LITERATURE REVIEW ON STRESS MANAGEMENT BY: MARTIN
KWASI ABIEMO
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[email protected] Tel: +233-242838284 / +233-272838585
INTRODUCTION Stress may be referred to as an unpleasant state of emotional and physiological arousal that people experience in situations that t hey perceive as dangerous or threatening to t heir well-being. The word stress means different things to different people. Some people define stress as events or situations that cause them to feel tension, pressure, or negative emotions such as anxiety and anger. Others view stress as the response to these situations. This response includes physiological changes²such as increased heart rate and muscle tension²as well as emotional and behavioral changes. However, most psychologists regard stress as a process involving a personµs interpretation and response to a threatening t hreatening event. Stress is a common experience. We may feel stress when we are very busy, have important deadlines to meet, or have too little time to finish all of our tasks. Often people experience stress because of problems at work or in social relationships, such as a poor evaluation by a supervisor or an argument with a friend. Some people may be particularly vulnerable to stress in situations involving the threat of failure or personal humiliation. Others have extreme fears of objects or things associated with physical threats²such as snakes, illness, storms, or flying in an airplane²and become stressed when they encounter or think about these perceived threats. Page 1 of 19
Major
life events, such as the death of a loved one, can cause severe stress. Stress can have both
positive and negative effects. Stress is a nor mal, adaptive reaction to threat. It signals danger and prepares us to take defensive action. Fear of things that pose realistic threats motivates us to deal with them or avoid them. Stress also motivates us to achieve and fuels creativity. Although stress may hinder performance on difficult tasks, moderate stress seems to improve motivation and performance on less complex tasks. In personal relationships, stress often leads to less cooperation and more aggression. If not managed appropriately, stress can lead to serious problems. Exposure to chronic stress can contribute to both physical illnesses, such as heart disease, and mental illnesses, such as anxiety disorders. The field of health psychology focuses in part on how stress affects bodily functioning and on how people can use stress management techniques to prevent or minimize disease.
WHAT IS STRESS? Whilst there is little disagreement about the prevalence of stress there is considerable debate about what the word (stress) actually refers to. In ordinary conversation we seem to be willing to apply the word to both cause and effect. In other words, the common sense view of stress is that it is a combination of external stressors and our response in the early and highly influential research of Selye (1936). Stress is as the result of an interaction between an individualµs emotional, intellectual, social, and physical resources and t he demands on him or her. Marshall
& Cooper (1981) argue that µstress¶ is a different phenomenon form pressureµ. Stress
is something more than mere pressure. It carries strong overtones of the breakdown of normal human performance. In an earlier work, Cooper &
Marshall,
(1978), the same two authors
concluded that stress is essentially individually defined and must be understood with reference to characteristics of both the individual and his environment, as it is the outcome of the twoµ (p.4)
The following are the various definitions of the term stress: A. Stress is the excitement, feeling of anxiety, and/or physical tension that occurs when the demands placed
on an individual are thought to exceed his ability to cope. This most Page 2 of 19
common view of stress is often called distress or negative stress. The physical or psychological demands from the environment that cause this condition are called stressors. (Hellriegel & Slocum, 2004) B. Holmes & Rahe, (1967) defined stress as a stimulus event that presents unusual demands. C. It is defined by Ganster and Murphy (2000) as a form of strainµ provoked in response to
situational demands labeled stressorsµ which occur when jobs are simultaneously high in demands and low in control. D. Is an adaptive response, mediated by individual differences and/or psychological
processes, that is, a consequence of any external (environment) action, situation, or event that places excessive psychological and/or physical demands on a person. (Weihrich and Koontz, 1993) E. Stress is the mental or physical condition that results from a perceived threat of danger
(physical or emotional) and the pressure to remove it. (Leslie & Lloyd, 1977) . F
Selye (1976) define stress as the bod ily response we make to the troublesome event.
G. Stress is any circumstances or transactions with the environment that threaten or are
perceived to threaten our well-being and thereby tax our adaptive capacities. (Weiten, 1986). H. An adaptive response, moderated by individual differences, that is a consequence of any
action, situation, or event and that places special
demands
on a person. (Ivancevich,
Konopaske and Matteson, 1987) I. Stress (psychology), an unpleasant state of emotional and physiological arousal that
people experience in situations that they perceive as dangerous or threatening to their well-being. (Auerbach et al, 2007 / Encarta 2008) . J
In physics, stress refers to the external force applied to an object ± for example, a bridge girder. The response is strain, which is the impact the force has on the girder.
. K
Stress is defined as a nonspecific response of the body to a stimulus or event (stressor). Under a general model of the stress response, when an individual experiences a stressor, the stressor will lead to a physiological response, one that can be measured by several indicators, such as elevated heart rate. In related literature, the term stress is used to refer to this physiological response. Stressors vary in form and can include extreme temperature or lighting, time pressure, lack of sleep, and exposure to threat or danger, Page 3 of 19
among others. All stressors, however, tend to produce similar physiological responses within the body. (Selye, 1956). Transactional model of stress championed by Richard Lazarus and his colleagues (Holroyd & Lazarus, 1982; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) - A theory that proposes that the experience of stress depends on oneµs subjective appraisal of events. Thus, stress is neither a stimulus nor a response but a stimulus-response transaction. Lazarus emphasizes that the experience of stress is highly personal & subjective, depending on how people appraise the events they encounter. From the above definitions of the term stress, stress means different things to different people. From a laypersonµs perspective, stress can be described as feeling tense, anxious, or worried. The term stress itself has been defined in literally hundreds of ways in the literature. Virtually all of the definitions can be placed into one of the two categories, however; stress can be defined as either a stimulus or a response. A stimulus definition treats stress as some characteristic or event that may result in a disruptive consequence. In a response definition, stress is seen partially to some stimulus, called a stressor. A stressor is a potentially harmful or threatening external event or situation. In a response definition, stress is the consequence of the interaction between an environmental stimulus (a stressor) and the individualµs response. That is, stress is the result of a unique interaction between stimulus conditions in the environment and the individualµs predisposition to respond in a particular way. In a nutshell it is useful to view stress as the response a person makes and to identify stimulus conditions (actions, situations, events) as stressors. Stress is the consequence of the interaction between and environmental stimulus (stressor) and the individualµs response.
General Principles of Stress by Richard Lazarus I.
Stress may be either physical or psychological : Examples of physical stress include infections, exposure to excessive heat or cold failure to get adequate sleep, and pain.
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Examples of psychological stress include arguing with your spouse, starting a new job, staring at a stack of bills you are unable to pay, and being lonely. II.
Physical and psychological stress may overlap and interact : although it is convenient to distinguish between physical and psychological stress, you should not think of these two types of stress as being altogether independent. They may overlap in that a single event, such as being wounded in combat, can produce both physical and psychological stress. Furthermore, there is evidence (Friedman, Ader & Glasgow, 1965) that physical and psychological stressors may function interactively.
III.
The appraisal of stress is not necessarily objective : when under threat, people respond emotionally and seem particularly prone to deviate from objective and rational modes of thought (Folkman, Schaefer & Lazarus, 1979).
IV.
Stress may be self-imposed : we tend to think of stress as something imposed on us from without by others and their demands. Surprisingly often, however, it would seem appropriate to characterize stress as self-imposed. For example, you might put pressure on yourself to get good grades or to climb the corporate ladder rapidly. These overly high expectations often lead to perceptions of failure and feelings of disappointment.
V.
Our response to stress is complex and multidimensional : stress affects us at several levels. It tends to produce changes in our emotions, our physiology, and our behavior.
VI.
The effects of stress may be cumulative or additi ve: it had long been suspected that stress has cumulative effects along the lines of the fabled ³straw that broke the camelµs back´. Recent evidence (Kanner, Coyne, Schaefer & Lazarus, 1981) that little everyday ³hassles´ can add up to damage oneµs health appears to confirm that suspicion. For example, you might be experiencing stress of moderate intensity at home, at school and at work. Coping with each source of stress singly, you might be able to handle things without great difficulty. But collectively, the stress in these three areas of your life might be overwhelming. Moreover, it appears that the stressful events do not have to take place at the same time in order to have additive effects. The evidence suggests that a series of stressful events, following closely on one another, may a lso have cumulative effects.
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SOURCES OF STRESS (Auerbach et al, 2007 / Encarta 2008) The circumstances that cause stress are called stressors. Stressors vary in severity and duration. For example, the responsibility of caring for a sick parent may be an ongoing source of major stress, whereas getting stuck in a traffic jam may cause mild, short-term stress. Some events, such as the death of a loved one, are stressful for everyone. But in other situations, individuals may respond differently to the same event²what is a stressor for one person may not be stressful for another. For example, a student who is unprepared for a chemistry test and anticipates a bad grade may feel stress, whereas a classmate who studies in advance may feel confident of a good grade. For an event or situation to be a stressor for a particular individual, the person must appraise the situation as threatening and lack the coping resources to deal with it effectively. Stressors can be classified into three general categories: catastrophic events, major life changes, and daily hassles. In addition, simply thinking about unpleasant past events or anticipating unpleasant future events can cause stress for many people.
a) Catastrophes A catastrophe is a sudden, often life-threatening calamity or disaster that pushes people to the outer limits of their coping capability. Catastrophes include natural disasters²such as earthquakes, tornadoes, fires, floods, and hurr icanes²as well as wars, torture, automobile accidents, violent physical attacks, and sexual assaults. Catastrophes often continue to affect their victims¶ mental health long after the event has ended. For example, in 1972 a dam burst and flooded the West Virginia mining town of Buffalo Creek, destroying the town. Two years after the disaster, most of the adult survivors continued to show emotional disturbances. Similarly, most of the survivors of concentration camps in World War II (1939-1945) continued to experience nightmares and other symptoms of severe emotional problems long after their release from the ca mps.
b) Major Life Changes The most stressful events for adults involve major life changes, such as death of a spouse or family member, divorce, imprisonment, losing oneµs job, and major personal disability
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or illness. For adolescents, the most stressful events are the death of a parent or a close family member, divorce of their parents, imprisonment of their mother or father, and major personal disability or illness. Sometimes, apparently positive events can have stressful components. For example, a woman who gets a job promotion may receive a higher salary and greater prestige, but she may also feel stress from supervising coworkers who were once peers. Getting married is usually considered a positive experience, but planning the wedding, deciding whom to invite, and dealing with family members may cause couples to feel stressed.
c) Daily Hassles Much
of the stress in our lives results from having to deal with daily hassles pertaining to
same hassles every day. Examples of daily hassles include living in a noisy neighborhood, commuting to work in heavy traffic, disliking oneµs fellow workers, worrying about owing money, waiting in a long line, and misplacing or losing things. When taken individually, these hassles may feel like only minor irritants, but cumulatively, over time, they can cause significant stress. The amount of exposure people have to daily hassles is strongly related to their daily mood. Generally, the greater their exposure is to hassles, the worse is their mood. Studies have found that oneµs exposure to daily hassles is actually more predictive of illness than is expo sure to major life events.
E FF ECTS OF STRESS Negative effects A. Impairment of cognitive functioning: a moderately common effect of stress is
impairment of oneµs mental functioning. In some people, stress may lead to a narrowed form of attention, reduced flexibility in thinking, poor concentration and less effective memory storage. Such effects are far from inevitable. (Mandler, 1979) B. Shock and disorientation: severe stress can leave people dazed and confused.
(Horowitz, 1979) In these states, people tend to feel emotionally numb and they respond in a flat, apathetic fashion to events around them. They often stare off into space and have
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difficulty maintaining a coherent train of thought. Their behavior frequently has an automatic, rigid, stereotyped quality. C. Burnout: burnout is a buzzword for the eighties. This is a stress-related syndrome
wherein oneµs behavior comes to be dominated by feelings of physical, mental and emotional exhaustion. The physical exhaustion includes chronic fatigue, weakness, and low energy. The emotional exhaustion refers to feeling hopeless, helpless, trapped, and emotionally drained. The mental exhaustion is manifested in highly negative attitudes toward oneself, oneµs work, and life in general. D. Disruption of social relations: there is one evidence that stress can lead to
deterioration in oneµs normal social relations. The effect of stress on interpersonal behavior has not attracted much attention. However, researchers working with Vietnam veterans suffering from the delayed stress response syndrome (also called ³posttraumatic stress disorder´) observed disruptions in social functioning with some regularities. These disruptions include feeling of alienation, difficulties in relating to spouses and friends, and impairments in the capacity to love and trust others. (Blank, 1982; Shatan, 1978) E. Delayed Stress Response Syndrome: dysfunctional behavior attributed to exposure to
significant stress, which emerges only after the stress has been alleviated. . E. F
Psychological Problems and Disorders: on the basis of clinical impressions,
psychologists have long believed that stress might be a key factor in the causation of many kinds of psychological problems and mental illness. In the domain of common psychological problems, it is clear that stress may contribute to poor academic performance, insomnia, sexual difficulties, drug abuse, excessive anxiety, nervousness, dejection, and depression. Above and beyond these ³everyday´ problems we have evidence that stress frequently plays a role in the onset of full-fledged psychological disorders. G. F. Physical problems and illness: the existence of a connection between stress and
certain kinds of physical illness has long been recognized. Examples of illnesses that have long been viewed as stress-related are asthma, hypertension, migraine headache, and ulcers.
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Positive effects The beneficial effects of stress are more difficult to pinpoint than the harmful effects because they tend to be more subtle. First, we would probably experience a suffocating level of boredom if we lived a stress-free existence. Life would be very dull indeed if it were altogether devoid of challenge. There is evidence (Suedfeld, 1979) that an intermediate level of stimulation and challenge tends to be optimal for most people. Although most of us think of stress in terms of stimulus overload, it is clear that underload can be extremely unpleasant as well. Second, stress may frequently promote personal growth. Basically, personal growth refers to movement toward greater psychological health. Stress must sometimes force us to develop new skills, learn new insights, and acquire new strengths. In other words, the adaptation process initiated by stress may often lead to personal changes for the better. Confronting and conquering a stressful challenge may lead to improvement in a specific coping abilities and to favourable alternative in oneµs self-concept. Third, todayµs stress can inoculate us so that we are less affected by tomorrowµs stress. If stressful experience is moderate in intensity and does not overwhelm us, it may increase our subsequent stress tolerance. Thus, a fellow who has previously endured businessµs setbacks may be much better prepared than most people to deal with the fact that the bank is about to foreclose on his home. In light of the negative effects that stress can have, improved stress tolerance is a desirable outcome.
COPING WITH STRESS There are two types of coping: p r obl em focu sed and emotion focu sed.
Problem-focused coping: this refers to the actions taken by an individual to cope with a stressful person, situation, or event. For example, workers facing disrespectful manager may deal with his harassing style by being absent from work. This absenteeism would enable the workers to be removed, some of the time, from the disrespectful manager.
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Emotion-focused coping: this refers to the actions taken by a person to alleviate stressful feelings and emotions. The actions center on avoidance or escape from a person, problem, or event. For instance, employees that travel frequently as part of the job may alleviate their stressful feelings and emotions by exercising regularly or by reading light, non-work-oriented fiction or poetry. If these coping activities are successful, the frequent travelerµs feelings and emotions are kept in check.
STRESS PREVENTION AND MANAGEMENT by Ivancevich, et al. (1987) EXHIBIT 1 Organizational Stress Management Program Targets
Organizational Stress Management
and
Prevention Programs
Targeted
at
(1)
(2)
(3)
Work and Network Stressors y y y
y y y y y
Workload Job conditions Role conflict and ambiguity Career development Politics Interpersonal relations Aggressive behavior Conflict between work and non-work (child care, elder care)
Outcome y
E mployee Perceptions / Experience of Stress
Source: Ivancevich, et al. (1990) Page 10 of 19
y y
of Stress Physiological Emotional Behavioral
Exhibit 1 presents how organizational stress management programs can be targeted. Programs may be designed to (1) identify and modify work stressors, (2) educate employees in modifying and understanding stress and its impact, and (3) provide employees support to cope with the negative impact of stress. In a rapidly changing work environment, this type of targeting is difficult to accomplish. However, a trained, educated, and knowledgeable work force can make modifications with the help of management in how work is performed. Some of the targeted, corrective programs include: y
Training programs for managing and co ping with stress.
y
Redesigning work to minimize stressors.
y
Changing management style to include more support and coaching to help workers achieve their goals.
y
More
flexible work hours and attention paid to work/life balance and needs such as child
and elder care. y
Better feedback on worker performance and management expectations.
These and other efforts are targeted to prevent and/or manage stress. The potential for success of any stress prevention or stress management program is good if there is a true commitment to understanding how stressors, stress, and outcomes are linked. There is a very important distinction between preventing stress and managing it. Stress prevention focuses on controlling or eliminating stressors that might provo ke the stress response. Stress management on the other hand suggests procedures for helping people cope effectively with or reduce stress that is already being experienced. Thus, dealing with stress: physical and psychological techniques designed to enable people to cope with strain and anxiety. Maximizing Person-Environment
Fit
A person-environment fit (P-E fit) approach generally focuses on two dimensions of fit. One is the extent to which work provides formal and informal rewards that meet or match (fit) the personµs needs. Misfit on this dimension results in stress. For example, a job may provide too little job security, insufficient compensation and reward for the e ffort expended, or inadequate
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recognition to meet the individualµs needs or preferences. The second type of fit deals with the extent to which the employeeµs skills, abilities, and experience match the demands and requirements of the employer. To the extent that the individualµs talents are insufficient for or underutilized by job requirements, stress results. By improving the quality of, or maximizing, the fit between the employee and the organizational environment, potential stressors are eliminated and stress is prevented. There are numerous strategies for maximizing
P -E
fit. Ideally, the process begins before an
individual even joins the organization. Employee recruitment programs that provide realistic job previews help potential employees determine whether the reality of the job matches their needs and expectations. Selection programs that are effective in ensuring that potential employees possess the requisite skills, knowledge, experience, and abilities for the job are key elements in maximizing fit. Organizational Stress Prevention and Management Programs
In addition to variety of act ivities that may be undertaken to improve person-environment fit, and increasing number of organizations have developed very specific stress prevention and/ or management programs. Some of these programs focus on a specific issue or problem, such as alcohol or drug abuse, career counseling, job relocation, or burnout. Two specific types of organizational programs have become particularly popular during the last two decades: employee assistance program and wellness pro grams. A. Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs)
This is an employee benefit program designed to deal with a wide range of stress-related problems, including behavioral and emotional difficulties, substance abuse, and family and marital discord and other personal problems. B.F. Goodrich, IBM, Xerox, and Caterpillar are examples of companies with such programs. EAPs tend to be based on the traditional medical approach to treatment. General program elements include: Diagnosis : Employee with a problem asks for help; EAP staff attempts to
diagnose the problem.
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Treatment : Counseling or supportive therapy is provided. If in-house EAP staff is
unable to help, employee may be referred to appropriate community-based professionals. Screening : Periodic examination of employees in highly stressful jobs is provided
to detect early indications of problems. Prevention : Education and persuasion are used to convince employees at high
risk that something must be done to assist them in effectively coping with stress. Crucial to the success of any EAP is trust. Employees must trust that (1) the program can and will provide real help, (2) confidentiality will be maintained, and (3) use of the program carries no negative implications for job security or future advancement. If employees do not trust the program or company management, they will not participate. EAPs with no customers cannot have a positive effect of stress prevention and management. B. Wellness Programs
Wellness programs, sometimes called health promotion programs is an employee program focusing on the individualµs overall physical and mental health. Wellness programs may include a variety of activities and assist in preventing or correcting specific health problems, health hazards, or negative health habits. This includes not only disease identification but lifestyle modification as well. Among the most prevalent examples of such programs are those emphasizing hypertension identification and control, smoking cessation, physical fitness and exercise, nutrition and diet control, and job and personal stress management. Examples of well-established wellness programs (all of which include a stress reduction component) include
Mass Mutualµs
Wellness Partnership, 3Mµs Lifestyle 2000 program,
Warner-Lambertµs LifeWise program, and Contro l Dataµs StayWell program. Simply offering an EAP or wellness program does not guarantee positive results for either employers or the sponsoring organization. While many factors determine how successful any particular program will be, a number of recommendations, if followed, Page 13 of 19
will increase the likelihood of achieving beneficial outcomes. Among the more important ones are: Top-management support, including both philosophical support and support in
terms of staff and facilities, is necessary. Unions should support the program and participate in it where appropriate. This
can be particularly difficult to accomplish.
Many
unions take the position that
instead of helping employees deal with stress, management should focus on elimination those conditions that contribute to the stress in the first place. The greatest payoff from stress prevention and management comes not from one
shot activities, but from ongoing and sustained effort; thus, long-term commitment is essential. Extensive and continuing employee involvement would include involvement not
only in the initial planning but in implementation and maintenance as well. This is one of the most critical factors for ensuring representative employee part icipation. Clearly stated objectives lay a solid foundation for the program. Programs with no
or poorly defined objectives are not likely to be effective or to achieve sufficient participation to make them worthwhile. Employees must be able to participate freely, without either pressure or stigma. Confidentiality must be strictly adhered to. Employees must have no concerns that
participation will in any way affect their standing in the organization. Individual Approaches to Stress Prevention and Management A. Cognitive Techniques
The basic rationale for some individual approaches to stress management, known collectively as cognitive techniques, is that a personµs response to stressors is mediated by cognitive processes, or thoughts. The underlying assumption of these techniques is that peopleµs thoughts, in the form of expectations, beliefs, and assumptions, are labels they apply to situations, and these labels elicit emotional responses to the situation. Thus, for example, if an individual labels the loss of a promotion a catastrophe, the stress response is to the label, not the situation. Cognitive techniques of stress management
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focus on changing labels or cognitions so that people appraise situations differently. This reappraisal typically centers on removing cognitive distortions such as magnifying (not getting the promotion is the end of the world for me), over-generalizing (not getting promoted means my career is over; Iµll never be promoted in any job, anywhere), and personalization (since I didnµt get the promotion itµs clear Iµm a terrible person). All cognitive techniques have a similar objective: to help people gain more control over their reactions to stressors by modifying their cognitions. B. Relaxation Training
The purpose of this approach is to reduce a personµs arousal level and bring about a calmer state of affairs, both psychologically and physiologically.
Psychologically,
successful relaxation results in enhanced feelings of well-being, peacefulness and calm, a clear sense of being in control, and a reduction in tension and anxiety; physiologically, decreases in blood pressure, respiration, and heart rate should take place. Relaxation techniques include breathing exercises; muscle relaxation; autogenic training, which combines elements of muscle relaxation and meditation; and a variety of mental relaxation strategies, including imagery and visualization. Conditions conducive to achieving relaxed states include a quiet environment, a comfortable physical position, and closed eyes. Simply taking a few moments of ³mental rest´ from job activities can be an effective relaxation activity. Short, more frequent breaks of this sort are more relaxing than fewer, longer breaks. C. Meditation
The most widely practice is transcendental meditation, or TM. Its originator, Mahesh
Maharishi
Yogi, defines TM as turning the attention toward the subtler levels of thought
until the mind transcends the experience of the subtlest state of thought and arrives at the source of thought. The basic procedure used in TM is simple, but the effects claimed for it are extensive. One simply sits comfortably with closed eyes and engages in the repetition of a special sound (a mantra) for about 20 minutes twice a day. Studies indicate that TM practices are associated with reduced heart rate, lowered oxygen consumption, and decreased blood pressure.
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D. Biofeedback
Biofeedback is a technique in which people learn voluntary control of stress-related physiological responses, such as skin temperature, muscle tension, blood pressure, and heart rate. Normally, people cannot control these responses voluntarily. In biofeedback training, people are connected to an instrument or machine that measures a particular physiological response, such as heart rate, and feeds that measurement back to them in an understandable way. For example, the machine might beep with each heartbeat or display the number of heartbeats per minute on a digital screen. Next, individuals learn to be sensitive to subtle changes inside their body that affect the response system being measured. Gradually, they learn to produce changes in that response system²for example, to voluntarily lower their heart rate. Typically individuals use different techniques and proceed by trial and error until they discover a way to produce the desired changes. E. Aerobic Exercise (Auerbach et al, 2007 / Encarta 2008)
Aerobic exercise²such as running, walking, biking, and skiing²can help keep stress levels down. Because aerobic exercise increases the endurance of the heart and lungs, an aerobically fit individual will have a lower heart rate at rest and lower blood pressure, less reactivity to stressors, and quicker recovery from stressors. In addition, studies show that people who exercise regularly have higher self-esteem and suffer less from anxiety and depression than comparable people who are not aerobically fit. CONCLUSION
Stress could be defined as unpleasant state of emotional and physiological arousal that people experience in situations that they perceive as dangerous or threatening to their well-being. The word stress means different things to different people. Some people define stress as events or situations that cause them to feel tension, pressure, or negative emotions such as anxiety and anger. Others view stress as the response to these situations. This response includes physiological changes²such as increased heart rate and muscle tension²as well as emotional
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and behavioral changes. However, most psychologists regard stress as a process involving a personµs interpretation and response to a threatening event. Stress is a common experience. We may feel stress when we are very busy, have important deadlines to meet, or have too little time to finish all of our tasks. Often people experience stress because of problems at work or in social relationships, such as a poor evaluation by a supervisor or an argument with a friend. Some people may be particularly vulnerable to stress in situations involving the threat of failure or personal humiliation. Others have extreme fears of objects or things associated with physical threats²such as snakes, illness, storms, or flying in an airplane²and become stressed when they encounter or think about these perceived threats. Major
life events, such as the death of a loved one, can cause severe stress.
Stress can have both positive and negative effects. Stress is a normal, adaptive reaction to threat. It signals danger and prepares us to take defensive action. Fear of things that pose realistic threats motivates us to deal with them or avoid them. Stress also motivates us to achieve and fuels creativity. Although stress may hinder performance on difficult tasks, moderate stress seems to improve motivation and performance on less complex tasks. In personal relationships, stress often leads to less cooperation and more aggression. If not managed appropriately, stress can lead to serious problems. Exposure to chronic stress can contribute to both physical illnesses, such as heart disease, and mental illnesses, such as anxiety disorders. The field of health psychology focuses in part on how stress affects bodily functioning and on how people can use stress management techniques to prevent or minimize disease.
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