$
= proponion of the population
p
=
q
=1.0- p
proponion of the sample
t = statistic of the t distribution for (n-1) degrees of freedom and the probabiliry defined by the subscript
n = number of observations
a = 1.0 - confidence coefficient
IPii
The term ..J-;;- is defined as the standard error of the estimate fo~ the proportion. Exhibit Cl2 provides rypic:J. values of the t statistic for the various degrees of freedom and for selected levels of a. The determination of the sample: precision for proponions or percentages is very similar in procedure and interpretation to the situation for the mea~ of a sample discussed previously. & an example of a percentage estimate, 400 drivers were randomly sampled in regard co their location of em lo en..::=
IPii
0.3. 0.7
and 120, or 30 percerit, reported they worked dowmown. The term' -In is calculated as L.960 times 400 a5 the precision of the percentage estimate for a confidence coefficient of 95 percent. That is, the estimate of 30 pero:n C:: is subject to a possible sampling error of :t4.5 percent, and the upper and lower limits of the percentage escimatear~ expressed as 25.5 «I>< 34.5 with a confidence of95 percent.
Appendix C • 531
4.3 Significance Testing Analyses ace often concerned with whether the difference in average values between rwo sets of sample data is statistically significant or merely due to chance variations that result from sampling. Significance testing is a valuable way to address those conarns. For instance, cerrain improvements might reduce the average parking duration from 40 min. to 30 min. The analyse must decide whether this reduction is really significant or is due to chance alone, and significance testing can help in that decision.
If rwo samples of data are taken from the same population, there will probably be a difference between the averages of these two samples. This d.iffercnce would be due to chance alone. A greater number of observations probably provides a smaller chance error, and hence a smaller difference berween the study averages, because the same population is being sampled. However, if rwo studies are made at different locations where conditions ace not identical, the two populations will have different mean values. This difference, added to the chana variation between the two studies, equals the to~ observed difference between the means of the two studies. Because differences between pairs of sample means from a given population occur only due to chana error, these differences are subject to the laws of probability and follow' a normal rurve. Any difference that is large enough to &II at an extreme point on this curve is not within the realm of chana error and represents a significant difference. The signifoanu urt for equality or inequality of the means of rwo populations with unequal variances is based on samples of 30 or more observations for each population. For smaller samples, nonpararneuic tests arc more appropriate as discussed in section 4.4.
4.3.1 RJng Sample D11t11 t:or raw data samples of individual observations, a test statistic for large samples (n:>30) is determined by the following formula: i l-iz
r== z 2 !1.+!1.
t=
nl
Equation C-8
Dz
where = statistic of the t distribution
X1.
= mean of first sample
x
a
s1
= SWldard deviation of fitst sample
11
•
mean of second sample
standard deviation of second sample
n1 = number of observations in first sample ~
• number of observations in second sample
The computed value oft is then compared with the aitical tvaluc (t), as obained from Exhibit Cl2, to determine the significance of the difference between the two sample means. The value oft, is selected in accordance with the specified level of significance (a). The value of 0.05, corresponding to 95 percent confidence, is often chosen as the lc:vd of significance, although an a of 0.0 1 to 0.10 is within the proper range for most evaluations of uansportation data.
If ~c computed value (either positive or negative) oft is greater than t? the d.iffercnce between the two means is considered significant and not due just to chana variations alone. When the calculated t value (either positive or negative) is less than the critical t value, the difference berween the two means is defined as nonsignificant and due to chance
variation alone.
,4.3.2 Proportions
.
~alysts p~rform significance t~ting for the difference b~tween two proportions or percentages in a similar manner bccept chat they us~ the following ~quation to compur~ the t statistic.
' Pt-P>
t=
~
1)
Equatio n C-9
-/ Poqo {f. + n2
where: t
= statistic af th~ t distribution
p1
= proportion observed in first sample
p1 = proportion observed in second sample n 1.
= number of observations in first sample
n1
•
number of observations in second sample
p0 = (p1n1 + p1 n.) I (n1 + n.) 'lo = l.O - Po Either proportional or percentage valu~ may be used in Equation 9 for p md q.
4.3,3 &mnples The following aample is presented to illusttate significance testing. Under old parking regulations, a srudy s howed 185, or 28.5 percent, of 648 vehicles were parked overtime. After new parking regulations were adopted, a similar srudy revealed that 119 of 512 vehid~ or 23.2 percent were parked overtime. Th~ weighted average, pO' of the cwo 28.5 X 648 + 23.2 X 512 percentag~ is first calculated as 648 + 512 or 26.2 percent, md 'lois equal to (100.0- 26.2) or 73.8 percent. The various valu~ are now inserted in Equation C-8 to determine the calculated value oft as (28.5 - 23.2) divided by the square root of 262 x 73 ·8 • (~ + or 2.038. The critical t value is obtained from Exhibit C 12 as 1.960 for a significance levd of 5 percent. Because t is larger chan t1 the difference between the two percentag~ is significant, and the new parking regulations appear to be effective in reducing overtime parking. An example for nonproportion data is given in section 6.
s!V
4.4 Nonparametric Tests Significance resting requires large samples sdeaed from a nonnal population and requi= numerical data. However, nor all transportation study data meet these requirements. When this is the case, various nonparametric signi6cmcc t~ts are available for evaluating the srudy r~ults. Th~c distribution-free t~ts are particularly convenient when the sample size is small md/or the data are qualit;ltive rather chan numc~cal. The following example illusttat~ the use of a nonparametric rank-order correlation ~c to see whether the speeds of veJ¥cles on two freeways with greatly differing traffic volum~ arc independent of each other. The average vehicle speeds shown in Exhibit C 13 were recorded at seven randomly ~eaed locations on each freeway. The speeds for each freeway have been ~ from 1 for the highest to 7 for the lowest. The differen~ between the rank3 have been calculated, squared and totaled. The tat Statistic is computed as follows:
Appendix C • 533
1$ = 1- 6'J;df n(n2- l)
Equation C-10
where: r, = Spearman rank-order correlation coefficient ~ =
n
difference becween samples
= number of measurement pairs
Critical values for r are given in Exhibit C- 14. Any calculated value greater than the critical value in absolute value is a statistically significant indication of independence.
Freeway 1
Freeway2
Freeway 1, X
Freeway2,
y
534 • MANUAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING STUDIES, 2ND EDITION
Difference
d =X-Y
dl
·~o.i))~~~·~t@f~-· ·. ~.~i.~?!!}""£¥~+.-':t~~~¥t:;:~ ;>-=-- ~---- .-:no:~~-~~r~~~;;::§ Significance Level N
0.100
0.050
0.010
5
0.900
1.000
1.00 0
6
0.8 29
0.886
1.00 0
7
0.714
0.786
0.929
8
0.643
0.738
0.88 1
9
o.600
0.700
0.83 3
10
0.564
0.648
0.794
11
0.536
0.6 18
0.818
12
0.497
0.591
0.780
13
0.475
0.566
0.74 5
14
0.457
0.545
0.716
15
0.441
0.525
0.689
16
0.425
0.507
0.666
17
0.412
0.490
0.64 5
18
0.399
0.476
0.62 5
19
0.388
0.462
0.60 8
20
-o.3n
0.450
0.59 1
21
0.368
0.438
0.576
22
0.359
0.428
0.562
23
0.351
0.418
0.54 9
24
0.343
0.409
0.537
25
0.336
0.400
0.526
26
0.329
0.392
0.515
27
0.323
0.385
0.505
28
0.317
0.377
0.496
29
Q.311
' 0.370
0.487
30
0.305
0.364
0.478
-
-
-
,--!
~
--
--
-
-
~
-
-
--
---
--
Substituting the example data in Exhi>r C-13 in Equation C9 gives a coefficient of. r,
=1 -
6x20
( _ ) 7 71 1
=1 -
0.36 = 0.64
The crirical r, value is obtained from Exhlbit Cl4 as 0.786 for a significance level of 5 ptrcmt and n = 7. Since c]::JL<: calculated r, is less chan the critical value, it may be concluded chat speeds on the rwo freeways are dependent (that i.5• are related to each other). Numerous other nonpararneuic rests are available for use when uansponacion data are nor suitable for the cbssic~ Statistical tests and only one has been presented here. Complete explanations and illustrative examples of the proc~ dures may be found in Taylor and Young (1998) and Washington ec al. (2003).
Appendix c
• 53~
5.0 CALCULATION AIDS Data analysis and evaluation may be greatly &.cilitated by the usc of calculators and computers. Simple sciencific calculators have built-in programs for calculating descriptive statistics such as means, standard deviations and variances, while more advanced calculators can be programmed to perform more complex statis~ical testS. Notebook-sized, battery-powered computers may be used to collect and analyze data at field locations and/or store data for later office analysis. Desktop personal microcomputers are available to most engineers and numerous statistical packages are available for use on these. Many of these packages have been developed specifically for engineering usc and include graphical capabilities. Specialized computer programs for analyzing the results of transportation studies are available from commercial sources, government agencies and user groups. Similarly, most commercial data collection equipment is typically shipped with a software program allowing basic statistical analysis. Exhibit C-15 shows a simple frequency dUgram and descriptive statistics for the spot-speed study data ofExhibit C-1 that was produced by a typical statistical analysis program and desktop microcomputer/printer.
Histogram of SPEED Mldpolat
Count
33.~
0 2 2 4 9 8 15
35.5 ~7.5
39.5 41.5
43.5 45.5 47.5 49.5 51.5 53.5 55.5 ~1.5
SPEED SPEED
10
7 ~
3 1 0 N 66 MIN 35
N=a"
••
•• ...... •••••••••
.......... ••••••••••••••• ........... ••••••• ••••• •••
•
MEAN 45.5 MAX
MEDIAN ~.s
STDEV 4.43
~s
Measures of central tendency and variability are also readily calculated in spreadsheet software using built-in functions in Microsoft Excel such as MEAN(a-z), MEDIAN(a-1.), MODE(a-1.), MIN(a-z), MAX(a-1.) and STDEV(a-z), where (a..z) corresponds co the range of cells containing the sorted or unsorted data. Microsoft Excel also allows the analyst to conduct basic Hests and other tests of signifi=:tce as pare of its analysis tool pack. The reader should consult the sofrware documentation to become familiar with these procedures.
6.0 REPORTING RESULTS The results ofstatistical analysis are presented in the form of tables or graphs as discussed earlier in this chapter. Depending on the application, specialiud display methods are available co show measures of both central tendency and variability in an dlicienr form. Exhibit C 16 shows a table with mean observations, as wdl as the standard deviation of multiple (hypothetical) samples of~peed observations coUeaed before and after the installation of the same tcaHic calming treatment at multiple locations. The standard deviations may be shown in a smaller font as appropriate. The sample sizes are shown in the column headings, providing all necessary input to perform statistical testS of significance. The exhibit highlights the effect oflow sample siz.c. While the speed impact of this (hypothetical) aeatmenc was reduced by 1.3 mph (2.1 km/h) for both sites 2 and 3, that d..ifference is not significant at site 2 due to a low sample siz.c. "",; a MANIIAI nF TRAN<;P()RTATI()N FNiiiNFFRINii ~TIIIIIF~. 2ND EDITION
In anorher application, Exhibit C-17 shows resultS of multiple simulation scenarios. For each (hyporhetical) scenario, borh rhe mean and standard error of travel time are shown, calculated from multiple iterations or runs. This form of display allows rhe user to visually compare rhe performance of two scenarios, while acknowledging the variability in rhe estimate. The c:xh.ibit shoWs ~ both scenarios 3 and 4 result in a low uavd time along the tested corridor. However, rhe error bars show the variabiliiy across runs is less for scenario 4. So, while scenario 3 results in the lowest ove~ mean, soenario 4 may be preferred since it also enhances uavd time reliability.
Travel Time Comparison
~
I
1
!
Error Bars at one StandardErrcrfrom lOiteratiCll"lS
45
~====--~:_~
======~--
40+---------------------------------------~
3P 30 25 20 15 10
5 0 Scenario1
Scenario2
Scenario3
Scenario4
ScenarioS
Appendix C • 537
7.0 REFERENCES Greenshields, B. D. and F. M. Weida, revised by D. L Gerlough and M. J. Huber. Statiuits with Applicariomto Highway Tra.ffit Annf];es, 2nd ed. \X'estpon, CT: £no Foundation for Transportation, Inc., 1978. Meier, K. J. and J. L Brudncy. Appli~d St4Jittia for Puh/ic AdministT1JrWn, 5th ed. Belmont, CA: Thomson ~Wadsworth, 2002. Moore, D. S. and G. 0 . McCabe. Introduction to the Practiu ofSratistia, 5ch ed. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company, 2006.
Taylor, M. A. P. and W. Young. Tra.ffit Analy1is: Ntw Tt:chnol
538 • MANUAl OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING STUDIES, 2ND EDITION
Appen d ix D ·:
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••
Supplemental Material on Communicating Data Origimd By: Dtnma C Nelson, Ph.D., P.E. H. Douglas Robertson, Ph.D., P.E.
Edited By: Bastian]. Schroeder, Ph.D. RobertS. Foyle, P.E. 1.0 INTRODUOION
540
2.0
DESIGN OF GRAPHICS
540
2. 1 Section Overview
540
2.2 Graphics Design
540
2.3 Tables
542
2.4 Types of Chart
543
2.5 Design Considerations
549
2.6 Use of Color
549
2. 7 Graphics Checklist
550
3.0 WRITTEN REPORTS
3.1 Section Overview
550
3.2 Organization of the Report
550
3.3 Body of the Report 4.0 PRESENTATIONS
5.0
550
552 554
4. 1 Section Overview
554
4.2 Oral Presentations
555
4.3 Purpose and Scope
555
4.4 Organizatl9n of the Presentation
557
4.5 Answering Questions
557
4.6 Preparation and Planning Checklist
558
REFERENCES
559
Appendix D • 53!JIIII"
1.0 INTRODUCTION his a.ppendix presents supplementary material to Chapter 3, ~Communicating Data to the Public." While Chapter 3 contains key concepts and principles of data display and report writing. this appendix provides more detail on additional graphic types, sections of a written reporc and presentation techniques. The three ways co ddivet content co an audience are presented sequentially, consistent with Chapter 3.
T
2.0 DESIGN OF GRAPHICS 2.1. Section Overview Data presentation is an essential pan of most engineering reports and oral presentations. Graphics (sometimes called graphic illustrations or illuscrations) include tables, charts, figures, drawings and phocograpru. Graphics are efficient, powerful tools for the presentation of data and results. Howevtt, graphics must be prepared carefully to ensure the intended message is conveyed. Poorly designed graphics can confuse, distort and f.ill co communicate the rel~t informacion. Clip an (a type of graphic not discussed in detail in this manual) can enhance a presentation slide by complementing the words on a slide or helping depict a situation where other graphics are not readily available. In recent years, a wide variety of computer-based cools have come into common use. Profes.sional-looking graphics can be created using spreadsheets, graphics managers and presentation software, paint programs, computer-aided design (CAD) and programs chat allow the integration of scanned video images with computer-generated graphics. Simulation techniques, discussed in Chapter 11, are also appealing in showing the audience what the future might look like. These new tools have made the creation of report graphics fast and easy, and shifted the bwden of producing final graphics and t~les from the graphics staff to the traffic engineeriQ.g mff. Speed and ca.se of we havt abo encouraged the tendency to illustrate everything. a practice that can be ineffective and confusing. As discussed in Chapter 3, both chart and table design should primarily be content-driven, rather than sofrware-driven. Specifically, the analyse should have an idea wlu.c the final chan should look like prior .to starting a sofrware "wizard" co aid in its production. The foUowing discussion highlights additional design considerations of graphs and charts.
2.2 Graphics Design Graphics are wed to convey or to clarify information. Page layout, type of graphic, content and skill of execution all conuibuce to the success or failure of a graphic as a communication tool. Graphics m~ be designed for the audience chat will view them and for the citcumscances under which they will be used. This section includes some general guidelines for the design of graphics.
2.2.1 Fonu tmJA.ttmliMJ Eye movement and memory recall studies suggest some positions on a page are more important than others. For example, the eye usually focuses first at the upper left comer of the page. then moves around the page in seeps toWO!I
~AAMII.At
r---•--+--~ I 1
r-- - - .... I -'--·-I I
I
-+ -+
.J._ 1/3 ~ 1/3 --,k- 1/3 --)-
l"''C TAA.MC:PflQTAT1()M ' tJr.tf\IS:I:gJt..lt: (Tttntt<: .,P\ln tf"'llTirlM
1/3
1/3
_.J..
a} This figure has a strong focal point.
b) This figure lacks a focal point.
[Q][Q][Q][Q][Q)[Q][Q] IQ] 131EJIQ] [Q] [QJ IQ] [QJ IKI [Q] [Q] [QI [Q]
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c) The shape of objects directs the eye away from the illustration
Q
[Q][Q)[Q][Q][Q)[Q}IQ] [Q] [Q] IQl [Q] [Q] [QJ [Q) .
d) Visual weight and objects can be used to balance an illustration.
·~ --I>
---
~
most likely to be remembered. The lower right intersection is the second strongest visual position and, as the last item viewed, is also likdy co be remembered. Items placed away from these locations tend to serve as background informacion. They suppon irems in areas ofstrength but are less likdy to be remembered. These points apply to photographs as well. For example, a photo of a landscape with one-third sky an4 two-thirds landscape is more visually appealing than one with one-half sky and one-half landscape. ' The visual weight of items or areas on a graphic is also imponant. V'uual weight is an elusive combination of position, shape. color, contrast and meaning. If there is more than one object on the page, the eye tends to focus on the visually heaviest object first. The eye either stays focused on this point or continually rerunJS to it from other items {Exhibit D-2a). If all the items on a page have the same visual weight, there is little for the eye to focus on. With no point to focus on, the viewer may become bored and the eye may move off the graphic (Exhibit D-2b). Items placed within the focus areas (as shown in Exhibit D-1} draw the viewer's attention. The shape of the items can also direct the viewer's focus around the page (Exhibit D-2c). Items shaped like arrows that point to the lower right corner tend to direct the interest of the observer off the page. Placing a shape that either stops the flow or points back onto the page helps the viewer focus on the page and on the message (Exhibit D-2d}. 2.2.2 Onnposilion The strucnue of a graphic can be compared to that of a written paragraph. In a paragraph, the first sentence informs the reader what the paragraph is about: It td.ls the reader what to expect. This is analogous to the first itern of focus on the graphi~ The main body of the paragraph develops the idea presented in the first sentence. Similarly, the main body of the graphic serves as the backgtound, supponing the main message of the visual. Points of inserest are estab~ lished by the objects of heavier visual weight. The final sentence reinforces, concludes and tells the reader what the
paragraph was about. For a graphic, this usually corresponds to the item at the lower right area of focus. This is the last thing the viewer sees before leaving the graphic.
2.3 Tables Formal tables serve rwo basic purposes: to summarize information or data discussed in the rext and ro compile reference data. The purpose of the table guides how it is designed and where it is placed in a report. Summary tables save space and enhance comprehension by providing condensed information in meaningful form. A short, weU-designed tabulation can replace a lengthy section of explanatory text loaded with statistics. Tables designed for oral presentations are usually most effective when they are simple. The design of tables for oral presentations is discussed in section 4. Tables included in written reports may be more complex, as the reader has the time to study and undemand them. Reference tables generally provide material to support the text but are nor needed in the text for clarity. These tables are generally placed in the appendices. 2.3.1 Structural Elements ofa Table Some general guidelines for the devdopment of effective tables are described in this section. For reference, Exhibit D-3 shows the strucrural dements of a table. Formal tables are titled and numbered for reference. Tables are normally numbered in consecutive order, starting from the beginning ofeach article, chapter, or book. Arabic numerals are used to identify tables occurring in the main body of a work. Double numbering (1-1, 1-2, l-3) can be used ro locate tables in their respective sections of a report. Double numbering is appropriate when sections contain numerous tables or graphics. Position tables as close to the texrural reference as possible but after the initial reference to them. The ririe should briefly explain the content of the table and should be pertinent to the text. If the data are not original, ieference the source. Data items can also be referenced in the body of the table, as footnotes to specific data items, in columns, or in the title of the table. A subtitle contains any additional explanatory or descriptive information required to make the main title clear. Use the same type face as the title, but use either a smaller size or lighter weight.
Column and row headings should be brief. Vertical column headings and subheadings usually contain the dependent variables. Horizontal row headings (shown as the srub in Exhibit D-3) generally contain the independent variables. Define any abbreviations used in the headings as footnotes to the table. The field (or body) contains the tabulation of numerical or verbal data referred to by the stub and headings. Each unit of the fidd where a horizontal row intersectS a vertical column is called a cell Whenever possible, data items in columns should have a uniform degree of acc:;uracy. Fractions ace usually converted to decimals and numbers are aligned by decimal point. Plus or minus signs ace placed immediately to the left of numbers; missing entries are identified by a dash. Shore answer entries that require multiple lines may be right-justified unless the spacing berween words is noticeably large. Lines (rules) or grids are used to separate certain columns or lines, or to frame the table in a box. This may help to distinguish the headings, separating heading area from the data in the fidd, and.improve the readability of the table. Rules should be thin lines; heavy lines may draw attention away from the table and make it difficult to
read. Rule.5 work best for very small or very large tables.
/Col~~ ~
~
Road ~..ene ~~ !2: Pavement Serviceability StUb head
'---.. Yeac
12
Otber Arterials 6
11
8
. 1981
13 10
.lL
~978
10
1915
10
10 11
fM'
1987
Stub
Needs immediate Rei!!!!:
1983
Interstates
1
Needs Repair Soon Other
Interstates 27
24 26 23 24 18
542 • MANUAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING STUDIES, 2ND EDillON
.--
~Decked Heads
+-Column heads
Acterials
38 39 44 43 49 45
~Cells in
body of table
! Each
table should stand alone (be understandable without referenct to text). All references and notes are handled !separately, without reference to the text or ocher tables. Reference numbering stares at the upper left:, with a new serit:s Jor each table (for example, a, 1, or •). Number tabular elemenrs from left co right across the table. Foornoresshould be the same width as the table. If possible, place each note on a separate line. Footnotes titled "Note" qualify, explain, or provide information relating to the table as a whole. They are alwa~ placed first in the sequence offoomotcs. Footnotes titled "Source" cite the sou ret of the information and are always last in the sequence of foomotes.
2.3.2 Organizing DaUz
Readers are accustomed to reading information from lefr to right. However, by definicion, rabies are struct ured ~round venical columns. Data in vertical columns appear co be easier to read than horizontal comparisons. The c ricial problem is to make the left-to-right relationship clear with respect to dara in venical columns (Whice, 1988) _ Organize the data to make imerrelacionships as visible as possible. Presem data so comparisons are possibk both within a table and among cables. Organize columns of data to suppon the purpose of the table (for instan ce, to show similarities or differences, statistical trends, or interactions). For example, a table presenting data on high accident locations may be otdered from high to low based on the accident experience. Exhibit D-3 shows the repair perctncages grouped by the need for repair for "interstates; and "ocher arterials." If the designer wanted to com pate repair needs by faciliry rype, the second levd decked headings would be *In cerstate" llfld "Ocher Arterials." This would pur the data for interstates in the rwo left columns and for ocher arterials in the r;WO right columns. Thus, a different purpose for the cable corresponds to a different ordering of rhe data. If users must c:xtract data from a table based on a name, place the enuies in alphabetical order based on the mllj or sueet. When designing reference cables, consider the ways in which readers may want to use these rabies. Avoid large gaps berween cohunns. ·Gaps. tend to confuse the reader because the eye must move across empry artaS t:O locate the next item in a row. Using generous spacing berween the lines can help improve horizontal tracking, whlch makes it easier to read across a cable. If a cable is large or complc:x, place it on a separate sheet. Small, simple tables should be placed directly in rhe tc:xt. Make sure the cable supplementS and complementS, but does not duplicllce, informacion in the text. All tables should be referred to in the tc:xt.
2.4 Types of Chart Chapter 3 identified the most commonly used chart types, including bar chartS, line graphs and scatter-plots. This section presents some additional, more specialized display options.
2.4.1. Higb-L01D Graphs . High-~w graphs we twO data series to create a set of vertical lines, ojle for each pair of values. They can be used to illustrate the high, low and mean values of any series of data collecced. The horizontal tick marks within the high/lo-w vertical bars in Exhibit D-4 indicate the observed value within the range for that bar.
Appendix 0 • ~
--· -- -·-·- .
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280 280
~
~
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220
Ttd<. Maries Indicate Observed Values
200~ • 180 ------b·-----~-----·----~-.,-------·--HIO 140
· - - -- - - -·- - ·.., _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ .. _ _ _.._ _ _ _ _ , __
120
2
3
s
4
6
I
...:___
1
.'---
__
B
11me period .Not!': HI· Lo graphs can be used to display expected end observed values.
2.4.2 Ana G?oaph An tma pph presena each series as a filled-in area. The X-axi.s represents the number of dat2 points; the Y-axi.s indicates the number of series or accumulated series points being plotted. It is similar in concept to a stacked bar graph; dat2 series are stacked rather than overlaid. An example is shown in Exhibit D-5.
45
40
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.
35
!
30
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25
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\ 2.4.3 Pictogr11nu . ·!A pictogram integrates graphics, symbols, or icons into various types of graphs, including bar graphs, line graphs and ! pie charts. Exhibit D-6 is an example of the use of pictorial symbols to illustrate sign legibility distances. Pictograrns \hat are too complex may be difficult to interpret.
Di s tances shown in
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Source: J.F. Paniaci. Legibility and Comprtthmsion ofTraffic Sign Symbols, Research Report. Federal Highway Mminisuation, McLean, VA.
2.4.4 Statistical Maps Statistical maps are designed to show the locations of a variable collected over a geographical area. The map shown in Exhibit D-7 illusrraces chis type of graphical presemarion. Mapping wols are included ·with many graphics packages. ' ,~q;.,_~~~~~~-~~
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546 • MANUAL OF TRANSPORTAnON ENGINEERING STUDIES, 2ND EDITlON
2.4.5 Organization Charts An organization cbart is shown in Exhibit D-8. Chart elemenrs are connected by lines thac trace the flow of aLt(horicy wichin che organization. The divisions of any department are placed below the department; all elem ents on the ..,$arne level have comparable levels of author icy. Elemenc:s in an organization chace need not be enclosed by recl'llngles or other geometric shapes. Enclosed icems work well on simple charts. However, on large complex charts they wake individual text items more difficult to focus on and may require smaller text to make che chan a reasonable si7.C·
Transportation O~ratlons and Services Organizational Chart
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Appendix D • 54::;;;o?
2.4. 6 Flow Diagrams Flow @grams arc useful for representing procx:s.ses or procedures. Geometric wpcs (boxes, circles, triangles) dcnore spccilic types of activities. Arrowed lines (veaors) trace possible actions. For example, a flow diagram might be used to illusuatc the required steps in gaining approval for a new project, or, as shown in Exhibit D-9, a decision-making process.
llWENTOitY OF CURAIENT COM>nlOHS
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DOES OR l'liJ1..IAE T'I'IAtPIC SA'nSFV ANY OF THE 8IQNAL ~AU.AT10111 WARRANTS?
F ftEASON OTHER THAN STANDARD WARRANTS JUSTFED ..STALLATION DO THEM REASON 8TLL PREVAIL 1
ACCC)ERT RECORD WORSE WrTH
~
NO IJIC»FFCANT CHANG£ 1'1 ACCIDENT AECORO OR' NODATA
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Source: J. L Kay, L. G: Neudorff, and F. Wagner. Critnia for Removing TMjfic Signals aru/ Usm' Guide. (FHWA-IP-80-12). Alexandria, VA; JHK Associac~ Lnc. and Wagner-McGee AssociaEeS, 1980.
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12.4.7 Project Progress Charts \Projtct progms charts illustrate the time schedule for a study or project. The X-axis is the rime span of the project in ap! propriate incr.emenrs. Each cask or set of tasks is repr-esented as a line or bar spanning the time period over which that 'task should be accomplished. Progress charts are used as pbnning rools and to check progress as a project proceeds.
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2.5 Design Considerations Graphs must be d-esigned for the intended viewer and with the purpose of the graph in mind. If the graph will be used to make a slide, it should be simplified. If possible, limit the number (or groups) of curves or bars shown to four for visual aids. Graphs showing trends need nor be as large as graphs provided with dau points to be wed in calculations.
-·
The scale (or ~pect ratio) of the graph also affects the way data are perceived. A ratio of height to width of 3:4 is common. Designers may need to experiment, changing the scale of :1. graph ro determine the most effective aspect ra.rio for its usc. Too great a range of values causes the graph to appear compressed. Some spreadsheet packag-es will allow the usc of more than one vertical axis scale. Label them clearly co :~ovoid confusion. Type fonts (such as Helvetica and Ttmes Roman) should be consistent with those used on tables and in the ten ifpossible. The we of different sizes and weights of the same font type works weU.
2.6 Use of Colo'r C
• develop associations; • build rerenrion; and • create an aesthetically pleasing product. There arc some general rules for using color in pleasing ways. A color whed (which shows the 12 basic hues or colors) is a very useful roo! in choosing colors. h can be purchased in any art supply store. The primary colors are red, yellow and blue. The other (secondary) colors are produced from these three. Cool colors (blue and predominately blue) are relaxing and appear to recede on the page. Warm colors (red, or red and yellow) are stimulating and advance to the foreground. Green, brown and red-purple lie berwcen rhe warms and cools and arc therefore relatively neurral. An important use of color is to aruact attention, primarily through conrrasr. Color should be applied to the elements of greatest significance. A bright color used with black is the most effective. Complementary warm and cool colors can also be used sparingly. Blue appears to be the most popular color. The colors used in a graphic should fir the overall mood. Too much color can detract from rather than improve the readers understanding of rhc graphic.
2.7 Graphics Checklist It takes time and experience to produce the most effective graphics. Slides (or overheads) oli:en make or break a presentation. Before finalizing graphics, go over the checklist below. I. Are the graphics suitable for the intended audience? 2. Are the graphics legible? 3. Is the message clear? 4. Is the layout neat and properly aligned?
3.0 WRITIEN REPORTS 3.1 Section Overview This ·section expands on the discussion in Chapter 3 on considerations for a written report summarizing results from transportation studies. The language, style and presentation of a report should match the intended audience, whether it is directed to a technical audience of engineers or the general public. All reports should begin with·a brief summary of the purpose, important findings, conclusions and recommendations to serve readers who do nor have time to read the entire report. The report should be of adequate length to present all pertinent information, while remaining clear and concise. The formatting and layout of should be professional and attractive to the read~r. Tables and £gures should be used as necessary to illustrate key concepts. ·
3.2 Organization of the Report The components of a transportation engineering report are determined by the report purpose, length and complexity. In general, shorter reports have fewer components. The following is a list of components, any or all of which may be included in a given report. • Letter of transmittal
• Tide page • Copyright notice • Disclaimers
550 • MANUAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING STUDIES, 2ND EDmON
• Forward or preface • Acknowledgmenu • Table of comenrs • List of tables • List of figures • Summary or executive summary • Body of the reporr • List of references or bibliography • Appendix • Glossary • Index The sequence presented follows normal conventions but may be altered to fir a given situation. Each component is discussed briefly below.
3.2.1 Letur of1hmsmitttd A letter addressed ro the person or agency for whom the report is prepared is often attached to the fron t of the report. The representative of the organization that conducted the study and prepared the report signs the letter. This lmer is usually a short sratemenr char the signer is pleased to submit the report in the number of copies required. lr nuy aJso briefly explain how and why the study was conducted and irs single most important outcome. The principal purpose of the letter is to document the submission of the report. Copies of the transmittal letter may be included in copies of the report. 3.2.~ Tule Page The title page includes the name of the report, the date the report was prepared, the authors' names and the sponsors' names.
3.2.3 Copyright Notice If the report is copyrighted, this notice appears on the title page or the page that immediately follows. Authors ~ obtain information and an official copyright application fonn from the Register of Copyrights, Copyright Office;, Library of Congress, Washington, DC 20025. Copyright informatiqn is also available online at www.copyright.go'Y'3.2.4 Disclaimers lo general, a disclaimer alerts the reader that the results, findings, conclusions andlor recommendations presented i.J:1. the report are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the opinions, views, or policies of the spon.sori.nS agency or organization. Disclaimers most frequently appear in research reportS. Disclaimers may also include explici. 1: information about the report that might otherwise be assumed incortectly. 3.2.5 Foreword or Preface . A foreword or preface; provides the history leading to the report and, if applicable, its relationship to other reporu. ~ foreword may be written by the author(s) of the report but is commonly written by a representative of the sponsorin~ agency or organization. A preface is generally written by the author(s). 3.2.6Achwwktlgmenu This section recognizes the persons and agencies who assisted or contributed to the study. Acknowledgments mayalso appear in the lerrer of transmittal. 3.2. 7 Tllhk of Cmtenu Major divisions, sections, or chapters of the report are listed in order of appearance along with the page num~r ~- . ning each division. Subdivisions of a section or chapter may also be listed in the table of contents. Ap~ndix D • 55f
3.2.8 List ofTables The number and title of e:a.ch table and the page number where it is locued :a.re presented in order of appeannce in :a. list of tables. The inclusion of this list depends on the length of the report and the significance of the tables as stand· alone presentations.
3.2.9 List ofFigures Figures are listed in :a. similar fashion to the tables. If tables :a.re listed, figures should also be listed, and vice versa. The list of tables precedes the list of figures. 3.2.10 S~nn.-ry or benaiw S~nn.-ry This section briefly summarizes the purpose of the srudy, major findings, conclusions and recommend:a.tions. It is designed for those who do not have time to read the entire report and as :a. means of refreshing :a. reader's mind at a later time. Bec:a.use it is almost certain to be read, it is the most imporeant section of the report. The SIUilllW')' must not overstate nor understate the findings or cause the reader to take conclusions or rccornmend:a.tions out of context. Sometimes the executive Sll!Illii.:U}' is written more for the decisiorunaker, someone with very limited time who needs to know the bot· tom line very quickly. A rypical SIUilllW')' ranges from one to five pages. However, an c:xccutive summary for a complex, multivolume report may be 25 to 30 pages and published in a separate volume. Once put together, reread the executive SumtiW')' to make sure it Bows together so it is not just :a. cut-and-paste dfort out of the main report. 3.2.11 B.J.y of the /Uport The body is the heart of the report and is supported by all the other components in this lise. The orgmization and content of the body are discussed in :a. later section.
3.2.12 List of~ rw Bii11Hvapby When material from :a.nother report or book is used, it should be properly acknowltdged. Autho£8 should cite the dowment in a lise of references and refer to the list at the places in the text where the material is used. Place the list either :a.t the end of the report or at the end of each chapter. Another option is to cite each reference in a foomote on the page where the materia.! is first used. Examples of refuence ~ can be found at the ends of the chapters in this llWlual. A bibliography is :a. list of books and reports that contain materials that arc useful to readers who wane to pursue the
subject m:mer further. Rq>orts describing cransporution engineering studies do noc usually contain bibliographies unless the author wants to encourage further study or aplanation. 3.2.13 Appnulix Detailed material that supports but is not essential to the body of the report should be placed in an appendix. Appropri:a.te appendix materials include supporting d:a.ta, detailed aplanations of methodologies or procedures, derivations of formul:a.s, conversion f.u:tors, lists of symbols, d:a.ta collection formaa, d:a.t.l. collection P.rotocols and checklists. Appendices are effective means of fully documenting :a.nd supporting the results of a study without cluttering the body of the report.
3.2. U Glosury If the report is written for nontechnical re:a.ders or if new and unf.uniliu terms are introduced, a gloss:a.ry .or list of defin.itio~;~s should be included in the report. If few new terms are wed, footnote definitions may suffice. 3.2.15lrulet Transport:a.tion engineering reportS seldom contain indices unless the report is voluminous or intended for frequent reference. Th~ inda is more aact and detailed than the table of contents. The index liru all major subjects alphabetically along with the .,ages where each subject is addressed in the report.
3.3 Body of the Report The body of the report is composed of a series ofsections or chapters.In a cransport:a.tion engineering report, the body contains answers to the following questions. 1. What was the objective or purpose of the study?
2. Why was the srudy necess:a.ry? .. . ............ ·~ •. ""'""""'"'' ,.,"''' '"'"r".r·,-nu.tr
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3. When, where and how was the srudy conducted? 4. What were the findings? S. What conclusions were drawn? 6. What recommendations were made?
3.3.1 OrftmiUng the &Jy The first step in effeCtively axranging the body of the repon is to construct an outline. The outline should list the chap· ter, S(C[ion and subsection headings and may conl:a.in notes or copies to be covered under each heading. The ou tline helps the writer organize the body in a logical, comprehensive and complete manner, and makes the task of writing easier. There arc a number of ways to organize and present the material in the body of the repon. Some of these uc; described bridiy in the following paragraphs. Sequeotial Lopcal Statcmeau Ptoceed.ios &om Problem to Solutioa. The problem is stated in the opening chap· ter or seCtion. The recommended solution in logical ste~ is developed in succeeding chapters. Cause ud EfRc:t. The report begins with a description of the causal factors surrounding a problem. Then the report addresses the resulting effects, as indicated by the appropriate measureS of effectiveness (MOEs) . For example, the report of a congested route study mighr begin with a description of traffic volumes, vehicle classification, occupancy and roadway geometries. The effects of these factors would then be described in terms of measured speed, delay, levels of service (LOS) and accidents. 1-...me SeqllCDce Previous conditions are addressed, followed by present conditions, followed by projected future conditions. Pro~eBU in Order of Importance. Each ·problem and proposed solution (if known)
is presented in order of priority begiru:!.ing with the most severe, or anticipated time of implemencation, or financial feasibility, as e:nmples. l..ocation. For data coUection reports, each intersection or roadway section (link) is described in rum. The order of prescncation may be based on type of road, siu of facility, uea of the city. magnirude of the problem, or o«her logical scileme.
Order of.Andie:nce lntuest or Familiarity. Treating the most populu subject first, rcgardiess of its imponanc;e, may be a way to gain the readers' interest and lead them into less familiu subjects. Grouping Similar Subjecu T~ Similar subjects should be grouped together and presented in the same section/chapter to ease reading and understanding. For e:nmple, planning chapters may be followed by design chapters, which in turn ue followed by operations and safety chapters.
3.3.2 Ttp tm Botl] Ctmtmt. Format. The body of a typical transportation engineering srudy report generally includes: • purpose or objectives of the srudy; • background (that is, what led to the study or why was the srudy needed); • scope of the srudy (that is, what limits were placed on the srudy); :
• methods used; • data collected (for example, type, amount, when, where, etc.); • analyses performed;
• findings; • conclusions; and • rccomiiiendations.
Appendix 0 • 553
Examples of subjects chat would be appropriate for a transportation engineering study report include: • alternatives developed or examined: • selection of alternatives, traffic control devices (TCDs), or routes; and • evaluation results, such as: • cost analysis or financial impact; • environmental impact; • traffic impact; and • implementation plans or recommendations (for example, preferred alternative). Use Simple, Clear and Concise Language. Remember, a transportation engineering study report is a presentation of technical faccs and their implicarions, not Literary art. On me other hand, write the report to hold the reader's attention. Do not use complicated wording in an effort to ·sound important." Most readers prefer simple, common language.
s
- Use a Good Style Manual. The elements of style in wriring rechnical reports vary &om one manual to the next. Pick a good manual, adopt a set of conventions and maintain uniformity in spelling, grammar, punctuarion and formar throughout the report. Sevetal good technical wriring style manuals are included in the references at the end of this chapter. Agencies such as U.S. DOT and the Transportarion R=rch Board (TRB) also maintain technical wriring style manuals. Page Numbering. Number every page except the tide page and the letter of transmittal. The summary or the ~st page of text can be "Page 1." Advance pages are nwnbered with lowercase Roman numerals. Appendices may continue the numbering of the main body or can be numbered A-1, A-2 and so on. Place page numbers at the top or bottom center of each page. Break Up Lengthy Narratives of Pure Text. Headings and subheadings lead the reader through the author's train of thought and presentation of &as. Make ample use of summary tables and figures. Photographs may also be useful in describing certain situations or conditions. &plain the Methodology Used. The credibility of the results of a uansportacion engineering study often hinges on the type and amount of data collected and the methods used to analyze those data. Therefore, the report should clearly, yet concisely, provide the reader with sufficient infon:nation about the data and methodologies employed t.o establish an acceptable level of confidence in the findings. Explain the application of standard methods by referencing a text or manual on the subject. Special methods require more explanation that may be placed in an appendix to avoid cluttering the body of the report. The sources of data and informacion used in the study should be clearly identified. Authors should also specify the amount, place, time and conditions under which field data were collected. Rdationsb.ip of Findings to Conclusions and Recommendations. This relationship is similar to the construction of a ho~ The findings are the foundation on which the conclusions rest. The conclusions, in rurn, support the· recommendations. Reviews and Editing. A good technical writer, a panel of reviewers, or an e:xperienc.ed editor should review the report, if possible. This simple practice often turns a dull, Lisdess recitation of facts and figures into an interesting, understandable and perhaps even enterta.ining piece of writing. The goal for any report is that it be read and understood correctly. A report that readers ill?ore or misunderstand has no value and the work and dfort to produce it will have been wasted.
4.0 PRESENTATIONS 4. 1 Section Overview This section discusses some additional aspects on making oral presentations that adds to the discussion in Chapter 3. Sometimes the only information on a transportation project the public sees or hears about is from a presentation. Effective presentations help explain important results of a srudy, can inform and educate the public about the issues 554 • MANUAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING STUDIES. 2ND EDmON
. involved in a project and can provide feedback on which of several alternative designs are preferred and why. There~ fore, the presemer needs to understand these addidonal concepts in preparing for and presenting information.
4.2 Oral Presentations Oral presentations arc an imporcant means of communication for transportation professionals. Presentations range from simple progress statements 'to extensive rtports on traffic studies to comprehensive tranSportation plans. All effective communications must fit the requirements and experience of the audience. This is especially im portam in oral presentations. Define all unfamiliar terms. Arrange and present the nuin points of the presentation so they are easily understood and allow a logical conclusion to be made. If a listener cannot follow the presentation wit h at least a reasonable degree of understanding, it makes lirde difference how thorough the investigation was. There is little charice for a listener, once lost, to catch up. 4.2.1 Presenuztions for Public Access There are many opportunities within communities for making presentations that are recorded or broadaut 1M o-ver public access channels or the Internet. The same principles apply in these settings as in others. The main differences are in positioning of the speaker and use of decuonic presentations, displays, etc. Should there be an opportunity for communicati.ng in this manner, make an appointment with the studio supervisor for a discussion on how your presentation can be most effective for their recording setup.
There may be facsimile or call-in questions. These should be filtered by someone in the studio and then shared with the presenter{s) by the session moderator. See Section 4.5 on how to answer questions &om the audience.
4,3 Purpose and Scope Effective oral presentations are not condensed versions of written reportS, nor au they speeches read aloud. Ea.ch presentation should be prtpared for the specific conditions under which it is to be given and adapted to the prc:scnccr, the audience and the presentation environment. The following five basic characteristics distinguish effective oral pre· senracions from written reports: • Specific audience Limited scope • Personal presentation
Need for instant understanding • Limited time for presentation 4.3.1 A.rulknce A number ofpeople with widely diffi:rent technical backgrounds may read a written report. Therefore, the writer ml.l.st tty to adapt the writing to a broad levd of reader understanding and interests. The oral report, however, is uruallY prepared for a specific audience. A speaker must orient the report to the particular interests and l~ls of undCI'SQncling of her audience. ~egin the presentation talk with a founda.tion the listener will understand and is interested in. 0 o not talk down to the audience; be careful to avoid the trap of condescension. Remember: The listeners have given u..J? their time to come co hear your presentation. Do not waste their time. 4.3.2Scope Readers may read the entire wriro:n repott or only certain portions. However, an oral presencacion is usually prqnre~ with a specified time limit in mind. The scope of the material must be appropriate to this limit, which often indude:::.S a question-and-answer period. The presentation should include a clear explanation of the subject and the gea~ conclusions. Use brief summaries of subscantiaring data when they are critical for undemanding the repon. Abri~! description of the procedure is usually all that is required. If a written report is available, the talk is probably bes -t: limited to the· most important parts of the written repon, concentrating on those items that are of greatest in teres "1:
Appendix D • 55~
to the audience. It is better to present less and cover it thoroughly than-to discuss too much and have the listener feel you did a superficial job.
4.3.3 Presentation The medium of the oral report is the speaker. Therefore, the speaker's adivery style is critically important. Posrure, gestures, eye contact and &.cia! expression, voice projection, enunciation, pronunciation and the degree co which the speaking style seems relaxed, conversational and expressive all affe~ the attitude and receptivity of the audience. Four styles of presentation delivery include extemporaneous;-impromptu, manuscript and memorized techniques (Michaelson, 1987). The o:tnnporaMOus talk is usually preferred for. the oral presentation of a· technical report. In this method, the oudine of the speech is carefully prepared but not committed to memory. The impromptu (offthe-cuff) method is obviously inappropriate for the presentation cif.lil\e report; however, it is an appropriate style for the question-and-answer session. Prepared and read manuscripts dr'Jm.f"'orized methods tend to be inflexible and sound artificial Practice, however, will improve the quality of an~tation.
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Oral presentations frequendy include questions from the audi~ec. ~uestions may be asked during the presenta· cion or be deferred to a question-and-answer period that follo'IIJ t}tt formal presentation. While each method has its advan cages, the mOS[ satisfactory arrangement is to defer q~t0tfonittg until the formal presentation has been completed. Potential questions are often answered during the remainae'r of the talk.
.
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.
The presentation should be made in an appropriate location. ldeallr.,the space needs to be comfortable and sized for the number attending. It should contain all the necessary equipmerX for the presentation, usually a lectern with a light and computer projection equipment. Sometimes the hos~ presenters to bring their own laptop for use with the projection equipment, but that is quickly changin~tlttrs are presenting during one session, put your presentation on a memory stick for use in the host computer. '
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4.3.4lnstant Urukrstaruling
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If some portion of a written report is not immediately clear, th~ay reread it, look back or ahead, or even consult other sources. However, the spoken word only lases during , ment of presentation. The speaker must be exceedingly careful co be as clear as possible at all times, payin . . . ar attention to audience reaction. Instant understanding is &.cilitated through voice, language and the usc:., s~tions and summary statements. .
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Proper use of voice includes adequate projection and distinct enli:nt:t.rtion to permit even those persons Sealed farthest away to hear and understand the material presented. The speaker should use pauses freely to break up the flow of ideas into meaningful thought unirs. Also, speaking wilh sufficient forcefulness and using a variety of inflections avoids monotony and gives life and meaning to words. A speaker must be sensitive to the rate of delivery and must pace the various remarks for understanding, variety 1-nd emphasis. Practice is essential to master all of these techniques. ...The audience must understand the vocabulary used. If the readers~a. written report encounter an unfamiliar word, they can refer to a dictionary. In an oral repon, the sp~ mmnrezine unfamiliar terms foe the listeners. Obviously, the problem varies from one situation to another, but the speaker should be sure the listeners understand the terminology. A broad vocabulary permits an expression of thoughts with clarity and precision in a vigorous ~d colorful whion. Transitions and summaries help guide the listener through the developmen·c of the presentation topic. After a section of the repon is developed, summarize the main points briefly before moving on to the nat section. Also, show the relationships among various sections.
4.3.5TOrganize and 'rehearse the presentation for the established time limit. The average rate of speaking is 100 to 150 worqs per min. (with listener comprehension at up to 600 words per minute). Tuning can be checked by practicing with audiotape, videotape, or with a live audience. If available, videotape is the most effective. Ic gives the presenter the opportunity to see. how he or she is coming across and how 10 impc~ his or her presentation skill.s. Simply speaking aloud hdps check the organization of the calk; however, whc:P-Practicing in an •empty room• there is a ten~ency to speak much faster than on tape or to an audience. Rehearsal will help the speaker achieve a relaxed, at-case posture, and a smooth, confident delivery. ·
14.4
Organization of the Presentation
)A well-conceived talk, carefully tailored to fit ilie audience, will fail if it is difficult to follow. A confused reader of a
report can regress as needed to wade through an obscure passage; a confused listener is likely to be lost forever. P resentations are organized around three major divisions: the introduction, the body and the conclusion.
4.4.Ilntroduc1Um The introduction prepares the audience for th'e body of the presentation. The introduction should motivate the listener, catch the interest and inform about the'concent of the report. Motivation is accomplished by dwelling briefly on the importance of the subject and by establishing a distinct impression that something worthwhile is to be offered. The speaker can inform listeners about the tof'•ic of the presentation by:
• identifying and defining the general sl1bject; • providing the necessary background; and • giving a pr~vieY{ of the main divisions to bt covert
·2. general conclusions that are drawn flom the subconclusions I
3. recommendations that arise from the general conclusions The 'conclusion section summariz.es the material land may provide a transition to the question-and-answer period. It should flow logically and clearly from the material presented in the body. Surprise endinp may bt dramatic, but are rarely useful.
4.5 Answering Questions Often the most difficult part of a presentatiolt is fielding questions.,If the audience is hostile or upset, this time can be particularly challenging. It is enremdy important co anticipate questions and objections that may arise during and after a presentation. Rl:sponses should be re~earsed so the speaker appears to know the topic well and can remain cool and thoughtfUl even in confrontational sjruations. The following guidelines suggested by Berthouc:x and Hindle (1981) provide a few thoughts on handling a fl.Uesti.on-and-answer session. 1. Be brief. do not say more than is re
2. Do not use an opening line of nonsense patter to gain time to think of your answer. For c:xample, do not start with, "Let me just think ouc loud for a minute" or "That is a very difficult question. • Pause briefly before starting to speak if you need a moment to organize your ideas. Repeating the question clearly will allow you to gain some time and confirm that you undeiStand the question. Do not assume the questioner will deduce the answer correctly froin a long discussion of pros and cons. Be explicit. If your answer must be long or compia, make a brief SUflllllary statement.
3. Do not bluff. If you do nor know rhe answer to a quelition, the following choices are available: "I am sorry, I cannot answer your question;" or "If you please, I would like to consult my notes (references, partners) before I answer that question;" or "! can nor answer char now. T wUI have the answer chis afternoon (tomorrow, next week) ."
4.
Don't be evasive. Answer the question you arc asked, or do nor answer. Do not answer a different question. The questioner will not be impressed or fooled. Avoid hedging. Sometimes the answer is not simple; ir must be qualified or have limits set. In these cases, tty to make che limirs quantitative and make the qualifications precise.
5. Be specific. Use precise words. Favor citing a number over using a descriptive phrase. Never assume you and the listeners have the same scale of reference for imprecise words (words such as dup, high, wann,
smam. Cite dara or numerical facts whenever possible.
6. Do not try co answer a question you do not understand or one chat is imprecise. If the question is unclear, your answer will be unclear. Even worse, it may be wrong. Do not guess at what the quelitioner has in mind, ask for clarification. You may rephrase the question slighdy, but do not change it. Ask for confirmation that your interpretation is correct. If you are answering questions from a group and receive a com· ment far off the point, or far wrong,_decide if it is best to assume others also recogni-ze this and move on as politely as possible. Be polite but firm in your posicion; however, never be argumentative or insulting. Above all, remain calm. If you arc: asked a hostile question, restate it using positive phrasing. Avoid single or double negativeli. It may be helpful to restate a negatively phrased question or one that uses angry words or emotionally loaded terminology into one that is clear, precise and contains less inflammatory language.
7. Never use slang and avoid jargon. Slang is imprecise and it can give the impression the speaker is poorly educated. Jargon is vocabulary known to a group of specialistS but generally unfamiliar to outsiders. Often, jargon can be replaced by a few more common words.
4.6 Preparation and Planning Checkl ist Preparation and planning will help ensure a quality prelienration. During the process of planning and giving a presentation, the following items will help assure success.
4.6.1 Organization Well qeforc: the prelicntacion date, consider the following: • Does the introduction aplain why the subject is significant? • Arc: the major points covered withour excessive detail?
• Will the audience understand all the terminology? Is the talk simply arranged in a logical sequence? Are the visl12ls ~mple and visible? 4.6.2 Rehetn'SII! • Rehearse the presentation until you feel comfortable with the material. • Rehearse with the visuals you intend to usc:. • Identify and practice fielding possible questions.
4. 6.3 At Presentation Tzme On the day of the pres.entation, arrive early enough to check the following: • Does the sound equipment function; do you know how co usc: it?
• Is the room equipped with the necessary projection equipment; is it in working order? • Is the temperature of the room neither too warm nor coo cold?
558 • MANUAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING STUDIES, 2ND EDITION
• How is the lighting adjusted?
• Is rhe searing arrangement right for your needs? • Wu(everyonc in the audience be able ro see your visual aids? Iris roo lace ro correct any deficiencies or learn how to use rhe equipment when walking ro rhe podium.
5.0 REFERENCES Berthouex, P.M. and D. Hindle. "Abour rhe Presentation of Your Paper: Oral Communication: So me Guidelines on AnsWering Questions." Engineering Educarion (December 1989}: 243-244. Bel(, P. C. Manual ofTraffic Enginuring StuditJ, 4rh ed. Washington, DC: Institute ofTransporralion Engineers, 1976. Editorial Scaff of the University of Chicago Press. Tht Chicago Manual ofStyk. Chicago, IL: Uni~ersity of Chicago Press, 1982. Hodges, J. C., M. E. Wh.inen, W. B. Homer, S. S. Webb and R. K. Miller. Harbrau Colkgt HaMboolt., lith ed.: San DiegO• CA: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1990. Hodges, J. C, M. E. Wh.inen, W. B. Horner, S. S. Webb and R. K. Miller. Harbr«t Colkgt Handbook, 13th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998. . Insurance lnstirute for Highway Safety. Fan:s. Washington, DC: Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, 1991. Kay, J. L. L. E. Neudorff and F. Wagner. Crittri4 for &moving TraffitSignaiJ and U1m Guitk, FHWA-IP-80 12. Alexandria, VA:. JHK and Associates Inc. and Wagner McGee Associates, 1980. Ksanier, M.G., J. W. Presley and D. C. Rigg. Prmtiu-HaU WOrkbook for Writen, 4th ed. Englewood Cliffi, NJ: Prentice Hall• 1985.
Lala!li, N. and D. G. Gerard. "Communicating Eff=ivelywith the Public." ITE]D-urnai(Occober 1995): 51}.-52. Lalani, N. and S. B. Colman. "Making Effective Technical Presentations." ITEjournal (January 1995}: 29-38. Mason, J. "Communicating with Elected Officials.• ITE]ournai (December 2005): 18-22. Michaelson, H. H()IQ UJ wn~ and Publish Enginming Papm and Repom, 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA:. lSI Press, 1987. National Safety CouncU. kcidmt Fan:s. Chicago, IL: National Safety Cou~cil. 1986. Paniati, j. F. Ugibility and Comp"hmsion ofTTYJjfic Sign Symbou. Research Report. McLean, VA: Federal Highway Administration, 1988. TurnbuU, A. and R.N. Baird. Rindurt and WU!Ston, 1975.
Th~ GraphicJ ofCommuniciJJion: Typography.
Layout and Design. San Francisco, CA: Holt,
White, J. Graphic De1ign for tht Ekctronic Agt. New York: Watson-Gupcill f?ublicarions, 1988.
Appendix 0 • 55~
.......
Append ix E !, •••• • • •• •• • •••• • •••••••• ••• •••• •• ••••••••••• •• • •• ••• • • •• ••••• • • ••• • • •••••••• •
•••••
Useful Resources for Transportation Studies By: Bastian]. Scbroetler, Ph.D. Chrisropher M. C#nningham. P.E. DanielJ Fitulley, P.E. Robert S. F07k, P.E. 1.0 DEVELOPING A TIME-STAMP MACRO
io
561
1.1 Overview
561
1.2 Coding
562
USEFUL DATA COLLECTION FORMS
564
This appendix conu.ins useful ~esources for transporracion studies. The first part discusses how analysts can create a time-stamp macro in Microsoft Excel that can be adapted to various data collection applications. The second pan presents commonly used data collection forms. Each form may be removed or photocopied !Or use. The fOrms are ident:i.fied as to source in the manual by chapter number. The details of use are described in the text near the page on which the form appears or is first mentioned.
1.0 DEVELOPING A TIME-STAMP MACRO 1.1 Overview his section describes how Microsoft Excel and Visual Basic (VB) can be used to create a macro that records time stamps for observed events. The macro can then be copied o,nto a laptop computer to perform a wide range of customized. field studies. For example, the macro can be psd to collect raw volume counts that are later aggregated into bins. Similarly, the macro can be used to perform a speed study by collecting time stamps of vehicles (front bumper) arriving at two points a known distance apart. The macro can also be customized to a range of other applications, such as pedestrian crossings by signal phase, or vehicle compliance srudies.
T
The method can be applied in real-time field studies or from video observations. In all cases, the analysts predefines ce.ru.in keys to correspond to specific events of interest. It is important to practice the actual data collection befOre •going live,~ especially if the macro was previously used for orher sru.dies. Coding a large number of events can create a high cognitive codirtg load, and human factors' principles should be considered when laying out the key structure. Foe example, the aforementioned signal compliance srudy might use keys "A," •s• and •o• to denote vehicle arrivals in three lanes. These keys would be operat~ with the lefr hand. The right hand may then be used for example to and "K.• The c:nct configuration depends on record signa! phases "green; "yellow" and •red; using keys •H; the specific study and usee preference.
·r
If the coding load becomes too high, the analyst may decide to supplement additional data at a later time (from video) using a common uro-time reference point. Events ~ then be ordered by sorting by time stamp. Alternatively, two coders can be used co collect different data, either on the same or separate keyboards. Note that MS Excel will not recognize an external number pad for this macro, but will support a full external USB keyboard.
1.2 Coding The time-stamp macro relies on a builtrin MS Excel function, NOWQ, that r~pons the instantaneous computer system time. The function is automatically updated every rime the Excel worksheet is updated in any form (for example, by entering a value). During data coUecrion, every rime the analyst presses one of the preconfigured burrons, the macro (very quickly) performs three taSks: 1. It enters the key code in the accive column (A) and row (l) and moves the input cursor inco the next column (B).
2. It copies and pastes the cell containing the NOW() function into the active cell. 3. It moves the input cursor back into column A, buc down one row (2), where it waits for the next key input. The actual macro code is wriucn in VB, a programming language included in Microsoft Office produces. The macro is activated by hitting a uSrarc Recording~ burton that is in turn associated with a function in.VB. The macro continues to respond to keys until the analyst hits "Stop Recording," at which cime Excel is returned co its normal srate. Exhibit E-l shows a possible layout of che input screen. The Excel worksheet contains a title bar, the "scan:" and "stop" buuoru, the system time stamp with the NOWO function and a data table.
··- ····· ' LLO !
23
24... i
.........
• ••• •
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-
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-
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562 • MANUAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING STUDIES. 2ND ED1110N
·\The macro only records data in the first two columns. Column C contains equations that automatically deduct the :active row time sump (see cdl Bll in Exhibit E-1 ) from the first time sramp in the study (cell $B$10) using the ·.function [=Bll-SB$10]. Since the NOWQ funCtion works with the system time in che format DD:HH:,MM:S$.00, column D multiplies the values of column C by the factor 86,400, which is the number ofseconds in a day. The values in column D are easily added or subtracted in the analysis. The analyst may use the remaining columns in the worksheet to code other functions that can be used as real-time coding aids. For example, in a co.mpliance study, a function could indicate the active signal phase recorded in the macro through the function {=lF(Allr"H","RED","")]. This function will return the statement "RED" if cell All cont:~.ins the letter "H" and returns a blank cell otherwise. During a busy li~ld study, this em help the malyst double-check visually whether a key was pressed correctly.
r·)
The "scan recording" and "stap recording" buttons are associated with subroutines in the VB Macro. Exhibit E-2 shom the components of the VB.
'!'~"...
~--
:::r
::np,:~
Sub StartReco«ll"'l () .q .Lppl1cae1on.OnXey "a", •PrlntTiJDe.l" .lp£1l1cacion.onJCey "b", "Ptio.tTiiDeR"
..,. pE.:::!ld::...::Sc=ub"----------- -- -- - --
::~
- - - --
- - --
-
- - -'.
Sub StopReeorcliDq ()
l9P l1cat ion. OnJte r "a" .lpplication.'.OnKey "h"' End Sub Sub PdntTimd() lppl ieacion.lc't iveCell. Valutt • •1• .lpp11cat1on• .&c~1veCeU. Offset (0, 11 •Value • lpplication.lta"ll'! (" J7"t . Value lppUcation • .&ctiveCell.ottset(l, Ot • .lctiV1lte E!ld Sub Sub
Prln~Timei!O
l ppliattioD. • c:t1veC'e11. Value: • •a• lppllcation. ActiV!!Cell. Offset (0, 11 . Value • lpplication. Ranqe ("J7"). Value lpplicaeion • .lctiveCell.ottsec(l, Ot .le
... : ··
I·
The VB macro contains three principle types of subroutines:
• Sub Start &cording, which is associated with the "St:lrt Recording~ control button in the MS Excel worksheet. It assigns the •print1imeA" subroutines to a specific button pressed by the user (in this case the:: letter":~."
or "A").
• Sub SUJp &cording, which is associ:~.ted with the "Stop Recotding" control button in the MS Excel worksheer. It disassociates the "PrintTime" assignmentS from the button press.
• Sub Print1imd, which is the copy and paste procedure discussed above (in this case for the letter "a" or "A"). It prints the selected letter, moves into the next column to the right, copies and pastes the time stamp and moves back to the initial column and down one row. All three subroutines need to be uscr-cusromiud to reflect wharever keys the analyst wishes to use in the study. In rhc oeample shown in Exhibit E-2 only keys "A" and "H" are defined and all remaining keys will simply rerum the key vall.l(. The macro oould easily be enended to include mOSt keys on an ASQI keyboml, including all letters, numbezs and symbols.
Appendix E • S631J
2.0 USEFUL DATA COLLECTION FORMS
Sou=: Rd'er to Exhibit 1-1.
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Passenger Vehicles, Trucks and Miscellaneous Vehicles Tca.flic
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Ccntinud on next page Source: Box and Oppenlander, 1976, p. 40. Refer to Exhibit 4-4.
566 • MANUAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING STUDIES, 2ND EDITION
, 'jJID-'"· :,- g)iii:it·'''!o·,~ ·"'{f.,''f~.(''. '(C· ''jffi;'":li}T-'"7-J';<;;;---y;; •· ~ f_,;,•'>·•••, . ;~ ~W!)l t£% 'ij_:W~Ijf · ' .fu\t '·, w!iJX\lf ~~ . .•.•~ . •- -~•• -~ @JYJiit.l.(l:?"!li . •lYIP£.tj~;.;i'~~H?~...t·'C;r.
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Source: Box and Oppenlmder, 1976, p. 40. Refer ro Exhibit 4-4.
-
Appendix E • 56-::;;ii'
Pas.enp Vehides, Truda and Miacd.l.aneoas Vehldes Summary Sheet
Tttfficon --------------~-------
Date-------------- - - - - - Weather ______________
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Box and Op!>fnlande.r, l976. p. 40. Ihler ro Exhibit 4-4.
568 • MANUAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING STUDIES, lND EOITlON
~liB~·~All Person Summary Sheet Date
Traffic on
Weather
Compiled by
U4
s..ru.., """' .......... Vdides
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VEHICLE TURNING MOVEMENT COUNT FOUR-APPROACH AELD SHEET Time NI S Street - - - -- - - - -- - EI W Street P •
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Date
Weathe r - - - - - - -- - - - - - : - - pas:Cilger cars, ttationwtQOI'I. motorcyd.s, pidc.-\lp lrudu.
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570 • MANUAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING STUDIES, 2ND EDITION
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_
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,_
lane---Olredlon - - - -
lane--- Diredlon - - -
Noted Problems - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
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574 • MANUAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING STUDIES, 2ND EDITION
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2
..,.
0
0
:
G
5
7
9
13
4
0
0 0
2
7
,
6
8
12
i2
0
6
-~
7
r.
u;
a
0
37
Total
- Computations --Totah-.!tldES In queue, lV01 =
64
Ti~iii--QIEU2 JErVEhicle, d_q =(Is • ~) • 0.9 "' ll Ho. of -.rehicl~ stowing per lue each C)-tie =(i(i'Ui A:c~lf{)ec!l corr£di:m fattor.
Source: Refer to Exhibit 6-1.
Cf (fx. A1 S-2)
8C '"-- - --G: --l--..-
t4
·~
s
10
G
= v
Fr.~t'JJn of vehicles slcppng. F\'S = V,: Accet!Oe-:el corredinn dela·f. d,t~ =FVS • CF CCJ~trol delayl<~£hicle, d
9
0
0
lll.fllh.:roft;tlessur\'E)cd. N.:
3iY
9,5
4
8
=ci.q • ci.4
7.o 0.42 !.7
$
. :1.2
s
Appendix E • 57S
I I
.J
FIE1D SHEET· SA11JIIA fiOI! I'UJW ~DY
L~~--------------------~----~--------------------~-----------------
_______ BoundT~
~:
Unk--------------------------------~----------------------
G,.do·
~:
~------------~-------------
w..tl>v. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Oboe,._
,. UM Width: ______ft_ AtH:
I~
Oilier.--------------------Obo
l1me IMcondsl bolwN n 41hwlllcloand'lllo wh.
8thv.h.
8111 ..11.
21 '
2
22
a
22
4
24
I
21
•
21
7
·27
~
:za
•
21
10
30
11
31
12
22
13
sa
14
34
16
,.
17
t
10!1> wh.
I
I
37
38
1t
38
20
40
ColumnS
---lv!lhl· to Exhibit 6-4.
8111wh.
35
,.
~fer
411>-•""'lllo wh.
lOCI! - .
1
1e
Source:
Tomo t - c l l l -n
No.
-
·-
Cal
011
1!00 • TCI!I! Nymb!t o! Obo!l'f!!lont
If
+
'
+ \' + '
lcl
lAS)
. ... .
..
~-
·~
•
.....
'•
.
;o.·- .
.·:-·· ..
.f
,.,.~
'
.
..
-.... ·'
"" "
.
..
..
Survey Dare ' Location
Crosswalk across
End of Survey (to nearest minute)
Numb_er of lanes 'N'
Starr of Survey (to nearest minute)
Roadway Width 'W'
Total Survey time (minutes)
Adequate gap time 'G' Number of Gal s Tally Total
Gap Siu Seconds 8
Computations
Multiply by Gap Size Ga
9 10
R + [W/3.5] + 2(N- l)
G c _ _ _.sec
11
l2 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
T=
total survey rime x60
T=
_ _ _ sec
D=
t
Ds
_ _ _%
24 25 26
r=
. total time of an gaps equal ro or greater than G
27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43
'
Totals
Source: ITE. 1998. ~ferro Exhibit 7-8.
"'
~~.
-
:&OO'MJ1l.&>'~b rJ~:i".JW'l;tfu1:~~~f.'i[~;furiij)£~f'5 :Z," ~~">'::-\";,::.>;:;~~;;;."t.":..'t-?t:rf.;'l1J;: ..~'::.::?.•: .~~'J)• ; .. . ·-··· ,_ .-· - . . ·, '" _- __ ' •.,., " - --- -. - .·<>· :;...... . . .:J :· ~ .·
"'--~''
~-~
~-,-.
~····--
Survey d:tte Crosswalk surveyed
Crosswalk across Divided Ro3dway?
Yes
No
Curb ro curb distance Number of groups Group Size
5 or fewer
Number of rows
Tally
Total
Cumulative
Computations
1
6 [0 10
2
11 ro 15
3
16 to20
4
21 to25
5
26 tO 30
6
31 to 35 36 to 40
7 8
41 to 45
9
46 ro 50
10
lime period studied Number of adequate rraffic gaps Number of minutes in the same period ls the warrant satisfied? Source: ITE, A Program for School Cror1ing Protection: A &commmtkd Practict, 3rd Edition, 1972. Refer to Exhibit 7-9.
578 • MANUAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING STUDIES, 2ND EDITION
Driver Observance of Stop Signs Field Sheet
loca~on
__________________________________________________________
Time
to
Weather ---------------- - ---- - - - - - - - Non-Stopping
Practically Stopped- 0 to 3 mph
Stopped by Traffic
Voluntary Full Stop
c: 0
~
ul
vi z
Right__ _ .:....__
Straight
y
---
~
Straight Voluntary Full Stop
Left
4 Right
Stopped by Traffic
Practically Stopped - 0 to 3 mph
Non-Stopping
c:: 0
~
.... vi z
----- - - - - - - - -
Date
Recorder _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Source: Box and Oppenlander, 1976. Refer to Uhibir 8-4.
Appendix E • >1~
Direction ofT ravel 1rune Date
Area Type._ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ to _ _ _ VVeamer ____________ ______________ _
Observer
c A R
s
T R
u c
K
s
Source: Adapted from MokJrist Compliance with Srandltrr/ Traffic. Refer to Exhibit 8-5.
Driver Observance of Traffic Signals Field Sheet
l~tion
_______________________________________________________________________
ilme
to
Weather --------------------------------------------•• N.S.E. ,., ..... W ••.. un
il!! !" !"
~
1eui!S padwnr
0
"
;: &'
~
c
pa)j
3
l
~
"' "
~
~
."en
60 !!.
Uili~J9 J~ljt MOll~,\
.,..t ~
C'l
;;;
...
"
~ UllaJ!) ___.,._____ ,
··-- .
~ N. S.E.W
· - -· - -· - -· •.. Ufl
~'""''-
Grl!i!n
j ,..~ ;:
c
...:!.3
.."'
Q,
~!!.
,...f ~
C>
Yellow after Green Cl
a
%
["'
~
"
"' ~
,1 Date _______________
:oaie"
Red
~
=
Jumped Signal
I 5
;:
...
.,;
z
'
~~------------------------------
·:Recoril-e;: · · .......... - ... · ····---· ·-···· ·--· --·.. -
Sou=: Box md Oppcnlander, 1976. Refer 10 Exhibit 8-6.
AnnPnrlil< !' • '!i:R 1
,;~~1;1,~~iWiiJ~~·~t.~ift.~~@Wi~&nur11i1£~~::j;~~;;,'t.w!;-.~r~~i:"~;; ··· ... · ·n· • r ·c- · • · • . ,. • • . .. •·• ,~-
Locarion , Direction ofTravel Time Date I
--~·
t ·
.
· , · · . • ,.
·- -
-·
• • • . . ., , .. ,,_.
- .
•
·
.. · .... .
. . . . . . . .~
Area Type
ro
Indication
Wearher Ol»crver Acci.o n
Cars
Trucks
Total Cars
Total Trucks
Turned on GorY
Stopped on R, Waited for G, Turn~ on G On Green Behind a Waiter (above) Turned onG Accempt~
'
to rum on R, turned
onG Full Stop
'
Stopp~ by Cross Traffic
On~No Queue
Stopped by Pedestrian Crossing
No Stop
Full Smp On Red Queue Sropp~ by Cross Traffic
Smpp~ by Pedesrria.n Crossing
Toals Notes: _____________________________________________________________________ Souoce: Adapr~ from Mowrisr Ormp/Uma with Sumtlttrri Traffic Control Drnca. FHWA-RD-89-103. ~fer to Exhibit 8-7.
582 • MANUAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING STUDIES, 2ND EDITION
~~}·
•;· ,,· ....,~~ -,·l'•.
-.-.~::. !' ..f.···n'•";~;•·;::'·~· ~.;.;: , .··..;.:--.•v•... ,... ':'.l'
:[:· . . ·1•.,.
-:· · r
.
-e- 1 :,
· ....... • .. - . ••. · ,.
.::r..">-'~·•.. ~-........\
,."'
,._.
~
·~:II'~J!'.ll!'J~·'flt~J.fr!'..q..\11@'ftl,.~~ l!W%,i!i~W.~v.U~Jif(
Pedestrian Observance of Traffic Signals F'..ld$1><01
LOC
T~ Pedo•tll•••cr=in&
to
of
wea~' --------------------------SLonlhe{N.U .W.) _ __ S!de_ _ _ __
St. in
Oir~cdon
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _
~============~~~----------~~~~ M;~s~~·~hl,-----------lii____TI;o;,,.~,------
1
-
lcrosswalk}
Stepped from Curti on
" ~ I~ ~
-
~ 1:§p .
o!!
,S!
J ~~
"'
~jiiJ
~
I.
,!(
t;
-z l~
I
Croued
O~con•lly
I
::::::::
"' 3:
-
hl~ j~t Q
"
Total
O>ll _ _ _ _ _ _ __ __
Reoorder _ __ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _
Source: Box and Oppenlander, 1976. Refer to E:iliibir 8·8.
Appendix E • ~ 3
Tr.avd-Tune and Delay Study Test Vebide Method Dace
Weacher
Route
Direction
Trip Started at
At
Trip Ended at
Trip #
(l..ocauon)
(Mileag<)
(l..ocation)
(Mllea&
At
Location
Tunc
Location
Symbols or Delay ca= S-Traffic Signals, SS-Srop Sign, Ped-Ped.csuians, BP-Bus
Source: Refer co Exhibit 9-2.
\l 1 C RA a
U.cHJIIAI f\J; TRl\N<;I)f\Q T/\Tif'\1\1 t J.Ir:lf,I CC: Oit.lr.. <"TI I n ii:C
~t. IC"'\
Cr'IITinM
Type
Delay (accond.s)
l:r.l;
.
•
.... . .
.
.
.
.. -· ..
..
-
••
·~
.
lind-Time and Delay Study Test Vehide Mechod -Volume E:rte11.1ion Dare
Wearhec
Route Sw-rPoinr
E.nd Point
Ru.n
StartTtme
FuilibTame
Travel Tame
Vehides Met
Vehides Ovuuking
Vehicles hssed
V~des
Start Tame
FuilibTimc
TcavdT..me
VehidesMct
Ovutaldng
Vehicles Passed
Bound 1
2 3
4
5 6
7 8
9 10
Total
Average Ru.o _ _ Bound 1
2
..
3
4 5 6 7
8 9 10
'
Total
Avenge Comments O~cvec
Source: Refer to Exhibit 9-7.
Location ______________________________________________________________________
Time
Weather _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _
tQ
Date _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ Adults
Observer _ __ __ _ _ __ _ _ _ __ _ Children
tN 1:
c:
::2
::2 :E
~
~
6
u
11:I
~
:;
~
~
Street Name
....
E z"' ~
~
VI
Adults
Children
Source: Refer To Exhibit 12-1.
586 • MANUAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING STUDIES, 2ND EDm ON
~
~~~~~~~:~~~~~~-fl~~... l-~ti:~:·~~*;~ti~:,;~~~:,;:~.fi~~ :·~;~(7~.~-~~Y:~::·~!ff~r\!~i~:o·7~~-~1 Loc3tion
1ime
Date
Walking Speed
Crossing Dimnce
Critical Gap
Gap Siu (sec)
Tally
10
13 14
--'
--
17
I
19 20 21
-~I
15 16 18
Total
--
12
I
---
-
II
.
-
:..--
-
22
-
23 24
--
25 26 27 28 29
-
30 . 31
-
32
..-
~
-
33 34
-
35 36 37 38
--
'
39 40 Tow Adequau Gaps
-
Source: Refer to Exhibit I 2-8.
Appendix E • 547'
Take a walk an d u se this checklist to rate your neighborhood 's walkability;
Loca tion of walk - - - - - -- -
Rating Sca le:
1
2
1. Did you have room to walk? 0 Y•
0 S\ile"WalSu oc pelbl tQft.t 1104 .opJ~4!'d $\d.......Ju, ...... ~
«ceck.&
O S".&~..,.~-""""*'pol'"~ .ap..
.....)l.ery. . . ., .... . c. [J No .~.s-m.. or ibo.Sdtu 0 Too JnOCh tnlic
'Ia;;;=====
c_ Loc:uior».ofptoblcmc . , . .... Rodac; (clodt on<) t2S4S6
Ov..
ONo
c v...
ONo
ov..
ONo
ov..
ONo
0 Yo
IHMdbe"'""bJ41n.tn:~
0~.!'-ot~ -------
=~-:.~=:~:O:o~ Cro. 'Witb ctM ape?
OScvy~
0Non...UIIJII>oo4 Dlny, kltt crnn.te or ltrllllh CJ Dlny olr 4., ., n Knabilt ftlUo!l 0 SoiiWthlna • • _ _ __ .
0
Loaodonootp-
6
How does your neighborhood stack up? Add up your r&tings and de cide.
0 Scnv ~ Dtlwn... c--·ot.-,....-~ C OWDOt",.W.to~~chl:~
0 Spe4 ~co....._. It ttuo11Qb ....c Uytau «
4...... ""-c-> .....•llal>nl
..... ------ -
U-l4 C4hbatd 'Jbt ha¥e • put
l . __
21 ...'15 Cclebc:u•a We. Y~r
s.__
1'-20 Obr.bat\t n...,d,1 WOf'l:.
··--
oo......-r..
c~,:..:-:-,
·--
:t. _ _
C Tu...t iDOl» pro,.•croc&lng:dt• slr'Ht
T otal _ _
....,...._. ... -cans.
..........hood lo ,....,. _...
u .. u , ,.. ,o
It oeeddon ot'WOitc. Yo. dottft'W blcl.rtbu tt.t. h''• • d.ialt.c , . ......,
~~·"""--> I 2 ) .. I 6
Now th~t you've identified the problems, go to the neJ!,'t page to f ind out how to fix tllem.
Source: FHWA. 2009. Rdcr to Exhibi< 12-13.
lAhf\111/\f ()C
- ----
1 2a •s'
3. Did drivers behave w ell?
a
-
0 Some~l..-.,rt~\ngl.: 0 NH4fd ,.oot SCU&. Oowtn. ot tNft
RAdacol
a...._ (clo<\t_,
CtlR
I ..
~bdi::ftc~•JMO!
OS
occpw~-.coei'Ot'
C N..-..,p.l c_.._« ............. 0 ~can Wodr.M4 ou "rit'W' ot....:lc 0~« ptan• ~ow ntw oCwalk 0 NHded ~rb runpt ot c:anp ..eded ~
OY..
C'ftlaa~wwbr ~ ~oo~~lj
5. Was your walk pleasant?
0 Somt pa>~~~.....
s
•
s.., .... _ld.,.. """ ..... t-adono ~pod>.._ --
O~WIJKIO WW.
2 ) ..
'
R.dll&l (
0 1'b6: s[. . . -.&4• u - - a:.o ~or did
s
4
.... ...,..,.... •c.•.-
.,)456
2. Was it easy to cross streets? 0 ......
·-·
_~
4. Was it easy to follow safety rules? Could you and your child ...
0 Sonw pfObl.ttb: 0
J
........ ...
---
TO/\M('Qf'\QTATint.l
rl~lrl•trrnl•tr
I"Tl ,,.., ... ,..
""'•"' ,.....,,_,_. ,
""
~·
!
:
0.
,
-. :
.
... . . . ·'
..
'.•. ••
.....~~""#.'« ·''.t"': ...
~~
,
••
~Xt~~Jii~~~gn?fjj
Boarding Count Field Sheet
\ Route
Block Number
Day
Date
Weather
Observer Route Segment
Boardiog Passengers Reduced
From
Souzce: Refer to Erltibit 13-6.
To
Full Fare
Reduced Fare
Full -+ Transfer
Transfer
..
Transfer
Alll'assq
.
~~~~-~~.:r~~r~z,~~_: ~.J~:~tf¥:· ~~~:~~~~-~J~j,t~::·:.?~~~~!·~:~ -ttJ£~~-¥1~~~:~~!t~~·::·-~·$!I Point Check Fidd Sheet Bus Stop Number - - - - - - -- - - -- -
Rome (s) - -- - -- - - - - - -- - Dar -~--0 Depu ting U>ad
Dar~ - - -- - - - - -
a Arriving U>ad Route Number
I Direction
Wearher - - - -- - - - - -- - - - Observer
Block Number
Vehicle Capacity
Arriving Tune
Scheduled
I
Source: Refer To Exhibit 13-7.
590 • MANUAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING STUDIES, 2ND EDITION
Actual
Passengers
, ·~~~t.~~(>·~iji.~~;/ft:_',;;:·;:i~J¥,ir,t),..- ,,p, .. •v
- · ' ' .,,
.~··,•-;_,,•'1"
.;1
.~,
'•'#o•'·
RIOE tHEtK fiElD SHEET
8l0 tK HUMBER
ROUTE NUMBER OATE
DAY
WEATHER 08 SERV Eft
DIH CTI ON OF TRIP SCHEOULECI START TIME
Lou:lo11
I
Oo
Pnsan4ers Oil lu4
Ti..-• Chtc11:
A :marlr.s
!
I
Sou~ ~fer To Exhibit
13-10.
Appendix E • 591
-
,UBUC TRANSPORTATION vtHia.E OELAY FIEI..O SHEET Oq.
o-:
M elhod:
TllpNumber. Tllp lkan llrM: TrlpEnd11""':
Weather:
"oute: Olrection:
VehldoT~:
111
121
locellon
llme•t
131 Time
corwol
point
-d
elo than
.•.
141
(51
(Ill
-d
O.loy
,nmo,
Stop
lime
than
welldng .
COUM
welldng
TOTAL Dt!i.AY TIME, SECONDS
Symbolo lor-Y ca.-: P • po._loedlng. S •
•.w~c
olgnol,
SS • otop algt>. PIC • _....., caro. DP • double patDd. PEO • pectMtrian~ RT • right tuma, LT • a.tt tuma, T • een«ll
congestion, KT •lntenllonally ldlledllrne, 0 • other IOICPialnl•.
Renwrb:
Sou=: Refer to Exhibit 13-11.
m 151-131 Deloy
lime (MeJ
;~:5'1i11 ~ .
.
..
D•
..
.•
..
~
~.
.•
~-
...
.,
..... ..
"
~~j.i:w. o:,.. ?",· .· ~'~~~ ~. ,_ ....
r
Truck Daily Log Sheet
\Dare
Ciry/Area
Beginning Odometer Reading (Starr of First Trip) Ending Odometer Reading (End of Last Trip) Commodity Handled
Stop
Number
Scop Location
Arrival
Departute
!we
ll.IDC
Type of Basiness or Activity
Load Factor for Truck or
Trailer Quantity
Type
After Scop
Notes
Jsr 2nd
~ 3rd
~
: 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th lOth ll"th 12th 13th 14th 15th 16th 17th 18th 19th 20th 21st 22nd 23td 24th 25th Comments Driver
Soutu: Refer to Exhibit 14-7.
:
""''
..
~~~ ;·...-~!110 -~~~w~t-~~~r~ruful&?~~~:v~;-.;;x¥J:~~~lffit~~JJ21J;f~~~~ Suee! Parking Tlltnover Su.mmazy Sheet
Dace S~t
Weather_ __ _ __ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ 1imc
_ _____________________________ End1imc__ _____ _ _ _ ____ _ _ __
Location
Facility
Block
Facility
Type
Number of Stalls
Total Tumover Vehicles
I
Ho11tly
Turnover Rate (vehid es/stallf bour)
~mmcn~--------------------------------------------------------------------~----Observcr Source: RdU 10 Exhibit 16-1I.
600 • MANUAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING STUDIES, 2ND EDITION
~~~~~a~
_' .!.,.•
'iif~~~a1i/'¥ ~~~~.r.:-t; · . .,._.,. .... :·~.+::::;"':;·.v.O::.·!t··.;~:·G·-~~¢.-~;r~..,.,-;,4'~~~- ~ ..,-;* -.~.:,_ ~ .. : ·~ , . . .-J~ y~~ ...~ • ::;t;·lf1!~ ~: .o"t-.,..,~9'""';a~-~~~;"i~~-:::4·· :?(·~'_;~~-:.·.}•.i;.:-:~t,:-.'i,.·.~-':'1;~~.:-·!!;.~-':~~k~.)~·:Jo:,:__·:.-- · ·.,,......:~~.-\ ~-~\
!
Parking Survey
The \ Department ofTr:mspomuion is conducting an analysis of the patlcing conditions in chis area. We are asking each driver to complete the following questionnaire. Your answers will be kept anonymous and data will be summarized so that the analysis and report will in no way disclose data on individual!. We thank you in advonce for filling out this brief survey. Your time is valuable, and the answers you give will help us improve parking in the area. I. What is the primary purpose of your trip? (check only one)
OWork
0
Tourism/~creation
0 Personal Business (Medial, Banking, Socia.!, etc.)
O School
0 Shopping
I
0 Other (please specify):
I
2. What was the specific location you visited immediately after parking your car here? Street address or bwinw narne: 3. How long were you parked at chis locaLion? hours
minules
4. Where did your trip start (where did you come from just prior to parking here)? Nearest street intersection: 5. Please share any additional comments you have about parking in chis area; Source:: ~er to Exhibit 16-12.
Appendix E • 601
~iB;~~-.~ .:~~~~~~~~r Parking lotervicw Sheet Weather
Date
EndTtme
Start lime Location Trip Purpose
Tune
(Work, School, Shopping. Start (Parlred)
End {Left Stall)
Trip Destination
Office Use Only DW"atioo
Personal,
Street adress or Bo.siness
Other)
name
Hours
Miou~
Walking DisWICC
'j I
( I
Comments O~rvet
Source: Refer to Exhibit 16-13.
i'~~·!)ibit E;_39. Traffic Conflict F,orm Wlth Or~ line Per,Tun~ · P~rl~~ :;~t:~: ;.:. : ·..
.. '·!
.:
I
:i
;~,,-:.~} · ~~~
. .. . -r•O
~-
•( .'·:: ~···.' ~ ~'~.\:.:t}:~\~:;~ ~~~;~~
INTERSECTION TRAFFIC CONFLICTS SUMMARY
Location
Leg Number(s) Date
..
..
~---
i .i 1 "".,
Cl3 :::
'§e
8
~
~ ~
1 <
Observer(s)
C=Conflict I;el\~1\111:
Same Directio~
Right-
RightSlow Lane Opposing Thm Same Vehicle Change Left-Tum From· Right Direction Thm
RightThrough Tum FromFromFrom· R!ght Right Left LeftThm
c sc c sc c sc c sc c sc c sc c sc
Total C + SC \
Length of Recording Period
SC - Secondary Conflict
Daily Count • Rate Per 1,000 Veh
Source: Parlcer and Zegeer, 1988. Refer to Exhibit 18-22.
0
LeftTum
il
·A ll Through RightAll Sam~ Through Thm On From- From·· Direction CrossLeft Red Left Traffic
sc c sc c sc c sc c sc c sc c sc
~
.'i';:;.::,titW~~ ~~tr.v....;...r~~·~;..-~'.i;!'!la~'#"'"'''-· !'!!~~,,,,, "~'''"''"""*~;,!~•<;,.~":r"':>-,;P,"-:-:.,~;,~1".f''·
~~~~-u,~~~· ··.~ ~~·~.JI.1,~1Wr~-~W!-~i~l~.~Jf~!:t·~~~ ~1.3f=t~~~.~~;;. :::sz~~..::.~~~- ~~r ~f~:?:o:~~l?:r.-~~:~.~J:t~:t~,~~t~i~
ACTOR CODES
ACTION CODES
Name: Date: Time Period:
Intersection:
Direction (leg with actor I ): Weather:
Time
Actor I
Action I Actor 2
Action
Source: Hummeretal.• 1989. Refer To Exhibit 18-23.
604 • MANUAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING STUDIES, 2ND EDITION
Comments
rnrn rnrn rnrn rnrn IIJQOO'
G.oQII'liPI'I0c1oc•lioon
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A MDT. S,·c average annual daily
0
•••
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.................
ADA. See Americws wirh Disabilities Act
traffic
ADT. Su average daily traffic
MSHTO. See Amcri~n Association of State Hiehway and Transpon:a tion Official; .
ad,•anced traffic management (ATM), 9, 179
MSHTO Highway Safecy Design and Operations Guide, 385 accderacion/deceleradon dday, 100 on fr~eways, 191 accelerometers, 407-408, 407f advisory speed and, 409r, 412 for bicycles, 242 centerline markings and, 139 definition of, 9 for pedestrians, 242 acccpred gap, 110- 112 definition of, 9 Ramsey and Roudedge method and, lllc accepted lag. 9, 110 access, 463-483 classification for, 435r accessibility for bicycles, 252 definition of, 9 for pedemians, 238, 252 for public rraruport:aion, 270 Acccssibilicy Communicy Transportation in our Nac:on .(ACTION), 264 accident modification fac[Qr (AMP), 9, 375-378 accumulation srudies, of parking, 330- 332,332f acknowledgments, on written reports, 551 ACTION. Se-e Accessibility Community Transportation in our Nation
advisory speed, 406-4 12 accelerometers and, 409t, 412 ball-bank indicator and, 409c, 4ll-412,4lh data reduction and analysis for, 409-412 definition of, 9 design equation method for, 410, 4!0t · design speed and, 406 samples for, 408 aerial swveys for densitj•, 187 for iTD, l72 air cargo, 293 air quality, 457-460 nonaruinmcnt area and, 457 reportS on, 460, 460f standards for, 458c algorithms, 205 for CF. 10, 202 delin iri<>n of, 9 DTA, 211 for gap acceptance, 13, 222 for lane-changing, 15, 225 for micro~copic model, 202 NGSIM, 204, 204f for operating speed, 227 optimization, 16 for simulation, 19, 205,218 alleys, 419 ill-vehicle sampling for spor speed, 86-88 spot speed and, 136-137 American Association of Stare Highway and Transpon:ation Officials (~HTO), 9, 385 collisions and, 348
0
0
•
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•
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freeways ~nd, 178 JSD 3nd, 1I 2, 115 TCDand, 144 f..meri~n
National Standard Practice for Roadway Lighting, 41 5
Americans wirh Disabilities Acr (ADA), 128. 385
AM F. See accident modification fuctor · analogy, 475
.~ .I
AJ'J.OVA Su one-way analysis of variance APC. See automatic passenger counting
.,i ~;
appendix, in wri tten reports, 552 approaches collisions ac, 369 conuol delay at, 222 definition of, 9 delay ac, 210 to interseaions, 28, 210, 488 lefc-rurn signals at, 355 of minor screec, I 25 roundaboulS and, 46 speed at, 79. 98, 115,401 video ar, 65 volume :u, 44, 47, 146t
..
;
.. ; :;
approach sight triangle, 113 appropriate knowledge, principle of. 26 area chart, 544, 544f classifications, 419-420 counts, 49-57 cransponation plan, 477-478 arithmetic mean, 523-524 Arizona Freight Network Analysis Decision Support System, 295,
296f urival volumes, inrersecrion counts and,45. 45f Index • 609
d
·. '
ATM. See advanced traffic management ATR Su automatic traffic recorder attainment area Clean Air Act and, 9 definicion of, 9 EPA and, 9
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automatic coums for bicycles, 242-245 data reduction for, 68 for Aow, 183 freeways and, I ~Sf for pedesuians, 242-245 periods for, 69 for public transportation, 281-283 fortesr vehicles, 165 for TID, 161, 165 for volume data collection, 62-66 automatic passenger counting (APC), 272, 281 ITS and, 281 automatic traffic recorder (ATR), 192 automatic vehicle identification (AVI), 173 automatic vehicle location (AVL), 281-282 GPSand, 281 ITS and, 281 uavel time variability from, 282f visualization with, 282f pavement markings. s~~ also cemerline markings compliance with,_144 at crosswalks, 388 reaordlecrivity of, 139-140, 139t reuorellecrometer for, 139f average, 522. mobility, 197 for spot speeds, 523f average annual daily .traffic (AAD1},49,57, 192 .collisions and, 355 ddinition of, 9
Avcrage-CarTcchnique, 161
average daily traffic (ADT) conrrol counrs and, 55- 56 cordon count and, 50 definition of. 9 volume and, 119 average day, 474 definition of. 9 eight-hour vehicular volume warrant and, 124 four-hour vehicular volume warrant and, 125 peak hour warrant and, 127
AVI. s~~ automatic vehicle identification AVL. s~e automatic vehicle location axle counts, 68
8 ball-bank indicator, 407-408, 407f advisory speed and, 409t, 411-412, 411! centerline markings and, 139 definition of, 9 bar graphs, 27t grouped, 28, 28f stacked, 29, 29f for volume counts, 71f beacon, 10 before-and-after test, 92, 93t analysis for, 492 for bicycles, 255 comparison in, 494 with conuols, 492-494, 493f drawbacks to, 489-490 in experiments, 489-494 hismry in, 489, 491 for lighting, 415 maturation in, 489,491 overcoming drawbacks, 490-492 for pedesuians, 255 forTCD, I36 units in, 489, 493 warm up period in, 491 benefit-cost ratio for councermeasures, 374t, 377379, 378t definition of, 10
for lighting. 425-426, 42)t biased responses, in surveys, 513 bibliography, in written reporrs, 552 bicycles, 237-259 accelerometer:l for, 242 accessibility for, 252 automatic counts for, 242-245 before-and-after test for, 255 classification for, 4!9 compliance and, 252 ,,.. #-·confiict anp, 251- 252 data collection for, 253- 256 definition of. I0 GPS for, 242 handheld count boards for, 239 HCM and, 240 . intersection counts and, 46 laptop computers for, 239 .LOS and, 240 manual counrs for, 238-2·h map for, 259f MOE for, 253-254 networks and, 252-253 'fCD and, 252 time-lapse photography for, 242 uavel paths and, 252 visualization for, 258 volume and, 238-245 bicycle lane definition of. 10 QOS and, 253 bi.keabilicy checklists, 252 bikeways, 419 bins, for gaps, 110 blanket method, 139 block and curb face numbering system, for parking, 326f block designs, 496
A Blu~rintfor NEPA Docummt Contmt (NCHRP), 452 bottlenecks, graphs for, 32
BRT. s~e bus rapid transit
buffer index, 197 build-up, 477
i: Bureau ofU:nsus, 450, 508t
central tendency, 522-526
bus rapid transit (BRT) ddinicion of, 10 public transponat.ion and, 264
CF. &(car-following CFCs. &( chlorolluorocarbons CFS. S(( Commodity Flow Survey
c CAD. s~e computer-aided design calibration, 205 ddiniuon of, 10 of inputs, 223-227 for lasers, 85 for radar, 85 from screen-line ~unts, 54 forSLM, 455 for spot speed, 88 with video-base counts, 65 capacity, 479-480 definicion of, 10
charts, 27c area, 544, 544f Row diagrams, 548, 548f high-low graphs, 543, 544f organization, 547, 547f picrograms, 545, 545f project progress, 549, 549f scatistical maps, 546, 546f cypcs of. 543-549 checkers data collection and, 264, 272 definition of, 10 lice~-placc marching by, 334 for public uanspomtion, 280 surveys by, 284
capacity limitations, principle of, 27 i· I
carbon dioxide (C02), 457 car-following (CF), 225-226 algorithm for, 10, 202 definition of. 10 sensicivity analysis and, 206
chcckiiscs bikeability, 252 for graphics, 550 for prescntacions, 558-559 quescions, 506 for transportation studies, 6t walkability, 252
Carload Rail Waybill Sample, 294t chlorolluorooubons (CFCs), 457 causal chaio for'coUisions, 356, 357, 372 definition of. 10 CBD. &( ccncnl business district cellular phone observ:~.cion method probe vehicle and, 174 for TID, 172 centerline markings accderomctcrt and, 139 ball-bank indicator ~d, 139 definicion of, I0 middle ordimte and, 15 rai.scd reflective pavement marker and, 139 sensors and, 66 cencnl business district (CBD) definition of, 10 parking for,-325 trucking and, 300
TTDand, 161
chord for curve radii, 408-410 definition of, I 0 CL S~t conlidence interval classificaciorts a.rea. 419-420 for areas, 419-420 for bicycles, 419 counts, 54 ddinicion of, 10 of inventories, 316 for mobility and aecess, 43 5t for pedesuians, 419 for road sumces, 41St of streets, 312f. 418£,419,435, 436f of vehicles, 185-186, 185f
Clean /Ur Act attainmem ue~ and, 9 construction impacts from, 459 clearance.interval compliance wirh, 151 ddinirion of, I 0
~
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clearance lose time, I OS, 1 09
(
clear sight triangles, 113
..
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{
closed questions, 506 cluster sampling, 502-504 COr Set carbon dioxide
t/ (.
coding and reduction errors, 513 codliciem of variation (CV), 400, 401 collectors, 419 collisions, 119, 347-379 MDT and, 355 AASHTO and, 348 at approaches, 369 causal chain for, 356,357, 372 causes of, 357 countermeasures for, 369-379 data analysi.s for, 357-379 dara collection for, 348-357 data reduction for, 354-355 EB and, 368 engineering judgment and, 355, 365,426 erroncow data for, 356-357 frequency of, 359 involvtmena and, 358 lightingand, 420-423 maps and, 354 . MLand, 191 N/D for, 424-425 n.etwork screening for, 359-369 night percentage for, 424 numbcts and trends with, 358 person injury in, 351-352 random narure of, 356 rates of, 359--360 RQCand,364 spot maps for, 359 SWP and, 365-368, 366t,.367t types of, 351, 35h .
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unreported, 356 volume and, 354
.
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collision diagrams, 369-371, 370f dclinit.ion of. I 0 TCD and, 1 ~ 7 collision rare for section (RSEC), 359-360
·.
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collision rare for spoc (RSP), 360
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collision races, 11 9
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collision reporcs, 348- 352, 349f- 350f definition of, 10 lighting :>nd, 42 I RSA wd, 384 TCD wd; 144 collisions road surfaces and, 370 SPF and, 368 collision severicy definition of. I 5 EPDO wd, 360-362 I
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comparison in before-and-after rest, 494 in experiments; 487-438 history and, 494 maturation and, 494 regression to the mean and, 494 units and, 494 compatibilicy, principle of, 27
compliance. Su al.!o TCD comp!iance bicycles and, 252 with clear;mce interval, 151 with crossw-•lk1, 252 definicion of, I 0 freeways and, I 86- 187 with HOV lane, 186 with no·left-curn, 150, 150f with pavement marking, 144 pedestrians and, 144, 154- 155. 154(, 252 with IITOR, 152-1 53, 152f with school crossings, 144 with STOP signs, 149, 149£, 155-156 with 'fCD, 143-156, I46t, 186-187 with traffic signals, 151, l 5Jf composition of graphics, S41-542 of vehicle cypes, 219 computer-aided design (CAD), 540 definition of. 10 for signs, 315f concurrent flow HOY lane, 10, 180 condition diagrams, 119,371- 372, 371f definition o(, II for intersections, 313f
plrking and, 325, 331 r
....
-·
controls, lx:fore-and-afte'r-test with, 492-494,493f oontrolcounu,54-57,243 MDT and, 57 ADT.and, 55-56 daily factors in, 55-56, 56r DDHVand,57 definition of, II growth factors and, 55 pe:U: hour and, 57 sample3 and, 69 seasonal factors in, SS-56, 56c control delay, 98 at approaches, 222 definition of. 12 6eld procedure3 for, 100-102 HCM wd, 98, 100 LOS and, 102 queue and, 100
confidence interval (CI), 147, 376, 529
control poinu, on freeways, 161
confidence level, 364, 399t, 486 definition of, II speed and, 83, 83t for spor speed, 92, 92t with TCD compliwce, 148t, ISS
convenience sampling, 504
conflict. Su also traffic conflicts bicycle3 and, 251- 252 definicion of, 11 at intersections, 391 f-394f multiple threat and, 252 pedestrians wd, 251- 252 vehicles and, 251- 252 congestion gra.phs for, 32 HOY lane wd, 179
612 • MANUAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING STUDIES, 2ND EDITION
control station, 69, 243
coordinated signal system, warrants
for, 131 copyright norice, on written reports, 551 cordon count, 50-53 accumulation computations for, 53r ADTand,50 definition of. 11 elW!lple of, 53f O·D and, 50 summary sh~t for, 51f-52f cordon line, 431,438,449
cosine error
crosswalks complil'l~e
wirh, 252 definition of. 12 pavemera marking at, 388 pedestrians and, 239f QOSand, 253 unsignalized inrersecrions and, 252 volume and, 238
·definitioH or, 11
for lasers, 80, Sit for radar. 80, 81 r, 81 t cost-effectiveness. See benefic-cost racio counrs. See specific count types count bo:l.l'ds. See handheld count boards
cumulative frequency diagrams, 519-520
countermeasures benefic-cost rario for, 374t, 377- 379, 37Bt for collisions, 369- 3 79 definition of, 11 e\•aluarion of, 379
cumulative frequency distribution, 518 of spot speeds, 520r
count expmsion, 70t, 238 -lefinicion of. II sampl~s and, 69 coverage counts AADTand, 57 definicion of, ll sarnpl~s and, 69
curb parking, 326-327 map for, 328f
Current Industrial Reportr, 297 curve radii, 190, 406 chord for, 408-410 middle ordinate for, 408-410 CV. See coefficient of variation
cycle length definition of, 12 for signali:z.ed intersections, 44 simulation and, 202 TID and, 99
crash, 119. See also collisions definition of, 11 warrancs for, 131 crash frequency definition of, 11 SPF and, 18, 368 crash race, 364 definition of, II elderly and, 348 nonmotoril:ed, 237 regional, 35) crash reduction factor (CRF), 11, 375- 376 crash severity, 11 , 360 CRF. See crash reduction facror crime data collection and, 8 lighcing and, 426 critical gap, 247-249 definition of, 11 estimation of, 111-112 gap acceptance and, 226 for pedestrians, 247, 249
D daily factors, in control councs, 55- 56, 56t daca collection for bicycles, 253-256 checkers and, 264, 272 for collisions, 348- 357 crime and, 8 forms, 564 for freeways, 191-195 individual vehicle selection method for, 79-84 for inventories, 318-320 for lighting, 415-424 for multi-use paths, 241 f for parking, 332-339 for pedestrians, 253-256 pitfalls o( 8 point data, 221-222 for public transportation, 272-285, 273f
for RSA, .185-388 s:lfec-f with, 7- 8 s~ga:ents, 222 for sirnulati.-.:>, 218-228 for sp<>c speed, 84-89 for surveys, 500-50 l forTCD compliance, 146-155 wich resr vehicles, 161-165 for traffic conAiccs, 394-405 training for, 5 for cransponarion planning, 438-448 for tra!lsponarion studies, 4 forTTD, 161-165 for volumes, 58-66 data display types and purposes, 27t data mining, 12, 40 data reduction, 516-522 for advisozy speed, 409-412 for automatic counts, 68 foe collisions, 354-35) for freeways, 195-198 fo r lighting, 424-426 from manual counts, 67 for parlting, 339-340 from peak hour, 67c, 68f for RSA, 388-389 for simulacion, 229-233 for spoc speed, 88-93, 89t for traffic conBiccs, 405-406 foe rransportacion planning, 448-450 for1TD, 165-166
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dB. See decibels DDHY. See directional design hourly volume decibels (dB), 452-453 default parameters and distributions, 205 delay. See also specific delay types ac approaches, 210 definicion of. 12 intersections and, 98- 104 pedesrrians and, 249 public transportation and, 279f TCDand, 123
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delay per person, 197 Index • 613
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ddinearor, 12, 370, 374r
detector occupancy, 184
definition of, 12
demand
diagrams, 27c
density. Su also spttd-flow-densicy
:rr.-~··:1>-;-
i:'Zi:.:~~
departure sight rriangle,l13 STOP signs and, 114.
departure volumes, intersection counts and, 45, 45f descriptive star~scics, 522-528 population and, 522 samples and, 522 for spot speed, 91- 92
design of experiments, 485-496 factorial, 494-496 of ~phics, 25-34, 540-550 for interchanges, 203 principles of. 26 of surveys, 499-514 of tables, 542-543
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design equation method advisory speed and, 410, 41 Or design speed and, 410
design spttd advisory speed and, 406 definicion of. 12 design equation method and, 410 on freeways, 178 stopping sight
Duktop Rrfirmu for Crash
&dut:tion Factors (FHWA), 375
ti !' I
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collision, 10, 137,369-371, 370f condition, II, 119, 313f. 371-372, 37lf C\J mulativc frequency, 519-520 Bow, 71, 72f. 548, 548f frequency, 519 for intersection Aow, 71, 72f site, 372, 372t
dilemma zone
··1·
.: Department of Mo\or Y~hicles (DMV), 353 .: . .
I.
definicion of, 12 laser and, 79-82 radar and, 79-82
dererminisric, 205
definition of, 12 rraffic, 219 transportation, 463, 481 volumes, 223-224 aerial surveys for, 187 definition of. 12 detector occupancy and, 187 on freeways, 187, I 88f LOS and, 187, 188f occupancy and, 187. . .,... UAVs for, 187 ! \ ~~~
Doppler effect
density and, 187
definition of. 1i lighting and, 370
directional design hourly volume {DDHV) control counts and, 57 definition of. I2
double-barrel questions, 507 double negatives, 507 driver behavior, 273 ITS and, 223 RSA and, 384 simulation and, 210-21 2, 225-2;2.7-·' · ;r·
dr:iveways, intersections and, 97-1 15 DTA Su dynamic traffic assignment dwelling-unit inrervic:w3, 447 dynamic traffic assignment {DTA) algorithm, 211 4~finition of, 13 simularion and, 211
direct measurements, of speed, 79 disclaimers, on written reports, 551 discrirninabiliry. principle of. 26
E
dis ranee measuring instrument
EADT. Su estimated average daily
(DMI), 12, 162, 165
traffic
disuibucion
Easter Seals Project AC110N, 264
cumulative frequency distribution, 518, 520t default, 205 definition of, 12 frequency disuibucion uble, 90t, 517-520, 517t Poisson-distribution, 491, 492, 492f relative frequency
diverging diamond interchanges, 49 DMI. &e distance measuring instrument DMV. &e Department of Motor Vehicles Domestic Waterborne Commerce, 294t
EB. See Empirical Bayes edge line markings, 13, 372t eight-hour vehicular volume warrant, 124-125, 125t ElR &t environmental impact report
EIS. Set environmental impact statement dderly, crash race and, 348 emergency scenario modeLs, simulation and, 212-2 14, 213f emissions, 459 from RR. 292 from truck.!, 292 from vehicles, 217-218, 217f
Empirical Bayes {EB), 35~ coUi.sions and.• 368 HSM and, 368
~ngineering judgment
\ collilion5 and, 355. 365, 426 1 definition of, 13 •. growth factors and, 55 STOP 5igns and, 132 warrants and, 21, I23 YIELD ligos and, 133 engineering plans, 32-34, 33f engineering study definicion of, 13 speed limit sign warn.na and, 134 sratutical analysis and, 515 TCDand, 135 written reports and; 513-554 environment, 451-460 simubtioo and, 217-218, 2!7f
Evaluating lntnucticn improvnnmt.t: An Enginuring Study Guidt(NCHRP), 208 Excel,536
expert sampling, 504-505 ,
environmental impact statement (EIS), 452, 464
expressways, 419
Environmental. Protection Agency (EPA), 9, 16, 459 atuinment area and, 9
figures, in written reports, 5 52
experiments before-and-after rest in, 489-494 comparison in, 487-488 design of, 485-496 inferential statistics wim, 486-487 paired comparison in, 488, 488t random assignment in, 487 unpllied comparisons in, 487
express toll lane (El), 177 definition of, 13 MLand, 179-180
~lation method, for lTD,
172
F
EPDO. &e equivalent property damage only
factorial design, 494-496 ANOVA and, 494-495, 495c means te5t for, 495t random assignment in, 496, 496t
s~~ evacuation
response curve
estimated average daily traffic (EAD1),119 estimation, in inferential statistics, 528-529 ET. &e express toU lane evacuation freeways and, I90 simulation and, 212-2 I4 evacuation demand zones, 213 evacuation response curve: (ERC), 13, 213, 214f .
Floating-urTc:chnique, 161 flow automatic couna for, 183 definition of. 13 freeways and, ~ 82-183 HCMand, 182 speed and, 183 vph and, 182
flow rate. Su also satur2Iion Bow rate ddinition of, 13 peak hour and, 57 FMCSA. s~~ Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration
FABCO, 351-352
ERC.
flashing, 13, 492, 520
flow di.agrarns, 548, 548f for imecscecions, 71, 72f
EPA.. Su Environmental Protection Agency
equivalent property damage only (EPDO) eomsion severicy and, 3~362 ddinicion of. H
FHWA. Su Federal Highway Administration field reviews, 388
executive summary, in written reports, 552
environmental impact report (EIR); 464
FFS. Su fm~-flow speed
facton, 486
focal points, in graphics, 540-542, 541 f foorways, 419 forced stop, 149 Foreign Waterborne: Commera, 294t
40 visualization, 24, 39-40, 40f
FARS. s~~ Fatality Analysis Reporting System
four-hour vehicular volwne warrant, 125-127, 126t
Federo.l Highway Administration (FHWA), 13, 143, 192,204, 205t, 353,375,384,456 on freeway work zone5, 190 noise and, 453 shared-usc pam and, 253 Federal Motar Cartier Safety Administration (FMCSA), 353 Federal Transit Administration (FTA), 13
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I
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foceword, on written reports, 551
FAF. &~ Freiglu Analysis Framework
Fatality Analysis Reporting System (FARS), 353
I
;I
fractional factorials, 496, 497t frames, 501-502 free-flow speed (FFS), 99 ISO and, 112 lTDaod, 104 freeways, 177-198, 178f. 4 19 AASHTO and, 178 ac:celeracion/decdcration delay on, 191 automatic counts and, 19.5~ . compliance and, 186-:187
I .I
-
control poinrs on, 161 data collection for, 191- 195 data reduceion and analysis for, 195-198 definition of, I 3 deruiryon, 187, IS8f des;gn speed on, 178 evacuation and, 190 Aow and, 182-183 gaps and, 186 GP on, 178 HCM and, 178, 184£ headway and, 186 incidents and, J90 occupancy and, 184-1 8.5 performance measu res for, 198t queues and, 189 queue length on, I 89 safety and, I 90 segment srudies for, 187-190, 195- 196 SMSand,l83 speed-Row-densi ty on, 184f, 191 spot srudies for, 195- 196 system monitoring for, 197 TID on, 188-189 vehicles on, 185-186, 185£ volume on, 196£ weavilig segmenu and, 183 work zonc:5 on, 190
handheld count board< for, I 23 in- road seMors for. 186 measurement of, 249- 250 pedesrrians and, 246-250, 248f percentile and, I I 0 rejected, 17 school crossingsand, 128-129, l30r TCD and, l23 time, I 14-115 unsignaliud incersecrions and, 123
General Estimates System (GES), 353 general purpose lanes (GP) concurrent Row HOV lane and, 10 definition of. 13 on freew2ys, 178 HOV and, 179 HOV lane and, 180 genec:~.tion stud ies,
of parking.
330-332
frequency, of noise, 453 freq uency diagrams, 51 9
gcom~ tric dday, 98
definition of, 12 field procedures for, l 02- I 03
frequency distribution table, ) 17-520, 517t for spor speed, 90t
GES. Su General Estimates Sysr~m
FTA Su Federal Transit
GHG. Su gr~enhous~ gases
full scop, 149
GIS. See geographical information
gaps, 109- 112. Su also accepted gap; critical gap bins for, 110 definition of. 13 field pro~dures for, II 0 freewa)'$ and, 186
Graeco-Lari n square, 496
graphics -~ ch: ckliscs for, 550 communicalion with, 2S-34 com posilion of. 541-542 design of, 25- 34, 540-550 foc:t.l poinrs i.n. 540- 542, 541£ visual weight in, 541f
global positioning sysrem (GPS) AVL and, 281 for bicycles, 242 defin ition of, 14 for pedestrians, 242 probe vehicle wd, 174 for rest vehicles, 16 1- 162 for iTD, 161-162
616 o MANUAL OFTRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING STUDIES, 2ND EDITION
..--·
graphs, 27t, 3 l f, 32f, 516 bar, 27t, 28, 28f, 29, 29f, ? If line, 27t, 30- 31, 30f pie, 27t, 29, 29f seep, 27t gravity models, 475 Green Book. See Policy on Geometric Daign ofHighway1 and Struts greenhouse gases (GHG), 457 ground-based radio navigation, 173 grouped bar graph, 28, 28f
growth factors, 477-478 con trol counu and, 55 engineering judgmenc and, 55
Guitknu for lmpkmmtation of tlu AASHTO Srraugic Saftry Plan (NCHRP), 375
guide signs, 11 8, 134-135 definicion of. 14
sysr~ m
global calibration, 223
G
GPS. Su global position ing syscem
graphical display of daca, 24
(G IS), 40, 174 definicion of, 13 spuial distribution and, 522
Ad ministration
GP. s~c gene raJ pu rpose lanes
gap accepcance, 109- 112, 226227. Su also accepred gap algorithm for, 13, 222 erilical gap and, 226 daca analysis for, I I lt-1 Pt definition of, 13 field procedures for, 1 10-111
g~ogr:~.phical info rmacion system
Freighr Analysis Framework (FAF), 294t
gioss:~ rr. in written repo rts, 552
goods movcmenc, 29 1- 305 dm scrs, 294t- 295r urban problems wirh, 299t
H handheld counc boards, 59-60 for bicycles, 239 for gaps, 110, 123 for pedestri:ws, 239 for TCD compliance, I46
handheld speed measurement devices, 80f
hi~ wry
hardwa re-in-the-loop (H[L), 224
in before-and-after rcsc, q~~~. 49 I comparison and, 494 MOE md, 489
hau'rdous materials, 292, 304-305, 304t HCM. Sa Highway Cnpaciry Manual head ways, 109 definition of, 14 freewaysand, 186 in-road sensors for, 186 heavy vehicles, 185-186 HFCs. Su hydro fluorocarbons high-low graphs, 543, 544f h!gh occupancy and toll faciliry (HOT), 177 definition of, 14, 15 HOY and,180 ML and, 179- 180
HOT. See high occupancy and wli faciliry HOV: Su high occupancy vehicle HOY lane compliance with, I S6 concurrem Bow, 10, 180 congestion and, I 79 definition of. 14 GP ;md, 180 occupancy in, 179, 219 HPMS. Su Highway Performance and Moniroring System HS IS. See Highway Safery Informacion System
in-road sensors, 62, 63-64 for gaps, I 86 for headways, 186 sensors for. 64f for spot sp:c:d, 86-87, 87f Institute c.fTransportation Engineers (JTE), 13, 119,464 incelligem transportation systems (ITS) APCand, 281 AVLand, 281 definicion of. 14 driver behavior and, 223 simulation and, 210, 212,223
intermediate areas, 420
I
imerrarer reliabiliry, 13, 254
13, 32, 57. 385, 464 bicycles and, 240 control delay and, 98, 100 l!owand, 182 freeways and, 178, 184f "lmcn:eccion Control Delay Worksheet" from, 100, 101£ LOS and, 185, 240 PCEand, 185 service m=ure and, 227
impact score, 13, 270
intersections. Set also Michigan U-turn intersection; signalized intersections; unsignaliz.ed intersections approaches ro, 28, 210, 488 condirion diagram for, 313f conflict ar, 391 f.-394f conrinuous llow, 49 delay and, 98-104 driveways and, 97-115 flow diagrun for, 71, 72f sarurarion Aow rate for, 215 traffic conflica ar, 391, 39 1f- 394f. 398t
Highway Performance and Monitoring System (HP~S), 294r Highway Safery Information System (HSIS), 353
Highway Saftty Manual (HSM), 13 EB and,368 HIL. s~~ hardware-in-the-loop histogram, 518 for spot speed, 90f. 9lf. SI 8r
incidents definition of. 14 freeways and, 190 index, in wr;tten reports, 552 indirect measurements, of speed, 79 individual vehicle selection method, for d:ua collection, 79-84 inferential statistics, 92, 528-535 estimation in, 528-529 wirh experiments, 486-487 nonparameuic tests in, 533-535 proportions in, 531 run pies and, 528-53 I significance resting in, S32- 533 informative changes, principle of. 27 inputs, 205 calibration of. 223-227 simulation and, 228r
:r.
:'ji l; l
impact, 463-483
hypothetical questions, 508
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Highway Cnpaciry Mam1al (H CM),
hydrofiuorocarbons (HFCs), 457
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interchanges definicion of, 14 design for, 203 diverging diamond, 49 expressways and, 419 overpasses and, 194 single-point urban, 49 weaving segments and, 192
high occupancy vehicle (HOY), 177. Su also HOV lane definition of. ! 0, 14, 15 excess capacil)" a'!d, I 80f GP and, 179 HOT and, 180 MLa.nd, 179-180 person occupancy of. 187
HSM. See Highway Safoty Manna/
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"Intersection Control Delay Worksheet," from HCM, 100, lOlf intersection counts, 44-49 arrival volumes and, 45, 45f bicycle and, 46 departure volumes a.nd, 45, 45f for Michigan U-rurns, 47at signalized inrersccrions, 44-45 Index • 617
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-1 for superscreeu, 47 at unsignaliz.c:d intenections, 44 intersection sight distance (ISO), 112- 11 5 MSHTO and, 115 measurementS for, 113f STOP signsand, 114-115 TCD and, 135 time gaps and, 114-115 YIELD signs and, 114 interviews dwelling-unit, 447 for parking. 336--339, 338f su~and, SIO
training for, 510 for uanspon:acion planning. 438-440 forTTD,l71-172 at workplaces, 447--448 in-vehicle counting technology, 62 inventories, 309- 321 access ro, 317 classification of. 31 6 data collection for, 318--320 for land use, 432-434 oflighting, 415 location systems for, 316 maintenance of. 32~321 parking. 325-332 retrieval of. 317 ston.ge of. 3 17 ror uuupon2tionpbnrung. 432-437 updates for, 321 inverse sampling, 400
K KABCO, 351-352 collision severity and, 15
key counts, 55 L lag. 15, 110 land use, inventories for, 432-434 la.ne-changing, 225-226 algorithms for, 15, 225 definicion of, 15 traffic c.onftica and, 394 laptop computers, 60 for bicycles, 239 for gaps, 110 intersections and, 98 for pedeStrians, 239 for saturation How, 105 forTCD compliance, 146 for test vehicles, 162 la.sers calibration for, 85 cosine error for, 80, 8 II definition of, 15 Doppler effect and, 79-82 lSD and, 112 round off error for, 80 for spot speed, 84-86 Luin square, 496 learning elfect, 210
involvements, collisions and, 358
letter of transmittal, on written reportS, 551
lSD. Stt intersection sight distance
level, 15
ITE. Stt Institute ofTransportarion
lcvd of service (LOS), 32 bicycles and, 240 conrrol delay and, I 02 de6n.i cion of. 15 density and, 187, 188f HCM and, 185, 240 MLand, 198
Engineers iteration, 13, 229 ITS. Stt intelligent transportation systems
J jay-W21ki.ng, 13, 155, 253 judgfnentsampung, 504-505
license-place matching by cbcckers, 334 for parking. 332-336, 333f for path-based councs, 48
for traruporution plan'ning, 44 1-444, 442f, 445f forTTD, 171-172 lighting, 413-426 before-and-after tm for, 415 bencfit-
lights-on studies, 446 Likert scale, 507 line graphs, 27c, 30-31. 30f
Livabk StrtttJ, 482 load, 266t, 267t definition of, 15 public ~n.nsportarion and, 278 loading, trucking and, 299-302 local roadways, 419 location ~ems, for invemories, 316 long-range ua.nsporta.cion plans (LRJ"P), 431 LOS. Stt level of service lose time, 105-109 6dd procedures for, 108--109 LRTP. Su long-rwge transportation pla.ns
M macroscopic models, 202-203 definicion of, 15 for queue length, 105 magnitude, of noise, 452-453
Maintaining Traffic Sign 137
R~trort!foctivir:y,
major street, 419 definition of. 15 parking on, 331 peak hour wur:tnr and, 127 w.arnncs and, 132 managed lanes (ML), 177-198 coUisions and, 191 definition of, 15 LOS and, 198 mea.sures for, 198 types of. 179- 180 VMTand,179 Managed Mocorways, 179 manual counts for bicycles, 238·-242 dar:t reduction from, 67 for pedestrians, 238- 242 periods for, 69 . for public transportation, 273-281 for cest vehicles, 162-165 forTTD srudy, 161 for volume d2u coUcction, 58-62
ManWll on Uniform Traffic Control D(vices.(MUTCD), 16 pedc:suians and, 238 signs and, 132 TCD and, 117- 118, 144 wunnts and, 123, 124 manual speed tr.a~s, 85-86
Maximum-CarTcchniquc, 161
misery index, 197
mean, 91 arithmetic, 523--524 ccnrraltcndency and, 522 definition of. 15 MOE and, 492 public tr:tnsporcation and, 288 str:tci.fied r:tndom sampling and, 502
mitigation measures, 464
mems test, for &aorial design, 49Sc measures of dfectiveness (MOE), 486 for bicycles, 253-254 definition of, 15 history and, 489 maturation and, 489 mean and, 492 for pedestrians, 253--254 person occupancy and, 187 regression to the mean and, 490 TCQSM and, 266t- 277t
ML.
s~~ managed
lanes
MMIRE. s~e Model Minimu m Invcncory of Roadway Elements
medium-term planning. 43o' mesoscopic models, 15, 202 method of sampling. 528 metropolitan planning organizations (MPOs), 429, 457 Michigan U-turn intersection . counts for, 47 de.finirion of, 15 layout of, 48f
maps, 27c. &~also online mapping cools; spot maps for bicycles, 259f collisions and, 354 for curb parking. 328, 328f s~cisricd, 546, 546f with street classifications, 312f forTCD, 312f time-<:antour, 161, I 67f for ~raffic count, 71. 74f for traffic Bow, 71 , 73f
middle ordinate for radii, 408-410 definition of, 15
maritime cargo, 293
midlock, 50
marwacion in before-and-after test, 489, 491 comparison and, 494 MOE 211d, 489
minor sneet approaches of, 125 definicion of, 15 peak bour wunnt and., 127
:. •
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modal splir, 476-477
'~~
mode, 91, 524
..
Model Minimum Inventory of Roadway Elements (MMIRE), 353
'
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models, 205. &(also spfcijic models ormodaty;m definicion of, 15 for simulation, 219-220 30,24 modified binomial test, for Poissondistribution, 492, 492f
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Motorin umplianu with Standard Traffic ControlDevim (FHWA), 143 MPOs. &t metropolitan planning organizations multiple panels, 27t multiple threat conBiet and, 252 definition of, I 5 mulriscage random sampling, 504
microscopic modd, 201, 107f algorithms for, 202 definition of. I 5
multi-use paths, data coUection for, 24lf
Microsoft Excel, 536
multiway stop control signs, warrants for, 133
cum
J
mobility averages, 197 classification for, 435r
median, 91,524 median U-curn. Su Michigan U-rum intersection
•
MOBILE6, 459
MUTCD. Su Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devica
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I- ,;nway Traffic Safery Administration (NHTSA), 353 National Transit Database (NTD}, 264 National Transportation Atlas Dacabase (NTAD), 294t National Transportation Statistics, 295t NCHRP. See National Cooperative High\vay Research Prografu ·
N!D. s~~ ratio of rates near collisions, 215 nearly stopped, 149
I!
nested designs, 496
n
networks, 205 bicycles wd, 252-253 definicion of. 16 mosuresof,223 pedestrians and, 252-253 $Creening of, 359-369 $imulacion and, 220f warnuus for, 132
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frequency of, 453 rn~gnirude of. 452-453 during pe:.k hour, 455 pollution from, 292 prcdicrions about, 456 samples for, 455r temporal distribution of, 453 drne variance of, 453
N3rional Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP), 16, 2
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night percentage, for collisions, 424
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online mapping tOols, _(iJ,.J62 definition of. 16 / for parlcing, 326
noncoverage, 514
on-sire circulation, 480
nonparametric rests, in inferential statistics, 533- 535
open questions, 506
nonrandom sampling, 504-505 convenience, 504 expert, 504-505 judgment, 504-505 quo~:a, 505 snowbaU, 505 nonresponse, in surveys, 513-514 nonsite traffic forecasts, 477-478, 477t North American Industry Classification System (NAlCS), 297
not-at-home, 514
NHTSA. s~~ National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
node-aggregared data, 223 noise, 452-457 abatement criteria for, 454r COntOUrs, 456, 457f determination of existing levels, 454-455 FHWA and, 4.53
one-time solution, 210, 212
nonattainment area air quality and, 457 definicion of. 16
NGSIM. Su Next Generation Microsirnulacion
i•'
0 -D. Su origin-destination
one-way analysis of variance (AN OVA), 487 faccorial design and, 494-495, 495r
North American Transportation Statistics, 29 5
,, 'I'
parking and, 330, 332, 340f
no-left-turn, compliance with, 150, 150f
Next Generati-J n Microsimulation (NGSJM), 204, 204f algoridun,204,204f
NHPN. See National Highway Planning Network
density and, 187 frcewoys and, 184- !85 in HOV lane, 179, 219
no stop, 149
NTAD. s~e National Transportation Atlas Database NTD. Su National Transit Database Nu. name seleaion technique, 504 null hypothesis, 486 number of approaches, 316
0 occupancy
definicion of, 16
620 • MANUAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING STUDIES, 2ND EDITION
operating speed algorithm for, 227 definicion of. 16 $Unulation and, 227 validation and, 227 opcimiz.ation algorithm, 16 delinition of, 16 simuh.cion and, 208 steady-stare, 210 oral presentations, 555 ordinal scale, 507 organiz.ation charts, 547, 547f origin-destination (0-D) cordon count and, 50 da.t2 c:xpa.ruion for, 443t definicion of. 16 field $heet for, 440f parking and, 326 path-based counts and, 47-48 peak hour and, 47 screen-line councr and, 54, 449f simuh.cion and, 212 survcys,437-438 TAZs and, 432f transportation planning and, 437, 448-449 ortho-recrilication dcfirtition of. 16 with video-base counts, 65
outputs, 205 simuLa!ion and, 228t
validation for, 227- 228 overpasses, interchanges and, 194
Jicense-pl•tc macching for, 48 O·D and. 47--48 samplc.s for, 47-48, 49c pavement markings, edge line, 13,
372t
p pace speed, 16, 91 paired cowparison, in experiments,
488, 488c paratransit, 16, 264 parking, 323-343 accumulation ~cudic:s of, 330-332, 332f block and curb face numbering system for, 326f forCBD, 325 congestion and. 325, 331 curb, 326-327 dara collection for, 332- 339 data reduction and analysis for, . 339-340 data tabulation form for, 341f-343f · duration summary shecc for, 335f generation srudies of, 330-332 interviews for, 336-339, 338f invenrories, 325-332 license-plate matching for, 332336,333£ on major street, 331 occupang•and, 330, 332,340f 0-D and, 326 online m
PCE. Su passenger-car equivalent
PDO. Su property damage only peak hour, 472t control counts and, 57 data rcduaion fcom, 67r, 68f ddinition of. 16 Row rare and, 57 noise duri'ng, 455 · 0 -D and, 47 TID and, 161 volume for, 473f warrants, 127, 127t
peak hour faeroe (PHF), 57 peak 15-minute Row rare, 57
Pedestrian Road Safity Audit Guieklin~.r and Prompt Lists (FHWA), 384 pc:dc:srrians, 237-259 aocderomecers for, 242 accc.ssibi!ity for, 238, 252 automatic countS for, 242-245 before-and-after test for, 25 5 behavior of. 250:..2.513 classification for, 419 compliance and, 144, 154-155, 154f, 252 conflia and, 251-252 i critical gap for, 247, 249 crosswalk and,. 239f data collection for, 253-256 definicion of. 17 delay and, 249 gapsand,246-250,248f GPS for, 242 handheld count boards for, 239 intersection counts and, 46 laptop compiuc:rs for, 239 lighting and, 4!7t, 426 manual counts for, 238-242 MOE for, 253-254 MUTCD and, 238 nerworks and, 252-253 platoon and, 228
RSA for, 387 r school crossingund, I 2S- 129, l3i t TCD and, 120-1 2 1. 252 time-lapse photog raphy for, 242 rraffic signals and, 154- 155. 154{ unsignaliu:d intersections and, 247- 249 vehicles and, 251-25 2 visuali1.acion for, 2 58, 258f volum~ and, 128, 238-245 walking spero by, 246 wall..-w2ysfor. 252, 419 warrants and, 128
pedometers, 242 percentile definicion of, 17 gaps and, 110 of speed, 520 for spot sp«ds, 523f percentile speed, 85 th, 84, 84t,
91-92, 520
.
definition of, 17 peak hour warrant and, 127 YIELD signs and, 133 percent of congested travel, 197 percent variation, 197 Perception, Identification, Emotion, and Volition (PIEV), 134 perceptual organization, principle of, 26 perflurocarbons (PFCs), 457 perfocmance measure, 17. Se~ also specific pcrformanu mtas11m permissive turn definicion of, 17 at signalized intersections, 45 permicted error, 83 pcrson-houcs per year, 197 person injury, in collisions, 351352 person occupancy, 184 ofHOV,187 MOEand, 187 PFCs. Se~ pcrflurocarbons
Index • 621
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trip distribution, 475--476, 475f. 476f
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trip generation, 473-474, 474t
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Trip Gm"ation (ITE), 119, 464
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trucking, 292 CDD and, 300 loading and, 299-302 routes for, 298 surveys for, 448 unloading and, 299-302 weight and dimension !imics for, 297t, 302-304 WlM and, 303-304, 303t
croSswalks and, 252 gap and, 123 pedestrians and, 247- 249 right of way at, 398
vehicle miles mvded (VMT), 26, 192 MLand, 179
unwilling to answer, 514
vehicle observation srudy, 123 forTID. 171-174
Urban Transportation Planning Package, 450
vehicle owner mail questionnaires, 447
U.S-Canada border crossings, 294t
vehicle registrations, 446
U.S. Census Councy Business Patterns, 295r
vehicle signarure matching method •.. forTID, 172 ,.,; •••~
U.S. Department ofTransporruion (US DOT), 353
vehicle.~
truck only toll (TOT), 177 definition of, 15, 20 ML and, 179-180
US DOT. Su U.S. Dcpartmem of Transportation
TSM. Su transportation systems managemenc
user perception definition of, 21
U.S. Economic Census, 295t
<{05,252,253,25~256
TSP. S(t transit signal priority
per hour (vph), 119
video, 60-61, 65 at approachc, 65 for imenections, 98-99 for saturation Bow, I 05 signal phase and, 255 for speed decemiliutioo, 82 for speed craps, 85-86 with test vchiclc, 161
~
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TIC. &t time· t
s,, travel-time dday
~
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r-eese, 488
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type I error, 486 type II errcir, 486
u UAVs. S" unmanned aerial vehicles i
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unable to answer, 514 units in before-and·ahcr test, 489, 493 comparison and, 494 dcfin.ition of. 21 replication and, 486 samp!ing,501 universal design, 252 .
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Ul).)oading, trucking and, 299-302 unmanned aetial vehicles (UAVs), 172 for density, 187 unpaired comparisons, in experiments, 487 unsignaliz.ed intersections, 43
U.S.-Mexico border crossings, 294t U.S. Ports and Warerways Facilities Database, 294t
YIN. &t vehicle idcntific:uion number virrual detectors, 65 virrual earth, definicion of, 21
v validation, 205 definition of, 21 operating speed and, 217 for outputs, 217-228 variabilicy, 526-528 v/c. s(( volwne-to-capacicy ratio vehicles. Su also probe vehicle; test vehicles classification of. 18~186, 185f conflict and, 251-252 definition of, 21 emissions from, 217-218, 217f on freeways, 185-186, 185f heavy, 18~186 pedestrians and, 251-252 routes by, 219 types of. 219 vehicle identification number (VlN), 352 vehicle intercept method, 446
visual aids, in podium presencacions, 38 visual arl2lyrics, 21, 40 visualization withAVL, 282f for bicycles, 258 definition of. 21 4[),24,39-40,40f for pedestrians, 258, 258f posters and, 40 forpubllc~portation,280f
for simulation, 232-233, 233f 3[), 39-40 visual table.~, 27t visual weight, in graphics, 541 f VMT. Su vehicle miles traveled volume, 43-74 ADTand, 119 at apptoachc, 44, 47, 146t arrival,45,45f bicycles and, 238-245
col!isions and, 354 count expansion for, 69~ 70t count periods for, 69 crosswalks and, 238 data collection for, 58-66 data presentation for, 70-71 DDHV. 12 ddinition of, 21 demand, 223--224 eight-hour vehicular volume warrant, 124-125, 125t four-hour vehicular volume warrant, 125- 127, 126t on freeways, 196f lighting and, 423--424 for peak hour, 473f pedestrians and, 128, 238--245 s:~mples and, 69 simulation and, 227 TCD and, i 19-121 test vehicles and, 166-171, 169f, 170t time series distribution of, 521 t TTD and, l(i6-171, 169f. 170r volumes DDHV,57 deparrure, 45, 45f volume-to-capacity ratio (v/c), 102 vph. See vehicles per hour
four-hour vehicular volume, 125- 127, !26t major meet and, 132 for mulciway stop control signs, 133 MliTCD and, 123, 124 for ne[Work, 132 peak hour, 127, 127r pedestrian volume and, 128 for regulatory sign, 132-134 for school crossings, 128-129, 130t, 13lt for speed limit, 134 for STOP signs, 132- 133 forTCD, 120, 120f, 123 for traffic control signals, 124, 128 for YIELD signs, 133-134 waterborne commeroe, 294t weaving segments frcewayund, 183 interchanges and, 192 Web site design, 41 weigh-in-motion (WIM), 43, 173, 192, 193f definition of. 2 L scale technologies comparison, 303t trucking and, 303-304, 303t
WIM. See weigh-in-motion wireless technology method, for
TID, 172
w walkability checklists, 252, 257f walking speed, by pedestrians, 246 walkways, for pedestrians, 252, 419 warm up pedod, in before-andafter test, 491 warning signs, 118 definition of. 21 placemenr of, 134 warrants . for collision severity, 131 for coordinated signal system, 131 for crash, 131 definition of. 21 eight-hour vehicular volume, 124-125, 125t engineering judgment and, 21, 123
WOrk Zone Operations Best Practices Guideline; (FHWA), 190 . work z.ones, on freeways, 190 written reports, S50-S54. See also collision reporu on air quality, 460, 460f appendices in, 37 body of. 36-37, 552-554 communication with, 34-37 engineering srudy and, 513-554 exhibits for, 37 organization of, 550-552 sections of. 35 for s~:~cistical analysis, 536-537 target audience for, 35-36 writing style for, 35-36
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Yellow Book See MSHTO
Highway Saftt:y Design a11d Operatwns Guide YIELD signs, 44 design speed and, 114 engineering judgment and, 133 lSD and, 1i4 . percentile speed, 85th and, 133 right of way and, 133 TTD and,I03 war~tsfo~ 133-134
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