS DE LA MORAL
17
May J o s solid s olidas as posibles para este dilema, que no son, en última instancia, completamente distintas: a ) uno puede discutir la visión convencional de la motivación y el papel que el deseo juega en ella o b) uno puede sostener que, si bien toda motivación implica deseo, algunos deseos están abiertos a la imposición racional y no necesariamente han de ser vistos como inclinacio nes Jada s. Voy Voy a proponer que la base de la ética en la motivación humana es algo distinto del deseo; pero este factor por sí solo nos habilitará para criticar ciertos deseos como contrarios a la razón práctica. §4. La negación de que la justificación es la defensa final apropiada para la ética sugiere la visión familiar de que la pregunta “¿Por qué habría yo de ser moral?” carece de sentido o no puede, en principio, ser respondida. En tér minos estrictos, tal insinuación es correcta, pero no en el sentido en el que se sustenta el intuicionismo. Yo creo que puede descubrirse una explicación para los principios básicos de la ética, aun cuando no sea una justificación. Una explicación satisfactoria debe dar cuenta de la fuerza motivacional apropiada a las exigencias de la acción. La psicología, específicamente la teoría de la motivación, puede, por consiguiente, ser el campo propicio en el que se produzcan progresos en la teoría ética. Pero ello parece conllevar cambios radicales en lo que se considera como las posibilidades de la psico psico logía. La investigación psicológica dirigida a conclusiones éticas podría re querir la reintroducción de la metafísica. Comúnmente uno no espera en contrar en la teoría de la motivación ningún principio que se preste a ser interpretado como exigencia normativa de la acción. La teoría de la moti vación es vista automáticamente como una ciencia empírica; se asume que, en el mejor de los casos, deberíamos esperar descubrir las influencias a las
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18
ÉTICA Y MOTIVACIÓN HUMANA
En ningún caso se hará descansar la influencia motivacional de las consideraciones éticas en inclinaciones fortuitas o evitables. Su arraigo en nosotros debe ser profundo, y debe estar esencialmente ligado a los principios éticos mismos y a las condiciones de su su verdad. verdad. La L a alternativa alterna tiva es abandonar abandon ar la objetividad de la ética. Ése es es un curso que que no puede excluirse de antemano, anteman o, pero que no debería tomarse hasta ha sta que todo intento serio de rescatar la asignatura haya fracasado.
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II. LA CONTROVERSIA CONTROV ERSIA TRADICIONAL TRADI CIONAL §1. Los nombres “intemalismo” y “extemalismo” se han utilizado para desig nar dos visiones de la relación entre ética y motivac mo tivación ión.1El .1El intemalism intem alismo o es la opinión según la cual la presencia de una motivación m otivación para actuar moralmenmoralmente está garantizada garantizada por la verdad de las proposiciones ética s mismas. De acuer do con este modo de ver, la motivación debe estar tan encadenada a la ver dad, o al sentido, de los enunciados éticos, que cuando en un caso particular alguien está (o tal vez únicamente cree que está) moralmente obligado a hacer algo, se deduce que tiene una motivación para hacerlo. El extem ext emalism alism o sostiene, por otra parte, que la motivación necesaria no es provista por los principios éticos ético s y los los juicios mismos, y que se precisa una san ción psicológica p sicológica adicional para motivar nuestro acatamiento. El extemalismo es compatible con variados puntos de vista acerca de la motivación m otivación del ser moral. moral. Es com pa tible, tible, incluso, con la opinión opini ón de que tal motivación mo tivación está siempre presente
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20
ÉTICA Y MOTIVACIÓN IIUMANA
esto es erigi erigirr un contenido contenid o motivacional motivacion al dentro del sentido de las aseveracio nes éticas, convirtiéndolas en expresiones de una clase especial de inclina ción, apropiadas solamente cuando esa inclinación in clinación está presente, y arraigadas arraigadas únicamente en las motivaciones del hablante. El resultado es una teoría ética básicamente antirracional, que tiene por fundamento un compromiso, una inclinación, inclina ción, un sentimiento sentimie nto o un deseo simplemente dado dado (aunque la superes superes tructura puede estar caracterizada por un alto grado de articulación racional). El contenido conten ido motivacional motivacion al queda con ello encadenado encadenad o al sentido de las asercioquiere decir o expr e xpresa esa-- antes que a las verdader verdaderas as nes nes éticas -l o que el que habla quiere condiciones de esas aserciones, dejadas en la vaguedad o inexistentes. Una posición más fuerte, que vincule la motivación con el contenido cognitivo de las exigencias éticas, requiere la postulación de influencias motivacionales que uno no puede rechazar una vez que se ha enterado de ellas. Si puede demostrarse que semejantes influencias pertenecen al área de la ética, entonces e ntonces alguien que reconoce la verd verdad ad de una exigencia ética tendrá tendrá que aceptar la motivación correspondiente. correspondiente. §2. Mili y Moore parecen ser extemalistas. En el caso de Moore, la atribución es por eliminación, pues, al menos en Principia Ethica, no parece considerar en absoluto la motivación para el ser moral. Mili dedica un capítulo separado
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I.A I.A CONTROVERSIA T RADICIONAL
21
visto por qué debe hacerlo hace rlo se pregunte si tiene o no n o alguna razón razón para hacerlo. Por supuesto, una línea de retirada de esta conclusión inaceptable es negar que la porción o el aspecto evaluativo de una aserción ética tenga algún valor de verdad, y vincular, en cambio, la evaluaci eva luación ón a la expresión expresión individual de la exigencia ética. Pero si uno desea encadenar los requerimientos de la influencia motivacional a las condiciones de verdad de las exigencias morales, con la conse cuencia de que si alguien reconoce reco noce su fundamento fundam ento no puede sino verse conse cuentemente afectado, entonces será necesaria una conexión motivacional más estricta. §3. Un ejemplo de tal posición es provisto por Hobbes, cuyo sistema ético está sólidamente fundado en energías motivacionales derivadas de un deseo universal de autopreservación. El sistema ético es simplemente un desarrollo de ciertas ciertas consecuencias de ese motivo en la conducta de un individuo racio nal y completamente informado. La naturaleza humana está, según Hobbes, sujeta a otras influencias igualmente irracionales, ir racionales, así que uno puede no hacer necesariament necesari amentee lo que que debe, incluso cuan do sabe qué es; pero dada la univer salidad y la naturaleza fundamental del deseo de vivir, reconocer la base de uno de los imperativos éticos de Hobbes no puede dejar de tentarnos hasta
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22
ÉTICA Y MOTIVACIÓN HUMANA HUMA NA
mente definida definida que la de Hobbes, puesto p uesto que que la simpatía (más tarde benevo ben evo lencia general), la motivación específicamente moral, requiere ser reforzada* por el interés propio si ha de ser suficientemente poderosa para resistir exi gencias contrarias emanadas directamente del interés propio. Pero él hace explícita una teoría extremadamente atractiva de la justificación de la ac ción, que ha tenido enormes efectos en la teoría ética. La tesis es que cual quier justificación debe apelar a una inclinación en el individuo a quien se ofrece, ofrece, y que la justificación procede trazando trazando conexiones entre esa inclina ción y otras cosas (especialmente actos) a ctos) que son son medios para para su satisfacción. satisfacción. La inclinación resulta, entonces, transferida a éstos por asociación, que es lo que hace posible la justificación persuasiva. Si vertemos este punto de vista en términos de razones, establecerá que entre las condiciones para la presen cia de una razón para la acción debe haber siempre un deseo o una inclina ción capaz de motivar a uno a actuar en consecuencia. El sistema de Hobbes satisface estas condiciones de la justificación. De hecho, él y Hume Hum e se aproximan a la labor por caminos similares: similares: ambos supo nen que la ética debe representar el dominio de lo objetivo, lo común, en cuestiones prácticas -va le decir, decir, aquello que todos los hombres hombres por igua iguall tie nen razón para promover-, y ambos buscan una base motivacional para la posibilidad de semejante acuerdo. Hobbes la encuentra en el común interés
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I.A I.A U1NTROVERS1A TRADICIO NAL
2Í
De hecho, de la teoría de la imaginación de Hume dehería desprenderse que la susceptibilidad a la simpatía es un rasgo necesario de todos los seres que pueden pensar en los sentimien tos de los otros.3Pero no parece reconocer que su su factor psicológico tenga esta jerarquía; en cuan to a él conciern e, el edificio de la ética descansa en una contingencia psicológica. En el caso de Hobbes, el amor a la vida puede pensarse como algo que está cerca de ser un motivo necesario para los seres seres humanos. humano s. Pero la base motivaci mot ivaciona onall sigue siendo siend o previa al sistema que se deduce de ella, e independiente de él. Sería necesaria una clase muy diferente de teoría para alterar esa relación de prioridad. §5. §5. Platón Platón y Aristóteles, Aristóte les, cada uno a su manera, constituyen ejemplos de esa rebelión rebelión contra con tra la prioridad de la la psicología. C reo re o que ambos amb os sintieron sintiero n que la motivación motiv ación para ser moral no procede de otro luga lugar, r, es decir, decir, de ningún deseo o sentimiento sentimiento independientemente comprensible. Según esta postura, postura, la motivación ética, incluso en su su nivel más má s básico, básico , sólo puede entenderse entend erse a través de la ética. Pero puesto puesto que el problema no está planteado plan teado claramente claramen te por ninguno de estos autores, una discusión de sus puntos de vista requeriría un trabajo exegético más pesado que el que desearía emprender aquí. aquí. Por fortuna, tenemos un ejemplo mucho mejor en la persona de Kant, quien está explícita y ientem ente guiado por la exigencia de sistema
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24
f-TICA Y MOTIVACIÓN HUMANA
el imperativo. Consecuentem Conse cuentemente, ente, ningún imperativo hipotético hipoté tico puede puede esta blecer una exigencia incondicional para la acción. El esfu esfuerzo erzo de Kan K antt por producir un imperativo categórico categó rico es un intento inten to de descubrir descubrir exigencias exigenc ias para la acción que se apliquen a un hombre sin sin ninguna condición cond ición acerca de lo que que quiere, quiere, lo que siente, etcétera. Deben ser, ser, no obs tante, exigencias exig encias cuya validez validez involucre la capacidad capacida d de ser motivado de acuer do con ellas. Puesto que ese factor motivacional no puede provenir de una motivación presupuesta, que se ha convertido en una condición de las exi gencias, debe provenir, si ha de existir en absoluto, de las exigencias mismas. Esto es, lo que vuelve las exigencias válidas para nosotros debe determinar por sí mismo la capacidad capac idad de nuestra estructura estructura motiva m otivacion cional al para producir la acción correspondiente. Según Kant, por lo tanto, la ética, antes que apro piarse de un fundamento motivacional previamente comprensible en el cual
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III. LA SOLUCIÓN §1. §1. La relación de prioridades prioridades entre ética y teoría de la motivación mo tivación es de crucial importancia importancia para un intemalista. intemali sta. La posición que voy a defender se parece a la de Kant en dos aspectos. Primero, da cuenta de una motivación ética que no se atiene al supuesto de que el factor motivacional motivacion al ya está presente entre las condiciones de cualquier exigencia moral. Según este punto de vista, la posibilidad de una motivación apropiada debe estar garantizada por la verdad de la exigencia
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26
i'í t k :a y m o t i v a c i ó n h u m a n a
ben de qué manera las razones para la acción derivan de ciertas condiciones dadas. Así, antes que presuponerlas, ellos definen las posibilidades motivadonales. Consecuentemente, la comprensión final de la acción motivada por esas razon razones es será será ética. Para entender la m otivación debem os entender de qué modo nos gobierna el principio ético. El segundo aspecto en el cual mi posición se parece a la de Kant es que asigna a cierta característica de la concepción metafísica metafísica que el agente tiene de sí mismo un papel central en la operación de motivos éticos. Según el punto de vista de Kant, Ka nt, la concep con cepción ción es la de la libertad, mientras que, en mi mi opinión, es la concepción de uno mismo meramente como com o una persona entre otras igualmente reales. De cualquier modo, diferentes como son, ambas son contempladas com o concepciones concepcio nes a las las que no podemos escapa escapar, r, y están pen pen sadas para que provean la base para la motivación ética, que en otras teorías
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I.A SOLUCIÓN SOLUC IÓN
27
ciertas maneras, sin que implique que por consiguiente ese alguien estará motivado motivad o (aunque (au nque sólo se deha a la posibilidad posibilidad de su ignorancia). Pero aunque las exigencias explicativas y normativas pueden divergir, eso no quiere decir que abordamos abordam os dos conceptos con ceptos dispares refugiándon refugiándonos os en una simple palabra. palabra. Cuando la acción se explica mediante razones, es llevada bajo el control de principios normativos. Una consideración puede operar como una razón motivadora motiv adora sólo sól o si tiene, o se supone que tiene, tiene , el rango de razón razón en el sistema de principios principio s normativos normat ivos por los cuales los individuos gobiernan su conducta. condu cta. Tales principios normativos describen, por lo tanto, las características significativa signific ativass de la estructura motivacio mot ivacional. nal. Esta estructura no es arbitraria ni accidental. Su forma está está determinada en cierto modo por el hecho de que los seres seres conscientes conscie ntes deben aplicar el sistema sistema de d e principios normativos normativo s a sí mismos cuando modelan sus intenciones.
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28
I-Tic .A Y MOTIVACIÓN h u m a n a
serán determinadas determinada s por la argumentación. El sistema resultante dependerá fuer fuer temente, además, a demás, del análisis a nálisis de las razones razones que emanan em anan del d el interés propio y de sus interrelaciones. Las razones razones altruísticas son parásitas de las de interés interés propio; las circunstancias en las vidas de los otros que el altruismo requiere que consi deremos son circunstancias que esos otros, por su parte, tienen razones para considerar desde un punto de vista de propio interés. Por lo tanto, la forma de las razones altruísticas dependerá tanto de la forma de las razones de interés propio propio como del procedimiento de construcción del análogo análog o altruístico altruístico de una determinada razón de interés propio.1 La discusión de las razones prudenciales precede a la defensa defen sa del altruismo y sirve como com o un prototipo p rototipo para ella. A rgumentaré que los intereses de nuestro propio futuro nos proveen, por sí mismos, de suficientes razones para la ac ción presente que los asegura, y que esta clase de motivación no puede y no necesita ser explicada por mediación de deseos presentes o cualquier otro
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IV. NECES NECESIDA IDAD D E INTERPRETACIÓN INTERPRETACIÓN
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10
fiTICA Y MOTIVACIÓN HUMANA
de la prudencia está conec tado a un concepto con cepto de la situación presente p resente de uno, uno, meramente como una etapa en una vida extendida en el tiempo. Procede de la capacidad capa cidad hum h umana ana de ver el presente, de de manera simultánea, simultán ea, como com o “ahora” “ah ora” y como un momento particular, de especificidad diversa. El principio del al truismo, truismo, por por otra parte, está conec tado al concepto conce pto de uno mismo meramente como una persona entre otras. Procede de la capacidad de contemplarse a uno mismo simultáneamente como “yo” y como alguien -un -u n indivi individuo duo de es
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N I* •liSlhA •liS lhAI) I) t INT INTI-IK I-IKI’RliTACIÓN I’RliTACIÓN
II
§3. Aqu A quíí existen paralelos pa ralelos con el caso de las exigencias exigenc ias en la razón razón teórica. Es un tópico vasto por derecho propio y no puede ser tratado adecuadamente aquí.1No obstante, se imponen unas pocas observaciones. Las exigencias teóricas dicen lo que debemos pensar, lo que debemos concluir de determina das premisas, premisas, pero no está claro en qué sentido lo dicen exactamen te. ¿Hasta ¿Hasta qué punto puede considerarse la lógica como una rama de la psicología? Las exigencias de la razón teórica no parecen establecer, necesariamente, cómo
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12
fiTK:A Y MOTIVACIÓN HUMANA
tice su eficacia motivacional. Pero en ninguno de los dos casos el agregado conseguirá su propósito. propósito. Llegar desde el nuevo conjun co njunto to ampliado am pliado de premisas premisas a la conclusión requiere todavía alguna clase de estructura; debe haber prin cipios por los cuales las premisas se unan para producir producir conclusiones conclusion es justifica das, o principios por los cuales las creencias y los deseos se unan para producir acciones justificadas. Uno no puede hacer caso omiso de esta carencia au mentando simplemente las premisas.
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N B I SIDAI >1 >1: INTliRPRIiTACIÓN INTliRPRI iTACIÓN
espero establecer en relación con co n ciertas c iertas exigen ex igencias cias «Je «Je la razón razón práctica, y ésa será la función del procedimiento de la interpretación. §4. Los principios racionales son cánones para la crítica, la justificación y la autodeterminación del pensamiento y la acción. Cuando gobiernan Lis actos de la gente, es porque la gente aplica los principios a sí mismos, tomando en cuenta cuen ta sus presentes circunstancias circunsta ncias y lo que los principios indican que sería una
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18
RAZONES SUBJETIVAS SUBJET IVAS Y PRUDENCIA
La prudencia no puede, de acuerdo con este punto de vista, ser explicada
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HESEOS
W
§2. El supuesto de que un deseo motivador subyace a cada acto intencional
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40
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I A IN I I KI’KinrACIÓN DE RAZONES PRUDENCIALES
7»
§4. Ahora A hora intentaré intentaré aplicar estas observaciones al verdadero verdadero asunto de nues nues tra investigación -es decir, al razonamiento práctico y los juicios implicados por ésteést e-.. Sosten So stengo go que uno puede hacer la petición petición de un principio práctico práctico o una razón razón para la acción, ya sea que guarde guarde consistencia con la concepción concep ción de uno mismo como una persona extendida en el tiempo o que su aceptación deba ser disociada de tal concepción. Algunos principios y razones están de acuerdo con la concepción, conc epción, pero otros, creo, no lo están, pues su su aceptación no es compatible con la neutralidad del punto de vista en relación con los diferentes momentos cuya posibilidad he argüido que es esencial. Los juicios prácticos p rácticos incluirán incluirán a menudo, m enudo, o dependerán dependerán de, juicios acerca de lo que se se trata. Hasta Ha sta el punto en que es así, están sujetos a las condiciones condici ones ya discutidas. Considérese el juicio de que yo tendré razón para hablar italia no en seis semanas. semanas. S i eso es verdadero, verdadero, es verdadero porqu porquee en seis semanas me encontraré en una situación que provee una razón para hablar italiano, según el principio práctico que rige en todo tiempo. Y puesto que la predic ción de esa situación es meramente una declaración acerca del futuro, que asevera algo que podría también aseverarse sin tiempo verbal, se sigue que la predicción de la razón es correcta sólo si: a ) ciertas condiciones (sin tiempo verbal) prevalecen en el momento pertinente, que produce una razón según un principio descriptible sin tiempo verbal, y b) ese tiempo es seis semanas más tarde que el momento de mi predicción. Lo mismo puede decirse de los juic ju icio ioss prácti prá ctico coss en tiemp tie mpoo presente. presen te. De cualquier manera, la cuestión se vuelve complicada cuando consideramos que un juicio práctico práctic o es más que un juicio jui cio de que ciertas condicion cond iciones es prevalecen o prevalecerán, condiciones que brindan el curso de acción acció n pertinente pertinente bajo prin cipios prácticos generales. Las razones para un juicio práctico son razones para hacer o querer algo, algo, y no sólo razones razones para creer algo. Por lo tanto, el juicio juic io de que voy a tener razón para hablar italiano dentro de seis semanas es un juicio de que cierto ci ertoss actos o deseos de mi mi parte estarán estarán justi justifi ficad cados os en ese momento. ras.) Tero ésta es una definición perfectamente sin tiempo verbal de la contingencia futura y su contrario. Por lo tanto, la exigencia de que roda declaración en tiempo verbal debería tener condi ciones de veracidad descriptibles sin tiempo verbal no excluye la posibilidad de las contin gencias futuras, predicciones que, aunque no sean verdaderas en un momento, pueden deve
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74
RAZONHSSUBJETIVAS Y PRUDENCIA
Si hubiera meramente una postulación postulació n adicional adiciona l acerca de lo que ocurrir ocurriráá en el momento con el que trata el juicio práctico, sería fácilmente asimilada al punto de vista neutral por la introducción de justificaciones-declaraciones sin tiempo verbal, cuya verdad estará entre las condiciones de corrección para cualquier postulación práctica en tiempo verbal. Pero no es tan simple como eso, pues pues el juicio de q ue cierta acción o cierto deseo están justificados justificados tiene tiene contenido motivacional. Aceptar Acep tar una razón razón para hacer algo es aceptar aceptar una razón para hacerlo, no meramente para creer que que uno debería hacerlo. Si ha de ser posible hacer juicios prácticos desde un punto de vista de neutrali dad temporal, entonces este aspecto práctico debe ser una característica de los juicios sin tiempo verbal tanto como de los juicios en tiempo presente. Y el contenido motivacional que es común a los juicios prácticos en tiempo presente y a su contraparte sin tiempo verbal será, además, común a los jui cios en tiempos futuro y pasado para el mismo efecto, hechos en diferentes momentos, acerca de la misma situación. Precisamente, el el tópico en consideración con sideración es, por supuesto, supuesto, si un juicio prác tico acerca de aquello que uno tendrá razón para hacer en el futuro acarrea algún potencial compromiso de d e actuar o de desear. desear. De modo mod o que es importante no hacer esta petición de principio. Pero espero establecer que este tipo de contenido motivacional debe estar present presentee en todos los juicios prácticos, prácticos, con siderando primero cuál de los juicios en tiempo presente es verdadero, y apli cando luego a éste las exigencias de neutralidad temporal. De ese modo, será posible deducir consecuencias para los juicios prácticos acerca del futuro, para juicios juici os sin tiempo verbal verb al e, incluso, para juici ju icios os acerca acer ca del d el pasado. Gimo ya he dicho, el punto crucial es que una razón práctica es una razón para hacer o querer algo, así com o una razón razón teórica es una razón para concluir o creer creer algo. algo. Esta es la característica definitoria del razonamiento práctico. S os os tener tener,, como co mo lo hizo hizo Hume, que la única crítica racional aplicable aplic able a la acción es una crítica de las creencias asociadas asoc iadas a ella, ella , es sostener que la razón razón práctica no existe. existe. S i reconocemos la existencia de razones razones para para la acción, debemos soste ner no únicamente que justifican justifican nuestra nuestra creencia en determinadas proposicio proposicio nes especiales acerca de la acción, acció n, sino más bien que justifican la acción misma. Debe ser posible dedicarse a la crítica racional racion al de la acción ac ción y el deseo más m ás que a la de las creencias creenci as asociadas a ellos. U n juicio juic io práctico en primera persona y en
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I.A INTERPRETACIÓN DE RAZONES PRUDENCIALES
71
Si el propio juicio práctico no ha poseído su contenido motivacional, entonces sería necesario un argumento adicional para justificar la acción o el deseo, dado el juicio práctico. Es decir, incluso si uno ha llegado al juicio práctico de que habría ha bría una razón para actuar, ello no n o proporcionaría proporciona ría ninguna ningu na razó razón n para actuar: uno podría seguir preguntando: “¿Por qué hacer lo que tengo razón para hacer?” Y si esa pregunta permaneciera permaneciera abierta, entonces enton ces el juicio práctico en consideración no sería, después de todo, la conclusión de un proceso de razonamiento práctico: las razones que lo sustentan serían sólo razones para la creencia, y no razones para la acción. En ese caso, la posibilidad de genuino razonamiento práctico dependería de la disponibilidad de un argumento adicional, ciona l, cuya cuya conclusión conclusión poseyera poseyera contenido conten ido motivacio m otivacional nal genuino. Ahora bien, tal paso ulterior podría estar disponible, y, de ser así, tendría entonces que ser añadido al argumento original para cumplimentar el razonamiento práctico hasta su conclusión conclusi ón deseada. Pero si el razonamiento práctico prácti co existe, es natural natural suponer que el contenido motivacional de sus conclusiones está presente en los juic ju icio ioss prác pr ácti tico coss ordi or dina nario rioss en prime pri merr lugar. Por con c onsi sigu guie ien n te, te , sost so sten engo go que el juicio de que uno tiene razón para hacer algo incluye la aceptación de una justific just ificaci ación ón para hacerlo hac erlo y que éste es su conte co ntenid nidoo motiva mot ivacion cional. al. U na descripción descripción más exacta exa cta de este contenido conten ido presenta dificulta dificultades, des, pues el contenido m otivacional no implica necesariamente eficacia eficacia motivacional. Es innegable que alguien puede reconocer una razón para la acción y no actuar. Innumerables circunstancias pueden explicar esto. De hecho, creo que a veces un juicio práctico puede no incitar a la acción o al deseo sin ninguna explicación. N o todos los casos de conducta irracional irracional necesitan ser ser comprensibles. ¿Pero en qué sentido puede un juicio poseer contenido motivacional si su eficacia eficacia motivacional motiva cional puede puede estar bloqueada bloqueada de innumerainnumerables maneras? Un a manera en que pueden ser bloqueados bloquead os los efectos de una razón es, por supuesto, por razones que la contrarresten; pero esto no tiene por qué causar prima jad ja d a , traerá condificultad. Si una razón reconocida es sólo una razón pri sigo sólo una justificación (nimafacie. Y si el contenido motivacional de los reconocimientos de razones suficientes para la acción puede ser comprendido, entonces debe ser posible explicar el contenido motivacional de juicios en prima facie, facie , en los términos de su capacitiempo presente acerca de razones prima
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76
UAZC )NEsS SU BJE TIVA TIV A S Y PRU DENC DE NC IA
inclinarse en concordancia; muchas de ellas, aunque no todas, caen bajo el dominio de una voluntad débil ante una u otra otra tentación. S i hay una explica ción adecuada, en tonces ésta revelará revelará cómo la efectividad efectividad motivacional de la convicción práctica ha sido bloqueada o socavada. Debilidad, Debilidad, cobardía, pere za, pánico: son todos factores de este tipo, y cada uno representa una sutil variación de la interferencia motivacional. De ahí que el hecho de que la acción o el de seo apropiados puedan ser prevenidos prevenidos de tales maneras no arro ja ningu nin guna na duda du da sobre la pre p reten tensió sión n de que qu e un jui j uici cio o de razón prá p rácti ctica ca pos posee ee un peso motivacional. De hecho, es posible que un hombre sea consecuentemente débil o cobarde en ciertos aspectos, de modo que rara vez actúe de acuerdo con sus convicciones prácticas acerca de cierta materia: el alcohol, por ejemplo. Los casos en que ninguna explicac ión de la falla falla esté esté a disposición son más difíciles, pero también aquí algunas condiciones deben darse si la falla no ha de arrojar duda sobre la autenticidad de las convicciones expresadas por el juic ju icio io prác pr áctic tico o ineficaz. S i tales tale s jui j uici cios os son dem de m asiad asi ado o frecue fre cuente ntess -s - s i, sin ex plicación, un individuo rara vez o nunca actúa según los juicios prácticos aduciendo la presencia presencia de un cierto tipo de razón-, enton ces deberíamos con cluir cluir que únicamente e stá prestando apoyo de la boca para afuera afuera a la opinión de que es una razón, pero no la acepta realmente como tal. Si, por otra parte, semejantes lapsus son ocasionales, entonces debe haber suficiente conexión con la motivación como para permitimos confiar en la autenticidad de la convicción. Para abarcar dichos casos atenuados, sería mejor decir que si al guien llega a un juicio práctico p ráctico y ninguna influencia contraria está operando, ese juicio puede motivarlo por sí mismo al acto o al deseo apropiados, y que usualmcnte así sucede. Tanto él como alguien más puede ofrecer el juicio y sus sus fundamentos fundamentos como una explicación suficiente suficiente de su acción, sin una e xpli cación adicional de por qué lo impulsó a actuar.4 En general, por lo tanto, el contenido motivacional de un juicio de razón práctica suficiente está muy claro; y los casos en los cuales es menos claro deben entenderse contra un fondo de casos relativos en los cuales el peso motivacional pueda ser visto, aunque más no sea, a través de las influencias * Esto es igualmente verdadero de las justificaciones de creencias. Una creencia puede
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LA INTERPRETACIÓN DE RAZONES PRUDENCIALES
77
necesarias para vencerlo. S i esto es to es verdadero, nos permite formular una descripción del componente motivacional motivacio nal que es compatible con todas las posibilidades bilidades de falta de motivación efectiva, sin por ello devenir vacío. La co nvicción de que una razón me proporciona la suficiente justificación para un curso de acción presente no implica necesariamente necesariamente un deseo o una voluntad voluntad de emprender esa acción; no es una condición suficiente del acto o deseo. Pero es suficiente, en ausencia de influencias contrarias, para explicar la la acción apropiada, o el deseo o la voluntad de realizarla.5 Ese es el contenido motivacional de un juicio acerca de lo que uno tiene una razón para hacer inmediatamente después. después. Aunque creo que esta explicación es aproximadamente correcta, no es esencial que se esté de acuerdo con lo que que ella establece. L o que es esencial esencial para mi argumentación es que a un juicio práctico acerca de lo que uno tiene razón para hacer ahora se le reconozca la posesión de algún contenido motivacio mo tivacional. nal. El contenid cont enidoo que he sugerido puede considerarse débil. Lo que me interesa es que eso o algo como eso pueda ser considerado plausible para cualquiera que crea que qu e las razon razones es pueden motivar cuando cuand o se las espera en el futuro. Cuando uno juzga que hay razón ahora para hacer algo, uno no está juzgando juzg ando meram me rament entee que cierta cie rtass con c ondi dici cion ones es prev pr evale alecen cen o que debido deb ido a esas e sas condiciones un cierto acto puede ser clasificado bajo un principio general; uno acepta, además, la razón como una justificación para actuar. La cuestión es si la exigencia de neutralidad temporal puede aplicarse a este aspecto de nuestro juicio práctico y, si es así, cuáles son las consecuencias. §5. Sería Ser ía posible adaptar ad aptar los juicios práctico s al punto de vista de neutralidad temporal, porque tales juicios pueden hacerse en diferentes tiempos verbales y acerca de diferentes tiempos. La condición es dada por creencias normales, porque cualquier creencia creen cia expresable en términos de tiempo verbal, acerca de lo que sucede en un momento dado, lo compromete a uno en una creencia sin tiempo verbal acerca de lo que sucede en ese momento, más una creencia acerca de la relación entre ese momento y el presente. Uno puede describir una condición perfectamente análoga a la aceptación acepta ción de juicios prácticos en tiempo verbal, y, específicamente, al reconocimiento en tiempo verbal de la justif jus tifica icaci ción ón.. La cond co ndic ició ión n es ésta: ést a: cualqu cua lquier ieraa que qu e acep ac epte te un juic ju icio io práct pr áctico ico
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7«
RAZONES SUBJETIV AS Y PRUDENCIA
en tiempo verbal acerca de lo que tiene razón para hacer en un momento dado debe aceptar: a ) un juicio práctico sin tiempo verbal verbal en el mismo senti do acerca de ese momento y b) una creencia acerca de la relación entre ese tiempo y el presente, que vuelve apropiado el tiempo verbal particular em pleado. pleado. S i una clase clase de juicio práctico no cumple esta condición, entonces no no puede decirse que una proposición de esa clase en tiempo futuro exprese el mismo juicio acerca del momento al que se refiere, como es expresado por la correspondiente proposición en tiempo presente, hecha en ese momento, o por la correspondiente proposición proposición en tiempo pasado, hecha en un momento posterior. Si proposiciones de diferentes tiempos verbales acerca del mismo momento han de expresar expresar el mismo juicio acerca de ese momento, enton ces debe haber algo común a todos tod os ellos, y las diferencias diferenc ias entre ellos no deben ser acerc a del moment momento o con el que que tratan tra tan,, sino diferencias diferencias en cuanto a lo que dicen acerca más bien diferencias en la relación entre ese momento y el momento en que son realizadas, que vuelve apropiadas las diferencias de tiempo verbal. Esto tiene tiene importantes consecuenc consec uencias. ias. He argumentado argumen tado que un un juicio juici o prác tico en tiempo presente presente posee contenido motivacional - e s decir, decir, el el reconoci recon oci miento de una justificación para promover un cierto fin-. Pero si esto está asegurado, entonces la aceptación de tal juicio en tiempo presente exige: a ) la aceptación de un juicio sin tiempo verbal verbal acerca del del momento m omento en cuestión, en el mismo sentido, incluyendo el reconocimiento de una justificación para promover el fin pertinente, sin especificación de tiempo verbal, y b) una creencia de que el momento es ahora, que vuelva apropiado el tiemp o presen te. Por otra parte, un compromiso con ese mismo juicio sin tiempo verbal también es acarreado por un juicio en tiempo futuro en el mismo sentido, realizado antes. Tanto el juicio “Tengo una razón ahora para hablar italiano” como el juicio (realizado seis semanas antes) “En seis semanas tendré una
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I.A INTERPRETACIÓN DE RAZONES PRUDENCIALES
79
diera parecer más aceptable). El otro es el supuesto de que los juicios prácti cos, así como otras clases de juicios, están en consonancia con la concepción de uno mismo como un ser temporalmente extendido, para el cual el futuro no es menos real real que el presente. Esta con cepción cepci ón exige que uno sea capaz capaz de considerar todos todo s los momentos, incluyendo el el presente, desde el punto de vista de una neutralidad temporal. temporal. Cualquier clase de juicio que no pueda adaptar se a ese punto de vista sólo podrá ser aceptada al costo de la disociación de la extensión temporal de uno mismo. Incluso si si el resultado se sostiene, de cualquier manera, man era, existe la siguiente dificultad. Es evidente que los efectos motivacionales de un determinado determinado jui cio práctico prác tico sin tiempo verbal variarán según la relación temporal de uno con la circunstancia a ser considerada. Ya sea que esa circunstancia sea pasada, presente o futura, guardará relación no sólo con la conveniencia de formular juicio jui cioss prácti prá ctico coss en un cierto cie rto tiemp tie mpoo verbal ver bal,, sino sin o tambié tam bién n con co n qué cosa co sa me conduce condu ce a hacer esos juicios juicio s -pue -p uesto sto que lo que puede hacerse para promover un fin depende de la propia relación temporal con ello, entre otras cosas-. Si el asunto del juicio yace yace en el pasado, entonces, en tonces, a menos m enos que que yo tenga extra ñas opiniones acerca de la causalidad, sólo puede motivarme a querer que que algo haya sucedido, sucedido, o a esperar haber haber hecho algo o a lamentar no haberlo hecho. Y si no tengo ninguna noción de mi situación temporal, no estaré apto para actuar, no importa cuán precisas sean las conclusiones prácticas sin tiempo verbal a mi disposición. Así que la posibilidad de actuar según un juicio prác p rác tico depende del reconocimiento de la propia localización temporal. ¿De muestra muestra esto que los juicios prácticos están necesariamente disociados del pun to de vista sin tiempo verbal y, por ende, de la concepción de uno mismo como temporalmente extendido? Eso volvería inútil inútil argumentar que ciertos tipos de razón práctica, en este terreno, escapan a tal disociación.
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80
RAZONES SUBJETIVAS SUBJETIV AS Y PRUDENCIA
experiencias podrían acompañar acompa ñar mi subsiguient subsiguientee llegada a la escena. Mi relación temporal con el incendio in cendio determina sólo si espero esas experiencias experiencia s ahora o más tarde. tarde. Existe una relación de d e correspondencia corresponde ncia entre mis experiencias y el el tiempo verbal verbal del juicio al que proporcionan proporcionan evidencia. Por lo tanto, aunque no es posible evaluar la evidencia experimental para un juicio factual en tiempo verbal verbal sin conocer cono cer la relación que uno guarda con las circunstanc circun stancias ias con las que el juicio juic io trata, es posible, no obstante, obsta nte, describir sin tiempo verbal todas las relaciones de evidencia de las cuales depende tal juic ju icio io,, de d e maner ma neraa que q ue puedan pue dan extrae ext raerse rse conc co nclu lusio sione ness sin tiemp tie mpo o verba v erball sobre la base base de descripciones de de la evidencia sin tiempo verbal. verbal. N i el contenido co ntenido de un juicio en tiempo verbal ni sus conexiones probatorias son inaccesibles desde un punto de vista temporalmente neutral: sólo el tiempo verbal mismo exige el aband ono de ese punto de vista. vista. El caso es similar para un juicio práctico. Aunque uno no puede actuar de acuerdo con él a menos que uno sepa cómo se relaciona el presente con el momento del que se trata, uno puede, a pesar de ello, aceptar la conclusión. Esto es, dada una descripción sin tiempo verbal de las circunstancias que proporcionan una razón para la acción, uno puede concluir que un cierto acto debería ser emprendido. Este juicio posee contenido motivacional, porque entonces uno considera que emprender la acción está justificado, y esto es suficiente para explicar el propio deseo de que suceda, esté sucediendo o haya sucedido. Tal deseo se formará incluso si uno no sabe qué momento es. La infonnación acerca de la propia localización temporal sólo le dice a uno si la oportunidad de actuar según esta conclusión está disponible. Si el momento en cuestión es presente, uno puede actuar directamente; si todavía está por venir, la motivación puede llevarlo a tomar medidas preparatorias (que pueden, además, estar justificadas sin tiempo verbal); si ya ha pasado, uno puede sentir
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I.A INTliRF’RKTAt.'1ÓN DK RAZON I--S l’lUJDHNCIAl.luS
HI
Mi disputa básica ha sido que los juicios prácticos deben com partir con los juicio jui cioss factua fac tuales les la propi pr opieda edadd de ser asim asi m ilabl ila bles es al a l punt p untoo de vista vis ta de d e la neutr ne utra a lidad temporal. Así como un cambio desde un juicio sin tiempo verbal a uno factual no altera lo que se cree, sino sólo el punto de vista desde el cual uno lo ve, así el cambio de un juicio práctico sin tiempo verbal a uno en tiempo verbal no altera aquello de lo que uno acepta una justificación para querer, sino sólo el punto de vista desde el cual uno lo quiere. quiere. Si S i el sentido del juicio práctico cambiara o su contenido contenid o motivacion m otivacional al se perdie perdiera, ra, cuando uno se ha desviado del tiempo presente, entonces el razonamiento práctico sería un área divorciada de la concepció conc epción n de sí mismo como igualmente real real a través del tiempo.6 §6. Este argumento sustenta la proposición de que la prudencia depende de una creencia en la realidad del futuro y en una concepción de sí mismo como temporalmente extendido. Pues la prudencia depende de la aceptación de razones razones intemporales intem porales antes an tes bien que de razones razones fechadas; y las razones razones fecha das implican disociación, mientras que las razones intemporales, no. Esto se ve fácilmente. A menos que se reconozca que una razón razón fechada es presente, presente, no tiene contenido motivacional. Por lo tanto, o bien carece com com pletamente de contenido motivacional o no puede ser aplicada a otros mo mentos (ni siquiera al presente, concebido sin tiempo verbal), en el sentido en el cual se aplica en el el tiempo tiem po presente. En este caso, la declaración declarac ión “ En seis seis semanas tendré razón para hablar italiano" no expresa el mismo juicio acerca de ese momento que la declaración “Tengo razón ahora para hablar italiano", hecha seis semanas más tarde. Las razones razones intemporales, por otra parte, evitan evit an la disociación disocia ción porque per per miten la formulación de juicios prácticos sin tiempo verbal, perfeccionados ntenido motivacional. Eso Eso nos permite permite hacer el el mismo juicio práctico
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82
RAZONES SUBJETIVAS Y PRUDENCIA
Ademá Ad emás, s, las razones razones intemporales intemporales explica ex plican n el fenómeno fenóm eno de querer querer que algo haya sucedido, simplemente sucedido, simplemente porque hubo razón para ello en el pasado. Alguien que haya estado demasiado ebrio en una fiesta de anoche como para recordar lo que ocurrió ocurrió esperar esperaráá haberse haberse comportado c on moderación -n o sólo a causa de los subsiguientes efectos desagradables de una condu cta idiota, sino porque porque había razón razón para evitarlos entoncesentonces- (Sólo (S ólo sería un un consuelo parcial si si todos en la fiesta fiesta olvidaran olvidaran su comportamiento comportam iento por completo.) Tales deseos acerca del pasado son apropiados incluso si uno sabe lo que ha pasado. El arrepentimiento arrepen timiento es al pasado lo que la prudencia es al futuro; futuro; ambos son jus ti ficados por razones razones intemporales. Aunque no querría presentar una explicación detallada de las coerciones prudenciales que se siguen de las condiciones de intemporalidad, unos pocos comentarios son necesarios. La condición no es tan estricta como inicialmente podría parecer parecer.. En primer lugar, es esencialmente una condición de segundo orden, que gobierna el alcance de las influencias deductivas ejercidas por las razones primarias que se supone dadas. No puede, por lo tanto, definir los propósi tos primarios de una vida humana racional, y no debe permitirse que domine las razones razones originales cuya influencia extend ida explica. exp lica. Por ejemplo, ejem plo, no n o pue de permitirse permitirse que los recaudos prudenciales prudenciales ace rca de la satisfacción satisfacc ión de deseos futuros interfieran sin esperanza con la satisfacción espontánea de los deseos e impulsos impulsos presentes. presentes. Si uno hiciera el esfuerz esfuerzo o de vivir cada cad a mome m omento nto al servi cio de razones deducidas de todos los otros momentos de la propia vida, uno no conseguiría vivir una vida apropiada en absoluto. La espontaneidad y la inmediatez son valores en sí mismos, y eso no hace conflicto con la condición de intemporalidad, puesto que, como todos los otros valores, están ellos mismos sujetos a esa condición. Si la espontaneidad
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I.A INTERPRETACIÓN DE RAZONES PRUDENCIALES
81
Por otra parte, la simple incertidumbre de necesidades, deseos y circuns tancias futuros y la posibilidad constante de la muerte proporcionan argu mentos adicionales contra la planificación excesiva, a pesar del hecho de que las razones sean intemporales. Las necesidades presentes se conocen con una especificidad mucho mayor que las futuras. Todos estos factores prevendrán el sometimien someti miento to de las consideraciones consideraci ones presentes por las de largo plazo plazo en nues nue s tros cálculos prudenciales. Finalmente, debemos considerar que los valores de una persona a menudo cambian a través del tiempo, y que esto puede limitar la aplicabilidad de las consideraciones prudenciales hasta cierto pun to. Las razones prudenciales excusan el cambio de preferencias, porque si, por ejemplo, mis preferencias alimentarias fueran diferentes en el futuro de las que son ahora, tendría yo razó razón n entonce ent oncess para comer otras cosas, y, y, en conse conse cuencia, tengo razón ahora para colocarme a mí mismo en posición de satis facer esas futuras futuras preferencias. preferencias. Pero esto no involucra un cambio cam bio en la razón razón básica -razón para comer lo que a uno le gusta en lugar de lo que no le gusta gu sta-sino simplemente un cambio en la información (las propias preferencias) que se combina con ese principio para producir razones para la acción específica. En tanto los cambios cambio s de preferencia mismos sean considerados con indiferen cia, no hay ningún problema. De todos modos, no es preciso que sea así. Puede ocurrir que una persona crea en un momento que en algún momento futuro aceptará principios
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H4
RAZONES SU BJETIVAS Y PRUDENCIA
prudencia en ese caso? La prudencia exige que tome medidas que promuevan la realización realización de aquello para lo que habrá razón. ¿Le dan sus creencias, en el momento inicial, algún fundamento para juzgar lo que tendrá razón para hacer en el momento posterior? No es claro para mí que lo hagan, y si no, entonces enton ces la exigenc exig encia ia de la prudencia o de las razones razones intemporales puede no ser aplicable.8 §7. He ofrecido un argumento abstracto para las razones intemporales que depende de la integración de dos puntos de vista, en tiempo verbal y sin tiempo verbal, desde los cuales un individuo puede considerar su situación. Para cerrar este capítulo, permítaseme sugerir que la aparición original de razones para promover la satisfacción de deseos primarios, inmotivados, y el hecho de que todas las razones deben admitir una aplicación deductiva, puede entenderse mejor si ellas también están conectadas con la condición de unidad personal. El punto de esta digresión es reforzar la petición de que debemos volvem os hacia la metafísica metafísica para la explicación de las características básicas de la motivación racional. Consideremos primero cómo los deseos naturales dan lugar a las razones. Un apetito primario comienza como algo que le ocurre al sujeto, y ocasionalmente puede mantenerse en ese rango, considerado como una intrusión o, de alguna manera, como una curiosidad periférica. En ese caso, uno puede estar
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LA INTERPRETACIÓN l)E RAZONES PRUDENCIALES PRUDENCIALES
85
tipo de disociación que es importante aquí, aqu í, creo, es la disociación del cuerpo. cuerpo. Si alguien usa su cuerpo sólo como un instrumento para procurar las metas racionalmente aceptadas definidas por razones que no emanan del cuerpo mismo y sus deseos, enton en tonces ces es com o si otra persona, más sensual, estuviera estuviera residiendo en ese cuerpo y fuera ignorada por el sujeto racional que lo contro con tro la en la acción deliberada. O, si no ignorada, tratada tan sólo como una molestia y un objeto de represión. Para evitar semejante disociación no es necesario necesario incorpora incorporarr cada impulso impulso corporal o inclinación en el sistema racional. El principio de selección puede ser alguna clase de centralidad de la vida corporal del individuo. El hambre, la sed, el deseo sexual, el impulso a la actividad física general, la curiosidad de los los sentidos, todos ellos son fundame fun damentales ntales en el sentido no de tener un cuer cuer po meramente a su disposición, sino de ser ser,, esencialmente, esencialm ente, una persona física. física. También las las emociones centrales caen en esta categoría, aunque aunque cuanto más más alto en la escala intelectual llega llega uno en la clasificación, más susceptibles son a la crítica intelectual. La unidad del cuerpo, y la la de la persona, también tam bién subyace al hecho hech o de que que todas las razones se aplican deductivamente a cualquier cosa que promueva aquello a lo que se aplican primariamente. Si yo firmo un cheque, no es el acto de mi mano derecha, sino mi acto; y hay más para mí que mi mano derecha. Supóngase que tengo razones para redactar un cheque, pero mi
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T
e r c e r a
P
a r t e
RAZONES OBJETIVAS Y ALTRUISMO
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IX. IX. ALTRUISMO: LA CUEST CUESTIÓN IÓN INTUITIVA § 1. El problema de cóm c ómoo es posible el altruismo, si es que lo es, tiene tie ne mucho m ucho en común con c on el problema pr oblema correspondiente referido a la prudencia. prudencia. Por altruismo no entiendo entien do el abyecto autosacrifi autosacrificio, cio, sino meramente m eramente una voluntad de actuar en consideración del interés interés de otras personas, personas, sin necesidad de motivos m otivos ulte riores.1 riores.1¿Cómo ¿Cómo es posible posible que tales consideraciones puedan motivamos? mo tivamos? ¿Qué ¿Qué clase de sistema y qué otros factores adicionales intermedios son necesarios pa ra justificar y explicar una conducta con ducta que tiene por objeto el beneficio beneficio de otros? (Y en el caso cas o de la prudencia, el problema puede ser tratado sin intentar intent ar propor propor cionar un análisis demasiado fino del beneficio y el daño, la felicidad, la infeli cidad, el placer, el dolor o cualquiera que haya de ser el el determinante determin ante principal, positivo o negativo. La cuestión no es por qué estos factores particulares moti van, sino cómo, dado que motivan m otivan de una manera, pueden también también motivar de otra - a través del tiempo o al otro lado de de la brecha entre entre las personas-.) El problema problema en esta etapa no es cóm o puede puede el interés de otros motivam mo tivamos os
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90
RAZONES OBJETIVAS Y ALTRUISMO ALTRU ISMO
tatué obvios para explicar el alcance de la motivación altmística, y que son evidentem evide ntemente ente infieles al fenómeno.2 De cualquier manera, prefier prefiero o concen con cen trarme, en cambio, en tratar de proporcionar una mejor explicación, mos trando de ese nítido nítido que apelar a nuestros intereses intereses o sentim ientos para expli car el altruismo es superfluo. Mi réplica general a tales proposiciones es que, sin lugar a dudas, las personas pueden estar motivadas motiva das por la benevolencia benevo lencia,, la simpatía, el amor, el interés propio redirigido y varias otras influencias, en algunas de las ocasiones en las que procuran el interés de otros, pero que también hay algo más: una motivación disponible cuando ninguna de aqué llas está presente, y que incluso opera cuando lo están, que tiene auténtica mente el rango de una exigencia racional sobre la conducta humana. Exis te, te, en otras palabras, tal cosa com o el puro altruismo (aunque (aunqu e puede ser que no ocurra nunca aislada de todo otro motivo). Es la influencia directa del interés interés de una persona sobre las accion es de otra, simplem ente porque en sí
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ALTRUISMO: LA CUESTIÓN INTUITIVA
91
Operan aquí los mismos prejuicios que influyen, como hemos observado, en la discusión de la prudencia: la convicción de que toda motivación dehe ajustarse al modelo de una fuerza interior; el punto de vista de que detrás de toda acción motivada yace un deseo que proporciona la energía activa para ella; el supuesto de que para proveer una justificaci ju stificación ón capaz, además, adem ás, de expl expliicar la acción, dehe contarse una motivación apropiada, usualmente un deseo, deseo, entre las condiciones de la justificación. Si, como parece inevitable, hemos de explicar la influencia sobre una persona de factores externos a ella en los términos de su interacción con algo interno a ella, es natural asumir que un deseo, que puede tomar, tomar, directa o indirectamente, el bien de los otros como su objeto, debe proveer proveer la fuer fuerza za motivacional motivacio nal detrás de la conducta altruístic altruística. a. Para decirlo brutalmente: la creencia de que un acto mío beneficiará a alguien más puede motivarme motiva rme sólo porque quiero su bien o bien quiero algo alg o que lo implica.3
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92
RAZON US OBJETIVAS OBJETIVA S Y ALTRUISMO ALTRU ISMO
Las hipótesis alternativas fracasan como candidatas plausibles para una explicación completa de la acción altruística porque ninguna de ellas provée el tipo de generalidad simple y absoluta que se requiere. Hay una consideración por los otros que está más allá del alcance de complicadas reflexiones sobre la ventaja social y que no requiere la intervención de ningún sentimiento específico. La tarea es descubrir una explicación de esta motivación general y desapasionada que hará plausible su existencia. Las investigaciones introspectivas y empíricas no son muy útiles en esta área, puesto que la motivación a menudo está parcial o completamente bloqueada en su operación por la interferencia de factores que la corrompen: represión, racionalización, ceguera, debilidad. Los argumentos y las consideraciones consider aciones teóricas pueden, de todos modos, revelar la forma de un componente altruístico en la razón práctica, que será una contribución, entre otras, a la génesis de la acción.
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ALTRUISMO: LA CUESTIÓN CUE STIÓN INTUITIVA INTUITIVA
9
)
indignaría. Esto es, pensarías que tu aprieto le daría a la otra persona una razón para terminar o modificar su contribución a él, y que no haciéndolo estaría actuando en contra de razones razones que que están claramente a su disposición. disposición. En otras palabras, el argumento apela a un juicio que tú harías en el caso hipotético, un juicio que aplica un principio general que es pertinente tam bién en el presente caso. caso. N o es una cuestión cuestión de compasión, sino sin o simplemente de conectar, con el fin de ver a qué obligan las propias actitudes. El reconocimiento reconocim iento de la realidad de otra persona y la posibilidad de poner te en su lugar lugar son esenciales. ese nciales. Ves la situación situaci ón presente como un espécim en de un esquema más general, en el que los papeles pueden estar intercambiados. El factor crucial introducido en este esquema es una actitud que tú tienes hacia tu propio caso, o más bien un aspecto de la visión que extraes de tus propias necesidades, acciones y deseos. Les atribuyes, de hecho, un cierto interé interéss objetivo, objetiv o, y el reconocimiento de otros como personas semejantes a ti
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RAZONES OBJETIVAS OBJETIVA S Y ALTRUISMO
propio sentido de la realidad de otras personas es ya lo bastante vivido, el argumento puede ser superf superfluo; luo; pero puesto que la mayor parte parte de nosotros es, en diversos grados, grados, ciega a la otra gente, gen te, es útil útil que se nos pida imagina ima ginamo moss a nosotros mismos en su luga lugar, r, y apelar apela r de este este modo mo do a un elemento eleme nto objeti o bjetivo vo en el interés que sentim os por nosotros nos otros mismos, y generalizar generalizar a partir de allí. Me concentraré, por ende, en los juicios prácticos y evaluativos de cada persona acerca de sus propias necesidades, etcétera; especialmente, la relación entre las razones que le dan para actuar porque son sus razones, y las razones que piensa que proporcionan a los otros para actuar, simplemente porque son las necesidades de alguien. Nuestr N uestraa tarea primaria será descubrir descubrir el fundamento para esta última creencia. §3. La oposición primaria a mi punto de vista proviene del egoísmo, una posición general que corresponde, en esta controversia, a la preferencia por
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ALTRUISMO: LA CUESTIÓN CUES TIÓN INTUITIVA INTUITIVA
95
mente afirmar que el propietario del talón no tiene ninguna razón para apar tarlo de los dedos gotosos? Particularmente si uno es dueño de los dedos, demuestra una extraña indiferencia no considerar el dolor simplemente como com o una cosa mala en sí misma, que cualquiera tiene razón para evitar. Es difícil, en otras palabras, resistirse a la tendencia a objetivar el valor negativo que uno asigna al dolor, o le asignaría si lo experimentara, considerando irrelevante la identidad de su poseedor.
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96
KAZl >NES >NES OBJETIVAS OBJET IVAS Y ALTRUISMO ALTRUISM O
entonces todos los demás tienen tanta razón como yo mismo para apuntar a que yo lo tenga.4 Él continúa con tinúa hablando habla ndo en ese mismo m ismo sentido, pero nada nad a que se parezca parezca a un argumento es ofrecido para estas peticiones.5 Lo que yo querría explicar es exactamente lo que él da por supuesto: que a fin de aceptar algo como una meta para uno mismo, uno debe ser capaz de considerar consid erar su su realización por uno como un bien objetivo.
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ALTRUISMO: LA C U E ST IÓ N INTUITIVA
97
defenderá aquí. aquí. Y será sustentada por reflexiones acerca de lo que ocurre ocurre cuando cuand o uno actúa en interés propio. El caso en sí mismo contiene las bases para un desafío al egoísmo. Ha de d e enfatizarse enfatizarse que por “egoísmo “ego ísmo”” no me refiero refiero al punto de vista relati r elati vamente vame nte estrecho y específico de que la única fuente de razones para la acción ac ción yace en los intereses del agente. El término podría también aplicarse a una variedad de otros puntos de vista, y no me propongo propon go argumentar contra tcxl tcxlos os
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RAZONES OBJETIVAS Y ALTRUISMO
El intento de descubrir semejante exigencia general sobre la conducta tal como com o la he descrito, y de proveer una interpretación interp retación plausible plau sible de la misma, es deudor para con los anteriores esfuerzos para defender la prudencia. No sólo la empresa general, sino la forma del presente principio y del método de interpretación serán paralelos a los del caso anterior. Específicamente, se argumentará que la condición de objetividad (com o la he de llamar) es la expresión práctica de una concepción que todo sujeto racional, actuante, posee, aun-
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ALTRUISMO: LA CUESTIÓN INTUITIVA
9V
en el sentido usual del término, es decir, preocupación por las necesidades e intereses de otros individuos. No es algo obvio cuáles son nuestros intereses, sin hablar de qué parte juega jue gan n en las razones qu quee deter de termi mina nan n nuestr nue straa cond co nduc ucta. ta. Dudo, Dud o, en primer lugar, que la satisfacción de los deseos básicos se aproxime a agotar la noción de interés. interés. Por otra parte, parte, puede haber valores que no tengan nada en absoluto que ver con los intereses. De hecho, no poseo una teoría general de los
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102
RAZONES OBJETIVAS Y ALTRUISMO
Algunos ejemplos serán de mucha ayuda. Supóngase que G. E. Moore se
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RAZONES OBJETIVAS
I0Í
formulación puede resultar inaceptable para algunos. Para el propósito de mi
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104
RAZONES OBJETIVAS OBJETIVA S Y ALTRUISMO
Obsérvese Obsérv ese que la conducta a la que que estas razon razones es asignan un valor objetivo
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RAZONES OBJETIVAS
IOS IOS
Segundo Segu ndo,, tales razones razones permiten una distinción distin ción muy muy obvia entre aplicacio
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LAS CONSECUENCIAS
H7
objetivación. Las razones subjetivas pertinentes son aquellas que están liga das a la satisfacción de ciertas necesidades de uno per se, sin preocuparse demasiado sobre la fuente de esa satisfacción. De ningún modo esto es verdad para todos los intereses, y el carácter de un principio objetivo depende, en gran medida, del carácter de la razón subjeti va de la que se deduce. Si los tiñes apropiados de la vida humana son enten didos de una manera suficientemente suficientem ente excéntrica, excéntr ica, sus correlatos objetivos objetiv os pue den ser igualmente excéntricos. Por ejemplo, la condición de objetividad puede ser cumplida por principios de conducta que requieran la más feroz autoconfianza y competitividad de todos los individuos, que les prohíban positivam ente asistirse asistirse unos a otros o aceptar asistenc ia al sobrevenir dificul tades, y que sólo les impongan continuar la lucha por la supervivencia o la dominación, y ver que otros también la lleven adelante. Tal posición se seguiría seguiría de la objetiva obje tiva ción ció n de una visión del interés individual que haga de la lucha, la competen com petencia cia y el peli peligr gre) e) las las metas subjetivas sub jetivas primaria p rimarias.1 s.1 Pero no todas las razones son tan intrincadas. Al menos en algunas ocasio nes, la objetiv obj etivaci ación ón requerirá que cada quien persiga un fin fin sin complicac compl icación, ión, para perseguir perseguir el cual ya reconocem os una razón razón subjetiva; subjetiv a; la eliminac elim inac ión del dolor, por ejemplo, o la supervivencia o la satisfacción de los apetitos básicos. Si éste es el caso, entonces tenemos razón prima facie para asegurar esos fines para otros tanto como para nosotros mismos. Eso no es negar que puede haber razones razones para asegurarlos asegurarlos para nosotros mismos y aquellos estrecha es trechamen mente te rela cionados con nosotros; varios factores pueden complicar el resultado cuando hay conflicto entre las razones para ayudar a otros y las razones para ayudarse uno mismo. Pero incluso si admitimos estas posibilidades, el reconocimiento de razones jnima facie para ayudar a otros es un resultado significativo. Signi fica al menos esto: que cuando uno puede asegurar o promover tal fin para alguien más, y ya sea que a) no hay razones conflictivas, o que b) todas las otras consideraciones no hacen suficiente contrapeso, entonces uno tiene razón suficiente para actuar. La razón es simplemente que el acto de uno pro moverá la supervivencia del otro, eliminará su sufrimiento, o lo que sea. No depende de ningún deseo o interés del agente -sólo de la objetividad de cier tas razones que reconoce subjetivamente-. Este es un resultado nada trivial (de todos todo s modos, rara rara vez puede pensarse que surjan las circunstanc circun stancias ias descridescri-
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I 18
RAZONES OBJETIVAS Y ALTRUISMO
ras) y muy aceptable. No es ni paradójico ni antiintuitivo sostener que uno tiene automáticamente una razón para ayudar a alguien en necesidad si no hay razón para no hacerlo. §3. Otros factores numerosos complican el procedimiento de objetivación. C aen ae n en tres categorías. Primero, Primero, hay una una gran variación variac ión en el carácter carác ter de las las razones subjetivas plausibles, y su objetivación no siempre tomará una forma altruista simple. Segundo, puede haber justificación objetiva para restricciones en las razones objetivas que un individuo podría considerar en ciertos contextos. Tercero, Tercero, debe haber principios combinatorios para establecer conflictos entre las razones objetivas prima facie que emerjan de los intereses de diferentes personas; nada se ha dicho dic ho aún aú n sobre su naturaleza. naturaleza. En esta sección secc ión y la la siguiente consideraremos considerarem os las cuestiones cuestion es de los primeros dos tipos. El problema combinatorio tomará el resto del capítulo. Primer Primero o que nada, no todos los intereses intereses humanos human os son objetos objeto s posibles del altruismo altruismo directo. directo. La objetivación o bjetivación sería sería una cuestión relativamente relativamente simple si todos los intereses de un individuo pudieran ser definidos sencillamente en términos de la satisfacción de sus deseos o de algún subconjunto de ellos. En ese caso, el respeto que las razones objetivas requieren por los intereses de los otros se reduciría a la consideración de sus deseos, y el el único únic o problema persistente sería el concernien te a la fijación fijac ión de conflictos conflict os interpersonales. Pero no es de de ningún modo obvio que exista una con exión tan estrecha entre interés interés y deseo, o incluso que el deseo esté entre los determinantes más importantes de interés. interés. Tener ciertos deseos puede ser apenas tan importante com o evitar otros; y la satisfacción de deseos que sea contraria a los propios intereses poseer, puede, en sí misma, ser contraria al propio interés. U na complicación co mplicación más profund profundaa es la que sigue. sigue. La vida humana no co nsiste primariamente en la recepción pasiva de estímulos, placenteros o displacenteros, satisfactorios o insatisfactorios; consiste, en grado significativo, en actividades y propósitos. Si uno va más allá de las necesidades más básicas, las razones razones que que alguien tiene para conducir cond ucir su vida de ciertas maneras no son razone razoness simplemente simplemen te para realiz realizar ar ciertos fines, que por lo demás puepu eden ser realizados para él. Son razones para prosecuciones activas y compromisos, que no pueden ser puestos a cuenta suya por otra persona. En su mayor
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LAS CONSECUENCIAS
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son importantes. Personas que están pintando, o escribiendo poesía, o haciendo el amor, amor, habitualmente no agradecerán agradecerán que se les asista. asista. Es evidente que cuando tales actividades están gobernadas por por razone razones, s, las versiones objetivas objetiv as de esas razones, razones, incluso si asignan valor objetivo objetiv o a las actividades en cuestión, no producirán una exigencia inmediata de preocupación por las metas metas que alguien más tiene razón para perseguir. No sólo está uno usualmente en una mejor posición para velar por sus propios intereses, sino que hay ciertos fines y objetos que uno está en posición de perseguir lógicamente mejor mente mejor para uno que para los otros. La forma correcta de objetivación depende de la naturaleza de las razones subjetivas con las que uno comienza. En un extremo del espectro está una meta subjetiva como la eliminación del dolor física, que puede objetivarse directamente, ya que el mero fin del dolor, antes que cualquier actividad de eliminaci elim inación ón del dolor, dolor, parece ser ser nuestra nuestra única únic a finalidad en la prevención preven ción del dolor subjetivamente motivada. La satisfacción de los apetitos básicos nos proporciona un caso más complicado, puesto puesto que aunque aunque la aceptación acepta ción pasiva de tales beneficios de manos de otros es considerada considerada com o subjetivamente deseable, podría ser más deseable comprometerse activamente en la procuración de esa satisfacc ión. Los correlatos objetivo obj etivoss de tales razones razones serán correspondientemente com plejos. Justificarán Justificarán una cierta cantidad de beneficio directo, pero también revelarán un sesgo hac ia ocuparse de las propias necesidades y hacer lo posible para que otros se se ocupen de las l as suyas. suyas. Finalmente, Finalme nte, en cuestiones tales com o el gobierno de las relaciones íntimas personales, de la creación creac ión artística artísti ca y la prosecución prosecució n de una carrera, la consecu con secuenc encia ia más imporimportante de la objetivación será que tenemos razón para evitar la interferencia con otros en su dedicación a tales intereses. Las razones para hacer causa común co n ellos serán mucho más rara raras. s. Estas observaciones inciden en las condiciones de la conducta en unidades sociales, particularmente particularmente en aquellas pequeñas como la familia. familia. En la medida en que el papel de uno en una unidad social está basado en relaciones, especialmente en relaciones íntimas, se vuelve probable que la realización libre y espontánea de ese papel sea un fin en sí misma. En consecuencia, el bienestar y la la felicidad de la propia familia, por ejemplo, no n o son fines com pletamente d ifere ife ren n ciale ci ale s de la propia persec persecución ución de los mismos (aunque, para para
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RAZONES OBJETIVAS Y ALTRUISMO
140
J e la razó razón n en en cuyo reconocimiento reconoc imiento esta preocupación encuentra encarna enc arna ción racional no producirá idénticas razones para preocuparse por las viudas e hijos de otros (aunque un altruismo perfectamente general producirá cierta mente algunas consecuencias en esa dirección). Habría que subrayar que este tipo de d e restricción sobre las consecuenc consec uencias ias de la objetivación no la reduce a la vacuidad en semejantes casos. El principio aún arroja razones razones objetivas objetiv as antes ante s que meramente subjetivas subjetiva s para que la gente se preocupe por sus sus familias. E incluso inclu so si si uno derrota esas razones directam dire ctamen en te asistiendo o forzando a otros para que se ajusten a ellas, dos importantes consecuencias permanecen: hay razones para evitar interferencia con otros comprometidos comprom etidos en tales activida des, y también razone razoness para buscar las condi con di ciones sociales, económicas y políticas que hagan posibles tales propósitos, no sólo para uno mismo sino también para otros. Condiciones similares gobiernan la conducta de asociaciones más amplias y más abiertas: clubes, clubes, negocios, neg ocios, incluso nac iones.2 ione s.2 Mientras sus razones razones para para perseguir sus sus propias metas y preocuparse preocu parse por sus propios miembros sea tal que un buen manejo del compromiso legítimo sea preservado bajo la objetiva ción, los individuos involucrados en tales asociaciones están no obstante obligados a reconocer rec onocer razones razones objetivas para que otros grupos de especie simi lar persigan metas similares, con la consecuencia de que deben reconocer razones a ) para evitar la interferencia interferencia con esos propósitos en tanto tan to sea posible posible y b) para buscar la clase de orden social o internacional que facilitará tales propósitos. El puro egoísmo entre las naciones no es más defendible que entre los individuos. §4- Aún no hemos mencionado cuál es tal vez el factor primario que opera para sostener la imp ortancia de la posición personal de d e uno en un sistema de razone razoness objetivas: objetivas: el fenómeno de la competencia. C ompeten om petencias cias de diversas diversas clases permiten nuestras vidas e instituciones. A primera vista, parecen pro veer ejemplo ejemploss clásicos clásico s de razone razoness subjetivas que n o pueden admitir correlatos objetivos. objetivo s. Yo creo que esto es una un a ilusión, y que de exam inarlo surgirá que los
2
Las religiones presentan un caso más complejo. Puesto que los adherentes de una reli
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LAS CONSECUENCIAS
1 41
principios objetiv os subyacen a las razon razones es que gobiernan gobiern an la conducta cond ucta individual en situaciones competitivas. Esto revela algo importante acerca del funcionamiento cionam iento de los principi principios os objetivos. Considérese un match match de boxeo. Cada uno de los dos luchadores tiene razón para tratar de noquear al otro y evitar que el otro lo noquee a él, para emplear su propia fuerza y habilidad para sacar mejor ventaja y para evitar que su oponente lo haga. Al mismo tiempo, convendrá en que su oponente tiene razones similares. Es evidentemente absurdo insinuar que, conviniendo en ello, está reconociendo una justificación para querer o para ayudar a que su oponente triunfe. Esto crea la impresión de que las razones que operan son irreductiblemente subjetivas. Me gustaría sugerir que hay razones patentemente objetivas objetivas para que cada luchador persiga su propia victoria sin la más mínima consideración para su oponente. opone nte. Estas se se deducen de razones razones objetivas objetiva s para llevar a cabo el match, en match, en primer luga lugar. r. Está concebido conce bido para dar a los dos contendien conten dientes tes la oportunidad oportunidad de la victoria competitiva y tal vez ganancias monetarias, y también para dar a los espectadores el placer de observar semejante seme jante contiend con tienda. a. Este fin está mal servido si los luchadores se asisten uno al otro. Uno no puede obtener una victoria sobre un oponente complaciente. Ciertos límites a las consecuencias están impuestos impuestos por los golpes golpes reglamentarios, los pesados guantes guan tes de box y la presencia de un facultativo que puede detener la lucha con fundamentos médicos. Pero Pero dentro de esos límites es esencial esencial para el el punto p unto objet o bjetivo ivo del match que match que los contendientes mismos se concentren sólo en ganar. Nada más es compatible con su papel. Las consideraciones que los activan parecen, por lo tanto, puramente subjetivas; pero es posible ofrecer una justificación objetiva para esto, aunque no sostengo que tal justificación discurra por la cabeza del boxeador promedio mientras aporrea a su oponente hasta la insensibilidad. Este tipo de restricción objetivamente justificada sobre los tipos de razones que uno está dispuesto a considerar es extremadamente común y trasciende el fenómeno de la competencia. competencia. La competencia misma es omnipresente, no sólo en los juegos jue gos y deportes, sino s ino en los negocios, negocio s, la política polí tica,, la ley y, a veces, incluso en las arte artes. s. Los abogados no colaboran con los argumentos de sus oponentes en la corte; ésa no es la idea de la lógica de la competencia. Incluso allí donde la competencia y la oportunidad de ganar no son el punto principal de un proce-
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142 142
RAZONKS OBJETI VAS Y ALTRUISMO ALTRUIS MO
La existencia existen cia de razones razones objetivas contra la consideración de razones razones obje tivas es apenas un ejemplo de un fenómeno extremadamente común. Las razones de una especie dada exigen continuamente su propia supresión. El único modo de correr escaleras abajo es no intentarlo; no puedes hacer que ella te ame haciendo lo que crees que hará que te ame; no impresionarás a tu interlocutor a menos que dejes de intentar impresionarlo. Principios de tal suerte a menudo son verdaderos, y en nuestra precedente discusión de la prudencia hemos tropezado con uno: que la preocupación exclusiva por la ventaja de uno a largo plazo no es ventajosa para uno a largo plazo. Por lo tanto, no debería ser sorprendente que haya justificación objetiva para restricciones sobre la consideración conside ración de razon razones es objetivas, objetiva s, tanto ta nto en el contexto conte xto de prácticas competitivas como en otros. Los ejemplos que he ofrecido sólo pretenden sugerir de qué modo la aparienc apar iencia ia de irreductible subjetividad subjetivid ad puede eliminarse en otros casos. Pienso que no es irrazonable creer que tales consi deraciones harán posible ajustar las sutilezas de la razón práctica a principios objetivos, aunque ni siquiera puedo iniciar semejante proyecto aquí. Las demandas de la objetivación son, por lo tanto, complejas, pero no triviales. Incluirán casi con seguridad una exigencia de simple altruismo interpersonal en asuntos de necesidad humana básica. Todos tenemos razón para ayudar a gente que está muriendo de hambre y para para evitar que se les llene llene de granadas o se les cubra de napalm -incluso si no son allegados, amigos o compatriotas-. §5. Las limitaciones sobre el puro altruismo esbozadas hasta aquí conciernen primariamente primariamente a aquellos aspectos en los los cuales, cuales, a pesar de la objetividad de las razone razones, s, un individuo individ uo está justificado justifica do a prestar más atención aten ción a sus propios problemas y a las necesidades de aquellos aquello s que le son cercano cer canoss que a los proble proble
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Por supuesto que tampoco se dijo nada sobre cómo los conflictos entre razones prima facie se han de resolver en eell nivel puramente subjetivo, s ubjetivo, y algunos de los problemas de la combinación interpersonal pueden manejarse importando métodos combinatorios directamente del sistema subjetivo al objetivo. objeti vo. O puede pensarse que que el el proceso de objetivación objet ivación,, cuando cuand o se aplica a principios combinatorios subjetivos, arrojaría de alguna manera principios combinatorios adecuados a decuados para para manejar conflictos con flictos entre razones razones objetivas prima facie. Creo que la solución no es tan simple como eso. Las razones para esto pueden verse sin conocimiento de los principios combinatorios reales que gobiernan las razon razones es subjetivas.3 subjet ivas.3 Pues Pues supóngase que hay hay algunos principios para el caso individual que asignan pesos relativos a los diferentes tipos de razones razones;; toman tom an en cuenta cuen ta las probabilidades y las deseabilidades deseabilid ades y nos habili habi li tan para evaluar la racionalidad de los riesgos. Incluso sin especificar esos principios, parece claro que si las razones subjetivas cuya combinación ellos gobiernan deben ser objetivadas, también deben serlo los principios principios combi com bi natorios. Pero esto sólo implica que cuando se nos presentan varias razones objetivas que se oponen a los intereses de otra persona, debemos pesarlas contra otro por los mismos principios que sería natural que ese individuo em pleara al pesar las razones subjetivas de las cuales se originan. Esto no dice nada, de todos modos, sobre qué principios han de emplearse al establecer conflictos entre razones objetivas que se oponen a intereses de diferentes personas. Cuando considero una variedad diversa de razones que se oponen a los intereses de otro debo aplicar la misma función de decisión que él mismo podría aplicar a ellas racionalmente. No se concluye, de cualquier modo, que yo pueda aplicar esta misma función a una colección de razones opuestas a los intereses de ambos o a los intereses de él y los de alguien más. De hecho, parece improbable que las versiones objetivas, incluso de princi
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144 144
RAZONES OBJETIVAS Y ALTRUISMO ALTRUISM O
cualesquiera dos (o más) personas. El defecto de cualquier aplicación al caso interpersonal del correlato objetivo de un principio combinatorio subjetivo es que deja de tomar seriamente la distinción entre personas. Trata los deseos, necesidades, satisfacciones e insatisfacciones de personas distintas como si fue ran los deseos, etcétera, de una persona masiva. Pero esto es ignorar la significaetón del hecho (cuando es un hecho) de que los miembros de un conjunto de deseos e intereses conflictivos caigan cai gan todos dentro de las fronteras de una única vida y puedan manejarse como las peticiones de un único individuo. Los con flictos entre entre los intereses intereses de individuos distintas, distin tas, por otra parte, parte, deben conside con side rarse rarse en parte como conflictos co nflictos entre vidas; y ésa es una cuestión cuest ión muy muy diferente.4 diferen te.4 §6. ¿Dónde podemos, entonces, descubrir principios combinatorios que go biernen el conflicto interpersonal? Sin ofrecer una solución explícita, me gustaría sugerir sugerir que sólo se puede arribar arribar a tales principios a través de la apli cación cació n ulterior de la condic condición ión de congruencia cong ruencia y a la exigencia exigenc ia de objetividad que se deriva de ella. Ahora debemos especular acerca de a qué pueden apli carse esas condiciones, a fin de arrojar un resultado satisfactorio. El problema es planteado por conflictos surgidos de la objetivación inicial de razones subjetivas ya reconocidas. Si ahora agregamos a esta información que debe haber algún m étal ét alo o para para resolver resolver esos esos conflic conflictos, tos, se nos presenta un nuevo nuevo objeto para las preferencias subjetivamente motivadas y para la aplicación de principios subjetivos. Es a través de la objetivació objetiv ación n de estas estas razones subjetivas para la preferencia preferencia entre métodos de combinaci com binación ón de razones objetivas objetiv as prim prima facie que debemos buscar construir principios objetivos de combinación. Los individuos diferirán, de todos modos, en los principios combinatorios que encuentren razones subjetivas para preferir. No es posible descubrir, de un modo de por sí evidente, una preferencia subjetiva operante en tales cir
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LAS CONSECUENCIAS
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señalan para un tratamiento preferenci preferencial al en caso cas o de conflicto entre él mismo y alguien más. De cualquier manera, la versión objetiva de tal principio esta blecería que todo individuo recibiría recibiría tratamiento tratamie nto preferencial preferencial en caso de con flicto; y eso sería una contradicción. Por esta razón no podemos considerar ningún principio subjetivamente atractivo que señale a un individuo individuo para tratamiento especial. La elección se restringirá, por lo tanto, a principios que son ya objetivos e impersonales. Pero aunque cualquier preferencia subjetiva por un principio combinatorio de esa clase será, por lo menos, objetivable sin contradicción, no resolverá nuestro problema. El conflicto reaparecerá si diferentes personas, al elegir entre los posibles principios interpersonales objetivos, arriban a diferentes conjuntos de preferencia preferenciass subjetivas. N o hay hay ninguna duda de que tales dife dife rencias aparecerán; incluso si suponemos que todos los seres racionales acep tan un sistema uniforme de valoración mtrapersonal (que equilibre la impor tancia de maximizar los beneficios probables con la importancia de minimi zar la máxima pérdida, por ejemplo) -aun sus preferencias entre principios interpersonales diferirán diferirán a causa de las diferencias en sus circunstancias, circun stancias, y en lo que pretenden ganar, ganar, perder o arriesgar arriesgar de sistemas gobernados gob ernados por diversos principios de combinación interpersonal-. Hay un conflicto natural entre un deseo de obtener del del sistema la máxima gan ancia anc ia posible y un deseo de mini min i mizar la pérdida posible; hay escaso atractivo subjetivo en un sistema que lo aplastará a uno bajo sus patas para el beneficio de otros. Si los individuos consideran las posibilidades subjetivamente, estos factores influirán sobre su preferencia entre principios combinatorios combin atorios según su evaluación evalu ación de sus propias chances. Los desacuerdos resultantes generan un nuevo problema combinatorio, para para el que no se presenta presenta ninguna solución o bjetiva. S i pudiéramos pudiéramos imaginar imaginar
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RA A )NES OBJETIVAS Y ALTRUISMO
§7. La resolución de este problema vale requerir el descubrimiento de un juic ju icio io subj su bjet etiv ivo o en el cual cu al todo to do el mundo mun do pudiera pud iera estar est ar de acuerd acu erdo, o, y cuya c uya objetivación no conduciría, por lo tanto, a un conflicto ulterior. Pero parece imposible imposible que semejan te acuerdo prevaleciera bajo ba jo las las presentes condiciones de elección. Por esta razón, no parece haber otra alternativa que alterar esas condiciones condicion es colocando colocand o ciertas coacciones coaccion es adicionales en la selección subjeti vamente determinada de principios objetivos de combinación. Este puede parecer un paso peculiar, pero es posible justificarlo de la si guiente manera. El problema de asentar sobre un principio de combinación confronta a alguien que previamente reconoce la presencia de razones objeti vas deducidas de los intereses de todas las personas, y que, por lo tanto, debe emplear algún principio p rincipio para arribar arribar a conclusiones conclusione s prácticas basadas en esas razones. Simplemente no puede hacer nada. Por eso, si parece no haber una única solución, debe intentar construir construir una encontrand o alguna medida medida de la adecuación de un principio al dar peso objetivo completo a las preferencias subjetivas de cada individuo. Si hay algún punto de vista construido artifi cialmente desde el cual todos los individuos pueden llegar a un acuerdo sub jetiv je tivam am ente en te deter det ermi mina nado do sobre la preferib pre feribilid ilidad ad de un cierto cie rto princi pri ncipio pio,, eso proveerá dicha medida. De hecho, hech o, hay más de un punto de vista semejante, sem ejante, y arrojan acuerdos sobre la preferibilidad de diferentes principios. Es, por lo tanto, necesario considerar los métodos de restricción por los cuales estas condiciones artificiales artificiales de elección pueden construirse construirse,, con el fin de ver cuál de ellos implica la menor omisión de las distinciones entre esos individuos cuyas preferencias preferencias subjetivas se están consultando. Todos los tipos de coacción que he de considerar involucran una imposi ción artificial de uniformidad a las condiciones informativas de elección. La diferencia inevitable entre las preferencias de individuos con un único siste ma de evaluación intrapersonal se debe tanto a las diferencias de gusto como
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LAS LA S CX5NSE CX5NSECU CU ENCIAS
147
cia de sus circunstancias: qué es lo que él en particular tiene que ganar o perder de un principio de evaluación interpersonal dado. Cada quien debe elegir bajo condiciones similares de expectativa. No es obvio que cualquier restricción de la información suficientemente fuerte para producir unanimi dad no vaya al mismo tiempo a hacer imposible dar a los reclamos y las nece sidades de cada individuo su debido peso. De todas formas, puesto que me parece la única línea de solución posible, presentaré y discutiré brevemente cuatro ejemplos de este tipo de elección artificialmente construida. Todos implican despojar al elector de sus supuestos ordinarios acerca de quién es, y sustituir la información diferente. Todos parecen insatisfactorios en cierta manera, pero sirven para ilustrar el procedimiento. El primer primer ejemplo a considerar co nsiderar ya fue menciona menc ionado do antes, y también lo fue la principal crítica contra él. Esta es la solución utilitaria. Depende de la aplicación, a conflictos interpersonales, de los mismos principios utilizados para plantear conflictos entre razones surgidas de los intereses de una única persona. persona. Las condiciones cond iciones de elección que corresponden corresponden a este principio son que el que elige debería tratar las reclamaciones en competencia surgidas de distintos individuos como si surgieran de un individuo único, él mismo. Ha de elegir sobre el supuesto de que todas estas vidas han de amalgamarse en una vida, la de él. Pero esta situación es inimaginable, y en tanto no lo es, distorsiona completamente la natural natural de las reclamaciones en com
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148
RAZONES OBJETIVAS OBJETIVA S Y ALTRUISMO ALTRUISM O
decisión racional, los individuos acordarían acerca del mejor principio de evaluación interpersonal desde este punto de vista. Pero aunque una elección bajo tales cond iciones reconocería que que los beneficios beneficios y perjuicios disponibles habrían de distribuirse entre distintos individuos en lugar de ser acumulados acumulad os por un único individuo, ind ividuo, la decisión seguiría dependien do de las condiciones para contraponer probables ganancias con probables pérdidas para una vida individual. En tal situación, podría ser racional aceptar un pequeño riesgo de esclavitud o muerte a cambio de una muy buena chance de lujuria lujuria opulen ta, si así es como el equilibrio equ ilibrio de costos sociales so ciales trabaja. Es tentador sentir que si uno gana una partida semejante, el riesgo concomitante puede darse darse por cancelado. Pero Pero es dudoso que que semejante sem ejante sentimiento pueda proveer las bases para un principio correcto de evaluación interpersonal, dado que todas las vidas que se presentan, opulentas o miserables, van a realizarse. No parece parece que las víctimas de semejante sistema pudieran pudieran admitir que éste les ha concedido a sus reclamos y necesidades el debido valor, pues en la consideración que guía la selección de ese sistema, sus vidas sólo son son consideradas co nsideradas como co mo posibilidades, posib ilidades, mientras que sus sufrimientos son, de hecho, reales. El tercer método se parece al desarrollado por Rawls para arribar arribar a principios de justicia para la evaluación de instituciones sociales.8 Debe subrayarse
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LAS CONSECUENCIAS
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Una posición original similar podría utilizarse para producir acuerdo en principios de evaluación interpersonal de naturaleza más general. Tendría que pedirse a cada quien que eligiera un principio subjetivamente sobre el supuesto de que su identidad y posición en la población están previamente fijados, pero que él no sabe quién es. ¿Qué clase de elección haría uno bajo semejantes condiciones? Rawls sostiene que donde se trata de elegir elegir principios de justicia, uno elegiría razonablemente como si estuviera “concibiendo una práctica en la que su enemigo fuera a asignarle su lugar”.9 Argumenta que si la elección es para determinar bajo qué instituciones sociales básicas debe uno vivir, los factores que militan por el conservadurismo son suficientemente fuertes fuertes para volver inapropiada una decisión bajo el supuesto supuesto de que todas las posibilidades son igualmente probables. Afirma que estos factores exigen, en cambio, que uno adopte un principio de interés absoluto para la minimización de la m áxima pérdida o la desventaja desven taja posible bajo el sistema. Estas condiciones, particularmente la última, me parecen difíciles de establecer y muy lejos de ser obvias. Devienen aun menos obvias si se aplica el mismo método, no a la selección de los principios de justicia social sino a nuestro problema de seleccionar un principio de evaluación interpersonal general. Es arduo decidir cómo diferirá la elección de tal principio bajo las condiciones descritas aquí de una elección comparable bajo las condiciones del segundo método, descrito más arriba. Además, ambos métodos compar-
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15 0
RAZONES OBJETIVAS OBJETIVA S Y ALTRUISMO ALTRUISMO
elección de un principio interpersonal garantizan un reconocimiento adecuado de las reivindicaciones de todo individuo que se tome en consideración. La propuesta es ésta. Para acordar un peso apropiado a las necesidades, los deseos y los los intereses de todo individuo, uno debe exigir que la elecció n de un principio de evaluación interpersonal se realice bajo la condición de que el elector espere espere conducir con ducir codas las vidas en cuestión, no como com o una única suprasupravida, sino como un conjunt con junto o de vidas individuales distintas, cada cad a una de ellas ellas un conjunto completo de experiencias y actividades. Si semejante procedi miento de decisión pudiera pudiera hacerse inteligible, garantizaría garantizaría ciertamente a las reivindicaciones de cada individuo una voz idéntica y completa en la consi deración de cuál principio de evaluación adoptar. Pero no está claro cómo podría hacerse esto. Yo creo que las condiciones de elección pueden entenderse metafísicamente, puesto que podemos imaginar a una persona dividiéndose en varias personas, cada una de las cuales ejerce en la original, a través del tiempo, la clase de relación que constituye la identidad personal transtemporal para un individuo ordinario. Puesto que la identidad de las personas a través del tiem po no es estricta identidad de etapas personales, la pérdida de de transitividad transitivida d no tiene por qué qué causar alarma. La relación entre diferentes etapas de una única persona es, en algunos aspectos, como la relación entre diferentes partes de
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LAS CONSECUENCIAS
151
sería sería racional bajo tales condiciones? El problema de cóm o juzgar juzgar reivindicaciones conflictivas de diversas diversas perspectivas personales personales en esta situación hipotética podría ser exactamente el que estamos tratando de resolver en los términos de nuestro modelo: el problema de cómo darle el debido reconocimiento a las preferenc preferencias ias subjetivas de cada uno en un sistema de combinación combina ción interpersonal, teniendo en cuenta el hecho de que las razones a ser combinadas emanan de muchas vidas individuales y no de una vida masiva con un número astronómico de experiencias y episodios. episodios. Tal vez vez el modelo no es más m ás que una imagen, im agen, pero a mí me parece parece que es útil, pues vuelve plausible la posición extremadamente estricta de que puede no haber ninguna compen sación interpersonal interpersonal del del sacrifici sacrificio. o. S i uno trabaja desde esa posición, pos ición, arribará arribará entonces enton ces a un resultado similar al que Rawls deduce de su construcción const rucción.. Es decir que uno sentirá que la prioridad debe darse, en cualquier principio de evaluación combinatoria, a mejorar a la parte de la población que está peor, y que es permisible acrecentar los beneficios de aquellos que están mejor sólo si no n o es un costo para quienes están por debajo de ellos.11 Habiendo Habiend o planteado el problema, y habiendo señalado algunos posibles posibles caminos para su solución, no intentaré llevar la cuestión más allá. Es una cuestión extremadamente importante y difícil, y una teoría moral sustantiva debe intentar darle respuesta. Yo no estoy, estoy, por consiguiente, consiguien te, en posición de d e presentar una teoría moral sustantiva, pero ése no ha sido mi propósito. Antes bien, he
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CONCLUSIÓN S i el argumento argum ento principal de este libro es correcto, ¿en ¿en qué sentido senti do ofrece una una respuesta respuesta al escepticism o moral? Creo Cr eo que no puede demostrarse que ninguna forma de escepticismo, epistemológico o moral, sea imposible. Lo mejor que uno puede hacer es poner de manifiesto su costo, mostrando cuán profundas y penetrantes son las perturbaciones del pensamiento que él conlleva. Hay más de una manera de hacer esto. En el presente caso, he tratado de demos
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IM
CONCLUSIÓN
ciertas proposiciones en su terreno terreno habitual, sino sin o una negativa negativ a a dejarse persua dir, a través de consideraciones que suelen verse como proveedoras de razones morales, de la justificación para hacer o querer ciertas cosas. Esto explica por qué un ataque destinado al éxito dehe estar dirigido contra el escepticismo volitivo antes que contra el cognitivo.1 Una Un a estrategia estrategia posible sería sería la de mostrar que tal escepticismo está en radical conflicto con las intuiciones prácticas a las que cada quien, el escéptico inclui do, está crónicamente crónica mente sujeto y que son susceptibles de un alto grado de sistema tización. Tal respuesta puede ser útil si el escéptico no está consciente del ex tenso campo de juicios que su posición le exige abandonar; pero puede estar dispuesto a extender sus dudas a la validez de todas las intuiciones citadas. Mi argumento no ha dependido de una apelación a las intuiciones, excep to donde he tratado de demostrar que las consecuencias de adoptar un siste ma de razones objetivas no están desesperadamente en contradicción con la
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C ON CL U SIÓ N
155
De cualquier manera, eso no evitará la formación de un nuevo escepticismo en un nivel más profundo. Es posible preguntar por qué uno debería sentirse tirse compelido a evitar ev itar la disociación de los dos puntos de vista v ista en materias materias prácticas. Sin duda, es concebible que alguien sea capaz de llegar a juicios prácticos motivacionalm motiva cionalmente ente efectivos sólo desde el punto de vista personal; personal; entonces enton ces sería incapaz de hacer el mismo m ismo juicio acerca de otros o acerca de sí mismo concebido impersonalmente, pero eso no involucra ninguna contradicción. dicció n. Si S i asumimos asum imos que su su habilidad general para considerar el mundo y a sí mismo impersonalmente permanece perman ece intacta, intacta , de manera que no es un solipsista total, enton en tonces ces siempre le será posible adoptar adopta r un punto de vista desde el cual todos los intereses prácticos desaparezcan, desaparezcan, aunque las circunstancias circunstancia s bajo concon sideración permanezcan inalteradas en cada detalle. La misma información que cuando es considerada personalmente justifica un juicio práctico no hará lo mismo cuando se la considere impersonalmente. ¿Qué objeción ulterior ulterior se se
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156 156
CONCLUSIÓN
Decir que el altruismo y la moralidad son posibles en virtud de algo básico b ásico en la naturaleza humana no es decir que los hombres son básicamente buenos. Los hombres son básicamente complicados. Cuán buenos son depende de si ciertas concepciones y maneras de pensar han conseguido prevalecer; una prevalencia que es, en cualquier caso, precaria. La manera en que los seres seres humanos se han conducido con ducido hasta ahora no estimula el optimismo acerca del futuro moral de la especie.
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ÍNDICE ÍNDICE AN AL ÍTICO altruismo, 27-29, 89-94, 97-99, 136143 143 Anscombe, G. E. M., 54n aprobación, 122, 128 Aristóteles, 23, 32, 39n arrepentimiento, 80, 82 Arrow, K., 146n ausencia de tiempo verbal, 58-59, 62
epistemología, 154n escepticismo, 67n, 153-155 estructura, 26,41-43, 45, 90 extemalismo, 19-20 Falk, W. D., 19n fenomenalismo, 154n Frankena, W. K., 19n
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158
INDICE ANALÍTICO
mal, %n medios y fines, 43-46, 43- 46, 6 1-65 -65 Medlin, B., 96 Mili, J., 20 mínimo y máximo, 145, 149-151 momento, 30, 48-55, 58, 70-80 Moore, G. E., 20, 95
razones, 57-65, y passim; principios com binatorios para las mismas, 142-151; fechada, 68; definida, 57; explicatoria y normativa, 26, 31-33, 67; generali dad de las mismas, 44-45; negativa, 57; objetiva, 101; prima faríe, 59-60, 75, 142; 142; subjetiva, 101; 101; sin tiempo verbal, verbal, 68, 112; universalidad de las mismas,
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Í N DI D I CE CE G E N E R A L
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160 160
ÍNDICE ÍNDICE GENERAL
XII. La interpretación de razones objetivas .............................................. .................................................. ....
127
XIII. Las consecuencias................................................ ............................................................................ .................................. ......
135
Conclusión .............................................. ...................................................................... ................................................. ................................. ........
153
Indi Indice ce an alítico .............................................. ....................................................................... ................................................. .......................... ..
157
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El altruismo, al que Nagel ve como cualquier conducta mo tivada por la creencia de que alguien más se beneficiará o evitará un perjuicio a causa de ella, no debe encontrar su ju s tifi ti ficc a c ió n en el inte in teré réss prop pr opio io o los lo s sent se ntim im ien ie n tos to s de simpatía y benevolencia. Más que depender de los deseos, ha de fundarse en aspectos formales de la razón práctica,
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