Lfea Lfe a Mwall` Mwall `hcs
fi f itar ^ bnart Kuhr hrb b _rbgaam`hcs irbk tda Kuhrb @htarhft`bhfl @htarhft`bhfl Wak`hfr: ]da Lfea Mwall`hcs bi Aurbpa >>hm fhm >7rm Bgtbnar >?6?, Qh`vars`ty bi Am`hnurcd am`tam ny
Kfcmflahf W. K`mclay & Jaii Wfhmars
W`mastbha _rass F h a w c a h a rf rftt ` b h b i _u _un n l ` sd sd`` h c
Pbu P bu fr fra a ra rafm fm`h `hc c f iu iull ll va vars rs`b `bh h bi td td`s `s nb nbbe be,, ib ibrr ir iraa aa!! ]d`s nbbe `s pfrt bi tda W`mastbha a-l`nrfry wdara kbst bi bur punl`gft`bhs fra iully fggass`nla ibr iraa. Ibr fggass tb kbra iraa nbbes v`s`t: www.s`mastbha.gbk/l`nrfry
Mbwhlbfm Iull _MI Y`s`t tda W`mastbha a-l`nrfry tb nrbwsa bur a-nbbes. Ibr f k`h`kfl iaa ybu gfh purgdfsa f iully iuhgt`bhfl _MI fhm ny mb`hc sb, ybu dalp tb eaap bur l`nrfry ruhh`hc.
www.s`mastbha.gbk/l`nrfry
Lfea Mwall`hcs Mwall`hcs
fi fitar ^ bnart Kuhrb hr b
W`mastbha _rass
Lfea Mwall`hcs Mwall`hcs
fi fitar ^ bnart Kuhrb hr b _rbgaam`hcs irbk tda Kuhrb @htarhft`bhfl @htarhft`bhfl Wak`hfr: ]da Lfea Mwall`hcs bi Aurbpa >>hm fhm >7rm Bgtbnar >?6?, Qh`vars`ty Qh`vars`ty bi Am`hnurcd
am`tam ny
Kfcmflahf W. K`mclay & Jaii Wfhmars
© >?6> @hm`v`mufl Futdbrs _unl`sdam ny W`mastbha _rass, La`mah www.s`mastbha.gbk W`mastbha rac`strft`bh huknar: WW_6>643???6 WW_6>643???6 @WNH 034-0?-440?-?0>-6 034-0?-440?-?0>-6 @llustrft`bh gbvar: “Lfea Y`llfca w`td Nlua Kbuhtf`h‛ Kbuhtf`h‛ ny Arhast Cr`sat (64==-60?3)5 Lunnbge ifk`ly frgd`vas frgd`vas (raprbmugam w`td park`ss`bh bi tda Lunnbge ifk`ly. ifk`ly. Gbvar mas`ch: E. Saht`he, W`mastbha _rass Lfy-but: I. Wtavahs & _.G. vfh Sbarmaebk, W`mastbha _rass
Gbhtahts Fgehbwlamc Fgehbw lamckaht kahtss L ` s t b i g b htr ` n ut br s L ` s t b i i ` c u ras _raifga
3 0 66 61
6 Ku Ku h r b f h m t d a a k a r c a h g a b i f r g d f a b l b c y Kfcmflah Kfcmf lahff W. K`mclay K`mcl ay fhm f hm Jaii Jai i Wfhmars Wfh mars
63
> F k f h g d f h c a m n y Mf r w ` h Mfv`m Glfrea
73
7 ^asafrgd bh Habl`td`g fhm Afrly Nrbhza Fca watlfhm s`tas bh tda hbrtd Aurbpafh plf`h Jbdfhhas Jbdfhh as Küllar Kül lar
11
= Fll `h cbbm trfm`t`bh2 trfm`t`bh2 sbka tdbucdts bh gulturfl kfrears `h f lfta Habl`td`g lfeas`ma mwall`hc irbk Ww`tzarlfhm dbkfs Mbpplar, Mbppla r, Wfhmrf _`gdlar, Nr`c`tta ^ùmar, Jùrc Wgd`nlar
07
1 Gbppar frtaifgts frtaifgts bi tda Kbhmsaa Kbhmsaa crbup fhm tda`r tda`r pbss`nla 667 sburgas Gfrbl`h Irfhe fhm Arhst _arh`gef 9 Ibrc`hc f gdrbhblbc`gfl gdrbhblbc` gfl irfkawbre ibr Wgbtt`sd grfhhbcs5 670 tda rfm`bgfrnbh fhm mahmrbgdrbhblbc`gfl mahmrbgdrbhblbc`gfl av`mahga Fhha Grbha 3 Grfhhbcs fs nu`lm`hcs: nu`lm`hc s: tda avblut`bh bi `htarpratft`bh `htarpratft` bh 644> - >?66 Crfaka Gfvars
690
Fge Fg e h bw bwll amc am c k aht ah t s ]da brcfh`sars bi tda Kuhrb @htarhft`bhfl Wak`hfr wbulm l`ea tb tdfhe tda Kuhrb ]rust, Qh`vars`ty bi Am`hnurcd5 tda Gbllaca bi Dukfh`t`as fhm Wbg`fl Wg`ahgas, Qh`vars`ty bi Am`hnurcd5 fhm tda Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr`as bi Wgbtlfhm, ibr prbv`m`hc i`hfhg`fl suppbrt. Sfrks Sfrks tdfhes tdfhe s fra mua tb tda t da spafea s pafears rs wdb w db gbhtr g bhtr`nu `nutam tam sb s b kugd ku gd tb kfe`hc tda Wykpbs`uk f suggass. ]dfhes ibr dalp`hc tb ruh tda avaht skbbtdly fra mua tb f huknar bi stumaht vbluhtaars irbk Frgdfablb Frgdf ablbcy, cy, Wgdbbl Wgdb bl bi D`stbry, D`stb ry, Glfss`g Glfs s`gss fhm Frgdfablb Frgdf ablbcy, cy, Qh`vars`ty Qh`vars `ty bi Am`hnurcd5 fhm flsb tb Yfs`le` Yfs`le` Ebutrfibur`, Ebutrfibu r`, Ar`h Bsnbrha-Kfrt`h fhm W`kbh C`lkbur irbk tda Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr`as bi Wgbtlfhm. _frt`gulfr tdfhes fra mua tb tda Lunnbge ifk`ly ifk`l y ibr park`ss`bh tb usa `h bur punl`g`ty, fhm sunsaquahtly fs tda gbvar ibr td`s vbluka, tda `kfca “Lfea Y`llfca w`td Nlua Kbuhtf`h‛ (Lunnbge ifk`ly frgd`va) fhm tb Kfr`a-Lbu`sa Earr, Gurftbr, Nrbklay Kusauk Warv`ga, ibr park`ss`bh tb usa tda `kfca “Lfea Y`llfca‛ (Nrbklay Kusauk Warv`ga). Nbtd `kfcas fra irbk tda gbllagt`bh bi pf`ht`hcs `llustrft`hc sgahas bi l`ia irbk prad`stbry, gbkk`ss`bham irbk Arhast Cr`sat (64==-60?3) ny tda pra-ak`haht prad`stbr`fh W`r Jbdh Lunnbge (647=-6067).
3
L`st bi gbhtr`nutbrs Crfaka Gfvars
Kfcmflahf W. K`mclay
FBG Frgdfab Fr gdfablbcy lbcy Crbup Amcai`alm @hmustr`fl Astfta Lbfhdafm K`mlbtd`fh AD>? 0WP Wgbtlfhm
Frgdfablb Frgdf ablbcy cy Wgdbbl bi D`stbry, Glfss`gs fhm Frgdfablb Frgdf ablbcy cy ]da Qh`vars`ty bi Am`hnurcd S`ll`fk S`ll `fk ^bnartsbh ^bnar tsbh S`hc ]av`bt _lfga Am`hnurcd AD4 0FC Wgbtlfhm
Mfv`m Glfrea
Mfv`m Glfrea Ibrkar Eaapar bi Fht`qu`t`as Hft`bhfl Kusauks bi Wgbtlfhm Am`hnurcd Wgbtlfhm Fhha Grbha Grb ha
FBG Frgdfab Fr gdfablbcy lbcy Crbup Amcai`alm @hmustr`fl Astfta Lbfhdafm K`mlbtd`fh AD>? 0WP Wgbtlfhm
Jbdfhhas Jbdfh has Küllar Külla r
@hst`tut iür Qr- uhm Irüdcasgd`gdta Gdr`st`fh-Flnragdts-Qh`vars`tít M->=664 E`al Carkfhy Arhst _arh`gef
@hst`tut iür Qr- uhm Irüdcasgd`gdta uhm Frgdíblbc`a mas K`ttalfltars, Qh`vars`tít ]ün`hcah Carkfhy
]dbkfs Mbpplar
@hst`tuta ibr _rad`stbry fhm Frgdfablb Frgdf ablbc`g c`gfl fl Wg`ah W g`ahga ga Nfsal Qh`vars`ty Wpflahr`hc 6=1 =?11 Nfsal Ww`tzarlfhm
Wfhmrf _`gdlar
@hst`tuta ibr _rad`stbry fhm Frgdfablb Frgdf ablbc`g c`gfl fl Wg`ah W g`ahga ga Nfsal Qh`vars`ty Wpflahr`hc 6=1 =?11 Nfsal Ww`tzarlfhm
Gfrbl`h Irfhe
@hst`tut iür Qr- uhm Irüdcasgd`gdta uhm Frgdíblbc`a mas K`ttalfltars, Qh`vars`tít ]ün`hcah Carkfhy
Nr`c`tta ^ùmar
@hst`tuta ibr _rad`stbry fhm Frgdfablb Frgdf ablbc`g c`gfl fl Wg`ah W g`ahga ga Nfsal Qh`vars`ty Wpflahr`hc 6=1 =?11 Nfsal Ww`tzarlfhm
0
Jaii Wfhmars Wfhm ars
Jùrc Wgd`nlar Wgd` nlar
]da Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr`as bi Wgbtlfhm Hft`bhfl Kusauks Wgbtlfhm Gdfknars Wtraat Am`hnurcd AD6 6JI Wgbtlfhm
@hst`tuta ibr _rad`stbry fhm Frgdfablb Frgdf ablbc`g c`gfl fl Wg`a W g`ahga hga Nfsal Qh`vars`ty Wpflahr`hc Wpflahr`hc 6=1 =?11 Nfsal Ww`tzarlfhm
6?
L`st bi i`curas I`cura 6.6 I`cura >.6 I`cura >.> I`cura >.7 I`cur `curaa 7.6 7.6 I`cur `curaa 7.> 7.> I`cura 7.7 I`cur `curaa 7.= 7.= I`cura 7.1 I`cur `curaa 7.9 7.9 I`cura 7.3 I`cur `curaa 7.4 7.4 I`cur `curaa 7.0 7.0 I`cura `cura 7.6? 7.6? I`cura `cura 7.66 7.66 I`cura `cura 7.6> 7.6> I`cura I`cura 7.67 I`cura `cura 7.6= 7.6= I`cura I`cura 7.61 I`cura `cura 7.69 7.69 I`cura 7.63 I`cura 7.64 I`cura `cura 7.60 7.60
L fea Y` l l fc a . ^bnart Kuhrb. Kuhrb ft Dyhmibrm Grfhhbc. A x g f v f t ` b h s f t F rm b g d . Habl` abl`td td`g `g fhm fhm Afrl Afrlyy Nrb Nrbhz hzaa Fca Fca wat watlf lfhm hm sattlakahts `h Gahtrfl Aurbpa. G`rg G`rguk uk-F -Flp lp`h `haa p`la p`la mwa mwallll`h `hcs cs fhm fhm wat watlf lfhm hm s`tas. “Dbusa 6‛ Duhta 6 ft tda Mükkar. Habl` abl`td td`g `g s`t s`tas as `h `h tda tda Blma Blmahn hnur urca carr Crf Crfna nah, h, Afst Dblsta`h. ]da sattlakaht ft Blmahnurc-Mfhhfu. Nur`f ur`fll irb irbk k tda tda satt sattla laka kaht ht ft Blmahnurc-Mfhhfu. _bsts `h tda wat fraf bi Blmahnurc-Mfhhfu. Duk ukfh fh seul seulll irb irbk k tda tda wat wat fra fraff `h `h Blmahnurc-Mfhhfu. K`mm K`mmla la Hab Habl`l`td td`g `g kfg kfgaa dafm dafm w`t w`tdd f mag magbr brft ftam am wbbmah sdfit irbk Blmahnurc-Mfhhfu. ]da wall wall irb irbk k tda tda sattla sattlakah kahtt bi bi Blmahnurc-Mfhhfu. Nalfu Nalfu.. ]da ]da bpah` bpah`hc hc up bi bi lfhmsg lfhmsgfpa fpa rail railagt agtam am `h tda ragbrm bi Lfea Nalfu. Wuk Wuk gfl`nr gfl`nrft` ft`bh bh gurva gurvass irbk irbk s`x rac` rac`bhs bhs `h `h tda tda Hatdarlfhms tb Gahtrfl Wbutdarh Wwamah. Nfm BlmaslbaBlmaslba-S Sbleahwad bleahwada: a: ragbhstru ragbhstrugt`bh gt`bh bi dbusas. _bsts bsts irbk irbk tda blm blm axgfv axgfvft` ft`bh bh `h 601?-1 601?-1>> ny Wgdwfnam`ssah. Wattlakah Wattlakahts, ts, s`hcla s`hcla i`hms, i`hms, vbt`va vbt`va mapbs`ts mapbs`ts fhm nur`fl plfgas `h tda K`ttlara ]rfvatfl. ]da axgfv axgfvft ft`bh `bh bi bi tda tda Afrly Afrly Nrbh Nrbhza za Fca Fca s`ta s`ta Nruszgzawb 1. Far`fl pdbtbcrfpd bi tda axgfvft`bh. Db u s a s ` h t d a a f s t a r h w a t f r a f . Matf` Matf`ls ls bi bi wbbma wbbmahh gbhst gbhstrug rugt`b t`bhs hs `h tda afstarh pfrt bi Nruszgzawb 1.
>3 74 1? 16 19 14 9? 9> 97 91 91 99 99 93 94 90 3? 36 3> 3= 31 34 30
66
I`cur I`curaa 7.>? 7.>? I`cura 7.>6 I`cur I`curaa 7.>> 7.>> I`cur I`curaa 7.>7 7.>7 I`cura 7.>= I`cur I`curaa 7.>1 I`cur I`curaa 7.>9 7.>9 I`cur `curaa =.6 =.6 I`cura =.> I`cura =.7 I`cur `curaa =.= =.= I`cura =.1 I`cura =.9 I`cur `curaa =.3 =.3 I`cur `curaa 1.6 1.6 I`cur `curaa 1.> 1.> I`cur `curaa 1.7 1.7 I`cur `curaa 1.= 1.= I`cur `curaa 1.1 1.1 I`cur `curaa 1.9 1.9 I`cura 1.3 I`cur `curaa 1.4 1.4 I`cur `curaa 1.0 1.0
6>
Afrly Afrly Nrbh Nrbhza za Fca Fca wbbm wbbmah ah frta frtaifg ifgts ts irbk irbk Nruszgzawb. ]da afs t ar h w bb mw bre` hc fraf. ]da ]da lbgfl lbgfl bfe-m bfe-mah ahmrb mrb-gu -gurva rvass fhm s`hcla s`hcla bfe bfe-gurvas irbk Nruszgzawb 1. ]da ]da sattl sattlaka akaht ht nur`fl nur`fl bi f ybuhc ybuhc,, dfrmwbre`hc kfh. A f s t a r h s d b ra i b r t ` i ` g f t ` b h . ^agbh ^agbhstr strugt ugt`bh `bh bi sbg`b sbg`b-ag -agbh bhbk` bk`gg fgt`v`t fgt`v`t`as `as fhm pbl`t`gfl `hst`tut`bhs. M`fcr M`fcrfk fk bi bi tda tda bvarf bvarfllll mava mavalbp lbpkah kahtt `h Nruszgzawb 1. Lbgf Lbgft` t`bh bh bi bi tda tda Hab Habl`l`td td`g `g lfea lfeas` s`ma ma satt sattla laka kaht ht Frnbh Frnb h Nla`gda Nla `gda 7. Ma h m r b g d r b h b l b c ` g f l l y m f t a m d b u s a p l f h s . ]da garfk`gs ibuhm `h Frnbh Nla`gda 7. @hta @htarh rhfl fl m`v` m`v`s` s`bh bh bi Frnb Frnbhh Nla Nla`g `gda da 7 fggbrm`hc tb frgdfabzbblbc`gfl mftf. M` s t r ` n u t ` b h b i f h ` k f l n b h a s . Dbr`zbhtfl m`str`nut`bh bi ibra`ch garfk`gs. Axfk Axfkpl plaa bi bi f gfhb gfhbh` h`gf gfll gbr gbrra rasp spbh bhma mahg hgaa fhflys`s. W`ta W`tass bi tda tda Kbh Kbhms msaa aa crb crbup up frb frbuh uhmm tda tda lfea lfeass bi Kbhmsaa fhm Fttarsaa. G-6= G-6= mfta mftass ibr ibr tda tda s`t s`tas as bi tda tda Kbh Kbhms msaa aa crbup. Gdak Gd ak`g `gfl fl gdf gdfrf rfgt gtar ar`s `st` t`gs gs bi bi tda tda gbpp gbppar ar usa usamm `h Kbhmsaa frtaifgts. Gdak Gd ak`g `gfl fl gdf gdfrf rfgt gtar ar`s `st` t`gs gs bi bi tda tda gbpp gbppar ar usa usamm `h Kbhmsaa frtaifgts. Gdak Gd ak`g `gfl fl “i` “i`hc hcar arpr pr`h `ht‛ t‛ bi bi tda tda gbpp gbppar ar usa usamm `h Kbhmsaa frtaifgts. Lafm Lafm `sbt `sbtbp bpaa rft rft`b `bss bi bi frt frtai aifg fgts ts bi tda tda Kbhmsaa crbup. Bra m`str`gts `h tda afst Flp`ha fraf. Lafm Lafm `sb `sbtb tbpa pa rft rft`b `bss bi afs afsta tarh rh Flp Flp`h `haa gbpp gbppar ar bra. Lafm Lafm `sbt `sbtbp bpaa rft rft`b `bss bi bi frt frtai aifg fgts ts bi tda tda Kbhmsaa crbup.
4? 46 46 4> 47 41 49 01 09 03 00 6?? 6?> 6?= 66= 661 6>6 6>7 6>7 6>1 6>1 6>9 6>0
I`cur I`curaa 1.6? 1.6?
Gbkpfr Gbkpfr`sb `sbhh bi tda tda gdak`g gdak`gfl fl gdfrf gdfrfgta gtar`s r`st`g t`gss bi tda gbppar usam `h Kbhmsaa frtaifgts. frtaifgts. I`cura 1.66 Warn`fh frtaifgts. I`cur I`curaa 1.6> 1.6> Mfcca Mfccars rs bi Gugu Gugutah tah`` typa typa fhm fhm dbbea dbbeamm sp`rfl sp`rflss bi Dl`hseb typa. I`cur `curaa 9.6 9.6 M`st M`str` r`nu nut` t`bh bh bi fll fll ehb ehbwh wh grfh grfhhb hbcs cs `h Wgbtlfhm. I`cur `curaa 9.> 9.> ]da ]da gdr gdrbh bhbl blbc bc`g `gfl fl m`st m`str` r`nu nut` t`bh bh bi tda tda rfm`bgfrnbh mftfsat. I`cur `curaa 9.7 9.7 Grfh Grfhhb hbcs cs w`t w`tdd nbt nbtdd lfta lftarr pra prad` d`st stbr br`g `g fhm fhm Afrly D`stbr`g rfm`bgfrnbh mftas. I`cura 9.= ]da twb grfhhbcs `h Mfll Nfy, Lbgd ]fy. I`cur `curaa 9.1 9.1 Wuk ukkf kfry ry plf plfhs hs sdb sdbw` w`hc hc mah mahmr mrbb-mf mfta tamm pdfs pdfsas as bh Nu`stbh. I`cur `curaa 9.9 9.9 Gdrb Gd rbhb hblb lbc` c`gf gfll ralf ralft` t`bh bhsd sd`p `pss irbk irbk tda tda kfj kfjbr br gbhtaxts ft Nu`stbh. I`cura 9.3f Mbrkfh‐s @slfhm. I`cura I`cura 9.3n Mahmrbg Mahmrbgdrbh drbhblbc` blbc`gfl gfl rasults rasults irbk Mbrkfh Mbrkfh‐‐s @slfhm. I`cura 9.4f Gults Lbgd prbkbhtbry grfhhbc. I`cu `cura 9. 9.4n Mahm ahmrbgd rbgdrrbhb bhblbc` lbc`gf gfll ras rasul ults ts irbk irbk Gults ults Lbgd Lbgd.. I`cura 3.6 _lfhs bi Nu`stbh fhm Lbgdlaa. I`cura 3.> _lfh bi K`ltbh Lbgd. I`cura 3. 3.7 Frk`t, _` _`ccbtt fh fhm Ia Iafgdak ra ragbhstrugt`bhs. I`cura 3.= Muknuge grfhhbc, map`gtam ny Mbhhally. I`cura 3.1 L b g d f h Mu c d f ` l l . I`cura 3.9 B h a b i t d a s t r u g t u r a s f t Gu l t s L b g d g r f h h b c . I`cura 3.3 Nfllygfcah, @sla bi Kfh.
6>0 67? 676 6=4 6=0 616 61> 619 613 614 610 69? 696 696 63> 63= 631 633 630 64? 646
67
_raifga Mr ^bnart Kuhrb (6471-60>?) wfs f m`st`hcu`sdam kam`gfl prfgt`t`bhar fhm, irbk tda 643?s bhwfrms, flsb f eaah frgdfablbc`st w`td f pfrt`gulfr `htarast `h tda lfgustr`fh sattlakahts `h Wgbtlfhm fhm bh tda Gbht`haht. Qpbh d`s rat`rakaht irbk kam`gfl kam`g fl prfgt`ga `h 6441, ^bnart Kuhrb uhmartbbe f rav`aw bi fll lfgustr`fh rasafrgd `h Aurbpa, trfvall`hc w`maly fgrbss tda Gbht`haht stumy`hc gbllagt`bhs fhm v`s`t`hc kbst bi tda tdah ehbwh lfea-mwall`hc lbgfl`t`as. ]da rasults bi td`s wbre ibrkam tda Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr`as bi Wgbtlfhm ^d`hm Lagturas, mal`varam `h Am`hnurcd `h 6444 fhm punl`sdam twb yafrs lftar fs da Lfea-Mwall`hcs bi Aurbpa . @h 606? ^bnart Kuhrb biiaram tda Qh`vars`ty Gburt bi tda Qh`vars`ty bi Am`hnurcd f i`hfhg`fl c`it w`td wd`gd tb iuhm lagturas - tda Kuhrb Lagturas bh Fhtdrbpblbcy fhm _rad`stbr`g Frgdfablbcy - w`td tda spag`i`g f`k tb “mafl systakft`gflly w`td tda caharfl i`alm bi Fhtdrbpblbcy, aspag`flly w`td tda fht`qu`ty bi kfh fhm d`s pdys`gfl fhm kahtfl avblut`bh fs av`mahgam ny d`s ibss`l rakf`hs fhm dfhm`grfit wbres‛ (Kuhrb 60>6, 3=5 tda Kuhrb Naquast, Qh`vars`ty bi Am`hnurcd). ^bnart Kuhrb, ft tda raquast bi tda Qh`vars`ty Qh`vars`ty Gburt, mal`varam tda i`rst sar`as bi tdasa bh tda sunjagts bi “_flfabl`td`g Kfh `h ` h Aurbpa‛ fhm tda “] “ ]arrakfra‛5 tday wara f craft suggass fhm fttrfgtam lfrca fum`ahgas. Bvar tda pfst gahtury tda Kuhrb ]rust dfs naah suppbrt`hc fh fhhufl sar`as bi lagturas `h Fhtdrbpblbcy fhm Frgdfablbcy wd`gd, `h tda`r nrafmtd fhm maptd, railagt Kuhrb‐s br`c`hfl w`sd. @h >?6?, tda yafr bi tda gahtahfry bi tda Kuhrb ]rust, tda Qh`vars`ty bi Am`hnurcd fhm tda Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr`as bi Wgbtlfhm jb`htly galanrftam tda bggfs`bh w`td f skfll cftdar`hc bi gbht`hahtfl fhm Nr`t`sd sgdblfrs ft tda Kuhrb @htarhft`bhfl Wak`hfr bh ]da Lfea Mwall`hcs bi Aurbpa, wd`gd tbbe plfga bh >>hm fhm >7rm Bgtbnar. ]da sak`hfr prbv`mam fh bppbrtuh`ty tb railagt bh tda l`ia wbre bi ^bnart Kuhrb, gbvar`hc tda lfea-mwall`hcs fs wall fs d`s btdar `htarasts `h tda i`alms bi Fhtdrbpblbcy fhm Frgdfablbcy. @h biiar`hc td`s skfll vbluka, wa dbpa tdft tda salagt`bh bi pfpars prasahtam ft tda Wak`hfr w`ll ibrk f i`tt`hc tr`nuta tb ^bnart Kuhrb‐s sgdblfrly fgd`avakahts `h d`s quast bi “kfe`hc sbka `hvast`cft`bhs `htb tda kystar`as bi l`ia fhm dukfh g`v`l`sft`bh‛ (Kuhrb 60>6, 74). Kfcmflahf W. K`mclay fhm Jaii Wfhmars
61
^aiarahgas Kuhrb, ^. 640?, da Lfea-Mwall`hcs bi Aurbpa: na`hc tda ^d`hm Lagturas `h Frgdfablb Frgdf ablbcc y ibr ib r 6444 64 44 . Lbhmbh: Gfssall & Gbkpfhy, L`k`tam. Kuhrb, ^. 606?, da Kuhrb Naquast . Am`hnurcd: Qh`vars`ty bi Am`hnurcd. Kuhrb, ^. 60>6, Futbn`bc Futbn `bcrfpd`g rfpd`g Weatgd bi ^bnart ^bna rt Kuhrb K.F., K.M., LL.M, >6st July, 6471 - 64td July, 60>? . Clfscbw: KfgLadbsa, Jfgesbh fhm Gb.
69
Gdfptar 6 KQH^B FHM ]DA AKA^CAHGA AKA ^CAHGA BI F^GDF F^G DFAB ABLBC LBCP P
Kfc Kf c mfla mf lahf hf W. K`mc K` mcla layy fhm fh m Jaii Jai i Wfhm Wf hmar ars s 6
Fnstr Fns trfg fgt t
^bnart Kuhrb‐s gbhtr`nut`bh tb tda stumy bi lfea-mwall`hcs, fs wall fs btdar i`alms bi frgdfablbcy, ibllbwam tda t`ka bi mrfkft`g gdfhcas `h f dbst bi m`sg`pl`has wd`gd wara mavalbp`hc irbk tda k`mh`hataahtd gahtury bhwfrms. _unl`g fhm sgdblfrly `kfc`hft`bh wfs i`ram ny ifsg`hft`hc frgdfablbc`gfl m`sgbvar`as, haw katdbmblbc`gfl fpprbfgdas tb axgfvft`bh, `htarpratft`bh bi i`hms fhm f glbsa ralft`bhsd`p natwaah frgdfablbcy frgdfablbcy fhm btdar i`alms bi ahqu`ry sugd fs cablbcy, n`blbcy fhm fhtdrbpblbcy. ]dasa mavalbpkahts, tbcatdar w`td gbhtr`nut`bhs irbk eay frgdfablbc`gfl fhm btdar sg`aht`i`g i`curas bi tda par`bm, prbv`ma tda `htallagtufl irfkawbre ibr tda fpprag`ft`bh bi ^bnart Kuhrb‐s gbhtr`nut`bh tb frgdfablbcy, w`td`h Wgbtlfhm fs wall fs tda w`mar Aurbpafh gbhtaxt. Eay wbrms: Fht`qu`ty Fht`q u`ty bi kfh, draa Fca Wystak, Wysta k, avblut`b avbl ut`bh, h, lfealfea mwall`hcs, sdall k`mmahs, Kuhrb, Lunnbge, S`lsbh
@htrbmugt`bh
Mr ^bnart Kuhrb‐s (6471-60>?) ^d`hm lagturas `h 6444, fhm tda sunsaquaht punl`gft`bh bi tdasa `h 640? fs da Lfea-Mwall`hcs bi Aurbpa , kfream f sak`hfl kbkaht hbt just `h lfea sattlakaht stum`as, nut flsb `h prad`stbr`g frgdfablbcy `h caharfl. Kuhrb dfm prav`busly 6
Kfcmflahf W. K`mclay, Wgdbbl bi D`stbry, Glfss`gs fhm Frgdfablbcy, Qh`vars`ty bi Am`hnurcd, Kfcmf.K`mclayOam.fg.ue5 Ja Wfhmars, Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr`as bi Wgbtlfhm, sgfriOsbgfhtsgbt.brc
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syhtdas`sam ehbwlamca bh lfea sattlakahts `h Wgbtlfhm w`td d`s Fhg`aht Fhg`a ht Wgbtt`sd Wgbtt `sd Lfea Mwall`hcs Mwall `hcs (644>). _r`br tb ^bnart Kuhrb, grfhhbc stum`as `h Wgbtlfhm, fhm lfea mwall`hcs wbre `h Aurbpa, gbulm na gdfrfgtar`sam fs ahtdus`fst`g, flna`t uhsystakft`g fhm bi vfr`fnla qufl`ty. ]da punl`gft`bh bi Kuhrb‐s ^d`hm lagturas kafht tdft f irfkawbre wfs hbw `h plfga ibr iutura rasafrgd bh nbtd f Wgbtt`sd fhm f Aurbpafh Aurbp afh sgfla. ]da `kpbrtfhga bi b i Kuhrb‐ Kuhrb‐s syhtdasas `h fllbw`hc haw rasafrgd tb na systakft`sam dfm `kpl`gft`bhs ifr naybhm Wgbtlfhm. @h mb`hc sb da dalpam lfea mwall`hcs jb`h tda pfhtdabh bi astfnl`sdam frgdfablbc`gfl tbp`gs bi `hvast`cft`bh, flbhcs`ma btdar pdahbkahf `hglum`hc sdall k`mmahs fhm kacfl`tds. Kuhrb nagfka fh fgt`va frgdfablbc`st `h tda 643?s, ibllbw`hc f gbupla bi magfmas mur`hc wd`gd frgdfablbcy dfm gdfhcam s`ch`i`gfhtly, `h pfrfllal w`td btdar sg`aht`i`g i`alms bi ahqu`ry. F huknar bi eay frgdfablbc`sts, frgdfablbc`sts, s`tas, fhm `kpbrtfht punl`gft`bhs dfm naah akarc`hc irbk kfhy m`iiaraht strfhms bi frgdfablbcy fs wall fs btdar m`sg`pl`has. Kuhrb wfs hbt bparft`hc w`td`h f vfguuk, avah fs da dalpam bpah up fhm systakft`sa bha pfrt`gulfr i`alm bi ahqu`ry. Kbst bi tda k`m-h`hataahtd gahtury gbhtrbvars`as dfm ny tdah naah sblvam, fhm tda tdah haw gbhgapts fhm `mafs hbw ibrk tda nfgenbha bi frgdfablbcy fs f kbmarh m`sg`pl`ha. Dbwavar, wdft pragamam d`s `hvblvakaht `hvblvak aht dfm f prbibuhm `kpfgt bh tda mavalbpkaht bi frgdfablbcy. @t wfs f par`bm bi ifsg`hft`hc m`sgbvar`as, bi haw `mafs, haw fpprbfgdas fhm uhpragamahtam, `hmaam, crbuhm-nrafe`hc rfpprbgdakaht natwaah m`iiaraht i`alms bi sg`ahga, graft`hc f haw `htallagtufl gl`kfta wd`gd mraw tbcatdar fh fstbh`sd`hc frrfy bi pfss`bhfta `hm`v`mufls, w`td mr`va fhm w`td tda gbhv`gt`bh tdft tday wara graft`hc f wdbla haw wbrlm bi ehbwlamca. ]d`s `htrbmugt`bh tdaraibra biiars f nr`ai fhflys`s bi tdbsa turnulaht nut axg`t`hc yafrs frbuhm tda k`mmla bi tda gahtury, wdah (r)avblut`bh turham fht`qufr`fh`sk `htb tda kbmarh m`sg`pl`ha bi frgdfablbcy. ]da nrbfmar gbhtaxt irbk wd`gd Kuhrb‐s wbre mavalbpam, ft f t`ka wdah frgdfablbcy `tsali wfs akarc`hc, `s f stbry bi `hm`v`mufls fhm avahts fs wall fs nrbfmar prbgassas. ]dasa uhiblmam bvar Aurbpa, w`td`h Nr`tf`h fhm lbgflly `h Wgbtlfhm. ]da akarcahga bi frgdfablbcy
^bnart Kuhrb, ny tdah `htb d`s ibrt`as, gfka tb frgdfablbcy `h tda 643?s, fhm mur`hc d`s l`iat`ka `ts akarcahga fs f kbmarh m`sg`pl`ha gfh na trfgam. D`s wbre gbhtr`nutam `h pfrt tb td`s trfhs`t`bh irbk fh —assaht`flly m`lattfht`st fvbgft`bh‐ tb —fh brcfh`sam m`sg`pl`ha‐ (Gdfpkfh, 6040, 7=), ult`kftaly prbv`m`hc fh afrly axakplfr wbre bi syhtdas`s fhm tdus f irfkawbre ibr tda `hgbrpbrft`bh bi iutura ehbwlamca.
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]da wbre bi afrl`ar fhm gbhtakpbrfry frgdfablbc`sts pfvam tda wfy ibr Kuhrb‐s Kuhrb‐s bwh wbre. Flbhcs`ma tda frgdfablbc`gfl frgdfa blbc`gfl `hhbvft`bh ` hhbvft`bh gartf`h fht`qufr`fh tdakas gbht`huam, fhm tda sbg`fl, agbhbk`g fhm gulturfl k`l`au plfyam f gahtrfl rbla. Nrbfmar tdakas fhm `hiluahgas, wd`gd ibrk tda w`mar gbhtaxt `h wd`gd Kuhrb mavalbps fs fh frgdfablbc`st, fra tdaraibra flsb `kpbrtfht tb uhmarstfhm`hc tda mavalbpkaht bi d`s tdbucdt fs wall fs d`s frgdfablbc`gfl gbhtr`nut`bh. ]da akarcahga bi frgdfablbcy `h tda k`mmla bi tda h`hataahtd gahtury bwas kugd tb mavalbpkahts `h s`star m`sg`pl`has, aspag`flly cablbcy fhm n`blbcy. ]da punl`gft`bh bi Gdfrlas Lyall‐s (63036431) _r`hg`plas bi Cablbcy bvar 647?-77 fhm Gdfrlas Mfrw`h‐s (64?0-644>) Bh tda br`c`h bi spag`as `h 6410, raprasaht tda kbst `kpbrtfht `hiluahgas. Srast`hc frgdfablbcy iraa irbk d`stbry wfs fh uh`htahmam gbhsaquahga bi tda ragbch`t`bh bi tda maap t`ka bi prad`stbry, fhm tda mavalbpkaht bi katdbmblbc`gfl tbbls tb sbrt tda rakf`hs irbk td`s t`ka. ]da gbhgapts bi avblut`bh `tsali flrafmy parvfmam sbka bi tda afrl`ar sg`ahga wr`t`hc, w`td avblut`bhfry tdabr`as bi tda afrtd, plfhts fhm fh`kfls na`hc put ibrwfrm irbk tda a`cdtaahtd gahtury bhwfrms, ibr axfkpla ny Jfkas Duttbh (63>96303), Arfskus Mfrw`h (6376-64?>) fhm Lfkfrge (63==-64>0) (Dbnsnfwk 609>). Nut `t wfs raflly bhly wdah W`r Gdfrlas Lyall punl`sdam d`s _r`hg`plas bi Cablbcy (647?-6477) (647?-6477) tdft tda gl`kfta wfs graftam ibr tda gbhgapt bi avblut`bh tb ahtar `htallagtufl manfta `h f w`mar sahsa. Cablbcy makbhstrftam tda vary craft lahctd bi t`ka bvar wd`gd tda prbgassas bi arbs`bh fhm fggukulft`bh sdfpam tda afrtd fhm - v`tflly irbk tda pb`ht bi v`aw bi frgdfablbcy - cablbc`gfl strftf sdbwam fh avblut`bh bi plfhts fhm fh`kfls prasarvam fs ibss`ls `h m`iiaraht lfyars. Frgdfablbc`gfl av`mahga wfs `htarpratam `htarpratam `h l`cdt bi avblut`bhfry tdabry fhm gfka tb iual `ts mavalbpkaht fs haw m`sgbvar`as wara kfma. Ibr tda fggaptfhga bi tda fht`qu`ty bi kfh, tda yafr 6410 `s r`cdtly gbhs`maram fh `kpbrtfht pb`ht bi gbhvarcahga, wdah savarfl avahts gfka tbcatdar, nut afrl`ar m`sgbvar`as wara flrafmy prapfr`hc tda wfy. wfy. ]da kbst ifkbus `s tda 6419 ragbvary bi dukfh du kfh rakf`hs `h f gfva `h tda Hafhmar vfllay `h Carkfhy, fltdbucd i`hms bi frtaifgts fhm ibss`l nbhas wara kfma avah afrl`ar ny Jbufhhat `h Irfhga fhm Wgdkarl`hc `h Nalc`uk (Gbya 6003)5 btdar i`hms bi fhg`aht tbbls fhm dukfh ibss`ls ibllbwam `h tda lftar pfrt bi tda h`hataahtd gahtury. Nbtd Mfrw`h fhm Lyall wara vary kugd pfrt bi f hatwbre tdft `hglumam afrly frgdfablbc`sts, W`r Jbdh Lunnbge (647=-6067) na`hc f p`vbtfl i`cura.
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@h 6410, tda glf`ks bi fh aggahtr`g fhm parsavar`hc ^bkfht`g Irahgd fht`qufry Nbugdar ma _artdas tdft d`s fhtàm`luv`ahs mapbs`ts, mapbs`ts, gbhtf`h`hc il`ht `kplakahts fhm nbhas bi axt`hgt fh`kfls, wara f prbbi ibr tda ax`stahga bi f ibss`l kfh, wara i`hflly gbhi`rkam `h tda i`alm, mur`hc f v`s`t ny twb Nr`t`sd sg`aht`sts, tda cablbc`st Jbsapd Jbsap d _rastw`gd _rastw`g d fhm fh frgdfablbc frgdfa blbc`st `st Jbdh Avfhs, Avfhs , fhm sunsaqua suns aquahtly htly prasahtam ft vfr`bus Lbhmbh lafrham sbg`at`as. S`ll`fk _ahcaly‐s axgfvft`bhs ft Nr`xdfk hafr ]brqufy fhm tda var`i`gft`bh bi afrl`ar i`hms, kfma ny Irara ft Dbxha `h 6303, prbv`mam iurtdar gbhi`rkft`bh. L`ea btdar frgdfablbc`gfl gbhtrbvars`as bi tda par`bm td`s bha wfs sblvam ny f gbk`hc tbcatdar bi savarfl mavalbp`hc m`sg`pl`has ‗ cablbcy, frgdfablbcy, pflfabhtblbcy, fhm avah `hifht pdbtbcrfpdy, w`td tda ifkbus pdbtbcrfpd sdbw`hc tda `h s`tu i`hm bi fh fxa `h tda crfval p`t ft Wt Fgdaul (Mfh`al 60465 Gbdah fhm Dunl`h 60405 ]r`ccar >??95 Cfknla fhm Eruszyhse` >??0, I`c. >). Lyall flsb gbhs`maram tda av`mahga irbk tda Ww`ss lfea mwall`hcs `h suppbrt bi tda fht`qu`ty bi dukfhe`hm (6497, 70-=?). ]drbucd d`s gbrraspbhmahga w`td Gdfrlas Fmblpda vbh Kbrlbt (64>?-6493), f Ww`ss fht`qufr`fh fhm cablbc`st wdb flsb gbrraspbhmam w`td Mfrw`h, Lyall raga`vam nbtfh`gfl sfkplas irbk tda s`tas ft ^bnahdfusah fhm Kbbssaambri Kbbssaambri (Lage`a >?6?). ]dasa typas bi stuhh`hc frgdfablbc`gfl m`sgbvar`as wara prbv`m`hc f vad`gla ibr tda `mafs bi pabpla sugd fs Mfrw`h fhm Lyall tb gbkkuh`gfta naybhm tda sg`aht`i`g fhm fht`qufr`fh gbkkuh`t`as. @h aiiagt tday nagfka f —nfttla-crbuhm bi avblut`bhfry tdabry‐ (Wdarrftt >??=, >94). ]dasa manftas wara flsb plfyam but w`td`h fht`qufr`fh g`rglas `h Aurbpa, ibr axfkpla ft tda 6433 Gbhcrass bi tda Carkfh Fhtdrbpblbc`gfl Wbg`aty `h Kuh`gd (WelahæŐ 6047, 660). Kuhrb d`ksali wfs gbhv`hgam ny Mfrw`h‐s `mafs tb tda axtaht tdft da gdbsa tb nagbka f mbgtbr rftdar tdfh f k`h`star (Kuhrb 60>6, 3-6?5 Glfrea, td`s vbluka). @t `s `htarast`hc tb hbta tdft Kuhrb, wbre`hc w`td`h fh avblut`bhfry pfrfm`ck, `s fgt`va ft f t`ka wdara `h frgdfablbcy td`s nac`hs tb c`va wfy tb gultura-d`stbry ‗ tda ifgts frrfhcam —hbt `h t`ka nut `h spfga‐ (WelahæŐ 6047, 6>05 ]r`ccar >??9, gdfptar 9). Frgdfablb Frgdf ablbcy‐s cy‐s akarcahg akar cahgaa gfh flsb na trfgam trfg am tdrbucd tdrbu cd tda `htallagtufl fhm suppbrt`va hatwbres `h wd`gd frgdfablbc`sts kbvam. ]d`s bparftam ft f huknar bi lavals, irbk parsbhfl gbhhagt`bhs (saa nalbw), v`f lafrham, sbg`fl br m`mfgt`g sbg`at`as, tb iull nlbwh `hst`tut`bhs. ]dara wfs flsb f trfm`t`bh bi kam`gfl fhm glar`gfl prbiass`bhfls w`td frgdfablbc`gfl `htarasts (Lav`ha 6049, 6?). ]d`s tahmam tb prbkbta wdft tbmfy wbulm na gfllam f —kult`-m`sg`pl`hfry‐ fpprbfgd. ]da dafmy k`x bi sg`aht`i`g fhm ral`c`bus butlbbes dalm ny `hm`v`mufls, dbwavar, gbulm afs`ly na kfseam, br ragbhg`lam, w`td`h
>?
f sl`ga bi sbg`aty w`td s`k`lfr sbg`fl stfhm`hc, amugft`bh nfgecrbuhm fhm butlbbe. L`narfl-k`hmam fht`qufr`fhs gbulm afs`ly k`x w`td tdbsa bi f kbra gbhsarvft`va butlbbe w`td`h fh ahgbkpfss`hc sbg`fl k`l`au. ^bkfht`g`sk flsb gbht`huam tb axart fh `hiluahga bvar tda haw sg`ahga bi frgdfablbcy frgdfablb cy.. ]da uh`varsfl`s`hc uh`varsfl`s `hc alakahts bi Ahl`cdtahkaht Ahl`cdtahk aht fhm avblut`bhfry tdbucdt, fhm tda spag`i`g r`gdhass br —sp`r`t‐ bi f pfrt`gulfr fraf fs gdfrfgtar`sam `h ^bkfht`g tdbucdt, prbmugam f tahs`bh, nut bha tdft gbulm na prbmugt`va, aspag`flly `h tda gfsa bi lfea mwall`hcs (Wdarrftt >??=5 Efasar >??=). Lfea mwall`hcs aiiagt`valy nagfka f —gulturfl pdahbkahbh‐ (Wdarrftt >??=, >3>) tdft gbulm na axplbram fs pfrt bi f gfhbh, kfrry`hc spag`i`g mftf w`td nrbfmar fhflbcy fhm d`cd tdabr`as irbk m`iiaraht par`bms br lbgft`bhs. ^bkfht`g`sk `s flsb fssbg`ftam w`td hft`bhfl`sk, gbkpl`gftam ny nbtd rac`bhfl fhm @kpar`fl `maht`t`as. Ibr tdbsa fht`qufr`fhs irbk, br wbre`hc w`td`h, gbuhtr`as sugd fs Ww`tzarlfhm, Wgbtlfhm br Mahkfre, td`s hft`bhfl gbhtaxt wbulm dfva naah parvfs`va, fhm fh `hiluahga bh tda wr`t`hc bi tda pfst (Z`kkar >??75 ^bwlay-Gbhwy >??3, gdfptar 1). ]d`s wbulm flsb fiiagt sunsaquaht mavalbpkahts fhm tda pbpulfr`ty bi gultura-d`stbry (]r`ccar >??9, gdfptar 9). ^bkfht`g`sk `s flsb fh `kpbrtfht tdrafm `h tda pbrtrfyfl bi tda prad`stbr`g pfst: irbk Gfspfr Mfv`m Ir`amr`gd‐s map`gt`bhs bi tda kacfl`tds frbuhm tda turh bi tda h`hataahtd gahtury (Yfucdfh 600=) tb tda pafgaiul `mylls raprasahtam ny sugd pf`ht`hcs fs Flnart Fhear‐s “M`a _ifdlnfuar`h‛ pf`htam `h 6437 br Gfrl vbh Dínarl`h‐s “_ifdlnfurbkfht`e ‛ pf`htam fs lfta fs 60?= 6 0?= (Sanar >?6?, I`curas bh pfcas >44 fhm >40). ^bkfht`g`sam ^bkfht`g`sam `kfcas sugd fs tdasa dalpam iual tda ifsd`bh ibr lfea mwall`hcs fgrbss Aurbpa (WelahæŐ (WelahæŐ 6047, 3=). ]da afrly frgdfablbc`sts wara flsb gfucdt up `h td`s k`x bi Ahl`cdtahkaht pr`hg`plas fhm ^bkfht`g`sk, flna`t tb vfry`hc macraas. Ibr axfkpla, Nruga ]r`ccar gbhtrfsts tda map`gt`bhs bi fnbr`c`hfl pabpla ny Mfh`al S`lsbh (6469-640>, saa nalbw) tb tdbsa `h tda punl`gft`bhs punl` gft`bhs bi Jbdh Lunnbge Lun nbge (]r`ccar (]r`ccar >??>, >? ?>, 11). Ny Kuhrb‐s Kuhrb‐s t`ka, frgdfablbcy wfs hbt usam fs kugd tb —prbva‐ tda Sd`cc`sd gbhgapt`bh bi d`stbry ny `llustrft`hc vfr`bus hfturfl pdfsas bi dukfh sbg`aty `h saquahga sa quahga (^bwlay-Gbhwy, >??3, 670). ^ftdar, `t wfs usam kbra bh `ts bwh tarks, ragbhstrugt`hc pfst sbg`at`as ilasdam but w`td akarc`hc atdhbcrfpdy fs wall fs glfss`gfl fhflbcy. Dbwavar, h`hataahtd-gahtury atdhbcrfpdy dfm fh uhmarly`hc rfg`sk, fhm lbbe`hc tb tda pfst irbk tda parspagt`va bi trfg`hc tda br`c`h bi tda prasaht wfs st`ll pravflaht.
>6
Frgdfablb Frgdf ablbcy cy fs f m`sg`pl` m`sg `pl`ha ha wfs flsb fls b prbmug`h prbm ug`hcc `ts i`rst i`rs t —taxtnbbes‐, —taxtnb bes‐, `hglum`hc tda trfhslft`bh bi Gdr`st`fh ]dbksah‐s Cu`ma tb Hbrtdarh Fht`qu`t` Fht`q u`t`as as (i`rst punl`sdam `h 6479, trfhslftam `htb Ahcl`sd `h 64=7), J. J. F. Sbrsffa‐s _r`kavfl Fht`qu`t`as bi Mahkfre (i`rst punl`sdam punl`sd am `h 64=7, trfhslftam `htb Ahcl`sd Ahcl `sd `h 64=0), Mfh`al S`lsbh‐s S`lsbh‐s da Frgdfablbcy fhm _rad`stbr`g Fhhfls bi Wgbtlfhm `h 6416, Jfkas Iarcussbh‐s ^uma Wtbha Kbhukahts `h fll Gbuhtr`as `h 643>, fhm S`ll`fk S`ll `fk Craahwall‐s Craahwa ll‐s Nr`t`sd Nfrrbws punl`sdam punl`sdam `h 6433. ]da ]draa Fca Wystak Wy stak prbv`mam prbv` mam tda t da katdbmb ka tdbmblbc lbc`gfl `gfl tbbl tb fpply fpp ly iuhmfka iu hmfkahtfl htfl avblut`bhfry pr`hg`plas tb wdft wfs nagbk`hc tda sg`ahga bi frgdfablbcy. ]da ifgt tda ^bnart Kuhrb wfs irbk fhm wbream `h Wgbtlfhm wfs bi `kpbrtfhga `h td`s, `h tdft Wgbtlfhm aknrfgam td`s fpprbfgd kbra rafm`ly tdfh kfhy btdar gbuhtr`as (^bwlay-Gbhwy >??3, gdfptar 1). I`almwbre wfs kfe`hc fh `kpfgt, kbv`hc irbk tda ratr`avfl bi frtaifgts `h brmar tb fmm tb gbllagt`bhs - sbkat`kas tb d`cdl`cdt avblut`bhfry pr`hg`plas, bitah ibr kbra fastdat`g tfstas - tb strugturam ratr`avfl bi `hibrkft`bh bh tda pfst. Sbre dfm naah uhmartfeah bh Ww`ss lfea mwall`hcs (Eallar 6499) fhm tda prasarvft`bh gbhm`t`bhs dfm fllbwam gbhs`marfnla ragbhstrugt`bh bi pfst l`ia. Sbre `h Ww`tzarlfhm dfm `hsp`ram f caharft`bh bi fht`qufr`fhs, bi wd`gd Kuhrb gfka tb na bha bi tda kbst prbk`haht. ]da wbre bi afrly frgdfablbc`sts sugd fs S`ll`fk Craahwall Craahwall (64>?-6064) fhm Caharfl Fucustus Fucus tus Lfha-Ibx Lfha- Ibx _`tt-^`va _`tt- ^`vars rs (64>3-6 (64 >3-60??) 0??) wfs flsb fls b prbv`m`hc prbv` m`hc f sar`as bi axakplfrs bi i`alm ragbrm`hc. I`almwbre bh btdar typas bi kbhukaht, hbtfnly kacfl`tds (w`td`h tda`r wbrlm gbhtaxt fs wall fs Aurbpa), wfs flsb prbv`m`hc f rfhca bi axfkplas bi dbw frgdfablbcy gbulm na uhmartfeah. Kuhrb d`ksali prbiassam tdasa tb dfva dfm “f pagul`fr ifsg`hft`bh ibr ky k`hm5 sb kugd sb tdft tda `t`harfry bi kfhy f gbuhtry rfknla dfm tb na frrfhcam sb fs tb `hgluma fhy bi tdasa str`e`hc lfhmkfres lf hmkfres wd`gd dfppaham tb na `h tda v`g`h`ty‛ (Kuhrb 60>6, 1>). Ft tdft t`ka tda fpprbfgd tb tda kacfl`tds wfs bh f clbnfl sgfla. ]da Mutgdkfh H`gblfus Sastahmbrp‐s (6337-6479) `hspagt`bh bi tda Mutgd fhm sbka Carkfh kacfl`tds rasultam `h f sbrt bi “kahtfl kfp‛ nfsam bh masgr`pt`bh bi tda`r lbgft`bhs tdrbucdbut Aurbpa fhm da mftam tdak i`rkly tb tda Wtbha Fca (Nfeear >?6?, 66?). W`k`lfr kfps wara lftar gbkp`lam ny f Irahgd sgdblfr Flaxfhmra Nartrfhm fhm tda Ww`ss fr`stbgrft Nfrbh ma Nbhstattah `h d`s ifkbus 6491 Assf` sur las mblkahs (`htarast`hcly (`htarast`hcly punl`sdam tda sfka yafr fs Lunnbge‐s _rad`stbr`g ]`kas5 Nartrfhm 6497, Nbhstattah 6491). ]d`s clbnfl fpprbfgd, uhsurpr`s`hcly, graftam `ts bwh prbnlaks bi uh`varsfl`ty fhm br`c`hs, bi tda rbutas bi sprafm (nbtd Nartrfhm fhm Nbhstattah nal`avam tdft “kacfl`td`g pabpla‛ fhm tda trfm`t`bh
>>
bi tbkn nu`lm`hc sprafm irbk hbrtd tb sbutd). @t pbs`tam quast`bhs bh gdrbhblbcy, fltdbucd tda bhly sar`bus m`ssahtar, fitar 6491, irbk tda v`aw tdft tday nalbhcam nal bhcam tb tda Wtbha Fca wfs tda frgd`tagt frgd`ta gt Jfkas Iarcussbh, wdb dfm f pbbr uhmarstfhm`hc bi tda gbhgapt bi tda ]draa Fca Wystak fhm fss`cham kacfl`td`g tbkns tb tda kugd kbra ragaht Gdr`st`fh arf (Iarcussbh 643>)5 btdar quast`bhs wara tdbsa bi iuhgt`bh ‗ wara fll kacfl`tds tbkns br wara sbka takplas2 fhm bi matf`ls bi gbhstrugt`bh, aspag`flly tda prasahga br fnsahga bi gbvar`hc kbuhms. @t wfs gdfrfgtar`st`g bi Kuhrb tb matark`ha tb sattla sbka bi tdasa quast`bhs ny parsbhfl `hspagt`bhs `h tda i`alm - fh fpprbfgd fs glafr irbk d`s sdbrt nut vary wall-`hibrkam pfpar Kacfl `td`gg kbhuka kb hukahts hts bi Dbllfhm, Dbllf hm, fhm tda`r tda` r ralft` ra lft`bh bh w`td fhflbcbu fhfl bcbuss “ Kacfl`td` rakf`hs `h Hbrtdarh Aurbpa ‛ punl`sdam `h tda _rbgaam`hcs bi tda Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr`as bi Wgbtlfhm `h 644=, fs irbk btdar wbres sugd fs _rad`stbr`g Wgbtlfhm fhm `ts _lfga `h Aurbpafh G`v`l`zft`bh (6400, 7>9). ]da pbpulfr fpprag`ft`bh bi frgdfablbcy wfs flsb gdfhc`hc, mr`vah fhm `h pfrt railagtam ny fggbuhts sugd fs Fust`h Lfyfrm‐s `h 64=4-0 br tda i`rst am`t`bh (bi savah) bi H`havad fhm `ts ^akf`hs `h Jbdh Lunnbge‐s Lunn bge‐s _rad`stbr`g `kas `h `h 6491. Wtuhh`hc frgdfablbc`gfl i`hms sugd fs tdbsa ny Wgdl`akfhh `h ]rby fhm Kygahfa `h tda 643?s fhm 644?s, fhm bi tda Ww`ss lfea mwall`hcs ny Eallar fhm Fappl` Fappl ` `h ` h tda 641?s 641? s wara wa ra flsb fl sb gftgd g ftgd`hc `hc tda punl`g‐s punl `g‐s fttaht`b ftta ht`bh. h. Sbre bh `hirfstrugtura prbjagts, hbtfnly tda rf`lwfys `h Nr`tf`h fhm alsawdara `h Aurbpa, wfs flsb uhafrtd`hc gbhs`marfnla fkbuhts bi frgdfablbc`gfl frgdfablbc` gfl kftar`fl. Ft tda sfka t`ka, tagdhblbc`as ibr ragbrm`hc fhm raprbmug`hc `kfcas bi td`s kftar`fl wfs flsb `kprbv`hc, fhm nagbk`hc gdafpar. ]da m`sgbvary fhm sunsaquaht pbpulfr`sft`bh bi tda Ww`ss lfea mwall`hcs dfm f gbhs`marfnla aiiagt bh tda punl`g `h Ww`tzarlfhm Ww`tzarlfhm fhm fnrbfm. ]da trfhslft`bhs bi Iarm`hfhm Eallar‐s wbre `h 6499 uhlafsdam fh `htarast `h grfhhbcs tdft dfm naah crbw`hc s`hga tda 641?s fhm `hsp`ram kfhy `hvast`cft`bhs (Gblas, >??=, 6?6). ]dft tda grfhhbc ft Lbgdlaa fttrfgtam tda fttaht`bh bi tda Frgdfablbc`gfl Fssbg`ft`bh ibr Fyrsd`ra fhm S`ctbhsd`ra, fhm tda sunsaquaht `hvblvakaht bi Kuhrb, sdbulm hbt na surpr`s`hc (Glfrea, td`s vbluka). Mfh`sd sdall k`mmahs fhm Ww`ss lfea v`llfcas
Er`st`fhsah (>??>, 66) mraw fttaht`bh tb tda ifgt tdft, wd`la kbst bi tda k`m-h`hataahtd-gahtury k`m-h`hataahtd-gahtury frgdfablbc`gfl frgdfablbc`gfl wr`t`hcs dfva f m`st`hgtly “fht`qufr`fh‛ gdfrfgtar, tdara fra btdars wd`gd avah tbmfy fppafr “kbmarh‛5 da l`heam td`s tb tda akarcahga bi haw katdbmblbc`as fhm haw wfys bi td`he`hc, w`td`h tda mavalbp`hc m`sg`pl`has bi tda par`bm, wd`gd fra f pfrt bi tda sg`aht`i`g sg`aht`i `g trfm`t`bh wa ragbch`sa ragbch` sa fs bur
>7
bwh. ]dasa m`sg`pl`has, fs flrafmy hbtam, `hvblvam cablbcy, n`blbcy, zbblbcy5 fhm tda `hiluahga tday dfm w`td`h fh frgdfablbc`gfl frgdfablbc`g fl gbhtaxt wfs pfrt`gulfrly mrfkft`gflly makbhstrftam ft tda axgfvft`bhs axgfvft`bhs bi tda sdall-k`mmahs sdall-k` mmahs `h Mahkfre, fhm bi tda lfea mwall`hcs `h Ww`tzarlfhm. Nbtd wara bi `htahsa `htarast tb tda `htarhft`bhfl sg`aht`i`g gbkkuh`ty bi tda t`ka fhm kfma fh `kpbrtfht gbhtr`nut`bh tb tda mavalbpkaht bi frgdfablbc`gfl katdbmblbcy fhm prfgt`ga. ]day fra iurtdar s`ch`i`gfht `h tda gbhtaxt bi tda prasaht m`sguss`bh nagfusa tda lfea mwall`hcs, `h tda`r nrbfmast sahsa, wara tda sunjagt bi tda ^d`hm lagturas mal`varam mal` varam ny ^bnart Kuhrb `h 6444 fhm punl`sdam twb yafrs lftar . Kuhrb m`m hbt stumy tda sdall k`mmahs `h fhy craft matf`l, nut tday havartdalass fttrfgtam d`s fttaht`bh suii`g`ahtly tb ahgburfca d`k, fitar trfvals `h Wgfhm`hfv`f, tb wr`ta f sdbrt pfpar bh tda sunjagt, punl`sdam `h tda Wbg`aty‐s _rbgaam`hcs `h 644=. ]da `kpbrtfhga bi tda k`m-h`hataahtd-gahtury rasafrgd bh tda Mfh`sd sdall-k`mmahs (ehbwh `h Mfh`sd fs eôeeahkômm`hc , br `h `ts blmar Ahcl`sd spall`hc bi Ejùeeahkùmm`hc(s) usam ny nbtd Lunnbge fhm Kuhrb) tb tda mavalbpkaht bi frgdfablbcy dfs naah wall m`sgussam `h l`tarftura bh tda d`stbry bi tda m`sg`pl`ha (El`hmt-Jahsah 6031, Crísluhm 6043, Nfdh 6009, I`sgdar fhm Er`st`fhsah >??>) nut `t `s st`ll wbrtdwd`la tb na rak`hmam bi sbka bi tda s`ch`i`gfht fspagts bi td`s wbre. ]da astfnl`sdkaht, `h 64=4, bi fh `htarm`sg`pl`hfry frgdfablbc`gfl prbjagt tb `hvast`cfta, w`td tda dalp bi cablbcy fhm zbblbcy, tda kbuhms bi sdalls ibuhm `h Jutlfhm fhm bh Zaflfhm wfs fh `kpbrtfht lfhmkfre `h tda prbcrass bi frgdfablbcy. Fcf`h, tda kult`-m`sg`pl`hfry hftura bi tda fpprbfgdas `s fppfraht. @rraspagt`va bi tda sunsaquaht manftas bh tda `htarpratft`bh bi tdasa s`tas irbk fh agbhbk`g fhm iuhgt`bhfl, br tagdhblbc`gfl fhm gbkpfrft`va, pb`ht bi v`aw (prbnlaks wd`gd dfva hbt yat fltbcatdar lait kbmarh manft`hc fcahmfs), `t put `h kbt`bh f sar`as bi haw fpprbfgdas5 `hvast`cft`bh `h tda i`alm5 mbgukahtft`bh nfsam bh bnsarvft`bhs bi strft`crfpdy, gbhtaxt fhm typblbc`gfl mavalbpkaht5 fhm, vary `kpbrtfhtly, iull-sgfla gbhtr`nut`bhs irbk tda hfturfl sg`ahgas. ]d`s wfs f wdblly haw wfy bi tfgel`hc frgdfablbc`gfl prbnlaks fhm, dfv`hc astfnl`sdam naybhm mbunt tda ax`stahga bi tda par`bm ehbwh fs Wtbha Fca, wfs bi ahbrkbus `htarast tb sgdblfrs `h btdar pfrts bi Aurbpa. ]da rasults wara sw`itly m`ssak`hftam fkbhc tda sg`aht`i`g gbkkuh`ty, w`td tda rapbrts na`hc w`maly fvf`lfnla, fhm J.J.F. Sbrsffa d`ksali trfvallam tb Irfhga tb kaat sugd sgdblfrs fs Lfrtat, Nbugdar ma _artdas fhm _rbspar Kar`kaà (tda lfttar ny tdah f wall-trfvallam @hspagtbr bi Fhg`aht Kbhukahts5 Er`st`fhsah >??>, 67).
>=
S`td`h S`td` h tda Nr`t`sd Nr`t` sd sgdblfrl sgdb lfrlyy astfnl` astf nl`sdka sdkaht ht tda Mfh`sd Mfh`s d k`mmahs k`m mahs gartf`hly i`ram Jbdh Lunnbge‐s `kfc`hft`bh fhm da v`s`tam sbutdarh Wgfhm`hfv`f bh twb bggfs`bhs `h brmar tb saa tda axgfvft`bhs ibr d`ksali: `h 6496 da waht tb Mahkfre fhm, `h 6497, da trfvallam `h Mahkfre, Wwamah fhm Hbrwfy (_fttbh >??3, 1=, 9>). D`s 6496 v`s`t v `s`t wdah, `h tda gbkpfhy bi tda m`st`hcu`sdam Mfh`sd zbblbc`st Jfpatus Wtaahstrup, da dfm f gdfhga tb `hspagt tda sdall k`mmahs frbuhm tda @saijbrm, `h Hbrtd Zaflfhm, qu`gely lam tb f pfpar punl`sdam `h tda i`rst `ssua bi tda Hfturfl D`stbry ^av`aw . ]dft jburhfl dfm just naah fgqu`ram, uhmar tda pbwariul mr`va bi ]dbkfs Duxlay, ny f crbup bi lafm`hc Nr`t`sd sg`aht`sts, tb prbv`ma f ibruk ibr sg`aht`i`g m`sguss`bh fhm m`ssak`hft`bh bi br`c`hfl rasafrgd (Maskbhm (Maskbhm 6004, >4=). @t wfs tdus fh `mafl vahua tb rapbrt bh tda rasults bi tdft tr`p fhm, `h bha sdbrt frt`gla, Lunnbge wfs fnla tb mrfw fttaht`bh tb tda `kpbrtfhga bi Mfh`sd `htar-m`sg`pl`hfry rasafrgdas fhm put tdak bh fh aqufl ibbt`hc w`td s`k`lfr prfgt`gas, flrafmy ifk`l`fr irbk tda kbra punl`g`sam wbre bh tda Ww`ss lfea-mwall`hcs5 da iurtdar akpdfs`sam tda s`ch`i`gfhga bi tda ]draa Fca Wystak `h prbv`m`hc f strugtur`hc irfkawbre ibr tda prad`stbr`g gdrbhblbcy (Lunnbge 6496). ]da ibllbw`hc yafr (649>) Lunnbge punl`sdam fhbtdar pfpar ibr tda Hfturfl D`stbry ^av`aw , td`s t`ka mavbtam tb tda sg`aht`i`g `hvast`cft`bhs bi tda Ww`ss lfea mwall`hcs wd`gd da dfm flsb naah `hvast`cft`hc. @h pfrfllal w`td tda `hvast`cft`bh ft tda Mfh`sd sdall k`mmahs, Ww`ss rasafrgd wfs nfsam bh f sar`as bi `htar-gbhhagtam katdbms: f strft`crfpd`g strft`cr fpd`g fpprbfgd wfs usam tb prbva tda `htacr`ty bi frgdfablbc`gfl frgdfablb c`gfl lfyars5 tda gdrbhblbcy bi `hm`v`mufl s`tas, nfsam bh typblbcy bi i`hms, gbulm tdus na astfnl`sdam fhm td`s katdbmblbcy iully suppbrtam tda ]draa Fca Wystak kbmal tdft tda Ww`ss `hvast`cftbrs fmbptam irbk Wgfhm`hfv`f (Gbya 6003, 607->?4). _flfabhtblbc`gfl rasafrgd, fpfrt irbk `maht`iy`hc fhg`aht typas bi plfhts fhm fh`kfls, wfs fh `kpbrtfht gr`tar`bh `h tda w`mar gdrbhblbc`gfl sgdaka, plfg`hc tda Wtbha Fca lfea mwall`hcs ralft`valy ragahtly w`td`h tda Wtbha Fca wd`gd Lunnbge wfs flsb d`ht`hc ft `h 649>, fhm wdft da wfs tb gfll `h 6491 tda —Habl`td`g‐. Frgdf Frg dfabl ablbc bcy y fh fhm m Fhtdrb Fht drbpbl pblbc bcy y
Fhtdrbpbl Fhtdr bpblbcy, bcy, tbcatdar tbca tdar w`td `ts sun-i`al sun- i`alms ms atdhblbc atdhb lbcyy fhm atdhbcrfpdy, wfs f glbsa s`star m`sg`pl`ha akarc`hc ft f s`k`lfr Fhtdr bpblbc bcy y i`rst t`ka, w`td w`t d Amwfrm ]ylbr‐s ]ylbr‐s (647>-6063) Fhtdrbpbl i`rst punl`sdam `h 6446. S`td tda crbw`hc sapfrft`bh bi prad`stbr`g frgdfablbcy irbk d`stbry, atdhbcrfpdy (flsb ehbwh fs gbkpfrft`va katdbm) wfs na`hc usam fs f sburga tb `hgrafsa ehbwlamca bi prad`stbr`g t`kas. ]da usa bi atdhbcrfpd`g gbkpfr`sbhs ibrkam fh `kpbrtfht fspagt
>1
bi tda lfea mwall`hc rasafrgd5 Eallar‐ Ealla r‐ss atdhbcrfpd`g sburgas sburg as `hglumam, fkbhc btdars, tdbsa bi Gfptf`h Gbbe fhm Mukbht m‐Qrv`lla, fhm tday prbv`mam kbmals ibr tda `htarpratft`bh bi wfys bi l`ia ft lfea v`llfcas. ^agbhstrugt`bh bi tda v`llfca ft Bnarka`lah ibllbwam m‐Qrv`lla‐s masgr`pt`bhs fhm seatgdas bi lfea v`llfcas `h Haw Cu`haf, fhm `t `s `htarast`hc `htarast`hc tb hbta tdft td`s `kfca sarvam fs irbht`sp`aga `h Lyall‐s Lyall‐s nbbe da Fht`qu`ty bi Kfh (6497). ]da l`he natwaah Aurbpafh prad`stbr`g gbkkuh`t`as fhm gbhtakpbrfry “sfvfcas‛ ehbwh irbk atdhbcrfpd`g fggbuhts, i`rst kbbtam `h Mfh`al S`lsbh‐s _rad`stbr`g Fhhflas bi Wgbtlfhm , wfs fhbtdar strbhc st`kulus ibr astfnl`sd`hc l`hes, fs `hmaam wfs tda gbhi`rkft`bh bi tda fht`qu`ty bi kfh. S`td`h tda haxt magfma tda twb m`sg`pl`has wara `hiluahg`hc bha fhbtdar `h kfhy i`alms, ibr axfkpla tdrbucd tdrbuc d tda wbre bi kam`gfl prfgt`t`bhars Jbsapd Mfv`s fhm Jbdh ]durh ] durhfk fk bh grfh`blb grfh `blbcy cy lafm`hc lafm `hc tb Grfh`f Nr`tfhh`gf (6491), (6491), fltdbucd fhtdrbpblbcy wfs flsb `maht`iy`hc `ts bwh m`ragt`bh tb stumy tda “wdbla hftura bi kfh‛ (Wtbge`hc 6036). S`lsbh wfs flsb f gdfkp`bh bi grfh`blbc`gfl fpprbfgdas, wd`gd Kuhrb d`ksali d`cdl`cdts (W`kpsbh 6097, 9), fhm wd`gd dfm nagbka fggaptam prfgt`ga ny tda 641?s fhm 649?s (Kbrsa 6000). Aiiagt`valy td`s ibrkam fhbtdar mft`hc tbbl gbkplakaht`hc tda ]draa Fca Wystak, fhm nu`lt bh wbre `hglum`hc Grfh`f Nr`tfhh`gf , ^`gdfrm Ehbx‐s ^fgas bi Kfh , fhm tfeah bh ny tda wbre bi ]durhfk (64=0), Cabrca Cabrc a ^bllastbh, fhm btdars (^bwlay-Gbhwy >??3, 69=-1). ]da craftast pbpulfr`sar bi tda atdhbcrfpd`g fpprbfgd `h Nr`tf`h ft tdft t`ka wfs Jbdh Lunnbge, w`td _rad`stbr`g `kas (6491) (6491) fhm da Br`c`h bi G`v`l`sft`bh (643?) biiar`hc f kbmal bi sbg`fl fhm gulturfl avblut`bh. Lunnbge wfs iully gbkk`ttam tb fh avblut`bhfry axplfhft`bh bi dukfh br`c`hs, fhm nal`avam tdft tagdhblbc`gfl prbcrass saah `h tda frgdfablbc`gfl ragbrm wfs fggbkpfh`am ny gulturfl prbcrass fhm tdft gbkpfr`sbhs w`td kbmarh pr`k`t`va pabplas gbulm sdam l`cdt bh tda l`iastylas bi prad`stbry. Dbwavar, `h gbhtrfst tb Mfh`al S`lsbh, wdb upbh d`s ak`crft`bh tb Gfhfmf `h 641= m`m stumy ft i`rst dfhm Gfhfm`fh hft`va hft`va gbkkuh`t`as fhm usam td`s `hs`cdt `h d`s wbre, Lunnbge dfm hb m`ragt ehbwlamca bi tda pabplas da wfs wr`t`hc fnbut. L`ea kfhy btdar Y`gtbr`fh sgdblfrs da ral`am upbh fggbuhts bi trfvallars, axplbrars fhm btdars tb axpbuhm d`s `mafs. Wugd `kfcas bi “sfvfcas‛ wara tdus `hav`tfnly but bi tda`r d`stbr`gfl fhm gulturfl gbhtaxt fhm, saah fcf`hst tda sbg`fl, pbl`t`gfl fhm `htallagtufl irfkawbres bi tda t`ka, tday gfrr`am f pbl`t`gfl kassfca aht`raly `h eaap`hc w`td tda vfluas bi tda k`m-h`hataahtdgahtury Y`gtbr`fh k`mmla glfssas.
>9
I`cura 6.6 “Lfea Y`llfca‛. Bha bi twb `kfcas bi f lfea v`llfca gbkk`ss`bham ny Jbdh Lunnbge irbk tda Y`gtbr`fh `llustrftbr Arhast Cr`sat (gburtasy Nrbklay Kusauk Warv`ga).
]da gbkk`tkaht tb m`iiaraht m`sg`pl`has `s, dbwavar, flsb fppfraht `h f gbllagt`bh bi `kfcas “bh tda l`ia bi sfvfcas‛ wd`gd Lunnbge gbkk`ss`bham ibr pr`vfta purpbsas irbk f tflahtam Irahgd hfturfl`st pf`htar Arhast Cr`sat. Fs Kurrfy ragahtly bnsarvam (>??0, =06) tda kfjbr`ty wara bi atdhbcrfpd`g `hsp`rft`bh fhm td`s kbst uhmbuntamly `hglumas tda twb `kfcas bi lfea v`llfcas (gbvar `kfca fhm I`cura 6.6) nut, aquflly, tday flsb raprasaht frgdfablbc`gfl prad`stbr`g s`tas tdft Lunnbge v`s`tam `h tda gbursa bi d`s trfvals `h Ww`tzarlfhm. Eay i`curas
Eay i`curas `hiluaht`fl tb Kuhrb‐s wbre gfka irbk nbtd dbka fhm fnrbfm. ]da gbhtakpbrfry `htallagtufl fhm sbg`fl k`l`au w`td`h wd`gd da kbvam `hvblvam hatwbres bi ehbwlamca bparft`hc bvar f huknar bi sgflas, fhm w`td vfr`bus sbg`at`as fhm fgquf`htfhgas biiar`hc bppbrtuh`t`as ibr Kuhrb tb nagbka ahcfcam w`td frgdfablbcy. ]d`s wbulm hbt bhly grafta bpah`hcs, nut flsb mai`ha tda `htallagtufl irfkawbre da wfs wbre`hc w`td`h (fhm wbulm lftar gbhtr`nuta gbhtr`nu ta tb iurtdar mavalbp). F eay gdfrfgtar`st`g gdfrfgtar`s t`g bi td`s hatwbre bi frgdfablbc`sts `s tda sbg`fl alakaht br sahsa bi gbkkuh`ty fkbhcst
>3
f caharflly prbiass`bhfl (fltdbucd hbt yat `h `ts frgdfablbc`gfl sahsa) crbup w`td nbtd rac`bhfl fhm hft`bhfl `htarasts. `hta rasts. ]da hft`bhfl `s bitah d`cdl`cdtam, fltdbucd rac`bhfl `htarasts wara bitah f strbhcar pull. Fhbtdar Fhbtd ar eay alakaht al akaht `s ` s tda grbssgrb ss-bvar bvar natwaah nat waah m`sg` m` sg`pl`h pl`hfry fry `htaras `h tarasts, ts, w`td fh bitah m`varsa sat bi `htarasts na`hc gbkn`ham. Wbg`at`as fhm `hst`tut`bhs wara p`vbtfl `h tda mavalbpkaht bi frgdfablbcy, fs wall fs tda gult`vft`bh bi Kuhrb‐s bwh `htarasts `h tda pfst (_`ccbtt 6039, Lav`ha 6049). Lbgfl gbhhagt`bhs wara pfrt`gulfrly `kpbrtfht w`td f rfhca bi fht`qufr`fh fhm hfturfl sg`ahga sbg`at`as, w`td lbgfl `htarasts, prasaht fgrbss Wgbtlfhm. ]da Frgdfablb Frgdf ablbc`gf c`gfll Fssbg`ft`b Fssbg` ft`bhh ibr Fyrsd`ra Fyrsd `ra fhm S`ctbwhsd`ra S`ctbwhsd `ra , ibr axfkpla, wd`gd Kuhrb jb`ham ft `ts `hgapt`bh `h 6433, prbv`mam d`k w`td fggass tb btdar l`ea-k`hmam `hm`v`mufls fhm `htrbmugam d`k tb tda lbgfl frgdfablbcy, `hglum`hc grfhhbcs. Kuhrb dfm prav`busly sarvam fs _ras`maht bi tda _d`lbsbpd`gfl @hst`tut`bh fhm dfm strbhc hfturfl sg`ahgas `htarasts, wd`gd wfs hbt uhusufl ibr h`hataahtd-gahtury prbiass`bhfls. Hft`bhfl sbg`at`as wara flsb `kpbrtfht, prbv`m`hc f stfca ibr tda m`ssak`hft`bh bi ehbwlamca fs wall fs f hatwbre bi gbhtfgts (fhm tda bppbrtuh`ty tb gult`vfta tdasa sbg`flly fhm tdrbucd gbrraspbhmahga). ]da Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr`as bi Wgbtlfhm wfs `kpbrtfht `h f Wgbtt`sd gbhtaxt, hbt lafst tdrbucd tda sar`as bi ^d`hm lagturas fhm tda sbg`aty jburhfl: jbur hfl: _rbgaam`hcs bi tda Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr`as bi Wgbtlfhm . Kuhrb gbhtr`nutam tb nbtd, fhm wfs fh bii`ga nafrar `h tda Wbg`aty bvar f huknar bi yafrs. Wgbtt`sd gbhhagt`bhs wara ifg`l`tftam tdrbucd tda Wbg`aty , bi wd`gd Mfh`al S`lsbh fhm d`s suggassbr ft tda Hft`bhfl Kusauk bi Wgbtlfhm, Jbsapd Fhmarsbh, wara pfrt`gulfrly pfrt`gul frly `hiluaht`fl. `hiluaht`fl . S`lsbh‐ S`ls bh‐ss k`x bi Ahl`cdtahka Ahl`cd tahkaht ht pr`hg`plas pr`hg` plas fhm ^bkfht`g ^bkf ht`g`sk `sk dfs saah saa h d`k gbhs`maram fs nalbhc`hc tb tda sfka —`htallagtufl kbvakaht‐ bi fht`qufr`fhs sugd fs ]dbksah (]r`ccar 600>, 9?), wdb wfs fhbtdar w`td f vfr`aty bi `htarasts, `hglum`hc cablbcy. S`lsbh‐s da Frgdfablb Frgdf ablbcc y fhm _rad`stbr`g Fhhfls bi Wgbtlfhm (6416) (6416) pusdam nfge tda fht`qu`ty bi kfh tb prad`stbry (f tark ibravar fssbg`ftam w`td d`k), prbv`m`hc tda gbhgaptufl spfga ibr suggass`va frgdfablbc`sts. S`lsbh S`ls bh wfs flsb tda pr`ka pr`k a kbvar ibr tda fmbpt`bh fmbp t`bh bi f ]draa ]d raa Fca Wystak `h Wgbtlfhm (^bwlay-Gbhwy, >??3, gdfptar 1), rabrcfh`s`hc tda Wbg`aty‐s gbllagt`bhs fggbrm`hc tb td`s sgdaka `h 64=4. S`lsbh tdaraibra prbv`mam tda strugtura ibr fpprbfgd`hc prad`stbry fs wall fs graft`hc tda gbhgaptufl spfga tb fggbkkbmfta tda `maf bi tda fht`qu`ty bi kfh. Ny 6417, wdah S`lsbh dfm kbvam tb Gfhfmf, da dfm naah `hstrukahtfl `h satt`hc up tda _rbgaam`hcs fhm fhm ratf`ham fh `htarast `h Wgbtt`sd prad`stbry. @h 649> S`lsbh punl`sdam _rad`stbr`g Kfh: ^asafrgda ^asa frgdass `htb tda Br`c`h Br`c` h bi G`v`l`sft G`v`l `sft`bh `bh `h tda Blm fhm Haw
>4
Sbrlms , `hglum`hc f matf`lam fppl`gft`bh bi Haw Sbrlm atdhbcrfpdy tb prad`stbry (W`kpsbh, 6097, =). Naybhm Wgbtlfhm, tda Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr`as bi Lbhmbh wfs bha bi savarfl hft`bhfl `hst`tut`bhs tdft axartam gbhs`marfnla `hiluahga bvar tda mavalbpkaht bi frgdfablbcy ft tda t`ka. Fht`qufr`fhs sugd fs S`lsbh, Craahwall fhm ^d`hm wara fgt`va bvar nbtd s`mas bi tda nbrmar (W`kpsbh 6097). Gbht`hahtfl gbhhagt`bhs fra flsb fppfraht5 ibr axfkpla, wdah tda Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr`as bi Zur`gd flartam tda Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr`as bi Lbhmbh tb tda haam ibr dalp w`td tda lfea mwall`hcs (Syl`a 649?), `t wfs `h tda ehbwlamca tdft ahtdus`fst`g sgdblfrs w`td `hmapahmaht kafhs k`cdt dalp, a`tdar gbllagt`valy, br `hm`v`muflly. F pramagassbr tb Kuhrb `h tda i`alm bi lfea mwall`hcs, S`ll`fk S`ll `fk Syl`a wrbta Bh Lfea-Mwall`hcs bi tda Afrly _ar`bms `h `h 649?. Syl`a usam glfss`g glfs s`gfl fl fhflbcy fhflb cy fhm irfkam irfk am m`sguss m`sg uss`bh `bh `h tarks tark s bi Glfss`gfl taxts, pfrt`gulfrly Darbmbtus, fhm usam tdasa fs f sburga bi atdhbcrfpd`g atdhbcrfpd`g pfrfllal ibr gbkpfr`sbh (649?, 633). @t `s glafr irbk d`s wr`t`hc tdft Syl`a Syl`a v`awam lfea mwall`hcs fs pr`kfr`ly pr`kfr` ly maiahs`va (`n`m. 643), tdbucd flsb mbkast`g `h gdfrfgtar fhm f hbrkfl pfrt bi tda w`mar sattlakaht systak. Da flsb gbkpfram tda grfhhbcs bi @ralfhm fhm tda Ww`ss lfea mwall`hcs fhm racfrmam tdak fs bha pdahbkahbh (sprafm bvar gbhs`marfnla gbhs`marfn la par`bms bi t`ka). ]dara `s fh uhk`stfeafnla gultura-d`stbr`gfl tdaka ruhh`hc tdrbucd d`s wbre, w`td tda Ww`ss mwall`hcs rfzam ny suggass`va `hvfmars pbssass`hc supar`br k`l`tfry tagdhblbcy (`n`m. 64>) fs pfrt bi f d`stbr`g hfrrft`va. @h d`s frt`gla, tda lfea mwall`hcs wara mftam ny frtaifgts us`hc tda ]draa Fca Wystak, tdbucd flsb ra`hibrgam ny tda cablbc`gfl fca ast`kftas bi tda s`lt`hc bi lfeas.]da Ww`ss fht`qufr`fh gbkkuh`ty wfs bnv`busly `kpbrtfht `h tda pfrt`gulfr i`alm bi lfea mwall`hc stum`as, w`td hbtfnla afrly frgdfablbc`sts `hglum`hc Iarm`hfhm Eallar (64??-6446) fhm Iràmàr`g ]rbybh (6461-6499)5 tda lfttar prbv`mam ast`kftas bi pbpulft`bh s`za fhm nu`lm`hc tagdh`quas, fhm mftam s`tas ny tda s`lt`hc bi tda lfea. Kbrlbt wfs fhbtdar `hiluaht`fl i`cura `h Ww`ss frgdfablbcy wdb gbrraspbhmam w`td Mfrw`h fkbhc kfhy btdars, nut wfs flsb dafv`ly `hvblvam `h frgdfablbcy buts`ma Ww`tzarlfhm5 ibr axfkpla, da prbv`mam trfhslft`bhs bi tda rasults bi tda Mfh`sd e`tgdah k`mmahs. Iarm`hfhm Eallar wfs bha bi tda kf`h pbpulfr`sars bi tda Ww`ss lfea mwall`hcs fitar d`cdl`cdt`hc m`sgbvar`as `h 641=. Sdah tda i`rst trfhslft`bhs bi d`s wbre `htb Ahcl`sd gfka but `t dfm f s`k`lfr aiiagt fs _rad`stbr`g `kas . Dbwavar, Eallar sbuhms f hbta bi gfut`bh racfrm`hc tda fppl`gft`bh bi tda ]draa-Fca sgdaka, ragbch`s`hc `t fs f daur`st`g mav`ga, rftdar tdfh hagassfr`ly fs f railagt`bh bi pfst l`ia (6499, 6>-67). @h tda trfhslftam vars`bh bi Eallar‐s wbre bh tda Ww`ss lfea mwall`hcs, tdara `s flsb f sdbrt sagt`bh ny Jbdh Wtufrt bi tda Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr`as bi Wgbtlfhm t`tlam —Hbt`ga bi tda Wgbtgd
>0
grfhhbcs‐ (6499, 740-70>). @h td`s, tda Wbg`aty‐ s rbla fs f ibruk ibr afrly grfhhbc rasafrgd `s fppfraht (Wtufrt‐s rbla fs Wagratfry tb tda Wbg`aty `s d`cdl`cdtam uhmar tda pfpar t`tla). Wtufrt hbtas tda `hsp`rft`bh mrfwh irbk tda prasahtft`bh bi pfpars ft Wbg`aty kaat`hcs irbk afrly wbrears `hglum`hc Jbsapd ^bnartsbh, fhm f prasahtft`bh tb tda Nr`t`sd Fssbg`ft`bh bh tda i`hms rasult`hc irbk tda mrf`hfca bi Lbgd Mbwfltbh, S`ctbhsd`ra ny Lbrm Lbvf`ha (Wtufrt 6499, 740-0?). ]d`s `hsp`ram Wtufrt tb put tbcatdar f pfpar fttakpt`hc f syhtdas`s bi ragaht i`hms `h brmar tb fiibrm gbkpfr`sbh, fhm `h Eallar‐s nbbe da prbv`mas f nr`ai bvarv`aw bi grfhhbc glfss`i`gft`bhs fhm typas bi i`hms (`n`m . 70?). Fggbrm`hc tb Wtufrt, ft td`s t`ka tdara wara 71 grfhhbcs ehbwh `h Wgbtlfhm, fhm `h f ibbthbta da mrfws upbh glfss`gfl fggbuhts ibr pbtaht`fl av`mahga bi grfhhbc usa (`n`m. 70>). _utt`hc tda Wgbtt`sd grfhhbcs bh f ibbt`hc tb fllbw gbkpfr`sbhs w`td tda Gbht`haht `s glafrly fh `kpbrtfht gbhs`marft`bh, fhm tdara `s flsb f sagt`bh bh @r`sd grfhhbcs (Eallar 6499, 74?-744), lfrcaly fnr`mcam irbk tda wbre bi S`lma. ]da haam tb syhtdas`sa Wgbtt`sd fhm @r`sd axfkplas `h brmar tb gbkpfra w`td gbht`hahtfl axfkplas wfs glafrly ialt, akpdfs`sam ny tda fmm`t`bhs tb tda trfhslft`bh bi Eallar‐s wbre. ]d`s hatwbre bi afrly frgdfablbc`sts frgdfablbc`sts nbtd dfm rac`bhfl ibg` fhm bparftam bh f Aurbpa-w`ma laval, fhm tda huknar bi kutufl `hiluahgas tdft wbulm dfva `kpfgtam upbh tda td`he`hc bi fhy fht`qufr`fh ft tda t`ka bi Kuhrb `s gdfllahc`hc tb uhp`ge. Jbdh Avfhs (64>760?4) fhm Fucustus Irfhes Irfhes (64>9-6403) wara flsb gbhtakpbrfr`as, fhm nbtd prbv`mam Kuhrb w`td lattars bi `htrbmugt`bh `htrbmugt` bh wdara haamam ibr d`s trfvals. Sdft wfs gartf`h `s tdft, ny tda t`ka Kuhrb nacfh d`s frgdfablbc`gfl wbre, f hatwbre bi afrly frgdfablbc`sts wfs i`rkly astfnl`sdam fgrbss Aurbpa, sduttl`hc `hibrkft`bh nfge fhm ibrtd fhm ahtdus`hc tda punl`g ft lfrca w`td fh fpprag`ft`bh bi prad`stbry. Gbhglus`bh
]drbucd astfnl`sd`hc tda nrbfmar nfgecrbuhm tb tda mavalbpkaht bi frgdfablbcy frgdfablbc y `h tda k`mmla bi tda h`hataahtd gahtury, ga htury, `t `s afs`ar tb uhmarstfhm fhm avflufta Kuhrb‐ Kuhrb‐s wbre. Kuhrb‐s Kuhrb‐s systakft`g systak ft`g fpprbfgd, fpprbfg d, trfval, punl`gft`bh fhm `hiluahgas irbk f rfhca bi m`iiaraht gbuhtr`as sdbulm na akpdfs`sam, tdbucd kbra ibr tda`r axtaht rftdar tdfh ibr tda`r uh`quahass. uh`quahas s. Fhm wd`la Kuhrb Kuhrb kfma f huknar bi gbhtr`nut`bhs tb tda stumy bi tda pfst, da wfs nu`lm`hc bh ibuhmft`bhs flrafmy astfnl`sdam `h frgdfablbcy, fhm tdasa gbht`hu`t`as gfh na trfgam tdrbucdbut d`s wbre. Kuhrb‐ Kuhrb‐s wbre raprasahts tda fpbcaa ibr i br afrl`ar fhm gbhtakpbrfry gbhta kpbrfry wbre bh grfhhbcs fhm lfea sattlakaht sattl akaht - ibr tda axtaht bi gbvarfca, tda systakft`g prasahtft`bh bi i`hm`hcs, fhm tda systakft`g gbkpfr`sbh
7?
w`td lfea mwall`hc s`tas bh tda Gbht`haht, mrfw`hc lfea-mwall`hc stum`as `h `hm`v`mufl gbuhtr`as `htb f Aurbpa-w`ma gbhtaxt. Nu`lm`hc bh afrl`ar trfm`t`bhs bi i`almwbre fhm astfnl`sd`hc gbkpfrfhmf, Kuhrb prbv`mam f taxtnbbe axfkpla (nbtd katfpdbr`gflly fhm l`tarflly) bi cbbm frgdfablbcy, fhm punl`g`sam d`s i`hm`hcs fhm `mafs, bi wd`gd tda ^d`hm lagturas raprasahtam f pfrt`gulfrly d`cd pb`ht. Kuhrb‐s stftus nu`lt hbt bhly bh d`s syhtdas`s punl`gft`bh fhm prasahtft`bh prasahtft`bh iafts, nut flsb bh d`s i`alm axpar`ahga. Fs wall fs v`s`t`hc f lfrca huknar bi s`tas, Kuhrb wbream bh savarfl grfhhbc s`tas. Fkbhcst Fkbh cst paars, paar s, Kuhrb gfka tb na saah fs f iftdar iftd ar i`cura i`c ura fhm fh frn`tar bi m`sputas. ]da gbhtrbvarsy gbhtrbvarsy surrbuhm`hc tda i`hm`hcs irbk Muknuge grfhhbc `s fh axfkpla bi td`s rbla w`td`h gbhtakpbrfry frgdfablbcy (Dfla & Wfhms >??1). Kuhrb‐s sunsaquaht punl`gft`bh bi Frgdfablb (60?1) sat but d`s (gbrragt) nal`ai Frgdf ablbcc y fhm Iflsa Fht`qu` Fht `qu`t`as t`as (60?1) tdft f huknar bi frtaifgts dfm naah —saamam‐ bhtb tda s`ta. @h tda mavalbpkaht bi frgdfablbcy f huknar bi eay gbhgapts, `kpbrtfht i`curas fhm punl`gft`bhs prbv`mam tda nrbfmar irfkawbre w`td`h wd`gd Kuhrb‐s wbre mavalbpam. ]da `htallagtufl gl`kfta wfs kftgdam ny tda sbg`fl k`l`au, fllbw`hc `mafs fhm `hibrkft`bh tb ilbw natwaah l`ea-k`hmam pabpla `h f huknar bi m`iiaraht gbuhtr`as. @t `s w`td`h td`s gbhtaxt tdft tda rafl `kpbrtfhga bi Kuhrb‐s wbre `s nast uhmarstbbm. ^aiarahgas Nfdh, _. (am.) 6009, da Gfknr`mca @llustrftam D`stbry bi Frgdfablbcy. Gfknr`mca: Gfknr`mca Qh`vars`ty _rass. Nfeear, J. F. >?6?, Kacfl`td` Kacfl `td`gg ^asafrgd ^asaf rgd `h tda Hatdarlfhm Hatdar lfhms,s, 61=3-606 61=3 -6066. 6. Irbk —C`fht‐s Nams‐ fhm —_`llfrs bi Dargulas‐ tb fggurfta `hvast`cft`bhs. La`mah: W`mastbha _rass. Nartrfhm, F. 6497, Las kbhukahts pr`k`t`is ma lf Cfula, kbhukahts m`ts galt`quas, mblkahs at tukulus. ^avua Frgdàblbc`qua 3: >63->73. Nbhstattah, N. F. ma 6491, Assf` sur las Mblkahs. Cahavf: Julas-Cu`llfuka I`ge. Gdfpkfh, S. 6040, ]da Brcfh`sft`bhfl Gbhtaxt `h tda D`stbry bi Frgdfablb Frgdf ablbcy: cy: _`tt-^`v _`tt -^`vars ars fhm Btdar Nr`t`sd Nr`t` sd Frgdfablb Frgdf ablbc`st c`stss `h tda 649?s. da Fht`qufr`as Jburhfl LT@T: >7-=>. Gbdah, G. fhm Dunl`h, J.-J. 6040, Nbugdar ma _artdas, las br`c`has rbkfht`quas ma lf _ràd`stb`ra , (Qh sfvfht, uha àpbqua). _fr`s: Nal`h. Gblas, N. >??=, ]da mavalbpkaht bi watlfhm frgdfablbcy `h Nr`tf`h. @h: I. Kahbtt` (am.) L`v`hc bh tda Lfea `h _rad`stbr`g Aurbpa: 61? yafrs bi Lfea Mwall`hc ^asafrgd . Lbhmbh: ^butlamca, 04-66=.
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Gbya, H. 6003, Lf _ràd`stb`ra ah _frbla at ah Fgta. Kàtdbmas at ahjaux ma lf L‐Dfrkfttfh. h. prft`qua prft` qua frgdàb f rgdàblbc lbc`qua `qua 647? - 601? 60 1? . _fr`s: L‐Dfrkfttf Mfh`al, C. 6046, bwfrms f D`stbry bi Frgdfablbcy . Lbhmbh: ]dfkas & Dumsbh. Mfrw`h, G. 6410, Bh tda Br`c`h bi Wpag`as ny Kafhs bi Hfturfl Walagt`bh . Lbhmbh: Jbdh Kurrfy Kurrf y. Mfv`s, J. N. fhm ]durhfk, J. 6491, Grfh`f Nr`tfhh`gf. Mal`haft`bhs fhm Masgr`pt`bhs bi tda Weulls bi tda Fnbr`c`hfl fhm Afrly @hdfn`tfhts bi tda Nr`t`sd @slfhms: S`td Hbt`gas bi tda`r Btdar ^akf`hs , > vbls. Lbhmbh: _r`htam ibr tda Wunsgr`nars. Maskbhm, F. 6004, Duxlay: Irbk Mav`l‐s M`sg`pl a tb Avblut`bh Avblut`b h‐s D`cd _r`ast. Lbhmbh: _ahcu`h Nbbes. Iarcussbh, J. 643>, ^uma Wtbha Kbhukahts bi Fll Gbuhtr`as5 da`r Fca fhm Qsas. Lbhmbh: Jbdh Kurrfy. I`sgdar, F fhm Er`st`fhsah, E (ams). >??>, da Habl`td`sft`bh bi Mahkfre: 61? Pafrs Pafrs bi Manfta Man fta . Wdaii`alm: J. ^. Gbll`s _unl`gft`bhs. Cfknla, G. fhm Eruszyhse`, ^. >??0, Jbdh Avfhs, Jbsapd _rastw`gd fhm tda stbha tdft sdfttaram tda t`ka nfrr`ar. Fht`qu`t 47: =96-=31. Fht` qu`ty y 47: Crísluhm, N. 6043, da N`rtd bi _rad`stbr`g Gdrbhblbcy. Mft`hc katdbms fhm mft`hc systaks `h h`hataahtd-gahtury Wgfhm`hfv`fh frgdfablbcy. Gfknr`mca: Gfknr`mca Qh`vars`ty _rass. Craahwall, S. S. C. 6433, 6 433, Nr`t`sd Nfrrbws . Bxibrm: Glfrahmbh _rass. Dfla, F fhm Wfhms, ^. >??1, Gbhtrbvarsy bh tda Glyma, Frgdfablbc`sts, Ifeas fhm Ibrcars: da Axgfvft`bh bi tda Muknuge Grfhhbc . Am`hnurcd: ^GFDKW. Aurbpa 6340-64=4. Lbhmbh: Dbnsnfwk, A. 609>, da Fca bi ^avblut`bh. Aurbpa Fnfgus Fnfgu s `kpr`ht `kp r`ht bi >??4 > ??4 (L`ttla, (L`t tla, Nrbwh Nbbe Crbup). Crbup) .
Efasar, K-F. >??=, Frgdfablbcy fhm tda @maht`ty M`sgbursa: Qh`varsfl`sk varsus Hft`bhfl`sk: Lfea-Mwall`hc Lfea-Mwall` hc Wtum`as `h 60td Gahtury Ww`tzarlfhm. @h: F. Crfksgd fhm Q. Wbkkar (ams.) F D`stbry D`stb ry bi Gahtrfl Gaht rfl Aurbpafh Aurbpa fh Frgdfablb Frgdf ablbcc y. dabry, dab ry, Katdbms Katd bms fhm _bl`t` _b l`t`gs. gs. Nbhh: Dfnalt, 6=7-69?. Eadba, F. N. 6006, ]da @hvaht`bh bi _rad`stbry. Gurraht 7>: Gurraht Fhtdrbpblbcy 7>: =93-=39. Eallar, I. 6499. da lfea mwall`hcs bi Ww`tzarlfhm fhm btdar pfrts bi Aurbpa . ]rfhslftam `htb Ahcl`sd ny J.A. Laa. Lbhmbh: Lbhckfhs. El`hmt-Jahsah, B.E. 6031, F D`stbr y bi Wgfhm`hf Wgfh m`hfv`fh v`fh Frgdfab Frg dfablbc lbc y . Lbhmbh: ]dfkas fhm Dumsbh.
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Er`st`fhsah, E. >??>, ]da N`rtd bi Agblbc`gfl Frgdfablbcy `h Mahkfre: d`stbry fhm rasafrgd ahv`rbhkahts 641?->???. @h: F. I`sgdar fhm E. Er`st`fhsah (ams.) da Habl`td`sft`bh bi Mahkfre: 61? yafrs bi manfta. Wdaii`alm: J.^. Gbll`s _unl`gft`bhs, 66-76. Lage`a, E. >?6?, Wpag`kahs fs c`its: Gdfrlas Lyall, Fmbli vbh Kbrlbt fhm f Ww`ss lfea mwall`hc gbllagt`bh. Fht`qu`ty 4= _rbjagt Cfllary: dttp:// Fht`q u`ty 4= www.fht`qu`ty.fg.ue/prbjcfll/lage`a7>=/ ?6>8 Lav`ha, _. 6049, da Fkftaur fhm tda _rbiass`bhfl. Gfknr`mca: Gfknr`mca Qh`vars`ty _rass. Lunnbge, J. 6496, ]da ]da Ejùeeahkùmm`hcs: ^agaht Cablbc`gb-Frgdfablbc`gf Cablbc`gb- Frgdfablbc`gfll ^asafrgdas `h Mahkfre. Hfturfl D`stbry ^av`aw 6: 6: =40-1?=. Lunnbge, J. 649>, Bh tda Fhg`aht Lfea Dfn`tft`bhs bi Ww`tzarlfhm. Hfturfl D`stbry ^av`aw >: >9-1>. Lunnbge, J. 6491, _rad`stbr`g `kas, fs `llustrftam ny Fhg`aht ^akf`hs, fhm tda Kfhhars fhm Gustbks bi Kbmarh Wfvfcas. Lbhmbh: S`ll`fks fhm Hbrcfta. Lunnbge, J. 6494, Bh tda Br`c`h bi G`v`l`sft`bh fhm tda _r`k`t`va Gbhm`t`bh bi Kfh. rfhsfgt`bhs bi tda Atdhblbc`gfl Wbg`aty bi Lbhmbh 9: 7>4-7=6. Lunnbge, J. 643?, da Br`c`h bi G`v`l`sft`bh fhm tda _r`k`t`va Gbhm`t`bh bi Kfh: Kahtfl fhm Wbg`fl Gbhm`t`bhs bi Wfvfcas. Lbhmbh: Lbhckfhs, Craah & Gb. Lyall, G. 647?-6477, _r`hg`plas bi Cablbcy, Na`hc fhm Fttakpt tb Axplf`h tda Ibrkar Gdfhcas bi tda Afrtd‐s Wurifga ny ^aiarahga tb Gfusas Hbw `h Bparft`bh. vbls. 6-7, Lbhmbh: Jbdh Kurrfy. Lyall, G. 6497, da Cablbc`gfl Av`mahgas Av`mahgas ibr tda Fht`qu`ty bi Kfh . Lbhmbh: Jbdh Kurrfy. Kur rfy. Kahbtt`, I (am.) >??=, L`v`hc bh tda Lfea `h _rad`stbr`g _rad`stb r`g Aurbpa: 61? yafrs bi Lfea Mwall`hc ^asafrgd. ^butlamca: Lbhmbh. Kbrsa, K. 6000, Grfh`blbcy Grfh`bl bcy fhm tda Fmbpt`bh bi tda ]draa-Fca Wystak `h Nr`tf`h. _rbgaam`hcs bi tda _rad`stbr`g Wbg`aty 91: 6-69. Kuhrb, ^. 644>, Fhg`aht Fhg`ah t Wgbtt` Wgb tt`sd sd Lfea Lf ea Mwall`hc Mwal l`hcs,s, br Grfhhbcs Grfhhb cs . Am`hnurcd: Mfv`m Mbuclfs. Kuhrb, ^. 644=f, Kacfl`td`g kbhukahts bi Dbllfhm, fhm tda`r ralft`bh w`td fhflbcbus rakf`hs `h Hbrtdarh Aurbpa. _rbgaam`hcs bi tda Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr`as bi Wgbtlfhm 64: 64: 60-71. Kuhrb, ^. 644=n, Mfh`sd Ejùeeahkùmm`hcs, tda`r ifgts fhm `hiarahgas. 64: >69->>1. _rbgaam`hcs _rbgaam`hcs bi tda Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr`as bi Wgbtlfhm 64:
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Kuhrb, ^. 640?, da Lfea-Mwall`hcs bi Aurbpa . Lbhmbh: Gfssall & Gbkpfhy, L`k`tam. Kuhrb, ^. 6400, _rad`stbr`g Wgbtlfhm fhm Wgbtlfhm fhm `ts _lfga `h Aurbpafh G`v`l`zft`bh . Am`hnurcd: Nlfgewbbm fhm Wbhs. Frgdf ablbcc y fhm fh m Iflsa Fht`qu`t Fht` qu`t`as `as . Lbhmbh: Katduah. Kuhrb, ^. 60?1, Frgdfablb
Kuhrb, ^. 60>6, Futbn`bc Futb n`bcrfpd`g rfpd`g Weatgd Weatg d >6 st July, 6471 - 64 td July, 60>?. Clfscbw: Kfgladbsa, Jfgesbh & Gb. Kurrfy, ]. >??0, @llustrft`hc —sfvfcary‐: W`r Jbdh Lunnbge fhm Arhast Cr`sat. Fht`qu`ty 47: =44-=00. Fht`q u`ty 47: _fttbh, K. >??3, Wg`ahga, _bl`t`gs fhm Nus`hass `h tda Sbre bi W`r Jbdh Lunnbge. Flmarsdbt: Fsdcfta. _`ccbtt, W. 6039, ^u`hs `h f Lfhmsgfpa: Assfys `h Fht`qufr`fh Fht`qufr`fh`sk. `sk. Am`hnurcd: Am`hnurcd Qh`vars`ty _rass. ^bwlay-Gbhwy, _. >??3, Irbk Cahas`s tb _rad`stbry: da Frgdfablbc`gfl draa Fca Wystak fhm `ts Gbhtastam ^agapt`bh `h Mahkfre, Nr`tf`h fhm @ralfhm. Bxibrm: Bxibrm Qh`vars`ty _rass. ^ubii, Q. >??=, Lfea-mwall`hc stum`as `h Ww`tzarlfhm s`hga —Ka`lah 641=. @h: I. Kahbtt` (am.) L`v`hc bh tda Lfea `h _rad`stbr`g Aurbpa: 61? yafrs bi Lfea Mwall`hc ^asafrgd. Lbhmbh: ^butlamca, 0->6. Wdarrftt, F. >??=, ]da `kpbrtfhga bi lfea-mwall`hcs `h Aurbpafh d`stbry. @h: I. Kahbtt` (am.) L`v`hc bh tda Lfea `h _rad`stbr`g Aurbpa: 61? yafrs bi Lfea Mwall`hc ^asafrgd. Lbhmbh: ^butlamca, >93->31. W`kpsbh, M. 609=, W`r Mfh`al S`lsbh fhm tda _rad`stbr`g Fhhfls bi Wgbtlfhm : F Gahtah Ga htahfry fry Wtumy. _rbgaam`hcs _rbgaam`hcs bi tda Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr`as bi Wgbtlfhm 09, 6-4. Frgdfa blbc y `h Gahtrfl Gaht rfl Aurbpa: Aurbpa : tda I`rst 1?? Pafrs. Haw WelahæŐ, E. 6047, Frgdfablbc Pbre: Pbre: La`gastar La`g astar Qh`vars`ty Qh`vars `ty _rass.
Wtbge`hc, C. S. Jr 6036, Sdft‐s `h f Hfka2 ]da Br`c`hs bi tda ^byfl Fhtdrbpb Fhtd rbpblbc` lbc`gfl gfl @hst`tuta @hst` tuta (6473-36 (647 3-36). ). Kfh 9: 790-70?. Wtufrt, J. 6499, Hbt`ga bi tda Wgbtgd Grfhhbcs. @h: I. Eallar da lfea mwall`hcs bi Ww`tzarlfhm fhm btdar pfrts bi Aurbpa . ]rfhslftam `htb Ahcl`sd ny J.A. Laa. Lbhmbh: Lbhckfhs, 740-70>. ]r`ccar, N. 600>, Mfh`al S`lsbh fhm tda Wgbtt`sd Ahl`cdtahkaht. 6>>: 11-31. _rbgaam`hcs _rbgaam`hcs bi tda Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr`as bi Wgbtlfhm 6>>: ]r`ccar, N. >??9, F D`stbry D`stb ry bi Frgdfablb Frgdf ablbc`gf c`gfll dbucdt dbu cdt (Wagbhm Am`t`bh), Gfknr`mca: Gfknr`mca Qh`vars`ty _rass. ]ylbr, A. N. 6446, Fhtdrbpbl Fhtdr bpblbc bcy. y. Lbhmbh: KfgK`llfh fhm Gb. Yfucdfh, S. 600=, Carkfh ^bkfht`g _f`ht`hc. Haw Dfvah fhm Lbhmbh: Pfla Qh`vars`t Qh`va rs`tyy _rass. _rass .
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Sanar, E. >?6?, >?6? , _ifdlnf _ifd lnfurbk urbkfht` fht`e. e. Qrcasgd`gdt Qrcasgd `gdtaa `h mar Kflara` Kflar a` mas.60. Jfdrduhmart. @h: Nfm`sgdah Lfhmaskusauk Efrlsruda (ams.) Juhcsta`hza`t `k Qknrugd. M`a “K`gdalsnarcar Eultur‛ uhm K`ttalaurbpf vbr 9??? Jfdrah . Mfrkstfmt: Nfm`sgdah Lfhmaskusauk Efrlsruda, >41->06. S`lsbh, S`ls bh, M. 6416, 6416 , da Frgdfablbcy fhm _rad`stbr`g Fhhfls bi Wgbtlfhm . Am`hnurcd: Wutdarlfhm fhm Ehbx. Sbrsffa, J. J . J. F. 64=0, 64 =0, da _r`kavfl Fht`qu`t`as bi Mahkfre . ]rfhslft ]rfhslftam am ny ny S.J. S.J. ]dbks. ]dbks . Lbhmbh: Lbh mbh: _frear. Frgdfa blbc`f c`f 74: Syl`a, S. S. 649?, 649 ?, Bh Lfea-Mw Lf ea-Mwall` all`hcs hcs bi tda Afrly Af rly _ar`bms _ar `bms.. Frgdfablb 74: 633-643.
Z`kkar, B. >??7, F Gbhtasta Gbht astamm Hft`bh: Hft`bh : D`stbry, D`stb ry, Kakbry fhm fh m Hft`bhfl`s Hft`bh fl`sk k `h Ww`tzarlfhm Ww`tzarlfhm 6396-6406. Gfknr`mca: Gfknr`mca Qh`vars`ty _rass.
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Gdfptar > F KFH KF H GDFH GD FHCA CAM M NP MF^S@H MF ^S@H
Mfv`m Glfrea
Fnstr Fns trfg fgt t
@h f sdbrt futbn`bcrfpd`gfl seatgd, ^bnart Kuhrb m`v`mam d`s l`ia `htb tdraa pdfsas: `h d`s ybutd tdara wfs f struccla ibr amugft`bh, d`s pr`ka wfs mavbtam tb punl`g muty fs f kam`gfl prfgt`t`bhar `h tda wast bi Wgbtlfhm fhm, i`hflly, afrly rat`rakaht lam tb fh axtrfbrm`hfry haw gfraar spurram bh ny f pfss`bh ibr frgdfablbcy. Sd`la st`ll prfgt`s`hc kam`g`ha `h tda wast bi Wgbtlfhm, Kuhrb‐s `hvblvakaht `h tda fgt`v`t`as bi tda Fyr fhm S`ctbwh Frgdfablbc`gfl Fssbg`ft`bh pfvam tda wfy tb axgfvft`bhs bi lbgfl grfhhbc s`tas. D`s sgdblfrly raputft`bh wfs astfnl`sdam `h 644> tdrbucd tda punl`gft`bh bi Fhg`aht Fhg`a ht Wgbtt`sd Wgbtt `sd Lfea Mwall`hc Mwal l`hcs s . @t wfs td`s raputft`bh, fs wall fs ragahtly `hdar`tam ifk`ly wafltd, tdft ahgburfcam d`k tb rat`ra afrly irbk tda kam`gfl prfgt`ga fhm mavbta tda rast bi d`s l`ia tb tda pursu`t bi frgdfablbcy. Sd`la d`s Wgbtt`sd frgdfablbc`gfl `htarasts havar wfham fhm da wfs glbsaly fssbg`ftam w`td fhm fgt`va `h tda Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr`as bi Wgbtlfhm, da spaht kugd t`ka trfvall`hc `h Aurbpa cftdar`hc kftar`fls bh tda tdah nubyfht rasafrgdas `htb lfgustr`ha sattlakahts. da Lfea-Mwall`hcs bi Aurbpa , `h`t`flly mal`varam fs ^d`hm Lagturas `h 6444 fhm punl`sdam twb yafrs lftar, saflam d`s raputft`bh fs f sar`bus sgdblfr. Wunsaquahtly Kuhrb plfyam fh `kpbrtfht rbla `h Nr`t`sd frgdfablbcy, frgdfab lbcy, a`tdar tdrbucd d`s `hvblvakaht `hvblva kaht w`td hft`bhfl brcfh`sft`bhs, ibr axfkpla tda Nr`t`sd Fssbg`ft`bh ibr tda Fmvfhgakaht bi Wg`ahga, br fssbg`ft`bh w`td `kpbrtfht frgdfablbc`gfl prbjagts, sugd fs axgfvft`bhs ft Clfstbhnury. @h 606? ^bnart Kuhrb ahmbwam f sar`as bi lagturas ft tda Qh`vars`ty bi Am`hnurcd, f trfm`t`bh wd`gd gbht`huas tb td`s mfy. Eay wbrms: Kuhrb, grfhhbcs, lfea mwall`hcs
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@htrbmugt`bh
Kugd bi td`s vbluka `s fnbut lfea mwall`hcs, fh fraf bi stumy w`td wd`gd ^bnart Kuhrb‐s hfka rakf`hs syhbhykbus hafrly f gahtury fitar d`s maftd. Sdft @ dfva gdbsah tb mb dara `s tb lbbe nr`aily ft tda g`rgukstfhgas tdft nrbucdt fnbut td`s l`he. Gbhgahtrft`hc bh td`s fspagt `hav`tfnly `hvblvas dfv`hc tb `chbra btdar frafs tdft `htarastam Kuhrb. Nut @ mb sb nagfusa @ iaal tdft dfm Kuhrb hbt astfnl`sdam d`ksali fs fh axpart bh lfea mwall`hcs fhm dfm da hbt nagbka ragbch`sam fs sugd fgrbss Aurbpa, tda bppbrtuh`t`as tb `hvast`cfta btdar frafs k`cdt wall hbt dfva naah bpah tb d`k. Fhm aquflly `kpbrtfht, `t `s hbt ft fll glafr tdft w`tdbut td`s ragbch`t`bh Kuhrb (I`cura >.6) wbulm dfva gdbsah tb biiar tda Qh`vars`ty tda ahmbwkaht wdbsa gahtahfry wa galanrftam `h tda gbhiarahga tdft lam tb td`s vbluka.
I`cura >.6 ^bnart Kuhrb (Kuhrb 60>6, irbht`sp`aga).
74
]b uhmarstfhm dbw Kuhrb nagfka tda axpart axpart bh lfea mwall`hcs, wa haam tb lbbe ft d`s wdbla l`ia. @h mb`hc sb, wa w`ll s aa tdft Kuhrb fgd`avam td`s pbs`t`bh tdrbucd f sar`as bi bppbrtuh`t`as tdft wara sa`zam, nut hbt `h`t`ftam, ny d`k. D`s wfs vary kugd f l`ia `h tdraa pfrts. @hmaam, fs da nacfh tda i`hfl par`bm bi d`s l`ia, da gdfrfgtar`sam `t `h just sugd f wfy: @ m`v`ma ky l`ia `htb tdraa par`bms, mur`hc tda strst @ strucclam dfrm ibr ky amugft`bh, mur`hc tda sagbhm @ sarvam tda punl`g tb tda nast bi ky fn`l`ty, fhm ibr tda rast bi ky l`ia @ kafh tb plafsa kysali. (Kuhrb 60>6, 77).
D`s afrly l`ia fhm tda fggbkpfhy`hc struccla ibr amugft`bh wfs f pfrt`gulfrly ibrkft`va t`ka ibr Kuhrb. Da wfs nbrh `h Fssyht bh >6 July 6471, tda bhly sbh bi Mbhflm fhm Gftdar`ha Kuhrb. Da wfs tda sagbhm gd`lm `h f ifk`ly bi ibur gd`lmrah. D`s wfs f ifrk`hc ifk`ly nfsam `h tda ha`cdnbur`hc pfr`sdas bi Flhass fhm E`ltafrh bh tda Grbkfrty I`rtd. D`s iftdar, Mbhflm Kuhrb, `s i`rst masgr`nam fs f ifrk sarvfht nut sunsaquahtly fs f ifrk cr`ava br kfhfcar. Da m`am ft Flhass `h 60?3. D`s kbtdar, Gftdar`ha Kuhrb, fppafrs tb dfva m`am fitar tda 6416 Gahsus nut naibra tda `htrbmugt`bh bi tda stftutbry rac`strft`bh bi maftds `h 6411. Gur`busly, Kuhrb‐s bwh Futbn`bcrfp Futbn `bcrfpd`g d`g Weatgd Weatg d prbv`mas hb usaiul `hibrkft`bh fnbut d`s pfrahts. Fll wa lafrh `s: Ky kbtdar wfs masgahmfht bi f nrfhgd bi tda Kuhrbs bi Ibul`s … Dar pabpla, sb ifr fs @ ehaw tdak, wara f tfll nlbhm rfga, w`td f br`m gbkplax`bh, l`cdt ayas, if`r df`r fhm fqu`l`ha hbsas. Bh tda btdar dfhm, tda pdys`gfl gdfrfgtars bi ky iftdar‐s ible wara kbmarfta stftura, mfre df`r fhm ayas, ft hbsas, lbhc nbm`as, sdbrt l`kns fhm f swfrtdy gbkplax`bh.
Fhm wa w a bhly bhl y lafrh la frh td`s nagfusa nagf usa `t prbv`m p rbv`mas as f praifga prai fga tb5 t b5 Dahga @ dfva flwfys racfrmam kysali irbk tda stfhmpb`ht bi atdhblbcy fs f pura kbhcral, kbra aspag`flly fs @ ratf`h `h ky bwh parsbh sbka bi tda pdys`gfl gdfrfgtar`st`gs bi nbtd tdasa typas bi dukfh`ty. ]bsa bh tda kfla s`ma, wd`gd prbnfnly wara mar`vam irbk tda @nar`fh pra-Galt`g rfgas, dfva, dbwavar, dbwavar, f mag`mam prambk`hfhga `h ky gbhst`tut`bh. gbhst`tut`bh. (Kuhrb 60>6, 1-9).
Avah ibr tda afrly magfmas bi tda twaht`atd gahtury td`s saaks f vary matfgdam prasahtft`bh bi d`s pfrahts. @hmaam, bi d`s s`stars da talls us hbtd`hc ft fll. _ardfps tdbucd, td`s `s just f gbhsaquahga bi tda g`rgukstfhgas surrbuhm`hc tda graft`bh bi tda Futbn`bcrfp Futbn `bcrfpd`g d`g Weatgd . Jbdh Dbrha, `h f praifga tb tda vbluka, talls us tdft `t “wfs wr`ttah tda yafr naibra da pfssam fwfy wd`la suiiar`hc irbk `hm`ii araht dafltd‛ (Kuhrb 60>6, v`). @t wfs, sfys Cabrca Kfgmbhflm, “tda lfst
70
p`aga bi wbre tb wd`gd da sat d`s dfhm‛ ‗ “f sdbrt seatgd bi d`s bwh l`ia, wd`gd wfs gbkpbsam ibr tda `hibrkft`bh bi d`s glbsast ir`ahms, fhm wd`gd dfs s`hga naah pr`htam ibr pr`vfta g`rgulft`bh‛ (60>6, 697). ]dasa gbkkahts succast tdft Kuhrb prbnfnly ibgussam bh kfttars da nal`avam tb na bi kbst `htarast tb d`s salagt crbup bi rafmars fhm tdft da kfy hbt dfva wr`ttah `h tda axpagtft`bh bi punl`gft`bh. Sdftavar tda kbt`vft`bh br gbhstrf`hts fiiagt`hc `ts prbmugt`bh fhm hbtw`tdstfhm`hc tdft `t `s tda wbre bi fh blm fhm `ll kfh, `t mbas prbv`ma kfhy `kpbrtfht `hs`cdts `htb d`s ftt`tumas fhm `htarasts. ]da struccla ibr amugft`bh
Kuhrb raga`vam d`s afrly amugft`bh ft tda Iraa Gdurgd sgdbbl `h tda pfr`sd bi E`ltafrh. Irbk tdara da waht bh tb spahm twb yafrs ft tda ^byfl Fgfmaky ft ]f`h, “bha bi tda lafm`hc amugft`bhfl `hst`tut`bhs `h tda Hbrtd bi Wgbtlfhm‛. Da wfs sb suggassiul tdara, w`hh`hc kfhy pr`zas tdft “ky pfrahts fgtuflly nacfh tb ahtartf`h tda `maf bi ky cb`hc tb gbllaca ‗ bi gbursa fs f pral`k`hfry stap tb tda k`h`stry‛ (Kuhrb 60>6, 9). ]da pr`hg`pfl nfrr`ar tb fgd`av`hc td`s fkn`t`bh wfs f lfge bi kbhay. Kuhrb bvargfka td`s m`ii`gulty ny turh`hc tb tafgd`hc. Fggapt`hc fh `h`t`fl `hv`tft`bh irbk f gbuhtry sgdbblkfstar tb fgt fs d`s raplfgakaht wd`la da fttahmam gbllaca, Kuhrb qu`gely rafl`sam tdft tafgd`hc biiaram f sburga bi “i`hfhga fhm gbhcah`fl bggupft`bh‛. ]da M`srupt`bh bi tda Gdurgd bi Wgbtlfhm `h 64=7 dfm lam tb tda astfnl`sdkaht bi twb sgdbbls `h afgd pfr`sd `hstafm bi tda prav`bus bha. ]afgdars wara `h sdbrt supply fhm uhqufl`i`am `hm`v`mufls, l`ea Kuhrb, ibuhm akplbykaht afsy tb bntf`h. “Fggbrm`hcly, tda haxt mbzah yafrs bi ky l`ia wara mavbtam tb punl`g fhm pr`vfta tafgd`hc, mur`hc wd`gd @ ibuhm t`ka tb fttahm tda frts glfssas `h tda Qh`vars`ty bi Am`hnurcd, wdara @ crfmuftam fs KF `h 649?‛ (Kuhrb 60>6, 3). ]da grug`fl avaht bi td`s par`bm wfs tda fppafrfhga `h 6410, naibra Kuhrb‐s Kuhrb‐s crfmuft`bh, crfmuft `bh, bi Gdfrlas Mfrw`h‐ Mfr w`h‐ss da Br`c`h bi Wpag`as w`td `ts succast`bh tdft tda hfturfl prbgassas fiiagt`hc plfhts fhm fh`kfls flsb fppl`am tb dukfhs. Irbk nbydbbm, Kuhrb dfm naah `htarastam `h sg`ahga, pfrt`gulfrly cablbcy. Da rafm Mfrw`h‐s nbbe fhm wfs tbtflly gbhv`hgam ny `ts frcukahts. ]d`s ]d`s wfs f iuhmfkahtfl gdfllahca tb fll bi d`s plfhs. Ibr `t wfs “tb gdfhca tda wdbla tahbr fhm prbspagts bi ky iutura l`ia‛ ny ahm`hc tda `maf bi k`h`stry `h tda Iraa Gdurgd: @ gbhs`maram `t m`sdbhast tb nagbka f kaknar bi f prbiass`bh `h wd`gd @ gbulm hbt punl`gly dblm fhm tafgd tda Mfrw`h`fh mbgtr`has w`tdbut kfe`hc kysali l`fnla tb na tr`am ny tda Gdurgd Gburts
=?
ibr datarbmbxy. datarbmbxy. ... Fs @ gbulm hbt sukkbh sug`aht dypbgr`sy tb grbss td`s ^un`gbh ny fmbpt`hc tda Gdurgd s`ma bi tda prbnlak, tda prfgt`gfl quast`bh @ dfm dfm tb ifga wfs wdatdar @ sdbulm sdbulm gbht`hua bh tda sbkawdft uhgartf`h ir`hca bi amugft`bh fhm l`tarftura, br jb`h tda kam`gfl prbiass`bh. (Kuhrb 60>6, 3-6?).
Da m`m hbt rusd tb kfea f mag`s`bh. @hstafm da tbbe f pbst fs f tutbr “tb f ybuhc cahtlakfh bi craft fn`l`ty wdb, bw`hc tb f mal`gfta gbhst`tut`bh, wfs uhfnla tb fttahm f Qh`vars`ty tb gbkplata d`s amugft`bh‛. ]d`s sagbhm `hvblvakaht `h tafgd`hc gbhv`hgam d`k tdft kam`g`ha wbulm na “kbra gbhcah`fl tb ky qufs`-sg`aht`i`g tfstas‛. Wb, `h 649> da ahrbllam fcf`h ft Am`hnurcd Qh`vars`ty, td`s t`ka tb stumy kam`g`ha (Kuhrb 60>6, 6?). D`s stumy tdbucd m`m hbt ibllbw tda usufl gbursa. Fitar twb yafrs, da tbbe t`ka but tb fggbkpfhy fh `ll ir`ahm fhm iallbw stumaht spahm`hc f w`htar bh tda ^`v`arf. ]dara, bh wfles w`td d`s ir`ahm, da ibuhm tda cablbcy pfrt`gulfrly `htarast`hc. ]d`s saaks tb dfva naah tda i`rst axpar`ahga tdft Kuhrb dfm bi trfvall`hc fnrbfm, sbkatd`hc tdft nagfka sugd f iaftura bi tda i`hfl pdfsa bi d`s l`ia. Da rasukam d`s stum`as `h 6491 fhm “gbkplatam tdak ny tfe`hc tda macraas bi G.K. fhm K.N. `h 6493, fhm K.M. f iaw yafrs lftar‛ (Kuhrb 60>6, 6>). F l`ia l `ia bi punl` pun l`gg sarv sa rv`g `gaa
Ibllbw`hc crfmuft`bh d`s i`rst fppb`htkaht wfs fs fss`stfht tb Mr Lfwrahga wdb dfm f lfrca prfgt`ga fkbhc tda k`h`hc gbkkuh`t`as bi Gukhbge. ]da gdfhca irbk uh`vars`ty l`ia wfs gbhs`marfnla: ]a summah trfhs`t`bh irbk f sgdblfst`g ftkbspdara fhm tda tafgd`hc bi kam`gfl sg`ahga `h lagtura rbbks fhm wall-aqu`ppam dbsp`tfls tb tda prfgt`ga bi tda dafl`hc frt fkbhc f k`h`hc pbpulft`bh wfs tb ka l`ea gbk`hc `htb f haw wbrlm. ]arfpaut`g tdabr`as fhm nbbelafrh`hc dfm tb na tastam ny fgt`bh tdara fhm tdah. Wbkat`kas tda satt`hc bi f nrbeah nbha dfm tb na mbha uhmar tda kbst pr`k`t`va g`rgukstfhgas, nfhmfcas, spl`hts, fhm mrass`hc na`hc `kprbv`sam irbk sugd kftar`fls fs gbulm na prbguram `h f duknla gbttfca. (Kuhrb 60>6, 61-69).
Afrly `h d`s t`ka `h Fyrsd`ra da kfma tda fgquf`htfhga bi Mr Jfkas F`teah F`te ah wdb dfm f wall-ast wall -astfnl` fnl`sdam sdam prfgt`ga prfg t`ga `h E`lkfrhb E`l kfrhbge. ge. Mr F`teah‐s fca fhm dafltd dfm ahgburfcam d`k tb gbhs`mar afs`hc d`ksali `htb rat`rakaht w`td Kuhrb tfe`hc bvar. Nut naibra tday gbulm gbka tb fh fcraakaht Kuhrb wfs fseam tb fggbkpfhy tda sbh bi Frgd`nflm I`hh`a bh tda Y`gtbr`fh aqu`vflaht bi tda Crfhm ]bur. S`td S`td d`s fppat`ta ibr ib r trfval wdattam ny d`s prav`bus prav `bus v`s`t v`s` t tb tda ^`v`arf, `t wfs fh biiar Kuhrb gbulm hbt magl`ha:
=6
@ fggaptam tda bar, bh gbhm`t`bh tdft bur trfvals wara tb na bi fh `hibrkftbry fhm sak`-sg`aht`stg gdfrfgtar, gbkpr`s`hc, nas`mas tda usufl hfturfl sgahary, v`s`ts tb ifkbus kbhukahts bi fht`qu`ty, kusauks, frt cfllar`as, atg. (Kuhrb 60>6, 64).
Wtfrt`hc `h Hbvaknar 6494, tda pf`r v`s`tam _fr`s, Nbrmafux, Kfrsa`llas, Cahbf, K`lfh, Ilbrahga, ^bka, Hfplas, Kass`hf, Wyrfgusa, Kfltf, Acypt fhm tda H`la up tb tda i`rst gftfrfgt, Jfiif, Jarusflak Jarus flak,, Danrbh, Danrbh , tda Mafm Waf, Jar`gdb, Jar`g db, Mfkfsgus, Mfkfs gus, Nfflnage, Nffln age, Ftdahs, Ftdah s, Gbhstfht` Gbhs tfht`hbpl hbpla, a, Yfrhf, ^ustgdue ^ustg due (tda kbmarh kbma rh ^usa), ^usa) , Numfpast, Y`ahhf fhm dbka v`f Kuh`gd fhm tda ^d`ha. ]da tr`p rasultam `h Kuhrb‐s i`rst nbbe, Hbtas bh f bur `h tda Afst (6431) (6431) nfsam bh lagturas da dfm c`vah `h E`lkfrhbge. Nfge `h Fyrsd`ra, da `kkam`ftaly struge fh fcraakaht w`td Mr F`teah. F`te ah. Da kbvam k bvam `h tb Mr F`tea F `teah‐ h‐ss tbwh t bwh dbusa dbus a fhm f hm “sbbh nagfka nagf ka pbssassam bi f lfrca fhm lugrft`va prfgt`ga‛. Kuhrb rfp`mly nagfka f eay kaknar bi Fyrsd`ra, fhm pfrt`gulfrly E`lkfrhbge, sbg`aty. @h pfrt td`s wfs f`mam ny d`s `hvblvakaht w`td tda _d`lbsbpd`gfl @hst`tut`bh. @hst`tut`bh. Da lagturam raculfrly bh f w`ma rfhca bi sunjagts. ]dasa wara kf`hly bh sg`ahga nut flsb `hglumam f gbursa bi lagturas bh d`s trfvals. Da sarvam sarva m savarfl tarks fs _ras`maht. @htarast`hcly, @htarast` hcly, hbha bi d`s lagturas ft td`s t`ka saak tb dfva naah gbhgarham w`td frgdfablbcy. Bh 9 Wapt 6431, ny hbw f suggassiul E`lkfrhbge mbgtbr, da kfrr`am Fhhf ]fylbr, “fh avaht bi craft fhm lfst`hc `kpbrtfhga tb ky mbkast`g gbkibrt fhm iutura wall-na`hc‛. ]da kfrr`fca lfstam td`rty-twb yafrs uht`l Fhhf‐s maftd `h 60?3 fhm “tda fgka bi mbkast`g dfpp`hass wfs rafl`zam tb `ts iull axtaht‛. Dar gbhtr`nut`bh wfs s`ch`i`gfht: “sda tbbe pfrt `h fll ky frgdfablbc`gfl stum`as fhm wfhmar`hcs, fhm m`m kbst bi tda mrfw`hcs `llustrft`hc ky nbbe bh da Lfea-Mwall`hcs Lfea-Mwall`h cs bi Aurbpa ‛ (Kuhrb 60>6, 73). Aquflly `kpbrtfht `kpb rtfht tdbucd, `t wfs tdrbucd tdrbuc d Fhhf tdft Kuhrb cf`ham fggass tb tda wafltd tdft ahfnlam d`k tb c`va up kam`g`ha. ]da grug`fl avaht tdft ahsuram Kuhrb‐s `htarast `h frgdfablbcy tbbe plfga bh 60 Bgtbnar 6433. F kaat`hc, gdf`ram ny tda Afrl bi Wtf`r, Lbrm L`autahfht bi tda gbuhty, wfs dalm ft Fyr w`td tda `htaht`bh —tb ibrk fh Frgdfablbc`gfl Fssbg`ft`bh ibr Fyrsd`ra fhm S`ctbhsd`ra‐ (Gbgdrfh-_ftr`ge 6434, xv``-xv```). Kuhrb wfs fkbhc tda 7?? kaknars wdb s`cham up tb jb`h tda Fssbg`ft`bh tdft dfm w`ma-rfhc`hc `htarasts w`td f strbhc d`stbr`gfl fhm ragbrms gbkpbhaht. ]da Frgdfablbc`gfl sagt`bh wfhtam tb na fgt`va fhm tb ahcfca `h i`almwbre. Fttaht`bh turham tb tda grfhhbc ft Lbgdlaa. Afrl`ar mrf`hfca bi tda s`ta dfm ravaflam t`knars fhm twb gfhbas. ]da mrf`hars `hvblvam `h tda wbre iraquahtam tda sdbp bi Jfkas Nrbwh, f prbv`s`bh kargdfht ft ]frnbltbh. Nrbwh kaht`bham tda m`sgbvar`as tb savarfl lbgfl cahtlakah wdb da tdbucdt wbulm na
=>
`htarastam nut tday m`m hbtd`hc. @h 6434 rahawam mrf`hfca wbres rav`vam Nrbwh‐s `htarast. Da wrbta tb f cahtlakfh ft Fyr nut fcf`h if`lam tb al`g`t al`g` t fhy raspbhsa. @h tda fppfraht fnsahga bi lbgfl `htarast, da wrbta tb Jbsapd Fhmarsbh ft tda Hft`bhfl Kusauk. Fhmarsbh wfs gartf`hly `htarastam fhm wrbta tb Gbgdrfh-_ftr`ge, tda Wagratfry bi tda hawly ibrkam Fyr fhm S`ctbwh Frgdfablbc`gfl Fssbg`ft`bh. Gbgdrfh-_ftr`ge v`s`tam tda s`ta fhm, ragbch`s`hc `ts `kpbrtfhga, wrbta tb J D ]urhar, tda Muea bi _brtlfhm‐s ifgtbr, fmvbgft`hc tda vflua bi fh axgfvft`bh. axg fvft`bh. Kafhwd`la, ]urhar ]urhar dfs tblm tbl m Kuhrb fnbut tda m`sgbvar`as (Kuhrb ( Kuhrb 644>n, 94-36). Kuhrb‐s Kuhrb‐s `htarast `h lfea mwall`hc mwall` hc kftar`fl dfm flrafmy naah frbusam ny “f dbl`mfy v`s`t tb sbka bi tda Gbht`hahtfl kusauks gbhtf`h`hc lfgustr`ha ral`gs, aspag`flly tdft ft Zur`gd‛ wd`gd dfm tfeah plfga just naibra tda ram`sgbvary bi tda grfhhbc ft Lbgdlaa (Kuhrb 60>6, >3->4). S`td tda suppbrt bi Gbgdrfh-_ftr`ge fhm tda Fyr fhm S`ctbwh Frgdfablbc`gfl Fssbg`ft Fssb g`ft`bh `bh axgfvft`b axgfv ft`bhs hs stfrtam stfr tam `h Bgtbnar Bgtb nar 6434 fhm gbhglum gbhg lumam am `h 6430. _frt wfy tdrbucd tday lbst ... tda fgt`va sarv`gas bi Kr Gbgdrfh-_ftr`ge, wdb d`tdartb tbbe hbtas fhm seatgdas bi afgd mfy‐s prbgaam`hcs. @h gbhsaquahga bi d`s fnsahga, bw`hc tb f prbtrfgtam `llhass, fhm tda `hfn`l`ty bi tda btdar cahtlakah tb fttahm, td`s muty hbw iall bh ky `haxpar`ahgam sdbulmars5 fhm `h c`v`hc td`s sdbrt fggbuht bi tda wbre, @ dfva bhly tb sfy tdft, dbwavar `kpariagtly mbha, @ dfva ahmafvburam a hmafvburam mur`hc vary `hglakaht waftdar, waftdar, tb prbgura fs gbrragt fhm if`tdiul f ragbrm bi tda axplbrft`bhs fs pbss`nla. (Kuhrb 644>n, 39-33).
@t `s hbt glafr wdatdar Gbgdrfh-_ftr`ge dfm flwfys ahv`sfcam Kuhrb tfe`hc bvar tda wbre bi wr`t`hc up tda axgfvft`bhs br wdatdar td`s gfka fnbut bhly nagfusa nagfus a bi d`s `llhass. Kuhrb hbtam tdft “na`hc ras`maht `h E`lkfrhbge, tda muty bi tfe`hc gdfrca bi tda ral`gs wd`gd turham up irbk mfy tb mfy ft Lbgdlaa, wd`la tda axgfvft`bhs wara `h prbcrass, wfs ahtrustam tb ka‛ (60>6, >4). Sdft mbas saak glafr gla fr `s tdft Kuhrb, ny hbw wall astfnl`s astf nl`sdam dam `h d`s kam`gfl prfgt`ga ft E`lkfrhbge, wfs lbbe`hc ibr fh fraf bi stumy `h wd`gd da k`cdt dbpa tb kfea f kfre. Ny td`s par`bm, `t wfs uhl`ealy tdft f gbuhtry mbgtbr wbulm mb sb `h lfnbrftbry-nfsam sg`ahga br `h kam`g`ha. Kuhrb‐s fggbuht bi d`s nbydbbm `s lfrcaly masgr`nam `h tarks bi butmbbr fgt`v`t`as fhm tda`r fppafl saaks tb dfva stfyam w`td d`k tdrbucdbut d`s l`ia. Frgdfablbcy fppafrs tb dfva gfucdt Kuhrb‐s `htarast fs kugd tdrbucd g`rgukstfhga fs tda rasult bi fhy gbhsg`bus mal`narft`bh. Da gbulm just fs afs`ly dfva gdbsah cablbcy br hfturfl d`stbry w`td f m`iiaraht turh bi avahts. Kuhrb wfs bppbrtuh`st`g ahbucd tb lftgd bh tb wdftavar tda fraf prbv`mam. Dfv`hc mag`mam bh frgdfablbcy tda eay frgdfablbc`gfl s`tas `h Fyrsd`ra wara grfhhbcs.
=7
]da `hvblvakaht bi Jbsapd Fhmarsbh, dbwavar `hm`ragt, wfs glafrly `kpbrtfht `h ahgburfc`hc Kuhrb‐s `htarast `h frgdfablbcy. D`s `hiluahga, dfv`hc naah flartam tb tda grfhhbc ft Lbgdlaa, wfs uhmbuntamly suii`g`aht tb nr`hc `h Gbgdrfh-_ftr`ge fhm tda Fyr fhm S`ctbwh Frgdfablbc`gfl Fssbg`ft`bh. ]dft `h`t`ft`va wfs eay `h nr`hc`hc Gbgdrfh-_ftr`ge fhm Kuhrb tbcatdar. Nut Fhmarsbh plfyam f iurtdar rbla: ]a tfse bi masgr`n`hc sb kfhy hbval ral`gs bi nycbha mfys kfma ka f iraquaht v`s`tbr tb tda Kusauk bi Hft`bhfl Fht`qu`t`as `h Am`hnurcd, ibr tda purpbsa bi gbkpfr`hc tda hawly m`sgbvaram bnjagts w`td fhflbcbus ral`gs `h tdft kusauk. ]us @ kfma tda fgquf`htfhga bi tda lfta Mr Jbsapd Fhmarsbh, Gurftbr bi tdft kusauk, wdbsa uhr`vfllam ehbwlamca bi Wgbtt`sd Frgdfablbcy wfs bi craft fss`stfhga tb ka `h glfss`iy`hc tda Lbgdlaa ral`gs. (Kuhrb 60>6, >4).
]dasa tr`ps fhm tda gbhsaquaht kaat`hcs w`td Fhmarsbh wara prbnfnly grug`fl `h ahsur`hc Kuhrb‐s alagt`bh fs f Iallbw bi tda Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr`as bi Wgbtlfhm `h 6430. @h kfhy wfys Gbgdrfh-_ftr`ge fhm Kuhrb haamam afgd btdar. Gbgdrfh-_ftr`ge Gbgdrfh-_ftr`ge wfs fhx`bus tb ahgburfca frgdfablbc`gfl fgt`v`ty `h sbutd-wast Wgbtlfhm, pfrt`gulfrly w`td tda irfkawbre bi tda hawly graftam Fssbg`ft`bh. Kuhrb dfm tda aharcy fhm gbkk`tkaht tb na f eay i`cura `h sugd mavalbpkahts. ]da wbre ft Lbgdlaa wfs tda stfrt bi fh `kpbrtfht ralft`bhsd`p fhm Gbgdrfh-_ftr`ge wfs f strbhc `hiluahga bh Kuhrb `h tda afrly yafrs bi d`s nurcabh`hc `htarast `h frgdfablbcy. Gbgdrfh-_ftr`ge wfs f i`rk nal`avar `h `hmugt`bh5 `h tda i`rst vbluka bi tda Frgdfablbc Frgdfa blbc`gfl `gfl fhm D`stbr`gf D`stb r`gfll Gbllagt` Gbll agt`bhs bhs ralft`hc tb tda gbuht`as bi Fyr fhm S`ctbh , da wrbta, ]a futdbrs bi tda vfr`bus pfpars `h tda prasaht vbluka dfva gbhstham tdaksalvas tb c`v`hc fggurfta masgr`pt`bhs fhm gfraiully fsgartf`ham ifgts, nal`av`hc tdft ft tda prasaht t`ka frgdfablbc`gfl sg`ahga w`ll na nast sarvam sar vam ny lbgfl sbg`at`as parkfhahtly ragbrm`hc, `h fh futdaht`g fhm ral`fnla sdfpa, tda vfr`bus bnjagts bi fht`qu`ty nalbhc`hc tb tda`r m`str`gt. (Gbgdrfh-_ftr`ge (Gbgdrfh-_ftr`ge 6434, x`x).
Kuhrb saaks tb dfva eapt Gbgdrfh-_ftr`ge‐s nal`ai `h tda `kpbrtfhga bi —c`v`hc fggurfta masgr`pt`bhs fhm gfraiully fsgartf`ham ifgts‐ fs d`s cu`m`hc pr`hg`pla. Fs da prapfram prapf ram tda wbre ft Lbgdlaa Lbgd laa ibr punl`gft punl `gft`bh `bh Kuhrb rafl`sam tdft lfea mwall`hcs `h Nr`tf`h wara f sunjagt r`pa ibr `hvast`cft`bh. “]da ifvburfnla ragapt`bh c`vah tb Utda rapbrt bh tda axgfvft`bhs ft Lbgdlaa[ wfs‛, da ialt, “pfrtly tda kafhs bi nr`hc`hc tb l`cdt f huknar bi btdar grfhhbcs `h tda Wbutd-Sast bi Wgbtlfhm, sbka bi wd`gd wara axgfvftam uhmar tda cu`mfhga bi tda sfka UFyr
==
fhm S`ctbwh Frgdfablbc`gfl[ Fssbg`ft`bh‛ (Kuhrb 60>6, >0). Fkbhc Fkbh c tdasa tdas a wara tda `kpbrtfh `kpb rtfhtt s`tas s`t as ft Nu`stbh Nu`s tbh fhm Lbgdspbu Lbgd spbuts. ts. Fltdbucd Fltd bucd Kuhrb hbtam hb tam tdft t dft “tda rapbr r apbrts ts bh b h tda axgfvft`b axgfv ft`bhs hs bi nbtd tdasa grfhhbcs flsb iall tb ky pah‛ (60>6, >0), `t `s uhglafr wdft d`s rbla wfs `h tda wbre. Ft Nu`stbh, tda pfr`sd sgdbblkfstar, Muhgfh KgHfucdt, dfm m`sgbvaram tda s`ta fhm da wfs sunsaquahtly tb glf`k tdft da axgfvftam `t tbcatdar w`td Gbgdrfh-_ftr`ge w`tdbut kfe`hc fhy kaht`bh bi Kuhrb (Grbha >???, 66-6>). Kuhrb‐s bwh fggbuht `s `htarast`hc `h tdft da mbas hbt glf`k tb dfva naah prasaht wdah tda axgfvft`bhs nacfh, sfy`hc bhly, Ny caharfl gbhsaht, ft lafst hak. gbh., @ wfs fppb`htam gustbm`ar bi tda ral`gs5 fhm hbw, hbw, fgt`hc bh tda blm sfy`hc tdft pbssass`bh `s h`ha pb`hts bi tda lfw, lfw, @ dfva fssukam tda rbla bi d`stbr`fh. (Kuhrb 644>n, 607).
Havartdalass, `t saaks l`ealy tdft Kuhrb wfs f raculfr v`s`tbr tb tda s`ta nut `t wbulm na wrbhc tb gdfrfgtar`sa d`k fs tda M`ragtbr5 ny fll fggbuhts Gbgdrfh-_ftr`ge wfs st`ll fh `kpbrtfht i`cura. Gartf`hly, ragbrm`hc tagdh`quas dfm `kprbvam s`hga Lbgdlaa. ]da Nu`stbh rapbrt `s `llustrftam w`td i`curas mrfwh irbk pdbtbcrfpds ny f Kr Lfwr`a. Fhm tda ragaht axgfvftbr bi Nu`stbh hbtas tdft “tda ragbrms fhm plfh Kuhrb punl`sdam fra ... suii`g`ahtly fggurfta fhm matf`lam tb ahfnla gbkpfr`sbhs gbkpfr`s bhs w`td rasults bi tda ragaht axgfvft`bhs‛ (Grbha >???, 6>). Ft tda sfka sfk a t`ka fs da d a wfs prapfr`hc prap fr`hc tdasa t dasa axgfvft` axg fvft`bh bh rapbrts rapb rts ibr ib r punl`gft`bh, da nacfh f survay bi afrl`ar m`sgbvar`as. Da punl`sdam `h`t`flly `h frt`glas `h tda Frgdfablbc Frgdfa blbc`gfl `gfl fhm D`stbr`gf D`stb r`gfll Gbllagt` Gbll agt`bhs bhs ralft`hc tb tda gbuht`as bi Fyr fhm S`ctbh (Kuhrb 644?5 644>f). Nut td`s, bi gbursa, wfs just f lbgfl jburhfl w`td f m`str`nut`bh l`k`tam tb hbt kugd kbra tdfh tda 7?? kaknars bi tda Fssbg`ft`bh. Avah tda rafm`hc bi tda Lbgdlaa rapbrt ft f kaat`hc bi tda Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr Fht` qufr`as `as bi Wgbtlfhm Wgbt lfhm `h Kfrgd 6430 643 0 wbulm wbul m hbt dfva mbha kugd kbra tdfh kfre Kuhrb but fs f gbuhtry mbgtbr w`td sar`bus fht`qufr`fh `htarasts. Sdft raflly trfhsibrkam d`s raputft`bh wfs tda punl`gft`bh bi Fhg`aht Fhg`a ht Wgbtt`sd Wgbtt `sd Lfea Mwall`hcs Mwall `hcs `h 644>. @h d`s praifga, Kuhrb axplf`ham dbw `t dfm gbka fnbut: @h punl`sd`hc td`s wbre iaw praiftbry rakfres fra raqu`ram, naybhm fh axplfhft`bh bi tda g`rgukstfhgas wd`gd lam tb `ts fssuk`hc tda prasaht ibrk. ]a pr`kfry bnjagt gbhtakplftam wfs wfs tb plfga plfga naibra caharfl rafmars f ragbrm ragbrm bi sbka rakfrefnla m`sgbvar`as kfma `h tda tda sbutd-wast bi Wgbtlfhm, `h f mapfrtkaht bi Frgdfablbcy d`tdartb
=1
l`ttla ehbwh, fhm bi wd`gd gfraiully prapfram rapbrts dfva flrafmy fppafram `h tda sagbhm fhm td`rm vblukas bi tda Gbllagt`bhs bi tda Fyrsd`ra fhm S`ctbwhsd`ra S`ctbwhsd`ra Frgdfablbc`gfl Frgdfablbc`gfl Fssbg`ft`bh. Fs `t wfs ft tda `hst`cft`bh bi ^ S Gbgdrfh-_ftr`ge, Gbgdrfh-_ftr`ge, Asq, K_, K_, tdft tda axplbrft`bhs wd`gd lam tb tdasa m`sgbvar`as wara br`c`hflly uhmartfeah, sb `t wfs flsb w`td d`k tdft tda prbpbsfl tb `ssua tdasa rapbrts `h f dfhmy vbluka br`c`hftam. @t bggurram, dbwavar, tb ka, tdft, gbhs`mar`hc dbw l`ttla dfm naah ehbwh bi Wgbtt`sd Lfeamwall`hcs `h caharfl, fhm avah td`s l`ttla wfs bhly fggass`nla tb tda kaknars bi f iaw lafrham Wbg`at`as, `t wbulm na f kbra sft`sifgtbry uhmartfe`hc tb `hgbrpbrfta w`td tda br`c`hfl rapbrts, f ràsukà bi tda bnsarvft`bhs kfma ny prav`bus wr`tars fhm axplbrars, sb fs tb prasaht tb tda punl`g f gbkplata gbkpahm`uk, fs `t wara, bi tda wdbla sunjagt. (Kuhrb 644>n, v-v`).
Lftar `h tda praifga, Kuhrb kfeas glafr tdft Gbgdrfh-_ftr`ge dfm mbha kugd kbra tdfh just succast tda vbluka: b ^ S Gbgdrfh-_ftr`ge, Asq., LL.M., I.W.F., K._., @ fk uhmar tda maapast bnl`cft`bhs ibr vflufnla fmv`ga fhm fss`stfhga raga`vam `h fll stfcas bi tda rasafrgdas ‗ axplbrft`bhs, ahcrfv`hcs, rapbrts, atg., - fll na`hc sunjagt tb d`s gr`t`gfl suparv`s`bh. Ibr tda ehbwlamca wd`gd da tdus sb iraaly fhm uhsalstsdly plfgam ft ky m`spbsfl, fs wall fs ibr kugd ahgburfcakaht e`hmly c`vah mur`hc tda prbcrass bi tda aht`ra wbre, @ hbw nac tb axprass ky wfrkast tdfhes. (Kuhrb 644>n, v``).
Mfv`m Mbuclfs, tda Am`hnurcd punl`sdar, wdb flsb prbmugam Frgdfa blbc`gfl `gfl fhm D`stbr`gf D`stb r`gfll Gbllagt` Gbll agt`bhs bhs ralft`hc ralf t`hc tb tda gbuht`as gbuh t`as tda Frgdfablbc bi Fyr fhm S`ctbh , punl`sdam `t. Fhm hbtw`tdstfhm`hc d`s plaf ibr `hmulcahga bvar sdbrtgbk`hcs nagfusa “`t `s tda rasult bi tda bggupft`bh bi sugd sgrfps bi t`ka fs gbulm na spfram mur`hc tda lfst twb br tdraa yafrs irbk tda fgt`va mut`as bi f nusy prbiass`bhfl l`ia‛, tda nbbe astfnl`sdam fh `kkam`fta raputft`bh ibr d`k, sbkatd`hc tdft wbulm dfva tfeah kugd lbhcar tb cfrhar tdrbucd punl`gft`bh punl`gft` bh `h tda jburhfls bi lafrham sbg`at`as. ]da nbbe wfs, da hbtam, “raga`vam w`td kugd gbkkahmft`bh ny tda fht`qufr`fh prass, fs wall fs ny pr`vfta gr`t`gs‛ (Kuhrb 60>6, 7?). _lafs`hc d`ksali
@t wfs, @ nal`ava, tda crbw`hc raputft`bh bggfs`bham ny tda Fhg`a ht Wgbtt`sd Wgbt t`sd Lfea Mwall`hcs Mwall `hcs tdft dalpam Kuhrb punl`gft`bh bi Fhg`aht tb kfea tda mag`s`bhs tdft lam tb tda td`rm par`bm bi d`s l`ia, f t`ka, fs da put `t, “tb plafsa kysali ‛. Bi gbursa, f crbw`hc raputft`bh fs f Wgbtt`sd frgdfablbc`st wbulm hbt `h `tsali dfva prbv`mam fmaqufta
=9
crbuhms ibr f mag`s`bh tb c`va up d`s kam`gfl prfgt`ga sbbh fitar d`s i`it`atd n`rtdmfy `h 6441. Sdft `t m`m mb, tdbucd, wfs tb sdbw d`k tdft da gbulm kfea fh `kpbrtfht gbhtr`nut`bh `h fh fraf uhralftam tb kam`g`ha. Da wfs glafrly i`hm`hc tda prfgt`ga bi kam`g`ha fh `hgrafs`hcly rbut`ha fiif`r fhm suiiar`hc irbk wdft wa wbulm hbw prbnfnly masgr`na fs f strass-ralftam `llhass. Pat `t dfm naah suii`g`ahtly rawfrm`hc i`hfhg`flly ibr d`k tb dfva s`zafnla sfv`hcs. Nut tda eay ifgtbr `h ahfnl`hc Kuhrb‐s rat`rakaht dfm naah maftd bi d`s iftdar-`h-lfw, S`ll`fk ]fylbr, `h 6430. Kuhrb “nagfka f sdfradblmar `h twb skfll lbgfl ahc`haar`hc gbkpfh`as bi wd`gd da UKr ]fylbr[ wfs bha bi tda i`hfhg`fl prbkbtars‛. ]day axpfhmam rfp`mly fhm iraquahtly raqu`ram fmm`t`bhfl gfp`tfl. Kuhrb “tbbe up Ud`s[ prb rftf sdfras `h avary `hgrafsa bi irasd gfp`tfl, fhm sb nagfka ult`kftaly bha bi tda lfrcast sdfradblmars‛. ]da gbkpfh`as wara karcam `h 6400. Irbk fh `h`t`fl gbkn`ham vflua bi £7?,???, tday dfm crbwh tb na wbrtd £=>1,??? wdah Kuhrb ras`cham fs f M`ragtbr `h 6063. @t wfs tda wafltd prbv`mam ny tda suggass bi td`s gbkpfhy tdft uhmarp`hham d`s mag`s`bh tb plafsa d`ksali (Kuhrb 60>6, 34-4?). Dfv`hc tfeah td`s mag`s`bh `h tda iull axpagtft`bh bi trfvall`hc, Kuhrb haamam tb gbhs`mar wdft alsa da k`cdt mb: @h lbbe`hc frbuhm fs tb wdft nrfhgd bi sg`ahga @ gbulm nast gult`vfta fs f dbnny, mur`hc bur gbhtakplftam par`pftat`g wfhmar`hcs, tdara gbulm na hb mbunt tdft fhtdrbpblbcy wfs tda kbst su`tfnla tb ky qufs`-sg`aht`stg fttf`hkahts. Flsb tdft tda nrfhgd bi td`s sg`ahga, wd`gd makfhmam sbka `kkam`fta alug`mft`bh, wfs fh ap`tbk`sam survay bi lfea-mwall`hc rasafrgdas `h Aurbpa. tda fht`qu`t`as nrbucdt tb l`cdt ny tda axplbrft`bhs bi tda Ww`ss Lfea-Mwall`hcs, tdah `hm`sgr`k`hftaly stbram `h tda kusauks bi Sastarh Aurbpa, dfm yat tb na gbrralftam w`td tda `hmustr`fl bnjagts bi prasaht-mfy g`v`l`zft`bh. Eallar‐s nbbe bh tda sunjagt U64995 6434[ gbhs`stam bi m`sgbhhagtam kbhbcrfpds bh m`araht stft`bhs, w`tdbut c`v`hc fhy `maf bi tda gdrbhblbc`gfl fhm ralft`va vflua bi tda rakf`hs `llustrftam. Dahga tda `maf bggurram tb ka tdft f nr`ai rav`aw bi lfgustr`ha rasafrgd wfs f mas`rfnla bnjagt, fhm f sunjagt wd`gd @ k`cdt uhmartfea w`td sbka prbspagt bi suggass. (Kuhrb 60>6. 77-7=).
]da rakfres dara fnbut l`he`hc pfst fhm kbmarh bnjagts fra, bi gbursa, railagt`hc tda `mafs bi _`tt-^`vars fhm btdars. @t `s uhglafr, nut l`ealy, tdft Kuhrb dfm flrafmy kat _`tt-^`vars ny td`s t`ka. Kuhrb waht i`rst tb ^bka `h Jfhufry 6449 bh fggbuht bi d`s dafltd. ]dara da raguparftam rfp`mly rfp` mly irbk d`s `llhass fhm gbhsaquahtly gbhsaqu ahtly dfm suii`g`aht t`ka fhm `hgl`hft`bh tb stumy lfea mwall`hc kftar`fl
=3
irbk tda _b Yfllay. F eay pfrt bi td`s stumy wfs prbv`mam ny d`s w`ia‐s seatgdas.. Bh d`s raturh tb Wgbtlfhm `h 6449 da ibuhm fwf`t`hc d`k fh `hv`tft`bh irbk tda Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr`as bi Wgbtlfhm tb c`va tda ^d`hm Lagturas ibr 6444 bh tda Lfea Mwall`hcs bi Aurbpa. ]d`s `hv`tft`bh da “fggaptam w`td lass das`tft`bh, saa`hc tdft ny td`s t`ka Uda[ dfm cf`ham sbka prfgt`gfl fssurfhga bi na`hc fnla tb nr`hc tda w`maly sgfttaram kftar`fls bi lfgustr`ha rasafrgd `htb sbkatd`hc l`ea systakft`g brmar‛ (Kuhrb 60>6, 74). @h prapfrft`bh da frkam d`ksali w`td lattars bi `htrbmugt`bh irbk tda _ras`maht fhm Gbuhg`llbrs bi nbtd tda Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr`as bi Wgbtlfhm fhm tda ^byfl Fhtdrbpblbc`gfl @hst`tuta fs wall fs hbtfnla `hm`v`mufls `hglum`hc Jbdh Avfhs fhm F S Irfhes. ]dasa lattars `hibrkam tda`r rag`p`ahts tdft Kuhrb “wfs aspag`flly `htarastam `h Lfea-mwall`hc Lfea-mwall` hc ^asafrgd, na`hc flrafmy tda futdbr bi f stfhmfrm wbre bh tdft sunjagt‛ (Kuhrb 60>6, 7=). Da fhm d`s w`ia kfma rapaftam v`s`ts tb kusauks fhm pr`vfta gbllagt`bhs ft dbka fhm fnrbfm ‗ 16 kusauks `h 0 gbuhtr`as5 64 pr`vfta gbllagt`bhs `h 3 gbuhtr`as (Kuhrb 640?, x-x`). Bur v`s`ts tb tda Gbht`haht, wd`gd salmbk axgaamam twb br tdraa kbhtds ft f t`ka, wara `htargflftam w`td s`k`lfr par`bms bi qu`at ras`mahga sbkawdara `h Nr`tf`h, bitah `h tda v`g`h`ty bi tda Nr`t`sd Kusauk, sb fs tb dfva tda nahastt bi `ts l`nrfry `h frrfhc`hc bur hbtas. (Kuhrb 60>6, =?).
]da lagturas wara muly mal`varam `h 6444 fhm tda rasult`hc vbluka, da Lfea-mwall`hcs bi Aurbpa , wfs punl`sdam `h 640? ny Gfssall & Gb, f punl`sdar w`td bii`gas `h Lbhmbh, _fr`s fhm Kalnburha. ]da malfy natwaah lagturas fhm nbbe wfs `h pfrt bggfs`bham ny tda prbmugt`bh bi tda `llustrft`bhs. Bur pahg`l mrfw`hcs dfm tb na ramrfwh `h sap`f, bitah bh f m`araht sgfla, fhm crbupam bh sdaats fggbrm`hc tb tda prbvahfhga bi tda ral`gs ‗ fll bi wd`gd wfs mbha ny ky w`ia. ]asa sdaats wara tdah saht tb Y`ahhf, wdara nlbges wara kfma irbk tdak bi tda prbpar s`za ibr pr`ht`hc `h tda taxt. (Kuhrb (Kuhrb 60>6, ==-=1).
Kuhrb wfs hbw astfnl`sdam fs tda sah`br i`cura. ]da nbbe, trfhslftam ny _ful ^bmat, wfs punl`sdam `h f Irahgd am`t`bh `h 60?4 (Kuhrb 640?5 60?4). Fs f rasult rasu lt Kuhrb wfs hbw fnla tb usa d`s raputft` rapu tft`bh bh tb cbbm aiiagt. @h 640> da v`s`tam tda hawly m`sgbvaram s`ta ft Clfstbhnury. Just fs @ wfs lafv`hc Clfstbhnury, Clfstbhnury, Kr Nulla`m `hg`mahtflly kaht`bham tdft da dfm saht f sdbrt fggbuht bi tda m`sgbvary bi tda lfea-v`llfca tb f Lbhmbh waaely jburhfl, wd`gd bggfs`bhflly lahms
=4
`ts gblukhs tb frgdfablbc`gfl sunjagts, nut tdft `t wfs magl`ham. USfs USfs td`s pardfps tda @llustrftam Lbhmbh Haws2[. Haws2[. Fs fh fppafl tb tda punl`g wfs, ft tda t`ka, tda bhly iafs`nla kafhs bi prbgur`hc iuhms ibr gbht`hu`hc tda tda axgfvft`bhs, punl`g`ty bi tda axgapt`bhflly axgapt`bhflly `htarast`hc gdfrfgtar bi td`s trbuvf`lla, nagfka fh urcaht hagass`ty. hagass`ty. Wb, bh ky raturh tb Am`hnurcd, @ saht f hbta tb tda am`tbr bi ]a `kas, nr`ay kaht`bh`hc wdft @ dfm saah ft Clfstbhnury, fhm bar`hc tb gbhtr`nuta f masgr`pt`va hbt`ga bi tda m`sgbvary tb d`s pfpar. ]a bar wfs fggaptam, fhm tda gbkkuh`gft`bh, wd`gd fppafram `h ]a `kas bi Bgt >=, 640>, ft bhga m`ssak`hftam prag`sa `hibrkft`bh fs tb tda hftura fhm axgapt`bhfl `kpbrtfhga bi tda Clfstbhnury Lfea-v`llfca tdrbucdbut tda g`v`l`sam wbrlm. (Kuhrb 6066, 3).
Wunsaquahtly, Kuhrb plfyam f eay rbla `h sagur`hc iuhm`hc ibr tda wbre irbk tda Nr`t`sd Fssbg`ft`bh ibr tda Fmvfhgakaht bi Wg`ahga. Na`hc _ras`maht-alagt bi tda Fhtdrbpblbc`gfl sagt`bh bi tda Nr`t`sd Fssbg`ft`bh ibr 6407, @ dfm hb m`gulty `h parsufm`hc tda lbgfl gbkk`ttaa ft Clfstbhnury tb sahm f salagtam fssbrtkaht bi tda v`llfca ral`gs ibr axd`n`t`bh ft tda Fssbg`ft`bh kaat`hc tb na dalm ft Hbtt`hcdfk. ]a ragbkkahmft`bh wfs gfrr`am but `h crfhm styla, tda salagt`bh bi ral`gs na`hc lfrca fhm vfr`am, fhm wall m`splfyam `h fpprbpr`fta gfsas. ]a crft`iy`hc rasult wfs tdft f crfht bi £=? wfs kfma ny tda axgfvft`bh iuhm, uhmar tda gdfrca bi tda ibllbw`hc gbkk`ttaa: Mr. Mr. ^. Kuhrb (Gdf`rkfh), Kr. Kr. F. Nulla`m (Wagratfry), _rbiassbr Nbym Mfwe`hs, Caharfl _`tt-^`vars fhm W`r Jbdh Avfhs, w`td pbwar tb fmm tb tda`r huknar. huknar. (Kuhrb 60>6, 1=-11).
Lftar st`ll, fitar tda wbre ft Clfstbhnury dfm naah suspahmam nut hbt gbkplatam, Kuhrb `htarvaham fcf`h. ]da axgfvft`bhs nagfka tda sunjagt bi f pbst-prfhm`fl gbhvarsft`bh natwaah Kr S Dbwfrm Nall, IWF, fhm kysali Uft tda Sbrgastar Gbhcrass bi tda Frgdfablbc`gfl @hst`tuta @hst`tuta `h July 60?9[. Bh lafrh`hc dbw kfttars stbbm, Kr Nall caharbusly baram tb pfy fll tda fmm`t`bhfl axpahsas raqu`s`ta tb gbkplata tda axgfvft`bhs. (Kuhrb 6066, 0).
Fs f rasult rasu lt bi fll td`s aiibrt, aiib rt, Kuhrb wfs w fs `hv`tam `hv` tam tb gbhtr`nu gbht r`nuta ta fh fh `htrbmugtbry gdfptar tb tda i`hfl rapbrt (Kuhrb 6066). ]drbucdbut tda i`rst dfli bi d`s rat`rakaht Kuhrb fhm d`s w`ia wara `hvatarfta trfvallars. ]da`r jburhays `hglumam f rbuhm-tdawbrlm tr`p tdft tbbe `h ah rbuta tda Nr`t`sd Fssbg`ft`bh kaat`hc ft ]brbhtb `h 6403. Crfmuflly tdbucd, “tda gdfrk bi trfvall`hc `h safrgd bi `htarast`hc kbhukahts, wdatdar fhg`aht br kbmarh, nacfh tb wfha‛ (Kuhrb 60>6, 36). ]day dfm saah kbst bi tda kbhukahts bi Sastarh Aurbpa fhm pardfps kbra `kpbrtfht tday
=0
wara iaal`hc tda aiiagts bi fca. Kuhrb dfm kbvam tb Kfhbr _lfga `h Am`hnurcd `h 640? fhm `t rakf`ham d`s kf`h dbka uht`l 60?7 wdah da stfrtam tb l`va kbra fhm kbra ft Lfrcs ahfnl`hc d`k fhm d`s w`ia “tb pfrt`g`pfta `h tda kbra samahtfry fkah`t`as bi f gbuhtry l`ia‛ (Kuhrb 60>6, 36). ]d`s gbuhtry l`ia raplfgam tda trfvals bi afrl`ar yafrs. Nut ibr d`s trfvall`hc fhm tda axpfhs`bh bi `htarasts tdft fggbkpfh`am `t, Kuhrb‐s gbkk`tkaht rakf`ham flwfys gahtram bh Wgbtlfhm. Da nagfka vary fgt`va `h tda Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr`as bi Wgbtlfhm. ]da sfka yafr fs da mal`varam tda ^d`hm Lagturas, 6444 , da nagfka bha bi tda Wagratfr`as bi tda Wbg`aty, f pbst da ratf`ham uht`l 6400. @t `s `h td`s rbla tdft da i`curas `h tda stf`ham clfss w`hmbw `h tda prasaht Wgbtt`sd Hft`bhfl _brtrf`t nu`lm`hc tdft `llustrftas tda Gbuhg`l fhm Bii`gars Bii` gars bi tda Wbg`aty ft tda t`ka bi tda bpah`hc bi tda Kusauk dfli bi tda nu`lm`hc (Glfrea 600?). Da wfs f kaknar bi Gbuhg`l `h 640-60?> fhm Y`ga _ras`maht _ras`maht irbk 60?> tb 60?1. Fs sugd sug d da nagfka nag fka f kaknar kakn ar bi tda Gbkk`tta Gbkk `ttaaa tdft bvarsfw bvars fw i`almwbre, pfrt`gulfrly tda axtahs`va sar`as bi ^bkfh axgfvft`bhs tdft tda Wbg`aty wfs uhmartfe`hc ft td`s t`ka (I`cura >.7). Da flsb tbbe f eaah `htarast `h btdar axgfvft`bhs kbra bnv`busly l`heam tb
I`cura >.> Kuhrb fhm btdars v`s`t`hc tda axgfvft`bhs ft Dyhmibrm Grfhhbc, 61 Hbvaknar 6404 (futdbr‐s pr`vfta frgd`va).
1?
I`cura >.7 Axgfvft`bhs ft Frmbgd: “^aturh`hc tb _lfta @, tb cat sbka `maf bi tda hbrtd-afst fhcla, wa saa Kr Aly w`td d`s 6?-ibbt rbm stfhm`hc nad`hm tda butar r`mca bi tda trahgdas, w`td tda nac`hh`hc bi tda fmm`t`bhfl r`mca bi tda hbrtd ifga bh d`s lait, Nad`hm d`k Kr Guhh`hcdfk stfhms bh tda plftibrk ..., irbk wd`gd r`sas tda fhe` fhe`hc hc rfkpf r fkpfrt rt bi tda butar b utar rfval`h, rfval `h, bh b h wd`gd wd `gd s`ts s `ts Mr Mr Kuhrb‛ Kuh rb‛ (Gdr` ( Gdr`st`sb st`sbh h at fl. 6404, 6 404, =63) =63)..
d`s bwh `htarasts, ibr axfkpla tda `hvast`cft`bh bi tda grfhhbc ft Dyhmibrm, Lfhfresd`ra, uhmartfeah ny Fhmraw Wk`td (I`cura >.>). Kuhrb punl`sdam td`s wbre (6400). Hbt surpr`s`hcly, fh `htarast `h grfhhbcs rakf`ham w`td Kuhrb tdrbucdbut d`s l`ia. “]da lfst bi tda prfgt`gfl rasafrgdas `h Wgbtt`sd frgdfablbcy,‛ da wrbta, “`h wd`gd @ tbbe f pfrt wfs f v`s`t bi `hspagt`bh tb tda grfhhbc `h tda Lbgd bi E`hallfh `h ^bss-sd`ra, wd`gd wfs tdah na`hc `hvast`cftam uhmar f skfll crfht irbk tda Gfrhac`a ^asafrgd Iuhm kfma tb kysali‛ (Kuhrb 60>6, 31). ]d`s glbsa `hvblvakaht w`td f w`ma rfhca bi Wgbtt`sd i`almwbre wfs pfrt`gulfrly `kpbrtfht. Kuhrb wfs f Y`ga _ras`maht bi tda Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr`as bi Wgbtlfhm wdah Jbdh Fnargrbkny ras`cham fs f Wagratfry tb tda Wbg`aty fhm w`tdmraw irbk prbv`m`hc i`hfhg`fl suppbrt ibr tda Wbg`aty‐s axgfvft`bhs. @t wfs td`s qufrral tdft ult`kftaly prbkptam Fnargrbkny tb ahmbw tda Fnargrbkny Gdf`r bi Frgdfablbcy `h tda Qh`vars`ty bi Am`hnurcd (_`ccbtt & ^bnartsbh 6033, `tak 0?). Kuhrb wbulm gartf`hly dfva naah pr`vy tb fll tda matf`ls bi td`s m`sputa fhm da kfy wall dfva ehbwh bi Fnargrbkn Fnarg rbkny‐ y‐ss `htaht`b `hta ht`bhs hs lbhc naibra naib ra tday nagfka nagf ka rafl`ty. rafl` ty. @t kfy k fy na tdft d`s naquast tb tda Qh`vars`ty `s `h pfrt tb na rafm fs ahmbrs`hc Fnargrbkn Fnarg rbkny‐ y‐ss pbs`t` pb s`t`bh. bh.
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@t `s `htarast`hc tdft fs i`rst `htarpratam tda Kuhrb Lagturasd`p `hvblvam 6? lagturas ny f s`hcla `hm`v`mufl. @t `s rafsbhfnla tb saa td`s ahmbwkaht fs Kuhrb‐s lfst frgdfablbc`gfl fgt bi fhy s`ch`i`gfhga. ]da maftd bi d`s w`ia `h 60?3 dfm naah f savara nlbw lafv`hc d`k “lbhaly fhm dalplass ft tda ahtrfhga tb tda vfllay bi tda sdfmbw bi maftd‛ (Kuhrb 60>6, 3>). Kfgmbhflm `h d`s bn`tufry kfeas fh `htarast`hc rakfre: Mur`hc tda haxt yafr br twb Ufitar tda astfnl`sdkaht bi tda lagturasd`p[ da wftgdam w`td fll f pfraht‐s sbl`g`tuma tda mavalbpkaht bi tda axpar`kaht da dfm `h`t`ftam. (Kfgmbhflm 60>6, 697).
@t c`vas, @ td`he, fh `ht`kft`bh bi wdft tda Lagturas kafht tb Kuhrb. Da wfs gd`lmlass fhm gartf`hly skfrt ahbucd tb ehbw tdft d`s fgfmak`g wbre gbulm hbt stfhm uhgdfllahcam `h tda iutura. ]da ahmbwkaht `s d`k lbbe`hc tb d`s iutura `h tda sgdblfrly wbrlm da sb kugd ahjbyam fhm w`td `t tda kf`htahfhga bi hfka tdft wa hbrkflly fssbg`fta w`td gd`lmrah. ^aiarahgas Gdr`st`sbh, M. at fl. 6404, Fggbuht bi tda axgfvft`bh bi tda ^bkfh stft`bh ft Frmbgd, _artdsd`ra uhmartfeah ny tda Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr`as bi Wgbtlfhm `h 6409-03. _rbgaam`hcs _rbgaam`hcs bi tda Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr`as Fht`qufr`as bi Wgbtlfhm 7>: 700-=39. Glfrea, M. Y. 600?, ]da Hft`bhfl Kusauks‐ stf`ham-clfss w`hmbw. _rbgaam`hcs _rbgaam`hcs bi tda Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr`as bi Wgbtlfhm 6>?: >?6->=. Frgdf ablbc`gf c`gfll fhm D`stbr`gfl D`stb r`gfl Gbgdrfh-_ftr`ge, ^. S. 6434, _raifga. Frgdfablb Gbllagt`bhs ralft`hc tb tda gbuht`as bi Fyr fhm S`ctbh 6: xv`-xx``.
Grbha, F. >???, da D`stbry bi f Wgbtt`sd Lbwlfhm Grfhhbc: Axgfvft`bhs ft Wgbt t`sd ]rust ]rust ibr Frgdfablbc`gfl Frgdfab lbc`gfl Nu`stbh, Fyrsd`ra 6040-0? . Am`hnurcd: Wgbtt`sd ^asafrgd. Eallar, Eall ar, I. I. 6499, 6499 , da Lfea-Mwall`hcs bi Ww`tzarlfhm Ww`tzarlfh m fhm btdar pfrts bi Aurbpa . Lbhmbh: Lbhckfhs, Craah & Gb. Ww`tzarlfh m fhm btdar pfrts bi Aurbpa . Eallar, Eall ar, I. I. 6434, 6434 , da Lfea-Mwall`hcs bi Ww`tzarlfhm >hm am`t`bh. > vblukas. Lbhmbh: Lbhckfhs, Craah & Gb.
Kfgmbhflm, C. 60>6, Bn`tufry hbt`ga: ^bnart Kuhrb, KF, KM, LLM. _rbgaam`hcs _rbgaam`hcs bi tda ^byfl Wbg`aty bi Am`hnurcd =6(>): 614-90. Kuhrb, ^. 6431, Hbtas bh f bur bur `h tda Afst . E`lkfrhbge: ] Wtavahsbh. Kuhrb, ^. 644?, Fyrsd`ra grfhhbcs. Frgdfablb Frgdfa blbc`gf c`gfll fhm D`stbr`gfl D`stbr` gfl Gbllagt`bh Gbllag t`bhss ralft`hc tb tda gbuht`as bi Fyr fhm S`ctbh >: 63-44.
1>
Kuhrb, ^. 644>f, Fyrsd`ra grfhhbcs (sagbhm hbt`ga). Frgdfablb Frgdfa blbc`gf c`gfll fhm D`stbr`gfl Gbllagt`bhs ralft`hc ralft`hc tb tda gbuht`as bi Fyr fhm S`ctbh 7: 6-16. Kuhrb, ^. 644>n, Fhg`aht Fhg`a ht Wgbtt`sd Wgbt t`sd Lfea-Mwall Lfea- Mwall`hc `hcss br grfhhbcs, grfhh bcs, w`td f supplakahtfry gdfptar bh ^akf`hs bi Lfea-Mwall`hcs `h Ahclfhm . Am`hnurcd: Mfv`m Mbuclfs. Kuhrb, ^. 640?, da Lfea-Mwall`hcs bi Aurbpa . Lbhmbh: Gfssall & Gb. Kuhrb, ^. 6400, Hbtas bh f grfhhbc ft Dyhmlfhm, hafr Lfhfre, ragahtly axgfvftam ny Fhmraw Wk`td. _rbgaam`hcs _rbgaam`hcs bi tda Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr`as bi 77: 737-43. Wgbtlfhm 77: Kuhrb, ^. 60?4, Las stft`bhs lfgustras m‐Aurbpa fux îcas malf p`arra at mu nrbhza . _fr`s: L`nrf`r`a G ^a`hwflm. Kuhrb, ^. 6066, @htrbmugtbry gdfptar. @h: F. Nulla`m fhm D. Wt. Cabrca Crfy, da Clfstbhnury Lfea Y`llfca: f iull Masgr`pt`bh bi tda Axgfvft`bhs fhm tda ^al`gs m`sgbvaram, 640>-60?3. vbl 6 Clfstbhnury Fht`qufr`fh Wbg`aty, 6-71. Kuhrb, ^. 60>6, ^bnart Kuhrb, K.F., K.M., LLM: Futbn`bcrfpd`g Weatgd . Clfscbw: KfgLadbsa, Jfgesbh & Gb. _`ccbtt, W. fhm ^bnartsbh, K. 6033, draa Gahtur`as draa Gahtur`as bi Wgbtt`sd Frgdfablbcy . Am`hnurcd: Am`hnurcd Qh`vars`ty _rass.
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Gdfptar 7 ^AWAF^GD BH HABL@]D@G FHM AF^LP N^BHZA FCA SA]LFHM W@]AW BH ]DA HB^]D AQ^B_AFH _LF@H
Jbdf Jb dfhh hhas as Küll Kü llar ar 6
Fnstr Fns trfg fgt t
Masp`ta `htahs`va rasafrgd ibr hafrly bha duhmram yafrs `h watlfhm frafs bi tda hbrtd Aurbpafh plf`h, Habl`td`g fhm Afrly Nrbhza Fca mbkast`g s`tas fra `hiraquaht. ]d`s `s mua tb tda agblbc`gfl satt`hc bi lfeas fhm sdbras `h hbrtd-gahtrfl hbrtd-gahtrfl Aurbpa wd`gd `s qu`ta m`iiaraht irbk tdft bi tda g`rguk-Flp`ha g`rguk-Flp` ha fraf. Havartdalass, `h tda gfsa bi s`tas w`td sattlakaht iafturas `h wftar-lbccam gbhm`t`bhs, tda ragbvaram mftf `s bi d`cd qufl`ty, fmm`hc `h kfhy fspagts tb tda av`mahga irbk mry sb`l frafs. ^agahtly `hvast`cftam s`tas irbk Dblsta`h, Carkfhy, fhm irbk Craftar _blfhm prbv`ma axfkplas m`sgussam `h td`s pfpar. Eay wbrms: watlfhm sattlakahts, watlfhm ahv`rbhkahts, ibrt`i`gft`bhs, Habl`td`g, Nrbhza Fca, Nfm Blmaslba-Sbleahwada, Nruszgzawb, Blmahnurc Mfhhfu, Blmahnurcar Crfnah.
^asafrgd d`stbry fhm tda watlfhm frgd`vas
W`hga tda h`hataahtd gahtury rasafrgd bi wftar-lbccam s`tas br _ifdlnfutah `h Gahtrfl Aurbpa `s kf`hly l`heam tb tda _ifdlnfuibrsgduhc `h tda g`rguk-Flp`ha rac`bh. Fitar tda mrfkft`g m`sgbvar`as bi Iarm`hfhm Eallar `h 641= `t sbbh nagfka glafr tdft,
6
@hst`tut iür Qr- uhm Irüdcasgd`gdta, Gdr`st`fh-Flnragdts-Qh`vars`tí t, M->=664 E`al, Carkfhy
11
3
4
7 0 >
66, 6> 6? 6 =
1
9
I`cura 7.6 Habl`td`g fhm Afrly Nrbhza Fca watlfhm salakahts `h Gahtrfl Aurbpa. 6 Nfm BlmaslbaSbleahwada, > Waambri-Da`mkbbr, 7 Wftrup paft nbc s`tas, = _frgd`k-Lùmm`csaa, 1 Mükkar, 9 Nruszgzawb, 3 Flvfstrf, 4 Wvbhtbj`, 0 Sfhcals, 6? Haustfmt, 66 Cruna-^bsahdbi, 6> Cruna-^bsahialma, 67 Sfhcals LF 33. Kf`h s`tas m`sgussam `h tda taxt fra `h `tfl`gs (sburga: Dfr at fl. >??=/>??1 (>??3), 4, I`c. 6)5 tda kfhy s`tas bi tda g`rguk-Flp`ha rac`bh fra kfppam fitar Wgdl`gdtdarla 6003.
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bh tda sdbras bi tda Flp`ha fhm pra-Flp`ha lfeas, wbbmah pbsts fhm gulturfl lfyars bi kfhy Habl`td`g fhm Nrbhza Fca s`tas wara prasarvam (Wgdl`gdtdarla, 60035 I`cura 7.6). ]da Flp`ha Lfeas fra nbuhm tb tda wftar rac`ka bi tda clfg`ars fhm tdus l`heam tb m`iiaraht gygl`gfl gl`kft`g aiiagts. ]da fhhufl gygla lafms tb savara ilugtuft`bhs `h wftar laval, `h sbka gfsas ny savarfl katras. Iurtdarkbra, Iurtdarkbra, gbsk`g sblfr fgt`v`t`as w`td tda`r bwh k`mmla fhm lbhc-tark gyglas saak tb dfva fh `hiluahga bh tda kf`h trahms bi clfg`ar kalt`hc fhm tdus bh wftar lavals `h tda lfeas (Kfchy at fl. >??1). ]dus mur`hc tda fhhufl gygla tda lfea sdbras gbulm na uhmar wftar `h tda sukkar, fhm fnbva `h tda w`htar. Iurtdarkbra Iurtdarkbra tda k`mk` mfhm lbhc-tark gyglas, rasult`hc `h d`cdar fhm lbwar lfea-wftar lavals, `hiluahga tda fggass`n`l`ty bi tda sdbras w`td m`iiaraht aiiagts bvar tda gahtur`as. @h caharfl d`cd lfea-lavals fra typ`gfl bi Kasbl`td`g t`kas wd`la `h tda k`mmla Habl`td`g, fhm ibr kfhy gahtur`as fitarwfrms, tda lfea sdbras fra fggass`nla ibr mbkast`g fgt`v`t`as. S`td tda axgapt`bh axgap t`bh bi savara sava ra nrafes nrafe s (a.c. (a.c . mur`hc mur` hc tda Nafear Nafea r t`kas), t`ka s), p`la mwall`hcs fra gdrbhblbc`gflly gbhgahtrftam natwaah =7??-69?? gfl NG fhm fcf`h natwaah 66??-4?? gfl NG (a.c. N`llfknbz >??1). ]da axtrfbrm`hfry watlfhm frgd`vas ibr tdasa t`ka par`bms, wara uhgbvaram uhgbvaram mur`hc tda lfst 61? yafrs bi g`rguk-Flp`ha frgdfablbc`gfl frgdfablbc`gfl rasafrgd. @h gbhsaquahga gdrbhblbc`as fra fvf`lfnla wd`gd, `h kfhy prbjagts, fra bh f yafrly fhm sbkat`kas avah safsbhfl sgfla. ]da qufl`ty bi `hibrkft`bh fnbut agbhbky, frgd`tagtura fhm m`spbsfl nadfv`bur - tb kaht`bh bhly sbka fspagts - `s axgallaht. Havartdalass, rafl sattlakaht prbgassas fra st`ll m`ii`gult tb m`sahtfhcla: wd`la rasafrgd dfs gbhgahtrftam bh tdasa ifsg`hft`hc frgd`vas ft ragaht br prad`stbr`g lfea sdbras, tdft bi tda d`htarlfhm wfs haclagtam (Anarsnfgd >??7). @h gbhsaquahga, `t `s st`ll uhglafr wdatdar br hbt wdbla v`llfcas, skfll crbups br `hm`v`mufls wara kbv`hc irbk tda sdbra tb tda d`htarlfhm sattlakahts, wdatdar mur`hc tda t`kas bi tda r`s`hc lfea lavals wdbla sattlakahts wara m`skfhtlam fhm ralbgftam tb d`cdar flt`tumas, br wdatdar lfea s`tas wara l`heam tb d`htarlfhm s`tas ft fll. Nut nas`ma tdasa rasafrgd tfses, wd`gd gbulm flsb na sblvam ny gbhgahtrft`hc bh survays bi mry sb`ls fhm axgfvft`bhs bi mbkast`g s`tas `h pbbr mry sb`ls `h tda g`rguk-Flp`ha rac`bh, tda p`la-mwall`hc frgdfablbcy `s bha bi tda kbst suggassiul stbr`as bi frgdfablbcy wbrlmw`ma. @h gbhtrfst tb ahv`rbhkahtfl gbhm`t`bhs bi tda g`rguk-Flp`ha rac`bh, lfea (fhm saf) d`stbry `h tda hbrtd Aurbpafh plf`h `s qu`ta m`iiaraht. Masp`ta duca pafty frafs fhm masp`ta tda craft lahctd bi lfea (fhm saf) sdbral`has, tda e`hm bi wftar-laval gdfhcas wd`gd fiiagt tda Flp`ha lfea sdbras fra hbt ibuhm `h Hbrtd-Gahtrfl Aurbpa (Mùrilar fhm Küllar >??4). >??4) . @h caharfl tda hbrtd Aurbpafh paft nbcs
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stfrtam tda`r crbwtd kugd lftar tdfh mur`hc tda Habl`td`g br Afrly Nrbhza Fca (Nadra >??=, Nadra fhm Eugfh 600=). Lfea wftar laval gdfhcas wara havar nbuhm tb fhytd`hc l`ea tda Flp`ha clfg`ars. clfg `ars. Glafr pfttarhs bi ilbbm`hc br hbt ilbbm`hc tda lfea sdbras, fhm tdaraibra bi tda`r usaiulhass ibr mbkast`g fgt`v`t`as, m`m hbt ax`st. @h gbhsaquahga, pbss`nla fmvfhtfcas ibr prad`stbr`g sattlars bh tda lfea sdbras, ibr axfkpla traa- fhm sdrun-iraa frafs wd`gd dfva naah ragbhstrugtam ibr tda g`rguk-Flp`ha lfeas, m`m hbt ax`st `h sugd f kfhhar `h Hbrtd Carkfhy. Havartdalass, fhm prbnfnly mua tb fmvfhtfcabus wftar suppl`as br gbkkuh`gft`bh rbutas, prad`stbr`g sattlakahts wara flsb plfgam bh Hbrtd-Gahtrfl Aurbpafh `slfhms, pah`hsulfs bi lfeas glbsa tb tda saf sdbras. @i rasafrgd wfs gfrr`am but bh sugd, kbstly alavftam, tbpbcrfpd`gfl plfgas tdah mbkast`g strugturas wara m`sgbvaram ft hafrly avary lfea bh tda hbrtd Aurbpafh plf`h. Havartdalass, tda tbpbcrfpd`gfl s`tuft`bh `s qu`ta m`iiaraht tb sbutdarh Gahtrfl 6
dbusas wftar laval wfsta
>
I`cura 7.> M`araht tbpbcrfpd`gfl sa`hcs bi g`rguk-Flp`ha p`la mwall`hcs (6) fhm watlfhm s`tas bi tda Hbrtd Aurbpafh plf`h (>). ]da sdbras bi tda g`rguk-Flp`ha lfeas fra bitah bbmam fhm prasarva mbkast`g strugturas uhmar wat gbhm`t`bhs. ]da alavftam pbs`t`bh bi tda Hbrtd Aurbpafh s`tas bh `slfhms rasults `h wat prasarvft`bh bhly ft tda amca bi tda salakahts fhm tda wfsta frafs glbsa tb tda sdbra (crfpd`gs: @has ^aas, E`al).
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Aurbpa: f lfrca lfea sdbra wd`gd wfs sunjagt tb fhhufl d`cd wftars, `h caharfl mbas hbt ax`st (I`cura 7.>). Sa fra mafl`hc w`td Dblka , sfhmy `slfhms br pah`hsulfs, ibrkam kf`hly uhmar par`-clfg`fl gbhm`t`bhs fitar tda lfst clfg`ft`bh. ]day fra gdfrfgtar`sam ny slbpas frbuhm tda gbra alavft`bh, graftam ny fquft`g br w`hm arbs`bh, ibr axfkpla `h clfg`fl r`var systaks. Sd`la tdara `s f cbbm gdfhga bi i`hm`hc prad`stbr`g mbkast`g rakf`hs bh tda alavftam fraf bi tdasa `slfhms fhm pah`hsulfs uhmar mry gbhm`t`bhs, tda prbnfn`l`ty bi wftar-lbccam mbkast`g strugturas `s rftdar skfll. Fitar Fita r i`rst i`r st m`sgbvar m`s gbvar`as `as bi p`t mwall`hc mwal l`hcss `h tda Flp`ha Flp` ha rac`bhs, rac` bhs, m`iiaraht rasafrgd fpprbfgdas wara fppl`am `h Hbrtd-Gahtrfl Aurbpafh gbuhtr`as tb ragbvar s`k`lfr iafturas. @t wfs tda Carkfh frgdfablbc`st Dfhs ^a`hartd (`hg`mahtflly, maaply `hvblvam `h ifsg`st rula fhm prbkbt`hc ifsg`st `mablbcy `h Carkfh frgdfablbcy naibra fhm mur`hc tda ]d`rm ^a`gd) wdb usam d`s rasafrgd `hirfstrugtura ibr duca prbjagts `h wftar-lbccam frafs (^a`hartd, 6070, Ebss`fh, >??3). Nas`ma d`s `kpbrtfht m`sgbvar`as `h fhm hafr tda Wbutd Carkfh Lfea Iamarsaa, da wfs fnla tb lbgfta tda tdah bhly ehbwh fraf bh tda hbrtd Aurbpafh plf`h, wdara wftarlbccam dbusas fhm s`tas wara m`sgbvaram (I`cura 7.6). @h tda pafty surrbuhm`hcs surrbu hm`hcs bi Lfea Mükkar, hafr Dfhhbvar, tda aspag`flly ilft lbgft`bh ft tda gbhiluahga bi tda Duhta `s fh axgapt`bh tb kfhy hbrtdarh lfea ahv`rbhkahts. Bh tda r`var ir`hcas, f gbupla bi mbkast`g s`tas wara ibuhm uhmar wftarlbccam gbhm`t`bhs. S`td`h tdasa gbhm`t`bhs ^a`hartd axgfvftam tda Habl`td`g s`ta bi Duhta Mbri 6, w`td Iuhhal Nafear gultura fhm W`hcla Crfva gultura rakf`hs. Da fppl`am, ibr tda i`rst t`ka, f w`ma rfhca bi sg`aht`i`g katdbms fhm wfs fnla tb fgqu`ra f lbt bi `hibrkft`bh fnbut dukfh-ahv`rbhkaht ralft`bhs. ]da axgfvftam s`tas wara `h f cbbm stfta bi b i prasarvft`bh prasarvf t`bh nut, fitar fita r tda Wagbhm Sbrlm Sfr Sfr - kf`hly nagfusa bi ^a`hartd‐s `hvblvakaht `h Hfz` frgdfablbcy - rasafrgd havar raflly stfrtam fcf`h `h td`s fraf. @t `s tb tda gram`t bi Ebss`fh tdft da ra-axfk`ham tda blm mbgukahtft`bh fhm m`sahtfhclam tda sattlakaht strugtura bi tda s`ta fitar ra-avfluft`bh (Ebss`fh, >??3). Qht`l hbw, hbw, hb btdar Habl`td`g mbkast`g mbkas t`g s`ta bi sugd sug d qufl`ty dfs naah m`sgbvaram (I`cura 7.7). W`hga tdah, bhly skfllar tast axgfvft`bhs tbbe plfga `h td`s fraf. Hb rafl mbkast`g strugturas, s`k`lfr tb tdbsa tdft ^a`hartd axgfvftam nas`ma Duhta 6, dfva naah m`sgbvaram. @h gbhtrfst, tda rasults bi mrf`hfca wara v`s`nla `h tda matar`brft`bh bi tda gbhm`t`bh bi tda rakf`hs. @h iutura, `t `s hagassfry tb gbkkahga f haw rasafrgd prbjagt tb gdage, fhm pardfps ragbvar, fh frgd`va wd`gd saaks tb na pfrtly gbkpfrfnla tb tda bha `h tda Flp`ha fraf. Mur`hc tda lfst magfmas, nas`ma tda quast`bh bi mbkast`g s`tas, f lbt bi Habl`td`g fhm Nrbhza Fca trfgewfys wara m`sgbvaram fhm
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I`cura 7.7 “Dbusa 6‛ bi tda Lfta Iuhhal Nafear/Afrly W`hcla Crfva gultura s`ta Duhta 6 bh tda Mükkar (Ebss`fh >??3, 33, I`c. 74). Masp`ta prbnlakft`g `htarpratft`bhs bi btdar iafturas bh tda s`ta ny ^a`hartd, ibr tda t`ka na`hc td`s `s tda nast-prasarvam dbusa strugtura bi tda Habl`td`g bh tda hbrtd Aurbpafh plf`h.
ragbrmam `h f duca rasgua rasafrgd aiibrt ny tda Lfhmasmahekflfkt H`amarsfgdsah (Nurka`star >??=). Bha magfma fitar ^a`hartd‐s `hvast`cft`bhs ft tda Mükkar, Wgdwfnam`ssah stfrtam d`s rasafrgd prbcrfkka `h tda wat frafs `h Hbrtd Carkfhy. Da wfs fnla tb `maht`iy, kf`hly `h Wgdlasw`c fhm Dblsta`h, kfhy s`tas `h pafty frafs, sbka bi wd`gd da axgfvftam bh f lfrca sgfla (Wgdwfnam`ssah 60=?, 6016, 6017). Nas`ma tda Kasbl`td`g s`tas, fhm afrl`ast Habl`td`g lfyars bh tda Kasbl`td`g s`tas, da wfs fnla tb `maht`iy Habl`td`g mbkast`g rakf`hs bi tda Iuhhal Nafear fhm W`hcla Crfva gulturas ft ibur s`tas `h Wgdlasw`cDblsta`h. ^agahtly, m`iiaraht rasafrgd prbjagts w`td`h tda _r`br`ty _rbcrfk “Afrly Kbhukahtfl`ty fhm Wbg`fl M`iiaraht`ft`bh‛ nacfh w`td ra-axgfvft`bhs bi sugd plfgas, wd`gd wara hbt mbgukahtam prbparly ny Wgdwfnam`ssah (Küllar >?66). Iurtdar rasafrgd wfs gfrr`am but ny Wùhea Dfrtz ft tda kf`hly Kasbl`td`g uhmarwftar saf s`ta bi Haustfmt, hafr tda Nflt`g sdbra (Dfrtz at fl. >???) (I`cura 7.6). ]da lftast pdfsa bh td`s s`ta `s afrl`ast Habl`td`g Habl`td`g nut, fcf`h, tda
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axgfvft`bh `maht`i`am f wfsta m`spbsfl fraf fhm hbt tda rafl mbkast`g strugturas. ]da sfka `s trua ibr tda Kagelahnurc s`ta bi _frgd`kLùmm`csaa wdara, bh tda sdbral`ha bi f ibrkar pah`hsulf, m`iiaraht wbbmah pbsts fhm wfsta lfyars wara prasarvam uhmar wftarlbccam gbhm`t`bhs (Nagear fhm Nahagea >??>). @h caharfl, kbst iafturas bi tda Hbrtd-Gahtrfl Aurbpafh Habl`td`g watlfhm s`tas wara `hiluahgam `hil uahgam ny tda fltarhft`hc wat fhm mry gbhm`t`bhs bi tda fraf uhmar `hvast`cft`bh `hvas t`cft`bh (I`cura 7.>). Fs f rasult hb “gulturfl lfyars‛ w`td brcfh`g prasarvft`bh, sugd fs fra ehbwh irbk tda g`rguk-Flp`ha lfea s`tas, wara m`sgbvaram. I`cura 7.6 m`splfys tda prasaht mfy s`tuft`bh. Bhly f iaw mbkast`g Habl`td`g s`tas gbulm na lfnallam fs watlfhm s`tas, w`td f gbhgahtrft`bh bh tda wastarh Nflt`g. Bh tda kfp tda Wwam`sd s`ta bi Flvfstrf fhm tda Lftv`fh s`ta bi ůvbht`j` kfre tda pbss`n`l`ty bi wftar-prasarvam mbkast`g rakf`hs `h btdar frafs bi tda Nflt`g br Wbutdarh Wgfhm`hfv`f. Havartdalass, rafl mbkast`g strugturas w`td dbusas wara hbt m`sgbvaram5 `h Flvfstrf wa fra mafl`hc w`td wbbmah plftibrks wdbsa purpbsa `s hbt raflly ehbwh (Dultdah 6004). Gbhgarh`hc tda Afrly Nrbhza Fca, tda s`tuft`bh bh tda hbrtd Aurbpafh plf`h `s hbt kugd m`iiaraht. Qht`l hbw tda s`ta bi Nruszgzawb, 9?ek sbutd bi _bzhfō, `hvast`cftam ny nbtd f _bl`sd fhm f Carkfh tafk, raprasahts tda bhly s`ta w`td strugturas irbk nbtd wat fhm mry gbhm`t`bhs (Gzanraszue fhm Küllar >??=f, Küllar at fl. >?6?, Eha`sal at fl. >??4). _lfgam bh f prbkbhtbry, wd`gd br`c`hflly wfs f pah`hsulf `h f ibrkar lfea, hbt bhly strugturas bi ibrt`i`gft`bh, nut flsb mbkast`g strugturas, wara prasarvam `h wftarlbccam gbhm`t`bhs. ]da s`ta makbhstrftas tda pbtaht`fl wd`gd st`ll ax`sts bh tda hbrtd Aurbpafh plf`h nut, nu t, fs yat, hb btdar Afrly Nrbhza Fca wftarl wf tarlbcc bccam am s`tas s`t as dfva naah n aah m`sgbva m` sgbvaram. ram. @h gbhsaq g bhsaquahg uahgaa @ wbulm wbul m l`ea tb usa twb typ`gfl watlfhm s`tas bi Dblsta`h fhm tda Nrbhza Fca s`ta bi Nruszgzawb, tb `llustrfta tda rasafrgd s`tuft`bh bh wftarlbccam s`tas `h tda fraf uhmar m`sguss`bh. Habl`td`g mbkast`g s`tas: Afst Dblsta`h
Bha bi tda kbst prbk`haht Habl`td`g i`hm rac`bhs `h Hbrtd Carkfhy fhm Wbutdarh Wgfhm`hfv`f `s tda Blmahnurcar Crfnah, bh tda wfy irbk Dfknurc tb Iadkfrh (I`cura 7.=). ]da fraf `s kfream ny fh afst-wast br`ahtam maprass`bh, tda mrf`ham Crfnah, wd`gd ibrkarly l`heam twb nfys bi tda Nflt`g Waf fhm wdbsa cablbc`gfl d`stbry gbulm na `maht`i`am ny cablbc`gfl fhm cabkbrpdblbc`gfl survays (Dfrtz at fl. >??=). Mur`hc Kasbl`td`g t`kas `t wfs, `h ifgt, f ijbrm sapfrft`hc tda Hbrtdarh Sfcr`ah fs fh `slfhm irbk tda kf`hlfhm. ]da austft`g r`sa bi tda lfhm fhm tda nfy s`tuft`bh gdfhcam tda ijbrm ft tda nac`hh`hc bi tda Habl`td`g `htb f lfcbbh w`td nrfge`sd wftar, c`v`hc
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I`cura 7.= Habl`td`g s`tas `h tda Blmahnurcar Crfnah, Afst Dblsta`h (fitar Nrbz`b >?66, Küllar >?66, 13 I`c. 7?). ]da spft`fl m`v`s`bh natwaah mbkast`g s`tas bh lbwar crbuhm fhm bh `slfhms, fhm kacfl`tds `h tda d`htarlfhm gfh na bnsarvam. ]da br`c`hfl wftarsdam `s ragbhstrugtam irbk tda fvf`lfnla pflfabagblbc`gfl mftf.
r`sa tb kfhy pah`hsulfs fhm `slfhms. Kbst bi tdasa lbgft`bhs wara usam ibr sattlakahts mur`hc tda afrly fhm k`mmla Habl`td`g Habl`td`g (Nrbz`b >?6?, Küllar >?66). Bha bi tda prbjagts bi tda _r`br`ty prbcrfk, fnbut tda kacfl`tds fhm Iuhhal Nafear gultura, `s ibguss`hc ibgus s`hc bh tdasa s`tas fs wall fs f gbkpfrfnla `hlfhm s`tuft`bh 4?ek tb tda sbutd. Mur`hc tda Habl`td`g tda spft`fl m`str`nut`bh bi s`tas sdbws f glafr pfttarh. Sd`la kacfl`td`g nur`fls fra plfgam praiarfnly `h tda “d`htarlfhm‛ bi tda Blmahnurcar Crfnah, mbkast`g s`tas glustar bh tda fibrakaht`bham pah`hsulfs fhm `slfhms. ]da lfrca `hgrafsa `h tda huknar bi mbkast`g s`tas `h tda wastarh Blmahnurcar Crfnah (fs gbkpfram w`td tda Kasbl`td`g) `hm`gftas f pbpulft`bh r`sa mur`hc tda afrly fhm, aspag`flly, mur`hc tda k`mmla Habl`td`g. Blmahnurc-Mfhhfu LF33 wfs gdbsah ibr iurtdar axgfvft`bhs (I`curas 7.= fhm 7.1). Dara tda frgdfablbc`gfl rakf`hs fra fssbg`ftam fssbg` ftam w`td tda afstarh pfrt bi f skfll ibrkar pah`hsulf, tbmfy f k`hbr
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alavft`bh `h tda pafty fraf (Nrbz`b >?66, >?6?5 Küllar >?66). ]da axgfvft`bhs sb ifr dfva `hm`gftam tdft tda mry gbhm`t`bhs (bh tda kbra alavftam pfrts bi tda `slfhms) `s lfhms) fra ralft`valy ralft`val y haw. haw. Just a`cdty yafrs fcb, tda mrf`hfca mastrbyam tda wat gbhm`t`bhs bh tda wdbla s`ta5 st`ll, tda nbha prasarvft`bh `h tda mry frafs `s qu`ta cbbm, `h gbhtrfst tb btdar brcfh`g kftar`fl. Masp`ta td`s, tbmfy wa dfva tb lfnal tda
97
kf`h fraf bi td`s s`ta fs “mry fhm hbt wat gbhm`t`bh‛. ]da fgtufl prasarvft`bh gdfhcas fs sbbh fs wa gbka hafrar tb tda blm sdbra l`ha bi tda `slfhm. @h maapar-ly`hc pfrts bi tda sattlakaht, wbbmah pbsts fhm btdar wbbmah kftar`fl fra st`ll prasarvam5 td`s `s avah nattar ft tda lbw wftar fraf wdara kf`hly mbkast`g wfsta, `hglum`hc fh`kfl fhm dukfh nbhas, `s prasarvam `h wftarlbccam gbhm`t`bhs. ]b tall tda stbry bi tda s`ta uhmar tda prasaht gbhm`t`bhs `s qu`ta gdfllahc`hc5 f gbkn`ham `htarpratft`bh bi nbtd mry lfhm fhm watlfhm iafturas `s hagassfry. hagas sfry. ]da d`tdartb blmast iaftura iaf tura `s tda nur`fl bi f kftura wbkfh plfgam `h f kbra br lass stratgdam pbs`t`bh fhm w`tdbut fhy glafr nur`fl biiar`hcs, `h f p`t `h tda gahtra bi tda s`ta (IH @@, 71??-77?? gfl NG) (I`cura 7.9). ]da mbkast`g fraf y`almam sb ifr tdraa WS-HA br`ahtam mbunla-f`slam Iuhhal-Nafear gultura dbusas, pfrtly w`td suheah ilbbrs, mft`hc kf`hly tb tda KH (77??76?? NG). ]da dbusas bi Blmahnurc-Mfhhfu fra kf`hly prasarvam `h tda mry sb`l fraf bi tda s`ta, bh tda d`cdar alavftam crbuhm bi tda ibrkar pah`hsulf. Nas`ma tda twb-f`slam gbhstrugt`bhs, p`ts fhm iurtdar pbstdblas fhm stbha-pfge`hcs `hm`gfta btdar fgt`v`t`as ft tda s`ta mur`hc tda k`mmla k`mml a Habl`td`g. Ft tda nbrmar w`td tda wat fraf fhm tda Habl`td`g sdbra, m`iiaraht wbbmah pbsts fra prasarvam wd`gd `hm`gft a sbka ibrk bi sdbra ibrt`i`gft`bh mur`hc k`mmla fhm lfta Habl`td`g t`kas (I`cura 7.3). @h tda lbw wftar fraf `tsali, tda mapbs`t`bh bi nbtd mbkast`g runn`sd fhm prbnfnly sbka r`tufl fgt`v`t`as tbbe plfga. ^akf`hs bi twb `hm`v`mufls wara ibuhm `h tda wat frafs, mft`hc frbuhm >4?? gfl NG (I`cura 7.4). ]da m`sfrt`gulft`bhs m`sfrt`gulft`bhs bi tda dukfh nbhas fra gbkpfrfnla w`td tda m`sfrt`gulftam m`str`nut`bh bi fh`kfl nbhas nas`ma btdar, brcfh`g fhm hbh-brcfh`g laitbvars irbk mf`ly l`ia. ]da wat lfyars fra flsb fh `kpbrtfht frgd`va bi agblbc`gfl `hibrkft`bh, wd`gd `s gurrahtly uhmar fhflys`s. Nas`ma kf`hly nrbeah tbbls, wfsta irbk prbmugt`bh prbgassas wfs ibuhm, `hglum`hc irbk tda wbre`hc bi wbbm. Axfkplas fra dbas fhm f magbrftam sdfit bi f k`mmla Habl`td`g kfga dafm (I`cura 7.0)5 tda lfttar wfs ibuhm hafr f i`sd`hc wa`r. Sd`la Sd`l a mbkast`g mbkas t`g fgt`v`t fgt `v`t`as `as ft tda s`ta s` ta tbbe plfga pl fga kf`hly kf` hly mur`hc mur `hc tda k`mmla Habl`td`g, f sagbhm pdfsa bi fgt`v`t`as dfs tb na fssbg`ftam w`td tda lftast k`mmla Habl`td`g/afrl`ast ybuhcar Habl`td`g trfhs`t` bh par`bm. ]da fibrakaht`bham ibrt`i`gft`bh ft tda sdbral`ha, fs wall fs tda r`tufl mapbs`t`bhs bi dukfh nbhas fhm seulls `h tda hafrny nrfge`sd wftar, fra rfm`bgfrnbh mftam tb td`s par`bm. ]da fgt`v`t`as prbnfnly tbbe plfga wdah tda kf`h pdfsa bi mbkast`g s`ta wfs flrafmy bvar. ]wb walls, `h tda gahtra bi tda sattlakaht, wara i`llam frbuhm 76?? gfl NG w`td mbkast`g wfsta fhm f lbt bi mal`narftaly nrbeah quarhs. Bha bi tda walls, up tb >.7k maap, wfs muc bhly
9=
I`cura 7.9 Nur`fl irbk tda salakaht ft Blmahnurc-Mfhhfu (sburga: Nrbz`b >?665 Küllar >?66 11, I`c. >4). ]da =?-yafr-blm wbkfh wfs plfgam `h f p`t fhm lftar, fs f rasult bi sagbhmfry kfh`pulft`bh, tda iakur wfs tfeah fwfy.
I`cura 7.3 _bsts `h tda wat fraf bi Blmahnurc-Mfhhfu - k`mmla Habl`td`g.
91
I`cura 7.4 Dukfh seull irbk tda wat fraf `h Blmahnurc-Mfhhfu (Nrbz`b >?66).
I`cura 7.0 K`mmla Habl`td`g kfga dafm w`td f magbrftam wbbmah sdfit irbk Blmahnurc Blmah nurc-Mfh -Mfhhfu. hfu.
99
I`cura 7.6? ]da wall irbk tda salakaht bi Blmahnurc-Mfhhfu (fitar Nrbz`b >?66). Nas`ma kfhy frgdfablbc`gfl frtaifgts tda iakur bi tda hafrny nur`fl wfs flsb ibuhm (Küllar >?66, 19, I`c. >0).
>k m`stfht irbk tda fnbva-kaht`bham lfta Afrly Habl`td`g nur`fl (I`cura 7.6?). S`td`h tda `hi`ll, tda iakur irbk tda s`hcla nur`fl, muc but mal`narftaly, wfs mapbs`tam w`td`h f sagbhmfry skfll p`t. Bnv`busly, gbhsg`busly fhm hbt fgg`mahtflly, tda mastrugt`bh bi tda walls, fhm prbnfnly bi tda k`mmla Habl`td`g sattlakaht, `hglumam f syknbl`g tfeabvar bi tda nbha bi tda “iakfla crfhm fhgastbr‛ bi tda v`llfca. Nbtd tda i`ll`hc bi tda wall fhm tda frgdfabnbtfh`gfl fhm pflyhblbc`gfl rakf`hs irbk tda wat fraf, fllbw f ragbhstrugt`bh bi tda ahv`rbhkahtfl gbhm`t`bhs fhm lfhm usa frbuhm 76?? gfl NG (E`rla`s at fl. >?66n). Nas`ma skfll pftgdas bi fcr`gulturfl frafs w`td akkar, a`hebrh fhm nfrlay, nas`ma cfrmahs w`td iahhal fhm lacuk`hbus plfhts, tda lfrca fkbuhts bi iru`ts, aspag`flly fpplas, `hm`gfta f prbgass bi gfra fhm mbkast`gft`bh mbkast`g ft`bh bi fppla traas. ^agbvaram fh`kfl nbhas `maht`iy tda l`ia gyglas bi kf`hly gfttla, nut flsb p`c fhm sdaap/cbft fs tda pr`hg`pfl mbkast`g fh`kfls. ]da gbhm`t`bhs bi s`hcla dukfh nbhas `hm`gfta f gbhsg`bus usa bi sugd nbhas `h tda sattlakaht5 tday dfm tb dfva naah eapt `h tda mbkast`g fraf `h sugd f wfy fs hbt tb na mastrbyam, ibr axfkpla ny mbcs. Blmahnurc-Mfhhfu LF33 `s bha bi tda typ`gfl Hbrtd Carkfh s`tas w`td watlfhm prasarvft`bh. Sd`la kbst mbkast`g strugturas fra prasarvam uhmar mry gbhm`t`bhs bh d`cdar alavft`bhs, bhly pfrts bi tda mbkast`g fgt`v`t`as lait trfgas `h tda wftarlbccam, maapar frafs br lbw wftar pfrts bi tda s`ta. ]da s`ta `tsali wfs fiiagtam ny tda r`s`hc wftar laval bi tda Blmahnurcar Crfnah. Sd`la bh tda bha dfhm tda fquft`g rasburgas wara kbra fhm kbra fggass`nla, bh tda btdar dfhm tda pbllah ragbrm m`splfys m`spl fys f gdfhca `h tda agbhbk`g nfsa.
93
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s t h f r l p a m d t h f B l
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>???
LH 6 Afrly Mfccar crbups
PH 7 Lfta W`hcla Crfva crbups >1??
PH > K`mmla W`hcla Crfva crbups
1
PH 6 Afrly W`hcla Crfva crbups
KH Y Wtbra Yflny KH @@@-@Y Nbstdblk
7???
=
G N l f g s r f a y
7.7
KH @@ Blmahnurc KH @n Sbleahwada >
KH @f
7.>
AH @@ Sbleahwada 6
71??
7.6 AH @n
> =???
Alk magl`ha
AH @f Sfhcals/ Il`htnae
m l b d t a ` S . J : s ` s y l f h f
Alk
Χ%
Wftrup W`ccahanah Wüm
6??
6
Lfta Kasbl.
1???
I`cura 7.66 Nalfu. ]da bpah`hc up bi lfhmsgfpa raagtam `h tda ragbrm bi tda Lfea Nalfu (E`rla`s, Iaasar, EbbÒ >?66). Fitar f par`bm `h wd`gd gdfrgbfl plfyam plfya m fh `kpbrtfht `kpbr tfht rbla, rbla , frbuhm frb uhm 71?? NG, tda t da `kpr`h ` kpr`hts ts bi f haw ha w fcr`gult fcr `gulturfl urfl systak bh tda vacatft`bh fra v`s`nla (Küllar >?66, 97 I`c. 76).
]da `htrbmugt`bh bi tda plbucd, l`heam tb tda bpah`hc up bi tda lfhmsgfpa, `s fssbg`ftam w`td tda pafe bi tda sattlakaht fgt`v`t`as, wd`la tda bnsarvam magrafsa `h dukfh fgt`v`t`as fll bvar tda sbutdarh fraf bi tda Hbrtdarh ]^N crbup `s railagtam `h tda mastrugt`b mas trugt`bhh ft tda s`ta (I`curas 7.66 fhm 7.6>).
94
Sastarh Wwamah h; >??
Weáha h; >1>
Hbrtdarh Jutlfhm h; 7=>
H.A. Carkfhy h; 161
H.S. Carkfhy ]da Hatdarlfhms h; 139
Gahtrfl W. Wwamah h; >=7
?.??=
?.??7
n b r p
?.??>
?.??6
?.??? -=1??
-=??? Wwam`sd Nflt`g @slas h; >97
-71?? Afstarh Wwamah h; >=7
-7???
->1?? ng
Mfh`sd @slas h; >44
?.??7
?.??> n b r p
?.??6
?.??? -=1??
-=???
-71??
-7???
->1?? ng
I`cura 7.6> Wuk gfl`nrft`bh gurvas (irbk s`x rac`bhs `h tda Hatdarlfhms tb gahtrfl sbutdarh Wwamah) m`splfy s`k`lfr tahmahg`as. Nas`ma fh `hgrafsa frbuhm 74??/73?? gfl NG, f magrafsa frbuhm 7=??/771? gfl NG fhm f sagbhm `hgrafsa frbuhm fhm fitar 7??? gfl NG fra v`s`nla. Masp`ta tdasa pfarhs f lfge bi mftf fitar >3?? gfl NG fhm naibra =>?? gfl NG sdbulm flsb na tfeah `htb gbhs`marft`bh (D`hz at fl. >?6>).
90
@h gbhtrfst tb tda kbra br lass typ`gfl s`ta bi Blmahnurc-Mfhhfu LF 33 (a.c. flsb Mfhhfu, Haustfmt, _frgd`k-Lùmm`csaa), Nfm Blmaslba-Sbleahwada LF 61= (I`cura 7.6) `s qu`ta m`iiaraht. @h td`s gfsa tda gahtra bi tda s`ta `s flsb prasarvam `h ft lafst pfrtly wat gbhm`t`bhs (Dfrtz at fl., >??=/>??1 (>??3), K`sgdef at fl. >??7/>??= (>??3), Wgdwfnam`ssah 6010, Nrbz`b >?6?). Sbleahwada `s bha bi tda s`tas s`ta s flrafmy flra fmy axgfvftam axgfv ftam ny Wgdwfnam Wgdw fnam`ss `ssah ah `h tda 601?s. W`tuftam `h tda K`ttlara ]rfvatfl nfs`h, td`s s`ta, l`ea kfhy btdar mbkast`g mbk ast`g s`tas s`ta s `h tda fraf, l`as l`a s hafr tda r`var ]rfva. ]rfva. Fcf`h, tda m`str`nut`bh pfttarh `hm`gftas mbkast`g fgt`v`t`as fssbg`ftam w`td tda maprass`bh, fhm r`tufl fgt`v`t`as, `hglum`hc tda gbhstrugt`bh bi kacfl`tds fhm tda mapbs`t`bh bi fmzas, w`td tarrfgas fhm d`cdar frafs bi tda lfhmsgfpa (I`cura 7.61). Sbleahwada wfs ra-axgfvf ra-a xgfvftam tam `h >??3->?6 >??3 ->?6?? tb var`iy var` iy tda iaw rasults wd`gd gbulm na ragbhstrugtam irbk tda mbgukahtft`bh lait ny Wgdwfnam`ssah. Fgtuflly `t nagfka glafr tdft tda satt`hc bi fnbut 11? pbsts fhm tda glustars bi nbulmars nalbhcam tb f k`mmla Habl`td`g fgt`v`ty fraf, wd`gd wfs “sattlam‛ bhly mur`hc sukkar t`kas5 pbllah fhm sam`kahtblbc`gfl fhflysas prbvam tdft d`cd w`htar wftars wara raculfrly ilbbm`hc tda skfll `slfhm bi Sbleahwada mur`hc tda t`ka natwaah 77?? fhm >4?? gfl NG. Havartdalass, tda spft`fl m`str`nut`bh bi wbbmah pbsts prbnfnly `hm`gftas tda rakf`hs bi savarfl twb-f`slam dbusas, wd`gd fra l`heam tb tda rakf`hs bi i`raplfgas, `hm`gftam ny
1k
I`cura 7.67 Nfm Blmaslba-Sbleahwada: ragbhstrugt`bh bi dbusas raprasahtam ny wbbmah pbsts fhm stbha gbhgahtrft`bhs fhm tda m`tgd systak bi tda k`mmla Habl`td`g s`ta5 natwaah > fhm 7 dbusas ax`stam gbhtakpbrfhabusly (Nrbz`b >?665 Küllar >?66, 17, I`c. >3).
3?
6
> I`cura 7.6= _bsts irbk tda blm axgfvft`bh `h 601?-1> ny Wgdwfnam`ssah (Dfr at fl. >??=/>??1 (>??3),6=, I`c. 4), m`tgd systak (r`cdt) fhm pbsts (lait).
tda nbulmars. F glbsar mft`hc wfs hbt pbss`nla, fs tda pbsts wara tbb skfll ibr mahmrb-mft`hc (I`cura 7.67). Havartdalass, tda purpbsa fhm iuhgt`bh bi tda s`ta `s hbt aht`raly glafr. ]dara fra hb rakf`hs bi garafl prbgass`hc fhm, `h tda lbgfl pbllah ragbrm, tdara fra hb s`chs bi fh bpah`hc bi tda lfhmsgfpa ibr dbrt`gulturfl br fcr`gulturfl purpbsas. ]da lbgft`bh `tsali, `h f par`pdarfl fraf bi tda lfhmsgfpa, tda maptd bi tda lbwlfhm ny tda r`var ]rfva ilbbmam `h Habl`td`g t`kas, `hm`gfta tdft tda kf`h purpbsa bi tda s`ta gbulm hbt dfva naah ibr suns`stahga. ]da fh`kfl nbhas `hm`gfta gbhsukpt`bh bi kaft nut hb btdar spag`fl fgt`v`t`as.
36
a x s f a a v r m f u r a t e c g g u g r ` a t g d h s ` ` t t l h ` h k f a f t r c s d a a k a x g f a k f i l i r t t t b b h b ` a i l m i s m i h h ` a ` g ` i g b i d h t a t a ` l l l a b c m p b c ` a h ` v a h ` h s a m s
? > 6
1 >
k ? ? ? >
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? 6 >
> 1
? 6 >
? > 6
? > 6
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]d`s `hglumas i`sd`hc5 hb rafl s`chs bi i`sd`hc wara ibuhm. Sdft tbbe plfga bh tda s`ta, nas`ma tda par`bm`gfl usa bi tda dbusas2 ]dara fra `rraculfr frt`i`g`fl m`tgd systaks, wd`gd wara flrafmy axgfvftam ny Wgdwfnam`ssah Wgdwfnam`ss ah fhm wdbsa prasahga wfs ragbhi`rkam ny tda haw axgfvft`bhs (I`curas 7.67 fhm 7.6=). ]dasa m`tgdas k`cdt na
3>
t s f A l , f t a v f r ] a r a l ` K s . a u d t b v h ` ` n b s a s g ` f l a p v l f r f ` r ] r u a n v ` m r h a f s d t t ` s c h b p b l a m f s a t v a ` ` t s b i v b , s t h m h a k h a c l ` c f l h ` a s , d t s t ) 5 h > a . k ` c a l I , a s 0 , i 3 b ? h ? b ` t > l . u f n ` t r a t s ` r M f 1 D 6 . ( 7 h ` a r a t s u l c b ` I D
gbkpfram w`td s`k`lfr strugturas, wd`gd fra ehbwh irbk m`iiaraht sflt prbmugt`bh plfgas. @h sp`ta bi tda ifgt tdft hb nr`qattfcas wara ibuhm bh tda s`ta, m`iiaraht katdbms bi sflt axtrfgt`bh w`tdbut fhy glafr frgdfablbc`gfl laitbvars fra mbgukahtam atdhb-d`stbr`gflly atdhb-d`stbr`gflly ibr hbrtdarh Aurbpa. ]d`s `s bi kbra `htarast, fs sfl`ha walls fra prasaht `h tda v`g`h`ty bi tda s`ta. @h gbkn`hft`bh w`td tda d`cd fkbuht bi gdfrgbfl bh tda s`ta, fhm fsdas v`s`nla `h tda pbllah fhflysas, fhm w`td tda kfhy pbsts nas`ma tda dbusas wd`gd k`cdt nalbhc tb sbka e`hm bi wbbmah gbhstrugt`bh ibr wftar avfpbrft`bh, wa mavalbpam tda dypbtdas`s tdft sflt prbmugt`bh wfs prfgt`sam ft Sbleahwada. Masp`ta td`s, fnbut twb fhm f dfli tbhs bi il`ht, nrbucdt `htb tda pafty fraf, suppbrt tda `maf tdft prbmugt`bh bi il`ht tbbls fhm fmzas tbbe plfga dara (K`sgdef >??9). Fll `h fll, prbnlaks prbn laks bi s`ta `htarpra `hta rpratft` tft`bh bh rakf`h rakf` h fhm i`alm i`a lm fgt`v`t`as gbht`hua `h tda fraf. Havartdalass, tda prasahga bi k`mmla Habl`td`g mbkast`g s`tas `h tda K`ttlara ]rfva vfllay sdbws f kbra br lass l`hafr m`str`nut`bh flbhc tda r`var (I`cura 7.61). Fs btdar s`tas fra s`tuftam bh tda prbkbhtbry-l`ea lbgft`bhs wd`gd @ masgr`nam fnbva, tda spag`fl lbgft`bh bi Sbleahwada LF 61= prbnfnly railagts `ts spag`i`g iuhgt`bhs w`td`h tda agbhbk`g fhm sattlakaht systak. Nas`ma tda prbnlaks w`td tda s`tas fhm tda gbkn`hft`bhs bi mry fhm wftarlbccam gbhm`t`bhs, Afst Dblsta`h y`alms kfhy wftarlbccam iafturas irbk tda Habl`td`g, wd`gd fllbw tda ragbhstrugt`bh bi nbtd s`tas fhm tda`r agbhbk`g fhm r`tufl nfgecrbuhm. ]da rasults fra uhmarl`ham, fkbhc btdar td`hcs, ny lfk`hftam pbllah prbi`las, wd`gd c`va f glafr `hm`gft`bh bi dukfh `kpfgt fhm fcr`gultura5 bpah i`alms w`td nfrlay fhm akkar fhm w`lm rbsa, tda prasahga bi fppla brgdfrms fhm tda fhhufl pfttarh bi fh`kfls mr`vah bvar tda i`alms ibr kfhur`hc, ax`stam `h tda fraf natwaah 79??-76?? NG (S`atdblm 60045 E`rla`s at fl. >?66f5 E`rla`s at fl. n, fggaptam5 Küllar at fl. `h pr`ht). ]da magrafsa `h pbpulft`bh frbuhm 7>?? NG, wd`gd `s flsb l`heam tb tda ahm bi tda gbhstrugt`bh bi kacfl`td`g kbhukahts, `s st`ll w`tdbut fh axplfhft`bh. Havartdalass, tda `hgrafsa `h fgt`v`t`as ft frbuhm >4?? gfl NG, l`heam tb Wtbra Yflny br tda W`hcla Crfva gultura, `s v`s`nla bh tda s`tas kaht`bham dara fs wall fs bh btdars (D`hz at fl. >?6>). Nrbhza Fca rasafrgd: Nruszgzawb
Fs flrafmy flra fmy hbtam, hbta m, tda bhly axgfvftam axgfv ftam s`ta s`t a w`td f lfrca lfrc a fkbuht fkbu ht bi wftarlbccam iafturas `s tda s`ta bi Nruszgzawb 1 `h Craftar _blfhm, fnbut 9?ek sbutd sbu td bi _bzhfō (Gzanraszue fhm Küllar >??=f, Küllar at fl. >?6?, Eha`sal at fl. >??45 I`cura 7.6). ]da s`ta wfs m`sgbvaram flrafmy `h tda i`rst dfli bi tda twaht`atd gahtury gahtu ry fhm axgfvftam mur`hc tda 609?s ny _`ahzahse` _`ahzahs e` bi tda _bzhfō kusauk. Mur`hc tdft t`ka `t `t
37
suppbsam pftdwfys dbusa strugturas suppbsam dbusa strugturas
d
t
fitar >?1? n. G.
f p
fitar 64?? n. G.
a l
t
t
3 1
f g
a g h f r
t h
a
3 1
3 =
3 7 3 >
6 3
3 ?
m`tgd prbnfnla m`tgd lfeawfrm ibrt`i`gft`bh iafturas
H
>1k
I`cura 7.69 ]da axgfvft`bh bi tda Afrly Nrbhza Fca s`ta Nruszgzawb 1: `htarpratft`bh bi salakaht mavalbpkaht, dbusa lbgft`bhs fhm ahtrfhgas. ]da strugturas pbstmft`hc 64?? NG fra prasarvam uhmar wat gbhm`t`bhs `h tda Wfk`gf lbwlfhms (Küllar fhm Eha`sal >?6?, 397, I`c. 1).
3=
I`cura 7.63 Far`fl pdbtbcrfpd bi tda axgfvft`bh bh tda prbkbhtbry (yallbw vacatft`bh) fhm `h tda Wfk`gf lbwlfhms (craah vacatft`bh) (Eha`sal >?6?n, 01, I`c. 7-=).
nagfka glafr tdft, bh tda prbkbhtbry wd`gd lafms `htb tda Wfk`gf lfea lbwlfhms, fh Qhat`ga sattlakaht ax`stam5 `t wfs ibrt`i`am fhm tdara wfs av`mahga bi katfl prbgass`hc. @t wfs fitar 6000 tdft tda pbtaht`fl bi tda s`ta `h raspagt bi tda watlfhm frgd`va wfs m`sgbvaram. ]da haw jb`ht _bl`sd fhm Carkfh prbjagt axtahmam tda axgfvft`bh frafs tb tda Wfk`gf lfea lbwlfhms (I`curas 7.69 fhm 7.63). M`iiaraht wftarlbccam gbhstrugt`bhs wara m`sgbvaram. @h td`s raspagt wa fra st`ll mafl`hc w`td tda i`rst fhm bhly wftarlbccam s`ta bi tda Afrly
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Nrbhza Fca bh tda hbrtd Aurbpafh plf`h5 lftar bh `h tda Nrbhza Fca tda s`ta bi N`seup`h, N`seu p`h, ibr axfkpla, axfk pla, glafrly glaf rly mai`has mai` has tda iurtdar iur tdar pbtaht`fl bi watlfhm frafs ibr tda wdbla bi tda Nrbhza Fca. Nrusgzazwb 1 `s s`tuftam `h tda Ebŕg`fh nfs`h bi Craftar _blfhm, wd`gd `s f W`amluhcsefkkar bi tda Qhat`ga sbg`at`as (Küllar fhm Eha`sal >?6?). ]da fraf `s wall ehbwh ibr tda r`gd nur`fls bi ņĐe` KfŎa wd`gd, nas`ma Laun`hcah fhm Dalksmbri, fra st`ll tda bhly surv`v`hc Afrly Nrbhza Fca nur`fl kbuhms `h Gahtrfl Aurbpa. Mua tb tda r`gd crfva `taks fhm tda fl`chkaht bi ibur nur`fl kbuhms flbhc tda r`var tarrfga, tday `hm`gfta `hm`g fta hbt bhly f d`cd-rfheam crbup bi pabpla w`td`h tda strft`i`am strft `i`am Nrbhza Fca sbg`aty, nut flsb f gbht`hu`ty fhm stfn`l`ty `h tda pbl`t`gfl systak bvar ft lafst sbka gahtur`as. ņĐe` KfŎa, ft f m`stfhga bi 6= ek, `s gbhtakpbrfry w`td Nruszgzawb 1. Fs Nruszg Nr uszgzawb zawb `s tda t da bhly b hly ibrt` i brt`i`am i`am s`ta `h tda t da Ebŕg`fh Ebŕ g`fh fraf, `t saaks s aaks flsb fpprbpr`fta tb fssbg`fta td`s mbkast`g s`ta w`td ņĐe` KfŎa fhm tda pbl`t`gfl brcfh`sft`bh bi td`s Afrly Nrbhza Fca sattlakaht fraf. @h td`s raspagt Nruszgzawb stfys `h glafr gbhtrfst tb s`hcla ifrkstafms br skfll dfklats, wd`gd fra `hm`gftam ny i`hm sgfttars fll bvar tda Ebŕg`fh fraf. Nruszgzawb 1 fhm `ts agbhbk`g, sbg`fl fhm gulturfl pbs`t`bh `h tda Ebŕg`fh nfs`h dfva naah masgr`nam axtahs`valy `h tda i`hfl punl`gft`bh. Dara @ wbulm bhly l`ea tb sukkfr`za tda kf`h rasults nr`aily fhm tb ibgus bh sbka fspagts bi tda wat fraf (I`cura 7.69). Ahv`rbhkahtfl ragbhstrugt`bhs `hm`gfta tdft mur`hc tda Afrly Nrbhza Fca tda r`mca bi Nruszgzawb wfs f e`hm bi pah`hsulf bi tda Wfk`gf lfea, wd`gd axtahmam tb tda afst bi tda s`ta fhm m`sfppafram mur`hc tda @rbh Fca. @h tda twahty-i`rst gahtury NG, fnbut ?.1 df bi f r`mca, wd`gd ft `ts d`cdast pb`ht br`c`hflly tbwaram fnbva tda Wfk`gf lbw crbuhm ny fnbut 4k fhm fnbva tda nbrmar`hc kbrf`ha ny fnbut 7k, wfs sapfrftam irbk tda d`htarlfhm ny f m`tgd bi up tb >?k w`ma fhm fnbut =k maap. Ft tda `hhar amca bi tda m`tgd f mbunla pfl`sfma, bh fvarfca >k w`ma, wfs aragtam. ]d`s wfs nu`lt fs f wbbm fhm afrtd gbhstrugt`bh, us`hc tda kftar`fl axgfvftam irbk tda m`tgd (D`lmanrfhmt-^fmea >?6?). @h tda gahtra bi tda sattlakaht fraf, dbusas, wbresdbps, bpah spfgas fhm s`lb p`ts wara plfhham fhm nu`lt. @h tda afstarh, lfeas`ma fraf, fh axtahs`bh bi tda s`ta wfs graftam ft tda nac`hh`hc bi tda a`cdtaahtd gahtury NG w`td haw dbusas fhm f iurtdar lfeas`ma ibrt`i`gft`bh (Eha`sal >?6?n, Eha`sal >?6?f, Eha`sal at fl. >??4). Fggass Fggas s tb tda s`ta s`t a lfy `h tda hbrtd-was hbrt d-wast,t, lafm`hc lafm `hc m`ragtly m`ra gtly tb tda kbst alavftam fraf, fhm `h tda hbrtd-afst, ft tda lbwar pfrt bi tda s`ta bh tda amca bi tda Wfk`gf lfea. Wattlam frafs `h irbht bi tda ibrt`i`gft`bh m`m hbt ax`st, nut bpah frafs fra prbvah tb tda wast fhm hbrtd, wd`la tda sbutd fhm afst fra nbrmaram ny tda Wfk`gf
39
lfea. Gblluv`fl sam`kahts bi tda kf`h m`tgd, wd`gd kbst prbnfnly mfta tb tda savahtaahtd gahtury NG (D`lmanrfhmt-^fmea >?6?, 71), kfre tda ahm bi sattlakaht fgt`v`t`as. Aquflly, tda pflyhblbc`gfllymatagtam magl`ha bi dukfh `kpfgt iflls w`td`h tda sfka t`kasgfla fhm gbhi`rks tda gassft`bh bi mbkast`g fgt`v`t`as (M`ars >?6?, Dffs fhm Sfdlküllar >?6?), fhm sb`l sg`aht`sts dfva ragbhstrugtam raibrastft`bh bi tda s`ta (Nbre >?6?). F haw ut`l`sft`bh bi tda fraf ny tda Lusft`fh sattlakaht, wd`gd sd`itam kbra tb tda afstarh fraf, stfrtam frbuhm 6??? NG. Mbkast`g strugturas
Mua tb arbs`bh, tda ragbhstrugt`bh bi dbusas fhm dbusa `hvahtbr`as `s hafrly `kpbss`nla ibr tda gahtrfl sattlakaht fraf bi Nruszgzawb 1. Dbusa strugturas wara ibuhm kf`hly `h tda lbwlfhm fmjb`h`hc tda afstarh r`mca spur. Wyhbps`s bi tda s`hcla gbhstrugt`bh alakahts `s m`ii`gult nagfusa bi tda`r vfry`hc gbhsarvft`bh stfta. @h trahgd td`rtybha, gbkplax gbhstrugt`bhs gbhs`st`hc bi stfeas, pbsts, ifllah w`gearwbre wflls fhm supari`g`flly nurham t`knar gfh na bnsarvam (I`cura 7.64) wdarafs iurtdar tb tda wast bhly stfeas fhm wbbm sdfmbws `h tda mry mbkf`h hafr tda amca bi tda spur gfh na ragbch`sam (Eha`sal >?6?n 60, I`c. 77). Irbk trahgd td`rty stak hukarbus wamcam stfeas, wd`gd fra crbupam frbuhm craft k`mmla pbsts fhm nalbhc tb fhbtdar gbhstrugt`bh (I`cura 7.60). ]da mwall`hc strugtura gbhs`sts bi fnbut twahty-s`x skfll pbsts tdft, uhl`ea rbuhm wfttla pbsts, dfva naah dflvam. @h trahgd i`ity-twb, tda axgfvftbrs gbulm uhafrtd twb dbusa strugturas, sapfrftam irbk afgd btdar ny f pftdwfy, uhmar up tb tdraa katras bi slbpa gblluv`uk. Dara tbb bhly wbbm sdfmbws gbulm na ragbch`sam `h tda mry sb`l. @h gbhtrfst tb tda wat fraf dbwavar, glfy strugturas wara flsb gbhsarvam. ]dus, m`ragtly ft tda amca bi tda blm d`ll, tda rakhfhts bi f tuknlam wfll gbulm na axgfvftam. @t wfs sl`cdtly nurht bh tda buts`ma. Hafrny, f lfrca mapbs`t bi nurht crf`h wfs m`sgbvaram. ]da dbusas `h tda lbwar lfhm fra fl`cham hbrtd-sbutd, `h pfrfllal tb tda amca bi tda d`ll. d`l l. ]da lahctd kust na 4 katras br kbra, tda w`mtd w` mtd fkbuhts tb =‗1 katars fpprbx`kftaly (I`cura 7.64). ]da pftdwfy fkbuhts tb fnbut > katras `h w`mtd5 nalbw nal bw tda pftd, fhm bhly tdara, trfgas bi plbucd`hc wara ibuhm. Bh tda spur, pbstdblas y`alm hb av`mahga bi dbusas. Bhly sbka p`ts jb`h `h l`hafr fhm ragt`l`hafr rbws, sb tdft wa k`cdt tahtft`valy ragbhstrugt tda pbs`t`bh bi dbusas `h `htarvah`hc bpah frafs (Eha`sal >?6?f5 Küllar fhm Eha`sal >?6?, 397 I`c. 1).
33
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34
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I`cura 7.60 Matf`ls bi wbbmah gbhstrugt`bhs `h tda afstarh pfrt bi Nruszgzawb 1. ^akf`hs bi f wbbmah bbr (lait) fhm tda gbhstrugt`bh bi f dbusa gbrhar (r`cdt) (Eha`sal >?6?n, 6>7, I`c. =>-==).
@h tda wat fraf nbtd tda dbusa strugturas fs wall fs tda bpah spfgas fra fggbkpfh`am ny f lfrca huknar bi i`hms. Nas`ma garfk`gs, fh`kfl nbhas, il`ht frtaifgts fhm wbbmah tbbls dfva naah prasarvam (I`cura 7.>?). ]dara `s f wbbmah hf`l, pfrt bi f wdaal fxla, wbbmah frrbwdafms fhm skfll n`rgd nfre nuhmlas, wd`gd wara usam ibr l`cdt`hc. l`cdt`hc . ]da wbbmah pbsts sdbw craft axpart`sa `h wbbmwbre`hc wbbmwbre `hc fhm tda t`knar ilfeas `hm`gfta t`knar wbresdbps `h irbht bi tda dbusas. ]da ifsg`has bi tda ibrt`i`gft`bh flsb `hm`gfta f glafr ehbwlamca bi dbw tb nu`lm f maiahs`va systak `h sugd fh fraf (I`cura 7.>6). Havartdalass, tda gdfrfgtar bi tda pbsts flsb `hm`gftas tdft hb spag`fl gfra wfs c`vah tb tda kf`htahfhga bi ibrast sb tdft, ft f gartf`h stfca bi tda lbgfl mavalbpkaht, pbsts w`td m`iiarahgas `h agblbc`gfl crbw`hc gbhm`t`bhs dfm tb na gfrr`am tb tda s`ta irbk kfhy frafs (I`cura 7.>>). Masp`ta tda rasult`hc m`ii`gult`as fr`s`hc ibr mahmrbmft`hc, savarfl mftas `hm`gfta tda kf`h pdfsa bi tda wat fraf `h tda a`cdtaahtd gahtury NG. Sd`la Sd`l a `h ` h sukkf s ukkfry ry ibur dbusa dbus a stru s trugtur gturas as wara ibuhm ibu hm mur`hc mur` hc tda axgfvft`bh `h tda wftarlbccam afstarh pfrt bi tda s`ta, fpprbx`kftaly a`cdt dbusas k`cdt k`c dt dfva ax`stam bh tda r`mca. S`td f kfrc`h bi arrbr, hb kbra tdfh natwaah twahty fhm twahty-i`va dbusas wara prbnfnly nu`lt mur`hc tda =?? yafrs bi tda sattlakaht. W`hga tda saquaht`fl gfl`nrft`bh bi tda mahmrb- fhm FKW-mftf bi dbusa strugtura hb. = pb`hts tb f l`iaspfh bi 31-6?? yafrs ibr f s`hcla dbusa (`hglum`hc frgdfablbc`gflly prbvah rahawfls), fpprbx`kftaly tah dbusas ax`stam gbhtakpbrfhabusly (Eha`sal fhm Erbll >?6?, 137). Fllbw`hc ibr natwaah i`va fhm tah `hdfn`tfhts par dbusa, td`s rasults `h natwaah i`ity fhm f duhmram `hdfn`tfhts `hdfn`tfhts ft Nruszgzawb 1. S`td raiarahga raia rahga tb tda crfvas crfv as `h tda `kkam`f `kk am`fta ta surrbuhm surr buhm`hcs `hcs bi tda sattlakaht, l`ttla `s ehbwh tb mfta. Irbk tda fraf bi dbusa strugturas, up tb hbw f s`hcla sattlakaht nur`fl bi f kfla `hm`v`mufl,
30
>
6
7
=
1
I`cura 7.>? Afrly Nrbhza Fca wbbmah frtaifgts irbk Nruszgzawb (Eha`sal fhm Erbll >?6?, I`c. 1>:>5 I`c. 9=: DF=7?=, DF=7>65 I`c. 91: DF1??65 I`c. 36: DF9?99, DF9?97).
4?
9
I`cura 7.>6 ]da afstarh wbbmwbre`hc fraf w`td wbbmah feas fhm btdar rakf`hs natwaah f dbusa fhm f pfrt bi tda afstarh ibrt`gft`bh (Küllar fhm Eha`sal >?6?, 336, I`c. 6>).
- 6479
- 647>
- 64>4
- 64>=
- 64>?
-6469
-646>
- 64?4
- 64?=
- 64??
- 6309
- 630>
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6???
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6? -6479
-647>
-64>4
-64>=
- 64 64>?
- 64 6469
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- 64 64??
- 63 6309
-630>
I`cura 7.>> ]da lbgfl bfe-mahmrb-gurvas fhm s`hcla bfe-gurvas irbk Nruszgzawb 1 maha tda duca vfr`fn`l`ty bi t`knar crbw`hc gbhm`t`bhs (DauÒhar fhmSfszhy >?6?, >==, I`c. 6). Nas`ma btdar agbhbk`g prbnlaks f sdbrtfca bi t`knar rfw kftar`fl `s `hm`gftam ny tda lfge bi gfra bi t`knar ibrast. ibras t.
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I`cura 7.>7 ]da salakaht nur`fl bi f ybuhc, dfrm-wbre`hc kfh, bh tbp bi f w`llbw kft (Eha`sal >?6?g, 3>9, I`c.6).
wrfppam `h f kft kfma bi w`llbw rbms, wfs ibuhm (I`cura 7.>7) (@wfhae at fl. >?6?, Eha`sal >?6?g). ]da 64- tb >=-yafr-blm kfla sdbwam m`iiaraht pftdblbc`gfl kbm`i`gft`bhs bi d`s sealatbh, wd`gd wara tda rasult bi dfrm pdys`gfl wbre, prbnfnly gfrry`hc dafvy lbfms mur`hc d`s wbre. S`td tda axgapt`bh bi s`kpla nbulmars hb crfva cbbms wara prasaht. ]dus, tda nur`fls axprass tda sbg`fl spfh irbk brm`hfry gbkkuh`ty kaknars tb tda r`gd `hm`v`mufls `h tda ņĐe` KfŎa kbuhms. Ibrt`i`gft`bh
]da ibrt`i`gft`bh gbhs`sts bi twb m`iiaraht pfrts. F m`tgd `s lbgftam bh tda spur, tbcatdar w`td f mbunla-rbw pfl`sfma. ]da`r bfe pbsts wara stfgeam sb maap `h tda crbuhm tdft wbbmah pbsts wara prasarvam `h wftarlbccam gbhm`t`bhs, avah `i tda rakf`h`hc uppar strugtura wfs bhly prasarvam uhmar mry gbhm`t`bhs. ]d`s staap fhm w`ma m`tgd fhm pfl`sfma gbhstrugt`bh mal`k`ts tda sattlakaht tb tda Sast fhm Hbrtd (I`cura 7.69). Ft gartf`h pb`hts, tda m`tgd axtahms up tb >? katras `h w`mtd fhm = katras `h maptd. Fggass tb tda sattlakaht `s cf`ham ft f hfrrbw pfrt `h tda hbrtdwast, fs sdbwh ny tda axgfvft`bhs `h trahgd i`ity-bha (Eha`sal >?6?n, 0=, I`curas >, 1¬3). ]b tda afst,
4>
tbwfrms tda lfea sdbra, tda ibrt`i`gft`bh strugtura `s m`iiaraht. ]d`s aht`ra strugtura, wd`gd staks irbk tda sfka t`ka fs prbvah ny mahmrbgdrbhblbc`gfl mahmrbgdrbhbl bc`gfl mftf mft f (Sfzhy (Sfzhy >?6?, DauÒhar DauÒha r fhm Sfzhy Sfzhy >?6?), gbhs`sts bi twb w`gearwbre wflls bi m`iiaraht td`gehass (I`cura (I`cura 7.>=) fhm `h sbka sagt`bhs dfs f t`knar wfll `h irbht bi `t (Eha`sal fhm Erbll >?6?). ]d`s gbhstrugt`bh wfs ibuhm `h fll trahgdas `h tda wat crbuhm (Küllar >??=). @t axtahms `h tda hbrtd ifr naybhm tda m`tgd bh tda spur. Av`mahtly Av`mahtly tda sattlakaht sattl akaht wfs axtahmam tb tda afst mur`hc tda h`hataahtd gahtury NG. ]fe`hc frgd`tagtura `htb gbhs`marft`bh, tda ibrt`i`gft`bhs `h pfrt`gulfr sat tda t`ka irfka ibr tda sattlakaht. @h tda wastarh fraf bi tda sattlakaht tda kult`pla rahawfl bi f pfl`sfma, wd`gd gbvars tda par`bm natwaah >?1? fhm 691? NG (Gzanraszue fhm Küllar >??=n, >03), wfs prbvam. @h tda hbrtd tda sackahtam m`tgd wfs flsb muc up `h tda twahty-i`rst twahty-i`rst gahtury NG, fhm gblluv`fl sam`kahtft`bh w`td`h tda m`tgd nacfh `h tda savahtaahtd gahtury NG. _r`hg`pfl sattlakaht fgt`v`t`as k`cdt dfva tfeah plfga natwaah >?1? fhm 691? NG. @h gbhtrfst, tda murft`bh bi f dbusa wbulm hbt dfva axgaamam 31 yafrs (saa fnbva). Fggbrm`hcly, bhcb`hc nu`lm`hc fgt`v`t`as w`td`h tda sattlakaht dfva tb na tfeah `htb fggbuht. Iurtdarkbra, kf`h ras`maht`fl fgt`v`t`as `h tda wat afstarh fraf kfy dfva nacuh ft fnbut 630? NG. ]da ahlfrcakaht `s kfream ny fh fmm`t`bhfl ibrt`i`gft`bh. ]da hawly ahglbsam fraf wfs usam ibr wbre fgt`v`t`as fs wall fs ibr haw dbusas. ]da sattlakaht fgt`v`t`as, fs `hm`gftam ny lfea trfhscrass`bh, trfhscrass`bh, ahm dara w`td summah ilbbm avahts pbss`nly fnbut 691? NG.
I`cura 7.>= Afstarh sdbra ibrt`gft`bh w`td tdraa alakahts, mahmrbgdrbhblbc`gflly mftam tb 6343 NG: twb ifsg`ha wflls fhm bha wbbmah wfll (Eha`sal, >?6?n, 66>, I`c. >?).
47
Wuns`stahga agbhbky fhm ahv`rbhkaht
]da agblbc`gfl mftf `hm`gfta tdft tda gl`kfx bi sattlakaht mavalbpkaht wfs rafgdam ny fpprbx`kftaly 64?? NG. Bh-s`ta pbllah fhflysas prbva garafl prbmugt`bh, pfstura, ibrast usa fhm glafrfhgas nac`hh`hc irbk tda twahty-i`rst gahtury NG ft tda lftast (M`ars >?6?, 717ii.). Ft fpprbx`kftaly 64?? NG fh axtahs`valy usam ahv`rbhkaht `s av`maht w`td bhly f iaw ibrast frafs lait bvar tdft rasaknla pfre lfhmsgfpas. ]dasa, `h turh, fppafr uhmar prassura irbk fcr`gultura fhm fh axtahs`va gfttla agbhbky. ]da Wfk`gf lfea, `h pfrt`gulfr, sdbws f d`cd pbllut`bh laval. ]da mahmrbgdrbhblbc`gfl rasults succast m`ii`gult`as `h tda prbv`s`bh bi t`knar (Sfzhy >?6?, >73)5 wbbm wfs gdbppam uhsystakft`gflly, irbk tda iaw st`ll fvf`lfnla lbgft`bhs, fhm hb gult`vftam t`knar `s prasaht. Nac`hh`hc ft fnbut 631? NG ibrast racaharft`bh `s flrafmy hbt`gafnla, w`td tda rakf`h`hc bpah spbts pb`ht`hc tb tda ramugt`bh bi agbhbk`g fgt`v`t`as bh tda s`ta. ]da suns`stahga agbhbky gfh prasahtly na masgr`nam irbk f shfpsdbt bvarv`aw bi Nruszgzawb pdfsa tdraa. Wukkar garafl i`alms, w`td sapfrfta gult`vft`bh bi akkar fhm a`hebrh, fra plbucdam w`td gfttla fs mrfucdt fh`kfls5 lacukas, iahhal fhm pbppy fra crbwh `h cfrmah-styla kfhhar, fhm iru`ts wara gbllagtam `h tda pfre-l`ea wbbms. ]da sapfrfta stbrfca katdbms ibr akkar fhm a`hebrh, fs wall fs tda`r sapfrfta fhm m`iiaraht prbgass`hc prbgamuras, raiar s`k`lfrly tb tda usa bi iru`t - tb pr`vfta bwharsd`p bwharsd`p bi tda surrbuhm`hc i`alms. Havartdalass, tda i`alm systak wbulm dfva makfhmam f gbkkbh pbl`t`gfl `hst`tut`bh wd`gd, ibr axfkpla, raculftam tda crfz`hc bi stunnla pfstura ny fh`kfls. Garafl prbgass`hc m`m hbt tfea plfga avarywdara nut rftdar `h gartf`h frafs bi tda sattlakaht, wdarafs gartf`h dbusadblms wara spag`fl`s`hc `h garafl prbgass`hc. ]da prbgass`hc, fs wall fs tda gbhsukpt`bh bi mbkast`g l`vastbge fhm w`lm fh`kfls, wara gbhgahtrftam `h qu`ta m`iiaraht frafs bi tda sattlakaht. L`vastbge ifrk`hc w`td gfttla, p`cs fhm sdaap/cbft plfyam f sunstfht`fl rbla. rbla . Fggass tb kaft irbk fraf tb fraf wfs rftdar m`varsa tdrbucdbut tda sattlakaht. ]da axtraka ahv`rbhkahtfl aiiagts bi uhraculftam, iraa gfttla crfz`hc prbnfnly lam, irbk 631? NG, tb tda masgr`nam ahv`rbhkahtfl prbnlaks fhm tda ramugt`bh bi sattlakaht fgt`v`t`as fs f wdbla. Mua tb l`k`tam gflgulft`bh pbss`n`l`t`as `t gfh just na fssukam tdft natwaah 1?-6?? parsbhs l`vam `h Nruszgzawb. _frt`g`pft`bh `h tda suns`stahga agbhbky vfr`am fkbhc tda `hdfn`tfhts. F gartf`h pbrt`bh bi tda pbpulft`bh lfnburam strahubusly bh fcr`gulturfl tfses, ibr axfkpla gfrry`hc axtrakaly dafvy lbfms tb tda pb`ht bi pdys`gfl `kpf`rkaht, wd`la btdar sackahts bi tda pbpulft`bh dfm fggass tb grfit prbmugts fhm axbt`g gbkkbm`t`as.
4=
Wpag`fl`sft`bh, gbhsukpt`bh fhm hatwbres
Bh tda bha dfhm, tdasa wara fgt`v`t`as wd`gd wara nfsam bh lbgfl rasburgas nut, bh tda btdar dfhm, sbka bi tda prbmugt`bh prbgassas raqu`ram hbt bhly rfw kftar`fl `kpbrts, nut flsb f suprf-rac`bhfl ehbwlamca trfhsiar (I`cura 7.>1). Katfllurc`gfl fgt`v`t`as, `h pfrt`gulfr, wara gbhgahtrftam `h tda gahtrfl fraf bi tda sattlakaht wd`gd `s kfream `h `tsali ny gartf`h fspagts bi f kbra axglus`va fggass tb suns`stahga gbkkbm`t`as. Garafls fra usam avarywdara, avarywda ra, nut tday fra prbgassam bhly `h gartf`h frafs bi tda sattlakaht. _bre fhm w`lm fh`kfls fra bvar-raprasahtam `h tda d`cdast r`mca fraf, wdara nutgdar`hc m`m hbt tfea plfga. @h tda sbutdarh r`mca frafs, fhm tda afstarh wat zbha, sdaap/cbft fra kbra `kpbrtfht. Sd`la `h tda hbrtdarh r`mca fraf nas`ma p`hs fhm ilfhcam fxas mfccars fra flsb saah, `h tda wat fraf bhly p`hs wara ibuhm. Fssuk`hc tdft tda iaw katfl bnjagts fhm tda`r mapbs`t`bhfl prbgassas park`t fh `htarpratft`bh, f m`iiaraht m`str`nut`bh `s bnv`bus. suprf-rac`bhfl fhm rac`bhfl hatwbres
l f ` r a t f k w f r
a c m a l w b h e
_rbmugt`bh spdara
kafhs
`.a. katfl wbresdbps `.a. suns`stahga i`almsystak
prbgass`hc prbmugts
Nrusgszawb
rac`bhfl `hst`tut`bh
brcfh`sft`bh
gbkkuhfl `hst`tut`bh
prbparty
h b ` t f ` t h a r a i i ` M l f ` g b W
s s a g g f m a t g ` r t s a r
dbusadblms spag`fl`zft`bh
m`ragt gbhsukpt`bh
stbrfca s t g u m b r p i l f d
h b ` t f p ` g ` t r f p
r a s t r ` g t a m f g g a s s
stbrfca ifg`l`t`as
^am`str`nut`bh l b r t h b g
ha`cdnbur`hc dfklats Ebsg`fh rac`bh
I`cura 7.>1 ^agbhstrugt`bh bi sbg`b-agbhbk`g fgt`v`t`as fhm pbl`t`gfl `hst`tut`bhs, `h wd`gd Nruszgzawb 1 fhm `ts s`hcla dbusadblms fra nbuhm tbcatdar (Küllar fhm Eha`sal >?6?, 34?, I`c. >?).
41
I`hflly, tda d`cdar pbrt`bh bi stbrfca jfrs `h tda gahtrfl fraf bi tda sattlakaht k`cdt succast f gartf`h kbhbpbl`zft`bh bi gbkkbm`ty m`str`nut`bh. ]dus, tda gbhtrbl bi tda suprf-rac`bhfl hatwbres, w`td tda pbss`n`l`ty bi katfl prbmugt`bh fhm gahtrfl`sam stbrfca, wara tda kf`h fspagts bi pbl`t`gfl pbwar `h Nruszgzawb. @h fmm`t`bh, tda gbhtr`nut`bh bi Nruszgzawb tb sugd suprf-rac`bhfl suprf-rac`bhfl hatwbres dfs flsb naah tfeah `htb gbhs`marft`bh: ibr axfkpla, bh tda bha dfhm tda rftdar afrly mavalbpkaht bi haw gfst`hc tagdhblbc`as (bvar-gfst`hc (bvar-gfst`hc fhm dbllbw gfst`hc) fhm, bh tda btdar dfhm, tda cufrfhtaa bi stfnla fknar supply ibr sbutdarh rac`bhs. Garfk`g prbmugt`bh rftas, vassal fhm magbrft`bh vfr`ft`bhs `hgrafsa gbht`hubusly tdrbucdbut tda par`bms bi Nruszgzawb 6 tb 7, ibllbwam ny f summah magrafsa. Ft tda sfka t`ka tda `hhbvft`bh pbtaht`fl `hgrafsas w`tdbut fhy nrafe. ]d`s k`cdt na axplf`ham ny tda prasahga bi f gbhtrfm`gt`bh natwaah tda tarks bi prbmugt`bh prbmug t`bh fhm sbg`fl mavalbpkaht - wd`la graft`va prbmugt`bh `h tda v`llfca `s st`ll ibrk`mfnla fhm f graft`va ftkbspdara `h tda v`llfca gbkkuh`ty st`ll pravf`ls, tda agbhbk`g systak gbllfpsas (I`cura 7.>9). Ahv`rbhkahtfl N.G. 61??
69??
63??
64??
60??
_dfsa
Frgd`tagtura
Agbhbky
Makbcrfpdy
Ahv`rbhkaht
]rfhscrass`bh bi lfea fhm raibrastft `bh
Wbg`fl fhm pbl`t`gfl systak
(~ 691? N.G.) Fnfhmbhkaht
Wbg`fl gbllfps 2
‗ ) 1 ? 1 ? u ? r 9 9 N 6 ( 6 = ) b ? 1 w 9 a 6 z g ? z 1 s 3 u r 6 N ( ‗ ) 7 ? ? u 1 r 0 3 3 6 N ( 6
(~ 64?? N.G.) Wbg`fl Wtrft`stgft `bh
> ) ? b 0 w 3 a 6 z ‗ g z ? s 1 u 0 r ( N 6
(~ >?1? N.G.) Ibuhmft`bh
>???
>6??
>>??
) 6 ? b 1 w 0 a 6 z ‗ g z ? s ? u > r ( N >
t h a k a l t t a s l f r t h a g
h b ` t f g st ` t r b i l f r t h a g
h b ` t f g st ` t r b i h r a t s f a
t h a k a l t t a s h r a t s f a
y k b h b g a a g h a t s ` s n u s
a t f r h b ` t g u m b r p
g t ` h d a p k f r p c b b l a v k a a m m
t g f p k ` h f k u d
a t f r h b ` t f v b h h `
s l f ` r u n d g ` r
s e r b w t a h
I`cura 7.>9 M`fcrfk bi tda bvarfll mavalbpkaht `h Nruszgzawb 1 (Küllar fhm Eha`sal >?6?, 346, I`c. >6). ]da av`mahga bi m`araht wftarlbccam frgd`vas fllbwam tda ragbhstrugt`bh bi m`araht prbgassas wd`gd kfre tda ahm bi mbkast`g fgt`v`t`as frbuhm 691? gfl NG.
49
prbnlaks, sugd fs sdbrtfca bi t`knar, tda strbhcly autrbpd`g Wfk`gf lfea, tda strf`h bh tda v`llfcars fgt`va `h tda suns`stahga spdara, fs wall fs f pbss`nla `hgrafsa `h gbhil`gt pbtaht`fl w`td`h tda sbg`aty, lafm tb f mastfn`l`sft`bh. Sdah, bh fggbuht bi gdfhcam ralft`bhs, tda fknar axgdfhca w`td Gfrpftd`fh sbg`at`as wd`gd wfs `kpbrtfht ibr Nruszgzawb dfm suns`mam, tda gahtrfl rbla bi tda sattlakaht wfs lbst. ]da mastrugt`bh bi tda afstarh sattlakaht, fitar gbhs`marfnla ilbbm avahts ft fnbut 691? NG, `s just bha ap`sbma wd`gd iurtdar gbhtr`nutas tb tda ahm bi tda sattlakaht. ^aibrastft`bh kfres tda ahm bi f pbl`t`gfl systak fhm `ts gahtrfl s`ta `h td`s skfll rac`bh. ]da m`str`nut`bh bi cbbms, fhm tda`r gbhsukpt`bh nbtd fs mf`ly suppl`as fhm fs alakahts bi f gbhsukpt`va raprasahtft`bh, vfry w`td`h tda sattlakaht (Küllar fhm Eha`sal, >?6?). Gbhglus`bh
Wb ifr, rasafrgd `h watlfhm frafs bh tda hbrtd Aurbpafh plf`h dfs hbt prbmugam f ragbrm bi Habl`td`g br Afrly Nrbhza Fca mbkast`g s`tas tdft `s gbkpfrfnla tb tdft bi tda g`rguk-Flp`ha rac`bh. ]d`s `s prbnfnly mua tb m`iiaraht fggass`n`l`t`as bi tda frafs flbhc tda lfea sdbras fhm tda`r vflua ibr prad`stbr`g sattlakaht. sattl akaht. S`tdbut axgapt`bh, sattlakahts wara plfgam bh tbp bi ibrkar `slfhms br pah`hsulfs, wd`gd fra hbw uhmar mry gbhm`t`bhs. Havartdalass, fs tda axfkplas irbk Habl`td`g s`tas `h Afst Dblsta`h fhm irbk tda Afrly Nrbhza Fca `h Craftar _blfhm succast, tda `hibrkft`bh irbk sugd s`tas `s st`ll vary `hibrkft`va ibr tda ragbhstrugt`bh bi pfst sbg`at`as. ^aiarahgas Nagear, M. fhm Nahagea, H. >??>, M`a habl`td`sgda @hsals`amluhc fk Lùmm`csaa na` _frgd`k. Frgdíblbc`sgda uhm frgdíbzbblbc`sgda Qhtarsugduhcah, Lünsmbri. Nadra, E.-A. >??=, Gbfstfl Mavalbpkaht, Waf-Laval Gdfhca fhm Wattlakaht D`stbry mur`hc tda Lftar Dblbgaha `h tda Glfy M`str`gt bi Lbwar Wfxbhy (H`amarsfgdsah), Hbrtdarh Carkfhy. Vuftarhfry @htarhft`bhfl, 66>: 73-17. Nadra, E.-A. fhm Eugfh, M. 600=, M`a Casgd`gdta mar Eulturlfhmsgdfit uhm mas Fgearnfus `h mar W`amluhcsefkkar Ilùcalh, H`amarsfgdsah, sa`t mar Juhcsta`hz Juhcst a`hza`t. a`t. Blmahnurc. N`llfknbz, F. >??1, >? Jfdra Jfdra Mahmrbfrgdíblbc`a `h mah _ifdlnfus`amluhcah _ifdlnfus`amlu hcah Wümwastmautsgdlfhms - N`lfhz uhm _arspaet`vah. @h: _. M. Gfsf fhm K. ]rfgdsal, (ams.) SAW‐?= Satlfhm Agbhbk`as Fhm Wbg`at`as. _rbgaam`hcs Bi da @htarhft`bhfl Gbhiarahga Zur`gd, 6?-67 Kfrgd >??=. Zür`gd: Kusauk, =3-19.
43
Nbre, D.-^. >?6?, Frgdíblbc`sgda uhm ukwaltcasgd`gdtl`g da Qhtarsugduh Qhtarsugduhcc a`has kfrefhtah Wpbrhs fk wastl`gdah ]flrfhm mar Wfk`gf. @h: J. Küllar, J. Gzanraszue fhm J. Eha`sal (ams.) Nruszgzawb @@. Fuscrfnuhcah uhm Ibrsgduhcah `h a`har príd`stbr`sgdah W`amluhcsefkkar CrbÒpblahs. Nbhh: Dfnalt, 69-73. Nrbz`b, J. _. >?6?, Haua Qhtarsugduhcah zu tr`gdtarnagdarza`tl`gdah Brcfh`sft`bhsibrkah Brcfh`sft`bhsibrkah `h Bstdblsta`h. Bstdblsta`h. Frgdíblb Frgdí blbc`sg c`sgdah dah Hfgdr`gdta Hfgdr` gdtahh fus Wgdlasw`c-Dblsta`h 69: 7?-77. Nrbz`b, J. _. >?66, Habl`td`sgda Caka`hsgdfit `k wastl`gdah Blmahnurcar Crfnah - Sfssarvarsbrcuhc uhm ]btahnadfhmluhc vbr ünar 1??? Jfdrah. Jfdrah . Frgdíblb Frgdí blbc`sg c`sgdah dah Hfgdr`g Hfg dr`gdtah dtah fus Wgdla W gdlasw`c sw`c-Dbl -Dblsta` sta`hh 63: >9->0. Nurka`star, W. >??=, Habl`td`sgda uhm nrbhzaza`tl`gda Kbbriuhma fus mah H`amarlfhmah, Hbrmwastmautsgdlfhm Hbrmwastmautsg dlfhm uhm Míhakfre. @h: K. Ifhsf fhm W. Nurka`star (ams.) ^fm uhm Sfcah. Mar Qrspruhc a`har @hhbvft`bh. Sfcah `k Ybrmarah Br`aht uh m Aurbpf. Kf`hz: @wahsaa, 7>6-7=?. Gzanraszue, J. fhm Küllar, J. (ams.) >??=f, Nruszgzawb @. Ibrsgduhcsstfhm - Arsta Arcanh`ssa - Mfs ùstl`gda Iaugdtnbmahfrafl, _bzhfh/E`al/^fdmah: La`mbri. Gzanraszue, J. fhm Küllar, J. >??=n, Zur fnsblutgdrbhblbc`sgdah Mft`aruhc mas W`amluhcscasgdadah. @h: J. Gzanraszue fhm J. Küllar (ams.) Nruszgzawb @. Ibrsgduhcsstfhm - Arsta Arcanh`ssa - Mfs ùstl`gda Iaugdtnbmahfrafl, _bzhfh/E`al/^fdmah: La`mbri, >66->>?. M`ars, W. >?6?, Ia`hstrft`crfi`a uhm Gdrbhblbc`a: Frgdíblbc`sgda uhm pflyhblbc`sgda Fhflysah. A`ha Ifllstum`a zuk Iuhmplftz Nruszgzawb 1 `h CrbÒpblah. @h: J. Küllar, J. Gzanraszue fhm J. Eha`sal (ams.) Nruszgzawb @@. Fuscrfnuhcah uhm Ibrsgduhcah `h a`har príd`stbr`sgdah W`amluhcsefkkar CrbÒpblahs. Nbhh: Dfnalt, 7==-=90. Mùrilar, S. S. fhm Küllar, J. (ams.) >??4, > ??4, Qkwalt - S`rtsgdfit - W`amluhcah `k mr`ttah vbrgdr`stl`gdah Jfdrtfusahm K`ttalaurbpfs uhm Wümsefhm`hfv`ahs Ufcuhc E`al >??1[, Haukühstar: Sfgddbltz. Anarsnfgd, ^. >??7, _flabagblbc`gfl ^agbhstrugt`bh fhm Gflgulft`bh bi Gflbr`a ^aqu`rakahts ft Lfea Zur`gd. @h: J. Euhbw fhm J. Küllar (ams.) Lfhmsgdfitsfrgdíblbc`a uhm cabcrfpd`sgda @hibrkft`bhssystaka. _rbchbsaefrtah, Nas`amluhcsmyhfk`e uhm príd`stbr`sgda ^fukbrmhuhcah. Sühsmbri: Sühsmbri : Lfhmasf Lfh masfkt, kt, 90-44 9 0-44.. Dffs, J. H. fhm Sfdlküllar, H. >?6?, Ilbrah-, Yacatft`bhs- uhm K`l`auvaríhmaruhcah `k Zuca mar nrbhzaza`tl`gdah Nas`amluhc vbh Nruszgzawb (_blah) uhm mar lfhmw`rtsgdfitl`gdah Hutzuhc mar ukl`acahmah Can`ata. @h: J. Küllar, J. Gzanraszue fhm J. Eha`sal (ams.) Nruszgzawb @@. Fuscrfnuhcah uhm Ibrsgduhcah `h a`har príd`stbr`sgdah W`amluhcsefkkar CrbÒpblahs. Nbhh: Dfnalt, 74-=0.
44
Dfrtz, W., Da`hr`gd, M. fhm Lünea, D. >???, Irüda Nfuarh fh mar Eüsta. Haua 6=G-Mftah uhm fetualla Fspaeta zuk Habl`td`s`aruhcsprbzaÒ `k hbrmmautsgdah Bstsaaeüstahcan`at. _ríd`stbr`sgda Za`tsgdr`it 31: 6>0-61>. Dfrtz, W., Jfebnsah, B. fhm Dbiikfhh-S`age, C. >??=, Cabfrgdíblbc`a `k Blmahnurcar Crfnah. Cahasa uhm sta`hza`tl`gda Nas`amluhc a`har adakfl`cah Ijbrmlfhmsgdfit mar wastl`gdah Bstsaa. Biif 4>: 61->0. Dfrtz, W., K`sgdef, M. fhm Küllar, J. >??=/>??1 (>??3), M`a habl`td`sgda Iaugdtnbmahs`amluhc Nfm Blmaslba-Sbleahwada LF 61=. ^asultfta mar Qhtarsugduhcah 601?-601>. Biif 96/9>: 96/9>: 3->=. DauÒhar, E.-Q. fhm Sfzhy, Sfzhy, ]. ]. >?6?, Wyhgdrbh`sft`bh Wyhgdrbh`sft `bh mar Mahmrbmftah iür Nruszgzawb hfgd mar bstmautsgdah Eurva. @h: J. Küllar, J. Gzanraszue fhm J. Eha`sal (ams.) Nruszgzawb @@. Fuscrfnuhcah uhm Ibrsgduhcah `h a`har príd`stbr`sgdah W`amluhcsefkkar CrbÒpblahs. Nbhh: Dfnalt, >==->=0. D`lmanrfhmt-^fmea, @. >?6?, Mfs cablbc`sgda Fltar uhm m`a Dfuptpdfsah mar Mahumft`bhs- uhm Feeukulft`bhsprbzassa vbr mak D`htarcruhm mar tbpbcrfi`sgdah Yardílth`ssa mas frgdíblbc`sgdah Iuhmplftzas Nruszgzawb. @h: J. Küllar, J. Gzanraszue fhm J. Eha`sal (ams.) Nruszgzawb @@. Fuscrfnuhcah uhm Ibrsgduhcah `h a`har príd`stbr`sgdah W`amluhcsefkkar CrbÒpblahs. Nbhh: Dfnalt, 69-73. D`hz, K., Iaasar, @., Wjùcrah, E.-C. fhm Küllar, J. >?6>, Makbcrfpdy fhm tda `htahs`ty bi gulturfl fgt`v`t`as: fh avfluft`bh bi Iuhhal Nafear Wbg`at`as (=>??->4?? gfl NG). Jburhfl Jburh fl bi Frgdfablb Frgdfa blbc`gf c`gfll Wg`ahga Wg`ah ga 70, 7776-77=?. Dultdah, N. 6004, da Flvfstrf p`la mwall`hc pbttary: fh fttakpt tb trfga tda sbg`aty nad`hm tda sdarms, Wtbgedblk/Luhm: D`stbr`sef kusaat5 Earfk`sef ibrseh`hcslfnbrftbr`at. ibrseh`hcslfnbrftbr`at. @wfhae, N., _`bhtae, J. fhm Hbwfe, B. >?6?, Fhtdrbpblbc`sgda Fhflysa mas Wealattas fus Nruszgzawb. @h: J. Küllar, J. Gzanraszue fhm J. Eha`sal (ams.) Nruszgzawb @@. Fuscrfnuhcah uhm Ibrsgduhcah `h a`har príd`stbr príd`s tbr`sgd `sgdah ah W`amlu W` amluhcse hcsefkkar fkkar CrbÒpblah CrbÒp blahs.s. Nbhh: Dfnalt, 37?-311. E`rla`s, S., Iaasar, @. fhm ElbbÒ, W. >?66f, Qkwalt uhm Ùebhbk`a. Frgdíblb Frgdí blbc`a c`a `h ` h Mautsgd Mau tsgdlfhm lfhm,, >: 7=-73. E`rla`s, S., S., ElbbÒ, W., W ., Erbll, D. fhm fh m Küllar, J. >?66n. Haw rasults bh grbp crbw`hc fhm cftdar`hc `h tda hbrtdarh Carkfh Habl`td`g. Yacatft`bh 6?.6??3/s??77=-?66-?7>4-0. D`stbry fhm Frgdfabnbtfhy Frgdfabnbtfhy MB@: 6?.6??3/s??77=-?66-?7>4-0. E`rla`s, S. fhm ElbbÒ, W. ( fggaptam ), ), Kbra tdfh s`kply ifllnfge ibbm2 Wbg`fl gbhtaxt bi plfht usa `h tda hbrtdarh Carkfh Habl`td`g. @h: F. Gdavfl`ar, A. Kfr`hbvf fhm L _aöf-Gdbgfrrb (ams.) _lfhts fhm pabpla. Gdb`gas fhm m`vars`ty tdrbucd t`ka. Afrtd War`as 6. Bxibrm: Bxnbw Nbbes.
40
Eha`sal, J. >?6?f, Mfs ùstl`gda Iaugdtnbmahfrafl: Wtrft`crfi`a mas Wgdh`tt 7?, Ilígda 6-=. @h: J. Küllar, J. Gzanraszue fhm J. Eha`sal (ams.) Nruszgzawb @@. Fuscrfnuhcah uhm Ibrsgduhcah `h a`har príd`stbr`sgdah W`amluhcsefkkar CrbÒpblahs. Nbhh: Dfnalt, 699->76. Eha`sal, J. >?6?n, M`a Crfnuhcsefkpfchah Nruszgzawb >??=->??9. @h: J. Küllar, J. Gzanraszue fhm J. Eha`sal (ams.) Nruszgzawb @@. Fuscrfnuhcah uhm Ibrsgduhcah `h a`har príd`stbr`sgdah W`amluhcsefkkar CrbÒpblahs. Nbhh: Dfnalt, 0>-691. Eha`sal, J. >?6?g, A`ha W`amluhcsnastfttuhc mar Irüdnrbhzaza`t. @h: J. Küllar, J. Gzanraszue fhm J. Eha`sal (ams.) Nruszgzawb @@. Fuscrfnuhcah uhm Ibrsgduhcah `h a`har príd`stbr`sgdah W`amluhcsefkkar CrbÒpblahs. Nbhh: Dfnalt, 3>=-3>0. Eha`sal, J., Nbre, D.-^., Gzanraszue, J., Mùrilar, S., Crbbtas, _., Dffs, J. H., DauÒhar, DauÒh ar, E.-Q., E.-Q ., D`lmanrfh D`lman rfhmt-^ mt-^fmea, fmea, @., Erbll, Erbl l, D., Küllar, J., Sfdlküllar, Sfdlküll ar, H. fhm Sfzhy, Sfzhy, ]. >??4, >??4 , Nruszgzaw Nrus zgzawbb - Afrly Afr ly Nrbhza Nrbhz a Maiahs`va Wattlakaht `h S`alebpblsef. Katfllurcy, paft zbha i`hms fhm gdhfcas `h tda ahv`rbhkaht. @h: J. Gzanraszue, W. Efmrbw fhm J. Küllar (ams.) Maiahs`va Wtrugturas irbk Gahtrfl Aurbpa tb tda Facafh `h tda 7rm fhm >hm k`llahh`f NG. _bzhfh/Nbhh: Dfnalt, 611-690. Eha`sal, J. fhm Erbll, D. >?6?, M`a Dblzfhflysah fus mak ùstl`gdah Iaugdtnbmahfrafl. @h: J. Küllar, J. Gzanraszue fhm J. Eha`sal (ams.) Nruszgzawb @@. Fuscrfnuhcah uhm Ibrsgduhcah `h a`har príd`stbr`sgdah W`amluhcsefkkar CrbÒpblahs. Nbhh: Dfnalt, 139-996. Ebss`fh, ^. >??3, Duhta 6: A`h k`ttal- n`s spíthabl`td`sgdar uhm irüdnrb irü dnrbhzaz hzaza`tl a`tl`gda `gdarr W`amluhcs W`aml uhcsplft plftzz fk Mükkar, Mükk ar, Lmer. M`apdblz M`apd blz (H`amarsfgdsah). M`a Arcanh`ssa mar Fuscrfnuhcah mas ^a`gdsfktas iür Ybrcasgd`gdta brcasgd`gd ta `h mah Jfdrah 6074 n`s 60=? . Dfhhbvar, H`amarsígds`sgdas Lfhmaskusauk. Kfchy, K., Nàcabt, G., _ayrbh, B., ^`gdbz, @., Kfrcuat, F. fhm N`llfum, P. >??1, >??1 , Dfn`tfts Dfn` tfts l`ttbrfu l`tt brfuxx at d`stb`ra d`st b`ra mas prak`äras prak` äras gbkkuhfu gbkk uhfutàs tàs fcr`gblas fu Hàbl`td`qua at ï l‐Îca mu Nrbhza: uha k`sa ah parspagt`va pflàbgl`kft`qua. pflàbgl`k ft`qua. @h: _. M. Gfsf fhm f hm K. ]rfgdsal ]rfgdsal (ams.) ( ams.) SAW‐?= Satlfhm Agbhbk`as Fhm Wbg`at`as. _rbgaam`hcs Bi da @htarhft`bhfl Gbhiarahga @h Zur`gd, Zur` gd, 6?-67 6?-6 7 Kfrgd Kfr gd >??=. > ??=. Zür`gd, 677-6=>. K`sgdef, M. >??9, M`a Wta`hfrtaifeta vbh Nfm Blmaslba LF 61=, Sbleahwada: Sbleahwad a: A`h _rfet`euk _rfet `euk zuk Qkcfhc k`t mah Iuhmah mar Crfnuhcah vbh 601?-601>. Wtfr`cfrm 3: 3: 46-40. K`sgdef, M., Mùrilar, S., S., Crbbtas, _., Da`hr`gd, M., Küllar, J. fhm fh m Halla, B. >??7/>??= (>??3), M`a habl`td`sgda Iaugdtnbmahs`amluhc Nfm Blmaslba-Sbleahwada: Blmaslba-Sbleahwada: Ybrnar`gdt Ybrnar`gdt zu mah Qhtarsugduhcah Qhtarsugdu hcah >??9. Biif 10/9?: >1-9=. Küllar, J. >??=, M`a ùstl`gdah Iaugdtnbmahfrafla. @h: J. Gzanraszue fhm J. Küllar Kül lar (ams.) (ams .) >??=f > ??=f,, Nruszgzawb @. Ibrsgduhcsstfhm - Arsta Arcanh`ssa - Mfs ùstl`gda Iaugdtnbmahfrafl, _bzhfh/E`al/^fdmah: La`mbri, 00-67=.
0?
Küllar, J. >?66, Kacfl`tds Kacfl `tds fhm Iuhhal Nafears: Nafea rs: Wbg`at`as Wbg` at`as `h Gdfhca Gdfh ca =6??=6? ? Fksta rmfk: Fkstarmfks Fksta rmfks Frgdfablb Frgdf ablbc`sgd c`sgd Gahtruk Gaht ruk vfh mar >3?? NG, Fkstarmfk: Qh`vars`ta`t Fkstarmfk. Küllar, J., Gzanraszue, J. fhm Eha`sal, J. (ams.) >?6?, Nruszgzawb @@. Fuscrfnuhca Fuscrfn uhcahh uhm Ibrsgduh Ibrs gduhcah cah `h a`har a` har príd`stb príd `stbr`sg r`sgdah dah W`amluh W`a mluhcsefk csefkkar kar CrbÒpblahs, Nbhh: Dfnalt. Küllar, J., Nbre, D. ^., Nrbz`b, J. _., _., Makh`ge, M., M`ars, W., M`nnarh, D., Mùrilar, S., Iaasar, @., Ir`tsgd, N., Iurdblt, K., Dfca, I., D`hz, K., E`rla`s, S., ElbbÒ, W., Erbll, D., Lbrahz, K. L. L., K`sgdef, M. fhm ^`hha, G. `h pr`ht, Lfhmsgfpas fs Wbg`fl Wpfgas fhm ^`tufl Kafh`hc: Wbka Haw ^asults bh ]^N `h Hbrtdarh Carkfhy. Nbrcar-Gbhiarahga . Küllar, J. fhm Eha`sal, J. >?6?, Nruszgzawb 1: _rbmugt`bh, m`str`nut`bh, gbhsukpt`bh, fhm tda ibrkft`bh bi sbg`fl m`iiarahgas. @h: J. Küllar, J. Gzanraszue, Gzanras zue, fhm J. Eha`sal Eha` sal (ams.) (ams .) Nruszgzawb @@. Fuscrfnuhcah uhm Ibrsgduhcah `h a`har príd`stbr`sgdah W`amluhcsefkkar CrbÒpblahs. Nbhh: Dfnalt, 319-347. ^a`hartd, D. 6070, A`h Mbri mar CrbÒsta`hcrínarlauta CrbÒsta`hcrínarl auta - M`a Fuscrfnuhcah Fuscrfnuhcah mas ^a`gdsfktas iür Ybrcasgd`gdta fk Mükkar. Carkfhaharna =: >>9->=>. Wgdl`gdtdarla, D. (am.) 6003, _ifdlnfutah ruhm uk m`a Flpah. Wtuttcfrt: ]da`ss. Wgdwfnam`ssah, D. 60=?, Fuimageuhc a`has Sbdhplftzas mar CrbÒsta`hcrínareultur `k Da`mkbbr, Cak. Narl`h, Er. Wacanarc. Hfgdr`gdtahnlftt iür mautsgda Ybrza`t. 69: 47-41. Wgdwfnam`ssah, D. 6016, _rbnacrfnuhcah fui Kbbrs`amluhcah mar jühcarah jühc arah Wta`hza`t Wta`h za`t.. Carkfh`f >0: >0: 76?. Wgdwfnam`ssah, D. 6017, _rbnacrfnuhcah fui Kbbrs`amluhcah mar jühcarah jühc arah Wta`hza`t Wta`h za`t.. Carkfh`f 76: 76: 76?. Wgdwfnam`ssah, D. 6010, M`a juhcsta`hza`tl`gdah Sbdhplítza mar ]r`gdtarnagdareultur fus Wfgdsahwflmfu uhm Sbleahwada. @h: D. D`hcst (am.) Ybrcasgd`gdta Era`s Wtbrkfh. Haukühstar: Sfgdbltz, >=->3. Sfzhy, ]. >?6?, >?6? , Nar`gdt Nar`g dt zur mahmrbgdr mahm rbgdrbhbl bhblbc`sg bc`sgdah dah Mft`aruh Mft` aruhcc vbh Nruszgzawb, Crfnuhcah >??=->??1. @h: J. Küllar, J. Gzanraszue fhm J. Eha`sal Eha`s al (ams.) (ams .) Nruszgzawb @@. Fuscrfnuhcah uhm Ibrsgduhcah `h a`har príd`stbr príd`s tbr`sgd `sgdah ah W`amlu W` amluhcse hcsefkkar fkkar CrbÒpblah CrbÒp blahs.s. Nbhh: Dfnalt, >7>->73. S`atdblm S`at dblm,, J. 6004. 600 4. Wtum`ah zur jühcarah pbstclfz`flah Yacatft`bhs- uhm W`amluhcscasgd`gdta W`amluhcscasgd`gdta `k ùstl`gdah Wgdlasw`c-Dblsta`h, Nbhh, Dfnalt.
06
Gdfptar = FLL FL L @H CBBM CB BM ]^F ] ^FM@ M@]@ ]@BH BH22 WBKA WB KA ]DBQCD]W BH GQL]Q^FL KF^EA^W @H F LF]A HABL@]D@G LFEAW@MA MSALL@HC I^BK WS@]ZA^LFHM
dbkfs Mbpplar, Wfhmrf _`gdlar, Nr`c`tta ^ùmar, Jùrc Wgd`nlar 6
Fnstr Fns trfg fgt t
S`td `ts Habl`td`g Habl` td`g fhm Nrbhza Fca watlfhm watl fhm s`tas s `tas,, Ww`tzarl Ww` tzarlfhm fhm biiars bii ars fh `hgbkpfrfnla sburga bi `hibrkft`bh bh prad`stbr`g mwall`hcs. ]da axgapt`bhfl prasarvft`bh bi wbbmah gbhstrugt`bh alakahts, flbhc w`td tda fmvfhgas `h mahmrbgdrbhblbcy fllbw hbt bhly `maht`i`gft `bh fhm mft`hc bi `hm`v`mufl dbusas tb tda yafr, nut flsb uhmarstfhm`hc bi f sattlakaht‐s avblut`bh fhm gbkpfr`sbh bi kftar`fl fssaknlfcas natwaah `hm`v`mufl dbusas. Wugd fh fpprbfgd wfs tfeah bh tda lfta Habl`td`g lfeas`ma mwall`hc Frnbh Nla`gda 7, wdara gbax`stahga bi f lbgfl fhm fh `kk`crfht pbpulft`bh crbup `s fttastam. ]da dypbtdas`s put ibrwfrm `s tdft fh`kfl ibbm rakf`hs fra kbra stfnla fhm lfst`hc `hm`gftbrs bi gulturfl trfm`t`bhs tdfh garfk`gs. Eaywbrms: Habl`td`g, Ww`tzarlfhm, watlfhm frgdfablbcy, sbg`fl frgdfablbcy, frgdfabzbblbcy, garfk`gs
6
@_FW, @hst`tuta ibr _rad`stbry fhm Frgdfablbc`gfl Wg`ahga, Nfsal Qh`vars`ty, Qh`vars`ty, Wpflahr`hc 6=1, =?11 Nfsal (Ww`tzarlfhm), tdbkfs.mbpplarOuh`nfs.gd5 sfhmrf. p`gdlarOuh`nfs.gd5 nr`c`tta.rbamarOuh`nfs.gd5 jbarc.sgd`nlarOuh`nfs.gd
07
@htrbmugt`bh
Frgdfablb Frgdf ablbc`g c`gfl fl s`tas s`ta s frbuh f rbuhmm kbbrs, kbbr s, gbfstl` gbfs tl`has has fhm lfea s`mas, s`m as, wd`gd wd`g d flrafmy ifsg`hftam ^bnart Kuhrb, fra bi pfrt`gulfr `kpbrtfhga mua tb tda`r axgapt`bhfl prasarvft`bh. @hmaam, wbbmah gbhstrugt`bh alakahts fra caharflly prasarvam wall ahbucd tb na mftam tb tda yafr nfsam bh traa r`hcs. Fs f rasult, tda lfybut bi `hm`v`mufl dbusas fhm tda`r axfgt yafr bi gbhstrugt`bh gfh na matark`ham. ]d`s, `h turh, ahfnlas frgdfablbc`sts tb ragbhstrugt tda mavalbpkaht bi tda aht`ra sattlakahts, park`tt`hc matf`lam `hs`cdts btdarw`sa uhfttf`hfnla. ]d`s pbtaht`fl bi `hibrkft`bh, masgr`nam fs f “trafsuradbusa bi ehbwlamca‛ ny Fhmraw Wdarrftt (>??=, >90), `s gdfrfgtar`st`g bi Ww`tzarlfhm, w`td `ts hukarbus Habl`td`g fhm Nrbhza Fca lfeas`ma mwall`hcs. ]da watlfhm s`ta m`sgussam dara mftas irbk tda 7= td gahtury NG. @h tda Ww`ss gdrbhblbcy, td`s gbrraspbhms tb tda afrly Lfta Habl`td`g, wdara f caharfl`zam fhm gbht`hubus trfhs`t`bh irbk tda _iyh tb tda Dbrcah gultura tbbe plfga. Hbt bhly mbas td`s s`ta l`a ft f trfhs`t`bh par`bm, nut `t flsb raprasahts f t`kaspfh ibr wd`gd iaw s`tas fra ehbwh. Iurtdar, `t `s f par`bm wd`gd `s kfream ny fh `hgrafs`hc `hiluahga irbk tda Afst (a.c. Eùh`hcar at fl. >??6). Frnb Fr nbh h Nla`g Nla `gda da 7: cl`k cl `kpsa psa `htb `h tb f spfr sp frsa saly ly ehbwh eh bwh par`bm
]da sattlakaht bi Frnbh Nla`gda 7 `s lbgftam bh tda sbutdarh sdbra bi Lfea Gbhstfhga (I`cura =.6). @t wfs axgfvftam irbk 6007 tb 6001 ny tda Frgdfablbc`gfl Warv`ga bi ]durcfu (Fkt iür Frgdíblbc`a ]durcfu). Mua tb tda wftarlbccam, wftarlbcc am, darkat`gflly saflam frgdfablbc`gfl frgdfablbc `gfl sam`kahts, brcfh`g rakf`hs fs wall fs i`hms fhm iafturas wara vary wall prasarvam. Bvar f surifga bi fnbut 66?? k> f tbtfl bi >3 dbusa plfhs wara `maht`i`am (I`cura =.>). @t `s tdbucdt tb raprasaht f td`rm, br avah dfli, bi tda br`c`hfl sattlakaht surifga (Lauz`hcar >???, 61-63, 637). Gbkpfram tb btdar lfeas`ma mwall`hcs, tda axgfvftam fraf `s rakfrefnla fhm tda rasults bi `ts fhflys`s gfh na gbhs`maram raprasahtft`va. ]da uhgbvaram dbusas fra qu`ta uh`ibrk, w`td fh fvarfca s`za bi = x 4 katras. Bhly twb skfll nu`lm`hcs fppafr squfra `h plfh kafsur`hc > x > katras (dbusa 63 fhm >1) fhm fra axgapt`bhs tb td`s raculfr`ty. ]da dbusas fra l`ham up `h rbws wd`gd fra sapfrftam ny hfrrbw lfhas. Mahmrbgdrbhblbc`gfl fhflysas ahfnlam tda astfnl`sdkaht bi tda yafr bi gbhstrugt`bh ibr avary dbusa, tdus fllbw`hc tda ragbhstrugt`bh bi tda sattlakaht d`stbry fhm `ts myhfk`gs `h tda axgfvftam fraf. @t dfs naah sdbwh tdft tda sattlakaht gfka `htb ax`stahga `h 774= NG fhm dfm tb na fnfhmbham, mua tb f mavfstft`hc i`ra, `h 773? NG (Lauz`hcar >???, 16-43). ]da ifgt tdft hb btdar sattlakaht pdfsa wfs ibuhm naibra br fitar tda
0=
I`cura =.6 Lbgft`bh bi tda Habl`td`g lfeas`ma salakaht bi Frnbh Nla`gda 7.
01
I`cura =.> Mahmrbgdrbhblbc`gflly mftam dbusa plfhs w`td yafr bi gbhstrugt`bh (kbm`am fitar ma Gfp`tfh` at fl. >??>, >6, I`c. 6?).
mbgukahtam bggupft`bh axglumas f k`x`hc up bi m`iiaraht lfyars fhm par`bms. Avah w`td`h tda sdbrt fhm s`hcla-pdfsam bggupft`bh, dfrmly fhy dbr`zbhtfl fhm vart`gfl k`x`hc tbbe plfga wd`gd wfs ravaflam ny savarfl `htarm`sg`pl`hfry fhflysas bi tda lfyar ibrkft`bh prbgassas (Nrbknfgdar fhm Dfmbrh >??=, Masgdlar-Arn fhm Kfrt`-Crímal >??=f, Dffs fhm Kfchy >??=, @skf`l-Kayar fhm ^ahtzal >??=, ]daw >??=). ]da sattlakaht `s tdaraibra pfrt`gulfrly wall su`tam
09
tb stumy`hc spft`fl pfttarhs bi kftar`fl rakf`hs, nbtd `h `hm`v`mufl dbusas fhm `h tda sattlakaht fs f wdbla. @t `s tda kbst `htahs`valy fhflyzam Habl`td`g watlfhm s`ta `h Ww`tzarlfhm fhm fll rasults dfva naah punl`sdam `h tdraa vblukas (Lauz`hcar >???, ma Gfp`tfh` at fl. >??>, Jfgbkat at fl. >??=f). M`iiaraht garfk`g trfm`t`bhs w`td`h bha sattlakaht
Nas`mas lbgfl garfk`gs wd`gd ‗ fs tda sattlakaht `s pbs`t`bham `h f gdrbhblbc`gfl trfhs`t`bh pdfsa ‗ sdbw gdfrfgtar`st`gs bi nbtd _iyh fhm Dbrcah trfm`t`bhs, tdara `s av`mahga bi vassals fttr`nutam tb tda Nfmah gultura fhm, tb f lassar axtaht, tb tda Fltda`k gultura
I`cura =.7 ]da garfk`g ibuhm `h Frnbh Nla`gda 7 gbulm na fr`nutam tb m`araht gulturas. Fnbva: pbary w`td gdfrfgtar`st`gs bi nbtd _iyh fhm Dbrcah trfm`t`bhs. Nalbw, lait: Nfmah pbary. Nalbw, r`cdt: Fltda`k pbary pba ry (kbm` (k bm`am am fitar f itar ma Gfp`tfh Gf p`tfh`` >??>, >? ?>, 6=9, 6 =9, I`c. I `c. 6045 6 045 >6?, I`c. 7665 >64, I`c. 760 ‗ fll fl l pdbtbcrf pdb tbcrfpds pds ny Fkt iür i ür Frgdíblb Frg díblbc`a c`a ]durc ] durcfu, fu, M. M . Wta`har Wta `har ).
03
(ma Gfp`tfh` >??>, >>>5 I`cura =.7). ]da ]da garfk`gs ibuhm `h Frnbh Nla`gda 7 nalbhc`hc tb tda Nfmah Gultura gbrraspbhm kbstly tb tda afrly Nfmah par`bm, flsb gfllam tda Nblaræz crbup. @ts gbra l`as `h afst Fustr`f, wast Duhcfry, sbutdwastarh Wlbvfe`f fhm Kbrfv`f. Nbdak`f, W`las`f, L`ttla _blfhm fhm tda hbrtdafstarh pfrt bi blm Pucbslfv`f Pucbslf v`f ibrk tda par`pdar par` pdaryy bi tda Nblaræz Nbla ræz crbup crbu p (ma Gfp`tfh` Gfp` tfh` >??>, >6?). Gbhgarh`hc tda pbttary nalbhc`hc tb tda Fltda`k gultura, pfrfllals gbulm na mrfwh w`td Nfvfr`f (ma Gfp`tfh` >??>, >60). W`hga td`s ibra`ch pbttary `s hbt just raprasahtam ny s`hcla i`hms nut fppafrs bh f raculfr nfs`s (7= vassals fttr`nutam tb tda Nfmah gultura fhm 66 vassals fttr`nutam tb tda Fltda`k gultura5 ma Gfp`tfh` >??>, >69, >60), `t `s tdbucdt tdft tday fra hbt `kpbrtam bnjagts. ]d`s `s suppbrtam ny tda ifgt tdft tda ibra`ch pbttary dfs naah kfhuifgturam w`td glfy ibuhm frbuhm tda s`ta fhm wd`gd tdaraibra `s bi lbgfl br`c`h (Nbhzbh >??=, 76>). Fs f rasult, `t `s nal`avam tdft, s`hga tda garfk`g bnjagts wara hbt axgdfhca cbbms, pabpla irbk tda Nfmah fhm Fltda`k gultura frafs gfka tb Lfea Gbhstfhga, nr`hc`hc w`td tdak tda`r tagdhblbc`gfl ehbw-dbw, fhm `htacrftam w`td flrafmy astfnl`sdam lbgfl `hdfn`tfhts. ]d`s wbulm axplf`h tda gbax`stahga bi m`st`hgt garfk`g trfm`t`bhs prasaht ft Frnbh Nla`gda 7. @h fggbrmfhga w`td tda pbttary, tdara fra btdar alakahts pb`ht`hc tbwfrms fh afstarh `hiluahga. ]d`s `s tda gfsa w`td plfht rakf`hs wdara ilfx fhm akkar `hgrafsa `h iraquahgy. ]da sfka `s trua ibr glfy sp`hmla wdbrls, fhm tda `hgrafs`hc fkbuht bi gfttla rakf`hs, wd`gd gbulm na l`heam tb tda fmvaht bi mrfucdt fh`kfls (Jfgbkat at fl. >??=n, =6?-=66), fltdbucd tda lfttar kfy flsb na mua tb spag`i`g suns`stahga strftac`as fhm m`atfry dfn`ts. Frgdf Frg dfabz abzbbl bblbc` bc`gf gfll mftf mf tf fs vfluf vf lufnl nlaa `hi ` hibrk brkft ft`bh `bh sburga
Frnbh Frnb h Nla`gda Nla`gd a 7 `s gdfrfgtar gdfrf gtar`zam `zam ny r`gd fhm m`varsa m`va rsa kftar`fl kfta r`fl rakf`hs rak f`hs gbkpr`s`hc hbt bhly frgdfablbc`gfl frtaifgts nut flsb f wafltd bi frgdfabn`blbc`gfl rakf`hs. Fh`kfl nbhas raprasaht fh aspag`flly vflufnla `hibrkft`bh sburga nagfusa tday fra ibuhm `h flkbst avary s`ta fhm fra glbsaly gbhhagtam tb m`atfry dfn`ts ‗ fh assaht`fl alakaht bi avarymfy l`ia. ]da nfs`g fh`kfl nbha `maht`i`gft`bh ibr tda Frnbh Nla`gda 7 s`ta wfs uhmartfeah ny Wfn`ha Masgdlar-Arn fhm Al`sfnatd Kfrt`Crímal, wd`la i`sd rakf`hs wara stum`am ny Da`ma Düstar _lbckfhh (Masgdlar-Arn fhm Kfrt`-Crímal >??=n, Düstar _lbckfhh >??=). ]da`r sunsaquaht m`str`nut`bh fhflysas y`almam truly rakfrefnla rasults. ]da fhflys`s bi tda r`gd ifuhfl rakf`hs ‗ fnbut 3?,??? nbha irfckahts `h tbtfl ‗ ravaflam fh `htarast`hc `htarhfl m`v`s`bh bi tda sattlakaht. @h tda hbrtdarh pfrt av`mahga bi `htahsa naai
04
gbhsukpt`bh wfs ibuhm, wdarafs `h tda sbutdarh pfrt kbra pbre wfs gbhsukam (Masgdlar-Arn fhm Kfrt`-Crímal >??=n, >>6->>75 Kfrt`-Crímal Kfrt`-Crímal at fl. >??=). Lass gbhsp`gubus, nut l`eaw`sa s`ch`i`gfht, wfs tda gbhgahtrft`bh bi bv`gfpr`m nbhas `h tda hbrtdarh dbusas hbs. >, 66 fhm 67. ]d`s wfs qu`ta glafrly gbhi`rkam ny bur fhflysas (Mbpplar `h prapfrft`bh). ^akfrefnly, tda m`iiarahga natwaah natwaa h tda twb sattlakaht dflvas wfs flsb v`s`nla `h tda i`sd rakf`hs5 wd`la lfrcar fkbuhts bi i`sd gfucdt hafr tda sdbra wara ibuhm `h tda hbrtdarh pfrt bi tda sattlakaht, bpah wftar spag`as pravf`lam `h tda sbutdarh dfli (Düstar _lbckfhh >??=, >3>->3=5 I`cura =.=). Fltdbucd tda mftfnfsa ibr tda i`sd ‗ fs wall fs ibr tda nbtfh`gfl rakf`hs, wd`gd w`ll hbt na m`sgussam dara (saa Dbsgd fhm Jfgbkat >??=, ^ùmar at fl . `h prapfrft`bh f) ‗ `s sbkawdft l`k`tam ny tda rastr`gtam sfkpl`hc fraf (Lauz`hcar fhm Jfgbkat >??=, 71-70), tda i`hm`hcs hbhatdalass suppbrt tda rasults bntf`ham ibr tda lfrca fh`kfl nbhas. ]dasa fra gartf`hly vfl`m nagfusa tday wara ragbrmam, w`td hukarbus spag`kahs ragbvaram,
I`cura =.= W`kpl`am seatgd bi tda `htarhfl m`v`s`bh bi Frnbh Nla`gda 7 fggbrm`hc tb frgdfabzbblbc`gfl mftf. ]da hbrtdarh pfrt `s gdfrfgtar`zam ny f d`cdar fkbuht bi gfla fhm cbft nbhas, fs wall fs sd gfucdt hafr tda sdbra (axakpl`am dara w`td f gfrp). @h tda sbutdarh pfrt, f d`cdar d`c dar fkbuht fkbu ht bi b i p`c nbhas nbha s fhm fh m bpah wftar sd (axakpl`am dara w`td wd`tasd) `s tb na hbtam.
00
I`cura =.1 Dbr`zbhtfl m`str`nut`bh bi fll fh`kfl nbhas `h tda gulturfl lfyar fggbrm`hc tb irfckaht huknar (kbm`am fitar Masgdlar-Arn fhm Kfrt` Crímal >??=n, 610, I`c. 6=?). ]da hbrtdwastarh pfrt `s pbbr `h hms mua tb prasarvft` pras arvft`bh bh `ssuas `s suas.. ]da cray str`pas str`p as `h tda hbrtdarh hbrtd arh pfrt bi tda td a salakah sa lakahtt raprasaht tast trahgdas axfk`ham `h 6047 wd`gd fra hbt kfppam dara (Lauz`hcar fhm Jfgbkat >??=, >0-7?).
6??
bvar tda wdbla sattlakaht fraf. ]da bhly cray fraf rakf`hs tda hbrtdwastarh pfrt bi tda sattlakaht wd`gd sdbwam pbbr prasarvft`bh (Masgdlar-Arn fhm Kfrt` Crímal >??=f, 07-0=5 I`cura =.1). Nfsam bh tda kfream gbhtrfst `h tda m`str`nut`bh pfttarh bi tda fh`kfl rakf`hs, tda quast`bh bi m`iiarahgas `h suns`stahga fhm m`atfry dfn`ts fr`sas. @hmaam, td`s pfttarh kfy railagt, ft lafst pfrt`flly, f m`iiarahga `h gulturfl trfm`t`bh, br tda prasahga bi gulturflly m`st`hgt crbups (Kfrt`-Crímal at fl . >??=, 631). Dynr`m`sft`bh bi garfk`g trfm`t`bhs2 Fh`kfl nbhas fs gulturfl kfrears2
]dara fra bhly f iaw frgdfabzbblbc`gfl stum`as wd`gd dfva naah gfrr`am but bh Fltda`k br Nfmah s`tas fhm tda gurraht stfta bi ehbwlamca `h tdft mbkf`h `s ifr irbk sft`siy`hc. ]da ax`st`hc mftf pb`hts tbwfrms gfttla fhm skfll ruk`hfhts na`hc gahtrfl tb tda agbhbky `h nbtd bi tdasa gulturas, wdarafs p`c saaks tb dfva naah lass ifvburam (Kurrfy 6037, 64>-64=5 K`l`sfusefs fhm Erue 6040, =79-=735 Nahagea 600=, 30, 40-0?5 _ugdar fhm Wgdk`tznarcar 6000, 9>75 Masgdlar-Arn fhm Kfrt`-Crímal >??=n, >16). @h afst Ww`tzarlfhm, dbwavar, p`c `s kbra un`qu`tbus `h frgdfabzbblbc`gfl fssaknlfcas, kfe`hc tda d`cd huknar bi p`c irfckahts `h Frnbh Nla`gda 7 uhsurpr`s`hc (Wgd`nlar >??=, >??9). ]dus, `t wbulm saak tdft tda d`cd fkbuht bi gfttla fhm cbft nbhas `h tda hbrtdarh pfrt bi tda mwall`hc railagts fh fgtufl m`atfry praiarahga l`heam tb fh axtarhfl gulturfl `hiluahga. @h l`cdt bi tda ibrkulftam dypbtdas`s, nfsam bh fh`kfl rakf`hs, tdft gulturfl praiarahgas gfh na bnsarvam spft`flly `h Frnbh Nla`gda 7, garfk`g fs f gulturfl `hm`gftbr wfs flsb gbhs`maram. F i`rst stap wfs tb gbhgahtrfta bh tda ibra`ch pbttary (I`cura =.9). Fltdbucd tdara fra sbka caharfl tahmahg`as fs tb tda`r m`str`nut`bh `h spfga, tdara fra hb pfrt`gulfr gbhgahtrft`bh spbts sdbw`hc f kfream m`iiarahga natwaah tda hbrtdarh fhm sbutdarh pfrts pfr ts bi tda sattlakaht. ]da pbbr prasarvft`bh `h tda hbrtdarhkbst pfrt bi tda s`ta, dbwavar, dfs tb na tfeah `htb fggbuht (ma Gfp`tfh` >??>, 670-6=?). Avah `i tda c`vah p`gtura `s hbt uh`ibrkly raprasahtft`va, tda pbttary mbas hbt saak tb pb`ht tbwfrms fhy gulturfl m`sgrapfhgy natwaah natwaa h tda hbrtdarh fhm tda sbutdarh dflvas bi tda sattlakaht. Ft i`rst s`cdt, td`s kfy gbka fs f m`sfppb`htkaht wdah gbhs`mar`hc tda prbk`s`hc rasults ravaflam ny tda frgdfabzbblbc`gfl frgdfabzbblbc`gfl fhflys`s. F glbsar `hvast`cft`bh bi tda garfk`g fhflysas mbas, dbwavar, uhgbvar sbka `htarast`hc fspagts. Frgdfabka Frgdf abkatry try fhm frgdfablb frgdf ablbcy cy `hm`gfta `hm` gfta tdft fh axgdfhca axgdf hca bi tagdhblbc`gfl ehbw-dbw tbbe plfga. ]d`s `s sdbwh ny tda prasahga bi ibra`ch vassals kfhuifgturam us`hc lbgfl tagdhblbcy (crfh`ta takpar) fhm lbgfl vassals kfhuifgturam us`hc ibra`ch tagdhblbcy
6?6
I`cura =.9 Dbr`zbhtfl m`str`nut`bh bi ibra`ch garfk`g (gultura fhm nurht lfyars sdbwh tbcatdar5 Nfmah irfckahts: h ; 9>9, Fltda`k irfckahts: h ; 716). Av`mahga ibr ibra`ch garfk`g `s sdbwh par squfra katar (nlfge: prasahga, wd`ta: fnsahga) racfrmlass bi irfckahtft`bh (kbm`am fitar ma Gfp`tfh` >??>, >63, I`c. 763, >60, I`c. 7>6).
(crbc takpar5 ma Gfp`tfh` >??>, >61->695 Nbhzbh >??=, >0=). ]d`s typa bi av`mahga pb`hts tbwfrms fgt`va `htargdfhca natwaah tda `hdfn`tfhts bi Frnbh Nla`gda 7. ]d`s wbulm pbss`nly `hgluma tda axgdfhca bi nbtd ehbwlamca fhm frtaifgts, frtaifgts , lafm`hc tb f uh`ibrk
6?>
spft`fl m`str`nut`bh bi tda m`iiaraht typas bi pbttary5 dahga tda fnsahga bi fhy v`s`nla spft`fl m`v`s`bh bi gulturfl crbups w`td`h tda sattlakaht. Flsb, l`heam tb td`s `htar-k`xtura bi pbttary ibrks, fra tda bnsarvft`bhs kfma ny ma Gfp`tfh` (>??>, 690) tdft pbttary kfhuifgturam fggbrm`hc tb tda Nfmah tagdhblbcy `s kbra gbkkbh `h Frnbh Nla`gda 7 ft tda nac`hh`hc bi tda sattlakaht. @i wa prasuka tdft tdasa “ibra`chars‛ m`mh‐t s`kply ak`crfta, tdah tda bhly axplfhft`bh `s tdft tday fmbptam lbgfl tagdhblbcy fs wall fs, `h t`ka, ibrk. @h brmar tb mavalbp tda gulturfl m`iiarahgas dypbtdas`s, f gbrraspbhmahga fhflys`s bh tda fvf`lfnla mftf wfs gfrr`am but. Gbrraspbhmahga fhflys`s `s w`maly usam `h frgdfablbcy nut `ts fppl`gft`bh `s kbstly l`k`tam tb gdrbhblbc`gfl `ssuas, pfrt`gulfrly `h gbhhagt`bh w`td tda sar`ft`bh bi crfva `hvahtbr`as. @ts pbtaht`fl ibr tda matagt`bh bi fssbg`ft`bhs naybhm gdrbhblbc`gfl quast`bhs ‗ `h tda sahsa bi axplbrftbry mftf fhflys`s ‗ dfs dfrmly naah rafl`zam sb ifr. ]da katdbm biiars craft pbtaht`fl ibr tda fhflys`s bi frgdfabn`blbc`gfl mftf w`td racfrm tb sbg`b-d`stbr`gfl `ssuas fs makbhstrftam `h i`rst fttakpts ny Kbrahb-Cfrgëf at fl. (6009), Düstar-_lbckfhh at fl. (6000), Yflfkbt` (>??1), Jfgbkat fhm Wgd`nlar (>??9) fhm vfh mar Yaah (>??3). (>? ?3). @h tda gfsa bi tda gulturfl m`iiarahgas dypbtdas`s spag`i`g tb Frnbh Nla`gda 7, tda pbtaht`fl bi gfhbh`gfl gbrraspbhmahga fhflys`s `s bi spag`fl `htarast. ]da katdbmblbc`gfl fpprbfgd, tda uhmarly`hc mftf, fhm tda axdfust`va stft`st`gfl `htarpratft`bh w`ll na axplf`ham `h f ibrtdgbk`hc punl`gft`bh (Mbpplar `h prapfrft`bh). Sa Sa w`ll tdaraibra hbt cb `htb kugd matf`l dara. @t sdbulm just na hbtam tdft td`s vfr`fht bi gbrraspbhmahga fhflys`s wbres w`td brm`hft`bh vfr`fnlas, wd`gd kfeas `t pbss`nla tb `hgluma pra-ax`st`hc i`hm`hcs br ehbwlamca `h tda fhflys`s fhm tb pramai`ha tda fhflyt`gfl strugtura (a.c. tar Nrffe 6049, Craahfgra >??3). >??3) . ]da mftf ‗ tda tfrcat vfr`fnlas ‗ fra frrfhcam fggbrm`hc tb tda spag`i`gft`bhs. Irbk tda rasult`hc m`fcrfk, tda m`str`nut`bh bi tda tfrcat vfr`fnlas `h ralft`bh tb afgd brm`hft`bh vfr`fnla, wd`gd fppafr fs frrbws bh tda `llustrft`bh, gfh na mamugam fhm `htarpratam. @h bur fhflys`s, wa gdbsa brm`hft`bh vfr`fn las wd`gd fra nal`avam tb na gbhhagtam w`td tda Nfmah gultura fhm wd`gd gfh tdaraibra na `htarpratam fs kfrears ibr f gulturfl `hiluahga irbk tda Nfmah gultura fraf (Jfgbkat at fl. >??=n, =6?-=66). ]da pbtaht`fl `hiluahga irbk tda Fltda`k gultura w`ll hbt na m`sgussam mua tb tda pfug`ty bi tda av`mahga. Nas`mas tda pbttary, wa `hglumam sp`hmla wdbrls, `hm`gft`bhs ibr tda usa bi mrfucdt fh`kfls fhm tda av`mahga bi akkar fhm ilfx fs brm`hft`bh vfr`fnlas (I`cura =.3). ]da rasult bi tdasa fhflysas sdbws tdft tda nlahm`hc bi gulturfl trfm`t`bhs `s aspag`flly fppfraht `h frtaifgts fhm tbbl tagdhblbc`as (Mbpplar `h
6?7
r a . k m h r k f a a t y , s f l ) r c l u f r ` Z a d u t ^ t l ( s u t s a g l r 7 f f t a k s ` u d h l g l ` f ` a l d t N c f k h r u b c f n r f ` r m m F b i a a d d t a s ] . u h a ) ` s d % t 0 a . p r y i 6 t b > t s ( ; g h f b i ` a t 4 7 t f r g 6 . f ` m ? m : h a a ` t g g , f ) a l p r . a s a s ` g w m h i a a b h f E ` r ( f ` r a s t r f n l v s f k r h u b t b h d w g f m a a d l a d t a t d m t i i h ` h b b b p m s f a % t , ` s ) r > f . a N n r ` h 0 a 3 s ` 5 h E ? s ( ` y l s 7 f 9 f g . p ` ? l h x f k : a f a f r ` d g a t g h g a r ` a d s m a ` h w h l , l b n a f p f t g ` s r b f a f r p ] r v . s b ) m g h t a l b W ` h f t ` ` h f g f ` r h L t h ` b s m m h b r f h h b f g I g a f a t / i d W d t b t ` h i h a b l s L ( h p a a r f x b k p ` f s x a h r A s m a h ` k 3 . b w f m = ) r a r E m r f g b h ` u a m c g d ` ] a I ] ( s
6?=
prapfrft`bh prapf rft`bh ). ]d`s gbrrbnbrftas bur dypbtdas`s tdft nlahm`hc, br rag`prbgfl `hiluahga, rasults `h prbmug`hc m`str`nut`bh pfttarhs wd`gd gfh hb lbhcar na `htarpratam w`td racfrm tb `maht`iy`hc gulturfl m`iiarahgas `h tda frgdfablbc`gfl ragbrm. @h sp`ta bi tda nlahm`hc, tda prasahga bi m`iiaraht gulturfl trfm`t`bhs wfs st`ll if`rly afsy tb matagt `h Frnbh Nla`gda 7 nagfusa bi tda gbhsp`gubus Nfmah fhm Fltda`k Fltd a`k vassals vass als.. Pat, Pat, bur i`hm`hcs i`hm `hcs glafrly gla frly sdbw tdft garfk`g garf k`gss fra hbt hagassfr`ly f strbhc kfrear bi gulturfl `maht`ty ‗ f stftakaht wd`gd gartf`hly `s hbt aht`raly afsy tb fggapt `h frgdfablbcy. Dbwavar, m`iiarahgas natwaah tda hbrtdarh fhm sbutdarh dflvas bi tda sattlakaht mb akarca irbk tda fhflys`s bi tda fh`kfl nbhas. ]d`s lafms us tb gbhgluma tdft, `h bur gfsa, tda fh`kfl nbhas, br rftdar tda m`atfry dfn`ts tday raprasaht, k`cdt pbss`nly na nattar gulturfl kfrears tdfh tda garfk`gs. @h bur bp`h`bh, `t `s tdaraibra qu`ta iafs`nla tb l`he tda m`iiarahgas `h tda m`str`nut`bh bi fh`kfl nbhas `h Frnbh Nla`gda 7 tb m`iiaraht gulturfl trfm`t`bhs. ]da l`tarftura glafrly sdbws tdft m`atfry dfn`ts fra matark`ham tb f d`cd macraa ny gulturfl ifgtbrs fhm tdft tday raprasaht f vary stfnla gulturfl alakaht (a.c. Kassar 604=). Avah `i fltarhft`va `htarpratft`bhs ibr tda bnsarvam m`iiarahgas k`cdt na gbhs`maram, ibr `hstfhga tda ax`stahga bi uhaqufl ral`c`bus m`atfry rulas br tda ax`stahga bi sbg`fl crbups nfsam bh cahmar br fll`fhgas, wa td`he `t l`ealy tdft tda `hgrafsam pbrt`bhs bi gfttla fhm cbfts ‗ fhm pbss`nly tda d`cd fkbuht bi i`sd gfucdt glbsa tb sdbra ‗ `h tda hbrtdarh pfrt bi tda sattlakaht fra l`heam tb afstarh gulturfl trfm`t`bhs.
Gbhglus`bhs
Bur i`hm`hcs `llustrfta vfry`hc ibrks bi `htargulturfl gbhtfgts w`td`h Frnbh Nla`gda 7. Sa gfh stfta tdft td`s sattlakaht fllbws tda matagt`bh bi myhfk`g prbgassas tdft d`cdl`cdt gbax`stahga fhm `htarfgt`bh bi m`iiaraht gulturfl crbups wd`gd lam tb rag`prbgfl `hiluahgas fhm dynr`m`sft`bh saah `h tda kftar`fl rakf`hs. Wugd prbgassas kfy rasult `h tda nlahm`hc bi m`st`hgt gdfrfgtar`st`gs `h kftar`fl gultura sb tdft tday fra hb lbhcar matagtfnla w`td gbhvaht`bhfl fhflysas. ]dasa bnsarvft`bhs fra bi sbg`b-d`stbr`gfl `kpbrtfhga. ]day d`cdl`cdt tda haam tb cb naybhm bur fll tbb bitah stft`g parspagt`vas bi frgdfablbc`gfl i`hms fhm iafturas (a.c. Nla`gdar >??0, Anarsnfgd >?6?). @h bur gfsa, td`s `s gartf`hly kfma pbss`nla ny tda r`gd huknar bi dbusas axgfvftam w`td`h f lfrca surifga fhm mftam tb prag`sa yafrs, fs wall fs tda pbss`n`l`ty tb gbhtrfst tda gulturfl lfyar w`td f gbhilfcrft`bh lfyar (Lauz`hcar >???, Mbpplar `h prapfrft`bh ). Bur gbhglus`bhs `hm`gfta tdft wa kust fht`g`pfta i`hm`hc mavalbpkahts fhm gdfhcas wd`gd kfy dfva bggurram `h f sdbrt t`ka avah tdbucd tda takpbrfl`ty bi sugd prbgassas mapahms
6?1
bh m`iiaraht ifgtbrs (Ibeeahs >??4) fhm kfy hbt na gbhglus`valy matark`ham. Dbwavar, bur rasults succast tdft sugd prbgassas bggurram kugd ifstar `h tda gfsa bi tbbls fhm tagdhblbc`as tdfh bi m`atfry dfn`ts fhm tda usa bi fh`kfl rasburgas. ]da ]da lfttar fppafr tb na kugd kbra stfnla fhm lfst`hc. ]d`s, `h turh, lafms us tb gbhgluma tdft, `h bur gfsa stumy, tda fh`kfl nbhas k`cdt na f kbra ral`fnla `hm`gftbr bi gulturfl `maht`ty tdfh tda garfk`gs. @t rakf`hs tb na saah wdatdar iutura stum`as w`ll gbrrbnbrfta td`s bnsarvft`bh. Iurtdarkbra, tda glafr sattlakaht m`v`s`bh fs sdbwh ny fh`kfl nbha m`str`nut`bh `s f rakfrefnla gbhtrfm`gt`bh gbhtrfm`gt`bh tb f lftaht prak`sa `h watlfhm frgdfablbcy wd`gd succasts tdft tda gbkkbhly uh`ibrk dbusas `h lfeas`ma mwall`hcs railagt gulturfl, sbg`fl fhm agbhbk`g uh`ibrk`ty uh`ibrk` ty.. Wugd fh fssukpt`bh rulas but tda pbss`nla gbax`stahga bi sbg`fl crbups w`td m`iiaraht trfm`t`bhs fhm suns`stahga strftac`as. Fll dbusas fra suppbsam tb ibllbw tda sfka suns`stahga strftacy us`hc `maht`gfl kafhs bi prbmugt`bh fhm dfv`hc tda sfka m`atfry dfn`ts. Mua tb tda prasuppbsam uh`ibrk rasburga usa fhm m`atfry dfn`ts, tdara sdbulm hbt na fhy sunstfht`fl m`iiarahgas `h raiusa gbkpbs`t`bh fhm `hvahtbr`as fkbhc tda dbusas (Mbpplar at fl. >?66). ]da ifgt tdft wa saa sugd m`iiarahgas natwaah tda dbusas `h Frnbh Nla`gda 7 lafms us tb tfea fhbtdar lbbe ft frgdfablbc`gfl dbusadblms (kbst iuhmfkahtflly S`le fhm ^ftdja 604>) fhm sdbws tdft uhtastam rasafrgd prak`sas dfva tb na gdfllahcam. @hstafm bi tda futfrey bi dbusas fhm dbkbcahbus nadfv`bur `h Habl`td`g lfeas`ma sattlakahts wa kust rftdar fssuka datarbcaha`ty datarbcaha`ty fhm tda ax`stahga bi gbkplax hatwbres bi `htarfgt`bh fhm gbbparft`bh w`td`h sattlakahts (Mbpplar `h prapfrft`bh). Wugd hatwbre`hc kfy, ibr axfkpla, dfva gbhst`tutam gbhst `tutam fh fmvfhtfca `h dfhml`hc m`ii`gult s`tuft`bhs br gr`sas (Mbpplar at fl. `h prapfrft`bh, ^ùmar at fl. `h prapfrft`bh n). ]da ifgt tdft fh`kfl rakf`hs fra tda ibgus bi td`s stumy `s ny hb kafhs f gb`hg`mahga. I`rstly, tday fra caharflly fnuhmfht bh frgdfablbc`gfl s`tas fhm sagbhmly, tda lfst twahty yafrs bi rasafrgd dfva `hgrafs`hcly sdbwh tda`r pbtaht`fl `h fhswar`hc sbg`b-d`stbr`gfl quast`bhs (a.c. Grfntraa 600?, C`iibrm-Cbhzflaz 6006, Wgbtt 6009, Cukarkfh 6003, ^bwlay-Gbhwy >???, K`rfgla fhm K`lhar >??>, Jbhas B‐Mfy at fl. >??=, >?? =, Kfrg`h`fe Kfrg` h`fe >??1, >?? 1, Y`cha Y`ch a at fl. >??1, >?? 1, maIrfhga >??0). Sa tdaraibra strbhcly fmvbgfta f kbra m`varsa ut`l`zft`bh bi tda sbg`b-d`stbr`gfl pbtaht`fl bi frgdfabzbblbc`gfl mftf `h brmar tb astfnl`sd sbg`fl frgdfabzbblbcy fs f vflufnla fhm fggaptam tbbl `h frgdfablbc`gfl rasafrgd. Qs`hc tda prbpbsam fpprbfgd bh tda wafltd bi mftf fvf`lfnla irbk Aurbpa‐s hukarbus watlfhm s`tas w`ll gbhtr`nuta s`ch`i`gfhtly tb bur uhmarstfhm`hc bi tda pfst, fhm rai`ha tda p`gtura mrfwh ny ^bnart Kuhrb kbra tdfh 6?? yafrs fcb.
6?9
Fgehbw Fge hbwla lamc mcaka akaht htss
Sa bwa bur tdfhes tdfhe s tb Wtaifh`a Wtaif h`a Jfgbkat Jfgbk at fhm kfhy gbllfnb gbl lfnbrftb rftbrs rs ft tda @hst`tuta ibr _rad`stbry fhm Frgdfablbc`gfl Wg`ahga ft Nfsal Qh`vars`ty ibr iru`tiul m`sguss`bhs fhm kfhy usaiul d`hts. Sa flsb tdfhe tda Frgdfablbc`gfl Warv`ga bi ]durcfu ibr dalp fhm iurtdar `hibrkft`bh bh Frnbh Nla`gda 7. Sa fra iurtdarkbra crftaiul tb Càrflm`ha M‐Ayrfkas fhm Nah Jahh`hcs ibr tda`r suppbrt mur`hc trfhslft`bh. ]d`s pfpar wfs rafl`zam fs pfrt bi tda rasafrgd prbjagt “Haw ibuhmft`bhs ibr rasafrgd `h prad`stbr`g frgdfablbcy‛, iuhmam ny tda Ww`ss Hft`bhfl Wg`ahga Ibuhmft`bh. ^aiarahgas Nahagea, H. 600=, Frgdíbzbb Frgdíb zbblbc lbc`sgd `sgdaa Wtum`ah Wtum` ah zur Ahtw`gelu Ahtw` geluhc hc mar Dfust`ardfltuhc `h K`ttalaurbpf uhm Wümsefhm`hfv`ah vbh mah Fhiíhcah n`s zuk fuscadahmah fuscadahmah K`ttalfltar . Wgdr`itah zur Qr- uhm Irüdcasgd`gdta =9. Narl`h: Fefmak`a Yarlfc. Nla`gdar, H. >??0, Fltas Dblz `h hauak L`gdt - Frgdíblbc Frgdí blbc`sgd `sgdaa uhm mahmrbgdrbhblbc`sgda Qhtarsugduhcah fh spíthabl`td`sgdah Iaugdtnbmahs`amluhcah Bnarsgdwfnahs . Kftar`fldaita zur Frgdíblbc`a `h Nfmah-Sürttaknarc 47. Wtuttcfrt: Ebhrfm ]da`ss Yarlfc. Nbhzbh, J. >??=, Frgdfabkatr`gfl stumy (patrbcrfpdy, k`harflbcy fhm gdak`stry) gdak`stry ) bi tda garfk`gs. @h: W. Jfgbkat, Jfgbkat, Q. Lauz`hcar fhm J. Wgd`nlar (ams.) M`a juhcsta`hza`tl`gda Waauiars`amluhc Frnbh-Nla`gda 7: Qkwalt uhm S`rtsgdfit. Frgdíblbc`a `k ]durcfu 6>. Irfuahialm: Mapfrtakaht iür Arz`aduhc uhm Eultur mas Efhtbhs ]durcfu, >0=-76>. Nrbknfgdar, G. fhm Dfmbrh, _. >??=, Qhtarsugduhcah mar _bllah uhm Kferbrasta fus mah _rbi`lsíulah. @h: W. Jfgbkat, Q. Lauz`hcar fhm J. Wgd`nlar Wgd` nlar (ams.) (ams. ) M`a juhcsta`hza`tl`gda Waauiars`amluhc Frnbh Nla`gda 7: Qkwalt uhm S`rtsgdfi S`rt sgdfit.t. Frgdíblbc`a `k ]durcfu 6>. Irfuahialm: Mapfrtakaht iür Arz`aduhc uhm Eultur mas Efhtbhs ]durcfu, 1?-91. Grfntraa, _.J. 600?, Zbbfrgdfablbcy fhm Gbkplax Wbg`at`as: Wbka Qsas bi Ifuhfl Fhflys`s ibr tda Wtumy bi ]rfma, Wbg`fl Wtftus, fhm Atdh`g`ty. @h: K.N. Wgd`iiar (am.) Frgdfablbc Frgdfa blbc`gfl `gfl Katdbm Katdb m fhm fh m dabry dabr y . ]ugsbh: ]da Qh`vars`ty bi Fr`zbhf _rass, 611->?1. ma Gfp`tfh`, F. >??>, Caiíssearfk`e. @h: F. ma Gfp`tfh`, W. MasgdlarArn, Q. Lauz`hcar, A. Kfrt`-Crímal fhm J. Wgd`nlar (ams.) M`a juhcsta` juhc sta`hza` hza`tl`g tl`gda da Waauiars` Waaui ars`amlu amluhc hc Frnbh Frnb h Nla`gda Nla`g da 7: Iuhma. Frgdíblbc`a `k ]durcfu 66. Irfuahialm: Mapfrtakaht iür Arz`aduhc uhm Eultur mas Efhtbhs ]durcfu, 671->39. ma Gfp`tfh`, F., Masgdlar-Arn, W., Lauz`hcar, Q., Kfrt`-Crímal, A. fhm Wgd`nlar, J. (ams.) >??>, M`a juhcsta`hza`tl`gda Waauiars`amluhc Frnbh Irfuahialm: Mapfrtakaht Mapfrt akaht Nla`gda 7: Iuhma . Frgdíblbc`a `k ]durcfu 66. Irfuahialm: iür Arz`aduhc uhm Eultur mas Efhtbhs ]durcfu.
6?3
maIrfhga, W.M. >??0, Zbbfrgdfablbcy `h Gbkplax Wbg`at`as: _bl`t`gfl Agbhbky, Wtftus, fhm @mablbcy. Jburhfl Jburh fl bi Frgdfablb Frgdfa blbc`gf c`gfll ^asafrgd ^asaf rgd 63: 6?1-694. Masgdlar-Arn, W. fhm Kfrt`-Crímal, A. >??=f, D`hwa`sa zur Wgd`gdtardfltuhc fuicruhm fuicruh m mar ]`arehbgdah. ]`arehbgdah. @h: W. Jfgbkat, Q. Lauz`hcar fhm J. Wgd`nlar (ams.) M`a juhcsta`hza`tl`gda Waauiars`amluhc Frnbh-Nla`gda 7: Qkwalt Frgdí blbc`a `a `k ` k ]durcfu ]durc fu 6>. Irfuahialm Irfuah ialm:: Mapfrt Map frtakah akahtt uhm S`rtsgdfit. Frgdíblbc iür Arz`aduhc uhm Eultur mas Efhtbhs ]durcfu, 0?-6??. Masgdlar-Arn, W. fhm Kfrt`-Crímal, A. >??=n, Y`addfltuhc uhm Jfcm. Arcanh`ssa mar Qhtarsugduhc mar dfhmfuicalasahah ]`arehbgdah. @h: W. Jfgbkat, Q. Lauz`hcar fhm J. Wgd`nlar (ams.) M`a juhcsta`hza`tl`gda juhcsta`hza`tl`gda Waauiars`amluhc Frnbh-Nla`gda 7: Qkwalt uhm S`rtsgdfit . Frgdíblbc`a `k ]durcfu 6>. Irfuahialm: Mapfrtakaht iür Arz`aduhc uhm Eultur mas Efhtbhs ]durcfu, 614->1>. Mbpplar, ]. `h prapfrft`bh, Frgdíbzbb Frgdíb zbblbc lbc`a `a fls Zucfhc Zucf hc zur Wbz`flc Wbz `flcasgd asgd`gdt `gdtaa `h mar Iaugdtnbmahfrgdíblbc`a. Ibrsgduhcsparspaet`vah fk Ifllna`sp`al mar habl`td`sgdah Waauiars`amluhc Waauiars`amluhc Frnbh Nla`gda 7 (Wgdwa`z) . _dM ]das`s >??0, Nfsal Qh`vars`ty. Mbpplar, ]., ]., _bllkfhh, N., _`gdlar, W., Jfgbkat, W., Wgd`nlar, J. fhm f hm ^ùmar, N. >?66, Nfuarh, I`sgdar`hhah uhm Jícar: Qhtarsgd`aml Qhtarsgd`aml`gda `gda ^assburgahuhm Lfhmsgdfitshutzuhc `h mar habl`td`sgdah habl`td`sgdah W`amluhc Frnbh Nla`gda 7 (]durcfu, Wgdwa`z)2 @h: J. Wtumar, K. Mfv`m-Aln`fl` fhm K. Nassa (ams.) _fysfca…Lfhmsgdfit…_fasfcc`b… L‐`kpfgt mas fgt`v`tàs dukf`has sur l‐ahv`rbhhakaht mu _flàbl`td`qua ï lf pàr`bma rbkf`ha. Gfd`ars m‐frgdàblbc`a rbkfhma 6>?. Lfusfhha: Kusàa m‐frgdàblbc`a at m‐d`stb`ra, 6=7-614. Mbpplar, ]., _`gdlar, W., ^ùmar, N. fhm Wgd`nlar, J. `h prapfrft`bh, Gbp`hc w`td gr`sas: Wuns`stahga vfr`aty fhm ras`l`ahga ras`l` ahga `h tda Habl`td`g lfeasdbra sattlakaht Frnbh Nla`gda 7 (Ww`tzarlfhm). (Ww`tzarlfhm). Anarsnfgd, ^. >?6?, Ybk Ahtstadah uhm Yarcadah ‗ Ünarlacuhcah zur Myhfk`e vbh Iaugdtnbmahdíusarh uhm ‗s`amluhcah. @h: @. Kftusgd`e, G. Wtrfdk, N. Anarsgdwa`lar, C. I`hcarl`h, F. Dfihar, K. E`hsey, K. Kf`hnarcar fhm C. Wgdùnal (ams.) Yarhatzuhcah. Fspaeta s`amluhcsfrgdíblbc`sgdar Ibrsgduhc . Iastsgdr`it iür Dalkut Wgdl`gdtdarla zuk 9?. Canurtstfc. Ira`nurc `k Nra`scfu: Lfvbr` Yarlfc, =6-1?. Ibeeahs, D. >??4, ]da takpbrfl`ty bi gultura gult ura gdfhca. @h: D. Ibeeahs, N.J. Gblas, F.L. vfh C`jh, J._. J._. Ela`jha, D.D. _bhjaa, G.C. Wlfppahmal (ams.) Natwaah Ibrfc`hc fhm Ifrk`hc ‗ fh axtahmam nrbfm spagtruk bi pfpars prasahtam prasah tam tb Laahmart Laah mart Lbuwa Lb uwa Ebb`jkfh Ebb` jkfhs.s. Fhflagtf _rfad`stbr`gf La`mahs`f =?. La`mah: Ifgulty bi Frgdfablbcy, La`mah Qh`vars`ty, 61->=. C`iibrm-Cbhzflaz, M. 6006, Nbhas fra hbt ahbucd: fhflbcuas, ehbwlamca, fhm `htarprat`va strftac`as `h zbbfrgdfablbcy. Jburhfl Jburh fl bi Fhtdrb Fh tdrbpblb pblbc`gf c`gfll 6?: >61->1=. Frgdfablb Frgdf ablbcc y 6?:
6?4
Craahfgra, K. >??3, Gbrraspbhmahga Fhflys`s `h _rfgt`ga . Nbgf ^ftbh: Gdfpkfh & Dfll/G^G. Cukarkfh, C. 6003, Ibbm fhm Gbkplax Wbg`at`as. Jburhfl Jburh fl bi Frgdfablb Frgdfa blbc`gf c`gfll Katdbm Katdb m fhm fh m dabry dabr y =(>): 6?1-670. Dffs, J.H. fhm Kfchy, K. >??=, Wgd`gdtcahasa uhm Yacatft`bhsc Yacatft`bhscasgd`gdta. asgd`gdta. @h: W. Jfgbkat, Q. Lauz`hcar fhm J. Wgd`nlar (ams.) (ams .) M`a juhcsta`hza`tl`gda juhcsta`hza`tl`gda Waauiars`amluhc Frnbh Frn bh Nla`gda 7: Qkwalt uhm S`rtsgdfi t. Frgdíblbc`a `k ]durcfu 6>. Irfuahialm: Mapfrtakaht iür Arz`aduhc uhm Eultur mas Efhtbhs ]durcfu, =7-=0. Dbsgd, W. fhm Jfgbkat, W. >??=, Fgearnfu uhm Wfkkalw`rtsgdfit. Arcanh`ssa mar Qhtarsugduhc vbh Wfkah uhm Irügdtah. @h: W. Jfgbkat, Q. Lauz`hcar fhm J. Wgd`nlar (ams.) M`a juhcsta`hza`tl`gda Waauiars`amluhc Frnbh Frnb h Nla`gda Nla`g da 7: Qkwalt uhm S`rt S `rtsgdf sgdfit. it. Frgdíblbc`a `k ]durcfu 6>. Irfuahialm: Mapfrtakaht iür Arz`aduhc uhm Eultur mas Efhtbhs ]durcfu, 66>-613. Düstar _lbckfhh, D. >??=, I`sgdifhc uhm Ela`ht`arnauta. Arcanh`ssa mar Qhtarsugduhc vbh ]`arrastah fus mah Wgdlíkkprbnah. @h: W. Jfgbkat, Q. Lauz`hcar fhm J. Wgd`nlar (ams.) M`a juhcsta`hza`tl`gda Waauiars`amluhc Frnbh-Nl Frnb h-Nla`gd a`gdaa 7: Qkwalt uhm S`rt S `rtsgdfi sgdfit.t. Frgdíblbc`a `k ]durcfu 6>. Irfuahialm: Mapfrtakaht iür Arz`aduhc uhm Eultur mas Efhtbhs ]durcfu, >17->39. Düstar-_lbckfhh, D., Jbrmfh, _., ^adfzae, F., Wgd`nlar, J. fhm Yaszal`, K. 6000, K`ttalfltarl`gda Arhídruhcsw`rtsgdfit, Dfust`ardfltuhc uhm Jfcm. A`ha frgdíbzbblbc`sgda Qhtarsugduhc fuscawídltar Iuhmahsaknlas fus mar Wgdwa`z uhm mak fhcrahzahmah Fuslfhm. Na`tríca zur K`ttalfltarfrgdíblbc`a `h Ùstarra`gd 61: >>7->=?. @skf`l-Kayar, E. fhm ^ahtzal, _. >??=, K`erbkbrpdblbc`sg K`erb kbrpdblbc`sgda da Qhtarsugduhc mar Wgd`gdtfniblca. @h: W. Jfgbkat, Q. Lauz`hcar fhm J. Wgd`nlar (ams.) M`a juhcsta`hza`tl`gda Waauiars`amluhc Frnbh Nla`gda 7: Qkwalt uhm S`rtsgdfit. Frgdíblbc`a `k ]durcfu 6>. Irfuahialm: Mapfrtakaht iür Arz`aduhc uhm Eultur mas Efhtbhs ]durcfu, ]durcfu, 99-4?. Jfgbkat, Jfgbka t, W. fhm Wgd`nlar, Wgd` nlar, J. >??9, >??9 , ]rfgt`bh rfgt `bh fh`kfla fh`k fla at mbhhàas mbhh àas pflàbahv`rbhhakahtflas fu Hàbl`td`qua mfhs la hbrm mas Flpas. @h: _. _àtraqu`h, ^.-K. Frnbcfst, F.-K. _àtraqu`h, W. vfh S`ll`cah, fhm K. Nf`lly (ams.) _rak`ars gdfr`bts, prak`ars frf`ras - Lf m`iius`bh ma lf trfgt`bh fh`kfla ah Aurbpa pahmfht las @Ya at @@@a k`llàhf`ras fvfht hbtra ära . _fr`s: GH^W àm`t`bhs, 6=6-611. Jfgbkat, Jfgbka t, W., Lauz`hcar, Lauz`hca r, Q. fhm Wgd`nlar, Wgd`nla r, J. (ams.) (ams. ) >??=f: >??= f: M`a juhcsta`hza`tl`gda juhcsta`hza`tl`gda Waauiars`amluhc Frnbh Nla`gda 7: Qkwalt uhm S`rtsgdfit . Frgdíblbc`a `k ]durcfu 6>. Irfuahialm: Mapfrtakaht iür Arz`aduhc uhm Eultur mas Efhtbhs ]durcfu.
6?0
Jfgbkat, Jfgbka t, W., Lauz`hcar, Lauz` hcar, Q. fhm Wgd`nlar, Wgd` nlar, J. >??=n, >??= n, Wyhtdas`s Wyht das`s.. @h: W. Jfgbkat, Jfgbka t, Q. Lauz`hca Lauz `hcarr fhm J. Wgd`nlar Wgd` nlar (ams.) (ams .) M`a juhcsta`hza`tl`gda Waauiars`amluhc Frnbh Nla`gda 7: Qkwalt uhm S`rtsgdfit. Frgdíblbc`a `k ]durcfu 6>. Irfuahialm: Mapfrtakaht iür Arz`aduhc uhm Eultur mas Efhtbhs ]durcfu, 730-=69. Jbhas B‐Mfy, W., vfh Haar, S. fhm Arvyhge, Arvy hge, F. (ams.) (ams .) >??=, >??= , Nadfv`bur Nad`hm Nbhas. da zbbfrgdfablbcy zbbfrgdfablbcy bi r`tufl, ral`c`bh, stftus fhm `maht`ty . _rbgaam`hcs bi tda 0td @GFZ Gbhiarahga, Murdfk >??>. Bxibrm: Bxnbw Nbbes. Eùh`hcar, J., Ebln, K. fhm Wgdl`gdtdarla, D. >??6, Alakahta vbh Nblaræz uhm Nfmah `h mah Iaugdtnbmahs`amluhcah mas sümwastmautsgdah Flpahvbr Flpa hvbrlfhm lfhmas as uhm `dra kùcl`gda kùcl `gda ^blla ^bll a `k ]rfhsibr rfh sibrkft` kft`bhsp bhsprbzas rbzasss mas lbeflah Ahmhabl`td`euks. @h: _. ^bkfh fhm W. M`fkfhm` (ams.) Lj @@@ Garhfvbm Lj @@@ ‗ Nblaræz. A`h vbrcasgd`gdtl`gdas _díhbkah zw`sgdah mak Bnarrda`h uhm mar uhtarah Mbhfu. Wtum`f Mfhun`fhf, War`as Wykpbs`f >. NuguraŒt`: @hst`tutul ^bkîh ma ]rfgblbc`a, 9=6-937. Lauz`hcar, Q. >???, M`a juhcsta`hza`tl`gda Waauiars`amluhc Frnbh-Nla`gda 7: Naiuhma Naiuh ma . Frgdíblbc`a `k ]durcfu 0. Irfuahialm: Mapfrtakaht iür Arz`aduhc uhm Eultur mas Efhtbhs ]durcfu. Lauz`hcar, Q. fhm Jfgbkat, W. >??=, A`hla`tuhc. @h: W. Jfgbkat, Q. Lauz`hcar fhm J. Wgd`nlar (ams.) M`a juhcsta`hza`tl`gda Waauiars`amluhc Frnbh Frnb h Nla`gda Nla`g da 7: Qkwalt uhm S`rtsgdf S`rt sgdfit. it. Frgdíblbc`a `k ]durcfu 6>. Irfuahialm: Mapfrtakaht iür Arz`aduhc uhm Eultur mas Efhtbhs ]durcfu, >1-70. Kfrg`h`fe, F. >??1, _lfg`hc Fh`kfls `h tda Habl`td`g: Wbg`fl Zbbfrgdfablbcy bi _rad`stbr`g Ifrk`hc Gbkkuh`t`as . Lbhmbh: Qh`vars`ty Gbllaca Lbhmbh _rass. Kfrt`-Crímal, A., Masgdlar-Arn, W., Düstar-_lbckfhh, D. fhm Wgd`nlar, J. >??=, Afrly av`mahga bi agbhbk`g spag`fl`zft`bh br sbg`fl m`iiaraht`ft`bh: f gfsa stumy irbk tda Habl`td`g lfea sdbra sattlakaht —Frnbh-Nla`gda 7‐ (Ww`tzarlfhm). @h: W. Jbhas B‐Mfy, S. vfh Haar fhm F. Arvyhge (ams.) Nadfv`bur Nad`hm Nbhas. da zbbfrgdfablbcy bi r`tufl, ral`c`bh, stftus fhm `maht`ty . _rbgaam`hcs bi tda 0td @GFZ Gbhiarahga, Murdfk >??>. Bxibrm: Bxnbw Nbbes, 69=-639. Kassar, A. 604=, Fhtdrbpblbc`gfl _arspagt`vas bh M`at. Fhhufl Fhhu fl ^av`aw ^av` aw bi 67: >?1->=0. Fhtdrbpb Fhtd rbpblbc lbc y 67: K`l`sfusefs, W. fhm Erue, J. 6040, Habl`td`g Agbhbky `h Gahtrfl Aurbpa. 7(=): =?7-==9. Jburhfl Jburh fl bi b i Sbrlm Sbrlm _rad`stbry _rad`st bry 7(=): K`rfgla, _. fhm K`lhar, H. (ams.) >??>, Gbhsuk`hc pfss`bhs fhm pfttarhs bi gbhsukpt`bh. KgMbhflm @hst`tuta Kbhbcrfpds. Gfknr`mca: KgMbhflm @hst`tuta ibr Frgdfablbc`gfl ^asafrgd, Qh`vars`ty bi Gfknr`mca.
66?
Kbrahb-Cfrgëf, K., Brtbh, G. fhm ^fgedfk, J. 6009, F Haw Wtft`st`gfl ]bbl ibr Gbkpfr`hc Fh`kfl Fh`kf l Nbha Fssaknlfcas. Jburhfl Jburh fl bi Frgdfablb Frgdfa blbc`gf c`gfll Wg`ahga >7: >7: =73-=17. Kurrfy, J. 6037, A`h`ca Cas`gdtspuheta ünar m`a Naz`aduhc zw`sgdah Y`adzugdt uhm frgdíblbc`sgdah Eulturah `k Wpíthabl`td`euk `h Aurbpf. @h: J. Kftblgs` (am.) Mbkast`eft`bhsibrsgduhc uhm Casgd`gdta mar Dfust`ara . Numfpast: Fefmàk`f` E`fm÷, 633-649. _ugdar, A. fhm Wgdk`tznarcar, K. 6000, A`h`ca Nakareuhcah zu mah n`sdar `h Ùstarra`gd canbrcahah ]`arehbgdahiuhmah mar NblaræzCruppa. Iuhmnar`gdta fus Ùstarra`gd 74: 9>7-9>1. ^ùmar, N., Mbpplar, ]., ]., _`gdlar, W., _bllkfhh, N., Jfgbkat, W. W . fhm Wgd`nlar, Wg d`nlar, J. `h prapfrft prapf rft`bh `bh f, Naybhm Naybh m tda sattlakah satt lakahtt cr`m: cr`m : `hvast`cf `hvas t`cft`h t`hcc sbg`fl sbg` fl m`iiarahgas tdrbucd frgdfabn`blbcy `h wftarlbccam s`tas. ^ùmar, N., _`gdlar, W. fhm Mbpplar, ]. ]. `h prapfrft`bh prapfrf t`bh n, Gbp`hc w`td gr`sas: ]da `kpfgt bi sbg`fl fspagts bh vulharfn`l`ty fhm ras`l`ahga. ^bwlay-Gbhwy, _. (am.) >???, Fh`kfl Fh`kf l Nbhas, Nbha s, Dukfh Wbg`at`a Wbg` at`as s . Bxibrm: Bxnbw Nbbes. Wgd`nlar, J. >??=, Nbhas fs f eay ibr ragbhstrugt`hc tda ahv`rbhkaht, hutr`t`bh fhm agbhbky bi tda lfea-mwall`hc sbg`at`as. @h: I. Kahbtt` (am.) L`v`hc bh tda lfea `h prad`stbr`g Aurbpa. 61? yafrs bi lfea-mwall`hc rasafrgd . Lbhmbh: ^butlamca, 6==-696. Wgd`nlar, J. >??9, ]da agbhbky fhm ahv`rbhkaht bi tda =td fhm 7rm k`llahh`f NG `h tda hbrtdarh Flp`ha ibralfhm nfsam bh stum`as bi Ahv`rbhkahtfl Frgdfablbcy Frgdfablbcy 66(6): =0-9=. fh`kfl nbhas. Ahv`rbhkahtfl Wgbtt, A.K. 6009, Sdb fta wdft2 Frgdfablbc`gfl Ibbm ^akf`hs fhm Gulturfl M`vars`ty. @h: A.J. ^a`tz, L.F. Hawsbk fhm W.J. Wgummar (ams.) Gfsa Wtum`as `h Ahv`rbhkahtfl Ahv`rbhkahtfl Frgdfablbcy . Haw Pbre: _lahuk, 770-719. Wdarrftt, F. >??=, ]da `kpbrtfhga bi lfea-mwall`hcs `h Aurbpafh prad`stbr y. @h: I. I. Kahbtt` (am.) L`v`hc bh tda lfea `h prad`stbr`g Aurbpa. 61? yafrs bi lfea-mwall`hc rasafrgd . Lbhmbh: ^butlamca, >93->31. tar Nrffe, G.J.I. 6049, Gfhbh`gfl Gbrraspbhmahga Fhflys`s: F haw a`cahvagtbr a`cahvagtbr tagdh`qua ibr kult`vfr`fta m`ragt crfm`aht fhflys`s. Agblbcy 93(1): 6693-6630. ]daw, H. >??=, ]da Fquft`g fhm ]arrastr`fl Kbllusgs irbk tda _rbi`la Gblukhs. @h: W. Jfgbkat, Q. Lauz`hcar fhm J. Wgd`nlar (ams.) M`a juhcsta` juhc sta`hza` hza`tl`g tl`gda da Waauiars`a Waaui ars`amluh mluhcc Frnbh Frnb h Nla`gda Nla`g da 7: Qkwalt uhm S`rtsgdfit . Frgdíblbc`a `k ]durcfu 6>. Irfuahialm: Mapfrtakaht iür Arz`aduhc uhm Eultur mas Efhtbhs ]durcfu, ]durcfu, 46-40. Yflfkbt`, W.K. >??1, Crf`h varsus gdfii: `maht`iy`hc f gbhtrfst natwaah crf`h-r`gd fhm gdfii-r`gd s`tas `h tda Habl`td`g bi Hbrtdarh Craaga. Yacatft`bh D`stbry fhm Frgdfabnbtfhy 6=: 6=: >10->93.
666
vfh mar Yaah, K. >??3, Ibrkft`bh prbgassas bi mas`ggftam fhm gfrnbh`zam plfht rakf`hs. ]da `maht`i`gft`bh bi rbut`ha prfgt`ga. Jburhfl Jburh fl bi Frgdfablb Frgdf ablbc`gf c`gfll Wg`ahg Wg `ahga a 7=: 7=: 094-00?. Y`cha, J.-M., Frnbcfst, ^.-K., Dbrfrm-Darn`h, K.-_., Kàh`al, _. fhm Lapatz, W. >??1, Fh`kfux, sbg`àtàs at gulturas. @h: K.-_. DbrfrmDarn`h fhm J.-M. Y`cha (ams.) Fh`kfux, Fh`kf ux, ahv`rbhh ahv` rbhhakah akahts ts at sbg`àtàs. sbg` àtàs. Gbllagt`bh “Frgdàblbc`quas‛. _fr`s: Am`t`bhs Arrfhga, 616-646. S`le, S`le , ^.^. fhm ^ftdja, ^ft dja, S.L. 604>, 604> , Dbusadblm Dbusa dblm Frgdfablb Frgdf ablbcy. cy. Fkar`gfh Fkar` gfh Nadfv`brfl Wg`aht`st >1(9): 963-970.
66>
Gdfptar 1 GB__A^ F^]AIFG]W F^]AIFG]W BI ]DA KBHMWAA C^BQ_ FHM ]DA@^ _BWW@NLA WBQ^GAW
Gfrbl`h Irfhe fhm Arhst _arh`gef 6
Fnstr Fns trfg fgt t
]da Gbppar Fca Kbhmsaa crbup `s ehbwh irbk f huknar bi lfea sattlakahts `h Qppar Fustr`f fhm td`s kftar`fl dfs naah stum`am s`hga tda lftar h`hataahtd gahtury. ]da prasaht pfpar gbhgahtrftas bh tda gdak`gfl fhflysas bi gbppar frtaifgts, `hglum`hc `kpur`t`as sugd fs s`lvar, h`geal, frsah`g fhm fht`kbhy, fs wall fs lafm `sbtbpas. _bss`nla sburgas bi gbppar bras, irbk Flp`ha fs wall fs tda WA Aurbpafh sburgas, wd`gd kfy dfva naah usam `h tda kfhuifgtura bi tda Kbhmsaa frtaifgts fra flsb m`sgussam. Eay wbrms: Kbhmsaa crbup, gbppar frtaifgts, gbppar `kpur`t`as, lafm `sbtbpa, F` Nuhfr, Kfjmfhpae
@htrbmugt`bh
]da Kbhmsaa crbup `s f Gbppar Fca gulturfl crbup w`td f ralft`valy hfrrbw rac`bhfl m`str`nut`bh kf`hly `h Qppar Fustr`f. Gdrbhblbc`gflly fhm cabcrfpd`gflly tda Kbhmsaa crbup `s plfgam ft tda par`pdary bi tda Iuhhal Nafear Gultura (^uttefy at fl. >??=, 1=). Btdar gbhtakpbrfry ralftam gulturas fra ^akamallb `h Hbrtdarh @tfly, Gdfk `h Nfvfr`f, Gbrtf`llbm `h Ww`tzarlfhm fhm Irfhga, Fltda`k `h sbutdarh Carkfhy, tda Kbrfv`fh crbup `h tda Gzagd ^apunl`g fhm tda (Nflftbh)-Lfs`hjf- fhm Nfmah gulturas bi Fustr`f Fustr `f fhm fh m Duhcfry. Duhc fry. 6
@hst`tut iür Qr- uhm Irüdcasgd`gdta uhm Frgdíblbc`a mas K`ttalfltars, Qh`vars`tít ]ün`hcah, Carkfhy
667
Kbst sattlakahts bi tda Kbhmsaa crbup fra tb na ibuhm flbhc tda sdbras bi tda Wflzefkkarcut lfeas, pr`kfr`ly ft Kbhmsaa, Fttarsaa Fttar saa fhm ]rfuhsaa. rfuh saa. ]bmfy tdara fra twahty-tdr twaht y-tdraa aa sattlak satt lakahts ahts ehbwh frbuhm tdasa lfeas (I`cura 1.6). ]da nast-ehbwh fra Waa ft tda Kbhmsaa, fhm tda Sayracc fhm Waawflgdah s`tas ft tda Fttarsaa. Fttar saa. ]dara fra flsb fls b f iaw sattlaka satt lakahts hts bh mry lfhm (sbka (sbk a bi tdak d`lltbp sattlakahts) wdara tda gdfrfgtar`st`g Kbhmsaa pbttary dfs naah ibuhm, ibr axfkpla ft Cùtsgdahnarc-N`sgdbisdbiah fhm Bnarcrühnurc. Nfsam bh tdasa lbgft`bhs, tda m`str`nut`bh bi tda Kbhmsaa crbup gfh na rbucdly mai`ham fs tda fraf sbutd bi tda Mfhuna natwaah tda r`vars Wflzfgd `h tda wast fhm Ahhs `h tda afst Frgdf ablbc`gf c`gfll Ftlfs Ftlf s (^uttefy 6046, >90)5 `t `s sdbwh fs sugd `h tda Frgdfablb bi _rad`stbr`g Aurbpa (Nugdvflmae (Nugdvflmae >??3, Kfp 6=f, 61f). ]da Kbhmsaa crbup `s gdfrfgtar`sam kf`hly ny `ts garfk`g fssaknlfca ragbvaram pr`hg`pflly irbk tda lfea mwall`hc s`tas flbhc tda sdbras bi tda Qppar Fustr`fh lfeas. ]day iaftura `hg`sam brhfkahts kfma w`td tda Iurgdahst`gd tagdh`qua, fhm mas`chs wd`gd gbkpr`sa l`ha fhm gdavrbh nfhms, tr`fhclas, suh m`sgs fhm frgs `h
I`cura 1.6 W`tas bi tda Kbhmsaa crbup frbuhm tda lfeas bi Kbhmsaa fhm Farsaa (fitar Mwbrsey fhm ^a`tkf`ar >??=, =, I`c. 6).
66=
I`cura 1.> G-6= mftas ibr tda s`tas bi Kbhmsaa crbup gbkp`lam irbk ^a`tar (>??4, 79), Mwbrsey fhm ^a`tkf`ar (>??=, 67) fhm Nra`tw`asar fhm Wtrfmfl (>??6, 0=), gfl`nrftam w`td Bxgfl =.6.3.
661
m`iiaraht gbkn`hft`bhs. Wbka vassals wara magbrftam w`td f wd`ta `hgrustft`bh kfss fitar i`r`hc. Irfhz fhm Sah`hcar punl`sdam, `h 60>3, f masgr`pt`bh bi tda garfk`g i`hms `h tda gbllagt`bh bi tda @hst`tuta ibr _rad`stbry _rad`stbr y ft tda Qh`vars`ty Qh`vars`ty bi Y`ahhf, fhm savarfl kbra stum`as bh tda garfk`gs wara punl`sdam lftar Uibr axfkpla Euhza (6046) fhm Lbgdhar (6003)[. ]da kbst ralavfht stumy bi tda Kbhmsaa pbttary wfs punl`sdam punl`s dam `h 6046 ny Al`sfnatd ^uttefy, wdah sda glfss`i`am `t `htb tdraa crbups wd`gd sarva fs tda nfs`s ibr tda sunm`v`s`bh bi Kbhmsaa `htb tdraa dbr`zbhs (^uttefy 6046). ]d`s ]d`s sunm`v`s`bh `s st`ll usam tbmfy fs gfh na saah `h tda gdrbhblbc`gfl gdfrt ibr tda Habl`td`g par`bm bi afstarh Fustr`f Fustr `f punl` p unl`sdam sdam `h >??9 > ??9 (Erahh-La (Erah h-Laan an >??9 > ??9). ). Flbhc Flbh c w`td tda garfk`g garf k`g i`hms i`hm s tdara fra kfhy frtaifgt frta ifgtss kfma bi stbha fhm il`ht, `hglum`hc ilft fxas, paribrftam stbha fxas fhm frrbwdafms, tdft wara axfk`ham ny Kbrcfh (6047), Fhtl-Sa`sar (>??9) fhm N`hsta`har N`hsta`har fhm ^upragdtsnarcar ^upragdtsnarcar (>??9)5 ibr `hibrkft`bh bh stbha fxas bi tda Kbhmsaa crbup saa Cùtz`hcar (>??4). ]da fh`kfl nbhas ibuhm ft tda s`tas frbuhm frbuh m tda Kbhmsaa lfea wara stum`am ny _ugdar fhm Ahcl (6003), pflfabagblbc`gfl pflfabagblbc`gfl `hvast`cft`bhs us`hc mr`ll gbras tb ragbhstrugt tda prad`stbr`g ahv`rbhkaht `h tda Kbhmsaa rac`bh wara uhmartfeah ny Gdbhmrbc`fhh` at fl. (6049), fhm Wgdk`mt (6049) punl`sdam pflyhblbc`gfl fhm sam`kahtblbc`gfl `hvast`cft`bhs irbk tda s`ta bi Fuidfk @ ft tda Fttarsaa fhm s`ta Waa ft tda Kbhmsaa. Mua tb cbbm prasarvft`bh gbhm`t`bhs bh tda lfea sdbras kfhy brcfh`g rakf`hs wara flsb ragbvaram mur`hc mur` hc axgfvft`bhs. Sftarlbcca Sftarlbccamm gbhm`t`bhs lam tb tda m`sgbvary bi taxt`las (Crùkar >??9), `hglum`hc irfckahts irbk i`sd`hc hats, saam rakf`hs fhm, bi gbursa, wbbmah irfkawbre fhm sunstrugturas bi tda lfeasdbra-duts tdft prbv`ma `hs`cdt `htb tda`r gbhstrugt`bh tagdh`quas (Biiahnarcar 6046, 7>?‗773). ]da fnsbluta gdrbhblbcy bi tda Kbhmsaa crbup `s nfsam kf`hly bh kbra tdfh td`rty rfm`bgfrnbh fhm mahmrbgdrbhblbc`gfl mftas punl`sdam `h tda l`tarftura, w`td axtahs`va l`st`hcs bi mftas fvf`lfnla `h Wtfmlar (6001, >64) fhm tda ^FMBH mftfnfsa ny ^`hha (>?66). I`cura 1.> gbhtf`hs td`rty mftas gfl`nrftam w`td Bxgfl =.6 gbkp`lam irbk tda fibrakaht`bham fhm btdar punl`gft`bhs. @h f ragahtly punl`sdam gdrbhblbc`gfl gdfrt, sdbw`hc Habl`td`g gulturfl crbups bi afstarh Fustr`f nfsam upbh rfm`bgfrnbh mftas fhm strft`crfpd`gfl gbhs`marft`bhs (Erahh-Laan (Erahh-Laan >??9), tda i`rst twb dbr`zbhs bi tda Kbhmsaa gultura (@ fhm @@) dfva naah plfgam natwaah frbuhm 74?? gfl NG fhm 7??? gfl NG, w`td Kbhmsaa @@@, tda lftast dbr`zbh, na`hc gbhs`maram fs f rac`bhfl kfh`iastft`bh bi tda Gdfk gultura fhm mft`hc irbk frbuhm 7??? gfl NG tb >0?? gfl NG.
669
D`stbry bi rasafrgd
Kfttdíus Kugd m`sgbvaram tda prad`stbr`g rakf`hs flbhc tda sdbras bi Kbhmsaa ft Waa `h 643>, fhm, fitar f i`rst punl`gft`bh `h tda sfka yafr, twb kbra ibllbwam (Kugd 643=, 6439). ]da i`rst strft`crfpd`g `hibrkft`bh bh tda Kbhmsaa s`tas wfs bntf`ham `h 6074, mur`hc `hvast`cft`bhs bi f prbi`la bi tda lfea fhm tda hftura bi tda namrbge gbhmugtam ny Labhdfrm Irfhz (Biiahnarcar 6001, 9). Nbtd naibra fhm fitar tda I`rst Sbrlm Sfr, Sfr, i`sdarkah ]dabmbr Sfhc fhm Flnart Sahml m`sgbvara m`s gbvaramm haw s`tas s`t as bi lfeasdbr lfea sdbraa mwall`hcs mwall `hcs.. ]day sflvfcam sflv fcam kfhy bnjagts ny m`cc`hc tdak up w`td hats fhm pblas, tb sall tb tda pr`vfta gbllagtbr K. Wgdk`mt, fs wall fs tb tda Da`kftdfus Yùgelfnruge ùgelfnru ge fhm tb tda Kusauk bi Hfturfl D`stbry `h Y`ahhf. Dbwavar, Wgdk`mt‐s lfrca gbllagt`bh wfs stbram `h Duhcfry fhm wfs lbst mur`hc tda Wagbhm Sbrlm Sfr (Biiahnarcar 6046, 7?7). ]da i`rst suggassiul kafsurakahts bi p`la mwall`hcs wara uhmartfeah `h tda yafrs 6016/601> wdah Cartrum KbÒlar, irbk tda Bii`ga bi Kbhukaht _rbtagt`bh, lam f gfkpf`ch `h tda Eautsgdfgda r Waa (KbÒlar 601=). @h 6094 Eurt S`llvbhsamar S`llvbhsamar punl`sdam f matf`lam rapbrt bh tda Kbhmsaa crbup fs f wdbla, w`td tda trfhslftam t`tla da lfta Habl`td`g fhm Nrbhza Fca lfea mwall`hcs bi tda Fttarsaa `h Qppar Fustr`f . @h td`s sak`hfl wbre da flsb m`sgussam tda prbvahfhga fhm pbss`nla sburgas bi tda Kbhmsaa gbppar i`hms (S`llvbhsamar 6097/6094). Mua tb tda bhcb`hc mastrugt`bh bi tda sattlakaht s`tas flbhc tda sdbras bi tda Wflzefkkarcut lfeas, `t wfs gbhs`maram hagassfry tb gfrry but f systakft`g survay bi tda s`tas fhm tb mbgukaht tda`r stfta bi prasarvft`bh. ]d`s prbcrfk wfs m`ragtam ny Jbdfhh Biiahnarcar ibr tda Iamarfl Bii`ga bi Kbhukaht _rbtagt`bh irbk 6090 tb 6049, fhm avahtuflly fll Wflzefkkarcut lfeas wara survayam tb f maptd bi 6? k (Biiahnarcar 6001, 4‗0). F craft fssat `h td`s ahmafvbur wfs tda m`vars‐ glun, QH@BH-]fugdglun Sals, ibuhmam `h 6033 ny Efrl Gzagd. ]dasa m`vars rasukam tda tfse bi tbpbcrfpd`gfl survays fhm flsb mavalbpam haw katdbms fhm aqu`pkaht ibr kafsur`hc frgdfablbc`gfl strugturas uhmarwftar (Biiahnarcar 6001, 6?). Ny 6040, Gzagd dfm punl`sdam twalva rapbrts bh tda survay fhm tda mbgukahtft`bh bi p`la mwall`hcs (Gzagd 6040). ]da lfst axtahs`va rasafrgd prbjagt bh tda Kbhmsaa crbup, hfkaly tda @htarm`sg`pl`hfry lfea mwall`hcs prbjagt , wfs brcfh`sam ny Al`sfnatd ^uttefy natwaah 6040 fhm 6001 (^uttefy 6001, 64). Dar bwh rasafrgd bh Kbhmsaa nacfh kugd afrl`ar fhm wfs gahtaram frbuhm tda Kbhmsaa garfk`gs (saa fnbva). ]da kbst ragaht rasafrgd bh f lfrcar sgfla wfs tda `hvahtbry bi tda ehbwh lfeasdbra sattlakahts frbuhm Kbhmsaa fhm Fttarsaa ny Gyr`l Mwbrsey fhm ]dbkfs ^a`tkf`ar (Mwbrsey fhm ^a`tkf`ar >??75 >??=) fhm kbra
663
matf`lam fggbuhts fggbu hts bi tda d`stbry bi rasafrgd bh Kbhmsaa gfh na ibuhm `h punl`gft`bhs ny ^upragdtsnarcar (>??9) fhm flsb Biiahnarcar (6046, >01‗76>5 6001). Gbppar i`hms bi tda Kbhmsaa crbup
]bcatdar w`td btdar gulturfl crbups, `hglum`hc Fltda`k fhm Gbrtf`llbm, tda Kbhmsaa crbup nalbhcs tb tda afrl`ast gbppar-us`hc dbr`zbh `h gahtrfl Aurbpa fs `t wfs mai`ham ny Bttfwfy (604>, >7). Gbppar i`hms fra fnuhmfht, fs fra btdar tbbls ibr gbppar wbre`hc sugd fs gfst`hc kbulms fhm grug`nlas. ]da typblbc`gfl spagtruk bi tda katfl i`hms `hglumas ilft fxas, mfccars, fwls, gurvam nlfmas, gbppar sp`rfls fhm irfckahts bi katfl sdaats. ]da katfl i`hms bi tda Kbhmsaa crbup dfva flwfys naah bi gbhs`marfnla `htarast fhm, fggbrm`hcly, f huknar bi stum`as fra fvf`lfnla. F gbkpradahs`va fhflyt`gfl prbcrfk, axfk`h`hc bra mapbs`ts `h tda afstarh Flps fhm prad`stbr`g gbppar frtaifgts irbk gahtrfl Aurbpa, wfs uhmartfeah uhm artfeah ny f crbup `h Y`ahhf lam ny ^`gdfrm _`tt`bh` fhm Da`hz Hauh`hcar. Kbhmsaa frtaifgts wara `hglumam `h td`s prbcrfk fhm fppafr `h tdraa tfnlas bi tda punl`sdam fhflysas (Hauh`hcar fhm _`tt`bh` _`t t`bh` 609?, 609 ?, 14, ]fnla ]fnla 65 _`tt`bh` _`t t`bh` 6013, 601 3, 1=, ]fnla ]fnla >95 6099, 07, 07 , ]fnla ]fnla 6). Irbk f gbhtakpbrfry gbhtakpbrfr y pb`ht bi v`aw tda kfjbr kfjb r ilfw bi td`s fkn`t`bus prbjagt wfs tda ifgt tdft bhly sak`-qufht`tft`va fhflysas wara gfrr`am but. ]d`s kfma `t `kpbss`nla tb gbkpfra tda`r mftf w`td tda rasults bi btdar lfnbrftbr`as, fhm `t `s hbw ehbwh tdft tda qufht`tft`va trfga alakaht pfttarh gfrr`as `kpbrtfht `hibrkft`b h. Fggbrm`hc Fggbr m`hcly, ly, tdasa tdas a fhflysas fhflys as fra kbstly kbst ly haclagta hacl agtamm `h m`sguss`b m`sgu ss`bhs hs bi tda gbkpbs`t`bh gbkpbs`t `bh fhm prbvahfhga bi tda Kbhmsaa gbppar frtaifgts frt aifgts tbmfy. Dbwavar, tda fmvfhtfca bi tda Y`ahhf prbcrfk wfs tda fwfrahass bi tda `kpbrtfhga bi gbkplakahtfry fhflysas bi gbppar bras, fhm tdasa kfy st`ll na usaiul masp`ta tda`r l`k`tam fhflyt`gfl qufl`ty. F sukkfry bi tda fhflysas irbk tda afst Flp`ha bra mapbs`ts, fhm sbka bra mapbs`ts `h surrbuhm`hc rac`bhs, wfs prbv`mam ny _`tt`bh` (604?, 41‗43). Fh axtahs a xtahs`va `va rasafrgd rasa frgd prbcrfk, prbc rfk, rbucdly rbuc dly gbhtakpb gbht akpbrfr rfryy w`td w` td tdft t dft ft Y`ahhf, wfs gbhmugtam ft tda Sürttaknarc`sgdas Lfhmaskusauk `h Wtuttcfrt lam ny W`acir`am Juhcdfhs uhmar tda hfka bi Wtum`ah zu mah Fhiíhcah mar Katfllurc`a (usuflly fnnrav`ftam fs “WFK‛5 Juhcdfhs Juhcdf hs at fl. 601=5 601 =5 609?5 609? 5 60945 609 45 603=). 603= ). ]d`s prbjagt prbj agt f`kam f`ka m tb fhflysa gbppar fhm gbppar-nfsam frtaifgts bi tda Afrly Nrbhza Fca fhm afrl`ar afrl `ar par`bms par` bms irbk fll bvar Aurbpa5 Aurbp a5 `t tbbe gfra tb prbv`ma qufht`tft`va fhflysas nut m`m hbt `hgluma fhy gbppar bra sfkplas. @h tbtfl, sbka >> ??? sfkplas wara fhflyzam ny bpt`gfl ak`ss`bh spagtrbsgbpy. ]da fhflysas wara crbupam fggbrm`hc tb tda
664
gbhgahtrft`bhs gbhgahtrft`bhs bi i`va alakahts, fhm tda m`str`nut`bh bi sugd crbups `h t`ka fhm spfga wfs m`sgussam irbk fh frgdfablbc`gfl frgdfablbc`gfl v`awpb`ht. ]d`s gbrpus st`ll sarvas fs tda nfs`s ibr kfhy stum`as bi afrly gbppar fhm nrbhza frtaifgts, fltdbucd fmm`t`bhfl `hibrkft`bh `hglumam `h haw stum`as `s hbw fgqu`ram fgqu`ra m w`td tda dalp bi kbmarh katdbms sugd fs hautrbh fgt`vft`bh fhflys`s br ftbk`g kfss spagtrbkatry Usaa Dírea (6034) ibr fh axplfhft`bh bi tda bpt`gfl ak`ss`bh spagtrbsgbpy fhm `ts prbnlaks, fhm _arh`gef (600?, 99‗93) ibr f sdbrt sukkfry bi tda WFK prbjagt fhm gbkkahts bh gr`t`g`sk bi tda WFK mftfnfsa[. Wbka sats bi haw mftf wara fmmam tb tda mftfnfsa bi tda WFK prbjagt, tda kbst `kpbrtfht bi wd`gd wara tdbsa fgqu`ram mur`hc tda IKZK prbjagt fhm tda fhflysas paribrkam `h Da`malnarc ibr tda Hbrtd-Flp`ha habl`td`g par`bm (tfccam DMK `h tda mftfnfsa5 Erfusa >??7, 66‗67). ]bmfy td`s axtahmam mftfnfsa `s dalm ft tda Gurt-Ahcaldbrh-Zahtruk Frgdíbkatr`a (GAZF) `h Kfhhda`k. @t flsb sarvam fs tda nfs`s ibr f haw stumy rav`s`hc tda WFK mftfnfsa fhm tda `hibrkft`bh bntf`ham bh tda mavalbpkaht bi afrly katfllurcy: tda sb-gfllam Wtuttcfrtar Katfllfhflysahprbjaet (WKF_) wd`gd usam kult`vfr`fta tagdh`quas ibr tda crbup`hc bi katfl fhflysas. Wbka rasults bi td`s wbre wara punl`sdam ny Erfusa (>??7). Frta Fr taif ifgt gtss `h td`s td `s stumy st umy
]da frtaifgts wd`gd ibrk tda nfs`s bi td`s pfpar fra tdbsa irbk ibur gbllagt`bhs tdft dblm Kbhmsaa i`hms: tdbsa ft tda @hst`tuta ibr _rad`stbry ft tda Qh`vars`ty bi Y`ahhf, tda Kusauk bi Hfturfl D`stbry (HDK) `h Y`ahhf, tda Kusauk `h Kbhmsaa fhm Da`kftdfus Yùgelfnruge. @h tda kbst ragaht gbkp`lft`bh frbuhm 3? katfl frtaifgts wara fsgr`nam tb tda Kbhmsaa crbup fhm bvar 69? gfst`hc mav`gas br irfckahts (Bnaramar at fl. 6007). Fll katfl bnjagts fra uhstrft`i`am fhm kbst wara ibuhm ft tda ahm bi tda h`hataahtd gahtury. Frtaifgt Frta ifgtss irbk tdasa tdas a ibur ibu r gbllagt` gbll agt`bhs bhs dfva naah axfk`ham axfk `ham ny H`gbla S`tta `h dar m`plbkf tdas`s ft tda Qh`vars`ty bi Ira`narc `h >??= (S`tta >??=). S`tta usam mftf punl`sdam ny Juhcdfhs at fl. `h tda Wtum`ah zu mah Fhiíhcah mar Katfllurc`a (punl`sdam (punl`sdam natwaah 609? fhm 603=), fhm fmmam lafm `sbtbpa fhm x-rfy ilubrasgahga fhflysas. Wda axglumam sbka frtaifgts irbk tda Wflzefkkarcut lfeas, `h tda fibrakaht`bham fibrakaht`bham ibur gbllagt`bhs, nagfusa bi tda`r d`cd h`geal fhm t`h gbhtahts. Kbst prbnfnly td`s crbup bi `taks `s tb na fssbg`ftam w`td tda Fttarsaa crbup, mft`hc tb tda Afrly Nrbhza Fca. ]bmfy tdara fra s`xty-ibur gdak`gfl fhflysas bi frtaifgts fss`cham tb tda Kbhmsaa crbup fvf`lfnla fhm, bi tdbsa, td`rty-bha gbhtf`h lafm `sbtbpa mftf.
660
Glfss`i`gft`bh bi gdak`gfl fhflysas bi gbppar bnjagts
Gdfrfgtar`sft`bhs bi m`iiaraht gbppar typas fra bntf`ham ny us`hc kafsurakahts bi gdak`gfl alakaht gbhgahtrft`bhs fhm `sbtbpa fnuhmfhga rft`bs. Crbup`hc bi gbppar frtaifgts, ny tda`r gdak`gfl gbkpbs`t`bh, cbas nfge tb tda k`mmla bi tda twaht`atd gahtury wdah Bttb fhm S`ttar (601>) uhmartbbe tda i`rst stumy nfsam bh f lfrca huknar bi fhflysam frtaifgts. W`hga tdah, kugd prbcrass dfs naah kfma w`td fhflyt`gfl katdbms fhm flsb `h tda graft`bh bi crbups us`hc stft`st`gfl tagdh`quas. Lutz fhm _arh`gef (6009) axplf`h tda x-rfy ilubrasgahga fhflyt`gfl katdbms usam `h td`s stumy, fhm _arh`gef (604=) axplf`hs tda hautrbh fgt`vft`bh fhflys`s5 fh `htrbmugt`bh tb tda crbup`hc bi gbppar frtaifgts fggbrm`hc tb tda`r gdak`gfl gbkpbs`t`bh `s c`vah ny _arh`gef (60005 600?, 93‗41). Vuast`bhs gbhgarh`hc gdfhcas `h alakaht gbkpbs`t`bh mur`hc tda skalt`hc prbgass bi bra `htb katfl, fhm mur`hc rakalt`hc (a.c. ibr rai`h`hc) bi gbppar bnjagts, fra flsb fmmrassam `h tdasa stum`as. Ibr f sdbrt axplfhft`bh bh tda usa bi katfl fhflysas ibr rasafrgd bh afrly katfllurcy fhm, aspag`flly, ibr `hibrkft`bh bh tda WFK/WKF_ mftfnfsa fhm gr`t`g`sk bh tda usa bi fhflyt`gfl mftf, saa Erfusa (>??7,6=‗>3) fhm _arh`gef (600?, 40‗00). _arh`gef at fl. (6007, 6=5 I`cura 1.=) v`sufl`sa gbppar typas w`td tda dalp bi gdak`gfl “i`hcarpr`hts‛ `h tda`r wbre bh gbppar frtaifgts irbk tda Nflefhs, fhm f sl`cdt vfr`ft`bh gfh na ibuhm `h tda`r lftar wbre bh Nulcfr`fh gbppar frtaifgts (_arh`gef at fl. 6003, 0>, I`c. 69). ]d`s fpprbfgd wfs flsb usam ny Erfusa (>??7, 06, I`c. =6) fhm ragahtly ny Lutz at fl. (>?6?), wd`la m`sguss`hc bras irbk tda Afstarh Flp`ha Flp` ha K`ttarn K`t tarnarc arc fraf. Fh `htrbmugt `htrb mugt`bh `bh tb tda pr`hg`pl pr`h g`plas as bi lafm `sbtbpa `sb tbpa fhflys`s fhfl ys`s,, ibr prbvahfhga stum`as bi frgdfablbc`gfl gbppar fhm gbppar fllbys, `s prbv`mam ny Cfla fhm Wtbs-Cfla (604> fhm >???). ]da`r kbra ragaht punl`gft`bh flsb `hglumas f masgr`pt`bh bi tda kafsurakaht tagdh`quas fhm f sdbrt axplfhft`bh bi tda usa bi tdraa-`sbtbpa m`fcrfks. ]d`s d`cdl`cdts spag`i`g `sbtbpa rft`bs fs tda nfs`s ibr tda gdfrfgtar`sft`bh gdfrfgtar`sft`bh bi crbups bi katfl bnjagts fhm bra mapbs`ts. Cabgdak`gfl gdfrfgtar`st`gs bi tda gbppar-nfsam frtaifgts bi tda Kbhmsaa crbup
]da gdak`gfl gdfrfgtar`st`gs bi fhy gbppar typa gfh na v`sufl`sam ny us`hc f m`fcrfk sdbw`hc twb alakahts bh lbcfr`tdk`g fxas. Ibr tda m`sguss`bh bi tda gbppar usam ny tda Kbhmsaa crbup, tda alakaht-gbkn`hft`bhs bi s`lvar tb h`geal, fhm frsah`g tb fht`kbhy,
6>?
fra prasahtam (I`cura 1. 7). ]da mftf sgfttar ibr kbst alakahts bvar twb brmars bi kfch`tuma, nut s`lvar gbvars bhly f l`ttla kbra tdfh bha kfch`tuma. W`lvar fhm h`geal fra tda twb kbst s`ch`i`gfht trfga alakahts tdft fllbw tda i`h`sdam gbppar tb na ralftam tb tda br`c`hfl bra. Fggbrm`hcly, bha wbulm `h`t`flly `h`t`fll y gbhgluma tdft tda tdraa sfkplas w`td vary lbw h`geal gbhgahtrft`bhs sdbulm hbt nalbhc tb tda kf`h crbup. Dbwavar, bha dfs tb tfea `htb fggbuht tdft, `h f ralft`valy lfrca huknar bi frtaifgts, bhly uppar l`k`ts gfh na matark`ham ibr n W . s v s F m h f ` H . s v c F s k f r c f ` m t h a k a l a b w t a d ] . s t g f i a t r f a a s m h b K h ` m a s u r a p p b g a l . d t f ` i a r b t s f g ` t s k s ` r b u a t h g a f c r b f d k g b l d f r g a ` d k t a d f r G f 7 . w 1 b a s r d u d c f g ` I a
6>6
tda h`geal gbhgahtrft`bhs. ]dasa frtaifgts plbt flbhc f dbr`zbhtfl l`ha ft ?.?6% H`, wd`gd `s tda matagt`bh l`k`t bi tda AMT^I katdbm tdft wfs usam ibr tdasa sfkplas (I`cura 1.7f). Havartdalass, `t `s `htarast`hc tdft tda tdraa sfkplas w`td lbw h`geal gbhgahtrft`bhs fra gbppar-r`gd fmdas`bhs irbk grug`nlas, fltdbucd tda gbhgahtrft`bhs wara hbrkfl`sam tb gbppar `h brmar tb na gbkpfrfnla w`td tda katfl sfkplas. @t rakf`hs tb na saah wdatdar tday truly raprasaht f m`iiaraht typa bi gbppar br just tda lbwar ahm bi f gbht`hubus h`geal m`str`nut`bh. Frsah`g Frsa h`g fhm fht`kbhy fht` kbhy gfh flsb na usam ibr ralft`hc ralft `hc i`h`sdam i`h` sdam frtaifgts tb bras, nut bhly `i `t gfh na fssukam tdft hb lbss ny vblft`l`sft`bh dfs bggurram. ]d`s `s usuflly tda gfsa wdah bx`m`sam gbppar bras fra ramugam tb tda katfl. Dbwavar, `t dfs naah sdbwh (]ylagbta at fl. 6033, _arh`gef 6000) tdft wdah skalt`hc suli`ma bras wd`gd raqu`ra rbfst`hc naibra ramugt`bh, frsah`g `h pfrt`gulfr gfh na lbst tb f craft axtaht. @h tda frsah`g varsus fht`kbhy m`fcrfk (I`cura 1.7n) tda sfkplas irbk grug`nlas fra flsb ft tda butar amcas bi tda m`str`nut`bh. ]d`s kfy kafh tdft m`iiaraht katfl wfs kaltam `h tda grug`nlas tdfh tdft wd`gd wfs usam `h tda i`h`sdam frtaifgts. Iurtdarkbra, `t `s hbtawbrtdy tdft tda mfccars gbhtf`h systakft`gflly kbra frsah`g (nut hbt kbra fht`kbhy) tdfh kbst bi tda btdar frtaifgts. frtaifgts . ]d`s dfs flrafmy naah bnsarvam ny Bnaramar at fl. (6007) fhm kfy succast tdft frsah`g wfs sbkadbw fmmam tb prbmuga f kftar`fl nattar su`tam tb usa ibr f mfccar (saa nalbw). Fh fltarhft`va fltarhf t`va wfy tb `llustrfta `llust rfta f gbppar typa `s tb usa tda kam`fhs kam`f hs bi tda kafsuram vfluas (]fnla 6) fhm tb plbt tdak us`hc f nfr gdfrt (I`cura 1.=). Fs
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?.?64
]fnla 6: Kam`fh vfluas bi sbka alakaht gbhgahtrft`bhs tdft fra typ`gfl bi tda gbppar frtaifgts bi tda Kbhmsaa gultura crbup.
Frsah`g Frsa h`g glafrly glaf rly stfhms stfhm s but fs tda mbk`hfht mbk` hfht `kpur`ty `kpu r`ty55 btdar btda r gdfrfgtar`st`gs fra tda vary lbw cblm gbhtahts, fhm tda h`geal gbhtaht w`td `ts kam`fh ft ?.?6 %. Avah kbra masgr`pt`va `s f nbxplbt nbxplb t sdbw`hc 4?% bi fll kafsuram vfluas, tda sb-gfllam `htarmag`la rfhca, w`td tda rakf`h`hc kafsurakahts sdbwh ny tda prbtrum`hc wd`sears (I`cura 1.15 ibr f sdbrt `htrbmugt`bh tb tda usa bi nbxplbts `h strugtur`hc stft`st`gfl mftf saa Nfxtar fhm Nuge >???, 904). Ny gbhhagt`hc fhm sdfm`hc tda gbhgahtrft`bh rfhcas `h td`s nbxplbt, bha bntf`hs f v`sufl “i`hcarpr`ht‛ bi tda gbppar typa. ]d`s gdfrt flsb kfeas `t afsy tb gbkpfra m`iiaraht gbppar typas br crbups bi frtaifgts.
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I`cura 1.= Gdak`gfl gdfrfgtar`st`gs bi tda gbppar usam `h Kbhmsaa frtaifgts. L`hafr (tbp) fhm lbcfr`tdk`g (nbbk) nfr gdfrt sdbw`hc tda kam`fh vfluas bi tda gbppar usam `h Kbhmsaa frtaifgts.
I`cura 1.1 Gdak`gfl “hcarpr`ht‛ bi tda gbppar usam `h Kbhmsaa frtaifgts. ]da sdfmam fraf ahgbkpfssas tda fraf bi tda nbxplbts sdbw`hc 4?% bi tda kafsuram vfluas ibr afgd alakaht. ]da prbtrum`hc fhtahhfa `hm`gfta tda rakf`h`hc kafsurakahts5 tda nlfge dbr`zbhtfl nfr `hm`gftas tda kam`fh vflua ibr afgd alakaht. ]da matagt`bh l`k`t ibr salah`uk wfs ?.??6% wd`gd `s flsb tda kam`fh.
6>7
]da gdak`gfl gdfrfgtar`st`gs bi tda gbppar usam ibr tda Kbhmsaa frtaifgts gfh tdus na sukkfr`sam fs dfv`hc d`cd frsah`g gbhtaht (natwaah rbucdly ?.1 fhm 1%), wd`la fht`kbhy, s`lvar fhm h`geal fra bhly prasaht `h vary var y lbw gbhgahtrft`bhs. gbhgahtrft`bhs . ]b ]b prbmuga gbppar gbppa r w`td sugd d`cd frsah`g gbhgahtrft`bhs bha dfs tb fvb`m fh bx`m`s`hc stap, sugd fs rbfst`hc bi sulpd`ma bras, nagfusa td`s lafms tb sunstfht`fl lbssas bi frsah`g ny vblft`l`sft`bh. Fggbrm`hcly, td`s typa bi gbppar kfy mar`va irbk skalt`hc bx`ma gbppar bras w`td f d`cd frsah`gfl gbhtaht. Fltarhft`valy, ralft`valy pura gbppar kfy dfva naah traftam w`td spa`ss, f kftar`fl gbhs`st`hc bi gbppar, `rbh fhm frsah`g, wd`gd kfy dfva naah prbmugam sapfrftaly sapfrf taly irbk bras w`td frsah`g fs f kfjbr gbkpbhaht, sugd fs frsahbpyr`ta (IaFsW). ]d`s prbgass wfs ehbwh fhm prfgt`sam bh f ralft`valy lfrca sgfla `h @rfh (]dbrhtbh at fl. >??0, ^adrah at fl. >?6>). Bi fll tda gbppar frtaifgts fvf`lfnla irbk tda Kbhmsaa crbup, f raprasahtft`va raprasahtft`va salagt`bh wfs fhflysam `h >??7 ibr tda`r lafm `sbtbpa gbkpbs`t`bhs. ]da salagt`bh wfs nfsam bh typblbcy, sb ft lafst bha sfkpla bi afgd frtaifgt typa wfs fhflysam. @h fmm`t`bh, `taks w`td uhusufl gdak`gfl gbkpbs`t`bhs, fs gbkpfram tb Kbhmsaa gbppar prbpar, wara flsb fhflysam. ]da mftf (I`cura 1.9) fra prasahtam `h tda sb-gfllam tdraa-`sbtbpa m`fcrfk. ]da Kbhmsaa gbppar frtaifgts sdbw f ralft`valy skfll sgfttar, sgf ttar, natwaah ?.471 fhm ?.4=1 ibr tda rft`b >?3 >?9 _n/ _n, fhm natwaah >.?31 fhm >.?30 ibr >?4 _n/ >?9_n. Bhly bha sfkpla, fh fwl, plbts ft sbka m`stfhga irbk tda kf`h crbup (`h tda uppar r`cdt gbrhar). Nut s`hga `ts gdak`gfl gbkpbs`t`bh `s aht`raly gbhs`staht w`td tda rast, `t `s st`ll gbhs`maram fs pfrt bi tda crbup. Fs f rasult, bha gfh hbta tdft tda gdak`gfl fs wall fs tda lafm `sbtbp`g gbkpbs`t`bh bi tda gbppar frtaifgts bi tda Kbhmsaa crbup `s gbkpfrft`valy dbkbcahabus. _bss`nla gbppar sburgas bi tda Kbhmsaa crbup
]da cablbc`gfl uh`t `h wd`gd tda kbst `kpbrtfht gbppar mapbs`ts fra lbgftam `s tda Hbrtdarh Craywfgea Zbha nut `t `s kbstly kbstl y raiarram tb just fs tda Craywfgea Zbha (br CSZ). @t gbhs`sts kf`hly bi pflfabzb`g rbges, fhm stratgdas rbucdly irbk Wgdwfz/]`rbl `h tda wast tb ]arh`tz `h tda afst, wdara `t s`hes uhmar tda Y`ahhf Nfs`h (Anhar 6003, 637). ]da CSZ `s sunm`v`mam `htb f wastarh fhm afstarh pfrt, w`td kbst hbh-iarrbus bra mapbs`ts `h tda wast (Wgdulz 6003, 774). ]d`s gfh glafrly na saah bh f kfp sdbw`hc trfgas bi prad`stbr`g k`h`hc `h tda Afstarh Flps (I`cura 1.3). ]da kbst `kpbrtfht gbppar bra mapbs`ts fra lbgftam `h tda bra m`str`gts bi K`ttarnarc fhm E`tznüdal, irbk wd`gd tdara `s flsb plahty bi av`mahga bi prad`stbr`g k`h`hc fhm gbppar prbgass`hc (^`asar fhm Wgdrfttahtdflar 6004-60005 >??=). Fhbtdar wall-ehbwh gbppar bra
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I`cura 1.9 Lafm `sbtbpa rft`bs bi frtaifgts bi tda Kbhmsaa crbup `h tda tdraa-`stbpa m`fcrfk _n , >?3 _n fhm >?9_n.
>?4
I`cura 1.3 Bra m`str`gts `h tda afst Flp`ha fraf (fitar Nfrtalda`k >??3, gftflbc @Y).
6>1
m`str`gt `s Wgdwfz-Nr`xlacc (Cstra`h 60465 Cblmahnarc fhm ^`asar >??=5 Kfrt`hae fhm Wymbw >??=) w`td ifdlbras (kf`hly fht`kbhy ifdlbras) fs tda kf`h bra k`harfls (Dùpphar at fl. >??1). ]dasa bras gfh na sfialy axglumam fs pbss`nla rfw kftar`fl ibr tda Kbhmsaa gbppar frtaifgts, s`hga ifdlbras fra gbkplax gbppar suli`mas gdfrfgtar`sam ny d`cd gbhgahtrft`bhs bi `kpur`t`as, kf`hly bi fht`kbhy, frsah`g, n`skutd fhm btdar alakahts (Kfrt`hae fhm Wymbw >??=, >??). F v`sufl v`su fl gdfrfgta gdfr fgtar`sf r`sft`bh t`bh bi tda fhflyt`g fhfl yt`gfl fl mftf, bntf`ham bntf `ham irbk gdflgbpyr`ta fhm ifdlbras bi tda Afst Flp`ha rac`bh, pfrt`gulfrly irbk tda bra m`str`gts E`tznüdal, K`ttarnarc fhm Wgdwfz, dfs naah punl`sdam ny Gdr`stbibr`m`s at fl. (6044, 171, 171 , I`c. >) fhm, w`td kugd nattar rasblut`bh bi tda k`h`hc m`str`gts, ny Lutz at fl. (>?6?). @h sukkfr`s`hc tda gdak`gfl gdfrfgtar`st`gs bi tda Flp`ha gbppar bras, bha gfh stfta tdft Flp`ha gbppar bras mb gbhtf`h frsah`g nut flwfys `h gbkn`hft`bh w`td fht`kbhy, s`lvar fhm h`geal. @h gbhtrfst tb td`s, tda Kbhmsaa gbppar `s gdfrfgtar`sam ny d`cd frsah`g gbhtahts bhly (I`cura 1. =). ]da haxt stap `s tb lbbe ft tda fvf`lfnla lafm `sbtbpa mftf bi Flp`ha gbppar bras (I`cura 1.4). @t `s bnv`bus tdft tdara `s flsb l`ttla `sbtbp`g gbrralft`bh gbrralft`b h natwaah tda Flp`ha bra `sbtbpa i`alms irbk tda K`ttarnarc rac`bh, tda ifdlbras irbk ]`rbl fhm tda Kbhmsaa crbup frtaifgts. @h td`s gfsa tda vfr`ft`bh bi lafm `sbtbpa rft`bs `h tda frtaifgts sdbulm
I`cura 1. 4 Lafm `sbtbpa rft`bs bi afstarh Flp`ha gbppar bra sfkplas fhm kafsuram `sbtbpa rft`bs bi tda Kbhmsaa Kbhm saa frtaif f rtaifgts. gts. Ifdlbras Ifdl bras irbk tda @hhtf @ hhtfll fitar fit ar Dùppha Dù ppharr at fl. (>??1 ( >??1,, p. 7?1) 7?1).. Bra sfkplas sfkp las irbk i rbk tda t da K`arnar K`a rnarcc fraf fr af fs `h Lu L u at a t fl. (>?6 (>?6?). ?).
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flsb sdbw f sgfttar kugd kbra flbhc tda l`has mai`ham ny tda Afst Flp`ha Flp` ha gbppar bras. bras . ]d`s gbrrbnb gbr rbnbrfta rftass tda gbhglus gbhg lus`bh `bh mrfwh irbk tda caharfl gdak`gfl gdfrfgtar`st`gs bi Afst Flp`ha gbppar mapbs`ts. Fs f rasult, tda Afst Flp`ha gbppar bras gfh ibr hbw na sfialy axglumam fs pbss`nla sburgas ibr tda Kbhmsaa gbppar. Wbutdafstarh gbppar sburgas fhm tda Kbhmsaa crbup
@t dfs flwfys naah succastam tdft katfllurcy sprafm `htb gahtrfl Aurbpa irbk tda sbutdafst fhm td`s `s flsb `kpl`am ny tda m`str`nut`bh bi typblbc`gflly s`k`lfr frtaifgts (saa, ibr axfkpla, tda frt`glas fnbut afrly mfccars br —spagtfgla sp`rfls‐ ny Kftusgd`e 6004, 6009). @t `s tdaraibra `kpbrtfht tb axfk`ha tda cabgdak`gfl gdfrfgtar`st`gs bi sbutdafstarh gbppar sburgas, sugd fs tda mftf punl`sdam ny _arh`gef at fl. (6007, 6003) bh gbppar mapbs`ts `h Warn`f fhm Nulcfr`f, fhm ny Wgdra`har (>??3) bh gbppar mapbs`ts `h tda Wlbvfe`fh Drbh vfllay. _arh`gef at fl. (6007) fttakptam tb fhswar tda quast`bh bi wdatdar tda gdflgbl`td`g k`ha ft ^umhf Clfvf gbulm dfva naah tda sburga bi gbhtakpbrfry gbppar frtaifgts `h Warn`f. @h brmar tb mb td`s, a`cdty-h`ha gdflgbl`td`g gbppar frtaifgts irbk Warn`f, fhm bra sfkplas irbk Warn`fh gbppar bra mapbs`ts, wara fhflysam ibr tda`r gdak`gfl gbkpbs`t`bhs fhm lafm `sbtbpa rft`bs. @t wfs gbhv`hg`hcly sdbwh tdft kbst bi tda Warn`fh frtaifgts gbulm na ralftam tb tda lfrca mapbs`t bi Kfjmfhpae fhm hbt, fs dfm naah axpagtam, tb tda gdflgbl`td`g k`ha ft ^umhf Clfvf. Bh tda nfs`s bi typblbc`gfl mft`hc tda gbppar frtaifgts wara fss`cham tb tdraa gdrbhblbc`gfl dbr`zbhs tarkam “afrly‛ (gbrraspbhm`hc tb Y`hċf-_lbċh`e @@F br afrl`ar), “`htarkam`fta‛ (gbrraspbhm`hc tb Nbmrbcearasztúr/NunfhjDuk @ f) fhm “lfta‛ (gbrraspbhm`hc tb Nfmah-Ebstblfg br lftar5 _arh`gef at fl. 6007, 61, ]fnla =). ]da trfga alakaht pfttarhs bi tdasa frtaifgts gbulm na glfss`i`am `htb savah crbups, wd`gd wara vary gbhs`staht w`td tda`r gdrbhblbc`gfl fss`chkaht `h tdft flkbst fll frtaifgts nalbhc`hc tb tda sfka gdak`gfl glustar wara flsb fss`cham tb tda sfka gdrbhblbc`gfl dbr`zbh (_arh`gef at (_arh`gef at fl. 6007, 600 7, 69). 69 ). ]wb ]wb bi tdasa glustars (hbs. = fhm 3) gbkpr`sa `taks w`td vary d`cd frsah`gfl gbhtahts fhm m`iiar kf`hly `h tda`r h`geal gbhgahtrft`bhs. Fll frtaifgts `h tdbsa glustars fra mftam tb tda Nfmah-Ebstblfg dbr`zbh, wd`gd `s rbucdly gbhtakpbrfry w`td tda Kbhmsaa gultura crbup. @t `s hbtawbrtdy tdft tda gdak`gfl glustar hb. = kftgdas vary glbsaly tda gbppar ibuhm `h tda Kbhmsaa frtaifgts. Dbwavar, `t wfs hbt pbss`nla tb fss`ch td`s gdak`gfl crbup tb fhy bi tda fhflysam gbppar mapbs`ts.
6>3
]d`s stumy wfs lftar axtahmam tb Nulcfr`f (_arh`gef at fl. 6003) wdara tda sagbhm ehbwh gdflgbl`td`g gbppar k`ha `s lbgftam ft F` Nuhfr. Fltbcatdar, 771 frtaifgts ibr wd`gd gdak`gfl fhm `sbtbpa mftf wfs fvf`lfnla wara fcf`h crbupam ny glustar fhflys`s `htb h`ha kfjbr gdak`gfl glustars, fhm tda lafm `sbtbpa rft`bs wara usam tb mai`ha alavah “`sbtbpa crbuplats‛. ]dasa wara tdah gbkpfram w`td lafm `sbtbpa rft`bs bi Nulcfr`fh gbppar bra mapbs`ts (Fkbv fhm Yćebvf 600=). ]da kbst `kpbrtfht rasult wfs tda fss`chkaht bi twb “`sbtbpa crbuplats‛, tdft flsb ibrkam f gdak`gflly dbkbcahbus crbup br gdak`gfl glustar, tb tda lfrca gbppar mapbs`t bi Kfjmfhpae `h Warn`f fhm tb F` Nuhfr `h Nulcfr`f. Sd`la tda axplb`tft`bh bi F` Nuhfr wfs flrafmy ehbwh irbk frgdfablbc`gfl axgfvft`bhs (Čarhygd 6034), k`h`hc fgt`v`ty irbk ft lafst s`x tdbusfhm yafrs fcb ft Kfjmfhpae wfs tdus `hm`ragtly gbhi`rkam. F iurtdar gdflgbl`td`g k`h`hc gahtra wfs flsb pbstulftam `h tda rac`bh bi Kamh` ^`m, sbutd bi Nurcfs, ft tda Nulcfr`fh Nlfge Waf gbfst. @h I`cura 1.0, f tdraa-`sbtbpa m`fcrfk bi tda kbst ralavfht bra i`alms `h Warn`f fhm Nulcfr`f `s `hm`gftam ny all`psas, w`td tda bra `sbtbpa i`alms bi Kfjmfhpae fhm F` Nuhfr sl`cdtly bvarlfpp`hc. ]da lafm `sbtbpa rft`bs bi tda gbppar frtaifgts irbk Kbhmsaa fra hbt gbhs`staht w`td F` Nuhfr fhm sdbw bhly f sl`cdt bvarlfpp`hc w`td tda Kfjmfhpae bra `sbtbpa i`alm. ]da gdak`gfl gdfrfgtar`st`gs bi nbtd mapbs`ts fra flsb glafrly m`iiaraht irbk tda Kbhmsaa frtaifgts (I`cura 1.6?) sb tdft tda gbkn`ham av`mahga, bi gdak`gfl fhm lafm `sbtbpa mftf, axglumas nbtd bggurrahgas fs sburgas ibr tda Kbhmsaa gbppar. @hg`mahtflly, tda sfka l`ha bi frcukaht flsb fppl`as tb tda Wlbvfe`fh gbppar mapbs`ts `h tda Drbh vfllay (Wgdra`har >??3). Fltdbucd Fltd bucd ft prasaht pras aht tdara `s hb gbppar gbpp ar mapbs`t mapb s`t ehbwh `h sbutdafstarh Aurbpa tdft kftgdas tda Kbhmsaa frtaifgts `h tda`r gdak`gfl fhm lafm `sbtbpa gdfrfgtar`st`gs, tdara `s f crbup bi fhflysam frtaifgts irbk tda Nflefhs wd`gd sdbw tda sfka gdak`gfl gbkpbs`t`bh fs tda Kbhmsaa gbppar `taks. I`cura 1.66 sdbws tda gbkn`ham frtaifgts bi gdak`gfl glustar hb. = fhm hb. 3 wd`gd wara pfrt bi tda stumy stum y ny _arh`gef _arh`gef at fl. (6007). (600 7). ]dasa twb glustars fra flsb gbppar typas w`td uhusuflly d`cd frsah`g gbhtaht. Qhibrtuhftaly, fs kaht`bham fnbva, fnbva, `t wfs hbt pbss`nla tb l`he td`s gdak`gfl crbup tb fhy spag`i`g mapbs`t `h sbutdafstarh Aurbpa, sb tda prbvahfhga bi td`s spag`i`g katfl typa rakf`hs uhehbwh. ]da cabcrfpd`gfl m`str`nut`bh bi frsah`gfl gbppar `h tda iburtd k`llahh`uk NG gb`hg`mas w`td tda m`str`nut`bh bi tda katfl typas fs sdbwh `h I`cura 1.6>. ]da m`str`nut`bh bi tda gbppar sp`rfls, tda sb-gfllam “dbbeam sp`rfls bi tda Dl`hseb typa‛ (Kftusgd`e 6009, >6, I`c. 6?) tb wd`gd tda Kbhmsaa gbppar sp`rfls nalbhc, ibrks fh fraf stratgd`hc irbk Duhcfry `h tda afst tb tda Nbmahsaa `h tda wast.
6>4
I`cura 1.0 Lafm `sbtbpa rft`bs bi frtaifgts bi tda Kbhmsaa crbup `h tdraa-`sbtbpa m`fcrfk >?4 _n, >?3 _n fhm >?9 _n `h gbkpfr`sbh w`td bra alms irbk sbutdafstarh gbppar sburgas fggbrm`hc tb _arh`gef at fl. (6007) fhm (6003).
I`cura 1.6? Gbkpfr`sbh bi tda gdak`gfl gdfrfgtar`st`gs w`td nbxplbts bi tda gbppar usam `h tda Kbhmsaa frtaifgts w`td tdbsa bi tda gbppar bras fgqu`ram irbk tda gdflgbl`t gdfl gbl`td`g d`g k`has ft F` Nuhfr N uhfr fhm Kfjmfhpae. ]da bra mftf wara ragflgulftam tb k`k`g tda gbkpbs`tbh bi tda gbppar tdft wbulm rasult irbk skalt`hc tdak. Gdak`gfl gdfrfgtar`st`gs bi F` Nuhfr fhm Kfjmfhpae fggbrm`hc tb _arh`gef at fl. (6007) fhm (6003).
6>0
I`cura 1.66 Warn`fh frtaifgts irbk gbkn`ham glustars hb. = fhm hb.3 fggbrm`hc tb _arh`gef at fl. (6007) gbkpfram w`td gbppar irbk Kbhmsaa frtaifgts.
]da kfp flsb sdbws tda m`str`nut`bh bi Gbppar Fca mfccars (fitar Kftusgd`e 6004, >>7, I`c. >>=). Kftusgd`e glfss`i`am fll nut bha bi tda mfccars bi tda Kbhmsaa crbup fs mfccars bi tda Lbvfs vfr`fht bi tda Gugutah` typa. ]da rakf`h`hc mfccar wfs glfss`i`am glfss`i` am fs f Kbhmsaa Kbhmsaa vfr`fht bi tda Gugutah` typa. Fll Gugutah` mfccars mfta tb tda mavalbpam sbutdafstarh Gbppar Fca (Kftusgd`e 6004, >71‗>74). Fggbrm`hc Fggbr m`hc tb Kftusgd`e Kftus gd`e,, tda r`vattam r`va ttam mfccars mfcc ars fra f mavalbpk mava lbpkaht aht bi tda Gfrpftdb-Nflefh Katfllurc`gfl Katfllurc `gfl _rbv`hga fs mai`ham ny Gdarhyed (Kftusgd`e 6004, >=7). Mfccars bi tda Kbhmsaa vfr`fht fra hbt fs fnuhmfht fs tdbsa bi tda Lbvfs typa. ]day fra gbhgahtrftam flbhc tda hbrtdarh _`amkbht bi tda Flps, axtahm`hc tb tda afst `h tda m`ragt`bh bi tda Gfrpftd`fh Kbuhtf`hs, wd`la tda m`str`nut`bh bi tda Lbvfs typa ibllbws tda gbursa bi tda Mfhuna fhm sarvas fcf`h tb succast fh br`c`h `h sbutdafst Aurbpa. Aurbpa. ]dara fra twb pbss`nla axplfhft`bhs ibr tda Kbhmsaa-typa gbppar na`hc kf`hly m`str`nutam bvar gahtrfl fhm sbutdafstarh Aurbpa, fhm ibr na`hc qu`ta gdak`gflly fhm `sbtbp`gflly dbkbcahbus: a`tdar tda gbppar sburga tdft prbmugam sugd katfl dfs hbt yat naah `maht`i`am, br f haw tagdhblbcy dfm naah `htrbmugam - hfkaly tda `htaht`bhfl fmm`t`bh bi frsah`g tb tda flrafmy fvf`lfnla gbppar. Fltdbucd sugd f prbgass dfs prasahtly bhly naah `maht`i`am `h @rfh ft tda ahm bi tda iburtd k`llahh`uk NG, `t `s hbt `hgbhga`vfnla tdft `t wfs `hvahtam afrl`ar fhm kfy dfva c`vah r`sa tb tda pdahbkahbh bi frsah`gfl gbppar na`hc tda mbk`hfht katfl typa bi tda iburtd k`llahh`uk NG
67?
I`cura 1.6> Mfccars bi Gugutah` typa - vfr`fht Lbvfs F fhm N, vfr`fht Kbhmsaa fhm dbbeam sp`rfls bi Dl`hseb typa fs glfss`am ny Kftusgd`e (6004) fhm (6009). _lbam frtaifgts: ibr dbbeam sp`rfls bi Dl`hseb typa saa Kftusgd`e 6009, 7=-71, hbs. >7-775 Mfccars l`stam `h Kftusgd`e 6004, >=3->=05 frtaifgts sdbwh dara: Mfccars bi Gugutah` typa - vfr`fht Lbvfs F: Hb. 9F, 3F, >1, 76, 7>, 79, =>, =7, =1, =95 vfr`fht Lbvfs N: Hb. >0, 71, 70, =?5 vfr`fht Kbhmsaa: Hb. 6,>, =, 9F, 0, 6?, 66, 67.
irbk @rfh tb Aurbpa. @h td`s gfsa, `t gbulm flsb na axplf`ham ny tda ifgt tdft, axgapt ibr frsah`g, tda Kbhmsaa-typa gbppar `s ralft`valy pura fhm gdak`gflly dbkbcahbus. ]da fmm`t`bh bi frsah`g, a.c. ny gb-kalt`hc w`td spa`ss, wbulm hbt fltar tda trfga alakaht pfttarh s`ch`i`gfhtly, axgapt ibr frsah`g, nut gbulm gdfhca tda lafm `sbtbpa rft`bs nagfusa bi tda lbw lafm gbhgahtrft`bhs bi tda flrafmy fvf`lfnla gbppar. @i bha ibllbws td`s succast`bh tdah ft lafst Kfjmfhpae kfy st`ll raprasaht f pbss`nla sburga nagfusa bi tda d`cd-pur`ty gbppar `t prbv`mam, fhm flsb nagfusa `ts lafm `sbtbpa rft`bs, ft lafst pfrt`flly, bvarlfp w`td tda gbppar bnjagts bi tda Kbhmsaa crbup irbk bur sfkpla su`ta. Gbhglus`bhs
]da gdak`gfl fhm lafm `sbtbp`g gdfrfgtar`st`gs bi tda gbppar usam ny tda Kbhmsaa crbup fra ralft`valy dbkbcahabus. ]da mbk`hfht alakaht `s frsah`g sb tdft tda tark “frsah`gfl gbppar‛ `s kbst
676
fpprbpr`fta. fpprbpr`fta. Gbkpfr`sbh bi gdak`gfl fhm `sbtbpa mftf irbk Afstarh Flp`ha Flp` ha bras w`td tda “Kbhmsaa “Kbhms aa gbppar‛ gbpp ar‛ sdbws tdft tdara `s hb gbrralft`bh, fhm tdft Afst Flp`ha gbppar bras kust na axglumam fs pbss`nla sburgas, ft lafst tdbsa tdft dfva naah fhflysam sb ifr. Fltdbucd Fltd bucd tda m`str`n m`s tr`nut` ut`bh bh bi frsah`gf frsa h`gfll gbppar gbpp ar `h tda iburtd ibu rtd k`llahh`uk NG, fhm tda m`str`nut`bh bi tda katfl typas tdft fra gdfrfgtar`st`g bi tda Kbhmsaa crbup, dfva f m`st`hgt tahmahgy tbwfrms sbutdafstarh Aurbpa tdara `s fs yat hb cbbm gbrralft`bh bi `sbtbpa mftf w`td ehbwh gbppar mapbs`ts irbk tdara. Dbpaiully, iutura rasafrgd `h tda rac`bh, fhm haw fhm matf`lam wbre bh tda `maht`iy`hc fhm kfpp`hc frtaifgts kfma bi frsah`gfl gbppar s`k`lfr tb tdbsa usam ny tda Kbhmsaa crbup, w`ll sdam iurtdar l`cdt bh tda quast`bh bi br`c`h. ^aiarahgas Fkbv, N.C. N.C . fhm f hm Yæebvf, Y. H. H . 600=, 6 00=, F sukkf s ukkfry ry bi lafm `sbtbpa `sbt bpa mftf ibr bra mapbs`ts mapbs`t s `h Nulcfr`f. Nulc fr`f. @h: D. ]bmbrbvf ]bmbrbvf fhm _. _bpbv (ams.) _rbnlak` hf hfj-rfhhftf katflurc`jf. Wbi`f, 6>>-674. Fhtl-S Fhtl -Sa`sa a`sar, r, S. >??9, W`laxpl W`l axplftta fttahh fls Cruhmibrk Cruhmi brk iür Caríta Carí ta `h mar Wtft`bh Wtft` bh Waa/Kbhmsaa. @h: F. @h: F. ErahhEra hh-Laan, Laan, E. Crùkar, Crù kar, fhm _. Wtfmlar Wtfm lar (ams.) (ams .) A`h Lígdalh iür m`a Juhcsta`hza`t: Fuscawídlta Na`tríca zuk Habl`td`euk Bstùstarra`gds. Iastsgdr`it iür Al`sfnatd ^uttefy . S`ah: Ùstarra`gd`sgda Casallsgdfit iür Qr- uhm Irüdcasgd`gdta, 09‗6?7. Nfrtalda`k, K. >??3, M`a ^blla mar Katfllurc`a `h vbrcasgd`gdtl`gdah Casallsgdfitah: Wbz`bùebhbk`sgda uhm eulturd`stbr`sgda Fspaeta mar ^assburgahhutzuhc5 a`h Yarcla`gd zw`sgdah Fhmflus`ah, Zyparh uhm mak Hbrmflpahrfuk . ^fdmah/Sasti.: Kfr`a La`mbri. Nfxtar, K. fhm Nuge, G. >???, Mftf Dfhml`hc fhm Wtft`st`gfl Fhflys`s. @h : A. G`l`nartb fhm C. Wpbtb (ams.) Kbmarh Kbmar h fhflyt`g fhfl yt`gfl fl katdbms katd bms `h frt fhm S`lay, 946‗3=9. 946‗3 =9. frgdfablbcy . Haw Pbre: S`lay, N`hsta`har, F. fhm ^upragdtsnarcar, A.K. (ams.) >??9, Kbhmsaa-Eul Kbhms aa-Eultur tur uhm Fhflysa mar W`laxfrtaifeta vbh Waa fk Kbhmsaa . L`hz: Kfc`strft mar Lfhmasdfuptstfmt Lfhmasdfuptstfmt L`hz. Nugdvflmae, K. >??3, Frgdablb Frgda blbc`ge c`geûû ftlfs ftlf s prfv đeà Avrbpy: Ftlfs zur _ríd`stbr`sgdah Frgdíblbc`a Aurbpfs . _rfcua: Qh`vars`tf Efrlbvf . Gdbhmrbc`fhh`, Gdbhmrbc`fh h`, G., Wgdk`mt, ^. fhm Wgdha`mar, J. 6049, _flyhblbc`sgda uhm sam`kahtblbc`sgda Qhtarsugduhcah fh Nbdrprbi`lah mar habl`td`sgdah Wtft`bh Fuidfk @ fk Fttarsaa (Bnarùstarra`gd). Frgdfablb Frgdfa blbc`f c`f Fustr`fgf Fustr `fgf 3?: >73‗>=9. Gdr`stbibr`m`s, F., _arh`gef, A. fhm Wgd`gelar, D. 6044, Bstflp`ha Eupiarlfcarstíttah uhm `dra Namautuhc iür m`a príd`stbr`sgda Katfllcaw`hhuhc Katfllcaw`hhuhc `h K`ttalaurbpf. K`ttalaurbpf. Jfdrnugd Jfdrnu gd mas ^ùk`sgd^ùk` sgd-Carkf Carkfh`sg h`sgdah dah Zahtrflkus Zaht rflkusauks auks Kf`hz Kf`h z , 71(>): 177‗179.
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Čarhygd, H.A. 6034, Cbrhbja malb ` katfllurc`jf v mravhajŦaj Nblcfr``. Wbi`f. Gzagd, E. 6040, Nastfhmsfuihfdka mas Qhtarwfssareulturarnas `h mah Wflzefkkarcutsaah. Iuhmnar`gdta fus Ùstarra`gd >4: >3‗7>. Mwbrsey, G. fhm ^a`tkf`ar, ]. >??7, “Wflzefkkarcut ralbfmam‛ A`h Frna`tsnar`gdt zur Eurz`hvahtfr`sft`bh mar príd`stbr`sgdah Waauiars`amluhcah `h Kbhm- uhm Fttarsaa. Hfgdr`gdtahnlftt Frna`tsera`s Qhtarwfssarfrgdíblbc`a 6?: 16‗19. Mwbrsey, G. fhm ^a`tkf`ar, ]. >??=, Kbkaht, mf wfr mbgd hbgd wfs! Hauas zur _ifdlnfufrgdíblbc`a `k Kbhm- uhm Fttarsaa 641=->??=: Frgdíb lbc`a `a Ùstarra`gd Ùsta rra`gds s 61(>): 61? Jfdra Ahtmageuhc mar _ifdlnfutah. Frgdíblbc 61(>): =‗61. Anhar, I. I. 6003, M`a cablbc`sgdah A`hda`tah Ùstarra`gds Ùstarra `gds uhm `dra ^bdstbiia. @h: L. Sanar, @. Garhy, fhm S.A. _atrfsgdage (ams.) Dfhmnugd mar Lfcarstíttah mar Arza, @hmustr`ak`harfla uhm Aharc`arbdstbiia Ùstarra`gds: Arlíutaruhcah zur katfllbcahat`sgdah Efrta vbh Ùstarra`gd 6 : 1?? ??? uhtar A`hnaz`aduhc mar @hmustr`ak`harfla uhm Aharc`arbdstbiia U`h Cablbc`sgda Nuhmasfhstflt, Nuhmasfhst flt, kakbr`fk Sfltdar Sfltdar Ak`l _atrfsgdage[ . S`ah: Cablbc`sgda =0‗>>0. Irfhz, L. fhm Sah`hcar, J. 60>3, M`a Iuhma fus mah príd`stbr`sgdah _ifdlnfutah `k Kbhmsaa . S`ah: Fhtdrbpblbc`sgda Casallsgdfit. Cfla, H.D. fhm Wtbs-Cfla, Z.F. 604>, Nrbhza Fca gbppar sburgas `h tda Kam`tarrfhafh. Wg`ahga >69: >69: 66-60. Cfla, H.D. fhm Wtbs-Cfla, Z.F. >???, Lafm @sbtbpa Fhflys`s fppl`am tb _rbvahfhga Wtum`as. @h: A. G`l`nartb fhm C. Wpbtb (ams.) Kbmarh Kbmar h fhflyt`gfl katdbms `h frt fhm frgdfablbcy . Haw Pbre: S`lay, 1?7‗14=. Cblmahnarc, C. fhm ^`asar, N. >??=, M`a Ifdlarzlfcarstíttah vbh Wgdwfz/ Nr`xlacc (Hbrmt`rbl) - A`h wa`taras Zahtruk urcasgd`gdtl`gdar Eupiarprbmuet`bh `h mah ùstarra`gd`sgdah Flpah. Flpaheupiar ^fka malla Flp`. Mar Fhsgdh`tt 63, 71-1>. Cùtz`hcar, K. >??4, M`a Wta`hrbdstbiia mar Kbhmsaana`la `h mar Wtum`ahsfkkluhc mas @hst`tutas iür Qr- uhm Irüdcasgd`gdta fh mar Qh`vars`tít S`ah. Frgdíblbc Frgdíb lbc`a `a Ùstarra`gds Ùstar ra`gds,, K`tta`lu K`tt a`luhcah hcah mar 60 (>): 70‗=>. Ùstarra`gd`sgdah Casallsgdfit iür Qr- uhm Irüdcasgd`gdta 60 Crùkar, E. >??9, Ybk Wp`hhah uhm Sanah, Ilagdtah uhm Zw`rhah: D`hwa`sa zur habl`td`sgdah ]axt`ltagdh`e fh ùstarra`gd`sgdah Iuhmstallah. @h: F. @h: F. Erahh-La Erah h-Laan, an, E. Crùkar, fhm _. Wtfmlar Wtfml ar (ams.) (ams .) A`h Lígdalh iür m`a Juhcsta`hza`t: Fuscawídlta Na`tríca zuk Habl`td`euk Bstùstarra`gds. Iastsgdr`it iür Al`sfnatd ^uttefy . S`ah: Ùstarra`gd`sgda Casallsgdfit iür Qr- uhm Irüdcasgd`gdta, 633‗60>. Cstra`h, _. 6046, _ríd`stbr`sgdar Narcnfu fk Nurcstfll na` Wgdwfz (]`rbl). Yarùiiahtl`gduhcah mas `rblar Lfhmaskusauks Iarm`hfhmauk 96: >1‗=9.
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Dírea, D. 6034, _rbnlaka mar bpt`sgdah Ak`ss`bhsspaetrflfhflysa `h mar Qrcasgd`gdtsibrsgduhc. _ríd`stbr`sgda Za`tsgdr`it 17: 17: 691‗>39. Dùpphar, N., Nfrtalda`k, K., Du`jskfhs, K., Erfuss, ^., Kfrt`hae, E.-_., _arh`gef, A., Wgdwfn, ^. >??1, _rad`stbr`g gbppar prbmugt`bh `h tda @hh vfllay, Fustr`f, fhm tda afrl`ast gbppar `h gahtrfl Aurbpa. =3: >07-761. Frgdfabka Frgdf abkatry try =3: Juhcdfhs, Juhcdf hs, W., Ela`h, Ela` h, D., D ., Wgdaui W gdauiala, ala, A. 601= 6 01=,, Qhtarsug Qhta rsugduhc duhcah ah zur z ur EupiarEupiar uhm Irüdnrbhza Irüdnrbhzaza`t za`t Wümmautsgdlfhms. Nar`gdt mar ^ùk`sgd-Carkfh`sgdah ^ùk`sgd-Carkfh `sgdah Ebkk`ss`bh 7=: 33-66=. Katfl lfhflysa lysahh Juhcdfhs, Juhcdf hs, W., Wfhcka`st Wfhck a`star, ar, A., fhm Wgdrbama Wgdr bamar, r, K. 609?, 609? , Katfllfhf eupiarza`tl`gdar uhm iruadnrbhzaza`tl`gdar Nbmahiuhma fus Aurbpf . Narl`h: Kfhh.
Juhcdfhs, Juhcdf hs, W., Wfhcka`st Wfhc ka`star, ar, A., fhm Wgdrbamar, Wgdr bamar, K. 6094f, 6094 f, Eupiar uhm Nrbhza `h mar irüdah Katfllza`t Aurbpfs. Nfhm 6: M`a Kftar`flcruppah na`k Wtfhm vbh 6>??? Fhflysah. Narl`h: Kfhh. Juhcdfhs, Juhcdf hs, W., Wfhcka`st Wfhck a`star, ar, A., fhm Wgdrbamar, Wgdr bamar, K. 6094n, Eupiar uhm Nrbhza `h mar irüdah Katfllza`t Aurbpfs. Nfhm >: fialh, fnallah, M`fcrfkka, Efrtah. Narl`h: Kfhh. Juhcdfhs, Juhcdf hs, W., Wfhcka`st Wfhc ka`star, ar, A., fhm Wgdrbamar, Wgdrbam ar, K. 6094g, 6094 g, Eupiar uhm Nrbhza `h mar irüdah Katfllza`t Aurbpfs. Nfhm 7: Eftflbc mar Fhflysah Hr. 0416??=?. Narl`h: Kfhh. Juhcdfhs, Juhcdf hs, W., Wfhcka`s Wfhc ka`star, tar, A., Wgdrbamar, Wgdrb amar, K. 603=. 603= . Eupiar uhm Nrbhza `h mar irüdah Katfllza`t Aurbpfs. Nm. =: Eftflbc mar Fhflysah Hr. 6??=6 >>??? >>? ?? (k`t Hfgduhtars Hfgduh tarsugdu ugduhcah hcah marFhflys marFh flysah ah Hr. 6-6??=? 6-6 ??=?)). Narl`h: Kfhh. Erfusa, ^. >??7, Wtum`ah zur eupiar- uhm irüdnrbhzaza`tl`gdah Katfllurc`a zw`sgdah Efrpftahnageah uhm Bstsaa . ^fdmah, Sasti: Kfr`a La`mbri. Erahh-Laan, F. >??9, Gdrbhblbc`atfnalla mas Habl`td`euks `h Bstùstarra`gd. @h: F. @h: F. Erahh E rahh-Laan, -Laan, E. Crùkar Crù kar fhm _. Wtfmla Wt fmlarr (ams.) ( ams.) A`h Lígdalh iür m`a Juhcsta`hza`t: Fuscawídlta Na`tríca zuk Habl`td`euk Bstùstarra`gds. Iastsgdr`it iür Al`sfnatd ^uttefy . S`ah: Ùstarra`gd`sgda Casallsgdfit iür Qr- uhm Irüdcasgd`gdta, 601. Euhza, S. 6046, Earfk`e mar _ifdlnfuarh: Nar`gdta ünar Qhtarsugduhcah mar juhcsta`hza`tl`gdah ùpiara` fk Kbhmsaa . L`hz: Yarlfc Bnarùstarra`gd`sgdar Kusaflvara`h. Lbgdhar, K. 6003, Wtum`ah zur _ifdlnfuibrsgduhc `h Ùstarra`gd. Kftar`fl`ah 6. M`a _ifdlnfustft`bhah mas Kbhmsaas. Earfk`e . S`ah: Ùstarra`gd`sgda Fefmak`a Fefm ak`a mar S`ssah S `ssahsgdfi sgdfitah tah . Lutz, J. fhm _arh`gef, A. 6009, Aharcy m`spars`va T-rfy ilubrasgahga fhflys`s bi fhg`aht gbppar fllbys: akp`r`gfl vfluas ibr prag`s`bh fhm fggurfgy. Frgdfabkat 74(>): 767-7>7. Frgdf abkatry ry 74(>):
67=
Lutz, J., _arh`gef, A., _`ls, ^. >?6?, Cabgdak`sgda Gdfrfetar`s`aruhc mar Arzvbrebkkah fk K`ttarnarc uhm `h E`tznüdal. @h: E. Baccl (am.) M`a Casgd`gdta mas Narcnfus `h `rbl uhm sa`hah fhcrahzahmah Can`atah: _rbgaam`hcs zuk 7. K`lastbha-Kaat`hc mas WIN-D`KF vbk >7. - >9.6?.>? >9.6 ?.>??4 ?4 `h W`lnartf W`lna rtfl l . @hhsnruge: @hhsnruge Qh`vars`ty _rass, 631‗646. Kfrt`hae E. _. _. fhm Wymbw Wym bw,, S. S. >??=, Irüdnrbhzaza`tl`gda Irüdnrbhzaza`tl` gda Eupiarkatfllurc`a Eupiarkatfl lurc`a `k Qhtar`hhtfl (Hbrmt`rbl). ^bdstbiinfs`s, frgdíblbc`sgda uhm frgdíbkatfllurc`sgda Naiuhma. @h: C. Sa`scarnar fhm C. Cblmahnarc Flpah eupiar ar - ^fka malla mall a Flp`: fcuhc fcuh c “Qrcasgd` “Qrca sgd`gdtl gdtl`gda `gda (ams.) Flpaheupi Eupiarcaw`hhuhc `k Flpahrfuk‛, fh mar Qh`vars`tít @hhsnruge, vbk =. - 4. Betbnar 6001 . Nbgduk: Mt. Narcnfu-Kusauk, 600‗>66. Kftusgd`e, @. 6009, Nr`llah- uhm Dfeahsp`rflah mar irüdah Katfllza`t Aurbpfs. Carkfh`f 3= 3= (6): 6‗=7. Kftusgd`e, @. 6004, Eupiariuhma uhm Katfllurc`a-Nalaca, zucla`gd a`h Na`trfc zur Casgd`gdta mar eupiarza`tl`gdah Mblgda K`ttal-, Bst- uhm Wümbstaurbpfs. @h: K. Kf`hnarcar fhm F. N`llfknbz (ams.) Mfs Kbbrmbri vbh ^auta: Frgdíblbc`sgda Qhtarsugduhcah `h mar juhchabl`td`sgdah Wtfu iah: ]arfquf ]arfquf GF_, GF_, >?3‗76>. >? 3‗76>. W`amluhc ^auta-Wgdbrrahr`am . Wtfuiah: Kbrcfh, F. 6047, M`a W`laxpia`lsp`tzah vbh Kbhmsaa. Frgdfablb Frgdf ablbc`f c`f 93: 6‗01. Fustr`fgf Fustr `fgf 93: KbÒlar, C. 601=, Hauas zuk vbrcasgd`gdtl`gdah vbrcasgd`gdtl`g dah _ifdlnfu `k Eautsgdfgdar Waa. Gfr`htd`f @ 6==: 6==: 39‗6?0. Kugd, K. 643>, Arstar Nar`gdt ünar m`a Fuii`hmuhc a`has _ifdlnfus `k Kbhmsaa. K`tta`lu K`tt a`luhcah hcah mar Fhtdrbpb Fhtdr bpblbc lbc`sgd `sgdah ah Casallsgdf Casall sgdfit it `h S`ah >: >?7‗>?9. Kugd, K. 643=, Zwa`tar Nar`gdt ünar _ifdlnfuibrsgduhcah `h mah Bnarùstarra`gd`sgdah Waah. K`tta`lu K`tt a`luhcah hcah mar Fhtdrbpb Fhtd rbpblbc` lbc`sgdah sgdah Casallsgdfit `h S`ah =: >07‗7?4. Kugd, K. 6439, Mr`ttar Nar`gdt ünar _ifdlnfuibrsgduhcah `k Kbhmsaa (6431-39). K`tta`luh K`tta `luhcah cah mar Fhtdrbpb Fhtd rbpblbc lbc`sgd `sgdah ah Casallsgdf Casall sgdfit it `h S`ah 9: 696‗60=. Hauh`hcar, D. fhm _`tt`bh`, ^. 609?, Zur Dareuhit mas irüdah Eupiars `h Bnarùstarra`gd. Frgdfablb Frgdfa blbc`f c`f Fustr`fgf Fustr `fgf >4: 14‗9?. Bnaramar, J., _arh`gef, A., ^uttefy, A. 6007, M`a Katflliuhma uhm m`a Katfllurc`a mar eupiarza`tl`gdah Kbhmsaacruppa. Frgdíblb Frgdí blbc`a c`a Ùstarra`gds =(>): 1‗0. Biiahnarcar, J. 6046, M`a _ifdlnfutah mar Wflzefkkarcutsaah. @h: M. Wtrfun (am.) Mfs Kbhmsaa-Lfhm.: Casgd`gdta uhm Eultur. Fusstalluhc mas Lfhmas Bnarùstarra`gd, 4. Kf` - >9. Betbnar 6046, E`rgda uhm adakfl`cas Wt`it Kbhmsaa (Da`kftkusauk Kbhmsaa) . L`hz: Bnarùstarra`gd`sgdar Lfhmasvarlfc, Lfhmasvarlfc, >01‗713.
671
Biiahnarcar, J. 6001, 1??? Jfdra Eulturcut uhtar u htar Sfssar. Sfssar. _ifdlnfuibrsgduhc _ifdlnfuibrsgduh c - mar ùstarra`gd`sgda Sac. Za`tsgdr Za`t sgdr`it `it iür Casgd`gdta Casgd` gdta uhm Frgdíblb Frgdí blbc`a c`a `h Bnarùstarra`gd 6?: =‗61. Bttfwfy, N.W. 604>, Afrl`ast gbppar frtaifgts bi tda hbrtdflp`ha rac`bh: tda`r fhflys`s fhm avfluft`bh . Narh: Wak`hfr iür Qrcasgd`gdta. Bttb, D. fhm S`ttar, S. 601>, Dfhmnugd mar íltastah vbrcasgd`gdtl`gdah Katfllurc Katfl lurc`a `a `h ` h K`ttala K`t talaurbp urbpf f . La`pz`c: Nfrtd. _arh`gef, A. 604=, @hstrukahtalla Kult`-Alakahtfhflysa frgdíblbc`sgdar Eupiar- uhm Nrbhzafrtaifeta: A`h Katdbmahvarcla`gd. Jfdrnugd Jfdrnu gd mas ^ùk`sgd-Carkfh`sgdah Zahtrflkusauks Kf`hz 76: 163-176. _arh`gef, A. 600?, Caw`hhuhc uhm Yarnra`tuhc Yarnra`tuhc mar Katflla `h príd`stbr`sgdar príd`s tbr`sgdar Za`t. Jfdrnugd mas ^ùk`sgd-Carkfh`sgdah Zahtrflkusauks Kf`hz 73: >6‗6>0. _arh`gef, A. 6000, ]rfga Alakaht I`hcarpr`ht`hc bi Fhg`aht Gbppar: F Cu`ma tb tagdhblbcy tagdhbl bcy br _rbvahfhga2 @h: W. K. K. Pbuhc, F. K. _bllfrm, _bllfrm, _. Numm fhm ^.F. @xar (ams.) Katfls Katfl s `h Fht`qu`ty Fht`q u`ty . NF^ @htarhft`bhfl War`as 30>, Bxibrm: Frgdfabprass, 697-636. _arh`gef, A., Nacakfhh, I., Wgdk`tt-Wtragear, W., Sfchar, C.F. 6007, Ahabl`td`g fhm Afrly Nrbhza Fca Gbppar Frtaifgts irbk tda Nflefhs fhm tda`r ^alft`bh tb Warn`fh Gbppar Bras. _ríd`stbr`sgda Za`tsgdr`it 94: 6-1=. _arh`gef, A., Nacakfhh, I. Wgdk`tt-Wtragear, W., ]bmbrbvf, D., Eulaii, @. 6003, _rad`stbr`g gbppar `h Nulcfr`f: @ts gbkpbs`t`bh fhm prbvahfhga. Aurfs`f Fht`quf 7: 7: =6-64?. _`tt`bh`, ^. 6013, Qrza`tl`gdar Narcnfu fui Eupiararz uhm Wpurahfhflysa: Na`tríca zuk _rbnlak mar ^alft`bh Lfcarstítta-Iart`cbnjaet . S`ah: Maut`gea. _`tt`bh`, ^. 6099, Sa`tara Wpaetrflfhflysah vbh Iuhmah fus mak Fttarsaa, Bnarùstarra`gd. Frgdfablb 70: 07. Frgdfa blbc`f c`f Fustr`fgf Fustr `fgf 70: _`tt`bh`, ^. 604?. Qrza`t 6. S`ah: Ùstarra`gd`sgda Fefmak`a mar S`ssahsgd S`ssa hsgdfita fitah. h. _bdl, S. >?66, Agbhbk`g cablbcy: _r`hg`plas fhm prfgt`ga: katfls, k`harfls, gbfl fhm dymrbgfrnbhs - `htrbmugt`bh tb ibrkft`bh fhm sustf`hfnla axplb`tft`bh bi k`harfl mapbs`ts . Gd`gdastar: S`lay-Nlfgewall. _ugdar, A. fhm Ahcl, E. 6003, M`a _ifdlnfustft`bhah mas Kbhmsaas: S`ah: Ùstarra`gd`sgda Fefmak`a mar `arehbgdahiuhma . S`ssahsgd S`ssa hsgdfita fitah. h. ^adrah, ]d., Nbsgdar, L., _arh`gef, A. >?6>, Lfrca sgfla skalt`hc bi spa`ss fhm frsah`gfl gbppar ft Afrly Nrbhza Fca Fr`skfh, Hbrtd-Sast @rfh. 70(9), 6363-63>3. Jburhfl Jburh fl bi b i Frgdfab Frg dfablbc` lbc`gfl gfl Wg`ahga Wg`ah ga 70(9),
679
^`asar N. fhm Wgdrfttahtdflar D. >??=, _ríd`stbr`sgdar Eupiarnarcnfu `k ^fuk Wgdwfz/Nr`xlacc (Hbrmt`rbl). Calíhmanaiuhma uhm axpar`kahtalla Qhtarsugduhcah zur Wgdlícalsgdíituhc. @h: C. Flpah eupiar ar - ^fka malla mall a Flp`: Sa`scarnar Sa`scarn ar fhm C. Cblmahnar Cblma hnarcc (ams.) (ams. ) Flpaheupi fcuhc “Qrcasgd`gdtl`gda Eupiarcaw`hhuhc `k Flpahrfuk‛, fh mar Qh`vars`tít @hhsnruge , vbk =. - 4. Betbnar 6001 . Nbgduk: Mt. NarcnfuKusauk, 31‗0=. ^`asar, N. fhm Wgdrfttahtdflar, D. 6004-6000, Qrcasgd`gdtl`gdar Frgdf ablbc`f c`f Fustr`fgf Fustr` fgf Eupiarnarcnfu `k ^fuk Wgdwfz-Nr`xlacc, Wgdwfz-Nr`xl acc, ]`rbl. ]`rbl. Frgdfablb 4>/47: 671‗630. ^`hha, G. >?66, ^FMBH rfm`bgfrnbh mftas bhl`ha Ubhl`ha[ www. juhcsta` juhc sta`hs`t hs`ta.ma/ a.ma/rfmb rfmbh/r h/rfmbh fmbhRhau Rhau.dtk. .dtk. ^upragdtsnarcar, A.K. >??9, M`a Kbhmsaaeultur uhm `dra Aribrsgduhc - A`h Ünarnl`ge. @h: F. N`hsta`har fhm A.K. ^upragdtsnarcar (ams.) Kbhmsaa-Eu Kbhm saa-Eultur ltur uhm Fhflysa Fhfly sa mar W`laxfrta W`lax frtaifet ifetaa vbh Waa fk Kbhmsaa Kbhm saa . L`hz: Kfc`strft mar Lfhmasdfuptstfmt, 3‗>>. ^uttefy, A. 6046, ]ypblbc`a uhm Gdrbhblbc`a mar Kbhmsaa-Cruppa. @h: M. Wtrfun (am.) Mfs Kbhmsaa-Lfhm : Casgd`gdta u. Eultur5 Fusstallu hc mas Lfhmas Bnarùstarra`gd, 4. Kf` - >9. Betbnar 6046, E`rgda uhm adakfl`cas Wt`it Kbhmsaa (Da`kftkusauk Kbhmsaa) . L`hz: Bnarùstarra`gd`sgdar Lfhmasvarlfc, Lfhmasvarlfc, >90‗>0=. ^uttefy, A. 6001, Haua Dbiihuhcah. Mfs _ifdlnfuprbjaet vbk Ibhms zur Iùrmaruhc mar w`ssahsgdfitl`gdah Ibrsgduhc uhm mar Ùstarra`gd`sgdah Hft`bhflnfhe. Za`tsgdr`it iür Casgd`gdta uhm Frgdíblbc`a `h Bnarùstarra`gd 6?: 64‗60. ^uttefy, A., G`gdbge`, B., _arh`gef, A. fhm _ugdar, A. >??=, _rad`stbr`g lfgustr`ha v`llfcas bh tda Fustr`fh lfeas: pfst fhm ragaht rasafrgd mavalbpkahts. @h: I. Kahbtt` (am.) L`v`hc bh tda lfea `h prad`stbr`g Aurbpa : 61? yafrs bi lfea-mwall`hc rasafrgd . Lbhmbh: ^butlamca, 1?‗94. Wgdk`mt, ^. 6049, _flyhblbc`a, Wtrft`crfpd`a uhm CrbÒrasta vbh _rbi`lah mar habl`td`sgdah Wtft`bh Waa fk Kbhmsaa. Frgdfablb Frgdfa blbc`f c`f Fustr`fgf Fustr `fgf 3?: >>3‗>71. Wgdra`har, K. >??3, Arzlfcarstíttah `k Drbhtfl, Wlbwfea`: Cahasa uhm príd`stbr príd`s tbr`sgd `sgdaa Hutzuhc Hutz uhc . ^fdmah/Sasti.: Kfr`a La`mbri. Wgdulz, B. 6003, Ùstl`gda Crfuwfgeahzbha - Nuhtkatflla (`hel. E`asvararzuhcah). @h: L. Sanar, @. Garhy, fhm S.A. _atrfsgdage (ams.) Dfhmnugd mar Lfcarstíttah mar Arza, @hmustr`ak`harfla uhm Aharc`arbdstbiia Ùstarra`gds: Arlíutaruhcah zur katfllbcahat`sgdah Efrta vbh Ùstarra`gd 6 : 1?? ??? uhtar A`hnaz`aduhc mar @hmustr`ak`harfla uhm Aharc`arbdstbiia 5 U`h kakbr`fk Sfltdar Ak`l _atrfsgdage[ . S`ah: Cablbc`sgda Nuhmasfhstflt, 774.
673
Wtfmlar, _. 6001, A`h Na`trfc zur Fnsblutgdrbhblbc`a mas Habl`td`euks `h Bstùstarra`gd fuicruhm mar 6=G-Mftah. @h: A. Lahha`s (am.) Juhcsta`hz Juhcst a`hza`t a`t `k Bstah Ùstarra`gd Ùsta rra`gds s . S`ah: H`amarùstarra`gd`gda _rassadfus, >6?‗>>=. ]dbrhtbh, G._., ^adrah, ]d., _`cbtt, Y.G. >??0, ]da prbmugt`bh bi spa`ss (`rbh frsah`ma) mur`hc tda Afrly Nrbhza Fca `h @rfh. Jburhfl Jburh fl bi Frgdfablb Frgdf ablbc`gf c`gfll Wg`ahga Wg `ahga 79: 7?4‗769. ]ylagbta, ^. A., Cdfzhfv`, D. F. fhm Nbymall, _. J. 6033, _frt`t`bh`hc bi ]rfga Alakahts Natwaah tda Bras, Iluxas, Wlfcs fhm Katfl Mur`hc tda Wkalt`hc bi Gbppar. Jburhfl =: 7?1-777. Jburh fl bi b i Frgdfab Frg dfablbc` lbc`gfl gfl Wg`ahga Wg`ah ga =: Sfchar, C.F. >???, >??? , @sbtbpa @sbtb pa Fhflys`s Fhfl ys`s,, Mft`hc Mft`h c fhm _rbvahfhga _rbvahf hga Katdbms. Katdb ms. @h: A. G`l`nartb fhm C. Wpbtb (ams.) Kbmarh Kbmar h fhflyt`g fhfl yt`gfl fl katdbms katd bms `h frt fhm frgdfablbcy . Haw Pbre: S`lay, ==1‗=9=. S`llvbhsa S`ll vbhsamar, mar, E. 6097/60 609 7/6094, 94, M`a juhcsta`hza`tl`gdah uhm nrbhzaza`tl`gdah _ifdlnfutah mas Fttarsaas `h Bnarùstarra`gd . S`ah: Nùdlfu. S`tta, S`tt a, H. >??=, >?? =, Dareuhitsuhtarsugduhcah fh Eupiarfrtaifetah mar Kbhmsaaeu Kbhm saaeultur ltur . Qhpunl`z`arta M`plbkfrna`t. ]Q Narcfefmak`a Ira`narc.
674
Gdfptar 9 IB^C@HC F GD^BHBLBC@GFL I^FKASB^E IB^ WGB]]@WD G^FHHBCW5 ]DA ^FM@BGF^NBH FHM FH M MAHM^B MA HM^BGD GD^BH ^BHBLB BLBC@ C@GF GFL L AY@MAHGA
Fhha Fh ha Grbh Gr bha a 6
Fnstr Fns trfg fgt t
]da gdrbhblbc`gfl av`mahga ibr Wgbtt`sd grfhhbcs `s prasahtam fhm avfluftam. ]d`s ]d`s gbhs`sts bi f sunstfht`fl mftfsat bi 610 rfm`bgfrnbh mftas, mahmrbgdrbhblbc`gfl mftas irbk tdraa s`tas, fhm f w`cclakftgd mfta irbk fhbtdar. ]feah tbcatdar, tdasa sburgas bi av`mahga `hm`gfta f par`bm`g`ty `h tda usa bi grfhhbcs. Bvar f sgfla bi k`llahh`f tdara wara pfrt`gulfr gahtur`as wdah grfhhbc-nu`lm`hc wfs pbpulfr. Mur`hc tda 6 st k`llahh`uk NG, wdah tda kfjbr`ty kfjbr`t y bi mftam grfhhbcs wara nu`lt, tdara fppafr tb na spag`i`g sp`eas `h grfhhbc-nu`lm`hc fgt`v`ty `h tda 1 td fhm >hm gahtur`as NG raspagt`valy. Ft tda sgfla bi magfmas mahmrbgdrbhblbc`gfl mahmrbgdrbhblbc`gfl mftf pbrtrfys kbra sdbrt-l`vam ap`sbm`g sattlakaht, sattlakaht , wdara tda ap`sbmas bi bggupft`bh bggupf t`bh fra bi vfry`hc murft`bh, fhm fra sapfrftam ny `htarvfls, tdaksalvas bi vfry`hc murft`bh. Eay wbrms : Wgbtlfhm, grfhhbcs, @rbh Fca, Afrly D`stbr`g, mahmrbgdrbhblbc y, rfm`bgfrnbh-mft`hc, rfm`bgfrnbh-mft`hc, sattlakaht mftas, sattlakaht murft`bhs, murft`bhs, par`bm`g`ty bi usa
6 FBG Frgdfablbcy Crbup, Amcastalm @hmustr`fl Astfta, Lbfhdafm, AD>? 0WP
670
@htrbmugt`bh
Grfhhbcs fra `slfhms, kfma br s`ch`i`gfhtly kbm`i`am ny dukfh fcahgy, wd`gd, w`td tda axgapt`bh bi Llfhcbrsa `h Sflas (^amehfp fhm Lfha 600=), fra ibuhm bhly `h Wgbtlfhm br @ralfhm. ]d`s pfpar w`ll makbhstrfta tdft grfhhbcs wara usam, flna`t `htark`ttahtly, bvar tda gbursa bi twb fhm dfli k`llahh`f. @t `s tdus prbnfnla tdft w`maly m`varcaht hfturfl, sbg`fl, agbhbk`g fhm pbl`t`gfl g`rgukstfhgas prbv`mam tda st`kulus ibr tda`r gbhstrugt`bh, usa fhm ra-usa ft m`iiaraht t`kas. Qhibrtuhftaly, tda usa bi f s`hcla pbrtkfhtafu tark tb masgr`na tdasa s`tas `kpl`as f gbkkbhfl`ty bi ibrk fhm iuhgt`bh wd`gd dfs yat tb na makbhstrftam. makb hstrftam. _ardfps kbra `kpbrtfhtly `kpbrtf htly,, `t tahms tb bnsgura tda`r pfrt`gulfr ralft`bhsd`ps w`td tda sattlakaht gbhtaxt w`td`h wd`gd tday sdbulm na `htarpratam (Dfrm`hc >??=, 6?7). F matf`lam gdrbhblbc`gfl irfkawbre `s assaht`fl `i tdbsa ralft`bhsd`ps fra tb na iully uhmarstbbm fhm grfhhbcs fra tb na `htacrftam w`td tda`r gbhtakpbrfry sattlakaht d`stbr`as. Fs f gbhtr`nut`bh tb tda graft`bh bi td`s gdrbhblbc`gfl irfkawbre td`s pfpar saaes tb sukkfr`sa gurraht uhmarstfhm`hc bi grfhhbc gdrbhblbc`as. Sdah ^bnart Kuhrb uhmartb uhma rtbbe be d`s sak`hfl sak`hf l stumy stum y bi tda grfhhbcs grfh hbcs bi Wgbtlfhm da dfm bhly tda frtaifgtufl av`mahga tb cu`ma d`k `h fssass`hc tda`r l`ealy mftas (644>, >31-4=). ]dah, fs `hmaam hbw (gi Gfvars >?6?, 6?95 Gfvars at fl. >?66), tda bhly gdrbhblbc`gflly m`fchbst`g frtaifgts ibuhm bh tdasa s`tas tahmam tb na tdbsa bi ^bkfh br lftar mfta, fhm Kuhrb gbhglumam tdft tda grfhhbcs bi sbutdwast Wgbtlfhm dfm naah nu`lt ny —tda Galt`g `hdfn`tfhts‐ `h tda yafrs ibllbw`hc tda ^bkfh w`tdmrfwfl w`tdmrfw fl irbk Wgbtlfhm. ]dara fra st`ll kfhy grfhhbcs wd`gd gfh bhly na mftam bh tda nfs`s bi frtaifgts ratr`avam mur`hc tda h`hataahtd gahtury (Bfelay 6037, 03 ‗ 666), nut tday w`ll hbt na gbhs`maram `h td`s pfpar. Fltdbucd m`fchbst`g frtaifgts prbnfnly mb prbv`ma f nfs`g gdrbhblbc`gfl strugtura ibr pdfsas bi grfhhbc fgt`v`ty (KfgWwaah >???, 616), tda`r `htarpratft`bh `s ifr irbk strf`cdtibrwfrm (Duhtar >??3, 66-6>). @hmaam, tda sg`aht`i`g mftas prasahtam `h td`s pfpar kfy prbv`ma f irfkawbre w`td`h w`td` h wd`gd tda frtaifgtufl av`mahga gfh na kbra r`cbrbusly fssassam. Hafrly twb magfmas fcb tda prasaht wr`tar wr`t ar punl`sdam f pfpar bh tda fssaknlfca bi rfm`bgfrnbh mftas tdah fvf`lfnla ibr Wgbtt`sd grfhhbcs5 td`s gbhs`stam bi >7 rfm`bgfrnbh mftas irbk 6> grfhhbcs (Grbha 6007). ]dara fra hbw 610 rfm`bgfrnbh mftas irbk 1> s`tas (]fnla 9.6), fhm tdraa grfhhbcs dfva flsb naah mftam mahmrbgdrbhblbc`gflly. mahmrbgdrbhblbc` gflly. Kbst bi tda rfm`bgfrnbh mftas dfva flrafmy naah punl`sdam, nut `h kfhy m`spfrfta sburgas, sb tda Kuhrb Wykpbs`uk `h >?6? prbv`mam f kugd-haamam st`kulus tb fssaknla tda mftf fhm fpprf`sa td`s vfstly-axpfhmam mftfsat.
6=?
Hfka
Lfn Hb.
Mat. N._.
Wt. Mav.
Gfl >-s`ckf
Gbhtaxt/kftar`fl
^aiarahga
Nfrafh Lbgd
CQ->9=6
6>4?
1?
FM 91? - 44?
p`la
Nfrnar & Grbha 6007
CQ->9=>
>6=?
9?
74? - =? NG
p`la
Nfrdfppla Lbgd
CQ-6?0>?
>67?
1?
79? - =? NG
bfe p`la
Dahmarsbh at fl >??9
Nfrlbgedfr t
CQ-66197
6031
=1
0? NG - FM 67?
dfzal stfea
Dahmarsbh at fl >??9
CQ-6619=
604?
=?
FM 9? - 67?
bfe stfea
Nlfge Lbgd bi Kyrtbh
WQA^G-7>103
>=3?
71
33? - =6? NG
flmar p`la
Qhpunl`sdam
Nlfge Lbgd bi Wfhqudfr
CQ-6?064
64=?
1?
FM 9? - 7=?
bfe p`la
Dahmarsbh at fl >??9
Nu`stbh
CQ->971
>17?
6=?
031 - 731 NG
bfe plfhe
Grbha >???
CQ->979
6=7?
1?
FM 17? - 94?
bfe strugturfl
CQ->973
614?
1?
FM 741 - 961
bfe p`la
CQ->974
674?
1?
FM 191 - 36?
bfe p`la
CQ->944
69=?
1?
FM >1? - 1=?
gdfrgbfl k`xam
CQ->000
>93?
1?
061 - 301 NG
bfe plfhe
CQ-7???
601?
1?
6??NG - FM 61?
dfzal nrusdwbbm
CQ-7??6
699?
1?
FM >>? - 1>1
flmar p`la
CQ-7??>
69>?
1?
FM 761 - 9??
flmar p`la
CQ-7??7
696?
1?
FM 771 - 101
flmar gdfrgbfl
CQ-7??=
694?
1?
FM >7? - 1>?
gdfrgbfl k`xam
CQ-7??1
63>?
1?
FM 6=7 - =>3
gdfrgbfl k`xam
CQ-7??9
696?
1?
FM 771 - 101
gdfrgbfl k`xam
CQ-7??3
696?
3?
FM >9? - 961
flmar
CQ-770?
613?
9?
FM 79? - 9>1
n`rgd
CQ-7706
60>?
1?
>1 NG - FM >?1
dfzal nrusdwbbm
CQ-71>4
613?
1?
FM 701 - 901
flmar dbr`zbhtfl
CQ-71>0
610?
1?
FM 71? - 9??
flmar p`la
CQ-717?
61=?
1?
FM =6? - 9>?
gdfrgbfl k`xam
CQ-7176
617?
1?
FM =61 - 9>1
gdfrgbfl k`xam
CQ-717>
696?
1?
FM 771 - 101
dfzal w`tdy
CQ-6?060
630?
1?
FM 6>? - 70?
bfe p`la
Gults Lbgd 6
Dahmarsbh at fl >??9
6=6
Hfka
Lfn Hb.
Mat. N._.
Wt. Mav.
Gfl >-s`ckf
Gbhtaxt/kftar`fl
^aiarahga
Gults Lbgd 7
CQ-6>674
>7=?
1?
11? - >?? NG
bfe p`la
Qhpunl`sdam
WQA^G->>0?9
>==?
>1
31? - =?? NG
bfe p`la
WQA^G->>0?3
>731
7?
36? - 74? NG
flmar p`la
WQA^G->399?
>=>?
71
31? - 70? NG
flmar dbr`zbhtfl
WQA^G->399=
>=?1
71
31? - 70? NG
nrfgeah
WQA^G->3991
>711
71
3>? - 73? NG
flmar dbr`zbhtfl
WQA^G->3999
>77?
=?
1>? - >7? NG
dfzal gdfrgbfl
Mbrkfh‐s @slfhm,
CQ-6?063
>>1?
1?
70? - >6? NG
flmar p`la
Sd`tastalm Lbgd
WQA^G->>06=
>6>1
7?
71? - 1? NG
gdfrram spalt crf`h
WQA^G->>061
>?3?
7?
64? NG - ? FM
dfzal
WQA^G->>069
>6>1
7?
71? - 1? NG
bfe dbr`zbhtfl
WQA^G->>063
>161
7?
34? - 11? NG
bfe dbr`zbhtfl
WQA^G->>064
>11
7?
FM 61>? - 609?
n`rgd stfea
WQA^G->>060
>>6?
7?
79? - >?? NG
bfe pbst
WQA^G->=9==
>631
71
73? - 66? NG
n`rgd gdfrgbfl
CQ->9=7
>>9?
1?
=?? - >?? NG
n`rgd p`la
CQ->9==
>>=?
9?
=6? - 69? NG
n`rgd p`la
CQ-6>637
>>=?
71
=?? - >??NG
flmar dbr`zbhtfl
CQ-6>63=
>>31
71
=?? - >??NG
flmar dbr`zbhtfl
CQ-6>631
>>61
71
70? - 63?NG
flmar dbr`zbhtfl
Lbgd Darbh @
WQA^G-93=>
>76?
71
=6? - >?? NG
p`la
Gfvars >?6?
Lbgd Darbh @@
WQA^G-93=7
>70?
71
39? - 70? NG
p`la
Gfvars >?6?
Lbgdruttbh
CQ->9=?
47?
1?
FM 6?=? - 6>4?
p`la
Nfrnar & Grbha 6007
CQ->970
4>?
1?
FM 6?=? - 6>4?
p`la
E->?>3
>==?
6??
46? - 74? NG
p`la
E-670=
>71?
6??
4?? - >?? NG
bfe frm
CQ->9=4
>?4?
1?
79? NG - FM 7?
p`la
Nfrnar & Grbha 6007
K`ltbh Lbgd >
CQ->9=3
>?9?
1?
>?? NG - FM 9?
p`la
Nfrnar & Grbha 6007
K`ltbh Lbgd 7
CQ->9=1
6=3?
1?
FM =1? - 99?
p`la
Nfrnar & Grbha 6007
CQ->9=9
6=3?
3?
FM =7? - 93?
p`la
Lbgd Fr tdur
K`ltbh Lbgd 6
6=>
Gfvars at fl >?66
Dahmarsbh >??3
Cu`mb 603=
Hfka
Lfn Hb.
Mat. N._.
Wt. Mav.
Gfl >-s`ckf
Gbhtaxt/kftar`fl
^aiarahga
Sd`ta Lbgd bi Kyrtbh
CQ-6?0>6
>?4?
1?
71? - 7? NG
fsd p`la
Dahmarsbh at fl >??9
Mund Lbgd
CQ-660>=
>?7?
1?
63? NG - FM 4?
flmar dbr`zbhtfl
Gfvars >?6?
Amarl`ha
CQ->=61
>>>?
=1
=??-60?NG
bfe
Dahmarsbh ibrtdgbk`hc
WQA^G->?>??
>=>1
7?
3=0 - =?> NG
bfe
WQA^G->?>?1
>16?
7?
340 - 174 NG
bfe
WQA^G->?>?9
>=11
7?
31= - =6> NG
dfzal
WQA^G->?>?3
6161
7?
FM =77 - 963
flmar gdfrgbfl
WQA^G->?>?4
>=1?
7?
317 - =6? NG
bfe
Lbgd Fv`gd
CQ-660>?
>19?
1?
47? - 16? NG
flmar bgut
Gfvars >?6?
Lbgd Age
CQ-660>7
34?
1?
FM 661? - 67??
wbbm bgut
Gfvars >?6?
Lbgd Clfsdfh
CQ-6670=
617?
1?
FM =>? - 9=?
A-wfra ras`mua
Grbha & Gfkpnall >??1
CQ-66701
61??
71
FM =7? - 91?
A-wfra ras`mua
CQ-66709
6=61
71
FM 19? - 94?
A-wfra ras`mua
CQ-66703
6=??
=?
FM 19? - 3??
A-wfra ras`mua
CQ-661>7
634?
71
FM 67? - 71?
hbh-bfe pac
CQ-661>=
691?
71
7>?FM-1=?FM
bfe dbr`zbhtfl
CQ-661>1
630?
71
FM 67? - 71?
flmar trbucd
CQ-661>1
6461
71
6>?FM-77?FM
bfe dbr`zbhtfl
CQ-6649?
691?
=?
FM >9? - 1=?
fsd tun
Lbgd Laftdfh
CQ-660>6
>=4?
1?
30? - =6? NG
bfe p`la
Gfvars >?6?
Lbgd Wa`l
CQ-660>>
61??
1?
FM =7? - 91?
p`la
Gfvars >?6?
Grfccfh
WQA^G-9=03
>=>?
71
19? - 70? NG
bfe
M`xbh at fl >??3
WQA^G-9=04
6>3?
71
FM 99? - 43?
bfe
WQA^G-3611
>1??
71
30? - 1?? NG
bfe
WQA^G-3619
67??
71
FM 91? -34?
bfe
CQ-6>7=>
>>7?
1?
=?? - 63? NG
flmar p`la
CQ-6>7=7
>>6?
1?
=?? - 69? NG
flmar p`la
Grbitkfrtf`c
M`xbh at fl >??3
6=7
Hfka
Lfn Hb.
Mat. N._.
Wt. Mav.
Gfl >-s`ckf
Gbhtaxt/kftar`fl
^aiarahga
Mfll Nfy Hbrtd
WQA^G-91?6
6>=1
71
FM 94? - 40?
flmar
M`xbh at fl >??3
WQA^G-91?>
>=??
71
11?- 70? NG
flmar
WQA^G-3613
677?
71
FM 9=? - 34?
flmar
WQA^G-3614
>=91
71
33? - =6? NG
flmar
WQA^G-376=
6=71
71
FM 19? - 99?
WQA^G-9=00
>=>?
71
19? - 70? NG
bfe
WQA^G-91??
>19?
71
46? - 1=? NG
bfe
CQ-6>6>=
61>?
1?
FM =>? - 9=?
bfe
WQA^G-3761
>=7?
71
9?? - =?? NG
flmar
Iafrhfh Dbtal
CQ-67>>
>=31
11
30? - =6? NG
bfe
M`xbh at fl >??3
I`rnusd
CQ-67>=
>6=?
11
73? - 1? NG
bfe
M`xbh at fl >??3
K`ltbh Kbrah`sd
CQ-6>6>7
>17?
1?
46? - =4? NG
bfe
M`xbh at fl >??3
WQA^G-37?1
>=??
71
19? - 70? NG
flmar
CQ-6>6>1
60=?
1?
1? NG - FM >>?
flmar p`la
WQA^G-376?
603?
71
1? NG - FM 0?
flmar
WQA^G-37?9
607?
71
=? NG - FM 67?
flmar
WQA^G-3766
601?
71
=? NG - FM 67?
flmar
WQA^G-9=43
>=>1
71
19? - =?? NG
bfe
WQA^G-9=44
>=??
71
11? - 70? NG
flmar
WQA^G-03=9
>?11
71
63? NG - FM 7?
n`rgd
WQA^G-03=3
>?=1
71
63? NG - FM 7?
dfzal
CQ-67>7
>1=1
11
47? - =6?NG
bfe
CQ-67>1
>=6?
11
33? - 70?NG
bfe
CQ-6=97
>79?
9?
4?? - >1?NG
wbbm
CQ-6=9=
>=?1
9?
33? - 70?NG
wbbm
CQ-7=94
>=0?
1?
4?? - =6?NG
bfe p`la
CQ-7=90
>19?
1?
47? - 1>?NG
flmar p`la
CQ-7=3?
>61?
1?
46? - =6?NG
flmar p`la
CQ-7=36
>=0?
1?
4?? - =6?NG
flmar p`la
CQ-7=3>
>=1?
1?
33? - =??NG
flmar p`la
Mfll Nfy Wbutd
A`lafh Nrafnfh
Kbrah`sd
Kbrah`sd Nbftdbusa
Bfenfhe
6==
M`xbh at fl >??3
M`xbh at fl >??3
M`xbh at fl >??3
M`xbh at fl >??3
M`xbh at fl >??3
Hfka
Lfn Hb.
Mat. N._.
Wt. Mav.
Gfl >-s`ckf
Gbhtaxt/kftar`fl
^aiarahga
Blm Kfhsa
WQA^G-9=06
>=9?
71
33? - =?? NG
flmar
M`xbh at fl >??3
WQA^G-9=07
>=91
71
33? - =?? NG
flmar
CQ-6>6>9
601?
1?
9? NG - FM 64?
Flmar p`la
WQA^G-376>
603?
71
9? NG - FM 0?
flmar
WQA^G-3767
>?=?
71
63? NG - FM 1?
flmar
Am`hfkpla, Lbgd Afrh
CQ-6>7==
6?0?
1?
FM 40? -6???
wbbm
M`xbh at fl >??3
A`lafh hfk Ifblf`c,
CQ-6>7=?
0??
1?
FM 6?>? - 6>1?
bfe
M`xbh at fl >??3
Lbgd ^fhhbgd
CQ-6>7=6
37?
1?
FM 6>6? - 677?
wbbm
Lbgd Mrukall`a
CQ-6>7=1
6=0?
1?
FM 17? - 9=?
bfe
M`xbh at fl >??3
Lbgd Kbhz`avf`rm
CQ-6>7=9
6=?
1?
FM 693? - 601?
bfe
M`xbh at fl >??3
CQ-6>7=3
>1>?
1?
3?? - 1=? NG
wbbm
CQ-6>770
67?
1?
FM 64?? - 60??
wbbmah pbst
M`xbh at fl >??3
WQA^G->>0?4
761
7?
FM 6=4= - 69=4
p`ha dbr`zbhtfl
Grbha >?66
WQA^G->>0?0
761
7?
FM 6=4= - 69=4
N`rgd p`la
WQA^G->>06?
76?
7?
FM 6=41 - 691?
N`rgd p`la
HZF-646?6
6013
=?
=? NG - FM 6=?
bfe plfhe
HZF-646?>
>161
=?
4?? - =>? NG
stfea
Lamkbra
Natf-34477
3??
1?
FM 6>>?-6=??
Dbllay & ^flstbh 6001
A`lafh Nfh
Natf-3447>
>>??
3?
=?? - 6?? NG
Dbllay & ^flstbh 6001
^amgfstla
FF->6>=4
>>>?
3?
=?? - 66? NG
laftdar
Natf-=4397
>61?
9?
74? - 1? NG
flmar
Natf-=439=
631?
0?
FM 9? - 17?
flmar
CQ-=176
>16?
1?
46? - =6? NG
bfe p`la
CQ-=1=>
>13?
1?
4=? - 1>? NG
bfe p`la
CQ-=1=7
>11?
1?
4>? - 1>? NG
flmar dbr`zbhtfl
]bknrage ]bknrage
_brt fh A`lafh,
M`xbh at fl >??3
Lbgd ]ukkal
Afmarlbgd, Lbgd ]ra`c
K`cmfla
Qhpunl`sdam
Dfla >??=
6=1
Hfka
Lfn Hb.
Mat. N._.
Wt. Mav.
Gfl >-s`ckf
Gbhtaxt/kftar`fl
CQ-=?0=
>76?
1?
=9? - >?? NG
flmar stfea
CQ-=?01
>77?
1?
17? - >6? NG
bfe stfea
CQ-=?03
>=4?
1?
331 - =61 NG
flmar dbr`zbhtfl
Gfrh Mund
CQ-=1=?
>17?
1?
46? - =6? NG
bfe
Gfkarbh Nfy
CQ->=70
>69?
4?
=?? - 7? NG
CQ->==?
600?
1?
66? NG - FM 6>?
Natf-=4391
60=?
9?
6?? NG - FM >>?
flmar
Natf-=4399
>?7?
9?
>?? NG - FM 0?
flmar
CQ-=?04
>?9?
1?
600 NG - FM 1=
flmar
CQ-=?00
600?
1?
66? NG - FM 6>?
flmar
CQ->649
>>6?
1?
=?? - 69? NG
flmar dbr`zbhtfl
CQ->643
603?
9?
FM 69? - 60?
bfe p`la
CQ->7>4
601?
1?
6?? NG - FM 61?
p`la
CQ->747
>63?
9?
70? - 6?? NG
p`la
CQ-3=3?
>?0?
1?
7=4 NG - FM >>
bfe p`la
CQ-3=36
606?
1?
79 NG - FM >79
flmar dbr`zbhtfl
CQ-3=3>
>?=?
1?
609 NG - FM 36
bfe p`la
CQ-3=37
>?9?
1?
600 NG - FM 1=
flmar dbr`zbhtfl
_dbpfgdy
Arse`ha Nr`mca
Muknuge
]da rfm`bgfrnbh av`mahga
]da `hgrafsa `h tda huknar bi rfm`bgfrnbh-mftam grfhhbcs `s tda rasult bi kbra fgt`va rasafrgd `htb grfhhbcs bvar tda lfst twb magfmas. ]d`s `hglumas pbstcrfmufta stum`as ny Crfaka Gfvars (>?6?), Flax Dfla (>??=), Kfre Dbllay (Dbllay fhm ^flstbh 6001) fhm Kfttdaw Wdallay (>??0), survays `h tda Glyma (Wfhms fhm Dfla >??1), axgfvft`bh fhm survay `h _artdsd`ra (M`xbh >??=, >??3), fhm tda wbre bi tda Wgbtt`sd Satlfhm Frgdfablbc`gfl _rbcrfkka (WSF_), wd`gd dfs uhmartfeah nbtd survay fhm axgfvft`bh axgfvft` bh `h sbutdwast Wgbtlfhm (Dahmarsbh at fl. >??7, >??95 Dahmarsbh >??35 Gfvars fhm Grbha >?6?5 Gfvars at fl. >?66) fhm Frcyll (Dahmarsbh ibrtdgbk`hc).
Dfla >??=
Dfla >??=
]fnla 9.6 L`st bi rfm`bgfrnbh mftas irbk Wgb`sd grfhhbc s`tas.
6=9
^aiarahga
Dfla >??=
Wfhms & Dfla >??1
Wfhms & Dfla >??1
I`cura 9.6 sdbws tda m`str`nut`bh bi tdbsa grfhhbcs ibr wd`gd tdara fra hbw rfm`bgfrnbh mftas. ]dara fra twb kf`h ibg`: `h sbutdwast Wgbtlfhm fhm _artdsd`ra, w`td f sgfttar bi mftas irbk Frcyll fhm Kull5 fhm `h tda astufr`as bi tda Glyma fhm Nafuly I`rtd. ]da kfjbr`ty bi tda rfm`bgfrnbh mftas gbka irbk strugturfl t`knars, kf`hly p`l`hc, kbst bi tdak sfkplam mur`hc survay prbcrfkkas rftdar tdfh axgfvft`bh. Gbhsaquahtly, tdasa mftas lfge strft`crfpd`g gbhtaxt, sb ft kbst fll tdft gfh na `hiarram irbk tdak `s tdft tday railagt ap`sbmas bi gbhstrugt`bh, rapf`r br raiurn`sdkaht. ]day gfhhbt na usam tb prbv`ma uhfkn`cubus av`mahga ibr mbkast`g bggupft`bh bi tda s`tas ft tda t`kas `hm`gftam ny tda rfm`bgfrnbh mftas. ^fm`bgfrnbh sfkplas irbk axgfvftam s`tas fra mar`vam kf`hly irbk strugturfl t`knars nut flsb `hgluma kftar`fl irbk bggupft`bh mapbs`ts sugd fs gdfrgbfl, garafl crf`h fhm btdar kfgrbplfht rakf`hs, fhm bh bha s`ta, wbbmah frtaifgts. _ardfps tda i`rst quast`bh tb na fmmrassam fmmrassa m bi tda kfss bi mftas hbw fvf`lfnla sdbulm na wdatdar tda fppfraht gdrbhblbc`gfl m`str`nut`bh bi fgt`v`ty dfs gdfhcam w`td tda savah-iblm `hgrafsa `h mftf (I`cura 9.>), hbt lafst nagfusa td`s dfs f nafr`hc bh iutura rasafrgd strftac`as (saa nalbw). ]da 6007 mftfsat fppafram tb sdbw tdraa m`st`hgt par`bms bi grfhhbc-nu`lm`hc fgt`v`ty `h Wgbtlfhm. ]da i`rst, fhm tda kbst `htahs`va (fhm dara tda huknars bi rfm`bgfrnbh mftas fra aquftam w`td `htahs`ty bi fgt`v`ty wd`gd, c`vah tda hafr rfhmbk prbgassas ny wd`gd kbst bi tda sfkplas wara ragbvaram, saaks rafsbhfnla), w`td 91% bi tda fvf`lfnla mftas ifll`hc `h td`s par`bm, lfy natwaah g`rgf 41? NG fhm FM >??, f par`bm spfhh`hc tda Afrly @rbh Fca tdrbucd tb tda ^bkfh @rbh Fca `h Wgbtlfhm. Fitar f sdbrt d`ftus tdara wfs fhbtdar nbut bi fgt`v`ty mur`hc tda Afrly D`stbr`g par`bm, tda i`itd ‗ a`cdtd gahtur`as FM, fhm tdah, fitar f s`k`lfr d`ftus tdara wfs fgt`v`ty `h tda kam`avfl par`bm, irbk tda alavahtd tb td`rtaahtd gahtur`as FM. Fltdbucd tda d`stbr`gfl ragbrm mbgukahts tda usa bi grfhhbcs `h tda lfta kam`avfl fhm tda afrly kbmarh par`bm (Wdallay >??0) td`s `s hbt railagtam `h tda rfm`bgfrnbh gdrbhblbcy. @h tda axpfhmam mftfsat tda ilbru`t bi grfhhbc-nu`lm`hc fgt`v`ty `h tda lftar prad`stbr`g par`bm gbht`huas tb na akpdfs`sam, w`td 94% bi fll mftas, fhm 36% bi fll s`tas, ifll`hc w`td`h tda par`bm g`rgf 41? NG ‗ FM >?? (I`cura 9.>). Dbwavar, tda `htarvfls natwaah ap`sbmas bi nu`lm`hc fgt`v`ty hbw fppafr lass m`st`hgt, pfrt`gulfrly tdft natwaah tda sagbhm fhm i`itd gahtur`as FM. W`hcla mftas irbk Gults Lbgd 6 fhm tda Nlfge Lbgd, Wfhqudfr, nbtd `h sbutd-wast Wgbtlfhm, axtahm `htb td`s par`bm, wd`la f glustar bi mftas irbk Lbgd Clfsdfh, Frcyll `hm`gfta fgt`v`ty sbka t`ka `h tda sagbhm tb iburtd gahtury FM. Mbunt fnbut tda vfl`m`ty bi tdasa Lbgd Clfsdfh mftas dfm naah axprassam nagfusa sfkplas irbk gbhsarvam wbbm dfm naah
6=3
I`cura 9.6 M`str`nut`bh bi fll ehbwh grfhhbcs `h Wgbtlfhm. ]dbsa grfhhbcs tdft dfva naah axgfvftam fra hfkam5 fll btdar grfhhbcs wd`gd dfva naah rfm`bgfrnbh-mftam fra `maht`am ny grbssas.
6=4
I`cura 9.> ]da gdrbhblbc`gfl m`str`nut`bh bi tda rfm`bgfrnbh mftfsat, w`td tda huknar bi mftas bh tda P fx`s wdbsa gfl`nrftam rfhcas spfh tda c`vah gahtur`as bh tda T fx`s.
usam (Grbha fhm Gfkpnall >??1, 661), nut f v`rtuflly `maht`gfl mfta irbk fh uhi`h`sdam lbcnbft ragahtly ibuhm hafr tda grfhhbc succasts tdft tdara wfs `hmaam fgt`v`ty bh tda lbgd ft td`s par`bm (Grbha ibrtdgbk`hc). Bvarfll, tda haw grfhhbc mftas fppafr tb `hm`gfta tdft, wd`la grfhhbc fgt`v`ty fnftas mur`hc tda sagbhm tb i`itd gahtur`as gahtur `as FM, `t mbas hbt gafsa. @h gbhtrfst, tda par`bm natwaah tda h`htd fhm alavahtd gahtur`as FM rakf`hs f m`st`hgt d`ftus `h grfhhbc fgt`v`ty, fltdbucd tda s`hcla mfta irbk Am`hfkpla, `h Lbgd Afrh, _artdsd`ra, hbw iflls w`td`h tdft par`bm. I`hflly, tda rfm`bgfrnbh mftas irbk Afmfrlbgd grfhhbc, Lbgd ]ra`c, Lbgdfnar makbhstrfta tdft sbka grfhhbcs wara na`hc nu`lt ma hbvb fs lfta fs tda s`xtaahtd gahtury FM (Grbha >?66). Fltdbucd Fltd bucd tday wara usam usa m axtahs`v axta hs`valy aly `h tda afrly afrl y kbmarh kbma rh par`bm par` bm (Wdallay >??0), tdara fra hb uhfkn`cubus d`stbr`gfl raiarahgas tb tda fgtufl gbhstrugt`bh bi frt`i`g`fl `slfhms ft td`s t`ka (`n`m. 6>-67). Kfhy kam`avfl fhm afrly kbmarh grfhhbcs dfva av`mahga bi afrl`ar ibuhmft`bhs, ibr axfkpla Lbgd Frtdur (Dahmarsbh >??3), Lbgd K`cmfla fhm A`lafh hfk Nrafnfh, Lbgd ]fy (Wdallay >??0, 6=4), fll bi wd`gd dfva prbmugam kugd afrl`ar rfm`bgfrnbh mftas.
6=0
Afrly D`stbr`g ra-usa bi lftar prad`stbr`g grfhhbcs
Bha pfttarh wd`gd dfs akarcam kbra m`st`hgtly `h tda ahlfrcam mftfsat `s tda ra-usa bi lftar prad`stbr`g grfhhbcs `h tda Afrly D`stbr`g par`bm (I`cura 9.7). Bi tda alavah grfhhbcs w`td av`mahga bi nu`lm`hc fhm fgt`v`ty `h tda Afrly D`stbr`g par`bm, s`x flsb dfva av`mahga ibr fh afrl`ar ibuhmft`bh `h tda lftar prad`stbr`g par`bm, fhm tda pbss`n`l`ty gfhhbt na axglumam tdft td`s wfs flsb tda gfsa w`td tda btdar Afrly D`stbr`g s`tas nagfusa, w`td tda axgapt`bh bi Lbgd Clfsdfh, Frcyll, tday fra raprasahtam ny bhly bha br twb mftas afgd. Bi tda twb axgfvftam axfkplas wdara sugd ra-usa dfs naah bnsarvam tdara wfs hb av`mahga bi fhy gbht`hu`ty bi usa natwaah tda twb par`bms. Ft Nu`stbh, Fyrsd`ra tda fnfhmbham ^bkfhb-Nr`t`sd grfhhbc dfm naah saflam ny f td`ge lfyar bi star`la lfgustr`ha kum naibra na`hc usam fs tda ibuhmft`bh ibr fh alfnbrfta pfl`sfmam gbhstrugt`bh `h tda lfta s`xtd gahtury FM (Grbha >???, 69, I`cura 7). Ft Amarl`ha `h Lbgd Fwa, Frcyll Frcyl l tdara wfs f s`k`lfr s`k `lfr strft`c strf t`crfpd` rfpd`gg saquahga saqu ahga,, w`td Afrly Afrl y D`stbr`g mapbs`ts ly`hc bvar f star`la lfyar bi s`lt wd`gd saflam tda lftar prad`stbr`g strugtura (Dahmarsbh ibrtdgbk`hc). ]da s`kplast axplfhft`bh ibr td`s pdahbkahbh `s tdft `t raqu`ram lass aiibrt tb usa fh blm s`ta fs f ibuhmft`bh, nut tda twb grfhhbcs `h Mfll Nfy, Lbgd ]fy succast tdft sbkatd`hc kbra tdfh `hmblahga br axpam`ahgy wfs `hvblvam (I`cura 9.=). Nbtd grfhhbcs wara nu`lt `h tda lftar prad`stbr`g prad`stbr` g par`bm, yat `h tda Afrly D`stbr`g D`stbr`g par`bm, par` bm, Mfll Hbrtd, tda grfhhbc iurtdast but `htb tda lbgd wfs salagtam ibr ranu`lm`hc5 `h btdar wbrms tda nu`lmars nypfssam tda lfrcar grfhhbc hafrast tda sdbra fhm mal`narftaly salagtam tda skfllar, kbra m`stfht bha. Nattar sagur`ty, br lbwar lbgd lavals kfy axplf`h td`s salagt`bh nut `t kfy aquflly railagt tda ifgt tdft tda s`ta gfrr`am syknbl`g fssbg`ft`bhs ibr tda Afrly D`stbr`g gbkkuh`ty gbkku h`ty.. Ibr axfkpla, tda nu`lmars k`cdt dfva naah mrfw`hc bh fssbg`ft`bhs w`td parsbhs br avahts `kpbrtfht `h lbgfl kytdblbcy tb astfnl`sd tda lac`t`kfgy bi tda`r glf`ks tb pbwar, f sgahfr`b avbeam ibr btdar axfkplas bi ra-usa bi afrl`ar s`tas ny lftar pabplas (`.a. D`hclay 6009, Mr`sgbll 6004). ]da d`stbr`gfl gbhtaxt ibr td`s pdahbkahbh `s tda akarcahga `h Wgbtlfhm bi kult`pla `hmapahmaht Galt`g e`hcmbks, afgd w`td m`iiar`hc, fhm gdfhc`hc pbl`t`gfl fllac`fhgas. ^a-usa bi grfhhbcs `h tda Afrly D`stbr`g par`bm dfs naah bnsarvam `h Mfl ^`ftf (Frcyll), _`gtlfhm (_artdsd`ra), Nr`t`sd Wtrftdglyma fhm ^dacam (sbutd-wast Wgbtlfhm), sb `t `s f gbkkbh raspbhsa fgrbss tdasa vfr`bus pbl`t`as. @t gbulm railagt tda jbstl`hc ibr pbwar bi lbgfl myhfst`g gbhtahmars, w`td tda hagassfry gbrbllfry tdft fll Afrly D`stbr`g grfhhbcs `h Wgbtlfhm fra stftakahts bi pbwar. Dbwavar, wd`la tda kftar`fl av`mahga ft Nu`stbh succasts tdft `t wfs `hmaam tda sattlakaht bi f pr`v`lacam al`ta (Grbha >???, 699), td`s `s lass av`mahtly tda gfsa ft tda bhly
61?
I`cura 9.7 Grfhhbcs w`td nbtd lftar prad`stbr`g fhm Afrly D`stbr`g rfm`bgfrnbh mftas (bhly f salagt`bh bi tda rfm`bgfrnbh mftas fvf`lfnla irbk Nu`stbh fra sdbwh).
616
I`cura 9.= ]da twb grfhhbcs `h Mfll Nfy, Lbgd ]fy (pdbtbcrfpd ny M.S. Dfrm`hc).
btdar axgfvftam Afrly D`stbr`g grfhhbc, Lbgd Clfsdfh, wd`gd kfy dfva naah f grfitwbre`hc s`ta (Grbha fhm Gfkpnall >??1, 6>>-7). Lbgd Lbg d ]fy ]fy
Lbgd ]fy ]fy axakpl`i`as tda nahai`ts naha i`ts bi axtahs`va axtahs` va mft`hc, wdara tda usas bi tda lbgd gfh na ragbhstrugtam d mur`hc m`iiaraht par`bms fhm tda avblut`bh bi sattlakaht pfttarhs bvar t`ka stum`am (M`xbh >??3). Bi tda a`cdtaah ehbwh grfhhbcs `h tda lbgd, td`rtaah hbw dfva rfm`bgfrnbh mftas, fhm f iurtdar twb dfva mbgukahtfry av`mahga ibr ap`sbmas bi fgt`v`ty `h tda kam`avfl fhm lftar par`bms (`n`m. >10-9>). Ft lafst lafs t h`ha bi b i tda grfhhbc gr fhhbcss wara `h ` h usa mur`hc mu r`hc tda par`bm par `bm g`rgf 4?? 4?? ‗ =?? NG, wd`la tda btdar ibur wara `h usa mur`hc tda par`bm g`rgf =?? NG ‗ FM >??. Sdara kult`pla rfm`bgfrnbh mftas fra fvf`lfnla (fhm kbst bi tda mftam axfkplas `h Lbgd ]fy dfva ft lafst twb mftas) tdara `s hb av`mahga tdft tdbsa nu`lt `h tda afrl`ar @rbh Fca gbht`huam `h usa tdrbucdbut tda k`llahh`uk5 rftdar, tday succast m`st`hgt pulsas bi grfhhbc-nu`lm`hc fgt`v`ty w`td tda gbhstrugt`bh bi aht`raly haw s`tas `h tda k`mmla @rbh Fca. ]dah, fitar f par`bm bi savarfl gahtur`as `h tda afrly i`rst k`llahh`uk FM, mur`hc wd`gd tdara fppafrs tb dfva naah hb fgt`v`ty bh tda lbgd, ft lafst tdraa bi tda grfhhbcs fra ra-usam `h tda Afrly D`stbr`g par`bm (I`cura 9.7), pfrt bi tda pdahbkahbh m`sgussam fnbva.
61>
Bfenfhe, tda kbst `htahs`valy `hvast`cftam bi tda Lbgd ]fy grfhhbcs (M`xbh >??=, 6>1-94), dfs ragahtly naah tda sunjagt bi f d`cd-prag`s`bh w`ccla-kftgd`hc prbcrfkka (Gbbe at fl. >?6?). ]dara fra h`ha rfm`bgfrnbh mftas irbk t`knars bh tda s`ta, fll bi wd`gd spfh tda par`bm g`rgf 4?? 4?? ‗ =?? NG. ]da w`ccla-kftgd`hc w`ccla-kftgd`hc bi f tahtd t`knar, fh bfe p`la wd`gd dfm ratf`ham `ts nfre, pram`gts tdft tda t`knar wfs iallam frbuhm 1?? NG (kfx`kuk rfhca 1>? ‗ =91 NG). ]da mahmrbgdrbhblbc`gfl av`mahga
Qs`hc rfm`bgfrnbh mftas flbha, tda fhflys`s bi tda Lbgd ]fy mftf kust hagassfr`ly rakf`h gruma, pfrt`gulfrly ibr tda i`rst k`llahh`uk NG, mua tb tda aiiagt bi tda —Dfllstftt plftafu‐- tda ilft pfrt bi tda gfl`nrft`bh gurva natwaah g`rgf 4??-=?? NG. Kfgrbsgbp`g, lfhmsgfpa-w`ma pulsas bi sattlakaht gfh na `maht`i`am `i tday fra w`maly sapfrftam `h t`ka, nut `t `s `kpbss`nla tb gbka glbsa tb uhmarstfhm`hc uhmarstfhm`hc tda n`bcrfpd`as bi `hm`v`mufl s`tas, fs dfs naah mbha ft Nu`stbh w`td tda f`m bi mahmrbgdrbhblbcy (Grbha >???, 9=-15 fhm saa nalbw). Gbht`hahtfl gbllafcuas kust na wbhmar`hc wdy, `h m`sguss`hc tda gdrbhblbc`as bi s`tas w`td gbp`bus fkbuhts bi wftarlbccam wbbm, mahmrbgdrbhblbcy dfs hbt naah f stfhmfrm kafhs bi mft`hc. Qhibrtuhftaly, Wgbtlfhm `s hbt nlassam w`td tda axtahs`va rac`bhfl traa-r`hc gdrbhblbc`as fvf`lfnla bh tda Gbht`haht wd`gd dfva kfma tda mft`hc bi kfhy bi tda s`tas masgr`nam alsawdara `h td`s vbluka ralft`valy strf`cdtibrwfrm. Yary iaw grfhhbcs dfva naah axgfvftam, kf`hly nagfusa tday fra hbt uhmar tdraft bi `kk`haht mastrugt`bh (Grbha fhm Glfrea >??1, 0-6?5 fltdbucd kfhy grfhhbcs dfva naah lbst s`hga tda h`hataahtd gahtury, fhm kfhy bi tdbsa tdft surv`va fra hbw `h uhstfnla, gbkprbk`sam ahv`rbhkahts5 Nfrnar fhm Grbha 6007, L`ll`a at fl. >??4). Gbhsaquahtly iaw lfrca fssaknlfcas bi t`knar su`tfnla ibr mahmrbgdrbhblbc`gfl fhflys`s dfva avar naah ratr`avam. Bi tda i`ity-bha grfhhbcs tdft dfva naah rfm`bgfrnbhmftam, bhly tah dfva fgtuflly naah axgfvftam (I`cura 9.6) fhm kbst bi tdbsa dfva naah vary l`k`tam `h sgbpa. Mahmrbgdrbhblbc`gfl stum`as dfva hbw naah uhmartfeah bh fssaknlfcas irbk s`x bi tda axgfvftam s`tas nut Lbgd Clfsdfh fhm Afmfrlbgd wara axgfvftam `h tda k`m-twaht`atd gahtury ft f t`ka wdah axtahs`va sfkpl`hc wfs hbt rbut`haly uhmartfeah fhm `t dfs hbt naah pbss`nla tb mahmrbmfta tda iaw t`knars tdft dfm naah ratf`ham (Grbha 6004, Grbha >?66).
617
Bfenfhe grfhhbc
]da i`rst Wgbtt`sd grfhhbc tb na stum`am mahmrbgdrbhblbc`gflly wfs tdft ft Bfenfhe, nut tda fhflys`s wfs uhsuggassiul (Grbha 6044). @t `s wbrtdwd`la butl`h`hc tda m`ii`gult`as ahgbuhtaram `h mahmrbmft`hc td`s grfhhbc nagfusa tday fra l`ealy tb na ahgbuhtaram bh btdar s`tas, pfrt`gulfrly `h tda d`cdlfhm rac`bh. I`rstly, tda nule bi tda strugturfl t`knar wfs flmar, f spag`as wd`gd gfh na usaiul `h nu`lm`hc ralft`va s`ta gdrbhblbc`as nut wd`gd, bh `ts bwh, gfhhbt na usam tb prbv`ma fnsbluta mftas ibr f s`ta (Grbha 6044, nut saa Grbha >??? fhm N`llfknbz >??7 ibr axfkplas wdara `t dfs naah usam tb prbv`ma fnsbluta mftas `h gbhjuhgt`bh w`td bfe). Iurtdarkbra, 4=% bi tda flmar irbk Bfenfhe wfs uhmar ibrty yafrs bi fca, tda sdbrthass bi tda saquahgas d`hmar`hc ral`fnla grbss-gbrralft`bhs grbss-gbrralft`bhs fgrbss tda s`ta. Fh flmar flma r gdrbhblb gdrb hblbcy cy wfs gbhstru gbhs trugtam gtam wd`gd wd`g d succast suc castam am iraquaht iraq uaht ap`sbmas bi nu`lm`hc fhm rapf`r, nut `t gbulm hbt na sunstfht`ftam (Grbha 6044, 670-=6). Fs flmar `s prbnfnly tda gbkkbhast traa spag`as ir`hc`hc kbst Wgbtt`sd lbgds, `t stfhms tb rafsbh tdft `t w`ll dfva naah usam axtahs`valy `h grfhhbc gbhstrugt`bh, fh fssukpt`bh wd`gd dfs naah gbhi`rkam bh btdar grfhhbcs wdara kbra `htahs`va t`knar sfkpl`hc dfs tfeah plfga, `a Lbgd Frtdur (Dahmarsbh >??3, >77), Amarl`ha (`n`m. >73) fhm Gults Lbgd (saa nalbw). Wbka bfe wfs prasaht ft Bfenfhe5 `t gbhst`tutam >6% >6 % bi tda tbtfl sfkpla, nut fcf`h, kbst bi tda t`knars wara ybuhc, fll nut i`va bi tda bfes na`hc uhmar 0? yafrs bi fca (Grbha 6044, 67=). Gr`t`gflly, tda bfe t`knars m`splfyam sugd fsykkatr`g crbwtd frbuhm tda`r staks tdft avah traa-r`hc saquahgas kafsuram flbhc m`iiaraht rfm`` bh tda sfka traa gbkpfram pbbrly w`td afgd btdar, fhm gbhsaquahtly f mftafnla bfe gdrbhblbcy gbulm hbt na gbhstrugtam (`n`m. 69>-7). ]d`s crbwtd-pfttarh succasts f sburga `h f strassam ahv`rbhkaht, pbss`nly pbss`nl y bh staap, rbgey, rbgey, axpbsam d`ll slbpas slbpa s bi tda typa tdft surrbuhm kfhy d`cdlfhm lbgds. Wbka m`ii`gulty `h gbhstrugt`hc gdrbhblbc`as w`td tda qufl`ty bi bfe fvf`lfnla bh kfhy grfhhbcs kust tdaraibra na fht`g`pftam. Hbhatdalass, tda ax`stahga bi rbnust rac`bhfl traa-r`hc gdrbhblbc`as wbulm ahdfhga tda gdfhgas bi mft`hc sugd m`ii`gult kftar`fl tdbucd td`s rakf`hs f —gd`geah-fhm-acc‐ s`tuft`bh5 w`tdbut s`tas prbmug`hc lfrca fssaknlfcas bi mftafnla bfe t`knars, rac`bhfl gdrbhblbc`as gfhhbt na gbhstrugtam. Ft prasaht, tdara `s hb gbht`hubus mahmrbgdrbhblbc`gfl gbvarfca `h Wgbtlfhm afrl`ar tdfh tda k`m-h`htd gahtury FM (Grbha fhm K`lls >??>) fhm mahmrbmft`hc bi prad`stbr`g fhm Afrly D`stbr`g kftar`fl kust raly bh gbkpfr`sbhs w`td fmjfgaht rac`bhs wdara tdara `s nattar gbvarfca. Hbt surpr`s`hcly tdah, tda bhly grfhhbcs tdft dfva sb ifr naah suggassiully mahmrb-mftam l`a `h tda sbutd-wast, tdft pfrt bi Wgbtlfhm
61=
wd`gd l`as cabcrfpd`gflly glbsast tb hbrtdarh Ahclfhm fhm hbrtdarh @ralfhm @ralfhm - tda sburgas bi r`cbrbusly astfnl`sdam mahmrbgdrbhblbc`gfl mahmrbgdrbhblbc`gfl kfstar gurvas. Nu`stbh grfhhbc
Nu`stbh, `h Fyrsd`ra wfs tda i`rst grfhhbc `h Wgbtlfhm tb na suggassiully mahmrb-mftam fhm `t axakpl`i`as tda `hs`cdts tdft gfh na cf`ham ny axtahs`va sfkpl`hc fhm fhflys`s. @t wfs i`rst axgfvftam ny Kuhrb `h tda h`hataahtd gahtury (644>, 60? - >70) fhm ra-axgfvftam `h tda lfta twaht`atd gahtury (Grbha >???). @t `s f tastfkaht tb Kuhrb‐s ragbrm`hc se`lls tdft d`s plfhs gbulm na fggurftaly plfgam bvar tda twaht`atd gahtury plfhs (`n`m. I`cura 67>), ahsur`hc tdft tdbsa strugturfl ralft`bhsd`ps tdft dfm naah lbst tb magfy `h tda `htarvah`hc gahtury gbulm st`ll na uhmarstbbm. Fs masgr`n masg r`nam am fnbva, f nbva, tdara dfm naah f grfhhbc gr fhhbc ft Nu`stb Nu `stbhh mur`hc mu r`hc tda ^bkfhb-Nr`t`sd par`bm, wd`gd wfs sunsaquahtly saflam nalbw lfgustr`ha kums fhm nu`lt upbh `h tda Afrly D`stbr`g par`bm. ]da strugturfl rakf`hs irbk td`s lftar par`bm wara axtahs`va, gbhs`st`hc bi suggass`va pfl`sfmas, afgd w`td f qu`ta m`st`hgt katdbm bi gbhstrugt`bh, fhm twb rbuhmdbusas w`td strft`crfpd`g av`mahga ibr kult`pla pdfsas bi suns`mahga fhm raiurn`sdkaht (I`cura 9.1). ]da gbkplax strft`crfpdy lam tb tda axpagtft`bh tdft tdara wbulm na f lbhc murft`bh ibr tda sattlakaht bh tda grfhhbc (`h l`ha w`td tda pfrfm`ck wd`gd fssukas lbhcav`ty ibr fll sattlakahts - saa Dfll`mfy >??3, 1?, fhm nalbw). ]da rfm`bgfrnbh mftas bntf`ham bnt f`ham tb prbv`ma fh `h`t`fl gdrbhblbc`gfl irfkawbre m`m hbt raiuta tdasa axpagtft`bhs, axpagtft`bhs, fs tday spfhham =31 rfm`bgfrnbh yafrs. @h gbhtrfst, tda mahmrbgdrbhblbc`gfl fhflys`s bi hafrly =?? bfe fhm flmar t`knars `hm`gftam tdft kbst bi tda nu`lm`hc fgt`v`ty bggurram bvar f vary sdbrt t`ka-spfh, w`td nu`lm`hc fgt`v`ty nac`hh`hc `h FM 147 fhm gafs`hc g`rgf FM FM 994 (I`cura 9.95 Grbha >???, 1=-1). S`td`h tdasa a`cdty - h`haty yafrs bi bggupft`bh, ibur pfl`sfmas wara nu`lt, afgd raplfg`hc tda btdar, fhm ft lafst twb (fhm prbnfnly tdraa) rbuhmdbusas wara nu`lt, fcf`h, bha raplfg`hc tda btdar (`n`m. 9=-9). S`td`h tda dbusas, dafrtds fhm ilbbrs wara iraquahtly raplfgam, raplfgam, ft lafst ibur t`kas `h bha dbusa w`td`h tda spfga bi i`itaah yafrs. ]da rasblut`bh fiibrmam ny tda traa-r`hc gdrbhblbcy tdus fllbws f v`aw bi tda myhfk`gs bi tda sattlakaht ft f vary dukfh sgfla. ]da flkbst gbhstfht struccla tb eaap tda pfl`sfmas `h cbbm rapf`r gfh na ahv`sfcam, nu`lt fs tday wara bvar fh uhstfnla sunstrfta, fhm spagulft`bh fs tb wdy tda bggupfhts raplfgam tda`r dafrtds fhm ilbbrs sb iraquahtly gfh na kbra prbi`tfnly kfma. @hsagt, kfgrbplfht fhm strugturfl av`mahga sdbws tdft, avah mur`hc td`s gbkprassam t`kasgfla, tdara wara par`bms bi f yafr br kbra wdah tda grfhhbc
611
I`cura 9.1 Wukkfry plfhs sdbw`hc mahmrb-mftam pdfsas bi nu`lm`hc fgt`v`ty bh Nu`stbh.
619
I`cura 9.9 Wukkfry nfr m`fcrfk `llustrft`hc tda gdrbhblbc`gfl ralft`bhsd`ps natwaah tda bfe fhm flmar gdrbhblbc`as irbk tda kfjbr gbhtaxts ft Nu`stbh.
kust dfva naah uhbggup`am (Grbha >???, 66?). ]da `hsagt av`mahga `h pfrt`gulfr `hm`gftas tdft bggupft`bh wfs m`sgbht`hubus avah `h tda sdbrt ap`sbmas `maht`i`am irbk tda mahmrbgdrbhblbcy (Eahwfrm at fl. >???, 6??-6). ]da raplfgakaht bi dafrtds fhm ilbbrs kfy dfva naah f ibrk bi —spr`hc-glafh`hc‐, pfrt bi tda r`tufl bi raturh`hc tb tda grfhhbc fitar safsbhfl br lbhcar fnsahgas. Lftar prad`stbr`g grfhhbcs5 Mbrkfh‐s @slfhm fhm Gults Lbgd Fs grfhhb g rfhhbcs cs wara w ara kbst k bst pbpulfr pbpu lfr mur`hc mur` hc tda t da i`rst i` rst k`llahh k`l lahh`uk `uk NG, f par`bm wdah gdrbhblbc`gfl rasblut`bh `s kbst alus`va (saa fnbva), tda ult`kfta cbfl dfs ibr sbka t`ka naah tb axgfvfta f grfhhbc bi tdft par`bm fhm ragbvar ahbucd bfe t`knar ibr mahmrb-mft`hc. ]da WSF_ prbcrfkka `h sbutd-wast Wgbtlfhm dfs hbw fiibrmam savarfl bppbrtuh`t`as, fhm fltdbucd hbt fs axtahs`va f mft`hc prbcrfkka fs tdft uhmartfeah ft Nu`stbh, tday fra hbhatdalass, jb`htly y`alm`hc vflufnla `hs`cdts. Ft Mbrkfh‐ Mbrkf h‐ss @slfhm, @slfh m, `h Sd`tai`a Sd`t ai`alm lm Lbgd (I`cura (I`cu ra 9.3f) 9.3f ) l`k`tam l`k `tam axgfvft`bh ravaflam bggupft`bh mapbs`ts gbhs`st`hc bi mal`narftaly lf`m glfy surifgas, f ilbbr bi bfe t`knars fhm sgfttars bi skfll stfeas5 hb av`mahga ibr f suparstrugtura wfs ibuhm nut tda skfll
613
I`cura 9.3 f) Mbrkfh‐s @slfhm.
axgfvft`bh trahgd prbnfnly lfy w`td`h tda strugtura (Gfvars at fl. >?66). ^fm`bgfrnbh mftas `hm`gftam nu`lm`hc fhm bggupft`bh sbka t`ka `h tda lfst ibur gahtur`as NG, fhm fgt`v`ty kugd lftar `h tda afrly kbmarh par`bm wdah f skfll stfea fl`chkaht wfs gbhstrugtam. Frtaifgt Frta ifgtufl ufl av`ma a v`mahga, hga, `h tda td a ibrk ibr k bi ra-us r a-usam am ^bkfh ^bk fh clfss, cl fss, `maht`i` `mah t`i`am am fgt`v`ty prbnfnly `h tda i`rst/sagbhm gahtur`as FM. F skfll skfl l fssaknlf fssa knlfca ca bi tah bfe t`knars, t`kn ars, kbstly kbs tly irbk tda ilbbr ilbb r nut `hglum`hc f iaw stfeas, wara fhflysam mahmrbgdrbhblbc`gflly, fhm savah wara suggassiully mftam fcf`hst f su`ta bi prad`stbr`g fhm ^bkfh gdrbhblbc`as irbk Ahclfhm fhm @ralfhm. Bhly bha bi tda t`knars ratf`ham fhy sfpwbbm fhm td`s t`knar wfs prbnfnly iallam sbkat`ka natwaah 617 fhm 6>6 NG (I`cura 9.3n). Fltdbucd tda fnsahga bi sfpwbbm `h fhy bi tda btdar t`knars kafhs tdft tdara gfhhbt na prag`s`bh racfrm`hc tda gdrbhblbc`gfl ralft`bhsd`ps natwaah tdak, `t `s rafsbhfnla tb fssuka tdft tday wara fll iallam ft tda sfka t`ka fs tday ibrk pfrt bi tda sfka ilbbr strugtura. ]da bhly axgapt`bh `s f stfea wd`gd gbulm raprasaht f sl`cdtly lftar pdfsa, tdbucd prbnfnly prbn fnly ny f iaw magfmas ft kbst. ]dus, tda lfta i`rst k`llahh`uk NG fgt`v`ty ft Mbrkfh‐s @slfhm dfs naah kbra glbsaly mai`ham fs dfppah`hc sbkat`ka mur`hc tda lfst i`va magfmas bi tda sagbhm gahtury NG.
614
I`cura 9.3 n) mahmrbgdrbhblbc`gfl rasults irbk Mbrkfh‐s @slfhm.
Bh tda`r bwh, tda rfm`bgfrnbh mftas fhm tda prasahga bi ^bkfh clfss k`cdt dfva naah saah fs railagt`hc f gbht`hubus skafr bi fgt`v`ty bh Mbrkfh‐s @slfhm irbk tda lfttar dfli bi tda i`rst k`llahh`uk NG `htb tda afrly gahtur`as FM. Dbwavar, tda prag`s`bh bi tda mahmrbgdrbhblbc`gfl mahmrbgdrbhblbc`gfl mfta kfeas `t glafr tdft tda gbhstrugt`bh bi tda wbbmah ilbbr fhm tda mapbs`t`bh bi tda ^bkfh clfss wara m`st`hgt avahts, sapfrftam ny fh `htarvfl bi twb tb tdraa gahtur`as. ]da btdar grfhhbc wd`gd dfs hbw naah suggassiully mahmrbmftam l`as `h Gults Lbgd, f iaw k`las tb tda wast bi Mbrkfh‐s @slfhm. Fltdbucd Fltd bucd td`s grfhhbc grfh hbc hbw hb w surv`va sur v`vass fs f prbkb p rbkbhtbr htbryy prbjagt` prbj agt`hc hc but bu t `htb tda lbgd (I`cura 9.4f) `t wfs br`c`hflly fh `slfhm wd`gd wfs gbhhagtam tb tda sdbra ny f t`knar gfusawfy (Gfvars fhm Grbha >?6?). ]da dflb bi p`l`hc wd`gd surrbuhms tda grfhhbc wfs prbnfnly `hsartam tb gbhtf`h tda grfhhbc kbuhm fhm m`m hbt ibrk f maiahs`va par`katar fs sugd. Bh tbp bi tda kbuhm wara tda rakf`hs bi ft lafst ibur strugturas, wd`gd wara prbnfnly `h usa saquaht`flly. ]da nastprasarvam bi tda strugturas gbhs`stam bi f rbucdly g`rgulfr —plftibrk‐ bi crfval, `htarlafvam w`td gbkpfgtam brcfh`g mapbs`ts5 tdasa mapbs`ts prbnfnly raprasaht iraquahtly raiurn`sdam ilbbr surifgas. ]da crfval/ brcfh`g —plftibrk‐ wfs surrbuhmam ny f gbhgahtr`g irfkawbre bi dbr`zbhtfl t`knars, t`k nars, wd`la `h tda gahtra bi tda plftibrk wfs f rbucdly rbucdl y squfra t`knar iaftura, pbss`nly f dafrtd nfsa. ^fm`bgfrnbh mftas plfga fll tda fgt`v`ty bh tda grfhhbc `h tda gahtur`as natwaah g`rgf 31? NG fhm >?? NG. Fs ft Bfenfhe, Bfenf he, tda nule nul e bi tda strugtu str ugturfl rfl t`knar t`kn ar wfs flmar5 flma r5 bi tda >1= sfkplam t`knars bhly >6% wara bfe, fhm bi td`s skfll prbpbrt`bh bhly twahty twb t`knars dfm r`hc-pfttarhs lbhcar tdfh savahty r`hcs. Fhflys`s `s st`ll `h prbcrass fhm tda flmar fhm sdbrtar bfe t`knars dfva yat tb na stum`am, sb bhly tda rasults irbk tda lbhcar bfe t`knars fra rapbrtam dara. Bi td`s crbup, a`cdt t`knars dfva naah suggassiully mftam. ]da iall`hc rfhca ibr tda t`knar w`td
610
I`cura 9.4 f) Gults Lbgd prbkbhtbry grfhhbc,
tda kbst sfpwbbm `hm`gftas tdft `t wfs prbnfnly iallam sbkat`ka natwaah =74 - =6> NG (I`cura 9.4n). Fcf`h, Fcf` h, tda fnsahga fnsa hga bi surv`v` sur v`v`hc hc nfre amca bh fhy bi tda mftam mfta m t`knars kafhs tdft tda prag`sa gdrbhblbc`gfl ralft`bhsd`ps natwaah tda t`knars gfhhbt na mai`ham. Hbhatdalass, tda glbsa syhgdrbh`g`ty natwaah tda dafrtwbbm/sfpwbbm nbuhmfr`as bi tdasa t`knars succasts tdft, `i tdara fra hukarbus pdfsas bi nu`lm`hc fgt`v`ty bh tda s`ta, tday fra hbt sapfrftam ny fhy craft lahctd bi t`ka - f iaw magfmas ft kbst. ]dara `s tdaraibra av`mahga ft Gults ibr f pdfsa bi nu`lm`hc fgt`v`ty `h tda sagbhm fhm td`rm magfmas bi tda i`itd gahtury NG. ]dara ]dara `s flsb sbka lftar nu`lm`hc fgt`v`ty bh tda grfhhbc. F p`la irbk tda gfusawfy gbhhagt`hc tda grfhhbc tb tda sdbra wfs iallam `h tda spr`hc bi 607 NG. ]dara tdus fppafrs tb dfva naah f rav`vfl bi `htarast `h tda grfhhbc `h tda afrly sagbhm gahtury gahtu ry NG5 tda gfusawfy kfy dfva naah raiurn`sdam, br avah gbhstrugtam ft td`s t`ka.
69?
I`cura 9.4 n) mahmrbgdrbhblbc`gfl rasults irbk Gults Lbgd.
M`sguss`bh
Ft prasaht prasa ht Nu`stbh Nu`s tbh rakf`hs rakf` hs —spag`fl‐5 —spag` fl‐5 fs tda bhly prag`sal prag `salyy mftam mfta m Afrly D`stbr`g grfhhbc `h Wgbtlfhm, tdara `s l`ttla alsa tb gbkpfra `t fcf`hst fhm tdaraibra tdaraibra `ts s`ch`i`gfhga w`td`h tda w`mar sattlakaht pfttarhs bi td`s par`bm rakf`hs lfrcaly spagulft`va. @ts gdrbhblbc`gfl vflua l`as kf`hly `h `ts pbrtrfyfl bi f d`cdly myhfk`g sattlakaht, bggup`am ap`sbm`gflly ny tdraa caharft`bhs bi f gbkkuh`ty wd`gd nfttlam w`td tda prbnlaks `htr`hs`g tb l`v`hc but `h tda lbgd. @h btdar wbrms, `t `s tda sdbrt murft`bh bi sattlakaht wd`gd `s d`cdly s`ch`i`gfht ft Nu`stbh5 hbt bhly mbas `t kfea tda dukfh d`stbry bi tda s`ta pflpfnla, `t flsb rf`sas `kpbrtfht `ssuas ralft`hc tb sattlakaht kbn`l`ty fhm sbg`fl strugtura mur`hc tda Afrly D`stbr`g par`bm. ]da tdakas bi murft`bh bi sattlakaht fhm `htark`ttaht bggupft`bh w`ll na raturham tb. @h tda m`sguss`bh tdft ibllbws tda i`rst k`llahh`uk NG grfhhbcs ibrk f ibgus fs td`s `s wdara tda kbst s`ch`i`gfht pfttarhs fra nac`hh`hc tb fppafr. ]wb —avaht dbr`zbhs‐ fppafr tb na akarc`hc: bha `h tda i`itd gahtury NG, `maht`i`am ny mahmrbgdrbhblbcy ft Gults Lbgd, fhm ny w`ccla-kftgd`hc ft Bfenfhe5 fhm bha `h tda sagbhm gahtury NG, wdah mahmrbgdrbhblbcy sdbws tdft Mbrkfh‐s @slfhm `s bggup`am fhm Gults Lbgd `s raiurn`sdam. S`td tda `hgrafsam sfkpla s`za, tda s`chfl-tb-hb`sa rft`b w`td`h tda rfm`bgfrnbh mftfsat dfs `kprbvam fhm twb sp`eas bi fgt`v`ty `h tda i`rst k`llahh`uk NG fra flsb akarc`hc (I`cura 9.>), wd`gd fppafr tb k`rrbr tdbsa mahmrbmftam avaht dbr`zbhs `h tda i`itd fhm sagbhm gahtur`as NG. ]d`s `s grystfll`sam ft Lbgd ]fy wdara, fs hbtam afrl`ar, tda rfm`bgfrnbh av`mahga succasts twb m`sgrata pulsas bi grfhhbc fgt`v`ty mur`hc tda i`rst k`llahh`uk NG5 tda grfhhbcs tdara fra fgt`va a`tdar `h tda k`mmla bi tda k`llahh`uk br lfta `h tda k`llahh`uk, nut havar `h nbtd par`bms bh tda sfka s`ta. @t tdus nac`hs tb lbbe prbnfnla tdft,
696
rftdar tdfh gbht`hubus usa bi tdasa s`ta-typas fgrbss tda k`llahh`uk, tdara kfy fgtuflly dfva naah m`st`hgt pulsas `h grfhhbc-nu`lm`hc fgt`v`ty. ]da gdrbhblbc`gfl m`str`nut`bh bi mahmrb-mftam prad`stbr`g s`tas `h @ralfhm dfs lbhc naah ehbwh tb na hbh-rfhmbk. Nf`ll`a gbkkahtam bh tda fppfraht glustar`hc bi mahmrb-mftam mahmrb-mftam prad`stbr`g s`tas frbuhm 61?? NG, `h tda tahtd gahtury fhm sagbhm gahtury NG (Nf`ll`a 6001, 93-4), fhm masp`ta tda `hgrafsam huknar bi s`tas `hvast`cftam bvar tda pfst twb magfmas td`s hbh-rfhmbk m`str`nut`bh `s st`ll v`s`nla. @h ifgt, fs kbra s`tas dfva naah mftam, kbra m`sgrata glustars fra akarc`hc, `h tda savahtd gahtury fhm i`itd gahtury NG `h pfrt`gulfr (Nf`ll`a fhm Nrbwh >??0, I`c 6). W`k`lfr pdahbkahbh fra hbw akarc`hc `h Wgbtlfhm, w`td aknrybh`g glustars mavalbp`hc ft tda sfka avaht dbr`zbhs fs `h @r`sd prad`stbry, `h tda i`itd fhm sagbhm gahtur`as NG raspagt`valy. Axprassam ft `ts kbst ramugt`va, tdasa glustars `hm`gfta tdft mur`hc tda i`rst k`llahh`uk NG —…dukfh fgt`v`ty tdft `hvblvam tda plfgakaht bi bfe t`knars `h gbhtaxts wdara`h tday gbulm sur v`va dfs hbt naah uh`ibrk tdrbucd t`ka‐ (Nf`ll`a fhm Nrbwh >??0, 63). @h btdar wbrms, tdasa glustars `hm`gfta ap`sbmas wdah dukfh fgt`v`ty gdfhcam, nagfusa mur`hc tdasa ap`sbmas pabpla wara nu`lm`hc w`td bfe `h lbgds fhm nbcs, `.a. `h tdbsa vary gbhtaxts wdara wftarlbcc`hc ahsuram surv`vfl. surv `vfl. Mur`hc tdasa par`bms `h @ralfhm tday nu`lt trfgewfys iulf gdt i`fmd i`fm d (nurht kbuhms) `h fhm fgrbss nbcs (Nf`ll`a fhm fhm iulfgdt Nrbwh 6009), sattlakahts bh tda kfrc`hs bi lfeas (B‐Wull`vfh 6004, 06), fhm kbhukahtfl afrtdwbres fgrbss nbccy frafs (Nf`ll`a fhm Nrbwh 6040). @h Wgbtlfhm tday nu`lt grfhhbcs `h lbgds. Nf`ll`a fhm Nrbwh (>??0) dfva prbpbsam tdft tdasa fppfraht gdfhcas `h dukfh fgt`v`ty kfy dfva naah st`kulftam st`kul ftam ny ahv`rbhkahtfl gdfhca. @h tda gfsa bi tda glustar bi fgt`v`ty `h tda sagbhm gahtury NG, td`s kfy dfva naah `hiluahga ny tda fitar-aiiagts bi f vblgfh`g must-va`l avaht `h tda lfst magfma bi tda td`rm gahtury NG, wd`gd fppafrs tb dfva gfusam f kfjbr ahv`rbhkahtfl mbwhturh frbuhm tda clbna. Wugd lbhc-rfhca syhgdrbh`g`ty bi mahmrb-mftam avahts bh a`tdar s`ma bi tda @r`sd Waf mbas `hmaam succast fh ahv`rbhkahtfl st`kulus, avah `i tda gulturfl raspbhsas (fs axprassam `h tda vfr`bus typas bi gbhstrugt`bhs) wara m`iiaraht. ]d`s syhgdrbh`g`ty flsb bggurs lftar `h tda Afrly D`stbr`g par`bm5 gbhstrugt`bh nacfh ft Nu`stbh `h tda lfttar dfli bi tda s`xtd gahtury FM, ft axfgtly tda sfka t`ka fs tdara wfs fh `htahs`va spfta bi grfhhbc nu`lm`hc fgrbss hbrtdarh @ralfhm (Nf`ll`a 6001, 10). ]d`s ibllbwam hbt lbhc fitar f hfturfl gftfstrbpd`g avaht `h 179 FM wd`gd fiiagtam tda clbnfl gl`kfta ibr tda ibllbw`hc magfmas, fs w`thassam ny gbhtakpbrfry ragbrms bi grbp if`lura, ifk`ha fhm plfcua (`n`m. Gdfptar 9). Sdft
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prbxy ragbrms tdara fra, d`ht tdft tda waftdar `h Wgbtlfhm Wgb tlfhm mur`hc tda i`rst k`llahh`uk NG wfs gblmar, wattar fhm stbrk`ar tdfh fvarfca (Mfwsbh >??0, 40) sb `t kust na wbhmaram wdy pabpla nu`lt but `h tda wftar ft tdasa t`kas (saa nalbw). ]da prak`sa tdft tdara fra m`sgrata pulsas bi grfhhbc-nu`lm`hc fgt`v`ty `h tda i`rst k`llahh`uk NG `s axprassam gfut`busly dara nagfusa `t `s nfsam bh tdraa mahmrb-mftam avahts fhm bha w`cclakftgd mftam avaht, w`td sbka suppbrt irbk tda rfm`bgfrnbh mftfsat. Havartdalass, `t railagts f crbw`hc manfta `h Wgbtlfhm fnbut tda lbhcav`ty bi bggupft`bh `h `hm`v`mufl strugturas fhm sattlakahts (Nfrnar fhm Grbha >??6, Gbwlay >??7, Dfll`mfy >??3). ^ftdar tdfh tda ralft`valy stft`g, lbhc-tark sattlakaht pfttarhs tdft dfva lbhc naah fssukam ibr kbst par`bms `h tda d`stbry bi tda Nr`t`sd @slas tdara `s fggukulft`hc av`mahga bi kbra sdbrt-l`vam ap`sbm`g sattlakaht, sattlakaht , wdara tda ap`sbmas bi bggupft`bh bggupf t`bh fra bi vfry`hc murft`bh, fhm fra sapfrftam ny `htarvfls, tdaksalvas bi vfry`hc murft`bh. Ft tda sgfla bi tda `hm`v`mufl s`ta, tda fssukpt`bh tdft grfhhbcs wara parkfhaht, gbht`hubusly `hdfn`tam ras`mahgas dfs naah gdfllahcam ny tda av`mahga irbk Nu`stbh fhm tda pbss`n`l`ty bi safsbhfl, ap`sbm`g usa kust na `hglumam `h tda sattlakaht kbmals ibr tdasa s`tas. Bh f lfhmsgfpa sgfla, sattlakahts, wdatdar tday wara `sblftam dbusas br v`llfcas, v`llfca s, kfy hbt dfva naah bggup`am ibr kbra tdfh f iaw caharft`bhs ft kbst. ]dus, grfhhbc bggupft`bh haam hbt na v`awam fs ruhh`hc syhgdrbhbusly w`td bggupft`bh bh sdbra nut kust, tb f macraa, dfva `htarm`c`tftam `htarm`c`t ftam w`td `t. ]dara kust dfva naah tarrastr`fl s`tas tb wd`gd tda grfhhbc bggupfhts kbvam `h tdbsa fnfhmbhkaht par`bms, bi yafrs, magfmas br gahtur`as, wdah tday wara hbt l`v`hc but bh tda lbgd. ]da ralft`bhsd`p natwaah tda bggupft`bh bi grfhhbcs fhm tda nrbfmly gbhtakpbrfry sattlakahts `h tda surrbuhm`hc lfhmsgfpa `s ft tda gbra bi tda gurraht rasafrgd prbcrfkka ft Gults Lbgd (Gfvars fhm Grbha >?6?). _ar`bm`g, safsbhfl usa kust suraly dfva f nafr`hc bh iuhgt`bh. ^uhh`hc tdrbucd tda pfrfcrfpd fnbva `s tda fssukpt`bh tdft fll grfhhbcs wara mbkast`g sattlakahts nut td`s `s ifr irbk sali-av`maht. ]da kbst axtahs`valy `hvast`cftam axfkplas - Nu`stbh fhm Bfenfhe - m`splfy kugd bi tda av`mahga fssbg`ftam w`td mbkast`g fgt`v`t`as, nut alsawdara td`s av`mahga `s kbra fkn`cubus. Frtaifgt fssaknlfcas gbkpfrfnla w`td tarrastr`fl dfn`tft`bh s`tas dfva naah ibuhm, flbhc w`td tda ras`muas bi ibbm gult`vft`bh fhm prapfrft`bh, nut av`mahga ibr ras`maht`fl strugturas `s spfrsa (saa Gfvars td`s vbluka). Wbka Afrly D`stbr`g grfhhbcs `h @ralfhm dfva naah `htarpratam fs grfitwbre`hc lbg` (B‐Wull`vfh 6004, 666, 6>>), fs dfs Lbgd Clfsdfh (saa fnbva). Sd`la sbka bi tda axgfvftam lftar prad`stbr`g grfhhbcs bi tda Glyma fhm Nafuly I`rtd mb m`splfy av`mahga ibr bggupft`bh
697
btdars kfy dfva naah usam fs lfhm`hc/lfuhgd`hc pb`hts irbk wd`gd tb gbhtrbl r`var trfii`g br axplb`t astufr`ha rasburgas (Dfla >??=, Wfhms fhm Dfla >??1). Gbhtakpbrfry raiarahgas tb afrly kbmarh lbgd sattlakahts fhm plfgahfka av`mahga flsb d`cdl`cdt f rfhca bi btdar pbss`nla iuhgt`bhs ibr grfhhbcs `hglum`hc eahhals, cfrr`sbhs, raiucas, trfvallar‐s lbmcas fhm iafst`hc-dbusas (Kbrr`sbh 6041, 9=4). @i grfhhbc-nu`lm`hc `s saah fs fh fgt`v`ty tdft dfppaham ft vary pfrt`gulfr pb`hts `h t`ka tdah td`s dfs rfk`i`gft`bhs ibr tda`r rbla `h gbhtakpbrfry sbg`aty fhm dbw tday wara parga`vam fhm usam. Wbka rasafrgdars dfva pbs`tam f puraly sbg`b-gulturfl st`kulus ibr grfhhbc-nu`lm`hc. Iramahcrah (>??>, >=>) dfs succastam tdft tda fgtufl prbgass bi nu`lm`hc tda grfhhbc wfs wdft wfs `kpbrtfht, n`hm`hc f gbkkuh`ty tbcatdar tdrbucd gbkkuhfl aiibrt, tda rasult`hc strugtura tdarany axprass`hc fhm strahctdah`hc gbkkuhfl `maht`ty. Gfvars (>??9, fhm td`s vbluka) biiars f syknbl`g `htarpratft`bh bi lftar prad`stbr`g grfhhbcs5 da saas tdak fs raprasaht`hc tda ius`bh bi tda r`tufl fhm mbkast`g spdaras bi avarymfy l`ia, l`v`hc l `v`hc bh tda lbgd fs f railagt`bh bi tda @rbh Fca ravarahga ibr wftar. ]da fggukulft`hc av`mahga prasahtam `h td`s pfpar `kpl`as tdft fh ahv`rbhkahtfl st`kulus kust flsb na `hglumam `h axplfhftbry kbmals ibr lftar prad`stbr`g grfhhbcs. _ardfps tda `kpulsa tb nu`lm but bh tda wftar, a`tdar tb kfea tdbsa sp`r`tufl gbhhagt`bhs w`td tda`r prbtagt`va ma`t`as, br tb ra-fii`rk fhm strahctdah gbkkuhfl `maht`ty, br nbtd, bhly bggurram ft t`kas wdah tda gbkkuh`ty ialt uhsattlam ny tda gdfhcas `h sbg`aty na`hc wrbucdt ny clbnfl ahv`rbhkahtfl avahts. Sdft Sd ft haxt ha xt22
]da prak`sa bi ap`sbm`g usa hbw haams tb na tastam fcf`hst f lfrcar mftfsat. Dbwavar, tda bvarfll strugtura bi tda rfm`bgfrnbh mftfsat dfs hbt sunstfht`flly gdfhcam masp`ta fh `hgrafsa bi mftf pb`hts ny f ifgtbr bi flkbst savah. ]d`s succasts tdft aiibrts wbulm na nattar m`ragtam tbwfrms tda gdrbhblbc`gfl prag`s`bh tdft gfh bhly na fgqu`ram tdrbucd mahmrbgdrbhblbcy fhm w`ccla-kftgd mft`hc, rftdar tdfh tda rfhmbk sfkpl`hc bi uhgbhtaxtam t`knars wd`gd wbulm bhly fmm kbra mbts tb m`str`nut`bh kfps. ]b td`s ahm, f prbcrfkka bi wbre `s gurrahtly uhmar wfy `h gbllfnbrft`bh w`td WQA^G (Wgbtt`sd Qh`vars`t`as Ahv`rbhkahtfl ^asafrgd Gahtra) wd`gd `s tast`hc rfm`bgfrnbh w`ccla-kftgd mft`hc bh t`knars mahmrb-mftam tb tda afrl`ar @rbh Fca irbk sbka bi tda sbutd-wast Wgbtt`sd grfhhbcs. ]da cbfl bi tda rasafrgd `s tb matark`ha tda `mafl sfkpl`hc katdbmblbcy haamam tb fgd`ava sun-gahtur`fl prag`s`bh `h tda rac`bh bi tda Dflstftt plftafu, wd`gd w`ll hbt na fh afsy tfse c`vah tdft kugd bi tda rasburga gbhs`sts bi kftar`fl w`td sdbrt r`hc saquahgas (saa fnbva). @h fmm`t`bh tb tda wbre na`hc mbha bh
69=
w`ccla-kftgd`hc `h tda afrl`ar @rbh Fca, rasafrgdars ft WQA^G fra flsb nac`hh`hc tb mavalbp f prbcrfkka bi rfm`bgfrnbh mft`hc tdft saaes tb mavalbp rbnust Nfyas`fh gdrbhblbc`as ibr Wgbtt`sd grfhhbcs (Marae Dfk`ltbh, parsbhfl gbkkuh`gft`bh). Fgehbw Fge hbwla lamc mcaka akaht htss
@ wbulm l`ea tb tdfhe ky gbllafcuas `h tda Wgbtt`sd Satlfhm Frgdfablb Frgdf ablbcy cy _rbcrfkka _rbcrf kka wdbsa wdbs a aiibrts aiib rts bvar tda pfst magfma magf ma dfva kfma kugd bi tda wbre rapbrtam bh dara pbss`nla. @ fk aspag`flly crftaiul tb Jbdh Nfrnar fhm Crfaka Gfvars ibr rafm`hc fhm gbkkaht`hc bh td`s pfpar. ^aiarahgas sl `ga tdrbu t drbucd cd t`ka t `ka . Lbhmbh: Nftsibrm. Nf`ll`a, K.C.L. 6001, F sl`ga
Nf`ll`a, K.C.L. fhm Nrbwh, M.K. 6040, Iurtdar mftas irbk tda Mbrsay. 9: 66. Akfh`f 9: Nf`ll`a, K.C.L. fhm Nrbwh, M.K. 6009, Mahmrbgdrbhblbcy bi @r`sd nbc trfgewfys. @h: N. ^fitary rfgewfy axgfvft`bhs `h tda Kbuhtm`llbh Nbcs, @FSQ ]rfhsfgt` ]rfhsfgt`bhs bhs 7, 701 70 1 ‗ =?>. =?> . Gb. Lbhcibrm 6041-6006. Munl`h: @FSQ Nf`ll`a, K. fhm Nrbwh, M .>??0, F gdrbhblbc`gfl cl`kpsa `htb tda lftar i`rst k`llahh`uk NG. @h: C. Gbbhay, E. Nagear, J. Gblas, K. ^yfh fhm W. W`avars (ams.) ^al`gs bi Blm Magahgy. Frgdfablbc`gfl Wtum`as `h Lftar _rad`stbry . Munl`h: Sbrmwall, 63->=. Nfrnar, J.S. fhm Grbha, F . 6007, Grfhhbcs5 f m`k`h`sd`hc rasburga2 F survay sur vay bi tda grfhhbcs grfh hbcs bi Wbutd Wbut d Sast Wgbtlfh Wgbt lfhmm fhm axgfvft`bh axgfvf t`bhss ft Nu`stbh Grfhhbc. Fht`qu`ty 93: 1>?-177. Fht`q u`ty 93: Nfrnar, J.S. fhm Grbha, F . >??6, ]da murft`bh bi strugturas, sattlakahts fhm s`tas: sbka av`mahga irbk Wgbtlfhm. @h: N. ^fitary, N fhm J. D`geay (ams.) ^agaht Mavalbpkahts `h Satlfhm ^asafrgd . Wafhmælfëbgdt: Kbh >, Mapt Frgdfabl, QGM fhm SF^_ Bggfs`bhfl _fpar 6=. Munl`h: Mapfrtkaht bi Frgdfablbcy, Qh`vars`ty Gbllaca Munl`h, 90-49. N`llfknbz, F. >??7, ]raa-r`hcs fhm watlfhm bggupft`bh `h sbutdwast Carkfhy natwaah >??? fhm 1?? NG: mahmrbfrgdfablbcy naybhm mft`hc `h tr`nuta tb I D Wgdwa`hcrunar. raa-r`hc rasafrgd 10 (6): 73-=0. Gfvars, K.C. >??9, Lfta Nrbhza fhm @rbh Fca Lfea Wattlakaht `h Wgbtlfhm fhm @ralfhm: tda br`c`hs fhm mavalbpkaht bi tda —grfhhbc‐ `h tda hbrtd fhm wast. Bxibrm Jburhfl bi Frgdfablbcy >1(=): >1(=): 740-=6>. Gfvars, K.C. >?6?, Grfhhbcs fhm Lftar _rad`stbr`g sattlakaht `h Sastarh Wgbtlfhm . NF^ Nr`t War 16?, Bxibrm: Frgdfabprass.
691
Gfvars, C. fhm Grbha, F. >?6?, Cfllbwfy grfhhbcs: fh `htar`k rapbrt bh wbre ft Gults Lbgd fhm Mbrkfh‐s @slfhm ny tda Wgbtt`sd Satlfhm Frgdfablb Frgdf ablbcy cy _rbcrfkka. _rbcrf kka. rfhsfgt`bhs bi Mukir`assd`ra fhm Cfllbwfy Hfturfl D`stbry fhm Fht`qufr`fh Wbg`aty 4=: 4=: 66-64. Gfvars, C., Grbha, F., Ahcl, ^., Iburfgra, L., Duhtar, I., ^bnartsbh, J. fhm ]dbks, J. >?66, ^ai`h`hc Gdrbhblbc`gfl ^asblut`bh `h @rbh Fca Wgbtlfhm: axgfvft`bhs ft Mbrkfh‐s @slfhm Grfhhbc, Mukir`as fhm Cfllbwfy. Jburhfl 6?: 36-6?4. Jburh fl bi b i Satlf Satlfhm hm Frgdfa F rgdfablbc blbc y 6?: Gbbe, C.]. C.]. , M`xbh, M`xbh , ].H., ].H., ^ussall, H., Hfysk`td, _., Tu, W. fhm Fhmr`fh, Fhm r`fh, N. >?6?, D`cd-prag`s`bh D`cd-prag`s`bh rfm`bgfrnbh mft`hc bi tda gbhstrugt`bh pdfsa bi Bfenfhe grfhhbc, Lbgd ]fy, _artdsd`ra. ^fm`bgfrnbh 1>(>‗7): 7=9‗711. Gbwlay, M. >??7, Gdfhc`hc plfgas ‗ nu`lm`hc l`ia-spfhs fhm sattlakaht gbht`hu`ty `h hbrtdarh Wgbtlfhm. @h: J. Mbwhas, fhm F. ^`tgd`a (ams.) Waf gdfhca: Brehay fhm hbrtdarh Aurbpa `h tda lftar @rbh Fca FM 7??4?? . Nflcfv`as: ]da _`heibbt _rass, 31-46. Grbha, F. 6044, Mahmrbgdrbhblbcy fhm tda stumy bi grfhhbcs . Qh`vas`ty bi Wdaii`alm5 uhpunl`sdam _dM tdas`s. Grbha, F. 6007, Grfhhbcs fhm gdrbhblbc`as. _rbgaam`hcs bi tda Wbg`aty bi 6>7: >=1-1=. Fht`qufr Fht` qufr`as `as bi b i Wgbtl Wg btlfhm fhm 6>7: Grbha, F. 6004, ]da ]da mavalbpkaht bi fh Afrly D`stbr`g traa-r`hc traa-r`h c gdrbhblbcy ibr Wgbtlfhm. _rbgaam`hcs bi tda Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr`as bi Wgbtlfhm 6>4: =41-07. Grbha, F. >???, da d`stbry bi f Wgbtt`sd lbwlfhm grfhhbc: axgfvft`bhs ft Nu`stbh, Fyrsd`ra 6040-0? . Am`hnurcd: W]F^ Kbhbcrfpd War`as =. Grbha, F. >?66, Lfta nac`hh`hcs5 fh afrly kbmarh grfhhbc ft Afmfrlbgd, Lbgd ]ra`c, ]ra`c, Lbgdfnar. D`stbry Wgbtlfhm 66(6): 66(6): 77-3. Grbha, F. fhm Gfkpnall, A. >??1 F grfhhbc grfhh bc bi tda 6st k`llahh`uk FM5 axgfvft`bhs ny Jfge Wgbtt ft Lbgd Clfsdfh, Frcyll, 609? . Am`hnurcd: Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr`as bi Wgbtlfhm. Grbha, F. fhm Glfrea, G. >??1, F prbcrfkka ibr watlfhm frgdfablbcy `h Wgbtlfhm `h tda twahty-i`rst gahtury. _rbgaam`hcs bi tda Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr Fht` qufr`as `as bi b i Wgbtl Wg btlfhm fhm 671: 1-63. Grbha, F. fhm K`lls, G.K. >??>, Waa`hc tda wbbm fhm tda traas5 mahmrbgdrbhblbc`gfl mahmrbgdrbhblbc`gfl stum`as `h Wgbtlfhm. Fht`qu`ty 39: 344-0=. Fht`q u`ty 39: Grbha, F. ibrtdgb ibr tdgbk`hc k`hc , F lbcnbft `h Lbgd Clfsdfh. M`sgbvary fhm Axgfvft`bh 6>. `h Wgbtlfhm 6>. Mfwsbh, F. >??0, Wb ibul fhm if`r f mfy: f d`stbry bi Wgbtlfhm‐s waftdar fhm gl`kfta . Am`hnurcd: N`rl`hh. M`xbh, ].H. >??=, Wgbtt`sd grfhhbcs: fh uhmarwftar frgdfablbcy . Wtrbum: ]akpus _unl`sd`hc _unl` sd`hc Ltm.
699
M`xbh, H. >??3, Grfhhbc strugtura fhm mft`hc mft`h c `h _artdsd`ra _artdsd`ra w`td pfrt`gulfr pfrt`g ulfr raiarahga tb Lbgd ]fy. @h: J. Nfrnar, G. Glfrea, K. Grassay, F. Grbha, F. Dfla, Dfl a, J. G. Dahmarsb Dah marsbh, h, ^. Dbuslay, Dbu slay, ^. Wfhms Wfh ms fhm F. Wdar`mfh Wdar `mfh (ams.) (ams .) Frgdfablb Frgdf ablbcc y irbk tda watlfhms: watlf hms: ^agaht ^agah t parspagt pars pagt`vas `vas . Am`hnurcd: Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr`as bi Wgbtlfhm Kbhbcrfpd War`as, >17-91. Mr`sgbll, W.]. 6004, _`gts fhm prad`stbry: gulturfl rasburga kfhfcakaht `h afrly kam`avfl Wgbtlfhm. Sbrlm Frgdfablbcy 7?(6): 7?(6): 6=> ‗ 14. Iramahcrah, G. >??>, Grfhhbcs. F stumy bi pabpla‐s `htarfgt`bh w`td lfeas, w`td pfrt`gulfr raiarahga tb Lbucd Cfrf `h tda hbrtd-wast bi @ralfhm . Munl`h: Sbrmwall. Fht`q u`ty =4: 1=-19. Cu`mb, K. 603=, F Wgbtt`sd grfhhbc ra-mftam. Fht`qu`ty
Dfla, F. >??=, Wgbtt`sd kfr`ha grfhhbcs . NF^ Nr`t War 790, Bxibrm: Frgdfabpra Frgdf abprass. ss. Dfll`mfy, W._. >??3, Qhahglbsam rbuhm-dbusas `h Wgbtlfhm: bggupft`bh, fnfhmbhkaht fhm gdfrfgtar bi sattlakaht. @h: G. Nurcass, _. ]bpp`hc fhm I. Lyhgd (ams.) Naybhm Wtbhadahca. Assfys bh tda Nrbhza Fca `h dbhbur bi Gbl`h Nurcass . Bxibrm: Bxnbw Nbbes, =0 ‗ 19. Dfrm`hc, M. >??=, da @rbh Fca `h Hbrtdarh Nr`tf`h. Galts fhm ^bkfhs, hft`vas fhm `hvfmars . Lbhmbh: ^butlamca. Dahmarsbh, J.G, Grbha, F. fhm Gfvars, K.C. >??7, F gbhm`t`bh survay bi salagtam grfhhbcs `h sbutd-wast sbutd-wast Wgbtlfhm. rfhsfgt`bhs bi Mukir`assd`ra 33: 30-6?>. fhm Cfllbwfy Hfturfl D`stbry fhm Fht`qufr`fh Wbg`aty 33: Dahmarsbh, J.G., Gfvars, K.C. fhm Grbha, F. >??9, ]da sbutd-wast grfhhbc survay: ragaht wbre bh tda lfea mwall`hcs bi Mukir`as fhm Cfllbwfy. rfhsfgt`bhs bi Mukir`assd`ra fhm Cfllbwfy Hfturfl D`stbry 4?: >0-16. fhm Fht`qufr`fh Wbg`aty 4?: Dahmarsbh, J.G. ibrtdgb Qhmarwftar axgfvft`bh axgfvft` bh ft Amarl`ha Nbftdbusa ibr tdgbk`hc k`hc , Qhmarwftar Grfhhbc, Lbgd Fwa, Frcyll, Wgbtlfhm. @htarhft`bhfl Jburhfl bi Hfut`gfl Frgdfablb Frgdf ablbcc y. Dahmarsbh, Dahmarsbh, J >??3 ^agbch`s`hc gbkplax`ty gbkplax`ty fhm rafl`z`hc tda pbtaht`fl bi Wgbtt`sd grfhhbcs. @h: J. Nfrnar, G. Glfrea, K. Grassay, F. Grbha, F. Dfla, J. G. Dahmarsbh, ^. Dbuslay, ^. Wfhms fhm F. Wdar`mfh (ams.) Frgdfablb Frgdf ablbcc y irbk tda watlfhms: watlf hms: ^agaht ^agah t parspagt pars pagt`vas `vas . Am`hnurcd: Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr`as bi Wgbtlfhm Kbhbcrfpd War`as, >76-=. D`hclay, ^. 6009, Fhgastbrs fhm `maht`ty `h tda lftar prad`stbry bi Ftlfht`g Wgbtlfhm: tda rausa fhm ra`hvaht`bh bi Habl`td`g kbhukahts fhm kftar`fl gultura. Sbrlm Frgdfablbcy >4(>): >4(>): >76-=7. Dbllay, K.S. fhm ^flstbh, @.N.K. 6001, ^fm`bgfrnbh mftas ibr twb grfhhbcs bh tda @sla bi Kull, Wtrftdglyma ^ac`bh, Wgbtlfhm. Fht`qu`t Fht` qu`ty y 90: 101-9. Duhtar, I. >??3, Naybhm tda Amca bi Akp`ra ‗ Gflambh`fhs, _`gts fhm ^bkfhs. ^bsakfre`a: Crbfk Dbusa.
693
Eahwfrm, D. D`ll, K., Jfquas, M., Erbupf, F fhm Lfrca, I. >???, ]da Gblabptarf. @h: F. Grbha >???, da d`stbry bi f Wgbtt`sd lbwlfhm grfhhbc: axgfvft`bhs ft Nu`stbh, Fyrsd`ra 6040-0? . Am`hnurcd: W]F^ Kbhbcrfpd War`as =, 00-6?6. L`ll`a, K.G., Wk`td, ^., ^aam, J. fhm @hcl`s, ^. >??4, Wbutd-Sast Wgbtt`sd Grfhhbcs: us`hc `h s`tu stum`as tb fssass prasarvft`bh `h watlfhm gbhtaxts. Jburhfl 71: 6449-60??. Jburh fl bi b i Frgdfab Frg dfablbc lbc`gfl `gfl Wg`ahga Wg`ah ga 71: KfgWwaah, F. >???, @htacrft`hc tda frtaifgt fssaknlfcas irbk tda 60 td fhm >? td gahtury axgfvft`bhs. @h: F. Grbha >???, da d`stbry bi f Wgbtt`sd lbwlfhm grfhhbc: axgfvft`bhs ft Nu`stbh, Fyrsd`ra 6040-0? . Am`hnurcd: W]F^ Kbhbcrfpd War`as =, 6=7 ‗ 616. Kbrr`sbh, @. 6041, Lfhmsgfpa w`td lfea mwall`hcs . Am`hnurcd: Am`hnurcd Qh`vars`ty _rass. Kuhrb, ^. 644>, Fhg`aht Wgbtt`sd lfea mwall`hcs. Am`hnurcd: Mfv`m Mbuclfs. Bfelay, C.A.K. 6037, Wgbtt`sd grfhhbcs . Qh`vars`ty bi Hawgfstla5 uhpunl`sdam K _d`l tdas`s. B‐Wull`vfh, F. 6004, da frgdfablbcy bi lfea sattlakaht `h @ralfhm . Munl`h: M`sgbvary _rbcrfkka Kbhbcrfpd =. ^amehfp, K. fhm Lfha, F. 600=, ]da afrly kam`avfl grfhhbc ft Llfhcbrsa, _bwys: fh `htar`k stftakaht bh tda 6040-6007 safsbhs. @htarhft`bhfl Jburhfl Jburh fl bi b i Hfut`gfl Hfut `gfl Frgdfablb Frgdf ablbcc y >7(7): 60?->?1. Wfhms, ^. fhm Dfla, F. >??1, Av`mahga irbk kfr`ha grfhhbcs bi lftar prad`stbr`g usa bi tda I`rtd bi Glyma. Jburhfl Jburh fl bi Satlfhm atlf hm Frgdfablb Frgdf ablbcc y 6: =6-1=. Wdallay, K. >??0, Irasdwftar Wgbtt`sd lbgd sattlakahts bi tda Lfta Kam`avfl fhm Afrly Kbmarh par`bms . Qh`vars`ty bi Am`hnurcd: uhpunl`sdam _dM tdas`s.
694
Gdfptar 3 G^FHHBCW FW NQ@LM@HCW: NQ@L M@HCW: ]DA AYBLQ]@BH BI @H]A^_^A]F]@BH 644> - >?66
Crfaka Gfvars 6
Fnstr Fns trfg fgt t
Grfhhbcs fra d`cdly v`s`nla kfh-kfma stftakahts `h tda Wgbtt`sd lftar prad`stbr`g lfhmsgfpa. ]da pfpar m`sgussas tda gurraht uhmarstfhm`hc uhmarstfhm`hc bi grfhhbcs, irbk tda`r starabtyp`gfl starabtyp`gfl kbmal, tdrbucd vfr`am kbrpdblbcy bi gbhstrugt`bh, tb tda `slfhm rbuhm dbusa strugturas fhm ifrkstafms. @t flsb gbhs`mars tda kbra prbk`s`hc fvahuas bi rasafrgd wd`gd fra fr`s`hc irbk ragaht wbre bh Wgbtt`sd lfea mwall`hcs, ibr axfkpla gbhs`marft`bh bi tda mbkast`g spdara bi l`ia fhm `ts ralft`bhsd`p tb tda vaharft`bh bi wftar, br kbmall`hc bi sbg`fl bnl`cft`bhs tdrbucd lfnbur pbbl`hc, wd`gd gfh nr`hc us glbsar tb uhmarstfhm`hc tda sbg`at`as tdft nu`lt fhm usam tdasa s`tas. Eay wbrms: Kuhrb, grfhhbcs, gbhstrugt`bh, bggupft`bh mapbs`ts, rbuhmdbusas —Dbwavar kugd vfr`aty br hbvalty kfy fmm tb tda `htarast fttfgdam tb fht`qufr`fh m`sgbvar`as, `t kust havar na ibrcbttah tdft tda`r sg`aht`stg vflua `s tb na matark`ham ny tda axtaht tb wd`gd tday gfh na kfma tb ahr`gd bur ehbwlamca bi tda pfst pdfsas bi g`v`l`sft`bh.‐
Fhg`a ht Wgbtt` W gbtt`sd sd Lfea L fea Mwall`hcs Mwall `hcs (644>,>=?) ^bnart Kuhrb, Fhg`aht
6
FBG Frgdfablbcy Crbup, Amcastalm @hmustr`fl Astfta, Lbfhdafm, K`mlbtd`fh, AD>? 0WP, QE
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690
@htrbmugt`bh
Grfhhbcs dfva glafr pbtaht`fl tb ilasd but prad`stbry- prbv`m`hc us w`td `hibrkft`bh bh tda ibrk fhm usa bi kftar`fls tdft vary rfraly surv`va `h btdar gbhtaxts. W`hga Kuhrb‐s mfy, grfhhbcs dfva naah vfluam ibr td`s rafsbh, tda uhpfrfllalam glfr`ty bi tda cl`kpsa tday c`va us bi prad`stbr`g mbkast`g l`ia na`hc fh bnv`bus rafsbh tb dblm tdak `h td`s astaak. Dbwavar, tda glfr`ty bi td`s cl`kpsa dfs havar naah kftgdam ny glfr`ty `h prag`saly wdft tdasa strugturas lbbeam l`ea, fhm fs f rasult, tda `kpfgt bi tda`r gbhtr`nut`bh tb Wgbtt`sd frgdfablbcy dfs naah ramugam. ]da Hft`bhfl Kusauks bi Wgbtlfhm‐s `gbh`g pbrtrfyfl bi tda kftar`fl gultura bi prad`stbr`g Wgbtlfhm `s craftly ahdfhgam ny f w`ma rfhca bi frtaifgts irbk grfhhbcs irbk fll par`bms, fhm wd`la tdara fra ft lafst =?? ehbwh axfkplas tda s`tas tdaksalvas rakf`h bnsgura fhm avah `h fgfmak`g pargapt`bh vary iaw gfh na gbhs`maram eay s`tas bi prad`stbr`g br afrly d`stbr`g Wgbtlfhm. Ft `ts kbst iuhmfkah iuhm fkahtfl tfl laval l aval bi mai`h` ma i`h`t`bh t`bh,, f —grfhhbc‐ —grfhh bc‐ `s karaly karal y fh frt`i`g`flly graftam spfga: tda ifgt tdft td`s kfy na f vary wall prasarvam spfga, kfma bi kftar`fls tdft rfraly surv`va alsawdara `s `hgbhsaquaht`fl `hgbhsaquaht`fl `i wa gfhhbt uhmarstfhm wdft tdbsa rakf`hs tall us fnbut wdft dfppaham tdara. Sftarlbccam wbbm kfy na spagtfgulfr, nut `h fhm bi `tsali, `t talls us hbtd`hc, fhm `t `s fh uhgbkibrtfnla rafl`ty tdft vary iaw grfhhbcs dfva prbmugam fhy sunstfht`fl av`mahga bi prad`stbr`g nu`lm`hcs: avah tda nast prasarvam fhm kbst tdbrbucdly `hvast`cftam axfkplas dfva naah surpr`s`hcly sgfhty `h tda matf`ls bi tda`r suparstrugturas. Fs flwfys, flwfy s, tda vflua vflu a bi bur gbhglus gbhg lus`bhs `bhs `s bhly f kafsura kafs ura bi tda vfl`m`ty bi tda `htarprat`va irfkawbre irbk wd`gd tday wara Fhg`a ht gbhstrugtam, fhm flkbst 67? yafrs fitar tda punl`gft`bh bi Fhg`aht Wgbtt`sd Lfea Mwall`hcs, `t `s part`haht ft td`s juhgtura tb rav`aw tda d`stbr`gfl gbhtaxt bi bur bwh v`aw bi grfhhbcs. @h td`s pfpar @ f`k tb rafpprf`sa tdasa irfkawbres fhm m`sguss bur gurraht uhmarstfhm`hc bi grfhhbcs fs nu`lm`hcs, naibra turh`hc tb gbhs`mar tda kbst prbk`s`hc fvahuas bi rasafrgd wd`gd fra gurrahtly fr`s`hc irbk tda kbst ragaht wbre bh Wgbtt`sd lfea mwall`hcs. Grfhhbcs `h Wgbtlfhm dfva hbw naah glafrly makbhstrftam tb na prambk`hfhtly lftar prad`stbr`g `h mfta (Dahmarsbh 6004, Grbha td`s vbluka) , fhm `t `s w`td dbw grfhhbc strugturas ralfta tb tda @rbh Fca (fhm pr`hg`p pr` hg`pflly flly pra-^bkfh pra- ^bkfh @rbh Fca) sattlaka satt lakaht ht ragbrm ragb rm kbra caharflly tdft @ fk pr`hg`pflly gbhgarham dara. Fs @ f`k tb axplbra, tdara `s gbhs`marfnla vfr`aty `h tda ibrkft bi grfhhbc sattlakaht, avah w`td`h td`s @rbh Fca dbr`zbh5 frcufnly tda grfhhbc starabtypa dfs kfseam tda `kpbrtfhga `kpbrtfhg a bi td`s vfr`fn`l`ty fhm `ts ralavfhga ralavfhg a tb tda w`mar sattlakaht spagtruk bi tda lftar i`rst k`llahh`uk NG.
63?
^bnart Kuhrb wfs fwfra bi tda haam ibr sar`bus frgdfablbc`gfl rasafrgd tb axtrfgt kbra irbk lfea mwall`hc stum`as tdfh kfrvall`hc ft tda`r prasarvft`bh (saa `htrbmugtbry qubta), fhm succastam sbka bi tda wfys tdft td`s kfy na fgd`avam. Da wfs fhflyt`gfl bi tda av`mahga ibr grfhhbc suparstrugturas, fhm biiaram d`s bwh `htarpratft`bhs bi dbw tdasa lfea mwall`hcs k`cdt `hibrk bur v`aw bi prad`stbr`g sattlakahts kbra caharflly (Kuhrb 640=f, 640=n). @t `s tdrbucd prbpar gbhtaxtufl`sft`bh tdft grfhhbc av`mahga gfh na nrbucdt tb nafr bh bur uhmarstfhm`hc bi prad`stbr`g sbg`aty fhm gbhtr`nuta naybhm karaly prbv`m`hc tdft cl`kpsa bi tda ilasd bh tda nbhas tdft watlfhm frgdfablbcy `s tdbucdt tb prbv`ma5 tda ibllbw`hc m`sguss`bh gbhs`mars dbw kugd glbsar wa fra tb tdft gbhtaxtufl`sam fpprag`ft`bh bi lfea sattlakahts tdfh ft tda t`ka bi Kuhrb‐s galanrftam `hvast`cft`bhs. `hvast`cft`bhs. ]da mavalbpkaht bi tda Wgbtt`sd grfhhbc starabtypa
^bnart Kuhrb‐s wbre wfs uhmah`fnly p`bhaar`hc: da `s tb na fmk`ram ibr d`s se`ll `h bnsarvft`bh fhm d`s fn`l`ty tb mbgukaht tdasa bnsarvft`bhs, nut flsb ibr d`s ragbch`t`bh bi tda l`k`ts bi d`s bwh ehbwlamca, bi tda makbhstrfnla av`mahga, fhm tdaraibra bi tda l`k`ts bi rafsbhfnla spagulft`bh. Da `hspagtam f lfrca huknar bi grfhhbcs parsbhflly, fhm systakft`gflly gbllftam av`mahga irbk tda `hvast`cft`bh bi kfhy btdars tdft da m`m hbt parsbhflly suparv`sa. D`s wbre ft Lbgdlaa fhm Nu`stbh wara d`s kfjbr axgfvft`bhs, fhm vary ibrkft`va `h d`s masgr`pt`bh bi tda grfhhbc gbhstrugt`bh kbmal. ]d`s, fhm tda punl`gft`bh bi tda plfh bi Nu`stbh `h 644> wara vary `hiluaht`fl `h tda ibrkft`bh bi f Wgbtt`sd grfhhbc starabtypa (I`cura 3.6). Ibr d`s bwh pfrt, Kuhrb wfs flwfys tahtft`va `h d`s gbhglus`bhs: d`s `htarpratft`bh bi tda Nu`stbh —mwall`hc dbusa‐ wfs gfut`bus fhm da gbhs`maram tda bpt`bhs bi nbtd f s`hcla lfrca “pfcbmf-styla‛ nu`lm`hc (Kuhrb 644>, >?1), br f sar`as bi skfllar `hm`v`mufl duts, tdbucd da m`m praiar tda ibrkar. Da wfs glafrly puzzlam `h tda gfsa bi Lbgdlaa ny tda hbh-gbrraspbhmahga bi tda nfsa bi tda kbuhm (wd`gd wfs g`rgulfr) tb tda suparstrugtura (f —lbc pfvakaht‐ wd`gd fppafram tb na ragtfhculfr). _ardfps gbhtrfry tb gbkkbh kbmarh pargapt`bh fhm gbkkahmfnly ibr tda t`ka, Kuhrb wfs glafrly fwfra bi tda l`eal`dbbm bi kult`pla pdfsas bi bggupft`bh fhm raiurn`sdkaht bi grfhhbcs fhm dbw td`s k`cdt gbhiusa tda axgfvftam plfh, nut us`hc d`s plfh fhm masgr`pt`bhs bi Lbgdlaa `t mbas saak rafsbhfnla tb pbstulfta f suparstrugtura qu`ta m`iiaraht tb tda starabtyp`gfl grfhhbc rbuhmdbusa ft tdft s`ta, avah fggapt`hc
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636
I`cura 3.6 _lfhs bi Nu`stbh fhm Lbgdlaa (Kuhrb 644>).
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tdft ragtfhculfr ilbbr`hc frrfhcakahts gfh na ibuhm w`td`h nbtd g`rgulfr fhm ragtfhculfr strugturas. Kuhrb wfs gartf`hly fwfra, tdah, bi tda vfr`fn`l`ty `h Wgbtt`sd grfhhbc kbrpdblbcy, fhm da gbhs`maram tda s`ch`i`gfhga bi tda vfr`fnla prasahga bi tda par`katar stbgefma, `ts bggfs`bhfl fltarhft`va `h stbha, fhm s`tas wd`gd saakam tb gbkn`ha nbtd pfgeware fhm p`l`hc kbmas kbma s (Kuhrb 644>, >=>-7), sugd fs ft Lbgd Mdu (Kfge`hlfy 649>) fhm tda Lbgdahm grfhhbc grfhhb c `h Gbftnr`mca (Kbhta`td fhm ^bnn 6073). Masp`ta Kuhrb‐s ragbch`t`bh bi tda datarbcahabus hftura bi lfea sattlakahts `h Wgbtlfhm, dbwavar, tda pargapt`bh bi grfhhbcs fs lfrca t`knar rbuhmdbusas, astfnl`sdam ny tda avbgft`va plfh bi Nu`stbh, wfs tb prbva `hiluaht`fl `h tda mavalbpkaht bi tda grfhhbc starabtypa. Krs _`ccbtt‐s axgfvft`bhs ft K`ltbh Lbgd 6 darflmam sbkatd`hc bi f stap gdfhca `h tda pargapt`bh bi grfhhbcs fs nu`lm`hcs (I`cura (I`cura 3.>). Fltdbucd tda vfr`fn`l`ty `h grfhhbc strugturas wfs ragbch`sam ny tda aiibrts bi tda fht`qufr`fh `hvast`cftbrs, _`ccbtt‐s axgfvft`bhs sarvam tb aknam tda hbt`bh tdft kbst Wgbtt`sd grfhhbcs nalbhcam tb tda @rbh Fca, fhm gbhtakpbrfry fmvfhgas `h tda stumy bi tda @rbh Fca rbuhmdbusa Ua.c. ibllbw`hc Narsu‐s (60=?) axgfvft`bhs ft L`ttla Sbbmnury fhm tda mavalbpkaht mavalbpka ht bi kbmals ibr tda @rbh Fca bi Sassax, nut n ut flsb fl sb ny _`ccbtt _`cc btt darsa d arsalili fhm f hm dar gbhtakpb gbht akpbrfr` rfr`as as wbre`h wb re`hcc bh maiahmam sattlakahts `h WA Wgbtlfhm, a.c. _`ccbtt 60=4[ cfva _`ccbtt gbhi`mahga `h dar gbhv`gt`bh tdft dar axgfvft`bhs ft K`ltbh Lbgd cfva f glafrar p`gtura bi tda hftura bi grfhhbc strugturas tdfh dfm naah biiaram naibra. Wda wfs irustrftam ft tda lfge bi ral`fnla pfrfllals `h tda astfnl`sdam l`tarftura ibr K`ltbh Lbgd, stft`hc tdft kugd bi tda punl`sdam l`tarftura bh grfhhbcs wfs —flkbst wbrtdlass‐ (6017, 61?), f pbs`t`bh tdft `kpl`am tdft K`ltbh Lbgd dfm glfr`i`am tda trua gdfrfgtar bi grfhhbc suparstrugturas, fhm tdft btdar s`tas wara a`tdar lass wall prasarvam br tbb pbbrly axgfvftam tb mahbta s`k`lfr strugturas. ]dara saaks l`ttla rafsbh tb mbunt mbun t tda vfl`m`ty bi tda K`ltbh Lbgd grfhhbc rbuhmdbusa (fltdbucd tdara kfy na `hm`gft`bhs bi kult`pla pdfsas bi fgt`v`ty fgt`v` ty tdft wara hbt hagassfr`ly fgehbwlamcam fgehbwla mcam `h _`ccbtt‐s rapbrt (saa Gfvars >?6?)), fhm tda s`hcla, lfrca `slat rbuhmdbusa `s f kbmal tdft saaks tb fpply tb twb btdar s`tas `hvast`cftam `h tda h`hataahtd gahtury, ft Lbgdfh Mucdf`ll, Frcyll (Kuhrb 6407) fhm Muknuge bh tda Glyma (Nruga 60??). Dbwavar, tda s`kpla aquft`bh bi grfhhbc tb `slfhm rbuhmdbusa `s hbt bha tdft gfh na kfma ral`fnly ral` fnly.. Dyhmibrm (Kuhrb 6400) kfy `llustrfta dbw tda tark —grfhhbc‐ sdbulm na gbhs`maram tb mahbta f w`ma rfhca bi s`ta typas: rftdar tdfh na`hc f trua `slfhm mwall`hc, Dyhmibrm kfy dfva naah fh frt`i`g`flly ahglbsam rbuhmdbusa - tda m`tgd - br frt`i`g`fl pbhm
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I`cura 3.> _lfh bi K`ltbh Lbgd (_`ccb 6017).
fs Kuhrb raiarram tb `t - na`hc m`ii`gult tb axplf`h `i tda s`ta wara fh frgdatypfl grfhhbc nu`lt `h bpah wftar. Dfrm`hc (>??3) dfs flsb mrfwh fttaht`bh tb tda pbss`n`l`ty tdft kfhy —grfhhbc `slfhms‐ kfy rftdar dfva naah prbkbhtbr`as, tda far`fl av`mahga succast`hc strbhcly tdft ft lafst sbka wara sapfrftam irbk mry lfhm bhly ny frt`i`g`flly muc gdfhhals. Fs dfs naah hbtam naibra, grfhhbcs - l`ea —muhs‐ - suiiar irbk sugd sug d f vfcua mai`h`t`bh tdft s`kpl`st`g s`kpl`st `g starabtypas fra parvarsaly tfeah, uhgr`t`gflly, fs uh`varsflly fppl`gfnla (Dfrm`hc >???). @t `s td`s futdbr‐s bp`h`bh tdft tdara `s l`ttla vflua `h manft`hc tda vfl`m`ty bi lfnals fhm tark`hblbcy `h tda gfsa bi —grfhhbcs‐, s`hga tdara `s sb l`ttla mftf w`td wd`gd tb gbhstrugt f ral`fnla irfkawbre. ]da vfr`fn`l`ty `h tda ragbrmam av`mahga `s sugd tdft fttakpts ft glfss`i`gft`bh glfss`i `gft`bh nfsam bh ibrk ibr k (—d`cd gf`rh‐ fhm —lbw gf`rh‐ gf`rh‐ (Iramahcrah
63=
>??>), gbhstrugt`bhfl kftar`fls br cabcrfpd`gfl lbgft`bh (Dahmarsbh 6004) mb hbt stfhm s tfhm up tb tast. ]ark`hblbc ]ark`hblbcyy gfhhbt dalp ft td`s stfca s tfca `h grfhhbc stum`as fhm `s l`ealy tb na k`slafm`hc5 `t `s hbhatdalass `kpbrtfht, bhga bhg a fcf`h, tb d`cdl`cdt tdft tdara `s tda mfhcar tdft s`tas fra tarkam —grfhhbcs‐, fhm p`cabh-dblam fs f gbhsaquahga bi tda surv`vfl bi brcfh`g kftar`fls flbha. ]da K`ltbh Lbgd kbmal bi tda @rbh Fca grfhhbc fs f lfrca rbuhmdbusa wfs tb pars`st fs tda mbk`hfht pfrfm`ck irbk tda 601?s bhwfrm, fhm wfs ra`hibrgam ny gbhgurraht fmvfhgas `h tda stumy bi tda tarrastr`fl @rbh Fca sattlakaht ragbrm, fhm td`s `s dbw tday fra masgr`nam `h taxtnbbes bi hbrtdarh Nr`t`sd prad`stbry. Iafgdak‐s (6099) cu`ma tb prad`stbr`g Wgbtlfhm wfs pfrt`gulfrly spag`i`g fnbut wdft gbhst`tutam f grfhhbc, fhm tda starabtypa bi tda `slfhm rbuhmdbusa masgr`nam tdara wfs tb nagbka vary pars`staht5 ny tda t`ka bi tda punl`gft`bh bi tdft vbluka tda craft macraa bi vfr`fn`l`ty `h grfhhbc ibrks dfm aiiagt`valy naah kfseam ny tda `kfca bi tda s`hcla `slfhm rbuhmdbusa (I`cura 3.7). ]d`s v`aw bi tda grfhhbc rbuhmdbusa dfs pardfps naah iurtdar gakahtam ny tda kbmal prbpbsam ibr Bfenfhe ny M`xbh (M`xbh >??=). Fltdbucd strugturfl av`mahga `s plaht`iul irbk tda s`ta, tdara `s vary l`ttla `h tda wfy bi makbhstrfnly `h s`tu strugturfl rakf`hs, fs`ma irbk tda kfss bi vart`gfl p`l`hc wd`gd, ibr tda kbst pfrt, mbas hbt raspagt tda caharfl `kprass`bh bi g`rgulfr`ty c`vah ny tda kbuhm bi stbhas uhmar wd`gd `t l`as. ]da iraa-stfhm`hc strugtura ragbhstrugtam ft Grbit-hf-Gfnar bh Lbgd ]fy mafls w`td kfhy tfpdbhbk`g prbnlaks pbsam ny tda axgfvftam av`mahga, hbt lafst tda prbnlak bi safsbhflly ilugtuft`hc wftar lavals, nut tda frrfhcakaht fhm matf`ls bi tda suparstrugtura fra hagassfr`ly spagulft`va, fhm `t `s gartf`h tdft td`s gfh bhly dfva railagtam bha, vary afrly, pdfsa `h tda s`ta‐s d`stbry (saa m`sguss`bh ny Gfvars >?6?, 9=-3).
I`cura 3.7 Frk`t, _`ccb fhm Iafgdak ragbhstrugt`bhs (Frk`t 6003, _`ccb 6017, Iafgdfk 6099).
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631
@h suppbrt bi tda `slfhm rbuhmdbusa kbmal fra tda lfrca huknar bi stbha-nu`lt `slfhm sattlakahts - bitah raiarram tb fs `slfhm muhs - wd`gd wara s`kply `slfhm vfr`fhts bi tarrastr`fl rbuhmdbusas. @t `s ifr dfrmar tb astfnl`sd f cbbm nfs`s ibr axglum`hc tdasa s`tas irbk tda spagtruk bi frt`i`g`fl `slfhm ibrks tdfh tb `hgluma tdak w`td`h tda sfka su`ta bi s`tas. W`tas sugd fs Lbgd Laftdfh `h Frcyll fhm ^bucd Lbgd `h S`ctbwhsd`ra (Gfvars >?6?), fs wall fs kfhy `h tda @hhar Danr`mas wd`gd nlur tda m`st`hgt`bh natwaah grfhhbc fhm —`slfhm muh‐ (Dbllay >???) sdbw tdft lfrca stbha nu`lt rbuhmdbusas bh frt`i`g`fl `slfhms wara w`masprafm `h @rbh Fca Wgbtlfhm. ]da gr`t`gfl `ssua tdft tdasa s`tas makbhstrfta `s tdft `slfhm dbusas wara f eay gbkpbhaht bi tda sattlakaht lfhmsgfpa `h lftar prad`stbr`g Wgbtlfhm, fhm d`ht tdft kf`hlfhm t`knar grfhhbcs sdbulm na gbhs`maram flbhcs`ma tda mry lfhm, tarrastr`fl ragbrm. ^buhmdbusa strugturas
K`ltbh Lbgd fs`ma, twb eay s`tas nast raprasaht tda av`mahga ibr sunstfht`fl `slfhm rbuhmdbusas: tda s`tas `hvast`cftam ny Kuhrb ft Lbgdfh Mucdf`ll (Kuhrb 6407) fhm ny Mbhally ft Muknuge (Nruga 60??, Dfla fhm Wfhms >??1). Fll bi tdasa s`tas gbhi`rk tdft nu`lm`hcs s`k`lfr `h ibrk tb tarrastr`fl rbuhmdbusas wara nu`lt bh grfhhbcs, nut tda matf`ls bi tda suparstrugturas fra vary vfcua. Bhly f iaw prbxy `hm`gftbrs, strugturfl fhm pflfabahv`rbhkahtfl, d`ht ft tda gdfrfgtar bi tda nu`lm`hcs tdft stbbm bh tdasa s`tas. Muknuge grfhhbc bh tda Glyma wfs f rakfrefnla strugtura (I`cura 3.=), `hvast`cftam ny frt`st fhm frgdfablbc`st S`ll`fk Mbhhally `h tda lfta 64??s. ]da strugturfl matf`ls wara ragbrmam ny Mbhhally `h f sar`as bi wftargblburs (gbllftam fhm m`sgussam ny Dfla fhm Wfhms >??1), fhm fppafr tb mahbta f nu`lm`hc rak`h`sgaht bi f tarrastr`fl r`hc-m`tgdam dbusa: tda gahtrfl plftibrk bi tda strugtura wfs ilbbram w`td rbuhmwbbms, lbgeam `h pbs`t`bh ny p`l`hc fhm kbrt`sam fhm ibream t`knars (Dfla fhm Wfhms >??1, >?-9) fhm kafsur`hc frbuhm >?k `h m`fkatar. ]da gahtrfl plftibrk wfs surrbuhmam ny f r`hc bi raiusa kftar`fl, fltdbucd `t `s hbt glafr irbk tda axgfvft`bh ragbrms wdatdar td`s wfs gbhtf`ham `h f m`tgd, br p`lam bh tda crbuhm surifga surrbuhm`hc tda plftibrk. ]da s`ta wfs fggassam v`f f stbha gfusawfy, w`td f sagbhm lafm`hc tb f mbge wdara f lfrca mucbut gfhba wfs ragbvaram - `t `s pbss`nla tdft tda twb gfusawfys succast tda suparstrugtura dfm twb ahtrfhgas, f iaftura hbt uhgbkkbh `h rbuhmdbusas `h WS Wgbtlfhm - w`td tda plftibrk surrbuhmam ny tda k`mmah br —raiusa nam‐ (Mbhhally 6404). ]da plftibrk wfs sbl`mly nu`lt, ratf`ham ny kbra sunstfht`fl pbsts frbuhm tda par`katar5 tda pagul`fr lfrca bfes uhavahly m`str`nutam `h tda ilbbr mb hbt saak tb dfva naah wa`cdt-nafr`hc tdaksalvas, fltdbucd `t `s gbhga`vfnla tdft
639
I`cura 3.= Muknuge grfhhbc, map`gtam ny Mbhhally (Dfla fhm Wfhms >??1).
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tday iuhgt`bham fs nafrars ibr iraa-stfhm`hc iraa-stfhm`hc pbsts tdft suppbrtam tda nule bi tda suparstrugtura. ]da ]da iuhgt`bh bi tda gahtrfl p`t (br —wall‐) —wall‐) `s hbt glafr, nut saaks mas`cham ibr sbka spag`i`g prbgass, pardfps fs kuhmfha fs daft`hc wftar nut aquflly pbss`nly ibr sbka `hmustr`fl prbgass, sugd fs tfhh`hc. Dfla‐s `hvast`cft`bh bi s`k`lfr stbha-i`llam, wfttla-l`ham p`ts bh ^amgfstla `h tda Nafuly I`rtd wfs `hgbhglus`va fhm kfhy axplfhft`bhs fra pbss`nla, fltdbucd d`s gbhs`marft`bh bi tda pbss`n`l`ty tdft tday kfy dfva naah strugturfl, mas`cham tb gbhsbl`mfta br nafr wa`cdt bh wat crbuhm `s hbt tda lafst plfus`nla (Dfla >??=, 61?-6), fhm td`s saaks f pbss`n`l`ty ibr tda skfll stbha —pfvakahts‐ surrbuhm`hc tda p`t. Hbtd`hc Hbtd`hc bi tda uppar lavals bi tda Muknuge grfhhbc surv`vam, fhm h`hataahtd gahtury tagdh`quas gbulm hbt dfva naah axpagtam tb gbllagt prbxy `hm`gftbrs bi strugturfl kftar`fls. ]da glua tb tda hftura bi tda Muknuge strugtura kfy na `h tda m`sgbvary bi tda lfrca bfe lfmmar, hafr tda wastarh gfusawfy `htb tda plftibrk. F lfmmar lfmm ar w`td`h w`td `h f nu`lm`h nu` lm`hcc `kpl`as `kpl `as tda prasahga prasa hga bi f i`rst i`rs t ilbbr, ilbb r, succast`hc tdft tda Muknuge rbuhmdbusa wfs `hmaam f sunstfht`fl strugtura. F nu`lm`hc w`td f i`rst ilbbr raqu`r`hc f lfmmar sbka =k `h lahctd kust dfva bggup`am kbst br fll bi tda g`rgulfr plftibrk, lahm`hc wa`cdt tb tda `htarpratft`bh bi tda s`ta fs f s`hcla, lfrca rbuhmdbusa. Dfla‐s axfk`hft`bh bi tda strugturfl iafturas bi tda s`tas fhm gbkpfr`sbh tb tarrastr`fl rbuhmdbusas makbhstrftam tdft Muknuge iflls gbkibrtfnly w`td`h tda m`fkatr`gfl rfhca bi gbhtakpbrfry rbuhmdbusas (Dfla >??=, 699) fhm d`s fhflys`s bi tda i`hms, gbkn`ham w`td tda typ`gfl @rbh Fca av`mahga ibr k`xam frfnla fhm pfstbrfl agbhbk`g nfs`s (Dfla at fl. ibrtdgbk`hc) mbas hbt gbhil`gt w`td f mbkast`g iuhgt`bh ibr tda s`ta. ]da nflfhga bi prbnfn`l`ty tdah `s `h ifvbur bi tda `htarpratft`bh bi Muknuge fs f s`hcla sunstfht`fl rbuhmdbusa, prbnfnly nu`lt `h tda i`rst gahtury NG/FM. Lbgdfh Mucdf`ll
Kuhrb‐s axgfvft`bhs ft tda grfhhbc `h Lbgdfh Mucdf`ll, E`htyra, prbv`ma fhbtdar saak`hcly uhaqu`vbgfl axfkpla bi f s`hcla `slfhm rbuhmdbusa (^flstbh >??7). Ft td`s s`ta, rfm`flly frrfhcam t`knars ibrkam f ilbbr g. 6>k `h m`fkatar (I`cura 3.1), `htb wd`gd wara nu`lt savarfl —slaapar nafks‐: dafvy t`knars w`td ragassam maprass`bhs hafr tda`r ahms, bhly `h bha gfsa iully paribrft`hc tda nafk (Kuhrb 6407, >69). ]dara gfh na l`ttla mbunt tdft tda purpbsa bi tdasa nafks wfs tb fgt fs sbgeats ibr sunstfht`fl upr`cdts tdft prasukfnly ibrkam f g`rgulfr nu`lm`hc bggupy`hc kbst bi tda grfhhbc surifga. ]da prasahga bi tda sunstfht`fl gahtrfl pbst ft Lbgdfh Mucdf`ll `s `htr`cu`hc5 td`s `s hbt fh assaht`fl strugturfl gbkpbhaht bi
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I`cura 3.1 Lbgdfh Mucdf`ll (Kuhrb 6407).
rbuhmdbusas fhm `h kbst tarrastr`fl axfkplas `s hbt prasaht (saa Dfrm`hc >??0), fhm wbulm dfva dfm tda `kpl`gft`bh tdft tda dafrtd gbulm hbt dfva naah lbgftam gahtrflly w`td`h tda nu`lm`hc. @hmaam, Kuhrb Kuhrb succasts tdft tda strugtura wfs m`v`mam `htb gbkpfrtkahts, fhm tdft tda dafrtd kfy dfva naah lbgftam `h tda sfka gbkpfrtkaht fs tda ahtrfhga ( `n `m ). ). Fltdbucd tda s`ta wfs flrafmy m`sturnam ny tda t`ka bi Kuhrb‐s Kuhrb‐s `hvast`cft`bh, `hvast`cft` bh, tda `kprass`bh c`vah c` vah ny tda rasults bi d`s wbre `s bi f gbkplax fhm sunstfht`fl nu`lm`hc. ]da frtaifgts ragbvaram irbk tda wbre succast tda strugtura wfs prbnfnly `h usa `h tda afrl`ar @rbh Fca. Grfhhbc rbuhmdbusas fhm mbkast`g`ty: gfvafts
@h gbkn`hft`bh w`td K`ltbh Lbgd, tda fnbva axfkplas fra fkbhc tda glafrast axfkplas bi t`knar rbuhmdbusas ibuhm bh stbha fhm t`knar grfhhbcs `h Wgbtlfhm. Dbwavar, td`s `htarpratft`bh `s hbt naybhm raiuta, fhm btdar ragbhstrugt`bhs dfva naah succastam. @h pfrt`gulfr, tda pbss`nla lfge bi gbrraspbhmahga natwaah wdft gbhst`tutas tda sunstrugtura bi f grfhhbc fhm tda nu`lm`hc bh tbp (v`z Lbgdlaa Lbgdlaa fhm Nu`stbh) dfs lam tb succast`bhs tdft tda crbuhm plfhs bi nbtd Muknuge Muknug e fhm Lbgdfh Mucdf`ll fra k`slafm`hc. k`sla fm`hc. Dfla‐s Dfla‐s fhflys`s bi Muknuge fhm btdar `htart`mfl s`tas lam d`k tb succast tdft tday kfy dfva paribrkam f spag`i`g iuhgt`bh, fhm tdft tday kfy hbt dfva naah pr`kfr`ly mbkast`g (Dfla >??=, Wfhms fhm Dfla
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>??6). Sd`la tdasa pbss`n`l`t`as rakf`h vfl`m, tda prasahga bi quarh stbhas, pflfabahv`rbhkahtfl av`mahga ibr garafl prbgass`hc fhm av`mahga ibr eaap`hc fh`kfls bh s`ta bh `htart`mfl grfhhbcs fggbrms glbsaly w`td bur gurraht uhmarstfhm`hc bi mbkast`g`ty `h @rbh Fca Wgbtlfhm. @h caharfl, wdara dafrtds fra ahgbuhtaram tda `kpl`gft`bh `s bi sattlakaht, fhm fggapt`hc tda pbss`n`l`ty tdft sbka s`tas wara safsbhflly br takpbrfr`ly bggup`am, tda craftar wa`cdt bi av`mahga `s `h ifvbur bi kbst @rbh Fca grfhhbcs fs mbkast`g strugturas. _lf`hly, `t wbulm na uhw`sa tb fssuka tdft fll grfhhbcs wara dbusas, br `hmaam tdft fll wara nu`lt ibr s`k`lfr purpbsas (tda vfr`fn`l`ty makbhstrftam ny survay flbha kfeas td`s glafr). Dbwavar, wd`la iutura rasafrgd kfy rai`ha td`s `htarpratft`bh, gurrahtly, tb quast`bh tda mbkast`g`ty bi grfhhbcs wbulm na tb quast`bh tda `htarpratft`bh `htarpratft`bh bi tda vfst kfjbr`ty bi axgfvftam —rbuhmdbusas‐. Flta Fl tarhf rhft` t`vas: vas: grfh gr fhhbc hbcss fs f s ifrks if rksta tafm fmss
Dbwavar, tda l`eal`dbbm l`eal`dbb m `s tdft fltdbucd sbka grfhhbcs grfhhbc s wara `hmaam `slfhm rbuhmdbusas, tda rfhca bi strugturas bh frt`i`g`fl `slfhms wfs kugd craftar tdfh td`s. Grbha‐s (>???) ra-axgfvft`bh bi Nu`stbh makbhstrftam tdft rftdar tdfh tda lfrca rbuhmdbusa succastam ny Kuhrb, tda nu`lm`hcs gbkpr`sam f saquahga bi skfllar, kugd sl`cdtar rbuhmdbusas ahglbsam w`td`h tda par`katar nrafstwbre.
I`cura 3.9 Bha bi tda strugturas ft Gults Lbgd grfhhbc (FBG Frgdfablbcy Crbup).
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Grbha‐s wbre ft tdft s`ta d`cdl`cdtam tda l`eal`dbbm tdft grfhhbc suparstrugturas haam hbt fll gbhibrk tb tda s`hcla lfrca `slfhm rbuhmdbusa starabtypa tdft dfm mavalbpam tdrbucd tda twaht`atd gahtury fs f rasult bi Kuhrb‐s ragbhstrugt`bh fhm _`ccbtt‐s wbre ft K`ltbh Lbgd. Fltdbucd wa sdbulm axpagt tda ibrkft bi grfhhbc frgd`tagtura tb dfva avblvam fs s`ch`i`gfhtly fs tarrastr`fl mbkast`g frgd`tagtura frgd`tagtu ra m`m tdrbucd tda lfta @rbh Fca fhm Afrly D`stbr`g par`bms, td`s kfy flsb na f kbra fggurfta ragbhstrugt`bh bi sbka @rbh Fca s`tas. Bha bi tda grfhhbcs `hvast`cftam ny Kuhrb fhm survayam fs pfrt bi tda Wbutd Sast Grfhhbc Wurvay `h >??>, ft Nfrdfppla `h S`ctbwhsd S`ct bwhsd`ra, `ra, wfs w fs vary var y prbnfnly prbn fnly fh f h `slfhm `sl fhm nfs`s nf s`s ibr i br f sar`as sa r`as bi skfll sk fll rbuhmdbusas, `h td`s gfsa prbnfnly mft`hc irbk tda afrly @rbh Fca.
I`cura 3.3 Nfllygfcah, @sla bi Kfh (Narsu 6033).
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Kuhrb Kuhrb masgr`nas ft lafst twb g`rgulfr duts bh tda surifga bi tda s`ta, ahglbsam ny f par`katar stbgefma- fh `kprass`bh tdft `s suppbrtam ny kbmarh survay (Dahmarsbh at fl. >??7). W`k`lfrly, ragaht axgfvft`bhs ft Gults Lbgd fra succast`hc tdft tda frt`i`g`fl prbkbhtbry s`ta - wd`gd mftas tb tda afrly @rbh Fca gbhs`stam bi f sar`as bi strugturas, prbnfnly suggass`va fhm s`tuftam bh fh frt`i`g`flly graftam plftibrk, glbsa tb tda sdbra bi tda lbgd. Bh td`s s`ta, tda ilbbrs bi ft lafst tdraa strugturas dfva naah `maht`i`am (I`cura 3.9), tda g`rgulfr frrfhcakaht frrfhcaka ht bi t`knars `h tda sbutdarhkbst bi tdasa pbss`nly `hm`gft`hc tdft tday wara rbuhmdbusas `h tda rac`bh bi 9 tb 4k `h m`fkatar. @h gbhtrfst tb tda s`hcla lfrca rbuhmdbusa ahgbuhtaram ft K`ltbh Lbgd, `t saaks l`ealy l`eal y tdft tda Gults s`ta wbulm dfva kbra glbsaly rasaknlam fh ahglbsam ifrkstafm s`k`lfr tb tdft axgfvftam ny Narsu ft Nfllygfcah bh tda @sla bi Kfh (I`cura 3.3, Narsu 6033), br tda lfta Nrbhza Fca sattlakaht sattlaka ht ft Glbhi`hlbucd, Gb. Biifly (Kblbhay at fl. 6007). ]da ilbbrs bi tda Gults Lbgd nu`lm`hcs wara vary wall prasarvam, fhm tda gbkprassam brcfh`g ilbbr`hc kftar`fls wara `h axgallaht gbhm`t`bh, kafh`hc `t wfs pbss`nla tb ragbvar f rfhca bi mal`narftaly-mapbs`tam frtaifgts irbk natwaah tda sun-ilbbr`hc rbuhmwbbms, `hglum`hc fh uhusam frm st`lt vary s`k`lfr tb tdft ragbvaram irbk fh `maht`gfl gbhtaxt ft K`ltbh Lbgd (_`ccbtt 6017), strbhcly succast`hc tdft tdasa nu`lm`hcs wara nlassam w`td ibuhmft`bh mapbs`ts fhm `hvastam w`td r`tufl s`ch`i`gfhga. Sa w`ll raturh tb m`sguss`bh bi tda s`ch`i`gfhga bi td`s `ssua. Katdbmblbc`gfl @kpl`gft`bhs
@t `s glafr, tdah tdft tdara `s craftar vfr`fn`l`ty `h tda kbrpdblbcy bi @rbh Fca frt`i`g`fl `slats tdfh tda sunstfht`fl `slfhm rbuhmdbusa kbmal k`cdt takpt us tb nal`ava. Fs flwfys, tda tfpdbhbky bi tda s`tas wa fra lbbe`hc ft `s gr`t`gfl tb tda`r `htarpratft`bh. ]dara `s l`ttla mbunt tdft tda Kuhrb pfgeware pfgewa re kbmal `s gbrragt ibr s`tas l`ea Nu`stbh, nut `h vary kfhy btdar s`tas tda l`eal`dbbm `s tdft tda —grfhhbc kbuhm‐ `s `h ifgt fh fggukulft`bh bi vary kfhy pdfsas bi bggupft`bh fhm fnfhmbhkaht (saa m`sguss`bh ny Grbha at fl. >??6 fhm Gfvars >??3). @h f ragaht axfkpla, irbk f skfll axgfvft`bh bh Mbrkfh‐s @slfhm `h S`ctbwhsd`ra, f = katra ny 9 katra trahgd prbmugam kftar`fl bi @rbh Fca fhm ^bkfh fhm pbst-kam`avfl mfta, w`td tda glfss`g prbnlak bi wftarlbccam prasarvft`bh kafh`hc tdft tda br`c`hfl gbhstrugt`bh wfs `hm`st`hcu`sdfnla `hm`st`hcu`sdfnla irbk pbst-kam`avfl pbst-kam`avfl stfeas pr`br tb rfm`bgfrnbh mft`hc (Gfvars at fl. >?66). ]da trutd `s tdft masp`ta tda fsp`rft`bhs bi watlfhm frgdfablbc`sts frgdfablbc`sts tb kfx`k`sa tda vflua bi grfhhbcs naybhm fhflys`s fhflys`s bi tda`r mapbs`ts, tdasa crfhmar hfrrft`vas gfh bhly na gbhstrugtam bh tda nfs`s bi f sbuhm uhmarstfhm`hc bi tda pdys`gfl ibrk fhm mavalbpkaht bi
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tda s`tas tdaksalvas. Ft td`s pb`ht `t `s vflufnla tb gbhs`mar sbka bi tda tagdh`gfl rafsbhs wdy uhmarstfhm`hc grfhhbc nu`lm`hcs gfh na gdfllahc`hc. Kugd bi tda m`ii`gulty `hvblvam `h `maht`iy`hc grfhhbc suparstrugturas mar`vas irbk tda v`rtufl `kpbss`n`l`ty bi m`st`hcu`sd`hc sun-strugturfl rataht`bh p`l`hc usam tb dblm tda grfhhbc kbuhm tbcatdar irbk pbsts gbhst`tut`hc tda wflls fhm strugturfl pbsts bi tda nu`lm`hcs. ^agaht axgfvft`bhs ft Gults Lbgd dfva glafrly makbhstrftam td`s prbnlak, wdara flkbst avarywdara axgfvftam wfs pbpulftam w`td vart`gfl pbsts, nut `h sbka gfsas tdasa wara skfll rbuhmwbbm stfeas, `h btdars kfss`va pbsts, fhm tda m`st`hgt`bh wfs hbt flwfys afsy tb kfea. Iurtdar gbkplax`ty frbsa irbk tda ifgt tdft wdft fppafram `h kfhy `hstfhgas tb na dbr`zbhtfl ilbbr`hc br kfea-up kftar`fl wfs `h ifgt ifllah p`l`hc: fcf`h, tdasa wara v`rtuflly `hm`st`hcu`sdfnla `h kfhy s`tuft`bhs, pfrtly nagfusa bi tda axtaht bi magbkpbs`t`bh bi tda wbbm `h tda uppar lavals bi tda s`ta. ]dara fra, iurtdarkbra, prbnlaks w`td tda tagdh`gfl`t`as bi `maht`iy`hc —bggupft`bh‐5 td`s `s ralavfht tb rbuhmdbusa stum`as kbra w`maly (saa m`sguss`bh ny Dfrm`hc >?6?). Sbre na`hc uhmartfeah fs pfrt bi tda Wgbtt`sd Satlfhm Frgdfablbcy _rbcrfkka - bi wd`gd tda axgfvft`bhs ft Mbrkfh‐s @slfhm fhm Gults fra pfrt - dfs naah fpprbfgd`hc tda prbnlak bi ralft`hc sfkplas irbk wftarlbccam mbkast`g gbhtaxts tb tda`r gbuhtarpfrts bh mry lfhm. @h assahga, `t `s m`ii`gult tb gbkpfra l`ea w`td l`ea: tda nurht nbha irfckahts, dfzal hut sdalls fhm gdfrgbfl, wd`gd fra un`qu`tbus `h grfhhbc axgfvft`bh, fra tfeah fs gbhst`tut`hc f r`gd fhm wall-prasarvam bggupft`bh mapbs`t wdah ahgbuhtaram w`td`h f tarrastr`fl rbuhmdbusa. Gbhvarsaly, stfhmfrm nule sfkplas bi brcfh`g mapbs`ts gfh y`alm frt`i`g`flly lbw iraquahg`as bi plfht kfgrbibss`ls fhm btdar pflfabahv`rbhkahtfl kftar`fl, pfrtly mua tb tda —`hilft`bh‐ aiiagt bi tda`r na`hc kbra w`maly m`sparsam tdrbucd f nattar prasarvam sam`kaht kftr`x tdfh wbulm na ahgbuhtaram ahgbuhtaram bh mry mr y lfhm. ]da rasult `s tdft gdfrfgtar`s`hc bggupft`bh mapbs`ts fhm m`st`hcu`sd`hc tdasa irbk sun-strugturfl ibuhmft`bhs `s m`ii`gult. Glafrly, tdara fra katdbmblbc`gfl `ssuas ibr frgdfablbc`sts tb mafl w`td wdah `htarprat`hc agbifgtufl fssaknlfcas irbk grfhhbcs. ]da kbra rasafrgd tdft `s gfrr`am but, tda kbra gbkplax tda tfpdbhbk`g `ssuas saaks tb nagbka, lafm`hc tb aqufl kafsuras bi sykpftdy ibr fht`qufr`fhs wdb wara uhfnla tb kfea sahsa bi tda gbkplax`ty tday ahgbuhtaram, fhm pass`k`sk ibr tda ral`fn`l`ty fhm `htacr`ty bi av`mahga irbk afrly, pra-sg`aht`i`g axgfvft`bh. ]d`s `s hbt tb sfy, dbwavar, tdft wa gfh axtrfgt l`ttla irbk tda av`mahga ibr nu`lm`hc suparstrugturas tdft wa mb dfva. Ft Gults Lbgd, f cbbm rfhca bi av`mahga ibr ib r tda typas bi wbbm wbre`hc akplbyam `h
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tda gbhstrugt`bh bi nu`lm`hcs dfs naah ragbvaram. ]da kfss`va jb`hts ibuhm `h kfhy lfrca dbr`zbhtfl lbcs d`ht ft tda`r `hgbrpbrft`bh `htb f sunstfht`fl nu`lm`hc, fhm avah wdara tda mbkast`g suparstrugturas kfy dfva naah ralft`valy kbmast, tda `hvastkaht bi lfnbur `h tda Gults s`ta wfs gbhs`marfnla, fhm tda s`ta wbulm dfva raprasahtam f d`cdly v`s`nla kfh-kfma `kpr`ht bh tda lfhmsgfpa. Graft`hc f v`s`nla fhm `kprass`va stftakaht bh tda lfhmsgfpa kust suraly dfva naah gahtrfl tb tda `htaht`bhs bi @rbh Fca grfhhbc nu`lmars. Grfhhbc nu`lm`hcs fhm prad`stbr`g sbg`aty
@h wdft wfys, tdah, mb bur `htarpratft`bhs bi grfhhbc nu`lm` hcs nr`hc us glbsar tb uhmarstfhm`hc tda sbg`at`as tdft nu`lt fhm usam tdasa s`tas, fs Kuhrb wbulm dfva dbpam2 Astfnl`sd`hc tda rfhca bi ibrk `h grfhhbc suparstrugturas `s assaht`fl tb uhmarstfhm`hc uhmarstfhm`hc tda grfhhbc pdahbkahbh fs f wdbla, wd`gd btdarw`sa, ft ifga vflua, saaks l`ea fhbtdar `llbc`gfl iaftura bi fh fl`ah, `haxpl`gfnla @rbh Fca. ]dara gfh na l`ttla mbunt tdft grfhhbcs wara f kfjbr ifgat bi tda sattlakaht lfhmsgfpa bi kugd kug d bi wastarh Wgbtlfhm tdrbucd lftar prad`stbry, prad` stbry, fhm `t dfs naah frcuam tdft tda gbhgurrahga bi tda w`masprafm ilbur`sd bi grfhhbc gbhstrugt`bh bggurr`hc mur`hc tda lfta Nrbhza/afrly Nrbhza/afrly @rbh Fca trfhs`t` trfhs `t`bh, bh, wdara tda ibgus ibgu s bi r`tufl r`tu fl fgt`v`ty fgt` v`ty karcas karc as w`td tda mbkast`g spdara bi l`ia gfh na saah fs fhflbcbus tb tda prbgass hbw wall masgr`nam `h tda tarrastr`fl sattlakaht ragbrm (Gfvars >??9). Sdara Ftlfht`g Ftlfh t`g rbuhmdbu rbuh mdbusas sas `h tda hbrtd hbrt d fhm wast raprasaht rapra sahtam am kfjbr `hvastkahts bi lfnbur ny tda`r bggupfhts `h wdft dfs naah `htarpratam fs f stftakaht bi tda lac`t`kfgy bi tda bggupfhts‐ glf`k tb tarr`tbry (Frk`t 6044, >??>), grfhhbcs s`k`lfrly raprasaht f d`cdly v`s`nla `kpr`ht bh tda lfhmsgfpa, glafrly mas`cham tb lbbe `kprachfnla nut flsb kfe`hc f stftakaht bi prasahga. ]drbucd tda lftar i`rst k`llahh`uk NG, mbkast`g frgd`tagtura nagfka tda pr`hg`pfl `hvastkaht bi ifrk`hc gbkkuh`t`as, stfhm`hc `h stfre gbhtrfst tb tda kbhukahtfl gbkkuhfl tbkns fhm stbha g`rglas bi afrl`ar gahtur`as. Gbhgurrahtly, av`mahga ibr gbkkuhfl r`tufl fgt`v`ty magl`has fhm av`mahga ibr strugturam mapbs`ts w`td`h dbusas `hgrafsas mrfkft`gflly, succast`hc tdft pr`vfta, `hm`v`mufl r`tas wara pravflaht, w`td tda mbkast`g spdara bi l`ia tda pr`hg`pla frahf ibr tdasa fgt`v`t`as. S`td`h td`s gbhtaxt, grfhhbc sattlakahts gfh na tdbucdt bi fs —mbkast`gft`hc‐ fh astfnl`sdam r`tuflly s`ch`i`gfht ahv`rbhkaht, eay`hc `h tb tda pbwar biiaram tb tda dbusadblm ny tda @rbh Fca vaharft`bh bi wftar. ]d`s v`aw pardfps lafms tb f kbra sbpd`st`gftam fvahua bi axplbrft`bh bi tda `hvastkaht bi sbg`fl kafh`hc `h tda kftar`fl`ty bi f sattlakaht. ]da lfnbur raqu`rakahts `hvblvam `h gbhstrugt`hc f sunstfht`fl grfhhbc - wdatdar td`s aiibrt wfs gbkk`ttam tb tda
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gbhstrugt`bh bi nu`lm`hcs, br s`kply tda `slfhm `tsali - fra f grug`fl gbhs`marft`bh `h kbmall`hc tda sbg`at`as wd`gd prbmugam tdak. W`k`lfrly W`k`lfrl y, f gbhs`maram fssasskaht fssas skaht bi wbbmlfhm kfhfcakaht hagassfry tb prbv`ma tda gbhst`tuaht rfw kftar`fls kftar` fls tb nu`lm tdasa s`tas kfy c`va c` va us f glafrar v`aw bi @rbh Fca lfhm fhm rasburga kfhfcakaht. Lfnb ur prbv`s`bh gfh na tdrbucd gbarg`bh (`.a. slfvary), nut flsb tdrbucd gbllfnbrft`va pbbl`hc br tdrbucd sbg`fl bnl`cft`bhs, tda kbmall`hc bi wd`gd k`cdt lafm us tb f kbra sbpd`st`gftam uhmarstfhm`hc uhmarstfhm`hc bi tda crbups `h wd`gd tday bparftam. @ dfva hbt fttakptam tb fpprbfgd tdasa `ssuas `h td`s pfpar, nut rftdar tb `maht`iy tda wfys `h wd`gd tday k`cdt na axplbram nfsam bh tda d`cdly matf`lam, `i aquflly gbkplax strugturfl av`mahga irbk grfhhbc axgfvft`bhs. @t `s `h td`s raspagt, tdah, tdft tda stumy bi grfhhbc frgd`tagtura kfy na kbst `hibrkft`va, avah wdara tda strugturas tdaksalvas kfy na ralft`valy apdakarfl, br pbbrly prasarvam. ]da gbhgapt bi kbhukahtfl`ty `s hbw iuhmfkahtfl tb bur tdabry bi @rbh Fca sbg`aty `h Hbrtdarh Nr`tf`h, nut tda kfh`iastft`bh bi kbhukahtfl`ty kbhukaht fl`ty kfy dfva naah kbra sbpd`st`gftam tdfh starabtypas bi tda `slfhm rbuhmdbusa k`cdt succast, fhm `t `s glafr tdft tdara wfs s`ch`i`gfht vfr`fn`l`ty w`td`h tda grfhhbc gbhgapt. @t `s pbss`nla tdft, l`ea d`llibrt maiahgas, tda sbg`fl bnl`cft`bhs fhm lfnbur brcfh`sft`bh `hvblvam `h tda gbhstrugt`bh bi f grfhhbc kfy dfva naah kbra `kpbrtfht tdfh fhy prasgr`nam ibrkft bi tda i`hfl rasult. ]da ragaht fmvfhgas `h Wgbtt`sd prad`stbr`g mahmrbgdrbhblbcy kfma ny Fhha Grbha (td`s vbluka) fra bpah`hc fh axtrakaly prbk`s`hc fvahua bi rasafrgd ibr sattlakaht stum`as, tdrbucd wd`gd tda gbhgaptufl br`c`hs fhm mavalbpkahts bi @rbh Fca frgd`tagtura k`cdt na axplbram `h ifr d`cdar rasblut`bh tdfh avar naibra. ]dasa stum`as gfh dbpaiully nr`hc grfhhbc nu`lm`hcs but bi frgdfablbc`gfl bnsgur`ty fhm glfr`iy bur v`aw bi tda ibrks, iuhgt`bhs fhm kafh`hcs bi prad`stbr`g fhm afrly d`stbr`g mbkast`g frgd`tagtura. Fgehbw Fge hbwla lamc mcaka akaht htss
@ fk crftaiul tb Fhha Grbha ibr bur m`sguss`bh bi tda tdakas bi td`s pfpar, fhm ibr dar am`tbr`fl `hput, fs wall fs tb Flax Dfla ibr d`s gbkkahts bh tda Muknuge grfhhbc fhm fggass tb uhpunl`sdam kftar`fl. ^aiarahgas Frk`t, Frk` t, @. @ . 6003, 60 03, Galt`g Wgbtlfhm . Am`hnurcd: D`stbr`g Wgbtlfhm/Nftsibrm. Frk`t, Frk` t, @. 6044, 6044 , Nrbgd lfhmsgfp lfhm sgfpas as `h tda Sasta Sastarh rh @slas. Wgbtt`sd Frgdfablbc`gfl ^av`aw 1: 34-49.
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641
Frk`t, Frk` t, @. >??>, >??> , Lfhm fhm iraambk: iraam bk: `kpl`gft `kpl `gft`bhs `bhs bi Ftlfht` Ftlf ht`gg Wgbtt`sd Wgbt t`sd sattlakaht pfttarhs ibr @rbh Fca lfhm dblm`hc fhm sbg`fl brcfh`sft`bh. @h: N. Nfll`h-Wk`td fhm @. Nfhes (ams.) @h tda Wdfmbw bi tda Nrbgds: tda @rbh Fca `h Wgbtlfhm. Wtrbum: ]akpus _unl`sd`hc L`k`tam, 61->9. Narsu, C. 60=?, Axgfvft`bhs ft L`ttla Sbbmnury, S`ltsd`ra. _frt 6, tda sattlakaht ravaflam ny axgfvft`bh. _rbgaam`hcs bi tda _rad`stbr`g Wbg`aty 9: 7? -666. Narsu, C. 6033, draa @rbh Fca ^buhmdbusas bh tda @sla bi Kfh. Mbuclfs: Kfhx Kusauk fhm Hft`bhfl ]rust. ]rust. Nruga, J. 60??, Hbtas bh tda m`sgbvary fhm axplbrft`bh bi f p`la strugtura bh tda hbrtd nfhe bi tda ^`var Glyma, afst irbk Muknfrtbh ^bge. 7=: =73-9>. _rbgaam`hcs _rbgaam`hcs bi tda Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr`as bi Wgbtlfhm 7=: Gfvars, K. C. >??9, Lfta Nrbhza fhm @rbh Fca Lfea Wattlakaht `h Wgbtlf hm fhm @ralfhm: tda br`c`hs fhm mavalbpkaht bi tda —grfhhbc‐ `h tda hbrtd fhm wast. Bxibrm Jburhfl bi Frgdfablbcy >1(=): 740-=6>. Gfvars, K. C. >??3, ]da gbkplax`ty bi grfhhbc tfpdbhbky: blm av`mahga fhm haw. @h: G.Craah (am.) Frgdfablb Frgdfa blbcc y irbk tda Satlfhms: Satlfhms : ^agaht ^agah t _arspagt`vas, _rbgaam`hcs bi tda @htarhft`bhfl SF^_ gbhiarahga, >??1. Am`hnurcd: Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr`as bi Wgbtlfhm, >=7->1>. Gfvars, K.C. >?6?, Grfhhbcs fhm Lftar _rad`stbr`g Wattlakaht `h Sastarh Wgbtlfhm. Bxibrm: Nr`t`sd Frgdfablbc`gfl ^apbrts, Nr`t War, 16?. Gfvars, K.C., Grbha, N.F., Ahcl, ^., Iburfgra, L., Duhtar, I. fhm ^bnartsbh, J. >?66, ^ai`h`hc Gdrbhblbc`gfl ^asblut`bh `h @rbh Fca Jburh fl bi Wgbtlfhm: axgfvft`bhs ft Mbrkfh‐s @slfhm, WS Wgbtlfhm. Jburhfl Satlfhm Frgdfablbcy 6?: 36-6?4. Grbha, N.F. >???, da D`stbry bi f Wgbtt`sd Lbwlfhm Grfhhbc: axgfvft`bhs ft Nu`stbh, Fyrsd`ra, 6040-0? , Am`hnurcd: W]F^ Kbhbcrfpd =. Grbha, N.F., Dahmarsbh, J.G. fhm Wfhms, ^. >??6, Wgbtt`sd grfhhbcs: gbhstrugt`bh, gbhilft`bh fhm gbllfpsa, prbnlaks bi `htarpratft`bh. @h: N. ^fitary fhm J. D`geay (ams.) ^agaht Mavalbpkahts `h Satlfhm ^asafrgd. Munl`h: Qh`vars`ty Kbhbcrfpds, 11-93. M`xbh, ].H. >??=, da Grfhhbcs bi Wgbtlfhm: fh uhmarwftar frgdfablbcy. Wtrbum: ]akpus ]akpus _unl`sd`hc _unl`sd` hc Ltm. Mbhhally, S. F. 6404, M`sgbvary bi f grfhhbc bh tda sdbra bi tda Glyma `h Muknfrtbh. Jburhfl Jburh fl bi tda Nr`t`sd Nr`t `sd Frgdfablb Frgdfa blbc`gf c`gfll Fssbg`ft Fssb g`ft`bh `bh (Haw War`as) 1: >4>->40. Iafgdak, ^.S. ^.S. 6099, 609 9, F Cu`ma Cu` ma tb _rad`stbr`g _rad`st br`g Wgbtlfhm Wgbt lfhm.. Lbhmbh: Nftsibrm. Iramahcrah, G. >??>, Grfhhbcs: f stumy bi pabpla‐s `htarfgt`bh w`td lfeas, w`td spag`fl raiarahga tb Lbgd Cfrf `h tda Hbrtd Sast bi @ralfhm. Nrfy: Sbrmwall. Dfla, F. >??=, Wgbtt`sd Kfr`ha Grfhhbcs. Bxibrm: Nr`t`sd Frgdfablbc`gfl ^apbrts, Nr`t War, 790.
649
Dfla, F. fhm Wfhms, ^. >??1, Gbhtrbvarsy bh tda Glyma: frgdfablbc`sts, ifeas ifea s fhm ibrcars ibr cars55 tda axgfvft`b axgfvf t`bhh bi Muknuge Mukn uge grfhhbc. grfhhb c. Am`hnurcd: ^GFDKW. Dfla, F., Wfhms, ^., fhm K`llar, J. ibrtdgb ibr tdgbk`hc k`hc _flfabahv`rbhkahtfl, sam`kahtblbc`gfl fhm mft`hc av`mahga irbk Muknuge grfhhbc, I`rtd bi Glyma. Dfrm`hc, M.S. >??3, Wgbtt`sd grfhhbcs: tda far`fl av`mahga. @h: G. Craah (am.) Frgdfablb Frgdf ablbcc y irbk ir bk tda t da Satlfhms , Am`hnurcd: Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr`as bi Wgbtlfhm, >93->37. Dfrm`hc, M.S. >???, Grfhhbcs fhm `slfhm muhs: glfss`i`gft`bh, mft`hc fhm iuhgt`bh. Bxibrm Jburhfl bi Frgdfablbcy 60(7): 7?3-63. Dfrm`hc, M.S. >??0, da @rbh Fca ^buhmdbusa: lftar prad`stbr`g nu`lm`hc `h Nr`tf`h fhm naybhm. Bxibrm: Qh`vars`ty _rass. Dahmarsbh, J.G. 6004, @slats tdrbucd t`ka: tda mai`h`t`bh, mft`hc fhm m`str`nut`bh bi Wgbtt`sd grfhhbcs. _rbgaam`hcs bi tda Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr`as bi Wgbtlfhm 63(>): >>3-==. Dahmarsbh, J.G., Grbha, N.F. fhm Gfvars, K.C. >??7, F gbhm`t`bh survay bi salagtam grfhhbcs `h sbutd wast Wgbtlfhm. rfhsfgt`bhs bi tda Mukir`assd`ra fhm Cfllbwfy Hfturfl D`stbry fhm Fht`qufr`fh Wbg`aty 33: 30-6?>. Dbllay, K. >???, da Frt`i`g`fl @slats/ Grfhhbcs bi tda Gahtrfl @hhar Danr`mas. Bxibrm: Nr`t`sd Frgdfablbc`gfl ^apbrts, Nr`t War, 7?7. Kfge`hlfy, J. 649>, Hbt`ga bi twb —grfhhbcas‐ br pfl`sfmam `slfhms, bh Nuta, w`td plfhs. _rbgaam`hcs bi tda Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr`as bi Wgbtlfhm ‐ 7: =7-9. Kblbhay, F., Jahh`hcs, M., Eafha, K., fhm KgMarkbtt, G. 6007, ]rfhsfgt`bhs, hs, vbl.>. Munl`h: Axgfvft`bhs Axgfvft`bhs ft Glbhi`hlbucd, Gbuhty Biifly , ]rfhsfgt`b @r`sd Frgdfablbc`gfl Satlfhm Qh`t, Qh`vars`ty Gbllaca. Kbhta`td, J. fhm ^bnn, J.^. 6073, ]da grfhhbc ft Lbgdahm, Gbftnr`mca, w`td f rapbrt bh tda bssabus rakf`hs. rfhsfgt`bhs bi tda Clfscbw Frgdfablb Frgdf ablbc`gf c`gfll Wbg`at Wb g`atyy 0(6): >9-=7. Kuhrb, ^. 644>, Fhg`aht Fhg`ah t Wgbtt` Wgb tt`sd sd Lfea Lf ea Mwall`hc Mwal l`hcs,s, br Grfhhbcs. Grfhhb cs. Am`hnurcd: Mfv`m Mbuclfs. Kuhrb, ^. 6407, Hbt`ga bi grfhhbcs br lfea mwall`hcs ragahtly m`sgbvaram `h Frcyllsd`ra. Frcyllsd`ra. _rbgaam`hcs bi tda Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr`as bi Wgbtlfhm >3: >?1->>. Jburh fl Kuhrb, ^. 640=f, ]da strugturfl iafturas bi lfea mwall`hcs, pfrt @. Jburhfl bi tda ^byfl Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr`as bi @ralfhm >=: 6?=-66.
Kuhrb, ^. 640=n, ]da ]da strugturfl strugturf l iafturas bi lfea mwall`hcs, pfrt @@. Jburhfl Jburh fl bi tda ^byfl Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr`as bi @ralfhm >=: >6?->6.
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643
Kuhrb, ^ 6400, 6400, Hbtas bh f grfhhbc ft Dyhmibrm, hafr Lfhfre, ragahtly m`sgbvaram fhm axgfvftam ny Fhmraw Wk`td, Asq., I.W.F. Wgbt. _rbgaam`hcs _rbgaam`hcs bi tda Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr`as bi Wgbtlfhm 77: 737-43. _`ccbtt, G.K. 60=4, ]da axgfvft`bhs ft Dbwhfk ^`hcs, ^bxnurcdsd`ra, 60=4. _rbgaam`hcs _rbgaam`hcs bi tda Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr`as bi Wgbtlfhm 4>: 607->>1. _`ccbtt, G.K. 6017, K`ltbh Lbgd Grfhhbc: f hft`va dbusa bi tda sagbhm gahtury FM `h E`regumnr`cdtsd`ra. _rbgaam`hcs bi tda Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr Fht` qufr`as `as bi b i Wgbtl Wg btlfhm fhm 43: 67=-1>. ^flstbh, @.N.K. >??7, Wgbtt`sd rbuhmdbusas: tda afrly gdfptars. Wgbtt`sd Frgdfablb Frgdf ablbc`gf c`gfll Jburhfl Jbur hfl >1: 6->9. Wfhms, ^. fhm Dfla, F. >??, Av`mahga irbk kfr`ha grfhhbcs bi tda lftar prad`stbr`g usa bi tda I`rtd bi Glyma. Jburhfl Jburh fl bi b i Satlf Satlfhm hm Frgdfab Fr gdfablbc lbc y 6: =6-1.
644
Lfea Lfe a Mwall`hcs Mwall`hcs
Nfgecrbuhm tb Nafears `s tda rasult bi fh `hsp`r`hc sass`bh ft tda yafrly gbhiarahga gbhiarahga bi Aurbpafh Fssbg`ft`bh Fssbg`ft`bh bi Frgdfablb Frgdfablbc`sts c`sts `h ]daa Dfc ]d Dfcua ua `h Wa Wapt ptakn aknar ar >?6 >?6?. ?. ]d ]daa gbh gbhiar iarahg ahgaa nrb nrbuc ucdt dt tbc tbcat atdar dar td`rtaah spafears bh tda sunjagt Nafears `h ]rfhs`t`bh. ]bcatdar wa axp axplbr lbram am tda nfg nfgec ecrbu hm tb tda Nal Nall l naf nafear ear gbkpla gbk plaxx wdb, `h m`i m`iiar iar-Mr ^bnart Kuhrb (6471-60>?) wfs frbuhm m`st`hcu`sdam kam`gfl prfgt`t`bhar ahtnagfka rac`bhsf, eaah rac`bhs, mapfrt`hc irbk tdaD`s `mafpfrt`gulfr tdft k`crft`bh `s lfy hbt`htda `h d`s lftar l`ia, frgdfablbc`st. `htarasts tdagbkpradahs`va va sblut`bh tb tda fmbpt`bh bi nall Nafears. ]daraibra Nafears. lfea-mwall`hc pradahs` sattlakahts bi d`s hft`va Wgbtlfhm, ehbwh fs grfhhbcs, fs wall fs wa fseam tda pfrt`g`pfhts tb m`sguss dbw^bnart `h tda`r rac`bh Nafears tdbsa tdah na`hc m`sgbvaram fgrbss Aurb pa. @h 6441 Kuhrb uhmartbb e fwara `hgbrpbrftam `h ax`st`hc gulturfl gbkpla gbkplaxas xas,, tb fs stumy bha bigbllagt`bhs tda kfhhars rav`aw bi fll lfgustr`fh rasafrgd `h Aurbpa, trfvall`hc w`maly tb uhmarstfhm tda prbgassas bi `hhbvft` `hhbvft`bh bh tdft wara uhmbuntamly fhm v`s`t s`tas. s`tas. ]da rasults bi td`s wbre ibrkam tda nfs`s ibr tda prast`c`bus pfrt bi tda Nafear Nafear gbkplax. ^d`hm Lagturas ft tda Wbg`aty Wbg`aty bi Fht`qufr`a Fht`qufr`ass bi Wgbtlfhm `h 6444. ]dasa wara wara tdah punl`sdam fs ]da , f lfhmkfre punl`gft`bh ibr `hc Lfe Lfea-Mwall`hc a-Mwall`hcs bi Aurbpa @h td`s nbbe a`cdt bi tdas spafears dfva gbhtr`nutam gbhtr`nutam pfpars, rasult`hc rasult frgdfablbcy fhm tdft gakahtam Kuhrb‐s frgdfablbc`gfl raputft`bh. `h fbha m`varsa fhm `htarast`hc fpprbfgd tb Nafears. Sa gfh saa dbw sgdblfrs `h Wgfhm`hfv`f, tda Lbw Gbuhtr`as, _blfhm, Ww`tzarlfhm, @h 606? ^bnart Kuhrb biiaram tda Qh`vars`ty bi Am`hnurcd f i`hfhg`fl c`it w`td Irfhga, Kbrbggb avah, struccla w`td tda sfka prbnlaks, nut dfva wd`gd wd` gd tb iuh iuhm mm`iiaraht l agtura lagt urass `h `sblut`bhs h Fhtd F htdrbp rbpblb blbcc y fhm f hm _ra _rad`s d`stbr tbr`g `g Frg Frgdfa dfablb blbc . Bvar B var tda avarywdara. ]da nbbe rafms fsc yfh `hsp`rft`bh pfst gahtury td`s dfs naah mbha tdrbucd Kuhrb ]rust. ]rust. >?6?, nfgecrbuhms tda yafr bi `h ibr haw fpprbfgdas fhm ibrtda f m`sguss`bh bi @h gulturfl tda gahtahfrystafm bi tdabiKuhrb ]rust,ibr tdatda Qh`v Qh`vars`ty ars`tyNafear. bi Am`hnurcd fhm tdafra Wbg`at Wbg`aty y safrgd`hc safrg d`hc blmast Nafear . ]da futdbrs fll astfnbi Fht`qufr`as bi Wgbtlfhm bi jb` galanr tda bggfs`bh bggf s`bhrasafrgd. w`td fd.cftdar`hc cftdar`hc bi l`sdam sgdblfrsjb`htly sgdblfrs `hhtly tda galanrftam i`alm ftam bi Nrbhza Fca rasafrg Gbht`hahtfl fhm Nr`t`sd sgdblfrs. ]da pfpars prasahtam `h td`s punl`gft`bh fra tda rasults bi tdft `htarhft`bhfl sak`hfr. sak`hfr.
fi f itar ^ bnart Kuhr hrb b
]d`s ]d `s nbb nbbe e w`l w`lll ahc fc fcaa fll tdb tdbsa sa `ht `htara arasta stam m `h Aur Aurbpa bpafh fh lfe lfeaa mwa mwall` ll`hcs, hcs, wat watlfh lfhm m frgdfablbcy frgdfabl bcy fhm tda d`stbry bi frgdfabl frgdfablbcy bcy `h tda 60td gahtury. ]da gbllagtam pfpars axplbra tda d`stbr`gfl gbhtaxt bi Kuhrb‐s wbre, fs wall fs `htrbmug`hc gurraht rasafrgd irbk fgrbss Aurbpa. ]da nbbe w`ll fppafl tb nbtd tda prbiass`bhfll fhm tda `htarastam fkftaur, prbiass`bhf fkftaur, bi wd`gd Kuhrb d`ksali d`ksali raprasahtam sugd fh axg`t`hc syhtdas`s.
W`mastbha _rass @WNH: 034-0?-440?-?0>-6 Nastalhukkar:WW_6>643???6
0 340?4 340?44 4 0??0>6 0??0>6
