—
Mechanical and Metal Trades Handbook
Europa-No 1910X
uj(/-?JLEHRMITTEL
Ulrich Fischer Roland Gomeringer
Max Heinzler Roland Kilgus
EUROPA-TECHNICAL BOOK SERIES for the Metalworking Trades
Friedrich Naher Stefan Oesterle
Heinz Paetzold Andreas Stephan
Mechanical and Metal Trades Handbook 2nd English edition
Europa-No.: 1910X
VERLAG EUROPA LEHRMITTEL • Nourney, Vollmer GmbH & Co. KG Dusselberger StraBe 23 • 42781 Haan-Gruiten • Germany
Original title:
Tabellenbuch Metall, 44th edition, 2008 Authors:
Ulrich Fischer Roland Gomeringer Max Heinzler Roland Kilgus Friedrich Naher Stefan Oesterle Heinz Paetzold Andreas Stephan
Dipl.-lng. (FH) Dipl.-Gwl. Dipl.-lng. (FH) Dipl.-Gwl. Dipl.-lng. (FH) Dipl.-lng. Dipl.-lng. (FH) Dipl.-lng. (FH)
Reutlingen MeBstetten Wangen im Allgau Neckartenzlingen Balingen Amtzell Muhlacker Kressbronn
Editor:
Ulrich Fischer, Reutlingen Graphic design:
Design office of Verlag Europa-Lehrmittel, Leinfelden-Echterdingen, Germany The publisher and its affiliates have taken care to collect the information given in this book to the best of their ability. However, no responsibility is accepted by the publisher or any of its affiliates regarding its content or any statement herein or omission there from which may result in any loss or damage to any party using the data shown above. Warranty claims against the authors or the publisher are excluded. Most recent editions of standards and other regulations govern their use. They can be ordered from Beuth Verlag GmbH, Burggrafenstr. 6, 10787 Berlin, Germany. The content of the chapter "Program structure of CNC machines according to PAL" (page 386 to 400) complies with the publications of the PAL Priifungs- und Lehrmittelentwicklungsstelle (Institute for the development of training and testing material) of the IHK Region Stuttgart (Chamber of Commerce and Industry of the Stuttgart region).
English edition: Mechanical and Metal Trades Handbook 2nd edition, 2010 6 5 4 3 2 1 All printings of this edition may be used concurrently in the classroom since they are unchanged, except for some corrections to typographical errors and slight changes in standards.
ISBN 13 978-3-8085-1913-4 Cover design includes a photograph from TESA/Brown & Sharpe, Renens, Switzerland All rights reserved. This publication is protected under copyright law. Any use other than those permitted by law must be approved in writing by the publisher. © 2010 by Verlag Europa-Lehrmittel, Nourney, Vollmer GmbH & Co. KG, 42781 Haan-Gruiten, Germany http://www.europa-lehrmittel.de Translation: Techni-Translate, 72667 Schlaitdorf, Germany; www.techni-translate.com Eva Schwarz, 76879 Ottersheim, Germany; www.technische-uebersetzungen-eva-schwarz.de Typesetting: YellowHand GbR, 73257 Kongen, Germany; www.yellowhand.de Printed by: Media Print Informationstechnologie, D-33100, Paderborn, Germany
3
The Mechanical and Metal Trades Handbook is well-suited for shop reference, tooling, machine building, maintenance and as a general book of knowledge. It is also useful for educational purposes, especially in practical work or curricula and continuing education programs. Target Groups • Industrial and trade mechanics • Tool & Die makers • Machinists • Millwrights • Draftspersons • Technical Instructors • Apprentices in above trade areas • Practitioners in trades and industry • Mechanical Engineering students
2 Physics
p 33-56
3 Technical drawing
TD 57-114
Notes for the user The contents of this book include tables and formulae in eight chapters, including Tables of Contents, Subject Index and Standards Index. The tables contain the most important guidelines, designs, types, dimensions and standard values for their subject areas. Units are not specified in the legends for the formulae if several units are possible. However, the calculation examples for each formula use those units normally applied in practice. Designation examples, which are included for all standard parts, materials and drawing designations, are highlighted by a red arrow (=>). The Table of Contents in the front of the book is expanded further at the beginning of each chapter in form of a partial Table of Contents. The Subject Index at the end of the book (pages 417-428) is extensive. The Standards Index (pages 407-416) lists all the current standards and regulations cited in the book. In many cases previous standards are also listed to ease the transition from older, more familiar standards to new ones. We have thoroughly revised the 2nd edition of the "Mechanical and Metal Trades Handbook" in line with the 44th edition of the German version "Tabellenbuch Metall". The section dealing with PAL programming of CNC machine tools was updated (to the state of 2008) and considerably enhanced.
4 Material science
MS 115-200
5 Machine elements
ME 201-272
6 Production Engineering
PE 273-344
7 Automation and Information Technology 345-406
A
8 International material comparison chart, Standards 407-416
S
Special thanks to the Magna Technical Training Centre for their input into the English translation of this book. Their assistance has been extremely valuable. The authors and the publisher will be grateful for any suggestions and constructive comments. Spring 2010
Authors and publisher
Table of Contents 9
1 Mathematics 1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
Numerical tables Square root, Area of a circle Sine, Cosine Tangent, Cotangent Trigonometric Functions Definitions Sine, Cosine, Tangent, Cotangent . . . . Laws of sines and cosines Angles, Theorem of intersecting lines Fundamentals of Mathematics Using brackets, powers, roots Equations Powers often, Interest calculation . . . . Percentage and proportion calculations Symbols, Units Formula symbols, Mathematical symbols SI quantities and units of measurement Non-SI units
1.5 10 11 12 1.6 13 13 14 14
1.7
15 16 17 18
19
1.8
1.9
20 22
Lengths Calculations in a right triangle Sub-dividing lengths, Arc length Flat lengths, Rough lengths Areas Angular areas Equilateral triangle, Polygons, Circle Circular areas Volume and Surface area Cube, Cylinder, Pyramid Truncated pyramid, Cone, Truncated cone, Sphere Composite solids Mass General calculations Linear mass density Area mass density Centroids Centroids of lines Centroids of plane areas
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
Motion Uniform and accelerated motion Speeds of machines Forces Adding and resolving force vectors . . . Weight, Spring force Lever principle, Bearing forces Torques, Centrifugal force Work, Power, Efficiency Mechanical work Simple machines Power and Efficiency Friction Friction force Coefficients of friction Friction in bearings Pressure in liquids and gases Pressure, definition and types Buoyancy Pressure changes in gases Strength of materials Load cases, Load types Safety factors, Mechanical strength properties Tension, Compression, Surface pressure Shear, Buckling
26 27 28 29 30 31 31 31 31 32 32
33
2 Physics 2.1
23 24 25
34 35 36 36 37 37 38 39 40 41 41 41 42 42 42 43 44 45 46
2.7
2.8
Bending, Torsion Shape factors in strength Static moment, Section modulus, Moment of inertia Comparison of various cross-sectional shapes Thermodynamics Temperatures, Linear expansion, Shrinkage Quantity of heat Heat flux, Heat of combustion Electricity Ohm's Law, Conductor resistance . . . . Resistor circuits Types of current Electrical work and power
47 48 49 50
51 51 52 53 54 55 56
Table of Contents
57
3 Technical drawing 3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
Basic geometric constructions Lines and angles 58 Tangents, Circular arcs, Polygons . . . . 59 Inscribed circles, Ellipses, Spirals 60 Cycloids, Involute curves, Parabolas .. 61 Graphs Cartesian coordinate system 62 Graph types 63 Drawing elements Fonts 64 Preferred numbers, Radii, Scales 65 Drawing layout 66 Line types 67 Representation Projection methods 69 Views 71 Sectional views 73 Hatching 75 Entering dimensions Dimensioning rules 76 Diameters, Radii, Spheres, Chamfers, Inclines, Tapers, Arc dimensions 78 Tolerance specifications 80 Types of dimensioning 81 Simplified presentation in drawings .. 83
3.6
Machine elements Gear types 84 Roller bearings 85 Seals 86 Retaining rings, Springs 87 3.7 Workpiece elements Bosses, Workpiece edges 88 Thread runouts, Thread undercuts . . . 89 Threads, Screw joints 90 Center holes, Knurls, Undercuts 91 3.8 Welding and Soldering Graphical symbols 93 Dimensioning examples 95 3.9 Surfaces Hardness specifications in drawings .. 97 Form deviations, Roughness 98 Surface testing, Surface indications .. 99 3.10 ISO Tolerances and Fits Fundamentals 102 Basic hole and basic shaft systems .. 106 General Tolerances, Roller bearing fits 110 Fit recommendations 111 Geometric tolerancing 112 GD&T (Geometric Dimensioning & Tolerancing) 113
115
4 Materials science 4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
Materials Material characteristics of solids 116 Material characteristics of liquids and gases 117 Periodic table of the elements 118 Designation system for steels Definition and classification of steel . 120 Material codes, Designation 121 Steel types, Overview 126 Structural steels 128 Case hardened, quenched and tempered, nitrided, free cutting steels . . . 132 Tool steels 135 Stainless steels, Spring steels 136 Finished steel products Sheet, strip, pipes 139 Profiles 143 Heat treatment Iron-Carbon phase diagram 153 Processes 154 Cast iron materials Designation, Material codes 158 Classification 159 Cast iron 160 Malleable cast iron, Cast steel 161
5
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11
4.12
4.13 4.14
Foundry technology Patterns, Pattern equipment 162 Shrinkage allowances, Dimensional tolerances 163 Light alloys, Overview of Al alloys .. 164 Wrought aluminum alloys 166 Aluminum casting alloys 168 Aluminum profiles 169 Magnesium and titanium alloys 172 Heavy non-ferrous metals, Overview 173 Designation system 174 Copper alloys 175 Other metallic materials Composite materials, Ceramic materials 177 Sintered metals 178 Plastics, Overview 179 Thermoplastics 182 Thermoset plastics, Elastomers 184 Plastics processing 186 Material testing methods, Overview 188 Tensile testing 190 Hardness test 192 Corrosion, Corrosion protection . . 196 Hazardous materials 197
Table of Contents
6
201
5 Machine elements 5.1
Threads (overview) 202 Metric ISO threads 204 Whitworth threads, Pipe threads 206 Trapezoidal and buttress threads 207 Thread tolerances 208 5.2 Bolts and screws (overview) 209 Designations, strength 210 Hexagon head bolts & screws 212 Other bolts & screws 215 Screw joint calculations 221 Locking fasteners 222 Widths across flats, Bolt and screw drive systems 223 5.3 Countersinks 224 Countersinks for countersunk head screws 224 Counterbores for cap screws 225 5.4 Nuts (overview) 226 Designations, Strength 227 Hexagon nuts 228 Other nuts 231 5.5 Washers (overview) 233 Flat washers 234 HV, Clevis pin, Conical spring washers . 235 5.6 Pins and clevis pins (overview) . . . 236 Dowel pins, Taper pins, Spring pins . 237
Grooved pins, Grooved drive studs, Clevis pins 5.7 Shaft-hub connections Tapered and feather keys Parallel and woodruff keys Splined shafts, Blind rivets Tool tapers 5.8 Springs, components of jigs and tools Springs Drill bushings Standard stamping parts 5.9 Drive elements Belts Gears Transmission ratios Speed graph 5.10 Bearings Plain bearings (overview) Plain bearing bushings Antifriction bearings (overview) Types of roller bearings Retaining rings Sealing elements Lubricating oils Lubricating greases
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
Quality management Standards, Terminology 274 Quality planning, Quality testing 276 Statistical analysis 277 Statistical process control 279 Process capability 281 Production planning Time accounting according to REFA . 282 Cost accounting 284 Machine hourly rates 285 Machining processes Productive time 287 Machining coolants 292 Cutting tool materials, Inserts, Tool holders 294 Forces and power 298 Cutting data: Drilling, Reaming, Turning 301 Cutting data: Taper turning 304 Cutting data: Milling 305 Indexing 307 Cutting data: Grinding and honing .. 308 Material removal Cutting data 313 Processes 314 Separation by cutting Cutting forces 315
239 240 241 242
244 247 251 253 256 259 260 261 262 263 265 269 270 271 272
273
6 Production Engineering 6.1
238
6.6
6.7
6.8
Shearing 316 Location of punch holder shank 317 Forming Bending 318 Deep drawing 320 Joining Welding processes 322 Weld preparation 323 Gas welding 324 Gas shielded metal arc welding 325 Arc welding 327 Thermal cutting 329 Identification of gas cylinders 331 Soldering and brazing 333 Adhesive bonding 336 Workplace safety and environmental protection Prohibitive signs 338 Warning signs 339 Mandatory signs, Escape routes and rescue signs 340 Information signs 341 Danger symbols 342 Identification of pipe lines 343 Sound and noise 344
Table of Contents
345
7 Automation and Information 7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
Basic terminology for control engineering Basic terminology, Code letters, Symbols 346 Analog controllers 348 Discontinuous and digital controllers .. 349 Binary logic 350 Electrical circuits Circuit symbols 351 Designations in circuit diagrams 353 Circuit diagrams 354 Sensors 355 Protective precautions 356 Function charts and function diagrams Function charts 358 Function diagrams 361 Pneumatics and hydraulics Circuit symbols 363 Layout of circuit diagrams 365 Controllers 366 Hydraulic fluids 368 Pneumatic cylinders 369 Forces, Speeds, Power 370 Precision steel tube 372 Programmable logic control PLC programming languages 373 Ladder diagram (LD) 374 Function block language (FBL) 374
8.2
International material comparison chart DIN, DIN EN, ISO etc. standards
Subject index
7.6
7.7
7.8
Structured text (ST) 374 Instruction list 375 Simple functions 376 Handling and robot systems Coordinate systems and axes 378 Robot designs 379 Grippers, job safety 380 Numerical Control (NC) technology Coordinate systems 381 Program structure according to DIN .. 382 Tool offset and Cutter compensation . 383 Machining motions as per DIN 384 Machining motions as per PAL (German association) 386 PAL programming system for turning . 388 PAL programming system for milling . 392 Information technology Numbering systems 401 ASCII code 402 Program flow chart, Structograms .. 403 WORD-and EXEL commands 405
407
8 Material chart. Standards 8.1
7
407 .412
417
8
Standards and other Regulations Standardization and Standards terms Standardization is the systematic achievement of uniformity of material and non-material objects, such as components, calculation methods, process flows and services for the benefit of the general public. Standards term
Example
Explanation
Standard
DIN 7157
A standard is the published result of standardization, e.g. the selection of certain fits in DIN 7157.
Part
DIN 30910-2
The part of a standard associated with other parts with the same main number. DIN 30910-2 for example describes sintered materials for filters, while Part 3 and 4 describe sintered materials for bearings and formed parts.
Supplement
DIN 743 Suppl. 1
A supplement contains information for a standard, however no additional specifications. The supplement DIN 743 Suppl. 1, for example, contains application examples of load capacity calculations for shafts and axles described in DIN 743.
Draft
E DIN 6316 (2007-02)
A draft standard contains the preliminary finished results of a standardization; this version of the intended standard is made available to the public for comments. For example, the planned new version of DIN 6316 for goose-neck clamps has been available to the public since February 2007 as Draft E DIN 6316.
Preliminary standard
DIN V 66304 (1991-12)
A preliminary standard contains the results of standardization which are not released by DIN as a standard, because of certain provisos. DIN V 66304, for example, discusses a format for exchange of standard part data for computer-aided design.
Issue date
DIN 76-1 (2004-06)
Date of publication which is made public in the DIN publication guide; this is the date at which time the standard becomes valid. DIN 76-1, which sets undercuts for metric ISO threads has been valid since June 2004 for example.
Types of Standards and Regulations (selection) Type
Abbreviation
Explanation
Purpose and contents
International Standards (ISO standards)
ISO
International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (O and S are reversed in the abbreviation)
Simplifies the international exchange of goods and services, as well as cooperation in scientific, technical and economic areas.
European Standards (EN standards)
EN
DIN
DIN EN German Standards (DIN standards)
DIN ISO
DIN EN ISO
DIN VDE
Technical harmonization and the associated reduction of trade barriers for the advancement of the European market and the coalescence of Europe. Deutsches Institut fur Normung e.V., National standardization facilitates rationalBerlin (German Institute for ization, quality assurance, environmental Standardization) protection and common understanding in European standard for which the economics, technology, science, manageGerman version has attained the sta- ment and public relations. tus of a German standard. European Committee for Standardization (Comite Europeen de Normalisation), Brussels
German standard for which an international standard has been adopted without change. European standard for which an international standard has been adopted unchanged and the German version has the status of a German standard. Printed publication of the VDE, which has the status of a German standard. Verein Deutscher Ingenieure e.V., These guidelines give an account of the curDusseldorf (Society of German rent state of the art in specific subject areas Engineers) and contain, for example, concrete proceduVerband Deutscher Elektrotechniker ral guidelines for the performing calculations or designing processes in mechanical or e.V., Frankfurt (Organization of Gerelectrical engineering. man Electrical Engineers)
VDI Guidelines
VDI
VDE printed publications
VDE
DGQ publications
DGQ
Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Qualitat e.V., Recommendations in the area of quality technology. Frankfurt (German Association for Quality)
REFA sheets
REFA
Association for Work Design/Work Structure, Industrial Organization and Corporate Development REFA e.V., Darmstadt
Recommendations in the area of production and work planning.
9
Table of Contents
1 Mathematics d
id
1 2 3
1.0000 1.4142 1.7321
1.1 A
~
4
0.7854 3.1416 7.0686 opposite side hypotenuse
sine cosine tangent cotangent
=
1.2
adjacent side hypotenuse opposite side adjacent side adjacent side opposite side
1.3 - + - = - • ( 3 + 5) X X X
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
Numerical tables Square root, Area of a circle Sine, Cosine Tangent, Cotangent
10 11 12
Trigonometric Functions Definitions Sine, Cosine, Tangent, Cotangent Laws of sines and cosines Angles, Theorem of intersecting lines
13 13 14 14
Fundamentals of Mathematics Using brackets, powers, roots Equations Powers of ten, Interest calculation Percentage and proportion calculations
15 16 17 18
Symbols, Units Formula symbols, Mathematical symbols SI quantities and units of measurement Non-SI units
19 20 22
Lengths Calculations in a right triangle Sub-dividing lengths, Arc length Flat lengths, Rough lengths
23 24 25
Areas Angular areas Equilateral triangle, Polygons, Circle Circular areas
26 27 28
Volume and Surface area Cube, Cylinder, Pyramid Truncated pyramid, Cone, Truncated cone, Sphere Composite solids
29 30 31
Mass General calculations Linear mass density Area mass density
31 31 31
Centroids Centroids of lines Centroids of plane areas
32 32
10
Mathematics: 1.1 Numerical tables
Square root, Area of a circle ri
i/T
r! Li
lId 1ia
rj
lId
1 2 3 4 5
1.0000 1.4142 1.7321 2.0000 2.236 1
3.1416 7.0686 12.5664
51 52 53 54
19.6350
55
7.1414 7.2111 7.2801 7.3485 7.4162
8011.85 8171.28 8332.29 8494.87 8659.01
151 152 153 154
12.2882
155
12.4499
6 7 8 9 10
2.4495 2.6458 2.8284 3.0000 3.1623
28.2743 38.4845 50.2655 63.6173 78.5398
56 57 58 59 60
10.2956 10.3441 10.3923 10.4403 10.4881
8824.73 8992.02 9160.88 9331.32 9503.32
156 157 158 159 160
12.4900 12.5300 12.5698 12.6095 12.6491
19359.3 19606.7 19855.7 20106.2
11 12 13 14 15
3.3166 3.4641 3.6056 3.7417 3.8730
95.0332 113.097 132.732 153.938 176.715
61 62 63 64
111 112 113 114 115
10.5357 10.5830 10.6301 10.6771 10.7238
9676.89 9852.03 10028.7 10207.0 10386.9
161 162 163 164 165
12.6886 12.7279 12.7671 12.8062 12.8452
20358.3 20612.0 20867.2 21124.1 21382.5
16 17 18 19 20
4.0000 4.1231 4.2426 4.3589 4.4721
3421.19 3525.65 3631.68 3739.28 3848.45
116 117 118 119 120
10.7703 10.8167 10.8628 10.9087 10.9545
10568.3 10751.3 10935.9 11122.0 11309.7
166 167 168 169 170
12.8841 12.9228 12.9615 13.0000 13.0384
21642.4 21904.0 22167.1 22431.8 22698.0
21 22 23 24 25
4.5826 4.6904
8.4261 8.4853 8.5440 8.6023 8.6603
3959.19 4071.50 4185.39 4300.84 4417.86
121 122 123 124 125
11.0000 11.0454 11.0905 11.1355 11.1803
11499.0 11689.9 11882.3 12076.3 12271.8
171 172 173 174 175
13.0767 13.1149 13.1529 13.1909 13.2288
22965.8 23235.2 23506.2 23778.7 24052.8
76 77 78 79 80
8.7178 8.7750 8.8318 8.8882 8.9443
4536.46 4656.63 4778.36 4901.67 5026.55
126 127 128 129 130
11.2250 11.2694 11.3137 11.3578 11.4018
12469.0 12667.7 12868.0 13069.8 13273.2
176 177 178 179 180
13.2665 13.3041 13.3417 13.3791 13.4164
24328.5 24605.7 24884.6 25164.9 25446.9
81 82 83 84 85
9.0000 9.0554 9.1104 9.1652 9.2195
5153.00 5281.02
11.4455 11.4891 11.5326 11.5758 11.6190
13478.2 13684.8 13892.9 14102.6 14313.9
181 182 183 184 185
13.4536 13.4907 13.5277 13.5647 13.6015
25730.4
5410.61 5541.77 5674.50
131 132 133 134 135
1017.88 1075.21 1134.11 1194.59 1256.64
86 87 88 89 90
9.2736 9.3274 9.3808 9.4340 9.4868
5808.80 5944.68 6082.12 6221.14 6361.73
136 137 138 139 140
11.6619 11.7047 11.7473 11.7898 11.8322
14526.7 14741.1 14957.1 15174.7 15393.8
186 187 188 189 190
13.6382 13.6748 13.7113 13.7477 13.7840
27171.6 27464.6 27759.1 28055.2 28352.9
6.4031 6.4807 6.5574 6.6332 6.7082
1320.25 1385.44 1452.20 1520.53 1590.43
91 92 93 94 95
9.5394 9.5917 9.6437 9.6954 9.7468
6503.88 6647.61 6792.91 6939.78 7088.22
141 142 143 144
11.8743 11.9164
191 192 193 194
145
11.9583 12.0000 12.0416
15614.5 15836.8 16060.6 16286.0 16513.0
195
13.8203 13.8564 13.8924 13.9284 13.9642
28652.1 28952.9 29255.3 29559.2 29864.8
6.7823 6.8557 6.9282 7.0000 7.0711
1661.90 1734.94
96 97
12.0830 12.1244
14.0000 14.0357
30171.9
148 149 150
12.1655 12.2066 12.2474
16741.5 16971.7 17203.4 17436.6 17671.5
196 197
98 99 100
7238.23 7389.81 7542.96 7697.69 7853.98
146 147
1809.56 1885.74 1963.50
9.7980 9.8489 9.8995 9.9499 10.0000
198 199 200
14.0712 14.1067 14.1421
ri
lId
2042.82 2123.72 2206.18 2290.22 2375.83
101 102 103 104 105
10.049 9 10.0995 10.1489 10.1980 10.2470
7.4833 7.5498 7.6158 7.6811 7.7460
2463.01 2551.76 2642.08 2733.97 2827.43
106 107 108 109 110
65
7.8102 7.8740 7.9373 8.0000 8.0623
2922.47 3019.07 3117.25 3216.99 3318.31
201.062 226.980 254.469 283.529 314.159
66 67 68 69 70
8.1240 8.1854 8.2462 8.3066 8.3666
4.7958 4.8990 5.0000
346.361 380.133 415.476 452.389 490.874
71 72 73 74 75
26 27 28 29 30
5.0990 5.1962 5.2915 5.3852 5.4772
530.929 572.555 615.752 660.520 706.858
31 32 33 34 35
5.5678 5.6569 5.7446 5.8310 5.9161
754.768 804.248 855.299 907.920 962.113
36 37 38 39 40
6.0000 6.0828 6.1644 6.2450 6.3246
41 42 43 44
u
45 46 47 48 49 50
A
~
4 0.7854
Table values of id and A are rounded off.
A
~
4
U
4
u
12.3288 12.3693 12.4097
A
~
4
17907.9 18145.8 18385.4 18626.5 18869.2 19113.4
26015.5 26302.2 26590.4 26880.3
30480.5 30790.7 31102.6 31415.9
Mathematics: 1.1 Numerical tables
Values of Sine and Cosine Trigonometric Functions sine 0° to 45°
degrees
sine 45° to 90°
degrees
Co
0'
15'
30'
45'
60'
0° 1° 2° 3° 4°
0.0000 0.0175 0.0349 0.0523 0.0698
0.0044 0.0218 0.0393 0.0567 0.0741
0.0087 0.0262 0.0436 0.0610 0.0785
0.0131 0.0305 0.0480 0.0654 0.0828
0.0175 0.0349 0.0523 0.0698 0.0872
89° 88° 87° 86° 85°
45° 46° 47° 48° 49°
0.7071 0.7193 0.7314 0.7431 0.7547
5° 6° 7° 8° 9°
0.0872 0.1045 0.1219 0.1392 0.1564
0.0915 0.1089 0.1262 0.1435 0.1607
0.0958 0.1132 0.1305 0.1478 0.1650
0.1002 0.1175 0.1349 0.1521 0.1693
0.1045 0.1219 0.1392 0.1564 0.1736
84° 83° 82° 81° 80°
50° 51° 52° 53° 54°
10° 11° 12° 13° 14°
0.1736 0.1908 0.2079 0.2250 0.2419
0.1779 0.1951 0.2122 0.2292 0.2462
0.1822 0.1994 0.2164 0.2334 0.2504
0.1865 0.2036 0.2207 0.2377 0.2546
0.1908 0.2079 0.2250 0.2419 0.2588
79° 78° 77° 76° 75°
15° 16° 17° 18° 19°
0.2588 0.2756 0.2924 0.3090 0.3256
0.2630 0.2798 0.2965 0.3132 0.3297
0.2672 0.2840 0.3007 0.3173 0.3338
0.2714 0.2882 0.3049 0.3214 0.3379
0.2756 0.2924 0.3090 0.3256 0.3420
20° 21° 22° 23° 24°
0.3420 0.3584 0.3746 0.3907 0.4067
0.3461 0.3624 0.3786 0.3947 0.4107
0.3502 0.3665 0.3827 0.3987 0.4147
0.3543 0.3706 0.3867 0.4027 0.4187
25° 26° 27° 28° 29°
0.4226 0.4384 0.4540 0.4695 0.4848
0.4266 0.4423 0.4579 0.4733 0.4886
0.4305 0.4462 0.4617 0.4772 0.4924
30° 31° 32° 33° 34°
0.5000 0.5150 0.5299 0.5446 0.5592
0.5038 0.5188 0.5336 0.5483 0.5628
35° 36° 37° 38° 39°
0.5736 0.5878 0.6018 0.6157 0.6293
40° 41° 42° 43° 44°
I
0'
30'
45'
60'
0.7102 0.7224 0.7343 0.7461 0.7576
0.7133 0.7254 0.7373 0.7490 0.7604
0.7163 0.7284 0.7402 0.7518 0.7632
0.7193 0.7314 0.7431 0.7547 0.7660
44° 43° 42°
0.7660 0.7771 0.7880 0.7986 0.8090
0.7688 0.7799 0.7907 0.8013 0.8116
0.7716 0.7826 0.7934 0.8039 0.8141
0.7744 0.7853 0.7960 0.8064 0.8166
0.7771 0.7880 0.7986 0.8090 0.8192
39° 38° 37° 36° 35°
55° 56° 57° 58° 59°
0.8192 0.8290 0.8387 0.8480 0.8572
0.8216 0.8315 0.8410 0.8504 0.8594
0.8241 0.8339 0.8434 0.8526 0.8616
0.8266 0.8363 0.8457 0.8549 0.8638
0.8290 0.8387 0.8480 0.8572 0.8660
34° 33° 32° 31° 30°
74° 73° 72° 71° 70°
60° 61° 62° 63° 64°
0.8660 0.8746 0.8829 0.8910 0.8988
0.8682 0.8767 0.8850 0.8930 0.9007
0.8704 0.8788 0.8870 0.8949 0.9026
0.8725 0.8809 0.8890 0.8969 0.9045
0.8746 0.8829 0.8910 0.8988 0.9063
29° 28° 27° 26° 25°
0.3584 0.3746 0.3907 0.4067 0.4226
69° 68° 67° 66° 65°
65° 66° 67° 68° 69°
0.9063 0.9135 0.9205 0.9272 0.9336
0.9081 0.9153 0.9222 0.9288 0.9351
0.9100 0.9171 0.9239 0.9304 0.9367
0.9118 0.9188 0.9255 0.9320 0.9382
0.9135 0.9205 0.9272 0.9336 0.9397
24° 23° 22° 21° 20°
0.4344 0.4501 0.4656 0.4810 0.4962
0.4384 0.4540 0.4695 0.4848 0.5000
64° 63° 62° 61° 60°
70° 71° 72° 73° 74°
0.9397 0.9455 0.9511 0.9563 0.9613
0.9412 0.9469 0.9524 0.9576 0.9625
0.9426 0.9483 0.9537 0.9588 0.9636
0.9441 0.9497 0.9550 0.9600 0.9648
0.9455 0.9511 0.9563 0.9613 0.9659
19° 18° 17° 16° 15°
0.5075 0.5225 0.5373 0.5519 0.5664
0.5113 0.5262 0.5410 0.5556 0.5700
0.5150 0.5299 0.5446 0.5592 0.5736
59° 58° 57° 56° 55°
75° 76° 77° 78° 79°
0.9659 0.9703 0.9744 0.9781 0.9816
0.9670 0.9713 0.9753 0.9790 0.9825
0.9681 0.9724 0.9763 0.9799 0.9833
0.9692 0.9734 0.9772 0.9808 0.9840
0.9703 0.9744 0.9781 0.9816 0.9848
14° 13° 12° 11° 10°
0.5771 0.5913 0.6053 0.6191 0.6327
0.5807 0.5948 0.6088 0.6225 0.6361
0.5842 0.5983 0.6122 0.6259 0.6394
0.5878 0.6018 0.6157 0.6293 0.6428
54° 53° 52° 51° 50°
80° 81° 82° 83° 84°
0.9848 0.9877 0.9903 0.9925 0.9945
0.9856 0.9884 0.9909 0.9931 0.9950
0.9863 0.9890 0.9914 0.9936 0.9954
0.9870 0.9897 0.9920 0.9941 0.9958
0.9877 0.9903 0.9925 0.9945 0.9962
9° 8° 7° 6° 5°
0.6428 0.6561 0.6691 0.6820 0.6947
0.6461 0.6593 0.6724 0.6852 0.6978
0.6494 0.6626 0.6756 0.6884 0.7009
0.6528 0.6659 0.6788 0.6915 0.7040
0.6561 0.6691 0.6820 0.6947 0.7071
49° 48° 47° 46° 45°
85° 86° 87° 88° 89°
0.9962 0.9976 0.9986 0.9994 0.99985
0.9966 0.9979 0.9988 0.9995 0.99991
0.9969 0.9981 0.9990 0.9997 0.99996
0.9973 0.9984 0.9992 0.9998 0.99999
0.9976 0.9986 0.9994 0.99985 1.0000
4° 3° 2° 1° 0°
60'
45'
30'
15'
0'
t
60'
45'
30'
15'
0'
minuies cosine 45° to 90°
degrees
15'
minuies cosine 0° to 45°
Table values of the trigonometric functions are rounded off to four decimal places.
41° 40°
t degrees
12
Mathematics: 1.1 Numerical tables
Values of Tangent and Cotangent Trigonometric Functions tangent 0° to 45°
degrees
1
0'
— 111111 u ic; 30' 15'
tangent 45° to 90°
degrees
45'
60'
0'
— 1 1 III IUICC 30' 15'
60'
45'
1.0088 1.0446 1.0818 1.1204 1.1606
1.0176 1.0538 1.0913 1.1303 1.1708
1.0265 1.0630 1.1009 1.1403 1.1812
1.0355 1.0724 1.1106 1.1504 1.1918
44°
48° 49°
1.0000 1.0355 1.0724 1.1106 1.1504
84° 83° 82° 81° 80°
50° 51° 52° 53° 54°
1.1918 1.2349 1.2799 1.3270 1.3764
1.2024 1.2460 1.2915 1.3392 1.3891
1.2131 1.2572 1.3032 1.3514 1.4019
1.2239 1.2685 1.3151 1.3638 1.4150
1.2349 1.2799 1.3270 1.3764 1.4281
39° 38° 37° 36° 35°
0.1944 0.2126 0.2309 0.2493 0.2679
79° 78° 77° 76° 75°
55° 56° 57° 58° 59°
1.4281 1.4826 1.5399 1.6003 1.6643
1.4415 1.4966 1.5547 1.6160 1.6808
1.4550 1.5108 1.5697 1.6319 1.6977
1.4687 1.5253 1.5849 1.6479 1.7147
1.4826 1.5399 1.6003 1.6643 1.7321
34° 33° 32° 31° 30°
0.2820 0.3010 0.3201 0.3395 0.3590
0.2867 0.3057 0.3249 0.3443 0.3640
74°
73° 72° 71° 70°
60° 61° 62° 63° 64°
1.7321 1.8040 1.8807 1.9626 2.0503
1.7496 1.8228 1.9007 1.9840 2.0732
1.7675 1.8418 1.9210 2.0057 2.0965
1.7856 1.8611 1.9416 2.0278 2.1203
1.8040 1.8807 1.9626 2.0503 2.1445
29° 28° 27° 26° 25°
0.3739 0.3939 0.4142 0.4348 0.4557
0.3789 0.3990 0.4193 0.4400 0.4610
0.3839 0.4040 0.4245 0.4452 0.4663
69° 68° 67° 66° 65°
65° 66° 67° 68° 69°
2.1445 2.2460 2.3559 2.4751 2.6051
2.1692 2.2727 2.3847 2.5065 2.6395
2.1943 2.2998 2.4142 2.5386 2.6746
2.2199 2.3276 2.4443 2.5715 2.7106
2.2460 2.3559 2.4751 2.6051 2.7475
23° 22° 21° 20°
0.4716 0.4931 0.5150 0.5373 0.5600
0.4770 0.4986 0.5206 0.5430 0.5658
0.4823 0.5040 0.5261 0.5486 0.5715
0.4877 0.5095 0.5317 0.5543 0.5774
64° 63° 62° 61° 60°
70° 71° 72° 73° 74°
2.7475 2.9042 3.0777 3.2709 3.4874
2.7852 2.9459 3.1240 3.3226 3.5457
2.8239 2.9887 3.1716 3.3759 3.6059
2.8636 3.0326 3.2205 3.4308 3.6680
2.9042 3.0777 3.2709 3.4874 3.7321
19° 18° 17° 16° 15°
0.5774 0.6009 0.6249 0.6494 0.6745
0.5832 0.6068 0.6310 0.6556 0.6809
0.5890 0.6128 0.6371 0.6619 0.6873
0.5949 0.6188 0.6432 0.6682 0.6937
0.6009 0.6249 0.6494 0.6745 0.7002
59° 58° 57° 56° 55°
75° 76° 77° 78° 79°
3.7321 4.0108 4.3315 4.7046 5.1446
3.7983 4.0876 4.4194 4.8077 5.2672
3.8667 4.1653 4.5107 4.9152 5.3955
3.9375 4.2468 4.6057 5.0273 5.5301
4.0108 4.3315 4.7046 5.1446 5.6713
14° 13° 12° 11° 10°
35° 36° 37° 38° 39°
0.7002 0.7265 0.7536 0.7813 0.8098
0.7067 0.7332 0.7604 0.7883 0.8170
0.7133 0.7400 0.7673 0.7954 0.8243
0.7199 0.7467 0.7743 0.8026 0.8317
0.7265 0.7536 0.7813 0.8098 0.8391
54° 53° 52° 51° 50°
80° 81° 82° 83° 84°
5.6713 6.3138 7.1154 8.1443 9.5144
5.8197 6.4971 7.3479 8.4490 9.9310
5.9758 6.6912 7.5958 8.7769 10.3854
6.1402 6.3138 6.8969 7.1154 7.8606 8.1443 9.1309 9.5144 10.8829 11.4301
9° 8° 7° 6° 5°
40° 41° 42°
0.8391 0.8693 0.9004 0.9325 0.9657
0.8466 0.8770 0.9083 0.9407 0.9742
0.8541 0.8847 0.9163 0.9490 0.9827
0.8617 0.8925 0.9244 0.9573 0.9913
0.8693 0.9004 0.9325 0.9657 1.0000
49° 48°
85° 11.4301 12.0346 12.7062 13.4566 86° 14.3007 15.2571 16.3499 17.6106 87° 19.0811 20.8188 22.9038 25.4517 88° 28.6363 32.7303 38.1885 45.8294 89° 57.2900 76.3900 114.5887 229.1817
60'
45'
30'
15'
0'
t
0° 1° 2° 3° 4°
0.0000 0.0175 0.0349 0.0524 0.0699
0.0044 0.0218 0.0393 0.0568 0.0743
0.0087 0.0262 0.0437 0.0612 0.0787
0.0131 0.0306 0.0480 0.0655 0.0831
0.0175 0.0349 0.0524 0.0699 0.0875
89° 88° 87° 86° 85°
45° 46°
5° 6° 7° 8° 9°
0.0875 0.1051 0.1228 0.1405 0.1584
0.0919 0.1095 0.1272 0.1450 0.1629
0.0963 0.1139 0.1317 0.1495 0.1673
0.1007 0.1184 0.1361 0.1539 0.1718
0.1051 0.1228 0.1405 0.1584 0.1763
10° 11° 12° 13° 14°
0.1763 0.1944 0.2126 0.2309 0.2493
0.1808 0.1989 0.2171 0.2355 0.2540
0.1853 0.2035 0.2217 0.2401 0.2586
0.1899 0.2080 0.2263 0.2447 0.2633
15° 16° 17° 18° 19°
0.2679 0.2867 0.3057 0.3249 0.3443
0.2726 0.2915 0.3105 0.3298 0.3492
0.2773 0.2962 0.3153 0.3346 0.3541
20° 21° 22° 23° 24°
0.3640 0.3839 0.4040 0.4245 0.4452
0.3689 0.3889 0.4091 0.4296 0.4505
25° 26° 27° 28° 29°
0.4663 0.4877 0.5095 0.5317 0.5543
30° 31° 32° 33° 34°
43° 44°
minuies
cotangent 45° to 90°
47°
46° 45°
degrees
47°
60'
45'
30'
15' minuies
cotangent 0° to 45°
Table values of the trigonometric functions are rounded off to four decimal places.
14.3007 19.0811 28.6363 57.2900 00
0'
43° 42° 41° 40°
24°
4°
3° 2° 1° 0° t degrees
13
Mathematics: 1.2 Trigonometric Functions
Trigonometric functions of right triangles Definitions Designations in a right triangle hypotenuse
<3 opposite side of a
£ 7 b adjacent side of
c hypotenuse
Application
Definitions of the ratios of the sides
a adjacent side of ft
for < 0
sine
opposite side hypotenuse
sin a = —
sin (i =
-
cosine
adjacent side hypotenuse
cos a =
cos/3 =
-
tangent
opposite side adjacent side
tan a = -=-
tan/8 =
-
adjacent side opposite side
cot a = —
cot/? =
4
cotangent
opposite side of fi
for < a
=
Graph of the trigonometric functions between 0° and 360c Representation on a unit circle
Graph of the trigonometric functions
The values of the trigonometric functions of angles > 90° can be derived from the values of the angles between 0° and 90° and then read from the tables (pages 11 and 12). Refer to the graphed curves of the trigonometric functions for the correct sign. Calculators with trigonometric functions display both the value and sign for the desired angle. Example: Relationships for Quadrant II Relationships
Example: Function values for the angle 120° (a = 30° in the formulae)
sin (90° + a) = +cos a
sin (90° + 30°) = sin 120° =+0.8660
cos 30° =+0.8660
cos (90° + a) = - s i n a
cos (90° + 30°) = cos 120° = -0.5000
-sin 30° = -0.5000
tan (90° + a) = -cot a
tan (90° + 30°) = tan 120° = -1.7321
-cot 30° = -1.7321
Function values for selected angles Function
0°
90°
180°
270°
360°
Function
0°
90°
180°
270°
360°
sin
0
+1
0
-1
0
tan
0
00
0
00
0
cos
+1
0
-1
0
+1
cot
00
0
00
0
00
Relationships between the functions of an angle
sin or
sin 2 a + cos 2 a = 1
tan a • cot a = 1
tan a = sin a cos a
cot a = cos a sin a
cos or Example: Calculation of tana from sina and cosa for a = 30°: tana = sina/cosa = 0.5000/0.8660 = 0.5774
14
Mathematics: 1.2 Trigonometric Functions
Trigonometric functions of oblique triangles, Angles, Theorem of intersecting lines Law of sines and Law of cosines Law of cosines
Law of sines
a: b: c = sina : sin/3 : siny a _ b _ c sina sin/3 sin/
a2 = b2 + c2 - 2 • b • c • cos a b2 = a2 + c2 - 2 • a • c • cos/3 c2 = a2 + b2 - 2 • a - b • cos y
Application in calculating sides and angles Calculation of sides using the Law of sines using the Law of cosines b-sina _ sin/3 a-sin/3 _ b= sina asiny _ c= sina a=
csina sin/ c-sin/3 siny bsiny sin/3
a = jb2 + c2 - 2 • b • c • cosa b = yja2 + c2 - 2 • a • c • cos /3 c = yja2 + b2 - 2 • a • b • cos /
Calculation of angles using the Law of sines using the Law of cosines a sin/3 _ a - s i n / sina = b " c 6-sina _ b-siny sin/3 = a c c-sina c - s i n ^ sin/ =
cos a =
b2+c2 -a2 2-b- c
a2 +c2-b2 cos/3 = 2 a- c cos y =
a2 + b2-c2 2-ab
Types of angles Corresponding angles If two parallels g-\ and g2 are intersected by a straight line g, there are geometrical interrelationships between the corresponding, opposite, alternate and adjacent angles.
a = P Opposite angles p = d Alternate angles a = d Adjacent angles a + y = 180 c
Sum of angles in a triangle Sum of angles in a triangle In every triangle the sum of the interior angles equals 180°.
a + /3 + y = 180 c
Theorem of intersecting lines If two lines extending from Point A are intersected by two parallel lines BC and B-|C1( the segments of the parallel lines and the corresponding ray segments of the lines extending from A form equal ratios.
Theorem of intersecting lines
a
a b~
b_
c
by
Cl
b c
Cl
Mathematics: 1.
nts
Using brackets, powers and roots I Calculations with brackets Type
Explanation
Example
Factoring out
Common factors (divisors) in addition and subtraction are placed before a bracket.
3 x + 5 x = x ( 3 + 5) = 8 x
A fraction bar combines terms in the same manner as brackets. Expanding bracketed terms
!+I-!.<3+5) X X X a+b , . .. h —-•/? = (a + b 2 2
A bracketed term is multiplied by a value (number, variable, another bracketed term), by multiplying each term inside the brackets by this value.
5 • (b + c) = 5b + 5c (a + b) • (c - d) = ac - ad + be - bd
A bracketed term is divided by a value (number, variable, another bracketed term), by dividing each term inside the bracket by this value.
(a +b):c = a:c a-b a b 5 ~ 5~ 5
Binomial formulae
A binomial formula is a formula in which the term (a + b) or (a - b) is multiplied by itself.
(a + b)2 = a 2 + lab + b2 (a - b)2 = a2 - 2ab + b2 (a + b)(a-b) = a2 - b2
Multiplication/division and addition/subtraction calculations
In mixed equations, the bracketed terms must be solved first. Then multiplication and division calculations are performed, and finally addition and subtraction.
a • ( 3 x - 5x) - b • (My- 2y)
a base;
a* = y
+b:c
= a • (-2x) - b • 10 y = -lax - 10by
Powers Definitions
x exponent;
y exponential value
Product of identical factors
a • a • a • a = a4 4 • 4 • 4 • 4 = 4 4 = 256
Addition Subtraction
Powers with the same base and the same exponents are treated like equal numbers.
3a 3 + 5 a 3 - 4 a 3 = a 3 • (3 + 5 - 4 ) = 4a3
Multiplication Division
Powers with the same base are multiplied (divided) by adding (subtracting) the exponents and keeping the base.
a4 a2 = a a-a-a a a = a6 I 4 • I2 = 2 ( 4 + 2 ) = 2 6 = 64 3 2 -r 3 3 = 3 ( 2 - 3 ) = 3 _ 1 = 1/3
Negative exponent
Numbers with negative exponents can also be written as fractions. The base is then given a positive exponent and is placed in the denominator.
1
1
m
=—7
1
=
rrr 1
3
—
m
a-3 = — a3 4
Fractions in exponents
Powers with fractional exponents can also be written as roots.
Zero in exponents
Every power with a zero exponent has the value of one.
(m + n)° = 1 a4 + a4 = a ( 4 _ 4 ) = a 0 = 1 2°= 1
Definitions
x root's exponent;
y/a = y or a 1 / x = y
Signs
Even number exponents of the root give positive and negative values, if the radicand is positive. A negative radicand results in an imaginary number.
\/9 = ±3
Odd number exponents of the root give positive values if the radicand is positive and negative values if the radicand is negative.
\/8 = l
Addition Subtraction
Identical root expressions can be added and subtracted.
\la+3\la-l\[a=l\[a
Multiplication Division
Roots with the same exponents are multiplied (divided) by taking the root of the product (quotient) of the radicands.
a3=fc
Roots a radicand;
y root value
= + 3i
yf-8=-l
ra
Ji"
16
Mathematics: 1.
nts
Types of equations, Rules of transformation Equations Type
Explanation
Example
Variable equation
Equivalent terms (formula terms of equal value ) form relationships between variables (see also, Rules of transformation).
v = ji • d • n
Compatible units equation
Immediate conversion of units and constants to an SI unit in the result. Only used in special cases, e.g. if engineering parameters are specified or for simplification.
p_M-n
Single variable equation
Calculation of the value of a variable.
x +3= 8 x =8- 3= 5
Function equation
Assigned function equation: y is a function of x with x as the independent variable; yas the dependent variable. The number pair (x,y) of a value table form the graph of the function in the (x,y) coordinate system.
y = f (x)
Constant function
y = f (x) = b
(a+ b)2 = a 2 + 2ab+ b2
jf
p jnkW
9550 n in 1/min and M in Nm
* real numbers
The graph is a line parallel to the x-axis. Proportional function
y = f (x) = mx
The graph is a straight line through the origin.
y= 2x
Linear function
y = f (x) = mx + b
The graph is a straight line with slope m and y intercept b (example below).
y= 0.5x+ 1
Quadratic function Every quadratic function (example below).
y = f (x) = X 2
example:
linear function y= mx+b
graphs
as
a
parabola
quadratic function y=x2
y = a 2 x 2 + a-|X+ a 0
\ t \ I -2
example: ~y= 0.5-x 2 / 2"
-1 -1 -
/
y
I
f^H 1 x
1 2
1 3 •
Rules of transformation Equations are usually transformed to obtain an equation in which the unknown variable stands alone on the left side of the equation. The same number can be added or subtracted from both sides. In the equations X+ 5 = 1 5 and x + 5 - 5 = 15 - 5, x has the same value, i.e. the equations are equivalent.
x +5 =15 x + 5 - 5 =15-5 x = 10 y-c - d y-c + c =d + c y =d+c
Multiplication Division
It is possible to multiply or divide each side of the equation by the same number.
ax = b ax b a a b x =— a
Powers
The expressions on both sides of the equations can be raised to the same exponential power.
Addition Subtraction
|-5
|+c
| "r a
s/x=a + b
|()2
(Vx)2 =(a + b)2 x =a2 +2ab + b2
Roots
The root of the expressions on both sides of the equation can be taken using the same root exponent.
x2=a 2
(\[x)
+b
= -Ja + b
x -±\ja + b
\yf
Mathematics: 1.
nts
Decimal multiples and factors of units. Interest calculation Decimal multiples and factors of units
cf. DIN 1301-1 (2002-10)
Mathematics Power of
Name
ten 18
10 10 1 5 10 12 109 106 103 102 101 10° 1
10" 10-2 10"3 10"6 10"9 10" 12 10-15 1 0
- 1 8
SI units Prefix
Multiplication factor
Character
Unit
E P T G M k h da
Em Pm TV GW MW kN hi dam m
10 1 8 10 1 5 10 1 2 109 106 103 102 101 10°
dm cm mV HA nm pF fF am
10~1 meters 10"2 meters 10"3 volts 10"6 ampere 10"9 meters 10- 12 farad 10" 15 farads 10" 18 meters
quintillion quadrillion trillion billion million thousand hundred ten one
1 000 000 000 000 000 000 1 000 000 000 000 000 1 000 000 000 000 1 000 000 000 1 000 000 1 000 100 10 1
exa peta tera giga mega kilo hecto deca
tenth hundredth thousandth millionth billionth trillionth quadrillionth quintillionth
0.1 0.01 0.001 0.000 001 0.000 000 001 0.000 000 000 001 0.000 000 000 000 001 0.000 000 000 000 000 001
deci centi milli micro nano pico femto atto
<1
values - f -
1 1 1000 100 -H—h-
Examples
Name
-
-
d c m Mn P f a
Meaning meters meters volts watts watts newtons liters meters meter
Numbers greater than 1 are expressed with positive exponents and numbers less than 1 are expressed with negative exponents.
>1
I
10 100 1000
I
• • ••
Examples: 4300 = 4.3 •1000 = 4.3 • 103 14638= 1.4638 • 104
1 0 " 3 1 0 - 2 1 0 " 1 10° 101 10 2 10 3
0 0 7 =
i^o =
7
-
1 0 - 2
Simple interest P A
principle amount accumulated
I r
interest interest rate per year
Interest
time in days, interest period
1st example: P = $2800.00; r = 6 - ; t= 1/2a; a
I
=
/ =?
*
1 interest year (1 a) = 360 days (360 d) 360 d = 12 months 1 interest month = 30 days
$2800.00-6- -0.5a -t—=$84.00 100%
2nd example: P = $4800.00; r =5.1 ,0 -\ t = 50d; / = ? I
=
$4800.00-5.1 % • 50d ^ = $ 34.00 100%-360 d a
Compound interest calculation for one-time payment P A
principle amount accumulated
I r
interest interest rate per year
n q
time compounding factor
Amount accumulated A=P-<7n
Example: P = $8000.00; n = 7 years; r = 6.5%; A = ? 6.5% = 1.065 q =1 + 100% A = P- qn = $ 8000.00 • 1.0657 = $ 8000.00 • 1.553986 = $12431.89
Compounding factor
18
Mathematics: 1.
nts
Percentage calculation, Proportion calculations Percentage calculation Percent value
The percentage rate gives the fraction of the base value in hundredths. The base value is the value from which the percentage is to be calculated. The percent value is the amount representing the percentage of the base value. P r percentage rate, in percent
P v percent value
p
_
v
£ v base value.
1st example:
g
V
P
r
100%
Percentage rate
Workpiece rough part weight 250 kg (base value); material loss 2% (percentage rate); material loss in kg = ? (percent value) % _ 250 kg • 2% 100% 100% 2nd example: Rough weight of a casting 150 kg; weight after machining 126 kg; weight percent rate (%) of material loss? „
Pr =
Pm * r\r\ n/ 150kg-126kg • 100% = • 100% = 16% B, 150 kg
Proportion calculations Three steps for calculating direct proportional ratios Example:
|bow pjpe 35 elbow pipes?
6Q e
s w e
j g h 330 kg. What is the weight of
1 elbow pipe weighs
100 200 kg 300 weight
3rd step:
330 kg 60
Calculate the total by multiplying
35 elbow pipes weigh
330 kg • 35 bO
= 1 9 2 5
R g
Three steps for calculating inverse proportional ratios Example:
It takes 3 workers 170 hours to process one order. How many hours do 12 workers need to process the same order?
It takes 1 worker 3 • 170 hrs
2
U 6 8 10 12 14 workers »
3rd step:
Calculate the total by dividing
Ittakes12 workers
3- 170 hrs = 42.5 hrs 12
Using the three steps for calculating direct and inverse proportions Example: 660 workpieces are manufactured by 5 machines in 24 days. How much time does it take for 9 machines to produce 312 workpieces of the same type?
1st application of 3 steps: 5 machines produce 660 workpieces in 24 days 1 machine produces 660 workpieces in 24 • 5 days 24-5 days 9 machines produce 660 workpieces in 2nd application of 3 steps: 9 machines produce 660 workpieces in —-— days 9 machines produce 1 workpiece in
24 • 5 days 9 • 660
9 machines produce 312 workpieces in
24 5 • 312 —' — = 6.3 days 9 • 660
19
Mathematics: 1.4 Symbols, Units
Formula symbols, Mathematical symbols Formula symbols Formula symbol
Meaning
cf. DIN 1304-1 (1994-03) Formula symbol
Meaning
Formula symbol
Meaning
Length, Area, Volume, Angle /
w h s
Length Width Height Linear distance
r, R d,D A, S V
Radius Diameter Area, Cross-sectional area Volume
F F\n, IN M T Mb a X £ E
Force Gravitational force, Weight Torque Torsional moment Bending moment Normal stress Shear stress Normal strain Modulus of elasticity
Q A
Planar angle Solid angle Wave length
Mechanics m rri rri' Q J P Pabs Pamb Pg
Mass Linear mass density Area mass density Density Moment of inertia Pressure Absolute pressure Ambient pressure Gage pressure
G M,f W I W,E Wp,Ep Wk,Ek P
Shear modulus Coefficient of friction Section modulus Second moment of an area Work, Energy Potential energy Kinetic energy Power Efficiency
Time t T n
Time, Duration Cycle duration Revolution frequency, Speed
f,v V, u 0)
Frequency Velocity Angular velocity a
a 9 a V, qy
Acceleration Gravitational acceleration Angular acceleration Volumetric flow rate
X
Reactance Impedance Phase difference Number of turns
Electricity Q E C I
Electric charge, Quantity of electricity Electromotive force Capacitance Electric current
L R Q
Inductance Resistance Specific resistance Electrical conductivity
Q
Heat, Quantity of heat Thermal conductivity Heat transition coefficient Heat transmission coefficient
y,x
z
Heat Thermodynamic temperature AT, At, Ad Temperature difference Celsius temperature Coefficient of linear <*\,a expansion T,Q
A
a k
0,Q a c Hiet
Heat flow Thermal diffusivity Specific heat Net calorific value
/
Luminous intensity Radiant energy
Light, Electromagnetic radiation E
Illuminance
f n
Focal length Refractive index
LP I
Acoustic pressure level Sound intensity
Q, W
Acoustics P
c
Acoustic pressure Acoustic velocity
N Ln
Mathematical symbols Math, symbol
00
Spoken approx. equals, around, about equivalent to and so on, etc. infinity
cf. DIN 1302 (1999-12) Math, symbol a~n "f f
equal to not equal to is equal to by definition less than
Ix I
tt U
+
less than or equal to greater than greater than or equal to plus
Ax
I
minus times, multiplied by over, divided by, per, to sigma (summation)
*
def <
Loudness Loudness level
_L
VI A AL
< A
% %0
Spoken
Math, symbol
Spoken
proportional a to the n-th power, the n-th power of a square root of n-th root of
log ig In e
logarithm (general) common logarithm natural logarithm Euler number (e = 2.718281...)
absolute value of x perpendicular to is parallel to parallel in the same direction
sin cos tan cot
sine cosine tangent cotangent
parallel in the opposite direction angle triangle congruent to
(),[],{}
delta x (difference between two values) percent, of a hundred per mil, of a thousand
AB AB a', a" ava2
K
parentheses, brackets open and closed pi (circle constant = 3.14159...) line segment AB arc AB a prime, a double prime a sub 1, a sub 2
20
Mathematics: 1.4 Symbols, Units
SI quantities and units of measurement Sl 1) Base quantities and base units
cf. DIN 1301-1 (2002-10), -2 (1978-02), -3 (1979-10)
Base quantity
Length
Mass
Time
Electric current
Thermodynamic temperature
Amount of substance
Luminous intensity
Base units
meter
kilogram
second
ampere
kelvin
mole
candela
m
kg
s
A
K
mol
cd
Unit symbol 1)
The units for measurement are defined in the International System of Units SI (Systeme International d'Unites). It is based on the seven basic units (SI units), from which other units are derived.
Base quantities, derived quantities and their units Quantity
Unit Name Symbol
Symbol
Relationship
Remarks Examples of application
=10 dm = 100 cm = 1000 mm 1mm = 1000 (jm 1km = 1000 m
1 inch = 25.4 mm In aviation and nautical applications the following applies: 1 international nautical mile = 1852 m
Length, Area, Volume, Angle Length
Area
Volume
/
A S
1/
Plane angle (angle)
meter
m
1m
square meter
m2
1m2
are hectare
a ha
cubic meter
m3
liter
I, L
radian
rad
degrees
0
minutes seconds Solid angle
Symbol S only for cross-sectional = 10000 cm 2 areas = 1000000 mm 2 1a =100 m 2 1 ha = 100 a = 10000 m 2 Are and hectare only for land 100 ha = 1 km 2 1m3
= 1000 dm 3 = 1000000 cm 3 11 = 1 L = 1 dm 3 = 10 dl = Mostly for fluids and gases 0.001 m 3 1 ml = 1 cm 3
1 rad = 1 m/m = 57.2957...° 1 rad is the angle formed by the intersection of a circle around the center of = 180%t 1 m radius with an arc of 1 m length. 1° = rad = 60' In technical calculations instead of 180 a = 33° 17' 27.6", better use is a = 1' =1760 = 60" 33.291°. 1" = 1760 = 173600
Q
steradian
sr
1 sr
m
kilogram gram
g
kg
1kg 1g
megagram metric ton
Mg t
=1 m2/m2
An object whose extension measures 1 rad in one direction and perpendicularly to this also 1 rad, covers a solid angle of 1 sr.
Mechanics Mass
= 1000 g = 1000 mg
Mass in the sense of a scale result or a weight is a quantity of the type of mass (unit kg).
1 metric t = 1000 kg = 1 Mg Mass for precious stones in carat (ct). 0.2 g = 1 ct
Linear mass density
m'
kilogram per meter
kg/m
1 kg/m = 1 g/mm
For calculating the mass of bars, profiles, pipes.
Area mass density
m"
kilogram per square meter
kg/m 2
1 kg/m 2 = 0.1 g/cm 2
To calculate the mass of sheet metal.
Density
e
kilogram per cubic meter
kg/m 3
1000 kg/m 3 = 1 metric t/m 3 The density is a quantity independent of location. = 1 kg/dm 3 = 1 g/cm 3 = 1 g/ml = 1 mg/mm 3
21
Mathematics: 1.4 Symbols, Units
SI quantities and units of measurement I Quantities and Units (continued) Quantity
Unit Name
Symbol
Remarks Examples of application
Relationship
Symbol
I Mechanics Moment of inertia, 2nd Moment of mass
J
kilogram x square meter
kg • m 2 The following applies for a homogenous body: J =e - r 2 . V
Force
F
newton
N
newton x meter
N• m
Weight Torque Bending mom. Torsional
Fg,G M Mb T
The force 1 N effects a change in vel_iM_m_i J ocity of 1 m/s in 1 s in a 1 kg mass. s^ m 1 MN = 103 kN = 1000000 N 1 N - m is the moment that a force of 1 N effects with a lever arm of 1 m. s^
1N
Momentum
P
kilogram x meter per second
kg • m/s 1 kg • m/s = 1 N • s
Pressure
P
pascal
Pa
Pressure refers to the force per unit area. For gage pressure the symbol p g is used (DIN 1314). 1 bar = 14.5 psi (pounds per square inch )
1 m 4 = 100000000 cm 4
Previously: Geometrical moment of inertia
J
1 J = 1 N • m = 1 W- s = 1 kg • m 2 /s 2
Joule for all forms of energy, kW- h preferred for electrical energy.
Power describes the work which is 1 W = 1 J/s = 1 N • m/s = 1 V • A = 1 m 2 • kg/s3 achieved within a specific time.
O, T
newton per square millimeter
N/mm 2
Second moment of area
I
meter to the fourth power centimeter to the fourth power
m4
E, W joule
cm 4
P
watt
W
Time, Time span, Duration
t
seconds minutes hours day year
s min h d a
1 min = 60 s 1 h =60 min = 3600 s 1 d = 24 h = 86400 s
Frequency
f,v
hertz
Hz
1 Hz = 1/s
Power Heat flux
The momentum is the product of the mass times velocity. It has the direction of the velocity.
1 Pa = 1 N/m 2 = 0.01 mbar 1 bar = 100000 N/m 2 = 10 N/cm 2 = 105 Pa 1 mbar = 1 hPa 1 N/mm 2 = 10 bar = 1 MN/m 2 = 1 MPa 1 daN/cm 2 = 0.1 N/mm 2
Mechanical stress
Energy, Work, Quantity of heat
The moment of inertia (2nd moment of mass) is dependent upon the total mass of the body as well as its form and the position of the axis of rotation.
I Time
Rotational speed, Rotational frequency
n
Velocity
V
Angularvelocity Acceleration
CD
3,9
1 Hz = 1 cycle in 1 second.
1 per second
1/s
1 per minute
1/min
= 60/min = 60 m i n 1 1/min = 1 m i n - 1 = 7^— 60 s
meters per second meters per minute kilometers per hour 1 per second radians per second
m/s
1 m/s
m/m in
1 m/min =
meters per second squared
m/s 2
km/h 1/s rad/s
3 h means a time span (3 hrs.), 3 h means a point in time (3 o'clock). If points in time are written in mixed form, e.g. 3 h 2 4 m 1 0 s , the symbol min can be shortened to m.
1/s
= 60 m/min = 3.6 km/h 1
The number of revolutions per unit of time gives the revolution frequency, also called rpm. Nautical velocity in knots (kn): 1 kn = 1.852 km/h
m
miles per hour = 1 mile/h = 1 mph 1 mph = 1.60934 km/h
60s
1 km/h = 1™ 3.6 s a) = 2 tc • n
1m/s 2 = \ m / 1s
-1
s
For a rpm of n = 2/s the angular velocity a) = 4 JI/S. Symbol g only for acceleration due to gravity. g = 9.81 m/s 2 » 10 m/s 2
22
Mathematics: 1.4 Symbols, Units
SI quantities and units of measurement Quantities and units (continued) Unit Name
Symbol
Quantity
Symbol
Remarks Examples of application
Relationship
Electricity and Magnetism Electric current Electromotive force Electrical resistance Electrical conductance Specific resistance Conductivity
I E
ampere volt
A V
1 V = 1 W/1 A = 1 J/C
R
ohm
Q
1 Q = 1 V/1 A
G
siemens
S
1 S = 1 A/1 V = 1/Q
e
ohm x meter siemens per meter
Q • m 10"6 Q • m = 1 Q • mm 2 /m
Y,
*
The movement of an electrical charge is called current. The electromotive force is equal to the potential difference between two points in an electric field. The reciprocal of the electrical resistance is called the electrical conductivity.
Q =
1 . Q • mm 2 — in x
S/m
m
1 . = — in
m
Q • mm 2 Frequency of public electric utility: EU 50 Hz, USA/Canada 60 Hz x
Q
Frequency
f
hertz
Hz
1 Hz = 1/s 1000 Hz = 1 kHz
Electrical energy
W
joule
J
1J = 1 W • s = 1 N • m In atomic and nuclear physics the unit 1 kW • h = 3.6 MJ eV (electron volt) is used. 1 W • h = 3.6 kJ
Phase difference
for alternating current: C 0 S ( p =
The angle between current and voltage in inductive or capacitive load.
ih
Elect, field strength Elect, charge Elect, capacitance inductance
E Q C L
volts per meter coulomb farad henry
V/m C F H
Power Effective power
P
watt
W
1 W = 1 J/s = 1 N • m/s = 1 V-A
In electrical power engineering: Apparent power S in V • A
K
OK = -273.15°C
degrees Celsius
°C
0°C =273.15 K 0°C = 32 °F 0°F = -17.77 °C
Kelvin (K) and degrees Celsius (°C) are used for temperatures and temperature differences. t= T- T0; T0 = 273.15 K degrees Fahrenheit (°F): 1.8 °F = 1 °C
joule
J
1J = 1 W • s = 1 N • m 1 kcal s 4.1868 kJ 1 kW-h = 3600000 J = 3.6 MJ
joule per kilogram Joule per cubic meter
J/kg
1 MJ/kg = 1000000 J/kg
J/m 3
1 M J / m 3 = 1000000 J/m 3
1 C = 1 A • 1 s; 1 A • h = 3.6 kC 1 F = 1 C/V 1 H = 1 V • s/A
Q
=
Q=1 • t
U
Thermodynamics and Heat transfer Thermodynamic temperature Celsius temperature
T,e kelvin
Q
Quantity of heat Net calorific value
Kiet
Thermal energy released per kg fuel minus the heat of vaporization of the water vapor contained in the exhaust gases.
Non-SI units Length
Area
1 inch = 25.4 mm 1 foot = 0.3048 m 1 yard = 0.9144 m 1 nautical mile = 1.852 km 1 mile = 1.609 km
Volume 2
Mass
1 sq.in = 6.452 cm 1 cu.in 1 sq.ft = 9.29 dm 2 1 cu.ft 1 sq.yd = 0.8361 m 2 1 cu.yd 1 US gallon 1 Imp. gallon Pressure 1 barrel 1 bar = 14.5 psi
=16.39 = 28.32 = 764.6 = 3.785 = 4.536 =158.8
3
cm dm 3 dm 3 dm 3 dm 3 dm 3
Energy, Power
1 oz 1 lb 1 metric t 1 short ton 1 carat
= 28.35 g = 453.6 g = 1000 kg = 907.2 kg = 0.2 g
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
PSh PS kcal kcal kpm/s Btu hp
= 0.735 kWh = 735 W = 4186.8 Ws = 1.166 Wh = 9.807 W = 1055 Ws = 745.7 W
Prefixes of decimal factors and multiples Prefix
pico
nano
micro
milli
centi
deci
deca
hecto
kilo
mega
giga
tera
P
n
M 10-6
m
c
d
da
h
k
M
G
T
Prefix symbol Power of ten
1 0
- 1 2
10-
9
10"
3
10"
2
io-
1
Factor 3
1 mm = 10" m = 1/1000 m,
1 km = 1000 m,
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
6
10
9
10 12
Multiple 1 kg = 1000 g,
1 GB (Gigabyte) = 1000000000 bytes
Mathematics: 1.
23
en
Calculations in a right triangle The Pythagorean Theorem In a right triangle the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the two sides. Square of the hypotenuse
a b
side side
c
hypotenuse
c 2 = a2 + b2
1st example: c = 35 mm; a = 21 mm; b = ? 2
b = >/c -a
2
2
2
= 7(35 mm) -(21 mm) = 28 mm
Length of the hypotenuse c = \la2
+b2
2nd example: CNC program with R= 50 mm and 1= 25 mm. K=? c2 =a2+b2 2 2 R = I + K2 K = Vfl 2 - 1 2 = V502 mm 2 - 25 2 mm 2 K = 43.3 mm
P2
X
£
Length of the sides
a = yjc2
-b2
\lc2
-a2
b =
3
Euclidean Theorem (Theorem of sides) The square over one side is equal in area to a rectangle formed by the hypotenuse and the adjacent hypotenuse segment. sides
c
hypotenuse
Square over the side
p, q hypotenuse segments
b2
Example:
a2 = c • p
= c• q
a
b/ f
a, b
q
A rectangle with c = 6 cm and p = 3 cm should be changed into a square with the same area.
c C'P
c-q
How long is the side of the square a? a2 = c • p a = yjc • p = V6cm -3 cm = 4.24 cm
Pythagorean theorem of height The square of height h is equal in area to the rectangle of the hypotenuse sections p and q. h height p, q hypotenuse sections
/ /
h
Example:
q P p.q
P
Right triangle p = 6 cm; q = 2 cm; h = ? h2 = p • q h = Vp • Q = 76 cm • 2 cm = Vl2 cm 2 = 3.46 cm
Square of the height h2 = p • q
24
Mathematics: 1.
n t s
Division of lengths. Arc length. Composite length Sub-dividing lengths Edge distance = spacing P
- A i
P
P
P
M
P
n number of holes
Spacing
P=
Example:
n +1
1 = 2 m; n = 24 holes; p = ? / 2000 mm = 80 mm P = n +1 24+1
Edge distance ^ spacing P
I total length p spacing
P
/ total length p spacing
n number of holes a, b edge distances
P
Spacing P =
Example:
eeeee
l-(a + b) n-1
/ = 1950 mm; a = 100 mm; b = 50 mm; n = 25 holes; p = ? p=
Subdividing into pieces
l-(a + b) 1950 mm -150 mm — 1: n-1 :— = 25-
_ 75 mm
/ bar length s saw cutting width z number of pieces / r remaining length / s piece length
/ Ir
Number of pieces
Example: / = 6000mm; l s = 230 mm; s = 1.2 mm; z = ?; / r = ? z =
/ 6000 mm _ _ . = = 25.95 = 25 pieces / s + s 230 m m + 1.2 mm
Remaining length
| /r = / - z - ( /
s
l r = l - z • (/s + s) = 6000 m m - 2 5 • (230 mm + 1.2 mm) = 220 mm
Arc length Example: Torsion spring
a angle at center d diameter
l a arc length r radius
Arc length
Example: r = 36 mm; a = 120°; L = ? n-r-a x- 36 mm -120°
'a =
180°
180°
= 75.36 mm
Composite length D dm /•i, l 2 a
outside diameter mean diameter section lengths angle at center
d inside diameter t thickness L composite length
Example (composite length, picture left): D = 360 mm; t = 5 mm; a = 270°; 12 = 70 mm; dm = ?;L = ? dm= D-t L
+
=360 mm - 5 mm = 355 mm =
+ /o
360 ji • 355 mm • 270°+ 70 mm = 906.45 mm 360°
Composite length L = lA
+ l 2 + ...
~
25
Mathematics: 1.5 Lengths
Effective length, Spring wire length. Rough length Effective lengths Circular ring
D d
dm t
I a
outside diameter inside diameter mean diameter thickness effective length angle at center
Effective length of a circular ring
/=n•d m Effective length of a circular ring sector l =
j i - d
- a
m
360° Circular ring sector
Example (circular ring sector):
I
D = 36 mm; t = 4 mm; a = 240°; dm = 1)1 = 1 d m = D - f = 36 mm - 4 mm = 32 mm 7x-dm-a jt-32 mm -240° / =— — = = 67.02 mm 360° 360c
Mean diameter drn
=
dm
=
D
t d+t
Spring wire length Example: Compression spring
/ effective length of the helix D m mean coil diameter / number of active coils
Effective length of the helix
I = JT • D • / 2 • n • D, m M
(1 + 2)
1=71- Dm.
Example:
+
D m = 16 mm; /'= 8.5; / = ?
D,
I = ji • D m • /' + 2 • it • D m = 71-16 mm • 8.5 + 2 • Jt • 16 mm = 528 mm
Rough length of forged parts and pressed parts When forming without scaling loss the volume of the rough part is the same as the volume of the finished part. If there is scaling loss or burr formation, this is compensated by a factor that is applied to the volume of the finished piece. Va volume of the rough part volume of the finished part addition factor for scaling loss or loss due to burrs cross-sectional area of the rough part cross-sectional area of the finished part initial length of the addition length of the solid forged part Example: A cylindrical peg d = 24 mm and I2 = 60 mm is pressed onto a flat steel workpiece 50 x 30 mm. The scaling loss is 10 %. What is the initial length ^ of the forged addition?
scaling loss Av I, = A 2
'1 =
(1 + q) • / 2 - f l + g)
• / 2 - d + g) A
jt • (24 mm)2 60 mm • (1 +0.1) = 20 mm 4 • 50 mm • 30 mm
Volume without scaling loss
Va-Ve Volume with scaling loss
Va=Ve
+
va=ve
(1 +
A| • /<| =^2 •
q q) • H + q)
26
Mathematics: 1.
s
Angular areas Square d
A area
/ /
/ / '
I —
length of diagonal
Area
length of side
A = l2
Example:
/ '
Length of diagonal
/ = 14 mm; A = 7; d=? A =l2 = (14 mm) 2 = 196 mm 2 d = / 2 • / = {2 • 14 mm = 19.8 mm
/t
d=fZ
•/
Rhombus (lozenge) A /
area length of side
Area
w width
A=l •w
Example: / = 9 mm; w= 8.5 mm; A = ? A = I • w= 9 mm • 8.5 mm = 76.5 mm 2
Rectangle A I
w width d length of diagonal
area length
Area
A=I •w
Example: Length of diagonal
/ = 12 mm; w = 11 mm; A = ?; d=? A =1- w = 12 mm • 11 mm = 132 mm 2 2
2
2
d = v / + w = V(12 mm) + (11 mm) = 16.28 mm
I
2
\~l~7i
+ w2
2
Rhomboid (parallelogram) A /
area length
Area
w width
A=I •w
Example: / = 36 mm; w= 15 mm; A = ?
/
A =1 -w= 36 mm • 15 mm = 540 mm 2
Trapezoid A /•I l2
area longer length shorter length
/ m average length w width
Area >1
Example: /-i = 23 mm; l2 = 20 mm; w= 17 mm; A = 7 A.b±k
23 mm + 20 mm w=
1
+ /
'm
• 17 mm
Triangle w width
Example: ly = 62 mm; w = 29 mm; A = ? U-w 62 mm • 29 mm „ „ „ _ M A=J = 899 mm 2 2 2
2
•w
Average length
= 365.5 mm 2
>4 area I length of side
Z
A = -—2
Area
;
1 +
2
/
2
Mathematics: 1.
27
rea
Triangle, Polygon, Circle Equilateral triangle A d / h D
area diameter of inscribed circle length of side height diameter of circumscribed circle Example: I = 42 mm; A = 7;
Diameter of circumscribed circle
Area
D = — • yj3 • I = 2- d 3 Diameter of inscribed circle
A =--V3-/2=-V3-(42mm)2 4 4 - 763.9 mm 2
4
Triangle height
3
2
2
Regular polygons Diameter of area inscribed circle length of side diameter of circumscribed d = ^D2-12 circle diameter of inscribed circle Diameter of no. of vertices circumscribed circle angle at center vertex angle
A / D d n a
Example:
Area
>4 =
n-l-d
Length of side
Angle at center
Hexagon with D = 80 mm; / = ?; d = ?; A = 7 / = D • sin
f180° ^
a=
(180° ^ = 80mm-sin^ —— J = 40 mm
360c n
Corner angle
d
= V D
2
- /
2
=
A/6400 m m 2 -1600 mm 2 - 69.282 mm
„ n - l - d 6 • 40 mm • 69.282 mm , >4 = — - — = 4156.92 mm 2
P=
180°-a
Calculation of regular polygon using table values No. of Vertices n
0.325 • D2 0.500 • D2
10 12
Diameter of circumscribed circle D «
Area A «
0.595 0.649 0.707 0.735 0.750
2 1.299 d 2 1.000 d
0.433 • I 2
D2 0.908 d2
1.721 • / 2 2.598 • I 2 4.828 • I 2 7.694 • / 2 11.196-1 2
2
D • D2 • D2 • D2
0.866
2
d 0.829 • d2 0.812 • d2 0.804 • d2
1.000 - I 2
1.154 1.414 1.702
Diameter of inscribed circle d
Length of side I «
2.000 1.414
0.578 • / 1.000 /
0.500 0.707
0.867 0.707
1.732 1.000
1.236 1.155 1.082 1.052 1.035
1.376 1.732 2.414 3.078 3.732
0.809
0.588 0.500 0.383 0.309 0.259
0.727 0.577 0.414 0.325 0.268
2.000
2.614 3.236 3.864
Example: Octagon with / = 20 mm A = ?; D = ? A * 4.828 • I 2 = 4.828 • (20 mm) 2 = 1931.2 mm 2 ;
/ •/ •/ •I •/
0.866
0.924 0.951 0.966
D « 2.614 • / = 2.614 • 20 mm = 52.28 mm
Circle A d
area diameter
C
circumference
Area
Example: d = 60 mm; A = ?; C = ? . ji-d2 A= 4 C = JI • d =
JT • (60 mm) 2 = 2827 mm 2 4 • 60 mm = 188.5 mm
Circumference
C=K- d
28
Mathematics: 1.
s
Circular sector, Circular segment. Circular ring. Ellipse Circular sector A d la
area diameter arc length
/ r a
chord length radius angle at center
Area
Example: d= 48 mm; a = 110°; la = ?;A = ? , n-r-a JI- 24 mm -110° L = = = 46.1 mm 180°
„ L •r A = Ji—= 2
180°
46.1 mm-24 mm _ - = 553 mm 2 2
Circular segment Circular segment with a < 180c
A area d diameter / a arc length / chord length Example:
w width of segment r radius a angle at center
r = 30 mm; a = 120°; / = ?; w=?;A
Area
=?
. a 0 . 120° / =2-r-sin- = 2-30mm-sin = 51.96 mm 2
2
/ a 51.96 mm 120° ^ ^ w = - - t a2 n - = tan 14.999 mm = 15 mm ji-d 4 a l-(r-w) 2 4 A =2 ""4~ 360° 2 2 n • (60 mm) 1203 _ 51.96 mm • (30 mm - 15 mm) Height of segment 4 360° 2 I a = 552.8 mm2 w = - •tan— Radius
2
Arc length w
I2
L
r = —+
2
JI
• r-a
w = r-
=
180°
8-w
4
I * - * -
V
4
Circular ring A
area
D
outside diameter
d m mean diameter
d
inside diameter
w
Area
A = n-dm • w
width
Example:
A = -- (D2 - d2) 4
D= 160 mm; d= 125 mm; A = ? A = - • (D2 - d2) = - • (1602 mm 2 -125 2 mm 2 ) 4 4 2 = 7834 mm
Ellipse A area D length Example:
d C
diameter Circumference
D = 65 mm; d = 20 mm; A = ? D
. n-D d n • 65mm• 20mm A= = 4 4 = 1021 mm 2
Area
Jt D-d Circumference
D+d C «Jt •
29
Mathematics: 1.7 Volume and Surface area
Cube, Square prism, Cylinder, Hollow cylinder. Pyramid Cube /
V volume >4S surface area
/
JL_
Volume
length of side
V=l3
Example: 1 = 20 mm; V=?;AS
Surface area
=?
As = 6 • I2
V = / 3 = (20 mm) 3 = 8000 mm 3 As = 6 • I 2 = 6 • (20 mm) 2 = 2400 mm 2
Square prism V volume As surface area / length of side
Volume
h height w width
V= I • w • h Surface area
Example:
/ = 6 cm; w=3 cm; h = 2 cm; l / = ? V= I • w • h = 6 cm • 3 cm • 2 cm = 36 cm 3
Ar = 2 • [I • w + I • h + w • h)
Cylinder V volume d diameter As surface area h height Ac cylindrical surface area
Volume
Example:
Surface area
d= 14 mm; h = 25 mm; V= ?
jt-(14mm) 2
TC-d2 = Ji • d • /l + 2 • Cylindrical surface area
•25 mm
Ac = J I • d • h
= 3848 mm 3
Hollow cylinder V volume As surface area
D, d diameter h height
Volume
Example: D = 42 mm; d = 20 mm; h = 80 mm; V=? V= — -(D2-d2) 4 re • 80 mm ( J _ 0 0 0. = (422 mm 2 - 2 0 2 mm 2 ) 4 = 85703 mm 3
Surface area
A; = n-(D + d)
-•(D-d)
+h
2
Pyramid V volume h height hs slant height
/ length of base li edge length w width of base
Volume v =
Edge length
Example: / = 1 6 m m ; w = 2 1 mm;/? = 45 mm; V= ? V =
l-w-h
l-w-h 3
hs 2
16 mm • 21 mm • 45 mm
= 5040 mm 3
+
^
4
Slant height
, 2 I2 s=y h h— 4
h
30
Mathematics: 1.7 Volume and Surface area
Truncated pyramid. Cone, Truncated cone, Sphere, Spherical segment Truncated pyramid V volume ly,l2 lengths of base
>4i area of base surface A2 top surface
hs slant height h height w 1( w2 widths
Volume
Example: /•i = 40 mm; l 2 = 22 mm; w-\ = 28 mm; w2 = 15 mm; h = 50 mm; V=? Slant height 3 50 mm
• (1120 + 330 + 71120-330) m m 2
= 34299 mm
h
s
=Jh2+l
1
'-'
2
3
Cone V Ac d
volume conical surface area diameter
height slant height
Volume
V=
n-d2
h
Conical surface area
Example:
=n-d-hs
A
d = 52 mm; h = 110 mm; V= ? 2
V =
Ti-d h 4 *3 ^•(52 mm) 2 110 mm
Slant height
"s=JT
= 77870 mm 3
+
"2
Truncated cone V Ac D
volume conical surface area diameter of base
diameter of top height slant height
Volume
.(D2+d2+D-d)
V =— 12
Conical surface area
Example: D = 100 mm; d= 62 mm; h = 80 mm; V= ? 2
2
V = --(D +d 12 tt • 80 mm 12
Ac=K'h*.
(D + d)
c 2 Slant height
+ Dd) 0
(1002 + 62 2 +100 • 62) mm 2
2
= \jh
hs
= 419800 mm 3
m
+j
i2
Sphere V As
volume surface area
d
diameter of sphere
Volume
Example: d =9 mm; V=? y_Tc-d3
jt-(9mm) 3
Surface area = 382 mm 3
A, = Jt • d2
Spherical segment V volume A\ lateral surface area A s surface area Example:
d h
= 226 mm 3
I
2
Volume
[
V = ii-h2- d_h 2
3
Surface area
d = 8 mm; h = 6 mm; V= ? o? ? ( 8 mm = it • 6 Z m m z •
diameter of sphere height
6 mm 3
I As = 7i • h • (2 • d - h) Lateral surface area
[
A\ = k • d • h
Mathematics: 1.
31
a
Volumes of composite solids, Calculation of mass Volumes of composite solids V total volume V-\, V2 partial volumes
Total volume V= V, +
V2+...-V3-Vt
Example: Tapered sleeve; D = 42 mm; d= 26 mm; d-i = 16 mm; h = 45 mm; V= ? tt =
7 ±J±.(D*+d2+Dd) 12 jt • 45 mm ( J _ 0 __0 t n 0 (422 + 262 + 42 • 26) mm 2
12
..
= 41610 mm 3 JI -DF
Vj =
,
JI-16 2 m m 2
—•h
,
45 mm = 9048 m m J
2 4 4 V = Vy-V2 = 41610mm 3 -9048 mm 3 = 32562mm 3
Calculation of mass Mass, general m V
q
mass volume
density
Mass m = V •q
Example: Workpiece made of aluminum; V= 6.4 dm 3 ; e = 2.7 kg/dm 3 ; m = ?
Values for density of solids, liquids and gases: pages 116 and 117
kg m = V • g = 6A dm 3 • 2.7 3 dm = 17.28 kg
Linear mass density m mass / m' linear mass density
length
Linear mass density m=
m' • I
Example: Steel bar with d = 15 mm; m' = 1.39 kg/m; / = 3.86 m; m = ? ka = r 39 — -3.86m m = m'.l
m
Application: Calculating the mass of profile sections, pipes, wires, etc. using the table values for m'
= 5.37 kg Area mass density m mass A area m" area mass density
Area mass density
m= m" • A
Example:
/
<
Steel sheet f =1.5 mm; m" = 11.8 kg/m 2 ; A = 7.5 m 2 ; m = ? m = m"->4 = 11.8 ^ -2- 7 . 5 m 2
m
- 88.5 kg
Application: Calculating the mass of sheet metal, foils, coatings, etc using the table values for m"
32
Mathematics: 1.
n t s
Centroids of Lines and Plane Areas
Table of Contents
33
2 Physics 30
m 20 10
2.1
A/JI L// J A
Motion Uniform and accelerated motion Speeds of machines
34 35
Forces Adding and resolving force vectors Weight, Spring force Lever principle, Bearing forces Torques, Centrifugal force
36 36 37 37
Work, Power, Efficiency Mechanical work Simple machines Power and Efficiency
38 39 40
Friction Friction force Coefficients of friction Friction in bearings
41 41 41
Pressure in liquids and gases Pressure, definition and types Buoyancy Pressure changes in gases
42 42 42
Strength of materials Load cases, Load types Safety factors, Mechanical strength properties .. Tension, Compression, Surface pressure Shear, Buckling Bending, Torsion Shape factors in strength Static moment, Section modulus, Moment of inertia . Comparison of various cross-sectional shapes ..
43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
Thermodynamics Temperatures, Linear expansion, Shrinkage Quantity of heat Heat flux, Heat of combustion
51 51 52
Electricity Ohm's Law, Conductor resistance Resistor circuits Types of current Electrical work and power
53 54 55 56
0 1
2 time t
3
4 s 5 •
2.2
7><7i
2.3
F = Fr
2.4
Fu fR
'
1 E 2.5
^
^
P
—
L
2.6
2.7
/1
A/
2.8
©
34
Physics: 2.1 Motion
Uniform motion and uniformly accelerated motion Uniform motion Linear motion Displacement-time diagram
30
1m 1 20
to 1 cz 10 QJ E ai CJ u "a. 0( XJ
h j t
>
v t
velocity time
s
displacement
S V = —
t Example:
/
v = 4 8 km/h; s = 12 m; t= ? _ km 48000 m „ 0 0 0 m Conversion: 48 — = • = 13.33 — h 3600 s s 12m t=* = = 0.9 s v 13.33 m/s
vl*
1 2 time t
Velocity
3 —
4 s 5
-m m o c km 1— =60 =3.6 — s min h 1k m ic cc-7 m 1 — = 16.667 h min = 0.2778 — s
Circular motion v
circumferential velocity, cutting speed
a) angular velocity
r
n
rotational speed radius
d
diameter
Circumferential velocity ji • d • n
Example: Pulley, d = 250 mm; n= 1400 m i n - 1 ; v = ?; a) = ? 1400 Conversion: n = 1400 min - 1 = = 23.33 S"1 60s v
m— =ji . d • n = n • 0.25 m • 23.33 S"1 = 18.3
to =2 • x • n = 2 it -23.33s~1 -146.6 s" 1 For a cutting speed of a circumferential velocity see page 35.
V = co • r
Angular velocity
i
... 2 • ii 1
•
• n
i
1
= min-1 =
min
60 s
Uniformly accelerated motion Linear accelerated motion Velocity-time diagram
tl *
4
^
/
t M n i—a = 3 -.2 / s
The increase in velocity per second is called acceleration; and a decrease is deceleration. Free fall is uniformly accelerated motion on which gravitational acceleration g is acting.
\ \V
v
t^r-
V 2 time t
3
4 s 5
1st example:
Terminal or initial velocity V =••a-t V = ^'2-a-s
Object, free fall from s = 3 m; v= ?
Displacement-time diagram
\
s a
terminal velocity (acceleration), or initial velocity (deceleration) displacement t time acceleration g gravitational acceleration
The following applies to acceleration from rest or deceleration to rest:
12
m a = g = 9.81 — s2 2 V = V2 • a • s = yjl • 9.81 m/s • 3 m = 7.7 — s
Displacement due to acceleration/ deceleration
1 2
2nd example:
m
1 2 time t
3
Vehicle, v= 80 km/h; a = 7 m/s 2 ; Braking distance s = ? __ km 80000 m „ „ „ „ m Conversion: v = 80 — = = 22.22 — h 3600 s s v =V22 • a • s v (22.22 m/s)2 o c , s = =— - r - = 35.3 m 2 a 2 - 7 m/s 2
1 S =
•f 2
3
2 V2
s =
•f
2 a
Physics: 2.1 Motion
Speeds of machines Feed rate Feed rate for drilling, turning
Vf feed rate n rotational speed
Turning
Milling
f
feed
fx N P
feed per cutting edge number of cutting edges, or number of teeth on the pinion thread pitch
p
pitch of rack and pinion
Vf = n • f
Feed rate for milling
1st example: Cylindrical milling cutter, z= 8; ft = 0.2 mm; n = 45/min; v f = ? • 0.2 mm • 8 = 72 — v . =rr t • N = 45 — min min
Screw drive
2nd example: Feed drive with threaded spindle, P = 5 mm; n = 112/min; v f = ? __ . 1 n . mm v< — n • P — 112 5 mm = 560 min min
Threaded spindle with pitch P Rack and pinion
vf = n • ft • N
Feed rate for screw drive = n -P
3rd example: Feed of rack and pinion, n = 80/min; d = 75 mm; v f = ? 1 Vf = Ji • d • n = ji • 75 mm • 80 min m = 18850 =18.85 min min
Feed rate for rack and pinion Vf = n • N- P
Vf = 71 • 'd • n
Cutting speed, Circumferential velocity Cutting speed
vc cutting speed v circumferential velocity d n
Cutting speed
diameter rotational speed
vc = n • d
n
Example: Turning, n = 1200/min; d= 35 mm; vc = ? 1 vc = n-d • n = it • 0.035 m • 1200 min = 132 m min
Circumferential velocity
Circumferential velocity v= it • d • n
Average speed of crank mechanism va average speed n number of double strokes s stroke length Example: Power hacksaw, s = 280 mm; n = 45/min; va = ? 1
va = 2 - s • n= 2 - 0.28 m • 45 min = 25.2 m min
Average speed Va = 2 • S • n
36
Physics: 2.
o
Types of forces Adding and resolving forces Chosen for the following examples /ty = 10
Fy, F2 component forces Fr resultant force
/
vector magnitude (length)
Vector magnitude
/=
s c a l e o f f o r c e s Representing forces Forces are represented by vectors. The length / of the vector corresponds to the magnitude of the force F.
Adding collinear forces acting in the same direction
F: Fr
Sum
Example: F 1 = 80N; F 2 = 1 6 0 N ; Fr = ? Fx = ^ + F2 = 80 N + 160 N = 240 N
Fr=F1
Subtracting collinear forces acting in opposite directions
Addition and resolution of forces whose lines of action intersect
Addition
Example of graphical addition: v-11fto c ^ = 120 N; F 2 = 170 N; y = 118°; M f = 10 N/mm; F r = ?; measured: / = 25 mm F r = / • /V7f = 25 mm • 10 N/mm = 250 N Resolution Example of graphical resolution: F r = 260 N; a = 90°; £=15°; M f = 10 N/mm; Ft = ?; F 2 = ?; measured: /t = 7 mm; l 2 = 27 mm Ft = /t • /Wf = 7 mm • 10 N/mm = 70 N F 2 = / 2 • M f = 27 mm • 10 N/mm = 270 N
+
F2
Difference
Example: F 1 = 240 N; F 2 = 90 N; F r = ? Fr = ^ - F 2 = 240 N - 90 N = 150 N
Fr
X V
M<
Fr=F,-F2
Solving a force diagram by adding or resolving (force vectors) Shape of the force diagram
Required trigonometric function
Force diagram sine, with right cosine, angles tangent Force diagram Law of sines, with oblique Law of angles cosines
Forces of acceleration and deceleration A force is required to accelerate or decelerate a mass. F acceleration force a acceleration m mass Example: m = 50 kg; a = 3m —; s2
F=?
Acceleration force F= m • a 4 H• 4 1 m 1 N = 1 kg • —
F = m • a = 50 k g • 3 ^ = 150 k g • ^ = 150 N s2 s2
Weight
m =1kg
r
Gravity generates a weight force on a mass. Fw weight g gravitational m mass acceleration Example: I-beam, m = 1200 kg; Fw = ?
' F w = 9,81 N
F w = m • g = 1200 kg • 9.81 ^ = 11772 N
Weight |
Fw=
m ~
~ rn „ „ m <7 = 9.81—r«10—r-2 s2 s Calculation page 31
of
mass:
Spring force (Hooke's law) The force and corresponding linear expansion of a spring are proportional within the elastic range. F spring force s spring displacement R spring constant
Spring force F = R • S
Example: Compression spring, R = 8 N/mm; s = 12 mm; F = ? 0 10 20 mm 40 spring displacement s
F = R • s= 8 — • 12 mm = 96 N mm
Change in spring force
AF= /?• As
Physics: 2.
37
orce
Torque, Levers, Centrifugal force Torque and levers Single-ended lever
The effective lever arm is the right angle distance Moment between the fulcrum and the line of application of M= F • I the force. For disk shaped rotating parts the lever arm corresponds to the radius r. M moment F force Lever principle / effective lever arm 2M\ sum of all counter-clockwise moments DM, = l M r lMr sum of all clockwise moments Example: Angle lever, Fy = 30 N; l<\ = 0.15 m; l 2 = 0.45 m; F2 = ? F,-/-, 30 N -0.15 m = 10 N F,= 0.45 m U
Lever principle with only 2 applied forces F,-h
=
F2- l:
Bearing forces Example of bearing forces
A bearing point is treated as a fulcrum in calculating bearing forces. F A , Fb bearing forces /, / l f l2 effective F 1 f F2 forces lever arms
Lever principle |
2My = !Mr
Example:
TF
Overhead travelling crane, F| = 40 kN; F2 = 15 kN; /•, = 6 m; l 2 = 8 m; / = 12 m; F A = ? Solution: B is selected as fulcrum point; the bearing force F A is assumed on a singleended lever. Ft • A, +F2 • I2 40 kN • 6 m + 15 kN • 8 m FA = = 30 kN I 12 m
Bearing force at A
Torque in gear drives The lever arm of a gear is half of its reference diame- Torques ter d. Different torques result if two engaging gears Ft1 di do not have the same number of teeth. M-| = 2 Driven gear Driving gear F t 1 tangential force F t 2 tangential force Ft2-d2 M1 torque M 2 torque m2 = di reference diameter d2 reference diameter 2 Zy number of teeth z2 number of teeth n-1 rotational speed n2 rotational speed m2 =•• i- M<\ / gear ratio
m2
=
m2
=
£2
Example: Gears, /'= 12; M^ = 60 N • m; M2 = ? M2 = /• M-i = 12 • 60 N • m = 720 N • m
MI
m n2
For gear ratios for gear drives see page 259.
Centrifugal force Centrifugal force F c when a mass is made to move along a curvilinear path, e.g. a circle. Centrifugal force F c centrifugal force w angular velocity m mass v circumferential velocity Fr= m • r • o): r radius Example:
m • v' Fc =
Turbine blade, m = 160 g; v= 80 m/s; d = 400 mm; F c = ? c
r
0.16 kg • (80 m/sP = ^ 0.2 m
kg_m s2
=
38
Physics: 2.3 Work, Power, Efficiency
Work and Energy Mechanical work, lifting work and frictional work Work is performed when a force acts along a distance. F force in direction of travel W work Fw weight s force distance
Work
Fr Fn
Lifting work
friction force normal force
s, h height of lift /j coefficient of friction
1st example:
[
W= Fw • h
Frictional work
F= 300 N; s = 4 m; W = ? W= F- s=300 N - 4 m = 1200 N • m = 1200 J
Krl I •
W= F • s
F = FR FR
2nd example:
1J=1 N • 1 m kg • m 2 = 1W •s=1
Frictional work, F N = 0.8 kN; s = 1.2 m; /x = 0.4; W= ?
W= n • FN • s = 0.4 • 800 N • 1.2 m = 384 N • m = 384 J 1 kW • h = 3.6 MJ
Energie of position Energy of position
Wn
FG
Spring energy
Energie of position is stored work (energy of position, spring energy). E, Wp energy of position Fw weight F force
R spring constant s, h travel, lift or fall height, spring displacement
Example:
Energy of position |
Wp-fw-s'
Energy of the spring
Drop hammer, m = 30 kg; s = 2.6 m; Wp = ? m
W 0 = F W • s = 30 kg • 9.81 — • 2.6 m = 765 J
P
2
Kinetic energy Linear motion m
Rotational motion (rotation)
Kinetic E, l/l/k co J
energy is energy of motion. kinetic energy or work v velocity angular velocity m mass mass moment of inertia
Kinetic energy of linear motion
Example: Drop hammer, m = 30 kg; s = 2.6 m; W k = ? v = j2-g-s m,
m
'
= yj2-9.81 m/s 2 • 2.6 m = 7.14 m/s
v 2
30kg-(7.14m/s)2
W^ = ——— =
^
,
= /bo J
Kinetic energy of rotational motion l/K =
J-co2
Golden Rule of Mechanics "What is gained in force is lost in distance". W, Fy s^ Fw h
input work input force displacement of force Ft weight height of lift
W 2 output work F 2 output force s 2 displacement of force F 2 rj efficiency
Example: Lifting device, Fw = 5 kN; h = 2 m; F= 300 N; s = ? F w -/7 s=
5000 N • 2 m = 33.3 m 300 N
"Golden Rule" of Mechanics W<\
=
W2
^ • ST = F 2 . s2 FT • St = F\N • h Allowing for friction W2 ri
39
Physics: 2.3 Work, Power, Efficiency
Simple machines Movable pulley11
Fixed pulley1) F-\ = Fw
W
Fi = — c
a
s-i = h
St = 2 • h
i o) W2 =
Block and tackle
1
FSN-h
11
Fi~-F
wi
Inclined plane n
[
W2 = Fw • h
11
no. of load-bearing ropes, pulleys
a angle of inclination F2=Fvj Ft • ST = Fw • h
[ F 2 = Fw L . U
|
s<\ = n • h w2 =
Wedge 11 F2=FW
Bolt 11 P thread pitch / lever arm For 1 full turn
angle of inclination tan/3 incline
jy* 'Vi
iy xi ., i
q|K
[ |
I
Wo = Fo • h
w 2 = F2 • P
Gear winch 11
Hoisting winch 11 / d nD
crank length drum diameter number of turns of the drum Fi •/ =
fw-d
h = j i • d • Hp
l d /
crank length drum diameter gear ratio Fi • / •/ =
F^-d
/ =
F2 = F w W2 =
1)
St = 2 • jt • /
W i = Fi • 2 • j i • /
s 2 = s-i • tan/?
II
Fi • 2 • j i • / = Fo • P
FSN-h
W2 = F\m • h
The formulae apply to a hypothetical frictionless condition, wherein the output work 14/-! is equal to the input work W2.
40
Physics: 2.3 Work, Power, Efficiency
Power and Efficiency Power in linear motion Power
Power is work per unit time. P power s W
work
v
velocity
displacement in the force direction time
t
1st example: Forklift, F = 15 kN; v= 25 m/min; P= ? P = F v - 15000 N-
60s
= 6250
s
= 6250 W = 6.25 kW
2nd example: Crane lifts a machine, m = 1.2 t; s = 2.5 m; f = 4.5 s; P = ?
J 1 W =1 s N•m
Fw = m • g = 1200 kg • 9.81 m/s 2 = 11772 N filLf.11772N.Z5m P = t 4.5 s
=1
1 kW = 1.36 PS
For power in pumps and cylinders see page 371.
Power in circular motion P M F v
power torque tangential force velocity
s t n cu
displacement in the force direction time rotational speed angular velocity
Power F> =F- V P= F- 7i • d - n
Example: Belt drive, F= 1.2 kN; d= 200 mm; n = 2800/min; P= ?
P=
M •2-:rc
• n
P = F-n-d-n = 1.2 k N . * . 0 . 2 m - ^ = 3 5 . 2 ^ = 35.2 kW 60s s Numerical equation: Enter —> M in N • m, n in 1/min Result —> P in kW
P = M •w or: Power P =
For cutting power in machine tools see pages 299 and 300.
M-n
9550
Efficiency input power
output power PQ2 = P2
-ffl-
Efficiency refers to the ratio of power power or work input. Pi input power P2 Wi input work W2 rj total efficiency ?7i, rj2
or work output to the output power output work partial efficiencies
=
'1 n1 =
gearbox
motor
Efficiency
—
Example: Belt drive, Py = 4 kW; P 2= 3 kW;
12
«1 =
rj = rjvi72
P22 3 kW _ = = 0.75, Pi 4kW
T/o = 2
n ^
= 85%; rj = ?;rj2 = ? =
0.75
„ _ =0.88
0.85
Fotal efficiency 1 M7 = ^71 -V2-V3---
Efficiencies 7 (approximate values) Brown coal power station Coal power station Natural gas power station Gas turbine Steam turbine (high pressure) Water turbine Cogeneration
0.32 0.41 0.50 0.38 0.45 0.85 0.75
Gasoline engine Automobile diesel engine (partial load) Automobile diesel engine (full load) Large diesel engine (partial load) Large diesel engine (full load) Three phase AC motor Machine tools
0.27 0.24 0.40 0.33 0.55 0.85 0.75
Screw thread Pinion gear Worm gear,/'= 40 Friction drive Chain drive Wide V-belt drive Hydrostatic transmission
0.30 0.97 0.65 0.80 0.90 0.85 0.75
Physics: 2.
41
ricin
Types of friction. Coefficients of friction Friction force Static friction, sliding friction
IF*
i
'N •
Static friction, sliding friction Fn
The resulting friction force is dependent on the normal force F N and the Friction force for static • type of friction, i.e. static, sliding or rolling friction and sliding friction • frictional condition (lubrication condition): dry, mixed or viscous friction. Ff = ^ • F, N • surface roughness • material pairing (material combination) These effects are all incorporated into the experimentally determined coefficient of friction /z. Friction force Fn normal force f coefficient of rolling friction for rolling friction1' Fp friction force fi coefficient of friction r radius f • Ft N Fc = 1st example: Plain bearing, F N = 100 N; \x = 0.03; F F = ? /=p = M . F n = 0.03 • 100 N = 3 N
Rolling friction 2nd example: Crane wheel on steel rail, Fn = 45 kN; d = 320 mm; f = 0.5 mm; F F = ? f • F n 0.5 mm -45000 N Fc = = 140.6 N r 160 mm
1)
caused by elastic deformation between roller body and rolling surface
Coefficients of friction (guideline values) Material pairing
Example of application
steel/steel steel/cast iron steel/Cu-Sn alloy steel/Pb-Sn alloy
Coefficient of static friction /jl Coefficient of sliding friction n dry
lubricated
dry
vise guide machine guide shaft in solid plain bearing shaft in multilayer plain bearing
0.20
0.10
0.20
0.15
0.20
0.10 0.10
0.15 0.18 0.10 0.10
0.10-0.05 0.10-0.08 0.06-0.03 2 ' 0.05-0.03 2 '
steel/polyamide steel/PTFE steel/friction lining steel/wood
shaft in PA plain bearing low temperature bearing shoe brake part on an assembly stand
0.30 0.04
0.15 0.04 0.30
0.55
0.10
0.30 0.04 0.55 0.35
0.12-0.03 2 ' 0.04 2) 0.3-0.2 0.05
wood/wood cast iron/Cu-Sn alloy rubber/cast iron rolling element/steel
underlay blocks adjustment gib belts on a pulley anti-friction bearing3', guideway 3 '
0.50 0.28 0.50
0.20
0.30
0.10
0.16
0.20
0.20-0.10
2>
3)
0.15
0.60
lubricated
0.003-0.001
The significance of the material pairing decreases with increasing sliding speed and presence of mixed and viscous friction. Calculation performed in spite of rolling movement, because it is typically similar to calculations of static or sliding friction.
Coefficients of rolling friction (guideline values)41 Material pairing
Example of application
steel/steel plastic/concrete rubber/asphalt
steel wheel on a guide rail caster wheel on concrete floor car tires on the street
Coefficient of rolling friction f in mm 0.5 5 8
4)
Data on coefficients of rolling friction can vary considerably in technical literature.
Friction moment and friction power in bearings M FN
P
friction moment normal force friction power
coefficient of friction diameter rotational speed
Example: Steel shaft in a Cu-Sn plain bearing, /x = 0.05; F N = 6kN; d= 160 mm; M= ? FF = /Y-FN
M=
fx-FN-d
0.05 • 6000 N 0.16 m = 24 N m
Friction moment •d 2 Friction power d-n
42
Physics: 2.5 Pressure in liquids and gases
Types of pressure Pressure p F
^
Pressure
area
P =
Example:
^
5 2 1
A
pressure force
F= 2 MN; piston 0 d = 400 mm; p = ? F 2000000N ^ N P = ^r= — ^ — ^ = 1 5 9 1 — ? = 1 5 9 1 A JI • (40 cm) 2 cm 2
P
—
n
i
Units of pressure b a r
r For calculations on hydraulics and pneumatics see page 370.
1 Pa
= 1-^=0.00001 bar 2
1 bar
=10 ——r- = 0.1 ———r-
m
mm"
cm'
1 mbar = 100 Pa = 1 hPa
Gage pressure, air pressure, absolute pressure pe
gage pressure (excedens, excess) ' pressure (ambient, surroundings) absolute pressure
2
+1
bar
bar
Q.
pabs
i-
gj
O) m
(0 t0 _ o) a
1
air pressure
W qj > a>
0-L-1
Gage pressure
a r
Pamb
Pe ~ P a b s
The gage pressure is positive, if p a b s > p a m b and negative, if p a b s < p a m b (vacuum) Pamb =
Example:
~ Q- Ci.P a m b O) O) cu to 3 CO)t/3 -vacuum
1
Pamb
-013 bar « 1 bar
(standard air pressure)
Car tires, p e = 2.2 bar; p a m b = 1 bar; p a b s = ? Pabs = Pe
+ Pamb
= 2.2 bar + 1 bar = 3.2 bar
Hydrostatic pressure, buoyancy p e hydrostatic pressure, inherent pressure q density of the liquid g
F B buoyant force V displaced volume h depth of liquid
Hydrostatic pressure
I
Pe = 9- Q- h
gravitational acceleration IBuoyant force
^
V
-
-
Example:
I
density q pressure
m
p.= g e- /I =9.81 = 98100
kg
22
s
• 1000 —39 10 m m m
F* = 9 • e • V
_ _„ m m g = 9.81 - r »10-r-
= 98100 Pa « 1 bar
m • s"
For density values, see page 117.
Pressure changes in gases Condition 1
Compression condition 1
condition 2 Pabs 2 l/ 2 T2
Pabsi
h
Pabsi
7"i
Condition 2
absolute pressure volume absolute temperature
Pabs2
V2 T2
absolute pressure volume absolute temperature
y
dm3 5
T2
| Pabsi •
What is the pressure
constant volume
Pabs2 " 1 2 3 volume V
T-,
A compressor aspirates V^ = 30 m 3 of air at 1 Pabsi = bar and f-| = 15°C and compresses it to V2 = 3.5 m 3 and t2 = 150°C. pabS2?
Calculation of absolute temperatures (page 51): r n = f n + 273 = (15 + 273) K = 288 K T2 = t2 + 273 = (150 + 273) K = 423 K
>
P a b s 2 ' V2
Pabsi '
Special cases: constant temperature
Example:
Boyle's Law 5 bar i 4
Ideal gas law
Pabsi - V r
T2
TVV2 1 bar • 30 m 3 • 423 K = 12.6 bar 288 K • 3.5 m 3
= P a b s 2 •V2
Pabsi
Pabs2
T,
T2
constant pressure
T,
T2
Physics: 2.
r
43
o e r i
Load cases, Types of loading, Material properties, Stress limits Load cases static loading
dynamic loading pulsating
alternating
Load case II The load increases to a maximum value and then falls back to zero, e.g. for crane cables and springs.
Load case III The load alternates between a positive and a negative maximum value of equal magnitude, e.g. for rotating axles.
stationary
time
— •
Load case I Magnitude and direction of the load remain the same, e.g. for a weight load on columns.
Types of loading, material properties, stress limits Type of load
Tension
'///////<
Stress
tensile stress
Material properties Limit values Deformation Strength for plastic deformation tensile strength Rm
M Compression
compression stress Or
yield strength
elongation
Re
£
0.2%-yield point R,p0.2
elongation at fracture
compression strength
natural compression yield point
°cB
°cF
Y77777Z Bending
bending stress
bending strength
m .
tfb
ObB
compression set
0.2%-offset compressive yield strength failure £ OcO.2 cB bending deflection limit
Standard stress limits <7|;m for load case
II
III
material ductile brittle (steel) (cast iron) Rn Ra Rp0.2
pulsating tensile fatigue strength
alternating tensile fatigue strength
material ductile brittle (steel) (cast iron)
pulsating compression fatigue strength
°cB tfcO.2
bending limit
°t>F
^tpuls
alternating compression fatigue strength
^cpuls
pulsating bending fatigue strength a
alternating bending fatigue strength
bpuls
tfbA
pulsating torsional fatigue strength
alternating torsional fatigue strength
m Shear
shear stress
shear strength
shear strength T
sB
M
rSB
m
Torsion
torsional stress
torsional strength
torsional limit
*tF
1
angular deflection
torsional limit
*tF
tpuls
Mt Buckling
T
buckling stress
buckling strength
^bu
°buB
buckling strength
rtA
44
Physics: 2.6 Strength of Materials
Mechanical strength properties, Allowable stresses, Safety factors Mechanical strength properties in static and dynamic loading11 Type of load Load case Stress limit or Hm
Tension, Compression I
II
Rp0.2 °cF> °c0.2
Shear
III
Bending
I
I
^tpuls
tfbF
°cpuls
Torsion
II
III
I
° b puis
°bA
*tF
III
II T
tpuls
T
tA
Stress limit a|j m in N/mm 2
Material S235 S275 E295 E335 E360
235 275 295 335 365
235 275 295 335 365
150 180 210 250 300
290 340 390 470 550
330 380 410 470 510
290 350 410 470 510
170 200 240 280 330
140 160 170 190 210
140 160 170 190 210
120 140 150 160 190
C15 17Cr3 16MnCr5 20MnCr5 18CrNiMo7-6
440 510 635 735 835
440 510 635 735 835
330 390 430 480 550
600 800 880 940 960
610 710 890 1030 1170
610 670 740 920 1040
370 390 440 540 610
250 290 360 420 470
250 290 360 420 470
210 220 270 310 350
340 490 580 650 800 900 1050
340 490 580 630 710 760 870
220 280 325 370 410 450 510
400 560 680 720 800 880 1000
490 700 800 910 1120 1260 1470
410 520 600 670 750 820 930
240 310 350 390 440 480 550
245 350 400 455 560 630 735
245 350 480 455 510 560 640
165 210 240 270 330 330 375
GS-38 GS-45 GS-52 GS-60
200 230 260 300
200 230 260 300
160 185 210 240
300 360 420 480
260 300 340 390
260 300 340 390
150 180 210 240
115 135 150 175
115 135 150 175
90 105 120 140
EN-GJS-400 EN-GJS-500 EN-GJS-600 EN-GJS-700
250 300 360 400
240 270 330 355
140 155 190 205
400 500 600 700
350 420 500 560
345 380 470 520
220 240 270 300
200 240 290 320
195 225 275 305
115 130 160 175
C22E C45E C60E 46Cr2 41Cr4 50CrMo4 30CrNiMo8
1)
Values were determined using cylindrical samples having d < 16 mm with polished surface. They apply to structural steels in normalized condition; case hardened steels for achieving core strength after case hardening and grain refinement; heat treatable steels in tempered condition. The compression strength of cast iron with flake graphite is o c b « 4 • R m . Values according to DIN 18800 are to be used for structural steelwork.
Allowable stress for (pre-)sizing of machine parts For safety reasons parts may only be loaded with a portion of the stress limit <7|jm which will lead to permanent deformation, fracture or fatigue fracture. fallow allowable stress v safety factor (table below )
C7|jm stress limit depending on type of loading and load case
Allowable stress (preliminary design)
Example: What is the allowable tensile stress fallow for a hexagonal bolt ISO 4017 - M12 x 50 10.9, if a safety factor of 1.5 is required with static loading? N N a|im a „ m - / ? e - 1 0 . 9 . 1 0 - — - = 900 - ; a,f,allow = — mm' mm' v v
°allow
—
900 N/mm 2 N = 600 — 3 1.5 1.5 mm
For mechanical strength properties for bolts see page 211.
Safety factors v for (pre-)sizing machine parts Load case Type of material Safety factor v 1)
1 (static) ductile materials, e.g. steel 1.2-1.8
II and III (dynamic)
brittle materials, e.g. cast iron 2.0-4.0
ductile materials, e.g. steel 3-4 1 >
brittle materials, e.g. cast iron 3-61)
The high margins of safety in part sizing relative to the stress limits are intended to compensate for yet unknown strength-reducing effects due to part shape (for shape-related strength factors see page 48).
Physics: 2.
r
45
o e r i
Tensile stress, Compressive stress, Surface pressure Tensile stress The calculation of allowable stress only applies to static Tensile stress loading (Load case I). F 0[ tensile stress R e yield strength F tensile force Rm tensile strength S cross-sectional area v safety factor fallow allowable tensile stress F a n o w allowable tensile force Allowable tensile force Example: Round bar steel, <7t,allow = 1
3 0
N/mm 2
Allowable tensile stress
(S235JR, v = 1.8); Faiiow = 13.7 kN; d= ? s
13700N
= a
t , allow
130 N / m m
m m 2 2
for steel
° t , allow
Re
=
V
c =12 mm (according to table, page 10)
for For mechanical strength properties Re and R m see pages 130 cast iron to 138. For calculation of elastic elongation see page 190.
° t , allow
=
V
Compressive stress The calculation of allowable stress only applies to static loading (Load case I). compressive force tfcF compression yield point F ^aiiowallowable comp. force compressive stress cross-sectional area fallow allowable comp. stress S R m tensile strength v safety factor
Compressive stress
Allowable compressive force
Example: Rack made of EN-GJL-300; S= 2800 mm 2 ; = ? v = 2.5; F. allow Fallow
_
a
c, allow " ^
~
4-a •S
4-300N/mm 2 • 2800 mm 2 =1 344000 N 2.5 For mechanical strength properties see page 44 and pages 160-161
Allowable compressive stress for steel for cast iron
°"cF °c, allow
4-a °c, allow
Surface pressure A'l-b
F
force
p
surface pressure
contact surface, projected area
Example: Two metal sheets, each 8 mm thick, are joined with a bolt DIN 1445-1 Oh 11 x 16 x 30. How great a force may be applied given a maximum allowable surface pressure of 280 N/mm 2 ? N F = p. A = 280 • 8 mm • 10 mm mm' 22400 N
Surface pressure
Allowable surface pressure for joints with pins and bolts made of steel (standard values) Assembly type Load case Component material S235 E295 cast steel cast iron CuSn, CuZn alloy AlCuMg alloy For reference values for allowable
Sliding fit smooth Fit with notched piece Press fit smooth pin I I II II III I II III allowable surface pressure in N/mm 2 25 30 25 100 70 35 70 50 30 30 25 40 75 55 105 75 25 60 45 20 30 60 30 85 40 30 25 50 35 20 70 50 30 10 40 30 30 15 20 40 15 45 35 15 20 45 25 65 specific bearing load of various plain bearing materials see page 261.
bolt III 10 10 10 15 15 10
46
Physics: 2.6 Strength of Materials
Shear and buckling stress Shear stress Shear stress The loaded cross-section must not shear. rs shear stress Fallow allowable shear force
allow allowable shear stress S rsB
shear strength
cross-sectional area safety factor
v
Example:
Allowable shear stress
Dowel pin 0 6 mm, single-shear loaded, E 295,v = 3; Fallow =? __ r s B _ 390 N/mm 2 N T
s,allow
singleshear
allow
doubleshear
~
v Ti-d2 =S T
-
T
sB
•s, allow
-130
3 mm' jt • (6 mm) 2 = 28.3 mm 2 = 28.3 mm 2 -130 N
s, allow
= 3679 N
mm"
For mechanical strength properties r s B and safety factors see page 44.
V
Allowable shear force fallow ~~ S ' 7 s , allow
Cutting of materials The loaded cross-section must be sheared. T
sB max max. shear strength Rm m a x max. tensile strength
k\\\\y
Punching a 3 mm thick steel sheet S235JR; d= 16 mm; F= ?
,
T
sBmax ~ 0-8- /?,mmax
Example:
S3
V\KV
S shear area F cutting force
Maximum shear strength
Cutting force
flmmax = 470 N/mm 2 (Table page 130) ^sBmax * 0.8 • H m m a x = 0.8 • 470 N/mm 2 = 376 N/mm 2
S=C-s
F= S • r sBmax
S = ji • d • s = ji • 16 mm • 3 mm = 150.8 m m 2 F = S • r sB max = 150.8 m m 2 • 376 N/mm 2 = 56701 N = 56.7 kN
f = nI'd
For mechanical strength properties Rm
max1or
steel, see pages 130 to 138
Buckling stress (Euler columns) Calculation for buckling of Euler columns applies only to thin (profile) parts and within the elastic range of the workpiece. Allowable buckling F b u aiiow allowable buckling force E Modulus of elasticity force
Load case and free buckling lengths (Euler columns) Load case
II
I
III
IV
K
—
/ /bU v
length / Moment of inertia free buckling length safety factor (in machine construction « 3-10)
Example: Beam IPB200, / = 3.5 m; clamped at both ends; v = 10; F b u a i i o w = ?; E = 210000 N/mm 2 = 21 • 106 N/cm 2 (table below); 71* = 2000 cm 4 2 • 21 • 106 -ilL • 2000 cm 4 n 2 o i rc c
r
-
b u , allow
_
cm'
(0.5 • 350 cm) 2 • 10
= 1.35 - 10 6 N= 1.35 MN
MJ
free buckling lengths
"
/gu • v
1)
for moments of inertia of an area (2nd moment), see pages and 146-151. Special calculation methods are stipulated for structural steel according to DIN 18800 and DIN 4114.
/bu=2-/ / bu =/ lbu=0.1-l /bu=0.5-/49
Modulus of elasticity Ein kN/mm 2 steel
EN-GJL150
EN-GJL300
EN-GJS400
GS-38
EN-GJMW350-4
CuZn40
Al alloy
T1 alloy
196-216
80-90
110-140
170-185
210
170
80-100
60-80
112-130
Physics: 2.
r
47
o e r i
Bending and torsional stress Bending stress Tensile and compressive stresses occur in a member during bending. The maximum stress is calculated in boundary areas of the member; they may not exceed the allowable bending stress. <7b bending stress Mb bending moment W
F f
bending force deflection
Bending stress
axial section modulus
Example: Beam IPE-240, W= 324 cm 3 (page 149); clamped at one end; concentrated load F= 25 kN; / = 2.6 m; a b = ? (^
u
W
N 200 *NUI mnr
* jf l r tu n
324 cm 3
Allowable bending stress a b anow from page 44
cm"
Bending load cases in beams Beam loaded with a concentrated load
Beam with a uniformly distributed load
fixed at one end
fixed at one end
/
F -F' • I
/Wk=F-/
f =
F • /3
Mk =
F • /3
f =
3 •E•I
F •/
8
E I
supported at both ends
supported at both ends
5 • F • I3 f = 384 • E • I fixed at both ends
fixed at both ends
F •/
Mk =
r =r •i
F -/3 f = 192 • E • /
y W j i yJJ
F
fI
F •/ 12 •/3
384 • E •/
E Modulus of elasticity; values: page 46 / 2nd moment of inertia; formulae: page 49; values: pages 146 to 151. F' Distributed load (load per unit length, e.g. N/cm)
/ Length of distributed load
Torsional stress Mt torsional moment Wp polar section modulus
r t torsional stress Torsional stress
Example: Shaft, d =32 mm; Mt = 420 N • m; r t = ? 3
rc-d
Wn
3
n-(32 mm) = 6434 mm 3 16 16 N _ M t _ 420000 N • mm _ = 65.3 6434 mm 3 mm" For polar section moduli see pages 49 and 151
Tt =
Allowable torsionalstress r t a n o w from page 44 or page 48
48
Physics: 2.6 Strength of Materials
Shape factors in strength Shape-related strength and allowable stress for dynamic loading Shape-related strength is the fatigue strength of the cross-section of a dynamically loaded member with an additional allowance for the strength reducing effects of the component's shape. Important factors include • the shape of the component (presence of stress concentration) • machining quality (surface roughness) • stock dimensions (member thickness). When compensating for the required safety factor this yields the allowable stress needed to verify the strength of a member which is dynamically loaded. crs shape-related strength /?1 surface condition factor <7|jm stress limit of the unnotched b2 size factor cross-section, e.g. o b a or r t p u | S (page 44) pk stress concentration factor vf safety factor for fatigue fracture a ( r ) a M o w allowable stress Example:
Shape-related strength (dynamic loading)
r
r
s
s
=
^ w b
l
b 2
=
280NW.0.8.0.8
^allow ~
r
1 0 5 N / m m 2
allow
—
V
F
Is
1 7
Pk v
=
•b2
lim •
Allowable stress (dynamic loading)
Rotating axle, E335, transverse hole, surface roughness Rz= 25 pm, rough part diameter d = 50 mm, safety factor v F = 1.7; cts = ^aiiow = ?
•b2
^s
-
1
2
"allow = ° s ' F = 05 N/mm /1.7 = 62 N/mm 2
vp for steel « 1.7
Stress concentration and stress concentration factors /3k for steel Example: Stress distribution for tensile loading engineering stress in unnotched part
Unnotched cross-sections have an uninterrupted distribution of forces and therefore a uniform stress distribution. Changes in cross-sections lead to concentrations of lines of force where stresses are concentrated. The ensuing reduction of strength is primarily influenced by the notch shape, but also by the notch sensitivity of the material. Notch shape
Material
Shaft with shoulder Shaft with semicircular notch Shaft with retaining ring groove
S185-E335 S185-E335 S185-E335
1.5-2.0 1.5-2.2 2.5-3.0
1.3-1.8 1.3-1.8 2.5-3.0
S185-E335 C45E+QT 50CrMo4+QT
1.9-1.9 1.9-2.1 2.1-2.3
1.5-1.6 1.6-1.7 1.7-1.8
Woodruff key way in shaft Spline shaft
S185-E335 S185-E335
2.0-3.0
2.0-3.0 1.6-1.8
Shaft interface to snug fit hub
S185-E335
2.0
1.5
Shaft or axle with transverse through hole
S185-E335
1.4-1.7
1.4-1.8
S185-E335
1.3-1.5
tensile loading 1.6-1.8
Key way in shaft
* F T
stress concentration in notched part
Stress concent ration factor torsion bending
Flat bar with hole
Surface condition factor b^ and size factor bz for steel
\ \
t" I 0.9 (SI -Q o 0.8 t_)
ro
ension, cornpres sion
.t )endirig/to rsion
0.7 0.6
400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 tensile stength Rm in N/mm2 *
0
25
50 75 100 125 150 mm 200 stock diameter d •
Physics: 2.
r
49
o e r i
Moments of area and Polar section moduli1' Bending and Buckling Area moment of Axial section inertia I modulus W
Shape of the cross-section
-4-4- ^
/=
ji-d4 64
W =
jt-(P4-d4) 64
/=
W =
Torsion Polar section modulus l/Vn
ji-d3 p
32
ji-(D 4 - d 4 ) 32 D
p
16
16 • D
1=0.05 • D 4 - 0.083 d • D 3
W=0.1 • D 3 - 0.17 d • D2
W p = 0.2 • D3 - 0.34 d • D2
1= 0.003 • (D+ d) 4
W= 0.012 • (D+ d) 3
W p = 0.2 • d
/= 0.003 • (D+ d) 4
W = 0.012 • (D+ d) 3
W n = 0.024 • (D+ d) 3
3
also applies for more keys
x -c: x
z
1 2
Wz =
M x\
5-V3-S4
1
I 4 -j
x
y
/ x
/ y
X ~tD
Wy
~
7
-X -c
144 5 • V3 • d 4 " 256
w-h3 x =
7
x
5 s3 = 5-V3-d3 48 ~ 128 5 s3 5 -d3 Wyv = 24-V3 64
Wy =
B • H3 -w-h3 = 12
m 1)
B
= 0.123 • d 3
Wp = 17 • w2 • h
/7-W2
Values for rj see table below
6
B • H3 - w • h3
Wx =
6H
t-(H + h)-(B + w)
%=
H • B3 - h • w3 Wy = 6 B
3
H-B -h-w / y = 12
w
W p = 0.188 • s 3
2
12
3
12
•h Wx =w6
/7-W3
4 \-x •4—
Wp = 0.208 • h 3
V2-/73
Wx =
w
x-1
h3 6
x
m
2nd moments of inertia and axial section moduli for profiles see pages 146 to 151.
Auxiliary value i] for polar section moduli of rectangular cross-sections h/w
1
1.5
0.208
0.231
0.246
0.267
0.282
0.299
8
10
0.307
0.313
0.333
50
Physics: 2.6 Strength of Materials
Comparison of various cross-sectional shapes Cross -section
Shape
Standard designation
Linear mass (tensity nn' kg/m factor11
Slection nmoduli or static moments for type •of loadin g Ben ding Buclding Tonsion VYy
V cm
3
factor
11
cm
3
Innin 1
factor '
cm
3
factor
11
U"P cm factor11 3
y, x-r
+
j-*
V -ti
round bar EN 10060100
61.7
1.00
98
1.00
98
1.00
491
1.00
196
1.00
square bar EN 10059100
78.5
1.27
167
1.70
167
1.70
833
1.70
208
1.06
pipe EN 10220114.3x6.3
16.8
0.27
55
0.56
55
0.56
313
0.64
110
0.56
hollow structural section EN 10210-2 100 x 100x6.3
18.3
0.30
67.8
0.69
67.8
0.69
339
0.69
110
0.56
hollow structural section EN 10210-2 120x60x6.3
16.1
0.26
59
0.60
38.6
0.39
116
0.24
77
0.39
flat bar EN 10058100 x 50
39.3
0.64
83
0.85
41.7
0.43
104
0.21
-
-
T-section EN 10055T100
16.4
0.27
24.6
0.25
17.7
0.18
88.3
0.18
-
-
U-Channel section EN 1026U100
10.6
0.17
41.2
0.42
8.5
0.08
29.3
0.06
-
-
I-beam section DIN 10251100
8.3
0.13
34.2
0.35
4.9
0.05
12.2
0.02
-
I-beam section DIN 1025IPB100
20.4
0.33
89.9
0.92
33.5
0.34
167
0.34
-
J
/
i
+i - I - X
/
+ X--
-X
i
t -h X- i i
X
r
c= X—
)V xJr J/ c x —-
-X
c
)rP )t
cz
" p x X —
1= J 11
Factor referenced to round bar EN 10060-100 (cross-section in first row of table)
Physics: 2.
e
r
i
c
Effects of changes in temperature
51
52
Physics: 2.7 Thermodynamics
Heat for Melting, Vaporizing, Combustion Heat of fusion, Heat of vaporization Heat energy is necessary to transform substances from Heat of fusion a solid state to a liquid state or from a liquid state to a Q= q • gaseous state. This is known as the heat of fusion or heat of vaporization.
Heat of vaporization
Q
heat of fusion heat of evaporation specific heat of fusion
q
specific heat of evaporation m mass
m
r
Heat of vaporization
Q = r- m Example: kJ Copper, m = 6.5 kg; qr = 213 — ; Q = ? kg Q = q m = 213— • 6.5 kg = 1384.5 k J * 1.4 MJ kg
quantity of heat Q
For specific heat of fusion and heat of evaporation see pages 116 and 117.
Heat flux The heat flux
continually occurs within a substance Heat flux with thermal conduction with movement from higher to lower temperatures. The heat transmission coefficient k also compensates, along with the thermal conductivity of a part, for the heat transmission resistance on the surfaces of the part.
Af, A# temperature difference s component thickness A area of the component
Example:
Heat flux with heat transmission
(p = k - A • At
W Heat protection glass, k = 1.9 2 ; 4 = 2.8 m 2 ; m • °C Af = 32°C; = ? W •2.8 m 2 • 32°C = 170 W
For thermal conductivity values A see pages 116 and 117. For heat transmission coefficients k see below.
Heat of combustion The net calorific value H n e t (H) of a substance refers to the heat quantity released during the complete combustion of 1 kg or 1 m 3 of that substance. heat of combustion Q ^net' H net calorific value mass of solid and liquid fuels m volume of fuel gas V
V
Example: MJ Natural gas, V = 3.8 m 3 ; Hnet=3b
m-
Q = Hnet Net calorific value Hnet
Heat of combustion of solid and liquid substances
Q=Hnet-m Heat of combustion of gases
Q=?
Q=H, net V
MJ l/= 35 —^ • 3.8 m 3 = 133 MJ m3 Heat transmission coefficients k for construction materials and parts
(H) for fuels
Solid fuels
MJ/kg
Liquid fuels
MJ/kg
Gaseous fuels
MJ/m 3
Construction elements
s mm
wood biomass (dry) brown coal coke pit coal
15-17 14-18 16-20 30 30-34
alcohol benzene gasoline diesel fuel oil
27 40 43 41-43 40-43
hydrogen natural gas acetylene propane butane
10 34-36 57 93 123
outer door, steel sash window brick wall intermediate floor heat insulating board
50 12 365 125 80
Qnet
Qnet
Qnet
k
W
* m 2 • °C 5.8 1.3 1.1 3.2 0.39
Physics: 2.
53
ericiy
Quantities and Units, Ohm's Law, Resistance Electrical quantities and units Quantity Name
Unit Symbol
Name
Symbol
electrical voltage
E
volt
V
electric current
I
ampere
A
electrical resistance
R
ohm
Q
electrical conductance
G
Siemens
S
electrical power
P
watt
W
Ohm's Law Electric current
E voltage in V / electric current in A R resistance in Q
©
Example: R = 88 Q; E = 230 V; / = ? E 230 V 1 = - = ^ — = 2.6A R 88 Q
For circuit symbols see page 351.
Electrical resistance and conductance Resistance
R resistance in Q G conductance in S
\ ce
Example: R = 20 Q; G = ?
' 0
0.5
1
1.5
2 S 2.5
G = — = —-— = 0.05 S R 20 Q
conductance 0 -
Electrical resistivity, electrical conductivity, conductor resistance g electrical resistivity in Q • mm 2 /m y electrical conductivity in m/(Q • mm 2 ) R resistance in Q A wire cross section in m m 2 / wire length in m Example:
Electrical resistivity
1
Y
Copper wire, / = 100 m; A = 1.5 mm 2 ; g = 0.0179 °
m m
m • 100m
0.0179 R =V ' _ m A 1.5 mm 2
;R = ?
Conductor resistance R =
= 1.19 a
g-l
For electrical resistivities, see pages 116 and 117.
Resistance and Temperature Material
Tk value a in 1/K
aluminum
0.0040
lead
0.0039
gold
0.0037
copper
0.0039
silver
0.0038
tungsten
0.0044
tin
0.0045
zinc graphite
0.0042 -0.0013
constantan
± 0.00001
AR R2o Rt a At
change in resistance in Q resistance at 20°C in Q resistance at the temperature t in Q temperature coefficient (7"k value) in 1/K temperature difference in K
Change in resistance AR
=
a • /?2o • Af
Resistance at temperature t Example: Resistance of Cu; R20 = 150 Q; t = 75°C; Rx = ? a =0.0039 1/K; At = 75°C - 20°C = 55°C = 55 K Rx= R20 • (1 +a • At) = 150 Q • (1 + 0.0039 1/K • 55 K) = 182.2 n
RT = R2Q + A R Rt = R20.(
1 +cc-At)
54
Physics: 2.8 Electricity
Current density, Resistor circuits Current density in wires | ^ allowable current density
Current density
J current density in A/mm 2 I electric current in A A conductor cross section in m m 2 Example:
j - L
A
2
- A = 2.5 mm ; / = 4 A; J = ? A j_l _ 4A = 1.6 2 A 2.5 mm mm'
conductor (cross-sectional) area A
Voltage drop in wires Rline
I
Ed/2 E
^
Ez
'I
Voltage drop
voltage drop in wire in V voltage at terminal in V Ec voltage across load in V electric current in A I Aline resistance for feed or return line in Q
Ed E
Ed/2
Eri = 2 • / •line /?,i
Voltage at load
EC = E-EC
Rline
Series resistor circuit
R1
R total resistance, equivalent resistance in Q I total current in A E total voltage in V R-\, R2 individual resistances in Q /•i, / 2 partial current in A E-i, E2 voltage drop across Ry & R2 in V
Total resistance
/?=/?! + R 2 + Total voltage £ = Ei + £o +
Example: /?! = 10 Q; R2 = 20 Q; E =12 V;/7 =?; / = ?; Ei= ?; E 2 = ?
Total current /=/i
=/,=
R =Ry + R2= 10Q + 20Q = 30 il
R-
Voltage drops /?
30 Q = -/ = 10n-0.4A= 4 V E 2 = / ? 2 . / = 20Q0.4A = 8V
fl ff2
Parallel resistor circuit ft total resistance, equivalent resistance in Q / total current in A E total voltage in V ff-i, R2 individual resistances in Q /•I, / 2 partial current in A E 1 f E 2 voltage drop across & R2 in V Example:
Total voltage
fl, = 15 Q; R2 = 30 Q; E = 12 V; R = ?; I = ?; =?;/2 = ?
/?i
15Q-30Q /?,+/?2
'
15Q + 30Q
-1011
E = Ei = E? =. Total current
/ = /-, + / 2 +
- I - S S - ™ 12V Ro
1)
Total resistance
30 n
= 0.4 A
Partial currents
/1 _r2 Use this formula if there are only two parallel resistors in the circuit.
/2
Physics: 2.8 Electricity
Types of current Direct current (DC; symbol -), DC voltage Direct current flows in one direction only and main- Electric current tains a constant level of current. The voltage is also constant constant. / electric current in A E voltage in V Voltage t time in s
constant Alternating current (AC); symbol
AC voltage
Cycle duration and Frequency While the voltage is continuously changing in a sinu- Cycle duration soidal pattern, the free electrons are also continuously alternating their direction of flow. 7= 1 f frequency in 1/s, Hz f T period in s Frequency o) angular frequency in 1/s / electric current in A E voltage in V ' • f t time in s Angular frequency Example:
0) = 2 • n • f
Frequency 50 Hz; T = ? T = — = 0.02 s 50 1 s
(0 =
2 • 71 T
1 Hertz = 1 Hz = 1/s = 1 period per second
Maximum value and effective value of current and voltage i max maximum value of the electric current in A 4ft effective value of the electric current in A ^max maximum value of the voltage in V ^eff effective value of the voltage in V (voltage that produces the same power as an identical DC voltage across an ohmic resistor), electric current in A voltage in V time in s
Example:
Maximum value of the electric current Jmax = / 2 ' 4 f f
Maximum value of the voltage •max
=
{2E( eff
Eeff = 2 3 0 V ; E m a x = ? f m a x = / 2 • 230 V = 325 V
Three-phase current 120°
Y Uj
120°
120°
LI
\
/13
L2 X
T (360°)
/
7
Three-phase current is created from three AC voltages each offset by 120°. E T L1 L2 L3 £eff
voltage in V period in s phase 1 phase 2 phase 3 effective voltage between phase wire and neutral wire = 230 V Eeff effective voltage between two phase wires = 400 V
Maximum value of the voltage •max
= 1(2-E,eff
56
Physics: 2.8 Electricity
Electrical Work and Power, Transformers Electrical work W electrical work in kW • h P electrical power in W t time (power-on time) in h
fF 10000HH A I
>
Electrical work
W = P •t
Example: Hot plate, P= 1.8 k W ; f = 3 h ; W= ? in kW • h and MJ
I
C^D CZJ CD No i 1
J
W= P-t = 1.8 kW • 3 h = 5.4 kW • h = 19.44 MJ
1 kW • h = 3.6 MJ = 3600000 W - s
Electrical power with direct current and alternating or three-phase current with non-reactive load1) Direct or alternating current
/
P E / R 1st
electrical power in W voltage (phase-to-phase voltage) in V electric current in A resistance in Q example:
Power with direct or alternating current
P= E • I P=I2-R
Light bulb, E = 6 V; / = 5 A; P = ?; R = ?
2nd example:
Csl m I i
Ry
ff I
L
R
/? = - = — = 1.2ft / 5A
Three-phase current
I
p=
P = E • / = 6 V • 5A=30W
R
Annealing furnace, three-phase current, E = 400 V; P = 12 kW; / = ?
R
I
'
=
R 1)
P
12000 W
73 E
73 400 V
= 17.3 A
Power with three-phase current
E-I
P = / 3 -
i.e. only with heating devices (ohmic resistors)
Electrical power with alternating and three-phase current with reactive load component l 2 ) Alternating current
P E I cos
I
electrical power output in W voltage (phase-to-phase voltage) in V electric current in A power factor
Electric power output with alternating current
P= E • I • cos(p
Example: Three-phase current
Three-phase motor, E = 400 V; / = 2 A; cos^? = 0.85; P = ?
CNI
P = fi • E • I • cos^ = /3 • 400 V • 2 A • 0.85 = 1178 W « 1.2 kW
Electric power output with three-phase current
P=F3-E-I-cos
2) ii.e. in electric motors and generators
Transformers Input side (primary coil)
/i
Output side (secondary coil)
h
/V1f N2 number of turns E 2 voltages in V
/-i, I 2 current level in A
Example:
Voltages
E2
N2
/V, = 2875; N2 = 100; E, =230 V; /, = 0.25 A; E 2 = ?; I2 = ?
A/i
A/, 2
Ey
j 2
E r A / 2 = 230V.100 N, 2875 _/1/Vl_0.25A.2875_7OA N2 100
Electric current /1_/v2
H
N,
Table of Contents
57
3 Technical drawing 3.1
3.2 temperature
3.3
3.4
3.5
\
t
}
A / /
17
/
/
1
20
3.6
3.7
Flare-V groove weld
3.8
)))))))))) £
3.9
h-tolerance zone \
h-tolerance zone es=0 zero line \
El=0 c
c
.2 <32(0 E.E
E .5 - pE T3 E hole
shaft
Basic geometric constructions Lines and angles Tangents, Circular arcs, Polygons Inscribed circles, Ellipses, Spirals Cycloids, Involute curves, Parabolas
58 59 60 61
Graphs Cartesian coordinate system Graph types
62 63
Drawing elements Fonts Preferred numbers, Radii, Scales Drawing layout Line types
64 65 66 67
Representation Projection methods Views Sectional views Hatching
69 71 73 75
Entering dimensions Dimensioning rules Diameters, Radii, Spheres, Chamfers, Inclines, Tapers, Arc dimensions Tolerance specifications Types of dimensioning Simplified presentation in drawings
78 80 81 83
Machine elements Gear types Roller bearings Seals Retaining rings, Springs
84 85 86 87
Workpiece elements Bosses, Workpiece edges Thread runouts, Thread undercuts Threads, Screw joints Center holes, Knurls, Undercuts
88 89 90 91
Welding and Soldering Graphical symbols Dimensioning examples
93 95
Surfaces Hardness specifications in drawings Form deviations, Roughness Surface testing, Surface indications
97 98 99
3.10 ISO Tolerances and Fits Fundamentals Basic hole and basic shaft systems General tolerances Roller bearing fits Fit recommendations Geometric tolerancing
76
102 106 110 110 111 112
58
Technical drawing: 3.1 Basic geometric constructions
Line segments. Perpendiculars and Angles 4
A
2
Parallels to a line Given: Line segment AB and point P on the desired parallel line g' 1. Arc with radius r about A results in intersecting point C. 2. Arc with radius r about P. 3. Arc with radius r about C results in intersecting point D. 4. Connecting line segment PD is parallel line g' to AB.
Constructing a vertical line at point P Given: Straight line g and point P 1. Arc 1 about P with any radius r results in intersecting point A. 2. Arc 2 with same radius r about point A results in intersecting point B. 3. Arc 3 with equal radius r about B. 4. Construct a line from A to B and extend it (to intersecting point C). 5. Construct a line from point C to point P to obtain the vertical at P.
Bisecting an angle Given: Angle a 1. Any arc 1 about S yields intersecting points A and B. 2. Arc 2 with radius r about A;
AB.
3. Arc 3 with equal radius r about B results in intersecting point C. 4. The line joining intersecting point C with S is the desired bisected angle.
Dividing a line Given: Line AB should be divided into 5 equal parts. 1. Construct a ray from A at any desired angle. 2. Mark 5 equal lengths with a compass on the ray from A. 3. Construct a line from point 5' to B. 4. Construct parallels to 5' B through the other division points 1'-4'.
Technical drawing: 3.1 Basic geometric constructions
Tangents, Circular arcs. Polygons Tangent through point P on a circle Given: Circle and point P 1. Construct line segment MP and extend it. 2. Arc about P gives intersecting points A and B. 3. Arcs about A and B with the same radius yield intersecting points C and D. 4. The line passing through C and D is perpendicular to PM.
Tangent from a point P to a circle Given: Circle and point P 1. Bisect MP. A is the midpoint. 2. Arc about A with radius r = AM yields intersecting point P. T is the tangent point. 3. Connect T and P. 4. MT is perpendicular to PT.
Rounding an angle (arc tangent to two straight lines) Given: Angle ASB and radius r 1. Construct parallels to AS and BS of distance r. Their intersection M is the desired center of the circular arc of radius r. 2. The intej^ection of the perpendiculars from M to the line segments AS and BS are the transition points C and D for the arc.
Connecting two circles by arcs Given: Circle 1 and circle 2; radii R\ and R0 1. Circle about Mt with radius R\ + r-\. 2. Circle about M 2 with radius R\ + r2 intersects with 1 to yield intersecting point A. 3. Connecting Mt and M 2 with A yields contact points B and C for the inside radius R{. 4. Circle about Mt with radius R0 - r v 5. Circle about M 2 with radius R0 - r2 combined with step 4 results in the intersecting point D. 6. D connected to M-] and M 2 and extended gives the contact points E and F for the outside radius R0.
Circumscribed regular polygon (e.g. pentagon) Given: Circle of diameter d 1. Divide AB into 5 equal parts (page 58). 2. An arc centered at A with radius r= AB yields points C and D. 3. Construct lines from C and D to 1, 3, etc. (all odd numbers). The intersecting points on the circle yield the desired vertices of the pentagon. For polygons with an even number of angles C and D are connected to 2, 4, 6 etc. (all even numbers).
Circumscribed hexagon, dodecagon Given: Circle of diameter d 1. Arc centered at A with radius r = y 2. Arc with radius r about B and A. 3. Construct line segments connecting the intersecting points to yield the hexagon. For a dodecagon find intermediate points including intersections at C and D.
60
Technical drawing: 3.1 Basic geometric constructions
Inscribed and circumscribed circles for triangles, Circle center point, Ellipse, Spiral Circle inscribed in a triangle Given: Triangle A, B, C 1. Bisect angle a. 2. Bisect angle ft (intersecting at point M). 3. Inscribed circle about M.
Circle circumscribing a triangle Given: Triangle A, B, C 1. Construct the perpendicular bisector of line segment AB. 2. Construct a perpendicular bisector on line segment BC (intersecting at point M). 3. Circumscribed circle about M.
Finding the center of a circle Given: Circle 1. Choose any straight line a that intersects the circle at A and B. 2. Straight line b (approximately perpendicular to straight line a) intersects circle at C and D.
3
3. Construct perpendicular bisectors on line segments AB and CD. 4. Intersecting point of the perpendicular bisectors is the center M of the circle.
Constructing an ellipse from two circles Given: Axes AB and CD 1. Two circles about M with diameters AB and CD. 2. Construct several rays through M which intersect both circles (E, F). 3. Construct parallels to the two principle axes AB and CD through E and F. Intersecting points are points on the ellipse.
Constructing an ellipse in a parallelogram Given: Parallelogram with axes AB and CD 1. A semi-circle with radius r = MC about A yields point E. 2. Subdividing AM (or BM) into halves, quartersjind eighths yields points 1, 2 and 3. Construct parallels to axis CD through these points. 3. Dividing EA in halves, quarters and eighths yields points 1, 2 and 3 on the axis AE. Parallels to axis CD through those points give intersecting points F on the circular arc. 4. Construct parallels to AE through intersection points F to the semi-circle axis, from there construct parallels to axis AB. 5. Parallel intersection points of matching numbers are points on the ellipse.
Spiral (approximate construction using a compass) Given: Rise a
na| -j-
K
1. Construct square ABCD with a/4. 2. A quarter circle of radius AD centered at A yields E. 3. A quarter circle of radius BE centered at B yields F. 4. A quarter circle of radius CF centered at C yields G. 5. A quarter circle of radius DG centered at D yields H. 6. A quarter circle of radius AH centered at A yields I (etc).
Technical drawing: 3.1 Basic geometric constructions
Cycloid, Involute, Parabola, Hyperbola, Helix auxiliary circle 5
intersection point of auxiliary circle 5 with parallel line 5
^ l ^ U 5.
Cycloid Given: Rolling circle of radius r 1. Subdivide the pitch circle into any number of equal sized parts, e.g. 12. 2. Divide the base line (= extent of the pitch circle = n • d) into equal parts, in this case 12. 3. Vertical lines from segment points 1-12 on the base line to the extended vertical center line of the rolling circle yield the midpoints M-|-M 1 2 . 4. Construct auxiliary circles about the midpoints M-|-M 1 2 with radius r.
rolling circle
base line C-n-d
extended horizontal center line
5. The intersecting points of these auxiliary circles with the parallels through the points on the rolling circle having the same numbers give the points of the cycloid.
Involute 4n
12
v
s/\.
1
1. Subdivide the circle into any desired number of equal sized parts, e.g. 12. 2. Construct tangents to the circle at each section.
1 \ • 7
\
/
\
:
Given: Circle
/
1
1
3. Mark off the length of the developed circumference on each tangent from its contact point. 4. The curve through the endpoints forms the involute.
- " " m o
8
Parabola Given: Orthogonal parabola axes and parabola point P 1. Parallel g to vertical axis through point P gives P'. 2. Divide distance OP' on the horizontal axis into any desired number of parts (e.g. 5) and construct parallels to the vertical axis. 3. Subdivide distance PP' into the same number of segments and connect to origin at 0. 4. Intersecting points of the lines with the matching number yield points on the parabola.
Hyperbola 92 Given: Orthogonal asymptotes through M and point P on the hyperbola.
p2
/ r
\
9i p,
1. Construct lines g-i and g 2 parallel to the asymptotes through point P on the hyperbola. 2. Construct any desired number of rays from M. 3. Construct lines through the intersections of the rays with g-| and g 2 parallel to the asymptotes. 4. Intersecting points of the parallel lines (P-|, P 2 ( ...) are points on the hyperbola.
Heliocoidal line (Helix) Given: Circle of diameter d and pitch P 1. Divide semicircle into equal sections, e.g. 6. 2. Divide the pitch P into twice the number of equal segments, e.g. 12. 3. Extend the same number of horizontal and vertical lines to intersection. The intersecting points yield points on the heliocoidal line. 10/|p109 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 of pitch P 2
62
Technical drawing: 3.
ra
Cartesian coordinate system
din 46i (1973-03)
Coordinate axes • abscissa (horizontal axis; x-axis) • ordinate (vertical axis; y-axis)
P1 (x4,y2) o
Values to be plotted • positive: from the origin towards the right, or up • negative: from the origin towards the left, or down Marking the positive axis direction with • arrow heads on the axes, or • arrows parallel to the axes Formula symbols are entered in italics on the • abscissa below the arrow point • ordinate to the left next to the arrow point
P2(x-2.y-1)
or in front of the arrows parallel to the axes. Scales are normally linear, but sometimes they are divided logarithmically. units
200
N/mm2 150
characteristic curve
Magnitudes of values. They are placed next to the scale ticks. All negative values have a minus sign. Value units are placed between the two last positive numbers on the abscissa and ordinate or after the formula symbol.
-0.4 -0.3 -0.2 - 0 . l 7 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 % 0.4 -50
Grid marks simplify plotting of the values. Lines (curves) connect the values that have been plotted on the graph.
200 N/mm2 150
Line widths. Lines are drawn in the following proportion: Gridlines : axes : curves = 1 : 2 : 4 . Graph sections are constructed if values are not to be plotted in each direction from the origin. The origin may also be hidden.
cur•ve
| 100 o
\ g r i c I lines 50
/ 0.2
0.1
0.4 % 0.5
0.3
Example (spring characteristic curve): The following disk spring values are known: Spring displacement s in mm
0
0.3
0.6
Spring force F in N
0
600
1000 1300 1400
1.0
1.3
What is the spring force F with a spring displacement of s = 0.9 mm? Solution: The values are plotted on a graph and the points are connected by a curve. A vertical line at s = 0.9 mm intersects the curve at point A. 0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
spring displacement s
1.0
1.2 mm 1.4 •
With the help of a horizontal line through A, a spring force of F » 1250 N is read from the ordinate.
Graphs are used to represent value-based relationships between changing variables.
63
Technical drawing: 3.2 Graphs
Polar coordinate systems, Area graphs Cartesian coordinate system (continued)
cf. DIN 461 (1973-03) Graphs with multiple curves
1600
When measured values are highly scattered, a different special symbol is used for each curve, e.g: O, X , •
N
N/mm2 _ Re
1200 1000
\ kv
800
A
600
1
400 200
Marking the curves
\ Ni
0
• when the same type of line is used, by using the names or formula symbols of the variables or by using different colors for the curves • by different types of lines
100 200 300 400 °C 600 temperature •
Polar coordinate system
cf. DIN 461 (1973-03) Polar coordinate systems have a 360° division. Origin (pole). Intersection of horizontal and vertical axis. Angle layout. The angle 0° is assigned to the horizontal axis to the right of the origin. Angle position. Positive angles are plotted counter-clockwise. Radius. The radius corresponds to the magnitude of the value to be plotted. Concentric circles may be drawn about the origin to simplify plotting of the values.
Example: Using a measuring machine, the roundness of a turned bushing is checked to see if it lies within the required tolerance. The out-of-roundness found was probably caused by clamping the bushing forcefully in the chuck.
Area graphs Bar graphs In bar graphs the quantities to be represented are drawn as horizontal or vertical columns of equal width.
E ** a .§
Pie charts 2005
2006
2007
2008
Percent values are normally represented by pie charts. In these the circumference of a circular area corresponds to 100% (= 360°). Central angle. The percentage xto be plotted determines the corresponding central angle: a=
360° • x % 100%
Example: What is the central angle for the percentage of lead in the alloy CuPb15Sn8? _ 360° 15% Solution:
a
~
1 0 0
o
/ o
= 54°
64
Technical drawing: 3.3 Elements of drawing
Fonts Lettering, fonts
cf. DIN EN ISO 3098-0 (1998-04) and DIN EN ISO 3098-2 (2000-11)
The lettering of technical drawings can be done using type style A (close-spaced) or type style B. Both styles may be drawn vertical (V) or slanted by 15° to the right (I = italics). To ensure good legibility, the distance between the characters should be two line widths. The distance may be reduced to one line width if certain characters are together, e.g. LA, TV, Tr.
Font style B, V (vertical)
JHttt
Font style B, I (italic)
cf. DIN EN ISO 3098-0 (1998-04)
Dimensions
am
e
F
H k
£>i with diacritic 1 ' characters £>2 without diacritic characters b3 with upper case letters and numbers
a
<;n i n Q f f
R!h~
MH6 Ml
BTT
Ecrifure
Character height h or height of upper case letters (nominal size) in mm
*
1.8
2.5
1)
10
3.5
Ratio of dimension to character height h a
Type style
b.
A
25
B
19 . 10
2 1
14 15 . 10
bs
h
20
14
cf. DIN EN ISO 3098-3 (1998-04)
b2
h
diacritic = used to further differentiate, especially for letters
17
C2 10 . 14*
h
13 . 10
d
C3
> >
> >
^10
Greek alphabet
e
6 10
h
f
>
cf. DIN EN ISO 3098-3 (2000-11)
A B
a p
alpha beta
Z H
r
y
gamma
A E
6 e
delta epsilon
e i K
K
A
X
lambda
M
H
mu
n p
JI
ri
zeta eta
P
Pi rho
ft
theta
N
V
nu
2
o
sigma
I
iota kappa
Z!
I
xi
T
O
o
omicron
Y
X V
tau upsilon
£
cp
X
X
phi chi
Q
to
omega
psi
Roman numerals I
=1
X = 10 C = 100 M = 1000
n =2 XX =20
m
=3
IV = 4 XL = 40 CD = 400
CC = 200
XXX = 30 CCC = 300
MM = 2000
Examples: MDCLXXXVE
V =5 L = 50 D = 500 1687
VI = 6
vn
LX = 60
LXX =• 70 DCC == 700
DC = 600
=: 7
MCMXCIX = 1999
vm
=8
LXXX = 80 DCCC = 800 M M V m = 2008
IX = 9 XC = 90 CM = 900
Technical drawing: 3.
eents
65
drawing
Preferred numbers, Radii, Scales Preferred numbers and series of preferred numbers1'
cf. DIN 323-1 (1974-08)
R5
R 10
R 20
R 40
R5
R 10
R 20
R 40
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
1.06
1.12
4.25
1.12
4.50
4.50
1.18 1.25
1.25
4.75
1.25
5.00
5.00
5.00
1.32 1.40
5.30
1.40
5.60
5.60 6.00
1.50 1.60
1.60
1.60
1.60
6.30
6.30
6.30
6.30
1.70 1.80
6.70
1.80
7.10
7.10
1.90 2.00
2.00
7.50
2.00
8.00
8.00
8.00
2.12
2.24
8.50
2.24
9.00
9.00
2.36 2.50
2.50
2.50
9.50 10.00
2.50 2.65
2.80
Series
3.15
3.15
3.35 3.55
Multiplier
R 5
q5
= /TO - 1.6
R 10
Q10 =
R 20
920
R 40
q40
10
/ T o * 1.25 20
= /To «* 1.12
3.55 3.75
40
= /To «
Radii
1.06
cf. DIN 250 (2002-04) 0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.8
3
4
5
6
8
1
1.2
1.6
10
12
16
18
20
22
160
180
200
Values shown in bold font in the table are preferred values.
100
10.00
2.80
3.00 3.15
10.00
10.00
110
125
140
2
2.5 25
28
32
36
40
45
50
Scale factors21
63
70
80
90
cf. DIN ISO 5455(1979-12)
Actual size 1: 1
56
Reduction factors 1:2 1:5 1 : 10
1 : 20 1 : 50 1 : 100
1 : 200 1 : 500 1 :1000
Enlargement factors 1 : 2000 1 : 5000 1 : 10000
2: 1
5: 1
20: 1
50 : 1
10: 1
1)
Preferred numbers, e.g. for length dimensions and radii. Their usage prevents arbitrary graduations. In the series of preferred numbers (base series R 5 to R 40), each number of the series is obtained by multiplying the previous number by a constant multiplier for that series. Series 5 (R 5) is preferred over R 10, R 10 over R 20 and R 20 over R 40. The numbers of each series can be multiplied by 10, 100, 1000, etc. or divided by 10, 100, 1000, etc.
2)
For special applications the given enlargement and reduction factors can be expanded by multiplying by whole multiples of 10.
66
Technical drawing: 3.3 Elements of drawing
Drawing layout Paper sizes (ISO) Format Format dimensions 1 ' in mm Drawing area dimensions in mm 1)
cf. DIN EN ISO 5457 (1999-07) and DIN EN ISO 216 (2002-03) AO
AI
A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
841 x1189
594 x 841
420 x 594
297 x 420
210x297
148x210
105x148
821 x1159
574x811
400 x 564
277 x 390
180x277
-
-
The height: width aspect ratio of the drawing papers are 1 : f2 (= 1 : 1.414).
Folding for DIN A4 format o c> 'c
3: o o
cf. DIN 824(1981-03) A3 297x420
1st fold: Fold right side (190 mm wide) toward the back. 2nd fold: Fold the remainder of the sheet so that the edge of the 1 st fold is 20 mm from the left edge of the paper.
A2 420x594
1st fold: Fold the left side (210 mm wide) towards the right. 2nd fold: Fold a triangle of 297 mm height by 105 mm width towards the left.
o
CO
— EI5 H TJ O 2!° CMC \J
190
20
title block
2nd fold
^ 4th fold title block
3rd fold: Fold the right side (192 mm wide) towards the back. 4th fold: Fold the folded packet of 297 mm height toward the back.
Title block
cf. DIN EN ISO 7200 (2004-05), Replacement for DIN 6771-1
The width of the title block is 180 mm. The sizes of the individual data fields (field widths and heights) are no longer stipulated, in contrast to the previous standard. The table at the bottom of this page has examples of possible field sizes. Example of a title block: Resp. dept.
AB 131
Created by
Technical reference
11
Susan Miller
12
Approved by
Kristin Brown
13
John Davis
14 10
9
John Smith Co.1
15
Document status
Type of document
Assembly drawing
released
Title, additional title
A225-03300-012
2
Circular saw s h a f t /
4
3
Changes Release date
complete with bearing
A
L. 7
5
2008-01-^5 de
Sheet 8
1/3
Drawing specific callouts, such as scale, projection symbol, tolerances and surface specifications should be indicated on the drawing outside of the title block.
Data fields in the title block Field no.
rieio name
1 2 3
Owner of the drawing Title (drawing name) Additional title
4 5 6 7 8 9
Max. no. of characters
Field name required optional
not specified 25 25
yes yes
Drawing number Change symbol (drawing version) Issue date of the drawing
16 2 10
yes
Language identifier (de = German) Page number and number of pages Type of document
4 4 30
10 11 12
Document status Responsible department Technical reference
20 10 20
13 14 15
Drawing originator Authorizing person Classification/key words
20 20 not specified
-
-
yes -
yes -
yes yes -
-
yes -
yes -
yes yes -
yes yes yes -
yes
Field size (mm) width height 69 60 60
27 18 1o
51 7 25 10 9 60 51 26 43 44 43 24
Q
Technical drawing: 3.
eents
67
drawing
Line types Lines in mechanical engineering drawings No.
Name, representation
01.1
Solid line, thin
cf. DIN ISO 128-24 (1999-12) Examples of application
• • • • •
dimension and extension lines leader and reference lines root of thread hatching position direction of layers (e.g. lamination) • outline of hinged section • short center lines • imaginary intersections from penetrations
• origin circles and dimension line terminators • diagonal crosses to mark plane surfaces • framing details • projection and grid lines • deflection lines on rough and machined parts • marking for repeated details (e.g. root diameter of toothed gear)
Free-hand line, thin 1 )
• preferably hand-drawn representing border of partial or broken views and sections, provided that the border is not a line of symmetry or a center line
Break line, t h i n 1 )
• preferably automated drawing representing border of partial or broken views and sections, provided that the border is not a line of symmetry or a center line
X
'V
01.2
Solid line, thick
02.1
Dashed line, thin
• hidden edges
02.2
Dashed line, thick
• identifies allowable areas for surface treatment (e.g. heat treatment)
04.1
Dot-dash line (long dash), thin
• center lines • lines of symmetry
• partial circle in gears • hole circle
04.2
Dot-dash line (long dash), thick
• marking areas of (delimited) required surface treatment (e.g. heat treatment)
• marking section planes
05.1
Two-dot dash-dot line (long dash), thin
1)
• • • • •
• • • • • •
visible edges and outlines crests of threads limit of the usable thread length cross-section arrow lines surface structures (e.g. knurls)
• main representations in graphs, edges and flowcharts • system lines (steel construction) • mold parting lines in views
• hidden contours
outlines of adjacent parts • final position of movable parts centroidal axes • contours of the shape • portions in front of the cutting plane outlines of alternative designs
contours of finished parts within rough parts framing special areas or fields projected tolerance zone
Free-hand and break line types should not be used together in the same drawing.
Lengths of line elements
cf. DIN EN ISO 128 20 (2002 12)
Line element
Line type no.
Length
long dashes
04.1 and 05.1
24 d
gaps
short dashes
02.1 and 02.2
12 • d
Example: Line type 04.2
points
04.1, 04.2 and 05.1
Line element
<0.5 -d
Line type no.
Length
02.1,02.2, 04.1, 04.2 and 05.1
3• d
2W m
3-d^ IJL40.5-d mff | ^
3.d
68
Technical drawing: 3.3 Elements of drawing
Line types Line thicknesses and line groups
cf. DIN ISO 128-24(1999-12)
Line widths. Normally two line types are used in drawings. They are in a ratio of 1:2. Line groups. The line groups are ordered in a ratio of 1: («1: 1.4). Selection. Line thicknesses and line groups are selected corresponding to the type and size of drawing, as well as to the drawing scale and the requirements of microfilming and/or method of reproduction. Associated line thicknesses (dimension in mm) for Thin lines
Thick lines
Line group
Dimension and tolerance callouts, graphical symbols
0.25
0.25
0.13
0.18
0.35
0.35
0.18
0.25
0.5
0.5
0.25
0.35
0.7
0.7
0.35
0.5
0.5
0.7
1.4
1.4
0.7 1.4
Examples of lines in technical drawings
cf. DIN ISO 128-24(1999-12) dimension line (01.1)
end position of the moving part (05.1) line of symmetry (04.1)
identification of section plane (04.2)
dimension line
(01.1)
visible contours
(01.2)
extension line (01.1)
A-A
crests of threads
(01.2)
hatching line (01.1)
visible contour (01.2)
center line (04.1)
root of threads (01.1),
root of thread (01.1) border lines (01.1) imaginary intersections
(01.1)
line of symmetry (04. of an adjacent part (05.1)
border line (01.1)
short center line (01.1) frame of detail (01.1)
surface structure (knurl) (01.2)
hidden edge (02.1)
fully — v ^ hardened hole circle (04.1)
visible contours (01.2)
S
hidden contour (02.1)
designation of (heat) treatment (04.2)
edge in front of section plane (05.1)
69
Technical drawing: 3.4 Representations in drawings
General principles of presentation. Projection methods General principles of presentation
cf. DIN ISO 128-30 (2002-05) and DIN ISO 5456-2 (1998-04)
Selection of the front view. The view that is selected for the front view is the one which provides the most information regarding shape and dimensions. Other views. If other views are necessary for clear representation or for complete dimensioning of a workpiece, the following should be observed: • The selection of the views should be limited to those most necessary. • Additional views should contain as few hidden edges and contours as possible. Position of other views. The position of other views is dependent upon the method of projection. For drawings based on the first- and the third-angle projection methods (page 70) the symbol for the projection method must be given in the title block.
Axonometric representation11
cf. DIN ISO 5456-3(1998-04)
Isometric projection
Diametric projection X : Y : Z = 0,5:1:1
X : Y :Z = 1 : 1 : 1 circle as an ellipse
circle as an ellipse
Approximate construction of the ellipse: 1. Construct a rhombus tangential to the hole. Bisect the sides of the rhombus to yield the intersecting points M 1 # M 2 and N. 2. Draw connecting lines from M-i to 1 and from M 2 to 2 to yield the intersecting points 3 and 4. 3. Construct circular arcs with radius R about 1 and 2 and with radius r about 3 and 4.
circle as an ellipse
ellipse as a circle
Construction of ellipses: 1. Construct an auxiliary circle with radius r= d/2. 2. Subdivide height d into any desired number of equal segments and construct grids (1to 3). 3. Subdivide the diameter of the auxiliary circle into the same number of grids. 4. Transfer the segment lengths a, b etc. from the auxiliary circle to the rhombus.
auxiliary circle Cavalier projection
Cabinet projection
X : Y : Z = 0.5:1:1
X : Y : Z = 1:1:1 circle as an ellipse
ellipse as a circle
Ellipse construction identical to that on page 60 (ellipse construction in a parallelogram). 11
circle as an ellipse
ellipse as a circle
Ellipse construction identical to that of the diametric projection (above).
Axonometric representations: simple, graphical representations.
70
Technical drawing: 3.4 Representations in drawings cf. DIN ISO 128-30 (2002-05) and DIN ISO 5456-2 (1998-04)
Projection methods Arrow projection method
At
Marking the direction of observation: • with arrow lines and upper case letters Marking the views: A • D
1 i
• with upper case letters Locations of the views: • any location with respect to front view Layout of upper case letters:
_r
• above the views • vertical in reading direction • above or to the right of the arrow lines
First-angle projection Locations with respect to front view F:
1
1_ RS
top view
below F
LS
view from the left side
right of F
RS
view from the right side
left of F
bottom view
above F
rear view
left or right of F
LS
•
Symbol
Third-angle projection11 Locations with respect to front view F:
LS
top view
above F
LS
view from the left side
left of F
RS
view from the right side
right of F
bottom view
below F
rear view
left or right of F
RS
1
Symbol
©
Symbols for projection methods Symbol 2 ' for first-angle projection
Germany and most European countries 1) 2)
Symbol for first-angle projection third-angle projection
Application in English speaking countries, e.g. USA/Canada
I
h font height in mm (page 64) H = 2h d = 0.1h
Second-angle projection is not provided. The symbol for projection method is included in the drawing layout (page 66).
71
Technical drawing: 3.4 Representations in drawings
Views
cf. DIN ISO 128-30 and -34 (2002-05)
Partial views Application. Partial views are used to avoid unfavorable projections or shortened representations. Position. The partial view is shown in the direction of the arrow or rotated. The angle of rotation must be given. Boundary. This is identified with a break line.
Application. It is sufficient to represent just a portion of the whole workpiece, for example if space is limited. Marking. With two short parallel solid lines through the line of symmetry on the outside of the view.
Application. If the representation is clear, a partial view is sufficient instead of a full view. Representation. The partial view (third-angle projection) is connected with the main view by a thin dot-dash line.
Adjacent parts Application. Adjacent parts are drawn if it aids in understanding the drawing. Representation. This is done with thin two-dot dash-dot lines. Sectioned adjacent parts are not hatched. housing
Simplified penetrations
-Sl
Application. If the drawing remains clearly understandable, rounded penetrating lines may be replaced by straight lines.
[
-a
*FP5zzz3J)
Representation. Rounded penetrating lines are drawn with thick solid lines for grooves in shafts and penetrating holes whose diameters significantly differ.
J T9l
Implied penetrating lines of imaginary intersections and rounded edges are drawn with thin solid lines at the location at which the (circumferential) edge would have been with a sharp edged transition. The thin solid lines do not contact the outline.
n_r
Broken views
-LO
i f
rir^
Application. To save space only the important areas of long workpieces need to be represented. Representation. The boundary of the remaining parts is shown by free-hand lines or break lines. The parts must be drawn close to each other.
72
Technical drawing: 3.4 Representations in drawings
Views
cf. DIN ISO 128-30 and -34 (2002-05)
Repeating geometrical elements t01O
Application. For geometric elements which repeat regularly, the individual element only needs to be drawn once. Representation. For geometric elements which are not drawn, • the positions of symmetrical geometric elements are shown with thin dot-dash lines. • asymmetrical geometric elements of the area in which they are found are drawn with thin solid lines.
12 r /
—
r
The number of repeated elements must be given in the dimensioning.
Parts at a larger scale (details) Application. Partial areas of a workpiece which can not be clearly represented may be drawn at a larger scale.
Z (10:1)
Representation. The partial area is framed with a thin solid line or encircled and marked with a capital letter. The partial area is represented in an enlarged detail view and is identified with the same capital letter. The enlarged scale is additionally given.
Minimal inclines
-
~L
fX
\I
Application. Minimal inclines on slopes, cones or pyramids which cannot be shown clearly, do not have to be drawn in the corresponding projection. Representation. The edge representing the projection of the smaller dimension is drawn with a thick solid line.
\ f
Moving parts
Application. Depicting alternative positions and limits of movement of parts in assembly drawings. Representation. Parts in alternate positions and limits of movement are drawn with two-dot dash-dot lines.
Surface structures
Representation. Structures such as knurls and embossing are represented with thick solid lines. Partial representation of the structure is preferable.
73
Technical drawing: 3.4 Representations in drawings
Sectional views
cf. DIN ISO 128-40, -44 and -50 (2002-05)
Section types full section
view
Section. The interior of a workpiece can be shown with a section. The front part of the workpiece, which hides the view to the interior, is perceived to be cut out.
V////
In a section it is possible to represent:
'/////. half section
• the cutting plane and additional workpiece outlines lying behind the cutting plane or • only the cutting plane.
/
partial section
u
I
Full section. The full section shows the conceptualized workpiece sectioned in a plane. Half section. In a symmetrical workpiece one half is represented as a view, the other half as a section. Partial section. A partial section shows only part of the workpiece in section.
1/
/
/
Definitions section line
Cutting plane. The cutting plane is the imaginary plane with which the workpiece is sectioned. Complicated workpieces can also be represented in two or more cutting planes. Cross-section area. It is formed by the theoretical sectioning of the workpiece. The cross-section area is marked with hatch lines (see below and page 75). Section line. It marks the position of the cutting plane; for two or more cutting planes it marks the cutting path. The section line is drawn with a thick dot-dash line. For two or more cutting planes the path of the section line is emphasized on the ends of the corresponding plane using short thick solid lines. Marking the section line. It is done with the same upper case letters. Arrows drawn with thick solid lines indicate the direction for viewing the cutting plane. Marking the section. The sectional view is marked with the same upper case reference letters as the section lines.
Hatching of sections Hatching. The hatching is drawn with parallel solid lines, preferably at an angle of 45° to the centerline or to the main outlines. The hatching is interrupted for lettering. Hatching is used for • individual parts - all hatch lines for cross-section areas should be in the same direction and at the same spacing. • parts adjacent to each other - hatch lines for the different parts should be in different directions or at different spacing. • large cross-section areas - hatching preferably only near boundaries or edges.
74
Technical drawing: 3.4 Representations in drawings
Sectional views
cf. DIN ISO 128-40, -44 and -50 (2002-05)
Special sections Profile sections. They may be • drawn rotated in a view (revolved section). The contour lines of the section are represented with thin solid lines and are drawn within the interior of the part. • taken out of a view (removed section). The section must be connected with the view by a thin dot-dash line.
/ / / / /
Sections with intersecting planes. If two planes intersect, one cutting plane may be rotated in the projection plane.
Details of rotated parts. Uniformly arranged details outside of the cross-section area, e.g. holes, may be rotated in the cutting plane.
Outlines and edges. Contours and edges lying behind the cutting plane are only drawn if they add clarity to the drawing.
Parts that are not sectioned Not sectioned in the lengthwise direction: • parts that are not lx>llow, e.g. screws, bolts, pins, shafts • areas of an individual part which should protrude from the base body, e.g. ribs.
Notes on drawing circumferential edges
/ V////
edge on the
w Y
A /Vl
/ /'.J
//////.
„ .J
/ / / w i
Tool edges • Circumferential edges. Edges exposed by sectioning must be represented. • Hidden edges. In sections the hidden edges are not represented. • Edges on the center line. If an edge falls on a centerline by sectioning, it is represented. Half-sections in symmetrical workpieces Section halves of symmetrical workpieces are preferably drawn in relation to the center line, • below, with horizontal center lines • to the right, for vertical center lines.
75
Technical drawing: 3.4 Representations in drawings
Hatching, Systems for entering dimensions Hatching
cf. DIN ISO 128-50 (2002-05)
Section areas are generally marked with basic hatching without consideration of the material. Parts whose material should be emphasized can be identified using specific section lining. Basic hatching (without considering the material)
Liquids
Gases foo o o 6~o~o 61 loooooooo; [ooooooooj Natural materials
Plastics
Metals Ferrous metals
Non-ferrous metals water
J
^yZTf/Ty//1 light alloys
wooc _y //////
oil I—o—o—o—
//A
l-o—o—o—or
glass
{.A alloyed steel
ceramic
cast iron
WA heavy metals
j—o—o—o—| thermoset plastics
grease
elastomers, rubber
Systems for entering dimensions
cf. DIN 406-10 (1992-12) The dimensioning and tolerancing of workpieces can be based on • function, • manufacturing or • testing. Several systems of dimensioning may be used within a single drawing.
012 d9
j
m l
m
Dimensioning based on function Characteristic. Selection, entry and tolerancing of the dimensions is done according to design requirements.
m
Characteristic. Dimensions which are necessary for fabrication are calculated from functional dimensions.
012 H8 55 ±0.01 20 ±0.01 Dimensioning based on fabrication
m
i 012 H8
i H H
! i
+0.04 47 -0.01
+0.01 14 -0.02^ I m 012 H8
m m -0.01 23 -0.02
i j i
i
Dimensioning based on testing Characteristic. Dimensions and tolerances are entered in the drawing according to the planned testing.
76
Technical drawing: 3.5 Entering dimensions
Dimensioning drawings Dimension lines, dimension line terminators, extension lines, dimension numbers cf. DIN 406-11 (1992-12) Dimension lines extension line dimension number ^ dimension line
Design. Dimension lines are drawn as thin solid lines. Entry. Dimension lines are used for: • length dimensions parallel to the length to be dimensioned • angle and arc dimensions as a circular arc about the center of the angle or arc.
dimension line terminator 65 • extended to the outside using extension lines • entered within the workpiece • drawn to the edges of the part body.
20 i Ln
\
Spacing. Dimension lines should have a minimum distance of • 10 mm from the edge of bodies and • 7 mm between each other.
00
Dimension line terminator 10 * d 5
Dimension arrowheads. Generally arrowheads are used to delimit the boundaries of dimension lines. • arrowhead length: 10 x dimension line width • angle of lateral side: 15°
xd
Dots. Used if space is limited. • diameter: 5 x dimension line width Extension lines 15
35
Design. Extension lines are drawn perpendicular to the length to be dimensioned with thin solid lines.
012
010
Special features • Symmetrical elements. Centerlines may be used as extension lines within symmetrical elements. • Breaks in extension lines may be used e.g. for entering dimensions. • Within a view the extension lines may be drawn to spatially separate elements of the same or similar shape.
± 16
extension line passing through part
50
• Extension lines may not be extended from one view to another view.
Dimension numbers Entry. Dimension numbers are entered 35
• in standard lettering according to DIN EN ISO 3098 • with a minimum font size of 3.5 mm
20
I
• above the dimension line • so that they are legible from below and from the right oo
2.5 2 2.5 (10) 6 \
[L&
40
11
• for multiple parallel dimension lines - separated from each other. Limited space. If there is limited space, the dimensioning numbers may be entered • on a leader line • over the extension of the dimension line.
Technical drawing: 3.5 Entering dimensions
77
Dimensioning drawings Dimensioning rules, leader and reference lines, angle dimensions, square and width across flats
cf. DIN 406-11 (1992-12) and DIN ISO 128-22 (1999-11)
Dimensioning rules Entering dimensions oo
{
—
7,5
12
-J5 ^
50
Chained dimensions. Series of chained dimensions should be avoided. If chained dimensions are required for reasons related to manufacturing, one dimension of the chain must be in parentheses.
70 (15)
10
15
7
8
15
• Each dimension is only entered once. If two elements have identical dimensions but different shapes, they must be dimensioned separately. • If multiple views are drawn, the dimensions should be entered where the shape of the workpiece is best recognized. • Symmetrical workpieces. The position of the center line is not dimensioned.
Flat workpieces. For flat workpieces that are only drawn in one view, the thickness dimension may be entered with the reference letter t
t =5
• in the view or • near the view.
Leader and reference lines Leader lines. Leader lines are drawn as thin solid lines. They end • with an arrowhead, if they point to solid body edges or holes. • with a dot, if they point to a surface. • without marking, if they point to other lines.
leader line
Reference lines. Reference lines are drawn in the reading direction with thin solid lines. They may be connected to leader lines. Angular dimensions Extension lines. The extension lines point toward the vertex of the angle. Dimension numbers. Normally these are entered tangentially to the dimensioning line so that their lower edge points to the vertex of the angle if they are above the horizontal center line and with their upper edge if they are below it.
Square, width across flats Square Symbol. For square shaped elements the symbol is set in front of the dimensioning number. The size of the symbol corresponds to the size of the small letters. Dimensioning. Square shapes should preferably be dimensioned in the view in which their shape is recognizable. Only the length of one side of the square should be entered. WAF17 Width across flats WAF17
Symbol. For widths across flats the upper case letters WAF are placed in front of the dimensioning number, if the width between flats cannot be dimensioned.
78
Technical drawing: 3.
E
n
t
r
i
n
Dimensioning drawings Diameters, radii, spheres, chamfers, inclines, tapers, arc dimensions
cf. DIN 406-11 (1992-12)
Diameter, radius, sphere vO nO LO
a
Diameter Symbol. For all diameters the symbol 0 is placed before the dimension number. Its overall height corresponds to the height of the dimensioning number. Limited space. In the case of limited space the dimension references the workpiece feature from the outside. Radius Symbol. For radii the lower case letter r is placed before the dimensioning number. Dimension lines. Dimension lines should be drawn • from the center of the radius or • from the direction of the midpoint. Sphere Symbol. For spherical shape workpiece features the capital letter S is placed before the diameter or radius symbol.
Chamfers, countersinks 45° chamfers and countersinks of 90° can be simply dimensioned by indicating the angle and the chamfer width. Both drawn and undrawn chamfers may be dimensioned using an extension line.
2x45 o
3
Other chamfer angles. For chamfers with an angle deviating from 45° the • angle and the chamfer width or • the angle and the chamfer diameter
0.6x45°
are to be entered.
Inclines, tapers
t ^
_
Incline Symbol. The symbol C^ is entered before the dimension numbers. Orientation of the symbol. The symbol is oriented so that its incline matches the incline of the workpiece. Preferably the symbol is connected to the inclined surface with a reference line or a leader line.
30%
1:10
Taper Symbol. The symbol O is entered before the dimension numbers on a reference line. Orientation of the symbol. The orientation of the symbol must match the direction of the workpiece taper. The reference line of the symbol is connected to the outline of the taper with a leader line. Arc dimensions
r\32
32
Symbol. The symbol ^ is entered before the dimension numbers. For manual drawing the arc may be labeled with a similar symbol over the dimension number.
Technical drawing: 3.5 Entering dimensions
79
Dimensioning drawings Slots, threads, patterns
cf. DIN 406-11 (1992-12) and DIN ISO 6410-1 (1993-12)
Slots
10P9
10N9 Csji <=> 1
n-
J k (h + 4\
Slot depth. The slot depth is measured • from the slot side for closed slots • from the opposing side for open slots.
Cvl 1
032h9 closed slot
open slot
open slot
10N9x5+0.2
/? = 5+0.2
/
I Qs .
z o
>H
s.
> >
n
tQli ii
\
36+0.3
^ II II
36+0.3 1.1 H13x023 H11
1.3 H13x021h11 f / /
A/
-UJL.
—U-
Simplified dimensioning. For slots represented only in the top view, the slot depth is dimensioned • with the letter h or • in combination with the slot width. With slots for retaining rings the slot depth may also be entered in combination with the slot width. Limit deviations for tolerance classes JS9, N9, P9 and H11: page 109 Slot dimensions • for wedges see page 239 • for fitted keys see page 240 • for retaining rings see page 269
Threads Code designation. Code designators are used for standard threads. V/ '1
/////,
Left hand threads. Left hand threads are marked with LH. If both left hand and right hand threads are found on a workpiece, the right hand threads get the addition RH.
/ / / / / .
Multiple screw threads. For multiple screw threads the pitch and the spacing are entered behind the nominal diameter.
vt // 17
20
Length specifications. These give the usable thread length. The depth of the basic hole (page 211) is normally not dimensioned. Chamfers. Chamfers on threads are only dimensioned if their diameters do not correspond to the thread core or the thread outside diameter.
Radial and linear patterns
20 x 16 (= 320) Identical design elements. The following data is given for spacing of identical design elements having the same distance or angle between them • the number of elements • the distance between the elements • the overall length or overall angle (in parentheses).
80
Technical drawing: 3.
E
n
t
r
i
n
Dimensioning drawings Tolerance specifications
cf. DIN 406-12 (1992-12), DIN ISO 2768-1 (1991-06) and DIN ISO 2768-2 (1991-04)
Tolerance specifications using deviations
CM C+D C +D
cd +
LTl
+0.15 35-0.10
Entry. The deviations are entered • after the nominal size • if there are two deviations, the upper deviation is shown above the lower deviation
CD
20 ±0J
1
LTl
• for equally large upper and lower deviations by a ± mark before the number value, which is only entered once • for angle dimensioning with units specified.
40 -0.1/-0.3 +0° 30' 30°+0° 15'
+ 0° 0' 45' 30°+0° 0' 30'
Tolerance specifications using tolerance classes
Entry. Tolerance classes are entered for • single nominal sizes: after the nominal size • parts shown inserted: the tolerance class of the interior dimension (hole) is before or over the tolerance class of the outer dimension (shaft).
Tolerance specifications for specific areas
7777777 Csl 1 Si
r L 1
zn
Is
/// Cy
1
1
r*-
cd"' '
C— +1 - CQ D
CD
Q
Area of application. The area to which the tolerance applies is bounded by a thin solid line.
1
8
/
Tolerance specifications using general tolerances checked by:
scale:
drawn by:
date:
company:
sheet no.:
1:1 ISO 2768
10
m
DIN 509 - E 0.8x0.3
/
5x 45°
Ra 3.2
NO
LTl m S
2x45(
cn
LTlCsl Si
16
\
40 53
bolts 10 SPb 20 ISO 2768-m
Application. General tolerances are used for • linear and angular dimensions • form and position. They apply to dimensions without individual tolerance entry. Drawing entry. The note for general tolerances (page 110) can be located: • near the individual part drawings • for title blocks according to DIN 6771 (retracted): in the title block. Entries. Given are: • the sheet number of the standard • the tolerance class for linear and angular dimensions • the tolerance class for form and positional tolerances, as needed.
Technical drawing: 3.5 Entering dimensions
81
Dimensioning in drawings Dimensions
cf. DIN 406-10 and -11 (1992-12)
Types of dimensioning basic dimension positional dimensions
Basic Dimensions. The basic dimensions of a workpiece are the • total length • total width • total height. Shape dimensions. Shape dimensions establish, e.g. the • dimensions of slots • dimensions of shoulders.
shape dimensions
basic dimensions
Positional dimensions. These are used to specify the location of • holes • slots • elongated holes, etc.
Special dimensions Rough dimensions Function. Rough dimensions might be used to give information about, for example, the dimensions of cast or forged workpieces before machining.
/
Labeling. Rough dimensions are put in brackets.
Auxiliary dimensions
/
Function. Auxiliary dimensions give additional information. They are not necessary to geometrically define the workpiece. Labeling. Auxiliary dimensions are • put in parentheses • entered without tolerances.
30 [35]
rough dimension
Dimensions not drawn to scale Labeling. Dimensions not drawn to scale might be used for drawing changes, for example, and they are marked by underlining.
t =2 25
Prohibited are underlined dimensions in computer aided (CAD) drawings.
20 Control dimensions Function. It should be noted that these dimensions are especially checked by the purchaser. If necessary a 100% check will be performed. Labeling. Control dimensions are set in frames with rounded ends.
W////////A
•z: (42-0.1100%
Theoretically precise dimensions Function. These dimensions give the geometrically ideal (theoretically precise) position of the shape of a design feature. Labeling. The dimensions are placed in a frame without tolerance specifications and correspond with geometric tolerancing.
82
Technical drawing: 3.
E
n
t
r
i
n
Types of dimensioning Parallel dimensioning, running dimensioning, coordinate dimensioning1* cf. DIN 406-11 (1992-12) Stack dimensioning
Dimension lines. Several dimension lines are entered together for • stacked linear dimensions • concentric angular dimensions.
t = 12
Running dimensioning
Origin. The dimensions are entered outwards from the origin in each of the three possible directions. The origin is indicated by a small circle. Dimension lines. The following applies for the entries: • As a rule only one dimension line is used for each direction. • If there is limited space two or more dimension lines may be used. The dimension lines may also be shown broken. Dimensions • must be provided with a minus sign if they are entered from the origin in the opposite direction. • may also be entered in the reading direction.
Coordinate dimensioning Item X Y d 1 50 50 040 2 180 190 030 3 220 115 075 4 325 50
Cartesian coordinates (page 63) Coordinate values. These are • entered in tables or • entered near the coordinate points.
X = 180 - f X = 220 Y = 190 1 i Y = 115 030 X = 50 i 075 X = 325 _l_ Y = 50 040 t = 12 ' Y = 5 0 X
Item r d V 1* ' 140 0° 030 140 30° 030 2 3 I 100 60° 030 140 90° 030 4 1)
Point of origin. The point of origin • is entered with a small circle • can lie at any location of the drawing. Dimensions. These must be provided with a minus sign if they are entered from the origin in the opposite direction to the positive direction.
Polar coordinates (page 63) Coordinate values. The coordinate values are entered in tables.
Parallel dimensioning, running dimensioning and coordinate dimensioning may be combined with each other.
83
T e c h n i c a l d r a w i n g : 3.5 E n t e r i n g d i m e n s i o n s
Simplified presentation in drawings Simplified representation of holes
cf. DIN 6780 (2000-10)
Hole base, line widths for simplified representation Full scale representation, full scale dimensioning
Full scale representation, simplified dimensioning
010
Simplified representation, simplified dimensioning
01Ox14U
01Ox14U z:
010x1411
01Ox14U
01Ox14U
m
Hole base The shape of the hole base is given by a symbol if necessary. The symbol U for example means a flat hole base (cylindrical end bore). Line widths For holes depicted in simplified form, the positions of holes should be drawn as: • simply the intersecting axes in the top view • the position of the holes in thick solid lines in parallel axis representation.
Stepped holes, countersinks and chamfers, internal threads ,011.
011x6.5U
011x6.5U
^
06.6
06.6
A1
011x6.51) 06.6
Stepped holes For holes with two or more steps the dimensions are written under each other. Here the largest diameter is written on the first line.
011x6.5U 06.6
v 012.4x90°
012.4x90°
06.6
06.6
/
/ X
'A Ya M10x15/20
M1Qx15/20 V
Internal threads The thread length and the hole depth are separated by a slash. Holes without depth specification are drilled through.
/
A
012x90° 01OH7
012x90° 01OH7
01OH7
Countersinks and chamfers For countersinks and hole chamfers the largest countersink diameter and the countersink angle are given.
£
Hole 0 10H7 Through hole Chamfer 1 x 45c
2 M10-LH
M10-LHx12
M10-LHx12 4L
08x0.3 08x90° 04.3
08x0.3 08x90° 04.3
Left hand thread M10 Thread length 12 mm Drilled through core hole
Cylindrical countersink 0 8 Bore depth 0.3 mm Through hole 0 4 . 3 with cone shaped counterbore 90° Countersink diameter 0 8
84
Technical drawing: 3.
a c e
nts
Gear types Representation of gears
cf. DIN ISO 2203 (1976-06)
Spur gear
Bevel gear
Worm gear
EZZ
External helical gear
Internal spur gear left-hand
zzzz
77Z righfy hand
Rack and Pinion
c Worm and worm gear
Bevel gear set (shaft angle 90°)
€ Sprockets
L___r Positive drive belts
Technical drawing: 3.
a c e
nts
Roller bearings Representation of roller bearings Representation simplified
Elements of a detailed simplified representation explanation
graphical
cf. DIN ISO 8826-1 (1990-12) and DIN ISO 8826-2 (1995-10)
element
Long, straight line; for representing the axis of the roller bearing elements for bearings that cannot be adjusted.
For general purposes a roller bearing is represented as square or rectangular with a free-standing upright cross.
If necessary, the roller bearing can be represented by its outline and a free-standing upright cross.
explanation, application
Long, curved line; for representing the axis of the roller bearing elements for bearings that can be adjusted (self-aligning bearing). Short straight line; used to represent the position and number of rows of roller bearing elements.
o
Circle; for the representation of roller bearing elements (balls, roller, needle rollers) which are drawn perpendicular to their axis.
Examples of detailed simplified representation of roller bearings Representation of single-row roller bearings detailed •- • designation .... . graphical simplified
±Z2l
Radial-deep groove ball bearings, cylindrical roller bearings
Representation of double row roller bearings d e t a i l e d
simplified
m
Angular-contact ball bearing, tapered roller bearing / /
m
/
Needle bearing, needle roller assembly
FR
f-
Spherical roller bearing, radialspherical roller bearing
Angular-contact ball bearings
H
h
Needle bearing, needle roller assembly
Axial-deep grooved ball bearing, axial-roller bearing
Axial-deep grooved ball bearing, dual action
Axial-spherical roller bearing
Axial-deep grooved ball bearing with spherical seating, dual action
Combined ball bearings H
designation Radial-deep groove ball bearings, cylindrical roller bearings
++
Radial spherical roller bearing (barrel-shaped bearing)
a
graphical
Combined radial-needle bearing with angular-contact ball bearing Combined axial-ball bearing with radial needle bearing
Representation perpendicular to the rolling element axis
Roller bearing with any desired type of roller element shape (balls, rollers, needles)
86
Technical drawing: 3.
a c e
nts
Representation of seals and roller bearings Simplified representation of seals
cf. DIN ISO 9222-1 (1990-12) and DIN ISO 9222-2 (1991-03)
Representation simplified
graphical
Elements of a detailed simplified representation explanation
element
Long line parallel to the sealing surface; for the fixed (static) sealing element.
For general purposes a seal is represented by a square or rectangle and a separate diagonal crossmark. The sealing direction can be given by an arrow.
X
explanation, application
Long diagonal line; for the dynamic sealing element; e.g. the sealing lip. The sealing direction can be given by an arrow. Short diagonal line; for dust lip seal, scraper rings. Short lines pointing to the middle of the symbol; for the static parts of U-rings und V-rings, packing.
X
If necessary, the seals can be represented by the outline and a free-standing diagonal cross-mark.
f=
Short lines, which point to the middle of the symbol; for the sealing lips of Urings und V-rings, packing.
u
T and U; for non-contact seals.
Examples of detailed simplified representation of seals Shaft seals and piston rod seals detailed simplified
graphical
Profile gaskets, packing sets, labyrinth seals
designation for rotation linear motion Shaft seal without dust lip seal
Rod seal without stripper
X
Shaft seal with dust lip seal
Rod seal with stripper
X
Shaft seal, dual action
Rod seal, dual action
detailed simplified
detailed simplified
graphical
>-
A
»
)
Examples of simplified representation of seals and roller bearings Deep grooved roller bearings and radial shaft seal with dust lip seal 11
Packing set2*
Dual row deep grooved roller bearings and radial shaft seal 2 '
m
1) 2)
Top half: simplified representation; bottom half: graphical representation. Top half: detailed simplified representation; bottom half: graphical representation.
M
»>
graphical
Technical drawing: 3.
a c e
nts
Representation of retaining rings. Slots for retaining rings, Springs, Splines and serrations Representation of retaining rings and slots for retaining rings
t n \
Retaining rings for shafts (page 269)
Deviations
Assembly dimension
Representation
¥
reference plane for dimensioning 1 '
___ _
mH13
i m
a = roller bearing width + retaining ring width
im reference plane for dimensioning 1 '
Retaining rings for holes (page 269)
1)
Deviations for d 2 : upper deviation: 0 (zero) lower deviation: negative Deviations for a: upper deviation: positive lower deviation: 0 (zero)
Deviations for d2. upper deviation: positive lower deviation: 0 (zero) Deviations for a: upper deviation: positive lower deviation: 0 (zero)
For functional reasons the reference plane for the dimensioning of slots is the locating face of the part to be secured.
Representation of springs Representation section view
Name
cf. DIN ISO 2162-1 (1994-08) Symbol
Name
Cylindrical helical compression spring (round wire)
Cylindrical helical tension spring
Cylindrical helical tension spring
Cylindrical helical compression spring (square wire)
Disk spring (simple)
Representation of splines and serrations Hub
Shaft
Symbol:
Symbol
cf. DIN ISO 6413(1990-03)
Splines or spline hubs with straight flanks.
Joint J~L
- S b
JT
Toothed shafts or toothed hubs with involute splines or serrations.
section
Disk spring assembly (disks layered in alternating directions)
Disk spring assembly (disks layered in the same direction)
Symbol:
Representation view
IP* —
2
ir _n
s\\\\l Splines ISO 14-6 x 26 f7 x 30: Spline profile with straight flanks according to ISO 14, number of splines N = 6, inner diameter d= 26f7, outer diameter D= 30 (page 241)
88
Technical drawing: 3.
o r e
nts
Bosses on turned parts, Workpiece corners and edges Bosses on turned parts Boss VworkPiece dimensions
cf. DIN 6785(1991-11)
boss
Largest diameter of the finished part in mm Boss dimen- up to 3 over 3 over 5 over 8 over 12 over 18 over 26 over 40 sions to 8 to 26 to 40 to 5 to 12 to 18 to 60
r- 00.5
in mm
/r Example
max
0.3
0.5
0.8
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.5
0.2
0.3
0.5
0.6
0.9
1.2
2.0
3.0
0.3 Drawing entry
j
'max in mm
1> 00.5x0,3
Workpiece corners and edges
Workpiece edge/corner lies in reference to the ideal geometrical form inside outside in area
Edge or corner outer edge
burr
material removal a. a
l£
sharp edged J
\
<•0
13
fa
material removal
inner edge LL u r
cf. DIN ISO 13715 (2000-12), replacement for DIN 6784
transition a
ft, '
Dim. a (mm)
]/
E
OJ
\
-0.1;-0.3;-0.5;-1.0;-2.5
Symbol for labeling workpiece edges/corners
Symbol element
1)
a
\II
'
|\
+0.1;+0.3;+0.5;+1.0;+2.5 Meaning for
outer edge Burr allowed, material removal not allowed
field for entering dimension
m
sharp edged
-0.05;-0.02;+0.02;+0.05
Burr and material removal direction
inner edge Transition allowed, material removal not allowed
Specification allowed for
Removal required, Removal required, burr not transition not allowed allowed
Example
Burr or transition allowed
Meaning
Material removal or transition allowed
outer edge
inner edge
Burr
Material removal
+1 L
r
only allowed with a dimension callout
Labeling of workpiece corners and edges Examples
Collective indications
t0.3 ^0.5 - t U Collective indications apply to all edges for which an edge condition is not given. Edges for which the collective indication does not apply must be marked in the drawing. The exceptions are placed after the collective indication in parentheses or indicated by the base symbol. Collective indications which are only valid for outside or inside edges are given by the corresponding symbols.
J=+0.3 XL
-0.1
L05
XKT [±0.02
IKT
Outside edge without burr. The allowable material removal is between 0 and 0.3 mm. Outside edge with allowable burr of 0 to 0.3 mm (burr direction specified). Inside edge with allowable material removal between 0.1 and 0.5 mm (material removal direction not specified). Inside edge with allowable material removal between 0 and 0.02 mm or allowable transition up to 0.02 mm (sharp edged).
Technical drawing: 3.
o r e
nts
Thread runouts, Thread undercuts Thread runouts for metric ISO threads External thread
Pitch 1)
ISO standard thread
P
d
--t -
J— r
0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
—
0.4 0.45 0.5 0.6
M2 M2.5 M3
0.7 0.75 0.8 1
Internal thread
1)
2)
Ml -
M1.6
-
M4 -
M5 M6
cf. DIN 76-1 (2004-06) Thread runout 2 ' a
Pitch 1)
ISO standard thread
P
d
max. 0.5 0.6 0.75 0.9
i max. 0.6 0.75 0.9 1.05
1.3 1.5 1.8 2.1
1.25 1.5 1.75 2
1 1.1 1.25 1.5
1.2 1.35 1.5 1.8
2.3 2.6 2.8 3.4
1.75 1.9 2 2.5
2.1 2.25 2.4 3
3.8 4 4.2 5.1
Thread runout 2 '
M8 M10 M12 M16
*1 max. 3.2 3.8 4.3 5
max. 3.75 4.5 5.25 6
6.2 7.3 8.3 9.3
2.5 3 3.5 4
M20 M24 M30 M36
6.3 7.5 9 10
7.5 9 10.5 12
11.2 13.1 15.2 16.8
4.5 5 5.5 6
M42 M48 M56 M64
11 12.5 14 15
13.5 15 16.5 18
30° min
Internal thread form C and form D
Lx!
—
x / / / V
/
/ ,
18.4 20.8 22.4 24
For fine threads the dimension of the thread runout is chosen according to the pitch P. As a rule; applies if no other entries are given. If a shorter thread runout is necessary, this applies: x2 « 0.5 • x-|," 32*0.67-3-,; e2 « 0.625 • e^ If a longer thread runout is necessary, this applies: a3 « 1.3 • ay, e3 *> 1.6 •
Screw thread undercuts for metric ISO threads External thread form A and form B
ei
Pitch 1)
ISO standard thread
p
d
cf. DIN 76-1 (2004-06) External threads Form A 2 ' Form B 3 ) 9^ 92 01 92 min. max. min. max. 0.45 0.7 0.25 0.5 0.55 0.9 0.25 0.6 0.75 0.6 1.05 0.3 0.7 1.2 0.4 0.9
Internal threads Form C 2 ' Form D 3 ' 01 92 01 92 H13 min. max. min. max. d + 0.1 0.8 1.2 0.5 0.9 1 1.4 0.6 1 d + 0.1 1.2 1.6 0.75 1.25 d+0.1 d+0.2 1.4 1.9 0.9 1.4
r
d Q h13
0.1 0.12 0.16 0.16
d-0.3 of-0.4 d-0.5 d-0.6
0.2 0.2 0.2 0.4
d-0.7 d-0.7 d-0.8 d- 1
0.8 1 1.1 1.2
1.4 1.6 1.75 2.1
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.6
1 1.1 1.25 1.5
d+0.2 d+0.2 d+0.3 d+0.3
1.6 1.8 2 2.4
2.2 2.4 2.7 3.3
1 1.1 1.25 1.5
1.6 1.7 2 2.4
M5 M6
0.4 0.4 0.4 0.6
d-1.1 d- 1.2 d-1.3 d-1.6
1.5 1.6 1.7 2.1
2.45 2.6 2.8 3.5
0.8 0.9 0.9 1.1
1.75 1.9 2 2.5
d + 0.3 d + 0.3 d+0.3 d+0.5
2.8 3 3.2 4
3.8 4 4.2 5.2
1.75 1.9 2 2.5
2.75 2.9 3 3.7
1.25 1.5 1.75 2
M8 M10 M12 M16
0.6 0.8 1 1
d-2 d-2.3 d - 2.6 d-3
2.7 3.2 3.9 4.5
4.4 5.2 6.1 7
1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5
3.2 3.8 4.3 5
d+0.5 d+0.5 d+0.5 d+0.5
5 6 7 8
6.7 7.8 9.1 10.3
3.2 3.8 4.3 5
4.9 5.6 6.4 7.3
2.5 3 3.5 4
M20 M24 M30 M36
1.2 1.6 1.6 2
d-3.6 d - 4.4 d-5 d - 5.7
5.6 8.7 6.7 10.5 7.7 12 14 9
3.2 3.7 4.7 5
6.3 7.5 9 10
d+0.5 d+0.5 d+0.5 d+0.5
10 12 14 16
13 6.3 9.3 15.2 7.5 10.7 17.7 9 12.7 14 20 10
4.5 5 5.5 6
M42 M48 M56 M64
2 2.5 3.2 3.2
d - 6.4 10.5 16 6-1 11.5 17.5 d-7.7 12.5 19 d-8.3 14 21
5.5 6.5 7.5 8
11 12.5 14 15
d + 0.5 d + 0.5 d + 0.5 d+0.5
18 20 22 24
23 26 28 30
0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
-
0.4 0.45 0.5 0.6
M2 M2.5 M3
0.7 0.75 0.8 1
M1 -
M1.6
-
M4 -
11 12.5 14 15
16 18.5 20 21
DIN 76-C: Screw thread undercut shape C 1)
30° min.
2) 3)
For fine thread screws the dimension of the thread undercut is chosen according to the pitch P. as a rule; always applies if no other entries are made Only in cases where a shorter thread undercut is required.
90
Technical drawing: 3.
o r e
nts
Representation of threads and screw joints Representation of threads
cf. DIN ISO 6410-1 (1993-12) Internal thread
V/s
V T V
£ T/
-f+4-
v
/
•
/
/
/
b
/
£•1
e^ accord, to DIN 76-1. Thread runout is normally not shown.
Bolt thread
Bolts in internal thread
2
Thread undercut graphical
Pipe threads and pipe screw joints symbolic
DIN76-D
DIN76-A
Representation of screw joints Hexagonal bolt and nut detailed
simplified
h2 h3 e s d
Screw joint w i t h cap screw
bolt head hight nut height washer thickness diagonal between corners width across flats thread nominal 0
Screw joint with hexagonal screw
h 2 « 0.8 • t/ e *2-d s ^ 0.87 • e
Screw joint with countersunk head screw
Screw joint w i t h stud
Technical drawing: 3.
o r e
nts
Center holes. Knurls Center holes form R
cf. DIN 332-1 (1986-04) Nominal sizes
form A Form
,!
2.12
2.5 1.25 1.6 2 2.65 3.35 4.25 5.3
1.9
2.3
1
d, d2
CM "ta
2.9
4.6
3.7
3.15 4 6.7 8.5 7.4
5.8
1.9
2.3
2.9
3.7
4.6
5.9
7.4 11
'min
2.2
2.7
3.4
4.3
5.4
3.5
4.5
5.5
6.6
8.3
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.8
6.3
3.15 ^mir
Form
10
1.9
2.3
2.9
3.7
4.6
3.5
4.5
5.5
6.6
8.3
0.4
0.6
0.7
0.9
0.9
4.5
5.3
6.3
7.5
7.1
8.5
12.7 1.2
12.5
5.9 10
7.4 12.7
1.1
1.7
9.2
11.4
14.7 22
18 11.5
14.8
14
18
22
10.8
12.9
16.4
15.6 20 1.6
16 9.2
1.6
1.4 18
22.4
11.5
14.8
15.6 20 1.7
25
25
2.3
14
18
22.4 28
12.5 16
20
25
11.2
10
8.6
0.9 10
31.5
curved bearing surface, without protective countersink straight bearing surface, without protective countersink straight bearing surface, conical protective countersink straight bearing surface, truncated conical protective counter sink
Drawing callout for center holes A center hole is required on the finished part
6.8
9.2 14
11
a
6.3 8 5 10.6 13.2 17
cf. DIN ISO 6411 (1997-11) A center hole may not be present on the finished part
A center hole is allowed on the finished part ISO 6411 -A4/8.5
/
ISO 6411 -A4/8.5
K ' S O 6411 -A4/8.5
< ISO 6411 - A4/8.5: center hole ISO 6411: a center hole is required on the finished part. Form and dimensions of the center hole according to DIN 332: form A; d-\ = 4 mm; d2 = 8.5 mm.
Knurls
cf. DIN 82 (1973-01) Letter symbol
Representation
RAA
dy nominal diameter d2 initial diameter t spacing Standard spacing values f: 0.5; 0.6; 0.8; 1.0; 1.2; 1.6 m m
RBR
RBL RGE
Drawing entry (example): DIN 82-RGE 0.8
RGV RKE RKV
-30(
i i
Name
Point shape
Initial diameter d2
Knurls with axially parallel grooves
do = d^ - 0.5 • t
Right-hand knurl
d2 = d
Left-hand knurl
do = di - 0.5 • t
Left-hand/righthand knurls Axial and circumferential knurl
raised
do = di - 0.67 • t
recessed
d? = d-i- 0.33 • t
raised
do = d^- 0.67 • t
recessed
d2 = dy- 0.33 • t
DIN 82-RGE 0.8: Left-hand/right-hand knurls, raised points, t = 0.8 mm
92
Technical drawing: 3.
o r e
nts
Undercuts Undercuts1}
cf. DIN 509 (2006-12)
form E for cylindrical surface to be further machined
form F for shoulders and cylindrical surfaces to be further machined z
form G form H for small transition for planar and cylindrical surfaces (for low loading) to be further machined z
Zv Z 2 = machining allowances Undercut DIN 509 - E 0.8 x 0.3: form E, radius r= 0.8 mm, undercut depth f, = 0.3 mm Undercut dimensions and countersink dimensions 2)
Form
r
:i 0.1
h
t2
f
Correlation tc> diameter d-\3) for workptieces with
9
normal loading
Series Series + 0.1 + 0.05 + 0.2 1 0 0 2 0 R0.2
-
R0.4
2
2) 3)
H
(0.9)
> 0 1.6-03
-
0.2x0.1
0.2
0
-
-
> 0 3 - 0 18
-
0.4x0.2
0.3
0
-
-
R0.6
0.2
0.1
2
> 0 1 0 - 0 18
-
0.6x0.2
0.5
0.15
-
-
R0.6
0.3
0.2
2.5
(2.1)
> 0 1 8 - 0 80
-
0.6x0.3
0.4
0
-
-
> 0 1 8 - 0 80
-
0.8 x 0.3
0.6
0.05
-
-
1.0x0.2
0.9
0.45
-
-
1.0x0.4
0.7
0
-
-
1.2x0.2
1.1
0.6
-
-
1.2x0.4
0.9
0.1
-
-
1.6x0.3
1.4
0.6
-
-
0.3
0.2
2.5
(2.3)
-
R1
0.2
0.1
2.5
(1.8)
-
R1
0.4
0.3
4
(3.2)
0.2
0.1
2.5
(2)
-
-
> 0 1 8 - 0 50
-
> 0 80
-
> 0 1 8 - 0 50
-
0.4
0.3
4
(3.4)
R1.6
-
0.3
0.2
4
(3.1)
-
> 0 5 0 - 0 80
R2.5
-
0.4
0.3
5
(4.8)
-
> 0 8 0 - 0 125
2.5 x 0.4
2.2
1.0
-
-
R4
-
0.5
0.3
7
(6.4)
-
> 0 125
4.0x0.5
3.6
2.1
-
-
R0.4
-
0.2
0.2
(0.9)
(1.1)
R0.8
-
0.3
0.05
(2.0)
R1.2
-
0.3
0.05
(2.4)
(1.1) (1.5)
> 0 80
-
> 0 3 - 0 18
-
0.4x0.2
-
-
0
> 0 1 8 - 0 80
-
0.8 x 0.3
-
-
-
0.35
1.2x0.3
-
-
-
0.65
-
> 0 1 8 - 0 50
4) 1)
Fo rm F G
-
-
R1.2
H
1
0.1
E
-
R1.2
G
0.1
Undercut r x f-|
(1.1) (1.4)
R0.8 E and F
0.1 0.2
increased fatigue strength
Minimum dirnensi on a f: or coijntersink on tl"le opp>osingI piece;4)
All forms of undercut apply to both shafts and holes. Undercuts with Series 1 radii are preferred. The correlation to the diameter area does not apply with curved shoulders and thin walled parts. For workpieces with differing diameters it may be advisable to design all undercuts for all diameters in the same form and size.
-
Countersink dimension a on opposing piece l
° o I CN
-
H
Drawing entry for undercuts Normally undercuts are represented in drawings as a simplified entry with the designator. However they can also be completely drawn and dimensioned. Example: Shaft with undercut DIN 509 - F1.2 x 0.2
Example: Hole with undercut- DIN 509- E1.2 x 0.2
simplified entry
simplified entry
DIN 509-F 1.2x0.2
/
77m
DIN 509-E 1.2x0.2
0.1+0.05 2.5+0.2 complete entry
complete entry
X
y
93
Technical drawing: 3.8 Welding and soldering
Symbols for Welding and Soldering Positioning of symbols for welding and soldering in drawings
cf. DIN EN 22553 (1997-03)
Basic terms
solid reference line arrow line
weld symbol
x
I
tail
Reference line. This consists of the solid reference line and the dashed reference line. The dashed reference line runs parallel to the solid reference line and above or below it. The dashed reference line is omitted for symmetrical welds. Arrow line. It connects the solid reference line with the joint.
joint (e.g. butt joint)
Tail. Additional entries can be given here as needed for: • method, process • working position • evaluation group • additional material Joint. Orientation of the parts to be joined to each other.
Weld information symbolic
Symbol. The symbol identifies the form of the weld. It is preferably placed normal to the solid reference line, or if necessary on the dashed reference line.
V P *
7
a3 17"
a a4
"arrow side"
/ //
"other side"
/
I7I
arrow line
>
Arrangement of the weld symbol position of the weld symbol
position of the weld (weld surface)
solid reference line
"arrow side"
dashed reference line
"other side"
For welds represented in section or view, the position of the symbol must agree with the weld cross section. Arrow side. The arrow side is that side of the joint to which the arrow line refers.
'other side'
V
Other side. The other side of the joint that is opposite the arrow side.
arrow line "arrow side'
Supplemental and auxiliary symbols
Weld surface hollow (concave)
Weld all around
r
Weld surface flat (planar)
Field weld (weld is made on the construction site)
/ ,
cf. DIN EN 22553 (1997-03)
<^23
jf
Entry of the welding process in the tail
Weld surface curved (convex)
JO
Weld surface notch free
Representation in drawings (basic symbols) Weld type/ symbol
graphical
Representation symbolic
cf. DIN EN 22553(1997-03) Weld type/ symbol
graphical
Representation symbolic
I iiiiiiiiiiiii
SL
/—
I
Butt weld
II jTT
£
r
V groove weld
V £ R
r
94
Technical drawing: 3.8 Welding and soldering
Symbols for Welding and Soldering Representation in drawings (basic symbols) Weld type/ symbol
Representation graphical
Weld type/ symbol
symbolic
Flare-V groove weld
cf. DIN EN 22553 (1997-03)
£
graphical
Representation symbolic
L
f * -
j/
J/
TV
T\
X.
X
Bevel groove weld
V
Plug welding
I f
Si-
Y-butt weld
Frontal flush weld
£
3
Steepflanked weld
£
\L
r>r\
AL
V
\i Build-up weld
[77
r
£ t
IMmI I
V
Fold weld
J-groove weld
= = = =
£
-
2
I
Y
U-groove weld
ar
1 f
HY-weld
aB Weld all around
—
1
b-
Spot weld
—
w
A
J
O
Fillet weld
Line weld 5BM03SB
aB
Field weld with 3 mm seam thickness
aBjs^ Surface weld r ~ i alb,
Vssss/A
I
I
95
Technical drawing: 3.8 Welding and soldering
Symbols for Welding and Soldering Composite symbols for symmetrical welds 1) (examples) Weld type
Representation
Symbol
D(ouble)V-weld (X-weld)
D(ouble)bevel weld
Weld type
Symbol
x
D(ouble)HY-weld
K
K
D(ouble)U-weld 1)
X
D(ouble)Y-weld
cf. DIN EN 22553 (1997-03)
The symbols are located symmetrical to the reference line. Example:
Application examples for auxiliary symbols Weld type Flat V-weld
V
Convex double V-weld Y-weld with backing run
2
m
symbolic
Weld type
Symbol
Flat reworked V-weld
V
Representation
V
Flat V-weld with flat backing run
x
Hollow fillet weld, weld transfer unnotched
X
Dimensioning examples
cf. DIN EN 22553 (1997-03)
Representation and dimensioning graphical symbolic
Weld type
graphical
cf. DIN EN 22553 (1997-03)
Representation
Symbol
Representation
Meaning of the symbolic dimension entry
s4 l-weld (penetrating)
(7
Butt weld, penetrating, weld seam thickness s = 4 mm
7 K s3
l-weld (non-penetrating)
Flare-V groove weld
V-weld (penetrating weld) with backing run
/
/ /.
\ -S2_JL
31
L
111/IS0 5817-C/ w - V - < ( ISO 69A-7-PA/ EN 499-E 42 0 RR12
-Zl
1)
Supplementary requirements can be entered in a tail at the end of a reference line.
Butt weld, non-penetrating, weld seam thickness s = 3 mm, running over the entire workpiece Flare-V groove weld, not completely melted down, weld seam thickness s= 2 mm
V-weld (penetrating weld) with backing run, fabricated by manual arc welding (code 111 accord, to DIN EN ISO 4063), required evaluation group C accord, to ISO 5817; flat welding position PA accord, to ISO 6947; electrode E 42 0 RR 12 accord, to DIN EN 499
96
Technical drawing: 3.8 Welding and soldering
Symbols for Welding and Soldering, Representation of adhesive, folded and pressed joints Dimensioning examples (continued) Weld type
Representation and dimensioning graphical symbolic J3jv / J
Meaning of the symbolic dimension entry jiK.
£
Fillet weld (continuous)
Fillet weld, weld leg thickness z = 4 mm (side length of the isosceles triangle)
/ ^30
^30
Fillet weld (interrupted)
')))))] mmi 20
Fillet weld (interrupted), weld leg thickness a = 5 mm; 2 single welds each with / = 20 mm length; weld spacing e = 10 mm, end distance v = 30 mm
a5|\2x20(10)
/
I
20 \
(10)
Double fillet weld (interrupted)
a4|\ 3x30(10) / aA-^j x30 (10)
>)))))) ))))))) ))))))'
Double fillet weld (interrupted, symmetrical), weld leg thickness a = 4 mm; single weld length / = 30 mm, weld spacing e = 10 mm, without end distance
>))))); )))))). mr. 30 10 30 10 30 25 20
Double fillet weld (interrupted, staggered)
30
I))))
30
z5 k 2 X 2 0 " 7(30) ' z5 ^ 3 x 2 0 / -(30)
25
i)))):
))))).
')))). 20
20
20
»))). 30
20
Symbolic representation of adhesive, folded and pressed joints (examples) Type of joint
Weld type/ symbol
Meaning/ drawing entry
Type of joint
Fillet weld, weld leg thickness a = 3 mm (height of the isosceles triangle)
Double fillet weld (interrupted, staggered), weld leg thickness z = 5 mm; single weld length / = 20 mm, weld spacing e = 30 mm, end distance v=25 mm
cf. DIN EN ISO 15785 (2002-12) Weld type/ symbol
Meaning/ drawing entry
20
7
Surface seam 1 )
Folded seam
6x7
5x20=
e>
7
Adhesive bondedseams
1
7 05
Slant seam 1 )
z : Pressed seam
Pressed seam 5 x4H Z S $
1)
1 u NO
—
Folded seam
The adhesive media is not shown for adhesive seams.
-
4
97
Technical drawing: 3.9 Surfaces
Heat treated parts - Hardness specifications Presentation and indication of heat treated parts on drawings
cf. DIN 6773 (2001-04)
Heat treatment specifications Term(s) for material condition Examples: quenched and tempered hardened hardened and tempered
hardness value
HRC HV HB
rockwell hardness vickers hardness brinell hardness
Measuring points. Entering and dimensioning in the drawing with symbol
hardness indentation
Eht Nht Rht
case hardening thickness nitriding depth effective hardening depth
Heat treatment diagram. Simplified, usually reduced scale representation of the part near the title block.
carburizing depth nitride white layer thickness
Minimum tensile strength or microstructure. If it is possible to test a part treated in the same batch.
HTA WL
annealed
All entries are made with plus tolerances.
nitrided
Possible additions
Measurable parameters of the material condition
Identifying areas of the surface to undergo localized heat treatment y/'//)/ \ V / / / / / \
y , , , , , • v / / / / / \
Area must be heat treated.
Intermediate area may
Area may be heat treated.
\Z////y\
n o t b e
h e a t
treated.
Heat treatment specifications in drawings (examples) Heat treatment of the entire part same requirements different requirements
Method Quenching and tempering,
3K
Hardening, Hardening and tempering
TTi ' J 60
quenched and tempered 350 + 50 HB 2.5/187.5
r
p
^
Heat treatment localized T|
r 75 + 10 hardened and tempered 58+ 4 HRC © 4 0 + 5 HRC
•—" "rTo + 5 hardened and entire part tempered 60 + 3 HRC
Nitriding, Case hardening
1_ nitrided >900 HV 10 Nht = 0.3+ 0.1
Surfaced hardening surface hardened 620 + 120 HV 50 Rht 500 = 0.8 + 0.8
case-hardened and tempered © 6 0 + 4 HRC Eht = 0.5 + 0.3 (D <52 HRC
case-hardened and tempered 700 + 100 HV 10 Eht = 1.2 + 0.5
surface hardened and entire part tempered © 5 4 + 6 HRC © «= 35 HRC © <30 HRC
surface hardened and tempered 6 1 + 4 HRC Rht 600 = 0.8 + 0.8
Hardening depths and tolerances in mm Case-hardening depth Eht
0.05+0.03
0.1+0.1
0.3+0.2
0.5+0.3
0.8+0.4
1.2+0.5
1.6+0.6
Nitriding depth Nht
0.05+0.02
0.1+0.05
0.15+0.02
0.2+0.1
0.25+0.1
0.3+0.1
0.35+0.15
Induction hardening depth Rht
0.2+0.2
0.4+0.4
0.6+0.6
0.8+0.8
1.0+1.0
1.3+1.1
1.6+1.3
Laser/electr. beam hardening depth Rht
0.2+0.1
0.4+0.2
0.6+0.3
0.8+0.4
1.0+0.5
1.3+0.6
1.6+0.8
Control limit hardnesses at the specified hardening depths Case-hardening depth Eht
550 HV 1
Nitriding depth Nht
core hardness + 50 HV 0.5
Effective hardening depth Rht
0.8 • minimum surface hardness, calculated in HV
98
Technical drawing: 3.9 Surfaces
Form deviations and roughness parameters Form deviations
cf. DIN 4760 (1982-06)
Form deviations are deviations of the actual surface (surfaces ascertainable by measurement) from the geometrically ideal surface, whose standard shape is defined by the drawing. Degrees of form deviation (Profile secExamples tion repres. with vertical exaggeration) 1st degree: form deviation
Possible causes
deviation in straightness, roundness
Deflection of the workpiece or the machine during fabrication of the part, malfunction or wear in the guides of the machine tool.
2nd degree: waviness
waves
Vibrations of the machine, runout or shape deviation of a milling machine during fabrication of the part.
3rd degree: roughness
grooves
Geometry of the cutting tool, feed or depth of cut of the tool during fabrication of the part
4th degree: roughness
scoring, scales, bumps
Sequence of chip formation (e.g. tearing chip), surface deformation due to blasting during fabrication of the part.
5th and 6th degree: roughness Cannot be represented as a simple profile section
matrix structure, lattice structure
Crystallization cycles, matrix changes due to welding or hot working, changes due to chemical effects, e.g. corrosion, etching.
zi
Surface texture profiles and parameters
cf. DIN EN ISO 4287 (1998-10) and DIN EN ISO 4288 (1998-04)
Surface profile
Parameters
Explanations
Primary profile (act. profile , P profile)
Total height of the profile Pt
The primary profile represents the foundation for calculating the parameters of the primary profile and forms the basis for the waviness and roughness profiles. The total height of the profile Pt is the sum of the height of the highest profile peak Zp and the depth of the lowest profile trough 2V within the evaluation length / n .
Waviness profile (W-profile)
Total height of the profile Wt
The waviness profile is obtained by low-pass filtering, i.e. by suppressing the short wavelength components of the profile. The total height of the profile Wt is the sum of the height of the highest profile peak Zp and the depth of the lowest profile trough Zvwithin the evaluation length / n .
Total height of the profile Rt
The roughness profile is obtained by high-pass filtering, i.e. by suppressing the long wavelength components of the profile. The total height of the profile Rt is the sum of the height of the highest profile peak Zp and the depth of the lowest profile trough Zvwithin the evaluation length / n .
Rp, Rv
Height of the highest profile peak Zp, depth of the lowest profile trough Zv within the single evaluation length / r .
Highest peak of the profile
The highest peak of the profile Rz is the sum of the height of the highest profile peak Zp and the depth of the lowest profile trough Zv within the single evaluation length / r .
Arithmetic mean of the profile ordinates fla1)
The arithmetic mean of the profile ordinates Ra is the arithmetic mean of all ordinate values Z(x) within the single evaluation length / r .
Material ratio of the profile Rmr
The material ratio of the profile expressed as a percentage, Rmr, is the ratio of the sum of the contributing material lengths at a specified section height to the total evaluation length / n .
Center line (x-axis) x
The center line (x-axis) x is the line corresponding to the long wavelength profile component which is suppressed by profile filtering.
in Roughness profile (R-profile)
0
D
•
o/ 100
Rmr in % Z(x) height of the profile at any position x; ordinate value /n /r
evaluation length single evaluation length
1) For parameters defined over a single evaluation length, the arithmetic mean of 5 single evaluation lengths to DIN EN ISO 4288 is used for determining the parameters.
99
Technical drawing: 3.9 Surfaces
Surface testing, Surface indications Measuring sections for roughness Periodic profiles (e.g. turning profiles)
Non-periodic profiles (e.g. grinding and lapping profiles)
Limit wavelength
cf. DIN EN ISO 4288 (1998-04) Non-periodic profiles (e.g. grinding and lapping profiles)
Single/ Periodic total profiles evaluation (e.g. turning length profiles)
Limit wavelength
Single / total evaluation length
Groove width RSm mm
Rz pm
Ra pm
pm
'n mm
groove width RSm mm
Rz pm
Ra pm
pm
/r,/n mm
>0.01-0.04
up to 0.1
up to 0.02
0.08
0.08/0.4
>0.13-0.4
>0.5-10
>0.1-2
0.8
0.8/4
>0.04-0.13
>0.1-0.5
>0.02-0.1
0.25
0.25/1.25
>0.4-1.3
> 10-50
>2-10
2.5
2.5/12.5
Indication of surface finish Symbol
cf. DIN EN ISO 1302 (2002 06) Additional marks
Meaning
/
All manufacturing processes are allowed.
/—
Material removal specified, e.g. turning, milling.
\ /
v-/
a surface parameter11 with numerical value in pm, transfer characteristics/individual evaluation length in mm
£
b secondary surface finish requirement (as described for a)
D Material removal not allowed or the surface remains in delivered condition.
_/ V
a
eVd
^
c manufacturing process d symbol for the required groove direction (table page 100)
All surfaces around the contour must have the same surfacefinish.
Q
/ V
e machining deviation in mm
Examples Symbol
Meaning
10
• material removing machining not allowed • Rz= 10 pm (upper limit) • standard transfer characteristic3' • standard evaluation length 41 • "16% rule" 5 1
/ Ra 3.5
• Machining can be done as desired • standard transfpr characteristic31 . Ra = 3.5 pm (upper limit) • standard evaluation length 41 • "16% rule" 5 1
^/Rz V
V
r/ Rzmax ^
11 21
31
41 51 61
—— 0.5
• material removal machining • Rz= 0.5 pm (upper limit) • standard transfer characteristic31 • standard evaluation length 41 • "max. rule" 6 1
Symbol
^ P Ra
Meaning • material removal machining • Ra = 8 pm (upper limit) • standard transfer characteristic31 • standard evaluation length 41 • "16% rule" 5 1 • applies all around the contour
8
ground /0.008-4/Ra 0.5 Vl0.008-/f/Ra
1.6 0.8
• material removal machining • manufacturing process grinding • Ra = 1.6 pm (upper limit) • Ra = 0.8 pm (lower limit) • for both Ra values: ..16% rule" 5 1 • transfer characteristic each 0.008 to 4 mm • standard evaluation length 41 • machining deviation 0.5 mm • surface grooves vertical
surface parameter, e.g. Rz, consists of the profile (here the roughness profile R) and the parameters (here: z). transfer characteristic: wavelength range between the short wavelength filter As and the long wavelength filter Ac. The wavelength of the long wavelength filter corresponds to the single evaluation length / r . If no transfer characteristic is entered, then the standard transfer characteristic applies 31 . standard transfer characteristic: the limit wavelength for measurement of the roughness parameters is dependent upon the roughness profile and is taken from tables. standard evaluation length / n = 5 x single evaluation length / r . "16% rule": only 16% of all measured values may exceed the chosen parameter. "max. rule" ("highest value rule"): no measured value may exceed the specified highest value.
100
Technical drawing: 3.
races
Surface finish symbols Indication of surface finish
cf. DIN EN ISO 1302 (2002-06)
Symbols for groove direction
Representation of groove direction
EZI
JU
P
rai
Symbol Groove direction
X
1 parallel to the projection plane
perpendicular to the projection plane
crossed in two angular directions
M
R
multidirectional
approximately concentric to the center
non-grooved surface, nondirectional or troughs
approximately radial to the center
Sizes of the symbols Letter height h in mm 2.5
3.5
5
7
10
14
20
0.5
0.7
1.0
1.4
2.0
d
0.25 0.35
Hi
3.5
5
7
10
14
20
28
H2
8
11
15
21
30
42
60
Layout of symbols in drawings
Rz 5
Legibility from below or from the right
Layout directly on the surface or with reference and leader lines
Examples of drawing entries
Ra 6 A-A i— / / 0.05 A
Ra 3.5
s/
Rz 10 Rz 1.5
El £
Rz 6.5
x/7 Rz 6
101
Technical drawing: 3.9 Surfaces
Roughness of surfaces Recommended assignment of roughness values to ISO tolerance specifications1' Nominal size range from-to mm
Recommended values of Rz and Ra pm
ISO tolerance girade
Rz
1-6
Ra Rz Ra Rz
6-10 10-18 18-80 80-250 250-500
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
2.5 0.4
4
6.3 0.8
6.3
10
25
1.6 10 1.6 10
1.6 16 3.2 16 3.2
16 3.2
0.8 4
2.5 0.4 4
0.8 4 0.8 6.3
6.3 0.8 6.3 0.8 10
Ra Rz
0.8 4
Ra Rz
0.8 10
1.6 16
Ra Rz
0.8 6.3 0.8 6.3
1.6 10
1.6 16
Ra
0.8
1.6
1.6
1.6 16 3.2 25 3.2 25 3.2
16 3.2 25 3.2 40 6.3
25 6.3 25 6.3 40
6.3 40 12.5 40 12.5 63
6.3 40 6.3 63
12.5 63 12.5 100
12.5
25
1
Achievable roughness of surfaces * Rz in pm for type of manufacturing Ra in pm fc>r type of mai nufacturing normal normal fine rough rough fine max. from-to max. min. min. from-to
Cutting operations
Forming
Primary forming
Manufacturing process Casting:
Die casting
4
10-100
160
10 25 -
25-160 63-250 2.5-10 1.6-7
250 1000
Sintering:
Permanent mold casting Sand casting Sinter smooth
Extrusion
4
25-100
0.8
3.2-12.5
25
Closed-die forming Rod extrusion
10 4
63-400
400 1000
0.8
25-100
400
0.4
16 10
Material removal:
0.8
4-10 0.5-6.3 2.8-10
2.5-12.5 3.2-12.5 1-3.2
25 25
Deep drawing sheet metal Rolling: Burnishing
0.8 0.2 0.025 0.1
0.06-1.6 0.4-1
1.5 16
5-10
31
0.2
40-100
1000
3.2
0.45 8-16
-
Calibrated smooth
0.1
Wire EDM Diesinking
Cutting Oxyacetylene cutting operations: Laser cutting Plasma cutting Shearing Water jet cutting
-
4
Machining Drilling: Drilling in solid operations: Boring Countersinking Routing Turning: Longitudinal turning Facing Milling: Peripheral, face milling Honing: Super finishing Long-stroke honing Lapping Polishing Grinding
1)
10-100 6-280 10-63
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
16-100 40-160 2.5-25 10-25 4-10
400
2.5
4-63 10-63
250 250
1.6 0.04 0.04
10-63 0.1-1 1-11
0.04
0.25-1.6 0.04-0.25 1.6-4
16 0.1 6.3 0.4 1
-
0.1
-
-
-
6.3 2 3.2 6.3 50
1-10 1-10 1.6-12.5
1.6 1.6 0.05 0.8 0.2
6.3-25 6.3-12.5 0.4-3.2 1.6-6.3 0.8-2 0.8-12.5 1.6-12.5
160
0.2 0.4 0.4
2.5
0.006
15 10 0.4
0.006 0.006
25
0.012
250 40 40 25
-
3.2-50 12.5-50 0.4-1.6 0.3-0.8
-
-
16
0.8-30
-
-
-
-
50 25 12.5 12.5 6.3 50 50
1.6-12.5 0.02-0.17
25 0.34
0.13-0.65 0.025-0.2 0.005-0.035
1.6 0.21 0.05
0.2-0.8
6.3
Roughness values, as long as they are not contained in DIN 4766-1 (cancelled) are according to specifications of the industry.
Read-out example: reaming (for surface characteristic Rz)
^
fjnjshjng
^min = 0A
_
Rz = ^
=1 0 . \ . conventional timshing
r o u g h o c
/?z m a x = 25
finishing
102
Technical drawing: 3.10 Tolerances and Fits
ISO system of limits and fits Terms
cf. DIN ISO 286-1 (1990-11)
Hole N nominal size Guh hole max. dimension G \H hole min. dimension hole upper deviation ES hole lower deviation El hole tolerance
to kj hole
i
V
zero line /
k
\9 .C r
shaft
lo
TH
Z Z Z " shaft tolerance zone
I 02OH7
nominal dimension tolerance class
rz
tolerance grade fundamental deviation Designation
shaft N Gus G\s es ei Ts
hole tolerance zone
02Os6
Explanation
Designation
I!
nominal dimension shaft max. dimension shaft min. dimension shaft upper deviation shaft lower deviation shaft tolerance nominal dimension tolerance class tolerance grade fundamental deviation
Explanation
Zero line
It represents the nominal dimension that is Fundament. A group of tolerances assigned to same referenced by the deviations and tolerances. tolerance level of precision, e.g IT7. grade
Fundamental deviation
The fund, deviation determin. the position of Tolerance the tolerance zone with resp. to the zero line. grade
Number of the fundamental tol. grade, e.g. 7 for the fundamental tolerance grade IT7.
Tolerance
Difference between the max. and the min. Tolerance dimension or between the upper and lower class deviation.
Name for a combination of a fundamental deviation and a tolerance grade, e.g. H7.
Fundamental tolerance
A tolerance assigned to a fundamental tole- Fit rance grade, e.g. IT7 and a nominal dimension range, e.g. 30 to 50 mm.
Planned joining condition between hole and shaft.
Limits, deviations and tolerances
cf. DIN ISO 286-1 (1990-11)
Hole -Uj
to
Shaft GUH=N+ES
GuS
Gih =N+EI
Gis
Tu
= ES - El
TH =
GuH - GIH
Ts
ei
= Gus -
G
is
Example: Shaft 02Oe8; G,s = ?; 7"s = ? For values for ei and es see page 107. ei = -73 |jm =-0.073 mm; es = -40 pm =-0.040 mm G|S = N+ ei= 20 mm + (-0.073 mm) = 19.927 mm Ts = es - ei = -40 pm - (-73 pm) = 33 (jm
G u H = N + ES= 50 mm + 0.3 mm = 50.30 mm Th = ES-El= 0.3 mm - 0 . 1 mm = 0.2 mm
Fits
cf. DIN ISO 286-1 (1990-11)
Clearance fit Fcmax max. clearance Fc m j n min. clearance
E•
= N + ei
7~q = es-
to
Example: Hole 0 5 0 + 0.3/+ 0.1; G u H = ?; TH = ?
= N + es
'((((({
LJ
U.
Transition fit ^cmax max. clearance F | m a x max. interference ' X
t
I
!
/
/
/
/
/
Interference fit F | m a x max. interference F| m j n min. interference 1
/
ur
E UF 1 LU
UT
c 2 ur
LC
VZZ/ZA | fCmin = Qh ~ GuS
| ^Cmax = ^uH ~ QIS
F
= ?;
Example: Fit 0 3 0 H8/f7; Cmax FCmin = ? For values for ES, El, es, ei see page 107. G u H = N + ES = 30 mm + 0.033 mm = 30.033 mm G|H = N + El = 30 mm + 0 mm = 30.000 mm
| ^Imax = G\H ~ ^uS
| ^Imin = ^uH ~ Q s
G u H = N + ES = 30 mm + (-0.020 mm) = 29.980 mm G,h = N + ES= 30 mm + (-0.041 mm) = 29.959 mm Cmax uH S = 30.033 mm - 29.959 mm = 0.074 mm GIH - uS = 30.000 mm - 29.980 mm = 0.02 mm
F = G - G| Fcmni = G
Technical drawing: 3.
l n
and
103
i
ISO system of limits and fits Fit systems
cf. DIN ISO 286-1 (1990-11)
Fit system: basic hole system (all hole dimensions have the fundamental deviation H) Examples for nominal dimension 25, Fundamental deviations for shafts tolerance grade 7 I—J
H hole
b
jm
l r ^ j h I T • clearance A fits
,
i —
+40 pm
Hzb _za
+20 +10
7
T y v
25n6
-zero line
25H7
25s6 25H7
25H7
0 -10 -20
J
-30 -40
S
interference fits
transition fits
g
25f 7 transition fit
clearance fit
interference fit
Fit system: basic shaft system (all shaft dimensions have the fundamental deviation h) Examples for nominal dimension 25, Fundamental allowances for holes tolerance grade 6 +50 pm +30
UU zero line
25F8
+20 +10
0
25h6
-10
h-shaft
-20
JKMN^il||||zAzB
clearance fits
-30 -40 -50
Bra interference ' fits
transition fits
up to 3
IT1 | IT2 | IT3
30-50
1.5
250-315 315-400 400-500
2
2.5 3.5 4.5 6 7 8
500-630 630-800
9 10 800-1000 11 1000-1250 1250-1600
interference fit
cf. DIN ISO 286-1 (1990-11)
I T 4IT5
IT6
Fundamental tolerance grade IT7 | IT8 | IT9 | IT10 | IT11 | IT12 |I IT13 I IT14 | IT15 I IT16 j| IT17 | IT18 mm
pm
10-18 18-30 50-80 80-120 120-180 180-250
transition fit
clearance fit
Fundamental tolerance5S 0.8 1 1 1.2 1.5
3-6 6-10
I
25h6 25S7
Fundamental tolerances Nominal dimension range over-to mm
25h6 25N7
1.2
2
1.5
2.5 2.5
1.5 2
2.5 2.5 3 4 5 7 8 9 10 11 13 15
13 15
18 21
1600-2000 18 2000-2500 22 2500-3150 26
25 30 36
3 4
4
6
5
8
10 12
4
6 j8 9 11
9 11 13
15 18 21
16 19 22 25 29 32
25 30 35 40 46
3 | r ,5 4 6 4 7 5 6 8 10 12 13 15 16 18 21 24 29 35 41 50
"8 10 12 14
13 15 18 20
16 18
23
20 22
25 27 32
25 28
36 40
33 39
47 55
46 55 68
65 78 96
36 40 44 50 56
52 57 63 70 80 90
14
25
40
18 22 27 33 39
30 36 43 52
48 58 70 84 100
81
62 74 87 100 115 130
210
89 97
140 155
230 250
110
175 200
280 320
230
360
260 310 370 440 540
420 500 600 700 860
46 54 63 72
125 140
66 105 165 78 125 195 92 150 230 110 175 280 135 210 330
120 140 160 185
60 0.1 0.14 0.25 75 0.12 0.18 0.3 90 0.15 0.22 0.36 110 0.18 0.27 0.43 130 0.21 0.33 0.52 160 0.25 0.39 0.62 190 220 250 290 320
0.3 0.46 0.74 0.35 0.54 0.87 0.4 0.63 1 0.46 0.72 1.15 0.52 0.81
360 0.57 0.89 400 0.63 0.97 1.1 440 0.7
1.3 1.4
0.4
0.6
0.48
0.75
0.58 0.7 0.84
0.9 1.1
1 1.2 1.4
1.3 1.6 1.9 2.2
1.6 1.85 2.1
2.5 2.9 3.2
2.3
3.6 4 4.4
1.55 2.5 1.75 2.8 3.2 500 0.8 1.25 2 1.4 2.3 3.6 560 0.9 660 1.05 1.65 2.6 4.2 780 1.25 1.95 3.1 5 6 920 1.5 2.3 3.7 1100 1.75 2.8 4.4 7 5.4 8.6 1350 2.1 3.3
5 5.6 6.6 7.8 9.2 11 13.5
1 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.6 5.2 5.7 6.3 7 8
1.4 1.8 2.2 2.7 3.3 3.9 4.6 5.4 6.3 7.2 8.1 8.9 9.7 11 12.5 14
9 10.5 16.5 12.5 19.5 15 23 17.5 28 21 33
The limit deviations of the tolerance grade for the fundamental deviations h, js, H and JS can be derived from the fundamental tolerances: h: es = 0; ei = - IT js: es = + IT/2; ei = - IT/2 H: ES = + IT; El = 0JS: ES = + IT/2; £/ = - IT/2
104
Technical drawing: 3.10 Tolerances and its
ISO fits Fundamental deviations for shafts (selection)
cf. DIN ISO 286-1 (1990-11)
Fundamental deviations
a
c
d
e
f
g
h
j
k
m
n
Fundamental tolerance grade
IT9 to IT13
IT8 to IT12
IT5 to IT13
IT5 to IT10
IT3 to IT10
IT3 to IT10
IT1 to IT18
IT5 to IT8
IT3 to IT13
IT3 to IT9
IT3 to IT9
Table applies to
all fundamental tolerance grades
Nominal dimension over-to mm up to 3
IT7
IT4 to IT7
over IT7
Upper deviation es in pm -270
3-6
r
P
s
IT3 to IT10
all fundamental tolerance grades
Lower deviation ei in pm
-60
-20
-14
-6
-2
0
-4
0
0
+2
+4
+6
+10
+14
-70
-30
-20
-10
-4
0
-4
+1
0
+4
+8
+12
+15
+19
-80
-40
-25
-13
-5
0
-5
+1
0
+6
+10
+15
+19
+ 23
6-10
-280
10-18
-290
-95
-50
-32
-16
-6
0
-6
+1
0
+7
+ 12
+18
+ 23
+ 28
-65
-40
-20
-7
0
-8
+2
0
+8
+15
+ 22
+ 28
+ 35
-80
-50
-25
-9
0
-10
+2
0
+9
+ 17 + 26
+ 34
+ 43
-100
-60
-30
-10
0
-12
+2
0
+11
+ 20 + 32
+ 41
+ 53
+ 43
+ 59
-120
-72
-36
-12
0
-15
+3
0
+13
+ 23 + 37
+ 51
+71
+ 54
+79
+ 63
+ 92
+ 65
+ 100
18-30
-300
-110
30-40
-310
-120
40-50
-320
-130
50-65
-340
-140
65-80
-360
-150
80-100
-380
-170
100-120
-410
-180
120-140
-460
-200
140-160
-520
-210
160-180
-580
-230
+ 68
+108
180-200
-660
-240
+ 77
+122
200-225
-740
-260
+ 80
+130
225-250
-820
-280
+ 84
+140
250-280
-920
-300
+ 94
+158
280-315
-1050
-330
+ 98
+170
315-355
-1200
-360
+108
+190
355-400
-1350
-400
+114
+ 208
400-450
-1500
-440
+126
+ 232
450-500
-1650
-480
+132
+ 252
-145
-170
-85
-100
-43
-14
-50
-15
0
0
-18
-21
+3
+4
0
0
+15
+17
+ 27 + 43
+ 31 + 50
-190
-110
-56
-17
0
-26
+4
0
+ 20
+ 34 + 56
-210
-125
-62
-18
0
-28
+4
0
+ 21
+ 37 + 62
-230
-135
-68
-20
0
-32
+5
0
+ 23
+ 40 + 68
Calculation of limit deviations Limit deviations for fundamental tolerance grades given in the table row "Table applies to" (above and page 105) can be calculated using tables on this page and page 105 and the formulas below. The values necessary for the fundamental tolerances IT are found in the table on page 103. Formulas • for shaft deviations
ei = es - IT es = ei + IT
Example 1: Shaft (outside dimension) 0 40g5; es= ?; ei= ?
Example 2: Hole (inside dimension) 0 100K6; ES = ?; EL=?
es (table above) = - 9 pm IT5 (table page 103) = 11 pm ei = es - IT = - 9 pm - 11 pm = -20 pm
ES (table page 105) = - 3 pm + A (Value A for fundamental tolerance grade IT6 acc. to table, bottom of page 105:7 pm) £S = - 3 p m + 7 p m = 4 pm IT6 (table page 103) = 22 pm EL= ES-IT = 4 p m - 2 2 pm = -18 pm
for hole deviations
zero line
40 EI=ES-IT ES=EI+
es ei
IT
tolerance zone for shaft
100 IT (fundamental tolerance = tolerance T)
i ^ zero line
ESi EL
tolerance zone for hole
IT " (fundamental tolerance ' ^tolerance T)
Technical drawing: 3.
l n
105
and i
ISO fits Fundamental deviations for holes (selection)1' Fundamental deviations
A
C
D
E
Fundamental tolerance grade
IT9 to IT13
IT8 to IT13
IT6 to IT13
IT5 to IT10
cf. DIN ISO 286-1 (1990-11)
F
IT3 IT3 IT1 to to to IT10 IT10 IT18
Table applies to
all fundamental tolerance grades
Nominal dimension over-to; mm
Lower deviation EL in pm
up to 3
+270
3-6
J
K
M
N
IT6 to IT8
IT3 to IT10
IT3 to IT10
IT3 to IT11
H
G
IT8
P,R, S
P
R
S
IT3 to IT10 to IT7
IT3 to IT8
IT 8 to IT10
Upper deviation ES in pm -6
-10
-14
-12
-15
-19
-15
-19
-23
-18
-23
-28
-22
-28
-35
-26
-34
-43
-41
-53
-43
-59
-51
-71
-54
-79
-63
-92
-65
-100
-68
-108
-77
-122
-80
-130
-84
-140
-94
-158
-98
-170
-108
-190
-114
-208
-126
-232
-132
-252
250 to 315
315 to 400
400 to 500
+60
+20
+ 14
+6
+2
0
+6
0
-2
-4
+70
+30
+20
+ 10
+4
0 + 10
-1 +A
-4 + A
-8 + A
-6 + A -10 + A cK_o u> -7 + A - 1 2 + A 03 O c -8 + A - 1 5 + A CI_D
6-10
+280
+80
+40
+25
+ 13
+5
0 + 12
- 1 +A
10-18
+290
+95
+50
+32
+ 16
+6
0 + 15
-1 +A
18-30
+300
+ 110
+65
+40
+ 20
+7
0 + 20
-2+A
03 "O
CD
30-40
+310
+ 120 +80
40-50
+320
+ 130
50-65
+340
+ 140
+50
+360
+9
0 + 24
-2+A
-9 + A -17 + A
O 03
c 03
+ 100 65-80
+ 25
+60
+ 30
+ 10
0 + 28
-2+A
+ 150
-11 + A - 2 0 + A E 03 T3
-32
C
80-100
+380
+ 170 + 120
100-120
+410
120-140
+72
+ 36
+ 12
0 + 34
-3+A -13+A -23+A
+ 180
+460
V.> V) 03 -37 CD Q_ 3
03 O
+ 200
C/3
cut 140-160
+520
160-180 180-200
+660
+ 240
200-225
+740
+ 260
+820
250-280
+85
+ 43
+920
+ 330
315-355
+1200
+ 360
+ 170 + 100 + 50
+ 15
0 + 47
+ 17
+ 18
0 + 55
0 + 60
-50
Q_ Q. D
-56
CD -•»-> C
o >+— - 4 + A - 2 1 + A -37 + A V) 03
-62
D
2 + 230 + 135 + 68
+ 20
0 + 66
- 5 +A - 2 3 + A - 4 0 + A
-68
+480 Values for A
3 to 6
6 to 10
10 to 18
18 to 30
IT3 IT4 IT5
1
1
1.5 1
1.5 2
1 2 3
1.5 2 3
1.5 3 4
IT6 IT7
3 4 6
3 7 9
4
IT8
3 6 7
5 9 14
8 12
For examples of calculations see page 104.
1)
in pm
Nominal dimension over-to in mm 120 180 30 50 80 to to to to to 250 50 80 120 180
Fundamental tolerance grade
1)
-4 + A -20+A -34+A
+440
+1650
H
V) c. o C D - 4 + A -17+A -31 + A > 03 CD
+400
+1500
-43
O
T3
+ 210 + 125 + 62 +1350
5
LU
+ 300
+1050
450-500
-3 + A -15+A -27+A
+ 280
280-315
400-450
0 + 41
c>j oo
+ 190 + 110 + 56
355-400
+ 14
+ 230
+580
225-250
+ 145
+ 210
2 3 5 6 11 16
2 4 5
3 4 6
3 4 6
4
4
5
4 7
5 7
5 7
7
7 15 23
9 17
9 20
26
29
11 21 32
13 23 34
13 19
106
Technical drawing: 3.10 Tolerances and its
ISO fits Basic hole system
cf. DIN ISO 286-2(1990-11) 1
Limit deviations in pm for tolerance classes * Nominal dimension range over-to mm
up to 3 ? FI 6-10 10-14 14-18 18-24 24-30 30-40 40-50 50-65 65-80 80-100 100-120
for shafts
for hole
OICAI AI ^C, II II AI LAIUUI I, II IICI ICI CI IOC m LIIJJ h5 k6 n5 r5 j5
(fa
(ft
315-355 355-400 400-450 450-500 1)
ge
h6
j6
k6
m6
fit
I n6
r6
s6
+14 +10 +20 +15 +25 +19
+ 10 0 +12 0 +15 0
-6 -16 -10 -22 -13 -28
-2 -8 -4 -12 -5 -14
0 -6 0 -8 0 -9
+4 +6 +8 +10 -2 0 +2 +4 +6 +9 + 12 +16 -2 + 1 +4 + 8 +7 +10 + 15 +19 -2 + 1 +6 +10
+ 16 + 10 +23 + 15 +28 +19
+20 +14 +27 +19 +32 +23
+11 0
0 -8
+5 +12 +20 +1 +12 -3
+31 +23
+18 0
-16 -34
-6 -17
0 -11
+8 + 12 + 18 +23 -3 + 1 +7 +12
+34 +23
+39 +28
+13 0
0 -9
+5 + 15 +24 -4 +2 +15
+37 +28
+21 0
-20 -41
-7 -20
0 -13
+9 + 15 +21 +28 -4 +2 +8 +15
+41 +28
+48 +35
+16 0
0 -11
+6 + 18 +28 +2 +17 -5
+45 +34
+25 0
-25 -50
-9 -25
0 + 11 +18 +25 +33 -16 -5 +2 +9 +17
+50 +34
+59 +43
+19 0
0 -13
+6 +21 +33 -7 +2 +20
+30 0
-30 -60
-10 -29
0 + 12 +21 +30 +39 -19 -7 +2 +11 +20
+22 0
0 -15
+6 +25 +38 -9 +3 +23
+35 0
-36 -71
-12 -34
0 + 13 +25 +35 +45 -22 -9 +3 +13 +23
+25 0
0 -18
+7 +28 +45 -11 +3 +27
+40 0
-43 -83
-14 -39
0 + 14 +28 +40 +52 -25 -11 +3 +15 +27
+29 0
0 -20
+ 7 +33 +51 +4 +31 -13
+46 0
-50 -96
-15 -44
0 + 16 +33 +46 +60 -29 -13 +4 +17 +31
+32 0
0 -23
+7 +36 +57 +4 +34 -16
+52 0
-56 -108
-17 -49
0 + 16 +36 +52 +66 -32 -16 +4 +20 +34
+36 0
0 -25
+7 +40 +62 -18 +4 +37
+57 0
-62 -119
-18 -54
0 +18 +40 +57 +73 +4 +21 +37 -36 -18
+40 0
0 -27
+7 +45 +67 -20 +5 +40
+63 0
-68 -131
-20 -60
0 +20 +45 +63 +80 -40 -20 +5 +23 +40
+60 +41 +62 +43 +73 +51 +76 +54 +88 +63 +90 +65 +93 +68 +106 +77 +109 +80 +113 +84 +126 +94 +130 +98 +144 + 108 +150 +114 + 166 +126 +172 +132
+72 +53 +78 +59 +93 +71 +101 +79 +117 +92 +125 +100 +133 +108 +151 +122 +159 +130 +169 +140 +190 + 158 +202 +170 +226 +190 +244 +208 +272 +232 +292 +252
225-250
280-315
f7
interference
+6 +8 ±Z. +4 0 +3 +9 + 13 -2 +1 +8 +4 + 10 +16 -2 +1 +10
180-200
250-280
transition fit
clearance fit
0 -4 0 -5 0 -6
160-180
200-225
for shafts Paired with an H7 hole results in a
+6 0 +8 0 +9 0
120-140 140-160
for hole
Paired with an H6 hole results in a
+54 +41 +56 +43 +66 +51 +69 +54 +81 +63 +83 +65 +86 +68 +97 +77 +100 +80 +104 +84 +117 +94 +121 +98 +133 + 108 +139 +114 +153 +126 + 159 + 132
The tolerance classes in bold print correspond to row 1 in DIN 7157; their use is preferable.
Technical drawing: 3.
l n
107
and i
ISO fits Basic hole system
cf. DIN ISO 286-2 (1990-11) Limit deviations in pm for tolerance classes1'
Nominal dimension range mm
up to 3 3-6 6-10 10-14 14-18 18-24 24-30 30-40 40-50 50-65 65-80 80-100 100-120
for hole
Paired with an H8 hole results in a ft
0
315-355 355-400 400-450 450-500 1) 2)
+34 +20 +46 +28 +56 +34 +67 +40 +72 +45 +87 +54 +97 +64 +119 +80 +136 +97 +168 +122 +192 +146 +232 +178 +264 +210 +311 +248 +343 +280 +373 +310 +422 +350 +457 +385 +497 +425 +556 +475 +606 +525 +679 +590 +749 +660 +837 +740 +917 +820
f7
h9
+ 14 0 +18 0 +22 0
-20 -45 -30 -60 -40 -76
-14 -28 -20 -38 -25 -47
-6 -16 -10 -22 -13 -28
0 -25 0 -30 0 -36
+32 +18 +41 +23 +50 +28
+27 0
-50 -93
-32 -59
-16 -34
0 -43
+60 +33
+33 0
-65 -117
-40 -73
-20 -41
0 -52
+39 0
-80 -142
-50 -89
-25 -50
0 -62
+46 0
-100 -174
-60 -106
-30 -60
0 -74
+54 0
-120 -207
-72 -126
-36 -71
0 -87
+63 0
-145 -245
-85 -148
-43 -83
0 -100
+72 0
-170 -285
-100 -172
-50 -96
0 -115
+81 0
-190 -320
-110 -191
-56 -108
0 -130
+89 0
-210 -350
-125 -214
-62 -119
0 -140
+97 0
-230 -385
-135 -232
-68 -131
0 -155
225-250
280-315
x8 )
e8
180-200
250-280
fiit
2
d9
160-180
200-225
for shafts Paired with an H11 hole results in a
fiit
120-140 140-160
for hole
for shafts
u8 >
+74 +41 +81 +48 +99 +60 +109 +70 +133 +87 +148 +102 +178 +124 +198 +144 +233 +170 +253 +190 +273 +210 +308 +236 +330 +258 +356 +284 +396 +315 +431 +350 +479 +390 +524 +435 +587 +490 +637 +540
2
a11
c11
d9
d11
h9
h 11
+60 0 +75 0 +90 0
-270 -330 -270 -345 -280 -370
-60 -120 -70 -145 -80 -170
-20 -45 -30 -60 -40 -76
-20 -80 -30 -105 -40 -130
0 -25 0 -30 0 -36
0 -60 0 -75 0 -90
+110 0
-290 -400
-95 -205
-50 -93
-50 -160
0 -43
0 -110
+130 0
-300 -430
-110 -240
-65 -117
-65 -195
0 -52
0 -130
-310 -470 -320 -480 -340 -530 -360 -550 -380 -600 -410 -630 -460 -710 -520 -770 -580 -830 -660 -950 -740 -1030 -820 -1110 -920 -1240 -1050 -1370 -1200 -1560 -1350 -1710 -1500 -1900 -1650 -2050
-120 -280 -130 -290 -140 -330 -150 -340 -170 -390 -180 -400 -200 -450 -210 -460 -230 -480 -240 -530 -260 -550 -280 -570 -300 -620 -330 -650 -360 -720 -400 -760 -440 -840 -480 -880
-80 -142
-80 -240
0 -62
0 -160
-100 -174
-100 -290
0 -74
0 -190
-120 -207
-120 -340
0 -87
0 -220
-145 -245
-145 -395
0 -100
0 -250
-170 -285
-170 -460
0 -115
0 -290
-190 -320
-190 -510
0 -130
0 -320
-210 -350
-210 -570
0 -140
0 -360
-230 -385
-230 -630
o -155
0 -400
+160 0
+190 0
+220 0
+250 0
+290 0
+320 0
+360 0
+400 0
The tolerance classes in bold print correspond to row 1 in DIN 7157; their use is preferable. DIN 7157 recommends: nominal dimensions up to 24 mm: H8/x8; nominal dimensions over 24 mm: H8/u8.
108
Technical drawing: 3.10 Tolerances and its
ISO fits Basic shaft system
cf. DIN ISO 286-2 (1990-11) Limit devlations in pm for tolerance classes1*
Nominal dimension range over-to mm
for shafts
3-6 6-10 10-18 18-30 30-40 40-50 50-65 65-80 80-100 100-120
for shafts
Paired with an h5 shaft results in a
for holes Paired with an h6 shaft results in a n l o o r o n r o a i a u v y
t r o n o i t i r v n i i a u c >1 I H J I 1
i n f n r f o r o n r » Q • I h o i i t< 1 C I I w C
fiit
fiit
0 -4 0 -5 0 -6 0 -8 0 -9
a nee fit H6 +6 0 +8 0 +9 0 +11 0 +13 0
0 -11
+ 16 0
+10 -6
-4 -20
-12 -28
-21 -37
0 -16
+64 +34 +25 +14 +7 0 -8 +9 +25 0 -11 -18 -25 -33
0 -13
+19 0
+13 -6
-5 -24
-14 -33
-26 -45
0 -19
+76 +40 +30 +18 +30 +10 0 -12
0 -15
+22 0
+16 -6 - 6 -28
-16 -38
-30 -52
0 -22
+90 +47 +35 +22 + 10 0 -10 +36 + 12 0 -13 -25 -35 -45
0 -18
+25 0
+18 -8 - 7 -33
-20 -45
-36 -61
0 -25
+ 106 +54 +40 +26 +12 +43 + 14 0 -14 -28
0 -12 -40 -52
0 -20
+29 0
+22 -7
-8 -37
-22 -51
-41 -70
0 -29
+122 +61 +46 +30 +13 +50 +15 0 -16 -33
0 -14 -46 -60
0 -23
+32 0
+25 -9 -7 -41
-25 -57
-47 -79
0 -32
+137 +69 +52 +36 +16 +56 +17 0 -16 -36
0 -14 -52 -66
0 -25
+36 0
+29 -7
-10 -46
-26 -62
-51 -87
0 -36
+151 +75 +57 +39 + 17 0 -16 0 -18 -40 -57 -73 +62 +18
0 -27
+40 0
+33 -7
-10 -50
-27 -67
-55 -95
0 -40
+165 +83 +63 +43 + 18 0 -17 +68 +20 0 -20 -45 -63 -80
0 up to 3
for holes
ft J6
ft M6
N6
P6
+2 -2 -4 -8 +5 -1 -3 -9 +5 -3 - 4 -12 -4 +6 - 5 -15 -4 +8 - 5 -17
-4 -10 -5 -13 -7 -16 -9 -20 -11 -24
-6 -12 -9 -17 -12 -21 -15 -26 -18 -31
fit
b
F8
G7
H7
J7
0 -6 0 -8 0 -9 0 -11 0 -13
+20 +6 +28 + 10 +35 +13 +43 +16 +53 +20
+12 +2 + 16 +4 +20 +5 +24 +6 +28 +7
+4 +10 0 -6 +12 +6 0 -6 +15 +8 0 -7 +18 +10 0 -8 +21 + 12 0 -9
K7
M7
N7
R7
S7
0 -10 +3 -9 +5 -10 +6 -12 +6 -15
-2 -12 0 -12 0 -15 0 -18 0 -21
-4 -14 -4 -16 -4 -19 -5 -23 -7 -28
-10 -20 -11 -23 -13 -28 -16 -34 -20 -41
-14 -24 -15 -27 -17 -32 -21 -39 -27 -48
-25 -50
-34 -59
-30 -60 -32 -62 -38 -73 -41 -76 -48 -88 -50 -90 -53 -93 -60 -106 -63 -109 -67 -113 -74 -126 -78 -130 -87 -144 -93 -150 -103 -166 -109 -172
-42 -72 -48 -78 -58 -93 -66 -101 -77 -117 -85 -125 -93 -133 -105 -151 -113 -159 -123 -169 -138 -190 -150 -202 -169 -226 -187 -244 -209 -272 -229 -292
+9 -21
0 -9 -30 -39
120-140 140-160 160-180 180-200 200-225 225-250 250-280 280-315 315-355 355-400 400 -450 450-500 1>
The tolerance classes in bold print correspond to row 1 in DIN 7157; their use is preferable.
Technical drawing: 3.
l n
109
and i
ISO fits Basic shaft system
cf. DIN ISO 286-2(1990-11) Limit deviations in pm for tolerance classes'"
Nominal dimension range
for shafts
for holes
bis 3 3-6 6-10 10-18 18-30 30-40 40-50 50-65 65-80 80-100 100-120
0 -25 0 -30 0 -36 0 -43 0 -52 0 -62
0 -74
0 -87
120-140 140-160
0 -100
160-180 180-200 200-225
0 -115
225-250 250-280 280-315 315-355 355-400 400-450 450-500 1) 2) 3)
0 -130
0 -140
0 -155
Pairing with an h 11 shaft results in a
tra nsition f it
cle arance fit
mm
for holes
for shafts
Pairing with an h9 shaft results in a
2)
N9
3)
cleara nee fit P9
C11
D10
E9
F8
H8 J9/JS9
+ 120 + 60 + 145 + 70 + 170 + 80 + 205 + 95 + 240 + 110 + 280 + 120 + 290 + 130 + 330 + 140 + 340 + 150 + 390 + 170 + 400 + 180 + 450 + 200 + 460 + 210 + 480 + 230 + 530 + 240 + 550 + 260 + 570 + 280 + 620 + 300 + 650 + 330 + 720 + 360 + 760 + 400 + 840 + 440 + 880 + 480
+ 60 + 20 + 78 + 30 + 98 + 40 + 120 + 50 + 149 + 65
+ 39 + 14 + 50 + 20 + 61 + 25 + 75 + 32 + 92 + 40
+ 20 + 06 + 28 + 10 + 35 + 13 + 43 + 16 + 53 + 20
+ 14 0 + 18 0 + 22 0 + 27 0 + 33 0
+ 12,5 -12,5 + 15 -15 + 18 -18 + 21,5 -21,5 + 26 -26
-4 -29 0 -30 0 -36 0 -43 0 -52
-6 -31 -12 -42 -15 -51 -18 -61 -22 -74
0 -60 0 -75 0 -90 0 -110 0 -130
+ 180 + 80
+ 112 + 50
+ 64 + 25
+ 39 0
+ 31 -31
0 -62
-26 -88
0 -160
+ 220 + 100
+ 134 + 60
+ 76 + 30
+ 46 0
+ 37 -37
0 -32 - 7 4 -106
0 -190
+ 260 + 120
+ 159 + 72
+ 90 + 36
+ 54 + 43,5 0 -43,5
0 -37 - 8 7 -124
0 -220
+ 305 + 145
+ 185 + 85
+ 106 + 43
+ 63 0
+ 50 -50
0 -43 -100 -143
0 -250
+ 355 + 170
+ 215 + 100
+ 122 + 50
+ 72 + 57,5 0 -57,5
0 -50 -115 -165
0 -290
+ 400 + 190
+ 240 + 110
+ 137 + 56
+ 81 0
+ 65 -65
0 -56 -130 -186
0 -320
+ 440 + 210
+ 265 + 125
+ 151 + 62
+ 89 0
+ 70 -70
0 -62 -140 -202
0 -360
+ 480 + 230
+ 290 + 135
+ 165 + 68
+ 97 + 77,5 0 -77,5
0 -68 -155 -223
0 -400
A11
C11
D10
+ 330 + 270 + 345 + 270 + 370 + 280 + 400 + 290 + 430 + 300 + 470 + 310 + 480 + 320 + 530 + 340 + 550 + 360 + 600 + 380 + 630 + 410 + 710 + 460 + 770 + 520 + 820 + 580 + 950 + 660 + 1030 + 740 + 1110 + 820 + 1240 + 920 + 1370 + 1050 + 1560 + 1200 + 1710 + 1350 + 1900 + 1500 + 2050 + 1650
+ 120 + 60 + 145 + 70 + 170 + 80 + 205 + 95 + 240 + 110 + 280 + 120 + 290 + 130 + 330 + 140 + 340 + 150 + 390 + 170 + 400 + 180 + 450 + 200 + 460 + 210 + 480 + 230 + 530 + 240 + 550 + 260 + 570 + 280 + 620 + 300 + 650 + 330 + 720 + 360 + 760 + 400 + 840 + 440 + 880 + 480
+ 60 + 60 + 20 0 + 78 + 75 + 30 0 + 98 + 90 + 40 0 + 120 + 110 + 50 0 + 149 + 130 0 + 65
H11
+ 180 + 160 + 80 0
+ 220 + 190 + 100 0
+ 260 + 220 + 120 0
+ 305 + 250 + 145 0
+ 355 + 290 + 170 0
+ 400 + 320 + 190 0
+ 440 + 360 + 210 0
+ 480 + 400 + 230 0
The tolerance classes in bold print correspond to row 1 in DIN 7157; their use is preferable. The tolerance zones J9/JS9, J10/JS10 etc. are all identical in size and are symmetrical to the zero line. Tolerance class N9 may not be used for nominal dimensions ^ 1mm.
110
Technical drawing: 3.10 Tolerances and Fits
General tolerances, Roller bearing fits General tolerances11 for linear and angular dimensions
cf. DIN ISO 2768-1 (1991-06)
Linear dimensions Tolerance class
f m c v
0.5 to 3 ±0.05 ±0.1 ±0.2
(fine) (medium) (coarse) (very coarse)
-
Tolerance class
f m c v
L mit deviatioris in mm for nominal dim ension range over 3 over 6 over 30 over 120 over 400 over 1000 to 6 to 120 to 2000 to 30 to 400 to 1000 ±0.05 ±0.1 ±0.1 ±0.2 ±0.3 ±0.5 ±0.5 ±1 Radii and chamfers
Limit d eviations in rnm for nominj3l dimension ranges
(fine) (medium) (coarse) (very coarse)
±0.2 ±0.5 ± 1.2 ±2.5
±0.15 ±0.3 ±0.8 ± 1.5
±0.3 ±0.5 ±0.8 ± 1.2 ±2 ±3 ±4 ±6 Angular dimensions
-
±2 ±4 ±8
L.imit deviatio ns in degree;5 and minutes )iminal dimerision ranges (shorter angl for nc e leg) over 10 over 50 over 120 to 120 to 50 to 400 to 10 400
0.5 to 3
over 3 to 6
6
±0.2
±0.5
±1
± 1°
± 0° 30'
± 0° 20'
± 0° 10'
±0° 5'
± 0.4
±1
±2
± 1° 30' ± 3°
± 1° ± 2°
± 0° 30' ± 1°
± 0° 15' ± 0° 30'
± 0° 10' ± 0° 20'
General tolerances1' for form and position
cf. DIN ISO 2768-2(1991-04)
Tolerances in mm for perpendicularity symmetry nomin al dim. ranges in mm nomin al dim. ranges in mm (silorter £ingle le>g) (ishorter feature 3) over over over over over over over over 300 1000 up to 100 300 1000 up to 100 300 1000 to to to to to 100 100 to to to 300 1000 3000 1000 3000 300 1000 3000 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.5 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.6 0.8 1 0.6 0.8 1 1 1 1.2 1.6 0.6 1.5 2 0.6 2 1.5
straightness and flatness nonlinal di mensic)n rangies in n"im
Tolerance class
up to 10 0.02 0.05 0.1
H K L 1)
over 2000 to 4000
over 10 to 30 0.05 0.1 0.2
over 30 to 100 0.1 0.2 0.4
over 100 to 300 0.2 0.4 0.8
run
0.1 0.2 0.5
General tolerances apply to dimensions without individual tolerance entry. Drawing entry page 80.
Tolerances for the installation of roller bearings
cf. DIN 5425-1 (1984-11)
Radial bearing Inner ring (shaft) Load case circumferential loadx
Fit
Outer ring (housing) Load
Fundamental deviations for shafts1* with ballbearing roller bearing
transition or interference fit required
low
h, k
k, m
medium
j, k, m
k, m, n, p
high
m, n
n, p, r
point load clearance fit allowed
arbitrarily large
j, h, g, f
Load case
Fit
Load
Fundamental deviations for housings1* with ball bearing | roller bearing
point load clearance arbitrarily fit large allowed circumferential loadt
transition or interference fit required
J, H, G, F
low medium
M, N
K, M
high
N, P
Thrust bearing Load type
Bearing construction
Combined radial/axial load
angular contact ball bearing spherical roller bearing tapered roller bearing
Pure axial load
ball bearing roller bearing
1
Shaft washer (shaft) Housing plate (housing) Fundamental deviat. Fundamental deviations for shafts1* for housing1* Load case Load case circumfer. point j, k, m H, J load load circumfer. point K, M load load h, j, k
H, G, E
* Fundamental tolerance grades: for shafts typically IT6, for bores typically IT7. If the smoothness and accuracy of running must satisfy increased requirements, also smaller tolerance grades are specified.
Technical drawing: 3.
l n
111
and i
Fit recommendations, possible fits Fit recommendations11
cf. DIN 7157 (1966-01)
From row 1 C11/h9, D10/h9, E9/h9, F8/h9, H8/f7, F8/h6, H7/f7, H8/h9, H7/h6, H7/n6, H7/r6, H8/x8 or u8 From row 2
C11/h11, D10/h11, H8/d9, H8/e8, H7/g6, G7/h6, H11/h9, H7/j6, H7/k6, H7/s6
Possible fits (examples) Basic hole 2 '
cf. DIN 7157 (1966-01) Characteristic/application examples
Basic shaft 2 '
Clearance fits Loose running fit
0j|H8_j
H8/d9
I d9 H8/e8
I e8 0 |H8 j
H8/f7
H7/f7
I n
E9/h9
Close running fit: Clearance allows for parts to be easily assembled by hand while maintaining location accuracy.
F8/h9
Sliding fit - free: Clearance allows accurate location and free movement, including turning.
F8/h6
(i.e. piston valves in cylinders)
. I— g6
H7/g6
Sliding fit - constrained: Clearance allows better locational accuracy while still allowing sliding or turning movement.
H7 1
mm
H7/h6
h6
Minimal clearance fit: Allows locational accuracy and hand force assembly without being a snug fit.
I h9 I
I E9 | 0
I h9 |
| F8 | A
0
I h9 |
| F8 | A
0
I
J G7 j 0 1 1 h6
H8/h9
n I H8 I 0
H7/h6
u
(i.e. spacer sleeves) Locational clearance fit: Allows snug fit of stationary parts that may be assembled by hand force, (i.e. punch in punch holder)
h6 |
G7/h6
(i.e. transmission gear on shaft)
I. H8 I H8/h9 I h9 |
o
Free running fit (Medium running fit): Sufficient clearance is allowed for ease of assembly.
(i.e. plain bearing of shaft)
0 - ^
nf
U
(i.e. collar on shaft)
I f?
n
D10/h9
(i.e. spacer sleeves on shafts)
q iHSSi
o-MHLd
1 D10 I
Clearance allows for loose fit of mating parts,
0
I H7 I
I h9 |
I
I
h6
Transition fits
H7/j6
J6
Locational transition fit - clearance: For accurate location allowing more clearance than interference. (i.e. gears on shafts) not specified
n6 H7/n6
Locational transition fit - interference: For accurate location where interference is permissible. (i.e. drill bushing in jigs) Interference fits
l
1
t H? | rt
0
1 oFnn
H7/r6
Locational interference fit: For rigidity and alignment/accurate location without special bore requirements. (i.e. bushings in housings)
1 s6
H7/s6
Medium drive fit: For ordinary steel parts or shrink fits of light sections. Tightest fit possible for cast iron, (i.e. plain bearing bushings)
H8/u8
Force fit: For parts fitting that can withstand high mechanical pressing force or shrink fitting, (i.e. wheel on axle)
not specified
1 u8 | 0±MJ
1x8 1 H8/x8 0
imJ
1) 2)
Extreme force fit: For parts that can only be assembled by stretching or shrinking. (i.e. turbine blade on shaft)
Deviations from these fit recommendations should only be made in exceptional cases, e.g. installation of roller bearings. The fits in bold print are tolerance combinations according to row 1. Their use is preferred.
112
Technical drawing: 3.10 Tolerances and its
Geometric tolerancing Tolerances of geometry, orientation, location and run-out
cf. DIN EN ISO 1101 (2006-02)
Structure of tolerance specifications Datum
Toleranced element
Identification
datum letterbox
• Identification
datum letter Datum element \
datum letter
Symbol of tolerance type
datum line datum base
Datum is the A
feature control frame tolerance value
toleranced element
datum line with datum arrow
• The tolerance applies to the
f
center plane
midplane axis
axis
E=
^
I—1 surface
surface line
surface +line
surface
E Indications in drawings of datum specifications and toleranced elements Datum
Simple datum
l P
Example
Multiple datum (two or three elements)
Common datum j
1A
zzzzzzzz
-
/ |0O.O21A-B h H B. -
^
EYZZZZZA Datum in feature control frame
Datum letters separated with hyphens
Individual datum letter
Order of datum letters according to their importance
Examples 16+0.3/+0.1 —
0.1
r
/
0.05
B
B
t
2 — ^
01OH7
_L 00.04
USfl The center plane of the slot must run symmetrically to the center plane of the exterior surface (tolerance value 0.1 mm).
The axis of the hole must run perpendicular (tolerance value 0.04 mm) to the datum surface.
vO cn'' -Jrsj "Qi
"
•o l
v.*.,
II o II CNI •SL
The cylindrical surface 024g6 must run true to the axis 02Ok6 and the flat surface must be planar (tolerance value 0.05 mm).
Representation in drawing (examples)
C
c
wi
The slot must lie symmetrical (tolerance value 0.06 mm) and parallel (tolerance value 0.02 mm) to the axis 025h6.
Explanation
At all points across width b, the surface curve must lie between two parallel lines spaced f = 0.1 mm apart
The toleranced axis of the shaft must lie within a cylinder with diameter t = 0.04 mm.
Z7 0.03
N
0.06
0.02
cf. DIN ISO 1101 (1985-03)
Straightness
Flatness
//
025h6.
Geometric tolerances
CJ
,
— A U
i k
Indication in drawings Geometric characteristic symbols
18P9
\
D
The toleranced surface must be located between two parallel planes spaced apart a distance of t= 0.03 mm.
Tolerance zone
Technical drawing: 3.
l n
113
and i
Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing GD & T Indications in drawings (continued) Symbol and toleranced property
Representation in drawing
cf. DIN EN ISO 1101 (2006-02) Explanation
Tolerance zone
Tolerances of form (continued)
o
r \
The cone's circumferential line must lie between two concentric circles spaced apart at a distance of t = 0.08 mm in each point of the cone length /.
Circularity
Cylindricity
The shell surface of the cylinder must lie between two coaxial cylinders, which are spaced apart at a radial distance of f = 0.1 mm.
Profile of line
The profile line must lie between two enveloping lines, whose gap is bounded by circles of diameter t = 0.05 mm in each point of the workpiece thickness b. The centers of these circles lie on a geometrically ideal line.
Profile of surface
The surface of the sphere must lie between two enveloping surfaces, whose gap t = 0.3 mm is created by spheres. The centers of these spheres lie on the geometrically ideal surface.
every cone cross section
S
Orientation tolerances //lo.oilA
The hole's centerline must lie between two parallel planes spaced apart at a distance of t = 0.01 mm. The planes are parallel to datum line A and datum plane B and in line with the defined direction (vertical in this case).
a
//
Parallelism
datum plane B
I//100.031A 0
The hole's centerline must lie within a cylinder of diameter t = 0.03 mm. The centerline of this cylinder is parallel to datum line (axis) A. datum line A
zzzzz - — I - L | 00.11A
_L
Perpendicularity
The hole's centerline must lie within a cylinder of diameter t = 0.1 mm that is perpendicular to datum plane A.
VZ&
'///£*-fj_|0.03|A
The plane surface must lie between two planes perpendicular to datum line A that are spaced apart at a distance of t = 0.03 mm.
a
Angularity
The hole's centerline must lie within a cylinder of diameter t = 0.1 mm. The centerline of the cylinder is parallel to datum plane B and inclined at a theoretically exact angle of a = 45° with reference to datum plane A. The inclined plane must lie between two parallel planes spaced at a distance of t = 0.15 mm that are inclined at a theoretically exact angle of a = 75° with reference to datum line A.
datum plane A
114
Technical drawing: 3.10 Tolerances and its
Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing GD & T Indications in drawings (continued) Symbol and toleranced property
Representation in drawing
cf. DIN EN ISO 1101 (2006-02) Explanation
Tolerance zone
Tolerances of location ]-$-|0O.O5|A|B|C~l £
Position
The hole's centerline must lie within a cylinder of diameter t = 0.05 mm. The cylinder's centerline must coincide with the theoretically exact location of the hole's centerline in regard to the datum planes A, B and C.
datum plane A 0 / v
datum"
C
datum
|
^vO
The surface must lie between two parallel planes spaced apart at a distance of t = 0.1 mm that are symmetrical to the theoretically exact location of the toleranced surface in regard to datum plane A and datum line B.
rz£zz
Concentricity
The center of the hole must lie in a circle of diameter t = 0.1 mm that is concentric to the datum point A in the cross section.
The centerline of all diameters must lie within a cylinder of diameter t = 0.05 mm. The centerline of this cylinder must coincide with the common datum axis A-B.
Coaxial ity
Symmetry
In every cross section, the circumferential line must be perpendicular to the common datum line A - B between two concentric circles in the same plane having a radial distance of f = 0.1 mm.
Radial circular runout
In every cross section, the 120° circumferential line must be perpendicular to datum line A and lie between two concentric circles in the same plane that have a radial distance of f = 0.1 mm.
/ — / 0.04 A -T&
A -
T&
I U 0.03 A-B
B -T9L
In every diameter, the circumferential line must lie in the plane surface between two circles that have a radial distance of t = 0.04 mm. The centerline of each diameter must coincide with datum line A.
datum line A - B datum plane A
— zy o.i A
every cross seci
every cross section
every diameter
The shell surface must lie between two coaxial cylinders having a radial distance of f = 0.03 mm. The centerlines of these cylinders must coincide with the common datum line A - B .
u Total axial S E runout
,datum ine B
datum point A
Runout tolerances
Total radial runout
'
datum plane A
The midplane of the slot must lie between two parallel planes spaced apart at a distance of t = 0.05 mm that are located symmetrical to datum plane A.
Axial circular runout
^
01
Bh
|®|0O.l|Ah
®
B
The plane surface must lie between two parallel planes spaced apart at a distance of t = 0.1 mm that are perpendicular to datum line A.
datum line A
Table of Contents
Tungsten (W) Zinc (Zn) Tin (Sn)
19.27 7.13 7.29
3390 419.5 231.9
115
4.1
Materials Material characteristics of solids 116 Material characteristics of liquids and gases . . . 117 Periodic table of the elements 118
4.2
Designation system for steels Definition and classification of steel Material codes, Designation
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
Steel types, Overview Structural steels Case hardened, quenched and tempered, nitrided, free cutting steels Tool steels Stainless steels, Spring steels
120 121 126 128 132 135 136
Finished steel products Sheet, strip, pipes Profiles
139 143
Heat treatment Iron-Carbon phase diagram Processes
153 154
Cast iron materials Designation, Material codes Classification Cast iron Malleable cast iron, Cast steel
158 159 160 161
4.7
Foundry technology Patterns, Pattern equipment 162 Shrinkage allowances, Dimensional tolerances . 163
4.8
Light alloys, Overview of Al alloys Wrought aluminum alloys Aluminum casting alloys Aluminum profiles Magnesium and titanium alloys
164 166 168 169 172
4.9
Heavy non-ferrous metals, Overview Designation system Copper alloys
173 174 175
4.10 Other metallic materials Composite materials, Ceramic materials Sintered metals
177 178
4.11 Plastics, Overview Thermoplastics Thermoset plastics, Elastomers Plastics processing
179 182 184 186
4.12 Material testing methods, Overview Tensile testing Hardness test
188 190 192
4.13 Corrosion, Corrosion protection
196
4.14 Hazardous materials
197
116
Materials science: 4.
tels
Material characteristics of solids I Solid material
Density Material
Melting temperature
Boiling temperature
Latent heat of fusion
Thermal conductivity
Mean specific heat
Specific electrical resistivity
Coefficient of linear expansion
at 1.013 bar at 1.013 bar at 1.013 bar at 20 °C at 0-100 °C at 20°C 0-100°C d d c al A 9 £20 kg/dm-3 °C °C kJ/kg W/(m- K) kJ/(kg • K) Q • mm2/m 1/°C or 1/K Aluminum (Al) 2.7 2467 659 204 356 0.94 0.028 0.0000238 Antimony (Sb) 6.69 630.5 1637 163 22 0.21 0.39 0.0000108 Asbestos 2.1-2.8 « 1300 0.81 Beryllium (Be) 1.85 1280 0.0000123 165 1.02 0.04 * 3000 Bismuth (Bi) 9.8 271 1560 59 8.1 0.12 1.25 0.0000125 Cadmium (Cd) 8.64 321 765 54 91 0.23 0.077 0.00003 _ Carbide (K 20) 14.8 * 4000 >2000 81.4 0.80 0.000005 Carbon (diamond) 3.51 * 3550 0.52 0.000001 18 Cast iron 7.25 1150-1200 2500 125 58 0.50 0.6-1.6 0.0000105 Chromium (Cr) 7.2 1903 2642 134 69 0.46 0.0000084 0.13 Cobalt (Co) 8.9 1493 2880 268 69.1 0.43 0.062 0.0000127 Coke 1.6-1.9 0.18 0.83 _ 1.8-2.2 Concrete «1 0.88 0.00001 Constantan 8.89 1260 « 2400 23 0.41 0.49 0.0000152 Copper (Cu) 8.96 1083 « 2595 213 384 0.39 0.0179 0.0000168 _ _ Cork 0.1-0.3 0.04-0.06 1.7-2.1 Corundum (Al203) 3.9-4.0 2050 2700 12-23 0.96 0.0000065 CuAl alloys 7.4-7.7 1040 2300 61 0.44 0.0000195 CuSn alloys 7.4-8.9 900 2300 46 0.38 0.02-0.03 0.0000175 CuZn alloys 8.4-8.7 900-1000 2300 167 105 0.39 0.05-0.07 0.0000185 Foam rubber 0.06-0.25 0.04-0.06 1018 Glass (quartz glass) 2.4-2.7 520-5501) 0.8-1.0 0.83 0.000009 Gold (Au) 19.3 1064 2707 67 310 0.13 0.022 0.0000142 Graphite (C) 2.26 « 3550 « 4800 168 0.71 0.000007 8 _ _ _ Greases 0.92-0.94 30-175 0.21 « 300 Ice 0.92 0 100 332 2.3 2.09 0.000051 Iodine (I) 5.0 113.6 183 62 0.44 0.23 22.4 Iridium (Ir) 2443 >4350 135 59 0.13 0.053 0.000006 5 Iron oxide (rust) 5.1 1570 0.58 (pwdr) 0.67 Iron, pure (Fe) 7.87 1536 3070 276 81 0.47 0.13 0.000012 Lead (Pb) 327.4 1751 34.7 11.3 24.3 0.13 0.000 029 0.208 Magnesium (Mg) 1.74 650 1120 195 172 1.04 0.044 0.000026 Magnesium alloy * 1.8 « 630 1500 46-139 0.0000245 1244 Manganese (Mn) 7.43 21 2095 251 0.48 0.39 0.000023 Molybdenum (Mo) 10.22 2620 4800 287 145 0.26 0.054 0.000005 2 Nickel (Ni) 8.91 1455 2730 306 59 0.45 0.095 0.000013 Niobium (Nb) « 4800 8.55 2468 288 53 0.273 0.217 0.0000071 Phosph., yellow (P) 1.82 44 280 21 0.80 Pit coal 1.35 0.24 1.02 _ _ Plaster 2.3 1200 0.45 1.09 Platinum (Pt) 21.5 1769 4300 113 70 0.13 0.098 0.000009 Polystyrene 1.05 0.17 1.3 0.000 07 10io 3 3 12 Porcelain 2.3-2.5 « 1600 1.6 ) 1.2 ) 0.000004 10 Quartz, flint (Si02) 2.1-2.5 1480 2230 9.9 0.8 0.000008 Selenium, red (Se) 4.4 220 688 83 0.2 0.33 Silicon (Si) 2.33 1423 2355 1658 83 0.75 2.3 • 109 0.0000042 Silicon carbide (SiC) 2.4 disintegrates into C and Si above 3000°C 91) 1.051) Silver (Ag) 10.5 961.5 2180 105 407 0.23 0.015 0.0000193 2) 3) 1) cross grain at 800 °C I transformation temperature e
,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
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Materials science: 4.
tels
Material characteristics of solid, liquid and gaseous materials Solid materials (continued) Density Material Q
,
Melting temperature
Boiling temperature
Latent heat of fusion
Thermalconductivity
at 1.013 bar at 1.013 bar at 1.013 bar
Mean specific heat
Specific electrical resistivity
at 20 °C at 0-100 °C at 20 °C A c £20 W/(m • K) kJ/(kg • K) Q • mm2/m 126 0.04 1.3 48-58 0.14-0.18 0.49 14 0.7 0.51
Q
Sodium (Na) Steel, unalloyed Steel, alloyed
°C kg/dm3 0.97 97.8 7.85 « 1500 7.9 * 1500
°C 890 2500
kJ/kg 113 205
Sulfur (S) Tantalum (Ta) Tin (Sn)
2.07 16.6 7.29
113 2996 231.9
344.6 5400 2687
49 172 59
0.2 54 65.7
0.70 0.14 0.24
Titanium (Ti) Tungsten (W) Uranium (U)
4.5 19.27 19.1
1670 3390 1133
3280 5500 « 3800
88 54 356
15.5 130 28
0.47 0.13 0.12
1890
* 3380
343
907
101
0.50 2.1-2.9 0.4
0.2
419.5
31.4 0.06-0.17 113
Thermalconductivity
Specific heat
Vanadium (V) 6.12 Wood (air dried) 0.20-0.72 Zinc (Zn) 7.13
Coefficient of linear expansion
0-100°C 1/°C or 1/K 0.000071 0.0000119 0.0000161
0.124 0.0000065 0.114 0.000023 0.42 0.055
0.0000082 0.0000045 * 0.000 042 0.000029
0.06
Liquid materials Freezing Ignition or melting temp- temperature erature
Density Material
Boiling temperature
at 1.013 bar at 1.013 bar
at 20°C Q „ kg/dm3 Alcohol 95 % 0.81 Diesel fuel 0.81-0.85 Ethyl ether (C2H5)20 0.71
&
#
°C 520 220 170
°C -114 -30 -116
78 150-360 35
Fuel oil EL Gasoline Machine oil
* 0.83 0.72-0.75 0.91
220 220 400
-10 -30- -50 -20
> 175 25-210 >300
Mercury (Hg) Petroleum Water, distilled
357 13.5 -39 > 150 0.76-0.86 550 -70 100 1.003) 0 2) at boiling temperature and 0.013 bar
1)
above 1000°C
d °C
Latent heat of vaporization^ r
kJ/kg 854 628 377
at 20°C A
at 20 °C
Coefficient of volume expansion
c
«v
W/(m- K) kJ/(kg • K) 1/°C or 1/K 0.17 2.43 0.0011 0.15 2.05 0.00096 0.13 2.28 0.0016
628 419
0.14 0.13 0.13
2.07 2.02 2.09
0.00096 0.001 1 0.00093
285 314 2256 3> at4°C
10 0.13 0.60
0.14 2.16 4.18
0.00018 0.001 0.00018
Gaseous materials Density Material
Specific
Melting
Boiling
Thermal
Coefficient
atO°Cand gravity1) temperature temperature conductivity of thermal conducat 1.013 bar at 1.013 bar at 20°C 1.013 bar tivity 21
,
e/ei
A
Specific heat
at 20°C and 1,013 bar cp3> I c/> kJ/(kg • K) 1.64 1.33 1.005 0.716 2.06 1.56
°C °C AMa W/(m • K) -84 -82 Acetylene (C2H2) 0.905 0.021 0.81 3 Air -220 -191 0.026 1.293 1.0 1.00 kg/m 0.024 0.77 -78 -33 Ammonia (NH3) 0.596 0.92 -0.5 0.016 0.62 Butane (C4H10) 2.70 2.088 -135 Carbon diox. (C02) -57 5) -78 0.016 0.62 0.82 1.98 1.531 0.63 Carbon monox. (CO) -205 1.05 -190 0.025 0.96 0.75 1.25 0.967 Freon (CF2CI2) 5.51 4.261 -140 -30 0.010 0.39 Hydrogen (H2) -253 0.09 0.07 -259 0.180 6.92 14.24 10.10 -162 Methane (CH4) 2.19 0.72 0.557 -183 0.033 1.27 1.68 Nitrogen (N2) 1.04 0.74 1.25 0.967 -210 -196 0.026 1.00 Oxygen (02) 1.43 1.106 -219 -183 0.026 1.00 0.91 0.65 Propane (C3H8) 2.00 1.547 -190 -43 0.018 0.69 1) Specific gravity = density of a gas Q divided by the density of air QA. 2) Coefficient of thermal conductivity = the thermal conductivity A of a gas divided by the thermal conductivity Aa of air. 3) 4) 5) at constant pressure at constant volume at 5.3 bar Q 1.17
Period
Main groups IA
Main groups Atomic number (= proton number)
II A
1H
q a .• Relative atomic mass
Hydrogen 1.008 3
Letter symbols
Li
4
Lithium
O O O Q Q
22.989
Radioactive elements . 0 0 in red, e.g. 0222 o .• .• • , Synthetic elements in parentheses, e.g. (261)
Be
III A
6.941
9.012
11 Na
12 Mg
liquid: H gaseous: 3
5
Sodium Magnesium 22.989
24.305
19 K Potassium 39.102
20 Ca Calcium 40.078
37 Rb Rubidium 85.468 55
38
Sr
Strontium 87.620
Cs
56
Cesium
Ba
Barium
132.905 137.340 87 Fr Francium 223
88
Ra
Radium 226.025
VB
VI B
22 Ti 23 V Chromi- ManScanVanaTitanium um ganese dium dium 44.950 47.880 50.942 51.996 54.938 39
VIII B
VII B
Iron
Molyb- Techne- RutheZircoYttrium Niobium denum tium nium nium (98) 88.906 91.224 92.906 95.940 101.070
1
Light metals '
71 Lu 72 Hf
73 Ta
TantaHafnium lum
N
Nickel
Copper
Zinc
Rhodium
Palladium
Silver
Cadmium
8O
9
F
Tungsten
RutheOsmium Iridium Platinum nium
Gold
Lawren- RutherHah- Seabor- NielsHascium fordium* nium* gium* bohrium* sium* / 9ftn\ (261) (265) (262) (263) (264)
Meitne- * Element rium* * Element (266) * Element * Element * Element
Lanthanides 57-71
LanPraseo- Neody- PromeCerium thanum dymium mium thium 138.906 140.120 140.908 144.240 145
89 Ac 90 Th 91 Pa
Precious metals
Actinides 89-103
92 U
Samarium
10 Ne
Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine
Neon
10.811
12.011
14.007
15.999
18.998
20.179
13 Al Aluminum 26.982
14
Si
15 P Phosphorus 30.974
16 S
17
CI
18 Ar
Silicon 28.086
Gallium
GermaArsenic nium 75.590 74.922
Indium
Tin
Sulfur
Chlorine
Mercury Titanium
Lead
Argon
35.453 39.948 32.066 34 Se 35 Br 36 Kr SeleniBromine Krypton um 78.960 79.904 83.800
52 Te 53 I 54 Xe Antimo- TelluriIodine Xenon ny um 121.750 127.600 126.905 131.290
84 Po 85 At PoloBismuth nium Astatine 208.980 210 210
174.967 178.490 180.948 183.850 186.207 190.200 192.200 195.080 196.967 200.590 204.383 207.200 103 Lr 104 Rf 105 Ha 106 Sg 107 Ns 108 Hs 109 Mt * Only name suggestions exist for elements 104 to 109.
Heavy metals1'
Noble gases
Cobalt
VIII A
Boron
86 Rn Radon 222
104: also Kurtschatovium (Ku) or Dubnium (Db); 105: also Joliotium; * Element 106: also Unilhexium (Unh); 107: also Bohrium (Bh) or Unilsptium (Uns); 108: also Hahnium (Hn) or Uniloctium (Uno); 109: also Unilenneadium (Une)
57 La 58 Ce 59 Pr 60 Nd 61 Pm 62 Sm 63 Eu 64 Gd 65 Tb
Metalloids
7
102.906 106.420 107.868 112.410 114.820 118.710 74 W 75 Re 76 OS 77 lr 78 Pt 79 Au 80 Hg 81 Tl 82 Pb 83 Bi
Nonmetals
Halogens
II B
6C
55.847 58.933 58.690 63.546 65.390 69.732 40 Zr 41 Nb 42 MO 43 Tc 44 Ru 45 Rh 46 Pd 47 Ag 48 Cd 49 In 50 Sn 51 Sb
Y
Lutecium
IB
B
24 Cr 25 Mn 26 Fe 27 Co 28 Ni 29 Cu 30 Zn 31 Ga 32 Ge 33 As
21 Sc
VII A
4.002
Light metals e s 5 kg/dm3; Heavy non-ferrous metals e > 5 kg/dm3
IV B
VIA
Helium
black print brown print blue print
Transition elements III B
VA
2 He
Beryllium 1)
IV A
Element name; state at 273 K(0°C) and 1.013 bar:
Europium
66 Dy 67 HO
GadoDysprolinium Terbium sium
Holmium
68
Er
69 Tm 70 Yb
Erbium Thulium
Ytterbium
150.360 151.960 157.250 158.925 162.500 164.930 167.260 168.934 173.040 93 Np 94 Pu 95 Am 96 Cm 97 Bk 98 Cf 99 Es 100 Fm 101 Md 102 No
ActiProtacNepnium Thorium tinium Uranium tunium 227.028 232.038 231.036 238.029 237
Plutonium 244
Americium Curium (243) (247)
Berkelium (247)
Califor- EinsteiniMendeFermium levium nium um (257) (251) (252) (258)
Nobelium (260)
Materials science: 4.
tels
Chemicals used in metal technology, molecular groups, pH value Important chemicals used in metal technology Technical designation
Chemical designation
Acetone
Acetone (propanone) Acetylene, Ethane Various surfactants
Acetylene Aqueous cleaner
Carbonic acid Carbon dioxide
Formula
Properties
(CH3)2CO
Solvent for paint, acetylene and plastics Fuel for welding, source material for plastics Solvent, cleaning agentemulsifying and thickening agent Water soluble, non-combustible Shielding gas for MAG welding, dry ice gas, solidifies at -78°C as refrigerant Solvent for fats, oils and Colorless, non-combustible paint liquid, harmful to health Solvent for fats and oils, Colorless, sometimes lightly cleaning agent combustible liquids Electroplating baths, pest Blue, water soluble crystal, control, for scribing moderately toxic Grinding and polishing agent, Very hard colorless crystal, oxide ceramic materials melting point 2050 °C Solvent, cleaning agent, Colorless, lightly combustible liquid, boiling point 78°C for heating purposes, fuel additive Etching and pickling of metals, Colorless, pungent smelling, manufacture of chemicals strong acid Very strong acid, dissolves met- Etching and pickling of metals, manufacture of chemicals als (except precious metals) Colorless crystal, slightly water Degreasing and cleaning baths, water softening soluble, basic Cleaning agent (fat solvent), Colorless, pungent smelling neutralization of acids liquid, weak lye Pickling of metals, electroplating Colorless, oily, odorless baths, storage batteries liquid, strong acid Colorless, crystalline salt, Condiment, for freezing mixtures, slightly water soluble for chlorine extraction
C2H2
—coo—oso3—so 3 co2
Carbon tetrachloride Cleaning agent Copper vitriol
Carbon tetrachloride Organic solvent Copper sulfate
Corundum
Aluminum oxide Al 2 0 3
Ethyl alcohol
Ethyl alcohol, denatured Hydrochloric acid Nitric acid
C 2 H 5 OH
Na2C03
Spirits of ammonia Sulfuric acid
Sodium carbonate Ammonium hydroxide Sulfuric acid
Table salt
Sodium chloride I NaCI
Hydrochloric acid Nitric acid Soda
CCI4 C n H 2 n +2
CuS04
HCI HNO 3
NH 4 OH H 2 SO 4
Use
Colorless, combustible, lightly volatile liquid Highly reactive, colorless gas, highly explosive Various water soluble substances
Frequently occurring molecular groups Moleculair group Designation Formula
Carbide
=C
Carbonate
=co3
Chloride
-CI
Hydroxide
-OH
Nitrate Nitride
-N0 3 =N
Oxide
=0
Sulfate
= S04
Sulfide
=S
Description
Carbon compounds; to some extent very hard Compounds of carbonic acid, addition of heat yields C02 Salts of the hydrochloric acids; usu. dissolve readily in water Hydroxides are produced from metal oxides and water; behave as basics Salts of the nitric acids; usu. dissolve readily in water Nitrogen compounds; some of them are very hard Oxygen compounds; most commonly occurring molecular group on earth Salts of the sulfuric acids; usu. dissolve readily in water Sulfur compounds; important ores, chip breaker in free cutting steels
Example Designation
Formula
Silicon carbide
SiC
Calcium carbonate
CaC03
Sodium chloride
NaCI
Calcium hydroxide
Ca(OH)2
Potassium nitrate Silicone nitride
KN03 SiN
Aluminum oxide
AI2O3
Copper sulfate
CuS04
Iron(ll) sulfide
FeS
pH value
Type of aqueous solution pH value Concentration H+ in mol/l
<
neutral
/
increasingly acidic
\
0
1
2
10°
10-1
IO- 2
3
4
5
6
7
10"3 IO" 4 10~5 10"6 10"7
>
increasingly basic
8 1 0
-8
9 10-9
10 1 0
-io
11
12
10- 11 10- 12
13 10"13
14 1 0
-14
120
Materials science: 4.2 Steels, Designation system
Influenced by Steel manufacture
Composition -carbon content - alloying elements
Classification
Degree of purity - non-metallic inclusions - phosphorus and sulfur content
Subsequent processing
For example: Forming: rolling, stamping, drawing, bending etc. • Heat treatment: quenching and tempering, surface hardening etc. • Annealing: normalizing, spheroidizing, full annealing etc. • Joining: welding, brazing etc. • Coating: galvanizing etc.
Deoxidation rimmed, semi-killed or killed cast
•
Classification1' Quality steels
High-grade steels
High-grade steels differ from quality steels due to: - more careful production - higher degree of purity - improved deoxidation - more exact composition -improved hardenability
Table 1: Limit values for unalloyed steels Element
Al Bi Co Cu Cr
%
0.30 0.10 0.30 0.40 0.30
Element
Mn Mo Nb Ni Pb
%
1.65 0.08 0.06 0.30 0.40
Element
Se Si Ti V W
%
0.10 0.60 0.05 0.10 0.30
Main grades
1
Unalloyed quality steels
Alloy quality steels
Steel group (excerpt) Example Unalloyed structural steels S235JR Unalloyed steels for C45 quenching & tempering Free cutting steels 10S20 Weldable unalloyed S275N fine-grain steels Unalloyed press, vessel steels P235GH
Steel group (excerpt) Rail steels Magnetic steel sheet and strip Microalloyed steels with high yield strengths Phosphorus alloyed steels with high yield strengths
Unalloyed high-grade steels
Alloy high-grade steels
Steel group (excerpt) Example Unalloyed steels for quenching C45E and tempering Unalloyed case hard, steels C15E Unalloyed tool steels C45U Unalloyed steels for flame C60E and induction hardening
Steel group (excerpt) Alloy steels for quenching and tempering Case hardening alloy steels Nitriding steels Alloy tool steels High-speed steels
Example R0900Mn M390-50E H400M H180P
Example 42CrMo4 16MnCr5 34CrAINi7 X40Cr14 HS6-5-2-5
' The main grade "Basic steels" was omitted. All previous basic steels are produced as quality steels. The stainless steels have their own group. They are alloy steels, so they are not classified as quality or high-grade steels.
2)
Materials science: 4.2 Steels, Designation system
Designation of steels using material numbers cf. DIN EN 10027-2 (1992-09), replaces DIN 170071)
Material numbers
Steel designations (page 122) or material numbers are used to identify and differentiate steels. Material number Designation Designation of steel (examples):
42CrMo4+N
(with additional symbol +N) or
1.7225+N
The material numbers consist of a 6-character number (five numeric characters and a decimal point). They are better suited for data processing than designations.
1) 2)
The material numbers remained unchanged with the conversion from DIN 17007 to DIN EN 10027-2. C carbon, R m tensile strength Values for tensile strength R m and for carbon content C are mean values.
122
Materials science: 4.2 Steels, Designation system
Designation system for steels
«*. DIN EN 100271 <2005-10
Designation by application The codes for steels are composed of main and supplemental symbols. Main symbols reflect the application or chemical composition. Supplemental symbols depend on to the steel or product group. Example: Pinion shaft Main symbol
Suppl. symbol
S355JR+AR
Material
fl—IB
(examples)
Unalloyed structural steel
Designation 1— DIN EN 10027-1
Steel group DIN EN 10025-2
42CrMo4+N Designation according to the chemical composition (page 124)
Material blank
Hot-rolled round steel bar
DIN El\I 10060
Main symbols for the designation by application Main symbol1'
Application
Steels for steel construction Steels for machine construction Steels for pressure vessel construction Steels for pipes and tubes Concrete reinforcing steels Packaging steel, sheet and strip 1)
2)
S
235
E
360 2)
P
265 2)
L
360 2 '
B
500 2)
T
S550 2)
Application
Main symbol1'
Prestressing steels Y 17703' Flat rolled products for cold working D X52 4 ' Rail steels R 260 5 ' Flat products of high-strength steels H C4006' Magnetic steel, sheet and strip M 400-50 7 ' To identify cast steel, the main symbol is preceded by the letter G.
The main symbol is composed of the code letter and a number and may include an additional letter. 2) Yield strength Re for the smallest product thickness 3) Nominal value for minimum tensile strength flm 4) As-rolled condition C, D, X followed by two symbols 5) Minimum hardness in accordance with Brinell HBW
6)
As-rolled condition C, D, X and minimum yield strength Re or as-rolled condition CT, DT, XT and minimum tensile strength Rm 7) Maximum magnetic hysteresis loss in W/kg x 100 and nominal thickness x 100 separated by a hyphen
Steels for steel construction
=> S235JR+N:
Steel-construction steel Re = 235 N/mm2, notch impact energy 27 J at-20°C, normalized (+N)
Materials science: 4.2 Steels, Designation system
Designation system for steels
cf. DIN EN 10027-1 (2005-10)
Steels for machine construction
Designation example: I Code letter for machine construction
E 355 +AR
J Yield strength for the smallest product thickness
Product group (selection)
Standard
Hot-rolled unalloyed structural steels Steels for bright steel products
DIN EN 10025-2 DIN EN 10277-1,2
Supplemental symbols
Supplemental symbols
GC special cold workability +AR delivered in as-rolled condition +N normalized GC special cold workability +C drawn +PL polished +SH peeled +SL ground Pipes and tubes, seamless, +A annealed +C bright-drawn/hard +LC brigth-drawn/soft DIN EN cold-drawn +N normalized +SR bright-drawn and stress relieved 10305-1 Seamless tubes made of J2 notch impact energy values at -20 °C DIN EN K2 notch impact energy values at -40 °C unalloyed and alloyed steel 10297-1 +AR delivered in as-rolled condition +N normalized +QT quenched and tempered 2 E355+AR: machine construction steel, yield strength Re = 355 N/mm , delivered in as-rolled condition (+AR) Flat products for cold working
Product group (selection)
Standard
Supplemental symbols Surface type and finish
Cold-rolled flat products made of soft steels for cold working
DIN EN 10130
Continuously hot-dip finished strip and sheet made of soft steels for cold working
DIN EN 10327
A Faults not affecting workability and adhesion of surface coating are permissible. B The better face must be flawless to the extent that the look of quality lacquer finish or coating is not affected, b particularly smooth g smooth m dull r rough D hot-dip coating Coating (followed by coating mass in g/m2, e.g. Z140) +AS aluminum-silicon alloy +AZ aluminum-zinc alloy +Z zinc +ZA zinc-aluminum alloy +ZF zinc-iron alloy Coating finish: M small zinc flower with +Z N typical zinc flower with +Z R typical finish with +ZF Type of surface:
B improved finish => DC04 - A - m:
A typical finish C best finish
Flat product for cold working (D), cold-rolled (C), steel type 04 (page 141), surface type A, surface finish dull (m)
Flat products made of high-strength steels for cold working
Product group (selection)
Standard
Supplemental symbols
Cold-rolled strip and sheet made of micro-alloy steels
DIN EN 10268
B bake-hardening steel Y high-strength I-F steel I isotropic steel P phosphor-alloy steel LA low-alloy/micro-alloy steel Surface type and finish
for rolling width < 600 mm as with DIN EN 10139 for rolling width > 600 mm as with DIN EN 10130 => HCT500 - B - g: Cold-rolled flat product made of high-strength steel (H), cold-rolled (C), minimum tensile strength Rm = 500 N/mm2 (T500), surface type B, smooth surface (g)
124
Materials science: 4.2 Steels, Designation system
Designation system for steels
<*. DIN EN 10027-1 <2005-10)
Designation by chemical composition The main symbols reflect the chemical composition and are created on the basis of four different designation groups. The supplemental symbols depend on the steel group or product group. Example: Pinion shaft
Main symbol
Suppl. symbol
Material
EB
(examples)
42CrMo4+N
Quenched and tempered steel
Designation
Steel group
DIN EN 10027-1
DIN EN 10083-1
S355JR+AR Designation according to the application (page 122)
Material blank
Hot-rolled ro und steel bar
DIN EN 10060
Designation groups, examples and application of the main symbols11 Unalloyed steels
Alloy steels, free-
Alloy steels
cutting steels manganese content < 1 % average content of except unalloyed steels with a individual alloying element free-cutting steels manganese content > 1 % above 5% C15i 42CrMo4 X12CrNi18-8 Application examples:
Application examples:
unalloyed case-hardening steels, unalloyed quenched and tempered steels, unalloyed tool steels
free-cutting steels, case-hardening alloy steels, quenched and tempered alloy steels, tool alloy steels, spring steels
1)
Application examples: Stainless steels
corrosion-resistant, heat-resistant, hightemperature steels Tool steels:
cold work steels hot work steels
High-speed steels HS 10-4-3-10 — ~ r —
Code letter for high-speed steel Content of alloying elements in percent in the following order W-Mo-V-Co 10 -» 10% tungsten (W) 4 -» 4% molybdenum (Mo) 3— 3% vanadium (V) 10^ 10% cobalt (Co)
To identify cast steel, the main symbol is preceded by the letter G; to identify powder metallurgical steel, the main symbol is preceded by the letters PM.
Unalloyed steels with a manganese content < 1 %, except free-cutting steels
C45E+S+BC: quenched
and tempered unalloyed steel, C content 0.45% , prescribed max. sulphur content (E), treated for shearability (+S), blasted (+BC) (supplemental symbols on page 125, quenched & tempered steels)
Alloy steels, free-cutting steels, unalloyed steels with a manganese content > 1 %
Designation example:
18CrNiMo7-6 +TH+BC
Main symbols 18 code number for the carbon content C m e d i u m = 18/100 = 0.18% Cr, Ni, Mo alloying elements (in the order of their mass portion) 7-6 Alloy contents C r m e d i u m = 7/4 =1.75% N i e d i u m = 6/4=1.5% Mo = low content m
=> 17CrNiMo6-4+TH+BC:
Factors for alloy contents Alloying elements Factor Cr, Co, Mn, Ni, Si, W 4 Al, Be, Cu, Mo, Nb, 10 Pb, Ta, Ti, V, Zr C, Ce, N, P, S 100 B 1000
Supplemental symbols Refer to such aspects as special applications, heat treatment states, quenching stress, surface finish, degree of deformation. The definition of the supplemental symbols varies according to the steel group (page 125).
Case-hardening alloy steel, C content 0.17% (17), Cr content of 1.5% (6), Ni content 1.0% (4), low Mo content, treated for quenching stress (+TH) and blasted (+BC) (supplemental symbols on page 125, case-hardening steels)
Materials science: 4.2 Steels, Designation system
Designation system for steels Steel group/ product group (selection)
Hot-worked casehardening steels
Standard
Supplemental symbols
DIN EN 10084
E prescribed maximum sulphur content R prescribed sulphur content range +H normal hardenability +HH restricted hardness tolerance, upper range +HL restricted hardness tolerance, lower range Treatment conditions: +A soft-annealed +S treated for shearability +FP treated for ferrite-pearlite microstructure and quenching stress +U untreated +TH treated for quenching stress Surface finish: +BC blasted +HW hot worked +PI pickled
Hot-worked quenched and tempered steels
DIN EN 10083-1 10083-2
Hot-worked freecutting steels
DIN EN 10087
DIN EN Bright steel products made of case-hardening steel, quenched & 10277-1 tempered steel, free-cutting steel 10277,3..5 Seamless steel tubes made of case-hardening steels and quenched & tempered steels
<*. DIN EN 10027-1 (2005-10)
DIN EN 10297-1
E, R as with care-hardening steels as per DIN EN 10084 (above) Treatment conditions +A soft-annealed +H normal hardenability +N normalized +HL restricted hardness tolerance, lower range +HH restricted hardness tolerance, upper range +QT quenched and tempered +S treated for shearability +U untreated Surface finish: +BC blasted +HW hot-worked +P pickled +RM hot-worked and pre-machined Under normal conditions, no supplemental symbols provided (in special cases for direct quenching types: +QT quenched and tempered) +C cold-drawn +SL ground
+SH peeled +PL polished
+A soft-annealed +AR as rolled +N normalized +FP treated for ferrite-pearlite microstructure and quenching stress +QT quenched & tempered +TH treated for quenching stress
=> 16MnCr5+A: Case-hardening alloy steel, C content 0.16% (16), Mn content 1.25% (5), low Cr content, soft-annealed (+A) Alloy steels, the content of at least one alloying element is above 5% (without high-speed steels) | Designation example: Main symbols
X4CrNi18-12 +2D I _JI L
X code letter for the designation group 4 code number for medium carbon content C m e d i u m = 4/100 = 0.04% Cr, Ni main alloying elements (Cr > Ni) 18-12 alloy contents in % chromium = 18%, nickel = 12% - . "i v Steel group/ product group (selection)
Supplemental symbols
Specification of heat treatment conditions, the rolling condition, the type of execution, the surface finish. The definition of the supplemental symbols varies according to the product group.
-
Hot-rolled corrosion-resistant sheets and strips
Cold-rolled corrosion-resistant sheets and strips
Standard
DIN EN 10088-2
DIN EN 10088-2
Supplemental symbols (selection) Treatment condition Type of execution/surface finish +A annealed +1 +QT quenched & 1U 1C tempered 1E +QT650 quenched & 1D tempered to 1G Rm = 650 N/mm2 +AT solution annealed +P precipitation hardened +2 +P1300 2C, precipitation 2B hardened to 2 ffm = 1300 N/mm 2R 2Q +SR stress relieved 2H annealed
hot-rolled products not heat-treated, not descaled heat treated, not descaled heat treated, mechanically descaled heat treated, pickled, smooth ground
cold-rolled products E, D, G as with hot-rolled products like D but cold-rolled in addition bright-annealed hardened and tempered, scale-free strain-hardened (with different hardness stages), bright surface
=> X2CrNi18-9+AT+2D: Alloy steel, C content 0.02% (2), Cr content 18%, Ni content 9%, solution annealed (+AT), cold-rolled (+2), hot-treated, pickled, smooth surface (D)
126
Materials science: 4.3 Steels, Steel types
Steels - Overview Subgroups, delivery conditions
Standard Main characteristics
Areas of application
Product forms11 S | B | P | W
Unalloyed structural steels, hot-rolled Steels for steel and machine construction
• good machinability • weldable, except for S185 DIN EN • cold and hot workable 10025-2 • machinable • not weldable • cold and hot workable
Steels for machine construction
page 130 Welded constructions in steel and machine construction, simple machine parts
•
•
•
•
Machine parts without heat treatment, e.g. by hardening, quenching and tempering
•
•
-
•
Fine-grain steels suitable for welding DIN EN • weldable 10025-3 • hot workable Thermomechan- DIN EN • weldable ically rolled 10025-4 • not hot workable Normalized
page 131 Weldments with high toughness, resistance to brittle fracture and aging stability in machine and steel construction
•
•
•
•
•
•
-
•
Quenched and tempered structural steels with high yield strength DIN EN • weldable 10025-6 • hot workable
Alloy steels
page 131
High-strength weldments in machine and steel constructions
•
-
Case hardened steels Unalloyed steels
Small parts with wearresistant surface
•
•
-
•
Dynamically stressed parts with wear-resistant surface
•
•
-
•
Quenched and tempered steels Unalloyed quality steels
• in spheroidized condition DIN EN good machinability Unalloyed high- 10083-2 • hot workable grade steels • hardenable (uncertain results with unalloyed DIN EN quality steels) Alloy steels 10083-3
page 133 Parts with high strength, which are not hardened
•
Parts with high strength and good toughness Highly stressed parts with good toughness
•
-
•
•
•
-
•
•
•
-
•
Steels for flame and induction hardening Unalloyed steels
Alloy steels
DIN EN 10083-2, DIN EN 10083-3
• in spheroidized condition good machinability • hot workable • directly hardenable; possible to harden individual workpiece areas, e.g. tooth faces • quenching and tempering of workpieces before hardening
page 134 Parts with low core strength but hardening of specific areas
•
•
-
•
Larger parts with high core strength and hardening of specific areas
•
•
-
•
Nitriding steels
Alloy steels
page 134 • in spheroidized condition good machinability • hardenable by nitride forming DIN EN elements, lowest quenching 10085 distortion • quenching and tempering of workpieces before nitriding
Parts with increased fatigue strength, parts subject to wear, Parts subjected to temperatures up to 500 °C
•
•
Spring steels DIN EN 10270 • cold or hot workable Leaf springs, helical springs, DIN EN • high elastic formability disc springs, torsion bars 10089 • high fatigue strength Product forms: S sheets, strips B bars, e. g. flat, square and round bars W wires P profiles, e.g. channels, angles, tees
Unalloyed and alloy steels 1>
-
page 132
• in spheroidized condition good machinability DIN EN • hot workable 10084 • after surface carburization surface hardenable
Alloy steels
-
-
•
page 138
-
-
-
•
Materials science: 4. Steels,
t
t e
Steels - Overview Subgroups, delivery conditions
Standard
Main characteristics
Areas of application
Product forms11 S | B | P | W
page 134
Free cutting steels Non-heattreatable steels
DIN EN 10087 • optimal machinability (short chipping) DIN EN • non-weldable 10087 • might not respond uniformly to heat treatment with case hardening or quench and tempering DIN EN 10087
Free cutting case hardened steels Free cutting quenched and tempered steels
Mass produced turned parts with low strength requirements Like unalloyed case hardened steels; better machinability Like unalloyed quenched and tempered steels; better machinability, less fatigue strength
-
-
-
•
•
•
-
-
-
•
•
•
page 135
Tool steels
Cold work steels, unalloyed
• in spheroidized condition good machinability DIN EN • non-cutting cold and hotISO 4957 workable • full hardening up to max. 10 mm diameter
Low stressed tools for cutting and non-cutting forming at operating temperatures up to 200 °C
•
•
Cold work steels, alloy
• in spheroidized condition machinable • workable DIN EN • hot larger hardening depth, ISO 4957 higher case strength, more wearresistant than unalloyed cold work steels
Highly stressed tools for cutting and non-cutting forming at operating temperatures over 200°C
•
•
Hot work steels
• in spheroidized condition DIN EN • machinable workable ISO 4957 • hot hardens over the entire cross section
Tools for non-cutting forming at operating temperatures over 200°C
•
•
-
•
High-speed steels
• in spheroidized condition DIN EN • machinable workable ISO 4957 • hot hardens over the entire cross section
Cutting materials for cutting tools, operating temperatures up to 600 °C, highly stressed forming tools
•
•
-
•
•
-
•
•
pages 136, 137
I Corrosion resistant steels Ferritic steels
DIN EN 10088-2, DIN EN 10088-3
• • • •
machinable good cold-workable weldable heat treatment does not increase strength
Low stressed rust-free parts; parts with high resistance to chlorine induced stress, corrosion cracking
•
•
•
•
Austenitic steels
DIN EN 10088-2, DIN EN 10088-3
• • • •
machinable very good cold workability weldable no increase in strength through heat treatment
Non-rusting parts with high corrosion resistance, widest application range of all stainless steels
•
•
•
•
Martensitic steels
• machinable DIN EN • in spheroidized condition 10088-2, cold-workable DIN EN • with low carbon content 10088-3 weldable • heat treatable
Highly stressed non-rusting parts, which can also be quenched and tempered
•
•
•
•
1>
Product forms:
S sheets, strip W wires
B bars, e.g. flat, square and round bars P profiles, e. g. channels, angles, tees
128
Materials science: 4.3 Steels, Steel types
Materials science: 4.
Steels,
t
t e
Selecting structural steels by chemical composition Unalloyed steels
Selection according to carbon content
Minimum Steel group requirements
Quenched and tempered steels
Case hardened • heat steels treatment with proven Quenched and values tempered steels
C10E C15E C35E C60E
Case hardened steels3'
no or
Main properties are determined by
Composition Purity grade Deoxi• carbon (C) • manganese (Mn) • phosphorus (P) dation • silicon (Si) • sulfur (S) DO2' • other alloying elements (L)
Designation
C10 C15 C35 C60
heat treatment
page 128
Heat treatment provided, e.g. hardening or quench and tempering
yes
C in % Mn in % Si in % L1' in % P m a x i n % 0.10 0.45 0.15 0.45 0.40 0.045 0.35 0.65 0.63 0.60 0.75
Smax in
DO FN FN FN FN
%
-
-
0.10 0.15 0.35 0.60
0.45 0.45 0.65 0.75
0.045
FN FN FN FN
-
-
0.40
0.035
0.035
0.63 Further requirements
1) 2) 3
L Maximum percentage (Cr + Mo + Ni) DO Type of deoxidation: FN semi-killed cast ' The steels C10 and C15 are no longer included in the standard case hardened steels DIN EN 10084. However, they are still available from specialty dealers.
Effect of alloying elements
(selection)
Properties influenced by alloying elements Tensile strength Yield strength Impact toughness Wear-resistance Hot workability Cold workability Machinability High-temperature strength Corrosion resistance Hardening temperature Hardenability, temperability Nitridability Weldability •
increase
Alloy steels
O decrease
Al
Cr
Ni
• •
• •
O
-
o
•
O
-
o
•
o
-
-
-
-
o
-
• • • • •
•
o
o
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
• -
-
• •
w • • -
•
o o o • -
• • • -
Alloying elements V Mo Co
• • • • • -
• •
o
• • • • •
Si
Mn
• •
• •
o o
o o o o o
•
•
•
-
-
-
• • •
• •
•
o o
-
-
• • • • • •
-
• -
-
o
o -
- no significant effect
Example: Gears, case hardened, rough parts drop forged, reliable heat treatment is required Wanted: Suitable steels Solution: Heat treatment (case hardening) provided ->• case hardened steel, C < 0.2 % The properties of unalloyed quality and high-grade steels are insufficient -* alloy steels Increase of hot workability: Mn, V; increase of hardenability: Cr, Ni Steel selection: 16MnCr5, 20MnCr5, 15NiCr13 (page 132)
S -
-
p
• •
-
o
o
O
-
-
•
o o
o o
o
-
•
•
-
-
-
-
o
-
o
-
-
-
-
-
-
o
o
• •
o
130
Materials science: 4.3 Steels, Steel types
Unalloyed structural steels Unalloyed structural steels, hot-rolled Notch imp>act energy
Steel type Material DO1' Designation number
at °C
cf. DIN EN 10025-2 (2005-04), replaces DIN EN 10025 ElongaYield strength I% 2 tion in N/mim for prodijet thiclkness in mm at frac- Properties, application ture < 16 > 16 >40 >63 ,43' % <40 <63 <80
Tensile strength
KV
J
R 2) M
N
N/mm2
Structural and machine construction steels
290-510
185
175
175
175
18
Non-weldable, simple steel constructions
27
360-510
235
225
215
215
26
20 0 -20
27
410-560
275
265
255
245
23
Basic machine parts, weldments in steel and machine construction; levers, bolts, axles, shafts
FN FN FF
20 0 -20
27
470-630
355
345
335
325
22
FF FF
-20 0
40 27
470-630 550-720
355 450
345 430
335 410
325 390
22 17
S185
1.0035
S235JR S235J0 S235J2
1.0038 1.0114 1.0117
FN FN FF
20 0 -20
S275JR S275J0 S275J2
1.0044 1.0143 1.0145
FN FN FF
S355JR S355J0 S355J2
1.0045 1.0553 1.0577
S355K2 S450J0
1.0596 1.0590
-
-
Highly stressed weldments in steel, crane and bridge construction
Steels for machine construction
E295
1.0050
FN
-
-
470-610
295
285
275
265
20
Axles, shafts, bolts
E335
1.0060
FN
-
-
570-710
335
325
315
305
16
E360
1.0070
FN
-
-
670-830
360
355
345
335
11
Wear parts; pinion gears, worms, spindles
1)
DO Type of deoxidation: - manufacturer's option; FF killed cast steel. FN semi-killed cast steel; 2) Values apply to product thicknesses from 3 mm to 100 mm. 3) Values apply to product thicknesses from 3 mm to 40 mm and longitudinal test pieces with L0 = 5.65 • ]SQ (page 190) The steel types listed in the table are unalloyed quality steels acc. to DIN EN 10020 (page 120) Technical properties Hot workability
Weldability
Steels of grade groups JR - JO - J2- K2 are weldable using all processes. Increased strength and product thickness also increase the risk of cold cracks. Steels S185, E295, E335 and E360 are not weldable, because the chemical composition is not specified.
The steels are hot workable. Only products which are ordered and delivered in normalized (+N) or normalizing rolled (+N) condition must meet the requirements of the above table. The treatment condition must be specified at the time of ordering. Example: S235J0+N or 1.0114+N
Cold workability
The additional C or GC symbol is appended to the designation of a steel type suitable for cold working (edge folding, roll forming, cold-drawing), and these types are also assigned their own material number. Steel types for cold working
Material Designation number S235JRC S235J0C S235J2C
1.0122 1.0115 1.0119
1.0533 E295GC 11 Forming process:
Suit:able 1:or1' F
R
C
•
•
•
-
Material Designation number S275JRC S275J0C S275J2C
1.0128 1.0140 1.0142
E335GC 1.0543 F edge folding: R roll forming: -
•
Suiltable i:or1' F
R
C
•
•
•
-
Material Designation number S355J0C S355J2C S355K2C
1.0554 1.0579 1.0594
E360GC 1.0633 C cold drawing: • well-suited -
•
Suiltable for1' F
R
C
•
•
•
-
-
•
-unsuitable
Materials science: 4.
Steels,
t
t e
Weldable fine-grain and quenched & tempered structural steels Weldable fine-grained structural steels (selection) No1ch imp>act enerc y KV2^in J at Tensile strength 1 Material DC ' tempejrature s in °C Am 2 Designation number N/mm + 20 0 -20 Steel type
cf. DIN EN 10025-3 and DIN EN 10025-4 {2005-04), replaces DIN EN 10113 YielcI strengi th f?e Elongain N/mm2 for tion al thickilesses at frac- Properties, nomin in mm ture application A > 16 >40 % < 16 <40 <63
Unalloyed quality steels
S275N S275M
1.0490 1.8818
N M
55
47
40
370-510 370-530
275
265
255
24
S355N S355M
1.0545 1.8823
N M
55
47
40
470-630
355
345
335
22
Alloy high-grade steels
S420N S420M
1.8902 1.8825
N M
55
47
40
520-680
420
400
390
19
S460N S460M
1.8901 1.8827
N M
55
47
40
550-720 540-720
460
440
430
17
High toughness, brittle fracture and aging resistant; weldments in machinery, crane and bridge construction, automotive manufacturing, conveyors
1) 2)
DC Delivery condition: N normalized/normalizing rolled M thermomechanically rolled Values apply to V-notch longitudinal test pieces. Assignment of steels: DIN EN 10025-3 S275N, S355N, S420N, S460N DIN EN 10025-4 S275M, S355M, S420M, S460M Technical properties Weldability
Hot workability
Cold workability
steels S275N, S355N, The steels are weldable. Increased strength Only S420N and S480N are hot and product thickness also increase the workable. risk of cold cracks.
Cold-bending or edge folding is guaranteed for nominal thicknesses up to 16 mm, if cold-workability is specified in the order.
Quenched and tempered struc. steels with higher yield strength (selection) cf. DIN EN 10025-6 (2005-02), replaces DIN EN 10137-2 th Re ElongaYielcI strengi Notch impact energy 2 Steel type Tensile N/mm tion for in I iW i n J ait al thicki strength at frac- Properties, nesses nomin eraturej in mm Desig- 1 Material temp ture application Am 2 > in °C nation ' number A N/mm >3 >50 > 100 -20 % <50 < 100 < 150 0 -40 S460Q 1.8908 40 30 550-720 460 440 400 17 S460QL 1.8906 50 40 30 High toughness, high resistance to brittle S500Q 1.8924 40 30 17 590-770 500 480 440 fracture and aging 40 S500QL 1.8909 50 30 stability; S620Q 1.8914 40 30 highly stressed weld700-890 620 580 560 15 S620QL 1.8927 50 40 ments in machinery, 30 crane and bridge S890Q 1.8940 40 30 construction, auto940-1100 890 830 11 S890QL 1.8983 50 40 30 motive manufacturing, conveyors 1.8941 S960Q 40 30 980-1150 960 10 1.8933 S960QL 50 40 30 -
-
1>
-
Q quenched and tempered; QL quenched and tempered, guaranteed minimum values for notched bar impact values to -40 °C
Technical properties Weldability
Hot workability
Cold workability
The steels are not weldable without limitations. Professional planning of the welding parameters is required. Increased strength and product thickness also increase the risk of cold cracks.
The steels are hot workable up to the temperature limit for stress relief annealing.
Cold-bending or edge folding is guaranteed for nominal thicknesses up to 16 mm, if cold-workability is specified in the order.
132
Materials science: 4.3 Steels, Steel types
Case hardened steels, unalloyed and alloy Case hardened steels (selection) Steel tyfDe
HareJness HB in delive ry condition2' Material Designation1' number +A + FP
cf. DIN EN 10084 (2008-06) =ter Core properties a1 Handen0 i) case hardening I ir>g Elong. method Properties, Tensile Yield A applications strength strength at fracture » Re A D S N/mm2 N/mm2 %
Unalloyed case hardened steels
C10E C10R
1.1121 1.1207
131
90-125
49-640
295
C15E C15R
1.1141 1.1140
143
103-140
590-780
355
700-900
450
16 -
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
o
•
Small parts with average stress; levers, pegs, bolts, rollers, spindles, pressed and stamped parts
Alloy case hardened steels
17Cr3 17CrS3
1.7016 1.7014
174
28Cr4 28CrS4
1.7030 1.7036
217
156-207
>700
16MnCr5 16MnCrS5
1.7131 1.7139
207
140-187
780-1080 780-1080
16NiCr4 16NiCrS4
1.5714 1.5715
217
156-207
>900
-
-
-
•
18CrMo4 18CrMoS4
1.7243 1.7244
207
140-187
>900
-
-
o
•
20MoCr3 20MoCrS3
1.7320 1.7319
217
145-185
>900
-
-
•
-
20MoCr4 20MoCrS4
1.7321 1.7323
207
140-187
880-1180
-
17CrNi6-6 22CrMoS3-3
1.5918 1.7333
229 217
156-207 152-201
>1100
15NiCr13 10NiCr5-4
1.5752 1.5805
229 192
166-207 137-187
20NiCrMo2-2 20NiCrMoS2-2
1.6523 1.6526
212
17NiCrMo6-4 1.6566 17NiCrMoS6-4 1.6569 20NiCrMoS6-4 1.6571 20MnCr5 20MnCrS5 18NiCr5-4 14NiCrMo13-4 18CrNiMo7-6 1) 2) 3> 4)
-
-
590 590
11 -
10 10
590
10
•
_
_
o
920-1230 >900
785
10
149-194
780-1080
590
10
229
149-201 149-201 154-207
> 1000 > 1000 >1100
1.7147 1.7149
217
152-201
980-1270
1.5810 1.6657 1.6587
223 241 229
156-207 166-217 159-207
>1100 1030-1390 1060-1320
_
• •
• •
•
•
-
-
•
685
8
o
•
785
10 8
-
—
Parts subject to alternating stresses, e.g. in gearbox; gears, bevel and ring gears, driving pinions, shafts, propellershafts
• • •
Parts subject to highly alternating stresses, e.g. in gearbox; gears, bevel and ring gears, driving pinion, shafts, propellershafts
Parts subject to larger dimensions; pinion shafts, gears, ring gears
Steel types with added sulfur, e.g. 16MnCrS5, have an improved machinability. Delivery condition: +A spheroidized; +FP treated for ferrite-pearlite microstructure and hardness range Strength values are valid for test pieces with 30 mm nominal diameter. Hardening methods: D Direct hardening: The workpieces are quenched directly from the carburizing temperature. S Simple hardening: After carburizing the workpieces are usually left to cool at room temperature. For hardening they are reheated. • well-suited o conditionally suitable - unsuitable
For heat treatment of case hardened steels, see page 155
Materials science: 4.
Steels,
t
t e
Quenched and tempered steels, unalloyed and alloy Quenched and tempered steels (selection)
Strengith values for rollied diarneter d in mm Tensile!strength Yield sitrength Elongsition at 2 2 Properties, frac ture Rm infM/mm Re in J/mm r applications EL in% >40 > 16 >40 > 16 >40 > 16 < 100 <40 < 100 <40 < 100 <40
Steel typ)e Designation
Material number
cf. DIN EN 10083-2 and DIN EN 10083-3
T1'
Unalloyed quenched and tempered steels2' C22E
1.1151
C35 C35E C45 C45E C55 C55E C60 C60E
1.0501 1.1181 1.0503 1.1191 1.0535 1.1203 1.0601 1.1221
28Mn6
1.1170
+N +QT +N +QT +N +QT +N +QT +N +QT +N +QT
410 470-620 520 600-750 580 650-800 640 750-900 670 800-950 600 700-850
cf. DIN EN 10083-2 (2006-10) 410 520 550-700 580 630-780 640 700-850 670 750-900 600 650-800
210 290 270 380 305 430 330 490 340 520 310 490
210 270 320 305 370 330 420 340 450 310 440
25 22 19 19 16 16 12 14 11 13 18 15
| Alloy quenched and tempered steels
25 19 20 16 17 12 15 11 14 18 16
cf. DIN EN 10083-3 (2007-01)
38Cr2 46Cr2
1.7003 1.7006
+QT
700-850 800-950
600-750 650-800
450 550
350 400
15 14
17 15
34Cr4 37Cr4
1.7033 1.7034
+QT
800-950 850-1000
700-850 750-900
590 630
460 510
14 13
15 14
25CrMo4 25CrMoS4
1.7218 1.7213
+QT
800-950
700-850
600
450
14
15
41Cr4 41CrS4
1.7035 1.7039
+QT
900-1100
800-950
660
560
12
14
34CrMo4 34CrMoS4
1.7220 1.7226
+QT
900-1100
800-950
650
550
12
14
42CrMo4 42CrMoS4
1.7225 1.7227
+QT
1000-1200
900-1100
750
650
11
12
50CrMo4 51CrV4
1.7228 1.8159
+QT
1000-1200
900-1100
780 800
700
10
12
30NiCrMo16-6 34CrNiMo6
1.6747 1.6582
+QT
1080-1230 1100-1300
1080-1230 1000-1200
880 900
880 900
10
10 11
36NiCrMo16 30CrNiMo8
1.6773 1.6580
+QT
1250-1450
1100-1300
1050
900
9
10
20MnB5 30MnB5
1.5530 1.5531
+QT
750-900 800-950
27MnCrB5-2 39MnCrB6-2
1.7182 1.7189
+QT
900-1150 1050-1250
1)
2
Parts subject to lower stresses and small quench and tempering diameters; screws, bolts, axles, shafts, gears
-
800-1000 1000-1200
600 650 750 850
-
700 800
15 13 14 12
Parts subject to higher stresses and larger quenched and tempered diameters; drive shafts, worms, gears
Parts subject to high stresses and larger quenched and tempered diameters; shafts, gears, larger forged parts
Parts subject to highest stresses and large quenched and tempered diameters
-
15 12
T treatment condition: +N normalized;+QT quenched and tempered For unalloyed quenched and tempered steels the treatment conditions +N and +QT also apply to the quality and high-grade steels, for example for C45 and C45E.
> Unalloyed quenched and tempered steels C35, C45, C55 and C60 are quality steels, steels C22E, C35E, C45E, C55E and C60E are produced as high-grade steels. For heat treatment of quenched and tempered steels, see page 156
134
Materials science: 4.3 Steels, Steel types
Nitriding steels. Steels for flame and induction hardening, Free cutting steels Nitriding steels (selection)
cf. DIN EN 10085 (2001-07), replaces DIN 17211
Steeltyp)e SpherMaterial oidized Designation number hardness HB
Tensile strength1' Am N/mm2
31CrMo12 31CrMoV9
1.8515 1.8519
248 248
980-1180 1000-1200
785 800
11 10
Wear parts up to 250 mm thickness Wear parts up to 100 mm thickness
34CrAIMo5-10 40CrAIMo7-10 34CrAINi7-10
1.8507 1.8509 1.8550
248 248 248
800-1000 900-1100 850-1050
600 720 650
14 13 12
Wear parts up to 80 mm thickness High-temperature wear parts up to 500°C
Elongation1 Yield strength1* at fracture ' Properties, EL applications Re N/mm2 %
Large parts; piston rods, spindles
1)
Strength values: The values for tensile strength flm, yield strength Re and elongation at fracture EL apply to material thicknesses from 40 to 100 mm in the quenched and tempered condition. For heat treatment of nitriding steels, see page 157 cf. DIN EN 100831>
Steels for flame and induction hardening (selection) Steel typ>e Designation
Spheroidized Material hardness number HB
C45E11) C60E '
T2'
207 241
+QT
37Cr4 46Cr2
1.1191 1.1221 1.7034 1.7006
255
+QT
41Cr4 42CrMo4
1.7035 1.7225
255
+QT
YielcI strengith Re Elonlominal gation at in N/mim2 for n thickrlesses iin mm fracture Am 2 EL < 16 > 16 >40 N/mm % <40 < 100 650-800 490 430 370 16 800-950 580 520 450 13 14 850-1000 750 630 510 800-950 650 550 400 13
Tensile strength2'
900-1100 1000-1200
800 900
660 750
560 650
12 11
Properties, applications
Wear parts with high core strength and good toughness; crank shafts, drive shafts, cam shafts, worms, gears
1)
The previous standard DIN 17212 was withdrawn without replacement. For flame and induction hardenable steels, see quenched and tempered steels DIN EN 10083-3 (page 133). For unalloyed high-quality steels acc. to DIN EN 10083-2, hardness results are only assured if the steels are ordered with austenite grain size <; 5. 2) T treatment condition: +QT quenched and tempered For heat treatment of steels for flame and induction hardening, see page 156 Free cutting steels (selection)
cf. DIN EN 10087 (1999-01)
11SMn30 11SMnPb30
1.0715 1.0718
+U
11SMn37 11SMnPb37
1.0736 1.0737
+U
For product thicknesses from 16 to 40 mm Yield Elongation Properties, Tensile Hardness strength at fracture applications strength R HB EL Am 2 e , N/mm % N/mm2 • Steels unsuitable for heat 112-169 380-570 treatment Small parts subject to low 112-169 380-570 stress; levers, pegs
10S20 10SPb20
1.0721 1.0722 1.0725 1.0726 1.0756 1.0762 1.0763 1.0727 1.0757
+U
107-156
360-530
+U +U +QT +U +QT +U +QT
128-178 154-201
430-600 520-680 600-750 630-800 700-850 590-760 650-800
Steel typ)e Designation1'
15SMn13 35S20 35SPb20 44SMn28 44SMnPb28 46S20 46SPb20 1) 2
Material T2' number
187-238 175-225
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
380
16
420
16
430
13
• Case hardened steels Wear-resistant small parts; shafts, bolts, pins • Quenched and tempered steels Larger parts subject to higher stress; spindles, shafts, gears
Steel types with lead additives, e.g. 11SMnPb30, have better machinability. ' T treatment condition: +U untreated; +QT quenched and tempered All free cutting steels are unalloyed quality steels. It is not possible to guarantee a uniform response to case hardening or quench and tempering. For heat treatment of free cutting steels, see page 157
Materials science: 4.
Steels,
t
t e
Cold work steels. Hot work steels. High-speed steels Tool steels (selection) Steel type Designation
Material number
cf. DIN EN ISO 4957 (2001-02), replaces DIN 17350 Tempering Hardness Hardening HB1) temperature QM2' temperat. Application examples, properties max. °C °C
Cold work steels, unalloyed
C45U
1.1730
190
800-830
O
180-300
Non-hardened mounted parts for tools, screwdrivers, chisels, knives
C70U
1.1520
190
790-820
O
180-300
Centering pins, small dies, vise jaws, trimming press
C80U
1.1525
190
780-810
w
180-300
Dies with flat cavities, chisels, cold extruding dies, knives
C105U
1.1545
213
770-800
w
180-300
Simple cutting tools, coining dies, scribers, piercing plugs, twist drills
Cold work steels, alloy
21MnCr5
1.2162
215
810-840
0
150-180
Complex case hardened press forms for plastics; easily polished
60WCrV8
1.2550
230
880-930
0
180-300
Cutters for steel sheet from 6 to 15 mm, cold punching dies, chisels, center punches
90MnCrV8
1.2842
220
790-820
0
150-250
Cutting dies, stamps, plastic stamping molds, reamers, measuring tools
102Cr6
1.2067
230
820-850
0
100-180
Drills, milling cutters, reamers, small cutting dies, turning centers for lathes
X38CrMo16
1.2316
250
1000-1040
0
650-700
Tools for processing chemically aggressive thermoplastics
40CrMnNiMo8-6-4 1.2738
235
840-870
0
180-220
Plastic molds of all types
45NiCrMo16
1.2767
260
840-870
X153CrMoV12
1.2379
250
X210CrW12
1.2436
255
950-980
55NiCrMoV7
1.2714
250
840-870
X37CrMoV5-1
1.2343
235
1020-1050 O, A 550-650
Die casting molds for light alloys, extrusion tools
32CrMoV12-28
1.2365
230
1020-1050 O, A 500-670
Die casting molds for heavy non-ferrous metals, extrusion tools for all metals
X38CrMoV5-3
1.2367
235
High-quality dies, highly stressed 1030-1080 O, A 600-700 tools for manufacture of screws
HS6-5-2C
1.3343
250
1190-1230 O, A 540-560
Twist drills, reamers, milling cutters, thread cutters, circular saw blades
HS6-5-2-5
1.3243
270
1210-1250 O, A 550-570
Highly stressed twist drills, milling cutters, roughing tools with high toughness
HS10-4-3-10
1.3207
270
1210-1250 O, A 550-570
Lathe tools for automatic machining, high cutting capacity
HS2-9-2
1.3348
250
1190-1230 O, A 540-580
Milling cutters, twist drills and thread cutters, high cutting hardness, high-temp, strength, toughness
O, A 160-250
1020-1050 O, A 180-250 O, A 180-250
Bending and embossing tools, shearing blades for thick material Cutting tools sensitive to breaking, milling cutters, broaching tools, shearing blades High-performance cutting tools, broaching tools, stamping tools
Hot work steels
O
400-650
Plastic molds, small and medium sized dies, hot shearing blades
High-speed steels
1)
2) Delivery condition: annealed QM Quenching medium; W water; 0 oil; A air For designations of tool steels, see page 125; for heat treatment of tool steels, see page 155
136
Materials science: 4.3 Steels, Steel types
Stainless steels Corrosion-resistant steels (selection) Steel type Designation
D 1)
cf. DIN EN 10088-2 and 10088-3 (2005-09)
DC2) Thickness
Material number
d
mm S| B
Tensile strength Am N/mm2
ElongaYield tion at strength fracture Properties, applications EL N/mm2 %
Austenitic steels X10CrNi18-8
X2CrNi18-9
1.4310
1.4307
• • •
•
X2CrNiN19-11
1.4306
1.4311
1.4301
X6CrNiTi18-10
1.4305
1.4541
X5CrNiMo17-12-2
1.4303
1.4401
1.4435
•
•
1)
Household containers, chemical and food industry
-
< 160
500-700
175
45
< 8 < 75
520-700 500-700
220 200
45
< 160
460-680
180
45
< 8 < 75
550-750 540-750
290 270
40
< 160
550-760
270
40
< 8 < 75
540-750
230 210
45
< 160 < 75 < 160
500-700 500-700 500-750
190 190 190
45 35 35
< 8 < 75
520-720 500-700
220 200
40
< 160 < 8 < 160
500-700 500-650 500-700
190 220 190
40 45 45
< 8 < 75
530-680 520-670
240 220
40 45
s 160
500-700
200
40
< 8 < 75
540-690 520-670
240 220
40
< 160
500-700
200
40
< 8 == 75
550-700 520-670
240 220
40 45
< 160
500-700
200
40
< 8 < 75
580-780
300 280
35 40
< 160
580-800
280
35
< 8 < 75
580-780
290 270
35 40
< 160
580-800
280
35
< 8 < 75
530-730 520-720
240 220
35
< 160
700-800
200
35
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
cp
• •
-
cp
• •
-
cp
• •
-
cp
• •
-
cp
• •
2>
45
cp
• •
•
X1 NiCrMoCu25-20-5 1.4539
220 200
c
•
•
X2CrNiMoN17-13-5 1.4439
520-700 500-650
cp
• •
•
X2CrNiMoN17-13-3 1.4429
< 8 < 75
p
•
•
X2CrNiMo18-14-3
C P
cp
• •
•
X6CrNiMoTi17-12-2 1.4571
Springs for temperatures up to 300 °C, automotive manufacturing
P
•
X4CrNi18-12
40 40
c
• •
•
X8CrNiS18-9
250 195
P
•
X5CrNi18-10
600-950 500-750
c
• •
•
X2CrNi18-10
-
< 8 < 40
C
•
•
-
D Delivery forms: S sheet, strip; B bars, profile DC Delivery condition: C cold-rolled strip; P hot-rolled sheet
Equipment and parts exposed to organic and fruit acids Equipment for the dairy and brewery industry, pressure vessels Deep-drawn parts in the food industry, easily polished Parts in the food and dairy industry Consumer goods used in the household, parts in the photo industry Chemical industry; bolts, nuts Parts in the paint, oil and textile industry Parts in the textile, synthetic resin and rubber industry Parts with improved chemical resistance for the pulp industry Pressure vessels with increased chemical resistance Resistant to chlorine and higher temperatures; chemical industry Resistant to phosphoric, sulfuric and hydrochloric acids; chemical industry
Materials science: 4.
Steels,
t
t e
Stainless steels Corrosion-resistant steels (continued) Steel type
D1)
DC 2)
Thickness
Material number
Designation
cf. DIN EN 10088-2 and 10088-3 (2005-09)
d
mm S| B
Tensile strength Am N/mm2
ElongaYield tion at strength fracture Properties, applications EL N/mm2 %
Ferritic steels
c
•
X2CrNi12
1.4003 •
X6Cr13
1.4113
< 100
450-600
260
20
< 8 < 25
400-600
240 220
19
< 25
400-630
230
20
< 8 < 25
450-600
260 240
20
-
< < < <
100 8 8 100
400-630 450-650 450-630 440-660
240 280 260 280
20 23 18 18
Automotive manufacturing; trim, hub caps
-
-
P •
X6CrMo17-1
20 18
c
• •
1.4016 1.4512
280 250
P •
X2CrTi12
450-650
c
• •
1.4000
X6Cr17
< 8 < 25
P
-
c c
• • •
Automotive and container manufacturing, conveyors Resistant to water and steam; household equipment, fittings Good cold workability, able to be polished; flatware, bumpers Catalytic converters
X3CrTi17
1.4510
•
c
< 8
450-600
260
20
Welded parts in food industry
X2CrMoTi18-2
1.4521
• •
cp
< 8 < 12
420-640 420-620
300 280
20
Bolts, nuts, heaters
1) 2)
D Delivery forms: S sheet, strip; B bars, profile MF Mill finish: C cold-rolled strip; P hot-rolled sheet
Martensitic steels
Steel type Designation
D1) Mat. no.
DC2) Thickness d
mm
S B X12Cr13
1.4006
• •
•
X20Cr13
1.4021
• •
•
X30Cr13
1.4028 1.4034
X39CrMo17-1 1.4122
•
X3CrNiMo13-4 1.4313 1) 2) 3)
• •
%
450
20 12
650-850
450
15
A QT750 QT800
<700 750-950
550
15 10
800-950
600
12
<740 800-1000
600
15 10
< 160
A QT800 QT850
850-1000
650
10
c
< 8 < 160
A QT800
<780 850-1000
245 650
12 10
Hardenable; table knives and machine knives
c
< 8 < 60
<900 900-1100
280 800
12 11
Shafts, spindles, armatures up to 600°C
p
< 75
A QT900 QT900
900-1100
800
11
-
< 160
A QT900
< 1100 900-1100
320 800
12
High toughness; pumps, turbine wheels, reactor construction
-
< 160
C P
< 8 - 75
-
< 160
-
• •
Yield Elongational Properties, strength fracture applications EL N/mm2
<=600 650-850
< 8 < 75
• •
Tensile strength Am N/mm2
A QT650 QT650
C P
cp
• •
•
X46Cr13
H 3)
< 8 < 75
Resistant to water and steam, food industry Axles, shafts, pump parts, propellers Bolts, nuts, springs, piston rods
D Delivery forms: S sheet, strip; B bars, profile DC Delivery condition: C cold-rolled strip; P hot-rolled sheet H Heat treatment condition: A solution annealed; QT750-" quenched and tempered to minimum tensile strength R m = 750 N/mm2
138
Materials science: 4.3 Steels, Steel types
Spring steel Steel wire for springs, patented drawn Wire type SL SM SH DM DH
Minimumi tensilei strenc}thfl m in N/miti 2 fori:he norninal diiameteir d in nlm 0.5
0.8
-
-
2200 2480 2200 2480
2050 2310 2050 2310
1.0 1720 1980 2330 1980 2230
Wire diameter d in mm
all types, except SL1> 1)
cf. DIN EN 10270-1 (2001-12), replaces DIN 17223
0.30 0.75 2.10 5.00 -
0.32 0.80 2.25 5.30 -
1.5 1600 1850 2090 1850 2090
2.0 1510 1740 1970 1740 1970
2.5 1460 1690 1900 1690 1900
3.4 1370 1590 1790 1590 1790
3.0 1410 1630 1840 1630 1840
4.0 1320 1530 1740 1530 1740
4.5 1290 1500 1690 1500 1690
5.0 1260 1460 1660 1460 1660
6.0 1210 1400 1590 1400 1590
8.0 1120 1310 1490 1310 1490
10.0 1060 1240 1410 1240 1410
15.0 20.0 -
1110 1270 1110 1270
-
1020 1160 1020 1160
(selection) 0.34 0.90 2.40 5.60 -
0.36 - 0.38 - 0.40 - 0.43 - 0.48 - 0.50 - 0.53 - 0.56 - 0.60 - 0.63 - 0.65 - 0.70 1.00 - 1.10 - 1.20 - 1.25 - 1.30 - 1.40 - 1.50 - 1.60 - 1.70 - 1.80 - 1.90 - 2.00 2.50 - 2.60 - 2.80 - 3.00 - 3.20 - 3.40 - 3.60 - 3.80 - 4.00 - 4.25 - 4.50 - 4.75 6.00 - 6.30 - 6.50 - 7.00 - 7.50 - 8.00 - 8.50 - 9.00 - 9.50 - 10.00
Wire type SL is only supplied in diameters d = 1 to 10 mm.
Operating conditions, applications
Wire type
Suitable for springs with:
Applications
SL SM SH DM DH
Low static loading Moderate static or, less often, dynamic loading High static or low dynamic loading Moderate dynamic loading High static or average dynamic loading
Tension springs, compression springs, torsion springs in equipment and machine construction, wire type DH is also suitable for shaped springs.
Wire coatings, delivery forms
Designation ph cu
Wire surfaces
Letter symbol
phosphatize copper coated
ZA
Wire surfaces
Delivery forms
with zinc coating with zinc/aluminum coating
Spring wire EN 10270-1 DM 3,4 ph: Spring
type DM, d = 3,4 mm, phosphatized surface (ph)
Hot-rolled steels for quenched and tempered springs Spheroidized +A Material number Hardness Hardness HB HB
Steel type Designation 38Si7 46Si7 55Cr3 54SiCr6 61SiCr7 51CrV4 Explanation
Hotrolled
1.5023 1.5024 1.7176 1.7102 1.7108 1.8159 1)
240 270 >310 310 310 >310
217 248 248 248 248 248
in coils or on spools straightened rods in bundles
cf. DIN EN 10089 (2003-04), replaces DIN 17221
In quenchied and teimpered condition (+QT Tensile Yield Elongation strength strength at fracture EL Am N/mm2 % N/mm2 1300-1600 1150 8 7 1400-1700 1250 1400-1700 1250 3 1450-1750 1300 6 1550-1850 1400 5.5 1400-1700 1200 6
Properties, applications
Spring screw locks Leaf springs, helical springs Larger tension and compression springs Spring wire Leaf springs, helical springs Highly stressed springs
Strength values apply to test pieces with d = 10 mm diameter.
Round bar EN 10089 - 20 x 8000 - 51CrV4+A: Bar diameter d = 20 mm, bar length / = 8000 mm, steel type 51CrV4, delivery condition spheroidized (+A) Wire diameter d in mm
(selection)
5.0 - 5.5 - 6.0 - 6.5 - 7.0 - 7.5 - 8.0 - 8.5 - 9.0 - 9.5 - 10.0 - 10.5 - 11.0 11.5 - 12.0 - 19.0 - 19.5 - 20.0 - 21.0 - 22.0 - 23.0 - 27.0 - 28.0 - 29.0 - 30.0
Delivery forms
directional rods wire coils
139
Materials science: 4.4 Steels, Finished products
Sheet and strip metal - Classification, overview Classification according to
Delivery form Type
Fabrication method Commercial formats
Sheet Usually rectangular plates in small format: w x /= 1000 x 2000 mm med. format: w x l = 1250 x 2500 mm large format: w x l = 1500 x 3000 mm Sheet thicknesses: s = 0,14-250 mm Strip
Rolled (coils) continuous strip Strip thickness s = 0,14-approx. 10 mm Strip width w up to 2000 mm Coil diameter up to 2400 mm • for feed stock at automatic manufacturing plants or sheet metal blanks for secondary processing
Process
Remarks
Hotrolled
Sheet thicknesses up to approx. 250 mm, surfaces in rolled condition or pickled
Cold rolled
Sheet thicknesses up to approx. 10 mm, smooth surfaces, tight process tolerances
Cold-rolled with surface finishing
• higher corrosion resistance, e.g. from galvanizing, organic coating • for decorative purposes, e.g. with plastic coating • better workability, e.g. by textured surfaces
Sheet metal types - Overview (selection) Main characteristics
Designation, steel types
Standard
Delivery form 1 ' Sh
St | thickness range
Cold-rolled sheet and strip • cold workable (deep drawing) • weldable • surface paintable
Flat rolled products from soft steels
DIN EN 10130
•
•
0.35-3 mm
Cold strip from soft steels
DIN EN 10207
-
•
< 10 mm
Flat products with high yield strengths
DIN EN 10268
•
•
< 3 mm
Flat products for enameling
DIN EN 10209
•
•
< 3 mm
Hot-dip finished sheet and strip
DIN EN 10327
•
•
< 3 mm
Zinc electroplated flat products from steel for cold working
DIN EN 10152
•
•
0.35-3 mm
Organically coated flat products from steel
DIN EN 10169-1
•
•
< 3 mm
Black plate for manufacture of tinplate
DIN EN 10205
•
•
0.14-0.49 mm
Packaging sheet metal from electrolytically tinned or chromed steel
DIN EN 10202
•
•
0.14-0.49 mm
Cold-rolled sheet and strip with surface finishing • higher corrosion resistance • possibly better workability
Cold-rolled sheets and strip for packaging • corrosion resistant • cold workable • weldable
Hot-rolled sheet and strip Same properties as the corresponding steel groups (pages 126, 127)
Sheet and strip from unalloyed and alloy steels, e.g. structural steels as per DIN EN 10025, fine-grain structural steels as per DIN EN 10113, DIN EN 10051 case hardened steels as per DIN EN 10084, quenched and tempered steels as per DIN EN 10083, stainless steels as per DIN EN 10088
•
•
sheet up to 25 mm thickness, strip up to 10 mm thickness
• high yield strength
Sheet metal from structural steels with higher yield strength, quenched and tempered
DIN EN 10025-6
•
-
3-150 mm
• cold workability
Flat products of steel with high yield strength
DIN EN 10149-1
•
•
1)
Delivery forms: Sh sheet; St strip
sheet up to 20 mm thickness
Materials science: 4.4 Steels, Finished products
Cold-rolled sheet and strip for cold working Cold-rolled strip and sheet from soft steels Steel typ e Material number
Designation
Type of surface
cf. DIN EN 10130 (2007-02)
Tensile strength Am N/mm 2
Yield strength Re N/mm 2
Elongation at fracture EL
%
Lack of flowlines 1 '
Properties, Application
DC01
1.0330
A B
270-410
140 280
28
DC03
1.0347
A B
270-370
140 240
34
6 months
DC04
1.0338
A B
270-350
140 210
38
6 months
DC05
1.0312
A B
270-330
140 180
40
6 months
DC06
1.0873
A B
270-350
120 180
38
unlimited time
Delivery forms (standard values)
Sheet thicknesses: 0.25 - 0.35 - 0.4 - 0.5 - 0.6 - 0.7 - 0.8 - 0.9 - 1.0 - 1.2 - 1.5 - 2.0 - 2.5 - 3.0 mm Metal sheet dimensions: 1000 x 2000 mm, 1250 x 2500 mm, 1500 x 3000 mm, 2000 x 6000 mm strip (coils) up to approx. 2000 mm wide 1)
Explanation
Cold workable, e.g. by deep drawing, weldable, surface paintable; worked sheet parts in automotive, general machine and equipment manufacturing, in the construction industry
In subsequent non-cutting processes, e. g. deep drawing, no flow lines appear within the given time period. The time period begins at the agreed upon delivery date. Surface finish
Type of surface Description of the surface
Designation
3 months
Designation
Finish
Average roughness Ra
A
Defects, e.g. pores, scoring, may not influence the workability and the adhesion of surface coatings.
g
b
very smooth smooth
Ra < 0.4 (jm Ra < 0.9 Mm
B
One side of the sheet must be free of defects so that its surface finish will not influence quality painting.
m r
matt rough
0.6 |jm < fla< 1.9 pm Ra > 1.6 |jm
Sheet EN 10130 - DC06 - B - g: Sheet metal from DC06 material, surface type B, smooth surface
=>
Cold-rolled strip and sheet of high yield steels (selection) Steel type
cf. DIN EN 10268 (2006-10) Elongation at fracture Properties, EL Application
Material number
Tensile strength Am N/mm 2
Yield strength Re N/mm 2
HC180Y HC220Y HC260Y
1.0922 1.0925 1.0928
340-400 350-420 380-440
180-230 220-270 260-320
36 34 32
Cold workability at high mechanical strength, sophisticated deep-drawn parts
HC180B HC220B HC300B
1.0395 1.0396 1.0444
300-360 320-400 400-480
180-230 220-270 300-360
34 32 26
Good cold workability, increase of the yield strength through heat treatment after the shaping process; exterior parts of the vehicle body
HC180P HC260P HC300P
1.0342 1.0417 1.0448
280-360 360-440 400-480
180-230 280-320 300-360
34 29 26
Good cold workability, high impact resistance and fatigue strength; parts of the body skin, deep-drawn parts
HC260LA HC380LA HC420LA
1.0480 1.0550 1.0556
350-430 440-560 470-590
260-330 380-480 420-520
26 19 17
Good weldability and limited cold workability, good impact resistance and fatigue strength; reinforcing parts of the vehicle body
Designation
Forms of delivery, surface finishes
-
%
Forms of delivery see DIN EN 10130 (table on top) Surface finishes: The products are available with the surface finish types A and B in accordance with DIN EN 10130. For LA types, e.g. HC380LA, only surface finish type A is available. For rolling width > 600 mm, the surface finishes also comply with DIN EN 10130. Sheet metal EN 10628 - HC380LA - A - m: Sheet metal of material HC380LA, surface finish A, matt (m)
141
Materials science: 4.4 Steels, Finished products
Cold-rolled and hot-rolled sheet Hot-dip galvanized strip and sheet from soft steels for cold working Steel t/pe Designation
Material number
Guarantee for strength values 1 '
cf. DIN EN 10327 (2004-09) replaces DIN EN 10142 Tensile strength N/mm 2
Yield strength Ke N/mm 2
Elongation at fracture EL
Lack of flow lines 2 '
Cold working grade
22
1 month
machine seamed quality drawing grade
%
DX51D+Z DX51D+ZF
1.0226+Z 1.0226+ZF
8 days
270-500
DX52D+Z DX52D+ZF
1.0350+Z 1.0350+ZF
8 days
270-420
140-300
26
1 month
DX53D+Z DX53D+ZF
1.0355+Z 1.0355+ZF
6 months
270-380
140-260
30
6 months
deep drawing grade
DX54D+Z DX54D+ZF
1.0306+Z 1.0306+ZF
6 months
260-350
120-220
36 34
6 months
extra deep drawing grade
DX56D+Z DX56D+ZF
1.0322+Z 1.0322+ZF
6 months
270-350
120-180
39 37
6 months
special deep drawing grade
Delivery forms (standard values)
Sheet thicknesses: 0.25 - 0.35 - 0.4 - 0.5 - 0.6 - 0.7 - 0.8 - 0.9 - 1.0 - 1.2 - 1.5 - 2.0 - 2.5 - 3.0 mm Metal sheet dimensions: 1000 x 2000 mm, 1250 x 2500 mm, 1500 x 3000 mm, 2000 x 6000 mm strip (coils) up to approx. 2000 mm wide
Explanation
1)
2)
-
Values for tensile strength ffm, yield strength Re and elongation at fracture EL are only guaranteed within the given time period. The time period begins at the agreed upon delivery date. In subsequent working, e.g. deep drawing, no flow lines appear within a given period. The time period begins at the agreed upon delivery date.
Composition, properties and structures of the coating Designation +Z
+ZF
Composition, properties
Designation
Coatings of pure zinc, shiny flower patterned surface, protection against atmospheric corrosion Abrasion resistant coating of a zinc-iron alloy, uniform matt gray surface, corrosion resistant like +Z
N M R
Structure Zinc flowers in different sizes Small zinc flowers, often not visible. Uniform matt gray surface (texture information only combined with coating +ZF)
Type of surface Designation A B C
Meaning No surface defects are allowed, e.g. dots, stripes Improved surface compared to A Best surface, high-quality painting must be assured on one side of the sheet Sheet EN 10142 - DX53D+ZF100-R-B: Sheet of DX53D material, coating of iron-zinc alloy with 100 g/m 2 , uniform matt gray (R) and improved (B) surface
Hot-rolled sheet and strip
cf. DIN EN 10051 (1997-11)
Hot-rolled sheet and strip according to DIN EN 10051 are manufactured from steels of various material groups, for example: Steel group, designation Materials
Delivery forms (standard values)
Standard
Page
Structural steels Case hardened steels Quenched and tempered steels
DIN EN 10025 DIN EN 10084 DIN EN 10083
130 132 133
Weldable fine-grain steels Heat-treatable structural steels, high yield strength
DIN EN 10113 DIN EN 10137
131 131
Stainless steels Pressure vessel steels
DIN EN 10088 DIN EN 10028
136
Properties and applications of the steels are given on the pages for the individual steel.
Sheet thicknesses: 0 . 5 - 1 . 0 - 1 . 5 - 2 . 0 - 2 . 5 - 3 . 0 - 3 . 5 - 4 . 0 - 4 . 5 - 5 . 0 - 6 . 0 - 8 . 0 - 1 0 . 0 - 1 2 . 0 - 1 5 . 0 18.0 - 20.0 - 25.0 mm. Sheet and strip dimensions see DIN EN 10142. Sheet EN 10051 - 2,0 x 1200 x 2500: Sheet thickness 2,0 mm, sheet dimensions 1200 x 2500 mm Steel EN 10083-1 - 34Cr4: Carbon quenched and tempered steel 34Cr4
142
Materials science: 4.4 Steels, Finished products
Tubes for machine construction, Precision steel tube Seamless tube for machine construction (selection) d s S m' Wx /x
x-
outside diameter wall thickness cross-sectional area linear mass density axial section modulus axial geometrical moment of inertia
L
- y , -x
VJ —
J
dx s
cf. DIN EN 10297-1 (2003-06)
S cm 2
m' kg/m
Wx cm 3
/x cm 4
26.9 x 2.3 26.9 x 2.6 26.9 x 3.2
1.78 1.98 2.38
1.40 1.55 1.87
1.01 1.10 1.27
1.36 1.48 1.70
35 x 2.6 35 x 4.0 35 x 6.3
2.65 3.90 5.68
2.08 3.06 4.46
2.00 2.72 3.50
3.50 4.76 6.13
40x4 40x5 40x8
4.52 5.50 8.04
3.55 4.32 6.31
3.71 4.30 5.47
44.5 x 4 44.5x5 44.5 x 8
5.09 6.20 9.17
4.00 4.87 7.20
51 x 5 51 x 8 51 x 10
7.23 10.81 12.88
5.68 8.49 10.11
s L1 Material, annealing condition
dx s
S cm 2
m' kg/m
cm 3
/x cm4
54 x 5.0 54 x 8.0 54 x 10.0
7.70 11.56 13.82
6.04 9.07 10.85
8.64 11.67 13.03
23.34 31.50 35.18
60.3 x 8 60.3 x 10 60.3 x 12.5
13.14 15.80 18.77
10.31 12.40 14.73
15.25 17.23 19.00
45.99 51.95 57.28
7.42 8.59 10.94
70x8 70 x 12.5 70 x 16
15.58 22.58 27.14
12.23 17.73 21.30
21.75 76.12 27.92 97.73 30.75 107.6
4.74 5.53 7.20
10.54 12.29 16.01
82.5 x 8 82.5 x 12.5 82.5 x 20
18.72 27.49 39.27
14.70 21.58 30.83
31.85 131.4 42.12 173.7 51.24 211.4
7.58 10.13 11.25
19.34 25.84 28.68
88.9 x 10 88.9 x 16 88.9 x 20
24.79 36.64 43.29
19.46 28.76 33.98
44.09 196.0 57.40 255.2 62.66 278.6
Steel group
Steel type, examples
Machine construction unalloyed steels alloy
E235, E275, E315 E355K2, E420J2
Quenched and tempered steels
Annealing condition1* +AR or +N +N
unalloyed C22E, C45E, C60E alloy 41Cr4, 42CrMo4
Case hard, steel, unall., alloy
+N or +QT +QT
C10E, C15E, 16MnCr5
+A or +N
Properties and applications of steels, see pages 126 and 127.
Precision steel tube, cold-drawn seamless (selection) d s S m' Wx /x
outside diameter wall thickness cross-sectional area linear mass density axial section modulus axial geometrical moment of inertia
fex L
f KV
I A~
—
—I S d
v
-X
dx s
cf. DIN EN 10305 1 (2003-02)
S cm 2
m' kg/m
Wx cm 3
/x cm4
dx s
10 x 1 10x 1.5 10x2
0.28 0.40 0.50
0.22 0.31 0.39
0.06 0.07 0.09
0.03 0.04 0.04
12 x 1 12 x 1.5 12x2
0.35 0.49 0.63
0.27 0.38 0.49
0.09 0.12 0.14
15x2 15x2.5 15x3
0.82 0.98 1.13
0.64 0.77 0.89
20 x 2.5 20x4 20x5
1.37 2.01 2.36
25x2.5 25 x 5 25x6 30x3 30x5 30x6 Materials, surface, annealing condition
S cm 2
m' kg/m
cm3
/x cm4
35x3 35x5 35x8
3.02 4.71 5.53
2.37 3.70 4.34
2.23 3.11 2.53
3.89 5.45 3.79
0.05 0.07 0.08
40x4 40 x 5 40 x 8
4.52 5.50 8.04
3.55 4.32 6.31
3.71 4.30 5.47
7.42 8.59 10.94
0.24 0.27 0.29
0.18 0.20 0.22
50x5 50x8 50 x 10
7.07 10.56 12.57
5.55 8.29 9.87
7.25 9.65 10.68
18.11 24.12 26.70
1.08 1.58 1.85
0.54 0.68 0.74
0.54 0.68 0.74
60 x 5 60x8 60 x 10
8.64 13.07 15.71
6.78 10.26 12.33
10.98 15.07 17.02
32.94 45.22 51.05
1.77 3.14 3.58
1.39 2.46 2.81
0.91 1.34 1.42
1.13 1.67 1.78
70 x 5 70 x 10 70 x 12
10.21 18.85 21.87
8.01 14.80 17.17
15.50 24.91 27.39
54.24 87.18 95.88
2.54 3.93 4.52
1.99 3.08 3.55
1.56 2.13 2.31
2.35 3.19 3.46
80x8 80 x 10 80 x 16
18.10 21.99 32.17
14.21 17.26 25.25
29.68 34.36 43.75
118.7 137.4 175.0
Steel group
Surfaces
Unalloyed structural steels, free cutting steels, quenched and tempered steels
Tubes with smooth interior and exterior surfaces, surface roughness Ra < 0,4 pm
Annealing condition1' +C or +A or +N
Properties and applications of steels, see pages 126 and 127. 1>
Explanation
+ A spheroidized; +C cold-rolled;
+AR condition after hot working; +N normalized; +QT quenched and tempered
Materials science: 4.4 Steels, Finished products
Hot-rolled steel profiles Cross-section
Designation, dimensions
Round steel bar d = 8-200
Square steel bar a=8-120
Flat steel bar b x s = 1 0 x 5 to 150 x 60
b
Square tube a = 40-400
fO
Rectangular tubes
Standard, page
DIN EN 10060 page 144
DIN EN 10059 page 144
DIN EN 10058 page 144
DIN EN 10210-2
page 151
DIN EN 10210-2
ax b = 50 x 25 to 500 x 300
mbm
page 151
Circular tube DIN EN Dx s = 21.3x2.3 to 1219x25
Equal leg tee b=h = 30-140
-c:
Steel channel
b 1
Z profile steel h = 30 — 200
Equal leg steel angle a = 20-250
Unequal leg steel angle ax b = 3 0 x 2 0 to 200 x 150
Narrow I-beam I series h = 80-160
Medium width I-beam IPE series h = 80—600
Wide I-beam IPB series 1 '
10210-1 h = 100-1000
DIN EN 10055 page 146
Wide I-beam light duty IPBI series 1 ' h = 100—1000
DIN 1026-1
h = 30-400
Designation, dimensions
Cross-section
Wide I-beam reinforced design IPBv series 1 '
page 146 h = 100-1000
' according to EURONORM 53-62: IPB = HE to B, IPBI = HE to A, IPBv = HE to M
143
144
Materials science: 4.4 Steels, Finished products
Steel bar, hot-rolled Hot-rolled round steel bar
cf. DIN EN 10060 (2004-02), replaces for DIN 1013-1
Material:
Unalloyed structural steel according to DIN EN 10025 or quenched and tempered steel according to DIN EN 10083
Type of delivery: Manufactured lengths (M) > 3 m < 13 m, normal lengths (F) < 13 m ± 100 mm, precision lengths (E) < 6 m ± 25 mm, > 6 m < 13 m ± 50 mm Diameter d in mm
10 - 12 - 13 - 14 - 15 - 16 - 18 - 19 - 20 - 22 - 24 - 25 - 26 - 27 - 28 - 30 - 32 - 35 - 36 - 38 - 40 42 - 45 - 48 - 50 - 52 - 55 - 60 - 63 - 65 - 70 - 73 - 75 - 80 - 85 - 90 - 95 - 100 - 105 - 110 - 115 120 - 125 - 130 - 135 - 140 - 145 - 150 - 155 - 160 - 165 - 170 - 175 - 180 - 190 - 200 - 220 - 250
Diameter d in mm
Limit deviations in mm
Diameter d in mm
Limit deviations in mm
Diameter d in mm
Limit deviations in mm
Diameter d in mm
Limit deviations in mm
10-15
±0.4
36-50
±0.8
105-120
± 1.5
220
±3.0
16-25
±0.5
52-80
± 1.0
125-160
±2.0
26-35
±0.6
85-100
± 1.3
165-200
± 2.5
250
± 4.0
Round bar EN 10060 - 40 x 6000 F steel EN 10025-S235JR: Hot-rolled round steel bar, d = 40 mm, normal length 6000 mm, made of S235JR
Hot-rolled square steel bar
cf. DIN EN 10059 (2004-02), replaces DIN 1014-1
Material:
Unalloyed structural steel according to DIN EN 10025
Type of delivery: Manufactured lengths (M) > 3 m < 13 m, normal lengths (F) < 13 m ± 100 mm, precision lengths (E) < 6 m ± 25 mm, > 6 m < 13 m ± 50 mm
Length of side a in mm
8 - 10- 12- 13- 14- 15- 16- 1 8 - 2 0 - 2 2 - 2 4 - 2 5 - 2 6 - 2 8 - 3 0 - 3 2 - 3 5 - 4 0 - 4 5 - 5 0 - 5 5 60 - 65 - 70 - 75 - 80 - 90 - 100 - 110 - 120 - 130 - 140 - 150
Limit Limit Limit Length of side a Length of side a Length of side a deviations deviations deviations in mm in mm in mm in mm in mm in mm
Limit Length of side a deviations in mm in mm
8-14
±0.4
26-35
±0.6
55-90
± 1.0
110-120
± 1.5
15-25
±0.5
40-50
±0.8
100
± 1.3
130-150
± 1.8
Square bar EN 10059 - 60 x 6000 F steel EN 10025-S235JR: Hot-rolled square steel bar, a = 2.36 in, normal length 6000 mm, made of S235JR
Hot-rolled flat steel bar Material:
w Nominal width w in mm Nominal thickness s in mm
cf. DIN EN 10058 (2004-02), replaces DIN 1017-1 Unalloyed structural steel according to DIN EN 10025
Type of delivery: Manufactured lengths (M) > 3 m < 13 m, normal lengths (F) < 13 m ± 100 mm, precision length (E) < 6 m ± 25 mm, > 6 m < 13 m ± 50 mm
1 0 - 1 2 - 1 5 - 1 6 - 2 0 - 2 5 - 3 0 - 3 5 - 4 0 - 4 5 - 5 0 - 6 0 - 7 0 - 8 0 - 9 0 - 1 0 0 - 120-150 5 _ 6 - 8 - 10- 12- 1 5 - 2 0 - 2 5 - 3 0 - 3 5 - 4 0 - 5 0 - 6 0 - 8 0
Allowable deviations to nominal width w Nominal width w in mm
Limit deviations in mm
Nominal width w in mm
Limit deviations in mm
10-40
±0.75
85-100
± 1.5
45-80
± 1.0
120
±2.0
Nominal width w in mm
Limit deviations in mm
150
±2.5
Allowable deviations to nominal thickness s Nominal thickness s in mm
Limit deviations in mm
Nominal thickness s in mm
Limit deviations in mm
Nominal thickness s in mm
Limit deviations in mm
5-20
±0.5
25-40
± 1.0
50-80
± 1.5
Flat steel bar EN 10058-20 x 5 x 6000 F steel EN 10025-S235JR: Hot-rolled flat steel bar, b = 20 mm, s = 5 mm, normal length 6000 mm, made of S235JR
145
Materials science: 4.4 Steels, Finished products
Steel bars, bright Common dimensions of bright steel bars (selection) Designation
Nominal dimensions Width w, height h in mm w h w h
Flat steel bar
w
w
h
w
h
5 6 8 10
2-3 2-4 2-6 2-8
12 14 15 16
2-10 2-10 2-12 2-12
2-12 2-16 2-12 2-20
18 20 22 25
2-20 2-25 2-20 2-32
28 32 36 40
w
h
w
h
45 50 56 63
2-32 2-32 3-32 3-40
70 80 90 100
4-40 5-25 5-25 5-25
Nominal thicknesses h in mm: 2 - 2 . 5 - 3 - 4 - 5 - 6 - 8 - 1 0 - 1 2 - 1 5 - 1 6 - 2 0 - 2 5 - 3 0 - 3 2 - 3 5 - 4 0 Side length a in mm
Square steel bar
m
3
4 4.5 5
6 7 8
9 10 11
12 13 14
2 2.5 3 3.2 3.5
4 4.5 5 5.5 6
7 8 9 10 11
12 13 14 15 16
2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6
6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
36 40 45
50 63 70
80 100
27 30 32 36 38
41 46 50 55 60
65 70 75 80 85
90 95 100
38 40 42 45 48 50 52 55
58 60 63 65 70 75 80 85
90 100 110 120 125 130 140 150
Side length s in mm
Hexagonal bar steel
s
17 19 21 22 24 Diameter d in mm
round steel bar
(v j\ N
22 25 28
16 18 20
S
d
polished round steel bar
27 28 29 30 32 34 35 36
160 180 200
common delivered diameters
1 mm to 13 mm
> 13 mm to 25 mm
> 25 mm to 50 mm
common diameter gradation
0.5 mm
1 mm
5 mm cf. DIN EN 10278(1999-12) +SL +PL
Delivery conditions +C
+SH
cold drawn
peeled
Code Finished condition
ground
polished
Round EN 10278 - 20 h9 x mill length 6000 EN 10277-3 - 44SMn28+C - Class 3: Round bright steel bar, d= 20 mm Tolerance class h9, mill length 6000 mm, free cutting steel 44SMn28, cold drawn, surface quality class 3 Material groups and assigned delivery conditions
cf. DIN EN 10277-1 to -5 (1999-10) Delivery conditions 1 '
Material groups +SH
+C
+C+QT
+QT+C
+A+SH
+A+C
+FP +SH +FP +C
Steels for general engineering use Free cutting steels Free cutting case hardened steels Free cutting quenched and temp, steels Unalloyed case hardened steels Case hardened alloy steels Unalloyed quenched and tempered steels Quenched and tempered alloy steels 1)
Explanation pages 124 and 125 cf. DIN EN 10278(1999-12)
Length types and length limit deviations Length type
Length in mm
Manufactured length 3000-9000
Limit deviations in mm
Order information
± 500
length
Mill length
3000-6000
0/+200
e.g. mill length 6000
Precision length
up to 9000
by agreement, but min. ± 5
length and limit deviation
146
Materials science: 4.4 Steels, Finished products
Structural Teer Steel channel Equal leg Tee, hot-rolled
cf. DIN EN 10055(1995-12) S /
cross-sectional area second moment of inertia
Material:
W axial section modulus m' linear mass density
Unalloyed structural steel DIN EN 10025, e.g. S235JR
Delivery type: Lengths to order with a usual limit deviation of ± 100 mm or a reduced limit deviation ± 50 mm, ± 25 mm, ± 10 mm
r= s
Designation
Dimensions in mm b=h
30 35 40 50 60 70 80 100 120 140
S cm2
s=t 4 4.5 5
30 35 40 50 60 70 80 100 120 140
m kg/m 1.77 2.33 2.96 4.44 6.23 8.23 10.7 16.4 23.2 31.3
2.26
2.97 3.77 5.66 7.94 10.6 13.6 20.9 29.6 39.9
9 11 13 15
Distance For the bending axis of the y - y x- x xaxis e x cmc cnr cm cm cm 0.80 0.85 1.72 0.87 0.58 1.23 0.99 0.90 3.10 1.04 1.84 1.12 1.29 5.28 2.58 1.39 12.1 3.36 2.42 6.06 1.66 23.8 5.48 12.2 4.07 1.94 44.4 8.79 22.1 6.32 73.7 12.8 37.0 9.25 2.22 17.7 179 24.6 88.3 2.74 29.7 366 42.0 179 3.28 47.2 660 64.7 330 3.80
Tracing dimension accord, to DIN 997 Wi mm 17 19 21 30 34 38 45 60 70 80
di mm 4.3 4.3 6.4 6.4 8.4
w2 mm 17 19 22 30 35 40 45 60 70 75
11
11 13 17 21
Tee profile EN 10055 - T50 - S235JR: Structural steel tee, h = 50 mm, from S235JR
Steel channel, hot-rolled
cf. DIN 1026-1 (2000-03) S I
^
cross-sectional area second moment of inertia
Material: —*
U 30 x 15 30 40x20 40 50x25 50 60 80 100 120 160 200 260 300 350 400
Unalloyed structural steel DIN EN 10025, e.g. S235J0
Delivery type: Manufactured lengths 3 m to 15 m; normal lengths up to 15 m ± 50 mm; slope angle at h < 300 mm: 8%; h > 300 mm: 5%
-c
r1
Designation
=
r ~ *
f
Dimensions in mm h 30 30 40 40 50 50 60 80 100 120 160 200 260 300 350 400
b
s
t
15 33 20 35 25 38 30 45 50 55 65 75 90 100 100 110
4
4.5 7 5.5 7 6 7 6 8 8.5 9 10.5 11.5 14 16 17.5 18
5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 7 7.5 8.5 10 10 14 14
W axial section modulus m' linear mass density
12 10 18 11 25 20 35 46 64 82 115 151 200 232 276 324
S cm 2 2.21 5.44 3.66 6.21 4.92 7.12 6.46 11.0 13.5 17.0 24.0 32.2 48.3 58.8 77.3 91.5
m' kg/m 1.74 4.27 2.87 4.87 3.86 5.59 5.07 8.64 10.6 13.4 18.8 25.3 37.9 46.2 60.6 71.8
r 3 < 0,3 • f
Distance For the bending axis to the x- - X /axis y-- y e WX /x V Wv y cm cm 4 cm 3 cm 4 cm 3 0.52 2.53 1.69 0.38 0.39 1.31 6.39 4.26 5.33 2.68 0.67 3.97 1.14 7.58 0.86 14.1 1.33 7.05 6.68 3.08 0.81 16.8 6.73 2.49 1.48 26.4 1.37 10.6 9.12 3.75 0.91 31.6 10.5 2.16 4.51 19.4 1.45 106 26.5 6.36 41.2 1.55 206 29.3 8.49 364 60.7 1.60 43.2 11.1 1.84 925 116 85.3 18.3 2.01 1 910 191 148 27.0 371 317 2.36 4 820 Ml 2.70 8 030 535 495 67.8 734 2.40 12 840 570 75.0 102 2.65 20 350 1020 846
Channel DIN 1026 - U100 - S235J0: Steel channel, h = 100 mm, from S235J0
Tracing dimensions DIN 997 W-| c/i mm mm 10 4.3 8.4 20 11 6.4 8.4 20 8.4 16 20 11 8.4 18 25 13 30 13 30 17 35 21 40 23 50 25 55 28 58 28 60 28
147
Materials science: 4.4 Steels, Finished products
Steel angle Unequal leg steel angle, hot-rolled (selection) t
S /
cf. DIN EN 10056-1 (1998-10) W axial section modulus m' linear mass density
cross-sectional area second moment of inertia
- "Cj Material:
Unalloyed structural steel DIN EN 10025-2, e.g. S235J0
Delivery type: From 30 x 20 x 3 to 200 x 150 x 15, in manufactured lengths > 6 m < 12 m, normal lengths > 6 m < 12 m ± 100 mm
-
5 W3
Designation
Dimensions in mm a b t
L 30 x 30 x 40 x 40 x 45 x 50 x 60 x 60 x 60 x 65 x 70 x 75 x 75 x 80 x 80 x 80 x 100 x 100 x 100 x 100 x 100 x 100 x 100 x 100 x 120 x 120 x 120 x 125 x 125 x 125 x 135 x 135 x 150 x 150 x 150 x 150 x 150 x 150 x 150 x 150 x 200 x 200 x
20 x 20 x 20 x 25 x
3 4 4 4
30 30 40 40 30 x 4 45 30 x 5 50 30 x 5 60 40 x 5 60 40 x 6 60 50 x 5 65 50 x 6 70 50 x 6 75 50 x 8 75 40 x 6 80 40 x 8 80 60 x 7 80 50 x 6 100 50 x 8 100 65 x 7 100 65 x 8 100 65x 10 100 75 x 8 100 75x 10 100 75x 12 100 80 x 8 120 80x 10 120 80x 12 120 75 x 8 125 75x 10 125 75x 12 125 65 x 8 135 65x 10 135 75 x 9 150 75x 10 150 75x 12 150 75x 15 150 90x 12 150 90x 15 150 100 x 10 150 100 x 12 150 100 x 10 200 100 x 15 200
20 20 20 25 30 30 30 40 40 50 50
3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 6 5 6 6 8 6 8 7
S cm 2
m' kg/m
1.43 1.86 2.26 2.46 2.87 3.78 4.28 4.79 5.68 5.54 6.89
1.12 1.46 1.77 1.93 2.25 2.96 3.36 3.76 4.46 4.35 5.41
Distances to axes e e x y cm cm
8.77 9.94 12.3 10.6 13.0 15.4
8 10 12 8 10 12
15.5 19.1 22.7 15.5 19.1 22.7
65 65 75 75 75 75
8 10
15.5 19.1
9 10 12 15 12 15 10 12
19.6 21.7 25.7 31.7 27.5 33.9 24.2 28.7 29.2 43.0
12.2 15.0 17.8 12.2 15.0 17.8 12.2 15.0 15.4 17.0 20.2 24.8
3.83 3.92 4.00 4.14 4.23 4.31 4.78 4.88 5.26 5.30 5.40 5.52
21.6 26.6 19.0 22.5 23.0 33.8
5.08 5.21 4.81 4.89 6.93 7.16
90 90 100 100 100 10 100 15
0.44 0.55 0.60 1.16 2.05 2.51 2.63 6.11 7.12
0.88 0.96 1.52
44.9 57.6 59.0
8.73 11.4 10.7
7.59 9.61 28.4
1.05 1.13
89.9 116
13.8 18.2
15.4 19.7
3.89 5.08
1.51 1.55 1.63 1.87 1.95 2.03 1.87 1.95 2.03 1.68 1.76 1.84
113 127 154 133 162 189 226 276 323 247 302 354
16.6 18.9 23.2 19.3 23.8 28.0 27.6 34.1 40.4
1.34 1.42 1.57 1.61 1.69 1.81 2.12 2.23 2.34 2.42 2.01 2.22
291 356 455 501 588 713 627 761 553 651 1220 1758
37.6 42.2 51.0 64.1 77.6 90.2 80.8 98.1 114 67.6 82.1 95.5 45.2 54.7 77.9 85.6 99.6 119 171 205 199 233 210 299
0.68 0.97 1.01 1.25 1.25 1.21 1.29
11.2 12.7 15.6 13.5 16.6 19.7
0.62 0.81 1.42 1.47
40.5 52.0
3.59 3.89 5.78 9.36
8.71 11.4
cm 3
11.9 14.2 14.4 18.4
0.48 0.62 0.74 0.74
6 8 7 8 10 8 10 12
cm 4
1.91 2.86 4.07 4.25 5.03 5.14 7.01 8.01 10.4
1.25 1.59
50 50 65 65 65 75 75 75 80 80 80 75 75 75
6.89 9.01 9.38
V
cm 3
0.29 0.38 0.39 0.69 0.91 1.11 1.14 2.02 2.38 3.19 3.78 3.81 4.95 2.44 3.16 6.34
0.50 0.54
2.85 2.94 2.51 3.51 3.60 3.23 3.27 3.36 3.10 3.19 3.27
7.19 9.41
/x
cm 4
0.99 1.03 1.47 1.36 1.48 1.73 2.17 1.96 2.00 1.99 2.23 2.44 2.52
5.65 7.39 5.41 7.07 7.36 6.84 8.97
50 50 40 40 60
For the bending axis x -- X y-• y
15.6 17.2 20.1 23.2 33.4
29.6 36.5 43.2 33.4 41.3 46.7 51.6 61.3 75.2 63.3 77.7 54.2 64.4 93.2 137
Tracing dimension accord, to DIN 997 w-i w2 w 3 di mm mm mm mm 17 17 22 22 25 30 35 35 35 35 40
— -
— -
— -
40 40
-
45 45 45
—
7.53 8.54 10.5 11.4 14.0 16.5 13.2 16.2 19.1 11.6 14.3 16.9
55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 50 50 50 50 50 50
—
8.75 10.8
50 50
13.1 14.5 17.1 21.0
60 60 60 60
24.8 30.4 25.9 30.7
60 60 60 60 65 65
26.3 38.5
L EN 10056-1 - 65 x 50 x 5 - S235J0: Unequal leg steel angle, a = 65 mm, b = 50 mm, t = 5 mm, from S235J0
-
-
-
-
-
80 80 80 -
-
105 105 105 105 105 105 105 105 150 150
12 12 12 15 17 17 17 22 22 30 30 30 30 22 22 35 30 30 35 35 35 40 40 40 45 45 45 40 40 40 35 35 40 40 40 40 50 50 55 55 55 55
8.4 8.4 11 11 13 13 17 17 17 21 21 21 23 23 23 23 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28
148
Materials science: 4.4 Steels, Finished products
Steel angle Equal leg steel angle, hot-rolled (selection)
Designation
Dimensions in mm
L
a
20 x 3 25 x 3 25 x 4 30 x 3 30 x 4 35 x 4 40 x 4 40 x 5 45x4.5
60 x 60 x 5 60 x 60 x 6 60 x 60 x 8
20 25 25 30 30 35 40 40 45 50 50 50 60 60 60
65 x 65 x 7 70 x 70 x 6 70 x 70 x 7
65 70 70
20 x 25 x 25 x 30 x 30 x 35 x 40 x 40 x 45 x
50 x 50 x 4 50 x 50 x 5 50 x 50 x 6
75 x 75 x 80 x 80 x 90 x 90 x 90 x 90 x 100 x 100 x 100 x 120 x
75 x 6 75 x 8 80 x 8 80x 10 90 x 7 90 x 8 90 x 9 90x 10 100 x 8 100 x 10 100 x 12 120 x 10
75 75 80 80 90 90 90 90 100 100 100 120
120 x 130 x 150 x 150 x 150 x 160 x 180 x 200 x 200 x
120 x 130 x 150 x 150 x 150 x 160 x 180 x 200 x 200 x
12 12 10 12 15 15 18 16 20
120 130 150 150 150 160 180 200 200
200 x 200 x 24 250 x 250 x 28
200 250
=>
t 3 3 4 3 4 4 4 5 4.5 4 5 6 5 6 8 7 6 7 6 8 8 10 7 8 9 10 8 10 12 10 12 12 10 12 15 15 18 16 20 24 28
S cm 2 1.12 1.42 1.85 1.74 2.27 2.67 3.08 3.79 3.90 3.89 4.80 5.69 5.82 6.91 9.03 8.70 8.13 9.40 8.73 11.4 12.3 15.1 12.2 13.9 15.5 17.1 15.5 19.2 22.7 23.2 27.5 30.0 29.3 34.8 43.0 46.1 61.9 61.8 76.3 90.6 133
cf. DIN EN 10056-1 (1998-10)
For the bending axis
m' kg/m
Distances to axes e cm
0.882 1.12 1.45 1.36 1.78 2.09 2.42 2.97 3.06 3.06 3.77 4.47 4.57 5.42 7.09
0.598 0.723 0.762 0.835 0.878 1.00 1.12 1.16 1.25 1.36 1.40 1.45 1.64 1.69 1.77
6.83 6.38 7.38
1.85 1.93 1.97
6.85 8.99 9.63 11.9 9.61 10.9 12.2 13.4 12.2 15.0 17.8 18.2
2.05 2.14 2.26 2.34 2.45 2.50 2.54 2.58 2.74 2.82 2.90 3.31
45.8 59.1 72.2 87.5 92.6 104
21.6 23.6 23.0 27.3 33.8 36.2 48.6 48.5 59.9
3.40 3.64 4.03 4.12 4.25 4.49 5.10 5.52 5.68 5.84 7.24
368 472 624
71.1 104
x - xand v- v /x = /y cm 4 0.39 0.80 1.02 1.40 1.80 2.95 4.47 5.43 7.14 8.97 11.0 12.8 19.4 22.8 29.2 33.4 36.9 42.3
116 127 145 177 207 313
737 898 1100 1870 2340 2850 3330 7700
Wx= Wy cm 3 0.28 0.45 0.59 0.65 0.85 1.18
Tracing dimension accord, to DIN 997 l/Vl mm
w2 mm
di mm
1.55 1.91 2.20 2.46 3.05 3.61
12 15 15 17 17 18 22 22 25 30 30 30
4.45 5.29 6.89 7.18 7.27 8.41
35 35 35 35 40 40
8.41 11.0 12.6 15.4 14.1 16.1 17.9 19.8 19.9 24.6 29.1 36.0 42.7 50.4 56.9 67.7 83.5 95.6 145 162 199 235 433
40 40 45 45 50 50 50 50 55 55 55 50 50 50 60
80
23 23 23 23 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25
80 90 105
25 25 28
60 60 60 65 65 65 70 75
105 105 115 135 150 150 150 150
28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28
LEN 10056-1 - 7 0 x 7 0 x 7 - S235J0: Equal leg steel angle, a = 70 mm, t = 7 mm, from S235J0
-
— -
— -
— -
— -
-
-
— -
-
-
4.3 6.4 6.5 8.4 8.4 11 11 11 13 13 13 13 17 17 17 21 21 21
149
Materials science: 4.4 Steels, Finished products
Medium width and wide I-beams Medium width I-beams (IPE), hot-rolled (selection) S /
cross-sectional area second moment of inertia
Unalloyed structural steel DIN EN 10025-2, e.g. S235JR
Delivery type:
Standard lengths, 8 m to 16 m ± 50 mm with h < 300 mm, 8 m to 18 m ± 50 mm with h > 300 mm
Dimensions in mm
IPE 100 120 140 160 180 200 240 270 300 360 400 500 600
s 4.1 4.4 4.7 5.0 5.3 5.6 6.2 6.6 7.1 8.0 8.6 10.2 12.0
h
b 55 64 73 82 91 100 120 135 150 170 180 200 220
W axial section modulus m' linear mass density
Material:
Designation
100 120 140 160 180 200 240 270 300 360 400 500 600
cf. DIN 1025-5 (1994-03)
t 5.7 6.3 6.9 7.4 8.0 8.5 9.8 10.2 10.7 12.7 13.5 16.0 19.0
S cm 2 10.3 13.2 16.4 20.1 23.9 28.5 39.1 45.9 53.8 72.7 84.5 116 156
r 7 7 7 9 9 12 15 15 15 18 21 21 24
For the bending axis Tracing dimension x-- X accord, to DIN 997 y-- y /x w w, 'y x cm 4 cm 3 cm 4 cm 3 mm mm 8.4 171 34.2 15.9 5.8 30 27.7 8.4 318 53.0 8.7 36 44.9 40 11 541 77.3 12.3 44 68.3 16.7 13 869 109 22.2 50 1320 146 101 13 142 56 1940 194 28.5 13 324 284 68 17 3890 47.3 62.2 72 21 5790 429 420 604 80 8360 557 80.5 23 904 1040 90 16270 123 25 23130 1160 1320 146 96 28 2140 214 110 28 48200 1930 120 92080 3070 3390 308 28
m' kg/m 8.1 10.4 12.9 15.8 18.8 22.4 30.7 36.1 42.2 57.1 66.3 90.7 122
I-profile DIN 1025 - S235JR - IPE 300: Medium width I-beams with parallel flange surfaces, h = 300 mm, from S235JR
Wide I-beams light duty (IPEl), hot-rolled (selection) S I
cf. DIN 1025-2 (1994-3)
cross-sectional area second moment of inertia
W axial section modulus m' linear mass density
Material:
Unalloyed structural steel DIN EN 10025-2, e.g. S235JR
Delivery type:
Standard lengths, 8 m to 16 m ± 50 mm with h < 300 mm
3• s
Designation
For the bending axis Dimensions in mm
x -
X
b
v-- y
IPBI 100 120 140 160 180 200
h 96 114 133 152 171 190
b 100 120 140 160 180 200
s 5 5 5.5 6 6 6.5
t 8 8 8.5 9 9.5 10
S cm 2 21.2 25.3 31.4 38.8 45.3 53.8
m' kg/m 16.7 19.9 24.7 30.4 35.5 42.3
'x cm 4 349 606 1030 1670 2510 3690
wx cm 3 72.8 106 155 220 294 389
cm 4 134 231 389 616 925 1340
Wv cm 3 26.8 38.5 55.6 76.9 103 134
240 280 320
230 270 310
240 280 300
7.5 8 9
12 13 15.5
76.8 97.3 124.0
60.3 76.4 97.6
7760 13670 22930
675 1010 1480
2770 4760 6990
231 340 466
400 500 600 800
390 490 590 790
300 300 300 300
19 23 25 28
159.0 198.0 226.0 286.0
125.0 155.0 178.0 224.0
45070 86970 141200 303400
2310 3550 4790 7680
8560 10370 11270 12640
571 691 751 843
11 12 13 15
I-profile DIN 1025 - S235JR - IPBI 320: Wide I-beams light duty from S235JR Designation according to EURONORM 53-62: HE 320 A
Tracing dimension accord, to DIN 997 W-1 56 66 76 86 100 110 — -
-
w2
w3
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
—
-
-
-
-
d-i 13 17 21 23 25 25
94 110 120
35 45 45
25 25 28
120 120 120 130
45 45 45 40
28 28 28 28
150
Materials science: 4.4 Steels, Finished products
Wide I-beams Wide I-beams (IPB), hot-rolled (selection) S I
cf. DIN 1025-2(1995-11)
cross-sectional area second moment of inertia
Material:
W axial selection modulus m' linear mass density
unalloyed structural steel DIN EN 10025-2, e.g. S235JR
Delivery type: standard lengths, 8 m to 16 m ± 50 mm at h < 300 mm, 8 m to 18 m ± 50 mm at h > 300 mm R,
Designation IPB 100 120 140 160 180 200 240 280 320 400 500 600 800
«2• S
Dimensions in mm
h
b
100 120 140 160 180 200 240 280 320 400 500 600 800
100 120 140 160 180 200 240 280 300 300 300 300 300
s 6 6.5 7 8 8.5 9 10 10.5 11.5 13.5 14.5 15.5 17.5
t 10 11 12 13 14 15 17 18 20.5 24 28 30 33
S cm 2 26.0 34.0 43.0 54.3 65.3 78.1 106 131 161 198 239 270 334
m' kg/m 20.4 26.7 33.7 42.6 51.2 61.3 83.2 103 127 155 187 212 262
For the bending axis x- - X y- yw k V4 v 4 3 cm cm cm cm 3 167 450 89.9 33.5 144 864 52.9 318 1510 216 550 78.5 111 2490 311 889 426 1360 151 3830 5700 570 2000 200 11260 938 3920 327 6590 471 19270 1380 1930 9240 616 30820 57680 2880 10820 721 107200 4290 12620 842 5700 13530 902 171000 359100 8980 14900 994
Tracing dimension according to DIN 997 Wi w3 vv2 dy mm mm mm mm 56 13 66 17 21 76 86 23 100 25 110 25 — 35 96 25 110 45 25 45 28 120 45 28 120 120 45 28 — 45 28 120 130 40 28
I-profile DIN 1025 - S235JR - IPB 240: Wide I-beam with parallel flange faces, h = 240 mm, made of S235JR, designation according to EURONORM 53-62: HE 240 B
Wide I-beams, reinforced version (IPBv) hot-rolled (selection) S /
HEEFT3
cross-sectional area second moment of inertia
Material: —x
ttt
Designation IPBv 100 120 140 160 180 200 240 280 320 400 500 600 800
unalloyed structural steel DIN EN 10025-2, e.g. S235JR
Wj
Dimensions in mm
h
b
120 140 160 180 200 220 270 310 359 432 524 620 814
106 126 146 166 186 206 248 288 309 307 306 305 303
W axial selection modulus m' linear mass density
Delivery type: standard lengths, 8 m to 16 m ± 50 mm at h < 300 mm, 8 m to 16 m ± 50 mm at h > 300 mm
i> i rrr N W2
cf. DIN 1025-4(1994-03)
s 12 12.5 13 14 14.5 15 18 18.5 21 21 21 21 21
t 20 21 22 23 24 25 32 33 40 40 40 40 40
S cm 2 53.2 66.4 80.5 97.1 113 131 200 240 312 319 344 364 404
m' kg/m 41.8 52.1 63.2 76.2 88.9 103 157 189 245 250 270 285 317
For the bending axis x-- X y- y Ix4 wx3 wv 'y 4 cm cm cm cm 3 1140 190 399 75.3 112 2020 283 703 411 157 3290 1140 5100 568 1760 212 7480 748 2580 277 967 10640 3650 354 24290 1800 8150 657 2550 13160 914 39550 68130 3800 19710 1280 104100 4820 19340 1260 161900 6180 19150 1250 237400 7660 18280 1240 442600 10870 18630 1230
Tracing dimension according to DIN 997 in mm Wi di w2 w3 60 13 17 68 21 76 — 86 23 100 25 110 25 25 100 35 45 25 116 47 126 28 47 28 126 45 28 130 45 28 130 42 132 28
I-profile DIN 1025 - S235JR - IPBv 400: Wide I-beam, reinforced version, made of S235JR, designation according to EURONORM 53-62: HE 400 M
Materials science: 4.4 Steels, Finished products
151
Tubes Material:
Unalloyed structural steel DIN EN 10025
Delivery type: DIN EN 10210-2 manufactured lengths 4 m to 16 m, profile dimensions a x a = 20 x 20 to 400 x 400 DIN EN 10219-2 manufactured lengths 4 m to 16 m, profile dimensions a x a = 20 x 20 to 400 x 400 DIN EN 10210 and DIN EN 10219 also contain circular tubes, along with square and rectangular tubes.
Hot worked square and rectangular tubes Nominal dimension ax a ax b mm 40x40 50x50 60x60 50x30 60x40 80x40 100x50
Wall thickness s mm 3.0 4.0 2.5 3.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 3.0 4.0 3.0 4.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 4.0 5.0
Linear mass density m' kg/m 3.41 4.39 3.68 4.35 5.29 6.90 8.42 3.41 4.39 4.35 5.64 6.90 8.42 9.87 8.78 10.8
cf. DIN EN 10210-2 (1997-11) Area moments and section moduli
Cross section S cm 2 4.34 5.59 4.68 5.54 6.74 8.79 10.7 4.34 5.59 5.54 7.19 8.79 10.7 12.6 11.2 13.7
for the bending axes Wx cm 3 4.89 5.91 6.99 8.08 12.1 15.1 17.8 5.43 6.60 8.82 10.9 17.1 20.1 22.6 27.9 33.3
k cm 4 9.78 11.8 17.5 20.2 36.2 45.4 53.3 13.6 16.5 26.5 32.8 68.2 80.3 90.5 140 167
for torsion
y-- y
X-- X
W
/p
crrr\ 4.89 5.91 6.99 8.08 12.1 15.1 17.8 3.96 4.72 6.95 8.52 11.1 12.9 14.2 18.5 21.7
4
cm 9.78 11.8 17.5 20.2 36.2 45.4 53.3 5.94 7.08 13.9 17.0 22.2 25.7 28.5 46.2 54.3
c m 44 15.7 19.5 27.5 32.1 56.9 72.5 86.4 13.5 16.6 29.2 36.7 55.2 65.1 73.4 113 135
crrr 7.10 8.54 10.2 11.8 17.7 22.0 25.7 6.51 7.77 11.2 13.7 18.9 21.9 24.2 31.4 36.9
Tube DIN EN 10210 - 60 x 60 x 5 - :S355J0: Square tube, a = 60 mm, s = 5 mm, made of S355J0
Cold worked, welded, square and rectangular tubes Nominal dimension ax a ax b mm 30x30
40x40
80x80
40x20
60 x 4 0
80x40
100x40
Wall thickness s mm 2.0 2.5 3.0 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
Linear mass density m' kg/m 1.68 2.03 2.36 2.31 2.82 3.30 4.20 7.07 9.22 11.3 1.68 2.03 2.36 4.25 5.45 6.56 5.19 6.71 8.13 6.13 7.97 9.70
Cross section S cm 2 2.14 2.59 3.01 2.94 3.59 4.21 5.35 9.01 11.7 14.4 2.14 2.59 3.01 5.41 6.95 8.36 6.61 8.55 10.4 7.81 10.1 12.4
cf. DIN EN 10219-2 (1997-11)
Area moments and section moduli for the bending axes for torsion x-/x cm 4 2.72 3.16 3.50 6.94 8.22 9.32 11.1 87.8 111 131 4.05 4.69 5.21 25.4 31.0 35.3 52.3 64.8 75.1 92.3 116 136
y-- y
X
Wx cm 3 1.81 2.10 2.34 3.47 4.11 4.66 5.54 22.0 27.8 32.9 2.02 2.35 2.60 8.46 10.3 11.8 13.1 16.2 18.8 18.5 23.1 27.1
cm4 2.72 3.16 3.50 6.94 8.22 9.32 11.1 87.8 111 131 1.34 1.54 1.68 13.4 16.3 18.4 17.6 21.5 24.6 21.7 26.7 30.8
/ p
crrr 1.81 2.10 2.34 3.47 4.11 4.66 5.54 22.0 27.8 32.9 1.34 1.54 1.68 6.72 8.14 9.21 8.78 10.7 12.3 10.8 13.3 15.4
c m 44 4.54 5.40 6.15 11.3 13.6 15.8 19.4 140 180 218 3.45 4.06 4.57 29.3 36.7 42.8 43.9 55.2 65.0 59.0 74.5 87.9
Tube DIN EN 10219 - 60 x 40 x 4 - :S355J0: Rectangular tube, a = 60 mm, b = 40 mm, s = 4 mm, madeofS355J0
crrr 2.75 3.20 3.58 5.23 6.21 7.07 8.48 33.0 41.8 49.7 2.36 2.72 3.00 11.2 13.7 15.6 15.3 18.8 21.7 19.4 24.0 27.9
Materials science: 4.4 Steels, Finished products
Linear mass density and area mass density Linear mass density1} (Table values for steel with density g =7.85 kg/dm 3 ) d diameter
m' linear mass density
a length of side
SW widths across flats
Steel wire
Round steel bar
d mm
m' kg/1000 m
d mm
m' kg/1000 m
d mm
m' kg/1000 m
0.10
0.062
0.55
1.87
1.1 1.2
0.16
0.158
0.60
2.22
0.20
0.247
0.65
2.60
0.25
0.385
0.70
3.02
0.30
0.555
0.75
0.35
0.755
0.40
d mm
m' kg/m
d mm
m' kg/m
d mm
m' kg/m
7.46
3
0.055
18
2.00
60
22.2
8.88
4
0.099
20
2.47
70
30.2
1.3
10.4
5
0.154
25
3.85
80
39.5
1.4
12.1
6
0.222
30
5.55
100
61.7
3.47
1.5
13.9
8
0.395
35
7.55
120
88.8
0.80
3.95
1.6
15.8
10
0.617
40
9.86
140
121
0.986
0.85
4.45
1.7
17.8
12
0.888
45
12.5
150
139
0.45
1.25
0.90
4.99
1.8
20.0
15
1.39
50
15.4
160
158
0.50
1.54
1.0
6.17
2.0
24.7
16
1.58
55
18.7
200
247
Flat steel bar
Hexagonal steel bar
a mm
m' kg/m
a mm
m' kg/m
a mm
m' kg/m
SW mm
m' kg/m
SW mm
m' kg/m
SW mm
m' kg/m
6
0.283
20
3.14
40
12.6
6
0.245
20
2.72
40
10.9
8
0.502
22
3.80
50
19.6
8
0.435
22
3.29
50
17.0
10
0.785
25
4.91
60
28.3
10
0.680
25
4.25
60
24.5
12
1.13
28
6.15
70
38.5
12
0.979
28
5.33
70
33.3
14
1.54
30
7.07
80
50.2
14
1.33
30
6.12
80
43.5
16
2.01
32
8.04
90
63.6
16
1.74
32
6.96
90
55.1
18
2.54
35
9.62
100
78.5
18
2.20
35
8.33
100
68.0
Linear mass density of special profiles Profile
Page
Profile
Page
Tee
EN 10055
146
Tubes
EN 10210-2
151
Angles, equal legs
EN 10056-1
148
Tubes
EN 10219-2
151
Angles, unequal legs
EN 10056-1
147
Aluminum round bars
DIN 1798
169
Steel channel
DIN1026-1
146
Aluminum square bars
DIN 1796
169
I-beams IPE
DIN 1025-5
149
Aluminum flat bars
DIN 1769
170
I-beams IPB
DIN 1025-2
149
Aluminum round tube
DIN 1795
171
DIN 1025-1
150
Aluminum channel
DIN 9713
171
I-beams, narrow 1
Area mass density ' (Table values for steel with density g = 7.85 kg/dm 3 ) Sheet s sheet thickness
m'' area mass density
s mm
m" kg/m 2
s mm
m" kg/m 2
s mm
m" kg/m 2
s mm
0.35
2.75
0.70
5.50
1.2
9.42
0.40
3.14
0.80
6.28
1.5
0.50
3.93
0.90
7.07
0.60
4.71
1.0
7.85
m" kg/m 2
s mm
m" kg/m 2
s mm
m" kg/m 2
3.0
23.6
4.75
37.3
10.0
78.5
11.8
3.5
27.5
5.0
39.3
12.0
94.2
2.0
15.7
4.0
31.4
6.0
47.1
14.0
110
2.5
19.6
4.5
35.3
8.0
62.8
15.0
118
Table values can be calculated for a different material by taking a ratio of its density to the density of steel (7,85 kg/dm 3 ). Example: Sheet metal with s = 4.0 mm of AIMg3Mn (density 2.66 kg/dm 3 ). From the table: m" = 31.4 kg/m 2 for steel. AIMg 3 Mn: m" = 31.4 kg/m 2 • 2.66 kg/dm3/7.85 kg/dm 3 = 10.64 kg/m 2
Materialscience: 4.
t e n
Iron-Carbon phase diagram 1600
°C |A 1536( 1500 liquid (liquid iron with carbon in solution)
1300 liquid + austenite crystals
liquid + cementite
austenite cu 3 1100
ro CD a E 1000 0 ~ 911 9001
austenite, grain boundary cementite + ledeburite (+ graphite)1' austenite + grain boundary cementite
aust.%^ +ferrite
723 700 /
g ferrite + fe' pear lite gl
ferrite
0
pearlite + grain boundary cementite
0.5 hypoeutectoid 0.8
723 °C line pearlite, grain boundary cementite + ledeburite— (+ graphite)1'
hypereutectoid 2.06
cementite + ledeburite (+ graphite)1'
4.3
5 % 6 carbon content -
I eutectic mixture
eutectoid steel 1)
ledeburite + cementite (+ graphite)1'
cast iron
For iron types with a C content over 2.06% (cast iron) and additional Si content, a portion of the unalloyed precipitates in the form of graphite. Heat treatment of steel
Microstructures of unalloyed steel Carbon content and crystalline structure Etchant: 3% nitric acid /alcohol solution Magnification approx. 500 : 1
1100 I
homogenizing anneal
°C ' 1000 -
austenite
900 I k_
.0
800
00
0.1 %C ferrite
0.45% C ferrite + pearlite
0.8 %C pearlite
1.3% C pearlite + grain boundary cementite
CD
a E 700 a)
temperature range:
,
k
temperature ranges:
stress relief anneal recrystallization anneal i ferrite + pearlite pearlite pearlite + cementite 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 % 1.4 carbon content
•
154
M a t e r i a l s c i e n c e : 4.
t
e
n
Heat treatment of steels - Overview Illustration
Short description
Application, information 1 '
• Heat and hold at annealing temperature -»• structural transformation (austenite) • Controlled cooling to room temperature -•fine-grained normal structure
To normalize coarse grain structures in rolled, cast, welded and forged products
Normalizing ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ annealing ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
Spheroidizing ^annealing ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
• Heat to annealing temperature, hold at tem- To improve cold workability, machinperature or cycle anneal ability and hardenability; -»• spheroidizing of the cementite can be used for all steels • Cool down to room temperature
Stress relief anneal stress a
b <> / "TTTT •=£> " \j_jj annealinc
• Heat and hold at annealing temperature (below structure transition) stress relief by plastic deformation of the workpieces • Cool down to room temperature
To reduce internal stresses in welded, cast and forged parts; can be used for all steels
• Heat and hold at hardening temperature ->• structural transformation (austenite) • Quench in oil, water, air -»• brittle hard, fine structure (martensite) • Temper ->• transformation of martensite, higher toughness, working hardness
For parts subject to wear stress, e.g. tools, springs, guideways, press forms; steels suitable for heat treatment with C > 0,3%, e.g. C70U, 102Cr6, C45E, HS6-5-2C, X38CrMoV5-3
• Heat and hold at hardening temperature structural transformation (austenite) • Quench in oil, water, air hard, brittle, fine-grain structure (martensite), for larger sized parts fine core structure (bainite) • Temper at higher temperatures than for hardening martensite reduction, fine structure, high strength with good toughness
Usually used for dynamically loaded workpieces with high strength and good toughness, e.g. shafts, gears, screws; quenched and tempered steels, see page 133, nitriding steels, see page 134, steels for flame and induction hardening, see page 134, steels for heat-treatable springs, see page 138
• Carburize machined workpieces on the surface layer • Cool to room temperature -»• normal structure (ferrite, pearlite, carbides) • Harden (for procedure see hardening) surface hardening: heat to surface hardening temperature core hardening: heat to hardening temperature of the core area
For workpieces with wear-resistant surfaces, high fatigue strength and good core strength, e.g. gears, shafts, bolts; surface hardening: high wear-resistance, low core strength core hardening: high core strength, hard brittle surface; case hardened steels, see page 133, free cutting steels, see page 134
• Anneal usually finish-machined workpieces in nitrogen-producing atmospheres formation of hard, wear-resistant and temperature-resistant nitrides • Cool in still air or in nitrogen stream
For workpieces with wear-resistant surfaces, high fatigue strength and good temperature-resistance, e.g. valves, piston rods, spindles; nitriding steels, see page 134
Hardening f \j•c £/ I fD n 3" 5 £/ I tempering i
t < c_b ro e_l O CL e
time
Quenching and tempering
t Q c3_J o trQ _ CJL E
/ o>/ sy
1 cz I IS tempering F time
A
Case hardening
t OJ OJ Q. QJ
carburizin g hardening
P
^^|tempering
time1
Nitriding t ai 3 n o £ aj_ CL E> a 1)
annealing
J
\
For annealing and time • tempering temperatures, quenching media and attainable hardness values, see pages 155 to 157.
M a t e r i a l s c i e n c e : 4.
t
e
n
Tool steels, Case hardened steels Heat treatment of unalloyed cold work steels Sphero idizing
Steel typ< Designation
cf. DIN EN ISO 4957 (2001-02)
Material number
Surlface hlardni3SS in HF after after Case Full Cooling harden. harden, hard- temjDerincj2> at medium depth 1) up to 0 ening 100 200 300 mm mm °C °C °C Hardenii n g
TemperaHot Tempe- Hardness working ture HB rature temperature max. °C °C °C
C45U C70U
1.1730 1.1520
1000-800
680-710
207 183
800-820 790-810
water
3.5 3.0
15 10
58 64
58 63
54 60
48 53
C80U C90U C105U
1.1525 1.1535 1.1545
1050-800 1050-800 1000-800
680-710
192 207 212
780-800 770-790 770-790
water
3.0
10
64 64 65
64 64 64
60 61 62
54 54 56
1) 2)
For diameters of 30 mm. The tempering temperature is set according to the application and the desired working hardness. The steels are normally delivered spheroidized.
Heat treatment of alloy cold work steels, hot work steels and high-speed steels Steel type Designation
Hot Material working number temperature °C
cf. DIN EN ISO 4957 (2001 02)
Spheroidizing tempe- Hardn. rature HB max. °C
Hardening tempecooling rature1 > medium °C water air
68 63
64 61
56 59
48 58
40 58
36 56
96-980 780-800 830-850
oil
64 65 65
62 62 62
60 56 57
58 50 50
56 42 43
52 40 40
229 229
900-920 1010-1030
nil Oil
62 53
60 52
58 52
53 53
48 54
46 52
269 302 277
1200-1220 1220-1240 1180-1200
oil, hot bath, air
64 66 66
62 61 62
62 61 62
62 62 61
65 66 68
65 67 69
105V X153CrMoV12
1.2834 1.2379
incn
OCA
710-750 800-850
212 255
780-800 1010-1030
X210CrW12 90MnCrV8 102Cr6
1.2436 1.2842 1.2067
1050-850
800-840 680-720 710-750
255 229 223
60WCrV8 X37CrMoV5-1
1.2550 1.2343
1050-850 1100-900
710-750 750-800
HS6-5-2C HS10-4-3-10 HS2-9-1-8
1.3343 1.3207 1.3247
1100-900
770-840
1)
2)
Surface hardness in HRC « after after tempering 2 ' at harden- 200 300 400 500 550 °C °C °C °C °C ing
The austenitizing time is the holding time at hardening temperature, which is approx. 25 min for cold work steels and approx. 3 min. for high-speed steels. Heating is performed in stages. High-speed steels are tempered at least twice at 540-570°C. Holding time at this temperature is at least 60 min.
Heat treatment of case hardened steels Steel type|1)
Material Carburizing Core harden, Surf, harden, Temper- Quenching Temp. ing number temperature temperature temperature medium °C max.2* 3 mm 5 mm 7 mm °C °C °C °C
C10E C15E
1.1121 1.1141
17Cr3 16MnCr5
1.7016 1.7131
20MnCr5 20MoCr4
1.7147 1.7321
17CrNi6-6 15NiCr13
1.5918 1.5752
830-870 840-880
20NiCrMo2-2 18CrNiMo7-6
1.6523 1.6587
860-900 830-870
1) 2)
End < quench test Hardn(JSS HRC at dista nee of:
Hard<3ning
water
880-920
860-900 780-820
880-980
150-200 oil
-
-
-
-
-
880 870
47 47
44 46
40 44
33 41
870 910
49 49
49 47
48 44
46 41
870 880
47 48
47 48
46 48
45 47
920 860
49 48
00 00
Designation
cf. DIN EN 10084 (2008-06)
45 48
42 48
The same values apply to steels with controlled sulfur content, e.g. C10R, 20MnCrS5. For steels with normal hardenability (+H) at a distance of 1.5 mm from the end face.
156
M a t e r i a l s c i e n c e : 4.
t
e
n
Quenched and tempered steels Heat treatment of unalloyed quenched and tempered steels Steel typ es 2) Designation
NormalizMaterial ing number °C
°C
End que nch test Qijenching and temperi ng Har dness HR C at hardeni ng depth in m m 3 ) Hardening4' Quenching medium Tempering5' 1 3 5 °C °C
C22E
1.1151
880-940
C35E1) C40E C45E1'
1.1181 1.1186 1.1191
860-920 850-910 840-900
870 870 850
48-58 51-60 55-62
33-55 35-59 37-61
C50E1) C55E1' C60E
1.1206 1.1203 1.1221
830-890 825-885 820-880
850 830 830
56-63 58-65 60-67
28Mn6
1.1170
850-890
850
45-54
-
-
860-900
water
550-660
22-49 25-53 28-57
840-880 830-870 820-860
water or oil
550-660
44-61 47-63 50-65
31-58 33-60 35-62
810-850 810-850 810-850
oil or water
550-660
42-53
37-51
840-880
water or oil
540-680
-
-
Heat treatment of quenched and tempered alloy steels ( s e l e c t i o n ) Steel typies2' Designation
Surface Material hardness 6 ' HRC number
38Cr2 46Cr2 1)
1.7003 1.7006
54
34Cr4 37Cr4 1) 41Cr4 1)
1.7033 1.7034 1.7035
51 53
25CrMo4 34CrMo4 42CrMo41>
1.7218 1.7220 1.7225
50CrMo41> 51CrV4 39NiCrMo3
1.7228 1.8159 1.6510
1.6582 34CrNiMo6 1.6580 30CrNiMo8 36NiCrMo16 1.6773
°C 850
cf. DIN EN 10083-2 (2006-10)1'
cf. DIN EN 10083-3 (2007-01
End queinch test Qijenching and temperi ng Hardness HR C at hardeni ng depth in m m 3 ' Hardening4' Quenching medium Tempering5' 1.5 5 15 °C °C 51-59 54-63
37-54 40-59
-35 22-39
830-870 820-860
oil or water oil or water
850
49-57 51-59 53-61
45-56 48-58 50-60
27-44 31-48 32-52
830-870 825-865 820-860
water or oil oil or water oil or water
540-680
850
44-52 49-57 53-61
40-51 48-57 52-61
27-41 34-52 37-58
840-900 830-890 820-880
water or oil oil or water oil or water
540-680
850
58-65 57-65 52-60
57-64 56-64 50-59
48-62 48-62 43-56
820-870 820-870 820-850
oil oil oil or water
540-680
850
50-58 48-56 50-57
50-58 48-56 48-56
48-57 46-55 47-55
830-860 830-860 865-885
oil or water oil or water air or oil
540-660 540-660 550-650
53 58
—
540-680
38MnB5
1.5532
-
850
52-60
50-59
31-47
840-880
water/oil
400-600
33MnCrB5-2
1.7185
-
880
48-57
47-57
41-54
860-900
oil
400-600
1)
2) 3) 4> 5) 6)
DIN 17212 "Steels for flame and induction hardening" was withdrawn without replacement. More information about steels for flame and induction hardening on page 133 and 134 in the section "Quenched and tempered steels". Identical values apply to the high-grade steels C35 to C60 and steels with controlled sulphur content, such as C35R. Hardenability requirements: +H normal hardenability The lower temperature range applies to quenching in water, the higher range to quenching in oil. The tempering time is 60 minutes minimum. Minimum surface hardness of the steel after flame or induction hardening.
Hardenability and hardening depth of quenched and tempered steels (scatter bands) ^ C 3 5 E
37Cr4 + HH
51CrV4+HH
37Cr4 + HL
51CrV4 + HL
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 hardening depth
•
M a t e r i a l s c i e n c e : 4.
t
e
n
Nitriding steels, Free cutting steels, Aluminum alloys Heat treatment of nitriding steels Steeltyp >e
Designation 24CrMo13-6 31CrMo12 32CrAIMo7-10 31CrMoV9 33CrMoV12-9 34CrAINi7-10 41CrAIMo7-10 40CrMoV13-9 34CrAIMo5-10 1) 2) 3) 4) 5)
Material number 1.8516 1.8515 1.8505 1.8519 1.8522 1.8550 1.8509 1.8523 1.8507
cf. DIN EN 10085 (2001-01)
>efore nitridiing He<3t treatment fc Quenchling and tem pering Spheroid, Hardiening Tempering temperature Tempera- Quenching temperamedium ture 2 ' ture3'4' °C °C °C 870-970 650-700 870-930 650-700 650-750 870-930 680-720 870-930 oil or 580-700 680-720 870-970 water 650-700 870-930 870-930 650-750 870-970 680-720 870-930 650-750
Nitri ding treatm Gas nitriding
Nitrocarburizing
Hardness5'
°C
°C
HV1 -
800 -
800 500-600
570-650
-
950 950 -
950
The nitriding time is a function of the desired nitriding hardness depth. Austenitizing time at least 0.5 hours. Tempering time at least 1 hour. The tempering temperature should not be less than 50°C above the nitriding temperature. Hardness of the nitrided surface.
Heat treatment of free cutting steels
cf. DIN EN 10087 (1999-01)
Free cutting case hardened steels Steel typ>e Designation 10S20 10SPb20 15SMn13
Material number
Carburizing temperature °C
1.0721 1.0722 1.0725
880-980
Quenching medium 1 '
Core hardening Surface harden, temperature temperature °C °C 880-920
780-820
Quenching medium 1 '
Quench, and temp, temperat. °C
Tempering temperature 2 ' °C
water, oil, emulsion
150-200
| Free cutting quenched and tempered steels Steeltyp>e Designation
Material number
Hardness temperature °C
1.0726 35S20 860-890 water 35SPb20 1.0756 or oil 36SMn14 1.0764 850-880 36SMnPb14 1.0765 540-680 38SMn28 1.0760 850-880 38SMnPb28 1.0761 oil or 44SMn28 1.0762 water 44SMnPb28 1.0763 840-870 46S20 1.0757 1) The choice of quenching medium depends on the shape of the workpiece. 3) Values apply to diameters 10 < d < 16.
Quenclned and tem pered 3 ' N/mm 2
Am N/mm 2
A %
430
630-780
15 14
460 460
2)
700-850
15
480
16
490
12
Tempering time at least 1 hour.
Hardening of aluminum alloys Alloy EN /\W-
Solution Artificic Jl aging Type of age annealing temperature holding 2 hardening ' temperature time h °C °C
Natural aging time days
Designation
Material number
Al Al Al Al Al Al Al
Cu4MgSi Cu4SiMg MgSi MgSilMgMn Zn4,5Mg1 Zn5,5MgCu Si7Mg 1)
2017 2014 6060 6082 7020 7075 420001'
1)
Aluminum casting alloy EN AC-AI Si7Mg or EN AC 42000. T4 solution annealed and naturally aged; T6 solution annealed and artificially aged.
2)
T4 T6 T4 T6 T6 T6 T6
5-8
500
-
525
100-300
8-24
5-8 -
470
-
525
4
Age ha rdened Am N/mm 2
A %
390 420 130 280 210 545 250
12 8 15 6 12 8 1
158
Material science 4.6 Cast iron
Designation system for cast iron materials Designations and material numbers
cf. DIN EN 1560 (1997-08)
Cast iron materials are referenced either with a designation or a material number. Example: Cast iron with flake graphite, tensile strength Rm = 300 N/mm 2 Designation EN-GJL-300
Material number EN-JL1050
Material designations Material designations have up to six characters without spaces, beginning with EN (European standard) and GJ (cast iron; I iron) Designation example: EN EN EN EN EN EN EN
GJ GJ GJ GJ GJ GJ GJ
L L S M M M L
350 HB155 350-22U 450-6 360-12 HV600(XCr14) XNiCuCr 15-6-2
B W A
W
Cast iron with flake graphite Cast iron with flake graphite Cast iron with spheroidal graphite (ductile Iron) Malleable cast iron - blackheart Malleable cast iron - whitehead: Wear-resistant cast iron Austenitic cast iron
Material numbers Material numbers have seven characters without spaces, beginning with EN (European standard) and J (iron; I iron) Designation examples: EN EN EN
-
J J J
L S M
2 1 1
0 4 0 2 13
7 2 0
Cast iron with flake graphite and hardness as characteristic spheroidal graphite casting with cast-on test specimen, characteristic /?m Malleable cast iron without special requirements, characteristic Rm
159
Material science 4.6 Cast iron
Classification of Cast Iron Materials Type
Examples/ Standard material number
Tensile strength N/mm
Properties
Application examples
2
I Cast iron with flake graphite (gray iron)
DIN EN 1561
EN-GJL-150 (GG-15)1> EN-JL1020
100 to 450
Very good castability, good compression strength, damping capacity, emergency running properties, and good corrosion resistance
For complex workpieces with many contours; very versatile in its applications. Machine frames, gear housings
with spheroidal graphite
DIN EN 1563
EN-GJS-400 (GGG-40)1' EN-JS1030
350
Very good castability, high strength even with dynamic loading, surface hardenable
Wear stressed workpieces; clutch parts, fittings, engine/motor construction
ISO 16112/JV/300
300
Very good castability, high strength without expensive alloying additions
Automotive parts, engine/motor construction, gear housings
Heat treatment and controlled cooling produce bainite and austenite for high strength and good toughness
Highly stressed parts, e.g. wheel hubs, gear rings, ADI castings 2 '
with vermicular graphite
ISO 16112
to
900
to
500 bainitic cast iron
DIN EN 1564
EN-GJS-800-8 EN-JS1100
800 to
1400
wear-resistant castings, white cast iron
DIN EN 12513
EN-GJN-HV350 EN-JN2019
> 1000
Wear-resistant due to martensite and carbides, also alloyed with Cr and Ni
Wear-resistant cast iron, e.g. dressing rolls, dredging shovels, impellers for pumps
Malleable cast iron decarburized (whiteheart)
DIN EN 1562
EN-GJMW-350 (GTW-35)1> EN-JM1010
270 to 570
Decarburization of the surface by tempering. High strength and toughness, ductile
True to shape, thin-walled, impact-loaded parts; levers, brake drums
not decarburized (blackheart)
DIN EN 1562
EN-GJMB-450 (GTS-45)1' EN-JM1140
300 to 800
Cluster graphite in entire cross-section due to malleablizing. High strength and toughness in larger wall thickness
True to shape, thick walled, impact stressed parts; levers, universal joint yokes
for general use
DIN EN 102933*
GE240 1.0446
380 to 600
Unalloyed and low alloy cast steel for general use
Minimum mechanical values from-10 °C to 300 °C
with improved weldability
DIN EN 102934'
G20Mn5 1.6220
430 to 650
Lower carbon content with manganese and microalloy
Welded assembly construction, fine-grain structural steels with larger wall thickness
quenched and tempered cast steel
DIN EN 102935>
G30CrMoV6-4 1.7725
500 to 1250
Fine quenched and tempered structure with high toughness
Chains, plating
for pressure vessels
DIN EN 10213
GP280GH 1.0625
420 to 960
Types with high strength and toughness at low and high temperatures
Pressure vessels for hot or cold media, high temperature resistant and tough at low temperatures; rustproof
stainless
DIN EN 10283
GX6CrNi26-7 1.4347
450 to 1100
Resistant to chemical attack and corrosion
Pump impellers in acids, duplex steel
heat-resistant
DIN EN 10295
GX25CrNiSi18-9 1.4825
Resistant to scaling gases
Turbine parts, furnace grates
I Cast steel
1)
400 to 550
2) previous designation ADI -»•Austempered Ductile Iron 4) > Replaces DIN 1681 Replaces DIN 17182 5 ) Replaces DIN 17205
3
160
Material science: 4.
t o
Cast iron with flake graphite, Cast iron with spheroidal graphite Cast iron with flake graphite (gray iron)
cf. DIN EN 1561 (1997-08)
Tensile strength R m as identifying characteristic
TyiDe Designation
Wall thickness
Material number
Hardness HB as identifying characteristic
mm
Tensile strength Rm N/mm 2
Type Designation
Material number
Wall thickness
Brinell hardness
mm
HB30
EN-GJL-100 EN-GJL-150
EN-JL1010 EN-JL1020
5-40 2.5-300
100-200 150-250
EN-GJL-HB155 EN-GJL-HB175
EN-JL2010 EN-J L2020
40-80 40-80
max. 155 100-175
EN-GJL-200 EN-GJL-250
EN-JL1030 EN-JL1040
2.5-300 5-300
200-300 250-350
EN-GJL-HB195 EN-GJL-HB215
EN-JL2030 EN-JL2040
40-80 40-80
120-195 145-215
EN-GJL-300 EN-GJL-350
EN-JL1050 EN-JL1060
10-300 10-300
300-400 350-450
EN-GJL-HB235 EN-GJL-HB255
EN-JL2050 EN-JL2060
40-80 40-80
165-235 185-255
EN-GJL-100: Cast iron with flake graphite (gray iron), minimum tensile strength /? m = 100 N/mm 2
EN-GJL-HB215: Cast iron with flake graphite (gray iron), maximum Brinell hardness = 215 HB
Properties Good castability and machinability, vibration damping, corrosion resistance, high compression strength, good sliding properties. Application examples Machine frames, bearing housings, plain bearings, pressure-resistant parts, turbine housings. Hardness as characteristic property provides information on the machinability.
Cast iron with spheroidal (nodular) graphite
cf. DIN EN 1563 (2005-10)
Tensile strength R m as identifying characteristic Type Designation
Material number
Tensile strength Rm N/mm 2
Yield strength ftp 0.2 N/mm 2
Elongation EL %
EN-GJS-350-22-LT1' EN-GJS-350-22-RT2' EN-GJS-350-22
EN-JS1015 EN-JS1014 EN-JS1010
350 350 350
220 220 220
22 22 22
EN-GJS-400-18-LT1) EN-GJS-400-18-RT2' EN-GJS-400-18 EN-GJS-400-15
EN-JS1025 EN-JS1024 EN-JS1020 EN-JS1030
400 400 400 400
250 250 250 250
18 18 18 15
EN-GJS-450-10 EN-GJS-500-7 EN-GJS-600-3
EN-JS1040 EN-JS1050 EN-JS1060
450 500 600
310 320 370
10 7 3
EN-GJS-700-2 EN-GJS-800-2 EN-GJS-900-2
EN-JS1070 EN-JS1080 EN-JS1090
700 800 900
420 480 600
2 2 2
1)
LT for low temperatures
2)
Properties, application examples
Good machinability, low wear resistance; housings
Good machinability, average wear resistance; fittings, press frames Good surface hardness; gears, steering and clutch parts, chains
RT for room temperature
EN-GJS-400-18: Cast iron with spheroidal (nodular) graphite, minimum tensile strength R m = 400 N/mm 2 ; elongation at fracture EL = 18% Hardness HB as identifying characteristic Type Designation
Material number
Tensile strength N/mm
Yield strength Rp 0.2 N/mm 2
Brinell hardness HB
Rm2
EN-GJS-HB130 EN-GJS-HB150 EN-GJS-HB155
EN-JS2010 EN-JS2020 EN-JS2030
350 400 400
220 250 250
< 160 130-175 135-180
EN-GJS-HB185 EN-GJS-HB200 EN-GJS-HB230
EN-JS2040 EN-JS2050 EN-JS2060
450 500 600
310 320 370
160-210 170-230 190-270
EN-GJS-HB265 EN-GJS-HB300 EN-GJS-HB330
EN-JS2070 EN-JS2080 EN-JS2090
700 800 900
420 480 600
225-305 245-335 270-360
Properties, application examples
By specifying hardness values the purchaser can better adapt process parameters to machining of the cast parts. Applications as above.
EN-GJS-HB130: Cast iron with spheroidal (nodular) graphite, Brinell hardness HB 130, maximum hardness
161
Material science: 4.6 Cast iron
Malleable cast iron, Cast steel Malleable cast iron 1) Type Designation
Material number
cf. DIN EN 1562 (2006-08) Tensile strength ftm N/mm 2
Yield strength ftp 0.2 N/mm 2
Elongation Brinell at fracture hardness EL HB %
Properties, application examples
Decarburizing annealed malleable cast iron (whiteheart malleable cast iron) EN-GJMW-350-4 EN-GJMW-400-5 EN-GJMW-450-7 EN-GJMW-550-4
EN-JM1010 EN-JM1030 EN-JM1040 EN-JM1050
350 400 450 550
220 260 340
4 5 7 4
230 220 250 250
All types have good castability and good machinability. Workpieces with low wall thickness, e.g. levers, chain links
EN-GJMW-360-12 EN-JM1020
360
190
12
200
Especially well suited for welding.
=> EN-GJMW-350-4: Whiteheart malleable cast iron, Rm = 350 N/mm 2 , EL = 4% Non-decarburizing annealed malleable iron (blackheart malleable cast iron) EN-GJMB-300-6
EN-JM1110
300
EN-GJMB-350-10 EN-GJMB-450-6 EN-GJMB-500-5 EN-GJMB-550-4
EN-JM1130 EN-JM1140 EN-JM1150 EN-JM1160
350 450 500 550
EN-GJMB-600-3 EN-GJMB-650-2 EN-GJMB-700-2 EN-GJMB-800-1
EN-JM1170 EN-JM1180 EN-JM1190 EN-JM1200
600 650 700 800
6
-150
200 270 300 340
10 6 5 4
-150 150-200 165-215 180-230
390 430 530 600
3 2 2 1
195-245 210-260 240-290 270-320
-
High pressure tightness
All types have good castability and good machinability. Workpieces with high wall thickness, e.g. housings, universal joint yokes pistons
=s> EN-GJMB-350-10: Non-decarburizing annealed malleable cast iron, Rm = 350 N/mm 2 , EL = 10% 1)
Previous designations: page 159 cf. DIN EN 10293 (2005-06)1'
Cast steel for general applications (selection)
Designation
ftm N/mm 2
ftp 0.2 N/MM 2
EL
%
Notch impact energy Kv J
Tensile strength
Type Material number
Yield Elongation strength
Properties, application examples
GE2002) GE2402' GE3002'
1.0420 1.0445 1,0558
380-530 450-600 600-750
200 240 300
25 22 15
27 31 27
For workpieces with average dynamic loading; wheel spiders, levers
G17Mn5 3) G20Mn5 2> GX4CrNiMo16-5-13)
1.1131 1.6220 1.4405
450-600 480-620 760-960
240 300 540
24 20 15
70 60 60
Improved weldability; composite welded structures
G28Mn6 2) G10MnMoV6-3 3) G34CrMo43)
1.1165 1.5410 1.7230
520-670 600-750 620-770
260 500 480
18 18 10
27 60 35
For workpieces with high dynamic loading; shafts
G32NiCrMo8-5-43) GX23CrMoV12-13)
1.6570 1.4931
850-1000 740-880
700 540
16 15
50 27
For corrosion-protected workpieces with high dynamic loading
11 2)
DIN 17182 "Steel cast types with improved weldability and toughness" was withdrawn without replacement. 3) normalized quenched and tempered
Cast steel for pressure vessels (selection) Type Designation
Material number
cf. DIN EN 10213 (2004-03)
Elongation Notch Yield Tensile impact Properties, strength 1 ' strength1' at fracture energy Kv application examples EL ftm ftp 0.22 J N/mm % N/mm 2
GP240GH G17CrMo5-5
1.0619 1.7357
420 490
240 315
22 20
27 27
GX8CrNi12 GX4CrNiMo16-5-1
1.4107 1.4405
540 760
355 540
18 15
45 60
1)
Values for a wall thickness up to 40 mm
For high and low temperatures, e.g. steam turbines, super heated steam armatures, also corrosion resistant
162
Material science:
4.7 Foundry technology cf D I N
Patterns, Pattern equipment and core boxes
^ooo oe)
Materials and grades Materials
Characteristics
Wood
Plastic
Metal
Plywood, particle board or sandwich board, hard and soft wood
Epoxy resins or polyurethane with fillers
Cu, Sn, Zn alloys Al alloys Cast iron or steel
Recurring individual pieces and smaller lots, low precision requirements; normally hand molding
Moderate to large volumes Jobbing work and volume with high precision production with higher precirequirements; sion requirements; machine molding hand and machine molding
Max. production run for molding
approx. 750
approx. 10000
approx. 150000
Quality classes1'
W1 2 ) , W2, H3
P1 2) , P2
M1 2 ) , M2
Surface quality
Sand paper 60-80 grit
Ra = 12.5 pm
Ra = 3.2-6.3 pm
Type of material
Application
11
Classification system for the manufacture and use of patterns, pattern equipment and core boxes, according to their application, quality and service life: W wood; P plastic; M metal
2>
best grade
Mold draft for sand casting Mold draf t Tin mm Large draft surfaces
Small draft surfaces Height h
mm
Hand nlolding Molding sand Molding sand clay bonded chem. bonded
Machine molding
Hand nlolding Molding sand Molding sand clay bonded chem. bonded
Machine molding
-30
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.5
1.0
1.0
> 30-80
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.5
2.0
2.0
>80-180
3.0
2.5
2.5
3.0
3.0
3.0
>180-250
3.5
3.0
3.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
>250-1000
+ 1.0 mm each 250 mm
>1000-4000
+ 2.0 mm each 1 000 mm
Paint and color codes on patterns Surface or partial surface Basic color for areas that should remain unmachined on the casting Areas to be machined on the casting
Cast steel
Nodular cast iron
Gray cast iron
Malleable iron
Heavy metal castings
Light alloy castings
blue
purple
red
gray
yellow
green
red stripes
yellow stripes
blue
blue
yellow stripes yellow stripes yellow stripes yellow stripes
Locations of loose parts and their attachments Locations of chill plates Core marks
framed in black red
red
blue
red
black yellow stripes
Risers
Material science:
163
4.7 Foundry technology
Shrinkage allowances, Dimensional tolerances, Molding and casting methods Shrinkage allowances
cf. DIN EN 12890 (2000-06) Shrinkage Other casting materials allowance in %
Cast iron with flake graphite
1.0
with spheroidal graphite, annealed with spheroidal graphite, not annealed
Shrinkage allowance in %
Cast steel
2.0
0.5
Austenitic manganese cast steel
2.3
1.2
Al, Mg, CuZn alloys
1.2
austenitic
2.5
CuSnZn, Zn alloys
1.3
malleable cast iron, decarburizing anneal
1.6
CuSn alloys
1.5
malleable cast iron, no decarburizing anneal
0.5
Cu
1.9
Dimensional tolerances and machining allowances, RMA Examples of tolerance specifications in a drawing:
R F CT T RMA
1. ISO 8062-CT12-RMA6 (H) Tolerance grade 12, material allowance 6 mm 2. Individual tolerances and machining allowances are given directly after a dimension.
cf. DIN ISO 8062 (1998-08) rough casting - nominal dimension dimension after finishing casting tolerance grade total casting tolerance material allowance for machining
/? = F + 2 • RMA + 772
Casting tolerances Nominal dimensions in mm
1
2
4
3
Tot,al cast ing tol erancei T in mm i for castir ig tole ranee grade CT 11 6 7 8 10 9
5
12
13
14
15
16
-10
0.09 0.13 0.18 0.26 0.36
0.52 0.74
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.8
4.2
-
-
-
-
> 10-16
0.10 0.14 0.20 0.28 0.38
0.54 0.78
1.1
1.6
2.2
3.0
4.4
-
-
-
-
> 16-25
0.11 0.15 0.22 0.30 0.42
0.58 0.82
1.2
1.7
2.4
3.2
4.6
6
8
10
12
> 25-40
0.12 0.17 0.24 0.32 0.46
0.64 0.9
1.3
1.8
2.6
3.6
5
7
9
11
14
>40-63
0.13 0.18 0.26 0.36 0.50
0.70
1.0
1.4
2.0
2.8
4.0
5.6
8
10
12
16
>63-100
0.14 0.20 0.28 0.40 0.56
0.78
1.1
1.6
2.2
3.2
4.4
6
9
11
14
18
>100-160
0.15 0.22 0.30 0.44 0.62
0.88
1.2
1.8
2.5
3.6
5
7
10
12
16
20
0.24 0.34 0.50 0.70
1.0
1.4
2.0
2.8
4.0
5.6
8
11
14
18
22
0.40 0.56 0.78
1.1
1.6
2.2
3.2
4.4
6.2
9
12
16
20
25
0.64 0.90
1.2
1.8
2.6
3.6
5
7
10
14
18
22
28
1.4
2.0
2.8
4
6
8
11
16
20
25
32
>160-250
-
> 250-400
-
-
> 400-630
-
-
-
>630-1000
-
-
-
-
1.0
Molding and casting methods Relative dimenAchievable sional accuracy1' roughness Ra in mm/mm in pm
Advantages and disadvantages
Casting material
all sizes, expensive, low dimensional accuracy
GJL, GJS, GS, GJM, Al and Cu alloys
0.00-0.10
40-320
Machine molding
small to medium dimensionally accurate, GJL, GJS, GS, GJM, Al alloys sized parts, volume good surface
0.00-0.06
20-160
Vacuum molding
medium to large parts, volumes
dimensionally accurate, GJL, GJS, GS, GJM, Al and good surface, Cu alloys high investment costs
0.00-0.08
40-160
Shell molding
small parts, large volumes
dimensionally accurate, GJL, GS, Al and Cu alloys high mold costs
0.00-0.06
20-160
Investment casting
small parts, large volumes
complex parts, high mold costs
GS, Al alloys
0.00-0.04
10-80
Die casting
small to medium sized parts, large volumes
dimensionally accurate even with thin walls, fine-grain structure, high investment costs
hot chamber: Zn, Pb, Sn, Mg cold chamber: Cu, Al
0.00-0.04
10-40
Method
Application
Hand molding
large castings, small lots
1)
The ratio of largest relative deviation to the nominal dimension is called the relative dimensional accuracy.
164
Material science: 4.
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Aluminum, Aluminum alloys - Overview Alloy group
Material number
Main characteristics
Main areas of application
Product shapes1' S | B | T
Pure aluminum Al (Al content >99.00%)
AW-1000 to AW-1990 (Series1000)
page 166 • • • • •
very good cold workability weldable and brazable difficult for cutting machining corrosion resistant anodized for decorative purposes
Containers, conduits and equipment for the food and chemical industry, electrical conductors, reflectors, trims, license plates in automotive manufacturing
•
Aluminum, wrought aluminum alloys, non-heat treatable (selection) AIMn
AIMg
AW-3000 • cold workable to • weldable and solderable AW-3990 • good machinability in (Series 3000) work-hardened condition Compared to Series 1000: • higher strength • improved lye resistivity
Roofing, siding, and supporting structures in the construction industry, parts for radiators and air conditioning units in automotive manufacturing, drink and food cans in the packaging industry
AW-5000 • good cold workability with high to work hardening • limited weldability AW-5990 (Series 5000) • good machinability in work-hardened condition and with higher alloy contents • weather and saltwater resistant
Lightweight material for superstructures of commercial vehicles, tank and silo trucks, metal signs, traffic sign, rolling shutters and doors, windows, doors, hardware in the construction industry, machine frames, parts in the construction of jigs and fixtures and mold making
AIMgMn
• good cold workability with high work hardening • good weldability • good cutting machinability • saltwater resistant
AlCuMg
AlZnMgCu
1) 2)
•
page 166
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Aluminum, wrought aluminum alloys, heat treatable (selection) AIMgSi
•
page 167
AW-6000 to AW-6990 (Series 6000)
• • • •
good cold and hot workability corrosion resistant good weldability good cutting machinability in heat treated condition
Load-bearing structures in the construction industry, windows, doors, machine beds, hydraulic and pneumatic parts; with Pb, Sn or Bi additions: very good cutting machinable free cutting alloys
• 2)
• 2)
• 2)
AW-2000 to AW-2990 (Series 2000)
• • • • •
high-strength values good high-temperature strength limited corrosion resistance limited weldability good cutting machinability in heat treated condition
Lightweight material in automotive and aircraft construction; with Pb, Sn or Bi additions: very good cutting machinable free cutting alloys
• 2)
• 2)
• 2)
•
•
•
AW-7000 • highest strength of all Al alloys to • best corrosion resistance in artificially aged condition AW-7990 (Series 7000) • limited weldability • good cutting machinability in heat treated condition
Product forms: S sheet; B bars; T tubes Free machining alloys are only delivered as bars or tubes.
High-strength lightweight material in aircraft industry, machine construction, tools and molds for plastic molding, screws, extruded parts
Material science: 4.
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Aluminum, wrought aluminum alloys: Designations and material numbers Designations for aluminum and wrought aluminum alloys
cf. DIN EN 573-2 (1994-12)
The designations apply to wrought products, e.g. sheet, bars, tubes, wires and for wrought parts. Designation examples:
EN AW
EN AW - Al 99,98 EN AW -AI MqISiCu - H111
Chemical composition, purity
European standard Aluminum wrought products
Al 99.98 MglSiCu
pure aluminum, degree of purity 99,98% Al 1 % Mg, low percentage of Si and Cu cf. DIN EN 515 (1993-12)
Material condition (excerpt) Condition
Meaning of the material conditions
Symbol Meaning of the symbol
manufactured condition
F
Wrought products are manufactured without specifying mechanical limits, e.g. tensile strength, yield strength, elongation at fracture
Wrought products without secondary operations
spheroidized
0 01 02
Spheroidizing can be replaced by hot working Solution annealed, cooled slowly to room temperature Thermomechanically formed, highest workability
To restore worka bility after cold working
Work hardened
H12 to H18
Work hardened with the following hardness grades: H12 H14 H16 H18 3 4 1/4 hard 1/2 hard / 4 hard / 4 hard
H111 H112
Annealed with subsequent slight work hardening Slight work hardening
To assure guaranteed mechanical values, e.g. tensile strength, yield strength
Heat treated
T1 T2 T3
Solution annealed, stress relieved and naturally age hardened, not redressed Quenched like T1, cold worked and naturally aged Solution heat treated, cold worked and naturally age hardened
T3510 T3511
Solution annealed, stress relieved and naturally aged Like T3510, redressed to hold the limit deviations
T4 T4510
Solution annealed, naturally age hardened Solution annealed, stress relieved and naturally age hardened, not redressed
T6 T6510
Solution annealed, artificially aged Solution annealed, stress relieved and artificially aged, not redressed
T8 T9
To increase in tensile strength, yield strength and hardness, reduction of the cold workability
Solution annealed, cold worked, artificially aged Solution annealed, artificially aged, cold worked
Material numbers for aluminum and wrought aluminum alloys
cf. DIN EN 573-1 (1994-12)
Material numbers apply to wrought products, e.g. sheet, bars, tubes, wires and for wrought parts. Designation examples:
EN AW
EN AW - 1050A EN AW-5154
Indicates that country-specific limits deviate from the original alloy.
European standard Aluminum wrought products
Alloy groups Number
Group
Number
Group
1 2
pure Al AlCu
5 6
AIMg AIMgSi
3 4
AIMn AISi
7 8
AlZn other
Alloy modifications
Type number
0 1-9
Within an alloy group, e.g. AIMgSi, each type is assigned its own number.
Original alloy Alloys that deviate from the original alloy
166
Material science: 4.
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Aluminum, wrought aluminum alloys Aluminum and wrought aluminum alloys, non-heat treatable (selection) Designation (materialnumber) 1)
Deli very forr ns2> R
S
•
-
Al 99.5 (1050A)
Material DC > condition 4 ' 3
cf. DIN EN 485-2 (2004-09), DIN EN 754-2,755-2 (2008-06)
Thickness/ diameter mm
Tensile strength firm N/mm 2
Yield Elong. at strength fracture Applications, EL Examples N/mm 2 %
P z z
F, H112 O, H111 H14
< 200 <80 <40
> 60 60-95 100-135
> 20 >70
25 25 6
w
O, H111
0,5-1,4 1,5-2,9 3,0-5,9
65-95 65-95 65-95
>20 >20 >20
22 26 29
p z z
F, H112 O, H111 H14
<200 <60 < 10
>95 95-130 130-165
>35 >35 > 110
25 25 6
Equipment manufacturing, pressure vessels, signs, packaging, trim
-
•
•
—
-
•
w
O, H111
0.5-1.4 1.5-2.9 3.0-5.9
90-130 90-130 90-130
>35 >35 >35
19 21 24
•
—
p z z
F, H112 O, H i l l H14
<200 <80 <40
>95 95-130 130-165
>35 >35 > 110
25 25 6
-
•
w
O, H111
0.5-1.4 1.5-2.9 3.0-5.9
95-135 95-135 95-135
>35 >35 >35
17 20 23
•
—
p z z
F, H112 O, H111 H14
<200 <80 <40
> 100 100-145 > 140
>40 >40 > 110
18 18 6
-
•
w
O, H111
0.5-1.49 1.5-2.9 3.0-5.9
100-145 100-145 100-145
>35 >35 >35
19 20 22
•
-
p z z
F, H112 O, H111 H14
< 200 <80 <30
> 160 150-200 200-240
>60 >60 > 160
16 17 5
-
•
w
O, H111
0.5-1.4 1.5-2.9 3.0-5.9
160-200 160-200 160-200
>60 >60 >60
14 16 18
•
—
p z z
F, H112 0, H i l l H14
< 150 <80 <25
> 180 180-250 240-290
>80 >80 > 180
14 16 4
-
•
w
0, H111
0.5-1.4 1.5-2.9 3.0-5.9
190-240 190-240 190-240
>80 >80 >80
14 16 18
Al Mg5 (5019)
•
—
p z z
F, H112 0, H111 H14
<200 <80 <40
> 250 250-320 270-350
> 110 > 110 > 180
14 16 8
Optical equipment, packaging
Al Mg3Mn (5454)
•
-
p
F, H112 0, H111
<200
>200 200-275
>85 >85
10 18
-
•
w
0, H111
0.5-1.4 1.5-2.9 3.0-5.9
215-275 215-275 215-275
>85 >85 >85
13 15 17
Container construction, including pressure vessels, conduits, tank and silo trucks
•
—
p z z
F, H111 0, H111 H12
<200 <80 <30
>270 270-350 >280
> 110 > 110 >200
12 16 6
Al Mn1 (3103)
Al MnlCu (3003)
Al Mg1 (5005)
CO
cH>
Al Mg2Mn0.3 (5251)
Al Mg4.5Mn0.7 (5083) 1) 2) 3) 4)
Equipment manufacturing, extruded parts, vehicle superstructures, heat exchangers
Roofing, facades, load-bearing structures in metal working
Roofing, facades, windows, doors, hardware
Equipment and devices for the food industry
Equipment manufacturing, aircraft industry, body parts, mold making
Mold making and construction of jigs and fixtures, machine frames
For simplification all designations and material numbers are written without the addition "EN AW-". Delivery forms: R round bar; S sheet, strip DC Delivery condition: p extruded; z drawn; w cold-rolled Material condition, see page 165
Material science: 4.
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Wrought aluminum alloys Wrought aluminum alloys, heat treatable (selection) Designation (materialnumber) 1 '
Deli very forr ns2>
Material DC ' condition 4 ' 3
cf. DIN EN 485-2 (2004-09), DIN EN 754-2,755-2 (2008-06) Thickness/ diameter mm
Tensile strength Am N/mm 2
Yield Elong. at strength fracture Application, Examples EL ftp 0.2 N/mm 2 %
R
S
Al Cu4PbMgMn (2007)
•
-
P z z
T4, T4510 T3 T3
<80 <30 30-80
> 370 >370 >340
> 250 >240 >220
8 7 6
Al Cu4PbMg (2030)
•
-
P z z
T4, T4510 T3 T3
<80 <30 30-80
>370 >370 >340
> 250 > 240 > 220
8 7 6
Al MgSiPb (6012)
•
-
p z z
T5, T6510 T3 T6
< 150 <80 <80
>310 >200 >310
>260 > 100 >260
8 10 8
•
—
p z z
O, H i l l T3 T4
<200 <80 <80
<250 >380 >380
< 135 >290 >220
12 8 12
-
•
w
O
0.5-1.4 1.5-2.9 3.0-5.9
<220 <220 <220
< 140 < 140 < 140
12 13 16
•
-
p z z
O, H111 T3 T6
<200 10-80 <80
< 250 >425 >425
< 150 >290 >315
12 9 5
-
•
w
O
0.5-1.4 1.5-2.9 3.0-5.9
<220 <220 <220
< 140 < 140 < 140
12 13 13
Al MgSi (6060)
•
—
p z z
T4 T4 T6
< 150 <80 <80
< 120 > 130 >215
<60 >65 > 160
16 15 12
Windows, doors, vehicle superstructures, machine beds, optical equipment
Al SilMgMn (6082)
•
—
p z z
O, H111 T4 T6
<200 <80 <80
< 160 > 205 >310
< 110 > 110 >255
14 14 10
-
•
w
O
0.5-1.4 1.5-2.9 3.0-5.9
< 150 < 150 < 150
<85 <85 <85
14 16 18
Hardware, parts in mold making and manufacturing of jigs and fixtures, machine beds, equipment in the food industry
•
-
p z
T6 T6
<50 <80
>350 >350
> 290 >280
10 10
-
•
w
O
0.5-1.4 1.5-2.9 3.0-5.9
<220 < 220 < 220
< 140 < 140 < 140
12 13 15
•
-
p z
T6, T6510 T6
<80 <80
>490 >460
>420 >380
7 8
-
•
w
T6
3.0-12 12.5-24 25-50
>450 >450 >450
>370 >370 >370
8 8 7
•
—
p z z
O, H111 T6 T73
<200 <80 <80
<275 > 540 >455
< 165 >485 >385
10 7 10
-
•
w
O
0.4-0.75 0.8-1.45 1.5-2.9
> 275 >275 >275
> 145 > 145 > 145
10 10 10
Al Cu4SiMg (2014)
Al Cu4Mg1 (2024)
Al Zn4.5Mg1 (7020)
Al Zn5Mg3Cu (7022)
Al Zn5.5MgCu (7075)
1) 2) 3) 4)
Free cutting alloys, also good machinability at high machining outputs, e.g. for turned parts, milled parts
Parts in hydraulic, pneumatic, automotive and aircraft manufacturing, load-bearing structures in metal manufacturing Parts in automotive and aircraft manufacturing, load-bearing structures in metal working
Parts in automotive and aircraft manufacturing, machine beds, superstructures of rail cars
Parts in hydraulic, pneumatic and aircraft manufacturing, screws
Parts in automotive and aircraft manufacturing, mold making and manufacturing of jigs and fixtures, screws
For simplification all designations and material numbers are written without the addition "EN AW-". Delivery forms: R round bar; S sheet, strip DC Delivery condition: p extruded; z drawn; w cold-rolled Material condition, see page 165
168
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Aluminum casting alloys Designation of aluminum castings
cf. DIN EN 1780-1...3 (2003-01), DIN EN 1706 (1998-06)
Aluminum castings are identified by designations or material numbers. Designation examples:
Designation EN AC - Al Mg5KF
Material number EN AC - 51300KF T .
EN AC
European standard Aluminum casting
K casting method F material condition (table below)
Chemical composition
K casting method F material condition (table below)
Alloy groups
Type number
Example
Alloy percentage
No.
Group
No.
Group
AIMg5 AISi6Cu
5% Mg 6% Si, additions of Cu
21 41
AlCu AISiMgTi
46 47
AISi9Cu AlSi(Cu)
AICu4MgTi
4% Cu, additions of Mg and Ti
42 44
AISi7Mg AISi
51 71
AIMg AlZnMg
Casting method Letter
Casting method
Letter F O
Sand casting Permanent mold casting Die casting Investment casting
Meaning Casting condition, without subsequent processing Spheroidized Controlled cooling after pouring, naturally aged Solution annealed and naturally aged
LO CO I- I-
D L
Material condition
I- I-
S K
Within one alloy group each type has its own number.
Controlled cooling after pouring, artificially aged Solution annealed and artificially aged
Aluminum casting alloys
cf. DIN EN 1706(1998-06)
Strength values in casting condition (F) Designation (materialnumber) 1 '
C2>
Hardn. Tensile M 3 ) strength strength HB ftm N/mm 2
Yield ftp 0,2 N/mm 2
Elongation at fracture EL %
Properties4' C
p
M
S K
F F
50 50
140 150
70 70
3 5
-
-
•
AC-AIMg5 (AC-51300)
S K
F F
55 60
160 180
90 100
3 4
-
-
•
AC-AIMg5(Si) (AC-51400)
S K
F F
60 65
160 180
100 110
3 3
-
-
•
AC-AISi12 (AC-44100)
S K L
F F F
50 55 60
150 170 160
70 80 80
4 5 1
•
•
o
AC-AISi7Mg (AC-42000)
S K L
CO CO CO
75 90 75
220 260 240
180 220 190
2 1 1
o
•
o
AC-AISi12(Cu) (AC-47000)
S K
F F
50 55
150 170
80 90
1 2
•
•
-
AC-AICu4Ti (AC-21100)
S K
T6 T6
95 95
300 330
200 220
3 7
-
-
•
2) 4>
I-
1)
I- I-
AC-AIMg3 (AC-51000)
Application Corrosion resistant, polishable, anodized for decorative purposes; fittings, household appliances, ship building, chemical industry Resistant to weather influences, for complex, thin-walled and pressuretight parts; pump and motor housings, cylinder heads, parts in aircraft manufacturing
Highest strength values, vibration and high temp, resistance; simple castings
For simplification all designations and material numbers are written without "EN", e.g. AC-AIMg3 instead of EN AC-AIMg3 or AC-51000 instead of EN AC-51000. 3) C casting method (table above) M material condition (table above) C castability, P pressure tightness, M machinability; • very good, o good, - conditionally good
Material science: 4.
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Aluminum profiles - Overview, Round bars, Flat bars Aluminum sections, Overview Illustration
Fabrication, dimensions
Round bars
Standard
Round tubes extruded d = 3-100 mm
DIN EN 755-3
seamless extruded d = 20-250 mm
DIN EN 755-7
drawn d = 8-320 mm
DIN EN 754-3
cold-drawn seamless d= 3-270 mm
DIN EN 754-7
extruded a = 15-100 mm
DIN EN 754-4
Square bars
Square tubes extruded s = 10-220 mm
DIN EN 755-4
drawn s = 3-100 mm
DIN EN 754-4
Flat bars
Flat tubes
w
extruded w = 10-600 mm s= 2-240 mm
DIN EN 755-4
extruded seamless a = 15-250 mm b= 10-100 mm
DIN EN 755-7
drawn w = 5-200 mm s= 2-60 mm
DIN EN 754-4
cold-drawn seamless a = 15-250 mm b= 10-100 mm
DIN EN 754-7
Sheet and strip
L profiles rolled s = 0.4-15 mm
DIN EN 485
Channels
sharp corners or round corners h = 10-200 mm
DIN 17711>
sharp corners or round corners h = 15-100 mm
DIN 9714 1 '
Tees sharp corners or round corners h = 10-160 mm
1)
Fabrication, dimensions
Illustration
Standard
DIN 97131'
Standards were withdrawn without replacement. cf. DIN EN 754-3, 754-4 (1996-01), DIN 17981>, DIN 17961)
Round bars, Flat bars, drawn S cross-sectional area m' linear mass density W axial section modulus / axial moment of inertia
< 4 4 4 '
d, a mm
v
O
m' kg/m
•
O
/x =•Jy cm4
Wx = cm 3
•
O
•
O
0.17 0.29 0.68
0.05 0.10 0.32
•
1.00 1.44 2.56
0.21 0.31 0.54
0.27 0.39 0.69
0.10 0.17 0.40
3.14 4.91 7.07
4.00 6.25 9.00
0.85 1.33 1.91
1.08 1.69 2.43
0.79 1.53 2.65
1.33 2.60 4.50
0.79 1.77 3.98
1.33 3.26 6.75
35 40 45
9.62 12.57 15.90
12.25 16.00 20.25
2.60 3.40 4.30
3.31 4.32 5.47
4.21 6.28 8.95
7.15 10.68 15.19
7.37 12.57 20.13
12.51 21.33 34.17
50 55 60
19.64 23.76 28.27
25.00 30.25 36.00
5.30 6.42 7.63
6.75 8.17 9.72
12.28 16.33 21.21
20.83 27.73 36.00
30.69 44.98 63.62
52.08 76.26 108.00
10 12 16
0.79 1.13 2.01
20 25 30
Materials 1)
S cm 2
0.08 0.17 0.55
Wrought aluminum alloys, see pages 166 and 167.
DIN 1796 und DIN 1798 were replaced by DIN EN 754-3 or DIN EN 754-4. The DIN EN standards contain no dimensions. However, dealers continue to offer DIN 1798 and DIN 1796 round and square bars. O round bars; • square bars
170
Material science: 4.
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Flat bars from aluminum alloys cf. DIN EN 754-5 (1996-01), replaces DIN 17691)
Flat bars, drawn (selection) S cross-sectional area m' linear mass density e distance to edge W axial section modulus I axial moment of inertia
r
X x
W
Edge radii r h mm
'max
< 10
0.6
> 10-30
1.0
>30-60
2.0
mm
w* h mm
S cm 2
m' kg/m
©X cm
e y cm
Wx cm 3
/x cm 4
Wy cm 3
'y cm 4
10x3 10 x 6 10 x 8
0.30 0.60 0.80
0.08 0.16 0.22
0.15 0.3 0.4
0.5 0.5 0.5
0.015 0.060 0.106
0.0007 0.018 0.042
0.033 0.100 0.133
0.016 0.050 0.066
15x3 15 x 5 15x8
0.45 0.75 1.20
0.12 0.24 0.32
0.15 0.25 0.4
0.75 0.75 0.75
0.022 0.090 0.230
0.003 0.027 0.064
0.112 0.225 0.300
0.084 0.168 0.225
20 x 5 20x8 20 x 10
1.00 1.60 2.00
0.27 0.43 0.54
0.25 0.4 0.5
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.083 0.213 0.333
0.020 0.085 0.166
0.333 0.533 0.666
0.333 0.533 0.666
20 x 15 25 x 5 25x8
3.00 1.25 2.00
0.81 0.34 0.54
0.75 0.25 0.4
1.0 1.25 1.25
0.750 0.104 0.266
0.562 0.026 0.106
1.000 0.520 0.833
1.000 0.651 1.041
25 x 10 25 x 15 25 x 20
2.50 3.75 5.00
0.67 1.01 1.35
0.5 0.75 1.0
1.25 1.25 1.25
0.416 0.937 1.666
0.208 0.703 1.666
1.041 1.562 2.083
1.302 1.953 2.604
30 x 10 30 x 15 30 x 20
3.00 4.50 6.00
0.81 1.22 1.62
0.5 0.75 1.0
1.5 1.5 1.5
0.500 1.125 2.000
0.250 0.843 2.000
1.500 2.250 3.000
2.250 3.375 4.500
40 x 10 40 x 15 40 x 20
4.00 6.00 8.00
1.08 1.62 2.16
0.5 0.75 1.0
2.0 2.0 2.0
0.666 1.500 2.666
0.333 1.125 2.666
2.666 4.000 5.333
5.333 8.000 10.666
40 x 25 40 x 30 40x35
10.00 12.00 14.00
2.70 3.24 3.78
1.25 1.5 1.75
2.0 2.0 2.0
4.166 6.000 8.166
5.208 9.000 14.291
6.666 8.000 9.333
13.333 16.000 18.666
50 x 10 50 x 15 50 x 20
5.00 7.50 10.00
1.35 2.03 2.70
0.5 0.75 1.0
2.5 2.5 2.5
0.833 1.875 3.333
0.416 1.406 3.333
4.166 6.250 8.333
10.416 15.625 20.833
50 x 25 50 x 30 50x35
12.50 15.00 17.50
3.37 4.05 4.73
1.25 1.5 1.75
2.5 2.5 2.5
5.208 7.500 10.208
6.510 11.250 17.864
10.416 12.500 14.583
26.041 31.250 36.458
50 x 40 60 x 10 60 x 15
20.00 6.00 9.00
5.40 1.62 2.43
2.0 0.5 0.75
2.5 3.0 3.0
13.333 1.000 2.250
26.666 0.500 1.687
16.666 6.000 9.000
41.668 18.000 27.000
60 x 20 60 x 25 60 x 30
12.00 15.00 18.00
3.24 4.05 4.86
1.0 1.25 1.5
3.0 3.0 3.0
4.000 6.250 9.000
4.000 7.812 13.500
12.000 15.000 18.000
36.000 45.000 54.000
60 x 35 60 x 40 80 x 10
21.00 24.00 8.00
5.67 6.48 2.16
1.75 2.0 0.5
3.0 3.0 4.0
12.250 16.000 1.333
21.437 32.000 0.666
21.000 24.000 10.666
63.000 72.000 42.666
80 x 15 80x20 80 x 25
12.00 16.00 20.00
3.24 4.52 5.40
0.75 1.0 1.25
4.0 4.0 4.0
3.000 5.433 8.333
2.250 5.333 10.416
16.000 21.333 26.666
64.000 85.333 106.66
80x30 80x35 80 x 40
24.00 28.00 32.00
6.48 7.56 8.64
1.5 1.75 2.0
4.0 4.0 4.0
12.000 16.333 21.333
18.000 28.583 42.666
32.000 37.333 42.666
128.00 149.33 170.66
100 x 20 100 x 30 100 x 40
20.00 30.00 40.00
5.40 8.10 10.8
1.0 1.5 2.0
5.0 5.0 5.0
6.666 15.000 26.666
3.666 22.500 53.333
33.333 50.000 66.666
166.66 250.00 333.33
Material 1)
Wrought aluminum alloys, see pages 166 and 167.
DIN EN 754-5 contains no dimensions. Specialized dealers still offer flat bars in dimensions according to DIN 1769.
Material science: 4.
h
171
a l s
Round tubes. Channels from aluminum alloys cf. DIN EN 754-7 (1998-10), replaces DIN 17951)
Round tubes, cold-drawn seamless (selection) d s S
outside diameter wall thickness cross-sectional area m' linear mass density W axial section modulus I axial moment of inertia
dx s mm
S cm 2
m' kg/m
Wx cm 3
/x cm 4
dx s mm
S cm 2
m' kg/m
Wx cm 3
/x cm 4
10 x 1 10 x 1.5 10 x 2
0.281 0.401 0.503
0.076 0.108 0.136
0.058 0.075 0.085
0.029 0.037 0.043
35 x 3 35 x 5 35 x 10
3.016 4.712 7.854
0.814 1.272 2.121
2.225 3.114 4.067
3.894 5.449 7.118
12 x 1 12 x 1.5 12 x 2
0.346 0.495 0.628
0.093 0.134 0.170
0.088 0.116 0.136
0.053 0.070 0.082
40 x 3 40 x 5 40 x 10
3.487 5.498 9.425
0.942 1.484 2.545
3.003 4.295 5.890
6.007 8.590 11.781
16 x 1 16 x 2 16 x 3
0.471 0.880 1.225
0.127 0.238 0.331
0.133 0.220 0.273
0.133 0.220 0.273
50 x 3 50 x 5 50 x 10
4.430 7.069 12.566
1.196 1.909 3.393
4.912 7.245 10.681
12.281 18.113 26.704
20 x 1.5 20 x 3 20 x 5
0.872 1.602 2.356
0.235 0.433 0.636
0.375 0.597 0.736
0.375 0.597 0.736
55x3 55 x 5 55 x 10
4.901 7.854 14.137
1.323 2.110 3.817
6.044 9.014 13.655
16.201 24.789 37.552
25 x 2 25x3 25 x 5
1.445 2.073 3.142
0.390 0.560 0.848
0.770 1.022 1.335
0.963 1.278 1.669
60 x 5 60 x 10 60 x 16
8.639 15.708 22.117
2.333 4.241 4.890
10.979 17.017 20.200
32.938 51.051 60.600
30 x 2 30 x 4 30 x 6
1.759 3.267 4.524
0.475 0.882 1.220
1.155 1.884 2.307
1.733 2.826 3.461
70 x 5 70 x 10 70 x 16
10.210 18.850 27.143
2.757 5.089 7.331
15.498 54.242 24.908 87.179 30.750 107.62
Material
e.g. aluminum alloys, non-heat treatable, see page 166 aluminum alloys, heat-treatable, see page 167
1)
DIN EN 754-7 contains no dimensions. Specialized dealers still offer round tubes in dimensions according to DIN 1795. cf. DIN 9713 (1981-09)1)
Extruded channel sections (selection) w width h height S cross-sectional area m' linear mass density W axial section modulus axial moment I of inertia
hx w * s x f mm
cm"
20 x 20 x 3 x 3 30x30 x 3 x 3 35 x 35 x 3 x 3
2.52 2.97
40 x 15 x 3 x 3 40 x 20 x 3 x 3 40 x 30 x 3 x 3
Wx cm ;
cm
cm
cm
0.945 2.43 3.44
0.945 3.64 6.02
0.805
1.10 1.28
0.628 2.29 3.73
0.431 0.610 3.62
2.04 2.59 7.24
4.07 5.17 2.49
0.810
0.770
2.0 2.0 2.0
1.30 2.49
0.349 0.795 2.52
3.71 4.51 5.57
1.00
2.0
4.49 5.80
8.97 11.6 13.6
3.03 4.80 5.64
3.17 7.12 8.59
50 x 30 x 3 x 3 50 x 30 x 4 x 4 50 x 40 x 5 x 5
12.2
19.6 23.3
2.91 5.65 6.54
2.70 7.80 9.26
60 x 30 x 4 x 4 60 x 40 x 4 x 4 60 x40 x 5 x 5
4.12 6.35 7.47
3.69
cm
0.437 0.687 0.802
1.00
0.780
1.50 1.75
1.92 2.25 2.85
0.518
40 x 30 x 4 x 4 40 x 40 x 4 x 4 40 x 40 x 5 x 5
Rounded edges r<\ and r 2100 x 50 x 6 x 9 120 x 55 x 7 x 9 t '2 140 x 60 x 4 x 6 mm mm mm Materials 3,4 2.5 0.4 0.6
8,9
0.6
ex
cm
80 x 40 x 6 x 6 80 x 45 x 6 x 8 100 x 40 x 6 x 6
5,6
m kg/m
1)
1.62
0.608
W
2.06
2.91
1.22
2.0
1.50
2.0
1.05 1.49 1.52
3.15 4.91 6.07
0.851 1.33 1.64
2.5 2.5 2.5
0.929 1.38 1.42
4.88 7.83 9.32
4.51 5.31 6.57
1.22
1.43 1.77
3.0 3.0 3.0
0.896 1.29 1.33
7.90 10.1 12.0
23.7 30.3 36.0
8.95
2.42 3.02 2.74
4.0 4.0 5.0
1.22
11.2 10.1
82.4 108 142
10.6 13.9 12.5
20.6 21.8
1.11
20.6 27.1 28.3
14.1 17.2 12.35
3.80 4.64 3.35
5.0 6.0
1.72 1.74 1.83
43.4 61.9 56.4
217 295 350
19.9 28.2 24.7
34.3 49.1 45.2
7.0
1.57
6.80
8.20
9.94
13.8
AIMgSi0.5; AIMgSil; AIZn4.5Mg1
DIN 9713 was withdrawn without replacement. Specialized dealers still offer channels according to this standard.
172
Material science: 4.
h
a l s
Magnesium alloys, Titanium, Titanium alloys Wrought magnesium alloys (selection) Dcilive ry f(D r m 1) B
T D
M
2)
•
•
F20 F24
MgAI6Zn
3.5612
•
•
•
F27
MgAI8Zn
3.5812
•
•
•
F29 F31
1)
200 240
145 155
15 10
<80
270
195
10
290 310
205 215
10 6
o o
•
00 00 VI VI
3.3520 3.5312
Yield strength
Bar diameter mm 00 00 VI VI
MgMn2 MgAI3Zn
Tensile strength Am N/mm 2
o o
Designation
Materialnumber
cf. DIN 9715 (1982-08)
N/mm 2
Elong. at fracture Properties, EL application %
Corrosion resistant, weldable, cold workable; cladding, containers Higher strength, limited weldability; lightweight material in automotive, machine and aircraft manufacturing
Delivery forms: B bars, e.g. round bars; T tubes; D stamped part M material condition F20 R m = 10 • 20 = 200 N/mm 2
2)
Magnesium casting alloys (selection) 1
Designation *
MCMgAI8Zn1
Materialnumber 1 '
MC21110
«
Material- Hardness M > HB condition 3 ) 2
cf. DIN EN 1753 (1997-08) Tensile strength Am N/mm 2
Yield strength N/mm 2
Elong. at fracture EL
Properties, application
%
S
F T6
50-65 50-65
160 240
90 90
2 8
K K D
F T4 F
50-65 50-65 60-85
160 160 200-250
90 90 140-160
2 8 <7
S
F T6
55-70 60-90
160 240
90 150
6 2
Very good castability, dynamically loadable, weldable; gear and motor housings
MCMgAI9Zn1
MC21120
K K D
F T6 F
55-70 60-90 65-85
160 240 200-260
110 150 140-170
2 2 1-6
High-strength, good sliding properties, weldable; automotive and aircraft manufacturing, armatures
MCMgAI6Mn MCMgAI7Mn MCMgAI4Si
MC21230 MC21240 MC21320
D D D
F F F
55-70 60-75 55-80
190-250 200-260 200-250
120-150 130-160 120-150
4-14 3-10 3-12
Fatigue resistant, dynamically loadable, high temperature resistant, gear and motor housings
1)
2) 3)
For simplification, designations and material numbers are written without the "EN-" prefix, e.g. MCMgAIBZnl instead of EN-MCMgAI8Zn1. M casting method: S sand casting; K permanent mold casting; D die casting Material condition, see designation of aluminum casting alloys, page 168
Titanium, titanium alloys (selection) Designation
Materialnumber
D€ilive>ry f
B
T
Sheet thickness s mm
cf. DIN 17860 (1990-11) Hardness HB
Tensilestrength Am N/mm 2
Elong. at Yield strength fracture Properties, EL application N/mm 2 %
Til Ti2 Ti3
3.7025 3.7035 3.7055
•
•
•
0.4-35
120 150 170
290-410 390-540 460-590
180 250 320
30 22 18
TilPd Ti2Pd
3.7225 3.7235
•
•
•
0.4-35
120 150
290-410 390-540
180 250
30 22
TiAI6V6Sn2
3.7175
•
•
•
<6 6-50
320 320
> 1070 > 1000
1000 950
10 8
T1AI6V4
3.7165
•
•
•
<6 6-100
310 310
>920 >900
870 830
8 8
TiAI4Mo4Sn2
3.7185
•
•
•
6-65
350
> 1050
1050
9
1)
Delivery forms: S sheet and strip; B bars, e.g. round bars; T tubes
Weldable, solderable, glueable, machinable, cold and hot workable, fatigue resistant, corrosion resistantweight saving designs in machine construction, electrical engineering, precision engineering, optics and medical technology, chemical industry, food industry, aircraft manufacturing
Material science: 4.9 Heavy non-ferrous metals
173
Overview of the heavy non-ferrous metals Heavy non-ferrous metals have a density q > 5 kg/dm 3 . However, in technical literature q ;> 4.5 kg/dm 3 is also used as limit for non-ferrous metals. • Construction materials in machine and plant construction: copper, tin, zinc, nickel, lead and their alloys • Metals used for alloys: chromium, vanadium, cobalt (for effects of alloying metals, see page 129) • Precious metals: gold, silver, platinum Pure metals: Homogeneous structure; low strengths, lesser importance as a construction material; usually used based on material typical properties, e.g. good electrical conductivity. Heavy non-ferrous metal alloys: Improved properties compared to base metals, such as higher strength, higher hardness, better machinability and corrosion resistance, construction materials for various application. Classified according to manufacture into wrought alloys and casting alloys.
Overview of common heavy non-ferrous metals and alloys Metal, alloy group
Main characteristics
Application examples
Copper (Cu)
High electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity, inhibits bacteria, viruses and molds, corrosion resistant, good appearance, easily recyclable
Pipes in heating and plumbing equipment, cooling and heating coils, electrical wiring, electrical parts, cookware, building facades
CuZn (brass)
Wear-resistant, corrosion-resistant, good hot and cold workability, good machinability, polishable, shiny golden, medium strengths
• Wrought alloys: deep-drawn parts, screws, springs, pipes, instrument parts • Casting alloys: armature housings, plain bearings, precision mechanical parts
CuZnPb
Very good machinability, limited cold workability, Automatic screw machine parts, precision very good hot workability mechanical parts, fittings, hot-pressed parts
CuZn multi-alloy
Good hot workability, high strengths, wear-resistant, weather-resistant
Armature housings, plain bearings, flanges, valve parts, water housings
CuSn (bronze)
Very corrosion-resistant, good sliding properties, good wear-resistance, strength resulting from cold working is highly variable
• Wrought alloys: hardware, screws, springs, metal hoses • Casting alloys: spindle nuts, worm gears, solid plain bearings
CuAl
High strength and toughness, very corrosion resistant, salt water resistant, heat resistant, highly cavitation resistant
• Wrought alloys: highly stressed lock nuts, ratchet wheels • Casting alloys: armatures in the chemical industry, pump bodies, propellers
CuNi(Zn)
Extremely corrosion resistant, silvery appearance, good machinability, polishable, cold workable
Coins, electrical resistors, heat exchangers, pumps, valves in salt water cooling systems, ship building
Zinc (Zn)
Resistant to atmospheric corrosion
Corrosion protection of steel parts
ZnTi
Good workability, joinable by soft soldering
Roofing, gutters, downspouts
ZnAICu
Very good castability
Thin walled, finely articulated die castings
Tin (Sn)
Good chemical resistance, non-toxic
Coating of steel sheet
SnPb
Low viscosity
Soft solder
SnSb
Good dry running properties
Small, dimensionally precise die castings, plain bearings with average loading
Nickel (Ni)
Corrosion resistant, high temperature resistant
Corrosion protection layer on steel parts
NiCu
Extremely corrosion resistant and high temp, resist. Equipment, condensers, heat exchangers
NiCr
Extremely corrosion resistant and very high temperature resistant and nonscaling, e.g. age hardenable
Lead (Pb)
Shields against x-ray and gamma rays, corrosion Shielding, cable sheathing, tubes for chemical equipment resistant, toxic
PbSn
Low viscosity, soft, good dry running properties
Soft solder, sliding sheaths
PbSbSn
Low viscosity, corrosion resistant, good running and sliding properties (low friction)
plain bearings, small, dimensionally precise die castings such as pendulums, parts for measuring equipment, meters
Chemical installations, heating tubes, boiler internals in power plants, gas turbines
174
Material science: 4.9 Heavy non-ferrous metals
Designation of heavy non-ferrous metals cf. DIN 1700(1954-07)1)
Designation system (excerpt) Example:
NiCu30Fe F45 GD - Sn80Sb
Special properties
Manufacture, application E G GC GD GK GZ L S 1)
Electrical material Sand casting Continuous casting Die casting Permanent mold casting Centrifugal casting Solder Welding filler alloys
minimum tensile strength R m = 10 • 45 N/mm 2 = 450 N/mm 2
a 9 h ka ku ta wa wu zh
age hardened annealed hard naturally aged cold worked partially age hardened artificially aged hot worked drawn hard
Chemical composition Example
Comment
NiCu30Fe Ni-Cu alloy, 30% Cu, trace iron Sn80Sb
Sn-Sb alloy, 80% Sn, approx. 20% Sb
The standard has been withdrawn. However the material designations are still used in individual standards.
Designation system for copper alloys Examples:
F45
cf. DIN EN 1982 (2008-08) and 1173 (2008-08)
CuZn31Si - R620 CuZn38Pb2 CuSn11Pb2 - C -GS
Casting method GS Sand casting GM Permanent mold casting GZ Centrifugal casting GC Continuous casting GP Die casting
Chemical composition Example
Meaning
CuZn31Si
Cu alloy, 31% Zn, trace Si
CuZn38Pb2
Cu alloy 38% Zn, 2% Pb
CuSnl1Pb2
Cu alloy 11 % Sn, 2% Pb
Product form C B
Material in the form of castings Material in ingot form Wrought alloys (without code letter)
Material condition (selection) Example
Meaning
Example
Meaning
A007 D
Elongation at fracture EL = 7% Drawn, without specified mechanical properties
Y450 M
Yield strength Rp = 450 N/mm 2 Manufactured condition, without specified mechanical properties
H160
Vickers hardness HV = 160
R620
Minimum tensile strength Rm = 620 N/mm 2
Material numbers for copper and copper alloys Example:
cf. DIN EN 1412(1995-12)
C W 024 A
Code letters for material groups Letter
Material group
Letter
Material group
A or B
Copper
H
Copper-nickel alloys
C or D
Copper alloys, percentage of the alloying element < 5%
E or F
Copper alloys, percentage of the alloying elements > 5% Copper-aluminum alloys
J K Lor M N or P
Copper-zinc alloys Copper-tin alloys Copper-zinc binary alloys Copper-zinc-lead alloys
R or S
Copper-zinc multi-alloys
G
Material numbers for castings of zinc alloys Example:
cf. DIN EN 12844(1999-01)
Z P 04 1 0 Z Zinc alloy
I
P Casting Al content 04 = 4% aluminum
Cu content 1 = 1% copper
Content of the next higher alloying element 0 = next higher alloying element < 1 %
Material science: 4.9 Heavy non-ferrous metals
175
Copper alloys Wrought copper alloys Designation, Material number11
Bars 03) mm
2
C>
Tensile Yield Elong. at Hardness strength strength fracture Properties, application examples HB EL Am 2 % N/mm 2 N/mm
1 Copper-zinc alloys CuZn28 (CW504L)
CuZn37 (CW508L) CuZn40 (CW509L)
cf. DIN EN 12163(1998-04)
R310 R460
4-80 4-10
H085 H145
4-80 4-10
R310 R440
2-80 2-10
H070 H140
4-80 4-10
R340 H080
2-80
-
85-115 > 145 -
70-100 > 140
310 460 -
120 420
27
-
310 440 -
340
120 400 -
260
30 -
25
> 80
1 Copper-zinc alloys (multi-alloys) CuZn31Si (CW708R)
CuZn38Mn1 Al (CW716R)
CuZn40Mn2Fe1 (CW723R)
R460 R530
5-40 5-14
H115 H140
5-40 5-14
R490 R550
5-40 5-14
H120 H150
5-40 5-14
R460 R540
5-40 5-14 5-40 5-14
Very good cold workability, good hot workability, machinable, very easily polished; deep-drawn parts, screws, springs, press rollers Very good hot workability, machinable; rivets, screws cf. DIN EN 12163 (1998-04)
-
115-145 > 140 -
120-150 > 150 -
460 530
250 330
22 12 -
-
490 550
-
210 280
18 10
-
460 540
270 320
-
20 8
|
H110 H150
Very good cold workability, good hot workability, machinable, very easily polished; instrument parts, bushings
110-140 > 150
-
-
-
I Copper-zinc-lead alloys
Good cold workability; hot workable, machinable, good sliding properties; sliding parts, bearing bushings, guides Good hot workability, cold workable, machinable, sliding properties, weather resistant; sliding elements, guides Good hot workability, cold workable, machinable, average strength, weather resistant; equipment manufacturing, architecture cf. DIN EN 12164(2000-09)
CuZn36Pb3 (CW603N)
R340 R550
40-80 2-4
90 150
340 550
160 450
20
Excellent machinability, limited cold workability; automatic lathe parts
CuZn38Pb2 (CW608N)
R360 R550
40-80 2-6
90 150
360 550
150 420
25
Excellent machinability, good cold and hot workability; screw machine parts
CuZn40Pb2 (CW617N)
R360 R550
40-80 2-4
90 150
360 550
150 420
20
Excellent machinability, good hot workability; stamping blanks, gears
I Copper-tin alloys CuSn6 (CW452K)
CuSn8 (CW453K)
CuSn8P (CW459K) 1) 2)
3)
cf. DIN EN 12163(1998-04)
R340 R550
2-60 2-6
H085 H180
2-60 2-6
R390 R620
2-60 2-6
H090 H185
2-60 2-6
R390 R620
2-60 2-6
H090 H185
2-60 2-6
—
85-115 > 180 -
90-120 > 185 -
90-120 > 185
340 550
230 500
45 —
-
390 620
260 550
45
—
—
-
390 620 -
260 550 -
45
-
High chemical resistance, good strength; springs, metal hoses, pipes and bushings for suspension bodies High chemical resistance, high-strength, good sliding properties; plain bearings, rolled bearing bushings, contact springs Excellent sliding properties, high wear-resistance, endurance strength; highly stressed plain bearings in automotive and machine manufacturing
Material numbers according to DIN EN 1412, see page 174. C Material condition according to DIN EN 1173, see page 174. In manufactured condition M all alloys can be delivered up to diameter D = 80 mm. D Diameter for round bars, width across flats for square bars and hexagonal bars, thickness for flat bars.
176
Material science: 4.9 Heavy non-ferrous metals
Copper and refined zinc alloys Designation, Material number1'
2
C>
Bars 03) mm
Tensile Elong. at Yield Hardness strength strength fracture Properties, HB EL application examples Am 2 % N/mm 2 N/mm
Copper-aluminum alloys CuAI10Fe3Mn2 (CW306G)
CuAI10Ni5Fe4 (CW307G)
R590 R690
10-80 10-50
H140 H170
10-80 10-50
R680 R740
10-80
H170 H200
10-80
cf. DIN EN 12163 (1998-04) I 590 690
—
140-180 > 170
330 510
12 6 —
-
680 740
-
170-210 > 200
-
480 530
-
10 8 -
-
I Copper-nickel-zinc alloys CuNi12Zn24 (CW430J)
CuNi18Zn20 (CW409J) 1> 3)
R380 R640
2-50 2-4
H090 H190
2-50 2-4
R400 R650
2-50 2-4
H100 H200
2-50 2-4
Corrosion-resistant, wear-resistant, fatigue-resistant, high-temperature resistant; screws, shafts, gears, worm gears, valve seats Corrosion resistant, wear-resistant, nonscaling, fatigue resistant, high temperature resistant; capacitor bases, control parts for hydraulics cf. DIN EN 12163(1998-04)
380 640
-
90-130 > 190
270 550
-
38
— —
400 650
—
100-140 > 200
280 580 -
-
35
-
Extremely good cold workability, machinable, easily polished; deep-drawn parts, flatware, applied arts, architecture, spring contacts Good cold workability, machinable, non-tarnishing, easily polished; membranes, spring contacts, flatware
Material numbers according to DIN EN 1412, see page 174. 2 ) C Material condition according to DIN EN 1173, see page 174. D Diameter for round bars, width across flats for flat bars and hexagonal bars, thickness for flat bars.
| Cast copper alloys
cf. DIN EN 1982 (1998-12) | Tensile strength Am N/mm 2
Yield strength flp0,2 N/mm 2
Elong. at fracture A %
CuZn15As-C (CC760S)
160
70
20
45
Excellent soft and hard solderability, salt water resistant; flanges
CuZn32Pb2-C (CC750S)
180
70
12
45
Good machinability, resistant to industrial water up to 90°C; armatures
CuZn25AI5Mn4Fe-C (CC762S)
750
450
8
180
CuSn12-C (CC483K)
260
140
7
80
High wear-resistance; spindle nuts, worm gears
CuSnl1Pb2-C (CC482K)
240
130
5
80
Wear-resistant, good dry running properties; plain bearings
CuAI10Fe2-C (CC331G)
500
180
18
100
Mechanically stressed parts; levers, housings, bevel gears
CuAI10Ni3Fe2-C (CC332G)
500
180
18
130
Corrosion stressed parts; armatures, propellers
CuAI10Fe5Ni5-C (CC333G)
600
250
13
140
Strength and corrosion stressed parts; pumps
Designation, Material number11
Hardness Properties, application HB
Very high strength and hardness, good machinability; plain bearings
1) Material numbers according to DIN EN 1412, see page 174. More cast Cu alloys for plain bearings, see page 261. Strength values apply to separately sand-cast test specimens.
High-grade cast zinc alloys
cf. DIN EN 12844(1999-01) Very good castability; preferred alloys for die castings
ZP3 (ZP0400) ZP5 (ZP0410)
280 330
200 250
10 5
83 92
ZP2 (ZP0430) ZP8 (ZP0810)
335 370
270 220
5 8
102 100
Good castability; very good machinability, universally applicable
ZP12 (ZP1110) ZP27 (ZP2720)
400 425
300 300
5 2.5
100 120
Injection, blow, and deep-draw molds for plastics, sheet metal working tools
177
Material science: 4.10 Other materials
Composite materials, Ceramic materials Composite materials Composite material
Base material11
1)
2)
Service temperature up to °C
Application examples
-
Shafts, joints, connecting bars, ship hulls, rotor blades
10800
50
Containers, tanks, pipes, dome lights, body parts
53)
5000
190
Large-area, stiff housing parts, power plugs
3.5 3)
6000
145
Housings for printers, computers, televisions
3.5
11200
260
Lamp sockets and coils in electrical equipment
205
7
11700
280
Bearings, valve seat rings, seals, piston rings
1.44
155
2.2
10300
315
Light construction materials in aerospace applications, metal substitute
30
1.45
190
2.5
17150
260
Like FRP-PPS
PAI
30
1.42
205
6
11700
180
Like FRP-PAI
PEEK
30
1.44
210
1.3
13000
315
Like FRP-PEEK
EP
60
-
365
3.5
-
UP
35
1.5
130
3.5
PA 66
35
1.4
1602>
PC
30
1.42
90 2 )
PPS
30
1.56
140
PAI
30
1.56
PEEK
30
PPS
FRP (Fiberglass reinforced plastic)
CFRP (Carbon fiber reinforced plastic)
Tensile Elong. at Modulus tear of Fiber Density strength elasticity content E e £r ob % 2 N/mm 2 % g/cm 3 N/mm
EP epoxide PPS polyphenylene sulfide
UP unsaturated polyester PAI polyamideimide 3)
a y yield stress
PA 66 polyamide 66, semi-crystalline PEEK polyetheretherketone
PC polycarbonate
es elongation at yield stress
| Ceramic materials Mater ial Name
Designation
Flexural Modulus Coefficient of of linear Density strength elasticity expansion E a e Ob 2 N/mm 2 1/K g/cm 3 N/mm
Properties, application examples
Aluminum silicate
C130
2.5
160
100000
0.000005
Hard, wear-resistant, chemical and heat resistant, high insulating resistance; insulators, catalytic converters, refractory housings
Aluminum oxide
C799
3.7
300
300000
0.000007
Hard, wear-resistant, chemical and heat resistant; ceramic inserts, wire drawing dies, biomedicine
Zirconium oxide
Zr02
5.5
800
210000
0.000010
High stability, high strength, heat and chemical resistant, wear-resistant; drawing dies, extrusion dies
Silicon carbide
SiC
3.1
600
440000
0.000005
Hard, wear-resistant, thermal-shock resistance, corrosion-resistant even at high temperatures; abrasives, valves, bearings, combustion chambers
Silicon nitride
Si 3 N 4
3.2
900
330000
0.000004
High stability, thermal-shock resistance, high strength; cutting ceramics, guide and runner blades for gas turbines
Aluminum nitride
AIN
3.0
200
300000
0.000005
High thermal conductivity, high electrical insulation property; semiconductors, housings, heatsinks, insulating parts
178
Material science: 4.10 Other materials
Sintered metals Designation system for sintered metals Designation example:
Sint - A 1 0 sintered smooth
Code letters for material class Code letter
Volume ratio Rx in %
AF
<73
cf. DIN 30910-1 (1990-10)
1. 1st number for chemical composition
Area of application
Number Chemical composition mass fraction in %
Filter
Sintered iron, sint. steel, Cu < 1 % with or without C
A
75 ±2.5
plain bearings
Sintered steel, 1 % to 5% Cu, with or without C Sintered steel, Cu > 5%, with or without C
B
80 ± 2.5
plain bearings Formed parts with sliding properties
Sintered steel, with or without Cu or C, other alloying elements < 6%, e. g. Ni
C
85 ± 2.5
plain bearing, formed parts
D
90 ± 2.5
Formed parts
E
94 ± 1.5
Formed parts
F
>95.5
Sintered forged formed parts
Sintered steel, with or without Cu or C, other alloying elements > 6%, e. g. Ni, Cr Sintered alloys, Cu > 60%, e. g. sintered CuSn 6
7 3,9
Sintered nonferrous heavy metals, except for no. 5 Sintered light alloys, e. g. sintered aluminum Reserved numbers
Treatment condition Treatment condition of the material
Treatment condition of the surface
• sintered • calibrated • heat treated
• sintered smooth • calibrated smooth • sized and coined smooth
• steam treated • sintered forged • isostatically pressed
Sintered metals (selection, soft magnetic sintered metals not included) Designation Sint-AF 40
Hardness Tensile strength Chemical composition HB m j n Rm N/mm 2 —
Sint-AF 50
80-200
Sintered steel. Cr 16-19%, Ni 10-14%
40-160
Sintered bronze, Sn 9-11 %, rem. Cu
• machined • surface treated
cf. DIN 30910-2-6 (1990-10) Properties, application examples Filter parts for gas and liquid filters Bearing materials with exceptionally large pore volume for the best emergency running properties; bearing liners, bearing bushings
Sint-A 00
>25
>60
Sintered iron, C < 0.3%, Cu < 1%
Sint-A 20
>40
>150
Sintered steel, C < 0.3%, Cu 15-25%
Sint-A 50
>25
>70
Sintered bronze, C < 0.2%, Sn 9 - 1 %, rem. Cu
Sint-A 51
>18
>60
Sintered bronze, C 0.2-2%, Sn 9-11 %, rem. Cu
Sint-B 00
>30
>80
Sintered iron, C < 0.3%, Cu < 1 %
Sint-B 10
>40
>150
Sintered steel C < 0.3%, Cu 1 - 5 %
Sint-B 50
>30
>90
Sintered bronze, C < 0.2%, Sn 9-11 %, rem. Cu
Sint-C 00
>45
>150
Sintered iron, C < 0.3%, Cu < 1 %
Sint-C 10
>60
>200
Sintered steel C < 0.3%, Cu 1 - 1 , 5 %
Sint-C 40
>100
>300
Sintered steel. Cr 16-19%, Ni 10-14%, Mo 2%
Sint-C 50
>35
>140
Sintered bronze, C < 0.2%, Sn 9-11 %, rem. Cu
Sint-D 00
>50
>250
Sintered iron, C < 0.3%, Cu < 1 %
Sint-D 10
>80
>300
Sintered steel C < 0.3%, Cu 1 - 5 %
Sint-D 30
>110
>550
Sintered steel C < 0.3%, Cu 1 - 5 % , Ni 1 - 5 %
Sint-D 40
>100
>450
Sintered steel Cr 16-19%, Ni 10-14%, Mo 2%
Sint-E 00
>60
>200
Sintered iron, C < 0.3%, Cu < 1 %
Sint-E 10
>100
>350
Sintered steel C < 0.3%, Cu 1 - 5 %
Sint-E 73
>55
>200
Sintered aluminum Cu 4 - 6 %
Formed parts for precision engineering, for household appliances, for the electrical industry
Sint-F 00
>140
>600
>180
>770
Sinter forged steel, containing C and Mn Sinter forged steel, containing C, Ni, Mn, Mo
Sealing rings, flanges for muffler systems
Sint-F 31
Plain bearings with very good dry running properties, low stressed formed parts Plain bearings, formed parts with average stress with good sliding properties; auto parts, levers, clutch parts Formed parts for higher stresses; wear-resistant pump parts, gears, some are corrosion-resistant
Material science: 4.1
astis
Overview of plastics Disadvantages: • lower strength and heat resistance in comparison to metals • some are combustible • some are nonresistant to solvents • limited material reutilization
General properties
Advantages: • low density • electrically insulating • heat and sound absorbing • decorative surface • economical forming • weather and chemical resistance
Classification
Thermoplastics
Thermosets
Elastomers
Processing
Hot workable Weldable Generally glueable Machinable
Not workable Non-weldable Glueable Machinable
Not workable Non-weldable Glueable Machinable at low temperatures
Fabrication
Injection molding Injection blow molding Extruding
Pressing Transfer molding Injection molding, molding
Pressing Injection molding Extruding
Recycling
Easily recyclable
Not recyclable, possible reuse as filler
Not recyclable
Temperature behavior
Structure Amorphous thermoplastica
brittle hard
thermoelastic
thermo- viscous plastic
range of use
V> .O
Filamentary macromolecules without cross-linking
elongation at fracture 20°C temperature T
a welding range; b hot-working ; c injection molding, extrusion
20°C temperature T —
a welding range; b hot-working,c injection molding, extrusion
Semi-crystalline thermoplastic / —^.lamella (crystalline)
amorphous intermediate layers
Crystalline areas have greater cohesive forces Filamentary thermoset plastics
hard tensile strength
range of use
OJ ro1 * g Macromolecules with many cross-links
e l o n g a t i o n ^ fracture^ 20°C 50°C temperature T-
Filamentary elastomers
rubber-elastic
brittle hard
_«to
t Macromolecules in random condition with few cross-linkages
range of use to . 0
QJ "NJ — . cn 0°C 20°C temperature J •
180
Material science: 4.1
astis
Basic polymers, fillers and reinforcing materials Designations for basic polymers DesigMeaning nation
Type11
ABS
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene AM MA Acrylonitrile-methylmethacrylate
T T
ASA CA CAB CF CMC
T Acrylonitrile-styrene-acrylate T Cellulose acetate T Cellulose acetate butyrate D Cresol-formaldehyde MNM Carboxymethyl cellulose
CN CP EC EP
Cellulose nitrate Cellulose propionate Ethyl cellulose Epoxide
EVAC MF PA
Ethylene-vinyl acetate Melamine formaldehyde Polyamide
1)
MNM T MNM D E D T
cf. DIN EN ISO 1043-1 (2002-06)
DesigMeaning nation
Type11
DesigMeaning nation
Type11
PAK PAN PB PBT
Polyacrylate Polyacrylonitrile Polybutene Polybutylene terephthalate
T T T T
PTFE PUR PVAC PVB
Polytetrafluoroethylene Polyurethane Polyvinyl acetate Polyvinyl butyral
T D T T
PC PCTFE PE PET PF
Polycarbonate Polychlorotrifluoroethylene Polyethylene Polyethyleneterephthalate Phenol formaldehyde
T T T T D
PVC PVDC PVF PVFM PVK
Polyvinyl chloride Polyvinylidene chloride Polyvinyl fluoride Polyvinyl formaldehyde Poly-N-vinylcarbazole
T T T T T
PIB Polyisobutene PMMA Polymethylmethacrylate POM Polyoxymethylene; Polyformaldehyde
T T T
SAN SB SI SMS
Styrene-acrylonitrile Styrene-butadiene Silicone Styrene-a-methylstyrene
T T D T
PP PS PSU
T T T
UF UP VCE
Urea-formaldehyde Unsaturated polyester Vinyl chloride-ethylene
D D T
Polypropylene Polystyrene Polysulfone
MNM modified natural materials; E elastomers; D thermoset plastics; T thermoplastics
Code letters for designation of special properties Special properties
CL 1 ' B C D E
block, brominated chlorinated; crystalline density foamed; elastomer
CL1> F H I L M
Special properties flexible; liquid high; homo impact tough linear, low moderate, molecular
cf. DIN EN ISO 1043-1 (2002-06)
CL1> N O P R S
Special properties normal; novolak oriented plasticized raised; resol; hard saturated; sulphonated
Special properties
CL1> T U V
temperature ultra; no plasticizers very weight cross-linked, cross-linkable
w X
PVC-P: Polyvinylchloride, plasticized; PE-LLD: Linear Polyethylene low density 1)
code letter
Code letters and abbreviations for fillers and reinforcing materials cf. DIN EN ISO 1043-2 (2002-04) Abbreviation for material11 Designation
Material
B
Boron
C D E
Carbon Aluminum trihydrate Clay
Designation G K L M
Material Glass Calcium carbonate Cellulose Mineral, metal 2 '
Designation P Q R S
Material
Designation
Material
Mica
T
Talc
Silicate Aramid Synthetic materials
W X
Wood not specified other
z
Abbreviations for shape and structure Designation B
Shape, structure
Designation
Shape, structure
Designation
N
nonwoven (thin)
VV
veneer
Shape, structure
G
ground stock
H
whiskers
P
paper
W
woven
chips, shavings
K
knitwear
R
roving
X
not specified
D
powder
L
laminates
S
peelings, flakes
Y
yarn
F
fibers
M
matted, thick
T
spun yarn, cord
Z
other
=>
2)
Designation
pearls, balls, beads
C
11
Shape, structure
GF: glass fiber; CH: carbon whisker; MD: mineral powder
The materials can be further designated, e.g. by its chemical symbol or another symbol from relevant international standards. For metals (M) the type of metal must be specified by the chemical symbol.
Material science: 4.1
astis
Identification, Distinguishing characteristics Methods for identifying plastics Floa ting test Solution density Plastics in g/cm 3 floating 0.9-1.0 1.0-1.2
1.2-1.5 1.5-1.8 1.8-2.2
Solubility in solvents
PB, PE, PIB, PP
Thermosets and ABS, ASA, CAB, CP, PTFE are not soluble. PA, PC, PMMA, PS, SAN, SB Other thermoplastics are soluble CA, PBT, PET, in certain solvents; POM, PSU, PUR e.g. PS is soluble in Organically filled benzene or acemolding material tone. PTFE
Visual test Behavior when Appearance of the specimen is heated transparent cloudy CA, CAB, CP, EP, PC, PS, PMMA, PVC, SAN
ABS, ASA, PA, PE, POM, PP, PTFE
• Thermopl. soften and melt • Thermosets and elastomers decompose without softening
Touch
Burning test
Waxy to the touch: PE, PTFE, POM, PP
• • • •
flame color fire behavior soot formation odor of the smoke
Distinguishing characteristics of plastics Designation1'
Density g/cm 3
Burning behavior
Other characteristics
Yellow flame, soots strongly, smells like coal gas
Tough elastic, is not dissolved by carbon tetrachloride, sounds dull
ABS
= 1.05
CA
1.31
Yellow, sputtering flame, drips, smells like distilled vinegar and burnt paper
Pleasant to the touch, sounds dull
CAB
1.19
Yellow, sputtering flame, drips burning, smells like rancid butter
Sounds dull
MF
1.50
Very flammable, chars with white edges, smells like ammonia
Very brittle, rattling sound (compare to UF)
PA
~ 1.10
Blue flame with yellow edges, drips in fibers, smells like burnt horn
Tough elastic, not brittle, sounds dull
PC
1.20
Yellow flame, goes out after flame is removed, soots, smells like phenol
Tough hard, not brittle, rattling sound
PE
0.92
Light flame with blue core, drips off burning, odor like paraffin, smoke hardly visible (compare with PP)
Wax like surface, can be scratched with the fingernail, not brittle, working temperature > 230°C
PF
1.40
Very flammable, yellow flame, chars, smells like phenol and burnt wood
Very brittle, rattling sound
PMMA
1.18
Luminous flame, fruity odor, crackles, drips
Clear when uncolored, sounds dull
POM
1.42
Bluish flame, drips, smells like formaldehyde
Not brittle, rattling sound
PP
0.91
Light flame with blue core, drips off burning, odor like paraffin, smoke hardly visible (compare with PE)
Cannot mark with fingernail, not brittle
PS
1.05
Yellow flame, soots strongly, smells sweet like coal gas, drips off burning
Brittle, sounds like tinny metal, is dissolved by carbon tetrachloride among others
PTFE
2.20
Nonflammable, strong odor when red hot
Waxy surface
PUR
1.26 « 0.05
Yellow flame, very strong odor
Polyurethane, rubber elastic Polyurethane foam
PVC-U
1.38
Very flammable, extinguishes after the flame is removed, smells like hydrochloric acid, chars
Rattling sound (U = hard)
PVC-P
1.20-1.35
Can be more flammable than PVC-U, depending on plasticizer, smells like hydrochloric acid, chars
Rubbery flexible, no sound (P = soft)
SAN
1.08
Yellow flame, soots strongly, smells like coal gas, drips off burning
Tough elastic, is not dissolved by carbon tetrachloride
SB
1.05
Yellow flame, soots strongly, smells like coal gas and rubber, drips off burning
Not as brittle as PS, is dissolved by carbon tetrachloride among other things
UF
1.50
Very flammable, chars with white edges, smells like ammonia
Very brittle, rattling sound (compare to MF)
UP
2.00
Luminous flame, chars, soots, smells like styrene, glass fiber residue
Very brittle, rattling sound
1)
Compare to page 180
182
Material science: 4.1
astis
Thermoplastics (selection) Abbreviation
Density Designation
Trade name
ABS
AcrylonitrileTerluran, butadiene-styrene Novodur
PA 6
Polyamide 6
PA 66
Polyamide 66
PE-HD
Polyethylene, high density
Durethan, Maranyl, Resistane, Ultramid, Rilsan
Working TensileImpact temperature, strength11 toughness long-term2' Application examples
g/cm 3
N/mm 2
mJ/mm 2
°C
« 1.05
35-56
80n.f. 3 '
85-100
1.14
43
n.f. 3)
80-100
1.14
57
0.96
0.92
4)
80-100
20-30
n.f. 3 '
80-100
8-10
n.f.3>
60-80
Hostalen, Lupolen, Vestolen A
21
Telephone housings, instrument panels, surf boards Gears, plain bearings, screws, cables, housings Battery cases, fuel containers, garbage cans, pipes, cable insulation, films, bottles
PE-LD
Polyethylene, low density
PMMA
Polymethylmethacrylate
Plexiglas, Degalan, Lucryl
1.18
70-76
18
70-100
Optical lenses, warning lights, dials, lighted letters
POM
Polyoxymethylene;
Delrin, Hostaform, Ultraform
1.42
50-70
100
95
Gears, plain bearings, valve bodies, housing parts
Polypropylene
Hostalen PP, Novolen, Procom, Vestolen P
PS
Polystyrene
Styropor, Polystyrol, Vestyron
PTFE
Polytetrafluorethylen
Hostaflon, Teflon, Fluon
PP
PVC-P
PVC-U
Polyvinylchloride, Hostalit, plasticized Vinoflex, Vestolit, Polyvinylchloride Vinnolit, no plasticizers Solvic
SAN
Styreneacrylnitrile copolymer
Luran, Vestyron, Lustran
SB
Styrenebutadiene copolymer
Vestyron, Styrolux
11
0.91
1.05
21-37
40-65
13-20
3
100-110
55-85
Packaging material, flatware, film cartridges, insulating boards Maintenance free bearings, piston rings, seals, pumps
2.20
15-35
n.f. '
280
1.20 -1.35
20-29
24)
60-80
1.38
35-60
n.f. 3 '
<60
1.08
78
23-25
85
Graduated dials, battery housings, headlight housings
22-50
40 n.f. 3 '
55-75
Television housings, packaging material, clothes hangers, distribution boxes
1.05
Values depend on temperature and test speed. Duration of temperature application has a significant effect. 3 ' n.f. = no fracture of the specimen 4 ' Impact toughness 2)
n.f. 3 '
Heating ducts, washing machine parts, fittings, pump housings
Hoses, seals, cable sheathing, pipes, fittings, containers
Material science: 4.1
astis
Designation of thermoplastic molding materials Polyethylene PE Polypropylene PP
cf. DIN EN ISO 1872-1 (1999-10) cf. DIN EN ISO 1873-1 (1995-12)
Designation system Name Standard block: number block Example: Thermoplastic ISO 1873
PP-R
EL
ISO 8773
06-16-003
Data block 1 In data block 1 the molding material is designated by its abbreviation PE or PP after the hyphen. For polypropylene the additional information follows: PP-H homopolymers of the propylene, PP-B thermoplastic, impact tough PP (so-called block-copolymer); PP-R thermoplastic, static copolymers of the propylene. Data block 2 Intended applications and/or processing methods for PE and PP SymPosition 1 bol
Important properties, additives and coloring for PE and PP SymSymPositions 2 to 8 Positions 2 to 8 bol bol
SymPosition 1 bol
B C
Blow molding Calendering
L M
Monofilam. extrusion Injection molding
A B
Process stabilizer Anti-blocking agent
L N
Light stabilizer Natural colors
E F
Extrusion Extrusion (films)
Q R
Stamping Rotomolding
C D
Artificial color Powder
P R
Impact tough Mold release agent
C H
General use Coating
S X
Powder sintered Unspecified
E F
Blowing agent Fire extinguisher
S T
Sliding and lubricating agent Increased transparency
K
Cable insulation
Y
Fiber production 3 '
C H
Pellets Thermal aging stabilizer
X Y Z
Cross-linkable Increased electr. conductivity Static inhibitor
Data block 3 Density of PE in kg/m 3
Modulus of elasticity for PP in MPa (N/mm 2 )
Symbol
above-to
Symbol
00 03 08
-901 901-906 906-911
02 06 10
13 18 23
911-916 916-921 921-925
28
27 33 40
925-930 930-936 936-942
Impact toughness for PP in kJ/m2
02 05
-3 3-6
45 50 57 62
942-948 948-954 954-960 960
09 15 25 35
6-12 12-20
Melting mass flow rate in g/10 min Conditions for PE Load Temp, in kg in °C
above-to -400 400-800
190 190 190 190
800-1200
16
1200-2000
40
2000-3500 3500
0.325 2.16
5.00 21.6
for PP and PE
Symbol
above-to
000 001 003
-0.1 0.1-0.2
006 012 022 0,45 090 200 400 700
0.4-0.8 0.8-1.5 1.5-3.0 3.0-6.0
0.2-0.4
6-12
12-25 25-50 50
20-30 30 Data block 4 for PE and PP
Position 1: Symbol for filler/reinforcer grade Symbol Material B C G
Boron Carbon Glass
K L M
Chalk Cellulose Mineral, metal
Symbol Material S T W X
z
Position 2: Symbol for physical form Symbol Form
Synthetic, organic Talcum
B D F
Pearls, balls Powder Fiber
Wood Not specified Other
G H
Ground stock Whiskers
Symbol Form
X
Lamina Flakes Not specified
Z
Other
S
Position 3: Mass percentage of the filler material Thermoplastic ISO 1873-PP-H, M 40-02-045, TD40: Polypropylene molding material, homopolymer, fabricated by injection molding, modulus of elasticity 3500 MPa; Impact toughness 3 kJ/m 2 , melting mass flow rate 4.5 g/10 min, filler 40% talcum powder 1>
Data block 5 optional - entry of additional requirements
2)
2 commas - data block missing
3)
only for PP
184
Material science: 4.1
astis
Thermoset molding materials, Laminated material Designation and properties of thermoset plastic molding materials Type DIN 7708-2 (old standard)
Type ISO 14526 cf. page 180
Resin
Flexural strength 1 ' N/mm 2
Filler
Pourable phenolic plastic molding materials (PF PMC)
Impact toughness 1 ' kJ/m 2
Water absorption mg
cf. DIN EN ISO 14526 3 (2000-08)
31
PF (WD30+ MD20)
30% wood flour 20% mineral flour
Q: >40 M: > 50
Q >4.5 M >5.0
< 100
51
PF (LF20+ MD25)
20% cellulose fibers 25% mineral flour
Q: > 40 M: > 50
Q >4.5 M >5.0
< 150
84
PF (SC20+ LF15)
20% synthetic chips 15% cellulose fibers
Q: > 35 M: >45
Q >5.5 M >6.5
< 150
40% (to 50%) flaky organ, synthesis product
Q: > 30 M: >45
Q >7.0 M >9.0
<200
40% (to 60%) mica fibers
Q: > 30 M: >40
Q >2.5 M >3.5
<30
Phenolic (formaldehyde)-resin (PF)
74
PF (SS40 to SS50)
13
PF(PF40 to PF60)
83
PF(LF20+ MD25)
20% cellulose fibers 25% mineral fibers
Q: > 35 M: > 45
Q >5.5 M >6.0
< 150
12
PF (GF20+ GG30)
20% fiber glass 30% glass grist
Q: > 50 M: >60
Q >6.0 M >7.0
<30
=>
PMC ISO 14526- PF(WD30+MD20), M: Pourable molding compound (PMC), phenolic (formaldehyde) resin (PF), approx. 30% of wood flour (WD30), approx. 20% of mineral flour (MD20); recommended machining process: injection molding (M) 1)
Urea formaldehyde molding materials (UF PMC) and cf. DIN EN ISO 14527 3 (2000-08) urea/melamine formaldehyde molding materials (UF/MF-PMC) (UF/MF-PMC) 131.5
UF(LD10+ MD30),X,E2)
131
UF(LD10+ MD30)
130
UF(WD30+ MD20) UF/MF (LF20+S10)
Urea (formaldehyde) resin (UF) Urea/melamine (formaldehyde) resin
20% cellulose powder 30% mineral flour
Q: > 45 M: > 55
Q: > 5.0 M: > 7.5
< 150
20% cellulose fibers 30% mineral flour
Q: > 45 M: > 55
Q: > 5.0 M: >7.5
< 150
30% wood flour 20% mineral flour
Q: > 35 M: >40
Q: > 4.5 M: > 5.0
<200
Q: > 6.5 M:-
< 100
20% cellulose fibers 10% organic synthesis product
PMC ISO 14527 - UF(LD20+MD20), M: Pourable molding compound (PMC), urea formaldehyde resin (UF), approx. 20% of cellulose powder (LD20), approx. 20% of mineral flour (MD20); recommended machining process: injection molding (M) 1)
Laminated materials3*
cf. DIN EN 60893 (2004-12)
Resin types Type of resin Designation EP MF PF UP SI PI Nominal thicknesses t in mm
Epoxy resin Melamine (formaldehyde) resin Phenolic (formaldehyde) resin Unsaturated polyester resin Silicone resin Polyimide resin
Types of reinforcing materials Abbreviation Designation CC CP CR GC GM WV
Cotton fabric Cellulose paper Combined reinforcing material Glass fiber fabric Fiber glass mat Wood veneer
0.4; 0.5; 0.6; 0.8; 1.0; 1.2; 1.5; 2; 2.5; 3; 4; 5; 6; 8; 10; 12; 14; 16; 20; 25; 30; 35; 40; 45; 50; 60; 70; 80; 90; 100 Board IEC 60893 - 3 - 4 - PF CP 201,10 x 500 x 1000: Board made of phenolic (formaldehyde) resin/cellulose paper (PF CP 201) according to IEC standard4* 60893-3-4 with f= 10 mm, w= 500 mm, / = 1000 mm.
1
> Q = compression molding compound; M = injection molding compound X = machining process not specified; A = free of ammonia; E = specific electric properties 3) Applications: insulators for electrical equipment, for instance, or bearing liners, rollers and gears for machine construction 4) IEC = International Electrotechnical Commission (international standard) 2)
Material science: 4.1
astis
Elastomers, Foam materials Elastomers (rubber) AbbreDesignation viation 1 ' BR
Butadiene rubber
CO
Epichlorhydrin rubber
CR
Density g/cm 3
Tensile Elong: at Working Properties, strength2' fracture temperature application examples °C % N/mm 2 High abrasion resistance; tires, belts, V-belts
0.94
2(18)
450
1.27 -1.36
5(15)
250
Chloroprene rubber
1.25
11 (25)
400
- 3 0 to +110 Oil and acid resistant, very flammable, seals, hoses, V-belts
CSM
Chlorosulfonated polyethylene
1.25
18 (20)
300
- 3 0 to +120
EPDM
Ethylenepropylene rubber
0.86
4(25)
500
Good electrical insulator, not resistant - 5 0 to +120 against oil and gasoline; seals, profiles, bumpers, cold water hoses
1.85
2(15)
450
Abrasion resistant, best thermal resistance; - 1 0 to +190 aerospace and automotive industries; rotary shaft seals, O-rings
IsobuteneIsoprene rubber
0.93
5(21)
600
Weather and ozone resistant; - 3 0 to +120 cable insulation, automotive hoses
IR
Isoprene rubber
0.93
1 (24)
500
- 6 0 to +60
NBR
Acrylonitrilebutadiene rubber
1.00
6(25)
450
Abrasion resistant, oil and gasoline resistant, - 2 0 to+110 electr. conductors, O-rings, hydraulic hoses, rotary shaft seals, axial seal
NR
Natural rubber Isoprene rubber
0.93
22 (27)
600
- 6 0 to +70
Low resistance to oil, high strength; truck tires, spring elements
PUR
Polyurethane rubber
1.25
20 (30)
450
- 3 0 to +100
Elastic, wear-resistant; timing belts, seals, couplings
SIR
Styrene-lsoprene rubber
1.25
1 (8)
250
Good electr. insulator, water repellant - 8 0 to +180 O-rings, spark plug caps, cylinder head and joint sealing
0.94
5(25)
500
- 3 0 to +80
FKM
IIFt
SBR 1
Fluoro rubber
Styrene-Butadiene rubber
' cf. DIN ISO 1629 (1992-03)
2)
- 6 0 to +90
Vibration damping, oil and gasoline - 3 0 to +120 resistant; seals, heat - 1 0 to +120 resistant dampers
Aging and weather resistant, oil resistant; insulating material, molded goods, films
Low resistance to oil, high strength; truck tires, spring elements
Low resistance to oil and gasoline; tires, hoses, cable sheathing
Value in parentheses = with additive or filler reinforced elastomer
Foam materials
cf. DIN 7726 (1982-05)
Foam materials consist of open cells, closed cells or a mixture of closed and open cells. Their raw density is lower than that of the structural substance. A distinction is made between hard, medium hard, soft, elastic, soft elastic and integral foam material. Stiffness, Raw material base of the hardness foam material
Cell structure
15-30
Polystyrene Polyvinylchloride Hard
Polyethersulfone
Predominantly closed cell
Polyurethane Phenolic resin Urea-formaldehyde resin Polyethylene
Open cell
Predominantly Medium- Polyvinylchloride closed hard cell Melamine resin to softPolyurethane polyester type elastic Open cell Polyurethane polyether type 1)
Density kg/m 3
Max. working temperature oC1)
Thermal conductivity W/(K • m)
Water absorption in 7 days Vol.-%
75(100)
0.035
2-3
50-130
60 (80)
0.038
<1
45-55
180 (210)
0.05
15
20-100
80(150)
0.021
1-4
40-100
130 (250)
0.025
7-10
5-15
90(100)
0.03
20
25-40
up to 100
0.036
1-2
50-70
- 6 0 to +50
0.036
1-4
10.5-11.5
up to 150
0.033
approx. 1
20-45
- 4 0 to +100
0.045
Long-term working temperature, short-term in parentheses
-
186
Material science: 4.1
astis
Plastics processing Injection molding and extrusion Injection molding temperalture in °C
Abbreviation
Substance
Injection presExtrusion sure process in bar temperature in °C
Mold
Shrinkage in %
Tolersince grou|p 1 > for GenDimeiisions eral wiith toledeviaitions rances Series 12»Series 2 2 1
PE
160-300
20-70
500
190-230
1.5-3.5
150
140
130
PP
170-300
20-100
1200
235-270
0.8-23'
150
140
130
PVC, hard
170-210 4 '
30-60
1000-1800
170-190
0.2-0.5
130
120
110
PVC, soft
170-200 4 '
20-60
300
150-200
1-2.5
PS
180-250
30-60
-
180-220
0.3-0.7
130
120
110
SB
180-250
20-70
-
180-220
0.4-0.7
130
120
110
SAN
200-260
40-80
-
180-200
0.5-0.6
130
120
110
ABS
200-240
40-85
800-1800
180-220
0.4-0.7
130
120
110
PMMA
200-250
50-90
400-1200
180-250
0.3-0.8
130
120
110
PA
210-290
80-120
700-1200
230-275
1-2
130
120
110
POM
180-230 4 '
50-120
800-1700
180-220
1-3.5
140
130
120
PC
280-320 4 '
80-120
>800
240-290
0.7-0.8
130
120
110
pF5)
90—1104)
170-190
800-2500
-
0.5-1.5 3 )
140
130
120
MF6>
95-110 4 )
160-180
1500-2500
-
0.6-1.7 3 >
130
120
110
UF5>
95-110
150-160
1500-2500
-
0.4-0.6
140
130
120
1) 3) 5)
-
-
-
2) See table below Series 1: Can be maintained without special effort, Series 2: Requires high finishing effort 4) Transverse and longitudinal shrinkage may differ With screw injection molding machine 6) With organic filler material With inorganic filler material
Tolerances for plastic molded parts Tolerance group from table above
cf. DIN 16901 (1982-11) Nominal dimension range over - up to in mm
Codeletter1'
0-1
1-3
3-6
6-10
10-15 15-22 22-30 30-40 40-53 53-70 70-90
90120
120-
160
General tolerances 150
A B
±0.23 ±0.13
±0.25 ±0.15
±0.27 ±0.17
±0.30 ±0.20
±0.34 ±0.24
±0.38 ±0.28
±0.43 ±0.33
±0.49 ±0.39
±0.57 ±0.47
±0.68 ±0.58
±0.81 ±0.71
±0.97 ±0.87
±1.20 ±1.10
140
A B
±0.20 ±0.10
±0.21 ±0.11
±0.22 ±0.12
±0.24 ±0.14
±0.27 ±0.17
±0.30 ±0.20
±0.34 ±0.24
±0.38 ±0.28
±0.43 ±0.33
±0.50 ±0.40
±0.60 ±0.50
±0.70 ±0.60
±0.85 ±0.75
130
A B
±0.18 ±0.08
±0.19 ±0.09
±0.20 ±0.10
±0.21 ±0.11
±0.23 ±0.13
±0.25 ±0.15
±0.27 ±0.17
±0.30 ±0.20
±0.34 ±0.24
±0.38 ±0.28
±0.44 ±0.34
±0.51 ±0.41
±0.60 ±0.50
Tolerances for dimensions with deviations
1)
140
A B
0.40 0.20
0.42 0.22
0.44 0.24
0.48 0.28
0.54 0.34
0.60 0.40
0.68 0.48
0.76 0.56
0.86 0.66
1.00 0.80
1.20 1.00
1.40 1.20
1.70 1.50
130
A B
0.36 0.16
0.38 0.18
0.40 0.20
0.42 0.22
0.46 0.26
0.50 0.30
0.54 0.34
0.60 0.40
0.68 0.48
0.76 0.56
0.88 0.68
1.02 0.82
1.20 1.00
120
A B
0.32 0.12
0.34 0.14
0.36 0.16
0.38 0.18
0.40 0.20
0.42 0.22
0.46 0.26
0.50 0.30
0.54 0.34
0.60 0.40
0.68 0.48
0.78 0.58
0.90 0.70
110
A B
0.18 0.08
0.20 0.10
0.22 0.12
0.24 0.14
0.26 0.16
0.28 0.18
0.30 0.20
0.32 0.22
0.36 0.26
0.40 0.30
0.44 0.34
0.50 0.40
0.58 0.48
A For dimensions which do not depend on mold dimensions; B For dimensions which depend on mold dimensions
Material science: 4.1
astis
High-temperature plastics, Polyblends, Reinforcing fibers High-temperature plastics Abbreviation
Designation
PTFE
Polytetrafluoretylene trade name "Teflon"
PEEK
Tensile Working strength temperature N/mm 2 from to
Special properties
Application examples
10
-20 to 260 °C, short-term to 300 °C
High-temperature strength and chemical resistance, low strength, hardness and coefficient of friction
Bearings, seals, coatings, highfrequency cable, chemical equipment
Polyetheretherketone
97
-65 to 250°C, short-term to 300 °C
High-temperature strength and chemical resistance, good sliding behavior
Bearings, gears, seals, air and space travel (instead of metals)
PPS
Polyphenylensulfide
70
-200 to 220°C, short-term to 260 °C
High strength, hardness, stiffness, high chemical, weather and radiation resistance
Pump housings, bearing bushings, space travel, nuclear power stations
PSU
Polysulfone
-40 to 150°C, 140-240 short-term to 200 °C
High strength, hardness, stiffness, high chemical and radiation resistance, clear
Microwave dishes, spools, circuit boards, oil level indicators, needle bearing cages
PI
Polyimide trade name "Vespel"
High strength in large -240 to 360 °C, temperature range, 75-100 short-term to radiation resistant, dark, non400 °C transparent
Jet engines, aircraft noses, piston rings, valve seats, seals, electronic connection components
Polyblends Polyblends (also known as "blends") are mixtures of different thermoplastics. The special properties of these copolymers result from numerous possible combinations of the properties of the original materials. Abbreviation
Designation
Components
Special properties
Application examples
S/B
Styrene/butadiene
90% polystyrene, 10% butadiene rubber
Brittle hard, at low temperatures not impact tough
Stacking boxes, fan housings, radio housings
ABS
Acrylonitrile/butadiene/ styrene
90% styrene-acrylonitrile, 10% nitrile rubber
Brittle hard, impact tough even at low temperatures
Telephones, dash-boards, hub caps
PPE + PS
Polyphenylenether + Polystyrene
various compositions; possibly can be reinforced with 30% glass fiber
High hardness, high cold impact toughness to -40°C, physiologically harmless
Radiator grill, computer parts, medical equipment, solar panels, trims
PC + ABS
Polycarbonate + Acrylnitrile/Butadiene/ Styrene
various compositions
High strength, hardness, Instrument panels, toughness, dimensional fenders, office machine stability under heat, housings, lamp housings impact tough, shock-proof in motor vehicles
PC + PET
Polycarbonate + Polyethyleneterephthalate
different compositions
Exceptional impact toughness and shock resistance
Motorcycle helmets, automotive parts
Reinforcing fibers Designation
Density kg/dm 3
Tensile strength N/mm 2
Elongation at fracture %
Special properties
Glass fiber GF
2.52
3400
4.5
Isotropic 1 ', good strength, high- Body parts, aircraft manufacturing, sailboats temp. strength, inexpensive
Aramide fibers AF 3 '
1.45
3400 -3800
2.0-4.0
Highly stressed light parts, Lightest reinforcing fiber, ductile, fracture tough, strongly crash helmets, anisotropic 1 ', radar-penetrable bulletproof vests
Carbon fiber CF
1.6-2.0
1750 - 5000 2 '
2
0.35-2.1 '
Application examples
Parts for racing cars, sails for Extremely anisotropic 1 ', highstrength, light, corrosion resist- racing yachts, aerospace applications ant, good electr. conductor
Thermosets (e.g. UP and EP resins) and thermoplastics with high working temperatures (e.g. PSU, PPE, PPS, PEEK, PI) are used as embedding materials (so-called matrix). 1)
2) 3)
Isotropic = the same material properties in all directions; anisotropic = material properties in the direction of the fibers are different from those transverse to fibers Depends significantly on the fiber defect sites occurring during the manufacturing process Trade name "Kevlar"
188
Material science: 4.1
aterials
Material testing methods - Overview
Material science: 4.1
189
aterials
Material testing methods - Overview Illustration
Process
Applications, notes page 195
Hardness test by Shore The testing device (durometer) is pressed on the test piece with contact pressure F The spring loaded indenter penetrates into the test piece Working time 15 s
Control of plastics (elastomers). It is hardly possible to derive any relationships to other material properties from the shore hardness.
The shore hardness is displ. directly on the device Shear test
page 191 Cylindrical specimens are loaded in standardUsed to determine the shear strength r s e, e.g. ized equipment until fractured due to shearing - for strength calculations of shear loaded Breaking strength is determined from the parts, e.g. pins maximum shearing force and cross-sectional - to predict cutting forces in forming area of the test specimen
Notched-bar impact bending test Notched test specimens are subjected to bending load by pendulum impact and are fractured Notch impact toughness = energy required to deform and fracture the test specimen
Erichsen cupping test
page 191 - To test metallic materials for behavior after impact bending loads - To monitor heat treatment results, e.g. with quenching and tempering - To test the temperature behavior of steels
page 191 Sheet metal clamped on all sides is deformed until crack formation by a ball The deformation depth until crack propagation is a measure of deep drawing capability
- For testing of sheet metal and strip for their deep drawing capability - Evaluation of the sheet surface for changes during cold working
Fatigue test
A?
5
Cylindrical specimens with polished surface are alternately loaded with constant mean stress a m and variable alternating stress amplitude oA, until fracture. The graphical representation of the series of tests yields the Wohler (S-N) curve
Used to determine material properties with dynamic loading, e.g. - fatigue strength, fatigue endurance and fatigue strength under alternating stresses - endurance limit
A transducer sends ultrasonic signals through the workpiece. The waves are reflected by the front wall, the back wall and by defects of a certain size
- Nondestructive testing of parts, e.g. for cracks, cavities, gas holes, inclusions, lack of fusion, differences in microstructure - To determine the type of defect, the size and the location of the defect - To measure wall and layer thicknesses
Ultrasonic testing
The screen of the testing device displays the echoes The test frequency determines the detectable defect size which is limited by the grain size of the test specimen Metallography Etching metallographic test specimens (microsections) develops the microstructure which can then be observed under the metallographic microscope. Specimen preparation: Removal avoid structural transformation Embedding -»• sharp edged microsections Grinding removal of layers of deformation Polishing -»• high surface quality Etching -* structural development
- To check the crystalline structure - To monitor heat treatments, forming and joining processes - To determine grain distribution and grain size - Defect testing
190
Material science: 4.1
aterials
Tensile test, Tensile test specimens Tensile test Stress-strain diagram with distinct yield point, e.g. for soft steel
EL strain e in % — •
Stress-strain diagram without distinct yield point, e.g. for quenched and tempered steel
cf. DIN EN 10002-1 (2001-12) EL elongation at fracture F tensile force F m maximum force F e force at yield strength limit Fpo.2 force at yield strength limit at 0.2% strain offset L0 initial gage length Lu gage length after fracture d0 initial diameter of the test specimen
Sq
initial cross section of the test specimen S u smallest test specimen cross section after fracture e normal strain Z reduction of area at fracture az tensile stress R m tensile strength R e yield strength ftpo.2 yield strength at 0.2% strain offset Vs yield strength ratio
Tensile test specimens Normally, round proportional bars with an initial gage length of L0 = 5 • d0 are used. Unmachined specimens are allowed with - uniform cross sections, e.g. for specimens of sheet metal, profiles, wires - c a s t test specimens, e.g. of cast iron materials or non-ferrous casting alloys Elongation at fracture EL
Tensile stress
Tensile strength P m
M
=
^"m 7T"
Yield strength R
F6 e
S~
Yield strength at 0.2 % strain offset
If tensile test specimens are used that contract during the test, the initial gage length L 0 has an effect on the elongation at fracture EL. Smaller initial gage length L0 -» greater elongation at fracture EL
0.2 EL strain £ in %
Yield strength ratio: \/ s It provides information dition of the steels: normalized quenched & tempered
= R e (fl p0 . 2 )/^m about the heat treatment con14 Vs
0.5-0.7 0.7-0.95
Tensile test specimens Shape A
cf. DIN 50125 (2004-01) Round tensile test specimens with smooth cylindrical ends, shapes A and B d0
4
5
6
8
10
12
14
Lo Lc
20 24
25 30
30 36
40 48
50 60
60 72
70 84
Shape A f 1 M
5 65
Shape B ^
M6 40
Shapes, application
Shape A: Machined test specimens for clamping in the tensioning wedge 12 17 6 8 10 15 Shape B: Machined test spe80 95 115 140 160 185 cimens with threaded heads M8 M10 M12 M16 M18 M20 produce more precise mea50 60 75 90 110 125 surement of the elongation
Tensile test specimens, other shapes
Shape E
a
3
4
5
6
7
8
10
b Shape E L0 B
8 30 12
10 35 15
10 40 15
20 60 27
22 70 29
25 80 33
25 90 33
Lc Lt
38 115
45 135
50 80 140 210
90 230
105 260
Shapes, application
Flat specimens with heads for tensioning wedges, tensile test specimens of 115 strips, sheets, flat bars and 270 profiles
Shape C Shape D Shape F
Machined round test specimens with shouldered ends Machined round test specimens with conical ends Unmachined sections of round bars
Shape G Shape H
Unmachined sections of flat bar steel and profiles Flat specimens for testing sheets with thicknesses between 0.1 and 3 mm Tensile test specimen DIN 50125 - A10x50: Shape A, dQ = 10 mm, L0 = 50 mm
Material science: 4.1
191
aterials
Shear test, Notched bar impact bending test, Cupping test Shear test hardened bushings
cf. DIN 50141 (2008-07), withdrawn Fm maximum shear force d0 initial diameter of the test specimen / specimen length
1 T
So initial cross section of the test specimen r s B shear strength
Shear strength
The test is carried out on tensile test machines with standardized shear devices. Shear test specimens do
-0.020 Limit deviations -0.370 I
4
5
6
8
10
12
16
-0.020 -0.370
-0.030 -0.390
-0.030 -0.345
-0.040 -0.370
-0.013 -0.186
-0.016 -0.193
-0.016 -0.193
50
50
50
50
110
110
110
3
50
Charpy impact test
cf. DIN EN 10045 (1991-04) KU Notch impact energy in J, measured on a test specimen with U-notch KV Notch impact energy in J, measured on a test specimen with V-notch
pendulum
Test specimen The test specimen must be completely machined. Fabrication of the test material should alter the material's microstructure as little as possible. No notch should be visible with the naked eye at the notch root which runs parallel to the notch axis. Notch impact test specimens Notch shape
Designation Test specimen cross section 1
i
<=///
b
u
I
Normal test specimen
U
55
40
10
10
5
1.0
Normal test specimen
V
55
40
10
10
8
0.25
11
U
55
40
10
10
7
1.0
DVM test specimen
1)
Explanation
a
Erichsen cupping test
I Ft
MM punch
D hole diameter of the die d ball diameter of the punch t thickness of the test sheet w width of the test sheet
Test specimens The test specimens must be flat and not have any burrs. Before clamping, the sheets are to be lightly greased over with a graphite lubricant. Tools and test specimen dimensions Abbreviation
sheet metal holder
-
cf. DIN EN ISO 20482 (2003-12), replacement for DIN 50101 and 50102
die D
45°
Deutscher Verband fur Materialprufung (German Association for Material Testing)
IE Erichsen cupping depth value in mm F sheet metal holding force in kN I length of the test sheet
F
-
Normal test specimen with U-notch, Notch impact energy 115 J, work capacity of the pendulum impact tester 300 J KV150 = 85 J: Normal test specimen with V-notch, Notch impact energy 85 J, work capacity of the pendulum impact tester 150 J
v
test specimen
a
KU = 115 J:
% Notch shapes ^
i f
Testd imensic)n in mni or degree (°) b hk r h /w
Tool dimen;sions F D d kN mm mm
Test specimen dimlensions w f / mm mm mm
IE
27
20
10
>90
>90
0.2-2
IE 4 0
40
20
10
>90
>90
2-3
IE 21
21
15
10
> w
55-90
0.2-2
IE11
11
8
10
> b
30-55
0.1-1
Application Standard test Tests on thicker or narrower strips
IE = 12 mm: Erichsen cupping depth = 12 mm, standard test
192
Material science: 4.1
aterials
Hardness test by Brinell Hardness test by Brinell
cf. DIN EN ISO 6506-1 (2006-03)
D
test load in N D ball diameter in mm d diameter of the impression in mm dy, d2 individual measurement values of the impression diameter in mm h depth of impression in mm s minimum thickness of the test specimen in mm
if 1
-4
a
distance from edge in mm
Test conditions Impression diameter 0.24- D < d < 0 . 6 D Minimum test specimen thickness s > 8 • h
Impression diameter d
_
d
1
+ d
2
2
Brinell hardness
0.204 • F
HBW =
ji • D • {D-\/d2
-d2
Distance from edge a > 3 • d Test specimen surface: metallic bright Designation examples:
180 HBW 2.5/62.5 600 HBW 1 / 3 0 / 25
Hardness value
Indenter
Ball diameter
Test force F
Impact time
Brinell hardness 180 Brinell hardness 600
W carbide ball
2.5 mm 1 mm
62.5 • 9.80665 N = 612.9 N 30 • 9.80665 N = 294.2 N
Unspecified: Value entry:
10 to 15 s 25 s
Degree of loading, ball diameter, test loads and test materials Degree of loading 0.102 • FID2 30 15
1)
Test loa d Fin N with ball diam eter D 1 ) iri mm 1 2.5 10 5 294.2 -
1839
7355
-
-
Test range Materials
Brinell hardness HBW
29420
Steel, nickel and titanium alloys Cast iron Copper, copper alloys
< 650 > 140 >200
14710
Light metal, light metal alloys
>35
10
98.07
612.9
2452
9807
Cast iron Light metal, light metal alloys Copper, copper alloys
<140 > 35 35-200
5
49.03
306.5
1226
4903
Copper, copper alloys Light metals, light metal alloys
< 35 35-80
2.5
24.52
153.2
612.9
2452
Light metals, light metal alloys
< 35
1
9.807
61.29
245.2
980.7
Lead, tin
-
Small ball diameters for fine-grained materials, thin specimens or hardness tests in the outer layer. For hardness tests on cast iron, the ball diameter D must be s 2.5 mm. Hardness values are only comparable if the tests were carried out with the same degree of loading.
Minimum thickness s of the specimens Ball diameter D in mm
Minimum thickness s in mm for impression diameter d 1 > in mm 0.25 0.35
0.5
0.6
0.13 0.25 0.54
0.8
0.8
1.0
1.2
7
1.3
1.5
2.0
2.4
3.0
Example: D= 2.5 mm, d= 1.2 mm minimum specimen thickness s= 1.23 mm
0.23 0.37 0.67 1.07 2.5
453r
V12 1.46
2.0
0.58 0.69 0.92 1.67 2.45 10 1)
3.5 I 4.0 I 4.5 I 5.0 I 5.5 I 6.0
4.0
1.17 1.84 2.53 3.34 4.28 5.36 6.59
Table fields without thickness indicated lie outside of the test range 0.24 • D< d< 0.6 • D
8.0
Material science: 4.1
aterials
Hardness test by Rockwell, Hardness test by Vickers
193
194
Material science: 4.1
aterials
Martens hardness, Conversion of hardness values Martens hardness by penetrant testing indenter test specimen
F h s
cf. DIN EN ISO 14577 (2003-05)
test load in N depth of penetration in mm specimen thickness in mm Martens hardness
Test specimen surface Average roughnes s Ra at F
Material
0.1 N
2N
100 N
Aluminum
0.13
0.55
4.00
Steel
0.08
0.30
2.20
Carbide
0.03
0.10
0.80
HM 0 5 / 20 / 20 = 5700 N/mm 2
Designation:
Test method
Test load F
Test duration
Application of load
Martens hardn. value
Martens hardness
0.5 N
20 s
within 20 s
5700 N/mm 2
Applications
Conditions
Test range
2 N < F< 30 kN
Macro range Micro range
F< 2 N or H > 0.2 pm
Nano range
h < 0.2 pm
Universal hardness test, e.g. for all metals, plastics, carbides, ceramic materials; micro and nano ranges: thin layer measurement, microstructure components
Conversion tables for hardness values and tensile strength 1) Tensile strength Am N/mm 2
1>
2)
Vickers Brinell hardness hardness HV HB30 (F 2; 98 N)
R
HRA
255 285 320 350 385
80 90 100 110 120
76 86 95 105 114
415 450 480 510 545
130 140 150 160 170
124 133 143 152 162
575 610 640 675 705
180 190 200 210 220
171 181 190 199 209
740 770 800 835 865
230 240 250 260 270
219 228 238 247 257
20 22 24 26
61 62 62 63
900 930 965 1030 1095
280 290 300 320 340
266 276 285 304 323
27 29 30 32 34
64 65 65 66 68
-
-
-
-
-
-
HRB2> HRF2>
Tensile strength Am N/mm 2
cf. DIN EN ISO 18265 (2004-02) Vickers RockweHI hardBrinell hardness ness hardness HV HB30 (F £ 98 N) HRA HRC
48 56 62 67
83 87 91 94
1155 1220 1290 1350 1420
360 380 400 420 440
342 361 380 399 418
37 39 41 43 45
69 70 71 72 73
71 75 79 82 85
96 99 (101) (104) (106)
1485 1555 1595 1665 1740
460 480 490 510 530
437 456 466 485 504
46 48 48 50 51
74 75 75 76 76
87 90 92 94 95
(107) (109) (110) (111) (112)
1810 1880 1955 2030 2105
550 570 590 610 630
523 542 561 580 599
52 54 55 56 57
77 78 78 79 80
97 98 100 (101) (102)
(113) (114) (115)
2180
650 670 690 720 760
618
58 59 60 61 63
80 81 81 82 83
64 65 66 68 68
83 84 85 85 86
(104) (105) -
-
800 840 880 920 940
-
Applies to unalloyed and low alloy steels and cast steel. Special tables of this standard are to be used for quenched and tempered, cold worked and high-speed steels, as well as for various carbide types. Considerable deviations are to be expected for high-alloyed and/or work-hardened steels. The values in parentheses lie outside of the measurement range.
Material science: 4.1
195
aterials
Testing of plastics: Tensile properties. Hardness testing Determination of the tensile properties on plastics maximum force
Typical stress-strain curves
Fy
yield stress
AZ-FM
change in length with maximum load change in length with yield strength
ALFY
cf. DIN EN ISO 527-1 (1996-04) L0 S0 otm oy £M Ey
Tensile strength gage length initial cross section rr tensile strength yield strength maximum elongation Yield strength yield strain Fy CTY
ductile wifhouf yield point E
M1
E
e M 2 £M3
Y2
strain e Test specimens
Test Specimens For each property, e.g. tensile strength, yield strength, yield strain, at least five test specimens must be tested. Application - thermoplastic injection molded and extrusion molding materials - thermoplastic slabs and films - thermoset molding materials - thermoset slabs - fiber reinforced composite materials, thermoplastic and thermoset plastic
5
20
50
100
=>
Yield strain
/-n
Toler- Type ance Lq mm
1A
1B
5A
5B
2
4
5
50 ± 0.5
50 ± 0.5
20 ± 0.5
10 ±0.2
50 ± 0.5
50 ± 0.5
25 ± 0.25
±20% h
mm
4 ±0.2
4 ± 0.2
>2
>1
<1
<1
<1
200 ±10% b
mm
10 ±0.2
10 ±0.2
4 ± 0.1
2 ±0.1
10-25
25.4 ±0.1
6 ±0.4
Test speed in mm/min 2
Maximum elongation
Test specimen accordingI to DIN EN ISO 527-2 for molding materials DIN EN ISO 527-3 for films
Test speed
1
S
10
Tensile test ISO 527-2/1 A/50: Tensile test according to ISO 527-2; specimen type 1A; test speed 50 mm/min
Hardness test on plastics Ball indentation test
cf. DIN EN ISO 2039-1 (2003-06) F0 preload 9.8 N F m test load
h a
s
depth of penetration distance from edge
specimen thickness
Test Specimens distance from edge a > 10 mm, minimum specimen thickness s > 4 mm Ball indentation hardness H in N/mm 2 for indentation depth h in mm 0.18 0.28 0.20 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.30 0.32 0.34 0.16
Test load Fm >n N 49
22
19
16
15
13
12
11
10
132
59
51
44
39
35
32
30
27
25
24
358
160
137
120
106
96
87
80
74
68
64
961
430
370
320
290
260
234
214
198
184
171
Test specimen
Ball indentation hardness ISO 2039-1 H 132: H= 31 N/mm 2 at F M = 132 N
Hardness test by Shore on plastics
cf. DIN EN ISO 868 (2003-06)
F a contact pressure in N F Test specimen F test load
h a
depth of penetration distance from edge
s
specimen thickness
Test Specimens Distance from edge a > 9 mm, minimum specimen thickness s > 4 mm Test conditions for the Shore A and Shore D methods Indenters for Shore A o "SL
Shore D
Test method
Fmax in N
Fa in N
A
7.30
10
if Shore hardness with Type D is < 20
D
40.05
50
if Shore hardness with Type A is > 90
=>
Application
85 Shore A: Hardness value 85; test method Shore A
196
Material science: 4.13 Corrosion, Corrosion protection
Corrosion Electrochemical series of metals In galvanic corrosion the same processes occur as in electrical elements where the base metals are corroded. The voltage produced between two dissimilar metals under influence of a conducting liquid (electrolyte) can be taken from the standard potentials of the electrochemical series. Standard potential refers to the voltage produced between the electrode material and a platinum electrode immersed in hydrogen. Passivation (formation of protective layers) alters the voltage between the elements. Electrode materials
co CN Mg -3
-2.5
4
IT) O T Mn
co r-; o o Zn Cr
in o C oN o«- o Fe Ni Sn H
o d 0+0 Ag
CO o + Cu
M i -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 +0.5 Standard potentials of the electrode materials in volts i
CM
Ol +
+
Pt
Au +1.5
+1
>
increasingly noble
increasingly base
Example: The standard potentials of Cu = +0.34 V and Al = -1.7 V yield a voltage of U = +0.34 V - (-1.67 V) = 2.01 V between Cu and Al.
Corrosion behavior of metallic materials Resistance in following environment Country Industrial Sea air air air
Materials
Corrosion behavior
Unalloyed and alloy steels
Only resist corrosion in dry areas
•
©
©
o
o
Stainless steels
Resistant, but not against aggressive chemicals
•
•
€
€
€
Aluminum and Al alloys
Resistant, except the Al alloys containing Cu
•
€
€
€
• toe
Copper and Cu alloys
Resistant, especially Cu alloys containing Ni
•
•
€
€
•
Dry ambient air
resistant
€ fairly resistant
0
non-resistant
Salt water
toe
O unusable
Corrosion protection Preparation of metal surfaces before coating Processing step
Purpose
Process
Mechanical cleaning and creating a good surface for adherence
Removal of mill scale, rust and dirt
Grinding, brushing, blasting with water jet mixed with silica sand
Chemical cleaning and creating an optimal surface finish
Removal of mill scale, rust and grease residues Roughing or smoothing the surface
Etching with acid or lye; degreasing with solvents; chemical or electrochemical polishing
Preventative actions for corrosion protection Actions
Examples
Select suitable materials
Stainless steel for parts for preparation in the paper production
Observe corrosion protection principles in design
Same material on contact points, insulation layers between the parts, avoiding gaps
Protective layers: • protective oil or lubricant • chemical surface treatment • protective paint
Oiling sliding tracks and measuring tools Phosphatizing, burnishing Lacquer coat, possible after previous phosphatizing
Metallic coatings
Hot-dip galvanizing, galvanic metal plating, e.g. chrome plating
Cathodic corrosion protection
Part to be protected, e.g. a ship propeller, is connected to a sacrificial anode
Anodic oxidation of Al materials
A corrosion-resistant permanent oxide layer is produced on the part, e.g. a rim
Material science: 4.14 Hazardous materials
197
Disposal of substances* Waste management laws
cf. Closed Substance Cycle and Waste Management Act (2001-10)
Important principles of recycling management • Avoid waste, e.g. by in-house recycling management or a low-waste product design. • Utilize material waste, e.g. by recovery of raw materials from waste (secondary raw materials). • Use waste for recovery of energy (energy use), e.g. use as substitute fuel. • Waste must be recycled properly without adverse effect on the well being of the general public. The disposal of waste is subject to monitoring by the responsible authorities (usually the administrative district). In particular, wastes hazardous to health, air or water, explosive, and flammable especially need to be monitored. The waste producer is responsible for proper disposal and documentation of disposal. Examples of waste requiring special monitoring (hazardous waste) in metal processing industry 1 ' Disposal code
Description of the type of waste
Appearance, description, source
Special instructions, actions
150199D1
Packaging containing hazardous impurities
Barrels, canisters, buckets and cans contain residues of paints, lacquers, solvents, cleaning agents, rust preventatives, rust and silicone removers, spackle, etc.
Emptied, drip free, brush or spatula clean conditions are not wastes requiring special monitoring. They are considered retail packaging. Disposal using the dual system or in metal bins using a waste management company. Bins with dried paint are similar to house-hold commercial waste. Spray cans should be avoided if possible; they must be disposed as hazardous waste.
Spray cans with residual contents 160602
Nickel cadmium batteries
160603
Mercury dry cells
160604
Alkaline batteries
All batteries containing contaminants are Rechargeable batteries, e.g. from drills and screwdrivers, etc. labeled. The dealer must accept their return at no charge. Coin cell batteries, mercury Consumers are required to return them to containing monocell batteries the dealer or to a public recycling center. Non-rechargeable batteries
060404
Mercury containing waste
Fluorescent lamps (so-called "neon tubes")
Can be recycled. Return to dealer or to waste disposer. Do not put in glass recycling!
120106
Used machining oils, containing halogens, no emulsion
Water free drilling, turning, grinding and cutting oils, so-called cooling lubricants
120107
Used machining oils, Old, water free halogen free, no emulsion honing oil
110
Synthetic machining oils
Avoid cooling lubricants as much as possible, e.g. by • dry machining • minimum quantity cooling lubrication Separated collection of different cooling lubricants, emulsions, solvents. Inquire with supplier for reprocessing or combustion (energy recycling) options.
130202
Non- chlorinated machine, Used oil and gear oil, gear and lubricating oils hydraulic oil, compressor oil from piston air compressors
150299D1
Vacuumed and filter materials, wipe cloths and protective clothing with hazardous contaminants
For example, used rags, clean- Option of using a rental service for cleaning ing cloths; brushes contamicloths. nated with oil or wax, oil binders, oil and lubricant cans
130505
Other emulsions
Condensation water from compressors
Use compressor oils with de-emulsifying properties; inquire about the option of oil free compressors.
140102
Other halogenated solvents and solvent mixtures
Per (-chloroethane) Tri (-chloroethene) Mixed solvents
Recycling by suppliers and test replacement with aqueous cleaning solution.
11
Cooling lubricants from synthetic oils, e.g. on ester-based
Recycling through supplier or a licensed waste disposal service. Used oils of known origin may be recycled by secondary refining or energy recovery. Do not mix with other materials!
Regulation governing wastes requiring special monitoring - BestbuAbfV (1999-01), Appendix 1: Wastes listed in the European Waste Catalog (EAK waste) are considered to be especially hazardous. Appendix 2: EAK waste requiring special monitoring as well as waste types not on the EAK list ( Letter "D" in Disposal code). *) According to European Standards
198
Material science: 4.14 Hazardous materials
Hazardous materials and material characteristics of hazardous gases cf. EC Directive R 67/548/EEC1)
Identification and handling of hazardous materials Substance
Identificatio n 2 ) Symbol R-phrases S-phrases
Acetone
F, Xi
Acetylene
F+
5; 6; 12
Acrylonitrile
F, T, N
45; 11; 23/24; 25; 37/38; 41; 43; 51/53
Ammonia
C; N
34; 50
Arsenic
T; N
Asbestos
11; 36; 66; 67
9; 16; 26
Substance
Identificatio n 2 > Symbol R-phrases S-phrases
Tetrachlorethane ("Per")
Xn; N
40; 51/53
23; 36/37; 61
(2); 9; 16; 33
Kerosine
T
45
53; 45
9; 16; 45; 53; 61
Phenol
T;C
23/24/25; 34; 48/20/21/22; 68
24/25; 26; 28; 36/37; 39; 45
26; 36/37/39; 61
Phosphoric acid
C
34
23; 45
23/25; 50/53
20/21; 28; 45; 60; 61
Propane
F+
12
9; 16
T
45; 48/23
53; 45
Mercury
T; N
23; 33; 50/53
7; 45; 60; 61
Gasoline
T
45; 65
53; 45
Hydrochloric acid C
34; 37
26; 45
Benzene
F; T
45; 46; 11; 36/38; 48/23/ 24/25; 65
53; 45
Oxygen
8
17
Lead compounds
T; N
61; 20/22; 33; 62; 50/53
53; 45; 60; 61
Lubricating grease T
45
53; 45
Chromium compounds
T; N
49; 43; 50/53
53; 45; 60; 61
Lubricating oil
T
45
53; 45
Hydrofluoric acid (HF)
T+;C
26/27/28; 35
7/9; 26; 36/37; 45
Sulphoric acid
C
35
26; 30; 45
Ceramic mineral fibers
T
49; 38
53; 45
Styrene
Xn
10; 20; 36/38
23
Carbon monoxide
F+; T
61; 12; 23; 48/23
53; 45
Turpentine, oil
Xn; N
10; 20/21 ; 36/38; 43; 51/53; 65
36/37; 46; 61; 62
Fiber glass
Xn
38; 40
35/37
Trichlorethylene (Tri)
T
45; 36/38; 52/53; 67
53; 45; 61
Nicotine
T+;N
25; 27; 51/53
36/37; 45; 61
Hydrogen
F+
12
9; 16; 33
11 2)
O
As per Art. 1a of the Regulation on Hazardous Materials applicable in Germany since 31 October 2005 Cf. R-phrases on page 199, S-phrases on page 200, Safety signs on page 342; the slash (/) between the number indicates a combination of R-phrases or S-phrases.
Material characteristics of hazardous gases Gas Acetylene
Density ratio to air 0.91
Ignition temperature 305 °C
Lower I Upper ignition limit vol.-% gas in air 1.5
82
Additional information With a pressure pe > 2 bar self-disintegration and explosion
Argon
1.38
Butane
2.11
Carbon dioxide
1.53
Carbon monoxide
0.97
605 °C
12.5
74
Hydrogen
0.07
570 °C
4
75.6
Nitrogen
0.97
incombustible
-
-
Lose of breath in enclosed spaces; danger of suffocation
Oxygen
1.1
incombustible
-
-
Greases and oils react with oxygen explosively; fire-promoting gas
Propane
1.55
incombustible 365 °C incombustible
470 °C
-
1.5 -
2.1
-
8.5 -
9.5
Loss of breath; danger of suffocation Narcotic effect; suffocating effect Liquid CO2 and dry ice lead to serious frostbyte Potent blood poison; damage to vision, lungs, liver, kidneys and hearing Spontaneous combustion with high escaping speeds; forms explosive mixtures with air, 0 2 and CI
Loss of breath; liquid propane causes damage to skin and eyes
199
Material science: 4.14 Hazardous materials
Hazardous substances, R-phrases* Hazardous substances adversely affect the safety and health of humans and endanger the environment. They must be specially labeled (see page 342). The following R Phrases1' are standard phrases and point out the special risks when handling a hazardous substance. Special safety data sheets for each hazardous substance contain further extensive information. cf. RL 67/548/EWG2' (2004-04)
R-Phrases: Notes on special risks R-Phrases3)
Meaning
R-Phrases3)
Meaning
R1
Explosive when dry
R 34
Causes burns
R2
Risk of explosion by shock, friction, fire, or other sources of ignition
R 35
Causes severe burns
R 36
Irritating to the eyes
R3
Extreme risk of explosion by shock, friction, fire, or other sources of ignition
R 37
Irritating to respiratory system
R4
Forms very sensitive explosive metallic compounds
R 38
Irritating to the skin
R 39
Danger of very serious irreversible effects
R 40
Limited evidence of a carcinogenic effect
R 41
Risk of serious damage to eyes
R 42
May cause sensitization by inhalation
R 43
May cause sensitization by skin contact
R 44
Risk of explosion if heated under confinement
R 45
May cause cancer May cause heritable genetic damage
R5
Heating may cause an explosion
R6
Explosive with or without contact with air
R7
May cause fire
R8 R 10
Contact with combustible material may cause fire Flammable
R 11
Highly flammable
R 46
R 12
Extremely flammable
R 48
R 13
Extremely flammable liquid gas
Danger of serious damage to health by prolonged exposure
R 49
May cause cancer by inhalation
R 14
Reacts violently with water
R 50
Very toxic to aquatic organisms
R 15
Contact with water liberates extremely flammable gases
R 51
Toxic to aquatic organisms
R 52
Harmful to aquatic organisms
R 53
May cause long-term adverse effects in the aquatic environment
R 16
Explosive when mixed with oxidizing substances
R 17
Spontaneously flammable in air R 54
Toxic to flora (plants)
R 18
In use, may form flammable/explosive vapor-air mixture
R 55
Toxic to fauna (animals)
R 19
May form explosive peroxides
R 56
Toxic to soil organisms
Harmful by inhalation
R 57
Toxic to bees
R 21
Harmful in contact with skin
R 58
May cause long-term adverse effects in the environment
R 22
Harmful if swallowed
R 59
Dangerous to the ozone layer
R 23
Toxic by inhalation
R 60
May impair fertility
R 24
Toxic in contact with skin
R 25
Toxic if swallowed
R 61
May cause harm to the unborn child
R 62
Possible risk of impaired fertility
R 26
Very toxic by inhalation
R 27
Very toxic in contact with skin
R 63
Possible risk of harm to the unborn child
R 28
Very toxic if swallowed
R 29
Contact with water liberates toxic gases
R 64
May cause harm to breastfed babies
R 30
Can become highly flammable in use
R 65
Harmful: May cause lung damage if swallowed
R 31
Contact with acids liberates toxic gases
R 66
R 32
Contact with acids liberates very toxic gases
Repeated exposure may cause skin dryness or cracking
R 33
Danger of cumulative effects
R 67
Vapors may cause drowsiness and dizziness Possible irreversible damage
R 20
R 68 1)
2) R = Risk EU-Directive, Appendix III Combinations of the risk phrases are possible; e.g. R 23/24: Toxic by inhalation and in contact with skin *) According to European Standards
3)
200
Material science: 4.14 Hazardous materials
Hazardous substances, S-Phrases* The following standardized recommended safety measures (S phrases)1' are to be followed while handling hazardous substances and preparations. By complying with them dangers can be avoided or reduced.
S (safety) phrases: Recommended Safety Measures S phrase 3 '
1)
Meaning
S phrase 3 '
cf. RL 67/548/EWG2' (2004-04) Meaning
S1
Keep locked up
S 39
Wear eye/face protection
S2
Keep out of the reach of children
S 40
S3
Keep in a cool place
To clean the floor and all objects contam. by this material, use ... (to be specif, by the manufacturer)
S4
Keep away from living quarters
S 41
S5
Keep contents under... (appropriate liquid to be specified by the manufacturer)
In case of fire and/or explosions do not breathe fumes
S 42
S6
Keep contents under... (appropriate linert gas to be specified by the manufacturer)
During fumigation/spraying wear suitable respiratory equipment (appropriate wording to be specified by the manufacturer)
S7
Keep container tightly closed
S 43
S8
Keep container dry
In case of fire, use ... (indicate in the space the precise type of fire-fighting equipment if water increases risk, add: 'Never use water')
S 45
In case of accident or if you feel unwell, seek medical advice immediately (show the label where possible)
S9
Keep container in a well-ventilated place
S 12
Do not keep the container sealed
S 13
Keep away from food, drink and animal feeding stuffs
S 46
S 14
Keep away from ... (incompatible materials to be indicated by the manufacturer)
If swallowed, seek medical advice immediately and show this container or label
S 47
S 15
Keep away from heat
Keep at temperature not exceeding ... °C (To be specified by the manufacturer)
S 16
Keep away from sources of ignition - no smoking
S 48
S 17
Keep away from combustible materials
Keep wet with ... (appropriate material to be specified by the manufacturer)
S 18
Handle and open container with care
S 49
Keep only in the original container
S 20
When using do not eat or drink
S 50
S 21
When using do not smoke
Do not mix with ... (to be specified by the manufacturer)
S 22
Do not breathe dust
S 51
Use only in well-ventilated areas
S 23
Do not breathe gas/fumes/vapor/spray (appropriate wording to be specified by the manufacturer)
S 52
Not recommended for interior use on large surface areas
S 53
S 24
Avoid contact with skin
Avoid exposures4', obtain special instructions before use
S 25
Avoid contact with eyes
S 56
S 26
In case of contact with eyes, rinse immediately with plenty of water and seek medical advice
Dispose of this material and its container at hazardous or special waste collection point
S 57
Use appropriate container to avoid 5 ' environmental contamination
S 59
Refer to manufacturer/supplier for information on recovery/recycling
S 60
This material and its container must be disposed of as hazardous waste
S 61
Avoid release to the environment. Refer to special instructions/safety data sheets
S 62
If swallowed, do not induce vomiting: seek medical advice immediately and show this container or label
S 63
In case of accident by inhalation: move victim to fresh air and keep at rest
S 64
If swallowed, rinse mouth with water (only if the person is conscious)
S 27
Take off immediately all contaminated clothing
S 28
After contact with skin, wash immediately with plenty of... (to be specified by the manufacturer)
S 29
Do not empty into drains
S 30
Never add water to this product
S 33
Take precautionary measures against static discharges
S 35
This material and its container must be disposed of in a safe way
S 36
Wear suitable protective clothing
S 37
Wear suitable gloves
S 38
In case of insufficient ventilation, wear suitable respiratory equipment
2> S = safety EU- Directive, Appendix IV ' Combinations of the S phrases are possible; e.g. S 20/21: when using do not eat, drink or smoke, 4 5 ' i.e. do not expose yourself to this hazard ' Contamination,infestation *) According to European Standards 3
Table of Contents
201
5 Machine elements 5.1
Threads (overview) Metric ISO threads Whitworth threads, Pipe threads Trapezoidal and buttress threads Thread tolerances
202 204 206 207 208
5.2
Bolts and screws (overview) Designations, strength Hexagon head bolts & screws Other bolts & screws Screw joint calculations Locking fasteners Widths across flats, Bolt and screw drive systems
209 210 212 215 221 222 223
5.3
Countersinks 224 Countersinks for countersunk head screws . . . . 224 Counterbores for cap screws 225
5.4
Nuts (overview) Designations, Strength Hexagon nuts Other nuts
226 227 228 231
5.5
Washers (overview) Flat washers HV, Clevis pin, Conical spring washers
233 234 235
Parallel and woodruff keys Splined shafts, Blind rivets Tool tapers
240 241 242
Springs, components of jigs and tools Springs Drill bushings Standard stamping parts
244 247 251
Drive elements Belts Gears Transmission ratios Speed graph
253 256 259 260
u i s :
C
J 5.8
5.9
5.10 Bearings Plain bearings (overview) Plain bearing bushings Antifriction bearings (overview) Types of roller bearings Retaining rings Sealing elements Lubricating oils Lubricating greases
261 262 263 265 269 270 271 272
202
Machine elements: 5.
ads
Types of threads. Overview
a. DIN 202 (1999-11)
Right-hand threads, single-start Thread name
Thread profile
Code letter
Metric threads ISO threads
n n
Metric threads with large clearance Metric straight internal threads
M
/yffyyy,
Designation example
Nominal sizes
Application
DIN 1 4 - M 08
0.3 to 0.9 mm
Clocks, precision mechanisms
DIN 1 3 - M 30
1 to 68 mm
General purpose (coarse thread)
DIN 1 3 - M 20 x 1
1 to 1000 mm
General purpose (fine thread)
DIN 2510-M 36
12 to 180 mm
Bolts/screws with anti-fatigue shank
DIN 158-M 30 x 2
6 to 60 mm
Drain plugs and grease nipples
DIN 158-M 30 x 2 keg
6 to 60 mm
Drain plugs and grease nipples
60°
Metric taper external threads
M
Pipe threads, straight
G
Parallel pipe threads (internal threads)
DIN ISO 228-G1 1 / 2 (internal) 1 DIN ISO 228-G 1 / 2 A(external) /s to 6 inches
DIN 2999-Rp 1 / 2
1
DIN 3858-Rp 1 / 8
V 8 to 1 1 / 2 inch
DIN 2999-R 1 / 2
V16 to 6 inches
DIN 3858-R 1 / 8 -1
1
Does not seal on thread
/i6to 6 inch
Rp
Pipe threads, seals on thread; for threaded pipe, fittings, screwed pipe joints
Taper pipe threads (external threads)
R
Metric ISO trapezoidal threads
i n
Tr
DIN 103-Tr 40 x 7
8 to 300 mm
General purpose as motion screw threads
m
S
DIN 513-S 48 x 8
10 to 640 mm
General purpose as motion screw threads
DIN 405-Rd 40 x V 6
8 to 200 mm
General purpose
DIN 20400-Rd 40 x 5
10 to 300 mm
Knuckle threads with large thread overlap
ISO 1478-ST 3,5
1.5 to 9.5 mm
For tapping screws
Buttress threads
Knuckle threads
/s to 1 1 / 2 inches
Rd
Tapping screw threads
ST
Designation of left-hand and multiple start threads
cf. DIN ISO 965-1 (1999-11)
Type of thread
Explanation
Left-hand threads
The code designation "LH" is placed after the complete M 30-LH Tr 40 x 7 - L H thread designation (LH = Left-Hand).
Multiple start right-hand thread
The lead P h and the pitch Pfollowthe code designation M 16 x P h 3 P 1,5 or M 16 x P h 3 P 1,5 (double-start) and the thread diameter.
Multiple start lefthand thread
"LH" is placed after the thread designation of the multi- M 14 x P h 6 P2-LH or ple start. 1) M 14 x P h 6 P 2 (triple-start)-LH
1)
Code designation (examples)
For parts which have right-hand and left-hand threads, "RH" (Right-Hand) is placed after the thread designation of the right-hand thread and "LH" (Left-Hand) after the left-hand thread. The number of starts for multiple-starts is found by: no. of starts = lead P h / pitch P.
Machine elements: 5.
ads
Thread standards of various countries (selection)1' Thread name
Thread profile
Thread designation
Code Example
Meaning
Country 2 )
Unified National Coarse Thread
UNC
1/4-20
UNC-2A
ISO-UNC-thread with V4 inch nominal diameter, 20 threads/inch, Class 2A
ARG, AUS, CAN, GBR, IND, JPN, NOR, PAK, SWE and others
Unified National Fine Thread
UNF
V4-28 UNC-3A
ISO-UNF threads with V4 inch nominal diameter, 28 threads/inch, Class 3A
ARG, AUS, CAN, GBR, IND, JPN, NOR, PAK, SWE and others
Unified National Extra Fine Thread
UNEF
V4-32 UNEF-3A ISO-UNEF thread with V4 inch nominal diameter, 32 threads/inch, Class 3A
ARG, AUS, CAN, IND, NOR, PAK, SWE and others
Unified National Special Thread, special diameter/lead combinations
UNS
1
/4-27 UNS
UNS threads with V4 inch nominal diameter, 27 threads/inch
ARG, AUS, CAN, NZL, USA
NPSM
1
/2-14NPSM
NPSM threads with V2 inch nominal diameter, 14 threads/inch
USA, CAN
NPT
3
/g — 18 NPT
NPT thread with 3 / 8 inch nominal diameter, 18 threads/inch
BRA, CAN, FRA, USA and others
NPTF
V 2 ~14NPTF (dryseal)
NPTF threads with V2 inch nominal diameter, 14 threads/inch, (dry sealing)
BRA, CAN, USA
Acme
1 3 / 4 - 4 A c m e - 2 G Acme threads with 1 3 / 4 inch nominal diameter 4 threads/inch, Class 2G
AUS, CAN, GBR, NZL, USA
Stub Acme
1 /2-20 Stub Acme
CAN, USA
internal thread
Threads for Mechanical Joints
/ / / / /
/ / / / \ /
, straight / / / / ' internal thread/ / / / / y / y / / p straight external thread
American Standard Taper Pipe Thread
taper internal thread
American Taper Pipe Thread, Fuel taper external thread American trapezoidal threads h = 0.5 • P
internal thread
American truncated trapezoidal threads ft = 0.3 • P
Stub Acme threads with V2 inch nominal diameter, 20 threads/inch
external thread 1)
2)
cf. Kaufmann, Manfred: "Wegweiser zu den Gewindenormen verschiedener Lander" DIN, Beuth-Verlag Three-letter codes for countries, cf. DIN EN ISO 3166-1 (2008-06)
203
Machine elements: 5.
ads
Imperial Threads | Imperial Threads for general purposes internal thread
oo
P i
1 Osl
-
CL
ii
'trr,
S i \
CVI
ji
1
1 A
c
m
\
OM CD
externalthr ead c
Major diameter Pitch
d =D P
Denth nf external thread
h-, = 0 fi134 . P
Depth of internal thread Radius at root Basic pitch 0 Minor 0 of external thread Minor 0 of internal thread Tap hole drill 0 Thread angle
0.5413 P = 0.1443 P = D2 = d- 0.6495 • P = d- 1.1904 • P = d- 1.0825 • P =d-P 60° , 0 7i /d2 + d3Y S = — • —~— 4 V 2 / Ft d2 d3 D-,
Stress area
Basic sizes for Unified National Coarse Threads (UNC) Major diameter
No. size or inches
Threads per inch
inches
Pitch P inches
6
32
0.1380
0.0313
8
32
0.1640
0.0313
10
24
0.1900
12
24
1/4
D
Pitch diameter
d2 = D2
Miinor External Internal threads threads
ANSl/ASME BI.1 (1989)
Threac J depth External Internal threads threads
Radius
R
Stress area S inch 2
Drill bit f
ch
D^
inches
inches
inches
inches
inches
inches
0.1177
0.1008
0.1042
0.01920
0.01691
0.0045
0.0093
#36
0.1065
0.1437
0.1268
0.1302
0.01920
0.01691
0.0045
0.0142
#29
0.1360
0.0417
0.1629
0.1404
0.1449
0.02558
0.02255
0.0060
0.0179
#25
0.1495
0.2160
0.0417
0.1889
0.1664
0.1709
0.02558
0.02255
0.0060
0.0246
#16
0.1770
20
0.2500
0.0500
0.2175
0.1905
0.1959
0.03067
0.02706
0.0072
0.0324
#7
0.2010
5/16
18
0.3125
0.0556
0.2764
0.2464
0.2524
0.03411
0.03007
0.0080
0.0532
F
0.2579
3/8
16
0.3750
0.0625
0.3344
0.3006
0.3073
0.03834
0.03383
0.0090
0.0786
5/16
0.3125
7/16
14
0.4375
0.0714
0.3911
0.3525
0.3602
0.04380
0.03866
0.0103
0.1078
U
0.3680
1/2
13
0.5000
0.0769
0.4500
0.4084
0.4167
0.04717
0.04164
0.0111
0.1438
27/64
0.4219
9/16
12
0.5625
0.0833
0.5084
0.4633
0.4723
0.05110
0.04511
0.0120
0.1842
31/64
0.4843
5/8
11
0.6250
0.0909
0.5660
0.5168
0.5266
0.05576
0.04921
0.0131
0.2288
17/32
0.5313
3/4
10
0.7500
0.1000
0.6851
0.6310
0.6418
0.06134
0.05413
0.0144
0.3382
21/32
0.6562
7/8
9
0.8750
0.1111
0.8028
0.7427
0.7547
0.06815
0.06014
0.0160
0.4666
49/64
0.7656
1
8
1.0000
0.1250
0.9188
0.8512
0.8647
0.07668
0.06766
0.0180
0.6120
7/8
0.8750
1 1/8
7
1.1250
0.1429
1.0322
0.9549
0.9704
0.08765
0.07732
0.0206
0.7713
63/64
0.9844
1 1/4
7
1.2500
0.1429
1.1572
1.0799
1.0954
0.08765
0.07732
0.0206
0.9781
1 7/64
1.1093
1 3/8
6
1.3750
0.1667
1.2668
1.1766
1.1946
0.10225
0.09021
0.0241
1.1664
1 7/32
1.2187
1 1/2
6
1.5000
0.1667
1.3918
1.3016
1.3196
0.10225
0.09021
0.0241
1.4179
1 11/32
1.3437
5
1.7500
0.2000
1.6201
1.5119
1.5335
0.12268
0.10825
0.0289
1.9171
1 9/16
1.5625
4.5
2.0000
0.2222
1.8557
1.7355
1.7594
0.13630
0.12028
0.0321
2.5207
1 25/32
1.7812
1 3/4 2
I Basic sizes for Unified National Fine Threads (UNF) Major diameter
No. size or inches
Threads per inch
inches
Pitch P inches
6
40
0.1380
0.0250
8
36
0.1640
0.0278
10
32
0.1900
12
28
0.2160
1/4
28
5/16 3/8
D
Pitch diameter
d2 = D2
Mi nor External Internal threads threads
ANSl/ASME B1.1 (1989) | Threac I depth External Internal threads threads
Radius
R
Stress area S inch 2
Drill bit fc >rtap hole Drill size Decimal equival.
01
inches
inches
inches
inches
inches
inches
0.1218
0.1082
0.1109
0.0153
0.01353
0.0036
0.0103
#33
0.1130
0.1460
0.1309
0.1339
0.0170
0.01504
0.0040
0.0149
#29
0.1360
0.0313
0.1697
0.1528
0.1562
0.0192
0.01691
0.0045
0.0203
#21
0.1590
0.0357
0.1928
0.1735
0.1773
0.0219
0.01933
0.0052
0.0262
#14
0.1820
0.2500
0.0357
0.2268
0.2075
0.2113
0.0219
0.01933
0.0052
0.0368
I
0.2720
24
0.3125
0.0417
0.2854
0.2629
0.2674
0.0256
0.02255
0.0060
0.0587
I
0.2720
24
0.3750
0.0417
0.3479
0.3254
0.3299
0.0256
0.02255
0.0060
0.0886
Q
0.3320
7/16
20
0.4375
0.0500
0.4050
0.3780
0.3834
0.0307
0.02706
0.0072
0.1198
25/64
0.3906
1/2
20
0.5000
0.0500
0.4675
0.4405
0.4459
0.0307
0.02706
0.0072
0.1612
29/64
0.4531
9/16
18
0.5625
0.0556
0.5264
0.4964
0.5024
0.0341
0.03007
0.0080
0.2046
33/64
0.5156
5/8
18
0.6250
0.0556
0.5889
0.5589
0.5649
0.0341
0.03007
0.0080
0.2578
37/64
0.5781
3/4
16
0.7500
0.0625
0.7094
0.6756
0.6823
0.0383
0.03383
0.0090
0.3754
11/16
0.6875
7/8
14
0.8750
0.0714
0.8286
0.7900
0.7977
0.0438
0.03866
0.0103
0.5127
13/16
0.8125
1
12
1.0000
0.0833
0.9459
0.9008
0.9098
0.0511
0.04511
0.0120
0.6674
59/64
0.9219
1 1/8
12
1.1250
0.0833
1.0709
1.0258
1.0348
0.0511
0.04511
0.0120
0.8607
1 3/64
1.0469
1 1/4
12
1.2500
0.0833
1.1959
1.1508
1.1598
0.0511
0.04511
0.0120
1.0785
1 11/64
1.1719
1 3/8
12
1.3750
0.0833
1.3209
1.2758
1.2848
0.0511
0.04511
0.0120
1.3208
1 19/64
1.2968
1 1/2
12
1.5000
0.0833
1.4459
1.4008
1.4098
0.0511
0.04511
0.0120
1.5877
1 27/64
1.4219
hs
HI
Machine elements: 5.
ads
Imperial Threads Basic sizes National Pipe Taper (NPT)
ANSI/ASME B1.20.1 - 1983 (R 1992)
internal thread
Thread depth h3 = 0.8 P Hight H= 0.865 P outside diameter of pipe
external N thread °V axis of thread f Threads No. size
•. < ,, \ t a P e r 1_16
Outside diam. of pipe
Pitch
D
P
Pitch diameter
Gauge length
Usuable length of ext. thread
h3 = 8P
0.2611 0.2639
0.02963 0.02963
C
0.2420
Q
0.3320
0.4018 0.0478 0.5337
0.04444
7/16
0.4380
0.04444 0.05714
9/16 45/64
0.3391 0.3997
0.5457
0.05714
29/32
0.5620 0.7030 0.9060
0.6828
1 9/64
0.4197
0.7068
0.06957 0.06957
27
0.3125
0.03704
27
0.4050
0.03704
0.28120 0.37360
0.1598
1/8 1/4
18
0.5400
0.05556
0.49163
3/8 1/2
18 14 14
0.6750 0.0625
0.05556 0.07143
1.0500
0.07143
0.62701 0.77843 0.98887
0.2275 0.2398
1 1 1/4
11 1/2
1.3150 1.6600
0.08696 0.08696
1.23863 1.58338
1 1/2
11 1/2
2 2 1/2
11 1/2 8
1.9000 2.3750 2.8750
0.08696 0.08696 0.12500
1.82234 2.29627
0.4197 0.4354
0.7235 0.7565
2.76215
0.6825
1.1375
11 1/2
Drill bit for tap hole Drill size ii Decimal equival.
L2
/-i dz = D2 all dimensions in inches
1/16
3/4
Depth of external thread
0.1613
0.3199
0.06957 0.06957 0.10000
1 31/64
1.1410 1.484
1 23/32 2 3/16 2 39/64
2.1880 2.6090
1.7190
Basic sizes American National Standard General Purp. Acme Screw Thread ANSI/ASME B1.5 -1988 (R 1994) thread
No. size 3/8 7/16 1/2 5/8 3/4
Threads per inch 12
ac ac Hi R2 Minor 0 external threads Major 0 internal threads Minor 0 internal threads Pitch 0 Thread depth Width of flat
/
Nominal diameter
Pitch
Pitch diameter
d
P
d2=D2
all dimensions in inches 0.3333 0.0833 0.0833 0.3958 0.4500 0.1000 0.5625 0.1250
Minor diameter Internal thread External thread ii
0.2917
0.3342 0.3600 0.4600
0.3542 0.4000 0.5000 0.5833 0.7083 0.8000
7/8 1
6 6 5
0.7500 0.8750 1.0000
0.1667
0.6667 0.7917
0.5433 0.6683
0.2000
0.9000
1 1/8 1 1/4 1 3/8
5 5 4
1.1250 1.2500 1.3750
0.2000 0.2000 0.2500
1.0250 1.1500 1.2500
0.7600 0.8850
1 1/2
4 4
1.5000 1.7500
0.2500 0.2500
2 2 1/4
4
2.0000 2.2500
2 1/2 2 3/4
3 3
3 3 1/2 4
2 2
4 1/2
1 3/4
5
D,
0.2717
0.3750 0.4375 0.5000 0.6250
Thread depth
h3= HA
12 10 8
0.1667
up to 10 tpi = 0.020 over 10 tpi = 0.010 0.06 • P 0.12 • P d3 = d- (P+ 2 • a c ) D 4 = d+2 • ac D,= d-P d2 = D2 = d-0.5 • P h3 = H 4 = 0.5 • P+ a c w = 0.370- P-0.259
0.0517 0.0517 0.0700 0.0825 0.1033 0.1033
0.9250
0.1200 0.1200
1.0100 1.0850
1.0500 1.1250
0.1200 0.1450
1.3750 1.6250
1.2100 1.4600
1.2500 1.5000
0.1450
1.8750 2.0833
1.7100 1.8767
2.3333
2.1267
1.7500 1.9167 2.1667
0.1450 0.1867
2.5000
0.2500 0.3333 0.3333
2.7500
0.3333
2.3767
2.4167
0.1867
0.5000 0.5000 0.5000
2.4600 2.9600
2.5000 3.0000
0.2700 0.2700
2
3.0000 3.5000 4.0000
2.5833 2.7500 3.2500 3.7500
4.5000 5.0000
0.5000 0.5000
4.2500 4.7500
3.4600 3.9600 4.4600
3.5000
2 2
4.0000 4.5000
0.2700 0.2700
3
0.1450
0.1867
0.2700
204
Machine elements: 5.
ads
Metric threads and fine threads Metric ISO threads for general purpose application, basic profiles internal thread
external thread
cf. DIN 13-19 (1999-11)
Major diameter Pitch Depth of external thread Depth of internal thread Radius at root Basic pitch 0 Minor 0 of external thread Minor 0 of internal thread Tap hole drill 0 Thread angle
d = P h3 = "1 = R = d2 = d3 = 01 = = 60c>
Stress area
S
Basic sizes for coarse threads Series 1 1 ) (dimensions in mm) Pitch
Pitch 0
d= D
P
d2 = D2
d3
D^
h3
M 1 M 1.2 M 1.6
0.25 0.25 0.35
0.84 1.04 1.38
0.69 0.89 1.17
0.73 0.93 1.22
M2 M 2.5 M3
0.4 0.45 0.5
1.74 2.21 2.68
1.51 1.95 2.39
M 4 M5 M6
0.7 0.8 1
3.55 4.48 5.35
M8 M 10 M 12
1.25 1.5 1.75
M 16 M 20 M 24
Minor 0 external internal threads threads
0.6134- P 0.5413 • P 0.1443 • P D2 = d-0.6495 d- 1.2269 • P d- 1.0825 • P d- P
n fd2 + • ! • ( 2
d3\2 )
Drill bit Hexagonal width 0 for across tap flats 3 ' hole 2 )
Rounded root
Stress area S
"i
R
mm2
0.15 0.15 0.22
0.14 0.14 0.19
0.04 0.04 0.05
0.46 0.73 1.27
0.75 0.95 1.25
3.2
1.57 2.01 2.46
0.25 0.28 0.31
0.22 0.24 0.27
0.06 0.07 0.07
2.07 3.39 5.03
1.6 2.05 2.5
4 5 5.5
3.14 4.02 4.77
3.24 4.13 4.92
0.43 0.49 0.61
0.38 0.43 0.54
0.10 0.12 0.14
8.78 14.2 20.1
3.3 4.2 5.0
7 8 10
7.19 9.03 10.86
6.47 8.16 9.85
6.65 8.38 10.11
0.77 0.92 1.07
0.68 0.81 0.95
0.18 0.22 0.25
36.6 58.0 84.3
6.8 8.5 10.2
13 16 18
2 2.5 3
14.70 18.38 22.05
13.55 16.93 20.32
13.84 17.29 20.75
1.23 1.53 1.84
1.08 1.35 1.62
0.29 0.36 0.43
157 245 353
14 17.5 21
24 30 36
M 30 M 36 M 42
3.5 4 4.5
27.73 33.40 39.08
25.71 31.09 36.48
26.21 31.67 37.13
2.15 2.45 2.76
1.89 2.17 2.44
0.51 0.58 0.65
561 817 1121
26.5 32 37.5
46 55 65
M 48 M 56 M 64
5 5.5 6
44.75 52.43 60.10
41.87 49.25 56.64
42.59 50.05 57.51
3.07 3.37 3.68
2.71 2.98 3.25
0.72 0.79 0.87
1473 2030 2676
43 50.5 58
75 85 95
Basic sizes for fine threads (dimensions in mm) Thread Pitch 0 Minor 0 designation ext. th. int. th. d x P cfe = D 2 d3 D^ M M M M M M M M M
1.84 2.84 3.87
1.69 2.69 3.76
1.73 2.73 3.78
3.77 4.84 4.68
3.57 4.69 4.39
3.62 4.73 4.46
M M M M M M
5.84 5.68 5.51
5.69 5.39 5.08
5.73 5.46 5.19
M 8 x 0.25 M 8 x 0.5 M 8x 1
7.84 7.68 7.35
7.69 7.39 6.77
7.73 7.46 6.92
1>
10x0.25 10x0.5 10 x 1 12 x 0.35 12 x 0.5 12 x 1
-
cf. DIN 13-2 - 10 (1999-11)
Thread Minor 0 Pitch 0 designation ext. th. int. th. dx P dz = D2 dz D^
0.25 0.25 0.2 0.35 0.25 0.5 0.25 0.5 0.75
2)
2x 3x 4x 4x 5x 5x 6x 6x 6x
P
cf. DIN 13-1 (1999-11)
Thread depth external internal threads threads
Threaddesignation
D
9.84 9.68 9.35
9.69 9.39 8.77
9.73 9.46 8.92
11.77 11.68 11.35
11.57 11.39 10.77
11.62 11.46 10.92
M 16x0.5 M 16 x 1 M 16 x 1.5
15.68 15.35 15.03
15.39 14.77 14.16
15.46 14.92 14.38
M 20 x 1 M 20 x 1.5 M 24 x 1.5
19.35 19.03 23.03
18.77 18.16 22.16
18.92 18.38 22.38
Series 2 and Series 3 also have intermediate sizes (e. g. M7, M9, M 14). cf. DIN 336 (2003-07) 3) cf. DIN ISO 272 (1979-10)
Thread Minor 0 Pitch 0 designation ext. th. int. th. dx P d2 = D2 d3 M M M M M M
24 30 30 36 36 42
x2 x 1.5 x2 x 1.5 x2 x 1.5
22.70 29.03 28.70
21.55 28.16 27.55
21.84 28.38 27.84
35.03 34.70 41.03
34.16 33.55 40.16
34.38 33.84 40.38
M M M M M M
42 48 48 56 56 64
x2 x 1.5 x2 x 1.5 x2 x2
40.70 47.03 46.70
39.55 46.16 45.55
39.84 46.38 45.84
55.03 54.70 62.70
54.16 53.55 61.55
54.38 53.84 61.84
Machine elements: 5.
ads
Metric taper threads Metric taper external and mating internal straight screw threads (standard design)11
cf. DIN 158-1 (1997-06)
saga
Thread dimensions of external threads
- X I . OSL
A
reference plane
reference plane thread axis
Thread designation dx P M M M M M M M M M M
5 keg 6 keg 8 x 1 keg 10 x 1 keg 12 x 1 keg 10 x 1.25 keg 12 x 1.25 keg 12 x 1.5 keg 14 x 1.5 keg 16 x 1.5 keg
M 18 x M 20 x M22x M 24 x M 26 x M 30 x
1.5 keg 1.5 keg 1.5 keg 1.5 keg 1.5 keg 1.5 keg
M M M M M M
36 x 38 x 42 x 45 x 48 x 52 x
1.5 keg 1.5 keg 1.5 keg 1.5 keg 1.5 keg 1.5 keg
M M M M M M M M M M M
27 x 30 x 33 x 36 x 39 x 42 x 45 x 48 x 52 x 56 x 60 x
2 keg 2 keg 2 keg 2 keg 2 keg 2 keg 2 keg 2 keg 2 keg 2 keg 2 keg
Dimeirisions in ireference plane
Thread length h
Thread depth h3 max.
Distance a
5
0.52
2
5.5
0.66
2.5
7
0.82
3
8.5
0.98
3.5
10.5
1.01
4.5
12
1.32
5
13
1.34
6
d2 = d-0.650
Minor0
d3 = d- 1.23 • P
P
Height
H, = 0.866 • P
Thread depth
h3 =0.613 • P
Root radius
R = 0.144 • P
inspection plane
inspection plane
Thread cimensions
Pitch 0
Thre ad dimen sions d = D2) d2 = D 2 3 ) 5 6 8 10 12 10 12 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 30 36 38 42 45 48 52 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 48 52 56 60
4.48 5.35 7.35 9.35 11.35 9.19 11.19 11.03 13.03 15.03 17.03 19.03 21.03 23.03 25.03 29.03 35.03 37.03 41.03 44.03 47.03 51.03 25.70 28.70 31.70 34.70 37.70 40.70 43.70 46.70 50.70 54.70 58.70
ds 4.02 4.77 6.77 ] 8.77 10.77 8.47 10.47 10.16 12.16 14.16 16.16 18.16 20.16 22.16 24.16 28.16 34.16 36.16 40.16 43.16 46.16 50.16 24.55 27.55 30.55 33.55 36.55 39.55 42.55 45.55 49.55 53.55 57.55
Dimenisions in iinspection plane Disstance b 2.8
3.5
5
6.5
8
9
10
Thre ad dimen sions d 5.05 6.06 8.06 10.06 12.06 10.13 12.13 12.19 14.19 16.19 18.19 20.19 22.19 24.19 26.19 30.19 36.22 38.22 42.22 45.22 • 48.22 52.22 27.25 30.25 33.25 36.25 39.25 42.25 45.25 48.25 52.25 56.25 60.25
d'2
d'z
4.5 5.4 7.4 9.4 11.4 9.3 11.3 11.2 13.2 15.2 17.2 19.2 21.2 23.2 25.2 29.2 35.2 37.2 41.2 44.2 47.2 51.2 25.9 28.9 31.9 34.9 37.9 40.9 43.9 46.9 50.9 54.9 58.9
4.07 4.84 6.84 8.84 10.84 8.59 10.59 10.35 12.35 14.35 16.35 18.35 20.35 22.35 24.35 28.35 34.38 36.38 40.38 43.38 46.38 50.38 24.80 27.80 30.80 33.80 36.80 39.80 42.80 45.80; 49.80 53.80 57.80
Threads DIN 158 - M 30 x 2 keg: Metric taper external threads, d= 30 mm, P = 2 mm, standard design 1)
2)
For self-sealing joints (e.g. Drain plugs, grease nipples). For larger nominal diameters it is recommended to use a joint compound to seal in the threads. 3) D Basic major diameter of internal thread D2 Basic pitch diameter of internal thread
206
Machine elements: 5.
ads
Whitworth threads, Pipe threads Whitworth threads
(not standardized) Major diameter Minor diameter
internal thread
Pitch diameter Threads/inch Pitch
d =D di = Di = d- 1.28 • P = d-2•U d2 = D2 = d-0.640 • P N
P =
Thread depth Radius Thread angle
25.4 mm N
/?! = Ht = 0.640 • P H = 0.137 • P 55°
Dimensions in mm for external and internal threads Dimensions in mm for external and internal threads Thread Thread desig- Major Minor Pitch Threads Thread Core desig- Major Minor Pitch Threads Thread Core nation per depth cross nation per 0 0 depth section 0 0 0 0 inch section inch o 2 d2=D2 d d=D d d-D d 1 = D n ck = D2 h, = H, mrrr N mm N 1 5
/4"
/l6" 3 /s" 1
/2"
%" U" 7 /s" 3
1"
6.35 7.94 9.53 12.70
4.72 6.13 7.49 9.99
5.54 7.03 8.51 11.35
20 18 16 12
0.81 0.90 1.02 1.36
17.5 29.5 44.1 78.4
1V 1V2" 13/4" 2"
31.75 38.10 44.45 50.80
27.10 32.68 37.95 43.57
29.43 35.39 41.20 47.19
1
6 5 4.5
2.32 2.71 3.25 3.61
577 839 1 131 1491
15.88 19.05 22.23 25.40
12.92 15.80 18.61 21.34
14.40 17.42 20.42 23.37
11 10 9 8
1.48 1.63 1.81 2.03
131 196 272 358
2V 4 " 2V 2 " 3" 3 V2"
57.15 63.50 76.20 88.90
49.02 55.37 66.91 78.89
53.09 59.44 72.56 83.89
4 4 3.5 3.25
4.07 4.07 4.65 5.00
1886 2408 3516 4888
Pipe threads
cf. DIN ISO 228-1 (2003-05), DIN EN 10226-1 (2004-10)
Pipe threads DIN ISO 228-1 for joints not sealed by threads; straight internal and external threads
Pipe threads DIN EN 10226-1 sealed by threads; straight internal threads, taper external threads taper external thread
internalthread
external thread straight internal thread cf. American Taper Standard-Pipe Threads NPT: page 203 Thread designation DIN ISO 228-1 DIN EN10226-1 External and External Internal internal threads threads threads
G1 G1 1 / 4 G1 1 / 2 G2 G2 1 / 2 G3 G4 G5 G6
R1 R1 1 / 4 R1 1 / 2 R2 R2V2 R3 R4 R5 R6
Rp1 Rp1 1 / 4 Rp1 1 / 2 Rp2 Rp2 1 / 2 Rp3 Rp4 Rp5 Rp6
Major diameter
Pitch diameter
Pitch
Threads per inch N
Profile height
D2
d, = Di
7.723 9.728 13.157
7.142 9.147 12.301
6.561 8.566 11.445
0.907 0.907 1.337
0.581 0.581 0.856
16.662 20.995 26.441
15.806 19.793 25.279
14.950 18.631 24.117
1.337 1.814 1.814
0.856 1.162 1.162
33.249 41.910 47.803
31.770 40.431 46.324
30.291 38.952 44.845
2.309 2.309 2.309
1.479 1.479 1.479
59.614 75.184 87.884
58.135 73.705 86.405
56.656 72.226 84.926
2.309 2.309 2.309
1.479 1.479 1.479
113.030 138.430 163.830
111.551 136.951 162.351
110.072 135.472 160.872
2.309 2.309 2.309
1.479 1.479 1.479
d-D
d2
Minor diameter
usable thread length
=
h = h, = Hn
Usable length of external threads
Machine elements: 5.
ads
Trapezoidal and buttress threads Metric ISO trapezoidal screw threads
Dimension a
c
R2
For pitch P in mm 2-5 6-12
1.5 0.15 0.075 0.15
0.25 0.125 0.25
cf. DIN 103-1 (1977-04)
14-44
0.5 0.25 0.5
1 0.5
Nominal diameter Single start pitch and multiple start lead Multiple start pitch No. of threads Minor 0 external threads Major 0 internal threads Minor 0 internal threads Pitch 0 Thread depth Thread overlap Crest clearance Radius Width of flat Thread angle
d P Ph n = Ph:P d3 = d-(P+2 • ac) 04 = d+2 • ac 01 = d-P d2 = D2 = d-0.5 • P h3 = H4 = 0.5 • P + a c Hi = 0,5 • P ac and R2 w- = 0.366 - P - 0 . 5 4 - a 30c1
1
Thread dimensions in mm
Thread dimensions in mm
Minor 0 Minor 0 Thread Thread Major Thread Width Major Thread Width designation designation Pitch 0 ext. th. int. th. Pitch 0 ext. th. int. th. of flat depth 0 0 depth of flat dx P d x P D^ D^ w D 4 *3 = H 4 w = 92 4 / » 3 = H 4
10.5 12.5
1.25 1.75
0.60
0.96
Tr 40 x Tr 44 x
36.5 40.5
32 36
33 37
41 45
12 16
16.5 20.5
2.25 2.25
1.33 1.33
Tr 48 x Tr 52 x
44 48
39 43
40 44
49 53
4.5 4.5
2.66 2.66
18.5 22.5
19 23
24.5 28.5
2.75 2.75
1.70 1.70
Tr 60 x 9 Tr 70 x 10
55.5 65
50 59
51 60
61
71
5 5.5
3.02 3.39
29 34.5
25 32.5
26 33
33 36.5
3.5 2.0
1.93 0.83
Tr 80 x 10 Tr 90 x 12
75 84
69 77
70 78
81 91
5.5 6.5
3.39 4.12
33 31
29 25
30 26
37 37
3.5 5.5
1.93 3.39
Tr 100 x 12 Tr 140 x 14
94 133
87 124
88 126
101 142
6.5 8
4.12 4.58
Tr 10 x Tr 12 x
9 10.5
Tr 16 x Tr 20 x
14 18
11.5 15.5
Tr 24 x Tr 28 x
21.5 25.5
Tr 32 x Tr 36 x Tr 36 x 6 Tr 36 x 10
7.5 8.5
Metric buttress threads
cf. DIN 513 (1985-04) Nominal thread size Pitch Minor 0 external threads Minor 0 internal threads Pitch 0 external threads Pitch 0 internal threads Axial clearance External thread depth Internal thread depth Radius Crest width on major 0 Thread angle
internal thread
external thread
d x P
Minor 0 ds
d =D P d3 = d- 1.736 • P Dt = d - 1.5 • P d2 = d-0.75 • P D2 = d - 0.75 • P+ 3.176 • a a =0.1 - f P h3 = 0.8678 • P H, = 0.75 • P R =0.124- P w = 0.264 • P 33°
Extern;a I threads Intern;il threads
Extern;al threads Intern:il threads Thread designation
2.29 2.29
Thread depth h3
Minor 0 01
Thread depth "i
Pitch 0 d2
Thread designation d x P
Minor 0 ds
Thread depth hs
Minor 0 01
Thread depth
Pitch 0 dz
S 12x3 }S 1 6 x 4
6.79 9.06
2.60 3.47
7.5 10.0
2.25 3.00
9.75 13.00
S 44 x 7 S 48 x 8
31.85 34.12
6.07 6.94
33.5 36
5.25 6.00
38.75 42.00
S 20 x 4 S 24 x 5
13.06 15.32
3.47 4.34
14.0 16.5
3.00 3.75
17.00 20.25
S 52 x 8 S 60 x 9
38.11 44.38
6.94 7.81
40 46.5
6.00 6.75
46.00 53.25
S 28 x 5 S 32 x 6
19.32 21.58
4.34 5.21
20.5 23.0
3.75 4.50
24.25 27.50
S 70x10 S 80x10
52.64 62.64
8.68 8.68
55 65
7.50 7.50
62.50 72.50
S 36 x 6 S 40 x 7
25.59 27.85
5.21 6.07
27.0 29.5
4.50 5.25
31.50 34.75
S 90x12 S 100x12
69.17 79.17
10.41 10.41
72 82
9.00 9.00
81.00 91.00
208
Machine elements: 5.
ads
Thread tolerances Tolerance classes for metric ISO threads Screw thread tolerances are to ensure the function and interchangeability of internal and external threads. They are dependent on the diameter tolerances set in this standard and on the precision of the pitch and the thread angle. The tolerance class (fine, medium and coarse) is also dependent on the surface finish of the threads. Thick electroplated protective coatings require more clearance (e.g. Tolerance Class 6G) than bright or phosphatized surfaces (Tolerance Class 5H).
cf. DIN ISO 965-1 (1999-11) Thread tolerance
Internal threads
External threads
Applies to
pitch and minor diameters
pitch and major diameters
Labeled by
upper case letters
lower case letters
Tolerance class (example)
5H
6g
Tolerance grade (size of tolerance)
5
6
Tolerance zone H | (position of zero line)
g
Designation examples
Explanations
M12 x 1 - 5g 6g
External fine threads, nominal 0 12 mm, pitch 1 mm; 5g -> Tolerance class for pitch 0; 6g -»• Tolerance class for major 0 External coarse threads, nominal 0 12 mm; 6g -» Tolerance class for pitch and major 0
M24 - 6G/6e
Thread fit for coarse threads, nominal 0 24 mm, 6G - Tolerance class of the internal threads, 6e Tolerance class of the external threads
M16
Tolerance class medium 6H/6g applies to threads without tolerance indication
Tolerance Class 6H/6g is assigned to the "medium" (general purpose) tolerance class and "normal" engagement length in DIN ISO 965-1 (see table below).
QJ N l/l To c 'E o C
Imin—<
M12 - 6g
X ID e cT C3 ^ t— t_ o co a 'E
'E
Internal threads, tolerance zone location H
External threads, tolerance zone location g
Limits for external and internal threads (selection)
cf. DIN ISO 965-2 (1999-11)
Inteirnal threa ds - Toler ance class6H
External threads - Tolerancc; class 6g Minor 0 1 ) c / 3
Major 0 D min.
min.
max.
min.
max.
max.
min.
max.
min.
max.
min.
3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
2.675 3.545 4.480 5.350
2.775 3.663 4.605 5.500
2.459 3.242 4.134 4.917
2.599 3.422 4.334 5.135
2.980 3.978 4.976 5.974
2.874 3.838 4.826 5.794
2.655 3.523 4.456 5.324
2.580 3.433 4.361 5.212
2.367 3.119 3.995 4.747
2.273 3.002 3.869 4.596
M8 M8 x 1 M10 M10 x 1
8.0 8.0 10.0 10.0
7.188 7.350 9.026 9.350
7.348 7.500 9.206 9.500
6.647 6.917 8.376 8.917
6.912 7.153 8.676 9.153
7.972 7.974 9.968 9.974
7.760 7.794 9.732 9.794
7.160 7.324 8.994 9.324
7.042 7.212 8.862 9.212
6.438 6.747 8.128 8.747
6.272 6.596 7.938 8.596
M12 M12 x 1.5 M16 M16 x 1.5
12.0 12.0 16.0 16.0
10.863 11.026 14.701 15.026
11.063 11.216 14.913 15.216
10.106 10.376 13.385 14.376
10.441 10.676 14.210 14.676
11.966 11.968 15.962 15.968
11.701 11.732 15.682 15.732
10.829 10.994 14.663 14.994
10.679 10.854 14.503 14.854
9.819 10.128 13.508 14.128
9.602 9.930 13.271 13.930
M20 M20 x 1.5 M24 M24 x 2
20.0 20.0 24.0 24.0
18.376 19.026 22.051 22.701
18.600 19.216 22.316 22.925
17.294 18.376 20.752 21.835
17.744 18.676 21.252 22.210
19.958 19.968 23.952 23.962
19.623 19.732 23.577 23.682
18.334 18.994 22.003 22.663
18.164 18.854 21.803 22.493
16.891 18.128 20.271 21.508
16.625 18.930 19.955 21.261
M30 M30 x 2 M36 M36 x 3
30.0 30.0 36.0 36.0
27.727 28.701 33.402 34.051
28.007 28.925 33.702 34.316
26.211 27.835 31.670 32.752
26.771 28.210 32.270 33.252
29.947 29.962 35.940 35.952
29.522 29.682 35.465 35.577
27.674 28.663 33.342 34.003
27.462 28.493 33.118 33.803
25.653 27.508 31.033 32.271
25.306 27.261 30.655 31.955
Threads M3 M4 M5 M6
1)
Pitch 0 D2
Minoi• 0 DT
cf. DIN 13-20 (2000-08) and DIN 13-21 (2005-08)
Majo r 0 d
Pitch 0 d2
209
Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screws
Bolts and screws - Overview Illustration
Design
Standard range from-to
Standard
Hexagon head bolts and screws
Fi bj — i
—ti i
Fi i i b
1
11
1 1j h - e
pages 212-214
B-
M1.6-M64
DIN EN ISO 4014
Fully threaded with fine threads
M1.6-M64
DIN EN ISO 4017
Partly threaded and with fine threads
M8x1-M64x4
DIN EN ISO 8765
Fully threaded with fine threads
M8x1-M64x4
DIN EN ISO 8676
With reduced shank
M3-M20
DIN EN ISO 24015
Waisted bolts; for dynamic loads, no nut retention necessary when properly installed
Fit bolt
M8-M48
DIN 609
Fixing position of parts against movement, fit shank transmits transverse loads
With larger width across flats
M12-M36
DIN EN 14399-4
High-strength structural bolting assemblies (HV), with nuts as per DIN EN 14399-4 (page 230)
Fit bolt with large widths across flats
M12-M30
DIN 7999
Friction grip (FG) joints, shear/bearing stress connection
pages 215,216
i
§+--+
Y
With hexagon socket, with coarse threads
M1.6-M64
DIN EN ISO 4762
With hexagon socket, fine threads
M8x1-M64x4
DIN EN ISO 21269
With hexagon socket and low head
M3-M24
DIN 7984
Slotted
M1.6-M10
DIN EN ISO 1207
| Countersunk head screws hi
<
h
Slotted
M1.6-M10
DIN EN ISO 2009
With hexagon socket
M3-M20
DIN EN ISO 10642
Slotted raised head countersunk
M1.6-M10
DIN EN ISO 2010
Recessed raised head M1.6-M10 countersunk cross
DIN EN ISO 7047
| Sheet metal screws with tapping threads
1
Machine, equipment and automotive industry; low space requirements, head sinkable With low-profile head: small height, low stress Slotted bolts/screws: small screws, low stresses Fine threads: smaller thread depth, capable of higher loads, larger minimum engagement depth l e pages 216,217
I,
f — ^ |r_,
Compared to coarse threads: smaller thread depth, smaller pitch, higher load capacity, larger minimum engagement depth l e
page 214 |
| Cap screws
1*
The most commonly used bolts/screws in machine, equipment and automotive industry Fully threaded type: higher fatigue strength
Partly threaded and with coarse threads
| Hexagon bolts and screws for steel structures
i
Application, properties
Variety of applications in machine, equipment and automotive industry For screws with hexagon socket: greater load capacity For screws with cross recess: Secure tightening and loosening compared to slotted screws
pages 217,218
Round head screw
ST2.2-ST9.5
DIN ISO 7049
Countersunk head screw
ST2.2-ST6.3
DIN ISO 7050
Round head countersunk screws
ST2.2-ST9.9
DIN ISO 7051
Vehicle body and sheet metal manufacturing. The sheets to be joined have tap holes. The threads are formed by the screw. Locking fasteners are only needed for thin sheets.
j
210
Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screws
Bolts and screws - Overview, Designation of bolts and screws Illustration
Design
Standard range from-to
Standard
Application, properties
ST2.2-ST6.3
DIN EN ISO 15481
Round head counter- ST2.2-ST6.3 sunk with cross/recess
DIN EN ISO 15483
Vehicle body and sheet metal manufacturing drilling screws bore the tap hole while being screwed in and form the threads.
Drilling screws with tapping threads Flat head with cross recess
Studs
page 219 /. « 2 • d / e ~ 1.25 • d /e * 1 • d
M4-M24 M4-M48 M4-M48
DIN 835 DIN 939 DIN 938
For aluminum alloys For cast iron materials For steel
Set screws
page 220 With dog point and slotted
M1.6-M12
DIN EN 27435
With dog point and hex socket
M1.6-M24
DIN EN ISO 4028
With cone point and slotted
M1.6-M12
DIN EN 27434
With cone point and hex socket
M1.6-M24
DIN EN ISO 4027
With flat point and slotted
M1.6-M12
DIN EN 24766
With flat point and hex socket
M1.6-M24
DIN EN ISO 4026
Compression loadable screws for securing position of parts, e.g. levers, bearing bushings, hubs Set screws are not suitable for power transmission of torques, e.g. for joining shafts to hubs.
Drain plugs
page 219 Heavy type with hexagon socket or hexagon head
M10x1M52x1.5
DIN 908 DIN 910
Gearbox manufacturing; Fill, overflow and drain screws for gear oil; milling of seating surface necessary
Thread forming screws Various head forms e.g. hexagon, cheese head
page 218 M2-M10
DIN 7500-1
For low loading in malleable materials, e.g. S235, DC01-DC04, non-ferrous metals; use without locking fastener
Eye bolts
page 219
With coarse threads
M8-M 100x6
DIN 580
Transport eyes on machines and equipment; stress depends on the angle of the applied load, milling of seating surface necessary
Designation of bolts and screws Examples:
Type
1)
Hex screw Drain plug Cap screws I Reference standard, e.g. ISO, DIN, EN; Sheet number of the standard1'
cf. DIN 962 (2001-11) ISO 4017 - M12 x 80 - A2-70 DIN 910 - M24 x 1.5 - St ISO 4762 - M10 x 55 - 8 . 8
Nominal data, e.g. M -> metric screw thread 12 -> nominal diameter d 80 -> shank length /
Property class, e.g. 8.8, 10.9, A2-70, A4-70 Material, e.g. St steel, CuZn copper-zinc-alloy
Bolts and screws standardized according to ISO, DIN EN or DIN EN ISO have the abbreviation ISO in their designation. Bolts and screws standardized according to DIN have the abbreviation DIN in their designation.
211
Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screws
Property classes, Product grades, Clearance holes, Minimum engagement depth Property classes of screws and bolts Examples:
cf. DIN EN ISO 898-1 (1999-11), DIN EN ISO 3506-1 (1998-03)
Unalloyed and alloy steels DIN EN ISO 898-1
Stainless steels DIN EN ISO 3506-1
9.8
A 2-70
Tensile strength Rm
Yield strength Re
Steel microstr.
Steel group
Tensile strength Rm
Rm= 9 -100 N/mm 2 = 900 N/mm 2
Re = 9 - 8 - 1 0 N/mm 2 = 720 N/mm 2
A austenitic F ferritic
2 alloyed with Cr, Ni 4 alloyed with Cr, Ni, Mo
Rm = 70 • 10 N/mm 2 = 700 N/mm 2
Property classes and material properties Material property 5.8
Property classes for bolts and screws made of stainless steels1' unalloyed and alloyed steels 6.8 8.8 9.8 10.9 12.9 A2-50 A4-50 A2-70
Tens, strength Rm in N/mm 2 500
600
800
900
1000
1200
500
500
700
Yield strength Re in N/mm 2 400
480
640
720
900
1080
210
210
450
12
10
20
20
13
Elong. at fracture EL in % 1)
10
Material properties apply to threads < M20
Product grades for bolts and nuts Product grade
Tolerances
A
fine
cf. DIN EN ISO 4759-1 (2001-04) Explanation, application
Dimensional, form and positional tolerances for bolts and nuts with ISO threads are specified in tolerance grades A, B, C.
medium coarse
Clearance holes for bolts
n
Thread d
cf. DIN EN 20273 (1992-02) 1)
Clearance hole d h Series fine med. coarse
Thread d
1)
Clearance hole d h Series fine med. coarse
M1 M1.2
1.1 1.3
1.2 1.4
1.3 1.5
M5 M6
5.3 6.4
M1.6 M2
1.7 2.2
1.8 2.4
2 2.6
M8 M10
8.4 10.5
9 11
M2.5 M3 M4
2.7 3.2 4.3
2.9 3.4 4.5
3.1 3.6 4.8
M12 M16 M20
13 17 21
13.5 17.5 22
1)
5.5 6.6
Thread d
Clearance hole d h 1 ) Series fine med. coarse
M24 M30
25 31
26 33
28 35
10 12
M36 M42
37 43
39 45
42 48
14.5 18.5 24
M48 M56 M64
50 58 66
52 62 70
56 66 74
5.8 7
Tolerance grades for d h ; fine series: H12, medium series: H13, coarse series: H14
Minimum engagement depth in blind hole Minimum engagement depth / e 1 > Area of application
am.
3.6, 4.6
4.8-6.8
0.8 • d
1.2 • d
0.8 • d
1.2 • d
1.2 • d
0.8 • d
1.2 • d
1.2 • d
1.2 • d
0.8 • d
1.2 • d
1.0 • d
1.0 - d
Cast iron materials
1.3 • d
1.5- d
1.5 • d
Copper alloys
1.3 • d
1.3 - d
-
-
Aluminum casting alloys
1.6 • d
2.2 • d
-
-
Al alloys, age-hardened
0.8 • d
1.2 • d
Al alloys, not age-hardened
1.2 • d
1.6 • d
Plastics
2.5 • d
Rm < 400 N/mm
Struc. Am = 400-600 N/mm 2 steel > 600-800 N/mm 2 Rm > 800 N/mm
x » 3 • P (thread pitch) e-| according to DIN 76, see page 89
2
2
-
8.8 -
1.6 - d -
10.9 -
-
-
-
-
-
Engagement depth for fine threads l e = 1.25 • Engagement depth for coarse threads
212
Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screws
Hexagon head bolts Hexagon head bolt with shank and coarse threads Valid standard DIN EN ISO
Repla ces DIN EN DIN
4014
24014
931
I
—
r
b
•t?
WAF'
k
M1.6
M2
M2.5
M3
M4
M5
M6
M8
M10
WAF k dw
3.2 1.1 2.3
4 1.4 3.1
5 1.7 4.1
5.5 2 4.6
7 2.8 5.9
8 3.5 6.9
10 4 8.9
13 5.3 11.6
16 6.4 14.6
e b
3.4 9
4.3 10
5.5 11
6 12
7.7 14
8.8 16
11.1 18
14.4 22
17.8 26
j from / to
12 16
16 20
16 25
20 30
25 40
25 50
30 60
40 80
45 100
Property classes
1 j
OJ
Thread d
i
5.6, 8.8, 9.8, 10.9, A2-70, A4-70
Thread d
M12
M16
M20
M24
M30
M36
M42
M48
M56
WAF k
18 7.5
24 10
30 12.5
36 15
46 18.7
55 22.5
65 26
75 30
85 35
dw e
16.6 20
22 26.2
27.7 33
33.3 39.6
42.8 50.9
51.1 60.8
60 71.3
69.5 82.6
78.7 93.6
b1>
30
38 44
46 52
54 60 73
66 72 85
84 97
96 109
108 121
137
90 240
110 300
140 360
160 440
180 500
220 500
1)
for / < 125 mm for / = 125-200 mm 3) f o r / > 200 mm
cf. DIN EN ISO 4014 (2001-03)
b3>
2)
j from / to
Product gradeis (page 21 1) Threads d
/ in mm
Grade
< M12
all
A
M16-M24 i r
/ < 150
A
/ > 160
B
> M30
all
B
50 120
80 200
5.6, 8.8,9.8, 10.9
Property classes Nominal lengths /
65 160
A2-70, A4-70
A2-50, A4-50
12, 16, 20, 25. 30. 35-60, 65, > 70, 80, 90-140, 150, 160, 180, 200-460, 480, 500 mm Hexagon head bolt ISO 4014 - M10 x 60 - 8.8: d= M10, / = 60 mm, property class 8.8
I Hexagon head bolts with coarse threads, fully threaded Valid standard DIN EN ISO 4017
i Qj J
Thread d
24017
i —
^
—
I. 1
JH JL.
wy
Repla ces DIN EN DIN 933
Ik_
—
-
> T;J
/
Product gradeis (page 2111) Threads d
/ in mm
Grade
< M12
all
A
Is 150
A
/ > 160
B
all
B
M16-M24 > M30
as per agreement
cf. DIN EN ISO 4017 (2001-03) |
M1.6
M2
M2.5
M3
M4
M5
M6
M8
M10
WAF k
3.2 1.1
4 1.4
5 1.7
5.5 2
7 2.8
8 3.5
10 4
13 5.3
16 6.4
dw e
2.3 3.4
3.1 4.3
4.1 5.5
4.6 6
5.9 7.7
6.9 8.8
8.9 11.1
11.6 14.4
14.6 17.8
j from / to
2 16
4 20
5 25
6 30
8 40
10 50
12 60
16 80
20 100
Property classes
5.6, 8.8, 9.8, 10.9, A2-70, A4-70
Thread d
M12
M16
M20
M24
M30
M36
M42
M48
M56
WAF k
18 7.5
24 10
30 12.5
36 15
46 18.7
55 22.5
65 26
75 30
85 35
dw e
16.6 20
22 26.2
27.7 33
33.3 39.6
42.8 50.9
51.1 60.8
60 71.3
69.5 82.6
78.7 93.6
j from / to
25 120
30 200
40 200
50 200
60 200
70 200
80 200
100 200
110 200
Property classes Nominal lengths /
5>.6, 8.8,!9.8, 10.S) A2-70, A4-70
A2-50, A4-50
as per agreement
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 2 5, 30, 35-60, 6Ei, 70, 80. 90-140, 150, 160, 180, 200 mm Hexagon head bolt ISO 4017 - M8 x 40 - A4-50: d= M8,1 = 40 mm, property class A4-50
213
Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screws
Hexagon head bolts Hexagon head bolt with shank and fine threads Valid standard DIN EN ISO
Repla ces DIN EN DIN
8765
960
28765
_
Thread d
M8 M10 M12 M16 M20 M24 x1 x1 x1.5 x1.5 x1.5 x2
WAF k
13 5.3
dw e
11.6 14.6 16.6 22.5 28.2 33.6 14.4 17.8 20 26.2 33 39.6
Qj
w,A
•
C|
I
l
'
j from / to
-1
Product gradeis (page 21 1)
16 6.4
22
b2> b3>
b
/
cf. DIN EN ISO 8765 (2001-03)
26
40 80
24 10
18 7.5
30
45 100
50 120
30 12.5
38 44 65 160
46 52 80 200
M30 x2
M36 x3
M42 x3
M48 x3
M56 x4
46 18.7
55 22.5
65 26
75 30
85 35
42.8 50.9
51.1 60.8
60 71.3
69.5 82.6
78.7 93.6
54 60 73
66 72 85
84 97
96 109
108 121
137
100 240
120 300
140 360
160 440
200 480
220 500
36 15
Nominal lengths /
40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 80, 90-140, 150, 160, 180, 200, 220-460, 480, 500 mm
Threads d
/ in mm
Grade
< M12x1.5
all
A
Property classes
d < M24x2: 5.6, 8.8, 10.9, A2-70, A4-70 d= M30x2-M36x2: 5.6, 8.8, 10.9, A2-50, A4-50
M16x1.5-
< 150
A
Explanations
1)
M24x2
> 150
B
> M30x2
all
B
=>
2)
for / < 125 mm
for / = 125-200 mm
Repla ces DIN EN DIN
8676
{
t T L
Qj
I
W;
28676
961
^J
I
[D
M
/
:
/
<
M8 M10 M12 M16 M20 M24 x1 x1 x1.5 x1.5 x1.5 x2
WAF k
13 5.3
dw e
11.6 14.6 16.6 22.5 28.2 33.6 14.4 17.8 20 26.2 33 39.6
18 7.5
16 6.4
16 80
20 100
25 120
24 10
35 160
30 12.5
40 200
36 15
40 200
F
M56 x4
46 18.7
55 22.5
65 26
75 30
85 35
42.8 50.9
51.1 60.8
60 71.3
69.5 82.6
78.7 93.6
40 200
40 90 200J 420
100 480
120 500
d s M24x2: 5.6, 8.8, 10.9, A2-70, A4-70 d = M30x2-M36x2: 5.6, 8.8, 10.9, A2-50, A4-50
d > M42x3: as per agreement
cf. DIN EN 24015 (1991-12)
Thread d
M3
M4
M5
M6
M8
M10
M12
M16
M20
WAF k dw
5.5 2 4.4
7 2.8 5.7
8 3.5 6.7
10 4 8.7
13 5.3 11.4
16 6.4 14.4
18 7.5 16.4
24 10 22
30 12.5 27.7
ds e
2.6 6
3.5 7.5
4.4 8.7
5.3 10.9
7.1 14.2
8.9 17.6
10.7 19.9
14.5 26.2
18.2 33
12
14
16
18
22 28
26 32
30 36
38 44
46 52
20 30
20 40
25 50
25 60
30 80
40 100
45 120
55 150
65 150
b2)
abm
k
M48 x3
Property classes
1
I
M42 x3
Hexagon head bolt ISO 8676 - M8 x 1,5 x 55 - 8.8: d = M8 x 1.5, / = 55 mm, property class 8.8
WA F
-
M36 x3
16, 20, 25, 30, 35-60, 65, 70, 80, 90-140, 150, 160, 180, 200, 220-460, 480, 500 mm
Hex head bolt with reduced shank
I
M30 x2
Nominal lengths /
Product grades according to DIN EN ISO 8765
QJ
for / > 200 mm
cf. DIN EN ISO 8676 (2001 03)
Thread d
j from / to
3)
Hexagon head bolt ISO 8765-M20 x 1.5 x 120 - 5.6: d = M20 x 1.5, / = 120 mm, property class 5.6
Hexagon head bolts with fine threads, fully threaded Valid standard DIN EN ISO
d > M42x3: as per agreement
/
j from / to Nominal lengths / Property classes
Product grades (page 211)
Explanations
Threads d
/ in mm
Grade
- M20
all
B
=>
20, 25, 30-65, 70, 75, 80, 90, 100-130, 140, 150 mm 5.8, 6.8, 8.8, A2-70 11
for / < 120 mm
2)
for 1 > 125 mm
Hexagon head bolt ISO 4015 - M8 x 45 - 8.8: d = M8, / = 45 mm, property class 8.8
214
Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screws
Hexagon head bolts Hexagon head fit bolts with long thread
x1
M10 M10 x1
M12 M12 x1.5
M16 M16 x1.5
M20 M20 x1.5
M24 M24 x2
M30 M30 x2
M36 M36 x3
M42 M42 x3
M48 M48 x3
WAF k
13 5.3
16 6.4
18 7.5
24 10
30 12.5
36 15
46 19
55 22
65 26
75 30
ds k6
9 14.4
11
13 19.9
17 26.2
21 33
25 39.6
32 50.9
38
17.8
60.8
44 71.3
82.6
14.5 16.5
17.5 19.5
20.5 22.5
25 27 32
28.5 30.5 35.5
36.5 41.5
43 48
49 54
56
63
61
68
38 150
45 150
55 150
65 200
200
80 200
85 200
Thread d
WAF
M
"ta
2
-
i -
b1>
b»
b
/
from to
Nominal lengths /
I in mm
< 10
all
> 12
all
25 80
32 120
30 100
Grade
Explanations
A2-70 1)
2)
for / < 150 mm
Product grade C
I
cf. DIN EN 14399-4 (2006-06), replaces DIN 6914
M12
M16
M20
M22
M24
M27
M30
M36
WAF k
22 8 20.1
27 10 24.9
32 13 29.5
36 14 33.3
41 15 38
46 17 42.8
50 19 46.6
60 23 55.9
23.9 23
29.6 28
35 33
39.6 34
45.2 39
50.9 41
55.4 44
66.4 52
35 95
40 130
45 155
50 165
60 195
70 200
200
from to
75
85
200
Nominal 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70-175, 180, 185, 190, 195, 200 mm lengths / Property class, 10.9 surface normal - > with thin oil film, hot-galvanized - > code: tZn Hexagon head bolt EN 14399-4 - M12 x 65 - 10.9 - HV - tZn: M12, / = 65 mm, property class 10.9, for high-strength bolting assemblies, with hot-galvanized surface
Hexagon fit bolts with large width across flats Thread d WAF k
WAF
cf. DIN 7999 (1983-12)
M12
M16
M20
M22
M24
M27
M30
21
27 10 25
34 13 32
36 14 34
41 15 39
46 17 43.5
50 19 47.5
21 37.3 26
23 39.6 28
25 45.2 29.5
28 50.9 32.5
31 55.4 35
50 180
55 200
55 200
200
8 19
d8b11 e b
22.8
18.5
17 29.6 22
j from i to
40 120
45 160
Nominal lengths / Property classes Product grade C
> for / > 150 mm
Thread d
cL
I k
3
for / = 50-150 mm
Fit bolt DIN 609 - M16 x 1.5 x 125 - A2-70: d= M16 x 1.5, / = 125 mm, property class A2-70
WAF
b
as per agreement
A2-50
Hexagon head bolts with large width across flats for high-strength structural bolting assemblies (HV)
i
70
50
25, 28, 30, 32, 35, 38, 40, 42, 45, 48, 50, 55, 60-150, 160-200 mm
Property classes
Product grades (page 211) d in mm
M8 M8
63>
/
k
cf. DIN 609 (1995-02)
13
40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65-180, 185, 190, 195, 200 mm All bolts: property class 10.9 Hexagon head bolt DIN 7999 - M24 x 165: d= M24,1 = 165 mm, property class 10.9
60
65
200
215
Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screws
Hexagon socket head cap screws Hexagon socket head cap screws with coarse threads Valid standard DIN EN ISO
Replaces DIN
4762
912
Thread d WAF k dk
M1.6
M2
M2.5
M3
1.5
1.5 2 3.8
2 2.5 4.5
2.5 3 5.5
16 20
17 25
18 >25
1.6
3
b for/ /1 for / from to Property classes
WAF 1
L h
Thread d
i
b
/1
k
•C3
I
M5
M6
M8
M10
4 5
B.5
5 6 10
6 8 13
8 10 16
20 >30
22 >30
24 >35
28 >40
32 >45
3 = 30
3.8 <35
4.5 <40
1.1
1.2
1.4
1.5
2.1
< 16
< 16
<20
<20
<25
2.4 <25
2.5 16
3 20
4 25
5 30
6 40
8 50
by agreement
8.8, 10.9, 12.9
M24
M30
M36
M42
M48
M56
WAF k dk
10 12 18
14 16 24
17 20 30
19 24 36
22 30 45
27 36 54
32 42 63
36 48 72
41 56 84
b for /
36 > 55
44 > 65
52 >80
60 >90
72
84
>110
> 120
96 : 140
/1 for /
5.3 < 50
6
7.5 <70
9
10.5
12
; 60
: 80
< 100
< 110
20 120
25 160
200
40 200
45 200
45 200
Nominal lengths /
30
A2-70, A4-70
70 300
80 300
as per agreement
A2-50, A4-50
2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 30-65, 70, 80-150, 160, 180, 200, 220, 240, 260, 280, 300 mm
cf. DIN 7984 (2002-12)
M3
M4
M5
M6
M8
M10
M12
M16
M20
M24
WAF k d,
2 2 5.5
2.5
4 4 10
5 5 13
7 6 16
7 18
12 9 24
14
7
3 3.5 8.5
30
17 13 36
b for /
12 >20
14 >25
16
>30
18 >30
22 >35
26 >40
30 >50
38 >60
44 >70
46 >90
h for /
1.5
2.1
3 <25
3.8 <30
4.5 <35
5.3 <45
6 <50
9
<20
2.4 <25
7.5
< 16
<60 <80
5 20
30
10 40
12 80
16 100
20
25
80
30 80
Nominal lengths /
M3-M24
60 300
Thread d
from to
Grade
124 > 180
Cap screw ISO 4762 - M10 x 55 - 10.9: d= M10, / = 55 mm, property class 10.9
zzy
Thread d
108 > 160
15 13.5 16.5 < 130 < 150 < 160
8.8, 10.9, 12.9
Hexagon socket head cap screws, low head
Product grades (page 211)
16
100
M20
M1.6-M56
di
12
80
M16
Grade
WAF
10 60
Stainless steels A2-70, A4-70
Property classes
Thread d
M4
M12
from to
Product grades (page 211)
cf. DIN EN ISO 4762 (2004-06)
Property classes
2.8
6
11
40 100
50 100
5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100 mm 8.8, A2-70, A4-70 Cap screw DIN 7984 - M12 x 50 - A2-70: d= M12, / = 50 mm, property class A2-70
216
Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screws
Cap screws, Countersunk head screws Hexagon socket head cap screws with fine threads
WAF
L h
1(
ZZ3 1=4
/1
k
Thread d
M8 M10 M12 M16 M20 M24 M30 M36 M42 M48 M56 x2 3x x4 xl x1 x1.5 x1.5 x1.5 x2 x3 x3
WAF k dk
6 8 13
I
10
8 10 16
12 18
14 16 24
b for /
36 44 28 32 >40 >45 >55 >65
h for /
3 3 4.5 < 35 <40 <50
/
b
cf. DIN EN ISO 21269 (2004-06)
from to
Nominal lengths /
20
12
80
19 24 36
30 45
52 >80
60 >90
r 110
4.5
6
4.5
22
25
30
72
dk k
Nominal lengths /
1)
Product grade A (page 211)
80 300
70 300
as per agreement
M4
M5
M6
M8
M10
7 2.6
8.5 3.3
10 3.9
13 5
16 6
0.8
1.2
1.1
1.2
0.9
1.3
1.6 1.6
4 30
5 40
6 50
60
M1.6
M2
M2.5
M3
3
3.8 1.4
4.5 1.8
5.5 2
0.4 0.5
0.5
0.6
0.7
2
3 20
3 25
16
0.6
2.5 2.4 10
12
80
80
threads near to head b = 38 mm
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25-45, 50, 60, 70, 80 mm 4.8, 5.8, A2-50, A4-50
cf. DIN EN ISO 10642 (2004-06), replaces DIN 7991
Thread d
M3
M4
M5
M6
M8
M10
M12
M16
M20
WAF dk k
2 5.5 1.9
2.5 7.5 2.5
3 9.4 3.1
4 11.3 3.7
5 15.2 5
6 19.2 6.2
8 23.1 7.4
10 29 8.8
12 36 10.2
b for /
18 >30
20 >30
22 >35
24 >40
28 >50
CNE Al
I
9
00
3
b
/i
9
Property classes A2-50, A4-50 (stainless steels)
Hexagon socket head countersunk screws
y
124 >180
Cheese head screw ISO 1207 - M6 x 25 - 5.8: d = M6, / = 25 mm, property class 5.8
Product grade A (page 211)
—
60 300
A2-70, A4-70
Property classes
-
55 200
8.8, 10.9, 12.9
for / < 45 mm for / > 45 mm
/
108 >160
12, 16, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110, 120, 130, 140, 150, 160, 180, 200, 220, 240, 260, 280, 300 mm
1.1
from to
f
9
41 56 84
cf. DIN EN ISO 1207(1994-10) Thread d
K
96
9
45 200
Slotted cheese head screws
—
84
36 48 72
Cap screw ISO 21269 - M20 x 1,5 x 120 - 10.9: d= M20x1.5, / = 120 mm, property class 10.9
Product grade A (page 211)
WAF
32 42 63
<100 <110 <130 <150 <160
40 200
200
27 36 54
: 120 >140
6
<60 <70 <70
100 120 160
Property classes Explanation
20
17 20 30
36 >65
44 >80
52 100
/i for /
1.5 <25
2.1 <25
2.4 <30
3 <35
3.8 <45
4.5 <50
5.3 <60
6 <70
7.5 <90
8 30
8 40
8 50
8 60
10 80
12 100
20 100
30 100
35 100
j from / to Property classes
8.8, 10.9, 12.9
Nominal lengths /
8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 80, 90, 100 mm Countersunk head screw ISO 10642 - M5 x 30 - 8.8: d= M5, / = 30 mm, property class 8.8
217
Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screws
Countersunk head screws, Raised head countersunk screws. Tapping screws Slotted raised head countersunk screws Raised head countersunk screws with cross recess Thread d
M1.6
dk k
cf. DIN EN ISO 2010 (1994-10) cf. DIN EN ISO 7047 (1994-10)
M2
M2.5
M3
M4
M5
M6
M8
M10
3.8
4.7 1.5
5.5 1.7
8.4 2.7
9.3 2.7
11.3 3.3
15.8 4.7
18.3 5
0.5 0.5 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.8 0.7
1.2 1.0
1.2
1.6
1.2 1.2 2.0
1.6 1.4 2.4
2 2 3.2
2.5 2.3 3.8
3 20
4 25
5 30
6 40
50
60
10 80
12 80
1.2
0.4 0.4 0.6
1.0
C1) from to
2.5 16
for / < 45 mm -* b** I; for I > 45 mm -*• b = 38 mm
H
Z
Property classes
DIN EN ISO 2010: 4.8, 5.8, A2-50, A2-70 DIN EN ISO 7047: 4.8, A2-50, A2-70
Nominal lengths /
2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25-45, 50, 60, 70, 80 mm
Explanation
C cross recess size, forms H and Z Countersunk head screw ISO 7047 - M3 x 20 - 4.8 - H: d = M3, / = 20 mm, property class 5.8, cross recess form H
Product grade A (page 211)
Slotted flat head countersunk screws Flat head countersunk screws with cross recess Thread d
i
/
n II Crj \ "T3 oJ Iu -
. b
M1.6
dk k
cf. DIN EN ISO 2009 (1994-10) cf. DIN EN ISO 7046-1 (1994-10)
M2
M2.5
M3
M4
M5
M6
M8
M10
3.8
4.7 1.5
5.5 1.7
8.4 2.7
9.3 2.7
11.3 3.3
15.8 4.7
18.3 5 2.5
1.2
-Q
0.4 0.5
0.5
0.6 0.8
0.8 0.9
1.2
1.2
1.6
0.6
2
1.3
1.4
1.6
2.3
2.6
2.5 16
3 20
4 25
5 30
6 40
50
60
10 80
12 80
1
C *
/
from to
for / < 45 mm - ~r~~i b
\
1
b* I; for / > 45 mm -> b = 38 mm
Property classes
DIN EN ISO 2009: 4.8, 5.8, A2-50, A2-70 DIN EN ISO 7046-1: 4.8, A2-50, A2-70
Nominal lengths /
2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25-45, 50, 60, 70, 80 mm
Explanation
1)
C cross recess size, forms H and Z (DIN EN 2010)
Countersunk head screw ISO 7046-1 - M5 x 40 - 4.8 - H: d = M3, / = 40 mm, property class 4.8, cross recess form H
Product grade A (page 211)
Flat head countersunk tapping screws Raised head countersunk tapping screws DIN EN ISO 7050, Form F
Thread d
cf. DIN EN ISO 7050 (1990-08) cf. DIN EN ISO 7051 (1990-08) ST2.2
ST2.9
ST3.5
ST4.2
ST4.8
ST5.5
ST6.3
3.8
7.3 2.4
8.4
9.3
2.6
2.8
0.5
5.5 1.7 0.7
0.8
1.0
1.2
10.3 3 1.3
11.3 3.2 1.4
4.5 16
6.5 19
9.5 25
9.5 32
9.5 32
13 38
13 38
dk
1.1
k f from to DIN EN ISO 7051, Form C
C 1> Nominal lengths / Forms Explanation
Product grade A (page 211)
4.5, 6.5, 9.5, 13, 16, 19, 22, 25, 32, 38 mm Form C with cone point, form F with dog point 11
C cross recess size, forms H and Z (DIN EN 2010)
Tapping screw ISO 7050 - ST4.8 x 32 - F - Z: d= ST4.8, / = 32 mm, form F, cross recess form Z
218
Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screws
Tapping screws, Thread forming screws Pan head tapping screws
cf. DIN ISO 7049 (1990-08) Thread d
ST2.2
ST2.9
ST3.5
4 1.6
5.6 2.4
4.5 16
6.5 19
d,
k from to
WA k
ST4.2
ST4.8
ST5.5
ST6.3
2.6
3.1
9.5 3.7
11 4
13 4.6
9.5 25
9.5 32
9.5 32
13 38
13 38
7
C1> I
Nominal lengths /
4.5, 6.5, 9.5, 13, 16, 19, 22, 25, 32, 38 mm
Forms
Form C with cone point, form F with dog point
Explanation
11
C cross recess size, forms H and Z (DIN EN 2010)
Tapping screw ISO 7049 - ST2.9 x 13 - C - H:
Product grade A (page 211)
d = ST2.9, / = 13 mm, form C, cross recess form H
Tap hole diameter for tapping screws (selection) Sheet metal thickness s in mm from-to
1)
Holes bored or punched in steel or copper alloy sheet
Tap hole diameter d for tapping screw threads 1 ST2.2
ST2.9
ST3.5
ST4.2
0-0.5 0.6-0.8 0.9-1.1
1.6 1.7 1.8
2.2 2.3 2.4
2.6 2.7 2.8
1.2-1.4 1.5-1.7 1.8-2.0
1.8
2.4 2.5 2.6
2.8 2.9 3.0
2.0-2.5 2.6-3.0 3.1-3.5
_
_
-
-
3.0 3.0
-
-
-
-
-
ST4.8
ST5.5
ST6.3
—
—
—
—
3.2 3.2
3.7 3.7
4.2
4.9
3.3 3.5 3.5
3.9 3.9 4.0
4.3 4.5 4.6
4.9 5.0 5.2
3.5 3.8 3.9
4.0 4.1 4.3
4.6 4.7 5.0
5.3 5.3 5.8
Thread forming screws Form DE: hexagon head bolt
Form
n \
-*t3
11
DE
Thread
d
M2
M2.5
M3
M4
WAF
k
4 1.4
5 1.7
5,5 2
dk e
2.3 3.4
3.1 4.3
3 16 1.5
M5
M6
M8
M10
2.8
3.5
10 4
13 5.3
16 6.4
4.1 5.5
4.6 6
6 7.7
6.9
11.6
11.1
14.4
14.6 17.8
4 20
4 25
6 30
40
8 50
10 60
12 80
3.8
2 2.5 4.5
2.5 3 5.5
4 5 8.5
5 6 10
6 8 13
10 16
3 16
4 20
4 25
6 30
40
50
10 60
12 80
dk k f
3.8
5.5 1.7 1
8.4 2.7 1.2
9.3 2.7 1.4
11.3 3.3 1.4
15.8 4.7
0.4
4.7 1.5 0.5
2
18.3 5 2.3
j from / to
4 16
5 20
25
30
10 40
10 50
12 60
20 80
from to
/
Form EE: hexagon socket head cap bolt
WAF
WAF EE
k dk
2
from to
3
Form NE: raised countersunk head bolt with cross recess
-
cf. DIN 7500-1 (2007-03)
WAF [ — E -RAI Q I rI t
-
NE
1.2
7
6
C1'
Nominal lengths I Explanation Product grade A (page 211)
3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 30-50, 55, 60, 70, 80 mm 1)
C cross recess size, forms H and Z (DIN EN 2010)
Screw DIN 7500 - DE - M8 x 25 - St: DE Hex head, d = M8, / = 25 mm (material: case hardened and tempered steel)
219
Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screws
Studs, Eye bolts, Drain plugs Studs
cf. DIN 835, 938, 939 (1995-02) M3
M4
M6
M5
Thread d
x1
t3
)
n r U
1 1
•
b for / < 125 / < 125
b e
from to
Product grade A (page 211)
835 938 939
Aluminum alloys Steel Cast iron
12 18
14 20
DIN 835 DIN 938 DIN 939
I
Application DIN For screwing into
M8 M8
Property classes Nominal lengths /
20 30
20 40
M10 M12 M10 M12 xl.25 xl.25
M16 M16 x1.5
M20 M20 x1.5
M24 M24 x2
16 22
18 24
22 28
26 32
30 36
38 44
46 52
54 60
10 5 6.5
12
20 10 12
24 12 15
32 16 20
40
7.5
16 8 10
25
48 24 30
25 50
25 60
30
35 100
40
120
50 170
60 200
200
6
80
20
70
5.6, 8.8, 10.9 20, 25, 30-75, 80, 90-180, 190, 200 mm Stud ISO 939 - M10 x 65 - 8.8: d= M10, / = 65 mm, property class 8.8
Eye bolts
cf. DIN 580 (2003-08) Thread d
M8 M10 M12 M16 M20 M24
M30
M36
M42
M48
M56
h
18 36
75 144 80
85 166 90
95 184 100
85 63
100 68
110 78
8.60 6.10
8.20
cfi d2
20
d3
20
I
13
22.5 45 25
26 54 30
30.5 63 35
35 72 40
45 90 50
55 108 60
65 126 70
25 17
30 20.5
35 27
40 30
50 36
65 45
75 54
Case hardened steel C15E, A2, A3, A4, A5
Materials
Carrying capacity in t for loading direction
vertical (single line)
under 45° (double line)
Vertical under 45c
0.14 0.23 0.34 0.70 1.20 0.10 0.17 0.24 0.50 0.86
1.80 1.29
3.20 2.30
4.60 3.30
11.5
Eye bolt DIN 580 - M20 - C15E: d= M20, material C15E
Hexagon head Drain plugs WAF
6.30 4.50
cf. DIN 910 (1992-01) M10 x1
M12 x1.5
M16 x1.5
M20 x1.5
M24 x1.5
M30 x1.5
M36 x1.5
M42 x1.5
M48 x1.5
M52 x1.5
14 17
17 21 12
21 21 12
25 26 14
29 27 14
36 30 16
42 32 16
49 33 16
55 33 16
60 33 16
c WAF e
3 10 10.9
3 13 14.2
3 17 18.7
4 19 20.9
4 22 23.9
4 24
4 27 29.6
5 30 33
5 30 33
5 30 33
Materials
St steel, Al Al-alloy, CuZn copper-zinc-alloy
Thread d
26.1
Screw plug DIN 910 - M24 x 1.5 - St: d= M24 x 1.5, material: steel
Hexagon socket Drain plugs
cf. DIN 908 (1992-01) M10 x1
M12 x1.5
M16 x1.5
M20 x1.5
M24 x1.5
M30 x1.5
M36 x1.5
M42 x1.5
M48 x1.5
M52 x1.5
d\ I c
14 11 3
17 15 3
21 15 3
25 18 4
29 18 4
36 4
42 21 5
49 21 5
55 21 5
60 21 5
WAF t e
5 5 5.7
6 7 6.9
7.5 9.2
10 7.5 11.4
12 7.5 13.7
17 9 19.4
19 10.5 21.7
22 10.5 25.2
24 10.5 27.4
24 10.5 27.4
Thread d
Materials
20
St steel, Al Al-alloy, CuZn copper-zinc-alloy Screw plug DIN 908 - M20 x 1.5 - CuZn: d= M24 x 1.5, material: copper-zinc-alloy
220
Machine elements: Set
5.2 Bolts a n d s c r e w s screws
S l o t t e d set s c r e w s
cf. DIN EN 27434, 27435, 24766 (all 1992-10) Thread d
with cone point
LU CO
M1.2 M1.6 M2 M2.5 M3 0.1 0.2
4 n t
0.5
£ r-» Q™
^ in LU CO Z rO™ from to with flat point
^ co
d^ n t
Q™
0.6 0.2 0.5
M5
M6
M8
M10
M12
0.2
0.2
0.3 0.7
0.3 0.8
0.3 0.4 1
0.3 0.4 1.1
0.4 0.6 1.4
0.5 0.8 1.6
1.5 1 2
2 1.2 2.5
2.5 1.6 3
3.6 2 3
3 10
3 12
4 16
6 25
8 30
5 35
10 40
12 55
16 60
0.8 1.1
1 1.3
1.5 1.5
2 1.8
2.5 2.3
3.5 2.8
4.3 3.3
5.5 4.3
7 5.3
8.5 6.3
0.3 0.7
0.3 0.8
0.4 1
0.4 1.1
0.6 1.4
0.8 1.6
1.2 2.5
1.6 3
2.5
3 10
4 12
5 16
6 20
8 25
10 40
12 50
16 60
1 0.3 0.8
1.5 0.4 1
2 0.4 1.1
2.5 0.6 1.4
3.5 0.8 1.6
5.5 1.2 2.5
7 1.6 3
8.5 2 3.6
2 10
2.5 12
3 16
4 20
5 25
40
10 50
12 60
from to
z
M4
0.8 0.3 0.7
from to
30
6 30
Product grade A (page 211)
Property classes
45H, A1-12H, A2-21H, A3-21H, A4-21H, A5-21H
Valid standard
Replaces
2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 30-50, 55, 60 mm
DIN EN 27434 DIN EN 27435 DIN EN 24766
DIN 553 DIN 417 DIN 551
Nominal lengths /
Set screw ISO 7434 - M6 x 25 - 14H: d = M6, / = 25 mm, property class 14H
S e t s c r e w s w i t h h e x a g o n socket
cf. DIN EN ISO 4026, 4027, 4028 (2004-05)
Thread d
with cone point
M2 M2.5 M3
M20
2.3 1.5
2.9 2
3.4 2
4.6 3
5.7 4
6.9 4.8
9.1 6.4
11.4 8
2 10
2.5 12
3 16
4 20
5 25
6 30
40
10 50
12 60
16 60
20 60
1 1.3 0.9
1.5 1.5 1.3
2
1.8 1.5
2.5 2.3
3.5 2.8 2.5
4 3.3 3
5.5 4.3 4
7 5.3 5
8.5 6.3 6
12 8.4
15 10.4 10
1 0.8
1.5
1.7
1.2
2.3 1.5
2.9
3.4 2
4.6 3
5.7 4
6.9 4.8
9.1 6.4
11.4
1.2
2.5 10
3 12
4 16
5 20
6 25
30
8 40
20 50
12 60
16 60
1
1.5 1.3
2
2.5
1.5
2
3.5 2.5
8.5 6
12
0.9
15 10
LU O
1
1.5
&
1.2
1.7 1.2
2.3 1.5
2.9
0.8
2
3.4 2
4.6 3
5.7 4
6.9 4.8
9.2 6.4
11.4 8
2
2.5
3
5 25
6 30
8 40
10 50
16
16
4 20
12
12
60
60
20 60
_ oo Z
from to d1 z WAF
LU O
from to di WAF
with flat point _
Z
2
5 10
2.5 5
CN
| o D c/)
CD CM
Q c/D
DIN 913 DIN 914 DIN 915
M16
1.7 1.2
with dog point
DIN EN ISO 4026 DIN EN ISO 4027 DIN EN ISO 4028
M12
1.5 1.2
o 00
Replaces
1.5 3
M10
1 0.8
SW " k ^ -
Valid standard
1.3 2.5
M8
0.8 1.5
sS
Product grade A (page 211)
M6
0.7 1.3
Z CN LU O
SW
M5
0.5 0.9
d^ WAF
if
M4
Property classes Nominal lengths /
from to
10
2
5.5 4
45H, A1-12H, A2-21H, A3-21H, A4-21H, A5-21H 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 30-50, 60 mm Set screw ISO 4026 - M6 x 25 - A5-21H: d= M6, / = 25 mm, A5 stainless steel, property class 21H
20
60
221
M a c h i n e e l e m e n t s : 5.2 Bolts a n d s c r e w s
Screw joint calculations Preselection of shank bolts1'
F p preload Fa applied force
Applied force per bolt Fa2) in kN
Load • static
2.5
4
6.3
10
16
25
40
63
F c joint clamp force
• dynamic
1.6
2.5
4
6.3
10
16
25
40
Fs total bolt load
fa> W5
fs bolt extension f} joint compression
5.8, 6.
M5
M6
M8
M10
M12
M16
M20
M24
8.8
M5
M6
M8
M8
M10
M16
M20
M24
Q. CD 10.9 P o 12.9
M4
M5
M6
M8
M10
M12
M16
M20
M4
M5
M5
M8
M8
M10
M12
M16
1)
2)
It is necessary to check the values of the selected bolts in accordance with VDI Guideline 2230 for instance. For waisted bolts select next higher applied force level.
Preload and tightening torques Waisted b
Shank bo Its Thread
F3)
v in mm2
Tightening torque Mx in N • m
Preload F p in kN
Overall c oefficie nt of friiction fj 4) 0.08 0.12 0.14 0.08 0.12 0.14
Tightening torque Mt in N • m
Preload F p in kN
A/v2) in mm2
4 coefficier it of fric tion /J ) 0.12 0.14 0.08 0.12 0.14
1rota I
0.08
M8
8.8 10.9 12.9
36.6
18.6 27.1 31.9
17.2 25.2 29.5
16.5 24.2 28.3
17.9 26.2 30.7
23.1 34 39.6
25.3 37.2 43.6
26.6
12.9 19 22.2
11.8 17.3 20.2
11.2 16.4 19.2
13.6 20 23.4
17.6 25.8 30.2
19.2 28.2 33
M8 x 1
8.8 10.9 12.9
39.2
20.3 29.7 34.8
18.8 27.7 32.4
18.1 26.6 31.1
18.8 27.7 32.4
24.8 36.4 42.6
27.3 40.1 47.1
29.2
14.6 21.5 25.1
13.4 19.6 23
12.7 18.7 21.9
13.6 20 23.4
17.6 25.8 30.2
19.2 28.2 33
M10
8.8 10.9 12.9
58.0
29.5 43.3 50.7
27.3 40.2 47
26.2 38.5 45
36 53 61
46 68 80
51 75 88
42.4
20.7 30.4 35.6
18.9 27.7 32.4
17.9 26.4 30.8
25 37 43
32 47 55
35 51 60
M10x1.25
8.8 10.9 12.9
61.2
31.5 46.5 54.4
29.4 43.2 50.6
28.3 41.5 48.6
37 55 64
49 72 84
54 80 93
45.6
22.7 33.5 39.2
20.9 30.6 35.9
19.9 29.2 34.4
27 40 46
35 51 60
38 56 65
M12
8.8 10.9 12.9
84.3
43 63 73.9
39.9 58.5 68.5
38.3 61 56.2 90 65.8 105
80 117 137
87 128 150
61.7
30.3 44.6 52.1
27.6 40.6 47.7
26.3 38.6 45.2
43 63 74
55 81 95
60 88 103
M12x1.5
8.8 10.9 12.9
88.1
48.2 70.8 82.7
45 66 72.3
43.2 65 63.5 96 74.3 112
87 128 150
96 141 165
65.8
35 52 61
32.6 47.8 56
31 45.7 53.4
48 71 83
63 93 108
69 102 119
M16
8.8 10.9 12.9
157
81 119 140
75.3 72.4 147 106 216 111 124 253 130
194 285 333
214 314 367
117
58.4 85.8 100
53.4 78.5 91.8
51 106 74.8 156 87.5 182
137 202 236
150 221 258
M16x1.5
8.8 10.9 12.9
167
88 129 151
82.2 79.2 154 121 227 116 141 265 136
207 304 355
229 336 394
128
65.5 60.2 96.2 88.4 104 113
57.4 115 84.5 169 197 99
151 222 260
166 244 285
M20
8.8 10.9 12.9
245
131 186 218
121 173 202
117 166 194
297 423 495
391 557 653
430 615 720
182
92 134 157
86 123 144
82 117 137
215 306 358
278 395 462
304 432 505
M20x1.5
8.8 10.9 12.9
272
149 212 247
138 200 231
134 190 225
320 455 533
433 618 721
482 685 802
210
113 160 188
104 148 173
100 142 166
242 345 402
322 460 540
355 508 594
M24
8.8 10.9 12.9
353
188 268 313
175 250 291
168 238 280
512 730 855
675 960 1125
743 1060 1240
262
136 193 225
124 177 207
118 168 196
370 527 617
480 682 800
523 745 871
M24x2
8.8 10.9 12.9
384
210 300 350
196 280 327
189 268 315
545 776 908
735 1046 1224
816 1160 1360
295
158 224 263
145 207 242
139 198 230
410 582 682
543 775 905
600 852 998
During assembly, the bolts are under tensile and torsional stress. The tightening torque Mt utilizes approx. 90% of the yield strength of the bolt material. 1) 4) As stress area ^ = ° - 0 8 : b o l t MoS 2 lubricated 2) A w waist cross section fj = 0.12: bolt lightly oiled 3) F property class of bolt ij = 0.14: bolt secured with microencapsulated plastic
222
Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screws
Locking fasteners A locking fastener is generally not necessary for screw joints which are sufficiently dimensioned and securely mounted. The clamping forces prevent the slipping of the screwed parts or loosening of the bolts and nuts. In practice a loss of clamping force can still occur due to the following causes: \ Z \ \
"O
L o c k i n g e d g e ri n g s , b o l t s / s c r e w s w i ith t e e t h u n d e r t h e head, m i c r o e n c a p s ii l a t e d a d h e s i v e s , l i q u id a d h e s i v e : o p t i m a l u n s c r e w i n g loq k
I \ 1 \ 1 \
CD
0)
• Loosening of the screw joint caused by high surface contact pressures which initiate plastic deformation (so-called settling) and reduce the preload of the screw joint. Remedy: As little seperation as possible, minimal surface roughness, use of high-strength bolts (large preload).
Loc:k w a s h e r s , castle nuits, lock w i r e: cap>tive fastenlers o r SITUall unscrew /ina MI IY lociks ( p o l y a mlide coatinigs)
• Unscrewing of the screw joint: For joints dynamically loaded transverse to the bolt axis a fully self-actuated unscrewing can occur.
— I Q.
1
This is remedied with locking elements. These are divided into three groups based on their effectiveness.
:Spriri g lock w a ;5her, sprinig w a s h e r , t ^ t o o t h i lock w a s hier, c o u n t e r n u t : \ ineffi c i e n t lock
1000
2000
3000
load cycles
4000
Ineffective locking elements (e.g. spring lock washers and tooth lock washers). Captive fasteners, which allow a partial unscrewing, but prevent the screw joint from coming completely apart.
5000
1
Threadlocking (e.g. glue or corrugated head screws). The preload remains approximately constant. The nut or bolt cannot loosen by itself (best method of locking).
Vibration test DIN 65151 performed on various locking elements The locking behavior of screw joints under transverse loading on the bolt is tested ISO 4014-M10.
Overview of locking fasteners Joint
Locking element
Standard
Type, property
Loaded together, spring loaded
spring lock washer spring washer tooth lock washer serrated lock washer
withdrawn withdrawn withdrawn withdrawn
ineffective ineffective ineffective ineffective
Interlocking
lock washer castle nut with cotter pin lock wire
withdrawn DIN 935-1+2
captive fastener captive fastener captive fastener
Force-fit (gripping)
jam nut bolts and nuts with gripping polyamide coating
Blocking (force-fit and interlocking)
Bonded
bolts with teeth under the head detent edged ring detent washer self-locking pair of washers microencapsulated adhesives in threads liquid adhesive
-
DIN 267-28 ISO 2320
-
-
DIN 267-27
-
ineffective, loosening possible captive fastener or slight anti-rotation lock
anti-rotation lock, not suitable for hardened parts anti-rotation lock, not suitable for hardened parts anti-rotation lock
anti-rotation lock, sealing jointtemperature range -50°C to 150°C anti-rotation lock
223
Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screws
Width across flats, Types of bolt and screw drives Width across flats for bolts, screws, valves and fittings Width across flats (WAF) Nominal size s 3.2 3.5 4
e-, = 1.4142 s 8 = 0.7071-6!
cf. DIN 475-1 (1984-01)
Length of diagonal Width across Two Square Hexa- flats (WAF) flats gonal Nominal size d s e2 3.7 4.5 3.5 21 4 4.9 3.8 22 5.7 4.4 4.5 23
Two flats d 24 25 26
Length of diagonal Square Hexa- Octagonal gonal e
2
29.7 31.1 32.5
23.4 24.5 25.6
22.7 23.8 24.9
4.5 5 5.5
5 6 7
6.4 7.1 7.8
4.9 5.5 6.0
24 25 26
28 29 31
33.9 35.5 36.8
26.8 27.9 29.0
26.0 27.0 28.1
6 7 8
7 8 9
8.5 9.9 11.3
6.6 7.7 8.8
27 28 30
32 33 35
38.2 39.6 42.4
30.1 31.3 33.5
29.1 30.2 32.5
9 10 11
10 12 13
12.7 14.1 15.6
9.9 11.1 12.1
32 34 36
38 40 42
45.3 48.0 50.9
35.7 37.7 40.0
34.6 36.7 39.0
12 13 14
14 15 16
17.0 18.4 19.8
13.3 14.4 15.5
41 46 50
48 52 58
58.0 65.1 70.7
45.6 51.3 55.8
44.4 49.8 54.1
15 16 17
17 18 19
21.2 22.6 24.0
16.6 17.8 18.9
55 60 65
65 70 75
77.8 84.8 91.9
61.3 67.0 72.6
59.5 64.9 70.3
18 19 20
21 22 23
25.4 26.9 28.3
20.0 21.1 22.2
70 75 80
82 88 92
99.0 106 113
78.3 83.9 89.6
75.7 81.2 86.6
=>
DIN 475• - WAF 16: Width across flats with nominal size s = 16 mm
Table values as per DIN 475 apply to finished stamped wrought products, bolts, screws, nuts and fittings. Diagonal lengths calculated by the formula e 2 = 1.1547 • s are larger than the table values, since they are based on the sharp-edged hexagon. Calculation of regular polygons, page 27.
Screw drive systems Type
Properties
Type
High torque transmission, no axial force required, relatively economical, identical tool for bolt and nut, many variations, tool relatively large
Higher torque transmission than with hexagon head
internal torx drive
hexagonal head Like hexagon head except the torque transmission is slightly less, requires less space for tool than with hexagon head
Very good torque transmission, little space required for tool
external torx drive
hexagon socket
tamper resistant hexagon drive
Safety screw, can only be loosened with a special tool, especially wellsuited as protection against damage and theft, yet has good torque transmission
Safety screw, can only be loosened with a special tool, especially wellsuited as protection against damage and theft, yet has good torque transmission t a m p e r resistant t o r x drive
Inexpensive and popular, but it is difficult to center the tool, low torque transmission, high contact pressure on the loaded driving flats slotted
Properties
cross recess Pozidriv
Higher torque than with slotted bolts & screws, better tool centering, lower contact pressure, available without diagonal notches and also with cross recess Phillips form H
224
Machine elements: 5.
o t s n s
Countersinks for countersunk head screws Countersinks for countersunk screws with head forms as per ISO 7721 cf. DIN EN ISO 15065 (2005-05) Replaces DIN 66 Nominal sizes
1.6
Metric screws
M1.6
2.5 M2
Tapping screws
V/)
-
M3.5
M4
ST2.9
ST3.5
ST4.2
1.8
2.4
2.9
3.4
3.9
4.5
d2 min.
3.6
4.4
5.5
6.3
8.2
9.4
d2 max.
3.7
4.5
5.6
6.5
8.4
9.6
1.0
1.1
1.4
1.6
2.3
2.6
Tapping screws
i
M3
d y H13
10
5.5 M5
Metric screws
i
M2.5
ST2.2
Nominal sizes
/
3.5
ST4.8
ST5.5
M6
M8
M10
ST6.3
ST8
ST9.5
6.6
d, H13
5.5
11
d2 min.
10.4
11.5
12.6
17.3
20
d2 max.
10.7
11.8
12.9
17.6
20.3
2.6
2.9
3.1
4.3
4.7
Countersink ISO 15065-8: Nominal size 8 (metric threads M8 or tapping screw threads ST8) Application for:
Graphical representation, see page 83;
Slotted flat head countersunk screws Cross recessed flat head countersunk screws Slotted raised head countersunk screws Cross rec. raised head countersunk screws Slotted flat head countersunk tapping screws Cross rec. flat head counters, tapping screws Slotted raised head countersunk tapping screws Cross rec. raised head counters, tapping screws Cross recessed flat head countersunk tapping screws Cross recessed raised head countersunk tapping screws
Countersinks for countersunk head screws Thread 0
DIN EN ISO 2009 DIN EN ISO 7046-1 DIN EN ISO 2010 DIN EN ISO 7047 DIN ISO 1482 DIN ISO 7050 DIN ISO 1483 DIN ISO 7051 ISO 15482 ISO 15483
cf. DIN 74 (2003-04) 2.5
1.6
8
4.5
<
d, H13 1)
1.8
2.4
2.9
3.4
4.5
E o
tf2H13
3.7
4.6
5.7
6.5
8.6
h -
0.9
1.1
1.4
1.6
2.1
5.5
6.6
7.6
9.5
10.4
12.4
14.4
16.4
2.3
2.5
2.9
3.3
3.7
Countersink DIN 74 - A4: Form A, thread diameter 4 mm
\
///. V/, d, H13
Form A and Form F
-
Application of Form A for:
Countersunk flat head wood screws Raised head countersunk wood screws
Thread 0
E L_ o LL
24
10
12
16
20
22
10.5
13
17
21
23
25
d 2 H13
19
24
31
34
37
40
fi a
5.5
7
9
11.5
12
13
H131) LU
DIN 97 and DIN 7997 DIN 95 and DIN 7995
75° ±1°
60° ±1°
Countersink DIN 74 - E12: Form E, thread diameter 12 mm Application of Form E for: Shape F Graphical representation, see page 83; Forms B, C and D are no longer standardized
DIN 7969
3
4
5
6
8
10
12
14
16
20
di H131)
3.4
4.5
5.5
9
15.5
17.5
22
6.9
9.2
11.5
18.3
11 22.7
13.5
d2 H13
6.6 13.7
27.2
31.2
34.0
40.7
h -
1.8
2.3
3.0
3.6
4.6
5.9
6.9
7.8
8.2
9.4
Thread 0
Form E
Countersunk head bolts for steel structures
Countersink DIN 74 - F12: Form F, thread diameter 12 mm Application of Form F for: 1)
Hexagon socket head countersunk screws
DIN EN ISO 10642 (replaces DIN 7991)
Medium size clearance hole according to DIN EN 20273, page 211
Machine elements: 5.
225
o n e s
Counterbores for cap screws and Hexagon head bolts Counterbores for cap screws
cf. DIN 974-1 (1991-05)
dhH131)
3.4
Series 1
6.5
4.5
Series 3
20
24
27
30
36
17.5
22
26
30
33
39
15
18
20
26
33
40
46
50
58
18
24 20
26
33
40
46
50
58
24
30
36
43
46
54
63 69
10
11
11
13
10
11
15
18
11
13
16
20
6.5 10
13
15
18
24
26
33
40
48
54
61
Series 6
10
13
15
20
24
33
43
48
58
63
73
3.0
3.7
4.3
ISO 4762 DIN 7984 2 a Series 1
x_
16
13.5
Series 5 ISO 1207
tfhH13
12
11
6.6
Series 2 Series 4
10
5.5
2.4
5.6
6.6
1 2 . 6 16.6 20.6 24.8 2.4 3.2 3.9 4.4 5.4 6.4 7.6 9.6 11.6 13. DIN 974 provides no code designations for counterbores.
3.4
4.4
5.4
6.4
8.6
10.6
31.0 37.0
Cap screws without washer components Screws (bolts) ISO 1207, ISO 4762, DIN 6912, DIN 7984 Screws (bolts) ISO 1580, DIN 7985
/Ra 3.2
Cap screws and the following washer components: Screws (bolts) ISO 1207, ISO 4762, DIN 7984 with spring lock washers DIN 79803* Washers DIN EN ISO 7092 Tooth lock washers DIN 6797 3) Spring washers DIN 137 Form A 3 ) Serrated lock washers DIN 67983) 3> Spring lock washers DIN 128 + DIN 6905 Serrated lock washers DIN 69073' Spring washers DIN 137 Form B 3 ) Spring washers DIN 69043'
Washers DIN EN ISO 7090 Washers DIN 6902 Form A 3 ) Graphical representation, see page 83;
1) 2)
Conical spring washers DIN 6796 Clearance hole according to DIN EN 20273, series medium, page 211 3) For screws/bolts without washer components Standards withdrawn
Counterbore for hexagon bolts/screws and hexagon nuts 8
^H13 10
Width across flats
co
d, H13 X _
or
Ra 3.2 Rz 25
Graphical representation, see page 83;
T.
13
10 16
cf. DIN 974-2 (1991-05)
12
14
16
20
24
27
30
33
36
42
18
21
24
30
36
41
46
50
55
65
22
26
30
33
36
39
45
dh H13
4.5
5.5
6.6
Series 1 Series 2
13
15
18
24
28
33
36
40
46
58
61
73
76
15
18
20
26
33
36
43
46
54
73
76
89
82 93
107
Series 3
10
11
13
18
22
26
30
33
40
48
54
82 61
69
73
82
Hex bolt
3.3
4.1
4.6
6.1
7.2
8.3
9.6 10.8 13.3 16.0 18.2 20.1 22.4 23.9 27.4
11
13.5 15.5 17.5
98
DIN 974 provides no code designations for counterbores. Series 1: For socket wrench DIN 659, DIN 896, DIN 3112 or socket DIN 3124 Series 2: For box wrench DIN 838, DIN 897 or socket DIN 3129 Series 3: For recesses in tight space conditions (not suitable for conical spring washers) 1) For hexagon bolts/screws ISO 4014, ISO 4017, ISO 8765, ISO 8676 without washer components
Calculation of counterbore depth for flush mounting (for DIN 974-1 and DIN 974-2) Determining the allowance Z
washer H,
bolt/screw Thread / head nominal 0 d Allowance Z
over 1 to 1.4
over 1.4 to 6
over 6 to 20
over 20 to 27
over 27 to 100
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
counterbore depth maximum height of the screw/bolt head maximum height of the washer component allowance based on thread nominal diameter (see table)
1)
If values kmax and / ? m a x are unavailable, values k and h can be used as approximations.
Counterbore depth 11 t=k,
max + ^ m a x +
Z
226
Machine elements: 5.
ts
Nuts-Overview Illustration
Design
Standard range from-to
Standard
Hexagon nuts, type 1
page 228
with coarse threads
M1.6-M64
DIN EN ISO 4032
with fine threads
M8x1-M64x4
DIN EN ISO 8673
Hexagon nuts, type 2 with coarse threads
M5-M36
DIN EN ISO 4033
with fine threads
M8x1-M36x3
DIN EN ISO 8674
Nut height m is approx. 10% higher than nuts of type 1, used with bolts up to equal property class Fine threads: greater transmitted force than for coarse threads pages 229, 230
with coarse threads
M1.6-M64
DIN EN ISO 4035
with fine threads
M8x1-M64x4
DIN EN ISO 8675
Prevailing torque hexagon nuts with locking insert
Use with low installation heights and low stresses Fine threads: higher transmission of force than coarse threads page 230
with coarse threads
M3-M36
DIN EN ISO 7040
Self-locking nuts with full loading capacity and non-metallic insert, up to operating temperatures of 120°C
with fine threads
M8x1-M36x3
DIN EN ISO 10512
Fine threads: greater transmitted force than for coarse threads
with coarse threads
M5-M36
DIN EN ISO 7719
Self-locking all-metal nuts with full loading capacity
with fine threads
M8x1-M36x3
DIN EN ISO 10513
Hexagon nuts, other forms
HI
Most commonly used nuts, used with bolts up to equal property class Fine threads: greater transmitted force than for coarse threads
page 229
Low hexagon nuts
H
Applications, properties
Fine threads: greater transmitted force than for coarse threads pages 230, 232
with large width across flats, coarse threads
M12-M36
with flange, coarse threads
M5-M20
weld nuts, coarse threads
M3-M16 M8x1 -M16x1.5
DIN EN 14399-4
Metal construction: high-strength custom preloaded joints (HV), with hexagon head bolts DIN EN 14999-4 (page 214)
Might be used with large clearance DIN EN 1661 holes or to reduce contact pressure
DIN 929
Castle nuts, cotter pins
Used in sheet metal structures; nuts are usually joined to metal sheets by projection welding page 232
high form, coarse or fine threads
M4-M100 M8x1-M 100x4
DIN 935
low form, coarse or fine threads
M6-M48 M8x1-M48x3
DIN 979
cotter pins
0.6x12-20x280
DIN EN ISO 1234
Might be used for axial fixing of bearings, hubs in safety joints (steering area of vehicles) Locking with cotter pin and transverse hole in the bolt. At full load of the bolt, the cotter pin is sheared off above property class 8.8.
Machine elements: 5.
227
ts
Nuts - Overview, Designation of nuts Illustration
Standard range from-to
Design
Standard
Application, properties
Acorn nuts
im %3lit?
page 231 high form, coarse or fine threads
M4-M36 M8x1-M24x2
DIN 1587
low form, coarse or fine threads
M4-M48 M8x1-M48x3
DIN 917
Decorative and sealing external joint closures, protection for threads, protection from injuries
Eye nuts, eye bolts
0
page 231
eye nuts, coarse or fine threads
M8-M 100x6 M20x2M100x4
DIN 582
Transport eyes on machines and equipment; stress depends on the angle of the applied load, milling of seating surface necessary
Lock nuts, lock washers
page 231
lock nuts with fine threads
M10x1M200x1.5
DIN 70852
lock washers
10-200
DIN 70952
lock nuts with fine threads
M 10x0.75M115x2 (KM0-KM23)
DIN 981
lock washers
10-115 (MB0-MB23)
DIN 5406
For axial positioning, e.g. of hubs, with small mounting heights and low stresses, locking with lock washers
For axial positioning of roller bearings, for adjustment of the bearing clearance, e.g. with tapered roller bearings that are locked with lock washers
Knurled nuts
page 232 high form, coarse threads
M1-M10
DIN 466
low form, coarse threads
M1-M10
DIN 467
Used in joints that are opened frequently, e.g. in manufacturing of jigs and fixtures, in control cabinets
Hexagon turnbuckle nuts
coarse threads
M6-M30
DIN 1479
For joining and adjusting, e.g. of threaded and connecting bars, with left-hand and right-hand threads; locked by jam nuts
Designation of nuts Examples:
1)
cf. DIN 962 (2001-11) Hexagon nut Castle nut Hexagon nut
ISO 4032 - M 1 2 -8 DIN 929 - M8 x 1 - St EN 1661 - M 1 2 -10
Nuts standardized according to ISO or DIN EN ISO, have the code ISO in their designation. Nuts standardized according to DIN, have the code DIN in their designation. Nuts standardized according to DIN EN, have the code EN in their designation.
228
Machine elements: 5.
ts
Property classes, hexagon nuts with coarse threads cf. DIN EN 20898-2 (1994-02), DIN EN ISO 3506-2 (1998-03)
Property classes of nuts Examples:
Stainless steels DIN EN ISO 3506-2
Unalloyed and alloy steels DIN EN 29898-2 nut height m > 0.8 • d: nut height m< 0.8 • d:
8 04
nut height m > 0.8 • d:
A2-70
nut height m< 0.8 • d:
A 4-035
Code
Steel microstructure
Steel group
Code
8 property class 04 low nuts, test load = 4 -100 N/mm 2
A austenitic F ferritic
1 free m a c h i n i n g a l l o y s 2 a l l o y e d w i t h Cr, Ni 4 a l l o y e d w i t h Cr, Ni, M o
70 proof stress = 70 • 10 N/mm 2 035 low nut, proof stress = 35 • 10 N/mm 2
Allowable combinations of nuts and bolts Nuts
Property class of the nut
4.8
cf. DIN EN 20898-2 (1994-02)
Usable bolts up to property class Stainless steels Unalloyed and alloy steels A2-70 A4-50 5.8 6.8 8.8 9.8 10.9 12.9 A2-50
A4-70
allowable combinations of property classes for nuts and bolts
10 12 A2-50 A2-70 A4-50 A4-70 04, 05, A2-025, A4-025
Bolts
Property classes for low nuts. The nuts are designed for smaller load capacity. Bolts and nuts of the same material group, e.g. stainless steel, can be combined with each other.
Hexagon nuts with coarse threads, Type Valid standard Replaces Thread d DIN EN ISO DIN EN DIN WAF 4032 24032 934 cL,
M2
M2.5
M3
M4
M5
M6
M8
M10
3.2 2.4
4 3.1
5 4.1
5.5 4.6
7 5.9
8 6.9
10 8.9
13 11.6
16 14.6
3.4 1.3
4.3
5.5
6 2.4
7.7 3.2
8.8
11.1
14.4
4.7
5.2
6.8
17.8 8.4
m
5 -Ji
*
m
M20-M64
6, 8, 10 A2-70, A4-70
M12
M16
M20
M24
M30
M36
M42
M48
M56
WAF
18 16.6
24 22.5
30 27.7
36 33.3
46 42.8
55 51.1
65 60
75 69.5
85 78.7
20 10.8
26.
33 18
39.6 21.5
50.9 25.6
60.8 31
71.3 34
82.6 38
93.6 45
m
M1.6-M16
2
Thread d
e
Thread d
1.6
as per agreement
Property classes
dw
Product grades (page 211)
cf. DIN EN ISO 4032 (2001-03)
M1.6
e
WAF t
1)
Explanation
as per agreement
6, 8, 10
Property classes
Grade
14.
A2-70, A4-70 1)
A2-50, A4-50
Type 1: Nut height m > 0.8 • d
Hexagon nut ISO 4032 - M10 - 10: d= M10, property class 10
229
Machine elements: 5.4 Nuts
Hexagon nuts Hexagon nuts with coarse threads, type 2 1 } Thread d
M5
M6
M8
M10
M12
M16
M20
M24
M30
M36
6.9
10 8.9
13 11.6
16 14.6
18 14.6
24 22.5
30 27.7
36 33.2
46 42.7
55 51.1
11.1
14.4 7.5
17.8 9.3
20 12
26.8 16.4
33 20.3
39.6 23.9
50.9
60.8 34.7
WAF L
Vy/rf
T e
m
m
cf. DIN EN ISO 4033 (2001-03), replaces DIN EN 24033
5.7
5.1
Property Product grades (page 211) classes Thread d
Grade
Explanation
28.6
9, 12 1)
Hexagon nuts of type 2 are approx. 10% higher than nuts of type 1.
M1.6-M16 Hexagon nut ISO 4033 - M24 - 9: d = M24, property class 9
M20-M64
Hexagon nuts with fine threads, type 1 and type 2 1 * Valid standard Replaices Thread d DIN EN ISO DIN EN DIN 8673
28673 934
8674
28674 971
WAF
WAF
mi 1 m21
"TD I
cf. DIN EN ISO 8673 and 8674 (2001-03)
M8 x1
M10 x1
M12 x1.5
M16 x1.5
M20 x1.5
M24 x2
M30 x2
M36 x3
M42 x3
M48 x3
M56 x4
13 11.6
16 14.6
18 16.6
24 22.5
30 27.7
36 33.3
46 42.8
55 51.1
65 60
75 69.5
85 78.6
14.4
17.8 8.4 9.3
20 10.8 12
26.8
33 18 20.3
39.6 21.5 23.9
50.9 25.6
60.8 31 34.7
71.3 34
82.6
93.6 45
6.8
7.5
14.8 16.4
28.6
6,8 Type 1 Property classes Type 2
m
Product grades (page 211) Thread d
Explanation
A2-70, A4-70
Grade
M8x1 -M16x1.5
10
Hexagon nut type 1: DIN EN ISO 8673, nut height nr, >0.8 • d Hexagon nut type 2: DIN EN ISO 8674, nut height m 2 is approx. 10% larger than nuts of type 1.
Hexagon nut ISO 8673 - M8x1 - 6: d = M8x1, property class 6
M20x1.5-M64x3
Low hexagon nuts with coarse threads1 ] Valid standard DIN EN ISO
Replaces DIN EN
4035
24035
Thread d
M2
M2.5
M3
M4
M5
M6
M8
M10
3.2 2.4
4 3.1
5 4.1
5.5 4.6
7 5.9
6.9
10 8.9
13 11.6
16 14.6
3.4
4.3
7.7
11.1
1.2
5.5 1.6
6
1
1.8
14.4 4
17.5 5
WAF
S: m
M20-M36
04, 05
M12
M16
M20
M24
M30
M36
M42
M48
M56
WAF cL
18 16.6
24 22.5
30 27.7
36 33.2
46 42.8
55 51.1
65 60
75 69.5
85 78.7
20 6
26.* 8
33 10
39.6 12
50.9 15
60.8 18
71.3 21
82.6
93.6 28
04, 05
Property classes
M1.6-M16
3.2
Thread d
m
Grade
2.7
A2-035, A4-035
e
Product grades (page 211)
2.2
as per agreement
Property classes
WAF
cf. DIN EN ISO 4035 (2001-03)
M1.6
e m
Thread d
as per agreement
A2-50, A4-50
8, 10, 12 1)
38
Explanation
A2-035, A4-035 1)
24
as per agreement A2-025, A4-025
Low hexagon nuts (nut height m < 0.8 • d) have a smaller load capacity as type 1 nuts.
Hexagon nut ISO 4035 - M16 - A2-035: d = M16, property class A2-035
230
Machine elements: 5.
ts
Hexagon nuts Low hexagon nuts with fine threads1' Valid standard DIN EN ISO
Replaces DIN EN
8675
28675
Thread d WAF dw e m
cf. DIN EN ISO 8675 (2001-03)
M8 x1
M10 x1
M12 x1.5
M16 x1.5
M20 x1.5
M24 x2
M30 x2
M36 x3
M42 x3
M48 x4
M56 x4
13 11.6
16 14.6
18 16.6
24 22.5
30 27.7
36 33.3
46 42.8
55 51.1
65 60
75 69.5
85 76.7
14.4 4
17.8 5
20 6
26.8
33 10
39.6 12
50.9 15
60.8
71.3 21
82.6
93.6 28
04, 05
Property classes Product grades (page 211) Thread d
Explanations
1)
M8x1-M16x1.5
Low hexagon nuts (nut height m < 0.8 • d) have a smaller load capacity of type 1 nuts (page 229). Property classes for stainless steels: A2-025, A4-025
Hexagon nut ISO 8675 - M20x1.5 - A2-035: d = M20x1.5, property class A2-035
M20x1.5-M64x3
Hexagon nuts with insert, type 1 1 ) Valid standard Replaices DIN EN ISO DIN EN DIN Thread d 7040 10512
27040 982
cf. DIN EN ISO 7040 and 10512 (2001-03) M4
M5
M6
M8 M8 x1
M10 M10 x1
M12 M12 x1.5
M16 M16 x1.5
M20 M20 x1.5
M24 M24 x2
M30 M30 x2
M36 M36 x3
WAF c/w e
7 5.9 7.7
10 8.9
16 14.6 17.8
16.6
20
24 22.5 26.8
30 27.7 33
36 33.3 39.6
46 42.8 50.9
55 51.1
11.1
13 11.6 14.4
18
8.9
h
6 2.9
9.5 6.4
11.9 8
14.9 10.4
19.1 14.1
22.8 16.9
27.1
4.9
32.6 24.3
38.9 29.4
m
Explanation Product grades see DIN EN ISO 4032
6.8
4.4
for DIN EN ISO 7040: 5, 8, 10
Property cl. 1)
20.2
60.8
for DIN EN ISO 10512: 6, 8, 10
Hexagon nuts type 1 (nut height m > 0.8 • d) DIN EN ISO 7040: Nuts with coarse threads DIN EN ISO 10512: Nuts with fine threads
Hexagon nut ISO 7040- M16-10: d = M10, property class 10
Hexagon nuts with large width across flats1'
cf. DIN EN 14399-4 (2006-06), replaces DIN 6915
Thread d
M12
M16
M20
M22
M24
M27
M30
M36
WAF dw
22 20.1
27 24.9
32 29.5
36 33.3
41 38
46 42.8
50 46.6
60 55.9
e
23.9 10
29.6 13
35 16
39.6 18
45.2 20
50.9 22
55.4 24
66.4 29
m
Property cl., surface Explanation
10 normal - > lightly oiled, hot-galvanized - > code: tZn 1)
for high-strength structural bolting assemblies (HV) in metal construction. Used in combination with hexagon head bolts as per DIN EN 14399-4 (page 214).
Hexagon nut DIN EN 14399-4 - M16 - 10 - HV: d = M24, property class 10, high-strength preloaded
Product grade B
Hexagon nuts with flange
cf. DIN EN 1661 (1998-02)
Thread d
M5
M6
M8
M10
M12
M16
M20
WAF dw dc
10 9.8
12.2
11.8
14.2
13 15.8 17.9
16 19.6 21.8
18 23.8 26
24 31.9 34.5
30 39.9 42.8
14.4
17.8 10
20 12
26.8 16
33 20
e m
Product grades see DIN EN ISO 4032
24
as per agreement
A2-035, A4-035
2)
Grade
18
Property classes
11.1 6
8, 10, A2-70 Hexagon nut EN 1661 - M16-8: d = M16, property class 8
Machine elements: 5.
ts
Hexagon acorn nuts. Lock nuts, Eye nuts
231
232
Machine elements: 5.
ts
Castle nuts, Cotter pins. Weld nuts, Knurled nuts Castle nuts, high form
cf. DIN 935-1 (2000-10) M4
M5
M6
M8 M8 x1
M10 M10 x1
M12 M12 x1.5
M16 M16 x1.5
M20 M20 x2
M24 M24 x2
M30 M30 x2
8.8
m
7 7.7 5
10 11.1 7.5
13 14.4 9.5
16 17.8 12
18 20 15
24 26.8 19
30 33 22
36 39.6 27
46 50.9 33
n w
no cylindrical shoulder 2.8 1.4 2.5 3.2 8 4 6.5
15.6 3.5 10
21.5 4.5 13
27.7 4.5 16
33.2 5.5 19
42.7 7 24
Thread d
s e
Product grades (page 211) Thread d
Grade
M1.6-M16
6
1.2
6, 8, 10
Property classes
A2-70
A2-50
Castle nut DIN 935 - M20 - 8: d= M20, property class 8
M20-M100
Cotter pins
cf. DIN EN ISO 1234(1998-02) 1
1.2
1.6
3
3
3.2 2.8
1.6
2
2.5
2.5
4 3.6 2.5
from to
6 20
8 25
32
10 40
2) over to
3.5 4.5
4.5 5.5
5.5 7
1.6
d
Nominal lengths Explanations
2.5
3.2
5 4.6 2.5
6.4 5.8 3.2
8 7.4 4
10 9.2 4
12.6
11.8 4
16 15 4
12 50
14 63
18 80
22 100
28 125
36 160
9
11 14
14 20
20 27
27 39
39 56
11
6.3
6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 25, 28, 32, 36, 40, 45, 50, 56, 63, 71, 80, 90, 100, 112, 125, 140, 160 mm 1) 2)
d Nominal sizes = cotter pin hole diameter di applicable bolt diameter
Cotter pin ISO 1234 - 2.5x32 - St: d = 2.5 mm, I = 32 mm, material steel
Hexagon weld nuts
cf. DIN 929 (2000-01) Thread d
M3
M4
M5
M6
M8
M10
M12
M16
s dy e
7.5 4.5 8.2
9 6 9.8
10 7 11
11 8 12
14 10.5 15.4
17 12.5 18.7
19 14.8 20.9
24 18.8 26.5
m h
3 0.3
3.5 0.3
4 0.3
5 0.4
6.5 0.4
8 0.5
10 0.6
13 0.8
Material
St - steel with a maximum carbon content of 0.25% Weld nut DIN 929 - M16 - St: d = M16, material steel
Product grade A
Knurled nuts
cf. DIN 466 and 467 (2006-08) Thread d
M1.2
M1.6
M2
M2.5
M3
M4
M5
M6
M8
M10
6 3 1.5
7.5 3.8
9 4.5
2
2
11 5 2.5
12 6 2.5
16 8 3.5
20 10 4
24 12 5
30 16 6
36 20 8
5 2.5
5.3 2.5
6.5 3
7.5 3
9.5 4
11.5 5
15 6
18
23 10
h1> h2 Property classes Explanations
St (steel), A1-50 1) 2)
Nut height for DIN 466 high form Nut height for DIN 467 low form
Knurled nut DIN 467 - M6-A1-50: d= M6, property class A1-50
Machine elements: 5.
233
ases
Flat washers. Overview Designation example:
Washer ISO 7090 - 8 - 300 HV - A2 1 '
ir~ Name 1)
I
Hardness grade
Nominal size (Thread nominal 0)
Standard
Material
Stainless steel, steel group A2
Overview Design Standard range from-to
Illustration
Flat washers with chamfer Product grade A 2 ) M5-M64
M1)
Standard
Steel, stainless steel
DIN EN ISO 7090
Design Standard range from-to
Illustration
Flat washers with chamfer, for HV bolts M12-M30
Flat washers small series Product grade A 2 ) M1.6-M36
DIN EN ISO 7092
Steel, stainless steel
Washers, square, for channels and I beams M8-M27
Steel
DIN EN 14399-6
Steel
DIN 434 DIN 435
Steel
DIN EN 28738
page 235
page 234 Flat washers normal series Product grade C 2> M1.6-M64
Plain washers for clevis pins Product grade A 2 ) d= 3-100 mm
DIN EN ISO 7091
Steel
page 235
page 234 Washers for steel structures Product grade A2>, C 2 ) M10-M30
Steel
Conical spring washers for screw joints d = 2-30 mm
DIN 7989-1
Spring steel
DIN 6796
page 235
page 234 1)
Standard
page 235
table below
2)
M1)
Material is steel with corresponding hardness grade (e.g. 200 HV; 300 HV); other materials as agreed upon. Product grades are differentiated by tolerance and by manufacturing process.
Flat washers with chamfer, normal series For threads h
U
"2
M12
M16
M20
6
8
10
12
16
20
6.4
8.4
10.5
13.0
17.0
21.0
d2 max. 11
10.0
12.0
16.0
20.0
24.0
30.0
37.0
/7 >
Nominal size d-j min.
1)
d2 max.
1)
h"
1
1.6
1.6
2
2.5
3
3
M24
M30
M36
M42
M48
M56
M64
24
30
36
42
48
56
64
25.0
31.0
37.0
45.0
52.0
62.0
70.0
44.0
56.0
66.0
78.0
92.0
105.0
115.0
4
4
5
8
8
10
10
2
Hardness grade 300 HV suitable for: • Hexagon bolts and nuts of property classes < 10.9 or < 10 (nut)
M10
5
For threads
Hardness grade 200 HV suitable for: • Hexagon bolts and nuts of property classes < 8.8 or < 8 (nut) • Hexagon bolts and nuts made of stainless steel
M8
M6
5.3
1
30° to 45°
M5
d-| min. 11
Nominal size h
cf. DIN EN ISO 7090 (2000-11), replaces for DIN 125-1+2
Type
1) 3)
-
-
A2, A4, F1, C1, C4 (ISO 3506) 3 '
300 HV 200 HV (quenched and tempered) Washer ISO 7090-20-200 HV: Nominal size (= thread nomi nal 0) = 20 mm, hardness grade 200 HV, steel These are all nominal dimensions Non-ferrous metals and other materials as per agreement Compare to page 211
Hardness grade
2)
Stainless steel
Steel
Material '
200 HV
234
Machine elements: 5.
ases
Flat washers, Washers for steel structures Flat washers, small series
cf. DIN EN ISO 7092 (2000-11), replaces DIN 433-1+2 For threads Nominal size 1
1.6
M5
M6
M8
3.2
4.3
5.3
6.4
8.4
11
15
2.2
d2 max. 1
3.5
4.5
0.35
0.35
0.55
0.55
0.55
1.1
1.8
1.8
M10
M12
M14 2 '
M16
M20
M24
M30
M36
2.7
10
12
14
16
20
24
30
36
1
d-\ min. '
10.5
13.0
15.0
17.0
21.0
25.0
31.0
37.0
1
18.0
20.0
24.0
28.0
34.0
39.0
50.0
60.0
1.8
2.2
2.7
2.7
3.3
4.3
4.3
5.6
d2 max. '
Material '
Hardness grade 300 HV suitable for: • Cap screws with hexagon socket and property classes < 10.9
M4
2.5
3
Hardness grade 200 HV suitable for: • Cap screws with property classes < 8.8 or of stainless steel • Cap screws with hexagon socket and property classes < 8.8 or of stainless steel
M3
1.7
Nominal size
£
M2.5
d-i min. '
For threads TD
M2
M1.6
Steel
Stainless steel A2, A4, F1, C1, C4 (ISO 3506)4'
Type Hardness grade
300 HV (quenched and tempered)
200 HV
200 HV
Washer ISO 7092-8-200 HV-A2: Nominal size (= thread nominal 0) = 8 mm, small series, hardness grade 200 HV, of stainless steel A2 1) 2) 3) 4)
These are all nominal dimensions Avoid this size if at all possible Non-ferrous metals and other materials as per agreement Compare to page 211
Flat washers, normal series
cf. DIN EN ISO 7091 (2000-11), replaces DIN 126 For threads
M2
M3
M4
M5
M6
M8
Nominal size
M12
10
12
1
2.4
3.4
4.5
5.5
6.6
9.0
11.0
13.5
1
d2 max. '
5.0
7.0
9.0
10.0
12.0
16.0
20.0
24.0
/71>
0.3
0.5
0.8
1.0
1.6
1.6
M16
M20
M24
M30
M36
M42
M48
M64
16
20
24
30
36
42
48
64
di min. 1 '
17.5
22.0
26.0
33.0
39.0
45.0
52.0
70.0
1
30.0
37.0
44.0
56.0
66.0
78.0
92.0
115.0
d-1 min. '
For threads Nominal size
d2 max. ' Hardness grade 100 HV suitable for: • Hexagon bolts/screws, product grade C, with property classes < 6.8 • Hexagon nuts, product grade C, with property classes < 6
M10
2.5
A)1'
10 Washer ISO 7091-12-100 HV: Nominal size (= thread nominal 0), d= 12 mm, hardness grade 100 HV
1
' These are all nominal dimensions
Washers for steel structures
cf. DIN 7989-1 and DIN 7989-2 (2000-04) 1
For threads '
M10
M12
M16
M20
M24
M27
M30
d-i min.
11.0
13.5
17.5
22.0
26.0
30.0
33.0
d2 max.
20.0
24.0
30.0
37.0
44.0
50.0
56.0
Washer DIN 7989-16-C-100 HV: Thread nominal 0 d= 16 mm, product grade C, hardness grade 100 Suitable for bolts according to DIN 7968, DIN 7969, DIN 7990 joined with nuts according to ISO 4032 and ISO 4034.
Versions: Product grade C (stamped version) thickness h = (8 ± 1.2) mm Product grade A (turned version) thickness h = (8 ± 1) mm 1
' Nominal dimensions
Machine elements: 5.
ases
235
Washers for HV bolts, Channels and I beams. Clevis pins, Conical spring washers
236
Machine elements: 5.6 Pins and clevis pins
Pins and clevis pins. Overview Designation example:
Taper pin ISO 2339 - A - 10x40 -St_ I
Name
Standard
I Nominal 0 x nominal length
Form or Type 1 '
e.g. St = steel Stainless steels: A1 = austenitic C1 = martensitic
Pins with DIN-EN main numbers are designated with ISO numbers. ISO number = DIN-EN number - 20000; example: DIN EN 22338 = ISO 2338 11 if available Illustration
Designation, Standard range from-to
Standard
Dowel pin, not hardened d = 1 - 5 0 mm
DIN EN ISO 2338
Material
Illustration
Designation, Standard range from-to
Standard
Taper pin di = 0.6-50 mm
DIN EN 22339
Spring pin (clamping sleeves), slotted = 1-50 mm
DIN EN ISO 8752 DIN EN ISO 13337
Tapered grooved pin d-1 = 1.5-25 mm
DIN EN ISO 8744
Pins
/ 1)
X
tolerance m6 or h8 Dowel pin, hardened d = 0.8-20 mm
DIN EN ISO 8734
F= 3
1:50
? - d " "CD I
Grooved pins, grooved drive studs Straight grooved pin with chamfer di = 1.5-25 mm
DIN EN ISO 8740
]
i
I Half length reversed taper grooved pin d n = 1.5-25 mm
DIN EN ISO 8741
Half length taper grooved pin d-i = 1.2-25 mm
DIN EN ISO 8745
Center grooved pin, grooved 1/3 the length d-i = 1.2-25 mm
DIN EN ISO 8742
Round head grooved pin d-i = 1.4-20 mm
DIN EN ISO 8746
Center grooved pin, with long grooves d-i = 1.2-25 mm
DIN EN ISO 8743
Grooved pin with DIN countersunk head EN ISO 8747 di = 1.4-20 mm
Clevis pins without head, form A without cotter pin hole, form B with d = 3-100 mm
DIN EN 22340
J
Clevis pins Form A
Form A
Clevis pins with head, form A without cotter pin hole, form B with d = 3-100 mm
DIN EN 22341
Machine elements: 5.6 Pins and clevis pins
Dowel, Taper and spring pins Dowel pins of unhardened steel and austenitic stainless steel
cf. DIN EN ISO 2338 (1998-02)
dm6/h82)
0.6
0.8
from to d m6/h82> from to Nominal lengths / 1)
Radius and hollow allowed at end of pin
12 60
14 80
1
1.2
1.5
4 10
4 12
4 16
6 20
6 24
30
8 40
10 50
10
12
16
20
25
30
40
50
18 95
22 140
26 180
35 200
50 200
60 200
80 200
95 200
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, 35, 40-95, 100, 120, 140, 160, 180, 200 mm. Dowel pin ISO 2338 - 6 m6 x 30 - St: d = 6 mm, tolerance class m6, / = 30 mm, of steel
2)
Available in tolerance classes m6 and h8
Dowel pins, hardened
cf. DIN EN ISO 8734 (1998-03) cfm6 from to
1)
2.5
1.5 3 10
4 16
5 20
6 24
8 30
12 50
10 40
12
16
20
14 60
18 80
22
26 40 100
50
3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 100 mm
Materials
• Steel: Type A pin fully hardened, type B case hardened • Stainless steel type C1
Radius and hollow allowed on end of pin
Dowel pin ISO 8734 - 6 x 3 0 - C 1 : d = 6 mm, / = 30 mm, of stainless steel of type C1 cf. DIN EN 22339 (1992-10) dh10
8 12 45
22 90
18 60
12
16
22 26 32 40 120 160 180
20
25
30
45 50 200
55
6 10
Nominal lengths /
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, 35, 40, 45-95, 100, 120-180, 200 mm
10 35
14 55
10
7 from / to
Type A ground, Ra = 0.8 pm; Type B turned, Ra = 3.2 pm
Taper pin ISO 2 3 3 9 - A - 10 x 40 - St: Type A, d=10 mm, / = 40 mm, of steel
Spring pins (clamping sleeves) , slotted, heavy duty Spring pins (clamping sleeves) , slotted, light duty
cf. DIN EN ISO 8752 (1998-03) cf. DIN EN ISO 13337 (1998-02)
Nominal 0 d^ d<\ max.
2 2.4
2.5 2.9
3 3.5
4 4.6
5 5.6
6 6.7
8 8.8
10 10.8
12 12.8
s ISO 8752 s ISO 13337
0.4 0.2
0.5 0.25
0.6 0.3
0.8 0.5
1 0.5
1.2 0.75
1.5 0.75
2 1
2.5 1
j from / to
4 20
4 30
4 40
4 50
5 80
10 100
10 120
10 160
10 180
Nominal 0 dy d-1 max.
14 14.8
16 16.8
20 20.9
25 25.9
30 30.9
35 35.9
40 40.9
45 45.9
50 50.9
s ISO 8752 s ISO 13337
3 1.5
3 1.5
4 2
5 2
6 2.5
7 3.5
7.5 4
8.5 4
9.5 5
j from / to
Only one chamfer is allowed for spring pins with nominal diameter d-\ > 10 mm.
10
Nominal lengths I
Taper pin, unhardened
1)
8
2.5
10 200
14 200
20 200
Nominal lengths /
4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, 35, 40, 45-95, 100, 120, 140, 160, 180, 200 mm
Materials
• Steel: Hardened and tempered 420 HV 30-520 HV 30 • Stainless steel: Type A or type C
Application
The diameter of the location hole (tolerance class H12) must have the same nominal diameter d-\ as the mating pin. After installing the pin in the smallest receiving hole, the slot should not be completely closed. Spring pin ISO 8752 - 6 x 30 - St: d, = 6 mm, I = 30 mm, of steel
238
Machine elements: 5.6 Pins and clevis pins Grooved pins, Grooved drive studs. Clevis
Grooved pins, grooved drive studs
cf. DIN EN ISO 8740-8747 (1998-03) 1.5
»1
Full length straight grooved pin with chamfer ISO 8740
pins
from to
2.5
8
10
12
16
20
25
10 30
10 40
10 60
14 60
14 80
14 14 18 22 26 26 100 100 100 100 100 100
10 60
10 60
12 80
14 18 26 26 26 26 100 160 200 200 200 200
20
8 30
from to
20
8 30
30
8 40
from to
8 20
12 30
12 30
12 40
18 60
18 60
22 80
26 32 40 45 45 45 100 160 200 200 200 200
Tapered groove pin ISO 8744
from to
8 20
30
8 30
40
60
60
10 80
12 14 14 24 26 26 100 120 120 120 120 120
Full length taper grooved pins ISO 8745
from to
20
30
30
40
10 60
10 60
10 80
14 14 18 26 26 26 100 200 200 200 200 200
1.4
1.6
1/2 length reversetaper grooved pin ISO 8741 1/3—1/C2 length rr. center grooved pins ISO 8742+8743
3 -
Grooved pins with round head ISO 8746
• "ta ^
/
Grooved pins with countersunk head ISO 8747
2.5
8
10
12
16
20
from to
3 10
3 12
4 16
5 20
6 25
8 30
10 40
12 40
16 40
20 40
25 40
from to
4 10
4 12
5 16
6 20
25
8 30
10 40
12 40
16 40
20 40
25 40
Nominal lengths /
Pins: 8, 10-30, 32, 35, 40-100, 120, 140-180, 200 mm Studs: 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40 mm Grooved pin ISO 8740 - 6 x 50 - St: dy = 6 mm, / = 50 mm, of steel
Clevis pins with and without head Clevis pins without head ISO 2340
cf. DIN EN 22340, 22341 (1992-10)
d h11 d, H13
4
t
UV HT /e
0.8
1.2
1.6
10
12
3.2
3.2
18
20
/ dk h14
10
14
14
16
18
20
22
6.3 22
25
28
30
33
1.6
k js14
Clevis pins with head ISO 2341 from to Nominal lengths /
/ Form A without cotter pin hole Form B with cotter pin hole
4.5
2.2
2.9
3.2
3.5
4.5
6 30
8 40
10 50
12 60
16 80
20 24 28 30 35 40 45 50 100 120 140 160 180 200 200 200
5.5
6, 8, 10-30, 32, 35, 40-95, 100, 120, 140-180, 200 mm Clevis pin ISO 2340 - B - 20 x 100 - St: Form B, d = 20 mm, / = 100 mm, of free-cutting steel
hi 1
-, f
5.5
1.6
Clevis pins with head and threaded stud end
cf. DIN 1445(1977-02) 10
12
14
16
18
20
24
30
40
50
17
20
20
20
25
29
36
42
49
b min
11
14
d2
M6
M8
d3 h14
14
18
M10 M12 M12 M12 M16 M20 M24 M30 M36 20
22
k js14
25
28
30
36
44
55
66
24
27
32
36
50
60
4.5 11
13
17
19
22
Nominal 16, 20, 25, 30, 35-125, 130, 140, 150-190, 200 mm lengths l 2 gripping length
36
u
/
1)
24
Clevis pin DIN 1445 - 12h11 x 30 x 50 - St: d, = 12 mm, tolerance class h 11, /•) = 30 mm, / 2 = 50 mm, of 9SMnPb28 (St)
239
Machine elements: 5.7 Shaft-hub connections
Keys, Gib-head keys Designation example:
Feather key DIN 6885 - A - 12x8x56 - E295
Designation, Standard range Standard from-to
Illustration
Designation, Standard range Standard from-to
Illustration
Overview of tapered Ikeys
table below
1^1:100
DIN 6887
Gib-head tapered key wx h = 4 x 4—100 x 50
z
*
a
Form B: driving key
J
I
c
Form A: sunk key
( ^
1^1:100
DIN 6886
Tapered key wx h = 2x2-100x50
i
Overview of feather keys
page 240
Form A
r
> j
Feather key wx h = 2x2-100x50
H
DIN 6885
7
Form A - J
DIN 6888
Woodruff keys wx h = 2.5x3.7-10x16
i
Tapered keys, Gib-head tapered keys
cf. DIN 6886 (1967-12) or DIN 6887 (1968-04)
Form A (sunk key)
b D10
Form B (driving key)
tsj:100
C
jL
Gib head tapered key
b*J:100
1^1:100
j L -xT
/ For shaft diameter d
over to
10 12
12 17
17 22
22 30
30 38
38 44
44 50
50 58
58 65
65 75
75 85
85 95
95 110
Tapered keys
w D10 h
4 4
5 5
6 6
8 7
10 8
12 8
14 9
16 10
18 11
20 12
22 14
25 14
28 16
4.1 7
5.1 8
6.1 10
7.2 11
8.2 12
8.2 12
9.2 14
10.2 16
11.2 18
12.2 20
14.2 22
14.2 22
16.2 25
2.5 1.2
3 1.7
3.5 2.2
4 2.4
5 2.4
5 2.4
5.5 2.9
6 3.4
7 3.4
7.5 3.9
9 4.4
9 4.4
10 5.4
50 200
56 220
63 250
70 280
80 320
Gib-head tapered h2 keys Shaft keyway depth Hub keyway depth Allow, deviation Key length /
fi h
from to
+0.2
+0.1
h.t2 1
10 > 45
12D
56
16 70
20 90
25 110
32 140
40 160
45 180
Nominal lengths /
6, 8-20, 22, 25, 28, 32, 40, 45, 50, 56, 63, 70, 80-100, 110, 125, 140, 160-200, 220, 250, 280, 320, 360, 400 mm
Length tolerances
Key length /, from-to
Tolerances for 1)
6-28
32-80
90-400
Key length
-0.2
-0.3
-0.5
Keyway length (sunk key)
+0.2
+0.3
+0.5
Gib-head key lengths from 14 mm
240
Machine elements: 5.7 Shaft-hub connections
Feather keys, Woodruff keys Feather keys (high form) Form A
cf. DIN 6885-1 (1968-08)
Form B
\ >
s I
*
Form C
Form D
M
M
C
S
Form E
Form F
D
I Tolerances for feather keyways
r////////a
C<3 N
t ] I
T
\
Shaft keyway width w
tight fit normal fit
P9 N9
Hub keyway width w
tight fit normal fit
P9 JS 9
Allow, deviation for d n
<22
<130
>130 +0.3 +0.3
Shaft keyway depth ^ Hub keyway depth t2
+0.1 +0.1
+0.2 +0.2
Alllow. deviation for length I
6-28
32-80
90-400
-0.2
-0.3
-0.5
+0.2
+0.3
+0.5
ke
Length tolerances
Y keyway
di over to
6 8
8 10
10 12
12 17
17 22
22 30
30 38
38 44
44 50
50 58
58 65
65 75
75 85
85 95
95 110
110 130
w h
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
8 7
10 8
12 8
14 9
16 10
18 11
20 12
22 14
25 14
28 16
32 18
h t2
1.2 1
1.8 1.4
2.5 1.8
3 2.3
3.5 2.8
4 3.3
5 3.3
5 3.3
5.5 3.8
6 4.3
7 4.4
7.5 4.9
9 5.4
9 5.4
10 6.4
11 7.4
from to
6 20
6 36
8 45
10 56
14 70
18 90
20 110
28 140
36 160
45 180
50 200
56 220
63 250
70 280
80 320
90 360
/
/
Nominal lengths /
6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 25, 28, 32, 36, 40, 45, 50, 56, 63, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110, 125, 140, 160, 180, 200, 220, 250, 280, 320 mm Feather key DIN 6885 - A - 12 x 8 x 56: Form A, b = 12 mm, h = 8 mm, / = 56 mm
Woodruff keys
cf. DIN 6888 (1956-08) Tolerances for Woodruff keyways Shaft keyway width w tight fit normal fit
P 9 (P8)1» N 9 (N 8) 1 )
Hub keyway width w tight fit normal fit
P 9 (P8) 1 ) J 9 (J8) 1 )
Allow, devia. for and
Shaft keyway depth f-| +0.1 Hub keyway depth t2 +0.1
WTPZvm . d l
w <5 5 h <7.5 >7.5
over to
8 10
+0.2 +0.1
6 <9
6 >9
+0.1 +0.1
+0.2 +0.1
8 -
10 -
+0.2 +0.1
10 12
12 17
17 22
22 30
30 38
4
5
6
8
10
+0.2 +0.2
w h9
2.5
h
3.7
3.7
5
6.5
5
6.5
7.5
6.5
7.5
9
7.5
9
11
9
11
13
11
13
16
d2
10
10
13
16
13
16
19
16
19
22
19
22
28
22
28
32
28
32
45
h
2.9
2.5
3.8
5.3
3.5
5
6
4.5
5.5
7
5.1
6.6
8.6
6.2
8.2
10.2 7.8
9.8
12.8
t2
1
I«
9.7
h12
3
1.4
2.2
12.7 115.7 12.7' 15.7 18.6 15.7' 18.6 21.6 18.6 21.6' 27.4 21.6
Woodruff key DIN 6888 - 6 x 9: w = 6 mm, h = 9 mm 1)
2.6
Tolerance class for broached keyways
3 CN
9.7
1.7
3.4 31.4 27.4 31.4 43.1
241
Machine elements: 5.7 Shaft-hub connections
Splined shaft joints and blind rivets Splined shaft joints with straight flanks and internal centering Hub d 11 13 16 18 21 23 26 28 32 36
Shaft
Light series A/1) D
B
d
14 16 20 22 25
3 3.5 4 5 5
42 46 52 56 62
8 8 8 8 8
46 50 58 62 68
8 9 10 10 12
8 8 8 8 8
48 54 60 65 72
8 9 10 10 12
28 32 34 38 42
6 6 7 6 7
72 82 92 102 112
10 10 10 10 10
78 88 98 108 120
12 12 14 16 18
10 10 10 10 10
82 92 102 112 125
12 12 14 16 18
—
—
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
6 6 6 6 6
6 6 7 6 7
6 6 6 8 8
26 30 32 36 40
Light series A/1) D
Heat treated dimensions
D
B
H10
H9
Internal centering
H7
H11
B
Tolerance classes for the shaft
Tolerance classes for the hub Not heat treated dimensions
Medium series A/1) D B
Medium series A/D D B
—
6 6 6 8 8
cf. DIN ISO 14(1986-12)
H7
H10
Dimen.
Sliding fit
Type of fit Transition fit
Press fit
B
d10
f9
h10
D
all
a11
a11
d
f7
97
h7
Shaft (or hub DIN ISO 14 - 6 x 23 x 26: N= 6, d= 23 mm, D= 26 mm 1)
N number of splines
Open end blind rivets with break mandrel and flat head Open end blind rivets with break mandrel and countersunk head
cf. DIN EN ISO 15977 (2003-04) cf. DIN EN ISO 15978 (2003-08) 61>
Rivet 0 d (Nominal size)
Blind rivet with flat head 0dh ^
Head 0 d k max.
6.3
Head height k
1.3
Rivet mandrel 0 cL
max.
Rivet hole 0 d h 1
min. max.
Fitting length b
3.1 3.2 W
+ 3-5
Shaft length / max. min.
8.4
10.5
12.6
1.7
2.1
2.5
2.45
2.95
3.4
4.1 4.2
5.1 5.2
6.1 6.2
/max + 4
/max + 4.5
/max + 5
Recommended grip range 0.5-1.5 1)
original head
set rivet joint
Blind rivet with countersunk head an. d
%
(* d m m
broken mandrel original head
"
1) 2)
set rivet joint
3.5-5.0
2-5 3-5 1 )
2.5-4.0
2-3
5-7
5.0-6.5
4-6
3-5
12
13
7-9
6.5-8.5
6-8
5-7
16
17
9-13
8.5-12.5
8-12
7-11
20
21
13-17
12.5-16.5
12-15
11-15
15-20
15-20
20-25
20-25
Property classes Materials 2 '
formed head
1.5-2.5 1)
11
30 m*dk
1-3 1 )
10
25
Mt77\
2.0-3.5 1.5-3.5 1)
26 31
17-22
16.5-21.0
L (low) and H (high) are differentiated by the minimum shear and minimum tensile forces of the rivet. Rivet body of aluminum alloy (AIA) Rivet mandrel of steel (St) Blind rivet ISO 15977 - 4 x 12 - AIA/St - L: Blind rivet with flat head; d = 4 mm, / = 12 mm, rivet body of aluminum alloy, rivet mandrel of steel, property class L (low)
Only for flat head rivets ISO 15977 Other standardized material combinations for rivet body/mandrel include: St/St; AIA/AIA; A2/A2; Cu/St; NiCu/St etc.
242
Machine elements: 5.7 Shaft-hub connections
Metric tapers, Morse tapers. Steep tapers Morse tapers and metric tapers
cf. DIN 228-1 (1987-05)
Form A: Taper shank with tightening thread
Form B: Taper shank with tang
Rz 2.5 r
r
r»
CNI
!
i v!
^Am/
a
T~
'1
Form C: Taper sleeve for taper shanks with draw-in threads
Form D: Taper sleeve for taper shanks with tang z
'
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
'
/
/
/ '
/
/
/
/
/
- V /
/ / / /\/
R z
2 5
/ / /
<3 The Forms AK, BK CK and DK each have a feed for cooling lubricants. Taper shank Size
Type of taper Metric taper (ME)
Morse taper (MT)
ds
<*4
dfc
'1
a
h
cfeH11
Taper
h
u
z1>
Taper ratio
a 2
1 : 20
1.432°
4
4
4.1
2.9
-
-
23
2
-
3
25
20
0.5
6
6
6.2
4.4
-
-
32
3
-
4.6
34
28
0.5
0
9.045
9.2
6.4
-
6.1
50
3
56.5
6.7
52
45
1
1 : 19.212
1.491°
1
12.065
12.2
9.4
M6
9
53.5
3.5
62
9.7
56
47
1
1 : 20.047
1.429°
2
17.780
18.0
14.6
M10
14
64
5
75
14.9
67
58
1
1 : 20.020
1.431°
3
23.825
24.1
19.8
M12
19.1
81
5
94
20.2
84
72
1
1 : 19.922
1.438°
4
31.267
31.6
25.9
M16
25.2
102.5
6.5 117.5
26.5
107
92
1
1 : 19.254
1.488°
5
44.399
44.7
37.6
M20
36.5
129.5
6.5 149.5
38.2
135
118
1
1 : 19.002
1.507°
6
63.348
63.8
53.9
M24
52.4
182
8
210
54.8
188
164
1
1 : 19.180
1.493°
80
80.4
70.2
M30
69
196
8
220
71.5
202
170
1.5
100 100
100.5
88.4
M36
87
232
10
260
90
240
200
1.5
120 120
120.6
106.6
M36 105
268
12
300
108.5
276
230
1.5
1 : 20
1.432°
160 160
160.8
143
M48
141
340
16
380
145.5
350
290
2
200 200
201.0
179.4
M48
177
412
20
460
182.5
424
350
2
80 Metric taper (MT)
dz
Taper shank
Taper shank DIN 228 - ME - B 80 AT6: Metric taper shank, Form B, Size 80, Taper angle tolerance quality AT6 1)
Control dimension d 1 may lie a maximum distance z in front of the taper sleeve.
Steep taper shanks for tools and chucks form A
7:24
cf. DIN 2080-1 (1978-12) No.
dy
d2 a10
d3
d 4 - 0.4
30
31.75
17.4
M12
50
68.4
1.6
16.1
40
44.45
25.3
M16
63
93.4
1.6
16.1
50
69.85
39.6
M24
97.5
126.8
3.2
25.7
60
107.95
60.2
M30
206.8
3.2
25.7
92
M36
230
296
32.4
140
M48
350
469
40.5
70
165.1
80
254
156
/i
a ±0.2 £> H12
Steep taper shank DIN 2080 - A 40 AT4: Form A, No. 40, Taper angle tolerance quality AT4
Machine elements: 5.7 Shaft-hub connections
243
Tool holding fixtures Tool holding fixtures join the tool with the spindle of the machine tool. They transmit the torque and are responsible for precise concentric running. Type of design
Function, advantages {+) and disadvantages (-)
Metric taper (ME) and Morse taper (MT) vcontact x \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ N surface W W V V M ^ machine tool spindle
Torque transmission: • force-fit over the taper surface + reduction sleeves fit different taper diameters - not suitable for automatic tool change
Metric taper 1: 20; Morse taper 1:19.002 to 1: 20.047
Steep taper shank (SK)
machine tool spindle
Fastening in the machine spindle: Form A: with draw-in bar Form B: by front fastener Taper 7: 24 (1: 3.429) according to DIN 254
+ DIN 69871-1 suitable for automatic tool change - high weight, therefore less suited for quick tool change with high axial repeating clamping accuracy and for high revolution speeds
Hollow taper shanks (designation HSK) driver
threads for machining coolant feed
hole for tool
machine tool spindle Taper 1: 9.98
Vcontact surface
cf. DIN 228-1 and -2(1987-05) Clamping device for conventional drilling and milling. Taper shank numbers: • ME 4; 6 • MT0; 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6 • ME 80; 100; 120; (140); 160; (180); 200
cf. DIN 2080-1 (1978-12) and -2 (1979-09) and DIN 69871-1 (1995-10) Torque transmission: • grooves on taper edge produce interlock. The steep taper is not meant for transmission of forces, it only centers the tool. Axial locking is achieved by the thread or the ring groove.
Vcontact surface
Application, sizes
Torque transmission: • force-fit using the taper and contact surfaces • drive slots on shaft end produce interlock. + low weight, therefore + high static and dynamic rigidity + high repeated clamping accuracy (3 pm) + high rotational speeds - more expensive than steep taper
Use with CNC machine tools, especially machining centers; less suited for high-speed cutting (HSC) Steep taper numbers: • DIN 2080-1 (form A): 30; 40; 45; 50; 55; 60; 65; 70; 75; 80 • DIN 69871-1: 30; 40; 45; 50; 60
cf. DIN 69893-1 and -2 (2003-05) Safer use with high-speed cutting Nominal sizes: d-, = 32; 40; 50; 63; 80; 100; 125; 160 mm Form A: with shoulder and clamping keyway for automatic tool change Form C: only manual change is possible
Shrinkage chucks Torque transmission like HSK. Clamping the tool by quick, inductive heating (approx. 340 °C) of the holding shank in the shrinkage chuck. A shrinkage joint is formed by the oversize of the tool (approx. 3 - 7 pm) after the joining and cooling. holding shank
available with HSK or steep taper
+ transmission of high torques + high radial rigidity + higher cutting values possible + shorter machining times + good runout + greater running smoothness + better surface quality + reliable tool changes - relatively expensive - additional induction and cooling devices required
Universally applicable in machine tools with steep taper or hollow shank tool holders; suitable for tools with cylindrical shank of HSS or carbide. Shank diameters: 6; 8; 10; 12; 14; 16; 18; 20; 25 mm
244
Machine elements: 5.8 Springs, components of jigs and tools
Cylindrical helical tension springs German loop DIN 2097 LH
\
UC
Do Ds Li
Lb
d
D0
Ds
wire diameter in mm outside coil diameter minimum sleeve diameter in mm free length, with no load on spring in mm length of spring body with no load in mm maximum spring length internal prestress in N maximum allowable spring force in N spring rate in N/mm maximum allowable spring displacement for F m a x in mm
Lf
Tension springs of patented drawn unallo^1ed spring steel wire
1)
Sm
cf. DIN EN 10270-1 (2001-12)
0.20 0.25 0.32 0.36 0.40
3.00 5.00 5.50 6.00 7.00
3.50 5.70 6.30 6.90 8.00
8.6 10.0 10.0 11.0 12.7
4.35 2.63 2.08 2.34 2.60
0.06 0.03 0.08 0.16 0.16
1.26 1.46 2.71 3.50 4.06
0.036 0.039 0.140 0.173 0.165
33.37 36.51 18.85 19.23 23.67
0.45 0.50 0.55 0.63 0.70
7.50 10.00 6.00 8.60 10.00
8.60 11.10 7.10 9.90 11.40
13.7 20.0 13.9 19.9 23.6
3.04 5.25 5.78 7.88 9.63
0.25 0.02 0.88 0.79 0.83
5.31 5.40 11.66 12.13 14.13
0.207 0.078 0.606 0.276 0.239
24.41 68.79 17.78 41.15 55.78
0.80 0.90 1.00 1.10 1.25
10.80 10.00 13.50 12.00 17.20
12.30 11.70 15.40 14.00 19.50
25.1 23.0 31.4 27.8 39.8
10.20 9.45 12.50 11.83 15.63
1.22 1.99 1.77 2.99 2.77
19.10 28.59 28.63 41.95 42.35
0.355 0.934 0.454 1.181 0.533
50.36 28.49 59.22 32.98 74.25
1.30 1.40 1.50 1.60 1.80
11.30 15.00 20.00 21.60 20.00
13.50 17.50 22.70 24.50 23.20
134.0 34.9 48.9 50.2 46.0
118.95 15.05 21.75 20.00 19.35
5.771 5.44 3.99 3.99 6.88
70.59 66.08 60.54 67.40 100.90
0.322 1.596 0.603 0.726 1.819
201.60 38.00 93.72 87.38 51.70
2.00 2.20 2.50 2.80 3.00
27.00 24.00 34.50 30.00 40.00
30.50 27.80 38.90 34.70 45.10
62.8 55.6 79.7 69.8 140.0
25.00 23.10 31.25 29.40 86.25
6.88 9.81 9.88 17.77 11.50
101.20 148.00 148.50 233.40 214.20
0.907 2.425 1.056 3.257 0.587
104.00 57.02 131.33 65.85 345.31
3.20 3.60 4.00 4.50 5.00
43.20 40.00 44.00 50.00 50.00
46.60 46.00 50.60 57.60 58.30
100.0 92.1 117.0 194.0 207.0
40.00 37.80 58.00 128.25 142.50
11.88 19.60 24.50 28.00 47.00
238.40 357.10 436.30 532.30 707.90
1.451 3.735 3.019 1.613 2.541
156.13 90.38 136.43 312.74 260.12
5.50 6.30 7.00 8.00
60.00 70.00 80.00 80.00
69.30 80.00 92.00 94.00
236.0 272.0 306.0 330.0
156.75 179.55 199.50 228.00
38.00 45.00 70.00 120.00
774.50 968.50 1132.00 1627.00
2.094 2.258 2.286 4.065
351.72 429.00 464.83 370.91
Tension springs of stainless steel spring steel wire1*
1>
R
^max
0.20 0.40 0.63 0.80 1.00
3.00 7.00 8.60 10.80 13.50
3.50 8.00 9.90 12.30 15.40
1.25 1.40 1.60 2.00 4.00
17.20 15.00 21.60 27.00 44.00
19.50 17.50 24.50 30.50 50.60
8.60 12.70 19.90 25.1 31.4 39.8 34.9 50.2 62.8 117.0
cf. DIN EN 10270-3 (2001-08)
4.35 2.60 7.88 10.20 12.50
0.05 0.121 0.631 0.971 1.411
15.63 15.05 20.00 25.00 58.00
2.211 4.351 3.211 5.501 19.600
0.99 3.251 9.861 15.67 23.77 35.50 55.72 56.93 84.86 366.50
0.031 0.142 0.237 0.305 0.390
30.54 22.11 38.97 48.19 57.40
0.458 1.371 0.623 0.779 2.593
72.73 37.48 86.19 101.86 133.83
In addition to the springs listed, other springs with different outside diameters and lengths are commercially available for each wire diameter.
Machine elements: 5.8 Springs, components of jigs and tools
Cylindrical helical compression springs Spring characteristic curve
d
wire diameter
Dm
mean coil diameter
™oZ
Total number of coils
mandrel diameter On
sleeve diameter
U
free length, unloaded spring
it = 's + 2
Ly,L2 length of loaded spring at Z. min
cf D I N 2 0 9
FF2
minimum allowable test length of the spring
F-j, F2 spring force at /. 1f L2 Fmax
maximum allowable spring force at s m a x
Si, s2 spring displacement at F-\, F2 smax
maximum allowable spring displacement at F m a x
is
number of spring coils
/t
total number of coils (ends ground)
R
spring rate in N/mm Compression spring DIN 2098 - 2 x 20 x 94: d = 2 mm, D m = 20 mm and L f = 94 mm
d
Da max.
Ds\ min.
^rnax inN
Li
's = 3.5 s max
is = 5.5 R
Li
s
max
R
Li
is = 8-5 s R max
/s = 12.5 s R Li max
5.4 4.0 3.0
3.8 2.4 1.5
0.26 0.51 1.0
8.2 5.9 4.4
6.0 3.8 2.4
0.17 0.33 0.65
12.4 8.7 6.4
9.3 5.9 3.6
0.11 0.21 0.42
17.9 13.7 12.6 8.6 9.2 5.4
6.6 9.3 10.4
13.5 7.0 4.4
9.2 3.3 0.9
0.73 2.84 11.6
20.0 10.0 6.1
14.0 4.9 1.4
0.46 1.81 7.43
30.0 15.0 8.7
21.3 7.9 2.2
0.30 1.17 4.80
44.0 31.8 0.21 21.5 11.7 0.79 12.0 3.0 3.27
14.4 9.6 6.5
22 33.2 43.8
24.0 13.0 8.5
14.6 5.7 1.9
1.49 5.68 23.2
36.5 19.0 12.0
23.1 8.9 3.0
0.95 3.61 14.8
55.5 28.5 17.0
36.1 14.2 4.4
0.61 2.33 9.57
80.5 53.1 40.5 20.6 24.0 6.6
17.5 10.3 5.9
22.6 14.7 10.1
84.9 135 212
48.0 24.0 14.5
35.6 14.0 5.5
2.38 9.76 37.3
73.5 36.0 21.5
55.9 21.9 8.9
1.52 110 6.23 53.5 23.7 31.5
25 16 10
22.0 13.4 7.5
28.0 18.6 12.5
128 198 318
58.0 30.0 18.0
43.0 17.5 6.8
2.98 11.4 46.6
88.5 45.0 26.5
67.1 27.3 10.9
1.90 135 104 1.23 195 7.24 68.0 42.5 4.69 98 29.7 38.5 16.5 19.2 55
151 0.83 62.1 3.19 24.4 13.0
32 O K 25 20 16
28.3 21.6 16.8 12.9
36.0 28.4 23.2 19.1
182 233 292 365
71.5 49.0 36.0 27.5
52.2 32.2 20.5 12.9
3.48 110 7.29 74.5 14.2 54.0 41.0 27.8
82.1 50.5 32.1 20.5
2.22 170 129 1.43 245 4.64 115 80.2 3.0 165 9.05 81.5 50.0 5.86 120 17.7 61.0 31.7 11.5 88.0
187 116 75.7 49.9
40 Q O 32 O.d. 25 20
35.6 27.6 21.1 16.1
44.6 36.5 28.9 23.9
288 361 461 577
82.0 58.5 42.5 33.5
60.8 38.7 23.4 15.0
4.76 125 88.5 9.3 19.4 63.5 38.2 49.5
95.3 61.1 37.2 23.6
3.03 190 148 1.96 5.92 135 96.2 3.82 12.4 94.5 57.4 8.0 24.2 74.0 36.9 15.7
275 190 135 105
216 1.33 136 2.61 83.4 5.45 53.4 10.7
50 40 32 25
44.0 34.8 27.0 20.3
56.0 45.2 37.0 29.7
427 533 666 852
99.0 71.0 53.5 41.0
71.6 45.8 29.5 18.1
5.95 150 11.7 105 22.8 79.5 47.7 60.5
111 69.9 46.2 28.3
3.79 230 175 2.45 7.41 160 110 4.79 14.4 120 72.8 9.35 30.3 89.5 43.5 19.6
335 235 170 130
257 1.65 165 3.26 104 6.36 65.5 13.3
63 50 40 32
56.0 43.0 34.0 26.0
70.0 623 57.0 785 46.0 981 38.0 1226
120 85.0 64.0 51.0
87.7 54.1 34.4 22.3
7.27 180 14.5 130 28.4 95.5 55.4 75.0
135 86.8 54.5 34.8
4.63 9.25 18.1 35.3
275 195 140 110
210 2.99 133 5.98 81.6 11.7 52.5 22.9
395 280 205 160
304 2.03 194 4.07 124 7.95 79.5 15.5
80 63 50 40
71.0 55.0 42.0 32.6
89.0 932 71.5 1177 58.0 1481 47.5 1854
145 103 105 65.0 80.0 42.0 60.0 24.0
8.96 220 18.3 155 36.7 115 71.7 90.0
160 99.0 62.0 39.7
5.70 11.7 23.3 45.6
335 235 175 135
250 3.69 155 7.55 100 15.1 63.2 29.5
490 340 250 195
370 2.51 277 5.13 145 10.3 95.0 20.1
100 80 63 50
89.0 69.0 53.0 40.5
111 91.0 73.0 60.0
170 118 125 76.0 95.0 48.0 75.0 30.0
11.9 23.2 47.0 95.4
187 111 74.0 46.8
7.58 14.8 30.3 60.8
390 285 205 160
4.9 286 186 9.58 112 19.6 70.0 39.2
570 410 300 230
423 271 169 103
0.2
2.5 2 1.6
2.0 1.5 1.1
3.1 2.6 2.1
0.5
6.3 4 2.5
5.3 3.1 1.7
7.5 5.0 3.4
1
12.5 8 5
10.8 6.5 3.6
1.6
20 12.5 8
2
A
4
c O
O.O
Q o
1.00 1.24 1.50
1413 1766 2237 2825
260 180 140 110
0.07 0.15 0.28
0.41 1.59 6.51
0.67 84.5 0.99 165 129 33.4 4.0 78.0 50.0 2.73 13.6 15.4 45.0 20.2 10.4
0.97 2.04 3.98 7.78
3.34 6.51 13.3 26.7
246
Machine elements: 5.8 Springs, components of jigs and tools
Disc springs Single spring D0
Series stack
De
outside diameter
Di
inside diameter
t
thickness of the single disc spring
ho
spring height (theoretic spring displacement to flat position)
lo
overall height of the unloaded single spring
\ho~lp£52223
D;
without contact surface: Groups 1 & 2 B
cf. d i n 2093(2006-03)
Spring Spring force deflection "total
Stotal -
1
'
s
Spring length
spring deflection of a single spring Stotal spring deflection of stack of disc springs
=F
Lo = i • lo Parallel stack
load generated by a single disc spring
1
total total load generated by stack of disc springs
2
length of unloaded spring stack
Spring deflection s • Spring force graph for various disc spring combinations: (a) single spring; (b) parallel stack of 3 single springs: 3 times force; (c) series stack of 4 single springs: 4-fold deflection; (d) series stack of 3 parallel stacks with 2 single springs each: 3-fold deflection, 2-fold force Set ies A: h ard spri ngs I.4 D(, / f * 18; h0/t* C Fin t s2' lo kN 1)
3)
Group 2: f = 1.25-6 mm without contact surface
Group. 1: t < 1.25 mm without contact surface
Group
Spring force
number of disc springs in parallel stack number of disc springs in series stack Series E3: mediuim hard springs De/ f « 28; h0/t« 0..75 Fin t s2' lo kN1>
Se ries C: soft sprir igs D(} /f ~ 40; holt* 1.3 Fin t s2* lo kN 1)
De
D\
h12
H12
8 10 14 16
4.2 5.2 7.2 8.2
0.4 0.5 0.8 0.9
0.6 0.75 1.1 1.25
0.21 0.33 0.81 1.00
0.15 0.19 0.23 0.26
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
0.55 0.7 0.9 1.05
0.12 0.21 0.28 0.41
0.19 0.23 0.30 0.34
0.2 0.25 0.35 0.4
0.45 0.55 0.8 0.9
0.04 0.06 0.12 0.16
0.19 0.23 0.34 0.38
20 25 28 40
10.2 12.2 14.2 20.4
1.1
1.55
1.53
0.34
0.8 0.9 1.0
1.35 1.6 1.8
0.75 0.87 1.11
0.41 0.53 0.60
0.5 0.7 0.8 1
1.15 1.6 1.8 2.3
0.25 0.60 0.80 1.02
0.49 0.68 0.75 0.98
25 28 40 45
12.2 14.2 20.4 22.4
1.5 1.5 2.2 2.5
2.05 2.15 3.15 4.1
2.91 2.85 6.54 7.72
0.41 0.49 0.68 0.75
1.5 1.7
2.6 3.0
2.62 3.66
0.86 0.98
1.25
2.85
1.89
1.20
50 56 63 71
25.4 28.5 31 36
3 3 3.5 4
4.3 4.9 5.6 6.7
12.0 11.4 15.0 20.5
0.83 0.98 1.05 1.20
2
2 2.5 2.5
3.4 3.6 4.2 4.5
4.76 4.44 7.18 6.73
1.05 1.20 1.31 1.50
1.25 1.5 1.8 2
2.85 3.45 4.15 4.6
1.55 2.62 4.24 5.14
1.20 1.46 1.76 1.95
80 90 100 125
41 46 51 64
5 5 6
7 8.2 8.5
33.7 31.4 48.0
1.28 1.50 1.65
3 3.5 3.5 5
5.3 6 6.3 8.5
10.5 14.2 13.1 30.0
1.73 1.88 2.10 2.63
2.25 2.5 2.7 3.5
5.2 5.7 6.2 8
6.61 7.68 8.61 15.4
2.21 2.40 2.63 3.38
140 160 180
72 82 92
-
-
9 10.5 11.1
27.9 41.1 37.5
3.00 3.38 3.83
3.8 4.3 4.8
8.7 9.9 11
17.2 21.8 26.4
3.68 4.20 4.65
-
-
5 6 6
Disc spring DIN 2093 - A 16: Series A, outside diameter De = 16 mm 1) 2) 3)
Spring deflection
Spring force Fof a single disc with spring deflection s « 0.75 • h0 s « 0,75 • hQ Size 3: t > 6-14 mm, with contact surface, D e = 125, 140, 160, 180, 200, 225, 250 mm
Machine elements: 5.8 Springs, components of jigs and tools
Drill bushings
248
Machine elements: 5.8 Springs, components of jigs and tools
Grub screws. Thrust pads, Ball knobs
Machine elements: 5.8 Springs, components of jigs and tools
Knobs, Locating and seating pins Star knobs
cf. DIN 6335 (1996-01)
Form A
Form B
Form E
32
dz 12
M6
40
14
21
M8
21
hz 20
fh 10
12
26
25
14
15
50
18
25
10
M10
34
32
20
18
63
20
32
12
M12
42
40
25
22
80
25
40
16
M16
52
50
30
28
1001)
32
48
20
M20
65
60
38
36
Form
Description
AtoE
Metal knobs rough part of metal with through bore d4 with blind bore d 4
D
with through threaded bore d 5 with blind threaded bore d 5
Form C
Form K
K2)
of molding mat. (plastic) with threaded bushing d 5 (of metal)
L 2>
of molding material (plastic) with threaded pin d 5 (of metal) Star knob DIN 6335 - A 50 AL: Form A, d, = 50 mm, of aluminum
1)
This size is not available in molding material. Sometimes with insignificant other dimensions; material like fluted knobs DIN 6336
2)
Fluted knobs
cf. DIN 6336(1996-01)
Form A
Form E
Form L
•' t i iTP?) 1 ft d,
Locating and seating pins Form A Seating pin
Form B Locating pin cylindrical
1 I
I
Form C Locating pin truncated
<*2
h2
hs
32
12
M6
21
20
10
12
20
30
40
14
M8
26
25
13
15
20
30
50
18
M10
34
32
17
18
25
30
63
20
M12
42
40
21
22
30
40
80
25
M16
52
50
25
28
30
40
Fluted knob DIN 6336 - L 40 x 30: Form L (molding material) d-\ = 40 mm, / = 30 mm Forms A to E (metal knobs) as well as K and L (knobs of molding material) correspond to star knobs DIN 6335. Materials: Cast iron, aluminum, molding compounds (PF 31 N RAL 9005 DIN 7708-2) cf. DIN 6321 (2002-10) 4 /1 g6 Form A Form B and C short long h9
n6 1.2
12 16
1.6
18
2.5
13
22
3.5
15
25
1.6
10
10 12 16
12
20 25
0.04 10
12
18
Clevis pins DIN 6321 - C 20 x 25: Form C, hardened 53 + 6 HRC
1)
0.02
Appropriate bore tolerance: H7
2.5 = 20 mm, /, = 25 mm
250
Machine elements: 5.8 Springs, components of jigs and tools
T-slots and accessories, Spherical washers, Conical seats T-slots and nuts for T-slots
cf. DIN 650 (1989-10) and 508 (2002-06) 8
10
12
14
Deviation from a -0.3/-0.5 14.5 16
19
23
Width a
18 30
+ 2/0
••mlE
Thread d
b
1)
+ 1/0 28 23
25 20
42
-0.4/-0.7 56
68
+ 4/0
16
20
25
+ 2/0 36 45 30 38
56 48
71 61
32
+ 3/0
21 17
M6
M8 M10 M12 M16 M20 M24 M30 M36
13
15
18
22
28
35
44
54
10
12
14
16
20
28
36
44
52
10
14
18
22
26
0/-0.5
85 74 65
0/-1
Nut DIN 5 0 8 - M 1 0 x 12: d= M10, a= 12 mm
Bolts for T-slots
cf. DIN 787 (2005-02) dx
a
fQ -=- t A -
46
36
18 15
Deviation from k
Tolerance class H8 for pilot T-slots and clamping slots; H12 for clamping slots
37 + 3/0
12 max. min.
28
-0.3/-0.6
Deviation from b 1.5/0 Deviation from c
22
T k
b
A
-a
/
from to
b e
i
e
2
uS h
up to M12x 12: s. ' M12x14 and up: a>d-\
J
ih
„6 \
k Nominal lengths /
M8 M10 M12 M16 M20 M24 M30 10 12 14 18 22 8 28 36 22 30 35 45 55 70 80 50 60 120 240 150 190 300 15 18 22 44 54 13 28 35 14 24 12 16 32 41 50 20 6 7 14 22 6 8 10 18 25, 32, 40, 50, 63, 80, 100, 125, 160, 200, 250, 315, 400, 500 mm Bolt DIN 787 - M10 x 10 x 100 - 8.8: d, = M10, a = 10 mm, / = 100 mm, property class 8.8
Loose slot tenons
vgl. DIN 6323 (2003-08) Form C b-1 < b2
by
fci h6
b2 h6 Form
h2
A
12
12
h3
/
20
3.6
10
m
28.6
12
20
5.5
12
20
14 18
14
22
50.5
18
28
12
61.5
24
36
16
76.5
30
42
19
90.5
36
Spherical washers and conical seats Conical seat 120°
90° I" IVA
2 d du Form C
Form D d4 = d3
32
40 50
Slot tenon DIN 6323 - C 20 x 28: Form C, b-\ = 20 mm, b2 = 28 mm
hardened, hardness 650 + 100 HV10
Spherical washer
5.5
m -c:
'
Form G d 4 > of3
cf. DIN 6319 (2001-10)
dy
d2
H13
H13
6.4
7.1
8.4
d4 Form D G
12
12
17
h2
h3 Form D G
2.3
2.8
17
17
24
11 14.5
21
21
30
18.5
14.2
24
24
36
20
4.6
19
30
30
44
26
23.2
36
36
50
31
9.6
10.5
12
13 17 21
d3
3.2
R Sphere
3.5
12
4.2
15
5.3
6.2
22
6.3
7.5
27
17
Spherical washer DIN 6319 - C 17: Form C, d q = 17 mm
Machine elements: 5.8 Springs, components of jigs and tools
Punch holder shanks, Punches, Machined plates Punch holder shanks form A 1 ) Form A
cf. DIN ISO 10242-1 and -2 (2000-03) d-, f9
d2
d3
20
15
M16 x 1.5
40
25
20
M16 x 1.5 M20 x 1.5
45
32
25
M20 x 1.5 M24 x 1.5
40
32
50
42
, /0c
WAF
h
WAF
h 12
58
17
16
68
21
56
16
79
27
M24 x 1.5 M27 x 2 M30 x 2
70
26
93
12
36
M30 x 2
80
26
108
12
41
2.5
Punch holder shanks ISO 10242-1 A - 40 x M30 x 2: Form A, d-i = 40 mm, d3 = M30 x 2 thread undercut DIN 76-A
1)
Form C with mounting flange instead of screw threads
Round punch Form D 1 )
t [fl
cf. DIN 9861-1 (1992-07) d-, h6 from-to
Graduation
0.5-0.95
0.05
1.0-2.9
0.1
3.0-6.4
0.1
6.5-20
0.5
/ 0/+0.5
71
Hardness Shank Head
Material WS2>
80
62 ± 2 HRC
45 ± 5 HRC
64 ± 2 HRC
50 ± 5 HRC
HWS3> 71
80
100
HSS 4)
Punch DIN 9861 D - 5.6 x 71 HWS: Form D, d, = 5.6 mm, / = 71 mm, of high-alloyed cold-work steel 1)
d ih6
Form WS HWS HSS
2) 3)
d2 ~ (1.1-1.8) • d-\ (depending on 0
4)
DA with allowable enlargement below the head alloyed cold-work steel high-alloyed cold-work steels high-speed steels
Machined plates for press tools and for fixtures
cf. DIN ISO 6753-1 (2006-09)
/
80
160
100
Plate thickness t for plate dimension w 125 I 160 200 250 315 400
630
20, 25, 32
200
25, 32, 40
250
25, 32, 40 32, 40, 50
315
32, 40, 50
400
32, 40, 50
500
32, 40, 50, 63
630
Machined plate ISO 6753-1 1 - 315 x 200 x 32: Fabricated by flame cutting (1), / = 315 mm, w = 200 mm, t = 32 mm
I
Code Ra 6.B
500
Fabrication method
Ra B.2
Note: These surface roughness values only apply to milled edges.
Flame cutting Beam cutting Milling
Limit deviations for length I and width w ( w < 630 mm)
Limit deviations for thickness t
+4
±2
+1
+ 0.4 + 0.2
+ 0.5 + 0.3
252
Machine elements: 5.8 Springs, components of jigs and tools
Pillar die sets Pillar die sets with rectangular working surface forms C and CG1* cf. DIN 9812 (1981-12)
a y x b-,
c1
02
C3
d2
80x63 100 x 63 100 x 80 160x80 125 x 100 250 x 100
50
30
80
19
M20 x 1.5
50
30
80
25
M20 x 1.5
50
40
90
25 32
M24 x 1.5
160 x 125 315 x125 200 x 160 315x160
56
40
90
32
M24 x 1.5
56 63
50
100
32 40
M30 x 2
63
50
100
40
M30 x 2
250 x 200 315x250
Pillar die sets with circular working surface forms D and DG 2> cf. DIN 9812 (1981-12)
160
50 63
160
80
170 180
40
100
200
330 220 395
250 315
25
65
16
d3 80 95
M16 x 1.5
50
30
80
25
M20 x 1.5
155
25
56
180
56 63
40
50
32
90
100
40
125 140
125 160
180
160 M24 x 1.5
M30 x 2
225
180
245
180
265
190
330 395
200 220
Pillar die set DIN 9812 - D 160: Form D, d = 160 mm 2)
Pillar die sets with centrally positioned pillars and thick pillar guide plate, form DF
<*2
125
225 180 380 265 200 395 220
Form C without threads; form CG with threads d 3
P3
19
Center pillar die set DIN 9812 - C 100 x 80: Form C, a, x ^ = 100 mm x 80 mm 1)
C2
Form D without threads; form DG with threads d 3
Pillar die sets with diagonal pillars, forms C and CG 3) cf. DIN 9819 (1981-12)
cf. DIN 9816(1981-12)
zaiim
L U i
1
!AI
d * do
H
= 3 7
z 80 100 125 160 200 =>
50 50
56
80 85 90 100 110
di
e
'1
fz
h
/
a, x ^
19
125
16
10
36
170
80x63 125 x 80
25
32
155 180 225 265
18
11
40
23
11
45
180
220
125x 100 250 x 100 160x 125
240
315 x 125
190
Pillar die set DIN 9816 - DF 100 GG: Form DF, d-i = 100 mm, cast iron slide guide
=> 3)
32
bz
135 180 215 190 235 325 255 235 280 390
C1
50
56
C2
C3
30
80
40
90
d2 19 25 25
40
90
32
e
I i 75 103 160 128 120 148 170 245 158 155 180 183 310
Pillar die set DIN 9819 - C 160 x 80 GG: Form C, a-\ = 160 mm, b-1 = 80 mm, cast iron
Form C without threads; form CG with threads d3
253
Machine elements: 5.9 Drive elements
V-belts, Positive drive belts Design types Speed range
Range of dimensions
Designation
h 1 ) in mm | Standard for the belts
Power range
L 2 ) in mm Vmax in m/s P ' m a x
Standard for pulleys
Properties, application in kW3>
Classic V-belts 185-19000
4-25
30
65
DIN 2217, ISO 4183 DIN 2215, ISO 4184 ISarrow V-bellts 630-12500
8-18
40
70
For higher maximum tensile strengths, reliable tractive power; construction equipment, variable drives for the mining industry, agricultural machinery, conveyors, general machine construction Good power transmission, twice the power with the same width as classic V-belts; gearbox manufacturing, machine tools, HVAC
DIN 2211, ISO 4183 DIN 7753, ISO 4 184 Cogged V-belts 800-3150
4-25
50
70
DIN 2211, DIN 2217
Low elongation, small pulley diameter, high temperature resistance from -30°C to +80°C; automotive alternator drives, transmission design, pumps, HVAC
DIN 2215, DIN 7753 Joined V-belts (Power Band)
10-26
1250-15000 30
65
DIN 2211, DIN 2217 V-ribbed belts (ribbed belts)
3-17
600-15000 60
20
DIN 7867
Insensitive to vibration or impact, no twisting of single belts in the pulleys, absolutely uniform force distribution, high tensile strength, for long distances between axles; paper machines Large transmission ratios possible, low vibration running behavior; automotive alternator drives, compressor drives in HVAC, small machines
DIN 7867
85
Excellent transverse strength, very high tensile strength, flexible; speed control gears, machine tools, textile machines, printing machines, agricultural machinery
20
Good power transmission for drives with several pulleys and alternating direction of rotation, 10% less efficiency than classic V-belts; agricultural machinery, textile machines, general machine building
0.5-900
Efficiency t ] m a x ^ 0.98, synchronous running, low prestress forces, therefore lower bearing load; precision machine drives, office machine drives, automotive industry, CNC spindle drives
Wide V-belts 468-2500
6-18
30 DIN 7719 DIN 7719 C)ouble V-belt:s (Hiexagonal bel
2000-6900
10-25
30 Its)
DIN 2217
DINI 7722, ISO 5 Positive drive belts 0.7-5.0
100-3620
289 40-80 DIN ISO 5294 DIN 7721, DIN ISO 5296 1>
Belt height (pages 254, 255)
21
Belt length
3)
Transmittable power per belt
254
Machine elements: 5.9 Drive elements
Narrow V-belts Narrow V-belts
Narrow V-belt pulley DIN 2211-1 (1984-03)
DIN 7753-1 (1988-01)
w
e
V.
|
I
" I SrfJ
Effective diameter
31
Narrow V-belts, V-belt pulleys
Designations Belt profile (ISO designation codes)
SPZ
SPA
SPB
SPC
upper belt width effective width
9.7 8.5
12.7 11
16.3 14
22 19
10 2.8
13 3.5
18 4.8
63 9.7
90 12.7
140 16.3
224 22
2.8
h belt height /7W distance c/ m i n minimum allowable effective 0 w-| upper groove width
r, mm. mm
c t
distance from effective 0 to outer 0 minimum allowable groove depth
2 11
13.8
3.5 17.5
4.8 23.8
- 2•c
e
groove spacing for multi-groove pulleys groove spacing from outer edge
12
15
19
25.5
10
12.5
17
34° for effective 0 up to
80
118
190
315
38° for effective 0 over
80
118
190
315 1.47
de = da
f
Narrow V-belt DIN 7753 - XPZ 710: Narrow V-belt, cogged profile, reference length 710 mm Angle factor c-|
c
Wrap angle /?
180
1.02
1.05
1.08
c
c
c
170
160
150
1.12
1.16
1.22
1.28
1.37
140°
c
c
c
c
130
120
110
100
90c
Service factor c 2 Dai ly operating time in ho urs over 16 up to 10 from 10 to 16
Driven machines (examples)
1.0 1.1
1.1 1.2
1.2 1.3
Centrifugal pumps, fans, conveyor belts for light material Machine tools, presses, sheet metal shearers, printing machines
1.2 1.3
1.3 1.4
1.4 1.5
Grinding gears, piston pumps, textile and paper machines Stone crushers, mixers, winches, cranes, excavators
Efficiency values for narrow V-belts
Profile selection for narrow V-belts
2500
| 2000 1600
cf. DIN 7753-2 (1976-04)
P Prate(j N c-| c2
power to be transmitted power rating per belt number of belts angle factor Number of belts service factor
| 1250 ^ 1000 800 "S
Example:
6 3 0
| 500 ™ 400 I 315 ro
|
250
200
2.5
U
6.3 10
16 25 U0 63
calculated power P-c 2 in kW
Transmission parameters P= 12 kW with c-\ = 1.12; c2 = 1.4; d m i n = 160 mm, ns = 950 1/min; & = ?, /V = ? 1. P- c2 = 12 kW • 1.4= 16.8 kW 2. From the diagram n s = 950 1/min and P - c 2 = 16.8 kW profile SPA 3. Prated = 4.27 kW from the table P-Ci-Co 12 kW-1.12-1.4 A( ! 4 N= = = 4.4 Prated 4.27 kW • 5. Selected: N = 5 belts
255
Machine elements: 5.9 Drive elements
Positive drive belts Positive drive belts (timing belts)
cf. DIN 7721-1 (1989-06) Tooth size
Tooth spacing Code T2.5
r
p
V
/
t*
IV i -cj
c
T10
-cT
•
\|/
10
120 150 160 200 245
S \
X
i
VV
l1-1
0.2
1.3
1.2
0.4
2.2
5.3
2.5
0.6
48
-
30
112 122 126
61 66 78
700 720 780 840 880
144 156 168
84 91 96 100
900 920 960 990
54
114
-
-
132 -
168 -
192 200
10
4.5
530 560 610 630 660
40 49
w
16
No. of teeth for T5 T10
Effective length1*
-
_
270 285 305 330 390
Non-standardized tooth forms
LAHN profile
0.7
-
64 80 98
420 455 480 500
HT profile
1.5 2.7
No. of teeth for T2.5 T5
Effective length 1)
Double-sided
p y v j <:—f
2.5
T5
Positive drive belt width
Nominal thickness hs
Single-sided
-
-
_
-
180 184 -
T)
Effective diameter
2)
25
32
50
Effective No. of teeth for length1* T10 101 108 115 121 125
70 72 78 84 88
1320 1390 1460 1560 1610
132 139 146 156 161
_
1780 1880 1960 2250
178 188 196 225
-
Belt DIN 7721 - 6 T2.5 x 480: w=6 mm, spacing p = 2.5 mm, effective length = 480 mm, single-sided The code letter D is added for double-sided positive drive belts. 1) Effective lengths from 100-3620 mm, in custom-made products up to 25000 mm cf. DIN 7721-2 (1989-06)
Pulley groove dimensions
1)
25
1010 1080 1150 1210 1250
Timing belt pulleys
d = d0 +
16
53 56 61 63 66
92 96
198
10
Pulley groove
Pulley outer 0 Pulley outer 0 Pulley outer 0 Pulley Pulley d0 for d0for d0 for groove groove T2.5 T5 T10 T2.5 T5 T10 T2.5 T5 T10
10 11 12 13
7.4
15.0
8.2
16.6 18.2
14 15 16
10.6
9.0 9.8 11.4 12.2
19.8
36.3 39.5
21.4 23.0 24.6
42.7 45.9 49.1
13.0 13.8 14.6 15.4
27.8 29.4 31.0
22 25
17.0 19.3 21.7
34.1 38.9 43.7
28
2 •a
Pully dimensions
T2.5 T5 T10
24.9
50.1 100.0 56.4 112.7 62.8 125.4 75.5 150.9
61.8
32 36 40 48
31.3 37.7
68.2 77.7 87.2
60 72 84
47.2 94.6 189.1 56.8 113.7 227.3 66.3 132.9 265.5
28.1
Groove width w r Form SE 1) Form N 2 > 1.83 3.32 6.57
1.75 2.96 6.02
Groove height hg Form SE1> Form N2> 0.75 1.25 2.6
2a 0.6
1 1.95 3.4
1 2
Pulley width with flange w f without flange w' f
Letter symbols
Belt width w
T2.5
4 6 10
5.5 7.5 11.5
6
10 16 25
7.5 11.5 17.5 26.5
14 20 29
16 25 32 50
18 27 34 52
30 37 55
with pulley flange T5
T10 without pulley flange
52.2 55.4 58.6
Pulley groove dimensions Code
Form SE for < 20 grooves Form N for > 20 grooves
26.2
17 18 19 20
10 14 10
21
256
Machine elements: 5.9 Drive elements
Straight-toothed spur gears Unmodified spur gears with straight teeth External teeth
_ d
Number of teeth
N=
0
- 2
•
m
— m
m
d 0 = d+ 2 • m= m • (N + 2)
Outside diameter
dr = d-
Root diameter
2 • {m + c)
_ d-, +d2 _ m • (N-]+N2\ d — —
Center distance
2
2
External and internal teeth
Module
Pitch m
module
N, Nh N2
p c h ha hd a
pitch clearance whole depth addendum dedendum center distance
d,
d2
dQ, d 0 1 , do2 dr, d r 1 , d r 2
p = n • m
no. of teeth pitch diameter outside diameter
d= m • N Pitch diameter
Clearance
0.1 • m to 0.3 • m often c= 0.167 • m
Addendum
ha = m
Dedendum
hri = m + c
c=
root diameter
Example: External spur gear, m = 2 mm; N= 32; c= 0.167 • m; d= ?; d0 = ?;/? = ? d — m ' N — 2 mm 3 2 - 6 4 mm d0 = d + 2 • m = 64 mm + 2 - 2 mm = 68 mm h = 2-m + c=2-2 mm + 0.167 • 2 mm = 4.33 mm
h = 2
Whole depth
•m + c
Internal teeth
Number of teeth
Outside diameter Root diameter
Center distance
N=
| d0 =
dQ
— m
+ 2 •m m
d+2 • m = m • (N + 2)
dr=d
-2
• (m+
c)
_ d 2 - d - 1 _ m • (A/ 2 - N^)
2
Example: Internal spur gear, m = 1.5 mm; N = 80; c= 0.167 • m; d= ?; dQ = ?;/? = ? d= m • N= 1.5 mm • 80 = 120 mm dQ = d-2 • m= 120 m m - 2 • 1.5 mm = 117 mm h = 2 • m + c= 2 • 1.5 mm + 0.167 • 1.5 mm = 3.25 mm
257
Machine elements: 5.9 Drive elements
Helical gears, Module series for spur gears Unmodified helical gears
VI
mt
transverse module
mr Pt
real pitch module transverse pitch
pr
real pitch
£
helix angle (normally 0 = 8° to 25c
N, N2 no. of teeth d, d-|, d2 pitch diameter dQ outside diameter a center distance
ex.
Transverse module
Transverse pitch
Pitch diameter
Number of teeth In helical gears the teeth run in a screw-like pattern on the cylindrical wheel body. The tools for manufacturing spur gears and helical gears conform to the real pitch module.
Real pitch module
In the case of parallel shafts the two gears have the same helix angle, but opposite direction of rotation, i.e., one gear has a right-hand helix and the other a left-hand helix =-&).
Real pitch
Example:
Outside diameter
Helical gear, N = 32; mr= 1.5 mm; 0 = 19.5°; c = 0.167 • m; mt = ?;d0 = ?; d=?;h = ? mr 1.5 mm mt = — — = = 1.591 mm cos (5 cos 19.5° d0 = d + 2 • m r = 50.9 mm + 2-1.5 mm = 53.9 mm d = mt • N= 1.591 mm • 32 = 50.9 mm
Center distance
= 2 • m r + c= 2 • 1.5 mm + 0.167 • 1.5 mm = 3.25 mm
Calculations of whole depth, addendum, dedendum, clearance and root diameter are the same as those for spur gears with straight teeth (page 256). In the formulae the module m is replaced by the real pitch module mr.
Module series for spur gears (Series I)
cf. DIN 780-1 (1977-05)
h
Module Pitch Module Pitch
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.25
0.628
0.785
0.943
1.257
1.571
1.885
2.199
2.513
2.827
3.142
3.927
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
12.0
16.0
4.712
6.283
7.854
9.425
12.566
15.708
18.850
25.132
31.416
37.699
50.265
1
Classification of a tool set of 8 module side milling cutters (up to m = 9 mm) ' Cutter no. No. of teeth 1)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
12-13
14-16
17-20
21-25
26-34
35-54
55-134
135 to toothed rack
The manufacture of gears with side milling cutters is not an involute process. Only an approximate involute form of the tooth flank is produced. Therefore this manufacturing process is only suitable for secondary gears. For gears with m > 9 mm a tool set with 15 module side milling cutters is used.
258
Machine elements: 5.9 Drive elements
Bevel gears, Worm drive Unmodified bevel gears with straight teeth m module N, N^, N2 d, d 1 f d2 pitch diameter d, <51f d2 d0, d01, dQ2 outside diameter y1r y2 I shaft angle (normally 90°)
no. of teeth pitch angle tip angle
Pitch and whole depth narrow to the cone point, so that at every point of the tooth width a bevel gear has another module, outside diameter, etc. The outermost module corresponds to the standard module.
Pitch diameter Outside diameter
In addition to the dimensions given on the outside edges, the dimensions in the centers and inner edges of gear teeth are also important for manufacturing.
Tip angle gear 1
Example:
Tip angle gear 2
Bevel gear drive, m = 2 mm; A/-, = 30; N2 = 120; I = 90°. Calculate the dimensions for turning the driving bevel gear. /Vi 30 tan^ = —1 = — - 0.2500; 8* = 14.04° 1 1 N2 120 d| =m-/V ) = 2 m m - 3 0 = 60 mm c, o^ + 2 • m • cos^ = 60 mm + 2 • 2 mm • cos 14.04° 63.88 mm = 0.267 1 3 0 / 1 Ni+2 • cos<5, + 2 • cos 14.04° N2 - 2 • sin (St 30120-2 • sin 14.04° =14.95°
t
d = m • N d0 = d+ 2 • m • cosd tan Yy -
N^ +2 • cosd-, N2-2 -sinS, A/o + 2 • cos<59
tan y , = — 2
A/-| - 2 • sin<52
Pitch angle gear 1
^ d! /Vt 1 tand-,1 = — 1 = — ' = d2 N2 i
Pitch angle gear 2
+ X d N . tan do = —2 = — 2 = / 2 di N,
+
Shaft angle
2 = d i + <5-
Whole depth, addendum, clearance, etc. are calculated like spur gears with straight teeth (page 256).
Worm drive m module d, d-1, d2 pitch diameter d0, d 0 i , d o 2 outside diameter rt throat radius
/Vq, A/2 no. of teeth pn lead Px, p (axial) pitch dt tip 0
Worm Pitch diameter Axial pitch - worm Outside diameter Lead Ny (no. of teeth) Example: Worm drive m = 2.5 mm; A/-, = 2; d q = 40 mm; N2 = 40; d 0 i = ?; d 2 = ?; d t = ?; r t = ?; a = ? d o 1 = d 1 + 2 m = 40mm + 2-2.5 mm = 45 mm d 2 = m • N2= 2.5 mm • 40 = 100 mm do2=d2+2m = 100 mm+ 2 • 2.5 mm= 105 mm d t ~ d o 2 + m = 105 mm + 2.5 mm = 107.5 mm c/-| 40 mm rt = — — m = -2.5 mm = 17.5 mm 2" c/i+do 40 mm + 100 mm a =— = = 70 mm 2 2
Worm gear Pitch diameter Pitch Outside diameter Tip diameter Throat radius Clearance, whole depth, addendum, dedendum and center distance like spur gears (page 256).
259
Machine elements: 5.9 Drive elements
Transmission ratios Gear drives
driving
no. of teeth
NVN3,N5...
Single gear ratio
n 3 , n 5 . . . speeds no. of teeth N2,N4,N6... n2, n4, n6... speeds
driven
i /'1, h,
^
/,
^
^ driven j 9ears
initial speed final speed total gear ratio individual gear ratios
n\
Multiple gear ratio
driving J gears
Example: i.
nu=nf
Drive formula n<| • A/<| = n2 • N2 Gear ratio N 2
i =
/V,
=
n
n
1 =
n2
nf
Total gear ratio
/"= 0.4; N-I = 180/min; N2 = 24; n 2 = ?; A/n = ? 180/min J C A / . = 450/min "2 = -r- = — 0.4 c N ^ _ n 2 - N 2 ^ 450/min • 24 180/min
/ =
/v 2 • A / 4 - / V 6 A/q • A/ 3 • A/ 5
^
i= h- I2- 13,
Torque for gears, page 37
Belt drives d-|, d 3 , d 5 . . . diameters1*
Single gear ratio
driving pulleys
n 3 , n 5 . . . speeds ^2, d 4 , d 6 ... diameters1*
driving
driven
6 ••• speeds initial speed
Drive formula
nf
final speed
/'
total gear ratio
/7
/'1, / 2 , / 3 ...
individual gear ratios
v,
circumferential velocity
v2
/
c/-|
n-, = 600/min; n2 = 400/min; d, = 240 mm; /'= ?; d 2 = ? i-i _____ 600/min 1,5 . =
=
n2 d,= 1)
Gear ratio . = c[2
Example:
Multiple gear ratio
y= v/-| = V2
driven pulleys
n
Hj
Velocity
— —
=
400/min ~ 1 • d-| 600/min • 240 mm = 360 mm 400/min n2
For V-belts (page 254) calculate with the effective diameter d e ; for positive drive belts (page 255) calculate with the number of teeth on the pulley.
n
=
I
_ Hj
n2
A7f
Total gear ratio I =
d2
• dA
• di
d i • c/o • c/c
I = h • /2 • '3
Worm drives driven
A/-| no. of teeth (no. of threads) of the worm n-, speed of the worm N2 no. of teeth of the worm gear n2
speed of the worm gear
/'
gear ratio
Example: /'= 25; driving
n
2
= 1500/min; A/-, = 3; n2 = ?
ni 1500/min . =—= = 60/min / 25
Drive formula n-| • A/-! = n2 • A/ 2
Gear ratio
L
260
Machine elements: 5.9 Drive elements
Speed graph The speed n of a machine tool from the workpiece or tool diameter d and the selected cutting speed vc can be determined • on a computer/calculator using the formula, or • graphically using the speed graph. Speed graphs have the speeds under load which can be set on the machine. These are stepped geometrically. For infinitely variable drives the calculated speed can be set precisely.
Speed
Speed graph with logarithmically scaled coordinates
/
800 m/min 600 500
5
6 7 8 9 10
15
20
30
40
50 60
80 100
150
#
c^
200 mm 300
diameter d Example: d = 100 mm; v c =220 — ; n = ? c min m 220 m n Calculation: n = ' = 700.3 ; read from the speed graph above: n « 700 _ yc _ n • d Ji • 0.1 m min min
400
Machine elements: 5.
261
rins
Plain bearings, Overview Plain bearings1* (Selection by type of lubrication) Hydrodynamic plain bearings
Hydrostatic plain bearings
Dry-running plain bearings
Suitable for
Suitable for
Suitable for
- low-wear continuous operation - high speeds - high impact loads
- wear-free continuous operation - low friction losses - low speeds possible
Areas of application
Areas of application
- main and big end bearings - gearboxes - electric motors -turbines, compressors - lifting equipm., agricul. machinery 1>
- maintenance free or low maintenance operation - w i t h or without lubrication Areas of application -construction equipment - armatures and devices - packaging machines - j e t engines - household appliances
- precision bearings - space telescopes and antennae - machine tools - axial bearings for high forces
Other plain bearings: air or gas and water lubricated plain bearings, magnetic bearings
Properties of plain bearing materials Designation, Material number
Elongation limit ftp 0.2 N/mm 2
Specific bearing load P l" N/mm 2
Shaft min. hardness
Sliding properties
Sliding speed
EmergencyProperties, application running behavior
Lead and tin casting alloys G-PbSb15Sn102) 2.3391
43
G-SnSb12Cu6Pb 2.3790
61
cf. DIN ISO 43
10
Medium loading; all purpose plain bearing
€
160 HB
Good impact loading; turbines, compressors, electric machines
160 HB
Cast copper alloys and copper wrought alloys CuSn8Pb2-C 2.1810
130
CuZn31Si1 2.1831
250
58
55 HRC
80
18
250 HB
60
11
150 HB
CuPb10Sn10-C2) 2.1816
CuPb20Sn5-C 2.1818
21
cf. DIN ISO 4382-1 and -2 (1992-11)
280 HB
€
€
High surface pressures; vehicle bearings, bearings in hot-rolling mills Suitable for water lubrication, resistant to sulfuric acid cf. DIN ISO 6691 (2001-05)
PA 6 (Polyamide)
12
50 HRC
POM (Polyoxymethylene
18
50 HRC
2)
Low to moderate loading, sufficient lubrication High loading, high vertical and horizontal impact loading
Thermoplastics
1)
(2001-02)
Impact and wear resistant; bearings in farm machinery O
Bearing force based on the projected bearing surface Composite material according to DIN ISO 4383 for thinwalled plain bearings
•
very good
© limited
Harder and capable of higher compressive loads than PA; bearings in precision mechanics, suitable for dry-running q good O poor
€ normal
262
Machine elements: 5.10 Bearings Plain bearing
bushings
Bushings made of copper alloys Form C y / / / / / /
cf. DIN ISO 4379(1995-10)
Form F
Form C d,
>o LU "6"
1
NO vO LU u) "6"
///////)
all . chamfers 45 by js13 Force fitting produces tolerance class H8 Recommended tolerance classes for mounting dimensions Location hole H7 Shaft e7 or g7 (depending on application) by] S13
10 12 15 18 20 22 25 30 35 40
by d2 10 12 14 16 10 15 20 14 16 18 10 15 20 17 19 21 12 20 30 20 22 24 15 20 30 23 24 26 15 20 30 25 26 28 20 30 40 28 30 32 20 30 40 34 36 38 30 40 50 39 41 45 30 40 60 44 48 50 Diameter range dy. 6-200 Bushing ISO 4379 - F22 x 25 x 30 - CuSn8P: Form F, di = 22 mm, d2 = 25 mm, by = 30 mm, of CuSn8P
Bushings made of sintered metal Form V
Form J Y//////S
cf. DIN 1850-3 (1998-07) Form J
-P
7 7 7 7 7m; r*ID t5~
)
I b / / / / A
V / / / / / / > A
£ 2 js13
by] S13
Z71JS13
all chamfers 45°
dy 10 12 15 18 20 22 25 30 35 40
Recommended tolerance classes for mounting dimensions Location hole H7 Shaft
Form V
d2
16 14 16 18 16 18 21 19 21 24 22 24 26 25 26 28 27 28 32 30 32 38 35 38 45 41 45 50 46 50 Diameter range dy.
22 24 27 30 32 34 39 46 55 60 1-60
Thermoset plastics Form R
S//S// J
- "6" V / / / / J
6 2 js13
£ijs13 all chamfers 45°
by] S13
Form T
by h13
y h13
V
cf. DIN 1850-5 and -6 (1998-07)
dy
di
bz
^max
10 12 15 18 20 22 25 30 35
16 18 21 24 26 28 32 38 45
20 22 27 30 32 34 38 44 50
3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 5
0.3 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.8
+0.07
; ss/ >30<
16 20 25 30 25 25 30 30 40 50
Lengths by 6 10 10 12 15 15 20 20 30
10 15 15 20 20 20 30 30 40
20 20 30 30 30 40 40 50
Tolerance class Fabrication resulting after method from 10 15 20 28 35 42 force fitting d. to 14 18 25 32 40 55 D12 A +0.21 +0.2 +0.4 +0.6 +0.69 +0.90 i n j e c t i o n
m - "O
B
10 12 15 18 20 20 25 25 35 40
8 10 12 15 15 20 20 25 30
dz
30(
30°
0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
Diameter range d-\ for thermosets: 3-250, for thermoplastics: 6-200 Limit deviations d2 and dy of tolerance classes A and B for bushings made of thermoplastics
Thermoplastics Form S
3.5 4 5 5
Lengths by
f?max
Bushing DIN 1850 - V18 x 24 x 18 - Sint-B50: dy = 18 mm, d2 = 24 mm, by = 18 mm, sintered bronze Sint-B50
Bushings made of thermosets and thermoplastics
Form P
Lengths
Form F Series 1 Series 2 dz 2 d2 b>2 12 14 16 20 14 16 18 22 17 19 21 27 20 22 1 24 30 23 26 1.5 26 32 25 28 1.5 28 34 28 31 1.5 32 38 38 44 34 38 2 45 50 39 43 2 50 58 44 48 2
b2 h13
0
+0.1 +0.2 +0.23 +0.30
molded
machined B Tolerance class zb11 C11 Additional codes for bushings made of thermoset plastics
Assembly bevel 15° (inst. of 45 Circular grooves on Recommended tolerance classes for mounting dimensions W outer diameter d Undercut instead of 2 radius R Thermosets Thermoplastics H7 Location hole H7 Bushing DIN 1850 - S20 A20 - PA 6: Form S; dy 20 mm, tolerance cl. A, by = 20 mm, polyamide 6 Shaft h7 h9 Other stand, designs: Wrapped bushings DIN 1494, internal tension bushings DIN 1498, external tension bushings DIN 1499
:
Machine elements: 5.
263
rins
Antifriction bearings, Overview Roller bearings (selection) For rotation
Radial load Ball bearing
Linear bearings
Axial and radial load
Roller bearing
Ballbearing
Deep groove ball Cylindrical roller bearings DIN 625 bearings DIN 5412
O
For linear movement
Antifriction bearings
Roller bearing
Ball bearing
Angular ball Tapered roller bearings DIN 628 bearings DIN 720
Roller bearing
Axial-deep groove Axial-cyl. roller ball bear. DIN 711 bear. DIN 722
O
i n
Self-aligning ball Needle bearings bearing DIN 630 DIN 617
1
Axial load
Angular contact ball Cylindrical roller bearings DIN 628 bearings DIN 5412
E
r
Four-point contact Spherical roller bearings DIN 628 bearings DIN 728
H
!
O —
Properties of roller bearings Bearing design 1 '
Inside 0
d
Radial Axial High loading loading speed
High loads
Quiet Application running
€
•
Universal bearings in machine and automotive manufacturing
e
e
Compensation with misalignment
c
Only used in pairs, large forces, automotive manufacturing
Ball bearings Deep groove ball bearings
1.5-600
c
€
Self-aligning ball bearings
5-120
c
e
Angular contact ball bearings single-row
10-170
c
c
•2>
Angular contact ball bearings double-row
10-110
c
i
€
1
Axial deep groove ball bearings
8-360
o
V
€
€
Four-point contact bearings
20-240
e
c
0
Cylindrical roller bearings (form N)
17-240
•
o
•
Cylindrical roller bearings (form NUP)
15-240
•
€
C
Needle bearings
90-360
•
O
©
Tapered roller bearings
15-360
•
•
C2)
Axial cylindrical roller bearings
15-600
o
Spherical roller bearings
60-1060
e
•
Large forces, automotive manufacturing, with limited space requirements
€
e e e
£
€
Acceptance of very large radial forces, roller bearing assemblies, transmissions
e
Like Form N, with flanged wheel additional acceptance of axial forces
•
€
High carrying capacity with tight mounting space
03)
e
Usually mounted in pairs, wheel bearings in automobiles, spindle bearings
C
o
Stiff bearing requiring minimal axial space, high friction
c
o
Angular displacement thrust bearings, thrust bearings in cranes
Acceptance of very high axial forces, drill spindles, tail stock centers Very tight spaces, spindle bearing layouts, gear and roller bearing assemblies
Roller bearings
11 2) 3)
• •
For all radial bearings the prefix "radial" is omitted. Reduced suitability with paired mounting Mounted in pairs
Suitability levels: • very good
£ good
^ limited
O not suitable
© normal
264
Machine elements: 5.
rins
Antifriction bearings. Designation Designation of antifriction bearings Example:
cf. DIN 623-1 (1993-05)
Tapered roller bearings DIN 720 - S 30208 P2 I Standard
Name
Prefix symbol
Basic numbers
Prefix symbols K L R S
Suffix symbol
Suffix symbols (selection) K Z 2Z E RS 2RS P2
cage with roller elements free ring ring with roller set stainless steel
Example of basic numbers:
bearing with tapered bore bearing with shield on one side bearing with shield on both sides reinforced design bearing with seal on one side bearing with seal on both sides highest precision: dimensional, form and running
3 0 2 08
Bearing series 302 Width series 0 Bearing type 3
Bearing type
Diameter series 2
Dimension series 02
Design
Bore code 08
Borecode
Bore 0 d
Bore code
Bore 0 d
0
Angular contact ball bear., double row
1
Self-aligning ball bearing
00
10
12
60
2
Barrel and spherical roller bearings
01
12
13
65
3
Tapered roller bearings
02
15
14
70
4
Deep groove ball bear., double row
03
17
15
75
5
Axial deep groove ball bearings
04
20
16
80
6
Deep groove ball bear., single row
05
25
17
85
7
Angular contact ball bear., single row
06
30
18
90
Axial cylindrical roller bearings
07
35
19
95
Needle bearings
08
40
20
100
QJ
Four-point contact bearing
09
45
21
105
N, NJ, NJP, NN, NNU, NU, NUP
10
50
22
110
Cylindrical roller bearings
11
55
23
115
8 NA
Dimension series (selection) Explanation The dimension plans in DIN 616 contain diameter series in which each nominal diameter of a bearing bore d (= shaft diameter) is assigned a number of: • outside diameters and • width series (for radial bearings) or • height series (for axial bearings).
cf. DIN 616(1994-06) Structure of the dimension series
m-
02 "ool
Dimension series 02
dimension series
width series
a0.3
Example: Tapered roller bearings11
•
Bore code
Bore
07 08 09 10
35 40 45 50
3
10
diameter series 1)
0
D
B
72 80 85 90
17 18 19 20
d
«
other dimensions, see page 267
Machine elements: 5.10 Bearings
Ball bearings Deep groove ball bearings (selection)
cf. DIN 625-1 (1989-04)
Bearing series 60
-
"O
Cl
w d f r o m 1.5 to 600 m m Mounting dimensions according to DIN 5418:
T (2A *
N\
V/A )/ i ^ N
d
D
10 12 15
26 28 32
17 20 25
W
r h Basic max min number
Bearing series 62
D
W
r h Basic max min number
Bearing series 63
D
30 9 0.6 2.1 32 10 0.6 2.1 35 11 0.6 2.1
6200 6201 6202
35 11 0.6 2.1 37 12 1 2.8 2.8 42 13 1
6300 6301 6302
35 10 0.3 1 42 12 0.6 1.6 47 12 0.6 1.6
6003 6004 6005
40 12 0.6 2.1 47 14 1 2 52 15 1 2
6203 6204 6205
47 14 52 15 62 17
1 1 1
2.8 3.5 3.5
6303 6304 6305
30 35 40
55 13 62 14 68 15
1 1 1
2.3 2.3 2.3
6006 6007 6008
62 16 72 17 80 18
2 2 3.5
6206 6207 6208
72 19 80 21 90 23
1 3.5 1.5 4.5 1.5 4.5
6306 6307 6308
45 50 55
75 16 80 16 90 18
1 1 1
2.3 2.3 3
6009 6010 6011
85 19 90 20 100 21
1 3.5 1 3.5 1.5 4.5
6209 6210 6211
100 25 110 27 120 29
1.5 4.5 2 5.5 2 5.5
6309 6310 6311
60 95 18 65 100 18 70 110 20
1 1 1
3 3 3
6012 6013 6014
110 22 120 23 125 24
1.5 4.5 1.5 4.5 1.5 4.5
6212 6213 6214
130 31 2.1 6 140 33 2.1 6 150 35 2.1 6
6312 6313 6314
75 115 20 80 125 22 85 130 22
1 3 1 3 1.5 3.5
6015 6016 6017
130 25 140 26 150 28
2 5.5 2 5.5 2.1 6
6215 6216 6217
160 37 170 39 180 41
2.1 6 2.5 7 2.5 7
6315 6316 6317
90 140 24 95 145 24 100 150 24
1.5 3.5 1.5 3.5 1.5 3.5
6018 6019 6020
160 30 2.1 6 170 32 2.1 6 180 34 2.1 6
6218 6219 6220
190 43 200 45 215 47
2.5 7 2.5 7 2.5 7
6318 6319 6320
8 0.3 1 8 0.3 1 9 0.3 1
1 1 1
Deep groove ball bearing DIN 625 - 6208 - 2Z - P2: Deep groove ball bearing (bearing type 6), width series 0 1 ) , diameter series 2, bore code 08 (d= 8 • 5 mm = 40 mm), design with 2 shields, bearing with highest precision (tolerance class 2)
Angular contact ball bearings (selection)
cf. DIN 628-1 (1993-12) Bearing series 73
Bearing series 72
Mounting dimensions according to DIN 5418:
r h Basic max min number
6000 6001 6002
11
d f r o m 10 to 170 m m
W
h Basic D r max min number2'
d
D
W
15 17 20 25
35 40 47 52
11 0.6 2.1 12 0.6 2.1 14 1 2.8 15 1 2.8
30 35 40
62 16 72 17 80 18
W
Bearing ser. 33 (double row)
r h D Basic max min number2'
W
h r Basic max min number3'
2.8 2.8 3.5 3.5
7302B 7303B 7304B 7305B
42 47 52 62
2.8 2.8 3.5 3.5
3302 3303 3304 3305
72 19 80 21 90 23
1 3.5 1.5 4.5 1.5 4.5
7306B 7307B 7308B
72 30.2 1 3.5 80 34.9 1.5 4.5 90 36.5 1.5 4.5
3306 3307 3308
7209B 7210B 7211B
100 25 110 27 120 29
1.5 4.5 2 5.5 2 5.5
7309B 7310B 7311B
100 39.7 1.5 4.5 5.5 110 44.4 2 5.5 120 49.2 2
3309 3310 3311
1.5 4.5 1.5 4.5 1.5 4.5
7212B 7213B 7214B
130 31 140 33 150 35
2.1 6 2.1 6 2.1 6
7312B 7313B 7314B
130 54 2.1 6 140 58.7 2.1 6 150 63.5 2.1 6
3312 3313 3314
1.5 4.5 2 5.5 2 5.5
7215B 7216B 7217B
160 37 170 39 180 41
2.1 6 2.1 6 2.5 7
7315B 7316B 7317B
160 68.3 2.1 6 170 68.3 2.1 6 180 73 2.5 7
3315 3316 3317
5.5 90 160 30 2 95 170 32 2.1 6 100 180 34 2.1 6
7218B 7219B 7220B
190 43 200 45 215 47
2.5 7 2.5 7 2.5 7
7318B 7319B 7320B
190 73 2.5 7 200 77.8 2.5 7 215 82.6 2.5 7
3318 3319 3320
7202B 7203B 7204B 7205B
42 47 52 62
2.8 3.5 3.5
7206B 7207B 7208B
45 85 19 50 90 20 55 100 21
1 3.5 1 3.5 1.5 4.5
60 110 22 65 120 23 70 125 24 75 130 25 80 140 26 85 150 28
1 1 1
13 14 15 17
1 1 1 1
19 22.2 22.2 25.4
1 1 1 1
Angular contact ball bearing DIN 628 - 7309B: Angular contact ball bearing (Bearing type 7), width series 0 1 ) , diameter series 3, bore code 09 (bore diameter d= 9 • 5 mm = 45 mm), contact angle a = 40° (B) 11
In the designations for deep groove and angular contact ball bearings the 0 for the width series is sometimes omitted according to DIN 623-1. 2 3> ' Contact angle a = 40° Contact angle not standardized
266
Machine elements: 5.
rins
Ball bearings. Roller bearings Axial deep groove ball bearings (selection)
cf. DIN 711 (1988-02) Bearing series 512
Bearing series 513
Basic h number min max
Basic h r number min max
r
\/jCr/ \\'T i i
///J
Dy D dfrom 8 to 360 mm Mounting dimensions according to DIN 5418:
k.
25 30 35
27 32 37
47 52 62
15 0.6 16 0.6 18 1
51205 51206 51207
52 60 68
18 21 24
40 45 50
42 47 52
68 73 78
19 20 22
51208 51209 51210
78 85 95
26 28 31
10 10 12
51308 51309 51310
55 60 65
57 62 67
90 95 100
25 26 27
51211 51212 51213
105 110 115
35 35 36
13 13 13
51311 51312 51313
70 75 80
72 77 82
105 110 115
27 27 28
51214 51215 51216
125 135 140
40 44 44
14 15 15
51314 51315 51316
A
cf. DIN 5412-1 (2005-08) Bearing series N2, NU2, NJ2, NUP2
Form NU
d
D
W ry hy '2
Bearing series N3, NU3, NJ3, NUP3
h2
max min max min •zzzzi
-
-
W dfrom 15 to 500 mm
Mounting dimensions according to DIN 5418:
unflanged
M m
Form NU with fixed flange
D
W ry hy '2
h2
Bore code
max min max min
17 20 25
40 12 0.6 2.1 0.3 1.2 47 14 1 2.8 0.6 2.1 52 15 1 2.8 0.6 2.1
47 14 1 2.8 1 52 15 1.1 3.5 1 62 17 1.1 3.5 1
2.8 2.8 2.8
03 04 05
30 35 40
62 16 1 72 17 1 80 18 1
72 19 1.1 3.5 1 80 21 1.5 4.5 1 90 23 1.5 4.5 2
2.8 2.8 5.5
06 07 08
3.5 100 25 1.5 4.5 2 3.5 110 27 2 5.5 2 3.5 120 29 2 5.5 2
5.5 5.5 5.5
09 10 11
2.8 0.6 2.1 3.5 0.6 2.1 3.5 1 3.5
45 85 19 1 3.5 1 50 90 20 1 3.5 1 55 100 21 1.5 4.5 1
Form N
1 1.5 1.5
Axial deep groove ball bearing DIN 711 - 51210: Axial-deep groove ball bearing of the bearing series 512 with bearing type 5, width series 1, diameter series 2 and bore code 10
Cylindrical roller bearings (selection) Form N
51305 51306 51307
60 110 22 1.5 4.5 1.5 4.5 130 31 2.1 6 65 120 23 1.5 4.5 1.5 4.5 140 33 2.1 6 70 125 24 1.5 4.5 1.5 4.5 150 35 2.1 6
2 2 2
5.5 5.5 5.5
12 13 14
75 130 25 1.5 4.5 1.5 4.5 160 37 2.1 6 80 140 26 2 5.5 2 5.5 170 39 2.1 6 85 150 28 2 7 5.5 2 5.5 180 41 3
2 2 3
5.5 5.5 7
15 16 17
90 160 30 2 5.5 2 5.5 190 43 3 2.1 6 200 45 3 95 170 32 2.1 6 100 180 34 2.1 6 2.1 6 215 47 3
7 7 7
3 3 3
7 7 7
18 19 20
105 110 200 38 2.1 6 120 215 40 2.1 6
7 7 7
3 3 3
7 7 7
21 22 24
2.1 6 2.1 6
225 49 3 240 50 3 260 55 3
Cylindrical roller bearing DIN 5412 - NUP 312 E: Cylindrical roller bearing of bearing series NUP3 with bearing type NUP, width series 0, diameter series 3 and bore code 12, reinforced design The normal design of the dimension series 02, 22, 03 and 23 were deleted from the standard with no replacement and then replaced with the reinforced design (suffix symbol E).
Machine elements: 5.10 Bearings
Roller bearings Tapered roller bearings (selection)
cf. DIN 720 (1979-02) and DIN 5418 (1993-02) Bearing series 302 Mounting dimension
Dimensions C
T
Db
t s Basic max min min max min min min max max no. da
db
Da
cb
r
as
d
D
20 25 30
47 14 52 15 62 16
12 15.25 33.2 13 16.25 37.4 14 17.25 44.6
27 31 37
26 31 36
40 44 53
41 46 56
43 48 57
2 2 2
3 2 3
35 40 45
72 17 80 18 85 19
15 18.15 51.8 16 19.75 57.5 16 20.75 63
44 49 54
42 47 52
62 69 74
65 73 78
67 74 80
3 3 3
3 1.5 1.5 30207 3.5 1.5 1.5 30208 4.5 1.5 1.5 30209
50 90 20 55 100 21 60 110 22
17 21.75 67.9 18 22.75 74.6 19 23.75 81.5
58 64 70
57 64 69
79 83 85 88 91 94 96 101 103
3 4 4
4.5 1.5 1.5 30210 1.5 30211 4.5 2 1.5 30212 4.5 2
65 120 23 70 125 24 75 130 25
20 24.75 89 21 26.25 93.9 22 27.25 99.2
77 81 86
74 106 111 113 79 110 116 118 84 115 121 124
4 4 4
4.5 2 2 5 2 5
80 140 26 85 150 28 90 160 30
22 28.25 105 24 30.5 112 26 32.5 118
91 90 124 130 132 97 95 132 140 141 103 100 140 150 150
4 5 5
6 2.5 2 6.5 2.5 2 6.5 2.5 2
95 170 32 100 180 34 105 190 36
27 34.5 29 37 30 39
126 133 141
110 107 149 158 159 116 112 157 168 168 122 117 165 178 177
5 5 6
7.5 3 8 3 9 3
2.5 30219 2.5 30220 2.5 30221
110 200 38 120 215 40
32 41 34 43.5
148 161
129 122 174 188 187 140 132 187 203 201
6 6
9 3 9.5 3
2.5 30222 2.5 30224
W
di
1 1 1
1 1 1
30204 30205 30206
1.5 30213 1.5 30214 1.5 30215 30216 30217 30218
Bearing series 303 Mounting dimension
Dimensions
Mounting dimensions according to DIN 5418:
C
T
The mounting dimensions of DIN 5418 must be maintained so that the cage does not rub against other parts.
cb
47 57 66
2 2 3
3 1.5 1.5 30304 1.5 1.5 30305 3 4.5 1.5 1.5 30306
74 82 92
3 3 3
4.5 2 2 5 2 5
65 71 77
60 95 100 102 65 104 110 111 72 112 118 120
4 4 5
6 2.5 2 30310 6.5 2.5 2 30311 7.5 3 2.5 30312
83 89 95
77 122 128 130 82 120 138 140 87 139 148 149
5 5 5
8 8 9
db
L >a
Db
D
20 25 30
52 15 62 17 72 19
13 16.25 34.3 15 18.25 41.5 16 20.75 44.8
28 34 40
27 32 37
44 54 62
45 55 65
35 80 21 40 90 23 45 100 25
18 22.75 54.5 20 25.25 62.5 22 27.25 70.1
45 52 59
44 49 54
70 77 86
71 81 91
50 110 27 55 120 29 60 130 31
23 29.25 77.2 25 31.5 84 26 33.5 91.9
65 140 33 70 150 35 75 160 37
28 36 30 38 31 40
98.6 105 112
80 170 39 85 180 41 90 190 43
33 42.5 34 44.5 36 46.5
120 126 132
95 200 45 100 215 47 105 225 49
38 49.5 39 51.5 41 53.5
110 240 50 120 260 55
42 54.5 46 59.5
W
dy
cage
In the case of tapered roller bearings the cage projects beyond the lateral face of the outer ring.
rbs Basic max min min max min min min max max no. ca
da
d
r
as
1.5 30307 1.5 30308 1.5 30309
3 3 3
2.5 30313 2.5 30314 2.5 30315
102 92 148 158 159 107 99 156 166 167 113 104 165 176 176
5 9.5 3 6 10.5 4 6 10.5 4
2.5 30316 30317 3 3 30318
139 148 155
118 109 172 186 184 127 114 184 201 197 132 119 193 211 206
6 11.5 4 6 12.5 4 7 12.5 4
3 3 3
30319 30320 30321
165 178
141 124 206 226 220 152 134 221 246 237
8 12.5 4 8 13.5 4
3 3
30322 30324
Tapered roller bearing DIN 720 - 30212: Tapered roller bearing of bearing series 302 with bearing type 3, width series 0, diameter series 2, bore code 12
268
Machine elements: 5.
rins
Needle bearings, Lock nuts, Lock washers
Machine elements: 5.10 Bearings
Internal and external retaining rings, Circlips Retaining rings in standard design11 (selection) For shafts (external) mounting ^ space \
cf. DIN 471 (1981-09)
^
For bores (internal)
cf. DIN 472 (1981-09)
mounting space
external groove
»
groove'
m Nomilal size
dy
Ring s
Slot
d4
25 28 30 32 35 38 40 42 45 48 50 60 65 70 75 80 90 100 =>
IV
<*2
sss
mm 10 12 15 18 20 22
1 1 1
9.3 11 13.8
1.2 1.2 1.2
m
m
n
H13
min
mm
1)
dy
9.6 11.5 14.3 17 19 21
0.6 0.8 1.1
10 12 15
1.3 1.3 1.3
23.9 26.6 28.6
1.3 1.6 1.6
1.5 1.5 1.5 1.7 2.1 2.1
18 20 22
1.2 1.5 1.5
1.8 1.8 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.2 3.5
1.1 1.1 1.1
16.5 18.5 20.5 23.2 25.9 27.9
17 19 22.6 26.2 28.4 30.8 34.2 37.9 40.5
1.5 1.5 1.75
29.6 32.2 35.2
43 46.8 50.2
1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75 2.0 2.0 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 3.0 3.0
36.5 38.5 41.5
52.6 55.7 59.1 62.5 64.5 75.6 81.4 87 92.7 98.1 108.5 120.2
3.6 3.9 4.2 4.4 4.5 4.7
30.3 33 36 37.5 39.5 42.5 45.5 47.0 57.0 62.0 67.0 72.0 76.5 86.5 96.5
1.6 1.6 1.85 1.85 1.85 1.85 1.85 2.15 2.15 2.65 2.65 2.65 2.65 3.15 3.15
2.6 3 3 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 5.3 5.3 5.3
44.5 45.8 55.8 60.8 65.5 70.5 74.5 84.5 94.5
5 5.1 5.8 6.3 6.6 7.0 7.4 8.2 9
Retaining ring DIN 471 - 40 x 1.75: dy = 40 mm, s = 1.75 mm in mm
3-10
25 28 30 32 35 38 40 42 45 48 50 60 65 72 75 80 90 100 =>
Tolerance classes for cfe dy
Nominal size
Ring
d3
s
Slot <*4
dz
w *
1 1 1 1 1 1
10.8 13 16.2
1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.5 1.5 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75 2.0 2.0 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 3.0 3.0
3.3 4.9 7.2 9.4 11.2 13.2
19.5 21.5 23.5 26.9 30.1 32.1 34.4 37.8 40.8 43.5 45.5 48.5 51.5 54.2 64.2 69.2 76.5 79.5 85.5 95.5 105.5
15.5 17.9 19.9 20.6 23.6 26.4 27.8 29.6 32 34.5 36.3 44.7 49.0 55.6 58.6 62.1 71.9 80.6
1.4 1.7 2
10.4 12.5 15.7
2.2 2.3 2.5 2.7 2.9 3 3.2 3.4 3.7 3.9 4.1 4.3 4.5 4.6 5.4 5.8 6.4 6.6 7.0 7.6 8.4
19 21 23 26.2 29.4 31.4 33.7 37 40 42.5 44.5 47.5 50.5 53.0 63.0 68.0 75.0 78.0 83.5 93.5 103.5
n min
1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.3 1.3 1.3
0.6 0.8 1.1
1.3 1.6 1.6 1.85 1.85 1.85
2.6 3 3 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 5.3 5.3 5.3
1.5 1.5 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.1
1.85 2.15 2.15 2.65 2.65 2.65 2.65 3.15 3.15
Retaining ring DIN 472 - 80 x 2.5: dy = 80 mm, s = 2.5 mm
Tolerance classes for cfe 12-22
24-100
dy
in mm
8-22
d2 h10 hi 1 h12 H11 Standard design: dy from 3-300 mm; heavy duty design: dy from 15-100 mm
24-100
100-300
H12
H13
Circlips (selection)
cf. DIN 6799 (1981-09)
relaxed
Circlips
loaded d2
hi 1
Mounting dimensions:
d2 from 0.8 to 30 mm
m H13
m
Shaft
d3 loaded
dy
12.3 14.3 16.3
5.26 5.84 6.52
0.7 0.9
7- 9
1
9-12
18.8
7.63 8.32 10.45
1.1 1.2
12.61
15.92
1.5 1.75
21.88
2
9 10 12
20.4 23.4
15 19 24
29.4 37.6 44.6
m
from-to
1.3
8-11
10-14 11-15 13-18 16-24 20-31 25-38
Circlip DIN 6799 - 15: d2 = 15 mm
n min
0.74 + 0.05 0.94 0 1.05
1.2
1.15 1.25 1.35 + 0.08 0 1.55
2
1.80
2.05
1.5 1.8 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
270
Machine elements: 5.
rins
Sealing elements Radial seals (selection) Form A
cf. DIN 3760 (1996-09)
dz
Form AS 10
w
22 26
25
14 24 30
non-rotating
b * 0.3,
with Ra0.2 to Ra0.8 or Rz1 bis Rz5
12
26 35
35
47 52
38 55 62
18
40
50 55
55
52 62
22.5
c/1 from 6 to 500 mm
70
80
51
85
90 10 61
70
90
95 10 66
75
95 100 10 70.5
85 110 120 12 80.5 90 110 120 12 85.5 95 120 125 12 90.5
44.5 100
48 62
56
80
80 100 110 10 75.5
41.5
62
85
65
38.5
60 65
75
32
Felt rings (selection)
120 130 125
12 94.5
cf. DIN 5419 (1959-09) Dimensions
Mounting dimensions:
4 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
3
a
d, from 17 to 180 mm
d2 30 37 42 47 52 57 66 71
Mounting dim.
Dimensions
w
d3
d4
di
6.5 6.5
21 26 31 36 41 46 51 56
31 38 43 48 53 58 67 72
60 65 70 75 80 85 90 100
Mounting dim
d2
w
Felt ring DIN 5419 M5-40: Felt ring of d, = 40 mm, felt hardn. M5
O-rings
DIN 3771 (withdrawn) dz externally sealing 0° to 5°
S
Mr:
w+0.25
di from 1.8 to 670 mm, d2 from 1.8 to 7 mm axially sealing h +0.1
46.5
68
RWDR DIN 3760 - A25 x 40 x 7 - NB: Radial seal (RWDR) of form A with d-\ = 25 mm, d2 = 40 mm and w=l mm, elastomer part of Nitrile-Butadiene rubber (NBR)
a) = edges rounded
w
72
60
37
42 55 62 45
65
29
35
55
19.5
40 52
27.5
47
16
35 47
50
72
45 52
30 35
40
25
42 52
14
35 47
25.5
47 40 47
dz
w
40 52
30 35
35
22
32
13
30
30 40
20
30
10
25
Mounting dimensions:
w
8.5 28
12 22 30
15
ds
5 6 8 9 10 14 15 16 17
1.8
1.8 2.65
d. 18 20 25 28 30 40 45 50 53
di
dz
2.65 3.55
3.55
5.3
56 58 60 63 67 69 71 75 80
dz
dy
dz
85 90 95 100 3.55 5.3 103 3.55 106 109 112 115
5.3
Mounting dimensions for static loading internally sealing
£
internally & extern, sealing
0° to 5° fisa
d2
1.8 CD +
i w+0.25
2.65 3.55 5.3
r-i
r2
0.3
0.2
0.6
0.2
w
internal external h
axially sealing w
h
2.4
1.4
1.3
2.6
1.3
3.6
2.1
1.95
3.8
2
4.8
2.85
2.65
5
2.75
7.1
4.3
4.15
7.3
4.25
Machine elements: 5.10 Bearings
Lubricating oils Designation of lubricating oils
cf. DIN 51502(1990-08) Designation using symbols
Designation using code letters PGLP 220
PGLP
CL 100 Additional code letters
Code letters for lubricating oils
ISO viscosity grade
220
Mineral oil based lubricating oil
Silicon based lubricating oil
Lubricating oil DIN 51517 - CL 100: Circulating mineral oil based lubricating oil (C), increased corrosion and aging resistance (L), ISO viscosity grade VG 100 (100) Lubricating oil DIN 51517 - PGLP 220: Polyglycol oil (PG), increased corrosion and aging resistance (L), increased wear protection (P), ISO viscosity grade VG 220 (220)
Types of lubrication oils
cf. DIN 51502 (1990-08) Standard
Application
Normal lubricating oils without additives
DIN 51501
Once-through and circulating lubrication at oil temperatures up to 50 °C
B
Bitumen containing lubricating oils with high adhesion
DIN 51513
Manual, continuous flow and oil bath lubrications, mainly for open lubrication points
C
Circulating lubricating oil, without additives
DIN 51517
Plain bearings, antifriction bearings, gears
Sliding track oil with active ingredients for reducing wear
DIN 8659 T2
In mixed friction operations for slideways and guideways, and for worm gears
Code letters Type of lubricant and properties Mineral oils AN
CG
Synthetic liquids Ester oils with especially low change in viscosity
-
Bearings with widely varying temperatures
PG
Polyglycol oils with high aging resistance
-
Bearings with frequent mixed friction conditions
SI
Silicon oils with high aging resistance
-
Bearings with very high and low temperatures, very water repellant
E
Additional code letters Additional code letters
cf. DIN 51502 (1990-08)
Application and explanation
E
For lubricants that are mixed with water, e.g. cooling lubricant SE
F
For lubricants with solid lubricant additive, e.g. graphite, molybdenum sulfide
L
For lubricants with active ingredients to improve corrosion protection and/or aging resistance
P
For lubricants with active ingredients for reducing friction and wear in mixed friction areas and/or to increase the load capacity
ISO viscosity grade for liquid industrial lubricants Viscosity grade ISO VG 2 ISO VG 3 ISO VG 5 ISO VG 7 ISO VG 10 ISO VG 15
Kinetic viscosity in mm 2 /s at 20 °C 40 °C 50 °C 3.3 5 13 21 34
2.2
3.2 4.6 6.8
10 15
Viscosity grade
cf. DIN 51519 (1998-08)
Kinetic viscosity in mm 2 /s at 50 °C 40 °C 20 °C
Viscosity grade
Kinetic viscosity in mm 2 /s at 20 °C 40 °C 50 °C
1.3 2.7 3.7
ISO VG 22 ISO VG 32 ISO VG 46
22 32 46
15 20 30
ISO VG 220 ISO VG 320 ISO VG 460
220 320 460
130 180 250
5.2 7
ISO VG 68 ISO VG 100 ISO VG 150
68 100 150
40 60 90
ISO VG 680 ISO VG 1000 ISO VG 1500
680 1000 1500
360 510 740
11
272
Machine elements: 5.
rins
Lubricating grease. Solid lubricants
cf. d i n 5 1 5 0 2 <1990-08)
Designation of lubricating greases Designation by code letters
Designation by symbols
-20N
'3N
Lubricating grease DIN 51517 - K3N -20: Lubricating grease for antifriction and plain bearings (K) based on mineral oil (NLGI grade 3) (3), upper working temperature +140°C (N), lower working temperature -20°C (-20) Lubricating grease DIN 51517 - KSI3R -10: Silicon based lubricating grease for antifriction and plain bearings (K) (SI), NLGI-grade 3 (3), upper working temperature +180°C (R), lower working temperature -10°C (-10)
Lubricating greases Code letters Application/additives
Code letters Application
General: antifriction bearings, plain bearing, sliding surfaces KP
Like K, but with additives for reducing friction
KF
Like K, but with solid lubricant additives
Closed gears OG M
Open gears (adhesive lubricant without bitumen) For plain bearings and seals (low requirements)
Consistency1) classification for lubricating greases NLGIgrade3'
Worked penetration2'
000 00
445-475 (very soft) 400-430 355-385
0 1) 2) 3)
NLGIgrade3'
Worked penetration2'
1 2 3
NLGI grade 3) 4 5 6
310-340 265-295 220-250
Worked penetration2' 175-205 130-160 85-115 (very firm)
Code for the viscoelasticity Measure of the penetration depth of a standardized test ball in the kneaded (worked) grease National Lubrication Grease Institute (NLGI)
Additional letters for lubricating greases Addit. letter1)
Upper working temperature °C
C D
+60 +60
E F
+80 +80
1>
2)
Addit. letter1)
Upper working temperature °C
0 or 1 2 or 3
G H
+ 100 + 100
0 or 1 2 or 3
0 or 1 2 or 3
K M
+120 +120
0 or 1 2 or 3
Grade
2)
2
Grade '
Addit. letter1)
Upper working temperature °C
N P R S T U
+ 140 + 160 + 180 + 200 + 220 + 220
Grade 2 '
as per agreement
The number value for the lower working temperature can be appended to the additional code letters; e.g.-20 for-20°C Grades for behavior when subjected to water, cf. DIN 51807-1: 0: no change; 1: small change; 2: moderate change; 3: large change
Solid lubricants Lubricant
Code
Working temperature
Application
Graphite
C
-18 to+450 °C
As powder or paste and as an additive to lubricating oils and lubricating greases, not in oxygen, nitrogen and vacuums
Molybdenum Polytetrafluorethylene
MOS2
-180 to+400 °C As mineral oil-free paste, sliding lacquer or additive to lubricating oils sulfide and lubricating greases, suitable for very high surface pressures
PTFE
-250 to+260 °C As powder in sliding lacquer and synthetic lubricating greases and as bearing material, very low coefficient of sliding friction fj = 0.04 to 0.09
Table of Contents
273
6 Production Engineering inflection point
frequency curve
Material overhead
6.1
6.2
in percent of material direct costs, e.g. purchasing costs, warehousing costs, etc.
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
Wear safety glasses
Wear hard hat
Quality management Standards, Terminology Quality planning, Quality testing Statistical analysis Statistical process control Process capability
274 276 277 279 281
Production planning Time accounting according to REFA Cost accounting Machine hourly rates
282 284 285
Machining processes Productive time Machining coolants Cutting tool materials, Inserts, Tool holders . . . . Forces and power Cutting data: Drilling, Reaming, Turning Cutting data: Taper turning Cutting data: Milling Indexing Cutting data: Grinding and honing
287 292 294 298 301 304 305 307 308
Material removal Cutting data Processes
313 314
Separation by cutting Cutting forces Shearing Location of punch holder shank
315 316 317
Forming Bending Deep drawing
318 320
Joining Welding processes Weld preparation Gas welding Gas shielded metal arc welding Arc welding Thermal cutting Identification of gas cylinders Soldering and brazing Adhesive bonding
322 323 324 325 327 329 331 333 336
Workplace safety and environmental protection Prohibitive signs Warning signs Mandatory signs, Esc. routes and rescue signs . Information signs Danger symbols Identification of pipe lines Sound and noise
338 339 340 341 342 343 344
274
Production
ngineering: 6.
u i
ang
Standards ISO 9000,9001,9004 Standards of the ISO-9000 family should help organizations of all types and sizes to implement quality management systems, to work with existing quality management systems, and to facilitate mutual understanding in national and international trade.
Quality management standards
cf. DIN EN ISO 9000 (2005-12), 9001,9004 (2000-12)
Standard
Explanation, contents
DIN EN ISO 9000
Fundamentals of quality management systems Principle of quality management • customer focus • leadership • involvement of people
• system approach to management • continuous improvement • factual approach to decision making
• process approach
• mutually beneficial supplier relationships
Fundamentals of quality management systems (QM systems) • reasons for QM systems • evaluation of QM systems • requirements of QM systems and • continuous improvement products • role of statistical methods • progressive implementation of QM systems • QM systems as part of the total • process oriented evaluation management system • quality policies and goals • requirements of QM systems and • role of top management in the QM system comparative evaluation of organizations • documentation; advantages and types based on criteria of excellence models Terminology for quality management systems For a selection of definitions and explanations of terms, see page 275. DIN EN ISO 90011)
Requirements of a quality management system This international standard applies to organizations in any industry or business sector regardless of products offered. It establishes requirements for a QM system, based on fundamentals outlined in ISO 9000, if an organization: • must demonstrate capability to offer products which fulfill both customer and regulatory requirements, • strives to improve customer satisfaction, including the process of continuous improvement of the system. Specified requirements can be used for: • internal applications by organizations • certification purposes • contract purposes The standard is based on a process oriented evaluation, i.e. every activity or sequence of activities which uses resources to convert input into results is regarded as a process. Requirements The organization must: • recognize all necessary processes for the QM system and their use in the organization, • establish the flows and interdependencies of these processes, • establish criteria and methods for ensuring implementation and control of these processes, • ensure availability of resources and information for these processes, • monitor, measure and analyze these processes, • take necessary actions for continuous improvement of these processes, • fulfill documentation requirements for the QM system, and • observe regulations for document control. 1
DIN EN ISO 9004
) This standard also replaces previous standards 9002 and 9003.
Guideline for assessing the overall performance, effectiveness and efficiency of quality management systems The goal of this standard is to improve the organization and to improve the satisfaction of customers and other relevant parties. It is not intended for certification or contract purposes.
Production
ngineering: 6.
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Terminology I Terms (selection)
Definitions & explanations
cf. DIN EN ISO 9000 (2005 12)
I Quality-related terms Quality
Extent to which the characteristics of a product fulfill the requirements for that product.
Requirement
Specified or mandatory demands for characteristics of a unit, e.g. nominal values, tolerances, functional capability or safety.
Customer satisfaction
Customer's perception of degree to which its requirements have been fulfilled.
Capability
Suitability of an organization, system or process to provide a product that fulfills that product's quality requirements.
Characteristic and conformity related terms Quality characteristic
Identifying attribute of a product or process, which is utilized in assessing quality based on the specified quality requirements. • Quantitative (variable) characteristics: discrete characteristics (whole numbers), i.e. number of holes, piece count continuous characteristics (measured values), e.g. length, position, mass • Qualitative characteristics: ordinal characteristics (with ranking), e.g. light blue - blue - dark blue nominal characteristics (without ranking), e.g. good - bad, blue - yellow Identifying attribute of a product, a process or system relating to a requirement.
Conformity
Fulfilling a specified requirement, e.g. a dimensional tolerance.
Defect
Not fulfilling a specified requirement, e.g. not conforming to a required dimensional tolerance or surface quality.
Rework
Action taken on a defective product so that it fulfills requirements.
Process and product related terms Process
Mutually interactive resources and activities which convert inputs into results. Some examples of resources are personnel, finances, facilities and manufacturing methods.
Method
Defined manner in which an activity or process is performed. In written form also referred to as process instructions.
Product
Result of a process, e.g. part, assembly, service, processed item, knowledge, concept, document, contract, pollutant.
I Terms related to organization Organization
Group of persons and facilities with a matrix of responsibilities, authorities and relationships.
Customer
Organization or person which receives a product from a supplier.
Supplier
Organization or person which provides a product to a customer.
I Terms relating to management Quality management system
Organization and organizational structures, methods and processes of an operation required to put a quality management into practice.
Quality management
All coordinated activities for managing and controlling the quality-related aspects of an organization by: • establishing a quality policy • quality control • setting quality goals • quality assurance • quality planning • quality improvement
Quality planning
Activities directed toward establishing quality goals and required implementation processes, as well as associated resources for attaining quality goals.
Quality control
Work activities and techniques to continually fulfill requirements despite unavoidable variations in quality. Consists primarily of process monitoring and elimination of weak points.
Quality assurance
Performing and generating required documentation for all activities relating to the QM system, with the goal of creating an atmosphere of trust, both in-house and with the customer, that quality requirements will be fulfilled.
Quality improvement
Actions taken throughout the organization to increase product quality.
Quality manual
Document describing the quality policy, quality goals and quality management system of an organization.
276
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Quality planning. Quality control. Quality testing Quality planning Rule-of-ten (for costs) Costs required to eliminate defects or costs resulting from defects increase by about a factor of 10 from phase to phase in the product life cycle.
product planning process planning and development and production
testing and customer
Example: A tolerance error on a single part can be corrected during the design phase with negligible increase of costs. If the defect is first noticed in production, much larger costs result. If the defect leads to problems in assembly or has an adverse impact on the functionality of the finished product or even leads to a recall, enormous costs are incurred.
Quality control Quality control circle
Factors causing variance in quality
human environment machine W testing
Actions taken on process BBHHRRIH^
Actions taken on product
Factor
Examples
Human
qualification, motivation, degree of utilization
Machine
machine rigidity, positioning accuracy, wear condition
Material
deviations, material properties, material variations
Method
work steps, production process, test conditions
Surroundings (environment)
temperature, vibrations, light, noise, dust
Management
poor quality goals or policies
Measurability
measurement inaccuracy
Quality testing
cf. DIN 55350-17 (1988-08)
Concepts
Explanations
Quality testing
Determine to what extent a unit meets specified quality requirements.
Test plan Test instructions
Define and describe the type and scope of testing, e.g. measuring and monitoring devices, frequency of testing, test personnel, testing location.
Complete testing
Testing of a unit for all specified quality characteristics, e. g. complete inspection of a single workpiece regarding all requirements.
100% testing
Testing of all units within a test lot, e. g. visual inspection of all delivered parts.
Statistical testing (sampling test)
Quality testing with the aid of statistical methods, e. g. evaluation of a large quantity of parts by analyzing a number of sampled parts.
Test lot (sampling test)
All of the units being tested, e.g. a production of 5000 identical workpieces.
Sample
One or more units which are taken from the population or a subset of the population, e. g. 50 parts from a daily production of 400 parts.
Probability (Probability of defect) Probability of a defective part within a defined total number of parts. P probability in % n number of defective parts
m total number of parts
Example: In a crate there are m = 400 parts, where n = 10 parts have a dimensional defect. What is the probability Pof obtaining a defective part when taking one part out of the crate? n 10 Probability P= 100% 100% = 2.5% m 400
Probability
P = — • 100% m
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Statistical analysis Statistical analysis of continuous characteristics
vgl. DIN 53804-1 (2002-04)
Presentation of test data
Example
Raw data list
Sample size: 40 parts Test characteristic: part diameter d = 8 ± 0.05 mm
Raw data is the documentation of all observed values from the test lot or sample in the sequence in which they occur.
Tally sheet The tally sheet provides a clear presentation of the observed values and assignment into classes (ranges) of a specific class interval size. n k / R rij h,
number of individual values number of classes class interval range (page 278) absolute frequency relative frequency in %
Measured part diameter d i n mm Parts 1-10
7.98 7.96 7.99
8.01
8.02
7.96 8.03
7.99
7.99
8.02
8.02
8.00
8.01 8.01
Parts 11-20
7.96 7.99
8.00
8.02
Parts 21-30
7.99
8.05 8.03
8.00
Parts 31-40
8.02
8.01 8.05
7.94 7.98
Class Measuried value < Tally sheet z no.
7.99 8.03 7.99 8.00
7.96
1
1
2.5
2
7.96
7.98
III
3
7.5
3
7.98
8.00
M
Wt 1
11
27.5
4
8.00
8.02
M
m 111
13
32.5
5
8.02
8.04
Jttt Wi-
10
25
6
8.04
8.06
ll
0.11 mm
Histogram
14-
A histogram is a bar graph for visualizing the distribution of individual test data.
12-
8.01 8.02
8.01
8.02
8.01
in\ %
i
7.94
c = f n = l/40 = 6.3 « 6
7.98 7.99
8.00
Number of classes n
1
2 =
8.01
2
5
40
100
k^Jn Class interval size
. i
~
R — k
Relative frequency • 100%
1
= 0.018 mm ~ 0.02 mm
n
A7 = 40
10-
£ c J3 0) ° co cr
. O CD
8
-
6
-
4 2
-
0 7.94
7.96
7.98
8.00
8.02 8.04 mm part diameter d —
8.08
Cumulative frequency curve in probability system 99.5 99
The cumulative frequency curve in the probability system is a simple and clear graphical method used to check for the existence of a normal distribution (page 278). If the cumulative relative frequency in the probability system approximates a straight line, then a normal distribution of the individual values can be assumed, i.e. a further evaluation can be conducted per DIN 53 804-1 (page 278). In this case specific values can additionally be determined from the samples. Example of problem solving using the graph: Arithmetic mean x (for Fj = 50%) and standard deviation s (as difference 68.26% -r 2 between ^ = 50% and 84.13%): x«= 8.003 mm; s « 0.02 mm The probability model of the example shows that in the entire lot approximately 0.6% of parts can be expected to be too thin and 3% too thick.
c uT c
CD
•D
cr £ n—
< >1) TO a> CD >
TO =3 E =3 o
99.9 99.95 7.94
7.96
7.98
8.00
8.02
8.04
part diameter d LLV lower limit value; ULV upper limit value
mm
8.08
278
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Normal distribution Gaussian distribution QQ 73 %
Continuous data values often exhibit a characteristic in their distribution which is approximated mathematically by the Gaussian normal distribution model. For an infinite number of individual values the probability density of a normal distribution yields the typical bell curve. This symmetrical and continuous distribution curve is clearly described by the following parameters: The mean n lies on the curve maximum and identifies the position of the distribution. The standard deviation a is a measure of the variations, i.e. how values deviate from the mean. 1)
characteristic value x
Carl Friedrich Gaufc (1777-1855), German mathematician
Normal distribution in sampling
cf. DIN 53804-1 (2002-04) or DGQ 16-31 (1990) n
number of individual values (sample size) Xj value of measurable properties, e.g. individual value x m a x largest measurement value -*min smallest measurement value X arithmetic mean median value 1 ', middle value of measured values arranged in order of magnitude standard deviation range mode (measurement value occurring most frequently in a test series) gf(X) probability density
m
number of samples
R
mean of multiple sample ranges
x
mean of multiple sample means
s
mean of standard deviations
2)
Standard deviation2' 'Z(Xi-x)2 S =
n-1
Range R
-
*Ynax
*min
x = 8.005 mm
s = 0.02348 mm
/ ?
1
+
/ ?
2
+ . . .
+
/ ?
m
Mean of sample means D = 7.99 mm =
Median value for odd number of individual values: e.g. x-|,# x 2 ; x 3 ; x 4 ; x 5 : x = x3
=
m
Example: Evaluation of sample values from page 277:
1)
n
Mean of sample ranges
When evaluating several samples:
x = 8.00225 mm ft = 0.11 mm
Arithmetic mean2)
=
* 1 + * 2 + -
+
*m
m
even number of individual values: e.g. x1f- x 2 ; x 3 ; x 4 ; x 5 ; x 6 : X = ( X 3 + X 4 )/2
Many pocket calculators have special functions for calculating the mean and standard deviation. Repeated occurrences of identical measurement values can be represented by a suitable factor.
Mean of standard deviations
m
Normal distribution in an inspection lot Parameters of the population are estimated using a sampling method based on characteristic values from the sample (confirmatory statistics). To differentiate sampling characteristics clearly from parameters of the population, other designations are used. These estimated values are distinguished from the calculated process values for a 100% inspection (descriptive statistics) by adding a A mark.
Characteristic values and designations in quality testing Sampling test (confirmatory statistics) Sample Population
100% inspection (descriptive statistics)
Number of measured values n
Number of measured values m • n
Number of measured values N
Arithmetic mean x
Estimated process mean/2
Process mean //
Standard deviation s
Estimated process standard deviation o (calculator an_-|)
Process standard deviation o (calculator a n )
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Statistical process control Quality control charts Process control charts
Acceptance control charts
Process control charts are used for monitoring a process for changes compared to a target value or a previous process value. The intervention and warning limits are determined by the process estimated value of a population or a preliminary run.
Acceptance control charts are used to monitor a process in reference to set specification limits (limit values). Control limits are calculated as tolerance limits for the location of the process mean and a tolerance range for process variance.
Process control charts for quantitative characteristics (Shewhart-control charts) 1) Raw data chart
Control limits
The raw data chart is a documentation of all measurement values by entering directly on the chart. It assumes an approximate normal distribution process and is relatively complex because of the number of entries.
x
Example: 5 individual values for each sample
characteristic mean (mean of the characteristic, target value, ideal value)
5.06
II
UWL
upper warning limit
LWL
lower warning limit
UCL
upper control limit
LCL
lower control limit
USL
upper specification limit
LSL
lower specification limit
5.04
USL UCL
5.02
b UWL
5.00
•x
4.98
-
LWL
4.96
• LCL
4.94
• LSL
Sample number
5...
Median value range chart (x-R-chart)
Mean standard deviation chart (x-s-chart)
These charts are used to clearly represent production dispersion without requiring much calculation. They are suitable for manual control chart management.
These charts are used to show the trend of the mean and exhibit greater sensitivity than x-R-charts. They require computer-aided control chart management.
Example:
Example: k
Control interval / Sample size 60 m i n f n= 5 5.03 4.97 J*1 4.98 4.96 0) w 4.97 4.99 5.01 4.96 II CD E — D D E — 4.99 5.02 5.03 5.01 cfl — C ©D >5 x 4 5.01 4.99 4.99 4.99 5.02 *5 5.01 5.00 4.98 Ex 24.96 24.97 25.03 24.95 4.99 4.99 5.01 4.99 0.04 0.07 0.05 0.06 v} 5.04 UCL E 0.04 LWL CD c 0.02 LCL
II
0
Inspect, characteristic: diameter
Sample size: Control intervall: n =5 60 min 4.97 5.03 *1 4.98 4.96 E 4.97 4.99 5.01 4.96 *2 a? w 5.02 5.03 5.01 u.
11
CO L! C T3 CD O 0.022 "O VC C D 0.020 CD ' C iz > 0.018 0.016
Sample no.
Sample no. Time
Walter Andrew Shewhart (1891-1967), American scientist
\
• UCL • UWL
0.026 0.024
Time 1)
Control dimension: 5±0.05
leasu valui mrr
Inspect, characteristic: Control dimension: diameter 5±0.05
I
I
—
•x >
• LWL I
1 6 00
I
2 7 00
I
3 8i 00
• LCL , 4 9i 00
280
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Process trend, Acceptance sampling and plan Process trends Process trend (e.g. from an x trace)
Designation/observations
Possible causes
Natural run
The process is under control and can continue without interruption.
2/3 of all values lie in the range ± standard deviation s and all values lie within the control limits. UCL
Exceeding the control limits The values are outside of the control limits.
RUN (sequential) 7 or more sequential values lie on one side of the mean line.
Actions
Over-adjusted machine, different material, damaged or worn equipment Stop process and 100% inspect parts since the last sampling Tool wear, other material charge, new tool, new personnel ->• Tightened observation of the process
LCL
—
UCL
Trend
x
7 or more sequential values show an increasing or decreasing trend.
Wear on tool, equipment or measuring devices, operator fatigue Stop process to determine reasons for adjustment
LCL UCL
Middle Third At least 15 consecutive values lie within ± standard deviation s.
V V V V W v ^
Improved production, better supervision, corrected test results Determine how the process was improved or check the test results
LCL UCL x
Cyclical The values cross the mean line periodically.
Different measuring devices, systematic spread of the data Examine manufacturing process for influences
LCL
Acceptance sampling (attribute sampling)
cf. DIN ISO 2859-1 (2004-01)
An attribute inspection is an acceptance sampling inspection in which the acceptability of the inspection lot is determined based on defective units or defects in individual sampling. The percentage of nonconforming units or the number of defects per hundred units of the lot identifies the quality level. The acceptable quality level is the quality level defined for continuously presented lots; it is a quality level that is specified by the customer in most cases. The associated sampling instructions are summarized in control tables. Acceptance sampling plan for single sampling inspection as the normal inspection (excerpt from a control table) Acceptable quality level AQL (preferred values)
Lot size 0.04
0.065
0.10
0.15
0.25
0.40
0.65
1
I
I
I
1
1
I
1
i
2-
8
i
9-
15
I
16-
25
I
I
I
I
26-
50
1
*
I
I
1
51-
90
I
I
I
I
50
0
32
91- 150
I
I
I
80
0
50
0
151- 280
I
I
125
0
80
0
50
281- 500
I
200
0
125
0
80
0
501-1200
315
200
0
125
0
80
0
0
Explanation: 50 2 1
1.0
4
4
I
1
13
I
20
0
0
20
32
0
0
32
50
0
50
0
1.5
2.5
I
I
8
0
5
0
0
8
0
5
0
13
0
8
0
5
0
0
13
0
8
0
20
1
20
0
13
0
32
1
20
1
0
20
0
50
1
32
1
32
2
32
0
80
1
50
1
50
2
50
3
125
1
80
1
80
2
80
3
80
5
Use first sampling instruction of this column. If the sample size is greater than or equal to the batch size: Carry out a 100% inspection. —Second number: Acceptance number = number of the accepted delivered defective units
E First number: Sample size = number of units to be tested
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Process and machine capability. Quality control charts Capability, Quality control charts During an evaluation of the quality-related capability of a process through capability characteristics (capability indices), differentiation must be made between shortterm capability (machine capability) and long-term capability (process capability). tolerance T> 10 s
LLV * charcteristic value LLV ULV x s
Machine capability index
Machine capability is an evaluation of the machine, i.e. whether there is sufficient probability that it can produce within specified limits given its normal fluctuations. If C m > 1.67 and C m k > 1.67, this means that 99.99994% (range ± 5 s) of the quality characteristics lie within the limits and the mean x lies at least an amount of 5 s away from the tolerance limits.
Requirement 1 ' e.g. C m > 1.67 and C m k > 1.67.
ULV
lower limit value upper limit value arithmetic mean standard deviation
Process capability index Acrit
smallest interval between mean and a tolerance limit
Cnv C m k machine capability index
Process capability is an assessment of the manufacturing process, i.e. whether there is sufficient probability that it can fulfill specified requirements given its normal fluctuations. o
estimated standard deviation
Cp, C p k
process capability index
Example: Examination of machine capability for production dimension 80 ± 0.05;
Requirement 1 ' e.g. C p > 1.33 and C p k > 1.33 1)
Values from preliminary run: s = 0.009 mm; x = 79.997 mm T 6• s
0,1mm - o,-o Acrit 0.047 mm = 1852; Cmk =. =1.74 m =-_ 6 0.009 mm * 3 s 3-0.009 mm
The machine capability is below requirements.
Quality control charts for qualitative characteristics Defect chart Defect charts record the defective units, the defect types and their frequency in a sampling. Example of reading from the graph for F3: n = 9 • 50 = 450 defects in % = — 100% n 3 100% = 0.66% ~ 450
Pareto11 diagram
Customer or contract specific requirements; in large scale production, e.g. automotive industry, tendency to higher requirements, e.g. Cm:» 2.0.
cf. DGQ 16-33 (1990); DGQ 11-19 (1994)
Example: Part: Cover Sample size n = 50 Defect type Frequency of Paint damage F1 1 Dents F2 1 2 2 1 Corrosion F3 1 1 BunF4 1 Crackings F5 1 Angle error F6 2 3 1 Bent F7 1 Threads missing F8 1 Defects per sample 4 6 3 3 3 Sample no. 1 2 3 4 5
Test interval: 60 min % Perc. of total 2 0.44 i 14 3.11 i 3 0.66 i 1 0.22 1 0.22 12 2.66 2 3 1 I 1 0.22 1 0.22 35 5 4 3 4 6 7 8 9
defect /j 1 2 2 2 2 1
Example:
The Pareto diagram classifies criteria (e.g. defects) according to type and frequency and is therefore an important aid in analyzing criteria and establishing priorities. Example for F2: Percentage of total defects =
1)
35
• 100% = 40%
Pareto - Italian sociologist
F4 F7 defect types
F8
Example of graphic representation: Dents (F2) and angle error (F6) together make up approx. 74% of the total errors.
282
Production engineering: 6.2 Production planning
Job time1' Structure of types of time for workers
Designation
Explanation with examples
T
Job time
Time allowed for manufacturing a lot size
ts
Setup time
Setup for an entire job • basic setup time f b s -»• turn on machine • setup recovery time f s r -*• recovery time after strenuous changeover • setup unproductive time f u s repair of brief machine malfunction
fp
Production time
Time allowed for production of a lot size (without setup)
fre
Recovery time
Personnel break time to reduce work-related fatigue
fu
Unproductive time
• job-related interruption time f m unforeseen tool sharpening • personnel interruption time tp -* checking work times, taking care of needs
tac
Activity time
Times in which the actual job is processed • variable times f t v assembly or deburring work • fixed times cycle of a CNC program
fw
Waiting time
Waiting for the next workpiece in the continuous flow production
Q
Job volume
Number of units to be produced for a job (lot size)
Symbol
Example: Turning three shafts on a lathe Setup times: Setup job Setup of machine Setup of tool Basic setup time fbs Setup recovery time fsr = 4 % o f f b s Unproduc. setup time t u s = 1 4 % o f f b s Setup time ts = f b s + tsr + tus Job time 7"= f s + f p
min = 4.50 = 10.00 = 12.50 = 27.00 = 1.08 = 3.78 = 31.86
Production times: Activity time Waiting time Floor-to-floor time Recovery time Unproductive time T.m* per unit work Production time
tac fw = + t... f r e compens. for in f w f u = 8%offff f u w = f f f + tn + tu tp = q • f u w
min = 14.70 = 3.75 = 18.45 = 1.48 = 19.93 = 59.79
32 min + 60 min = 92 min (= 1.53 hr)
1) According to REFA (Verband fur Arbeitsgestaltung, Betriebsorganisation und Unternehmensentwicklung e.V.) International Association for Work Design, Industrial Organization and Corporate Development
Production engineering: 6.2 Production planning
283
Utilization time1' Structure of the types of times for production resources (PR)
Designation
Explanation with examples
'UtP
Utilization time
Time allowed for utilization of a production resource for manufacturing a lot size
UP
Production resource setup time
Setup of production resource for completing an entire job • PR basic setup time f b s P clamping equipment on a machine • unproductive setup time f us p -»• optimization of CNC program
Production resource production time
Time allowed for the production time of a lot size (without setup)
uP
Production resource interruption time
Time in which the production resource is not utilized or additionally utilized; power outage, un-planned repair work, etc.
mp
Main productive time
Times in which the work object is processed according to plan • variable times f t v manual drilling • fixed times f tf -»• cycle of CNC program
Auxiliary productive time
Production resources are prep., loaded or emptied for the main productive time • variable times f a v -» manual clamping • fixed times f a f automatic workpiece change
Idle time
Process or recovery related down time, e.g. filling of a magazine
Job volume
Number of units to be produced for a job (lot size)
Symbol
f
f
PP
l
a
P
fid
Example: Milling a contact surface on 20 base plates using a vertical milling machine min min Production times: 3.52 4.54 Milling = main productive time f m p 4.00 3.65 Clamp workpiece = aux. productive time f a p 1.20 3.10 Transport workpiece = idle time f i d 2.84 Prod. res. floor-to-floor time f f f P = f m p + f a p + f i d = 8.72 Production resources basic setup time f b s P = 14.13 Prod. res. unproductive time f u P = 10% of f f f P = 0.87 Prod. res. unproductive s. time f u s P = 10% of f b s P = 1.41Prod, resource time per unit f = 9.59 u w P = fffP + f u P = 191.80 Production resources setup time f s P = fbsP + *usP = 15.54 Production resource prod, time f p P = q • f u w P Setup times: Read the job order and drawing Set up and store the surface cutter Clamp and unclamp the cutter Set up the machine
Utilization time 7 U t P = f s P + f p P « 16 min + 192 min = 208 min (= 3.47 hr) 1)
According to REFA (Verband fur Arbeitsgestaltung, Betriebsorganisation und Unternehmensentwicklung e.V.) International Association for Work Design, Industrial Organization and Corporate Development
284
Production engineering: 6.2 Production planning
Cost accounting Simple calculation (numerical example) Direct costs1' directly attributable to a specific product Types of costs 1 '
Material costs Labor costs
Overhea d 1 ' Not directly Surcharge in percent of wage attributable to a specific product costs
$ 80 000.00 $ 120 000.00
Depreciation Salaries (incl. management salaries) Interest Other costs I Overhead
Cost calculation
Wage hours = 10000 hrs
$ 50 000.00 $ 80 000.00 $ 40 000.00 $ 50 000.00
=
1 8 3 3 3
Labor costs/hr = $/hr 12.00
Costs must be determined periodically for every operation.
A surcharge rounded off to 185% is applied to each wage hour to cover overhead costs.
Material costs of order Working time 5 hr x$/hr 34.20
$ 171.00
Price without VAT
$ 295.75
$ 124.75
Expanded calculation (schematic) Material costs
Material direct costs Procurement costs
Design costs Salaries etc.
Direct production costs Production wages attributable to one product
Material overhead Percent of material direct costs, e.g. purchasing costs, storage costs, etc.
Equipment costs Drilling equipment molds etc.
Material costs
Special tools Special drills etc.
Production overhead1' Machine costs Depreciation, interest, occupancy, energy and maintenance costs Remaining overhead Percent of production wages, e.g. fringe benefits, occupancy, operating materials, etc.
1
' If no machine hourly rates are calculated, these are included in the production overhead and increase the surcharge rate. The overhead surcharge rates are taken from the operational accounting sheet.
Out-of-house processing Heat treatment etc.
1 Special direct costs of production
1 Production costs Special direct costs of production
1
Manufacturing costs Management and sales overhead Percent of manufacturing costs Prime cost Profit Percent of prime cost Raw price Commissions, discounts, rebates Percent of sales price Sales price without VAT
o
$ 120 000.00
$ 220 000.00
Rate per hour = $/hr 12.00 + 185% = $/hr 34.20 (for independent contractor invoices; management salaries = profit) 1)
$ 2 2 0 000.00- 100%
Example: Material direct costs Material overhead 5% Production wages 10 hr x $/hr 15.Machine costs 8 hr x $ / h r 3 0 Residual overhead 200% of production wages Special tools
$ 1 225.00 $61.25 $ 150.00 $ 240.00 $ 300.00 $ 125.00
Manufacturing costs Management and sales overhead 12% of manufacturing costs
$2101.25
Prime cost Profit addition 10% of the prime cost
$2353.40 $ 235.34
Raw price Commissions 5% of sales price
$2588.74 $ 136.25
Sales price before VAT
$2724.99
$ 252.15
/ o
285
Production engineering: 6.2 Production planning
Machine hourly rate calculation Machine hourly rate calculation Average production overhead does not take into consideration various machine costs attributable to a specific product. This type of cost accounting would be misleading. If machine costs are taken out of production overhead and converted to hours the machine was utilized, this yields the machine hourly rate. Compilation of machine costs Machine costs are: • Calculated depreciation Linear loss of value over the service life of the machine relative to replacement cost
• Energy costs Costs incurred by electricity, natural gas, steam or gasoline consumption
• Calculated interest Average interest for capital invested for the machine • Occupancy costs Costs incurred by floor and traffic space of the machine
• Maintenance costs Costs for repairs and regular service . 0 t h e r types of costs Costs for tool wear, insurance premiums, disposal of coolants and lubricants etc.
Machine running time, Machine hourly rates 7rt Tj 7"st
according to VDl Directive 3258 1Vlachine running time
TSm
machine running time in hours/period total theoretical machine time in hours/period down times, e.g. work free days, work interruptions etc., usually in % of Tj times for service and maintenance, usually in % of Tj
CM CMhr Cf Qj/hr
sum of machine costs per period (usually per year) machine costs per hour; machine hourly rate machine fixed costs per year; e.g. depreciation machine variable costs per hour; e.g. electrical consumption
I 7RT = Tj - 7"ST - 7"SM Vlachine hourly rates 1 CMhr = F - + C v / h r 'in-
Calculation of machine hourly rate ( e x a m p l e ) Tool machine: Procurement value $ 160 000.00 Power consumption 8 kW Occupancy costs $/m 2 10.00 x month Additional maintenance $/hr 5.00
Service life 10 years Cost per kWh $ 0.15 Space req. 15 m 2 Normal utilization 7 r t = 1200 hr/year (100%)
Assumed interest rate 8% Base charge $/month 20.00 Maintenance $/year 8 000.00 Actual utilization 80%
What would be the machine hourly rate for normal utilization and 80% utilization? Type of cost
Calculation
Fixed costs $/year
Calculated depreciation
procurement value service life in years
Calculated interest
V2 procurement value in $ x interest 100%
Maintenance costs
maintenance factor x depreciation - e.g. 0.5 x $ 16 000.00 maintenance is dependent upon utilization.
Energy costs
base charge for power supply $/month 20.00 x 12 mon. power consumption x energy costs 8 kW x $/kWh 0.15
Proportional occupancy costs
space cost rate x space requirement = $/m 2 10.00 x month x 15 m 2 x 12 months
$ 16 000.00
$ 160 000.00 10 years $ 80 000 - x 8% 100%
£ +
$ 6 400.00 $ 8 000.00 $5.00 $ 240.00 $ 1.20 $ 1 800.00 $ 32 440.00
Total machine costs (CM) Machine hourly rate (CMhr) at 100% utilization =
Variable costs S/hr
0
+ $/hr 6.20 = S/hr 33.23
7RJ
Machine hourly rate (CMhr) at 80% utilization =
+ Q,/\hr = + $/hr 6.20 = $/hr 40.00 0.8 • /RT 0.8 • 1 zOO nr The machine hourly rate does not include costs for operator.
$ 6.20
286
Production engineering: 6.2 Production planning
Direct costing1' Marginal costing (with numerical example) Contribution margin
Marginal costing takes the market price of a product into consideration. The market price must at least cover variable costs (lower price limit). The remainder is the contribution margin. Contribution margins of all products carry the costs of operational readiness. R/piece R CM CM/piece
market price; revenue per piece revenue (sales) of product contribution margin of product contribution margin per piece
Cf CXj P Bp
CM piece
fixed costs variable costs profit or gain breakeven point
CM-
R piece C M
Cv piece •volume
piece Profit
P= CM- Cf Variable costs (C^)21 depends on production volume
Cfl
Material costs Labor costs Energy costs
$/piece 30.00 Depreciation $/piece 20.00 Wages $/piece 10.00 Interest Others Cf $/piece 60.00 2 Fixed costs
CD
C >L
2 Variable costs No. of pieces produced
CO
o
O |
Contribution margin (CM)
Fixed costs (Cf) independent of production volume
CM = ft/piece - C v /piece
$ 50 000.00 $ 80 000.00 $ 40 000.00 $ 30 000.00
Revenue of $/piece 110.00 must cover all variable costs first. The remainder is used to cover total fixed costs and includes profit.
$ 200 000.00
Contribution margin 5 000 pieces $ 110.00-$60.00
= $/piece 50.00
Breakeven point
Total contribution margin 5 000 pieces • $/piece 50.00 = $ 250 000.00 $ 200 000.00 2 Fixed costs $ 50 000.00 Profit $ 200 000.00 Cl Breakeven point Bp = = 4 000 pieces CM/piece $/piece 50.00 400000
800000 -
S> 600000 c CD > CD 400000
-
costs or contribution margin
breakeven point (Bp)
c
O CD
II
S 200000
200000 fixed costs
w 33
O3 O -Q
^ 2000 4000 piec. 6000 volume — •
i 1 2000 4000 piec. 6000 volume — •
Cost comparison method In the cost comparison method, the machine or facility that incurs the lowest costs for a given production volume should be selected. Example for 5 000 pieces Machine 1: C f 1 = $/year 100 000.-; C v 1 = $/piece 75.00 $/year 100 000 - + $/piece 75 x 5 000 pieces = $ 475 000 Machine 2: C f 2 = $/year 200 000.00; C v 2 = $/piece 50.00 $/year 200 000.- + $/piece 50.00 x 5000 pieces = $ 450 000 Machine 1 costs > machine 2 costs Piece count limit M\im =
Cf2 - Cfl C v1 /piece - C v2 /piece
Cost comparison piece count limit M\]rr 600000 machine 1 machine 1 costs $475000.machine 2
400000
200000
$200 000.00 - $ 100 000.00
= 4000 pieces Mil iim m = $/piece 75.00 - $/piece 50.00 Machine 2 is more economical at volumes above 4000 pieces. 1) 2)
2000
4000 volume —
6000 pieces
Direct costing separates costs into fixed costs (costs of operating readiness) and variable costs (direct costs). Variable costs are calculated for each job and compared to revenue.
Production engineering
6.3 Machining processes,
ci
t
Turning, Thread cutting Straight cylindrical turning and facing at constant rotational speed fp d di dm / /si
/0i L f n / vc
productive time outside diameter inside diameter mean diameter 11 workpiece length starting idle
overrun idle travel travel feed per revolution rotational speed number of cuts cutting speed
Productive time
Calculating travel L, mean diameter dm and rotational speed n Facing
Straight cylindrical turning
Solid cylinder without shoulder with shoulder L /c /si r~i
with shoulder
without shoulder L
L
/
Hollow cylinder
7
I
k
T
a
y i
f-
k-i
A dm
L
n= 1)
L = / + / si
= / + /Sj +10\
2 dm = ~;
k • d
L=
81
n= rc • dr
L^+lsi+lo! , d + d-i dm = ——L\
vr n= Jt • dr
Use of mean diameter dm leads to higher cutting speeds. This ensures acceptable cutting conditions for small diameters (inside area).
Example: Straight cylindrical turning without shoulder, / = 1240 mm; / s i = / 0 j = 2 mm; f= 0.6 mm; v c = 120 m/min; /'= 2; d= 160 mm; i = ?; n = ? (for infinitely variable speed adjustment)
fP = ?
fp L / /Si /oi /
productive time total travel of thread cutting tool thread length starting idle overrun idle travel number of cuts
P n s h ap vc
L = I + / s i + / o i = 1240 mm + 2 mm + 2 mm = 1244 mm 120 m 1 v min a 239 n = c _ n • d Ji • 0.16 m min L• i 1244 mm -2 . fp = = ~ 17.4 min n T ' 239 0.6 mm min
thread pitch rotational speed no. of starts thread depth cutting depth cutting speed
Example:
L-i-s P •n Number of cuts .
Threads M 24; I = 76 mm; / s i = / o i = 2 mm;
L = I + /Sj + / o i = 76 mm + 2 mm + 2 mm = 80 mm
f= 0.6 mm; v c = 6 m/min; /'= 2; a p = 0.15 mm; h= 1.84 mm; P= 3 mm; s= 1; !_ = ?; n = ?;
Productive time
/' = ?; fp = ?
h 1.84 mm „ „ „ „ „ /=- = = 12.2 ^ 13 3 P 0.15 mm
n=
nd L-is P• n
m
min ^ QQ 1 it • 0.024 m min 80 mm -13-1 = 4.3 min 1 3 mm • 80 min
h
288
Production engineering
6.3 Machining processes,
ci
t
Turning Straight cylindrical turning and facing at constant cutting speed If the rotational speed must be limited for safety reasons by inputting a rotational speed limit n|, m , a turning diameter of d < transition diameter dx is turned at constant rotational speed (page 287).
transition diameter
/
number of cuts
Vc
cutting speed
d
outside diameter
dy
inside diameter
a
cutting depth
n
\\m rotational speed limit f productive time P
de L
effective diameter travel
f
feed
P
Transition diameter
dt =
Jt • H;
Productive time f
Jt • d e •
•/
=
P
Vc -f
/si
starting idle
lo\
overrun idle travel
Number of cuts for straight cylindrical turning I =
d-d 2 • ar
Calculating travel L and effective diameter de Facing
Straight cylindrical turning
J t
cu
H ft1
"C3
/
/
/
% d1 ra d\ TD
3
Xj
r /
d\ "D
Ik
n lim
rotational speed n with shoulder
without shoulder
/
1
dn
rotational speed n Hollow cylinder
Solid cylinder with shoulder
I
"lim
-T-—
/
/si
/si
L L
=
1 + ls\
+
L=
L=l +L
l 0j de = d - a D • (/' + 1) Example:
V
de
si
2
d + d
d„ = M
de
Facing; / s i = 1.5 mm; v c = 220 m/min; f= 0.2 mm; /'= 2; n M m = 3000/min; d< = ?; L = ?; d e = ?; f p = ? mm 220000 y 2 2 U U U U ^ _ c min _ nf Jt • ni m JI • 3000 U0. = 23.3mm(d 1 >cf t min d-d, , 120 m m - 6 5 mm 1 L = + L: = +1.5 mm = 29mm
LTL
tSl
=
L=
t„ =
UL
Sl
=
2 120 m m + 65 mm
2 Jt • de • L • i v
c -f
+1.5 mm = 94 mm 2 Jt • 94 mm • 29 mm • 2 = 0.39 min ___ mm _ _ 220000 • 0.2 mm min
d-d^ ——-
=
. . + L+ L + ' •c i
*ru
Production engineering
6.3 Machining processes,
ci
t
Drilling, Reaming, Counterboring, Planing, Shaping Drilling, reaming, countersinking Cut / c a 80°
lc 0.6 • d
118°
0.3 • d
130°
0.23 • d
140°
0.18 • d
/si
productive time tool diameter bore depth starting idle overrun idle travel lead
Productive time
L
travel
f n vc
feed per revolution rotational speed cutting speed
/ o
number of cuts drill point angle
M
L •i n• f
Speed
n = —c 71 •d
Calculating travel L for drilling and reaming
for counterboring
Through hole
Blind hole
L = / + /c + /si + /c
L=I+L+L
Example: L = / + l c + / s i = 90 mm + 0.23 • 30 mm + 1 mm = 98 mm
Blind hole of d = 30 mm; / = 90 mm; f= 0.15 mm; n = 450/min; /'= 15; / S j = 1 mm; (7=130°; L = ?; tp = ?
L i
98 mm-15 450
1
min
= 21.78 min
0.15 mm
Planing and shaping fp /si /oi
L w wa
productive time workpiece length starting idle overrun idle travel stroke length width of workpiece approach width
wQ n vc vr W f /'
overrun width no. of double strokes per minute cutting speed, approach speed return speed planing, shaping width feed per double stroke number of cuts
Calculating stroke length L and planing width W
Productive time
W- i
U
c
vv
W- i f
290
Production engineering
6.3 Machining processes,
ci
t
Milling Productive time
productive time workpiece length cutting depth a e engagement (milling width) la approach
Feed per revolution of milling cutter
L; overrun idle travel f=ft-N
/st
starting travel
L
total travel
d
cutter diameter
n
rotational speed
Feed rate vf = n • f
f
feed per revolution
ft
feed per tooth
N
number of teeth
VF=N-FT-N
Rotational speed
v c cutting speed vf
feed rate
/
number of cuts
Total travel L and starting travel / s t in relation to the milling process Face milling Peripheral face milling
eccentric
centric
a P <0.5 • d
3p >0.5 • d
L = / + 0.5 • d + la + lol-
/st
L = I+ la + l0 j + /st L = ! + 0.5 • d +
+ lr
L* = 0.5 • id2 - ae2
lst =
l/ae-d-ae2
Example: Face milling (see left illustration): N = 10, ft = 0.08 mm, v c = 30 m/min, la = / o i = 1.5 mm, i = 1 cut Sought after: n; vf; L; tp
080 Solution: n
v JT • d =—— =
m 30 min JT • 0.08 m
Vt =n • I -N =119
[ - xZ/y/A r ^t
-
-0.08 mm • 10 = 9 5 . 2 - ^ min
30 mm = 0.375, it follows that a <0.5 • d 80 mm
in I o^ 260
min
min
L
= '+la+loi
+ 'st 2
= V30mm • 80 mm - (30 mm) 2 = 38.7 mm
lst
=y]ae • d-a
L
=260 mm + 1.5 mm + 1.5 mm +38.7 mm = 301.7mm L-i
'P
-
301.7 m m - 1 95.2 mm min
= 3.2 min
Production engineering
6.3 Machining processes,
ci
t
Grinding Straight cylindrical grinding fp L / n f vf d-| d ap / wg /oi t
productive time travel number of cuts workpiece rotational speed workpiece feed per revolution feed rate initial diameter of workpiece final diameter of workpiece cutting depth workpiece length grinding wheel width overrun idle travel grinding allowance
Workpiece rotational speed
Productive time
Number of cuts for external straight for internal straight grinding grinding ; =
d
2 • 3n
2 • an 1)
2 cuts to spark out, for lower tolerance grades additional cuts are necessary
Calculating travel L Workpieces without shoulder
Workpieces with shoulder
2-wq ^
- j - k •s>
3
t
S E E 3 /. = / - - • Wg
Feed for roughing f = 2 / 3 • w g to 3 / 4 • w g ;
feed for finishing f= V4 • w g to V2 • w g
Surface grinding f p productive time
f
transverse feed per stroke
/
workpiece length
n
no. of strokes per minute
/j
start, idle, overrun idle travel Vf feed rate
L travel
/'
number of cuts
w width of workpiece
t
grinding allowance
w 0 overrun width
w g grinding wheel width
W grinding width
a p cutting depth
Number of cuts
No. of strokes
r = - + 21>
n=
Vf
Productive time
M
2 cuts to spark out
n
yy+1 f .
Calculating travel L and grinding width W Workpieces without shoulder
Workpieces with shoulder W
1
f 1Li "tn //
~ 3\
7
m* /
2-^9 2' 3 3 >\
w0~-
=J3
w
L = / + 2 • /i
/; - 0.04 • /
W = W — — • Wg
L = I+ 2-1;
l\ » 0.04 • /
Transverse feed for roughing f = 2 / 3 • w g to % • w g ; feed for finishing f = V2 • w g to 2/3 •
1/1/= W
Wg 3
292
Production engineering 6.3 Machining processes, Machining coolants
Machining coolants for cutting metals Terminology and applications for machining coolants Type of machining coolant
Composition
increasing lubricating effect
increasing cooling effect
SN machining coolants insoluble in water
1)
Group Applications
Inorganic materials in water
Grinding
Organic or synthetic materials in water
Machining at high cutting speed
Emulsions
2%-20% emulsive (soluble) machining coolant in water
Good cooling effect, but low lubrication, e.g. machining (turning, milling, drilling) of easy-to-machine materials, at high cutting speed; for high working temperatures; susceptible to bacterial or fungal attack
Cutting oil
Mineral oils with polar additives (greases or synthetic esters) or EP additives 2 ' to increase lubricating performance
For lower cutting speed, higher surface quality, for difficult-to-machine materials; very good lubrication and corrosion protection
Solutions/ dispersions
SEMW machining coolants (oil in water)
2)
Explarlation
Effect
/
SESW machining coolants
cf. DIN 51385 (1991-06) |
7
Machining coolants may be hazardous to health (page 198) and are therefore only used in small quantities. EP = Extreme Pressure; additives to increase acceptance of high surface pressure between chip and tool
Guidelines for selecting coolants Manufacturing process
Steel
Cast iron, malleable cast iron
Cu, Cu alloys
Al, Al alloys
Mg alloys
Roughing
emulsion, solution
dry
dry
emulsion, cutting oil
dry, cutting oil
Finishing
emulsion, cutting oil
emulsion, cutting oil
dry, emulsion
dry, cutting oil
dry, cutting oil
Milling
emulsion, solution, cutting oil
dry, emulsion
dry, emulsion, cutting oil
cutting oil, emulsion
dry, cutting oil
Drilling
emulsion, cutting oil
dry, emulsion
dry, cutting oil, emulsion
cutting oil, emulsion
dry, cutting oil
Reaming
cutting oil, emulsion
dry, cutting oil
dry, cutting oil
cutting oil
cutting oil
emulsion
dry, emulsion,
dry, cutting oil
cutting oil, emulsion
dry, cutting oil
cutting oil
cutting oil
cutting oil
Turning
Sawing Broaching
cutting oil, emulsion
emulsion
Hobbing, gear shaping
cutting oil
cutting oil, emulsion
Thread cutting
cutting oil
cutting oil, emulsion
cutting oil
cutting oil
Grinding
emulsion, solution, cutting oil
solution, emulsion
emulsion, solution
emulsion
Honing, lapping
cutting oil
cutting oil
-
-
-
-
-
cutting oil, dry
•
-
Production engineering 6.3 Machining processes, Machining coolants
Hard and dry machining, High-speed milling, MQCL Hard turning with cubic boron nitride (CBN) Turning process
Material hardened steel HRC
Cutting speed vc m/min
Feed f mm/revolution
60-220
0.05-0.3
0.05-0.5
60-180
0.05-0.2
0.05-0.2
50-190
0.05-0.25
0.05-0.4
50-150
0.05-0.2
0.05-0.2
Cutting a depth p mm
W ^ t ,
*
External turning
w
45-58
Internal turning External turning
> 58-65
Internal turning
Hard milling with coated solid carbide (VHM) tools —
<
Material hardened steel
Cutting speed
HRC
m/min
mm
to 35
80-90
0.05 • d
36-45
60-70
0.05 • d
46-54
50-60
0.05 • d
working engagement
Fee;d per tooth ft in mm for la the diameter d in mm
^e max
/-
2-8
>8-12
> 12-20
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.03
0.04
0.05
High-speed cutting (HSC) with PCD Cutter diarr leter d in mn
Cutting speed
Material group
1<3
m/min i
yy y
—
d>0
ae mm
ft mm
ae mm
fx mm
Steel Rm 850-1100 > 1100-1400
280-360 210-270
0.25
0.09-0.13
0.40
0.13-0.18
Hardened steel 48-55 HRC > 5 5 - 6 7 HRC
90-240 75-120
0.25 0.20
0.09-0.13
0.40 0.35
0.13-0.18
EN-GJS > 180HB
300-360
0.25
0.09-0.13
0.40
0.13-0.18
Titanium alloy
90-270
0.20-0.25
0.09-0.13
0.35-0.40
0.13-0.18
Cu alloy
90-140
0.20
0.09-0.13
0.35
0.13-0.18
1 Dry machining Process
Quenched and tempered steels
Cutting tool material and machini ng coolant for: Iron materials Al materials Cast alloy High-alloy steels Cast iron
Wrought alloy
Drilling
TIN, dry
TiAIN 1 ', MQCL
TIN, dry
TIAIN, MQCL
TIAIN, MQCL
Reaming
PCD, MQCL
_2)
PCD, MQCL
TiAIN, PCD, MQCL
"TIAIN, MQCL
Milling
TIN, dry
TiAIN, MQCL
TIN, dry
TiAIN, dry
TIAIN, MQCL
Sawing
MQCL
MQCL
_2)
TIAIN, MQCL
TiAIN, MQCL
| Minimum quantity of machining coolant (MQCL or MQL) 3 Suitability of minimum quantity lubrication for the material to be machined Cu alloys Al alloy castings Ferritic steel Mg alloys Al wrought alloys Pearlitic steel Cast iron materials Stainless steels
Dependency of MQCL volume on machining method nriilling
drilling grinding lapping turning reaming honing
Increasing material suitability
Increasing lubrication requirement 1)
Titanium aluminum nitride (super hard coating)
2)
Not normally done
3)
Generally 0.01-3 l/hr
294
Production engineering
6.3 Machining processes, ools
Cutting tool materials Designation of hard cutting tool materials Example:
cf. DIN ISO 513 (2005-11)
Code letter (see the table below)
HC -
K
Application group
20
Cutting main group P (blue) Cutting tool material group
K1>
M (yellow)
K (red)
Components
N (green)
S (br
Properties
Indexable inserts for drilling, turning and milling tools, also for solid hard metal tools
HT
Uncoated hard metal of titanium Like HW, but with high carbide (TiC), titanium nitride cutting edge stability, (UN) or of both, also called chemical resistance cermet.
Indexable inserts for lathe and milling tools for finishing at high cutting speeds
HC
HW and HT, but coated with titanium carbonitride (TiCN)
Increase of wear resistance without reducing toughness
Increasingly replacing the uncoated hard metals
CA
Cutting ceramics, primarily of aluminum oxide (Al 2 0 3 )
High hardness and hot hardness up to 1 200 °C sensitive to severe temperature changes
Cutting of cast iron, usually without cooling lubricant
CM
Mixed ceramics with aluminum oxide (Al 2 0 3 ) base, as well as other oxides
Tougher than pure ceramics, better resistance to temperature variations
Precision hard turning of hardened steel, cutting at high cutting speed
CN
Silicon nitride ceramics, primari- High toughness, high ly of silicon nitride (Si 3 N 4 ) cutting edge stability
Cutting of cast iron at high cutting speed
CR
Cutting ceramics with aluminum oxide (Al 2 0 3 ), as a main component, reinforced
Tougher than pure ceramics due to reinforcement, improved resistance against temperature variations
Hard turning of hardened steel, cutting at high cutting speed
CC
Cutting ceramics such as CA, CM and CN, but coated with titanium carbonitride (TiCN)
Increase of wear resistance without reducing toughness
Increasingly replacing the uncoated cutting ceramics
Cutting ceramics
Cubic crystalline boron nitride (BN), Very high hardness and also designated CBN or PCB or "super- hot hardness up to hard cutting tool material" 2000°C, high wear resistance, chemical resistance BL With low boron nitride content BH
With high boron nitride content
BC
BL and BH, but coated
Cutting tool material of carbon (C), also designated CBN, PCB or "superhard cutting tool material"
Diamond
Tool steel 2 ' 1) 2)
Applications
Uncoated hard metal, main component High hot hardness up to 1 000 °C, high wear resistis tungsten carbide (WC) ance, high compression HW Grain size > 1 pm strength, vibration HF Grain size < 1 nm damping
Hard metals
Boron nitride
H (gray)
DP
Polycrystalline diamond (PCD)
DM
Monocrystalline diamond
HS
High-performance high-speed steel with alloying elements tungsten (W), molybdenum (Mo), vanadium (V) and cobalt (Co), usually coated with titanium nitride (TIN)
Code letters according to DIN ISO 513 Tool steels are not included in DIN ISO 513 but in ISO 4957
Dressing of hard materials (HRC > 48) with high surface quality
High wear resistance, very brittle, temperature resistance up to 600 °C, reacts with alloying elements
Cutting of non-ferrous metals and Al alloys with high silicon content
High toughness, high bending strength, low hardness, temperature resistant up to 600 °C
For severe alternating cutting forces, machining of plastics, for the cutting of Al and Cu alloys
Production engineering
6.3 Machining processes,
ools
Cutting tool materials Classification and application of hard cutting tool materials Code letter
Application
color code
group
cf. DIN ISO 513 (2005-11)
Cutting tool material properties1*
Possible cutting parameters 1 '
Workpiece - material Wear resistance
Toughness
Cutting speed
Feed
Steel
P blue
P01 P10 P20 P30 P40 P50
P05 P15 P25 P35 P45
All types of steels and cast steels, with the exception of stainless steel with austenitic structure
M01 M10 M20 M30 M40
M05 M15 M25 M35
Austenitic and austenitic ferritic stainless steels and cast steels
K01 K10 K20 K30 K40
K05 K15 K25 K35
Cast iron with flake and spheroidal graphite malleable cast iron
A
Stainless steel
M yellow
V
Cast iron
K red
I y u
Non-ferrous metals and other non-ferrous materials
N green
N01 N10 N20 N30
N05 N15 N25
Aluminum and other non-ferrous metals (e.g. Cu, Mg), non-ferrous materials (e.g. GPR, CFRP)
f t
U Special alloys and titanium S01 S10 S20 S30
S05 S15 S25
High-temperature special alloy on the basis of iron, nickel and cobalt, titanium and titanium alloys
I
y
A u
Hard materials
H gray
H01 H10 H20 H30
H05 H15 H25
Hardened steel, hardened cast iron materials, cast iron for ingot casting
I 1)
Increasing in direction of the arrow
296
Production engineering
6.3 Machining processes, ools
ISO 1832 Designations for indexable inserts for cutting toolscf. DIN (2005-11) Designation examples: Indexable carbide insert with rounded corners (DIN 4968) without mounting hole Insert DIN
4968 T N G N 16 03 08 T P20 I I I I I I I I I Indexable carbide insert with wiper edges (DIN 6590) without mounting hole
Insert DIN Standard number
©
N
15
04
ED
©
©
©
©
6590 D
©
®
R - P10 ®
(9
Basic shape
Equilateral, equiangular and round
O
H
T
80 (
Equilateral and non-equiangular W
0
85 (
Non-equilateral and L equiangular A, B, K non-equiangular
A
y
55c
0
82'
B
\
K
Many company specific shapes are used in addition to standardizied shapes. B
(2) Normal clearance angle an to the insert (3) Tolerance class
D
N c
20c
15 Allow, dev. for
A
Control dim. d
±0.025
±0.013
± 0.005
± 0.013
± 0.025
± 0.025 M
N
U ±0.16
±0.013
±0.08...±0.20
±0.25
± 0.09
±0.13
±0.025
± 0.025 K
R
W T c r o
Q
a n n o
U
± 0.025
• D E I \ZE
H
7 [
• D D J
a s 7C
Special data
The cutting length is the longer cutting edge for non-equilateral inserts, for round inserts it is the diameter.
(6) Insert thickness
Insert thickness is given in mm without decimal places.
(7) Cutting point configuration
Code number multiplied by factor 0.1 = corner radius r c D
1. Letter symbol for cutting edge angle x r of main cutting edge
45
2. Letter symbol for clearance angle a'n on wiper edge (corner chamfer) (8) Cutting point
±0.09
±0.05...±0.15
N
M
± 0.025 ± 0.025
K ±0.005
± 0.025
±0.05...±0.15
Control dim. d
Insert size
± 0.025
Insert thickness s
Insert thickness s
special data
11'
Control dim. m
Control dim. m
O
30c H
±0.013
Allow, dev. for
@ Faces and clamping features
25c
F sharp
E rounded
T chamfered
c
60c
75c 85c 90c
c c c 15c 20 25 30
chamfered rounded
double chamfered
(9) Cutting direction
R right hand cutting
® Cutting tool material
Carbide with machining application group or cutting ceramic
L left hand cutting
11'
doub. chamfered and rounded
N right and left hand cutting (neutral)
Production engineering 6.3 Machining processes, ools
Designation of indexable and short indexable insert holders Designation example: Holder DIN 4984
-
C
T
W
N
standard no. of holder — holding method insert shape 1 ' design of holder normal clear, angle of insert 1 ' a n — type of holder height of cutting edge h^ = h2 in mm shank width w i n mm length of holder /•| in mm indexable insert size 1 ' — 1) For indexable inserts, see page 296
R 32 25
cf
MOTW
M 16
298
Production engineering
6.3 Machining processes,
c
an
Forces and power in turning and drilling Turning Fc A ap f h x C
cutting force in N chip section in m m 2 cutting depth in mm feed per revolution in mm chip thickness in mm cutting edge angle in degrees (°) correction factor for the cutting speed v c cutting speed in m/min kc specific cutting force in N/mm 2 (page 299) P c cutting power in kW P-\ drive power of the machine tool in kW rj efficiency of the machine tool
Correction factor C for the cutting speed Cutting speed vc in m/min
C
10-30 31-80
1.3 1.1
81-400
1.0
Chip section
A = ap • f Cutting force Fc - A •
Example: A shaft of 16MnCr5, a p = 5 mm, f= 0.32 mm, v c = 110 m/min, x = 75c Sought after: h; kc; C; A; Fc; P-, with rj = 0.75 Solution: h = f • sinx = 0.32 mm • sin 75° = 0.31 mm kc = 3735N/mm 2 (see table on page 299), C = 1.0 (see correction factor table) A =ap -f = 5 mm • 0.32 mm = 1.6 m m 2 N 2 = A • kc • C 1.6 mm • 3735 • 1.0 = 5976 N mm z 5976N • 110 m „ i l ™ 4 A < = 14608 W= 14.6 kW 0.75 • 60 s
•C
Chip thickness
h = f • sinx Cutting power
Pc = Fc. vc Drive power
Pr Pi'
—
Drilling Fc z A d f fz o h C vc kc Pc Pi rj
cutting force per edge in N number of cutting edges (twist drill z = 2) chip section in m m 2 drill diameter in mm feed per revolution in mm feed per cutting edge in mm drill point angle in degrees (°) chip thickness in mm correction factor for the cutting speed cutting speed in m/min specific cutting force in N/mm 2 (page 299) cutting power in kW drive power of the machine tool in kW efficiency of the machine tool
Example:
Correction factor C for the cutting speed Cutting speed vc in m/min
C
10-30
1.3
31-80
1.1
Chip section per cutting edge 4 =
d • f
Cutting force per cutting edge1' Fr=*\.2-
A- kr - C
c
Material 42CrMo4, d= 16 mm, v c = 28 m/min, f= 0.18 mm, o = 118 Sought after: h; kc; C; A; Fc; P c ^ . _. , f o 0.18 mm . Solution: h = - sin sin 59° = 0.08mm 2 2 2 kc = 6265 N / m m 2 (see table on page 299) 2 A = d f 16 mm 0.18 mm 0.72 mm 4 4 C = 1.3 (see correction factor table) Fc =1.2 -A • kc • C = 1.2 • 0.72 mm
2
• 6265 1.3 = 7037 N mnr1 2 • 7037 N-28 m N •m P, = ~ • = 3284 = 3284W = 3.3 kW 2 60 s • 2 s 11 The specific cutting force values ke are assessed in turning tests. The conversion to drilling is realized via the factor 1.2 in the formula.
Chip thickness
2
sin
o 2
Cutting power p r c ~
v
c
2
Drive power
1
Production engineering
6.3 Machining processes,
c
an
Specific cutting force The specific cutting force is the the force that is required to separate a chip with a cross section of A = 1 mm 2 from a workpiece. The values are assessed in turning tests and form the basis of the calculation of the cutting forces and the drive power in chip-removing machining processes. kc h f ap x
specific cutting force N/mm 2 chip thickness in mm feed in mm cutting depth in mm angle of incidence in degrees (°)
The chip thickness h depends on the applied machining process. Calculation of chip thicknesses: pages 298 and 300.
Standard values for the specific cutting force1) Specific cutting force ^ in N/mm 2 for the chip thickness h in mm Material
0.05
0.08
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.80
1.00
1.50
2.00
S235 E295 E355
3850 5635 4565
3555 4990 4215
3425 4705 4055
3195 4235 3785
3040 3930 3605
2930 3710 3470
2840 3535 3365
2705 3285 3205
2605 3100 3085
2405 2740 2850
2315 2585 2745
2160 2330 2560
2055 2160 2340
C15, C15E C35, C35E C45, C45E
4575 4425 4760
4125 3895 4210
3925 3670 3975
3590 3290 3575
3370 3045 3320
3210 2865 3130
3085 2725 2985
2895 2525 2770
2755 2375 2615
2485 2095 2315
2365 1970 2185
2165 1765 1965
2030 1635 1825
C60, C60E 11SMnPb30 16MnCr5
4750 2675 5950
4365 2460 5265
4190 2360 4965
3895 2195 4470
3700 2085 4150
3555 2000 3915
3440 1935 3735
3265 1840 3465
3135 1765 3270
2880 1625 2895
2770 1560 2730
2575 1450 2455
2445 1375 2280
20MnCr5 18CrMo4 34CrAIMo5
5775 4955 4930
5135 4575 4360
4855 4405 4115
4385 4110 3705
4085 3915 3435
3860 3770 3245
3690 3655 3095
3435 3480 2870
3245 3350 2710
2885 3095 2395
2730 2975 2260
2475 2780 2035
2295 2645 1890
42CrMo4 50CrV4 102Cr6
7080 6290 5895
6265 5565 4910
5915 5250 4500
5320 4725 3840
4940 4385 3435
4660 4140 3145
4445 3945 2930
4125 3660 2620
3890 3455 2400
3445 3060 2000
3250 2885 1835
2925 2595 1565
2715 2410 1400
90MnCrV8 X210CrW12 X5CrNi18-10
5610 5155 5730
5080 4565 5190
4850 4305 4955
4455 3875 4550
4195 3595 4285
4000 3395 4085
3850 3235 3935
3625 3005 3705
3460 2835 3535
3135 2510 3200
2990 2365 3055
2745 2130 2805
2585 1975 2640
X30Cr13 T1AI6V4
5155 3340
4565 3025
4305 2890
3875 2655
3595 2495
3395 2385
3235 2295
3005 2160
2835 2060
2510 1985
2365 1780
2130 1635
1975 1540
GJL-150 GJL-200 GJL-400
2315 2805 4165
2100 2495 3685
2005 2360 3480
1840 2130 3130
1730 1985 2905
1650 1875 2740
1590 1790 2615
1500 1670 2425
1430 1575 2290
1295 1405 2025
1235 1325 1910
1135 1200 1720
1065 1115 1595
GJS-400 GJS-600 GJS-800
2765 3200 5500
2455 2955 4470
2325 2845 4055
2100 2655 3390
1955 2530 2985
1845 2435 2710
1765 2360 2500
1645 2250 2200
1555 2165 1995
1380 2000 1625
1305 1925 1470
1180 1795 1230
1100 1710 1085
AlCuMgl AIMg3 AC-AISi12
2150 2020 2150
1930 1810 1930
1835 1725 1835
1670 1570 1670
1565 1470 1565
1485 1395 1485
1425 1340 1425
1335 1250 1335
1265 1190 1265
1135 1065 1135
1080 1015 1080
985 925 985
920 865 920
MgAI8Zn CuZn40Pb2 CuSn7ZnPb
895 1740 1760
820 1600 1565
785 1535 1480
725 1425 1335
690 1355 1245
660 1300 1175
635 1260 1125
605 1195 1045
580 1150 990
530 1055 880
505 1015 830
470 945 750
445 895 700
1)
The standard values apply to tools with hard metal edges. Tool wear increases the specific cutting force by approximately 30%. The values specified in the table include this addition. For turning, drilling (page 298) and milling processes (page 300), the effect of the cutting speed on the standard values for the specific cutting force is considered via correction factors C in the upper table.
300
Production engineering
6.3 Machining processes,
c
an
Forces and power in milling Face milling cutting force per tooth in N chip section per tooth in m m 2 a P cutting depth in mm a e engagement (milling width) in mm h chip thickness in mm f feed per revolution in mm
A
feed per tooth in mm cutter diameter in mm v c cutting speed in m/min Vf feed rate in mm/min N number of teeth /Vp number of teeth engaged angle of engagement in degrees (°) specific cutting force in N/mm 2 (page 299) correction factor for the cutting speed
fz d
cutting power in kW Py drive power in kW effective power of the machine tool Example:
Feed rate Vj = N-
fz-
n
Chip cross section per tooth
A = ap-fz
Cutting force per tooth 1 1
Fc=1.2
A - kc - C
Chip thickness for d = (1.2-1.6)- a e 2 )
Material 16MnCr5; d= 180 mm; N = 12; a e = 120 mm; a p = 6 mm; fz = 0.10 mm; vc = 85 m/min; rj = 0.8.
h~f
7
Sought after: A; h; kc; Fc; (p; A/e; P c ; Py A = a p - fz = 6 mm • 0.1 mm = 0.6 m m 2 h fz = 0.1 mm N kc = 4965 (table on page 299) mm' Fc = 1.2 • A • kc • C; C = 1.0 (table of correction factors C) N • 1.0 mm = 3575 N 1.2 -0.6 mm 2 - 4965 'c mm" d_ 180 mm = 1.5;
Solution:
Pc = Ne-FcP,
vc= 2.8 -3575N • ^ ^ = 14181 60s 14.2 kW = 17.8 kW 0.8
Number of teeth engaged A/p =
d/ae
cp in °
2)
0
d/ae
ip in °
1.20
113
1.35
96
1.50
83
1.25
106
1.40
91
1.55
80
1.30
100
1.45
87
1.60
77
360c
Cutting power Ne- Fc
• VC
Correction factor C for the cutting speed Cutting speed vc in m/min
C Drive power
d
cutter diameter
30-80
1.1
a
engagement
81-400
1.0
e
1)
d/ae
14.2kW
Pc= Angle of engagement
N
rj
The values of the specific cutting force kc (page 299) are assessed in turning tests. The conversion to milling is achieved via the factor 1.2 in the formula. In order to ensure favorable cutting conditions, the cutter diameter should be selected in the range d = (1.2-1.6) • a e .
Production engineering
6.3 Machining processes,
a
n
a
s
Drilling Twist drills of high-speed steel (HSS) Helix angle
Type 1 '
11
Point angle
3)
Helix angle 2 '
Point angle 3)
Universal application for materials up to Rm « 1000 N/mm 2 , e.g. structural, casehardened, quenched and tempered steels
30°-40c
118c
Drilling of brittle, short-chipping non-ferrous metals and plastics, e.g. CuZn alloys and PMMA (Plexiglas)
13°-19c
118c
Drilling of soft, long-chipping non-ferrous metals and plastics, e.g. Al and Mg alloys, PA (polyamide) and PVC
40°-47c
130c
Application
W
2)
cf. DIN 1414-1 (2006-11)
Tool application groups for HSS tools according to DIN 1835 Depends on drill diameter and pitch Standard version
Standard values for drilling with HSS twist drills1) Cutting speed 2 '
Workpiece matesrial Material group
Tensile strength Rm in N/mm 2 or Hardness HB
Drill d iameter d in i mm 2-3
>6-12
>3-6
>12-25
>25-50
m/min Feed f in mm/revolution
Steels, low strength
Rm < 800
40
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.25
0.35
Steels, high strength
Rm > 800
20
0.04
0.08
0.10
0.15
0.20
Stainless steels
Rm < 800
12
0.03
0.06
0.08
0.12
0.18
Cast iron, malleable cast iron
<250 HB
20
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.60
Al alloys
Rm < 350
45
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.60
Cu alloys
Rm < 500
60
0.10
0.15
0.30
0.40
0.60
Thermoplastics
-
50
0.10
0.15
0.30
0.40
0.60
Thermoset plastics
-
25
0.05
0.10
0.18
0.27
0.35
Standard values for drilling with carbide drills1) Cutting speed 2 '
Workpiece mate5rial Material group
Tensile strength Rm in N/mm 2 or Hardness HB
vc
Drill diameter d in i mm 2-3
>3-6
I >6-12
>12-25
>25-50
m/min Feed f in mm/revolution
Steels, low strength
Rm < 800
90
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.25
0.40
Steels, high strength
Rm > 800
80
0.08
0.13
0.20
0.30
0.40
Stainless steels
Rm < 800
40
0.08
0.13
0.20
0.30
0.40
Cast iron, malleable cast iron
< 250 HB
100
0.10
0.15
0.30
0.45
0.70
Al alloys
flm < 350
180
0.15
0.25
0.40
0.60
0.80
Cu alloys
ftm < 500
200
0.12
0.16
0.30
0.45
0.60
Thermoplastics
-
80
0.05
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
Thermoset plastics
-
80
0.05
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
Standard values for modified conditions Standard values for cutting speed and feed are valid for moderate usage conditions: • tool life approx. 30 min • average strength of material • hole depth < 5 • d Standard values are • increased for more favorable conditions, • decreased for unfavorable conditions 1)
For cooling lubricants, see pages 292 and 293
2>
Values for coated drills
short drill
302
Production engineering
6.3 Machining processes,
a
n
a
s
Reaming and tapping Standard values for reaming with HSS reamers1* Workpiece mater ial
Cutting speed
Tool cliameteir d in mmi
Reami ng allow. f o r d ' in mm
Tens, strength Rm in N/mm 2 or Hardness HB
m/min
Steels, low strength
Rm - 800
15
0.06
0.12
0.18
0.32
0.50
Steels, high strength
Rm > 800
10
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.25
0.40
Stainless steels
Rm < 800
8
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.25
0.40
Cast iron, malleable cast iron
<250 HB
15
0.06
0.12
0.18
0.32
0.50
Al alloys
Rm < 350
26
0.10
0.18
0.30
0.50
0.80
Cu alloys
Rm < 500
26
0.10
0.18
0.30
0.50
0.80
Material group
2-3
>3-6
>6-12
>12-25
>25-50
to 20
>20-50
0.20
0.30
0.30
0.60
Feed f in mm/revolution
Thermoplastics
-
14
0.12
0.20
0.35
0.60
1.00
Thermoset plastics
-
14
0.12
0.20
0.35
0.60
1.00
Standard values for reaming with carbide tooling 1) Workpiece mater ial Material group
Cutting speed
Tool dliametei' d in mm
Reamiing allow. f o r d ' in mm
Tens, strength Rm in N/mm 2 or Hardness HB
m/min
Steels, low strength
Rm < 800
15
0.06
0.12
0.18
0.32
0.50
Steels, high strength
Rm > 800
10
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.25
0.40
Stainless steels
Rm > 800
10
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.25
0.40
Cast iron, malleable cast iron
< 250 HB
25
0.10
0.18
0.28
0.50
0.80
Al alloys
Rm < 350
30
0.12
0.20
0.35
0.50
1.00
Cu alloys
Rm < 500
30
0.12
0.20
0.35
0.50
1.00
2-3
>3-6
>6-12
>12-25
>25-50
to 20
>20-50
0.20
0.30
0.30
0.60
Feed f in mm/revolution
Thermoplastics
-
20
0.12
0.20
0.35
0.50
1.00
Thermoset plastics
-
30
0.12
0.20
0.35
0.50
1.00
Standard values for tapping and thread forming1* H<5S tool
Workpiece mater ial Material group
Tens, strength Rm in N/mm 2 or Hardness HB
Tapping 2 ' Cutting sf
Carbic ie tool
Thread forming 2 ' Deed v c m/min
Tapping 2 '
Thread forming 2 '
Cutting spe
Steels, low strength
Rm s 800
40-50
40-50
-
40-60
Steels, high strength
Rm > 800
20-30
15-20
-
20-30
Stainless steels
Rm > 800
8-12
10-20
-
20-30
Cast iron, malleable cast iron
< 250 HB
15-20
Al alloys
Rm < 350
20-40
30-50
60-80
60-80
Cu alloys
Rm s 500
30-40
25-35
30-40
50-70
-
25-35
-
Thermoplastics
-
20-30
-
50-70
-
Thermoset plastics
-
10-15
-
25-35
-
2
For cooling lubricants, see pages 292 and 293 ' Upper limit values: for material groups with lower strengths; short threads Lower limit values: for material groups with higher strengths; long threads
Production engineering
6.3 Machining processes,
a
n
a
s
Turning Roughness depth depending on tool nose radius and feed flth theoretical roughness depth
r tool nose radius f feed a p cutting depth
Theor. roughness depth
Example: flth = 25 pm; r= 1.2 mm; f= ? = V8 • 1.2 mm -0.025 mm ~ 0.5 mm Roughn. depth ftth in pm
0.4
1.6 4 10 16 25
0.07 0.11 0.18 0.23 0.28
|
^th ~
hh
8 • r
R,
Nose radius r in mm 0.8 I 1.2 Feed f in mm 0.10 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.25 0.31 0.32 0.39 0.40 0.49
1.6 0.14 0.23 0.36 0.45 0.57
Standard values for turning with HSS tools1 ) 2 ) Material group
Workpiece mate rial Tensile strength Rm in N/mm 2 or Hardness HB
Cutting speed vc in m/min
Steels, low strength
flm < 800
40-80
Steels, high strength
Rm > 800
30-60
Stainless steels
Rm > 800
30-60
Cast iron, malleable cast iron
<250 HB
20-35
Al alloys
Rm < 350
120-180
Cu alloys
flm < 500
100-125
Thermoplastics
-
100-500
Thermoset plastics
-
80-400
Feed f in mm
Cutting a depth p
0.1-0.5
0.5-4.0
Feed f in mm
Cutting depth
0.1-0.5
0.3-5.0
in mm
Standard values for turning using coated carbide tools 2) Material group
Workpiece matesrial Tensile strength Rm in N/mm 2 or Hardness HB
Cutting speed vc in m/min
Rm < 800
200-350
> 800
100-200
Stainless steels
Rm > 800
80-200
Cast iron, malleable cast iron
<250 HB
100-300
Al alloys
f?m < 350
400-800
Cu alloys
Rm < 500
150-300
Steels, low strength Steels, high strength
Thermoplastics
-
500-2000
Thermoset plastics
-
400-1000
a
P in mm
Application of the cutting data range Example: Standard values for turning of steels with lower strengths using carbide tools Upper values
Application
Lower values
Application
vc = 350 m/min
finish machining (finishing) stable tool and workpiece
vc = 200 m/min
premachining (roughing) unstable tool or workpiece
f= 0.5 mm, a p = 5.0 mm
premachining (roughing) stable tool and workpiece
f= 0.1 mm, a p = 0.3 mm
finish machining (finishing) unstable tool or workpiece
1)
HSS lathe tools have for the most part been replaced by lathe tools with carbide indexable inserts.
2)
Machining coolant, see pages 292 and 293
304
Production engineering
6.3 Machining processes,
a n i n g
Taper turning Terminology for tapers
cf. DIN ISO 3040(1991-09)
^ 1: x (taper ratio)
D large taper diameter
y
d small taper diameter L taper length
taper incline
1: x taper: on a taper length of x mm the taper diameter changes by 1 mm.
a taper angle a taper-generating angle 2 (setting angle) C taper ratio
Taper turning on CNC lathes CNC program according to DIN 66025 1) to produce a workpiece with a taper (see figure): N10 N20 N30 N40
GOO G01 G01 G01
N50 N60
G01 G01
X72
N70
GOO
X100
1)
X0 X0 X50 X60
Z2 Z0
F0.15
Z-25 Z-40 Z150
Approach at rapid speed Traversing motion to P1 Traversing motion to P2 Traversing motion to P3 Traversing motion to P4 Traversing motion over P5 Tool change point
Compare to page 387
Taper turning by setting the compound rest Example:
Setting angle
D = 225 mm, d= 150 mm, L = 100 mm;
a D-d tan — = 2 2•L (225- 150) mm = 0.375 2- 100 mm -
=20.556° = 20° 33 22
C
=
2
a _C tan— 2~2 a D-d tan— = 2 2-L Taper ratio
D-d (225- 150) mm = 0.75-1 : 1.33 L ~ 100 mm
Taper turning by offsetting the tailstock lathe axis
Wmax
Lw
tailstock offset maximum allowable tailstock offset
Tailstock offset
workpiece length
Example:
tailstock centerline
D = 20 mm; L =80 mm; VT = ?; TV-max
d =18 mm; L w = 100 mm =
?
Maximum allowable tailstock offset1'
1
parallel to lathe axis
1)
2 L (20 -18) mm 100 mm = 1.25 mm 2 80 mm L^ 100 mm _ VT < — = = 2 mm T m a x 50 ~ 50
If the tailstock offset is too large the workpiece cannot be secured between the lathe centers.
1/ V
<
T max -
5 Q
Production engineering
6.3 Machining processes,
a
n
a
s
Milling Standard values for milling with HSS milling cutters Material group
Workpiece mater ial Tensile strength Rm in N/mm 2 or Hardness HB
Cutting speed
Milling cutter (except for end mill)
in m/min
Steels, low strength
Rm < 800
50-100
Steels, high strength
Rm > 800
30-60
Stainless steels
Rm > 800
15-30
Cast iron, malleable cast iron
< 250 HB
25-40
Al alloys
Rm < 350
50-150
Cu alloys
Rm < 500
50-100
Thermoplastics
-
100-400
Thermoset plastics
-
100-400
Feed ft in mm End mm mill d in 6
20
12
0.05-0.15
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.10-0.20
0.10
0.15
0.20
Standard values for milling with coated carbide Material group
Workpiece mater ial Tensile strength Rm in N/mm 2 or Hardness HB
Cutting speed vc in m/min
Steels, low strength
Rm < 800
200-400
Steels, high strength
Rm > 800
150-300
Stainless steels
Rm > 800
150-300
Cast iron, malleable cast iron
< 250 HB
150-300
Al alloys
Rm < 350
400-800
Cu alloys
Rm < 500
200-400
Thermoplastics
-
500-1500
Thermoset plastics
-
400-1000
Milling cutter (except for end mill)
Feied ft in mm mm End mill d in 6
20
12
0.05-0.15
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.10-0.20
0.10
0.15
0.20
Increasing the recommended feed per cutting edge ft for slotting with side milling cutters Cutting depth a e , based on the milling cutter 0 d
side milling cutter Feed per tooth
1/3 - d
1/6 - d
i / i o - cy
1/20 • d
increase
1 A
1.15- ft
1.45 • ft
2- ft
to be adjusted
0.25 mm
0.29 mm
0.36 mm
0.50 mm
Meanings of cutting data ranges Example: Standard values for milling of low-strength steels using HSS milling cutters Upper values
Application
Lower values
Application
v c = 100 m/min
finish machining (finishing) rigid tool and workpiece
vc = 50 m/min
premachining (roughing) low rigidity of tool or workpiece
ft = 0.15 mm
premachining (roughing) rigid tool and workpiece
ft = 0.05 mm
finish machining (finishing) low rigidity of tool or workpiece
Calculation of feed rate Vf feed rate in mm/min ft feed per tooth in mm Example:
n N
rotational speed of milling cutter in 1/min number of teeth Feed rate
v c = 100 m/min; d = 4 0 mm; ft = 0.12 mm; N = 10 vc 100 m/min v = n ,/r n = n ~ d = jt 0 04 m = 7 9 6 1 / m i n ; i t A/ = 796/min • 0.12 mm • 10 = 955 mm/min
Vf= n - ft-
N
306
Production engineering
6.3 Machining processes,
a
n
a
s
Troubleshooting for drilling, turning and milling Processes and problems1'
Possible corrective measures
Drilling
CD
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t O •=
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c
00 1—
.a > Check cutting geometry Increase supply of lubricant Decrease feed f Increase cutting speed v c Decrease projection length Check cutting parameters Check type of carbide
Turning TJ C
LJ CO
CD
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4= TJ CO CD
E o>
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£
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CD
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Change cutting speed v c Change feed f Decrease cutting depth Choose a more wear-resistant carbide type Choose tougher carbide type Choose a positive cutting geometry
Milling _Q)
"O c
co o C
co oi § sz g>
±
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Q) CD "O 4= -a CO CD
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-9
Change cutting speed vc Change feed ft Choose a more wear-resistant carbide type Choose tougher carbide type Use milling cutter with wider spacing Change milling cutter position Dry milling
1)
• problem to be solved
ft
increase value of cutting parameter
decrease value of cutting parameter
Production engineering
6.3 Machining processes,
n i n g
Indexing with a dividing head Direct indexing dividing head spindle
7
In direct indexing the dividing head spindle, along with the indexing plate and workpiece, is turned by the desired indexing step. The worm is disengaged from the worm wheel. D no. of divisions a angular division n h no. of holes in the indexing plate r\\ indexing step; no. of hole spacings to be indexed
/
Example:
indexing / plate 1
workpiece
n h =24; D= 8;
Worm disengaged
=?
Indexing step
=— =— = 3 D 8
Indirect indexing In indirect indexing the dividing head spindle is driven by the worm and worm wheel. worm gear
dividing head spindle workpiece
Indexing step
n0r = — D
D no. of divisions a angular division /' gear ratio of dividing head nc indexing step; no. of indexing crank revolutions for one division
i •a
360° Example 1: D = 68; /' = 40; nc = ? worm locking pin (engaged)
indexing crank
indexing plate
_i_ 40 10 " ~ D ~ 68 ~ 17 c
Circles of holes on indexing plates 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 23 27 29 31 33
Example 2:
37 39 41 43 47 49
a = 37.2°; / = 40; nc = ? i-a 40 • 37.2° 37.2 186 _ 2 nr = 9 9 • 5 ~ 15 360° 360°
or 17 19 23 24 26 27 28 29 30 31 33 37 39 41 42 43 47 49 51 53 57 59 61 63
Differential indexing
worm gear
dividing head spindle workpiece
locking pin (disengaged)
In differential indexing the dividing head spindle is driven with worm and worm wheel like indirect indexing. Simultaneously the dividing head spindle drives the indexing plate using change gears. D no. of divisions a angular division D' auxiliary no. of divisions /' gear ratio of dividing head nc indexing step; no. of indexing crank revolutions for one division A/ dg no. of teeth of driving gears {N-\, /V3) /V dn no. of teeth of driven gears (N 2 , /V4) For selecting D' the following applies: D'> D\ Indexing crank and indexing plate must rotate in the same direction. D'< D: Indexing crank and indexing plate must rotate in opposite directions If necessary the required direction of rotation is achieved by means of an idle gear.
Indexing step
ncr = — D ,
No. of teeth on change gears
A/dn
D'
Example: Nda i = 40; D = 97; nCc =7;-^ = ?; D'selected = 100 /Vdn
indexing crank
ndexing plate
(Indexing crank and indexing plate must rotate in the same direction). _ / _ 40 8 n ° ~ D '~ 100 20 40 48 1% — = — -(D'-Dl = — • (100-97) = - -3 = - = — 100 40 ^dn D'
No. of teeth on change gears 24 24 28
32 48
36
40
44
56 84
64
72
80
86
96
100
308
Production engineering
6.3 Machining processes,
a
n
a
s
Grinding v c cutting speed dg diameter of grinding wheel n n rotational speed of grinding wheel 'g feed rate Vf L travel
Surface grinding grinding wheel workpiece
n s no. of strokes di diameter of workpiece Cylindrical grinding workpiece
Cutting speed Vr = K • dn • nr
Feed rate
Surface grinding
workpiece rotational speed speed ratio
n q
VF = /_ • N<
Cylindrical grinding
Vf = jt • d-| • n
Example: Speed ratio
vc = 30 m/s; vf = 20 m/min; q = ? vr
grinding wheel
30 m/s • 60 s/min 20 m/min
Vf
1800 m/min 90 20 m/min
q = v—
f
Standard values for cutting speed vc, feed rate vf, speed ratio q g Per ipheral gr inding
Material
Steel Cast iron Carbide Al alloys Cu alloys
vc
Vf
m/s 30 30 10 18 25
m/min 10-35 10-35 4 15-40 15-40
q 80 65 115 30 50
Si
vc
ing de wheeli
External cyl. grindiing
Vf
m/s 25 25 8 18 18
m/min 6-25 6-30 4 24-45 20-45
q 50 40 115 20 30
vc
Vf
m/s 35 25 8 18 30
m/min 10 11 4 24-30 16
Interi iding rial cyl. grii
vc
q 125 100 100 50 80
m/s 25 25 8 16 25
Vf m/min 19-23 23 8 30-40 25
q 80 65 60 30 50
Grinding data for steel and cast iron with corundum or silicon carbide grinding wheels Processes Rough grind Finishing Precision grinding
Grain size
Grinding allowance
Depth of cut in mm
Rz in pm
30-46 46-80 80-120
0.5-0.2 0.02-0.1 0.005-0.02
0.02-0.1 0.005-0.05 0.002-0.008
3-10 1-5 1.6-3
Maximum speed of grinding wheels
cf. DIN EN 12413(2007-09) 11
Miaximu m speed vc in i m/s for be>nd ty|pe2> B E R BF M RF PL V Straight grinding wheel stationary pd or ho 50 63 40 25 50 50 40 hand-held grinder free-hand 50 80 50 80 50 stationary Straight cutting wheel pd or ho 80 100 63 63 80 hand-held grinder 80 free-hand 1> pd positively driven: feed by mechanical means; ho hand operated: feed by operator2) free-hand grinding: grinding machine is guided entirely by hand; Type of bond, see page 309 Shape of grinding wheel
Type of grinding machine
Guide
Restrictions for use of grinding tools3*' VE VE1
Meaning Not allowed for free-hand or hand operated grinding
VE2 VE3 VE4 VE5
Not Not Not Not
3)
allowed allowed allowed allowed
cf. BGV D12 4) (2001-10) VE Meaning VE6 Not allowed VE7 Not allowed VE8 Not allowed VE10 Not allowed VE11 Not allowed sive cutting
for free-hand abrasive cutting for wet grinding in enclosed work area without vacuum exhaust
for side wheeling for free-hand grinding with backing pad for dry grinding for free-hand or hand operated abra-
If no restriction is given, the grinding tool is suitable for all applications.
Color stripes for maximum allowable peripheral speeds > 50 m/s^ Color stripe v c max in m/S Color stripe Vc max 4)
in m/s
cf. BGV D12 4) (2001-10)
blue
yellow
red
green
blue & yellow
blue & red
blue & green
50
63
80
100
125
140
160
red & red
green & green
320
360
yellow & red yell. & green 180
200
red & green 225
blue & blue yellow & yell. 250
280
BGV Berufsgenossenschaftliche Vorschrift (Employers' Liability Insurance Association Provisions) *) According to European Standards
Production engineering 6.3 Machining processes,
a s
Abrasives, Bonds Abrasives
cf. DIN ISO 525 (2000-08)
Symbol Abrasive
A
Chemical composition
KnoopAreas of application hardness
Norm, corundum A l 2 0 3 + additions
18000
Carb. steel, unhardened steel, cast steel, malleable cast iron
white fused alu- A l 2 0 3 in crystalline mina form
21000
High and low alloyed steel, hardened steel, case hardened steel, tool steel, titanium
Z
zircon corundum A l 2 0 3 + Z r 0 2
c
silicon carbide
SiC + additions
24800
Hard materials: carbide, cast iron, HSS, ceramic, glass; soft materials: copper, aluminum, plastics
BK
boron carbide
B 4 C in crystalline form
47000
Lapping, polishing of carbide and hardened steel
CBN
boron nitride
BN in crystalline form
60000
High-speed steels, cold and hot work steels
diamond
C in crystalline form
70000
Carbide, cast iron, glass, ceramic, stone, non-ferrous metals, not for steel; dressing of grinding wheels
D
Stainless steels
-
Hardness grade Designation
cf. DIN ISO 525 (2000-08) Designation
Hardn. grade Application
Deep and side wheeling of hard materials
hard very hard
P Q RS T U V W
Conventional metal grinding
extremely hard X Y Z
Hardn. grade Application
extremely soft A B C D very soft E FG H I J K soft medium L M N O
Grain size
External cylindrical grinding; soft materials
cf. DIN ISO 525 (2000-08)
Grain designation for bonded abrasives coarse
medium
fine
very fine
F4, F5, F6 to F24
F30, F36, F46 to F60
F70, F80, F90 to F220
F230 to F1200
« 10-5
* 5-2.5
« 2.5-1.0
* 1.0-0.4
Grain ranges Grain designation Attainable Rz in (jm
Structure
cf. DIN ISO 525 (2000-08) 0
Code Structure
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14, etc. up to 30 dense (nonporous)
Bond Code
open (porous) cf. DIN ISO 525 (2000-008) and VDI 3411 (2000-08)
Type of bond
Properties
Areas of application
B BF
synthetic resin bond, fiber reinforced
Nonporous or porous, elastic, resistant to oil, cool grinding
Rough or cut-off grinding, form grinding with diam. and boron nitride, high pressure grinding
E
shellac bond
Sensitive to temperature, tough elastic, impact resistant
Saw tooth grinding, form grinding, control wheel for centerless grinding
G
galvanic bond
Tight grip due to protruding grains
Internal grinding of carbide, hand grinding
M
metal bond
Nonporous or porous, tough, insensitive to pressure and heat
Form and tool grinding using diamond or boron nitride, wet grinding
MG
magnesite bond
Soft, elastic, sensitive to water
Dry grinding, knife grinding
PL
plastic bond
Soft, elastic depending upon plastic and degree of hardening
Plastic abrasive material for finishing, precision finishing and polishing
R RF
rubber bond, fiber reinforced
Elastic, cold grinding, sensitive to oil and heat
Cut-off grinding
V
Porous, brittle, insensitive vitrified (ceramic) bond to water, oil, heat
Rough and finish grinding of steels using corundum and silicon carbide
Grinding wheel ISO 603-1 1 N-300 x 50 x 76.2 - A/F 36 L 5 V - 50: Form 1 (straight grinding wheel), wheel face N, outside diameter 300 mm, width 50 mm, hole diameter 76.2 mm, abrasive A (normal corundum or white fused alumina), grain size F36 (medium), hardness grade L (medium), structure 5 vitrified (ceramic) bond (V), maximum peripheral speed 50 m/s.
310
Production engineering
6.3 Machining processes,
ining
ls
Selecting grinding wheels Standard values for selecting grinding wheels (excluding diamond and boron nitride) Cylindrical grinding Material
Abrasive
Fine fir lishing Finishling with >/vheel diarneter over 51DO mm up to 5 00 mm Grain size Hardness Grain size Hardness Grain size Hardness Grain size Hardness Roue|hing
Steel, unhardened
A
54
M-N
80
M-N
60
L-M
180
L-M
Steel, hard., unalloy. and alloy.
A
46
L-M
80
K-L
60
J-K
240-500
H-N
60
M-N
240-500
H-N
Steel, hardened, high alloyed
A, C
80
M-N
80
Carbide, ceramic
C A, C
60
K
80
N-0 K
60
K
240-500
H-N
60
L
80
L
60
L
100
M
C
46
K
60
K
60
K
Cast iron Non-ferr. met., e.g. Al, Cu, CuZn
-
-
Internal cylindrical grinding Material
Abrasive
Steel, unhardened
A
Steel, hard., unalloy. and alloy.
A
Steel, hardened, high alloyed
Grindiiig wheel diameter in mm from 4Oto 80 ove r 80 from 2 Oto 40 Hardness Grain size Hardness Grain size Hardness Grain size Hardness Grain size K L-M 54 L-M 46 80 M 60 up t o 20
80
K-L
120
M-N
80
M-N
80
L
A, C
80
J-K
100
K
80
K
60
J
Carbide, ceramic
C
80
G
120
H
120
H
80
G
Cast iron
A
80
L-M
80
K-L
60
M
46
M
Non-ferr. met., e.g. Al, Cu, CuZn
C
80
l-J
120
K
60
J-K
54
J
I Peripheral face grinding Material
Abrasive
Cup vvheel D< 3010 mm
Abrcisive segnlents
Str aight griniding whe>els D < 3010 mm D > 3010 mm
Grain size Hardness Grain size Hardness Grain size Hardness Grain size Hardness J 24 46 J 46 J 36 J
Steel, unhardened
A
Steel, hard., unalloy. and alloy.
A
46
J
60
J
36
J
A
46
H-J
60
J l-J
46
Steel, hardened, high alloyed
46
l-J
36
l-J
Carbide, ceramic
46
J
46
J
60 46
J J
60
Cast iron
C A
46
J J
46 24
J J
Non-ferr. met., e.g. Al, Cu, CuZn
C
46
J
60
J
60
J
36
J
I Tool grinding Cutting tool material
Abrasive
Dish whee Is CiJP whieels D < 100 D> 100 Grain size Grain size Hardness Grain size Grain size Hardness Grain size Hardness M K M 80 60 46 80 60 Straighlt grinding wheels D < 225 D > 225
Tool steel
A
High-speed steel
A
60
46
K
60
46
K
46
H
Carbide
C
80
54
K
80
54
K
46
H
I Cutting on stationary machines Material
Abrasive
Straight <;ut-off wheels vc upto 80 m/s Straight c:ut-off wh 2010 mm 0<5C )0 mm D> 5C)0 mm Grain size Hardness Grain size Hardness Grain size Hardness Grain size Hardness Q-R
46
Q-R
24
60
Q-R
46
Q-R
24
U U-V
60
Q-R
46
Q-R
30
S
Steel, unhardened
A
80
Cast iron
A
Non-ferr. met., e.g. Al, Cu, CuZn
A
20
Q-R
20 24
U-V S
Grinding and cutting with hand tools Material
Abrasive
Rc>ugh grimJing whe
Steel, unhardened
A
30
T
24
M
24
R
36
Q-R
Steel, corrosion resistant
A
30
16
M
24
R
36
S
Cast iron
A, C
30
R T
20
R
24
R
30
T
Non-ferr. met., e.g. Al, Cu, CuZn
A, C
30
R
20
R
-
-
-
-
Production engineering
6.3 Machining processes,
ining
ls
Grinding with diamond and boron nitride Grain designation ranges Areas of application Grain diamond designation11 boron nitride
cf. DIN ISO 848(1998-03) Rough grind D251-D151 B251-B151
Finishing D126-D76 B126-B76
0.55-0.50
Attainable Ra in pm 1) Mesh size of test sieve in pm
Precision grinding D64, D54, D46 B64, B54, B46
0.45-0.33
Lapping D20, D15, D7 B30, B6
0.18-0.15
0.05-0.025
Standard values for cutting speeds Process
Abrasive
m/s by bond type i) Cuttiii g speed v»in ( A ( dry wet dry dry wet wet 30-50 30-60 30-60 22-50 22-27 20-30 22-50 30-50 30-60 30-60 22-40 20-30 20-30 22-40 27-35 30-60 30-60 24-40 30-50 12-18 8-15 18-27 12-20 15-30 18-40 27-35 30-50 22-30 30-40 27-35 30-50 15-22 15-22 22-50 15-27 15-30 22-35 27-35 30-50 30-60 27-40 30-60 12-18 22-35 22-27 18-30 22-40 2) Approx. four times the value for high speed grinding (HSG) I3
CBN D External cylindrical CBN grinding 2 ' D Internal cylindrical CBN grinding D Tool CBN grinding D Cut-off CBN grinding D 1) Bond types, see page 309 Surface grinding
\/ dry
wet 30-60 25-50 30-60 25-50 30-50 25-50 30-50
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Standard values for depth of cut and feed of diamond grinding wheels Process
Depth per stroke in mm for grain size D181
D126
D64
Face grinding 1 '
0.02-0.04 0.01-0.02 External cyl. grinding 11 0.01-0.03 0.0-0.02 Internal cyl. grinding 0.002-0.007 0.002-0.005 Tool grinding 0.01-0.03 0.005-0.015 Groove grinding 1.0-5.0 1) Approx. three times the value for high speed grinding (HSG)
Crossfeed relative to wheel width w
Feed m/min
0.005-0.01 0.005-0.01 0.001-0.003 0.002-0.005
10-15 0.3- 2.0 0.5-2.0 0.3- 4.0 0.01-2.0
0.5-3.0
-
Standard values for depth of cut and feed of CBN grinding wheels Process
Surface grinding External cyl. grinding Internal cyl. grinding Tool grinding Groove grinding
Depth pe r stroke in mm for < grain size B252/B181
B151/B126
B91/B76
0.03-0.05 0.02-0.04 0.005-0.015 0.002-0.1 1.0-10
0.02-0.04 0.02-0.03 0.005-0.01 0.01-0.005 1.0-5.0
0.01-0.015 0.015-0.02 0.002-0.005 0.005-0.015 0.5-3.0
Crossfeed relative to wheel width w
Feed m/min 20-30 0.5-2.0 0.5-2.0 0.5-4.0 0.01--2.0
High-performance grinding with CBN grinding wheels
V4-V w -
-
cf. VDI 3411 (2000-08)
Grinding processes achieving extremely high material removal rates by utilization of special machines and tools with increased cutting speeds (> 80 m/s) and appropriate machine coolant. Predominantly used for side and external cylindrical grinding of metallic materials. Grinding wheel preparation (conditioning)
4
Processing step Action Goal
Dresising Truing
Sharpening
Cleaning
Removal of grain and bond
Reduction of the bond
No effect on abrasive layer
Establishing concentricity and wheel profile
Creating the grinding wheel surface structure
Remove chips from pores
Maximum allowable peripheral speeds in high-performance grinding Bond type 1 ' Highest allowable peripheral speed in m/s 1)
Bond types, see page 309
B
V
M
G
140
200
180
280
312
Production engineering
6.3 Machining processes,
a
n
a
s
Honing v c cutting speed
A
Cutting speed
contact area of honing stone
v a axial speed v p peripheral speed
Fr
radial infeed force
a
angle of intersection betw. abrading tracks
n
number of honing stones
p
contact pressure
w width of honing stones / length of honing stones
V^a 2 w
^c =
Angle of intersection
Example:
a
v
M
miny
v
Contact pressure
28 m min
miny
a
tan — = 2
Hardened steel, finish honing, vp = ?; v a = ?; v c = ?; a = ? read from table: v p = 25 m/min; va = 12 m/min
a v a 12 m/min _ „ „ tan — = — = = 0.48; a = 51.3° 2 v n 25 m/min
Cutting speed and machining allowances Peripheral speed v p in m/min
Material
Machining allowances in mm for hole diameter in mm
Axial speed v a in m/min
Rough honing Finish honing Rough honing Finish honing
18-40
Steel, unhardened
20-40
9-20
2-15
15-100
100-500
10-20
0.02-0.05
0.03-0.15
0.06-0.3
0.01-0.03
0.02-0.05
0.03-0.1
0.02-0.05
0.03-0.15
0.06-0.3
Steel, hardened
14-40
15-40
5-20
6-20
Alloy steels
23-40
25-40
10-20
11-20
Cast iron
23-40
25-40
10-20
11-20
Aluminum alloys
22-40
24-40
9-20
10-20
Honing with diamond grit vp up to 40 m/min and v a up to 60 m/min; a = 60°- 90c Contact pressure of honing tools Contact pressure p in N/cm 2 Diamond Plastic bonded honing stick honing stone
Honing process
Ceramic honing stone
Boron nitride honing stick
Rough honing
50-250
200-400
300-700
200-400
Finish honing
20-100
40-250
100-300
100-200
Selection of corundum, silicon carbide, CBN and diamond honing stones Material Steel
Tensile strength N/mm 2
Process
< 500 rough honing (unhardened) intermed. honing finish honing
Honing stone made of Roughness depth corundum and silicon carbide 2 ' Rz HardHoning Grain Bond Strucpm abrasive size ness ture 8-12 A 700 R 1 2-5 400 R B 5 1200 M 0.5-1.5 2
rough honing intermed. honing finish honing
5-10 2-3 0.5-2
A
Cast iron
rough honing finish honing plateau honing 1 '
5-8 2-3 3-6
C
Nonferrous metals
rough honing intermed. honing finish honing
6-10 2-3 0.5-1
A A C
500-700 (hardened)
1)
80 400 700
R O N
B
80 120 900
M K H
V
80 400 1000
0 O N
V
CBN or diamond Grain size D126 D54 D15
3 5 3 3 7 8
D91 D46 D25
3 1 5
D64 D35 D15
In plateau honing the peaks of the material surface are removed.
B76 B54 B30
2)
see page 309
Selection of honing stone made of diamond and cubic boron nitride (CBN) Abrasive
Natural diamond
Synthetic diamond
CBN
Material
Steel, carbide
Cast iron, nitrided steel, non-ferrous metals, glass, ceramic
Hardened steel
Production engineering: 6.
ei
o
Productive time and standard values for material removal Electric discharge machining (wire EDM) productive time in min feed rate in mm/min travel, cutting length in mm cutting height in mm geometric tolerance in pm
wire electrode
Productive time
L p
Vf
Example: Material: Steel, H= 30 mm; L = 320 mm; T= 30 (xm; v f = ?; f p = ? Vf = 1.8 mm/min (from table) p
_ L _ 320 mm = 178 min vf 1.8 mm/min
Feed rate Vf (standard values)1* Cutting height H in mm 10 20 30 50 1>
Steel eroding 60
40
30
9.0
8.5 5.5
4.0 2.5
4.0
1.8 1.2
5.1 3.7 2.5
2.5
Feed rate v f in mm/min Copper eroding Desired geometric tolerance T in pm 10 40 10 20 20 2.1 3.9 7.5 3.5 2.0 4.7 2.4 2.5 1.5 1.5 4.0 1.8 1.1 1.1 1.9 1.2 0.8 2.6 0.7 1.4
Carbide eroding 80 4.5
20 0.7
3.1
0.3 0.2
0.6 0.3 0.2
0.2
0.2
2.3 1.4
10
These standard values are average values from the main cut and all subsequent cuts required to reach geometric tolerance. With unfavorable flushing conditions the achievable feed rate drops considerably.
Characteristics and application of common wire electrodes Wire El. conductivity in m/(Q • mm 2 ) material CuZn alloy 13.5 Molybdenum 18.5 Tungsten 18.2
Tensile strength in N/mm 2 400-900 1900 2500
Typical wire diameter in mm 0.2-0.33 0.025-0.125 0.025-0.125
Application Universal Cuts with very tight geometric tolerance Narrow slots, small corner radii
Electric discharge machining (sink EDM) electrode
productive time in min removal area of electrode in m m 2 V removal volume in m m 3 3 Vw removal rate in mm /min
Productive time v_ w
Example: Roughing of steel; graphite electrode, S = 150 mm 2 ; V= 3060 m m 3 ; V w = ?; f p = ? V w = 31 mm 3 /min (from table) 3060 mm 3 = 99 min 31 mm 3 /min Removal rate V w (standard values)11 Removal rate l / w in mm 3 /min Workpiece material
Steel Carbide 1)
Electrode
Graphite Copper Copper
10 to 50 7.0 13.3 6.0
Rough ing rem()val area S in mnn 2 50 100 200 300 to to to to 100 200 400 300 18 62 81 31 22 28 51 85 15 18 28 30
400 to 600 105 105 33
Finishin g des ired rouejhness d epth Rz in i pm 4 2 3 8 6 to to to to to 3 4 6 10 8 2 5 0.1 0.5 3.8 5 1.9 0.1 2.2 0.5 5.2
Actual values will vary widely due to the effects of different processing methods. Refer to page 314.
314
Production engineering: 6.
ei
o
Process parameters in EDM erosion Vw 1/
removal rate in mm 3 /min removal volume in m m 3
t
removal time in min absolute tool wear in mm3
Ve
relative tool wear in %
Removal rate
Relative tool wear
Wei
Parameter
Electrode Material
Explanations, characteristics and applications Electrolytic copper
Universal application; low wear behavior; high removal rate; for finish and rough machining; difficult to manufacture electrode by machining; high thermal expansion; no cracked edges; tendency to warp
Graphite in various grain
Universal application; very low wear; greater current density than Cu; low electrode weight; easy to manufacture electrode by machining; non-warping; low thermal expansion; more detailed electrodes are made by selecting a finer graphite grain; unsuitable for carbide machining
sizes
Tungsten-copper
Detailed electrodes; very low wear; very high material removal rate with relatively low discharge currents even with large current densities; only manufactured in limited sizes, high electrode weight
Copper-graphite
Special applications involving small electrode dimensions with simultaneous high electrode strength; wear and material removal rate play a subordinate role in these special applications
Synthetic oils, filtered and Dielectric cooled; according t o m a c h i n e fluid manufacturer
Flushing
Depending on requirements and available options, different flushing methods can Replacement of be used to maintain stable erosion performance: dielectric fluid at the erosion site • flooding (most commonly used method, simultaneous heat rejection) • pressure flushing through hollow electrodes or next to electrode Remove eroded • vacuum flushing through hollow electrode or next to electrode particles from • interval flushing caused by retracting electrode gap • movement flushing by relative movement between workpiece and electrode, without interrupting erosion cycle positive
Electrode is positively polarized; for low electrode burn rate during roughing with long pulse duration and low frequency
negative
Electrode is negatively polarized; for erosion with short pulse duration and high frequency
face
Kept constant during feed (controlled by discharge voltage). Control sensitivity set too high: Electrode continually pulses on and off, controlled discharge impossible. Control sensitivity set too low: Abnormal discharges increase or gap remains too large for discharge.
side
Determined primarily by duration and size of discharge pulse, depends on material matching and no-load voltage
low
Low removal performance, low tool wear on copper electrodes, high wear on graphite electrodes
high
High removal performance, high tool wear on copper electrodes, low wear on graphite electrodes
s h o r t
Electrode wear with positive polarity is larger, lower removal rate
l o n g
Electrode wear with positive polarity Is smaller, higher removal rate
Polarity
Gap
Discharge current
Pulse duration
Requirements for dielectric fluids: • low and constant conductivity for stable sparking • low viscosity for filtrability and penetrating ability in narrow gaps • low evaporation to reduce hazardous vapors • high flash point to avoid fire hazard • high heat conductance value for good cooling • extremely low health hazard for operators
Production engineering: 6.
paation
315
ctin
Cutting force, Operating conditions for presses Cutting force, cutting work
m
mmax
force-stroke curve
\
/y at C— o M — cn c
/
\k
F - S • Tsb max
Max. shear strength r
sB max
0.8 • /?,m max
Example: —f-
b ^CO ^) II
I
fgg m a x IV s
Cutting force
cutting force calculated cutting force shear area maximum tensile strength mavimnm maximumchoar shearctronnth strength cutting work sheet metal thickness
\
S = 236 m m 2 ; s = 2.5 mm; R m
cvj|r II n
= 510 N/mm 2
Cutting work
Wanted: r s B m a x ; F ; W
E
I'
max
I"
Solution: r s B
working stroke h
max
= 0.8 • R m
max
= 0.8 • 510 N/mm 2 = 408 N/mm 2 F = S-tSB m a x = 236 m m 2 • 408 N/mm 2 = 96 288 N =96.288 kN
sheet metal thickness s
W = - y • F • s = - J - 96.288 kN • 2.5 mm * 160 kN • mm = 160 N - m
Operating conditions for eccentric and crank presses
crank
connecting
Press drives are usually designed such that the nominal pressing force is applied at crank angle a = 30°. Machines operate without interruption in continuous mode or can be stopped after each cycle in single-stroke mode. For presses with adjustable strokes, the allowable pressing force is less than the nominal pressing force.
Work capacity in continuous mode
0
15
Work capacity in single-stroke mode F
cutting force, shaping force
Fn
nominal pressing force
ws = 2 • Wc
Fallow allow, pressing force for adjustable stroke S stroke, maximum stroke for adjustable stroke
ram metal strip
Sa
adjusted stroke
h
working distance (= sheet metal thickness s)
a
crank angle
W
cutting work, shaping work
Wc
work capacity in continuous mode
W<
work capacity in single-stroke mode
Operating conditions Fixed stroke
Example: Eccentric press with fixed stroke F n = 250 kN; S = 30 mm; F= 207 kN; s = 4 mm Find: W; Wc. Can the press be put into continuous mode? 2
2
Solution: W = - • F • s = - • 207 kN • 4 mm = 552 kN • mm = 552 N • m
F * Fn W < Wc or W < Adjustable stroke F
£ Fgiiow FnS
^allow
,at F15 250 kN n S 15• 30 mm \Nn = = = 500 kN • mm = 500 N • m If F< F n , but W> Wc, the press cannot be used in continuous mode for this workpiece.
~
W < W c or W < Ws
316
Production engineering: 6.
e i o n i n g
Tool and workpiece dimensions Punch and cutting die dimensions
cf. VDI 3368 (1982-05)
punch dimension cutting die dimension
Piercing
Blanking
Governing specified size is:
dimension of punch d
dimension of cutting die D
Dimension of opposite tool
cutting die D=d+2• u
punch d=D-2•u
Process Shape of workpiece
die clearance sheet metal thickness clearance angle cutting die
Die clearance u as a function of material and sheet metal thickness sheet metal thickness s mm 0.4-0.6 0.7-0.8 0.9-1 1.5-2 2.5-3 3.5-4
Cutting die opening with clearance angle a shear strength r s B in N/mm 2 up to 250 | 251-400 | 401-600 | over 600 die clearance u in mm 0.01 0.02 0.015 0.025 0.015 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.05 0.03 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.04 0.07 0.10 0.12 0.12 0.06 0.09 0.16
Cutting die opening without clearance angle a shear strength r s e in N/mm 2 up to 250 | 251-400 | 401-600 | over 600 die clearance u in mm 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.04 0.025 0.03 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.07 0.09 0.11 0.08 0.11 0.14 0.17 0.11 0.15 0.19 0.23
Web width, edge width, trim stop waste for metallic materials a edge width e web width l a edge length l e web length B strip width /' trim stop waste (french stop waste)
Polygonal workpieces: The web or edge length, whichever is larger, is used to determine web and edge widths. Round workpieces: For all diameters values given for / e = l a = 10 mm of polygonal workpieces apply to web and edge widths.
Polygonal workpieces Strip width B mm
up to 100 mm
Web length le Edge length / a mm
Web width e Edge width a
0.1
0.3
0.5
0.75
1.0
1.25
1.5
1.75
2.0
2.5
3.0
up to 10
e a
0.8 1.0
0.8 0.9
0.8 0.9
0.9
1.0
1.2
1.3
1.5
1.6
1.9
2.1
11-50
e a
1.6 1.9
1.2 1.5
0.9 1.0
1.0
1.1
1.4
1.4
1.6
1.7
2.0
2.3
51-100
e a
1.8 2.2
1.4 1.7
1.0 1.2
1.2
1.3
1.6
1.6
1.8
1.9
2.2
2.5
over 100
e a
2.0 2.4
1.6 1.9
1.2 1.5
1.4
1.5
1.8
1.8
2.0
2.1
2.4
2.7
1.8
2.2
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.5
Sheeit metal thickn(5ss s in mm
1.5
trim stop waste /'
over 100 mm to 200 mm
up to 10
e a
0.9 1.2
1.0 1.1
1.0 1.1
1.0
1.1
1.3
1.4
1.6
1.7
2.0
2.3
11-50
e a
1.8 2.2
1.4 1.7
1.0 1.2
1.2
1.3
1.6
1.6
1.8
1.9
2.2
2.5
51-100
e a
2.0 2.4
1.6 1.9
1.2 1.5
1.4
1.5
1.8
1.8
2.0
2.1
2.4
2.7
101-200
e a
2.2 2.7
1.8 2.2
1.4 1.7
1.6
1.7
2.0
2.0
2.2
2.3
2.6
2.9
1.8
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
5.0
trim stop waste i
1.5
Production engineering: 6.
paation
317
ctin
Location of punch holder shank, Utilization of strip stock Location of punch holder shank for punch geometry with known center of gravity Punch layout prepunching
Distance of the center of forces
Workpiece
blanking out
x=
m
C]
d i + C2 ' 3 2 C£ '
+ ...
C i + Co + Co + . . .
Example:
-
Based on the figure at left, calculate the distance x of center of forces S. Solution:
10
The outer perimeter of the cutting punch is chosen as reference edge. Blanking punch: C| = 4 • 20 mm = 80 mm; a-i = 10 mm Piercing punch: C2 = n • 10 mm = 31.4 mm; a 2 = 31 mm
20 selected reference edge Ci, C2, C3 ... a-|, a2, a 3 ... x
circumferences of individual punches distances from punch centers of gravity to selected reference edge distance of center of forces S from chosen reference edge
x=
C-] • 3-\ + C2 ' 5 2 Ci + C 2
x=
80 mm • 10 mm + 31.4 mm • 31 mm 16 mm 80 mm + 31.4 mm
Location of punch holder shank for punch geometry with unknown center of gravity Center of forces corresponds to centroid of the line 1) of all cutting edges. Punch layout Workpiece
Distance of the center of forces X =
I, • a^+l2 • a2+l3
• a3 +..
x = —Q Z'n
Example:
Calculate the location of the punch holder shank on the progressive die for the workpiece shown in the figure at the left. Solution: n / n in mm
selected refer, edge /v h> h t 0 cutting edge lengths a-i, a 2 , a 3 to a n distance from line centroids to selected reference edges x distance from center of forces to selected reference edge n 1)
1
15
5
2
9.8 21
5
23.6 20 2 • 20 20
2
118.6
3 4
I / n • a, n x = —I'n
number of individual cutting edge For line centroids, see page 32
/ n • a n in m m 2
a n in mm
75 231.28 420 1240 820
31 41
2786.28
-
2786.28 mm 118.6 mm
2
_ ^ 23.5 mm
Utilization of strip stock for single row stamping
strip area V • W
workpiece area A -l-w I
I w
workpiece length workpiece width
W a
strip width edge width
e
web width
V A R
strip feed area of workpiece (including holes) number of rows
V
degree of utilization
Strip width W=w+2•a Strip feed
V=l+e Utilization factor
318
Production engineering: 6.
o i n g
Bending radius, Bend allowances, Calculation of blank size Smallest allowable bending radius for bent parts of non-ferrous metals Material
Material condition
AIMg3-01 AIMg3-H14 AIMg3-H111
spheroidized cold work hardened cold work hardened and annealed AIMg4.5Mn-H112 spheroidized straightened AIMg4.5Mn-H111 cold work hardened and annealed AIMgSi1-T6 solution annealed and artificially aged CuZn37-R600 hard 1) For bending angle a = 90°, regardless of
>
s
L
cf. DIN 5520 (2002-07)
Thickness s in mm 0.8 | 1 1.5 | 2 | 3 | 4 Smallest allowable bending radius r 1 ) 0.6 1 2 4 3 6 4 14 1.6 2.5 6 10 1
1.5
3
4.5
6
8
10
1
1.5
2.5
4
6
8
10
14
1.6
2.5
4
6
10
16
20
25
4
5
8
12
16
23
28
36
4 2.5 5 rolling direction
8
10
12
18
24
Smallest allowable bending radius for cold bending steel
-
cf. DIN 6935 (1975-10)
Minlimum bendi ng rad ius 1 ) r for s heet mletal th icknes:s s in in m
Minimum tensile strength Rm in N/MM 2 over-to
1)
5 6 in mm 8 10 18
5
6
7
8
6
8
10
8
10
12
10
12
1
1.5
2.5
3
4
up to 390
1
1.6
2.5
3
5
390-490
1.2
2
3
4
5
490-640
1.6
2.5
4
5
6
8
10
12
14
16
12
16
20
25
16
20
25
28
16
20
25
32
36
18
20
28
36
40
32
40
45
45
50
Values apply to bending angle a < 120° and bending transverse to rolling direction. Value of the next larger sheet metal thickness should be selected for bending longitudinal to rolling direction and bending angle a > 120°.
Bend allowances v for bending angle a = 90c Bending
cf. Supplement 2 to DIN 6935 (withdrawn)
Bend allowance v per bend in mm for sheet metal thickness s in mm
in mm
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
1 1.6 2.5 4
1.0 1.3 1.6
1.3 1.6 2.0 2.5
1.7 1.8 2.2 2.8
1.9 2.1 2.4 3.0
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
2.9 3.2 3.7
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
4.0 4.5
4.8 5.2
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
6.0
6.9
-
-
-
-
-
-
3.4
3.8 5.5 8.1 9.8
4.5 6.1 8.7 10.4
5.2 6.7 9.3 11.0
5.9 7.4 9.9 11.6
6.7 8.1 10.5 12.2
7.5 8.9 11.2 12.8
8.3 9.6 11.9 13.4
9.0 10.4 12.6 14.1
9.9 11.2 13.3 14.9
_
_
_
12.7 14.8 16.3
17.8 19.3
21.0 22.3
11.9 15.0 18.4 22.7
12.6 15.6 19.0 23.3
13.2 16.2 19.6 23.9
13.8 16.8 20.2 24.5
14.4 17.4 20.8 25.1
15.0 18.0 21.4 25.7
15.6 18.6 22.0 26.3
16.2 19.2 22.6 26.9
16.8 19.8 23.2 27.5
18.2 21.0 24.5 28.8
21.1 23.8 26.9 31.2
24.1 26.7 29.7 33.6
-
6 10 16 20
_
_
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
25 32 40 50
_
_
_
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Calculation of blank size for 90° bent parts L developed length 1 ' a, b, c length of leg s thickness r bending radius n number of bends v bend allowance \ e
-Q
/
"
H
5
6
8
-
10
-
cf. DIN 6935 (1975-10) Developed length2'
L = a+ b+ 2)
c+...-n-v
Calculated developed length should be rounded off to a whole mm value.
Example (see illus.): a= 25 mm; b = 20 mm; c = 15 mm; n = 2; f = 2 mm; r = 4 mm; material S235JR; v = ?; L = ? v= 4.5 mm (from table above) L = a + b+ c- n • v= (25 + 20 + 15 - 2 • 4.5) mm = 51 mm
a L 11
If the ratio r/s > 5, the formula for developed length (page 24) can be used.
Production engineering: 6.
319
ormin
Calculation of blank size, Springback in bending Calculation of blank size for parts with any selected bending angle L a, b v k
developed length length of leg bend allowance correction factor
cf. DIN 6935(1975-10) Developed length 1 '
s sheet met. thickness r bending radius (3 aperture angle
L = a +
b-v
Bend allowance for p - 0° to 90°
Bend allowance for p over 90° to 165c o
,
v
v = 2 • (r + s) • tan
(180°-/^
180°-j3
—- n
I
•
180° y
f r + s- • u) k K 2 J
Bending allowance for p over 165° to 180° v~0 (negligible) Correction factor
Example: Bent part with p = 60°, a = 16 mm, b = 21 mm, r=6 mm, s = 5 mm; k = ?; v = ?; L = ?;
Correction factor
6 mm
= 1.2; k = 0.7 (from diagram); s 5 mm k - 0.689 (calculated by formula) v =2 • (r + s)-n
[ 1)
J V 2
180°
1 «n° —fio° \
(
R
-^6 + - • 0.7 | mm = 5.77 mm i8qo L =a + b-v = 16 mm+ 21 mm-5.77 m m « 32 mm For r/s > 5 the developed length (page 24) is sufficiently accurate for calculations.
Springback in bending Radius on tool
angle of bend before springback (on tool) a2 r-\ r2 /tr s
Material of bent part
angle of bend after springback (on workpiece) radius on tool bending radius on workpiece springback factor sheet metal thickness
Springback factor
r, = fcR-(r2 + 0 . 5 - s ) - 0 . 5 - s
Angle of bend before springback
for the ratio r2/s
1
1.6
2.5
4
6.3
10
16
25
40
63
100
DC04 DC01 X12CrNi18-8
0.99 0.99 0.99
0.99 0.99 0.98
0.99 0.99 0.97
0.98 0.97 0.95
0.97 0.96 0.93
0.97 0.96 0.89
0.96 0.93 0.84
0.94 0.90 0.76
0.91 0.85 0.63
0.87 0.77
0.83 0.66
E-Cu-R20 CuZn33-R29 CuNi18Zn20
0.98 0.97
0.97 0.97
0.97 0.96
0.96 0.95 0.97
0.95 0.94 0.96
0.93 0.93 0.95
0.90 0.89 0.92
0.85 0.86 0.87
0.79 0.83 0.82
0.72 0.77 0.72
0.6 0.73
EN AW-A199.0 EN AW-AICuMg1 EN AW-AISiMgMn
0.99 0.92 0.98
0.99 0.84 0.96
0.98 0.77 0.95
0.98 0.67 0.93
0.97 0.54 0.90
0.97
0.96
0.95
0.93
-
-
0.99 0.90 0.98
-
0.99 0.87 0.97
-
0.86
-
0.82
-
-
0.76
-
-
-
0.72
320
Production engineering: 6.
o i n g
Deep drawing Calculation of blank diameter Drawn part
Blank diameter D
Drawn part
without flange d2
without flange d2
£ d,
D = Jd? +4 • d-i • h
D = yjd2 +4
D = yl2 • d,2+4
• d-i • h
without flange d3 J
i.
•A
d
i
CM . ! -c: i
*
2
D = yjd2
0 = ^2-d?+4-d^
•h
with flange d2
with flange d2 2
Blank diameter D
A
+4 • (d: •fy +d2 • h2
• d^ • h +
(d22-d?)
without flange d2 D = yjdi2+4
•
• d-i • h2
\r
with flange d3
with flange d2
D = yjd32+ 4 • (d, • h
D = yjd,2 +4 • h, 2 +4 • dy • h2
without flange d 4
without flange d2
0 =^ + 4
D = y]2 • d? =1.414 • d
d2 •/
+(d22-df)
JUf
II
•—1— • s
with flange d2
with flange dA 2
X
2
D = y]d-\ + 4 • d 2 • l +
2
D = yjd-f +d22
(dA -d3 )
Example: Cylindrical drawn part with flange d2 (see figure, upper left) with d-\ = 50 mm, h = 30 mm; D = ? D = > j d f + 4 • d: • h = V502 mm 2 +4 • 50 mm • 30 mm = 92.2 mm
Drawing gap and radii on draw ring and draw punch
blank holder blank
w
drawing gap
s
sheet metal thickness
k
material factor
rr
radius on draw ring
rst
radius of draw punch
D
blank diameter
d
punch diameter
dr
draw ring diameter
Drawing gap in mm w = s + k • V10 • s
Radius of draw ring in mm
For each redraw the radius of the draw ring should be reduced by 20 to 40%.
Drawing gap dr-d
Radius of draw punch in mm rst = (4 to 5) • s
Example: Steel sheet; D = 51 mm; d = 25 mm; s = 2 mm; w = ?; r r = ?; r s t = ? Material factor k
k
= 0.07 (from table)
Steel
0.07
Aluminum
0.02
rr
0.04
r s t = 4.5 • s = 4.5 • 2 mm = 9 mm
Other non-ferrous metals
w = s + k • / 1 0 - s = 2 + 0.07 • V10 • 2 = 2.3 mm = 0.035 • [50 + (D - d)] • / s = 0.035 • [50 + (51 - 25)] • / 2 = 3.8 mm
Production engineering: 6.
321
ormin
Deep drawing Drawing steps and drawing ratios
draw punch blank holder
D d d-\ d2 dn 02 /? tot s
1st draw
\ draw ring
blank diameter inside diameter of finished drawn part punch diameter for 1st draw punch diameter for 2nd draw punch diameter for nth draw drawing ratio for 1st draw drawing ratio for 2nd draw total drawing ratio sheet metal thickness
Drawing ratio 1st draw
2nd draw
Example: Cup without flange made of DC04 (St 14) with d = 50 mm; /7 = 60 mm; D = ?;fa = ?; /?2 = ?; di = ?; d 2 = ?
d2
D = y/d2 +4 • d • h blank holder
= V(50 mm) 2 + 4 • 50 mm • 60 mm «120 mm /S, =2.0; $2 = 1.3 (according to table below) , D 120 mm _ d* = — = = 60 mm 0^ 2.0 60 mm 46 mm 02 1-3 Two draws sufficient since
Redraw
Material
Max. d rawing rati'os1>
R 2> n m
02
N/mm 2
Material
Max. d rawing rati os1>
Total drawing ratio
d2 n m
h
02
N/mm 2
Material
R 2> n m
Max. d rawing rati OS1' P,
N/mm 2
DC01 (St12)
1.8
1.2
410
CuZn30-R270
2.1
1.3
270
AI99.5 H111
2.1
02 1.6
DC03 (St13)
1.9
1.3
370
CuZn37-R300
2.1
1.4
300
AIMgl H111
1.9
1.3
145
DC04 (St14)
2.0
1.3
350
CuZn37-R410
1.9
1.2
410
AICu4Mg1 T4
2.0
1.5
425
X10CrNi18-8
1.8
1.2
750
CuSn6-R350
1.5
1.2
350
AISilMgMn T6
2.1
1.4
310
1)
95
Values apply up to d-i : s = 300; they were determined for d-\ = 100 mm and s = 1 mm. Values change negligibly 2) for other sheet metal thicknesses and punch diameters. maximum tensile strength
Tearing force, deep drawing force, blank holding force Ft
tearing force
F
dd di s
deep drawing force
Am
tensile strength drawing ratio
0 0max
Fu D Blank holding pressure p in N/mm 2 Steel
2.5
Cu alloys
2.0-2.4
Al alloys
1.2-1.5
dh P rr w
Tearing force
punch diameter sheet metal thickness
max. possible drawing ratio blank holding force
Deep drawing force
Fdd = Ji-(d1 + s ) . s - / 7 m - 1 . 2 .
P-1
An ax
Blank holding force
blank diameter support diameter of blank holding force blank holding pressure radius on draw ring drawing gap
Support diameter of blank holding force
d h = di + 2 • (r r + w)
Example: D = 210 mm; d-, = 140 mm; s = 1 mm; Rm = 380 N/mm 2 ; ^ = 1.5; ftmax = 1 -9'' ^dd = ? jS-1 = ii • (140 mm + 1 mm) • 1 mm • 380N • 1.2 1.5-1 = 112218 N Fdd = K • (d-] +s) • s • /? m • 1.2 • 1.9-1 mm^ ^max-1
—
^
322
Production engineering: 6.7 Joining,
eding
Welding processes, Positions, General tolerances Welding, cutting, soldering and related processes n
D
Method, process
1 Arc welding 101 111
metal arc welding shielded metal arc welding
N1>
Method, process
24 25
flash butt welding upset welding
3
11
metal arc welding without shielding gas
311
12 13
submerged arc welding gas shielded metal arc welding
312
131 135
gas metal arc welding metal active gas welding (MAG)
136
cf. DIN EN ISO 4063 (2000-04) N1>
7
Method, process Other welding methods
73 74
electrogas welding induction welding
oxyacetylene welding
75 753
light beam welding infrared welding
gas welding with oxygen/ propane flame
78 788
stud welding friction stud welding
Gas welding
4
Pressure welding
8
flux cored arc welding with active gas shield
41 42
ultrasonic welding friction welding
81 82
oxygen cutting arc cutting
137
flux cored arc welding with inert gas shield
45 47
diffusion welding pressure gas welding
83 84
plasma cutting laser beam cutting
14 141
tungsten gas shield, arc welding gas tungsten arc welding
9
Brazing, soldering
15 151
plasma arc welding plasma TIG welding
51 52
2
Resistance welding
21 22 225 23
5
Beam welding
Cutting
electron beam welding laser beam welding
91 912
brazing torch brazing
512
electron beam welding, nonvacuum
914 924
metal bath brazing vacuum brazing
resistance spot welding seam welding
521
solid-state laser beam in atmosphere
94 944
soldering metal bath soldering
foil butt seam welding projection welding
522
gas laser beam welding
946 952
induction soldering iron soldering
Process ISO 4063-111: Specified welding process -*• manual arc welding (111) 1)
N Reference number for designating methods and processes in drawings, operating procedures and data processing
Welding positions
cf. DIN EN ISO 6947 (1997-05)
PD ^
PEK
PA-""
Name
Main position, description
PA
flat welding position
weld axis vertical, horizontal work, final pass at top
PB
horizontal position
horizontal work, final pass at top
PC
transverse position
PD
horizontal overhead position
weld axis horizontal, horizontal work direction horizontal work direction, overhead, final pass at bottom
PE
overhead position
horizontal work direction, weld axis vertical, final pass at bottom
PF
vertical up position
upward work direction
PG
vertic. down position
downward work direction
Code
PEx
fit E r
^ PF -PG
General tolerances for weldments
cf. DIN EN ISO 13920 (1996-11) Allowable deviations for length dimensions A/ in mm nominal size range / 1 >
Degree of accuracy
1)
/ shorter leg
for angle dimensions A a in ° and ' nominal size range / 1 )
to 30
over 30 to 120
over 120 to 400
over 400 to 1000
over 1000 to 2000
over 2000 to 4000
to 400
over 400 to 1000
over 1000
±1
±1
±1
±2
±3
±1
±2
±2
±3
±4
± 4
±20'
±15'
±10'
± 6
±45'
±30'
±20'
±1
±3
±4
±6
±11
±1°
±45'
±30'
Production engineering: 6.
oin
cf. DIN EN ISO 9692-1 (2004-05), replaces DIN EN 29692
Weld preparation Name, Workweld symbol piece thickness D 1 ' weld t Edge form pages 93-95 mm Flare-V groove weld
butt weld
Weld preparation Dimension gap b mm
web c mm
angle a in °
Preferred welding method 2 '
0-2
3, 111, 141, 512
0-4
3, 111, 141
K
t/2
111, 141
0-8
< t/2 V groove weld
V Y-butt weld
Y
3-10
<4
3-40
<3
13
<2
5-40
1-4
> 10
1-3
<2 2-4
13
111,
60c
111, 141
13, 141
2-4
111, 141
<2 40°-60c
13
3-10
2-4
1-2
35°-60c
111,
I /
3-30
1-4
<2
35°-60c
111,
1-4
<2
35°-60c
double bevel weld
B
With root and backing run
13
bevel groove weld
> 10
Little filler material, no weld preparation
111, 141
60c
60c 1-3
Thin sheet welding, usually without filler material
With backing run 40°-60c
40°-60c
> 10
Remarks
40°-60c 60c
double V-weld
X
323
ein
Symmetrical edge form, h=t/2
13, 141
13, 141
111, 13, 141
With backing run
Symmetrical edge form, h = t/2 or t/3
fi
| v
>2
<2
70°-100c
3, 111, 13, 141
-2
70°-110°
3, 111, 13, 141
T-joint
Fillet weld
>3
1 it
- i t :Qia J
1) 2
j!
D Design: s single-V weld; d double-Vweld
' For welding methods, see page 322
Double fillet weld, corner joint
324
Production engineering: 6.7 Joining,
eding
Compressed gas cylinders. Gas welding rods Compressed gas cylinders^
cf. DIN EN 1089-3 (2004-06) 1
Color coding ' as per DIN EN 1089-3 previbody shoulder ous
Filling Filling pressure p F quantity bar 6 m3 150 Oxygen blue white R3/4 blue 10 m 3 200 chestnut- chestnut8 kg 19 Acetylene yellow Quick connect brown brown 10 kg 19 10 2 m3 200 Hydrogen red red red W21.80x1/14 50 10 m 3 200 dark2 m3 10 200 Argon W21.80x1/14 gray gray 10 m 3 green 50 200 2 m3 200 10 Helium brown W21.80x1/14 gray gray 10 m3 200 50 4 m3 Argon-carbon fluorescent 200 20 W21.80x1/14 gray gray 10 m 3 dioxide mixture green 200 50 7.5 kg 10 58 Carbon dioxide gray W21.80x1/14 gray gray 58 20 kg 50 6 m3 dark40 150 Nitrogen black W24.32x1/14 gray 10 m 3 green 50 200 1) Changeover to the new color coding should be completed by July 1, 2006. During the transition period the hazardous substance label (page 331) is the only legally valid designation. *) According to European Standards Type of gas
shoulder N
body
Connection threads
Gas welding rods for steel joint welding
Volume 1/ / 40 50 40 50
cf. DIN EN 12536(2000-08), replaces DIN 8554-1
Classification, weld metal analysis, weld behavior Designation new
prev.
Ol O
Weld metal analysis in % (standard values) C
Si
Mn
GI
<0.1
<0.20
<0.65
G II
<0.2
<0.25
<1.20
<0.15
<0.25
<1.25
O
Mo
Ni
Weld behavior Cr
Flow behavior
Spatter
Tendency for pores
highly fluid
high
yes
less highly fluid
low
yes
semifluid
none
no
<0.80
OIV
G IV
<0.15
<0.25
<1.20
<0.65
<1.20
semifluid
none
no
OV
GV
<0.10
<0.25
<1.20
<0.65
<1.20
semifluid
none
no
Areas of application, mechanical properties Welding rod, code
1>
Yield strength Re N/mm 2
Tensile strength Am N/mm 2
Elongation at fracture A %
NI 2 '
Areas of application
Steel type
Sheet, tube
S235, S275
0 I
> 260
360-410
> 20
>30
S235, S275, P235GH, P265GH
0 II
>300
390-440
>20
>47
S235, S275 P235GH, P265GH
O
>310
400-460
>22
>47
Boilers, pipes, temperature resistant up to 530 °C
S235, S355, S275, P235, P235GH, P265GH, P295GH, 16Mo3
0 IV
>260
440-490
>22
>47
Boilers, pipes, temperature resistant up to 570 °C
13CrMo4-5, 16CrMo3
OV
>315
490-590
> 18
>47
Vessels, pipes
T
U
Rod EN 12536 - O IV: Gas welding rod of Class IV 1)
T Treatment condition of the weld: U untreated (weld condition); T tempered
2)
NI notch impact energy at +20°C, determined using an ISO-V test specimen
J
Production engineering: 6.
oin
325
ein
Shielding gases, Wire electrodes* Shielding gases for arc welding of steel Codes
Composition 1 '
Gas type, effect
Welding methods
Materials; Applications
reduction gases
TIG, plasmawelding
high-alloy steels, Ni, Ni alloys
inert gases (neutral behavior)
MIG, TIG, plasmawelding
Al, Al alloys, Cu, Cu alloys
gas mixtures, weak oxidizing
MAG welding
alloyed Cr-Ni steels; mainly stainless and acid-resistant steels
mixed gases, more strongly oxidizing
MAG welding
low-alloyed and medium-alloyed steels
mixed gases, medium oxidizing
MAG welding
unalloyed and low alloyed steels; heavy plate
strongly oxidizing gases
MAG welding
unalloyed steels
R1
H 2 < 15%, balance Ar or He
R2
(15-35)% H 2 , balance Ar or He
11
100% Ar
12
100% He
13
cf. DIN EN 439 (1995-05)
He < 95%, balance Ar
M11
C0 2 < 5%, H 2 < 5%, balance Ar or He
M12
(3-10)% C0 2 , balance Ar or He
M13
0 2 < 3%, balance Ar
M21
(5-25)% C0 2 , balance Ar or He
M22
(3-10)% C0 2 , balance Ar or He
M23
C0 2 < 5%, (3-10)% 0 2 , balance Ar or He
M31
(25-50)% C0 2 , balance Ar or He
M32
(10-15)% 0 2 , balance Ar or He
M33
(5-50)% C0 2 , (8-15)% 0 2 , balance Ar or He
C1
100% C0 2
C2
0 2 < 30%, balance C0 2
Shielding gas EN 439-13: Inert gas with up to 95% Helium, balance Argon 1>
Ar argon
He helium
0 2 oxygen
C 0 2 carbon dioxide
H 2 hydrogen
Wire electrodes and deposits for gas-shielded metal arc welding of non-alloy and fine grain structural steels
cf. DIN EN 440 (1994-11)
Designation example (weld metal): EN 440 -
G
46
3
M
Standard number
G3Si1 Designation for shielding gases
2 Designation for gas shielded metal arc welding
Code digit for the mechanical properties of the weld metal (page 327)
Code digit for notch impact energy of the weld metal (page 327)
Code letter
Shielding gases DIN 439
M
M21, M22, M23, M24
C
C1
Chemical composition of the wire electrodes (examples) Designation
Main alloying elements
GO
All compositions agreed upon
G3Si1
0.7-1.0% Si, 1.3-1.6% Mn
Designation G2T1 G2Ni2
Main alloying elements 0.5-0.8% Si, 0.9-1.4% Mn, 0.05-0.25% Ti 0.4-0.8% Si, 0.8-1.4% Mn, 2.1-2.7% Ni
EN 440 - G 46 4 M G3Si1: Properties of weld metal: Minimum yield strength R e = 460 N/mm 2 , notch impact energy at-40°C = 47 J; mixed gas M21-M24, electrode with 0.7-1.0% Si, 1.3-1.6% Mn Wire electrodes (selection) Designation as per DIN EN 440
Welding methods
Shielding gases
Usable on steels, examples
Applications, properties, examples
G 46 4 M G3Si1
MAG
M21-M24, C1
joint and build-up welding
G 50 4 M G4Si1
MAG
M21-M24, C1
S185-S355, E295, E335, P235-P355, GP240R, L210-L360
G 46 M G2Ni2
MAG
M21
12Ni 14, 13MnNi6-3, S(P)275-S(P)420
fine grain structural steels and steels with low-temp, toughness
*) According to European Standards
like G3Si1, but higher mechanical strength properties
326
Production engineering: 6.7 Joining,
eding
Standard values for gas shielded metal arc welding. Filler metals for aluminum v\feld design Weld Number Wire thickness diameter of passes a mm mm
Weld seam type
Voltage V
Sett ings Current Wire feed A rate1* m/min
Shielding gas l/min
Efficient :y values ProFiller ductive metal time min/m g/m
MAG welding, standard values for unalloyed structural steel Welding position: PB
Wire electrode DIN EN 440 - G 46 4 M G3Si1 2 3 4
0.8 1.0 1.0
1
20 22 23
105 215 220
7 11 11
10
45 90 140
1.5 1.4 2.1
5 6 7
1.0 1.0 1.2
1 1 3
30
300
10
15
215 300 390
2.6 3.5 4.6
8 10
1.2
3 4
30
300
10
15
545 805
6.4 9.5
K /
y
Shielding gas DIN EN 439 - M21
MIG welding, standard values for aluminum alloys Welding position: PA
Filler metal DIN 1732 - SG - AIMg5
ro I IS W / / / J
F 1)
Shielding gas DIN EN 439-11
4 5 6
1.2 1.6 1.6
1
23 25 26
180 200 230
3 4 7
12 18 18
30 77 147
2.9 3.3 3.9
5 6 8
1.6
1 2 2
22 22 26
160 170 220
6 6 7
18
126 147 183
4.2 4.6 5.0
For MIG welding: welding travel speed
TIG welding, standard values for aluminum alloys Welding position: PA
Filler metal DIN 1732 - SG - AIMg5 3.0
1
-
75 90
0.3 0.2
5
19 22
3.8 4.3
2 3
3.0
1
-
110 125
0.2
6
28
1.8 5.9
4 5 6
3.0
1
-
160 185 210
0.2 0.1 0.1
8 10 10
38 47 47
6.7 7.1 12
5
4.0
1st layer 2nd layer
-
165
0.1 0.2
12
105
13
6
4.0
1st layer 2nd layer
-
165
0.1 0.2
12
190
16
•0 1 E S S H / / / / J J
70°
Shielding gas DIN EN 439-11
1 1.5
m
3
Welding fillers for aluminum Designations 11
cf. DIN 1732 (1988-06)
Material number
Application for base metals (Designation without adding EN AW)
SG-AI99.8
(EL-AI99.8)
3.0286
AI99.7, AI99.5
SG-AI99.5T1
(EL-AI99.5T1)
3.0805
AI99.0, AI99.5
SG-AIMn1
(EL-AIMn1)
3.0516
AIMnl, AIMnlCu
SG-AIMg3
3.3536
AIMg1(C), AIMg3
SG-AIMg5
3.3556
AIMg3, AIMg4, AIMg5, AISilMgMn, AIMglSiCu, AIZn4.5Mg1, G-AIMg5, G-AIMgSi, G-AIMg3, G-AIMg3Si
SG-AIMg4.5Mn
3.3548
AIMg4, AIMg5, AISilMgMn, AIMglSiCu, AIZn4.5Mg1, G-AIMg5, G-AIMgSi
SG-AISi5
(EL-AISi5)
3.2245
AIMgSilCu, AIZn4.5Mg1
SG-AISi12
(EL-AISi12)
3.2585
G-AISi1, G-AISi9Mg, G-AISi7Mg, G-AISi5Mg
1)
SG metal fillers with bare surfaces; EL coated rod electrodes
Production engineering: 6.
oin
327
ein
Rod electrodes for arc welding cf. DIN EN ISO 2560 (2006-03) replaces DIN EN 499
Coated rod electrodes for unalloyed steels and fine grain steels Classification of rod electrodes Yield strength Notch impact energy 47 J
Tensile strength Notch impact energy 27 J
according to
Designation example
ISO 2560-A - E 46 3 INiB 54 H5
Standard number A classification according to yield strength and notch impact energy 47 J
H hydrogen content 5 - > 5 ml/100 g weld metal
E coated rod electrode Code numbers for the mechanical properties of weld metal Code Minimum number yield strength N/mm 2
Tensile strength N/mm
Minimum elongation at fracture EL5 in %
2
35
355
440-570
22
38
380
470-600
20
42
420
500-640
20
46
460
530-680
20
50
500
560-720
18
Code numbers for the welding position Code number
Welding position
1
all positions
2
all positions, except vertical down welds
3
butt weld in flat position, fillet weld in flat and horizontal position
4
butt and fillet weld in flat position
5
for vertical down weld and as in number 3
Code number for the efficiency and the type of current Code letter for the notch impact energy of weld metal
Code number
Efficiency %
Type of current
Code letter/ code number
Minimum notch impact energy 47 J at °C
1
> 105
AC and DC
2
> 105
DC
Z
no requirements
3
>105<125
AC and DC
A
+ 20
4
>105 <125
DC
0
0
5
>125<160
AC and DC
2
-20
6
>125<160
DC
3
-30
7
> 160
AC and DC
4
-40
8
> 160
DC
Code letters for the type of coating
Code letters for the chemical composition
Code letters
Type of coating
Code letters
Maxiimum conteii t in % Mn Mo Ni
None
2.0
Mo
1.4
MnMo
1.4-2.0
1 Ni
1.4
-
0.6-1.2
RA
rutile acid coating
2Ni
1.4
-
1.8-2.6
RB
rutile basic coating
MnINi
1.4-2.0
-
0.6-1.2
RC
rutile cellulose coating
1NiMo
1.4
0.6-1.2
RR
thick rutile coating
A
acid coating
-
B
basic coating
0.3-0.6
-
C
cellulose coating
0.3-0.6
-
R
rutile coating
-
0.3-0.6
ISO 2560-A - E 42 2 RB 12: A rod electrode with guaranteed yield strength and notch impact energy, 42 yield strength R e = 420 N/mm 2 , 2 notch impact energy 47 J at-20°C, RB rutile basic coating, 1 efficiency > 105%, 2 all welding positions except for vertical down welds.
328
Production
ngineering: 6.7 Joining,
eding
Coating of rod electrodes, Weld design Coating of rod electrodes used for arc welding The coating of rod electrodes has a decisive influence on the welding properties and the mechanical properties of the weld metal. The coating consists of a homogeneous mixture of the following components: • slag formers • inert gas formers • binders • deoxidizers • arc stabilizers • alloy contents, if applicable The addition of iron powder increases the efficiency of the weld metal. Properties, application and welding position according to the type of coating1' Type of coating
Properties, application
Welding position (page 322)
acid coating
With thick coated rod electrodes, fine drip transition with flat, smooth welds, risk of solidification cracking
Limited application in constrained positions
basic coating
High notch impact energy, particularly at low temperatures, low crack sensitivity
PA, PB, PC, PD, PE, PF
cellulose coating
Intense arc with particular suitability for vertical down welding
PG
rutile coating
Good drip transition, suitable for the welding of thin sheets
PA, PB, PC, PD, PE, PF
rutile acid coating
Typically thick coated rod electrodes, same properties as electrodes with acid coating
PA, PB, PC, PD, PE, PF
rutile basic coating
Good welding and mechanical properties
PA, PB, PC, PD, PE, PF
rutile cellulose coating
Good drip transition, suitable for welding of thin sheets, also in vertical down position
PA, PB, PC, PD, PE, PF, PG
1)
The specifications apply to rod electrodes designated according to the yield strength and the notch impact energy (page 327).
Weld design for arc welded V joints Weld thickness a mm
filler pass
Number and type of pass 1)
Electrode dimensions dxl mm
1
1 R 1 FP
3.2 x 450 4 x 450
1.5
1 R 1 FP
3.2 x 450 4 x 450
4 2.9
100 110
1 R 2 FP 1 R 1 F 1 FP 1 R 1 F 1 FP
3.2 4 3.2 4 5 3.2 4 5
x 450 x 450 x 450 x 450 x 450 x 450 x 450 x 450
4 4.7 4 3.7 3.5 4 4 6.2
100 185 100 145 215 100 195 380
1 1
3.2 x 450 4 x 450
3.2 3.6
80 140
80 140
3 3
3.2 x 450 4 x 450
8.6 8
215 310
215 310
Gap s mm
roof pass
10
Spec, electrode consump. piece/m
Weld weight total per pass m ms g/m g/m 75 155 80 210 285 460
675
Weld design for arc welded fillet welds 3 4 5 6
final pass roof pass
1)
-
_
8
-
1 R 2 FP
4 5
x 450 x 450
3 7
120 430
550
10
-
1 R 4 FP
4 5
x 450 x 450
3 12.3
120 745
865
12
-
1 R 4 FP
4 5
x 450 x 450
3 18.5
120 1125
1245
R root pass;
F filler pass;
FP final pass
Production engineering: 6.
i
i
Standard values for oxyacetylene cutting Material: unalloyed structural steel; Sheet met. thickn. s mm
Cutting nozzle
Width of cut mm
3-10
1.5
2.5
heating bar
bar
2.0
0.2
2.0 3.0
10
2.5 10-25
3.0
1.8
20
3.5
25
4.0
30
i
Acetylene pressure
Oxygen pressure
mm
10 15
i
25-40
2.0
0.2
2.5
4.3
0.2
2.5
4.5
35
Standard values for plasma cutting
4 5 10
70
15 20 25
70
1)
120
120
i
i
i
i
I
Cutting rate quality stand. cut cut m/min m/min
Acetylene Total oxygen consumption consumption m3/hr m3/hr
Cutting rate quality cut m/min
standard cut m/min
1.67
0.27
0.69
0.84
1.92
0.32
0.64
0.78
2.14
0.34
0.60
0.74
2.46 2.67
0.36
0.62
0.75
0.37
0.52
0.69
2.98
0.38
0.45
0.64
3.20
0.40
0.41
0.60
3.42
0.42
0.38
0.57
3.54
0.44
0.36
0.55
11
Material: aluminum Cutting method: argon-hydrogen
Material: high-alloyed structural steels Cutting method: argon-hydrogen Electrical Sheet met. current thickn. qual. stand, s cut cut mm A A
i
329
ein
fuel gas: acetylene
cutting bar
5 8
i
oin
Consumption values argon m3/hr
hydrogen m3/hr
1.4 1.1 0.65
2.4 2.0 0.95
0.6 0.6 1.2
0.24
0.35 0.25 0.35
0.6 0.45 0.35
1.2 1.2 1.5
0.24 0.24 0.48
Electrical current
Consumption Cutting rate values hydroquality stand. argon gen cut cut 3 m3/hr m/min m/min m /hr
nitrogen m3/hr
quality cut A
stand, cut A
1.2 1.2
70
120
3.6 1.9 1.1
6.0 5.0 1.6
1.2
0.5
70
120
0.6 0.35 0.2
1.3 0.75 0.5
1.2
0.5
Values apply to an arc power of approx. 12 kW and 1.2 mm cutting noozle diameter.
330
Production engineering: 6.7 Joining,
eding
Standard values, Quality and dimensional tolerances for beam cutting Standard values for laser cutting 1) Sheet met. thickness M> s mm 2
Cutting speed V
Cutting gas
m/min
Cutting gas press. P bar
Laser power 1 kW 13 ® 4— COF "D CD >
o ~CD c
Z>
"A3
c CD cn 1) 2)
Cutting speed V
Cutting gas
m/min
Cutting gas press. P bar
V
7.0-10 5.6-7.4
5.0-8.0 4.0-7.0
7.0-10 5.5-7.5
2 2.5
4.0-6.0 3.5-5.0
3 4
3.5-4.0 2.5-3.0
3.5-4.2 2.8-3.3
3.6-2.8 2.8-3.4
5 6
1.8-2.3 1.3-1.6
2.3-2.7 1.9-2.2
2.5-3.0 2.1-2.5
1 1.5
4.0-5.5 2.8-3.6
2 2.5
2.2-2.8 1.6-2.0
3 4
1.3-1.4
N2
1.5-3.5
4.8-6.2 4.2-5.0
8 10
5.0-7.0 3.5-5.2
14
2.0-4.0 1.9-3.2
15
Cutting gas press. P bar
Laser power 2 kW
1 1.5
02
Cutting gas
m/min
Laser power 1.5 kW
02
1.5-3.5
N2
1.8-.2.4 1.0-1.1
4.8-6.1 4.2-5.0
6 10
4.5-9.0 3.8-6.6
10 14
3.4-5.3 2.7-3.8
14 15
2.2-2.7 1.4-1.8
O2
1.5-3.5
12 13 N2
14 14 16
The table values apply a the focal length of f= 127 mm (5") and a cutting gap width of w = 0.15 mm. M material group
Cutting quality and dimensional tolerances for thermal cuts
cf. DIN EN ISO 9013 (2003-07)
Quality of cut surfaces
The specifications apply to • oxy-fuel gas cutting, • plasma cutting, • laser beam cutting.
Range
The quality of the cut surfaces is determined by • the perpendicularity tolerance u, • the average surface roughness flz5. / s u Rz5 Al
Cutting speed
Perpendicularity tolerance u in mm
Average surface roughness /? z5 in pm
1
u< 0.05 + 0.03 • s
Rz5 < 10 + 0.6 • s
2
u< 0.15 + 0.07 • s
Rz5 <40 + 0.8 • s
3
u< 0.4 + 0.01 • s
Rz5 < 70 + 1.2 • s
Comments
Put in workpiece thickness in mm
Rz5 < 110 + 1.8 • s 4 u< 1.2 + 0.035 • s nominal length workpiece thickness Limit deviations from the nominal length perpendicularity tolerance Limit deviations A/from nominal lengths / in mm average surface roughness Workpiece limit deviations from the Tolerance class 2 Tolerance class 1 thickness s nominal length / >35 > 125 >315 >35 > 125 >315 in mm
^ ISO 9013-342 standard number
<315
< 1000
< 125
<315
< 1000
> 1 <3.15
±0.3
±0.3
±0.4
±0.5
±0.7
±0.8
>3.15 <6.3
±0.4
± 0.4
±0.5
±0.8
±0.9
± 1.1
> 6 . 3 < 10
±0.6
±0.7
±0.7
± 1.3
± 1.4
± 1.5
± 1.9
±2.3
> 10 <50
±0.7
±0.7
±0.8
± 1.8
> 50<100
± 1.3
± 1.4
± 1.7
±2.5
±2.6
±3.0
>100<150
± 1.9
±2.0
±2.1
±3.3
±3.4
±3.7
' Example: oxy-fuel gas cutting according to tolerance class 2, / = 450 mm, s= 12 mm, cutting quality according to range 4
Quality of cut perpendicularity tolerance u ^ according to row 3 average surface roughness/?z5 according to row U tolerance class 2
< 125
Sought after: A/; u; Rz5 J
Solution:
A/= ±2.3 mm u = 1.2 + 0.035 • s = 1.2 mm + 0.035 • 12 mm = 1.62 mm Rz5 = 110 + 1.8 • s = 110 pm + 1.8 • 12 pm = 131.6 pm
Production engineering: 6.
oin
331
ein
Gas cylinders - Identification* Hazardous substance labels
cf. DIN EN ISO 7225 (2008-02)
A hazardous substance label must be applied to individual gas cylinders to identify their contents and any possible hazards from these contents. Up to three hazard labels warn of the main hazards. Example: supplemental information on hazards and safety precautions
manufacturer's name, address, phone number
product name i.e. oxygen
hazard label with number of hazardous substance class -
EWG no. for pure substances or the words "gas mixture"
gas composition
information from manufacturer
complete name of the gas, e.g. oxygen, compressed
Hazard label
non-combustible, non-toxic
combustible
flammable
toxic
Color coding
corrosive
cf. DIN EN 1089-3 (2004-06)
Color coding of the cylinder shoulder is used as additional information about the properties of the gases. It is readily recognized when the hazardous substance label is illegible from a distance. This color coding does not apply to liquid gases.
General color coding
>
Decreasing risk potential
toxic and/or corrosice
flammable
inert2)
oxidizing
Color coding for special gases
a Si Oxygen
1) W)
Acetylene 2)
Argon
Nitrogen
Carbon dioxide
N = new Non-toxic, non-corrosive, non-flammable, non-oxidizing According to European Standards
Helium
332
Production engineering: 6.7 Joining, Welding
Gas cylinders - Identification* Pure gases and gas mixtures for industrial use Color coding (examples)
cf. Information sheet from Industrial Gases Association
Coding old
Coding new
1)2)
old
Oxygen
blue blue
yellow (black)
i
r N
i
Mk
white blue
u
gray
flourescent green gray
gray (black)
Hydrogen
chestnut brown
A
red
chestnut brown
Argon
red
red red
Forming gas (mixture of nitrogen/hydrogen)
gray
dark green
gray
gray
A
:
Nitrogen
to
1)2)
Xenon, Krypton, Neon
Acetylene
yellow
new
red
red
red (dark green)
gray
Mixture of argon/carbon dioxide
A
black
gray
gray
flourescent green
gray
gray
Carbon dioxide
Compressed air
gray
gray
gray
flourescent green
gray
gray
gray
gray
1)
Helium
gray aaailiSilS gray
A
brown gray
For gas cylinders color coded as per DIN EN 1089, the letter "N" (= new) must be put on the shoulder of the cylinder two times (opposite sides). The " N " is not required on cylinders whose color coding has not changed. 2) The cylinder body may be another color. However, this must not lead to confusion regarding the hazardous nature of the cylinder contents. *) According to European Standards
Production engineering: 6.
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3
3
3
Brazing Brazing heavy non-ferrous metals
cf. DIN EN 1044 (1999 07)
Silver containing brazing materials
Special brazing
Silver content below 20%
AgCuZn(Sn)
AgCuCdZn
Brazing nlaterial Material Group Desig- number nation1*
Alloy designation as per ISO 3677 2)
Information for use
Working tempera- Brazing Solder ture joint 3 ' feed 4) °C
AG 301
2.5143
B-Ag50CdZnCu-620/640
640
G
AG 302
2.5146
B-Ag45CdZnCu-605/620
620
G
AG 304
2.5141
B-Ag45ZnCdCu-595/630
610
G
AG 309
2.1215
B-Cu40ZnAgCd-605/765
750
G, V
AG 104
2.5158
B-Ag45CuZnSn-640/680
670
G
AG 106
2.5157
B-Cu36AgZnSn-630/730
710
G
AG 203
2.5147
B-Ag44CuZn-675/735
730
G
AG 205
2.1216
B-Cu40ZnAg-700/790
780
G
AG 207
2.1207
B-Cu48ZnAg(Si)-800/830
830
G
AG 208
2.1205
B-Cu55ZnAg(Si)-820/870
860
G, V
CP 102 2.1210
B-C u 80 Ag P-645/800
710
G, V
CP 104 2.1466
B-Cu89PAg-645/815
710
G, V
CP 105 2.1467
B-Cu92PAg-645/825
710
G, V
Materials precious metals, steels, copper alloys steels, malleable cast iron, copper, copper alloys, nickel, nickel alloys
steels, malleable cast iron, copper, copper alloys, nickel, nickel alloys steels, malleable cast iron, copper, copper alloys, nickel, nickel alloys copper and nickel-free copper alloys. Unsuitable for materials containing Fe or Ni
AG 351
2.5160
B-Ag50CdZnCuNi-635/655
660
G
Cu alloys
AG 403
2.5162
B-Ag56Cu I n N i-600/710
730
G
chrome, chrome-nickel steels
AG 502
2.5156
B-Ag49ZnCuMnNi-680/705
690
G
carbide onto steel, tungsten and molybdenum materials
steels
| Copper based brazing materials CU 104
2.0091
B-Cu100(P)-1085
1100
G
CU 201
2.1021
B-Cu94Sn(P)-910/1040
1040
G
CU 202
2.1055
B-Cu88Sn(P)-825/990
990
G
CU 301
2.0367
L-CuZn40
900
G, V
f, I
steels, malleab. iron, Cu, Ni, Cu & Ni alloys
G, V
f, I
steels, malleable iron, Ni, Ni alloys
CU 305
2.0711
B-Cu48ZnNi(Si)-890/920
910
V
f
CP 202
2.1463
B-Cu93P-710/820
720
G
f, I
Cu, Fe-free and Ni-free Cu alloys
5)
5)
5)
nickel, cobalt, nickel and cobalt alloys, unalloyed and alloyed steels
iron and nickel materials
cast iron
| Nickel based brazing materials for high-temperature brazing NI 101
2.4140
B-Ni73CrFeSiB(C)-960/1060
NI 103
2.4143
B-Ni92SiB-980/1040
NI 105
2.4148
B-Ni71CrSi-1080/1135
NI 107
2.4150
B-Ni76CrP-890
I Aluminum based brazing materials AL 102
3.2280
B-AI92Si-575/615
610
G
f,l
AL 103
3.2282
B-AI90Si-575/590
600
G
f, I
AL 104
3.2285
B-AI88Si-575/585
595
G
f, I
1)
2}
3) 4) 5)
The two letters indicate the alloy group, while the three digit numbers are purely numbers increasing sequentially. Numbers at the end indicate the melting range. Alloy components, see pages 116 and 117. G suitable for gap brazing; V suitable for V-joint brazing f filled brazing; I lapped brazing Refer to manufacturer's data.
aluminum and Al alloy types AIMn, AIMgMn, G-AISi; especially for Al alloy types AIMg, AIMgSi up to 2% Mg content Brazing joint S
Gap brazing:
iv < 0.25mm V-joint brazing: w > 0.3 mm
|
Am•SH
US
|
334
Production engineering: 6.7 Joining, Soldering and Brazing
Solders and flux Solders Alloy group 1 *
cf. DIN EN ISO 9453 (2006-12) Alloy no. 2 )
Alloy designation as per ISO 3677 3)
Previous designation DIN 1707
Working temperature °C
Application examples
tin-lead
101 102 103
S-Sn63Pb37 S-Sn63Pb37E S-Sn60Pb40
L-Sn63Pb L-Sn63Pb L-Sn60Pb
183 183 183-190
precision mechanics electronics, printed circuit boards printed circuit boards, high-grade steel
lead-tin
111 114 116 124
S-Pb50Sn50 S-Pb60Sn40 S-Pb70Sn30 S-Pb98Sn2
L-Sn50Pb L-PbSn40 L-PbSn2
183-215 183-235 183-255 320-325
electronics industry, tin plating thin-sheet packaging, metal goods plumbing work, zinc, zinc alloys radiator manufacturing
131 132
S-Sn63Pb37Sb S-Sn60Pb40Sb
L-Sn60Pb(Sb)
183 183-190
precision mechanics precision mechanics, electrical industry
134 136
S-Pb58Sn40Sb2 S-Pb74Sn25Sb1
L-PbSn40Sb L-PbSn25Sb
185-231 185-263
radiator manufacturing, wiping solder wiping solder, lead solders
tin-leadbismuth
141 142
S-Sn60Pb38Bi2 S-Pb49Sn48Bi3
180-185 138
precision solders low-temperature solder, safety fuses
tin-leadcadmium
151
S-Sn50Pb32Cd18
L-SnPbCd18
145
tin-leadcopper
161 162
S-Sn60Pb39Cu1 S-Sn50Pb49Cu1
L-SnPbCu3 L-Sn50PbCu
230-250 183-215
electronic devices, precision mechanics
tin-leadsilver
171
S-Sn60PbAg
L-Sn60PbAg
178-180
electrical devices, printed circuit boards
lead-tinsilver
182 191
S-Pb95Ag5 S-Pb93Sn5Ag2
L-PbAg5
304-365 296-301
for high operating temperatures electric motors, electrical equipment
tin-leadantimony
1) 2) 3)
-
thermal fuses, cable joints
Filler metals for aluminium are no longer in EN ISO 9453. The alloy numbers replace the material numbers as per DIN 1707. With traces (<0.5%) of Sb, Bi, Cd, Au, In, Al, Fe, Ni, Zn: see pages 116 and 117.
Flux for soldering
cf. DIN EN 29454-1 (1994-02) Designation by main constituents
Flux type 1 rosin 2 organic
Flux basis
Classification by effect Flux form
Flux activator
1 colophonium 2 without colophonium 1 without activator 2 activated by halogens 1 water soluble 3 activated without halogens 2 not water soluble
A liquid
1 salts
1 with ammonium chloride 2 without ammonium chloride
B solid
2 acids
1 phosphoric acid 2 other acids
C paste
3 alkaline
1 amine and/or ammonia
3 inorganic
Desi gnations DIN EN DIN 8511
Effect of residues
3.2.2... 3.1.1...
F-SW11 F-SW12
very corrosive
3.2.1... 3.1.1... 2.1.3... 2.1.2... 1.2.2...
F-SW13 F-SW21 F-SW23 F-SW25 F-SW28
somewhat corrosive
1.1.1... 1.2.3...
F-SW31 F-SW33
noncorrosive
Flux ISO 9454- 1.2.2.C: Flux of type rosin (1), base without colophonium (2), activated by halogens (2), available in paste form (C)
Flux for brazing Flux
Activation temper.
cf. DIN EN 1045 (1997-08) Instructions for use
FH10 FH11 FH12
550-800 °C 550-800 °C 550-850 °C
Multi-purpose flux; residues rinsed off or chemically stripped. Cu-AI alloys; residues rinsed off or chemically stripped. Stainless and high-alloy steels, carbide; residues chemically stripped.
FH20 FH21 FH30 FH40
700-1000°C 750-1100 °C over 1000 °C 650-1000°C
Multi-purpose flux; residues rinsed off or chemically stripped. Multi-purpose flux; residues removed mechanically or chemically stripped. For copper and nickel solder; residues removed mechanically. Boron-free flux; residues rinsed off or chemically stripped.
FL10 FL20
400-700 °C 400-700 °C
Light alloys; residues are rinsed off or chemically stripped. Light alloys; residues are non-corrosive, but should be protected from moisture.
Production engineering: 6.
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Soldered and brazed joints Classification of soldering and brazing processes Differentiating characteristics
Soldering
cSoldering and brazing processes5 High temperature brazing Brazing
< 450 °C
> 450 °C
> 900 °C
Energy source
soldering iron, soldering bath, electrical resistance
flame, furnace
flame, laser beam, electric induction
Base material
Cu, Ag, Al alloys, stainless steel, steel, Cu, Ni alloys
steel, carbide inserts
steel, carbide
Sn, Pb alloys
Cu, Ag alloys
Ni-Cr alloys, Ag-Au-Pd alloys
Flux
flux, vacuum
vacuum, shielding gas
Working temperature
Soldering or filler material Auxiliary materials
Standard values for soldering gap widths Base material
Soldering gap) width in mm forb razing materials primariily of brass copper
for solders
silver
unalloyed steel
0.05-0.2
0.05-0.15
0.1-0.3
0.05-0.2
Alloy steel
0.1-0.25
0.1-0.2
0.1-0.35
0.1-0.25
Cu, Cu alloys
0.05-0.2
Carbide
-
0.3-0.5
-
-
0.05-0.25
-
0.3-0.5
Design rules for soldered joints Preconditions • Soldering gap should be large enough so that flux and solder adequately fill the gap by capillary action (table above) • The two surfaces to be soldered should be parallel. • Surface roughness due to machining can remain for Cu soldering Rz = 10-16 pm, for Ag soldering at Rz = 25 pm.
l
dmax ~ S • 5
Soldered joint under shearing load
Load transfer • The load on the soldered joint should be in shear (transverse forces) if at all possible. In particular, solder seams should not be loaded with tensile or peeling stress.
Load on solder joint reduced by folded seam stop position
knurled press fit
• Soldering gap depths / d > 5 • s do not fill with solder reliably. Therefore load capacity cannot be increased by a larger gap depth. • Load capacity can be increased by design features such as folds Production process simplification • In soldering there should be a means for assuring proper positioning of the parts to be joined, e.g. by part shape or by knurled press fit.
Production process simplification
Application examples • pipes and fittings • sheet metal parts • tools with brazed carbide cutters
Soldered pipe fitting
336
Production engineering: 6.7 Joining, Adhesive bonding
Adhesives, Preparation of joint surfaces Properties and conditions of use for adhesives1) Curing conclitions Adhesive
Acrylic resins
Trade name
Temperature Time °C
Agomet M, Acronal, Stabi I itExpress
Epoxy resins Araldit, (EP) Metallon, Uhu-Plus
max. operating temperature °C
Comb, tensile and shear strength
Elasticity
Applications, special characteristics
N/mm 2 metals, thermosets, ceramics, glass
20
24 hr
120
6-30
low
20-200
1 hr to 12 hr
50-200
10-35
low
metals, thermosets, glass, ceramics, concrete, wood; long curing time
120-200
60s
140
20
low
metals, thermosets, glass, elastomers, wood, ceramics metals, thermosets, glass, elastomers, wood, ceramics
Phenolic resins (PF)
Porodur, Pertinax, Bakelite
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
Hostalit, Isodur, Macroplast
20
> 24 hr
60
60
low
Polyurethane Desmocoll, (PUR) Delopur, Baydur
50
24 hr
40
50
present
metals, elastomers, glass, wood, some thermoplastics
Polyester resins (UP)
Fibron, Leguval, Verstopal
25
1 hr
170
60
low
Polychloroprene (CR)
Baypren, Contitec, Fastbond
50
1 hr
110
5
present
Cyanoacrylate
Permabond, Sicomet 77
20
40 s
85
20-25
low
fast-curing adhesive for metals, plastics, elastomers
Hot glue
Jet-Melt, Ecomelt, Vesta-Melt
20
> 30 s
50
2-5
present
all types of materials; adhesive action through cooling
1)
metals, thermosets, ceramics, glass contact glue for metals and plastics
Due to varying chemical compositions of adhesives, the values given are only approximate values. For detailed information please refer to information from the manufacturer.
Preparation of parts for bonded joints Tireatment sequ ence 1) for load sever ity 2>
Material low Al alloys Mg alloys Ti alloys Cu alloys 11
21
cf. VDl 2229 (1979-06)
medium
high
low
1-2-3-4
1-6-5-3-4 1-6-2-3-4 1-6-2-3-4
1-2-7-8-3-4 1-7-2-9-3-4 1-2-10-3-4
Steel, bright Steel, galvanized Steel, phosphatized
1-2-3-4
1-6-2-3-4
1-7-2-3-4
Other metals
Code numbers for type of treatment 1 Cleaning of dirt, scale, rust 6 2 Removing grease with organic solvent 7 or aqueous cleaning agent 8 3 Rinsing with clear water 9 4 Drying in hot air up to 65°C 10 5 Removing grease with simultaneous etching
Ti eatment sequ ence 1) 2 for load sever•ity )
Material
medium
high
1-2-3-4
1-6-2-3-4 1-2-3-4 1-2-3-4
1-7-2-3-4 1-2-3-4 1-6-2-3-4
1-2-3-4
1-6-2-3-4
1-7-2-3-4
Mechanical roughing by grinding or brushing Mechanical roughing by shot blasting Etching 30 min, at 60°C in 27.5% sulfuric acid solution Etching 1 min, at 20°C in 20% nitric acid solution Etching 3 min, at 20°C in 15% hydrofluoric acid solution
Load severity for bonded joints Low: Tensile shear strength up to 5 N/mm 2 ; dry environment; for precision mechanics, electrical equipment Medium: Tensile shear strength up to 10 N/mm 2 ; humid air; contact with oil; for machine and vehicule manufacturing High: Tensile shear strength up to 10 N/mm 2 ; direct contact with liquids; for aircraft, ship, and container manufacturing
Production engineering: 6.
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Design of adhesive bonded joints, Test methods Design examples Bonded joints should be loaded in compression or shearing if possible. Tensile, peeling or bending loads should be avoided. Butt joint/overlap joint
T-joint
Tube joint
good, since the bonding surfaces only have a shear load
good, since the bonding surfaces only have a shear and compression load
good, since sufficiently large bonding surfaces can withstand shear load
not as good, since peeling forces act due to off-center application of force
not as good, since peeling forces act due to bending load
not as good, since small bonding surfaces cannot withstand tensile and shear load
Test methods Test method standard
Contents
Bending peel test DIN 54461
Tests resistance of bonded joints against peeling forces
Tensile shear test DIN EN 1465
Tests tensile shear strength of high-strength bonded lap joints
Fatigue test DIN EN ISO 9664
Tests fatigue properties of structural adhesives under tensile-shear loads
Tensile test DIN EN 26922
Tests tensile strength of bonded butt joints perpendicular to bonded surface
Roller peel test DIN EN 1464
Tests resistance to peeling forces
Compression shear test DIN EN 15337
Tests shear strength, primarily of anaerobic 1 ' adhesives
1)
Sets with exclusion of air
Adhesive behavior as a function of temperature and size of bonding surface epoxy polyamide
increasing width w
mm 40 Imethacrylate
epoxy resin increasing overlap /
phenolic resin
epoxy polyaminoamide -50 0 50 test temperature 0
100
Tensile shear strength of overlap bonded joints
150
bonded surface area
•
Effect of adhesive joint surface area on breaking load
337
338
Production engineering: 6.8 Workplace safety and environmental protection
Safety colors, Prohibitive signs* cf. DIN 4844-1 (2005-05) and BGV A8 1 ) (2002-04)
Safety colors Color
Meaning
yellow
stop, prohibited
blue
caution! potential danger
safety, first aid
mandatory signs, notices
Contrast color white
black
white
white
Color of graphic symbol
black
black
white
white
Application examples (see pages 340 and 341)
Stop signs, emergency stop prohibitive signs, fire fighting equipment
Notice of hazards (e.g. fire, explosion, radiation); notice of obstructions (e.g. speed bumps, holes)
Identification of ambulances and emergency exits; first aid and emergency aid stations
Requirement to wear personal protective equipment (PPE); location of a telephone
cf. DIN 4844-2 (2001-02) and BGV A8 1 ) (2002-04)
Prohibitive signs
Prohibited
No smoking
No fires, open flame or smoking
Access prohibited Access by forklifts for unauthorized prohibited persons
Do not touch
Placement or stor- Transport of passengers prohibited age prohibited
Walking in this area prohibited
Do not use this device in the bathtub, shower or sink
No magnetic or electronic data media allowed 1)
Climbing prohibited for unauthorized persons
Pedestrian access Do not extinguish prohibited with water
Do not touch live voltage
Non-potable water
Do not connect
No access for persons with pacemaker
No spraying with water
No cell phones
No food or drink allowed
Do not reach in
Operating with long hair prohibited
Hand-held or manually operated grinding not allowed
German Employer's Liability Insurance Association - Accident Prevention Regulations (Berufsgenossenschaftliche Unfallverhiitungsvorschrift) BGV A8 (replaces VGB 125) *) According to European Standards
Production engineering: 6.8 Workplace safety and environmental protection
339
Warning signs* cf. DIN 4844-2 (2001-02) and BGV A8 1 ) (2002-04)
Warning signs
A AA A A A Warning: Hazardous area
Warning: Combustible materials
Warning: Explosive substances
Warning: Toxic substances
Warning: Corrosive substances
Warning: Radioactive materials or ionizing radiation
A AAA AA Warning: Suspended load
Warning: Forklift traffic
Danger: High voltage
Warning: Optical radiation
aK A A A
Warning: Non-ionic, electromagnetic radiation
Warning: Strong magnetic field
Warning: Danger of tripping
Warning: Danger of falling
Warning: Laser beam radiation
Warning: Biological hazard
AAAAA
Warning: Oxidizing substances
A
Warning: Extreme cold
^mmmm—mrn
Warning: Substances hazardous to health or irritants
Warning: Gas cylinders
Warning: Hazards due to batteries
Warning: Explosive atmosphere
Warning: Milling shaft
Warning: Crushing hazard
AA AAA A
Warning: Danger of tipping when rolling 1)
Warning: Automatic start-up
Warning: Hot surface
Warning: Risk of hand injury
Warning: Danger of slipping
Warning: Moving conveyor on track
German Employer's Liability Insurance Association - Accident Prevention Regulations (Berufsgenossenschaftliche Unfallverhiitungsvorschrift) BGV A8 (replaces VGB 125) *) According to European Standards
340
Production engineering: 6.8 Workplace safety and environmental protection
Safety signs^
cf. DIN 4844-2 (2001-02) and BGV A8 1 ) (2002-04)
Mandatory signs
General mandatory sign
Wear safety glasses
Wear hard hat
Wear ear protection
Wear respirator
Wear safety shoes
Wear protective gloves
Wear protective clothing
Wear face protection
Use safety belt
For pedestrians
Use safety harness
Use crosswalk
Disc, plug from power bef. opening
Disconnect before working
Wear life preserver
Sound horn
Follow instructions
Emergency shower
Eye rinsing equipment
Escape and rescue signs for escape routes and emergency exits
Direction arrows for First aid stations, escape routes and emergency exits 2 '
Emergency telephone
Doctor
First aid
Medical stretcher
Defibrillator
Escape route/Emergency exit
Meeting point
Fire protection symbols and additional symbols
Directional arrows
Wall hydrant and fire hose
Ladder
Work area!
Fire fighting equipment 1)
•
Manual fire alarm
Fire alarm telephone
High Voltage Danger to life
Location: Date: Sign may only be removed by:
Extra sign which gives more information to supplement the safety sign
German Employer's Liability Insurance Association - Accident Prevention Regulations (Berufsgenossenschaftliche Unfallverhutungsvorschrift) BGV A8
Fire extinguisher
2)
Extra sign which gives more information to supplement the safety sign
only in combination with other escape route and rescue signs *) According to European Standards
Production engineering: 6.8 Workplace safety and environmental protection
341
cf. DIN 4844-2 (2001-02) and BGV A8 1 ) (2002-04)
Safety signs Information signs
In case of failure part can have live voltage
Discharge time longer than 1 minute
5 Safety rules
Before touching: - discharge - ground - short circuit
Before beginning work - Employ safety disconnect - Lock out to prevent restart - Check for no voltage - Ground and short circuit - Cover or enclose adjacent parts which have live voltage
Combination signs
®
A
Work area! Location:
Date:
Sign may only be removed by:
Do not connect
High Voltage Hazardous
Warning of high voltage
Combination signs for escape routes or emergency exits with corresponding direction indicated by arrows
I
s
3 t
3^ 3 *
A Turn off engine. Risk of poisoning.
Walking on roof is prohibited
First aid station 1)
Prohibited! Walking on roof is prohibited.
Fire blanket for fighting fire
Danger of toxic gases
German Employer's Liability Insurance Association - Accident Prevention Regulations (Berufsgenossenschaftliche Unfallverhutungsvorschrift) BGV A8 (replaces VGB 125) *) According to European Standards
342
Production engineering: 6.8 Workplace safety and environmental protection
Danger symbols and description of hazards Code letter, danger symbol, hazard description
Danger criteria of materials When consumed in very small amounts leads to death or may cause acute or chronic damage to health.
Very toxic
Danger criteria of Code letter, danger symbol, materials hazard description
Danger criteria of Code letter, danger symbol, materials hazard description
Contact with skin or mucus membranes can cause inflammation.
Solid material can be easily ignited by a source of ignition Liquid material with flash point <21 °C.
Xi
Irritant
X = St. Andrew's cross i = irritating
Flammable F = flammable
T = toxic When consumed in small amounts leads to death or may cause acute or chronic damage to health.
Risk of explosion by shock, friction, fire or other sources of ignition.
N N
l & i Toxic T = toxic Xn
Harmful to health
Danger of explosion
When ingested may result in death or cause acute or chronic harm to health.
X = St. Andrew's cross n = noxious
C = corrosive Xn with R 40
Limited evidence of mutagenic effect
E = explosive Substances that substantially increase the risk and severity of a fire, because they produce oxygen.
Oxidizing
T with R 45
N = noxious (harmful) Substance may cause cancer from inhaling, swallowing or from contact with the skin.
Carcinogenic T = toxic
O = oxidizing Liquid substances with flash point < 0°C and boiling point <35 °C; gaseous substances, which are flammable in contact with air. Highly flammable
T with R 46
Substances which can have a mutagenic effect on humans. R 46: May cause heritable genetic damage.
Mutagenic substances T = toxic
F = flammable
Substance which can cause concern T with R 60, R 61 due to possible mutagenic effect on humans. However, there is not yet sufficient information available to give conDanger to clusive proof. fertility
Substances which are known to impair fertility or reproduction.
X = St. Andrew's cross n = noxious R 40 = irreversible damage possible (page 199)
T = toxic R 60 = may impair fertility R 61 = may cause harm to the unborn child
EU-Directive, Appendix
Environmentally dangerous
Substances change water, ground, air, climate, animals, plants, etc. in such a way that the environment is endangered.
R 45: May cause cancer
Living tissue can be damaged by contact.
Corrosive
RL 67/548/EWG (2004-04)1)
According to European Standards
Xn with R 62, R 63
Limited evidence of influence on fertility
Substances which cause concern due to possible impairment of fertility of humans.
X = St. Andrew's cross n = noxious R 62 = possible risk of impaired fertility R 63 = possible risk of harm to unborn child
Production engineering: 6.8 Workplace safety and environmental protection
343
c f D N 24 0 ( 2'0 07 0 5'
Identification of pipe lines* Area of application and requirements
Area of application: A precise identification marking of pipe lines, indicating the substance being conveyed, is necessary for reasons of safety, fire fighting and proper maintenance and repairs. The identification marking is intended to indicate possible hazards and help to prevent accidents and damage to health. Requirements concerning identification marking • Identification marking must be clearly visible and longlasting. • Identification can be established by painting, lettering (e.g. via self-adhesive foil strips) or signs. • Particularly operation-critical and hazardous places should be marked (e.g. beginning and end of branch pipes, wall penetrations, fittings).
• Marking must be repeated at least every 10 m of pipe length. • Indication of the group and supplemental color (see table below). • Indication of the flow direction by means of an arrow. • Indication of the conveyed substance by specifying the name (e.g. water) or the chemical formula (e. g. H 2 0). • With hazardous materials, additional indication of hazard signs (page 342) or warning signs (page 339) if general hazards are implied.
Color assignment according to conveyed substances Conveyed substance
Group
Group color
RAL
1
green
6032
Water
Supplem. color
RAL
Color of lettering
RAL
-
-
white
9003
Steam
2
red
3001
-
-
white
9003
Air
3
gray
7004
-
-
black
9004
Flammable gases
4
yellow
1003
3001
black
9004
Non-flammable gases
5
yellow
1003
9004
black
9004
Acids
6
orange
-
-
white
9003
Lyes
7
purple
-
-
white
9003
Flammable liquids and solid materials
8
brown
red
3001
white
9003
Non-flammable liquids and solid materials
9
brown
black
9004
white
9003
Oxygen
0
blue
-
-
white
9003
Identification of special pipe lines Fire extinguishing lines must be fitted with a red/white/red color marking. The white field contains the graphical symbol of the safety sign "Fire fighting equipment and materials" (cf. page 340) in the color of the extinguishing agent. Potable water lines must be fitted with a green/white/green color marking. Non-potable water lines have a green/blue/green marking. The code letters and their colors are listed in the table below. Description
Code
Color
Description
Code
Color
Potable water line Potable water line, cold
PW PWC
green
Potable water line, hot, circulating
PWH-C
purple
Potable water line, hot
PWH
red
Non-potable water line
NPW
white
Potable water
Compressed air
Examples of identification marking Heating oil
Fire extinguishing unit (water)
Heating Oil
a Water
Oxygen (fire-promoting, O)
Oxygen *) According to European Standards
Acetylene (highly flammable, F+)
A
Acetylene
a>
344
Production engineering: 6.8 Workplace safety and environmental protection
Sound and noise* Sonic terms Explanation
Term Sound
Sound comes from mechanical vibrations. It propagates in gaseous, liquid and solid bodies.
Frequency
Number of oscillations per second. Unit: 1 Hertz = 1 Hz = 1/s. Pitch increases with frequency. Frequency range of human hearing: 16 Hz-20.000 Hz.
Sound level
Measure of the sound strength (sound energy).
Noise
Undesirable, annoying or painful sound waves; damage depends on strength, duration, frequency and regularity of exposure. For a noise level of 85 dB (A) and higher there is danger of permanent hearing loss.
Decibel (dB)
Standardized unit for sound level.
dB (A)
Since the human ear perceives tones of different heights (frequencies) to have different strengths when they are actually at the same sound levels, noise must be appropriately dampened with filters for certain frequencies. Frequency weighting curve with Filter A compensates for this and indicates the subjective auditory impression. A difference of 3 dB (A) corresponds approximately to a doubling (or halving) of the sound intensity.
Sound level dB (A)
Type of sound Threshold of auditory sensitivity
4
dB (A)
Type of sound normal speech at distance of 1 m
dB (A)
Type of sound
70
heavy stamping
95-110
75-90
angle grinder
95-115
80
car horn at distance of 5 m
100
85
disco music
100-115
Breathing at distance of 30 cm
10
Soft rustling of leaves
20
Whispering
30
Tearing paper
40
hammer drill, motorcycle
90
hammer and anvil
110
Quiet conversation
50-60
engine test stand, walkman
90-110
jet engine
120-130
machine tools loud talking at distance of 1 m welding torch, lathe
Noise protection regulations
cf. Accident Prevention Regulations on "Noise" BGV B3 (1997-01)
Accident prevention regulations for noise producing operations
§ 15 Workplace regulation
• Requirem. to post signage for noise ranges 90 dB (A) and above. • Above 85 dB (A) sound protection devices must be available, and they must be used above 90 dB (A). • If the risk of accidents increases due to noise, appropriate measures must be taken. • Regular preventative medical checkups are compulsory. • New operational equipment must conform to the most advanced level of noise reduction.
max. dB (A) 55
Noise limit value for: predominantly mental activities simple, predominantly mechanized activities all other activities (value may be exceeded by 5 dB ) break rooms, ready rooms and first-aid rooms
70 85 55
Noise harmful to health
I
II
I
LJU 1 11.
Psycflologic al readtions
|
1
1
L—J
1
annoyance, irritability
Vegetative r eactioris
nervous effects, stress, decreasing job performance and concentration
g
Dam age to hearini
noise induced hearing loss, incurable inner ear damage
Phys ical daimage deafness
0
10
20
30
40
50
According to European Standards
60 65 70
80 85 90 100 danger limif for hearing
110
120 130 pain threshold
140 S Q U n d
150 leyel
160 dB (A) ^
Table of Contents
345
7 Automation and Information Technology 7.1 A / w Control unit
y
/
/
//
Final control elem. /
Contr. system
7.2 OFF ON h - J K1
L-
/
K1
a.
7.3
\ 7.4
7.5 110 111
01
7.6
7.7
7.8
Basic terminology for control engineering Basic terminology, Code letters, Symbols Analog controllers Discontinuous and digital controllers Binary logic
346 348 349 350
Electrical circuits Circuit symbols Designations in circuit diagrams Circuit diagrams Sensors Protective precautions
351 353 354 355 356
Function charts and function diagrams Function charts Function diagrams
358 361
Pneumatics and hydraulics Circuit symbols Layout of circuit diagrams Controllers Hydraulic fluids Pneumatic cylinders Forces, Speeds, Power Precision steel tube
363 365 366 368 369 370 372
Programmable logic control PLC programming languages Ladder diagram (LD) Function block language (FBL) Structured text (ST) Instruction list Simple functions
373 374 374 374 375 376
Handling and robot systems Coordinate systems and axes Robot designs Grippers, job safety
378 379 380
Numerical Control (NC) technology Coordinate systems Program structure according to DIN Tool offset and Cutter compensation Machining motions as per DIN Machining motions as per PAL PAL programming system for lathes PAL programming system for milling machines .
381 382 383 384 386 388 392
Information technology Numbering systems ASCII code Symbols for program flow charts Program flow chart, Structograms WORD commands EXCEL commands
401 402 403 404 405 406
346
Automation: 7.1 Basic terminology
Basic terminology of open loop and closed loop control systems Basic terminology
cf. DIN 19226-1 to -5 (1994-02)
Open loop control
Closed loop control
For open loop control the output variable, such as the temperature in a hardening furnace, is influenced by the input variable, such as the current in the heating coil. The output variable does not have an effect on the input variable. Open loop control has an open action flow.
For closed loop control the controlled variable, such as the actual temp, in an annealing furnace, is continuously monitored and compared to the target temp, (reference variable) and, if there are deviations, adjusted to the reference input variable. Closed loop control has a closed action flow.
Example: Annealing furnace Schematic presentation
Schematic presentation
disturbance heat losses final control element relay
disturbance heat losses
final control manipulated element variable relay current
manipulated variable current
controlled variable feedback value axial extensometer
spring contact controller button
controlled \ system \ _ annealing furn.\] 7777777777777; 77,
r v 'controlled system ^annealing furnace / V / / / / / / / / Z ? /
Functional diagram of open loop control system
Simplified functional diagram of closed loop control system /
w —
•
f
y
controled system
controller button
relay
target value of controlled variable
X
comparing element
/
adjustment screw contact
annealing furnace
w reference input variable
y mamp. variable
z disturbance
x control, variable
w reference input variable
temperature setpoint
current
heat loss
actual temperature
temperature setpoint
open loop control ^v,.-. s\ contr. elem.
L.
x axial extonsometer contact
e Error e = w-x
Application-based code letters
If ' drive final concont. trolled elem. system relay annealing furnace
ymanip. variable
z disturbance
x contr. variable
current
heat loss
actual temperat.
cf. DIN 19227-1 (1993-10)
Designation example:
PDIC
JTT. First letters D E F G H K L M P Q R S T W
density electrical parameters flow, throughput distance, position, length manual input/intervention time status (e.g. level) humidity pressure quality parameters radiation parameters speed, rotational speed temperature weight, mass
Supplementary letters D
difference
F
ratio
J
control point query
Q
sum, integral
Succeeding letters A error indication C automatic closed loop control H upper limit value I display L lower limit value R registration
Example: Differential pressure closed loop control Explanation: P D I C
Pit PDIC 312 P2
-{ih
pressure difference display automatic closed loop control
In plain language: Pressure differential closed loop control with display of pressure difference
Automation: 7.1 Basic terminology
Symbols Location of output & user control
CD or
Effect on the controlled system
o
Local, general
o Process control room
r
n
Local, implemented by process control system
O
Local, implemented by process computer
Measuring point, control point
Servo motor, general
Reference line
Servo motor; the setting for minimal mass flow or flow of energy is set during loss of auxiliary power.
Measuring point, sensor
Servo motor; the setting for maximum mass flow or flow of energy is set during loss of auxiliary power.
Local control console
\
cf. DIN 19227-1 (1993-10)
Servo motor; the final control device remains in the most recently acquired setting during loss of auxiliary power.
V
Final control element, control point
Example
temperature lRZ\ registration automatic closed loop control
r
ok>
Temperature control and registration at local control stand measuring point 310
T
Solution based symbols for devices Symbol
Explanation
Symbol
cf. DIN 19227-2 (1991-02) Symbol
Explanation
Final controlling & user control elements
Controllers
Sensors
or
piox p
Two-point controller with switching output and PID behavior
•-z^W
Sensor for level with float
>ki
Valve actuator with solenoid drive
/ -E
Adjuster for electric signal
Signal designators
Adapters
Pressure transducer with pneumatic signal output
Sensor for weight, scales; indicating
~E A n
Signal, electrical Signal, pneumatic Analog signal Digital signal
Example: Temperature controller
Output devices
Basic symbol, general display
Printer, analog, no. of channels as a numeral
temperature transducer with electrical signal output temperaturesensor
a
S
Sensor for pressure Three-point controller with switching output
<6
Valve actuator with motor drive
Controller, general
Sensor for temperature, general
Explanation
Monitor
PID controller signal amplifier for manipulated actuating signal controlled variable x variable/ reference input PID) valve actuator, signal adjuster for electrical motor signal to adjust reference driven input variable w [M steam
>
water bath
348
Automation: 7.1 Basic terminology
Analog controllers Analog (continuous) controllers
cf. DIN 19225 (1981-12) and DIN 19226-2 (1994-02)
In analog controllers the manipulated variable y may assume any desired value within the control range. Controller design
Level control example, description
P-controllers Proportional controllers
P controller
Output variable is proportional to input variable. P-controllers have steady-state errors.
outflow valve
Transition function x controlled variable y manipulated variable e error
Symbol1' Block representation2' step function 3 ' step response 4 '
U
time t
2 /
U
time t
I-controllers Integral controllers
I controller
U
I-controllers are slower than P-controllers, but they eliminate all errors.
2 /
PI-controllers Proportional integral controllers
P control part I control part
LR
PI
X z
In PI-controllers a P-controller and a I-controller are connected in parallel. D-controllers Derivative controllers
/
D-controller systems only occur with P- or PIcontroller systems, since pure D-controller behavior with constant error does not provide any manipulated variable and therefore no closed loop control.
LN /
PD-controllers Proportional derivative controllers
PD-controllers are created when a P controller and a D element are connected in parallel. The D part changes the output variable at a rate proportional to the rate of change of the input variable. The P part changes the output variable so that it is proportional to the input variable itself. PD-controllers act quickly.
PID-controllers Proportional integral derivative controllers
Lf
II
PID-controllers are created by connecting P, I and D-controllers in parallel. Initially the D part reacts with a large change to the control signal, afterwards this change is reduced to approximately the magnitude of the P element, and finally the effect of the I element causes the response to rise linearly.
1
2
3
4)
> Symbol as per DIN 19227-2 ' Signal curve at controlled system input
> Block representation as per DIN 19226-2 Signal curve at controlled system output
y
X
PID
/
Automation: 7.1 Basic terminology
Discontinuous and digital controllers Switching (discontinuous) controllers
cf. DIN 19225 (1981-12) and DIN 19226-2 (1994-02)
Switching controllers change the manipulated variable y discontinuously by switching in several steps. Controller design
Transition function, switching behavior
Example, description
Two-point controller
9^9
^
relay
Symbol Block representation
heating coil
—
W
v
W
IHII heat radiation
f-V
contacts switch pos. 2
set-point potentiometer Three-point controller
Air conditioning system In an air conditioning system three temperature ranges are assigned three switch positions: - heating ON - heating/cooling OFF - cooling ON
Digital controllers (software controllers)
switch pos. 1
y
II
error
switch pos. 3
switch pos. 2
y 0 error switch pos. 1
31
-1
cf. DIN 19225 (1981-12) and DIN 19226-2 (1994-02)
The operating mode of the digital controller is implemented as a computer program. Controller design
Transient function
Example (simplified)
Computers
J Start I Enter reference input variable w
Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)
Digital PID-controller
error step
1 Aquire controlled variable x 1 Generate error e = w-x
Microcontrollers Microprocessors
time t
v
.""-I PID control algorithm 1 Output manipulated variable y -
tl 3 2 1
summing
step response
Controller design
Example
P-controlled system with delay 1st order (P-T-i controlled system)
Filling a gas vessel Py
i t
i t
cf. DIN 19226-2 (1994-02) Transient function
Explanation
time t
If the pressure vessel is filled by a flow of gas, pressure p-i in the vessel gradually reaches the pressure of the gas flow.
time t Filling two gas vessels 1 ffl
it-
t
=1X3=
The computer program has the following tasks: -generate error e - calculate the manipulated variable / based on programmed control algorithms At the step response all P, D and I-parts are summed. Sampling of analog signals and their conversion to digital values and internal program flow causes a time delay of the controlled variable x (similar to a T-controlled system).
time t
«
P-controlled systems with time delay (T part)
P-controlled system with delay 2nd order (P-T2 controlled system)
Explanation
Jfez
Py Pn
time t time t
If two vessels are connected in series, pressure P2 increases in the second vessel slower than pressure p-\ in the first vessel.
350
Automation: 7.1 Basic terminology
Binary logic Function
Circuit symbols Logical equation
11 AND
&
12
Technical implementation
Function table
0
0 = 11 A 12
11
12
O
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
pneumatic
11
0
A\
OR
12
0 = 11 V 12
12
O
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
NOT
11
O
0
1
1
0
T — r
12
«0
12 H
1
11
electric
0
A
11 12
11
cf. DIN EN 60617-12 (1999-04)
T
111
~J—t 5
i—\
H
12
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
11
12
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
--0-
1
1
0
11
11
12
O
0
0
0
0
1
1
0 = (11 A 12) V
1
0
1
(11 A 12)
1
1
0
& 0 = 11 A 12
NOT-OR (NOR) 0 = 11 V 12
II Exclusive OR (XOR)
=1
12
11
0
11 0 0 1 1
J
Memory (RS flipflop)
12 R
S set R reset
02
• •
I = inputs
5 11
12
X
H5
I
I2
X
t
H
t
12
01
s
•
C1
11
12
T
12
0 =I
NOT AND (NAND)
T
12 0 1 02 0 • • 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
• •
state unchanged condition indeterminate state
O = outputs, e.g. lamps
,1J J J J 01
11
,02 ( — 1 12
v ]*
C = relays, contacts
! J
I — \ C 1 \ C 1 \ I — \ C2\C2\
C1 • •
C2 01
• •
02<^)
351
Automation: 7.2 Electrical circuits
Circuit symbols
CF. DIN EN 6O617-1 TO -12 0999-04)
General circuit symbols Resistor,
-C
D— general
Lamps, general, optional representation
Inductor, coil
Fuse
Nonstandard representation
Capacitor
Permanent magnet
W
Electrolytic component
Buzzer Horn
Converter, transducer
Junction, optional representation
Connection to ground, optional representation
Conductors, connectors and terminals Conductor, general
•i^-
Grounded conductor, PE
Conductor, moveable
Neutral conductor, PN
Conductor, insulated
Neutral conductor with protective function PEN
-t-
—
I^A-J
Measuring device, recording
Transformer, optional representation
Ground Ground connector connection
Semiconductor diode, general
v
LED light emitting diode
v
Types of current
Adjustability
/
V
Valve
Designations
general
"="
Semiconductor components
Devices and machines Measuring device, machine
Double junction, optional representation
1
f k
H
Function stepped
/
continuous
adjustable
Effect thermal
regulated
radiation
—
DC AC with low frequency AC with high frequency
PNP transistor
NPN transistor
Types of connections
T
Y connection
A
Delta connection
YA
Y-delta connection
Circuit symbols in wiring system drawings Circuit switch
cT
d * a) single-pole
a)
b)
b) double-pole
KK^
Sensor switch
/ X
Three-way switch, illuminated
l
®
Motor circuit breaker
Groundingtype receptacle
Series switch
Three-pole switch, protective system IP 44
Key button
4
Automatic breaker
•4
Ground-fault circuit interrupter
Application examples Inductor, continuously adjustable
/ H
X /
1
I—
Resistor, 5 step variable
DC-AC converter, regulated
DC or AC (universal)
3G 1,5
Three-core cable with junction Cable with 3 conductors, with ground conductor (G) and 1.5 mm 2 cross section
DC motor
Three-phase motor
352
Automation: 7.2 Electrical circuits
Circuit symbols Actuation types
Relay contacts NO contact, normally open NC contact, normally closed Single pole double throw
Electromech. relays
b
Manual, general
E>
By pressing By
Timer on delay Timer off delay Timer on off delay
T-—
By tilting
0 — >/-—
By key
o
By coil
By pressure energy
C B -
By proximity By touching
By pedal
pulling By turning
_F
Switch behavior
b)
>
t
By bimetal (thermal)
Capacitive sensor, reacts to proximity of all substances
<0 Hl-
Delayed action (parachute effect) for movement a) to the right b)to the left
a)
—
Sensors (Block representation)
Lock, prevents automatic return
Relay coil, general
fx-7—I—| • '
CF. DIN EN 6O617-1 TO -12 (1999-04)
Inductive sensor, reacts to proximity of metals
o
Symbol for "actuated state"
Magnetic sensor, reacts to close proximity of a magnet (reed switch)
O
Optical sensor, reacts to reflection of infrared beam
o
Examples of switch applications
h-
NO contact manually
hvV-
Double pole single throw
a) NC contact b) NO contact Representation in actuated condition NO contact a) closes b) delayed opening when actuated
NC contact with roller actuation
o—
Limit switch, NO contact
t
Valve with electromagnetic actuation
Emergency palm button
RS flip-flop set dominant
11 12 01 02
12
02
• •
0 1 0 1 1 1
• •
=0-
RS flip-flop reset dominant
11 12 01 02 S1 1 R
1
91 0 02
1 0 1 0 Function table 2 '
Capacitive proximity switch with NC contact, reacts to proximity of all materials.
Delay elements
RS 1) flip-flop
0
I<0>--
Limit switch, NC contact
Flip-flop elements
91 0
Magnetic proximity switch with NO contact, reacts to proximity of magnetic material.
11 12 01 02
0 • •
0 1 0 1
12
S
1
R1 1
91 0 02
1 0 1 0 Function table
1 1 1 0
0 • •
With rise-delay time
I
0
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
Function table
1 1 0 1
When a signal is applied to input I, output O assumes value 1 after time f-i elapses.
With turn-off delay Flip-flops are integrated circuits which store signal conditions. 1
> R = reset S = set 2) • unchanged state • indeterminate state
The numeral 1 after an R or S input indicates that the logical state of this input is dominant. If a signal simultaneously lies at inputs 11 and 12 (11 = 1 and 12 = 1) the following applies: Input without the numeral 1 (R for set dominant, S for reset dominant RS flip-flop) is always set to logical state 0.
I
10 t 21 0
With loss of a signal at input I, output O takes the value 0 after completion of time t2.
353
Automation: 7.2 Electrical circuits
Designations in circuit plans* Designation of devices in circuit diagrams Example:
B F K Q M P R S
cf. DIN EN 61346-2 (2000-12) S2E
Type of device
Sequential number
Code letters for type (selection)
Code letters for function (not standardized)
Sensor, proximity switch Fuse Switch relay, timed relay Circuit breaker, contactor Solenoid valve, solenoid Indicator light, horn Resistor Control switch, push-button switch
A
Function OFF
B
Direction of movement
E
Function ON
Device function
Example of circuit diagram
F1 K1
S1A E--
G Test K
Jog operation
S
Save, set
R
Clear, reset
Designation of wires and connections
S2E E K1
eg
M1_c£>X
cf. DIN EN 60446 (1999-10) and DIN EN 60445 (2000-08)
Insulated wires Designation Type of wire
DC network
AC network
Code letters
positive
L+
negative
L-
neutral wire
M
Phase conductor 1
L1
Phase conductor 2
L2
Phase conductor 3
L3
PEN wire (neutral wire with ground function, PE + N)
Example
Symbols
Rectifier circuit L1 light blue
neutral wire Ground wire
Wire color
L3
— brown
o £
— black
CD C
— light blue PE light blue
PE
— black
L2
(J <
— green-yellow
-f-
green-ylffiov
i—
L-
PEN
o $
black
c O Q
black
Ground Device connections Connections for
Example
Designation
Phase conductor 1
U
Star-connected (squirrel) cage motor
Phase conductor 2 Phase conductor 3 1)
2)
M3~
W
Terminal board W2
Color is unspecified. Black is recommended, brown to differentiate. Green-yellow may not be used. PEN-wires have a continuous green-yellow conductor color. To avoid confusion with PE wires, PEN wires are additionally marked with light blue on the ends of the wires, e.g. with a wire clip or adhesive tape. According to European Standards
L1 V1
U2
V
rv>r>r\
j
r
V2
T W1
L2 L3
354
Automation: 7.2 Electrical circuits
Circuit diagrams
CF. DIN EN 61082 <1998-09)
Connector markings on relays Example: Relay with 2 NOs and 2 NCs
2nd digit Function number for contacts
NC
NC
NO
NO
delayed
SPDT delayed
SPDT
delayed
T
1st digit Consecutive numbering of contact sets
Designing circuit diagrams Current sections and distribution of electric circuits Every electrical device is shown with a vertical current section regardless of the actual spatial arrangement of the elements. Current sections are numbered sequentially from left to right. The control circuit contains devices for signal input and signal processing. The main circuit contains the necessary final control elements for the working elements. The spatially shared devices, e.g. relay coil and relay contact, are not represented.
Control circuit L+
Main circuit
1
3
? C1
S1 h ~
S2
4
53 h
H-A
C1
C1
-
\ MlCp-% N3CpX
C1 L-
Designation of devices Contacts and the associated relay coils are marked with the same code numeral. Example: Current sections 1, 2 and 3 2 NO contacts belong to relay coil C1, both marked as C1. They are used to latch the relay coil. All contacts of a relay are entered as a complete contact set or as a table under the current path of the relay. Both representations indicate the current section on which a contact is located.
o C1 I
1
0 C2 1 •
o c a r
CNI
Osl
CM
o
o
O
,13 14 23 - i 33 -1n *
14 slL 23 ' 1 24 33 " 1 34
6
2
1
I
3
?
r ^ r S1h A
C1
S2 I — f
L-
\
ciN
S3
C1
14 1L 23 "f ~ 2 4 33 "rru
Representation as contact set
L+
C3 Osl O
Contacts C1
Section
13-14 23-24
2 3
C2 \
C3
M1
M3
S4
C2 Cvl °
?
O
Contacts C2
Section
Contacts C3
Section
13-14
5
13-14
6
Representation as table
355
Automation: 7.2 Electrical circuits
Sensors Sensors (selection) Sensors that are sensitive to proximity
Inductive sensors
Sensors
Capacitive sensors
Photoelectric sensors
Tactile sensors
Magnetic sensors
Ultrasound sensors
Limit switches
Characteristics of sensors Sensor type
Disadvantages
Object distance
Only objects with high electrical conductivity, unsuitable where there is greater accumulation of metal chips
1 mm to 150 mm
Triggers if an object interferes with the alternating electric leakage field of the sensor
Small object distances, High degree of protection larger design than (IP67), detects all materials; comparable inductive sendirt tolerant sors
20 mm to 40 mm
<0
Triggers if an object returns the infrared field of the sensor
Detects all materials, large distances
o
Evaluates transit times of reflected ultrasonic pulses to determine the distance to an object
Tolerant to dust, dirt and light; detects very small objects at large distances
Slow, use only with standard pressure, not in areas sub60 mm to ject to explosion hazards and 6m no high-frequency noise
A permanent magnet actuates a proximity switch (reed contact) using two contact springs
Suitable in rough environment, high service life, suitable for switches in high frequency circuits
Risk of contact welding; suppresses the current peaks of RC modules
Symbol
Principle
O
Triggers if an object interferes with the alternating magnetic leakage field of the sensor
High degree of protection (IP67), very high switch point precision, dirt tolerant
o
Inductive
Capacitive
Hh Photoelectric
Ultrasound
HDh O
Magnetic
Mechanical
M>~
Advantages
Triggered by manual actuation or lever system
Sensitive to dirt, smoke and secondary light, auxiliary power necessary
Low price, robust, small, unaffected by interference fields, no auxiliary power necessary
Contact chatter, not allowed in food and chemical industries
Designation of proximity sensors Example:
cf. DIN EN 60947-5-2 (2004-11) U 1 A30 A F 2 N
J Type of detection inductive C capacitive U ultrasound D photoelectric diffuse reflected luminous beam M magnetic R photoelectric reflected luminous beam photoelectric direct luminous beam
approx. 2m
Mechanical mounting conditions flush mounting possible flush mounting not possible unspecified
Design and size
FORM A cylindrical threaded sleeve B smooth cylindrical sleeve C rectangular with square cross-section D square, with rectangular cross-section SIZE (2 digits) for diameter or side length
JTTTI Circuit element function
A NO contact B NC contact C single pole double throw P programmable by user S other
1
Type of output
P PNP output, 3 or 4 DC connections N NPN output, 3 or 4 DC connections D 2 DC connections 1 ' F 2 AC connections 2 ' U 2 AC or DC connections S other
Type of connection integrated connection line plug connection screw connection unused other type of connection
NAMUR function N NAMUR 3' function Note: NAMUR sensors are 2 wire sensors that are connected to an external switching amplifier
' DC = Direct Current ' AC = Alternating Current 3 ' NAMUR = Normenarbeitsgemeinschaft fur Mess- und Regelungstechnik (Standardization Association for Measurement and Control) 2
356
Automation: 7.2 Electrical circuits
Safety precautions Safety precautions against electrical shock Protection against direct and indirect contact I Protection by:
cf. DIN VDE 0 100-410 (2003-06)
Protection against electric shock under normal conditions: against direct contact i Protection by: - protective insulation of active parts, e.g. cable - coating as insulation, e.g. housings on electr. devices - distance, e.g. protective hoods, housings of machine screen - barriers, e.g. protective screen, enclosure
- Safety Extra Low Voltage (SELV) - Protective Extra Low Voltage (PELV) - Functional Extra Low Voltage FELV
Protection against electric shock under fault conditions: for indirect contact l Protection by: - automatic disconnect or warning, e.g. residual current protective device - potential equalization - non-conductive areas; e.g. by insulating coverings - protective insulation, e.g. housings encapsulated with insulating material
ft
ft
Additional protection by residual current circuit breaker GFI's: Ground Fault Interrupter
Effects of alternating current
vgl. IEC 60479-1 (1994) Zone
Safety curves for AC 50 Hz from hand to hand or from hand to foot for adults
i
Physical effects
10 000 ms
AC-1
normally no effect
2000
AC-2
normally no damaging physical effects
AC-3
usually no organic damage, difficulty breathing (> 2 s), muscle cramps
I
1000
£
o 5= c
500
§
200
o o c o
100
3 -o
20
AC-1
AC-2
Trigger curve of a ground fault interrupt dev. < 30 mA
50
10 0.1
0.2
0.5 1 2 5 10
AC-4.1
5% probability of ventricular fibrillation
AC-4.2
up to 50% probability of ventricular fibrillation
AC-4.3
over 50% probability of ventricular fibrillation
mA 500 2000
100
AC-4
leakage current
cardiac arrest, cessation of breathing, and extreme burns (increasing with exposure time and current level)
Automatic fuses and wire cross-sectional areas
cf. DIN VDE 0 1000-430 (1991-11)
2
Minimum cross-sectional area in m m 2 for
Minimum cross-sectional area in m m for
Rated current of fuse I n in A
Color code of fuse
Rated current of fuse I n in A
Color code of fuse
1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
25
yellow
1.5 2.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
35
2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 1.5 2.5
50
Cu wires by method of installation
A1 2
10(13) 16 20
gray
B1
B2
C
and number of loaded strands
3
3
3
2
3
2
3
Method of installation of cables and insulated wires A1
Installation in thermally insulated walls, in electrical conduit
B1
Installation in electrical conduit or in the wall or in cable channels
According to European Standards
B2
white
Cu wires by method of installation
A1
B1
B2
C
and number of loaded strands
2
3
3
3
2
3
4
4
2.5
4
4
4
2
6
6
6
6
6
6
4
4
10
16
10
10
10
10
10
10
3
2.5 2.5
cf. DIN VDE 0 298-4 (2003-08) Installation in electrical conduit or in the wall, in cable channels or behind base boards Installation directly on or in the wall
357
Automation: 7.2 Electrical circuits
Safety precautions* Protective systems for electrical devices Example:
Protective system designation IP (International Protection)
cf. DIN EN 60529 (2000-09) IP3 4 C M
J T T 1st code numeral for protection of device1* against penetration of solid foreign objects
II
2nd code number for protection of the device 1 ' against water with damaging effect
Supplementary letters
Additional code letters 2 '
J 1st code no. Code Protection against Protection from no accidental contact foreign objects No protection
0
Protected against contact by back of the hand
1
Code no
No protection
0
Protected against penetration by foreign objects d> 50 mm
1
2nd code number Water protection No protection Protected against vertical drips
Protected against contact with finger d = 12 mm
Protected against penetration by foreign objects d> 12.5 mm
2
3
Protected against contact with a tool d= 2.5 mm
Protected against penetration by foreign objects d> 2.5 mm
3
Protected against water spray impacting device at 60°
4
Protected against contact with a wire d = 1 mm
Protected against penetration by foreign objects d > 1 mm
4
Protected against water spray from all directions
Svmbol
5
Protected against contact with a wire d = 1 mm
Protected from dust
5
Protected against water jets from all directions
6
Protected against contact with a wire d = 1 mm
Dust proof
6
Protected against strong water jets from all directions
7
Protected against temporary submersion in water
8
Protected against continual submersion in water
2
*
4>
1
> If a code number is not given, the letter X is used in its place, e.g. IP X6 or IP 3X
2)
Is only given if the protection is greater than the 1st code number.
Protected against drips if device is inclined 15°
Additional letters
Symbol None
* 4 4
A
A
Protected against contact by back of the hand
B
Protected against contact with finger d= 12 mm, 80 mm long
C
Protected against contact with a tool d = 2.5 mm, 100 mm long
D
Protected against contact with a wire d = 1 mm, 100 mm long Supplementary letters
AA
44 44 44
H
Equipment for high voltage
M
Tested on water intake in running machine
S
Tested on water intake on idle machine
W
Suitable for specific weather conditions
...kPa
Electric equipment for explosive areas
Code
Type of protection
0 P
oil immersion pressurized enclosure sand filling flameproof enclosure increased safety inherent safety
q d e
cf. DIN EN 13237 (2003-01)
Group II A
B
i *) According to European Standards
ethylene, acryl nitrite, hydrogen cyanide, dimethylether, propylene oxide, coke oven gas, tetrafluoroethylene
Surface temperature
T1
450 °C
T2
300 °C
T3
200 °C
T4
135°C
T5
100°C
T6
85°C
C
Risk of explosion by occurrence of the follo\ /ving gases: methane, propane, butane, propylene, benzene, toluol, naphthalene, turpentine, petroleum, gasoline, fuel oil, diesel oil, carbon monoxide, methanol, metaldehyde, acetone, acids, chloride
Code
hydrogen, acetylene, carbon bisulphide, ethyl nitrite
358
Automation: 7.3 Function charts and Function diagrams
Function charts for sequential controls (GRAFCET)1*
CF. DIN EN 60848 (2002-12)
The function chart in accordance with GRAFCET is a graphical design language for sequential control. However, it does not make any statement about the type of devices used, the direction of lines and the installation of electrical equipment. Only the general representation via symbols is obligatory; dimensions and other details are left to the user.
Example: hydraulic press with sequential control The ram of a hydraulic press forces bushings into a plate. When the cylinder is in its end position (B1) and a bushing is available (B4), the cylinder extends in fast motion. The sensor B2 switches to feed mode. As soon as the bushing is forced in (B3) the cylinder retracts in fast motion.
- Start step Start cycle (S1) and cylinder in basic position (B1) and bushing available (B4) Cylinder A1 extends in fast motion Cylinder A1 extended (B2) Cylinder A1 in feed mode Cylinder A1 extended (B3) Cylinder A1 retracts in fast motion Cylinder A1 retracted (B1) Symbol
Explanation
Steps
Examples
Explanation
Closed cycle (step chain) Continuous action
Cylinder A1 retracts in fast motion
Stored with rising edge
Solenoid valve M2 ON
Stored with falling edge
Signal light M5 ON
M2:=1
M5:=1
Step
/ *
\
7 ^
1
\ /
*
Start step
Start step with step number 1
Set step It displays which steps are set for a definite condition of the process
Steps that are active at a particular time can be marked with a dot.
Macro step Individual representation of a detailed part of a sequential control
M
S /
This action is only valid as long as the corresponding step is active. When the step is activated, the value 1 is assigned to the solenoid valve M2. This action remains active also after the reset of the step. When the step is activated, the value 1 is assigned to the signal light P5 only after the reset of the step. The number must be in the upper center of the step field
Inclusive step This step contains several steps that are referred to as included steps.
Inclusive start step This step contains several steps that are referred to as included steps.
E5
Macro step M5, shown in its detailed structure:
5.1
- The release of transition a activates the access step E5 of the macro step M5.
5.2
- The activation of the exit step S5 releases transition g.
M5 5.3
- The release of transition g deactivates step S5. S5
> GRAFCET French: GRAphe Fonctionnel de Commande Etape Transition. English: specification language for function charts of sequential controls
359
Automation: 7.3 Function charts and Function diagrams
Basic designs of sequential charts Symbol
Explanation
cf. DIN EN 60848 (2002-12) Explanation
Examples
Sequential chart
1
step
2
A sequential chart consists of a series of steps placed one after another. Steps and transitions alternate.
- Start step e.g. system "ON"
m
Start-up push button S1
step
Pump motor ON Tank FULL
3
step
Agitator motor ON 15s delay time
4
step
OPEN drain valve
1. Sequential charts enforce a step structure developed from top to bottom. 2. Within the sequence, only one step can be active at a time. 3. The start step describes the initial condition of the system. 4. After execution of the last step and release of the transition, a feedback loop returns the system to the start step.
Tank empty Transistions The transition is composed of • a dash and • a text describing the transition -- transition
1. Step 3 is active, i.e. the agitator motor is ON. 2. If the condition for the release of the transition (the agitator runs for 15 sec.) is satisfied, step 4 is set. 3. Step 4 resets step 3, i.e. the ON signal for the agitator motor is no longer active. The motor is shut down. 4. The drain valve opens.
Agitator motor ON
Transitions can be represented by: • text statements • Boolean algebra (equation) • graphical symbols
15s delay time
OPEN drain valve
Sequence selection (alternative branch)
cAd-
--cAd
A sequence branches to several sequences starting at a single or several steps. A difference is made between: • sequence branch
1 Example: sequence branch
T
Sequence branch:
--
—
e
-II
f
The sequence occurs if step 5 is set a) branching to step 6 if the condition for the release of transition "e" is satisfied, (e=1) or b) branching to step 8 if the condition for the release of transition "f" is satisfied (f=1).
• sequence junction
Simultaneous sequences (parallel branch)
-- a
A sequence from step 2 to steps 22, 24 etc. only occurs if,
A sequence branches to multiple sequences that are simultaneously activated but run independently of each other. The next individual step is carried out only after all branches are processed.
22
24 ._,
=E=
-
b
a) step 2 is set and
-- a
-f b 3 1
l
b) the condition for the release of the common transition "a" is satisfied (a=1).
360
Automation: 7.3 Function charts and Function diagrams
Function charts for sequential controls, Examples
cf. DIN EN EO848 (2002-12)
Example: Lifting device Workpieces are lifted by a lifting cylinder and pushed onto a roller conveyor by a transfer cylinder. Actuating the main valve and start button S1 causes the lifting cylinder 1A1 to extend, lifting the workpiece and activating the limit switch 1B2 in the end position. This causes transfer cylinder 2A1 to extend, pushing the workpiece onto the roller conveyor and activating limit switch 2B2. Cylinder 1A1 returns to its initial position, actuates 1B1 thereby causing cylinder 2A1 to be retracted.
transfer cylinder 2A1 2B1 2B2
System "ON". Cylinders 1A1 and 2A1 in initial position Start button S1
si-art
Extend cylinder 1A1 1B2 (Cylinder 1A1 is extended) -
Extend cylinder 2A1 2B2 (Cylinder 2A1 is extended)
-
Retract cylinder 1A1 1B1 (Cylinder 1A1 is retracted)
-
lifting cylinder 1A1
Retract cylinder 2A1 2B1 (Cylinder 2A1 is retracted)
Example: Stirring machine control Paint flows into a mixing tank, is stirred there and then pumped back out. Opening valve 01 causes the paint to fill to a level mark. Afterwards motor M1 is turned on and the paint is stirred 2 minutes. After shutoff of stirring motor M1 and activation of pump motor M2 (running time at least 10 sec), the container is pumped empty. Shutoff criterion for pump motor M2 is drop of motor power below 1 kW (container is empty).
System "ON" Start button S1 Valve Q1 OPEN
p > 0.4 bar (Fill level mark reached) Valve Q1 CLOSED stirring , M motor M1 v I I
Stirring motor M1 ON start-
t= 2 min Stirring motor M1 OFF Pump motor M2 ON
pressure sensor for fill level
P< 1 kW (container empty) & t>= 10s
pump motor M2 -
Pump motor M2 OFF
= 1
Automation: 7.3 Function charts and Function diagrams
Function diagrams Path diagram
Function diagram
Description of a working sequence by 2 coordinates i Pneumatic cylinder Step 1: idle position
Simple motion sequences
cp nJ
^ ^ SI
State diagram
S2
SO: signal element ON S1: fast motion up to S1 Step 2: fast forward time in s S2: feed up to S2 motion o S3: fast reverse motion step 3: feed step U Pt0 S3 Step 4: end position Step 5: fast reverse motion
0 1 4 10 11 1
:l
3
4
5
Symbols of a function diagram Movements and functions Paths and movements
Function lines
Path and movement limits
Straight line working movement
Idle and initial position of subassemblies
Path limits general
Straight line idle movement
For all conditions deviating from the idle or initial position
Path limits using signal elements
Signal elements Manual actuation
9
Mechanical actuation
ON JOG
9
OFF
o
Limit switch actuated in end position
~p\ 6 bar
Limit switch actuated over longer path length
71 2 s
P r e s s u r e
switch set to
6 bar
MODE AUTOMATIC MODE
ON/ OFF
Hydraulic or pneumatic actuation
Time element set to 2 sec.
ON
Signal combinations
t
V
The signal line begins at the signal output and ends at the point where a change of state is introduced.
V V
AND state: marked with a slash
The signal branch is marked with a dot.
OR state: marked with a dot
x
Execution of a function diagram (state diagram) Cylinder Step 1: move from initial position 1 to position 2 Step 2: remain in position Step 3: move from position 2 to initial position 1
0 12 3 4
/
S
Valve with two switch positions
0 1 2 3 4 5
Signal element activated manually
Step 1: switch from initial position b to position a Step 2 and 3: remain in position Step 4: switch from position a to initial position a
Step 2: switch on; control element switches from b to a
Example: Final control element mechanically activated
1A1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 step i 1S1
/
t
\
yi N,2s J /
Step 1: Final control element switches directional control valve from b to a and causes extension of cylinder 1A1. Step 2: Cylinder actuates signal element 1S1 Signal element 1S1 controls timer element Timer runs out (2 sec). Step 3: Timer element controls directional control valve from a to b Cylinder 1A1 retracts to initial state.
362
Automation: 7.3 Function charts and Function diagrams
Function diagrams. Example Example: Pneumatically controlled lifting device Layout
Function diagram
transfer cylinder 2A1
Pneumatic circuit diagram
Parts list Designations Name 1A1 2A1
Cylinder, double acting Cylinder, double acting
0V1 1V1 1V2 2V1
3/2 DCV with detent, manually activated Two pressure valve 5/2 DCV, pressure activated 5/2 DCV, pressure activated
Designations Name 151 152 153 251 252
3/2 3/2 3/2 3/2 3/2
DCV, roller activated DCV, roller activated DCV, activated by push button DCV, roller activated DCV, roller activated
363
A u t o m a t i o n : 7.4 Hydraulics, Pneumatics
Circuit symbols
CF. DIN ISO 1219-1 (1996-03)
Function elements
•
Hydraulic fluid flow
>
Compressed airflow
ill
( (
Direction of flow
/
Power transmission Hydraulic pressure source
Line junction
+
Pneumatic press, source
Quick coupling
Control line Leakage current line
Exhaust without connection
Enclosure around subassemblies
Exhaust with connection
V
S p r i n g
V W
Flow restriction
Adjustability
~ m >
Filter or screen
Muffler Tank
Line crossing
Working line
Direction of rotation
Water separator
Air receiver Hydraulic accumulator
T® 7 _
—
A
Service unit (FRL)
i
r
dryer
Lubricator
Pumps, compressors, motors Fixed displacement hydraulic pump, unidirectional Variable displacement hydraulic pump, bidirectional Compressor, unidirectional
O
Fixed displacement hydraulic motor, unidirectional
Variable displacement hydraulic motor, bidirectional
Fixed displacement pneumaticmotor, unidirectional
Variable displacement pneumatic motor, bidirectional
Hydraulic oscillating drive Pneumatic oscillating drive
®=
Double-acting cylinders
Single-acting cylinders
JL
I
I
simplified:
Single-acting cylinder, return stroke by undefined power source
A
I
H
simplified:
N
I
Single-acting cylinder, return stroke by integrated spring
j I
A
I
simplified:
Pilot operated check valve
r^i — C h e c k valve, spring loaded
Shuttle valve (OR function)
Quick exhaust valve
Double-acting cylinder with one-sided piston rod
Pressure valves
Check, and/or valves Check valve, unloaded
Electric motor
TM
Pressure relief valves
1M
Sequence valve
LL One-way flow control valve
Dual-pressure valve (AND function)
-
w
2-way pressure regulator, directacting Pressure switch, emits electrical signal for a preset pressure
simpli- ' fied: /
z
Double-acting cylinder with one-sided piston rod and twosided adjustable end cushion
Flow control valves 4 -
Adjustable throttle valve
t
Adjustable 2-way flowcontrol valve
£
Adjustable 3-way flowcontrol valve, relief opening to tank
364
Automation: 7.4 Hydraulics, Pneumatics
Circuit symbols cf. DIN ISO 1219-1 (1996-03) DIN ISO 5599 (2005-12)
Connection designations and codes for directional control valves Example: 5/2 directional control valve with connection designation
4 2
• 6V/
Connection designations for pneumatic and hydraulic equipment
12
14
PI
Designator
Connection
5 13
Code designation 5 / 2 - directional control valve 6 V 7
I Number of switch positions
Number of connections
Circuit number
Part designation
Switch positions1*
Part designation
Valve with 2 positions a 1)
0
b
Part number
pumps and compressors drives drive motors signal pick-up valves all other parts
Valve with 3 positions
Number of rectangles Number of positions
as per DIN with numbers
obsolete: with letters1'21
Inflow, 1 P pressure port Working A, B, C 2, 4,6 ports Vent, 3, 5,7 R, S, T drain Leakage L oil port Control 10,11, X, Y, Z 12,14 ports3' 11 Letters are still frequently used in hydraulic circuit diagrams. 21 The sequence of the letters does not necessarily correspond to the number sequence. 3) A pulse at control port 12, for example, connects ports 1 and 2.
Designs of directional control valves 2/ directional control valves 3/ directional control valves 4/ directional control valves 5/ directional control valves
2/2 DCV, normally closed 2/2 DCV, normally open Flow paths
. . T,
s
3/2 DCV, normally closed
1
3/2 DCV, normally open
5
3/3 DCV, NC in middle position
H
OKI
e in:
JZL
c
General, no type of actuation indicated
HI
One flow path in bypass switch and two closed ports
4/3 DCV, with float in middle position
SQl
5/3 DCV, NC in middle position
Plunger
Pressure actuation — "C hydraulic
Direct
--EC Plunger with adjustable stroke limit
Push button
Two interconnected flow paths
4/3 DCV. NC in middle pos.
Mechanical actuation
Two flow paths Two flow paths and one closed port
5/2 directional control valve
M
Actuation of directional control valves
One flow path Two closed ports
1 X X i i
Manually activated
m •
X
ri-i
4/2 directional control valve
pneumatic j—
Indirect using pilot valve
Electrical actuation
k:
HI a ) ^ L
Lever
Pull button
C
Spring
HI
Roller plunger
Push and pull button
Foot pedal
f t
Roller lever, one direction of actuation
®c
By solenoid By electric motor
Combined actuation
C
By solenoid and pilot valve
Mechanical components Notch
365
A u t o m a t i o n : 7.4 Hydraulics, Pneumatics
Circuit diagrams
CF DIN ISO 1219-2 <1996-11)
Designing a circuit plan circuit 1
circuit 2 1S2
1A1
1S2 W
®=
The circuit is subdivided into subcircuits with related control functions. The actual spatial arrangement of the components is not considered.
Components are arranged from bottom to top in the direction of power flow and H t J T y M from left to right.
a
Ht lywv
ti
3-e5 V 7 Hht 1 Circuit number
Part designation Part number
Equipment number
1S3
If the circuit diagram is made of several units, the unit number must be given, beginning with numeral 1.
Tl!
2S2 X h
Subassemblies such as throttle check valves or service units (FRL) are enclosed by a dash-dot line.
2S1
Hydraulic components are shown in their initial positions in the equipment before pressure is applied.
2S1
Similar components or subassemblies are shown at the same height within a circuit.
®=
Devices actuated by drives, e.g. limit switches, are represented at their point of activation by a dash and their designator.
For roller plunger valves operating on one side only, a directional arrow is also placed at the dash.
2S2
Components of a circuit Pneumatic components are shown in their initial positions in the equipment before pressure is applied.
5
u
Motors, cylinders, valves Valves for controlling drive elements Valves for signal combination Components used to trigger a switching action Service unit (FRL), main valve
Drive elements Actuators Control elements Signal elements Supply elements
Example: Pneumatic circuit diagram with two cylinders (lifting device) 1S1
1A1
circuit 1
1S2
circuit 2
2S1
2A1
drive elements
1V2
4 71
1V1 T \ J L 2S1
1S3
J2
5v v 3 2S2
Xlw
/w
LP 11 3
'3 ovTl%
0Z1
TW
I
5
14
final control elements control element signal elements
supply elements
2V1
4 5v
1S2 ®=
12
f ISI
2S2
366
Automation: 7.4 Hydraulics, Pneumatics
Electropneumatic controls Function diagram
Layout transfer cylinder 2A1
B2
up < pV lifting cylinder 1A1 down
\
forward
transfer cylinder 2A1
X
back
\ ?<
B1
7/
/
11
1
B3
Pneumatic circuit diagram Lifting
Pushing B3 B4
B1 B2
8 2
~~ f i lifting cylinder 1A1
Circuit diagram U
5
i
switching element t a b l e 1 )
B2
B/f
C2
C3
NCINO
NCINO
B1
i
i
C1
C2
C3
C4
1M1
2M1
1M2
2M2
C4
NC| NO
i
3 C M NCINO
C M
E l *
NC = normally closed NO = normally opened
~'6
Circuit diagram with the additional functions - magazine query and continuous operation 9
I-2A- V
1
11
2
rr—rr
continuous operation ON
E-VcsV
— continuous operation OFF
10
t—r B2
B4
T — T V B1
T V
T
V
C1
C2
C3
C4
1M1
2M1
1M2
2M2
B3
C5 d ^ Z I
0V switching element table 1 *
SOE--VC5\ START
3
C1
C=2 I
j C3
c m
C4
1
NCNO -
10 11
NCINO -15
NCNO NC [NO -
|6~
IT
NC NO 8
C M
£
NC = normally closed NO = normally opened
Example for relay K5: Relay K5 has a normally open switch in section 10 and a normally open switch in section 11. 1
> The switching element table is similar to the contact table (pg. 354) and is often used in practice. However it is not standardized. The table indicates the section in which a NC or NO relay contact can be found.
367
Automation: 7.4 Hydraulics, Pneumatics
Sequence control of a feed unit via PLC according to GRAFCET Description
Technological scheme feed /
,
fast X motion
motor +
fast reverse motion
feed unit
The hydraulic cylinder extends in fast motion and is switched into feed mode by switch B2. In the fully extended position, the proximity switch B3 switches to fast reverse after a time delay of 2 seconds.
Description A1
— B4
i
J B1 B2
i
/ automatic
operating panel
B3
lift cylinder A1
single
CT O
o
Components and action
Address
Remarks
E0.0/E0.1
NO contact/ NC contact
Cylinder A1 extends in fast motion Cylinder A1 in position of proximity switch B2
Push button START
S2
E0.2
NO contact
Push button STOP
S3
E0.3
NC contact
B1-B4
E0.4-E0.7
NO contact
Solenoid valve Q11 Cylinder in feed mode
1M1
A1.0
Solenoid valve 012 Extend cylinder
2M1
A1.1
Solenoid valve Q14 Retract cylinder
2M2
A1.2
Proximity switch
Function block language FBL
FUNCTION BLOCK Operating modes ON
Controller
OFF [ Operating panel \ Automatic mode Single Release step START
Reset
STOP
Network 5: Step 3 Extend in feed mode M0.1 RS E0.5 & M2.0 M3.0 M0.2 R1 1 h m M4.0 >1
M0.1 -CZ] MO.2 -EH
Network 2: Basic position E0.4 M0.3 E0.7 & -GO M0.1 E0.6 M3.0
Step chain Network 3: Step 1 Start step MO.2 >1 M2.0
Instruction list IL Network 4: Step 2 Extend in fast motion M0.1 RS M0.3 & M1.0 M2.0 M0.2 R1 1 H Z I M3.0 >1
Operating modes Network 1: Function block FB1
&
Component designation S0/S1
Cylinder A1 retracted (B1)
M0.1
X
Mode switch AUTOMATIC/STEP
Cylinder A1 retracts in fast motion
c
t±
V1 w ISD2M2
Cylinder in basic position (B1) Workpiece available (B4) Start button ON (S2)
Cylinder A1 in feed mode Cylinder A1 is extended to B3 and dwell time is 2 sec.
E 0 3
W 2M1CH
Allocation list
- Start step -
EO.O
W
O STOP
Function chart and GRAFCET
V2 ra 1M1
START
B1 B2 B3
Network 6: Step 4 Fast reverse with dwell time T1 RS 2 0
&
M02 M1.0
M4.0 R1 1 b e n >1
RS M1.0 R1 1
M4.0 Color marking: step flag in red Transition in blue
Command output Networks 7 to 9 M2.o£ll Cylinder extends L=-l in fast motion MIOSIS Cylinder in I——' feed mode MU)/4n Cylinder retracts in fast motion
Network 1 CALL FB1 Network 2 Basic position U E0.4 U E0.7 S MO.3 Network 3 Step 1: Start step U E0.2 UN E0.3 U M0.1 U E0.4 U M4.0 0 MO.2 S M1.0 U M2.0 R M1.0 Network 4 Step 2: Fast extension U M0.1 U MO.3 U M1.0 S M2.0 O MO.2 O M3.0 R M2.0
Network 5 Step 3: Feed mode U M0.1 U E0.5 U M2.0 S M3.0 U MO.2 O M4.0 R M3.0 Network 6 Step 4: Fast reverse U M0.1 U E0.6 U M3.0 = T1 U T1 S M4.0 U MO.2 O M1.0 R M4.0 Network 7 to 9 Steps 5 to 7: Command output U M2.0 = A1.1 U M3.0 = A1.0 U M4.0 = A1.2 PE
368
Automation: 7.4 Hydraulics, Pneumatics
Hydraulic fluids Mineral oil based hydraulic oils Type
Standard
HL
DIN 51524-1
cf. DIN 51524-1 to -3 (2006-04)
Effect of the ingredients
HVLP
DIN 51524-3
+ Reduction of wear due to scoring in mixed friction area
Hydraulic units with hydro pumps and hydro motors above 200 bar + Reduction of wear due to scoring operating pressure and with high in mixed friction area temperature requirements + Improvement of viscosity-temperature behavior
Increase in aging resistance
HL 10 HLP 10
Properties
Kinematic viscosity in mm 2 /s
HL 22 HLP 22
HL 32 HLP 32
HL 46 HLP 46
HL 68 HLP 68
HL 100 HLP 100
at -20°C
600
at 0°C
90
300
420
780
1400
2560
at 40 °C
9-11
19.8-24.2
28.8-35.2
41.4-50.6
61.2-74.8
90-110
at 100°C
2.4
4.1
5.0
6.1
7.8
9.9
-18°C
-15°C
-12°C
-12°C
175°C
185°C
195°C
205 °C
-
Pour point 1 ' equal to or lower than
30 °C
Flash point above
125°C
1)
Hydraulic units up to 200 bar, with high temperature requirements
-
Increase in corrosion DIN 51524-2 ) resistance +
HLP
Applications
-
- 2 1 °C 165°C
-
-
-
The pour point is the temperature at which hydraulic oil still flows under the force of gravity. Hydraulic oil DIN 51524 - HLP 46: Hydraulic oil of type HLP, kinematic viscosity = 46 mm 2 /s at 40°C Viscosity-temperature behavior of HL and HLP hydraulic oils 200 i2 • HL 100/HLP 100 HL 68/HLP 68 HL 46/HLP 46 HL 32/HLP 32 HL 22/HLP 22 HL 10/HLP 10
Example of reading from diagram: A gear pump operates at an average operating temperature of 40°C. During operation the allowable kinematic viscosity of the hydraulic oil is allowed to fluctuate between 20 to 50 mm2/sec. According to the diagram there are 6 hydraulic oils that would be suitable: • HL 22/HLP 22 • HL 32/HLP 32 • HL 46/HLP 46
20 40 temperature
100
Non-flammable hydraulic fluids Type
ISO Viscosity classes
HFC HFD
15, 22, 32, 46, 68, 100
Suitability for temperatures Characteristics °C
Applications
-20 to +60
Aqueous monomer and/or polymer solutions, good wear protection
Mining, printing machines, welding machines, forging presses
-20 to+150
Water free synthetic liquids, good resistance to aging, lubricating property through wide temperature range
Hydraulic equipment with high operating temperatures
Biodegradable hydraulic fluids
cf. VDMA 24569 (1994-03) Suitability and properties
Hydraulic fluid
Low tempe- High temperarature ture oxidation flowability stability
Rust protection
Compatibility with inner coatings
Seal compatiCost bility effectiveness
Unsaturated esters
€
€
•
(3
G
Saturated esters Polyglycol oils
• •
•
•
I
I
(3
I
Suitability: •
very good
• £ good
C
average
(3
limited/poor
€
Fluid life
£
• €
I
369
Automation: 7.4 Hydraulics, Pneumatics
Pneumatic cylinders Dimensions and piston forces Piston diameter
12
16
Piston rod diameter (mm)
6
8
25
32
40
50
63
80
100
125
160
200
8
10
12
16
20
20
40
1
1
1
25
25
32
40
1
G3/8
1
1
G3/4
1560 2530 4010
G / 8 G /s G / 8 GV 8 G / 4 G3/8
o
20
Coupling thread
M5
M5
.. , single-act. cyl. 2 ' Pushina force 1 ' at p e = 6 bar in N double-act. cyl.
50
96
151 241 375
644
968
58
106
164 259 422
665
1040 1650 2660 4150 6480 10600 16600
54
79
137 216
560
0
Pulling force1'at p e = 6 bar in N
d o u b l e
.act.
single-act. cyl.
1
to to 160 200
double-act. cyl.
G /2
-
-
870 1480 2400 3890 6060
10, 25, 50
strike in m m
364
G /2
9960 15900
25, 50, 80, 100
to 320
-
-
10, 25, 50, 80, 100, 160, 200, 250, 320, 400, 500
2
' For a cylinder efficiency rj = 0.88
> The return force of the spring is considered.
Calculating air consumption Q pe
Single-acting cylinder A
$
Pamb
n
air consumption gage pressure in cylinder ambient air pressure number of strokes
A q
s
piston surface Air consumption 1 ' area Single-acting cylinder specific air conPe+Pamb sumption per cm Q = A-s-npiston stroke Pamb piston stroke
Example: Pe
Pamb
Single-acting cylinder with d = 50 mm; s = 100 mm; p e = 6 bar; n = 120/min; 1 Pamb = bar; air consumption Q in l/min?
Double-acting cylinder A
Q«2
Pamb
Q = A-s-n-
Air consumption 1 ' Double-acting cylinder -A-s-n-
Pamb
Pamb
ji • (5 cm)
— V
\ Pe Or Pamb (on return)
J
Pe+Pamb
2
(6 + 1) bar 1 bar
• 10 cm • 120 min 5
= 164934 cmmin
Pamb or pe (on return)
165 min
Air consumption taken from diagram 1.256
Air consumption 1 ' Single-acting cylinder Q= q • s • n Air consumption 1 ' Double-acting cylinder
2•
q- s- n
Example:
0.0125
10 12 14 16 20
25 32 35 40
50 63 70mm 100
piston diameter d 11.89
15.96
10.76 13.49 1
20.6
•
Calculate the air consumption of a single-acting cylinder of d = 50 mm, s= 100 mm and n= 120/min from the diagram for p e = 6 bar. According to the diagram the piston stroke is q = 0.14 l/cm. Q= q- s- n = = 0.14 l/cm • 10 cm • 120/min = 168 l/min
' When it fills dead space, actual air consumption may be up to 25% greater. Dead spaces include compressed air lines between the directional control valve and the cylinder and unused space in the end position of the piston. The cross-sectional area of the piston rod is not taken into consideration.
370
Automation: 7.4 Hydraulics, Pneumatics
Force calculation Piston forces
^
Extending 1 1
m d,
^
Fy
dy piston diameter d2 piston rod diameter efficiency
pe gage pressure Ay, A2 piston areas Fy piston force when extending F2 piston force when retracting Example:
Hydraulic cylinder with dy = 100 mm; d2 = 70 mm; rj = 0.85 and p e = 60 bar. What are the effective piston forces? Extending:
Pe Retracting
0 0 0
F^Pe-A
^ e o o A - " cnr 40055 N
-0.85
F=pe-A-rj
Pressure units 1 Pa = 1 - ^ = 10-5 bar nv 1 bar = 10
= 0.1
cm' mm' 1 mbar = 100 Pa = 1 hPa
Retracting: F2 = PeA2rl
T7J
ir
"1'
Effective piston force
pe
. 6 0 0 ^ -2 J t cm = 20 428 N
[ ( 1 0 c m ) 2
4
-
( 7 c m ) 2 ]
.0.85
Hydraulic press In confined liquids or gases, pressure is distributed Displaced volume uniformly in all directions. A • Si = A2 • s 2 Fy force on pressure piston Work on both pistons F force on working piston 2
Ay A2 Sy s2 /'
area of pressure piston area of working piston travel of pressure piston travel of working piston hydraulic transmission ratio
^
• ^ = F2 • s 2
Ratios: forces, areas, travel F2 _A2 A
Example: Fy = 200 N; Ay = 5 cm 2 ; A2 = 500 cm 2 ; s2 = 30 mm; F2 = ?; Sy = ?; /' = ? Fo =
s2
Transmission ratio
Ft • A2 _ 200 N -500 cm 2 = 20000 N =20 kN 5 cm 2 A
=
30 mm • 500 cm 2 = 3000 mm 5 cm 2
A
s,_ Fy_ _ F2
200 N 1 20000 N " 100
Pressure intensifier Pe 1
2
Pel
Compressed air
oil
Example:
\ — i r
2
2
At = 200 cm ; A2 = 5 cm ; rj = 0.88; 2
Pei = 7 bar = 70 N/cm ; p e 2 = ?
ir
A
1 A Circuit symbols accord, to DIN ISO 1219-1
Ay, A2 piston surface areas Pei gage pressure at piston area Ay Pel gage pressure at piston area A2 rj efficiency of pressure intensifier
1
¥
__ N z
A2
cm 2
200 cm 2 •0. 5 cm 2
= 2464 N/cm = 246.4 bar
Gage pressure Pe2
=
Pel '
A ' M2
371
Automation: 7.4 Hydraulics, Pneumatics
Speeds, Power Flow rates Volume flow rate
Q, Q^ Q 2 volume flow rates A, A^, A2 cross-sectional areas v, v-i, v2 flow rates
Q
,
Q =A •v QI = Q 2
Continuity equation ^
In a pipeline of variable cross-section the volume flow rate Q is constant throughout all cross-sections over time t. Example:
Ratio of flow rates 2
2
Pipeline with >An = 19.6 cm ; A2 = 8.04 cm and Q= 120 l/min; v, = ?; v 2 = ? _ Q _ 120000 cm 3 /min _ 6 r o cm _ m v 1 2 A, 19.6 cm min " s V2
v 1 • A, ~ A2
1.02 m/s • 19.6 cm 2 2 4 8.04 cm 2 ~ '
V1=A2 v2 A
m
Q
s
Piston speeds Extending
4k
Q volume flow rate A-i, A2 effective piston areas v 2 piston speeds Piston speed
Example: Hydraulic cylinder with piston diameter d-\ = 50 mm; piston rod diameter d2 = 32 mm and Q = 12 l/min. How high are the piston speeds? Extending: Q 12000 cm 3 /min _ cm _ m = 611 — = 6.11 ji • (5 cm) 2 min min Retracting: Q 12000 cm 3 /min V l ~ A2 ~ tc • (5 cm) 2 n • (3.2 cm) 2 = 1 0 3 5 ^ = 10.35^min min
Power of pumps and cylinders P<\ P2 Q pe rj M n 9550 600
input power on pump drive shaft output power on pump outlet volume flow rate gage pressure efficiency of the pump torque rotational speed conversion factor conversion factor
Input power
Example: Pump with Q = 40 l/min; p e = 125 bar; r\ = 0.84; P 1 = ?;P 2 = ? 40^25
D
= 1
600 600 ^ = a333 k W rj 0.84
k w
=
=
8 > 3 3 3 | < w
9 g 2 0 k W
Formulae for input and output power with: Pin kW, M i n N • m, n in 1/min, Q in l/min, p e in bar
372
Automation: 7.4 Hydraulics, Pneumatics
Tubes Seamless precision steel tubes for hydraulic and pneumatic lines (selection) —
Materials
\
V
)
cf. DIN EN 10305 1 (2003-02)
E235 (St37.4), E355 (St52.4) according to DIN 1630 Tensile strength Am N/mm 2
Yield strength N/mm 2
Elongation at fracture EL %
E235
340 to 480
235
25
E355
490 to 630
355
22
Material Mechanical properties
Good cold workability, surface phosphatized or electroplated and chromed
D
A n n l i r a t i n n1Q1 O
R \ F J P 1 I L - Q LI U
Pnr l i n o c ir1 h x / H r u i i l i ^ r\r n n o i nm ^ t i r Q\/QtpmQ a t m flyimpl rafpH n r p c i i i i i i y u i u u u v \J i p i 1 u 11id 1 ills o y o i c i i lo a l i l lciaiiiicjI i a i c u p i c o
sures up to 500 bar Delivery type: Normal manufactured length: 6 m, normalized. Tubes have a surface quality of Ra < 4 pm. Tube HPL-E235-NBK-20 x 2: Seamless precision steel tube for hydraulic and pneumatic applications, made of E235, normalized, bright-drawn, outside diameter 20 mm, wall thickness 2 mm Outside diameter D mm
Wall thickness s mm
Flow sectional area A cm 2
Outside diameter D mm
Wall thickness s mm
Flow sectional area A cm 2
Outside diameter D mm
Wall thickness s mm
Flow sectional area A cm 2
4 4 5 5 6 6 8 8 8 10 10 10 12 12 12 14 14 14 15 15 15 16 16 16 16 18 18 18 18
0.8 1.0 0.8 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 1.0 1.5 2.0 1.0 1.5 2.0 1.0 1.5 2.0 1.0 1.5 2.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 3.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0
0.05 0.01 0.10 0.07 0.13 0.07 0.28 0.20 0.13 0.50 0.39 0.28 0.79 0.64 0.50 1.13 0.95 0.79 1.33 1.13 0.79 1.54 1.13 0.79 0.64 2.01 1.77 1.54 1.13
20 20 20 20 22 22 22 22 25 25 25 25 25 25 28 28 28 28 28 30 30 30 30 30 35 35 35 35 35
2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 3.5 1.5 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.5 6.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 3.5 4.0 2.0 2.5 3.0 5.0 6.0 2.5 3.5 4.0 5.0 6.0
2.01 1.77 1.54 1.13 3.14 2.54 2.01 1.77 3.80 3.14 2.84 2.55 2.01 1.33 4.91 4.52 3.80 3.46 3.14 5.31 4.91 4.52 3.14 2.55 7.07 6.16 5.73 4.91 4.16
38 38 38 38 38 42 42 42 50 50 50 50 50 55 55 55 55 60 60 60 60 70 70 70 70 80 80 80 80
2.5 4.0 5.0 7.0 10.0 2.0 5.0 8.0 4.0 5.0 8.0 10.0 13.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 5.0 8.0 10.0 12.5 5.0 8.0 10.0 12.5 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.5
8.55 7.07 6.16 4.52 2.55 11.34 8.04 5.31 13.85 12.57 9.08 7.07 4.52 17.35 14.52 11.95 9.62 19.64 15.21 12.57 9.62 28.27 22.90 19.64 15.90 36.32 32.17 28.27 23.76
Rated pressure depending on wall thickness Rated pressure p in bar
Outside diameter D in mm
64
100
6 8
1.0 1.0
1.0 1.0
1.0 1.0
10 12
1.0 1.0
1.0 1.0
16 20
1.5 1.5
25 30 38 50
160 250 Wall thickness s in mm
320
400
1.0 1.5
1.0 1.5
1.5 2.0
1.0 1.5
1.5 2.0
1.5 2.0
2.0 2.5
1.5 1.5
1.5 2.0
2.0 2.5
2.5 3.0
3.0 4.0
2.0 2.5
2.0 2.5
2.5 3.0
3.0 4.0
4.0 5.0
5.0 6.0
3.0 4.0
3.0 4.0
4.0 5.0
5.0 6.0
6.0 8.0
8.0 10.0
373
Automation: 7.5 Programmable logic control
Programming languages PLC programming languages (overview)
cf. DIN EN 61131 (2003-12)
Common elements of all PLC languages (selection) Delimiters (selection) Symbol (**)
+
cf. DIN EN 61131 (2003-12)
Use
Symbol
At beginning and end of comment
Step names and variable/type separators Statement label separators (ST) Network label separators (LAD and FBL)
Leading prefix for decimal numbers Addition operator (ST) Leading prefix for decimal numbers Year-month-day separator Subtraction, negative operator (ST) Horizontal line (LAD and FBL)
()
Initialization operator Assignment operator (ST)
#
Base number and time literal separator
«
Beginning and end of character strings
% I or!
Real-exponent delimiter
Separator for areas Separator for CASE areas (ST) Bulleted lists, initial values and field index separators, operand lists, function argument lists and CASE value lists separators (ST)
Beginning of special characters in strings Whole number/fraction separator Separator for hierarchal addresses and structured elements
e or E
Instruction lists modifier/operator (ST) Function arguments (ST) Delimiter for FBL input lists (ST) Separator for type declaration Separator for statements (ST)
:=
$
Use
Direct representation prefix1* Vertical lines (LD)
Individual element variables for storage locations Variable Meaning 1 Q M X
Variable Meaning
storage location input storage location output storage location tag (individual) bit size
B W D L
Name
1)
ST %QB5 1) : Stores current result in byte size in output storage location 5
Elementary data types
Operators
ADD SUB MUL DIV AND OR XOR NOT S R GT GE EQ NE LE LT
Example (AWL)
byte size (8 bit) word size (16 bit) double word size (32 bit) long word size (64 bit)
Symbol Meaning + *
/ &
^ 1 =1 3 3) 3) > >= =
<> <=
<
addition subtraction multiplication division Boolean AND Boolean OR Boolean exclusive OR negation sets Boolean operator to "1" sets Boolean operator to "0" comparison: greater than comparison: greater than or equal to comparison: equal to comparison: not equal to comparison: less than or equal to comparison: less than
Data type
Bits
BOOL SINT INT DINT LINT REAL LREAL STRING TIME DATE
Boolean short whole number whole number double whole number long whole number real number long real number variable long number sequence duration date
1 8 16 32 64 32 64 _4)
BYTE WORD DWORD LWORD
bit bit bit bit
8 16 32 64
Key word
sequence sequence sequence sequence
Directly represented individual element variables have a leading % symbol. 2 > This symbol is not allowed as operator in text language. 3 > No symbol 4) Manufacturer specific
of of of of
length length length length
8 16 32 64
_4)
-4)
374
Automation: 7.5 Programmable logic control
Programming languages Ladder diagram (LD)
cf. DIN EN 61131 (2003-12)
A ladder diagram represents the flow in an electromechanical relay system. Symbol
Description
Symbol
Description
Lines and blocks
Symbol
Description
Contacts
... 1) H I—
Horizontal line Vertical line Line junction
Coils
-—(/^ O
NO contact logic condition "1"
...
Crossing without connection
...
—l/l—
NC contact logic condition "0"
—|P|
Contact for sensing rising edge, signal from "0" to "1
1
Coil output energize Coil output deenergize
)
—(s)—
Latching coil, stores an operation Unlatching coil
Blocks with connection lines Left power rail
... ) ...
1)
Right power rail
1
Contact for sensing falling edge, signal from "1" to "0'
—|N|—
1
)
- ( N ) -
Function block language (FBL)
Coil for sensing positive slopes, signal from "0" to "1" Coil for sensing negative slopes, signal from "0" to "1" 1) component designator cf. DIN EN 61131 (2003-12)
Function block language consists of individual function blocks with statistical data. They are useful in implementing frequently recurring functions. Symbol
Description
Symbol _ AND J
Description
OR
Elements are rectangular or square. Input parameters are placed on the left side and output parameters on the right side. FB 1.2 ADD
The block's functionality is entered as a name or symbol within the block. The block designator is located above the block.
Structured text (ST)
OR
o
Elements must be interconnected by horizontal and vertical signal flow lines.
Negation of Boolean signals is shown by a circle on the input or output.
cf. DIN EN 61131 (2003-12)
Structured text is a high level language and builds on the syntax of ISO-PASCAL. A: = A + B (B-C)
Statement
Type
IF CASE FOR WHILE REPEAT EXIT
assignment conditional statement selection statement repeat statement repeat statement repeat statement leaving a repeated statement
Comparison of Function Block Language (FBL) and Structured text (ST) Function blocks (examples)
Structured text (examples)
B c
ADD
A
or
F
H
+
A
A:= ADD (B, C, D) or A:= B + C + D
&
E
E:= AND (F, G, H) or E:= F & G & H
D
D
G
C
F AND
E
or
G H
375
Automation: 7.5 Programmable logic control
Programming languages Instruction list (IL)
cf. DIN EN 61131 (2003-12)
Instruction list is a machine-oriented textual programming language, similar to assembly language. Structure of an instruction Operator modifiers
Start: AND N %MX51 ("blocked*)
N Operator
Label
Operand
Boolean negation of the operand. Statement is only executed if the evaluated result is a Boolean 1.
Comment
Separates multiple. Standard operator
Modifier
Evaluation of the operator is deferred until ")" appears.
Standard operators Operator
Modifier
Meaning
Operator
Modifier
Meaning
LD
N
setting an operand
DIV
(
division
ST
N
storing on operand addresses
GT
(
comparison: >
S
-
sets Boolean operator to 1
GE
(
comparison: >=
R
-
sets Boolean operator back to 0
EQ
(
comparison: =
AND
N,(
Boolean AND
NE
(
comparison: <>
&
N,(
Boolean AND
LE
(
comparison: <=
OR
N,(
Boolean OR
LT
(
comparison: <
XOR
N,(
Boolean exclusive OR
JMP
C,N
jump to label
ADD
(
addition
CAL
C,N
call of a function block
SUB
(
subtraction
RET
C,N
jump back
MUL
(
multiplication
)
-
processing of deferred operations
Information list (IL) according to VDI1>
cf. VDI 2880 (1985-09)
Structure of an instruction Set solenoid Y2 back'
Label 1: R A1.2 I Label
I Operand
Operator
I Comment
Operators for signal processing
Operators for program organization
Operators
L
load
U
AND operation
ZV
count forwards
(
open parenthesis
0
OR operation
ZR
count backwards
)
closed parenthesis
N
negation
XO
exclusive OR
NOP null operation
UN
NAND operation
SP
unconditional jump
ON
NOR operation
E
input
SPB
conditional jump
=
assignment
A
output
BA
call of a block
ADD
addition
M
tag
BAB
conditional call of a block
SUB
subtraction
K
constant
BE
block end
MUL
multiplication
T
timer
Operand
comment beginning
DIV
division
Z
counter
«
comment end
S
set
P
program block
PE
program end
R
reset
F
function block
1
> In practice, many more PLC controls exist which are programmed according to the VDI guidelines.
376
Automation: 7.5 Programmable logic control
Programming languages Comparison of the most commonly used PLC programming languages Functions as components of programs AND with 3 inputs
Instruction list (IL) according to VDI U U UN
Ell E12 E13 A10
Function block language (FBL)
E11
E11
E12
8c
E13
Ell E12 E13 A10
OR with 3 inputs
E11 E12
I
A10
E11
E11 E12 M1 E13 E14 M1 A10
OR before AND with intermediate tag
Exclusive OR (XOR)
RS flip-flop Set dominant
RS flip-flop Reset dominant
U UN O
>1
A10
>1
A10
E11
E12
E13
E14
A10
& M1
E11 E12
E12
M1
>1
&
1-1-1
A10
E14
E111> A11 E12 A11
E11 E12
S1 1 R
1
S
1
R1 1
t• i
E11
E12
E11
E12
E12
A10 (
A10
0• i
A11 S1 1
A12
E12
R
1
S
1
A12
R1 1
E12
A10
A12
A11
E11
A11
A12
E11
T1
T1
A10
E11 E11
M1
•3E
E11
A11
T1 E11
p
A10
=1
E12
E12
E13 E14
E11
U S U R
E12 A10 Ell A10
A10
E13
E14
E11
U 0 UN
0
E12
E13
E121> A11 Ell A11
Ell T1 T1 A10
l/l
E11
U R U S
Turn on delay
Latch, ON (E 12) dominating
E11 E12 (UN E l l U E12) A10
1 I
A10
-o—
E12
E12 E13 E14 A10
E12 E13
E11
E13
AND before OR
Ladder diagram (LD)
A10
A10
& >1
E12 A10
1
> The following applies to flip-flops: If S = 1 and R = 1, the last function programmed in the IL dominates.
377
Automation: 7.5 Programmable logic control
PLC controlled embossing machine tool Description
Technological scheme /
? automatic
cylinder A1 B1
single step
cr vo START
O
STOP
o
/
operating panel
Workpieces are to be fitted with a workpiece number on an embossing machine tool. The sensor B7 detects whether workpieces are still available in the stacker. The pneumatic cylinder A1 pushes the workpiece out of the stacker into the working position. After this, the embossing cylinder A2 extends and embosses the workpiece. After a delay time of 1 sec., first the embossing cylinder A2 and then the pushing cylinder A1 are retracted. Cylinder A3 serves as an ejector of the embossed workpiece. Sensor B8 detects whether the workpiece was actually ejected.
Function chart in accordance with GRAFCET Allocation list Component and action Mode switch AUTOMATIC/STEP Push button START Push button STOP Proximity switch Solenoid valve (with cyl. A1) Solenoid valve (with cyl. A2) Solenoid valve (with cyl. A3)
Component designation
Address
S0/S1
E0.0/E0.1
S2 E0.2 S3 E0.3 B1-B4 E0.4-E0.7 E1.0-E1.3 B5-B8 1M1 und 1M2 A0.0/A0.1 2M1 und 2M2 A0.2/A0.3 3M1 und 3M2 A0.4/A0.5
Step chain Network 3: Step 1 Start step M0.2 E0.3 M0.1 EOA M7.0
>1
&
M2.0
RS M1.0 R1 1 b m
Network 4: Step 2 Extend cylinder A1 M0.1 RS M0.3 & M1.0 M2.0 M0.2 R1 1 M3.0 >1
Function block language (FBL)
Network 5: Step 3 Extend cylinder A2 M0.1 E0.5 & E1.3 RS M2.0 M3.0 M0.2 R1 1 b e n M4.0 >1 Network 2: Basic position E0.6 E1.0 E1.2
M0.1
Network 6: Step 4 Retract cylinder A2 T1
NO contact/ NC contact NO contact NC contact NO contact
Network 7: Step 5 Retract cylinder A1 M0.1 RS E0.6 & M4.0 M5.0 M0.2 HZI M6.0 Network 8: Step 6 Extend cylinder A3 M0.1 RS E0.4 & M5.0 M6.0 M0.2 -GH M7.0 Network 9: Step 7 Retract cylinder A3 M0.1 E1.B & E1.1 RS M6.0 M7.0 M0.2 KZI M1.0 >1 Command output Networks 10 to 15 M ? n AO.O ^ 4 Z I (Extend A1) M3.0 A0.2 £ 3 (Extend A2) M4.0 A0.3
&
M0.3 - m Color marking: step flag in red Transition in blue
Remarks
(Retract A2) ^ - m
(Retract A1)
M7.0 A0.5 (Extend A3) G H (Retract A3)
378
Automation: 7.6 Handling and robot systems c f D , N E N 1 3 0 9 7 8 7 (2
Coordinate systems and axes
°™,
Robot axes Robot auxiliary axes for orientation
Coordinate system
Robot main axes for positioning
To manipulate workpieces or tools in space, the following are necessary: • 3 degrees of freedom for positioning and • 3 degrees of freedom for orientation
To reach a desired point in space, 3 robot main axes are necessary. Cartesian robots
Articulated arm robots
3 translation axes (T axes) designated X, Y and Z
3 rotational axes (R-axes) designated A, B and C
Coordinate systems
3 robot auxiliary axes for spatial orientation • R (roll) • P (pitch) • Y (yaw)
cf. DIN EN ISO 9787 (2000-07) Base coordinate system The base coordinate system references • the level mounting surface for the X-Y plane • the center of the robot for the Z axis Flange coordinate system The flange coordinate system references the end surface of the terminating main axis of the robot. Tool coordinate system The origin of the tool coordinate system lies at the tool center point TCP (Tool Center Point). The speed of the tool center point is referred to as the robot speed and the path of tool travel as the robot trajectory.
Symbols for representing robots (selection) Designation
Symbol
Designation
Translation axis (T-axis)D
Rotation axis (R-axis)2> Rotation aligned
Translation aligned (telescoping) Translation out of alignment
> Translation = straight line motion
Symbol
- < l > - 0
Rotation out of alignment Auxiliary axis (e.g. for roll, pitch and yaw)
Gripper 1
cf. VDl 2861 (1988 06)
2
> Rotation = rotational motion
Example RRR robots
Automation: 7.6 Handling and robot systems
Robot designs Mechanical structure1)
Kinematics2* and working space
Cartesian robots
TTT-Kinematics
Examples of design types
Characteristics, areas of application Main axes: • 3 translational
Gantry robot Cylindrical robots
cf. DIN EN ISO 9787 <200007)
Areas of application: • large working space, therefore often in overhead gantry • tool and workpiece feed in production ceils • sheet processing with laser beam and water jet cutting • palletizing Main axes: • 1 rotational • 2 translational Areas of application: • suitable for heavy masses • handling of heavy forged and cast parts • transport of pallets and tool cartridges • pick and place
RTT-Kinematics
CD ) Base robot Polar robot 1
Main axes: • 2 rotational • 1 translational
RRT-Kinematics
Vertical swivel arm robot Polar robot 2 Type: SCARA3> robot
Areas of application: • telescoping type axis 3, consequently deeper working space • point and simple path welding, e.g. on car bodies • pick and place with die casting machines Main axes: • 2 rotational as horizontal revolute joint • 1 translational
RRT-Kinematics
Areas of application: • primarily in vertical assembly area • point and simple path welding • pick and place work Horizontal swivel arm robot Articulated arm robots
RRR-Kinematics
Vertical swivel arm robot 1)
Main axes: • 3 rotational Areas of application: • handling and assembly area • complex path welding • painting work • adhesive bonding • low space requirement yet large working space
Axes are designated with numbers, where axis 1 is the axis of the first motion. R = rotational axis; T = translational axis (Designations "R" and "T" are not standardized.) 3 > SCARA = Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm 2)
380
Automation: 7.6 Handling and robot systems
Grippers, Job safety Gripper
cf. DIN EN ISO 14539 (2002-12) and VDI 2740 (1995-04) Gripper
mechanical
Finger grippers Linear grippers
pneumatic
adhesive
suction gripper articulated finger gripper
electromagnets permanent magnets
Jaw grippers
Clamp grippers
Scissors grippers
Characteristics
Characteristics
Spring loaded
Both gripper fingers turn about an axis fixed in the frame.
1 degree of movement
Flat gripper
Parallel gripper
Weight loaded Both gripper fingers are pushed parallel to each other opposite to the gripper housing.
Spatial gripper
6 degrees of movement
Work safety for handling and robot systems* protective curtain with sensors that can distinguish between human and robot because of workpiece change
velcro fastener gripper Needle grippers
Characteristics
Clamping force is created by a spring. Opening of the gripper by pressure.
Frequently used grippers. 3 degrees of movement
JP
magnetic
Clamping force created by the own weight of the gripping object. Opening of the gripper by pressure.
Used in textile industry. Four nail plates are extended by a tapered plug and grip the fabric.
cf. DIN EN ISO 10218-1 (2007-02) & VDI 2854 (1991-06)
Concepts
Explanations
Maximum space
Area encompassing: • moving parts of robot • tool flange • workpiece
Restricted space
A portion of the maximum space which should not be entered in case of an eventual breakdown of the robot system
Separating safeguards
Containment fences, coverings, permanent encasements, locking devices (DIN EN 1088)
Protective systems with contactless activation
Hazardous area security: light curtains and light barriers Area monitoring: laser scanners Access security: light grills and light barriers
Important safety relevant standards DIN EN 292 DIN EN 61496 DIN EN 418
area bordered by protective fence
safety switching mat
According to European Standards
DIN EN 294 DIN EN 457 CSA Z 434-03 ANSI R 15.06
Safety stand, for machines, basic terminology Safety standards for machines, contactless activation of safety systems Safety standards for machines, emergency OFF systems Safety around machines, safe distances Acoustical hazard signals Industrial Robots and Robot systems American Standard for Industrial Robots
Automation: 7.
technology
Coordinate axes
381 CF. DIN 66217 <1975-12)
Coordinate system Right hand rule
Cartesian coordinate system
Coordinate axes X, Y and Z are perpendicular to each other. This arrangement can be represented by thumb, index finger and middle finger of the right hand. Axes of rotation A, B and C are assigned to coordinate axes X, Y and Z. When looking down one axis in the positive direction, the positive direction of rotation is clockwise.
Coordinate axes in programming Vertical milling machine
Lathe
Lathe tool behind turning center
Coordinate axes and the resulting directions of motion are aligned to the main slideways of the CNC machine and are essentially relative to the clamped workpiece with its workpiece zero point. Positive directions of motion always result in greater coordinate values on the workpiece. The Z axis always runs in the direction of the main spindle.
Horizontal milling machine Lathe tool forward of turning center
To simplify programming it is assumed that the workpiece remains motionless and only the tool moves.
Example: 2-carriage lathe with programmable main spindle
Reference points Machine zero point M Origin of the machine coordinate system and is set by the machine manufacturer.
^ ^ ^
Program zero point PO Indicates the coordinates of the point at which the tool is located before start of the program. Reference point R Origin of incremental position measurement system with a distance to the machine zero point set by the machine manufacturer. Tool holder reference point T Lies central to the limiting face of the tool holder. On milling machines this is the abutting surface of the tool spindle, on lathes the abutting face of the tool holder on revolver. 1 > not standardized Workpiece zero reference point W Origin of the workpiece coordinate system and is set by the programmer based on engineering principles.
382
Automation: 7.
technology
Program structure Tasks of the control program Block structure rN10
G01
X30
Y40 F150
S900
T01
M03
Explanation of words: N10 block number 10
Positional data
Technical information
X30 coordinate of target point in X direction Miscellaneous function (M function)
Prep, function (G function) Block number
G01 feed, linear interpolation
Coordinates of target point
Feed
Speed
Tool
Y40 F150 S900 T01 M03
coordinate of target point in Y direction feed 150 mm/min speed of main spindle 900/min tool no. 1 spindle clockwise
Program structure CNC %01 N1 G90 N2 G96 N3 GOO N4 G01 N5 N6 GOO N7
program
F0.2 X20 X30 X200
M04 S180 Z2 Z-3 Z-15 Z200 M30
Preparatory functions Prep, functions
Effectiveness
Prep, functions
Meaning
Effectiveness
Meaning
GOO
Positioning at rapid rate
G53
Cancel shift
G01
Linear interpolation
G02
Circle interpolation clockwise
G54G59
Shift 1-Shift 6
G03
Circle interpol. counterclockwise
G74
Approach reference point
G04
Dwell time predetermined
G80
Cancel fixed cycle
G09
Exact stop
G17
Plane selection XY
G81G89
Fixed cycle 1-Fixed cycle 9
G18
Plane selection ZX
G90
Absolute dimensional notation
G19
Plane selection YZ
G91
Incremental dimensional notation
G33
Thread cutting, constant pitch
G94
Feed rate in mm/min
G40
Cancel tool offset
G95
Feed in mm
G41
Cutter compensation, left
G96
Constant cutting speed
G42
Cutter compensation, right
G97
Spindle speed in 1/min
modal:
Preparatory functions that remain effective until they are overwritten by a similar type of condition.
non-modal:
Preparatory functions that are only effective in the block in which they are programmed.
Universal miscellaneous functions (m-functions, selection)
cf. DIN 66025-2 (1988-09)
MOO
Programmed stop
M04
Spindle counterclockwise
M07
Cooling lubricant ON
M02
Program end
M05
Spindle stop
M09
Cooling lubricant OFF
M03
Spindle clockwise
M06
Tool change
M30
Program end with reset
Automation: 7.
technology
Tool offset and Cutter compensation
383
384
Automation: 7.
technology
Program structure of CNC machines according to DIN Machining motion for vertical milling machines G01
cf. DIN 66025-2 (1983-01)
Linear motion Designation and machining example: N30
X!50
Gl[>1
Linear interpolation, machining motion in programmed feed
Y 19
Z-8
Coordinates of target point I in X direction in Y direction in Z direction
CNC program
N... N10 N20
19 10 0-
Pz
GOO G01
| N30
X20
Y10
X50
Y19
Z1 ZO
(P1) (P2) Z - 8 | | (P3)
N... <=> Csl
G02
o LTI
Clockwise circular movement Designation and machining example: N40
G02
X32
I26
Y38
Incremental input of the center point relative to circle starting point
Coordinates of circle endpoint I I in X in Y direction direction
Clockwise circular interpolation, machining motion in programmed feed
J-10.39
in X direction in Y direction CNC program
N... N10 G41 N20 G01 X6 N30
Y4 Y20.39
N40 G02 X32 Y38
N50 G01 X40 N... G03
(P1) (P2) I26 J-10.39| (P3) (P4)
Counterclockwise circular movement Designation and machining example: N40
G03
X32
18
J16.12
Incremental input of the center point relative to circle starting point I I in X direction in Y direction
Coordinate of circle endpoint I I in X in Y direction direction
Counterclockwise circle interpolation, machining motion in programmed feed
CNC program
38-
>4
P2
N... N10 G41 N20 G01 X6 N30
P1
N40 G03 X32 Y38 18
y
f
88
Y38
R»
•II
N50 G01 X40 N... CXI o m
-j-
Y4 Y21.88 J16.12
(P1) (P2) (P3) (P4)
Automation: 7.
385
technology
Program structure of CNC machines according to DIN Machining motions of lathes G01
cf. DIN 66025-2 (1983-01)
Linear movement Designation and machining example:
N20
G
XI50
z- 50
Coordinates of target point I in X direction in Z direction
Linear interpolation, machining motion in programmed feed
CNC program
q
N...
•si m
50 60
G02
N10
GOO
N20 N30 N40 N...
G01
X60
Z2
(P1) (P2) (P3) (P4)
Z-50 X 80 X102
Z-61
Clockwise circular movement Designation and machining example: N30
G02
X100
Z-60
I20
Incremental input of center point relative to circle starting point r—..-tlr-^'-v I in X direction in Z direction
Coordinates of circle endpoint I I in X inZ direction direction
Clockwise circular interpolation, machining motion in programmed feed
KO
CNC program
Q
Id
P2
P1
60
G03
.40
N... N10 N20
GOO G01
X60
Z2 Z-40
| N30
G02
X100
Z-60
N40 N...
G01
X110
(P1) (P2) I20
KO | (P3) (P4)
Counterclockwise circular movement Designation and machining example: N40
G03
Counterclockwise circle interpolation, machining motion in programmed feed
X90
Z-55
10
K-15
Incremental input of center point relative to circle starting point 1 i in X direction in Z direction
Coordinates of circle endpoint I I in X inZ direction direction
CNC program N... N10 N20 N30
G01 G03 G01
XO X60
ZO Z-11.46 Z-40
10
K-45
(PI) (P2) (P3)
N40
G03
X90
Z-55
10
K-15
(P4)
N...
386
Automation: 7.
technology
Program structure of CNC machines according to PAL1) Linear interpolation with G1 for lathes and milling machines Turning
Milling
Incremental programming with XI, Yl and Zl coordinates in NC programs with G90
NC program
NC program
N10... N15G90 N20... N25G1 X68Z-16 ;P2 N30G1 XI31 ZI-54 ;P3 N35...
N10... N15 G42 N20G0 X... ;P2 N25 G1 X72 N30G1 XI-17 YI57 ;P3 N35... 55 72
Absolute programming with XA, YA and ZA coordinates in NC programs with G91
NC program
NC program
N10... N15G91 N20... N25G1 X68Z-16 ;P2 N30G1 XA130 ZA-70 ;P3 N35...
N10... N15G42 GO X-16Y18 N20 G91 ;P2 N25G1 X88 N30G1 XA55YA78 ;P3 N35...
Start angle AS with coordinate value X
NC program
16 0
N10... N15 N20... N25G1 X60Z-16 N30 AS150X130 N35...
|AS|
m '
18 ;P2 ;P3
E
\
120°
P2 38
NC program
N10... N15G42 N20G0 X... Y18 N25G1 X72 ;P2 N30 G1 |AS120 X38 ;P3 N35...
72
Start angle AS with coordinate value Z P3
^ ^ ^
[as] 140° y^ P1\
m 80
P2] BR v ° 1•Hjr+X vo 1 A. ^
\mjTz
NC program
NC program
N10... N15G90 N20... N25G1 X60Z-16 ;P2 N30G1 AS 140 Z-80 ;P3 N35...
N10... N15G42 N20G0 X... Y18 ;P2 N25 G1 X50 N30G1 AS65Y66 ;P3 N35...
16 0
Transition elements radius RN+ and phase RNThe radius RN+ and the phase RN- are transition elements be tween two contour elements (circles, straight lines)
10x45°
90 74 1)
30
0
NC program
N10... N15G90 N20 GO X48 ZO N25G1 Z-30 RN-10 N30G1 X82 N35G1 Z-74 |RN+30 N40G1 X140Z-90
NC program
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
N10... N15G42 N20 GO X... Y18 N25 G1 X75IRN-23I ;P2 N30 G1 X60 Y80[RN+12|;P3 N35...
Priifungsaufgaben- und Lehrmittelentwicklungsstelle (PAL) (Institute for the development of training and testing material)
Automation: 7.
387
technology
Program structure of CNC machines according to PAL Circular interpolation for lathes and milling machines Turning
Milling
Circular interpolation with absolute center point coordinates Block structure:
Block structure:
G90 G1 X.. Z.. G2 X.. Z..
G90 G1 X.. G2 X..
;P2 IA.. KA.. ;P3
Z.. Z..
;P2 IA.. JA.. ;P3 NC program
NC program
70
N10 ... N15G90 N20 GO X38 Z4 ;P1 ;P2 N25G1 Z-40 N30 G2 X98 Z-70 IA49| KA-40|;P3 N35 ...
40
29
m
D3 m m +Y-
it
40
N10 ... N15G90 ;P1 N20G0 X... Y9 N25 G1 X40 ;P2 N30 G3 X60 Y29 |lA40|| JA29 |;P3 N35 ...
P3
60
Selection criteria for multiple solutions When using the radius R or the aperture angle AO, several arc solutions may result. The programmer can select the desired arc by defining an arc or a start angle with the help of the two addresses O and/or R and H. Selection of the arc length using the address O or R G1 X.. Z.. ;P2 G2 X.. Z.. R.. O.. ;P3 shorter arc
or:
G1 X.. Z.. G2 X.. Z.. R+..
Block structure:
Block structure:
Block structure:
Block structure:
G1 X.. Z.. ;P2 G2 X.. Z.. R.. 0.. ;P3
;P2 ;P3
NC program
or:
G1 X.. Z.. G2 X.. Z.. R-..
;P2 ;P3
NC program
longer arc
N10 ... N15G90 N20... ;P2 N25G1 X12Y15 N30G2X66Y15 R26 [ a^ ;P3 or: N30G2X66Y15 R026 ;P3
N10 ... N15G90 N20... ;P2 N25G1 X70 Z-25 N30G2X100Z-70 R26 |0 l] ;P3 or: N30G2X100Z-70 R026 ;P3 Selection of the start angle using the address H Block structure:
Block structure:
G1 X.. Z.. ;P2 G2 Z.. R.. AO.. H.. ;P3
G90 G1 X.. Z.. ;P2 G2 X.. R.. AO.. H.. ;P3
smaller start angle P3 f ,115°
[Rj]
larger
NC program
NC program
ascent angle
N10 ... N15G90 N20... N25G1X50Z-18 ;P2 N30 G2 Z-55 R26 A0115 [Hi] ;P3
N10 ... N15G90 N20... ;P2 N25G1 X30 Y26 N30 G2 Z62 R26 A0115 H2 ;P3
Contour routing for lathes (selection) Where open contour routing is concerned, the starling point as well as the target point may still be undefined. The control system calculates the starting and end point of the open element on the basis of the specified addresses. Three-point routing G62/G63 Open arc G61 Open line section Block structure:
Block structure:
G1 X.. Z.. G61 AS..
N15 G1 X50 Z-30 ;P1 N20 G61 AS 160
G1 X.. Z.. G62 AS.. R..
N15 G1 X40 Z-30 ;P1 N20 G62AS210 R50
N15 ... N20G1 X40Z-20 ;P1 N20 G61 AS210 ;P2 N30 G62 Z-72 R+26 ;P3
P
>P3 / 2 1 0 ^ /Wo ^ S P1 j o _jiiiir + X k -Ji J"P2 —-TTz 72 20 0
388
Automation: 7.
technology
Program structure of CNC machines according to PAL PAL functions for lathes and milling machines Programming coordinates and interpolation parameters XA, YA, ZA
Absolute input of coordinate values relative to the workpiece zero point
XI, Yl, Zl
Incremental input of coordinate values relative to the current tool position
IA, KA
Absolute input of the interpolation parameters relative to the workpiece zero point
T-addresses for tool change T
Tool storage place in the tool revolver or holder
TC
Selection of the number of the offset memory
TR
Incremental tool radius or cutting edge offset in the selected offset memory
TL
Incremental tool length offset in the selected offset memory (milling)
TZ
Incremental tool length offset in Z direction in the selected offset memory (turning)
TX
Incremental diameter offset in X direction in the selected offset memory (turning)
Additional M-functions1' according to PAL M13
Clockwise spindle rotation, coolant ON
M17
End of sub program
M14
Counter clockwise spindle rotation, coolant ON
M60
Constant feed
M15
Spindle and coolant OFF
M61
M60 + corner shaping
PAL functions for lathes G-functions Types of interpolation
Cutter compensation
GO
Rapid travel/motion Linear interpolation with feed rate Circular interpolation, clockwise Circular interpolation, counter clockwise Dwell time Exact stop
G40 G41
Travel to configured tool change point Linear interpolation for contour routing Circular interpolation for contour routing, clockwise Circular interpolation for contour routing, counter clockwise
G92 G94 G95 G96 G97
G1 G2 G3 G4 G9 G14 G61 G62 G63
G42
Cancel tool radius offset TRO Tool radius offset TRO to the left of the programmed contour Tool radius offset TRO to the right of the programmed contour
Feeds and speeds Rotational speed limitation Feed in mm per minute Feed in mm per revolution Constant cutting speed Constant rotational speed
Reference points
Program features
G50
Cancellation of incremental zero point shift and rotations
G22 G23
Repeat program section
G53
Cancellation of all zero point shifts and rotations Adjustable absolute zero points
G29
Conditional jumps
G54G57 G59
Incremental Cartesian zero point shift and rotation
Machining planes and rechucking G18 G17 G19 G30
Selection of the plane of rotation Face machining planes Shell surface/segment surface machining planes Rechucking/opposed spindle takeover
Dimensions G70 G71 G90 G91
Inch input confirmation Metric input confirmation (mm) Absolute dimensions Input of incremental dimensions
Call sub program
Cycles G31 G32 G33 G80 G81 G82 G83 G84 G85 G86 G87 G88 G89
Thread cycle Tapping cycle Thread chasing cycle Completion of a machining cycle contour description Longitudinal rough-turning cycle Rough facing cycle Rough-turning cycle parallel to the contour Drilling cycle Undercut cycle Radial grooving cycle Radial contour cutting cycle Axial grooving cycle Axial contour cutting cycle
Automation: 7.
389
technology
Program structure of CNC machines according to PAL G-functions for lathes G22
Call sub program
Structure of NC block G22 L [H] [/] Obligatory addresses: L number of the sub program
Main program %900
Sub program L911
Machining example
Optional addresses: H number of repetitions / extract level G23
Repeat program section
Structure of NC block G23 N N [H] Obligatory addresses: N start block number of the program section to be repeated N end block number of the program section to be repeated Optional addresses: H number of repetitions G14
Machining example N10.. N15G0 X58 Z-15 M4 N20 G91 N25G1 X-11 N30G1 X11 N35G0Z-16 N40 G23 N20 N35 H2 N45 G90 N50 ...
a
Travel to tool change point
Structure of NC block G14 [H]
H1_
Optional addresses: HO travel to tool change point simultaneously in all axes H1 first X axis, then Z axis H2 first Z axis, then X axis
H2
m
PAL cycles for lathes G84
Drilling cycle
Structure of NC block G84 ZI/ZA [D] [V] [VB] [DR] [DM] [R] [DA] [U] [O] [FR] [E]
VB
>-
Obligatory addresses: / E? Zl depth of hole, incremental depth relative to the current tool position \ \ ZA depth of hole, absolute depth Optional addresses (selection): ZA D pecking amount Zl (if D is not specified, pecking depth is Machining example equal to the final drilling depth) 35 27 31 V safety distance VB safety distance to the hole bottom DR reduction value of the pecking amount DM minimum infeed K R retract level/distance DA spot-drilling depth U dwell time at hole bottom 130 20 0 dwell time selection 01 in seconds N10 G90 02 in revolutions N15 G84 Z-130 D30 V5 VB1 DR4 U0.5 FR rapid travel reduction in % N20.. E spot-drilling feed
k+X
uL V Tz V
I F
G32
Tapping cycle
Structure of NC block G32 Z/ZI/ZA F Obligatory addresses: Z, Zl, ZA thread end point in Z direction I incremental, A absolute F pitch of thread
i
—
Machining example
35
M20x3.5/45
•2.5
Zl
N10 G90 N15 G32 Z-35 F2,5 S.. M..
390
Automation: 7.7 NC technology
Program structure of CNC machines according to PAL PAL cycles for lathes G31
Thread cycle
Structure of NC block G31 Z/ZI/ZA X/XI/XA F D [ZS] [XS] [DA] [DU] [Q] [O] [H] Obligatory addresses: Z, Zl, ZA thread end point in Z direction Z controlled by G90/G91; I incremental, A absolute X, XI, Zl thread end point in X direction; X controlled by G90/G91, I incremental, A absolute F thread pitch D thread depth Optional addresses [..]: ZS thread starting point, absolute in Z XS thread starting point, absolute in X DA approach DU overrun Q number of cuts O number of idle cycles H selection of infeed type and residual cuts (RC) H1 without offset (radial infeed), RC OFF H2 infeed at left flank, RC OFF H3 infeed at right flank, RC OFF H4 alternating infeed, RC OFF H11 without offset (radial infeed), RC ON H12 infeed at left flank, RC ON H13 infeed at right flank, RC ON H14 alternating infeed, RC ON Residual cuts Vi, 1 A, 1/s, Vs x (D/Q) G81
Longitudinal rough-turning cycle
Radial infeed HI/H11
£
Flank infeed left H2/H12 0
Flank infeed right H3/H13 0
Alternating infeed H4/H14
Machining example
N10 G90 N15 G31 Z-40 X30 F3.5 D2.15 ZS-10 XS30 Q12 013 H14 N20 .. G82
Rough facing cycle
Structure of NC block G81 (or G82) H4 [AK] [AZ] [AX] [AE] [AS] [AV] [O] [Q] [V] [E] or G81 (or G82) D [H1/H2/H3/H24] Obligatory addresses: D infeed Optional addresses [..]: H type of machining Longitudinal rough turning Rough facing cycle with G82 cycle with G81 H1 rough machining, removal below 45° H2 stepwise angle-cutting along the contour Machining example: longitudinal rough-machining cycle H3 like H1 with final contour cut =o.P9 H4 contour finishing H24 rough-machining with H2 and subsequent finishing AK contour allowance parallel to the contour AZ contour allowance in Z direction AX contour allowance in X direction AE immersion angle (final angle of the tool) 20 0 3 170 125 110 77 55 AS emergence angle (lateral adjustment angle of tool) AV safety angle reduction for AE and AS O machining starting point N10 01: current tool position N15 G81 D3 H3 E0.15 AZ0.1 AX0.5 02: calculated from contour P1 N20 X44Z3 Q idle step optimization P2 N25 G1 Z-20 Q1: optimization OFF N30 G1 Z-55 AS135 RN20 P3 Q2: optimization ON P4 N35 G1 Z-77 AS 180 N40 G1 Z-110X64 P5 V safety distance for idle step optimization G81: in Z direction P6 N45 AS 180 G82: in X direction P7 N50 AS110 X88 Z-125 immersion feed N55 AS 180 P8 P9 N60 AS130 X136 Z-170 N65 G80
Automation: 7.
technology
391
Program structure of CNC machines according to PAL PAL cycles for lathes G86
Radial grooving cycle
G88
Axial grooving cycle
Structure NC block G86 Z/ZI/ZA X/XI/XA ET [EB] [D] [..] (selection) G88 Z/ZI/ZA X/XI/XA ET [EB] [D] [..] (selection) Obligatory addresses: Z, Zl, ZA grooving position in Z direction; Z controlled by G90/G91, Zl incremental, ZA absolute X, XI, XA grooving position in X direction; X controlled by G90/G91, XI incremental, XA absolute ET G86 absolute diameter of grooving depth G88 absolute grooving depth Optional addresses [..]: EB grooving width and position EB+ grooving in direction Z+ relative to the programmed grooving position P EB- grooving in direction Z - relative to the programmed grooving position P D pecking amount (if no value is specified, the pecking depth is equal to the groove depth ET) AS flank angle of grooving at the starting point relative to the grooving direction (X or Z) Radial grooving cycle with G86 Axial grooving cycle with G88 AE flank angle of grooving at the end point relative to the grooving direction (X or Z) RO rounding or chamfering of upper corners R0+ rounding RO- chamfer width Machining example: radial grooving cycle with G86: RU rounding or chamfering of lower corners RU+ rounding RU- chamfer width AK contour allowance parallel to the contour AX contour allowance in X direction (contour offset) EP setpoint definition for groove cutting (position P) EP1: setpoint in upper corner of the groove EP2: setpoint in bottom corner of the groove H type of processing H1 roughing cut H14 roughing and finishing H2 plunge turning H24 plunge turning and finishing H4 finishing DB infeed in % of the cutting tool width for grooving N10G0 X82 Z-32 V safety distance above groove N35 G86 Z-30 X80 ET48 EB20 D4 AS10 AE10 RO-2.5 RU2 H14 E feed rate into solid material G85
Undercut and thread undercut cycle
Structure of NC block Thread undercuts acc. to DIN 76 Undercuts acc. to DIN 509 G85 Z/ZI/ZA X/XI/XA l/[l] K[K] [RN] [SX] [H] [E] Obligatory addresses: RN ,^30° " Z, Zl, ZA undercut position in Z direction; Z controlled by G90/G91, Zl incremental, ZA absolute outside X, XI, XA undercut position in X direction; Machining process with DIN 76 X controlled by G90/G91, 0.2 XI incremental, XA absolute shapeF I undercut depth; obligatory parameter for DIN 76 (H1) K undercut length; obligatory parameter for DIN 76 (H1) Optional addresses [..]: RN corner radius SX grinding allowance N10G0.. E feed rate for plunging N15G85 ZA-18 XA16 11.5 K5 RN1 SX0.2 H1 E0.15 H undercut shape H1 DIN 76 H2 DIN 509 E H2 DIN 509 F Further information on p. 89 and p. 92 G80
Completion of a contour description in a rough-machining cycle
Structure of NC block Optional addresses [..]: ZA absolute Z-coordinate of the machining limit parallel to the X axis G80 [ZA] [XA] XA absolute Z-coordinate of the machining limit parallel to the Z axis
392
Automation: 7.
technology
Program structure of CNC machines according to PAL PAL functions for milling machines G-functions Types of interpolation, contours
Tool offsets
GO
Rapid motion
G40
Cancel cutter compensation
G1
Linear interpolation with feed rate
G2
Circular interpolation, clockwise
G41G42
Cutter compensation left Cutter compensation right
G3
Circular interpolation, counterclockwise
Feeds and speeds
G4
Dwell time
G94
Feed in mm per minute
G9
Exact stop
G95
Feed in mm per revolution
G10
Rapid motion in polar coordinates
G96
Constant cutting speed
Gil
Linear interpolation with polar coordinates
G97
Constant spindle speed
G12
Circular interpolation with polar coordinates, clockwise
Program features
G13
Circular interpolation with polar coordinates, counter clockwise
G45
Linear tangential approach to a contour
G46
Linear tangential retraction from a contour
G47
Tangential approach to a contour in a quarter circle
G48
Tangential retraction from a contour in a quarter circle
G61
Linear interpolation for contour routing
G62
Circular interpolation for contour routing, clockwise
G63
Circular interpolation for contour routing, counter clockwise
Reference points, rotation, mirror images, scaling G50
Cancellation of the incremental zero point shift and rotations
G53
Cancellation of all zero point shifts and rotations
G54G57
Adjustable absolut zero points
G58
Incremental zero point shift, polar and rotation
G22
Call sub program
G23
Repeat program section
G29
Conditional jumps
Fixed cycles G34
Start-up of the contour pocket cycle
G35
Rough-machining technology of the contour pocket cycle
G36
Residual material technology of the contour pocket cycle
G37
Finishing technology of the contour pocket cycle
G38
Contour description of the contour pocket cycle
G80
Completion of the G38 cycle
G39
Call contour pocket cycle with material removal either parallel to the contour or in meanders
G72
Rectangular pocket milling cycle
G73
Circular pocket and spigot milling cycle
G74
Slot milling cycle
G75
Circular slot milling cycle
G81
Drilling cycle
G82
Deep drilling cycle with pecking
G59
Incremental Cartesian zero point shift and rotation
G83
Deep drilling cycle with pecking and full retraction
G84
Tapping cycle
G66
Mirror image across the X or Y axis, mirror image off
G85
Reaming cycle
G67
Scaling (enlarging or reducing or cancellation)
G86
Boring cycle
G87
Plunge milling cycle
Plane selection, dimensions
G88
Internal thread milling cycle
G17G19
Plane selection, 2V2 D processing
G89
External thread milling cycle
G76
Multiple cycle call on a straight line (line of holes)
G70
Inch input confirmation
G77
Multiple cycle call on a pitch circle (line of holes)
G71
Metric input confirmation (mm)
G78
Cycle call at a particular point (polar coordinates)
G90
Input of absolute dimensions
G79
G91
Input of incremental dimensions
Cycle call at a particular point (Cartesian coordinates)
Automation: 7.
393
technology
Program structure of CNC machines according to PAL PAL cycles for milling machines G1
Linear interpolation with feed rate
Structure of NC block G1 [X/XI/XA] [Y/YI/YA] [Z/ZI/ZA] [D] [AS] .. (selection) Obligatory addresses: X, XI, XA X coordinate of the target point Y, Yl, YA Y coordinate of the target point Z, Zl, ZA Z coordinate of the target point
Machining example
Optional addresses [..]: D length of travel distance AS ascent angle relative to the X axis RN transition element to the next contour element RN+ rounding radius RN- chamfer width H selection among two solutions via angle criterion HI small ascent angle H2 greater ascent angle TC selection of the offset memory number TR incremental change of the tool radius value TL incremental change of the tool length offset G11
N10 ... N15G1 X74Y16RN-12 ;P2 N20 G1 D65 AS 120 RN+14 ;P3
Linear interpolation with polar coordinates
Structure of NC block G11 RP AP/AI [J/JA] [Z/ZI/ZA] [RN] .. (Auswahl) Obligatory addresses: RP polar radius AP polar angle relative to the positive X axis Al incremental polar angle Optional addresses [..]: I, IA X coordinate of the polar center J,JA Y coordinate of the polar center Z, Zl, ZA infeed in Z direction RN transition to the next contour element RN+ rounding radius RN-chamfer width TC selection of the offset memory number TR incremental change of the tool radius value TL incremental change of the tool length offset G2/G3
74
Machining example P3
5
JA
hJr
IA
P2 P3 P4 P5 P2
Circular interpolation with Cartesian coordinates
Structure of NC block G2 [X/XI/XA] [Y/YI/YA] [Z/ZI/ZA] ((l/IA [J/JA]) / ([l/lAj J/JA) / R / AO [RN] [O] [F] [S] [M] G3 [X/XI/XA]
Machining example shorter arc (01)
Optional addresses [...]: X, XI, XA X coordinate of the target point Y, Yl, YA Y coordinate of the target point Z, Zl, ZA Z coordinate of the target point I, IA, J, JA center point coordinates R radius of arc and selection of solution via arc length criterion R+ shorter arc R- longer arc AO aperture angle RN transition element RN+ rounding radius RN- chamfer width 0 selection of solution via arc length criterion 01 shorter arc 02 longer arc G12/G13
N15 G42 G47 R20 X30 Y0 Z-3 N20G11 I AO J AO RP30 AP90 N25 G11 I AO J AO RP30 AP180 N30 G11 I AO JAO RP30 AP270 N35G11 IA0 JAO RP30 APO
N10... N15G1 X38Y70RN+15 ;P2 N20 G3 XA80 R30 A0135 RN-8 02 ;P3
Circular interpolation with polar coordinates
Structure of NC block G12 AP/AI [l/lA] [J/JA] [Z/ZI/ZA] [RN] [F] [S] [M] G13 AP/AI [l/lA] [J/JA] [Z/ZI/ZA] [RN] [F] [S] [M] Obligatory addresses: AP polar angle of target point Al incremental polar angle Optional addresses [...]: I, IA X coordinate of polar center J, JA Y coordinate of the polar center RN+ rounding radius RN- chamfer width
PU
JA
Machining example
^/AP) 0
+Y' i tx IA
45
N15G1X60Y15 ;P2 N20 G12 IA45 JA45 AP50 ;P3
394
Automation: 7.
technology
Program structure of CNC machines according to PAL PAL functions for milling machines G45
Linear tangential approach to the contour
G46
Linear tangential retraction from the contour
Structure of NC block G41/G42 G45 D [X/XI/XA] [Y/YI/YA] [Z/ZI/ZA] [W] [E] [F] [S] [M] G46G40D [Z/ZI/ZA] [W] [F] [S] [M]
Machining example
Obligatory addresses: with G45: D distance to the first contour point, unsigned with G46: D length of the retracting motion, unsigned Optional addresses [..]: X, XI, XA X coordinate of the first contour point Y, Yl, YA Y coordinate of the first contour point Z, Zl, ZA with G45: infeed at approach point in the Z axis with G46: retracting motion at the end point in the Z axis W absolute position in fast motion in the infeed axis E feed rate for plunging G47
Tangential approach to the contour in a quarter circle
G48
N10... N15G42 G45 XO Y8 D13 N20 G1 X50 N25G1 Y40 AS80 N30 G40 G46D13
;P1 ;P2 ;P3 ;P4
Tangential retraction from the contour in a quarter circle
Structure of NC block G41/G42 G47 R [X/XI/XA] [Y/YI/YA] [Z/ZI/ZA] (W] [E] [F] [S] [M] G48G40 R [Z/ZI/ZA] [W] [F] [S] [M]
Machining example
Obligatory addresses: with G47: R radius of the approach motion relative to the center path of the cutter with G48: R
radius of the retracting motion relative to the center path of the cutter
Optional addresses [..]: X, XI, XA X coordinate of the first contour point Y, Yl, YA Y coordinate of the first contour point Z, Zl, ZA infeed at the approach point in the Z axis W absolute position in fast motion in the infeed axis E feed rate for plunging G54-G57
;P1 ;P2 ;P3 ;P4
Adjustable absolute zero point shift
Structure of NC block G54 or G55 or G56 or G57 Explanatory notes: The workpiece zero point W is determined by the commands G54 to G57 and has a defined distance to the machine zero point. The operator enters the shift values into the zero point register of the controller before starting the program. The zero point is always specified in absolute coordinates (XA, YA, ZA) relative to the machine zero point. G59
N10 ... N15G42 G47 XO Y8 R13 N20 G1 X50 N25G1 Y40 AS80 N30 G40 G48R13
workpiece zero point W
machine zero point M
Incremental zero point shift and rotation
Structure of NC block G59 [XA] [YA] [ZA] [AR]
workpiece zero point W2
Optional addresses [..]: XA absolute X coordinate of the new workpiece zero point YA absolute Y coordinate of the new workpiece zero point ZA absolute Z coordinate of the new workpiece zero point AR angle of rotation of the new coordinate system relative to the X axis Explanatory notes: If the coordinate system of the workpiece is rotated in its current position, only the angle of rotation is specified: N... G59 ARThe zero point shift launched via G54...G57 is reset by: N... G50
machine 3 . zero point M j®
*x
•i \
K
£L> / I
/
'+X' XA
workpiece zero point W1 N10 .. N15G54 ;W1 N20 G59 X20 Y40 Z30 AR45 ;W2
Automation: 7.
395
technology
Program structure of CNC machines according to PAL PAL cycles for milling machines G81
Drilling cycle
Structure of NC block G81 ZI/ZA V [W] [F] [S] [M] Obligatory addresses: Zl depth of bore in the feed axis ZA absolute depth of bore relative to the coordinate system of the workpiece V safety distance from the top edge of the hole Optional addresses [..]: W retract level relative to the coordinate system of the workpiece G82
Machining example
The center of the hole is the point where the cycles are called G76-G79
GO rapid motion G1 feed
ZA XI/YI
W
Zl XI/YI
G83
Deep drilling cycle with pecking
N10 ... N15 G81 ZI-18 V6 W15 N20G79X.. Y.. Z.. ;cycle call
Deep drilling cycle with pecking and full retraction
G83 has the following features: Structure of NC block - the same addresses as G82 G82 ZI/ZA D V [W] [VB] [DR] [DM] - retracts to the safety distance V for chip removal [U] [O] [DA] [E] [F] [S] [M] and in addition G83 ZI/ZA D V [W] [VB] [DR] [DM] FR rapid motion reduction in % [U] [O] [DA] [E] [FR] [F] [S] [M] Obligatory addresses: — G O rapid motion ZI/ZA depth of bore in the feed axis G1 feed Zl incremental depth from the top edge of the hole ZA ZA absolute depth in workpiece coordinates Machining example D pecking amount V safety distance above the top edge of the hole ZA Optional addresses [..]: W retract level relative to the coordinate system of the workpiece VB retract distance to the current hole bottom DR reduction value of the last pecking amount DM minimum pecking amount (unsigned) U dwell time at hole bottom (relative to pecking) 0 unit of the dwell time 01 dwell time in seconds N10... 02 dwell time in number of revolutions N15 G82 ZI-30 D10 V3 W4 VB1.5 DR3 U1 01 DA6 DA incremental spot-drilling depth of the first infeed N20 G79 X.. Y.. Z.. ;cycle call E spot-drilling feed rate G84
Tapping cycle
Structure of NC block G84 ZI/ZA F M V [W] [S] G1 feed Obligatory addresses: Zl incremental depth from the top edge of the hole ZA absolute depth in workpiece coordinates F thread pitch M direction of tool rotation for plunging M3 right-hand thread M4 left-hand thread V safety distance to the top edge of the hole Optional addresses [..]: W retract level relative to the coordinate system of the workpiece G85
N15 G84 ZI-12 F1.25 M3 V4 W7 S800 N20 G79 X.. Y.. Z.. ;cycle call
Reaming cycle
Structure of NC block G85 ZI/ZA [W] [E] [F] [S] [M] Obligatory addresses: ZI/ZA drilling depth in the infeed axis Zl incremental depth from the top edge of the hole ZA absolute depth in workpiece coordinates V safety distance from the top edge of the hole Optional addresses [..]: W retract level relative to the coordinate system of the workpiece E feed speed of the retracting motion
r i
reaming feed
Machining example ZA
XI/YI
N10 ... N15G85 ZI-17 V3 W8 E260 G79X.. Y.. Z.. ;cycle call
396
Automation: 7.
technology
Program structure of CNC machines according to PAL PAL cycles for milling machines G86
Boring cycle
Structure of NC block G86 ZI/ZA V [W] [DR] [F] [S] [M]
Machining example
Obligatory addresses: ZI/ZA depth to be bored out Zl depth of bore in the infeed axis ZA absolute depth of bore relative to the coordinate system of the workpiece V safety distance from the top edge of the hole
ZA XA/YAi i
-a
W ;DRZl
XA/YA
EZ
XI/ Yl
N10 ... N15G86ZI-9 V2 W10 DR2 N20 G79 X.. Y.. Z.. ;cycle call
Machining example
Xl/
ZA ft XA/YA
Yl
(OJ BG2
Optional addresses [..]: W retract level relative to the coordinate system of the workpiece BG2 machining, clockwise BG3 machining, counter clockwise
N10... N15 G87 ZI-8,5 R10.92 D3 V3 W13 D3 BG2 N20G79X.. Y.. Z.. ;cycle call
Internal thread milling cycle
Structure of NC block G88 ZI/ZA DN D Q V [W] [BG] [F] [S] [M] Obligatory addresses: ZI/ZA depth of thread Zl incremental depth of thread from the top edge ZA absolute depth of thread relative to the coordinate system of the workpiece DN nominal diameter of the internal thread D thread pitch Q number of thread grooves of the tool V safety distance from the top edge of the hole Optional addresses [..]: W retract level relative to the coordinate system of the workpiece BG2 machining, clockwise BG3 machining, counter clockwise G89
&
119
Plunge milling cycle
Structure of NC block G87 ZI/ZA R D V [W] [BG] [F] [S] [Ml Obligatory addresses: ZI/ZA depth of hole to be bored out Zl incremental depth from the top edge absolute depth of bore relative to the ZA coordinate system of the workpiece radius of the hole to be milled out R infeed per helical line D (pitch of the helical motion) safety distance from the top edge of the hole V
G88
ZA Zl
10 2 — T Zl
Mzsi
m
>
Optional addresses [..]: W retract level relative to the coordinate system of the workpiece DR radial retract distance to the contour G87
ZA
Machining example
rfn
M24x2
N10... N15 G88 ZA-16 DN24 D2 Q7 V1.5 W10 BG3 F.. N20 G79 X.. Y.. Z.. ;cycle call
External thread milling cycle
Structure of NC block G89 ZI/ZA DN D Q V [W] (BG] [F] [S] [M] Obligatory addresses: Zl incremental depth of thread from the top edge ZA absolute depth of thread relative to the coordinate system of the workpiece DN nominal diameter of the external thread D thread pitch Q number of thread grooves of the tool V safety distance to the top edge of the hole Optional addresses [..]: W retract level BG2 machining, clockwise BG3 machining, counter clockwise
Machining example
ZA
XA/YAtq
I—J]—L XA/YA i £ : 3 r
13
Zl
8M0/YI 3-M20x1,5 BG3 +018.16
N10 ... N15 G89 ZI-8 DN18.16 D1.5 07 V5 W13 BG3 F.. N20G79X.. Y.. Z.. ;cycle call
Automation: 7.
397
technology
Program structure of CNC machines according to PAL PAL cycles for milling machines G72
Rectangular pocket milling cycle
Structure of NC block G72 ZI/ZA LP BP D V [W] [RN] [AK] [AL] [EP] [DB] [RH] [DH] [O] [Q] [H] [E] [F] [S] [M]
Machining example
Obligatory addresses: ZI/ZA depth of the circular pocket in the infeed axis Zl incremental from the top edge of the pocket ZA absolute, relative to the coordinate system of the workpiece LP length of the rectangular pocket in X direction BP width of the rectangular pocket in Y direction D maximum depth of cut V safety distance to the material surface Optional addresses [..]: AK pocket edge finish allowance AL pocket bottom finish allowance RN corner radius EPO, EP1, EP2, EP3 definition of the setpoint at cycle call W retract level, in fast motion H type of machining H1 rough machining H4 finishing H2 face roughing of the rectangular surface H14 rough-machining and finishing with the same tool E feed rate for plunging G73
Circular pocket and spigot milling cycle
Structure of NC block G73 ZI/ZA R D V [W] [RZ] [AK] [AL] [DB] [RH] [DH] [O] [Q] [H] [E] [F] [S] [M] Obligatory addresses: ZI/ZA depth of circular pocket in the feed axis Zl incremental from the top edge of the pocket ZA absolute, relative to the coordinate system of the workpiece D maximum depth of cut V safety distance to the material surface Optional addresses [..]: RZ radius of the optional spigot AK pocket edge finish allowance AL pocket bottom finish allowance DB cutter path overlap in % W retract level, in fast motion H - E as with G72
G74
N15 G72 ZA-9 LP47 BP24 D4 V3 AK0.4 AL0.5 W8 N20 G79 X40 Y36 ;cycle call for G72
Machining example
+Y
N15 G73 ZA-15 R20 D4 V2 AK0.4 AL0.5 W5 N20 G79 X46 Y27 ;cycle call for G73
Slot milling cycle (longitudinal slot)
Structure of NC block G74 ZI/ZA R D V [W] [RZ] [AK] [AL] [DB] [RH] [DH] [01 [Q] [H] [E] [F] [S] [M] Obligatory addresses: ZI/ZA depth of the slot in the infeed axis Zl incremental from the top edge of the slot ZA absolute, relative to the coordinate system of the workpiece LP slot length BP slot width D maximum depth of cut V safety distance
Machining example +Z
J 50
Optional addresses [..]: W retract level AK pocket edge finish allowance 26 AL pocket bottom finish allowance EPO, EP1, EP2, EP3 definition of the setpoint at cycle call 0 infeed motion 01 vertical tool immersion N15 G74 ZA-15 LP50 BP22 D3 V2 definition of longitudinal slot via G74 02 ramping tool immersion N20 G79 X... Y... ;cycle call at a particular point via G79 H - E as with G72
398
Automation: 7.
technology
Program structure of CNC machines according to PAL PAL cycles for milling machines G75
Slot milling cycle (arc)
Structure of NC block G75 ZI/ZA BP RP AN/AO AO/AP D V (W] (AK] (AL] [EP] [O] [Q] [H] [E] [F] [S] [M] Obligatory addresses: ZI/ZA slot depth Zl incremental from the top edge of the slot ZA absolute depth BP slot width RP slot radius AN polar start angle relative to the positive X axis and the center point of the slot's first end radius AO polar aperture angle between the center points of the slot's end radii AP polar final angle relative to the positive X axis and the center point of the slot's second end radius Machining example (only 2 of the 3 polar angles need to be defined) D maximum depth of cut V safety distance Optional addresses [..]: EP definition of the calling point for the slot cycle EPO center of the circular slot EP1 center of the right or top semicircle at the rear end EP3 center of the left or bottom semicircle at the rear end W retract level, in fast motion AK slot edge finish allowance AL slot bottom finish allowance Q direction of motion 01 climb milling 02 conventional milling H type of machining H1 rough machining H4 finishing N15 G75 ZA-15 BP12 RP80 AN70 A0120 AK0.3 AL0.5 EP3 D5 V3 W6 H14 rough machining and finishing N20 G79 X64 Y30 ;cycle call for G75 at EP3 feed rate for plunging G76
Cycle call on a straight line (hole line)
Structure of NC block G76 [X/XI/XA] [Y/YI/YA] [Z/ZI/ZA] AS D O [AR] [W] [H] Obligatory addresses: AS angle of the straight line relative to the first geometry axis + counter clockwise - clockwise D spacing of the cycle calls on the line O number of cycle calls on the line Optional addresses [..]: X, XI, XA X coordinate of the first point X absolute or incremental X coordinate (G90, G91) XI difference in coordinates between the current tool Machining example position and the first point on the line longitudinal slot with G74 XA absolute coordinate input of the starting point Y, Yl, YA Y coordinate of the first point Y absolute or incremental Y coordinate (G90, G91) Yl difference in coordinates between the current tool position and the first point on the line YA absolute coordinate input of the starting point Z, Zl, ZA Z coordinate of the first point 181 Z absolute or incremental Z coordinate (G90, G91) +x Zl difference in coordinates between the current tool 126 -o position and the first point on the line ZA absolute coordinate input of the starting point N15 G74 ZA-5 LP34 BP20.... /definition of longitudinal slot with AR angle of rotation relative to the positive X axis G74 N20 G76 X126 Y18 ZO AS120 D42 03 AR-30 ;cycle call W retract level, absolute H reversing position H1 tool travels to safety distance between two positions and to the retract level after the last position H2 tool travels to the retract level between two positions
Automation: 7.
399
technology
Program structure with CNC machines according to PAL PAL functions for milling machines G77
Cycle call on a pitch circle (hole circle)
Structure of NC block G77 [l/lA] [J/JA] [Z/ZI/ZA] R AN/AI AI/AP O [AR] [W] [H] [FP] Obligatory addresses: R radius of pitch circle AN polar angle of first object Al constant segment angle AP polar angle of last object O number of objects on the pitch circle Optional addresses [..]: difference in X coordinates between the circle center and the starting point I IA absolute X coordinate of the circle center Machining example J difference in Y coordinates between the circle center and the starting point JA absolute Y coordinate of the circle center Z absolute or incremental input via G90/G91 Zl difference in Z coordinates between the current tool position and the pitch circle center ZA absolute coordinate of the target point AR angle of rotation in direction of the positive first geometry axis Q orientation of the object to be processed 01 forced rotation of the object 02 fixed orientation of the object W retract level, absolute H retracting motion H1 the tool travels to the safety distance V after completion of the machining process H2 the tool travels to the retract level W after completion of the machining process N15 G74 ZA-5 LP34 BP20 .... longitudinal slot with G74 H3 like H1, but the tool travels to the next position N20 G77 R40 AN-65 AI60 AR40 05 IA80 JA60 ;cycle call on the pitch arc G78
Cycle call at a particular point (with polar coordinates)
Structure of NC block G78 [l/lA] [J/JA] RP AP [Z/ZI/ZA] [AR] [W] Obligatory addresses: I, IA X coordinate of the center of rotation J, JA Y coordinate of the center of rotation RP radius of the rotation circle AP angle of rotation relative to the X axis Optional addresses [..]: Z, Zl, ZA Z coordinate of the top edge AR angle of rotation of the object relative to the X axis W retract level G79
Machining example ^ A R
.; l A Y>
d
1
Mr x
IA
d
T t— } rx^s
N15 G72 ZA.. LP.. BR.. ;rectangular pocket with G72 N20 G78 IA45 JA2 RP50 AP60 AR135 ;cycle call G78
Cycle call at a particular point (with Cartesian coordinates)
Structure of NC block G79 [X/XI/XA] [Y/YI/YA] [Z/ZI/ZA] [AR] [W] Optional addresses [..]: X, XI, XA X coordinate of the first point Y, Yl, YA Y coordinate of the first point Z, Zl, ZA Z coordinate of the first point AR angle of rotation of the object relative to the X axis W retract level, absolute in workpiece coordinates G61
\
Machining example
N15 G72 ZA.. LP.. BP.. ;rectangular pocket with G72 N20 G79 XA55 YA40 AR-45 ;cycle call G79
Linear interpolation for contour routing
Structure of NC block G61 [XI/XA] [YI/YA] [Z/ZI/ZA] [D] [AT] [AS] [RN] [H] [O] Optional addresses [..]: XI, XA X coordinate of the target point Yl, YA Y coordinate of the target point Z, Zl, ZA infeed in the Z axis D travelling distance AT transition angle AS ascent angle relative to the X axis RN+ rounding radius R- chamfer width H1 small ascent angle H2 larger ascent angle 01 short distance 02 longer distance
N15G1 X... Y... N20 G61 AT 135 RN20 N25 G61 XA93 YA56 AS30
400
Automation: 7.
technology
Program structure of CNC machines according to PAL PAL cycles for milling machines G62/G63 Circular interpolation for contour routing Structure of NC block G62 or G63 [XI/XA] [YI/YA] [Z/ZI/ZA] [l/IA] [J/JA] [R] [AT] [AS] [AO] [O] [AE/AP] [RN] [H] [O] [F] [S] [M] Optional addresses [..]: XI, XA, Yl, YA coordinates of the target point Z, Zl, ZA infeed in the Z axis R radius of the arc R+ shorter arc R- longer arc + AS angle between tangents AT transition angle (starting point) AO aperture angle AE angle between tangents (end point) AP polar angle of the arc's end point RN+ rounding radius RN- chamfer width H1 smaller AT angle H2 larger AT angle 01 shorter arc 02 longer arc G34-G39
Structure of NC block GM ZI/ZA [AK] [AL] Obligatory addresses: Zl depth of bore from tool position ZA absolute depth of bore Optional addresses [..]: AK pocket edge finish allowance AL pocket bottom finish allowance Rough-machining technology of the contour pocket cycle
Structure of NC block G35 T D [V] [TC] [TR] [TL] [DM] [DB] [RH] [DH] [O] [Q] [E] [F] [S] [M] G36
Residual material rough-machining technology of the contour pocket cycle
Structure of NC block G36 T D [V] [TC] [TR] [TL] [DM] [DB] [RH] [DH] [O] [Q] [E] [F] [S] [M] G37
-AP \ \
|
AS P1,
y AT
ir N15G1 X... Y... ;P1 N20 G63 R+40 AS-45 RN15 ;P2 N25 G61 Y75 AS130 ;P3
Circular interpolation for contour routing
G34 I Start-up of the contour pocket cycle (CPC)
G35
Machining example
Finishing technology of the contour pocket cycle
Structure of NC block G37 T D [V] [TC] [TR] [TL] [DB] [RH] [DH] [O] [Q] [H] [E] [F] [S] [M]
Machining example P4/P5
pocket island
N5 G54 N10 T1 M.. G97 S.. G94 F..
adjustable absolute zero point
N15 G34 ZA-10 AK0.5 AL0.5 N20 G35 T01 D6 M3 N25 G37 T02 D6 M3 S.. F.. N30 G38 H1 N35 GO X-40 YO N40 G61 AS90 RN+9 N45 G63 JA20 R13 RN+9 01 N50 G61 AS5 RN+9 N55 G63 IA40 R13 RN+9 01 N60 G1 X50 Y-25 N65 ... N70 G80 N75 G38 H2 N870 ... N85 G80 N90 G39 ...
;start-up of contour pocket cycle ;rough-machining technology of the CPC ,-finishing technology of the CPC ;contour description of the pocket ;P1 ;P2 ;P3 ;P4 ;P5 ;P6 completion of G38 ;contour description of the island /completion of G38 ;call the contour pocket cycle
Obligatory addresses for G35, G36, G37: G39 Call contour pocket cycle with either material removal T tool number D absolute depth of bore parallel to the contour or loop-type material removal Optional addresses for G35, G36, G37: Structure of NC block V safety distance G39 Z/ZI/ZA V [W] [X/XI/XA] [Y/YI/YA] [AN] [H] T... addresses for tool change (p. 388) Obligatory addresses: DM infeed minimum for island height optimization Z, Zl, ZA material surface in Z DB cutter path overlap at the bottom V safety distance to the material surface RH radius of the center path of the helical infeed DH infeed per helical turn Optional addresses [..]: 01 plunging 02 helical plunging W height of retract level, absolute Q1 climb milling 02 conventional milling X, XI, XA starting point of machining in X H4 finishing of edge/bottom H4 finishing of bottom/edge Y, Yl, YA starting point of machining in Y H6 finishing of edge only H7 finishing of bottom only AN angle for loop-type material removal, E feed rate for plunging if AN is not defined, removal is parallel to the contour H1 rough-machining H2 isolating (facing) H4 finishing G38 Contour description of the contour pocket cycle H8 isolating in finishing mode H14 rough-machining and finishing Structure of NC block G38 H [ZI/ZA] [(IA JA R) / (LP BP IA JA [RN] [AR])] Obligatory addresses: H1 pocket H2 island H2 pocket in an island Optional addresses [..]: see on page 397
G80
Completion of a G38 pocket/island contour description
Structure of NC block: G39
401
A u t o m a t i o n : 7.8 Information technology
Numbering systems Decimal system
Binary number system
Base 10
Numbers: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
Decimal number n 1 0
205
J
i 2
Place value
Value 2•100 = Total value /i10 = 200 (decimal)
TT
200
10 = 10
10°= 1
0-10 = 0
5-1=5
H-
0
Numbers: 0, 1 1010
1
1
10 = 100
Base 2 Binary number n2
h
5
23 = 8
Place value
= 205
L
22 = 4
21 = 2
2°= 1
Value 1-8 = 8 0-4 = 0 1-2 = 2 0 - 1 = 0 Total value /?i o = 8 f 0 -h 2 H- 0 = 10 (decimal)
Hexadecimal numbering system Base 16
Numbers and letters: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F Decimal value: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 Conversion into binary number: Conversion into decimal number: A2F Every digit represents a group of 4 Bits 162 = 256
Place value
161 = 16
Number value
16° = 1
4 bit group (tetrad)
Value 10-256 = 2560 2-16 = 32 1 5 - 1 = 1 5 Total value /7 10 = 2560 h 32 -h 15 = 2607 Binary number n2 (decimal) I I
A2F
-TTL
10
2
15
1010
0010 I
1111
10100010 1111
Binary numbers n2 and hexadecimal numbers n 1 6 for decimal numbers n 1 0 up to 255 bs b7 be
CD
5 *-• w '
i
^
0 0 0 0
0 0
n U 0
n u 1
n U
0
16 10 17 11 18 12 19 13 20 14 21 15 22 16 23 17 24 18 25 19 26 1A 27 1B 28 1C 29 1D 30 1E 31 1F
32 20 33 21 34 22 35 23 36 24 37 25 38 26 39 27 40 28 41 29 42 2A 43 2B 44 2C 45 2D 46 2E 47 2F
b2 <>1 be b t »6 bs b4 1st tetrad 2nd tetrad No. 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
n u
A
u
1 I
n
0
0
1
1
n
1 0
0
0
1 0
1
0
1
1
n u
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
n u
1
1
1
1
n u
0
1
1
n u
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
u
u
"10 "16 "10 "16 "10 "16 "10 "16 "10 "16 "10 "16 "10 "16 "10 "16 "10 "16 "10 "16 "10 "16 "10 "16 "10 "16 "10 "16 "10 "16 "10 "16
00 1 01 2 02 3 03 4 04 5 05 6 06 7 07 8 08 9 09 10 OA 11 0B 12 OC 13 0D 14 0E 15 OF
1
n u
n u
n u
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 \ n n 1 1 0 1 0 0 U u 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 Bit pattern (binary numbers) } r Decimal numbers and hexadecimal numb ers 48 64 80 96 112 128 144 160 r 6 192 60 70 80 90 AO B0 CO 30 40 50 97 113 129 145 161 i ; 1 193 49 65 81 31 41 51 61 71 81 91 A1 B1 C1 50 66 82 98 114 130 146 162 1 J 8 194 32 42 52 62 72 82 92 A2 B2 C2 99 115 131 147 163 179 195 51 67 83 33 43 53 63 73 83 93 A3 B3 C3 52 68 84 100 116 132 148 164 180 196 34 44 54 64 74 84 94 A4 B4 C4 53 69 85 101 117 133 149 165 181 197 35 45 55 65 75 85 95 A5 B5 C5 54 70 86 102 118 134 150 166 182 198 66 76 86 96 A6 B6 C6 36 46 56 55 71 87 103 119 135 151 167 183 199 37 47 57 67 77 87 97 A7 B7 C7 56 72 88 104 120 136 152 168 184 200 38 48 58 68 78 88 98 A8 B8 C8 57 73 89 105 121 137 153 169 185 201 39 49 59 69 79 89 99 A9 B9 C9 58 74 90 106 122 138 154 170 186 202 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 8A 9A AA BA CA 59 75 91 107 123 139 155 171 187 203 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 8B 9B AB BB CB 60 76 92 108 124 140 156 172 188 204 3C 4C 5C 6C 7C 8C 9C AC BC CC 61 77 93 109 125 141 157 173 189 205 3D 4D 5D 6D 7D 8D 9D AD BD CD 62 78 94 110 126 142 158 174 190 206 3E 4E 5E 6E 7E 8E 9E AE BE CE 63 79 95 111 127 143 159 175 191 207 3F 4F 5F 6F 7F 8F 9F AF BF CF 0 0
1
1
0
1 1
1 1 0
1 1 1
1
0
1 1 1 1
208 DO 209 D1 210 D2 211 D3 212 D4 213 D5 214 D6 215 D7 216 D8 217 D9 218 DA 219 DB 220 DC 221 DD 222 DE 223 DF
224 E0 225 E1 226 E2 227 E3 228 E4 229 E5 230 E6 231 E7 232 E8 233 E9 234 EA 235 EB 236 EC 237 ED 238 EE 239 EF
240 F0 241 F1 242 F2 243 F3 244 F4 245 F5 246 F6 247 F7 248 F8 249 F9 250 FA 251 FB 252 FC 253 FD 254 FE 255 FF
Example of reading from table: Binary number n 2 = 10110010 corresponds to decimal number n 1 0 = 178 or hexadecimal number n-16 = B2.
402
Automation: 7.8 Information technology
ASCII code1) 7-Bit ASCII Code Dec Hex Char.
0 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 9 9 10 A 11 B 12 C 13 D 14 E 15 F
NUL SOH STX ETX EOT ENQ ACK BEL BS HT LF VT FF CR SO SI
Dec Hex Char. Dec Hex Char.
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 1A 1B 1C 1D 1E 1F
DLE DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4 NAK SYN ETB CAN EM SUB ESC FS OS RS US
32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 2A 2B 2C 2D 2E 2F
SP ! a
#
$
% &
( )
*
+ i —
/
Dec Hex Char.
Dec Hex Char. Dec Hex
48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63
64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79
30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 3A 3B 3C 3D 3E 3F
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 i
< —
>
?
40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 4A 4B 4C 4D 4E 4F
@ A B C D E F
G H
I J K L M N O
80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95
50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 5A 5B 5C 5D 5E 5F
Char. Dec Hex Char. Dec Hex Char.
P Q R S T U V
w X Y
z [ \
]
A
96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111
60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 6A 6B 6C 6D 6E 6F
\ a b c d e f
g h i j
k I m n 0
112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127
70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 7A 7B 7C 7D 7E 7F
P q r s t u V w X
y z
{ I
} ~
DEL
Meanings of control characters Dec
Char.
Name
Dec
Char.
0 1 2 3 4
NUL SOH STX ETX EOT
NULL START OF HEADING START OF TEXT END OF TEXT END OF TRANSMISSION
17 18 19 20 21
DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4 NAK
DEVICE CONTROL 1 DEVICE CONTROL 2 DEVICE CONTROL 3 DEVICE CONTROL 4 NEGATIVE ACKNOWLEDGE
5 6 7 8 9
ENQ ACK BEL BS HT
ENQUIRY ACKNOWLEDGE BELL BACKSPACE HORIZONTAL TABULATION
22 23
SYN ETB
SYNCHRONOUS IDLE END OF TRANSMISSION BLOCK
10 11 12 13 14 15 16
LF VT FF CR SO SI DLE
LINE FEED VERTICAL TABULATION FORM FEED CARRIAGE RETURN SHIFT-OUT SHIFT-IN DATA LINK ESCAPE
24 25 26 27 28 29 30
CAN EM SUB ESC FS GS RS
CANCEL END OF MEDIUM SUBSTITUTE CHARACTER ESCAPE FILE SEPERATOR GROUP SEPERATOR RECORD SEPERATOR
31 32 127
US SP DEL
UNIT SEPERATOR SPACE DELETE
Name
Meanings of special characters (International reference version) Dec 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42
Char.
! "
#
$
%
& '
( ) *
Name space exclamation point quotes number symbol dollar symbol percent business 'And' apostrophe parenthesis open parenthesis closed asterisk
Dec
Char.
43 44 45 46 47 58 59 60 61 62 63
+ -
/ : /
< =
>
?
Name plus comma minus, dash period, decimal point forward slash colon semicolon less than equal to greater than question mark
Dec
Char.
64 91 92 93 94 95 96 123 124 125 126
@ [
\
) A
{ I
}
Name at bracket open back slash bracket closed circumflex underline accent grave curly bracket open vertical line curly bracket closed tilde
Control symbols (0-32 and 127 decimal) cannot be seen on monitor or printer; they are for transmitting system commands. Numbers 128-255 (decimal) in expanded ASCII code are either coded like symbols 0-127 or they are used for special symbols (cursive symbols, graphic symbols, user defined code). For example, number 128 is the EURO symbol € . 1)
ASCII = AMERICAN STANDARD CODE FOR INFORMATION INTERCHANGE
403
Automation: 7.8 Information technology
Graphical symbols for data processing Symbols for program flow charts
cf. DIN 66001 (1983-12)
Symbols for Nassi-Shneiderman diagrams
cf. DIN 66261 (1985-11)
Sequence block
Repeating block with starting condition
Repeating block with end condition
Starting condition: Repeat, if...
Instruction 1
Instruction 1
Instruction 2
Instruction 1
Instruction 2
Instruction 3
Instruction 2
Instruction 3
Instruction 4
Instruction 3
Alternative Simple alternative
Alternative Conditional alternative
Condition
satisfied
^ ^
End condition: If ..., then repeat Alternative Multiple alternatives
Condition not satisfied
satisfied
Condition not satisfied
Condition 1 Instruction
Instruction
No instruction (empty)
Condition 2
Condition 3
Instruction Instruction
Instruction Instruction
404
Automation: 7.8 Information technology
Graphical symbols for data processing Program flow chart and Nassi-Shneiderman diagram Example: Circle calculations Program flow chart
Nassi-Shneiderman diagram Program: circle calculation
Begin ^
Clear screen Value assignment PI = 3.1415927
Clear screen
Initial value assignment W$ = "n" Repeat, until W$ = "]' Input D1, D2, S
Value assignment PI
Initial value W$
Loop
D1 diameter of the smallest circle D2 diameter of the largest circle S increment
Output error Value assignment D = D1 Repeat, until D > D2 Calculation C = D * PI A = D A 2 * PI/4
until W$ = " j "
Output D, C, A Increment value of D by S Input W$ Program end
BASIC program Loop until D > D2
Processing C, A
Output D, C, A
Increment value of D
End of loop
Input W$
End of loop
C^D
C circumference A area
REM * * * Circle Calculation Program * * * REM * * * for circumference and area of circle * * * CLS PRINT CONST PI = 3.1415927 # W$= "n" REM * * * Input value * * * DO UNTIL W$ = " j " PRINT "Diameter initial value:"; INPUT D1 PRINT "Diameter end value:"; INPUT D2 PRINT "Increment:"; INPUTS IF D1 < 0 OR D1 > D2 OR S < = 0 THEN PRINT "Invalid input" END IF REM * * * Processing and Output * * * PRINT "D", "C", " A " D = D1 DO UNTIL D> D2 C = D * PI A = D A 2 * PI/4 PRINT D, C, A D = D+S LOOP REM * * * End * * * PRINT "End program? (y/n)"; INPUT W$ LOOP END
Automation: 7.8 Information technology
405
MS WORD word processing commands Command
Explanation
Command
Explanation
Insert Menu
File Menu New
Creates a new document.
Open
Opens an existing document.
Close Save
Break
Configures page break or column break.
Closes the current document.
Page Numbers
Defines location and layout.
Saves the current document.
AutoText
Inserts predefined text.
Save as
Saves the current document under a user-selected name.
Symbol
Inserts special characters from available character sets.
Page setup
Sets margins, page orientation, paper size and paper source.
Index and Tables
Selects text for an index, creates table of contents.
Print Preview
Displays a print image of the document.
Picture
Inserts graphics.
Print
Configures printer and printout.
Text Box
Inserts a text box.
Exit
Ends MS-Word.
File
Inserts a file.
Object
Inserts a formula, table, etc.
Hyperlink
Inserts a link to an URL.
Edit Menu Undo
Undoes the last action.
Repeat Cut
Repeats the last action. Deletes selected text and saves it to the clipboard.
Copy
Copies selected text or graphics to the clipboard.
Paste
Inserts the clipboard contents.
Select All
Selects the entire document.
Find
Searches for text or formatting.
Replace
Searches and replaces text or formatting.
Goto
Jumps to point in text or specific page.
View Menu Normal
Normal view for creating documents.
Print layout
Displays print layout of a document.
Outline
Shows outline of a document.
Toolbars
URL = Uniform Resource Locator (Internet address) Window Menu New Window
Opens a new window with contents of current window.
Arrange All
Arranges all open documents.
Split
Splits a document into two windows.
1 Document 1
List of opened documents.
Tools Menu Spelling and grammar Language Letters and Mailings
Checks document for spelling and grammatical errors. Sets the language for corrections. Links document to data of a control file (database).
Macro
Combines individual commands into one action.
Shows/hides toolbars.
Customize
Configures screen layout.
Ruler
Shows/hides ruler.
Options
Defines settings for MS-Word.
Header and Footer
Inserts text at top or bottom of page.
Zoom
Magnifies or reduces the screen display.
Table Menu
Format Menu Font
Defines font type and character sets.
Paragraph
Configures paragraph settings.
Bullets and Numbering
Configures numbering and bullets.
Borders and Shading
Configures border type and shading.
Tabs
Sets tab stop locations.
Text direction
Changes orientation of text from horizontal to vertical.
Insert Table
Creates a table.
Insert
Inserts individual cells (rows, columns).
Delete
Deletes individual cells (rows, columns).
Select
Selects individual cells (rows, columns).
Merge Cells
Combines cells into one cell.
Split cells
Splits individual cells into multiple cells.
Convert
Converts table to text and vice versa.
Table Properties Defines cell height, column width and table layout.
406
Automation: 7.8 Information technology
EXCEL Spreadsheet Commands | Command
Explanation
1 File Menu New
Command
Explanation
Insert Menu Inserts individual cells.
Close
Creates a new workbook, chart or Cells macro template. When opening a chart Rows the commands on the menu bar change. Columns Opens an existing workbook. Worksheet Closes the current workbook.
Save
Saves the current workbook.
Chart
Inserts charts in the workbook.
Save as
Saves the current workbook under a newly chosen name and file format.
Page Break
Sets page and/or column breaks.
Page setup
Sets margins, page orientation, paper size and headers/footers.
Function
Inserts mathematical functions for calculation.
Print Area
Sets the selected print area.
Picture
Inserts graphics.
Displays a print preview of the workbook.
Object
Inserts a formula, a table, a chart, etc.
Print
Configures printer and printout.
Hyperlink
Exit
Ends Excel.
Open
Print Preview
Edit Menu
Inserts entire rows. Inserts entire columns. Inserts a new worksheet in the workbook.
Inserts a link to an URL. URL = Uniform Resource Locator (Internet address)
Window Menu New Window
Opens a new window with contents of current window.
Deletes selected area of worksheet and saves it to the clipboard.
Arrange
Configures window layout for opened workbooks.
Copy
Copies selected text or graphics to the clipboard.
Split
Splits a workbook into two windows.
Paste
Inserts diagrams or data series from the clipboard or other applications.
Freeze Panes
Freezes a worksheet in the screen view.
Fill
Copies contents of selected cells downwards, upwards, to the right or left.
1 Workbook 1
Undo
Undoes the last action.
Repeat
Repeats the last action.
Cut
Delete Sheet
Deletes worksheet of a workbook.
Move or Copy Sheet
Moves or copies single worksheets within a workbook.
Find
Searches for text or formatting.
Replace
Searches and replaces text or formatting.
1 Data Menu Sort
Sorts table area in alphabetical order.
Import External Data
Enables importing from external databases, tables or text.
View Menu
List of opened workbooks. Tools Menu Spelling
Checks table for spelling errors.
Share workbook
Lets multiple users work on the workbook simultaneously.
Protection
Protects workbook or individual worksheets from unauthorized access.
Formula Auditing
Searches for errors within functions and cross-references.
Macro
Combines individual commands into one action.
Customize
Defines screen layout.
Options
Configures settings for EXCEL.
Format Menu
Page Break Preview
Displays expansion of a table on one or more pages.
Toolbars
Switches the toolbars on and off.
Ruler
Turns ruler on and off.
Header and Footer
Inserts text at the top and/or bottom of all pages.
Zoom
Magnifies or reduces the screen display.
Cells
Sets number format, orientation, font and frames.
Rows
Sets cell height.
Columns
Sets column width.
Sheet
Sets name of sheet.
Conditional Formatting
Applies the format of a cell if a specific condition is true.
407
Standards: 8.1 International standards
International Material Comparison Chart Chart 1 Germany
USA
France
Japan
Sweden
AFNOR
JIS
SS
U. K. Standard
DIN, DIN EN
Mat. No. AISI/SAE
BS
Structural and machine construction steels S185
1.0035
A 283 (A)
1449 15 HR; HS
A 33
-
1300
S235JR
1.0037
1015, A 283
Fe 360 B
E 24-2
STKM 12 A; C
1311
S235JRG1
1.0036
A 283 (C)
Fe 360 B 4360-40 B
-
-
1311,1312
S235JRG2
1.0038
A550.36
E 24-2 NE Fe 360 B; 6323-ERW 3; CEW 3
STKM 12A; C
1312
S235J0
1.0114
-
4360-40 C
E 24-3, E 24-4
-
-
S235J2G3
1.0116
A 515 (55)
Fe 360 D 1 FF
E 24-3, E 24-4
-
1312,1313
S235J2G4
1.0117
1513
A2
E 36-4
-
-
S275JR
1.0044
1020
Fe 430 B FU
E 28-2
SN 400 B; C; SN 490 B; C 1412
S275J0
1.0143
A 572 (42)
4360-43 C
E 28-3, E 28-4
-
S275J2G3
1.0144
A 500 (A; B; D) Fe 430 D1 FF
E 28-3, E 28-4
SM 400 A; B; C
1411, 1412, 1414
STK 400
2172
1414-01
S355JR
1.0045
-
4360-50 B
E 36-2
S355J0
1.0553
A 678 (C)
A3
320-560 M
-
1606
S355J2G3
1.0570
1024; 1524
1449 50/35 HR; HS
E 36-3, E 36-4
STK 500
2132 to 2134, 2174
S355J2G4
1.0577
A 738 (A; C)
Fe 510 D2 FF
A 52 FP
-
2174
S355K2G3
1.0595
A 678 (C)
224-430
-
-
-
S355K2G4
1.0596
A 678 (C)
224-430
-
-
-
E295
1.0050
A 570 (50)
Fe 490-2 FN
A 50-2
SS 490
1550,2172
E335
1.0060
A 572(65)
Fe 590-2 FN
A 60-2
SM 570
1650
E360
1.0070
-
Fe 590-2 FN
SM 570
1650
-
Unalloyed quality steels S275N
1.0490
A 516(60)
-
-
-
-
S275M
1.8818
A 715 (7)
-
-
-
-
S355N
1.0545
A 714 (III)
4360-50 E
E 355 R
-
2334-01,2134-01
S355M
1.8823
A 715 (7)
-
-
-
-
-
Alloy high grade steels S420N
1.8902
A 633 m
-
E 420 R
-
S420M
1.8825
-
-
-
-
-
S460N
1.8901
A 633 m
-
E 460 R
-
-
S460M
1.8827
A 734(B)
-
-
-
-
I Quenched and tempered structural steels with higher yield strength S460QL
1.8906
-
4360-55 F
S 460 Q, T
SM 520 B, C
2143
S500QL
1.8909
-
-
S 500 T
-
-
S620QL
1.8927
-
-
S 620 T
-
-
S960QL
1.8933
-
-
S 960 T
-
-
I Unalloyed steels - Case hardened steels C10E
1.1121
1010
040 A 10, 045 M 10
C 10, CX 10
S 9 CK, S 10 C
1265
C10R
1.1207
1011
-
E 355 C
-
-
C15E
1.1141
1015
040 A 15, 080 M 15 XC 12
S 15, S 15 CK
1370
C15R
1.1140
1016
080 A 20
-
-
-
I Alloy steels - Case hardened steels 16MnCr5
1.7131
5115
527 M 17
16 MC 5, 16 Mn Cr 5
-
2173
16MnCrS5
1.7139
5115
620-440
16MC5
-
2127
18CrMo4
1.7243
5120/5120 H
527 M 20
20 MC 5
Scr 420 M
2523
18CrMoS4
1.7244
5120/5120 H
527 M 20
20 MC 5
Scr 420 M
2523
20MoCr4
1.7321
K12220
-
-
-
-
20MoCrS4
1.7323
K12220
-
-
-
-
15NiCr13
1.5752
3310
655 H 13
12 NC 15
SNC 815(H)
-
20NiCrMo2-2
1.6523
8620 H
805 H 20
20 NCD 2
SNCM 220 H
2506
20NiCrMoS2-2
1.6526
8620/8620 H
-
20 NCD 2
SNCM 220 M
2506
17NiCrMo6-4
1.6566
-
815 M 17
18 NCD 6
-
2523
408
Standards: 8.1 International standards
International Material Comparison Chart Chart II Germany
USA
U.K.
France
Japan
Sweden
AFNOR
JIS
SS
Standard DIN, DIN EN
Mat. No. AISI/SAE
BS
17NiCrMoS6-4
1.6569
4718/47 18 H
-
-
-
-
20MnCr5
1.7147
5120
527 M 20
20MC5
SMn C 420 H
-
20MnCrS5
1.7149
5120/5120 H
527 M 20
20 MC 5
Scr 420 M
2523
14NiCrMo13-4
1.6657
9310
832 M 13
16NCD13
-
-
18CrNiMo7-8
1.6687
-
-
18NCD6
-
Unalloyed steels - Quenched and tempered steels C22
1.0402
1020
055 M 15
AF 42 C 20
S 20 C, S 22 C
1450
C22E
1.1151
1023
055 M 15
2 C 22, XC 18, XC 25
S 20 C
1450
C25
1.0406
1025
070 M 26
1 C25
-
-
C25E
1.1158
1025
(070 M 26)
2 C 25, XC 25
S 25 C, S 28 C
1450
C35
1.0501
1035
060 A 35
C 35, 1 C 35
S 35 C, S 35 CM
1572, 1550
C35E
1.1181
1035
080 A 35
C 35
S 35 C
1550, 1572
C45
1.0503
1045
080 A 46
C 45
S 45 C, S 45 CM
1672, 1650
C45E
1.1191
1042, 1045
080 M 46
XC 42 H 1
S 45 C
1672
C60
1.0601
1060
060 A 62
C 60
S 58 C
-
C60E
1.1221
1064
060 A 62, 070 M 60
2 C 60
S 58 C, S 60 CM, S 65 CM
C30
1.0528
G 10300
080 A 30
XC 32
S 30 C
-
C35
1.0501
1035
060 A 35
-
-
-
C40
1.0511
1040
080 M 40
AF 60 C 40
C50
1.0540
G 10500
080 M 50
XC 50
S 50 C
-
C55
1.0535
1055
070 M 55, 5770-50
C 54; 1 C 55
S 55 C, S 55 CM
1655
-
1665, 1678
F. 114A
Alloy steels - Quenched and tempered steels 38Cr2
1.7003
-
120 M 36
38 C 2, 38 Cr 2
-
38CrS2
1.7023
5140
530 A 40
42 C 4
Scr 440 M
2245
46Cr2
1.7006
5045
-
42 C 2, 46 Cr 2
-
-
46CrS2
1.7025
A 768(95)
-
-
SNB 5
-
34Cr4
1.7033
5132
530 A 32
32 C 4, 34 Cr 4
SCr 430(H)
-
34CrS4
1.7037
4340/4340 H
818 M 40
35 NCD 6
SNCM 439
-
37Cr4
1.7034
5135
530 A 36
37 Cr4, 38 C 4
Scr 435 (H) (M)
-
37CrS4
1.7038
5135/5135 H
-
38 Cr 4
Scr 435 H
-
25CrMo4
1.7218
4118
708 M 25
25 CD 4
SCM 420
2225
24CrMoS4
1.7213
4130/4130 H
CDS 110
30 CD 4
SCM 430 M
2223-01
41Cr4
1.7035
5140
530 A 40
41 Cr 4, 42 C 4
Scr 440 (H) (M)
-
41CrS4
1.7039
L1
524 A 14
-
-
2092
34CrMo4
1.7220
4137
708 A 37
35 CD 4
SCM 432
2234
42CrMo4
1.7225
4140
708 M 40
42 CD 4
SCM 440 (H)
2244
50CrMo4
1.7228
4150,4147
708 A 47
50 Cr Mo 4
SCM 4454 (H)
2512
51CrV4
1.8159
6150
735 A 50
50 CV 4
SUP 10
2230
36CrNiMo4
1.6511
9840
817 M 37
36 CrNiMo 4, 35 NCD 5, 40 NCD 3
—
—
34CrNiMoS4
1.6582
4337, 4240
816 M 40, 817 M 40 34 CrNiMo 8
SNCM 447
2541
30NiCrMo8
1.6580
823 M 30
30 CrNiMo 8
SNCM 431
-
36NiCrMo16
1.6773
5135/5135 H
-
38 Cr 4
Scr 435 M
-
31CrMo12
1.8515
-
722 M 24
30 CD 12
-
2240
34CrAIMo5-10
1.8507
A 355 CI.D
-
30 CAD 6.12
-
-
40CrAIMo7-10
1.8509
E 7140
905 M 39, En 41 B
40 CAD 6.12
SACM 1, SACM 645
2940
40CrMoV13-9
1.8523
-
897 M 39
-
-
-
Nitriding steels
Steels for flame and induction hardening Cf45
1.1193
1045
060 A 47, 080 M 46
XC 42 H 1 TS
S 45 C, S 45 CM
1672
42Cr4
1.7045
5140
530 A 40
42 C 4 TS
Scr440
2245
41CrMo4
1.7223
4142
708 M 40, 3111-5/1
42 CD 4 TS
SNB 22, SCM 440
2244
Cf35
1.1183
1035
080 A 35
XC 38 H 1 TS
S 35 C, S 35 CM
1572
409
Standards: 8.1 International standards
International Material Comparison Chart Chart III Germany
USA
U. K.
Japan
France
Sweden
Standard DIN, DIN EN
Mat. No. AISI/SAE
Cf53
1.1213
Cf70
1.1249
1050
BS
AFNOR
JIS
SS
070 M 55
XC 48 H 1 TS
S 50 C, S 50 CM
1674
-
-
-
-
1912
Free cutting steels S 250
SUM 22
S 250 Pb
SUM 23 L
1914
-
S 300
SUM 25
-
12 L 14
-
S 300 Pb
-
1926
1108,1109
(210 M 15)
10 F 2
-
-
11SMn30
1.0715
1213
11SMnPb30
1.0718
12 L 13
11SMn37
1.0736
1215
11SMnPb37
1.0737
10S20
1.0721
230 M 07
10SPb20
1.0722
-
-
10 Pb F 2
-
35S20
1.0726
1140
212 M 36
35MF6
-
1957
46S20
1.0727
1146
En 8 DM
45MF4
SUM 43
-
Cold work steels, unalloyed C80U
1.1525
W 108
-
C 80 E 2 U, Y-| 80
-
-
C105U
1.1545
W1
BW 1 A
Y 105
SK 3
1880
2710
Cold work steels, alloy 45WCrV7
1.2542
S1
BS 1
45 WCrV 8
S1
60WCrV8
1.2550
S1
BS 1
55 WC 20
-
-
100MnCrW4
1.2510
O1
BO 1
90 MnWCrV 5
SKS 3
-
90MnCrV8
1.2842
02
BO 2
90 Mn V 8, 90 MV 8
-
-
X210Cr12
1.2080
P3
BD 3
Z 2 0 0 C 12
SKD 12
2710
102Cr6
1.2067
L3
(BL 3)
100 Cr 6, Y 100 C 6
SUJ2
-
45NiCrMo16
1.2767
-
BP 30
Y 35 NCD 16
-
-
X153CrMoV12
1.2379
D2
BD 2
Z 160 CDV 12
SKD 12
2260
X100CrMoV51
1.2363
A2
BA2
Z100 CDV 5
SKD 12
2260
X40CrMoV51
1.2344
H 13
BH 13
Z 40 CDV 5
SKD 61
2242
X210CrW12
1.2436
D4 (D6)
BD 6
Z 210 CW 12-01
SKD 2
2312
55NiCrMoV7
1.2714
-
-
-
SKS 51
-
X37CrMoV5-1
1.2343
H 11
BH 11
Z 38 CDV 5
SKD 6
-
32CrMoV12-28
1.2365
H 10
BH 10
32 CDV 12-28
-
-
HS6-5-2C
1.3343
M 2
BM 2
HS 6-5
SKH 51
2722
HS6-5-2-5
1.3243
M 35
BM 35
Z 85 WDKCV 06-05-04-02
SKH 55
2723
HS 10-4-3-10
1.3207
-
BT 42
HS 10-4-3-10
SKH 57
-
HS2-9-2
1.3348
M 7
-
HS 2-9-2, Z 100 DCWV 09-04-02-02
-
2782
HS2-9-1-8
1.3247
M 42
BM 42
HS 2-9-1-8
SKH 59
2716
S2-9-2-8
1.3249
M 42
BM 34
-
-
-
Z 12 CN 18-09
SUS 301
2331
SUS F 304 L
-
Hot work steels
High speed steels
Stainless steels, austenitic X10CrNi18-8
1.4310
301
301 S 21/22
X2CrNi18-9
1.4307
F 304 L
304 L
X5CrNi18 9
1.4350
304
304 S 31
Z 5 C N 18.09
SUS 304
2332
X2CrNiN19-11
1.4306
304 L
304/305 S 11
Z 2 CN 18-10
SCS 19, SUS 304 L
2352
X2CrNi18-10
1.4311
304 LN
304 S 61
Z 3 CN 18-07 Az
SUS 304 LN
2371
X5CrNi18-10
1.4301
304
304 S 17
Z 5 CN 17-08
SUS 304
2332, 2333
X8CrNiS18-9
1.4305
303
303 S 22/31
Z 8 CNF 18-09
SUS 303
2346
X6CrNiTi18-10
1.4541
321
321 S 31/51
Z 6 CNT 18-10
SUS 321
2337
X4CrNi18-12
1.4303
305/308
305S 17, 305S 19
Z 5 CN 18-11 FF
SUS 305 J1, SUS 305
-
X5CrNiMo17-12-2
1.4401
316
316 S 13/17/19
Z 3 C N D 17-11-01
SUS 316
2347
X6CrNiMoTl 17-12-2
1.4571
31671
320 S 18/31
Z 6 CNDT 17-12
SUS 316 71
2350
X2CrNiMo18-14-3
1.4435
316 L
316 S 11/13/14
Z 3 C N D 17-12-03/ Z 3 C N D 18-14-03
SUS 316 L
2353
410
Standards: 8.1 International standards
International Material Comparison Chart Chart IV Germany
USA
U. K.
Japan
France
Sweden
Standard DIN, DIN EN
Mat. No.
X2CrNiMoN 17-13-3
1.4429
316 LN
326 S 63
Z 3 C N D 17-12 Az
(SUS 316 LN)
X2CrNiMoN17-13-5
1.4439
316 L
316S 11
Z 2 C N D 17-12
SUSF316L
2348
X1 NiCrMoCu25-20-5
1.4539
USN N 08904
-
Z 2 NCDU 25-20
-
2562
AISI/SAE
BS
AFNOR
JIS
SS 2375
| Stainless steels, ferritic X2CrNi12
1.4003
A 268
-
-
-
X6Cr13
1.4000
403
403 S 17
Z 8 C 12, Z 8 C 13 FF
SUS 403
2301
X6Cr17
1.4016
430
430 S 15
Z 8 C 17
SUS 430
2320
X2CrTi12
1.4512
409
409 S 19
Z3CT12
SUH 409
-
X6CrMo17-1
1.4113
434
434 S 17
Z 8 CD 17.01
SUS 434
-
X2CrMoTi18-2
1.4521
443/444
-
-
SUS 444
2326
J Stainless steels, martensitic X12CrS13
1.4005
416
416S 21 Z11 CF13 SUS 416
-
2380
X12Cr13
1.4006
410
410 S 21
Z 10 C 13
SUS 410
2302
X20Cr13
1.4021
420
420 S 37
Z 2 0 C 13
SUS 420 J 1
2303
X30Cr13
1.4028
420 F
420 S 45
Z 3 0 C 13
SUS 420 J 2
2304
X46Cr13
1.4034
-
(420 S 45)
Z 44 C 14, Z 38 C 13 M
SUS 420 J2
2304
X39CrMo17-1
1.4122
5925
-
-
X3CrNiMo13-4
1.4313
CA 6-NM
425 C 11
Z 4 C N D 13.4 M
SCS 5, SCS 6
2384
-
Hot rolled steels for springs 38Si7
1.5023
-
-
41 Si 7
-
-
46Si7
1.5024
9255
-
51 S 7, 51 Si 7
-
2090
55Cr3
1.7176
5155
525 A 58
55 Cr 3, 55 C 3
SUP 9 (A) (M)
2253
61SiCr7
1.7108
9261,9262
-
61 SC 7
-
-
51CrV4
1.8159
6150
735 A 50
55 Cr V 4
SUP 10
2230
Cold rolled strip and sheet from soft steels DC03
1.0347
A 619
1449 3 CR
E
CR 2
1146
DC04
1.0338
A 620 (1008)
1449 2 CR; 3 CR
ES
SPCE; HR 4
1147
Cast iron with flake graphite (gray iron) EN-GJL-100
EN-JL-1010 A 48 20 B
1452 Grade 100
Ft 10 D
G 5501 FC 10
0110-00
EN-GJL-150
EN-JL-1020 A 48 25 B
1452 Grade 150
A 32-101 FGL 150; FT 15 D G 5501 FC 15
0115-00
EN-GJL-200
EN-JL-1030 A 48 30 B
1452 Grade 220
A 32-101 FGL 200; FT 20 D G 5501 FC 20
0120-00
EN-GJL-250
EN-JL-1040 A 48 40 B
1452 Grade 250/ 260
A 32-101 FGL 250; FT 25 D G 5501 FC 25
0125-00
EN-GJL-300
EN-JL-1050 A 48 45 B
1452 Grade 300
A 32-101 FGL 300; FT 30 D
G 5501 FC 30
0130-00
EN-GJL-350
EN-JL-1060 A 48 50 B
1452 Grade 350
A 32-101 FGL 350; FT 35 D G 5501 FC 35
0135-00
-
Cast iron with spheroidal (nodular) graphite EN-GJS-350-22
EN-JS-1010
-
0717-15
EN-GJS-500-7
EN-JS-1050 A 536 60-45-12 2789 Grade 500/7 A 32-201 FGS 500-7
G 5502 FCD 500
0727-02
EN-GJS-600-3
EN-JS-1060 A 536 80-55-06 2789 Grade 600/3 A 32-201 FGS 600-3
G 5502 FCD 600
0732-03
EN-GJS-700-2
EN-JS-1070 A 536 10070-03
2789 Grade 700-2 A 32-201 FGS 700-2
G 5502 FCD 700
0737-01
EN-GJMW-350-4
EN-JM 1010
-
86681 W 35-04
A 32-701 MB 35-7
G 5703 FCMW 330
-
EN-GJMW-400-5
EN-JM 1030
-
6681 W 40-05
A 32-701 MB 40-05
G 5703 FCMW 370
-
EN-GJMW-450-7
EN-JM 1040
-
6681 45-07
A 32-701 MB 450-7
G 5703 FCMWP 440
-
EN-GJMB-350-10
EN-JM 1130 A 47 Grade 22010+32510
310 B 340/12
A 32-702 MN 350-10
G 5703 FCMB 340
0815-00
EN-GJMB-450-6
EN-JM 1140
-
6681 P 45-06
A 32-703 MP 50-5
-
0854-00
EN-GJMB-550-4
EN-JM 1160
-
6681 P 55-04
A 32-703 MP 60-3
G 5703 FCMP 540
0856-00
EN-GJMB-650-2
EN-JM 1180
-
6681 P 65-02
-
-
0862-03
EN-GJMB-700-2
EN-JM 1190 A220 Grade 70003
6681 P 70-02
A 32-703 MP 70-2
G 5703 FCMP 690
0862-03
-
-
Malleable cast iron
411
Standards: 8.1 International standards
International Material Comparison Chart Chart V Germany
USA
France
Japan
Sweden
AFNOR
JIS
SS
U. K. Standard
DIN, DIN EN
Mat. No.
AISI/SAE
BS
Cast steels for general applications GS-38
1.0420
-
GS-45
1.0446
A 27
SC 360
-
-
-
SC 450
-
1504-161 Gr. B
-
-
-
-
—
Cast steels for pressure vessels GP240GH
1.0619
A 216 Grade WCC
G17CrMo5-5
1.7357
A 217 Grade WC 6
-
Aluminum and wrought aluminum alloys old
new old
Al 99.5
1050 A
1050 A
1B
1050 A A-5
Al Mn1
3103
3103
N 3
Al M n l C u
3003
3003
Al Mg1
5005 A
5005 A
N 41
Al Mg2
5251
5251
N4
Al Mg3
5754
5754
-
A-G 3 M
Al Mg5
5019/5119
5019/5119
-
A-G 5
Al Mg3Mn
5454
5454
N 51
5454 A-G 3 MC
Al Mg4.5Mn0.7
5083
5083
N 8
5083 A-G 4.5 MC
AlCuPbMgMn
2007
2007
-
A-U 4 PB
-
4335
Al Cu4PbMg
2030
2030
-
-
-
-
Al MgSiPb
6012
6012
-
A-SGPB
-
-
Al Cu4SiMg
2014
2014
H 15
-
-
Al Cu4MgSi
2017
2017
-
A 2017
-
Al Cu4Mg1
2024
2024
2 L 97/9
Al MgSi
6060
6060
H9
3103
new 1050 A A 1050
-
(3103) A-M 1
-
4007 4054
3003 A 3003
-
5005 A-G 0.6
5005 A 5005
4106
5251 A-G 2 M
5251
-
-
5754
-
4125
-
-
5454 A 5454
-
A 5083
(2014 A) A-U 4 SG A-U 4 G 2024 A - U 4 G 1 (6063) A-GS
2024 A 2024
-
6060 A 6063
4103 4212
Al S i l M g M n
6082
6082
H 30
6082 A-SGM 0.7
6082
Al Zn4.5Mg1
7020
7020
H 17
7020 A-Z 5 G
7020 (A 7 N 01)
Al Zn5Mg3Cu
7022
7022
-
Al Zn5.5MgCu
7075
7075
2 L 95/96
A 356
L M 25
A-Z4GU 7075 A-Z 5 GU
4140
-
4425
-
-
7075 A 7075
-
I Aluminum casting alloys |
AC-AISi7Mg
AC-42000
A-S 7 g
-
I
Magnesium alloys. Titanium, Titanium alloys MgMn2
3.3520
M 1A
MAG-E-101
G-M2
-
-
MgAI3Zn
3.5312
AZ 31 B
MAG-E-111
G-A 3 Z 1
-
-
MgAI6Zn
3.5612
AZ 61 A
MAG-E-121
G-A 6 Z 1
-
-
MgAI8Zn
3.5812
AZ 80 A
-
G-A 7 Z 1
-
-
Ti1
3.7025
TA 1
-
-
-
Ti2
3.7035
-
TA 2
-
-
-
T1AI6V4
3.7165
-
T A 10-13, 28, 56
-
-
TiAIMo4Sn2
3.7185
-
T A 45-51, 57
-
-
-
The publisher and its affiliates have taken care to collect the above data to the best of their ability. However, no responsibility is accepted by the publisher or any of its affiliates regarding its content or any statement herein or omission there from which may result in any loss or damage to any party using the data shown above.
412
Standards: 8.2 DIN, DIN EN, ISO etc. standards
Index of cited standards and other regulations No.
Type of standard and short title
Page
No.
Type of standard and short title
Page
DIN
DIN 13 74 76 82
Metric ISO screw threads Counter sinks Thread runouts Knurls
204 224 89 91
824 835 908 910
Folding drawing sheets Studs Drain plugs Drain plugs
66 219 219 219
103 125 1) 126 1) 158 172
Metric ISO trapezoidal threads Flat washers Flat washers Tapered threads Headed drill bushings
207 233 234 205 247
929 935 938 939 962
Hexagonal weld nuts Castle nuts Studs Studs Designation of bolts and screws
232 232 219 219 210
173 179 202 228 250
Slip type jig bushing Drill bushings Screw thread types, Overview Morse tapers, Metric tapers Radii
247 247 202 242, 243 65
962 974 981 10131} 10141)
Designation of nuts Counterbores Lock nuts for roller bearings Hot rolled round steel bar Hot-rolled square steel bar
227 225 268 144 144
319 323 332 336 406
Ball knobs Preferred numbers Center holes Drill diameter for clearance holes Dimensioning
248 65 91 204 75-82
10171) 1025 1026 1301 1302
Hot-rolled flat steel bar I-beams Steel channel Units of measurement Mathematical symbols
433 1) 434 435 461 466
Flat washers Washers for channels Washers for I-beams Coordinate systems Knurled nuts, high form
234 235 235 62, 63 232
1304 1414 1445 1587 16511'
Symbols, mathematical Twist drills Clevis pins with threaded stud end Hexagon acorn nuts, high form Free cutting steels
19 301 238 231 134
467 471 472 475 508
Knurled nuts, low form Retaining rings for shafts Retaining rings for holes Widths across flats Nuts for T-slots
232 269 269 223 250
17001) 17071) 1732 1850
Heavy non-ferrous metals, designation Solders Welding filler metals for Al Plain bearing bushings
174 334 326 262
2080 2093 2098 2211 2215
Steep taper shanks Disk springs Compression springs V-belt pulleys Classic V-belts
2215 2403 3760 37711> 4760
V-belts, cogged Pipelines, identification Radial seals O-rings Form deviations
4844 4983 4987 5406 5412 5418 5419
338-341 Safety signs 297 Tool holders, designation 296 Indexable inserts, designation 268 Lock washers 266 Cylindrical roller bearings Roller bearings, mounting dimensions 265-267 270 Felt seals
Undercuts Metric buttress threads Eye bolts Eye nuts Hexagon head bolts and screws
92 207 219 231 214
616 617 623 625 628
Dimension series for roller bearings Needle bearings Roller bearings, designation Deep groove ball bearings Angular-contact ball bearings
264 268 264 265 265
650 711 720 780 787 820
T-slots Axial deep groove ball bearings Tapered roller bearings Module series for gears Bolts and screws for T-slots Standardization
250 266 267 257 250 8
509 513 580 582 609
1)
The standard was withdrawn. Replacement standard, if available, is given on the cited book page.
144 149,150 146 17,20-22 19
242, 243 246 245 254 253 253 343 270 270 98
Standards: 8.2 DIN, DIN EN, ISO etc. standards
Index of cited standards and other regulations No.
Type of standard and short title
Page
I
No.
5520 6311 6319 6321
Tolerances for installation of roller bearings Bending radii, non-ferrous metals Thrust pads Spherical washers and conical seats Locating and supporting pins
110 17221^ 172231' 318 173501' 248 17860 250 19225 249
6323 6332 6335 6336 6771 1)
Loose slot tenons Grub screws with thrust point Star knob Fluted knobs Title blocks
250 248 249 249 66
6773 6780 67841> 6785 6796
Hardness specifications in drawings Holes, simplified representation Workpiece edges Center punch on turned parts Conical spring washers
97 83 88 88 235
6799 6885 6886 6887 6888
Circlips Feather keys
269 53804 240 55350 239 66001 239 66025 240 66217
6914 1) 6915 1) 6935 7157 7500
Hexagon head bolts and screws Hexagon nuts, heavy Bending radii, steel Fit recommendations Thread forming screws
214 230 318,319 111 218
7719 7721
Wide V-be Its Timing belts, synchronous belts
253 253, 255 253 185 439 253, 254 440 485 253 499 1) 215 515 234 216 573
/
Keys Gib-head keys Woodruff keys
H n u h l p \/-hplt<;
/
7726 7753
L/UUUIC V UCILO Foam materials Narrow V-belts
7867 7984 7989 7991 7999
V-ribbed belt Cap screws, socket head Washers for steel constructions Countersunk head screws
85541> 9713 1) 9715 9812
Gas welding rods Al channel Magnesium wrought alloys Pillar presses
9816
Pillar presses
9819
Pillar presses
O OCi 1 yob
Hexagon fit bolts
Punches 16901 Plastic molded parts, tolerances 172111) Nitriding steels 172121' Steels for flame hardening
1)
Page
DIN
DIN 5425
Type of standard and short title
Spring steel Steel wire for springs Tool steels Titanium, titanium alloys Controllers
138 138 135 172 347-349
19226
Basic terminology of control engineering
346-349
19227 30910 40719 1) 50125
Code letters, symbols Sintered metals Function charts Tensile test specimens
346, 347 178 358-360 190
50141 51385 51502 51519 51524
Shear test Machining coolants Lubricants, designation ISO viscosity grades Hydraulic oils
191 292 271,272 271 368
Statistical analysis Quality inspection and testing Program flow charts, symbols CNC machines, program structure CNC machines, coordinates
277, 278 276 403 382-385 381
66261 69871 69893 70852 70952
214 754 754 324 755 171 7751> 172 252 1044 252 1045 1089 252 1089 OKI ZD 1 1173 186 134 134, 156
Nassi-Shneiderman diagrams, symbols Steep taper shank Hollow taper shafts Lock nuts Lock washers
403 243 243 231 231
DIN EN Inert gas Wire electrodes Wrought aluminum alloys Rod electrodes Material condition of Al alloys
325 325 166, 167 327 165
Designation for Al alloys Wrought aluminum alloys Al round and square bar Wrought aluminum alloys Work safety with robots
165 166, 167 169, 170 166, 167 380
Brazing Flux for brazing Compressed-gas cylinders Gas cylinders - Identification Copper alloys, material conditions
333 334 324 331,332 174
The standard was withdrawn. Replacement standard, if available, is given on the cited book page.
414
Standards: 8.2 DIN, DIN EN, ISO etc. standards
Index of cited standards and other regulations No.
Type of standard and short title
Page
No.
Type of standard and short title
Page
DIN EN
DIN EN
161 142 142 141 175
174 158 160 161 160
10293 10297 10305 10327 12163
Cast steel Tubes, machine construction Precision steel tube Hot dip coated sheet Copper-zinc alloys
230 168 172 168 174, 176
12164 12413 12536 12844 12890
Copper-zinc-lead alloys Grinding, maximum speeds Gas welding rods High-grade zinc casting alloys Patterns
175 308 324 176 162, 163
13237 14399-4 14399-4 14399-6 20273
Equipment in EX area Hexagon nuts, heavy Hexagon head bolts, heavy Flat washers Clearance holes for bolts
357 230 214 233, 235 211
131 131 131 121-125 191
20898 22339 22340 22341 22553
Property classes for nuts Tapered pins Clevis pins without heads Clevis pins with head Welding symbols
Sheet metal, hot-rolled Equal leg tee steel Steel angle Hot-rolled flat steel bar Hot-rolled square steel bar
141 146 147, 148 144 144
24015 24766 27434 27435 28738
Hexagon head bolts and screws Set screws, slotted Set screws, slotted Set screws, slotted Washers for clevis pins
213 220 220 220 235
10060 10083 10084 10085 10087
Hot-rolled round steel bar Quenched and tempered steels Case hardening steels Nitriding steels Free cutting steels
144 133, 156 132, 155 134, 157 134, 157
29454 29692 1) 60445 60446 60529
Flux for soldering Welding, weld preparation Electrical equipment Wires and connections Protective systems
334 323 353 353 357
10088 10089 101131> 10130 101371'
Stainless steels Spring steel Fine grain structural steels Sheet metal, cold-rolled Quenched and tempered structural steels
136, 137 138 131 140 131
60617 60848 60893 60947 610821'
Circuit diagrams, graphical symbols Function charts Laminated materials Proximity sensors, designation Electrical circuit diagrams
350-352 358-360 184 355 354
61131
PLC
373-375
101421) 10210 10213 10219 10226
Sheet metal, electroplated Hot-rolled tubes Cast steel for pressure vessels Cold-rolled tubes Whitworth pipe threads
141 151 161 151 206
10268 10270 10270 10277 10278
Sheet metal, cold-rolled Steel wire for springs Steel wire for tension springs Delivery conditions, bright steel Bright steel products
140 138 244 145 145
1412 1560 1561 1562 1563
Copper alloys, material numbers Designation of cast iron Cast iron with flake graphite Malleable cast iron Cast iron with spheroidal graphite
1661 1706 1753 1780 1982
Hexagon nuts with flange Aluminum casting alloys Magnesium cast alloys Designation for Al cast alloys Copper alloys, designation
6506 10002 100031) 10020 10025-2
Hardness test by Brinell Tensile testing Hardness test by Brinell Steels, classification Unalloyed structural steels
10025-3 10025-4 10025-6 10027 10045
Fine grain structural steels Fine grain structural steels Quenched and tempered structural steels Steels, designation system Notched-bar impact bending test
10051 10055 10056 10058 10059
1)
192 190 192 120 130
The standard was withdrawn. Replacement standard, if available, is given on the cited book page.
228 237 238 238 93-95
Standards: 8.2 DIN, DIN EN, ISO etc. standards
Index of cited standards and other regulations No.
Type of standard and short title
Page
No.
Type of standard and short title
Page
DIN EN ISO
DIN EN ISO
217 217
7090 7091 7092
Flat countersunk head tapping screw Raised head countersunk tapping screws Flat washers Flat washers Flat washers
7200 7225 8673 8674 8675
Title blocks Hazardous substance labels Hexagon nuts, fine thread Hexagon nuts, fine thread Hexagon nuts, low form
66 331 229 229 230
183 183 8676 217 8734 217 8740 8741 195 8742
Hexagon head bolts and screws Dowel pins, hardened Straight grooved pin 1/2 length reverse taper grooved pins 1/3-1/2 length center grooved pins
213 237 238 238 238
Dowel pins Rod electrodes Fonts Three-letter codes for countries Property classes of bolts and screws
237 327 64 203 211
8743 8744 8745 8746 8747
1/3-1/2 length center grooved pins Tapered groove pin Half length taper grooved pin Grooved pins with round head Grooved pins with countersunk heads
238 238 238 238 238
3506 4014 4017 4026 4027
Property classes of nuts Hexagon head bolts and screws Hexagon head bolts and screws Set screws, hexagon socket Set screws, hexagon socket
228 212 212 220 220
8752 8765 9000 9001 9004
Spring pins, heavy duty Hexagon head bolts and screws Quality management Quality management Quality management
237 213 274, 275 274 274
4028 4032 4033 4035 4063
Set screws, hexagon socket Hexagon nuts, coarse threads Hexagon nuts, coarse threads Hexagon nuts, low form Welding methods, designation
220 228 229 229 322
9013 9453 9692 9787 10218
Thermal cutting Soft solder alloys Weld preparation Industrial robots Work safety with robots
330 334 323 378, 379 380
4287 4288 4759 4762 4957
Surface finish Surface finish Product grades for bolts and screws Cap screws, socket head Tool steels
98 98, 99 211 215 135, 155
10512 10642 13337 13920 14526
Hexagon nuts with insert Countersunk screws, hexagon socket Spring pins, light duty Welding, general tolerances Phenolic powder molding compounds
230 216 237 322 184
5457 6506 6507 6508 6947
Drawing sheet sizes Hardness test, Brinell Hardness test by Vickers Hardness test by Rockwell Welding positions
66 192 193 193 322
14527 14539 14577 15065 15785
Urea molding compounds Grippers Martens hardness Countersinks for countersunk head screws Bonded joints, representation
184 380 194 224 96
7040 7046
Hexagon nuts with insert Flat head countersunk screws, cross recessed Raised head countersunk screws, cross recessed
230 217
15977
Blind rivets (flat head) Blind rivets (countersunk head) Conversion tables for hardness values Cupping test Cap screws, socket head
241
128 216 527 868 898
Lines Paper formats Tensile properties of plastics Hardness test by Shore Property classes of bolts and screws
1043 1101 1207 1234 1302
Basic polymers Geometric tolerancing Cap screws, slotted Cotter pins Indication of surface finish
1872 1873 2009 2010 2039
PE molding compounds PP molding compounds Countersunk head screws, slotted Raised head countersunk screws, slotted Hardness test on plastics
2338 2560 3098 3166 3506
7047
1)
67 66 195 195 211 180 112-114 216 232 99, 100
7050 7051
15978 18265 20482 217 21269
The standard was withdrawn. Replacement standard, if available, is given on the cited book page.
233 234 234
241 194 191 216
416
Standards: 8.2 DIN, DIN EN, ISO etc. standards
Index of cited standards and other regulations No.
Type of standard and short title
Page
No.
Type of standard and short title
Page
BGV
DIN ISO 14 128 228 273 286
Splined shaft joints Lines Pipe threads Clearance holes for bolts ISO fits
241 A8 67-75 B3 206 D12 225 102-109
338-341 Safety signs 344 Noise Protection Regulations (German) 308 Grinding tools, application
513 525 848 965 965
Cutting tool materials, designation Abrasives Grit designation Multiple start threads, designation Thread tolerance classes
294, 295 11-19 309 16-31 311 202 208
Quality Science, Introduction Normal distribution in random samples
1219 1832 2162 2203 2768
Circuit symbols for fluidics Indexable inserts Representation of springs Representation of gears General tolerances
67/548 363-365 67/548 296 87 84 80, 110 60479
R-Phrases, S-Phrases Danger symbols
2859 3040 4379 4381 4382
Acceptance sampling Designation on cones Plain bearing bushings Plain bearing materials Plain bearing materials
5455 5456 5599 6410 6411
Scales Projection methods 5-way pneumatic valves Screw threads, representation Center bores, representation
6413 6691 6753 7049 8062
Representation of splines Plain bearing materials Plates for cutting tools Pan head tapping screws Dimensional tolerances for castings
8826
Roller bearings, simplified representation
9222 10242 13715
Seals, simplified representation Punch holder shanks Workpiece edges
280 304 262 2229 261 2740 261 2880 3258 65 3368 69, 70 3411 364 79, 90 91 87 261 251 218 163
24569
DGQ
EWG guidelines
Safety measures Automatic cutout fuses
Effects of alternating current (AC)
1>
356
VDI Bonded joints, preparatory treatment Grippers PLC applications Machine running time Punch dimensions Abrasive bonds
336 380 375 285 316 309,311
VDMA Hydraulic fluids, degradable
85 86 251 88
356 356
Closed Substance Cycle and Waste Management Act Regulation for waste requiring special monitoring
199, 200 198, 342
IEC
DIN VDE 0100-410 0100-430
281 278
197
The standard was withdrawn. Replacement standard, if available, is given on the cited book page.
368
Subject index
417
Subject index Abrasives ABS (acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene copolymers)
309 181,187
Aluminum, Aluminum alloys, overview
164
Aluminum, welding fillers
326
Amino plastic molding materials
184
Acceleration
34
Analog controllers
Acceleration due to gravity
36
AND operation
348 350,375,376
36
Angular-contact ball bearings
265
Acceptance quality level (AQL)
280
Anti-rotation lock for screws
222
Acceptance sampling
280
Aramide fibers
187
Acceleration force
Arc length, dimensioning
Accident prevention regulations with
78
344
Arc welding
Acetylene cylinders, color coding
332
Arc welding, weld design
Acme screw threads
203
Area graphs
Acrylonitrile butadiene rubber (NBR)
185
Argon cylinders, color coding
Address codes, CNC controls
382
Arrow projection method
Adhesive bonding
336
ASCII code
402
Adhesives, microencapsulated
222
Austenite
153
Air consumption of pneumatic cylinders
369
Austenitic steels
regard to noise protection
Air pressure
Automation
42
327, 328 328 63 332 70
136 345-406
Aluminum alloys, heat treatment
157
Auxiliary dimensions
81
Aluminum casting alloys
168
Average speed of crank mechanism
35
168
Axial deep groove ball bearings
Aluminum castings, designation Aluminum profiles
169-171
Aluminum profiles, overview
169
Aluminum tubes
171
Axonometric representation
266 69
B Ball bearings Ball knobs Basic dimensions Basic geometrical constructions Basic hole Basic polymers, designation Basic quantities
265, 266 248 81
Bending
209-221
Bolts and screws, designation
210
180
Bolts and screws, head styles
223
20 20
Belt drive, transmission ratio
39
103
Basic units
Bearing forces
Bolts and screws
116,117
250
58-61
103
Beam cutting, areas of application
Bolt thread as inclined plane Bolts and screws for T-slots
Basic shaft Beam cutting
Boiling temperature
329, 330 329 37 259 318,319
Bolts and screws, overview
209, 210
Bolts, tightening torques
221
Bonded joints, preparation
336
Bonded joints, representation
96
Bonded joints, testing
337
Bonded joints, types
337
Bosses on turned parts
88
BR (butadiene rubber)
185
Bending load
47
Brazing materials
333
Bending stress
47
Breakeven point
286
Brinell hardness test
192
Bending, bending radius
318 318,319
Buckling, load
46
Bending, spring back
319
Buoyant force
42
Bevel gears, calculation
258
Buttress threads
Binary logic
350
Binary number system
401
Bending, calculation of blanks
Binomial formula Blind rivet Block and tackle
15 241 39
207
418
Subject index
Subject index c Cabinet projection
69
Coefficient of thermal conductivity
Calculations with brackets
15
Coefficient of volumetric expansion
117 116, 117
Captive fastener
222
Coefficients of friction
Carbon dioxide cylinders, color coding
332
Cold work steels
135
Carbon fibers
187
Cold work steels, heat treatment
155
Combination signs
341
Cartesian coordinate system
62
41
Case hardening steels
132
Combined dimensioning
82
Case hardening steels, heat treatment
155
Composite materials
177
Case-hardening
154
Compressed-gas cylinders
324
Cast copper alloys
176
Compressed-gas cylinders, color coding
332
Cast iron with flake graphite
159,160
Compression springs
245
Cast iron with spheroidal graphite
159, 160
Compressive load
45
Cast iron, bainitic
159
Compressive stress
45
Cast iron, designation system
158
Conductor resistance
53
Cast iron, dimensional tolerances
163
Cone, surface area and volume
30
Cast steel Casting tolerance grade Castle nuts
Conical seats
250
163
Conical spring washers
235
232
Continuous controllers
348
159,161
Contribution margin
286
Cellulose acetate plastics (CA)
181
Control characters of computers
394
Cellulose acetobutyrate plastics (CAB)
Cavalier projection
69 181
Control dimensions
81
Centrifugal force
37
Controlled systems
349
Centroids, lines
32
Controllers
Centroids, plane areas
32
Coordinate axes in programming
Ceramic materials
177
Coordinate dimensioning
346-349 381 82
78
Coordinate systems of CNC machines
381
Change in volume
51
Copper-tin alloys
175
Character sizes
64
Copper-zinc alloys
175
64
Corrosion
196
Chamfers, dimensioning
Character types Chemicals used in metal technology
119
Corrosion protection
Chlorepoxypropane rubber (CO)
185
Cosine
Circle, area Circle, circumference Circle, finding the center of Circlips Circuit diagrams
196 11,13
10,27
Cost accounting
284
27
Cost calculation
284
60
Cost comparison method
286
269
Cotangent
354
Cotter pins
12, 13 232
Counterbores for cap screws and
Circuit diagrams, hydraulic
365, 367
Circuit diagrams, pneumatic
365, 366
Circuits, electrical
351-354
Counter nut
222
Circular movements of CNC machines
384, 385
Countersink depth, calculating
225 289
hexagon head bolts
Circular ring (annulus), area
28
Countersinking, productive time
Circular sector, area
28
Countersinks for countersunk head screws
28
Countersinks for screws
Circular segment, area
225
224 224, 225
Countersunk head screws, slotted
217
102
Countersunk screws, hexagon socket
216
Clearance holes for bolts
211
CR (chloroprene rubber)
185
Clevis pins
238
Cross-section area
Closed loop control, general terms
346
CSM (chlorosulfonated polyethylene elastomers) . . 185
Circumferential velocity, calculating Clearance fit
34, 35
Cube root
15
197
Current density
54
204
Currents
356
Cutting data, drilling
301
Closed Substance Cycle and Waste Management Act Coarse threads Coefficient of linear expansion
73
116,117
Subject index
419
Subject index Cutting data, grinding
308,311
Cutting force, face milling
300 299
Cutting data, honing
312
Cutting force, specific
Cutting data, milling
305
Cutting force, turning
298
Cutting data, reaming
302
Cutting power in face milling
300
Cutting data, tapping
302
Cutting power, drilling
298
303
Cutting power, turning
298
Cutting data, turning Cutting force Cutting force, drilling
Cutting speed, calculating
46
Cutting tool materials
298
35 294, 295
D D-controllers
348
Differential indexing
307
Danger criteria
342
Digital controllers
349
342
Dimension lines
Danger symbols Data processing, graphical symbols Deceleration force
403, 404 36
76
Dimension numbers
76
Dimensioning rules
77
Decimal system
393
Dimensioning systems
Deep drawing force
321
Direct costing
286
Deep drawing, blank diameters
320
Direct costs
284
Deep drawing, deep drawing force
321
Direct Current (DC)
Deep drawing, drawing gap
320
Direct indexing
307
Deep drawing, drawing ratio
321
Discontinuous controllers
349
Deep drawing, drawing steps
321
Disk springs
246
Deep drawing, tool radii
320
Disposal of substances
197
Deep groove ball bearings
265
Dividing head
307
Deep-drawing, hold-down force
321
Divisions, dimensioning
281
Drain plugs
219
47
Drill bushings
247
116,117
Drilling cycles
389
Defect chart Deflection Density, values
75
55, 351
79
Description of hazards
342
Drilling screws
210
Detent edged ring
222
Drilling, cutting data
301
102
Drilling, cutting force and cutting power
299
78
Drilling, problems
306
69
Drilling, productive time
289
Dry machining
293
198, 199
Energy, kinetic
38
Effective length of bent parts
318, 319
Energy, potential
38
Elastomers
179, 185
EPR (ethylene propylene rubber, EPDM)
Deviations Diameter, dimensioning Diametric projection Die clearance
316
Die dimensions
316
E EC Directive on Hazardous Substances
Electric current Electrical circuit symbols Electrical circuits Electrical conductance Electrical engineering, fundamentals Electricity, quantities and units
53, 54
Equations, solving
185 15
351,352
Equipment, electrical
353
353, 354
Erichsen cupping test
191
Escape route and rescue signs
340
53 53-55 22
Euclidean theorem Eutectic
23 153
196
Eutectoid
153
Electrohydraulic controls
367
EXCEL, commands
406
Electropneumatic controls
366
Extension lines
Electrochemical series
76
Ellipse, area
28
Extrusion
Ellipse, constructing
60
Eye bolts
219
187
Eye nuts
231
Embedding materials (matrix) for plastics Energy of position
38
186
Subject index
420
Subject index Face milling, cutting force and cutting power
300
Flux for soldering
334
Fatigue test
189
Foam materials
185
Feather & tapered keys, overview
239
Folded joints, representation
Feather keys
240
Fonts
64
Force diagram, calculation
36
270
Forces
36
Ferrite
153
Forces, adding and resolving
36
Ferritic steels
137
Forces, representation
Fiberglass
187
Form and positional tolerances
Filler metals
334
Form deviations
Feed rate, calculating Felt rings
35
Fillers and reinforcing materials for plastics . . . . 180
Forming gas (IC) cylinders, color coding
Fine threads
Foundry technology
204
marking
36 112-114 98 332 162,163
Free cutting steels
134
343
Free cutting steels, heat treatment
157
340
Freezing temperature
117 277
Fire extinguishing lines, identification Fire protection symbols
96
102
Frequency, relative
Fits, r e c o m m e n d e d
111
Friction
41
Fixed costs
286
Friction power
41
Flame-cutting, dimensional tolerances
330
Frictional moment
41
Flame-cutting, standard values
329
Frictional work
38
Fits, ISO system
Flat head countersunk screws, cross recessed . . . 217
Function block language (FBL)
373, 374
Flat head countersunk tapping screw
217
Function charts
358-360
Flat steel bar, bright
145
Function diagrams
361,362
144
Fundamental deviations
102
350, 352
Fundamental deviations for holes
105
Flow rates
371
Fundamental deviations for shafts
Fluorocaoutchouc (FKM)
185
Fundamental tolerance grades
Fluted knobs
249
Fundamental tolerances
103
Flux for brazing
334
Fuses
356
358
Flat steel bar, hot-rolled Flip-flop elements
104 102,103
G Gas cylinders, color coding
331
GRAFCET, graphical design language for sequential control
Gas cylinders, identification
331
Graphical symbols for data processing
Gage pressure
Gas shielded metal arc welding
42
Graphs
325, 326
Gas welding rods
324
Greek alphabet
Gaseous materials, characteristics
117
Grinding
Gear winch General tolerances General tolerances, weldments Geometric tolerancing Geometrical areas, calculating
39
64 308-311 310
Grinding, cutting data
322
Grinding, maximum allowable peripheral velocity . . 308
112-114 26-28 32
Geometrical areas, units
20
Golden Rule of Mechanics
62,63
110
Geometrical areas, centroid Gib-head keys
Grinding wheels, selection
403, 404
239
308, 311
Grinding, productive time
291
Grippers
380
Grooved drive studs
238
Grooved pins
238
Grub screws with thrust point
248
38, 39
H Handling systems, job safety
380
Hardness limits
97
Hard milling
293
Hardness penetration depth
97
293
Hardness specifications in drawings
97
Hard turning Hardening
153,154
Hardness test
188-195
Subject index
421
Subject index Hardness values, conversion table
194
Hexagonal fit bolts, heavy
214 145
Hatching, representation
73
Hexagonal steel bars, bright
Hatchings, material dependent
75
High-grade cast zinc alloys
176
Hazardous gases and substances
198
High-performance grinding
311
Hazardous materials, gases
198
High-speed machining
293
High-speed steels
135
Hazardous substances
198-200 197
High-speed steels, heat treatment
155
247
High-temperature plastics
187
52
Histogram
277
Heat of combustion
52
Hoisting winch
Heat of fusion
52
Hold-down force in deep drawing operations . . . . 321
Heat of vaporization
52
Hollow cylinder, surface area and volume
Heat transfer
22
Hollow taper shanks
Heat transmission
52
Homogenizing anneal
153
52
Honing, cutting values
312
Honing, productive time
289
Honing, selection of honing stones
312
Hazardous waste Headed drill bushings Heat flux
Heat transmission coefficient Heat treatment Heat treatment information Heat treatment of steels Helical line, constructing Helium cylinders, color coding Hexadecimal numbering system Hexagon head bolts & screws Hexagon head bolts with reduced shank Hexagon head bolts, heavy Hexagon nuts
153-157 97
Hooke's law
153-157
Hot work steels
61
39 29 243
36 135
332
Hot work steels, heat treatment
155
401
HSC (High speed cutting)
293
212-214
Hydraulic circuit symbols
363, 364
213
Hydraulic fluids
368
214
Hydraulic oils
368
Hydraulic press
370
228-231
Hexagon, constructing
59
Hexagonal acorn nuts
231
Hydraulics
Hexagonal fit bolts with long threaded stem . . . . 214
363-372
Hydrostatic pressure
42
Hyperbola, constructing
61
I, J I-beams, medium width I-beams, wide l-controller Ideal gas law Imperial threads Incline, dimensioning Inclined plane Indexing Industrial robots Inert gas Information signs Information technology Injection molding
149
Injection pressure
186
149,150
Instruction List IL
373, 375
Interference fit
348
Intersection line, representation
42
Involute curve, constructing
203 78
IR (isoprene rubber)
39
Iron-Carbon phase diagram ISO fits
307
Isobutene-isoprene rubber
378, 379
102 73 61 185 153 104-109 185
325
Isometric projection
341
Job time acc. to REFA (German association for work time studies) Jointing, productive time
282 289
Knurls Krypton cylinders, color coding
91 332
330
401-406 186
69
K Keys, feather keys, woodruff keys Kinetic energy Knurled nuts
239 38 232
L Labels for hazardous goods
331
Laser beam cutting, dimensional tolerances
Ladder diagram LAD
374
Laser beam cutting, standard values
184
Latent heat of fusion
Laminate materials
330 116,117
422
Subject index
Subject index Law of cosines
14
Lines in technical drawings
Law of sines
14
Lines, centroid
77
Liquid materials, characteristics
Leader lines
67, 68 32 117
Ledeburite
153
Load cases
43
Left-hand threads
202
Load types
43
Lock nuts
231
25
Lock nuts for roller bearings
268
Length, units
20
Lock washers for bolts and screws
222
Lever
37
Lock washers for roller bearing slotted nuts
268
Lever principle
37
Lock washers, slotted nuts
231
Lifting work
38
Lock wire for screws
222
Limit dimensions for threads
208
Locking edge washer
222
Limits
102
Locking fasteners
222 272
Length, calculating Length, effective
24, 25
Linear expansion
51
Lubricants
Linear function
16
Lubricating greases
272
Lubricating oils
271
Linear movements of CNC machines
384, 385
M Machine capability
281
Melting temperature
116,117
Machine hourly rates
285
Memory (Flip-flop)
350,352
Machined plates for press tools and fixtures
251
Metric ISO screw threads
Machining coolants
292
Metric tapers
204 242, 243
MAG (Metal active gas) welding, standard values 326
MF (melamine formaldehyde) resin
Magnesium, cast alloys
172
Microstructures of carbon steel
153
Magnesium, wrought alloys
172
MIG (Metal-inert-gas) welding, standards
326
Milling, cutting data
305
Milling, cutting force and cutting power
300
Magnetism Malleable cast iron
22 159,161
Mandatory signs
340
Manufacturing costs
284
181
Milling, cycles acc. to PAL (German association)
Martens hardness
194
Milling, problems
Martensitic steels
137
392-400 306
Milling, productive time
290
Mass moment of inertia
38
Minimum clearance
102
Mass, calculation
31
Minimum dimension
102
Minimum engagement depth for screws
211
Mass, linear mass density and area
Minimum interference
102
Minimum quantity of machining coolant
293
Material removal processes, productive time . . . . 313
Module series for spur gears
257
Material removal rate, standard values
Modulus of elasticity
mass density Material characteristics
31, 152 116,117 313
46
Material science
115-200
Molding materials, thermoplastic
Material testing
188-195
Molding materials, thermosetting
184
Material testing, overview
188-189
Molecular groups
119
Mathematical symbols Mathematics
19 9-32
Morse taper
34 34
Matrix materials for plastics
187
Maximum clearance
102
Motion, uniform
102
Multiple start threads
Maximum interference
102
Mean value, arithmetical
278
Mean value, standard deviation chart
279
Mechanical strength properties
44, 45
Mechanics, quantities and units
20, 21
242, 243
Motion, accelerated Motion, circular
Maximum dimension
183
34 202
Subject index
423
Subject index N 350
NOR operation
350
Narrow V-belts
254
Normal distribution
278
Nassi-Shneiderman diagrams
395
Normalizing
Needle bearings
268
NOT operation
Neon gas cylinders, color coding
332
Notched-bar impact bending test
191
NPSM threads
203
NAND operation
Net calorific value
52
153, 154 350
Nitriding
154
NPT threads
203
Nitriding steels
134
NPTF threads
203
Nitriding steels, heat treatment
157
NR (natural rubber)
185
Noise
344
Numerical control technology
381-400
Noise Protection Regulations (German)
344
Nuts
226-232
Noise, damages to health
344
Nuts for T-slots
250
Nominal dimensions
102
Nuts, designation
227
Non-ferrous metals
164-176
Nuts, overview
Non-ferrous metals, material numbers
165, 174
Nuts, property classes
226, 227 228
Non-ferrous metals, systematic designation . 165, 174 O O-rings Ohm's law Open loop control, general terms OR operation
270 53 346, 347
Orientation tolerance
113
Overhead
284
Oxygen cylinders, color coding
332
PI (Proportional-integral) controller
348
350
P PA (polyamide) plastics PAL drilling cycles (German association)
180-182 389
PID (Proportional-integral-differential) controller . 348
PAL milling cycles (German association)
392-400
Pillar presses
PAL turning cycles (German association)
389-391
Pins
252 236-238
Parabola, constructing
61
Pins, locating
Parallel circuit
54
Pins, overview
236
Parallel dimensioning
82
Pins, seating
249
Parallelogram area
26
Pipe lines, identification
343
Pipe threads
206
71
Piston speeds
371
383
Plain bearing
162
Plain bearing bushings
180, 181
Plain bearing materials
261 329 186
Pareto diagram Partial views in drawings Path correction in CNC machining Patterns, color coding PC (polycarbonate) plastics
281
187
Plasma cutting, standard values
PC & PET plastics
187
Plastic processing, settings
PD controller
348
Plastic processing, tolerances
PC& ABS plastics
PE (polyethylene) plastics PE molding materials Pearlite Percentage, calculating
180-182
Plastics
183
Plastics testing
153
Plastics, cutting
18
249
261, 262 262
186 179-187 195 301-305
Plastics, distinguishing characteristics
181 195
Periodic table of the elements
118
Plastics, hardness test
PF (phenol formaldehyde) resin
181
Plastics, identification
181
PF PMC molding materials
184
Plastics, material testing
195
PF molding materials
184
Plastics, tensile load
195
pH value
119
Plastics, thermal behavior
179
Phenolic molding materials
184
Plateau honing
312
Phenolic plastic molding materials
184
Plates for pillar presses
Physics
33-56
PLC, controls
251 373-377
Subject index
424
Subject index 373-376
Probability network
277
373-376
Process capability
281
PMMA (polymethylmethacrylate) plastics . . . 181, 182
Process steps
280
Pneumatic circuit symbols
Production costs
284
PLC, programming PLC, programming languages
363, 364
Pneumatic cylinders, air consumption
369
Production engineering
Pneumatic cylinders, dimensions
369
Productive time, countersinking
289
369
Productive time, drilling
289
Productive time, grinding
291 289
Pneumatic cylinders, piston forces Pneumatics
362-371
273-344
Polar coordinate system
63
Productive time, honing
Polar coordinates in drawings
82
Productive time, material removal processes . . . . 313
Polyblends
187
Productive time, milling
290
Polyetheretherketone (PEEK)
187
Productive time, reaming
289
Polygon, constructing
59
Productive time, thread cutting
287
Polygon, irregular
27
Productive time, turning
287
Polygon, regular
27
Productive time, turning with v= const
288
Program flow chart
404
Polyimide (PI) resin
187
Polyoxidemethylene (POM, polyacetal) resin .. 181, 182
Program structure of CNC machines
Polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) plastics
Programmable logic control (PLC)
Polystyrene plastics
187 180-182
Prohibitive signs
Polysulfone (PSU) plastics
187
Projection methods
Position tolerances
114
Property classes of bolts and screws
382 373-377 338 69, 70 211
81
Proportion, calculating
18
Positional tolerances
114
Proportional controller
348
Potable water lines, identification marking
343
Protective measures against dangerous currents . . . 356
Positional dimensions in drawings
Potential energy Pour point
38 368
Proximity sensors PTFE
355 181, 187
Power factor
56
Pulley, fixed
39
Power, electrical
56
Pulley, movable
39
Power, mechanical
40
Pumping capacity
371
Powers (exponentiation)
15
Pumps, power
371
Punch dimensions
316
PP (polypropylene) plastics
181, 182
PP molding materials
183
Punch holder shanks
251
PPE & PS plastics
187
Punch holder shanks, location
317
Precision steel tubes for hydraulic and pneumatic applications Precision steel tubes, seamless
Punches
251
372
PUR (polyurethane) foam
185
142
PUR (polyurethane) plastics
181
Preferred numbers
65
Pure aluminum
164,166
Pressed joints, representation
96
PVC (polyvinyl chloride) plastics
181, 182
Pressure
42
PVC-P plastics (plasticized PVC)
182
Pressure intensifier
370
Pyramid, slant height
29
Pressure units
42
Pyramid, volume
29
Primary profile (P profile)
98
Pythagorean theorem
23
Pythagorean theorem of height
23
Prime cost
284
Probability
276
16
Quality management, definitions
275
Quality and process capability
281
Quality management, standards
274
Quality control
276
Quality planning
276
Quality control chart
279
Quantity of heat
51
Quality control circle
276
Quenched and tempered steels
276
Quenched and tempered steels, heat treatment .. 156
Quadratic function
Quality inspection and testing Quality management
274-281
Quenching and tempering
133 154
Subject index
425
Subject index R Robot axes
R-Phrases Informatory notes on possible hazards and risks, acc. to the German Hazardous Substances Regulations (GefStoffV) 199 Radial seals (rotary shaft seals)
270
Radius
65
Radius, dimensioning
78
Raised head countersunk screws
217
Raised head countersunk tapping screws
217
Raised head tapping screws
218
Random sample tests, attribute testing
280
Random samples
278
Range (of samples)
278
Raw data
277
Raw data chart
279
Reaming, cutting data
302
Reaming, productive time
289
Recommended safety measures
200
Recrystallization annealing
153
Rectangle, area
26
Reference lines
77
Reference points of CNC machines
381
Reinforcing fibers
187
Retaining rings
269
Retaining rings, representation
87
Rhomboid, area
26
Rhombus, area
26
378
Rockwell hardness test
193
Rod electrodes, designation
327
Roller bearing fits
110
Roller bearings Roller bearings, designation
263-268 264
Roller bearings, dimension series
264
Roller bearings, overview
263
Roller bearings, representation Roller bearings, selection
85 263
Rolling friction
41
Roman numerals
64
Roots, extracting
15
Rotation, kinetic energy
38
Rough dimensions in drawings
81
Roughness depth in turning operations
303
Roughness parameters
98
Roughness profile (R-profile)
98
Round bar steels, bright
145
Round bar steels, polished
145
Round steel bar, hot-rolled RS flip-flop
144 350,352
Rubbers
185
Rule-of-ten (for costs)
276
Run-out tolerances
114
Running dimensioning
82
S Safety colors
338
Safety factors
44
Safety measures for robot systems Safety signs Sales price SAN (styrene-acrylonitrile) copolymers SB (styrene-butadiene) copolymers
220 220
380
Set screws, slotted Shape dimensions
81
284
Shear cutting force
315
181,182
Shear cutting work
315
185
Scales
65
Shear load
46
Shear strength
46
Shear stress
SCARA robots
379
Shear test
Screw joints, calculation
221
Shearing
Screw joints, representation
87
Set screws, hexagon socket
338-341
180-182,187
SBR (styrene-butadiene) rubber
Serrations, representation
46 191 316,317
90
Shearing, design of press
315
203
Shearing, die dimensions
316
202-208
Shearing, edge width
316
Seals, representation
86
Shearing, edge width
316
Second moment of inertia
49
Shearing, location of clamping pin
317
Shearing, punch dimensions
316
Screw thread standards of various countries Screw threads
Sectional views
73, 74
Shearing, utilization of strip stock
317
111
Shearing, web width
316
Sensors
355
Sheet and strip metal, overview
139
Sequential charts
359
Sheet metal, cold-rolled
140
Sheet metal, hot-dip galvanized
141
Sheet metal, hot-rolled
141
Sheet, hot-dip galvanized
141
Sections, comparison of load capacity Selection of fits
Sequential control Series circuit Serrated lock washers
50
358, 360, 367 54 222
426
Subject index
Subject index Shewhart quality control chart Shore hardness test Shrinkage
279
Square, dimensioning
195
Stainless steels
51
Standard deviation
Shrinkage allowances
163
Standardization, regulation body
Shrinkage chucks
243
Star knob
SI quantities and units
20
Static friction
77 136,137 278 8 249 41
Silicone rubber (SIR)
185
Statistical analysis
277
Simple indexing
307
Statistical process control
279
Steel bars, bright
145
Steel bars, hot-rolled
144
48
Steel channel
146
41
Steel sections, hot-rolled
Sine Sintered metals Size factor Sliding friction
11,13 178
143
Slip type jig bushing
247
Steel sheet
139-141
Slot tenons
250
Steel tubes
142, 372
Slots, dimensioning Software controllers Soldering Solders Solid lubricants
79
Steel tubes, hot-rolled
151
349
Steel tubes, seamless
142, 372
335
Steel tubes, welded
151
Steel wire for springs, patented drawn
138
Steels for flame and induction hardening
134
333, 334 272
Steels, alloying elements
129
Sound level
344
Steels, classification
120
Sound, definitions
344
Steels, identification codes
SPC (statistical process control)
279
Steels, numbering system
Special characters, CNC machines
382
Steels, overview
Special characters, computers
402
Steep taper shanks
298
Strength of materials
43-50
116,117
Stress concentration
48
Stress limits
43
Solids, characteristics
Specific cutting force standard values Specific heat Speed graph
116, 117
260
122-125 121 126,127 242
Speeds of machines
35
Stress relief anneal
Sphere, dimensioning
78
Stress, allowable
30
Strip steel, cold-rolled
30
Strip stock utilization in shearing
317
Structural steels, carbon
130
Sphere, surface area and volume Spherical segment, surface area and volume Spherical washers
250
Spiral, construction
60
Splined shaft joints
241
Splines, representation
87
Structural steels, quenched and tempered Structural steels, selecting Structural tee steel, equal legs
153,154 41, 48 139,140
131 128, 129 146
Spreadsheets
406
Structured text (ST)
Spring back in bending
319
Stub-Acme screw threads
203
Studs
219
Spring force
36 222
Sub-dividing lengths
Spring pins
237
Surface profile
Spring rate
244, 245
Spring lock washers
Surface areas, calculation
138
Surface condition factor
Spring steel, hot-rolled
138
Surface finish
Spring washers
222
Surface indications
Spring steel wire
Springs, representation Springs: tension, compression, disk Sprockets, representation Spur gears, calculating Square prism, area Square prism, volume Square root Square steel bar, hot-rolled Square, area
87 244-246 84 256, 257
Surface pressure, stress
373,374
24 98 29, 30 48 99 99, 100 45
Surface protection
196
Surface roughness, attainable
101
Switching controllers
349
29
Symbols, mathematical
29
Synchronous belts
255
Synchronous pulleys
255
Systems for fits
103
10,15 144 26
19-22
Subject index
427
Subject index T-slots
250
Three-phase power
Tally sheet
277
Three-point controller
349
Thrust pads
248
Tangent
12
56
218
Title block in drawings
Tap holes, drill
204
Tolerance class
102
Taper pins
237
Tolerance grade
102
Taper turning
304
Tolerance indications in drawings
Tapered keys
239
Tolerances of form
113
Tapered roller bearings
267
Tolerances of position
114
205
Tolerances, dimensioning
Tap hole diameter for tapping screws
Tapered threads Tapers, dimensioning
78
103
304 204
Torque
Tapping screw threads
202
Torsion, loading Total run-out tolerances
217, 218
80 297
Tapping drill holes, diameter Tapping screws
80
Tolerances, ISO system Tool holders for indexable inserts
Tapers, nomenclature
66
37 47 114
Transformers
56
51
Transition fit
102
Theorem of intersecting lines
14
Transmission ratios
259
Thermal conduction
52
Trapezoid, area
52
Trapezoidal screw threads
Technical drawing Temperature
Thermal conductivity, definition Thermal conductivity, values Thermodynamic temperature (Kelvin) Thermodynamics Thermoplastics
57-114
116, 117 51 22,51,52 179, 182, 183
26 207
Triangle, area
26
Triangle, constructing circumscribed circle
60
Triangle, constructing inscribed circle
60
Triangle, equilateral
27 30
Thermoplastics, amorphous
179
Truncated cone, surface area and volume
Thermoplastics, semi-crystalline
179
Truncated pyramid, volume
Thermoset molding materials
184
Tubes
142, 151
Thermoset plastics
179
Turning cycles
388-391
Thread cutting, productive time
287
Turning with v= const., productive time
288
Thread forming screws
218
Turning, cutting data
303
Thread molding, cutting data
302
Turning, cutting force and cutting power
298
Thread runouts
Turning, cycles acc. to PAL
89
Thread tapping, cutting data
302
Thread tolerance
208
30
(German association)
388-391
Turning, problems
306
Turning, productive time
287
89
Turning, roughness depth
303
Threads, dimensioning
79
Types of adhesives
336
Threads, multiple start
202
Threads, representation
90
Thread types, overview Thread undercuts
202, 203
Three steps for direct proportions
18
Three-phase current
55
U UF (urea formaldehyde) resin
180, 181
Units of measurement
20
UF molding materials
184
UNS screw threads
UF PMC molding materials
184
UP (unsaturated polyester resin)
180, 181
UF/MF-PMC plastics
184
UPVC (unplasticized polyvinyl chloride)
181,182
UNC screw threads
203
Urea formaldehyde molding materials
Undercuts
92
UNEF screw threads
203
UNF screw threads
203
Unit prefixes
17, 22
203
184
Urea/melamine formaldehyde molding materials 184 Utilization time acc. to REFA (German association for work time studies) . . . 283
428
Subject index
Subject index v V-belt V-belt pulleys Variable costs Velocity Vibration test Vickers hardness test Views in drawings
Viscosity grade
253,254 254
Viscosity, kinematic
286
Voltage
271 368 53, 54
Voltage drop
54
222
Volume of compound solids
31
193
Volume, calculating
31
Volume, units
20
34,308
71, 72
W Warning signs Washers
339 233-235
Welding positions
322
Welding, general tolerances
322 159 223
Washers for cap screws
234
White cast iron
Washers for channels and I-beams
235
Widths across flats, dimension series
235
Widths across flats, dimensioning
Washers for clevis pins
77
233, 234
Wire electrodes
325
234, 235
Wire, electrical
353
197
Woodruff keys
240
Web width in shear cutting
316
Word processing
405
Wedge as an inclined plane
39
Work, electrical
56
Weight
36
Work, mechanical
38
Washers for hexagon bolts and nuts Washers for steel structures Waste Disposal Act (German)
Weld design for arc welding
328
Worm drive, calculating
258
Weld nuts, hexagonal
232
Worm drive, transmission ratio
259
Weld preparation
323
Wrought aluminum alloys, designation
165
Weldable fine-grain structural steels
131
Wrought aluminum alloys, heat treatable
167
Wrought aluminum alloys, material codes
165
Welding Welding and soldering, dimensioning
322-330
Wrought aluminum alloys, non-heat treatable . . . 166
95,96
Welding and soldering, graphical symbols . . . . 93-95
Wrought copper-aluminum alloys
Welding and soldering, representation
Wrought copper-nickel-zinc alloys
176
Wrought titanium alloys
172
93-95
Welding fillers for aluminum
326
Welding methods
322
X Xenon cylinders, color coding
332
176
