EUROPA-TECHNICAL BOOK SERIES for the Metalworking Trades
Ulrich Fischer Roland Gomeringer
Max Heinzler Roland Kilgus
Friedrich Naher Stefan Oesterle
Heinz Paetzold Andreas Stephan
Mechanical and Metal Trades Handbook 2nd English edition
Europa-No.: 1910X
VERLAG EUROPA LEHRMITTEL · Nourney, Vollmer GmbH & Co. KG Dusselberger StraBe 23 · 42781 Haan-Gruiten · Germany
Original title: Tabellenbuch Metal!, 44th edition, 2008 Authors: Ulrich Fischer Roland Gomeringer Max Heinzler Roland Kilgus Friedrich Naher Stefan Oesterle Heinz Paetzold Andreas Stephan
Dipl.-lng. (FH) Dipi.-Gwl. Dipl.-lng. (FH) Dipi.-Gwl. Dipl.-lng. (FH) Dipl.-lng. Dipl.-lng. (FH) Dipl.-lng. (FH)
Reutlingen Me13stetten Wangen im Allgau Neckartenzlingen Balingen Amtzell Muhlacker Kressbronn
Editor: Ulrich Fischer, Reutlingen Graphic design: Design office of Verlag Europa-Lehrmittel, Leinfelden-Echterdingen, Germany The publisher and its affiliates have taken care to colleclthe information given in this book to the best o f their ability. However, no responsibility is acoepted by the publisher or any of its affiliates regarding its content or any sta tement herein or omission there from which may result in any toss or damage to any party using the data shown above. Warranty claims against the authors or the publisher are exduded. Most recent editions of standards and other regulations govern their use. They can be ordered from Beuth Verlag GmbH, Burggrafenstr. 6, 10787 Berlin, Germany. The content of the chapter "Program st.ructure of CNC machines according to PAL' (page 386 to 400) complies with the publications of the PAL PrOiungs- und Lehrmittelentwicklungsstelle (Institute for the development of training and testing material) of the IHK Region Stuttgart (Chamber of COmmerce and Industry of the Stuttgart region).
English edition: Mechanical and Metal Trades Handbook 2nd edition. 2010 654321 All printings of this edition may be used concurrently in the classroom since they are unchanged, except for some corrections to typographical errors and slight changes in standards.
ISBN 13 978-3-8085-19 13-4 Cover design includes a photograph from TESA/Brown & Sharpe, Renens, Switzerland All rights reserved. This publication is protected under copyright taw. Any use other than those permitted by law must be approved in writing by the publisher.
© 2010 by Verlag Europa-Lehrmittel, Noumey, Vollmer GmbH & CO. KG, 42781 Haan-Gruiten, Germany http:Jiwww.europa-lehrmittel.de Translation: Techni-Translate, 72667 Schlaitdorf, Germany; www.techni-translate.com Eva Schwarz, 76879 Ottersheim, Germany; www.technische-uebersetzungen-eva-schwarz.de Typesetting:YellowHand GbR, 73257 K6ngen, Germany; www.yellowhand.de Printed by: Media Print lnforrnationstechnologie, D-33100, Paderbom, Germany
3
Preface 1 M athematics
M
The Mechanical and Metal Trades Handbook is well-suited for shop reference, tooling, machine building, maintenance and as a general book of knowledge. It is also useful for educational purposes, especially in practical work or curricula and continuing education programs.
9-32
12 Phys;.s
Target Groups • Industrial and trade mechanics • Tool & Die makers • Machinists • Millwrights • Draftspersons • Technical Instructors • Apprentices in above trade areas • Practitioners in trades and industry • Mechanical Engineering students
p 33- 56
3 Technical drawing
TO 57-114
Notes for the user The contents of this book include tables and formulae in eight chapters, including Tables of Contents, Subject Index and Standards Index. The tables contain the most important guidelines, designs, types, dimensions and standard values for their subject areas. Units are not specified in the legends for the formulae if several units are possible. However, the calculation examples for each formula use those units normally applied in practice. Designation examples, which are included fo r all standard parts. materials and drawing designations, are highlighted by a red arrow(= ). The Table of Contents in the front of the book is expanded further at the beginning of each chapter in form of a partial Table of Contents. The Subject Index at the end of the book (pages 417- 428) is extensive. The Standards Index (pages 407-416) lists all the current standards and regulations cited in the book. In many cases previous standards are also listed to ease the transition from older, more familiar standards to new ones.
We have thoroughly revised the 2nd edition of the "Mechanical and Metal Trades Handbook" in line with the 44th edition of the German version "Tabellenbuch Metal!". The section dealing with PAL programming of CNC machine tools was updated (to the state of 2008) and considerably enhanced.
4 Material science
MS 115- 200
5 Machine elements
ME 201-272
6 Production Engineering
PE
273-344
7 Automation and Information Technology 345- 406
A
8 International material comparison chart, Standards 407-416
S
Special thanks to the Magna Technical Training Centre for their input into the English translation of this book. Their assistance has been extremely valuable. The authors and the publisher will be grateful for any suggestions and constructive comments. Spring 2010
Authors and publisher
4
Table of Contents
9
1 Mathematics 1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
Numerical tables Square root, Area of a circle •........ 10 Sine, Cosine ...................... 11 Tangent, Cotangent .........•...... 12 Trigonometric Functions Definitions ......•..........••....• 13 Sine, Cosine, Tangent, Cotangent .... 13 Laws of sines and cosines ........... 14 Angles, Theorem of intersecting lines •......•........ ... .....•...• 14 Fundamentals of Mathematics Using brackets, powers, roots .•..... 15 Equations .. ........ .....•......... 16 Powers of ten. Interest calculation .••. 17 Percentage and proportion calculations ...... .. . ... ....•...... 18 Symbols, Units Formula symbols, Mathematical symbols . . ...... .. ................ 19 Sl quantities and units of measurement ...............•••... 20 Non-SI units ........•..•..•.•..•.. 22
1.5
1.6
1.7
Volume and Surfac. area Cube, Cylinder, Pyramid .•.......•.. 29 Truncated pyramid, Cone. Truncated cone, Sphere ............. 30 Composite solids ........•...•..... 31
1.8
Mass General calculations .........•..•... 31 Linear mass density .•.......•..... . 31 Area mass density ..... . .. .. .. .. . .. 31 Centroids Centroids of lines ..•......... .. .... 32 Centroids of plane areas ...... ...... 32
1.9
2 Physics 2.1
Motion Uniform and accelerated motion ..... 34 Speeds of machines •............... 35
2.2
Forces Adding and resolving force vectors ... 36 Weight. Spring force .. ............. 36 Lever principle, Bearing forces ....... 37 Torques, Centrifugal force ........... 37 Work, Power, Efficiency Mechanical work . _........ .. .. .. . . 38 Simple machines ..•.. ••...••...... 39 Power and Efficiency . . ___ . __ ... _... 40
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
Fr iction Friction force .... . __ .. _... _....... _41 Coefficients offriction .• _........... 41 Friction in bearings .. ......•....... 41 Pressure in liquids and gases Pressure, definition and types ....... 42 Buoyancy ... _. . ... ... . .. _........ . 42 Pressure changes in gases .......... 42 Strength of materials Load cases. Load types __ . ___ ......• 43 Safety factors, Mechanical strength properties _____ ............ 44 Tension, Compression, Surface pressure ..... •............ 45 Shear, Buckling ...... .............. 46
lengths Calculations in a right triangle ..... .. 23 Sub-dividing lengths, Arc length ..... 24 Flat lengths, Rough lengths ...... . .. 25 Areas Angular areas ..•.•......•• ..•..... 26 Equilateral triangle, Polygons, Circle .......... .. ................ 27 Circular areas ......•.......••...•. 28
33
2.7
2.8
Bending, Torsion ...••....•... .. ... 47 Shape factors in strength •..... . _... 48 Static moment, Section modulus, Moment of inertia ........ ...... .. . . 49 Comparison of various cross-sectional shapes •.. ....... . .. 50 Thermodynamics Temperatures. Linear expansion, Shrinkage ........•... .. 51 Quantity of heat ..... •.. ..•.... .. . . 51 Heat flux, Heat of combustion ....... 52 Electricity Ohm's Law, Conductor resistance .... 53 Resistor circuits .......... . ... .... _54 Types of current ............. ...... 55 Electrical work and power .. . ...... .. 56
5
Table of Contents
57
3 Technical drawing 3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
Basic geometric constructi ons Lines and angles ..............••... 58 Tangents. Circular arcs, Polygons •..• 59 Inscribed circles. Ellipses, Spirals ..... 60 Cycloids, Involute curves, Parabolas .. 61 Graphs Cartesian coordinate system ... . . ... 62 Graph types •... . ....... . .. . ....•.. 63 Drawing elements Fonts • .. ... . . . ..........•........ 64 Preferred numbers, Radii, Scales . ••. . 65 Drawing layout .... . .. . ....• •. .• ••• 66 Line types ........•....•..•....... fil Representation Projection methods ........•......• 69 Views . ..... .. .. .. .....•...• . ..... 71 Sectional views . .. .. . ..••..••..•..• 73 Hatching . .. ... . . .. ... ..... . ...... 75 Entering dimensions Dimensioning rules ... ........ . .... 76 Diameters, Radii, Spheres, Chamfers, Inclines, Tapers, Arc dimensions ..... 78 Tolerance specifications .. ..... .. •.. 80 Types of dimensioning •.....•..•••• 81 Simplified presentation in drawings .. 83
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
Materials Mat erial characteristics of solids ..•. 116 M aterial characteristics of liquids and gases ... .. . ...... .. . .......• 117 Periodic table of the elements ..... . 118 Designation system for steels Definition and classification of steel . 120 Material codes, Designation ..... . .. 121 Steel types. Overview .. .. .•...•• 126 Structural steels . ................. 128 Case hardened, quenched and tempered, nitrided, free cutting steels . •. 132 Tool steels . . ... . ...............•• 135 Stainless st eels, Spring steels .....• 136 Finished st.eel products Sheet, strip, pipes .... .. ... . . ... . .. 139 Profiles ......... .. .. .. ... . . ... . .. 143 Heat treatment Iron-Carbon phase diagram . .. ..... 153 Processes ... . ........ .......•.... 154 Cast iron materials Designation, Material codes .... . ... 158 Classification ... . ....... . ... ...... 159 Cast iron ...... . ... . ... • .. .•...•. 160 Malleable cast iron, Cast steel •. . .•. 161
Surfaces
Hardness specifiCations in drawings .. 97 Form deviations, Roughness . . ...• .. 98 Surface testing, Surface indications .. 99 3.10 ISO Tolerances and Fits Fundamentals ......... . ... . . .... . 102 Basic hole and basic shaft systems . . 106 General Tolerances, Roller bearing frts . .. •. ... . . .. ... . ... .. . 110 Fit recommendations •..••••. .. . . .. 111 Geometric tolerancing ..••.... . . .. . 112 GO & T (Geometric Dimensioning & Tolerancing) ... .... 113
4 Materials science 4.1
Machine elements Gear types ••.••••••••••••. ..... .. . 84 Roller bearings ...•...••. . ......... 85 Seals .• . •........... .. ...... . ... . . 86 Retaining rings, Springs .. . .•..... .. 87 Workpiece elements Bosses, Workpiece edges . .. . .. ... .. 88 Thread runouts, Thread undercuts ... 89 Threads, Screw joints . .•. . •• . .... .. 90 Center holes, Knurls, Undercuts ... .. . 91 Welding and Soldering Graphical symbols ••..•...•.... ... . 93 Dimensioning examples .. . . .. .. ... . 95
115 4. 7
4.8
4.9
Foundry technology Patterns, Pattern equipment .. .. ... . 162 Shrinkage allowances, Dimensional tolerances .... .. .. .... 163 Light alloys, Overview of AI alloys .. 164 Wrought aluminum alloys . .. .. .. . . 166 Aluminum casting alloys . . ... . ... . . 168 Aluminum profiles . ... .. • ... . ... . . 169 Magnesium and titani um alloys .. .• . 172 Heavy non-ferrous metals, Overview ........... .. .. .. .. . ... . 173 Designation system .. .. ..... •. ... . 174 Copper alloys .... . ............... 175
4.10 Other metallic materials Composite materials, Ceramic materials ... . .•..... ..... 177 Sintered met als . . ... . ....... ..... 178 4.11 Plastics, Overview . . ............ 179 Thermoplastics .... .. .. .. . . .... • .. 182 Thermoset plastics, Elastomers .• . .. 184 Plastics processing . ...... . .... . . .. 186 4.12 Material testing methods, Overview •.... .. .• .. .. ..... .. 188 Tensile testing ••. . ... . . ........... 190 Hardness test ... . . . . .. . .. . . ... ... 192 4.13 Corrosion, Corrosion protection . . 196 4.14 Hazardous materials . . . . .... ... . 197
6
Table of Contents
201
5 Machine elements 5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
Threads (overview) • • . . . .•••••.. 202 Metric ISO threads .•.••........... 204 Whitworth threads, Pipe threads .... 206 Trapezoidal and buttress threads . . .. 207 Thread tolerances .. .. •....•.....•• 208 Bolts and screws (overview) . ... . 209 Designations, strength . . ... .. •...•• 210 Hexagon head bolts & screws .. • ... 212 Other bolts & screws .............. 215 Screw joint calculations .. . . .......• 221 Locking fasteners . ................ 222 Widths across flats, Bolt and screw drive systems . .. .....•... •• 223 Countersinks ..•.• . ...•.•• .. .•• 224 Countersinks for countersunk head screws . ..... ... . ... . ....... 224 Counterbores for cap screws .••.•.. 225 Nuts (overview) . .. . •.. . ... . .. . . 226 Designations, Strength .. .. .••.••.• 227 Hexagon nuts ... .. . .. .. . ..•...•.• 228 Other nuts .. .. . ...... . .. ......... 231 Washers (overview) . ... .• •..... 233 Flat washers .. .. .. ..... .••...... . 234 HV, Clevis pin, Conical spring washers . 235 Pins and clevis pins (overview) ... 236 Dowel pins, Taper pins, Spring pins . 237
Grooved pins, Grooved drive studs, Clevis pins •.....•••••...•.... . .. . 238 5.7
5.8
5.9
Drive elements Belts ..........•..•...•........ .. 253 Gears •....•........... . .... ... .. 256 Transmission ratios ............ . .. 259 Speed graph .............. ....... 260 5.10 Bearings Plain bearings (overview) •... ...... 261 Plain bearing bushings ... .. . ..... . 262 Antifriction bearings (overview) ..... 263 Types of roller bearings . ... .. . .. ... 265 Retaining rings . . ... . .•• . ...... ... 269 Sealing elements .....•.... . ... . .. 270 Lubricating oils •.....••...•.... .. • 271 Lubricating greases ............ . . . 272
273
6 Production Engineering 6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
Quality management Standards, Terminology .. ... . ..... 274 Quality planning, Quality testing .... 276 Statistical analysis . . . . ... .. .. ..•.. 277 Statistical process control .......... 279 Process capability .... .... .. ...... . 281 Production planning 'Time accounting according to REFA . 282 Cost accounting .. . . .... . ......... 284 Machine hourly rates .•.......•.... 285 Machining processes Productive time . .. . .• .. ... . .•...• 287 Machining coolants .. . .. ..... .. ..• 292 Cutting tool materials, Inserts, Tool holders . . .. .. ... .. .. .. ...... 294 Forces and power . ...... . .. .... . .. 298 Cutting data: Drilling, Reaming, Turning ........... .• . ... .. .. .. .. . 301 Cutting data: Taper turning .. . ..... . 304 Cutting data: Milling .... . . . . ....... 305 Indexing .. . ............ .......... 307 Cutting data: Grinding and honing •. 308 Material removal Cutting data .... •. .. •. .. .. .. .•..•. 313 Processes .•.. .. .. .. . .. ....... . ... 314 Separation by cutting Cutting forces .. .. ......... .. ... .. 315
Shaft-hub connections Tapered and feather keys ...•..•. .. 239 Parallel and woodruff keys . •.... .. . 240 Splined shafts, Blind rivets ........ • 241 Tool tapers . . ... . .. ....... . . .. .. . . 242 Springs, components of jigs and tools Springs •..•...••......•. .. . .. .. . 244 Drill bushings .... . .. .. ... . .. . ... . 247 Standard stamping parts ••.••...• .. 251
6.6
6.7
6.8
Shearing ............... . . .. .. ... 316 Location of punch holder shank . . .. . 317 Forming Bending ... . .. ......•• .. .. .... .. . 318 Deep drawing .. . .. ............... 320 Joining Welding processes . .. . .. .. .. . ..... 322 Weld preparation . .. .. ...... . ..... 323 Gas welding ...•.. . . .. .. .. .. .. .. . 324 Gas shielded metal arc welding .... . 325 Arc welding .. . ............. ...... 327 Thermal cutting ...... . .. ......... 329 Identification of gas cylinders . . . .. .. 331 Soldering and brazing ... . ...... ... 333 Adhesive bonding ..... .. . ........ 336 Workplace safety and environmental protection Prohibitive signs .. ... .... .... .. ... 338 Warning signs .. ....•.. .. . .. . ..... 339 Mandatory signs, Escape routes and rescue signs ..... 340 Information signs .. .. ...... . ...... 341 Danger symbols ..... . ... .. . ... . .. 342 Identification of pipe lines . ......... 343 Sound and noise ... . ... .......... 344
Table of Contents
7 Automation and lnfonnation Technology 7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
Basic terminology for control engineering Basic terminology, Code letters, Symbols . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • 346 Analog controllers . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 Discontinuous and digital controllers .. 349 Binary logic . .......... . .......... 350 Electrical circuits Circuit symbols ... . ... . .. . ... ..... 351 Designations in circuit diagrams .•.. 353 Circuit diagrams ....... . ... . ...... 354 Sensors .. . ...... ... . ....... ..... 355 Protective precautions .... . . ..... . . 356 Function charts and function diagrams Function charts .. . .......... ..• . .. 358 Function diagrams . ... . .. ... ... . . . 361 Pneumatics and hydraulics Circuit symbols ... . ... .. . . .. . ..... 363 Layout of circuit diagrams ... .. . ... 365 Controllers .... .. ...... . .. ... . .... 366 Hydraulic fluids .. . .. ..... ......... 368 Pneumatic cylinders ...... . .. .. . . .. 369 Forces,Speeds, Po~er .. ... . . ... .. 370 Precision steel tube ....... . ....... 372 Programmable logic control PLC programming languages .. .... . 373 ladder diagram (LO) .... .. .. .. .... 374 Function block language (FBU . ... . . 374
8 Material chart, Standards 8.1 8.2
7.6
7. 7
7.8
7
345
Structured text (STI . .. ... .... ..... 374 Instruction list ... .. ... . .. . .... ... 375 Simple functions ... ..... .. .. .. . .. 376 Handling and robot systems Coordinate systems and axes . ...... 378 Robot designs ... . ... .. .... ... .. .. 379 Grippers, job safety ....... . ... .. .. 380 Numerical Control INC) technology Coordinate systems ... .. .. .. ...... 381 Program structure according to DIN .. 382 Tool offset and Cutter compensation . 383 Machining motions as per DIN . .. .... 384 Machining motions as per PAL (German association) ......... .. ... 386 PAL programming system for turning . 388 PAL programming system for milling . 392 Information technology Numbering systems . .. .... . ....... 401 ASCII code . ... . .. .. . ...... . .. . .. . 402 Program flo~ chart, Structograms . . 403 WORD- and EXEL commands . . ... . 405
407
International mat.erial comparison chart .. . ........... 407 DIN, DIN EN, ISO etc. standards .. 412
Subject index
411
8
Standards and other Regulations Standardization and Standards terms Standardization is the systematic achievement of uniformity of material and non-material objects, such as compo· nents. calculation methods, process flows and services for the benefit of the general public. Stenderdl t8rm
Exempltl
Explanetlon
Standard
DIN7157
A standard is the published resutt of standardization, e.g. the selection of certain fits in DIN 7157.
Part
DIN 30910.2
The part of a standard associated with other parts with the same main number. DIN 30910·2 for example describes sintered materials for filters, while Part 3 and 4 describe sintered materials for bearings and formed parts.
Supplement
DIN743 Suppl. 1
A supplement contains information for a standard, however no additional specifications. The supplement DIN 743 Suppl. 1. for example. contains application examples of load capacity calculations for shafts and axles described In DIN 743.
Draft
E DIN 6316 (2007-02)
A draft standard contains the preliminary finished results of a standardization; this version of the intended standard is made available to the public for com · ments. For example. the planned new version of DIN 6316 for goose-neck clamps has been available to the public since February 2007 as Draft E DIN 6316.
Preliminary standard
DINV66304 (1991-12)
A preliminary standard contains the results of standardization which are not released by DIN as a standard, because of certain provisos. DIN V 66304, for example, discusses a format for exchange of standard part data for compllter-aided design.
Issue date
DIN 7&-1 (2004-06)
Date of publication which is made public in the DIN publication guide; this is the date at which time the standard becomes valid. DIN 76·1, which sets undercuts for metric ISO threads has been valid since June 2004 for example.
Types of Standards and Regulations lselec:tionl Type
Abbreviation
Explanation
Purpow end contents
International Standards (ISO standards)
ISO
International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (0 and S are reversed in the abbreviation)
Simplifies the international exchange of goods and services. as well as cooperation in scientific, technical and economic areas.
European Standards (EN standards)
EN
European Committee for Standard!zation (Comitll Europllen de Normalisation), Brussels
DIN
DIN EN German Standards (DIN standards)
DIN ISO
DIN EN ISO
DINVDE
Technical harmonization and the associated reduction of trade barriers for the advance· ment of the European market and the coalescence of Eurooe. Deutsehes lnstitut fUr Normung e.V., National standardization facilitates rationalBerlin (German Institute for ization, quality assurance, environmental Standardization) protection and common understanding in European standard for which the economics, technology. science. manageGerman version has attained the sta- ment and public relations. tus of a German standard.
German standard for which an international standard has been adopted withollt change. European standard for which an international standard has been adopted unchanged and the German version has the status of a German standard. Printed publication of the VDE, which has the status of a German standard. Verein Deutscher lngenieure e.V., Dusseldorf (Society of German Engineers) Verband Delltseher Elektrotechniker e.V., Frankfurt (Organization of Ger· man Electrical Engineers)
These guidelines give an account of the cur· rent state of the art in specific subject areas and contain, for example, concrete procedu· ralguidelines for the performing calculations or designing processes in mechanical or electrical engineering.
VDI Guidelines
VDI
VDE printed publications
VDE
DGO publications
DGQ
DeutSChe Gesellschaft fUr Oualitat e.V., Recommendations in the area of quality technology. Frankfurt (German Association for Quality)
REFA sheets
REFA
Association for Work DesignNI/ork Structure, Industrial Organization and Corporate Development REFA e.V.. Darmstadt
Recommendations in the area of production and work planning.
9
Table o f Conten ts
1 Mathematics (d"
d 1 2 3
1.0000 1.4142 1.7321
-
sine
-
cosine tangent cotangent
1.1 Numerical tables
A·"·tfl. 4
10 Square root, Area of a circle 11 Sine, Cosine Tangent, Cotangent ..... .................... 12 0
0.7854 3.1416 7.0686
••••••••••
0
00
••••••
•••••••••
0
•••
0
•••••
••••••••••
1.2 Trigonometric Functions
opposite aide hypot~
Definitions .......... . . .................. . .. Sine, Cosine, Tangent, Cotangent .... .......... Laws of sines and cosines .... .. ...... ... ... . . Angles, Theorem of intersecting lines . ..... .. ..
•!!!-aide hypotenuse
~ealde
•c:li-alde
13 13 14 14
- ~iii'
• aide iidii
1.3 Fundamentals of Mathematics
Using brackets, powers, roots ..... .. ... .... .. Equations ...................... .... .... .... Powers of ten, Interest calculation ...... ....... Percentage and proportion calculations .. ......
1 -3 + -5 = -1 · (3 +5) X
X
X
1.4 Symbols, Units
I
1 kW · h =3.6 · 106 W · s
Formula symbols, Mathematical symbols Sl quantities and units of measurement Non-SI units
I
•
••••••
1.5
¢
1.6
1.7
••••••
....~
d
+ - · -·-
::: ·~
0
••
0
••••
•••
0
•••
19 20 22
••••••••
•
••
0
0
••
0
••
•
••
•
0
•••
•••
•••••
•••••••••••••
•••••
•
•
0
•
0
••
••••
0
•••••••••••••••••••••
Mass General calculations ......... . .. ... ..... ..... 31 Linear mass density ....... . .... ... .......... 31 A rea mass density .. .... .................... 31
1.9 Centroids
~ ~~~
I ~"-V i x,
1.8
••
0
Volume and Surface area Cube. Cylinder. Pyramid ... ....... ......... .. 29 Truncated pyramid, Cone, Truncated cone, Sphere 30 31 Composite solids •
m
1"'-.
•
•
Areas Angular areas 26 Equilateral triangle, Polygons, Circle ..... .... .. 27 Circular areas 28 •••••••••
. ·· ~
r!
••
•
Lengths Calculations in a right triangle 23 Sub-dividing lengths, Arc length .............. 24 Flat lengths, Rough lengths ......... ... .... ... 25
•••••••
.
10 -
0
•
I \ ~ m
0
...... •
15 16 17 18
Centroids of lines .. ...... .. ... ..... ... ...... 32 Centroids of plane areas ..... ... ····· .... ... . 32
10
Mathematics: 1.1 Numerical tables
- ••
Square root, Area of a circle 7<-d~
d
A •4-
-
d
d
d
5
1.0000 1.4142 1.732 1 2.0000 2.2361
0.7854 3.1416 7.0686 12.5664 19.6350
51 52 53 54 55
7.1414 7.2111 7.2801 7.3485 7.4162
2042.82 2123.72 2206.18 2290.22 2375.83
101 102 103 104 105
10.0499 10.0995 10.1489 10.1980 10.2470
6 7 8 9 10
2.4495 2.6458 2.8284 3.0000 3.1623
28.2743 38.4845 50.2655 63.6173 78.5398
56 57 58 59 60
7.4833 7.5498 7.6158 7.6811 7.7460
2463.01 2551 .76 2642.08 2733.97 2827.43
106 107 108 109 110
11 12 13 14 15
3.3166 3.4641 3.6056 3.7417 3.8730
95.0332 113.097 132.732 153.938 176.715
61 62 63 64 65
7.8102 7.8740 7.9373 8.0000 8 .0623
2922.47 3019.07 3117.25 3216.99 3318.31
16 17 18 19 20
4.0000 4.1231 4.2426 4.3589 4.4721
201.062 226.980 254.469 283.529 314.159
66 67 68 69 70
8.1240 8.1854 8.2462 8.3066 8 .3666
21 22 23 24 25
4.5826 4.6904 4.7958 4.8990 5.0000
346.361 380.133 415.476 452.389 490.874
71 72 73 74 75
26 27 28 29 30
5.0990 5.1962 5.2915 5.3852 5.4772
530.929 572.555 6 15.752 660.520 706.858
31 32 33 34 35
5.567 8 5.6569 5.7446 5.8310 5.9161
754.768 804.248 855.299 907.920 962.113
36 37 38 39
40
6.0000 6.0828 6.1644 6.2450 6.3246
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
1 2
3 4
8011.85 8171 .28 8332.29 8494.87 8659.01
151 152 153 154 155
12.2882 12.3288 12.3693 12.4097 12.4499
17907.9 18145.8 18385.4 18626.5 18869.2
10.2956 10.3441 10.3923 10.4403 10.4881
8824.73 8992.02 9160.88 9331 .32 9503.32
156 157 158 159 160
12.4900 12.5300 12.5698 12.6095 12.6491
19 113.4 19359.3 19606.7 19855.7 20106.2
11 1 112 113 114 115
10.5357 10.5830 10.6301 10.6771 10.7238
9676.89 9852.03 10028.7 10207.0 10386.9
161 162 163 164 165
12.6886 12.7279 12.7671 12.8062 12.8452
20358.3 20612.0 20867.2 21124.1 21382.5
3421.19 3525.65 3631.68 3739.28 3848.45
116 117 118 119 120
10.7703 10.8 167 10.8628 10.9087 10.9545
10568.3 10751.3 10935.9 11122.0 11309.7
166 167 168 169 170
12.884 1 12.9228 12.9615 13.0000 13.0384
21642.4 21904.0 22167.1 22431.8 22698.0
8.4261 8.4853 8.5440 8.6023 8.6603
3959.19 4071.50 4185.39 4300.84 4417.86
121 122 123 124 125
11.0000 11.0454 11.0905 11.1355 11.1803
11499.0 11689.9 11882.3 12076.3 12271.8
171 172 173 174 175
13. 0767 13.1149 13.1529 13.1909 13.2288
22965.8 23235.2 23506.2 23778.7 24052.8
76 77 78 79 80
8.7178 8.7750 8.8318 8.8882 8.9443
4536.46 4656.63 4778.36 4901.67 5026.55
126 127 128 129 130
11.2250 11.2694 11.3137 11.3578 11.4018
12469.0 12667.7 12868.0 13069.8 13273.2
176 177 178 179 180
13.2665 13.304 1 13.3417 13.379 1 13.4164
24328.5 24605.7 24884.6 25164.9 25446.9
81 82 83 84 85
9.0000 9.0554 9.1104 9.1652 9.2195
5153.00 5281.02 5410.61 5541.77 5674.50
131 132 133 134
11.4455 11.4891 11.5326 , .5758 11.6190
13478.2 13684.8 13892.9 14102.6 14313.9
181 182 183 184 185
13.4536 13.4907 13.5277 13.5647 13.6015
25730.4 26015.5 26302.2 26590.4 26880.3
1017.88 1075.21 1134.11 1194.59 1256.64
86 87 88 89 90
9.2736 9.3274 9.3808 9.4340 9.4868
5808.80 5944.68 6082.12 6221.14 6361.73
140
11.6619 11.7047 11.7473 11.7898 11.8322
14526.7 14741.1 14957.1 15174.7 15393.8
186 187 188 189 190
13.6382 13.6748 13.7113 13.7477 13.7840
27171.6 27464.6 27759.1 28055.2 28352.9
6.4031 6.4807 6.557 4 6.6332 6.7082
1320.25 1385.44 1452.20 1520.53 1590.43
91 92 93 94 95
9.5394 9.5917 9.6437 9.6954 9.7468
6503.88 6647.61 6792.91 6939.78 7088.22
141 142 143 144 145
11.8743 11.9164 11.9583 12.0000 12.0416
15614.5 15836.8 16060.6 16286.0 16513.0
19 1 192 193 194 195
13.8203 13.8564 13.8924 13.9284 13.9642
28652.1 28952.9 29255.3 29559.2 29864.8
6.7823 6.855 7 6.928 2 7.0000 7.071 1
1661.90 1734.94 1809.56 1885.74 1963.50
96 97 98 99 100
9.7980 9.8489 9.8995 9.9499 10.0000
7238.23 7389.81 7542.96 7697.69 7853.98
146 147 148 149 150
12.0830 12.1244 12.1655 12.2066 12.2474
16741.5 16971.7 17203.4 17436.6 17671.5
196 197 198 199 200
14.0000 14.0357 14.0712 14.1067 14.1421
30171.9 30480.5 30790.7 31102.6 31415.9
135 136 137 138 139
11
Mathematics: 1.1 Numerical tables ~~-llll ;;r. l
sine o• to 45•
1:-ees t
.."'
o•
,.
'1 5'
45'
30'
t
60'
0.0000 0.0175 2" 0.0349 3" 0.0523 4" 0.0698
0.0044 0.0218 0.0393 0.0567 0.0741
0.0087 0.0131 0.0262 0.0305 0.0436 0.0480 0.0610 0.0654 0.0785 0.0828
0.0175 0.0349 0.0523 0.0698 0.0872
5" 6" 7" 9"
0.0872 0.1045 0.1219 0.1392 0.1564
0.0915 0.1089 0.1262 0.1435 0.1607
0.0958 0.1132 0.1305 0.1478 0.1650
0.1002 0.1175 0.1349 0.1521 0.1693
10° 11" 12° 13° 14°
0.1736 0.1908 0.2079 0.2250 0.2419
0.1779 0.1951 0.2122 0.2292 0.2462
0.1822 0.1994 0.2164 0.2334 0.2504
0.1865 0.2036 0.2207 0.2377 0.2546
0.1908 0.2079 0.2250 0.2419 0.2588
15° 16° 18° 19°
0.2588 0.2756 0.2924 0.3090 0.3256
0.2630 0.2798 0.2965 0.3132 0.3297
0.2672 0.2840 0.3007 0.3173 0.3338
0.2714 0.2882 0.3049 0.3214 0.3379
0.2756 0.2924 0.3090 0.3256 0.3420
200 21 ° 22" 23" 24°
0.3420 0.3584 0.3746 0.3907 0.4067
0.3461 0.3624 0.3786 0.3947 0.4107
0.3502 0.3665 0.3827 0.3987 0.4147
0.3543 0.3706 0.3867 0.4027 0.4187
25" 26° 27" 28" 29"
0.4226 0.4384 0.4540 0.4695 0,4848
0.4266 0.4423 0.4579 0.4733 0.4886
0.4305 0.4462 0.4617 0.4772 0.4924
:.Hnt~~ilm
rtl fl
sine 45• to go•
1:-
minutes
o·
Ill
'-"1 111:a1UII
minutes
0'
15'
45'
30'
60'
45° 0.7071 0.7133 10.7163 46° 0.7193 0.7254 0.7284 47° 0.7314 0.7343 0.7373 0.7402 48" 0.7431 0.7490 0.7518 0.7604 10.7632 49" 0.7547
0.7193 0.7314 0.7431 0.7547 0.7660
44"
0.1045 84. 0.1219 ~ 0.1392 82" 0.1564 81" 0.1736
so·
79"
76° 75°
55" 56" 57" 58" 59"
74°
so•
73"
72" 71" 70°
61° 62" 63" 64•
0.3584 0.3746 0.3907 0.4067 0.4226
69" 68" 67" 66" 65"
65° 0.9063 66" 0.9135 67° 0.9205 68" 0.9272 69" 0.9336
0.4344 0.4501 0.4656 0.4810 0.4962
0.4384 0.4540 0.4695 0.4848 0.5000
64•
30" 0.5000 0.5038 0.5075 31" 0.5150 0.5188 0.5225 32" 0.5299 0.5336 0.5373 33" 0.5446 0.5463 0.5519 34" 0.5592 0.5628 0.5664
0.51 13 0.5262 0.5410 0.5556 0.5700
0.5150 0.5299 0.5446 0.5592 0.5736
35" 36" 37° 38" 39"
0.5736 0.5878 0.6018 0.6157 0.6293
0.5771 0.5913 0.6053 0.6191 0.6327
0.5807 0.5948 0.6088 0.6225 0.6361
0.5842 0.5983 0.6122 0.6259 0.6394
0.5878 0.6018 0.6157 0.6293 0.6428
40" 41° 42° 43" 44"
0.6428 0.6561 0.6691 0.6820 0.6947
0.6461 0.6593 0.6724 0.6852 0.6978
0.6494 0.6626 0.6756 0.6884 0.7009
0.6528 0.6659 0.6788 0.6915 0.7040
0.6561 0.6691 0.6820 0.6947 0.7071
49°
45'
30'
15'
o·
t
a•
17"
minutes
.,.,
fJ70 88"
85"
...
cosine 45" to go• Table values ofthe
89" 88"
78" 77"
~:;~!
~:;:~~
~:~99
43" 42"
4 1° 40"
0.7660 51° o.m1 52" 0.7880 0.7907 53" 0.7986 54" 0.8090
0.7716 0.7826 0.7934 0.8039 0.8141
0.7744 0.7853 0.7960 0.8064 0.8166
0.7771 0.7880 0.7986 0.8090 0.8192
39"
0.8192 0.8290 0.8387 0.8480 0.8572 0.8594
~:~~: ~:~~
0.8241 0.8339 0.8434 0.8526 0.8616
0.8266 0.8363 0.8457 0.8549 0.8638
0.8290 0.8387 0.8480 0.8572 0.8660
34" 33" 32" 31°
0.8660 0.8682 0.8746 0.8767 0.8829 0.8850 0.8910 0.8988
~~::Soo~
0.8704 0.8788 0.8870 0.8949 0.9026
0.8725 0.8809 0.8890 0.8969 0.9045
0.8746 0.8829 0.8910 0.8988 0.9063
29" 28" 27° 26" 25"
0.9081 0.9153 0.9222 0.9288 0.9351
0.9100 0.9171 0.9239 0.9304 0.9367
0.9118 0.9135 0.9188 0.9205 0.9255 0.9272 0.9320 0.9336 0.9382 0.9397
24" 23° 22" 21° 20"
~:~~!
36" 35"
30"
60"
70° 71" 72" 73" 74°
0.9455 0.9511 0.9563 0.9613 0.9659
19° 18° 17° 16° 15°
59" 58" 57" 56" 55"
75° 0.9659 0.9670 0.9692 76" 0.9703 0.9713 0.9734 77" 0.9744 0.9753 0.9763 0.9772 0.9781 78" 0.9781 0.9790 0.9808 79" 0.9816 0.9825 0.9840
14° 13" 12° 110 10°
54"
80" 0.9848
53"
81" 82" 83" 84"
63"
62" 61"
52" 51°
so• 48"
47" 46"
45"
0.9397 0.9412 0.9455 0.9469 0.9511 0.9524 0.9563 0.9576 0.9613 0.9625
aso 'Sl"
0.9426 0.9441 0.9483 0.9497 0.9537 0.9550 0.9588 0.9600 0.9636 0.9648
~::~:
0.9877 0.9903 0.9925 0.9945
~::: ~::sa:
0.9856 0.9884 0.9909 0.9931 0.9950 0.9954
~:=~
85" 0.9962 0.9966 0.! 88" 0.9979 0.9981 0.9988 fJ70 88" 0.9994 0.9995 89" 0.99985 0.99991 0.99996
~:= 60'
45'
~::: ~::~~ ~::!~
0.9870 0.9897 0.9920 0.9941 0.9958 0.9962
,. 8"
60 5o
~:=
0.9976 0.9986 0.9994 0.99985 1.0000
o·
30'
15'
o·
t
minutes
co8le 0" to .es·
: functions are rounded off to four decimal places.
s•
0.9973 0.9984 0.9992 0.9998 0.99999
de-
grees
~::;~
4" 3" 2" 1"
de9'"S
12
Mathematics: 1.1 Numerical tables
Values of Tangent and Cotangent Trigonometric Functions tangent 0" to 45•
de-
tano-nt 45• to 90"
degr- -==-minutes
grees = m inutes
o·
15'
30'
45'
0.0000 0.0175 0.0349 0.0524 0.0699
0.0044 0.0218 0.0393 0.0568 0.0743
0.0087 0.0262 0.0437 0.0612 0.0787
0.0131 0.0306 0.0480 0.0655 0.0831
0.0175 l r 0.0349 0.0524 fr1" 0.0699 88" 0.0875 86"
45° 46" 47" 48" 49"
1.0000 1.0355 1.0724 1.1106 1.1504
1.0088 1.0446 1.0818 1.1204 1.1606
1.0176 1.0538 1.0913 1.1303 1.1708
1.0265 1.0630 1.1009 1.1403 1.1812
1.0355 1.0724 1.1 106 1.1504 1.1918
5" 0.0875 0.0919 0.0963 6" 0.1051 0.1095 0.1139 7" 0.1228 0.1272 0.1317 a• 0.1405 0.1450 0.1495 9" 0.1584 0.1629 0.1673
0.1007 0.1184 0.1361 0.1539 0.1718
0.1051 0. 1228 0.1405 0.1584 0.1763
84"
so•
1.2024 1.2460 1..2915 1.3392 1.3891
1.2131 1.2572 1.3032 1.3514 1.4019
1.2239 1.2685 1.3151 1.3638 1.41SO
1.2349 1.2799 1.3270 1.3764 1.4281
39"
82" 52" 81" 53" 80" 54"
1.1918 1.2349 1..2799 1.3270 1.3764
10° 0.1763 0.1808 0.1853 1 , . 0.1944 0.1989 0.2035 12" 0.2126 0.2171 0.2217 13" 0.2309 0.2355 0.2401 14° 0.2493 0.2540 0.2586
0.1899 0.2080 0.2263 0.2447 0.2633
0.1944 0.2126 0 ..2309 0.2493 0.2679
79" 78" 77" 76" 75"
55" 56" 57" 58" 59"
1.4281 1.4826 1.5399 1.6003 1.6643
1.4415 1.4966 1.5547 1.6160 1.6808
1.45SO 1.5108 1.5697 1.6319 1.6977
1.4687 1.5253 1.5849 1.6479 1.7147
1.4826 1.5399 1.6003 1.6643 1.7321
34" 33" 32" 31° 30"
0.2679 0.2726 0.2773 0.2820 0.2867 0.2915 0.2962 0.3010 0.3057 0.3105 0.3153 0.3201 0.3249 0.329a 0.3346 0.3395 0.3443 0.3492 0.3541 0.3590
0.2867 0.3057 0.3249 0.3443 0.3640
74" 73" 72" 71° 70"
so•
1.7321 1.7496 1.8040 1.822a 1.8807 1.9007 1.9626 1.9840 2.0503 2.0732
1.7675 1.841a 1.9210 2.0057 2.0965
1.7856 1.a611 1.9416 2.027a 2.1203
1.8040 1.8807 1.9626 2.0503 2. 1445
29" 28" 27° 26" 25"
2.1445 2.1692 2.2460 2.2727 2.3559 2.3847 2.4751 2.5065 2.6051 2.6395
2.1943 2.2998 2.4142 2.5386 2.6746
2.2199 2.3276 2.4443 2.5715 2.7106
2.2460 2.3559 2.4751 2.6051 2.7475
24" 23" 22" 21"
20"
73" 74"
2.7475 2.9042 3.0777 3.2709 3.4874
2.7852 2.9459 3.1240 3.3226 3.5457
2.8239 2.9887 3.1716 3.3759 3.6059
2.a636 3.0326 3.2205 3.4308 3.6680
2.9042 3.0777 3.2709 3,4874 3.7321
19" 18" 17° 16" 15"
59" 75" 76" 57° 77" 56" 78" ss· 79"
3.7321 4.0108 4.3315 4.7046 5 .1446
3.7983 4.0876 4.4194 4.8077 5.2672
3.8667 4.1653 4.5107 4.9152 5.3955
3.9375 4.2468 4.6057 5.0273 5.5301
4.0108 4.3315 4.7046 5.1446 5.6713
14" 13" 12" 11" 10°
5.6713 6.3138 7.1154 a.1443 9.5144
5.8197 5.9758 6.1402 6.4971 6.6912 6.8969 7.3479 7.5958 7.8606 a.4490 a.7769 9.1309 9.9310 10.3854 10.8829
6.3138 7.1154 a.1443 9.5144 11.4301
9" a• 7" 6"
11.4301 14.3007 19.0a11 28.6363 57.2900
12.0346 15.2571 20.8188 32.7303 76.3900
12.7062 16.3499 22.9038 38.1885 114.5887
13.4566 17.6106 25.4517 45.8294 229.1a17
14.3007 19.0a11 2a.6363 57.2900
4" 3" 2" 1"
00
o·
60'
45'
30'
15'
0'
~
o• 1" 2" 3" 4"
15" 16° 17" 1a· 19°
~
60'
as-
83" 51"
61 " 62" 63" 64"
20" 0.3640 0.3689 0.3739 0.3789 0.3839 69" 65" 21" 22" 23" 24"
0.3839 0.4040 0.4245 0.4452
0.3889 0.4091 0.4296 0.4505
0.3939 0.4142 0.4348 0.4557
0.3990 0.4040 68" 66" 0.4193 0.4245 67" 67" 0.4400 0.4452 66" 68" 0.4610 0.4663 65" 69"
25" 26" 27" 28" 29"
0.4663 0.4877 0.5095 0.5317 0.5543
0.4716 0.4931 0.5150 0.5373 0.5600
0.4770 0.4986 0.5206 0.5430 0.5658
0.4823 0.5040 0.5261 0.5486 0.5715
0.4877 0.5095 0.5317 0.5543 0.5774
0.5774 0.6009 0.6249 0.6494 34" 0.6745
0.5832 0.6068 0.6310 0.6556 0.6809
0.5890 0.6128 0.6371 0.6619 0.6873
0.5949 0.6188 0.6432 0.6682 0.6937
0.6009 0.6249 0.6494 0.6745 0.7002
35" 36" 37" 38" 39"
0.7002 0.7265 0.7536 0.7813 0.8098
0.7067 0.7332 0.7604 0.7883 0.8170
0.7133 0.7400 0.7673 0.7954 0.8243
0.7199 0.7467 0.7743 0.8026 0.8317
0.7265 0.7536 0.7a13 0.8098 0.8391
so·
80" a1" a2" 83" 84"
40" 41" 42" 43" 44"
0.8391 o.a693 0.9004 0.9325 0.9657
0.8466 o.a770 0.9083 0.9407 0.9742
o.a541 0.8847 0.9163 0.9490 0.9a27
o.a617 0.8925 0.9244 0.9573 0.9913
0.8693 0.9004 0.9325 0.9657 1.0000
49" 48" 47" 46" 45°
as· 86" a7• 88" 89"
60'
45'
30'
15'
0'
t
30" 31° 32" 33"
minutes
cotangent 45° to so·
64" 63" 62" 61 "
oo•
70° 71"
72"
sa•
54" 53" 52" 51"
0'
15'
minutes
de-
grees
45'
30'
cot engent o· t o 45"
Table values of the trigonometric functions are rounded off to four decimal places.
60'
44" 43" 42" 41°
40" 38" 37"
36" 35"
s•
t de-
grees
13
Mathematics: 1.2 Trigonometric Functions
Trigonometric functions of right triangles Definitions Appllc:etlon
~Ions in •
right triangle
for .0: a
a
c hypotenuse
opposite
side of
a
a
·
b adjacent s1de of a
J
~
-
.!. E. sin a sin{J line • liYPOtenuse c c t-------- -----l--------1-------- -1 8 cosine • !!d!!C!f!t ~ cos a • E. cos{J •
=
c
hypotenuse
c hypotenusyQ\_ a adjacent side of {J
for
.
opposite~
c
8 b ~ tan a • tan fJ • 8 b t-----------+-------~1--------l
b opposite side of {J
tangent
•
o:!:Zt! :Q
cotangent •
cot
a
-
b
cot {J
8
~
8
1i
Graph of the trigonometric functions between ooand 3W Graph of the trigonometric functions
Representation on a unit circle
II
180°
col fJH
+
col a(•l
Itt\ ~ l oa
-
z S<
Ill
210°
v
I
' ~
·1 01
.3 ro
360°
> c:
~
IV
~ ~ f\ /
'l¥'i'¥T¥T.
oo
~, ,
c:
.!!
v
n
I
IV
The values of the trigonometric functions of angles> 90" can be derived from the values of the angles between
o• and
90" and then read from the tables (pages 11 and 12). Refer ro the graphed curves of the trigonometric functions for the correct sign. Calculators with trigonometric functions display both the value and sign for the desired angle. Example: Relationships for Quadrant II Relationships
Example: Function values for the angle 120" (a • 30" in the formulae)
sin (90" + a) = +cos a
sin (90" + 30"1 =sin 120" = +0.8660
cos (90" + al • - sin a
COS (90" + 30") e COS
120" = -0.5000
- sin 30" =- 0.5000
tan (90" + a) = - cot a
tan (90" + 3()0) =tan 120" • - 1.7321
-cot 30" • - 1.7321
cos 30" • + 0.8660
Function v alues for selected angles Function
o•
90.
1800
270"
360"
Function
sin
0
+1
0
- 1
0
tan
0
""
0
cos
+1
0
- 1
0
+1
cot
""
0
()()
180"
270"
0 0
Relationships between the functions of an angle tan a · cot a = 1
tan a = sin a cos a
360"
cot a = cos a sin a
cos (1 Example: Calculation of tan a from sin a and cos a for a= 30•: tan a= sina/ cosa = 0.5000/ 0.8660 = 0.5n4
""
14
Mathematics: 1.2 Trigonometric Functio ns
Trigonometric functions of oblique triangles, Angles, Theorem of intersecting lines Law of sines and Law of cosines
~
Law of siMs
LawofcosiNa
a: b: c • sin a : sinfJ: siny
a2 . 1)2 + cl - 2 · b· C· cosa t? . a2 + c2 - 2 . a. c. cosfJ
a b c sin a • sin/J • sin
(
r
c2 . 8 2 + 1)2 - 2 . 8 • b · cosy
Application in calculating sides and angles c.lc:ullltion of sides using the law of sines using the Law of cosines
8 =- - =- -
b·sina sinfJ
c-sina sinr
aa
~1)2 +c2 -2·b·c ·cosa
b = a-sinfJ =c-sin/J sina siny
b=
~a2 +c2 -2 · 8· C·COSfJ
c . 8·siny . b·siny sina sin{J
C =~a2 +b2- 2·8 ·b·COSy
Calcua.tion of •ngles using the Law of sines using the law of cosines
sina~ a-sinfj . a-siny b c sinfJ = b·sina =b· siny 8 c siny = c · sina = c-sinfJ a b
coso = cos{J = cosr
1)2 + c2 -
a2
2·b ·c a2+c2-b2 2·8·C a2+b2-c2 2-a-b
=
Types of angles Corr8$p()nding angles
H
91
nF /.
If two parallels g 1 and gz are intersected by a Straight line g. there are geometrical interrelationships between the corresponding. opposite, alternate and adjaoent angles.
I I I
I
a =f3
Opposite angles
I
{3=6
Alternate angles
9•
I
a =o
Adjacent angles
I
a+ r =180°
I
Sum of angles in a triangle
~
Sum of angles in a triangle In every triangle the sum of the interior angles equals 1110'.
I a+ {3
+
y = 180°
I
(
Theorem of intersecting lines
~ \-t·!
A
lb
b,
B
81
If two lines extending from Point A are intersect.ed by two parallel lines BC and B 1C1, the segments of the parallel lines and the corresponding ray segments of the lines extending from A form equal ratios.
Theorem of intersecting lines
a
b c -= -
I = I I ~= ~ I I ~=~ I -
~
b,
c,
15
Mathematics: 1.3 Fundamentals
Using brackets, powers and roots Celcul.tions with brackets Type
Elcpl8nMion
Eumple
F8Ctorlng out
Common l ectors (divisors) in addition and subtraction are placed before 8 bracket.
3·X + 5·X " X·(3 + 5) = 8 · X
•
~+~ - 2..(3+5) X
X
X
A fraction bar combines terms in the same manner as brackets.
a+b ·h = ta + bl·!!. 2 2
A bracketed term is multiplied by 8 value (number. variable, another bracketed rerml, by multiplying each term inside the brackets by this value.
5. tb + cl - 5b + 5c (a+ bl ·te-d) • ac - ad+ be - bd
A bracketed term is divided by a value (number. variable, another bracketed term), by dividing each term inside the bracket by this value.
ta+b):c = a:c+b:c a- b a b
Binomial formulae
A binomial formula is a formula in which the term Ia + b) or (a - b) is multiplied by itself.
(a+ bl 2 • a2 -+ 2ab -+ ~
Multlpli.,.tion/divt llon•nd edclition/subtrect>on celc:ullltiona
In mixed equations. the bracketed terms must be solved first. Then multiplication and division calculations are per· formed. and finally addition and subtraction.
a . (3x- 5x) - b · (12y - 2yl
Exp.nding br~~eketed tenns
- 5- : 5 - 5
(a-b)2 · a2-2ab+~ (a+b) · (a-b)=a2 - ~
• a. (-2J
Powers a base; x exponent; y exponential value Product of identical lectors
Definitions
a"= y
a-a-a.a - a4 4 . 4 . 4 . 4 - 4 4 - 256
Addition Subtrec:tion
Powers with the same base and the same exponents are treated like equal numbers.
Multlpli~on
Powers with the same base are multiplied (divided) by adding (subtracting) the exponents and keeping the base.
a
Numbers with negative exponents can also be wrinen as fractions. The base is then given a positive exponent and is placed in the denominator.
m· ' = ..2.. = ..!_ m' m
Division
Negative exponent
3al+ Sal- 4al
• al . (3 -+ 5- 4) • 4 al 4
•
t1- • a · a · a· a· a · a • ;/J
2' . 22 • 214+21 • 26 • 64 32 + J3 = Jl2-31 = ~1 - 1/3
a-3
=..!. a3
•
Frections In exponents
Powers with fractional exponents can also be wrinen as roots.
a3 = ~
Zero in lllq)Onents
Every power with a zero exponent has the value of one.
(m+nl0 =1 a• + a" = al•-•• = ;/' = 1
Roots
-
2'l = 1 a radicand;
y root value
Definitions
x roors exponent;
Signs
Even number exponents of the root give positive and negative values. if the radicand is positive. A negative radicand results in an imaginary number.
lf/i =Y or aV"= y ~=±3 rl-9=-+:fl
Odd number exponents of the root give positive values if the radicand is positive and negative values if the radicand is negative.
rs = 2
Addition Subtraction
Identical root expressions can be added and subtracted.
.la+J./a - 2./a =2../8
Multiplication Division
Roots with the same exponents are multiplied (divided) by taking the root of the product (quotient) of the radicands.
ora .ib = rJ8b
~= -2
~~ ¥;,=;:;
16
Mat hematics: 1.3 Fundamentals
Types of equations. Rules of transformation Equations Type
Explenetlon
Eumple
Variable equation
Equivalent terms (formula terms of equal value I form rei a· tionships between variables (see also, Rules of transfor· mation).
v •n· d · n
Compatible u nits equation
Immediate conversion of units and constants to an Sl unit in the result. Only used in special cases. e.g. if engineering parameters are specified or for simplification.
p • M · n ; p ·onkW , if
Sing le variable equation
Calculation of the value of a variable.
X+3 • 8 X • B- 3 • 5
Function equatio n
Assigned function equation: y is a function of x with K as the independent variable; y as the dependent variable. The number pair (K,yl of a value table form the graph of the function in the (x,y) coordinate system.
'
9550 n in 1/min and M in Nm
y - f(Jt)
91- real numbers
y • f (X) • b
Proportional function
Y=f(KI=mx y a 2K
Unear function The graph is a straight line with slope m and y intercept b (example below).
y • f(K) • mK+b y • 0.5K + 1
Quadratic function
y • f (K) • x2
Every quadratic (example below). linear function Y=mx+b
a2 + 28b+ til
Constant function The graph is a line parallel to the x-axis. The graph is a straight line through the origin.
~
(8+ b)2 .
function
example: y=0.5x+1
t: ~ 2 I ,_
_,
.....-:. 2 - 1
graphs
as
a
parabola
quadnruc function y: x 2 m=O.S b =1
1 2 3 x ---
y a a2xl + 81X+ Bo
example:
\!] '7 -2 -1
-1
1 2 3 x ---
Rules of transfonnation Equations are usually transformed to obtain an equat.ion in which the unknown variable stands alone on the left side of the equation. Addition Subtraction
Multiplication Division
The same number can be added or subtracted from both sides. In the equations X+ 5 • 15 and X+ 5 - 5 • 15- 5, x has the same value, i.e. the equations are equivalent.
X+5 = 15 X+5 -5 : 15-5 x = 10 : d y -c y -c+ c = d +c y = d+C
l-5
It is possible to multiply o r divide each side of the equation by the same number.
a-x = b a-x b --=-
l+ a
a
l +c
a
b X =-
a
Powers
The expressions on both sides of the equations can be ra ised to the same exponential power.
JX = a +b X:
Roots
The root of the expressions on both sides of the equation can be taken using the same root expOnent.
j()2
cJX)2 = (a +bJ2
a2 +2ab+tr
x 2 =B+b
c.JX)2 = J8+b X :±JS+b
if
17
Mathematics: 1.3 Fundamentals
Decimal multiples and factors of units. Interest calculation Decimal multiples and fac:ton of units
cf. DIN 1301-1 (2002-101
Mett!ematlc:a Power o f ten
Name
1018 1015 10 12 109 106 103 102 101
Sl units Prefix Name Character
M ultiplication factor
1 000 000 000 000 000 000 1 000 000 000 000 000 1 000 000 000 000 1000000000 1000000 1000 100 10 1
peta tera gig a mega kilo hecto dec a
100
quintillion quadrillion trillion billion million thousand hundred ten one
10"' 10"2 10"3 10"6 1
tenth hundredth thousandth millionth billionth trillionth quadrillionth quintillionth
0.1 0.01 0.001 0.000001 0.000 000 001 0.000 000 000 001 0.000 000 000 000 001 0.000 000 000 000 000 001
deci centi milli micro nano pico femto atto
.
1 1 1000 100
• I
.
values
<1
f -101 1
I
I
>1
10 100 1000
f
I
T
TV
G
GW MW kN hi dam m
M k h da
-
-
d
c m
10 18 10 15 10 12 109 106 103 102 101
Em Pm
100 10"1 meters 10·2 m eters 10-3 volts 10"6 ampere 1o·9 meters 10"12 farad 10 15 farads 1o· l8 meters
dm em mV
J.L
.,A
n p f a
nm pf
meters meters volts watts watts newtons liters meters meter
IF am
Numbers greater than 1 are expressed with positive exponents and num· bers less than 1 are expressed with negative exponents. Examples: 4300:4.3 . 1000: 4.3 . 1o3 14638 - 1.4638. 104
I•
I
E p
8)(8
Examples M eaning
Unit
10- 3 t o- 2 10- 1 10° 101 102 103
0.07:
1~:7 .
10"2
Simple interest p A
principle amount accumulated
I
interest
r interest rate per year
I
time in days, interest period
Interest
I
I=
1st example: P = $2800.00; r = 6 ~; 1: 112 a; I : 1 ;
5
100%
2nd example:
I
1 interest year (1 al • 360 days (360 d) 360 d • 12 months 1 interest month • 30 days
$2800.00-6 .... 0.58 I
p., . t 100%· 360
$84.00
.
P : $4800.00;r : 5.1!!'; 1 : 50d; I - 1 I =
$4800.00·5.1"' · 50d
100%· 360~
- $34.00
-
Compound interest calculation for one-time payment p A
principle amount aocumulated
I
r
interest interest rate per year
Example:
n q
time compounding factor
Amount IICQJmulated
I
A= p. qn
P : $8000.00; n : 7 years; r = 6.5'*> A = 1
Compounding factor
q = 1 + 6. 5 % = 1.065 100% A = P · q" = $8000.00- 1.0657 = $8000.00- 1.553986 = s 12431.89
I
q=1 + ' 100%
I
I
18
Mathematics: 1.3 Fundamentals
Percentage calculation, Proportion calculations Percentage calculation Percent value
The p«eentage rate gives the frBCtion of the base value in hundredths. The base value is the value from which the percentage is to be calculated. The percent value is the amount representing the percentage of the base value.
P, percentage rate, in peroent
Pv percent value
I I
8, base value.
1st example:
= Bv·P,
I
100%
v
Percentage rate
Workpiece rough part weight 250 kg (base value); material loss 2% (percentage rate); material loss in kg • ? (percent value)
P. - ~ - 250kg - 2% • 5k 100%
v
P.
100'Yo
g
2nd example: Rough weight of a casting 150 kg; weight after machining 126 kg; weight percent rate(%) of material loss? 150kg-126kg P. =!:s_ . 100% = . 100%= 16% , Bv 150kg
-
P, = .&_· 100%
Bv
Proportion calculations 11vee steps for calculating clrect proportional ratios Example:
t
60 elbow pipes weigh 330 kg . What is the weight of
-
35 elbow pipes?
80 60
~
~1.0
·c:
"'20 0
~200l kg 300 I
0
I Known data 160 elbow pipes weigh 330 kg. 2nd step: I Calculate the unit weight by dividing I
......
1st step:
1 elbow pipe weighs I
100
3rd step;
weight-
I
330kg
60
Calculate the total by multiplying
35 elbow pipes weigh
330
~ . 35
I
- 192.5 kg
Three steps for calculating inverse proportional ratios Example:
t200
\
h 1-------'
150 ~ 100 .c. 50
~
0 0 2 I.
I 6 8 10 12 14
workers -
It takes 3 workers 170 hoors to process one order. How many hours do 12 workers need to process the same order?
I Known data Itt takes 3 workers 170 hours Calculate the unit time by multiplying 2nd step: I I It takes 1 worker 3 · 170 hrs Calculate the total by d ividing 3rd step: I I It takes1 2 workers
3 · 170 hrs. 42.5 h rs 12
Using the ttvee steps for calculating dinct end inverse proportions Example: 660 workpieces are manufactured by 5 machines in 24 days.
1st application of 3 steps: 5 machines produce 660 workpieces in 24 days 1 machine produces 660 work pieces in 24 - 5 days 9 machines produce 660 workpieces in 24.5 days 9
How much time does it take for 9 machines to produce 31 2 wo rkplaces of the same type?
2nd application of 3 steps: 9 machines produce 660 workpieces in 24.5 days 9 24 9 machines produce 1 workpiece in d ays 9 24.5. 31 2 9 machines produce 312 workplaces in = 6 .3days 9 ·660
S:0
I
19
Mathemat ics: 1.4 Symbols, Units
Formula symbols, Mathematical symbols Formula symbols Fonnulll aymbol
MNnlng
cf. DIN 1304-1 (1994-03) formula symbol
MMning
Fonnulll
MNnlng
symbol
'-9th, AIM. Volume, 1U9e I
w h
s
Length Width Height Unear distance
r,R d, D
A.S
v
Radius Diameter Area, Cross-sec1ional area Volume
a,p,y {}
A
Planar angle Solid angle Wavelength
MecMnlcs m
m' rrf (!
J p Ptbo Pamb
Prl
Mass Unear mass density Area mass density Density Moment of inenia Pressure Absolute pressure Ambient pressure Gage pressure
F
G
(1
Force Gravitalional force, Weight Torque Torsional moment Bending momem Normal suass
w I W.E w.,. Ep
~
Shear stress
~E,
t E
Nonnal strain Modulus of elasticity
f'w, W M T
Mb
p.f
p
'1
Shear modulus Coefficient of friction Section modulus Second moment of an area Work. Energy Potential energy Kinetic energy Power Efficiency
Time I
r n
Tlme. Duration Cycle duration Revolution frequency, Speed
f. v
v.u (lJ
Frequency Velocity Angular velocity
8
g
a
o.V.~~v
Acceleration Gravitational acceleration Angular acceleration Volumetric flow rate
Electricity Q
E
c I
Electric charge, Quantity of electricity Electromotive force Capacitance Electric current
L
R
e
y, K
lnduaance Resistance SpecifiC resistaooe Electrical conduaivity
X
z
rp
N
Reactance Impedance Phase difference Number of turns
Heat
r.e
Thermodynamic temperature
l!.T.lltMI Temperature differer!C8 I, ~
Celsius temperatura
a1, u
Coefficient of linear expansion
Q ).
a k
Heat, Quantity of heat Thermal conductivity Heat transition coefficiem Heat tTansmission coefficient
Focal length Refractive index
I o.w
a
c
Hr...
Heat flow Thermal diffuslvity Specific heat Net calorific value
Light. E*tromagnetic: ndi8tlon
E
Illuminance
f
n
luminous intensity Radiant energy
Acoustica p
c
Acouslic pressure Acoustic velocity
4> I
Aoouslic pressure level Sound intensity
N
Lt.
Mathematical symbols Math. aymbol
...." . *
~ < $
>
"+ - .I. :.+ !
Spoken approx. equals, around, about equivalent to
and so on, etc. infinity
Loudness Loudness level
cf. DIN 1302 (1999-121
M1tth. symbol
an
ft.,y
equal to not equal to is equal to by definition less than
lxl _L
less than or equal to greater than greater than or equal to plus
tl
minus times, multiplied by over, divided by. per, to sigma (summation)
6X
I II ~
6
"'
%
""
Spoken
Math.
Spoken
symbol
proponiooal a to the oHh power, the n-Ih power of a square 1001 of n-th mot of
log lg In e
logarithm (general) common logarithm natural logarithm Euler number (e • 2.718281... )
absolute value of x perpendicular to is parallel to parallel in the same direction
sin cos tan COL
sine cosine
parallel in the opposite direction angle triangle congruent to
o. n. o
delta x (difference between two values) percent. of a hundned per m il, of a thousand
n
AB
A8
It, a• a,."<<
tangent cotangent parentheses, bracl
20
Mathematics: 1.4 Symbols, Units
Sl quantities and units of measurement SJ1l
Base quantities and bMe units
a... quantity
Base units
cf. DIN 1301·112002·10), · 211978-02), · 3 11979- 10)
EJectric Mau
length
nme
Thefmo. dyNmic
ClWI'eflt
temperlltUN
Amount of
.,._.,_
luminous Intensity
meter
kilo· gram
second
ampere
kelv1n
mole
candela
m
kg
s
A
K
mol
cd
Unit symbol 11 The
units for measurement ere defined in the International System of Units Sl (Systeme International d'Unites). It is based on the seven basic units lSI units), from which other units are derived.
Base quantities, derived quantities and their units Ouentlty
Unit Nwne _jSymbol
Symbol
..,.,.atlon
Remarks
~
Examples of
Length, Ana. Volume, Angle Length
Area
Volume
Plane angle (angle)
Solid angle
I
A.S
v
meter
m
1m
square meter
m2
1m2
are hectare
a ha
cubic meter
m3
liter
l,l
a,p,y ... radian
Q
rad
• 10dm • 100cm • 1000mm 1mm = 10001Jm lkm • 1000 m
1 inCh • 25.4 mm In aviation and nautical applications the following applies: 1 international nautical mile= 1852 m
Symbol S only for cross-sectional • 10000cm2 areas • 1000000 mm2 1a =100m2 1 ha = 100 a . 10000 m2 Are and hectare only for land 100 ha • 1 km 2
• 1000dm3 • 1 000000 cm3 1 I = 1 l = 1 dm3 = 10 dl = 0.001 m 3 = 1 cm3 lml
1m3
Mostly for fluids and gases
.
1 rad = 1 m/m • 57.2957... = 180'/K
degrees
.
minutes seconds
.
,. ,. ,.
steradian
sr
1 sr
:0 rad =60'
=1
= ,.,60 = 60" = 1'/60 = 1•,13600 • 1 m 2/m 2
1 rad is the angle formed by the inter· section of a circle around the center of 1 m radius with an arc of 1 m length. In technical calculations instead of a = 33• 17' 27 .6', better use is r1 • 33.291°.
An object whose extension measures 1 rad in one direction and perpendicularly to this also 1 rad, covers a solid angle of 1 sr.
Mechanics Mass
m
kilogram gram
kg g
megagram metric ton
I
1 metric t = 1000 kg= 1 Mg 0.2g = 1 ct
1 kg 1g
= 1000 g · 1000mg
Mg
linear mass density
m•
kilogram per meter
l(g/m
1 kg/m = 1 g/mm
Area mass density
m•
kilogram per square meter
kgtm2
1 kg/m2
kilogram per cubic meter
kg/m3
1000 kg!m3 = 1 metric tfm3 = 1 kg/dm 3 • 1 g!cm3 = 1 g/ml = 1 mg/mm3
Density
(}
Mass in the sense of a scale result or a weight is a quantity of the type of m ass (unit kg).
= 0. 1 g!cm2
Mass for precious stones in carat (ct). For calculating the mass of bars, pro· files, pipes. To calculate the mass of sheet metal.
The density is a quantity independent of location.
21
Mathematics: 1.4 Symbols. Units
Sl quantities and units of measurement Quantities and Units (continued) Ouantlty
Symbol
Unit ~
R.mertca
~
IS¥mbo!
~ of 8l)pllc:atlon
Mechanics Moment of inertia, 2nd Moment of mess
J
Force
F
Weight Torque Bending morn. Torsional
kilogram x square meter
kg -m 2 Th~;~ following applies lor a homogenous body:
newton
N
newton x meter
N·m
J •o·r2- v
Fa. G M
Mb
1N
• 1 kgslm • 1 ~
The moment of Inertia I 2nd moment or mass) is dependent upon the total mass of the body as well as its form and the position of the axis of rotation. The foroo 1 N effects a change In vel· oclty of 1 m/s In t sIn a 1 kg mass.
1 MN • 10'1 kN • 1 000000 N 2 1 N -ma1 kg ·z'" s
1 N . m Is the moment that a loroe of 1 N effects with a lever arm of 1 m.
T
Momentum
p
kilogram x meter per second
kg· mls 1kg ·m/S• 1N -s
The momentum Is the product of the mass times velocity. It has the direction of the velocity.
Pressure
p
pascal
Pa
newton per square millimeter
Ntmm2
1 Pa = 1 Nfm2 = 0.01 mbar 1 bar • 100000 N/m2 • 10 N/cm2 • lOS Pa 1 mbar ·1 hPa 1 Ntmm2 - 10 bar • 1 MN/m2 • 1 MPa 1 daN/cm2 • 0.1 N/mm2
Pressure refers to the force per unit area. For gage pressure the symbol Po is used (DIN 1314). 1 bar = 14.5 psi (pounds per square inch 1
meter to the fourth power centimeter to the fourth power
m•
1 m• = 100000000 em•
Previously: Geometrical moment o f Inertia
J
1 J =1N-m•1W.s ·1 kg · m 2/s2
Joule for all forms of energy, kW · h preferred for electrical energy.
wall
w
1W=1J/s=1N ·m/s • 1 V . A • 1 m 2 . kg:!s3
Power describes the work which is achieved within a specific time.
seconds minutes hours day year
s min h d a
1 min a 60s lh = 60 min= 3600s ld = 24 h = 86400 s
3 h means a time span (3 hrs.), 3h means a point In time (3 o'clock). If points in time are written in mixed form, e.g. 3h24m1os, the symbol min can be shortened to m.
hem
Hz
1Hz = 1/s
1 per second
1/s
1/s
1 per minute
1/min
meters per second meters per minute kilometers per hour 1 per second radians per second
m/S
1/s rad/s
cu• 2n· n
For a rpm of n = 2/s the angular veloci· ty w =4 11/s.
meters per second squared
m!s2
1 mfs2 =1 m/S 1s
Symbol g only for acooleration due to gravity. g = 9.81 m!s2" 10 m/s2
Mechanical stress
01 T
Second moment of area
I
Energy, Work, Quantity of heat Power Heat flux
lime Time, Time span, Duration
E,W joule
p
,
Frequency
f.v
Rotational speed, Rotational frequency
n
Velocity
v
~
Angularveloc.i ty Acceleration
-=
em•
())
a,g
1/min • 1 min·• • 1 m/s
1 Hz
= 60/min = 60 min· •
~s
=60m!min a 3.6km/h
m/min 1m/min=~ 60s 1m km/h 1 km/h = 3.6s
=1 cycle in 1 second.
The number of revolutions per unit of time gives the revolution frequency, also called rpm. Nautical velocity in knots (kn): 1 kn =1.852 km/h miles per hour= 1 mile/h = 1 mph 1 mph= 1.60934 km/h
22
Mathematics: 1.4 Symbols, Units
Sl quantities and units of measurement Quantities and units (continued) Ouentlty
Unit Neme
Syrnbol
Sym· bol
Aemerb
Rel8tlor-"ip
Examples of applation
EJ.c:trldty and MllgMtiem Elec:tric cun-ent Electromotive force Electrical resistance Electrical conductance Specific resistance Conductivity
I
amp-
E
volt
v
1 V • 1 W/ 1 A • 1 J/C
R
ohm
Q
1 Qa 1V/1A
G
siemens
s
1S • 1N1V • 1/0
The movement of an electrical charge Is called current The electromotive force is equal to the potential difference bel· ween two point s In an electric field. The reciprocal of t.h e electrical resistance is called the electrical conductivity.
(!
ohmx meter siemens per meter
Q.m
1~ Q · m • 1 Q. mm2tm
tJ =- •n - - -
y, x
A
0 - mm2 m 1 . m - •n - - l! Q . mm2 I .
X
x•
S/m
Frequency
f
hertz
Hz
1Hz • 1/s 1000Hz • 1 kHz
Frequency of public electric utility: EU 50 Hl. USA/Canada 60 Hz
Electrical energy
w
joule
J
1J • 1W·S • 1N·m 1kW · h · 3.6MJ 1W·h ~3.6kJ
In atomic and nuclear physics the unit eV (electron volt) is used.
Phase difference
'{/
-
-
for alternating current:
The angle between current and voltage In inductive or capacitive load.
Elect. field strength Elect. charge EleCt. capacitance InduCtance Power Effective power
p
COSop • (f':/
E L
volts per meter VIm coulomb c farad F henry H
p
wan
0
c
1C :1A· 1s;1A· h • 3.6kC 1F • 1 CN 1 H • 1 V • s/A
E =!_ C = ~
w
1W • 1J/s • 1N·m/S ~ 1V · A
In electrical power engineering: Apparent power Sin V · A
Kelvin (K) and degrees Celsius (•C) are used for temperatu res and tempera· lure differences. t = T- To: T0 = 273.15 K degrees Fahrenheit (•f): 1.a•F = 1•c
a·
u·
O a / •t
Thermodynamics and Heat transfer Thermo·
r.e
kelvin
K
OK • -273.15• C
t,ll
degrees Celsius
·c
o •c • 273.15 K OOC = 32 •F o·F =-17.n·c
joule
J
1J =1W·s=1N·m 1 1NV · h s 3600000 J • 3.6 MJ
1 kcal " 4.1868 kJ
joule per kilogram Joule per cubic meter
J{kg
1 MJ/Icg • 1 000 000 J/kg
Jtm3
1 MJ/m3 = 1000000 J/ m3
Thermal energy released per kg fuel minus the heat of vaporization of the water vapor contained in the exhaust gases.
dynamic
tempenrture Celsius temperatu re Quantity of heat Net calorific value
0
Hn,.
Non-SI units length
Area
1 inch =25.4mm 1 foot =0.3048m 1 yard =0.9144m 1 nautical mile = 1.852 km 1 mile = 1.609 km
1 sq.in = 6.452cm 2 1 cu.in = 16.39cm3 1 sq.ft a 9.29dm2 1 cu.It • 28..32 dm3 1 sq.yd = 0.8361 m2 1 cu.yd = 764.6dm3 1 US gallon = 3.785 dm3 1 Imp. gallon e 4.536 dm3 Pressure a 158.8dffi3 1 barrel 1 bar • 14.5 psi
Volume
Energy, Power
Mass
102 = 28.35g 1 PSh 1 lb • 453.6g 1 PS 1 metric! • 1000 kg 1 kcal 1 short ton = 907.2 kg 1 kcal 1 carat • 0.2g 1 kpm/s 1 Btu 1 hp
• 0.735kWh =735W • 4186.8Ws =1.166 Wh = 9.807 W s 1055 W s =745.7W
Prefhces of dec:lmal f8Ct0r$ and multiplel pico
nano
micro
milli
centi
deci
deca
hecto
kilo
mega
giga
Prefix: symbol
Prefix
p
n
II
m
c
d
da
h
k
M
G
T
Power often
1Q• 12
1CJ"9
lo-6
10"'1
lo-2
1o-'
101
102
103
106
1cf'
10 12
Factor 1 mm = 1o-3m= 1/1000 m,
1 km a 1000m,
tera
Multiple 1 kg . 1000 g,
1 GB (Gigabyte! s 1000000000 bytes
23
Mathematics: 1.5 Length s
Calculations in a right triangle The Pythagorean Theorem In a right triengle the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the twO sides. 8
side
b
side
c
hypotenuse
Squere of the hypotenuse
1st eKemple:
c = 35mm;8 • 21 mm; b • 7 b = Jc2 - a2 =./('35 mm)2 - (21 mm)2 = 2Bmm 2nd eKample:
Length of the hypotenuse
I
c=.j;2;b2
CNC program with R • 50 mm and I· 25 mm.
K•7 c2 = 82 +b2
Length of the sides
R2 = t2 + K 2
K a JR2-12 ~ JS02
a=Jc2 - b2
mm2 - 252 mm2
K = 43.3mm
Eudidean Theorem (Theorem of sides) The square over one side is equal in area to a rectangle formed by the hypotenuse and the adjacent hypotenuse segment.
a, b sides c hypotenuse
Squwe over the side
p, q hypotenuse segments
a 2 = C· p
Elcemple: A rectangle with c = 6 em and p = 3 em should be changed into a square with the same area. C·Q
How long is the side of the square a?
C·p
a2 =c · p a =..fC:P=J6 cm- 3cm= C.2Ccm
Pythagorean theorem of height The square of height his equal in area to the rectangle of the hypotenuse sections p and q. height
h
p, q hypotenuse sections Example: Right triangle p = 6cm;q= 2cm;h =?
p·q
p
hl=p·q h
=.fP:Q =Js em· 2cm = ./12 cm2 = 3.46cm
Square of the height
I
h2 = p. q
24
Mathematics: 1.5 Lengths
Division of lengths, Arc length, Composite length Sub-dividing lengths Edge distance
p
=spedng
p
p
I
I
I totallength p spacing
Ex.,..ple:
I
1= 2 m; n • 24holes; P • 7
~
n+1
Edge ditltllnce ,<
~ing
p
p
p
p
I
Subdividing into pieces
I
1:1950 mm; a · 100mm; b a 50mm; n • 25holes; p ~ 7 1-la•bl 1950mm-150mm p c ---= 1Smm n- 1 25 - 1
I,
n- 1
Number of pieces
'·
I
Example:
0[ -
1-(a+b) P=---
I
bar length s saw cutting width z number of pieces I, remaining length piece length
I
I = 6000mm; t.• 230 mm; s = 1.2 mm; z • 1; 1, = 1 1 6000 mm - 25. 95: 25piz =- - = l,+s 230mm+ l.2 mm I, =1-z · (11 +5)=6000 mm-25· (230 mm + 1.2 mml
.._
---s
s
Spacing
n number of holes a. b edge distances
Example:
- r£. r-
I
I.
n +1
24• 1
I totallength p spacing
.
...__
I p =-
p a-1-- ~ • BOmm
I
r---
I
p
.&.1
~
Spacing
n number of holes
I
I
Z= - -
Is+ s
I
Remaining length
I
I,= 1- z · (15 + s)
I
= 220mm
Arc length Exemple: Torsion spring
1. arc length
r radius
!itti .~ ~
Arc length
a angle at oenter d diameter
n· r ·a
1=-a 180"
Example: r • 36 mm; a • 120"; 1,
a ? ". 36mm · 120' 75.36nvn '· =~ = 100"
I~
n· d ·a
Ia = - - 360"
1C•T·CI
I
Composite length D
outside diameter
dm mean diameter 1,.12 sec:tion lengths
a
/2
I
-·
<::>~
-~
t,
d inside diameter t thickness L oomposite length
a ngle at oenter
Example (composite length, picture lehl: 0=360 mm; I= 5 mm;a = 270•;1,: = 70 mm; dm • ?; L • ? dm =D - t = 360mm -5 mma 355mm
L = 1,+12= tt·dm· a +/2 360 " · 355 mm · 270" + 70 mm = 906.45 mm = 360"
-
Composite length
I
L =l1
+ l2 + ...
I
25
Mathematics: 1 .5 Lengths
Effective length, Spring wire length, Rough length Effective lengths 0 d
dm a
Effective length of • circular ring
outside diameter inside diameter mean diameter thi<:lcness effective length angle at cent.e r
Effective length of a
~~~~,;;
0 Cltculer ring sector
Example (circular ring sector): 0 • 36 mm; t • 4 mm; a • 240•; dm • 7; I • 7
d
Mean diameter
dm = D- t
dm• O- t • 36 mm - 4 mm a 32mm • n ·dm·a . n-32 mm · 240' • 6l.ll2 mm 360' 360'
dm = d+ t
d,..
0
Spring wire length Example: Compression spring
Effective length of the helix
effective length of the helix
Om mean coil diameter number of active coils
l=n ·Dm ·i + 2 ·1t· Om
Example:
Om• 16 mm; i • 8.5;1 • 7
l= n·Dm·i+2·n·Dm = n - 16 mm · 8.5 + 2 · n - 16 mm= 528mm
Rough length of forged parts and pressed parts When forming without scaling loss the volume of the rough pan is the same as the volume of the finished part. If there is scaling loss or burr formation, this is compensated by a factor that is applied to the volume of the finished piece. V0 volume of the rough part V0 volume of the finished part q addition factor for scaling loss or loss due to burrs A 1 cross-sectional area of the rough part A2 cross-sectional area of the finished part 11 initial length of the addition 12 length of the solid forged part
Volume without scaling loss
Volume with scaling loss
Example:
=
scaling loss
A cylindrical peg d 24 mm and 12 = 60 mm is pressed onto a flat steel workpiece 50 x 30 mm. The scaling loss is 10 %. What is the initial length 11 of the forged addition? V0 = V0 • (l+q)
At·lt = A2-12· (1+q) t. _A2· l2 · ll+ql At n · (24 mm)2 · 60mm • 11 + 0.11 4 · 50mm • 30mm
20mm
A, · /1 = A2 ·/2 · (1 + q )
26
Mathemat ics: 1.6 A reas
Angular areas Square A I
d length of diagonal
area lenglh of side
A =/2
Example: I• 14 mm; A • 7; d • 1 A • 12 • (14 mm)2 • 196 mm2 d a ·I a 14 mm a 19.8 mm
fi
fi ·
Length of dU.gonal
1
d=f2·'
Rhombus (lozenge) A I
w width
area lenglh of side
Area
A =l· w
Example: 1=9 mm; w=8.5 mm; A - 7
A • I · w • 9 mm · 8.5mm • 76.5 mm2
Rectangle A I
w widlh
area length
d
Area
length of diagonal
A =I ·W
Example: )
I= 12 mm; w - 11 mm;A - 7; d • 7 A = I· w = 12 mm· 11 mm = 132mm% d = JI2+ w2 = ,Ji.12mm)2 + (11 mm)2 z J1ffimm2 = 16.28 mm
Length of dU.gonal
I
d= ~
Rhomboid (parallelogram) A
w widlh
area lenglh
Area
A =l· w
Example: la36mm;
W •
15mm;A a ?
A • I· w • 36mm. 15mma 540mm2
Trapezoid A 11 l2
1m average length w width
area longer length shorter length
Area
A=
/1 + 12 ·W
2
Example: 11 = 23mm;l2 = 20mm; W= 17 mm;A•? A = 1,+ 12 ·w= 23mm + 20mm. 17 mm
2
2
= 365.5mm%
Triangle A I
area length of side
w width
l ·w A =-
Example:
2
11 = 62 mm; w• 29mm;A = ? A = 11 -w
2
62mm · 29mm - S99mm2
2
27
Mathematics: 1.6 Areas
Triangle, Polygon, Circle Equilateral triangle A area Diameter of d diameter of inscribed circle circumscribed circle length of side h height 0 diameter of circumscribed circle Example:
1
ID ~
= · J3 . f =2 .
Area
Iri._~-A--=~±~· -J3_3~-~~2~=
d
Diameter of
"_:_~--~ _.:_·;
I • 42 mm; A • ?;
3_e_.r_=_Q _ _.1 2
'....
~~-i·~
I
Regular polygons .A I
0 d
n
a
fJ
Diameter of area inscribed circle length of side diameter of circumscribed circle diameter of inscribed circle Diameter of no. of vertices angle at center vertex angle
Area
.___d_=_J_o_2_-_~2__.I I.__A_=_-n_·~~-·-d_ _,
· _c:_u~ _=_J_d_2_:_7_:-.JI
w ...
r:~.:r~l l
Example: Hexagon with 0=80 mm; I =?; d= ?; A=? I = 0 -sin C':')
d = ,Jo2 -J2
= !Klmm-sin(~) = 40mm
=.}6400 mm2 - 1600 mm2 = 69.282 mm
A = n ·l·d = 6 · 40mm · 69.282 mm = 41 56..92 mmZ 4 4
Calculation of regular polygon using table v * No. of
8 10 12.
~of
kMA •
0.325 . oz 0.500· 0 2 0.595. 0 2 0.649 · 02 0.707 . 0 2 0.735 . 0 2 0.750 . 0 2
1.299 . d 2 1.000 . d2 0.908. d 2 0.866 . d 2 0.829 . d 2 0.812 . d2 0.804 . d 2
......,_circle OA33 · f2 1.000 ·12 1.721 -12 2.598 . p 4.828. f2 7.694 . f2 11.196. f2
1.154 ·I 1.414 ·I 1.702 ·I 2.000 ·I 2.614 ·I 3.236 ·1 3.864- 1
2.000 . d 1.414 . d 1.236. d 1.155 . d 1.082 . d 1.052 . d 1.035 · d
Example: Octagon with I = 20 mm A = ?; 0 = ? A .. 4.828 -1 2 • 4.828. (20 mm)2 • 1931.2 mm2 ;
~of
o-
irwaibed- d -
0.578 ·I 1.000 - 1 1.376 ·I 1.732 ·1 2.414 ·I 3-.078 ·1 3.732 ·I
0.500 · 0 0.707 . 0 0.809· 0 0.866 · 0 0.924· 0 0.951· 0 0.966· 0
l.8ngth of side I •
0.867· 0.707 · 0.588 · 0.500 · 0.383 · 0.309 · 0.259 .
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
o~ 2.614 . I• 2.61 4 . 20 mm = 52.28 mm
Circle A d
area diameter
C circumference
Example:
d • 60 mm; A · ?; C· 1 Circumference
A = n·d2 = ,.. (60mmJl - 2827 mm2 4 4 C =Jt·d=n-60mm= 188.5mm
1.732. d 1.000 . d 0.727 . d 0 .577. d 0.414 · d 0.325. d 0.268. d
28
Mathematics: 1.6 Areas
Circular sector, Circular segment, Circular ring, Ellipse Circular sec:tor A area diameter arc length
d
11
r
a
chord length radius angle at center
Area
Example:
d • 48 mm; a
n·r·a
'· - liiii"A.
•
A = Ia ·r 2
1100; Ia • 7; A • 7
11·24mm·110" 190' a 46.1 mm
!L!_ .
48.1 mm · 24 mm •
2
2
563
mm2
f"""~ == Circular segment Circular segment with a :S 180" I
A area d diameter
w width of segment
Area
r radius a angle at center
arc length chord length Example:
18 I
I · r - l ·(r - w)
r=30 mm; a = 1200; I• 1; w a 7; A· 7 1 I ·2·r·sin~·2·:llmm·sin 20' · 51.96 mm
2
A = _.a'---:-'--.....;. 2 Chord length
2
I= 2 · r·sin~
w-~· 1Bn~- Sl.96mm ·1Bn 120' ·14.999mm · 1S mm 2
4
2
2
4
A· Jr·tP . ..!.._l·lr-wl
1= 2· J w ·(2 · r- w)
4 :B1' 2 Jr·f60mm)2 120' 51.96mm · C30mm - 1Smml - - -4- - · :B1'2
d
Height of segment
w =i·tan~
·552.8 mm>
2
Radius
4
r;/2
w 12 r = -+--
w = r - , r -4
2 8 ·w
Circular ring A
area
0 outside diameter d
inside diamet.er
dm mean diameter
w width
Area
A= n· dm · W
Example:
o.
160mm; d •12Smm;A=?
A -~ ·(02 -d2) . ~·(100Z rnm2 -1252 mm21 4 =7834 mrn 2
area length Example: A
0
4
d C
diameter Circumference
0=65 mm; d =20 mm;Aa?
A= n·O·d = n· 65mm·20mm 4 4 = 1021mm2
Area ,..;..._ _ _lt• · D !"-·d~--.
A=-4 Circumference
C -n · D +d 2
29
Mathematics: 1.7 Volume and Surface area
Cube, Square prism, Cylinder, Hollow cylinder, Pyramid Cube V volume A, surface area
1
Volume
length of side
Example: Surface area
I • 20 mm; V • 7; A. • 7
V • I' • (20 mml' • 8000 mm' A , • 6 . P • 6 • (20 mm)2 • 2400 mm2
Square prism V volume A, surfaoe area I length of side
h height w width
Example:
Volume
V=I·W· h Surfaee area
l•6cm;w • 3cm;h•2cm;V.7 V• l· W · h · 6cm· 3cm. 2cm= 36cm3
As= 2 . (/ . w + I . h + w . h)
Cylinder V volume A 0 surface area
d diameter h
Volume
height
1t·d2 V= - - ·h 4
A. cylindrical surface area Example:
Surface area
d s 14mm;h = 25mm; V•? V =zr ·d'·h 4
_ Jt·(14mml' · 2Smm 4 = J848mm3
lAs=1t·d·h+2· ~1 Cylindrical surface area
I
Ac=n· d · h
Hollow cylinder V volume As surface area
D. d diameter h height
Volume
Example:
0 • 42 mm; d e 20mm; h•80mm; V=?
V =~ ·(D2-d2l
As =n·
4
= Jt-SOmm ·(42'mm2-20'mm2) 4 = 85103mm3
Pyramid V volume h height h 5 slant height
I length of base 11 edge length w width of base
Example:
I= 16 mm; W= 21 mm; he45mm; V= 7 V = l-w ·h= 16mm-21 mm-45mm 3 3
= 5040mm3
Volume
f ·W·h V=--
3
Edge length
I
'~=M
Slant height
30
Mathematics: 1.7 Volume and Surface area
Truncated pyramid, Cone, Truncated cone, Sphere, Spherical segment Truncated pyramid V 11.1,
volume lengths ol
A 1 ereeolbase
base
A, t.op11Ur18Ce
t,.
slant height height w1, ·~ widths
sunece
h
bample: 11 ·40mm;l2 ·22 mm; w1 • 28mm; "'2 • 15 mm; h• 50mm; V•1
Volume
lv=~·IA,+Az+~l~ Slant height
v =!!.·lA, +Az+JA, ·Az) 3 = 50mm ·11120+330+ J1120·330)mm2 3 = 34299mm3
Cone V
A: d
volume conical surface area diameter
height slant height
h
h1
Volume
n· d 2 h
V = - - ·-
4
bam pie:
A _n· d · h5 c 2
d • 52 mm; h • 110mm: V= 1
v -"·d2.!!. 4
3
Conical o;urface area
3
l'<·152mml' 110mm 4 ·-3= 77870mm3
Truncated cone V volume conical surface area 0 diameter of base
d
diameter of top height slant height
A:
h
hs
Example: D · 100 mm;d• 62 mm; h•80mm;
v.?
V = l'<·h ·1Dl+d2 +D·dl
12 = >t·BOmm .(100' +622 +100·62)mm2 12 = 419800mm!
Sphere V volume surface area
d
diameter of sphere
Volume
As
Example: d =9 mm;V=7 V = Jt·cf3. Jt·{9 mm)3
6
382mm!
Surface a
6
Spherical segment V volume A 1 lateral surface ar ea As surface area
d h
bample:
d =8 mm; h= 6 mm; V = 1
v =Jt·h' ·(~ - ~) =lt·~mm2 ·(a';""- 6';"') =226mm3
diameter of sphere height
Volume
StM'face area
I As
= 1t • h . 12 . d- h)
lateral surface area
A 1 = n·d·h
1
31
Mathematics: 1.8 Mass
Volumes of composite solids. Calculation of mass Volumes of composite IOiids ToUivolume
V total volume
v,. v2 partial volumes
Example: Tapered sleeve; 0 • 42 mm; d • 26 mm; d1 • 16mm; h · 45mm;
v. 7
V1 5 1<·h .(02+d2+D · dl 12 =~· (42 2 + ~+42·26)mm2 12 a 41 610mm2 11·d 2 ,..162mm2 Vz =7·h= - 45mm = 9048mm2 4 v : v, - v2 m 41610mm2 - 9048mm2 • 32562 mm3
Calculation of mass
m V
mass volume
I!
density
Mass
Example: Wori(pieoe made of aluminum; 6.4 dml; {} · 2.7 kg/dml; m~ 7
v-
m = V·u = 6.4 dm3 - 2.7
Values for density of solids, liquid s and gases: pages 116 and 117
~
dml
= 17. 281<9
Unur mass density
. . kg m mm
m mass m ' linear mass density
length
Unear mass density
I
m = m ' .f
Examp le: Steel bar with d · 15 mm; m' = 1.39 kg/m; 1= 3.86m; m= 7
m =m '·1 = 1.39 ~- 3.86 m m
: 5. 37kg
m mass A area m• area mass density
Application: Calculating the mass of profile sections, pipes, w ires, etc. using the table values for m'
Area mass density
I
m= m • · A
Example: Steel sheet t = 1.5 mm; m• = 11.8 kglm 2; A= 7.5m2;m=7 m =m"· A = 11. 8
= 88. 5 1qj
~ · 7.5 m2
Ap plication: Calculating the mass of sheet metal, foils, coatings, etc using the table values for m•
32
Mathematics: 1.9 Centroids
Centroids of Lines and Plane Areas Centroids of linea
c,.
lengths o f the lines C, ~ centroids of the lines horizontal distances of the line centroids from the y-axis Yc· y1, y2 vertical distances of the line centro ids from the x·axis
/, 11 • /2
x,. x 1, x2
Une segment
Compotite continuous lines
y Circular arc
General
i I
/- 1000
Yc =- n-a
Semicircular arc
I
Yc"' 0.6366 · r
II
-1------- -----'-
X
I
Quarter circle arc Calculation of I and /0 : Page28
Yc "' 0.9003 · r
I
Centroids of plane areas A, A1, A2 areas C, C1, ~ centroids of the areas horizontal distances o f the area centroids from the y-axis y., y1, y2 vertical distances of the area centroids from the x·axis
x.:. x,, x2
Rectangle
•------
1'----_ Y c=~----~
Triangle
Circular sector
General
Composite • • -
1;¥3 { ">f
2 .,.[ Yc=3:f
yh--------~~----~
a
Semkirde area
I
Yc "' 0.4244 · r
Quarter circle area
Yc"' 0.6002 · r
w Yc = 3
I I X
Circular segment
'1:
f3
Yc = 12·A
Table of Contents
33
2 Physics 2.1
2
3
time 1 - - -
~
s 5
2.2
•'•
Motion Uniform and accelerated motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Speeds of machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
r A
Forces Adding and resolving force vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . Weight, Spring force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · Lever principle, Bearing forces ... . ............ Torques, Centrifugal force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36 36 37 37
2.3
Work., Power, Efficiency Mechanical work ........................... . 38 Simple machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Power and Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.4
Friction Friction force ..................... .. ........ 41 Coefficients offriction ........ . .... .... ...... 41 Friction in bearings . ... ........ .......... .... 41
2.5
Pressure in liquids and gases Pressure, definition and types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Buoyancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Pressure changes in gases .... .... ..... ...... 42
2.6
Strength of materials Load cases, Load types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Safety factors, Mechanical strength properties .. Tension, Compression, Surface pressure .. ..... Shear, Buckling ......................... .. .. Bending, Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shape factors in strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Static moment. Section modulus, Moment of inertia . Comparison of various cross-sectional shapes ..
43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
2.7
Thermodynamics Temperatures, Linear expansion, Shrinkage .... . 51 Quantity of heat .......... ..... ........ ..... 51 Heat flux, Heat of combustion ..... ........... 52
2.8
Electricity Ohm's Law, Conductor resistance . . . . . . . . • . . . . Resistor circuits ...................... . ...... Types of current .......................... .. Electrical work and power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53 54 55 56
34
Physics: 2.1 Motion
Uniform motion and uniformly accelerated motion Uniform motion LlrMar motlon Displacement-time dlagre m
v
30 ,--,-,,....,.---,-.,.--,
t
s
velocity time displacement
Example: v a 48 km/h; s - 12 m;t•7 Conversion:
s
48~ = 4SOOOm = 13.33~ h
38Xls
s
1~ - 60~- 3.6km s min h
1~ = 16.667 ~ h
t • ! • ~ • 0.9s
s
v
timet--
min
c 0.2778.!:!!
13.33m/s
s
Circuler motion v
circumferential velocity. cutting speed
w angular velocity
n rotational speed d
radius diameter
Example: Pulley, d · 250 mm; n • 1400 min- 1; V• ?; w• 1 1400 Conversion: n = 1400min- 1= = 23.33s-1 60s
v = Jt · d · n = Jt · 0.2Sm · 23.33s-1= 18.3.!:!! s "' = 2 ·lt · n = 2 ·Jt - 23.33s-1 = 146.6s-1
Circumferential
~
~ Angular velocity
I
w= 2 ·n· n
1 ..2... = min· 1= - min 60s
For a cutting speed of a circumferential velocity seepage35.
Uniformly accelerated motion Velocity-time diagram
The increase in velocity per second is called acceleration; and a decrease is clecel«ation. Free fall is uniformly accelerated motion on which gravitational acceleration g i.s acting. v terminal velocity (acceleration), o r initial velocity (deceleration) s displacement time a acceleration g gravitational acceleration
Displacement-time diagram
Object, free fall from s = 3m; v = 1
a = g = 9.81~ s
v = J2 -a-s=
J2 -9.81 mls2 - 3 m = 7.7!!! 5
2nd example:
~ Displacement due to acceleration/ deceleration
1
S= -· V·t 2
Vehicle, v = 80 km/h; a= 7 mfs2; Braking distance s = 1 Conversion: v =80km = 80000m = 2222~ h 38Xls s
s=.!.·a-t 2
v =~
S=-2·a
v2
time f - - -
Terminal or Initial
~
1st example:
lime f - -
The following applies to acceleration from rest o r deceleration to rest
(22.22 mtsfl
s = ~= 2-7mJs2 - 35.3m
2
v2
35
Physics: 2.1 Motion
Speeds of machines Feed rate Feed rate for drilling. turning
vt feed rate
n rotational speed
I
feed
I,
feed per cutting edge
N
number of CtJtting edges, or number of teeth on the pinion
v1= n·f
P thread pitch p
pitch of raok and pinion
Feed rate for milling
1st example: Cylindrical milling cutter, Z• 8; f, • 0.2 mm; n • 45/min; Vf • 7 v •n· ~ · N Q 45 ~ ·0.2mm . 8 s 72 m~ m 1n m.n
1
2nd exemple: Feed drive with threaded spindle, P · 5 mm; n•112/min;.., . 7 1 v1 a n · P · 112- -· 5mm - 560 .!!!!!! min min
Raclt and pinion
Feed rate for screw d rive
v1 =n - P
Jrd example:
Feed rate for rack and pinion
Feed of rack and pinion. n • 80/min; d•75 mm; "1 •7
v1 ;1t·d·n a l<·75mm · 80 ~
vr = n · N ·p
mon
= 18850,!!!!!!a 18.85....!!!_
z
min
v1 =n·d·n
min
Cutting speed, Circumferential velocity Cutting speed
v0 cutting speed v circumferential velocity d
Cutting speed
diameter
Ve
= 1t • d ·
n
n rotational speed &le: Turning,
n = 1200/min; d = 35 mm; Vc •?
v. =l<·d ·n=1t· 0.005m ·1200~ mon
Circumferential velocity
l
v= n ·d · n
; 132....!!!... min
Average speed of crank mechanism v, average speed n number of double strokes s
stroke length
v8
EJCample: Power hacksaw, s • 280 mm; n = 45/min;
!5 e -o
·-""'"' e., '" "'
v8 = 7
v. =2· s ·n= 2·0.28m·45~ = 25. 2 ~ m1n min
Average speed
= 2 · S· n
36
Physics: 2.2 Forces
Types of forces Adding and resolving forces Chosen for the following examples Mr
F1, F, component forces F, resultant force
=10 r!:n
~
vector magnitude (length) Mt scale of forces
Reptetentlng forces Forces are represented by vectors. The length I of the vector corresponds to the magnitude of the force F.
Adding collinear forces acting In the seme dirac:tion Sum
Example: F1 • 80 N; F, • 160 N; F, • 7 F, • F, + F2 ~ 80 N + 160 N • 240 N
F,
I • F,
F,
Subtracting collinear fon:es acting In opposite difectlons
"I
Difference
P""""'..........._ - . F, = F1 - F2
Example: F, • 240 N; F, • 90 N; F, • 7 F, = F, - F, • 240 N - 90 N • 150 N
Addition and resolution of forces whose lines of action lnterseet
(force wctoral
Example of graphical addition:
F1 • 120 N; F, • 170 N; y • 118"; M 1 · 10 N/mm; F, = 7; measured: I • 25 mm F, • I· M 1 • 25 mm · 10N/mm = 250N Resolution Example of graphical resolution:
F, F1
=260 N; •
a • 90";
Sotving a force diagram by adding or resolving
p • 15•;
M1 - 10 N/mm; 7; F1 = 7; measured: 11 = 7 mm; 12 • 27 mm
F1 =1 1 • M 1 · 7 mm ·10N/mm • 70N F, =l2 · Mt=21 mm · 10N/mm • 270 N
Shape of the force diagram
Required trigonometric function
Force diagram sine, with right cosine, angles tangent Force diagram Law of sines, with oblique Law of angles cosines
Forces of acceleration and deceleration A force is required to accelerate or decelerate a mass. F acceleration force a acceleration m mass
Acceleration force
Example:
m m = 50kg; a a 3S2; F :?
F = m·B= 50kg·3 !:!:!.= 150kg. !:!:!.a 150 N s2
s2
Weight Gravity generates a weight force on a mass. Fw weight g gravitational m mass acceleration Example:
Fw = 7 Fw=m·g= 1200 kg · 9.81~ =11772N 1-beam, m • 1200 kg;
Fw =9,81 N
s
Weight
I
Fw= m · g
g - 9.81 ~· 1 0~ s
s
Calculation o f m ass: page 31
Spring forc:e (Hooke's law) The force and corresponding linear expansion of a spring are proportional within the elastic range. F spring force s spring displacement R spring constant
40~
...t
300
t:zoo
~ 100 'ii ~
Spring force
I
F= R· S
Example:
0 ll!:~.l..._.J..._J 0
10 20mm40
spring displacement
s ..._.
Compression spring, R • 8 N/mm; s • 12 mm; F = 7
F = R·S=8~· 12 mm= 96N mm
Change in spring for ce
I
t:. F= R· t:.s
37
Physics: 2.2 Forces
Torque, Levers, Centrifugal force Torque and Ieven The effective lever arm is the right anglo distance Moment between tho fulcrum and the line of application of the force. For disk shaped rotating parts the lever arm coNesponds to the radius r. M moment F force lever principle I effective lell8r arm l:Mt sum of all counter-clockwise moments I M, sum of all clockwise moments
Two-ended lever
~~'· \ f
Example:
Ang~~N,
~~~ -=~$
F,
.~
Angle lever, F1
•
30 N; / 1 • 0.15 m; 12 • 0.45 m ;
F,. - 7 F = F1 ·11 = 30 N · 0.15m • lON 2
12
lever principle with only 2 applied forces
F, . I, = F2 . /2
0.45m
Bearing forces Example of bearing forces
I
A bearing point is treated as a fulcrum in calculating lever principle bearing forces. FA, Fa bearing forces I, 1,, 12 effective F1, F,. forces 181/er arms Example: Bearing Ioree at A Overhead travelling crane, F1 • 40 kN; F2 • 15 kN; 11 • 6 m ; 12 : 8 m; I = 12 m; FA= 7 Solution: B is selected as fulcrum point; the bearing Ioree FA is assumed on a singleended lever. FA = F1 ·11 +1)·12 40kN · 6m+ 15kN · 8m 30kN I 12m
Torque in gear drives The lever arm of a gear is half of its reference diame- Torques ter d. Different torques result if two engaging gears ,......_ _ _ _ __, do not have the same number of teeth. M, = 1 • d,
f1
Driving gear Driven gear F, 1 tangential force Fa tangential force M 2 torque M 1 torque d 1 reference diameter d, reference diameter z1 number of teeth q number of teeth n 1 rotational speed n, rotational speed gear ratio
2
Example: Gears, i a 12; M1 =60 N . m ; ~ - ? ~= i·
M 1 = 12 · 60N .m a 720N · m
For gear ratios for gear drives see page 259.
Centrifugal force Centrifugal force Fe when a mass is made to move along a curvilinear path, e. g.• a circle. Centrifugal force Fe centrifugal force w angular velocity m mass v circumferential velocity r radius Example:
m·v2
Turbine blade, m • 160 g; v • 80 mts; d=400 mm; Fe = 7 F. = m·v2 = 0.16kg. toom/SJ2 • r o.2m
5120kg. m = 5120N
s2
Fc= - -
r
38
Physics: 2.3 Work. Power, Efficiency
Work and Energy Mechanical wortc. lifting work and frictional wortc Worl< is performed when a force acls along a distance. F
Fw ~=A
FN
force in direction of travel weight friction force normal force
W
s
s. h JJ
work force distance height of lift coeffocient of friction
Work
W = F·s L.ihlng wortt
I
W =fW ·h
1st example: Frictional work
F • 300 N; S • 4 m; W • 1
w . F· S •
300N ·4 m • 1200 N · m • 1200J
2nd example:
FN • 0.8 kN; S• 1.2 m; ,_,. • 0.4; W • 1 5 • 0.4 . 800 N . 1.2 m · 384 N . m - 384J
Frictional work.
w.,. . .Fr. ·
1kW·h•3.6MJ
Energle of position Energie of position is stored worl< (energy of position, spring energy).
E.-gyof position
r-··, ! :
E. Wp energy of position
R
Fw
s. h
F
weight force
spring constant travel, lift or fall height, spring displacement
Energy of position
I
Wp ==
FW· s
Example: Drop hammer, m = 30 kg; s • 2.6 m; W0
a
7
W0 = Fw ·s = 30kg· 9.81~ · 2.6m = 765J
s
Kinetic energy Unear motion
Kinetic energy is energy of motion.
E. IN)< kinetic energy or work
v velocity
w
m mass
angular velocity mass moment of inertia
J Rotational motion (rotation)
Kinetic energy of linear motion
Example:
J~
Drop hammer, m = 30 kg;
s = 2.6 m; IN)< = 1
v = ~ =J2- 9.81 ·2.6 m =7.14 rnts Wk = m -v2 = 30kg-{7.14 rn/s)2 _ J 766 2 2 mts2
$
Kinetic energy of rotational motion
Golden Rule of Mechanics "What is gained in force is lost in distance·.
W1 F1
s,
Fw h
input wo rk input force displacement of force F1 weight height of lift
W 2 output work F2 output force 52 displacement of force F2 'I effociency
Example: Ufting device. Fw= 5 kN; h =2m; F= 300 N; s= 1 s =fw·h= 5000N-2m _ 3J.Jm F 300N
" Golden Rule" of Mechanics
Allowing for friction
39
Physics: 2.3 Work, Power, Efficiency
Simple machines Fixed pulley11
Movable pulley11
F, = Fw
F, =Fw 2
s, = 2. h
Block and tackle 11
Inclined plane11 n no. of load-bearing
a ang le of inclination
ropes, pulleys
F1 • s,
F, = -Fw
=Fw · h
n
F1 =
Wedgell
Fw ·sin a
Boft1 1
p angle of inclination tan fJ incline F, ·
P thread pitch I leverarm For 1 full turn
s, =F2 · h
Gear winch 1'
Hoisting winch,, I
d
crank length drum diameter number of turns of the drum
Fw·d
F1 ·1= - 2
d
crank length drum diameter gear ratio
Fw·d
F,·f·i = - 2
11 The formulae apply to a hypothetical frictionless condition, wherein the output work W1 is equal to the input work
w2.
40
Physics: 2.3 Work.• Power, Efficiency
Power and Efficiency Power in linear motion Power is work per unit time.
P W
v
Power
s
power work velocity
displacement in the Ioree direction time
P= w
t
1st elUimple: Forklift. F • 15 kN; v • 25 mtmin; P · ?
P s F ·V=15000N· 2Sm = 6250N · m a 6250W = 62S kW 60s s
P = F· v
2nd eKample: Crane lifts a machine. l • 4.5s;P a ?
m•
1.2 t; s • 2.5 m;
1W s 1
Fw=m·g= 1200kg - 9.81 mtsl= 11772N
F
~ s
=1 N - m
P =f:tt.:_!· 11n2 N · 2.5m =6640W = 6.5kW 1 4.5s
s
1kW = 1.36PS
For power in pumps and cylinders see page 371 .
Power in circular motion p power M torque F tangential force v velocity
s displacement in the force direction 1 time n rotational speed w angular velocity
Power
P =F· v P=F· n ·d·n
EKample:
P= M · 2 ·n · n
Belt drive, F= 1.2kN; d=200mm; n=2800/min; P=?
P = F ·n·d·n
1_
= 1.2kN . " - 0.2 m .
2000 60s
= 35.2kN · m = 35.2kW s
or:
Numerical equation: Enter ..... Min N . m , n in 1/min Result-> Pin kW For cutting power in machine tools see pages 299 and 300.
Power
M -n P=--
9550
Efficiency input power P Mt=Pt
Efficlency refers to the ratio of power or work output to the Efficiency power or work inpuL r-----P. ~---,
P1 input power W 1 input work 'I total efficiency
P1 output power W2 output work , , '11 partial efficiencies
1) =
-
2
P,
w2
1)=-
w,
&le: Belt drive, P1 = 4 kW; P1 =3 kW; '11 =85%; 1/= ?; '11 = 7
'1 =!1_= 3kW = 0.7S; P1
Brown coal power station Coal power station Natural gas power station Gas turbine Steam turbine (high pressure) Water turbine Cogeneration
0.32 0.41 0.50 0.38 0.45 0.85 0.75
4kW
Total efficiency
>lz=.!l.= 0.75 = 0.88 'h
0.85
Gasoline engine 0.27 Automobile diesel engine (partial load) 0.24 Automobile diesel engine (full load) 0.40 Large diesel engine (partial load) Large diesel engine (full load) Three phase AC motor Machine tools
O.JJ 0.55 0.85 0.75
Screw thread Pinion gear Worm gear, i • 40 Friction drive Chain drive Wide V·belt d rive Hydrostatic transmission
0.30 0.97 0.65 0.80 0.90 0.85 0.75
41
Physics: 2.4 Friction
Types of friction, Coefficients of friction Friction force Static friction, sliding friction
fN
L
[ ; :: ~
The resulting friction Ioree Is dependent on the normal Ioree 1), and the Friction force for static • type of friction, i.e. static. sliding or rolling friction and sliding friction • frictional condition (lubrication condition): dry. mi>
J normal force f ooeffocient of rolling friction for rolling friction tl f'f friction force ,. ooeffocient of friction r radius
I
Static friction, t>llding friction
~
ff
-
1st example: Plain bearing. 1i>J • 100 N;,. = 0.03; f'f • 1 f'f = ,.. FN= 0.03 · 100 N = 3 N
I
f): = ~ r
I I
Rolling fTiction
FN
Fr
2nd example:
/O:ii.,
Crane wheel on steel rail, 1), • 45 kN; d • 320 mm; f · 0.5 mm; f'f • 1 FF = f ·F, 0.5 mm · 45000 N • 140.6N 160mm
\ "·'1
I
-
=
__i
ff--
'
Coefficients of friction (guideline values)
..,
-
II caused by elastic deformation between roller body and rolling surface
..,
lubricatod
0.10 0.15 0.10 0.10
0.15 0.18 0.10 0.10
0.10- 0.05 0.10-0.08 0.06-0.0321 0.05 - 0.03 21
0.30 0.04 0.60 0.55
0.15 0.04 0.30 0.10
0.30 0.04 0.55 0.35
0.12 - 0.03 21 0.0421 0.3-0.2 0.05
0.50 0.28 0.50
0.20 0.16
0.30 0.20
0.10 0.20- 0.10
eo.flldent"' ...... ~ ,. Coofllclent "' -.g frlc!lon ,.
Material p.iring
Example of llppllcatlon
steel/steel steel/cast iron steei/Cu-Sn alloy steei/Pb-Sn alloy
vise guide machine guide shaft in solid plain bearing shaft in multjlayer plain bearing
0.20 0.20 0.20 0.15
steel/polyamide steei/PTFE steel/friction lining steel/wood
shaft in PA plain bearing low temperature bearing shoe brake part on an assembly stand
WOOd/WOOd cast iron/Cu-Sn alloy rubber/cast iron rolling elemenVsteel
underlay blocks adjustment gib belts on a pulley anti-friction bearing31, guidewayli
-
-
-
-
-
0.003-0.001
21 The significance of the material pairing decreases with increasing sliding speed and presence of mixed and viscous 31
friction. Calculation performed in spite of rolling movement. because it is typically similar to calculations of static or sliding friction.
Coefficients of rolling friction (guideline values)41 Material pairing
Example of appicetlon
steel/steel plastic/concrete rubber/asphalt
steel wheel on a guide rail caster wheel on concrete ftoor car tires on the street
Coefficient of roling friction f in mm
Friction moment and friction power in bearings M
FN
(# ~
\_ ~ ,. .Jj
~h=JI · F11
I'N
p
friction moment normal force frict.i on power
41 Data on coefficients
of rolling friction can vary considerably in technical literature.
0.5 5 8
,. d
n
coefficient of friction diameter rotational speed
Example: Steel shaft in a Cu-Sn plain bearing,,. • 0.05; F, • 6kN; d= 160 mm; M = 1 M ='"'·F,·d = 0.05·6000N ·0.16m 24N · m 2 2
Ft-iction moment
I
M=J.L·~·d 2
I
Friction power
I P=w Fw n· d·n l
42
Physics: 2.5 Pressure in liquids and gases
Types of pressure Pressure A
p
pressure
A
area
Pressure
F force
F P =-
A
Example:
F • 2 MN; piston 0 d • 400 mm; p .. 7 F 2000000N N p .. -.. ., · 1591 -::;- · 159.1 a.-
A
1t
·I
cm-
4
Units of pressure N 1 Pe .. 1 rrY- • 0.00001 bar
N N · 10 crrll • 0. 1 mrrll
1 bar
For calculations on hydraulics and pneumatics see page 370. 1 mbar .. 100 Paa 1 hPa
Gage pressure. air pressure, absolute pressure Po
J.,
c!
+1
2
Pa
!
:1
.. ~
:; bar
bar
Q.
o
~~
QQ.
air
lll
pressure
.1 li e! Pomb 1
gage pressure (excedens. excess)
Pamt> air pressure (ambient, surroundings) absolute pressure
The gage p ressure is positive. if Pot>s > p - end negative, if , _ < Pemb (vacuum) E.xample:
Gagep~re
I
Pe
=Pabs -
P amb
Pomb • 1.013 bar " 1 bar (standard air pressure)
Car tires. Po ., 2.2 bar; Pamt> • 1 bar; Pebo • 7
~~~vacuum
Pobs =Po+ Pemb • 2.2 bar+ 1 bar • 3.2 bar
Hydrostatic pressure. buoyancy Pe hydrostatic pressure, q g
Iii
inherent pressure V density of the liquid h gravitational acceleration
buoyant force displaced volume depth of liquid
Hydrostatic pressure
I
Pe = 9· e ·h
Buoyant force
I
Example: What is the pressure in a water depth of 10m? m kg p 0 = 9 ·I}· h = 9.81 ;z · 1000 m3 · 10m
Fa =9·e·V
g=9.B1~., 10 ~ s
s
kg = 98100 m. s2 = 98100Pa ~ 1t.. For density values, see page 117.
Pressure changes in gases Compt'ession condition 1
condition 2
~ ~ Boyle's law
5 bar
t~
0
-
I _. . 1 ~ ~..~-_... ~
I
0
2
3 dm3 5
volume V - - -
Concfrtion 1 ,_, absolute pressure V1 volume T1 absolute temperature
Condition 2 PatK2 absolute pressure v2 volume T2 absolute temperature
Paas1 · V1
= Pabs2 · V2
T,
T2
Special cases: constant taml)«ature
Example: A compressor aspirates V1 • 30 m3 of air at = 1 bar and r1 = 15•c and compresses it to V2 = 3.5 m3 and r2 = 150"C. What is the pressure ~Jat:,a7 Pobsl
calculation of absolute temperatures (page 511: T1 = r1 + 273 = (15 + 273) K = 288 K T2 = r2 + 273 = (150 + 2731 K • 423 K Plb!Q = V, · T2 T1 -v2 1 bar-3:lm3 -423K = 288 K · 3.5 m3 - 12.S bar
p_,·
I
Pabs1 . v, = Pabs2 . v 21
constant volume
Physics: 2.6 Strength of Materials
Load cases. Types of loading, Material properties, Stress limits Load cases dyMmic loading
st8tlc lo8dlng
!lfvv
pWNtlng
•tatlonery
.tt-lng
Jt=_ :M_ hme -
0
Load case II The load increases to a maximum value and then falls back to zero, e. g. for crane cables and springs.
]o
hme--
~-~ t
t•m.~
0
Loadcase I M agnitude and direction of the load remain the same. e. g. for a weight load on columns.
t
Loadcase Ill The load alternates between a posi· tive and a negative maximum value of equal magnitude. e.g. for rotating axles.
Types of loading, material ~operties. stress limits
su.a
Type of load
Tension
v
Compression
0
Material properties Umlt ..... Strength for pllstlc defolnw!lon
tensile stress
tensile strength
o,
Rm
:d
Shear
~ Tonion
H Buckl ing
:=
F
-~ ·
elongation
Re
t
0.2%-yield point Rp0.2
elongation at fracture A
stress
com pression strength
natural compression yield point
compression set
Oc
Oce
O'cf
tc
com pres-
sion
0.2 %·offset compressive yield strength failure CcB Oc0.2
u
Bending
yield strength
Standard str-limits O'Mm few load case I
II
Ml
material ductile brittle !steel) (cast iron)
pulsating tensile fatigue strength
alternating tensile fatigue strength
OtPliiS
o,A
pulsating compres· sion fatigue strength
alternating compres· sion fatigue strength
Ocpuls
OcA
pulsating bending fatigue strength
alternating bending fatigue strength
ob.,..ls
O'bA
-
-
pulsating torsional fatigue strength
alternati ng torsional fatigue strength
TtPUIS
r 1A
-
-
Rm
Ro Rpo.2
material ductile brittle (steel) (cast iron) O'cf
Oce
Oco.2
bending stress
bending strength
bending limit
deflection
bending limit
O'b
O'bB
O'bf
f
O'bf
shear strength
shear stress
shear strength
'•
'•8
-
-
rse
torsional stress
torsional strength
torsional limit
angular deflection
torsional limit
r,
'•a
Tof
"'
Tof
buckling stress
buckling strength
O'b
Otx.e
-
buckling strength
-
O't>
44
Physics: 2.6 Strength of Materials
Mechanical strength properties, Allowable stresses, Safety factors Mechanical strength properties in static and dynamic loMing11 Typeof lold
Tension, Cornpt-.lon
ShHr
Toraion
Bending
Load case
I
II
Ill
I
I
II
Ill
I
Stress limito1im
R,. Rpo.2
OtJ>~Ao
o ,A
Ocf~ Oc.0.2
OcJ>~Ao
De A
r,e
C1b F
Ob J>~Ao
ObA
t'lf
Material
Stress limit owm in 235 275 295 335 365
235 275 295 335 365
440 510 635 735 835 340 490 580 650 800 900 1050
440 510 635 735 835 340 490 580 630 710 760 870
S235 S275 E295 E335 E360 C15 17Cr3 16MnCr5 20M nCr5 18CrNiMo7· 6 C22E C45E C60E 46Cr2 41Cr4 50CrMo4 30CrNiM o8
150 180 210 250 300
140 160 170 190 210
120 140 150 160 190
610 670 740 920 1040
370 390 440 540 610
250 290 360 420 470
250 290 360 420 470
210 220 270 310 350
410 520 600 670 750 820 930
240 310 350 390 440 480 550
245 350 400 455 560 630 735
245 350 480 455 510 560 640
165 210 240 270 330 330 375
340 390
260 300 340 390
150 180 210 240
115 135 150 175
115 135 150 175
90 105 120 140
350 420
345
500
380
600 700
500 560
470 520
220 240 270 300
200 240 290 320
195 225 275 305
115 130 160 175
410 470 510
470 550 600
430 480 550
880 940 960 400
610 710
890 1030 1170
490
220 280 325 370 410 450 510
560
700
680 720 800 880 1000
800
300 360 420 480
300
300
160 185 210 240
EN· GJS-400 EN·GJS-500 EN-GJS-600 EN· GJS-700
250 300 360 400
240 270 330 355
140 155 190 205
II
140 160 170 190 210
380
800
200 230 260
"tA
N/mm 2 170 200 240 280 330
330
340
390
330
200 230 260
...,....
290 350 410 470 510
290
390
GS· 38 GS-45 GS-52 GS-60
Ill
II
910 1120 1260 1470
400
260
300
Values were determined using cylindrical samples having d s 16 m m with polished surface. They apply to strucrural steels in normalized condition; case hardened steels for achieving core strength after case hardening and grain refinement; heat treatable steels in tempered condition. The compression strength of cast iron w irh flake graphite is oc s - 4 • R,. Values according to DIN 18800 are to be used for structural steelwork.
Allowable stress for (pre-)sizing of machine parts For safety reasons parts may only be loaded with a portion of the stress limit o 1;m which will lead to permanent deformation. fracture or fatigue fracture. o 8 otow allowable stress
v
owm stress limit depending on
type of loading and load case
safety factor (table below I
Allowable stress (preliminary design)
Example: What is the allowable tensile stress o 1 . - for a hexagonal bolt ISO 4017 - M12 x 50 10.9, if a safety factor of 1.5 is required with static loading? N
N
CTum • R8 - 10 · 9 · 10- - 900 ~; Or ollow • mm2 m ·
£1m • v
900N/mrn2 ~ 1.5
600 ~2
I
O'lim O'attow = - -
v
I
mm
For mechanical strength properties for bolts see page 211 .
Safety factors v for (pre-)sizing machine parts I (s1ric)
LoadType of material Safety factor v 11
ductile materials, e.g. steel 1.2-1.8
• and .. (dynamic)
brinle materials, e.g. cast iron 2.0-4.0
ductile materials, e.g. steel 3 - 41)
brinle materials, e. g. cast iron 3 - 61)
The high margins of safety in part sizing relative to the stress limits are intended to compensate for yet unknown strength -reducing effects due to pan shape (for shape-related strength factors see page 48).
45
Physics: 2.6 St rength of Materials
Tensile stress. Compressive stress, Surface pressure Tensile stress
r r-~
The calculation of allowable stress only applies to static loading (Load case 1).
o, F
t it1
'~(f ~
s
o,.._
o,=
F
S
tensile stress tensile force cross-sec1ional area allowable tensile stress
R. Rm
yield strength tensile strength safely faclor F..._allowable tensile force
,,
Example:
o•- •
Round bar steel, 130 N/mm2 (S2.3 5JA,t•• 1.8); fattow • 13.7 kN; d • 1
s -~ -
A
CJ• allow
+-=- ~. J'-v
-
13700N • 100mm2 130 Nlmm2
c : 12mm (according to table, page 10) For mechanical st""'Uth properties II. ond II, see pages 130 to 138. For c:aleulation of elastc ftlongation see~ 190.
F
Tensile stress
I
F
a,
"' s
I
Allowable tensile force
I
Fallow = Ot,allow.
sl
Allowable tensile atress
Re
for steel
O't, allow = - ;
for cast iron
O't,allow
Rm = --;-
Compressive stress F
r-: r--.,
·r-·- 1- ·-
I'-v
s ........_
~I
The calculation of allowable stress only applies to static loading lload case 1). compression yield point F compressive force O
I
Example.:
I
o.=sF
-
v F
O'c
=
F
S
I
Allowable compr8$Sive force Fallow= Oc,allow.
Rack made of EN-GJL-300; S • 2800 mm2; v • 2.5; Follow • ? 4 -R,., f; a., - · 5 = - , -,- ·S
r-·- t-·-
'-.....:
s
,,
Comp
4 · 300N/mm2 . 2800 mm2 = 1 344 000 N 2.5
f O< - - Slleflglh ll'OPO'Iieotee _
sl
Allowable compressive stress
.. a n d - 1~161
O'cF
for steel
a c. allow = ---;-
for cast iron
O'c,allow ..
4 · Rm - v-
Surface pressure
~ A•l<~
F p
force surface pressure
A
contact surface, projected area
&le:
Sulface pressure
Two metal sheets, each 8 mm thick, are joined with a bolt DIN 1445-10h1 1 x16 x 30. How great a force may be applied given a maximum allowable surface pres· sure of 280 N/mm1?
I
F p=A
F = p·A = 280_!:!_ · Bmm -10mm mm2
= 22400N
-
Allow able surface pressure for joints with pins and bolts made of steel (standard values! Slicing fit smooth bolt Assembly type Press fit smooth pin I At with notched pieee I I Ill Load case I II I Ill I I I II I Ill I II allowable surface pressure in N/m m1 Component material 10 $235 100 70 35 70 50 25 30 25 25 10 E295 105 75 40 75 55 30 30 30 60 20 30 25 10 cast steel 85 60 45 cast iron 70 50 25 50 35 20 40 30 15 10 15 CuSn, CuZn alloy 40 30 15 30 20 40 30 AICuMg alloy 25 45 35 15 20 15 10 65 45 For reference values for allowable specific bearing load of various plain bearing materials see page 261.
I
46
Physics: 2.6 Strength of Material s
Shear and buckling stress Shear stress The loaded cross-section must not shear. shear stress Fallowable shear Slress S shear strength v
r• r ... r18
Shear stress
allowable shear force cross-sectional area safety factor
Example:
singleshear
Tsa
N
• .. -
• --;-•
5
. n· d' . n. (6mrn)2 = 28.3 mm2 4
3
r s. allow
= t30 mm2
= --;;-
4
F - " S · •.. - = 28.3mm2·t30~ m3679N
mrril
doubleshear
=sF
Allowable shear stress
Dowel pin 0 6 mm, single· shear loaded.
E 295, V• 3: F.,_ . 7 r.s 390 NJmrril
rs
FO< mechonCII st._th prOj)ett)es r
,,lind S
Allowable sheer force
I
Fallow=
S · '~'s. allow
Cutting of materials The toeded cross·section must be sheared.
r.smox max. shear strength Rm mox max. tensile strength
S
F
shea r area cutting force
Mni mum shear strength
Example: Punching a 3 mm thick steel sheet S235JR; d & t6mm ; F a ?
Cutting force
Rmmox • 470 NJmm2 (Table page t30) ' • Bmox ~ 0.8 • Rmmox • 0.8 · 470 N/mm 2 • 376 N/mm 2 S • n · d · S • lt · 16 mm · 3 mm • 150.8mm2 F • S · f sBmn = 150.8 mm? · 376 Nfmm2 = 5670t N
I
F =S ·
'~'sBmax
= 56.7 kN
Buckling stress (Euler columns) Load case and free buckling lengths !Euler colum ns) Load case
II F
F
Ill F
IV F
Calculation for buckling of Euler columns applies only to thin (profile) parts and within the elastic range of the workpiece. Allowable buckling fbu.a~~ow allowable buclding force E Modulus of elasticity force I length I Moment of inertia 100 free buclding length v safety factor (in machine construction .. ~ 10)
Example: Beam IPB200, I = 3.5 m; clamped at both ends; v • tO; Fooa~tcw • ?; E • 2t0000 NJmm2 = 2t . toG N/cm2 (table below); / 11 = 2000 em• 2 E 1 lt . .
F -=1[;"7=
Jt2 · 2t · t0S ~·2000cm'
--~~~~ ~~--~ 10.5·350cm)2 · 10
= t.35 • toG N = 1.35 MN
free buckling lengths li>.J=2·1 /i>.J:I 1~0.1·1 li>.J:05-I
11 for moments of inertia of an area (2nd moment), se<1 pages
49 and 14fH51. Special calculation methods are stipulated for stl't.IC!Ural steel ac:c.ording to DIN 18800 and DIN 4114.
Modulus of elasticity E in kN/mm2
t9~2t6
EN-GJI.· 150
EN-GJl. 300
80-90
1tD-140
GS-38 17Q-185
210
170
80-t OO
Aleloy
1i alloy
60-80
112- t30
I
47
Physics: 2.6 Strength of Materials
Bending and torsional stress Bending str... Tensile and compressive stresses occur in a member during bending. The maximum stress is calculated In boundary areas of the member; they may not exceed the allowable bending stress. F bending Ioree Ob bending stress Mt, bending moment f denection w axial section modulus Example: Beam IPE·240. W • 324 cm3 (page 149); clamped at one end; concentrated load F • 25 kN; I • 2.6 m; ob • 7
Allowable bending stress ob allow from page 44
u - ~ - 25000N · 260cm = 20061 ..!:!__ 200 ~ b w 324cm3 cm2 mm2 Bending to.d c . . in bums Beam loaded with a conc:entrated load
Beam with a uniformly distributed load
fixed at one end
fixed at one end
F .{3 f= - 3 · E ·I
f =--
F .f3 f= - - -
f = ~----=--
F .f3
8 · E ·I
5·F·f3
48- E · I
384-E·l
F./
Mb = -
12
E Modulus of elasticity; values: page 46 I 2nd moment of inertia; formulae: page 49; values: pages 146 to 151. F" Distributed load (load per unit length, e.g. N/cml
I Length of distributed load
Torsional stress Aft torsional moment
r 1 torsional stress
Wp polar section modulus
Torsional stress
Example: Shaft. d e 32 mm;
Aft • 420 N - m; r 1 • ?
3
W. ="·d :n-(32mm)l - 64J4mm3 p 16 16
r, _ M 1 _ 420000 N - mm 663 -~• - WP 6434 mm3 mmFor polar section moduli see pages 49 and 151
Allowable torsionalstress runow from page 44or page 48
48
Physics:
2.6
Strength
of Materials
Shape factors in strength Shape-related strength and allowable stress for dynamic loading Shape-related strength is the fatigue strength of the cross-section of a dynamically loa· dod member w ith an additional allowanoe lor the strength reducing effects of the component's shape. Important factors include • the shape of the component (presence of stress concentration) • machining quality (surface roughness) • stock dimensions (member thickness). When compensating for the required safety l ector this yields the allowable stress nee· ded to verify the strength of a member which is dynamically loaded. surface condition factor b, os shape-related strength oum stress limit of the unnotched size lector ~ cross-section, e. g. "t>a or r, puts (page 44) stress concentration factor p~ safety factor lor fatigue frecture VF o(rlo~iow allowable stress Example:
Shape-r elated strength (dynamic loading)
_
us-
{Jk
rs = rrom -~-~
fJk
Allowable stress (dynamic loading) us O"auow= Yf
Rotating axle, E335, transverse hole, surface roughness FU • 25 11m. rough part diameter d =50 mm, safety factor vF • 1.7; as • ?; oo~~ow • 7 abw = 280 N/mm2 (page 44); b 1: 08 ~ • 570 N/mm2, diagram below); b.! = 0.8 (diagram below); Pk = 1.7 (table below) 280 N/mm2 . 0.8. 0.8 % 0~:tcbo ·bz _ = 105N/mm2 Us 1.7 /Jk Uallow = os/"F = 105 N/mm2/1.7 = 62Nimm2
rs ratlow = VF
v,: lor steel .. 1.7
Stress concentration and stress concentration factors Pt. for steel Example: Stress distribut.i on lor tensile loading
Unnotched cross·sections have an unint.e rrupted distribution of forces and therefore a uniform stress distribution. Changes in cross-sections lead to concentrations of lines of Ioree where stresses are concentrated. The ensuing reduction of strength is primarily influenced by the notch shape, but also by the notch sensitivity of the material.
engoneel'1og stl"'ess in unnotched par t
F
Noteh sNipe
.u ,111
ti'l
Shah with shoulder Shaft with semicircular notch Shaft with retaining ring groove
~~/5 .~ ) sTress
F
S185- E335 S185-E335 S185- E335
1.5- 2.0 1.5-2.2 2.5-3.0
1.3- 1.8 1.3-1.8 2.5-3.0
S185- E335 C45E+OT SOCrMo4+0T
1.9- 1.9 1.9-2.1 2.1-2.3
1.5- 1.6 1.6- 1.7 1.7-1.8
Woodruff key way in shaft Spline shah
S185-E335 S185- E335
2.0-3.0
-
2.0-3.0 1.6- 1.8
Shaft interface to snug fit hub
S185-E335
2.0
1.5
Shaft or axle with transverse through hole
S185-E335
1.4-1 .7
1.4-1.8
S185-E335
1.3-1.5
tensile loading 1.6- 1.8
Key way in shaft
~ ti't Jl concentration in notched part
Flat bar with hole
Surface condition factor b, and size factor
t 1.0 ~
0.8 1" ' ~ 0.7 c:
2
0.6
'Ee o.s
~ 5
VI
0.4
...
~
for steel
1.6
09 1:::-- -
~ · t:::: ::::--. ~ -
:-
01 E u ::1.
-
..... .1'<: -r-~--
~~
Stress cot~C«~tration factcw fJk bending tonlon
Material
, f'nll,
4 ., - c 10 5 ·;: 25 "'a: 40 1! ~
r-- 100 '~:!! ,_ .r;
~
1000 1200 1400 400 600 600 tensile stength Rm in N/mf - -
01 en -=> 01o '0 '-
t
t ~
1.0
\
0.9
.<:)
'-
t~ ~
0.8
tt sio, . cojpression
"
I
I
I
I
............. ~endi~/tolsion
0.1
·;;;
0.6 0
25
50 75 100 125 150 mm 200 stock diamet er d - -
49
Physics: 2.6 Strength of Materials
Moments of area and Polar section moduli 1) Bending end Budllng
Sh~~pe of the
ArM moment of lnenlal
croa-sec:tlon
1t•d3 W --32
1t·d' 64
~~!
,_
- d 41 64
11 • (£>4
~ ~
Poi•MCtion modulusWp
~w
,___
(ft3
Tonion
AxWMCtlon
W=
1t ·d3 Wp =-;s-
- d 41 32· 0
lt·(£>4
W0 a
lt•(£>4
- d 4)
16·0
, _ 0.05 . £)4 - 0.083 d . 03
w . 0.1 . 03 - 0.17 d· [)2
I • 0.003 · (0+ d)4
w . 0.012. (0 + dl3
Wp • 0.2·d3
, _ 0.003. !D+ d)4
W= 0.012 · (0 + dl3
Wp • 0.024 . (0 + d)3
~
W0
0.2 · 03 - 0.34 d · [)2
•
also applies for more keys
'&P X
,. = ,, =
z
1 lB'"
12
s .sJ s .,/3 .d3 w. = 48 = ~
s.J3.s<
5 · s3 _5·d3 .-24·Jj- 64
W·h3 =-12 h·w3 I = -y 12
'1~':1·1
Wp=0.188· s'
w. -
s.J3.d•
lx= ly = ~
f
Wp a 0.208 · trJ
,/2.;,3 W, = 1 2
t. = ly = ~
·RP
11
W. = trl • 6
h'
•
B·Hl-w·trl 12 H.B3 - h·w3 lv 12
dl
w.= - 6-
w·ft2
Wp=IJ· ..,il . h
h·w2 w. = 6-
Values for 'I see table below
w. =
IX -
W0 = 0.123 ·
w.
B·Hl - w · h 3 6·H H·B3 -h · w3
Wp =
t ·(H+hHB +w) 2
6·8
2nd moments of inertia and axial section moduli for profiles see pages 146 to 151.
AuxiliiWY value '1 for polar section moduli of rectangular c:ross-teetions
h/w
,
I
1
I
o.208
I
1.5
1 0.231
I
2
I
3
I
0.246
I
0.267
I I
4
I
6
0..282
I
0.299
I I
8
0.307
I I
10 0.313
I "' I 0.333
50
Physics: 2.6 Strength of Materials
Comparison of various cross-sectional shapes Section modul or lltdc moments for type« loading u.Benclng Budcllng Tonlon -~
c.-~Kt~on
&h.-
St.ndMd de8lgn8tlon
·• · '·$*·'
w.
m' kg/m
t.c:tor'' cmJ
w.,
·-··
em'
,_..
em'
1...,
Wp
t.c:tor•t cmJ
fKtor11
round bar EN 10060100
61 .7
1.00
98
1.00
98
1.00
491
1.00
196
1.00
square bar EN 10059 100
78.5
1.27
167
1.70
167
1.70
833
1.70
208
1.06
pipe EN 10220 114.3 X 6.3
16.8
0.27
55
0.56
55
0.56
313
0.64
110
0.56
18.3
0.30
67.8
0.69
67.8
0.69
339
0.69
110
0.56
y
hollow structural section EN 10210.2 100 X 100 X 6.3
16.1
0.26
59
0.60
38.6
0.39
116
0.24
77
0.39
y
hollow structural section EN 10210· 2 120x 60x6.3
flat bar EN 10058100 X 50
39.3
0.64
83
0.85
41 .7
0.43
104
0.21
-
-
T-section EN 10055T100
16.4
0.27
24.6
0.25
17.7
0.18
88.3
0.18
-
-
U-Channel section EN 1026U100
10.6
0.17
41.2
0.42
8.5
0.08
29.3
0.06
-
-
·l·
!-beam section DIN 10251100
8.3
0.13
34.2
0.35
4.9
0.05
12.2
0.02
-
-
.j:·
!-beam section DIN 1025l PB100
20.4
0.33
89.9
0.92
33.5
0.34
167
0.34
-
-
y
·fll .fn·
·I·
:r I
y
·t · ·-t-· y
y
y
y
11 Factor referenoed to round bar EN 10060-100 (cross-section in first row of table)
51
Physics: 2.7 Thermodynamics
Effects of changes in temperature Temperature T
373 K
273
0
t +tOO - boiling point
•c
of water
point 0 __ melting oflce
_273 _
absolute zero
Temperetures are measured in Kelvin IKl. ~ Celllus (Centigrade, ' Cl or degreM Fehnw'lhelt I'Fl. The Kelvin scale originates etthe lowest possible temperature, absolute zero; T= t+ 273 the origin of the Celsius scale is at the melting point of ice. T temperature in K r. {J temperoture in •c !thermodynamic temperacure) rF temperature in 'F TemperlttUt"e In Example: degtHs Fahrenheit t • 20'C; tf = 1.8. t + 32 T • t + 273 • (20 + 273) K • 2:93 K
r.?
1
Unear expansion, Change In ciameter a1
ooeff1cient of linear expansion M , AO temperature change
AI linear expansion Ad change in diameter /1 initial length d 1 initial diameter
Example:
Unear expanllon
l
l1/=a1 -/1 ·l1t
Change In dlamltter
Plate of unalloyed steel,/1 ~ 120 mm; a 1 ~ 0.000 011 9 ~ At = 550'C; AI= ? 11/ = a 1 -/1 ·lit 1 • 0.0000119 OC · 120mm · 550'C • 0.785mm
l l1d= a 1 • d 1 • M For coefficients of line· ar expansion see pages 116 and 117
Change in volume
av
coefficient of volumetric expansion
AV change in volume V,
initial volume
At, AD temperature change Example:
Gasoline.
v, ~ so I; av ~ 0.001~; At~32'C; t.V ~ ?
11V = av·V1 · At~0.0012_ · 60 I · 32' C = 1.91 'C
Change In volume
l l1V=av·V1
·M I
For solids av • 3 · a 1 For coefficients of volu· metric expansion see page 117. For volumetric expansi· on of gases see page 42.
Shrinkage S
I,
shrinkage allowance in % workpiece length
/1
pattern length
I _ 1·100%
pattern""
..-.
--
""~- -
. ue,,.,
.,
._u
- ----,.~ ,v-- "\.
workpiece I
1
Example:
- 100%-S
AI casting, I• 680 mm; S • 1.2%; /1 • ? 11
= /-100% = saomm · 100% 100%-S 100%- 1.2% = 688.2mm
For shrinkage allow· ances see page 163
Quantity of heat with changes in temperet\A'e The specific: heat c indicates how much heat is needed to Quantity of heat warm up 1 kg of a substance by 1' C. The same quantity of heat is released again during cooling. O=c·m·M c spec. heat capacity 0 quantity of heat At, lJ.{J temperature change m mass
I
Example:
lcJ Steel shaft, m = 2 kg; c = 0.48 kg. 'C; At=8000C; 0=7
0 = c·m·At=0.48~ · 2 kg · 800'C= 7681cJ kg ·OC
11cJ= tkW·h 3600 tkW·h=3.6MJ For specific heat see pages 116 and 117.
52
Physics: 2.7 Thermodynamics
Heat for Melting, Vaporizing, Combustion Hut of fusion, Hut of vaporization Heal energy is necessary 10 lransform substances from Heat of fusion a solid stale to a liquid state or from a liquid state to a gaseous stal.e. This is known as the heal of fusion or heal O=q·m of vaporizalion. 0 heal of fusion r specific heat heal of evaporation of evaporal ion Heat of vaporization q specific heal of fusion m mass
I
Heat of vaporization
' r-h steam!
· 100 0(
1f f .
115*1
0
- . liquid
Copper, m • 6.5 kg; q • 213 ~; 0 • 7 kg
,;;;
~
I
Exunple:
(water)
o ~ q · m • 213~ · 6.5kg •
quantit y of heat
kg
a
1384.5kJ• U MJ
O=r·m
I I
For specifte heat of fusion and heat of evaporation see pages 116 and 117.
Hu t flux The heat flux = - -s lransmission resistance on the surfaces of the part.
~
s
t,
I
A/
' '
t 2
tJ.t. All temperature difference component thickness s A area of the component
Example: Heat protection glass. k = 1.9 rnZW ; A = 2.8 m2; t.r = 32"C;
"' <~>
I
I
Heat flux with heat t ransmission
I
I
C!l=k · A · M
For thermal conductivi· tv values A see pages 116 and 117. For heat transmission coefftcients k see below.
Heat of combustion
~ !;,
--'; \'Q v
The net calorific value H,. (H) of a substance refers to the heat quantity released during the complete combustion of 1 kg or 1 m' of that substance. 0 heat ot combustion Hn«t, H net calorific value m mass of solid and liquid fuels v volume of fuel gas Example: MJ Natural gas. V = 3.8 ml; f4...=35 m3 ; 0 = 7
~~
MJ 0 = f4... · V= 35m3 · 3.8 m3 = 133 MJ
a_
Uquid
I
I
0 = Hnet · m
Heat of combustion of gases
I
0 = Hnet • V
I
H.at transmlesion coeffldents k for construction materials Md parts
Net calorific valua H- IHI low fl*s Solid fuels
Heat of combustion of solid and liquid substances
a_
"']
MJ/ kg
fuals
MJ/kg
Gaseous fuels
wood biomass (dry) brown coal coke pit coal
15-17 14-18 16 - 20 30 30-34
alcohol benzene gasoline diesel fuel oil
27 40 43 41 - 43 40-43
hydrogen natural gas acetylene propane butane
a_
Construction
MJ/ml elements 10
outer door, steel
34-36 sash window 57 93 123
brick wall intermediate floor heat insulating board
s mm
50 12 365 125 80
w
kmz.oc 5.8 1.3 1.1 3.2 0.39
53
Physics: 2.8 Electricity
Quantities and Units, Ohm's Law, Resistance Electrical quantities and units au.ntlty
Unit Symbol
Name
Neme
Symbol
e lectrical voltage
E
volt
v
e lectric curre nt
I
ampere
A
e lectrical resistance
R
ohm
Q
e lectrical conductance
G
Siemens
s
e lectrical power
p
wan
w
I I
1 0= ~ 1A
1W = 1V · 1A
I I
Ohm's law
J'
A
v
I
l'
E voltage in V I e lectric current in A R resistance in Q Example:
Electric current
R = 880; E = 230V; I = 7
R E
1 =§_ = 230V = 2.6A R 880
I
/ = E._ R
I
For circuit symbols see page351 .
Electrical resistance and conductance
i:E ..
'Rj 0
O.S
1
1.S
Resistance
R resistance in Q G conductance in S
Example:
2 S 2.S
Electrical resistivity, electrical conductivity, conductor resistance electrical resistivity in Q • mm2/m electrical conductivity in mi(Q. mm2) R resistance in Q
(!
y
~ ~
w ire cross section in
A
R=~ G
I
Conductance
R= 200; G = 7 1 1 G = ;q = 200 = 0.05S
conductance (j - - -
I I
mm2
wire length in m Example: I
G=~ R
I
Electrical resistivity
I
1 (! = -
r
I
Copperwire,l = 100m; A= 1.5mm2;u = 0.0179 O -mrrr : R = 7 m mm> . 100m o·l 0.0179 o . m - 1.190 R =- = 1.5mm2 A
A
For electrical resistivities, see pages 116 and 117.
Conduc:tor resistance
I
{} . f
R=-
A
I
Resistance and Temperature Material
Tk value a in 1/K
aluminum
0.0040
lead
0.0039
gold
0.0037
copper
0.0039
silver
0.0038
tungsten
0.0044
tin
0.0045
zinc
0.0042
graphite
-0.0013
constantan
.. 0.00001
AR change in resistance in Q R'J!) resistance at 20"C in Q R, resistance at the temperature t in Q a temperature coefficient ( Tk value) in 1/K At temperature difference in K
Change in resistance
1 6 R =a· R20 ·M Resistance at temperature t
Example: Resistance of Cu; Rro = 150 Q; f= 75"C; R, • ? o • o.0039 1/ K; At= 75"C - 2o•c = ss•c " ss K R, • R'J!)·(l+a · Atl • 1so o. 11 • o.0039 1/K. ss Kl = 182.2 n
R1 = R2o+ t.R
Rt = R2o · (1 + a· M)
I
54
Physics: 2.8 Electricity
Current density, Resistor circuits Current density In wires
+"() allowable wrrenl d_ens1l y - A 1-+-1-+-1:~1--;
l64 -
a ~2
.f 0o
..
- f-_:;.. . ~
Example:
!
7
current density in AJmm2 eleclric current in A A conductor cross section in mm2
J I
--
1 2 l 4 mm2 6 conductor (cross-sectional) area A
A• 2.5mm2; 1= 4A; J = 7
I
J .,!... .. ~ : 1.6 ~ A
2.5mm2
mm2
Voltage drop In wires
/;J
E E,; I
R,..,.
Voltage dtop
voltage drop in wire in V voltage at terminal in V voltage across load in V electric current in A resistance for feed or retum line in Q
Voltage at load
Series resistor circuit
-
R
total resistance. equivalent resistance in Q total current in A E total voltage in V R,, R, individual resistances in Q 11, 1,. partial current in A E,, & voltage drop across R, & R2 in V
I
I
-
Total resistance
I
R = R, + R2 +...
I
Total voltage
Example: Total current
R, = 100; R, = 200; E = 12V; R = 7; / 5 ?; Et= 7; E2 =7 R = R1 + R2 = 100 + 200 = 30 0
Voltage drops
1 = E:_ = 12V = 0.4A R 300 E , = R, ·1 = 100 · 0.4A = 4 V
E
E2 =~·1 = 200·0.4A = 8V
Para llel resistor circuit R
total resistance, equivalent resistance in Q total current in A E total voltage in V Rt. R, individual resistances in Q 11, l2 partial current in A E,, & voltage drop across R, & ~ in V
-
I
Example:
R, = 150; ~=300; E = 12V; R = 7; I = 7; 11 = 7; l 2 = 7 R _ R,·~ R1 + R2
150· 30 0 150+ 300
-
lOO
1 =E:_ = 12 V = 12A R 100
E
Total resistance
I
E,
11
= ~ = 12v = 0.8A' R, 150 •
" Use this formula if there a re only two parallel resistors in the circuit.
1
1
1
- :: -+-+ ... R R1 R2
Total voltage
Total current
I
I = I, + /2 + .. .
Partial currents
I
55
Physics: 2.8 Electricity
Types of current Direct CUrTent (DC; symbol - 1. DC voltage
t
~ ~------------
t
'---
Direct current flows in one direction only and main· Et.ctric current tains a constant level of current. The voltage is also constant. I = constant I
electric current in A
E voltage in V t
timeins
f ---
I
E .. constant
Alternating current IACI; symbol - ), AC voltage Cycle duretlon and Necjuency While the voltage is continuously changing in a sinu· Cycle duntion soidal pattern, tho free electrons are also continuous· ly alternating their direction of flow. f frequency in 1/s, Hz T period ins w angular frequency in 1/s I electri<: current in A E voltage in V 1 time ins Angular frequency Example: Frequency 50 Hl; T = 7
n
-T
T a ..2._ = 0.02s
so'
•
1 Hertz • 1 Hz • 1/s • 1 period per second
Maximum value and .tfective value d current and voltage /""'' maximum value of the electric current in A /e11 eHective value of the electric current in A £""'. maximum value of the voltage in V E"ett eHective value of the voltage in V (voltage that produces the same power as an identical DC voltage across an ohmic resistor). I electric current in A E voltageinV time ins Example:
M aximum value of the electric current lmax
=f2 · feff
Maximum value of the
~~:, • f2 E,,
E"eti = 230 V; E""" = 7 ~ afl · 230V a 325V
Three-phase current Three-phase current is created from three AC voltages each oHset by 120".
E T
voltage inV period ins L1 phase 1 L2 phase 2 L3 phase 3 E"ett eHective voltage between phase wire and neutral wire = 230 V Ee11 eHective voltage between two phase wires = 400V
r:.
Maximum value of the
f2
E,.
56
Physics: 2.8 Electricity
Electrical Work and Power, Transformers Electrical work
!ololo!ol3l!!ll
W electrical work in kW . h electrical power in W r time (power-on time) in h
E.lectrlcal work
p
I
W = P· t
I
Example: Hot plate, P • 1.8 kW; t • 3 h; W- 7 in kW . hand MJ
~0
Oc::=:l
~~~~
NQ =
W • p. t • 1.8 kW · 3 h • 5.4 kW • h - 19.44 MJ
1 kW · h = 3.6 MJ - 3600000 w . s
Elec:tric:el power with dlrec:t cunent Met eltemeting or thrM-phMe cunent with nocweec:tive 1oac111 Direct or alternating current
--
1
j , r
p
electrical power in W
1st example: Light bulb, E = 6V; I = SA ; P =7; R =1 p ,. E · 1 = 6V · SA = JOW
R .----..
...,
N ..,J
-
2nd example:
R,
..,J ~
I~
PQ E· l P = 12 · R
£2
P=-
R = E_ = SV = 1 20 I SA •
~
Three-phase current ..,J
Power with direct or alternating current
E voltage (phase-to-phase voltage) in V I electric current in A R resistance in 0
I
Annealing furnace, three·phase current, E = 400V; P = 12kW; 1= 1 P 12000W I = 'Jl.E = Jj.400V = 17.3A
,..!!.L, -.3.-L..
-
R
Pow« with three-phase current
I
P = f3· E · I
I
i.e. only with heeting devices (ohmic resistors)
11
Electrical power with alternating end three-phase current with reactive load component 12' Alternating current
p
ltt:=J
Thr..-phase current ..,J
..... _,
N ..,J
'l
~
electrical power output in W voltage (phase-to·phase voltage) in V electric current in A COS¥' power factor
Electric pow« o.rtput with alternating current
E I
Eumplcr. Three-phase motor, E • 400 V; I • 2 A; COS\1' = 0.85; P= 7
-
~
~~ .----..
P •
(3 · E·I ·COS'/' • (3 · 400V · 2A · 0.85
= 1178 W • 1.2 kW
I I
P = E . J . COS<{J
I
Elec:tric power output with three-phase current
P= {3 . E .J. COS)
I
~
~
21
i.e. in electric motors and generators
Transformers Input
Output
side
side
(primary coil)
(secondary coill
J,
~
11
~
ITJffi
N1 ,
~
number of turns
11 ,
~
current level in A
E,.E2 voltages in V
Example: N1 = 2875; N2 =100;E 1 = 230V; J, = 0.25A; E2 = ?; 12 = ?
E = E1 • ~ = 230V·100 = 8 V 2 N1 2875 lz = I,·N, 0.25A · 2875 - 72A 100 Nz
Voltages
I I
~ = N, E2 N2
I
Electric current
!J_ = N2 /2
N,
I
Table of Contents
57
3 Technical drawing 3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
Basic geometric constructions Lines and angles . . . . . . . . . . . . • . • . . . . . . . . . . . . Tangents, Circular arcs, Polygons . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inscribed circles. Ellipses. Spirals . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cycloids. Involute curves. Parabolas . . . . . . . . . .
59 60 61
G raphs Cartesian coordinate system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Graph types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62 63
Drawing elements Fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Preferred numbers, Radii, Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . Drawing layout . . . • . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Line types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64 65 66 67
Representation Projection methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Views ... ......................... ........ Sectional views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hatching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69 71 73 75
Entering dimensions Dimensioning rules . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Diameters. Radii, Spheres, Chamfers, Inclines. Tapers, Arc dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tolerance specifications . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . Types of dimensioning . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . Simplified presentation in drawings . . . . . . . . . .
3.6
81
83
84 85 86
87 88 89 90 91
Weking and Soldering Graphical symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dimensi oning examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.9
78 80
Wori
3.8
76
Machine elements Gear types . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Roller bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Seals................ .... .... ... . . ........ Retaining rings. Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7
58
93 95
Surfaces Hardness specifications in drawings . . . . . . . . . . Form deviations, Roughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Surface testing. Surface indications . . . . . . . . . . .
97
98 99
3.10 ISO Tolerances and Fits Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Basic hole and basic shaft systems . .. ... . .... General tolerances .... .. ....... ....... . .... Roller bearing frts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fit recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Geometrictolerancing ..... ....... ........ ...
102 106 110 110 111
112
58
Technical drawing: 3.1 Basic geometric constructions
line segments, Perpendiculars and Angles Parallels to a line Given: Line segment AB and point P on the desired parallel line g' 1. 2. 3. 4.
A
(
Arc with radius rabout A results in intersecting point C. Arc with radius r about P. Arc with radius r about C results in intersecting point D. Connecting line segment PO is parallel line g' to AS.
B
Bisecting a line Given: Line segment AS 1. Arc 1 with radius rabout A; r> tAB. 2. Arc 2 with equal radius r about B. 3. The line connecting the intersecting points is the perpendicular bisector or the bisector of line segment AB.
p
Dropping a perpendicular Given: Straight line g and point P
4
1. Any arc 1 about P results in intersecting point A and B.
1 9~:-----+---~
2. Arc 2 with radius r about A; r >
t
AB.
3. Arc 3 with equal radius r about B (intersecting point C). 4. The line joining intersecting point C with P is the desired perpendicular.
Constructing a vertical line at point P Given: Straight line g and point P 1. Arc 1 about P with any radius rresults in intersecting point A. 2. Arc 2 with same radius r about point A results in intersecting point B. 3. Arc 3 with equal radius r about B. 4. Construct a line from A to B and elCtend it (to intersecting point C). 5. Construct a line from point C to point P to obtain the vertical at P.
A
Bisecting an angle 3 Given: Angle a 1. Any arc 1 about S yields intersecting points A and B. 2. Arc 2 with radius r about A; r >
t
AB.
3. Arc 3 with equal radius r about B results in intersecting point C. 4. The line joining intersecting point C with S is the desired bisected angle.
Dividing a line Given: Line AB should be divided into 5 equal parts. 1. 2. 3. 4.
Construct a ray from A at any desired angle. Mark 5 equal lengths with a compass on the ray from A. Construct a line from point 5' to B. Construct parallels to 5' B through the other division poi'nts 1'-4'.
Technical drawing: 3.1 Basic geometric constructions
59
Tangents, Circular arcs, Polygons Tangent through point P on a circle Given: Circle and point P 1. Construct line segment MP a.n d extend it. 2. Arc about P gives imersecting points A and B. 3. Arcs about A and 8 with the ssme radius yield intersecting points C and D. 4. The line passing through C and D is perpendicular to PM .
Tangent from a point P to a circle Given: Circle and point P 1. Bisect MP. A is the midpoint. 2. Arc about A with radius r - AM yields intersecting point P. T is the tangent point 3. Connect T and P. 4. MT is perpendicular to PT.
Rounding an angle (arc tangent to two straight lines) Given: Angle ASS and radius r 1. Construct parallels to AS and Bs of distance r. Their intersection M is the desired center of the circular arc of radius r. 2. The intersection of the perpendiculars from M to the line segments AS and BS are the transition points C and 0 for the arc.
Connecting two cirdes by an:s Given: Circle 1 and circle 2; radii
R, and
Ro
1. Circle about M 1 with radius R, + r 1• 2. Circle about Mz with radius R, + r2 intersects with 1 to yield intersecting point A 3. Connecting M 1 and M 2 with A yields contact points Band C for the inside radius R,. 4. Circle about M 1 with radius Ro - r 1• 5. Circle about M 2 with radius Ro- r2 combined with step 4 results in the intersecting point D. 6. D connected to M 1 and M2 and eKtended gives the contact points E and F for the outside radius flo.
Circumscribed regular polygon
(e. g. pentagon)
Given: Circle of diameter d 1. Divide AB into 5 equal parts (page 58). 2. An arc centered at A with radius r
= AB yields points C and D.
3. Construct lines from C and D to 1. 3, etc. (all odd numbers). The intersecting points on the circle yield the desired vertices of the pentagon. For polygons with an even numb..- of angles C and D are connected to 2, 4, 6 etc. lall even numbers).
Circumscribed hexagon, dodecagon Given: Circle of diameter d 1. Ale centered at A with radius r •
0
~
2. Ale with radius r about 8 and A 3. Construct line segments connecting the intersecting points to yield the hexagon. For a dodecagon find intermediate points including intersections at C and D.
60
Technical d rawing: 3.1 Basic geometric constructions
Inscribed and circumscribed ci rcles for triangles. Circle center point, Ellipse, Spiral Circle inscribed in • tn.ngle Given: Triangle A. B. C 1. Bisect angle a. 2. Bisect angle p (intersecting at point M). 3. Inscribed circle about M .
Circle circumscribing • tn.ngle Given: Triangle A. B. C 1. Construct the perpendicular bisector of line segment AB. 2. Construct a perpendicular bisector on line segment BC (intersecting at point MI. 3. Circumscribed circle about M .
Anding the center of a circle Given: Circle a
1. Choose any straight line a that intersects the circle at A and B. 2. Straight line b (approximately perpendicular to straight line a) inter· sects circle at C and 0. 3. Construct perpendicular bisectors on line segments AB and CD. 4. Intersecting point of the perpendicular bisectors is the center M of the circle.
Constructing an elipse from two cirdes Given: Axes AB and CD 1. Two circles about M with diameters AB and CO. 2. Construct several rays through M which intersect both circles
(E, Fl. 3. Construct parallels to the two principle axes AB and CO through E and F. Intersecting points are points on the ellipse.
Constructing an ellipse in a parallelogram Given: Parallelogram with axes AB and CO 1. A semi-circle with radius r • MC about A yields point E. 2. Subdividing AM (or BMI into halves, quarters and eighths yields points 1. 2 and 3. Construct parallels to axis CD through these points. 3. Dividing EA in halves. quarters and eighths yields points 1, 2 and 3 on the axis AE. Parallels to axis CO through those points give inter· secting points F on the circular arc. 4. Construct parallels to AE through intersection .E2ints F to the semi-cir· cle axis, from there construct parallels to axis A B. 5. Parallel intersection points of matching numbers are points on the ellipse.
Spiral (approximate construction using a compass! Given: Rise a 1. Construct square ABCO with a/4. 2. A quarter circle of radius AD centered at A yields E. "'I _,.+- - + - - -1-'-'. ,...--+---1-K
G
3. 4. 5. 6.
A A A A
quarter circle of radius ~ centered at 8 yields F. quarter circle of radius CF centered at C yields G. quarter circle of radius OG centered at 0 yields H. quarter circle of radius AH centered at A yields I (etc).
Technical drawing: 3.1 Basic geometric constructions
61
Cycloid, Involute, Parabola, Hyperbola, Helix Cycloid
auxiliary ctrcle 5
Given: Rolling circle of radius r
homontal center hne
1. Subdivide the pitch circle into any number of equal sized pans. e.g. 12. 2. Divide the base line (a extent of the pitch circle • "·d) into equal pans, in this case 12. 3. Vertical lines from segment points 1- 12 on the base line to the ex· tended vertical center line of the rolling circle yield the midpoints M, - Mt2· 4. Construct auxiliary circles about the midpoints M 1- M 12 with radius r. 5. The intersecting points of these auxiliary circles with the parallels through the points on the rolling circle having the same numbers give the points of the cycloid.
Involute Given: Circle
1. Subdivide the circle into any desired number of equal sized parts, e.g. 12. 2. Construct tangents to the circle at each section. 3. Marie off the length of the developed circumference on each tangent from it.s contaCI point. 4. The curve through the endpoints forms the involute.
9 Parabola Given: Orthogonal parabola axes and parabola point P 1. Parallel g to vertical axis through point P gives P'. 2. Divide dist·ance OP- on the horitontal axis into any desired number of partS (e.g. 5) and construCI parallels to the vertical axis. 3. Subdivide distance PP' into the same number of segments and connect to origin at 0. 4. Intersecting points of the lines with the matching number yield points on the parabola.
Hyperbola Given: Orthogonal asymptotes through M and point P on the hyperbola.
........--..,..,...'-- 9t
-+--'~-
1. Construct lines g, and 92 parallel to the asymptotes through point P on the hyperbola. 2. Construe~ any desired number of rays from M . 3. Construct lines through the interseelions of the rays with g 1 and g2 parallel to the asymptotes. 4. Intersecting points of the parallel lines (P 1, P2, ...) are points on the hyperbola.
Heliocoidal Hne (Helix) Given: Circle of diameter d and pitch P 1. Divide semicircle into equal sections, e.g. 6. 2. Divide the pitch Pinto twice the number of equal segments, e.g. 12. 3. Extend the same number of horizontal and vertical lines to intersection. The intersecting points yield points on the heliocoidal line.
62
Technical drawing: 3.2 Graphs11
Cartesian coordinate system
'
Lll\ 1•.1
,., •
,,n.
Cootdinllte axes
y
• abscissa (horizontal axis; x -axis) • ordinate (vertical axis; y· axis)
Velues to be plotted • positive: from the origin towards the right, or up • negative: from the origin towards the left, or down M.,tdng the positive axis direction with • arrow heads on the axes. or • arrows parallel to the axes FormuJ. symbols are entered In italics on the • abscissa below the arrow point • ordinate to the left next to the arrow point
Pzlx-2, y-11
or in front of the arrows parallel t o the axes.
Scalea are normally linear, but sometimes they are di· vided logarithmically• .,
200
~N/-
formula symbol
t
char
150 100
Velue uniU are placed between the two last positive numbers on the abscissa and ordinate or after the f ormulasymbol.
---........ ... so 0 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -(),1 -SO
Grid marks simplify plotting of the values.
u.- (curvn) connect the values that have been plotted
__,/,oo
on the graph.
-150
200 .---.-----,--..,.----, N/1Ml2
150 t----,--+---+-'7""9'-.::...._--1
t 100 ~-~~~~-4--~ 0.2
OJ
Une widthL Unes are drawn in the following proportion: Gridlines : axe,s : curves • 1 : 2 : 4 . G.-.ph MC1iona are constructed if values are not to be plotted in each direction from the origin. The origin may also be hidden.
0.4 .,. 05
c ---
Enmple (spring charecteristlc curve): The following disk spring values are known:
t
Spring displacementsin mm
0
0.3
Spring force F inN
0
600 1000 1300 1400
0.6
1.0
1.3
What is the spring force F with a spring displace· mentor s5 0.9 mm? Solution: The values are plotted on a graph and the points are connected by a curve. A vertical line at s = 0.9 mm intersects the curve at point A
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
L2 mm 1.4
spring displacement s - - -
With the help or a horizontal line through A. a spring force of F ~ 1250 N is read from the ordinate.
11 Graphs are used to represent value-based relationships between changing variables.
63
Technical d rawing: 3.2 Graphs
Polar coordinate systems. Area graphs Cartesian coordinate ..,.tern (continued)
cf. DIN 461 (1973.()3) Graph.s with multiple curves
1600
t
.c
..
;;, c
i:
"'
I--
R.
N/mm1
1200 1000 800 600 400 200
-
When measured values are highly scattered, a different special symbol is used for each curve, e.g: 0 , x , 0
r--....
r--...
R,
~
. . . .\ '\\
Marl
0
100 200 300 400
0(
600
lemperature - -
Polar coordinate ..,.tern
cf. DIN 461 (1973.()3) Polar coo rdinate systems have a 360• division. Origin (pole). Intersection of horizontal and vertical axis. Angle l•yout. The angle the right of the origin.
o• is assigned to the horizontal axis to
Angle position. Posit.i ve angles are plotted counter;:lockwise. Radius. The radius corresponds to the magnitude of the value to be pl~ed. Concentric circles may be drawn about the origin to simplify plotting of the values.
Example: Using a measuring machine, the roundness of a turned bush· ing is checked to see if it lies within the required tolerance. The out-of-roundness found was probably caused by clamping the bushing forcefully in the chuck.
Areegrephs Bar graphs
non
lt D 2005
2006
2007
S% S%
2008
In bar graphs the quantities to be represented are drawn as horizontal or vertical columns of equal width.
Pie charts Percent values are normally represented by pie charts. In these the circumference of a circular area corresponds to 100% (" 360").
Central angle. The percentage x. to be plotted determines the corresponding central angle:
25%
~b
'"G
'"
Ex~:
What is the central angle for the percentage or lead in the alloy CuPb15Sn8? Solution:
a='Yi!/1'·15%= 54• 100%
64
Technical drawing: 3.3 Elements of drawing
Fonts Lettering, fonts
d . DIN EN IS030!NHl 11998-041 and DIN EN ISO 3098· 2 1200()..111
The le" ering or tech nical draw ings can be done using t ype style A (close-spaced! o r type style B. Bo th styles m ay be drawn v ertical lVI o r slant ed by 15• t o the right II • it alics). To ensure good legibility, the d istance between the charact ers should be two line w idths. The d istance may be reduced t o one line w idth if certei n characters are tog ether. e.g. LA, TV, Tr.
d . DIN EN ISO 3098-0 (1998·041
Dimensions
bt
w ith diac ritic'' characters
~ w ithout d iacritic c haracters
1>J
w ith upper case le"ers and nu mbers
11 d iacritic= used t o further dif· f erentiate. especially for le"ers
Character height h or height of upper case letters (nominal size! in mm
20 d. DIN EN ISO 3098-311998-041
a
Type style 2
A
14h
B
;o h
2
~
bt
c,
I>J
25 h 14
llh 14
14
17h
J.Qh
~h
~h
Q h
;oh
10
10
~
~h
14 7
10
1
14 h
14
3
14h 1
3
;oh
;o h
Greek alphabet
e
d
OJ 4
;oh
6
i4 h 6
;o h
5
i4 h 4
;o h
d. DIN EN ISO 3098-3 (2000- 111
A
a
alpha
z
I;
zeta
1\
).
lambda
n
n
pi
'I'
B
ll
beta
H
'1
eta
M
mu
p
p
rho
X
chi
e a
X
theta
"'
psi
r
y
gamma
A
b
delta
E
•
epsilon
K
"
N
I' v
nu
:r
0
sigma
ljJ
iota
-
;
xi
T
T
tau
n
kappa
0
0
omicron
y
u
upsilon
O)
phi
omega
Roman numerals I =1 X = 10
II
c
cc
= 100
M = 1000
=2
XX = 20 = 200
MM =2000
m
=3
XXX= 30 CCC a 300
IV =4
v
VI = 6
VII =7
VIII
XL =40
L = 50
lX=60
LXX = 70
D = 500
DC= 600
DCC= 700
LXXX =80 XC =90 DCCC= 800 · CM · 900
co =400
· 5
Exampl es: MDCLXXXVII = 1687
MCMXCIX = 1999
=8
MMVill=2008
IX = 9
65
Technical drawing: 3.3 Elements of drawing
Preferred numbers, Radii, Scales Preferred numb.-. end series of prefen-ed numbers11
cf. DIN 323-1 (1974-081
AS
A10
A20
A.O
AS
A10
A20
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
A.O 4.00
1.06 1.12
1.12
1.25
1.25
4.25 4.50
4.50
5.00
5.00
5.60
5.60
1.18 1.25
4.75 5.00
1.32 1.40
1.40
1.60
1.60
5.30
1.50 1.60
1.60
6.00 6.30
6.30
6.30
6.30
1.70 1.80
6.70
1.80
7.10
7.10
8.00
8.00
9.00
9.00
10.00
10.00
1.90 2.00
2.00
7.50
2.00
8.00
2.12
8.50
2.24
2.24
2.36 2.50
2.50
9.50
2.50
2.50
10.00
2.65 2.80
Multiplier
Series
2.80
3.15
3.15
A 10
3.35 3.55
qs =
AS
3.00 3.15
10.00
V;o .. 1.6 10
(10 .. 1.25
q 1o •
20
(10 .. 1.12
A20
q 20 •
R40
q•o =
3.55 3.75
1'1o • 1.06
Radii
cf. DIN 250 (2002.()41 0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0,8
3
4
5
6
8
1
1.2
1.6
2
2.5
10
12
16
18
20
22
2S
160
180
200
Values shown in bold font in the table are preferred values.
100
110
125
140
28
32
36
.0
45
50
Scale factors21
1>
63
70
80
90
cf. DIN ISO 5455 (1979-12)
Actual size 1 :1
56
Enlargement factors
Reduetion factors
1:2 1:5 1: 10
1 : 20 1 : 50 1 : 100
1 :200 1:500 1:1000
1:2000 1 : 5000 1 : 10000
2: 1 20:1
5:1 50 : 1
10: 1
Preferred numbers, e. g. for length d imensions and radii. Their usage prevents arbitrary graduations. In the series or preferred numbers (base series A 5 to A 401, each number of the series is obtained by multiplying the p revious number by a constant multiplier for that series. Series 5 (R 51 is preferred over R 10, A 10 over A 20 and A 20 over R 40. The numbers or each series can be multiplied by 10. 100. 1000, etc. or divided by 10. 100, 1000. etc. 2l For special applications the given enlargement and reduction factors can be expanded by multiplying by whole multiples of 10.
66
Technical drawing: 3.3 Elements of drawing
Drawing layout Peper sizes (ISO)
cf. DIN EN ISO 5457 (1999-071 and DIN EN ISO 216 12002..031
Format dimensions'' in mm Drawing area dimensions in mm
A1
A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
841x 1189
594 )( 841
420 )( 594
297 X 420
210 X 297
148 X 210
105 X 148
821 )( 1159
574x81 1
400xS64
277x390
180x277
11 The height: width aspect ratio of the drawing papers are 1 :
f2 (• 1 : 1.4141.
Folding for DIN A4 format
cf. DIN 824 ( 1981..()31 1st fold: Fold right side 1190 mm wide) toward the back. 2nd fold: Fold the remainder of the sheet so that the edge of the 1st fold Is 20 mm from the left edge or the paper.
.CJ 190
':iue
block
1st fold: Fold the left side 1210 mm widel towards the right. 2nd fold: Fold a triangle of 297 mm height by 105 mm width towards the left. Jrd fold: Fold the right side (192 mm widel towards the back. 4th fold: Fold the folded packet of 297 mm height toward the back.
Title block
cf. DIN EN ISO 7200 (2004..()51. Replacement for DIN 6771-1
The widlh of the title block is 180 mm. The sizes of the individual data fields (field widths and heights) are no longer stipulated, in contrast to the previous standard. The table at the bottom of this page has examples of possible field sizes. Example of e title block: ~. dopt.
AB 131
I
Susan Miller
John Smith
App
er..tedby
Teehnicai-
11
12
Kristin Brown
13
T~of
[o~
Assembly drawing
I
John Oav1s
9
14
released
Tllle.-2 ........__
15 10
r-
A225-03300-012 4
Circular saw shafy 3 complete with bearing
a,5 ,~-- date6 L 7, 8 A 2008-01-15 de 113
Drawing specific call outs, such as scale, projection symbol, tolerances and surface specifications should be indicated on the drawing outside of the title block.
Data fields in the title block Field
no.
F'oeld name
Max. no. of chenoc:ters not specified 25 25
Field name optional reqo*ed yes yes yes
' 3
Owner of the drawing Title (drawing name) Additional title
4 5
Drawing number Change symbol (drawing version) Issue date of the drawing
16 2 10
Language identifier (de ; German) Page number and number of pages Type of document
4 4 30
10 11 12
Document status Responsible department Tech nical reference
20 10 20
-
13 14 15
Drawing originator Authorizing person Classif ication/key words
20 20 not specified
2
6 7 8 9
-
yes
yes
-
Field size (mml height width
-
69 60 60
-
51 7 25
yes yes
yes
-
10 9 60
-
yes yes yes
51 26 43
yes yes
-
-
44 43 24
yes
-
yes
r---1!--18
9
01 .1
01.2
Solid line, thin
dimension and extension lines leader and reference lines root of thread hatching position direction of layers (e.g. lamination) outline of hinged section short center lines • imaginary intersections from penetrations
• origin circles and dimension line terminators • diagonal crosses to mark plane surfaces • framing details • projection end grid lines • deflection lines on rough end machined parts • marking for repeated details (e. g. root diameter of toothed gear)
Free-hand line, thin 11
• preferably hancJ..drewn representing border of partial or broken views and sections, provided that the border is not a line of symmetry or a center line
Break line, thin 11
• preferably automated drawing representing border of partial or bro· ken views and sections, provided that the border is not a line of symmetry or a center line
Solid line, thick
• • • • •
II
main representations in graphs, edges and flow charts system lines (steel construction) mold parting lines in views
visible edges and outlines crests of threads limit of the usable thread length cross-Section arrow lines surface structures (e. g. knurls)
02.1
Dashed line, thin
• hidden edges
02.2
Dashed line, thick
• identifies allowable areas for surface treatment (e. g. heat treatment)
04.1
Dot-dash line (long dash), thin
• center lines • lines of symmetry
04.2
Dot-dash line (long dash), thick
• marking areas of (delimited) required surface treatment (e.g. heat treatment)
05.1
Two-dot dash-
points
• hidden contours
partial circle in gears hole circle
• marking section planes
• outlines of adjacent parts • final position of movable parts • centroidal axes oontours of the shape portions in front of the cutting plane • outlines of alternative designs
02.1 and 02.2
12. d
04.1, 04.2 and 05.1
<0.5- d
oontours of finished parts within rough parts framing special areas or fields projected tolerance zone
Example: Une type 042 '>
t lt---.l'.•:.: :'d ----f'-; F+.,;...._~ 3-d+ ~H O.S·d 3-d
' .
68
Technical drawing: 3.3 Elements of d rawing
line types Une thidcneues and line groups
cf. DIN ISO 128-24 (1999· 12)
Une widths. Normally two line types are used in drawings. They are in a ratio of 1: 2. Line groups. The line groups are ordered in a ratio of 1: (2 I • 1 : 1.4). Selection. Line thicknesses and line groups are selected corresponding to the type and size of drawing. es welt as to the drawing scale end the requirements of microfilming and/or method of reproduction.
(clmenslon In mml for
AMoc:iat.clline thldc.-
Thick lines
Line group
Thin liMs
Dimension •nd tol«•nce callouts. grllllhiaol
•ymbol•
0.25
0.25
0.13
0.18
0.35
0.35
0.18
0.25
0.5
0.5
0.25
0.35
0.7
0.7
0.35
0.5
0.5
0.7
1.4
1.4
2
2
0.7 1.4
Examples of lines in technical drawings
cf. DIN ISO 128-24 (1999· 12)
end posi tion of the moving part (05.1) identification of sechon plane 104.21 visible contours (01.2)
extension _ _ ___, line (01.11
A- A
hatching line (01.1)
border lines (01.11 Line of symmetry (04.1) border line (01.1)
short center line (01.1) surface structure (knurl) (01.21
z
--
'
hole cirde (04.1)
~esignation
hidden contour {02.1)
of (heat) treatment (0411
edge in front of section plane (05.1)
69
Technical d rawing: 3.4 Representations in drawings
General principles of presentation, Projection methods General principles of presentation
cf. DIN ISO 128-30 12002.()51 and DIN ISO 5456-2 (1998-041
Selection of the fron t view. The view that is selected for the front view is the one which provides the most information regarding shape and dimensions. Other views. If o ther views are necessary for clear representlltion or for complete dimensioning o f a w orkpiece, the following should be observed: • The selection o f the views should be limited to those most necessary. • Additional views should contain as few hidden edges and contours as possible. Position of other views. The position of other views is dependent upon the method of projection. For drawings based on the first- and the third-angle projection methods (page 701 the symbol for the projection method must be given in the title block.
Axonometric representation11
cf. DIN ISO 5456-311998-041
l.ometrlc projection
Dia....tric: ~lon X : Y : Z . 0,5: 1: 1
Z
Approximate construction of the ellipse: 1. Construct a rhombus tangential to the hole. Bisect the sides of the rhombus to yield the intersecting points M, M 2 andN. 2. Draw connecting lines from M 1 to 1 and from M 2 to 2 to yield the intersecting points 3 and 4. 3. Construct circular arcs with radius R about 1 and 2 and with radius r about 3 and 4.
Construction of ellipses: 1. Construct an auxiliary circle with radius r= d/2. 2. Subdivide height d into any desired number of equal segments and construct grids (1 to 3) . 3. Subdivide the diameter of the auxiliary circle into the same number of grids. 4. Transfer the segment lengths a, b etc. from the auxiliary circle to the rhombus.
auxiliary circle
Cavalier projection
Z
X : Y :Z 5 0.5 : 1:1
ellipse as a circle
y Ellipse construction identical to that on page 60 (ellipse construction in a parallelOgram). 1
y Ellipse construction identical to that of the diametric projection (above).
1 Axonometric representations: simple, graphical representations.
70
Technical drawing: 3.4 Representations in d rawing s
h d . . ProJectton met o s
, f DIN 1:.,r 1/r il' "'" 1:or1 >~''"; 1
;oo;
[ll\j
0~1
l'lGH o.11
Arrow projection method Merklng the direction of observation: • with arraw lines and upper case letters Mertdng the views: • with upper case letters Locations of the views: • any location with respect to front view Layout of upper ease letters: • above the views • vertical in reading direction • above or to the right of the arraw lines
First-angle projection Locations with respect to front view F: T
top view
below F
LS
view from the left side
rightof F
RS
view from the right side
left of F
B
bonomview
above F
R
rear view
left or right ofF
Symbol
Third-angle projection 11 locations with respect to front view F:
[J
T
top view
above F
lS
view from the left side
left of F
RS
view from the right side
right of F
B
bottom view
belowF
R
rear view
left or right ofF
Symbol
®E3
Symbols for projection methods Symbol2l for first-angle projection
Symbol few first-engle Pf'Ojectlon third-angle projection
H Germany and most European countries 1>
2>
Application in English speaking countries, e.g. USA/Canada
3-d
h font height in mm (page 64) H=2h d =0.1h
Second-angle projection is not provided. The symbol for projection method is included in the drawing layout (page 66).
71
Technical drawing: 3.4 Representations in drawings
Views
, , o1N 1so j( , ,
{j
ll>< Hr 200) lh
Partial views Application. Penial views are used 10 avoid unfavorable projections or shone ned representations. Position. The penial view is shown ln the direction of the arrow or rotated. The angle o f rotation must be given. Boundary. This is identified with a break line.
Application. It Is sufficient to represent just a ponlon o f the whole workpiece, for example if space ls limited. M arking. With two shon parallel solid lines through the line of symmetry on the outside o f the view.
Application. If the representarion is clear, a panial view is sufficient insteed of a full view. Representation. The partial view (third-angle projection) is connected with the main view by a thin dot-dash line.
Adjacent parts
@l1
Application. Adjacent pans are drawn if it aids in understand ing the drawing. Repfesentation. This is done with thin two-dot dash-dot lines. Sectioned adjacent pans are not hatched.
L...>-.._ housing
Simplified penetrations
$fj~~~~$~
.l f_!:z~.f.Jf~.J
¥BD
Application. If the drawing remains clearly understandable, rounded penetrating tines may be replaced by straight lines. Representation. Rounded penetrating lines are drawn with thick solid lines for grooves in shafts and penetrat· ing holes whose diameters significantly differ.
Implied penetrating lines of imaginary intersections and rounded edges are d rawn with thin solid lines at the location at which the (circumferential) edge would have been with a sharp edged transition. The thin solid lines do not contact the outline.
Broken views
Application. To save space only the important areas of long workpieces need to be represented. Representation. The boundary of the remaining pans is shown by free-hand lines or break lines. The pans must be drawn dose to each other.
72
Technical drawing: 3.4 Representations in drawings
. V1ews
,, 1 3 : , 2u, 7 J'i·
Repeating geometrical elements Application. For geometric elements which repeat regu· larly, the individual element only needs to be drawn once. Representation. For geometric elements which are not drawn, • the positions of symmetrical geometric elements are shown with thin dot·dash linas. • asymmetrical geometric elements of the area in which they are found are drawn with thin solid lines.
The number of repeated elements must be given in the dimensioning.
Parts at • larger sc:ale (details) Application. Panial areas of a workpiece which can not be clearly represented may be drawn at a larger scale. Representation. The panial area is framed with a thin solid line or encircled and marked with a capital letter. The panial area is represented in an enlarged detail view and is identified with the same capital letter. The enlarged scale is additionally given.
Minimal inclines Application. Minimal inclines on slopes, cones or pyramids which cannot be shown clearly, do not have to be drawn in the corresponding projection. Flepfesentation. The edge representing the projection of the smaller dimension is drawn with a thick solid line.
Moving parts
' '
. '"""'
i i
\
~
i/
Application. Depicting alternative positions and limits of movement of pans in assembly drawings. Representation. Pans in alternate positions and limits o f movement are drawn with two-dot dash-dot lines.
Surface structures
R~on.
Structures such as knurls and emboss· ing are represented with thick solid lines. Panial representation of the structure is preferable.
73
Technical drawing: 3.4 Representations in drawings
. I . Sect10na v1ews
'I DIN IS),,, :t)
~l
'" 1
su ,20
o, os,
Section types view
___
full section Section. The interior of a workpiece can be shown with a section. The front part of the workpiece, which hides the view to the Interior, is perceived to be cut out.
ls~---
·l-
- · - · '&.
$
In a section it is possible to represent: • the cutting plane and additional workpiece outlines lying behind the cutting plane or • only the cutting plane.
$
- - - - -l l -1--
hall section
partial section
~BJ
Full sec:1ion. The full section shows the conceptualized workpiece sectioned in a plane. Half section. In a symmetrical workpiece one half is represented as a view, the other half as a section. Partial sec:tion. A partial section shows only part o f the workpiece in section.
Definitions
A
.
-..~,...........-section
line
A-A
crosssection
~j{2z:zzzz:6,.__'area
F-JlL
B
B-B
~
~ ~
CUtting plane. The cutting plane is the imaginary plane with which the workpiece is sectioned. Complicated workpieces can also be represented in two or more cut· ting planes. Cto~on
area. It is formed by the theoretical sec· tioning of the workpiece. The cross-section area is marked with hatch lines (see below and page 75).
Section line. It marks the position of the cutting plane; for two or more cutting planes it marks the cutting path. The section line is drawn with a thick dot -
---;
B
Hatching of sections Hatching. The hatching is drawn wit h parallel solid lines, preferably at an angle of 45° to the centerline or to the main outlines. The hatching is interrupted for lettering. Hatching is used for • individual parts - all hatch lines for cross-section areas should be in the same d irection and at the same spacing. • parts adjacent to each other - hatch lines for the dif· ferent parts should be in different directions or at dif· ferent spacing. large cross-section areas - hatching preferably only near boundaries or edges.
74
Technical drawing: 3.4 Representations in drawings
I . . Sect1ona v1ews
I
.l
j
[)
"J 1<,() 1/-i
lt)
'" , ,, 1 , 1,1; "'"
Special sections
ll I
d
r1d
Profile 18Ctions. They may be • drawn rotated in a view (revolved section). The contour lines of the section are represented with thin solid lines and are drawn within the interior of the part. taken out of a view (removed section). The section must be connected with the view by a thin dot-dash line.
Sectlons with intersecting planes. If two planes intersect, one cuuing plane may be rotated in the projection plane.
Details of rotated parts. Uniformly arranged details outside of the cross-section area, e.g. holes, may be rotated in the cuuing plane.
Outlines and edges. Cont.o urs and edges lying behind the cuning plane are only drawn if they add clarity to the drawing.
Parts that are not sectioned Not sectioned in the lengthwi.se direction: • parts that are not l)ollow, e. g. screws, bolts, pins, shafts - areas of an individual part which should protrude from the base body, e.g. ribs.
Notes on drawing Tool edges • Circumferential edges. Edges exposed by sectioning must be represented. • Hidden edges. In sections the hidden edges are not represented. • Edges on the center line. If an edge falls on a centerline by sectioning, it is represented.
edge on the
~
HaH-sec:Uons in symmetrical wori
Technical drawing: 3.4 Representations in drawings
75
Hatching, Systems for entering dimensions Hatching
cf. DIN ISO 128-50 (2002·05)
Section areas are generally marked with basic hatching without consideration of the material. Parts whose material should be emphasized can be identified using specifiC section lining. Basic hatchi ng (without considering t he material)
Solids
~ Natural mat erials
- -·--'··-··
Metal s
,.:F. : e: . r :. :7ou:.=sc..__--J~~~?,AL--....!.:!N~o~n~·fC!'e~rr~o!.!:u!!!,s metals
W.,.&',&,..
metals
~d
heavy metals
Systems for entering dimensions
"''~ ¢12 d9
cf. DIN 406-10 (1992· 12) The dimensioning and tolerandng of workpieces can be based on • function, • manufacturing or • testing. Several systems of dimensioning may be used within a single drawing.
Dimensioning based on function Characteristic. Selection. entry and tolerancing of the dimensions is done according to design requirements.
Dimensioning based on fabrication Characte.-istie. Dimensions which are necessa ry for fabrication are calculated from functional dimensions.
Dimensioning based on testing Charactflf'istic. Dimensions and tolerances are entered in the drawing acconding to the planned testing.
76
Technical drawing: 3.5 Entering dimensions
Dimensioning drawings Dimension lines, clmenalon line termlneton, extension nr-, ~numbeR cf. DIN 406-11 (1992·12) Dimension lines extension tine dimension runber
40 /
drmension tine
Design. Dimension lines are drawn as thin solid lines.
7tr
Entry. Dimension lines are used for: • length dimensions parallel to the length to be dimen· sioned • angle and arc dimensions as e circular arc about the oenter of the angle or arc.
dimension line terminator
65
Umlted sp~~ce.lf space is limited, dimension lines may be • extended to the outside using extension lines • entered within the workpiece • drawn to the edges of the part body.
20
"' :--
1\~
Spacing. Dimension lines should have a minimum dis· tance of • 10 mm from the edge of bodies and • 7 mm berween each other.
:2
~ Dimension line ...-mln8tcw
~
S•d
~
!->
Dimension arrowheads. Generally arrowheads are used to delimit the boundaries of dimension lines. • arrowhead length: 10 x dimension line width • angle of lateral side: 15" Dots. Used if space is limited. • diameter: 5 x dimension line width
Extension lines
~t
f1L'$4 8
1 5
16
~rH
Hi-..............
"" extension tine passing
50
De5ign. Extension lines ere drawn perpendicular to the length to be dimensioned with thin solid lines. Special fe8tures • Symmetrical elements. Centerlines may be used as extension lines within symmetrical elements. • Breaks in extension lines may be used e. g. for enter· ing dimensions. • Within a view the extension lines may be drawn to spatially separate elements of the same or similar shape. • Extension lines may not be extended from one view to another view.
through part
Dimension numbers
55
Entry. Dimension numbers are entered • in standard lenering according to DIN EN ISO 3098
35
~
f-J r--
l
• with a minimum font size of 3.5 mm
.....__ 1-
""
2.5 2 2.5 (10) 6 15
~~-F t
I __j
t-j 40
2
"'t'
;!t ~t
• above the dimension line • so that they are legible from below and from the right • for multiple parallel d imension lines - separated from each other. Umited sp~~ce. If there is limited space, the dimension· ing numbers may be entered • on a leader line • over the extension o f the dimension line.
Technical drawing: 3.5 Entering d imensions
77
Dimensioning drawings Dimensioning rules, leader and reference lines, angle dimensions, square and width across flats
cf. DIN 406-11 (1992-121 and DIN ISO 126-22 11999-111
Dimensioning rules
Entering dimensions
6
!I~ ----·-
• Each dimension is only entered once. If two elements have identical dimensions but different shapes, they must be dimensioned separately. • If multiple views are drawn, the dimensions should be entered where the shape of the workpiece is best recognized. • Symmetrical workpieces. The position of the center line is not dimensioned.
I
N ,...,
6
12
Chained dimensions. Series of chained dimensions should be avoided. If chained dimensions are required for reasons related to manufacturing, one dimension of the chain must be in parentheses.
so
Ret workpieees. For flat workplaces that are only drawn in one view, the thickness dimension may be entered with the reference lener t in the view or • near the view.
u..der and refer- lines leader lines. leader lines are drawn as thin solid lines. They end • with an arrowhead, if they point to solid body edges or holes. • with a dot, if they point to a surface. • without marking. if they point to other lines.
leader line
Reference li.-. Reference lines are drawn in the read· ing direction with thin solid lines. They may be connected to leader lines.
Angular dimensions Extension lines. The extension lines point towa rd the vertex of the angle. Dimension numbers. Normally these are entered tangentially to the dimensioning line so that their low er edge points to the vertex of the angle if they are above the horizontal center line and with their upper edge if they are below it
[}E i ~WAF11
tf§_WAF11
[]lZI
Square Symbol. For square shaped elements the symbol is set in front of the dimensioning number. The size of the symbol corresponds to the size of the small leners. Dimensioning. Square shapes should preferably be dimensioned in the view in which their shape is recognizable. Only the length of one side of the square should be entered. Width auoss flats Symbol. For widths across flats the upper case leners WAF are placed in front of the dimensioning number, if the width between flats cannot be dimensioned.
78
Technical drawing: 3.5 Entering dimensions
Dimensioning drawings Diameters, radl, ipheres, chamfers, indlnes, tapers, arc dmensions
cf. DIN 406· 11 (1992· 121
Diameter Symbol. For all diameters the symbol 0 is placed befo· re the dimension number. Its overall height corresponds to the height of the dimensioning number. Umited space. In the case of limited space the dimension references the workpiece feature from the outside. Radius Symbol. For radii the lower case letter r is placed before the dimensioning number. Dimension lines. Dimension lines should be drawn • from the center of the radius or • from the direction of the midpoint. Sphere Sym bol. For spherical shape workpiece features the capital letter S is placed before the diameter or radius symbol.
45• ch1mfers and countersinks of 90• can be simply dimensioned by indicating the angle and the chamfer w idth. Both drawn and undrawn chamfers may be dimensioned using an extension line. Other chamfer angles. For chamfers with an angle de· viating from 45° the • angle and the chamfer width or • the angle and the chamfer diameter are to be entered.
Inclines, t..,.rs
c:s ~
1:::::::.30%
Incline Symbol. The symbol t::.. is entered before the dimen· sion numbers. Orientation of the symbol. The symbol is oriented so that its incline matches the incline of the workpiece. Preferably the symbol is connected to the inclined surface with a reference line or a leader line. Taper Symbol. The symbol C> is entered before the dimension numbers on a reference line. Orientation of the symbol. The orientat.i on of the symbol must match the direction of the workpiece taper. The reference line of the symbol is connected to the outline of the taper with a leader line.
Arc dimensions
Symbol. The symbol r.. is entered before the dimen· sion numbers. For manual drawing the arc may be labeled with a similar symbol over the dimension number.
Technical d rawing: 3.5 Entering dimensions
79
Dimensioning drawings '
Slots, threads, patterns
d . DIN 406-11 (1992· 12) and DIN ISO 641o-1 (1993-121
10P9
~!
Vf__,rft--\'l
closed slot
~ "'1 ,... "'
open slot
h = 5·0 2
z "'
Slot depth. The slot depth is measured • from the slot side for closed slots • from the opposing side for open slots.
N
open slot
10N9 •5•0.2
I
_....!_ _ _ _
~
36+0.3
Simplirted dimensioning. For slots represented only In the top view, the slot depth is dimensioned • with the letter h or • in combination with the slot width. With slots few retaining rings the slot depth may also be entered in combination with the slot width. Limit deviations for tolerance classes JS9. N9, P9 and H11 : page 109 Slot dimensions • for wedges see page 239 • for fined keys see page 240 • for retaining rings see page 269
Code designation. Code designators are used for stand· ard threads.
:z::ri===rf--r7h~~
-' .., I
i:~===t-{---'L2~~
Left hand threads. Left hand threads are marked with LH. If both left hand and right hand threads are found on a workpiece. the right hand threads get the addition RH • Multiple SQ'ew threads. For multiple screw threads the pitch and the spacing are entered behind the nominal diameter. Length specifications. These give the usable thread length. The depth of the basic hole (page 211) is normally not dimensioned.
.
cf. &~f==9
F = =t - --i
..,
~ .L~I::::==:::il::==~----1...__ _y
Chamfers. Chamfers on threads are only dimensioned if their diameters do not correspond to the thread core or the thread outside diameter.
Radial and I~ patterns
Identical design elements. The following data is given for spacing of identical design elements having the same distance or angle between them • the number of elements • the distance between the elements • the overall length or overall angle (in parentheses!.
80
Technical drawing: 3.5 Entering dimensions
Dimensioning drawings Tolerance specific:lltions
cf. DIN 40&-12 (1992·12), DIN ISO 2768-1 (1991 06) and DIN ISO 2768-2 (1991·04)
! -f-tn-.------+:--,1 ~ ~ t -
•0.15
1
i--=3:.::.5-=-0.:..:. .10~1
Entry. The deviations are entered • aher the nominal size • if there are two deviations, the upper deviation is shown above the lower deviation • for equally large upper and lower deviations by a x mark before the number value, which is only entered once • for angle dimensioning with units specified.
~
~1---,r'-~+ I 40 -o.v-oJ ~ . •0°0' 45" L.______l!0° •0° 0' 30"
Entry. Tolerance classes are entered for • single nominal sizes: aher the nominal size • parts shown inserted: the tolerance class of the interior dimension (hole) is before or over the tolerance class of the outer dimension (shah).
Tolerance lf)8Ciflcatlons few lpeCifie . , _
Area of application. The area to w hich the tolerance applies is bounded by a thin solid line.
Application. General tolerances are used for • linear and angular dimensions • form and position. They apply to dimensions without individual tolerance entry.
DIN 509 - E 0.8 KO.J
V\
m
'Q
~-l-!I---'2:....K....;.; 45:....
0
/
I
- --
-~r-~;f ~ bolts
~
40 53
~
10SPb 20 ISO 2168- m
Drawing entry. The note for general tolerances (page 110) can be located: • near the individual pan drawings • for title blocks according to DIN 6771 (retracted): in the title block. E.ntries. Given are: • the sheet number of the standard • the tolerance class for linear and angular dimensions • the tolerance class for form and pOSitional tolerances, as needed
Technical drawing: 3.5 Entering dimensions
81
Dimensioning in drawings Dimensions
cf. DIN 406-10 and · 11 (1992-12)
Tyi)M of dimensioning
10 60
basic cftmenSion
s.lc Dimemions. The basic dimensions of a w orkpiece are the • total length • total width • total height Shape dimensions. Shape dimensions establish, e.g. the • dimensions of slots • dimensions of shoulders. Positional dimensions. These are used to specify the location of · holes • slots • elongated holes, etc.
Special dimensions
.L dimension
auKiliary --..,;.,__
I I
Rough dimensions Function. Rough dimensions might be used to give information about, for example, the dimensions of cast or forged workpieces before machining. Labeling. Rough dimensions are put in brackets. Awciliary dimensions Function. Auxiliary dimensions give additional information. They are not necessary to geometrically define the workpiece. Labeling. Auxiliary dimensions are put in parentheses • entered without tolerances.
30 (351
rough dimension
10
1: v:;z
25
~ 1- · - - · - - · 1-
20
~
fd ·- - · - - ·
~
b: (42 -0.1)
(1.2 -0.1j100%)
Dimensions not drawn to scale Labeling. Dimensions not drawn to scale might be used for drawing changes, for example, and they are marked by underlining. Prohibited are underlined dimensions in computer aided (CAD) drawings.
Control dimensions Function. It should be noted that these dimensions are espe<:ially checked by the purchaser. If necessary a 100% check will be performed. Labeling. Control dimensions are set in frames with rounded ends. Theoretically precise dimensions
Function. These dimensions give the geometrically ideal (theoretically precise) position of the shape of a design feature. Labeling. The dimensions are placed in a frame without tolerance Spe<:ifications and correspond with geometric tolerancing.
82
Technical drawing: 3.5 Entering dimensions
Types of dimensioning Parallel clmensloning, running dimensioning, coordinate dimensioning11 cf. DIN 406-11 (1992-121 StMic dlmenllonlng
0
N N
Dimension linH. Several dimension lines are entered together fo r • stacked linear dimensions • concentric angular dimensions.
0
!:!:
Running dimensioning
Origin. The dimensions are entered outwards from the origin in each of the three possible directions. The o rigin is indicated by a small circle. Dimension linH. The following applies for the entries: • As a rule only one dimension line Is used for each direction. • If there is limited space two or more dimension lines may be used. The dimension lines may also be shown broken.
1400
6S 0 -SO
Dimensions • must be provided with a minus sign If they are entered from the origin in the opposite direction. • may also be entered in the reading direction.
+·
.
170 -SO
lli_-J
Coordinate dimensioning
y
~~l~~
11130
+ 0
Y
50 "40
d
2 3
180 190 "30 220 115 "75
4
325
50
+ X=120 + Y: 115
~ ~ ~g 11140
l&75
1=12
X: 325
4
• entered in tables or • entered near the coordinate points.
Oim«~Sions. These must be provided with a m inus sign if they are entered from the origin in the opposite direction to the positive direction.
X
1 2 3
Cartesian coordinates (page 63) Coorcinate values. These are
Point of origin. The point of origin • is entered with a small circle • can lie at any location of the drawing.
+v=50
Item
11
X 50
.,
r d 140 o• c30 140 30. 030 100 so• 11130 140 900 c30
Polar coordinates (page 63) Coorcinate values. The coordinate values are entered in tables.
Parallel dimensioning, running dimensioning and coordinate dimensioning may be combined with each other.
83
Technical drawing: 3.5 Entering d imensions
Simplified presentation in drawings Simplified representation of holes
cf. DIN 6780 (2000.101
Hole bMe, line widths few limplllled repr~ Full scale represen- , Full scale representation, simpli· tation, full scale dimensioning lied dimensioning
~ \l!10x14U
I
\l!10x14U
Simplified representation, simplilied dimensioning \l!10x14U
~ d]
fiJ er-m\l!10 x 14U
\l!10x14U
Hole base The shape of the hole base is given by a symbol if necessary. The symbol U for example means a flat hole base (cylindrical end bore). Unewidths For holes depicted in simplified form, tho posttions of holes should be drawn as: • simply the intersecting axes in the top view • the position of the holes in thick solid lines in parallel axis representation.
Stepped holee, countersinks end chamfwa. intenwl1hreeds
iJ 6
~~ 90°
~ 6
ll!11•65U \l!6.6
\l!I1•6.SU \l!6.6
~ 0] \l!11•6.SU 1116.6
~ 11112.4•90° 1116.6
~
err 11111•6.SU Ill .6
11112.4x90° 1116.6
ctJ
ma 0i rn m ~ rn ~rrtrr •~ M10
M10><1S/20
Stepped holes For holes with two or more steps the dimensions are written under each other. Here the largest diameter is written on the first line.
Countersinks and chamf ers For countersinks and hole chamfers the largest countersink diameter and the countersink angle are given.
M10><1S/20
Internal tttreads The thread length and the hole depth are sepa· rated by a slash. Holes without depth specificalion are drilled through.
Examples
(!!10H7
11112><90° 11110H7
11112•90° 11110H7
M10- LHx12
M10- LH><12
1118•03 \l!8x90° 11143
!118xO.l ll!8x90° 1114.3
~
ctJ
Hole010H7 Through hole Chamfer 1 x 45•
X
-
90°
.
leh hand thread MlO Thread lenglh 12 mm Drilled through core hole
Cylindrical countersink 0 8 Bore depth 0.3 mm Through hole 04.3 with cone shaped counterbore oo• Countersink diameter 08
84
Technical drawing: 3.6 Machine elements
Gear types Repr...ntation of gears
cf. DIN ISO 2203 ( 1976-061
' '\ $
.·\~ ·. -~ lntemaliptlr gew
Rack lllld Pinion
~~n
~~y Worm and worm geer
Positive drive l*t$
85
Technical drawing: 3.6 Machine elements
Roller bearings d . DIN ISO 8826-1 0990-121 and DIN ISO 8826-211995-101 El4lments of.~ aimplifled
limpllfiad
element
Long, straight line; for representing the axis of the roller bearing elements for bearings that cannot be adjusted.
For general purposes a roller bearing Is represented as square or rec· tangular with a froe·stand· ing upright cross.
If necessary, the roller bearing can be represented by its ootline and a free-standing upright cross.
Representation of single-row roll« burings
detailed limpllfiad
grephieal
~ ~~
R g
~ ~~
n 1::1
~ ~I_ fq I_
dali9natlon Radial-deep groove ball bearings. cylindrical roller bearings Radial spherical roller beanng (barrel-shaped bearing) Angular-cont8CI ball bearing, tapered roller bearing Needle bearing, needle roller assembly
Axial-deep grooved ball bearing. axial-roller bearing
Axial-spherical roller bearing
Combined baD bearings Combined radial-needle bearing with angular-contact ball bearing Combined axial-ball bearing with radial needle bearing
,.,.--atlon
•~CP~anetlon, eppi~Qtlon
Long, curved line; for representing the 8>Cis of the roller bearing elements for bearings that can be edjusted (self-aligning bearing). Short straight line; used to represent the position and number of rows of roller bearing elements.
0
Orde; for the representation of roller bearing elements (bells, roller, needle rollers) which ant drawn petpendicular to their aids.
~of
dNIIed
simplified
double row roller burinp
graphical
dasignetion
~ ~~
R aa
f9
n
~ Lj
~ ~ I'+ +'I !!!
R~ ~ic:ut.r to
Radial-deep groove ball bearings, cylindrical roller bearings Spherical roller bearing. radialSpherical roller bearing
Angular-contact ball bearings
Needle bearing, needle roller assembly
Axial-deep grooved ball bearing, dual action Axial-deep grooved ball bearing with spherical seating. dual action
the rolling element axis
Roller bearing with any desired type of roller element shape (balls. rollers, needles)
86
Technical drawing: 3.6 M achine elements
Representation of seals and roller bearings Simplified representation of .....
cf. DIN ISO 9222-1 11900-12) and DIN ISO 9222·2 11991 ·03) Elements of a detelled simplified repr-tetlon
simplified
graphical
e!Cplanatlon
For general purposes a seal is represented by a square or rectangle and a separate diagonal crossmar'k. The sealing direction can be given by an arrow.
element
e!Cplanatlon. eppllcatlon Long line parallel to the sealing surface; for the fixed (static) sealing element. Long diagonal line; for the dynamic sealing element; e.g. the sealing lip. The sealing direction can be g iven by an arrow.
/
Short diagonal line; for dust lip seal, scraper rings.
/
Short lines pointing to the middle of l he symbol; for the static pans of U-rings und V-rings. packing. If necessary, the seals can be represented by the outline and a free-standing diagonal cross-mark.
Short lines. which point to the middle of the symbol; for the sealing lips of U rings und V-rings. packing.
T U
T and U; for non-contact seals.
Examplw ol detailed limpllfied ·· - ·..don ol ..... Profile gaskets. peddng sets, labyrinth SHis
Shllft SNis and piston rod ..... designation for
detailed simplified
[Z] ~
graphical
rotation
linear motion
detailed limplified
graphical
B El
~ ~
0
~
~
Dual row deep grooved roller bearings and radial shaft seal2l
Packing set2l
Shaft seal without dust lip seal
Rod seal without stripper
Shaft seal with dust lip seal
Rod seal with stripper
p;
Shaft seal. dual action
Rod seal. dual action
Examples ol simplified
....,..._.tation
~
Deep grooved roller bearings and radial shaft seal with dust lip sealll
Q]
detailed simplified
s
oiMIIIs and roler bearings
11 Top half: simplified representation; bottom half: graphical representation. 21 Top half: detailed simplified representation; bottom half: graphical representation.
grephlcel
..
87
Technical drawing: 3.6 Machine elements
Representation of retaining rings. Slots for retaining rings. Springs. Splines and serrations Representation of retaining rings and slots for retaining rings ~tlltion
Retaining rings for holes (page 269)
11
~
$
Ret8lnlng rings for shafts (page 2691
Oevietions
~dlmenlion
-- ~ ~~r--t
1n
a
~
~~
reference plane
~ for dimensioning
a • roller bearing width + retaining ring width
-
rrtil13
f-l-
,... ! ~
rrti13
..0"'0
'""'-
Deviations for ~: upper deviation: 0 (zero) lower deviation: negative Deviations for o: upper deviation: positive lower deviation: 0 (zero)
11
......r
l"
reference plane for dimensioning 1>
~ I ._
Deviations for ~: upper deviation: positive lower deviation: 0 (zero) Deviations for a: upper deviation: positive lower deviation: 0 (zero)
For functional reasons the reference plane for the dimensioning of slots is the locating face of the part to be secured.
Representation of springs
cf. DIN ISO 2162·1 11994-08)
ftepo'..m.tion
rum. Cylindrical helical compression spring (round wire)
Cylindrical helical tension spring
Disk spring (simple)
Symbol
,..,_
~on
i· m = 1 ..,.; I . I
-e *
Disk spring assembly (disks layered in the same direction)
1~
!§ I §
Cylindrical helical tension spring
Cylindrical helical compression spring (square wire)
Disk spring assembly (disks layered in alternating directions)
Representation of splines and serrations Sh.tt Splines or spline hubs with straight flanks. Symbol:
Jl..
Toothed shafts or toothed hubs with involute splines or serrations. Symbol:
.J\.
MC1ion
view
MC1ion
vi-
e.T e,..
Symbol
f
m =ts ~ f
51
• •~
~
~
cf. DIN ISO 64 13 (1990-031
Joint
Hub
~* ~@ ~$ ~- ~@ .J'\., ..
.
.J'L •••
-· .
=> Splines ISO 14-6 x 26 n x 30: Spline profile with straight flanks according to ISO 14, number of Splines N ~ 6, inner diameter d • 260, outer diameter 0 a 30 (page 241)
88
Technical drawing: 3.7 Workpiece elements
Boss dimeo- up to3
sions
t.... Example
Draw ing entry
~~5 3
t·
~13505·0.3
dz .....
in mm
/,_
inmm
0.3
0.5
0.8
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.5
0.2
0.3
0.5
0.6
0.9
1.2
2.0
3.0
outer edge field for entering dimension
~ ~!
+
Burr allowed, material removal not allowed
inner edge Transition allowed, material removal not allowed
Removal required, Removal required. burr not transition not allowed allowed
outer edge
inner edge
allowed for
Burr
Material removal
Example
-rt
SJ
Meaning
Outside edge without burr. The allowable material removal is between 0 and 0.3 mm.
(/=) Collective indications apply to all edges for which an edge condition is not given. Edges fOf' which the collective indication does not apply m ust be marked in the drawing. The exceptions are placed alter the collective indication in parentheses or indicated by the base symbol. Collective indications which are only valid fOf' outside Of' inside edges are given by the correSpOnding symbols.
-ft J
1
L.o.3
1h m:-0.1
1.:95
Outside edge with allowable burr of 0 to 0.3 mm (burr direction specified). Inside edge with allowable material removal between 0.1 and 0.5 mm (material removal direction not specified). Inside edge with allowable material removal between 0 and 0.02 mm or allowable transition up to 0.02 mm (sharp edged).
89
Technical drawing: 3.7 Workpiece elements
Thread runouts, Thread undercuts Thread runouts for metric ISO threads EKternel thread
Pitch 11
cf. DIN 76-1 12004-061 Pitch
ISO
II
ISO standard thread
p
d
1.25 1.5 1.75 2 2.5
Thread runout ZI
standard thread
p 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
Internal thread
d
M1 M1.6
0.4 0.45 0.5 0.6
M2 M2.5 M3
0.7 0.75 0.8 1
M4 M5 M6
x,
B!
max.
ma.x.
0.5 0.6 0.75 0.9
0.6 0.75 0.9 1.05
1.3 1.5 1.8 2.1
1 1.1 1.25 1.5
1.2 1.35 1.5 1.8
2.3 2.6 2.8 3.4
1.75 1.9 2 2.5
2.1 2.25 2. 4 3
3.8
x,
a,
max.
max.
M8 M10 M12 M16
3.2 3.8 4.3 5
3.75 4.5 5.25 6
6.2 7.3 8.3 9.3
6.3 7.5 9 10
7.5
4
M20 M24 M30 M36
10.5 12
11.2 13.1 15.2 16.8
4.5 5 6.5 6
M42 M48 M56 M64
11 12.5 14 15
13.5 15 16.5 18
3 3.5
4
4.2 5.1
Thread runout21
9
e,
18.4 20.8 22.4 24
11 For line threads the dimension of the thread runout is chosen according to the
pi1chP. 21 As a rule; applies if no other entries are given. If a shorter thread runout is necessary, this applies:
x2 .. 0.5 . x1; ~ .. 0.67 . a 1; ~ " 0.625 . e1 If a longer thread runout is necessary, this applies: aa .. 1.3 . a,; OJ .. 1.6 . e,
Screw thread undercuts for metric ISO threads EKternal thread
Pitch
ISO
11
standard
form A and form B
0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
X
M1.6 M2 M2.5
0.7 0.75 0.8
M4
125 1.5 1.75 2
2.5
{///7\.
M1
0.4 0.45 0.5 0.6
1
form C and form D
d
M3
M5 M6 M8
M10 M12 M16
3
M20 M24
3.5
M30
4
M36
4.5 5 5.5 6 ::o>
M48 M56 M64
11
M42
Internal threads Form C21 Form Qll
External threads Form A2 l Form 831
thread
p
lnt..-n al thread
cf. DIN 76· 1 12004-061
r
dv
h13
0.1 d-0.3 0.12 d-0.4 0.16 d - 0.5 0.16 d - 0.6
g, 92 g, 92 mln. max. min. max. 0.45 0.55 0.6 0.7
0.7 0.9 1.05 12
0.25 0.25 0.3 04
0.5 0.6 0.75 0.9
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.6
1 1.1 1.25 1.5
dg H13
d+0.2 d+0.2 d+0.3
1.6 1.8 2 2.4
2.2 1 2.4 1.1 2.7 1.25 3.3 1.5
d+0.3 d+0.3 d+ 0.3 d+ 0.5
2.8 3 3.2 4
3.8 1.75 2.75 4 1 . 9 2.9 4.2 2 3 5.2 2.5 3.7
5 6 7 8
0.8 1 12
1.4 1.6 1.75 2.1
0.4 0.4 0.4 0.6
d - 1.1 d-1.2 d-1.3 d - 1.6
1.5 1.6 1.7 2.1
2.45 2.6 2.8 3.5
0.8 0.9 0.9 1.1
1.75 1.9 2 2.5
0.6 0.8 1 1
d- 2 d -2.3 d - 2.6 d-3
2.7 32 3.9 4.5
4.4 5.2 6.1 7
1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5
3.2 3.8 4.3 5
d+ 0.5 d+0.5 d+0.5
12 1.6 1.6 2
d-3.6 d-4.4 d-5 d - 5.7
5.6 8.7 32 6.7 10.5 3.7 7.7 12 4.7 9 14 5
6.3 7.5 9 10
d+0.5 d+0.5
2 2.5 32 3.2
d - 6.4 d- 7 d - 7.7 d-8.3
11 12.5 14 15
5.5 6.5 7.5 8
9z
1.2 1.4 1.6 1.9
0.7 0.7 0.8 1
16 17.5 19 21
g,
0.8 1 1.2 1.4
dddd-
10.5 11.5 12.5 14
92
d+0.1 d+0.1 d+0.1 d+ 0.2
0.2 0.2 0.2 0.4
1.1
g,
min. max. min. max.
d+ 0.3
d+0.5
0.5 0.6 0.75 0.9
6.7 3.2 7.8 3.8 9.1 4.3 10.3 5
0.9 1 1.25 1.4 1.6 1.7
2 2.4
4.9 5.6 6.4 7.3
d+0.5
10 12 14 16
13 15.2 17.7 20
6.3 9.3 7.5 10.7 9 12.7 10 14
d+0.5 d+0.5 d+0.5 d+0.5
18 20 22 24
23 26 28 30
11 12.5 14 15
d+0.5
16 18.5 20 21
DIN 76-C: Screw thread undercut shape C
For line thread screws the dimension of the thread undercut is chosen according to the pitch P. 21 as a rule; always applies if no other entries are made 31 Only in cases where a shorter thread undercut is required.
90
Technical drawing: 3.7 Workpiece elements
Representation of threads and screw joints Representation of threada
cf. DIN ISO 641o-1 (1993-12)
. g.. ~
Internal thread
b
~
~ ~m .
a, accord. to DIN 7~1 . Thread runout 1S nonnally not shown.
Bolt thread
Bolts in internal thread
$§§3$~riJI Thread undercut
Representation of screw joints Hexagonal bolt and nut detailed
simplified
h 1 bolt head hight h 2 nut height h 3 washer thickness e diagonal between corners s width across flats d thread nominal 0
Screw joint with cap screw
Screw joint with hexagonal screw
h, "'0.1· d h 2 "' 0.8· d hl"' 0.2· d e "'2·d s "'0.87· e
Screw joint with countersunk head screw
Screw joint with stud
91
Technical drawing: 3.7 Workpiece elements
Center holes, Knurls Center holes
cf. DIN 332· 1 (198&041 Nominal sizes
~· . ~ ,_
~-
Form
...:;
R
a
A
! m~Mo ~~~ ~ ~I
'
: ~~
f
~~
form C
~~
't
'£
B
-
f - · +1 1+-
f - i -1 H:
~
...::J~+~t ~
1 1.25 1.6 2 2.5 2.12 2.65 3.35 4.25 5.3
~
form 8
~
d,
c
-o
lmon
1.9
2.3
2.9
3.7
4.6
5.8
3
4
5
6
7
9
lmon
1.9
2.3
2.9
3.7
4.6
5.9
If
3 2.2
4 2.7
5 3.4
6 4.3
7
lmon
5.4
11 14 18 9 22 6.8 8.6 10.8 12.9 16.4
a
3.5
4.5
5.5
6.6
8.3
b
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.8
d.l
3.15 4
5
6.3
8
'~"N)
10
9.2 11.4 14.7 14
7.4
18
22
9.2 11 .5 14.8
12.7 15.6 20
0.9 10
1.2
1.6
18
12.5 16
1.6 22.4
1.9
2.3
2.9
3.7
4.6
3.5
4.5
5.5
6.6
8.3
b
0.4
0.6
0.7
0.9
0.9
~
4.5
5.3
6.3
7.5
9
11.2 14
18
22.4 28
5
6
7.1
8.5
10
12.5 16
20
25
8: C:
5.9 10
7.4
25
1.4
!min
A;
_L_
7.4 11
If
R:
Form
5 6.3 8 10.6 13.2 17
a
ds
0
C>
3.15 4 6.7 8.5
9.2 11.5 14.8
12.7 15.6 20
1.1
1.7
1.7
25
2.3
3 31.5
curved bearing surface. without protective countersink straight bearing surface. without protective countersink straight bearing surface. conical protective countersink straight bearing surface. truncated conical protective counter sink
Drawing callout for center holes
cf. DIN ISO 6411 (1997-111
A center hole is required on the finished part
A center hole is allowed on the finished pan
A center hole may not be present on the finished pan
+----j'ISO 6411 -AI../8.5
~ISO 6411-A4/8.5
- B I S O 6411-A4/8.S
~
Knurls
~
cf. DIN 82 (1973·011
~
/
(
Letter symbol
-'bo
RAA
...........
RBR
d, nominal diameter d2 initial diameter f
spacing RBL
Standard spacing values
t: 0.5; 0.6; 0.8; 1.0; 1.2; 1.6 mm Drawing entry (example): DIN 82- RGE 0.8
~
-
RGE RGV RKE
- RKV =
Name
Point shape
Knurls with axially parallel grooves
-
dz = d , -
0.5 . t
Right-hand knurl
-
dz • d, -
0.5 . t
~30°
Left-hand knurl
-
d,_ e d1- 0.5 • t
~0
Left-hand/righthand knurls
Representation
e ~30°
fll}
Axial and cir· cumferential knurl
Initial diameter~
raised
~
= d, - 0.67 . t
recessed
~
= d, - 0.33 . t
~
=d , - 0.67 . t
raised recessed
d2 = d, - 0.33 . t
DIN 82-RGE 0.8: left-hand/right-hand knurls, raised points, t =0.8 mm
92
Technical d rawing: 3.7 Workpiece elements
Undercuts Undercuts11
cf. DIN 509 (2006·12)
formE for cyli ndrical surface to be further machined
form F for shoulders and cylindrical surfaces to be further machined
__!_ lz
;- r· J;\"i ..:"1
>:il
I
z,. Z, • machining allowances ,
~·
form G form H for small transition for planar and cylindrical surfaces (for low loading)
.~~""" dbo
-~·. ~fH~' .
tr7
I
rl\, '-,_j~.i -
~
.
~
.
j:;
.
J.f..;f._-f
..:"1 -6"1 I
;J;· I .2-t-.d...-!
Unden:ut DIN 509 - E 0.8 x 0.3: formE, radius, . 0.8 mm, undercut depth r1 • 0.3 mm
Undwcut dlmenlions end -enlnlt dimenlions Form
,21% 0.1
,,
12
f
Correlation to diameter d 131 for W0<1
9
Series Series +0.1 +0.05 +0.2 1 2 0 0 0
.
-
Form F G
(0.9)
> 0 1.6-0 3
0.2 X 0.1
0.2
-
-
0.1 0.1
2
(1.1)
> 0 3- 0 18
-
0.4 X 0.2
0.3
R0.6
0.2 0.2
R0.6
0.3
0.2
2 2.5
(1.4) (2.1)
> 0 10-0 18 > 0 18-0 80
-
0.6 X 0.2 0.6 X 0.3
0.2 0.1
2.5
(2.3)
> 0 18- 0 80
-
0.8 X 0.3
R1
0.3 0.2
0.5 0.15 0.4 0 0.6 0.05
(1.8)
-
> 0 18-0 50
-
R1
0.4
0.3
2.5 4
> 0 80
1.0 X 0.2 1.0 X 0.4
R1.2 R1.2
-
0.2 0.4
(3.21 (21
-
> 0 18-0 50
(3.41
> 0 80
1.2 X 0.2 1.2 X 0.4
-
> 0 50-0 80 > 0 80-0 125
1.6 X 0.3
1.4
2.5 X 0.4
2.2
0.6 1.0
-
-
0.1
2.5 4
0.3
0.3 0.2
4
(3.11
-
0.4
0.3
5
-
0.5
0.3
RO.B
-
0.2 0.3
0.2 0.05
7 (0.91
(4.81 (6.41
R1 .2
-
0.3
0.05
R1.6 R2.5 R4
H
E
1
RO.B
G
Undercut r x r1
0.1
-
I
increased fatigue strength
0.1
-
l't
normal loading
R0.2
R0.4
E and F
M inimum dimension a for counter sink on the opposing piece41
R0.4
-
(2.01 (2.41
-
0 0
0.9 0.45 0.7 0 1.1 0.6 0.9 0.1
-
> 0 125
4.0 X 0.5
3.6
2.1
0.4 X 0.2 0.8 X 0.3
-
(1.51
-
-
-
(1.11
> 0 3-0 18 > 0 18-0 80
(1.11
> 0 18-0 50
II All forms of undercut apply to both shafts and holes. 21
Undercuts with Series 1 radii are IJ(eferred. 31 The correlation to the diameter area does not apply with curved shoulders and thin walled parts. For workpieces with differing diameters it may be advisable to design all undercuts for all diameters in the same form and size.
-
-
H
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
0
-
- -
1.2 x0.3 4' Countersink dimension a on opposing piece A
0.35 0.65
'"'"''
t~ ~i- ;:--+..;! ~ dz = d, •
v
i1
Drawing entry for undercuts Normally undercuts are represented in drawings as a simplified entry w ith the designator. However they can also be completely drawn and dimensioned. Example: Shaft with undercut DIN 509 - F1.2 x 0.2
Example: Hole with undercut· DIN 509 - E1 .2 x 0.2
simplified entry
simplified entry
Em
DIN 509-F 1.2< 0.2
~5.01
-R BE :3 R12·~· 113
complete entry
/::
complete entry
X
0
~~
"///..- '
DIN SOWlo01
+
N
0
...,
y
0
w///
~6
~ 1
+
93
Technical drawing: 3.8 Welding and soldering
Symbols for Welding and Soldering Positioning of symbols for welding and soldering in drawings
cf. DIN EN 22563 I 1997-<)3)
BHic:terms
solid refererce line arrow line
weld symbol
joint (e.g.bunjointl '-._
/
~
"-
'' ' '' ' '"-'"!'//
tail
Reference line. This consists of the solid reference line and the dashed reference line. The dashed reference line runs parallel to the solid reference line and above or below it. The dashed reference line is omined for symmetrical welds. Anow line. It connec1s the solid reference line with the joint.
I
dashed reference line
/ / / // / / / / / / / / 1
Tail. Additional entries can be given here es needed for: • method, process • evaluation group
• wort
Joint. Orientation of the parts to be joined to each other. Weld Information graphical
symbolic
~
+ + "other side"
'
a317
~ ~
t7
V
•arrow side"
Warrowline
~ " other side"
V ·"-"-''''
Symbol. The symbol identifies the form of the weld. It is preferably placed normal to the solid reference line, or if necessary on the dashed reference line. Anengement of the weld symbol position of the weld symbol
position of the weld (weld surface)
solid reference line
"arrow side"
dashed reference line
• other side"
For welds represented in Sec1ion or view, the position of the symbol must agree with the weld cross section. Arrow side. The arrow side is that side of the joint to which the arrow line refers.
Other side. The other side of the joint that is opposite the arrow side.
"-arrow line •arrow side"
~ · " -""-"'""' ' '""""' Supplemental and auxilirf symbols
I
Weld all around
rr-<23
Field weld (weld is made on the construction site) Entry of the welding process in the tail
cf. DIN EN 22563 (1997·03)
\..._/
Weld surface hollow (concave) Weld surfaoe flat (planar)
(\
vL
Weld surface curved (convex) Weld surface notch free
Representation in drawings (basic symbols) Weld type/
symbol
t
symbolc:
I ~r B I Ejt'
Weld type/ symbol
)))))))))))))
Bun weld
I
Rep~
graphical
cf. DIN EN 22553 (1997·03)
II
graphical
I tj~ B I ~t= )))})))))))))
Vgroove weld
v
~ symbolic
94
Technical drawing: 3.8 Welding and solderin g
Symbols for Welding and Soldering Reprnentation in drawings (belie symbols)
.....,_ot.wtloo'l
Wild..,_/
-vmbol
grtlphlcel
Flare-V groove weld
) ) ) ) ) ) ~ E::J
./\.... Plug welding
r=1 Frontal flush weld
,(," Ill Steepflanked weld
'11. Build·up weld
rY'"'\ Fold weld
~
symbolic
r
aymbol
sfgr B~~v 8~~r=
Y·b\Jtl weld
~PBr
y HY-weld
r lJ.groove weld
IJL Fillet weld
1~1 ~
I
-
Field weld wittl3mm seam thickness
~ DlQ~
~
3
Jijroove weld
t' Spot weld
0
-
-=Uneweld
@: u.c :r-
~~+i
gr..,tlicel
symbolic
I ~r Bl ~k I Ejr I ~~ I t9r I Ejr ))))))))))))
))))))))))))
))))))))))))
~
-
Weld all around
"-P.-.utlon
))) ))) ) )) )))
Bevel groove weld
v
~~@r
cf. DIN EN 22553 11997·03)
Wild..,..,
Surface weld
~
nmmunm
8f§t
8fEJt
I *
95
Technical d rawing: 3.8 Welding and soldering
Symbol s for Welding and Soldering Composite symbols for symmetrical welds 11 {examples) Weld type
~
Symbol
Wetdtype
O(oublelV-weld (X-weld)
X
m
D(oublelHY·weld
O(oublel· bevel weld
K
~
D(oublelU·weld
X
m
O(oublelY-weld
cf. DIN EN 22553 (1997..()31 Symbol
K
~
X
~
11The
symbols are loca· ted symmetrical to the reference line. Example:
Application examples for auxiliary symbols Weld type
Flat V·weld
Convex double V-weld Y·weld with backing run
Repr~
Wetdtype
v
1/27 ~~
Flat reworked V-weld
~
Symbol
1-weld (penetra· ting)
1-weld (non· pene!rating)
Flare-V groove weld
r
Rep
v'
w ~ ~
~
Flat V·w eldwith flat backing run
g
f?m
~
Hollow fillet weld, weld transfer unnotched
~
~;sss"'~sss~ cf. DIN EN 22553 (1997..()31
MMnk'll of the symbolic
~·tatlol• end dlmenlionlng
gr8phlcel
symbolic
dimension entry
ET~ --~
E777~~
Butt weld, penetrating, weld seam thickness s a 4 mm
m; f44~ "'1
~
Butt weld, non-penetrating, weld seam thickness s = 3 mm, running over the entire workpiece
L
~
l'rrTi V-weld (penetrating weld) with backing run
~
symbolic
v
Dimensioning examples Weld type
graphical
cf. DlN EN 22553 (1997..03)
Symbol
~
RepnMntatlon
;¥<
Flare-V groove weld, not completely melted down, weld seam thickness s = 2 mm
I)
11111SOS811-C/ ISO 6941-PA/ fN499-E 42 ORR 12
~ y/~""'""'""'""'""'"'1 I
l l Supplementary requirements can be entered in a tail at the end of a reference line.
V-weld (penetrating weld) with backing run, fabricated by manual arc welding (code 111 accord. to DIN EN ISO 4063), required evaluation group C accord. to ISO 5817; flat weld· ing position PA accord. to ISO 6947; electrode E 42 0 RR 12 accord. to DIN EN 499
96
Technical drawing: 3.8 Welding and soldering
Symbols for Welding and Soldering, Representation of adhesive, folded and pressed joints Dimensioning examples (continued) ~Mdclmeolliotliolg
Weld type
Fillet weld (continuousl
Fillet weld (Interrupted)
~
MNnlng of the symboNc
symbolic
clmenlion entry
~~
Fillet weld, weld leg thickness 8 • 3 mm (height o f the Isosceles Irian· glel
gl'llphlcal
-~ ~~
~
~aS"-2•20(10)
Fillet weld (interrupted), weld leg thickness 8 5 5 mm; 2 single welds each wilh I • 20 mm length; weld spacing e • 10 mm, end distance v = 30 mm
~
a4"h30!101 1 a4Vh30(10)
Double fillet weld !interrupted, symmetrical), weld leg thickness 8 = 4 mm; single weld length I • 30 mm, weld spacing e = 10 mm, without end distance
0
(10)
Double fillet weld (interrupted)
25 20
Double fillet weld (interrupted, staggered)
30
~
20
zS"-2 •207(30) / zS V 3 • 20L (30)
II
1nlll 1nul
run r~~"l l"20"lI 30 120 I 30 120
Symbolic representation of adhesive, folded and pressed joints (examples) Type of joint
Weld type/ symbol
Type of joint
MNnlng/
r .,
chwing entry 20
Surface seam"
Adhesive bondedseams
I
-I
I
~t
Folded seam
5w20=
VT
!
Double fillet weld (interrupted, staggered), weld leg thickness z = 5 mm; single weld length / • 20 mm, weld spacing e • 30 mm, end distance v = 25 mm
cf. DIN EN ISO 15785 12002-121 Weld type/ symbol
Folded seam
e
Meaning/ drawing entry
I
I
·w·..,@ ··1
Er-1 ¢5
Slant seam1l
I
Fillet weld, weld leg thickness Z • 4 mm (side length o f the isosceles triangle)
//
Pressed
I
~
I
11 The adhesive media is not shown for adhesive seams.
Pressed seam
seam
l...!
R4«04l 5x4 l..l
1~---~
97
Technical drawing: 3.9 Surfaces
Heat treated parts - Hardness specifications Presentation and indication of heat treated parts on drawings
cf. DIN 6773 12001-04)
HMt tr..tment tpedlleations T«m(s) fOI' material condition
Menul'8ble peramet..,. of the material condition
Examples: quenched and tempered hardened hardened and tempered
hardness HAC value HV HB
rockwell hardness vickers hardness brinell hardness
Measuring points. Entering and dimensioning in the drawing with symbol (..j,.).
hardness Eht indenNht tation Aht
case hardening thickness nitriding depth effedive hardening depth
Heat tr eatment diagram. Simplified, usually reduced scale representation of the pan near the title block.
carburizing depth nitride white layer thickness
Minimum tensile strength 01' micro· structure. If it is possible to test a part treated in the same balch.
HTA
annealed
WL
All entries are made with plus tolerances.
nitrided
Possible additions
Identifying ...... of the aurt.. to und«ga locelized hMt treatment -~-·-
Area must be heat treated.
-----
Area maybe heat treated.
- ··---
Intermediate area may not be heat treated.
HMt tr..tment specifications In drewings (eJCaml)leal Heat treatment of the entire part ciff«ent requirements same requirements
Method Quenching and temper ing, Hardening, Hardening and tempering
Nitriding, Case hardening
~ ~ hardened and tempered 58 + 4 HAC (i) 40 + 5 HAC
quenched and tempered 350 + 50 HB 2.5/187.5
case-hardened and tempered (!) 60 + 4 HACEht • 0.5 + 0.3 ® "52 HAC
nitrided " 900HV 10 Nht : 0.3 + 0.1
Surfaced hardening
~
£{33
HMt treatment localized
Rtff& --- 110·5
- -hardened and entire part tempered 60 + 3 HAC
£{33 ~-1:
__ ____
--case-hardened and tempered 700 + 100 HV 10 Eht: 1.2 + 0.5
EE}l ~ (~=2 - --
- --
-·-·---
·-:::. _.:::::;---
surface hardened 620 + 120 HV 50 Aht 500 • 0.8 + 0.8
surface hardened and entire pan tempered (!) 54+6HAC ® s35 HAC (!) s 30 HAC
- -surface hardened and tempered 61 + 4 HAC Aht 600 • 0.8 + 0.8
Hardening depths and t o e . - in mm Case-hardening depth Eht
0.05+0.03
0.1+0.1
Nitriding depth Nht
0.05+0.02
0.1+0.05 0.15+0.02
0.3+0.2
0.5+0.3
0.8+0.4
1.2+0.5
1.6+0.6
0.2+0.1
0.25+0.1
0.3+0.1
0.35+0.15
Induction hardening depth Aht
0.2+0.2
0.4+0.4
0.6+0.6
0.8+0.8
1.0+1.0
1.3+1.1
1.6+1.3
Laser/electr. beam hardening depth Aht
0.2+0.1
0.4+0.2
0.6+0.3
0.8+0.4
1.0+0.5
1.3+0.6
1.6+0.8
Control limit ham . - at the spedfied hardening daplhs Case-hardening depth Eht
550HV 1
Nitriding depth Nht
core hardness + 50 HV 0.5
Effective hardening depth Aht
0.8 . minimum surface hardness, calculated in HV
98
Technical drawing: 3.9 Surfaces
Form deviations and roughness parameters Form deviations
cf. DIN 4760 (1982-06)
Form deviations are deviations of the ae~ual surface (surfaces ascertainable by measurement) from the geometrically ideal surface, whose standard shape is defined by the drawing.
o.gr.. of form deNdon (Profile sec- ex.nplea tion repres. with vertical exagger81ion) 11t degree: form deviation
Jr()JV'" ~~ 2nd degree: wavineu
deviation in straightness. roundness
Deflection of the workpiece or the machine during fabrics· tion of the part, malfunction or wear in the guides of t he machine tool.
waves
Vibrations of the machine. runout or shape deviation of a milling machine during fabrication of the part.
grooves
Geometry of the cuning tool, feed or depth of cut of the tool during fabrication of the part.
scoring. scales. bumps
Sequence of chip formation (e. g . tearing chip), surface deformation due to blasting during fabrication of the part.
matrix structure, lanioe structure
Crystallization cycles, matrix changes due to welding or hot working. changes due to chemical effects. e.g. corrosion. etching.
~ 3rd degree: roughneu
~ 4th degree: roughneu
~ 5th and 6th degree: roughness Cannot be represented as a simple profile section
Surface texture profiles and parameters profile
Sulf-
Primary profile (act. profile • P profile)
'I~~: ~t Waviness profile IW-profile)
z~=:I
RoughnfiiS profile (Ri)rofilel
~
z ?;-- ~~ ~}0'
~ z
L
~
'V
' x~~
In= 5·1,
-r~~~~ ~ I..L.,. X~, ~
f-1- l"'
~
)
:.
"'
" ~
z
'j.
:.
"'
Rv =Zv3
I,
material ratio~ a.rve
X
-:J
50~ In
0
Rmr in %
In
evaluation lenglh single evaluation length
Explllnations
Total height of the profile Pt
The primary profile represents the foundation for calculat· ing the parameters of the primary profile and forms the basis for the waviness and roughness profiles. The total height of the profile Pt is the sum of the height of the highest profile peak Zp and the depth of the lowest profile trough Zvwithin the evaluation length ln.
Total height of the profile Wf
The wew-s profile is obtained by low-pass filtering, i.e. by suppressing the short wavelength components of the profile. The total height of the profile Wf is the sum of the height of the highest profile peak Zp and the depth of the lowest profile trough Zvwithin the evaluation length ln.
Total height of the profile Rt
The roughnMs profile is obtained by high-pass filtering, i.e. by suppressing the long wavelength components of the profile. The total height of the profile Rt is the sum of the height of the highest profile peak Zp and the depth of the lowest profile trough Zvwithin the evaluation length ln.
Rp, Rv
Height of the highest profile peak Zp, depth of the lowest profile trough Zv within the single evaluation length 1,.
Highest peak of the profile
The highest peak of the profile Rz is the sum of the height of the highest profile peak Zp and the depth of the lowest profile trough Zv within lhe single evaluation length I,.
Rz11
Arithmetic: mean of the profile ordinatesRa 11
The arithmetic mean of the profile ordinates Ra is the arilhmetic mean of all ordinate values Zlx) within the single evaluation length 1,.
Material mlo of the profile
The material ratio of the profile expressed as a percentage. Rtnr, is the ratio of the sum of the contributing material lengthS at a specified section height to the total evaluation
Rtnr
length/~
100
ZlxJ height of the profile at any position x; ordinate value I,
cl. DIN EN ISO 4287 11998-10) and DIN EN ISO 4288 (1998-04)
Parameurs
:il
x"
POMible-
Centerline (x-axis) X
The center line (x-axis) x is the line corresponding to the long wavelength profile component which is suppressed by profile filtering.
1) For parame1.ers defined over a single evaluation length. the arithmetic mean of 5 single evaluation lengths to DIN EN tSO 4288 is used for determining the parameters.
99
Technical drawing: 3.9 Surfaces
Surface testing, Surface indications Measuring sections for roughness Periodic profiles (e.g. turning profiles)
Non-periodic profiles (e.g. grinding and lapping profiles)
Groove width RSmmm
Rz
Ra
1Jm
IJm
cf. DIN EN ISO 428811998411
Umit Single/ Periodic wavetotal profiles length evaluation (e.g. turning length profiles) IJm
Non-periodic profiles (e.g. grinding and lapping profiles)
Limit Single/ wavetotal length ev aluat.ion length
1,.1. mm
gr0011e width RSmmm
Rz
Ra
I'm
IJm
IJm
1,,1. mm
> 0.01 - 0.04
up to 0.1
upto0.02
0.06
0.08/0.4
> 0.13-0.4
> 0.&- 10
> 0.1- 2
0.8
0.8/4
> 0.04- 0.13
> 0.1- 0.5
> 0.02- 0.1
0.25
0.25/1 •.25
> 0.4-1.3
> 10- 50
> 2- 10
2.5
2.5/12.5
Indication of surface finish
v vr ~
~
cf. DIN EN ISO 1302 (2002-06)
M.nlng
Symbol
Adcltlonel mt~rb
All manufacturing processes are allowed. Material removal specified, e. g. turning, milling. Material rem011al not allowed or the surface remains in delivered condition.
(
e~
All surfaces around the contour must have the same su rlacefinish.
a surface parameter" with numerical value in 1Jm, trans· fer characteristicl'lindividual evaluation length in mm b secondary surface finish requirement (as described fora)
c
manufacturing process
d symbol for the required groove direction (table page 100) e machining deviation in mm
EXII~
Symbol
~
~
material rem011ing machining not allowed Rz = 10 1-1m (upper limit) • standard transfer charac1eristic3l standard evaluation length•' " 16% rule" 51
•
• • •
~ Rzmax 0.5
1)
21
31 41 51
61
Symbol
M.nlng
JRa8
Machining can be done as desired standard transfer characteristiCll Ra = 3.5 1Jm (upper lim it) standard evaluation length4' "16% rule•SI
• material removal machining • Rz = 0.51Jm (upper limit) • standard transfer characteristic:!l • standard evaluation length41 • "max. rule•&l
ground ~0.008-4/Ra 1.6
0.5
.L0.008-4/Ra 0.8
Me.Ung material removal machining Ra = 8 1-1m (upper limit) • standard transfer characteristic3' • standard evaluation length 41 • 16% rule" 51 • applies all around the contour
• material removal m achining • manufacturing process grinding • Ra= 1.61J m (upper limit) • Ra = 0.81Jm (lower limit) • for both Ra values: • 16% rule·Sl • transfer characteristic each 0.008 to 4 mm standard evaluation length•l machining deviation 0.5 mm surface grooves vertical
surface parameter, e. g. Rz, consists of the profile (here the roughness profile Rl and the parameters (here: zl. traMfer characteristic: wavelength range between the short wavelength filter ls and the long wavelength filter .1. 0 • The w avelength of the long wavelength filter corresponds to the single evaluation length 1,. If no transfer char· acteristic is entered, then the standard transfer characteristic appliesll. standard transfer characteristic: the limit wavelength for measurement of the roughness parameters is dependent upon the roughness profile and is taken from tables. standard evaluation length 10 5 5 x single evaluation length 1,. M16o/o rule": only 16% of all measured values may exceed the chosen parameter. Mmax. rule" ("highest value rule"): no measured value may exceed the specified highest value.
100
Technical drawing: 3.9 Surfaces
Surface finish symbols lndic:etion of surface finish
cf. DIN EN ISO 1302 (2002·06)
Symbola for groove ciNctlon
Repro· sentation of groove direction
Symbol Groove direction
..L parallel to the projection plane
perpen· dicularto the projection plane
X crossed in two angular directions
M
c
multi· directional
approximatelyconcentric to the center
p
R approxi· mately radial to the center
non-grooved surface, non· directional or troughs
S izM of the aymbola Letter height h in mm
2.5
legibility from below or from the right
3.5
5
7
10
14
20
0.5
0.7
1.0
1.4
2.0
d
0.25 0.35
H,
3.5
5
7
10
14
20
28
H,
8
11
15
21
30
42
60
Uyout directly on the surface or with reference and leader lines
E_.,.,... of chwlng entriea
,;z
~
~ ~(vi)
JY
101
Technical drawing: 3.9 Surfaces
Roughness of surfaces Recommended assignment of roughness values to ISO tolerance specific:ations11 Nominal si~e range from-to mm
Recommended values of Rzand Ra 1Jm
ISO tolerarn:e gr&cle
5 R~ 2.5 1- 6 0.4 Ra Rz 2.5 6 - 10 Ra 0.4 Rz 4 10- 18 Ra 0.8 Rz 4 18 - 80 Ra 0.8 Rz 6.3 80- 250 Ra 0.8 Rz 6.3 250- 500 Ra 0.8 Achievable roughness of surfaces11
6 4 0.8 4 0.8 4 0.8 6.3 0.8 10 1.6 10 1.6
7 6.3 0.8 6.3 0.8 6.3 0.8 10 1.6 16 1.6 16 1.6
8 6.3 1.6 10 1.6 10 1.6 16 3.2 25
3.2 25 3.2
9 10 1.6 16 3.2 16 3.2 16 3.2 25 3.2 40 6.3
10 16 3.2 25 6.3 25 6.3 40 6.3 40 6.3 63 12.5
11 25 6.3 40 12.5 40 12.5 63 12.5 63 12.5 100 25
~in
I'm for type of menufecturing Ra in IJm for type of manufacturing fine normal rough fine normal rough min. from-to max. min. from-to max.
Manufacturing process
"'
c: ·~
Cast.i ng:
.E
..E
~
Sintering:
' 1:
"-
4 10 25
Die casting Permanent mold casting Sandcasling Sinter smooth Calibrated smooth
-
-
Extrusion Ol
c
·~ 0
u..
.. c 0
~
~
0
Ol
c
'g (.)
Closed-die forming Rod extrusion Deep drawing sheet metal _......, Rolling: Burnishing M aterial WireEDM removal: Dlesinking Oxyacetylene cutting Cutting operations: laser cutting
-
~
4 10 4 0.4 0.1 0.8 1.5 16
-
Plasma cutting Shearing Water jet cutting Machining Drilling: Drilling in solid operations: Boring Countersinking Routing Turning: longitudinal turning Facing Milling: Peripheral, face milfing Honing: Super finishing long-stroke honing lapping Polishing Grinding
4 16 0.1 6.3 0.4 1 2.5 1.6 0.04 0.04 0.04
0.1
10- 100 25- 160 63- 250 2.5- 10 1.6- 7 25- 100 63- 400 25-100 4-10 0.5- 6.3 2.8 - 10 5- 10 40-100 10-100 6- 280 10-63 16-100 40-160 2.5-25 10-25 4-10 4-63 10-63 10-63 0.1 - 1 1-11 0.25- 1.6 0.04- 0.25 1.6-4
160 250 1000
-
-
-
-
400 1000 400 16 10 16 31 1000
0.8 0.8 0.8 0.2 0.025 0.1 0.2 3.2
-
-
400 250 40 40 25 250 250 160 2.5 15 10 0.4 25
1.6 1.6 0.05 0.8 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.006 0.006 0.006
0.012
0.8-30 3.2- 50 12.5- 50 0.4-1 .6 0.3-0.8 3.2- 12.5 2.5- 12.5 3.2- 12.5 1-3.2 0.06-1.6 0.4-1 0.45 8 - 16 1- 10 1- 10 1.6- 12.5 6.3 - 25 6.3- 12.5 0.4-3.2 1.6- 6.3 0.8- 2 0.8-12.5 1.6-12.5 1.6-12.5 0.02-0.17 0.13- 0.65 0.025- 0.2 0.005-0.035 0.2-0.8
-
-
25 25 25 6.3 2 3.2 6.3 50
-
50 25 12.5 12.5 6.3 50 50 25 0.34 1.6 0.21 0.05 6.3
11 Roughness values, as long as they are not contained in DIN 4766-1 (cancelled) are according to SJ)e<:
Read·out example: reaming (for surface characteristic Rzl
fine fmishing
Rz ... =0.4
Rz:4
conven~ finishing
Rz:10
rough finishing
....:::::::s;;, Rz ..., =25
102
Technical drawing: 3.10 Tolerances and Fits
ISO system of limits and fits Terms
cf. DIN ISO 286-1 0990-1 1)
Hole N
GuH G,H ES El TH
shaft nominal sit e hole max. dimension hole min. dimension hole upper deviation hole lower deviation hole tolerance
N
Gus G,s
es ei Ts
nominal dimension shaft max. dimension shaft min. dimension shaft upper deviation shaft lower deviation shaft tolerance
, - - nominal dimension
, - - nominal dimension
.J.. .r.-- tolerance cless ¢20H7 T'L- tolerance grede L - fundamental deviation
.J.. .r.-- tolerance class ¢20s6 T"<---- tolerance grade L - fundamental deviation
Explenation ZMOIIne
It represents the nominal dimension that is Fundarn«rt. A group of tolerances assigned to same referenced by the deviations and tolerances. tolerwM:e level of precision, e.g IT7. grade
Fundamental The fund. deviation detormln. the position of Tolerance deviation the tolerance zone with resp. t o tho zero line. grade
Number of the fundamental tol. grade, e.g. 7 for tho fundamental tolerance grade
Difference between tho max. and the min. Tolerance dimension o r between the upper and lower etas deviation.
Name for a combination of a fundamen· tal deviation and a tolerance grade, e.g. H7.
m.
Fundamental A tolerance assigned to a fundamental tole- At tolerance ranee grade, e.g. IT7 and a nominal dimension range, e.g. 30 to 50 mm.
Planned joining condition between hole and shaft.
Limits, deviations and tolerances
cf. DIN ISO 28&1 (1990· 11)
Hole
Sh.tt G uH=
N+ ES
Gus
= N + es
GIH =
N+ El
G1s
= N+ ei
Ts = es- ei
Example: Shaft 0 20e8; G,s = 1; Ts = 1 For values f or eiand es see page 107. ei=-731Jm =-0.073 mm; es - -40 1-1m • -0.040 mm G,s • N + ei • 20 mm + (- 0.073 mm) = 19.927 mm Ts = es- ei= - 40 1Jm - (-731Jm) • 331'm
Ex ample: Hole 050 + 0.3/+ 0.1; GuH = ?; TH = 1
GvH • N + ES s 50mm + 0.3mm =50.30 mm TH c ES-E/=0.3mm-0. 1 mm - 0.2mm
Rts
cf. DIN ISO 286·1 (1990·11)
Clearance fit Fem.x max. clearance Fem;n min. clearance
Fcmin =
G1H - Gus
Transition fit Fr::m;.x max. clearance fim.x max. interference
lnterl•ence fit limax max. interference limon min. interference
I I Fcmax =GuH - G1s I
Example: Fit 0 30 H8/f7; Fenu.x • ?; Fe.- • ? For values for ES, El, es, ei see page 107. GuH • N + ES • 30 mm + 0.033 mm = 30.033 mm G1H = N + El = 30 mm + 0 mm = 30.000 mm
G..tt ~
=
N + ES = 30 mm + (-0.020 mm) = 29.980 mm = N + ES 30 mm + (-0.041 mm) • 29.959 mm
=
Fem.x c GuH - G,s = 30.033 mm- 29.959 mm =0.074 mm Fcm.n = G,H- Gus = 30.000 mm - 29.980 mm = 0.02 mm
103
Technical drawing: 3.10 Tolerances and Fits
ISO system of limits and fits fit systems
cf. DIN ISO 286-1 (1990- 11)
rrt 1ystem: basic hole 1ystem (all hole dimensions have the fundamental deviation H) Examples for nominal dimension 25, tolerance grade 7
Fundamental deviations lor shafts
•40
I'm ·20 ·10
o ~~-L--~~--~~~
transition ftts
-
-10
-20 - 30 interference fits
-40
transition lit
interference lit
rrt system: basic sheft system (all shalt dimensions have the fundamental deviation h) Fu ndamental allowances for holes
Examples l or nomina l dimension 25, tolerance grade 6
.so jim
·30 ·20 · 10
or-,...---,..r-~~--~
-10 -20 -30 -1.0
-SO
clearance fit
The limit deviations of the tolerance grade for the fundamental deviations h, js, H and JS can be derived from the fundamental tolerances: h: es = 0; ei = -IT js: es = + fT/2; ei = - IT/2 H: ES = +IT; El = 0 JS: ES =+ IT/2; El = -IT/2
tolerance grade
to IT13
ITS to
IT12
Table applies to Nominal dimension over-to mm
ITS to IT13
ITS to IT10
IT3 to IT10
g
h
IT3 to
IT1 to IT18
rno
k ITS to fT8
IT3 to IT13 over
rn
all fundamentalrolerance grades
IT3 to IT9
m
all fundamenral tolerance grades
- 60 - 30
- 10
0
- 12
+2
0
+11
-n
-36
-12
0
-15
+3
0
+13
-85 -43
-14
0
- 18
+3
0
+15
-110
- 100
- 50
- 15
0
- 21
+4
0
+17
- 190
- 110
- 56
- 17
0
- 26
+4
0
+20
-18
0
-28
+4
0
+21
-20
0
-32
+5
0
+23
- 135
-68
IT3to IT10
Lower deviation ei in tJm
Upper deviation es in IJm
- 230
IT3 to IT9
+37
Umit deviations for fundamental tolerance grades given in the table row "Table applies to' (above and page 105) can be calculated using tables on this page and page 105 and the formulas below. The values necessary for the lunda· mental tolerances IT are found in the table on page 103. Formulas
for shaft deviations
ei= es-IT
Example 1: Shah (outside dimension) 0 40g5; es= 1; ei= 1
es (table above) = - 9 tJm ITS (table page 103) • 11 tJm ei ~ es - IT s -9 jJm - ,, IJm e - 20 IJm
for hole deviations
El = ES- IT ES= El+ IT
Example 2: Hole (inside dimension)
0 lOOKS; ES= 1; El= 1 ES (table page 105) = -3tJm + t. (Value lJ. for fundamental tolerance grade IT6 ace. to table, bonom of page 105: 7 tJm) ES = -3 1Jm + 7 1Jm = 4 1Jm IT6 (table page 103) = 22 IJm El • ES- IT • 4tJm-221Jm • -181Jm zero line
100 ES
~ndamental .L...L__ _ ___,_t n
ei
r-'----.....,-,
tolerance .
IT El (fundamental tolerance ..1-J' - - -~ ---L...L iS tolerance n tolerance zone for hole
105
c
E
0
ITS
lTG
ITS
10
10
10
IT13
IT13
IT10
F
G
H
IT3 IT3 IT1 lTG to to to to IT10 IT10 IT1S ITS
tolerance grade
M
N
IT3 to IT10
IT3 to IT10
IT3 to IT11
ITStoiT10
m
0 +60
- 4 +l> - 21 +!1 - 37 +l>
0 +66
-5 +l> - 23 +l> - 40 +l>
6
10
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
10
18
30
50
80
120
180
250
3 15
400
400 to 500
1
1.5
1.5
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
1.5
1.5
2
2
3
4
4
4
5
3
3
5
5
G
G
4 7
5
2
3 4
7
7
3 6 7
3 7
5 9
G
7
7
9
9
11
13
s
11
13
15
17
20
21
23
9
12
14
1G
19
23
26
29
32
34
ITS ITS
3
m
4
ITS
6
18
4
50
IT3toiT10 to
IT3 to ITS
s
s
6
3
30
P.R.
to
IT3 IT4
K
ITS
ell fundamental tolerance grades
FundllmenUI
J
80
120
180
250
315
106
Technical drawing: 3.10 Tolerances and fits
ISO fits Basic hole system
cf. DIN ISO 286-2 (1990.11) Limit deviations in 1Jm for tolerance classes 11
Nominal dimension range over-to mm
upto 3 3-6 6-10 10- 14 14- 18 18-24 24- 30 30-40 40- 50 50-65 65- 80 80-100 100- 120
lor hole
~ 16 0 t6 0
for shafts
arance, transition. int
fit hS 0 -4 0
-6
j5
k6
315-355 355-400 400-450 450-500 1'
h6
•tO
-6
-2
0
0
-16 - 10
-8
-6
j6
k6
m6
+8 +12 +18 +2.3 -3 +1 +7 +12
... +23
+28
+5 +15 +24 -4 +2 +11
+37 +28
t21 0
- 20 -7 0 -41 -20 - 13
+9 +15 +21 t-28 -4 +2 +8 +15
+-'1 +28
+48 +311
+5 +12 -3 +1
0
0 -9
+16 0
0 - 11
t-6 +16 -5 +2
+28 +17
+19 0
0 - 13
+6 +21 -7
...••
+22 0
0 - 15
+6 +25 -9 +3 +23
t-25 0
0 - 18
+7 - 11
..29 0
0 - 20
+7 +33 - 13 +4
+32 0
0 -23
+7 +36 - 16 +4
0 - 25
...
-4
0
0 ·15 0
-22 - 12
-8
- 13 -6 - 28 - 14
0 ..g
+4 +6 +8 t-10 +4 -2 0 +2 +6 t-9 +12 +16 +4 ... 8 -2 +1 +7 +10 +15 +19 - 2 +1 +6 +10
• \2
ns
+14
0
.. ...
•30
.... 1
...
- 25
-9
0 +1 1 +18 +25 +33 -5 +2 +9 +17
-50 - 25 -16
-30 -10
0 t- 12 t-2 1 +30 +39 -60 - 29 - 19 -7 +2 +11 +20
+II +4S t8l
0
~
t35 0
-36 -12
+40 0
-43 -14 0 + 14 +28 +40 +52 -83 -39 -25 - 11 +3 +15 t-27
+46 0
-50 - 15 0 +16 +33 +46 +60 -96 -44 -29 - 13 +4 +17 +31
I +121
+52 0
- 56 - 17 0 +16 t-36 +52 +66 - 108 -49 - 32 - 16 +4 +20 +34
+133 +7 t-40 t82 I +108 -18 +4 +37 +139
+57 0
-62 -18 0 +18 +40 +57 +73 - 119 -64 - 36 - 18 +4 +21 +37
~63
-68 -20 0 t-20 +45 +63 t-80 - 131 -60 -40 -20 +5 +23 +40
+2
+28 +3
....
..... t81
I
.a .a
.....,
+'Z7 l.el t8l
I
+n
+&1 +100 +31 l..ao
•* ....
..., ....
... ....
0 +13 +25 +35 +45 -71 -34 - 22 -9 +3 +13 +23
0
- 27
.,,
+163 +7 +45 +fS1 I +128 - 20 +5 +40 +118 +132
+10 +23 +111 +28 +111
0
The tolerance classes in bold print correspond to row 1 in DIN 7 157; their use is preferable.
+'Z7 +111 +32
+23 +31
... •• +110
+43
t80 +-'1
+72 +13
+78 +18 .n +83 +&1 +71 +71 +101 +71 +117
t82 +43
........ ... .a
+117
+40 0
.zo
- 16 -6 0 -34 - 17 - 11
..
-8
"¥36 0
...,. .,,• lit
n6
.-18 0
.,.
•1 1 0
225-250
280-315
g6
...........
+31 +23
+13 t8
0
180-200
250- 280
n
transition til
+12
+8 +4
-6
160-180
200- 225
clearance fit
+10
+3 -2 +4 -2
+6 0 +9 +1 +10 +1
120-140 140-160
~
for shafts Paired with an H7 hole results in a
+M +10 +20 +15 +211 +111
±2
0
0
rl
n5
~9
•13
for hole
Paired with an H6 hole results in a
+112 +10 +125 +100 +83 +133 t88 +108 +108 +151 +77 +122 +1158 t80 +130 +113 +189 +1..0 +12e +190 +1&8 +130 +202 +170 +144 +221 +108 +190 +11iD +2M +208 +188 +'Z72 +128 +232 +172 +292 +132 +252
•• ....
....
...
.,,
107
Technical drawing: 3.10 Tolerances and fits
ISO fits Basic hole system Nominal dimension range over-to mm
up to 3 3 -6 6- 10 10-14 14- 18 18- 24 24-30 30- 40 40- 50 50-65 65-80 80- 100 100-1 20
cf. DIN ISO 286-2 (1990-1 1)
.....
Umit deviations in 11m fO< tolera nce classes'' for shafts for for shafts hole Paired with an HS hole Paired with an H11 hole results in a results In a
for hole
clearance fit
~
~ -..14 0 +22 0
-40 - 76
e8 - 14 -28 - 20 -38 -25 -47
127 0
-50 -93
- 32 -59
0 +18
d9
- 20 -45 -30 ~
n ~
-16 - 10
- 22 -13 - 28 - 16 -34
h9
0 -25 0 -30 0 -36 0 -43
•33 ~5 0 - 117
-40 -73
-20 -41
0 -52
+"39 -80 0 - 142
-50 -89
- 25 -50
0 -62
+46 - 100 ~ 0 - 174 - 106
-30
160-180
...... .. B
.tS4 -120
-72 0 - 207 -126
~
-36 -71
- 95
-400 - 205
-50 - 93
-50 - 160
0 0 -43 - 110
t-130 0
-300 - 110 -430 - 240
-65 - 117
-65 - 195
0 0 - 52 - 130
-80 - 142
-80 - 240
0 0 -62 - 160
- 100 - 174
- 100 - 290
0 0 - 74 - 190
- 120 -207
- 120 -340
0 0 -87 -220
- 145 -245
- 145
-395
0 0 - 100 - 250
......., ... .., .., .... ....
..... ... +74 +41
..,
·...=-..... ....
.. !60 0
.-190 0
+110
..,
+271 +373
410 +308 +231 -50 0 +330 - 96 - 115 +258
+310 +422 +360
-so
-310 - 120 -470 - 280 -320 - 130 -480 - 290 -340 -140 -530 -330 -360 - 150
~
0 - 25 0
-30 0 -36
....,
........ .. ....... ..,.. ..., .. .,. .....,
..,
~
0 -75 0 -90
-550 -340 -380 -170
t-220 0
-600 - 390 -410 -180 -630 -400 200 -460
.250 0
-710 -450 -520 - 210
-no
-460
-580 -230 -830 -480
~ -240 -s50 -530 ·t72 -170 -100 +290 -740 - 260 - 170 - 170 0 200-225 +315 0 - 1030 -550 -285 -460 -115 0 - 285 - 172 -820 - 280 225-250 -1110 -570 +Gii - 920 -300 250- 280 ..a, - 190 - 110 -56 0 +311 +475 +320 -1240 ~2 0 -190 - 190 0 0 -1 050 -330 -320 -510 - 130 0 -320 - 191 - 108 - 130 +431 280-315 -1370 -650 +310 +&21 -1200 -360 +C7I 315-355 +360 -1560 -720 - 210 -210 0 +89 - 210 - 125 -62 0 +3110 0 - 1350 -400 - 350 -570 -140 0 -350 -214 - 119 - 140 355-400 - 1710 -760 +4311 +810 - 1500 -440 ..eB7 +837 400-450 0 +97 -230 -135 ~ 0 +4111 +740 +400 -1900 -840 -230 -230 0 -1650 -480 -385 -630 -155 0 -385 -232 - 131 -155 +837 +117 450- 500 - 2050 -880 +820 11 The tolerance classes in bold print correspond to row 1 in DIN 7157; their use is preferable. 21 DIN 7157 recommends: nominal dimensions up to 24 mm: H81x8; nominal dimensions over 24 m m: H8/u8.
180- 200
h11 0
-290
•
43 I +72
..., .,...
0 -43 -83 - 100
h9
-40 - 78
d11 -20 -80 - 30 - 105 -40 - 130
t-110 0
+34
.m1
-145 -85 0 - 245 - 148
d9 - 20 -45 -30
+40
...
+21
.a
+144 .z10
..sa
a11 ell - 270 ~ -330 - 120 - 270 - 70 - 345 -145 -280 -370 - 170
... ... .. +11 +41 +ZI
• 1• +131 +lO +131 •1• 0 +122 - 74 +112 +101 +141 +171 +232 0 +124 +178
-m
clearance fit
t60 0 +75 0 ,..go 0"
+34 +20
+111
120- 140 140- 160
......... •
0 -290
0 - 320
0 -360
0 -400
108
Technical drawing: 3.10 Tolerances and fits
ISO fits '
Basic shaft system
cf. DIN ISO 28&-2 (1990-11)
Limit deviations in 11m for tolerance classes11 Nominal dimension range over- to mm
upto 3 3- 6 6-10 10- 18 18- 30 30-40 40 - 50 50-65 65-80 80-100 100- 120
lor shafts
lor holes
..g
clearance fit H6 +6 0 +8 0 +9 0 +11 0 +13 0
0 - 11
+16 0
+10
0
+13
- 13
+19 0
0 - 15
+22 0
+16
~ 0
4
0 -5 0
-6 0
...a 0
transition .......... fit • J6
M6
+2 - 2 -4 -8 +5 - 1 -3 - 9 +5 -3 -4 -12 +6 -4 - 5 - 15 +8 -4 - 5 - 17
0 - 18
+25 0
.... - 11
-5 -6 -24
-6 -6 - 28
+18 -8 -7 -33
160- 180
- 10 ..;o
-21 41
0 - 16
+64 +34 +25 +14 +7 0 ...a 0 -11 -18 -25 -33 +25 +9
-21
0 IJ·- 19
+76 +40 +30 +18 +9 0 -9 0 -12 -21 -30 -39 +30 +10
0 - 22
+90 +47 +35 +22 +10 0 - 10 0 -13 -25 -35 -45 +36 +12
..f2
...... --81
M7
R7
-31
-21 - 1f
-8
K7
-4 -14 -4 - 16 -4 - 19 -5 - 23 -7 - 28
0 -9 0 - 11 0 - 13
.
J7
N7
H7
+10 +4 0 -2 0 - 6 - 10 -12 +12 +6 +3 0 0 -6 -9 - 12 +15 +8 +5 0 0 - 7 - 10 - 15 +18 +10 +6 0 0 -8 - 12 -18 +21 +12 +6 0 0 - 9 - 15 -21
0 -6 0
0 - 25
+106 +54 +40 +26 +12 0 -12 0 -14 -28 -40 -52 +43 +14
280 -315 315 - 355 355 - 400 400-450 450 - 500 11
- '14
- 24 - 15 -D - 17
-42 -21 -311
..;o
-D
-41
~
-a -10
....
-30
-a
-34
- 72 -42 ~ ..f2 - 78 -38 -73 ~ -41 -78 - 101
-10
.... ....
........ ... -10 -10 - 1211
..a
~
~
- 133 -10 - 1CI6 -1oe - 151
-41 -'JO
0 - 20
+29 0
+22 -8 -7 -37
-2Z -11
0 - 23
+32 0
+25 ..g - 7 -41
-a
-41
0
..fil
-79
- 32
+137 +69 +56 +17
0 - 25
+36 0
+29 - 10 - 7 -46
...
-61 -f/1
0 - 36
+151 +75 +62 +18
0 - 27
+40 0
+33 -10 -7 -50
0 -40
+1 65 +83 +68 +20
0
-29
+122 +61 +46 +30 +13 0 -14 +50 +15 0 -16 -33 -46 -60
225-250 250-280
- 11 -13 - 1S -28 - 1f -34
S7
- 77 - 117
180-200 200 - 225
...
.........
It
G7
- 11 -31 -31
transition fit
+12 +2 +16 +4 +20 +5 +24 +6 +28 +7
.. ... - '14
clearance ftt +20 +6 +28 +10 +35 +13 +43 +16 +53 +20
- 1f -a'! - 11
-a.
~
Paired with an h6 shaft results in a
F8
- 13 - 17 - 7 - 12
-4 - 12 -6 -20 -28
120- 140 140- 160
N -4 ~ - 10 - 12 ..
~
for holes
lor shafts
Paired with an h5 shaft results in a
-28
-a -ff1
......
-13 - 113
- 108 - 158 -ff1 - 123 - 113 - 1· - 74 - 138 +52 +36 +16 0 -14 - 121 - 180 0 -16 -36 -52 -66 -78 - 110 - 130 -f/1 - 1· +57 +39 +17 0 -16 - 144 -228 0 - 18 -40 -57 - 73 - 187 -1110 -ZM - 103 -208 +63 +43 +18 0 - 17 - 188 -D2 0 -20 -45 -63 -80 -108 -229 - 172 ...az
The tolerance classes in bold print correspond to row 1 in DIN 7157; their use is preferable.
... --
109
Technical drawing: 3.10 Tolerances and fits
ISO fits Basic shaft system
cf. DIN ISO 286-2 0990-11) Limit deviations in I'm
Nominal dimension range
for shafts
over~to
~
mm
bls 3 3- 6
0 - 25 0
30
6- 10 10- 18 18-30 30-40 40-50 50-65 65-80 80- 100 100- 120
0 - 36 0 - 43 0 - 52 0 62
0 - 74
0 - 87
120- 140 140-160
0 - 100
160- 180 180-200 200-225
0 - 115
280-315 315- 355 355-400 400-450 450..000 1 1 The
for holes Pairing with an h9 shaft results in a clearance fit C11
for shafts transition fit
~
E9
F8
H8 flwJSg21 Ng31
P9
+39 +14 +50 +20 +61 +25 +75 +32 +92 +40
+20 +06 +28 +10 +35 +13 +43 +16 +53 +20
+14 0 +18 0 +22 0 +27 0 +33 0
+ 12,5 - 12,5 +15 - 15 +18 -18 +21,5 -21,5 +26 - 26
0 - 43 0 -52
- 6 - 31 - 12 - 42 - 15 -51 - 18 -61 - 22 - 74
+ 112 +50
+64 +25
+39 0
+31 -31
0 - 62
- 26 -88
0 - 160
+134 +60
+76 + 30
+46 0
+37 - 37
0 -32 - 74 -1 06
0 - 190
+159 +72
+90 +36
+54 +43,5 0 -43,5
0 - 37 -87 -124
0 - 220
+ 185 + 85
+106 +43
+63 0
+50 - 50
0 -43 - 100 - 143
0 - 250
+215 +100
+122 + 50
+72 +57,5 0 -57,5
0 - 50 - 115 - 165
0 - 290
+400 + 240 +190 +110
+137 +56
+81 0
+65 -65
0 -56 - 130 - 186
0 -320
+440 + 265 +210 +125
+ 151 +62
+89 0
+70 -70
0 -62 - 140 -202
0 - 360
+480 +290 +230 +135
+ 165 +68
+97 0
.. n.s -n .s
0 - 68 -155 -223
0 -400
010
+120 +60 +60 +20 +145 +78 +70 +30 + 170 +98 +80 +40 + 205 + 120 +95 +50 +240 +149 + 65 + 110 +280 +120 +180 -:;:290 +80 +1 30 +330 +140 + 220 +340 +100 +150 + 390 +170 +260 +400 +120 + 180 +450 +200 +460 +305 +210 +145 +480 +230 +530 +240 +550 +355 +260 +170
-4
- 29 0 - 30 0
-36
0
-ro 0 - 75 0 - 90 0 - 110 0 - 130
illO
225- 250 250- 280
for tolerance classes 11
0 - 130
0 - 140
0 - 155
+280 +620 +300 +650 +330 +720 +360 +760 +400 +840 +440 +880 +480
for holes Pairing with an h 11 shaft results in a clearance fit A11
C11
010
+330 +270 +345 +270 +370 +280 +400 +290 +430 +300 +470 +310 +480 +320 +530 +340 +550 +360 +600 +380 +630 + 410 + 710 +460
+120 +60 +145 +70 +170 +80 +205 +95 +240 + 110 +280 +120 +290 + 130 +330 +140 +340 +150 +390 + 170 +400 +180 +450 +200 +460 +210 +480 +230 + 530 +240 + 550 +260 +570 +280 +620 +300 +650 +330 +720 +360 +760 +400 +840 +440 +880 + 480
+60 +60 +20 0 +78 +75 +30 0 +98 +90 +40 0 + 120 +11 0 +50 0 +149 + 130 +65 0
.. no +520 +820 +580 + 950 + 660 +1030 +740 + 1110 +820 +1240 +920 + 1370 +1050 +1560 +1200 + 1710 +1 350 +1900 +1500 + 2050 +1650
+180 +160 +80 0
+220 +190 + 100 0
+260 +220 +120 0
+305 +250 + 145 0
+355 +290 + 170 0
+400 +320 +190 0
+440 +360 +210 0
+480 +400 +230 0
tolerance classes in bold print correspond to row 1 in DIN 7157; their use is preferable.
2J The tolerance zones J9/JS9, J10/JS10 etc. are all identical in size and are symmetrical to the zero line.
31 Tolerance class N9 may not be used for nominal dimensions s 1mm.
H11
110
Technical drawing: 3.10 To lerances and Fits
General tolerances, Roller bearing fits General tolerances 1l for
linear and angular dimensions
cf. DIN ISO 2768· 1 (1991·061
LIMwclmelllkM• Tole~ance
Limit deviations in mm f or nominal dimension ranges
class
0.5 to 3
f (fine) m (medium) c (coarse) v (very coarse)
over3 t o6
over6 to30
~0.05
~0.05
~0.1
:t0.1
:t 0.1 :t0.3 :t0.5
:o:0.2 :t0.5 :t1
~0.2
-
Tolerance class
over30 to 120
over 120 to400
:t0.15 :!:0.3
.. o.2 :t0.5 % 1.2 :t2.5
:o.O.S .. 1.5
Radii and ........
limit deviations in mm for nominaf dimension ranges
f (fine) m (medium) c (coarse) v {very coerso
0.5 103
over3 to6
:t0.2
:t0.5
x0.4
over 1000 to2000
over2000 to4000
-
:t0.3 ~ 0.5 :t0.8 :t 1.2 %2 :t3 :t 4 :t6 Angul8r clmenslons
:t 2 %4 :a:8
Limit deviations in degrees and minutes for nominal dimension ranges (shorter angle leg)
6
over 10 to 50
t o 10
.. ,.
:t l
%1
over400 to 1000
1
x2
1• 3()'
.. 3.
over 50 to 120
over 120 to400
400
s·
:t0"30'
.. 0" 20'
:t0° 10'
.. o•
% ,.
.. o• 30' .. 1.
.. o• 15' .. o• 30'
"o• 1o· .. o• 2o·
.. 2•
General tolerances'' for form and position
cf. DIN ISO 2768·2 (1991-041 Tolerances m m m for
run
stnightand fletnominal dimension ranges in mm
Tolerance class
up to 10 H K L
0.02 0.05 0. 1
over 10 to 30 0.05 0. 1 0.2
over 30 to 100 0. 1 0.2 0.4
aymmetry nominal dim. ranges in mm nominal dim. ranges in mm (shorter feature) (shorter angle legl over over over over over 300 1000 up to 100 300 1000 up to over 100 over 300 over 1000 100 100 to to to to to to to to 1000 3000 300 1000 3000 300 1000 3000 0 ..2 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.6 0.8 1 0.6 I 0.8 I 1 1.2 1.6 0.6 1 1.5 2 0.6 l 1 1 1.5 1 2
,I I I
over 100 to 300 0.2 0.4 0,8
11General tolerances~ to dimensions without individual tolerance entry. Drawing
0.1 0.2 0.5
entry page 80.
Tolerances for the installation of roller bearings
cf. DIN 5425· 1 (1984-111
Radi.a bewing Inner ring (shaft) load case
circum-
• • ferential
Outer ring (housing) Funda~l~ations f or shafts11 with
Fit
Load
transition or interference
low
h, k
k,m
m edium
j, lc, m
lc, m,n,p
ball boaring rolle< bearing
frt required
high
clearance fit allowed
arbitrarily large
m,n
n, p, r
Load
Fit
case
i
clearance
frt allowed
an:l.n>-
point load
• ferenlial
loadt ~
j, h,g, f
Thrust bewing load type
Bearing construction ~ ~
Combined radiaVaxialload
ang ular contact ball bearing spherical roller bearing tapered roller bearing
Pure axial load
ball bearing roller bearing
11Fu ndamental
Load
Fundamental deviations for housings11with ball bearing 1 roller bearing
arbitrarily large
J, H, G, F
uansition
low
J
K
or inter· terence
medium
K,M
M,N
high
-
N, P
fit required
Shaft washer (shaft) Housing plate (housing) Fundamental deviat. Fundamental deviations for shafts11 for housing 11 Load case Load case circumfer. po int j, lc, m H, J load load paint circum fer. j K,M load load
-
h, j, k
-
H, G, E
tolerance g rades: for shafts typically IT6, f or bores typically IT7. If the smoothness and accuracy of running must satisfy increased requirem ents. also smaller t olerance g rades are specified.
111
Technical drawing: 3.10 Tolerances and fits
Fit recommendations, possible fits Fit recommendations 11
I
cf. DIN 7157 (1~ 1 1
From row 1 C11/h9, D10/h9, E9/h9, F8/h9, H81f7, From row
F8/h6, H7/f7, H8/h9, H7Jh6. H7/n6, H7/r6, H8/l
21 C1 1/h11, D10/h11 , H81d9. H8/e8, H7/g6, G7Jh6. H11/h9, H7(r6. H7/k6, H7/s6
Possible fits (examples) Basic hole~!
0 !WJ
0 !IE
0 llJijJ
----
cf. DIN 7157 (1966-011 Characteristic/application examples
Basic shaft21
a...- fits H81d9
Loose running rrt Clearance allows for loose frt of mating parts. (I.e. spacer sleeves on shafts}
H81e8
Free running rrt (Medium running fit}: Suffocient clearance is allowed for ease of assembly. (I. e. collar on shaft)
D10/h9
E9/h9
(II) 0
0
CSose running fit: Clearance allows for parts to be easily assemHB/n
bled by hand while maintaining location accuracy. (I.e. plain bearing of shalt}
!IE]
F8/h9
0
H11n
Sliding rrt - free: Clearance allows accurate location and free movement, including turning. (i.e. piston valves in cylinders)
F8/h6
0
H7/g6
Sl iding fit - constrained: Clearance allows better locational accuracy while still allowing sliding or turning movement. (I.e. transmission gear on shaft)
G7Jh6
o r;JE'J
H8/h9
M inimal clearance fit: Allows locational accuracy and hand force assembly without being a snug lit. (i.e. spacer sleeves}
H8/h9
0 r:JEt
H7/h6
H7/h6
0 aiR
h6
l.oeationel clearance lit Allows snug lit of stationary parts that may be assembled by hand force. (i.e. punch in punch holder}
onn - J6
H71j6
Locationel transition fit - c:learance: For accurate location allowing more clearance than interference. (i.e. gears on shafts}
H7/n6
Locationel transition fit - interference: For accurate location where interference is pennissible. (i.e. drill bushing in jigs}
H7/r6
l.ocetional interlerence fit For rigidity and alignment/accurate location without special bore requirements. (i.e. bushings in housings}
H7/s6
Medium drive fit: For ordinary steel parts or shrink tits of light sections. lightest fit possible for cast iron. (i.e. plain bearing bushings)
H8/u8
Foree fit For parts fining that can withstand high mechanical pressing force or shrink fining. (i.e. wheel on axte}
H8/x8
Extreme force lit For parts that can only be assembled by stretching or shrinking. (i.e. turbine blade on shaft)
0 ~
0
pan
g6
0 130
0 _...
T.-.itlon fits
ell
---h6
h6
not specified n6
o lliE -
0 -
0 ~
0 ~
r·6
-s6
lnterfer.nc:e fits
not specified
0
.a
11 ~~
Deviations from these fit recommendations should only be made in exceptional cases. e.g. installation of roller bearings. The fits in bold print are tolerance combinations according to row 1. Their use is preferred.
11 2
Technical d rawing: 3. 10 Tolerances and fits
Geometric tolerancing Tolerances of geometry. orientation, location and run-out
cf. DIN EN ISO 1101 (2()()6.{)21
Structure of tolerance spec:ifications Detum
Toler..-d element
. ,.._~-·~oo""" "'~ 11 03 A
·-"" ~""moon.,... datum lener Datum element A
Symbol of tolerance type
datum line
.
datum base
datum lener tolerance value
toleranced element
• Datum Is the
datum line with datum arrow
•
• The tolerance applies to the
~ '!f
l¥1
1_-3_--·3
surface line
E}Jq"."' fS-rf
~
t t-·-·-8
m''i" I :1 I ~
Ettr
center plane
s~
line
lnciCIItlona In drewlngs of detum ~IS lind tolerM>Ced elemerots Datum
Simple datum
®~
Example
Multiple datum (two or three elements)
Common datum
t·-~
--·
Datum in feature Individual datum lener control frame
~~~'I
[11 1~~
Datum leners separated with hyphens
Order of datum leners according to their importance
ExempiH ~ 16·031·01
'
-LJ-
"'"WE ]~
;
~Sf7
.l ¢004IA I A
The axis of the hole must run perpendicular (tolerance value 0.04 mm) to the datum surface.
A
The center plane of the slot must run symmetrically to the center plane of the exterior surface (tolerance value 0.1 mm).
. rFt?l'""'" • "
I
1+10.061 C I
gj2Sh6
c
$
The cylindrical surface ¢24g6 must run true to the axis ¢201c6 and the flat surface must be planar (tolerance value 0.05 mm).
Indication in drawings
The slot must lie symmetrical (tolerance value 0.06 mm) and parallel (tolerance value 0.02 mm) to the axis ¢ 25h6. cf. DIN ISO 1101 (1985-031
characteristic
Repr-.tion lndrewing
symbols
(enmples)
Geometric
11.""'~
l 8P9
~T ~IIII0.02IC I
Explanation
Tolerance zone
At all points across width b. the surface curve must lie between two parallel lines spaced t = 0 .1 mmapart
~-~
The toleranced axis ofthe shaft must lie within a cylinder with diameter t = 0.04 mm.
~
The toleranced surface must be loeat.e d between two parallel planes spaced apart a distance of t=0.03mm.
~
Geometric tolerences
--
CJ
Straightness
Flatness
DEr
413~ ~
0
~
113
Technical drawing: 3. 10 Tolerances and fits
Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing GO & T Indications in drawings (continued)
ct. DIN EN ISO 1101 12006·02) Tolerance zona
R~lon
In drawing Tolerances of form (continued)
0
Circu· larity
The cone's circumferential line must lie between two concentric circles spaced apart at a distance of I • 0.08 mm in each point of the cone length 1.
Cylindricity
The shell surface of the cylinder must lie between two coaxial cylinders, which are spaced apart at a radial distance of 1 • 0.1 mm.
~~ofile ~ line
R L_Il B
The profile line mll$t lie between two enveloping lines, whose gap is bounded by circles of diameter 1 ; 0.05 mm in each point of the workpiece thickness b. The centers of these circles lie on a geometrically ideal line. The surface of the sphere must lie between two enveloping surfaces, whose gap 1 • 0.3 mm is created by spheres. The centers of these spheres lie on the geometrically ideal surface.
Profile of surface V>
II
l_
L.
Paral· lei ism
The hole's centerline must lie between two parallel planes spaced apart at a distance of t • 0.01 mm. The planes are parallel to datum line A and datum plane B and in line with the defined direction (vertical in this case).
The hole's centerline must lie within a cylinder of diameter 1 • 0.03 mm. The centerline of this cylinder is parallel to datum line (axis) A.
Perpen· dicularity
Angularity
The hole's centerline must lie within a cylinder of diameter 1 • 0.1 mm that is perpendicular to datum plane A.
<'-~··-,. '><._..: ...
datum
---- ~
pt.aneA
The plane surface must lie between two planes perpendicular to datum line A that are spaced apart at a distance of I • 0.03 mm.
The hole's centerline must lie within a cylinder of diameter t ; 0.1 mm. The centerline of the cylinder is parallel to datum plane Band inclined at a theoretically exact angle of a E 45• with reference to datum plane A. The inclined plane must lie between rwo parallel planes spaced at a distance of 1• 0.15 mm that are inclined at a theoretically exact angle of a : 75• w ith reference to datum line A.
T-~---
datum lineA
114
Technical draw ing: 3. 10 Tolerances and fits
Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing GO & T Indications In drawings (continued)
cf. DIN EN ISO 1101 (2006-021 Tol.,.nOII -
T~ of locetlon
The hole's centerline must lie within a cylinder of diameter I • 0.05 mm. The cylinder's centerline must coincide with the theoretically exaC1 loca· tion of the hole's centerline in regard to the datum planes A. B and C. The surface must lie between two parallel planes spaced apan at a distance of I • 0.1 mm that are symmetrical to the theoretically exae1 location o f the toleranced surface in regard to datum plane A and datum line B.
The center of the hole must lie in a circle of diameter 1= 0.1 mm that is concentric to the datum paint A in the cross seC1ion.
- m pointA~
The centerline of all diameters must lie within a cylinder of diameter 1 = 0.05 mm. The centerline of this cylinder must coincide with the oommon datum axis A-B.
The midplane of the slot must lie between two parallel planes spaced apan at a distance of 1 = 0.05 mm that are located symmetrical to datum plane A.
Symmetry
Runout~
'• t'l•l!AI Radial circular run out
I
In every cross section, the circumferential line must be perpendicular to the common datum line A-B between two concentric circles in the same plane having a radial distance of 1=0.1 mm.
In every cross section, the 120• circumferential line must be perpendicular to datum line A and lie between two concentric circles in the same plane that have a radial distance of 1 = 0.1 mm.
.,
if ·-i~.
evefY
;::::s:<
I ~alum
'(
'?
er·um
Ano
evefY
cross secuon
I
Axial circular runout
~
In every diameter, the circumferential line must lie in the plane surface between two circles that have a radial distance of 1 = 0.04 mm. The centerline of each diameter must coincide with datum line A. The shell surface must lie between two coaxial cylinders having a radial distance of 1= 0.03 mm. The centerlines of these cylinders must coincide wit.h the oommon datum line A-B.
tJ Total axial runout
The plane surface must lie between two p arallel planes spaced apart at a distance of t = 0.1 mm that are perpendicular to d atum line A.
~~
datum
lineA
every diamete r
1
~"
Table o f Contents
115
4 Materials science
II 1,,c.Mo,2ll CM5 II I eowct\18 II X12Cf13 II 8235
II
,8MnQ5
4.1
Materials Material characteristics of solids .... . ........ 116 Material characteristics of liquids and gases . . . 117 Periodic table ofthe elements ...... .... .... . 118
4.2
Designation system fOf steels Definition and classification of steel ........... 120 M aterial codes, Designation ..... ... ..... . ... 12 1
4.3
Steel types, Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Structural steels .. ..•.....•......••...... .. Case hardened, quenched and tempered, nitrided, free cutting steels ........... ..... . . Tool steels ..... ... .............••......... Stainless steels, Spring steels ....... .........
ceoE
35520 38SI7
4.6
Cast iron materials Designation, Material codes ... . .. ........... Classification .............................. Cast iron ... .. ........•.....•.•.......... . Malleable cast iron, Cast steel ................
128 132 135 136
158 159
160 161
4.7
Foundry technology Patterns, Pattern equipment ............... .. 162 Shrinkage allowances, Dimensional tolera nces . 163
4.8
light alloys, Overview of A I alloys ........ .... Wrought aluminum alloys .. ............ ..... Aluminum casting alloys ...... ... . .... .... . . Aluminum profiles ........... .. ... ... ... .. . Magnesium and titanium alloys . .. ..... ......
4.9
164
166
168 169
172
Heavy non-ferrous metals, Overview . . . . . . . . . 173 Designation system . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. . . . . . . . 174 Copper alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
4.10 Othet' metallic materials Composite materials, Ceramic materials 177 Sintered metals ................. ..... .... .. 178
4.11 Plastics, Overview .. . . . .. .. .. . . .. . . . . . .. .. . 179 Thermoplastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Thermoset plastics, Elastomers ... ... ...... .. 184 ..... ........ ............ 186 Plastics 4.12 Material testing methods, Overview .. ....... . Tensile testing ............................ . Hardness test ............................ .
116
Materials science: 4.1 Materials
Material characteristics of solids Solid materiel
o-lty Meterial Q
kg/dm3 Aluminum (AI) Antimony (Sb) Asbestos Beryllium (Be l Bismuth IBi) Cadmium (Cd) Carbide (K 201 Carbon (diamond) Cost Iron
2.7 6.69 2.1 - 2.8 1.85 9.8 8.64 14,8 3.51 7.25
Melting temp-
........
2467 1637
1280 271 321
- 3000 1560 765
-
Concrete Constantan Copper (Cul
1260 1083
Co~k
0.1- 0.3 3.9- 4.0 7.4-7.7
2050 1040
1903 1493
-
7.4 - 8.9 900 8.4- 8.7 900- 1000 0.06-0.25 2.4- 2.7 19.3 2.26
-
> 2000 · 4000 • 3550 1150- 1200 2500
1.8- 2.2 8.89 8.96
Glass (quartt glass) Gold (Au) Graphite (Cl
"
659 630.5 .. 1300
7.2 8.9 1.6 - 1.9
CuSn alloys CuZn alloys Foam rubber
&..t.m '-tof
~ ~
tu.ion
tlvlty
at 1.013 bar 811.013 bar at 1.013 bar q ~ •c •c kJ/kg
Chromium (Cr) Cobalt (Co) Coke
Corundum (AI203l CuAI alloys
Boiling tempereture
520-5501 1064
2642 2880
-
-
-
59 54
165 8.1 91
1.02 0.12 0.23
0.04 1.25 0.077
0.0000123 0.0000125 0.00003
-
81.4
125
58
0.80 0.52 0.50
0.6- 1.6
-
0.000005 0.00000118 0.0000105
134 268
69 69.1 0.18
0.46 0.43 0.83
0 .13 0.062
0.0000084 0.0000127
0.49 0.0179
0.00001 0.0000152 0.0000168
-
-
-
-
-
2300 2300
167
67 -
2707 · 4800
0.92 - 0.94 0 .92 5.0
30- 175 0 113.6
• 300 100 183
332 62
Iridium (lr) Iron oxide (rust) Iron. pure (Fe)
22.4 5.1 7.87
2443 1570 1536
>4350
135
Lead (Pbl Magnesium (Mg) Magnesium alloy
11.3 1.74 ,. L8
327.4 650 .. 630
1751 1120 1500
24.3 195
Manganese (Mnl Molybdenum (Mol Nickel (Nil
7.43 10.22 8.91
1244 2620 1455
2095 4800 2730
Niobium (Nb) Phosph., yellow (Pl Pit coal
8.55 1.82 1.35
2468 44
.. 48()()
Plaster Platinum (PI) Polystyrene
2.3 21 .5 1.05
1200 1769
Porcelain Ouartt, flint (Si02) Selenium. red (Se)
2.3-2.5 2.1 - 2.5 4.4
Silicon (51) Silicon carbide (SiC) Silver (Ag) 11
-
.. 1600 1480 220
280
-
4300
-
2230 688
-
21 cross grain
-
• 1 23 384
0 .88 0.41 0.39
0.04-0.06 12- 23 61
1.7-2.1 0.96 0.44
46 105 0.04- 0.06
0.38 0.39
0.8 - 1.0 310 168
0.83 0.13 0.71
0.21 2.3 0.44
-
-
2.09 0.23
-
-
-
-
-
0.0000065 0.0000195
0.02-0.03 0.05 - 0.07
0.0000175 0.0000185
-
1018 0.022
-
-
-
0.000009 0.0000142 0.0000078
-
0.000051
59 0.58(pwdr) 81
0.13 0.67 0.47
0.053
0.0000065
0.13
0.000012
0.13 1.04
0.208 0.044
-
34.7 172 46- 139
0.000029 0.000026 0.0000245
251 287 306
21 145 59
0.48 0.26 0.45
0.39 0.054 0.095
0.000023 0.0000052 0.000013
288 21
53
0 .273 0.80 1.02
0.217
0.0000071
276
-
113
-
83
2.33 1423 2355 1658 2.4 disintegrates iTo C and 51 above 3000-G to.5 1 961.5 2180 1 105
transformation temperature
a,
0 .0000238 0 .0000108
-
3070
0-100"C
~~2/m we or 1/K
0.028 0.39
2700 2300
-
e)(J)anaion
0.94 0.21 0.81
~ 3550
Greases Ice Iodine (I)
c
kJ/(kg · K) Q.
Coefllc:lent of linear
204 22
213
-
Specific
electrical l'ftlstlvlty at20"C
heet at o-1oo•c
356 163
- 2400 • 2595
-
at20"C A W/(m·K)
Me.n
specific
31 at aoo-c
0.24
-
-
-
-
-
0.098 1010
0.000009 0 .00007 0.000004 0.000008
0.45 70 0.17
1.09 0.13 1.3
1.63) 9.9 0.2
1.23) 0.8 0.33
1012
83 9') 407
0.75 1.051) 0.23
2.3 . 109
O.Q15
0.0000042
-
0.0000193
117
Mat erials science: 4.1 Materials
Material characteristics of solid, liquid and gaseous materials Solid materials !continued)
.
Melting
Density
Materiel
kg/~m3 Sodium (Na) Steel, unalloyed Steel, alloyed
•c
•c
97.8 - 1500 .. 1500
113 205
M.M
Specific
eo.fflcient
conductMty
lp8dflc: hMt at o-100-c
electrical NlhtMty at200C
8 1q)llllslon
at200C
o./:,~2/m
1/"C or 1/K
126
0.04 0.14- 0.18 0 .7
0.000071 0.0000119 0.000016 1
14
344.6 5400 2687
49 172 59
0.2 54 65.7
0.70 0.14 0.24
-
lltanium (li) Tungsten (W) Uranium (Ul
4.5 19.27 19.1
1670 3390 1133
3280 5500
15.5 130 28
0.47 0.13 0.12
0.42 0.055
.. 3800
88 54 356
6.12 0.20 - 0 .72 7.13
1890
.. 3380
343
31.4 0.06-0.17 113
0.50 2.1- 2.9 0.4
0.2
Latent '-tof
Specillc heet
907
48- 58
-
-
101
a,
c kJI(kg. Kl
113 2996 231 .9
-
o - t oo•c
A
2.07 16.6 7.29
-
ofUnNr
W/(m·Kl
Sulfur (S) Tantalum (Ta) lln ISn)
419.5
890 2500
Thenne&-
1.3 0.49 0.51
Vanadium IV) Wood (air dried) Zinc (Znl
0.97 7.85 7.9
...
8olllng temp-
Latent '-tof fusion -' at 1.013 bar at1.013bar at 1.013 bar (J (J q kJ/kg temperlltuN
-
0.124 0.114
0.0000065 0.000023 0.0000082 0.000004 5
-
-
-
• 0.000042 0.000029
0.06
Uquid materials mezing
...... ....
; :;I
at20 •c
Coefficient of volume •KP•nsion
•c
---
Thefnwl. c:onduc· tlvity at200C
·c
r
A
c
kJ/kg
W/(m · Kl
kJ/(kg · K)
1/"C or 1/K
520 220 170
- 114 -30 - 116
78 150-360 35
854 628 377
0.17 0.15 0.13
2.43 2.05 2.28
0.0011 0.00096 0.0016
- o.83 0.72-0.75 0.91
220 220 400
- 10 -30- - 50 - 20
> 175 25-210 >300
628 4 19
-
0.14 0.13 0.13
2.07 2.02 2.09
0.00096 0.001 1 0.00093
13.5 0.76- 0.86 1.00'1
-
-39 - 70 0
357 > 150 100
285 314 2256
10 0.13 0.60
0.1 4 2.16 4.18
0.00018 0.001 0.00018
Density
Material at200C
Ignition
Of melting
temp-
tempere·
at1.013bar at 1.013 bar
Q
(J
kg/dm3
"C
Alcohol95o/o Diesel fuel Ethyl ether (C2H51,0
0.81 0.81-0.85 0.71
Fuel oil El Gasoline Machine oil Me rcury IHgl Petrole um Water, distilled •I above 1ooo•c
8olllng temp-
550
-
(J
(J
21 at boiling temperature and 0.013 bar
f.tv
31 at 4 "C
Gaseous materials Metwial
Density Specific Melting Boiling atO"Cand gravttyll tempenlture tempenlture 1.013 bar at 1.013 bar at 1.013 bar
e
(!let_
kg/m3
Thermal
Coefflc:ient of thermal
at20"C
conduc·
..
tivity2l
Specific
hellt at 2Q'C and 1,013 bar c,31 I c_4) kJI(kg · Kl
(J
(J
).
"C
"C
W/(m·Kl
A/AA
-84
- 82 -191
- 33
0.021 0.026 0.024
0.81 1.00 0.92
1.64 1.005 2.06
0.016 0.016 0.025
0.62 0.62 0.96
0 .82 1.05 14..24 2.19
10.1 0 1.68
1.04 0 .91
0.74 0.65
-
-
Acetylene (C2H2l Air Ammonia (NHJ)
1.17 1.293
o.n
0.905 1.0 0.596
Butane (C4 H 10) Carbon d iox. (COzl Carbon monox. (COl
2.70 1.98 1.25
2.088 1.531 0.967
- 135 - 575)
- 205
- 0.5 - 78 - 190
Freon ICF2CI2l Hydroge n IH2l Methane ICH..>
5.51 0.09 0.72
4.261 O.Q7
0.557
- 140 - 259 -183
-30 - 253 -162
0.010 0.180 0.033
0.39 6.92 1.27
Nitrogen IN2l Oxygen(02l Propane lCsHsl
1.25 1.43 2.00
0.967 1.106 1.547
- 210 -219 -190
- 196 -183 -43
0.026 0.026 0.018
1.00 1.00 0.69
-220 -78
-
1.33 0.716 1.56
-
0.63 0.75
-
Specific gravity ; density of a gas u divided by the density of a ir UA· 21 Coefficient of therma l conductivity = the thermal conductivity Aof a gas divided by the thermal conductivity ).A of air. 41 at constant volume 51 at 5.3 bar 31 at constant pressure 11
Main groups od
I
lA 1
H
I
IIA
1 I Hvctrogen 1.008
~h~ml
4 Be
Atomic number -- --+ (= proton number) Relative atomic mass Radioactive elements in red, e.g. 222 Synthetic elements in parentheses, e.g. (261)
Lener symbols
solid: liquid: gaseous:
Transition elements
3
IVA
Element name; state at 273 K
1lUght metals 11 s 5 kg/dm3; Heavy non·ferrous m etals 11 > 5 kg/dm'
1
lilA
.... .... co
10.811 13 AI Alumi-
~
Ql
i....
-
4
urn
I
I
-
, ,
5
6
7 Nonmetels
iii' Vi I
I
(/)
0
40.078
iii'
38 Sr
::J 0
!1! ~ ~
Ql
i....
iii' Vi
119
Materials science: 4.1 Materials
Chemicals used in metal technology, molecular groups, pH value Important chemicals used in metal technology Tedlnlcal designation
Chemlcel
u..
Formula
Properties
Acetone (propanonel Acetylene. Ethane
ICH3l2CO
Aqueous cleaner
Various surfactants
-coo-
Colorless. combustible. lightly volatile liquid Highly reactive. colorless gas. highly explosive Various water soluble substances
Carbonic acid
Carbon dioxide
c~
Carbo n tetrachlorid e Cleaning agent Copper vitriol
Carbon tetrachloride Organic solvent Copper sulfate
ca.
Corundum
Aluminum oxide
Al2~
Very hard colorless crystal, melting point 2050 •c
Grinding and polishing agent, oxide ceramic materials
Ethyl alcohol
Ethyl aloohol, denatured Hydrochloric acid Nitric acid
~HsOH
Colorless, lightly combustible liquid, boiling point 78"C Colorless, pungent smelling, strong acid Very strong acid, dissolves metals (except precious metals) Colorless crystal, slightly water soluble, basic Colorless. pungent smelling liquid, weak lye Colorless, oily, odorless liquid, strong acid
Solvent, cleaning agent. lor heating purposes, fuel additive Etching and pickling of metals, manufacture of chemicals
Acetone Acetylene
Hydrochloric acid Nitric acid
designetion
~H2
-oso:r -50:.-
C,H2n+2 CuS04
HCI HN03
Spirits of ammonia Sulfuric acid
Sodium carbonate Ammonium hydroxide Sulfuric acid
H2so.
Teble salt
Sodium chloride
NaCI
Soda
Na2C03 NH4 0 H
Solvent for paint, acetylene and plastics Fuel for welding, source material for plastics Solvent. cleaning agent; emulsifying and thickening agent Water soluble. non-c:ombustible Shielding gas for MAG gas. solidifies at - 78"C welding, dry ioe as refrigerant Solvent lor fats, oils and Colorless. non-combustible liquid, harmful to haallh paint Colorless, sometimes lightly Solvent for fats and oils, cleaning agent combustible liquids Blue. water soluble crystal, Electroplating baths, pest control. for scribing moderately toxic
Etching and pickling of metals, manufacture of chemicals Degreasing and cleaning baths, water softening Cleaning agent (fat solvent), neutralization of acids Pickling of metals, electroplating baths. storage batteries Condiment, lor freezing mixtures, lor chlorine e>
Colorless. crystalline salt, slightly water soluble
Frequently occurring molecular groups Molecular group Designlltion Formula
Example Deeignatlon Fonnula
Description
Carbide
eC
Carbon compounds; to some e>
Silicon carbide
SiC
Carbonat e
=C03
Compounds of carbonic acid, addition of heat yields CO,
Calcium carbonate
CaC03
Chloride
-CI
Sahs of the hydrochloric acids; usu dissolve readily in water
Sodium chloride
NaCI
Hydroxide
- OH
Calcium hydroxide
Ca(0Hl2
Nitrate
- N03
Hydroxides are produoed from metal oxides and water; behave as basics Salts of the nitric acids; usu. dissolve readily in water
Potassium nitrate
KN03
Nitride
aN
Nitrogen compounds; some of them are very hard
Silicone nitride
SiN
Oxide
=0
Oxygen compounds; most commonly occurring molecular group on earth
Aluminum oxide
AI203
Sulfate
- so.
Salts of the sulfuric acids; usu. dissolve readily in water
Copper sulfate
cuso.
Sulfide
=S
Sulfur compounds; important ores, chip breaker in free cutting steels
lron{ll) sulfide
FeS
pH value Type of aqueous solution pH value Concentration H•inmol/1
0
<
100
increasingly acidic
I
neu-
I
tral
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
10''
10'2
10"1
10"'
1o-6
1o-6
10'7
1o-8
increasingly basic
9
10
11
12
>
13
14
1o-9 10''0 10'" 10''2 10'13 10'14
120
Materials science: 4.2 St eels, Designation system ' [) IN fN 10070
Definition and classification of steel
I
I
Steel
/O(J{J 0/
I
Alloy with iron as the main component and a carbon content under 2.0o/o.
J
Microstructure
The microstructural components., e. g. ferrite, pearlite, carbides, and the cryst alline structure, e.g. line grain, coarse grain, bands, determine the steel properties, e.g. strength. toughness, workability. machinability, weldability.
I
I
I
Influenced by
I
I
I
I
I
I
Composition
Oegree of purity
Oeoxidation
- carbon content - alloying elements
- non-metallic inclusions - phosphorus and sulfur content
rimmed, semi-killed or killed cast
I Classification
I
I
I
I
I Classifteation 11
I
I
IHigh-grade steels
Quality steels
No alloying element reached the limit value according to table 1
High-grade steels differ from quality steels due to: - more careful production
-at least one alloying element reaches the limit value according to table 1
- improved deoxidation - more exact composition
- steel types not conforming to the definition for stainless steels
I
Stainless steflls2l -ch rome content at least 10.5% - carbon content maximum 1.2% Classification by main characteristics into - corrosion-resistant steels (pages 136, 137)
- improved hardenability
~
Table 1: Umlt values for unalloyed steels
a. ment AI
- higher degree of purity
Alloyataels
Subtaquent proceMing For example: Fanning: rolling, stamping, drawing, bending etc. Heet treatment: quenching and tempering, surface hardening etc. Annealing: normal i~ing, spheroidi~ing, full annealing etc. Joining: welding, brazing etc. Coating: gal vani~ing etc.
Unalloyed steels
I
I
I
StHI manufacture
"'
0.30
Ele-
"'
ment Mn
Element
1.65 Se
"' 0.10
Bi
0.10 Mo
0.08
Si
0.60
Co
0.30
Nb
0.06
Ti
0.05
Cu
0.40
Ni
0.30
v
0.10
Cr
0.30
Pb
0.40
w
0.30
I
Main grade$ Unalloyed quality steels
Alloy quality steels
Steel group (excerpt)
Example
Steel group ! excerpt)
Example
Unalloyed structural steels
S235JR
Rail steels
R0900Mn
Magnetic steel sheet and strip
M 390-50E
Unalloyed steels for quenching & tempering
C45
Free cutting steels
10S20
Weldable unalloyed line-grain steels
S275N
Unalloyed press. vessel steels
P235GH
Microalloyed steels with high yield strengths
H400M
Phosphorus alloyed steels with high yield strengths
H1 80P
I
I
Unalloyed high-greda steels Steel group (excerpt)
Alloy high-grade ataels
Example
Steel group (excerpt)
Example
Unalloyed steels for quenc!Wlg and tempering
C45E
Alloy steels for quenching and tempering
42CrMo4
Unalloyed case hard. steels
C15E
Case hardening alloy steels
16MnCr5
- heat resistant steels
Unalloyed tool steels
C45U
Nitriding steels
34CrAI Ni7
- high-temperature steels
Unalloyed steels fOf flame and induction hardening
C60E
Alloy tool steels High-speed steels
X40Cr1 4 HSS-5-2-5
11 The main grade "Basic steels" was omitted. All previous basic steels are produced as quality steels. 21 The stainless steels have their own group. They are alloy steels, so they are not classified as quality or high-grade
steels.
121
Mat erials science: 4.2 Steels, Designation syst em
Designation of steels using material numbers Material numbers
cf. DIN EN 10027· 2 (1992-09), replaces DIN 1700711
Steel designations (page 122) or material numbers are used to identify and differentiate stools. M at eriel number (with additional symbol +N)
Designation Designation of steel (examples):
I
I
42CrMo4+N
or
I
1.722S+N
I
The material numbers consist of a 6-character number (five numeric characters and a decimal point). They are bet· ter suited for data processing than designations.
I M aterial number I I Example:
~
I
II
Steel group num ber
I
.
I
I
:1 1-172125 I I
Mat erial m ain gro~ 1 - Steel
[
I
I
I
+N
!
Steel type number
I
Alloy steels
I Steel groups21
01.91
General structural steels, R, < 500 Ntmm2
02.92
Other structural steels not specified for heat treatment with Rm < 500 N/mm2
I Steel group number
Quality steels
04.94
Eadl steel within a steel group receives its own type number.
I
Unalloyed steels
Steel group number
03.93
Supplementel symbol If the material number is insufficient to clearly describe the steel, the supplemental symbol of the designation is added (page 125).
Steels w ith C < 0.12% or R, < 400 N/mm2 Steels w ith 0.12% s C < 0.25% or 400 N/mm2 s Rm < 500 N/mm2
05,95
Steels with 0.25% s C < 0.55% or 500 N/mm2 s Rm < 700 N/mm2
06,96
Steels with C,. 0.55% or R, z, 700 N/mm 2
07.97
Steels w ith high phosphorus and sulfur content High-grade steels
10
Steels with special physical properties
11
Structural, madline and vessel steels with C <0.5%
12
Machine steels with C" 0.5%
13
Structural, machine and vessel steels with special requirements
15- 18
Unalloyed tool steels
Steel groups Quality steels
08, 98
Steels with special physical properties
09, 99
Steels for various areas of application
20- 28
Alloy tool stools
32
High-speed steels with cobalt
33 35
Hig~speed steels without cobalt Roller bearing steels
36, 37
Steels with special magnetic properties
38, 39
Steels with special physical properties
40- 45
Stainless steels
High-grade steels
Nickel alloys. chemical resistant, high-temperature 47, 48
Heat resistant steels
49 50- 84
High-temperature materials
85 87- 89
Structural, m achine and vessel steels with various alloy combinations Nitriding steels High-strength weldable steels
11 The m aterial numbers remained unchanged with the conversion from DIN 17007 to DIN EN 10027-2. Rm tensile strength Values for tensile strength Rm and for carbon content C are mean values.
21 C carbon,
I
122
Materials science: 4.2 Steels, Designation system
Designation system for steels
1 I
.Jtf\.
~
r.
1 , ).) ' 1 1; > )S l t)l
Designation by epplic:Mion The codes lor steels are composed of main and supplemental symbols. Main symbols reflect the application or chemical composition. Supplemental symbols depend on to the steel or product group. Example: Pinion shaft
M ain
sy~bol
1;;~ ~
h
w
-
•R IUnalloyed S1Nc:tural steel I I ... l l l Steel g roup I I DIN EN 10027-1 I I DIN EN 10025-2
_(_
.J.;;..J
~
1 t?rrMn.L.N 1
C'>I:O: I D .
Designation according to the chemical com position (page 1241
I
I
OV>
I
•v.. gu
round steel bar
I
I
l
DIN EN 10060
Main symbols for the designation by application Application
Main symbol II
Application
Main symbol ll
Steele for lleel conetruction
s
zan
Preetreuing steels
y
1n0''
Steels for machine construction
E
JI02I
D
X&Z"l
Slllels for~ 111111111
p
_,
Flat rolled productl for cold worlting Rail steels
R
28C)&l
Steels for pipet and tuba
L
311)21
Flat products of high-strength steele
H
C40()1l
Magnetic steel. lheet and strip
M
400-110''
Concrete reinforcing lteel8
I
soozt
Paclcaging steel, sheet and strip
T
lllilj02I
II 2' 31 4' 51
To iderGfv C8ll ...._ the main symbol il pr-*1 by the letter G.
The main symbol is composed o f the code letter and a number and may include an additional letter. Yield strength R. for the smallest product thickness Nominal value lor minimum tensile strength Rm As-rolled condition C, 0, X followed by two symbols M inimum hardness in accordance with Brinell HBW
As-rolled condition C. D, X and m ini mum yield strength R0 or as-rolled condition CT. OT, XT and minimum tensile strength Rm 71 Maximum magnetic hysteresis loss in W/kg x 100 and nominal thickness x 100 separated by a hyphen 61
Steels for steel construction Designation example:
I
I=:=Klnl
s~¥ IT
1 =-~:...1
I
Supplemental symbols
I
Product group !selection)
Standard
Supplemental symbols
Hot-rolled unalloyed structural steels
DIN EN 10025-2
Notch impact energy in J at •c l c special cold workability JR I 27 120• I J2 I 27 1-20 • 1 +AR deliveredinas-rolledcondition JO 1 21 1 o • 1 K2 1 40 1-20•1 +N normalized
Normalized/normalizing rolled, grain-refined structural steels suitable lor welding
DIN EN 10025·3
N norma.lized or normalizing rolled, notch impact energy values at-200C. NL like N, but notch impact energy values at -50 •c
Thermomechanically rolled struc- DIN EN 100254 tural steels suitable for welding
thermomechanically rolled, notch impact energy values at -2o •c like M, but with notch impact energy values at -50 •c ML
Hot-rolled structural steels with higher yield strength In the quenched and tempered state
DIN EN 10025-6
a
Steels for bright steel products
DIN EN 102n-1. 2
c special cold workability +C drawn +PL polished +SH peeled +SL ground
Hot-rolled hollow sections of unalloyed structural steels and grain-refined structural steels
DIN EN 10210-1
JR, JO, J2 and K2 as with DIN EN 10025-2 N, NL as with DIN EN 10025-3 H hollow section
=
M
quenched and tempered, notch impact energy values at -20"C OL quenched and tempered, notch impact energy values at -40"C OL1 quenched and tempered, notch impact energy values at-600C
S235JR+N: Steel-construction steel R, ~ 235 N/mm2 , notch impact energy 27 J at - 20"C, normalized (+NI
123
Materials science: 4.2 Steels, Designation system
Designation system for steels
I DI'J eN 10027 1 •/O(h 10•
StMis for machine conatructlon Designation example:
I
1~:-~ 1
E ~~ IT 1=-~~ 1
I
Supplementa l symbols
Product group (Miectionl
Standerd
Supplemental symbols
Hot-ro lled unalloyed structural steels
DIN EN 10025-2
GC
Steels for bright steel products
DIN EN 10277·1. 2
Pipes and tubes. seamless, cold-drawn
DIN EN 10305-1
Seamless tubes made of unalloyed and alloyed steel
DIN EN 10297-1
I
special cold workability +AR delivered in as-rolled condition +N normalized GC special oold workability drawn +Pl polished +SH peeled +Sl ground
.c
+A annealed +N nOfmatized
bright-drawrvllard +LC brigth-drawn/soft +C +SR bright-drawn and stress relieved
J2 notch impact energy values at-20 •c K2 notch impact energy values at -40 •c +AR delivered in as-rolled condition +N normalized +OT quenched and tempered
=> E355+AR: machine construction steel. yield strength R, • 355 N/mm 2, delivered In as. rolled condition I +AR)
Rat products for cold wolltlng
~ 1¥~
Designation example:
Code letter for fl8t product for oold wortclng
II
Code letter for rolling X rolling condilion notCXXICIIIion lpeCifled
c cold-rolled
Product group (selectionl
Cold-rolled flat products made of soft steels for cold working
Continuously hot-dip finished strip and sheet made of soft steels for cold working
0 hot-fOiled
I
Code number for the type clllllel, meln properliel page 141
II
Supplemental symbols (product-group specific definition)
.I
Standard
Supplemental symbols
DIN EN 10130
SurfKe type end finish A Faults not affecting workability and adhesion of surface coating are permissible. 8 The bener lace must be flawless to the extent that the look of quality lacquer finish or coating is not affected. b particularly smooth 9 smooth m dull r rough
DIN EN 10327
0 hot-dip coating Coating (followed by coating mass in glm2, e.g. Z140) +AZ aluminum-zinc alloy +AS aluminum-silicon alloy +ZA zinc-aluminum alloy +ZF zinc-iron alloy +Z zinc Coating finish: N typical zinc flower with +Z
M small zinc flower with +Z R typical finish with +ZF
Type of surfKe: B improved finish
c
A typical finish best finish
oc04 - A - m: Rat p roduct for cold working (0), cold-rolled ICI, steel type 04 (page 1411, surface type A. surface finish dull (m)
-
Ret products made of high-strength steels for cold WOfting
~r~ ~
Designation example:
Code'-!orlllll product of highSlrength steel for cold working
1
Code 1e1tar for rolling CXXICIIIion X rolling CXXICIIIion not epecified
1 300~~
0 hot-fOiled
T!iOO minimum tansile llnlnglh ~ - 500~
c cold-rolled
Supplemental symbols (product groupspecific definition)
Product group (selection!
Standard
Supplemental symbols
Cold-rolled strip and sheet made of micro-alloy steels
DIN EN 10268
B bak~hardening steel Y high-strength 1-F steel I isotropic steel P phosphor-alloy steel LA low-alloy/micro-alloy steel ~type end finish for rolling width< 600 mm as with DIN EN 10139 for rolling width" 600 mm as with DIN EN 10130
=
HCTSOO - B- g : Cold-rolled flat product made of high-strength steel (H), cold-rolled (CI, minimum tensile strength Rm : 500 N/mm2 (TSOOJ, surface type B. smooth surface (g)
124
Materials science: 4.2 Steels, Designation system
Designation system for steels
, t :.liN f \ 1 l•Jl7 1 •2005 10•
Designation by chemical composition The main symbols reflect the chemical composition and are created on the basis of four different designation groups. The supplemental symbols depend on the steel group or product group.
..,..
Example: Pinion shaft
I
Main:;~~~
symbol
I I
I
~~~~~
42C; " '""
I I JO IN EN 10027-1 I I
....
I I
Steel group DIN EN 10083· 1
.J_J
I 1
U
I C:">""''LADJ
I
Designation according to the application (page 122)
I
round steel bar
I DIN EN 10060
Designation groups, examples and application of the main symbols11 ~
Nlllr ............
Nlllr ....
unalloyed ..... with a
-.ge content of Individual alloying element ebolle 5%
eulllne . . .
manu- content< 1% a~
free.cunlng . . .
mllngllneN content .. 1"
C11E
42CIMo4
Xt2DN1M
unalloyed quenched end ternperedstee18, unalloyed tooi8184M
AIJII'IIOn~
~-'loy--
quenched and l8mpenld
alloy . . . tool alloy . . . . apringlleell
. letter
steel
.................
Appl cetlon-.nplec Appbdon-.unalloyed c:aae-hardenlng flee.cunlng . . . . steels,
~~
.._.
~
heet~higtl-
,
Content of alloying elements in percent in the following onler W-Mo-V-Co 10- 10% tungsten (WI 4 - 4% molybdenum !Mol 3- 3% vanedium lVI 10- 10% cobalt (Co)
temperature 8teels
cold worll lleell hot wort! .....
H To identify cast steel, the main symbol is preceded by the letter G; to identify powder metallurgical steel. the main symbol is preceded by the leners PM. UMIIoyed .,.... with •
mane- content< 1 %, ocept tr..cutting stMis
~~
Designation example:
Main symbols
c
Oodlllelter IC8I1xln lteel) 15 OOdll numbel for the c:8ltlon COf'ltAinl ~- 1!i(100A 0.15'1(,
Supplemental symbols Refer to such aspects as special applications, control of the sulphur oontent. special cold workability, heat treatment states. The definition of the supplemental symbols varies according to the steel group (page 125).
=> C45E+S+8C: quenched and tempered unalloyed steel, C content 0.45%. prescribed max. sulphur content lEI. treated
for shearability I+SI, blasted (+SCI (supplemental symbols on page 125, quenched & tempered steels) Alloy steels.~.,..... unalloyed steels with. mane-- contllllt >1"' Designation example:
18CrNir7~T
Main IYmbols
Supplemental symbols
18 OOdll number for the a11t1on ~ ~ • 1&1100 a 0.18% Cr, Ni, Mo alloying elements lin the order of their portion) 7-6 Alloy contaniS Cr..-.,.•7/4 a 1.75% Ni..-.,.• 6/
Refer to such aspects as spedal applications, heat treatment states, quenching stress. surfaoe finish, degree of deformation. The definition of the supplemental symbols varies according to the steel group (page 125).
I
Factcn for alloy COf1l8nt8 Factor Cr. Co. Mn. Ni. Si. W 4 AI. Be. Cu. Mo. Nb, 10 Pb, Ta, li, V, Zr Alloying elemenls
c.ee. N, P.S
100
8
1000
=> 17CrNiMo6-4+TH..SC: Case-hardening alloy steel, C content 0.17% (17), Cr content of 1.5% (6), Ni content
1.0% (4), low Mo content. treated for quenching stress(+TH) and blasted I+BCI (supplemental symbols on page 125, case-hardening steels)
Materials science: 4.2 Steels, Designation system
Designation system for steels StHigroup/ product group (selection)
Standard
125
• ·)1r... r r\ 1 JiJ/ r' 1 12U J:) 111
Supplemental symbols
DIN EN 10084
pnHleribed maximum sulphur content pnHleribed stJiphur content range normal hardenability +HH restricted hardness tolerance. upper range +Hl restricted hardness tolerance. lower range Ttutment conditions: +A soft-annealed +S treated for shearability +FP treated for ferrite-pearlite microstructure and quenching stress +TH treated for quenching strass +U untrealed Surface finish: +BC blasted +HW hot worked +PI pickled
DIN EN 10083· 1 10083-2
E. R as with care-hardening steels as per DIN EN 10084 (above) Treatment c:on
DIN EN 10087
Under normal conditions, no supplemental symbols provided (in special cases for direct quenching types: +OT quenched and tempered)
E R
I
+H
Hot-worked case· hardening steels
(_ 1 Hot-worked quenched and tempered steels
I• Hot-worked freecutting steels
Bright steel products made of DIN EN case-hardening steel, quenched & 102n-1 tempered steel, free-wtting steel 102n.3..s
+C cold-drawn +SL ground
Seamless steel tubes made of case-hardening steels and quenched & tempered steels
+AR as rolled +N normalized +A soft-annealed +FP treated for ferrite-pearlite microstructure and quenching stress +OT quenched & tempered +TH treated for quenching stress
DIN EN 10297·1
+SH peeled +Pl polished
"" 16MnCr5+A: case-hardening alloy steel, C oontenl 0.16% (16), Mn content 1.25% (5), low Cr content, soft-annealed (+AI Alloy steels, t ha content of at least one alloying element Designation example:
J
Main symbols X code letter for the delignllllon group 4 code number for medium carbon c:ontene ~m • 4/100 • 0.04% Cr. Ni main alloying e1ement11 (Cr > Nil 18·12 alloy contents in% chromium • 18%, niclcel - 12%
Steel group/ product group (selec:tionl
Hot-rolled corrosion-resistant sheets and strips
Cold-rolled corrosion-resistant sheets and strips
=
X2CrNi1 8-9 +AT~20 :
Is..,.,,. 5% (without high-speed steels)
X4CtNi18-12 +20
Standard
DIN EN 10088-2
DIN EN 10088-2
Supplemental symbols SpecifiCation of heat treatment conditions, the rolling condition, the type of execution, the surface finish. The definition of the supplemental symbols varies according to the product group.
Supplemental symbols (selection) Treatment condition
Type of execution/surface finish
+A annealed +OT quenched & tempered +0T650 quenched & tempered to R, • 650 N/mm2 +AT solution annealed +P precipitation hardened +P1300 precipitation hardened to R, = 1300 N/mm2 +SR stress relieved annealed
+1 1U 1C 1E 1D 1G
hot-rolled products not heat-treated, not descaled heat treated. not descaled heat treated. mechani<:ally descaled heat treated, pickled, smooth ground
cold-rolled products +2 2C. E. D. G as with hot-rolled products 28 likeD but cold-rolled in addition 2R bright-annealed 20 hardened and tempered. scale-free 2H strain-hardened (with different hardness stages), bright surface
Alloy steel. C content 0.02% (2), Cr content 18%, Ni content 9%, solution annealed (+An. cold-rolled (+2), hot-treated. pickled, smooth surface IDI
126
Welded constructions in steel and machine construction, simple machine parts Machine parts without heat treatment. e. g. by hardening, quenching and tempering
in spheroidized condition good machinability hot workable after surface carburization surface hard enable
Unalloyed quality steels Unalloyed high· grade steels Alloy steels
Unalloyed steels
Alloy steels
DIN EN 10083· 2 DIN EN 10083·3
DIN EN 10083-2, DIN EN 10083·3
in spheroidized condition good machinability hot workable hardenable (uncertain results with unalloyed quality steels)
• in spheroidized condition good machinability • hot workable • direct.l y hardenable; possible to harden individual work· piece areas, e. g. tooth faces • quenching and tempering of workpieces before
Alloy steels
DIN EN 10085
• in spheroidized oondition good machinability • hardenable by nitride forming elements, lowest quenching distortion • quenching and tempering of workpieces before nitriding
Unalloyed and alloy steels
EN 10270 DIN EN 10089
• cold or hot workable • high elastic formability • high fatigue strength
11 Product forms:
s
w
sheets, strips wires
Small parts with wear· resistant surface Dynamically stressed parts with wear-resistant surface
Parts with high strength, which are not hardened Pans with high strength and good toughness Highly stressed parts with good toughness
Parts with low core strength but hardening of specific areas Larger parts with high core strength and hardening of specific areas
Parts with increased fatigue strength, pans subject to Parts subjected to tempera· lures up to soo•c
Leaf springs, helical springs, disc springs, torsion bars
B bars, e. g. flat, square and round bars P profiles, e. g. channels. angles, tees
Non-heat· treatable st~t!IIS
DIN EN 10087
Free cunlng case hardened steels
DIN EN 10087
Free cutting quenched and tempered steels
DIN EN 10087
Cold work steels, unalloyed
• optimal machinability (short chipping) • non-weldable might not respond to heat treatment with case hardening or quench and tempering
• in spheroidized condition good machinability DIN EN • non-cutting cold and hot· workable ISO 4957 lull hardening up to max. 10 mm diameter
Mass produced turned parts with low strength requirements Like unalloyed case hardened steels; bener Like unalloyed quenched and tempered steels; bener machinability, less fatigue strength
Low stressed tools lor cutting and non-cutting forming at operating temperatures up to 200• C
Cold work steels, alloy
DIN EN 1504957
in spheroidized condition machinable hot workable larger case hardening depth, higher strength, more wear· resistant than unalloyed cold work steels
Hot work steels
DIN EN 1504957
in spheroidized condition machinable hot workable hardens over the entire cross section
Tools lor non-cutting forming at operating temperatu res over 200"C
High-speed steels
DIN EN 1504957
in spheroidized condition machinable hot workable hardens over the entire cross section
Cutting materials l or cutting tools, operating temperatures up to 600"C. highly stressed forming tools
Ferritic steels
DIN EN 10088-2, DIN EN 10088-3
machinable good cold-workable weldable heat treatment does not increase strength
Low stressed rust-free parts; parts with high resistance to chlorine induced stress, corrosion cracking
Austenitic steels
DIN EN 10088·2, DIN EN 10088--3
machinable very good cold workability weldable no increase in strength through heat treatment
Non-rusting parts with high corrosion resistance, widest application range of all stainless steels
M artensitic steels
DIN EN 10088-2, DIN EN 10088-3
machinable in spheroidized condition cold-workable with low carbon content weldable heat treatable
Highly stressed non-rusting parts, which can also be quenched and tempered
1l
Product fo rms:
s
sheets, strip W wires
Highly stressed tools for cutting and non-cutting forming at operating temperatures over200 "C
B bars, e.g. P profiles,
•
128
Materials science: 4.3 Steels. St eel types
Selecting structural steels by application UnellopdatMis
I
I
I,
Heat treatment intended (page 129)
Heat treatment e. g. hardening or J quenching and tempering not intended1
J
J
I Selection by ~
I
Main characterisdcs are determined by J
l
I
Eumple: unelloyed struc:1wel steels
Composition • carbon (C) • manganese (Mn) • silioon lSi) • oopper (Cul maximum values in %
(page 130) Minimum requirements
Typo of steel, designation
• strength
5185
not specified
• strength • toughness
E295, E335, E360
not specified
c
• strength • toughness • weldability
• strength
I
Mn
• strength
Si
S235JR
0.17
1.40
-
S275JR
0.21
1.50
-
S355JR
0.24
1.60
0.55
S235JO
0.17
1.40
-
S275JO
0.18
1.50
-
S355JO
0.20
1.60
0.55
S450J()21
0.20
1.70
0.55
S235J2
0.17
1.40
-
S275J2
0,18
1,50
-
S355J2
0.20
1.60
0.55
53551<2
0.20
1.60
0.55
• higher toughness • weldabilfty
I
I
Cu
I
Purity grade phosphorus (P) sulphur (51 nitrogen (N) maximum values in %
I
p
s
I
N
Oeoxi· dation
oo11
-
not specified 0.045
0.045
0.014
FN
0.35
0.035
0.035
0.012
FN
0.55
0.030
0.030
0.012
FN
0.012
FN
0.55
0.030
0.030 0.025
FF
0.55
0.025
O.o25
0.012
FF
0.55
0.025
0.025
-
FF
• highest toughness • weldability
I
I
More steel groups, e. g.
I
1· cold-rolled flat products of high-strength steels • flat products for oold working
I
I
I
• pressure vessel steels • packaging steel sheet and strip • steels for pipes and tubes
I
• concrete reinforcing steels • prestressing steels magnetic steel sheet
I I
Required properties are not achieved
I
I
I For selection according to chemical composition, see page 129 I 11 DO type of deoxidation: FN semi-killed steel; FF killed steel with nitrogen binding elements Additional alloying elements: niobium 0.06% max.; vanadium 0.15% max.; titanium 0.06% max.
21
I
I
129
Materials science: 4.3 Steels. Steel types
Selecting structural steels by chemical composition
I
Cf1
I
UMI!oyed atMia page 128
Heat treatment provided, e.g. hardening 0< quench and tempering
I Selection IIOCOfdlng to c.bon content
•heat treatment
I
Steel g ro up
I
or
M.m propet11es- detennlned by
I Minimum requirements
no
I
Oesignation
I
Cin%
M nin% Siin%
C10
0.10
0.45
----ciS
0.15
0.45
C35 Quenched and tempered steels C6()
0.35
0.65
0.60
0.75
Case hardened steels31
Case hardened ·heat steels treatment with proven Quenched and values tempered steels
I
Composition Purity g rade • carbon (C) • manganese (Mnl • phosphorus (P) • silicon lSi) • sulfur (S) • other alloying elements (l )
C10E
0.10
0.45
Ci'5E
0.15
0.45
C35E
0.35
0.65
C60E
0.60
0.75
0.40
Lll in% P"""' in% Smax in %
r----r-----
11 L Maximum percentage (Cr + Mo + Nil 21 DO Type of deoxidation: FN semi-killed cast
FN
0.045
0.045
FN
f-FN
f-FN
0.40
DO
f--
0.63
FN
f--
r-----
I 31 The steels C10 and C15 are no longer included in the standard
Deoxid ation 0021
0.035
0.035
FN
f-FN
0.63
f--
Funher requirements
I--
I
FN
Alloy steels
case hardened steels DIN EN 10084. However, they are still available from specialty dealers. Effect of alloying elements (selection) Propenies influenced by alloying elements Tensile strength Yield slrenglh
Cold workability
• • • • • • - -
-
-
• • • • • • • • • • •-
-
-
-
Machinability High-temperature strength Corrosion resistance Hardening temperature Hardenabllity, temperability Nitridability
0
0 decrease
0
0
0
• •- -• • • •- • • • -
0
Weldability increase
w
0
Hot workability
e
AI
0
Impact toughness Wear-resistance
Alloying elements v Mo Co
Ni
Cr
0
-
-
0 0 0
0 0 0 -
Si
Mn
• • • • • •• • • • 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0
0 0
•- • •- •- •- -• • • • • • • •- • 0• • • • • • • -
-
-
0
0
-
- no significant effect
Example: Gears, case hardened, rough pans drop forged, reliable heat treatment is required Wanted: Suitable steels Solution: Heat treatment (case hardening) provided - case hardened steel, C s 0.2% The propenies of unalloyed quality and high-grade steels are insuffteient- alloy steels Increase of hot workability: M n, V; increase of hardenability: Cr. Ni Steel selection: 16MnCr5, 20MnCr5, 15NiCr13 (page 132)
0
s -
-
p
• •
0
0
-
-
0 0
0
•- • -
0 -
-
-
-
0
0
-
I
130
Materials science: 4.3 Steels, Steel types
Unalloyed structural steels Unalloyed structural steels. hot-rolled Notch impact energy
Steel type
•1M aterial Designation nu mber
oon
st •c
l
cf. DIN EN 10025-2 (2Q05.04), replaces DIN EN 10025 ElongaYield strengtll R, tion in Ntmm2for product thickness in mm at frac- Properties. ture application All s 16! > 16! > 40 > 63 s 40 s63 s80 %
Tensile
st~gth
I
Ntmm2
KV J
Structural end mechine conmuction steels
S185
1.0035
-
-
-
290- 510
185
175
175
175
18
S235JR S235JO S235J2
1.0038 1.0114 1.0117
FN FN FF
20 0 - 20
27
360-510
235
225
215
215
26
S275JR S275JO S275J2
1.0044 1.0143 1.0145
FN FN FF
20 0 - 20
27
410- 560
275
265
255
245
23
S355JR S355JO S355J2
1.0045 1.0553 1.0577
FN FN
27
470- 630
355
345
335
325
22
FF
20 0 - 20
S355K2 S450JO
1.0596 1.0590
FF FF
- 20 0
40 27
470-630 550- 720
355 450
345 430
335 410
325 390
22 17
- -
470- 610
295
285
275
265
20
Non-weldable, simple steel constructions
Basic machine parts, weldments in steel and machine construction; levers. bolts. axles. shafts
Highly stressed w eld· ments in steel, crane and bridge construction
StHis for mechine conmuction
1.0050
FN
E335
1.0060
FN
-
-
570-710
335
325
315
305
16
E360
1.0070
FN
-
-
670-830
360
355
345
335
11
E295
Axles, shafts. bolts Wear parts; pinion gears, w orms. spindles
11
DO Type of deoxidation: - manufacturer's option; FF killed cast steel. FN semH
f5;;
(page 190)
Tec:hnlc:el properties Hot worbbility
Weldability
Steels ol grade groups JR- JO- J2- K2 are weldable using all processes. Increased strength and product thickness also increase the risk of cold cracks. Steels S 185, E295, E335 and E360 are not weldable, because the chemical composition is not specified.
The steels are hot workable. Only products which are ordered and delivered in normal ized (+Nl or normalizing rolled (+Nl condition must meet the requirements of the above table. The treatment condition must be specified at the time of ordering. Example: S235JO+N or 1.0114+N
Cold worlulbility The additional C or GC symbol is appended to the designation of a steel type suitable lor cold working (edge I o lding, roll forming, cold-drawing), and these types are also assigned their own material num ber. Steel types for cold working
Material Designation number
Suitable for11 F
S235JRC S235JOC S235J2C
1.0122 1.0115 1.0119
E295GC
1.0533
11 Forming process:
R
c
Msterial Designation number
... . -
-
F edge folding:
Suitable for 11
F
S275JRC S275JOC S275J2C
1.0128 1.0140 1.01 42
E335GC
1.0543
R roll forming:
R
Material Designation number
c
.. . . -
-
C cold drawing:
Suitable for 1'
F
S355JOC S355J2C S355K2C
1.0554 1.0579 1.0594
E360GC
1.0633
• well·suited
R
. . -
-
- unsuitable
c
•
.
13 1
Materials science: 4.3 Steels. Steel types
Weldable fine-grain and quenched & tempered structural steels Weldable fine-grained structural steels (selection)
cf. DIN EN 10025-3 and DIN EN 10025·4 (2005·04). replaces DIN EN 10113
I
Steel type
1 M aterial Designation1 number
DC''
NotcltJmpact energy /(\1211')Jat temperatures In
Tensile strength
•c
R, Ntmm1
•20 1 0
1- 20
Yield strength R, Elonga· in N/mm2for tion nominal thiclcnesses at frac- Properties, ture application linmml A s 16 > 16 > 40 % :s40 :5' 63
Uneloyed C!'*lty steels S275N S275M
1.0490 1.8818
N M
55
S355N S355M
1.0545 1.8823
N M
55
47
47
370- 510 370- 530
275
40
470-630
355
345
335
22
40
265
255
24
Aloy hlgh"91'11de ...... S420N S420M
1.8902 1.8825
N M
55
47
40
520- 680
420
400
390
19
S460N S460M
1.8901 1.8827
N M
55
47
40
550-720 540-720
460
440
430
17
High toughness, brittle fracture and aging resistant; weldments in machin· ery, crane and bridge construction, automo· tive manufacturing, conveyors
M thermomechanically rolled N normalized/normalizing rolled '' DC Delivery condition: 21 Values apply to V-notch longitudinal test pieces. Assignment of steels: DIN EN 10025-3 ..... S275N, S355N, S420N, S460N DIN EN 10025-4 -> S275M, S355M, S420M, S460M
Technic=-! properties Weldabillty Tho steels are weldable. Increased strength and product thiclcness also incr ease the risk of cold craclcs.
-
Hot worbblllty
Cold WOfkllbility
Only steels S275N, S355N, S420N and S480N are hot workable.
Cold-bending or edge folding is guaran· teed for nominal thicknesses up to 16 mm, if cold-workability is specified in the order.
Cuenc:hed and tempered sbuc. steels with higher yield strength (selection) cf. DIN EN 10025-6 (2005-02), replaces DIN EN 10137·2 Steel type Oesig· nation ' '
Material number
54600 S4600L
Notch impact energy K VinJat temperatures in
•c
Tensile strength
Yield strength R, in N/mm2for nominal thidmesses
inmm
R,
N/mm2
Elonga· tion at frac- Properties, ture application
>3 <50
>50 < 100
> 100 ., 150
A %
460
440
400
17
0
- 20
-40
1.8908 1.8906
40 50
30 40
30
55000 SSOOOL
1.6924 1.8909
40 50
30 40
-
30
590- 770
500
480
440
17
56200 S6200L
1.6914 1.6927
40 50
30 40
30
-
700-690
620
580
560
15
58900 S6900L
1.6940 1.6983
40 50
30 40
30
94o-1100
690
630
-
11
59600 S9600L
1.6941 1.8933
40 50
30 40
30
980-1150
960
-
-
10
"a
quenched and tempered; impact values to -40 " C
-
-
550-720
High toughness, high resistance to brittle fracture and aging stability; highly stressed weld· ments in machinery, crane and bridge construction, automotive manufacturing, conveyors
OL quenched and tempered, guaranteed minimum values for notched bar
Tec:hnic:al properties Weldabillty
Hot worbbillty
Cold WOfkability
The steels are not weldable without limitations. Professional planning of the welding parameters is required. Inc reased strength and product thickness also increase the risk of cold cracks.
The steels are hot workable up to tho temperature limit for stress relief annealing.
Col~bending or edge folding is guaranteed for nominal thicknesses up to 16 mm, if cold-workability is specified in the()(der.
132
Materials science: 4.3 Steels, Steel types
Case hardened steels, unalloyed and alloy Case hardened steels (selection) Steel type Designation 11
Material number
Hardness HB in delivery oondition2l +A
I
+FP
cf. DIN EN 10084 (2008·06) Core propenies aher case hardeningll Tensile strength
Harden· ing Yield Elong. method Properties, •I applications strength at fracture
R,
R,
A
N/mm 2
NJmm2
%
49- 640
295
16
UnaHoy~ caM harden~ .tee1s
C10E C10R
1.1121 1.1207
131
C15E C15R
1.1141 1.1140
143
103- 140
590- 780
355
-
90-125
Alloy caM hardened stMis
Dis
.. .. .. ..
17Cr3 17CrS3
1.7016 1.7014
174
-
700- 900
450
11
28Cr4 28CrS4
1.7030 1.7036
217
156- 207
~ 700
-
-
16MnCr5 16MnCrS5
1.7131 1.7139
207
140- 187
780-1080 780- 1080
590 590
10 10
0
16NiCr4 16NiCrS4
1.5714 1.5715
217
156- 207
"' 900
-
-
-
18CrMo4 18CrMoS4
1.7243 1.7244
207
140- 187
o: 900
-
-
0
20MoCr3 20MoCrS3
1.7320 1.7319
217
145- 185
., 9()0
-
-
20MoCr4 20MoCrS4
1.7321 1.7323
207
140-187
880-1180
590
10
.
17CrNi6-6 22Cr MoS3-3
1.5918 1.7333
229 217
156- 207 152- 201
"' 1100
-
-
-
-
-
15NiCr13 10NiCr5-4
1.5752 1.5805
229 192
166-207 137- 187
920-1230
785
10
., 9()0
-
-
20NiCrMo2· 2 20NiCrMoS2-2
1.6523 1.6526
212
149- 194
780- 1080
590
10
17NiCrMo6-4 17NiCrMoS6-4 20NiCrMoS6-4
1.6566 1.6569 1.657 1
229
149- 201 149-201 154-207
"' 1000 "' 1000 " 1100
-
--
20MnCr5 20MnCrSS
1.7147 1.7149
217
152- 201
980- 1270
685
8
18NiCr5-4 14NiCrMo13-4 18CrNiMo7-6
1.5810 1.6657 1.6587
223 241 229
156- 207 166- 217 159-207
"'1100 1030- 1390 1060-1320
-
-
785
10 8
-
-
-
-
.
Small parts with average
stress; levers, pegs, bolts, rollers, spindles, pressed and stamped ports
.
. .
Parts subject to alternating stresses, e. g. in gearbox; gears, bevel and ring gears, driving pinions, shahs, propellershahs
-
.. - . . .. - . . . - . - . 0
-
Parts subject to highly alternating stresses, e.g. in gearbox; gears, bevel and ring gears, driving pinion, shahs, propellershahs
0
Parts subject to larger
-
pinion shahs, gears, ring gears
dimensions;
11 Steel types with added sulfur, e. g. 16MnCrS5, hav e an improved machinability. 21 31 41
Delivery condition: +A spheroidized; + FP treated for ferrit.e-pearlite m icrostructure and hardness range Strength values are valid for test pieces with 30 m m nominal diameter. Hardening methods: D Direct hardening: The worlcpieces are quenched directly from the carburizing temperature. S Simple hardening: After carburizing the workpieces are usually leh to coot at room temperature. For hardening they are reheated. • weii-'Sllited o conditionally suitable - unsuitable
For heat treatment of case hardened steels, see page 155
133
Materials science: 4.3 Steels, Steel types
Quenched and tempered steels, unalloyed and alloy Quenched and tempered steels (selection)
ct. DIN EN
10083-2 and DIN EN 10083-3
St rength values f or ro lled diameter din mm St eel type
Designation
M aterial number
,.,.
Tensile strength Rm in N/mm2 > 16 s 40
I
> 40 s 100
Yield strength Elongation at Properties, R, in N/mm 2 fracture applications ELin % > 16 1 > 40 s 40 s 100
> 161 > 40 s 40 s 100
Unalloyed quenched and tampered ~ +N C22E
1.1151 +OT 1.0501
+N
C35E
1.1181
+OT
C45
1.0503
+N
C45E
1.1191
.. or
C55
1.0535
+N
C55E
1.1203
+Or
C60
1.0601
+N
C60E
1.1221
+OT
28Mn6
1.1170
C35
410
210
210
25
470- 620
-
290
-
22
-
520
520
270
270
19
19
600-750
550 - 700
380
320
19
20
580
580
305
305
16
16
650-800
630 - 780
430
370
16
17
640
640
330
330
12
12
750-900
700-850
490
420
14
15
670
670
340
340
11
11
800- 950
750- 900
520
450
13
14
600
600
310
310
18
18
700-850
650-800
490
440
15
16
600-750 650-800
450
350 400
15 14
17 15
+N ..or
cf. DIN EN 10083-2 (2006-101
410
25
ct. DIN EN
Alloy quenched and tempered staels 38Cr2 46Cr2
1.7003 1.7006
+OT
700- 850 800- 950
34Cr4 37Cr4
1.7033 1.7034
..or
800-950 850- 1000
700-850 750-900
590 630
460 510
14 13
15 14
25CrMo4 25CrMo S4
1.7218 1.7213
+OT
800-950
700-850
600
450
14
15
41 Cr4 41 CrS4
1.7035 1.7039
+OT
900- 1100
800- 950
660
560
12
14
34CrMo4 34CrMoS4
1.7220 1.7226
+0T
900-1100
800-950
650
550
12
14
42CrMo4 42CrMoS4
1.7225 1.7227
+Or
1000- 1200
900- 1100
750
650
11
12
50CrMo4 51CrV4
1.7228 1.8159
+OT
1000- 1200
900- 1100
780 800
700
10
12
30NiCrMo16-S 34CrN iMo6
1.6747 1.6582
..or
1080-1230 1100- 1300
1080-1230 1000- 1200
880 900
880
10
10 11
36NiCrMo 16 30CrN iMo8
1.6773 1.6580
+OT
1250- 1450
1100- 1300
1050
900
9
10
20MnB5 30MnB5
1.5530 1.5531
+Or
750- 900 800-950
27MnCrBS-2 39MnCrB6-2
1.7182 1.7189
+OT
900-1150 1050- 1250
Parts subject to lower stresses and small quench and tempering diameters; screws, bolts, axles, shafts, gears
-
800-1000 1000-1200
550
600 650 750 850
900
-
700 800
15 13 14 12
10083-3 (2007-Q1)
Parts subject to higher stresses and larger quenched and tempered diameters; drive shafts, worms, gears
Parts subject to high stresses and larger quenched and tempered diameters; shafts, gears, l arger forged parts
Parts subject to highest stresses and large quenched and tempered diameters
-
15 12
11 T treatment condition: +N normalized; ..or quenched and tempered
For unalloyed quenched and tempered steels the treatment conditions +N and +OT also apply to the quality and high-grade steels, for example for C45 and C45E. 2l Unalloyed quenched and tempered steels C35. C45, C55 and C60 are quality steels, steels C22E, C35E, C45E, C55E
and C60E are produced as high-grade steels. For heat treatment of quenched and tempered steels, see page 156
134
Materials science: 4.3 Steels, Steel types
Nitriding steels, Steels for flame and induction hardening, Free cutting steels Nitriding steels (selection)
cf. DIN EN 10085 (2001·071, replaces DIN 17211
Steel type Designation
Spheroh;Sized Material number hardness HB
>Yield Elongation strengthll at fracturell Properties, EL applications R, N/mmt
Tensile strength 1
Rm
N/mmt
980 - 1180
31CrMo12 31CrMoV9
1.8515 1.8519
248 248
1000 - 1200
785 800
34CrAIMo5-10 40CrAIMo7-10
1.8507 1.8509
248 248
800- 1000 900- 1100
34CrA INi7r 10
1.8550
248
850-1050
"
I I
11 10
Wear parts up to 250 mm thickness Wear parts up to 100 mm thickness
600 720
14 13
Wear parts up to 80 mm thickness High-temperature wear parts up to soo•c
650
12
Large parts; piston rods, spindles
11 Strength values: The values for tensile strength R,, yield strength R, and elongation at fracture EL apply to material thicknesses from 40 to 100 mm in the quenched and tempered condition. For heat treatment of nltriding steels, see page 157
cf. DIN EN 10083 11
Steels for flame and induction hardening (selection) Steel type Material number
Spheroidized hardness HB
~
C45E11 C60E 11
1.1191 1.1221
207 241
..OT
650- 800 800-950
37Cr4 46Cr2
1.7034 1.7006
255
..OT
850-1000 800- 950
41Cr4 42CrMo4
1.7035 1.7225
255
+OT
900-1100 1000-1200
Designation
Tensile strengthZI
Rm
N/mmt
Yield strength R, Elonin N/mm2 for nominal gationat I thicknesses in mm fracture Properties, applications EL s 16 > 16 > 40 % s 40 s 100 490 16 430 370 520 450 13 580 Wear parts with high core strength and good 750 630 510 14 toughness; crank shafts 400 650 550 13 drive shafts, cam shafts, worms, gears 800 660 560 12 900 750 650 11
11 The previous standard DIN 17212 was withdrawn without replacement. For flame and induction hardenable steels, see quenched and tempered steels DIN EN 10083-3 (page 133). For unalloyed high-quality steels ace. to DIN EN 10083-2, hardness results are only assured if the steels are ordered with austenite grain si·ze s 5. 21 T treatment condition: +OT quenched and tempered For heat treatment of steels for flame and induction hardening, see page 156
Free cutting steels (selection)
cf. DIN EN 10087 (1999.() 1)
~
For product thicknesses from 16 to 40 mm Tensile Yield Elongation Properties, Hardness strength strength at fracture applications HB R, EL Rm NJmm2 NJmm2 %
1.0715 1.0718
+U
112- 169
380- 570
-
-
• Steels unsuitable for heat treatment
11SMn37 11SMnPb37
1.0736 1.0737
+U
112- 169
380-570
-
-
Small parts subject to low stress; levers, pegs
10S20 10SPb20
1.0721 1.0722
+U
107- 156
360-530
-
-
'15SMn13
1.0725
+U
128-178
430-600
-
35S20
1.0726
+U
154- 201
52D-680
-
-
35SPb20
1.0756
+OT
44SMn28
1.0762
+U
44SMnPb28
1.0763
+OT
46S20
1.0727
+U
46SPb20
1.0757
+OT
Steel type Designation II
M aterial number
11SM n30 11SM nPb30
-
600-750
380
16
187- 238
630- 800
-
-
-
700-850
420
16
175- 225
590- 760
-
-
-
650-800
430
13
• Case hardened steels Wear-resistant small parts; shafts. bolts, pins
• Quenched and tempered steels Larger pans subject to higher stress; spindles, shafts, gears
11 Steel types with lead additives, e. g. 11SMnPb30, have better machinability. 2l T treatment condition: +U untreated; ..OT quenched and tempered
All free cutting steels are unalloyed quality steels. It is not possible to guarantee a uniform response to case For heat treatment of free cutting steels, see page 157 hardening or quench and tempering.
Materials science: 4.3 Steels, Steel types
135
Cold work steels. Hot work steels. High-speed steels Tool steels (selection)
cf. DIN EN ISO 4957 (2001 ·02), replaces DIN 17350
Steel type Designation
Tempering Hardness Hardening HB11 temperature QM2l tempe rat. Application examples. properties J M aterial max. •c •c number
Cold wort! stMis. unalloyed C45U
1.1730
190
800- 830
0
180- 300
Non-hardened mounted parts for tools, screwdrivers, chisels, knives
C70U
1.1520
190
790- 820
0
180- 300
Centering pins, small dies. vise jaws, trim· ming press
C80U
1.1525
190
780- 810
w
180- 300
Dies with flat cavities, chisels. cold extruding dies. knives
C105U
1.1545
213
no-800
w
180- 300
Simple cutting tools, coining dies, scribers. piercing plugs, twist drills
Cold wort! -'....• lllloy 21MnCr5
1.21 62
215
810- 840
0
150- 180
Complex case hardened press forms for plastics; easily polished
60WCrV8
1.2550
230
880- 930
0
180-300
Cutters for steel sheet from 6 to 15 mm, cold punching dies, chisels. center punches
90MnCrV8
1.2842
220
790- 820
0
150- 250
Cutting dies, stamps, plastic stamping molds. reamers. measuring tools
102Cr6
1.2067
230
820- 850
0
100- 180
Drills, milling cutters, reamers, small cutting dies, tuming centers for lathes
X38CrMo16
1.2316
250
1000- 1040
0
650-700
Tools for process.ing chemically aggressive thermoplastics
40CrMnNiMo8·6-4
1.2738
235
840- 870
0
180- 220
Plastic molds of ali types
45NiCrMo16
1.2767
260
840-870
O,A
160- 250
Bending and embossing tools, shearing b lades for thidc material
X153CrMoV12
1.2379
250
1020 - 1050
O, A
180-250
Cutting tools sensitive to breaking, milling cutters, broaching tools, shearing blades
X210CrW12
1.2436
255
950-980
O,A
180- 250
High-performance cutting tools, broaching tools, stamping tools
55NiCrMoV7
1.2714
250
840- 870
0
400 - 650
Plastic molds, small and medium sized dies. hot shearing blades
X37CrMoVS-1
1.2343
235
1020-1050
O, A
550- 650
Die casting molds for light alloys, extrusion tools
32CrMoV12-28
1.2365
230
1020-1050
O, A
500-670
Die casting molds for heavy non-ferrous metals. extrusion tools for all metals
X38CrMoV5-3
1.2367
235
1030- 1080
O. A
600-700
High-quality dies, highly stressed tools for manufacture of screws
HS6-5-2C
1.3343
250
1190- 1230
O,A
540-560
Twist drills, reamers, milling cutters, thread cutters, circular saw blades
HS&-5-2-5
1.3243
270
1210-1250
O, A
550-570
Highly stressed twist drills, milling cutters, roughing tools with high toughness
HS10·4· 3·1 0
1.3207
270
1210- 1250
O,A
550-570
U!the tools for automatic machining, high cutting capacity
HS2-9-2
1.3348
250
1190-1230
O, A
540 - 580
Milling cutters. twist drills and thread cutters, high cutting hardness. high-temp. strength, toughness
Hot wort! st....
HlglwpMdst....
11 Delivery condition: annealed 2l OM Quenching medium; W water; 0 oil; A air For designations of tool steels, see page 125; for heat treatment of tool steels, see page 155
136
Materials science: 4.3 Steels. Steel types
Stainless steels '
Corrosion-resistant steels (selection)
cf. DIN EN 10088-2 and 10068-3 (2005-o9)
Steel type
Designation
I
D''
Material number
Austenitic: stHis X10CrNi18-8
X2CrNi18-9
X2CrNiN 19-11
X2CrNi1 8-10
X5CrNI18-10
X8CrNiS18·9
X6CrNiTi1 8-10
X4CrNi18- 12
X5CrNiMo17- 12·2
X6CrNiMoTi17·12·2
X2CrNiMo18- 14-3
X2CrNiMoN 17-13-3
X2CrNiMoN 17-13-5
X1 NiCrMoCu25-20-5
1.43 10
1.4307
1.4306
1.4311
.
.. . .. . .. .
1.4401
1.4571
..
1.4305
1.4541
1.4303
1.4435
1.4429
1.4439
1.4539
mm
si s
.. • . .. .. .. .. .
1.4301
OC21 Thickness d
.
.. . . .. .. . . .. .
Tensile strength
R,
li,.o.2
Elongation at fracture
N/mm2
N/mm2
EL
8
600-950
250
40
-
40
500-750
195
40
c p
s
8
s 75
520-700 500- 650
220 200
45
-
s 160
500-700
175
45
c p
s
s
8 75
520- 700 500- 700
220 200
45
-
s 160
460 - 680
180
45
c p
s 8 s 75
550-750 540- 750
290 270
40
-
s 160
s
550-760
270
40
p
s 8 s 75
540-750
230 210
45
c -
s 160
500-700
190
45
p
s 75
500- 700
190
35
-
s 160
500-750
190
35
c p
s 8 s 75
520- 720 500-700
220 200
40
-
s 160
500- 700
190
40
c
s
8
500-650
220
45
-
s 160
500- 700
190
45
c p
s 8 s 75
530- 680 520- 670
240 220
40 45
-
s 160
500-700
200
40
c p
s 8 s 75
540-690 520- 670
240 220
40
-
s 160
500- 700
200
40
c p
s 8 s 75
550- 700 520- 670
240 220
40 45
-
s 160
500- 700
200
40
c p
s 8 s 75
580-780
300 280
35 40
-
s 160
580- 800
280
35
c p
:s;
580- 780
290 270
35 40
s 160
580- 800
280
35
:s;
8 s 75
530-730 520- 720
240 220
35
s 160
700-800
200
35
c p
-
8 s 75
Properties. applications
%
..
c
'' D Delivery forms: S sheet, strip; B bars, profile DC Delivery condition: C cold-rolled strip; P hot-rolled sheet
21
Yield strength
Springs for temperatures up to 3oo•c. automotive manufacturing Household containers. chemical and food industry Equipment and parts exposed to organic and fruit acids Equipment for the dairy and brewery industry, pressure vessels Deep-drawn parts in the food industry, easily polished Pans in the food and dairy industry Consumer goods used in the household, parts in the photo industry Chemical industry; bolts, nuts Parts in the paint, oil and textile industry
Parts in the textile, synthetic resi n and rubber industry Parts with improved chemical resistance for the pulp industry Pressure vessels with increased chemical resistance Resistant to chlorine and higher temperatures; chemical industry Resistant to phosphoric, su lfuric and hydroc hloric
acids; chemical industry
137
Materials science: 4.3 Steels, Steel types
Stainless steels Corrosion-resistant steels (continued)
cf. DIN EN 10088·2 and 10088·3 (2005·091
Steel type Oil
I
Material number
Designation
OC2l Thiclmess d mm
Tensile strength
R,
X2CrNi12
. .. . .. . . • . . . ..
1.4003
1.4000
X6Cr13
X6Cr17
1.4016
X2Crl112
1.4512
X6CrMo17·1
1.4113
X3Crl117
1.4510
X2CrMoTi18-2
1.4521
Rr.u 2
Elongation at fracture EL %
Ntmm2
N/mm
s 8 s 25
450 - 650
280 250
20 18
-
s 100
450- 600
260
20
c
:S
400 - 600
240 220
19
400 - 630
230
20
450-600
260 240
20 20
S IB
"-!tic steels
Yield strength
c
p
8
p
,.
25
-
:S
25
c
s
8
Properties. applications
Automotive end container manufacturing, conveyors Resistant to water and steam; household equipment, fitting.s Good cold workability, able to be polished; flatware, bumpers
p
:S
25
-
:S
100
400-630
240
:S
8
450-650
280
23
Catalylic converters
s
8
450 - 630
260
18
-
s 100
440 - 660
280
18
Automotive manufac· turing; trim, hub caps
c
s
8
450 - 600
260
20
Welded parts in food industry
"'
8 12
420-640 420- 620
300 280
20
Bolls, nuts, heaters
c c
c
p
s
11 0 Delivery forms: S sheet, strip; B bars, profile 2l MF Mill finish: C cold-rolled strip; P hot-rolled sheet
Martensitic: steels Steel type Oil Designation
X12Cr13
X20Cr13
X30Cr13
X46Cr13
Mat. no.
s
1.4021
.. .. .
1.4028
..
1.4006
1.4034
X39CrMo17·1 1.4122
X3CrNiMo13-4 1.4313
OC2l
B
. .
.. .. . ..
c p
c
p
c
Thick· ness d mm
Hll
Tensile strength
R, N/mm2
Elonga· tiona I Properties, fracture applications Rpo.2 EL 2 N/mm %
Yield strength
-
s 75
A aT650
s600 650 - 850
450
20 12
s 160
aT650
650- 850
4sa
15
s
8 75
A ansa
s700 750-950
550
15 10
"'160
aTSOO
800-950
600
12
8
:S
"'
-
Resistant to water and steam, food industry Axles, shafts, pump parts, propellers
p
"'s
8 75
A aT800
s740 800-1000
600
15 10
-
s 160
OTB50
850-1000
650
10
-
c
"':S 1608
A aTBOO
s 780 850-1000
245 650
12 10
Hardenable; table knives and machine knives
c -
8 60
A OT900
s900 900- 1100
280
"'
12 11
Shafts, spindles, armatures up to 600 oc
75
aT900
900-1100
11
A aT900
"1100 900-1100
High toughness: pumps, turbine wheels, reactor construction
p
-
s
"'
-
"160
BOO BOO 320
BOO
12
Bolts, nuts, springs, piston rods
0 Delivery forms: S sheet. strip; B bars, profile 2) DC Delivery condition: C cold-rolled strip; P hot·rolled sheet 3 1 H Heat treatment condition: A solution annealed; ansa- quenched and tempered to minimum tensile strength Rm ; 750 N/mm2
1)
138
Applications
1-:- -+--.,.---.,---"----:---------,---------i Tension springs,
compression springs,
1-:-:--+-~--:--.,.------:--:--:-------------i torsion springs in equipment and
1-::-:-:--+--:--:--.,----:--:-----::---------------i machine construction,
wire type OH is also suitable
1-- -+ - - - - - - - - - - ----------------i for shaped springs.
Delivery forms
5.0 - 5.5 -6.0 -6.5- 7.0 - 7.5 - 8.0 - 8.5 - 9.0 - 9.5 - 10.0-10.5-11.011.5 - 12.0- 19.0-19.5-20.0-21.0-22.0- 23.0- 27.0 -28.0 -29.0 - 30.0
• directional rods · wire coils
139
M aterials science: 4.4 St eels, Finished products
Sheet and strip metal - Classification. overview
I
Delivery form Type
Commercial formats
Classifocation ec:cording to
-
Sheet
L7 Strip
lj b
Usually rectangular plates in small format: wx I• 1000 x 2000 mm med. format: w xI • 1250 x 2500 mm large format wx I • 1500 x3000 mm Sheet thicknesses: s • 0.14-250 mm Rolled (coils) continuous strip Slrip thickness s • 0. 14- approx. 10mm Strip width w up to 2000 mm Coil diameter up to 2400 mm • for feed stock at automatic manufacturing plants or sheet metal blanks for secondary processing
Fllbriartion method
I
-
Process
Remarks
Hot· rolled
Sheet thicknesses up to approx. 250 mm. surfaces in rolled condition or pickled
Cold · rolled
Sheet thicknesses up to approx. 10 mm. smooth surfaces. tight process tolerances
Cold· rolled with surface finishing
• higher corrosion resistance. e.g. from galvanizing, organic coating • for decorative purposes, e. g. with plastic coating • better workability, e. g. by textured surfaces
Sheet metal types - Overview (selection) Main characteristics
Designation. steel types
Standard
Cold-rolled sheet lind strip • cold w orkable (deep drawing) ·weldable • su rface paintable
Flat rolled products from soft steels
DIN EN 10130
Cold strip from soft steels
DIN EN 10207
Flat products with high yield strengths
DIN EN 10268
Flat products for enameling
DIN EN 10209
Cokkolled sheet lllld strip with...._ finishing • higher corrosion resistance • possibly better w orkability
Hot-dip finished sheet and strip
DIN EN 10327
Zinc electroplated flat products from steel for cold working
DIN EN 10152
Organically coated flat p roducts from steel
DIN EN 10169-1
Cold-roled sheets lllld strip for pacbging • corrosion resistant • cold wo rkable • weldable
Black plate for manufacture of tinplate
DIN EN 10205
Packaging sheet metal from electrolytically tinned or chromed steel
DIN EN 10202
Delivery form 11
Sh
I St Ithic!(ness range
. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. • . -
0.35- 3 mm s10mm s 3mm s 3mm
s3mm 0.35- 3 mm ,;3mm
0.14 - 0.49 m m 0.1 4-0.49 m m
Hot-rolled sheet and strip Same p roperties as the corresponding steel groups (pages 126. 1271
Sheet and strip from unalloyed and alloy steels. e. g. structural steels as per DIN EN 10025. fine-grain structural steel.s as per DIN EN 10113. DIN EN 10051 case hardened steels as per DIN EN 10084. quenched and tempered steels as per DIN EN 10083. stainless steels as per DIN EN 10088
• high yield strength
Sheet metal from structural steels with higher yield strength. quenched and tempered
DIN EN 10025-6
· cold workability
Flat products of steel with high yield strength
DIN EN 10149·1
1)
Delivery forms: Sh sheet; St strip
.. . .• -
sh eet up to 25 mm thickness. strip up to 10 mm thickness
3-150 mm sheet up to 20 mm thickness
140
Materials science: 4.4 Steels, Finished products
Cold-rolled sheet and strip for cold working Cold-rolled s1rip and sheet from soft steels Steel type Material number
Designation
Type of surface
cf. DIN EN 10130 (2007·021
Tensile strength
Yield strength
Elongation at fracture
R,
N/mm2
R.
N/mm2
EL %
LBck
Properties, Application
of flowlines 11
-
OC01
1.0330
A B
270- 410
140 280
28
DC03
1.0347
A B
270- 370
140 240
34
6 months
DC04
1.0338
A B
270- 350
140 210
38
6months
DC05
1.0312
A B
270- 330
140 180
40
6 months
DC06
1.0873
A B
270- 350
120 180
38
unlimited time
Delivery forms (standard values)
Sheet thicknesses: 0.25 - 0.35 - 0.4 - 0.5 - 0.6 - 0.7 - 0.8 - 0.9 - 1.0 - 1.2 - 1.5 - 2.0 - 2.5 - 3.0 mm Metal sheet dimensions: 1000 x 2000 mm. 1250 x 2500 mm, 1500 x 3000 mm, 2000 x 6000 mm strip (coils) up to approx. 2000 mm wide
3months Cold workable, e.g. by deep drawing, weldable, surface paintable; worked sheet parts in automotive, general machine and equipment manufac· turing, in the construction industry
,, In subsequent non-<:ulting processes, e. g. deep drawing, no flow lines appear within the given time period. The time period begins at the agreed upon delivery date.
Explanation Type of sur!Ke
Sur!Ke finish Description of the surface
Designation
Designation
Average roughness Ra
Finish
A
Defects, e.g. pores, scoring, may not influenoe the workability and the adhesion of surface coatings.
b g
very smooth smooth
Ra :s 0.4 ~m Ra :s 0.9 ~m
B
One side of the sheet must be free of defects so that its surface finish will not influence quality painting.
m r
man rough
0.6 tJm < Ra"' 1.9 tJm RB> 1.6tJm
=
Sheet EN 10130- OC06- B - g: Sheet metal from OC06 material, surface type B, smooth surface
Cold-rolled s1rip and sheet of high yield steels (selection) Steel type Oesig· nation
M aterial number
Tensile strength
Rm
cf. DIN EN 10268 (2Q06.10) Yield strength
Re
N/mm2
N/mm2
Elongation at fracture Properties, EL Application %
HC180Y HC220Y HC260Y
1.0922 1.0925 1.0928
340- 400 350-420 380-440
180- 230 220-270 260-320
36 34 32
Cold workability at high mechanical strength, sophisticated deep-drawn parts
HC180B HC220B HC300B
1.0395 1.0396 1.0444
300-360 320-400 400- 480
180- 230 220-270 300- 360
34 32 26
Good cold workability, increase of the yield strength through heat treatment after the shaping process; exterior parts of the vehicle body
HC180P HC260P HC300P
1.0342 1.0417 1.0448
280- 360 360-440 400- 480
180- 230 280-320 300- 360
34 29 26
Good cold workability, high impact resistance and fatigue strength; parts of the body skin, deep-drawn parts
HC260LA HC380LA HC420LA
1.0480 1.0550 1.0556
350-430 440- 560 470-590
260-330 380-480 420-520
26 19 17
Good weldability and limited cold workability, good impact resistance and fatigue strength; reinforcing parts of the vehicle body
Forms of delivery, surface finishes
Forms of delivery see DIN EN 10130 (table on top) Surface finishes: The products are available with the surface finish types A and B in accordance with DIN EN 10130. For LA types, e. g. HC380LA. only surface finish type A is available. For rolling width> 600 mm, the surface finishes also comply with DIN EN 10130.
-
ShHt metal EN 10628- HC380LA - A-m: Sheet metal of material HC380LA. surface finish A. man (m)
141
Materials science: 4.4 Steels, Finished products
Cold-rolled and hot-rolled sheet Hot-dip galvanized strip and sheet from soft steels for cold wortcing Steel type Designation
Material number
Guarantee for strenQth values II
cf. DIN EN 10327 (2004-091 replaces DIN EN 10142 Tensile strength
Yield strength
Elongation at frecture
Rm
R.
EL
N/mm2
%
Ntmm2
Lack of flow lines21
Cold working grade
DX51D+Z DX51D+ZF
1.0226+Z 1.0226+ZF
8days
270- 500
-
22
1 month
machine seamed quality
DX52D+Z DX52D+ZF
1.0350+Z 1.0350+Zf
8days
270- 420
140- 300
26
1 month
drawing g rade
DX53D+Z DX53D+ZF
1.0355+Z 1.0355+ZF
6months
270- 380
140- 260
30
6months
deep drawing grade
DX54D+Z DX54D+ZF
1.0306+Z 1.0306+ZF
6months
260- 350
120- 220
36 34
6 months
extra deep drawing grade
DX56D+Z DX56D+ZF
1.0322+Z 1.0322+ZF
6months
270- 350
120 - 180
39 37
6 months
special deep drawing grade
Delivery forms (standard values)
Sheet thicknesses: 0.25 - 0.35 - 0.4 - 0.5 - 0.6 - 0.7 - 0.8 - 0.9 - 1.0 - 1.2 - 1.5 - 2.0 - 2.5 - 3.0 mm Metal sheet dimensions: 1000 >e 2000 mm. 1250 >e 2500 mm, 1500 >e 3000 mm, 2000 >e 6000 mm strip (coilsl up to approx. 2000 mm wide
Explanation
Values for tensile strength R,., yield strength R, and elongation at fracture EL are only guaranteed within the given lime period. The time period begins at the agreed upon delivery date. 21 In subsequent working, e.g. deep drawing, no flow lines appear within a given period. The time period begins at the agreed upon delivery date. 'l
Composition, proper1ies end atruc:tiM'H of the c:o.tlng Designation +Z
+Zf
Composition, properties
Designation Structure
Coatings of pure zinc, shiny flower patterned surface. protection against atmospheric corrosion Abrasion resistant coating of a zinc-iron alloy, uniform man gray surface, corrosion resistant like +Z
N M
R
Zinc flowers in different sizes Small zinc flowers, often not visible. Uniform man g ray surface (texture infonnation only combined with coating +Zfl
Type of surface Designation A B
c =>
Meaning No surface defects are allowed, e.g. dots, stripes Improved surface compared to A Best surface, high-quality painting must be assured on one side of the sheet Sheet EN 10142- DX530+ZF100-R-B: Sheet of DX53D material, coating of iron-zinc alloy with 100 gtm2, uniform matt gray (RI and improved (81 surface
Hot-rolled sheet and strip
cf. DIN EN 10051 (1997-111
Hot-rolled sheet and strip according to DIN EN 10051 are manufactured from steels of various material groups, for e>eampte: Steel group, designation Materials
Delivery forms (standard valuesl
=>
Standard
Page
Structural steels Case hardened steels Quenched and tempered steels
DIN EN 10025 DIN EN 10084 DIN EN 10083
130 132 133
Weldable fine-grain steels Heat-treatable structural steels, high yield strength
DIN EN 10113 DIN EN 10137
131 131
Stainless steels Pressure vessel steels
DIN EN 10088 DIN EN 10028
136
Propenies and applications of the steels are g iven on the pages for the individual steel.
-
Sheetthicknesses: 0.5- 1.0-1.5- 2.•0 - 2.5-3.0 - 3.5 - 4.0 - 4.5 - 5.0 - 6.0 - 8.0 - 10.0 - 12.0 - 15.0 18.0-20.0 - 25.0 mm. Sheet and strip dimensions see DIN EN 10142. Sheet EN 10051-2,0 x 1200 x 2500: Sheet thickness 2,0 mm, sheet dimensions 1200 x 2500 mm Steel EN 10083-1 - 34Cr4: Carbon quenched and tempered steel 34Cr4
142
Materials science: 4.4 Steels, Finished products
ffiffiJ.'tl- 1111~-'i (jl
Seamless tube for d
outside d iameter s wall thickness cross-sectional area m' linear mass density w. axial section modulus lx axial gaometrical m oment o f inertia
s
X
1- - -
s
i.iiU:.IM ~"' I
hUI
,....;.L.!; ..,
.. ,
s
cf.
s
m' kglm
cm3
em•
541<5.0 541<8.0 54 X 10.0
7.70 11.56 13.82
6.04 9.07 10.85
8.64 11.67 13.03
23.34 3 1.50 35.18
60.3x8 60.3x 10 60.3x 12.5
13.14 15.80 18.n
10.31 12.40 14.73
15.25 17.23 19.00
45.99 5 1.95 57.28
7.42 8.59 10.94
70x8 70 )( 12.5 70 X 16
15.58 22.58 27.14
12.23 17.73 21 .30
21 .75 76.12 27.92 97.73 30.75 107.6
4.74 5.53 7.20
10.54 12.29 16.01
82.5x8 82.5x 12.5 82.5x 20
18.72 27.49 39.27
14.70 21 .58 30.83
31.85 131.4 42.12 173.7 51 .24 211 .4
7.58 10.13 11.25
19.34 25.84 28.68
88.9x 10 88.9x 16 88.9x 20
24.79 36.64 43.29
19.46 28.76 33.98
44.09 57.40 62.66 278.6
m' kgtm
cm3
w.
1,. em•
26.9 )( 2.3 26.9 )( 2.6 26.9x3.2
1.78 1.98 2.38
1.40 1.55 1.87
1.01 1.10 1.27
1.36 1.48 1.70
35x 2.6 35x4.0 35x6.3
2.65 3.90 5.68
2.08 3.06 4.46
2.00 2.72 3.50
3.50 4.76 6.13
40x4 40x5 40x8
4.52 5.50 8.04
3.55 4.32 6.31
3.71 4.30 5.47
44.5 X 4 44.5x5 44.5 X 8
5.09 6.20 9.17
4.00 4.87 7.20
51x5 51x8 51x 10
7.23 10.81 12.88
5.68 8.49 10.11
Material, annealing condition
outside diameter wall thickness s cross-sectional area m' linear mass density w. axial section modulus fx axial geometrical moment of inertia
s
-I--" d
~~~:~
[Annealing-~~·· "
E235, E275, E315 E355K2. E420J2
+AR or+N +N
unalloyed C22E,C45E,C60E alloy 41Cr4, 42CrM04
+N or +OT +OT
Quenched and tempered steels
I C10E,
. steel, unall., alloy r
....,..,.._.....
steels,
15E, r
pages {2003-02)
II/
s2
cm
kglm
cm3
em•
10 )( 1 10 )( 1.5 10 x2
0.28 0.40 0.50
0.22 0.31 0.39
0.06 O.Q7 0.09
0.03 0.04 0.04
12 )(1 12x 1.5 12x 2
0.35 0.49 0.63
0.27 0.38 0.49
0.09 0.12 0.14
15 X 2 15 )( 2.5 15 X 3
0.82 0.98 1.13
0.64 0.77 0.89
20 X 2.5 20x4 20x5
1.37 2.01 2.36
25 X 2.5 25 X 5 25 X 6 30 X 3 30 )( 5 30x6
s
cm2
m' kglm
cm3
em•
35x 3 35x 5 35x8
3.02 4.71 5.53
2.37 3.70 4.34
2.23 3.11 2.53
389 5.45 3.79
0.05 0.07 0.08
40x4 40x5 40x8
4.52 5.50 8.04
3.55 4 .32 6.31
3.71 4.30 5.47
7.42 8.59 10.94
0.24 0.27 0.29
0.18 0.20 0.22
50x5 50x8 SOx 10
7.07 10.56 12.57
5.55 8.29 9.87
7.25 9.65 10.68
18.11 24.12 26.70
1.08 1.58 1.85
0.54 0.68 0.74
0.54 0.68 0.74
60x5 60x8 60 )( 10
8.64 13.07 15.71
6.78 10.26 12.33
10.98 15.07 17.02
32.94 45.22 51 .05
1.n 3.14 3.58
1.39 2.46 2.81
0.91 1.34 1.42
1.13 1.67 1.78
70x5 ?Ox 10 70x 12
10.21 18.85 21 .87
8.01 14.80 17.17
15.50 24.91 27.39
54.24 87.18 95.88
2.54 3.93 4.52
1.99 3.08 3.55
1.56 2.13 2.31
2.35 3.19 3.46
80x8 80 X 10 80 )( 16
18.10 21.99 32.17
14.21 17.26 25.25
29.68 34.36 43.75
118.7 137.4 175.0
trf
w.
lx
dxs
Steel group
Surfaces
Unalloyed sti\JCtiJral steels. free cutting steels, quenched and temper~ steels
Tubes with smooth interior and exterior surfaces. surface roughness Ra s 0,41Jm ; of steels, 'pages 126
•v,_,.,,..,,,. Explanation
lx
Steelrype, example s
dxs
Materials, surface, annealing condition
w.
Machine construction unalloyed steels alloy
ou,.....ou~~
•-•w•~· 1 steeJtube, ---~•
dxs
Steel group
I Case
d s
' 10297-1 (2003-06)
cm2
cm 2
d'ICS
d
"'I
Ia. ::r::l .,
II
+A spheroidized; +C cold-rolled;
w.
lx
IAnnealing conon•on" +Cor +AOr+N
+AR condition after hot woricing; +OT quenched and tempered +N normalized;
Materials science: 4.4 Steels, Finished products
143
Hot-rolled steel profiles Cross-section
~ ~
Round steel bllr
d · 8-200
Square steel bar
a • 8-120
I
I
b
"'I I I
gp g3
g TI ~ 1l
Designation. dimensions
Ret steel bllr b X S • 10 X 5 tO 150 X 60
Square tube
8= 40- 400
Rectangular tubes
ax b• 50 x 25 to 500 x 300
Standard, page
DIN EN
10060 page 144
DIN EN
10059 page 144
DIN EN
10058 page 144
DIN EN
10210.2 page 151
DIN EN
10210.2 page 151
Circular tube DIN EN
Dx s •
1021().1
21.3 x 2.3 to 1219 x 25
Equal leg tee
b= h = 30- 140
Steel channel h = 30-400
DIN EN
10055 page 146
DIN
1026-1 page 146
according to EURONORM 53-62: IPS = HE to 8, IPBI
Designation, dimensions
Cross-section
TI
g
b3
Z profile steel
h -30-200
Equ.lleg steelllflgle B•
20- 250
Unequal leg steel angle
ax b• 30 X 20 to 200 X 150
TI
Narrow I-beam I series
I3
Medium width I -beam IPE series
TI TI
I3
Standard, page
DIN
1027
DIN EN
10056-1 page 148
DIN EN
10056-1 page 147
DIN
1025-1 h =S0 - 160
h• 80-600
Wldei·beam IPS series 11
h - 100-1000
Widel·beam light duty IPBI series 1l
DIN
1025·5 page 149
DIN
1025-2 page 150
DIN
1025·3 page 149
h = 100- 1000
Wldel·beam reinforced design IPBv series 11
h= 100-1000
=HE to A, IPBv • HE to M
DIN
1025-4 page 150
144
Materials science: 4.4 Steels, Finished products
Steel bar, hot-rolled Hot-rolled round steel bar
g
Diameter d lnmm
cf. DIN EN 10060 (2004·02), replaces for DIN 1013·1 Unalloyed structural steel according to DIN EN 10025 or quenched and tempered steel acoording to DIN EN 10083
Matllri81:
TyPe of delivery: Manufactured lengths (M) "' 3m< 13m, normal lengths (F) s 13m :t 100 mm. precision lengths (E)< 6 m :t 25 mm, 1:6 m < 13m :t 50 mm 10- 12 - 13 - 14 - 15 - 16 - 18 - 19 - 20 - 22 - 24 - 25 - 26 - 27 - 28 - 30 - 32 - 35 - 36 - 38 - 40 42 - 45 - 48 - 50 - 52 - 55 -60-63- 65 - 70-73-75-80 - 85-90-95-100 - 105 - 110 - 115 120 - 125- 130 - 135 - 140 - 145 - 150 - 155- 160 - 165 - 170 - 175 - 180 - 190- 200 - 220 - 250
Diameter d lnmm
limit deviat.i ons inmm
Diameterd inmm
limit deviations inmm
Diameterd inmm
limit deviations inmm
Diameter d inmm
Limit deviations lnmm
10- 15
:t 0.4
36- 50
>< 0.8
105- 120
:t 1.5
220
:t3.0
16-25
"'0.5
52-80
±
1.0
125- 160
±
26- 35
:t 0.6
85-100
:t 1.3
165- 200
:t 2.5
250
:t4.0
=>
Round bar EN 10060 - 40 x 6000 F steel EN 10025-S235JR; Hot-rolled round steel ba r. d • 40 mm, normal length 6000 mm, made of S235JR
Hot-rolled square steel bar
~
Length of side 8 inmm Length of side 8 inmm
cf. DIN EN 10059 (2004-02), replaces DIN 1014· 1
M aterial:
Unalloyed structural steel according to DIN EN 10025
Type of delivery: Manufactured lengths (M ),. 3m< 13m, normal lengths (F) s 13m :t 100 mm, precision lengths (EJ < 6 m :t 25 mm, ~ 6 m < 13m" 50 mm
8 - 10-12-13- 14- 15-16-18-20-22-24-25-26-28-30-32-35-40-45-50 -5560 - 65 - 70-75 - 80 - 90 - 100 - 110 - 120 - 130- 140- 150 Limit Limit limit Length of side 8 Length of side 8 Length of side 8 deviations deviations deviations mmm inmm inmm inmm inmm inmm
8- 14
:t 0.4
26- 35
:t0.6
55-90
15-25
:t 0.5
40- 50
:t0.8
100
=>
Nominal width w inmm Nominal thick· nesssinmm
Limit deviations inmm
%1.0
110- 120
:!:
1.3
130- 150
:t 1.8
%
1.5
Square bar EN 10059- 60 x 6000 F steel EN 10025-S235JR: Hot-rolled square steel bar, 8 = 2.36 in, normal length 6000 mm. made of S235JR
Hot-rolled flat steel bar
B
2.0
Material:
cf. DIN EN 10058 (2004·021. replaces DIN 1017· 1 Unalloyed structural steel according to DIN EN 10025
Type of delivery: Manufactured lengths (MJ z: 3m< 13 m, normal lengths (F) s 13m :t 100 mm, precision length (EJ < 6 m ± 25 mm, ,. 6 m < 13m :t 50 mm 10 - 12 - 15- 16-20-25-30-35-40-45-50-60-70-80-90- 100-120-150 5 - 6-8- 10 - 12 -1 5 - 20-25 - 30 - 35 - 40 - 50 - 60-80
Allowable deviations to nominal width w Nominal width w
Limit deviations
Nominal width w
inmm
inmm
inmm
10- 40
:t 0.75
85- 100
:!:
1.5
45-80
±
1.0
120
:t
2.0
Limit deviations inmm
Nominal width w inmm
Limit deviations
150
:t2.5
Nominal thick· ness sin mm
Limit d eviations
in mm
Allowable deviations t o nominal thidcness s Nominal thick· ness sin mm
-
5-20
Umit deviations inmm :!:
0.5
Nominal thick· ness sinmm 25- 40
Limit deviations
inmm ±
1.0
50 - 80
in mm :t
Flat steel bar EN 10058 - 20 x 5 x 6000 F steel EN 10025-S23SJFI: Hot-rolled flat steel bar, b ~ 20 mm, s ~ 5 mm, nonmallength 6000 mm, made of S235JR
1.5
145
Materials science: 4.4 St eels, Finished products
Steel bars, bright Common dimensions of bright s1eel bars (selection) Nominal cllrnenslontl
o..Jgrmlon
Width w, height h In mm w h w h
Flat steel bar
@3
w
h
5 6 8 10
2222-
w
h
12 14 15 16
3 4 6 8
2222-
10 10 12 12
18 20 22 25
2222-
12 16 12 20
28 32
36 40
2222-
w
20 25 20 32
w
h
45
2233-
50 56 63
32 32 32 40
h
70 80 90 100
4555-
40 25 25 25
Nominal thicknesses h in mm: 2 - 2.5 - 3 - 4 - 5 - 6 - 8 - 10 - 12 - 15- 16- 20 - 25 - 30 - 32 - 35 - 40 Square steel bar
Side length ll in mm
g
g
4 4.5 5
6 7 8
9 10 11
12 13 14
2 2.5 3 3 .2 3.5
4 4.5 5 5.5 6
7 8 9 10 11
12 13 14 15 16
2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6
@ polished round steel bar
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10
17 19 21 22 24
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
common delivered diameters common diameter gradation
50 63
41 46
65 70 75
80 100
70
27 30 32
50
36 36
55 60
90 95 100
80 85
27 28
29 30 32
34 35
36
38
58
40 42 45 48 50 52 55
60
63 65 70 75 80 85
160 180 200
90 100 110 120 125 130 140 150
I 1 mm to 13 mm I > 13 mm to 25 mm I > 25 mm to 50 mm 1 mm 5mm I O.Smm I I cf. DI N EN 10278 (1999-12)
Delivery conditions Co de
I
Finished condition!
I
+C cold drawn
+SH
I
peeled
I I
+SL g round
I I
+Pl polished
Rou nd EN 10278 - 20 h9 x m ill length 6000 EN 102n-3 - 44SMn2B+C - Ciass 3: Round bright steel bar, d= 20 mm, Tolerance class h9, mill length 6000 mm, free cutting steel 44SMn28, cold drawn, surface quality class 3
cf. DtN EN 10277-1 to -5 (1999-10)
Material groups • nd .signed delivery conditions
Delivery conditions 1l
Material groups
.. .. . .
+SH Steels for general engineering use Free culling steels Free culling case hardened steels Free cutting quenched and temp. steels Unalloyed case hardened steels Case hardened alloy steels Unalloy ed quenched and tempened steels Quenched and tempered alloy steels 1l
36 40 45
Diameter d in mm
round steel bar
=
22 25 28
Side length s in mm
Hexagonal bar steel
~
16 18 20
.. . .. . . . • . • . .. .. . . . .
+C
+C+OT +0T +C +A+SH
+A +C
+FP +SH +FP +C
Explanation pages 124 and 125
cf. DIN EN 10278 (1999-12)
length types and length limit deviations Length type
Lengthinmm
Manufactured length 3000- 9000
limit deviations in mm
Order information
:!:500
length
Mill length
3000 - 6000
0/ +200
Precision length
up to 9000
by agreement. but min.
e. g. mill length 6000 ;t
5
length and limit deviation
146
M ateri als science: 4.4 Steels, Finished products
Structural Tee, Steel channel Equal leg TM, hot-rolled
cf. DIN EN 10055 11995-12)
s
b
1 ~
~
'..J
-
t.
I~
-c:IN
nation
40 50 60 70
b=h 30 35 40 50 60 70
80
80
100 120 140
100 120 140
T 30
35
=
I
I
Dimensions inmm
2.26 2.97
3.n
5 .66 7.94 10.6 13.6 20.9 29.6 39.9
I
I
r= s
r, = ~
I
2
Fo r th e bending axis
x- x
xaxis
s
4 4.5 5 6 7 8 9 11 13 15
Unalloyed structural steel DIN EN 10025, e. g . S235JR
Distance o fthe
crrY-
s= t
axial section modulus m' linear mass density
Deliv ery type: Lengths to order with a usual limit deviation of .t 100 mm o r a reduced limit deviation .t 50 mm. .t 25 mm, :1: 10 mm
~t
"" Desig·
Mat8flal:
..1
~z·t.~~~:*x
x-· - ~j:.:
T ~~
I
lA
w
cross-sectional area second momenl of Inertia
Tracing dimension accord, to DIN 997
y- y
w.
e,.
em
em•
cm3
an•
cm3
0.85 0 .99 1. 12 1.39 1.66 1.94 2 .22 2.74 3.28 3.80
1.72 3.10 5.28 12.1 23.8 44.4 73.7 179
0.80 1.23 1.84 3.36 5.48 8.79 12.8 24.6 42.0 64.7
0.87 1.04 2.58 6.06 12.2 22.1 37.0 88.3 179
0.58 0.90 1.29 2.42 4.07 6.32 9.25 17.7 29.7 472
I•
366 660
w,
w.
m' kg1m 1.n 2.33 2.96 4.44 6.23 8.23 10.7 16.4 23.2 31.3
ly
330
34 38
cl . DIN 1026-1 (2000.03)
s
b
~ <:::
Material:
~a·t.-+1 ~ 9' t'\.
u
ir+.l'd,
I
~
30x 15 30 40 x 20 40 50x25 50 60
=
300 350 400
b 15 33 20 35 25 38 30 45 50 55 65 75 90 100 100 110
Unalloyed structural steel DIN EN 10025, e.g. S235J O
r1 = t
I
I
4 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 7 7.5 8.5 10 10 14 14
4.5 7 5.5 7 6 7 6 8 8.5 9 10 .5 11.5 14 16 17.5 18
h, 12 10 18 11
crrY-
200 232
2.21 5.44 3.66 6.21 4.92 7.12 6.46 11.0 13.5 17.0 24.0 32.2 48.3 58.8
276 324
91.5
25 20
35 46 64 82 115 151
r2 ... ..!..
n .3
m'
By
r3 s 0,3 ·
t
For the bending axis
y- y
x- x
yaxis kg1m 1.74 427 2.87 4.87 3.86 5.59 5.07 8.64 10.6 13.4 18.8 25.3 37.9 46.2 60.6 71.8
I
I
2
to the
s
s
I Ois1ance
lr
Dimensions inmm
h 30 30 40 40 50 50 60 80 100 120 160 200 260
axial section modulus
m' linear mass density
Deliv e 300 mm: 5%
J_ Designation
w
cross-sectional area second moment of inertia
I
i '-
x- lf-·- - x
.,:t..
400
40 45 60 70 75
Tee profile EN 10055 - T50 - S23SJR: Structural steel tee, h =50 mm, from S235JR
"< +r.-+z
100 120 160 200 260 300 350
mm 4.3 4.3 6.4 6.4 8.4 11 11 13 17 21
35
45 60 70 80
Steel channel, hot-rolled
80
d,
"":! mm 17 19 22 30
mm 17 19 21 30
1,.
an
em•
0.52 1.31 0.67 1.33 0.81 1.37 0.91 1.45 1.55 1.60 1.84 2.01 2.36 2.70 2.40 2.65
2.53 6.39 7.58 14.1 16.8 26.4 31.6 106
206 364 925 1 910 4820 8030 12840 20350
X
cm3
lv
an•
w. em'!!
1.69 0.38 0.39 4.26 5.33 2.68 3.97 1.14 0.86 7.05 6.68 3.08 6.73 2.49 1.48 10.6 9.12 3.75 10.5 4.51 2. 16 26.5 19.4 6.36 41.2 29.3 8.49 60.7 432 11.1 116 85.3 18.3 191 148 27.0 371 317 47.7 495 535 67.8 734 570 75.0 1020 102 846
Channel DIN 1026- U100 - S235JO: Steel channel. h = 100 mm. from S235JO
I Tracing dimensions DIN997
w,
d,
mm mm 10 20 11 20 16 20 18 25 30 30
35 40 50 55 58 60
4.3 8.4 6.4 8.4 8 .4 11 8.4 13 13 17 21 23 25 28 28 28
147
Materials science: 4.4 Steels, Finished products
Steel angle Unequlllleg steel engle, hot-rolled (selection)
,.
r
~
~
L 20 X 20 X 20 X 25 X 30 X 30K 30 X 40x 40x SOx SOx
-
Unalloyed structural steel DIN EN 10025-2, e. g. S235JO
Oellve
From 30 x 20 x 3 to 200 x 150 x 15, In manufactured leng ths "' 6 m < 12m. normal lengths a 6 m < 12 m :t 100 mm
.._f
I
3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 6 5 6 6 8 6 8 7
b
30 30 40 40
20 3 20 4 20 4 25 4 30 4 30 5 30 5 40 5 40 6 50 5 50 6 50 6 50 8 40 6 40 8 60 7 50 6 50 8 65 7 65 8 65 10 75 B 75 10 75 12 80 8 so 10 so 12 75 8 75 10 75 12
45 50 60 60 60 65 70
65 65 75 75 75 75 90 90 100 100 100 100
I
I
'1 .. t
Distances to axes
8
60K 60K 60x 65x ?Ox 75x SOx 75 75x SOx 75 BOx 40x so BOx 40x 80 BOX 60x 80 100x SOx 6 100 100X' SOx B 100 100 x 65 X 7 100 100,x 65 X B 100 100x 65x 10 100 100x 75 X B 100 100 X 75 X 10 100 100x 75 )( 12 100 120 SOx 8 120 120x SOx 10 120 120x SOx 12 120 125 X 75 )( B 125 125 X 75 X 10 125 125 X 75 X 12 125 135 X 65 X 8 135 135 X 65 X 10 135 150 x 75 X 9 150 150 x 75 )( 10 150 150x 75 )( 12 150 150 )( 75x 15 150 150 )( 90x 12 150 150x 90x 15 150 150x 100x 10 150 150 x 100x 12 150 200 )( 100 )( 10 200 200 X 100 X 15 200
111
Material:
Oimen· sions
lnmm 30x 30x 40 x 40 )( 45 X SOx
second moment of inertia
A --xf}_J
-~b
Oesig· nation
w axial section modulus rrl linear mass density
5 aoss·sectional area I
~
)r~1
cf. DIN EN 1()()56.1 (1998-101
I
8 10 9 10 12 15 12 15 10 12 10 15
5
m'
crn2
kghn
1.43 1.86 2.26 2.46
1.12 1.46 1.77 1.93 2.25 2.96 3.36 3.76 4.46 4.35 5.41
2.87 3.78 4.28 4.79 5.68 5.54 6.89 7.19 9.41 6.89 9.01 9.38 8.71 11.4 11..2 12.7 15.6 13.5 16.6 19.7 15.5 19.1 22.7 15.5 19.1 22.7 15.5 19.1 19.6 21 .7 25.7 31.7 27.5 33.9 24.2 28.7 29.2 43.0
5.65 7.39 5.41 7.07 7.36 6.84 8.97 8.77 9 .94 12.3 10.6 13.0 15.4 12.2 15.0 17.8 12.2 15.0 17.8 12.2 15.0 15.4 17.0 20.2 24.8 21.6 26.6 19.0 22.5 23.0 33.8
e, em 0.99 1.03 1.47 1.36 1.48 1.73 2.17 1.96 2.00 1.99 2.23 2.44 2.52 2.85 2.94 2.51 3.51 3.60 3.23 3..27 3.36 3.10 3.19 3.27 3.83 3.92 4.00 4.1 4 4.23 4.31 4.7B 4.88 5.26 5.30 5.40 5.52 5.08 5.21 4.81 4.89 6.93 7.16
By
em
'·
an"
0.48 0.62 0.74 0.74 0.68 0.97 1.0 1 1.25 1.25 1.21 1.29
3.59 3.89 5.78 9.36 15.6 17.2 20.1 23.2 33.4 40.5 52.0 44.9 57.6 59.0 89.9 116 113 127 154 133 162 189 226 276 323 247 302 354 291 356 455 501 588 713
2.12 627 2.23 761 2.34 553 2.42 651 2.01 1220 2.22 1758
I
2
For the bending axis y- y lv "'It
1.25 1.59
1.51 1.55 1.63 1,87 1.95 2.03 1.87 1.95 2.03 1.68 1.76 1.84 1.34 1.42 1.57 1.61 1.69 1.81
2
x-x
0.50 0.54
0.88 0.96 1.52 1.05 1.13
,.. .. t
cm3
an"
0.62 0.81 1.42 1.47 1.91 2.86 4.07 4.25 5.03 5.14 7.01 8.01 10.4
0.44 0.55 0.60 1.16 2.05 2.51 2.63 6.11 7.12 11.9 14.2 14.4 18.4
~
0.29 0.38 0.39 0.69 0.91 1.11 1.14 2.02 2.38 3.19 3.78 3.81 4.95 8.73 7.59 2.44 11.4 9.61 3.16 10.7 28.4 6.34 13.B 15.4 3 .89 1B.2 19.7 5.08 16.6 37.6 7.53 42 ..2 18.9 8.54 51 .0 10.5 23.2 19.3 64.1 11.4 14.0 23.8 77.6 90.2 16.5 28.0 27.6 13.2 80.8 34.1 98.1 16.2 40.4 114 19.1 29.6 11.6 67.6 36.5 82.1 14.3 43.2 95.5 16.9 45.2 8.75 33.4 41.3 54.7 10.8 46.7 77.9 13.1 5 1.6 85.6 14.5 61.3 99.6 17.1 75.2 119 21 .0 63.3 171 24.8 77.7 205 30.4 54.2 199 25.9 64.4 233 30.7 93.2 210 26.3 137 38.5 299
Treeing dimetl$ion IIOOOid. 10 DIN 997
w,
Wz
~
d,
-
12 12 12 15 17 17 17 22 22 30 30
8.4 8.4 11 11 13 13 17 17 17 21 21 21 23 23 23 23
mm mm mm mm 17 17 22 22 25 30 35 35 35 35 40 40 40 45 45 45 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 65 65
L EN 1()()56.1 - 65 x 50 x 5 - S235JO: Unequal leg steel angle, a • 65 mm, b • 50 mm. 1 • 5 mm, from S235JO
-
--
--
-
-
-
80 80 80
-
105 105 105 105 105 105 105 105 150 150
30 30 22 22 35 30 30 35 35 35 40 40 40 45 45 45 40 40 40 35 35 40 40 40 40 50 50 55 55 55 55
25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 28 28 28 2B 2B 28 28 28 28 28
148
M aterials science: 4.4 Steels, Finished products
Steel angle Equal leg steel angle, hot-rolled (selection)
-~ .- ~
s
~
I
~ ~ :~r ~·-+·-K · ~A!
A
,
f)-j
...
W2 >.., i1
L 20x 20x 3 25 )( 25 X 3 25x 25 X 4 30 X 30x 3 30 X 30x 4 35 X 35 X 4 40x 40x 4 40 X 40x 5 45 X 45 X 4.5 50 X SOx 4 50 X 50 X 5 50 X SOx 6 60 X 60x 5 60x SOx 6 60x 60 X 8 65 X 65x 7 70 X 70 X 6 70 X 70 X 7 75 X 75 X 6 75 X 75 X 8 80 X BOx 8 80 X 80 X 10 90 X 90 X 7 90 X 90x 8 90x 90x 9 90 X 90 X 10 100 X 100 X 8 100x 100 x 10 100x 100x12 120x 120x 10 120 X 120 X 12 130x 130 x 12 150x 150x10 150x 150x 12 150 X 150 X 15 160 X 160 X 15 180 X 180 X 18 200 X 200 X 16 200 X 200 X 20 200 X 200 X 24 250x 250x 28
=
Dimensions inmm IJ
20 25 25 30 30 35 40 40 45 50 50 50 60 60 60 65 70 70 75 75 80 80 90 90 90 90 100 100 100 120 120 130 150 150 150 160 180 200 200 200 250
cross-sectional area second moment o f inenia
Mate
~ Oesig· nation
cf. DIN EN 10056-1 11996-10)
I
3 3 4 3 4 4 4 5 4.5 4 5 6 5 6 8 7 6 7 6 8 8 10 7 8 9 10 8 10 12 10 12 12 10 12 15 15 18 16 20 24 28
w axial section modulus m' linear mass density
Unalloyed structural steel DIN EN 10025·2, e. g. S235JO
Delivery type: From 20 x 20 x 3 to 200 x 250 x 35, in manufactured lengths '"6 m <12m, normal lengths z: 6 m <12m :t 100 mm
I s
crrll 1.12 1.42 1.85 1.74 2.27 2.67 3.08 3.79 3.90 3.89 4.80 5.69 5.82 6.91 9.03 8.70 8.13 9.40 8.73 11.4 12.3 15.1 12.2 13.9 15.5 17.1 15.5 19.2 22.7 23.2 27.5 30.0 29.3 34.8 43.0 46.1 61.9 61.8 76.3 90.6 133
'1 "'
r
I
I
'2 .. J.
2
Distances For the bending axis to x - xandy - y axes m' e t. = ly W. = Wv llglm em em' cm3 0.882 0.598 0.39 0.28 1.12 0.723 0.80 0.45 1.45 0.762 1.02 0.59 1.36 0.835 1.40 0.65 1.78 0.878 1.80 0.85 2.09 1.00 1.18 2.95 2.42 1.12 4.47 1.55 2.97 1.16 5.43 1.91 3.06 1.25 7.14 2.20 3.06 1.36 8.97 2.46 3.77 1.40 11.0 3.05 4.47 1.45 12.8 3.61 4.57 1.64 19.4 4.45 5.42 1.69 22.8 5.29 7.09 1.n 29.2 6.89 1.85 33.4 6.83 7.18 6.38 1.93 36.9 7.27 7.38 1.97 42.3 8.41 6.85 2.05 45.8 8.41 8.99 2.14 59.1 11.0 9.63 12.6 2.26 72.2 11.9 2.34 87.5 15.4 9.61 2.45 92.6 14.1 10.9 2.50 104 16.1 12.2 116 2.54 17.9 13.4 2.58 127 19.8 12.2 2.74 145 19.9 15.0 2.82 177 24.6 17.8 2.90 207 29.1 18.2 3.31 313 36.0 42.7 21 .6 3.40 368 23.6 472 50.4 3.64 23.0 4.03 624 56.9 27.3 4.12 737 67.7 33.8 4.25 898 83.5 36.2 4.49 1100 95.6 145 48.6 5.10 1870 162 2340 48.5 5.52 59.9 5.68 199 2850 71.1 5.84 3330 235 104 7.24 7700 433
I Tracing dimension accord. to DIN 997
w,
W:!
d,
mm
mm
mm
12 15 15
-
-
4.3 6.4 6.5 8.4 8.4 11 11 11 13 13 13 13
17 17
18 22 22 25 30 30 30 35 35 35 35 40 40 40 40 45 45 50 50 50 50 55 55 55 50 50 50 60 60 60 60 65 65 65 70 75
LEN 10056-1 - 70 x 70 x 7 - S235JO: Equal leg steel angle, a = 70 mm, t = 7 mm. from S235JO
-
-
--
-
--
-
-
--
--
80 80 90 105 105 105 115 135 150 150 150 150
17 17
17 21 21 21 23 23 23 23 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28
149
Materials science: 4.4 Steels. Finished products
Medium width and wide 1-beams Medium width 1-beams UPEI. hot-rolled (selection)
"'•
r-:-
d
~
-
Unalloyed structural steel DIN EN 10025-2, e.g. S235JR
Mat erial:
--x
X
):
a xial section modulus
m' linear mass de nsity
second moment of inen ia
I
"' ...
!..
w
5 cross-sectional a rea
~ It-
...
cf. DIN 1025-5 (1994-03)
Delivery type: Standa rd lengths, 8 m to 16 m :t 50 mm with h < 300 mm,
8 mto 18 m :t 50 m mwith
+
h~
300mm
w-~ Designa tion
For the bending a xis y- y
m' w, 5 I. w. ly kglm em• mm b s I r cm2 cm3 crir' 100 4.1 5.7 7 10.3 8.1 171 34.2 15.9 5.8 30 55 120 64 4.4 6.3 7 13.2 10.4 318 53.0 27.7 8.7 36 73 4.7 7 16.4 12.9 541 44.9 12.3 140 6.9 n .3 40 160 20.1 15.8 109 68.3 16.7 44 869 82 5.0 7.4 9 180 91 5.3 8.0 9 23.9 18.8 1320 146 101 22.2 50 1940 194 142 100 22.4 28.5 200 5.6 8.5 12 28.5 56 240 120 6.2 9.8 15 39.1 30.7 3890 324 284 47.3 68 270 135 6.6 10.2 15 45.9 36.1 5790 429 420 62.2 72 7.1 10.7 15 42.2 8360 557 80.5 53.8 300 150 604 80 360 170 8.0 12.7 18 72.7 57.1 16270 904 1040 123 90 1320 400 180 8.6 13.5 21 84.5 66.3 23130 1160 146 96 500 200 10.2 16.0 21 116 90.7 48200 1930 2140 214 110 156 122 600 220 12.0 19.0 24 92080 3070 3390 308 120 I·P
IPE 100 120 140 160 180 200 240 270 300
~
h
360
400 500 600
=
Wide 1-beams light duty UPEII. hot-rolled (selection)
_r+-1_
- -~ s
x-
.c:
f- - x
.
/
"'"' b '
I Designation IPBI 100 120 140 160 180 200 240 280 320
400 500 600 800
=
Tracing dimension accord. to DIN 997
x-x
Dime nsions in mm
"'~
-, I
96 114 133 152 171 190 230 270 310 390 490 590 790
b 100 120 140 160 180 200
240 280 300 300 300 300 300
s 5 5 5.5 6 6 6.5 7.5 8 9 11 12 13 15
axial section modulus
m' linear mass density
Mater-ial:
Unalloyed structural steel DIN EN 10025-2, e. g. S235JR
Delivery type:
Standard lengths, 8 m to 16m :t 50 mm with h < 300 mm
Dimensions in mm h
w
second moment of inen ia
I I
8 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 12 13 15.5 19 23 25 28
r "' 3 · s
I For the bending a xis y- y
Tracing dimension accord. to DIN 997
x-x
cm2
s
m' kglm
21.2 25.3 31.4 38.8 45.3 53.8 76.8 97.3 124.0 159.0 198.0 226.0 286.0
16.7 19.9 24.7 30.4 35.5 42.3 60.3 76.4 97.6 125.0 155.0 178.0 224.0
8.4 8.4 11 13 13 13 17 21 23 25 28 28 28
cf. DIN 1025· 2 (1994-3)
5 cross-sectional area I
d,
mm
I.
crir' 349
606 1030 1670 2510 3690
7760 13670 22930 45070 86970 141200 303400
~ 72.8 106 155 220 294
389 675 1010 1480 2310 3550 4790 7680
em•
lv
~
134 231 389 616 925 1340 2770 4760 6990 8560 10370 11270 12640
26.8 38.5 55.6 76.9 103 134 231 340 466 571 691 751 843
I-profile DIN 1025- S235JR - IPSI320: Wide !-beams light duty from S235JR
Designation according to EURONORM 53-62: HE 320 A
w, 56 66 76 86 100 110
-
-
--
"'7
-
94 110 120 120 120 120 130
"'3
-
-
35 45 45 45 45 45 40
d,
13 17
21 23 25 25 25 25 28 28 28 28 28
150
Materials science: 4.4 Steels, Finished products
Wid e 1-beams Wide I -beams (IPBI. hot-rolled (selection)
....,
I
--!EJ!_.
Materiel:
s
-A-~ l/ - I I ,. ,. ..,! ,..,) t b Designation
b 100 120 140 160 180 200 240 280
h
100 120 140 160 180 200 240 280 320 400 500 600 800
=
300 300 300
300 300
'"
a >Cial selection modulus linear mass d ensity
unalloyed structura l stee l DIN EN 10025-2, e. g . S235JR
Delivery type: standard lengths, 8 m to 16 m ,. 50 mm at h < 300 mm, 8 m to 18 m ± 50 m m at h " 300 mm
I
'1 "' 2 .
Dimensions in mm
IPB 100 120 140 160 180 200 240 280 320 400 500 600 800
w
cross-sectional area second moment of inertia
I
r-=_ X
X ~
<::
s
I
";-
cf. OtN 1025-2 (1995-11)
s
s
I
6 6.5 7 8 8.5 9 10 10.5 11.5 13.5 14.5 15.5 17.5
10 11 12 13 14 15 17 18 20.5 24 28 30 33
cm 2 26.0 34.0 43.0 54.3 65.3 78.1 106 131 161 198 239 270 334
s
I For the bending a>Cis y- y
K- K
m'
w.
lx
kg/m em• 20.4 450 26.7 864 33.7 1510 2490 42.6 51.2 3830 61.3 5700 83.2 11260 103 19270 127 30820 155 57680 187 107200 212 171000 262 359100
lv
em•
cm3
89.9 167 144 318 216 550 311 889 426 1360 570 2000 3920 938 1380 6590 1930 9240 2880 10820 4290 12620 5700 13530 8980 14900
w.
cm3
33.5 52.9 78.5 111 151 200 327 471 616 721 842 902 994
s
~ l "''
•n•
r~ ~- X
-
-
--
-
I
"' "'2
I
axial selection modulus
m' linear mass density
unalloyed structural steel DIN EN 10025-2, e.g . S235JR
i U:
lwl! l f
b
Designation
Materia~
cf. OtN 1025-4 (1994-()3)
Delivery type: standard lengths, 8 m to 16m ,. 50 mm at h < 300 mm, 8 m to 16m " 50 mm at h " 300 mm
~I
L} ET·E
w
cross-sectional area second moment ot inertia
I
''I ; 1"':-1
!_ ·
x-
<::
=
w,
!-profile DIN 1025- S235JR- IPB 240: Wide !-beam with parallel flange faces, h • 240 mm, made of S235JR, designation according to EURONORM 53-62: HE 240 B
Wide I -beams. reinforced version (IPBvl hot-rolled (selection)
IPBv 100 120 140 160 180 200 240 280 320 400 500 600 800
Tracing dimension according to DIN 997 d, ""1 "!! mm mm mm mm 13 56 66 17 21 76 86 23 100 25 110 25 25 96 35 - 110 45 25 120 45 28 120 45 28 - 120 45 28 120 45 28 - 130 40 28
I
J
Di'T'ensions in rpm h
b
s
120 140 160 180 200 220 270 310 359 432 524 620 814
106 126 146 166 186 206 248 288 309 307 306 305 303
12 12.5 13 14 14.5 15 18 18.5 21 21 21 21 21
s
I
20 21 22 23 24 25 32 33 40 40 40 40 40
I
, ... 5
cm2 53.2 66.4 80.5 97.1 113 131 200 240 312 319 344
364 404
Forthe bending axis y- y
X- K
m'
I,
kg/m em• 41 .8 1140 52.1 2020 63.2 3290 76.2 5100 88.9 7480 103 10640 157 24290 189 39550 245 68130 250 104100 270 161900 285 237400 317 442600
w.
em3 190 283 41 1 568 748 967 1800 2550 3800
4820 6180 7660 10870
ly
em• 399 703 1140 1760 2580 3650 8150 13160 19710 19340 19150 18280 18630
w.
em\ 75.3 112 157 212 277 354 657 914 1280 1260 1250 1240 1230
Tracing dimension according to DIN 997 in mm WJ_ d, IN2 60 13 68 17 76 21 86 23 100 25 110 25 - 100 35 25 - 116 45 25 126 47 28 - 126 47 28 - 130 45 28 - 130 45 28 - 132 42 28
w,
- -
-
-
! -profile DIN 1025 - S235JR- IPBv 400: Wide !-beam, reinforced version, made of S235JR. designation according to EURONORM 53-62: HE 400 M
151
Materials science: 4.4 Steels, Finished products
Tubes ....
..p ..p
'I
r- .
x-
-
-~ t2 i
~
a
I'
- -x
.,
x-
Material:
'
i --1
- r2 1
-
-x
.,
b "'
otN EN 10210 and DIN EN 10219 also contain circular tubes, along with square and rectangular tubes.
Hot worked square and rectangular tubes Nominal dimens ion 8)(8
ax b mm
40 )( 40 SOx 50 60x60 50><30 60><40 80><40 100 X 50 ~
Unalloyed structural s teel DIN EN 10025
Delivet)l type: DIN EN 10210.2 manufactured lengths 4 m to 16m, profile dimensions ax a • 20 x 20 to 400 x 400 DIN EN 10219-2 manufactured lengths 4 m to 16m, profile dimensions ax a • 20 x 20 to 400 x 400
cf. DIN EN 10210.2 (1997·11)
Area morJ:)ents and section moduli
Unear mass denCross lor the bending axes Wall K - J( y- y thickness sity section m' s r. w.3 ly s 2 em~ kg/m cm ern• cm em• mm 4.89 9.78 4.89 3.0 3.41 4 .34 9.78 5.91 4.0 4.39 5.59 11.8 5.91 11.8 17.5 6.99 2.5 3.68 4.68 17.5 6.99 4.35 20.2 8.08 20.2 8.08 5.54 3.0 12.1 3.0 5.29 6.74 36.2 12.1 36.2 15.1 45.4 4.0 6.90 8 .79 45.4 15.1 8.42 10.7 53.3 17.8 53.3 17.8 5.0 3.96 3.0 3.41 4.34 13.6 5.43 5.94 4.72 4.0 4 .39 16.5 6.60 7.08 5.59 4 .35 5.54 26.5 8.82 13.9 6.95 3.0 7.19 4.0 32.8 10.9 17.0 8.52 5.64 17.1 22.2 11.1 4.0 6.90 8.79 68.2 20.1 12.9 5.0 8.42 10.7 80.3 25.7 14.2 9.87 12.6 90.5 22.6 28.5 6.0 27.9 46.2 18.5 4.0 8.78 11.2 140 21.7 10.8 13.7 167 33.3 54.3 5.0 Tube DIN EN 10210-60 x 60 x 5- S355JO: Square tube, a ~ 60 mm, s = 5 mm, made of S35SJO
Cold worked, welded, square and rectangular tubes
w.
for torsion lp
em4 15.7 19.5 27 .5 32.1 56.9 72.5 86.4 13.5 16.6 29.2 36.7 55.2 65.1 73.4 113 135
WP. cm3
7.10 8.54 10.2 11 .8 17.7 22.0 25.7 6.51 7.77 11.2 13.7 18.9 21 .9 24.2 31.4 36.9
cf. DIN EN 10219-2 (1997·11)
Area moments and section moduli Nominal Unear dimension for torsion mass denCross lor the bending axes Wall 8xa K-K y- y sity section thickness ax b m' s ly lp s r. w. cm'l em~ mm cm 4 kg/m cm 2 em• em3 cm4 mm 1.81 1.81 4.54 2.75 2.0 1.68 2.14 2.72 2.72 3.16 2.10 5.40 3.20 2.5 2.03 2.59 3.16 2.10 30x 30 3.58 6.15 2.36 3.01 3.50 2.34 3.50 2.34 3.0 3.47 11.3 5.23 2.0 2.31 2.94 6.94 3.47 6.94 8.2.2 4.11 13.6 6.21 4.11 8.22 2.82 3.59 2.5 40><40 4.66 15.8 7.07 3.30 4.21 9.32 4.66 9.32 3.0 5.54 19.4 8.48 4 .20 5.35 11.1 5.54 11.1 4.0 22.0 140 33.0 7.07 9.01 87.8 22.0 87.8 3.0 27.8 180 41 .8 4.0 9.22 11.7 111 27.8 111 80x80 49.7 11.3 14.4 131 32.9 131 32.9 218 5.0 1.34 2.36 1.68 2.14 4.05 2.02 1.34 3.45 2.0 2.72 4.69 2.35 1.54 1.54 4.06 40x20 2.5 2.03 2.59 5.21 1.68 1.68 4.57 3.00 3.0 2.36 3.01 2.60 11.2 4.25 5.41 25.4 8.46 13.4 6.72 29.3 3.0 31.0 10.3 16.3 8.14 36.7 13.7 60x40 4.0 5.45 6.95 42.8 15.6 9.21 6.56 8.36 35.3 11.8 18.4 5.0 13.1 17.6 8.78 43.9 15.3 3 .0 5.19 6.61 52.3 16.2 2 1.5 10.7 55.2 18.8 4 .0 6.71 8 .55 64.8 80x40 65.0 21 .7 10.4 75.1 18.8 24.6 12.3 5.0 8.13 21.7 10.8 59.0 19.4 3.0 6.13 7.81 92.3 18.5 13.3 74.5 24.0 4.0 7.97 10.1 116 23.1 26.7 100 X 40 15.4 87.9 27.9 12.4 136 27.1 30.8 9.70 5.0 Tube DIN EN 10219 -60 x 40 x 4- S355JO: Rectangular tube, a a 60 mm, b = 40 mm, = s ~ 4 mm, made of S35SJO
w.
w.
152
Materials science: 4.4 Steels. Finished products
linear mass density and area mass density Unear mass density11 (Table values for steel with density q • d diameter
m' linear mass density
a length of side
7.85 kgldm3)
SW widths ll<:ross flats
Steel wire
d
m'
mm
kg/1 000 m
0.10
0.062
0.55
0.16
0.158
0.60
d mm
Roundsteelbw
m'
d
m'
d
m'
d
kg/1000 m
mm
kg/1000 m
mm
kg/m
mm
m' kg/m
1.87
1.1
7.46
3
0.055
18
2.00
60
22.2
2.22
1.2
8.88
4
0.099
20
2.47
70
30.2
d
m'
mm
kg/m
0.20
0.247
0.65
2.60
1.3
10.4
5
0.154
25
3.85
80
39.5
0.25
0.385
0.70
3.02
1.4
12.1
6
0.222
30
5.55
100
61.7
0.30
0 .555
0.75
3.47
1.5
13.9
8
0.395
35
7.55
120
0.35
0.755
0.80
3.95
1.6
15.8
10
0.617
40
9.86
140
0.40
0.986
0.85
4.45
1.7
17.8
12
0.888
45
12.5
150
139
0.45
1.25
0.90
4.99
1.8
20.0
15
1.39
50
15.4
160
158
0.50
1.54
1.0
6.17
2.0
24.7
16
1.58
55
18.7
200
247
Rat steel bet
a
m'
mm
kg/m
6 8 10 12
88.8 121
Hexagonal steel bet
a mm
m'
a
kg/m
mm
0.283
20
3.14
40
12.6
0.502
22
3.80
50
19.6
0.785
25
4.91
60
28.3
1.13
28
6.15
70
38.5
m' kg/m
sw
m' kg/m
sw
m'
sw
m'
mm
kg/m
mm
kg/m
6
0.245
20
2.72
40
10.9
8
0.435
22
3.29
50
17.0
10
0.680
25
4.25
60
24.5
12
0.979
28
5.33
70
33.3
mm
14
1.54
30
7.07
80
50.2
14
1.33
30
6.12
80
43.5
16
2.01
32
8.04
90
63.6
16
1.74
32
6.96
90
55.1
18
2.54
35
9.62
100
78.5
18
2.20
35
8.33
100
68.0
Unear mass density of special profiles Page
Profile
Tee
EN 10055
146
Tubes
EN 10210.2
Angles, equal legs
EN 10Q56.1
148
Tubes
EN 10219-2
151
Angles, unequal legs
EN 10Q56.1
147
Aluminum round bars
DIN 1798
169
Profile
Page 151
Steel channel
DIN102S.1
146
Aluminum square bars
DIN 1796
169
!-beams IPE
DIN 1025·5
149
Aluminum flat bars
DIN 1769
170
!·beams IPB
DIN 1025-2
149
Aluminum round tube
DIN 1795
171
!-beams, narrow
DIN 1025-1
150
Aluminum channel
DIN9713
171
Area mass density11 (Table values for steel with density u = 7.85 kg/dm3) ShMt
s
sheet thickness
s
m·
m· area mass density
s
m• kg/m2
mm
0.70
5.50
1.2
0.80
6.28
1.5
11.8
3.93
0.90
7.07
2.0
15.7
4.71
1.0
7.85
2.5
19.6
mm
0.35
2.75
0.40
3.14
0.50 0.60 11 Table
s
m• kg/m 2
kg/m 2
mm
9.42
s
s
s
mm
m" kg/m 2
mm
m" kg/m 2
mm
m• kg/m 2
3.0
23.6
4.75
37.3
10.0
78.5
3.5
27.5
5.0
39.3
12.0
4.0
31 .4
6.0
47.1
14.0
110
4.5
35.3
8.0
62.8
15.0
118
94.2
values can be calculated for a different material by taking a ratio of its density to the density of steel (7 ,85 kg/dm 3). Example: Sheet metal with s = 4.0 mm of AJMg3Mn (density 2.66 kg/dm3). From the table: m" = 31.4 kglm2 for steel. AIMg3Mn: m" = 31.4 kgtm2. 2.66 kg/dm3n.8s kgldm3 = 10.64 kg/mz
153
Materials science: 4.5 Heat treatment
Iron-Carbon phase diagram
1400
D
1300
t
1200
F
austenite
ledeborite + cementite I+ gr.philel 11
K
6.67
eutectoid steel
eutectic mixture cast iron
11 For iron types with a C oontent over 2.06% least iron) and additional Si content, a portion of the unalloyed pre-
cipitates in the form of graphite. Mioostructures ol UNllloyed steel
Carbon content •nd c:ryst..ine structure Etc:hant: 3% nitric acid /alcohol solution Magnification approx. 500 : 1
t
~
~
800
:;;
p
c.
E 700
I
I
~
I
temperature ranges:
600
stress relief anneal recrystallization anneal I
ferrite + 500 0
0.2
pearlite pearlite+ cementite 0.4
0.6
0.8
carbon content
1.0
1.2% 1.4
0.8%C pearlite
1.3 % C pearlite + grain boundary cementite
Heat and hold at annealing temperature -structural transformation (austenite) Controlled cooling to room temperature - fine-grained normal strUCiure
To normalize coarse grain structures in rolled, cast, welded and forged products
Heat to annealing temperature, hold at tern· To improve cold workability, machin· perature or cycle anneal ability and hardenabillty; - spheroiditing of the cementite can be used for all steels Cool down t.o room temperature
..t
2
l~---.>-<--.>. .~
!~---~---~ ~
~ ! ~---~~~-~
Heat and hold at annealing temperature (below structure transition) - stress relief by plastic deformation of the workpieces Cool down to room temperat.ure
To reduce internal stresses in welded, cast and forged parts; can be used for all steels
Heat and hold at hardening temperature - structural transformation (aust.enitel Quench in oil, water, air - brittle hard, fine structure (martensite) Temper - transformation of martensite, higher toughness. working hardness
For parts subject to wear stress. e. g. tools, springs, guideways, press forms; steels suitable for heat treatment with C > 0,3%, e. g. C70U, 102Cr6, C45E, HS6-5-2C, X38CrMoV5-3
Heat and hold at hardening temperature -structural transformation !austenite) Quench in oil, water, air - hard, brittle, fine-grain structure (marten· site), for larger sized parts fine core structure (bainite) Temper at higher temperatures than for hardening - martensite reduction, fine structure, high strength with good toughness
Usually used for dynamically loaded workpieces with high strength and good toughness, e. g. shafts, gears,
Calburize machined workpieces on the surface layer Cool to room temperature - normal structure (ferrite, pearlite, carbides) Harden (for procedure see hardening) -surface hardening: heat to surface hardening temperature core hardening: heat to hardening temperat.ure of the core area
For workpieces with wear-resistant surfaces, high fatigue strength and good core strength, e.g. gears. shafts, bolts; surface hardening: high wear-resist· a nee. low core strength core hardening: high core strength, hard brittle surface; case hardened steels, see page 133, free cutting steels, see page 134
Anneal usually finish-machined workpieces in nitrogen-producing atmospheres - formation of hard, wear-resistant and temperature-resistant nitrides Cool in still air or in nitrogen Slream
For workpieces with wear-resistant surfaces, high fatigue strength and good temperature-resistance, e.g. valves, piSion rods, spindles; nitriding steels, see page 134
screws; quenched and tempered steels, see page 133. nitriding steels, see page 134, steels for name and induction hardening, see page 134, steels for heat-treatable springs, see 138
155
Materials science: 4.5 Heat treatment
Tool steels, Case hardened steel s Heat treatment of unalloyed cold work steels Steel type Designation
cf. DIN EN ISO 495712001 ·02) Surface hardness in HRC .. Full after after Case Cooling harden. harden. hard· tempering21 at medium depth 'l up to0 ening 100 200 300 mm mm
Spheroidizing
Material number
Hardening
TemperaHot Tempe- ~ardne$$ wor1
•c
C45U C70U
1.1730 1.1520
C80U C90U C105U
1.1525 1.1535 1.1545
1000- 800 680- 710
207 183
B00-820 790- 810
1050-800 1050- BOO 1000-800
192 207 212
780- 800 no- 790
680- 710
•c ·c •c
no-790
water
3.5 3.0
15 10
water
3.0
10
58
58
54
48
64
63
60
53
64 64
64 64 64
60
54 54
65
61 62
56
,, For diameters of 30 mm. 21 The tempering temperature is set according to the application and the desired wor1
Heat treatment of alloy cold work steels. hot work steels and high-speed steels Steel type Hot Material wor1
Designation
105V X153CtMoV12
1.2834 1.2379
X210CrW12 90MnCrVB 102Cr6
cf. DIN EN ISO 495712001 ·021
Spheroidizing tempe- Hardn. rature HB •c mal<.
Hardening Surface hardness in HRC .. after after tempering 21at tempecooling rature1l medium harden- 200 300 400 500 550 •c ·c ing "C
•c •c
1050-850
710-750 800- 850
212 255
780-800 1010-1030
water air
1.2436 1.2842 1.2067
1050-850
800-840 680-720 7 10- 750
255 229 223
780-800 830 - 850
60WCrVB X37CrMoV5-1
1.2550 1.2343
1050-850 1100- 900
710-750 750-800
229 229
900-920 1010-1030
HS6-5-2C HS104-3-10 HS2·9-1-8
1.3343 1.3207 1.3247
1100-900
no-840
269 302 277
1200-1220 oil, 1220-1240 hot 1180- 1200 bath. air
64
56
61
59
65 65
62 62 62
60 56
62
60
58
53
52
64 66 66
62
68 63
96- 980
64 oil
oil
48 58
62
36
58
56
56
52 40 40
58 50 50
42 43
52
53 53
54
46 52
62 61 62
62 62 61
65 66 68
67 69
57
61
•c
40
48
65
1l The austenitizing time is the holding time at hardening temperature, which is appro ~e. 25 min for cold work steels and approx. 3 min. for high-speed steels. Heating is performed in stages. 21 High-speed steels are tempered at least twice at 540-57o • c. Holding time at this temperature is at least 60 min.
Heat treatment of case hardened steels Steel type1l Designation
End quench test Hardness HAC at distance of: Material Carburizing Core harden. Surf. harden. Temper- Quenctting ing Temp. number temperature temperature temperature max. 21 3mm 5mm 7mm medium "C "C "C
•c
C10E C15E
1.1121 1.1141
17Cr3 16MnCr5
1.7016 1.7131
20MnCr5 20MoCr4
1.7147 1.7321
17CrNi6-8 15NiCr13
1.5918 1.5752
830- 870 840- 880
20NiCrMo2·2 18CrNiM o7-6
1.6523 1.6587
860-900 830- 870
1l
21
ct. DIN EN 10084 (2008.Q6)
Hardening
·c
water
880- 920
860-900 880- 980
780- 820
150- 200 oil
-
-
-
-
880 870
47 47
44
870 910
49 49
49
870 880 920 860
The same values apply to steels with controlled sulfur content, e. g. C10R. 20MnCrS5. For steels with normal hardenability I+H) at a distance of 1.5 mm from the end face.
-
-
-
-
40 44
33 41
48 44
46
47
47
47
46
48
48
48
45 47
49 48
48 48
45 48
48
46
41
42
156
Materials science: 4.5 Heat treatment
Quenched and tempered steels Heat treatment of unalloyed quenched and tempered steels Stool types21 Normaliz· lng
cf. DIN EN 10083-2 (2006-10) 11
End quench test Quenching and tempering Hardness HRC at hardening depth in mm31 Hardening•• Quenching medium Tempetlng5• 1 3 •c •c 5
Designation
Material number
C22E
1.1151
880- 940
-
-
-
-
860- 900
water
550- 660
C35E 1l C40E C45E'l
1.1181 1.1186 1.1191
860- 920 850- 910 840- 900
870 870 850
48- 58 5 1- 60 55- 62
33- 55 35- 59 37 - 61
22- 49 25- 53 28- 57
840- 880 830- 870 820- 860
water or oil
550 - 660
csoe'•11 csse
830-890 825- 885 820 - 880
850 830 830
56- 63 58- 65 60- 67
44-61 47-63 50- 65
31-58 33-60 35- 62
810- 850 810-850 810- 850
oil or water
550-660
C60E
1.1 206 1.1203 1.1221
28Mn6
1.1170
850 - 890
850
45- 54
42- 53
37 - 51
840 - 880
water or oil
540- 680
•c
•c
Heat treatment of quenched and t empered aUoy steels (selection) Steeltypes2l Surface Designation Material hardnessel number HRC
-
38Cr2 46Cr2 1l
1.7003 1.7006
54
34Cr4 37Cr4 1l 41Cr4 1l
1.7033 1.7034 1.7035
51 53
25CrMo4 34CrMo4 42CrMo4 11
1.7218 1.7220 1.7225
50CrMo41l 51CrV4 39NiCrMo3
1.7228 1.81 59 1.6510
End quench test Quenching and tempering Hardness HRC at hardening depth in mm3l Hardening"1 Quenching medium Tempering5l •c 1.5 5 15 ·c
·c
51-59 54 - 63
37-54
- 35
40- 59
22- 39
830-870 820- 860
oil or water oil or water
850
49-57 51 - 59 53-61
45-56 48- 58 50- 60
27-44 31 - 48 32- 52
830-870 825- 865 820- 860
water or oil oil o r water oil or water
540- 680
850
44-52 49- 57 53-61
40- 51 48- 57 52-61
27-41 34- 52 37-58
840-900 830- 890 820-880
water or oil oil or water oil or water
540-680
850
58- 65 57-65 52-60
57- 64 56-64 50-59
48- 62 48-62
820- 870 820-870 820-850
oil oil oil or water
540-680
43-56
50-58 48-56 50-57
50-58 48-56 48-56
48-57 46-55 47- 55
830-860 830-860 865- 885
oil or water oil or water air o r oil
540-660 540- 660 550- 650
850
-
-
53 58
-
-
cf. DIN EN 10083·3 (2007 ·01 I II
540-680
-
-
850
1.5532
-
850
52-60
50-59
31-47
840-880
water/oil
400-600
33MnCrB5· 2 1.7185
-
880
48-57
47-57
41-54
860-900
oil
400- 600
34CrNiMo6 1.6582 30CrNiMo8 1.6580 36NiCrMo16 1.6773 38M nBS
11
0 1N 17212 ·steels for name and induction hardening" was withdrawn without replacement. More information about steels for flame and induction hardening on page 133 and 134 in the section "Quenched and tempered steels". 21 Identical values apply to the high-grade steels C35 to C60 and steels with controlled sulphur content, such as C35R. 3J Hardenability requirements: +H normal hardenability 41 The lower temperature range applies to quenching in water, the higher range to quenching in oil. 51 The tempering time is 60 minutes minimum. 6l Minimum surface hardness of the steel after flame or induction hardening.
Hardenability and hardening depth of quenched and tempet"ed steels (scatter bands)
t
10 1-r-
:z2Z
C35E
60
~sol~
-~ 401~~
~ 3o x~ ~
.:n o0
10
__
:z2Z \ :\
60
50 40
50
~~~
5 10 15 20 25 30
30 200
5
L --~ ~~
:z2Z 51CrV4+HH
10
60 ~~ ~
71>--.
37Cr4+ HH 37Cr4 + HL
~ 51CrV4+HL
!-' ~ ~ ")('
~~
40 30
200 10 15 20 25 30 35 hardening depth - -
5
~~
'b 0, ~
5<5 ·'-po-..::.: ~ ~ r'~
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
157
Materials science: 4.5 Heat treatment
Nitriding steels, Free cutting steels, Aluminum alloys Heat treatment of nitriding steels Steel type Designation 24CrM o13-6 31CrMo12 32CrAIMo7· 10 31CrMoV9 33CrMoV12·9 34CrAINi7-10 41CrAIMo7-10 40CrMoV13-9 34CrAIMo5-10
Material number 1.8516 1.8515 1.8505 1.8519 1.8522 1.8550 1.8509 1.8523 1.8507
cf. DIN EN 1008512001.01)
Heat treatment before nitriding Quenching and tempering Spheroid. Hardening Tempering Tempera Quenching tempera· temperature ture 3J•J medium turell
·c
·c
650-700 650- 700 650-750 680- 720 680- 720 650-700 650- 750 680-720 650-750
870- 970 870- 930 87o-930 870 - 930 870- 970 870 - 930 870- 930 870 970 870-930
•c
Nitriding treatment II Gas nitriding
Nitrocar· burizing
Hardness51
•c
·c
HV1
800 -
800 oil or water
580-700
570 - 650
500- 600
950 950
-
950
11 The nitriding time is a function of the desired nitriding hardness depth. 21 A ustenitizing time atleaSl 0.5 hours. 31 Tempering time at least 1 hour. 41 The tempering temperature should not be less than 500C above the nitriding temperature. 51 Hardness of the nitrided surface.
Heat treatment of free cutting steels
cf. DIN EN 1008711999·01)
Free cutting cue Mrdened steels Steel type Designation 10S20 10SPb20 15SMn13
Material number 1.0721 1.0722 1.0725
Carburizing temperature
·c
880-980
Core hardening Surface harden. t.emperature temperature
·c
·c
880-920
780-820
Quenching medium1l
Quench. and temp. temperat.
Quenching medium ll
Tempering tem perature2l
water. oil, emulsion
150-200
·c
Free cutting quenched e nd tempered steels Steel type Designation
Material number
Hardness temperature
·c
·c
1.0726 35S20 860-890 35SPb20 1.0756 water or oil 36SM n14 1.0764 850-880 1.0765 36SMnPb14 540-680 38SMn28 1.0760 850-880 38SMnPb28 1.0761 oil or 44SMn28 1.0762 water 44SMnPb28 1.0763 840-870 46S20 1.0757 11 The choice of quenching medium depends on the shape of the workpiece. 31 Values apply to diameters 10 < d s 16.
Quenched and tempered3l
R,
Rm
A
N/mm 2
N/mm 2
%
430
630- 780
15
460
460
14 700 - 850
15 16
480
12 490 21 Tempering time at least 1 hou r.
Hardening of aluminum alloys AlloyENAW· Designation
Material number
AICu4MgSi AICu4SiMg AIMgSi AI MgSi1MgMn AIZn4,5Mg1 AI Zn5,5MgCu AISi7Mg11
2017 2014 6060 6082 7020 7075 420001
1•
Solution A rtificial aging Type of age annealing emperature holding hardening21 temperat ure time oc h ·c T4 T6 T4 T6 T6 T6 T6
5-8
500 525
Natural aging time days
100- 300
8-24
5- 8
470 525
Aluminum casting alloy EN AC·AI Si7Mg or EN AC 42000. 21 T4 solution annealed and naturally aged; T6 solution annealed and artificially aged.
-4
Age hardened
Rm
A
N/mm 2
%
390 420 130 280 210 545 250
12 8 15 6 12 8 1
158
M aterial science 4.6 Cast iron
Designation system for cast iron materials Designations and material numbers
cf. OIN EN 1560 (199Hl81
Cast i ron materials are referenced either with a designation or a material number. Example: Cast iron with flake graphite, tensile strength Rm • 300 N/mm2
o..&gn.tion EN·GJL-300
M aterial designations have up to six characters without spaces, beginning with EN (European standard) and GJ (cast iron; I iron) Design•tion EN EN EN EN EN EN EN
GJ GJ GJ GJ GJ GJ GJ
350 H8155 3SQ.22U ~
W
360-12
HV6001XCr141 XNiCuCr15+2
~ or
...
Cast iron with flake graph ite Cast iron with flake graphite Cast iron whh spheroidal graphite (ductile Iron) Malleable cast iron- blackheart Malleable cast iron - whiteheart Wear-resistant cast iron Austenitic cast iron
MecNnic8l properties or c:hemic:lll compoeltion
-
(numberS/letters)
A austenite F P M L
a
ferrite pearlite
Medwlic8l properties minimum tensile strength R, in N,lmm2
350
martensite
350-22 additional elongation at fracture EL in%
ledeburite
s
quenched
T quenc:hed and tempered
B not decerburi~eel
w decarburiled
T..t specimen cast separat ely
u
east-on taken from the casting
c
0 rough ca8ting H hellltreated CMtlng W weldable Z additional requirements
HB155 max. hardness Chemic:8l composition Data are based on steel designations, see page 125
M at erial numbers have sev en ch aracters without spaces, beginning with EN (European standard) and J (iron; I iron)
Cast iron with flake graphite and hardness as characteristic spheroidal graphite casting w ith east-on test specimen, characteristic Rm Malleable cast iron without special requirements, characteristic Rm
.......
~
(number)
tensile strength 2 hard..-s
3 chemical composition
Every cast iron material is assigned a two-digit number. A higher number indicates a higher strength.
-
II
L
o
no special requirements
1 2 3 4
separately cast test specimen
7 8 9
rough casting hell! truted casting additional requirements
east-on test specimen test specimen taken from the casting tough- at room temperature 5 toughness at low temperature 6 specified weldability
159
Material science 4.6 Cast iron
Classification of Cast Iron Materials Type
Examples/ Standard material number
Tensile strength
Rm
Properties
.
!
Application examples
N/mm2
Cntlron with flake graphite (gray iron)
DIN EN 1561
EN-GJL- 150 IGG-15)11 EN.JL1020
100 to 450
Very good cestability, good compression strength, damping capacity, emergency running properties. and good corrosion resistance
For complex workpieces with m any contours; very versatile in its applications. M achine frames. gear housings
with spheroidal graphite
DIN EN 1563
EN-GJS-400 IGGG-40)11 EN.JS1030
350 to
Very good castability, high strength even with dynamic loading, surface hardenable
Wear stressed workpieces; clutch parts, fittings. engine/motor construction
Very good caSiability, high strength without expensive alloying additions
Automotive parts, engine/motor construction, gear housings
800 to 1400
Heat treatment and controlled cooling produce bainite and austenite for high strength and good tough· ness
Highly stressed parts, e. g. wheel hubs, gear rings, ADI castings21
with vermicular graphite
ISO 16112
ISO 16112/JV/300
900 300 to
500 bainitic cast Iron
DIN EN 1564
EN-GJS-800-8 EN.JS1100
wear-resist.a nt castings, white cast iron
DIN EN 12513
EN·GJN·HV350 EN.JN2019
> 1000
Wear-resistant due t o martensite and carbides, also alloyed with Cr and Ni
Wear-r esistant cast iron, e.g. dressing rolls, dredging shovels, impellers for pumps
Melluble cast iron decerburized (whiteheart)
DIN EN 1562
EN-GJMW-350 (GTW-351 11 EN-JM101 0
270 to 570
Decarburization of the surface by t emper ing. High strength and toughness, ductile
True t o shape, thin-w alled, impact-loaded parts; levers, brake drums
not decarburized (blac·kheart)
DIN EN 1562
EN-GJMB-450 (GTS-45) 11 EN·JM1140
300 to 800
Cluster g raphit e in entire cross-section due to malleablizing. High strength and t oughness in larger wall thickness
True t o shape, thick walled, impact stressed parts; levers, universal joint y olces
lor general use
DIN EN 1029331
GE240 1.0446
380 to
Unalloyed and low alloy cast steel for general use
Minimum mechanical values from - to •c to 3oo•c
with improved weldability
DIN EN 10293'1
G20Mn5 1.6220
430 to
Lower carbon content with manganese and microalloy
Welded assembly construction, fine-grain structural steels with larger wall thickness
quenched and tempered cast steel
DIN EN 1029351
G30CrMoV&4 1.n2s
500
Fine q uenched and ternpered structure with high toughness
Chains, plating
for pressure vessels
DIN EN 10213
GP280GH 1.0625
Types with high strength and toughness at low and high temperatures
Pressure vessels for hot or cold media, h igh t emperature resistant and tough at low temperatures; rustproof
Resistant to chemical attack and corrosion
Pump impellers in acids, duplex steel
Resistant to scaling gases
Turbine parts, furnace grates
Cntsteel
600
650 to 1250 420 to
960 stainless
DIN EN 10283
GX6CrNi26-7 1.4347
heat-resistant
DIN EN 10295
GX25CrNiSi16-9 1.4825
450 to 1100 40010
550
11 previous designation 21 ADI - Austempered Ductile Iron 31 Replaces DIN 1681 41 Replaces DIN 17182 51 Replaces DIN 17205
160
Material science: 4.6 Cast iron
Cast iron with flake graphite, Cast iron with spheroidal graphite Cast iron with ftake graphite (gray ironl Tenlile strength
cf. DIN EN 1561 (1997·08)
R, • lclenllfylng dlerac:t. lslk:
Type
H...tneu HB • Identifying cNnctM'istlc
rt"ensile strengm
W all thickness
M at erial number
mm
Ntmml
EN·GJL· 100 EN-GJL· 150
EN.JL1010 EN-JL1020
5 - 40 2.5-300
EN·GJL-200 EN-GJL-250
EN.JL1030 EN.Jl1040
EN·GJL-300 EN·GJL·350
EN.JLIOSO EN·JL1060
.,.,
Wall thickness
TYPO
R,
Designati on
Brinell hardness
Designation
M aterial nu mber
mm
HB30
100-200 150- 250
EN-GJL-HB155 EN·GJL·HB175
EN.JL2010 EN.JL2020
40- 80 40- 80
max. 155 100- 175
2.5- 300 5-300
200 - 300 250- 350
EN·GJL·HB195 EN·GJL· HB215
EN-JL2030 EN.Jl2040
40 - 80 40 - 80
120-195 145- 215
10- 300 10- 300
300-400 350-450
EN-GJL-HB235 EN·GJL·HB255
EN-JL2050 EN-J L2060
40 - 80 40 -80
165- 235 185- 255
-
EN·GJL-100: Cast iron w i th flake graphit e (gray iron), minimum t ensile strength R, • 100 N/mm1
EN·GJL-HB215: Cast iron w i t h fl ake graphite (g ray iron), maximum Brinell hardness • 215 HB
Properties Good castability and machinability, vibration damping, corrosion resistance, high compression strenglh, good sliding p roper1ies. Application examples Machine f rames, bearing housings, p lain bearings, pressure-resistant pans. turbine housings. Hardness as c haracteristic property provides information on t he machinability.
Cast iron with spheroidal (nodular) graphite
cf. DIN EN 1563 (2005· 10)
Tenlile strength R, • Identifying dlerecteristic Type Designation
Mat erial num ber
Tensile strenglh
Yiel d strenglt1
R,
RpQ.2
N/m m 2
Ntmm 2
Elongation
EL
"'
EN-GJS·350-22-LT11 EN· GJS·350·22· RT21 EN·GJS-350·22
EN-JS1015 EN.JS1014 EN.JS1010
350 350 350
220 220 220
22 22 22
EN-GJS-400-18-LTI I EN· GJS-40Q.1S.RT21 EN-GJS-400-18 EN-GJS-400-15
EN.JS1025 EN·JS1024 EN-JS1020 EN.JS1030
400 400
250 250 250
18 18 18 15
EN·GJS-450-10 EN-GJS.50Q-7 EN-GJS-600-3
EN·JS1040 EN.JS1050 EN.JS1060
450
EN·GJS.70Q-2 EN-GJS.Boo-2 EN·GJS.90Q-2
EN·JS1070 EN.JS1080 EN-JS 1090
-
ti LT for low temperat ures
400 400
250
Proper1i es, application ex amples
Good machinability, low wear resistance; housings
Good machinability,
10
500 600
310 320 370
3
fittings, press f rames
700
420
800
480 600
2 2 2
Good surface hardness; gears, steering and clutch parts. chains
900
7
average wear resistance;
21 RT for room temperature
EN-GJS-400-18: Cast iron with spheroidal (nodular) graphite, minimum tensile strength elongation at fracture EL • 18%
R, = 400 N/mm 2;
Herdness HB .s identifying dlerac:t. istic Type Designat ion
Material number
Tensile strength
R,
N/mm2
EN-GJS.HB130 EN -GJS.HB150 EN-GJS· HB155
EN.JS2010 EN.JS2020 EN-JS2030
350
EN-GJS-HB185 EN -GJS-HB200 EN-GJS-HB230
EN-JS2040 EN.JS2050 EN·JS2060
450
EN-GJS.HB265 EN-GJS-HB300 EN -GJS.HB330
EN-JS2070 EN·JS2080 EN-J$2090
=
Yield strenglh /lpo.2 Ntmml
Brinell hardness HB
~
250
< 160 130- 175 135- 180
310 320 370
160- 210 170- 230 190- 270
700
420
800
480 600
225- 305 245-335 270-360
400 400
500 600
900
220 250
Properties, application examples
By specifying hardness values the pur· chaser can better adapt process param eters to m achining of the cast parts. Applications as above.
EN-GJS.HB130: Cast iron with spheroidal (nodular) graphite, Brinell hardness HB 130. maximum hardness
161
Material science: 4.6 Cast iron
Malleable cast iron, Cast steel Malleable cast iron11 Type
J
Designalion
Ma10rial number
ct. DIN EN 1562 12006·081 Tensile strenglh
Rm
Ntmm2
O.C.rburizlng annNied malluble cast Iron EN-GJMW-350·4 EN·GJMW-400-5 EN-GJMW-450·7 EN-GJMW-550-4
Yield Elongalion BtineU strength al fracture hardness
Rpo.2
N/mm2
%
Properties, appllcal ion examples
HB
(~ maluble cast Iron)
-
EN-JM1010 EN ·JM1030 EN-JM1040 EN-JM1050
350 450 550
220 260 340
EN•GJMW-360·12 EN.JM1020
360
190
400
EL
=> EN·GJMW-350-4: Whiteheart malleable cast iron. Rm
4 5 7 4
230 220 250 250
12
200
• 350 Ntmm 2, EL •
AU types have good castability and good machinability. Workpieces with low wan thickness, e.g. levers. chain links Especially wen suhed for welding. 4%
Non-decarburlzlng annuled malleable Iron ~ maiiHble cast Iron) EN•GJMB·300·6
EN·JM1110
EN-GJMB-350·10 EN-GJMB-450-6 EN-GJMB-500·5 EN·GJMB·550-4
EN·JM1130 EN-JM1 140 EN-JM1150 EN-JM1160
EN·GJMB·600·3 EN-GJMB-650·2 EN-GJMB-700·2 EN·GJMB·800·1
EN·JM1170 EN·JM1180 EN-JM1190 EN.JM1200
=
-
6
350 450 500 550
200 270 300 340
10 6 5 4
600 650 700 800
390 430
3 2 2 1
300
530 600
- 150
High pressure tightness
-150 150-200 165- 215 AU types have good castability and 180- 230 good machinability. Workpieces wilh high wan thickness. 195- 245 e. g. housings, universal join! yokes 210-260 pistons 240- 290 270- 320
EN.GJMB-350-10: Non-decarbuming annealed malleable cast iron, Rm • 350 Ntmm 2, EL • 10r.
II Previous designations: page 159
Cast steel for general applications (selection) Tensile strength
Type
ct. DIN EN 10293 (2005-{)6)11
Yield Elonga!ion strength
Notch impacl energy
Properties, application examples
EL
N/mm2
Rpo.2
Ntmm2
%
J
380-530
200 240 300
25 22 15
27 31 27
For workpieces with average dynamic loading; wheel spiders. levers
450-600 480- 620 760-960
240 300
24 20 15
70 60 60
Improved weldability; composite welded structures
1.1165 1.5410 1.7230
520- 670 600- 750 s2o- no
260 500
480
18 18 10
27 60 35
For workpieces with high dynamic loading; shafts
1.6570 1.4931
850-1000 740- 880
540
16 15
50 27
For corrosion-protected workpieces with high dynamic loading
Rm
Designation
Material number
GE2002l GE24Q21 GE3Q021
1.0420 1.0445
1,0558
450- 600 600- 750
G17MnS3l G20Mn52l GX4CrNiMo16-5-131
1.1131 1.6220 1.4405
G28MnG2l G10MnMoV6-J3l G34CrMo43 l G32NiCrMo8-5-431 GX23CrMoV12· 131
540
700
K.,
ll DIN 17182 •steel cast types wilh improved weldability and toughness· was withdrawn withoul replacement normalized 31 quenched and 1empered
21
Cast steel for pressure vessels (selection) Type Designation
Material number
GP240GH G17CrMo5-5
1.0619
GX8CrNi12 GX4CrNiMo16-5-1
1.4107 1.4405
H
ct. DIN EN 10213 12004-031
Tensile Yield Elongation strength II strengthII at fracture
1.7357
Rm
Notch impact Properties, energy K., application examples
RpG.l
EL
Ntmm2
N/mm2
%
J
420 490
240 315
22 20
27 27
540
355 540
18 15
45
760
Values for a wall thickness up to 40 mm
60
For high and low temperatures, e. g. steam lurbines, super heated steam armatures. also corrosion resistanl
162
Material science: 4.7 Foundry technology
Patterns. Pattern equipment and core boxes
· =·,·J '.~1 ;~· •1 ~
1
Materials end grades
Type of material
Application
Max. production run for molding
Wood
Plastic
Metal
Plywood, particle board or sandwich board, hard and softwood
Epoxy resins or polyurethane w ith fillers
Cu. Sn, Zn alloys AI alloys Cast iron or steer
Recurring Individual pieces and smaller lots, row precl· sion requirements; normally hand molding
Jobbing w ork and 110lume production with higher sion requirements; hand and machine molding
approx. 750
approx. 10000
Moderate to large volumes with high precision requirements; machine molding
Ra • 3.2-6.3 ~m
Mold
Tinmm
Light •lloy eatings Basic color for areas that should remain unmachined on the casting Areas to be machined on the casting Locations of loose parts and their anachments Locations of chill plates
Risers
163
Material science: 4.7 Foundry technology
Shrinkage allowances. Dimensional tolerances, Molding and casting methods Shrinkage allowances
..__ .. ,. ShrirUge
Cast iron
1.0 0.5 1.2 2.5 1.6 0.5
with flake graphite with spheroidal graphite, annealed with spheroidal graphite, not annealed austenitic malleable cast Iron, decarburizing anneal malleable cast Iron, no decarburi2ing anneal
cf. DIN EN 12890 (2000-061 Slwinbge .__In%
OttMr c.tlno IMt.....
Austenitic manganese cast steel AI, Mg, CuZn alloys CuSnZn, Zn alloys CuSn alloys Cu
Dimensional tolerances end machining alowanc:es, RMA
-
Ex.mples of tol.,.ance specifiCations in • drawing:
1. ISO 8062-CT12·RMA6 IHl Tolerance g rade 12, material allowance 6 mm
2.0 2.3 1.2 1.3 1.5 1.9
Cast steel
R F CT
T
RMA
2. Individual tolerances and machining allowances are given
cf. DIN ISO 8062 (1998-08) rough casting - nominal dimension dimension after finishing casting tolerance grade total casting tolerance material allowance for machining
I
directly after a dimension.
I
R =F + 2 · RMA + T/2
Casting tot..Nominal dimensions inmm
Total casting tolerance T in mm for casting tolerance grade CT
.;;10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0.09 0.13 0.18 0.26 0.36 0.52 0.74
8 1.0
9 1.5
10 2.0
> 10-16
0.10 0.14 0.20 0.28 0.38 0.54 0.78 1.1
1.6
2.2
> 16-25
0.11 0.15 0 .22 0.30 0.42 0.58 0.82
1.2
1.7
2.4
> 25-40
0.12 0.17 0.24 0.32 0.46 0.64 0.9
1.3
1.8
2.6
3.6
> 40- 63
0.13 0.18 0.26 0.36 0.50 0.70 1.0
1.4
2.0
2.8
4.0
> 63-100
0.14 0.20 0.28 0.40 0.56 0.78 1.1
1.6
2.2
3.2
4.4
> 100- 160
0.15 0.22 0.30 0.44 0.62 0.88 1..2
1.8
2.5
3.6
8
11
14
18
22
9
12
16
20
25
> 160- 250
-
> 250-400
-
> 400-630 > 630- 1000
13
14
15
16
-
3.0
4.4
-
-
- - -
3.2
4.6
6
8
10
12
5 5.6 6 7
7
9
11
14
8
10
12
16
9
11
14
18
10
12
16
20
1.4
2.0
2.8
4 .0
0.40 0.56 0.78 1.1
1.6
2.2
3.2
4.4
6.2
0.64 0.90 1.2
1.8
2.6
3.6
5
7
10
14
18
22
28
2.0
2.8
4
6
8
11
16
20
25
32
- -
12 4.2
5 5.6
0.24 0.34 0.50 0.70 1.0
-
11 2.8
-
-
1.0
1.4
Molding and casting methods Method
Appbtlon
Advantages and
~
c.tlng material
Relatlw dimM>-
Achievable
sional -.ncy'l innvn/mm
ln !Jm
roughnHa ,..
Hand molding
large castings. small lots
GJL, GJS, GS, GJM,Aiand Cu alloys
0.00 - 0.10
40- 320
Machine molding
small to medium dimensionally accurate, GJL, GJS, GS, sized parts. volume good su rface GJM, AI alloys
0.00-0.06
20- 160
Vacuum molding
medium to large parts. volumes
dimensionally accurate, GJL. GJS, GS, GJM,AJ and good surface, high investment costs Cu alloys
0.00-0.08
40-160
Shell molding
small parts. large volumes
dimensionally accurate, GJL. GS. high mold costs AI and Cu alloys
0.00- 0.06
20- 160
Investment casting
small parts, large volumes
complex parts, high mold costs
GS, Alalloys
0.00- 0.04
10-80
Die casting
small to medium sized parts. large volumes
dimensionally aCCtJrate even with thin walls, fine-grain structure. high investment costs
hot chamber. Zn, Pb. Sn, Mg cold chamber: Cu. AI
0.00- 0.04
10-40
all sizes. expensive. low dimensional accuracy
H The ratio of large.s t relative deviation to the nominal dimension is called the relative dimensional accuracy.
164
Material science: 4.8 Light alloys
Aluminum, Aluminum alloys - Overview A lloy group
M aterial number
Main charecteristics
Main areas of application
Product shapes11
s
PLWe aluminum AI (AI content >99.00%1
AW·1000 to AW·1990 (Series1000)
page 166 • • • • •
very good cold wortcability weldable and brazable difficult for cuning machining corrosion resistant anodized for decorative purposes
Containers. conduits and equipment for the food and chemical industry. electrical conductors. reHectors, trims. license plates in automotive manufacturing
•
Aluminum, Wt'Ought 81umlnum Mloys. non-heat treatable (selection) AIMn
AIMg
AW-3000 • cold workable • weldable and solderable to AW-3990 • good machinability in (Series 3000) work-hardened condition Compared to Series 1000: higher strength • improved lye resistivity
Roofing, siding. and supporting structures in the construction industry, parts for radiators and air conditioning units in automotive manufacturing, drink and food cans in the packaging industry
AW-5000 • good cold workability w ith high work hardening to AW-5990 • limited weldability (Series 5000) • good machinability in work-hardened condition and with higher alloy contents • weather and saltwater resistant
Ughtweight material for superstructures of commercial vehicles, tank and silo trucks. metal signs, traffic sign, rolling shutters and doors, windows, doors, hardware in the construction industry, machine frames. parts in the construction of jigs and fixtures and mold making
AIMgMn
• good cold workability with high work hardening • good weldability • good cutting machinability • saltwater resistant
I
I AIZnMgCu
I
. .. .. . .. . page 167
• • • •
good cold and hot workability corrosion resistant good weldability good cuning machinability in heat treated condition
Load-bearing structures in the construction industry, windows. doors, machine beds, hydraulic and pneumatic parts; with Pb, Sn or Bi additions: very good cutting machinable free cutting alloys
o 2)
o 21
o 2)
AW-2000 to AW-2990 (Series 20001
• • • • •
high-strength values good high-temperature strength limited corrosion resistance limited weldability good cutting machinability in heat treated condition
Ughtweight material in automotive and aircraft construction; with Pb. Sn or Bi additions: very good cutting machinable free cutting alloys
o 21
o 21
o 21
AW-7000 highest strength of all AI alloys to • best corrosion resistance in artificially aged condition AW-7990 (Series 7000) • limited weldability • good cutting machinability in heat treated condition
11 Product forms: S sheet; B bars; T tubes 2)
.
AW-6000 to AW-6990 (Series 6000)
I• A ICuMg
•
page 166
Aluminum, wrought llluminum Mloys. heat treatable (selection) AIMgSi
IB IT
Free machining alloys are only delivered as bars or tubes.
High-strength lightweight material in aircraft industry. machine con· struction. tools and molds for plastic molding, screws. extruded parts
.. .
165
Material science: 4.8 Light alloys
Aluminam, wrought aluminum alloys: Designations and material numbers Designations for aluminum and wrought aluminum alloys
cf. DIN EN 573-2 (1994·121
The designations apply to wrought products. e. g. sheet, bars. tubes, wires and for wrought parts. Designation examples:
EN AW • AI 99,98 ¥ . AI Mg1SiCu .
I
I
T
Chemical composition, purity EN European standard AW Aluminum wrought product.s
Al99.98 Mg1SiCu
--
pure aluminum, degree of purity 99,98% AI 1 'Yo Mg. low percentage of Si and Cu
Material condition (excerpt) Condlllon
cf. DIN EN 515 (1993-12) Meaning of the material conditions
Symbol Meaning o f the symbol
manufaclured condition
F
Wrought products are manufC>Ctured without specifying mechanical limits, e.g. tensile strength, yield strength, elongation at fracture
Wrought products without secondary operations
spher· oidized
0 01 02
Spheroidizing can be replaced by hot working Solution annealed, cooled slowly to room temperature Thermomechanically formed, highest workability
To restore worka bility after cold working
Work hardened
H12 to H18
Work hardened with the following hardness grades: H12 H14 H16 H18 1/• hard 112 hard 3/• hard hard
H111 H112
Annealed with subsequent slight work hardening Slight work hardening
To assure guaran· teed mechanical values, e.g. tensile strength yield strength
Heat treated
I I
•t.
Solution annealed, stress relieved and naturally age hardened, not redressed Quenched like T1, cold worked and naturally aged Solution heat treated. cold worked and naturally age hardened
T1 T2 T3 T3510 T3511
Solution annealed, stress relieved and naturally aged like T3510, redressed to hold the limit deviations
T4 T4510
Solution annealed, naturally age hardened Solution annealed, stress relieved and naturally age hardened, not redressed
T6 T6510
Solution annealed, artifiCially aged Solution annealed, stress relieved and artifiCially aged, not redressed
TS T9
To increase in ten· sile strength, yield strength and hard· ness, reduction of the cold workability
Solution annealed, cold worked, artifiCially aged Solution annealed, artificially aged, cold worked
Material numbers for aluminum and wrought aluminum alloys
cf. DIN EN 573-1 (1994· 12)
Material numbers apply to wrought products, e.g. sheet, bars, tubes. wires and for wrought parts.
ENAW· 1~r
Oe$ignation examples:
¥·5154
I lEN European standard AW A luminum wrought products
I
I
I
Indicates that country-specific limits deviate from the original alloy.
I
I
I Alloy modillcations
Alloy groups Number
Group
Number
Group
1
2
pure AI AICu
5 6
AIMg AIMgSi
3 4
AIMn A lSi
7 8
AIZn other
0 1-9
--
Original alloy Alloys that deviate from the original alloy
Type number Within an alloy group, e. g. AIMgSi, each type is assigned its own number.
166
Material science: 4.8 Light alloys
Aluminum, wrought aluminum alloys Aluminum and wrought aluminum ..oys, non-heat treatable (selection) Designation (material· number)11 Al 99.5 ( 1050A)
Delivery forms21 R
s
.
-
.
A1Mn1Cu (3003)
.
AIMg1 (5005)
AI Mg2Mn0.3 (5251)
AI Mg3 (5754)
A IMg5 (5019) AIMg3Mn (5454)
AI Mg4.5Mn0.7 (5083) 11
.
Equipment manufacturing, pressure vessels. signs, packaging, trim
w
0 , H111
0,5 - 1,4 1,5 - 2,9 3,0 - 5,9
65- 95 65- 95 65- 95
" 20 .. 20 o: 20
22 26
p 2 2
F, H112 0. H111 H14
" 200 .: 60 "' 10
>: 95 95 - 130 130- 165
>: 35 o: 35 >: 110
25 25 6
w
0, H111
0.5 - 1.4 1.5 - 2.9 3.0-5.9
90- 130 90- 130 90- 130
" 35 o: 35 >: 35
19 21 24
p
.
z
F.H112 O, H111 H14
s 200 .. eo .: 40
.. 95 95 - 130 130- 165
oo 35 ,. 35 ,. 110
25 25 6
w
0, H111
0.5- 1.4 1.5 - 2.9 3.0 - 5.9
95- 135 95-135 95- 135
"35 " 35 oo 35
17 20 23
-
p l
F, H112 0, H111 H14
"200 s eo s 40
"100 100- 145 o: 140
o: 40 J< 40 o: 110
18 18 6
w
0 , H111
0.5- 1.49 1.5- 2.9 3.0 - 5.9
100- 145 100-145 100- 145
,. 35 o: 35
19 20 22
p l
F, H112 0. H111 H14
" 200 s 80 s 30
o: 160 150-200 200- 240
0, H111
0.5-1.4 1.5 - 2.9 3.0- 5.9
160-200 160- 200 160- 200
~:60
w
.. so .. so
14 16 18
p 2
F, H112 0 , H111 H14
s 150 s eo s25
" 180 180-250 240- 290
" 80 ,.eo "180
14 16 4
w
0. H111
0.5-1 .4 1.5 - 2.9 3.0- 5.9
190- 240 190- 240 190- 240
,. eo .. eo .. eo
14 16 18
p
F, H112 0, H111 H14
s 200 s80 s 40
" 250 250- 320 270- 350
" 110 "110 " 180
14 16 8
Optical equipment, packaging
p
F. H112 O, H111
s 200
.. 200 200- 275
10 18
.
0, H111
21S-275 215- 275 215- 275
,. as ,.as
13 15 17
Container construction, including pressu re vessels, conduits, t.a nk and silo trucks
w
O.S-1.4 1.S- 2.9 3.0 - 5.9
.. as .. as .. as
-
p
F, H111 O,H111 H12
.:200 seo s30
" 270 270-350 .. 280
" 110 "110 .. 200
12 16 6
-
•
.- . .- . ..-
Rrn
N/mm 2
Yoeld Elong. at strength fracture Applications, EL Examples 1\.o..z N/mm2 % >: 20
2
-
Tensile strength
>:60 60-95 100- 135
z z
2
-
Thickness/ diameter mm .. 200 .. eo .. 40
.- .
p
Material condition•' F. H112 0 . H111 H14
- •
AIMn1 (3103)
DC3
cf. DIN EN 485-2 (2()()4.09), DIN EN 754-2. 755·2 (2008·06)
2
z
2 2
2 2
-
>: 70
~: 35 ~:60
o: 60 " 160
25 25 6
29
16 17 5
Equipment manufacturing, extruded parts, vehicle superstructures, heat exchangers
Roofing, facedes, load-bearing structures in metal working
Roofing, facades, windows, doors, hardware
Equipment and devices for the food industry
Equipment manufacturing, aircraft industry, body parts, mold making
Mold making and construction of j igs and fix· lures. machine frames
For simplification all designations and material numbers are written without the addition •eN AW-•. Delivery forms: R round bar; S sheet. strip 31 DC Delivery condition: p extruded; 2 drawn; w cold-rolled 41 Material condition, see page 165
21
167
Material science: 4.8 Light alloys
Wrought aluminum alloys Wrought aluminum alloys. heat treatable (selection) Designation (materiel· number)ll AI Cu4PbMgMn (2007) AICu4PbMg (2030) AIMgSiPb (6012) AICu4SiMg (2014)
A1Cu4Mg1 (2024)
AIMgSi (6060) AISi1MgMn 16082)
Delivery formsll R
• -
...
AI Zn5Mg3Cu (7022)
.
.
-
-
.
.• -
21 31 41
a 370 a 370
p z z
T4, T4510 T3 T3
s 80 s 30 30- 80
" 370
p z
:< 150 s 80 :< 80
:t
31 0 >: 200 " 310
a 100
l
TS. T6510 T3 T6
p
0 . H111
s 200 :< 80 s 80
s 250 a 380 a 380
" 290
., 220
12 8 12
s 220 s 220 s 220
s 140 s 140 s 140
12 13 16
z T3 z
T4
~: 340
~: 370
:t
340
a 250 ., 240 " 220
8 7 6
" 250 a 240 220
8 7 6
~: 260
8 10 8
:t
~: 260
s 135
Free cutting alloys, also good machinability at high machining outputs, e. g. for turned pans, milled pans
Pans in hydraulic. pneumatic, automotive and aircraft manufacturing, load-bearing structures in metal manufacturing
w
0
0.5- 1.4 1.5- 2.9 3.0- 5.9
p z z
O, H111 T3 T6
s 200 10- 80 s 80
so250 ;o 425 :. 425
:< 150 " 290 " 315
12 9 5
w
0
0.5- 1,4 1.5 - 2.9 3.0 - 5.9
s 220 s 220 s 220
s 140 s 140 s 140
12 13 13
p
T4
s 150 .:80 s 80
:< 120 ;o130 .. 215
s 60 ;o65 " 160
16 15 12
Windows, doors, vehicle superstructures, machine beds, optical equipment
.:200 s 80 s ao
"160 .. 205 " 310
" 110 ot 110 " 255
14 14 10
0.5 - 1.4 1.5 - 2.9 3.0-5.9
s 150 s 150 "150
s85 s 85 .:85
14 16 18
Hardware, pans in mold making and manufacturing of jigs and fixtures, machine beds, equipment in the food industry
s 50 s 80
"350 .. 350
"290 " 280
10 10
0.5 - 1.4 1.5 - 2.9 3.0-5.9
s 220 s 220 s 220
s 140 s 140 s 140
12 13 15
s80 s 80
i: 490 ;o460
.. 420 ,38()
7 8
3.0-12 12.5-24 25- 50
;o450 ;o 450 , 450
"370 "370 .. 370
8 8 7
"'200 s 80 s80
s 275 oo 540 " 455
s 165 .. 485 a 385
10 7 10
0.4-0.75 0.8 - 1.45 1.5 - 2.9
,. 275 " 275 "275
" 145 " 145 "145
10 10 10
z T4 z
T6
p
O, H111
z T4 z T6 w
0
p
T6
z T6
l
T6, T6510 T6
•
w
T6
• -
p z
0 , H111
.
Rm
N/mm2
Yield Elong. at strength fracture Applk:ation, EL Examples Rpo.2 NJmm2 %
s 80 :< 30 30- 80
p
-
Tensile strength
T4, T4510 T3 T3
0
.
ThicknesS/ diameter mm
p z z
w
11
.
.- . -
AI Zn5.5MgCu (7075)
-
-
-
AI Zn4.5Mg1 !7020)
s
M ateria.! OC3 condit.ion 41
cf. OtN EN 485· 2 12004·09), DIN EN 754-2, 755-2 (2008.00)
z
T6 TI3
w
0
Pan s in automotive and aircraft manufacturing, load·bearing structures in metal working
Pans in automotive and air· craft manufacturing, machine beds, superstructures of rail cars
Pans in hydraulic, pneumatic and aircraft manufacturing, screws
Pans in automotive and aircraft manufacturing, mold making and manufacturing of jigs and fixtures. screws
For simplification all designations and material numbers are written without the addition "EN AW·". Delivery forms: R round bar; S sheet. strip DC Delivery condition: p extruded; z drawn; w cold-rolled Material condition, see page 165
168
Material science: 4.8 Light alloys
Aluminum casting alloys Designation of aluminum castings
cf. DIN EN 1780-1 ... 3 (2003-01), DIN EN 1706 (1998.06)
Aluminum castings era identified by designations or material numbers. Design.tion
Designation eMampln :
European standard Aluminum casting
l EN AC
Material number EN AC • 5130215(-
!¥£·~~¥
K - casting method F - material condition liable below)
1 Chemical oornpMitlon
I 1
Alloy percentage
No.
Group
AIMg5 AISi6Cu
5%Mg 6% Si, additions of Cu
21 41
AICu AISiMgli
46 47
AISi9Cu AISI(Cu)
AICu4Mgli
4% Cu. additions of Mg and Ti
42 44
A1Si7Mg AISi
51 71
AIMg AIZnMg
K
0 l
No.
Group
Within one alloy group each type has its own number.
MR. . . condition
ea.ting method
s
1
Type number
Alloy g,.,.,.,.
Example
Letter
K - casting method F - · materiel condition (table below)
Casting method
letter F
Sand casting Permanent mold casting Die casting Investment casting
Meaning
0
Casting condition. without subsequent processing Spheroidized
T1 T4
Controlled cooling after pouring, naturally aged Solution annealed and naturally aged
T5 T6
Controlled cooling after pouring, artificially aged Solution annealed and artifocially aged
Aluminum casting alloys
cf. DIN EN 1706 (1998.()6)
Strength values in casting condition (F) Designation (material· number)II
AC·AIMg3 IAC~51000)
C21
s K
AC·AIMg5 IAC-51300)
s
AC-AIMgS(Si) IAC-51400)
s
AC·AISi12 IAC-44100)
s
AC·AISi7Mg IAC-42000)
s
AC·AISi 121Cul IAC-47000)
s
AC·AICu4li IAC-21100)
s
11
K K K l K l K K
Hardn. Tensile Mll strength strength HB Rm N{mm2
Y"l81d Rpo.2
N/mm2
Properties"l
Elongation at fractur e
EL %
c
p
M
Application Corrosion resistant, polishable, anodized for decorative purposes; fittings• household appliances. ship building, chemical industry
F F
50 50
140 150
70 70
3 5
-
-
•
F F
55 60
160 180
90 100
3 4
-
-
•
F F
60 65
160 180
100 110
3
-
-
•
F F F
50 55 60
150 170 160
70 80 80
4 5 1
•
•
0
T6 T6 T6
75 90 75
220 260 240
180 220 190
2 1 1
0
•
0
F F
50 55
150 170
80 90
1 2
•
•
-
T6 TS
95 95
300 330
200 220
3 7
-
-
•
3
Resistant to weather Influences. for complex, thin·walled and pressure· tight parts; pump and motor housings, cylinder heads, parts in air· craft manufacturing
Highest strength values, vibration and high temp. resistance; simple castings
For simplification all designations and material numbers are written without "EN ". e.g. AC·AIMg3 instead of EN AC·AIMg3 or AC-51000 instead of EN AC-51000. 21 C casting method (table above) 31 M material condition (table above) 4 1 C castability, P pressure tightness, M machinability; • very good, o good, - conditionally good
169
Material science: 4.8 Light alloys
Aluminum profiles - Overview. Round bars. Flat bars Aluminum sections, Overview Fabrication, dimensions
Illustration
Round billS
(I[
Standard
Round tubell
extruded d·3- 100mm
DIN EN 755-3
drawn d • 8-320mm
DIN EN 754-3
extruded s~ 10- 220 mm
DIN EN 755-4
drawn
DIN EN 7544
rn orr
seamless extruded d• 20- 250 mm
DIN EN 755· 7
cold-drawn seamless d • 3-270mm
DIN EN 754-7
extruded a•15-100mm
DIN EN 7544
extruded seamless a • 15-250mm ba10-100mm
DIN EN 755-7
cold-drawn seamless a • 15- 250mm ba10-100 mm
DIN EN 754-7
Squ-.tubes
Squ•reNrs
[]
Fabrication, dimensions
Illustration
Standard
s~3-100mm
R.tbwt
Aft tubes
sf
extruded w • 10- 600mm S• 2-240mm
DIN EN 755-4
drawn w= 5 - 200 mm S• 2- 60mm
DIN EN 7544
~
ShMt .net strip
~
Lprofles rolled s•0.4-15mm
D
DIN EN 485
c~
sharp corners or round corners h · 10-200mm
DIN 1771'1
sharp corners or round comers h=15 - 100mm
DIN 9714 11
T-
D
sharp corners or round corners h= 10- 160mm
TI
DIN 9713"
II Standards were withdrawn without replacement.
Round bars. Rat bars. drawn
ct. DIN EN 754-3, 7544 (1996-01), DIN 1798". DIN 1796"
s
cross-sectional area m' linear mass density W axial section modulus I axial moment of inertia
d,a mm
:....
'@ ·m~ :....· a
m' kgfm
cm
I, =lv
W"=Wv cm3
cm4
0
D
0
0
0
0
10 12 16
0.79 1.13 2.01
1.00 1.44 2.56
0.21 0.31 0.54
0.27 0.39 0.69
0.10 0.17 0.40
0.17 0.29 0.68
0.05 0.10 0.32
0.08 0.17 0.55
20 25 30
3.14 4.91 7.07
4.00 6.25 9.00
0.85 1.33 1.91
1.08 1.69 2.43
0.79 1.53 2.65
1.33 2.60 4.50
0.79 1.77 3.98
1.33 3.26 6.75
35 40 45
9.62 12.57 15.90
12.25 16.00 20.25
2.60 3.40 4.30
3.31 4.32 5.47
4.21 6.28 8.95
7. 15 10.68 15.19
7.37 12.57 20.13
12.51 21 .33 34.17
50 55 60
19.64 23.76 28.27
25.00 30.25 36.00
5.30 6.42 7.63
6.75 8.17 9.72
12.28 16.33 21.21
20.83 27.73 36.00
30.69 44.98 63.62
52.08 76.26 108.00
Materials II
s2
0
0
Wrought aluminum alloys, see pages 166 and 167.
DIN 1796 und DIN 1798 were replaced by DIN EN 754·3 or DIN EN 7544. The DIN EN standards contain no dimensions. However, dealers continue to offer DIN 1798 and DIN 1796 round and square bars. 0 round bars; 0 square bars
170
Mat erial science: 4.8 Light alloys
lilf:lltr.JI-'tiiUJ Flat bars, drawn
s
cross-sectional area m' linear mass density 8 distance to edge W a~ial section modulus I a~ial moment o f inertia
(
~!_~
'"'· l"
...
~
>,
~
"'
EcJve
m':n
mm
s 10
0.6
-> 10 - 30
1.0
> 30- 60
2.0
"'
w>
Ill: I
lllll'ijcf. DIN EN 754-5
s
cm 2
replaces DIN 176911
rrl
e.
r.
em
By em
w.
kg/m
cm3
em•
Wv ems
lv em•
10 ><3 10 )( 6 10 ><8
0 .30 0.60 0.80
0.08 0.16 0.22
0.15 0.3 0.4
0.5 0.5 0.5
0.015 0.060 0.106
0.0007 0.018 0.042
0.033 0.100 0.133
0.016 0.050 0.066
15 X 3 15 )( 5 15><8
0.45 0.75 1.20
0.12 0.24 0.32
0.15 0.25 0.4
0.75 0.75 0.75
0.022 0.090 0.230
0.003 0.027 0.064
0.112 0.225 0.300
0.084 0.168 0.225
20" 5 20" 8 20 )( 10
1.00 1.60 2.00
0.27 0.43 0.54
0.25 0.4 0.5
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.083 0.213 0.333
0.020 0.085 0.166
0.333 0.533 0.666
0.333 0.533 0.666
20" 15 25 )( 5 25" 8
3.00 1.25 2.00
0.81 0.34 0.54
0.75 0.25 0.4
1.0 1.25 1.25
0.750 0.104 0.266
0.562 0.026 0.106
1.000 0.520 0.833
1.000 0.651 1.041
25 " 10 25" 15 25" 20
2.50 3.75 5.00
0.67 1.01 1.35
0.5 0.75 1.0
1.25 1.25 1.25
0.416 0.937 1.666
0.208 0.703 1.666
1.041 1.562 2.083
1.302 1.953 2.604
30>< 10 30 )( 15 30" 20
3.00 4.50 6.00
0.81 1.22 1.62
0.5 0.75 1.0
1.5 1.5 1.5
0.500 1.125 2.000
0.250 0.843 2.000
1.500 2.250 3.000
2.250 3.375 4.500
40" 10 40" 15 40><20
4.00 6.00 8.00
1.08 1.62 2.16
0.5 0.75 1.0
2.0 2.0 2.0
0.666 1.500 2.666
0.333 1.125 2.666
2.666 4.000 5.333
5.333 8.000 10.666
40" 25 40><30 40><35
10.00 12.00 14.00
2.70 3.24 3.78
1.25 1.5 1.75
2.0 2.0 2.0
4.166 6.000 8.166
5.208 9.000 14.291
6.666 8.000 9 .333
13.333 16.000 18.666
50)( 10 50)( 15 50><20
5.00 7.50 10.00
1.35 2.03 2.70
0.5 0.75 1.0
2.5 2.5 2.5
0.833 1.875 3.333
0.416 1.406 3.333
4.166 6.250 8.333
10.416 15.625 20.833
50><25 50><30 50 ><35
12.50 15.00 17.50
3.37 4.05 4.73
1.25 1.5 1.75
2.5 2.5 2.5
5.208 7.500 10.208
6.510 11.250 17.864
10.416 12.500 14.583
26.041 31.250 36.458
50 ><40 60 >< 10 60>< 15
20.00 6.00 9.00
5.40 1.62 2.43
2.0 0.5 0.75
2.5 3.0 3.0
13.333 1.000 2.250
26.666 0.500 1.687
16.666 6.000 9.000
41.668 18.000 27 .000
60><20 60><25 60><30
12.00 15.00 18.00
3.24 4.05 4.86
1.0 1.25 1.5
3.0 3.0 3.0
4.000 6.250 9.000
4.000 7.812 13.500
12.000 15.000 18.000
36.000 45.000 54.000
60 ><35 60><40 80• 10
21.00 24.00 8.00
5.67 6.48 2.16
1.75 2.0 0.5
3.0 3.0 4 .0
12.250 16.000 1.333
21 .437 32.000 0.666
21.000 24.000 10.666
63.000 72.000 42.666
sox 15 80 )( 20 80>< 25
12.00 16.00 20.00
3.24 4.52 5.40
0.75 1.0 1.25
4.0 4.0 4.0
3.000 5.433 8.333
2.250 5.333 10.416
16.000 21 .333 26.666
64.000 85.333 106.66
80 >< 30 80><35 80><40
24.00 28.00 32.00
6.48 7.56 8.64
1.5 1.75 2.0
4.0 4.0 4.0
12.000 16.333 21 .333
18.000 28.583 42.666
32.000 37.333 42.666
128.00 149.33 170.66
100><20 100 )( 30 100 )( 40
20.00 30.00 40.00
5.40 8.10 10.8
1.0 1.5 2.0
5.0 5.0 5.0
6.666 15.000 26.666
3.666 22.500 53.333
33.333 50.000 66.666
166.66 250.00 333.33
I M aterial
IWrought "I""';"" "" alloys,
. pages
II DIN EN 754-5 contains no dimensions. Specialized dealers still offer flat bars in dimensions according to DIN 1769.
171
Material science: 4.8 light a lloys 1mmrn tftm!!lttimilir:lr:w• f;
~·
Round tubes,
..
outside diame1er wall thickness s cross-sectional area m ' linear ma ss density W axial section modulus I axial moment of inenla d s
·~· I\
.
-r! -
d
s
....,
IIIII
tr. (1998· 10), replaces
d.
"'
s
d >< s mm
m' kg/m
w.
t. em•
cm 2
m' kg/m
w.
em'
d>
t.
cm 2
cm3
em•
10 )( 1 10" 1.5 10 X 2
0.281 0.401 0.503
0.076 0.108 0.136
0.058 O.o75 0.085
0.029 0.037 0.043
35 )( 3 35 )( 5 35" 10
3.016 4.712 7.854
0.814 1.272 2.121
2.225 3.114 4.067
3.894 5.449 7.118
12 X 1 12 )( 1.5 12 )( 2
0.346 0.495 0.628
0.093 0.134 0.170
0.088 0.116 0.136
0.053 0.070 0.082
40>< 3 40><5 40>< 10
3.487 5.498 9.425
0.942 1.484 2.545
3.003 4.295 5.890
6.007 8.590 11.781
16>< 1 16 )( 2 16 X 3
0.471 0.880 1.225
0.127 0.238 0.331
0.133 0.220 0.273
0.133 0.220 0 ..273
50><3 50 X 5 50 X 10
4.430 7.069 12.566
1.196 1.909 3.393
4.912 7.245 10.681
12.281 18.113 26.704
20 X 1.5 20 )( 3 20 )( 5
0.872 1.602 2.356
0.235 0.433 0.636
0.375 0.597 0.736
0.375 0 .597 0 .736
55)( 3 55><5 55 X 10
4.901 7.854 14.137
1.323 2.110 3.817
6.044 9.014 13.655
16.201 24.789 37.552
25 )( 2 25 )( 3 25 "5
1.445 2.073 3.142
0.390 0.560 0.848
0.770 1.022 1.335
0.963 1.278 1.669
60><5 60>< 10 60>< 16
8.639 15.708 22. 117
2.333 4.241 4.890
10.979 17.017 20.200
32.938 51.051 60.600
30 )( 2 30 )( 4 30 )( 6
1.759 3.267 4.524
0.475 0.882 1.220
1.155 1.884 2.307
1.733 2.826 3.461
70><5 70>< 10 70>< 16
10.210 18.850 27.143
2.757 5.089 7.331
15.498 54.242 24.908 87.179 30.750 107.62
Material
e. g . a luminum alloys. non-heat trea ta ble. see page 166 a lu minum alloys. heat-neatable. see page 167
" D!N EN 754-7 contains no dimens ions. Specialized dealen; still offer round tubes in dimensions according to DIN 1795.
Extruded channel _....., ... w w idth h height s cross-sectional area m' linear mass density W axia l section modulus 1 axial moment of inenia i'y
,
...
'I
I t X +·-X <: .: ~- 'I ~
~
I
"' w I t mm
"' r,
I rz
'2
3. 4
mm 2.5
mm 0.4
5, 6
4
0.6
8,9
6
0.6
I (1981·091 11
"'
s
h>< w >< s >< t mm
m' kg/m
s,.
By
cm2
w.
em
em
cor
lx em•
Wy cm3
cm4
20 X 20 X 3 )( 3 30><30 >< 3 >< 3 35 >< 35 >< 3 >< 3
1.62 2.52 2.97
0.437 0.687 0.802
1.00 1.50 1.75
0.780 1.10 1.28
0.945 2.43 3.44
0.945 3.64 6.02
0.805 2.06 2.91
0.628 2.29 3.73
40 >< 15><3 >< 3 40 >< 20 >< 3><3 40X30 >< 3 >< 3
1.92 2.25 2.85
0.518 0.608 0.770
2.0 2.0 2.0
0.431 0.610 3.62
2.04 2.59 7.24
4.07 5.17 2.49
0.810 1.30 2.49
0 .349 0.795 2.52
40X30 >< 4X4 40 >< 40 >< 4><4 40><40 >< 5 >< 5
3.71 4.51 5.57
1.00 1.22 1.50
2.0 2.0 2.0
1.05 1.49 1.52
4.49 5.80 6.80
8.97 11.6 13.6
3.03 4.80 5.64
3.17 7.12 8.59
50 x 30x3><3 50 >< 30 >< 4><4 50><40 ><5><5
3.15 4.91 6.07
0.851 1.33 1.64
2.5 2.5 2.5
0.929 1.38 1.42
4.88 7.83 9.32
12.2 19.6 23.3
2.91 5.65 6.54
2.70 7.80 9.26
60 x 30><4 >< 4 60><40X4 >< 4 60 >< 40x5x5
4.51 5.31 6.57
1.22 1.43 1.77
3.0 3.0 3.0
0.896 1.29 1.33
7.90 10.1 12.0
23.7 30.3 36.0
4.12 6.35 7.47
3.69 8.20 9.94
80 x 40 x 6 ><6 80><4Sx6x8 100X40X6X6
8.95 11.2 10.1
2.42 3.02 2. 74
4.0 4.0 5.0
1.22 1.57 1.11
20.6 27.1 28.3
82.4 108 142
10.6 13.9 12.5
20.6 21.8 13.8
100><50><6><9 120x55><7 •9 140 X 60 X 4 X 6
14.1 17.2 12.35
3.80 4.64 3.35
5.0 6.0 7.0
1.72 1.74 1.83
43.4 61 .9 56.4
217 295 350
19.9 28.2 24.7
34.3 49.1 45.2
-"1Mn<::;n ";
ly
AIMg$i1; A!Zn4.5Mg'
n DIN 9713 was withdrawn without replacement. Specialized dealers still offer cha nnels according to this standard.
172
Material science: 4.8 Light alloys
Magnesium alloys, Titanium, Titanium alloys Wrought magnesium alloys (selection I Designation
Material· number
Delivery form11 8
MgMn2 MgAI3Zn
3.3520 3.5312
MgA16Zn
3.5612
MgAI8Zn
3.5812
T
Mll
Bar diameter mm
F20 F24
s80 s80
200 240
F27
s80
270
195
10
F29 F31
s 80 s80
290 310
205 215
10 6
D
• • •
... • . .
cf. DIN 9715 (1982-o8) Tensile Yield Elong. at strength strength fracture Properties. application R, EL Rs.o.2 N/mm2 N/mm2
"'
145 155
Corrosion resistant weldable, cold workable; c ladding, containers
15 10
Higher strength. limited weld· ability; lightweight material in automotive, machine and aircraft manufacturing
1l Delivery forms: 8 bars, e. g. round bars; T tubes; D stamped pan 21 M material condition F20 - Rm • 10 • 20 • 200 NJmm2
Magnesium casting alloys (selection I MateMaterial· rial- Hardness Designation11 numberll M21 condiH8
tiofl3l
MCMgAI8Zn1
MC21110
r.
MCMgAI9Zn1
MCMgAI6Mn MCMgAI7Mn MCMgAI4Si
MC21120
MC21230 MC21240 MC21320
cf. DI N EN 1753 (1997-oB) Tensile strength
Elong. at fracture
NJmm2
Yi.e ld strength Rs.o.2 NJmm2
2 8
R,
EL
"'
Properties, application
s
F T6
50- 65 50-65
160 240
90 90
K K D
F T4 F
50-65 50-65 60- 85
160 160 200- 250
90 90 140- 160
s7
s
F
55-70 60- 90
160 240
90 150
6 2
55-70 60- 90 65-85
160 240 200-260
110 150 140-170
2 2 1-6
High-strength, good sliding properties, weldable; automotive and aircraft manufacturing, armatures
55- 70 60-75 55-80
190- 250 200- 260 200-250
120- 150 130- 160 120- 150
4-14 3 - 10 3 - 12
Fatigue resistant dynam· ically loadable, high tem· perature resistant, gear and motor housings
T6
K K D
F T6
D D D
F F
F
F
2
e
Very good castability, dynamically loadable, weldable; gear and motor housings
11 For simplification, designations and mat.erial numbers are wrinen without the " EN-" prefix, e.g. MCMgAIBZn1 instead of EN·MCMgA18Zn1. 21 M casting method: S sand casting; K permanent mold casting; D die casting 31 Material condition, see designation of aluminum casting alloys, page 168
ntanium. titanium alloys (selectionI Designation
Material· number
111 112 113
3.7025 3.7035 3.7055
111Pd 112Pd
3.7225 3.7235
TIAI6V6Sn2
3.7175
11AI6V4
3.7165
ToAJ4M04Sn2
3.7185
Delivery form11
s
B
T
cf. DIN 17860 (1990· 11)
Sheet Hardthickness ness s HB mm
Tensilestrength
R, NJmm2
Yield Elong. at strength fracture Properties, EL application Rs.o.2 NJmm2
"'
.• .
0.4-35
...
120 150 170
290-410 390- 540 460-590
180 250 320
30 22 18
0.4-35
120 150
290-410 390- 540
180 250
30 22
<6 6-50
320 320
"1070 "1000
1000 950
10 8
<6 6 -100
310 310
;, 920
;,900
870 830
8 8
6 - 65
350
"1050
1050
9
... ...
...
11 Delivery forms: S sheet and strip; 8 bars. e. g. round bars; T tubes
Weldable, solderable, glueable, machinable, cold and hot workable, fatigue resistant, corrosion resi.s tant; weight saving designs in machine construction, electrical engineering, precision engineering, optics and medical technology, chemical indus· try, food industry, aircraft manufacturing
M aterial science: 4.9 Heavy non-ferrous metals
173
Overview of the heavy non -ferrous metals Heavy non-ferTOus metals have a density fl > 5 kg/dm3 • However, in technical literature Q., 4.5 kg/dm3 is also used as limit for non-ferrous metals. • Construction materials In machine and plant construction: copper, tin, zinc, nickel, lead and their alloys • Metals used for alloys: chromium, vanadium, cobalt (for effects of alloying metals, see page 129) • Precious metals: gold, silver, platinum Pure metals: Homogeneous structure; low strengths, lesser imponance as a construction material; usually used based on material typical propenies, e. g. good electrical conductivity. Heavy non-ferrous metal alloys: Improved Jl(operlies compared to base metals, such as higher strength, higher hard· ness. better machinability and corrosion resistance. construction materials for various application. Classified accord· ing to manufacture into wrought alloys and casting alloys.
Overview of common heavy non-ferrous metals and alloys Metal. alloy
Main eharac:teriltlcs
Applicetlon examples
CoweriCu)
High electrical conducdvity and thermal conductivity, inhibits bacteria, viruses and molds, corrosion resistant, good appearance, easily recyclable
Pipes in heating and plumbing equipment, cooling and heating coils. electrical wiring, electrical pans. cookware. building facades
CuZn (brass)
Wear-resistant, corrosion- resistant, good hot and cold workability, good machinability, polish· able. shiny golden, medium strengths
• Wrought alloys: deep-drawn pans, screws, springs. pipes. instrument parts • Casting alloys: armature housings, plain bearings, precision mechanical parts
CuZnPb
Very good machinability, limited cold workability, Automatic screw machine parts, precision mechanical parts, fittings, hot-pressed parts very good hot workability
CuZn multi-alloy
Good hot workability, high strengths, wear-resistant, weather-resistant
Armature housings, plain bearings, flanges, valve parts, water housings
CuSn (bronze)
Very corrosion-resistant, good sliding properties. good wear-resistance, strength resulting from cold working is highly variable
• Wrought alloys: hardware, screws, springs, metal hoses • Casting alloys: spindle nuts, worm gears, solid plain bearings
CuAI
High strength and toughness. very corrosion resistant, salt water resistant, heat resistant. highly cavitation resistant
• Wrought alloys: highly stressed lock nuts, ratchet wheels • Casting alloys: armatures in the chemical industry, pump bodies, propellers
CuNi(Zn)
Extremely corrosion resi.stant, silvery appearance, good machinability, polishable, cold workable
Coins, electrical resistors, heat exchangers, pumps, valves in salt water cooling systems, ship build ing
Zinc (Zn)
Resistant to atmospheric corrosion
Corrosion protection of steel parts
ZnTi
Good workability, joinable by soft soldering
Roofing, gutters, downspouts
group
ZnAICu
Very good castability
Thin walled, finely articulated die castings
Tin (Sn)
Good chemical resistance. non-toKic
Coating of steel sheet
SnPb
Low viscosity
Soft solder
SnSb
Good dry running properties
Small, dimensionally precise die castings, plain bearings with average loading
Nickel (Ni)
Corrosion resistant high temperature resistant
Corrosion protection layer on steel parts
NiCu
Extremely corrosion resistant and high temp. resist. Equipment condensers, heat exchangers
NiCr
Extremely corrosion resistant and very high temper· ature resistant and nonscaling, e. g. age hardeoable
Lead (Pbl
Shields against x-ray and gamma rays, corrosion Shielding, cable sheathing, tubes for chemical equipment resistant. toxic
PbSn
Low viscosity, soft. good dry running properties
Soft solder, sliding sheaths
PbSbSn
Low viscosity, corrosion resistant good running and sliding properties (low friction)
plain bearings, small, dimensionally precise die castings such as pendulums. parts for measuring equipment, meters
Chemical installations, heating tubes. boiler internals in power plants, gas turbines
'
174
Material science: 4.9 Heavy non-ferrous metals
Designation of heavy non-ferrous metals Designation system (excerpt)
cf. DIN 1700 (1954-07)11
Example:
NiCu30fe F45
Mllnufec:ture, ..,pieetlon E G GC GO GK GZ
L
s
I
~-T.-
Electrical material Sand caSling Continuous casting Die casting Permanent mold casting Centrifugal ca.s ting Solder Welding filler alloys
Chemicel~
Example
Comment
NiCu30Fe Ni·Cualloy, 30% Cu. trace iron SnBOSb
Sn·Sb alloy, 80% Sn, approx. 20% Sb
11 The standard has been withdrawn. However the material designations are
still used in individual standards.
Designation system for copper alloys EKamples:
Culn31SI Culn38Pb2
s.-w properties F45 minimum tensile strength Rm • 10 · 45 N/mm2 • 450N/mm2 a age hardened g annealed h hard ka naturally aged cold worked ku ta partially age hardened wa artificially aged wu hot worked zh drawn hard
cf. DIN EN 1982 12Q08.081 and 1173 (2008·08)
·R620
c.tlng mechod
L
CuSTPb2·r-~
GS Sand casting GM Permanent mold casting GZ Centrifugal casting GC Continuous casting GP Die casting
Chemal composition Example
Meaning
CuZn31Si
Cu alloy, 31 o/o Zn, trace Si
CuZn38Pb2
Cu alloy 38% Zn, 2% Pb
CuSn11Pb2
Cu alloy 11 %Sn, 2% Pb
Product form
c
Material in the form of caSlings Material in ingot form Wrought alloys (without code letter)
B
Material condition (Miec:tlon) Example
M eaning
Example
Meaning
A007 D
Elongation at fracture EL = 7%
Y450 M
Yield strength R0 = 450 N/mm 2 Manufactured condition, without specified mechanical properties
H160
Vickers hardness HV = 160
R620
Minimum tensile strength Rm = 620 N/mm
Drawn, without specified mechanical properties
Materiel numbers for copper end copper alloys
cf. DIN EN 141 2 (1995·121
cv.:~~ T
EKample:
~
I
~ Number between 000 and 999 without
I
Material g roup
letter
Material group
Copper Copper alloys, percentage of the alloying element< 5 % Copper alloys, percentage of the alloying elements" 5% Copper-aluminum alloys
H
Copper-nickel alloys Copper-zinc alloys Copper-tin alloys Copper-zinc binary alloys Copper-zinc· lead alloys Copper-zinc multi-alloys
-
C Cast material B Material in ingots W Wrought material
Code letters for rMterial groups Letter A or B CorD E or F G
~
specified meaning (sequential number)
J K lor M NorP RorS
Material numbers for castings of zinc alloys
z p 0~1 0
Example:
:
.l
IJ
Zinc alloy
Casting
cf. DIN EN 12844 ( 1999-01)
:
I
AI content 04 4% aluminum
=
I
Cu content 1 = 1%copper
I
Content of the next higher alloying element 0 = next higher alloying element<1%
175
Material science: 4.9 Heavy non-ferrous metals
Copper alloys Wrought copper aHoys Deelgnation, Materiel
Bars c~
nufnber11
D"
mm
~
HB
Tenllle Yield Bong. at strength SVengdl "-cttn Ptopertiee, 8pplic:atlon examples EL R, 1\.u
N/mm2
N/mm1
Copper-zinc aUoys CuZn28 (CW504U
CuZn37 (CW508L)
CuZn40 (CW509l)
A310 A460
4-80 4 - 10
-
310 460
120 420
H085 H145
4 -80 4 - 10
85- 115 ~ 145
-
A310 A440
2- 80 2- 10
-
H070 H140
4 - 80 4-10
A340 H080
2- 80
"'
CuZn38Mn1AI (CW716A)
-
-
Very good cold workability, good hot workability, machinable, very easily polished; instrument parts, bushings
310
120
30
440
400
70- 100 ~ 140
--
-
-
--
Very good cold workability, good hot workability, machinable, very easily polished; deep-drawn parts, screws, springs, press ro llers
-
340
260
25
Very good hot workability, machinable; rivets, screws
250
22 12
Good cold workability; hot workable, machinable, good sliding properties; sliding parts, bearing bushings. guides
~80
-
-
-
cf. DIN EN 12163 (1998·04)
A460 AS30
5- 40 5- 14
-
-
4SO 530
330
H115 H140
5- 40 5-14
115- 145 ~ 140
-
-
-
A490 A550
5- 40 5-14
-
-
490 550
210 280
18 10
H120 H150
5-40 5- 14
120- 150 ~ 150
-
-
-
A460 A540
5- 40 5-14
--
460 540
270 320
20 8
5- 40 5-14
110-140 :!: 150
-
-
-
CuZn40Mn2Fe1 (CW72.3A) H110 H150
12163 (1998-04)
27
Copper-zinc alloys (multi-alloys) CuZn31Si (CW708A)
ct. DIN EN
-
-
-
Good hot workability, cold workable, machinable, sliding properties, weather resistant; sliding elements. guides Good hot workability, cold workable, machinable, average strength, weather resistant; equipment manufacturing, architecture
ct. DIN EN
Copper-zinc..Jead alloys
12164 (2()()()..09)
CuZn36Pb3 (CW603N)
A340 A550
40-80 2- 4
90 150
340 550
160 450
20
Excellent machinability, limited cold workability; automatic lathe parts
CuZn38Pb2 ICW608N)
A360 A550
40- 80 2-6
90 150
360 550
150 420
25
Excellent machinabifity, good cold and hot workability; screw machine parts
CuZn40Pb2 ICW617N)
A360 A550
40- 80 2-4
90 150
360 550
150 420
20
Excellent machinability, good hot workability; stamping blanks, gears
A340 A550
2-60 2- 6
-
-
230
45
H085 H180
2- 60 2- 6
85- 115 ~ 180
A390 A620
2- 60 2- 6
H090 H185
-
Copper-tin alloys CuSn6 (CW452K)
CuSn8 (CW453K)
CuSn8P (CW459K)
cf. DIN EN 12163 (1998-04) 340 550
High chemical resistance, good strength; springs, metal hoses, pipes and bushings for suspension bodies
500
-
-
-
-
-
390
260 550
45
620
2-60 2- 6
90-120 :!: 185
--
High chemical resistance, high-strength, good sliding properties; plain bearings, rolled bear· ing bushings, contact springs
A390 A620
2 - 60 2-6
-
-
--
390 620
260 550
45
H090 H185
2- 60 2-6
90-120 :!: 185
-
--
--
Excellent sliding properties, high wear-resistance, endurance strength; highly stressed plain bearings in auto· motive and machine manufacturing
-
-
-
-
-
11 Material numbers according t o DIN EN 1412, see page 174. 21 C Material condition according to DIN EN 1173, see page 174.1n manufactured condition M all alloys can be delivered up to diameter D ; 80 mm. 31 D Diameter for round bars, width across flats for square bars and hexagonal bars, thickness for flat bars.
176
Material science: 4.9 Heavy non-f errous metals
Copper and refined zinc alloys DellgMtlon, Meteriel
number,,
c~
a.... 0 31
~
mm
H8
Tenlile Yield Elong. llt stnngtfl stnngtfl frKture Ptopenies, EL lpplicatlon examples R, R,.o.z N/mm2 N/ mm2
"'
Copper-aluminum alloys CuAI10Fe3Mn2 ICW306GI
CuAI10Ni5Fe4 ICW307GI
R590 R690
10- 80 10- 50
-
590
H140 H170
10- 80 10- 50
R680 R740
10- 80
H170 H200
10- 80
690
330 510
12 6
140- 180 2: 170
-
-
-
-
-
680 740
480 530
10 8
170- 210 2:200
-
--
-
380
38
640
270 550
-400 650
-
-
Copper-nickel-zinc alloys CuNi12Zn24 (CW430JI
CuNi18Zn20 (CW409Jl
ct. DIN EN 12163 0998411 Corrosion-resistant, wear-resistant, fatigue-resistant, high-temperature resistant; screws, shafts, gears, worm gears, valve seats Corrosion resistant, wear-resistant, nonscallng, fatigue resistant high temperature resistant; capacitor bases, control parts for hydraulics cf. DIN EN 12163 0998·041
R380 A640
2- 50 2-4
-
H090 H190
2- 50 2-4
90- 130 2: 190
R400 R650
2-50 2- 4
-
H100 H200
2- 50 2-4
100- 140 2: 200
-
-
-
Extremely good cold workability, machinable, easily polished; deep-drawn parts, flatware, applied arts, architecture, spring contacts
280
35
Good cold workability, machinable, non-tarnishing, easily polished; membranes, spring contacts, flatware
580
-
-
-
-
-
11 Material numbers according to
DIN EN 1412. see page 174. 21 C Material condition according to DIN EN 1173, see page 174 31 D Diameter for round bars. width across flats for flat bars and hexagonal bars, thid
Cast copper alloys
ct. DIN EN 1982 (1998-121
Tenlile Dellgnlltlon, Mllteriel number1 1
stNngth
Yield stnngtfl
Elong.et
hdLn A
~
Nlmm2
N~
CuZn15As·C ICC760Sl
160
70
20
"
45
Excellent soft and hard solderability, salt water resistant; flanges
CuZn32Pb2-C (CC750Sl
180
70
12
45
Good machinability, resistant to industrial water up to 900C; armatures
CuZn25AI5Mn4Fe-C ICC762Sl
750
450
8
180
CuSn12-C (CC483Kl
260
140
7
80
High wear-resistance; spindle nuts, worm gears
CuSn 11Pb2-C (CC482K)
240
130
5
80
Wear-resistant, good dry running properties; plain bearings
CuAI10Fe2-C ICC331Gl
500
180
18
100
Mechanically stressed parts; levers, housings, bevel gears
CuAl 10Ni3Fe2-C ICC332Gl
500
180
18
130
Corrosion stressed parts; armatures, propellers
CuAI10Fe5Ni5-C (CC333Gl
600
250
13
140
Strength and corrosion stressed parts; pumps
R,
HB
Properties. ~ion
Very high strength and hardness, good machinability; plain bearings
1) Material numbers according to DIN EN 1412. see page 174. More cast Cu alloys for plain bearings, see page 261 . Strength values apply to separately san
ct. DIN EN 12844 (1999-01)
High-gr ade cast zinc aHoys ZP3 IZP0400) ZP5 (ZP0410) ZP2 (ZP0430) ZP8 (ZP0810l ZP12 lZP1110) ZP27 (ZP2720)
Very good castability; preferred alloys for die castings
10 5
83
330
200 250
335 370
270 220
5 8
102 100
Good castability; very good machinability, universally applicable
400 425
300 300
5 2.5
100 120
Injection, blow, and deep-d raw molds for plastics, sheet metal working tools
280
92
177
Material science: 4.10 Other materials
Composite materials, Ceramic materials Composite materials Composite m eterie I
a...
Fiber
met.
content
riel,,
TeNI!e Elong. et ModukJa ol
...
s.vlce
ee.ticity
tempe-
oe
tR
E
Density ~h
Appliclltion -pies
%
gtcrn•
N/ mml
%
N/ mml
retwe up to 'C
EP
60
-
365
3.5
-
-
Shafts, joints, connecting bars, ship hulls, rotor blades
UP
35
1.5
130
3.5
10800
50
Containers, tanks, pipes, dome lights, body parts
PA66
35
1.4
16021
531
5000
190
Lerg~area. stiH housing parts. power plugs
PC
30
1.42
3.531
6000
145
Housings for printers. comput ers, t elevisions
PPS
30
1.56
140
3.5
11200
260
Lemp sockets and coils in electrical equipment
PAl
30
1.56
205
7
11700
280
Bearings, valve seat rings, seals, piston rings
PEEK
30
1.44
155
2.2
10300
315
Light construction matenals •n aerospace applications, metal substitut e
CFRP
PPS
30
1.45
190
2.5
17150
260
UkeFRP-PPS
(Carbon fiber reinforced plastic)
PAl
30
1.42
205
6
11700
180
Like FRP-PAI
PEEK
30
1.44
210
1.3
13000
315
Like FRP· PEEK
FRP (Fiberglass reinforced plastic)
ll
9021
11 EP
UP unsaturated polyester PAl polyamideimide
21 ov yield stress
3l ts elongation at yield suess
epoxide PPS polyphenylene sulfide
PA66 polyamide 66, semkrystalline PEEK polyetheretherketone
PC pclycarbonate
Ceramic: materials Rex...t Modukls Coefficient Density .nng1h
Maten.l Neme
Oesig-
I!
Db
ol.._ of ee.ticity expllnSion
E
Properties.IIPPiicetion - p i e s
a
nation
g/crn'
N/ mml
N/mm2
C130
2.5
160
100000
0.000005
Hard, wear-resistant. chemical and heat resistant, high insulating resistance; insulators, ca1aly1ic converters, refractory housings
C799
3.7
300
300000
0.000007
Hard, wear-resistant, chemical and heat resistant; ceramic inserts. wire drawing d ies, biomedicine
z~
5.5
800
210000
0.000010
High stability, high strength, heat and chemical resistant. wear-resistant; drawing dies, extrusion dies
Silicon carbide
SiC
3. 1
600
440000
0.000005
Hard, wear-resistant, thermal-shock resistance, corrosion-resistant even at high temperatures; abrasives, valves, bearings, combustion chambers
Silicon nitride
Si3 N•
3.2
900
330000
0 .000004
High stability. thermal-shock resistance. high strength; cutting ceramics, guide and runner blades for gas turbines
AIN
3.0
200
300000
0.000005
High thermal conductivity, high electrical insulation property; semiconductors, housings, heatsinks, insulating parts
Aluminum silicate
1/1(
Alu·
minum oxide Zirconium oxide
Alu·
minum nit ride
178
Material science: 4.10 Other materials
Sintered metals Designation system for lintered metals
cf. DIN 309 10-1 (1990-101
Sint · A 1 0 sintered smooth - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Designation e:umple:
[~~~~~~---;====:T~_jTI ~
I Sintered metal I
2. 2nd number for systematics further differentiation without
I
I
1. 1st number for chemical compoeition Volume ratio Code Ioner R. in %
Area of application
Number Chemical composition mass fraction in%
AF
<73
A
75±2.5
plain bearings
0 1 2
Sintered iron, lint. ot.... Cu < 1% with or without C Sintered steel. 1% to 5% Cu. with or without C Sintered ot.... Cu > 5%. with or witholll C
B
80 ± 2.5
plain bearing.s Formed parts with sliding properties
3
Sint•ed with or without Cu or C, other alloying elements< 6%, e. g. Ni
c
85± 2.5
plain bearing, formed parts
4
0
9(h2.5
Formed parts
Sint•ed ot.... with or without Cu or C, other alloying elemems > 6%, e. g. Ni, Cr Sintered Cu > 60%, e. g. slntered CuSn
E
94 ,. 1.5
Formed parts
F
>95.5
Aijer
Sintered forged formed parts
Treatment condition of the material • sintered • calibrated • heat treated
5 6 7 8,9
ot..._
...,ys.
Sintered nonferrous heavy metals, except for no. 5 Sintered light alloys, e. g. slmered aluminum Reserved numbers
Treatment condition of the surface
steam treated sintered forged isostatically pressed
• sintered smooth • calibrated smooth • sized and coined smooth
Sintend rneUia (selection, soft magnetic sintered metals not included! Oesian--
tlon
.......... .......
Tenoile otnongt11 ~ N/mml
a-nical compoeition
-
80-200 40-160
Sint·AOO
>25
>60
Sintered iron, C < 0.3%, Cu < 1%
Sint·A20
>40 >25 >18
>150
Sintered steel, C < 0.3%. Cu 15- 25%
>70
Sintered bronze, C < 02%, Sn 9-1 %, rem. Cu Sintered bronze. C02-2%. Sn 9 - 11 %, rem. Cu
>30 >40
>80 >150
Sint·C 00
>30 >45
>90 >150
Sint.C 10
>60
>200
Sinlered steel, C < 0.3%, Cu 1- 1,5%
Sint·C 40
>100 >35
>300 >140
Sinteredsteel, Cr 16-19%, Ni 10-14%, Mo 2%
Sint·C 50 Sint·OOO
>50
>250
Slnt-010
>300
Sintered iron, C < 0.3 %, Cu < 1% Sinlered steel, C < 0.3%, Cu 1- 5%
Sint-AF40 Sint-AF50
Sint·A50 Sint·A51 Sint-800 Sint·B 10 Sint-850
Sint·D 30
>80 >110
Sint-0 40
>100
Si1t·EOO Sint·E 10 Sint-E 73 Sint-FOO Sint-F 31
>60
Sintered steel, Ct t6-t9%. Ni 10-14% Sintered bronze, Sn 9-11 %, rem. Cu
Sintered iron, C < 0.3%, Cu < 1% Sintered stee~ C < 0.3%, Cu 1-5% Sintered bronze, C < 02%, Sn 9-11 %, rem. Cu Sintered iron, C < 0.3%, Cu < 1%
Sintered bronze, C < 02%, Sn 9 -11 %, rem. Cu
>550 >450
Sintered st.eel, C < 0.3%, Cu 1-5%, Ni 1- 5%
>60 > 100
>200
Sintered iron. C < 0.3 %, Cu < 1% Sintered steel, C < 0.3%, Cu 1- 5%
>55 >140
>200 >600
>180
>no
>350
Sintered st.eel, Ct 16-19%, Ni 10-14%, Mo2 %
machined • surface treated
cf. DIN 30910-2- 6 (1990· 101
Properties. ~ e:umples
Filter parts for gas and liquid filters Bearing materials with exceptionally large pore volume for the best emergency running properties; bearing liners, bearing bushings Plain bearings with very good dry running properties, low stressed formed parts Plain bearings, formed parts with average stress with good sliding properties; auto parts, levers, clutch parts Formed parts for higher stresses; wear-resistant pump pans. gears. some are corrosion-resistant
Sintered aluminum Cu 4-6 %
Formed parts for precision engineering, for household appliances, for the electrical industry
Sinter forged steel, containing C and Mn Sinter forged Sleet, containing C. Ni, Mn, Mo
Sealing rings, flanges for muffler systems
179
Material science: 4.11 Plastics
Overview of plastics Adllant-vn:
Ditactvant-vn:
low density electrically insulating heat and sound absorbing decorative surface economical forming weather and chemical resistance
• lower strength and heat resistance in comparison to metals • some are combustible • some are nonresistant to solvents • limited material reutilitation
Processing
Hot workable Weldable Generally glueable Machinable
Not workable Non-weldable Glueable Machinable
Not workable Non-weldable Glueable Machinable at low tempera· tures
Fabrication
Injection molding Injection blow molding Extruding
Pressing Transfer molding Injection molding. molding
Pressing Injection molding Extruding
Recycling
Easily recyclable
Not recyclable, possible reuse as filler
Not recyclable
Struc:bn Amorphous thennoplatrtiea
thermo·
thormo·
elastic:
plast1<
VISCOUS
/-
\
\
\
Filamentary macromolecules without cross-linking
Semi-crystalline thermoplastic
c::
c c==:J
Crystalline areas have greater cohesive forces
temperat~
T_ .
c onje
tens~•
~xtrusi on
hard strength range of use
elongation at fracture
-----------
0';-T"'-'"""
' •
_
_
_
20"CSO"C
temperature T- - -
Filam entary elastomers
brittle --
-
hard
rubber-e{astic
---
e(ongat~t_!:.a~.:_ range of use
Macromolecules in random condition with few cross-linkages
0
~ a e a 'w'ttd1ng tange; b hot-working; ~
Filamentary t hermoset plastics
M acromolecules with many cross-links
~ ;;;
0°( 20°( temperature T- - -
180
Mat erial science:· 4.11 Plastics
111- ~t..~
-
... .......... .........
j G;tJil 1111 M II •• l l t: I(:.Jj~ll
..
.
DeslgMewllng nation
'(2002·061
IType''
ASS
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene AMMA Acrylonltrile-metltyt·
Deolst- Merilv
Type' l
rl8tlon
T
PAK PAN
T
PST
P8
Polyactytate PoivactYionitrile Polybutene lo.
DeslgMeenlng nation
lrvpe'
T T T T
PTFE PUR PVAC PVB
Polytetrafluoroethylene Polyurethane Polyvinyl acet ate Polyvinyl butyral
T
T T T T
PVC PVOC PVF PVFM
Polyvinyl chloride Polyvlnylidene chloride Polyvinyl fluoride Polyvinyl formaldehyde
T T T T T
0 T T
CAB CF CMC
Acrylonitriie-Styrene-aorylate T Cellulose acetate T CellulOse acetate butyrate T Cresol-formaldehyde 0 cellulose [MNM
PC PCTFE PE PET PF
0
PV1(
CN CP EC EP
Cellulose nitrate Cellulose propionate Ethyl cellulose Epoxide
Polyisobutene PMMA Polymethylmetltacrytate POM Polyoxymethylene; Polyformaldehyde
T T T
SAN SB Sl SMS
Styrene-acryloni trile Styrene-butadiene Silicone
T T 0 T
EVAC MF PA
Ethylene-vinyl acetate Melamine formaldehyde Polyamide
pp
T T T
Uf UP
Urea-formaldehyde Unsaturated polyester VInyl chloride-ethylene
0 0 T
ASA
CA
modified
IMNM
I M~ E 0 T
PS PSU
Polvcarbonate Polydtlorotrifluoroethylene Polyethylene Polyethyleneterephtltalate Phenol formaldehyde
Polypropylene Polystytene Polysultone
I materials;
·v~~~
vee
plastics;
' "'
Code letters for........,,_....., of ..,.a.~,....,.._ ...... CLtl
Specill
properties block, brominated chl orinated; e
B
c 0 E
-
roamed;
elastomer
CL 11 F H I l M
Specill
(2002·061 Specill
CL' I properties
properties
N 0 p
fleKible; liquid high; homo impact tough linear, low moderate, molecular
PVC..P: "'-'•y .,.,,,~ "v"u~,
R
s
'' code letter
...
filkn and
T
u
v
w X
temperature ultra; no plasticizers very weight cross·llnl
.v.
, density
U Of~"'f'g "g
1for
properties
normal; novolak oriented plasticited raised; resol; hard saturated; sulphonated
.D.
Code letters and
Specill CL11
-·- -
cf. DIN EN ISO 1043-2 (2002·041
tfc.~··
Designation
Material
B
Boron
c
Carbon
0 E
Aluminum trihydrate Clay
Desig· nation
Mate.-ial
Designation
Material
Designation
Material
Glass Calcium carbonate
p
Mica
T
Talc
a
Silicate
w
Wood
l
Cellulose
R
Aramid
X
not specified
M
Mineral. metal 2'
s
Synthetic materials
z
other
Desig· nation
Shape, structure
Designation
G
"
' ,.,....t~epe '
Designation B
Shape, structure
Shape, structure
Designation
N p
nonwoven (thin)
vv
veneer
paper
w
woven not specified
Shape, structure
pearls, balls, beads
G
ground stock
c
H
whiskers
chips, shav ings
K
knitwear
R
roving
X
0
powder
l
laminates
s
peelings. flakes
y
yarn
F
fibers
M
matted, thick
T
spun yarn, cord
z
other
=
GF: glass fiber; CH: carbon whisker; MD: mineral powder
11 The materials can be further designated, e.g. by its chemical symbol or another symbol from relevant inter·
national standards. 21 For m etals {M ) the type of metal must be specified by the chemical symbol.
181
Material science: 4.11 Plastics
Identification, Distinguishing characteristics Methods for identifying plastics Roatlng . . .
Pla61icll
Solution density in glem3
0.9 - 1.0 1.0 - 1.2
1.2- 1.5
floating
........
Solubllty In
PB, PE. PIB. PP
Thetmosets and
ABS, ASA. CAB, CP. PA. PC, PMMA. PS,SAN,SB
PTFE are no1 sol~r ble.
CA. PBT, PET, POM, PSU. PUR
1.5- 1.8
Organically filled molding material
1.8 - 2.2
PTFE
Vlllllll ... ~of the specimen Is
cloudy
transp8l'enl
CA. CAB. 0:: EP. PC, PS, PMMA. PVC, SAN
ABS,ASA. PA. PE, POM. PP. PTFE
Other thermoplastics are soluble Touch In certain solvents; e.g . PSis soluble in Waxy to the touch: benzene or acePE, PTFE, POM, PP
tone.
....,when "-'*~
• Thermopl. soften and melt • Thermosets and elastomers decompose without softeoing
llwnlng . . . • flamecolor • fire behavior • SOO( formation • odor of the smol
Distinguishing characteristics of plastics DeelgnMJon11 ABS
Deneity
a/em' .. 1.05
8umlng betiMor
Ott.. ctw-•llc:s
Yellow flame, soots strongly, smells like coal gas
Tough elastic, is not dissolved by carbon tetrachloride, sounds dull
CA
1.31
Yellow, sputtering flame, drips, smells like dist illed vinegar and burnt paper
Pleasant to the touch, sounds dull
CAB
1.19
Yellow, sputtering fleme, drips burning, smells like rancid butter
Sounds dull
MF
1.50
Very flammable, chars with white edges, smells like ammonia
Very brittle, rattling sound (compare to UF)
PA
- 1.10
Blue flame with yellow edges, drips in fibers, smells like burnt hom
Tough elastic, not brittle, sounds dull
PC
1.20
Yellow flame, goes out after flame is removed, soot s, smells like phenol
Tough hard, not brittle, rattling sound
PE
0.92
Light flame with blue core, drips off burning, odor like paraffin, smoke hardly visible (compare with PP)
Wax like surface, can be scratched with I he fingernail, not brittle, working temperature> 230 •c
PF
1.40
Very flammable, yellow flame, chars, smells like phenol and burnt wood
Very brit11e, rattling sound
PMMA
1.18
luminous flame, fruity odor, crackles. drips
Clear when uncolored, sounds dull
POM
1.42
Bluish flame. drips, smells like formaldehyde
Not brittle, rattling sound
pp
0.91
Light flame with blue core, drips off burning, odor like paraffin, smoke hardly visible (compare with PEl
Cannot mark with fingernail, not brittle
PS
1.05
Yellow flame, soots strongly, smell.s sweet like coal gas, drips off burning
Brittle, sounds like tinny metal, is dissolved by carbon tetrachloride among others
PTFE
2..20 1.26
Nonflammable, strong odor when red hot
Waxy surface
PUR PVC-U PVC.P
~o.o5
1.38
Yellow flame, very strong odor Very flammable. extinguishes after the flame is removed, smells like hydrochloric acid, chars
1.20-1.35 Can be more flammable than PVC.U, depending on plasticizer. smells like hydrochloric acid, chars
Polyurethane, rubber elastic Polyurethane foam Rattling sound (U • hardl Rubbery flexible, no sound IP ; soft)
SAN
1.08
Yellow flame. soots strongly, smells like coal gas, drips off burning
Tough elastic. is not dissolved by carbon tetrachloride
SB
1.05
Yellow flame, soots strongly, smells like coal gas and rubber, drips off burning
Not as brittle as PS. is dissolved by carbon tetrachloride among other things
UF
1.50
Very flammable, chars with white edges, smells like ammonia
Very brittle, rattling sound (compare to MFl
UP
2.00
luminous flame. chars. soots, smells like styrene, glass fiber residue
Very brit11e, rattling sound
11
Compare to page 180
182
Material science: 4.1 1 Plastics
Thermoplastics (selection) Abbrwi8tlon
o-ily Detlgnetion
Traderwme
ASS
AcrylonitrileTerluran. bU1adiene-styrene Novodur
PA6
Potyamide6
PA66
Polyamide 66
PE-HO
Polyethylene, high density
Ourethan. Maranyl, Resistane. Ultramid, Rilsan
T...._
.vengtt~1 1
--
Working lmpKt toughnela ~ong-t.rmZ~ AppllcMion •IC8mPin
glr:m'
N/ ,..,.,.,.
mJ/,..,.,.,.
"C
.. 1.05
35- 56
80n.f.31
85- 100
1.14
43
n.f.31
80-100
1.14
57
21 41
80-100
0.96
20-30
n.f.ll
80-100
0.92
B-10
n.f.ll
60-80
Hos1alen, Lupolen, Vestolen A
Telephone housings, instrument panels. surfboards Gears, plain bearings, screws. cables. housings Battery cases. fuel containers. garbage cans. pipes, cable insulation, films, bottles
PE-LO
Polyethylene. low density
PMMA
Polymethyl· methacrylate
Plexiglas. Oegalan, Lucryl
1.18
70- 76
18
70- 100
Optical lenses, warning lights, dials, lighted letters
POM
Polyoxymethylene;
Oelrin, Hostaform, Ultraform
1.42
50- 70
100
95
Gears, plain bearings, valve bodies, housing parts
PP
Polypropylene
Hostalen PP. Novolen, Procom. Vestolen P
0.91
21 - 37
n. f.31
1()()-110
PS
Polystyrene
Styropor, POiystyrol, Vestyron
1.05
40-65
13- 20
55- 85
Packaging material, ftatware, film cartridges. insu lating boards
PTFE
Polytetraftuorethylen
Hostaflon, Teflon. Fluon
2.20
15- 35
n. f.31
280
Maintenance free bearings. piston rings, seals. pu mps
1.20 - 1.35
20-29
241
60- 80
1.38
35-60
n.f.31
<60
23- 25
85
Graduated dials. battery housings, headlight housings
55-75
Television housings. packaging material, clothes hangers, distribution boxes
PVC-P
PVC-U
Polyvinylchloride, Hostalit, plasticized Vinoflex, Vestolit. Polyvinyl chloride Vinnolit, no plasticizers Solvic
SAN
Styreneacrylnitrile copolymer
Luran, Vestyron, Lustran
1.08
78
SB
StyrenebU1adiene copolymer
Vestyron, Styrolux
1.05
22-50
II Values depend on temperature and test speed. 21 Duration of temperature application has a significant effect. 3J n. f. ;o no fracture of the specimen 41 Impact toughness
40 n. f.31
Heating ducts. washing machine parts, fittings, pump housings
Hoses, seals, cable sheathing, pipes, fittings, containers
183
Material science: 4.11 Plastics
Designation of thermoplastic molding materials Polyethylene PE Polypropylene PP
cf. DIN EN ISO 1872·1 (1999-101 ct. DIN EN ISO 1873-1 (1995-121
Desig natio n system Name Standard block: number block Example: Thermoplastic ISO 1873
I
Data block 1
-
II
II
Data block 2
PP-R
EL
Data block 3
II
Data block 4
II
Data block 51l
.
2)
06-16-003
I
IS0 8773
Data~1
In data block 1 the molding material is designated by its abbreviation PE or PP after the hyphen. For polypropylene the additional information follows: PP-H homopolymers of the propylene, PP-8 thermoplastic, impact tough PP (so-called block~opolymerf; PP-R thermoplastic, static copolymers of the propylene. Data~ 2
Intended applielltions and/« proceulng methods f« PE and PP
Important propet'ties. additives and coloring fCKPEand PP
Sym-
SymPositions 2 t.o 8 bol
bol
Position 1
SymPosition 1 bol
Symbol
Positions 2 to 8
c
B
Blow molding Calendering
L M
Monofilam. extrusion Injection molding
A 8
Process stabilizer Anti-blocking agent
L N
light stabilizer Natu ral colors
E F
Extrusion Extrusion (films)
0 R
Stamping Rotomolding
c
Arlifoclal color Powder
p
D
R
Impact tough Mold release agent
c
General use Coating
s X
Powder sintered Unspecified
E F
Blowing agent Fire extinguisher
s
H
K
Cable insulation
y
Fiber productionll
c
Pellets Thermal aging stabilizer
X
H
T
y
z
Sliding and lubricating agent Increased transparency Cross-linkable Increased elec1r. conductivity Static inhibitor
Data~ 3
Density of PE In kg/m3 Symbot 00 03
08
above- to
Symbol
above- to
- 901 901 - 906 906- 911
02 06 10
- 400 400-800 800- 1200
23
911 - 916 916- 921 921-925
27 33 40
925-930 930- 936 936-942
45 50 57 62
942-948 948- 954 954- 960 960
13 18
Modulus of elasticity for PP in MPa (N /mm2)
1200- 2000 16 2000- 3500 28 40 3500 Impact toughness for PP in kJfrnl -3 02 05 3-6
09 15 25 35
Melting maw flow r~ In g/10 min Conditions for PE Temp. Load in OC In kg E
190 190 190 190
0 T G
0.325 2.16 5.00 21 .6
-
6-12 12- 20 20-30 30
Sym-
forPP and PE
bot
above- to
000 001
-0. 1 0.1 - 0.2 0.2- 0.4
003 006 012 022 0,45
090 200 400 700
0.4- 0.8 0.8-1 .5 1.5 - 3.0 3.0- 6.0 6- 12 12- 25 25- 50 50
-
Data blodl4 for P£ and pp Position 1: Symbol for filler/reinforcer grade Symbol Material B
c
G
K L M
Symbol Material
Boron Carbon Glass
s
Chalk Cellulose Mineral, metal
w
T
X
z
Position 2 : Symbol for physical form Symbol Form
Symbol Form
s
F
Pearls, balls Powder Fiber
X
Lamina Flakes Not specified
G H
Ground stock Whiskers
z
Other
Synthetic, organic Talcum
B 0
Wood Not specified Other
Position 3: Mass percentage ol the filler material
=> 1'
ThermoplastH: ISO 1873-PP-H, M 4().{)2~. Tn40: Polypropylene molding material, homopolymer, fabricated by injection molding. modulus of elasticity 3500 MPa; Impact toughness 3 kJtm2, melting mass flow rate 4.5 g/10 m in. filler 40% talcum powder
Data block 5 optional - entry of additional requirements
21 2 commas - data block missing
3J only for PP
184
Material science: 4.11 Plastics
Thermoset molding materials, laminated material Designation and properties of thermoset plastic molcing materials Type DIN 7708·2 (old stan · dard)
Type ISO 14526 cf. page 180
Resin
Fillef-
Flexural strength11
Impact toughness 11
Water absorpdon
Nlmm2
kJ/m2
mg
Poul'llble phenolic plastic molding materials IPF PMCI 31 51
84
0: ~ 4.5 M :z:S.O
" 100
0:~40
0:~ 4.5
s 150
M:z: SO
M :z: 5.0
30% wood flour 20% mineral flour
M:~so
Pf (Lf20+ M025)
20% cellulose fibers 25% mineral flour 20% synthetic chips 15% cellulose fibers
0:~35
0: ~ 5.5
M:z: 4S
M :z: 6.S
40% (to 50%1 flaky organ. synthesis product
0:~30
M:o: 45
40%(to60%) mica fibers
Q:.,30 M :z: 40
0: ~ 7.0 M :z:9.0 0: .,2.5 M : z:3.5
Pf ISC20+ LF 15)
74
cf. DIN EN ISO 14526-3 (2000·08)
Pf(W030+ M020)
PftSS40 toSSSO)
Phenolic (forma Idehyde)-resin tPFI
0:~40
13
PFIPF40 to PF601
83
Pf tlf20+ M025)
20% cellulose fibers 25% m ineral fibers
Q:.,35 M:z: 45
M :z: 6.0
Pf (Gf20+ GG301
20% fiber glass 30% glass grist
O:z: SO M:;o 60
O:z:6.0 M :z: 7.0
12
o:.,s.s
" 150 s 200 s30 "150 s 30
PMC ISO 14526 - PF(WD30+MD20), M : Pourable molding compound IPMCI, phenolic (formaldehyde) resin IPFI. approx. 30% of wood flour (W030), approx. 20 % of mineral flour (M020); recommended machining process: injection molding IM)ll
""'
Urea formaldehyde molding mllterials IUF PMCI and cf. DIN EN ISO 14527·312()()().08) urea/melamine formaldehyde molding materials IUFIMF-PMCIIUF/MF-PMCI 131.5 r
Uftl010+ M030),X,E21
131
UF(l010+ MD30)
130
UF(W030+ M020)
-
UF/MF {LF20+S10)
Urea !formalde hyde) resin (UFI Urea/mefamine (formal dehyde) resin
20% cellulose powder 30% mineral flour
O:i<45 M:z: 55
0: ., 5.0 M :z: 7.5
" 150
20% cellulose fibers 30% mineral flour
O:;o4S M :, s5
0: ,s.o M :.,7.5
" 150
30% wood flour 20% mineral flour
0:~35
0: ., 4.5 M :,.S.O
s 200
M: ;o40
O: z: 6.5 M:-
" 100
-
20'Yo cellulose fibers 10% organic synthesis product
PMC ISO 14527 - UFILD20+MD20), M : Pourable molding compound IPMC), urea formaldehyde resin {UF), approx. 20% of cellulose powder ll020), approx. 20% of mineral flour I MD20); recommended machining process: injection molding {M)ll
'*
Laminated matM'ials3l
ct. DIN EN 60893 (20()4.. 12) Typea of reinlordng nwterilils
Aallntypea Type of resin Designation EP MF PF UP Sf
PI Nominal thicknesses tin mm
-
Epoxy resin Melamine (formaldehyde) resin Phenolic tfonmaldehyde) resin Unsaturated polyester resin Silicone resin Polyimide resin
Abbreviation Designation
cc
Cotton fabric Cellulose paper Combined reinforcing material Glass fiber fabric Fiber glass mat Wood veneer
CP
CR GC GM
wv
0.4; 0.5; 0.6; 0.8; 1.0; 12; 1.5; 2; 2.5; 3; 4; 5; 6; 8; 10; 12; 14; 16; 20; 25; 30; 35; 40; 45; 50; 60; 70; SO; 90; 100 Board EC 60893- 3-4- PF CP 201, 10 x 500 x 1000: Board made of phenolic (formaldehyde) resirVcellulose paper IPF CP 201) according to IEC standard"'60893-3-4 with t= 10 mm, w= 500 mm,l= 1000 mm.
11 0 a compression molding compound; M • injection molding compound 21 X= machining process not specified; A = free of ammonia; E specific electric properties 3 1 Applications: insulators for electrical equipment, for instance. or bearing liners, rollers and gears for machine construction 4 1 IEC International Electrotechnical Commission (international standard)
=
=
185
Material science: 4.11 Plastics
Elastomers. Foam materials Elastomers lrubbtwl T..,.
AIJbre. via-
Dellgnetion
BR
Butadiene rubber
co
Eplchlorhydrin rubber
CR
tlon11
Bong: lit Worldng o.n.lty str.ngth2l l'nlper1ils. frKtunt ~ ..,.._tlon enmples ~ oc g/cm' N/~ High abrasion resistance; tires, belts. V-belts
0.94
2 (18)
450
1.27 - 1.36
5 (15)
250
Chlo roprene rubber
1.25
11 (251
400
- 30 to +110
Oil and acid resistant, very flammable, seals, hoses. V-belts
CSM
Chlorosullonated polyethylene
1.25
18 (20)
300
- 30 to+120
Aging and weather resistant, oil resistant; insulating material, molded goods, films
EPOM
Ethylenepropylene rubber
0.86
4 (25)
500
Good electrical insulator, not resistant - 50 to +120 against oil and gasoline; seals, pro files. bumpers, cold water hoses
1.85
2 (15)
450
Abrasion resistant, best thermal resistance; - 10t0+190 aerospace and automotive industries; rotary shaft seals, 0-rings
lsobutene· Isoprene rubber
0.93
5 (21)
600
Weather and ozone resistant; - 30to +120 cable insulation, automotive hoses
IR
Isoprene rubber
0.93
1124)
500
-60to+60
NBR
Acrylonitrile· butadiene rubber
1.00
61251
450
Abrasion resistant. oil and gasoline resistant - 20 to +110 etectr. conductors, ().rings, hydraulic hoses, rotary shaft seals. axial seal
NR
Natural rubber lsoP
0.93
22127)
600
- 60 to +70
Low resistance to oil, high strength; truck tires, spring elements
PUR
Polyurethane rubber
1.25
201301
450
-30 to +100
Elastic, wear-resistant; timing belts, seals, couplings
SIR
Styrene-Isoprene rubber
1.25
1 (8)
250
Good electr. insulator, water repellent - 80 to +180 ().rings, spark plug caps, cylinder head and joint sealing
0.94
5 (251
500
-30 to +80
FKM
IIA
SBA
Fluoro rubber
Styrene-Butadiene rubber
1l cf. OIN ISO 1629 (1992-03)
- 60 to +90
Vibration damping, oil and gasoline - 30 t0+120 resistant; seals, heat - 10t0+120 resistant dampers
Low resistance to oil, high strength; truck tires, spring elements
low resistance to oil and g asoline; tires, hoses, cable sheathing
21 Value in parentheses • with additive or filler reinforced elastomer
Foa m materials
cf. OIN n2611982-05)
Foam materials consist of open cells, closed cells or a mixture of closed and open cells. Their raw density is lower than that of the structural substance. A distinction is made between hard, medium hard, soft, elastic, soft elastic and integral foam material.
..,_ ~
Rew l'nllteriel beM of the foem mlltel'iel
Cell structure
Polystyrene Polyvinylchloride Hard
Polyethersulfone Polyurethane Phenolic resin
111
Predominantly closed cell
Urea-formaldehyde resin Polyethylene
Open cell
Predominantly Medium· Polyvinylchloride closed hard cell Melamine resin to soft· Polyurethane polyester type elastic Open cell Polyurethane polyether type 11
....,.,.,_
Mex. wootdng
n..m.l
oc••
conduciMty W/IK· ml
15-30
75 (100)
0.035
2- 3
50-130
60(80)
0.038
<1
45-55
180(210)
0.05
15
20-100
80 (1 50)
0.021
1-4
40 - 100
130 (250)
0.025
7- 10
5-15
90 (100)
25-40
up to 100
50- 70
- 60to +50
0.036
1-4
10.5- 11.5
up to 150
0.033
approx. 1
20-45
- 40 t0+100
0.045
-
o-ity kg/m'
l ong-term working temperature, short-term in parentheses
0.03 0.036
W11ter8blolptlon In 7 days Vol.·~
20 1-2
186
Material science: 4.11 Plastics
Plastics processing Injection molding and extrusion
...
Injection molding ~ln"C
Abbrevlltlon
Injection .,.....
Extrulion
lnber
~ ~
Shrinkage In %
Tolenlnce group11few Gen01-IOM wittl toledeviation• r•ncee Serles 121 Series22
.....
soo.-
Me*!
PE
160- 300
20- 70
500
190- 230
1.5 - 3.5
150
140
130
pp
170- 300
20 - 100
1200
235-270
0.8 - 2 3'
150
140
130
0.2- 0.5
130
120
110
2104 '
~n•c
PVC, hard
170-
30- 60
1000- 1800
170- 190
PVC. soft
170- 20041
20- 60
300
150- 200
1- 2.5
-
-
-
PS
180- 250
30- 60
-
180-220
0.3- 0.7
130
120
110
SB
180- 250
20- 70
-
180- 220
0.4- 0.7
130
120
110
SAN
200-260
40-80
-
180-200
05- 0.6
130
120
110
ABS
200- 240
40- 85
800- 1800
180-220
0.4- 0.7
130
120
110
PMMA
200- 250
50- 90
400- 1200
180- 250
0.3- 0.8
130
120
110
PA
210-290
80-120
700-1 200
230-275
1-2
130
120
110
POM
180- 230"
50- 120
800-1700
180- 220
1- 3.5
140
130
120
PC
280-320 41
80-120
>800
240- 290
0.7- 0.8
130
120
110
PF5l
90- 110 41
170- 190
800-2500
-
0.5-1.5 31
140
130
120
MF6l
95-110 41
160-180
1500- 2500
-
0.6- 1.7 31
130
120
110
UF51
95- 110
150- 160
1500-2500
-
0.4-0.6
140
130
120
11 See table below 2' Series 1: Can be maintained without special effort. Series 2: Requires high finishing effort 41 With screw injection molding machine 31 Transverse and longitudinal shrinkage may differ 51 With organic filler material 6l With inorganic filler material
Tolerances for plastic molded parts Tolenlnce group
._.
fromt.ble
cf. DIN 1690111982·11) NomiMI climenslon range over - up to in mm
Cod&-
~etter11
0- 1
1- 3
3-6
6-10 10-15 15-22 22-30 30-40 40-53 53-70 70-90
90120
120160
General tolerances
150
A B
%0 ..23 %0.25 :t0..27 :t0.30 :!:0.34 :!:0.38 :!:0.43 :!:0.49 :!:0.57 :!:0.68 ±0.81 :!:0.97 :!:1.20 :t0.13 , 0.15 :!:0.17 :!:0.20 :!:0.24 :!:0.28 :!:0.33 :!:0.39 :!:0.47 :!:0.58 :!:0.71 :t0 .87 :!:1.10
140
A B
:!:0.20 :!:0.21 :t0.22 ,0.24 :!:0.27 :!:0.30 :!:0.34 :!:0.38 :t0.43 ±0.50 :!:0.60 :!:0.70 :!:0.85 :!:0.10 :!:0.11 :!:0.12 ;~;0.14 :0.17 :!:0.20 :!:0.24 :!:0.28 :!:0.33 :!:0.40 :!:0.50 :!:0.60 :!:0.75
130
A B
:!:0.18 c!:0.19 c!:0.20 :!:021 :!:0.23 :!:0.25 !:0.27 :!:0.30 :!:0.34 :!:0.38 ,.0.44 :!:0.51 : 0.60 :!:0.08 :0.09 :!:0.10 :!:0.11 :t0.13 :!:0.15 !:0.17 :!:020 :!:0.24 :!:0.28 :!:0.34 :!:0.41 :!:0.50
140
A B
0.40 0.20
0.42 0.22
0.44 0.24
0.48 0.28
0.54 0.34
0.60 0.40
0.68 0.48
0.76 0.56
0.86 0.66
1.00 0.80
1.20 1.00
1.40 1.20
1.70 1.50
130
A B
0.36 0.16
0.38 0.18
0.40 0.20
0.42 0.22
0,46 0.26
0.50 0.30
0.54 0.34
0.60 0.40
0.68 0.48
0.76 0.56
0.68 0.68
1.02 0.82
1.20 1.00
120
A B
0.32 0.12
0.34 0.14
0.36 0.16
0.38 0.18
0.40 0.20
0.42 0.22
0.46 0.26
0.50 0.30
0.54 0.34
0.60 0.40
0.68 0.48
0.78 0.58
0.90 0.70
110
A B
0.18 0.08
0.20 0.10
0.22 0.12
0.24 0.14
026
0.28 0.18
0.30
0.32
0.36
020
022
026
0.40 0.30
0.44 0.34
0.50 0.40
0.58 0.48
Tolerances for dimensions with deviations
0.16
1l A For dimensions which do not depend on mold dimensions; B For dimensions which depend on mold dimensions
187
Material science: 4.1 1 Plastics t;,JJtJH;,Jt:.ttllt:~~••r. .."ttl*-'11iilil[l)ilrniTi~:rnmllltlitm•mml u:- &.
'""""'•" Abbr.. vllltlon
....
·--~plastics
o..lgnetion
;:;
Spec:l.t prOf*1lea
Application eumplea
10
- 20 to 260"C, short•term to 300"C
.u. strength and chemical resistance. low strength, hardness and ooeff~eient of friction
Bearings, seals, coatings, highfrequency cable, chemical equipment
-N,~' from t.o
~olytetr~-
PTFE
WOftllng tempent\n
trade name "Teflon•
PEEK
Polyotherctherketone
97
- 65 to 250' C, short-term to 300 ' C
High-temperature strength and chemical resistance, good sliding behavior
Bearings, gears, seals, air and space travellinstead of metals)
PPS
Polyphenylensulfide
70
- 200 to 220' C, short-term to 260 ' C
High strength, hardness, stiff· ness, high chemical, weather and radiation resistance
Pump housings, bearing bushings, space travel, nuclear power stations
PSU
Polysulfone
- 40 to 1so•c . 140- 240 short-term to
High strength, hardness, stiffness, high chemical and radiation resistance. clear
M icrowave dishes, spools, circuit boards, oil level indicators, needle bearing cages
PI
Polyimide trade name ·vespel"
- 240 to 360' C, 75- 100 short-term to 400 ' C
High strength in large temperature range, radiation resistant, dark, nontransparent
Jet engi_nes, aircraft noses, piston rings, valve seats, seals, electronic connection components
.....
zoo·c
1
,.,.J'_...,,_
Polyblends I also known as ·blends" ) are mixtures of different thermoplastics. The special properties of these copoly· mers result from numerous possible combinations of the properties of the original materials.
Abbr..
Special
o..lgnation
Compoooents
SIB
Styrene/butadiene
90 % polyStyrene, 10% butadiene rubber
ASS
Acrylonitrile/butadiene/ 90 % Styrene-acrylonitrile, styrene 10% nitrile rubber
PPE+ PS
Polyphenylenether + Polystyrene
PC+ ASS
Polycarbonate + various Acrylnitrile/Butadiene/ compositions Styrene
viatlon
PC+
PET
Polycarbonate + Polyethyleneterephthalate
Den-'ty
kg/ elm'
Glass fiber 2.52 GF Aramide fibers
1-45
Af31
Carbon fiber CF
1.6 - 2.0
Brinle hard, at low temperatures not impact tough
Stacking boxes, fan housings, radio housings
Brinle hard, impact tough even at low temperatures
Telephones, dash-boards, hubcaps
High hardness, high cold various compositions; impact toughness to possibly can be reinforced -40"C. physiologically with 30% glass fiber harmless
different compositions
J fibers o..lgnation
ApplicMion eamples
properties
Tensile strength
N/rnrnZ 3400 3400 -3800 1750 - 50002)
1
_.
......
Radiator g~ill, .computer parts, medical equipment. solar panels, trims
High strength, hardness, toughness. dimensional stability under heat. impact tough, shock-proof
Instrument panels, fenders, office machine housings, lamp housings in motor vehicles
Exceptional impact tough· ness and shock resistance
Motorcycle helmets, automotive parts
Elongation
"
4.5
2.0-4.0
0.35- 2.121
Spec:iel~
Application eumples
Isotropic''· g~<>
Thermosets (e.g. UP and EP resins) and thermoplastics with high working temperatures (e.g. PSU. PPE. PPS. PEEK. P1) are used as embedding materials (so-called mMrixJ. 11 Isotropic • the same material properties in all directions; anisotropic • material properties in the direction of the fibers are different from those transverse to fibers Depends significantly on the fiber defect sites occurring during the manufacturing process 31 Trade name "Kevlar• 21
188
Standard tensile test specimens are polled to fracture.
Determination of material characteristic values, for example
The changes in tensile force and strain are measured and ploned on a graph. This is con· verted to a stress-strain curve.
- calculation of static load strength - prediction of forming behavior - obtaining data for machining processes
• Indenter ball is loaded with standardized test load F - test load depends on ball diameter D and on the material group - Degree of loading, see page 192 • Indentation diameter dis measured • Hardness is determined based on the test load and the surface area of indentation
Hardness test, e.g. on st~s. cast iron materials, non.•ferrous metals, which
c---
• Indenter (diamond cone, carbide ball) is loaded with minor test load - • measurement baseline • Impact with major test load .... permanent deformation of the tes1 piece • Removal of the major load • Hardness is displayed direclly on the test device and is based on the depth of penetra· lion h
- are not hardened - have a metallic bright testing surface - are softer than 650 HB
Hardness testing by different methods, e. g. on steels and non-ferrous metals, - in soft or hardened condition - with small thicknesses Methods HRA. HRC:
hardened and high-strength metals M ethods HRB, HRF:
soh steel, non-ferrous metals
• The diamond pyramid is loaded with variable loads -test load is a function of parameters such as test piece thickness or grain size in matrix structure • The diagonals of the indentation are measured • Hardness is determined based on the test load and surface area of indentation
Universal method for testing - soft and hardened materials - thin layers - individual microstructural components of metals
• Diamond pyramid is loaded with variable loads - test load is based on parameters such as test piece thickness or grain size • The load is logged continuously as a function of penetration depth
Method for testing all materials, e.g. - soft and hardened metals - thin layers, also carbide coatings and paint coating - individual microstructure components - ceramic, hard material, etc.
• Martens hardness is determined dwing loading
• The test ball is loaded with initial load - measurement baseline • Impact with established test load - test load must produce a penetration depth of 0.15-0.35 mm • The penetration depth is measured after 30 s loading time • Ball indentation hardness is determined
Testing of plastics and hard rubber. Ball indentation hardness provides compari· son values for research, development and quality control.
189
• The testing device (durometerl is pressed on the test piece with contact pressure F • The spring loaded indenter penetrates into the test piece • Worldng time 15 s • The shore hardness is displ. directly on the device
• Cylindrical specimens are loaded in standard· ized equipment until fractured due to shearing - for strength calculations of shear loaded pans, e.g . pins • Breaking strength is determined from the maKimum shearing force and cross-sectional - to predict cutting forces in forming area of the test specimen
• Notched test specimens are subjected to bending load by pendulum impact and are fractured • Notch impact toughness • energy required to deform and fracture the test specimen
• Sheet metal clamped on all sides is deformed until crack formation by a ball • The deformation depth until crack propaga· lion is a measure of deep drawing capability
- For testing of sheet metal and strip for their deep drawing capability - Evaluation of the sheet surface for changes during cold working
• Cylindrical specimens with polished surface are alternately loaded with constant mean stress Om and variable alternating stress amplitude until fracture. The graphical representation of the series of tests yields the Wohler (5-N) curve
Used to determine material properties with dynamic loading, e.g. - fatigue strength, fatigue endurance and fatigue strength under alternating stresses - endurance limit
a,._
- Nondestructive testing of parts, e. g. for • A transducer sends ultrasonic signals through the workpiece. The waves are cracks, cavities, gas holes, inclusions, lack reflected by the front wall, the back wall and of fusion, differences in microstructure by defects of a certain size - To determine the type of defect, the size and the location of the defect • The screen of the testing device displays the - To measure wall and layer thicknesses echoes • The test frequency detenmines the detectable defect size which is limited by the grain size of the test specimen
Etching metallographic test specimens (microsec· lions) develops the microstructure which can then be observed under the metallographic microscope. Specimen preparation: Removal - avoid structural transformation Embedding - sharp edged microsections Grinding - removal of layers of deformation Polishing - high surface quality Etching - structural development
- To check the crystalline structure - To monitor heat treatments, forming and joining processes - To determine grain distribution and grain size - Defect testing
190
Material science: 4.12 Material testing
Tensile test, Tensile test specimens Tensile test
cf. DIN EN 10002- 1 (2001· 121 EL elongation at fracture F tensile f oroe
Strns-lltreln diagram
with distinct yield point, e.g . fw 8oft lltMI
/
I
I
strain
£
in % -
r EL
So
initial cross section of the lest specimen smallest test specimen cross section after fracture normel strain r reduction of area at fracture o, tensile stress Rm tensile strength R, yield strength Rp0.2 yield strength at 0 .2% strain offset v, yield strength ratio
s..
Fm maximum force Fe force at yield strength limit Fp0.2force at yield strength limit at 0.2% strain offset Lo initial gage length Lu gage length aher fracture do Initial diameter of the test specimen
z
Tensile t est specimens Normally, round I)
Yoeld lltrength ratio:
Lo -
greater elongation at
v. s R, (l~l'o.2l/Rm
It provides information about the heat treatment con· dition of the steels:
02 EL strain c in % -
normalized V, .. 0.5-{).7 quenched & tempered V, .. 0.7- 0.95
Tensile test specimens
r
·S'"l
~
I I I I
0
l
F So
I
- -
Tensile strength
Rm• ~ So
I
Yoeld lltrength
Fe
Ro - -So
Yoeld stNngth lit 0.2 ~ lltrein offset
Rpe.2
Fpe.2 ·s;-
Ie-J;;
I I
Notmallltrein
L-~
· 100%
Elongation et fracture
I¥. EL -
100%
I
Reduction of -
at fraction
fz-So~Su
· 100%
I
cf. DIN 50125 (2004..()1)
Round ....- tMt ep«imel• with wnooth cylndrical anda. IIMtpaa A and B
Shape A
.L~J"'".--'"-
Tensile lltress
So~ 1---
do Lo 4
.
Shape Ad,
I Lo=S·do 1---L,_,- - -l L,
ShapeS
ShapeE ShapeE
~ L, L,
I
4
5
6
8
10
12
14
20 24
25 30
30
40 48
50 60
60
70
72
84
5
Shape A:. Machined test spe· cimens for c lamping in the t ensioning wedge 6 8 10 12 15 17 80 95 115 140 160 185 SNipe B: Machined test spe· cimens with threaded heads M8 M10 M12 M16 M18 M20 produce more precise mea50 60 75 90 110 125 surement of the elongation
36
t.
65
t
M6 40
a
3
4
5
6
7
8
10
b
10
10 40 15
20 60 27
22 70
25 80
8
8 30 12
25 90 33
4
38
Lo L,
115
Shapes, application
35 15 45 135
Shapes, application
Flat specimens with heads for t ensioning wedges, 29 33 tensile test specimens of 50 80 90 105 115 strips, sheets, Oat b ars and 140 210 230 260 270 profiles
ShapeC ShapeD ShapeF
Machined round test specimens with shouldered ends Machined round test specimens with conical ends Unmachined sections of round bars
ShapeG Shape H
Unmachined sections of flat bar steel and profiles Rat specimens for testing sheets with thicknesses between 0.1 and 3 mm
-
Tensiletestspecirl*l DIN50125 -A10x50: Shape A<:(,= 10 mm, Lo =50 mm
191
Material science: 4.12 Material testing
Shear test. Notched bar impact bending test. Cupping test Shear test
cf. DIN 50141 (2008-07), withdrawn Fm maximum shear force ~ initial diameter of the test specimen specimen length
So
initial cross section of the test specimen r t8 shear strength
Shear strength
The test is carried out on tensile test machines with standardized shear devices. 5'-'test~
~
4
5
6
8
10
12
16
-0.020 - 0.370
-0.030 - 0.390
-0.030 - 0.345
- 0.040 - 0.370
- 0.013 - 0.186
- 0.016 - 0.193
- 0.016 - 0.193
50
50
50
50
110
110
110
3
Limit - 0.020 deviations -0.370
50
Charpy impact test
cf. DIN EN 10045 (1991-041 KU Notch impact energy in J, measured on a test specimen with U -notch KV Notch impact energy in J, measured on a test specimen with V·notch Test specimen Tho test specimen mUSt be completely machined. Fabrication of the test material should alter the material's micrOS1ructure as little as possible. No notch should be visible with the naked eve at the notch root which runs parallel to the notch axis.
Test apeeimen cross section
~J-.il
~ trrll
u
55
40
10
10
Normal test specimen
v
55
40
10
10
8
0.25
DVM test specimen"
u
55
40
10
10
7
1.0
Normal test specimen
Explanation
-
Erichsen cupping test
die
punch
45•
KU = 115 J :
Normal test specimen with U·notch, Notch impact energy 115 J, work capacity of the pendulum impact tester 300 J 85 J : Normal test specimen with V·notch, Notch impact energy 85 J, work capacity of the pen· dulum impact tester 150 J
=
cf. DIN EN ISO 20482 12003-12), replacement for DIN 50101 and 50102 IE Erichsen cupping depth value in mm D hole diameter of the die F sheet metal holding force in kN d ball diameter of the punch length of the test sheet thickness of the test sheet w width of the test sheet Test specimens The test specimens must be flat and not have any burrs. Before clamping, the sheets are to be lightly greased over with a graphite lubricant.
Abbreviation
sheet metal holder
a
1.0
" Deutscher Verband ffir MaterialprUfung (German Association for Material Testing!
KV150
test specimen
Test dimension in mm or degree (0 ) b h lw hk
Notch shape
Designation
Tool dimensions d F D mm mm kN
Test specimen dimensions w t I mm mm mm
IE
27
20
10
I~
20
10
,.so ,.so
,.so ,.so
0.2 - 2
40
IE21
21
15
10
.. w
55- 90
0.2-2
11
8
10
;ob
30- 55
IE11
-
IE= 12 mm: Erichsen cupping depth
~
2- 3 0.1-1
Application Standard test Tests on thicker or narrower strips
12 mm, standard test
192
Material science: 4.12 Material testing
Hardness test by Brine II . . . . . . test by Brinell
0
F
-f;
~~t I ~ ,,
J
~!
__..., d,
: i ·-;·
8
distance from edge in mm
~
h
"'
inmm
Test conditions Impression diameter 0.24 · D s d s 0.6 • D Minimum test specimen thickness s ~ 8 · h Distance from edge a " 3 . d Test specimen surface: metallic bright
r.i . .:
7 1 li
s
test load in N ball diameter in mm diameter of the impression in mm individual measurement values of the impression diameter in mm depth of impressio.n in mm minimum lhid
D d d 1•
f--L-. (!t"t ~
cf. DIN EN ISO 6506-1 (2006-031
..;;
:.·
-
Oesignetion ex•mples:
Impression diameter
I
d - d, +d2 2
I
Bfinell h•rdness
HBW ·
0.204· F n · D · (D -JDLd2)
180 HBW 2.5/62.5
~J'T'T
I
I
Herdn- v•lue
Indenter
!WI dlwneter
Test tore. F
Impact time
Brinell hardness 180 Brinell hardness 600
W carbide ball
2.5mm 1mm
62.5 · 9.80665 N • 6 12.9 N 30 . 9.80665 N s 294.2 N
Unspecified: Value entry:
10 to 15 s 25s
Degree of loading, ball diameter, test loads and test materials Degree of loading 0.102 • F/02
Test load F inN with ball diameter 011 in mm 1 2.5 5 10
Test range
BrineII hardness HBW
Materials Steel. nickel and titanium alloys Cast iron Copper, oopper alloys
,; 650 ~ 140 >200
30
294.2
1839
7355
29420
15
-
-
-
14710
Ught metal, light metal alloys
>35 < 140 > 35 35 - 200
10
98.07
612.9
2452
9807
Cast iron Ught metal. light metal alloys Copper. copper alloys
5
49.03
306.5
1226
4903
Copper, oopper alloys Light metals, light metal alloys
< 35 35-80 < 35
2.5
24.52
153.2
612.9
2452
Ught metals, light metal alloys
1
9.807
61.29
245.2
980.7
lead, tin
-
" Small ball diameters for fin9ilrained materials, thin specimens or hardness tests in the outer layer. For hardness tests on cast iron, the ball diameter Omust be ;o 2.5 mm. Hardness values are only comparable if the tests were carried out with the same degree of loading.
Minimum thickness s of the specimens Ball diamete r Oinmm 1 2 2.5 5 10 11
Minimum thickness sin mm for impression diameter d" in mm 0.25 0.35 0.5
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.3
1.5
2.0
2.4
3.0
0.13 0.25 0.54 0.8
3.5 1 4.o 1 4.5 1 5.o 1 5.5 1 6.o Example: o ~ 2.5 mm, d • 1.2 mm - minimum specimen thickness s 1.23mm
0.23 0.37 0.67 1.07 1 6 1.46 2.0 0.58 0.69 0.92 1.67 2.45 4.0
I
I
I
I
1.17 1.84 2.53 3.3414.2815.36 16.59 1 8.0
Table fields without thickness indicated lie outside of the test range 0.24 . D" d" 0.6 . D
193
Material science: 4.12 Material testing
Hardness test by Rockwell, Hardness test by Vicl
2nd step 3rd step
. ... F
cf. DIN EN ISO 6508-1 (2006-03)
F0 minor load in N F1 major load In N h permanent indentation depth inmm s test specimen thickness tJ distance from edge
I
reference plane for measurement
t
I
Rockwell hardness HRB, HRF
HRB, HRF = 130-
h 0.002mm
I
65 HRC 70 HRBW r - -- _ J T'--,--
1\
90
h 0.002mm
Detlgnation examples:
100 r--r--v--,.--.---r- ,
\ ~ f- -
80
HRA,HRC = 100 -
Test conditions Surface of specimen is ground to Ra • 0.8- 1.6 1Jm. The machining of the specimen must not result in any changes to the microstructure. Distance from edge a~ 1 mm
" I
I I
Rockwell hardness HRA. HAC
Test method
~
65 70
HAC Rockwell hardness - C. test with diamond cone
HRBW Rockwell hardness - B. test with carbide ball
Test method• ..,pications (selection) Method Indenter HRA
20
Diamond cone,
"HAc cone angle 120" 0 0.5 I 1.5 2 mm 3 mrnimum test ~ specimen thickness
HAS
Carbide ball (W)
'HRF 1.5785mm
Fo
F,
inN
inN
Measurement range from - to
98
490.3
20-BSHRA
98
1373
20 - 70HRC
98
882.6
20-100 HRB
98
490.3
60 - 100 HRF
Hardness test by Vickers
s
a
I
Hardened steel, high·Slrength metals Soh steel, non-ferrous metals
cf. DIN EN ISO 6507·1 (2006·03)
F d
~
Application
test load in N diagonal of the indentation in mm test specimen thickness distance from edge
Test conditions Surface of specimen is ground to Ra = 0.4- 0.8 IJm. The machining of the specimen must not result in any changes to the microstructure. Distance from edge a"' 2.5 · d
Vockers hardness
I
I
HV = 0.1891 · dF2
. . __
___,
Designation examples: 540HV1 /20
650HVT T
t~:
H H\r+-+\-+f--1-----1
> 500 fX
~
...c
~tz~+o ~
~~
250 l---t-\9-\-l- \-tiA-- -1
"E 100 '--....,.---'l---LI, --"---":-...J 2 O.o1 0.025 0.1 025 1 25 10 min. test specimen thickness - -
Vickers hardn. 540 Vickers hardn.
650
Test load F
Working time
1 • 9.80665 N • 9.807 N 5 · 9.80665 N = 49.00 N
Value entry Unspecified:
Test coodtio!IS and irpplied loadl b
20s 10to 15 s
the VICkers~ test HV5
Test condition
HV100
HVSO
HV30
HV20
HV10
Test load in N
980.7
490.3
294.2
196.1
98.07
49.00
Test condition
HV3
HV2
HV1
HV0.5
HV0.3
HV0.2
Test load in N
29.42
19.61
9.807
4.903
2.942
1.961
194
Material science: 4.12 Material testing
Martens hardness, Conversion of hardness values Martens hardness by penetrant testing indenter • 136.- . test
F h
~~
"'
s
t est load In N depth of penetration in mm specimen thicknm;s in mm
0.1 N
2N
l OON
Aluminum
0. 13
0.55
4.00
St eel
0.08
0.30
Carbide
0.03
h,..,
,i
Designation:
I
I I I Manens hardness I
2.20
0.10
0.80
I ~jll 4~ ,. 5700 Ntmm2
~
I
Application of load
I l Mart- hetdn. value I
0.5N
I
l 20 s
I
w ith in20 s
I
2N :s F :s 30kN
Nano range
h :s 0.21Jm
(F~
98N)
255 285 320 350 385
80 90 100 110 120
95 105 114
415 450 480 510 545
130 140 150 160 170
124 133 143 152 162
575 610 640 675 705
180 190 200 210 220
171 181 190 199 209
740 770 800 835 865
230 240 250 260 270
219 228 238 247 257
900
280
930 965 1030 1095
290
266 276 285 304 323
300 320 340
76
86
Tensile strength
Rockwell hardness HRC
HRA
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
20
22 24 26 27 29 30 32 34
I
Universal hardness test, e. g. for all metals, plastics, carbides, ceram ic m aterials; micro and nano ranges: thin layer m easurement, microstructure components
Conversion tables for hardness values and tensile strength 1 ' Brinell hardness HBlO
15700 N/mm 2
Applications
F < 2 N or H > 0.2 11m
N/mm 2
I
I
M acro range
HV
I
I Test dur1dion
Micro range
Rm
F
26.43 . h2
I
Conditions
VICkers hardness
HM =
Test load F
Test range
Tensile strength
I
Average roughness Ra at F
Material
'I ]A ITestmothod
Mertens hardness
Testspedmen~
Test chwactoristlc:s
h-
cf. DIN EN ISO 145n (2003-05)
-
-
-
-
61 62 62
63 64 65 65
66 66
HRS21 HRF21
-48
-
56
87
Rm
N/mm2
cf. DIN EN ISO 18265 (2004·02) Rockwell hardVICkers Srinell hardness ness hardness HV HBJO (F i: 98 N ) HRC HRA 360 380 400 420 440
342 361 380 399 418
37 39 41 43 45
69 70 71
437 456 466
46 48 48 50 51
74 75 75 76 76
62
91
67
94
1155 1220 1290 1350 1420
71 75 79 82 85
96 99 (101) (104) ( 106)
1485 1555 1595 1665 1740
460 480 490 510 530
504
87 90 92 94 95
( 107) (109) 1110) ( 111) ( 112)
1810 1880 1955 2030 2105
550 570 590 610 630
523 542 561 580 599
52 54 55
97 98 100 (101) ( 102)
( 113) (114) (115)
2180
618
-
650 670 690 720 760
58 59 60 61
( 104) (105)
-
-:.
800
-
--
83
--
-
--
-
-
-
--
840 880 920 940
485
-
-
--
56 57
63 64
72 73
n 78 78 79 80 80 81 81 82 83 83 84
65 66
85
66 66
85 86
11 Ap plies to unalloyed and low alloy steels and cast steel. Special tables of this standa rd are t o be used for quenched and tempered, cold worked and high-speed steels, as w ell as for v arious carbide types . Considerable dev iations are to be expected f or high-alloyed and/or w ork-hardened steels. 21 The v alues in parentheses lie outside of the measurement range.
Material science: 4.12 Material testing
195
Testing of plastics: Tensile properties. Hardness testing Determination of the tensile properties on plastics Typic:alatreM·stnoln curves
t~
~ withToJut
r / ........ I' yield
point
eru t113
strame - Test apecim.ns
~ G s! tg
~,
change in length with yield strength
gage length
Tensile strength
initial c ross section
OM
tensile strength
uv
yield strength
eM maximum elongation Yield strength tv yield strain
Test speed inmm/min
For each property, e.g. tensile strength, yield strength. yield strain, at least live test specimens must be tested. Application - thermoplastic injection molded and extrusion molding materials - thermoplastic slabs and films - thermoset molding materials - thermoset slabs - fiber reinforced composite materials, thermoplastic and thermoset plastic
I ay =~ IeM =~ I A~FV
I
Maximum elongation
· 100%
I
. 100%
I
Yield strain £y
=
a nee
mm
50l:0.5
50l:0.5
20l:0.5
50>:0.5
mm
4:0.2
4 :<0.2
;,2
,,
50 l: 0 .5
:<20% h
" 1
s 1
" 1
100 1 200 >: 10% b
mm
10 >:0.2
10>: 0.2
4 >:0. 1
2 "' 0.1
10- 25
25.4>: 0.1
6 :t 0.4
2
5
50
Test Spedmens
Test lpedmen acconling to DIN EN ISO 527·2 lot- moldlnil met.W. DIN EN ISO 527·3 fM films lA 18 SA 4 58 2 5 Toler· Type
Test lfl"d
=>
Lo So
1+1'-!-1---,::::oool--9
t11, evz
20
yield stress
tJ.4v
on 1_ / {/ f" ductile
"' Ot
maximum force
A4M change in length with maximum load
~~; ~ brittle
~
~
Fv
cf. DIN EN ISO 527· 1 (1996-041
1
10
Lo
10 "' 0.2
25 >: 0.25
Tensile test ISO 527-2/1A/50: Tensile test according to ISO 527·2; specimen type lA; test speed 50 mm/min
Hardness test on plastics
cf. DIN EN ISO 2039· 1 (2003.()6)
F0 preload 9.8 N Fm test load
Ball indentation test
F..,
h
a
s
depth of penetration distance from edge
specimen thickness
Test Specimens distance from edge a"' 10 mm, minimum specimen thick.ness s "' 4 mm Ball indentation hardness H in N/mm 2 for indentation depth h in m m 0.16 0. 18 0.20 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.28 0.30 0.32 0.34
Test load Fm inN
""l
:;
1
L
\. Test
skecimen
a
49
22
19
16
15
13
12
11
10
9
9
132
59
51
44
39
35
32
30
27
25
24
358
160
137
120
106
96
87
80
74
68
64
961
430
310
320
290
260
234
214
198
184
171
~
Ball indentation hardness ISO 2039-1 H 132: H • 31 N/mm2 at Fm • 132 N
Hardness test by Shore on plastics
cf. DIN EN ISO 868 (2003.()61
FA contact pressure in N F test load
h
depth of penet.r ation
s specimen thickness
a distance from edge
Test Specimens Distance from edge a"' 9 mm. minimum specimen thickness s" 4 mm
Indenters for
~
ShoreD
Test method
Fmax
Application
in Ill
~ 0 ~~ I-----AD----+--~7-~~-__
,_o__ 50
L __ _
;:-:
~
_Lnif__Shore s _ho _ re __h _a_ro _ n_e_ss __w_i_th_T_y_pe __A D--is_<_2_o hardness with Type is> 90________~
85 Shore A: Hardness value 85; test method Shore A
196
Material science: 4.13 Corrosion, Corrosion protection
Corrosion Electrochemical series of metllls In galvanic corrosion !he same processes oocur as in elec:lrical elements where the base metals are corroded. The voltage produced between rwo dissimilar metals under influence of a conducting liquid (elec:lrolyte) ca n be !aken from the standard potentiels of the electrochemical series. S!andard po!ential refers to the voltage produced between the electrode material and a platinum elec:lrode immersed in hydrogen. Passivation (formation of protective layers) alters the voltage between the elements.
Electrode m aterials
I I
~ ~
~
.,~
Mg
AI
Mn
- 2.5
-3
~;::
q q Zn Cr
.
:1
"'qf"'!
••
Ni Sn H
q
q""':
~
0
~
-1 - 0.5 - 1.5 ..0.5 0 -2 Standard potentials of the electrode material• In volts
I
.....
I
ll
~
~
Pt
Ag
Cu
+1
+1.5 1
~
'
increasingly noble
Example: The standard potentials of Cu • +0.34 V and AI • - 1.7 V yield a voltage of U = + 0.34 V- (-1.67 V) • 2.01 V between Cu and AI.
Corrosion behavior of metllllic materials ~In
Materlela
Corrosion behftior
Unalloyed and alloy steels
Only resist corrosion in dry areas
Stainless steels
Resistant, but no1 against aggressive chemicals
Aluminum and AI alloys
Resistant, except the AI alloys containing Cu
Copper and Cu alloys
Resistant, especially Cu alloys containing Ni
following environm..,.
Dfy
Country
Industrial
s..
Salt
ambient air
air
air
air
water
0
0
0
0
• v •
v v v
v v v
v
• • • •
e resistan1
() fairly resistant
0 non-resistant
e to!) e
toO
0 unusable
Corrosion protection Preparation of metal . . . , _ t..fore coating Processing step
Purpose
Process
Mechanical cleaning and creating a good surface for adherence
Removal of mill scale, rust and dirt
Grinding, brushing, blasting with water jet mixed with silica sand
Chemical cleaning and creating an optimal surface finish
Removal of mill scale. rust and grease residues Roughing or smoothing the surface
Etching with acid or lye; degreasing with solvents; chemical or electrochemical polishing
...
Preventative actions for corrosion protection Actions
Examples
Select suitable materials
Stainless steel for parts for preparation in the paper production
Observe corrosion protection principles in design
Same material on contact points, insulation layers between the parts, avoiding gaps
Protective layers: • protective oil or lubricant • chemical surface treatment • protec:live paint
Oiling sliding tracks and measu ring tools Phosphatiting, burnishing lacquer coat, possible after previous phosphatizing
Metallic coatings
Hot-dip galvanizing, galvanic metal plating, e.g. chrome plating
Cathodic corrosion protection
Part to be protected, e. g. a ship propeller, is connected to a sacrificial anode
Anodic oxidation of AI materials
A corrosion-resistant permanent oxide layer is produced on the part, e.g. a rim
Material science: 4. 14 Hazardous materials
197
Disposal of substances* Waste management laws
cf. Closed Substance Cycle and Waste Management Act (2001·101
lmportent principles of recycling menagernent • Avoid waste, e.g. by in-house recycling management or a low"waS1e product design. • Utilize material waS1e, e.g. by recovery o f raw materials from waS1e (secondary raw materialsl. • Use waste for recovery of energy (energy use). e.g. use as subS1itute fuel. • Waste must be recycled properly without adverse effect on the well being of the general public. The disposal of waste is subject to monitoring by the responsible authorities (usually the administrative districtI. In panicular, wastes hazardous to health, air or water, el(plosive, and flammable especially need to be monitored. The wute producer Is responsible for proper disposal and documentation of disposal. Exemples ol waste requiring speciel monitoring (1\aurdous ~~ In ~ processing lnctustryll Disposal code
Description of the type of waste
Appearance, description, source
SpeciallnS1ructions, actions
150199D1
Packaging containing hazardous impurities
Barrels, canisters, buckets and cans contain residues of paints. lacquers, solvents, cleaning agents, rust prevents· tives. rust and silicone removers. spackle, etc.
Emptied, drip free, brush or spatula clean conditions are not wastes requiring special monitoring . They are considered retail packaging. Disposal using the dual system or in metal bins using a waste management company. Bins with dried paint are similar to house-hold commercial waste. Spray cans should be avoided if possible; they must be disposed as hazardous waste.
I Spray cans with residual contents 160602
Nickel cadmium batteries
160604
Alkaline batteries
All batteries containing contaminants are Rechargeable batteries. e. g. from drills and sc:rewdrivers. etc. labeled. The dealer must accept their return at no charge. Coin cell batteries. mercury Consumers are required to return them to containing monocell batteries the dealer or to a public recycling center. Non-rechargeable batteries
160603
Mercury dry cells
060404
M ercury containing waste
(S~H:alled
Fluorescent lamps "neon tubes" I
can be recycled. Return to dealer or to waste disposer. Do not put in glass recycling!
120106
Used machining oils, containing halogens. no emulsion
Water free drilling, turning. grinding and cutting oils. so-called cooling lubricants
120107
Used machining oils, Old, water free halogen free, no emulsion honing oil
110
Synthetic machining oils
Avoid cooling lubricants as much as possi· ble. e.g. by • dry machining • minimum quantity cooling lubrication Separated collection of different cooling lubricants. emulsions, solvents. Inquire with supplier for reprocessing or combustion (energy recyclingl options.
130202
Non· chlorinated machine, Used oil and gear oil, hydraulic oil, compressor oil gear and lubricating oils from piston air compressors
15029901
Vacuumed and filter materials, wipe cloths and pro· tective clothing with hazardous contaminants
For example, used rags, clean· Option of using a rental service for cleaning ing cloths; brushes contami· cloths. nated with oil or wax, oil binders. oil and lubricant cans
130505
Other emulsions
Condensation water from compressors
Use compressor oils with de-emulsifying propenies; inquire about the option of oil free compressors.
140102
Other halogenated solvents and solvent mixtures
Per H:hloroethane) Tri (-chloroethene) Mixed solvents
Recycling by suppliers and test replacement with aqueous cleaning solution.
1)
Cooling lubricants from synthetic oils, e. g. on e$1er·based
Recycling through supplier or a licensed waste disposal service. Used oils of known origin may be recycled by secondary refining or energy recovery. Do not mi.x with other materialsI
Regulation governing waS1es requiring special monitoring - BestbiiAbN (1999-0 1). Appendix 1: Wastes listed in the European Waste Catalog (EAK wastel are considered to be especially hazardous. Appendix 2: EAK waste requiring special monitoring as well as waste types not on the EAK list ( Letter "D" in Disposal codel. *I According to European Standards
198
Material science: 4.14 Hazardous materials
Hazardous materials and material characteristics of hazardous gases ldentiflc:ation and handling of hazardous materials Substance
ldent.if~eauon21
Symbol A-phrases
S.phrases
cf. EC Directive R 671548JEECII
Substance
ldentifiC8tion21 Symbol A-phrases S-phrases
Acetone
F, Xi
11; 36; 66; 67 9; 16; 26
Tetrachlorethane ("Per")
Xn; N
Acetylene Acrylonitrile
F.F, T,N
5; 6; 12
Kerosine Phenol
T T;C
Ammonia
C; N
Phosphoric acid
Arsenic
T; N
Propane
Asbestos Gasoline
T T F; T
45; 48123 45; 65 45; 46; 11; 36138; 481'131 24/25; 65
Lead compounds
T; N
Chromium compounds
T; N
61 ; 20/22; 33; 53; 45; 60; 61 62; 50153 49; 43; 50153 53; 45; 60; 61
Benzene
Hydro fluoric acid T+; C (HF)
(2); 9; 16; 33
45; 11; 23124; 9; 16; 45; 25; 37/38; 41 ; 53; 61 43; 51/53 34; 50 26; 36137139; 61 23125; 50153 20/2 1; 28; 45; 60; 61 53; 45 53; 45 53; 45
40; 51/53
23; 36/37; 61
45
53; 45
c
23124/25; 34; 48120/21/22; 68 34
24/25; 26; 28; 36/37; 39; 45 23; 45
F+
12
9; 16
Mercury T; N Hydrochloric acid c
23; 33; 50153 34; 37
7; 45; 60; 61 26; 45
Oxygen
8
17
Lubricating grease T
45
53;45
Lubric81ing oil
T
45
53; 45
0
26/27/28; 35 49; 38
7/9; 26; 36137; 45 53; 45
Sulphoric acid
c
35
26; 30;45
Styrene
Xn
10; 20; 36138
23
Ceramic mineral fibers Carbon monoxide
T F+; T
61 ; 12; 23; 48123
53; 45
Turpentine, oil
Xn; N
10; 20/21; 36/38; 43; 51/53; 65
36137; 46; 61 ; 62
Fiber glass
Xn
38; 40
35137
Trichlorethylene (Tri)
T
53;45;61
Nicotine
T+; N
25; 27; 51/53
36137; 45; 61
Hydrogen
F+
45; 36138; 52153; 67 12
9; 16; 33
II As per Art. 1a of the Regulation on Hazardous Materials applicable in Germany since 31 October 2005 2l Cf. R-phrases on page 199, 5-phrases on page 200, Safety signs o n page 342; the slash Vl between the number indicates a combination of A-phrases or S-phrases.
M aterial characteristics of hazardous gases Gas
Density ratio to air
Ignition temperature 305"C
lower I Upper ignition limit vol.-% gas in air
With a pressure Pe > 2 bar self-disintegration and explosion Loss of breath; danger of suffocation Narcotic effect; suffocating effect
Acetylene
0.91
Argon Buta ne
1.38 2.11
incombustible 365"C
-
-
1.5
8.5
Carbon dim
1.53
incombustible
-
-
Uquid C02 and dry ice lead to serious frostbvte
Carbon monoxide
0.97
605"C
12.5
74
Potent blood poison; damage to vision, lungs, liver, kidneys and hearing
Hydrogen
0.07
57o•c
4
75.6
Spontaneous combustion with high escaping speeds; forms explosive mixtures with a ir, 0 2 andCI
Nitrogen
0.97
incombustible
-
-
lose of breath in enclosed spaces; danger of suffocation
Oxygen
1.1
incombustible
-
-
Greases and oils react with oxygen explosively; fire-promoting gas
Propane
1.55
2.1
9.5
470"C
1.5
Additional information
82
loss of breath; liquid propane causes damage to s kin and eves
199
Material science: 4.14 Hazardous materials
Hazardous substances, R-phrases* Hazardous substances adversely affect the safety and health of humans and endanger the environment. They must be specially labeled (see page 342). The following R PhrasesII are standard phrases and point out the special risks when handling a hazardous substance. Special safety data sheets for each hazardous substance contain further extensive information.
R·Phrases: Notes on special risks , Meaning
..
_.,
cf. RL 6715481EWG 2l (2004-04) ~
MHnin9
R1
Explosive when dry
R34
R2
Risk of explosion by shock. friction, fire, or other sources of ignition
R35
Causes severe burns
R36
Irritating to the eyes
Extreme risk of explosion by shock. frictlon. fire, or other sources of ignition
R37
Irritating to respiratory system
R38
Irritating to the skin
R39
Danger of very serious irreversible effects
R3 R4
Forms very sensitive explosive metallic compounds
R5
Heating may cause an explosion
R6
Explosive with or without contact with air
R7
May cause fire
RB
Conl8ct with combustible material may cause fire
Causes bums
R40
Limited evidence of a carcinogenic effect
R41
Risk of serious damage to eves
R42
May cause sensitization by inhalation
R43
May cause sensitization by skin contact
R44
Risk of explosion if heated under confinement May cause cancer
R 10
Flammable
R45
R 11
Highly flammable
R46
May cause heritable genetic damage
Extremely flammable
R48
Danger of serious damage to health by prolonged exposure
R 12 R 13
Extremely flammable liquid gas
R 14
Reacts violently with water
R 15
Contact with water liberates extremely flammable gases
R 16
Explosive when mixed with oxidizing substances
R49
May cause cancer by inhalation
R50
Very toxic to aquatic organisms
R 51
Toxic to aquatic organisms
R52
Harmful to aquatic organisms
R53
May cause long-term adverse effects in the aquatic environment
R 17
Spontaneously flammable in air R54
Toxic to flora (plants)
R 18
In use, may form flammable/explosive vapor-air mixture
R55
Toxic to fauna (animals)
R 19
May form explosive peroxides
R56
Toxic to soil organisms
R20
Harmful by inhalation
R57
Toxic to bees
R21
Harmful in conl8ct with skin
R58
May cause long-term adverse effects in the environment
R22
Harmful if swallowed
R59
Dangerous to the ozone layer
R23
Toxic by inhalation
R60
May impair fertility
R24
Toxic in contact with skin
R25
Toxic if swallowed
R26
Very toxic by inhalation
R27
Very toxic in contact with skin
R28
Very toxic if swallowed
R29
Contact with water liberates toxic gases
R30
Can become highly flammable in use
R31
Contact with acids liberates toxic gases
R32
Contact with acids liberates very toxic gases
R33
Danger of cumulative effects
R61
May cause harm to the unborn child
R62
Possible risk of impaired fertility
R63
Possible risk of harm to the unborn child
R64
May cause harm to breastfed babies
R65
Harmful: May cause lung damage if swallowed
R66
Repeated exposure may cause skin dryness or cracking
R67
Vapors m ay cause drowsiness and dizziness Possible irreversible damage
R68 II R ~ Risk 3)
21 EU-Directive. Appendix Ill
Combinations of the risk phrases are possible; e.g. R 23/24: Toxic by inhalation and in contact with skin
*) Aocording to European Standards
200
Material science: 4.14 Hazardous materials
Hazardous substances, S-Phrases* The following standardized recommended safety measures IS phrases) 11are to be followed while handling hazardous substances and preparations. By complying with them dangers can be avoided or reduced.
S lsafetyl phrases: Recommended Safety Measures Sptv-'l
Meaning
Sptv-'1
ct. RL 671548/t:WG 2' (2004-041 Meaning
S1
Keep lod
S39
Wear eye/face protection
S2
Keep out of the reach of children
S 40
S3
Keep in a cool place
To dean the floor and all objects contam. by this material, use ... (to be specif. by the manufacturer)
S4
Keep away from living quarters
S 41
Keep contems under •.. (appropriate liquid to be specified by the manufacturer)
In case of fire and/or explosions do not breathe fumes
S 42
During fumigatlol1/spraylng wear suitable respiratory equipment (appropriate WO«
S43
In case of fire, use ... (indicate in the space the precise type of fire-fighting equipment if water increases risk, add: 'Never use water')
S45
Keep away from food, drink and animal feeding stuffs
In case of accident or if you feel unwell. seek medical advice immediately (show the label where possible)
S 46
S 14
Keep away from ... (incompatible materials to be indicated by the manufacrurer)
If swallowed, seek medical advice immediately and show this container or label
S47
s 15 s 16 s 17
Keep away from heat
Keep at temperature not exceeding ... (To be specified by the manufacturer)
S48
Keep wet with ... (appropriat e material to be specified by the manufacturer)
ss S6
Keep contents under ••. (appropriate I inert gas to be specified by the manufacturer)
S7
Keep container tightly closed
sa
Keep container dry
S9
s 12 s 13
Keep container in a well-ventilated place
Do not keep the container sealed
Keep away from sources of ignit ion- no smolcing Keep away from combustible materials
s 18
Handle and open container with care
S49
Keep only in the original container
S20
When using do not eat or drink
sso
Do not mix with ... (to be specified
S21
When using do not smoke
S22
Do not breathe dust
S23
Do not breathe gas/fumes/vapor/spray (appropriate wording to be specified by the manufacturer)
S24
Avoid contact with skin
•c
by the manufacturer) S51
Use only in well-ventilated areas
S52
Not recommended for interior use on large surface areas
S53
Avoid exposures-41, obtain special insttUCiions before use
S25
Avoid contact with eyes
S56
S26
In case of contact with eyes, rinse immediately with plenty of water and seek medical advice
Dispose of this material and its container at hazardous or special waste collection point
S57
S27
Take off immediately all contaminated clothing
Use appropriate container to avoid51 environmental contamination
S59
S28
After contact with skin, wash immediately with plenty of ... (to be specified by the manufacturer)
Refer to manufacturer/Supplier for information on recovery/recyCling
Do not empty into drains
SilO
S29
This material and its container must be disposed of as hazardous waste
S61
Avoid release to the environment. Refer to special instructions/Safety data sheets
S62
If swallowed, do not induce vomiting: seek medical advice immediately and show this container or label
S63
In case of accident by inhalation: move victim to fresh air and keep at rest
S64
If swallowed, rinse mouth with water (only if the
S30
Never add water to this product
S33
Take precautionary measures against static discharges
S35
This material and its container must be disposed of in a safe way
S36
Wear suitable protective clothing
S37
Wear suitable gloves
S 38
In case of insufficient ventilation, wear suitable respiratory equipment
II 31 41 •)
person is conscious)
S = safety 21 EU- Directive, Appendix N Combinations of the S phrases are possible; e. g. S 20/21 : when using do not eat. drink or smoke. 51 Contamination. infestation i. e. d o not expose yourself t o t his hazard According to European Standards
Table of Contents
201
5 Machine elements
--
iF·---·3l
5.1
Threads (overview) ..................... . ... Metric ISO threads .................... . .... Whitworth threads, Pipe threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . Trapezoidal and buttress threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . Thread tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
202 204 206 207 208
5.2
Bolts and screws (overview) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Designations, strength ...... ....... . ...... .. Hexagon head bolts & screws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Other bolts & screws ... ..... .... ... ........ Screw joint calculations ..................... Locking fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Widths across flats, Bolt and screw drive systems
209 210 212
215 221 222
223
5.3
Countersinks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 Countersinks for countersunk head screws . . . . 224 Counterbores for cap screws . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . 225
5.4
Nuts (overview) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Designations, Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hexagon nuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Other nuts .... ..... .. . ................. ...
226 227
228 231
5.5
Washers (overview) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Flat washers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . • . . . . 234 HV, Oevis pin, Conical spring washers .... ...... 235
5.6
Pins and clevis pins (overview) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 Dowel pins, Taper pins, Spring pins . . . . • . . . . . 237 Grooved pins, Grooved drive studs, Clevis pins . 238
5.7
Shaft-hub connections Tapered and feather keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Parallel and woodruff keys .... . ........... .. Splined shafts, Blind rivets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tool tapers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
_ _...)
(..__
239 240 241 242
5.8
Springs, components of jigs and tools Springs .......•......•... .... ... ..........244 Drill bushings ... .. ....... .... .. ........... 247 Standard stamping parts .. . . ................ 251
5.9
O..ive elements Belts ....................... ... ... .... .... Gears .............................. ..... . Transmission ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Speed graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
253 256 259 260
5.10 Bearings Plain bearings (overview) .............. ..... Plain bearing bushings .... ............ ..... Antifriction bearing.s (overview) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Types of roller bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Retaining rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sealing elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lubricating oils ...................... .... .. Lubricating greases ........................
261 262 263 265 269
270 271 272
202
Machine elements: 5.1 Threads
Types of threads. Overview Right-hand threads, single-surt nw...d
.... ...... Code
ThrMcl profile
o.igMtlon
r
f U IN 707 11q9q 11 I
Nomlnelslua
Appllcetion
DIN 14-M08
0.3 to0.9 mm
Clocks, precision mechanisms
DIN 13- M 30
1 to68mm
General purpose (coa rse thread I
DIN 13- M 20 X 1
1to 1000mm
General purpose (fine threadl
DIN 2510-M 36
12to 180 mm
Bolts/screws with anti-fatigue shank
DIN 158- M 30 X 2
6to60 mm
Drain plugs and grease nipples
M
DIN 158-M 30 x 2 keg
6to60mm
Drain plugs and grease nipples
D
G
DIN ISO 228-G1 112 (internal) 1 DIN ISO 228-G 112A (external) 1s to 6 inches
Parallel pipe threads (internal threads)
~
Rp
Taper pipe threads (external threads)
Qt-·~16
M etric ISO trapezoidal threads
D
neme I• Metric threads ISO threads
Metric threads with largo clearance i Metric straight internal threads
II
M
60°
Metric taper external threads
Pipe threads, straight
Buttress threads
Knuckle threads
Tapping screw threads
iiZ
•• &
DIN 2999- Rp 1l2 DIN 3658- Rp
11s
1/ 16 to
Does not seal on thread
6 inch
'Is to 1 1/z inch
Pipe threads. seals on thread; forthreaded pipe, fittings, screwed pipe joints
DIN 2999-R 11z
1!,
DIN 3658- R 11r1
11s to
Tr
DIN 103- Tr 40 x 7
8to300mm
General purpose as motion screw threads
s
DIN 513-S 48 X 8
10to640mm
General purpose as motion screw threads
DIN 405- Rd 40 x 116
8to200mm
General purpose
DIN 20400-Rd 40 X 5
10to300mm
Knuckle threads witt large thread overlap
ISO 1478-ST 3,.5
1.5to 9.5mm
For tapping screws
6
to 6 inches
R 1 112 inches
Rd
ST
Designation of left-hand and multiple start tlveads
cf. DIN 150965-1 (1999-11)
Type of thnNid
Explanation
Left-hand threads
The code designation "LH" is placed after the complete M 30 - LH Tr40><7 - LH thread designation ILH = Left-Hand).
Code designation (examples)
Multiple start The lead Ph and the pitch Pfollow the code designation M 16xf\3P1,.5or right-hand. thread and the thread diameter. M 16 x 1'\, 3 P 1,5 (double-start) Multiple start left· " LH" is placed after the thread designation of the multi· M 14x f\,6P2-LHor hand thread pte start.'' M 14 x 1'\, 6 P 2 (triple-start}-LH '' For parts which have right-hand and left-hand threads, "RH" (Right-Hand) is placed after the thread designation of the right·hand thread and "LH" (Left·Hand) after the left-hand thread. The number of starts for multiple-starts is found by: no. of starts = lead PtJ pitch P.
203
ThrHdname Unified National Coarse Thread
UNC
1/ 4
20 UNC - 2A
•
150-UNC·thread with 1/ 4 inch nominal diameter, 20 threadS/inch, Class2A
ARG,AUS, CAN, GBR, IND,JPN, NOR, PAK,
SWE and others
Unified National Fine Thread
UNF
1/.-28
UNC-3A
internal thread
150-UNF threads with 11. inch nominal diameter, 28 threadS/inch, Class3A
ARG,AUS, CAN, GBR, INO,JPN, NOR. PAK,
SWE and others
Unified National Extra Fine Thread
UNEF
1/ 4
32 UNEF -
ISO-UNEF thread with 1/ 4 inch nominal diameter, 32 threadS/inch. Class3A
ARG,AUS, CAN, IND. NOR, PAK.. SWE and others
UNS
1/ 4
27 UNS
UNS threads with inch nominal diameter, 27 threadS/inch
ARG,AUS, CAN, NZL, USA
NPSM threads with 112 inch nominal diameter, 14 threadS/inch
USA, CAN
external thread
p Unified National Special Thread, special diameter/lead combinations Straight Pipe Threads for Mechanical Joints
1/ 4
straight external thread American Standard Taper Pipe Thread
taper internal thread
American Taper Pipe Thread, Fuel
NPT
lfa-18 NPT
NPTthread with% inch nominal diameter, 18 threadS/inch
BRA, CAN, FAA, USA and others
NPTF
1/2-14 NPTF (dryseal)
NPTF threads with 1/ 2 inch nominal diameter, 14 threadS/inch. (dry sealing)
BRA, CAN, USA
Acme
1'1.-4 Acme-
Acme threads w ith 1lf.inch nominal diameter 4 threadS/inch, Class 2G
AUS,CAN, GBR, NZL, USA
Stub Acme
1f2- 20Stub Acme
Stub Acme threads with 1/ 2 inch nominal diameter, 20 threadS/inch
CAN, USA
taper external thread American trapezoidal threads h ~ 0.5 . p
internal thread
American truncated trapezoidal threads h~0 .3· p external thread
cf. Kaufmann, Manfred: •wegweiser zu den Gewindenormen verschiedener Uinder• DIN, Beuth-Verlag 21 Three-letter codes for countries. cf. DIN EN ISO 31~ 1 (2008-06) 1)
203 a
Machine elements: 5. 1 Threads
Imperial Threads Imperial Threads for general purposes p
lnternal l\read
Major diameter Pitch Depth of external thread Depth of internal thread Radius at root Basic pitch 0 Minor 0 of external thread Minor 0 of internal thread Tap hole drill0 Thread angle
,~
~"·~~~ I~
tl
IE'
I~
1:)
~~
t:i..,
external thread
Threads Mljor per inch diamete<
or inches
D inches
6
32
8 10 12
32 24 24 20 18 16 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7
1/4 S(16 318 7 /16 1{1. 9/16 S(8
3/4
718 1 1118 1 1/4 1 318 11{1. 13/4 2
7 6 6 5 4.5
0.1380 0.1640 0.1900 0.2160 0.2500 0.3125 0.3750 0.4375 0.5000 0.5625 0.6250 0.7500 o.8750 1.0000 1.1250 1.2500 1.3750 1.5000 1.7500 2.0000
Pilch
Pilch
p
I""'0.0313 0.0313 0.0417 0.0417 0.0500 O.OS56 0.0625 0.0714 0.0769 0.0833 0.0909 0.1000 0.1111 0.1250 0.1429 0 .1429 0.1667 0.1667 0.2000 0.2222
Minot EX18m81 lnlemal
eli...- !"'--s
d,•O, inchas 0.1177 0.1437 0.1629 0.1889 D.2175 0.2764 0.3344 0.3911 0.4500 0.5084 0.5660 0.6851 D.I!028 0.9168 1.0322 1.1572 1.2668 1.3918 1.6201 1.8557
h3 -
• d- P
so• s • ;. (~;d3r
Exblmol lhrMdo
,
~
inc:Ns
0.1042 0.1302 0.1449 0.1709 0.1959 0.2524 D.3073
0.01920 0.01920 0.02S68 0.02S68 0.03067 0.03411 0.03834
D.3525
D.3602
D.04380
0.4084 0.4633 0.5168 0.6310 0.7427 0.8512 0.9549 1.0799 1.1766 1.3016 1.5119 1.7355
0.4167 0.4723
0.04717 0.05110 0.05576 0.06134 0.06815 0.07668 0.06786 0.06786 0.10225 0.10225 0.12268 0.13630
D.5268
ANSVASME 81.1 (1989)
Threed dl!lCh
ltvD,
0.6418 0.7547 0.8547 0.9704 1.D954 1.1946 1.3196 1.5335 1.7594
·tl>r-
H, inc:Ns 0.01691 0.01691 0.02256 0.022!i6 0.027()6
0.03007 0.03383 0.03866 0.04164 0.04511 0.04921 0.05413 0.06014 0.06766 0.07732 0.07732 0.09021 O.D9021 0.10625 0.12028
- - ,. -1-
Str-
Radius R
Major
Threads
llize
per inch eli...D
0<~
6 8 10 12 1/4 5/16 318 7116 1{1. 9116
518 3/4
718 1 1 1/8 1 1/4 1318 1 1/2
40 36 32 28
28 24 24 20 20 18 18 16 14 12 12 12 12 12
Pik:h
Pitch
p
diameter
,_
inches
ina-
0.1380 0.1640 0.1900 0.2160 02500 0.3125 0.3750 0.4375 0.5000 0.5625 0.6250 0.7500 0.8750 1.0000 1.1250 12500 1.3750 1.5000
0.0250 0.0278 0.0313 0.0357 0.0357 0.0417 0.0417 0.0500 0.0500 0.0556 0.0556 0.0625 0.0714 0.0833 0.0833 0.0833 0.0833 0.0833
0.1218 0.1460 0.1697 0.1928
d, c O,
Minot Exremal
c1J
inches
D.5264
0.1082 0.1309 0.1528 0.1735 D.2075 0.2629 0.3254 0.3780 0.4405 0.4964
0.5689 0.7094 0.8286 0.9459 1.0709 1.1959 1.3209 1.4459
0.5589 0.6756 0.7900 0.9006 1.0258 1.1506 1.2758 1.4006
D.2268
D.2854 0.3479 0.4050 0.4675
0.3299 0.3834 0.4459 0.5024 0.5649
D.6823 OJ9n 0.9098 1.D348 1.1S98 1.2848 1.4096
Drill bit for tap hole DriU size Decimal
inchas 0.0093 0.0142 0.0179 0.0246 0.0324
o.ooeo
0.0532 0.0786 0.1078 0.1438 0.1642 0.2288 0.3382 0.4666 0.6120 0.7713 0.9781 1.1664 1.4179 1.9171
0.0090 0.0103 0.0111 0.0120 0.0131 0.0144 0.0160 0.0180 0.0206 0.0206 0.0241 0.0241 O.D289 0.0321
2.5207
#36 129 #25 116 #7
F S(16
u 27/64 31/64 17(32 21(32 49/64
718
63164 1 7/64 1 7fJ2 1 11fJ2 1 9/16 1 25132
equivel. 0.1065 0.1360 0.1495 0.1770 0.2010 0.2579 0.3125 0.3680 0.4219 0.4843 0.5313 0.6562 0.7656 0.6750 0.9644 1.1093 1.2187 1.3437 1.5625 1.7812
ANSVASME 81.1 (19891
Thread~
Extemlll !"'--s
0, ,_ ,_ 0.1109 0.1339 0.1562 o.1m D.2113 0.2674
·-s incJ>2
0.0045 0.0045 0.0060 0.0060 0.0072
Basic sizes for Unified National Fine Threads IUNFJ No.
-o
0.6134. p H1 • 0.5413 · P R • 0.1443 · P ~ - ~ - d - 0.641l5 . p d:J - d - 1.1904. p o, • d - 1.0825. p
Stress area
Buic sizes for Unified National Coarse Threads tUNC) No. llize
d p
0.0153 0.0170 0.0192 0.0219 0.0219 0.0256 0.0256 0.0307 0.0307 0.0341 0.0341 0.0383 0.0438 0.0511 O.OS11 0.0511 0.0511 0.0511
H, inclws 0.01353 0.01504 0.01691 0.01933 0.01933 0.022!i6 0.02255 0.02706 0.02706 0.03007 0.03007 0.03383 D.03866 0.04511 O.D4511 D.04511 O.D4511 0.04511
Stress Radius
R inchM 0.0036
D.0040 0.0045 0.0052 0.0052 0.0060 0.0060 0.0072 0.0072 0.0080 0.0080 0.0090 0.0103 0.0120 0.0120 0.0120 0.0120 0.0120
"'"s inch'
OriN bit for tap hole Drill size Decimal
equlvat. 0.0103 0.0149 0.0203 0.0262 0.0366 0.0587 0.0686 0.1198 0.1612 0.2046 0.2578 0.3754 0.5127 0.6674 0.8607 1.0785 1.3206 1.5877
133 #29 lf21 #14 I
I Q
25{64
29/64 33/64 37/64 11/ 16 13/16 59/64 1 3/64 1 11/64 1 19/64 1 27/64
0.1130 0.1360 0.1590 0.1620 0.2720 0.2720 0.3320 0.3906 0.4531 0.5156 0.5781 0.6675 0.8125 0.9219 1.0469 1.1719 1.2968 1.4219
203 b
Machine elements: 5.1 Threads
Imperial Threads Basic sizes fUtion.l Pipe Tllpel' (M'T)
ANSVASME 81.20.1 - 1983 IR 19921
Thread depth h3 • 0.8 · P Hight H • 0.865 · P
No. alto
lie
R, ~ Minor 0 external threads Major 0 internal threads Minor 0 internal threads Pitch 0
0.12. p c1J = d - (P+2 · a.,) 04 · d+2·a.: 0 1 • d-P
dz= Oz=d- 0.5-P h:J e H4 • 0.5 · P + Be
w • 0.370 · P- 0.259 ·Be
204
Machine elements: 5.1 Threads
Metric threads and fine threads Metric ISO threads for general purpou epplcadon, basic profiles
;.
p
inte rnal thread
,,,~ :1; ~
il
... 1.,;-
r;:,
c5'c:5"
,;,· ~
exte rnal thre ad
d • D
Major diameter Pitch Depth o f external thread Depth o f inte rna l thread Radius at root Basic pitch 0 Mi nor 0 o f exte rnal thread Minor 0 o f internal thread Tap hole drill 0 Thread a ngle Stress a rea
~
\
cf. DIN 13-19 (1999-111 p h 3 • 0 .6134 • p
H, • 0.5413 · P R · 0.1443 - P ~ • 0, • d - 0.6495 . p d 3 - d - 1.2269 . p d - 1.0825 . p • d- P
o,-
so• s - ;-(~ ; ~r
Basic sizes for coarse threads Series 111 (dimenSIOns in mmt Thrnddeelgnatlon
d:D
Pitch
,.
Pitch 0
dz .. Dz
d,
0,
0.84 1.04 1.38 1.74 2.21 2.68 3.55 4.48 5.35 7.19 9.03 10.86
0.69 0.89 1.17
0.73 0.93 1.22
1.51 1.95 2.39 3.14 4.02 4.77
1.57 2.01 2.46 3.24 4.13 4.92
6.47 8.16 9.85 13.55 16.93 20.32 25.7 1 31.09 36.48 41.87 49.25 56.64
M1 M1.2 M1.6
0.25 0.25 0.35
M2 M2.5 M3 M4 M5 M6 M8 M10 M12
M30 M36 M42
0.4 0.45 0.5 0.7 0.8 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
14.70 18.38 22.05 27.73 33.40 39.08
M48 M56 M64
5 5.5 6
44.75 52.43 60.10
M 16 M20 M24
Min« 0 ext8mlll inWnel thrMda thrNda
ct. DIN 13-1 (1999-1 11
Threed dlpth ext8mlll thrMda
,.,
inWnel Rounded thrNda root
s-
Thl'1!8d
Pltch0
dz=Dz
M 2 X 0.25 M3><0.25 M4><0.2
1.64 2.84 3.87
M 4 X 0.35 M 5x 0.25 M 5><0.5 M6x0.25 M6><0.5 M6><0.75 M8>< 0.25 M8><0.5 M8x 1
3.77 4.84 4.68 5.84 5.68 5.51 7.84 7.68 7.35
R
0.14 0.14 0.19 0.22 0.24 0.27 0.38 0.43 0.54 0.68 0.81 0.95
0.04 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.10 0.12 0.14
0.46 0.73 1.27
0.75 0.95 1.25
2.07 3.39 5.03 8.78 14.2 20.1
1.6 2.05 2.5 3.3 4.2 5.0
6.65 8.38 10.11
0.15 0.15 0.22 0.25 0.28 0.31 0.43 0.49 0.61 0.77 0.92 1.07
0.18 0.22 0.25
36.6 58.0 84.3
13.84 17.29 20.75 26.21 31.67 37.13 42.59 50.05 57.51
1.23 1.53 1.84 2.15 2.45 2.76 3. 07 3.37 3.68
1.08 1.35 1.62
0.29 0.36 0.43 0.51 0.58 0.65 0.72 0.79 0.87
1.89 2.17 2.44 2.71 2.98 3.25
Threed
Min«0 Pltdl0 Mln!l" 0 at. th. int. th. at. th. int. th. delignetlon dx P o, d, dz=Dz d, 0, 1.69 1.73 M 10><0.25 9.84 9.69 9.73 M10 >< 0.5 2.69 2.73 9.68 9.39 9.46 3.76 3.78 M 10 >< 1 9.35 8.77 8.92 M 12 ~<' 0.35 11.77 11.57 11.62 3.57 3.62 4.69 4.73 M 12 x 0.5 11.68 11.39 11.46 4.39 4.46 M 12><1 11.35 10.77 10.92 5.69 5.73 M 16 >< 0.5 15.68 15.39 15.46 5.46 M 16 >< 1 5.39 15.35 14.77 14.92 5.08 5.19 M 16 >< 1.5 15.03 14.16 14.38 7.69 M2Qx 1 7.73 19.35 18.77 18.92 7.46 M20 >< 1.5 19.03 18.16 18.38 7.39 6.92 M24><1.5 23.03 22.16 22.38 6.77
11 Series 2 and Series 3 also have intermediate s izes (e. g. M7, M9, M 14). ct. DIN 336 (2003-<171 31 ct. DIN ISO 272 (1979-10)
2!
nel wldth
t tp
H,
157 245 353 561 817 1121 1473 2030 2676
Basic sizes for fine threads (dimensions in mmJ dHignatlon dx P
Hexago-
0fw hole 21
mni'
--,....,.
Drll bit
-s
-
-3.2 4 5 5.5 7 8 10
6.8 8.5 10.2
13 16 18
14 17.5 21 26.5 32 37.5
24 30 36 46 55 65 75 85 95
43 50.5 58
ct. DIN 13-2 - 10 (1999-11) Threed delignetlon
Pitch0
dx P
dz=Dz
M24><2 M30>< 1.5 M30 x 2
22.70 29.03 28.70 35.03 34.70 41 .03 40.70 47.03 46.70 55.03 54.70 62.70
M 36 X 1.5 M36x2 M42 X 1.5 M42><2 M48 X 1.5 M48x2 M 56 X 1.5 M56><2 M64 x 2
Mlncw0 ext. th. int. th. d,
o,
21.55 28.16 27.55 34.16 33.55 40.16
21.84 28.38 27.84 34.38 33.84 40.38
39.55 46.16 45.55
39.84 46.38 45.84
54.16 53.55 61.55
54.38 53.84 61.84
205
Machine elements: 5. 1 Threads
Metric taper threads
..
Metric t aper ext.NI and mating internal straight screw threads (standard design )11
p
~
.,
..,I, I~
~
T
I:Q
...,_ _tf' _f. -----plane thread axis
---------
Thrud clmensiona Thned Threed dellgnetlon
dx P M5keg M6keg M8 >< 1keg M 10 X 1 keg M 12 X: 1 keg M 10 >< 1.25 keg M 12 x 1.25 keg M 12>< 1.5keg M 14 x 1.5 keg M 16 '< 1.5keg M 18 x 1.5 keg M 20 x 1.5 keg M22 >< 1.5 keg M24 " 1.5keg M26>< 1.5keg M 30 x 1.5 keg M 36 >< 1.5keg M 38 >< 1.5 keg M42 "1 1.5keg M 45 x 1.5 keg M48 >< 1.5keg M 52 x 1.5 keg M27><2 keg M30><2keg M 33 >< 2 keg M36 ><2keg M39><2keg M42 ><2keg M45 ><2 keg M 48 x 2 keg M52><2 keg M56><2keg M 60 >< 2keg
=>
v
··~
o,
-
,,
5
0.52
5.5
L
I•
..!!..
ins.p ection plane
Pitch0 Minor0 Height Thread depth reference Root radius plane
>;;
0.66
[)Is.. ~
•
2
2.5
7
0 .82
3
8.5
0.98
3.5
1.01
4.5
12
1.32
5
13
1.34
6
~ - d-1.23 . p H1 •0.866· P ~ - 0.613 - P
R • 0.144 · P
inspection
Thned clmenalona
daO'l dz• Dz 11 5 6 8 10 12 10 12 12 14 16 18 20 22
10.5
cJ, - d - 0.650 . p
~ pla11e
DlmenUons in ,.,__plene T'hr..t cMpdl 1!, max.
length
Thread dimensions of e xt...,..l threads
'I
L
-c; '
cf. DIN 158·1 (1997.()61
24 26 30 36 38 42 45 48 52 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 48 52 56 60
4.48 5.35 7.35 9.35 11.35 9.19 11.19 11.03 13.03 15.03 17.03 19.03 21.03 23.03 25.03 29.03 35.03 37.03 41 .03 44.03 47.03 51 .03 25.70 28.70 31.70 34.70 37.70 40.70 43.70 46.70 50.70 54.70 58.70
Dimensions in inllpection plene [)Is.. ~
Thread dirNnsl-
4J
b
d'
d '2
d 's
4.02
2.8
5.05 6.06 8.06 10.06 12.06 10.13 12.13 12.19 14.19 16.19 18.19 20.19 22.19 24.19 26.19 30.19 36.22 38.22 42.22 45.22 48.22 52.22 27.25 30.25 33.25 36.25 39.25 42.25 45.25 48.25 52.25 56.25 60.25
4.5 5.4 7.4 9.4 11.4 9.3 11.3 11.2 13.2 15.2 17.2 19.2 21.2 23.2 25.2 29.2 35.2 37.2 41 .2 44.2 47.2 51.2 25.9 28.9 31.9 34.9 37.9 40.9 43.9 46.9 50.9 54.9 58.9
4.07 4.84 6.84 8.84 10.84 8.59 10.59 10.35 12.35 14.35 16.35 18.35 20.35 22.35 24.35 28.35 34.38 36.38 40.38 43.38 46.38 50.38 24.80 27.80 30.80 33.80 36.80 39.80 42.80 45.80 49.80 53.80 57.80
4.n 6.n 8.n 1o.n 8.47 10.47 10.16 12.16 14.16 16.16 18.16 20.16 22.16 24.16 28.16 34.16 36.16 40.16 43.16 46.16 50.16 24.55 27.55 30.55 33.55 36.55 39.55 42.55 45.55 49.55 53.55 57.55
3.5
5
6.5
8
9
10
Threads DIN 158 - M 30 x2 keg: Metric taper external threads, d = 30 mm. P = 2 mm, standard design
II For self-sealing joints (e.g. Drain plugs. grease nipples). For larger nominal diameters it is recommended to use a joint compound to seal in the threads. 3 > Dz Basic pitch diameter of internal thread 21 D Basic major diameter of internal thread
206
Machine elements: 5.1 Threads
Whitworth threads, Pipe threads Whitworth threads
(not standardized) Major diamete r Minor diameter
~///P/.fi~ lntemal
~V: ~ ..... ..,
rS-
'l. thread
~~~'l'/B~ ~~ ~~~ ':.L
-~
c:l
<::1
s/,s"
lfe• 1 /z"
%"
3,4.
7/s" 1'
4.72 6.13 7.49 9.99
5.54 7.03 8 .51 11.35
20 18 16 12
0.81 0.90 1.02 1.36
17.5 29.5 44.1 78.4
15.88 19.05 22.23 25.40
12.92 15.80 18.61 21 .34
14.40 17.42 20.42 23.37
11 10 9 8
1.48 1.63 1.81 2.03
131 196 272 358
55" Pitch nv..dt 11vud Cote 0 ::. depth Hdlon dz=Oz N It, • ~
mma
2"
27.10 32.68 37.95 43.57
29.43 35.39 41 .20 47.19
7 6 5 4.5
2.32 2.71 3.25 3.61
577 839 1 131 1491
2'/•' 2 112' 3' 3 1/z'
57.15 63.50 76.20 88.90
49.02 55.37 66.91 78.89
53.09
4 4 3.5 3.25
4.07 4.07 4.65 5.00
1886 2408 3516 4888
,3,.·
59.44 72.56 83.89
cf. DIN ISO 228-1 (2003-05), DIN EN 10226-1 (2004-10) Pipe ttveads DIN EN 10226-1 sealed by threads; straight internal threads. taper external threads
Pipe t hreads DIN ISO 228-1 for joints not sealed by threads; straight internal and external threads inrernal- 'l~ thread
r-:::
N
31.75 38.10 44.45 50.80
1'/• 11/ 2'
Pipe threads
.., "" .;; ..,-
--
h 1 • H1 ~ 0.640 · P R • 0.137· P
ThrMd Pitch ThrMdt Thrud Core deslg- Mejor Mincw 0 ::. depth . : : : , nation 0 0 d d:O ~=0. dz • Dz N It, • ~ rnm2
6.35 7.94 9.53 12.70
25.4 mm
P - -
Dlmenolons In mm for extern.! end lntem81 ttveeds
DlmenUons In mm for .m.mal end intMnlll thrMds
.,..
~ · Dz • d - 0.640 - P
N
Thread depth Radius Thread a ng le
exte rnal thread
ThnNod deslg- Mejor Minor n.tlon 0 0 d d • D ~ = 0.
o, .
Pitch diameter Threads/inch Pitch
~ ~~~~ ~ ~"'""~ ~ ~ c;.;; ..:;
d • D d, . d - 1.28 . p • d - 2 . ,,
~~ ~V//A'\.."V/£
ta
f6l t:l
external thread
"" //./
1~
<::If
tape r external thread
././Nf_A/4.4/..z/.
A
A_~
J ~~...~~ '-~::'--"-. . .''. . f-~-- !-·-t~r~-..J ~!--·-+--c;-J,
~
90°
""
.
~ ~~~ ~
straight / interna l thread cf. American Taper Standard-Pipe Threads NPT: page 203 Thread clesignlltion Dill ISO 228-1 DIN EN10226-1 Externlll and External Internal Internal thnNids threads ttveads
p
55°
~
Pitch Mejor diameter ciametet-
~ ~-~
,..,_
\ _,1 :16 u sable thread length
Pitch
cMmeter
Tlweads per
Profile height
inch
d: O
dz=Dz
~=0.
p
N
h =lt,=~
Usable length of
external threads
"'
G 1/,s G 1/a G'/•
R1/,e R1/ 8 R'J•
Rp 1/,s Rp 1/ 8 Rp'l•
7.723 9.728 13.157
7.142 9.1 47 12.301
6.561 8.566 11.445
0.907 0.907 1.337
28 28 19
0.581 0.581 0.856
6.5 6.5 9.7
G% G'h G3/• G1 G1 1/ 4 Gt 1/z
R% R1/2 3 R /• R1 R1 1/ 4 R1 1/z
Rp% Rp 1/z Rp3/• Apt Rp1 1f. Rp11/ 2
16.662 20.995 26.441
15.806 19.793 25.279
14.950 18.631 24.117
1.337 1.814 1.8 14
19 14 14
0.856 1.162 1.162
10.1 13.2 14.5
33.249 41 .910 47.803
3t.no 40.431 46.324
30.291 38.952 44.845
2.309 2.309 2.309
11 11 11
1.479 1.479 1.479
16.8 19.1 19.1
G2 G2 1/z G3
R2 R2 1/ 2 R3
Rp2 Rp2 1/ 2 Rp3
59.614 75.184 87.884
58.135 73.705 86.405
56.656 72.226 84.926
2.309 2.309 2.309
11 11 11
1.479 1.479 1.479
23.4 26.7 29.8
G4 G5 G6
R4 R5 R6
Rp4 Rp5 Rp6
113.030 138.430 163.830
111.551 136.951 162.351
110.072 135.472 160.872
2.309 2.309 2.309
11 11
1.479 1.479 1.479
35.8 40.1 40.1
ll
207
Machine elements: 5.1 Threads
Trapezoidal and buttress threads Metric ISO trapezoidal screw threads
cf. DIN 103-1 (1977·041
Nominal diameter Single start pitch and multiple start lead Multiple start pitch No. of threads Minor 0 external threads Major 0 internal threads Minor 0 internal threads Pitch0 Thread depth
1-- -- -,------------- - ---. Dimension
For pitch P in mrn 2- 5 6- 12 0.25 0.5 0.125 0.25 0.25 0.5
1.5 0.15 0 .075 0.15
14-44 1 0.5 1
d p
Pn
n
•
Pt. : P
d:J • o• • ~
d - (P+2·8e) d+ 2 . Be • d- P
dz • h:J •
~ · d - 0.5-P
H• • 0.5 · P+ Be
H, . o.s . p
Thread overlap Crest clearance Radius Width of flat Thread angle
Be R 1 and R2 W • 0.366 · P- 0.54 · 8c 300
T'hrMd clrnlltWona in mm
......._0
T'hrMd
c;~
l'tldl
. . th. Int. th.
dz • Dz ., Tr 10 X 2 Tl'"12x 3
9 10.5
Tr 16 x 4 Tr20 X 4
d x I'
0.
7.5 8.5
8 9
10.5 12.5
1.25 1.75
0.60 0.96
Tr 40>< 7 Tr 44x 7
36.5 40.5
32 36
33 37
41 45
4 4
2.29 2.29
14 18
11.5 15.5
12 16
16.5 20.5
2.25 2.25
1.33 1.33
Tr 48x 8 Tr 52 X 8
44 48
39 43
40 44
4.5 4.5
2.66 2.66
Tr24 x 5 Tr28 X 5
21.5 25.5
18.5 22.5
19 23
24.5 28.5
2.75 2.75
1.70 1.70
Tr 60>< 9 Tr 70 X 10
55.5 65
50 59
51 60
49 53 61 71
5 5.5
3.02 3.39
Tr32 Tr36
29 34.5
25 32.5
26 33
33 36.5
3.5 2.0
1.93 0.83
Tr 80 Tr 90
X X
10 12
75 84
69
n
70 78
81 91
5.5 6.5
3.39 4.12
33 31
29 25
30 26
37 37
3.5 5.5
1.93 3.39
Tr 100 Tr 140
X
12 94 14 133
87 124
88 126
101 142
6.5 8
4.12 4.58
X X
6 3
Tr 36 x 6 Tr 36 X 10
X
Metric buttress threads
cf. DIN 513 (1985-041
Nominal thread size Pitch Minor 0 external threads Minor 0 internal threads Pitch 0 external threads Pitch 0 internal threads Axial clearance External thread depth Internal thread depth Radius Crest width on major 0 Thread angle
internal thread
external thread ExtemM threads lnterrwl threads T'hrMd MIMr Threed MiMr l'llrMd designation depth depth 0 0 d x I' H, 0. h:J
.,
Pltd\
0
dz
~ o
d p
d:J -
d - 1.736 . p =d-1.5-P dz • d-0.75 -P ~= d - 0.75 · P+ 3.176 ·a 8=0.1-ff h:J & 0.8678 . p H1 =0.75·P R • 0.124 - P W=0.264 · P 33" ~
Extern8l threads lnterrwl thruds Threed MiMr nw..d Minor Threed deligMdon depth depth 0 0 dx l' H, h:J 0.
.,
S 12 X 3 S 16 X 4
6.79 9.06
2.60 3.47
7.5 10.0
2.25 3.00
9.75 13.00
S20x4 S24x5
13.06 15.32
3.47 4.34
14.0 16.5
3.00 3.75
17.00 20.25
s s s s
S28x5 532 x6
19.32 21.58
4.34 5.21
20.5 23.0
3.75 4.50
S36x6 S40x7
25.59 27.85
5.21 6.07
27.0 29.5
4.50 5.25
Pltd\
0
dz
44x 7 48x 8
31.85 34.12
6.07 6.94
33.5 36
5.25 6.00
38.75 42.00
38.11 44.38
6.94 7.81
40 46.5
6.00 6.75
46.00 53.25
24.25 27.50
s s
52x 8 60x 9 70x 10 SOx 10
52.64 62.64
8.68 8.68
55 65
7.50 7.50
62.50 72.50
31.50 34.75
$ 90 X 12 $100 X 12
69.17 79.17
10.41 10.41
72 82
9.00 9.00
81.00 91.00
208
Machine elements: 5.1 Th reads
Thread tolerances Tolerence classes for metric ISO threads
cf. DIN ISO 965-1 (1999-1 1)
Screw thread tolerances are to ensure the function nv..d tell«.,_ lntemel thrMd8 Extemel ttwNda and interchangeability of Internal and external l - - - - - - - - 1-p-it_ch_a_n_d_m_i_n_or--1-p-it_c_h_a_n_d_m_a_jo-r--1 threads. They are dependent on the diameter toler· Applies to diameters diameters anoes set in this standard and on the precision of 1 - - - - - - - - 1- - - - - - - + - - - - - - - 1 the p itch and the thread angle. Labeled by upper case letters lower case letters The tolerance class (fine, medium and ooarse) is 1 - - - - - - - - 1- - - - - - - + - - - - - --1 a lso dependent on the surface finish of the Tolerance class 5H 6g threads. Thick electroplated protective coatings (eKample) require more clearance (e.g. Tolerance Class 6G) 1-li :..o_le_ra_.:_nce_g_r_a_d_e_-1_------+----- --1 than bright or phosphatized surfaces (Tolerance (size of tolerance) 5 6 Class 5H). Tolerance tone H g (position of zero line) M1 2 x 1 - 5g 6g M12 - 6g IVI24 - 6G/6e
External fine threads, nomlnal0 12 mm, pitch 1 mm; 5g- Tolerance class for pitch 0; 6g - Tolerance class for major 0
-
M16
External coarse threads, nominal 0 12 mm; 6g - Tolerance class for pitch and major 0 Thread fit for coarse threads, nominal 0 24 mm, 6G - Tolerance class of the Internal threads, 6e - Tolerance class of the external threads Tolerance class medium 6Hi6g applies to threads without tolerance indication
Tolerance Class 6H/6g is assigned to the "medium• (general purpose) tolerance class and "normal" engagement length in DIN ISO 965-1 (see table below). L
L
·~ ·~
e e
Internal threads, tolerance zone location H
External threads, tolerance zone location g
Umits for external and internal threads (selection)
cf. DIN ISO 965-2 (1999-11)
Internal thrMd8 - Tolerence eta. 6H Threads
Major 0 0
Pitch0
~
Minor0 0,
Extanal thrMd8- T~ eta. 6g
Major0 d
Pitch0 ~
Minor0 11
da
min.
min.
max.
min.
max.
max.
min.
max.
min.
max.
min.
3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
2.675 3.545 4.480 5.350
2.n5 3.663 4.605 5.500
2.459 3.242 4.134 4.917
2.599 3.422 4.334 5.135
2.980 3.978 4.976 5.974
2.874 3.838 4.826 5.794
2.655 3.523 4.456 5.324
2.580 3.433 4.361 5.212
2.367 3.119 3.995 4.747
2.273 3.002 3.869 4.596
M8 M8 x 1 M10 M10X1
8.0 8.0 10.0 10.0
7.188 7.350 9.026 9.350
7.348 7.500 9.206 9.500
6.647 6.917 8.376 8.917
6.912 7.t53 8.676 9.153
7.972 7.974 9.968 9.974
7.760 7.794 9.732 9.794
7.160 7.324 8.994 9.324
7.042 7.212 8.862 9.212
6.438 6.747 8.128 8.747
6.272 6.596 7.938 8.596
M12 M12 X 1.5 M16 M16 X 1.5
12.0 12.0 16.0 16.0
10.863 11.026 14.701 15.026
11.063 11.216 14.913 15.216
10.106 10.376 13.385 14.376
10.441 10.676 14.210 14.676
11.966 11.968 15.962 15.968
11.701 11.732 15.682 15.732
10.829 10.994 14.663 14.994
10.679 10.854 14.503 14.854
9.819 10.128 13.508 14.128
9.602 9.930 13.271 13.930
M20 M20 X 1.5 M24 M24 X 2
20.0 20.0 24.0 24.0
18.376 19.026 22.051 22.701
18.600 19.216 22.316 22.925
17.294 18.376 20.752 21 .835
17.744 18.676 21.252 22.210
19.958 19.968 23.952 23.962
19.623 19.732 23.5n 23.682
18.334 18.994 22.003 22.663
18.164 18.854 21.803 22.493
16.891 18.128 20.271 21 .508
16.625 18.930 19.955 21.261
M30 M30 x 2 M36 M36 x 3
30.0 30.0 36.0 36.0
27.727 28.701 33.402 34.051
28.007 28.925 33.702 34.316
26.211 27.835 31.670 32.752
26.n1 28.210 32.270 33.252
29.947 29.962 35.940 35.952
29.522 29.682 35.465 35.577
27.674 28.663 33.342 34.003
27.462 28.493 33.118 33.803
25.653 27.508 31.033 32.271
25.306 27.261 30.655 31.955
M3 M4 M5 M6
H
cf. DIN 13-20 (2000-08) and DIN 13-21 (2005-{)8)
Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screws
209
The most commonly used bolts/screws in machine, equipment and automotive Industry Fully threAded type: fatigue strength
Partly threaded and with coarse threads
ML6-M64
DIN EN IS04014
Fully threaded with fine threads
M1.6-M64
DIN EN IS04017
Partly threaded and with fine threads
M8x1- M64x4
DIN EN 1508765
Fully threaded with line threads
M8x1-M64x4
DIN EN IS08676
With reduced shank
M3-M20
DIN EN ISO 24015
Waisted bolts; lor dynamic toads. no nut retention necessary when proper· ly installed
{f·*H
Fit bolt
M8-M48
OIN609
Fixing position of parts against movement. lit shank transmits trans· verse loads
-lf-·e+
With larg(l( width across Oats
M12- M36
DIN EN 14399-4
High-strength structural bolting assemblies (HV}. with nuts as per OIN EN 14399-4 (page 230)
{)-·Ia-
Fit bolt with large widths across flats
M12- M30
OIN7999
Friction grip (FG) joints, shear/bearing stress connection
With hexagon socket. M1.6-M64 with coarse threads
OINEN IS04762
With hexagon socket. M8x1-M64x4 fine threads
OINEN ISO 21269
With hexagon socket and low head
M3-M24
DIN 7984
Slotted
M1.6-M10
OINEN ISO 1207
Slotted
M 1.6-M10
DIN EN IS02009
With hexagon socket
M3-M20
DIN EN ISO 10642
Slotted raised head countersunk
M1.6-M10
DIN EN IS02010
Recessed raised head M1.6-M10 countersunk cross
DIN EN IS07047
Round head screw
DIN IS07049
-fj=+aa-
te·¥3t-·-a·
-~
Etc·
I
¥--++ ~te-a
...
Countersunk head screw
ST2.2- ST6.3
DIN IS07050
Round head countersunk screws
ST2.2-ST9.9
DIN ISO 7051
Compared to coarse threads: smaller thread depth, smaller pitch, higher load capacity, larger minimum engagement depth 10
Machine. equipment and automotfve industry; low space requirements, head sinkable With low-profile heed: small height. low stress Slotted bolts/screws; small screws. low stresses Fine threads: smaller thread depth. capable of higher loads, larger minimum engagement depth /0
Variety of applications in machine. equipment and automotive industry For screws with hexagon socket: greater load capacity For screws with cross r -: Secure tightening and loosening compared to slotted screws
Vehicle body and sheet metal manulacturing. The sheets to be joined have tap holes. The threads are formed by the screw. locking fasteners are only needed lor thin sheets.
21 0
Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screws
•h•f:1& fll~IJ ~"1 1
1:r.m.:.w:rn lllustntlon
l t: lfTilii iliTi1L~'11tl:.t'
Standerd renge
St8nd8rd
Application.~
ST2.2- ST6.3
DIN EN ISO 15481
Round head counter- ST2.2-5T6.3 sunk with crosslreoess
DIN EN ISO 15483
Vehicle body and sheet metal manufacturing drilling screws bore the tap hole while being screwed in and form the threads.
M4-M24 M4-M48 M4-M48
DIN835 DIN939 DIN938
For aluminum alloys For cast iron materials For steel
With dog point and stoned
M1.6-M12
DIN EN 27435
With dog point and hex socket
M1.6-M24
DIN EN ISO 4028
With cone point and stoned
M1.6-M12
DIN EN 27434
Compression loadable screws for securing position of parts. e. g. levers. bearing bushings. hubs Set saews are not suitable for power transmission of torques. e.g. for joining shahs to hubs.
With cone point and hex socket
Mt.6-M24
DIN EN ISO 4027
With flat point and stoned
M1.6-M12
DIN EN 24766
With flat point and hex socket
M1.6-M24
DIN EN ISO 4026
Delign
hom- to
; with tapping threads
Drilling
,.*
·8
Flat head with cross recess
Studs
page
't·f!E·3·
'• '" 2 . d '· .. 1.25 . d '· - 1 - d
Setscrews
page 220
l[·-iB-
-E3~ --·} Drain plugs
page 219
00
Heavy type with hexagon socket or hexagon head
M10x1M52x1.5
DIN908 DIN 910
Gearbox manufacturing; Fill. overflow and drain screws for gear oil; milling of seating surface necessary
Thread forming screws
~
B
Various head forms e.g. hexagon, cheese head
page218 M2-M10
DIN 7500-1
For tow loading in malleable materials. e.g. S235, DC01-DC04, non-ferrous metals; use without locking fastener
Eyebolts
t
n. .;.
..;,
Examples:
page
With coarse threads
11
OtN 580
of bolts and screws Hexsa-ew Drain plug Capsa-ews
I Type
M8-M100x6
Transport eyes on machines and equipment; stress depends on the angle of the applied load. milling of seating surface necessary
Reference standard. e.g. ISO. DIN. EN; Sheet number of the standard H
ct. DIN 962 (2001 -11) ISO 4017 - M 12 x 80 - A2-70 DIN 910 -M2C X 1.5 -St
T-~ -TNominal data. e.g. M ... metric saew thread 12- nominal diameter d 80 -+ shank length I
I Property class. e.g. 8.8. 10.9, A2·70, A4-70 Material. e. g. St steel, CuZn copper-zinc-alloy
Bolts and screws standardized according to ISO. DIN EN or DIN EN ISO have the , ISO , their designation. Bolts and screws standardized according to DIN have the abbreviation DIN in their '"'_"'Y"auu•
211
Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screw s
Property classes. Product grades, Clearance holes, Minimum engagement depth Property dasses of screws and bolts Exam ples:
cf. DIN EN ISO 898-1 (1999· 11). DIN EN ISO 35()6..1 (1998·03) Stainless steels DIN EN ISO 3506-1
Unalloyed and alloy steels DIN EN ISO 898·1
j·~
jrT
I. Ten.U. atrentth R,
Yleld~ R,
Steel mictos1r.
St... group
Tensh strength R,
Rm • 9 . 100 N/mm2 · 900N/mm2
R0 • 9 · 8 · 10N/mm2 • 720N/mm2
A austenitic F ferritic:
2 alloyed with Cr. Ni 4 alloyed with Cr. Ni, Mo
Rm3 70 · 10 N/mm2 • 700 N/mm2
I
I
Propeny c ' - and mMerial properties
$
Material property 5.8 Tens. strength R, in N/mm2
$
R., in N/mm2 Elong. at fr&aure EL in % Yield strength 11
Property classes for bolts and screws made of unalloyed and alloyed steels stainless steels 11 6.8 8.8 9.8 10.9 12.9 A2·50 A4·50 A2·70
500 400
800 640
900 720
1000
1200
500
480
900
1080
210
500 210
10
8
12
10
9
8
20
20
600
Product g rade
.
cf. DIN EN ISO 4759· 1 (200Hl4)
Toleranees
A
fine
B
medium
c
coarse
Explanation, application
Dimensional, form and positional tolerances for bolts and nuts with ISO threads are specified in tolerance grades A, B. C•
Clearance holes for bolts Thread
~
•
d
.... H ~
~~
l
~
cf. DIN EN 20273 (1992·02)
Thread Clearance hole dh 11 Series d fine med. coarse
Clearance hole dh 11 fine
Thread
Series med. coarse
M1 M1 .2
1.1 1.3
1.2 1.4
1.3 1.5
M5
M6
5.3 6.4
M1 .6 M2
1.7 2.2
1.8 2.4
2 2.6
M8 M10
8.4 10.5
9 11
M2.5 M3 M4
2.7 3.2 4.3
2.9 3.4 4.5
3.1 3.6 4.8
M 12 M16 M20
13 17 21
13.5 17.5 22
11
450 13
Material properties apply to threads " M 20.
Product grades for bolts and nuts
~
700
5.5 6.6
d
Clearanoe hole dh11 Series fine med. coarse
M24 M30
25 31
10 12
M36 M42
14.5 18.5 24
M48 M56 M64
58
5.8 7
26
28
33
35
37 43
39 45
42 48
50
52 62 70
56 66 74
66
Tolerance grades for dh; fine series: H12. medium series: H13, coarse series: H14
Minimum engagement depth in blind hole Area of application
I
~
"
~
I
~ I ~ ~ ~ ~i ~ 'Z.. ~ · ~
@)2
~
x .. 3 . P (thread pitch) e1 according to DIN 76, see page 89
M inimum engagement depth /0 11 for coarse threads and property class 3.6, 4.6 4.8 - 6.8 8.8 10.9
0.8-d
1.2 . d
-
0.8 · d
1.2· d
1.2 . d
-
0.8 - d
1.2· d
1.2 . d
1.2. d
0.8· d
1.2·d
1.0 · d
1.0 . d
Cast iron materials
1.3. d
1.5·d
1.5 . d
-
Copper alloys
1.3 . d
1.3-d
-
Aluminum casting alloys
1.6. d
2.2. d
-
-
AI alloys, age-hardened
0.8-d
1.2-d
1.6 · d
AI alloys, not age-hardened
1.2 -d
1.6. d
-
Plastics
2.5 · d
-
-
11
=1.25 · Engagement depth for coarse threads
R, s 400 N/mm2 Struc. Rm = 400-600 N/mm2 steel R, > 600- 800 N/mm2
Rm > 800 N/mm2
Engagement depth for fine threads /0
-
212
Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screws
8
b from
L to
3.4 9
4.3
10
5.5 11
6 12
7.7 14
8.8 16
11.1 18
14.4 22
17.8 26
12 16
16 20
16 25
20 30
25 40
25 50
30 60
40 80
45 100
Propetly classes
WAf k
125 mm 21 for I • 125-200 mm 31 for 1> 200 mm
5.6, 8.8, 9.8, 10.9, A2· 70, A4-70
18 7.5
24 10
30 12.5
36 15
46 18.7
55 22.5
65 26
75 30
85 35
16.6 20
22 26.2
27.7 33
33.3 39.6
42.8 50.9
51.1 60.8
60 71.3
69.5 82.6
78.7 93.6
30
38
46
M
~
54 60 73
n
~
~
1~
85
97
109
121
137
90 240
110 300
140 360
160 440
180 500
220 500
11 tort <
I
from 10
50 120
65 160
80 200
66
as per ag reement 12. 16. 20, 25. 30, 35- 60, 65, 70, 80, 90- 140, 150, 160, 180, 200- 460, 480, 500 mm
Hexagon head bolt ISO 4014- M10 x 60 - 8.8 :
d= M10,/= 60 m m, propeny class 8.8
dw 8
I
from to
4
3.2 1.1
1.4
5 1.7
2.3 3.4
3.1 4.3
4.1 5.5
4.6 6
5.9 7.7
6.9 8.8
8.9 11 .1
11.6 14.4
14.6 17.8
2 16
4
20
5 25
6 30
8 40
10 50
12 60
16 80
20 100
Propetly classes
from
L 10
5.6, 8.8, 9.8, 10.9, A2-70. A4-70
18 7.5
24 10
30 12.5
36 15
46 18.7
55 22.5
65 26
75 30
85 35
16.6 20
22 26.2
27.7 33
33.3 39.6
42.8 50.9
51.1 60.8
60 71 .3
69.5 82.6
78.7 93.6
25 120
30 200
40 200
50 200
60 200
70 200
80 200
100 200
110 200
1 - - - - - , . . . - - - - , - - -- l Propeny
as per agreement
classes
2, 3. 4, 5, 6, 8. 10, 12, 16, 20. 25. 30, 35 - 60. 65, 70, so. 90-140, 150, 160, 180, 200 mm
=
Hexagon head bolt ISO 4017- M8 x 40 - A4-50: d a MB. I • 40 mm, propeny class A4-50
213
Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screws
x4 13 5.3
16 6.4
36 15
11.6 14.6 16.6 22.5 28.2 33.6 14.4 17.8 20 26.2 33 39.6 22
l
from to
40 80
26
30
38 44
46 18.7
55 22.5
65 26
42.8 50.9
51.1 60 60.8 71 .3
75 30
85 35
69.5 82.6
78.7 93.6
46 52
54 60 73
66 72 85
84 97
96 109
108 121
137
45 50 65 80 100 120 160 200
100 240
120 300
140 360
160 440
200 480
220 500
40, 45, 50. 55, 60, 65, 70, 80, 90-140, 150, 160, 180, 200, 220- 460, 480, 500 mm
Hexagon heed bolt ISO 8765-M20 x 1.5 x 120 - 5.6: d • M20 x 1.5, I • 120 mm, property class 5.6
from to
13 5.3
16 6.4
18 7.5
24 10
30 12.5
16 80
20 25 35 40 100 120 160 200
M36 M42 >C3 x3
x3
x4
46 18.7
55 2.2 .5
65 26
75 30
85 35
42.8 50.9
51.1 60.8
60 71 .3
40 200
40 200
420
x2
x2
36 15
40 200
90
69.5 18.1 82.6 93.6 100 480
Nominal lengths /
16, 20, 25, 30, 35-60, 65, 70, 80, 90-140, 150, 160, 180, 200, 220- 460. 480. 500 mm
Property classes
d s M24>C2: 5.6, 8.8, 10.9, A2-70, A4-70 d = M30>C2- M36>C2: 5.6, 8.8, 10.9, A2-50, A4-50
=
Product grades according to DIN EN ISO 8765
WAF WAF
>C1
11.6 14.6 16.6 22.5 28.2 33.6 14.4 17.8 20 26.2 33 39.6
dw
e
I
M8 X1
120 500
d "' M42>C3: as per agreement
Hexagon heed bolt ISO 8676- M8 x 1,5 x 55- 8.8: d = M8 x 1.5, 1 = 55 mm, property class 8.8
5.5 2 4.4
1 2.8 5.7
8 3.5 6.7
10 4 8.7
13 5.3 11.4
16 6.4 14.4
18 7.5 16.4
24 10 22
30 12.5 27.7
2.6 6
3.5 7.5
4.4 8.7
5.3 10.9
7.1 14.2
8.9 17.6
10.7 19.9
14.5 26.2
18.2 33
b ll l)21
12
14
16
18
22 28
26 32
30 36
38 44
46 52
l
20 30
20 40
25 50
25 60
30 80
40 100
45 120
55 150
65 150
k dw ds
e
from to
20, 25. 30- 65, 70, 75, 80. 90, 100- 130, 140, 150 mm
214
Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screw s
M8
M12 M12 x 1.5
M16 M16 x1.5
M20 M20 x1 .5
M24 M24 x2
M30 MJO x2
M36 M36 x3
M42 M42 x3
M48
x1
M10 M10 x1
13 5.3
16 6.4
18 7.5
24 10
30 12.5
36 15
46 19
55 22
65 26
75 30
9 14.4
17.8
13 19.9
17 26.2
21 33
25 39.6
32 50.9
38 60.8
44
8
7 1.3
50 82.6
bll 1)21
14.5 16.5
17.5 19.5
20.5 22. 5
25 27 32
28.5 30.5 35.5
36.5 41 .5
43
48
49 54
56 61
63 68
38 150
45 150
55 150
65 200
70 200
80 200
85 200
Thread d
WAF k
WAF ~
do k6
M8
,
Jill [ from to
25
80
30 100
32 120
M48 x3
25, 28, 30, 32, 35, 38, 40, 42, 45, 48, 50, 55, 60- 150, 160- 200 mm
Hexagon head bolts with large width across flats
for high-strength structural bolting assemblies (HVI
WAF
WAF k dw
22
27
8 20.1
10 24.9
23.9 23
[ from
35
(0
WAF
e bm~n
k
dw d.b11 e b
"' k
32 13 29.5
36 14 33.3
41 15 38
46 17 42.8
50 19 46.6
60 23 55.9
29.6 28
35
39.6 34
45.2 39
50.9 41
55.4
33
44
66.4 52
95
40 130
45 155
50 165
60 195
70 200
75 200
85 200
21 8 19
27 10 25
34 13 32
36 14 34
41 15 39
46 17 43.5
50 19 47.5
13 22.8 18.5
17 29.6 22
21 37.3 26
23 39.6
28
25 45.2 29.5
28 50.9 32.5
31 55.4 35
40 120
45 160
50 180
55 200
55 200
60 200
65 200
40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65- 180, 185, 190, 195, 200 mm Property classes
Product grade C
-
All bolts: property class 10.9
2 15
Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screws ~1!J i a..'f HM~ l.in}:li.tr.JI ..'t.tU~'
....
' socket heed cap screws with coarse threads
Valid s ta ndard DIN EN ISO
Re places DIN
4762
912
.
...,
"I~ ,I
M2
M2.5
M3
M4
M5
M6
M8
M10
WAF k dt
1.5 1.6 3
1.5 2 3.8
2 2.5 4.5
2.5 3 5.5
3 4 7
4 5 8 .5
5 6 10
6 8 13
8 10 16
b fori
--
16 20
17 25
18 25
20
22
32
~ 30
~ 30
24 35
28
~
~
~: 40
~ 45
I, for I
1.1 s 16
1.2 s 16
1.4 s 20
1.5 s 20
2.1 s 25
2.4 s 25
3 s 30
3.8 s 35
4.5 s 40
f
2.5 16
3 20
4 25
5 30
6 40
8 50
10 60
12 80
16 100
from to
Thread d WAF
I,
k
b
dk
I
k
Thread d
Grad e
M1 .6 - M56
A
8.8, 10.9,
by ov·~·"~"'
M12
M16
M20
M24
M30
M36
M42
M48
MS6
10 12 18
14 16 24
17 20 30
19 24 36
22 30 45
27 36 54
32 42 63
36
41 56 84
48
72
b for I
36
44
~55
~ 65
, eo
~ 90
72 84 96 108 124 "' 110 "' 120 "' 140 "' 160 "' 180
I, for I
5.3
s SO
6 s 60
7.5 s 70
9 s 80
10.5 12 s 100 " 110
/ from to
20 120
25 160
30 200
40 200
Nominal lengths I
=
52
60
45 200
45 200
8.8, 10.9,
Property classes
Product grades (page 211)
I ISO 4762 (2004-061
M1 .6
Thread d
PT"operty classes
WAF
cf.
• A4-50
15 13.5 16.5 " 130 " 150 " 160 60 300
70 300 as per a greement
2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 30 - 65,70, 80-150, 160, 180, 200, 220, 240, 260, 280, 300 mm Cap scnw ISO 4762- M10 x 55- 10.9:
d • M10, I • 55 mm , property class 10.9
........"'"'''socket head cap screws, low head
...,
"II· I,
k
I
M3
M4
M5
M6
M8
M10
M12
M16
M20
M24
WAF
2 2 5.5
2.5 2.8 7
3 3.5 8.5
4 4 10
5 5 13
7
6 16
8 7 18
12 9 24
14 11 30
17 13 36
12
14 "' 25
16
18
~ 20
~ 30
~ 30
22 "'35
26 "'40
o.SO
1.5 s 16
2.1 s20
2.4 s25
3 s 25
3.8 s30
4.5
5.3
s 35
s45
5 20
6 25
8 30
10 40
12 80
16 100
20 80
b for/
I,
b
fori
I / from to
~~a: Product grades (page 2111 Thread d
Grade
M3 - M24
A
I (2002·121
Thread d k ~
WAF
80 300
Property classes
=
30
38
44
46
,.so
,.]0
,.go
6
7.5
9
sSO s60 s80 30 80
40 100
so 100
5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100 mm 8.8, A2-70, A4-70 Cap screw DIN 7984- M12 x SO- A2-70:
d • M12,/ a SO mm, propertyclassA2-70
216
Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screws
WAF
k dk
WAF
b for /
x1
x1
6 8 13
8 10 16
19 24 36
12
Nominal lengths/
27 36 54
32 42 63
60
72 84 96 "1 10 o: 120 ;o 140
4.5 4.5 4.5 3 s 40 s 50 s 60 s 70
6 .;70
6 9 9 .; 100 s 110 .; 130
20 100
40 200
28 32 36 44 " 40 ><45 o:55 ;o 65
so
22 30 45
52
.. so , so
20 25 30 120 160 200
45 200
55 200
60 300
so
70 300
300
12, 16, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, SO, 90, 100, 110. 120. 130, 140, 150, 160, 1SO, 200, 220, 240, 260, 2SO, 300 mm as per agreement
dk k
3 1.1
3.8 1.4
4.5 1.8
5.5 2
7 2.6
8.5 3.3
10 3.9
13 5
16 6
n t
0.4 0.5
0.5 0.6
0.6 0.7
0.8 0.9
1.2 1.1
1.2 1.3
1.6 1.6
2 2
2.5 2.4
2 16
3 20
3 25
4 30
5 40
6 50
8 60
so
so
I
from 10
10
12
for I< 45 mm- threads near to head for /:. 45 mm- b • 38mm
b
2. 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12.• 16, 20, 25-45, 50, 60, 70. SO mm
WAF
2 5.5 1.9
2.5 7.5 2.5
3 9.4 3.1
4 11.3 3.7
5 15..2 5
6 19.2 6.2
8 23.1 7.4
10 29 8.8
12 36 10.2
b for I
18 "30
20 ,.30
22 "35
24 "40
,so
28
32 "55
36 "65
,.so
44
52 100
'·
1.5 s 25
2.1 s25
2.4 s30
3 s35
3.8 s 45
4.5 s50
5.3 s60
6 s 70
7.5 s90
8 30
8 40
8 50
8 60
so
10
12 100
20 100
30 100
35 100
da k
0
.,. C)
for I
I
:om
8.8. 10.9. 12.9 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 80, 90, 100 mm Product grade A (page 2111
=
Countersunk head screw ISO 10642 - M5 x 30- 8.8: d = M5, I• 30 mm, property class 8.8
Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screws
217
CF0$5 reCH5* forms
H
Z
Product grade A (page 2111
Slotted flat head countersunk screws Flat head countersunk screws with cross recess
cf. DIN EN ISO 2009 (1994-101 cf. DIN EN ISO 7046-1 (1994-10)
Product grade A (page 2111
Rat head countersunk tapping screws Raised head countersunk tapping screws
Product grade A (page 21 1)
cf. DIN EN ISO 7050 (1990-081 cf. DIN EN ISO 7051 (1990-081
218
Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screws
Tap hole diameter d for tapping screw threads 1
Jh I r::. 11
~
Holes bored or punched in S1eel or copper alloy sheet
sinmm from-to 0 - 0.5 0.6- 0.8 0.9 - 1.1
ST2.2
ST2.9
ST3.5
ST4.2
ST4.8
ST5.5
ST6.3
1.6 1.7 1.8
2.2 2.3 2.4
2.6 2.7 2.8
3.2 3.2
3.7 3.7
4.2
4.9
1.2- 1.4 1.5-1.7 1.8- 2.0
1.8
2.4 2.5 2.6
2.8 2.9 3.0
3.3 3.5 3.5
3.9 3.9 4.0
4.3 4.5 4.6
4.9 5.0 5.2
3.0 3.0
3.5 3,8 3.9
4.0 4.1 4.3
4.6 4.7 5.0
5.3 5 ..3 5.8
2.0 - 2.5 2.6-3.0 3.1-3.5
Thtead d
Form DE: hexagon head bolt WAF
-~ k
WAF
k
DE
I
I
Form EE: hexagon socket head cap bolt WAF
~JJ
I
'TI
Form NE: raised countersunk head bolt with cross
Product grade A (page 211)
dk 6
from to
WAF
k do
EE
I
from to
d,. k f
M2
M2.5
M3
M4
M5
M6
M8
M10
4 1.4
5 1.7
5,5 2
7 2.8
8 3.5
10 4
13 5.3
16 6.4
2.3 3.4
3.1 4.3
4.1 5.5
4.6 6
6 7.7
6.9 11.1
11.6 14.4
14.6 17.8
3 16
4 20
4 25
6
8
8
30
40
50
10 60
12 80
1.5 2 3.8
2 2.5 4.5
2.5 3 5.5
3 4 7
4 5 8.5
5 6 10
6 8 13
8 10 16
3 16
4 20
4 25
6
8
8
30
40
50
10 60
12 80
3.8 1.2 0.4
4.7 1.5 0.5
5.5 1.7 1
8.4 2.7 1.2
9.3 2.7 1.4
11.3 3.3 1.4
15.8 4.7 2
18.3 5 2.3
NE
20 80
Screw DIN 7500- DE - M8 x 25 - St DE Hex head, d = MS. I = 25 mm (material: case hardened and tempered S1eel)
219
Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screws
M3
M4
M5
M6
M8 M8 X1
12 18
14 20
16 22
18 24
22 28
26 32
30 36
3
8 4 5
10 5 6.5
12 6 7.5
16 8 10
20 10 12
20 30
20 40
25
25
50
60
30 80
35 100
Thread d
"'
bfor I < 125 I < 125
e
DtN835 DtN938 DIN939
/ from to
M10 M12 M16 M10 M12 M16 x1.25 x1 .25 x1.5
M20 M20 x1.5
M24 M24 x2
38 44
46 52
54
24 12 15
32 16 20
40 20 25
48 24 30
40 120
50 170
60 200
70 200
60
5.6, 8.8, 10.9
d,
l
t ,
loading directions
110 78
(So
vertical (single line)
M10 x1
M12 x1.5
M16 x1.5
M20
x1.5
M24 x1.5
M30 x1.5
M36 x1 .5
M42 x1.5
M48 x 1.5
M52 x1.5
d, I
14 17 8
17 21 12
21 21 12
25 26 14
29 27 14
36 30 16
42 32 16
49 33 16
55 33 16
60 33
c
3 10 10.9
3 13 14..2
3 17 18.7
4 19 20.9
4 22 23.9
4 24 26.1
4 27 29.6
5 30 33
5 30 33
5 30 33
M10 x1
M12 x1.5
M16 x1.5
M20
x1.5
M24 x1.5
M30 x t .S
M36 x1 .5
M42 x1 .5
M48 x 1.5
M52 x1 .5
14 11
21 15
3
17 15 3
3
25 18 4
29 18 4
36 20 4
42 21 5
49 21 5
55 21 5
60 21 5
5 5 5.7
6 7 6.9
8 7.5 9.2
10 7.5 11.4
12 7.5 13.7
17 9 19.4
19 10.5 21 .7
22 10.5 25.2
24 10.5 27.4
24 10.5 27.4
Thread d
WAF
I
;:!: ... ·-· r-:
~·
~
I'--
"'
WAF e
16
i
(
I
d, I
c WAF
e
-
Screw plug DIN 908- M20 x 1.5 - CuZn: d ~ M24 x 1.5, material: copper-zinc-alloy
220
Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screws
1 2
1.4
with dog point
~ , • ~ :1 Product grade A (page 211)
z., w~
~~
2 8
3 10
3 12
4 16
6 25
8 30
5 35
10 40
12 55
16 60
0.8 1.1
1 1.3
1.5 1.5
2 1.8
2.5 2.3
3.5 2.8
4.3 3.3
5.5 4.3
7 5.3
8.5 6.3
0.3 0.7
0.3 0.8
0.4 1
0.4 1.1
0.6 1.4
0.8 1.6
1 2
1.2 2.5
1.6 3
2 3
2.5 8
3 10
4 12
5 16
6 20
8 25
8 30
10 40
12 50
16 60
0 .8 0 .3 0.7
1 0.3 0.8
1.5 0.4
2 0.4 1.1
2.5 0.6 1.4
3.5 0.8 1.6
4 1 2
5.5 1.2 2.5
7 1.6 3
8.5 2 3.6
2 8
2 10
2.5 12
3 16
4 20
5 25
6 30
8 40
10 50
12 60
Property classes
45H, AH2H, A2· 21H, A3·21H, A4· 21H, AS.21H
Nominal
2. 2.5, 3. 4, 5, 6, 8, 10. 12. 16, 20, 25, 30--50, 55, 60 mm
lengths/
=
with dog point
with flat point
Product grade A (page 211)
Property classes
1.5 1.2
1.7 1.2
2.3 1.5
2.9 2
3 .4 2
4.6 3
5.7 4
6.9 4.8
9.1 6.4
11.4 8
2.5 12
3 16
4 20
5 25
6 30
8 40
10 50
12 60
16 60
20 60
1.5 1.5 1.3
2 1.8 1.5
2.5 2.3 2
3.5 2.8 2.5
4 3.3 3
5.5 4.3 4
7 5.3 5
8.5 6.3 6
12 8.4 8
15 10.4 10
1.5 1.2
1.7 1.2
2.3 1.5
2.9 2
3.4 2
4.6 3
5.7 4
6.9 4.8
9.1 6.4
11.4 8
3 12
4
5 20
6 25
8 30
8 40
20
16
50
12 60
16 60
20 60
1.5 1.3
2 1.5
2.5 2
3.5 2.5
4 3
5.5 4
7 5
8.5 6
12 8
15 10
1.5 1.2
1.7 1.2
2.3 1.5
2.9 2
3.4 2
4.6 3
5.7 4
6.9 4.8
9.2 6.4
11.4 8
2. 5 12
3 16
4 20
5 25
6 30
8 40
10 50
12 60
16 60
20 60
45H, A1·12H, A2·21H, A3·21 H, A4· 21 H, AS.21H 2. 2.5, 3. 4, 5, 6, 8, 10. 12, 16. 20. 25. 30--50. 60 mm
=>
Set screw ISO 4026 - M6 x 25- As.21H: d= M6,/ = 25 mm, AS stainless steel. property class 21H
221
Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screws
Fp preload
Applied force per bolt F121 in kN
Load
F• applied forte F, jo~nt clamp force
F, total bolt toad f, bolt extension f 1 Joilt compression
· Static • dynamic
~a. ::1co ...e-u 11 21
I
5.8, 6.8
2.5 1.6
4 2.5
6.3 4
10 6.3
16 10
25 16
40 25
63 40
M5
M6 M6 M5 M5
M8 M8 M6 M5
M10 M8 M8 M8
M12 M10 M10 M8
M16 M16 M12 M10
M20 M20 M16 M12
M24 M24 M20 M16
MS
8.8 10.9 12.9
M4 M4
It is necessary to check the values of the selected bolts in accordance with VOl Guideline 2230 lor instance. For waisted bohs select next higher applied force level.
Sh• nk bolts Thread
f 31
Preload FpinkN
A,.ll
0.08 36.6
M8 x1
8.8 10.9 12.9
39.2
M10
8.8 10.9 12.9
58.0
M10x1 .25
8.8 10.9 12.9
61 .2
M1 2
M12x1 .5
8.8 10.9 12.9 8.8 10.9 12.9
84.3
88.1
0.12
0.14
0.08
12
17.2 25 ..2 29.5
16.5 24.2 28.3
17.9 26.2 30.7
23.1 ~.,
~~-~
.,.,.,u
...... u
20.3 29.7 34.8 29.5 43.3 50.7 31.5 46.5 54.4
18.8 27.7 32.4
18.1 26.6 31.1
18.8 27.7 32.4
24.8 36.4 42.6
27.3 40. 47.
29.2
27.3 40.2 47
26.2 38.5 45
36 53 61
46 68 80
51 75 88
29.4 43.2 50.6
28.3 41.5 48.6
37 55 64
49 72 84
39.9 58.5 68.5
38.3 61 56.2 90 65.8 105
117 137
54 80 93 87 128 150
87 128 150
96 141 165
194 285 333
214 314 367
117
207 304 355
229 336 394
128
391 557
182
653
430 615 720
433
482
618 721 675
685
43 63 73.9 48.2 70.8 82.7
8.8 10.9 157 12.9
81 119 140
M16x1.5
8.8 10.9 12.9
88 129 151
M20x1.5
8.8 10.9 12.9 8.8 10.9 12.9
Ay.21
18.6 27.1 31.9
M16
M20
~ in N - m
Preload FpinkN
Tightening torque M,in N -m
~~2 ~-ChQv~ere~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~--j~~2 ~--~--~----111~1-U"I~ I I ------,~ --~--~
8.8 10.9 12.9
M8
I
Waisted bolts
Tightening torque
167
245
272
M24
8.8 10.9 12.9
M24x2
8.8 10.9 384 12.9
353
131 186 218 149 212 247 188 268 313 210 300 350
45 43.2 66 63.5 72.3 74.3 75.3 72.4 106 111 130 124 82.2 79 ..2 116 121 141 136 117 121 166 173 194 202
65 96 112 147 216 253 154 2.27 265 297 423 495
138 200 231
320 455 533 512 730 855 545 776
175 250 291 196 280 327
134 190 225 168 238 280 189 268 315
908
80
0.14
0.12
0.12
0.14
12.9 19 22.2 14.6 21.5 25.1
11.8 17.3 20.2 13.4 19.6 23
11.2 16.4 19.2
13.6 20 23.4
17.6 25.8 30.2
19.2 28.2 33
12.7 18.7 21 .9
13.6 20 23.4
17.6 25.8 30.2
19.2 28.2 33
42.4
20.7 30.4 35.6
18.9 27.7 32.4
17.9 26.4 30.8
25 37 43
32 47 55
35 51 60
45.6
22.7 33.5 39.2
20.9 30.6 35.9
19.9 29.2 34.4
27 40
35 51 60
38 56 65
61 .7
30.3 44.6 52.1
27.6 40.6 47.7
26.3 38.6 45.2
43 63 74
60 88 103
65.8
35 52 61
32.6 47.8 56
31 45.7 53.4
48 71 83
58.4 85.8 100 65.5 96.2 113 92 134 157 113 160 188 136 193 225 158 224 263
53.4 78.5 91.8 60.2 88.4 104
51 74.8 87.5 57.4 84-5 99
106 156 182 115 169 197
55 81 95 63 93 108 137 202 236 151 222 260 278
26.6
210
802
743
1~ ~~ 1~ 1~~ 1224
0.08
25.3
1360
262
295
86 123 144 104 148 173 124 177 207 145 207 242
0.14
0.08
46
69 102 119 150 221 258 166 244 285 304 432 505 355
82 117 137 100 142 166
215 306 358 242 345 402
540
508 594
118 188 196
370 527 617
480 682 800
523 745 871
139 198 230
410 582 682
543 775 905
852 998
395 462 322 460
600
During assembly, the bohs are under tensile and torsional Stress. The tightening torque~ utilizes approx. 90% oft he yield strength of the bolt material. 11 As stress area •1 f.J = 0.08: bolt MoS-z lubricated 21 A.. waist cross section f.J a 0.12: boh lightly oiled f.J =0.14: boh secured with microencapsulated plastic 3l F property class of bolt
222
Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screws
locking fasteners A locking fastener is generally not necessary for screw joints which are sufficiently dimensioned and securely mounted. The clamping forces prevent the slipping of the sc~ewed pans or loosening of the bolts and nuts. In practice a loss of clamping force can still occur due to the following causes: • Loosening of the screw joint caused by high surface contact pressures which initiate plastic deformation !so-ailed settling) and reduce the preload of the screw joint. Remedy: As little separation as possible, minimal surface roughness, use of high-strength bolts (large pretoad) .
t
.,.. 0
~ Q.
• Unscrewing of the screw joint For joints dynamically loaded transverse to the bolt axis a fully self-actuated unscrewing can occur. This is remedied with locking elements. These are divided into three groups based on their effective-
ness. Ineffective locking elements (e. g. spring lock washers and tooth lock washers). Captive fasteners, which allow a partial unscrewing, but prevent the screw joint from coming completely apart. load cycles -
Vibt-etion test DIN 65151 performed on verious lodcing elements
Tlveadlocking (e. g. glue or corrugated head screws). The preload remains approximately constant. The nut or bolt cannot loosen by itself (best method of locking).
The locking behavior of screw joints under transverse loading on the bolt is tested ISO 4014-M10.
Ovenriew of lodcing fasteners Joint
Locking element
Standard
Type, property
Loaded together, spring loaded
spring lock washer spring washer tooth lock washer serrated lock washer
withdrawn withdrawn withdrawn withdrawn
ineffactive ineffective ineffective ineffective
Interlocking
lock washer castle nut with cotter pin lock wire
withdrawn DIN 935-1+2
captive fastener captive fastener captive fastener
Force-fit (gripping)
jam nut bolts and nuts with gripping polyamide coating
Blocking (force-fit and interlocking)
Bonded
ineffective, loosening possible DIN267· 28 IS02320
captive fastener or slight anti-rotation lock
bolts with teeth under the head
anti-rotation lock, not suitable for hardened pans
detent edged ring detent washer self-locking pair of washers
anti-rotation lock, not suitable for hardened parts anti-rotation lock
microencapsulated adhesives in threads liquid adhesive
DIN 267-27
anti-rotation lock. sealing joint; temperature range-50-<: to 1so•c anti-rotation lock
223
Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screws
Width across flats, Types of bolt and screw drives Width ec:ross flats for bolts, screws, velves end fittings
·@
I
m m
e , = 1.4142 · s s = 0 .7071 · e,
I I
e 2 = 1.1547 · s
s = 0.8660 . 8 2
I I
@j OJ = 1.0824 • $ s = 0.9239 · OJ
Width across flats IYVAA Nominal size
s
length of diagonal Two Square Hexa· O<:taflats gonal gonal d Bt ~ 9J
d 3.7 4 4.5
e,
~
s
3.2 3.5 4
4.5 4.9 5.7
3.5 3.8 4.4
21 22 23
24 25 26
29.7 31.1 32.5
23.4 24.5 25.6
22.7 23.8 24.9
4.5 5 5.5
5 6 7
6.4 7.1 7.8
4.9 5.5 6.0
24 25 26
28 29 31
33.9 35.5 36.8
26.8 27.9 29.0
26.0 27.0 28.1
6 7 8
7 8 9
as 9.9 11.3
6.6 7.7 8.8
27 28 30
32 33 35
38.2 39.6 42.4
30.1 31.3 33.5
29.1 30.2 32.5
9 10 11
10 12 13
12.7 14.1 15.6
9.9 11.1 12.1
32 34 36
38 40 42
45.3 48.0 50.9
35.7 37.7 40.0
34.6 36.7 39.0
12 13 14
14 15 16
17.0 18.4 19.8
13.3 14.4 15.5
41 46 50
48 52 58
58.0 65.1 70.7
45.6 51.3 55.8
44.4 49.8 54.1
15 16 17
17 18 19
21.2 22.6 24.0
16.6 17.8 18.9
55 60 65
65 70 75
77.8 84.8 91.9
61 .3 67.0 72.6
59.5 64.9 70.3
18 19 20
21 22 23
25.4 26.9 28.3
20.0 21 .1 22.2
70 75 80
82 88 92
99.0 106 113
78.3 83.9 89.6
75.7 81.2 86.6
-
I
d . DIN 475-1 (1984.01)
length of diagonal jwldth 8CtOSS Two Square Hexa· flats(WN-1 flats gonal Nominal size
DIN 475 - WM 16: Width across flats with nominal sizes • 16 mm
Table values as per DIN 475 apply to finished stamped wrought products. bolts, screws, nuts and frttings. Diagonal lengths calculated by the formula e2 • 1.1547 . s are larger than the table values. since they are based on the sharp-edged hexagon. Calculation of regular polygons. page 27.
Screw drive systems Type
$
Properties High torque transmission, no axial foroe required, relatively economical, identical tool for bolt and nut, many variations. tool relatively large
hexagonal head
(f)
* t<. r\
~
tJ
sloned
• • -®
~
Higher torque transmission than with hexagon head
tone drive
Uke hexagon head except the torque transmission is slightly less, requires less space for tool than with hexagon head
hexagon socket
tamper resistant hexagon drive
Type
Very good torque transmission. linle space required for tool
tone drive
Safety screw. can only be loosened with a special tool, especially wellsuited as protection against damage and theft. yet has good torque transmission
Safety screw, can only be loosened with a special tool, especially wellsuited as protection against damage and theft, yet has good torque trans· mission
tamper r8SISiant tOO< drive Inexpensive and popular, but it is diffi· cult to center the tool. low torque transmission, high contact pressure on the loaded driving flats
cross recess Pozidriv
Higher torque than with stoned bolts & screws. bener tool centering, lower contact pressure, available without diagonal notches and also with cross recess Phillips fomn H
224
Machine elements: 5.3 Countersinks
Countersinks for countersunk head screws Countaninb for c:ount8nLw1k-- with 1-..t forma a per ISO 7721 cf. DIN EN ISO 1soe6 12005-051 Replaces DIN 66 Nomlnel sizes
1.6
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
Metric screws
M1.6
M2
M2.5
M3
M3.5
M4 ST4.2
-
ST2.2
-
ST2.9
ST3.5
d , H1 3
1.8
2.4
2.9
3.4
3.9
4.5
d,_min.
3.6
4.4
5.5
6.3
8.2
9.4
dzmax.
3.7
4.5
5.6
6.5
8.4
9.6
r, ..
1.0
1.1
1.4
1.6
2.3
2.6
Nominal sizes
5
5.5
6
8
10
M5
-
-
Metric screws
M6
M8
M10
ST4.8
ST5.5
ST6.3
ST8
ST9.5
Tapping screws
~
Tapping screws
d, H13
5.5
6
6.6
9
11
~min.
10.4
11.5
12.6
17.3
20
~max.
10.7
11.8
12.9
17.6
20.3
r, ..
2.6
2.9
3. 1
4.3
4.7
=
Countersink ISO 1506S-8: Nominal size 8 (metric threads M 8 or tapping screw threads ST8J
Application for.
Graphical representatio n, see page 83;
I~
Slotted flat head countersunk setews Cross recessed flat head countersunk screws Sloned raised head countersunk screws Cross tee. raised head countersunk screws Slotted flat head countl!fSUillc lapping screws Cross rec. flat head counters. tapping screws Slotted raised head countersunk tapping screws Cross tee. raised head counters. tapping screws Cross recessed flat head countersunk tapping setews Cross recessed raised head countersunk tapping setews
1.&
2
2.5
3
4
4.5
5
d1 H13n
1.8
2.4
2.9
3.4
4.5
5
5.5
•
6.6
7.6
9
E
~H13
3.7
4.6
5.7
6.5
8.6
9.5
10.4
12.4
14.4
16.4
u.
r, ~
0.9
1.,
1.4
1.6
2.1
2.3
2.5
2.9
3.3
3.7
Thrud 0
~ Form A and Form F
<
0
=
u.
~
::-==
1H13
FormE
Graphical representation, see page83; Forms B, C and D are no longer standardized
10
12
16
20
22
24
10.5
13
17
21
23
25
~H13
19
24
31
34
37
40
r, ..
5.5
7
9
11.5
12
13
d, H1311
a =>
"'
(/)
Countersink DIN 74- E12: Form E, thread diameter 12 mm DIN7969
Countersunk head bolts for steel structures
3
4
5
I
8
10
12
14
16
20
3.4
4.5
5.5
6.6
9
11
13.5
15.5
17.5
22
~H13
6.9
92
11.5
13.7
18.3
22.7
27.2
31.2
34.0
40.7
r, "'
1.8
2.3
3.0
3.6
4.6
5.9
6.9
7.8
8 ..2
9.4
Thrud0 u. d, H1311 0. .r;
eo• ± 1•
75° :t 1°
~
Applic:ationof FormE for.
.,
DIN 97 and DIN 7997 DIN 95 and DIN 7995
C<>untersunk nat head wood screws Raised head countersunk wood screws
Thread0 w
8
7
Countersink DIN 74 - A4: Form A. thread diameter 4 mm
Applieation of form A for.
E 0
(l
DIN EN ISO 2009 DIN EN ISO 704&-1 DIN EN ISO 2010 DIN EN ISO 7047 DIN ISO 1482 DIN IS07050 DIN ISO 1483 DIN IS07051 ISO 15482 ISO 15483
ct. OtN 74 (2003-()41
Countersinks for countersunk head screws 90°~ 1°
-
= Application of Form Ffor:
Countersink DIN 74- F12: Fo rm F, thread diameter 12 mm Hexagon socket head cou ntersunk screws
DIN EN ISO 10642 (replaces DIN 79911
tl Medium size clearance hole according to DIN EN 20273, page 211
Machine elements: 5.3 Counterbores
hmo• maximum height of the washer component Z allowance based on thread nominal diameter (see table)
'' If values km.. and hm.. are unavailable, values k and h can be used as approximations.
225
M1.6-M64
DIN EN ISO 4032
M8x1- M64K4
DIN EN ISO 8673
M5-M36
DIN EN ISO 4033
M8K1- M36K3
DIN EN ISO 8674
M1.6-M64
DIN EN ISO 4035 Fine threads: higher transmission of Ioree than coarse threads
M8x1-M64x4
~
•
with coarse threads
M3-M36
DIN EN ISO 7040
with fine threads
M8x1-M36x3
DIN EN ISO 10512
with coarse threads
M5-M36
DIN EN ISO n19
with fine threads
M8x1-M36x3
DIN EN ISO 10513
with large width across flats. ooarse threads
M12- M36
DIN EN 14399-4
with flange. coarse threads
M5-M20
weld nuts, coarse threads
M3-M16 M8x1 - M 16x1.5
DIN929
M4-M100 M8x1- M100x4
OIN935
M6-M48 M8x1-M48x3
OIN979
0.6K12- 20K280
DIN EN ISO 1234
coarse or fine threads low form, coarse or
•
Self-locking all-metal nuts with full loading capacity Rne threads: greater transmitted Ioree than for coarse threads
Metal construction: high--strength custom preloaded joints (HV), with hexagon head boits DIN EN 14999-4 (page214)
Might be used with large clearance DIN EN 1661 holes or to reduce contact pressure
fine threads cotter pins
Self-locking nuts with lull loading capacity and non-metallic insert. up to operating temperatures of 120 •c Fine lhre~~ds: greater transmitted Ioree than for coarse threads
Used in sheet metal structures; nuts are usually joined to metal sheets by projection welding
Might be used for axial fixing of bearings, hubs in safely joints (steering area of vehicles) Locking with cotter pin and transverse hole in the bolt. At full load of the bolt. the cotter pin is sheared off above property class 8.8.
227
Machine elements: 5.4 Nuts
~·{t)
t$
Examples:
M4-M36 M8x1-M24x2
DIN 1587
M4-M48 M8x1- M48>C3
DIN 917
MB-M100x6 M20X2M100x4
DIN 582
lock nuts with fine threads
M10x 1M200x1.5
DIN 70852
lock washers
1()..200
DIN 70952
lock nuts with fine threads
M1 0X0.7&M115x2
DIN981
IKM~M231
lock washers
Hexagon nut Castle nut Hexagon nut
I I Type
Reference stan· dard, e.g. ISO, DIN, EN; sheet number of the standard 11
1G-115 IMBG-MB23)
DIN5406
M1-M10
DIN466
M1-M10
DIN467
M6-M30
DIN 1479
Decorative and sealing external joint closures, protection for threads, protection from injuries
For axial positioning, e. g. of hubs, with small mounting heights and low stresses, locking with lock washers
For axial positioning of roller bear· ings, for adjustment of the bearing clearance, e. g. with tapered roller bearings that are locked with lock washers
Used in joints that are opened Irequently, e. g. in manufacturing of jigs and fixtures, in control cabinets
For joining and adjusting, e.g. of th readed and connecting bars, with left·hand and right·hand threads; loc,ked by jam nuts
ISO 4032 - M12 - 8 DIN 929 -M8x1 - St EN 1661 - M1 2 - 10
T Nominal data, e.g. M - metric threads 8 - nominal diameter d 1 - thread pitch P for fine threads
Property class, e. g. 05, 8, 10 Material, e. g.: St steel GT malleable cast iron
,, Nuts standardized according to ISO or DIN EN ISO, have the code ISO in their designation. Nuts standardized according to DIN, have the code DIN in their designation. Nuts standardized according to DIN EN, have the code EN in their designation.
228
Machine element s: 5.4 Nuts
Property classes, hexagon nuts with coarse threads cf. DIN EN 20898-2 (1994·02),
Property claiMS of nuts
DIN EN ISO 3506· 2 (1998-03) Stalnlas st eels DIN EN ISO 3506-2
Unalloyed and alloy steels DIN EN 29898-2
Examples:
nut height m ~ 0.8 • d: nUl height m < 0.8 • d:
nut height m,. 0.8 · ct. nUl height m < 0.8 · d:
8
T
I
Code 8 propeny class 04 low nuts, test load . 4 . 100 N/mm2
A 2- 70
rr~~
I
SIMI~
StMigroup
Code
A austenitic F ferritlc
1 free machining alloys 2 olloyed with Cr. Ni 4 alloyed with Cr. Ni, Mo
70 proof stress. 70. 10 N/mm2 0351ownut, proof stress • 35 . 10 N/mm2
Allowable combinations of nuts and bolts
A
~
Nuts
Propeny class of the nUl
4.8
cf. DIN EN 20898-2 (1994.02)
Usable bolts up to PfOperty cl&ss Unalloyed and alloy Steels SIBinless Steels 5.8 6.8 8.8 9.8 10.9 12.9 A2· 50 I A2·70 I A4-50
I
A4·70
4
•
5 6
allowable combinations of propeny classes for nuts and bolts
8 9 10
~
12 A2· 50 A2-70
~oz;-~-
f~~j·'. V 1
A4~50
( l _9
A4-70 04,05, A2.025, A4.025
~Bolts
Propeny classes for low nuts. The nuts are designed for smaller load capacity. Botts and nU1s of the same material group, e. g. stainless steel, can be combined with each other.
Hexagon nuts with coarse threads, Type 11 Valid standard Replaces Thread d DIN EN ISO OINENI DIN WAF 4032 24032 934 dw
e m
1JII
"'
Propeny classes
M2.5
M3
M4
MS
M6
M8
M1 0
3.2 2.4
4 3.1
5 4.1
5.5 4.6
7 5.9
8 6.9
10 8.9
13 11.6
16 14.6
3.4 1.3
4.3 1.6
5.5 2
6 2.4
7.7 3.2
8.8 4.7
11.1 5.2
14.4 6.8
17.8 8.4
6,8, 10
as per agreement A2·70. A4-70 M 12
M 16
M20
M24
WAF
18 16.6
24 22.5
30 27.7
20 10.8
26.8 14.8
33
39.6 21 .5
dw m
Thread d
M2
Thread d
e Pro duct grades (page 21 1)
ct. DIN EN ISO 4032 (2001.03)
M1.6
Propeny classes
18
M30
M 36
M42
M48
M56
36
46
33.3
42.8
55 51.1
65 60
75 69.5
85 78.7
50.9 25.6
60.8 31
7 1.3 34
82.6 38
93.6 45
6,8, 10 A2-70, A4-70
Grade
M 1.6- M 16
A
M 20- M64
B
Explanation
=
as per agreement A2-50, A4-50
-
II Type 1: Nut height m <: 0.8. d Hexagon nut ISO 4032- M10 -10: d = M10, propeny class 10
229
Machine elements: 5.4 Nuts
8.8 5.1
11.1 5.7
14.4 7.5
17.8 9.3
20 12
26.8 16.4
33 20.3
39.6 23.9
50.9 28.6
60.8 34.7
9,12
x1
w~ "'
m
9
m,1t m21t
13 11.6 14.4 6.8 7.5
x1
x4
16 14.6
18 24 16.6 22.5
30 27.7
36 33.3
46 42.8
55 51.1
65 60
75 69.5
85 78.6
17.8 8.4 9.3
20 10.8 12
33 18 20.3
39.6 21 .5 23.9
50.9 25.6 28.6
60.8 31 34.7
71.3 34
82.6 38
93.6 45
26.8 14.8 16.4
-.:: "'
14.4 4
e
20 6
m
17.8 5
26.8 8
Property classes 11 low hexagon nuts (nut height
m < 0.8 · d) have a smaller load capaci-
ty as type 1 nutS.
Hexagon nut ISO 4035- M16 - A2~: = M16, property class A2-c35
d
230
Machine elements: 5.4 Nuts
M10 M12 x1 x1.5
M16 M20 )(1.5 x1.5
M24
dw
13 11.6
16 14.6
18 16.6
24 22.5
30 27.7
36 33.3
46 42.8
55 51.1
65 60
76 69.5
76.7
6
14.4
17.8 5
20 6
26.8 8
33 10
39.6 12
50.9 15
60.8 18
71 .3 21
82.6 24
93.6 28
X1 WAF
1p ~
~
~ ~
m
4
x4
x2
Property classes
85
as per agreement 11 Low hexagon nuts (nut height m < 0.8 . d) have a smaller load capacity
of type 1 nuts (page 229). claSS6S fo r stainless steels: A2.025, A
7 5.9 7.7
M5
M6
M8 M8 x1
M10 M10 x1
M12 M12 x1.5
M16 M16 x1.5
M20 M20 x1.5
M24 M24 x2
M30 M30 x2
M36 M36 x3
8 8.9 8.8
10 8.9 11.1
13 11.6 14.4
16 14.6 17.8
18 16.6 20
24 22.5 26.8
30 27.7 33
36 33.3 39.6
46 42.8 50.9
55 51.1 60.8
6.8
e
m
23.9 10
19.1
29.6 13
Property ct., surface Explanation
Product grades see DIN EN ISO 4032
50.9 22
55.4 24
66.4 29
->code: tZn 11 for higlrstrenglh structural bolting assemblies (HV) in metal construction. Used in combination with hexagon head bolts as per DIN EN 14399-4 (page 214).
MS
M6
8 9.8 11.8
10 12.2 14.2
8.8 5
11.1 6
33 20
231
Machine elements: 5.4 Nuts
M4
MS
M6
M8 M8 x1
M10 M10 x1
M12 M12 x1 .5
M16 M16 x1.5
M20 M20 x2
M24 M24 x2
7 6.5 3.2
8 7.5 4
10 9.5 5
13 12.5 6.5
16 15 8
18 17 10
24 23 13
30 28 16
36 34 19
7.7 8 5.3
8.8 10 7.2
11.1 12 7.8
14.4 15 10.7
17.8 18 13.3
20 22 16.3
26.8 28 20.6
33.5 34 25.6
40 42 30.5
Thread d WAF
d,
m e h
Pro duct g rad e A o r B by choice of manufacturer
Thread d
] i hub keyway
~
vert ical (single line)
under 45° (double line)
M12 M16 M20 M24 M30 M35 X1.5 x1.5 x1.5 x1 .5 x1 .5 x1.5
M40 x1.5
M48 x1 .5
M55 x1 .5
M60 M65 x 1.5 x1.5
22 18
28 23
32 27
38
44
50
56
65
32
38
43
49
57
75 67
80 71
85 76
6 4.5 1.8
6 5.5 2.3
6 5.5 2.3
7 6.5 2.8
8 8 3.8
8 8 3.8
9 11 4.3
9 11 4.3
24 0.75
29 1
35 1
40 1
48 1.2
59 1.2
67 1.2
79 1.2
83
88
1.2
1.5
1.5
a w
3 4
3 5
4 5
4 6
5 7
5 7
5 8
5 8
6 10
6 10
6 10
,,
4 1.2
5 1.2
5 1.2
6 1.2
7 1.5
7 1.5
8
8
1.5
1.5
10 1.5
10 2
10 2
d, I
w 1 C11
53
232
Machine elements: 5.4 Nuts
·~
.
·:
.tyJt;rr
M4
M5
M6
Thread d
M8
M8 x1
s B
m
M10 M1 0 x1
M12 M12 x1.5
M16 M16 x1.5
M20 M20 x2
M24 M24 x2
M30 M30
16 17.8 12
18 20 15
24 26.8 19
30 33 22
36 39.6 27
46 50.9 33
21 .5 4.5 13
27 .7 4.5 16
33.2 5.5 19
42.7 7 24
d,
n
b
c 8
l
from
to
c1,21 over
to
3 1.6 1.6
3 2 2.5
3..2 2.8 2.5
4 3.6 2.5
5 4.6 2.5
6.4 5.8 3.2
8 7.4 4
10 9.2 4
12.6 11.8 4
16 15 4
6 20
8 25
8 32
10 40
12 50
14 63
18 80
22 100
28 125
36 160
3.5 4.5
4.5 5.5
5.5 7
7 9
9 11
11 14
14 20
20 27
27 39
39 56
6. 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 25, 28, 32. 36, 40, 45, 50, 56, 63, 7 1, 90, 100,112, 125. 140. 160 mm Explanations
=
x2
so.
II d Nominal sizes • coner pin hole diameter 21 d, applicable bolt diameter Cotter pin ISO 1234- 2.5x32 - St: d = 2.5 mm, I= 32 mm, material steel
4 2
5 2.5
5.3 2.5
6.5 3
7.5 3
16 8 3.5
20 10 4
24 12 5
9.5 4
11.5 5
15 6
St(steei), A1-50
18 8
23 10
233
Machine elements: 5.5 Washers
Flat washers, Overview Designation example:
I
I
11
Name
~~-r
I
I
I
I
Standard
Stainless steel, steel group A2
I
-¥1
I
I
Nominal sile (Thread nominal 01
I
Hardness grade
I
M aterial
Overview Illustration
~ ~
t
n
Design Standard range from-to Flat washers with chamfer Producr grade A21 M5-M64
M'l
Standard
Steel, stainless steel
DIN EN ISO 7090
rablebelow Flat washers small series Product grade A2l M1.6-M36
St.eel, stainless steel
DIN EN ISO 7092
Design Standard range from-to
Illustration
\11 • •
Flat washers with chamfer, forHVbolls M12- M30
+::
page 234 Flat washers normal series Product grade C2l M1.6-M64
Steel
DIN EN 14399-6
Steel
DIN434 DIN435
Steel
DIN EN 28738
page 235 Steel
DIN EN ISO 7091
Steel
DIN 7989-1
Plain washers for clevis pins Product grade A21 d · 3-100mm
~ ~
page 234 Washers for steel structures Product grade A21,C21 M10-M30 page 234
Standard
page 235 Washers, square, for channels and !beams M8-M27
~
M il
page235 Conical spring washers for screw joints d;2..J0mm
DIN 6796
Spring steel
page 235
11
Material is steel with corresponding hardness grade (e. g. 200 HV; 300 HVJ; other materials as agreed upon. 21 Product grades are differentiated by tolerance and by manufacturing process.
Aat washers with chamfer. normal series
-m:. ~ ~r-30°to¥ -;;.;
.r--
Hardness grade 200 HV suitable for: • Hexagon bolts and nuts of property classes s 8.8 or s 8 (nut) • Hexagon bolts and nuts made of stainless steel Hardness grade 300 HV suitable for: • Hexagon bolts and nuts of property classes s 10.9 or s 10 (nut)
d . DIN EN ISO 7090 I:Z000.11), replaces for DIN 125·1+2 M5
M6
M8
M10
M 12
M 16
5
6
8
10
12
16
20
d1 m in.11
5.3
6.4
8.4
10.5
13.0
17.0
21.0
dzmax.11
10.0
,
12.0
16.0
20.0
24.0
30.0
37.0
1.6
1.6
2
2.5
3
3
M2.4
M30
M36
M42
M48
M56
M64
Forttv..k Nominal sile
h'l
For1hi'Mdll
M20
24
30
36
42
48
56
64
d 1 min.'l
25.0
31.0
37.0
45.0
52.0
62.0
70.0
dz max, I I
44.0
56.0
66.0
78.0
92.0
105.0
115.0
4
4
5
8
8
10
10
Nominal size
hiI
MaterWZI
-
Type
Stainless steel
s-1
-
A2, A4, Fl , Cl, C4 (ISO 3506)31
300HV 200HV (quenched and 200 HV Hardness grade tempered) Washer ISO 7090-20-200 HV: Nominal sile I• thread nominal 01 = 20 mm, hardness grade 200 HV, steel 11 These are all nominal dimensions 21 Non-ferrous metals and other materials as per agreement Jl Compare to page 211
-
Hardness grade 200 HV suitllble for: • Cap screws with property classes s 8.8 or of stainless steel Cap screws with he.x agon socket and property classes s 8.8 or of stainless steel Hardness grade 300 HV suitable for: • Cap screws with hexagon socket and property classes
" 10.9
1-..:.:.--- - -1-----+----..;;v;-u.r--t--------------j :::;)
Wu!Mr ISO 7092-8-200 HV-A2: Nominal size (• thread nominal (/))~ 8 mm, small series, hardness grade 200 HV, of stainless steel A2
" These are all nominal dimensions 2l Avoid lhis size if at all possible 31
Non-ferrous metals and other materials as per agreement
41 Compare to page 211
Hardness grade 100 HV suitllble for: • Hexagon bolts/screws. product grade C. with property classes s 6.8 • Hexagon nuts, product grade C, with property classes s 6
t-:.:_____-+__::__L_
_J__:_
_L_
_
.~__
_~._ _.J.._ _~...-_"i
Machine elements: 5.5 Washers
h
235
236
Machine elements: 5.6 Pins and clevis pins
Pins and clevis pins, Overview Designation exemple:
Pins with DIN·EN main numbers are designated with ISO numbers. ISO number • DIN-EN number- 20000; example: DIN EN 22338 • ISO 2338 1' if available Illustration
J.:..
..;t~lf"'~
e. g. St • steel Stainless steels: A 1 • austenitic C1 • martensltic
Designation, Standard range from-to
Stan· dard
Dowel pin. not hardened da 1-60 mm
DIN EN ISO 2338
Taper pin d 1 • 0.6-50 mm
DIN EN 22339
Dowel pin, hardened d • 0.8 - 20mm
DIN EN ISO 8734
Spring pin (clamping sleeves). slotted d 1 = 1-50mm
DIN EN ISO 8752 DIN EN ISO 13337
Straight grooved pin with chamfer
DIN EN ISO
DIN EN ISO
d 1 = 1.5-25 mm
8740
Tapered grooved pin d 1 = 1.5-25 mm
8744
Half length reversed taper grooved pin d 1 = 1.5- 25 mm
DIN EN ISO 8741
Half length taper grooved pin d1 = 1.2-25 mm
DIN EN ISO 8745
Center grooved pin, grooved 113 the length d 1 = 1.2-25 mm
DIN EN ISO
Round head grooved pi n cf., a 1.4- 20mm
DIN EN ISO 8746
Center grooved pin, with long grooves d 1 • 1.2-25 mm
DIN EN ISO
8742
8743
Grooved pin with DIN countersunk head EN ISO d1 a 1.4- 20 mm 8747
Clevis pins
FonnA
Clevis pins with· out head. form A without cotter pin hole, form Bwith d · 3 - 100 mm
DIN EN 22340
Clevis pins with head. form A without cotter pin hole, form Bwith d a 3 - 100mm
DIN EN 22341
237
Taper pin ISO 2339-A- 10x 40 - St: Type A. d =10 mm, I = 40 mm, of steel
Spring pins (clamping sleeves), slotted, heavy duty Spring pins (clamping sleeves), slotted. light duty
cf. DIN EN ISO 8752 (1998·03) cf. DIN EN ISO 13337 (1998.02)
from
l ro
Nominal lengths I
4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20. 22. 24, 26. 28. 30, 32, 35, 40, 45-95, 100, 120, 140, 160, 160,200 mm 420 HV 30- 520 HV 30
Materials Application
'' Only one chamfer is allowed for spring pins with nominal diameter d 1 ,. 10 mm.
c
The diameter of the location hole (tolerance class H12) must have the same nominal diameter d 1 as the mating pin. After installing the pin in the smallest receiving hole, the slot should not be completely closed.
Spring pin ISO 8752 - 6 x 30- St cJ, = 6 mm, I= 30 mm, of steel
238
l from to
l from
Tapered groove pin
IS08744
20
30
8 20
8 30
8 30
8 40
10 60
10 60
12 14 18 26 26 80 100 160 200 200
8 20
12 30
12 30
12 40
18 60
18 60
22 26 32 40 45 80 100 160 200 200
8
8
8
8 ~
8 60
8 60
10 12 14 14 24 80 1001W1W1W
5
W 30 30
to
Full length taper grooved pins
ISO 8745 Grooved pins with round head [ from to
ISO 8746
~ iS
Grooved pins with countersunk head
ISO 8747
1
Nominal lengths I
3 6
3 8
3 10
3 12
4 16
w
6 25
8 30
10 40
~
12
3 6
3 8
4 10
4 12
5 16
6 20
8 25
8 30
10 40
~
12
16 40
20 40
~
16 40
20 40
25 40
Pins: 8, 10- 30, 32, 35, 40- 100, 120, 140- 180, 200 mm Studs: 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20. 25, 30, 35.40 mm
Clevis:l~r
~ ,-s=r Clevis pins with head ISO 2341 ~
~
I
Nominal lengths 6, 8, 1()...30, 32. 35, ~- 95. 100, 120. 140- 180, 200 mm 1 Clevis pin ISO 2340 - B- 20 1C 100- St: Form B, d = 20 mm, I• 100 mm, of free-coning steel
~
Nominal lengthsl
2
11 gripping length
16, 20, 25, 30, 35- 125, 130, 1~. 150...190, 200 mm Clevis pin DIN 1445- 12h111C 30 IC 50 - St: d1 = 12 mm, tolerance class h11, / 1 = 30 mm, /2 =50 mm. of 9SMnPb28 !St)
25
239
Machine elements: 5.7 Shaft-hub connections
Keys, Gib-head keys
I
I
Name
I
I Material. e. g . steel
I l Designation, Standard range Standard from- to
lllu61ratlon
Designation, Standard range Standard from- to
lllustmtlon
Overview of tapered keys
table below
Tapered key wxh • 2x2- 100x50
~~
DIN 6886 FormA: sunk key
Gob-head taperad key
[D
I
wxh •
.....1!1~1 I
I
I
Overview of feather keys
page 240
FormA
I ~1
f
I
~
Feather key wxh • 2x2- 100x 50
:kl
OtN6887
4x4-100x50
I
Form B: driving key
I
j
~
OtN 6BB5 FormA-J
Tapered keys. Gib-head tapered keys
Woodruff keys
DIN6888
wxh• 2.5x3.7- 10x16
cf. DIN 6886 (1967-121 or DIN 6887 (1968-041
For shaft diameter d
over
10 12
12
30
38
44
50
58
85
30
38
44
50
58
65
65 75
75
17
17 22
22
to
85
95
95 110
Tapered keys
w010 h
4 4
5 5
6 6
8 7
10 8
12 8
14 9
16 10
18 11
20 12
22 14
25 14
28 16
4.1 7
5.1 8
6.1 10
7.2 11
8.2 12
8.2 12
9.2 14
10.2 16
11.2 18
12.2 20
14.2 22
14.2 22
16.2 25
2.5 1.2
3 1.7
3.5 2.2
4 2.4
5 2.4
5 2.4
5.5 2.9
6 3.4
7 3.4
7.5 3.9
9 4.4
9 4.4
10 5.4
16 70
20
25 110
32 140
40 160
45 180
56 220
63 250
70 280
80 320
Gib-head tapered h, keys hz Shaft keyway depth Hub keyway depth
t, lz
Allow. deviation
t,, tz
Key length 1
from to
+0.2
+0.1 10" 45
12" 56
90
50 200
Nominal lengths I
6, 8 - 20, 22, 25, 28, 32. 40. 45. so. 56, 63, 70, 80-100, 110, 125. 140, 160-200, 220, 250, 280, 320. 360, 400 mm
length tolerances
Key length I, from- to
6-28
32-80
90-400
Tolerances for
Key length
-(1.2
-(1.3
-(1.5
Keyway length (sunk key)
+0.2
+0.3
+0.5
11
Gib-head key lengths from 14 mm
240
Machine elements: 5.7 Shaft-hub connections
Feather keys, Woodruff l
cf. DIN 6885-1 (1968.()8)
FonnC
FonnB
FonnO
FormE
Form F
Toe.- for t..tt..lceyways Shah keyway width w
tight fit normal fit
P9 N9
tight fit normal fit
P9 JS 9
s 22
s 130
> 130
+0.2 +0.2
+0.3 +0.3
+0.1 +0.1 Alllow. deviatio n for length I l.englh for tolerances
s
d, over to
6
10 12
12
17
s
10
17
22
w
2 2
3 3
4
4
5 5
t2
1.2 1
1.S 1.4
2.5 1.S
from to
6 20
6 36
s 45
ll t,
I
No m inal lengths 1
=
6 - 2S
32 - 80
90 - 400
key
-0.2
-0.3
-0.5
keyway
+0.2
+0.3
65
75 S5
S5 95
95 110
110 130
16 10
1S 11
20 12
22 14
25 14
2S 16
32 1S
6 4.3
7 4.4
7.5 4.9
9 5.4
9 5.4
10 6.4
11 7.4
45 180
50
56 220
63 250
70 280
so
200
320
90 360
50
58
58
12
s
14 9
5 3.3
5 3.3
5.5 3.S
20 110
2S 140
36 160
30
38
38
44
6 6
s
10
7
s
3 2.3
3.5 2.S
4 3.3
10 56
14 70
1S 90
+0.5
65 75
44 50
22 30
6, 8, 10, 12. 14, 16. 18. 20. 22. 25. 2S. 32. 36. 40, 45, 50, 56. 63, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110, 125, 140, 160, 180, 200, 220, 250, 280, 320 mm Feather key DIN 6885 - A - 12 x8 x 56: Form A,
b~
12 mm, h. 8 mm,/ • 56 mm
Woodruff keys
cf. DIN 6888 (1956-08)
T . , _ for Woodruff keyw.ys Shah keyway widthw tight fit normal fit
P9 (PSI'' N9 (N 8)11
Hub keyway width w tight fit normal fit
P9 (PS1 11 J 9 (J Sl 11
Allow. devia. fo r a nd
s
over
10
to
6 >9
s
10
+0. 1 +0.1
+0.2 +0.1
+0.2 +0.1
+0.2 +0.2
s ·S 5 h "'7.5 > 7.5
Shah keyway depth t 1 +0.1 Hub keyway depth t2 +0.1
d,
6 s 9
w
+0.2 +0.1
10 12
12 17
22
22 30
4
5
6
8
17
30
38
w h9
2.5
h
3.7
3.7
5
6.5
5
6.5
7.5
6.5
7.5
9
7.5
9
11
9
11
13
11
13
16
~
10
10
13
16
13
16
19
16
19
22
19
22
28
22
28
32
2S
32
45
r,
2.9
2.5
3.S
5.3
3.5
5
6
4.5
5.5
7
5.1
6.6
8.6
6.2
8.2
h12
3
1.4
1.7
2.2
2.6
3
10
10.2 7.S
9.S 12.S 3.4
43.1 11 To lerance class for b roached keyways
241
Machine elements: 5.7 Shaft-hub connections
Splined shaft joints and blind rivets Splined shaft joints with straight flanks and internal centering Light series
8
Hub
d
'
J-~
<:::)
-~
'
Nil
0
8
-
--
-
26 30 32
6 6 7 6 7
11 13 16 18 21
-
28
,8
Shaft
6 6 8 8 8
32 36
0
8
d
N''
0
8
N'l
0
8
6 6 6 6 6
14 16 20 22 25
3 3.5 4
42
8
46
8
52
50 58
5
56 62
8 8 8
8 8 8 8 8
48
46
8 9 10 10 12
72
8 9 10 10 12
6 6 6 8 8
28 32 34
6 6 7 6 7
12 12 14 16 18
10 10 10 10 10
82 92 102 112 125
12 12 14 16 18
-
36 40
5
38 42
<:::)
H9
H10
-
Internal centering
H7
8 H11
0
d
HlO
68
82 92 102 112
78
88 98 108 120
54 60 65
TolenMe eta.. for the ahafl
Heat treated dimensions
d
0
8
62
10 10 10 10 10
72
Toa.r- eta.. for ttMt hub Not heat treated dimensions
Medium series
Light series
N'l
- - -
23 26
cf. DIN ISO 1411986-12)
Medium series
H7
Dimen.
Sliding fit
Type of fit Transition fit
Press fit
8
d10
f9
hlO
0
all
all
al l
d
f7
g7
h7
Shaft l or hub) DIN ISO 14 - 6 x 23 x 26: N • 6, d • 23 mm, 0 • 26 mm
11 N number of splines
Open end blind rivets with break mandrel and flat head Open end blind rivets with break mandrel and countersunk head Blind rivet with flat head
¢ d.
i~l.M ~ Ill.
¢d,
""
'"'~
mandrel original head
¢d.;
3
4
5
&''
Head 0 (\max.
6.3
8.4
10.5
12.6
Head height k
1.3
1.7
2.1
2.5
2
2.45
2.95
3.4
3.1 3.2
4.1 4.2
5.1 5.2
6.1 6.2
/,_+3.5
1mox +4
'""'" + 4.5
lmox + 5
Rivet 0 d (Nomin.. lize)
Rivet mandrel 0 d, max. Riv~ hole 0
min.
Fining length b Shaft ler'91f'o I min. max.
-=--··~
set rivet joint
•• '¢d.,' _l ll
5
0.!>-1.5 11
-
-
6
7
2.0-3.5 1.!>-3.511
1-31)
1.!>-2.5"
-
8
9
3.!>-5.0
2- 5 3-511
2.!>-4.0
2- 3
10
11
!>-7
5.0--6.5
4-6
3-5
12
13
7- 9
6.!>-8.5
6-8
!>-7
16
17
9-13
8.!>-12.5
8-12
7- 11
20
21
13-17
12.!>-16.5
12- 15
11- 15
25
26
17- 22
16.!>-21.0
1!>-20
1!>-20
30
31
-
-
2()-25
2()-25
Property classes
L llowl and H !high) are differentiated by the minimum shear and minimum tensile forces of the rivet.
Materia1s21
Rivet body of aluminum alloy (AlA) Riv~ mandrel of steel ! Stl
·~
broken ~ formed mandrel head original '
~rivet joint
Recommended grip range
4
head
Blind rivet with countersunk head 'l>d,
head
4, 1
max.
Ill
_¢d,
cf. DIN EN ISO 1597712003-04) cf. DIN EN ISO 15978 12003-08)
= 11 21
Blind rivet ISO 15977- 4 x 12- AIA/St -l: Blind rivet with flat head; d = 4 mm, /• 12 mm, rivet body of aluminum alloy, rivet mandrel of steel, property class L (low)
Only for flat head rivets ISO 15977 Other standardized material combinations for rivet body/mandrel include: St/St; AlA/AlA; A2/A2; Cu/St; NiCu/St etc.
242
Machine elements: 5.7 Shaft-hub connections
Metric tapers. Morse tapers, Steep tapers Morse tepen and metric tepen
ct. OIN 228-1 ( 1987-o5)
FOfm A: Taper shank with tightening thread
FOfm B: Taper shank with tang
~ r--.-.
H~H-
'\S'l
-~ -~ 11
~"'
-al ~----~-~~-
! ' }" a
I
I
Form C: Taper sleeve for taper shanks with draw-in threads
I
Fom1 D: Taper sleeve for taper shanks with tang
-~
~~
E -3 - 1-----k-JRz
25
3" -~
&J!
I The Forms AK. BK CK and DK each have a feed for cooling lubricants. Typeof
~
--
in
Metric taper (ME)
Morse taper (MT)
T8p«shank
Metric taper
= 1l
•
4
4
4.1
2.9
23
2
3
25
20 0.5
6
6
6.2
4.4
32
3
4.6
34
28 0.5
6.4
1 : 20
1.432°
0
9.045
9.2
6.1
50
3
56.5
6.7
52
45 1
1 : 19.212
1.491°
1
12.065
12.2
9.4 M6
9
53.5
3.5
62
9.7
56
47
1
1 : 20.047
1.429'
2
17.780
18.0
14.6 M10
t4
64
5
75
14.9
67
58
1
1 : 20.020 1.431'
5
94
20.2
84
72
1
1 : 19.922
26.5 107
92
1
1 : 19.254 1.488"
-
3
23.825
24.1
19.8
M12
t9. t
81
4
31.267
31.6
25.9 M16
25.2
102.5 129.5
5
44.399
44.7
37.6 M20
36.5
6
63.348
63.8
53.9 M24
52.4 182
80
(MT)
,,
Teper
6.5 117.5
1.438"
6.5 149.5
38.2 135 118
1
1 : 19.002 1.507'
8
210
54.8 188 164 1
1 : 19.180 1.493'
80
80.4
70.2 M30
69
196
8
220
71 .5 202 170
100 100
100.5
88.4 M36
87
232
10
260
90
1.5
120 120
120.6
106.6 M36 105
268
12
300
108.5 276 230 1.5
160 t60
160.8
143
M48 141
340
16
380
145.5 350 290 2
200 200
201 .0
179.4 M48 1n
412
20
460
182.5 424 350 2
240 200 1.5 1 :20
1.432'
Taper shank DIN 228- ME - B 80 AT6: Metric taper shank, Form B. Size 80, Taper ang.le tolerance quality AT6
Control dimension d1 may lie a maximum distance z in lront of the taper sleeve.
Steep taper shanks for tools and chucks form A
cf. DIN 2080·1 (1978-12)
No.
11
d,
dza10
c$a
1:4-0.4
/1
at0.2 bH12
V1 .
a Steep tapef' shank DIN 2080 - A 40 AT4: Form A, No. 40, Taper angle tolerance quality AT4
Machine elements: 5.7 Shaft-hub connections
243
Tool holding fixtures Tool holding fixtures join the tool with the spindle of the macl1ine tool. They transmit the torque and are responsible for precise concentric running. Type of delign
Metric taper (MEl and Morse taper IMTI Torque transmission: • foro&· fit over the taper surface
machine tool spindle
+ reduelion sleeves fit different taper diameters - not suitable for automatic tool change
Metric taper 1 : 20; Morse teper 1 : 19.002 to 1: 20.047
Steep taper shank ISKI
• grooves on taper edge produce interlock. The steep taper is not meant for transmis· sion of forces. it only centers the tool. Axial loc;k ing is achieved by the thread or the ring groove.
loot spindle
+ DIN 69871-1 suitable for automatic tool change
Fastening in the machine spindle: Form A: with draw-in bar Form B: by front fastener Taper 7: 24 ( 1 : 3.42.9) according to DIN254
Taper shank numbers: • ME4; 6 • MT 0; 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6 • ME 80; 100; 120; (140); 160; (180); 200
cf. DIN 208G-1 (1978-121and -2 09J9.091and DIN 69871 -1 ( 1995- 10) Torque transmission:
mach1ne
cf. DIN 228· 1 and -2 ( 1987-05) Clamping device for conventional drilling and milling.
Use with CNC machine tools, especially machining centers; less suited for high-speed cutting(HSC) Steep taper numbers: • DIN 2080-1 (form A); 30; 40; 45; 50; 55; 60; 65; 70; 75; 80 • DIN69871 -1:30;40;45;50;60
- high weight, therefore less suited for quick tool change with high axial repeating clamping accuracy and for high revolution speeds
Hollow taper shanks (designation HSKI Torque transmission: • force-fit using the taper and contact surfaces • drive slots on shaft end produce interlock.
+ low weight, therefore + high static and dynamic rigidity + high repeated damping accuracy (3 1Jm) + high rotetional speeds - more expensive than steep taper
cf. DIN 69893-1 and -2 (2003-05) Safer use with high-speed cutting Nominal sizes: d 1 ~ 32; 40; 50; 63; 80; 100; 125; 160 mm
Form A; with shoulder and clamping keyway for automatic tool change Fonn C: only manual change is possible
Taper 1 : 9.98
Shrinkage chucks Torque transmission like HSK. aamping the tool by quicll. inductive heating (approx. J40•C) of the holding shank in the shrinkage chuck. A shrinkage joint is formed by the oversize of the tool (approx. 3-7 11ml after the joining and cooling. holding shank
+ + + +
transmission of high torques high radial rigidity higher cutting values possible shorter machining times
+ good runout + greater running smoothness
+ + -
available with HSK or steep taper
better surface quality reliable tool changes relatively expensive additional induction and cooling devices required
Universally applicable in machine tools with steep taper or hollow shank tool holders; suitable for tools with cylindrical shank of HSS or carbide. Shank diameters: 6; 8; 10; 12; 14; 16; 18; 20; 25 mm
244
Machine elements: 5.8 Springs, components of jigs and tools
Cylindrical helical tension springs German loop DIN 209~
oi -ai~ ~~~~~ L
L,
d
Do
Do
r;l\
ell
I s., I
L
L.,.,
0.
t.
wire diameter in mm outside coil diameter 0. minimum sleeve diameter in mm free lengt·h, with no load on spring ln m m Lt length o f spring body w ith no load in m m Lt, Lm.x maximum spring length Fo internal prestress in N F,_ maximum allowable spring force ln N R spring rate in N/m m maximum allow able spring displacement Sm for F..,.. in mm
d
?
'-
Tension springs of patented drawn~ ipring steel""wire
R
F, . 1'
....
cf. DIN EN 1027(}.1 (200 1· 121
0.20 0.25 0.32 0.36 0.40
3.00 5.00 5.50 6.00 7.00
3.50 5.70 6.30 6.90 8.00
8.6 10.0 10.0 11.0 12.7
4.35 2.63 2.08 2.34 2.60
0.06 0.03 0.08 0.16 0.16
1.26 1.46 2.71 3.50 4.06
O.o36 0.039 0.140 0. 173 0. 165
33.37 36.51 18.85 19.23 23.67
0.46 0.50 0.55 0.63 0.70
7.50 10.00 6.00 8.60 10.00
8.60 11.10 7.10 9.90 11.40
13.7 20.0 13.9 19.9 23.6
3.04 5.25 5.78 7.88 9.63
0.25 0.02 0,88 0.79 0.83
5.31 5.40 11.66 12.13 14.13
0.207 O.Q78 0.606 0.276 0.239
24.41 68.79 17.78 41.15 55.78
0.80 0.90 1.00 1.10 1.25
10.80 10.00 13.50 12.00 17.20
12.30 11.70 15.40 14.00 19.50
25.1 23.0 31.4 27.8 39.8
10.20 9.45 12.50 11.83 15.63
1.2.2 1.99 1.77 2.99 2.77
19.10 28.59 28.63 41 .95 42.35
0.355 0.934 0.454 1. 181 0.533
50.36 28.49 59.22 32.98 74.25
1.30 1.40 1.50 1.60 1.80
11.30 15.00 20.00 21.60 20.00
13.50 17.50 22.70 24.50 23.20
134.0 34.9 48.9 50.2 46.0
118.95 15.05 21 .75 20.00 19.35
5.771 5.44 3.99 3.99 6.88
70.59 66.08 60.54 67.40 100.90
0.32.2 1.596 0.603 0.726 L819
201 .60 38.00 93.72 87.38 51.70
2.00 2.20 2.50 2.80 3.00
27.00 24.00 34.50 30.00 40.00
30.50 27.80 38.90 34.70 45.10
62.8 55.6 79.7 69.8 140.0
25.00 23.10 3 1.25 29.40 86.25
6.88 9.81 9.88 17.77 11.50
101.20 148.00 148.50 233.40 214.20
0.907 2.425 1.056 3.257 0.587
104.00 57.02 131.33 65.85 345.31
3.20 3.60 4.00 4.50 5.00
43.20 40.00 44.00 50.00 50.00
46.60 46.00 50.60 57.60 58.30
100.0 92.1 117.0 194.0 207.0
40.00 37.80 58,00 128.25 142.50
11.88 19.60 24.50 28.00 47.00
238.40 357. 10 436.30 532.30 707.90
1.451 3.735 3.019 1.613 2.541
156.13 90.38 136.43 312.74 260. 12
5.50 6.30 7.00 8.00
60.00 70.00 80.00 80.00
69.30 80.00 92.00 94.00
236.0 272.0 306.0 330.0
156.75 179.55 199.50 228.00
38.00 45.00 70.00 120.00
774.50 968.50 1132.00 1627.00
2.094 2.258 2.286 4.065
351.72 429.00 464.83 370.91
Tension springs of stainless steel spring steel wire11 0.20 0.40 0.63 0.80 1.00
3 .00 7.00 8.60 10.80 13.50
3.50 8.00 9.90 12.30 15.40
1.25 1.40 1.60 2.00 4.00
17.20 15.00 21.60 27.00 44.00
19.50 17.50 24.50 30.50 50.60
8.60 12.70 19.90 25.1 31.4 39.8 34.9 50.2 62.8 117.0
cf. DIN EN 1027(}.3 12001-081
4.35 2.60 7.88 10.20 12.50
0.05 0.121 0.631 0.971 1.411
15.63 15.05 20.00 25.00 58.00
2. 211 4.351 3.211 5.501 19.600
0.99 3.251 9.861 15.67 23.77 35.50 55.72 56.93 84.86 366.50
0.031 0.142 0.237 0.305 0.390
30.54 22.11 38.97 48.19 57.40
0.458 1.371 0.623 0.779 2.593
72.73 37.46 / 86.19 101.86 133.83
H In addition to the springs listed, o ther sPrings with different outside diameters and lengths are commercially available for each wire diameter.
245
Machine elements: 5.8 Springs, components of jigs and tools
Cylindrical helical compression springs
r~·Fl e"'
F,
.e
c: "' a. "'
.i:
/
/
/
Spring
ch..a.rlatk: curve block
_height
s,
ILl
s2
s,...
0.2
0.5
1
1.6
2
2.5
3.2
4
5
6.3
8
2.5 2 1.6 6.3 4 2.5 12.5 8 5 20 12.5 8 25 16 10 32 25 20 16 40 32 25 20 50 40 32 25 63 50 40 32 80 63 50 40 100 80 63 50
Do
0, min.
2.0 1.5 1.1 5.3 3.1 1.7 10.8 6.5 3.6 17.5 10.3 5.9 22.0 13.4 7.5 28.3 21.6 16.8 12.9 35.6 27.6 21.1 16.1 44.0 34.8 27.0 20.3 56.0 43.0 34.0 26.0 71 .0 55.0 42.0 32.6 89.0 69.0 53.0 40.5
3.1 2.6 2.1 7.5 5.0 3.4 14.4 9.6 6 .5 22.6 14.7 10.1 28.0 18.6 12.5 36.0 28.4 23.2 19.1 44 .6 36.5 28.9 23.9 56.0 45.2 37.0 29.7 70.0 57.0 46.0 38.0 89.0 71.5 58.0 47.5 111 91 .0 73.0 60.0
F....,. In N
1.00 1.24 1.50 6.6 9.3 10.4 22 33.2 43.8 84.9 135 212 128 198 318 182 233 292 365 288 361 461 577 427 533 666 852 623 785 981 1226 932 1177 1481 1854 1413
1766 2237 2825
q '() (j.
wire diameter
d Dm
mean coil diameter
od
mandrel diameter
Dol
sleeve diameter
y
free length, unloaded spring
Total number of coils
I
I
4=;. + 2
F,_ maximum allowable spring force at Smox
L..,
max.
1 l 'Jbl" 101
F,, F2 spring force at L 1, L2
L2
~~~· Drn
}0~~
[)I"J
L 1• L2 length of loaded spring at F1• F2 l.mn minimum allowable test length of the spring
L!
d
1
t.. 5.4 4.0 3 ,0 13.5 7.0 4.4 24.0 13.0 8.5 48.0 24.0 14.5 58.0 30.0 18.0 71.5 49.0 36.0 27.5 82.0 58.5 42.5 33.5 99.0 71.0 53.5 41 .0 120 85.0 64.0 51.0 145 105 80.0 60.0 170 125 95.0 75.0
s 1• s2 spring displacement at F,, F2 Smox maximum allowable spring displacement at Fmax ;. number o f spring coils
~ R
total number of coils (ends ground) spring rete in N/mm
=>
;. -3.5 Snwc 3.8 2.4 1.5 9.2 3.3 0.9 14.6 5.7 1.9 35.6 14.0 5.5 43.0 17.5 6.8 52.2 32.2 20.5 12.9 60.8 38.7 23.4 15.0 71 .6 45.8 29.5 18.1 87.7 54.1 34.4 22.3 103 65.0 42.0 24.0 118 76.0 48.0 30.0
Compt'ession spring DIN 2098 - 2 X 20 x 94: d• 2 mm, Dm c 20 mm and y • 94 mm
R
4
0.26 0.51 1.0 0.73 2.84 11.6 1.49 5.68 23.2 2.38 9.76 37.3 2.98 11.4 46.6 3.48 7.29 14.2 27.8 4.76 9.3 19.4 38.2 5.95 11.7 22.8 47.7 7.27 14.5 28.4 55.4 8.96 18.3 36.7 71.7 11.9 23.2 47.0 95.4
8.2 5.9 4.4 20.0 10.0 6.1 36.5 19.0 12.0 73.5 36.0 21.5 88.5 45.0 26.5 110 74.5 54.0 41.0 125 88.5 63.5 49.5 150 105 79.5 60.5 180 130 95.5 75.0 220 155 115 90.0 260 180 140 110
1.-
;•• 8.5
5.5
;•• 12.5
s.-
R
t..
s.-
R
6.0 3.8 2.4 14.0 4.9 1.4 23.1 8.9 3.0 55.9 21 .9 8.9 67.1 27.3 10.9 82. 1 50.5 32.1 20.5 95.3 61.1 37.2 23.6 111 69.9 46.2 28.3 135 86.8 54.5 34.8 160 99.0 62.0 39.7 187 111 74.0 46.8
0.17 0.33 0.65 0.46 1.81 7.43 0.95 3.61 14.8 1.52 6.23 23.7 1.90 7.24 29.7 2.22 4.64 9.05 17.7 3.03 5.92 12.4 24.2 3.79 7.41 14.4 30.3 4.63 9.25 18.1 35.3 5.70 11.7 23.3 45.6 7.58 14.8 30.3 60.8
12.4 8 .7 6.4 30.0 15.0 8.7 55.5 28.5 17.0 110 53.5 31 .5 135 68.0 38.5 170 115 81.5 61.0 190 135 94.5 74.0 230 160 120 89.5 275 195 140 110
9.3 5.9 3.6 21.3 7.9 2.2 36.1 14.2 4.4 84.5 33.4 13.6 104 42.5 16.5 129 80.2 50.0 31.7 148 96.2 57.4 36.9 175 110 72.8 43.5 210 133 81.6 52.5 250 155 100 63.2 286 186 112 70.0
0.11 0.21 0,42 0.30 1.17 4.80 0.61 2.33 9.57 0.99 4.0 15.4 1.23 4.69 19.2 1.43 3.0 5.86 11.5 1.96 3.82 8 .0 15.7 2.45 4.79 9.35 19.6 2.99 5.98 11.7 22.9 3.69 7.55 15.1 29.5 4.9 9.58 19.6 39.2
335 235
175 135 390 285
205 160
t..
Sm...
R
1H 13.7 0.07 12.E 8 .6 0.15 9. 5.4 0.28 44.( 31.8 0.21 2U 11.7 0.79 12.( 3.0 3.27 80 .~ 53.1 0.41 40.! 20.6 1.59 24.( 6.6 6.51 165 129 0.67 78.( 50.0 2.73 45.( 20.2 10.4 195 151 0.83 62.1 3.19 98 24.4 13.0 55 245 187 0.97 165 116 2.04 75.7 3.98 120 88.( 49.9 7.78 275 216 1.33 190 136 2.61 135 83.4 5.45 105 53.4 10.7 335 257 1.65 235 165 3.26 170 104 6.36 130 65.5 13.3 2.03 395 304 280 194 4.07 205 124 7.95 160 79.5 15.5 490 370 2.51 5.13 340 277 250 145 10.3 95.0 20.1 195 570 423 3.34 410 271 6.51 300 169 13.3 230 103 26.7
246
Machine elements: 5.8 Springs, components of jigs and tools
Disc springs
111o "' 'o - , 1
Single apring
~~I :-c
D,
r>J
D,
3
~
Ia)
~/ -;;,c: , · ~ ..... ·c: l..-0
Q.
Vl
~
/
•-•
s
---
2
stoc.l spring deflection of stack of disc springs
F
3J
E~
E~
....... "'" ..:~
.. .., v_
o.
load generated by a single disc spring F"""' tolal load generated by stack of disc springs
n ;
Series A:. herd sprlnga D0 /t • 18; holt • 0.4
Di
length of unloaded spring stack number of disc s prings in parallel stack number of disc springs in series stack
4!
Series 8: meclum herd springs D./I., 28; holt • 0. 75 F in s;ll t 4J kNII
h12
H12
8 10 14 16
4.2 5.2 7.2 8.2
0.4 0.5 0 .8 0.9
20 25 28 40
10.2 12.2 14.2 20.4
--
-
-
-
-
25 28 40 45
12.2 14.2 20.4 22.4
1.5 1.5 2.2 2.5
2.05 2.15 3.15 4.1
2.91 2.85 6.54 7.72
0.41 0.49 0.68 0.75
-
50 56 63 71
25.4 28.5 31 36
3 3 3.5 4
4.3 4 ..9 5.6 6.7
12.0 11.4 15.0 20.5
80 100 125
41 46 51 64
5 5 6
7 8.2 R5
33.7 31.4 48.0
-
-
-
-
140 160 180
72 82 92
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
t
lo
0.6 0.75 1.1 1.25
Fin kNII
s;ll
r1 1 r~.,
,fJl,,~.~ootJCJ\
Series St8C:k
overall height of the unloaded single spring spring deflection of a single spring
(C)
1 3 4 Spring deflection s - Spring force greph for v•rloua disc spring combinations: (el single spring; (b) parallel stack of 3 single springs: 3 times force; (c) series stack of 4 single springS: 4-fold deflection; (d) series stack of 3 parallel stacks with 2 single springs each: 3-fold deflection, 2-fold force
Group
inside diameter thickness of the single disc spring spring height (theoretic spring displacement to flat position)
lo
(d)
I~
outside diameter
D,
ho
(b)
12 ..
o. I
without contact s urface: Groups 1 & 2
l'
~
Spring Spring force deflection
I
fiotal =
Fll
Stotal =
sl
i.
Spring length
1Y> = i ·'o
1
Parallel stKk
• • :
Spring deflection
Spring force
I I
Fiotal = n·
Fl l
Stotal =
s
I
Spring length
Y> = io+(n-1l·t
I
Series C: soft s prings Daft .. 40; hoft .. 1.3
t
lo
Fin kN11
s;ll
0.15 0.19 0.23 0.26
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
0.55 0.7 0.9 1.05
0.12 0.21 0.28 0.41
0.19 0 ..23 0.30 0.34
0.2 0.25 0.35 0.4
0.45 0.55 0.8 0.9
0.04 0.06 0.12 0.16
0.19 0.23 0.34 0.38
1.53
0.34
-
-
0.8 0.9 1.0
1.35 1.6 1.8
0.75 0.87 1.11
0.41 0.53 0.60
0.5 0.7 0.8 1
1.15 1.6 1.8 2.3
0.25 0.60 0.80 1.02
0.49 0.68 0.75 0.98
-
-
-
-
1.25
2.85
1.89
1.20
0.21 0.33 0.81 1.00
wC:
.. o
ci S
::> o
2£
" ·~
E8 E.,
•"
::!Nc: u
1.1
1.55
-
-
-
-
-
1.5 1.7
2.6 3.0
2.62 3.66
0.86 0.98
0.83 0.98 1.05 1.20
2 2 2.5 2.5
3.4 3.6 4.2 4 .5
4.76 4.44 7.18 6.73
1.05 1.20 1.31 1.50
1.25 1.5 1.8 2
2.85 3.45 4.15 4.6
1.55 2.62 4.24 5.14
1.20 1.46 1.76 1.95
1.28 1.50 1.65
3 3.5 3.5 5
5.3 6 6.3 8.5
10.5 14.2 13.1 30.0
1.73 1.88 2.10 2.63
2.25 2.5 2.7 3.5
5.2 5.7 6.2 8
6.61 7.68 8.61 15.4
2.21 2.40 2.63 3.38
9 10.5 11.1
27.9 41 .1 37.5
3.00 3.38 3.83
3.8 4.3 4.8
8.7 9.9 11
17.2 21 .8 26.4
3.68 4.20 4.65
-
wO
.,<.> ...,._
a. "0
"
0 ~
o ·~
=
90
-
-
-
5 6 6
Disc spring DIN 2093 - A 16: Series A. outside diameter o. = 16 mm
Spring force F of a single disc with spring deflections ~ 0.75 · ho 21 s .. o.75 . ho 3 l Size 3: t> ~14 mm. with contact surface. o. = 125. 140. 160, 180,200,225. 250 mm H
/
247
FormA
Forme
''til ~~~~~~~~~ ,j:JRi' y!RzZS(~.JR263) Hardness 780 + 80 HV 10
-
Drill bushing DIN 172- A 22 =36mm
K
36: Form A. d1 = 22 mm,
/1
Form K QuiCk-change bushings for right hand cutting tools Form L Removable bushings (dimensions same as form K)
Hardness 780 + 80 HV 10
Drill bushing DIN 173- K 15 K 22 K 36: Form K, ct, • 15 mm, ~ · 22 mm ,/ 1 = 36mm
248
Machine elements: 5.8 Springs, components of jigs and tool s
Grub screws, Thrust pads, Balll
cf. DIN 6332 12003-041
·~~ ~
M10
M12
M16
4.8
6
8
8
d.!
4
5.4
7.2
7.2
,,
r
,,
3
5
6
6
9
6
7.5
9
10
12
/3
2.5
3
4.5
4.5
5
d.o 1%
32
40
50
63
80
24
30
36
-
-
8
33
39
51
65
73
~
..;
'·
M8
"'
,.
~
Mil
12
Appllaltlon eumplea • d8mplngwilh st ar knob H with knurled nut DIN6335 DIN6303 M6toM20 M6to M10
witn wing nut DIN315 M6toM10
% ' '
d
d,
~
'• '•
30
50 40 60 60 80 60 80 100 80 100 125
20
40
27
47
44
64
40
-
-
-
Is
22
42
30
50 48
68
- - - -
-
-
=>
~
12
80
60
Grub screw DIN 6332- S M 12 x 60: Form S witn threads d 1 • M12, /1 • 60 mm
II or scallop knob DIN 6336 M6 to M16
Thrust peds
Form S witn snap ring
d)
..::
Vsnap ring
1~
d,
~
(JRZTs)
thrust points EHT (450 HV 1) 0.3 + 0.2mm, surface nardness 550 + 100 HV 10
.......
cf. DIN 6311 12002-061
4
4
"'
"'
H12
12
4.6
10
7
16
6.1
12
9
20
8.1
15
11
25
8.1
18
32
12.1
40
15.6
=
Thrust pad DIN 6311 - S 40: FormS, d 1 e 40 mm, w i th inserted snap ring
"
DIN I332
4
-
M6
5
-
M8
6
8
M10
13
7
8
M12
22
15
7.5
12
M16
28
16
8
16
M20
BaH knobs FonnC with threads
cf. DIN 319 12002-04) Fonn L
with clamping sleeve
~
~~
FormM with oonical hole
FormE with threaded bushing
~~
Gnlb--
lliN7983
S¢d 1
a; .~
"'
16
20
25
32
40
50
~
M4
MS
M6
M8
M10
M12
r,
7
9
11
14.5
18
21
13
6
7.5
9
12
15
18
1%
4
5
6
16 15 15 15 20 20 20 23 23 20 23 28
~
11
13
~
4
5
6
to
9
12
15 15
h
15
18
=>
Color:
8
22.5
10 8
10 12 10 12 16 12 16 20
-
8 10
-
10 12
-
12 16
-
-
15 15
-
20 20
-
22 22
-
29
37
46
Ball knob DIN 319 - E 25 PF: Form E, d1 = 25 mm, of phenolic molding compound PF (thermoset plasticJ_..
Material:
S¢d 1 Other forms no longer standardized.
8
Ball knob of phenolic molding compound PF (ther· moset plastic); threaded bushing of steel (Stl by choice of manufacturer; other materials by agreement black
249
·+lr·lf. I; -
~ ·~· -.. .
...
'
ds
Forme
FormK ~
Star knob DIN 6335- A 50 AL: Form A, d 1 • 50 mm, of aluminum
11 This size is not available in molding material. 2l Sometimes with insignificant other dimensions; material like
nuted knobs DIN 6336
Auted knob DIN 6336- L 40 x 30: Form L (molding material I d 1 • 40 mm, I • 30 mm Forms A toE (metal knobsl as well as K and L (knobs of molding material) correspond to star knobs DIN 6335.
Materials: Cast iron, aluminum, molding compounds (PF 31 N RAL 9005 DIN noa-2)
FormA Seating pin
Form B Locating pin cylindrical
hardened 53 + 6 HRC
Forme Locating pin truncated
250
a
+
~
d
e 2 e,
c,"
upto M12x12: ~
8sd1 M12x14and up:a>d1
h
!::>
1
FormB
b, = b2
""'ifrb ,-<:: , :, ; bl
2 bl
~
Olher dimenoians and indi-
cations lb lom!A
Forme
FormD d4 =d3
FormG d 4 > d3
251
25
20
M 16 >< 1.5 M20>< 1.5
45
2.5
16
68
6
21
32
25
M 20>< 1.5 M 24 >< 1.5
56
3
16
79
6
27
40
32
M24 >< 1.5 M27 >< 2 M 30 >< 2
70
4
26
93
12
36
I 0/+0.5
Material WS2l
80
71
80
100
Hss•,
62 : 2 HRC
45 : 5 HRC
64 : 2HRC
50 : 5 HRC
Punch DIN 9861 0 - 5.6 x 71 HWS: Form 0 , d 1 • 5.6 mm, I• 71 mm, of high-alloyed cold-w ork steel 11 Form DA w ith allow able enlargement below the head 21 WS
~ .,
(1. 1-1.8) · d, (depending on 0 d,)
alloyed cold-work st eel 31 HWS high-alloyed cold·work st eels •1 HSS high-speed steels
Machined plates for press tools and for fixtures
d . DIN ISO 6753- 1 (2006-09)
=oo
Machined p late ISO 6753-11 -315 x 200 x 32: Fabricat ed by flame cutti ng (1),1 = 315 mm, W • 200 mm, t = 32 m m Umit deviations f or
Code
Fabrication m ethod
length I and width w (w s 630mm)
Note: These surface roug hness values only apply to milled edges.
2
Flame cutting Beam cutting
+4 +1
M illing
+0.4 + 0.2
Limit deviations for thickness t
:2 +0.5 +0.3
252
Machine elements: 5.8 Springs. components of jigs and tools
Pillar die sets Pillar die sets with rectangular working surface forms C and CG11 cf. DIN 9812 (1981-121
~-
cj l _~cl -1- ! Id • d1 --1 r ~ ....1.
cj
c,
~· >< b,
50
•
d;a
0..
dz
30
80
19
M20x 1.5
30
80
25
M20 x 1.5
Oz
50
40
90
25 32
M24 X 1.5
56
40
90
32
M24 >< 1.5
56 63 63
:::> 11
50
32 40
100
50
50
100
40
M30 x2 M30x2
125 145 155 215 180 315 225 380 265 395 330 395
;I
r
c,
I
d, 50 63 80
rm-
180
160
"lao 200 220
200
220
250 315
Form C without threads; form CG with threads dj
Piller die sets with centraly positioned pillars and t hick pillar guide plate. form OF
,·
,
I
:
0..
Oz
dz
d;a M16 X 1.5
40
25
65
16
50
30
80
25
- 25
M20 X 1.5
56
40
90
32
M24 x 1.5
•
T
I
100 ,____ 125 160
r--200
'"
I
0
1!
ll
I ,
.•.:\
/
I i •z ( ~ rt·-,~-- - --t './'
~ {; ~
...
~ "/
•
,
I
~ >< b,
ez bz
80
125
16
~ 10
fa
50
19
36
170
135 180
50
- 85 90
25
'---
18
11
40
-190
-100 110
225 32 !--265
80x63 125 >< 80 125" 100 250">< 100 160 )( 125 315 X 125
56
23
11
180
220 45 1--240
Pillar die set DIN 9816 - OF 100 GG: Form OF, d 1 : 100 mm. cast iron slide guide
190
f-
dz
180
180
265
'
• ·
i
Oz
155
180
245
~d;f~! ~-1 -
~ :;::: 80
225
cf. DIN 9819 (1981 -12)
-:-rl I I
' !d, '
c,
160
=
:::t::
d,
~
r-;oo
pillars. forms C and CG31
. . . .., I
I
125 140
Pillar die sets with diagonal
iIdz I _l -
·..:-1
•
80 95 125
56 330 200 50 100 40 M30X2 63 395 220 Pillar die 5et DIN 9812- 0 160: Form D. d: 160 mm 21 Form D without threads; form DG with threads dj
I!
I 1 _..:'1~
-
~
cf. DIN 981611981 -121
cj I !IId•~tt!I
Il
19
r-;oo
170 180
Center piUar d ie Mt DIN 9812 - C 100 x 80: Form C, s 1 >< b, : 100 mm >< 80 mm
·! Id • d1
~
160 160
:4:
I ..J. ·-
~:'J=e fl1_ -+---~ ~I 80 >< 63 100 X 63 100 X 80 160 X 80 125 X 100 250 X 100 160 )( 125 315 X 125 200 )( 160 315 X 160 250 )( 200 315 X 250
r'.-j"
Pillar die sets with c:ircular worlclng surfec:e forms 0 and I)G21 cf. DIN 9812 (1981-121
..:>
190
~
c, 50
325 255 235 56 280 390
e, Oz
0..
30
80
40
90
40
90
dz
~
~
I
19 25 25
75 103 160 128 120 148 170 245 158 32 155 180 183
3iO
Pillar d ie 5et DIN 9819 - C 160 x 80 GG: Form C. a, : 160 mm, b, : 80 mm, cast iron
31 Form C without threads; form CG with threads d-j
254
Machine elements: 5.9 Drive elements
DIN 7753·1 11988-011
18 4.8 90 12.7
140 16.3
224 22
2.8 13.8
3.5 17.5
4.8 23.8
15
19
25.5
Effective diameter -
N arrow V-belt DIN 7753- XPZ 710: Narrow V·belt. cogged profile. reference length 710 mm
Driven machines (examples) Centrifugal pumps, fans, conveyor belts for Machine tools, presses, sheet metal Grinding gears, piston pumps, textile and paper machines Stone crushers, mixers, winches, cranes. excavators
1450 2000 2800
0.93 1.17 1A5
2.36 3.05 3.90
5.19 6.63 8.20
2.02 2.49 3.00
Profile selection for narrow V-belts
6.01 7.60 9.24
10.53 12.85 14.13
1.92 3.02 3.83
4 .86 7.84 10.04
8.64 13.82 17.39
5.19 8.13 10.19
12.56 19.79 24.52
21.42 32.37 37.37
5.19 6.31 7.15
13.66 16.19 16.44
22.02 22.07 9.37
13.22 14.58 11.89
29.46 25.81
31.74
P power to be transmitted Prated power rating per belt N number of belts angle factor Number of belt$ service factor
Example: Transmission parameters P= 12 kWwith c1 = 1.12; "1 = 1.4; limon = 160 mm, n,a 950 1/min;f15 • ?, N= 7
1. p.
calrulated power p. c2 in kW -
~ · 12kW·1.4 =
16.8kW
2. From the diagram "• • 950 1/min and P · ~ = 16.8 kW - profile SPA 3. P,.,ed = 4.27 kW from the table N = P · c, · c2 = 12 kW-1 .12 · 1.4 = . 44 4. P,.,ed 4.27 kW • 5. Selected: N = 5 befts
255
Machine elements: 5.9 Drive elements
Positive drive belts Positive drive belts (timing belts)
cf. DIN 7721-1 (1989-06)
Tooth spacing
p
s
ht
r
h.,
T2.5
2.5
1.5
0.7
0.2
1.3
T5
5
2.7
1.2
OA
2.2
6
10
5.3
2.5
0.6
4 .5
16
T10
No. of t eeth for T2.5 T5
64
245
80 98
270 285
114
630 660
49
66
700 720 780 840
78
880
84 91 96 100
900
61 132 168 192 200
500 Non -etandardized tooth fonns
53 56 61
112 122 126
610
40 54
420 455 480
LAHN profile
530 560
30
w
No. of t eeth f or T5 T10
Effective length 1'
48
120 150 160 200
305 330 390
HT profile
Tooth size
Pos itive drive belt width
Code
Effective length11
Double-elded
Nominal thickness
63 66 70
144 156 168
72 78 84 88
180 184
920
92
96
960 198
990
'60
Effective diameter
6
10
10
16
25
25
32
50
Effective No. of t eeth for length,, T10 1010 1080 1150 1210 1250
101 108 115 121 125
1320 1390 1460 1560 1610
132 139 146 156 161
1780 1880 1960 2250
178 188 196 225
Belt DIN 7721 -6 T2.5 x 480: W= 6 mm, spacing p = 2.5 mm, effective length • 460 mm, single-sided The code lener D is added for double-sided positive drive belts. 11 Effective lengths from 10D-3620 mm. in custom-made products up to 25000mm
Timing belt pulleys Pu lley g roove dimensions
4
cf. DIN 7721-2 (1989-06) Pulley groove
Pulley outer C2l ~for
TlO
T2.5
T5
10 11 12 13
7.4 8.2 9.0 9.8
15.0 16.6 18.2 19.8
36.3 39.5
14 15 16
10.6 11.4 12.2
21.4 23.0 24.6
42.7 45.9 49.1
Pulley groove 17 18 19
20 22 25
28
Pulley outer C2l ~for
Pulley groove
T2.5
T5
no
13.0 13.8 14.6 15.4
26.2 27.8 29.4 31.0
52.2 55.4
32 36
58.6
40 48
17.0 19.3 21.7
34.1 38.9 43.7
61.8 68.2 77.7 87.2
Pulley outer C2l ~for
T2.5
T5
TlO
24.9 28.1 31 .3 37.7
50.1 56.4 62.8 7 5.5
100.0 112.7 125.4 150.9
47.2 56.8 66.3
60
72 84
94.6 189.1 113.7 227.3 132.9 265.5
Pulley groove dimensions Code 11 Form SE for ,; 20 grooves
21 Fo rm N f or > 20 grooves Pu lly d imensions
T2.5 T5
TlO
1.75 2.96 6.02
1.83 3.32 6.57
Groove height hg Form N21 FormSE11 0.75 1.25 2.6
2a
1 1.95 3.4
0.6 1 2
Pulley width w, without flange w'r
Lener symbols
Beltwidthw
T2.5
4 6 10
5.5 7.5 11.5
10 14
T5
6 10 16 25
7.5 11.5 17.5 26.5
10 14 20 29
16
TlO
25
18 27 34 52
with pulley flange
without p ulley flange
Groove width w, Form SE 11 FormN21
32 50
with flange
8
21
30 37 55
256
Machine elements: 5.9 Drive elements
Straight-toothed spur gears Unmodified spur gears with straight teeth
Number of teeth
Outside diameter Root diamet&t
I do • d
+ 2 · m .. m · IN+ 2)
d, =d - 2 · (m +c)
Center distanee
Module
Pit.ch
P=n · m d=m·N
m module
N, N ,, N 2
no. of teeth
Pit.ch diameter
p
d, d ,, dz
pitch diameter outside diameter root diameter
Clearenee
pitch c clearance h whole depth h. addendum hd dedendum a center distance
do. do•· doz ((., dr~. d,
Ex.a mple: External spur gear, m=2 mm; N= 32; c = 0.167 · m; d = ?; do·?; h · 7 d = m· N = 2 mm · 32 • 64 mm
c = 0.1 · m to 0.3 . m often c = 0.167 · m
h8
Addendum
=m
Oedendum
h = 2·m+c
Whole depth
do •
d+ 2 · m • 64 mm + 2 · 2 mm • 68mm h a 2 · m+ C • 2 · 2 mm +0.167. 2 m m • 4.33 mm
lrltet"MM teeth
Number of teeth
Outside diameter Root diameter
Center
d,
=d -
2 · (m +c)
a = d2 - d 1 = m · (N2 - N 1)
2
2
Example: Internal spur gear, m • 1.5 mm; N • 80; C=0.167· m; d= ?; d0 = ?; h = ? d = m · N= 1.5mm. 80 a 120mm do=d - 2 · m = 120mm-2 · 1.5mm a 11lmm
h =2 · m+c =2 · 1.5 mm+0.167·1.5mm • 3.25mm
J
257
Machine elements: 5.9 Drive elements
Helical gears. Module series for spur gears Unmodified helical gears transverse module real pitch module transverse pitch A real p
""
m,
--
N
fi
~~~
-
Er~i< ~
I I I I
Transverse module
h..,;-
~w
'
Transverse pitch
Nz-_ 'r-~-
Pitch diamet.er
Number ol teeth In helical gears the teeth run in a screw-like pattern on the cylindrical wheel body. The tools for manufacturing spur gears and helical gears conform to the real pitch module. In the case of parallel shafts the two gears have the same helix angle, but opposite direction of rotation, i.e., one gear has a right-hand helix and the other a left-hand helix ({J1 = - {J2I-
Example:
m _ .!!2!._ _ Pt 1 - cos/3 - n Pr
Pt = cos/3 =
n ·mr cos/3
N·m d =m 1· N=-- ' cos/3
d n- d N=- =-
m,
Pt
mr =~ =m1
Real pitch module
• cos/3
p, = n • m, = p 1 - cos/3
Real pitch
d 0 =d +2 · m,
Outside diameter
Helical gear, N • 32; 11"1 • 1.5 mm; {3 • 19.5°; c • 0.167 - m; 11"1 • ?; d 0 • ?; d • ?; h • ?
m = m, = 1.5mm = 1.591mm '
cos{J
do • d + 2 - m, • 50.9mm + 2 - 1.5mm • 53.9mm d • 11"1 - N • 1.591 mm -32 = 50.9 mm h
a = d, + d 2 2
Center distance
cos19.5•
• 2 -m,+ C • 2 -1.5 mm + 0.167 - 1.5 mm =3.25mm
Calculations of whole depth, addendum, dedendum, clearance and root diameter are the same as those for spur gears with straight teeth (page 256). In the formulae the module m is replaced by the real pitch module m,.
Module series for spur gurs (Series I) M odule Pitch Module Pitch
d. DIN 780-1 (1977-05)
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.25
0.628
0.785
0.943
1.257
1.571
1.885
2.199
2.513
2.827
3.142
3.927
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
12.0
16.0
4.712
6.283
7.854
9.425
12.566
15.708
18..850
25.132
31.416
37.699
50.265
Classific:ation of • tool aet ol8 module side~ cuttwa (up tom= 9 mm)11 Cutter no. No. of teeth 11
1
2
12-13
14- 16
I I
3
17- 20
I I
4 21-25
I I
5 26-34
I I
6
I
7
35-54
1
55-134
8 I I135 to toothed rack
The manufacture of gears with side milling cutters is not an involute process. Only an approximate involute form of the tooth flank is produced. Therefore this manufacturing process is only suitable for secondary gears. For gears with m > 9 mm a tool set with 15 module side milling cutters is used.
258
Machine elements: 5.9 Drive elements
Bevel gears, Worm drive Unmodified bevel gears with straight teeth m d. d~o ~ ~
c:fo1, c:fo2
l:
module N, N 1, N,. no. of teeth pitch diameter ~. 6 1, ~2 pitch angle outside diameter y 1, y2 tip angle shaft angle (normally 90"1
Pitch and whole depth narrow to the cone point, so that at every point of tho tooth width a bevel gear has another module, outside diameter, etc. The outermost module cor· responds to the standard modulo.
d=m·N
Pitch diameter Outside diameter
d0 = d + 2 · m · coso
In addition to the dimensions given on the outside edges, the dimensions in the centers and inner edges of gear teeth are also impon ant for manufacturing.
Top angle gear 1
tan r 1 =
Example:
Top angle gear 2
Bevel gear drive, m • 2 mm; N 1 • 30; N,. • 120; l: = 90°. Calculate the dimensions for turning the driving bevel gear.
tan&, ; !!_,; ~ ; 0.2500;
Pitch angle gear 1
s,; 14. 04"
N2 120 ; rn· N1 = 2mm · 30 • 60mm = d 1 + 2 · m . cos.S, u 60 mm + 2. 2 mm. cos 14.04°= 63.118 mm N 1+ 2 . cost~, 30+ 2 · cos 14.04" tany, N 2 - 2 . sin61 120- 2 · sin 14.04• -
d1 d 01
- o.w
r,
N, + 2 ·cosO, • N2 -2 · smO,
= 14.95"
Pitch angle gear 2
Sheft angle Whole depth, addendum. clearance, etc. are calculated like spur gears with straight teeth (page 256).
Worm drive m d, d 1 •
~
do. do~o do2 r1
module pitch diameter outside diameter throat radius
no. of teeth lead (axial ) pitch tip Ql
Worm Pitch diameter
d 1 =nominal size
Axial pitch- worm
Px=n·m
Outside diamet«
dot= d, + 2 · m
Lead
Pn = Px · N, = n · m · N 1
Worm gear Example:
Pitch diameter
Worm drive m = 2.5 mm; N1 = 2; d 1 = 40 mm; N,. • 40; d0 , • ?; ~ • ?; ~ ?; r1 • ?; 8 •?
=
d 01 = d1 + 2·rn = 40mm + 2 · 2.5mm ; 45mm d 2 = m · N 2 = 25mm ·40 = 100 mm do2=d 2 + 2· rn= 100 mm+2 · 2.5mm = 1C6 mm d, "'do2+m = 1C6 mm + 2.5mm = 107.5 mm
'i 8
=~-m= 40mm _ 2.5mm
= 17. 5mm
= d 1 + d 2 = 40 mm+100mm
=
2
2
2
2
70
mm
p =n· m Outside diameter Top diameter Throat radius Clearance, whole depth, addendum, dedendum and center distance like spur gears (page 256).
259
Machine elements: 5.9 Drive element s
Transmission ratios a.-drives lingle gear ratio driving
driven
N,.~Nr, ... no. of teeth "•·fl:l. n,; ... speeds N2, N•• Na ... no. of teeth speeds 112. n..
ne ...
Drive fonnula
driven gears Gear ratio
initial speed
"'
final speed total gear ratio individual gear ratios
"'
;,, iz, ~··· Multiple gear ratio
driving gears
J J
Example:
Total gear ratio
i • 0.4; n 1 • 180/min; ~ • 24; 112 • 1: N 1 • 1
n,
18M'nin
•
112 = j =--a:;!= 450/rmn N, •
:!l..:.!!J n,
•
45<¥1rin · 24 18(¥min
&
60
Torque lor gears, page 'II
Behdrfves Single gear ratio
da. ~ ... n,, fl:l. ns ...
d 1•
~.
diametersII speeds
d., ~ ... diameters II
nz. n.. n,; ... speed.s
driving
Jpulleys driven Jpulleys
Velocity
Drive formula
initial speed final speed total gear ratio
i 1, i2,
~. ••
v. v1, V:l Multiple gear ratio
individual gear ratios circumferential velocity
i =d2 =~=~ d1 n2 n1
Example: n 1 • 600/min; ~ • 400/min; d 1 ~ 240mm; i= ?;~ = ? ; = ~ _ 60CVmin _ 1,5 _ .5 1 ~ 4!XVmin 1
Total gear ratio
d • ~. 60CVmin · 240 mm • 360 mm 2 ~ 41XVmin
i = d2 . d4 . ds .. . d1 · d 3 • d 5 •. •
II For V·belts (page 2541 calculate with the
effective diameter de; for positive d rive beltS (page 2551 calculate with the number of teeth on the pulley.
driving
Worm drives N1 no. of teeth (no. of threads) of the worm
Drive formula
n 1 speed of the worm ~
no. ofteeth ofthe worm gear
112 speed of the worm gear i g ear ratio
Gear ratio
Example:
i = 25; n, = 1500/min; N1 • 3; n..
··<
=!!!. = 1500'min = 60/min ; 25
~. ?
260
M achine elements: 5.9 Drive elements
Speed graph
j ..~
The speed n of a machine tool from the workpiece or tool diamet.er d and the select· ed cutting speed Vc can be determined • on a computer/calculator using the formula, or • graphically using the speed graph. Speed graphs have the speeds under load which can be set on the machine. These are stepped geometrically. For infinitely variable drives the calculated speed can be set precisely.
it·d
Speed graph with logarithmically scaled c:oordinatH
!:>~ :- !:>~~~ !:>~ "~!:>~ ~~ ...~ !:> s:. !:l <-,'<~ ~<>~ '>)<; '\Cij '\'\: ~ '"' ~... o.,I:S '\~ '\';~
800 m/mm 600
/
soo
v
300
200 180 160 1,0
/
vv v v
/
v
v
20 18 16 14 12 10
s
/
v
/
/
v
1/
v
/
!/
v
/
v
~
v/ v
-"'
v
L_ /
/
/_
/ 1/
/
v
/
/
/
v
v I/ /
v
1/
'\
/
/
1/ /
/
/
/
/
/
v v v
/
/
/
/
vv
/
/
v
/
v
/
v
v v
/
1/
/
v/
v
/
4
/ 4
L
v
v
v
/
v vv
/
/
L
/
/
/
/ / /
v
/
/
/
v
v
v
/ /
/
/
/
1/
/
/
/
/
/
V/ / /_ /
Vv
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
so
60
1/
v
v
/
v v/ / v
/ 20
/
/
30
40
V
/
// /
/ /
/
/
v
;;;
c <-,.!?
~· 2 ~~
v 1/
/
Vv
"'"'~ ~
v
v
L
.L /
/
80 100
/
150
200 mm 300
diameter d Example: d = 100 mm; V 0
v
/
/
/
/ 1S
v
/
/
/
6 1 8 910
/
/ / /
/
/
/
/_
/
/
/
/
/
/
~
L
/
1/
v vv
/
/
v vv v
vv v
/
v 5
/
/
/
v /
v
v vv
/
v v v v v
/
v v
/
v
/
~~
/
/
/ /
v
-& ~~
/
/
/
vv
v
/
v
/
/
/
v "~""
/
/
/
_;,~
/
v /
/
/
/
/
l,g
/
/
/
v
v
/
/
/
/
/
v
/
/
v ~ /
/
9 8 1 6
/
/
/ v
/
40
"''"'
./ /
~
/
/
1/
/
en
£
/
/
so
30
v
v v
I/
/
100 90 80 70 ~~ 60
c
v
/ 1/
v /
vv
,
/ 1/
/
120
5r
/
/
v
220
QJ
/
/
'OO
~
v
/
=220~ ;n=7 mm
220 ~ v 1 1 Calculation: n = - 0 =____.l!l!!l.= 700. 3 ; read from t.he speed graph above: n ~ 7oo n·d >t·0.1m min min
' 00
261
Machine elements: 5.10 Bearings
Plain bearings, Overview Plain beerings1l (Selection by type of lubrication) Hydrostatic plain bearings
Hydrodynamic plain bearings
Dry-running plain bearings
~
L!"" ~
•
I
Suitable for - low-wear continuous operation - high speeds - high Impact loads
1(:~ I
I
1
Suitable for
Suitable for
- wear,free continuous operation - low friction losses - low speeds possible
Areas of application
Areas of application
Areas of application
-main and big end bearings -gearboxes - electric motors - turbines, compressors - lifting equipm., agricul. machinery
- maintenance free or low maintenance operation - with or without lubrication
- construction equipment - armatures and devices -packaging machines - jet engines -household appliances
- precision bearings - space telescopes and antennae - machine tools - axial bearings for high forces
11 Other plain bearings: air or gas and water lubricated plain bearings, magnetic bearings
Properties of plain bearing materials Designation, M aterial number
Elongation limit
R,o.2 N/mm2
Specific bearing load PL11
Nlmm2
Shaft min. hard· ness
Sliding properties
EmerSliding gency· Properties. application speed running behavior
Lead end tin c:.1ing elloys
d. DIN ISO 4381 (2001·021
G-PbSb15Sn1021 2.3391
43
7
160 HB
~
f)
~
Medium loading; all purpose plain bearing
G-SnSb12Cu6Pb 2.3790
61
10
160HB
• •
~
Good impact loading; turbines, compressors, electric machines
d. DIN ISO 4382·1 and -2 (1992-111
Cest copper elloys end copper wrought e11oys CuSn8Pb2·C 2.1810
130
CuZn31Si1 2.1831
250
58
55HRC
CuPb10Sn10-c21 2.1816
80
18
CuPb20Sns-c 2.1818
60
11
21
280HB
~
~
f)
250HB
~
~
f)
150HB
• • •
High loading, high vertical and horizontal impact loading High surface pressures; vehicle bearings, bearings in hot-rolling mills Suitable for water lubrication, resistant to sulfuric acid
d. DIN ISO 6691 (2001-051
Thermoplestlcs PAS (Polyamide)
-
12
SOHRC
POM (Potyoxymethylene
-
18
SOHRC
•
11 Bearing force based on the projected bearing surface 21
Low to moderate loading, sufficient lubrication
Composite material according to DIN ISO 4383 for thinwalled plain bearings
0 e
•
verygood
0 limited
impact and wear resistant; bearings in farm machinery Harder and capable of higher compressive loads than PA; bearings in precision mechanics, suitable for dry-running ~ good
0 poor
() normal
262
Machine elements: 5.10 Bearings
Plain bearing bushings Bushings made of copper alloys FonnC
.., VI
~
cf. DIN ISO 437911995-10)
..
~
- ----
'0
FonnF
.., .., .., ..... ~
~
- ·-·-
.,;-
VI
W
~'ti
~
all
bJs13
f-
chamfers 45°
bzs13 b1js13 '
1I
Force fittin3 produoes tolerance ass H8 Recommended tolerance classes foc mounting dimensions Location hole I H7 Shaft e7 or g7 (depending on application)
I
Forme
"'
10 12 15 18 20 22 25 30 35
40
:::::.
dz
5«1.. 2 dz d) bz
16 18 21 24 26
12 14 17 20 23 25 28
1
14
16 1
Bushings made of slntered metal FonnJ
..,....
~
FonnV
.., ....
')I ;-
----- ~
""
bzjs13 bJs13
bJs13 all chamfers 45°
~
I-
FormV
FonnJ
"'
10 12 15 18 20 22 25 30 35
40
Recommended tolerance dasses for mounting dimensions ""> Location hole 1 H7 Shaft 1-
dz 16 18 21 24 26 32
14 16 19 22 25 27 30
38
35
28
dz
dz
bz
~
16 18 21 24 26 28
22 24
2 3 3 3 3 3 3.5 4 5 5
0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.8 0,8 0.8
32 38
27 30 32
34 39 46
45 41 45 55 50 46 50 60 Diameter range d1 : 1-60
Thermoset plastics FormR
~1 t,.'f ~l
"'
..:?
,.. '0 -6'
f- ·- ·
--Q'-.)
bzjs13 all chamfers 45° bJs13
j
-
f -· -
22 25 30
35
cf. DIN 1850-5 and~ 11998-07)
dz
d)
16 18 21 24 26 28
20 22 27 30
...J
,...
from 10
to
~ -- '0
b1h13
b1h13
lengths ~ 10 15 15 20 20 20 30 30
40
-
20 20 30 30 30 40
40 50
v_r
bzh13
14
15 18
20 28 35 42 25 32 40 55
>0.21
.Q.2
.0.4 .0.1
.0.&
ToWanca._ Fabrication reNting ....
method
forceflttlne lft
injection D12 +0.07 0 +0.2 .0.23 .0.30 molded Tolerance class zb11 machined C11 8 Adcitional codes for bushin9$ made of !Mrmoset plastics A
-6'
/300
~
dz
A--lO~
-o ....,
bz
3 0.3 6 10 3 0.5 3 0.5 10 3 0.5 12 3 0.5 15 32 34 3 0.5 15 4 20 32 38 0.5 44 4 0.5 38 20 45 50 5 0.8 30 Diameter range d 1 for thermosets: 3-250, for thermoplastics: 6 - 200
Form T
30~ ~
10 12 15 18 20
Lengths ~ 8 10 16 8 12 20 10 15 25 18 12 30 15 20 25 15 20 25 20 25 30 20 25 30 25 35 40 40 30 50
Umit deviations dz and dt of tolerance classes A and B for bushing$ made of thennoplastics
Thermoplastics FormS
-
Bushing DIN 1850 - V18x 24x 18 - Sint-850: d 1= 18 mm, dz= 24 mm, b 1 = 18 mm, sintered bronze Sint· B50
Bushings made of thermosets and thermoplastics FonnP
~
cf. DIN 1850-3 (1998-07)
,...
l!l ~ ~ .,;-
~--·-
-
10 16 20 3 18 22 3 10 15 20 19 1 21 27 3 10 15 20 24 30 3 12 20 30 22 1 15 20 30 26 1.5 26 32 3 23 15 20 30 25 28 28 1.5 28 34 3 32 31 1.5 32 38 4 20 30 40 28 34 36 38 34 38 2 38 44 4 20 30 40 45 50 5 30 40 50 39 41 45 39 43 2 44 48 50 44 48 2 50 58 5 30 40 60 Diameter range d 1: 6- 200 Bushing ISO 4379- F22 x 25 x 30 - CuSn8P: Form F, d 1 • 22 mm, dz • 25 mm, ~ • 30 mm, of CuSn8P 12 14 17 20
14 16 19 22 24 26 30
Lang1N
FonnF
Series 1 dz d) bz
+0.69 +0.90
I jz
Circular grooves on y Assembly bevel 15• (inst. of 45, Recommended tolerance dasses for mounting dimensions w Undercut instead of outer diameter dz 1 Thermosets 1Thermoplastics radius R Location hole H7 H7 :::::. Bushing DIN 1850 - S20 A20 - PA 6: Form S; d1 • 20 mm, tolerance cl. A.~ = 20 mm, polyamide 6 Shaft h7 h9 I 1 Other stand. designs: Wrapped bushings DIN 1494, internal tension bushings DIN 1498, external tension bushings DIN 1499
l
l
263
Machine elements: 5. 10 Bearings
Antifriction bearings, Overview Roller bearings (selection)
I
For rotation
I
Radial load
I Ball bearing I
I I
I I
Antlfric:tlon bMrings
I
I
Axial and radial load
Roller bearingl
I
_A
• B_
~uler conUICI bal Cylindrical roller
bearings DIN 628 bearings DIN 541
Axial load
I Ball bearing I
Angula r ball Tapered roller bearings DIN 628 bearings DIN 720
~
B•
I
I
IRoller bearing
A a R
Self-aligning ball Needle bearings bearing DI N 630 DIN 617
I J I Linea r bearings I
I Ball bearing
Deep groove ball Cylindrical roller bearings DIN 625 bearings DIN 541
Forlinear movement
I
jAoller bearlngl
Axial-deep groove Axial·cyl. roller bell bear. DIN 711 bea r. DIN 722
•
~
Four·point contact Spherical roller bearings DIN 628 bearings DIN 728
A a±a- ~-
Properties of roller bearings Bearing design 11
lnside 0
d
High Radial Axial loading loading speed
High Ooiet Application loads running
Ball bearings
•
C)
•
Universal bearings in machine and autom otive manufacturing
~
0
0
Compensation w ith misalignment
ti)
~
Only used in pairs, large forces, aulomotive manufacturing
C)
~
0
Large forces, automotive ma nufacturing, with limited space requirements
~
C)
C)
0
Acceptance of very high axial forces, drill spindles, tail stocl< centers
~
0
C)
0
Very tight spaces, spindle bearing layouts, gear and roller bearing assemblies
~
C)
Aa;eptance of very large radial forces, roller bearing assemblies, transmissions
~
0
like Form N, with flanged wheel additional acceptance of axial forces
C)
High carrying capacity with tight mounting spaoe
Deep groove ball bearings
1.5- 600
~
C)
Self-aligning ball bearings
5-120
~
0
Angular contac1 ball bearings single-row
10- 170
~
~
Angular contact ball bearings double-row
10-110
~
~
Axial deep groove ball bearings
8 - 360
0
Four-point contact bearings
20 - 240
0
. 2)
Roller bearings Cylindrical roller bearings (form N)
17- 240
Cylindrical roller bearings (form NUP)
15- 240
Needle bearings
90-360
Tapered roller bearings
15- 360
Axial cylindrical roller bearings
15- 600
Spherical roller bearings
60- 1060
• • • • • • • • • 0
C)
~
0
0
()21
~
0
Usually mounted in pairs, wheel bearings in aulomobiles, spindle bearings
0
0
~
0
Stiff bearing requiring minimal axial space, high friction
0
0
~
11 For all radial bearings the prefix "radial" is omitted. 2l Reduced suitability with paired mounting 3J Mounted in pairs
Angular displacement thrust bearings, thrust bearings in cranes Suitability levels:
0
e very good
~ good
0 limited
0 no t suitable
C)
normal
264
M achine elements: 5. 10 Bearings
Antifriction bearings, Designation Designation of antifl iction bearings
Teper~ roller bearin~
Example:
I
I
Name
I I
Standard
I
I
T]
cf. DIN 623· 1 (1993.05) 30208 ~
Prefhc symbol
I
I
Basic numbers
K
L
cage w ith roller elements free ring
z
R
ring with ro ller set
s
stainless steel
2Z E
I
bearing with tapered bore bearing with shield on one side bearing with shield on both sides reinforced design bearing with seal on one side bearing with seal on both sides highest predsion: dimensional, form and running
AS 2RS
-~n~
Example of basic numbers:
I
Bearing series 302
I Width series 0
I I
I Diameter series 2
I Bearing type 3
I
I
I
I
Dimension series 02
I
Design
I I
Borecode
Bore 0
d
Bore code
Bore 0
d
0
Angular contaCt ball bear., double row
1
Self-aligning ball bearing
00
10
12
2
Barrel and spherical roller bearings
01
12
13
65
3
Tapered roller bearings
02
15
14
70
4
Deep groove ball bear., double row
03
17
15
75
5
Axial deep g roove ball bearings
04
20
16
80
6
Deep groove ball bear.. single row
05
25
17
85
7
Angular contact ball bear., single row
06
30
18
90
8
Axial cylindrical roller bearings
07
35
19
95
NA
Needle bearings
08
40
20
100
OJ
Four-point contact bearing
09
45
21
105
10
50
22
110
11
55
23
115
N, NJ, NJP. NN, NNU, NU, NUP
Cylindrical roller bearings
Dimension series (selection) Explanation The dimension plans in DIN 616 contain diameter series in which each nominal diameter o f a bearing bore d I• shaft diameter) is assigned a number of: • outside diameters and • width series (for radial bearings) o r • height series (for axial bearings).
I
Bore code 08
I Bearing type
I
Suffix symbol
Suffix symbols (selection)
P2
I
I
I
I
Prefix symbols
K
I
60
cf. DIN 616 (1994-06)
Structure of the
t
r§.) Fif
Example: Tapered roller beerings tt Dimension series 02 Bore code
Bore 0
07
35
08 09
40 45 50
10
0
B
72 80 85 90
17
d
.
18 19 20
tJ other dimensions, see page 267
265
6315 6316 6317 6318 6319
6320
3318 3319
3320 Angular contact ball bearing DIN 628 - 73098: Angular contact ball bearing (Bearing type 7), width series 0 11, diameter series 3, bore code 09 (bore diameter d • 9 • 5 mm • 45 mm), contact angle a = 40• (6) 1l In the designations for deep groove and angular contact ball bearings the 0 for the width series is sometimes omitted according to DIN 623· 1. 2l Contact angle a 40" 3l Contact angle not standardized
=
266
FormN
Form NUP
w d from 15 to 500 mm
Mounting dimensions according to DIN 5418: Form N unflanged
Form NU with fixed flange
18
19 20 21 22 24 Cylindrical roller bearing DIN 5412- NUP 312 E: Cylindrical roller bearing of bearing series NUP3 with bearing type NUP. width series 0. diameter series 3 and bore code 12, reinforced design The normal design of the dimension series 02, 22, 03 and 23 were deleted from the standard with no replacement and then replaced with the reinforced design (suffix symbol E).
267
Machine elements: 5.10 Bearings
Roller bearings Tapered roller bearings (selection)
d . DIN 720 (1979·02) and DIN 5418 (1993-02)
IINrillil-*302
Dimenllons
~ w ~ ---- t-
1:::)
'15'
't>
w
~ [
T
w c
Mounting dimension
T
d,
~
o.
0., c,
Co
..
,
'bo Basic no.
d
D
20 25 30
47 14 52 15 62 16
12 15.25 33.2 27 26 40 13 16.25 37A 3 1 31 44 14 17.25 44.6 37 36 53
41 46 56
43 48 57
2 2 2
3 2 3
35 40 45
72 17 80 18 85 19
15 18.15 51.8 44 16 19.75 57.5 49 16 20.75 63 54
42 47 52
65
3 3 3
1.5 1.5 30207 3 3.5 1.5 1.5 30208 4.5 1.5 1.5 30209
50 90 20 55 100 21 60 110 2.2
17 21.75 67.9 58 18 22.75 74.6 64 19 23.75 81.5 70
57 64
65 120 23 70 125 24 75 130 25
77 20 24.75 89 21 26.25 93.9 81 22 27.25 99.2 86
80 140 26 85 150 28 90 160 30
d,
max min min max min min min max max
1 1 1
30204 30205 30206
74
78
67 74 80
79
63
85 3
88 91
94 96 101 103
4 4
4.5 1.5 1.5 30210 4.5 2 1.5 30211 4.5 2 1.5 30212
74 106 111 113 79 110 116 118 84 115 121 124
4 4 4
4.5 2 5 2 5 2
22 28.25 105 24 30.5 112 26 32.5 118
91 90 124 130 132 97 95 132 140 141 103 100 140 150 150
4 5 5
6 2.5 2 6.5 2.5 2 6.5 2.5 2
95 170 32 100 180 34 105 190 36
27 34.5 126 29 37 133 141 30 39
110 107 149 158 159 116 112 157 168 168 122 117 165 178 177
5 5 6
7.5 3 8 3 3 9
2.5 30219 2.5 30220 2.5 30221
110 200 38 120 21 5 40
32 41 148 34 43.5 161
129 122 174 188 187 140 132 187 203 201
6 6
9 3 9.5 3
2.5 30222 2.5 30224
69
62
1 1 1
69 73
1.5 30213 1.5 3021 4 1.5 30215 30216 30217 30218
Suring S«ies 303
cag e
f~~ ~"7~ .
~~ ~
lr,..s, ~ II '-
~
.., ~
--- --'t>
Mounting dimension
Dirnensiofw
Mounting dimensions according to DIN 5418:
~r:f
1:::)
In the case of tapered roller bear· ings the cage projects beyond the lateral face of the outer ring. The mounting dimensions of DIN 5418 must be maintained so that the cage does not rub against other parts.
w c
Basic o. 0., c, Co 'as min min max min min min max max no.
'bs
D
20 25 30
52 15 62 17 72 19
13 16.25 34.3 28 15 18.25 41 .5 34 16 20.75 44.8 40
27 32 37
44 54 62
45 55 65
47 57 68
2 2 3
3 1.5 1.5 30304 3 1.5 1.5 30305 4.5 1.5 1.5 30306
35 80 21 40 90 23 45 100 25
18 22.75 54.5 45 20 25.25 62.5 52 22 27.25 70.1 59
44 49 54
70 77 86
71 81 91
74 82 92
3 3 3
4.5 2 5 2 5 2
50 110 27 55 120 29 60 130 31
23 29.25 77.2 65 71 25 31.5 84 26 33.5 91 .9 77
60 95 100 102 65 104 110 111 72 112 118 120
4 4 5
6 2.5 2 30310 6.5 2.5 2 30311 2.5 30312 7.5 3
65 140 33 70 150 35 75 160 37
28 36 30 38 31 40
77 122 128 130 82 120 138 140 87 139 148 149
5 5 5
8 8 9
80 170 39 85 180 41 90 190 43
33 42.5 120 34 44.5 126 36 46.5 132
95 200 45 100 215 47 105 225 49
110 240 50 120 260 55
-
T
d. dt.
d
d,
max
1.5 30307 1.5 30308 1.5 30309
3 3 3
2.5 30313 2.5 30314 2.5 3031 5
102 92 148 158 159 107 99 156 166 167 113 104 165 176 176
5 9.5 3 6 10.5 4 6 10.5 4
2.5 30316 3 30317 30318 3
38 49.5 ~39 39 51.5 ~48 41 53.5 ~55
118 109 172 186 184 127 114 184 201 197 132 119 193 211 206
6 11.5 4 6 12.5 4 7 12.5 4
3 3 3
30319 30320 30321
42 54.5 165 46 59.5 178
141 124 206 226 220 152 134 221 246 237
8 12.5 4 8 13.5 4
3 3
30322 30324
98.6 83 105 89 112 95
Tapered roller bearing DIN 720-30212: Tapered roller bearing of bearing series 302 with bearing type 3, width series 0, diameter series 2, bore code 12
268
Machine elements: 5. 10 Bearings
Needle bearings, Lock nuts, Lock washers Needle bearings (selection)
....... -·-·
cf. DIN 617 ( 1993-04)
11!'!'!111
1..,
....
-- -
"-It:>
...
42 47
35
55 62
40 45
_I_
Mounting clmenllons according to DIN 5418:
•t~
<:~
t
!"
.....__
~
20 25 30
c:o
F
0
d
68
72
50 55 60
80 85
65 70 75
90 100 105
,
h
~
min
w
a-tng-'" NA49 llellring-'" NAe9 Bnlc: num~
0.3 0.3 0.3
1 1 1
17 17 17
NA4904 NA4905 NM906
30 30 30
NA6904 NA6905 NA6906
42 48 52
0.6 0.6 0.6
1.6 1.6 1.6
20 22 22
NA4907 NA4908 NA4909
36 40 40
NA6907 NA6908 NA6909
58 63
0.6 1 1
1.6 2.3 2.3
22 25 25
NA4910 NA4911 NA4912
40 45 45
NA69 10 NA69 11 NA6912
1 1 1
2.3 2.3 2.3
25 30 30
NA491 3 NA491 4 NA4915
45 54 54
NA69 13 NA69 14 NA69 15
68
72 80 85
Lock nuts for antifriction bearings (selection)
~ ._, ' t=~ I
.,;
~
)
.....
h
Moo"'"'"'mpO•~
NA6907 and up: dou ble row
cf. DIN 981 (1993-02)
d,
Code
d,
dz
h
4 4 5
KMO KM1 KM2
M60>< 2 M65 >< 2 M70 x 2
80 85 92
11 12 12
KM1 2 K M1 3 KM1 4
5 6 7
KM3 KM4 KM5
M75><2 M80>< 2 M85 >< 2
98 105 110
13 15 16
K M1 5 KM1 6 KM1 7
7 8 9
KM6 KM7 KM8
M90.x 2 M95><2 M100 x 2
120 125 130
16 17 18
KM1 8 KM 19 KM 20
KM9 KM 10 KM 11
M105 >< 2 M110 x 2 M115 >< 2
140 145 150
18 19 19
KM21 KM 22 KM23
dz
h
M10 >< 0.75 M12 >< 1 M15 >< 1
18 22 25
M17>< 1 M20 >< 1 M25 x 1.5
28 32
38
MJO x 1.5 M35 x 1.5 M40 x 1.5
58
M45>< 1.5 M50>< 1.5 M55 >< 2
65 70 75
=>
number
25 28 30
Needle bearing DIN 617 - NA4909: Needle bearing of bearing series NA49 w ith bearing type NA. width series 4. diamet er series 9, bore code 09
I
a..ic:
w
45 52
10
11 11
Code
l.oc:k nut DIN 981 - KM6: l ock nut of d 1 = M 30 x 1.5
d 1 from M 10 to M200
Lock washers (selection)
cf. DIN 5406 (1993-02)
d 1C11
w
Code
9 9 9
4 4 5
M B12 MB1 3 MB14
104 1.5 112 1.7 119 1.7
9 11 11
5 5 5
MB15 MB16 MB17
90 95 100
126 1.7 133 1.7 142 1.7
11 11 14
5 5 6
MB18 M B19 MB20
105 110 115
145 1.7 154 1.7 159 2
14 14 14
6 6 6
MB21 MB22 MB23
Code
4 4 5
2 2 2
1 1 1.2
5 5 6
49 57 62
1.2 1.2 1.2
45 50 55
69 74 81
1.2 1.2 1.5
=>
l.oc:k washer DIN 5406 - MB6: lock washer of
~
10 12 15
21 25 28
1 1 1
17 20 25
32 36 42
30 35 40
s
d,
dz
MBO MB1 M B2
60 65 70
86 1.5 92 1.5 98 1.5
2 2 3
MB3 M B4 M B5
75 80 85
6 7 7
4 4 4
MB6 MB7 MB8
7 7 9
4 4 4
M B9 M B10 MB11
Htl
w
t
t
s
d,
H11
tab
.Ol£:7
-a~+~~ ~~ ~ A ¥~
Mounting dimensions
~ ....
d 1 from 10 to 200 mm
f
1
I~ ~
Lt
~~--
d 1 = 30mm
269
Machine elements: 5.10 Bearin gs
Internal and external retaining rings, Circlips Retaining rings in standard deslgn 11(selection)
m)'11 :::=~ ~~:'~ cf. DIN 471 (1981.()9)
For s"-fb lexterMI)
:;::::·~':!~ - .
.
~ . •i!i!!V-~
s
d4
..
Nomt-
,..
d,
mm 10 12 15 18 20 22 25 28 30 32 35 38 40 42 45 48 50 60 65 70 75 80 90
100
=
m
Ring
•
d)
-.a -.a
n
..
w
d)
1 1.8 9.3 9.6 17 1 11 19 1.8 11.5 1 13.8 14.3 22.6 2.2 2.4 17 1.2 16.5 26.2 1.2 18.5 28.4 2.6 19 1.2 20.5 30.8 2.8 21 1.2 23.2 34.2 23.9 3 1.5 25.9 37.9 3.2 26.6 1.5 40.5 27.9 3.5 28.6 1.5 29.6 43 3.6 30.3 1.5 46.8 32.2 3.9 33 1.75 35.2 50.2 4.2 36 1.75 36.5 52.6 4.4 37.5 1.75 38.5 55.7 4.5 39.5 1.75 41.5 59.1 4.7 42.5 1.75 44.5 45.5 62.5 5 2.0 45.8 64.5 5.1 47.0 2.0 55.8 75.6 5.8 57.0 2.5 60.8 81 .4 6.3 62.0 65.5 87 6.6 67.0 2.5 2.5 70.5 92.7 7.0 72.0 2.5 74.5 98.1 7.4 76.5 3.0 84.5 108.5 8.2 86.5 94.5 120.2 96.5 9 3.0 Retainin g ring DIN 471 -40 x 1.75: d, • 40mm.s s 1.75mm
m
n
.......
s
H13
min
mm
1.1 1.1 1.1 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.85 1.85 1.85 1.85 1.85 2.15 2.15 2.65 2.65 2.65 2.65 3.15 3.15
0.6 0.8 1.1 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.7 2.1 2.1 2.6 3 3 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 5.3 5.3 5.3
10 12 15 18 20 22 25 28 30 32 35 38 40 42 45 48 50 60 65 72 75 80
Nomt-
d,
90
100
d 1 in m m
• 1 1 1 1 1 1 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.5 1.5 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75 2.0 2.0 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 3.0 3.0
10.8 13 16.2 19.5 21 .5 23.5 26.9 30.1 32.1 34.4 37.8 40.8 43.5 45.5 48.5 51.5 54.2 64.2 69.2 76.5 79.5 85.5 95.5 105.5
33 4.9 7.2 9.4 11.2 13.2 15.5 17.9 19.9 20.6 23.6 26.4 27.8 29.6 32 34.5 36.3 44.7 49.0 55.6 58.6 62.1 71 .9 80.6
1.4 1.7 2 2.2 2.3 2.5 2.7 2.9 3 3.2 3.4 3.7 3.9 4.1 4.3 4.5 4.6 5.4 5.8 6.4 6.6 7.0 7.6 8.4
10.4 12.5 15.7 19 21 23 26.2 29.4 31.4 33.7 37 40 42.5 44.5 47.5 50.5 53.0 63.0 68.0 75.0 78.0 83.5 93.5 103.5
m
n
H1 3
min
1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.6 1.6 1.85 1.85 1.85 1.85 2.15 2.15 2.65 2.65 2.65 2.65 3.15 3.15
0.6 0.8 1.1 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.1 2.6 3 3 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 5.3 5.3 5.3
Retaining ring DIN 472 - 80 K 2.5: d 1 • 80 mm, S • 2.5 mm 24-100 H12
10o-300 H13
cf. DIN 6799 (1981-09) Cirdips
loaded
re la xed
p n
d 2 from 0.8 to 30 mm
..
dz
w
Circlips (selection)
Mount ing dimensions:
n Slot
a.
I
~
m
Ring d)
Tol«ence ~for dz for dz 3-10 12-22 24-100 d, inmm I 8-22 I h10 h11 h12 H11 dz dz Standard design: d from 3-300 mm; heavy duty design: d 1 from 15-100 mm
Tolerance d -
H
·J:=·tn cf. DIN 472(1981-09)
dl
Slot
a.
For bores tinterNJl
l~
Shaft
d, from - to
dz
hll
<1.1 loaded
6 7 8
12.3 14.3 16.3
5.26 0.7 5.84 0.9 6.52 1
7- 9 8-11 9 - 12
9 10 12
18.8 20.4 23.4
7.63 1.1 8.32 1.2 10.45 1.3
10 - 14 11-15 13-18
15 19 24
29.4 37.6 44.6
12.61 1.5 16-24 15.92 1.75 20-31 25- 38 21.88 2
=
a
s
Cirdip DIN 6799- 15: dz = 15 mm
m
n min
0.74 + 0.05 1.2 0.94 1.5 1.05 ~ 1.8 1.15 1.25 1.35 +0.08 0 1.55 1.80 2.05
2 2 2.5 ,---3 3.5 4
270
non-«>1111ong
-) .~ with Ra0.2 to RaO.S
or Rz1 bts RzS
d1 from 6 to 500 mm
d 1 from 17 to 180 mm
d, from 1.8 to 670 mm, d, from 1.8 to 7 mm
axially sealing
internally sea~ng
271
Machine elements: 5.10 Beari ngs
lubricating oils ct. OtN 51502 (1990-08)
Designation of lubricating oils
Dftlonetlon using symbols
Designation using code '-"-'
I
I
,, Code letters sl for lubricating oils
::::> ::::>
TfT
Additional code letters
J
I
I ISO viscosity g rade
~
0 I
0
Mineral oil based lubricating oil
Silicon based lubricating oil
lubr;cating oil OtN 51517- Cl100: Circulating mineral oil based lubricating oil (C), increased corrosion and aging resistance (L), ISO viscosity grade VG 100 (100) Lubricating oil OtN 51517- PGLP 220: Polyglycol oil (PG), increased corrosion and aging resistance (L), increased wear protection (P). ISO viscosity grade VG 220 (220)
Types of lubrication oils
ct. OtN 51502 (1990-08)
Code letters Type o f lubricant and properties
Standard
Application
OIN51501
Once-through and circulati ng lubrication at oil temperatures up to 50
B
Bitumen containing lubricating oils with high adhesion
OtN 51513
Manual, continuous flow and oil bath lubrications, mainly for open lubrication points
c
Circulating lubricating oil, without additives
OtN 51517
Plain bearings, antifriction bearings, gears
Mln«81oils AN
CG
Normal lubricating oils without additives
Sliding track oil with active ingredients for reducing wear
OIN8659 T2
•c
In mixed friction operations for slideways and guideways, and for worm gears
Synthlltic liquids Ester oils with especially low change in viscosity
-
Bearings with widely varying temperatures
PG
Polyglycol oils with high aging resistance
-
Bearings with frequent mixed friction conditions
Sl
Silicon oils with high aging resistance
-
Bearings with very high and low temperatures, very wat er repella nt
E
Additional code letters
cf. OtN 51502 (1990-08)
Additional Application and explanation code letters E
For lubricants that are mixed with water, e. g. cooling lubricant SE
F
For lubricants with solid lubricant additive, e.g. graphite, molybdenum sulfide
L
For lubricants with active ingredients to improve corrosion protection and/or aging resistance
p
For lubricants with active ingredients for reducing friction and wear in mixed friction areas and/or to increase the load capacity
ISO viscosity grade for liquid industrial lubricants VISCOsity grade ISOVG2 ISOVG3 ISOVG 5 ISOVG 7 ISOVG 10 ISO VG 15
Kinetic viscosity in mm2 /sat
VISCOSity
grade
200C
400C
sooc
3.3 5 8
2.2 3.2 4.6
1.3 2.7 3.7
ISOVG22 ISOVG 32 ISOVG46
6.8 10 15
5.2 7 11
ISOVG68 ISOVG 100 ISOVG 150
13 21 34
ct. OIN 51519 (1998-08)
Kinetic: viscosity in mm2/s at
200C
-
-
400C
sooc
VISCOSity grade
22 32 46
15 20 30
ISO VG 220 ISO VG320 ISOVG460
68 100 150
40
ISOVG680 ISO VG 1000 ISO VG 1500
60 90
Kinet;c viscosity inmm2/sllt
20•c
-
-
40•c
so•c
220 320 460
130 180 250
680 1000 1500
360 510 740
272
M achine elements: 5.1 0 Bearings
lubricating grease, Solid lubricants
, l
[)l\o~
1
Jh
l.' · 1 l ' l l 1H1
Deslgnlltlon of lubricating greases Dnlgn8tlon by code '-tters
Dnlgn8tlon by symbols
jT r=c 3
J
ICode letter fori I·Additional ; I I lubncat•ng code letters grease
~ode for v•soos•rv or consistency
I
I
I IAdditionaiiiAdditiomill letters code
6 ()
Mineral oil based Silicon based lubricating grease lubricating grease
Lubricating grease DIN 51517 - K3N - 20: Lubricating grease for antlfriction and plain bearings IKI based on mineral oil (NLGI grade 31 (3), upper worldng temperature+ 140"C (N), lower wortdng temperature -20"C (- 20) Lubricating grease DIN 51517 - KSI3R - 10: Silicon based lubricating grease for antifrlction and plain bearings IKI ISH, NLGI.grade 3 (3), upper working temperature+ 180°C IRI. lower working temperature - 1o•c HOI
;o;>
=>
Lubricating greases Code letters Applicatlon/addltivea
Code '-tters App(leetion
K
General: antifriction bearings, plain bearing, sliding surfaces
KP
Like K, but with additives for reducing friction
KF
Like K, but with solid lubricant additives
G
Closed gears Open gears (adhesive lubricant without bitumen)
OG
F.or plain bearings and seals (low requirements)
M
Consistency11deuification for lubricating greases NI.GI·
Worked penetretJonZI
grade'!
Nl.GI-
445-475 (very soft) 400-430 355-385
000 00 0
Worked penetrwtionZI
grede" 1 2 3
Ntm-
grede"
310-340 265-295 220-250
4
5 6
Wortted penetretJon21 175-205 130-160 85-1 15 (very firm)
Code for the viscoelasticity 2l Measure of the penetration depth of a standardized test ball in the kneaded (worked) grease Jl National Lubrication Grease Institute (NLGI) 1l
Additional letters for lubricating greases Addlt. Jetter1)
Upper working temperature "C
c
Gr* 2l
Addlt. lett«')
Upper working tempermn "C
Grede 2l
Addit.
0
+60 +60
0 or 1 2 or3
G H
+100 +100
Oor 1 2 or3
E F
+80 +80
0 or 1 2 or3
K M
+120 +120
0 or 1 2 or3
..,,
~en
N p R
s T u
Upper working temperature "C + 140 +160 +180 +200 +220 +220
Grede 2l
as per agreement
11 The number value for the lower working temperature can be appended to the additional code letters;
e. g. -20 for - 2o•c 21 Grades for behavior when subjected to water, ct. DIN 51807-1:
0: no ch ange; 1: small change; 2: moderate change; 3: large change
Solid lubricants lubric:ant Graphite
Code
c
Wortdng tempenrture
Application
As powder or paste and as an additive to lubricating oils and -18 to +450 •c lubricating greases, not in oxygen, nitrOgen and vacuums
Molyb
MoS2
As mineral oil-free paste, sliding lacquer or additive to lubricating oils su lfide - 180to+400"C
Polytetra· fluorethylene
PTFE
-250 to +260 •c As powder in sliding lacquer and synthetic lubricating greases and as bearing material, very low coeffiCient of sliding friction p z 0.04 to 0.09
and lubricating greases. suitable for very high surface pressures
Table o f Contents
273
6 Production Engineering 6.1
Meter._l overhead In percent of material direct
Production planning lime accounting according to REFA .......... 282 Cost accounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 Machine hourly rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
6.3
Machining processes Productive time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Machining coolants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cutting tool materials, Inserts, Tool holders . . . . Forces and power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cutting data: Drilling, Reaming. Turning ....... Cutting data: Taper turning ...... ............ Cutting data: Milling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Indexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cutting data: Grinding and honing ......•.•. ..
glasses
Wear hard hat
287 292 294 298 301 304 305 307 308
6.4
Material removal Cutting data .. ............................. 313 Processes ......... ... .......•............ . 314
6.5
Separation by cutt.i ng Cutting forces .. ...................•... .... 315 Shearing .......... .............. ....... . . 316 Location of punch holder shank .. ............ 317
6.6
Forming Bending ............. .. ..... ... ........... 318 Deep drawing .........•........... ... ..... 320
6.7
Joining Welding processes ........... ...•. ... .... .. Weld preparation ... . ...................... Gas welding ........ . .. . ................. . Gas shielded metal arc welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Arc welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Thermal cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Identification of gas cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soldering and brazing . ... .................. Adhesive bonding ................ .........
322 323 324 325 327 329 331 333 336
Workplace safety and environmental protection Prohibitive signs ........................ ... Warning signs ... ... ...... .... .. .•... ...... Mandatory signs. Esc. routes and rescue signs . Information signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Danger symbols .. ....... .................. Identification of pipe lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sound and noise ............... ........ ....
338 339 340 341 342 343 344
6.8
Wear safety
274 276 277 279 281
6.2
costs, e.g. purchasing costs, warehousing costs, etc.
•
Quality management Standards, Terminology ....•..•• . . , . . . . . . . . Quality planning. Quality testing . . . • . . . . . . . . . Statistical analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Statistical process control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Process capability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
274
Production Engineering: 6.1 Quality management
Standards ISO 9000.9001, 9004 Standards of the 150·9000 family should help organltations o f all types and sizes to implement quality management systems, to work with existing quality management systems, and to facilitate mutual understanding in national and International trade.
Quality management standards Stllndard DIN EN ISO 9000
cf. OtN EN ISO 9000 (2005- 121. 9001,9004 (2000- 121
Explanetlon, contents Fundamentels of quality management systems Principle of quality management • system approach to management • customer focus • leadership • continuous improvement • involvement of people • factual approach to decision making • mutually beneficial supplier relationships • process approach Fundamentals of quality management systems (OM systems) reasons for OM systems evaluation of OM systems requirements of OM systems and continuous improvement products role of st.atistical methods progressive implementation of OM systems OM systems as part of the to tal process oriented evaluation management system quality policies and goals requirements of OM systems end role of top management in the OM system comparative evaluation of organizations documentation; advantages and types based on criteria of excellence models Terminology fw qu81ity ma~ systems For a selection o f definitions and explanations of terms, see page 275.
DIN EN ISO
9001 1 1
Requi...-nents of a quality management system
This international standard applies to organizations i n any industry or business sector regardless of products offered. It establishes requirements for a OM system, based on fundamentals outlined in ISO 9000, If an organization: must demonstrate capability to offer products which fulfill both customer and regulatory requirements. strives to improve customer satisfaction, including the process of continuous improvement of the system. Specified requirements can be used for: • internal applications by organizations • certification purposes • contract purposes The standard is based on a process oriented evaluation, i.e. every activity or sequence of activities which uses resources to convert input into results is regarded as a process. Requirements The organilation must • recognize all necessary processes for the OM system and their use in the organization, • establish the flows and interdependencies of these processes. • establish criteria and methods for ensuring implementation and control of these processes, • ensure availability of resources and information for these processes, • monitor, measure and analyze these processes, • take necessary actions for continuous improvement of these processes, • fulfill documentation requirements for the OM system, and • observe regulations for document control. 11
DIN EN ISO 9004
This standard also replaces previous standards 9002 and 9003.
Guideline for assessing the overall perform.,_, effective,_. and effldenc:y of quality rna~ systems The goal of this standard is to improve the organization and to improve the satisfaction of customers and other relevant parties. It is not intended for certifiCation or contract purposes.
275
Quality charac:teristlc
Identifying anribute of a product or process. which is utilized in assessing quality based on the specified quality requirements. Quantitative (variable) characteristics: discrete characteristics (whole numbers), i.e. number of holes, piece count continuous characteristics (measured values), e.g. length, position, mass Qualitative characteristics: ordinal characteristics (with ranking), e.g. light blue - blue - dark blue nominal characteristics (without ranking), e.g. good- bad, blue - yellow
Defect Rework
Quality
management system Quality
management
Organization and organizational structures, methods and processes of an operation required to put a quality management into practice. All coordinated activities for managing and controlling the quality-related aspects of an organization by: • establishing a quality policy • quality control • quality assurance • sening quality goals • quality planning
Quality planning
Activities directed toward establishing es, as well as associated resources for
Quality control
Work activities and techniques to continually at ions in quality. Consists primarily of
Quality assurance
Performing and generating required documentation for all activities relating to the OM sys· tern, with the goal of creating an atmosphere of trust, both in-house and with the customer, that will be fulfilled. Actions taken throughout the organization to increase product quality. Document describing the quality policy, quality goals and quality management system of an organization.
276
Production Engineering: 6.1 Quality management
Quality planning, Quality control, Quality testing Quality planning Rul-.of·ten (for coatsl 100·
1st phase
t
f
Trend in defect oosts 10·
'15~
§~
Costs required to eliminate defects or costs resulting from defects increase by about a factor o f 10 from phase to phase in the product life cycle.
2nd phase
1 0.1
~
product planning
process planning
and development
and production
testing and customer
E~tample: A tolerance error on a single part can be corrected during the design phase with n egligible increase of costs. If the defect is first noticed in pro· duction, much larger costs result. If the defect leads to problems in assembly or has an adverse Impact on the functionality of the finished product or even leads to a recall. enormous costs are Incurred.
Quality control - - - < " " ~=--
Quality control clrde
human
environ(
~mach\
"
raw parts ~
r
!
tes~
product
(/ material
goodj)MS
" II'
(/ method
~~~ on lnlpecllon a..y ~~ on procb;t ~
~I
& amples
Human
qualification, motivation. degree of utilization
Machine
machine rigidity, positioning accuracy, wear condition
Material
deviations. material properties. material variations
Method
work steps. production process. test conditions
Sull"OUndings (environment)
temperature, vibrations, light, noise, dust
Management
poor quality goals or policies
Measurability
measurement inaccuracy
management!
t
-
·--
Factors causing variance in quality Factor
Quality testing
cf. DIN 55350-11 (1988·08)
Concepts
~
Quality testing
Determine to what eKtent a unit meets specified quality requirements.
Test plan Test instructions
Define and describe the type and scope of testing. e.g. measuring and monitoring devices. frequency of testing, test personnel. testing location.
Complete testing
Testing of a unit for all specified quality characteristics, e.g. complete inspection of a single workpiece regarding all requirements.
100%testlng
Testing o f all units within a test lot. e. g. visual inspection of all delivered parts.
Statistical testing (sampling test)
Quality testing with the aid of statistical methods. e. g. evaluation of a large quantity of parts by analyzing a number of sampled parts.
Test lot (sampling testl
All of the units being tested, e. g. a production of 5000 identical workpieoes. I
Sample
One or more units which are taken from the population or a subset of the population, e.g. 50 parts from a daily production of 400 parts.
Probability (Probability of defect) Probability of a defective part within a defined total number of parts.
p probability in%
m total number of parts
n number of defective parts E!tample:
Probability
In a crate there are m = 400 parts. where n = 10 parts have a dimensional defect. What is the probability P of obtaining a defective part when taking one part out of the crate? Probability P =
~ · 100% e ~ • 100% = 2.5% m
400
I
P = ~ · 100% m
I
277
Production Engineering: 6.1 Quality management
Statistical analysis Statistical analysis of continuous characteristics Pr-etlon of test deta
vgl. DIN 53 804-1 (2002-04)
Example
Sample size: 40 parts Test characteristic: part diameter d • 8 :t 0.05 mm
Raw data list Raw data is the documentation of all M easured part diameter din mm ob served values from the test lot or sample in the sequence in w hich they Parts 1- 10 7.98 7.96 7.99 8.01 occur. Parts 11- 20 7.96 7.99 8.00 8.02 Parts 21- 30 7.99 8.05 8.03 8.00 Parts 31-40 8.02 8-01 8.05 7.94 Tallyaheet The tally sheet p rovides a clear presen· tation o f the ob served values and assignment into classes (ranges) of a specific class interval size.
n k
i
R "I h)
number o f individual values number o f classes class interval rang e (page 278) absolute frequency relative frequency in %
-....~..-
Clesa no.
I
7.5
Class interval size
27.5
7.98
Ill
3
7.98
8.00
Jill lilt I
3 11
4
8.00
8.02
Jill lilt Ill
13
32.5
5
8.02
8.04
Jill lilt
10
25
6
8.04
8.06
II
2
5
40
100
lh
(ti- (40 -
6.3 - 6 0.11 mm
>.
.,u
, ., o => .a.,_e
I
hi =
lJ~ 7.94
7.96
7.98
8.00
I
99.5 99
~ u c
.,:::> u
/
~
§
10 5
E
"
/ 1-- ~-
/ /.
0
/
I
1fT
/
/
/
~'
7.96
8.003 -
7.98
8.00
8.02
part diameter d
LLV lower limit value; ULV upper limit value
,_;::-
.; 0
99 99.5
~
8.04
.!:
90 95
~
t
~
-
80
I i
! I I
.... -d
0.1 10.05 7.94
70
!
I
20
60
I
1-.! r-
0.5 1 3% 5 10
30 40 50
J
20
1 0.6%
-- .
I I
60
40 30
:::>
-··- - · · - f-·
70
"'> ~ e., ~
I
:
/
80
xso
I
8.08
J(- -
95 ~ 90 c --::. 84 13 1- -·
I
~ . 100% I
8.02 8.04 mm part diameter d -
n = 40
f
i .., _R k
Reletive frequency
6
fr::
I
k "' .Jn
I
= - - - • 0.018 mm - 0.02 mm
c
The probability model of the example shows that in the entire lot app ro xi· mately 0.6 o/o of parts can be expected to be too thin and 3 % too thick.
2.5
7.96
Histogram
Example of problem solving using the graph: Arithmetic mean x (for fj e 50%1 and standard deviation s (as difference 68.26 % + 2 between lj = 50 % and 84.13 %): x .. 8.003 mm; s .. 0.02 m m
1
2
- c
Numberofdassas
I
"'
R
8.00 8.01 8.01 7.99 8.ot 8.02 8-01 8.02 8.00
~ In %
7.94
c-
7.99 7.99 8.01
"l
Tally~
1
A histogram is a bar graph for vi sua lizing the distribution o f individual test data.
In this case specific values can additionally be determined from the samples.
7.96 8.03 7.99 8.02 7.99 7.98 8.00 8-01
< 7.96
i =-
Cumulative frequency curve in Pf"Obability system The cumulative frequency curve in the probability system is a simple and clear graphical method used to check for the existence of a normal distribution (page 278). If the cumulative relative frequency in the probability system approximates a straight line, t hen a normal distribution of th e individual values can be assumed, i.e. a further evaluation can be conducted per DIN 53 804· 1 (page 278).
8.o2 8.02 8.03 7.98
99.9 99.95
mm
-
8.08
t
278
Production Engineering: 6.1 Quality management
Normal distribution Gaussian distribution 99.73% 95.44% 68.26%
xt di
-·3o
I '\~
.-h._ I
!
~
/
i
l lnfl&?lon I
I
pomt
"'-...._
·20
-(] • +0 +20 Jl characterist ic value x -
Continuous data values often exhibit a characteristic In their distribu· tion which is approximated mathematically by the Gaussian normal dimibution model. For an infinite number of individ ual val· ues the probability density of a normal distribution yields the typical bell curve. This symmetrical and continuous distribution curve is clearly described by the fo llowing parameters: The mean JJ lies on the curve maximum and identifies the position o f the distribution. The standard deviation o is a measure of the variations, i.e. h ow val· ues deviate from the mean. 11 Cart Friedrich GauB {1777- 18551, German mathematician
+3o
Normal distribution in sampling
t
~
curv!l determmed from X&ndS
number of individual values {sample size) x 1 value of measurable properties, e.g. individual value x,.,. largest measurement value Kmln smallest measurement value arithmetic mean ii median value11, middle value of measured values arranged in order of magnitude s standard deviation R range D mode {measurement value occurring most lrequently in a test series) 91oc~ probability density
! IN
tinflection point
v. I \~ I
I __) ' ·lsi
cf. DIN 53804-1 {2002·04) or DGO 16-31 {1990)
n
-2s
·s
I +S
+3S
+2s
R
Xmln
x
Xrnax
·---- x- ....- --l•
l ~-o
1
I
cha~acteristlc value
x
Arithmetic mean21
Standard deviation21
I. s-y
/Dx1- x)2 n-1
I .
Range
I
R = Xmax- Xmin
I
I
Mean of sample ranges
When evaluating several samples:
m
number of samples
R
mean of multiple sample ranges
X
mean of multiple sample means
s
mean of standard deviations
R= R, + R2:···+Rm
I
Example: Evaluation of sample values from page 277: K• 8.00225mm
R • 0.11 mm
x • 8.005mm
11 Median value for odd number o f individual values: e.g. x 1; x2 ; x3 ; x.: >
0=7.99mm
even number of individual values: e.g. x1; x2; x~ x.; xs: ><6:
X= X3
21
s=0.02348mm
X= {Xl + x.l/ 2
Many pocket calculators have special functions for calculating the mean and standard deviation. Repeated occurrences of identical measurement values can be represented by a suitable factor.
Mean of standard deviations
Normal distribution in an inspection lot Parameters of the population are estimated using a sampling method based on characteristic values from the sam· pie (confirmatory statistics). To differentiate sampling characteristics clearly from parameters of the population, other designations are used. These estimated values are distinguished from the calculated process values for a 100% inspection (descriptive statistics) by adding a • mark
Characteristic values and designations in quality testing Sampling test {confirm.tory statistic:sl Sample Number of measured values n Arithmetic mean
x
Standard deviation
s
Popul.tion
100"' INpeetion {
Number of measured values m. n
Number of measured values N
Estimated p rocess mean17
Process mean I'
Estimated process standard deviation o (calculator o 0 _ 1)
Process standard deviation o (calculator onl
279
Product ion Engineering: 6.1 Quality management
Statistical process control Quality control cherts ~control
Proeeu control cherts Process control charts are used for monitoring a process for changes compared to a target value or a previous process value. The Intervention and w arning limits are determ ined by the process estimated value of a population or a preliminary run.
charts
Acceptance control charts are used to monitor a process in reference to set specification limits (limit values). Control limits are calculated as tolerance limits for the locetion of the process mean and a tolerance range for process va riance.
Process control charts for quantitative characteristics (Shewhart-control charts)11 Rew deta chert
Control limits
The raw data chan is a docu· mentation of all measuremoot values by entering direclly on the chart. ~ assumes an approximate normal distribu· tion process and is relatively complex because of the number of entries.
)(
Exemple: 5 i ndividual values for each sample
characteristic mean (mean of the characteris· tic, target value, ideal value)
UWL LWL
upper warning limit lower warning limit
UCL LCL USL
upper control limit low er control limit upper specifocation limit
LSL
lower specifoeation limit
5.06 5.04 5.02 1> •E 5.00 ~ --l ~E ;) 4.98 4.96 ~ 4.94 ~ ;)
...
--
...,
r- -
Sam~le n um er
1
USL UCL - - I r- ...; f- -
>- UWL
-- -- -- ~;;
-...;
---- r-
LWL LCL LSL
2
3
4
5 ...
Median value range chart (i-R-chartl
Mean standard deviation chart (.i+ Chart)
These charts are used to clearly represent production dispersion without requiring much calculation. They are suitable for manual control chart management.
These charts are used to show the trend of the mean and exhibit greater sensitivity than x·R-eharts. They require computer-aided control chart management.
Example:
Example:
Inspect:. characteristic: Cont rol dimension: d iameter 5±0.05 Sampl e size
n;5
x,
Control interval 60min
,\
4.98 4.96 5.03 4.97 4.97 4.99 5.01 4.96 5.03 5.02 5.01 XJ 4.99 ~ n; E m> x4 5.01 4.99 4.99 4.99 ~ xs 5.01 5.00 4.98 5.02 ~X 24.96 24.97 25.03 24.95 4.99 4.99 5.0 1 4.99 \ R 0.04 0.07 0.05 0.06 \ "'Q) 5.04 UCL ., => E 5.02 UWL ~ E : -·X '7"'!'c: c: 5.00 4.98 LSL 4.96 : LCL ~ 0.08 UCL : UWL 0.06 ~ ~- r---x "' g>EE 0.04 LWL "' ·-c: a: 0.02 LCL : 0:: 0 Sample no 1 2 3 I 4 g oo 6 00 7 00 Time 8 ""
~ "' 5~ E
X2
x
.
"' ·il)(
--
-
·J
11
Walter Andrew Shewhart (1891- 1967), American scientist
,
Inspect. characteristic: Control dimension: d iameter 5±0.05 Sample size:
Control intervall: 60 m in
n;5
.,E .,
:; !g E :n; E .,>
~
.. Q)
"E ~E c: c:
:o.
~
"'
"E c:
coo
-o:;:; C:IO
~ ·~
"0
Xt
4.98
x2 4.97 4.99 5.01 xs 5.01 X 4.992 s 0.018 5.02 5.01 5.00 r4.99 4.98 0.026 0.0 24 0.022 r0.020 0.018 0.016 XJ
X4
4.96 5.03 4.97 4.99 5.01 4.96 5.03 5.02 5.01 4.99 4.99 4.99 5.00 4.98 5.02 4.994 5.006 4.990 0.025 0.021 0.025 UCL ' UWL
--x
-+- 17'i'-
.
LWL LCL UCL UWL
:
-.r,- -:.:'1. ~-+- --·x
Sample no.
1
Tim e
6 ""
LWL LCL
I I
2 7 00
1
3 8 00
1
4 g oo
I J
280
Production Engineering: 6. 1 Quality management
Process trend, Acceptance sampling and plan Proceaa trend (e.g. from an ; tracel UCL
?Vt/f¥1-x
Natural run
2/3 of all values lie in the range
The process is under control and can con· tinue without interruption.
: standard deviation s and all val· ues lie within the control limits. Exceedi ng the control limits The values are outside of tho con· trollimits.
RUN lsequentiall 7 or more sequential values lie on one side of the mean line.
Over.adjusted machine, different material, damaged or worn equipment Stop process and 100% inspect parts since the last sampling Tool wear, other material charge. new tool. new personnel - Tightened observation of the process
LCL ;:a
UCL
fl\----;:;r'!:_-- x ......
Trend 7 or more sequential values show an increasing or decreasing trend.
LCL
Middle Third At least 15 consecutive values lie within : S1andard deviations.
~
« UCL
F/%N:-xLCL 1
Cyclical The values cross the mean line periodically.
Wear on tool, equipment or measuring devices. operator fatigue -· Stop process to determine reasons for adjustment Improved production, better supervision, corrected test results -
Determine how the process was improved or check the test results
Different measuring devices, systematic spread of tho data - Examine manufacturing process for influences
Acceptance sampling (attribute sampling!
cf. DIN ISO 2859· 1 (2004-01)
An attribute inspection is an acceptance sampling inspection in which the acceptability of the inspection lot is deter· mined based on defective units or defects in individual sampling. The percentage of nonconforming units or the number of defects per hundred units of the lot identifies the quality level. The acceptable quality level is the quality level defined for continuously presented lots; it is a quality level that is specified by the customer in most cases. The associated sampling instructions are summarized in control tables. Acceptance sampling plan for lingle sampling inspection as the normal inspection (excerpt from a control tablel Acceptable quality t.w1 AOl (preferT.cl ,..uesl
lot size 0.04
0 .065
0.10
0.15
0.25
0.40
0.66
1.0
1.5
8
~
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
9- 15
~
I
l
l
l
I
l
l
8
0
5
0
16- 25
~
l
I
I
I
l
l
13
0
8
0
5
0
26- 50
~
l
I
I
I
I
20
0
13
0
8
0
5
0
51-
90
I
l
I
l
50
0
32
0
20
0
13
0
8
0
20
1
91 - 150
I
I
I
80
0
50
0
32
0
20
0
13
0
32
1
20
1
151- 280
l
~
125 0
80
0
50
0
32
0
20
0
50
1
32
1
32
2
2-
281- 500
I
501- 1200
315
0
2.5 ~
200
0
125 0
80
0
50
0
32
0
80
1
50
1
50
2
50
3
200
0
125 0
80
0
50
0
125
1
80
1
80
2
80
3
80
5
, _ _ ,~ the u~batch fi~ um.>og '~""'"''of m;, "'"mo. '"'" ~m•• "";, ,_,. "'"" """" size: Carry out a 100% inspection. 50 2
Second number: Acceptance numbet • number of the accepted delivered defective units First number: Sample size= number of units to be tested
281
Production Engineering: 6.1 Quality management
Process and machine capability, Quality control charts Capability, Quality control charts During an evaluation of the quality-related capability of a process through capability characteristics (capability Indices), differentiation must be made between shortterm capability (machine capabilityland long•term capability (process capability),
t
lJt"'--
If C, ~ 1.67 and C,k ~ 1.67, this means that 99.99994 % (range .t 5 s) of the quality characteristics lie within the limits and the mean xlies at least an amount ol 5 s away from the tolerance limits.
;; LLV ULV charcteristic value LLV ULV
x s
T
cm - -6 · S
Machine capability is an evaluation of the machine, I.e. whether there Is suffiCient probability that it can produoa within specified limits given its normal nuctuations.
toleranoa T~ 10 s s Acrit
~
Machine capability Index
C
Requirement" e.g.
C, ~ 1.67 and C,k " 1.67.
Process capability Index
lower limit value upper limit value arithmetic mean standard deviation
Acrit
smallest interval between mean and a tolerance limit C,. C,0 machine capability index
c =_!__ p
c;,.c,.
esti mated standard deviation
process capability index
T Cm ~ 6.$ =
6
s•
0.009 mm;
pi<---
3-a
Requirement II e.g.
ll Customer or contract specifiC requirements; in large scale production, e.g. automotive industry, tendency to higher requirements. e.g. C," 2.0.
x• 79.997 mm
O, l mm c.,. ~ Acrit a 0.047 mm G 1.74 _0.009 mm a 1.852; 3 -s 3 · 0.009 mm
The machine capability is below requirements.
ct. OGQ 16-33 (1990); OGQ 11-19 (1994)
Quality control charts for qualitative characteristics Defact chlrft
a
Cp " 1.33 and Cpk " 1.33
Example: Examination of machine capability lor production dimension 80 .t 0.05; Values from preliminary run:
6.
C _ 6crit
Process capability is an assessment of the manufacturing process, i.e. whether there Is sufficient probability that it can fulfill specified requirements given its normal fluctuations.
0
6krit
mk·3-s
Example:
Defect charts record the defective units, the defect types and their Irequency in a sampling.
I Sam!lle size n = 50
Palt Cover Defect type Paint damage
E.x ample of reading from the graph for F3: n • 9 - 50 · 450
Dents Corrosion Burr Crad
defects in% . :Eii - 100%
n
Bent Threads missing
=~ -100o/o = 0. 66% 450
Sample
Pareto11 diagram The Pa reto diagram classifies criteria (e. g. defects) according to type and frequency and is therefore an important aid in analyzing criteria and establishing priorities. Example for F2: Percentage of total defects 14 aJS · 100% = 40%
11 Pareto - Italian sociologist
no.
I Test interval: 60 min
Frequencyoldelect 1 F1 1 1 F2 1 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 F3 1 1 1 F4 1 F5 1 F6 2 13 1 13 1 2 F7 1 F8 1 4 6 3 3 3 5 4 3 4 11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
D. % 2 14 3 1 1 12 1 1
Perc. of total 0.44 3.11 0.66 ] 0.22 0.22 2.66 0.22 0.22
35
Example: 100
t i6
-"' ou -
Q>
"'-
§~
% ~
60 40 20 0
~
1/
!/'"; F2
F6
.
F3
F1
F4 F7 defect types
-
F8
Example of graphic: representation: Dents (F2) and angle error (F6l together ma~e up approx. 74% of the total errors.
F5
282
Production engineering: 6.2 Production planning
Job time 1l Structure of types of time for workers Basic setup time
I
lbo
I
I
I
Setup recovery time I ,.,. • z. re.~1oo % 1
I Setup time ( 11 • It» + 111 + fu1
r
IUnproduc. setup timel
,,. • z . tt.f100% 1
I
Activity time l~c; • '"' + ltf
Floor-to-floor time ~ IH• ftc+ fw
Waiting time lw
I
I
Material unpro· due. time tm
l
l
Recovery time r,. . z . tn/100%
Unproductivatime '• • z • ru/100%
~
Hllme
per unit work
luw • llf+lu+ r,.
Job time
T• t,+lp
I
Production time ~
lp • Q·Iuw
r-
1,
Personnei unproduc. time tp
z • percentages of the respective lloor·tO·IIoor time
o..lgn.tion
IExplan8tion with examples
T
Job time
Time allowed for manufacturing a lot size
'·
Setup time
Setup for an entire job • basic setup time r;,. • setup recovery time r,.. • setup unproductive time r.,.
Symbol
-~
turn on machine recovery time aher strenuous changeover repair of brief machine malfunction
lp
Production time
Time allowed for production of a lot size (without setup)
Ire
Recovery time
Personnel break time to reduce work-related fatigue
'·
Unproductive time • job-related interruption time 1m ~ unforeseen tool sharpening • personnel interruption time r, checking work times, taking care of needs
toe
Activity time
Times in which the actual job is processed assembly or deburring work • variable times lev • fixed times Itt cycle of a CNC program
lw
Waiting time
Waiting for the next workpiece in the continuous flow production
q
Job volume
Number of units to be prodlJ()ed for a job (lot size)
~
--
Example: Turning three shafts on a lathe
Sat up times: Setup job Setup of machine Setup of tool Basic setup time tbs Setup recovery time t., • 4o/oof r;,. Unproduc. setup time '·•= 14%offt,. Setup time t.= to.+ t,.+ t...
min 4.50 = 10.00 • 12.50 ~
.
= 27.00 1.08 = 3.78
=31.86
Production times: Activity time Waiting time Floor-to-floor time Recovery time Unproductive time Time per unit work Production time
'lw"' ltt=lac+lw r,. com pens. for in 1w lu • 8% of IH luw•ltt+lre+l..
t,.=q ·fuw
min 14.70 3.75 = = 18.45 ~
.
-
1.48 = 19.93 :59.79
Job time T = t. + tp .. 32 min + 60 min= 92 min(= 1.53 hr) ,, According to REFA (Verband fUr Arbeitsgestalrung, Betriebsorganisation und Unternehmensentwicklung e.V.) International Association for Work Design, Industrial Organization and Corporate Development
283
Production engineering: 6.2 Production planning
Utilization time 1I Structure of the types of times for production resources IPRJ
I I productive Main time tmp • ltv+ tn
I
t r
PR basic setup time
,.,.,.
I I
I r..,.,. . ~tup I1
setu~ime
r.,. • ,.,.,. + ' ""'
r
unproduc. time z . lt.f(lOO%
~ floor·to:,~r time ~
Aux. time productive fep • fav + lef
-1
ltn> •
Imp~ fop + rid
-1
H
PRtime per unit work
t._...p • IHP+ t 0 p
I unproductive time ~ z. rf!PflOO%
Utilization time
I
Tu1p • t,p + tpp PR production time lpP • Q· IIJWP
t.,p •
I
Idle time r1d
~
z • percentage rate of the respective floor-to-floor time
Designation
ExpiMWtion with e>camplel
Utilization time
lime allowed for utilization of a production resource for manufacturing a lot size
""
Production resource setup time
Setup of production resource for completing an entire job • PR basic setup time fboP - clamping equipment on a machine • unproductive setup time r.,.p - optimization of CNC program
lpp
Production resource production time
lime allowed for me production time of a lot size {without setup)
fuP
Production resource interruption time
lime in which the production resource is not utilized or additionally utilized; power outage, un-planned repair worll. etc.
t,p
Main productive time
limes in which the work object is processed according to plan - manual drilling • variable times r, • fixed times r.t - cycle of CNC program
t.p
Auxiliary productive time
Production resources are prep., loaded or emptied for the main productive time • variable times r.,. - manual clamping - automatic workpiece change • fixed times laf
fid
Idle time
Process or recovery related down time, e.g. filling of a magazine
q
Job volume
Number of units to be produced for a job (lot size)
Symbol
TutP
Example: Milling a contact surface on 20 base plates using a vertical m illing machine ~
min Production times:
Setup times: Read the job order and drawing Set up and store the surface cutter Clamp and unclamp the cutter Set up the machine
4.54 a 3.65 = 3.10 = 2.84 :
Milling= main productive time Imp Clamp workpiece ;o aux. productive time lap Transport workpiece= idle time IKt
=
Prod. res. ftoor·to-floor time lftP Imp + I•P + rid Production resources basic setup time tbsP 14.13 Prod. res. unproductive time luP = 10% of ri!P 1.41 Prod. res. unproductive s. time r..,.,. = 10% of 1bsf> = Prod. resource time per unit luwP • lttP + t0 p Production resowces setup time r.,. fosp + r...,. 15.54 Production resoun:e prod. time tpl' q · t...,..p
=
=
Utilization time TUtP
=
=
.
= e
=
= = e
m in 3.52 4.00 1.20 8.72 0.87 9.59
191 .80
=r.,. + ~ ~ 16 min + 192 min = 208 min I = 3.47 hrl
' ' According to REFA (Verband fUr Arbeitsgestaltung, Betriebsorganisation und Unternehmensentwicklung e .V.I International Association for Work Design, Industrial Organization and Corporate Development
284
Production engineering: 6.2 Production planning
Cost accounting Simple calculation (numerical example) 0wrt~ucf11
Dlnlctc:osts• thcfly~
Notthcfly atUibutable to • tpedfic product
to • tpedflc product Types of costs 11
$80000.00 Depreciation $120 000.00 Salaries (incl.
Material costs Labor costs
management salaries) Interest Other costs
r Overhead Cost cal· culation
$50000.00 $80000.00
Swehetge in pem~nt of wage coets
s 220 000.00 . 100% • s 120000.00
183.33%
$40000.00 A surcharge rounded off to $50000.00 185% is applied to each wage hour to cover overhead costs.
$220000.00
Rate per hour • S/hr 12.00 + 185% • S/hr 34.20 (for independent contractor invoices; management salaries • profit)
Material costs of order Working time 5 hr x S/hr 34.20
$171 .00
11 Costs must be determined periodically for every operation.
Price without VAT
$295.75
Wage hours • 10000 hrs
Labor costslhr • S/hr 12.00
$ 124.75
Expanded calculation (schematic)
~
Material costs +
MataMI clrect costs
Direct production costs Production wages attributable to o ne product
Lf
Machine costs Depreciation, interest, occupan· cy, energy and maintenanoe costs Remaining overhead Percent of production wages, e.g. fringe benefits, occupancy, operating materials, etc.
Equipment costs Drilling equipment molds etc.
r
+ Production overfleed 11
Designco$ts Salaries etc. +
Procurement costs + Material owrhud Percent of material direct costs, e. g . purchasing costs, storage costs, etc.
+ Special tools Special drills etc. +
Material costs
11 If no machine hourly rares are calculated, these are included in rhe production overhead and increase rhe surcharge rare. The overhead surcharge rates are taken from the opera· tiona/ accounting sheet
!
Out·of· house processing Heat treatment etc.
l Special direct co$ts of productiOn
Production co$t$ + Special direct costs of production
!
I
r Example:
Manufacturing CO$ts + Management and sales overhead Percent or manufacturing costs
l Prime cost +
Profit Percent of prime cost
T Raw price +
4
Commissions, discounts, Percent of sales price
T Sales price without VAT
I
Material direct costs Material overhead 5% Production wages 10 hr x S/hr 15.Machine costs 8 hr x S/hr 30.Residual overhead 200% of production wages Special tools
$ 1225.00 $61 .25 $ 150.00 $240.00 s 300.00 s 125.00
Manufacturing costs Management and sales overhead 12% of manufacturing costs
s 2 10 1.25
Prime cost Profit addition 10'Yo of the prime cost
$ 2353.40 $235.34
Raw price
$2588.74 s 136.25
$252.15
Commissions 5 % of sales price Sales price before VAT
-
-
$ 2724.99
285
Production engineering: 6.2 Product ion planning
Machine hourly rate calculation Machine hourty rete Clllculetlon Average produclion overhead does not take into consideration various machine costs attributable to a specific product. This type of cost accounting would be misleading. If machine costs are taken out of production overhead and converted to hours the machine was utilized, this yields the machine hourly rate. Compilation of machine costs Machine costs are: • Calculated depreciation Linear loss o f value over the servioo life of the machine relative to replacement cost
• Energy costs Costs incurred by electricity, natural gas. steam or gasoline consumption • Maintenance costs Costs for repairs and regular service • Other types of costs Costs for tool wear, insurance premiums, disposal of ooolants and lubricants etc.
• Calculat ed Interest Average interest for capital invested for the machine • Occupancy costs Costs incurred by floor and traffic space of the machine
Mec:hine running time, Machine hourty rates TRT Tr
Tsr TsM ~ CMhr
Ct Cv/hr
aocording to VDI Directive 3258
machine running time in hours/period total theoretical machine time in hours/period down times, e.g. work free days, work interruptions etc., usually in % of Tr times for service and maintenance, usually in % of Tr
Machine running time
I
TRT% TT- TsT- TsM
I
Machine hourly rates
c,
sum of machine costs per period (usually per year) machine costs per hour; machine hourly rate machine fixed costs per year; e.g. depreciation machine variable costs per hour; e.g. electrical consumption
CMhr = - +Cv/hr TAT
Calculation of machine hourty rete (example) Tool m achine: Procurement valueS 160 000.00 Power consumption 8 kW Occupancy cost.s Slm 2 10.00 x month Additional maintenance $/hr 5.00
Service life 10 years Assumed interest rate 8% Cost per kWh S 0.15 Base charge Slmonth 20.00 Space req. 15m2 Maintenance Slyear 8 000.00 Normal utilization Actual utilization 80% TRr = 1200 hr/year !100%) What would be the machine hourly rate for normal utilization and 80% utilization? Type of cost
Fixed costs $/year
c.lallation
procurement value service life in years
Calculated interest
1/z procurement value
M aintenance costs
maintenance factor" depreciation- e.g. 0.5 x S 16 000.00 maintenance is dependent upon utilization.
Energy costs
inS x interest 100%
-
Proportional occupancy costs
.
$80 000.- X 8% 100%
base charge for power supply stmonth 20.00 x 12 mon. power consumption " energy costs 8 kW x SlkWh 0.15 space cost rate x space requirement ~ Sfm21o.oo x month" 15m2 x 12 months
Machine hourly rate (C,..,.I at 80 % utilization a
.!d
Trrr+ Cv/hr •
_.9._
s 32 440.00 hr + Slhr 6.20 a 1200
-
0.8 • TRy+ G.)hr -
The m achine hourly rate does not include costs for operator.
$ 6400.00 $8000.00 $5.00
s 240.00 $ 1.20 $1 800.00
Total machine costs (CM) Machine hourly rate (C,..,.l at 100% utilization e
costs S/hr
s 16 000.00
s 160000.00
Calculated depreciation
10 years
Variable
$32«0.00 S/hr 33.23
s 32 440.00 0.8 . 1 200 hr + S/hr 6.20 - $/hr 40.00
$6.20
286
Product ion engineering: 6.2 Production planning
Direct costing l l Marginal costing (with numerical example) Contribution m argin
Marginal costing takes the market price o f a product into consideration. The market price must at least cover variable costs (lower price limit). The remainder is the con· tribution margin. Contribution margins of all products carry the costs of operational re8diness. R/pieco R
CM CM/piece
c,
market price; revenue per piece revenue (sales! of product contribution margin of product contribution margin per piece
c..p Bp
CM = R _ _ ...s_ piece
fixed costs variable costs profit or gain break011en point
piece
piece
CM
CM = - - · volume piece
Profit
P= CM-Ct Variable costs (C,.)ZI depends on production 110lume Material costs Labor costs Energy costs
Slpiece 30.00 Depreciation Slpieoe 20.00 Wages Slpiece 10.00 Interest Others C S/piece 60.00 l: Fixed costs Contribution margin 5000pieces s 110.00 - $60.00
l: Variable costs No. of pieces produced
c
.2
10 :;
Contribution margin (CM)
Rxed costs IC,l independent of production volume
CM • R/plece- C"/piece
$50000.00 $80000.00 $40000.00 $30000.00 $200000.00
Revenue of $/piece 110.00 must cover all variable costs first. The remainder is used to cover total fixed costs a nd includes pro fit.
- S/piece 50.00
Total contribution margin 5 000 pieces . Sip ieee 50.00 • S 250 000.00 r Fixed costs $ 200 000.00 Profit S 50 000.00
0
5
8
.
____fJ_
B rea keven pomt p • CM/piece•
t
sSlpiece 200 000.00 50.00 e
4
000 . poeces 400000
800000
/"'
•
~ 6000~ ~ point;:;' re/ ,. -: ~ ~
~ 400000
a .. 200000
§
"/
j
costs or contri-
»>~~'
tOial
costs
/ 118riable costs ~ /L---;----
//
fixed costs o ~-~--~--~-2000 4000 piec. 6000
o ~-----L------~----~~-
o
0
vok.tme -
2000 4000 piec. 6000 IIOiume -
Cost comparison method In the cost comparison m ethod. the machine or facility that incu rs the lowest costs for a given production volume should be selected. E>< 5 000 pieces as 475 000 Machine 2: C12 = $/year 200 000.00; Cyz = $/piece 50.00 $/year 200 000.- + S/piece 50.00 x 5000 pieces = $ 450 000 Machine 1 costs> machine 2 costs
r .
p·
oece count omot
M ilm
Cn - Cu = C,.,/piece _ C,dpiece
M· •
s 200 ooo.oo - S 100 000.00
""'
$/piece 75.00- $/piece 50.00
=4000
ieces P
Machine 2 is more economical at volumes above 4000 pieces.
Cost com.,.,Json
t
600 000
s
~~ 400000 s ii
e 2ooooo
A1 piece count limit 1'.\.,
I
madline 1 costs
v...
!i
'l
$475000.-
machine 1
! machine2
I. J __ _
i
l
j
Q L--L--~-L--~~--~---
0
2000
4000 ~ume
6000 pieces
-
11 Direct costing separates costs into fixed costs (costs of operating readiness) and variable costs (direct costs). Variable costs are calculated for each job and compared to revenue.
2•
Production engineering: 6.3 Machining processes, Productive time
287
Turning. Thread cutting Straight cylindrical turning and facing at constant rotational speed lp productive time d outside diameter d 1 Inside diameter dm mean diameter" I workpiece length 151 starting idle
1.,. overrun idle travel L travel feed per revolution n rotational speed number of cuts Vc cutting speed
Productive time
L· i t =p n·f
Calculeting travel L. mean diameter d, 8nd rotatioMIIpHd n Straight cylindrical turning without shoulder
floc:ing Solid cylinder with shoulder
with shoulder
Hollow cylinder
without shoulder
L
L I
L-' · l '"i
i....••J
L = ~2 + l..·
L a l+lsj
d : d +d, , n = ~ m 2 ' ll • dm '' Use of mean diameter dm leads to higher cutting speeds. This ensures acceptable cutting conditions for small diameters (inside area). Example: Straight cylindrical turning without shoulder, I• 1240 mm; lsi = 10 , = 2 mm; f= 0.6 mm; ; . 2; d= 160 mm;
Vc
=120m/min;
n
L • ?; n • ? (for infinitely variable speed adj ustment) lp a ?
L = I +Is; + ICJi • 1240 mm + 2 mm + 2 mm • 1244mm
v
120 ~
1
n ·d
n · 0.16 m
min
= -e- = ~~ 239 -
L·i tP = ;:;:-; =
1244 mm . 2 1
.. 17. 4 min
239 min · 0.6 mm
Thread cutting tp productive time
P thread pitch
L
n rotational speed
total travel of thread cutting tool thread length lso starting idle loi overrun idle travel number of cuts
s h
ap Vc
no. of starts thread depth cutting depth cutting speed
Productive time
L ·i ·s
t =-p
P·n
Number of cuts
. h
Example:
1= -
Threads M 24; I= 76 mm; Is; = 10
•
2 mm;
L •l+ l,; +l,;a 76mm +2mm +2 mm a 80mm
f= 0.6 mm; Vc = 6 m/min; i = 2; ap = 0.15 mm; 6~ n _ vc min ':t 80 _ 1_ h = 1.84mm;P=3mm;s = 1; n · d n ·0.024 m min L= ?; n= ?; i= ?; lp=? L • i · s 80 mm · 13 · 1 t = - - -= 4.3min P P·n 3mm·80 .2_ 1 84 i =!!. = · mm = 12.2 '< 13 min ap 0.15 mm
Bp
288
Production engineering: 6.3 M achining processes, Productive time
Turning Straight cylindrical turning end facing at constant cutting speed If the rotational speed must be limited for safety reasons by inpuning a rotation· at speed limit lltim- a tu rning diameter of d < transition diameter "' is turned at constant rotational speed (page 2871.
"'
transition diameter
number of cuts
culling speed lltim rotational speed limit productive time lp
d
Vc
do L
Trensition diameter
d,
,..
8p
effective diameter travel reed
Productive time
outside diameter inside diameter cuning depth
t - n·de · L ·i pVc • f
starting idle overrun idle travel
'""
Number of cub for
:••...;:::' '""'"' 2. 1. 8p
--
Celculeting travel L end effective diameter c4 Streight cylindrlcel turning
...:v d.
Feeing
J--11"-......~
d, 1-t---"'k::-~ !ij d, 1-,t---+- "'i
Q;
"C
n,_
n,..,,
rotational speed n -
rotational speed n HollOw c¥1nder
1.,
1,.
d-d1 L = - - +I,, 2
Example:
Facing;/.;= 1.5 mm; Vc =220m/min; f= 0.2 mm; i • 2; "'m = JOO
"'=
v
220000
m~
d,
=-..:£....=
L
=d -~ +I,;= 120 mm-65mm +1.5mm= 29mm 2 2
d
120mm+65mm 15 mm= 94 mm +. 2 "·94mm.29mm· 2 1t ·de· L · i :.:_.:..:..:.:..:.:c.:.,.,:::..:.:.:.:.:.:-=. - 0. 39 min v,. ( 220000 m~ · 0.2 mm
mon n·n;mn·3000 1
23.3mm (~>d,)
min
. =-d+d - + 1sl 2 1
mm
Production engineering: 6.3 Machining processes, Productive time
289
Drilling, Reaming, Counterboring, Planing, Shaping Drilling, reeming, counteninking lp
Cutt. 0
eo• , 1e• 130° 140°
'·
d
0.3 . d
lsJ lo,
0.6. d 0.23 . d 0.18· d
'·
productive time tool diameter bore depth starting idle overrun idle travel lead
L =I+ lc + Is;+ 10 ;
L f
n
"• 0
travel feed per revolution rotational speed cutting speed
Productive time
number of cuts drill point angle
Speed
L·i t =-P
I
L =I + lc +Is;
n·f
n =~ 1t· d
L = I+ 15 ;
Example: Blind hole or d c 30 mm; I • 90mm; f • 0.15 mm; n • 450/min; i • 15; is; • 1 mm; o = 130°; L = ?; tp = ?
lp
I lsi
lao L
w w.
productive time workpiece length starting idle overrun idle travel stroke length width of workpiece approach w idth
Workpieces without shoulder
L = I + Isi + 10 ;
L =I+ ic + 1,;= 90 mm + 0.23 · 30 mm + 1 mm • 98 mm
L·i
tp = n·f-
98 mm · 15 1
450 -
m in
W0
n "•
v, W f
. - 21 .78mm
·0.15mm
overrun wid1h no. of double strokes per minute
Productive time
cuning speed. approach speed return speed planing, shaping wid1h feed per double stroke number of cuts
Worllpieces with shoulder
L = I + Is; + 10 ;
W=
W+ Wa
290
Production engineering: 6.3 Machining processes, Productive time
Milling Product ive t ime
1p productive time
~-~-----~~:~~--~~ ~~--r_P_-~L-v_·_f;--~ I II
workpiece length
a.,
cutting depth
a,
engagement (milling width)
1,
approach
Feed per revolution of milling cutter
1., overrun idle travel
f=". N
1., staning travel
L
total travel
d
cutter diameter
Feed rate
Vt = n· f
n rotational speed
Vt = n· ft · N
feed per revolution
f,
feed pertooth
Rotational speed
N number of teeth vc culling speed
v,
feed rate number of cuts
Total tnlvel Land lt8rtlng travel I., in rellmon to the~
.-c:-s
Face milling Peripheral face milling
eccentric
centric
L = I + 11 + loi + ls1
L • I + 0 .5 · d + 10 + lol -/51 L = I + 0.5 · d + 11 + loi
1st = 0.5 · VrP -
a/ Example: Face milling (see left illustration): N = 1o. f, Vc = 30 m/min,/0 = /oi a 1.5 mm, i e 1 CUt
=0.08 mm,
Sought after. n; v1; L; fp 30 - m-
Solution: n
1
-~-~- 119-" ·d
R
·0.08m
min
v1 -n · f, ·N- 119 ~ . o.oamm · 10 · 95.2m~ m.n m•n
~
=
L
= 1+ 10 +la~+l.,.
d
1., •
260
30 mm • 0.375. it follows that 80mm
a. < 0.5 · d
Ja•.d -al = h omm. 80 mm- {30 mmJ2
= 38.7 mm
L
-260mm+ 1.5mm+ 1.Smm + 38.7 mm · 301 .7mm
tP
.!:...:..!. • :J:l1.7 mm. 1. v1
95 2
mm
· min
32min
29 1
Production engineering: 6.3 Machining processes, Productive time
Grinding Streight c:ytindrical grinding tp
L
n f
v1 d, d
ap I Wg
lo;
r
W«kpiece rotational
productive time travel number of cuts workpiece rotational speed workpiece feed per revolution feed rate initial diameter of workpiece final diameter of workpiece cutting depth workpiece length grinding wheel width overrun idle travel grinding allowance
Produ--c_t,_:_:_tl~;~~~~---'1
...
1
Number of cub f« exteme l straight for Internal str eight grinding grinding
11 2 cuts to spark out, for lower tolerance grades addi·
tiona! cuts are necessary
C.lculetlngtrewiL Workpieces without shoulder
Workplaces with shoulder
L
~-~----+~--~ 3
L = l - 3~. w.g
L =l-2. w. 3 g Feed for roughing f = 213 . w0 to 3/4 • w0 ;
feed for finishing
f • 1/ 4 •
w0 to 'h. w0
Sutfec:e grinding rp productive time 1
transverse feed per stroke Number of cuts
workpiece length
n
11 start. idle, overrun idle travel
no. of strokes per minute
vr feed rate
L travel
t
I
No. of strokes
I
i ,. - + 211 L ___ aP _ _ ___J
V
n ,. ..J..
L ___...J
, _____
number of cuts
w w idth of workpiece w0 overrun width
t
W grinding width
Bp cutting depth
Productive time
grinding allowance
w0 grinding wheel width
'' 2 cuts to spark out
C.lculetlng trawl L end grinding widttl W Workplaces with shoulder
Workplaces without shoulder
L a /+ 2 ·I;
I; •0.04 ·I
Transverse feed for roughing
f a 2/ 3 ·
W=w -.! 3 .w.g w9 to
4/ • 5
L= l+2·1;
w9; feed for finishing
I; -0.04 · I
f= 1/ 2 · w9 to 2t3 ·
w9
W= w - ~-w. 3 9
292
Production engineering 6.3 Machining processes, Machining coolants
Machining coolants for cutting metals Terminology and applications for machining coolants Typed mKhlning coolant
Effect
Group
~
Inorganic materials in water
Grinding
Organic or synthetic materials in water
Machining at high cutting speed
Emulsions
2%-20% emulsive (soluble) machining coolant in water
Good cooling effect, but low lubrication, e.g. machining (turning, milling, drilling) of easy-to-machine materials, at high cutting speed; for high working temperatures: susceptible to bacterial or fungal attack
Cutting oil
Mineral oils with polar additives (greases or synthetic esters) or EP additives'' to increase lubricating performance
For lower cutting speed, higher surface quality, for dif· ficult-to·machine materials; very good lubrication and corrosion protection
Solutions/ dispersions
-
I
SEMW machining coolants (oil in water)
Appliclltlons
Compotition
A
SESW machining coolants
cf. DIN 51385 (1991-Cl6) ~
"'c:
'a 8
i
"'c:
~ .a "t: ~
-j .."' !... c:
"'c:
1
..!: SN machining coolants insoluble in water
-
v
11 Machining coolants may be hazardous to health (page 198) and are therefore only used in small quantities. 21 EP =Extreme Pressure; additives to Increase acceptance of high surface pressure between chip and tool
Guidelines for selecting coolants Manufectwlng .,._s
Steel
c.t lion. mlllelible cast iron
Cu, Cudoys
AI,
Mg alloys
Aleloys
Roughing
emulsion, solution
dry
dry
emulsion, cutting oil
dry, cutting oil
Finishing
emulsion, cutting oil
emulsion, cutting oil
dry, emulsion
dry, cutting oil
dry, cutting oil
Milling
emulsion, solution, cutting oil
dry. emulsion
dry, emul,sion, cutting oil
cutting oil, emulsion
dry, cutting oil
Drilling
emulsion, cutting oil
dry, emulsion
dry, cutting oil, emulsion
cutting oil, emulsion
dry, cutting oil
cutting oil, emulsion
dry, cutting oil
dry, cutting oil
cutting oil
cutting oil
emulsion
dry, emulsion,
dry, cutting oil
cutting oil, emulsion
dry, cutting oil
cutting oil, emulsion
emulsion
cutting oil
cutting oil
cutting oil
cutting oil
cutting oil, emulsion
-
-
-
Thread cutting
cutting oil
cutting oil, emulsion
cutting oil
cutting oil
cutting oil, dry
Grinding
emulsion, solution, cutting oil
solution, emulsion
emulsion, solution
emulsion
Honing, lapping
cutting oil
cutting oil
-
-
Turning
-
Reaming Sawing Broaching
-
Hobbing, gear shaping
.
-
-
Production engineering 6.3 Machining processes, Machining coolants
293
Hard and dry machining, High-speed milling, MQCL Hard turning with cubic boron nitride (CBNI
~ '~
Turning process
Cutting speed vcmlmin
Material hardened steel HRC
Extemaltuming
4s-58
Internal turning External turning
> 58-65
Internal turning
Cuning depth lip mm
Feed f mm/revolution
60- 220
0.05- 0.3
0.05- 0.5
60- 180
0.05- 0.2
0.05-0.2
50- 190
0.05- 0.25
0.05- 0.4
50- 150
0.05- 0.2
0.05- 0.2
Hard milling with coated solid carbide (VHMI tools
~~
Material hardened steel
Cutting speed
working engagement
Vo
a,....,.
HRC
m/min
mm
1035
80-90
0.05 ·d
36- 45
60- 70
0.05 · d
46- 54
50- 60
0.05 · d
Feed per tooth ~ in mm for lathe diameter d in mm 2- 8
>8- 12
> 12- 20
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.03
0.04
0.05
High-speed cutting IHSCI with PCO
Material group
~
~ ~/' l.JI ... ::0. -. -:. /. ~ ~:W
-
Cutter diameter d in mm
Cutting speed
10
v.
20
m/min
a,
~
a,
~
mm
mm
mm
mm
Steel Rm 850- 1100 > 1100- 1400
280- 360 210-270
0.25
0.09-0.13
0.40
0.13- 0.18
Hardened steel 48-55HRC > 55- 67 HRC
90-240 75- 120
0.25 0.20
0.09-0.13
0.40 0.35
0.13- 0.18
EN-GJS > 180HB
300-360
0.25
0.09 -0.13
0.40
0. 13-0.18
Titanium alloy
90- 270
0.20- 0.25
0.09 - 0. 13
0.35- 0.40
0.13- 0.18
Cualloy
90-140
0.20
0.09-0.13
0.35
0. 13-0.18
Dry machining Process
Quenched and tempered steels
Cutting t ool material and machining coolant for: Iron mat erials Al materials
Cast iron
High-alloy steels
Cast alloy
Wrouaht allov
Drilling
TiN, dry
TIAJNII, MOCL
TiN, dry
TiAIN, MOCL
TiAIN, M OCL
Reaming
PCD. MOCL
_ 21
PCD, MOCL
TiAI N, PCD. MOCL
TiAJN, MOCL
Milling
TiN. dry
TIAJN, MOCL
ToN, dry
TiAIN, dry
TiAIN, M OCL
Sawing
MOCL
MOCL
_ 21
TIAJN, MOCL
TiAJN, MQCL
Minimum quantity of machining coolant (MOCl. or MQU3 Dependency of MOCL volume on m achining method milling drilling grinding lapping turning reaming honing Increasing tublicalion requirement
--
11 Titanium aluminum nitride (super hard coating)
Suitability of minimum quantity lubrication f or the material to be machined Cualloys AI alloy castings Ferritlc steel Pearlitic steel Mg alloys AI wrought alloys Cast......_ iron materials Stainless steels
-..
Increasing material suitability
2l Not normally done
31 Generally 0.01- 3 1/hr
294
Production engineering: 6.3 Machining processes, Tools
Cutting tool materials Designation of herd cutting tool materials Example:
I Code letter (see tho table below)
cf. DIN ISO 513 (2005·111
HC - K20
Application group
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::___~C-utt--in_g_m--a7in r
__ gjr ol u_p___________:::::::::::::::::::~
M (yellow)
Cu ingtool material group
K11
Components
H (gray) Applications
Properties
Uncoated hard metal, main component High hot hardness up to is tungsten carbide (WCI 1 000 "C. high wear resist· ance, high compression HW Grain size > 1 ~m strength, vibration HF Grain size < 1 1-1m damping
lndexable inserts for drilling. turning and milling tools, also for solid hard metal tools
HT
Uncoated hard metal of titanium Uke HW, but with high carbide (l1C), titanium nitride cutting edge stability, chemical resistance (l1N) or of both. also called cermet.
lndeKable inserts for lathe and milling tools for finishing at high cutting speeds
HC
HW and HT. but coated with titanium carbonitride mCNI
Increase of wear resistance without reducing tough· ness
Increasingly replacing the uncoated hard metals
CA
Cutting ceramics, primarily of aluminum oxide IAI20 31
High hardness and hot hardness up to 1 200 •c sensitive to severe temperature changes
Cutting of cast iron. usually without cooling lubricant
CM
Mixed ceramics with aluminum oxide (Al 2~1 base, as well as other oxides
Tougher than pure ceramics, Precision hard turning better resistance to of hardened steel, temperature variations cutting at high cutting speed
CN
Silicon nitride ceramics, primari- High toughness, high cutting edge stability ly of silicon nitride (Si3N.I
Cutting of cast iron at high cutting speed
Cutting ceramics with alumi· num oxide (Al 20 31, as a main component. reinforced
Tougher than pure ceramics due to reinforcement, im· proved resistance against temperature variations
Hard turning of hardened steel, cutting at high cutting speed
Cutting ceramics such as CA. CM and CN, but coated with titanium carbonitride mCNI
Increase of wear resistance Increasingly replacing without reducing tough· the uncoated cutting ness ceramics
Hard metals
CC Cutting ceramics
Cubic crystalline boron nitride (8N). Very high hardness and also designated CBN or PCB or "super- hot hardness up to hard cutting tool material" 2ooo•c. high wear resistance. chemical resistance BL With low boron nitride content
Dressing of hard materials (HRC > 481 with high surface quality
With high boron nitride content BL and BH. but coated High wear resistance, very brittle, temperature resistance up to 600 reacts with alloying elements
Cutting of non-ferrous metals and AI alloys with high silicon content
High toughness. high bending strength, low hardness, temperature resistant up to 600 •c
For severe alternating cutting forces. machining of plastics. for the cutting of AI and Cu alloys
•c.
Polycrystalline diamond (PCDI Diamond
II
Tool steel21
OM
Monocrystalline diamond
HS
High-performance high-speed steel with alloying elements tungsten (WI, molybdenum (Mo), vanadium (V) and cobalt (Co), usually coated with titanium nitridemNI
1l Code letters according to DIN ISO 513 21 Tool steels are not included in DIN ISO
513 but in ISO 4957
295
Production engineering: 6.3 Machining processes, Tools
Cutting tool materials Qauific:ation and application of hard cutting tool materials Codelllttet ooloroode
Application group
P05 P15 P25 P35 P45
M yellow
M01 M10 M20 M30 M40
K01 K10 K20 K30
M05 M15 M25
Wear resistance
All types of steels and cast steels. with the exception of stainless steel with austenitic structure
Austenitic and austenitic ferritlc stainless steels and cast steels
Cast iron with flake and spheroidal graphite malleable cast iron
Aluminum and other non-ferrous metals (e.g. Cu. Mg). non-ferrous materials (e.g. GPA, CFAPl
S05
515 525
H gray
H01 H10 H20 H30
H05 H15 H25
Possible cutting parameters H
Wor1cpiece - material
M35
K05 K15 K25 K35
cf. DIN ISO 513 (2005-11)
Cutting tool material properties •l
High-temperature special alloy on the basis of iron, nickel and cobalt. titanium and titanium alloys
Hardened steel, hardened cast iron materials, cast iron for ingot casting
Toughness
Cutting speed
Feed
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ w
w
296
Production engineering: 6.3. Machining processes, Tools
Designations for indexable inserts for cutting tools ' 1 [JIN , ;~:),:''1 l1~ 1
Oesignetion examples: lndexable carbide insert with rounded comers (DIN 4968) without mounting hole Insert DIN
4968
-
T
N
G
N
I
I
I
I
I
lndexable carbide inse~ with wiper tdgr
G)
Basic shape Equilateral, equiangular and round
Equilateral and non-equiangular
16 03 08 T
lOt 6i90)
I
I
I
I
P20
I
iithor mrnting hole
=:""m'"'_j -llll ~ r~ l ~ -~ H o oO P oR o sD TD c0 oo 0 e0 so M (}o v f oW o ~so
LD
Non-equilateral and L equiangular A. B. K non-equiangular
A
0
CJaso
B
EJB2o
K ~so
Many company specific shapes are used in addition to standardizied shapes.
@
Normel deeranc:e angle an to the Insert
@
Tolerance class
3•
l
5• 1
Control dim. d Control dim. m Insert thickness s Allow. dev.for Control dim. d Control dim. m Insert thickness s
@
®
Facesand clamping features
Insert size
1 w
1•
Allow. dev.for
A
1
2o·
I
F
I
I
25•
I
3oo
C
I
11•
I
special data
E
G
"'0.025 1 "'0.013 "'0.025 "'0.013 ± 0.02S ± 0.005 ± 0.013 :t 0.025 :t 0.025 "' 0.025 "' 0.025 "' 0.09 J I K L M N U :t o.05 ... :t o.15 ± O.OS ... ± 0.15 ± 0.16 :t 0.005 I :t 0.013 % O.D25 :t 0.08 ... :t 0.20 "'0.25 :t 0.025 :t 0.09 :t 0.025 "'0.13
R
c=:J c:::::J ~ c::::::::J
w
F
c=J
T
A
ODDIJ
a
I:ID 0:00:0 0:00!0 DiCJ
M
OlD r:::rc:l
u
I::JD
N
oo H
K
B
O:ODD
H
o:oc:ro
c
DD I::JD
J
X
Special data
The cutting length is the longer cutting edge for non-equilateral inserts, for round inserts it is the diameter.
@ Insert thickness
Insert thickness is given in mm without decimal places.
(j) Cutting point configuration
Code number multiplied by factor 0.1 • corner radius rc A
0
4s•
600
1. Letter sym bol for cutting edge angle x, of main cutting edge 2. Letter symbol for clearance angle
a'n on wiper edge !corner chamfer)
® Cutting point F sharp
T
E rounded
T chamfered
I I
A 3•
I B I I s• I
S chamfered rounded
I
C 7"
F
P
I 0 E F G N P I ts• 20" 2s• 30" o• 11•
K double chamfered
®
Cutting direction
R rigl\1 hand cuning
®>
Cutting tool material
Carbide with machining application group or cutting ceramic
L leh hand cuning
E
1s• as• so•
lp
doub. chamfered and rounded
N right and teft hand Cutting CneutraH
297
Production engineering: 6.3 M achining processes. Tools
• I :JIN :cH3
Designation of indexable and short indexable insert holders
1]1)1)
l 07 1
Designation example: Holder DIN 4984
I,
- c
T
w
N
R 32 25
M 16
cl ""'"'~
...J
of h older
.:J~
holding method insert shape"
design of holder
.
~~
normal clea r. angle of insert " a. -
]~t
type of holder
height of cutting edge h 1 • ~ in mm shank width win mm length o f holder 11 in mm indexable insert size11
11 For lndexable inserts, see page 296 Conllgw8tlons
Designation Insert holding
c
Letter symbol
~
• Holding of indexable insert Design o f holder
straight
~ offset
& Type of holder length of holder
clamped from above
clamped from above and from hole
clamped from hole
v
A
B
0
E
M
Side cutting edge angle Kr
go•
75°
45"
60"
50"
Type of holder
5
~ teJ
Letter symbol
N
63" 72.5°
G
go•
H
~ countersink hole and screw
J
107.5° 93"
straight
R
T
75"
600
offset
Letter symbol
c
F
K
5
u
Side cutting edge angle ~<,
900
90"
75"
45°
93°
Type of holder
straight
Letter symbol
R
letter symbol
A
B
c
0
E
F
G
H
J
K
L
M
32
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
125
140
150
N
p
0
R
s
T
u
v
w
X
y
160
170
180
200
250
300
350
400
/1
inmm
Letter symbol /1
=
p
M
inmm
w
y
so• ss•
Forms 0 and S also available with round indexable inserts of basic form R
offset right holder l
neutral (both sides)
leh holder N
450 Cust. lengths 500
Holder DIN 4984- CTWNR 3225 M 16: holder with square shank, clamped above (C). triangular "< = 60" (W), an = 0" (N), right hand (R), h1 = ~ = 32 mm, b = 25 mm, / 1 = indexable insert 150 mm (M),/3 =16.5 mm (16).
m.
298
Production engineering: 6.3 Machining processes, Forces and power
Forces and power in turning and drilling Turning Fe cutting force in N A chip section in mm 7 a, cuning depth in mm f feed per revolution in mm h chip thickness in mm " culling edge angle in degrees ( 0 ) C correction factor for the cutting
speed lie culling speed in m/min kc specific cuuing force in N/mm' (page 299) Pe culling power in kW P1 drive power of the machine tool in kW 11 efficiency of the machine tool
Con-ectlon factor C for
the cutting lfi"CI Cutting speed lie in rn/min
c
10-30
1.3
31 - 80
1.1
81 - 400
1.0
Chip Metion
Cutting force
Example:
A shah of 16MnCr5, Bp 5 mm, f = 0.32 mm, lie= 110m/min, " = 75° Sought after: h; kc; C; A ; F0 ; P 1 with 'I• 0.75 Solution: h - f . sin"- 0.32 mm • sin 75•- 0.31 mm k. - 373SN/mma (see table on page 299), C • 1.0 (see correction factor table) A •Bp. f - Smm ·0.32 mm- 1.6mm2 N F0 • A · ke • C · l.6 mm' • 3735 mm' • 1.0 - 5976N Q
Chip thickness
I
h
= f · sinx
Cutting power
p1 -~-~- 5976N · 110m -14608W- 14.6kW 1/ '1 0.75·60S
Drilling F. cutting force per edge in N number of cutting edges (twist drill z • 2) A chip section in mm2 d drill diameter in mm feed per revolution in mm f, feed per cutting edge in mm o drill point angle in degrees (•) h chip thickness in mm C correction factor for the cutting speed lie cutting speed in
Con-eetlon fector C for the cutting tpeed
z
Example: M ateriai42CrMo4, d = 16 mm,
Ve
=28
Sought after: h; ke; C; A; Fe; Pe 0 18 Solution: h - ~ . sin £. - • mm . sin 59" - 0.08 mm
2
2
2
k 0 = 6265 N /mm2 (see table on page 299)
A - ~. 16 mm·0.18mm. o.nmm2 4 4
Cutting speed lie in m/min
c
10- 30 31-80
1.3
edge
d .f A =4 Cutting force per cutting edge1)
I
Fe= 1.2 · A · kc · C
r·~~~''"%
C • 1.3 (see correction factor table) F0 - 1.2 · A. k0
•
N C - 1.2 . o.n mm' . 6265 mm' ·l.3 - 7037N
Po= ~ . 2 ·7037N · 28m 3284 N·m=3284W =3.3kW 2 60 S·2 s 1
l The specific cutting force values k, are assessed in turning tests. The conversion to drilling is realized via the factor 1.2 in the formula.
1.1
Chip section per cutting
Drive power
I
P,=~;
299
Production engineering: 6.3 Machining processes, Forces and power
Specific cutting force The specific cutting force kc is the the force that is required to separate a chip with a cross section of A • 1 mm• from a worl
'•
r-----1-·--1
~ h
~
8p
A : 1mm
\. -- t~.
(
,_
"
specific cutting force N/mm 2 chip thickness in mm feed in mm cutting depth in mm angle of incidence in degrees (•)
The chip thickness h depends on the applied machining process. C81oulation of chip thicknesses: pages 298 and 300.
~
Standard values for the specific: cutting force 11 Material
Specifoc cutting force
~ in
N/mm• for the chip thickness h in mm
0.05
0.08
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.40
0.50
MO
1.00
1.50
2.00
5235 E295 E355
3850 5635 4565
3555 4990 4215
3425 4705 4055
3195 4235 3785
3040 3930 3605
2930 3710 3470
2840 3535 3385
2705 3285 3205
2605 3100 3085
2405 2740 2850
2315 2585 2745
2160 2330 2560
2055 2160 2340
CI S, C15E C35,C35E C45,C45E
4575 4425 4760
4125 3895 4210
3925 3670 3975
3590 3290 3575
3370 3045 3320
3210 2865 3130
3085 2725 2985
2895 2525 2770
2755 2375 2615
2485 2095 2315
2365 1970 2185
2165 1765 1965
2030 1635 1825
C60,C60E 11SMnPb30 16MnCr5
4750 2675 5950
4365 2460 5265
4190 2360 4965
3895 2195 4470
3700 2085 4150
3555 2000 3915
3440 1935 3735
3265 1840 3465
3 135 1765 3270
2880 1625 2895
2770 1560 2730
2575 1450 2455
2445 1375 2260
20MnCr5 18CrMo4 34CrAIMo5
5775 4955 4930
5135 4575 4360
4855 4405 4115
4385 4110 3705
4085 3915 3435
3860 3770 3245
3690 3655 3095
3435 3480 2870
3245 3350 2710
2885 3095 2395
2730 2975 2260
2475 2780 2035
2295 2645 1890
42CrMo4 50CrV4 102Cr6
7080 6290 5895
6265 5565 4910
5915 5250 4500
5320 4725 3840
4940 4385
4445 3945 2930
4125 3660 2620
3890
3445
3455 2400
3060
3435
4660 4140 3145
2000
3250 2885 1835
2925 2595 1565
2715 241 0 1400
90MnCrV8 X210CrW12 X5CrNi18-10
5610 5155 5730
5080 4565 5190
4850 4305 4955
4455 3875 4550
4195 3595 4285
4000 3395 4085
3850
3625
3235 3935
3005
3705
3460 2835 3535
3 135 2510 3200
2990 2365 3055
2745 2130 2805
2585 1975 2640
X30Cr13 liAI6V4
5155 3340
4565 3025
4305 2890
3875 2655
3595 2495
3395 2385
3235 2295
3005 2160
2835 2060
2510 1985
2365 1780
2130 1635
1975 1540
GJL-150 GJL-200 GJL-400
2315 2805 4165
2100 2495 3685
2005 2360 3480
1840 2130 3130
1730 1985 2905
1650 1875 2740
1590 1790 2615
1500 1670 2425
1430 1575 2290
1295 1405 2025
1235 1325 1910
1135 1200 1720
1065 1115 1595
GJ$-400 GJS-600 GJS-800
2765 3200 5500
2455 2955 4470
2325 2845 4055
2100 2655 3390
1955 2530 2985
1845 2435 2710
1765 2360 2500
1645 2250 2200
1555 2165 1995
1380 2000 1625
1305 1925 1470
1180 1795 1230
1100 1710 1085
AICuMg1 A1Mg3 AC-AISi12
2150 2020 2150
1930 1810 1930
1835 1725 1835
1670 1570 1670
1565 1470 1565
1485 1395 1485
1425 1340 1425
1335 1250 1335
1265 1190 1265
1135 1065 1135
1080 1015 1080
985 925 985
920 865 920
MgAISZn CuZn40Pb2 CuSn7ZnPb
895 1740 1760
820 1600 1565
785 1535 1480
725 1425 1335
690 1355 1245
660 1300 1175
635 1260 1125
60S 1195 1045
580 1150 990
530 1055 880
505 1015 830
470 945 750
445 895 700
11
The standard values apply to tools with hard metal edges. Tool wear increases the specific cutting force by approximately 30%. The values specified in the table include this addition. For turning, drilling (page 298) a nd milling p rocesses (page 3001, the effect of the cutting speed on the standard values for the specific cutting force is considered via correction factors C in the upper table.
300
Production engineering: 6.3 Machining processes, Forces and power
Forces and power in milling Face milling FMC! rate
Fe cutting force per tooth in N A
a,
••h (
f, d Vc
v, N
chip section per tooth in mm2 cutting depth in mm engagement (milling width) in mm chip thickness in mm feed per revolution in mm feed per tooth in mm Chip a-oss section per tooth
cutter diameter in mm cuu lng speed in m/min feed rate in mm/min number of teeth
No number o f teeth engaged angle of engagement in degrees (")
'(J
kc
specific cutting I oree in N/mm2 (page 299)
c
correction factor for the cutting speed Pc cutting power in kW P, drive power in kW
,,
Cutting I oree per tooth 11
I
effective power of the machine tool
Example:
Chip thickness ford= (1.2-1 .6)· ••21
Material 16MnCr5; d• 180 mm; N• 12; Be= 120 mm; ap = 6 mm; f, • 0.10 mm; Ve • 85 m/min; 'I • 0.8. Sought after: A ; h;
kc:
Fe;
'(J:
Fe = 1.2 · A · k, · C
N0 ; Pr,; P1
A -a.,· f, • 6mm ·0.1 mm - o.6mm2 h -f,- O.l mm N kc • 4965 mm2 (table on page 299)
Solution:
Numb« of teeth
Fe • 1.2 · A · kc · C; C - tO (table of correction factors C) N
Fe - 1.2 · 0.6 mm2 · 4965 mm2 · 1.0 mm- 3575 N
!!... • 180 mm . a0
120mm
1.5; ., . 83" (angle of engagement '(J table)
N 0 ·N· ....!f!._ · 12 · 83" · 2.8
'31:11'
P.,
= N ·
P,
=
•
'31:11'
fc · Vc• 2.8 · 3575N • 8Sm - 14181 N·m - 14.2kW 60s
'1
Cutting power
0.8
Angle of engagement,
d/a0
V>in °
s
.!£ ~ 14.2kW - n.a kW
d/a0
'(Jin •
dla,
tpin •
1.20
113
1.35
96
1.50
1.25
106
1.40
91
1.55
80
1.30
100
1.45
87
1.60
77
Con8c1ion factor C for the cutting speed
83 Cutting speed v.inm/min
c
d
cutter dameter
30-80
1.1
a.
engagement
81-400
1.0
kc (page 299) are assessed in turning tests. The conversi on to milling is achieved via the factor 1.2 in the formula. 21 In order to ensure favorable cutting conditions. the cutter diameter should be selected in the range d = (1.2-1.6). a•. 11 The values of the specifiC cutting force
301
Production engineering: 6.3 Machining processes, Standard values
Drilling Twist drills of high-speed steel CHSSI
, V·
Typell
Helix angle
cf. DIN 1414·1 (2006-1 1)
Application
i
Point engle3l
N
Univ ersal application for materials up to Rm .. 1000 N/mm 2• e. g. structural. casehardened. quenched and tempered steels
30•-4o•
118°
H
Drilling o f brittle. short-ch ipping non·ferrous metals and plastics. e. g. CuZn alloys and PMMA (Plexiglas)
13°-19°
118°
w
Drilling o f soft. long-chipping non-ferrous metals and plastics, e. g. Al and M g alloys, PA (polyamide) and PVC
40°-47°
130°
I l'
Hefix angle2l
1l Tool application g roups fo r HSS tools according to DIN 1835 2l Depends on drill diameter and pitch 31 Standard v ersion
Point angle
Standard values for dnlling with HSS twist drills 1> Workpieoe material Material group
Drill diameter din mm
Cutting speed21
Tensile strenglh Rm inN/mm2 or Hardness HB
2-3
Ve
m/min
I
>3-6
1 >6-12 1 >12- 25 1 >25-50
Feed fIn mm/rev olution
Steels, low s1rength
R,,;BOO
40
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.25
Steels. high strength
11,> 800
20
0.04
0.08
0.10
0.15
0.20
Stainless steels
R,"' 800
12
0.03
0.06
0.08
0.12
0.18
Cast iron. malleable cast iron
"' 250 HB
20
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.60
AI alloys
R,"' 350
45
0.10
0.20
0.30
OAO
0.60
Cu alloys
R,"' 500
60
0.10
0.15
0.30
0.40
0.60
Thermoplastics
-
50
0.10
0. 15
0.30
0.40
0.60
Thermoset plastics
-
25
0.05
0.10
0.18
0.27
0.35
0.35
Standard values for drilling with carbide drills11
M ateriel group
Drill diameter d in mm
Cutting speed,,
Workpiece materiel Tensile strength RminN/mm2 or Hardness HB
2-3
Vc
m/min
I
>3-6
1
> 6-12 1 >12-25
1 >25-50
Feed fin mmtrevolution
Steels. low strength
Rms 800
90
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.25
0.40
Steels. h fgh strength
Rm >800
80
0.08
0.13
0.20
0.30
0.40
Stainless steels
Rm "'BOO
40
0.08
0.13
0.20
0.30
0.40
Cast iron. malleable cast iron
s 250HB
100
0.10
0.15
0.30
0.45
0.70
AI alloys
Rm ,;350
180
0.15
0.25
0.40
0.60
0.80
Cu alloys
R,s SOO
200
0.12
0.16
0.30
0.45
0.60
-
80
0.05
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
-
80
0.05
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
Thermoplastics Thermoset plastics
•
Standard values for modified conditions Standard values for cutting speed and feed are valid fo r moderate usage conditions: • shortdrill • tool life approx. 30 min • average strength of material • hole depth < 5 · d Standard values are • increased for more favorable conditions. • dl!a'eased fo r unfavorable conditions 11 For cooling lubricants. see pages 292 and 293
21
Values fo r coated drills
302
Production engineering: 6.3 Machining processes. Standard values
Reaming and tapping Standard values fOf' reaming with HSS reamers11 Workpiece material Material group
Cutting speed
Tool diameter din mm
Reaming allow. ford inmm
"•
2-3 1 >3-0 1>6-121 >12- 251 >25-60
to20 >20-50
Tens. strength R, in N/mm2 or Hardness HB
m/min
Steels, low strength
R, :S 800
15
0.06
0.12
0.18
0.32
Steels. high strength
Rm> 800
10
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.25
0.40
Stainless steels
Rms 800
8
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.25
0.40
Cast iron, malleable cast iron
s 250 HB
15
0.06
0.12
0.18
0.32
0.50
AI alloys
Rms 350
26
0.10
0.18
0.30
0.50
0.80
Cu alloys
Feed fIn mm/revolution 0.50
R, " 500
26
0.10
0.18
0.30
0.50
0.80
Thermoplastics
-
14
0.12
0.20
0.35
0.60
1.00
Thermoset plastics
-
14
0.12
0.20
0.35
0.60
1.00
0.20
0.30
0.30
0.60
Standard values fOf' reaming with carbide tooling 11 Workpiece material Material group
Cutting speed
Tool diameter d in mm
Reaming allow. ford in mm
"•
2-3 1 >J.-0 1>6-121 > 12-251 >25-60
to20 >20-50
Tens. strength R, In N/mm2 or Hardness HB
m/min
Steels, low strength
R, "800
15
0.06
0.12
0.18
0.32
0.50
Steels, high strength
Rrn >800
10
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.25
0.40
Stainless steels
Rm ~ 800
10
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.25
0.40
Cast iron, malleable cast iron
"' 250 HB
25
0.10
0.18
0.28
0.50
0.80
AI alloys
Rm s 350
30
0.12
0.20
0.35
0.50
1.00
Cu alloys
Rms 500
30
0.12
0.20
0.35
0.50
1.00
Thermoplastics
-
20
0.12
0.20
0.35
0.50
1.00
Thermoset plastics
-
30
0.12
0.20
0.35
0.50
1.00
Feed fin mm/revolution
0.20
0.30
0.30
0.60
Standard values fOf' tapping and thread fOf'ming '' Workpiece material Material group
HSStool
Tens. strength R, in Ntmm2 or
Hardness HB Steels, low strength
Tapping21
I
Carbide tool
Thread formi.ng21
Cutting speed Vc m/min
-
20-30
-
20 - 30
15- 20
-
25-35
-
Rms350
20- 40
30-50
60-80
60-80
Rms500
30- 40
25-35
30-40
50-70
-
20-30
-
50 - 70
-
10- 15
-
25-35
-
Rm>800
20-30
Stainless steels
Rm"'800
8-12
Cast iron, malleable cast iron
s 250HB
AI alloys
1l 2l
m/min
10- 20
Steels, high strength
Thermoset plastics
vc
15- 20
40- 50
--
Cutting speed
40 - 60
40-50
Thermoplastics
Thread forming21
I
-
Rm s 800
Cu alloys
Tapping2>
For cooling lubricants, see pages 292 and 293 Upper limit values: for material groups with lower strengths; short threads Lower limit values: for material groups with higher strengths; long threads
Production engineering: 6.3 Machining processes, Standard values
303
Turning Roughness depth depending on tool nose radius and feed r tool nose radius
R, theoretical
r-·-
roughness depth
·-,-·-.---.---
a,
feed cuning depth
Example:
R.. •
-· ~ ~
f
25 IJm; r • 1.2 m m ; f • 1
r ~ Ja ., .R, ; ~8 · 1.2 mm · 0.02Smm • 0.5mm Roughn. depth
tool
R,
0.4
inllm 1.6 4 10 16 25
0.07 0.11 0.18 0.23 0..28
I
Theor. rough·
EtJ R,... R,
Nose radius r in mm o.a j 1.2 Feed flnmm O. t2 0.10 0.16 0.20 0.25 0.31 0.32 0.39 0.40 0.49
I
1.6 0.14 0.23 0.36 0.45 0.57
Standard values for turning with HSS tools1121 M aterial group
Woliq>iece material Tensile strenglh R,., in N/mm2 or HardnessHB
Cuning speed v. in m/min
Cutting depth
f in mm
mm
0.1- 0.5
0.5- 4.0
Feed
Cuning depth
!'on!>
40- 80
R,.s aoo
Steels, low strength
Feed
30-60
Steels, high strength
30- 60
Stainless steels Cast iron, malleable cast iron
s 250 HB
20-35
AI alloys
R,., "' 350
120- 180
Cu alloys
R,. s soo
100-125 100- 500
Thermoplastics Thermoset plastics
-
80-400
Standard values for turning using coated carbide toofs21 Material group
Workpiece material Tensile strength R,., in N/mm2 or Hardness HB
Steels, low strength
R,.. s 800
Cutting speed Vc in m/min
f
In
!'on!>
mm
mm
0.1 - 0.5
0.3-5.0
200-350 100- 200
Steels, high strength
80- 200
Stainless steels Cast iron, malleable cast iron
"'250 HB
100- 300
AI alloys
Rms 350
400-800
Cu alloys
150- 300
Thermoplastics
500-2000
Thermoset plastics
400 - 1000
Application of the cutting data range Example: Standard values for turning of steels with lower strengths using carbide tools Vc •
350m/min
r . o.smm, ap;S.Omm 11
• finish machining (finishing) • stable tool and workpiece • premachining (roughing) • stable tool and workpiece
Vc ;
200 m/min
f;0.1 mm,
a, • 0.3 mm
HSS lathe tools have for the most part been replaced by lathe tools with carbide indexable inserts.
• premachining (roughing! • unstable tool or workpiece ·finish machining !finishing) • unstable tool or workpiece 21
Machining coolant, see pages 292 and 293
304
Production engineering: 6.3 Machining processes. Taper turning
Taper turning Terminology for tapers
cf. DIN ISO 3040 11991·091
f
D large taper diameter d small taper diameter L taper length
taper incline
1 : x taper: on a taper length o f the taper diameter changes by 1 mm.
a taper angle
a
taper-generating angle (sening angle) C taper ratio
2
x mm
Teper turning on CNC lathes CNC program according to DIN 6602511 to produce a workpiece with a taper (see figure): N10 N20 N30 N40 N50
GOO G01 G01 G01 G01
xo
Z2
XO X50 X60
zo
N60 N70
GOt GOO
X72 X tOO
11 Compare to page
Z-25 Z-40
Approach at rapid speed Traversing motion to P1 Traversing motion to P2 Traversing motion to P3 Traversing motion to P4
2150
Tool change point
F0.15
Traversing motion over PS
387
Taper turning by setting the compound rest Example:
Setting angle
D • 225 mm, d • 150 mm, L = 100 mm;
C225- 1501 mm O.J75 2- 100mm
a = 20.556" = 20"33 ' 22 "
2
(225 - 1501mm - 0.7S=
100mm
L
2
D -d tan -= - 2 2-L
tan2 • 2.T
C = D-d =
C
2
a
D- d
a
a
tan- = -
a
2 = 7; C= 7
1 : 1_33
~ ~
Taper turning by offsetting the tailstoc:k tailstock offset maximum allowable tailstock offset workpiece length
lathe axis
Lw
Tailstock offset
Example:
D = 20 mm; d = 18 mm; L • 80 mm; Lw • 100 mm Vy = 7; Vy,_ = ?
D-d t._ Vy = -2- · L
Maximum allowable tailstock offset''
\{,
=(20-18tmm. 100 mm= t . 2Smm 2 BOmm
Vy ,_ S t._ = 100 mm = 2 mm 50 H
50
If the tailstock offset is too large the workpiece cannot be secured between the lathe centers.
< Lw
Tmax - 50
305
Production engineering: 6.3 Machining processes, Standard values
Milling Standard values for miling with HSS milling cutters Marerial group
Workpiece marerial Tensile strength Rm in N/mm 2 or HardnessHB
Sreels, low slrenglh
Cutting speed Vc
lnm/min
Rms800
50-100
Rm>800
30-60
Rmo: 800
15-30
casr iron, m alleable casr iron
s 250HB
25-40
AI alloys
Rms350
50-150
Sreels, high slrength
'
Srainless steels
c;
Cu alloys
Rms500
50-100
-
100-400
Thermoplastics Thermoser plastics
Milling cutter (except for end mill)
Feed ~inmm Endmilldinmm
6
12
20
0.05-0.15
0.06
0.08
0.10
0. 1().{1.20
0.10
0.15
0.20
100-400
Standard values for milling with coated carbide M aterial group
Workpiece mareriel Tensile Strength Rm in N/mm2 or Hardness HB
Sreels, low srrengrh
Rms 800
Cutting speed
v. inm!min
Rm>800
150-300
Srainless sreels
R..,o:800
150-300
CaSt iron, m alleable casr iron
s 250 HB
150-300
AI alloys
R..,s350
40G-a00
Thermoplastics
--
R..,s500
200-400
-
500-1500
-
400-1000
Thermoset plastics
Feed ~inmm End mill d in mm
6
12
20
0.05-0.15
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.1().{1.20
0.10
0.15
0.20
200-400
Steels, high slrengrh
Cu alloys
Milling cutter (e>eeept for endmilll
Increasing the recommended feed per cutting edge ~ for slotting with side milling cutters
I
of
&I~rut;•
Cutting depth a.. based on the milling cutter 0 d Feed pertoorh
1/3 · d
1/6· d
1/10 . d
increase
1. ~
1.15. 4
1.45 . ~
2·4
ro be adj usred
0.25mm
0.29mm
0.36mm
0.50mm
1/20·d
Meanings of cutting date ranges Example: Standard values for milling of low-strength sreels using HSS milling cutters
Uppervelws Vc •
100m/min
f, a 0.15 mm
Application
~..--
- finish machining (finishing) - rigid tool and w orkpiece
V0
• premachining (roughing) - rigid tool and wor1
f, = 0.05 mm
=50m!min
Application
- premachining (roughing) • low rigidity of tool or workpiece · finish machining (finishing) • low rigidity of tool or workpiece
Calculation of feed rete Vf
f,
feed rate in mm/min feed per rooth in mm
n rotational speed of milling cutter in 1/min N number of teeth
Example: 100m/min; d s 40 mm; " . 0.12 mm; N a 10 Vc 100m/min n = -- = -- - - =796 1/min; v1 =n .t, · N =796/min • 0.12 mm • 10 = 955 mm/min n • d n ·0.04m
Vc s
Feed rate
Iv
1=
n· ft · N
I
Q)
:'2
..
~0
..
~
:;
~
g., ~:g
c
J? t::= o-
.r.g (J)-
.s
.,
...,
..
"C
:0
c
)(
..
"C
E
0
C>
:cu
e
"t:
~5!c ~
u. ·-
~
"C
c
"'
0
·= >
0
., .,"'
"' B&
:0
~0>
"C
Q;i!
0
·- "C "Cc
o.c
<>" ..,u u.r.
~.,
.,_ ~
0
u-
O>ii c.= .s~
)(
E
..
~li "'"' &l:.£
~
't:
~~ &..:: o .. 0:::>
n.r:r
.. c
.g ~
.D
>
307
Production engineering: 6.3 Machining processes. Indexing
Indexing with a dividing head Direct indexing In direct Indexing the dividing head spindle, along with the indexing plate and workpiece, is tumed by the desired indexing step. The wonn is disengaged from the worm wheel. 0 no. of divisions a angular division flt, no. of holes in the indexing plate n, indexing step; no. of hole spacings to be indexed
Indexing step
n="' 0 I
n·=a ·nh 36()"
I
Example: Worm disengaged
Indirect indexing In indirect Indexing the dividing head spindle is driven by the worm and worm wheel. 0 no. of divisions a angular division gear ratio of dividing head flo indexing step; no. of indexing crank revolutions for one division
Examplel: Circles of holes on lndeJdng plat. .
0;68; la40; flea 1
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 23 27 29 31 33 37 39 41 43 47 49
Example2:
a • 37.2•; i • 40; 11c • 7 indexing crank
indexing
or
f1c =~= 40 · ~2 = ~2 = 1~ 8 . ~ 31:11' 31:11' 9 9 .5 15
17 28 39 51
plate
19 29 41 53
23 30 42 57
24 31 43 59
26 33 47 61
27 37 49 63
Differential indexing
~o~orm
gear
div1ding head spindle
In differential indexing the dividing head spindle is driven with worm and worm wheel like indi rect index· ing. Simultaneously the dividing head spindle drives the indexing plate using change gears. 0 no. of divisions a angular division 0' auxiliary no. of divisions gear ratio of dividing head llc indexing step; no. of' indexing crank revo1U1ions for one division N09 no. of teeth of driving gears IN1, N:!J Ndn no. of teeth of driven gears IN,, N4 l For selecting CY the following applies: 0'> 0 : Indexing crank and indexing plate must rotate in the same direction. 0'< 0: Indexing crank and indexing plate must rotate in opposite d irections If necessary the required direction of rotation is achieved by means of an idle gear. Example: i
indexing crank
indexing plate
=40; 0 =97; 11c = 7;
z:.;
40
8
n. =o:=;oo= 20 40
N.tr. =..!... ·10 ' -1)= N
Ndg = ..!_ . (0' -0) Ndn 0 '
7; 0 ' selected = 100
(Indexing crank and indexing plate must rotate in the same direction).
;
No. of teeth on
change gears
·1100- 97)=~ · 3=~=~ 5
5
40
No. of teeth on change gears 24 24 28 44 36 40 56 64 72 86 96 84
32 48
80 100
308
Production engineering: 6.3 Machining processes, Standard values
Grinding cuning speed
lie
Surface grinding
~)
Cutting speed
"v
rotational speed of grinding wheel
work-
n,
Feed rate
no. of strokes
d 1 diameter of workpiece
Surface grinding
•
Cylindrical grinding
speed ratio
Q
n
30 m/s;
lie •
v,
Q : ~:
d1
111
Standard values for cutting speed Mat erial
111 •
m /s 30 30 10 18 25
3l m/s . 60 stmin . 1800 m/min . 90 20 mhnin 20 mhnin
"c· feed rate -.,. speed ratio q v.
"
q
m / mln 1()....35 1()....35 4 15-40 15-40
80 65 115 30
50
Speed ratio
20 m/min; Q • 7
Surface grinclng Pwipt .al grinclng ~wt.e.llng
v. Steel Castlron Carbide AI alloys Cu alloys
=L · n s
Vf
Example:
l'l ~ ·~··
~
= n . do • ng
L travel
pieCe
grinding
Vc
v1 feed rate
n worl
Cylindrical grinding ~~
wheel
I
dg diameter of grinding wheel
"
m/s 25 25 8 18 18
Cylindrical grinclng Extarnal cyt. grinding Internal cyl. grinding
q 50
m/min 6-25 6-30 4 24-45 20-45
40 115 20 30
v.
.,
m/s 35 25 8 18 30
m/m in 10 11 4 24-30 16
q 125 100 100
50 80
v•
.,
m /s 25 25 8 16 25
m/min 19-23 23 8 30-40 25
q 80 65 60 30 50
Grinding data for steel a nd cast iron with corundum or silicon carbide grinding wheeb
.a.
Grain 3()-46 46-80 80-120
Rough grind Finishing Precision grinding
Grinding alowance
Depth of cut in mm
Rz ln11m
O.!Hl.2 0.02-0.1 O.OO!Hl.02
0.02-0.1 O.OO!Hl. OS 0.002-0.008
3-10
Maximum speed of grinding wheels
1-5 1.6-3 cf. DIN EN 12413 (2007-<)9)
Guide''
Maximum spMCI Vc in m /s for bond ..,_a1 BBFE M RRFPLV Straight grinding wheel Slationary pd or ho 50 63 40 25 50 50 40 hand-held grinder free-hand 50 80 50 80 50 Slationary pd or ho 80 100 63 63 80 Straight cutting wheel free-hand 80 hand-held grinder 11 pd positively driven: feed by mechanical means; ho hand operated : feed by operator; 2' Type of bond, see page 309 free· hand grinding: grinding machine is guided entirely by hand; Restrictions for use of grinding tools3' " d . BGV 01~' (2001-101 Shape of grinclng wheel
VE VEl VE2 VE3 VE4 VE5
Type of grinclng machine
Meaning Not allowed for free-hand or hand operated grinding Not allowed for free-hand abrasive cutting Not allowed fo r wet grinding Not allowed in enclosed work area Not allowed without vacuum exhauS1
VE VE6 VE7 VE8 VE1 0 VE11
MeMling Not allowed for side wheeling Not allowed for free-hand grinding Not allowed with backing pad Not allowed for dry grinding Not allowed for free-hand or hand operated abrasive cutting
3l If no restriction is given, the grinding tool is suitable for all applications.
Color stripes for maximum alowable peripheral speeds ;,: 50 m/ s* Color stripe Vcmox
in m/s
Color stripe Vc max in m/S
blue
ye1ow
red
50
63
80
yellow 6 red yell. 6 sr-t red 6 ~ 180 225 200
gr--. 100
125
blue 6 blue yellow 6 yell. 250
d . BGV 0124 '
blue 6 yellow blue 6 red
280
140
160
red 6 red
or-> 6 greer
320
360
41 BGV Berufsgenossenschaftliche Vorschrift (Employers' Uability Insurance Association Provisions)
• ) According to European Standards
(2001·10)
blue 6 green
309
<
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 8 9 10
Code
8
dense (nonpo
Type of bond
ArNs of application
SF
synthetic resin bond, fiber reinforced
Nonporous or porous, elastic, resistant to oil, cool grinding
Rough or cut-off grinding, form grinding with diam. and boron nitride, high pressure grinding
E
shellac bond
Sensitive to temperature, tough elastic, impact resistant
Saw tooth grinding, form grinding, control wheel for centerless grinding
G
galvanic bond
light grip due to protruding grains
Internal grinding of carbide, hand grinding
M
metal bond
Nonporous or porous, tough, insensitive ro pressure and heat
Form and tool grinding using diamond or boron nitride, wet grinding
MG
magnesite bond
Soft. elastic, sensitive to water
Dry grinding, knife grinding
PL
plastic bond
Soft. elastic depending upon plastic and degree of hardening
Plastic abrasive material for finishing, precision finishing and polishing
R
RF
rubber bond, fiber reinforced
Elastic, cold grinding, sensitive to oil and heat
Cut-off grinding
v
vitrified (ceramic) bond
-
Grinding wheel ISO 603-1 1 N-300 x 50 x 76.2- A/F 36 L 5 V- 50: Form 1 (straight grinding wheel), wheel face N, outside diameter 300 mm, w idth 50 mm, hole diameter 76.2 mm, abrasive A (normal corundu m or white fused alumina), grain size F36 (medium), hardness grade L (medium), structure 5 vitrified (ceramic) bond (V), maximum peripheral speed 50 rn/s.
Rough and finish grinding of steels using corundum and silicon carbide
310
Production engineering: 6.3 Machining processes. Grinding wheels
Selecting grinding wheels Standard values for selecting grinding wheels !excluding diamond and boron nitride! Cylindrical grinding M.twlal
Abrasive
Roughing
RnlsNng with wheel dlametw up to500 mm over500mm
Ane finishing
Grain size ~ Grain liD HllldnMa Gnin sl.te HardnMa Grein size
54 46
M-N L-M
80
M-N
80
K-L
A. C
80
M-N
80
N-0
c
K
80
A.C
60 60
L
80
K L
c
46
K
60
K
Steel, unhardened
A
Steel, hard., unalloy. and alloy.
A
Steel, hardened, high alloyed Carbide, ceramic Cast iron Non·ferr. met., e.g. AI, Cu. CuZn
60 60 60 60 60 60
Her~
L- M
180
L- M
J-K M- N
240-500 240-500
H-N
K L
24()-500
H-N
100
M
K
-
-
H-N
lnt•nal cytlndrical grinding Material
Abrasive
upto 20
Grain sl.te
Grinding wheel diameter in mm fmm20to 40 from40to80
over80
~ Grain sl.te ~ Grain size HerdnMa Gtlln size Her~
Steel, unhardened
A
80
M
60
L-M
54
L- M
46
K
Steel, hard., unalloy. and alloy.
A
80
K-L
120
M-N
80
M-N
80
Steel, hardened, high alloyed
A.C
80
J-K
100
K
80
K
60
L J
Carbide, Cl!Iamic
c
80
G
120
H
120
H
80
G
Cast iron
A
80
L-M
80
K- L
M
46
M
Non-terr. met, e.g. AI, Cu, CuZn
c
80
hJ
120
K
60 60
J- K
54
J
Perlphenl '-grinding M.teriel
Abrasive
Cup wheel 0<300 mm
Stnight grinding wheels 0 > 300mm 0 " 300 mm
Grain sl.te Hardness Grain sl.te ~
Steel, hardened, high alloyed
A
46
thJ
Carbide, ceramic
c
46
Cast iron
A
Non-terr. met., e. g. AI, Cu. CuZn
c
46 46
J J
46 60 60 60 46
J
60
Steel, unhardened
A
Steel, hard., unalloy. and alloy.
A
46 46
J J
J J
Abrasive segments Grain sl.te ~ Grain size Herd, _ 36 46
hJ
46
J J
60
J
J J 1- J
36
J J
36
hJ
46
24
46
J J
24
J J
60
J
36
J
Tool grinding Cutting tool material
Abrasive
Stl'alght grinding wheels Dish wheels Cup 100 0> 100 wheels 0 " 225 0>225 Grain sl.te Grain sl.te ~ Gtoin li2e Gr• n.a. Her~ Grlinlize Hardness M 46 K 80 60 M 80 60
o ..
Tool steel
A
High-speed steel
A
60
46
Carbide
c
80
54
K K
60 80
46 54
K
46
H
K
46
H
Cutting on stetionary rnechines M ateriel
Abrasive
Straight cut~ wtleels "• up to 80 m/s Streight cut-off wheels "• up to 100m/s 0>200mm O s SOOmm 0>500mm O s 200mm Grain sl.te ~ Grain size Hardness Groin size Herdness Gtain size Hardness
St eel. unhardened
A
Cast iro n
A
Non-ferr. met.. e. g. AI. Cu. CuZn
A
80 60 60
~ ~ ~
46 46 46
0-R
24
u
20
~
24
U-V
20
0-R U-V
0-R
30
s
24
s
Grinding and cutting with hand tools Material
Abrasive
Cut-off wheels Rough grinding wheels v. up to 80 m/s Mounted points "• up to 80 m / s "• up to 45 m /s Grain size Hardness Grain size Herdness !Groin size Hardness Grain size Hardness 36
24
R R R
-
-
Steel. unhardened
A
30
T
24
M
24
Steel, corrosion resistant
A
30
R
16
M
24
Cast iro n
A.C
30
T
20
Non-terr. met .. e. g. AI, Cu. CuZn
A.C
30
R
20
R R
0-R
36
s
30
T
-
-
311
Product ion engineering: 6.3 Machining processes, Grinding wheels
Grinding with diamond and boron nitride Grain designation ranges Areas of application
cf. DIN ISO 848 (1998-03) Pfedlion grinding lAipplng
Rough grind
Finishing
Grain diamond designation,, boron nitride
0251-0151 B251-8151
D126-D76 B126-876
Attainable Ra in I'm
.. 0.55-0.50
.. 0.45-0.33
064. D54, 046 B64, B54. 846 .. 0.18-0.15
020, D15, D7 B30. B6 .. 0.05-0.025
,, Mesh size of test sieve In I'm
Standard values for cutting speeds Proceu
Abr..,.,.
CUttloO lpMd ... M
8 dry
CBN D External cylindrical CBN grinding21 D Internal cylindrical CBN grinding D Tool CBN g rinding D Cut-off CBN grinding D 11 Bond types, see page 309
-
Surface grinding
wet
cky .
30-50 22-50 30-50 22-40
-
-
In m /s by bond type11 G dry wet
-
30-60
-
22- 27
~30
30-60
-
v dry
wet
-
30-60 22-50 3(}-6()
~30 ~30 22-40 27-35 30-60 24-40 30-50 30-60 12-18 15-30 8-15 18-27 12- 20 18-40 27-35 22-30 27- 35 30-50 30-40 30-50 15-22 22-50 15-22 15-27 15-30 22- 35 27- 35 30-50 30-60 27-40 30-60 12- 18 22-35 22- 27 18-30 22-40 ~ Approx. four times the value for high speed grinding (HSGJ
-
30-60 25-50 30-60 25-50 30-50 25-50 30-50
-
Standard values for depth of cut and feed of ciamond grinding wheels
..,_
Faca grinding II
External cyl. grindingII Internal cyl. grinding Tool grinding
Depth per SlrOke in mm for gnln siu 0 181
0126
064
0.02-o.04 o.o1-o.o3
O.Dl-o.o2
0.005-0.01
10-15
0.0-0.02
0.005-0.01
0.3-2.0
0.002-o.007
o.oo2-o.oo5
o.oo1-o.ooo
o.o1-o.o3
0.005-0.015
o.oo2-o.oos
0.5-2.0 0.3-4.0
0.5-3.0
0.01-2.0
-
Groove grinding
1.0-.S.O ,, Approx. three times the value for high speed grinding (HSG)
Standard values for depth of cut and feed of C8N grincing wheels ..,_ per stroll• in grain mm for
Depth
Surface grinding External cyl. grinding Internal cyl. grinding Tool grinding Groove grinding
CroufMd ...... tive to wheel width w
Feed
size
m/min
-
Crossfeed rel• tive to wheel width w
Feed
11252/8 181
8 151/ 8126
891/876
m/mln
0.03-0.05 o.o2-o.o4 0.005-0,015 0.002-o.1 1.0-10
0.02-o.04 0.02-o.OJ 0.005-0.01 o.o1-o.oo5 1.0-5.0
O.Dl-o.015 O.Q15-0,02 o.oo2-o.oos 0.005-0.015 0.5-3.0
20-30 0.5-2.0 0.5-2.0 0.5-4.0 O.Dl- 2.0
High-performance grincing with CBN grinding wheels
,,._ ,,2 . w -
,, - ,,, . w
-
-cf. VOt 341 1 (2000-08)
Grinding processes achieving extremely high material removal rates by utilization of special machines and tools with increased cutting speeds(> 80 m/s) and appropriate machine coolant. Predominantly used for side and external cylin· drical grinding of metallic materials. Grinding wheel preperation (c:ondltloning) Processing step Action Goal
Dressing Truing
Sharpening
Cleaning
Removal of grain and bond
Reduction of the bond
No effect on abrasiv e lay er
Establishing concentricity and wheel profile
Creating the grinding wheel surface structure
Remove chips from pores
Maximum elloweble peripheral apeeds in~ grinding Bond typell Highest allowable peripheral speed in m/s '' Bo nd types, see page 309
B
v
M
G
140
200
180
280
3 12
Productio n engineering: 6.3 Machining processes, Standa rd values
.,
Honing Ve v, Vp a
~
~y·1n
p
Cutting speed
A contact area of
cutting speed
ho ning stone
axial speed peripheral speed
F,
radial infeed force
angle of intersection betw. abrading tratts
n number of honing stones
contact pressure
I
w width of honing stones length of honing stones
Example: Hardened steel. finish honing, vp • 7; v. • 7; v. • 7; a • 7 read from table: vP• 25m/min; v, • 12m/min
~··
":'J+s".'J . 28~
v. = Jvl+ vp2 =$ 12 mt
tan~ = ~ = ~ ~ 0.48;
- --
vP 25nVr'nin
2
Vp
- v~
m1
I I
= J va2 + vp2
Vc
I
Angle of intersection
tan ~ = Va 2
Vp
I
Contact pressure
m1n
F. A
p = ..L
0 . 51.3"
F. n·w· l
p = - -'-
I
Vc
Cutting ..,..clencl m.chinlng allowPeripheral speed vpinm/min
Material
Machining allowances in mm for hole diameter in mm
Axial speed v, in mtmin
Rough honing Finish honing Rough hOning Finish honin~
Steel, unhardened
18-40
20-40
9-20
Steel, hardened Alloy steels
14-40 23-40
15-40 25-40
5-20 1()-20
Cast i ron
23-40
25-40
1()-20
15-100
10o-500
1()-20
0.02~.05
2-15
0.03-0.15
0.06-0.3
6-20
0.01~.03
0.02~.05
0.03-0. 1
11-20 11- 20 1()-20
0.02~.05
0.03-0.15
0.06-0.3
Aluminum alloys 24-40 9-20 22-40 Honing with diamond gril v0 up to 40 m/min and v, up to 60 m{min; a • 60"- 90"
eom.ct pressure of honing t ools Contact pressure pin N/cm2 Honing process
Ceramic honing stone
Plastic bonded honing stone
Diamond honing stick
Boron nitride honing stick
Rough honing
5()-250
200-400
30()-700
20()-400
Finish honing
2()-100
40-250
10()-300
10()-200
Selection of corundum, silicon Clllbide, C8N end diemond honing a Tensile strength N/mm2
Mate· rial Steel
Cast iron
Rz I'm
rough honing <500 (unhardened) intermed. honing finish honing 50()-700 rough honing (hard ened) intermed. honing finish honing rough honing finish honing plateau honing11
Non· ferrous metals 11
Roughness depth
Process
-
-
rough honing intermed. honing finish honing
8-12 2-5 0.5-1.5 5-10 2- 3 0.5-2 5-S 2-3 ~
6-10 2-3 0.5-1
Honing stone made of corundum and silicon carbide21 Bond StrucHoning Grain Hard· ness ture abrasive size A 700 R 1 5 A 400 B 1200 M 2 A A 80 3 400 0 B 5 700 N 3 BO M 3 v 7 120 K H 8 900
c
80 400
0 0
1000
N
A A
c
v
3 1 5
In plateau honing the peaks of the material surface are removed.
CBN or diamond Grain size 01 26 054 015 B76 B54 630 091 046 025 064 035 0 15 21 see page 309
Selec1ion of honing _ , . m.de of diemond end albic boron nitride ICBNI Abrasive
I
Natural diamond
M aterial
I
Steel, carbide
I
Synthetic diamond
I
CBN
I Cast iron. nitrided steel, non-ferrous metals, g lass, ceramic I Hardened steel
313
Production engineering: 6.4 Material removal
Productive time and standard values for material removal Electric discharge machining (wire EDM ) wire elect~
v, I
/
/ct?.,
/
~t ~
'/
lp productive time in min v, feed rate in mm/min L travel. cutting length in mm H cutting height in mm T geometric tolerance in 11m
Productive time
I
Example:
/
Material: Steel, H • 30 mm; La 320 mm; T • 30 "'m; Vi • 7; lp • 7
L
tp = Vf
I
-
""= 1.8 mm/ min (from table) L 320mm - 178min , =-v 1.8 mmtmin P
1
Feed rllte ""lstenderd veluesl'' Cutting height H inmm 10 20 30 50
Steel eroding 60 9.0 5.1 3.7 2.5
40 8.5 5.5 4.0 2.5
30 4.0 2.5 1.8 1.2
Feed rate ., in mm/min Copper eroding Desired geometric toleraflCe T in 11m 20 10 40 20 10 3.9 2.1 7.5 3.5 2.0 2.5 1.5 4.7 2.4 1.5 1.8 1.1 4.0 1.9 1.1 1.2 0.7 1.4 0.8 2.6
I
I
Carbide eroding 80 4.5 3.1 2.3 1.4
20 0.7 0.3 0.2 0.2
10 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.2
'' These standard values are average values from the main cut and all subsequent CUIS required to reach geometric tolerance. With unfavorable flushing conditions lhe achievable feed rate drops considerably.
Cherecterlstic:a end appi'N:IItion of common wire electrodes Wire El. conductivity in m/(Q . mm2) material CuZn alloy 13.5 18.5 Molybdenum Tungsten 18.2
Te nsile strength inN/mm2 400-<900 1900 2500
Typ ical wire diameter in mm 0.2..0.33 0.025-o. 125 O.D25-o.125
Application Universal Cuts with very tight geometric tolerance Narrow slots, small corner radii
Electric discharge machining (sink EDM )
5
electrode
, _v
I .I
/
productive time in min removal area of electtode in mm 2 v removal volume in mm3 Vw removal rate in mm3/min
~
Example:
v
=
Removal rllte Vw {standard Qlues)11
Productive time
lp
s
I
tp= -
v
Vw
Roughing of steel; graphite electrode, S = 150 mm2 ; V = 3060 mm3; Vw= 7; tp = 7 Vw 31 mml/min {from table) V :J:l60 mml t =-= - 99min P Vw 31 mrn3/min
-
Removal rate Vw in mm3/min Roughing Finishing remova l area S in mm2 d esired roughness de pth Rz in 11m Electrode 10 100 50 200 300 400 2 3 4 6 8 to to to to to to to to to to to 50 100 200 300 400 600 3 4 6 8 10 Graphite 7.0 18 31 62 81 105 2 5 Steel Copper 13.3 22 28 51 85 105 0.1 0.5 1.9 3.8 5 Copper 15 Carbide 18 6.0 28 30 33 0.1 0.5 2.2 5.2 11 Actual values will vary widely due to the effects of different processing methods. Refer to page 314. Work· piece material
I
314
Production engineering: 6.4 Material removal
Process parameters in EDM erosion
t ......
off
hme
~c
~f :;; ... ·.., - .... :>
tome
t--
on time
Elec:trolytlc: copper
Graphite In various grain Elec:trode sizes Material
Vw
removal rate In mm3/mln
v
removal volume in mm3 removal time in min
I
Ve
absolute tool wear in mm3
v,..
relative tool wear in %
Removal rate
v
Vw =-
t
Relative tool w ear
v.
1/.el , !5_. 100% r V
Universal application; low wear behavior; high removal rate; for finish and rough machining; ditrocult to manufacture electrode by machining; high thermal expansion; no cracked edges; tendency to warp Universal application; very low wear; greater current density than Cu; low electrode weight; easy to manufacture electrode by machining; non-warping; low thermal expansion; more detailed electrodes are made by selecting a finer graphite grain; unsuitable for carbide machining
TufllPten-eopper
Detailed electrodes; very low wear; very high material removal rate with relatively low discharge currenrs even with large current densities; only manufactured in limited sizes. high electrode weight
Copper-gflll)hlte
Special applications involving small electrode dimensions with simultaneous high electrode strength; wear and material removal rate play a subordinate role in these special applications
Synthetic oils, Requirements for dielectric fluids: filtered and low and constant conductivity for stable sparking low viscosity for filtrability and penetrating ability in narrow gaps Dielec:ttk: cooled; according to machine low evaporation to reduce hazardous vapors fluid m anufacturer high flash point to avoid fire hazard high heat conductance value for good cooling extremely low health hazard for operators
Rushing
Replac:ement of dielectric: fluid at the erosion site Remove eroded particles from gap
Depending on requirements and available options. different flushing meth ods can be used to maintain stable erosion performance: • flooding (most commonly used method, simultaneous heat rejection) • pressure flushing through hollow electrodes or next to electrode • vacuum flushing through hollow electrode or next to electrode • interval flushing caused by retracting electrode • movement flushing by relative movement between workpiece and electrode. without interrupting erosion cycle
positive
Electrode is positively polarized; for low electrode burn rate during roughing w ith long pulse duration and low frequency
negative
EleC1rode is negatively polarized; for erosion with short pulse duration and hig h frequency
·-
Kept constant during feed (controlled by discharge voltage). Control sensitivity set too high: Electrode continually pulses on and off, controlled discharge impossible. Control sensitivity set too low: Abnormal discharges increase o r gap remains too large for discharge.
side
Determined primarily by duration and size of discharge pulse, depends on m aterial matching and no-load voltage
low
low removal performance. low tool wear on copper electrodes. high w ear o n graphite electrodes
high
High removal performance. high tool wear on copper eleC1rodes. low wea r on graphite electrodes
Polarity
Gap
Disch8rge current
Pulse
short
Electrode wear with positive polarity is larger. lower removal rate
duration
long
Elect
315
Production engineering: 6.5 Separat ion by cutting
Cutting force, Operating conditions for presses I
Cutting force, cutting work F Fm
cuning force calc:tJiated cuning force S shear area R,""" maximum tensile strength r sB max maximum shear strength W cuning work s sheet metal thickness
f orcl!-stroke curve
1\
t
v 1\
ir-1..
··-~ I' ..
J_ 1-- .;,.:
i
I
F= S ·'rs8max
Max. shear strength
I
Tss max "' 0.8 · Rm maxi
Eumple:
S • 236 mm2; S • 2.5 mm; Rm f'nll< • 510 N/mm 2
\. i ":) ! ''"''' II
I ~
Solution: r .a .,..• 0.8 · Rm """' • 0.8 . 510 N/mm2 • .OS N / mm2 F • S · r.amu • 236 mm 2 · 400 N/mm2
working stroke h shee t metal thtckness s
Cutting fOf'Ce
I
r:~, .
• 96 288 N • 96.288 kN W
2
2
a3· F • S• J"· 96.288 kN • 2.5 mm .. 160 kN • mm • 160 N · m
Operating concitions for ec:centric: and crank presses Press drives are usually designed such that the nominal pressing force is applied at crank angle
WO
a ; 30". Machines operate without interruption in continuous mode or can be stopped after each cycle in single-stroke mode. For presses with adjustable strokes, the allowable pressing force is less than the nominal pressing force.
crank
F
cuning force, shaping force
Fn
nominal pressing force
W. =F" ·S c 15
Woric capacity in single-stroke mode
Fo110w allow. pressing force for adjustable stroke S
ram
s. h
metal strip
a W We
w.
stroke, maximum stroke for adjustable stroke adjusted stroke working distance ( a sheet metal thickness s) crank angle cutting work. shaping work work capacity in continuous mode work capacity in single-stroke mode Fixed stroke
Example: Eccentric press with fixed stroke Fn ; 250 kN; S ; 30 mm; F a 207 kN; S• 4 mm Find: W ; We. Can the press be put into continuous mode? Solution: W
w
s
w.
Adjustable stroke
; !3 · F · s : ~3 · 207kN ·4mm = 562kN · mm= 552 N · m
W: = F.·S = 250kN-30mm 500kN -mm = 500N · m e
F s F0 W s We or
15
15
If F< F0 , but W > W., the press cannot be used in continuous mode for this workpiece.
Fallow
4.JSa · h - h2
W s We or
w" w.
316
Production engineering: 6.5 Separation by cutting
Tool and workpiece dimensions Punch end cutting die dimensions
·~
-tjl:~ '"";"' ,;,
Die clearance u n
sheet metal thickness s mrn 0.4-0.6 0.7~.8
0.9-1 1.5-2 2.5-3 3.~
Cf. VOl 3368 (1982·05}
d punch dimension 0 ctJning die dimension u die clearance s sheet metal thickness (l clearance angle
Piercing
Process Shape of workpiece
Blanking
a
~
Governing specified size is:
dimension of punch d
dimension of cutting die 0
Dimension of o pposite tool
cuning die O•d+2·V
punch d· 0 - 2· u
• function of material and sheet metal thickness
Cutting die opening with clearance angle a s hear strength r .e in N/mm2 upto250 I 251-400 I 401-600 I over600 die clearance u in mm 0.01 O.D15 0.02 0.025 0.015 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.05 0-02 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.04 0.07 0.10 0.12 0.06 0.09 0.12 0.16
Cutting die opening without clearance angle a shear strength r , 8 in N/mm2 up to 250 I 251~00 I 401-600 I over600 die clearance u in mm O.D15 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.025 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.05 O.o7 0.09 0.11 0.08 0.11 0.14 0.17 0.11 0.15 0.19 0.23
Web width, edge width. trim stop waste for rnetalic materials
~~~
8
edge width
Polygonal worlcpleces :
e web width
''··
edge length web length B strip width i trim stop waste (french stop waste}
The web or edge length, whichever is la rger, is used to determine web and edge widths. Round workpieces : For all diameters values given for /0 e Ia • 10 mm of polygonal workpieces apply to web and edg e widths.
Polygonal wor1
Web length '· Edge length /0 mm
Web width e Edge width 8
0.1
0.3
0.5
0.75
1.0
1.25
1.5
1.75
2.0
2.5
3.0
up to 10
e a
0.8 1.0
0.8 0.9
0.8 0.9
0.9
1.0
1.2
1.3
1.5
1.6
1.9
2.1
e
1.6 1.9
1.2 1.5
0.9 1.0
1.0
1.1
1.4
1.4
1.6
1.7
2.0
2.3
1.8 2.2
1.4 1.7
1.0 1.2
1.2
1.3
1.6
1.6
1.8
1.9
2.2
2.5
2.0 2.4
1.6 1.9
1.2 1.5 1.5
1.4
1.5
1.8
1.8
2.0
2.1
2.4
2.7
1.8
2.2
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.5
e a e a
0.9 1.2
1.0 1.1
1.0 1.1
1.0
1.1
1.3
1.4
1.6
1.7
2.0
2.3
1.8
2.2
1.4 1.7
1.0 1.2
1.2
1.3
1.6
1.6
1.8
1.9
2.2
2.5
e a e a
2.0 2.4
1.6 1.9
1.2 1.5
1.4
1.5
1.8
1.8
2.0
2.1
2.4
2.7
2.2 2.7
1.8 2.2
1.4 1.7
1.6
1.7
2.0
2.0
2.2
2.3
2.6
2.9
1.8
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
5.0
II up to 100 mm
I
r
.-
11-50
a
51- 100
a
over 100
a
up to 10
51- 100 101- 200
~_J
e
trim stop waste i
11-50 over 100mm to 200mm
e
Sheet metal thickness sin mm
trim stop waste i
1.5
317
Production engineering: 6.5 Separation by cutting
location of punch holder shank, Utilization of strip stock Location of punch holder shank for punch geometry with known center of gravity Punch layout prepunching
hfl'' ~~i&
s.;=
.i] If' 1 )( .
!:.
-
I x = C1 ·a1 + C2 ·a2 +C3 • a3 + ... 1
blanking out
h ·tr·n~-:.;~
:'">
Distance of the center of forces
WO<'kplece
.
C1+ C2 + C3 + ...
,,~ ~ ~~ · ""
-
.,,. 31
Example:
.... C>
Based on the figure at left. calculate the distance x of center of forces S. Solution: The outer perimeter of the cuning punch is chosen as reference edge. Blanking punch: C1 • 4 • 20 mm • 80 mm; a1 • 10 mm Piercing punch: C, •". 10 mm • 31.4 mm; ~ • 31 mm
~ 20
selec ted reference e;;;
c , , c2.
C:J ...
x ~ c, . a, + C, · a~
circumferences of Individual punches distances from punch centers of gravity to selected reference edge dist.ance of center of forces S from chosen reference edge
a1, a2, 8J ... X
x•
C1 +C2 80mm · 10mm+31.4mm-31 mm ,. 16mm 80 mm + 31.4 mm
I
Location of punch holder shank for punch geometry with unknown center of gravity Center of forces corresponds to centroid of the lineI I of all cutting edges. Punch layout Wortq>iece
Distance of the center of forces / • a + 1 · a + Ia · a3 + ... X= 1 1 2 2 t, +12 + Ia + ...
)(
~
-,a s··~"·~ ~ ~.. '·~ 20
"'
~
~
Example:
~
Calculate the location of the punch holder shank on the progressive die for the workpiece shown in the figure at the left.
s
,d, =S d1 ;9.8 .ry·= 21 I
selecte~ refer. edge
20
Solution: n lninmm
d, =)1
as="
/ 1,/2,/3 to In a1, a2, 8J to a0 X
n
'L in. Bn X= - - 'f.ln
:;:
cutting edge lengths distance from line centroids to selected reference edges distance from center of forces to selected reference edge number of individual cutting edge
1 2
15 23.6
3 4
20 2. 20
5 I
20 118.6 X =
11 For line centroids, see page 32
Bnin mm 5 9.8 21 31 41
In · 8n in mm2
-
2786.28
75 231.28 420 1240 820
I:ln. 8n - 2786.28mm2 - 23.5 mm 118.6 mm I:ln
Utilization of strip stodc for single row stamping
...
! :l:
(
~
rro:::;
j
:l
A
'---T' I
v
e
...
I
w ~
w-tr
~..
• ~
,_....I-
w a
e
v A
R 1/
wor'kpiece length workpiece width strip width edge width web width strip feed area of workpiece (including holes) number of rows degree of utilization
Strip width
I
W=w + 2·B
I
Strip feed
I
V = l +e
I
Utilization factor
I
R· A
q= - -
V ·W
I
318
II
Values apply to bending angle as 120• and bending transverse to rolling direction. Value or the next larger sheet metal thickness should be selected for bending long itudinal to rolling direction and bending angle a> 120•.
inmm
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.5
2
1 1.6 2.5 4
1.0 1.3 1.6
1.3 1.6 2.0 2.5
1.7 1.8 2.2 2.8
1.9 2.1 2.4 3.0
2.9 3.2 3.7
4.0 4.5
4.8 5.2
6.0
6.9
3.4
3.8 5.5 8.1 9.8
4.5 6.1 8.7 10.4
5.2 6.7 9.3 11.0
5.9 7.4 9.9 11.6
6.7 8.1 t0.5 12.2
11.9 15.0 18.4 22.7
12.6 15.6 19.0 23.3
13.2 16.2 19.6 23.9
13.8 16.8 20.2 24.5
t4.4 17.4 20.8 25.1
6 10 16 20 25 32 40 50
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
6
8
10
7.5 8.9 11.2 12.8
8.3 9.6 11.9 13.4
9.0 10.4 12.6 14.1
9.9 11.2 13.3 14.9
12.7 14.8 16.3
17.8 19.3
21.0 22.3
15.0 18.0 21 .4 25.7
15.6 18.6 22.0 26.3
16.2 19.2 22.6 26.9
16.8 19.8 23.2 27.5
18.2 21 .0 24.5 28.8
21 .1 23.8 26.9 31.2
24.1 26.7 29.7 33.6
L developed length II a.b.c length of leg
s thickness bending radius n number of bends v bend allowance r
.()
Developed length21
I
21
L = a+b+C+ ...
-n·vl
Calculated developed length should be rounded off to a whole mm value .
Example (see illus.l: a~
25mm; bs 20 mm; c~ 15 mm; n ~ 2; r ~ 2 mm;
r • 4 mm; material S235JR; v • ?; L • ?
v s 4.5 mm (from table above} L = a• b+ c- n· V= 125<- 20 <-15 - 2 · 4.5) mm = 51 mm
II If the ratio r/s > 5, the formula for developed length (page 24) can be used.
319
Produ ction engineering: 6.6 Fo rming
Calculation of blank size, Springback in bending Calculation of blank size for pans with any selected bending angle do
: ·--,,-:-··
I
"'
r··_J~--
il
-P- n • v = 2 - (r + s ) - tan -1000 - 2
6 -.;: :'1.
0.8
.§
0.6
~ c
0.4
~ <...
0.2
~
...
s
I
...... ........
v
Be nt pan w ith fJ • 60". a • 16 mm . b • 21 m m. , . 6 mm. s = 5 mm; k = ?; v = ?; L = ?;
-
!. = 6 mm • 1.2;
k • 0.1 (from diagram); 5 mm k = 0.689 (calculated by formula)
s
v = 2 · (r + s)- Jt·
I
('~~~"P) (r+2s · k) --:;eo;-·
= 2 - (6 +5)mm - n -
2
3 ratio rl s
1
'
Springbac:k in bending
-~
-5
cw-60") . (6 + '25 - 0.7) mm = S.nmm ~
L = a + b - v = 16 mm+ 21 mm -s.n mm - 32 mm
6
tool
(r ~/ ~-~ '
Material of bent pan
I
k = 0 .65 + 0 .5 -log;
I
0
I
k
·
Ex:ample:
Correction factor
1.0
cooo-p) ~ (r+2s · )
I
i1
I I
2
Bending allowance for fJ over 165" to 180" v - 0 !neg ligible) Correction factor
I ..
~
...,t
cooo-p) (
L = a+b - v
v = 2 . (r + s )- n • ~ • r+ s · k)
I~
5... k
/)
r··~
I
Bend allow a nce for fJ over 90" to 165"
fJ > 90" to 166" ~
Developed length 11
developed length s sheet met. thickness L a. b length of leg r bending radi us v bend a llow ance p ape rture a ngle k correction factor Bend allowance for fJ = 0" to 90"
~ ~sw = }k
cf. DIN 6935 ( 1975-10)
ll
For r/S > 5 the developed length (page 24) is sufficiently accurate for calcula tions.
Radius on tool
a, angle of bend before springback (on tool) a~ a ngle of bend after s p ringback (on w orkpiece) r, radius on tool '~ bending radius on w orkpiece ~ spring back factor s sheet metal thickness
I =kR · lr2 r1
+ 0 .5 · s) - 0 .5 · sl
Angle of bend before springback
I
a, =-a2
I
kR
Spnngback factor ~ for the ratio r2 1s 1
1.6
2.5
4
6.3
10
16
25
40
63
100
DC04 OC01 X12CrNi18-8
0.99 0.99 0.99
0.99 0.99 0.98
0.99 0.99 0.97
0.98 0.97 0.95
0.97 0.96 0.93
0.97 0.96 0.89
0.96 0.93 0.84
0.94 0.90 0.76
0.91 0.85 0.63
0.87 0.77
0.83 0.66
E-Cu-R20 CuZn33-R29 Cu Ni18Zn20
0.98 0.97
0.97 0.97
0.97 0.96
-
0.96 0.95 0.97
0.95 0.94 0.96
0.93 0.93 0.95
0.90 0.89 0.92
0.85 0.86 0.87
0.79 0.83 0.82
0.72 0.77 0.72
0.6 0.73
EN AW-AI99.0 EN AW-AICuMg1 EN AW·AISiMgMn
0.99 0.92 0.98
0.99 0.90 0.98
0.99 0.87 0.97
0.99 0.84 0.96
0.98 0.77 0.95
0.98 0.67 0.93
0.97 0.54 0.90
0.97
0.96
0.95
0.93
0.86
0.82
0.76
0.72
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
320
Production engineering: 6.6 Forming
Deep drawing Calculation of blank diameter Orewn pan
~
• •
~
without flange d 2 D = Jd,2 +4 ·d,·h
with flange d 2 D • Jd22 + 4 . d 1 · h
without flange dl o - Jdi + 4. ld, · h, +d2. hzl
-
with flange d3
D = Jdl + 4 • ld, · h, + d2 · hzl without flanged. D• Jd,Z +4. d 2 .f
~ 1
with flange d4
d
without flange d 2 D= J2 . d,z • 4 . d 1 · h
with flange d 2
D= J2. dl+ 4 . d 1 • h + (d22 - d12)
m
I I
Bl1t1k diam eter D
Dnow n pert
Blank dllmet1t D
o- Jd,z + 4 . d2 ·I +(d•2 -d32)
without flange d z D = Jd,z + 4 . h,2 + 4 . d, . hz
with flange d z D • Jd,2 + 4 · h,2 + 4 · d 1 • hz +ldi - d,21
without flange d 2 D= J2. d 12 • 1.414 . d with flange d 2 D = Jd,2 +dl
Example: Cylindrical drawn part with flange d 2 (see figure, upper left) with d 1 - 50 mm, h • 30 mm; 0 · ?
D =Jd,z+4 . d,. h = J502 mm2 + 4 . 50 mm · 30 mm = 92.2 mm
Drawing gap and radii on drew ring and draw punch drawing gap
w
s
sheet metallhickness
k
material factor
,..
,I
radius on draw ring
D
blank diameter
d
punch diameter
d,
draw ring diameter
radius of draw punch
I
Radius of draw ring in m m
'r =0.035 · [50 +(0 - d)) · JS
For each redraw the radius of the draw ring should be reduced by 20 to 40 %.
I
Radius of draw punch in m m
r 51 = (4 to 5) · s
Example: Steel sheet; O a 51 mm; d= 25 mm; s= 2 mm; W= ?; r, = ?; r,. =?
k Steel
0.01
A luminum
0.02
Other non-ferrous metals
0.04
= 0.07 (from table)
w = s+ k·
fiQ.S= 2 + 0.07 · (1Q.2 = 2.3 m m
r, • 0.035 ·[50+ (0 - d)J • fs =0.035 · 150 + (51- 2511 · r_. =4.5 · s=4.5 · 2mm=9mm
t'2 =3.8 m m
321
Production engineering: 6.6 Forming
Deep drawing Drawing steps end drewing ratios D
d d1 ~
dn
p, {J2
fJ.01 s
blank diameter inside diameter of finished drawn part punch diameter for 1st draw punch diameter lor 2nd draw punch diameter for nth draw drawing ratio for 1st draw drawing ratio for 2nd draw total drawing rat.i o sheet metal thickness
Drawing ratlo 1st draw
D
{J, =d,
2nd draw
Eu mple:
draw ring
CUp without flange made of OC04 1St 14) with d • SOmm; h • 60mm;Oa1;{J1 · 1;fJ2 - 1; d1 ·1; ~ - 1 D • Jd2 + 4 ·d·h ; J(51Jmm)2 + 4 · 50mm · 60mm oo 1l0 mm
Total drawing ratio
P. • 2.0; p, • 1.3 (according to table below)
d, =E..=llOmm = 60 mm p, 2.0 d2 =!!J.= 60mm = 46 mm p, 1.3 Two draws sufficient since d 2 < d
Redraw
Material
Max. drawing ratios 1l
p,
P2
Rm21 Material N/mm2
MalC. drawing ratiosll
p,
Pz
D fltot • d
n
MalC. drawing ratios1l
f1m7l
Material N/mm2
p,
/J2
f1m2l
N/mm 2
OC01 (Sl12)
1.8
1.2
410
CuZn30·R270
2.1
1.3
270
Al99.5 H11 1
2.1
1.6
95
DC03 (Sl13)
1.9
1.3
370
CuZn37-R300
2.1
1.4
300
A1Mg1 H111
1.9
1.3
145
DC04 (St14l
2.0
1.3
350
CuZn37-R410
1.9
1.2
410
AJCu4Mg1 T4
2.0
1.5
425
X10CrNi18-8
1.8
1.2
750
CuSn6-R350
1.5
1.2
350
AISi1MgMn T6
2.1
1.4
310
11
Values apply up to d 1 : s . 300; they were determined for d 1 • 100 mm and for other sheet metal thicknesses and punch diameters.
s - 1 mm. Values change negligibly 21
maximu m tensile strength
Tearing force, deep drawing fon:e. blank hoking fon:e F, Fdd d,
s
Rm
p Pmo• fi, D
~----------------~~ Blank holding pressure pin N/mm2 Steel
2.5
Cu alloys
2.()...2.4
AI alloys
1.2-1.5
p
r, w
tearing force deep drawing force punch diameter sheet metal thickness tensile strength drawing ratio max. possible drawing ratio blank holding force
Deep drawing force
Jild = n ·
{3 -1 (d1 + s) · s · Rm· 1.2 · - - Pmax - 1
Ir----------------.
Blank holding force blank diameter support diameter of blank holding force blank holding pressure ' -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ' radius on draw ring Support diamat~ of blank holding force drawing gap
I
dh = d 1 + 2 · (rr + w)
Eumple:
D . 210 mm; d, - 140 m m; S • 1 mm; Rm z 380 N/mm2 ; p a 1.5; Pmax- 1.9; fdd a ? IJ-1 N 1.5-1 Fdd=n · (d1 +sl · s · Rm ·1.2 · - - = n ·1140mm+1 mml· 1 mm · 380 - - · 1.2 · - - = 112218 N A-na,.- 1 mm2 1.9- 1
322
Production engineering: 6.7 Joining. Welding
101 111 11
12 13 131 135 136
Code
Name
p[
PB
for length dimensions l!Jin mm nominal size range tll
.. ..., Degree of accuracy
11 1 shorter leg
over
over
over
over
30
120
400
1000
323
Production engineering: 6.7 Joining, Welding
, f DI'J EN IS·l 9fi92 1 ,2 JOl Oo l
Weld preparation Name. Work· weld symbol piece weld thickness
Edge form
pages 93-95
mm
Flere-V groove weld
o-2
s
0-4
s
.,/\..
II · V groove weld
v Y-buttweld
y
0-8
d
3-10
s
3-40
d
5-40
s
> 10
d
bevel groove weld
v
> 10
d
3-10
s
3-30
d
> 10
d
>2
s
double bevel weld
K
~ ~ .._1
"';,
~
~
~
Allet weld
~
angle a in •
-
-
-
3, 111, 141, 512
-
3,111.141
s 1/2
-
-
s4
s 2
40·~·
s3
s 2
.. , .. 1/ 2
.. 6()"
1-4
2-4
1-3
2-4
~
•~
111, 141 13
Remarks
Thin sheet welding. usually without filler material
Linle filler material, no weld preparation
-
3 111, 141
With backi ng run 40"~
13
.. so·
111, 13. 141
.. so·
111, 141
40"~·
1- 3
d
-~ tJ
11
2~692
With root and backing run
13 111. 141
s2 40"~·
13
Symmetrical edge form, h= 1/2
2-4
1- 2
35"-60"
111, 13. 141
1-4
s2
35.-60"
111, 13, 141
With backing run
1-4
s2
3s·-so·
111, 13, 141
Symmetrical edge form, h = t/2 or t/3
s2
-
70"- 100"
3, 111, 13, 141
s 2
-
700- 110"
3, 111, 13, 141
-
T-joint
b
>3
21
webc mm
.. soo
¥
Preferred welding method2 1
gap b mm
a
double V· weld
X
Dimension
on
I
butt weld
r,·pl.tt ,,..., DIN EN
Weld preparation
D Design: s single-V weld; d double-V weld For welding methods. see page 322
Double fillet weld, corner joint
324
Type of gas Oxygen
body
white
Acetylene
cheslnut· brown
Hydrogen
red
Argon
gray
gray
blue
chestnut· brown
black
Changeover to the new color coding should be completed by July 1, 2006. During the transition period the hazardous substance label (page 331) is the only legally valid designation. " )According to European Standards
Gas welding rods for steel joint welding
cf. DIN EN 12536 (2000-08), replaces DIN 8554-1
Weldi ng rod, code
T1l
Yield strength
Tensile strength
Elongation at fracture
Nl2l
R,
R,
N/mm2
A
Kv
N/mm2
%
J
5235,$275, P235GH, P265GH
011
u
>300
390- 440
>20
> 47
5235, 5275 P235GH, P265GH
0111
u
>310
400- 460
> 22
>47
Boilers, pipes, temperature resis· tant up to 530
5235, 5355, 5275, P235, P235GH, P265GH, P295GH, 16Mo3
OIV
u
>260
440- 490
> 22
> 47
Boilers, pipes, temperature resis· tant up to 570 °C
13CrMo4-5, 16CrMo3
ov
T
> 315
490-590
> 18
> 47
Vessels, pipes
oc
=
Rod EN 12536 - 0 IV: Gas welding rod of Class IV
11 T Treatment condition of the weld: U untreated (weld condition); T tempered 21 Nl notch impact energy at +20 °C, determined using an ISQ.V test specimen
325
Production eng ineering: 6.7 Joining, Welding liJ[;)mJ
"'' . ......",gases ......
...
:-Jil'i 'J' • ~ ~ r::IiU'iili
........>::i; 'V of steel
~'-
' (1995·05)
Composition 11
Gas type, effect
Welding methods
Materials; Applications
A1
H2 < 15%,balancaArorHe
R2
(1 ~5l%H 2,balanceAror He
reduction gases
TIG, plasma· welding
high-alloy steels, Ni. Ni alloys
inen gases (neutral behavior}
MIG, TI G, plasmawelding
AI, AI alloys, Cu. Cu alloys
gas mixtures. weak oxidizing
MAG welding
alloyed Cr·Ni steels; mainly stainless and acid-resistant steels
Codes
11
100% Ar
12
100% He
13
He < 95%, balance Ar
M11
C02 s 5%, H 2 s 5%, balance Ar or He
M 12
(3-10lo/o C0 2• balance Ar or He
M13
02 < 3o/o, balance Ar
M21
(5-25}% C02, balance Ar or He
M22
(3-10}% C0 2, balance Ar or He
mixed gases. more strongly MAG welding oxidizing
low-alloyed and medium-alloyed steels
mixed gases, medium oxidizing
MAG welding
unalloyed and low alloyed steels; heavy plate
strongly oxi· dizlng gases
MAG welding
unalloyed steels
M23
C02 s 5%, (3-10}% 0 1 • balance Ar or He
M31
(25-501% C02, balance Ar or He
M32
(1()..15)% 0 2 , balance Ar or He
M33 C1
(5-50)% C0 2, (8-151% 0 2, balance Ar or He 100% co,
C2
0 2 s 30%. balance C02
=
Shielding gas EN 439-13: In en gas with up to 95% Helium, balance Argon
l) Arargon
0 2 n"Y9pn
He helium
C02 carbon dioxide
H 2 hydrogen
Wire electrodes e nd deposits for gas-shielded metal ere welding of non-alloy end fine grain struc:tural steels Designation example (weld metal}: EN 440
I
I Standard number I
I
-fTlT ~
I
Designation for gas shielded metal arc welding
Code digit for the mechanical properties of the weld metal (page 327}
Code digit for notch impact energy of the weld metal (page327)
ct. DIN EN 440 (1994-11 l
Designation for shr.lding gases Code Shielding g ases letter otN 439 M
M21,M22, M23, M24
c
C1
Chemical - ........-u~, ' of the wire
~=t~~~
Main alloying elements
....
GO
All
G3Si1
0.7-1.0% Si, 1.3-1.6% M 1
=
; agreed upon
~: G21i G2Ni2
Main alloying elements _0.5-0.8% Si, 0.~1 .4% M n, 0.05-0.25% 1i , 0.4-(tB% Si, 0.8-1.4% M n, 2.1-2.7 % Ni
EN 440 - G 46 4 M G3Si 1: Properties of weld metal: M inimum yield strength Re = 460 N/mm2, notch impact energy at - 40•c = 47 J; mixed gas M21- M 24, electrode w ith 0.7- 1.0% Si, 1.3-1.6% M n
Wire ' Designation as per DINEN440
Welding methods
Shielding gases
Usable on steels, examples
Applications. properties, examples
G464 M G3Si1
MAG
M21-M24, C1
S185-S355, E295, E335, P235-P355, GP240R,
joint and build· up welding
G 504 M G4Si1
MAG
M21-M24, C1
l21~
like G3Si1, but higher mechanical strength propenies
G46 M G2Ni2
MAG
M21
12Ni14, 13MnNi6-3, S!Pl275-S(P)420
fine grain structural st eels and steels with low-temp. toughness
•) ~wwuo un •>l
to Europea n Stgoldard~
326
Production engineering: 6.7 Joining, Welding
Standard values for gas shielded metal arc welding, Filler metals for aluminum Weld seam type
Weld design Weld Wire Number Voltage thickness diamet er of passes /J mm mm
v
Efficie~cyva lues
Senings Current A
Wire feed rateH m/min
Shield· ing gas
Filler metal
1/min
g/m
Productive time minim
MAG welding. stenderd v-"- for UNIIoyed a1Ncturel .tMI Welding position: PB
Wire electrode DIN EN 440 - G 46 4 M G3Si1
Shielding gas DIN EN 439 - M21
I
20 22 23
105 215 220
7 11 11
10
45 90 140
1.5 1.4 2.1
1.0 1.0 1.2
1 1 3
30
300
10
15
215 300 390
2.6 3.5 4.6
1.2
3 4
30
300
10
15
545 605
6.4 9.5
2 3 4
0.8 1.0 1.0
5 6 7 8 10
MIG welding, st•nderd velun for elumlnum alloys Welding position: PA
~,
Filler metal DIN 1732- SG - AIMg5
I
700--
~~
4 5 6
1.2 1.6 1.6
1
5 6 8
1.6
1 2 2
Shielding gas DIN EN 439 - 11
23 25 26
180 200 230
3 4 7
12 18 18
22 22
160 170 220
6 6 7
18
26
30 77 147
2.9 3.3 3.9
126 147 183
4.2 4.6 5.0
i
1
1 For MIG welding: welding travel speed
TIG welding, .underd velutiS for eluminum elloys Welding position: PA
Filler metal DIN 1732 - SG - AIMg5
Shielding gas DIN EN 439 - 11
1 1.5
3.0
1
-
75 90
0.3 0.2
5
2 3
3.0
1
-
110 125
0.2
4 5 6
3.0
1
-
160 185 210
5
4.0
1st layer 2nd layer
-
6
4.0
1st layer 2nd layer
-
~t I 10°
- ~~
22
3.8 4.3
6
28
1.8 5.9
0.2 0.1 0.1
8 10 10
38 47 47
6.7 7. 1 12
165
0.1 0.2
12
105
13
165
0.1 0.2
12
190
16
Welding fillers for aluminum Designations 11
19
d . DIN 1732 (1988-00)
Material number
Application for base metals (Designation without adding EN AWl Al99.7, Al99.5
SG·AI99.8
(EL-AI99.8)
3.0286
SG·AI99.5Ti
(EL· AI99.5li)
3.0805
Al99.0, A199.5
SG-AIMnl
(El-A1Mn1)
3.0516
AIMnl, AIMnlCu
SG-A1Mg3
3.3536
AIMgl(C), A1Mg3
SG-AIMg5
3.3556
AIMg3, AIMg4, AIMg5, AISilMgMn, AIMglSiCu, AIZn4.5Mg1 , G·A1Mg5, G·AIMgSi, G-AIMg3, G· AIMg3Si
SG-AIMg4.5Mn
3.3548
A1Mg4, A1Mg5, AISilMgMn, AIMglSiCu, A1Zn4.5Mg1, G·AIMg5, G-AIMgSi
SG·AISi5
(EL·AISi5)
3.2245
AIMgSi1Cu, AIZn4.5Mg1
SG-AISi12
(El -A1Si12)
3.2585
G-AISil , G-AISi9Mg, G-AISi7Mg, G-AISi5Mg
11 SG metal fillers with bare surfaces; El coated rod electrodes
327
Production engineering: 6.7 Joining, Welding
Rod electrodes for arc welding cf. DIN EN ISO 2560 12006-03)
Coated rod elec:trodes for unalloyed steels and fine grain steels
replaces DIN EN 499
I Classification of rod electrodes
I•
I
Yield strength • Not ch impact energy 47 J
I · Tensile strength
according t o
I
1•
I Designation example Standa rd number
H hydrogen content 5 -> 5 mV100 g w eld met al
A classification according to yield strength and notch impact energy 47 J
-
-
I
Notch impact energy 27 J
ISO-A-E N . "'
I
I
.------
E coat ed rod electrode
Code nurnb«s fOf the welding position
Code numbets few the mechanical properties of weld metel Code Minimum number yield strength N/mm 2
Tensile strength N/mrn2
Minimum elongation at fracture EY;in%
440 - 570
22
35
355
38
380
470-600
20
42
420
500 - 640
20
46
460
530 - 680
20
50
500
560-720
18
Welding position Code number 1
all positions
2
all positions. except venical down welds
3
butt weld in flat position, fillet weld in flat and horizontal position
4
butt and fillet weld in flat position
5
for vertical down weld and as in number 3
Code number fOfthe efficiency and the type of cumtnt Code letter few the notch impact energy of weld metal
EffiCiency
"'
Type of current
Code letter/ code number
Minimum nomh impact energy 47Jat "C
1
> 105
2
> 105
z
no requirements
3
> 105s 125
A
+ 20
4
>105s125
DC
0
0
5
> 125 s 160
ACand DC
ACand DC DC ACand DC
2
- 20
6
> 125s 160
3
-30
7
> 160
ACand DC
4
- 40
8
> 160
DC
I--
Code letters fOf the chemical composition
=
Code number
Code letters
Maximum content in % Mn Mo Ni
N one
2.0
-
Mo
1.4
Mn Mo
1.4-2.0
-
DC
Code letters fOf the type of coating Code letters
Type of coating
A
acid coating
8
basic coating
0.3-0.6
-
c
cellulose coating
0.3-0.6
-
R
rutile coating
0.6-1 .2
RA
rutile acid coating
1.8-2.6
RB
rutile basic coating
0.6- 1.2
RC
rutile cellulose coating
0.6- 1.2
RR
thick rutile coating
1Ni
1.4
2Ni
1.4
Mn1Ni
1.4 - 2.0
-
1NiMo
1.4
0.3- 0.6
ISO 2560-A- E 42 2 RB 12: A rod electrode with guaranteed yield strength and notch impact energy, 42 y ield strength R0 = 420 flt/mm>, 2 notch impact energy 47 J at RB rutile basic coating. 1 efficiency> 105%, 2 all welding positions except for vertical down welds.
-zo•c,
328
Production Engineering: 6.7 Joining. Welding
Coating of rod electrodes, Weld design Coating of rod electrodes used for •rc welclng The coating of rod electrodes has a decisive influence on the welding Pfoperties and the mechanical pr operties of the weld metal. The coating consists of a homogeneous mixture of the following components: • slag formers • inert gas formers • arc stabilizers • deoxldlzers The addition of iron powder increases the efficiency of the weld metal.
• binders • alloy contents. if applicable
I welding position -.tlnq to the type ol coating 11
. ........ u ....,
Type of coating
' V I'o
IWelding position I page 3221
·~~.
acid coating
With thick coated rod electrodes. fine drip transition with flat, smooth welds. risk of solidification cracking
limited application in constrained positions
basic coating
High notch impact energy, particularly at low temperatures. low crack sensitivity
PA,PB,PC,PO,PE.PF
cellulose coating
Intense arc with particular suitability for vert.ical down welding
PG
rutile coating
IGood
transition. suitable for the !welding of thin sheets
PA.PB.PC.PD.PE.PF
rutile acid coating
~;~~~ally
PA.PB.PC. PD.PE.PF
;as
rod electrodes. with ecid coating
rutile basic coating
Good welding and mechanical properties
PA, PB,PC, PD,PE, PF
rutile cellulose coating
Good drip transition. suitable for welding of thin sheets. also in vertical down position
PA, PB. PC. PO, PE. PF. PG
11 The specifications apply to
rod electrodes designated according to the yield strength and the notch impact
energy (page 327). I design ·
' joints th:!.
final
i ~.:~~p.
3.2 x450 4 x 450 3..2 x450 4 x 450
1 FP
3.2x450 4 x450 3.2 X 450 4 x450 5 x450 3.2 X 450 4 x450 5 x450
3 2 4 2.9 4 4.7 4 3.7 3.5 4 4 6.2
100 185 100 145 215 100 195 380
B
s mm
=~,'
1
1R 1 FP
5
r oot pass
Weld design for an:
Electrode dimensions dxl mm
Number and
mm 4
f iller pass
Gap
1.5
6
2
8
2
10
2
1R 1FP 1R 2FP 1R 1F 1 FP 1R
1F
piecetm
Weld weight per pass total
~ 75 80 100 110
Jn 155 210 285 460
675
lfi- -
final pass pass
1 1
3.2x450 4 x450
3.2 3.6
80 140
80 140
5 6
3 3
3.2 x 450 4 x450
8.6 8
215 310
215 310
8
-
1R 2FP
4 5
x450 x450
3 7
430
10
-
1R 4FP
4 5
x450 x450
3 12.3
120 745
865
-
1R 4FP
4 5
x450 x450
3 18.5
120 1125
1245
12 11
-
3 4
R root pass;
F filler pass;
FP final pass
120
550
329
Production engineering: 6.7 Joining, Welding
Areas of application and standard values for beam cutting Areas of application for cutting processes Sheet metal thickness sin mm
M aterials
~
1
.
Structural steel, unalloyed and alloyed
: ~I"'
~
1 I
'
' '
I
.
·'
,
-
._,., _
I
i-
2fl
1f
~?~
_•t
I
I
-~
~::·;.:.·
--~--
.'
. Aluminum, aluminum alloys
~-
I
'
··~!lliEl
'
:-..;: •;<'. ..,..
I
Titanium, glass, ceramic, stone. plastics. rubber. foam materials, etc.
..
I
I
-
I 1
I I .• -~~ ..,::\
'
Chrome-nickel steels
~-
.tl..""r
.,:c.
:~__r-:::
-~ ·~"'·"·
I I :..\••.; ~ -·~.!§
-
I
Standard values for oxyacetvJ- cutting Materiel: unal oyed structural steel; Sheet met thiokn.
Cutting nozzle mm
mm
cunlng bar
1.5
2.0 2.5
5 8 10
3-10
1D-25
bar
ri'/hr
m3/hr
0.27
0.69
0.84
2.0
0.2
1.67 1.92 2.14
0.32 0.34
0.64 0.60
0.78 0.74
0.2
0.36 0.37 0.38
0.62 0.52 0.45
0.75
2.5
0.40
0.41
0.60
0.42 0.44
0.38 0.36
0.57 0.55
2.46 2.67 2.98
4.0 4.3
2.0
Cuning rate
Acetylene ~sumption
quality cut m/min
3.5 25-40
T01a1 oxygen
consumption
heating bar
2.5 3.0
1.8
25 30 35
pressure
3.0
10 15 20
Aeelylene
Oxygen pressure
Cut
s mm
fuel gas:~
Width of
2.5
0.2
4.5
3.20 3.42 3.54
standard cut mtmin
0.69 0.64
Standard values for plasma cutting11 Material: aluminum
Material: high-alloyed structur81 steels Cutting method: argon-hydrogen Electrical Sheet met. current thickn. qual. stand. s cut cut mm A A
4 5 10
70
15 20 25
70
120
120
CUI1ing rate quality stand. cut cut m/min mlmin
Cutting method: argon-hydrogen
COnsumption values argon
m3/hr
hydrogen ri'/hr
-
Consumption Cutting rate values quality stand. argon hydrocut gen cut m/min m/min ml/hr m3/hr
quality cut A
stand.
m3/hr
1.2 1.2
70
120
3.6 1.9 1.1
6.0 5.0 1.6
1.2
0.5
70
120
0.6 0.35 0.2
1.3 0.75 0.5
1.2
0.5
nitrogen
1.4 1.1 0.65
2.4 2.0 0.95
0.6 0.6 1.2
0.24
-
0.35 0.25 0.35
0.6 0.45 0.35
1.2 1.2 1.5
0.24 0.24 0.48
-
-
Eleclrical current
-
cut
A
11 Values apply to an arc power of approx. 12 kW and 1.2 mm cutting noozle d iameter.
330
Production engineering: 6.7 Joining, Welding
Standard values, Quality and dimensional tolerances for beam cutting Standard values for laser cutting11 Sheet mel. Cuning
M2l thicl
speed
Cutting gas
v
Cutting gas press. p bar
Cuning speed
v
Cutting gas
Cutting speed
v
m/min
1 1.5
5.0 - 8.0 4.0- 7.0
2 2.5
4.0- 6.0 3.5- 5.0
3 4
3.5- 4.0 2.5- 3.0
3.5- 4.2 2.8 - 3.3
3.6 - 2.8 2.8-3.4
5 6
1.8-2.3 1.3- 1.6
2.3- 2.7 1.9 - 2.2
2.5 - 3.0 2.1- 2.5
1 1.5
4.0-5.5 2.8- 3.6
2 2.5
2.2-2.8 1.6-2.0
3 4
1.3 - 1.4
1it; "0
"'>
.2
coc
::>
iii
..
~
c"' ·;;
Laser power 1.5 kW
Nz
1.5- 3.5
4.8 - 6.2 4.2- 5.0
8 10
5.0- 7.0 3.5- 5.2
14
2.0- 4.0 1.9 - 3.2
15
-
-
Cutting gas press. p bar
Laser power 2 kW 7.0 - 10 5.6- 7.4
7.0- 10 5.5- 7.5
02
Cunlng gas
m/mln
mm
Laser power 1 kW
mtmin
Cutting gas press. p bar
Oz
1.5- 3.5
Nz
1.8- .2.4 1.0- 1.1
4.8 - 6.1 4.2-5.0
6 10
4.5 - 9.0 3.8-6.6
10 14
3.4- 5.3 2.7 - 3.8
14 15
2.2- 2.7 1.4- 1.8
Oz
1.5-3.5
12 13
N2
14 14 16
1l The table values apply a the focal length off • 127 mm (5"1and a cutting gap width of w • 0.15 mm. M material group
2)
cf. OtN EN ISO 9013 (2~71
Cutting quality and dimensional tolerances for thermal cuts au.llty of cut~
The specifications apply to • oxy· fuel gas cutting, • plasma cutting, • laser beam cutting.
Range
The quality of the cut surfaces is determined by • the perpendicularity tolerance u, • the average surface roughness R~tr I
s u
R,s l:J
nominal length workpiece thickness perpendicularity tolerance average surface roughness limit deviations from the nominal length I
~PI! I ISO
9013-~
''~'"'of~cut..~-=-Qua~ty
lj
perpendicularit y t olerance u according to row 3 aver age surface roughness R,s according to row 4 tolerance class 2
Perpendicularity tolerance u inmm
Average surface roughness R,s inl)m
1
u < 0.05 .. 0.03 . s
R15 < 10 + 0.6 • s
2
u < 0.15 + 0.07 . s
RI5<40 + 0.8 · S
3
U<0.4 + 0.01 • S
%<70+1.2 -s
4
u< 1.2+0.035 - s
R,5 <110+ 1.8·S
Comments
Put in workpiece thickness inmm
Urnit dMiimons from the nominal length Umit deviations t:J from nominal lengths I in mm Workpiece thickness s inmm
Tolerance class 2
Tolerance class 1 >35
> 125
>315
>35
> 125
>315
s 125
s 315
s1000
"125
" 315
" 1000
> 1 s 3.15
>; 0.3
>; 0.3
:t0.4
:t 0.5
:t0.7
:!:
> 3.15 s6.3
"0.4
~0.4
"0.5
:t0.8
:t0.9
>6.3s 10
"0.6
:t0.7
%0.7
" 1.3
" 1.4
" 1.1 ,,.5
> 10 s 50
:t 0.7
:t0.7
:t 0.8
:1:1.8
:!:
1.9
"'2.3
>50s 100
:1: 1.3
:1:1.4
:1:1.7
ot2.5
%2.6
%3.0
> 100 " 150
"1.9
>; 2.0
:1: 2.1
:1: 3.3
"' 3.4
"'3.7
0.8
Example: oxy-fuel gas cutting according to tolerance class 2. I e 450 mm, s ~ 12 mm, cutting quality according to range 4 Sought after. t:J; u; % Solution; t:J = :~:2.3 mm U & 1.2 + 0.035 · s= 1.2 mm + 0.035. 12 mm = 1.62 mm R6 ~ 110 + 1.8. s= 110 1Jm+ 1.8. 121Jm = 131.61Jm
331
Production engineering: 6.7 Joining, Welding
Gas cylinders - Identification* Hazardous substance labels
cf. DIN EN ISO 7225 (2008..02)
A hazardous substance label must be applied to individual gas cylinders t.o identify their contents end any possi· ble hazards from these contents. Up to three hazard labels wam of the main hazards. Example:
complete name of the gas, e.g. oxygen, compressed
manufacturer's name, address, phone number
Hazard label
or. ~ ~ ~ non-combustible, non·toxic
combustible
V
toxic
Color coding
V
flammable
T
corrosive
cf. DIN EN 1089-3 (2004..()6)
Color coding ol the cylinder shoulder is used as additional information about the propenies of the gases. It is readily recognized when the hazardous substance label is illegible from a distance. This color coding does not apply to liquid gases.
General color coding
> toxic and/or corrosice
flammable
inen21
oxidizing
Color coding for special gases
~
i
Oxygen
Acetylene
21
Argon
i
Nitrogen
Non-toxic, non-corrosive, non-flammable, non-oxidizing an Standards
Carbon dioxide
Heli um
332
Production engineering: 6.7 Joining, Welding
Gas cylinders- Identification* Pure gases and gas mixtures for industrial use Color coding (examplesl
cf. Information sheet from Industrial Gases Association
Codng
Coding n ew1121
old Oxygen
0
old
new1121
Xenon. Knnrton, Neon
blue
flourescent green
blue
gray
yellow
red
yellow (black)
red
dark green
red
gray
gray
black
flourescent green
gray
gray
Compressed air
gray
flourescent green
gray
gray
brown
gray
" For gas cylinders color coded as per DIN EN 1089, the letter "N" (=new) must be put on the shoulder of the cylinder two times (opposite sides). The "N" is not required on cylinders w hose color coding has not changed. 21 The cylinder body may be another color. However. this must not lead to confusion regarding the h azardous nature of the cylinder contents. *I According to European Standards
333
Production engineering: 6.7 Joining, Soldering and Brazing
Brazing Brazing heavy non-ferrous metals
cf. DIN EN 1044 (1999-071
Sihlet' contllining brezlng rn8teriels Brazlng material Material Group Oesig· number nation'' AG 301
~
2.5143
Alloy designation as per IS036n2l
Information for use
Vlloi1
~
Brazing Solder joint31
feed"I
B·Ag50CdZrtCu-6201640
640
G
f, l
620
G
f, l
AG302
2.5146
B·Ag45CdZnCu-605J620
u
AG304
2.5141
B·Ag45ZrtCdCu·5951630
610
G
f. I
ct
AG309
2.1215
B-Cu40ZnAgCd-6051765
750
G,V
f. I
i:
AG104
2.5158
B·Ag45CuZrtSn-6401680
670
G
f, l
c
AG 106 2.5157
B-Cu36AgZrtSn-630/730
710
G
f, l
u
AG 203
2.5147
B·Ag44CuZrt·6751735
730
G
f,l
AG 205
2. 1216
B-Cu40ZnAg-700{790
780
G
f, l
AG 207
2.1207
B-Cu48ZnAg(Sil-8001830
830
G
f,l
~~ AG208 2. 1205
B·Cu55ZnAg(Sil-8201870
860
G,V
f, l
:> Cl
Vl
~ C>
ct ~
~0
8~0 .,_
CP 102
2.1210
B·CuSOAgP-645.'800
710
G, V
f, I
CP 104
2.1466
B-Cu89PAg-645/815
710
G,V
f,l
~
>.,
=~
Vl
ll Vl~
Materials
"C precious metals, steels, copper alloys steels, malleable cast iron, copper, copper alloys, nickel, nickel alloys
steels, malleable cast iron. copper, copper alloys, nickel, nickel alloys steels, malleable cast iron, copper, copper alloys, nickel, nickel alloys copper and nickel-free copper alloys. Unsuitable for materials containing FeorNi
CP 105
2.1467
B-Cu92PAg-645/825
710
G,V
f, I
AG351
2.5160
B-AgSOCdZnCuNi-6351655
660
G
f. I
Cu alloys
AG403
2.5162
B-Ag56CulnNi·600{710
730
G
f, I
chrome, chrome-nickel steels
AG502
2.5156
B-Ag49ZnCuMnNi-680005
690
G
f. I
carbide onto steel, tungsten and molybdenum materials
Copper baNd brazing materiels
cu 104 cu 201 cu 202 cu 301
2.0091
B-Cu100(Pl-1085
1100
G
I
2.1021
B-Cu94SniPI-910/1040
1040
G
I
2.1055
8-CuBSSniPl-82.5/990
990
G
I
2.0367
l-CuZn40
900
G,V
f,l
G,V
f, I
CU305
2.0711
B-Cu48ZrtNi(Sil-890/920
910
v
f
CP202
2.1463
B-Cu93P-710/820
720
G
f. I
5I
5I
5)
steels iron and nickel materials steels, malleab. iron, Cu, Ni, Cu & Ni alloys steels, malleable iron, Ni, Ni alloys cast iron Cu. Fe-free and Ni-free Cu alloys
Nic:kel baMd brazing materials for high-temperature brazing Nl 101
2.4140
Nl103
2.4143
B-Ni73CrFeSiBICI-96011060 B·Ni92SiB-980/1040
Nl105
2.4148
B-Ni71CrSi-1080/1135
Nl107
2.4150
B-Ni76CrP-890
nickel, cobalt, nickel and cobalt alloys, unalloyed and alloyed steels
Aluminum based brazing materials Al 102
3.2280
B-AJ92Si-575{615
610
G
f, I
Al103
3.2282
B-AJ90Si-5751590
600
G
f. I
Al104
3.2285
B-AI88Si-575/585
595
G
f,l
11 The
two letters indicate the alloy group, while the three digit numbers are purely numbers increasing sequentially. 21 N umbers at the end indicate the melting range. Alloy components, see pages 116 and 117. 31 G suitable for gap brazing; V suitable for V-joint brazing •I f filled brazing; I lapped brazing S) Refer to manufacturer's data.
aluminum and AJ alloy types AJM n, AJMgMn, G·AJSi; especially for AI alloy types AJMg, AJMgSi up to 2"k Mg content Brezlng joint Gap brazing:
w< 0.25mm V-joint brazing: w > OJnvn
~
334
Production engineering: 6.7 Joining, Soldering and Brazing
Solders and flux Solders Alloy group11
cf. DIN EN ISO 945312006-12) Alloy no.21
Alloy designation as per ISO 367731
Previous designation DIN 1707
Working tem perature •c
Application examples
tin·lead
101 102 103
S·Sn63Pb37 S.Sn63Pb37E S-Sn60Pb40
L-Sn63Pb L-Sn63Pb L-Sn60Pb
183 183 183-190
precision mechanics electronics, printed circuit boards printed circuit boards, high-grade steel
lead-tin
11 1 114 116 124
S-Pb50Sn50 S·Pb60Sn40 S-Pb70Sn30 S-Pb98Sn2
L·SnsoPb L·PbSn40
183-215 183-235 183-255 321>--325
electronics industry, tin plating thin-sheet packaging, metal goods plumbing work, zinc, zinc alloys radiator manufacturing
131 132
S-Sn63Pb37Sb S-Sn60Pb40Sb
L-Sn60Pb1Sbl
183 183-190
precision mechanics precision mechanics, electrical industry
134 136
S-Pb58Sn40Sb2 S-Pb74Sn25Sb1
L-PbSn40Sb L-PbSn25Sb
185-231 185-263
radiator manufacturing, wiping solder wiping solder, lead solders
tin· lead· bismuth
141 142
5-Sn60Pb38Bi2 S-Pb49Sn48Bi3
-
-
181>-185 138
precision solders low-temperature solder, safety fuses
tin- lead· cadmium
151
5-Sn50Pb32Cd18
L-SnPbCd18
145
tin-leadcopper
161 162
S·Sn60Pb39Cu1 5-Sn50Pb49Cu1
L-SnPbCu3 L· SnSOPbCu
231>--250 183-215
electronic devices, precision mechanics
tin-leadsilver
171
5-Sn60PbAg
L-Sn60PbAg
178-180
electrical devices, printed circuit boards
lead·tin· silver
182 191
S-Pb95Ag5 5-Pb93Sn5Ag2
-
L·PbAg5
304-365 296-301
for high operating temperatures electric motors, electrical equipment
tin-lead· anti mony
L·PbSn2 -
thermal fuses. cable joints
11 Filler metals for aluminium are no longer in EN ISO 9453. 21 The alloy numbers replace the material numbers as per DIN 1707. 31 With traces 1<0.5%) of Sb, Bi, Cd, Au, In, AI, Fe, Ni, Zn: see pages 116 and 117.
Aux for soldering
cf. DIN EN 29454-111994.021
Designation by m 8in constituents Flux type 1 rosin 2 organic
Flux basis
1 oolophonium 2 without colophonium 1 without activator 2 ectivated by halogens 1 water soluble 3 activated without halogens 2 not water soluble
A liquid
1 salts
1 with ammonium chloride 2 without ammonium chloride
B solid
2 acids
1 phosphoric acid 2 other acids
C paste
3 alkaline
1 amine a~or ammonia
3 inorganic
=
Cl-.iflcatlon by effect Flux form
Flux activator
Designations DIN EN DIN8511
Effect of residues
3.2.2... 3.1 .1...
F· SW11 F-SW12
very corrosive
3.2.1•.• 3.1.1 ... 2.1.3... 2. 1.2... 1.2.2..•
F-SW13 F-SW21 F-SW23 F-SW25 F-SW28
somewhat corrosive
1.1.1... 1.2.3...
F-SW31 F-SW33
noncorrosive
Flux ISO 9454 -1 .2.2.C: Flux of type rosin (11, base without colophonium 121. activated by halogens (2), available in paste form (C)
Aux for brazing Rux
ActMition temper.
cf. DIN EN 1045 11997·081 Instructions fell' use
FH 10 FH 11 FH12
5SO-SOO · c sSO-Soo · c 5SO-Sso · c
Multi-purpose flux; residues rinsed off or chemically stripped. Cu-AJ alloys; residues rinsed off or chemically stripped. Stainless and high-alloy steels, carbide; residues chemically stripped.
FH20 FH21 FH30 FH40
701>--tooo ·c 75(}-1 100 ·c over tooo •c 650-tooo•c
M ulti-purpose flux; residues rinsed off or chemically stripped. M ulti-purpose flux; residues removed mechanically or chemically stripped. For copper and nickel solder; residues removed mechanically. Boron-free flux; residues rinsed off or chemically stripped.
FL10 FL20
40G-7oo · c 40G-7oo •c
Ught alloys; residues are rinsed off or chem ically stripped. Ught alloys; residues are norHX>rrosive, but should be protected from moisture.
335
Production engineering: 6.7 Joining, Soldering and Brazing
Soldered and brazed joints Classification of soldering and brazing processes Differentiating characteristics
Soldering
Working temperature
Soldering and brazing processes Breling High temperature brazing
ooo •c
<450•C
> 450"C
Energy source
soldering iron. soldering bath, electrical resistance
flame. furnace
flame. laser beam, electric induction
Base material
Cu,Ag, AI alloys, stainless steel, steel, Cu, Ni alloys
steel, carbide inserts
steel, carbide
Soldering or filler material
Sn, Pb alloys
Cu,Agalloys
Ni·Cr alloys, Ag·Au-Pd alloys
A uxiliary materials
Flux
flux, vacuum
vacuum, shielding gas
>
Standard values for soldering gap widths Soldering gap width in mm for brazing materials primarily of copper brass
for solders
Base material
silver
unalloyed steel
0.05-0.2
0.05-0.15
0.1..0.3
Alloy steel
0.1..0.25
0.1-0.2
0.1..0.35
0.1-0.25
Cu. Cu alloys
0.05-0.2
-
-
0.05-o.25
-
0.3-{1.5
-
0.3-{1.5
Carbide
0.05-o.2
Design rules for soldered joints
~ J
4 7"' ldma.::::s.7
"'
Soldered joint under shearing load
~
,,.,
Load on solder joint reduced by folded seam
..
position
:
+
Production process sim plification
s
Soldered pip e fitting
knurled press fit
Preconditions • Soldering gap should be large enough so that flux and sol· der adequately fill the gap by capillary action (table above) • The two surfaces to be soldered should be parallel. • Surface roughness due to machining can remain for Cu soldering Rz • 1Q-16 I'm. for Ag soldering at Rz • 251Jm.
Load tratl$fer • The load on the soldered joint should be in shear (trans· verse forces) if at all possible. In particular, solder seams should not be loaded with tensile or peeling stress. • Soldering gap depths /d > 5 . s do not fill w ith solder reli· ably. Therefore load capacity cannot be increased by a larger gap depth. • Load capacity can be increased by design features such as folds Production process simplification • In soldering there should be a means for assuring proper positioning of the parts to be joined, e.g. by part shape or by knurled press fit. Application example$ • pipes and fittings • sheet metal parts • tools with brazed carbide cutters
336
Production engineering: 6.7 Joining, Adhesive bonding
Adhesives, Preparation of joint surfaces Properties and conditions of use for adhesives''
Adhesive
Trade name
Acrylic resins
AgometM, Acronal, StabilitExpress
Curing conditions
max.
Comb. tensile
and"-
Temperature lime
operating temperatuns •c
streng!h re !Wmm 2
Elasticity
"C
Epoxy resins Araldlt, Metallon, (EP) Uhu-Pius
Applications, special characteristics metals, thermosets. ceramics. glass
20
24 hr
120
6-30
low
20-200
1hrto 12 h r
50-200
10-35
low
metals. thermosets. g lass. ceramics, concrete, wood; long curing time
120-200
60s
140
20
low
metals, thermosets, g lass. elastomers, wood. ceramics metals, thermosets, glass, elastomers, wood, ceramics
Phenolic resins (Pf)
Porodur, Pertinax, Bakelite
Pol'{vinyl chloride I PVC)
Hostalit, lsodur, Macroplast
20
> 24 hr
60
60
low
Polyurethane Desmocoll, (PUR) Oetopur, Baydur
50
24 hr
40
50
present
metals, elastomers, glass. wood, some thermoplastics
Polyester resins (UPI
Fibron, leguval, Verstopal
25
1 hr
170
60
low
Poly· chtoroprene (CR)
Baypren. Contitec, Fastbond
50
1 hr
110
5
present
Cyanoacrylate
Parmabond, Sicometn
20
40s
85
20-25
low
fast-<:uring adhesive for metals. plastics, elastomers
Hot glue
Jet-Melt, Ecomelt, Vesta-Melt
20
>30s
50
2-5
present
all types of materials; adhesive action through cooling
metals. thermosets, ceramics. glass contact glue for metals and plastics
11 Due to varying chemical compositions of adhesives, the values given are only approximate values. Fo r detailed
Information please refer to information from the manufactu rer.
Preparation of parts for bonded joints Material low AI alloys M galloys li alloys Cu alloys 11
cf. VOl 2229 (1979-06)
Treatment sequence !I for toad severity 2' medium
Material
high
low
1-2-3-4
1-6-5-3-4 1-6-2-3-4 1-6-2-3-4
1-2-7-8-3-4 1-7-2-9-3-4 1-2-10-3-4
Steel, bright Steel, galvanized Steel. phosphatized
1-2-3-4
1-6-2-3-4
1-7·2·3-4
Other metals
medium
high
1-6-2· 3·4
1-7· 2-3·4
1·2·3-4
1·2-3·4 1-2-3·4
1· 2· 3·4 1· 6·2· 3·4
1·2·3-4
1-6-2· 3-4
1·7-2-3·4
Code numbers for type of treatment 1 Cleaning of dirt, scale, rust 6 7 2 Removing grease w ith organic solvent or aqueous cleaning agent 8 3 Rinsing with clear water 9 10 4 Drying in hot air up to 6s• c 5 Removing grease with simultaneous etching
21
Treatment sequence1 1 for load severity21
Meehanical roughing by grinding or brushing Mechanical roughing by shot blasting Etching 30 min, at so •c in 27.5 % sulfuric acid solution Etching 1 min, at 2o•c in 20 % nitric acid solution Etching 3 min, at 2o•c in 15% hydrofluoric acid solution
Load severity for bonded joints Low: Tensile shear strength up to 5 N/mm2 ; dry environment; for precision mechanics, electrical equipment Medium: Tensile shear strength up to 10 NJmm2; humid air; contact with oil; for machine and vehicule manufacturing High: Tensile shear strength up to 10 !Wmm2; direot contact with liquids; for aircraft, ship. and container manufacturing
337
Production engineering: 6.7 Joining, Adhesive bonding
Design of adhesive bonded joints, Test methods Design examples Bonded joints should be loaded in compression or shearing if possible. Tensile, peeling or bending loads should be avoided. Butt joint/overlap joint
Tube joint
i!J,h good, since the bonding surfaces only have a shear load
good, since the bonding surfaces only have a shear and compression load
J'Mr
good, since suffiCiently large bonding surfaces can withstand shear load
1:Qk not • good, since small Mr bonding surfaces cannot withstand tensile and shear load
not•good. sinoe peeling forces act due to off-center applicalion of force
Test methods Test method
Contents
mndard Bending peel t est DIN 54461
Tests resistance of bonded joints against peeling forces
Tensile shear t est DIN EN 1465
Tests tensile shear strength of high-strength bonded lap joints
Fatigue test DIN EN ISO 9664
Tests fatigue p roperties of structural adhesives under tensile-shear loads
Tensile test DIN EN 26922
Tests tensile strength of bonded bun joints perpendicula r to bonded su rface
Roller peel test DIN EN 1464
Tests resistance to peeling forces
Compression shear test DIN EN 15337
Tests shear strength. primarily of anaerobic11adhesives
11 Sets with exclusion of air
Adhesive behavior as a function of temperature and size of bonding surface
t
..,., E
c .,"'
..
:><
..0
test temperatureS
______.
Tensile shear strength of overlap bonded joints
bonded surface area -----. Effect of adhesive joint surface area on breaking load
338 Production engineering: 6.8 Workplace safety and environmental protection
Safety colors, Prohibitive signs* Safety colors
cf. DIN 4844-1 (2005-05) and BGV AS II 12002-04)
Color
red
yellow
Meaning
stop, prohibited
caulionl
mandatory signs, notices
potemial danger
Contrast color white
black
Color of graph· b lack lcsymbol
black
white
while
Applicetion Stop signs. exempln emergency stop (see pages 340 prohibitive signs, and341) fire fighting equipment
Notice of hazards (e. g. fire, explosion, radiation); nolice o f obstruc· tions (e. g. speed bumps, holes)
Identification of ambu· lances and emergency exits; firs1aid and emergency aid stations
Requirement to wear personal protec· tive equipment (PPE); location of a telephone
cf. DtN 4844-2 (2001.()2) and BGV A8 11(2002·04)
Prohibitive signs
Prohibited
while
No smoking
No fires, open name or smoking
PedeS1rian access Do not extinguish prohibited with water
Access prohibited Access by forklifts for unauthorized prohibit.e d persons
Do not touch
Placement or stor- Transport of pas· age prohibited sengers prohibited
Walking in this area prohibited
No spraying with water
Do not use this
Do not reach in
No magnetic or electronic data media allowed
Climbing prohibited for unauthorized persons
Do not touch live voltage
device in the bathtub, shower or sink
Do not connect
Non-potable water
No access for persons with pacemaker
®® No cell phones
No food or drink allowed
Operating with long hair prohibited
Hand-held or manually operated grinding not allowed
t J German Employer's Liability Insurance Association -Accident Prevention Regulations (Ber ufsgenossen-
schaftliche Unfallverhiitungsvorschrift) BGV A8 (replaces VGB 125) *) According to European Standards
Production engineering: 6.8 Workplace safety and environmental protection 339
Warning signs* Warning signs
~ Warning: Hazardous area
cf. DIN 4844-2 (2001-02) and BGV AB 11 (2002·04)
& £ & & £ .
Warning: Combustible materials
Warning: Explosive substances
Warning: Toxic substances
Warning: Corrosive substances
&. A Lh £ £ Warning: Suspended load
Warning: Forklift traffic
~~ Warning: Non· ionic, electromagnetic radiation
£ Warning: Substances hazardous to health or irritants
Warning: Strong magnetic field
~ Warning: Gas cylinders
Danger. High voltage
Warning: Optical radiation
Warning: Laser beam radiation
Warning: Radioactlve materials or lonillng radiation
~ Warning: Oxidizing substances
£ £ A £ Warning: Danger of tripping
Warning: Danger of falling
A& Warning: Hazards due to batteries
Warning: Explosive atmosphere
Warning: Biological hazard
Warning: Extreme cold
~~ Warning: Milling shaft
Warning: Crushing hazard
&&& &&A
Warning: Danger of tipping when rolling
Warning: Automatic start-up
Warning: Hot surface
Warning: Risk of hand injury
Warning: Danger of slipping
Warning: Moving conveyor on track
11 German Employer's Liability Insurance Association - Accident Prevention Regulations (Berufsgenossen·
schaftliche Unfallverhutungsvorschrift) BGV A8 (replaces VGB 125) •) According to European Standards
340 Production engineering: 6.8 Workplace safety and environmental protection
· * Saf ety s1gns
""'-JGv .\ ,, 12oJ2 011
Mandatory signs
••
Wear ear protection
Wesr respirator
••• Use safety belt
For pedestrians
Use safety harness
Eye rinsing equipment
Direction arrows for First aid stations. escape routes and emergency eKits2l
Rrstaid
Medical stretcher
Emergency shower
Directional arrows
Wall hydrant and fire hose
Ladder
Fire extinguisher
Work area!
High Voltage Danger to life
Location: Date: Sign may ody be removed by:
Fire fighting equipment
Manual fire alarm
Wear safety shoes
Extra sign which gives more information to supplement the safety sign
German Employer's Uability Insurance Association -Accident Prevention Regulations (Berufsgenossenschaftliche Unfallverhutungsvorschrift) BGV M
Extra sign which gives more infor mation to the
only in combination with other escape route and rescue signs •) According to European Standards
341
Production engineering: 6.8 Workplace safety and environmental protection
lnfonnation signs
Discharge time longer than 1 minute
In case of
farlure part can have live voltage
Before touchmg -diSCharge -ground - short CirCUit
5 Safely rules B• I • '•
'' ~
I
'
l
I
>
1
rr
[•,, It I
•d ' " '
I
C .,
' ,o I I "
•
1 rrt·,
'-"~~
,
~
I
I
1
r' ,, 0
I
r ,,,,
,
I
j
1
,r , , r'
I , , , 1 •, v ,
r "l'
Combination signs
®
Workarea! Locallon:
High Voltage Hazardous
Da1o:
~:.lybe
Do not connect
Warning of high voltage
Combination signs for escape routes or emergency exits with corresponding direction indicated by arrows
First aid station
Prohibited! Walking on roof is prohibited.
Fire blanket for fighting fire
Danger of toxic gases
H German Employer's Liability Insurance Association - Accident Prevention Regulations (Berufsgenossenschaftliche Unfallverhiitungsvorschriftl BGV AJ3 (replaces VGB 125) *) According to European Standards
342 Product ion engineering: 6.8 Workplace safety and environmental protection
Danger symbols and description of hazards* Code lener. dan· ger symbol, hat· ard description
T+
Danger criteria of materials When consumed in very small amounts leads to death or may cause acute or chronic damage to health.
Code lener. Danger criteria of danger symbol. materials hatard description
XI
Cont.act with skin or mucus mem· branes can cause Inflammation.
07 Ht
;~~1 [0~,~'
Code lener, Danger criteria of danger symbol, materials hatard descripti on F
Solid material can be easily ignited by a source of ignition. Liquid material with flash point < 21 •c .
X - St. Andrew's cross i e irritating
F - flammable
T · toxic When consumed in small amounts leads to death or may cause acute or chronic dam· age to health.
Risk of explosion by shock, friction, fire or other sources of ignition.
T • toxic
E • explosive
When ingested may result in death or cause acute or chronic harm to health.
Substances that substantially increase the risk and severity of a fire, because they produce oxygen.
Substances change water, ground. air, eli· mate, animals, plants, etc. in such a way that the environment Is endangered.
N • noxious (harmful) Substance may cause cancer fro inhaling, swallowlng or from contact with the skin. R 45: May cause cancer
X • St. Andrew's cross
n • noxious
0 = oxidizing
T • toxic
Living tissue can damaged by contact.
Liquid substances with flash point < 0 "C and boiling point < 35 •c; gaseous substances, which are flammable in contact with air.
Substances which can have a mutagenic effect on humans.
oo
Limited
C = corrosive
F • flammable
T = toxic
Substance which can cause concern due to possible mutagenic effect on humans. However, there is not yet sufficient information available to give conelusive proof.
Substances which are known to impair fertility or reproduction.
Substances which cause concern due to possible impairment of fertility of humans.
evidence of mutagenic effect
1)
R 46: M ay cause heritable genetic damage.
X = St. Andrew's cross n =noxious R 40 = irreversible damage possible (page 1991
EU-Directive, Appendix II
Danger to fertility T= toxic R 60 = may impair fertility R 61 • may cause harm to the unborn child
"I According to European Standards
Umited evidence of influence on fertility
X - St. Andrew's cross n =noxious R 62 • possible risk of impaired fertility R 63 = possible risk of harm to unborn child
Production engineering: 6.8 Workplace safety and environmental protection
343
".~~.~,~~~,~
Identification of pipe lines* Area of application and requirements
Area of applic;ation: A precise Identification marking of pipe lines. indicating the substance being conveyed, is neces· sary for reasons o f safety, fire lighting and proper malntenanoe and repairs. The idenlification marking is intended 10 lndicale possible hazards and help 10 prevent ac:cidents and damage 10 health. Requirements c;onc;erning ldentific:ation marking • Identification marking must be clearly visible and long· lasting. • Identification can be established by peiming, lenering (e. g. via self-adhesive foil strips) or signs. • Particularly operation-critical and hazardous places should be marked (e.g. beginning and end of branch pipes. wall penetral ions. fittings).
• Marking must be repeated at leas! every 10m of pipe 1eng1h. • Indication of the group and supplemental color (see table below). • Indication of the flow direction by means of an arrow. • Indication of the conveyed substanoe by specifying the name (e. g. water) or the chemical formula (e. g. H2 0 ). • With hazardous materials, additional indication o f hazard signs (page 342) or warning signs (page 339) If general hazards are implied.
Fire extinguishing lines must be fitted with a red/white/red color marking. The white field contains the graphical sym· bol of the safety sign · Fire fighting equipment and materials· (cf. page 340) in the color of the extinguishing agent. Potable water lines must be fitted with a green/While/green color marking. Non-potable water lines have a green/blue/green marking. The code letters and their colors are listed in the table below.
Heating oil
Fire extinguishing unit (water)
Oxygen (fire-promoting, 01
xygen
Potable water
Compressed air
Acetylene (highly flammable, F+l
Acalylene
3 44 Production engineering: 6.8 Workplace safety and environmenta l protection
Sound and noise* Sonic terms Tenn
Exp!Matlon
Sound
Sound comes from mechanical vibrations. It propagates in gaseous. liquid and solid bodies.
Frequency
Number of oscillations per second. Unit 1 Hertz • 1 Hz • 1/s. Pitch increases with frequency. Frequency range of human hearing: 16 Hz- 20.000 Ht.
Sound level
Measure of the sound strength (sound energy).
Noise
Undesirable, annoying or painful sound waves; damage depends on strength, duration, frequency and regularity of exposure. For a noise level ol85 dB (AI and higher there is danger of permanent hearing loss.
Decibel (dB)
Standardized unit lor sound level.
dB(A)
Since the human ear perceives tones o f different heights (lrequenciesl to have different strengths when they are actually at the same sound levels, noise must be appropriately dampened with filters lor cenain frequencies. Frequency weighting curve w ith Filter A compensates for this and indicates the subjective auditory impression. A difference of 3 dB (A) corresponds approximately to a doubling (or halving) of the sound intensity.
Sound level dB(A)
Type ol sound Threshold of auditory sensitivity
4
Breathing at distance of30cm
10
dB (AI
Type ol sound normal speech at distance oil m
70
machine tools
Soft rustling o f leaves
20
Whispering
30
Tearing paper Quiet conversation
40 50-60
75-90
loud talking at distance oil m welding torch, lathe hammer drill, motorcycle engine test stand, walkman
Noise protection regulations
heavy stamping
95-110
angle grinder
95-115
85
car horn at distance of 5 m disco music
90 00-110
jet engine
80
dB (AI
Type ol sound
100 10(H15
hammer and anvil
110 120..130
ct. Accident Prevention Regulations on "Noise" BGV 83 (1997-<111
Accident prevention regulrions for noise l)f'Oduc:lna ooantlons
I 1S Workplace regulation
Requirem. to post signage lor noise~ 90 dB (A) and above. Above 85 dB (AI sound protection devices must be available, and they must be used above 90 dB (A). II the risk of accidents increases due to noise, appropriate measures must be taken. Regular preventative medical checkups are compulsory. New operational equipment must conform to the most advanced level of noise reduction.
Noise limit value lor: predominantly mental activities simple, predominantly mechanized activities all other activities (value may be exceeded by 5 dB I break rooms, ready rooms and first-aid rooms
max. dB(AI 55 70
85 55
Noise harmful to health ~,~~~~-~
-~· I
I 0
I
10
I
I I II
I
I
I
I
I
I
I III
I I
II
II I
l r earin
r
I
I I
I _!
1- , 30
40
50
• ) According to European Standards
60 65 10
80 85 90 100 danser limit for hearing
110
120
-· -
:~~
l
l d Tge
20
~
130
pain threshold
140
I
150
~
160 dBIAI
sound level - -
Table of Contents
345
7 Automation and Information Technology 7.1 w
L•
7.2
L-
I k1 KJ
346 348 349 350
Electrical circuits Circuit symbols ............................ Designations in circuit diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . Circuit diagrams ..... . ............ .... ..... Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Protective precautions .......... ... ...... ...
351 353 354 355 356
7.3
Function charts and function diagrams Function charts .................. . ...... ... 358 Function diagrams ..... .................... 361
7.4
Pneumatics and hydraulics Circuit symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Layout of circuit diagrams .... .. ............. Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hydraulic fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pneumatic cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Forces, Speeds, Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Precision steel tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
363 365 366 368 369 370 372
Programmable logic control PLC programming languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ladder diagram (LD) ............. .. ........ Function block language (FBL) . ......... ... .. Structured text (ST) .... ..... . ..... .... ..... Instruction list ............................ Simple functions .................. ....... ..
373 374 374 374 375 376
7.5
~-·
~ 7.6
Handling and robot systems Coordinate systems and axes .... ............ 378 Robot designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 Grippers, job safety ........................ 380
7.7
Numerical Control (NCI technology Coordinate systems ........................ Program structure according to DIN .......... Tool offset and Cutter compensation . . . . . . . . . . Machining motions as per DIN ............... Machining motions as per PAL ......... ..... PAL programming system for lathes . . . . . . . . . . PAL programming system for milling machines .
381 382 383 384 386 388 392
lnfonnation technology Numbering systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ASCII code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Symbols for program flow charts ............. Program flow chart, Structograms ............ WORD commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EXCEL commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
401 402 403 404 405 406
7.8
NO
Basic terminology for control engineering Basic terminology, Code letters, Symbols . . . . . . Analog controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Discontinuous and digital controllers . . . . . . . . . Binary logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
346
Automation: 7.1 Basic terminology
Basic terminology of open loop and closed loop control systems Buic terminology
cf. DIN 19226-1to ·5 11994..02)
()p«o loop control For open loop control the output variable. such as the temperature in a hardening furnace. is influenced by the input variable, such as the current in the heating coil. The output variable does not have an effect on the input variable. Open loop control has an open action flow.
Schematic pr-ntation
For closed loop control the controlled variable, such as the actual temp. in an annealing furnace, is continuously monitored and compared to the target temp. (reference vari· able) and, if there are deviations, adjusted to the reference input variable. Closed loop control has a closed action flow.
disturbance heat losses mtlflipulated varillble current
disiUrbiJnce heat losses
controller button
Functional diagram of open loop control system
button
relay
annealing fumace
k*:=.l l~r:tll~! temperature setpoint
current
heat loss
Application-based code letters
cf. DIN 19227· 1 11993· 10)
POIC
Designation eKample:
TTT Supplementary letters
First letters
0
difference
electrical parameters flow, throughput distance, position, length manual inpul/intervention time status (e.g. level) humidity pressure Q quality parameters R radiation parameters speed, rotational speed T temperature w w eight, mass
F
ratio
J
control point qual)'
Q
sum, integral
E F G H K l M p
s
Succeeding letters A
D density
c H I
l A
error indication automatic closed loop control upper limit value display lower limit value registration
Example: [);fferential pressure closed loop control EKplanation: P
pressure
D difference I
c
display automatic closed loop control
In plain language: Pressure differential closed loop control with display of pressure difference
347
Automation: 7.1 Basic terminology
Symbols Locetlon of output • UMr control
0 or
Effect on the controlled ..,.._.,
0 Process control room
a
Local control console
D
Local, implemented by prooess control system
C)
Measuring point, sensor
0
v
Final control element. contro l point
Example
Servo motor; the sening for maximum mass flow or flow of energy is set during loss of auxiliary power.
r
-r-.. M
--
Explanation
Sensors
D or
<>-r
D
Sensor for pressure
~
Sensor for level with float
l~wl
Sensor for w eight. scales; indicating
OutpUt devices
c
Symbol
Explanation
Explanation
Final controlliftil • -control elements
D
Controller. general
IPro]
Two-point controller with switching output and P10 behavior
E]
Three-point controller with switchingout.p ut
~ ~
0
Valve actuator with motor drive
Valve actuator with solenoid drive
Adjuster for electric signal
Signel designeton
Adepten
0
Pressure transducer with pneumatic signal output
-f A (\
#
Signal, electrical Signal, pneumatic Analog signal Digital signal
&.nple: Temperlltu'e controller
[SJ
Basic symbol. general display
m
Printer, analog, no. of channels as a numeral
PID controller sognal amplifier for . manipulated actuating signal variabley& controlled variable x temperature transduce1' wi1h elecbical signal OU1pUt temperature
JgJ
loop control
cf. DIN 19227-2 (1991·02)
Symbol Controllers
Sensorfor temperature, general
T R
Temperature control and registration at local control stand measuring point310
Solution based symbols for devices Symbol
temperature
~ registrati~n ~~=atoc
IO~ ~
Servo motor; the final control device remains in the most recently acquired sening during loss of auxiliary power.
~
control point
Referenoe line
Servo motor; the sening for minimal mass flow or flow of energy is set during loss of auxiliary power.
? 9
Local, implemented by prooess computer
~"ii point.
Servo motor, general
0
Local, general
a
<' Jl~\ l 1}._'7 1 i ] LJJJ lQ1
Monitor
sensor
"'-:-~
variable w
-f
T
-
input variable w
--1
=~~
.,
signal adjuster for electrical -f signal to adjust reference
water bath
valve actuator, mot()( driven
~steam
..... ......
348
Aut omat ion: 7. 1 Basic terminology
Analog controllers Analog (continuous) controllers
cf. DIN 19225 (1981-12) and DIN 19226-2 (1994-02)
In analog controllers the manipulated variable y may essume any desired value within the control range.
....... control_.,.., ~
Contro. . dnlgn
P-contron.r. Proportional controllers Output variable Is proportional to input variable. P-controllers have steady-state errors.
inflow valve
1-
_V
'If
• -..t
i
Symbol''
Block~
x controlled variable P controller
it
,l!u... ___;.:~:.,==-~~ II!" :::
v
~t
T....-ltion function
_
:- _..,._-::-
- - step function31 y manipulated variable - - step response•• e error
nl ~:E ~ ~
outflow
lime t --
I-controllers Integral controllers
:o. t. =;
In PI-controllers a P-controller and a !-controller are connected fn paraile I. 0-controllers
Derivative con· trollers
II PD-controllers Proportional derivative controllers
I
• PIO-controllef'S Proportional integral derivative controllers
-
/
!-controllers are slower than P-controllers. but they eliminate all errors.
PI-controllers Proportional integral controllers
-
I controller
-
~ tl .,I,___
, ___ ~~~ ;:~~ . .tLV (\<
Pcontrol
:O...J
part
- 1--lcontrol
I
part
~~~r-~~ .. ""' =--
If:::~ -~-----~ -----------
~ '=>
D-controller systems only occur with P- or PIcontroller systems, since pure 0-controller behavior with constant error does not provide any manipulated variable and therefore no closed loop control.
PD-controllers are created when a P controller and a D element are connected in parallel. The D part changes the output variable at a rate proportional to the rate of change of the input variable. The P part changes the output variable so that it is proportional to the input variable itself. PO-controllers act quickly. PIO-controllers are created by connecting P. I and D-controllers in parallel. Initially the D part reacts with a large change to the control signal, afterwards this change is reduced to approximately the magnitude of the P element, and finally the effect of the I element causes the response to rise linearly.
n Symbol as per DIN 19227-2 31 Signal curve at controlled system input
D ~
-I~
~
. .fU::::_ , ___ ~ ~t ~
~
. . fUI , __ ~ -I~ ~ . . f ,__ ,__ 'I~ ""t
,___
~ ~
~
21 Block representation as per OIN 19226-2 41 Signal curve at controlled system output
349
Automation: 7.1 Basic terminology
Discontinuous and digital controllers Switching (discontinuous) controllers
cf. DIN 19225 (1981·12)and DIN 19226· 2 (1994-021
Switching controllers change the manipulated variable y discontinuously by switching in several steps. Elalmple.~
8 ..
Controller design Two-point controller
ttttt
L
Th,....point con· troller
~
2
~er
set-point
Air conditioning system In an air conditioning system three ternperature ranges are assigned three switch positions: - heating ON - heating/cooling OFF - cooling ON
11r:pos
s\Jitch
pos t 0 error slol1tth pos l
£
0 error
switth pos. 1
Digital controllers lsoftw•e controllers)
E]
t
..I
bimetal
t
-::
_.. .;:::::~ ~ntadS
.w.
8lodl ...,._..etlon
"'t
heat radiDtioo
~VI
svmbol
swltc:Hng~
1~ ,_
~-~
~
y-
Transition function,
{Ef
B ~
cf. DIN 19225 (1981 -12)and DIN 19226-2 (1994-021
The operating mode of the digital controller is implemented as a computer program.
-
~ (simplilled)
Control!« design Compute,. Programmable Logic Controllers
I I,
IPLCI
Tr..o.nt function
Di~troller PI
Enter reference input variable w
I '"I
tIerror step
.. : Ill II I II I litr.et - -
H .._,
AQuire controlled variable
Microcontrollers
Generate error e = w- x
I
M icroprocessors
I
~~m
control
3
2 1
I
individual parts
v ~ :..t"' I part ......_ P part
tinle t - -
H, ~
I
....
3 2
~~~;;.;t~~ed l
step response
1
timet - -
P-«mtrolled systems with time delay IT part) Controller design
Eurnple
P-controlled system with deley 1st order IP·T1 controlled system)
Filling a gas vessel
P-controlled system with delay 2nd order (P· T2 controlled system)
p,
cf. DIN 19226-2 (1994-021 T.-.nsient function
,~crP,k::
P~
t
::b
P0
t
-I~
....t
tinle I - -
timet - -
P,l= ,--f.~ ~ ~tz:. -I~ .._t Filling two gas vessels
Po
t
P.
-- -
~ =N=l
0
t
EJCplanlltlon The computer program has the following tasks: - generate error e - calculate the manipu· lated variable y based on programmed control algorithms At the step response all P, 0 and !-parts are summed. Sampling of analog signals and their conversion to digital values and internal program flow causes a time delay of the controlled vari· able "I similar to a T-controlled system).
P.
timet - -
•
k>
timet - -
Explanlltlon If the pressure vessel is filled by a flow of gas, pressure p, in the vesset gradually reaches the pressure of the gas flow. If two vessels are connected in series, pressure Pl increases in the second vessel slower than pressure p, in the first vessel.
350
Automat ion: 7. 1 Basic termin ology
Binary logic FUnction
AND
d
DI'H 'J olbll l.' tl'l'l'l
Circuit symbola logical equlltlon
electric
11 12 0 0
~ 0 = 11 A 12
OR
0
n lt
= 11 v 12
0 0
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
1
11 0
12 0
0 0
0
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
A
~~~ T ~- Tc T 11
1
12
[1
0
I
~ --'
(~
(1
NOT
11
12
0
NOT
0
0
1
11
1--l
AND (NANDI
0
1
1
12
~-~
1
0
1
1
1
0
11
12
0
0 0
0 1
1 0
1
0
0
1
1
0
0 = ii"AIT
NOT-OR (NOR)
0 = i1Vi2
11
12
0
Exclusive
0
0
0
OR (XORI
0
1
1
0 = (11 A 121 V
1
0
1
(11 A 121
1
1
0
11 0 0 Memory (AS flip· flop)
1
S set R reset
I= inputs
1
(1 9
0
12
(~
t,.
1-11- 1--.J l
(1
c1~ o (~
12 01 02 0 • • 1 0 1
0
[1
11 ~_,
(1
(1
~ ---~
(2
0
1 1 0 0 • state un·
c~ o1 c ~
~~~Rfgn
0 indeterminate state 0 = outputs, e.g. lamps
l~t t 12 t@t l
C = relays, contacts
( 2 (2 (1
c? o2~~
351
Automation: 7.2 Electrical circuits
Circuit symbol s
, f lli"JF\J606111 1 > 1/11'1990 11
General circuit symbols
-c=:>E3
Resistor. general Fuse
-II-
Capacitor
..../'V"VV'\_
..
---
Inductor. coil Nonstandard represent a· tion Permanent magnet
7<-®
w ~
Lamps, general. optional representation Buner Horn
~~
Electrolytic component
-{Z}-
Converter, transducer
Conductors, connectors and terminals Conductor, general
-J"V'-
-
Conductor. moveable Conductor, insulated
-
"Z:
I
I
,.
r I
Grounded conductor.
PE Neurral conductor, PN Neutral con· ductorwith ruotective unction PEN
Devices and machines
-o-o-
-1+
optional representation Double junction, optional representation
m
1
..L
@
Connection to ground, optional rep· resentation Ground Ground con· nector connection
Semiconductor components
Measuring device, machine
$H
Measuring device, recording
--~
Transformer, optional representation
Valve
*r
Semiconduc· tor diode, general LEO light emitting diode
Types of current
Designations Adjustability
~ /
TT
Junction,
,-J
Function stepped
general
/
continuous
adjustable
?
Effect
regulated
~
--
oc
""
ACwith low frequency
thermal radi ation
"" "" ""
ACwith high frequency
I
Three-pole switch, protective systemiP44
v
PNP transistor
¥
NPN transistor
Types of connections
y
Y connection
~
Delta connection
Y.6.
Y-delta con· nection
Circuit symbols in wiring system drawings
d a)
~ b)
~
¥
Circuit switch a) single-pole bl double-pole
f
Three-way switch, illu· minated
Sensor switch
~
Groundingtype receptacle
Series switch
@
Key button
ill
OC· AC converter, regulated
' IP44
~
Automatic breaker
~
Motor circuit breaker
I
Ground-fault circuit inter· rupter
. -\
Application examples
+
Inductor, continuously adjustable
5
-?
Resistor, 5step variable
-
""
OCorAC (universal)
L 3G1.5
Three-core cable with junction Cable with 3 conductors, with ground conductor (G) and 1.5mm2 cross section
@
&)
DC motor
Three-phase motor
352
Automation: 7.2 Electrical circuits
Circuit symbols Actuetlon types
Relay contacts
\
NO conlact, normally open
(
\
Manual. general
"'F---
E---
By pressing
fr--
By tilling
[8--
By pressure energy
By key
~--
By proximity
~--
By touching
)---
By pulling
.J---
By pedal
Single pole double throw
_F.--
By turning
G---
By coil
¢
Relay coli, general
Q
Timer on delay Timer off delay
~
f---
NC contacl.• normally closed
Electromech. relays
Q
I Cli'J H'l h
Switch behavior
-v-
€== b)
)=
11
Timer on off delay
By bimetal (thermal)
Senson (Block representation)
lock, prevents automatic return Delayed adion (para· chute effed) for movement a) to the righl b) to !he left Symbol for •actuated sl ate•
8)
~--
l!l
Capacilive sensor. reacts to proximily of all substances
~
Inductive sensor, reads 10 proximity of metals
~
Magnetic sensor. reacts to close proximity of a magnet treed switch)
1'/~1
Optical sensor, reacts to relledion of infrared beam
Examples of switch applications a)
I
r-~
NOconlaCI manually
~~~--1
Double pole single throw
~--1
11\ 11( 8)
NC contact with roller actuation
a) NC conlact b) NO contact Represenlalion inactu· atedcondi· tion
b)
bl
~~
NO contact a) closes b) delayed opening when aauated
o-~r
Emergency palm button
~
Limit swil ch. NO contact
r
Valve with electromagnetic actualion
¢--X
Delay elemen1s RS flip-flop
u 12 R
1 0
1 0
~
1
DO
Function table
0
0
••
02 0 1 0 1
Function table21
1
RS flip-flop r.et dominent
-dominwrt
II 12 0 1 02
*~(
Capacitive proximity switch with NC contaCI, reacts to proximityofall malerials.
I
Limit switch, NC contact
Rip-flop elements RS'l flip-flop
E~-~
Magnelic proximity swilchwith NO conlact, reaCis to proximity of magnetic material.
1
2
11 12 0 1 02
0 0 0 1 1 0
•• 0
1
1 0
1 1 1 0
~
•• ~
11
12 01 02
0
0
2 0
FunCiion table
With riM-deley time
1 0
1 0
•
1 0
1 1 0
1
When asignal is applied to input I, outputO assumes value 1 after time r1 elaps· es.
With tum-off delay
Flip-flops are integraled circuits which store signal conditions. R =reset s • set 21 e unchanged state 0 indeterminate state 1l
The numeral 1 after an R or S input indicates that the logical state of this input is dominant. If a signal simultaneously lies al inpuls 11 and 12 (11 ~ 1 and 12 = 1) the following applies: Input without the numeral 1 (R for set dominant, S for reset dominant RS flip-flop) is always set to logical stateO.
~
With loss of a signal at input I, output Otakes the value 0 after completion of time r2 •
353
Automation: 7.2 Electrical circuits
Designations in circuit plans* Designation of devices in circuit diagrams EMample:
cf. DIN EN 61346-2 (2000·121 S2 E
I
Sequent~~~~
Code letters for type (selection I B F K 0 M P A S
Sensor, proximity switch Fuse Switch relay, timed relay Circuit breaker. contactor Solenoid valve, solenoid Indicator lighl, horn Resistor Control switch, push-button switch
numb«
Code letters for function (not standardized) A
Function OFF
B
Direction of movement
E
Function ON
Example of clrC\Jit diagram
2[1 h
G Test K Jog operation
s
·~ s
Save, set
R Clear, reset
Kt
Ml
"K
Example
+
Rectifier circuit
l1
black
L2 L3 N
PE
...0
brown
-tl-l!,
black
!.,
light blue
c:
u
- green-yellow ~ 0
LL+
!
"'c:
black black
u
0
Star-connected (squirrell cage motor Terminal board
L1 1l
Color is unspecified. Black is recommended, brown to differentiate. Green-yellow may not be used. 2l PEN-wires have a continuous green-yellow conductor color. To avoid confusion with PE wires, PEN wires are additionally marked with light blue on the ends of the wires. e. g. with a wire clip or adhesive tape.
L2 L3
354
Automation: 7.2 Electrical circuits
Circuit diagrams
'I DI\J
~N 1>10i21 1 ~'lH n9t
Connector markings on relays
I
1st digit Conseruive IUTlbertng d oontac1 sees
I
Designing circuit diagrams • Every electrical device is shown with a vertical current section regardless of the actual spatial arrangement of the elements. • Current sections are numbered sequentially from left to right. • The control circuit contains devices for signal input and signal processing. • The main circuit contains the necassary final control elements for the working elements. • The spatially shared devices, e. g. relay coil and relay contact, are not represented.
Control circuit
M ain circuit
3
L•
4
(1
(1
H1
L-
• Contacts and the associated relay coils are marked with the same oode numeral. Example: Current sections 1, 2 and 3 • 2 NO contacts belong to relay coil C1, both marked as C1. They are used to latch the relay coil. • All contacts of a relay are entered as a complete contact set or as a table under the current path of the relay. Both representations indicate the current section on w hich a contact is located.
2
s
4
(2
H1 (1
13
14
13
14
13
14
223-r24 523-r24 623-r-24
333-+--Tt:-~
nh nh -~
-_>--
Contacts Seclion (1
13 - 14 23 - 24
2
Contacts
(2 13 - 14
Seclion
5
Contacts Section
0
13 - 14
3 Representation as table
6
6
(3
355
Automation: 7.2 Electrical circuits
Sensors Sensors (selection) I Sensors that a_re .sensitive to prox1m1ty
I
I
1
I I
I
I
Inductive sensors
I
I I
Sensors
I I
Capacitive sensors
II
I
Photoelectric sensors
II
I I
Tactile sensors I
L-,
I
Ultrasound sensors
II Mag:~~ sen- ~ I
Limit switches
I
Characteristics of sensors Sensor type
Inductive
Capacitive
Photo· electric
Ultrasound
Magnetic
M echanical
Principle
~
Triggers if an object interteres with the alternating magnetic leakage field of the sensor
High degree of protection (IP67), very high swit.ch point precision, dirt tolerant
Only objects with high electrical conductivity, unsuitable where there is greater accumulation of metal chips
1mmto 150mm
Triggers if an object interferes with the alternating electric leakage field of the sensor
l! l
Small object distances. High degree of protection larger design than (IP67), detects all materials; comparable inductive sendirt tolerant sors
20mmto 40mm
1~~ 1
Triggers if an object returns the infrared field of the sensor
Detects all materials, large distances
Advent8gea
Dludventeges
Sensitive to din, smoke and secondary light. auxiliary power necessary
A permanent magnet actuates a proximity switch (reed contact) using two contact springs
Risk of contact welding; suppresses the current peaks of RC modules
Triggered by manual actuation or lever system
Suitable in rough environment. high s81Vice life, suitable for switches in high frequency circuits Low price, robust, small, unaffected by interference fields, no auxiliary power necessary
I I C U D
I IM~anical_ ~ount·11 1ng condot1ons
inductive 1 flush mounting capacitive possible ultrasound 2 flush photoelecmounting tric diffuse not possireflected ble luminous beam 3 unspecified M magnetic R photoelectric reflected luminous beam T photoelectric d irect luminous beam
l lrment Circuit eJe. ~I I function
Design and size
FORM A cylindrical threaded sleeve B smooth cylin· drical sleeve C rectangular with square cross-section D square. with rectangular cross-section SIZE (2 digits) for diameter or side length
-
cf. DIN EN 60947-5-2 (2004-1 1)
¥rrr11~
I
-
Contact chaner, not allowed in food and chemical industries
Designation of proximity sensors
Type of detection
approx. 2m
Slow, use only with standard pressure, not in areas sub60mmto ject to explosion hazards and 6m no high-frequency noise
l! l ~ ~
elm~
Evaluates transit times of Tolerant to dust. dirt and reflected ultrasonic pulses light; detects very small to determine the distance objects at large distances to an object
Example:
I
Object
Symbol
A NOcontact B NCcontact C single pole double throw p programmableby user other
s
I
I Type of output
I I connection Typeof I I
P PNP output, 3 or 4 OC connec· tions N NPN output, 3 or 4 OC con neetions 0 2 OC connections11 F 2 AC connections2l U 2ACorOC connections S other
1 integrated connection line 2 plug connection 3 screw
connection 4
unused
8 9 other type of connection
NAMUR function
I
N NAMUR3l function Note: NAMUR sensors are 2 wire sensors that are connected to an external switching amplifier
11 OC ; Direct Current 2l AC = Alternating Current 31 NAMUR ~ NormenarbeilSQemeinschah fUr M ess- u nd Regelungs-
technik (Standardization Association for Measurement and Control)
356
Automat ion: 7.2 Electrical circuits
Safety precautions* ct. DtN voe o 100· 410 12003·061
Safety precautions against elec:tric:al shodc
Protection
119ainst electric lhoek
unci« fault condltlf« lndinc:t contect Protection by: - Safety Extra Low Voltage (SELVI - Protective Extra low Voltage !PELVI - Functional Extra low Voltage FELV
Protection by. - protective insulalion of ective parts, e.g. cable - coating as Insulation, e. g. housings on electr. devices - distance, e. g. protective hoods, housings of machine screen - barriers. e.g. protective screen. enclosure
Protection by. - automatic disconnect or waming, e.g. residual current protective device - potential equalization - norH:Oilductive areas; e.g. by insulating coverings - protective insulation, e.g. housings encapsulated with insulating material
normally no effect
Al
Bl
conduit or in the wall or in cable channels
"I According to European Standards
c
Installation directly on o r in the wall
357
Automation: 7.2 Electrical circuits
Safety precautions* Protective systems for elec:tric:al devices
cf. DtN EN 60529 (2000.()9)
~jm=
EKample:
I Protective system designation IP (International Protection)
1st code numeral for protection of device!I against peneltation of solid foreign objects
0
No protection
1
Protected against contact by bad< of the hand
Protected against penetration by foreign objects d" 50 mm
2
Protected against contact with fi nger d • 12mm
Protected against penetration by foreign objects d" 12.5 mm
3
Protected against contact with a tool d; 2.5 mm
ProteCted against penelnltion by foreign objects d" 2.5 mm
4
Protected against contact with a wire d a 1 mm
Protected against penetration by foreign objects d" 1 mm Protected from dust
~
5
Protected against contact with a wire d • 1 mm
6
Protected against contact with a wire d · l mm
Oust proof
~
•
,,
If a code number is not given. the letter X is used in its place, e.g. IP X6 or IP 3X 21 Is only given if the protection is greater than the 1st code number.
w... protKtlon
no 0
No protection
1
Protected against venical drips
2
Protected against drips if device is inclined 15°
None
••
Symbolfor eKplosion protection
0
Q
d e i
oil immersion pressurized enclosure sand filling flameproof enclosure increased safety inherent safety
Protected against contact by bad< of the hand
B
Protected against contact with finger d; 12 mm. 80 mm long Protected against contact with a tool d a 2.5mm, 100mm long Protected against contact with a wire d • 1 mm, 100 mm long
3
Protected against water spray impacting device at
[!]
c
4
Protected against water spray from all directions
~
0
5
Protected against water jets from all d irections
6
Protected against st.rong water jets from all directions
7
Protected against temporary submer· sion in water
8
Protected against continual submersion in w ater
eoo
I
I
Type of protection
&&
•••• ••
SI.!PPiementary letters H
Equipment for high voltage Tested on water intake
M in running machine
s
Tested on water intake on idle machine
w
Suitable for specific weather conditions
... kPa
cf. DtN EN 13237 (2003·01)
I Electrical devices group
I I
Temperature class
Group I
Code Type of prottion p
A
~J T ¥
EKample:
I
Additional letters
Symbol
Electric equipment for explosive areas
I
Supplementary letters
I
Prohlcticn from foreign objeds No protection
Proteetlon against eccidental ~
Additional code letters21
2nd code numb«
1st code no.
no
I
2nd code number for protection of the device!I against water with damaging effect
A
I
Code B
I
c
Risk of explosion by occurrence of the following gases: methane, propane, butane, propylene, benzene, toluol. naphthalene, turpentine, petroleum, gasoline, fuel oil, diesel o il, carbon monoxide, methanol, metaldehyde, acetone, acids, chloride
* )According to European Standards
I
ethylene. acryl nitrite, hydrogen cyanide, dimelhylelher, propylene oKide, coke oven gas, tetrafluoroethylene
hydrogen, acetylene. carbon bisulphide, ethyl nitrite
I
Su"temperature
Tl
450 0C
T2
JOo•c
T3
2oo•c
T4
135 •c
T5
1oo•c
T6
s5•c
358
Automation: 7.3 Function charts and Function diagrams
Function charts for sequential controls (GRAFCET)ll
, 1 DIN F\J •>oHlK
;oo:>
l)·
The function chan in accordance w ith GRAFCET is a graphical design language for sequential control. However, It does not make any statement about the type of devices used, the direction of lines and the installation of electrical equipment. Only the general representation via symbols is obligatory; dimensions and other details are left to the user.
Example: hydraulic press with sequential control The ram of a hydraulic press forces bushings Into a plate. When the cylinder Is in its end position (81) and a bushing is available (84), the cylinder extends in fast motion. The sensor 82 switches to feed mode. As soon as the bushing is forced in (83) the cylinder retracts in fast motion.
-Stan step Stan cycle (5 1) and cylinder in basic position (81) and bushing available (84)
$1@ Start
Cylinder A 1 extends in fast motion Cylinder A1 extended (82) Cylinder A 1 in feed mode Cylinder A 1 e>
Examples
Steps
Continuous action
t
!
Explanation
CloMcl cycle (step chain)
D DJ
ICylinder A1 retracts in fast molion I
Stored with rising edge
Solenoid valve M2 ON M2:=1
Stored with falling edge
Signal light M5 ON M5:=1
Stan step
[J
Set step It displays which steps are set for a definite condition of the process
~
Macro step Individual representation of a detailed pan of a sequential control
D
Inclusive step This step contains several steps that are referred to as included steps.
~
Inclusive stan step This step contains several steps that are referred to as included steps.
When the step is activated, tha value 1 is assigned to the solenoid valve M2. This action remains active also after the reset of the step. When the step is activated, the value 1 is assigned to the signal light 1'5 only after the reset of the step. The number must be in the upper center of the step field
0 DJ
Step
Stan step with step num· ber 1
Steps that are active at a panicular time can be marked with a dot.
[J I I I I I
~ 5
9
I
This action is only valid as long as the corresponding step is active.
M&Cf'o step M5, shown in its detailed structure: - The release of transition a activates the access step E5 of the macro step MS. - The activation of the exit step S5 releases transi· tion g. - The release of transition g deactivates step S5.
11 GRAFCET French: GRAphe Fonctionnel de Commande Etape Transition.
English: specifteation language for function chans of sequential controls
359
A sequential chart consists of a series of steps placed one after another. Steps and transi· tions alternate.
-Start step e. g. system "O N" Start-up push button S 1 Pump motor ON Tank FULL Agitator motor ON
15s delay time
OPEN drain valve
1. Sequential charts enforce a step structure developed from top to bottom. 2. Within the sequenoe. only one step can be active at a time. 3. The start step describes the initial condition of the system. 4. After execution of the last step and release of the transition, a feed· back loop returns the system to the start step.
Tank empty
The transition Is compOsed of • a dash and • a text describing the transition Transitions can be represented by: • text statements • Boolean algebra (equation) • graphical symbols
1. Step 3 is active, i.e. the agitator motor is ON. 2. If the condition forthe release of the transition (the agitator runs for 15 sec.) is satisfied, step 4 is set. 3. Step 4 resets step 3, i.e. the ON signal for the agitator motor is no longer active. The motor is shut down. 4. The drain valve opens.
Agitator motor ON
15s delay time
OPEN drain valve
Sequence branch:
A sequence branches to several sequences starting at a single or several steps.
The sequence occurs if step 5 is set a) branching to step 6 if the condition for the release of transition ·e· is satis· fied, (e• 1) or
A difference is made between: • sequence branch • sequenoe junaion
b) branching to step 8 if the condition for the release of transition "f" is satisfied (f• 1).
Example: sequence branch
A sequence branches to multiple sequences that are simultaneously activated but run independently of each other. The next individual step is carried out only after all branches are prooessed.
_Q__
GG 0
A sequence from step 2 to steps 22, 24 etc. only
occurs if,
----r~-,
I I
I I
'--:--...1
a) step 2 is set and b) the condition for the release of the common transition ·a· is satisfied (as 1).
360
Automation: 7.3 Function charts and Function diagrams
Function charts for sequential controls. Examples
,1 u1\J [ \J GuH-lH 12002
121
Example: Lifting device Workpieces are lifted by a llhlng cylinder and pushed onto a roller conveyor by a transfer cylinder. Actuating the main valve and stan bun on 51 causes the lifting cylinder 1A1 to extend. lihing the workpiece and activating the limit switch 182 in the end position. This causes transfer cylinder 2A1 to extend. pushing the workpiece onto the roller conveyor and activating limit switch 282. Cylinder 1A1 returns to Its initial position. actuates 181 thereby causing cylinder 2A1 to be retracted.
transfer cylinder 2A 1 281 282
I
$1@
start
System "ON". Cylinders 1A1 and 2A1 in initial position Start button 51
Extend cylinder 1A1 182 (Cylinder 1A1 is extended) Extend cylinder 2A1 282 (Cylinder 2A1 is extended) Retract cylinder 1A1 181 (Cylinder 1A1 is retracted) Retract cylinder 2A1 281 (Cylinder 2A1 is retracted)
Example: Stirring machine control Paint flows into a mixing tank, is stirred there and then pumped back out Opening valve 01 causes the paint to fill to a level mark. Afterwards motor M l is turned on and the paint is stirred 2 minutes. After shutoff of stirring motor M1 and activation of pump motor M2 (running time at least 10 sec). the container is pumped empty. Shutoff criter ion for pump motor M2 is drop of motor power below 1 kW (container is empty).
Start button S 1 Valve 01 OPEN
p > 0.4 bar (Fill level mark reached) Valve 01 CLOSED Stirring motor M1 ON
Stirring motor Ml OFF Pump motor M2 ON pressure sensor for fi ll level __.........,_~~~-~~
P < 1 kW (container empty) &t>~ lOs Pump motor M2 OFF
361
Automation: 7.3 Function charts and Function diagrams
.........
Function diagrams
I
Path diagram
I
I
Simple motion sequences
~--
S1
·~-- -
53
52
-------
SO: signet element ON 51 : last motion up to 51 S2: feed up to S2 S3: last reverse motion uptoS3
I
I
I
State diagram
Description of a working sequence by 2 coordinates
I ~Pneumatic cylinder
Step 1: idle position Step 2: fast forward time ins mo·tion 0 step Step3: feed Step 4: end position Step 5: fast reverse motion
[
0
1
4 10 11
1
2
3
4
5
ta:l tsJ
Symbols of a function diagram Movements and functions Paths and movements
Function lines
-
Straight line working movement
---
Idle and Initial position of subassemblies
--- ~
Straight line idle movement
---
For all oonditions deviating from the idle or initial position
Signal elements M anual actuation
cp
1'
OFF
'l
~
ON/ OFF
---
---
JOG MODE AUTOMATIC MODE ON
Path limits general Path limits using signal elements
Hydraulic or pneumatic actuation
Mechanical actuation
ON
9
Path and movement limits
-t
Umit switch actuated in end position
lfl6 bar
Pressure switch set to 6bar
(1
Limit switch actuated over longer path length
cp
Tlme element set to
2s
2 sec.
Signal combinations The signal line begins at the signal output and ends at the point where a change of state is introduced.
j
~
The signal branch is marked with a dot
Execution of a function diagram lstate diagram) Cylinder
0 1 2 3 4
:9
Step 1: move from initial position 1 to position 2 Step 2: remain in position Step3: move from position 2 to initial position 1
Valve with two switc:h positions
~
AND state: marked with a slash OR state: marked with a dot
Signal element activated manually
Step 1: switch 0 1 2 3 4 5
:II
from initial posilion b to position a Step2and 3:: remain in position Step 4: switch from position a to initial position a
0 1 2 3 4 5
JE
Step 2: switch on; control element switches from b to a
Example: Anal control element mechanicaly activated 0 1 23456step 1A1
.,
.
:;;
'II 1
t
2s
a
b
Step 1: Final control element switches directional control valve from b to a and causes extension of cylinder 1A1. Step 2: Cylinder actuates signal element 1S1 Signal element 1S1 cont.rols timer element Timer runs out (2 sec). Step 3: Timer element controls directional control valve from a to b Cylinder 1A1 retracts to initial state.
362
Automation: 7.3 Function charts and Function diagrams
Function diagrams. Example Example: Pneumetlc:elly controlled lifting device
251
~
ys21
··- ··- ..
(C:JT~
- ~=-··-·-r~ ~i
Step
Components
transfer cylinder 2A1
Name
No.~
MaWl pneumatic valve
OV1
r-a b
.·itw
~
~~;: lifting cylinder 1A 1
x, x1 x3
Cylilder (vettic. stroke)
512 diredional control valve Cylinder (horiz. stroke)
512 directional control valve (OCV)
1A1 1V2
2A1 2V1
1
'
3
5
4
153 251
I
152
~ ....... 151
/
f'.
a
2
I
I II ll
2
1
[) (
b
/
2S2\ ...... ~
2
1
I)
a b
~ -{51
I 1/
Pneumatic circu.i t die..,-n
om m - ----11Iilli omI II t=====::=
m -
[ill]
----11
Parts list
1A1 2A1
Cylinder, double acting Cylinder, double acting
OV1 1V1 1V2
312 DCV with detent. manually activated Two pressure valve 5/2 DCV, pressure activated 5/2 DCV, pressure activated
2V1
151 152 153 251 252
312 DCV, roller activated 312 DCV, roller activated 312 DCV, activated by push bunon 312 DCV, roller activated 312 DCV, roller activated
[ill] I
363
Automation: 7.4 Hydraulics, Pneumatics
Circuit symbols
,f iJIN IS J 12 191 11 9%031
Function elements
...
Hydraulic fluid flow
I>
Compressed airflow
tt~
Direction of flow
( (
/
Direction of rotation
'VVV
Spring
..--..
Flow restriction
..__..
Adjustability
Power transmission
.,._
1>-
Hydraulic pressure source Pneumatic press. source Wor1
++ -tEEi]
Line j unction
~ L._j
Line crossing Quick coupling
----
Control tine Leakage cur· rent line
LvJ
Exhaust without connection
-----
Enclosure around subassemblies
y
Exhaust with connection
-C)-
0
-qill-
Muffler
~
Filter or screen
Tank Air receiver
-v
Water separator
Hydraulic accumulator
-¢--
Air dryer
Service unit IFRL)
-<>-
Lubricator
Pumps, compressors, motors
c)( ~
c)(
Fixed displacement hydraulic pump. unidi· rectional Variable dis· placement hydraulic pump, bidirec· tional Compressor, unidirectional
c)( c)(
Fixed dis· placement hydraulic motor, unidi· recti onaI Fixed displacement pneumat.i c· motor, unidi· rectional
simplified:
~
Single-acting cylinder, return stroke by undefined power source
~ simplified:
~
Single·acting cylinder, return stroke by integrated spring
$_
--¢-
Check valve, unloaded
-¢N+-
Check valve, spring loaded r·-----;
Shuttle valve (OR function)
~
Quick exhaust valve
pq simplified:
R
Double-acting cylinder with one-sided piston rod
Pressure valves
Check, and/or valves
~
~
Variable dis· placement pneumatic motor, bidi· rectional
:t>=
Hydraulic oscillating drive
=D=
Pneumatic oscillating drive
®=
Electric motor
Double-acting cylinders
Single-acting cylinders
pq
~
Variab le displacement hydraulic motor, bidi· rectional
t-W-1 a
Pilot operated check valve
~ t¢;
w
One-way flow control valve
:_ ___ __ _J
Dual-pressure valve (AND function)
rM --~
~
~
Double-acting cylinder with one-sided piston rod and twosided adjustable end cushion
Flow control valves
Pressure relief valves
-4---
Adjustable throttle valve
Sequence valve
-fit
Adjustable 2-wayflowcontrol valve
fii
Adjustable J.wayflow· control valve, relief open· ing to tank
2·way pressure regulator, directacting Pressure switch, emits electrical signal for a preset pressure
364
Automation: 7.4 Hydraulics, Pneumatics
Circuit symbols cf. DIN ISO 1219-1 (1996-03) DIN ISO 5599 (2005· 121
Connection designations and codes for directional control valves Example: 5/2 directional control valve with connection designation
Connec:tion dlsigndona for ~ lnd hythullc equipment
as per DIN with numbers
obsolete: with letters lilt
Inflow, pressure port
1
p
Working ports
2,4,6
A, B,C
Vent. drain
3, 5,7
Connection
Switch positions u
pumps and compressors A drives M drive motors S signal pick-up V valves Z all other pans P
-1 o1 b-l Val~e with 3 . . . posrtlons
I 8 ~
11 Number of rectangles a
Number o f positions
R,
-
s.
T
l
10.11, X, Y, 12, 14 "Letters are still frequently used In hydraulic cirw~ diagrams. "The sequence of the leners does not neceSSIIrily correspond to the number
Part designation
Valve with 2 positions .
Leakage oil port Control poft$31
z
sequence. ~A pulse
at conuol pon 12, for example,
COflnecls portS 1 and 2.
Designs of directional control valves 21 dil'ectlonal control valves 3/ clrec:tional control valves 4/ dlrec:tlonal control V1llves 5/ directional control valv•
DI!J CitJ
212 OCV, normallyclosed
212 ocv. normally open
Flow paths
~ ~ ~
312 OCV, normallyclosed 312 OCV. normallyopen 3/3 0CV. NC in middle position
[][X] ~
[8]
ld
One flow path Two closed pons Two flow paths Two flow paths and one closed port Two interconnectedflow paths One flow path in bypass switch and two closed pons
~
®
4/2 directional control valve 4'3 OCV. NC in middle pos. 413 OCV. with float in middle position
~
512 directional control valve 5/3 DCV, NCinmiddle position
0
Actuation of directional control valves ManuMiy activeted
OJ CJ
mJ
F[
General, no type of actualion indicated
=[
Push button
1=[
Lever
Plunger
Pressure actuation
---[
Direct
hydraufoe
- -E[
f[
0=[
~
Medlanlcal actuation
Pl unger with adjustable stroke limit
pneumatic
-<
Indi rect using pilot valve
Electrical ec:tuation
Pull button
~
Push and pull bun on
)=[
Foot pedal
M[ 8::[
rC
Spring
Roller plunger
Roller lever. one direction of actuation
~
®«=
By solenoid By electric motor
Combined actuat ion
~
By solenoid and pilot valve
Mechanical components
'
~
Notch
365
Automation: 7.4 Hydraulics, Pneumatics
Circuit diagrams
"DINIS:11219 2, 1cl9G 111
Designing a circuit plan clrcul1 1
[ill)
circuil2
~
~
The circuit Is subdivided into subcircuits wilh related control functions. The actual spatial arrangement of the components is not considered.
If the circuit diagram is made of several units. the unit number must be given, begin· ning with numera11.
Components are arranged from bottom to 10p in the direction of power flow and from leh to right
,--·- · - · - · - · 1
.j ~'I I I ) i L .---~:.::_ ___ ___;
Subassemblies such as throttle check valves or service units (FRL) are enclosed by a dash-dot line.
Hydraulic components are shown in their ini•· tial positions in the equipment before pressure is applied.
Similar components or subassemblies are shown at the same height within a circuit.
I 11~====*=
1
(ill) [ill]
:I -I
1 1 ~1 Com~ of •
Pneumatic components are shown in their initial positions in the equipment before pressure is applied.
Devices actuated by drives. e.g. limit switches, are repre· sented at their point of activation by a dash and their designator.
[ill]
Drive elements Actuators Control elements Signal elements Supply elements
circ:ult Motors. cylinders, valves Valves for controlling drive ele· ments Valves for signal combination Components used to trigger a switching action Service unit (FRLl. main valve
Example : Pneumatic: circuit diagram with two cylinders (lifting device) circuit 1
drive elements
final control elements conlltll element
signal elements
supply elements
For roller plunger valves operating on one side only, a directional arrow is also placed at the dash.
366
Automation: 7.4 Hydraulics, Pneumatics
Electropneumatic controls Function dlagr8m
Layout
transfer cylinder 2A 1
4
Sal
lifting cylinder 1A1 down~~~r+~~~~-
t ransfer cylinder 2A 1
Pneumetic cit'cuit diagram Lifting
Pushing
,~"~'
IMI~~""
a
a b
~ b
1M1
+24
3
v
5
4
2M1
1M2
8
6
i (2
(4
2M2
2M1
~
(1
0
v
switching N(INO element table 1l - s
N(INO - 6
v
9
10
~
~
11
magazine~ and
3
4
operation
B4
~
B1
continuous operation
5
(1
1
6
T
~c~ on~ tin-uous --~-.--~~.---~---.--~~ ON
~
N( e normally closed NO z normally opened
-=18
Cirwit diagram with the edditional functions -
+24
2M2
T (2
8
T
C3
T C4
magaz.ine 11 .._AI\._ query n -r~
BS
cont inuous operation
OFF
CS
ov N(INO - 8
NC = normally closed NO= normally open ed
Example for relay K5: Relay K5 has a nonnally open switch in section 10 and a normally open switch in section 11. 11 The switching element table is similar to the oontact table (pg. 3541 and is often used in practice. However it is not
standardized. The table indicates the section in which a NC or NO relay contact can be found.
367
Automation: 7.4 Hydraulics, Pneumatics
Sequence control of a feed unit via PLC according to GRAFCET Technological scheme
Description
fast reverse motion
operating panel
The hydraulic cylinder extends In fast motion and is switched into feed mode by switch 82. In the fully extended position, the proximity switch 83 switches to fast reverse after o time delay of 2 seconds.
STOP
• •
START
Aloc:ation list Components and &dion
Component designation
Address
Remarks
EO.O/E0.1
NO contact/ NC contact
Push bunon START
S0/51 52
E0.2
NO contact
Push bunon STOP
53 81 ·84
E0.3 E0.4-E0.7
NO contact
1M1
A1.0
2M1
A1.1
2M2
A1.2
Mode switch AUTOMATIC/STEP
Cylinder A1 retTacts in fast motion Cylinder A 1 retracted (81)
Proximity switch Solenoid valve 011 Cylinder in feed mode Solenoid valve 012 Extend cylinder Solenoid valve 014 Retract cylinder
NC contact
Instruction list ll
I Operating modes I
Network 1 CALL FB1
Network 1: Function block FB1
Network 2 Basic position U E0.4 U E0.7 SM0.3
FUNCTION BlOCK Operating modes
I Controlktt I
ON
OFF
ro.o
l.,_~np ,_I Automatic mode Single Release
MO.I
step
Network 2: Basic position
~ ~
IStep chain I Network 3: Step 1 Start step M0.2
Color marking: step flag in red Transition in blue
Network 6: Step 4 Fast reverse with dwell time T1
Network 3 Step 1: Start step UE0.2 UN E0.3 U M0.1 UE0.4 UM4.0 OM0.2 SM1 .0 U M2.0 RM1 .0 Network4 Step 2: Fast extension U M0.1 UM0.3 U M1 .0 SM2.0 OM0.2 OM3.0 RM2.0
Network 5 Step3: Feed mode U M0.1
U EO.S U M2.0 SM3.0 U M0.2 OM4.0 R M3.0 NetworkS Step4: Fast reverse U M0.1 UE0.6 UM3.0 aT1
UT1 SM4.0 UM0.2 OM 1.0 RM4.0 Network 7 to 9 Steps 5 to 7: Command output UM2.0
=Al.l U M3.0 • A 1.0 UM4.0
=A1.2 PE
368
HL
DIN 51524-1
HLP
DIN 5 1524· 2) resistance
1-- --t------i + HVLP
OIN 5 1524-3
Hydraulic units up to 200 bar. with high temperature requirements
Increase in
1-- --t-- -- - - ; corrosion
lnc,rease in aging resistanoe
+ Reduction of wear due to scoring 1--:i:-n_m_i_xed..,.-_fr_ictJ_i_o_n_a_re_a_ _ _ _ _-1 Hydraulic units with hydro pumps + Reduction of wear due to scoring and hydro motors above 200 bar in mixed friction area operating pressure and with high + Improvement of viscosity-tempera- temperature requirements ture behavior HL10 HLP 10
Propenles
HL22 HLP 22
HL32 HLP32
HL46 HLP 46
HL68 HLP 68
Hl100 HlP 100
Example of reeding from diagram: A gear pump operates at an average operating temperature of 40'C. During opereUon the allowable kinematic viscosity of the hydraulic oil is allowed to fluctuate between 20 to 50 mm2/sec.
According to the diagram there are 6 hydraulic oils that would be suitable:
• HL 22/HLP 22
- 20
0
20
40
60
ao ·c
• HL 32/HLP 32 • Hl 46/HLP 46
100
temperature - -
Applications
-20 to +60
15. 22. 32. 46. 68. 100
Hydraulic fluid Unsaturated esters Saturated
- 20 to+ 150
Aqueous monomer and/or polymer solutions. good wear protection
Mining. printing machines. welding machines. forging presses
Water free synthetic liquids. good resistance to aging, lubricating property through wide temperature range
Hydraulic equipment with high operating temperatures
low tempe- High temperarature ture oxidation flowability stability
Rust protection
•
Compatibility Seal compatiCost with inner bility effectiveness coatings
Fluid life
•
369
Pulling force 11 at p, • 6 bar inN Stroke inmm
0
Slngle·ectlng cylinder
Po
air consumption gage pressure in
A
cylinder
q
, _ ambient air pressure n number of strokes
piston surface Air consumption11 area specific air con· sumption per em piston stroke piston stroke
s
Example:
Single-acting cylinder with d = 50 mm; s= 100 mm; Po~ 6 bar; n - 120/min; Pamb • 1 bar; air consumption 0 in 1/min?
Double-acting cylinder
O = A · S · n- ~
Air consumption11 Double-acting cylinder
0 ,., 2 . A·s·n· Pe + Pamb Pamb
p-
. (6 + 1) bar 10 120 ~ 4 min 1 bar 1 = 164934 cm3 " 11i6- min min
= n • (5cm)2 •
P• or p•.., (on return)
P- or Pe (on r eturn)
cm .
I
1.0
..!..
1.256
/
0.1164 I 0,7r)7
em
t
().56
0.5 0.4 0.3
~/o
'l/
._<>~:~
o.3!l
;~~~~ , ~ i 0.236
02 0.14 0.1
,li>
vwv !/.: '/ V
bo ,.,_../
•-
Air COI'I$umption11 Single-acting cylinder
I
0=Q · S·n
A;r COI'I$Umption 11 Double-acting cylinder
I
Q , 2 · q · s·n
Example:
0.05 0 .04 0.03 0 .02 r=0.01 0.01
00125
2v
v. L / ~v ~~v / /
Calculate the air consumption of a single-acting cylin-
/
//. /
/
/
10 12 14 16 20
II I I I _I
~6 1076 13.49
25 32 35 40
50 63 70rrvn 100
piston diamelef d
--
derof d · SOmm. S • 100 mm and n= 120/min from the diagram for Pe ,. 6 bar. According to the diagram the piston stroke is q= 0.14 1/cm. O=q · S· n= =0.141/crn · 10cm - 120/min • 1681/min
II When it fills dead space, actual air consumption m ay be up to 25% greater. Dead spaces include compressed air lines between the directional control valve and the cylinder and unused space in the end position of the piston. The rod is not taken into consideration. cross-sectional area of the
370
Automation: 7.4 Hydraulics, Pneumatics
Force calculation Piston forces P. gage pressure A 1• A, piston areas F1 piston force when e!Ctending ~ piston force when retracting
d1 piston diameter ~piston rod diameter 'I efficiency
Effective piston force
I
I
F= Pe· A·TJ
Example: Hydraulic cylinder with d, • 100 mm; d, - 70 mm; 11 • 0.85 and P. • 60 bar. What are the effective piston forces 7 Extending: N F1 • p 8 · A, · 11 =600 c~
. 0.85
4
N 1 Pa • 1;nr • 10· 5 bar
N
n • (10 cmjl
.
Pressure units
N
1 bar = 10 c~ ~ 0. 1 m~
1 mbar = 100 Pa ~ 1 hPa
• 40055 N Retracting: Fz • Po · ~ ·f/
= SOO~-,. . ((10cmj2 - (7cmj2J. O.BS c~ 4 = 20428N
Hydraulic press In confined liquids or gases. pressure is distributed Displaced volume uniformly in all directions. A1 • s1 = A2 · s2 F1 Ioree on pressure piston Work on bottt pistons ~ Ioree on working piston A 1 area of pressure piston F1 · s 1 = F2 · s 2 A, area of working piston s 1 travel of pressure piston Ratios: ~ travel of working piston forces. areas, travel I hydraulic transmission ratio
I I
F,
A,
- j_
~
......-
!
Example: F1 - 200 N; A 1 z 5 cm2; A, = 500 cm2; ~ - JOmm; F2 • ?; s1 • 7; i - 1
=~ 200N - 500c~ -
F
2
5c~
A,
~
s, = A, ;
I
F1
30 mm · SOOc~
200N
5c~
~ p.,
0
0
s,
i=~
1
~
I
A 1• A2 piston surface areas
Gage pressure
gage pressure at piston area A 1 gage pressure at piston area A, efficiency of pressure intensifier
11
Example: A1
Pol
~
Circuit symbols accord. to DIN ISO 1219-1
a
200 cm2; A, • 5 c~; 1J =0088; N/cm2; Po2 a ?
= 7 bar= 70
A, N 200c~ Pa2 = Po1· A, ·'I= 70 c~ · c~ 5 = 2464 N/~ = 246.4 b.
0
Pez = Pet .
~
· I)
I
'"'2 0
II
52
t=- 3000 mm
=!';= 20000N =100
Pel Pel
F, F2
t =-
20000N = 201cN
Pressure intensifier
A',"
Fz = ~ =~ F, ~ ~
Transmission ratio
.;;
...... ,_____
~
I
I I
0.88
0
371
A utomation: 7.4 Hydraulics, Pneumatics
Speeds, Power Flow rates 0, 0 1 ,
Oz
Volume flow rate
volume flow rates
A. A 1, A 2 cross-sectional areas v, v,. l"z flow rates Continuity equnion In a pipeline of variable cross-section the volume flow rate is constant throughout all cross-sec· lions over time t
~ ~
a
Ratio of flow retas
Example: Pipeline with A 1 = 19.6 cm2; A, • 8.04 cm2 and 0 • 1201/mln; v 1 • 7; l"z • 7
v
1
=.£ =120000 cmltrnin = 6122 em ,. 1.oz.!!!
A, 1R6 cm2 min v • v1 ·A, 5 1.02 mls · 19.6 cm2 5 .!!! 249 2 A, 8.04 cm2 s
s
Piston speeds A
Extending
IB~
0 volume flow rate A 1, A, effective piston areas "" l"z
piston speeds
Example: Hydraulic cylinder with piston diameter d 1 s 50 mm; piston rod diameter ~ • 32 mm and Oa12 Vmin. How high are the piston speeds? Extending: 12000cm2trnin 611 em = 6.11....!!!... 111 n - tscm)2 min min 4 Retracting: 12000 cmltrnin 11 2 = Az = n . (5cm)2 _ n. (3.2 cm)2
a
A
Retracting
t~
=Aa
4
4
= 1035 em = 10. 35 ....!!!...
min
min
Power of pumps and cylinders P1 P2
input power on pump drive shaft output power on pump outlet 0 volume flow rate Po gage pressure TJ efficiency of the pump M torque n rotational speed 9550 conversion factor 600 conversion factor Example.: Pump with
P1
s
a• 40 Vmin; Pe • 125 bar; TJ • 0.84;
7; P2 e 1
Pz = 0-p. = 40 · 125 kW = 8.333 kW 600
600
P, = ~ = 8.333 kW = 9.920 kW T}
0.84
Formulae for inp ut and output pow« wit h: Pin kW, M in N · m, n in 1/min, 0 in Vmin, Pe in bar
372
Automation: 7.4 Hydraulics, Pneumatics
Tubes SNmleu precision steel tubes for hychulic MCI Pf*IINitic lines lsetectionl Materials
d . DIN EN 10JOS.1 (2003-()2)
E235 (St37.4l. E355 (St52.4) according to DIN 1630
A
Material
Tensile strength
Yield strength
Rm
R.
N/mm2
- ,.--
s
r-£_
-
Elongation at fracture EL
N/mm2
'Yo
Mechanical properties
E235 340to480 235 25 E355 490to630 355 22 Good cold workability. s urface phos phatized or electroplated and chromed
Applications
For lines in hydraulic or pneumatic systems at maximal rated pres· sures up to 500 bar
Oelivwv type: Normal manufactu red length: 6 m, normalized. Tubes have a surface quality of Ra " 4 (Jm. Tube HPL-E235-NBK-20 x 2: Seamless precision steel tube for hydraulic and pneumatic applications, made of E235, normalited, bright-drawn, outside diameter 20 mm, wall thickness 2 mm Oublde diameter D mm
w •• thick.-
AowMC> tional-
mm
c:m2
•
A
Ouaide diameter D mm
4 4 5 5 6 6 8 8 8 10 10 10 12 12 12 14 14 14 15 15 15 16 16 16 16 18 18 18 18
0.8 0.05 20 1.0 0.01 20 0.8 0.10 20 I 1.0 O.o7 20 1.0 0.13 22 1.5 0.07 22 1.0 0.28 22 0.20 1.5 22 2.0 0.13 25 1.0 0.50 25 1.5 0.39 25 2.0 0.28 25 1.0 0.79 25 1.5 0.64 25 2.0 0.50 28 1.0 1.13 28 1.5 0.95 28 2.0 0.79 28 1.0 1.33 28 30 1.5 1.13 0 .79 2. 5 30 1.0 1.54 30 2.0 1.13 30 0.79 3.0 30 3.5 0.64 35 1.0 2.01 35 1.5 1.77 35 2.0 1.54 35 3.0 1.13 35 Ratad presstWe depending on wall thickness
W811 thic:lc.mm
•
Aowsec:· tionalA cm2
Outside diameter D mm
2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 3.5 1.5 2.5 3 .0 3.5 4.5 6.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 3.5 4.0 2.0 2.5 3.0 5.0 6.0 2.5 3.5 4.0 5.0 6.0
2.01 1.77 1.54 1.13 3.14 2.54 2.01 1.77 3.80 3.14 2.84 2.55 2.01 1.33 4.91 4.52 3.80 3.46 3.14 5.31 4.91 4.52 3.14 2.55 1.01 6.16 5.73 4.91 4.16
38 38 38 38 38
64
6 8
1.0 1.0
1.0 1.0
10 12
1.0 1.0
1.0 1.0
1.0 1.5
16 20
1.5 1.5
1.5 1.5
25 30
2.0 2.5
38
3.0 4.0
50
I
100
I
Flow sectlonelarea A
mm
c:m2
2.5 4.0 5.0 7.0 10.0 2.0 5.0 8.0 4.0 5.0 8.0 10.0 13.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 5.0 8.0 10.0 12.5 5.0 8.0 10.0 12.5 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.5
8.55 7.07 6.16 4.52 2.55 11.34 8.04 5.3 1 13.85 12.57 9.08 7.07 4.52 17.35 14.52 11.95 9.62 19.64 15.21 12.57 9.62 28.27 22.90 19.64 15.90 36.32 32.17 28.27 23.76
Wall
•
42 42 42 50 50 50 50 50 55 55 55 55 60 60 60 60 70 70 70 70 80 80 80 80
Rated pressure pin bar 160 250 I Wall thickness sin mm 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.5
Outside diameter Dinmm
thick-
I
320
I
400
1.0 1.5
1.5 2.0
1.5 2.0
1.5 2.0
2.0 2.5
1.5 2.0
2.0 2.5
2.5 3.0
3.0 4.0
2.0 2.5
2.5 3.0
3.0 4.0
4.0 5.0
5.0 6.0
3.0 4.0
4.0 5.0
5.0 6.0
6.0 8.0
8.0 10.0
373
Automation: 7.5 Programmable logic control
Programming languages PLC programming languages (overview)
I
TeX11anguages
I
I
I
Instruction Ust IL
II
cf. DIN EN 61131 (2003-12}
I
I
I Structured leX1 ST
Graphic languages
J
I
II
Ladder diagram LAD
I I
II
I
Function block language FBL
Common elements of ell PLC languages (selec1ion)
ct. DIN EN 61131
Delimiters (selection} Symbol Use (••)
+
;.
#
AI beginning and end of commenl
:
Leading prefix lor decimal numbers Addition operator (STI Leading prefix for decimal numbers Year-month·day separator Sublraction, negative operator ISn Horizonlalline (lAD and FBLJ l nitiali~alion operator Assignmenl operalor (ST)
Base number and time lileral separator
(}
;
.
Beginning and end of character strings
$
Real·exponenl delimiter
S1ep names and variable/type separators Slatement label separators (ST} Network label separa1ors (lAD and FBLJ Instruction lists modifier/operalor (ST) Function arguments (ST} Delimiter for FBL inpullists (ST} Separator for type declaralion Separator for stalements 1ST} Separator for areas Separator for CASE areas (Sn Bulleled lists, inilial values and field index separators, operand lists, function argumenl lists and CASE value lisls separators (ST}
Beginning of special characters in strings Whole number/fraction separalor Separator for hierarchal addresses and struc· tured elements
e orE
(2003·12}
Symbol Use
% I orl
Direcl representation prefix 1l Vertical lines (lD}
Individual element vtrlllbles for stor~ locations Variable Meaning I
a M X
storage location input storage location output storage location tag (individual} bit size
Example (AWL) ST %085 11: Stores currenl result in byte size in output storage localion 5
Bementary daU type$
Operators Name
Variable Meaning byte si~e (8 bit) B w word size l 16 bill double word size (32 bit) D long word size (64 bit) L
Symbol Meaning
Keyword
Data 1ype
Boolean addition BOOL subtraction SINT short whole number multiplication INT whole number division double whole number DINT I Boolean AND UNT long whole number & Boolean OR REAL real number ~ 1 Boolean exclusive OR LREAL long real number =1 negation STRING variable long number sequence J ••_3) sets Boolean operator to • 1• TIME duration _ 3) sets Boolean operator to ·o· R DATE date GT comparison: greater than > GE comparison: greater than or equallo BYTE bil sequence of length 8 >• EO comparison: equal to WORD bit sequence of length 16 NE comparison: not equal to DWORD bit sequence of length 32 <> LWORD bit sequence of length 64 LE comparison: less than or equal to <= comparison: less than LT < H Directly represented individual element variables have a leading % symbol. 21 This symbol is not allowed as operator in teX11anguage. 31 Nosymbol •• Manufacturer specific ADD SUB MUL DIV AND OR XOR NOT
+
. -
s
.
Bits
1 8 16 32 64 32 64
_., __.,., 8 16 32 64
374
Automation: 7.5 Programmable logic control
Programming languages Ladder diagram ILD)
cf. OtN EN 61131 (2003 121
A ladder diagram represents the now in an electromechanical relay system.
I~
Symbol
Symbol
Lines and blocks
-1-:...
•••
I)
--1 r-
Vertical line
Coils
NO contact logic condition "1"
Coil output energize
---{}~
Coil output deenergize
••• I )
Crossing without connection
--1/r--•• • I )
Blocks with connection lines
f-------i
-C~
Line junction ••• I)
NCcontact logic condition
·o·
I)
D
I Deec:riptlon
Symbol
Contacts
Horizontal line
I I
IOeec:riptlon
-1Pr-
Contact for sensing rising edge, signal from ·o· to "1 "
4s}-
Latching coil, stores an operation
-{R~
Unlatching coil
, .. I)
-{P}-
Left power rail ••• I )
-1Nr-
Right power rail
• •• I)
Contact for sensing falling edge, signal from "1" to · o•
-{N}-
Function block language IFBLI
Coil for sensing positive slopes, signal from ·o· to "1" Coil for sensing negative slopes, signal from •o• to. , . II component designator
cf. DIN EN 6113112003· 121
Function block language consists of individual function blod
oF8 1.2
E
I Oeec:riptlon
I Oeec:riptlon
Symbol
Input parameters are placed on the left side and output parameters on the right side.
~
The block's functionality is entered as a name or symbol within the block. The block designator is located above the block.
-D-D-
Elements are rectangular or square.
Elements must be interconnected by horizontal and vertical signal now lines.
Negation of Boolean signals is shown by a circle on the input or output.
Structured text 1ST)
cf. OtN EN 61131 (2003-121
Structured text is a high level language and builds on the syntax of ISO·PASCAL A :-A +B · IB-CI
~ ~;'"~~ I I operator
I Operand
I
Statement
Type
:;
assignment conditional statement selection statement repeat statement repeat statement repeat statement leaving a repeated statement
IF CASE FOR WHILE REPEAT EXIT
Comparison of Function Block Language IFBU and Structured text ISTI Function blocks (examplesl
Struc:tured text (examplesl
8
~ ~
8
or
F
tL} ~ F
or
A:= ADO l B. C. 0) or A:a B + C+ 0 E:= AND IF. G, HI or E:=F&G& H
375
Automat ion: 7.5 Pro grammable logic control
Programming languages ct. DIN EN 61131 12003-12)
Instruction list Ill)
Instruction liS1 is a mochin!Hlriented textual programming language, similar to assembly language. Structure of en Instruction
~!l~~~~ l
Operator modifiers N
Boolean negation of the operand.
c
Statement is only executed if the evaluated result is a Boolean 1.
~ ~
II
Standard operator
Separates multiple.
Modifier
I
Evaluation of the operator is deferred until ")" appears.
(
Standard operators
Operator
Modi· fler
Operator
Modi· fler
Meaning
LD
N
setting an operand
OIV
(
division
ST
N
storing on operand addresses
GT
(
comparison: >
s
-
Meaning
sets Boolean operator to 1
GE
(
comparison: >-
R
-
sets Boolean operator back to 0
EO
(
comparison:=
AND
N,(
Boolean AND
NE
(
comparison: <>
&
N,(
Boolean AND
LE
(
com parison: <•
OR
N,(
Boolean OR
LT
(
comparison : <
XOR
N,(
Boolean exclusive OR
J MP
C,N
jump to label
ADD
(
addition
CAL
C,N
call of a function block
SUB
(
subtraction
RET
C,N
jump back
M UL
(
multiplication
)
-
prooessing of deferred operations
Information list Ul l according to Will
cf. VDI 2880 (1985-09)
Structure of an Instruction Label l : RA1.2
I
I
Ubef
I ILTI
"Set solenoid Y2 back•
~
~or
I
I
Oper8nd
I I
I Comment
~orsfor
Operators for program organlutlon
I
~
signal processing
L
load
u
AND operation
(
open parenthesis
0
OR operation
ZR
count backwards
)
closed parenthesis
N
negation
xo
exclusive OR
NOP null operation
UN
NAND operation
SP
uncondit ional j ump
ON
E
input
SPB
conditional j ump
.
NOR operation assignment
A
output
BA
call o f a block
ADD
addition
M
tag
BAB conditional call of a block
SUB
subtraction
K
constant
.
block end
M UL
m ultiplication
T
timer
comment beginning
OIV
division
z
counter
comment end
s
set
p
program block
program end
R
reset
F
function block
BE
.
PE
~
count forwards
Operand
1! In practice. many more PLC controls exiS1 which are programmed according to the VOl guidelines.
376
Automation: 7.5 Programmable logic control
Programming languages Comparison of the most commonly used PLC programming languages Functlona• components of
program•
lnmuc:tlon list (IJ
Function block a.nvu-ge
LAdder diagram
~toVDI
(Rill
(LDI
u u
AND with 3 Inputs
.
UN
Ell E12 E13 AlO
Ell
ru-
rn-
r--
&
~1H1H4-----<~
AlO
~-~----'-=
u
OR with 3 inputs
0 0 =
'
I
'
Ell E12 E13 A10
Ell E12
E13
;.1
~r1
A10
~
'
AND before OR
u u
Ell E12
0
..
I
OR before AND with intermediate tag
u u =
u
.u 0 0
.u
E11 UN E12 (UN Ell 0 U E121 A10 =
RSftip-flop Set dominant
u R
u
s
RSflip-flop Reset dominant
u
s
u R
-
u =
u =
Latch. ON(E 121 dominating
Ell E12 Ml E13 E14 M1 AlO
~ ~~A~'1 &
0
&
~p
"'<~
~
~
"'<1
~
~~1 ~~1
Ell
E12
iJ1
Hl
&
En E14
A10
~1
u
Exclusive OR (XOR)
Turn on delay
E13 E14 A10
u 0 UN
=
E12 11 A11 El l A11 E1111 All E12 All
Ell T1 T1 AlO E12 AlO Ell AlO
Ell
1
2
2
R
~
2
~ ~~
1
Rl 1
~II
T1 Ell
~~~ ~
AlO
"<~
A10 (
~ ~1 ~~1
A10
~
11 The following applies to flip-flops: If S = 1 and R = 1, the last function programmed in the IL dominates.
377
Automation: 7.5 Programmable logic control
PLC controlled embossing machine tool Technological scheme
Description
mot(f)op
auto-
0
-'"ol4
0
• •
START
STOP
operating panel
WortqJieoes are to be fined with a work· p;ece number on an embossing machine tool. The sensor B7 detects whether work· p;eces are still available in the stacker. The pneumatic cytinder A 1 pushes the work· piece out of the stacker into the working position. After this, the embossing cytinder A2 extends and embosses the workpiece. After a delay time of 1 sec., first the embossing cylinder A2 and then the pushing cylinder A1 are retracted. Cylinder A.3 serves as an ejector of the embossed workpiece. Sensor 88 detects whether the workpiece was actually ejected.
Allocation list Component and action
Cylinder A 1 extended (821 and workpiece at stop (881 Extend cylinder A2 Cylinder A2 extended (841 and dwell time of 1 sec. Retract cylinder A2 Cylinder A2 retracted (831 Retract cylinder A 1 Cylinder A1 retracted (811
Solenoid valve
Component desi nation
Address
SO/Sl
EO.O/E0.1
S2 S3 81 -84 8&88 1M1 und 1M2 2M1 und 2M2 3M1 und 3M2
E0.2 E0.3 E0.4-E0.7 E1 .0-E1.3 AO.O/A0.1 A.0.2/A0.3 A0.4/A0.5
Remarks
IStep chain I Network 3: Step 1 Start step M02
Extend cylinder A3 Cylinder A3 extracted (86) and workpiece ejected (88) Retract cylinder A3 Cylinder A3 retracted (851
IOperating modes I
Network 9: Step 7 Retract cylinder A3 M01 E13 Ell
Network 1: Function block f81 FUNCTION BLOCK Operatlng modM ON OFF
EO.O
I Controller I
IOpetaUng _ , , Aulomattc mode Single step
MO 1
Release
Network 2: Basic position EO.~
Color marking: step flag in red Transition in blue
Network 6: Step 4 Retract cylinder A2 T1
378
Automation: 7.6 Handling and robot systems
Coordinate systems and axes
' 1 01 " r'J 15 J
~~-.,,, ,Juu
)/I
Robot axes Robot meln -for~
To manipulate workpieces or tools in space, the follow· ing are necessary: • 3 degrees of freedom for positioning and • 3 degrees of freedom for orientation
To reach a desired point in space, 3 robot main axes are necessary.
3 robot auxiliary axes for spatial orientation A (roll)
3 translation axes (T axes) designated X, Y and Z
• P (pitch) • Y (yawl
f----------...-----------1. Cartesian robots Articulated arm robots 3 rotational axes (A-axes) designated A. B and C
Coordinate systems
cf. DIN EN ISO 9787 (2000..071
The base coordinate system references • the level mounting sur· face for the X·Y plane · the center of the robot for the Zaxis
The flange coordinate sys· tern references the end surface of the terminating main axis of the robot.
The origin of the tool coor· dinate system lies at the tool center point TCP (Tool Center Point). The speed of the tool cen· ter point is referred to as the robot speed and the path of tool travel as the robot trajectory.
Symbols for representing robots (selection)
cf. VOl 2861 (1988-06) Example RRR robots
Translation axis IT·axis)ll Translation aligned (telescoping) Translationoutof alignment
-E ~
~""
Rotation axis (R-axis)21 Rotation aligned
-- 0• + l+J A
Rotationoutof alignment r-------------,_-----------;~A-u~xi~lia_ry__a~xi-s----~r-~r-===-===~-,~~ Gripper
__,..
--...
11 Translation = straight line motion
7 m~
~ ~~
(e.g. for roll, pitch and yaw) 21 Rotation = rotational motion
1 •
.
L, ____ _j
'f-~armnts
~~"'
~
Jhand joints
··
l.
[j
379
Automation: 7.6 Handling and robot systems
Robot designs
''
]I'. t-f\
15 1 9 ' '"'
' 2 n~;~ .
Mechanical 1tructure11 TIT-Kinematics
Main axes:
• 3 translational
Gantry robot
Areas of application: large working space, there· fore often in overhead gantry tool and w orkpiece feed in production cells sheet processing with laser beam and water jet cutting pelletizing Main axes: • 1 rotational • 2 translational Areas of application: • suitable for heavy masses • handling of heavy forged and cast parts • transport o f pallets end tool cartridges • pick and place
RTT·Kinematics
Base robot ART-Kinematics
Vertical swivel arm robot Polar robot 2 Type: SCARA31robot
Main axes: • 2 rotational as horizontal revolute joint • 1 translational Areas of application: • primarily in vertical assembly area • point and simple path welding • pick and place work
ART-Kinematics
·:rs·."-~ ./=-1. ~ -~~v··
Li-·
r 1
·
I "'.
.
r\( I · ""\ .'-..::::.__)---_/
Main axes: • 2 rotational • 1 translational Areas of application: • telescoping type axis 3, consequently deeper working space • point and simple path welding. e.g, on car bodies • pick and place with die casting machines
Horizontal swivel arm robot
RRR-Kinematics
Vertical swivel arm robot
Main axes: • 3 rotational Areas of application: • handling and assembly area • complex path welding painting work • adhesive bonding • low space requirement yet large working space
11 Axes are designated with numbers, where axis 1 is the axis of the first motion. 21 R =rotational axis; T =translational axis (Designations " A" and "T" are not standardized.) 31 SCARA = Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm
380
Automation: 7.6 Handling and robot systems
Grippers, Job safety Gripper
cf. DIN EN ISO 14539 (2002· 12) and VDI2740 (1995-04)
Scissors griPPers
Char&cteristics
Cher8Cieristics Both griPPer fingers turn about an axis fixed in the frame.
1 degree of movement
Spring loaded
Characteristics
Clamping force is creal· ed by a spring. Opening of the gripper by pressure.
p
Frequently used grippers.
w
3 degrees of movement
6 degrees of movement
gripper
f ~
J
Both gripper fingers are pushed parallel to each other opposite to the gripper housing.
Work safety for handling and robot systems* protective curtain with sensors that can distinguish between human and robot because of workpiece change
Clamping force created by the own weight of the gripping object. Opening of the gripper by pressure.
Used in textile industry. Four nail plates are eXlended by a tapered plug and grip the fabric.
cf. DIN EN ISO 10218-1 (2007-02) & VDI2854 (1991-06)
eo.-pes
~
Maximum space
Area encompassing: • moving parts of robot • tool flange • workpiece
Restricted space
A portion of the maximum space which shou ld not be entered in case of an eventual break· down of the robot system
Separating safeguards
Containment fences. coverings. permanent encasements, locking devices (DIN EN 1088)
Protective systems with contactless activation
Hazardous area security: light curtains and light barriers Area monitoring: laser scanners Access security: light grills and light barriers
DIN EN 292 DIN EN61496
Safety stand. for machines, basic terminology Safety standards for machines, contactless activation of safety systems Safety standards for machines, emergency OFF systems Safety around machines, safe distances Acoustical hazard signals Industrial Robots and Robot systems American Standard for Industrial Robots
OINEN418 DINEN294 DINEN457 CSA Z 434-03 ANSIR 15.06 *) According to European Standards
p
381
Automation: 7.7 NC technology
Coordinate axes
,, I)I"Jhh} l
"l01s 1)1
Coordinate system Right hand rule
Cart_..n coordinate system
+Y
Coordinate axes X. Y and Z are perpendicular to each other. This arrangement can be repre· sented by thumb, Index finger and middle finger of the right hand. Axes of rotation A. B and C are assigned to coordinate axes X. Y and Z. When looking down one axis in the positive direction. the positive direction of rotation is clockwise.
Coordinate axes in programming Coordinate axes and the resulting directions of motion are aligned to the main slideways of the CNC machine and are essentially rela· tive to the clamped workpiece with its workpiece zero point. Positive directions of motion al· ways result in greater coordinate values on the workpiece. The Z axis always runs in the direction of the main spindle, To simplily programming it is assumed that the workpiece remains motionless and only the tool moves.
Horizonttl milling mechlne
Example: 2
Reference points Machine zero point M Origin of the machine coordinate system and is set by the machine manufacturer. Program zero point PO Indicates the coordinates of the point at which the tool is before start of the program.
l oe<~ted
Reference point R Origin of incremental position measurement system with a distance to the machine zero point set by the machine manufacturer.
Tool hole:!« reference point T lies central to the limiting face of the tool holder. On milling machines this is the abutting surface of the tool spindle, on lathes the abutting face of the tool holder on revolver. 11 not standardized Woricpiece zero reference point W Origin of the w orkpiece coordinate system and is set by the programmer based on engineering principles.
382
Automation: 7.7 NC technology
Program structure Tub of the control program Block 8trUCtUre
Nl0-¥!-¥-.~~ ..~..!_0.!_
II
Positional dat.a
I
Prep. function (G function)
I
Block number
I
Technical information
I
T M03
Miscellaneous function (Miunc:rionl
Coordinates target pointof
I
Feed
lis edll Tool I pe
Explanation of wonls: N10 block number 10 G01 feed. linear interpolation X30 coordinate of target point in X dlreclion Y40 coordinate of target point in Y direction F150 feed 150 mm/min S900 speed of main spindle 900/min T01 tool no. 1 M03 spindle clockwise
Progr11m atructwe Example:
CNC pt"ogram
'"
Program start
N1 GIO M04 N2 Gil F0.2 5180
-I
NC blooks
I
I
aoo-•M
......... M30
N70
---1
Program end
CNC program %01 N1 G90 M04 F0.2 S180 N2 G96 N3 GOO X20 Z2 N4 G01 X30 Z-3 N5 Z· 15 N6 GOO X200 Z200 N7 M30
~ ~
3x45°l 15
I
Preparatory functions
-•
Prep. EffectiveMeenlng fundioM GOO
G02 G03 G04 G09 G17 G18 G19 G33 G40 G41 G42
e e
Positioning at rapid rate
• • • • • • • • • • • •
G01
Pnlp.
functlotw
Unear interpolation
G53
Circle interpolation clockwise
G54G59
Circle interpol. counterclockwise
G74
Dwell time predetermined
Gao
Exact stop
G81G89
Plane selection XY Plane selection ZX
G90
Plane selection VZ
G91
Thread cutting, constant pitch
G94
Cancel tool offset
G95
Cutter oompensation, left
G96
Cutter compensation, right
G97
.,..
Effectille. Meenlng
• •
• • • • • • • • •
Cancel shift Shift 1- Shift6 Approach reference point Cancel fixed cycle Fixed cycle 1-Fixed cycle 9 Absolute dimensional notation Incremental dimensional notation Feed rate inmm/min Feed in mm Constant cutting speed Spindle speed in 1/min
modal:
Preparatory functions that remain effective until they are overwritten by a similar type o f condition.
non-modal:
Preparatory functions that are only effective in the block in which they are programmed.
Universal miscellaneous functions 1m-functions, selection) MOO
Programmed stop
M04
M02
Program end
M03
Spindle clockwise
d. DIN 66025-2 (1988-091
Spindle counterclockwise
M07
Cooling lubricant ON
M05
Spindle stop
M09
Cooling lubricant OFF
M06
Tool change
M30
Program end with reset
383
Positional c:odesll for cutting tool point P In relation to Clenter M of cutting radius ' •
....----+-· T ::~
w·
2 crosshairs of
the presetting · device at
oint P
1
~--L p
a
E tool reference point
z
L
M center of cuning radius r, p tool cuning point 11 not standardized
A T E p
transverse offset of X a>
Offset memory Q
72
L
53
'•
0.8
Po.itional digit
3
~
Offset memory Q
14
L
112
r,
0.4
<
.
tool length tool radius tool holder reference point tool reference point tool cuning point
Positional digit
2
For layout o f lathe tool in front of center according to DIN 66217: Because of the different perspective in the X-Z plane, the cuner compensation w ould be opposite for the user looking down on the workpiece and for programming.
.., ~
Offset memory
z
126
R
10
'" ~~ } 8
"~' 1~
· · - -·
CNCprogram N ..• N10 N20
IN30
GOO GOt
X20
VlO
)CliO
V1l
Zl
(Pll
zo (P2) z-e l tP3l
N..• C>
C> .....
C> V\
Designation and madlining example:
Designation end madlining example:
Counterclockwise circle interpolation, machining motion in programmed feed
CNCprogram
(P1)
tP2) (P3)
N50 GO! X40
N_.
(P4)
CNCJ)fogr•m N ••• N10 C> C>
$
IN20
GOO
XliO
Z2
001
N30 N40 N..•
z-te~l
{Pll {P21
Z·61
{P4)
{P3)
XBO X102
Designation and machining eKample:
N ••• NlO N20
GOO GOl
XliO
{Pll {P21
Z-40
N30 G02
X100
N40 N.-
X110
G01
Z2
z.eo
120
KO
{P3)
{P4l
Designation and machining eKample:
CNC program N_. NlO G01 XO zo N20 G03 X60 Z·11 .46 N30 G01 Z-40
IN411 em N-.
XIII Z-ell
{P1)
10
K-45
(P2) (P3)
10 K-151 (P4)
386
Automat ion: 7.7 NC technology
Program structure of CNC machines according to PAL 11 Uneer interpolation with G1 for IMhes end milling machines Turning Milling XI. Yl llnd ZJ coordinate. in NC programs wtth G90
lncnment81 programming wtth
NCprogram N10••• N15G90 N20••. N25G1 X68Z· 16 N30 G1 I Xl31 N35•••
NC program N10.•. N15 G42 N20GO X ... N25 G1 X72 ;P2 N30 G1 Xl·17 Yl57 ;P3 N35...
;f'2
ZJ.54 l;P3
I
0 Abeolute progremmlng wtth
55 12
XA. VA end ZA coonlnetes in NC progrMnS wtth G91
NCprogram
NC program
N10••. N15G91 N20••• N2S G1 X68 Z-16 ;f'2 NJO Gl 130 ZA·70f;P3 N35...
N10... N15 G42 GO X-16 V18 N20G91 N25 G1 X88 ;P2 NJO G1 IXA55 YA78l ;P3 N35••.
lXA
70
16 0
I
Start engle AS wtth coorcln8t8 value X
NCprogram
NC program
N 10 .•• N15 N20 .•• N2S G1 X60 Z-16 N30 jAS150 X130 N35...
N10.•• N15 G42 N20GO X •• . Y18 N25 G1 X72 NJO G1 IA5120 N35...
I
16 0
80
;P2
;P2
X38l ;P3
:P3
NCprogram
NCprogram
N10 ... N15G90 N20••. N25G1 X60 Z· 16 ;P2 N30 G1 IA5140 zOSO) :P3 N35. .•
N10.. . N15G42 N20GO X ..• Y1 8 N2SG1 X50 ;P2 N30 G1 I A565 Y66l ;P3 N35..•
so
16 0
The radius AN+ and the phase AN- are transition elements between two contour elem ents (circles, straight lines)
NCprogram
NC program
N10.•• N15 G90 ;P1 N 20 GO X48 ZO N2S G 1 Z-30 )AN-1q ;f'2 N30 G 1 X82 :P3 N 35 G1 Z·74 IAN+l0l ;P4 N40 G1 X140 Z·90 ;P5
N10... N 15 G42 N20GOX•.. Y18 N2SG1 X75 IRN-2l ;P2 N30G1 X60 ~;P3 N35.••
material)
387
Automation: 7.7. NC technology
Program structure of CNC machines according to PAL Circular interpolation for lathes and milling machines
Block structure: G90 Gl X.. Z.. :P2 G2 X.. Z.. lA.. JA.. :P3 NC program
NCprogram
N10 ... N15G90 N20 GO X38 Z4 :Pl N25 Gl Z-40 :P2 N30 G2 X98 Z·70~P3 N35 ...
N10 ... N15G90 N20 GO X ... Y9 ;P l N25 G 1 X40 ;P2 N30 G3 X60 Y29 11A4ct JA29 ~P3 N35 ...
Block structure: Gl X.. Z.. ;P2 G2 X.. Z.. R.. 0 .. ;P3 NCprogram
;P3
Block structure: G90
N10 ... N15G90 N20... N25 G1 X50Z· 18 ;P2 N30 G2 Z-55 R26 A0115 1illJ ;P3
30
;P2 ;P3
N10 ... N15G90 N20... ;P2 N25G 1X12Y15 N30 G2 X66 Y15 R26 ~ ;P3 or: ;P3 N30 G2 X66 Y15 Rt)26
66
g~ ~:: ~:
Block structure: Gl X.. Z.. G2 X.. Z.. R- .. NCprogram
longer arc
N10 ... N15G90 N20... N25 Gl X70 Z·25 ;P2 N30 G2 X100 Z·70 R26 ~ ;P3
NCprogram
or.
AO.. H..
~~ NC program N10 ... N1 5G90 N20... ;P2 N25G1 X30Y26 N30 G2 Z62 R26A0115 ~ ;P3
388
Automation: 7.7 NC technology
Program structure of CNC machines according to PAL PAL functions for lathes and milling mac:hi.Progr11mming coordirwtM and lnterpoletion parwnetlrS XA. YA,ZA
Absolute input of coordinate values relative to the workpiece zero point
XI, Yl, Zl
Incremental input of coordinate values relative to the current tool position
IA,KA
Absolute input of the Interpolation parameters relative to the workpiece zero point
T-addreMH for tool change T
Tool storage plaoe in the tool revolver or holder
TC
Selection of the number of the offset memory
TR
Incremental tool radius or cuning edge offset in the selected offset memory
TL
Incremental tool length offset in tho selected offset memory (milling)
TZ
Incremental tool length offset in Z direction In the selected offset memory (turning)
TX
Incremental diameter offset In X direction in the selected offset memory (turning)
Additional M·func:tionsfl ~ng to PAL End of sub program
M13
Clockwise spindle rotation, coolant ON
M17
M14
Counter clockwise spindle rotation. coolant ON
M60
Constant feed
M15
Spindle and coolant OFF
M61
M60 +corner shaping
PAL functions for lathes G.functlons Types of Interpolation
Cutter compensation
GO G1 G2
G40 G41
Cancel tool radius offset TRO Tool radius offset TRO to the left of the programmed contour
G42
Tool radius offset TRO to the right of the programmed contour
G3 G4 G9 G14 G61 G62 G63
Rapid travel/motion linear interpolation with feed rat.e Circular interpolation, clockwise Circular interpolation, counter clockwise Dwell time E.xact stop Travel to configured tool change point linear interpolation for contour routing Circular interpolation for contour routing, clockwise Circu lar interpolation for contour routing, counter clockwise
Reference points G50 G53 G54G57 G59
Cancellation o f incremental zero point shift and rotations Cancellation of all zero point shifts and rotations Adjustable absolute zero points
Feed~
G94 G95 G96 G97
Machining planes and rachuddng G18 G11 G19
G81 G82
G30
Dimensions G70 G71 G90 G91
Inch input confirmation Metric input confirmation (mm) Absolute dimensions Input of incremental dimensions
Call sub program Repeat program seetion Conditional jumps
Cydes
G32 G33 Gao
Selection of the plane of rotation Face machining planes Shell surface/segment surface machining planes Rechucking/opposed spindle takeover
Rotational speed limitation Feed in mm per minute Feed in mm per revolution Constant cutting speed Constant ro tational speed
Program f - . G2.2 G23 G29
G31 Incremental Canesian zero point shift and rotation
and speeds
G92
G83 G84 G85 G86 G87 G88 G89
Thread cycle Tapping cycle Thread chasing cycle Completion of a machining cycle contour description Longitudinal rough-turning cycle Rough facing cycle Rough-turning cycle parallel to the contour Drilling cycle Undercut cycle Radial grooving cycle Radial contour cutting cycle Al
389
Automation: 7.7 NC technology
Structure of NC block
G22 L !HI Ill Obligatory addresses: L number of the sub program Optional acldresaas: H numberof repetitions extract level
Sub program L911
Main program %900 N10G90.. N15 F.. S.. M4 N20 GO X42 Z6 ;P1 N25 G22 L911 H2 N30.• N35.. N150M30
N10G91 N15 GOZ-16 N20G1 X-6 N25G1 X6 N30GO Z-6 N35 Gl X-6 N40G1 X6 N45M17
Structure of NC block
22
10 0
Machining example
G23 N N (HI Obligatory addresses: N stan block number of the program section to be repeated N end block number of the program section to be repeated Option al addresses: H number of repetitions
N10 •• N15GOX58Z-15M4 N20G91 N25G1 X-11 N30G1 Xll N35GOZ-16 N40 G23 N20 N35 H2 N45G90
NSO ••.
Structure of NC block G84 ZJ/ ZA 101 lVI IVBJ lORI IDMJ lRJ IDA) l UI 101 !FRI l EI Obligatory addresses: Zl depth of hole, incremental depth relative to the current tool position ZA depth of hole, absolute depth Optional addresses (selection): 0 pecking amount (if 0 is not specified, pecking depth is Machining example equal to the final drilling depth! 27 31 35 V safety distance VB safety distance to the hole bottom OR reduction value of the pecking amount OM minimum infeed R retract leveVdistance DA spot-drilling depth U dwell time at hole bottom 130 20 s 0 dwell time selection 0 1 in seconds NlO G90 02 in revolutions N15 G84 Z-130 030 VS VB1 OR4 UO.S FR rapid travel reduction in % N20 .• E spot-drilling feed
ttf¥!1~>~ ~
Structure of NC block
G32 Z/ZifZA F Obligatory addresses: Zl, ZA thread end point in Z direction I incremental, A absolute F p itch of thread
z.
z Zl
Structure of NC block G31 2/ZI/ZA X/XI/XA F 0 IZSI fXSI IDA) IDUJ 101 101 IHI Obligatory addresses: Z, Zl, ZA thread end point in Z direction Z controlled by G90/G91; I incremental, A absolute X. XI, Zl thread end point in X direction; X controlled by G90/G91 , I incremental, A absolute F thread pitch 0 thread depth Optional addresses 1..1: ZS thread starting point, absolute in Z XS thread starting point, absolute in X OA approach OU overrun number of cuts a 0 number of idle cycles H selection of infeed type and residual CU1S IRCI H1 without offset (radial infeedl. RC OFF H2 lnfeed at left flank, RC OFF H3 lnfeed at right flank, RC OFF H4 alternating lnfeed, RC OFF H1 1 without offset (radial infeed), RC ON H1 2 infeed at left flank, RC ON H13 infeed at right flank, RC ON H14 alternating lnfeed, RC ON Residual cuts 'h. '!•. 'to. 'It x 10/0.1
Radial In feed H1/H11
Flank infeed
Flank infeed
Alternating infeed
• •• •
Machining example 1
40
10
N10 G90 N15 G31 2-40 X30 F3.5 02.15 25·10 XS30 012 013 H14 N20 .•
Structure of NC block G81 lor G821 H4 IAKI IAZJ IAXJ IAEl (AS) (AV) (OJ 1a1 IV) (EJ or G81 (or G821 D IH1/H2/H3/ H241 Obligatory addresses: 0 infeed Optional addresses (..): H type of machining Longitudinal rough turning Rough faci ng cycle with G82 H1 rough machining, removal below 45" cycle with G81 H2 stepwise angle-cutting along the contour Machining e>
a
Automation: 7.7 NC technology
391
Structure NC block G86 Z/ZJ/ZA X/ XI/XA ET IEBJ !OJ (.• J (selection) G88 ZIZIIZA X/ XIIXA ET IEBJ (OJ (•. J (selection) Obligatory addresses: Z. Zl, ZA grooving position in Z direction; Z controlled by G901G91. Zl incremental. ZA absolute X. XI. XA grooving position in X direction; X controlled by G901G91, XI Incremental, XA absolute ET G86 absolute diameter of grooving depth G88 absolute grooving depth Optional addresses (..(: EB grooving width and position EB + grooving in direction Z+ relat.i ve to the programmed grooving position P Ell- grooving in direction Z- relalive to the programmed grooving position P 0 pecking amount (if no value is specified. the pecking depth is equal to the groove depth AS flank angle of grooving at the starting point relative to the grooving direction (X or Zl Radial grooving cycle with G86 Axial grooving cycle with G88 AE flank angle of grooving at the end point relative to tho grooving direction (X or Zl AO rounding or chamfering o f upper comers RO+ rounding RO- chamfer width Machining example: radial grooving cycle w ith G86: AU rounding or chamfering of lower comers AU+ rounding 10 AU- chamfer width AK contour allowance parallel to the contour AX contour allowance in X direction (contour oHsel) EP set point definition for groove cuning (position PI EP1: setpoint in upper corner of the groove EP2: setpoint in bonom corner of the groove H type of processing HI roughing cut Hl4 roughing and finishing H2 plunge turning H24 plunge turning and finishing H4 finishing DB infeed in% of the cuning tool width for grooving NtO GO X82 Z-32 V safety distance above groove N35 G86 Z-30 xao ET48 EB20 04AS10 AE10 R0-2.5 AU2 Hl 4 E feed rate into solid material
en
Structure of NC block Thread undercuts ace. to DIN 76 Undercuts ace. to DIN 509 G85 Z/ ZI/ ZA X/ XIIXA IIIII K(KIIRNJI SXIIHJ lEI SX • Obligat ory addresses: Zl. ZA undercut position in Z direction; z controlled by G90/G91, Zl incremental. ZA absolute X. XI. XA undercut position in X direction; Machi ning precess with DIN 76 X controlled by G90/G91. XI incremental. XA absolute I undercut depth; obligatOry parameter for DIN 76 (Hl) K undercut length; obligatory parameter for DIN 76 (HI)
z.
Optional addresses (..): AN corner radius SX grinding allowance E feed rate for plunging H undercut shape Hl DIN 76 H2 DIN 509 E
~a
H2 DIN 509 F
I
ctt:Sn ~
NlOGO _ N15G85 ZA·I8 XA16 11.5 KS RNl SX0.2 Hl E0.15 Further information on p. 89 and p. 92
Optional addresses 1.- l: ZA absolute Z
392
Automation: 7.7 NC technology
Program structure of CNC machines according to PAL PAL functions for milling machines G-functlona
Types of interpolation, contours
Tool offsets
GO
Rapid motion
G40
Cancel cuner compensation
G1
Linear interpolation with feed rate
G2
Circular interpolation. clockwise
G41 G42
Cuner compensation left Cuner compensation right
G3
Circular interpolation. counter clockwise
Feeds
G4
Dwell time
G94
Feed in mm per minute
G9
Exact stop
G95
Feed in mm per revolution
Gt O
Rapid motion in polar coordinates
G96
Constant cuning speed
Gl l
Linear interpolation with polar coordinates
G97
Constant spindle speed
G12
Circular interpolation with polar coordinates, clockwise
G13
Circular interpolation with polar coordinates, counter clockwise
G45
linear tangential approach to a contoor
G46
Linear tangential retraction from a contour
G47
Tangential approach to a contour in a quarter circle
G48
Tangential retraction from a contour in a quarter circle
G61
Linear interpolation for contour routing
G62
Circular interpolation for contour routing, clockwise
G63
Circular interpolation for contoor routing, counter clockwise
Reference points, rotation, mirror images. scaling G50
Cancellation of the incremental zero point shift and rotations
G53
Cancellation of all zero point shifts and rotations
G54G57
Adjustable absolutzero points
G58
Incremental zero point shift, polar and rotation
and..,_.
Program futures G22
Call sub program
G23
Repeat program section
G29
Conditional jumps
Fbcedcydes G34
Start-up of the contour pocket cycle
G35
Rough-machining technology o f the contour pocket cycle
G36
Residual material technology of the contour pocket cycle
G37
Finishing technology of the contour pocket cycle
G38
Contour description of the contour pocket cycle
Gao
Completion of the G38 cycle
G39
Call contour pocket cycle with material removal either parallel to the contour or in meanders
G72
Rectangular pocket milling cycle
G73
Circular pocket and spigot milling cycle
G74
Slot milling cycle
G75
Circular slot milling cycle
G81
Drilling cycle
G82
Deep drilling cycle with pecking
Deep dnlling cyde with pecking and full retraction
G59
Incremental Cartesian zero point shift and rotation
G83 G84
Tapping cycle
G66
Mirror image across the X or Y axis, mirror image off
G85
Reaming cycle
G67
Scaling (enlarging or reducing or cancellation)
G86
Boring cycle
G87
Plunge milling cycle
G88
Internal thread milling cycle
G89
External thread milling cycle
G76
Multiple cycle call on a straight line (line of holes)
G77
Multiple cycle call on a pitch circle {line of holes)
G78
Cycle call at a particular point (polar coordinates)
G79
Cycle call at a particular point (Cartesian coordinates)
PI- selection, clmensions G17G19
Plane selection, 2'h D processing
G70
Inch input confirmation
G71
Metric input confirmation (mml
G90
Input of absolute dimensions
G91
Input of incremental dimensions
Structure of NC block G1 IXIXI/XAJ I VIVIIVAI IZIZIIZAJ 101 lAS) .. (selection)
Machining example
Obligatory addresses: X, XI, XA X coordinate of the target point Y. VI, YA V coordinate of the target point Z, Zl, ZA Z coordinate of the target point Optional addresses[ ..): D length of travel distance AS ascent angle relative to the X axis RN transition element to the ne>
N10 ... N15G1X74Y16RN-12 ;P2 N20G1 065AS120AN+14 ;P3
Structure of NC block G11 RP API AI (JIJA) [ZIZIIZAI (RNJ .. (Auswahll Obligatory addresses: RP polar radius AP polar angle relative to the positive X axis AI incremental polar angle Optional addresses (..1: I, lA X coordinate of the polar center J, JA Y coordinate of the polar center Z, Zl, ZA infced in Z direction RN transition to the next contour element RN+ rounding radius RN- chamfer width TC selection of the offset memory number TR incremental change of the tool radius value TL incremental change of the tool length offset
Structure of NC block G2 (XIXIIXA) [VIVIIVA) IZIZJIZAI WIIA [JIJAII I 111/IAJ JIJAl I R I AO IRNJ [OJ [FJ [SJ [MJ G3 !XIXl/XAJ .... •... Optional addresses (...): X, XI, XA X coordinate of the target point Y. Yl, VA Y coordinate of the target point Z, Zl, ZA Z coordinate of the target point I, lA, J, JA center point COO
Structure of NC block G12 API AI (lilA) (JI JA) (ZIZIIZAI [RNJ [FJ [ S) [MJ G13 APIAJ [IIIAI [JIJAI [Z/Zl/ZAJ IRNI [FJ lSI [MJ Obligatory addresses: AP polar angle of target point AI incremental polar angle Optional addr-es [ ...): I, lA X coordinate of polar center J, JA V coordinate of the polar center RN+ rounding radius RN- chamfer width
Machining example
lA
N15 G42 G47 R20X30YO Z·3 N20 G 11 lAO JAO RP30 AP90 N25 G111AO JAO RP30 AP180 N30 G11 IAOJAO RP30 AP270 N35 G11 lAO JAO RP30 APO
;P2 ;P3 ;P4 ;PS ;P2
Machining example shorter arc (01) JA
.x JA
38
80
N10 ..• N15G1 X38Y70RN+15 N20 G3 XA80 R30 A0135 RN-8 02
Machining example 4 S .--M----<~
~~ tl~n:r>L"
lA
N15 G1 X60 Y15 ;P2 N20 G121A45 JA45 AP50 ;P3
Structure of NC block G41 /G42 G45 0 [X/XI/XAJ [VlVI/VAI ~fZJ/ZAI
Machining example
lWI lEI lfl lSI lMI G46 G40 0 (Z/ ZI/ZAI !WI (F) lSI IMI Obligatory addresses: with G45: D distance to the first contour point, unsigned with G46: D length of the retracting motion, unsigned
~it;:t!~==~t/_._ Opt ional addresses( ..): X. XI. XA X coordinate o f the first contour point '> V. VI, VA V coordinate of the first contour point " ·X Z, Zl, ZA with G45: intoed at approach point in the Z axis with G46: retracting motion at the end point in the Zaxis absolute position in fast motion in the lnfeed axis feed rate for plunging
13 0
50
N10 ... N15 G42 G45 XO V8 013 ;P1 N20 Gl XSO ;P2 N25 G1 V40 AS80 ;P3 N30 G40 G46 013 ;P4
St ructure of NC block G41/G42 G47 R IX/XI/XA) [V/VI/VA) IZ/Zl/ZA)
1WJ lEI [FJ lSI IMJ G48 G40 R [Z/Zl/ ZAI [WI [FJ lSI IMI Obligatory addresses: with G47: R radius of the approach motion relative to the center path o f the cuner with G48: R radius of the retracting motion relative to the center path of the cutter Optional addresses [..): X, XI, XA X coordinate of the first contour point V. VI. VA V coordinate of tho first contour point Zl, ZA infeed at the approach point In the Z axis W absolute position in fast motion in the infeed axis E feed rate for
50 N10 ... N15 G42 G47 XO V8 R13 N20 G1 XSO N25 G 1 Y40 AS80 NJO G40 G46 R13
z.
Structure of NC block G54 or G55 or G56 or G57 Explanatory notes: The workpiece zero point W is determined by the commands G54 to G57 and has a defined distance to the machine zero point. The operator enters the shih values into the zero point register of the controller before starting the program. The zero point is always specified in absolute coordinates (XA, VA. ZAI relative to the machine zero point.
Structure of NC block G59 (XAJ (VA) [ZAI [ARI Optional addresses (..1: XA absolute X coordinate of the new workpiece zero point VA absolute V coordinate of the new workpiece zero point ZA absolute Z coordinate of the new w orkpiece zero point AR angle of rotation of the new coordinate system relative to the X axis Explanatory notes: If the coordinate system of the workpiece is rotated in its current position, only the angle o f rotation is specified: N ... G59ARThe zero point shih launched via G54...G57 is reset by: N .. . GSO
XA
;P1 ;P2
;P3 ;P4
395
Structure of NC block
G81 ZI/ZA V (WI IFJ (SJ!MI Obligatory addresses: Zl depth of bore in the feed 8)(is ZA absolute depth of bore relative to the coordinate system of the workpiece v safety distance from the top edge of the hole Optional addresses (•. }: W retract level relative to the coordinate system of the workpiece
C;o~pid motion
Gifeed
Structure of NC block
G82 ZI/ZA D V 1W1 !VBI lORI IDMI lUI (OJ IDAJ lEI IFJ lSI £MJ G83 Zl/ ZA D V [WJ (VB) (OR) !OM) lUI !OJ IDAJ IE.l IFRJ (FJ lSI IMJ
G83 has the following features: - the same addresses as G82 -retracts to the safety distance V for chip removal and in addition FR rapid motion reduction in %
-- - GO rapid Obligatory addresses: ZI/ZA depth of bore in the feed a)(iS motion Zl incremental depth from the top edge of tho hole- - - Gl ZA absolute depth in workpiece ooordinates 0 pecking amount V safety distance above the top edge of the hole Optional addresses (..): W retract level relative to tho coordinate system of the workpiece VB retract distance to the current hole bottom DR reduction value of tho last pecking amount OM minimum pecking amount (unsigned) U dwell time at hole bottom (relative to pecking) 0 unit of the dwell time 0 1 dwell time in seconds 02 dwell time in number of revolutions DA incremental spot-drilling depth of the first infeed E spot-drilling feed rate
Structure of NC block
G84 ZI/ZA F M V [WJ lSI Obliglltory addresses: Z1 incremental depth from the top edge of the hole ZA absolute depth in workpiece coordinates F thread pitch M d irection of tool rotation tor plunging M3 right-hand thread M4 left-hand thread V safety distance to the top edge of the hole Optional addresses ( .•): W retract level relative to the coordinate system of the workpiece
Structure of NC block
G85 ZI/ZA [WJ lEI (F) !51 (MJ Obligatory addresses: ZI/ZA drilling depth in the infeed a)(iS Zl incremental depth from the top edge of the hole ZA absolute depth in workpiece coordinates V safety distance from the top edge of the hole Optional addresses {..): W retract level relative to the coordinate system of the workpiece E feed speed of the retracting motion
Gl;:;ing
Structure of NC block G86 ZI/ZA V !WI lORI IFI lSI IMJ
Obligatory addresses: ZI/Z.A depth to be bored out Zl ZA
depth of bore in the infeed axis absolute depth of bore relative to the coordinate system of the workpiece v safety distance from the top edge o f the hole Optional addrnses 1..1: W retract level relative to the coordinate system of the workpiece DR radial retract distance to the contour
Structure of NC block
G87 ZI/ZA R 0 V !WI IBGI IFJ lSI IMI Obligatory addresses: ZI/Z.A depth of hole to be bored out Zl incremental depth from the top edge ZA absolute depth of bore relative to the coordinate system of the workpiece R radius of the hole to be milled out D infeed per helical line (pitch of the helical motion} V safety distance from the top edge of the hole Optional addresses [ ..1: W retract level relative to the coordinate system of the workpiece BG2 machining, clockwise BG3 machining, counter clockwise
Structure of NC block G88 ZillA ON 0 0 V !WI IBGJ IFJ lSI IMJ Obligatory addresses: ZI/ZA depth of thread Zl incremental depth of thread from the top edge ZA absolute depth of thread relative to the coordinate system of the workpiece ON nominal diameter o f the internal thread D thread pitch a number of thread grooves of the tool V safety distance from the top edge of the hole Optional addresses [ ..1: W retract level relative to the coordinate system of the workpiece BG2 machining, clocl
Structure of NC block G89 ZI/ZA ON 0 a V !WI IBGI [FJ [SJ IMJ Obligatory addresses: Zt incremental depth of thread from the top edge ZA absolute depth of thread relative to the coordinate system of the workpiece ON nominal diameter of the external thread D thread pitch a number of thread grooves of the tool V safety distance to the top edge of the hole Optional addresses [•• ): W retract level BG2 machining, clockwise BG3 counter clockwise
N10 ••• N15 G87 Zl-8.5 R10.92 03 V3 W13 03 BG2 N20 G79 X.. Y.. z.. ;cycle call
N10 ... N15 G88 ZA-16 ON24 02 07 V1.5 W10 BG3 F.. N20 G7'9 X.. Y.. Z.. ;cycle call
Ma;;_]~:r0• 13 Zl
·~~~~::;:l2(},~~8
N10 ... N15 GB9 Zl-8 ON18.16 01.5 07 VS W13 BG3 F.. N20 G79 X.. Y.. Z.. ;cycle call
XI/YI
397
Structure of NC block G72
Machining example
ZI/ZA LP BP 0 V !WI !ANI !AKIIAU !EPI (OBI [RHI (DHJ !OJ (OJ IHI lEI (FJ lSI IMI
Obligatory addresses: ZI/Z.A depth of the circular pocket in the infeed axis Zl incremental from the top edge of the pocket ZA absolute, relative to the coordinate system of the workpiece LP length of the rectangular pocket in X direction BP width of the rectangular pocket in Y direction 0 maximum depth of cut V safety distance to the material surface Optional addntsses (•. ): AK pocket edge finish allowance .x Al pocket bottom finish allowance RN corner radius EPO. EP1. EP2. EP3 definition o f the setpoint at cycle call W retract level, in fast motion H type of machining H1 rough machining H4 finishing H2 face roughing of the rectangular surface H14 rough-machining and finishing with the same tool E feed rate for plunging
N15 G72 ZA-9 LP47 BP24 04 V3 AK0.4 ALO.S W8 N20 G79 X40 YJ6 ;cycle call for G72
Structure of NC block G73
Zl/ ZA R 0 V 1W1 !RZI !AKJ !All lOBI !RH) (OH) !01 (0) (H) (El [FJ [S) IMI
Obligatory addres$e$: ZI/Z.A depth of circular pocket in the feed axis Zl incremental from the top edge of the pocket ZA absolute, relative to the coordinate system of the workpiece 0 maximum depth of cut V safety distance to the material surface Optional addresses {.. ): RZ radius of the optional spigot AK pocket edge finish allowance Al pocket bottom finish allowance DB cutter path overlap in % W retract level, in fast motion H-E aswithG72
Structure of NC block G74
ZI/ZA R 0 V [WI [RZI (AKI [All (OBI IRHI [OHJ £01 101 (HI lEI IFJ lSI IMI
Obligatory addresses: ZIIZA depth of the slot in the in feed axis Zl incremental from the top edge of the slot ZA absolute, relative to the coordinate system of the workpiece LP slot length BP slot width V safety distance 0 maximum depth of cut
M achining example
-z~ -z~ ~ZA
~IS
.
.
,E jj
l ".._.....---+-_____J 'l
.x
46 N15 G73ZA-15R20 04 V2 AK0.4ALO.SW5 N20 G79 X46 Y27 ;cycle call for G73
-zL~TL ~ ~
~
Machining~
example,z
,.,
"'
15
44
Optional addresses( ..): W retract level •X AK pocket edge finish allowance Al pocket bottom finish allowance EPO, EP1, EP2, EP3 definition of the setpoint at cycle call 0 infeed motion 01 vertical tool immersion N15 G74lA-15LP50 BP22 03V2 ;definition of longilucinal slol via G74 02 ramping tool immersion N20 G79 X ... Y•.• ;cycle call at a particular POint via G79 H- E as with G72
Structure of NC blodc G75 7J/ZA BP RP AN/ AO AO/AP 0 V (WJ (AKI (All [EPI (OJ (QJ !HI lEI IFJ lSI IMI Obligatory addresses: ZlfZA slot depth Zl incremental from !he top edge of !he sloe ZA absolute depth BP slot wid!h RP SIO! radius AN polar start angle relative to the poshive X axis and the center point of !he slot's first end radius AO polar aperture angle between the center points of !he slot's end radii AP polar final angle relative to the positive X axis and !he center point of the slot's second end radius Machining enmple (only 2 of the 3 polar angles need to be defined) D maximum depth of cut V safety distance Optional addresses( ..): 15 EP definicion of the calling point for !he slot cycle EPO center of !he circular sloe EP1 cemer of che right or top semicircle at the rear end EP3 center of the left or bonom semicircle at the rear end W re!ract level, in fast motion AK slot edge finish allowance Al sloe bonom finish allowance lO 0 direction of motion 01 climb milling 02 conventional milling H type of machining H1 rough machining H4 finishing N15 G75 ZA-15 BP12 RP80 AN70 A0120 AK0.3 ALO.S EP3 OS V3 W6 H14 rough machining and finishing N20 G79 X64 V30 ;cycle c.ll for G75 et EP3 feed race for Structure of NC blodc G76 [X/XI/XAJ [Y/VI/VAl IZ/ZI!ZAI AS 0 0 !ARI IWJ IHI Obligatory addresses: AS angle of the straight line rei alive to !he first geometry axis + counter clockwise - clockwise D spacing of the cycle calls on !he line 0 number of cycle calls on the line Optional addresses( •.).: X, XI, XA X coordinate of the first point X absolute or incremental X coordinate (G90, G91) XI difference in coordinates between the currem tool position and the first poin! on the line XA absolute coordinate input of the starting point V. VI, VA V coordinate of the first point v absolute or incremental V coordinate CG90, G91) VI difference in coordinates between the current tool position and the first point on the line VA absolute coordinate input of the starting point Z,ZI,ZA Z coordinate of the first point absolute or incremental Z coordinate (G90, G91) Zl difference in coordinates between the current tool position and the first point on the line ZA absolute coordinate input of the starting point AR angle of rotation relative to the positive X axis N15G74ZA-5 LP34 BP20 .... ;definition of longitudinal slotwi111 W retract level. absolute G74 N20 G76 X126 Y18 ZO ASl20 042 03 AR.:JO :cycle call H reversing position H1 tool travels co safety distance between two positions and to the retract level after the last position H2 tool travels to the retract level between two positions
z
399
Structure of NC block Gn [1/IAI (J/JAIIZ/ZI/ZAI RAN/AI Al/ AP 0 IARI IWJ IHJ(FPJ Obligatory addresses: R radius of p itch circle AN polar angle of first object AI constant segment angle AP polar angle of last object 0 number of objects on the pitch circle Optional addresses (..): I difference in X coordinates between the circle center and the staning point lA absolute X coordinate of the circle center J difference in Y coordinates between the circle center and the starting point JA absolute Y coordinate of the circle center Z absolute or incremental input via G90/G91 Zl difference in Z coordinales between the current tool position and the pitch circle center ZA absolute coordinate of the targel point AR angle of rotation in direction of the positive first geometry axis 0 orientation of the object to be processed 01 forced rotation of the object 02 fixed orientation of the object .y W retract level. absolute H retract! ng motion H1 the tool travels to the safety distance v after completion of the machining process 80 H2 the tool travels to the retract level W after completion of the machining process N15 G74 ZA-5 LP34 BP20 .•.• ;longitudinal slot with G74 H3 like H1, but I he tool travels to the next position N20 Gn R40 AN-65 Al60 AR40 05 IA80 JA60 ;cycle call on the pitch arc
Structure of NC blodc G78 [1/IA) IJ/JAI RP AP IZ/ZI/ ZAI IARJ !WI Obligatory addre5$H: I, lA X coordinate of the center of rotation J, JA Y coordinate of the center of rotation RP radius of the rotation circle AP angle of rotation relative to the X axis Optional addresses(..): Z, Zl, ZA Z coordinate of the top edge AR angle of rotation of the object relative to the X axis retract level
Optional addresses (•.): X, XI, XA X coordinate of the first point Y. Yl, YA Y coordinate o f the first point Z. Zl, ZA Z coordinate of the first point AR angle of rotation of the object relative to the X axis W retract level. absolute in workpiece coordinates
Structure of NC block G61
[XI/XAI IYl/ YAI IZ/ZI/ ZAIIDI IATI IASI £RNI IHJ 101
Optional addresses (..): XI, XA X coordinate of the target point Yl, YA Y coordinate of the target point Zl, ZA infeed in the Z axis travelling distance AT transition angle D AS ascent angle relative to the X axis RN+ rounding radius R- chamfer width H1 small ascent angle H2 larger ascent angle 01 short distance 02 longer distance
z.
.x
N15 G1 X. .. Y... ;P1 N20 G61 AT135 RN20 ;P2 N25 G61 XA93 YAS6 AS30 ;P3
400
Automation: 7.7 NC technology
Structure of NC bloclc G62 or G63 (XI/ XA) (VI/ VA) (ZJ'll/ZAI [1/IA ) [J/ JA) (R) !An [ AS) [AOI . - - - - - , . . , 101 CAE/ API (RNJ[H) 101 (f ) lSI LM I Optional addreases [ •. ): XI. XA, VI, YA coordinates of the target point Zl, ZA infeed In the Z axis R radius of the arc A+ shorter arc A- longer arc AS angle between tangents AT transition angle (starting point) AO aperture angle AE angle between tangents (end point) AP polar angle of the arc's end point AN+ rounding radius AN- chamfer width HI smaller AT angle H2 larger AT angle 0 1 shorter arc 02 longer arc
z.
G34
I St.t·up
M IIChlning eKample P1/Pl
of the contour pock.t cyda (CPCI
G35
I
Rough-machining technology of the contour pocket cyde
Structure of NC bloek G35 T 0 [V] (TC] [TR) (Tl) (OM) [ OBI [ AHI [OHJ (0] [OJ lEI [FJ lSI CMJ
G38 1RMidual matarllll rough-mad• • 'll
tachnology of the-~ ¥le
Structure of NC block G36 T 0 [VJ ITCI ITRI ITLI IDMJ[ OBI IAHJIOHJ [OJ (OJ lEI [ FJ lSI [MJ G37
I
Finishing technology of the
contow pocket cyda
Structure of NC bloclc G37 T 0 lVI ITCJ [TRJITLI £OBI I Rtil (OHJ101 (OJ I HJ l EI I FJ lSI [M l Obligatory addresses for G35, G36, G37: T tool number 0 absolute depth of bore
N5 G54 NIO Tt M.. G97 S.• G94 F•.
;~justable absolute
NIS N20 N25 N30
~-up of contour pocket cyda
G34 G35 G37 G38
Optional addresses for G35, G36, G37: safety distance T... addresses for tool change (p. 388) OM infeed minimum for island height optimization DB cutter path overlap at the bottom AH radius of the center path of the helical infeed OH infeed per helical turn 0 1 plunging 02 helical plunging 01 climb milling 02 conventional milling H4 finishing of edge/bottom H4 finishing of bottom/edge H6 finishing of edge only H7 finishing of bottom only E feed rate for plunging
1 Contour delcriptlon of the contour pocket cyda
Structure of NC block G38 H (ll/ZA) ((lA JA AI/ (LP BP lA J A (RN] [AR])) Obligatory addresses: H1 pocket H2 island H2 pocket in an island Optional addresses [ .. ): see on page 397
ZA-10 AKO.SAL0.5 TOt 06 M3 T02 06 M3 S•. F.. H1
lero point
;rough-machining 18c:hnologv rllhe CPC ;finishing technology of the CPC ;contour dnctiptlon of the pocket N35 GO X-40 YO ;PI N40 G61 AS90 RN+9 ;P2 N45 G63 JA20 Rt 3 RN+9 01 ;P3 N50 G61 ASS RN+9 ;P4 N55 G63 IA40 R13 RN+9 01 ;P5 N60 G l X50 Y-25 ;P6 N65 ... ;completion of G38 N70 G80 ;como.. clesa iptlon of the Island N75 G38 H2 N870 ... ;complelion of G38 N85 G80 ;call the contour pocket cyda N90 G39-
V
G38
P4/PS
·f-£i'*D?~:.·
Structure of NC block GM ZillA (AKJ CAl l Obligatory addresses: Zl depth of bore from tool position ZA absolute depth of bore Optional addresses ( .. ]: AK pocket edge finish allowance AL pooket bottom finish allowance
G39 1penile! Cal contow pocbt cyde with ailtw material_.. to t h e - or loap-type nwtarial NmOV1II Structure of NC block G39 Z/'1l/ZA V [W ) [X/ XI/XA) [ V/ VI/ YA] (AN) (H]
•ddr-=
Obligatory Z, Zl, ZA material surface in Z V safety distance to the material surface
Optional addresses [ •• ): W height of retract level, absolute X. XI, XA starting point of machining in X V, VI, YA starting point of machining in Y AN angle for loop-type material removal, if AN is not defined, removal is parallel to the contour H 1 rough-machining H2 isolating (facing) H4 finishing HB isolating in finishing mode H14 rough-machining and finishing
G80
I
c-.pletion of a G38 pocket/llland contow description
Structure of NC block: G39
401
Automation: 7.8 Information technology
Numbering systems Decimal system
Binary number system
Base 10 Numbers: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4. 5. 6, 7, B. 9 Decimal number n 10
8ase2
Place value Value Total value n 1o • (decimal)
~.
1o2. 100 2. 1()(}. 200 200
'f
100· ,
0 · 10 · 0
5·, · 5
0
i
1010
r:-' ..__,
l
101 · 10
i
Numbe rs: 0, 1
Binary number n:z Place va lue
5
i 205
;23. 8
2 1 .2
22 · 4
20 . ,
Value 1 -8-8 0 - 4 - 0 1 ·2-210· 1 · 01 Total I I value n 10 • 8 0 2 0 ro (decimal) ·1
i
i
i
Hexadecimal numbering system Base 16
Numbers and leners: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6. 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B. C, 0 , E. F Decimal value: 0, 1. 2. 3. 4, 6. 6, 7, 8, 9. 10. 11. 12. 13, 14, 15 Conversion into binary number: Conversion Into decimal number: Every digit represents a group of 4 Bit.s
JfL__,
161 ~
Place value 162 - 266 16 1S0 - 1 Va lue 10 . 266 - 2560 2. 16 - 32 115 ·1 - 15 Total I 2560 32 15 value 0 ldecimall
n, i
i
i
Number value 4 bit group (tetrad)
i 2607
Binary number
n:z
~1~
10
2
I
15
1010
0010
I
11 11
--::::...... ...J_ -:::::-1010001011 11
~ Binary numbers "2 and hexadecimal numbers n,8 for decimal numbers n,0 up to 255 0 1 0 0 ba 0 0 0 0 0
, ____.
I
"'
!=:
'-=!!-
b,
ba I><
, ,
0 0 0
0 0 1
0
0 00
16 10 17 11 18 12 19 13 20 14 21 15 22 16 23 17 24 18 25 19 26 1A 27 18 28 1C 29 10 30 1E 31 1F
32 20 33 21 34 22 35 23 36 24 37 25 38 26 39 27 40 28 41 29 42
0
'a l b, l bslbs b. l b.l l b.1 l b, 1st tetrad
2nd tetrad
0
No.
n,o
0
0
0
0
0
0
, n,o
0
0
1
, n,o
0
1
0 0
0
1
0
0
1
1 0
0
1
1
n,s
n,e n,o n,s
Ot&
1
1
1 0
0 0
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
n,o n,&
n,o n,&
n,o n,s Oto 0_16
n,o n,6
,
01 2 02 3 03 4 04 5 05 6 06 7 07 8 08 9 09 10
n,o
,
,
0
n,o
1
1
n16 OA n,o 11
1
1 0
0
n,o 12
1
1 0
1
1 1
n16
n,s 08
"•s oc 13 n,o
n,s 00 n,o 14 n,6 OE 15 1 1 1 n,o n,s OF 1
1 0
2A 43
28 44
2C 45 20 46 2E 47 2F
,
, , ,
,
,
1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 Bit panern (binary numbers) Decimal numbers and hexadecimal numb ~rs 46 64 BO 96 112 128 144 160 1 6 192 30 40 50 60 70 BO 90 AO co 49 65 8 1 97 113 129 145 161 193 31 41 51 61 71 81 91 Al Cl 50 66 82 98 114 130 146 162 1 8 194 32 42 52 62 72 82 92 A2 B2 C2 51 67 B3 99 115 131 147 163 179 195 33 43 53 63 73 B3 93 A3 B3 C3 52 68 84 100 116 132 146 164 160 196 34 44 54 64 74 84 94 A4 84 C4 53 69 85 101 117 133 149 165 181 197 35 45 55 65 75 85 95 AS 85 cs 54 70 86 102 118 134 150 166 182 198 36 46 66 66 76 86 96 A6 86 C6 55 71 87 103 119 135 151 167 163 199 37 47 57 67 77 87 97 A7 87 C7 56 72 88 104 120 136 152 168 184 200 38 46 58 68 78 88 98 A8 B8 C8 57 73 89 105 121 137 153 169 185 201 39 49 59 69 79 89 99 A9 89 C9 58 74 90 106 122 138 154 170 186 202 3A 4A SA 6A 7A 8A 9A AA BA CA 59 75 91 107 123 139 155 171 187 203 38 48 58 68 78 88 98 AB BB CB 60 76 92 108 124 140 156 172 188 204 3C 4C sc 6C 7C 8C 9C AC BC cc 6 1 77 93 109 125 141 157 173 189 205 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 AD BO co 62 78 94 110 126 142 158 174 190 206 3E 4E SE 6E 7E BE 9E AE BE CE 63 79 95 111 127 143 159 175 191 207 3F 4F SF 6F 7F SF 9F AF BF CF 0
1 0 0
ep
~~
,
1 0
1 1 0
1 1 1 1
208 DO 209 01 210 02 211 03 212 04 213 05 214 06 215 07 216 08 217 09 218 OA 219 DB 220
224 EO 225 El 226 E2 227 E3 228 E4 229 ES 230 E6 231 E7 232 E8 233 E9 234 EA 235 EB 236 EC 237 EO 238 EE 239 EF
240 FO 241 Fl 242 F2 243 F3 244 F4 245 FS 246 F6 247 F7 246 FB 249 F9 250 FA 251 FB 252 FC 253 FO 254 FE 255 FF
,
DC 221 DO 222 DE 223 OF
Example of reading from table: Binary number I)J =10110010 corresponds to decimal number n 1o = 178 or hrucadecimal number n 1e = 82.
Dec: Ch•.
Name
0 1 2 3
NUL SOH STX
4
EOT
NULL START OF HEADING START OF TEXT END OF TEXT END OF TRANSMISSION
5 6 7 8 9
ENQ ACK BEL BS HT
ENQUIRY ACKNOWLEDGE BEU BACKSPACE HORIZONTAL TABULATION
ETX
10 11 12 13 14 15 16
OLE
Dec:
a..
32 33 34 35
LF VT FF CR
so Sl
#
36
s
37 38
% &
39 40 41 42
space exclamation point quotes number symbol dollar symbol percent business 'And' apostrophe parenthesis open parenthesis closed asterisk
a..
17
OC1 OC2
20
OC4
21
NAK
NEGATIVEACKNO~OGE
22
SYN
ETB
SYNCHRONOUS IDLE END OF TRANSMISSION BLOCK
24
30
CAN EM SUB ESC FS GS RS
CANCEL END OF MEDIUM SUBSTITUTE CHARACTER ESCAPE FILE SEPERATOR GROUP SEPERATOR RECORD SEPERATOR
31 32 127
SP DEL
25 28 29
a..
43
+
44
45 46 47
58 59
60
<
61
62
>
63
7
OC3
23
26 27
Dec
Name DEVICE CONTROL 1 DEVICE CONTROL 2 DEVICE CONTROL 3 DEVICE CONTROL 4
18 19
LINE FEED VERTICAL TABULATION FORM FEED CARRIAGE RETURN SHIFT-OUT SHIFT-IN DATA LINK ESCAPE
Name
Dec:
us
Name plus comma minus, dash period, decimal point forward slash colon semicolon less than equal to greater than question mark
UNIT SEPE.RATOR SPACE DELETE
Dec:
a..
64
@
91 92 93
I
94 95 96 123 124 125 126
I
I
fUme at bracket open back slash bracket closed circumflex underline accent grave curly bracket open ven icalline curly bracket closed tilde
Control symbols (G-32 and 127 decimal) cannot be seen on monitor or printer; they are for transmitting system commands. Numbers 128-255 (decimal) in expanded ASCII code are either coded like symbols G-127 or they are used for special symbols (cursive symbols, graphic symbols. user defined code). For example. number 128 is t he EU RO symbol € . 11 ASCII = A M ERICAN STANDARD CODE FOR INFORMATION INTERCHANGE
403
Automation: 7.8 Information technology
Graphical symbols for data processing Symbols for program flow charts Symbol
Heme, c:ommenta
D
0
Manual process. e. g. reading. writing Manual processing location
0
Branch, e. g. decision Selector device. e.g. switch
v
<> 0 0 II
Loop start, beginning of a repeating program section Loop end, end of a repeating program section Synchronization in parallel processing Synchronization device
t> It> t>l
Interruption, external
!:'-)
Control, external
Call with return Call with no return
Neme.-
Symbol
Process. e.g. addition. subtraction Processing unit, e. g. person. computer
0
ct. DIN 66001 (1983-12) Symbol
Data, general Dat.a storage medium. general Data to be machine processed Data storage medium for date to be machine processed Data to be manually processed Manual filing, e. g. card file, archive
D 0
Optical or acoustic data. e. g. picture, sound Optical or acoustic output device, e. g. monitor, loudspeaker
CJ
Manual, optical or acoustic data Input device. e. g. keyboard, microphone
---
Process sequence Access path
--!-
Data transmission path
[:] c=l
Data on card, e. g. punch card Punch card device reader, puncher
c:)
Interface to environ· ment. e. g. start
0
Connector, connects graphic displays
Data on punched tape
~
Refinement, refers to magnific. or zooming
t:=l
0
co
Punch tape device reader. puncher Data or device: memory with only sequential access, e. g. magnetic tape Data or device: memory that is direct.ly accessed, e.g. disk or hard drive
Repeating block with starting condition
--{
Comment for inserting explanatory text
~on of connection •n•
£
Direction of act1on
Connection at symbol
Fanning out
ct. DIN 66261 (1985·1 1)
Repeating block with end condition
Start.i ng condition: Repeat, if ...
Instruction 1
Main memory
Data on paper, e. g. doc· umenc input/oulput device for paper, e.g. document reader. printer
Symbols for Nassi-Shneiderman diagrams Sequence block
Ntome. c:ommenta Data in main memory
Instruction 1
Instruction 2
Instruction 1
Instruction 2
Instruction 3
Instruction 2
Instruction 3
Instruction 4
Instruction 3
Alternative
Alternative Simple alternative
Alternative Multiple alternatives
Conditional alternative
~~ ~~ not satisfied
Instruction
No instruction (empty)
End condition: If ..., then repeat
not satisfied
------j----_ Condition Condition 1 Instruction
['----__ Condition 2
Condition 3
Instruction Instruction
Instruction Instruction
404
Automation: 7.81nformation technology
Graphical symbols for data processing Program flow chart and Nassi-Shneiderman diagram Example: Circle calculation.s
Nassi.Shneiderman diagram
Program flow chart
Program: circle calculation Clear screen Value assignment pt - 3.1415927 Initial value assignment WS - ·n· Repeat. until WS •
ft:
l---.----=-__J
J~
diameter of the smallest circle diameter of the largest circle increment
"I"
Repeat, until D > D2 Catcolation C • D • PI A · D•2•PV4
OutpUt D. C, A Increment value of D by S lnputWS Program end
BASIC program REM ... Circle Calculation Program ••• REM • • • for circumference and area of circle CLS PRINT CONST pt • 3.1415927 # WS= ·n· REM • • • Input value • • • DO UNTlL W$ = "j" PRINT "Diameter initial value:"; INPUTD1 PRINT "Diameter end value: "; INPUTD2 PRINT "Increment:"; INPUTS IF D1 < 0 OR D1 > D2 OR 5 < = 0 THEN PRINT "Invalid input" END IF REM •• • Processing and Output •• • PRINT "D" , "C", "A" D= 01 DO UNTIL D > D2 c - D ' PI A=D•2 • PV4 PRINTD,C,A D~D + S
LOOP REM ••• End ••• PRINT "End program? (y/n)"; INPUTWS LOOP END
** •
New
Creates a new document.
Open
Opens an existing document.
Close
Closes the current document.
Page Numbers
Defines location and layout.
Save
Saves the current document.
AutoTelrt
Inserts predefined telrt.
Save as
Saves the current document under a user-selected name.
Symbol
Inserts special charac1ers from charac1er sets.
Page setup
Set.s margins. page orientation. paper size and paper source.
Index and Tables
Select.s telrt for an index, creates table of contents.
Break
Configures page break or oolumn break.
Print Preview
Displays a print image of the
Picture
InsertS graphics.
Print
Configures printer and printout.
Telrt Box
Inserts a telrt box.
Exit
Ends MS-Word.
File
Inserts a file.
Object
Inserts a formula, table, etc.
Hyperlink
Inserts a link to an URL.
Undo
Undoes the last action.
Repeat Cut
Repeats the last ac1ion.
Copy
Copies selected text or graphics to the clipboard.
Paste
Inserts the clipboard contents.
Select All
Selects the entire document.
Find
Searches for telrt or formatting.
Replace
Searches and replaces te.x t or formatting.
Go to
Jumps to point in text or specific page.
URL ~ Uniform Resource Locator (Internet address)
Deletes selected text and saves it to the clipboard. Opens a new window with contents of current window. Arranges all open documents. Splits a document into two windows. List of opened documents.
Spelling and grammar
Checks document for spelling and grammatical errors.
Language
Sets the language for corrections.
Letters and Mailings
Links document to data of a control file (database).
Macro
Combines individual commands into one action.
Normal
Normal view for creating documents.
Print layout
Displays print layout of a document.
Outline
Shows outline of a document
Tool bars
Shows/hides toolbars.
Customize
Configures screen layout.
Ruler
Shows/hides ruler.
Options
Defines settings for MS-Word.
Header and Footer
Inserts text at top or bottom of page.
Zoom
Magnifies or reduces the screen display.
Font
Defines font type and charac1er sets.
Paragraph
Configures paragraph settings.
Bullets and Numbering
Configures numbering and bullets.
Borders and Shading
Configures border type and shading.
Tabs
Sets tab stop locations.
Telrt direction
Changes orientation of telrt from horizontal to vertical.
Insert Table
Creates a table.
Insert
Inserts individual cells (rows. columns).
Delete
Deletes individual cells (rows. columns).
Select
Selects individual cells (rows, columns).
Merge Cells
Combines cells into one cell.
Split cells
Splits individual cells into multiple cells.
Convert
Converts table to text and vice versa.
Table
Defines cell height, column width and table layout.
406
Creates a new workbooll, chan or macro template. When opening a the commands on the menu bar change.
Inserts individual cells. Rows
Inserts entire rows.
Columns
lnsen.s entire columns.
Worksheet
Inserts a new worksheet in the workbook. Inserts charts in the workbook.
Open
Opens an existing workbook.
Close
Closes the current workbook.
Save
Saves the current workbook.
Chan
Save as
Saves the current workbook under a newly chosen name and file format.
Page Break
Sets page and/or column breaks.
Function
Inserts mathematical functions for cal· culation.
Picture
Inserts graphics.
Object
Inserts a formula, a table. a chan, etc.
Page setup
Sets margins, page orientation, paper size and headerS/footers.
Print Area
Sets the selected print area.
Print Preview
Displays a prim preview of the workbook.
Print
Configures printer and printout.
Exit
Ends Excel.
Inserts a link to an URL. Hypertink
URL • Uniform Resource Locator (Internet address)
New Window
Open.s a new window with contents of current window.
Arrange
Configures window layout lor opened workbooks.
Undo
Undoes the last act.i on.
Repeat
Repeats the last action.
Cut
Deletes selected area of worksheet and saves it to the clipboard.
Copy
Copies selected teKI or graphics to the clipboard.
Split
Splits a workbook into two windows.
Freeze Panes
Freezes a worksheet in the screen
Inserts diagrams or data series from the clipboard or other applications.
1 Workbook 1
Ust of opened workbooks.
Spelling
Checks table for spelling errors.
Paste Fill
Copies contents of selected cells downwards, upwards, to the right or left.
Delete Sheet
Deletes worksheet of a workbook.
M ove or Copy Sheet
Moves or copies single worksheets within a workbook.
Find
Searches for teKI or formatting.
Replace
Searches and replaces teKI or formattin g.
Sorts table area in alphabetical order.
view.
Share workbook Lets multiple users work on the workbook simultaneously. Protection
Protects workbook or individual worksheets from unauthorized access.
Formula Auditing
Searches for errors within functions and cross-references.
Macro
Combines individual commands into one action.
Customize
Defines screen layout.
Enables importing from eKtemal dat.abases, tables or teKI.
Options
Configures settings for EXCEL.
Page Break Preview
Displays expansion of a table on one or more pages.
Cells
Sets number format, orientation, font and frames.
Tool bars
Switches the toolbars on and off.
Ruler
Tu rns ruler on and off.
Header and Footer
Inserts teKI at the top and/or bottom of all pages.
Sheet
Sets name of sheet.
Zoom
Magnifies or reduces the screen display.
Conditional Formatting
Applies the format of a cell if a specific condition is true.
Rows
Sets cell height.
Columns
Sets column width.
407
St andards: 8. 1 International standards
International Material Comparison Chart Chart I Germ1111y
USA
~-
JliJ)en
Sweden
AFNOR
JIS
ss
U. K. Standard
DIN, DIN EN
Mat. No
as
AISVSAE
S1ructur.r end madline construction st.... 5 185 5235JR
1.()()37
A283fAI 1015.A283
5235JRGI
1.()()36
A283tCl
S235JRG2
1.()()38
AS60.36
5235JO
1.0114 1.0116
5235J2G3 S235J2G4
1.()()35
1.0117 1.()()44
5275JR 5275JO
1.0143
5275J2G3
1.0144
S355JR
1.0045
5355JO
1.0553 1.0570
1449 15 HR; H5
A33
-
Fe360B
E24-2
STKM 12A;C
1300 1311
STKM 12A;C
1311.1312 1312
A515(55J
Fe 360 B 4360-40 B E 24-2 NE Fe3608; 6323-ERW 3: CEW 3 E 24-3, E 24-4 4360-40C E 2.&.3. E 24-4 Fe3600 1 FF
1513
A2
E36-4
1020 A5721421
Fe430 B FU
E2B-2
-
4360-43C A 500 lA: B; 01 Fe43001 FF
-
E 28-3. E 28-4 E 28-J.E 28-4
-
-
-
1414.01
SM400A;B;C
1411. 1412. 1414 2172 1606
EJ6.2
STK400
A3 1449 5005 HR; HS
J20.560M E J6.3. E 36-4
-
1024; 1524
1.0577
A7381A:CI
Fe51002FF
A52FP
SJ55K2G3
1.0595
SJ55K2G4
1.()596
A678(C1 A678(C1
224-430 224-430
E295 E335
1.0050 1.0060
AS70(501 A572165l
E360
1.0070
A 678{C1
-
1312.1313
5N 400 B; C; SN 490 B; C 1412
4J60.50 B
S355J2G3 SJ55J2G4
-
STK500
213210 2134. 2174 2174
-
-
-
--
Fe 490-2 FN
AS0-2
55490
Fe~2FN
AS0-2
5MS70
Fe~2FN
5MS70
1650
-
--
--
-
-
-
-
-
1550.2172 1650
Unalloyed quality steels 5275N
1.0490
A516{60)
5275M SJS5N
1.8818 1.0545
A 715 (71
--
A714UIII
4J60.50E
S355M
1.8823
A 7 15171
EJSSR
-
-
-
-
-
2334.01, 2134.01
Alloy high grade steels S420N 5420M
1.8902 1.8825
S460N
1.8901
S460M
1.8827
A633m
A633m A734(Bl
-
Ouenc:hed lind tempered structur.r steels with S4600L
1.8906
S5000L
1.8909 1.8927
S6200L S960QL
1.8933
-
-
E420R E460R
-
..._yield
-
--
-
--
strwtgth
4360-55 F
54600. T
SM520B,C
2143
-
5500T
-
-
-
S620T 5960T
--
--
Unalloyed steels- Cue hardened steels CIOE C10R
1.11 21 1.1207
1010 1011
040 A 10. 045 M 10 C 10.CX 10
59CK.5 I OC
1265
-
C15E
1.1141
1015
EJSSC 040 A 15.080 M 15 XC12
-
-
C15R
1.11 40
1016
080A20
-
515.5 15CK
-
1370
-
Alloy steels - Case herdened steels 16MnCr5 16MnCr55
1.7131 1.7139
5115 5115
527M 17
I BCrMo4
1.7243
5121Y5120H
527M20
18CrMoS4
1.7244
512(Y5120H
527M 20
20MoCr4
1.7321
K 12220
-
20MoCrS4 15NiCrl3
1.7323
K12220
1.5752 1.6523
3310 8620H
1.6526 1.6566
20NiCrMo2·2 20NiCrMo52-2 17NiCrMo6-4
16MC5.16MnCr5 16MC5
-
2173 2127
20MC5
Sc<420M
2523
20MC5
2523
-
--
Sc<420M
-
-
655H 13
12NC15 20NC02
SNC815 1Hl SNCM220H
-
BOSH 20
B62tV8620H
-
5NCM220M
2506
-
815M 17
20NC02 18NC06
620-440
-
2506 2523
408
Standards: 8.1 International standards
International Material Comparison Chart Chart II Germlilly
U. K.
USA
Funce
Jipllll
Sweden
AFNOR
JIS
ss
Standard DIN, DIN EN
Mat. No. AISVSAE
t7NICrMoS6-4 20MnCr5 20MnCrS5 14NICrMo 13-4 18CrNiMo7-ll
1.6669
1,7147 1.7149 1.6657 1.6687
471&'47 18H 5120 512Mi120H 9310
-
BS
-
527 M20 527 M20 832M 13
-
-
-
20MC5 20MC5 16NC013 18NC06
SMnC420H Sc:r 420 M
2523
-
-
S 20 C. s 22C S20C
1450 1450
Unalloyed atHis - Quenched 8nd ~ atHis
C35E C45 C45E C60 C60E
1.0402 1.1 151 1.0406 1.1158 1.0501 1.1181 1.0503 1.1191 1.0601 1.1221
1020 1023 1025 1025 1035 1035 1045 1042, 1045 1060 1064
055M 15 OSSM 15 070M 26 1070 M26l 060A35 080A35 080A46 080M46 060 A 62 060 A 62. 070 M 60
CJO C35 C40 C50 C55
1.0528 1.0501 1.0511 1.0540 1.0535
G 10300 1035 1040 G10500 1055
080AJO 060A3S 080M40 080M50 070 M 55, 577().50
C22 C22E C25 C25E
CJS
AF42 C20 2C 22. XC 18. XC 25 1C25 2C25, XC25 C35. 1 C35 C3S C4S XC42 H 1 C60 2C60 XC32
-
-
-
S25C,S28C SJSC,S35CM S35C S45C,S45CM S45C S58C S58C,S60CM, S65CM SJOC
1450 1572, 1550 1550, 1572 1672, 1650 1672
-
AF60C40 XC 50 C54; 1C55
-
38C2. 38Cr2 42C4 42C2,46Ct2
-
S50C S55C,S55CM
-
1666, 1678
-
-
F. 114A 1655
Alloy atHis - Quenched and tempered atHis 38Cr2 38CrS2 46Cr2 46CrS2 34Cr4 34CtS4 37Ct4 J7CrS4 25CrMo4 24CtMoS4 41Ct4 41CrS4 34CrM04 42CrM04 50CrM04 51CrV4 36CrNiM04
1.7003 1.7023 1.7006 1.7025 1.7033 1.7037 1.7034 1.7038 1.7218 1.7213 1.7035 1.7039 1.7220 1.7225 1.7228 1.8159 1.6511
34CrNiMoS4 30NiCrMo8 36NiCrMo16
1.6582 1.6580 1.6773
5140 5045 A 768 (95) 5132 434
L1 4137 4140 4150, 4147 6150 9840 4337, 4240 513515135 H
120M36 5JOA40
-
-
5JOA32 818M40 5JOA36
32C4.34Ct4 3SNC06 37Cr4.38C4 38Cr4 25C0 4 JOC04 41Cr4,42C4
708M25 cos 110 5JOA40 524A 14 708A37 708M40 708A47 73SA50 817 M37
-
Sc:r440 M
2245
-
SNBS SCr430!H) SNCM439 Set 435 IHI IMI Scr43SH SCM420 SCM430M Set 4401Hl IM)
-
--
2225 2223-01 2092
3SC0 4 42C04 50CrMo4 50CV4 36 CrNiMo 4. 3S NCO 5, 40 NC0 3 816 M 40,817 M 40 34CrNiMo 8 823 M JO JOCrNiMo8 3804
SCM432 SCM4401Hl SCM44541H) SUP10
2234
-
-
SNCM447 SNCM431 Sc:r435M
-
-
722M24
--
-
-
2244 2512
2230
2541
Nitriding steels 31CtMo12 34CrAIMo5-10 40CrAIMo7·10 40CrMoV13-9
1.8515 1.8507 1.8509 1.8523
AJ550.0 E 7140
-
905MJ9.En41 B 897 MJ9
lOCO 12 JOCA06.12 40CA06.12
SACM 1, SACM 64S
2240
2940
-
Steels f~ flame and induction hardening Cf45 42Cr4 41CrM04
Cf35
1.1193 1.7045 1.7223 1.1183
1045 5140 4142 1035
060 A 47. 080 M 46 5JO A40 708M40, 3111-!0'1 080A 3S
XC42H 1TS 42C4TS 42C04TS XC38H 1 TS
S45C. S45CM Sc:r 440 SNB 22. SCM 440 S35C. SJ5CM
1672 2245 2244 1572
409
Standards: 8. 1 Internatio nal standards
International Material Comparison Chart Chart Ill Germany
USA
U. K.
AISI/SAE
BS
Fr-
Japan
AFNOR
JIS
Sweden
Standard OIN.OIN EN
Mat. No
Cf53
1. 1213 1.1249
Cf70
1050
-
070M 55
XC48H 1TS
S!iOC,550CM
ss 1674
-
-
-
-
230M07
5250 5250Pb
SUM22
1912 1914
Free cutting steels 11SMn30
1.07 15
1213
11 SMnPb30 11 SMn37
1,07 18
12l l 3 1215
11 SMnPb37 10520 10SPb20 35520 46520
1.0736 1.0737
12L 14
1.072 1
1108. 1109
1.0722 1.0726 1.0727
--
(210M151
-
-
1140
212M36
1146
EnS OM
5300 5300Pb 10F2 10Pb F 2 35MF6 45MF4
5UM23L SUM25
--
SUM43
-
1926
1957 -
Cold won steels, unalloyed O!OU C105U
l1.1!i25 p .1545
IW10S IW 1
1LBW 1A
CSOE2U.Y 1 SO Y105
1I 5K3
111880
Cold won steels, ..loy 45WCrVI
1.2542
5 1
BS1
45WCtV8
60WCrV8
1.2550
51
85 1
55WC20
5 1
-
5KS3
2710
-
100MnCrW4
1.2510
01
801
90MnWCtV5
90MnCtV8 X210Cr12
1.2842 1.2080
02 P3
802 803
90MnV8.90MVS Z200C 12
102Cr6
1.2067
L3
(8L31
10006. Y 100C6
SUJ2
45NiCtMo16
1.2767
-
-
-
1.2379 1.2363
02 A2
BP30 802
Y35NCO 16
X153CrMoV12 X100CrMOV51
Z 160CDV 12
5K012
2260
X40CrMoVS1
1.2344
H 13
BA2 BH 13
Z100CDV5 Z40CDV5
S K012 SKD61
2260 2242
X210CrW12
1.2436
04(06)
806
Z210CW12.01
5K02
2312
-
-
-
5K012
-
2710
Hot won steels 55NiCrMoVI
1.2714
-
SKS51
-
X37CrMoVS· 1
11.2343
I H 11
IBH 11
Z38CDV5
32CrMoV12·28
11.2365
IH 10
I BH10
132 CDV 12·28
HS6·5· 2C
1.3343
M2
8M2
HSS.S
SKH51
2722
HSS.S.2·5
1.3243
M35
BM 35
SKH55
m3
HS10·4-3·10 HS2·9·2
1.3207 1.3348
Z 85 WDKCV 06-05-04.02 HS 1().4.3-10
M7
-
H52·!)-2, Z 100 DCWV 09.()4.()2·02
-
HS2·9·HI
1.3247
52·9·2-8
1.3249
M42 M42
BM42 BM34
ISKO 6
1-
1-
1-
High speed steels
-
BT42
SKHS7
-
2782
HS2-9-HI
SKH59
2716
-
-
-
Stainless steels. austenitic: X10CrNI18.S
1.4310
301
301 s 21/22
X2CrNi18·9 XSCrNi189
1.4307
F304 L
304L
Z 12CN 1&09
5US301
-
SUSF304 L
-
2331
Z 5 CN 111.09 Z2CN 1&10
SUS304 SCS 19. SUS 304 L
2332 2352
Z 3CN 1&07Az ZS CN 17.()8
SUS304 LN S US304
2371 2332, 2333 2346
1A350
304
304531
X2CrNi1&10 XSCrNi1 8-10
1.4306 1.431 1 1.4301
304 L 304 LN 304
3041305511 304561 304517
XSCrNiS18·9 X6CrNili1&10
1.4305 1.4541
303
303522131
Z8CNF1&09
S US 303
321
Z6CNT 18-10
X4CrNi18-12
3051308
SUS321 2337 sus 305 J1, sus 305
316
316 s 13/17/19
Z 3 CND 17-11.01
SUS316
2347
X6CrNiMoli17-12-2
1.4303 1.4401 1.4571
321 531151 305 5 17. 305 s 19
316li
320518/31
SUS316li
2350
X2CrNiMo1S.14·3
1.4435
3 16 L
316 s 1 Vll/14
Z6CNOT 11· 12 Z 3 CND 17·12.()31 Z 3 CNO 18-14.()3
SUS316L
2353
X2CrNiN19·11
XSCrNiMo17· 12-2
Z5CN 18-11 FF
410
Standards: 8. 1 International standards
International Material Comparison Chart Chart IV
USA
Germeny
U. K.
France
Sweden
Japan
Standard OIN,OIN EN
MaL No.
X2CrNiMoN17·13.J
1.4429
X2CrNiMoN17·13-5 X1NICI'MQCu25-20-5
AISVSAE
AFNOA
BS
316LN
326563
Z3CNO 17·12Al
1.4439
316L
3165 11
Z2CNO 17-12
1.4539
USNN08904 -
Z2NCOU2!;-20
St•inleu stHis. fwrftic
ss
JIS (SUS316 LN)
2375
SUSF3 16 L
2348
-
2562
X2CrNi12
1.4003
A266
-
-
X6Cr13
1.4000
403
4035 17
ZBC 12.Z8C 13FF
X6Cr17
1.4016
430
430515
Z8C 17
SUS430
X2Crl112
1.4512
409
4095 19
ZJCT 12
SUH 409
X6CrMo 17·1
1A113
434
Z8C017.01
SUS434
-
X2CrMoT118-2
1A521
44l/444
SUS444
2326
434517
-
-
SUS403
2301 2320
Stainless .taela, rnartensitlc X 12CrS13
1.4005
416
416S21Z11Cf13 SUS 416
X12Cr13
1.4006
410
4 10S21
Z 10C13
X20Cr13
1A021
420
420 537
Z20C 13
X30Cr13
1.4028
420F
4205 45
X46Cr 13
1.4034
-
X39CI'Mo 17·1
1.4 122
X3CrNiMo13-4
1.4313
-
2380
SUS410
2302
sus 420J 1 sus 420J 2
2303
Z30C 13
(4205 45)
Z44C 14.Z38C 13M
SUS420J2
5925
-
-
-
CA6-NM
425C 11
Z4CN013AM
scss.scss
2304
2304
-
2384
Hot rolled -'.... for 'Print~~~
-
-
38Si7
1.5023
-
46Si7
1.5024
9255
-
5157,51 Si7
55Cr3
1.7176
5 155
525A58
55Cr3,55C3
SUP91Al1MI
2253
61SiCr7
1.7108
9261.9262
61 SC7
-
-
5 1CrV4
1.8159
6150
55CrV4
SUP 10
2230
41 Si7
-
735A50
2090
Cold rolled strip and sheet from ~ .teele OC03
1 1.0347
OC04
11.0338
A619
14493Cil
TA 620 110081 - J1449 2 Cfl; 3 Cll
E
I CR2
11146
ES
I SPCE;HR 4
11147
Cest Iron with ftak• graphite (grey iron) EN-GJL-100
EN.JL-1010 A 48 20B
1452 Grade 100
ftlOO
G5501FC 10
011().00
EN·GJL· 150
EN.JL· 1020 A4825B
1452 Grade 150
A32-101 FGL 150;FT 150 G5501FC 15
0 11 5-00
EN-GJL-200
EN..JL-1030 A48308
1452 Grade 220
A32·101 FGL 200;FT 200 G5501 FC20
012()-00
EN -GJL-250
EN-JL-1040 A48408
1452Grade~
A 32·101 FGL 250; FT 25 0
G5501 FC25
0125-00
260 EN·GJL-300
EN·Jl·1050 A48458
1452 Grade 300
A 32· 101 FGL 300: FT 30 0
G5501FC30
013()-00
EN-GJL-350
EN·JL-1060 A48508
1452 Grade 350
A 32·101 FGL 350; FT 35 0
G 5501FC35
0135-00
-
Cest iron with IPh«oidaalnodulerl griphlte EN -GJS.JS0-22
EN-J5-1010 -
-
0717·15
EN·GJS.SQ0.7
EN.J5-1050 A 536 60-45-12 2789 Grade
A32-201 FGS 500-7
G 5502 FCO 500
07V-Il2
EN -GJS-600-3
EN·JS-1060 A 536 80-55.()6 2789 Grade 6000 A 32•201 FGS 600.J
G 5502 FCO 600
0732.()3
EN-GJS-700-2
EN -JS-1070 A 53610070-llJ
VB9 Grade 700-2 A 32-201 FGS 700-2
G 5502 FCD700
0737.()1
EN-GJMW-350·4
EN-JM 1010-
86661 w 35.()4
A 32·701 MB 35-7
G 5703 FCMW 330
EN·GJMW.40Q.S
EN-JM 1030 -
6661 w 40.()5
A 32-701 MB 40-05
G 5703 FCMW 370
-
EN-GJMW-450-7
EN-JM 1040 -
666145.()7
A32·701 MB 450-7
G 5703 FCMWP 440
EN·GJMB.JS0-10
EN-JM 1130 A47Grade 310 B 340.112 22010+32510
A 32-102 MN 350-10
G 5703 FCMB 340
-
soon
Malleable c:nt iron
-
0815-00
EN-GJMB-450-6
EN-JM 1140-
6661 P45-06
A 32·703 MP 50-5
-
0854·00
EN-GJMB-550-4
EN-JM 1160 -
6661 P55-ll4
A 32-703 MP 50-3
G 5703 FCMP 540
0855.()0
EN-GJMB-650-2
EN-JM 1180-
6661 P65-02
-
-
0862·03
EN·GJMB-700-2
EN-JM 1190 A220Grade
6661 P70-ll2
A32·703 MP ~2
G 5703 FCMP 690
0862.()3
70003
411
Standards: 8.1 International st andard s
International Material Comparison Chart Chart V Germany
USA
U. K.
AISVSAE
BS
Fr.-
Japan
Sweden
AFNOR
JIS
ss
Standard DIN. DIN EN
Mat No.
c..t ...... for v-al eppllcWons GS-38
it-0420
1-
1-
GS-45
11.0446
IA27
1-
Cast st.... few pr~
--
I SCJEO ISC450
11-
v-.ls
GP240GH
1.0619
A216G.-
G17CrMoS-5
1.7357
A217G.WC6
wee
1504-161 G1. B
-
-
-
-
Aluminum end wrought aluminum 8lloys old
A199.5
1050A
AIMn1
3103
AIMn1Cu AI Mgt
3003 5005A
AI Mg2
5251
AIMg3 AI Mg5
5754
AI Mg3Mn
5454
AI Mg4.5Mn0.7
5083
AICuPbMgMn
2007
AICu4PbMg AIMgSiPb
2030
AICu4SiMg
5019151 19
6012 2014
1050A 31113
3003 5005A 5251 5754 5019/5119 5454 5083 2007 2030 6012 2014
-
5454 A-G3MC 5083 A-G4.5MC
NB
-
A-U4P8
-
-
-
H 15
2017 2024
-
6060
6060
H9
6082 7020
6082
H30 H17
AIZnS.SMgCu
A-GS
N51
2017
7020 7022
A·G3M
-
2024
7022 7075
5005 A-G0.6 5251 A-G2 M
N4
AI Cu4Mg1 AI MgSi AI Zn4.5Mg1 AIZn5Mg3Cu
3103 (3 1113) A· M1
N41
AI Cu4MgSi
AI Si1MgMn
nf1W old 1050A A-5
18 N3
A-SGPB (2014 A) A-U 4SG A-tJ4G
2l9719
2024 A-U4 Gt (6063) A-GS
6082 A-SGM0.7 7020 A· Z5G
A-Z4GU
new 1050A A1050
-
3003 A3003 5005 A5005 5251 5754 -
-
5454 A5454 A5083
-
-A2017 2024 A2024 6060 A6063 6082 7020 (A 7N011
-
4007
4054
-
4 106
4 125
-
4 140 4335
-
4103 4212 4425
-
7075 A7075
-
A-57g
-
-
MAG-f-101
G-M2
-
MAG-f-111
G-A3Z1
-
-
MAG-f-121
G-A6Z1
-
7075
2 L95/96
A356
LM25
7075 A-ZSGU
Aluminum casting alloys AC-AISi7Mg
AC-42000
Magnesium alloys, Titanium. Titanium alloys MgMn2
3.3520 3.!>.31 2
MIA AZ31 B
MgAI6Zn
3.5612
MgAIBZn lit
3.5812 3.7025
AZ61A AZf!{)A
li2
3.7035
liAI6V4 liAIMo4Sn2
3.7 165 3.7185
MgA13Zn
-
--
-
TAt TA2 T A IG-13, 28.56 T A45-51,57
G-A7Z1
-
--
--
--
-
The publisher and its affiliates have taken care to collect the above data to the best of th eir ability. However, no responsibility is accepted by the publisher or any of its affiliates regarding its content or any statement herei n or omission there from which may result in any loss or damage to any party using the data shown above.
13 74 76 82
Metric ISO screw threads Counter sinks Thread runouts Knurls
204 824 224 835 89 908 91 910
Folding drawing sheets Studs Drain plugs Drain plugs
66 219 219 219
103 12511 12611 158 172
Metric ISO trapezoidal threads Flat washers Flat washers Tapered threads Headed drill bushings
207 233 234 205 247
938 939 962
Hexagonal weld nuts Castle nuts Studs Studs Designation of bolts and screws
232 232 219 219 210
173 179 202 228 250
Slip type jig bushing Drill bushings Screw thread types. Overview Morse tapers, Metric tapers Radii
247 247 202 242,243 65
962 974 981 101311 101411
Designation of nuts Counterbores Lock nuts for roller bearings Hot rolled round steel bar Hot-rolled square steel bar
227 225 268 144 144
319 323 332 336 406
Ball knobs Preferred numbers Center holes Drill diameter for clearance holes Dimensioning
248 101711 65 1025 91 1026 204 1301 75-82 1302
Hot-rolled flat steel bar !-beams Steel channel Units of measurement Mathematical symbols
43311 434 435 461 466
Flat washers Washers for channels Washers for 1-beams Coordinate systems Knurled nuts. high form
234 235 235 62,63 232
1304 1414 1445 1587 165111
Symbols, mathematical Twist drills Clevis pins with threaded stud end Hexagon acorn nuts. high form Free cutting steels
19 301 238 231 134
467 471 472 475 508
Knurled nuts. low form Retaining rings for shafts Retaining rings for holes Widths across flats Nuts forT-slots
232 269 269 223 250
17()()11 170711 1732 1850
Heavy non-ferrous metals, designation Solders Welding filler metals for AI Plain bearing bushings
174 334 326 262
509 513 580 582 609
Undercuts Metric buttress threads Eye bolts Eye nuts Hexagon head bolts and screws
92 207 219 231 214
2080 2093 2098 2211 2215
Steep taper shanks Disk springs Compression springs V·belt pulleys Classic V-belts
616 617 623 625 628
Dimension series for roller bearings Needle bearings Roller bearings. designation Deep groove ball bearings Angular-contact ball bearings
264 268 264 265 265
2215 2403 3760 3n1 n 4760
V-belts, cogged Pipelines, identification Radial seals 0-rings Form deviations
650 711 720 780 787 820
T-slots Axial deep groove ball bearings Tapered roller bearings Module series for gears Bolts and screws for T·slots Standardization
250 266 267 257 250
929
935
4844 4983 4987 5406 5412 5418 8 5419
Safety signs Tool holders. designation lndexable inserts. designation Lock washers Cylindrical roller bearings Roller bearings, mounting Felt seals
144 149,150 146 17, 2G-22 19
242.243 246 245 254 253 253 343 270 270 98 338-341 297 296 268 266 26!'>-267 270
5520 6311 6319 6321
Tolerances for installation of roller bearings Bonding radii, non-ferrous metals Thrust peds Sphoricel w ashers and conical seats l ocating and supporting pins
17221" 1722311 318 17350" 248 17860 250 19225 249
6323 6332 6335 6336 6771 11
Loose slot tenons Grub screws w ith thrust point Star knob Fluted knobs Tille blocks
250 248 249 249 66
8773 6780 6784" 6785 6796
Hardness specifications in drawings Holes, simplified repl'esentation Workpiece edges Center punch on turned parts Conical spring washers
97 50141 83 51385 88 5150.2 88 51519 235 51524
Shear test Machining coolants lubricants, designation ISO viscosity grades Hydraulic oils
191 292 271,272 271 368
6799
269 53804 240 55350 239 66001 239 66025 240 66217
Statistical analysis Quality inspection and testing Program ftow charts. symbols CNC machines, program structure CNC machines, coordinates
277,278 276
6887 6888
Circlips Feather keys Keys Gib-head keys Woodruff keys
691411 6915 11 6935 7 157 7500
Hexagon head bolts and screws Hexagon nuts, heavy Bending radii, steel Fit recommendations Thread forming screws
214 230 318,319 111 218
7719 7721 7722 7726 7753
Wide V·bolts Timing belts, synchronous belts Double V·belts Foam materials Narrow V-belts
253 253.255 253 185 439 253,254 440
7867 7984 7989 7991 7999
V·ribbedbelt Cap screws. socket head Washers for steel constructions Countersunk head screws Hexagon fit bolts
253 215 234 216 214
8554 11 9713 11 9715 9812 9816
Gas w elding rods AI channel Magnesium wrought alloys Pillar presses Pillar presses
9819 9861 16901 17211 11 17212"
Pillar presses Punches Plastic molded parts, tolerances Nitriding Sleets Steels for flame hardening
5425
6885 6886
110
Sl)l'ing steel Steel wire for springs Tool steels Titanium, titanium alloys Controllers
138 138 135 172 347~349
19226
Basic terminology of control engineering
34~349
19227 30910 40719'' 50125
Code leners. symbols
346,347 178
66261 69871 69893
70852 70952
485
499" 515
573 754 754 324 755 171 775 11 172 252 1044 252 1045 1089 252 1089 251 1173 186 134 134, 156
Sintenld metals Function charts Tensile test specimens
Nassi·Shneiderman diagrams, symbols Steep taper shank Hollow taper shahs Lock nuts Lock washers
3~360
190
403 382-385 381
403 243 243 231 231
Inert gas Wire electrodes Wrought aluminum alloys Rod electrodes Material condition of AI alloys
325 325 166. 167 327 165
Designation lor AI alloys Wrought aluminum alloys AI round and square bar Wrought aluminum alloys Work safety with robots
165 166, 167 169, 170 166, 167 380
Brazing Aux for brazing Compressed-gas cylinders Gas cylinders- Identification Copper alloys, material conditions
333 334
324 331, 332 174
174 158 160 161 160
10293 10297 10305 10327 12163
Cast steel Tubes, machine construction Precision steel tube Hot dip ooated sheet Copper-zinc alloys
230 168 172 168 174, 176
12164 12413 12536 12844 12890
Copper-zinc-lead alloys Grinding, maximum speeds Gas welding rods High-grade zinc casting alloys Panems
175 308 324 176 162. 163
13237 14399-4 14399-4 14399-6 20273
Equipment in EX area Hexagon nuts, heavy Hexagon head bolts. heavy Flat washers Clearance holes for bolts
357 230 214 233,235 211
131 131 131 121-125 191
20898 22339 22340 22341 22553
Property classes for nuts Tapered pins Clevis pins without heads Clevis pins with head Welding symbols
Sheet metal. hot-rolled Equal leg tee steel Steel angle Hot-rolled flat steel bar Hot-rolled square steel bar
141 146 147. 148 144 144
24015 24766 27434 27435 28738
Hexagon head bolts and screws Set screws, stoned Set screws. stoned Set screws, stoned Washers for clevis pins
10060 10083 10084 10085 10087
Hot-rolled round steel bar Quenched and tempered steels Case hardening st eels Nitridlng steels Free cuning steels
144 133. 156 132. 155 134, 157 134, 157
29454 Flux for soldering 2969211 Welding. weld preparation
10088 10089 1011311 10130 101371)
Stainless steels Spring steel Fine grain structural steels Sheet metal, cold-rolled Quenched and tempered structural steels
136, 137 138 131 140 131
101421) 10210 10213 10219 10226
Sheet metal, electroplated Hot-rolled tubes Cast steel f or pressure vessels Cold-rolled tubes Whitworth pipe threads
141 151 161 151 206
10268 10270 10270 10277 10278
Sheet metal, cold-rolled Steel wire for springs Steel wire for tension springs Delivery conditions, bright steel Bright steel products
140 138 244 145 145
1412 1560 1561 1562 1563
Copper alloys, material numbers Designation of cast iron Cast Iron with flake graphite Malleable cast iron Cast iron with spheroidal graphite
1661 1706 1753 1760 1982
Hexagon nut s with flange Aluminum casting alloys M agnesium cast alloys Designation for AI cast alloys Copper alloys, designation
6506 10002 1000311 10020 10025-2
Hardness test by Brinell Tensile testing Hardness test by Brinell Steels, classification Unalloyed structural steels
10025-3 10025-4 10025-6 10027 10045
Fine grain structural steels Fine grain structural steels Quenched and tempered structural steels Steels, designation system Notched-bar impact bending test
10051 10055 10056 10058 10059
192 190 192 120 130
60445 60446
60529
Electrical equipment Wires and connections Protective systems
60617
161 142 142 141 175
228 237 238
238 93-95 213 220 220 220 235 334 323 353 353 357
Circuit diagrams, graphical symbols Function charts 60893 Laminated materials 60947 Proximity sensors, designation 6108211 Electrical circuit diagrams
350-352 358-360 184 355 354
61131
373-375
60848
PLC
Standards: 8.2 DIN, DIN EN, ISO etc. standards
128 216 527 868 898
Lines Paper formats Tensile properties of plastics Hardness test by Shore Property classes of bolts and screws
1043 1101 1207 1234 1302
Basic polymers Geometric t olerancing Cap screws, slotted COlter pins Indication of surface finish
1872 1873 2009 2010 2039
PE molding compounds PP molding compounds Countersunk head screws, slotted Raised head countersunk screws, stoned Hardness test on plastics
2338 2560 3098 3166 3506 3506
415
Flat coumersunk head !lipping screw Raised head countersunk Ulpplng screws Flat washers Flat washers Flat washers
217 217
litle blocks Hal"ardous substance labels Hexagon nuts, lone thread Hexagon nutS, fine thread Hexagon nuts. low form
66 331 229 229 230
183 183 8676 217 8734 217 8740 8741 195 8742
Hexagon head bolts and screws Dowel pins, hardened Straight grooved pin 1/2 length reverse taper grooved pins 113-1{2 length center grooved pins
213 237 238 238 238
Dowel pins Rod electrodes Fonts Throe-lener codes for countnes Property classes of bolts and screws
237 327 64 203 211
8743 8744 8745 8746 8747
113- 1/2 length cemer grooved pins Tapered groove pin Hall length taper grooved pon Groovad pins w ith round head Grooved pins with countersunk heads
238 238 238 238 238
Property classes of nuts Hexagon head bolts and screws Hexagon head bolts and screws Set screws, hexagon socket Set screws. hexagon socket
2.2 8 212 212 220 220
8752
9001 9004
Spring pins, heavy duty Hexagon head bolts end screws Quality management Quality management Quality management
237 213 274,275 274 274
Set screws, hexagon socket Hexagon nuts, coarse threads Hexagon nuts. coarse threads Hexagon nuts, low form Welding methods, designation
220 228 229 229 322
9013 9453 9692 9787 10218
Thermal cutting Soft solder alloys Weld preparation Industrial robots Work safety with robots
330 334 323 378.379 380
98 98, 99 211 215 135, 155
10512 10642 13337 13920 14526
Hexagon nutS with insert Countersunk screws. hexagon socket Spring pins, light duty Welding, general tolerances Phenolic powder moldong compounds
21 6 237 322 184
67 7050 66 7051 195 195 7090 211 7091 7092 180 112- 114 216 232 99. 100
7200
7225 8673 8674 8675
8765 9000
233 234 234
4957
Surface finish Surface finish Product grades for bolts and screws Cap screws, socket head Tool steels
5457 6506 6507 6508 6947
Drawing sheet sizes Hardness test, Brinell Hard ness test by Vickers Hardness test by Rockwell Welding positions
66 192 193 193 322
14527 14539 14577 15065 15785
Urea molding compounds Grippers M artens hardness Countersinks for countersunk head Bonded joints. representation
184 380 194 224 96
Hexagon nutS with insert Flat head countersunk screws. cross recessed
230 1ssn 217 15978 18265 217 20482
Blind rivets (flat head) Blind rivets (countersunk head) Conversion tables lor hardness Cupping test Cap screws, socket head
241 241 194 191 216
230
41 6
Standards: 8.2 DIN, DIN EN, ISO etc. standards
14 128 228 273 286
Splined shaft joints lines Pipe threads Clearance holes for bolts ISO fits
241 N3 67- 75 83 206 D12 225 102- 109
Safety signs Noise Protection Regulations Grinding tools. application
344 308
513 525
281 278
1219 1832 2162 2203 2768
Circuit symbols for fluidics lndexable inserts Representation of springs Representation of gears General tolerances
294.295 11·19 309 16-31 311 202 208 67/548 363-365 671548 296 87
Quality Sc.ience. Introduction Nonnal distribution in random samples
965 965
Cuning tool materials. designation Abrasives Grit designation M ultiple start threads. designation Thread tolerance classes
2859 3040 4379 4381 4382
Acceptance sampling Oesignation on cones Plain bearing bushings Plain bearing materials Plain bearing materials
5455 5456 5599 6410 6411
Scales Projection methods 5-way pneumatic valves Screw threads. representation Center bores. representation
6413 6691 6753 7049 8062
Representation of splines Plain bearing materials Plates for cun.i ng tools Pan head tapping screws Dimensional tolerances for castings
8826 9222 10242 13715
Roller bearings. simplified representation Seals, simplified representation Punch holder shanks Workpiece edges
010Q-410 010Q-430
Safety measures Automatic cutout fuses
848
A-Phrases. S-Phrases Danger symbols
199. 200 198.342
84
ao. 110
356
60479
280 304 262 2229 261 2740 261 2880 3258 65 3368 69.70 3411
364 79.90 91
87 261 251 218 163 85
86
251 88
356 356
24569
Bonded joints. preparatory treatment Grippers PLC applications Machine running time Punch dimensions Abrasive bonds
Hydraulic fluids. degradable
336 380 375 285 316 309.311
368
417
Subject index
Subject index A Aluminum, Aluminum alloys, overview •••••••• 164
Abrasives ••••••••••••••..•••••••••••••••••• 309 ABS (IICrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene copolymers) ••••••.•••.•••.•••.••••••• 181. 187 Acceleration • .•••.•••.•.••• •.••••..•••. ••• • .. 34
Aluminum, welding fillers . • • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • . . • 326 Amino plastic molding materials • • • • • • • • • . . • . . 164
Ac<:oloration due to gravity •.•. ... •• .. •••.•••• . • 36
Analog controllers • . . • • • . • • • . • . • • • • • • • . . . • . • 348 AND operation ••••.•••.•.•••.••••.• 350, 375, 376
Acceleration Ioree .•••••••••.•••.•..••••••••.• 36
Angular-contact ball bearings • • • • • • • • • . • . . . . . . 265
Acceptance quality level (AOl) • . . . . . • • • . • • • • • • 280 Acceptance SBmpling • .• •••.••.••••••••••••• 280
Anti-rotation lock lor SCfOWS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 222 Aramide fibers • • • • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • • • • • • . • . 187
Ac<:idont prevention regulations with regard to noise protection •.•.••••••••••••• 344 Ace1yleno cylinders, color coding •••••••••••••• 332
Arc length, dimensionong •.•••••••••••••••• •• •. 78 Arc welding
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
327. 328
Arc welding. weld design • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 328 Area graphs ... ......................... ..... 63 Argon cylinders, color coding •••••••••••••• ••• 332
Acme screw threads •••••••••• .•• •••••••••••• 203 Acrylonitrole butadiene rubber (NBAI ••••••••••• 185 Address codes, CNC controls ••.•.•••••••••.•. 382
Arrow projection method .................. .... 70 ASOI code ......... .. .... . ... ........... . .. 402
Adhesive bonding . •• •••••.• •••••••••••.••••• 336 Adhesives. microencapsulated • • • • • • . • • • • . • • • 222
Austenite ...••••.•.•.••.••••...•••.•••... . • 153
Air consumption or pneumatic cylinders ••.••.•. 369 Air pressure ..••••••••. • ••• •••••••.•••.••••.. 42
Austenitic steels • • • . • . • . . • • • • • . . • • • • • • • . . . . . 136 Automation .••••...••.••.•...••..•.•..• 345-406
Aluminum alloys, heat treatment ..•••.••.••.•. 157
Auxiliary dimensions •••••• .•••••••• •..•••••••. 81
Aluminum casting alloys . ..•••••.•••••••••.•• 168
Average speed of crank mechanism • •• •• ••••••.. 35
Aluminum Cllstings. designation • . • • • • • • • • • • • • 168 Aluminum profiles • ••.•• •••••••••••••••. 169- 171
Axial deep groove ball bearings • . • • • • • • • • • . . • • 266
Axonometric representation ......•...•• . .•....• 69
Aluminum profiles, overview ••••••.••••••.••• 169 Aluminum tubes .••...•••••.•...•••..•.•.•.• 171
B Ball bearings • • • . • . . . . . • • • • . . . . . . . • • • • • • 265, 266 Ball knobs • . . • • • • . • • • . . • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • 248
Boiling temperature ............. ........ 116, 117 Bolt thread as inclined plane ........... . . ...... 39
Basic dimensions •.•. .. ••. ... . .. •.•..••••••••• 81 Basic geometrical constructions .•••• ••.•• ... 58- 61
Bolts and screws .....••.••••...•.... • ... 209-221 Bolts and screws for T-slots • . • • • . . • • • . . • • • . . • • 250
Basic hole •.. ..••. •...• .•. •• .• ..•..••••••• .• 103
Bolts and screws, designation • .••.•••••••.•.•• 210
Basic polymers, designation .... •• • .••.•••••.• 180 Basic quantities ••...•• • .•••.••••• ..••••••••.• 20
Bolts and screws, head styles • • • • . • • • • • . . • • . • . 223 Bolts and screws, overview • • . • • • • • • • • • . • • 209, 210
Basic shaft .•.••••.•••...••.•••...•••.•••••• 103
Bolts, tightening torques ••••••.•.• . •••. .. • ... 221 Bonded joints, preparation • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • • 336
Basic units ••...•.•.•..•....•...••••..•.••.••• 20 Beam cutting ••••.•.••. • ••.•••••..•.•••• 329, 330
Bonded joints. representation .... • ...•......... 96
Beam cutting, areas of application ••••..•••..•. 329
Bonded joints, !.Osting ................ .. .. ... 337
Bearing foroes ... •.•. .•.... •.. . ..• •..•.•••••• 37
Bonded joints. types ................. ........ 337 Bosses on turned parts ••••••••••••••• .•••..••• 88
Belt drive. transmission ratio • • • . • . • . • • • • . • • • • . 259 Bending .•.•• • •••••••.•••..•••. . .• ••..• 318,319
BA (butadiene rubber) ... .................... 185
Bending load • . • . .....•••••....••.•.•....•••• 47 Bending stress •••..•• •• ••••..••. •• ••••.•••• •• 47
Brazing materials •.•••••..••••...••.•• ••. • .• 333 Breakeven point • . . . . • • • . . . • • . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . 286
Bending, bending radius •........ . .. ....... . . 318 Bending, Clllculation of blanks •••• • .••.••• 31B, 319
Brinell hardness test • .... . .••• . •• .•......•••. 192 Buckling, load .•••••..•......•..•.••••.. ...... 46
Bending, spring back .. ... •. .... .•••........• 319
Buoyant force ... •. .• .•.•.••••• . .. ...• •• .... . . 42 Buttress threads • • • • • • • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • . • • 207
Bevel gears, Clllculation .......... ............ 258 Binary logic • ••••••. ..••..• • ••• ••• •••• •••••• 350 Binary number system •••.••••••• •••••••••••• 401 Binomialformula ............................. 15 Blind rivet . . . . . . . • . . . . . • . • • • • • . • • • • • • • • . . . • . 241 Block and tackle ••••....•..••...•••••• •••••••• 39
418
Subject index
Subject index
c Cabinet projec1ion ...••. ..•••.. . ••• .• •..•..••• 69
Coeffocient of thermal conductivity • . • . • • • • . . • • • 111
Calculations with brackets .••. . ••••••••...•• ••• 15 Captive fastener • . . • • • . . . • • . . • . . . . . • • • . • • • . . 222
Coefficient of volumetric expansion . •....•• 116, 117 Coeffocients of friction ................... ...... 41
Car·b on dioxide cylinders. color coding ••..•••• . 332
Cold work steels ... .... . . .. .. ..... . ......... 135
Carbon fibers ..•.•.•.....•• •.••• . ..••...• • .. 187 Cartesian coordinate system • . .•••....•..•••••. 62
Cold work steels. heat treatment •• .... ••...• •. 155 Combination signs ........................ . . 341
Case hardening steels . ...•.•.• •• . ••••.•••• . . 132 Case hardening steels. heat treatment ••••••••.. 155
Combined dimensioning ..•... . • •. •. • ••.. •• .•.. 82 Composite materials •••. . ••••••.. ..• •..••. .. 177
Case-hardening • .......... • . • . •. .. ..•...••.. 154
Compressed-gas cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . 324
Cast copper alloys • . • . . • • • • • . • • • • . • • . • . • • . • . . 176 Cast iron with flake graphite • .•••....• ••.• 159, 160
Compressed'iJaS cylinders, color codi ng •...• •.. 332 Compression springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Cast iron with spheroidal graphite •...•.•••• 159, 160 Cast iron, bainitic .......... . .... . ........... 159 Cast iron, designation system .. •.• ...•... •.• . . 158
Compressive load • ..• ••.•••• . •••. . •••. . •.•. .• 45 Compressive stress ...•..••.. . • ....... . .....•• 45 Conductor resistance •••..•••.... . .•.••. . •.•..• 53
Cast iron, dimensional tolerances ...•.•.•.•••.• 163 Cast steel •• . . • •••.••• . ...•.. .. • .... •. .. 159, 161
Cone. surface area and volume ..•.•.. .. . . ...•.• 30 Conical seats . • • • • • • • • • . • • • . • . . . . . . . . . • . • • • . 250
Casting tolerance grade ....... • .... • .•.••••.• 163 Castle nuts . . . . . . . • . . • • . . • . . • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Conical spring washers • . . . . . . . . . • . . • . . • . . . . . 235 Continuous controllers . • . • • • • • • • . • • • • . • • . . . . . 348
Cavalier projection .. ..... ... ....... ........... 69
Contribution margin • • . • . . . . . • • . . • • . • . . • . . . . . 286
Cellulose acetate plastics (CAl ••.••..••••••.•• 181 Cellulose acetobutyrate plastics ICABI . .. •••••.. 181
Control charact.ers of computers •..••• •...• ...• 394 Control dimensions .•..•••..•.•..••••••.••••• . 81
Centrifugal force ... ... ........................ 37
Controlled systems .. .. .. . • . .. . . • .. . .. .. . . . .. 349
Centroids, lines . ..... ... . ...••••.••••••. . ••••• 32 Centroids, p lane areas .••.•........•.... . .. ..•. 32
Controllers .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . • . . . .. • . . 346- 349 Coordinate axes in programming ••. ... •. .• ••• ..381
Ceramic materials ••.........•..••.....•..•.. 177
Coordinate dimensioning ........ . ............• 82
Chamfers, dimensioning •.••.•...•••••••.•.•••• 78 Change in volume •...••.•.••. . .• ••.••• . ....•. 51
Coordinate systems of CNC machines .•.••• •.• • 381 Copper-tin alloys .. • . .. • .. • . .. .. .. . . . . .. . • • .. 175
Character sizes ...... ........ . ................ 64 Character types •• •. ..• ..• . .• . . . . • .. •.•.• ..•.. 64 Chemicals used in metal technology .••••..•••. 119
Copper-zinc alloys .. .. .. . .. .. • .. .. . . . • .. • . .. • 175 Corrosion •••....•.••.•.. . . .. •.•... .. . . •. •.. 196 Corrosion protection • .•• . .••.•••....... ... .. 196
Chlorepoxypropane rubber (COl ••• . ..•.. . .••. 185
Cosine ... ............. .......... .... .... 11.13
Circle, area •. . ..•.••... ... . . •.••. .• •••.•.• 10. 27 Circle, circumference ••.•..••. . ••... . ••• . ..••. . 27
Cost accounting .......•..•••..•. • .•••..••• • 284 Cost calculation .. . . .. .. • . .. • . .. . . • . .. • .. .. . . 284 Cost comparison method . . .. . .. • . . .. .. . • .. • . 286
Circle, finding the center of .... . ................ 60 Circlips .....•••. . •• ..•...•. .. ....... . • . •... 269
Cotangent ........ ............ . .. . ....... 12, 13
Circuit diagrams ... ... .... •..••.. . .•....••. . 354
Cotter pins . .. .. . .. .. . . . . .. . .. .. .. .. .. . . .. . . 232
Circuit diagrams, hydraulic •.••..•• ..•• • .• 365, 367 Circuit diagrams, pneumatic ••. . ••• .. .•.. . 365, 366
Counterbores for cap screws and hexagon head bolts . . .. .. . .. • . .. .. .. .. . . .. 225
Circuits, elec1rical . . ..................... 351 - 354 Circular movements of CNC machines ... .. 384. 385
Counter nut . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . • . . . . . . . • . • • • . . . 222 Countersink depth, calculating •. . . .. .. •.• ... .. 225
Circularring (annulus), area •.......••.•....•••• 28 Circular sector, area •.••••• • ........•....•..... 28
Countersinking, productive time . . . . . . . . . . . • . • . 289 Countersinks for countersunk head screws ...... 224
Circular segment, area ............. ........... 28 Circumferential velocity, calculating . .. .•..... 34, 35
Countersinks for screws . • . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • 224, 225 Countersunk head screws, slotted . . . . . . . • . . . . . 217
Clearance fit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • • • . . . . • . . • • • • 102 Clearance holes for bolts ..................... 211
Countersunk screws, hexagon socket .... • ....• 216 CR (chloroprene rubber) • • . . • . • . • . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Clevis pins ........... .. ...... .... . ......... 238
Cross-section area ... .. . ........ . . .. ... ....... 73
Closed loop control, general terms •. .•. .•..••• 346
CSM (chlorosulfonated polyethylene elastomers) •. 185 Cube root . ....•..........•••..••...•••...... 15
Closed Substance Cycle and Waste Management Act .. . . . . .. . . .. .. . . .. .. .. .. . 197 Coarse threads . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . • • . . • . • • • • • • • 204 Coefficient of linear expansion • • • . .• .... •. 116, 117
Current density ...... .... ... ............... ... 54 Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 Cutting data, drilling ................... ... ... 301
Subject index
419
Subject index Cuning force, face milling .................... 300 Cuning force, specifoc • . . . • . . . . . . • . . • . . . . . . . . . 299 Cuning force, turning .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . . .. . . . .. 298 Cuning power in face milling ................. 300 Cuning power, drilling . .. . . . .. .. • .. . . . .. . . . . . 298 Cutting power, turning .......... . ....... . .... 298 Cuning speed, calcula ting .................... . . 35 Cutting tool materi&ls .. . . .. . . .. .. . • .. . .. . 294, 295
Cun ing data, grinding .•....•...•...••... 308, 311 Cuning data, honing ....•....•.....••.......• 3 12 Cuning date. milling ....•.......••••••••••..• 305 Cuning data, reaming ..................•..... 302 Cunlng data, tapping ........................ 302 Cunlng data, turning ......................... 303 Cunlng force ............ . .................... 46 Cutting force. drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . • . 298
D D.contro llers .•.•...•......•.•..•.....•...•• 348 Danger critena •.•..•..•.•.......•....•• • •..• 342 Danger symbols ••••....••..••..•••...••.... 342 Data processong, graphical symbols ...•..• 403. 404 Deceleration force ......•......•...•...•••...• 36 Decimal system .••.•........•.. . ..•..•••...• 393 Deep drawing force ................... . ..... 321 Deep drawing, blank diameters •..........••.. 320 Deep drawing, deep drawing force .....•••.•.• 321 Deep drawing. drawing gap .......•....•..... 320 Deep dr11w ing, drawing ratio •.. . ...••......... 321 Deep drawing, drawing steps ........•.•..•... 321 Deep drawing, tool radii .....•.•...•...•.•.... 320 Deep groove ball bearings • • . . . • . . . • . • . . . . . . . • 265 Deep-drawing. hold-down force . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . 321 Defect che n .......•. .. ...........•.•....... 281 Deflection •........••...•....•....•....••..•• 47 Density, values ......•...•••..•.....••.. 116. 117 Description of hazards ......•...••.....••.... 342 Detent edged ring ......•• .. .•.....•...•..... 222 Deviations .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . .. • . . . . . . . • . 102 Diame ter, dime nsioning .. . •.. . ....•.•..•..••.. 78 Diametric projection . .. .. .. .......•........... 69 Die clearance ...••....... .. . . ....... . •...... 316 Die dimensions ..•.... . ....•.........•...... 316
Differential indexing .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . . .. .. . . . . 307 Digital controllers . . . • • . . • . • . • • • • . . . • . • . • . . . . 349 Dimension lines .............................. 76 Oomension num bers .•.••.•••••.•.......•..... 76 Dimensioning rules ........................... n Dimensioning systems .......••••..........•.• 75 Direct costing .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . .. .. . . .. 286 Direct costs .. . . . .. • . . .. • . . .. . . . . .. . • .. . . . .. 284 Direct Current lOCI. ..................... .. 55, 351 Direct indexing . •....... . .•....•. .. .. .... . .. 307 Disoontinuous controllers . . . . • . • . . • . . • • . • • . . . 349 Disk springs .. .. • .. .. .. .. • .. .. • . .. .. . .. . . . .. 246 Disposal of substances .................... ... 197 Dividing head . .. . . .. . . . .. • . . . • . . . . • • . . • . . . . 307 Divisions. dimensioning ............... . ....... 79 Drain plugs ............................... . . 219 Dnll bushings . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Drilling cycles ............................ .. 389 Drilling screws . . . . . . . . • . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 Drilling, cuning data .................. .... ... 301 Drilling, cutting force and cutting powe r .... . • .. 299 Drilling. problems .. . . . .. .. .. .. . • . .. . . .. . . . .. 306 Drilling, productive time . . . .. . . . .. .. . . .. . . .. . 289 Dry machining .. . .. .. .. . . . .. .. • .. .. .. .. . . .. . 293
E EC Directive on Hazardous Substances ..... 198, 199 Effective length of bent pans . . .•.....•... 318, 319 Elastomers ............................. 179, 185 Electric current ....•.. .. .. . ... .. ...•...••. 53, 54 Electrical circuit symbols . ......••...••... 351, 352 Electrical circuits . . . ... ... . . ...... .. .. . .. 353, 354 Electrical conductance .. . . . . ................... 53 Electrical engineering, fundamentals .•....•.. 53- 55 Electricity, quantities and units . ... ............•. 22 Electrochemical series .• . . . . . • . .........••... 196 Electrohydraulic controls . . . ... .. • .. .....•.... 367 Electropneumatic controls ..... •...•.•..••..•. 366 Ellipse. area ... . ..... .. .. ... ................. 28 Ellipse, constructing •.. . •.....•. . ...........•. 60 Embedding matenals (matrix) for plastics ..•...• 187 Energy of position . . ...... .. .. .... .. . .... . .... 38
Energy. kinetic .... . .................. . ... ... . 38 Energy, potential ........................ .. ... 38 EPA (ethylene propylene rubber, EPOM) .... . .. . 185 Equations, solving ..........•............ .. . .. 15 Equipment. electrical . .. . .. . .. .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. 353 Erichsen cupping test . ......... . .... . ... .. ... 191 Escape route and rescue signs .. . • ... . .•. ..... 340 Euclidean theorem . ... ... . ... . . .. . ... •. . .. .... 23 Eutectic .. ..... . ... . .............. . ••. . •.. .. 153 Eutectoid ••. . ......••....•. . ..•. ... . ....... 153 EXCEL. commands ...•. . ........ .. . .. .. . . .. . 406 Exlension lines . ... . .............. .. .. .. .. . .. . 76 Exlrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 Eye bolls .. .. ......................... . . . . . 219
Eye nuts .. . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
420
Subject index
Subject index F F110e milling. cutting fO
Flux for soldering .. • .. .. • .. .. • .. • .. .. • .. .. .. 334
FBtlgue test • • • • • • • . • • . . . . . • . • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • 189 Feather l!c tapered keys, overview . • • • • • • • • • • • • 239
Foam materials ..••••••••.••••••••••••...••. 185 Folded joints. representation .••..••••..•.•.••.. 96
Feather keys • . • . • • . . • • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . • • . • • . 240
Fonts .... . .................. . .......... ..... 64
Feod rato, calculating •••• ..• ••..••••.•••••••••• 35
Force diagram, calculation ..................... 36
Felt rings • . . • • • . . • • • . • . • • • . . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . 270 Ferrite ............................ ......... 153
Forces .................. ..... .... .... ....... 36 Forces, adding and resolving •••.•••....•... .••. 36
Ferritic steels .••••••......••••.•..•••••••••• 137 Fiberglass •...•••••••••.•••.•••••••••••••••• 187
Forces, representation ................ ...... .. . 36
Filler metals ................................ 334
Fom~ and positional tolerances ••••••••••• 112- 114 Fotm deviations •••••••••••••••••••••• •••••••• 98
Fillers lind reinforcing materi11ts for plutics • • • • 180 Fine thre11ds . . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • .. • • • • • • • • .. • • • 204
Foundry technology ..................... 162. 163
Fire elCllngulshlng lines, identification marking •••••.•...••...•..•.. •••••••••• 343
Free cuning steels ......................... .. 134 Free cutting steels, heat treatment ••••• . ••••••• 157
Fire protection symbols ...................... 340 Fits, ISO system • . .. .. .. . . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . 102
Freezing temperature ....................... . 117
Fom~ing
gas UCI cyhnders, color coding . • • • . • . . 332
Frequency, relative • • • . • • • • . • • • • • . • • • . • • • . • • • 277
Fits, recommended • .. • .. . .. .. • .. • • . .. • .. • .. . 1t1
Friction •••.•••••••••..•••.••••..•••..••• ..•• 41
Fixed costs ••...•••••••• .. ..•. .• •..••••••••• 286 Flame-cuning, dimensional tolerances ••••••.•• 330
Friction power .. .......................... ... 41
Flamo-cuning, standard values •...••.•.••••••• 329
Frictional moment ••••••••••.••• . •• ••. ••.. ..•• 41 Frictional work ................. . ......... .... 38
Flat head countersunk screws, cross recessed ••• 217
Function block language (FBU ••••••.• •• . . 373, 374
Flat head countersunk 111pping screw •.••.••••.• 217
Function chans ••••••••••.•••••••...•••• 358-360
Flat steel bllr, bright ......................... 145
Function diagrams ...................... 361,362
Flat steel bllr, hoHolled • • • • • • • .. .. • • • • • • • • • • • 144
Fundamental deviations •••••••••••.•••••• •••. 102 Fundamental deviations for holes ••••••••••••• 105
Flip-nop elements ............. . ......... 350, 352 Flow rates .................................. 371
Fundamental deviations for shafts ••.•••.••••.. 104
FluorOCIIoutchouc IFKMI •• •.•.••••.••.••••••• 185 Fluted knobs • . . . . . • • • . • . . . . • • • . . . . . . . • • • • • • 249
Fundamental tolerance grades •••••• ...•.• 102, 103 Fundamental tolerances •••••..•••..••• .. .• •. • 103
Flux for brazing •..•....•...•••••..••••.• •..• 334
Fuses ..•..••••...•..•• •.• . ••..•.• •..•....• 356
G Gage pressure •.•••...••••••••.•.••••••••.••• 42 Gas cylinders, color coding . .................. 331
GRAFCET, graphical design language for sequential control ••.•..• .• •. •••. •• ••.• 358
Gas cylinders, identification .....•..•.... ••••• 331 Gas shielded me111l arc welding ••••.•••••• 325, 326
Graphical symbols for data processing . . . . . 403, 404 Graphs • .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. • . .. • • .. .. • . • 62, 63
Gas welding rods ....... .. .................. 324
Greek alphabet .. . ....................... ... .. 64
Gaseous materials, characteristics • . . . . • • • . . • • • 117
Grinding .. ................•........•... 308-311
Gear winch .......... ...... .................. 39
Grinding wheels. selection ••.•••.•••.. .. .•. . • 310
General tolerances .................. ........ 110
Grinding. cutting data
General tolerances, weldments . .. •......•...•• 322
Grinding. maximum allow11ble peripheral velocity • . 308
Geometric tolerancing ... .. .... .. .. ...... 112- 114
Grinding. prod1Jctive time • • • • • • • • • . . • • • . . . • . . 291
Geometrical areas. calculating • • . . . • . . . • • • • . 26-28
Grippers .. .. .. .. • . .. .. • • . .. . . .. • . • .. • . • .. • . 380
Geometrical areas, centroid .••...•..•. .. .. •...• 32 Geometrical areas. units ......... .............. 20
Grooved drive studs ••.•.•••••... •. ••.• ..•. . • 238 Grooved pins .. .. • . .. .. • • .. • . . .. • . . .. • . .. .. • 238
Gib-head keys ........ ..... .. .. ............. 239
Grub screws with thrust point • . . .. . . . .. .. . . .. . 248
••••••••••••••••••• 308, 311
Golden Rule of Mechanics .. . .. .. .. • .. . .. • .. 38. 39
H Handling systems. job safety ... •••••... . .•••• 380
Hardness limits ............................ ... 97
Hard milling ..... ..... .. .... ................ 293
Hardness penetration depth ............ ........ 97 Hardness specifications in drawings ••..•••••.... 97
Hard turning ....................... ..... . .. 293 Hardening •..•..•••.....• ... •.•.••..•.• 153, 154
Hardness test ........................... 188-195
Subject index
42 1
Subject index Hardness values, conversion table ••••••••••••• 194
He)(agonal fit bolts, heavy .................... 214
Hat ching, represenl81ion ....................... 73
Hexagonal steel bers, bright .. .. .. .. . • .. .. • .. . 145
Hat chings, mat erial dependent ..•••••.••••• ••• • 75
High-grade cast zinc alloys .. • .. .. .. . • .. .. .. • . 176
H&zardous gases and substances •..•••••••••.• 198
High-performance grinding ••••..••• . •••. ..•.. 3 11
Hazardous mat erials, gases ••.•••..••••••••••• 198
High-speed machining .. .. .. • .. • .. .. .. .. . . .. . 293
Hazardous substances .••.•.••..•••••..•• 198- 200
High-speed st eels ••••••..•••.••••••••• .• •. •. 135
Hazardous w ast e .•..• ..• •••••••. . •.•••.••• . • 197
High·speed steels, heat treatment •••..• •••.... 155
Headed drill bushings . . . ... ................. 247
High-temperature plastics • . • • • • • . • • • • . • • • . • • . 187
Heat fluK .............. . ............. ........ 52
Histogram . . . . . • • . • • . • • . • • • • • • . • • • • • • • . • • • • 277
Heat of combustion •.•••••••.•••.•••••.••••••• 52
Hoisting winch .•••••••••••••.•••. . .•. ..... . .. 39
Heat of fusion ................................ 52
Hold-down force in deep drawong operations •.•• 321
Heat of vaporizat oon • • . . .. • • . . • . . • • • • • • • .. • • • • 52
Hollow cylinder, surface area and volume ••••..•• 29
Heat transf er ................................. 22
Hollow taper shanks .. . • • .. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . 243
Heat transmission ................. ........... 52
Homogenizing anneal ••••••.•••••.•••••••••• 153
Heat tr&nsmission coeffident ...•••.•••••• •• •••• 52
Honing. cutting values ....................... 3 12
Heat treatment ....................... .. 153-157
Honing, productive tome .. .. .. .. . . . .. . • .. . . . • 289
Heat treatment information •••.•.••• •• ••••.•••. 97
Honing. selection of honing stones ..•••.•. .... 312
Heat treatmenl of st eels •••••. .. ....•.•••• 153- 157
Hooke's law ••••••.•••..•••..••• .•.••..•••..•• 36
Helical line, constructing .•... • .... .••..•.••••.• 61
Hot w o rk steels .............. ............ . .. 135
Helium cylinders, color coding • .• .•.••••..•••. 332
Hot work st eels. heat treatment •••.•••••. .•... 155
He)(adocimal numbering sys1em .... ••••• ••••. 401
HSC (High speed cutting) .. • . .. • . . .. .. . . .. . . . • 293
HeKagon he&d bolts & screws •...•.••• ••• 212- 214
Hydraulic drcuit symbols •• •• •••••.. •••• • 363, 364
HeKagon head bolts with reduced shank •••.•.•• 213
Hydraulic fluids ••.•••••••••• .. •••. • ••••••• .• 368
HeKagon head bolts, heavy .............. ..... 214
Hydraulic oils •..• •• .•••••• ••••.•• .••••. . •. .• 368
He)(agon nuts • • .. • • • • • .. • .. • • . .. .. • • • • • 228- 231
Hydraulic press ••.•••••••••.••••••••.•• ••... 370
He)(agon, constructing .. . ..................... 59
Hydraulics .............. ........ ....... 363-372
HeKagonal acorn nuts ... ..... ............... 231
Hydrostatic pressure ...••••• ••.• ••.•••••.••••• 42
HeKagonal fit bolts with long threaded stem •••• 214
Hyperbola, constructing .................. .... . 61
I, J l·beams, medium w idth ............ .. ........ 149
Injection pressure ................. ... ... .... 186
l·beams, w ide ••. •• •• • .. •••.••••...••••• 149, 150
Instruction list IL ........ . ............... 373, 375
1-controller .. . • . . .. . • . . .. • . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. 348
Interference fit .......................... .... 102
Ideal gas 18w ••••.... .... •. . ....•...••..•• •• •• 42
Intersection line, representation . ••• • •• •••.••••.• 73
Imperial threads ....................... . ..... 203
Involute curve, constructing •••.••••• . •.•.• . .•. . 61
Incline, dimensioning ............... . ......... 78
lA (isoprene rubber) • • • • . • • • • • • • • • . • • • • • • • • . • 185
Inclined plane ..... .................. ......... 39
Iron-Carbon phase diagram ••••• •••••••• • ••• .• 153
lnde)(ing ............ .. ....... ........ ...... 307
ISOfots ....... ... ... ................... 104-109
Industrial robots ..... .. ................. 378, 379
lsobutene-isoprene rubber • • • • • • • . • • . . . . . • . . . 185
lnen gas . . • . .. . .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. . .. . • • .. .. .. 325
Isometric projectioo •••••••.••.•.•••• •••.•.••. • 69
Inf ormation signs ...... .. ................... 341 Information technology ••.•••• • ••••. ••••• 401- 406
Job ti me ace. t o AEFA (German association for work time studies) .................... .. 282
Injection molding ...... . .... .. .... . . ..... ... 186
Jointing, productive time • . • .. . . .. .. • . • . . . . .. . 289
K Key s. feather keys, w oodruff keys • • • . . . • . • . • • • 239
Knurls . .. ..... •. .. . .. ...•••. .......•...... . . 91
Kinetic energy .••••..••••••••••••• •••••••••••• 38
Kryptoo cylinders. color coding • • • • . . • • . . . . . . . 332
Knurled nuts . . . • • . • • • • . . . . • . • . .. • . . . .. • • • .. 232
L Labels for hazardous goods .... .............. 331
laser beam cutting, dimensional t olerances . . . . • 330
Ladder diagram LAD .. .. . .. .. . • .. .. • .. .. .. .. 374
laser beam cutting, standard values ••••••••• • • 330
Laminate materials ..... .. .. .. .... . . ... .. .... 184
Latent heat of fusion .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. 116, 117
422
Subject i ndex
Subject index L Law o f cosines ••.••.. ....• . •• . . . . •• • •••.•.•.. 14
Lines in technical drawings . • • • • • • • • . • • . . • . • 67, 68
Law of sines •• . • • ••..•••• • ..•...••••.• •• .•••• 14 Leader lines • . .•••............. . .• . ...... .. .. 77
Lines, centroid •.••••• .. •• ...•.•.•.•••..•..••• 32 Liquid m aterials, characteristics ..••.•.••.•... . 117
Ledeburite • • • . • • • • • • • • • . . • • • • • • • • . . . . • • . • • . 153
Load cases . .... . ........... ... . ............. 43
Left-hand threads •.•••.. . ..••..••...•. •••••• 202
Load types . ...... ... ... .. ........ .. .. ....... 43 Lock nuts . ••.• . . •..•.•... . • .•..•......•• •• • 231
Length, calculating . . . • • • . . • • • • . • • • . • • • • • • • 24, 25 Length, effective ..••.•••••••••...• •• ••••..... • 25 Length, units .• .. . .. ..••••••. • . .•• ••• •• • .. •••• 20
Lock nuts for roller bearings . • • . • • . • • . . • • . • . . . 268 Lock washers for bolts and screws . . . . . . . . . . . . • 222
Lever •••.•.• . •.•• • .••• •. ..•• . ..• •..••• .. .•• . 37 Lever principle •• ••• . ..• • . . •••.•••••.•••.•..•• 37
Lock w ashers lor roller bearing slotted nuts • . • • • 268 Lock washers. slotted nuts ...... . . .. . . ... . . .. . 231 Lock wire lor screws ..••••...•...••..••...... 222
Lifting worlc ...• . ••• . •.•••.•....••••.•••...••• 38 Limit dimensions for threads •. ..• •• ...••.• •.• 208
Locki ng edg e washer ............... . ........ 222 Locking fasteners .. • .. .. . . .. • .. .. . • . . .. .. .. . 222
Limits • ... . ..... .. .. ... . .. •.. ••••.•.••.•••. 102 Linear expansion •••.••...••••.•••..••••... ••. 51
Lubrica nts .•.•..•..•.•.• . ••.••.•• • ..• • •.••• 272 Lubricating greases . .. .. . . .. . . • .. . • . .. . • • .. . 272
Linear function .. .. ... .... . .•. . ..... . . •• . ••• •• 16 Linear movements of CNC machines • . ..•• • 384, 385
Lubricating oils .......... . ........... .. .. .. . 271
M Machine capability .. . ....... ........ ........ 281
Melting temperature ....... .. .. ... ....... 116, 117
Machine hourly rates • . . • . . . . • • . • . . • . . . • . . • . . 285
Memory [f lip-flop) .. . • • .. . . . .. . .. . . . • . .. 350, 352
Machined plates for press tools and fixtures . . . . . 251
Metric ISO screw threads . • • . • • . . . . . . . . . • • • . • . 204
Machining coolants • . . • • . . . . • • • . . • . . . . • • • • . • 292 MAG (Metal active gas) welding. standard values 326
Metric tapers • . . . .. . . • .. . . . .. . . .. . • . . .. . 242, 243 MF (m elamine formaldehyde) resin .•••• . ••• • .• 181
Magnesium. cast alloys ••• . .. ••. •••. . ..••.... 172
Microstructures of carbon steel • • . • . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Magnesium, wrought alloys . .•..... . . .••••.•• 172
MIG (Metal-inert-gas) welding, standards . ... .. . 326
Magnetism .. . ... .••. . ••••••••... ••• ••••.•••• 22 Malleable cast iron ... . . . .... . ..... ... . . . 159, 161
Milling, cutting data .. . .... . ..... . .... . . .. ... 305 M illing, cutting force and cutting power . .....•• 300
Mandatory signs . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . • • • • . • • • • • • • • 340 Manufacturing costs • . . • • • . . . • • . . • • • . . . • • . . • • 284
Milling, cycles ace. to PAL (German association) • . • . • . . . . • . . . • . . . 392-400
Martens hardness ... .. ........ . ............. 194 Martensitic steels .• .• •••• . ••.• . ••••.• •.• .••• 137
Milling, problems ........ . ........ . .. .... ... 306
Mass moment of inertia ........ ... ... . ... ... .. J8
Milling, productive time .. • . . . .. . • .. .. . .. .. • .. 290 M inimu m clearance ••. •• . . ..••..• .. .... . •... 102
Mass. calculation . ... . . . .. . ..•. . ....•••. • . •••• 31 Mass, linear mass density and area mass density • • • • . . . . • . . . • . . . . . • . • . . . . 31, 152
M inimum dimension •.• • . . . . ........ . .. . •. .. 102
Material characteristics . . . .... .. ... . .... . 116, 117
Minimum quantity of machining coolant .. .. • .. 293
Material removal processes, productive time •••• 313 Material removal rate, standard values •.. . .•. • . 313
Module series for spur gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • 257 Modulus of elasticity . .. . . • .. .. • .. . . • .. .. • .. . . 46
Minimum engagement depth for screws . . ••• .. • 211 M inimum interterence •• • ...•• • .••. .. .. .. .. . . 102
Material science ... ... .. . . . .• . .. • ..... .. . 115-200
Molding materials, thermoplastic . . . . . • . . . • . . . . 183
Material testing . ..• .. ..•••.•••••••••• . •• 188- 195 Material testing, overview ..•. .. .... . ••. .. 188- 189
Molding materials, thermosetting .. ...... ... •. 184 Molecular groups .......... ........ ...... ... 119
Mathematical symbols . . . .. ..... . .......... . .. 19 Mathematics • .•.•..• • ...• .. ..• .• ... .... .. • 9-32
Morse taper • • • . . . • • . . • • . . . • . . • . . • . • . . . . 242, 243
Matrix materials for plastics . .. •• ...••. •. ..•.• 187 Maximum clearance . • . • . •• ...• •••••• ..• ••••. 102 Maximum dimension .• . . . • ..... • . ..• ..... . . . 102 Maximum interterence .... ................... 102 Mean value. arithmetical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. 278 Mean value. standard deviation chart • . . • . • • • • • 279 Mechanical strength properties .•• .. •. .. ..•• 44, 45 Mechanics, quantities and units ... . .. . . . . .•• 20, 21
Motion, accelerated •. . . •.•••.•. • •••• • • •• •• .•.. 34 Motion, circular ••. . •.. ... .• ... • .. •. . .. . . . . . . . 34 Motion. uniform ... .. •... . • • ... • .. .. • ... ..•• .. 34 Multiple start threads • .. . • . .. • .. .. . . .. .. . . .. . 202
Subject index
423
Subject index N NAND o pera tion ............................ 350 Narrow V·bells ............................. 254
NOR operation .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. 350 Normal d istribution .. .. .. .. . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. 278
Nassi·Shnelderman diagrams .•....•.•.•••...• 395 Needlo bearings .. • . .. . . . .. .. . .. . • . . .. . . . .. . 268
Normalizing .•....•.•••.•••...••.•...•.. 153, 154 NOT operation . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . 350
Neon gas cylinders. color coding ...... ....••.• 332 Net calorific valuo ...........•................ 52
Notched-bar impact bending tost ......••.. , .. . 191 NPSM threads . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . • . . . . 203 NPT threads . .. • • .. . . .. .. . . .. . . . . .. . .. .. . . .. 203
Nit riding .................. .... .... ......... 154 Nitridlng stee ls ............................ . 134
NPTF threads ..••...•..................... .. 203 NR (natural rubber) ..•.•••••...•....•........ 185 Numerical control technology .....•...•.. 381 - 400
Nit riding steels, heat treatment ...........•...• 157 Noiso ..................................... 344 Noise Protootoon Regulations (German) •••••..• 344
Nuts ............. ................ ..... 226-232 Nuts lor T·slots • .. • . • . . . . • • . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . 250 Nuts, designation .. .. .. .. • .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 227
Noise. d11meges to health •...•.. .•. ••..••••.• 344 Nominal d imens ions • . . • . . . . • • . . . . • • . . • .. . .. 102 Non-ferrous metals .................. ... 164- 176
Nuts. overview .......•. .••.....• ..••... 226, 227 Nuts, properly classes ....................... 228
Non· ferrous metals, m aterial numbers ..... 165, 174 Non·fcrrous metals . systematic designation . 165, 174
0 O·rlngs •.•.•..•.......... . ... . ............. 270
Orientation tolerance ..................... ... 113
Ohm's law . .................... .... ......... 53
Overhead .. .. .. .. . .. • .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. 284
Open loop control. general tenms .......... 346, 347 OR operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . 350
Oxygen cylinders, colo r coding . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . 332
p PA (polyamide) plastics .........•......•. 180-182 PAL drilling cycles (German association) ... ••..• 389
PI Cf>ropo
PAL m illing cycles !German association! ... . 392- 400 PAL turning cycles (German association! .•.. 389- 391 Parabola, constructing . .. .•.............•...... 61
Pillar presses .. . . .. .. . . .. .. .. .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. 252 Pins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236-238
Parallel circuit . ...... . .... . ............... •... 54 Paralle l dimensioning ..... . ............. . ..... 82
Pins. locating ..........•... • ........ .. .. . .. . 249 Pins, overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 Pins, seating .•.... . ......... . .. . ....... ... • . 249
Paralle logram area ... . ......................•• 26 Pareto diagra m ..•......•................... 281 Panial views in drawings ................. ..... 71
Pipe lines, identification • . . . . . . . . . • . . • . . . . • . . . 343 Pipe threads • . . . • • . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Piston speeds • . .. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . . . 371
Path Ootreclion in CNC machining . . . • . . • • • • . • . 383 Panems. color coding . .. . • . . • • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . 162
Plain bearing .. .. ....................... 261,262
PC lpolycarbonatel plastics ............•.. 180, 181
Plain bearing bushings . • . . • . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 Plain bearing materials • . . . . . . . . • • . . . • . . . . . . . 261
PC & ABS plastics ........................... 187 PC & PET plastics ... . ... ... ... .. .... . ......• 187 PO controller •......... . .....•..•.....• . .... 348
Plasma cuning, standard values ..•.•.. . .. •. . . . 329 Plastic prooessing, settings . .. .. .. . . .. .. .. . . . . 186 Plastic processing, tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
PE (polyethylene) plastics .. .. . ..... . ..... 180- 182 PE molding materials .. .. . . .. . . .. .. . . . .. .. .. . 183 Pearlite ............ .. . ... .•...... . ........• 153
Plastics .......... .. .......... . ........ . 179-187 Plastics testing .. . .... . ........... .... ... .... 195
Percentage, calculating .. . ..... . ............... 18 Periodic table ofthe elements . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . • . 118
Plastics, cuning .............• . •.... . ... . 301 -305 Plastics, distinguishing characteristics .......... 181 Plastics, hardness test • • . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Pf (phenol fonmaldehydel resin . .... . . . ....... 181 Pf PMC molding materials •......••.•..•....• 184
Plastics, identification ............. ... . ....... 181 Plastics, material testing ......... . .... .... . .. 195
Pf molding materials . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . 184 pH value ................. . ................. 119
Plastics. tensile load .................. .. ... .. 195 Plastics, thermal behavior . .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. . . .. 179
Pheno lic molding materials . . . . • . . . . . . . . • • . . . . 184
Plateau honing ...................... . .. .... 312
Phenolic plastic molding materials . . . . . . . . • • . . • 184 Physics .. ... . ... ... . ....... . . ...... • ...•• 33-56
Plates for pillar presses .. .. . . .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. 251 PLC. controls .. . .. .. . . .. . . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . 373- 377
424
Subject index
Subject index Pr~bility network • . . . . • • . . . • • . . . • . . . . • . . . . . 277 Process capability •••••••.•••.•..•........ . . . 281 Process steps .. .. • .. . .. • .. .. . . .. . . . .. .. . .. . . 280 Production COSts .. .. .. . . . .. . . . . . . .. .. . .. . . . . 284 Production engineering . . • . . . • . • . • • . . . . . • 273- 344 Productive time, countersinking . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . 289 Productive time, drilling .......... , .... . .. ... . 289 Productive time, g rinding ................ .. .. 291 Productive time, honing .................... . . 289 Productive time. material removal processes . . .. 313 Productive time, milling .. • .. .. .. .. . . . .. .. .. . . 290 Productrve tome, reaming • • • • • . . • • • • . . . . . . . . . 289 Productive time, thread aming . . . . • . . . . . • . . . . . 287 Productive lime, 1uming . . . .. .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . 287 Productive lime, lurning W1th V • consL •••.••• . 288 Program flow chan . .. .. . . .. . . .. . .. . .. .. . . .. . 404 Program structure of CNC machines ..... . .. ... 382 Programmable logic conlroiiPLCI .... . .... 373- 377 Prohibitive signs .. . . .. . . • .. . .. .. . . • . .. . .. . . . 338 Projec1ion methods . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . . . .. . . . 69, 70 Property classes o f bolts and screws . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Proportion, calculatmg •..•.......•.•. . ..... . . . 18 Proportional conuoller .......•....• , • . . . • . . . . 348 PrOieelive measures against dangerous currents . .. 356 Proximity sensors ........................... 355 PTFE ...................................181, 187 Pulley, fixed ........................... . ... . . 39 Pulley, movable ........................ ..... . 39 Pumping capacity .. ......... . ......... . .. .. . 371 Pumps, power .. . . . •......••..•.•..... . • .... 371 Punch dimensions .................. ...... .. 316 Punch holder shanks .... . ........... ........ 251 Punch holder shanks, loc111ion .. .. . . .. ........ 317 Punches . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . 251 PUR (polyurethane) foam •.•..•..•.. . . . . ... .. 185 PUR lpolyurethane) plaslics ..•.....•...•. ... . 181 Pure aluminum ................ . ..... . .. 164, 166 PVC (polyvinyl chloride) plastics .... ... . .. . 181, 182 PVC·P plastics (plasticized PVC! •.......•.. .... 182 Pyramid. slant height .•.•.............. ...... . 29 Pyramid, volume . .. .. . . .. . . . . .. . .. .. . . . .. . . .. 29 Pythagorean theorem ...•........... ....... . .. 23 Pythagorean theorem of heigh! . . . • . . . . . • . . . . . . 23
PLC. programming •.•....••...•...••.... 373-376 PLC. programming languages . . . • . • • • . . . . 373- 376 PMMA lpolymethylmethacrylatel plastics ..• 181, 182 Pneumatic circuit symbols •. . .....•••...•• 363, 364 Pneumatic cylinders, air consumption ••••••...• 369 Pneumatic cylinders, dimensions . . . . . • • . . . • . . . 369 Pneumatic cylinders, piston forces ....•.•.•.... 369 Pneumatics •....• . ..... . •.•........•... 362- 371 Polar coordinate system .•.........•....••.•... 63 Polar coordinates in drawings ..............•... 82 Polyblends ................•....•..•••...••. 187 Polyetherctherketone (PEEK) . . . . . • . • . . • • • • • • . • 187 Polygon. constructlng ......................... 59 Polygon, irregular ............................ 27 Polygon, regular .............................. 27 Polyimide (PII resin .... . ..................... 187 Polyoxidemethylcne (POM, polyacetall resin .• 181, 182 Polyphcnyleno sulfide IPPSI plastics ..•..•.••.. 187 Polystyrene plastics . .. ... .. .. .. .... . .... 180-182 Polysulfo ne iPSUI plastics .. .... . . ......... . .. 187 Position lolerances . . . .. .. . . . .. . . . .. .. .. . .. . . 114 Positional dimensions in drawings .•..•......•.• 81 Positional tolerances .. .. .................... 114 Potable water lines, identification marking ...••. 343 Potential energv . ............................. 38 Pour point .. . .... .. ........................ 368 Power factor ....... . ......................... 56 Power, electrical ............ .. ...•....•....••. 56 Power, mechanical ...... ... ... . ............... 40 Powers lexponentiationl .. . .. ... ............... 15 PP lpolypropylenel plastics .. .•. .. .•....•. 181, 182 PP mo lding materials .. ......... . . .... . .... . . 183 PPE & PS plastics .. .... .. ................... 187 Precision steel1ubes for hydraulic and pneumatic applications .................... 372 Precision steel tubes, seamless ........•••..•.• 142 Preferred numbers ........ .... ................ 65 Pressed joints, representation ... ........•...•• . 96 Pressure ............ . .. .. .... . .............. 42 Pressure intensifoer . . ... ... ... . .............. 370 Pressure units . . ... .... . ... ................... 42 Primary profile IP profile) ... .. ... .. . ........... 98 Prime cost .. ... . ... .. .. . . • ... •. . ..... . ..... 284 Probability . .. . . . .. . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. • .. . . .. • . . 276
a Quadratic function .. ....... • .... ....... . ...... 16 Quality and process capability ...•..••..•.••.. 281 Quality control . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . • . . . . • . . . 276 Quality control chan . .. .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. . 279 Quality control circle ... ... ... . ............... 276 Quality inspection and testing . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 Quality management . ... ... ... . . . .. ..•.. 274-281
Oualil)' management. definitions . . . . . . . • . . . . . . 275 Quality management, standards ..•.. ... .• ..... 274 Quality planning .. • . . .. • . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . . . 276 Quantity of heat ................... .. ... .. . .. . 51 Quenched and 1empered steels ...... .. . ..... . 133 Quenched a nd tempered steels. heatlreatmenl .. 156 Quenching and tempering ........ . ... .. . .. . .. 154
Subject index
425
Subject index R Robot axes ........................... . ..... 378
A-Phrases lnformatOfY notes on possible hazards and nslts. 11oc. to the German Hazardous Substances Regulations IGefStoffV) •••••••••• 199
Rockwell hardness test ..................... .. 193 Rod electrodes, designatron ••. . ••. . .••.•••. .• 327
Radial seals (rotary shaft seals! • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 270
Roller bearing fits ........................... 110
Radius .•••.••..••••••••••.•••••..• •••••.•••• 65
Roller bearings .. .. • . • .. • . . . .. • • .. . . . .. . 263- 268
Radius, dimensioning . ....... ................. 78
Roller bearings, designation ••••••••••••• •.... 264
Raisod head countersunk screws .. .....••.•••• 217
Roller bearings, dimension series •• •. •••.•••••• 264
Raised head countersunk tapping screws •••.••• 217
Roller bearings, overview •••••••••••••.• ..... 263
Raised he&d tapping screws .................. 218
Roller bearings, representation •• ••••••••••••••• 85
Random sample tests, 111tribute testing • • • • • • • • • 280
Roller bearings, selection .. • • .. .. .. .. • .. .. • .. 263
Random samples • • . • . . • • .. • • . .. . • • • • • • • • • • • 278
Rolling friction ............................... 41
Range (ol samples! .. .. .. .. • .. • .. .. • .. • .. .. .. 278
Roman numerals ...................... ....... 64
Rawdata .................................. 277
Roots, extracting •••••••••••••••••••••.••.• .. • 15
R11w dat a chart • . . • . • • . • . • • • • • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • 279
Rotation, kinetic energy ........................ 38
Reaming, cutting data . . . • . . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 302
Rough dimensions in drawings ••••..••• . .• •.• •• 81
Reaming, productive time .••• ••.•••.•••••.••• 289
Roughness depth in turning operations •••.•..• 303
Recommended safety measures •••••••.••••••• 200
Roughness parameters .•••...•••..••.. . • •••••• 98
Recrystallization annealing • • • • • • • • • • . • • • . . • • . 153
Roughness profile (A·prolilel . . •••..• •...••...•• 98
Rectangle, area ..•••• •.• .•. •. .•.•••. . ••• . •••.. 26
Round bar steels. bright •• •. •••• .. • ••. , . • • . • • . 145
Reference lines ..••..........•...•.•.••••••••• 77
Round bar steels, polished ............. ...... 145
Reference po1nts ol CNC machines .•.•..•••••• 381
Round steel bar, hot-rolled .••••••• •• •• ••• • .•• 144
Reinforcing fibers . .... ...................... 187
AS flip-flop ........••...•.....•..... . .•. 350, 352
Retaining rings .. .. .. .. . . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 269
Rubbers ................................... 185
Ret aining rings, representation •.••••••••••••••• 87
Rule-of-ten (for costS) . . . . • . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . • . . . 276
Rhomboid, area ........... .. .... .. .. .. ....... 26
Run-out tolerances • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 114
Rhombus. area ........... ... ................. 26
Running dimensioning •••••••.••.••••.•••..••. 82
s Saf ety colors .. ............. . ... ............. 338
Serrations, representation •.••••••• . •.• •••••..•. 87
Safety factors •..•••..••••••..•...••••••...•.•. 44
Set screws, hexagon socket •••••.•••.•••• ••• • . 220
Saf ety measures lor robot systems .. ••.••...••• 380
Set suews, slotted •. •..•.•••••• .•. • ...•.••••. 220
Safety signs .......... ..... .. ...... ..... 338- 341
Shape dimensions ........................ . .... 81
Sales price .. • . . . . . • • .. .. • • • • • .. • • .. • • • • • • • • • 284
Shear cutting Ioree .. .••••.•••.•..•.. ...... .• . 315
SAN (styrene-acrylonitrilel copolymers ..••• 181, 182
Shear cutting work ................ ..... ..... . 315
S8 (Styrene-but adiene! copolymers .. . • 180-182, 187
Shear load ...... ................... .......... 46
SBA (Styrene-butadiene! rubber . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . 185
Shear strength ............................... . 46
Scales ....................................... 65
Shear stress .................................. 46
SCAAA robots .. • • • • • • • .. • • • • • • • • . • • • .. • • • • • • 379
Shear test . ................................ . 191
Screw joints, calculation • . .. . . . • • . .. • • .. • • • • • • 221
Shearing ..... .................... ... . .. 316, 317
Screw joints, representation .• ......• •..••.•..•• 90
Shearing, design of press ........... .......... 315
Screw thread standards of various countries ••••• 203
Shearing, die dimensions ..... .. . .... .. . .... .. 316
Screw threads ....... ........ ........... 202- 208
Shearing, edge width ......... . ............... 3 16
Seals, representation ...................... .... 86
Shearing,edgewidth ......... . ........ ...... . 316
Second moment olinertia ...................... 49
Shearing, location of clamping pin ••••...•..••• 317
Sectional views ................. ........... 73, 74
Shearing, punch dimensions .....•. . ••.••.. ... 316
Sections, comparison of load capacity •.•••••••••• 50
Shearing, utilization of strip stock •••..•.•.. .... 317
Selection of fits .............................. 111
Shearing. web width .... .............. ....... 316
Sensors ................... .. ............... 355
Sheet and strip metal, overview .......... ...... 139
Sequential charts ............................ 359
Sheet metal. cold-rolled ...... .... ...... ...... 140
Sequential control ................... .358. 360, 367
Sheet metal, hoi-dip galvanized . . . . . • • . . . . . . . . . 141
Series circuit ............. .. ................... 54
Sheet metal. hot-rolled .............. ......... 141
Serrated lock washers ........................ 222
Sheet. hOI·dip galvanized . .. .. • .. . . . . . .. .. .. . . 141
426
Subject index
Subject index Shewhllrt quality control chart • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 279 Shore hardness test •••••.••••••.•••••••••.••• 195 Shrinkage •••••••••••... ... .••••••.••••••••••• 51 Shrinkage etlowances •••••.•.•..•••••••••••• 163 Shrinkage chucks •.••••••••••.••••••••..•••• 243 Sl quantities and units .••.. . •••.•••..•••••••••• 20 Silicone rubber (SIR) . ........ . ......... . ..... 185 Simple Indexing ........ . ... .. .............. 307 Sino •••...•••.••••.•••. . •••..••••••••.••• 11. 13 Simored metals •••••••••••••••••.•••••.••••• 178 Size factor .. • . • • .. • • • . • . . • .. • . • .. . • • .. • • • • • . 48 Sliding fri<:tion ............................... 41 Slip type jig bushong ......................... 247 Slot tenons ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 250 Slo15, dimensioning ........................... 79 Software con1rollers ......................... 349 Soldering ••••.• • ••••••.••••••••••.••••••••• 335 Solders • • . . • • . . • • • . . • . • • • . • . • . • • • • • • • • . 333. 334 Solid lubricants .. • . • • . • • .. .. • . • .. . .. • .. . .. • . 272 Solids, characteristics ..•••• • ••...•••.•••• 116, 117 Sound level • • • . • • . • • . • . . . • • • . • . • . . • • • . . • • • • 344 Sound, definitions • . • • . . • • • • • • . . . .. . • • • • • • • • • 344 SPC (statistical process control) . . . . • • . . • . • • • • • 279 Special characters, CNC machines ••••••••••••• 382 Special characters, computers •••••••••••••••• 402 Speciroc cuning force standard values •..••.•••• 298 Specific heat .......... . ................. 116, 117 Speed graph ............................... 260 Speeds of machines • • •••••••••.•••••••••••••• 35 Sphere, dimensioning .. ... .. ... . .............. 78 Sphere, surface area and volume .. ••..•.••••••• 30 Spherical segment, surface area and volume .•.•• 30 Spherical washers • • • • • • • . . . • • • . . . . . • . • • . . . • . 250 Spiral, construction ........ . .................. 60 Spllned shaft joints .......................... 241 Splines, representation ........................ 87 Spreadsheets ............................... 406 Spring back in bending . .... . ................ 319 Spring force ................................. 36 Spring lodt washers • . • .. • . . . . • . . .. • . . .. .. • • . 222 Spring pins • . • • • • • • • • . • • • . • .. • • • • • • • • • .. • • . 237 Spring rate . • • • • • • . . • . • . • • .. . • • . . • • • • • • . 244, 245 Spring steel wire . . • . . . . • • . . . • • . . .. • • • . • . . . • . 138 Spring steel, hot-rolled ... . .. .. . ......... . ... . 138 Spring washers • • • • . • • . . . . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . 222 Springs, representation . ••..... . . . . •........••• 87 Springs: tension, compression, disk . .. ..•. 244-246 Sprockets, representation . . ..... . .............. 84 Spur gears, calculating • . . . . . .. • . • .. • • • • . . 256, 257 Square prism, area ........ . . . ................ 29 Square prism, volume . ... ... .. .. . ..... . ....... 29 Square root ...... . .. .. ..... . ............. 10, 15 Square steel bar, hot-rolled • . . . . • . . • . .. .. .. . . . 144 Square, area . ..... . . .... ... . ... . ............. 26
n
Square, dimensioning ......................... Stainless steels •••••••••••••••••••••••.• 136, 137 Standard deviation .. .. • .. .. .. • .. .. • . .. • . . .. . 2'78 Standardization, regulation body . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Star knob . . . . • . • . . . . • • • • • • • • • • • • . • . • . . . . . . . 249 Static friction ....................... . ...... . . 41 Statistical analysis • . .. • • . • . .. . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . 2n Statistical process control • • • • • . . • • . . • • • • . . • • . 279 Steel bars, bright • • • . . • • • • • • • • . • • • • • • • • • . . • . • 145 Steel bars, hot-rolled • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • • • • 144 Steel channel • • • • • • • • • • • .. • • • . • • • • • • . • • • • • • • 146 Steel sections. hot·rolled • .. • .. • .. .. • .. • .. .. .. 143 Steel sheet ............................. 139-141 Steel tubes ... . ......................... 142, 372 Steel tubes, hot·rolled •••••••••••••.•••.••••• 151 Steel tubes, seamless .. • .. .. .. .. . • .. • . .. • 142, 372 Steel tubes, welded ......................... 151 Steel wire for springs, patented drawn •••..••• . 138 Steels for name and induction hardening • • ..••. 134 Steels, alloying elements .............. .. . ... . 129 Steels, classification ........................ . 120 Steels, identifiCIItion codes .••••••••••.•.. 122-125 Steels, num bering system ••••••.••••• • ••••••• 121 Steels, overview • • . . . • • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . 126, 127 Steep tape< shanks . . . . . . • • • • • • • • • • . • • • . • • . • • 242 Strength of mat.erials • .. • • .. • .. • .. .. .. • • .. . 43- 50 Stress concentration •••••••••••••••••...•... . . 48 Stress limits ••.•••••••••••••••••••.••••...••. 43 Stress relief anneal ...................... 153, 154 Stress. allowable ........................ . . 41, 48 Strip steel, cold-rolled ....... . .. . .... . ... 139, 140 Strip stock utilization in shearing •• ••. • .••...•• 317 Structural steels. carbon •...•••..• • .••• • .• ••• 130 Structural steels, quenched and tempered . . •. . • 131 Structural steels. selecting •••••••••• • ••.• • 128, 129 S1ructural tee steel, equal legs • • • • • • • • • . . . • . . . 146 Structured tex1 (ST) •.•••••..•••••.•.••• • 373, 374 Stub-Aane screw threads .. • • • • • . . . • . • . . • . . . . 203 Studs . .................................... 219 Sub-dividing lengths ......................... . 24 Surface profile .......................... . ... . 98 Surface areas. calculation . • . • • . . . . • • . . • . . . . 29, 30 Surface condition factor ............ . ..... ..... 48 Surface finish ..................... . ....... ... 99 Surface indications ... .. ....... . . ... . .... . 99, 100 Surface pressure, stress ••.••.••.•• .• • ...•.•... 45 Surface protection •••••••••••.•.• • •.••. • . ••• 196 Surface roughness, attainable ••.•...•... .. •• .. 101 Switching controllers ...................... .. 349 Symbols. mathematical ••• . •.. . ..• . .•••. . • • 19-22 Syrochronous belts .. • .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. • 255 Synchronous pulleys ............. .. .. .... . .. 255 Systems for rots . .. .. . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . . .. .. . . . 103
427
Subject index
Subject index T T·slots ..••••.•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 250 Tally sheet 2n Tangent .•••••••••.•••••.•.•.•••••••••.•••••• 12 Top hole diameter for tapping screws .•••••••• . 218 00
•
00
00
•
00
00
•
00
00
•
00
•••
00
••
00
00
Three-phase power ..... Three-point controller .......... , ......... Thrust pads 00
••
0
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
00
•
•
00
•
•
. . . . . . . 00
•
•
•
•
•
litle block in drawings . Tolerance class ................... 00
Tap holes. drill •••••••...•.•• . •••..••••.•••.• 204 Taper pins . . . . • • . • • • • . . . • • • . . • . . . • • • • • • • • . . 237
00
••
00
••••
•
00
•
•
•
00
•
•
56 349
00
00
00
•
•
•
•
248
..........
66
102 Tolerance grade ••••••••. . •••.••••• , .••.. .••. 102 Tolerance lnd~ations in drawings •••• , •••••. . • • . 80 Tolerancesofform •• o o o o o o o o o o • o o • • • o o • • o o • o 113 Tolerances of POSition 114 Tolerances, dimensioning •••••••••• 80 Tolerances. ISO system 103
Taper turning . . ••• . •••.. . .•• . ..•...•••••••.• 304 Tapered keys . . • • • • • • • . . . • • • • • • • . . • • • • • • • • • • 239 Tapered roller bearings . ••• oo oo • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 267 Tapered threads • • • • . • . • • • • • • • • • . • • • • • • • • • • 205 Tapers, dimensioning •••••.•• 78 00
•
•
00
00
00
00
Tapers, nomenclature .••..••• 304 Tapping drill holes, diameter ••••..•..••••••••• 204
•
0
••
00
•
00 . . . . 00 . . . . 00 . . 00
0
•••••••••••••••
00
00.
00
•
00
0
0
•••
••
00
0
0
••
0
0
00
•
0
0
Tool holders for inde)(able tnserts • • • • • . • . . . • • . . Torque ..•.•... Torsion, loading • Total run-out tolerances •.•.••....•.. . ••.••••.
00 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0
••
297
Thermodynamic temperature (Kelvin! ••••••••.•• 51 Thermodynamics 22. 51 , 52 Thermoplastics 179, 182, 183
37 47 114 Transformers ••••••• . •••.•••••.•••.•.• • • . •• • . 56 Transition fir 102 Transmission ratios • • • • • . . • • . . . • • . . • • • . . • • • . 259 Trapezoid, area •.•••. . ••••••••. . ••• . • . • . • .•.•. 26 Trapezoidal screw threads .•••••••••••••.•• . •• 207 Triangle, area ••••••.•••••••••••• •• •••••. ••• •• 26 Triangle, constructing circumscribed circle •.. 60 Triangle. constructing inscribed circle •••••••••... 60 Triangle. equilateral ..•..••.••••••• 27
Thermoplastics, amorphous •••••••••••••••••• 179 Thermoplastics, semi~alline •••••••••••••• 179
Truncated cone, su rface area and volume •••••••• 30 Truncated pyramid, volume •••••.••.••••••• ••. • 30
184 179 287 218
Tubes •••••••.•....••••••.•••••••..••.• 142, 151 Turning cycles •. 388- 391
0
Tapping screw threads 202 Tapping screws 217, 218 Technical drawing •••.••••• • ••••••••••••• 57-114 00
00
00
00.
00
00
00 . . . 00 . . 00
00.
00.
00
00
•
00 . . .
00 . . . 0 0 .
Temperature ... . .• . . ... ..•.• . . . ..•••• 51 Theorem of Intersecting lines •...•••••.••...•••• 14 Thermal conduction . .••. ••. .• . •.•.•..••..••••• 52 0
•••• 0
••
00
Thermal conductivity, definition ..•.•••.•.•••••• 52 Thermal conductivity, values ••••••••.••••• 116, 117
00
00 . . 00 . . . 00 . . . 00
00
00
00.
00 . . . . . . . . . 00
•
00
00.
00 . . . 00 . .
oo
00.00
00
..
0
.
00
•
0
00
00
•
•••
00
00
••••
00
•
00 . . . . . 0
. . . . . . . . 00 . . .
00
00
••
•
00
00
•
0
. . 00
Thermoset molding materials •..•••.•••••••••• Thermoset plastics • Thread cunlng, productive time ••••••••••••••• Thread forming screws •• • ••• .• •••.••••.•••••
••
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••
00
0.
0
••
0
•••••••••••
•
•
•••••
••
•
•
•••
••
0
•
•••
Turning with v= const.. productive rime • •.. ••.. 288 Turning, cuning data . 303 Turning. cuning force and cuning power • 298 Turning, cycles ace. to PAL (German association) ••..••••••.••.. • • 388- 391 00
Thread molding, cuning data • . . . • • • . . • • . . . . • . 302 Thread runouts .•••• . • • .• . •••••••• • •••••.••••• 89 Thread topping, cuning data ............. 302 Thread tolerance •.•.•••. ... .•• . • 208 Thread types, overview ••..•••••••••••••• 202. 203
00
00
••••
00
•
•
00
•
•
00
•••
0
•
0
0
•
0
0
00 . . .
0
Thread undercuts .. Threads, dimensioning •• 0
•
•
•
•••
00 •
•
•••
•• •
•
0
Turning, problems •.•.•.•.••.•••••.•. . .• .. • 306 Turning, pmductive time • 287 0
••••••••
••
•
00
•
•••
0
•
00
Turning, roughness depch •
89
Types of adhesives
79 Threads, multiple start . •. 202 Threads, representation . . 90 Three steps for direct proportions ••••••••••••••• 18 Three·phase current . . . . .. ... ................. 55 0
.....................
0
•
0
00
00
00
•
00
00
00
00.
00
00.
00.
00
00
00.
00
••
00
00
•
•
00
••
•
00
•
00
00
•
0
00
00
303
00
336
00
00 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
•
••
0
.....
0
0
••
0
.......
u UF (urea formaldehyde) resin •••..••• • ...• 180, 181 UF molding materials •• ..•.. ...•••.•••.•••••• 184 UF PMC molding materials UF/MF-PMC plastics
o.
0
0
0
00
0
0
•••
..
•
..
00
00
00 . . . . 00
•••••••••••••••
UNC screw threads ....... Undercuts •.••••••••• . •. • • . ••••••••••• 00
UNEF screw threads . UNF screw threads Unit prefixes
0.
0
0
0
0
00
0.
0
0
0
0
00
..
00
0
00 00
0
0
0
•
0
0
0
00
.
0
.
0
0
00 . . . . . .
•
0
00.
00
0
00.
00
••
0
0
••
0
0
00 . . .
00
0
.
0
•
••
••
00
00.
00
...........
•
184 184 203 92 203 203 •
17, 22
Units of measurement •••..••.•••• •. ••. •• • ••. 20 UNS screw threads .. 203 0
00
•
00
00
•
00
UP (unsaturated polyester resin)
•
00
0
•
•
•
•••
00
••
00
0
•
0
•
0
•
•••
180, 181
UPVC (unplasticized polyvinyl chloride! •• . • 181, 182 Urea fonnaldehyde molding materials ••. .•••.. 184 Urea{melamine IO
0
0
0
0
00
•
0
•••••••••••••
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
184
Utilization time ace. to REFA (German association for work time studies) •.• 283
428
Subject index
Subject index v V1scosity grade ............................ . 271 VISCOSity, kinematic • • . • . . • • • . . • • . . . • . • . . • . . . 368 Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . • . • . • . . . 53. 54 Vohage drop •.••••..•.....•••.•.. . .•..... .. .• 54 Volume of compound solids •..•... .• .•.. ....... 31 Volume. calculaling . ......... . •.. . . . .. .. . .... . 31 Volume, units ........................... .. .. . 20
V·bolt , , ••.•.•..•....... .. ..•.......... 253, 254 V·belt pulleys . . . • . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . 254 Variable costs ......... . .... . ............... 286 Velocity ••. . ... . ..... .. •. . .... . ..•....... 34, 308 V1bration tost ••.. . .•• .. ..•. . . . . . ...........• 222 Vickers hardness test .. .. . .. .... . •........ . .. 193 Views in drawings .... .. ........ . .......... 71, 72
w Welding pOSotlons ........................... 322 Welding, general tolerances .•.•••.•...•• . ... . 322 White cast iron .................... .. .. .... . 159 Widths across Rats. dimension series . ..•.... . • 223 Widths across Rats. dimensioning ............ . .. n Wire electrodes .. . ....................... ... 325 Wire, electrical . .•..•.. . .•....•.• . ....... .... 353 Woodruff keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . • . 240 Word processing . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . 405 Work. electrical .........•........ . .. .. . . . ..... 56 Work. mechanical ....•.............•..... . . ... 38 Worm drive. calculating ................ .. .. .. 258 Worm drive, transmission ratio . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . 259 Wrought aluminum alloys, designation .•....•. . 165 Wrought aluminum alloys, heat treatable . ... .. . 167 Wrought aluminum alloys, matenal codes . . . .. • 165 Wrought aluminum alloys, non-he at treatable . . . 166 Wrought capper-aluminum alloys 176 Wrought copper-nickel-zinc alloys .... . .... .. . . 176 Wrought titanium alloys •.......... .... . ... .• 172
Warning signs . . . . .. . • . . • . . . . . .. . . .. • • . • .. . . 339 Washers ............................... 233- 235 Washers for cap screws . . . • • . . • • . . . . .. . . . • • . . 234 Washers for channels and 1-beams . . . . . . . . . • • • . 235 Washers for clevis p4ns . . . • • . . .. . . . . • . . . . • • . . 235 Washers for hexagon bolts and nuts . . . . • • . 233. 234 Washers for steel st ructures • . ........•... 234. 235 Waste Disposal Act (Germani . •............... 197 Web width in s hear cutting . .... .. ............ 316 Wedge as en Inclined plane .... . . .............. 39 Weight . .... . .• . ..... .. •. ... ... ... . . ......... 36 Weld design for a rc welding ....•.....•.•..•.• 328 Weld nuts, hexagonal . . .. .. .. .. • .. . .. .. .. .. .. 232 Weld preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . • . . . • . • • . • . . 323 Weldable fine-grain structural steels ..•...•••.. 131 Welding ............ . ... ... . . .......... 322- 330 Welding and soldering, dimensioning •.•...•• 95, 96 Welding and soldering, graphical symbols ...• 93- 95 Welding and soldering, representation ... . .•• 93- 95 Welding fillers for aluminum . . •. .. ......••.... 326 Welding methods . ...... . .... . .. .. ... ....... 322
X Xenon cylinders. color coding . . . . . . • . . . . . • • • . • 332