Law Enforcement Tactics In Response To Terrorism
By Randy Gonzalez
Contents Chapter 1 - Introduction and Overview
Page 1
Chapter 2 – Threat Analysis & Intelligence Gathering Factors
Page 9
Chapter 3 – Efforts to Combat Terrorism
_Page 17
Chapter 4 – Identifying Terrorist Groups
_Page 25
Chapter 5 – Terrorist Weapons, Targets and Tactics
_Page 33
Chapter 6 - Tactical Capabilities of Terrorist Intentions
Page 41
Chapter 7 – WMD – Bio Weapons
Page 49
Chapter 8 – WMD – Bio Weapons Continued
Page 57
Chapter 9 – WMD – Nuclear Weapons______
Page 65
Chapter 10 – WMD – Incendiary Devices & Chemicals
Page 73
Chapter 11: Other Types - Chemical Weapons & Explosives
Page 81
Chapter 12: Preventive Countermeasures
Page 100
Chapter 13: Tactical Tactical Implications - Field Operations Operations Strategy Page 117 Chapter 14: Further Considerations – Threats and Response Measures Page 135 Copyright- ©-2003 Randolph A. Gonzalez – All Rights Reserved
1 Chapter1: Introduction and Overview: Throughout the country and around the globe, both the media and the government have various notions and definitions as to what defines the term “terrorism”. Some have said that that terrorism is a form of “warfare” “warfare” used by those who cannot afford an army or traditional military action of a nationalistic nature. nature. Or, that it it is the “poor “poor man’s” method method of fighting fighting an oppressive government. Others have said that “terrorism” is more economical for those opposing an existing government, and trying to bring about some kind of political political change. These are fanciful notions fostered by naïve and sympathetic sympathetic representatives representatives of the the media. Terrorism is criminal political violence that intends to destabilize a government, in order to promote a cause. It uses violence through various criminal criminal acts to raise the the level of fear among those who may affect governmental decision-making. Definitions FBI FBI – The unlawful use of force against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in the furtherance of political or social objectives. Domestic Terrorism - involving groups or individuals whose terroristic activities are directed at elements of our government or population without foreign direction. International Terrorism - involves groups or individuals whose terrorist activities are foreign-based and/or directed by countries or groups outside the United States or whose activities transcend national boundaries. Department of Justice Justice – The use of force or violence, or threatened use of force, against persons or places for the purpose of intimidating, or coercing a government, its citizens, or any segment thereof, for political or social goals. Department of State State – Premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against non-combatant targets by sub-national or clandestine agents usually intended to influence an audience.
2 By whatever definition is chosen, it should be remembered that terrorism is a premeditated act of criminal violence violence against against other people. Such actions endeavor to make the citizens more fearful about their environment and their personal freedom. freedom. From grenades to rockets, and poisons to chemicals, terrorists seek to kill and scare people with their power.
Terrorist strategy is based upon the capacity to strike future blows, no matter what. The terrorist goal is not negotiation but capitulation by the government. One often used tactic to obtain this goal is the taking of hostages. In counterterrorism parlance, the government or authority structure is the primary victim. The secondary secondary victim is the hostage. Terrorists take hostages to draw attention to their cause and
Proper planning prevents poor performance.
The very nature of “terrorism” is what makes it a potential potent powerful political weapon. Public conceptions conceptions of the mere threat of terrorism raise raise fear levels beyond the normal range range of reason. reason. Today, terrorists terrorists are well trained and capable of carrying extreme measures against populations groups through out the world. world. They are capable of achieving the the element element of surprise, using innovative tactics, techniques and technology. Terrorism is a form of violence that capitalizes on fear, as well as the magnification magnification of such acts through intense media media portrayal. In recent times, significant acts of terrorism have led public officials to seek various ways to confront such threats. Yet, public defense, or “homeland security” countermeasures, is difficult to construct, given the nature and capabilities of terrorist groups. Snipings, bombings, kidnappings, hijackings, assassinations, hostage taking, extortion, drugs and weapon smuggling present challenges to law enforcement on a global scale. scale. Terrorists are well armed, trained and capable of carrying out destructive acts against a range of targets.
3 From operational planning, to tactical implementation, terrorists possess the command, control, communications and intelligence capabilities to attack with ruthless effectiveness. They can carry out and execute a sustained climate of fear through an ongoing campaign of violence and destruction. Their mission is not complicated and they will associate with drug dealers, organized crime groups, and other sinister organizations to achieve their goals. Terrorism is premeditated, politically motivated violence oriented effort to advance a philosophical-social-political agenda for profit and power. It is related to organized crime, in that it seeks power, control and profit continuity outside the normal channels of political interaction. Terrorism is organized criminal behavior that employs “guerilla warfare” tactics, either in it state or nation of residence, or outside such territory with state or nation sponsorship. They are capable of employing a range of of weaponry, often more sophisticated than those possessed by local police forces. Acts of terrorism include the use of biological, chemical, radiological, explosive and other weapons to achieve their goals goals and objectives. In addition, they utilize technology to their advantage, which involves the Internet, computer systems, banking structures and so forth.
The criminals of terrorist organizations train, educate and focus themselves on the desire to advance the power and influence influence over others. others. They are a collective threat to human freedom and democracy. They are not, contrary contrary to popular notion, “freedom “freedom fighters”. fighters”. They are simply criminals criminals with a political agenda. Their tactics involve the unlawful use, as well as the threatened use, of violence and destruction against men, women and children. To the terrorist, terrorist, everyone is a combatant, combatant, as they operate operate on both foreign and domestic domestic fronts. They may operate within within the United United States and territories, with or without without foreign direction. direction. Many definitions have have evolved as to how we should define “terrorism”. “terrorism”. And, since the use of weaponry weaponry encompasses a wide range of possibilities, the present day use of terms such as “weapons of mass destruction” has become more commonplace.
4 To say, “one man’s terrorist is another man’s freedom fighter” distorts the real and sinister picture of terrorism. terrorism. In the real world, world, perfect perfect distinctions distinctions and definitions often blur in the realty of human cruelty and degradation. The many “experts” in the field of terrorism have contrived many definitions of terrorism. terrorism. In many cases, these efforts efforts have led to the the difficulty not only in understanding it, but also in combating it as well. Terrorism is criminal behavior and should not be associated with some fanciful notion connected to liberating a country country from oppression. It is a brutal form form of expression that that includes non-combatants non-combatants as easy target of prey. In the harsh reality of human actions, terrorism remains a deliberate act of aggression and hostility toward others which includes harming the “civilian” population in general. It is murder and aggravated battery, along with other criminal acts, designed to intimidate and otherwise frighten various population groups for mainly political purposes. Acts of terrorism terrorism must must be separated from other types of politically motivated activities, such as guerrilla warfare and insurrection. Guerrilla warfare is generally concerned with attacking military targets and political officials in order to bring about a governmental change within a particular country.
In their book, Political Terrorism, Schmidt and Youngman cited 109 definitions of terrorism, which they obtained in a survey of leading academics in the field. From these definitions, definiti ons, the authors isolated the following recurring elements, in order of their statistical appearance in the definitions: definitions : violence, force (appeared in 83.5% of the definitions); political (65%); fear, emphasis on terror (51%); threats (47%); psychological effects and anticipated reactions (41.5%); discrepancy between the targets and the victims (37.5%); intentional, planned systematic, organized action (32%); methods of combat, strategy, tactics (30.5%). (3)
The arsenal of terrorists terrorists has adapted adapted to the innovations innovations in technology. technology. The current era of “weapons of mass destruction” (aka WMD) include an array of weaponized instruments instruments of widespread death and and injury potential. potential. From poison gas to radioactivity, the lethal nature of terrorism has dramatically escalated in an increasingly smaller global community.
5 From a purely generic and narrow definition, “weapons of mass destruction” tend encompass any explosive device or other materials that potentially cause widespread death, injury injury and damage. But, the inclusion of such implements also refers to incendiary and poison gas devices, as well as variety of bio-hazardous bio-hazardous agents. agents. Things such as bombs, grenades, missiles, land mines, and so forth fall within this broad category of destructive devices. To this mix of weapons, weapons, we can also include include various configurations configurations of nuclear weapons, biological and chemical devices that have the potential for significant levels of damage to people and property. property. For most people in the United States, it is difficult to imagine the possibilities and the potential danger that stems from the use of some type of “weapon of mass destruction”. The use of destructive devices by terrorists is perplexing and hard to comprehend for many people.
Terrorism Includes 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) Unlawful and violent tactics Selected targets of opportunity Maximum use of the media Political motivation Civilian targets Planning and organization
First responders to acts of terrorism are generally local law enforcement officers. The seemingly unpredictable nature of terrorism terrorism requires constant vigilance on the part part of all law enforcement personnel. personnel. The collection and analysis of frontline intelligence is important to the mission of providing public safety and security. Surveillance, intelligence gathering, patrol strategies and associated tactics and techniques must be effectively employed in order to confront confront terrorist activities. activities. None of this, of course, is easy. But, ongoing training, training, education and proactive efforts are necessary to the public safety mission.
6
The terrorist threat around the world represents a serious challenge to law enforcement officials – one that many are unprepared to handle. The use of criminal activity to create fear and thus further political goals is a strategy that has been employed for centuries. As early as 400 B.C., Sun Tzu observed, that before launching an all out attack, “the master conqueror frustrated his enemy’s plans and broke up his alliances. He created cleavages between sovereign and minister, superiors and inferiors, commanders and subordinates. His spies and agents were active everywhere, gathering information, sowing dissention and nurturing subversion. The enemy was isolated and demoralized; his will to resist resist broken. broken. Thus, without without battle his army was conquered, his cities taken and his state overthrown.” (4)
Terrorism are violent efforts to further the political aims of a particular group. Activities involve unlawful acts that target civilian civilian population areas in the furtherance of such aims. aims. Terrorist tactics, techniques techniques and technology should foster a response by law enforcement that is both proactive and innovative. Since terrorism is criminal activity, countermeasures countermeasures should include the use of enhanced training methodologies, advanced education, covert operations, tactical and strategic planning, aggressive surveillance, electronic countermeasures, innovative problem solving tactics, multiagency initiatives in planning, training and practical application, as well as other related related aspects. Terrorism tends to be adaptive, adaptive, and the law enforcement response must be well prepared to deal with their tactics.
7
Emanating from a distorted worldview, terrorism employs whatever criminal activity suits its needs. From blackmail, to intimidation intimidatio n and suicidal bombings, terrorists promote a political agenda of death and destruction. Violence is used as a mechanism of persuasion in the sociopathic world of the terrorist. Targets of opportunity are selected on the basis of propaganda value by use of unprovoked attacks. In most cases, criminal acts or perpetrated with minimum risk to the key terrorist players, and maximum exposure and publicity in the media. The media are often more than willingly willingl y to sensationalize to every extend possible the “scope and nature” of the terrorist incident. Publicity is an important ingredient to the terrorist. terrorist . And, terrorist incidents will be portrayed in graphic detail with great obsession by various media outlets. Terrorist generally generally prefer to strike with surprise that is preceded by careful planning and training. The primary weapon is the “fear factor”. If people are scarred and intimidated, then the terrorist act has been a success. Fear is an essential component of terrorist actions. There is a desire to make the public feel vulnerable and unsafe. Such anxiety on the part of the public puts pressure pressure on law enforcement services to act. Terrorism is an attack on noncombatants noncombatan ts in that civilians civilians are targeted. The political and economic goals of terrorism are accomplished through the degree of propaganda that is obtained. Terrorist groups tend to be cohesive, loyal, trained, educated, financed and armed.
8 Terrorism encompasses a range of cowardly acts that involve violations of established law. But, controversial or bizarre beliefs and opinions do not necessarily represent a terrorist orientation orientation or inclination. inclination. Belief systems systems vary among people and span the philosophical spectrum in many directions. In the U.S., the Constitution Constituti on protects freedom of speech. Opinions are one thing actions are another thing. However, we should keep in mind that vigilance is virtue.
Attitudes and forms expression do not normally reflect the potential for terrorist incidents. People can have opinions opinions no matter how strange they they are. They can deviate from “mainstream” belief systems and carry on with a variety of viewpoints. Yet, extreme extreme belief systems should not be ignored and should be part of the information gathering process of effective law enforcement action. action. When the attitudes and opinions transcend transcend the bridge between thought and action, then attention should be given to that which violates the law. Terrorist Incident Incident – characterizes a situation in which an incident is dangerous, violent and threatens human life in violation of criminal statutes. It suggests that law enforcement has an idea as to who did the act and what the motive was. Suspected Terrorist Incident – Incident – less certain than the “Terrorist Incident”, and the identity and motive is not determined at the time of the incident. Terrorism Prevention – Prevention – represents positive law enforcement interdiction when terrorist are identified, known to have committed a violation and arrested before carrying out a Terrorist Incident. This is the result of a comprehensive criminal investigation. 5
9 Chapter 2: Threat Analysis & Intelligence Gathering Factors: An effective threat analysis system, which includes efficient intelligence gathering, could be a potentially potent weapon weapon against terrorism. terrorism. That is, if used properly, information analysis is an aspect of the crime and criminal behavior analysis process, which could support preventive measures to interdict terrorist activities. As such, the most important part of intelligence gathering gathering begins at the patrol level. level. Patrol, which represents represents the striking power of the law enforcement agency, is in the appropriate position to initiate the information development process. The information gathering process is an integral integral part of overall overall threat analysis. analysis. With respect to to the line operations, officers on patrol have occasions to receive information relative to signs of tension, unrest, conspiracies, suspicious activities, and so forth, in their respective areas of assignment. The acquisition of intelligence information should be processed and analyzed to the extent necessary to keep command level staff well advised as to situations within the community. Information and and threat analysis processes processes should be established established within in every law enforcement organization. Police executives executives must be informed on a regular basis through an effective intelligence briefing process. Threats of violence arise from feelings or ideas that range from the meanspirited to the messianic. Sometimes a threat is backed by the will and capacity to do harm; at other times, a voiced threat may amount to nothing but emotional “venting”. However, violent acts can be committed when no prior threat has been uttered. For law enforcement and security officers, recognize the differences between “making” and “posing” a threat is crucially important. Perpetrators of violence often have a traceable history of problems, conflicts, disputes, and failures. Violent behavior may be triggered by these individuals’ perception that it provides a means to rectify or avenge an injustice or wrongdoing. Targeted violence can be premeditated premeditate d or opportunistic when a situation arises that facilitates or permits the violence or does not prevent it from occurring. (6)
10
Good information from many sources can be effectively used in an effort to plan proactive strategies. This should be balanced with proper education and training of public service forces.
1. Proper planning prevents poor performance – tactical and technical capabilities are brought to bear in order to have a good risk analysis. 2. Time, talk and tactics – time is utilized to gather intelligence data, talk is held to assess informatics, and proactive tactics are developed to interdict into problem areas. 3. Target hardening contemplates a proactive posture – the prospects of future violence are considered in view of potential local vulnerabilities. vulnerabilities. This is involves involves implementation implementation of a set of investigative and operational techniques that serve to identify, analyze and manage the probability of targeted violence and the potential criminals involved. 4. Making a threat must be balanced against posing a threat – evaluation of threats must be considered in terms of probable capabilities to carry out violent acts. Problem solving talents are important. 5. The fundamental basis of threat assessments involves the analysis of relevant data – this must be devoid of political agenda or personal bias. Basic questions to be answered answered include: who, what, where, when, how, why and action to be taken. 6. Threat analysis cannot be constrained by complex bureaucratic behavior – a proactive plan of action must be utilized that
11
Local Area Demographics A threat assessment should include a comprehensive inventory of local area characteristics. This would include such things as information about the population, geographic configuration, layout and design, medical services and facilities, commercial operations, government facilities, crime hazards, community habits, transportation, etc.
Interdiction against terrorism takes place on a frequent basis throughout the world. Many times, such actions do not make frontpage headlines. But, often, based on good intelligence and comprehensive investigative efforts, terrorism is prevented and terrorists arrested. Naturally, interdiction and prevention are preferred to post-incident encounters, which may later result in an arrest. Most common tactics of terrorism includes the use of bombings. These have occurred through mailings, car bombs and other uses of explosives. Bombings have typically occurred on a small scale, such cars and offices. Larger targets, of course, should not be ignored. ignored. Targets have included all levels of government, as well as a variety of public officials. From sniper incidents to hostage taking, terrorists have used a variety of weapons to perpetrate their actions against others. Research in the development development of information from local local community characteristics can assist in the acquisition of critical knowledge. This will support the intelligence gathering and planning processes for local law enforcement actions. Such endeavors are part of an ongoing process of proactive law enforcement. Global, national and local issues could serve as the basis for terrorist type actions at the local level. Keen foresight in the analysis of day-to-day issues could lead to the development of significant information resources. The Internet, for example, should not be overlooked as a research tool in the development of investigative processes. Every possibility possibilit y should be considered. Analysis of information will be important to the implementation of planning strategies.
12
Violence is a process, as well as an act. Violent behavior does not occur in a vacuum. Careful analysis of violent incidents shows that violent acts often are the culmination of longdeveloping, identifiable trails of problems, conflicts, disputes and failures. A key to investigation and resolution of threat assessment cases is identification of the subject’s “attack-related” behaviors. Perpetrators of targeted acts of violence engage in discrete behavior that precede and are linked to their attacks; they consider, plan, and prepare before engaging in violent actions. (7)
The intelligence gathering process, in support of investigative threat analysis, concerns critical assessment of relevant information. information . It is a timely process that involves the initial collection of information and data that is followed by careful systematic interpretation. interpretati on. From the collection point, information and data are carefully scrutinized through effective evaluation. Collation and analytic actions move the evaluation process along a continuum of thoughtful refinement. refinement . After the information and associated materials are analyzed, then it is important that relevant factors be shared through proper dissemination.
13 Frontline first responders play a crucial role in the intelligence gathering process. Their function in the investigative aspects of proactive law enforcement is essential to the evaluation of potential threats within the community. It is important important to realize the often often simplicity simplicity by which information is obtained. obtained. A significant portion portion of information information coming into a police agency arrives by way of overt or public means of transmission. Through his or her contacts in the field, the patrol officer comes into receipt of information information from various sources on a daily basis. This may result result in contact with a citizen, a business owner, the store clerk, informants, suspicious encounters, traffic stoops, criminal activity, crime scenes, investigative efforts, efforts, and so on. In addition, addition, perceptions perceptions and observations observations about people, places places and things things support such data collection. collection. These overt methods of intelligence gathering become the primary stage of investigative development and intelligence intelligence activities. activities. Other aspects include, news stories, stories, magazine articles, research and reference sources, government records and archives, public documents, various business transactions, the Internet, etc.
Patrol represents the bulk of information collected by both overt and covert means. Such development of information can take the form of a “field interview”, or a “traffic stop”. Patrol officers write reports about various incidents, which contain pieces of information that may be related to other activities. Officers working in a surveillance or undercover capacity continue the process of intelligence gathering and information development. This is done through various means such as mobile and fixed stakeouts, informants, infiltration, electronic countermeasures, and other forms of surveillance surveillanc e activity. Movement, activities, associations and so forth are monitored as targets of an investigation. Often, when physical surveillance cannot suffice the target objectives, then electronic measures may be necessary to secure the needed information. This action may address those issues of motive, means, target selection, and plans of the criminal element in question.
14 Through cover means, the patrol officer can gather additional data in his or her research of actual and potential criminal threats within the community. Finding clues to criminal activity or conspiracies may come in bits and pieces, before the whole whole picture falls into into place. In actuality, it may may be akin to the pieces of a puzzle that may be large or small. Developing information sources and networks of contacts is an important part of the goals and objectives of the patrol officer. Overt methods methods of information gathering begin the process of data collection. collection. When it becomes necessary to fit the pieces together, then covert methods may be called for in a given situation. The two interrelated aspects may be ongoing functions that compliment each other in an intelligently intelligently shared shared analytical analytical process. The sharing process includes a continuum of activity that bridges interaction between squads and patrol shifts, beat assignments, organizational divisions and units, patrol, court and corrections corrections operations, operations, and interagency cooperation. cooperation. Correctional operations, for example, is one element that should not be overlooked in particular. Corrections officers officers are in a particularly particularly good position to develop information sources sources that could assist patrol patrol operations. Each day, they come come into contact with with a variety of people. These people are incarcerated incarcerated for one reason or another. The potential potential for gathering important intelligence information is always present. Such activities should should be an essential part part of the law enforcement information and threat assessment process.
The first type of information is acquired from regular sources such as conscientious and public-spirited citizens, company records, and files of other agencies. The second type, type, which is of particular interest to the criminal investigator and which will receive special attention here, is the knowledge gathered by the experienced investigator from cultivated sources such a paid informants, bartenders, cab drivers, licensed owners and employees in general, former criminals, or acquaintances. The extent to which informants are employed varies widely with law enforcement agencies. The French police, for example, rely heavily on an elaborate network of paid informants. In the English system, however, there is little provision for paid informants. (8)
15
Electronic surveillance is important to the mission of gathering relevant intelligence data. It supports physical and active surveillance tactics. Such operations have have the potential of developing the actual and direct context by which criminals plan to carry out or otherwise execute criminal actions. Informants also provide opportunities to develop critical data relative to the mission at hand. Human intelligence intelli gence can range from the concerned citizen to the mercenary, and just about everything in between. He or she may be motivated by a sense of public service or personal gain of some other sort. Depending on the level of contact to the activity in question, informants tend to have varying levels of values in terms of information and capabilities. capabilities. Covert operations should be utilized when it is becomes necessary to the investigation. It serves to support the overt methods of information development. An effective intelligence gathering system that uses both overt and covert means can avoid miscommunication, misdirected use of information, and misguided efforts.
The evaluation of information concerns making decisions, using discretion, and determining value. An assessment must be made as to the value, reliability reliabili ty and source of the information informati on received. Facts must be weighed carefully, and non-factual aspects filtered out. The source must be evaluated in terms of truthfulness and reliability. And, the information must be balanced in terms of its credibility to the investigation. The use of logic would be appropriate in order to validate the nature of the information itself. Facts must be be separated from emotions, feelings, motives, irrelevant information and so forth.
16 A threat assessment is built upon the assemblage of relevant information that follows an effective timeline of development and dissemination. Information must be collected, evaluated, collated, analyzed and distributed appropriately. Assessments should be weighed with logic and skillful skillful insight. Pieces of the puzzle puzzle must be put together together with meticulous meticulous care and balanced with with careful careful analysis. Estimates of crime potential should be considered in terms terms to both tactical tactical and strategic operations. Patrol officers officers are in the best position to assist in the threat assessment process. The can contribute to community-wide protection by virtue of their everyday working knowledge of the the local local environment. environment. Intelligence gathering is initially a patrol function. Very simply, patrol operations represent a potentially vast network of intelligence gathering. And, as the information moves up the organization, the process of information sharing must be a two-way street. Documentation as as to incidents incidents involving people, people, places and things on a regular basis is relevant to the threat assessment planning process.
Tactical Intelligence: Intelligence : this is information that can assist the operational aspects, particularly patrol, with a view toward specific events or potential incidents. It is the kind kind of information that supports the implementation implementatio n of immediate immediat e actions by line operations. The value value of such information has a direct impact on patrol operations, deployment and interdiction. interdiction . Typically, tactical intelligence focuses on making arrests in a sure and certain manner to deal with a specific crime problem. Such actions may necessitate the use of “tactical patrol units or forces” to cope with actual or potential crisis situations. Strategic Intelligence Intelligence:: this kind of information generally relates to patterns, trends, and ongoing activities of a criminal nature. It is more general in scope that tactical intelligence. Strategic intelligence is developed over a longer period of time, and may relate to crime analysis as well as behavioral analysis processes. Information is updated and reviewed on a regular basis, as new insights or additional data come to light. Patterns and methods of operations are assessed and reported as activities become more definable. This kind of information supports the tactical aspects of patrol operations.
17 Chapter 3: Efforts to Combat Terrorism: Efforts to combat terrorism should be an important process that is essentially developed and conducted by the respective states and their local governments. It is an issue with unique unique consequences that directly directly impacts local populations, communities and the first responders at the state and local level. It also involves organizations that are typically not thought of outside police and fire services. services. These include health health care services, private private security, businesses, public works, and other assorted community services. services. Terrorist incidents are of concern to both the public and private sectors, involving public services that span range of functions provided by local governments. The very infrastructure of state and local government include involvement involvement of a multitude multitude of interests. interests. Such interests include the special special nature of “politics”, personal agendas and “politically correct” thinking processes. Yet, aside from such self-centered kinds of human behavior, the serious planning, prevention strategies and interdiction efforts concern multi-agency and multi-disciplinary multi-disciplinary cooperative cooperative efforts. efforts. In addition addition to state state and local agency/organization cooperation, sound government policy, procedures and guidelines, supported by aggressive law enforcement action, are a re necessary to deal with serious reality reality of public safety safety and security. security. Proper planning, planning, tactics, technology and action will greatly assist efforts to combat terrorism. Feelings, emotions and other personal expressions must be carefully balanced with facts, action plans, the nature of reality and serious hardcore action. It will not be possible to plan plan with 100% foolproof accuracy for every possible event scenario. scenario. However, proper proper planning is important to preventing poor performance in anticipation of an actual incident. Essential Elements Command, control and communications Planning, analysis, simulation and operational procedures Resources, logistics, and supply Research, development and equipment Threat assessment, intelligence and security Allied services, support components Healthcare, hazardous materials and related resources Medical, quarantine and health services
18
Threat Analysis Planning Operations
Intelligence and Patrol Operations
Proactive Prevention and Action Planning
The threat assessment, which combines active intelligence operations, supports the efforts to develop a combat plan for potential terrorist criminal incidents. Terrorism is criminal activity that has political overtones connected to the motive of its actions. Gathering information is essential to interdicting and striking back against terrorist infrastructures. Such planning contemplates social, economic and political characteristics of the particular environment that is considered a potential target area. This includes consideration of minimum aspects such as:
Threat potential Physical security – target vulnerability Target hardening Preventive patrol operations Personal security and public safety Operational security Tactics, tools and techniques Technology Command authority and jurisdiction Critical incident management
19 In developing a flexible, innovative response and preparedness plan of action, it should be kept in mind that potential dangers come from a variety of sources. Networks may exist within within a community, and authorities authorities may be completely unaware due to “cover and concealment” techniques employed. Active vigilance, through effective effective law enforcement is important. Acts of terrorism occur more more and more frequently frequently throughout throughout the world. They may happen as a result of domestic domestic or foreign instigation. From both a homegrown and global perspective, terrorist will work with and otherwise use any person, entity or group to further their political and personal agendas. Although they may appear or asset they are “agents of social change”, they are actually criminals who use force, fear and violence to perpetrate group and personal gain of one sort sort or another. another. There tends to always be a method and strategy to their extraordinary behavior that sometimes seems “crazy”. No matter how suicidal their actions are, they usually have a well-formed agenda, and operate in an organized manner. Their actions are planned and calculated with the intentional use of violence against others. others. So-called experts in the the field field of terrorism, sometimes disagree in reference to defining terrorism in terms of types, definition and motives. Yet, from the position of combating terrorism, terrorism, most practitioners practitioners generally agree that that terrorism remains a premeditated premeditated act of violence. violence. It is not a sudden impulsive crazed action carried out by “freedom fighters”. Instead, it is planned, organized, funded, armed and trained activities to advance power and control on the part of particular groups and associations. Sometimes, with mutual interests at stake, terrorist groups may form alliances with organized organized crime groups. In a sense, it is a kind kind of “political “political organized crime” with both domestic and foreign implications. The organizational structure tends to be tightly controlled through a defined hierarchy. Discipline and loyalty are enforced ruthlessly, operational security is essential, and insulation of authority is ensured through subunits, “cells”, and layers of personnel designed to protect high-ranking members. Like organized crime, terrorism strives to perpetuate its money and power continuity by whatever means works in the real world of human activity. Money and material assets are critical to the acquisition of weapons, information, and and support resources. And, as opposed to attacking attacking military military targets directly, civilians become targets of opportunity for terrorist actions. In defining terrorism, as part of a combat preparedness plan, evaluating the types of terrorism is necessary to gain understanding about the nature of the enemy.
20
Proper planning of enforcement contingencies must consider the delicate balance that may exist between competing political interests and the nature of the real world. Beware of crouching politicians with hidden agendas. Sometimes we forget that the road to failure is paved with good intentions. And, sometimes those in government think it is better to look, as opposed to being good. Symbolism may outweigh substance.
An action plan should contain at least the basic elements that define both administrative and operational aspects, to include: the Goals and objectives, the Situation(s), Situation(s), the Mission(s), etc.
21 The action plan of the organization defines the goals and objectives, the mission statement, the situation, execution of actions, command and control mechanisms, and supporting resources resources and services. services. This is the continuum of short and and long range public public safety planning planning and implementation. implementation. The continuum in formulating formulating a combat combat strategy is an ongoing process. process. It is a plan that emphasizes mutual aid among local agencies, information sharing, proactive vigilance as well as combined command, communications and control systems. systems. The mix is delicate, and many interests interests are connected connected to the process. Too often, this kind of planning is affected by emotionally influenced interests that include personal fear factors for some, and political or career enhancement potential for others. This typically occurs after a major incident has taken place. Emotions and feelings feelings run high high and may tend to cloud rational thinking thinking when planning planning a response. response. Such influences influences must be controlled and balanced with calm directed rationality. Reason must prevail in the overall effort to implement “combat” efforts or countermeasures. This is where effective effective and efficient efficient patrol operations operations are essential. Patrol is the backbone of law enforcement, enforcement, and thereby contributes to the ongoing analysis of community safety and security needs. And, this includes the gathering of intelligence information in order to make well-calculated threat assessments.
The way people in general perceive risk takes on significance for emergency management officials who need to assess possible threats to their communities and try to allocate scarce resources to contend with those threats. That task isn’t easy. Deciding where a terror attack might occur is far different from predicting where a hurricane might strike. Unlike natural natural disasters, terrorist terrorist attacks attacks are man-made, and as such, they are filled with a myriad of unknowns. On problem lies in simply identifying who within the community could pose a threat. Recent national focus has been on international terror groups and cells connected with al-Qaida. But local emergency managers know that a variety of domestic terrorist or extremist groups have been working in their communities for years. (9)
22
The urban focus of terrorism places a significant burden upon local public safety and security security resources. Strong effective effective working relationships relationships among local agencies are essential in order to formulate strategies for combating terrorism. The police and fire services, services, in particular, particular, in any given local area, should have a plan for unifying unifying the communications system. To this, consideration must be given to an interrelated command structure, whereby command, control and communications can be maximized in an emergency situation. The cooperative cooperative structure should also support support the prevention prevention and planning process of of public safety safety and security services. Every effort effort should be made to ensure that the action plan does not become cumbersome, confusing and inflexible. Instead, standard standard operating procedures for dealing with terrorism should be uncomplicated, innovative and adaptive to local needs and issues.
If we examine terrorism as a series of criminal acts to garner intense media attention, we demystify the “power” of the terrorist and place acts in a commonly understood light. Police agencies understand how to deal with criminal acts. We rarely have advanced knowledge that a criminal will strike. Although there is a desire to rapidly bring the criminal to justice, it is understood that aspects of the investigation must proceed in a thorough manner to avoid mistakes. A terrorist act is a bombing, a kidnapping, an incendiary device, a hazardous materials incident, etc. With the mystique of terrorism eroded a bit, we can begin to develop our method of countering it. (10)
Effective well-coordinated local services planning and interaction are important to the overall process of public safety and security countermeasures or crime prevention. Anticipation, recognition and initiation of actions, are the primary ingredients incorporated within a plan of both suppression and apprehension of criminal activity.
23
In the study and analysis of terrorism, two general categories emerge. These include domestic terrorism and international terrorism as basic points of of reference. For the sake of discussion, planning and assessment, the two groups potentially encompass the range of terrorism threats that may adversely impact the local community. Basically, the domestic terrorism issue relates to those persons, as well as organized associations, who are primary homegrown. They represent individuals, or groups, who direct their activities and actions toward the federal government generally. Their actions may involve any segment of the U.S. population as a consequence of carrying out such acts. Sometimes, these groups carry out activities directed toward local government, depending on the political message or issue. Extreme worldviews, not unlike their international counterparts, seem to define the thinking processes of domestic terrorists. These views may encompass a range of conspiracies, cult activities, antigovernment attitudes, totalitarian global government, and end of the world viewpoints. Their thinking spans the political spectrum of both left and right wing views.
The public needs to understand that these are dangerous times and the world is not an entirely safe place to live. An ongoing ongoing public information and education program accomplishes this. Law enforcement has a responsibility for the short and long range planning, education and development of proactive public safety countermeasures. Efforts must be designed to deal with the serious realities of extreme criminal behavior. Measures to combat terrorism cannot be accomplished by public safety personnel alone. The public must play an important role in supporting and helping their local public safety agencies. Primarily, this support comes comes in the form of sufficient funding to get the tasks done effectively. effectivel y. In addition, support also means active involvement by concerned citizens in the protection of their community. communit y. Among other things, vigilance and awareness are essential. From the home to the office, to the playground, citizens should be alert to signs of unusual or suspicious behavior and actions.
24
Combating terrorism and other acts of extreme criminal behavior require a community-wide community-wi de cooperative effort. A community communit y partnership is fundamental to the development of proactive countermeasures. Combating terrorism is essentially essentiall y combating criminal behavior. Strategies require effective tactics, tools, training and techniques. It is a matter of bringing together cooperative interests to develop plans and implement actions. Efforts to combat serious criminal threats require the necessity of a well-organized infrastructure in state and local government. The infrastructure must also have the necessary resources and materials to support the public safety and security actions. From the health department to the line officer, the response system must be mutually interactive and supportive. Basic ingredients in the planning and implementation of actions include at least the following aspects. The Situation – Local Community Needs – Threat Analysis Aggressive Patrol Mission – Operational Environment – Terrain & Infrastructure Action Plan – Implementation Strategies – Execution of Plans Support Services – Community Partnerships Command – Control – Communications
25 Chapter 4: Identifying Terrorist Groups In viewing the global neighborhood, terrorist groups span the political spectrum in terms of both domestic and international organizations. organizations. The socalled right-wing groups tend to assert an assortment of “end-times” prophetic ideas, which suggest global conflict. conflict. Their leanings also suggest various conspiracies, which are usually perpetrated by the government. Often, this means the federal government. government. They espouse anti-government sentiments along with their opposition to taxation. As potential domestic terrorists, they cannot be discounted as a possible threat to public safety and security. Sometimes, these groups may be seen as exclusive in terms of “racial heritage”, heritage”, asserting a “white supremacist” supremacist” view of the world. And, others within this spectrum would re-organize the country into various settlements for different ethnic and racial groups that do not fit into their world-view. Often, we we refer to these groups with phrases such as “the patriot movement”, movement”, or “the militias”. militias”. Such organizations organizations may be involved involved in survivalist preparations as well as paramilitary training.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Right Wing Groups Focus on prophetic views of the world in terms of world government and final conflict; Assert a variety of governmental acts of oppression and abuse of power; Articulate anti-government positions and oppose taxation by the various governments; Groups may practice survival oriented training, along with paramilitary paramilitary tactics; Violence tends to be the use of explosives, with bombings directed toward governmental entities; Assert extreme views concerning the Constitution;
26
Membership in a militia organization is not an illegal activity in the United States. Law enforcement interest in the militia movement is based upon the rise of violence or potential for violence or criminal activity stemming from the militia movement. Militias are typically loose knit in nature. Adherents often are members of multiple groups, and because leaders of these groups tend to greatly inflate membership levels, actual group size is difficult to determine. (11)
Over the past several decades, the scope and intensity of terrorist activity throughout the world has transitioned from small-scale operations to fullscale actions. Groups most most likely to inflict mass destruction destruction tend to be extreme in their views, views, educated and well well funded. Their actions include the escalation of tactics and techniques, which employ weapons of mass destruction. Both cult groups, groups, as well as religious extremist extremist groups, appear to have the inclination to deploy extreme measures in pursuit of their ‘endtimes’ apocalyptic apocalyptic thinking. thinking. The tendency tendency exists that the ‘fundamentalist ‘fundamentalist cultic mindset’ perceives the use of mass destruction weapons as necessary to defeat an evil empire’. The intent is to inflict mass mass casualties on the population, strike fear in the minds of the citizenry and make the government look impotent. impotent. Thinking that runs along these lines may see the world in very very simplistic terms. Everything and everyone are reduced to a basic formula. That is, the the group may may believe the end of the world is coming, and it is up to them to fight back – “us against them”. The group is right and everyone outside the group is wrong, regardless of the truth or reality. Sometimes, the thinking thinking focuses on the mysterious always-active always-active entity known as “they” “they” or “them”. “them”. Many times, “they” is the government. government. Or, “they” could be a particular race, ethnicity or other belief system. Extreme political or religious belief systems have fostered some of the most dangerous terrorist in the world. Such continues to be a significant trend for some groups. God, unfortunately and contrary to the truth, can be used to justify some of the most heinous acts of criminal behavior in history. To deploy such weapons as biological, chemical, nuclear, etc, requires organization, funding, training and so forth.
27
From cult ideologies to religious extremism, post-cold war era terrorist groups pose a significant threat to the peace and stability of the global community. These groups tend to be more likely likely to use weapons weapons of mass mass destruction. They have been known to use modern technology technology as well as weaponry to their advantage. Groups are capable of bringing together together the necessary resources, such as scientists and technicians, to achieve their collective goals and objectives. objectives. Their operations operations utilize the Internet, Internet, the financial markets, organized crime associations, telecommunications networks, business fronts, fund-raising sources and so on to advance their mission. Some groups groups believe that that ultimately there must be a showdown showdown with the national government. In the U.S., for example, some some groups openly express their hostility to the federal government by suggesting armed conflict may may be necessary. necessary. First responders, responders, particularly particularly law enforcement officers, need to keep in mind that such groups see the police as “representatives of the system” the groups groups oppose. As such, police officers officers are potential targets of attack by these organizations. organizations. In preparation preparation for armed conflict, the groups stockpile weapons, conduct training exercises and carry out activities designed to promote their cause. The Internet Internet has become a significant resource in the promotion of such ideologies and activities. And, while it is an important important tool for terrorist organizations, organizations, it is likewise an important tool for law enforcement.
Contemporary terrorist organizations appear to be organized through various associations and well funded. Recruitment today tends to focus on skilled technical personnel. These include engineers, medical technicians, chemists, computer programmers, communication specialists, and other trained people.
28 To the right of the political spectrum, people tend to be in opposition to any social or political change that occurs and is inconsistent with their worldview. Generally speaking, their viewpoint viewpoint may be firmly firmly founded on the necessity of a well-established order of things, and that attitudes and practices should be the same same for everyone. Inclinations favor the forced establishment a more authoritarian political system that is consistent with their views. The philosophy favors a militaristic and and autocratic style of leadership, while sometimes placing heritage and race above the individual. By contrast, the left-wing organizations tend to espouse a socialistic doctrine of both politics and economics. economics. These groups follow an an ideology expressive of a “revolutionary” “revolutionary” style of rhetoric. Their assertions of revolution speak out against capitalism capitalism and imperialism. imperialism. Change, in their view, can only be accomplished through revolutionary acts against the government. government. These activities are typically criminal in nature, with bombings and kidnappings being among the usual tactics. Again, like the right-wing right-wing groups, the leftwing terrorists target federal, federal, state and local local governments. In addition, they may attack symbols of the U.S. government, and examples of democracy, such as the flag, monuments, buildings and so forth.
While there may be different types of terrorism, as defined by various academic and government sources, traditional and contemporary notions still recognize the two the two broad categories of right and left-wing terrorist groups. No single category by itself can capture the true nature and extent the variety of groups that exist throughout the world. On the one hand, the left-wing terrorist groups portray democracy and capitalism as imperialistic entities that threaten the freedom and identity of the individual. To them, a “communistic” state should replace any form of democratic capitalism. Their rhetoric suggests the evils of a “free market economy”, which, in their view, causes much suffering and depravity throughout the world. On the other hand, the right-wing groups advocate a “fascist” state, with some being advocates of a “neoNazi” viewpoint.
29
Left-Wing Groups
Right-Wing Groups
The various types of terrorism include left and right wing groups. Frustrated with society or the world in general, because does not conform to their worldview, terrorist groups resort to violent political activity primarily for personal gain. It is an expression of self-centered adherence to on form of ideology or another that manifests in sociopathic tendencies. The core leadership of such groups will use any form of deception or seduction to recruit and enlist followers for the alleged cause.
Combating terrorism is a matter of good basic police work built upon principles of hard work, determination and commitment. In identifying and dealing with terrorist individuals, groups and organizations, it is essential that: a. Threat assessments and risk analyses be conducted b. Information is gathered effectively c. Data be analyzed and interpreted proficiently d. Appropriate dissemination occur frequently e. Information shared in mutual cooperation exchange f. Action plan be implement proactively proactively g. Rule of law be upheld
30
Issue Focused Groups Of the several categories sometimes cited as to the various types of terrorist organizations, another possible inclusion could be called “Issue Focused” terrorism. These groups differ somewhat from either right or left wing orientations. They tend to be focused on particular issues such as the environment, animals, abortion and so on. Their actions may not be directly applied to the governmental setting. Instead, their targets may be more focused on on private industry, such as health care centers, medical research facilities, associated laboratories, business and financial centers, as well as land and water resource conservation. These targets may also include schools, colleges and universities, both public and private, that carry out scientific research efforts. Again, their deliberate actions against a perceived “enemy” include criminal activity. They may set fire or bomb buildings. Sometimes acts of violence violence include the sabotage of business and educational processes. Files, inventory and offices may be attacked. Theft of property may occur. And, animals may be set free or stolen from labs. These groups may attempt to interfere with personnel and clients in an attempt to slow down operations or interrupt business. Attacks may be launched against computer systems or financial transactions. transactions.
Issue focused terrorism is just as dangerous as any other terrorist organization. Demonstrations, marches and protest about the environment, environment, have sometimes led to widespread rioting, property destruction and violent breaches of the peace in cities around the world.
31 Among both right and left wing groups, as well as the issue focused organizations, there may be a variety of belief systems and political ideologies. Belief systems range range from extreme extreme worldviews that are left and right of political and religious interests, to ethnic and nationalistic conceptions of societal reform. Regardless of the professed ideologies, terrorist acts by any such group represent criminal behavior. Law enforcement efforts efforts must be vigilant, vigilant, aggressive and well well defined. Obvious targets at the local community level should be given special considerations. Communications systems, airports and transportation services, public service agencies and infrastructure, health care providers, financial and business interests, research complexes, utilities, energy and power source supplies, land and conservation management areas, etc, should receive scrutiny in terms of security security countermeasures. countermeasures. Education, training and information information sharing are important. important. It is therefore critical critical that all agencies agencies and the local level work closely together with regard to this issue. Within the major categories of terrorist groups, the distribution can be distinguished in terms of national (domestic) (domestic) and international (foreign) organizations. They could be left, right, or issue focused in their nature and actions. Among the various groups, individuals and organizations involved in such terrorist activity, international terrorist groups may be sponsored by host nations. These host nations nations typically are are hostile to the United States. However, this may may not be true in all cases. Some nations may appear, at least on a superficial level, to be “allies” of of the U.S. They may receive huge huge amounts of financial aid from the U.S. In fact, they may may publicly condemn terrorist attacks and use the media media to good advantage. Yet, internally internally they may support the terrorist groups, as well as associated organized crime activities. International groups may also be somewhat detached or independent of a supportive nation. But, they may receive support, resources and aid from that nation. There are many possibilities of such such associations in the global global arena. In general terms, international international terrorist organizations present a threat threat to U.S. interests both at home and abroad. Actions are directed toward any any perceived perceived symbol symbol of American society. They may may target embassies, military bases, personnel and resources, private citizens, business interests and and so on. Groups who are are sponsored by various foreign foreign powers may carry carry out criminal criminal terrorist terrorist activities. Or, attacks attacks may be the the result of rogue individuals or indirectly associated with such organizations or nations.
32
International terrorism against the United States is foreign based and/or directed by countries or groups outside the United States. The activities of these countries or groups transcend national boundaries. The current international terrorist threat to U.S. persons and interests continues from years past and can be divided into three categories: state sponsors of international terrorism, formalized terrorist groups, and loosely affiliated radical extremists. The first threat to Americans comes from the activities of state sponsors of international terrorism. State sponsors include Iran, Iraq, Syria, Sudan, Libya, Cuba and North Korea. In recent years, terrorist activities of Cuba and North Korea have declined due primarily to the deteriorating economic situations in both countries. However, the activities of Iran, Iraq, Syria, Sudan and Libya have continued. (12)
Along this spectrum of various groupings, nation sponsored terrorism appears to be a significant significant threat to the U.S. U.S. Not only are these groups dangerous, the threat extends from symbolic U.S. targets to individual citizens and representatives representatives of the U.S. U.S. government. As such, the following categories illustrate the possible subdivisions and variations in the global scheme (13): sometimes referred to Foreign Nation Sponsors of Terrorism: This area is sometimes as the “state sponsors” of terrorism. Efforts are directed toward the sponsorship of specific groups that carry out terrorist acts. They represent a significant threat, particularly particularly in their their focus on the U.S. U.S. as a target. Again, countries like Iraq, Syria and others are typically state sponsors of terrorism. Detached or Independent Terrorist Groups: Somewhat independent in nature, these groups tend to function outside the sponsorship of a host nation. Their organization, organization, training training and financial operations are are such that that they appear more more self-sufficient in the activities activities they carry carry out. This area includes such groups as Hizballah (Lebanon) and HAMAS (Palestinian), as well as others. Rogue Individual and Associated Terrorist Groups: These tend to be extremist who may or may not affiliate or become involved in the more formal organizations. Sometimes there is a loose knit affiliation with more formalized organizations. They may operate on an individual basis, with the ability to assemble resources and capabilities from sources throughout the world.
33 Chapter 5: Terrorist Weapons, Targets and Tactics: From handguns to hand grenades, terrorist have used a variety of weapons to execute their tactics against their targets. targets. The list of weaponry could be extensive. It all depends on their their objective and the obstacles in the way. Usually striking in small units to avoid early detection, terrorist groups employ weapons based on how well such equipment can be concealed. Using emigrant populations to conceal their presence, terrorist groups may be involved in the smuggling of drugs and weapons in order to ensure their cash flow operations. operations. The money will will be used to build the the organization as well as acquire acquire the necessary necessary weaponry. weaponry. Terrorist organizations organizations have the the capability to adapt and transform to changing environments. U.S. Counterterrorism Policy First, First, make no concessions to terrorists and strike no deals; Second, Second, bring terrorists to justice for their crimes; Third, Third, isolate and apply pressure on states that sponsor terrorism to force them to change their behavior; and Fourth, Fourth, bolster the counterterrorism capabilities of those countries that work with the U.S. and require assistance. (14)
Overview of Weapons of Terrorism The following is a generalized listing of various types of weapons used by terrorist groups around the world. Often, weapons are selected for concealment purposes, as well as ease by which they can be placed into action. Small Arms: Arms: includes small sized weapons such as handguns (revolvers and auto pistols), rifles of various types, and submachine guns; Medium Sized Weapons: Weapons: in this category emphasis is placed on equipment such as machine guns, rocket propelled grenades, mortars, mines, small missile weapons; (15)
34
Weapons Continued Improvised Explosive Devices: Devices : this category includes both commercial and military type explosives devices, as well as those of the homemade variety; also remote controlled and incendiary type bombs, primary and secondary explosive devices; such weaponry may be stolen from military supplies, bought on the black market, or obtained through commercial suppliers; some types may be surplus equipment from the Cold War era, stolen from construction supplies, or assembled from various components; Martyr Bombs: Bombs: this type is unique; this involves the use of a human, strapped with explosives, who is willing to sacrifice himself or herself for the organization and the cause; sometimes vehicles are loaded with explosives and the driver maneuvers the vehicle into the target and explodes the device; the so called “suicide bombers” are not a new weapon; the use of such attacks date back through the centuries, as the ultimate form of self-sacrifice for the cause of justice; Internet Hacking: sometimes attacks are carried out using computers; this form of assault includes hacking into computer system and planting viruses and so forth; targets include – defense facilities, telecommunications, transportation systems, water supplies, fuel production and distribution systems, financial interests, utilities, emergency health and medical services; Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD): in the last few decades, it appears that terrorist groups have intensified their destructive activities; this area includes the use of those types of devices that intend to inflict large scale casualties on civilian population groups; biological, nuclear, incendiary, chemical and explosive devices are included in this category; Funding for such equipment equipment comes from a variety variety of sources. It may come from legitimate businesses, community support, state sponsorship, criminal activities, organized crime, smuggling operations, front groups, contributions from benefactors and so on.
35 The range of weaponry available to terrorists includes quite a variety of guns, explosives, incendiaries, incendiaries, chemicals chemicals and so forth. forth. Generally, however, however, terrorists tend to use those weapons that are of a more conventional nature. This does not mean, however, that given the opportunity, means and ability, terrorists would not choose something something more unique and deadly. Targets of opportunity, as well as the desire to increase the mass fear factor, are essential to the use of various types of weapons. The probable arsenal of terrorist groups groups is extensive. A whole array of exotic and extraordinary devices, substances and weapons systems exist within the global community. Simply stated, stated, anything anything is possible and and everything everything is imaginable. But, terrorists typically typically employ employ standard types of weapons and devices. From small arms to heavy infantry weapons, terrorist have the capability to use a significant amount of firepower. Car and truck laden explosives, for example, have been effectively deployed for a number of years. And, homemade devices such as letter and package bombs have been used with great effectiveness. effectiveness. Even though conventional types types of weapons weapons are often used, the destructive capability of some weapons systems can be massive. This has led to public and governmental concern about so called “weapons of mass destruction” destruction” (WMD). The WMD types types typically refer refer to weapons weapons that involve the use of biological, nuclear, incendiary, chemical and explosive materials. materials. Large-scale destruction destruction and mass mass casualties are the the primary intent of using such weapons. Sometimes it may be confusing to distinguish between a conventional weapon and one of mass destruction.
Weapons use relates to: 1. target selection – opportunity, ability, motivation 2. potential for raising the public fear factor 3. probability of successful attack and deployment 4. potential for success 5. Target symbolism, visibility of target, profile 6. Availability and response of local resources 7. Accessibility of weapons types – biological, chemical, nuclear, incendiary, explosives 8. Type of product, packaging, environmental application 9. Population and structures 10. barriers, borders and avenues of escape and evasion
36 Bombings are typical of the types of weapons that terrorists use to attack their targets. Bombs and explosives explosives come in all all shapes, size and destructive capability. The variety of devices employed, the targets selected and the means of activation include a wide range range of possibilities. In addition, addition, environmental conditions, security, building design and population characteristics are important important to the actions being being carried out. Targets may be specific or they may be general general in nature. nature. Some may be highly symbolic, symbolic, while others others provide intense news coverage. The use of any particular device is usually preceded by careful study and analysis of the intended target. Security of the target is also a consideration. consideration. In most cases, terrorists would prefer to to escape in the aftermath aftermath of the attack. attack. Sometimes escape is not part of the overall plan of attack. If terrorists terrorists target and attack a shopping center or a popular nightclub, their intention may be raising the fear factor of the local population. population. Media attention on such an an act brings about an even greater impact on the community. co mmunity.
Targets Generally unlimited types of Targets Governmental Symbols Civilian Population Population Community Agencies Health Related Organizations Organizations Communication Communication Systems Corporate Business Facilities Mass Transit Operations Aircraft - Shipping Public Facilities and Assembly Areas Utilities – Water – Power Sources Research Laboratories Military and Police Elected Officials Entertainment and Amusement Operations
37 In recent years, there appears to be a transition toward the use of chemical, biological and radiological weaponry against certain targets. Target selection has previously been directed toward governmental facilities, as well as U.S. business interests. In those attacks, bombings have typically been utilized in the attack scenario. Yet, in recent years, years, fear has risen over many possibilities possibilities in the potential potential use of toxic materials. materials. And, while law enforcement concern focuses on homeland security precautions, there is no 100% foolproof method of predicting every possible attack attack situation. situation . Planning and prevention are important. But, target selection and the weapons used are perhaps only limited by the imagination of the terrorist.
Depending on the target, and the availability of the weapons, terrorists are capable of striking just about anywhere. Attacking a particular target and injuring the people at that location depends on the target’s nature, what it stand for, the media coverage that may result, and the possibility of avoiding detection. The more secure a target is, and the more vigilant the personnel are, the less likely the location will be attacked. Countermeasures can be greatly affected by high-density areas in which it is difficult to destroy the attack once it begins (e.g. shooting down a explosives filled plane over a city).
38
Contemporary trends in the tactics of terrorist activity tend to point to those who are detached detached or independent of a host country. country. Independent terrorist terrorist groups appear to be more more active than ever before. before. They appear to operate operate on their own, own, employing employing a range of methods methods of operation. Tactics lately lately involve the use of “human murder bombers”, or the “martyr bomber” method of attack. The media sometimes refers to this tactic as the so-called “suicide bomber”. Somehow, the mere mere suggestion that a person person is a “suicide bomber” seems to lend some sort of twisted legitimacy to their terrorist cause. These tactics, tactics, as well as others, cause cause death death and and destruction destruction worldwide. More and more, more, terrorist groups, groups, responding to global economic and political changes, are acting in manner that is more detached from a national or regional affiliation. Car bombings, martyr bombers, and bombings of symbolic buildings, such as government and business facilities, continue to be dominant dominant tactics. These generally non-state non-state sponsored groups groups have become innovative in their their funding raising operations. Resource networks have been established around the the world. Funding sources include include an assortment of criminal activities.
Terrorist funding sources may come from donations given by wealthy persons. Funding may result from drug trafficking, business fronts, charitable groups and other criminal activities. The groups may form alliances with organized crime groups so that the association helps produce additional sources of money and resources.
39 Some countries seriously pursue the development of the so-called weapons of mass destruction. To this end, they seek the purchase not not only of materials with weapons potential, but also support mechanisms and assets that go with them. them. This would include material material resources, training and instruction, technical personnel, components and the ability to implement usage. These countries have have been previously previously mentioned mentioned and include include other nations as well. At the same time, with the capabilities, capabilities, such countries also support the independent terrorist groups in their ongoing tactics and selection of targets. The development development of nuclear, nuclear, chemical and biological biological weapons by these nations assumes the acquisition of various delivery systems. Weapons systems, as well as tactical training, are sought from other countries that are sometimes considered allies or trading partners of the United States. In one example, Iran has sought procurement relationships with Russia, China, North Korea and Europe. (16) While terrorist groups are tending to operate more and more on a rogue or independent basis, their tactics to date appear to focus on vehicle bombings, murder-martyr bombers, and attacking significant business and government facilities. Fund raising is conducted through through a variety of “business” oriented oriented operations. These include include organized organized crime associations, drug drug and and arms arms trafficking, business fronts, donations, community fund raising and a series of financial connections. Planning, organization and profit continuity continue to be important important to their “networking” operations. operations. Terrorist groups exploit opportunities wherever they can find them. Exploitation and corruption of human, corporate and governmental resources continue to be essential operational operational capabilities. In some cases, their activities have been cloaked in such things are religious convictions, class struggle, and cultural survival. This remains remains an important important aspect of a creative public public relations campaign. In particular, exploitation focuses on the young young idealistic, disadvantaged, and disgruntled members of various cultural environments. The pseudo-portrayal of their “freedom fighting” efforts covers the reality of their more sinister hidden agendas. agendas. Such media efforts are often effective. And, with the help of the international news services, terrorist groups are able to gain public support. support. Terrorist tactics tactics of disinformation disinformation and public public deception seek to conceal their real motives as much as possible. Gaining public sympathy has worked well, particularly when the target is the U.S. Some groups, in the meantime, actively seek the procurement of weapons of mass destruction in order to t o maximize their targeting capabilities.
40
In general, these emerging non-state actors exhibit less constraint than state actors and other groups did in past decades. Some actively are seeking to gain weapons of mass destruction (WMD) to increase the lethality as well as the psychological impact of their attacks. Timothy McVeigh, the Oklahoma City bomber, was quoted as saying he wanted a “body count” in his bombing – as it was necessary to get the level of attention he wanted for his twisted mind of conspiracy theories and hate. Ramsi Yousef, the leader of the 1993 World World Trade Center Bombing in New York City, wanted to knock down the one tower into the other and kill every one in both high-rise office buildings. 17
Like organized crime, terrorism today is a violence prone collective operation intent on the use of tactics conducive to widespread fear and intimidation. Terrorist group group partnerships include any global entities that will enhance their “competitive edge” in the terrorism promotion “marketplace”. Their activities include the necessity of profit continuity to the extent necessary necessary to advance their agendas. Moneymaking ventures ventures seek to promote and foster their political and religious ideologies to the exclusion of those with with opposing ideologies. ideologies. Targets and tactics include primary and secondary victimization. victimization. Primary targets include the victimization victimization of the public by direct actions such as bombing a restaurant, military base or a business center. Secondary targets include the aftermath aftermath of the primary primary attack, which may possess symbolic value in order to send a message to the government. Fear and intimidation seek to influence and and otherwise affect the civilian civilian population. population. When people become afraid, they they tend tend react emotional rather rather than logically. As a result, terrorism terrorism can be a potent potent weapon that stifles political processes and strains productive economic efforts. This affect on the people has at least a short-term detrimental affect on a country’s country’s internal politics. There is also an impact on society in general. Business functions suffer, politicians scamper to do “feel good” things and find find a quick quick fix, and list of reactions is almost endless. These terrorist activities include an array of tactical capability such as biohazards, bombings, murders, hostage situations, sabotage, Internet attacks, financial crimes, aircraft hijackings, and other acts designed to disrupt societal interactions on a large scale.
41 Chapter 6: Tactical Capabilities Capabilities and Terrorist Terrorist Intentions Present day tactical capabilities of terrorist organizations present special challenges to the law enforcement enforcement community. Terrorist incidents that may involve the deployment of chemicals, toxins or nuclear materials create unique problems problems of interdiction interdiction and investigation. Hidden dangers for the the public, police and fire service personnel are cloaked in an invisible world. Different response techniques and tactics are necessary in order to deal with these kinds of threats. Extremely potent potent and deadly deadly substances can create horrible results, inflicting death and destruction on people and first responders. Training, tactics, tactics, tools and techniques techniques must be brought to bear in an effective effective strategy to deal with such such possibilities. Priorities must be established so that officers responding to these kinds of incidents can effectively perform perform their mission. The protection of people supersedes all other issues, when confronted by the hazards and dangers of chemicals, biological substances and nuclear materials.
More traditional terrorist tactics – involving explosive or firearms – can involve devastating damage and difficult, time consuming actions on the part of law enforcement. Consider for a moment the bombing in Oklahoma City. However, such incidents are similar to those law enforcement officers face on a day-to-day basis. Add chemicals, biological agents and radiological materials to a WMD scenario and a new, insidious dimension develops for responding law enforcement officers. The dangers are often invisible. The consequences may not show for hours, days or even weeks after exposure to the material. The traditional law enforcement response model – get in, get the job done and get it over – may not apply. (18)
42 Protecting officers who respond to terrorist incidents absolutely essential. It is a paramount issue today as never before. before. Proper equipment, equipment, education, training, tactics, tools and techniques must be developed and implemented to every extent extent possible. These components components must must be put to effective and coordinated use throughout each level of society. society. Efforts must ensure that police officers and fire fighters have optimum capabilities and resources to carry out their respective missions. Communities cannot cannot afford to have their first responders neutralized before they can put a response plan into action. Personnel considerations include personnel protection, as well as training and education regarding proactive tactical responses to critical incidents. Responding to acts of terrorism requires a kind of flexibility that allows for effective intelligence intelligence gathering, gathering, interdiction interdiction and countermeasures. A rigid reactive response response plan can be disastrous and counterproductive. counterproductive. Terrorist threats today may come from a variety of groups and individuals who are capable of the most extreme acts of human behavior. behavior. Today, terrorists have the capacity to carry out actions that include the use of weapons of mass destruction. The lethal potential of such organizations organizations is much different different than 20 to 30 years ago. The potential threat of weapons of mass mass destruction is presently well within the capabilities of terrorist organizations worldwide. The possibilities are of such events are extremely deadly and disastrous. The probability for a major incident involving chemical weapons, for example, is much greater today than in years passed.
Along with the increase in terrorism there has been an significant increase in anti-terrorism activity and capabilities. capabilitie s. As police and government authorities world wide become better prepared to handle terrorist activities, and more anti-terrorist technology is developed, the traditional methods terrorists are accustomed to using become less likely to succeed. With most of the anti-terrorist anti-terroris t developments focusing on preventing hi-jackings and bombings, the difficulty difficult y encountered by terrorists attempting to use these techniques has increased. With the increase in complications the chances of success are reduced enough to force some terrorists terrorist s to consider alternate methods. Among the alternates are chemical weapons with all of the advantages they offer. (19)
43 As terrorist groups adapt to counter-terrorist actions, their capabilities, as well as the scope of their intentions, become increasingly more challenging. As law enforcement efforts have become more effective, the capabilities of terrorists have become become more diverse and more deadly. The use of so called weapons of mass destruction raise concerns among the global law enforcement and intelligence communities. Activities in recent years suggest that terrorist groups have focused their attention on the procurement of such mass mass destruction oriented weaponry. weaponry. This interest on the part of terrorists also includes a growing capability of using the Internet, as well as associated technology, to execute various va rious cyberspace crimes. Weapons of mass destruction. destructio n. The trend toward high-profile, high-impact attacks comes at a time when interest is growing among both international and domestic terrorist groups in acquiring weapons of mass destruction (WMD). Currently, there is no credible information that a terrorist group has acquired, developed, or is planning to use chemical, biological, or radiological agents in the United States. However, there has been an increase in the number of cases or incidents involving use or threatened use of such agents in the United States. Between 1997 and 2000, the FBI investigated 779 WMD-related reports, generally involving false or fabricated reports. The biological toxin ricin and the bacterial agent anthrax are emerging as the most prevalent agents involved in investigations. (20)
Terrorist organizations have found uses for new technology such as the Internet. It has become a source of instant communication to recruit, plan, organize, raise funds, and so on. As the use of such technology continues, so does the capability to attack critical infrastructures using cyber-weapons along the “information “information highway”. highway”. Utilities, communications, communications, transportation transportation systems and financial networks could be targets.
44
From BBC News Wednesday, 8 January, 2003, 18:28 GMT A seventh man has been arrested by anti-terrorist officers investigating the ricin find in London. Police are looking for at least two more people in connection with the discovery of the deadly poison in a north London flat. Six men – understood to be north Africans – were arrested on Sunday and security experts are trying to establish if they have links to al-Qaeda. Only small traces of ricin were found in the operation – launched after a tip-off – but there are concerns an amount of poison could have been made at the flat and has been moved. Scotland Yard said the seventh man, aged 33, was arrested by anti-terrorist branch officers in north London on Tuesday. Castor oil beans – from which ricin is made – and equipment and containers for crushing the beans were found at the flat. To take effect, the toxin must enter the body by direct ingestion, inhalation or injection, meaning it is more associated with assassination. The most notable ricin case was the 1978 murder of the Bulgarian Bulgarian dissident Georgi Markov. Markov. The KGB were suspected suspected to be behind the killing, initiated on London’s Waterloo Bridge using a poison tipped umbrella. (21)
45 Global interaction between terrorist groups and organized crime groups appear to be a growing trend. trend. Mutually beneficial relationships relationships foster a growing exchange of tactics, materials and overall capabilities. The interconnectedness of terrorism and organized crime is extremely sinister in nature to say the least. When two power oriented oriented criminal groups cooperate it cannot be beneficial beneficial for the rest rest of the world. world. Many possibilities exist for for enhancing the capabilities capabilities of both groups. For one one thing, thing, the profit continuity, or flow of money and resources, among terrorist organizations has expanded exceptionally in the direction of increased monies, equipment and resources. resources. For another another thing, thing, terrorists terrorists have provided provided a range of services to organized crime groups in return for cash payments. payments. This naturally increases their ability to train and develop increased capabilities. In addition, such “fund-raising” allows such groups to amass larger amounts of money than than through through traditional traditional income income producing operations. Protecting smuggling routes for crime syndicates usually involves providing security for drug trafficking, weapons and people movements. Organizational interaction also allows terrorist groups to evolve and adapt to changing situations and conditions throughout the globe. Infiltration, targeting strategies, community invisibility, communications, increased lethal nature of actions, the spread of weapons of mass destruction and a host of other aspects represent real possibilities through such cooperative interactions. Taken to its logical end, there might be a natural partnership between some terrorist groups and transnational organized crime syndicates. Organized crime syndicates frequently have access to and influence with political leaders, making such syndicates beneficial to terrorist groups that would seek to influence and intimidate, rather than destroy, a government. In return, organized crime syndicates can exploit terrorist campaigns, for the power vacuum present in regional instability, as a paramilitary wing of the syndicate, or further coerce a weak government to “look the other way”. As offshore banks and inner city laundromats were once notorious fronts, so may terrorist campaigns become operational fronts for organized organized crime. Such a trend would find a welcome home in many former Soviet republics whose governments are fertile grounds for corruption and organized crime – regimes which once depended upon the backing of the military for “legitimacy” and political survival will find themselves relying on warlords or crime lords for the same. (22)
46 Terrorism serves the political purposes of the terrorists, whose goals are selfcentered, materialistic materialistic and criminal criminal in nature. nature. Some groups have attempted attempted to cloak their tactics in a religious disguise disguise or socio-political socio-political context. context. This of course gathers widespread media attention and sympathy from some segments of society, including politicians advancing their own agendas. Propaganda and public disinformation serves the ends of the terrorists and helps discredit legitimate legitimate opposition. Such efforts mask the reality reality of their malevolent intentions. intentions. Its capabilities capabilities to to inflict psychological disruption have been proved proved by the events occurring occurring around around the globe. globe. Actions by terrorist groups foster fear and unrest throughout the population groups that are affected. But, ripple effects effects from one location span outward outward to the world community. Individually and collectively collectively terrorist acts impede impede political processes, stifle debate and negotiation, and otherwise provoke disintegration of civilized efforts. efforts. Terrorism also interferes with economic economic and social processes, not to mention health care and related efforts to assist disadvantaged areas of the world. Use of mass casualty weapons weapons has emerged as a serious serious threat to the world community. community. The weapons of mass destruction arena has been defined in certain governmental sectors to generally include five areas: biological, nuclear, incendiary, chemical and explosive.
There are several biological agents that can be employed as terrorist weapons. The four common types of biological biological agents are bacteria, viruses, viruses, rickettsia rickettsia and toxins. toxins. Nuclear terrorism can occur under two different scenarios. One involves the detonation or threatened detonation of a nuclear bomb. The other involves the dispersion of radiological radiological materials using a conventional explosive or other dispersal device. An incendiary device is any mechanical, electrical, or chemical device used to intentionally initiate combustion and start a fire. Chemical agents agents can be classified classified in five categories – never agents, blister agents, blood agents, choking agents, and irritating agents. Explosive devices are the most commonly commonly used WMD. WMD. Approximately 70 percent of all terrorist attacks worldwide involve explosives. (23)
47
Terrorist groups violence is viewed today as a serious threat involving the use or threatened use of weapons of mass destruction. destructio n. This threat relates to the aforementioned areas of such weapon capabilities, from biological agents to explosive devices. Given the availability availabilit y in the worldwide community of such materials, the probability is significant. “The universal availability of weapons, explosives, and technologically sophisticated timing and triggering devices, along with the global communication communicatio n revolution, adds to the terrorists’ capabilities. Increased capabilities include coordinated, nearly simultaneous attacks in several countries, fax death threats, and comparison of target lists by computer. Concurrently, intrastate conflicts, political uncertainty, and growth of ethnic challenges to the administrative state are weakening the states’ security capabilities. capabilities . Coupled with the increasing porosity of state borders, these trends are making it easier for the terrorist and his supporters to move anywhere in the world with little chance of being apprehended or even identified.” (24) In the years to follow, acts of terrorism are more likely to include increased levels of intensity. The Oklahoma City bombing, as well as the attacks on the World Trade Center, may be indicative of the trend toward larger scale terrorist actions, which produce significant levels of death and destruction. Although typical acts of terrorism, such as kidnappings, car bombings, assassinations and hijackings will likely continue, the need for greater public impact and publicity may be demonstrated in more extensive activities. Cyberspace may become another battleground, as terrorists terroris ts may use of technological technologic al innovations. By using their “hackers”, terrorists can operate in the realm of the Internet by assaulting various public and private entities. From the environment to the stock market, terrorist organizations can inflict widespread damage to the social and economic infrastructure of many countries throughout the world.
48 The overall tactical capabilities of terrorist groups span the spectrum of realworld possibilities. possibilities. From biological biological to nuclear materials, materials, the possibilities run the full extent extent of the human human imagination. imagination. Given the determination determination of a particular individual individual or group, group, anything is possible. Terrorism represents a target specific kind kind of criminal criminal violence. Tactics are planned and executed with specific outcomes outcomes in mind. mind. Terrorist organizations organizations employ employ goals and objectives that are designed to meet the requirements of their particular agenda. Everyone and everything everything are potential targets for for political political or religious reasons. A particular public public impact is sought sought in terms of politics, economics, psychology, psychology, environment environment and ideology. Terrorism is kind of militant psychodrama psychodrama intended to affect a particular mindset. mindset. This applies both in terms of the terrorist in particular, as well as the public in general. The mass media serves as an excellent conduit to transport impact of an event to the imagination of the public, and capitalize on fear and intimidation. This works to the advantage of the terrorists. And, every citizen should bear in mind, in the real world, everyone is a potential target of terrorist acts. The greater the fear factor the better the impact of terrorist actions. Governments cannot protect all of their citizens every single day, in every situation situation against against every possibility. There are no 100% 100% foolproof foolproof techniques to make us all safe in all aspects of our lives. The capabilities and intentions of terrorist organizations have become more pronounced and more more extensive in the past few few decades. Many groups assert for one reason or another their animosity for the U.S. government and its citizens. Whether cultural, psychological or philosophical, philosophical, terrorists are dedicated and determined. Like any organizational structure, terrorist organizations plan, staff and manage calculated tactics to advance their goals and objectives. objectives. They assess and evaluate the gains and losses of their intended activities. Their antisocial tendencies manifest into a self-centered self-centered preoccupation with having the world world conform to them. They will use their cultural aspects to shape values and beliefs to fit their particular inclinations and achieve their their goals and and objectives. In modern modern times, their their capabilities have expanded significantly. Given their desire to accomplish accomplish their goals, they exploit opportunities that exist in urban society and carry out their ability to execute operations. operations. Make no mistake terrorists terrorists pose pose a serious serious threat to the world community. Along with the desire to make an impact, target selection and weaponry have become an important part of the terrorist mission. Each time an attack attack is carried out, a message is sent to the local setting, the surrounding neighborhoods and to the world community.
49 Chapter 7: Weapons of Mass Destruction – Bio Weapons World citizens cannot expect their law enforcement and military services to protect them in every possible aspect aspect of their lives. Governmental protective protective services do what they can in terms of planning, preparation and prevention of terrorist incidents. Each person must take responsibility for his or her own safety and security. security. Citizens, as with any any other aspect of crime prevention, prevention, must be vigilant, practice good security tactics, train and otherwise become educated in personal safety strategies.
Potential Targets Citizens Should Think About Terrorist incidents span the spectrum from the traditional tactics to the more exotic tactics. Traditional tactics refer to what has been used historically, such kidnappings, car bombs, hostage taking and so forth. Exotic tactics are more extreme and involve the use of high-tech weaponry such as chemicals, biological agents, cybercrimes and nuclear materials. Points of attack could include: Food supplies – packaged, processed or fast food services Bars and Restaurants Water supplies – containers, recycling, urban storage supplies Waster disposal system Parks and recreation areas – campgrounds Nuclear reactors Highway systems – bridges, railroads, interstate Schools Oil depots – Utilities – Power supplies – shipping Sports arenas – public entertainment facilities Fairs Business and commerce centers Public transportation systems Computer systems – the Internet Public and private health care providers and facilities Communications systems – public safety centers
50 Biological, nuclear, incendiary, chemical and explosive materials represent the commonly accepted categories of weapons of mass destruction (WMD). Within each grouping, the materials are further defined in terms of destructive power and capacity for causing large numbers of casualties. Composition, packaging and setting further explain the parameters under which such materials function. For example, local weather weather conditions, terrain, layout, design and so on, determine the effectiveness of such materials once they they are deployed. deployed. These factors affect affect intensity of impact, or constraints on the particular materials that are used.
Consider for a moment how these factors affect the destructive power of biological agents. Some agents cause symptoms in humans that are not life threatening; others cause death in virtually every case. Obviously, the type of agent (or product) has a significant impact on its destructive capabilities. An agent contained in a compacted explosive device will disperse in a manner different from that of an agent contained in an aerosol dispersal device. In many cases the effects of of a detonation – particularly the heat generated by the explosive device – will destroy a biological agent. Destruction Destructio n is less likely to occur from the effects of an aerosol dispersal device. The environment can also have a significant impact on the effectiveness of biological agents. For example, many agents are sensitive to light, oxygen or other components of the environment. An agent sensitive to ultraviolet light may be destroyed when introduced in daylight in an outdoor area. 25
51 WMD materials materials can be obtained throughout the the world. Their destructive destructive potential varies, depending on the substances used, design configuration and the setting in which they are deployed. Independent of organized terrorist terrorist groups, it is probable that rogue terrorists could execute plans to wreak havoc on U.S. U.S. urban environments environments in the near future. Their attacks could involve the use of WMD materials. These individuals may may break away from a particular group, or, being unaffiliated, seek to carry c arry actions sympathetic to a particular organization. organization. And, while the basics of terrorist terrorist attacks remain remain well founded in things like bombings, they have learned to adapt to c hanging world conditions. Terrorist will examine their best course of action, given the target objective and the materials available. Today, the availability of more exotic types of weaponry assists the terrorist in developing tactics and techniques of terror. terror. The kind of terror they are capable of is limited limited by the inhumane nature of the human human imagination. imagination. With regard regard to the disaster probability of WMD, there are serious levels of concern throughout the global community. community. A nuclear incident, for example, has the potential for for delivering a large-scale amount of destructive capacity to any given area. Greatly feared, a nuclear terrorist incident presents a worst-case scenario that is not only humanly devastating, but also delivers a long-term destructive aftermath. The affects of radiation from such a hazardous device go well beyond the immediate impact of death and destruction. Nuclear Terrorism Some people feel that the use of a nuclear device is the least likely type of terrorist attack. It is suggested that the logistics of such an attack, acquisition problems and costs, would not make this WMD that attractive as a tactic. Yet, radioactive materials could be obtained and attached to a conventional explosive. Once detonated, the nuclear particles would contaminate the site of detonation. Sometimes this is called a Radiological Dispersal Device (RDD). Nuclear terrorism presents both short and long term dangers. These include injuries, destruction, death, radiation burns, poisoning and serious health problems. (26)
52
Basic Selected Definitions Biological Agent Agent – microorganisms, or the toxins derived from such that cause disease in animals and humans, as well as cause deterioration in materials. Blister Agent or vesicant vesicant – an agent that burns and blisters the skin, eyes, respiratory tract and lungs. Blood agent agent – an agent that prevents the normal transfer of oxygen from the blood to body tissues. Choking agent agent – an agent that attacks the eyes and respiratory tract from the nose to the lungs, primarily causing pulmonary edema. Cryptography & Cryptanalysis Cryptanalysis – analysis of a cryptographic system or its inputs and outputs to derive confidential data; the discipline which embodies principles, means and methods for the transformation of data in order to hide its information content, prevent its undetected modification, or prevent its unauthorized use. Detonation (high explosive) explosive) – a violent chemical reaction with a chemical compound or mechanical mixture involving heat and pressure. Detonation (nuclear) (nuclear) – a nuclear explosion resulting from fission or fusion reactions in nuclear materials, such as that from a nuclear weapon. Integrated C3I system system – a system utilizing personnel, technology, weapons, resources, and associated subsystems in order to plan appropriate levels of response. It refers to command, control, communications and intelligence gathering, including surveillance, early warning, and identification so that steps can be taken to plan, direct, and control actions taken. Multilevel security security – a class of systems containing information with different sensitivities that simultaneously permit access by users with different security clearances and needs-to-know, but prevents users from obtaining access to information for which they lack authorization. Toxic Chemical – any chemical, which through its chemical action on life processes can cause death, temporary incapacitation, or permanent harm to humans or animals in military feasible quantities. Vesicant Vesicant – Toxic chemicals that have a blistery effect on the skin, as described in blister agent above. (27)
53 In a very general sense, bombings, through the use of conventional explosives or related devices, remain the most frequently used weapon of the five categories. categories. Explosives and incendiary incendiary weapons are are easier easier for for the terrorist to put within within striking range of the selected target. Incendiaries, for example, are less difficult to construct construct or obtain than nuclear nuclear devices. Such materials can be constructed from readily available components. Ease of acquisition would also be important to this process. These weapons typically do not present a danger of contamination to the terrorist, as do chemical, nuclear and biological weapons. weapons. For the terrorist, the weapon used must meet the basic requirements as as previously mentioned. mentioned. That is, packaging, packaging, environment, material, delivery and little danger of contamination must generally favor favor the terrorist and and fit the selected target. In addition, addition, the weapon must have significant impact when detonated. detonated. To have an immediate affect on the public, which is sensationalized by the media, would want to use a weapon that is dramatic. Explosives and incendiaries incendiaries have this capability. However, should a terrorist group not want widespread destruction, immediate dramatic affect, and desire to cover their tracks, something more exotic may may be selected. This could mean the deployment deployment of a biological weapon, so that the onset of public danger would be delayed. Human and animal victimization could take many days before the complete onset of symptoms. In this case, exposure is critical to deployment deployment and activation of the materials used. Routes of exposure can occur through through injection, ingestion, inhalation and absorption. absorption. Basically, these refer to puncturing the skin with some device, intake through the mouth, breathing materials into the body, and contact being made with the skin. Skin injection Ingestion Inhalation Absorption – Skin contact Chemical and biological materials can find routes into the body via inhalation and ingestion. Never agents can follow a route through the skin by being absorbed. Blister agents, on the other hand, can be inhaled, ingested and and destroy the skin. Radioactive materials act in a similar manner.
54
Biological agents used as weapons produce delayed affects in the exposed population. The primary route of entry into the body is through inhalation. Initial response to the area of attack may require a position that is uphill and upwind in relation to the target. Facilities and building exhaust systems should be avoided. Naturally, Naturall y, the target area should be secured, isolated and a perimeter established that is conducive to effective distance, cover and other protective aspects. Small quantities of bio-agents, like chemical weapons, can caus causee lar lar e cas casua ualt lt numb number ers. s.
The dangers of terrorist groups deploying biological weapons increase each year. Capabilities of such groups have changed in the last several decades. Acquisition can occur by way of different means. This includes: theft from research facilities, internal/external espionage, commercial purchase, theft from military supplies, ‘black market’ distribution, development by hostile nations, and so on. Bio-agents fall into three groups: groups: Bacteria and Rickettsia, viruses, and toxins.
Bacteria Bacteria – anthrax, brucellosis, tularemia, plague and other diseases are typically thought of in the mention of bacteria (single-cell organisms that cause such diseases). These bacteria have the capacity to produce serious toxins within the human body. They are quite potent and toxic to humans and animals, even in small quantities. Rickettsia are ‘intracellular ‘intracell ular parasites’ that appear to resemble bacteria, as well as viruses, in form and structure. They can replicate within the cell structure and include such things as: typhus, Rocky Mountain spotted fever and Q-fever. Viruses – ‘intracellular parasites’ that are smaller than bacteria, which cause very infectious disease. They are capable of mutation, and use the host in order to replicate and produce more viruses. Toxins – Toxins – substances that are poisonous and produced by living organisms which includes bacteria, marine life, fungi, plants, insects and other animal life. They represent some of the most toxic substances known. For example, in today’s world, Ricin sometimes comes to mind. It is extremel otent.
55 Within this broad spectrum of bio-toxins, potential weapons include agents such as anthrax, plague, plague, tularemia and and others. All of these biological biological agents tend to produce flu-like symptoms in humans at the onset of exposure. Such an occurrence may initially be confusing to diagnose. For many countries, as well as terrorist organizations, bio-agents represent cost-effective weapons systems. Since these nations cannot cannot afford afford more expensive weaponry, biological agents become an alternative. They tend to view such weapons, along with chemicals, chemicals, as a way to increase increase the power of their arsenals. In terms of equipment necessary to make weapons grade materials, drugmanufacturing companies, hospitals and veterinary facilities generally have the necessary lab resources for such purposes. Technology for the production of biological weapons can be easily camouflaged within the realm of medical medical and pharmaceutical pharmaceutical laboratories. laboratories. These types of facilities facilities can conceal the production of “biological warfare” materials.
Anthrax – is a bacteria that tends to have a very light color and finds a route through open wounds, cuts on the skin, ingestion and inhalation. It is an acute disease, which causes fever, chest discomfort, fatigue and coughing. With an incubation period of about 7 days, it is considered of high lethality, lethalit y, especially when inhaled. Dissemination Disseminat ion is generally considered by way of spores in aerosol spray. And, contamination through transmission generally is possible by direct skin contact. Black lesions may occur after a period of intense itching when exposure occurs by direct skin contact. Plague Plague – is a bacterium that is sometimes called the “black plague”. Symptoms may be coughing with bloody sputum, fever, swollen lymph glands, and later, dead tissue in the lymph nodes. This is highly contagious and kills people very quickly. Fleas often carry the disease and transmit it to humans when biting the skin. Routes of infection occur from the respiratory respirator y system and injection. Transmission is considered extremely high in terms of passing the disease onto other humans. The incubation period runs from 1 to 6 days, and considered to be lethal, unless immediately treated. (28)
56
Tularemia Tularemia – bacteria with about a 10-day incubation period. It is not considered contagious, and is usually accompanied by fever, coughing, chills, headaches and muscle pain. Exposure routes are by inhalation and skin absorption. Aerosolized Tularemia is considered fatal. An airborne attack of Tularemia could cause serious health problems within 3 to 5 days, resulting in respiratory problems, shock and death to those infected. It has been considered as a bio-weapon in various parts of the world community. (29)
Brucellosis Brucellosis – is a bacterium with an incubation period of about 1 to 3 weeks, and not considered contagious. Symptoms of infection are similar to that of Tularemia, which include the fever, headaches, sweating chills, muscle and joint pain. Routes of exposure include inhalation and ingestion. This bacterium is not considered highly highly fatal. It is considered to be commonly transmitted through skin abrasions, when such abrasions are exposed to infected animals. In the U.S., for example, the disease is sometimes acquired by the ingestion of contaminated milk and other dairy products. Q-Fever Q-Fever – (Rickettsia-type organism) is not considered to be highly contagious or fatal. It has an incubation period of 10 –21 days and is accompanied by flu-like symptoms. Exposure generally occurs through the respiratory system (airborne particles) or by ingestion. Other symptoms include inflammation of the brain and the heart, as well as Hepatitis and Pneumonia. It is a species that is seen worldwide, affecting affectin g cattle, sheep and goats in particular. particular. The organism is found in the feces, urine and milk of infected herd animals, and is resistant to heat, drying and ordinary disinfectants. The organism is considered for potential use as a bio-terrorism weapon due to the highly infectious nature and resistance to heat and drying. (30)
57 Chapter 8: Weapons Weapons of Mass Destruction – Bio Weapons Continued Continued Biological weapons of mass destruction remain a worldwide concern due to the subtleness by by which they they can terrorize terrorize large populations. The lethality spans the spectrum of death d eath and destruction that can disrupt entire healthcare systems. They can kill in a silent and deadly manner manner days and weeks after their deployment. deployment. Their development development can be cloaked in the disguise of pharmaceutical research and medical medical health health care. care. Such causative agents agents include Anthrax, Plague, Tularemia, Brucellosis, Q-Fever and many others bio-agents that can be used as terrorist terrorist weapons. Bio-agents usually usually concern the disease-producing organisms that include bacteria, Rickettsia, viruses, toxins and some types of fungi.
Smallpox – Smallpox – is a potential viral type weapon that differs from bacteria. As a virus, such things as Smallpox force infected cells in the body to produce more viruses. Incubation typically follows anywhere from one week to three weeks in duration. It is considered a highly contagious virus that causes muscle pain and stiffness, shivering, throwing up, and sores. Inhalation is generally the route of exposure and typically from an aerosol source. The mortality rate is considered to be very high. Some countries maintain large stockpiles of Smallpox as a bio-weapon. It represents a serious threat as a terrorist weapon due to the potential fatal nature and rate of transmission. Smallpox has the ability to spread in just about any climate, and remains one of the most feared infectious diseases. Russia, for example, has developed bombs and missiles capable of delivering Smallpox to targeted sites. This country is capable of producing tons of Smallpox with more virulent and contagious characteristics. characteristic s. The disease spreads from person to person via bed linens, clothing and aerosol droplets. Unless controlled by immediate interdiction, interdictio n, the disease can spread rapidly through large population groups. (31)
58
(32)
59
Viral Equine Encephalitis – Encephalitis – (VEE) is a viral disease considered to be mildly contagious. Incubation is between 1 and 4 days. Symptoms generally include fever, headaches, vomiting, muscle pain diarrhea, sore throat and drowsiness. Inhalation is the typical exposure route. It is possible possible for VEE to be fatal. VEE is carried by infected mosquitoes. And, once infected, the disease moves to encephalitis. It is viewed as a potent bio-agent weapon that has the capability of incapacitating large numbers of people within a target population area. Laboratory manipulation of the virus makes it possible for VEE to become an effective biological weapon. It can be used in an aerosol form and become highly infectious. Once access is gained to the blood stream, the virus replicates and infects other cells. When it gains access to the central nervous system it results in acute encephalitis. (33)
Viral Hemmorrhagic Fevers Fevers (VHF) - is a virus that has a varied incubation period. Symptoms are flu-like and exposure route is generally by way of inhalation, inhalation , which affects the respiratory respirator y system. It includes such viruses as Ebola, Yellow Fever, Dengue Fever, the Hanta viruses and so on. Capillary leaks and shock also accompany the associated flu-like symptoms. It is considered to be moderately to highly contagious and often fatal. Infection is likely via aerosolized preparations, which include Ebola, Yellow Fever and other related viruses. The former Soviet Union produced stockpiles of such viruses in weapons form. North Korea is also considered to have developed such capabilities. capabiliti es. This group of viruses raises significant healthcare concerns nationwide if an attack were made using weapons grade viruses of these types. In addition to aerosol dispersion, contraction of the viruses is also possible through contact with infected persons, animals or materials. (34)
60 Major Geographic Locations And Patterns of Occurrences For VHF Viruses (35) General Epidemiologic Features of Hemorrhagic Hemorrhagic Fever Viruses Virus Major Geographic Location for General Pattern of Disease Occurrence Human Disease Ebola virus Sub-Saharan Africa —First identified in 1976—Outbreaks 1976—Outbreaks recognized with increasing frequency since mid-1990s— Relatively rare, despite recent increase in outbreak occurrence Marburg virus Sub-Saharan Africa —First identified in 1967—Only 1967—Only a few small outbreaks recognized until 1998, when large outbreak (lasting months) occurred in DRC—Rare Lassa virus West Africa —First identified in 1969—Endemic 1969—Endemic in many West African countries—Relatively common New World South America (except Whitewater —Five different viruses known to cause human arenaviruses Arroyo virus, which has only been disease—Only Junin virus has endemic focus (in associated with illnesses in rural areas of northeastern northeastern Argentina); others California) occur infrequently Rift Valley fever —Sub-Saharan —Sub-Saharan Africa —Egypt — —First identified in animals in 1930 and in humans virus Saudi Arabia, Yemen in 1975—Relatively common in sub-Saharan Africa and Egypt (particularly in livestock) Yellow fever —Sub-Saharan —Sub-Saharan Africa—Tropical —Has been recognized for centuries—Urban, centuries—Urban, virus regions of South America sylvatic, and intermediate forms occur—Endemic occur—Endemic in areas of Africa and South America—Relatively common Kyasanur Forest Karnataka State, India (west-central (west-central —First identified in 1957—Relatively uncommon disease virus area of country) Omsk Central Asia —First identified in 1940s—Several 1940s—Several outbreaks hemorrhagic reported in 1950s—Few cases in recent years fever virus Abbreviation: DRC, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
Basically, bacteria are single-cell organisms that produce such things as Anthrax, Brucellosis and Plague. The degree to which they are infectious and lethal varies. Rickettsia is a microorganism that is similar to bacteria, by way of form and structure. It is an intracellular intracellula r parasite. The parasitic organism reproduces inside the host cell and includes such diseases as typhus, Rocky Mountain spotted fever and Q-fever. Viruses, in contrast, are much smaller than bacteria and mutate to produce more viruses. Fungi can cause severe diseases in humans, and may be used to destroy crops and plants. Toxins are poisonous substances that are produced by a living organism. They are manufactured by plants, insects, animals, spiders, bacteria, bacteria, fungi and marine life.
61
BW agents are relatively easy and inexpensive to produce for any nation that has a modestly sophisticated pharmaceutical or fermentation industry. Mass-production Mass-productio n methods for growing cultures are widely used in the commercial production of yogurt, yeast, beer, antibiotics, and vaccines. Almost all equipment needed for the production of pathogens and toxins is dual-use and available on the international market, increasing the potential for concealing illicit activities under the cover of legitimate production. (36)
Biological Warfare (BW) is viewed as the use of certain organisms for military purposes. The use of such materials is intended to cause severe harm to people, animals, crops, food sources and so forth.
BW agents can be deployed by aerosol or dry powder delivery systems. A sprayer can be affixed to a vehicle, or a ballistic missile can be used to deliver the agents on target.
62
According to available research data, a number of countries around the globe are suspected to be involved in bio weapons development. The following either have developed such weapons, or are suspected to be in the process of acquiring the technology for such weapons: Russia, North Korea, China, Iran, Iraq, Egypt, Egypt, Libya, Sudan, India, and Pakistan. Pakistan. A number of countries are in the process of eliminating bio bio weapons. These include: the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Canada, Germany, Japan and South Africa. It is believed believed by contemporary research that terrorist groups groups will make every effort effort to exploit the use of such weapons in the future. State sponsorship of such efforts is highly likely in terms of funding, materials and other operational support aspects.
63
Botulinum Toxins – Toxic substances are produced by many organisms. Plants, fungi and bacteria produce some of the most potent toxins. Botulinum toxin generally reacts in about 1 to 12 hours upon exposure. It causes weakness in the arms and legs and affects the respiratory respirator y system. Botulinum is usually introduced via injection or ingestion (aerosol dissemination is a possibility). It has the potential of causing life-threatening paralysis of the human body.
Botulinum toxin is considered a serious threat as a potential terrorist weapon. The possibility for mass casualties is high depending on the method of dissemination. disseminati on. As a highly toxic substance, it is easily configured for deployment and human exposure. Lethal and and relatively easy to manufacture, Botulinum toxin can be life threatening or fatal even in very small quantities. It is used in the stockpiles of various various nations as part of weapons systems development. According to one study, the conclusion was made that this substance is most often contracted by eating contaminated food sources, or by skin absorbtion. And, it is also highly conducive for use in aerial spraying over populated areas. For example, one group in particular, the “Aum Shin Rikyo cult” of Japan, has tried to deploy Botulinum in Tokyo on three occasions. This took place place in the early 1990’s and the attempts failed. As indicated earlier, certain nations have developed weapons programs involving Botulinum toxins. These countries include Russia and Iraq. Iraq. This toxin attacks the central nervous system causing the loss of muscle contraction. When this happens, paralysis sets in, which results in a loss of mobility mobilit y and respiratory function. People who have survived exposure to Botulism have had to undergo weeks of medical attention, including mechanical ventilation in order to recover. One of the dangers, the aforementioned study pointed out, was that since Botulism is so rare, it is often misdiagnosed. This makes it crucial that health care providers quickly identify the infection and respond rapidly in terms of treatment. Generally, transmission from one person to another does not occur. (37)
64
Staphylococcal Enterotoxins – This is a food poisoning oriented toxin contracted by ingestion or inhalation. Such exposure can cause shock or death. Symptoms are indicative of food poisoning in that the victim suffers from fever, chills, headache, coughing nausea, vomiting and diarrhea. Reaction to the toxin can occur anywhere from within 5 minutes of exposure to 1 hour. Person to person transmission does not occur. Ricin – Ricin – This toxin is derived derived from castor beans. The runoff water from the preparation process of developing castor oil has up to 5% ricin in its contents. About 1 milligram (1/1000 of a gram) can cause the death of one person, by way of inhalation, injection or ingestion. Its rate of action is about 1 to 2 hours. Exposure results in coughing, chest tightness, breathing problems nausea and muscle aches. Inhalation of Ricin causes tissue death resulting in injury to the airway. Transmission from person to person does not occur. Mycotoxins (Trichothecene Mycotoxins) – This particular toxin has a rate of action of about 5 minutes to 1 hour. It is usually not considered transferable from one person to another. Vomiting, nasal pain, breathing problems, bloody diarrhea, and skin inflammation are among the signs and symptoms of exposure. Routes of introduction include ingestion and injection. Within this group, there are about 40 toxins that are produced by fungi. (38)
65 Chapter 9: Weapons of Mass Destruction – Nuclear Weapons: Categories of Weapons of Mass Destruction Biological Nuclear Incendiary Chemical Explosive
Biological Warfare Development of biological weapons involves selection criteria, along with various stages of production and final completion of weaponized components. Beginning with the process of selecting an organism, the productive stages involve the development of larger quantities from small cultures. Completion of the project requires stabilization of the developed organism for use as a weapons system. Biotechnology Biotechnolo gy in the past quarter of a century has greatly increased the capabilities of bio weapons in the arsenal of modern warfare. Both quality and quantity of materials have a significant impact in terms of the threat against military forces and civilian populations. Technology has enhanced delivery systems, targeting, productive capacity as well as transition of non-pathogenic strains into more potent pathogenic organisms. The later is the result of genetic genetic manipulation. (39)
66
(40)
67 While U.S. government facilities take precautions to ensure against the loss of nuclear materials and technology, several countries do not adequate precautions. From South Africa Africa to the the former former Soviet Union, there there are reports that nuclear materials have been stolen or otherwise unaccounted for from storage areas. areas. In addition to losses and theft theft of such materials, there there are several countries actively engaged in the acquisition of nuclear materials. Along with the procurement of nuclear materials, certain countries desire to develop a nuclear capability that could be hostile to the interests of the United States. An attack using a nuclear device device against U.S. military military targets, or within the U.S., is a serious concern within the intelligence community.
Years ago there were two impediments to would be proliferators: the technical know-how for building a bomb and the acquisition of the fissile material. Fissile material is the highly enriched uranium or plutonium atoms that split apart in a chain reaction and create the energy of an atomic bomb. Today the major impediment to a nation committed to acquiring a nuclear capability is the acquisition of fissile material. While it is by no means easy to make a nuclear weapon, knowledge of weapons design is sufficiently widespread that trying to maintain a shroud of secrecy around this technical knowledge no longer offers adequate protection. At the same time, there is concern that terrorist groups could obtain and use, or threaten to use, nuclear materials. Nuclear materials are divided into two categories: 1) fissile materials, such as plutonium-239 or unranium-235, and 2) other radioactive materials, such as uranium-238, cesium137, or cobalt-60. We, of course, track possible diversions of plutonium and uranium. But we also are concerned that non-fissile, radioactive materials could be used in a terrorist device designed to create psychological or economic trauma or to contaminate buildings, water supplies or localized areas. (41)
68 There are indications, as cited previously, that nuclear materials, located at facilities within the former Soviet Union, are in need of increased security and protection. Lack of security, criminal criminal activity and inferior inferior technological safeguards within this arena suggest the strong possibility of serious problems in the near future. The world’s stockpiles of nuclear materials, materials, technology and knowledge are not as safe and secure as they once were in decades long past. Of serious concern, concern, is the possibility possibility of terrorist terrorist groups obtaining such capability.
Radiological agents may produce delayed reactions. reactions. Unlike exposure exposure to chemical chemical agents, agents, exposure to radiological agents does not require immediate removal of victims’ clothing or gross decontamination decontamination in the street. street. Inhalation Inhalation is the primary route of entry for particulate radiation. In most cases, SCBA and structural firefighting clothing provides adequate protection for first responders. Alternately, Alternatel y, gamma sources require minimizing exposure time and maintaining appropriate distance as the only protection. Exposed/contaminated victims may not exhibit obvious injuries. (42)
69 With the growing inability of certain regions to safeguard nuclear materials, concern is being raised over the possibility of a serious domestic incident. Some would assert that an incident could be possible at a nuclear facility, such as a power plant or a university campus. campus. A terrorist group group or individual plans and carries out an attack at at a facility containing containing such materials. In this case, the facility facility against itself itself as a “weapon”, or materials or stolen. The weapon is made later for a different different target. Others suggest that a so called “dirty bomb”, or “radioactive dispersal device” could be activated in a public place. The “public place” scenario scenario has involved involved consideration consideration of a device being activated in in a public public transportation transportation terminal. terminal. Following an explosion, for example, radioactive materials could be scattered and carried over a large metropolitan area. Subsequent news coverage would assist in raising the level of fear on the part of the public. As the fear increases, increases, the real nature of device device makes its impact on on the community. That is, the device device becomes a “weapon of mass terror”, as opposed to a “weapon of mass destruction”. Throughout the world, world, there have been numerous numerous occasions in which individuals have have attempted to purchase purchase nuclear materials. materials. Aside from purchases, a number of Soviet “suitcase” bombs are missing from Soviet inventories. In addition addition to that, hundreds, perhaps thousands of items containing nuclear materials are scattered all over the former Soviet Union. Possible Targets A Large City Amusement Park – Entertainment Complex Sports Arena or Stadium Significant Transportation Terminal Major University Nuclear Reactor Production Facility There are over 100 “suitcase bombs” missing from the Soviet nuclear inventory. The former head of Soviet Soviet National Security, Alexander Lebed Lebed testified to that fact before Congress. He stated that the devices measure approximately 24” x 16” x 8” and can be set off by an individual in less than 30 minutes, producing a 1 kilo ton yield. Such a device, set off in New York Harbor would produce a 15 to 20 foot wave that would destroy New York City. Other sources have confirmed confirmed that the number of suitcase bombs missing from the Soviet inventory is correct. (43)
70 Since only a small percentage of incoming foreign shipping is actually inspected at U.S. ports, it is highly possible for weapons components to enter the country. Unfortunately, due to the nature of U.S. entry points, with limited inspectional personnel and detection equipment, terrorist penetration can occur. In addition, the ongoing efforts efforts to acquire nuclear materials, as well as “suitcase” “suitcase” bombs, by terrorists terrorists continues at a high high degree. The intelligence community is well aware of terrorist organizations actively engaged in the purchase of such components, particularly in collusion with organized crime crime groups. The capability of producing producing a “weapon of mass terror” has increased since the fall of the former Soviet Union. With nuclear materials scattered all over the various territories, radiological materials can be found at at hundreds of locations. Detonation, aside aside from the immediate death, injury and damage, would spread fear over a large metropolitan area. Decontamination efforts would require a significant amount of resources, as well as long-term contamination. The media attention alone would become become a huge process by itself that would add to public fears and disorientation. Total preparation for nuclear or radiological incidents is difficult, if not impossible. Consider the impact of a nuclear explosion – extensive damage to infrastructure and hundreds or thousands of casualties. Typical emergency response capabilities on the local and state level would be taxed beyond attainable levels. Federal response capabilities, particularly particularl y in the short term, would be challenged. Even an attack involving dispersion of radiological material (without a nuclear explosion) would be a devastating event, particularly if the area of contamination contaminatio n was extensive. Nuclear terrorism represents a significant escalation of terrorism. The detonation of a fission (nuclear) device is probably the worst-case scenario among potential terrorist events, at least in terms of immediate, substantial and dramatic impact. (44)
We must keep mind mind the impact of radiation on the human body. There are short term and long-term affects that cause changes in the bodies cells. On the lower level, we experience radiation every day in small amounts. Generally, the body has defenses that repair changes that take place. Radiation is all around us in many aspects of our daily lives.
71 Yet, in large doses as a result of massive exposure, radiation causes mutations in the body that will will eventually kill us. High-level exposure results in cell damage. Radiation is energy that travels by wave length and passes through materials such as human tissue. Ionizing radiation occurs by way of electromagnetic or particle particle emissions. emissions. It is the result of the the disintegration of the nucleus of an atom. Sources of radiation exist exist all around us in various forms, and basically concerns such particles as alpha, beta and gamma rays. rays. Cell death death results results from ionized radiation radiation upon penetration of human tissue. The biological biological effects are such that cell cell reproduction or division is radically radically altered or destroyed. destroyed. Cell mutation can occur. Exposure and dose levels as measured in Roentgens. For For example, one Roentgen (R) equals an amount gamma radiation that results in ionization, which which in turn turn results in one electrostatic electrostatic unit of charge. An absorbed does is called a “rad”, “rad”, or Roentgen Roentgen Absorbed Dose. Biologically equivalent doses are sometimes called “rems”, or Roentgen Equivalent Man. (45)
(46)
72 Nuclear Materials – Natural Sources Radon (soil) 200 mrem Cosmic (sun – space) – 28 mrem Terrestrial – 28 mrem Internal (potassium 40) 40 mrem Medical X-rays – 40 mrem Nuclear medicine – 14 mrem Consumer products – 10 mrem Other – 3 mrem Annual Dose – 360 mrem One time rescue exposure – 25 mrem Major exposure at one time – cell damage – 200 mrem Emissions occur in three forms: alpha particles, beta particles and gamma particles (47)
Alpha particles do not go very far far from their source. source. They are short range in nature and travel only a couple of inches in air. With a large mass, they deliver a sizeable amount of energy in a short distance. Alpha particles travel only a few inches. Things like paper and a layer of skin can shield against Alpha particles. Due to this configuration, configuration, they can can cause internal injury injury if inhaled or ingested. ingested. This kind of radiation radiation generally comes comes from plutonium and uranium. By contrast, Beta particles particles are smaller in terms of their mass. mass. Their range is somewhat limited up to several feet. Beta particles particles also present an internal hazard, as well as an external threat to the eyes and skin areas. Beta radiation radiation is generally generally found found in fission products products and tritium. Gamma radiation, on the other hand, is referred to as an electromagnetic wave or photon. photon. Gamma radiation radiation is like like x-rays and travels hundreds hundreds of feet. Without mass mass or electrical electrical charge, it is capable capable of penetrating penetrating other solid objects. This would would include the human human body. Gamma radiation causes both internal and and external damage damage to the whole body of a person. person. Shielding can only be afforded by use of concrete, steel or lead. This type of radiation is found in fission products, products, cobalt, iridium and x-rays equipment. Terrorists may have the capability to deliver “dirty bombs” containing hazardous radioactive materials. At least three possibilities exist. These include: activation of an atomic weapon; dispersal using nuclear materials and conventional explosives; and exploding a large amount of conventional explosives next to a facility containing nuclear materials. (48)
73 Chapter 10: Weapons of Mass Destruction – Incendiary Devices & Chemicals: Incendiary Devices In the use of incendiary devices, first responders train to be alert to subsequent fires, booby traps, suspicious actions, sabotage of fire suppression systems systems and secondary secondary explosive devices. A multitude of threats may be present following the delivery of an incendiary mechanism. The placement of incendiaries is a centuries old practice by terrorist groups and individuals. Such devices deliver high level dangers of involving rapid fires, property property damage, death, panic panic and fear. By spreading spreading to other materials within the target site, incendiaries expand destructive capabilities and increase the lethality lethality level. Incendiaries represent represent those types of devices that are usually of the homemade homemade variety. These explosive type weapons may employ mechanical, electrical or chemical components to initiate combustion and cause a fire. The odor of an accelerant, multiple multiple fires and high fire volume volume may be indicative of an incendiary incendiary device. device. Worldwide, about 70% of all terrorist attacks involve the use of some type of explosive.
General Information Fire may present intense conditions: Rapid Spread High Heat Multiple Fires Chemical Accelerant Terrorists may sabotage fire protection devices. Be alert to booby traps. Be aware of the possibility of multiple devices. (49)
Incendiaries may be triggered by chemical, electrical or mechanical processes. The delivery of such devices may be from a fixed location, thrown into the target target site, or fired fired by self-propelled self-propelled means. Delivery of the the device may depend upon the target target that has been selected. selected. Incendiaries are are generally classified according to the method by which it is activated and the means of delivery.
74
Triggering Methodology First Classification of Incendiaries
Chemical reaction – including burning fuse Burning Fuse Swimming Pool Chlorine and sulfuric acid Pool Chlorine and Brake fluid Potassium Perchlorate, sugar and sulfuric acid Electronic ignition Detonator Electrical Match Mechanical ignition Radio Control Unit Mouse Trap Non-electrical Alarm Clock Delivery Methodology Second Classification of Incendiaries
Fixed or Stationary – Planted Object Planted Device Poured into building with timer Thrown by Terrorist Classic “Molotov Cocktail” Fire by Launching device – Self-Propelled Self-propelled rocket Aircraft Delivery of Incendiary Device Deliberate crashing of aircraft Launched from aircraft to target (50)
75 Generally, incendiary devices have been considered to consist of two types. From an historical point of reference, these included: the “Molotov Cocktail” and the incendiary incendiary device. device. Where the “Molotov Cocktail” Cocktail” is designed to be thrown at the target, the incendiary device is designed to be planted in the target. Later, by remote control, timer or chemical chemical composition activates the incendiary. According to one source, the “Molotov cocktail” allegedly gets its name from the battlefields of World War II. Most likely, likely, the name name comes Russian Army Army attacks on German tanks. Low on ammunition, ammunition, the Russians Russians resorted to the development development of a homemade “anti-tank” “anti-tank” weapon. As a result, they created created “petrol bombs” bombs” by filling glass bottles bottles with fuel. fuel. Once filled, filled, the bottles were were sealed and a makeshift fuse attached. attached. Sometimes, rags of cloth would would be stuffed stuffed into the bottle for a fuse. fuse. When the fuse was was lighted, the “petrol “petrol bomb” was was thrown at the target. target. On impact, the burning fuse would ignite the fuel fuel from the broken bottle. During this time time of warfare, warfare, Molotov was the the name of the Soviet Minister for Foreign Affairs.
(51)
76 The so called “petrol bomb” has been used by self-styled anarchists, revolutionaries, militants militants and an assortment of others for decades. It is a cheap explosive explosive device that that is both both frangible frangible and incendiary. As a combination hand grenade and fire bomb, it can be very effective against a target. Although it may not kill a lot of people, it does cause casualties, destroys property and raises raises fear levels. Components of the typical typical “Molotov Cocktail” usually consists of an ignition source, combustible filler (fuel) and a container container (glass bottle). bottle). The incendiary reaction takes takes place upon the ignition of the fuel source, or the the combustible filler filler material. material. A container is required in order to hold the filler in place until release and ignition. The container container selected selected is important. It must must break or come come apart on impact in order to be effective. effective. Thin glass bottles are preferred as opposed a heavy glass bottle container. container. Plastic beverage beverage bottles bottles may may sometimes be used. used. In this case, case, the materials materials inside the container would would mix, causing combustion and expansion of the container. container. When the the container breaks, the contents expands further causing an explosion. explosion. There are a multitude multitude of ways in which an incendiary incendiary may be constructed. They are relatively easy to construct, and materials are readily available in the average household.
Types of Materials Used Firecracker fuse Fireworks materials Highway flares Gasoline and other fuel sources Light bulbs Glass containers Old wine or liquor bottles Various electrical components Chemical products used around the home Gas cylinders from cooking grills Aircraft used as incendiary bomb Fill materials such as nails and metal debris Household chemicals
77 Chemical Weapons In similar manner to incendiaries, chemical weapons are also easy to produce in the “home laboratory”. The capabilities and technologies technologies for produce such materials are about 100 years old. Although large large amounts of chemicals must used, as compared to biological weapons, they are available throughout the world. world. In addition, many many chemicals are produced legally for many reasons throughout the global global community. community. This makes acquisition more conducive conducive to individual and group group objectives. objectives. Large quantities quantities of materials are necessary for production. This increases the risk factor in terms of early warning, detection and interdiction of probable criminal activity. Manufacturing, handling and delivery delivery also has has risks for the terrorists in terms of exposure. However, for the terrorist, the advantages of using chemical weapons include the following: Manufacture is easy Materials are readily available Development costs are low Dispersal is aided by building design and environment Victim injury is immediate Expensive for first responders – decontamination – resources Fear factor is significant Capabilities have increased with technology Chemical agents or weapons possess the capacity to kill or seriously injury people. They are are generally divided into five major categories for consideration of their characteristics characteristics and health risk factors. These include the following: Never agents Blister agents Choking agents Blood agents Irritants
78 In addition to the major categories indicated for chemical agents (e.g. nerve, blister, choking, etc.), these substances can be assigned as a type that is either “persistent” “persistent” or “non-persistent”. If an agent is “persistent”, “persistent”, it is considered to be one that remains in the target location for a long period of time. Following delivery delivery of the agent, it may stay in the target target of r hours, hours, days and even weeks. Dangers stem from from vapor and liquid liquid presence of the chemical. If an agent is characterized characterized as being “non-persistent”, “non-persistent”, then it is considered to be of of short duration in the target area. area. Dangers persist from from chemical vapors that may linger from minutes to hours in the area of attack.
Chemical agents are extremely dangerous in both liquid and vapor forms. In liquid form, form, however, the liquid must actually come in contact with the victim to produce its effects. Vapors, on the other hand, can spread over large areas, even in lethal concentrations concentrations.. Vapors pose a far more insidious threat in most situations. Some agents produce volumes of vapor at a given given temperature than others do. The amount of vapor produced is a consequence of an agent’s vapor pressure (the higher the value, the greater the production of vapor), air pressure and temperature. Increasing the surface area (by aerosolizing) or temperature (by heating, as in a fogger) will increase the volume of vapors generated. Weaponized versions of chemical agents produce greater volumes of vapor. The sarin used in the Tokyo subway attack was not properly aerosolized or weaponized; as a consequence, the number of casualties produced was far less than the potential for a chemical of that type. (52)
Chemicals such as Tabun, Sarin and Soman tend to be volatile and persistent agents that have a rapid rate of action. Their route of entry to the human body is typically by way of the respiratory system or the skin. These three, for example, are typically typically considered to be semi-persistent semi-persistent in nature. The VX chemical, by comparison, is considered to be a persistent agent with a rapid rate of action. Symptoms of their affects affects include: headache, headache, runny nose, salivation, pinpointing of the pupils, problems with breathing, seizures and convulsions.
79 Of the chemical weapons available, nerve agents are generally considered to be the most toxic materials developed. They remain remain very dangerous dangerous weapons of mass mass destruction. The rapid onset of death death within minutes minutes of exposure, as well as their ability to be hazardous in either liquid or vapor states, makes them extremely hazardous.
Nerve Agents Nerve agents include such substances as Tabun (GA-1936), Soman (GD-1944), Sarin (GB-1938) and V Agent (VX-1952). The liquid vapors of these substance cause illnesses in humans. The letters in parenthesis indicates military designated letters of abbreviation, along with date of development. For example, the “G” makes reference to German development, while the next letter refers to the scientist mainly responsible for its creation. With regard to the “V”, it refers to venom, while the “X” refers to a chemical series. This group group of chemicals represents some of the most dangerous and toxic chemicals developed. Their route of entry into the human body is by skin absorption, inhalation, ingestion and injection. Nerve agents are related to substances called “organophosphorus pesticides”. Organophosphorus pesticides are used in the agricultural industry. th Many kinds of pesticides are used in food production. During the 19 century, such pesticides were produced to control insects, rodents and other animals animals that affected farming and food production. The more potent substances eventually were processed into nerve agents. These substances affect the human nervous system and inhibit the ability of “cholinesterase” (enzyme) to properly control the neurotransmitter “acetylcholine”. With this malfunction, nerve impulses cannot be properly transmitter to muscle or other nerve cells. As such, over stimulation of the nerves and muscles occur and subsequently cause weakness or paralysis of the muscles. Convulsions and uncontrolled muscle reactions result from the affects of the never agent. In the victim, it becomes very pronounced and significant that they display pinpoint pupils, runny nose, problems in breathing, unconsciousness, seizures and vomiting. Exposure to such chemical generally is the result of airborne vapors. Other exposure possibilities possibiliti es include liquid contact with the skin, resulting resultin g in absorption. And, while the “G” chemicals may evaporate at about the same rate as water (1 to 2 days), the “V” series may last longer. The “V” agents have been known to linger for days and up to months within the target area. (56)
80 It is extremely difficult from a protective posture, to know or predict how an attack may occur. Likewise, knowing knowing the type of chemical weapon weapon that might be used is also also hard to define or otherwise plan against. against. Murder bombers can attack without warning using explosives. Or, a secret delivery system can can be instituted against against target target locations. locations. Threat assessments are are difficult tasks requiring ongoing intelligence, teamwork and aggressive actions. It is known by the intelligence intelligence and law enforcement enforcement communities communities that terrorist group interest in the acquisition of chemical and biological weapons is growing. Due to the the complexity complexity of acquiring weaponized substances, delivery problems and the unpredictable nature of the materials, terrorist may tend to prefer conventional explosives in the immediate future. But, as some point out, the impact the weapon has on the public may be as significant as the the type of weapon weapon used. In other words, the psychological affect is of great importance importance in the aftermath of the initial attack. While the weapon of choice may not create mass destruction and casualties, the fear factor can be greatly greatly exploited. Regardless of the relative effectiveness effectiveness of a certain chemical weapon, the media coverage from such an attack could prove far more more valuable to the the terrorist. The high profile profile nature of such such an incident is essential to the terrorist’s strategy.
Attackers will generally have a political or ideological motive. The psychological and political aspects of using weapons of mass destruction cannot be quantified in any form but can be exploited in ways where the number of casualties, and the amount of physical damage, may be far less important than the impact on public opinion, crowd behavior, and the political perceptions of foreign states. The very threat of such attacks can cause panic, and the risk of contamination can deny the use of a facility even if contamination contamination is minimal minimal or no no longer exists. exists. At the same time, a successful biological or nuclear attack on US territory might radically change world perceptions of American strength and vulnerability, even if the target was poorly chosen and casualties casualties were limited. (54)
81 Chapter 11: Other Types Types of Chemical Chemical Weapons Weapons Blister Agents In comparison to nerve agents, blister agents are sometimes called “vesicants”. These substances are known known for the burns and blisters they cause to the skin of targeted victims. victims. The affect on skin skin surfaces is similar similar to that of very strong acid exposure. exposure. In addition, the toxic characteristics characteristics also cause respiratory damage as well as internal injuries of a gastrointestinal nature. Blister agents agents can cause serious serious contamination contamination to surrounding land areas, vessels and and vehicles along along with any associated equipment. equipment. Exposure to vesicants may come come through through liquid or vapor form. If environmental environmental conditions are warm, warm, more vapors may may occur. The Mustard agents may may last as long as several months within within a target area. Eyes, airways and skin are in danger of injury upon exposure. They are a persistent hazards with a high high level of volatility. The odor coming from a blister agent is typically that of a garlic-like smell. Symptoms include: burning, blistering sore throat, coughing heart problems, coma coma and seizures. It is possible that symptoms symptoms may be delayed anywhere from two to twenty-four hours. Generally, vesicants include such substance as sulphur mustard, nitrogen mustard and arsenic related agents like lewisite. Sulphur mustard, for example, example, was deployed in World War I, and is a type of agent that penetrates the cell membranes, causing causing significant damage. By contrast, contrast, Lewisite is without color, and has an odor similar similar to that of geraniums. geraniums. It is a powerful chemical chemical warfare agent with potent potent characteristics. characteristics. It is able to penetrate regular regular clothing and most most normal materials materials worn by people. On contact with with the skin, Lewisite causes pain and discomfort. The burns and blisters blisters can result from either liquid liquid or vapor exposure. exposure. Basic protective gear, gear, such as surgical gloves and similar rubberized materials, do not offer protection against Lewisite. Effective protection protection must come in the form of specially designed suits that include a self-contained self-contained breathing system. As an oily liquid, it has th also been around since the beginning of the 20 century. Breathing Lewisite, or a Mustard-Lewisite mixture, causes airway difficulties. difficulties. Tissue damage takes place, along with burning pain and irritations to the eyes, nose, sinus cavities, throat and lungs. lungs. Contact with the skin results in in pain, swelling, rashes and and subsequent blisters. blisters. Severe reactions to the affects affects of Lewisite, associated with a drop in body temperatures, pulse rate, etc, has been described described as “Lewisite Shock”. Shock”. (55)
82 The use of chemical weapons by terrorists can be viewed as being extremely unnerving to the public’s thinking process. process. Visions of skin burning and pealing off the body leave a frightening impression in the minds of most people. Chemicals, such as blister agents, are horrific inventions of warfare. Again, the types of attacks that continue to be at forefront, typically relate to conventional weapons weapons and tactics. That is, explosives, supported supported by gunfire, gunfire, as well as the use of vessels, vehicles and aircraft, remain primary terrorist potentials that exist. Terrorist can be creative, inventive and adaptive to counter-terrorist efforts. efforts. Certain groups have shown an interest in acquiring acquiring chemical weapons. weapons. However, it it is likely, by the best guesstimates guesstimates that traditional tactics tactics will not change change dramatically. dramatically. However, there is always always the possibility selected incidents could be different from conventional operations. Chemicals and biological weapons weapons have disadvantages disadvantages as well as technical problems. ….in 1993, Ramsi Yousef built the device that was originally intended to bring down the World Trade Centre. It failed, but but it wasn’t for lack of trying. Later investigators investigator s discovered that Yousef had earlier considered adding cyanide to his explosive charges. In the end Yousef gave up on this idea. After having thought through the financial costs, technical problems and the low likelihood of success, Yousef concluded that it wasn’t worth the time and effort. We can also consider an even older historical example for perspective. During the Second World War, Germany possessed very large stocks of chemical weapons, including the nerve agents tabun and sarin in weapon form. When Nazi Germany launched its V-1 buzz bomb and V-2 ballistic missiles in vengeance against London, Wehrmacht military scientists considered using chemical agents in these munitions. munitions. In the end, however, they made the cold calculation: They knew that to cause as much destruction and, indeed, terror among the civilian populace, high explosives could do the job just as effectively, probably even more so. (56)
83 Blood Agents When talking about about Blood Agents, Agents, cyanide comes comes to mind. Once they are are transformed into weapons grade chemicals, they are used in vapor form. Yet, cyanides are also produced in other forms such as powders and liquids. Human exposure can occur through either contact with liquid or vapor substances. It is often often suggested that their existence, even even though colorless, colorless, smells something on on the order of burned almonds. Once human human exposure occurs, respiratory respiratory arrest can take place very rapidly. They are generally generally non-persistent in nature. The chemical action works to block the transfer of oxygen among the cells and organs via the blood system of the body. Routes of entry are typically through through the respiratory tract. Bodily functions become greatly affected by the oxygen interruption that occurs. occurs. Common blood agents include: Hydrogen Hydrogen Cyanide Cyanide and Cyanogen Chloride. Chloride. Again, access to bodily tissue takes place through inhalation, absorption, ingestion and injection. Symptoms of exposure include: increased respirations, dizziness, cardiac difficulties and so forth.
Characteristics: Non-Persistent in nature Rapid rate of action Route of entry via inhalation, skin, eyes Smell of burned almonds Symptoms include: cherry red skin/lips, rapid breathing, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, convulsions, dilated pupils, excessive salivation, gastrointestinal hemorrhage, pulmonary edema, convulsions, respiratory arrest; Common Names: Hydrogen Cyanide Cyanogen Chloride Arsine
84 Cyanide is used in common chemicals present in commercial and industrial applications. They may be encountered encountered in various business business locations. Blood agents exist in both liquid and gas form and have a highly volatile nature. Hydrogen cyanide, for example, is the type used used in “gas chambers”. chambers”. Once exposed, they evaporate evaporate quickly. As mentioned earlier, earlier, cyanide reacts reacts to the presence of iron in the the hemoglobin. This interference disrupts the process of oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange within within the circulatory circulatory system. system. As a result, a person experiences asphyxiation, which is a sudden and rapid process. Choking Agents Chlorine, phosgene and diphosgene represent three types of choking agents. They are generally considered to be non-persistent and affect the human body by way way of inhalation or skin absorption. absorption. Odors smell smell like bleach (Chlorine) or freshly mowed mowed grass or hay (phosgene). (phosgene). Symptoms include tightness in the chest, as well well as coughing, choking and so forth. forth. In addition, they cause eye irritation irritation and pulmonary edema. Exposure takes takes place primarily through inhalation of the vapors. If concentrations concentrations are high high enough, death will will occur. Since they react with moisture, these these agents go after the tissues in in the lungs once they enter the human body. The onset of signs and symptoms usually occurs within two to twenty-four hours. Chlorine, for instance, has been used as a warfare agent since the time of World War I. I. On the battlefield, battlefield, Germany made made use of its properties as a choking agent. Generally non-persistent, non-persistent, Chlorine Chlorine may last last longer in lowlying areas, depending on on environmental environmental conditions. conditions. In addition addition to the symptoms already described, people will also experience vomiting and nausea.
85
Choking Agents Choking agents such as chlorine, enter the body by way of inhalation. Sufficient levels of exposure result in death. When the agent comes into contact with the fluids in the lungs a reaction takes place. This reaction produces chemical changes in the chlorine. The change produces hydrochloric acid, which causes the lungs to fill up with more fluids. This fluid inflow reduces the ability of the lungs to properly utilize oxygen. Preventing oxygen transfer, the chemical reactions can produce a “drowning” affect in the victim.
Irritants Irritants are on the low end of the spectrum spectrum in terms of injury. These agents generally refer to those chemicals that are found in military and law enforcement crowd control applications. applications. Skin absorption and and inhalation are are the usual routes of exposure exposure for people. The irritants include: include: tear gas, mace mace and the so-called pepper spray. These chemical agents are designed to cause pain, burning, or discomfort on exposed mucous membranes and skin. These effects occur within seconds of exposure, but seldom persist more than a few minutes after exposure has ended. However, victims with respiratory problems, small children, infants and the elderly may experience symptoms over a far longer period of time. Large doses over extended periods of time can produce fatalities. Victim symptoms include immediate burning sensation of the eyes, coughing, difficulty breathing, involuntary closing of the eyes, and a stinging sensation on moist skin surfaces. Victims may report multiple odors including hair spray and pepper due to the variety of propellants used to dispense these agents. (58)
86 Law enforcement, as well as the military services, have used these types of chemical agents for quite quite some type. Typically, they they are deployed in a number of confrontational situations. Police officers officers use these tools to enhance enforcement capabilities in dealing with persons who resist lawful authority, or otherwise commit commit criminal incidents. incidents. In this regard, regard, chemical chemical agents have proved to be essential to the law enforcement function of providing public safety safety and and security. security. Additionally, the chemicals have greatly assisted police personnel in controlling potentially dangerous situations.
Chemical agents have been used by the police to subdue criminal and riotous individuals or groups groups for many years. The police of Paris are credited with the modern development of the concept in the year 1912 when “hand bombs” filled with an early tear gas were used to incapacitate gangs of criminals that were presenting a serious threat to life and property in the French capital. From this law enforcement origin grew the subsequent development of military chemical warfare which began with tear gas and quickly escalated to the dreaded lethal and disabling gases of World War I and the modern era. (59)
In the early Paris “hand bombs” a chemical substance known as “ethyl bromacetate was used in the composition of the crowd control agent. Although the chemicals had the potential to be very volatile in nature, small concentrations could be very effective effective in police operations. This substance is related to “tear “tear gas”. Both substances are part of a group of substances that are referred referred to as “lacrimators”. “lacrimators”. This makes reference reference to the fact that that they cause accelerated tear reaction in the eyes, resulting in a “weeping” affect. The vapor or gas that is produced produced by the chemicals chemicals has demonstrated effectiveness in confrontation confrontation incidents. Due to the common reaction of producing tears, the phrase “tear gas” has pretty much followed the chemical composition into modern modern times. Until the advent of “pepper sprays”, three major agents have been developed for police applications since the early 1900’s. These included: CN agent (choloroacetophenone), (choloroacetophenone), CS agent (orthocholobenzalmalononitrile), and the nausea chemical, DM agent (Diphenylaminechlorarsine).
87 Use of force issues are of critical importance to law enforcement operations. The ability to control combative and confrontational subjects in a lawful manner is an essential essential component of the police mission. Order maintenance maintenance activities remain a vital vital part of what police police officers do every day. As such, irritants play a role in the reasonable and humane application of enforcement strategies. Law Enforcement Enforcement personnel personnel are trained to deploy such tools, along with associated tactics, in the proper application of force options. These type of chemical agents are necessary in self-defense incidents, barricaded criminal actions, crowd control situations as well as other applications. Means of delivery delivery to the target area include: expulsion expulsion by way of explosive device, pyrotechnic by burning the composition, fogging by means of a cloud making device, and liquid dispersal.
CN Agent: chloroacetophenone Agent: chloroacetophenone – discovered in Germany in 1869, is considered the currently used “tear gas” type weapon. It has a characteristic apple blossom odor, and is dispersed as a particulate cloud. Sometimes, it may be dissolved in a liquid and then subsequently released as an aerosol. CN acts as an irritant to the upper respiratory system, as well as the eyes and skin. For some people, it may also produce nausea. It can be deployed by hand grenade, projectile or fogging dispersal device. CS Agent: Agent: orthochlorbenzalmalonitrile – was first developed in 1928, and is a later version type crowd control agent. CS is a white powder substance that produces more significant effects than its counterpart, CN. Reactions tend to be more severe and more immediate. DM Agent: Diphenylaminechlorasine Agent: Diphenylaminechlorasine – discovered in 1918, DM is a nausea agent that causes a person to undergo severe headaches, nasal discharge, pains in the nose, sinus and chest. Subjects also experience vomiting as well as sensory sensory disturbances. Law agencies are generally cautioned not to use the DM agent due to the severe physical reactions it causes. (60)
88 Although OC (oleoresin of Capsicum) has come into more accepted use in recent years by law enforcement, it has a long history in the world community. According to some sources, OC was used in the India-China India-China wars around the year 2,000. In 1931, OC was developed as a military munition. And, for a long time, OC has been used as an alternative medication. As a defensive product, it has been used by the U.S. Postal Service since 1961 to repel dogs. In the law enforcement enforcement field, field, police officers began using using OC in the the early 1970’s. The substance Capsaicin is a natural material in the cayenne pepper plant. The fatty oil product of the plant is Oleoresin. Capsaicinoids are part part of the plant’s plant’s placenta and seeds. seeds. The odor of OC is typically that of a pepper smell. While medically medically considered a neurotoxin, which is removed from the pepper plant, OC consists of an off-white color powder that is soluble in fats, oils and alcohol. In dealing dealing with with confrontational confrontational people, OC is extremely affective. A person’s reaction time is about 3 to 15 seconds, with affects lasting up to 30 minutes or more. It is effective on combative combative people both psychologically psychologically as well as physically. physically. The primary effects effects of OC include: involuntary spasms and closing of the eyes, burning sensation, tears, constriction of the throat for minimal air flow, chest tightness, as well as other associated symptoms. (61) For police and military applications, the world over, the irritant chemicals have been effective in controlling uncooperative uncooperative people. The irritants remain an essential tool in the array of equipment needed by law enforcement to ensure order maintenance and peace keeping responsibilities. OC spray, for example, has been proved effective even on persons under the influence of alcohol or illegal drugs. drugs. And, its popularity popularity has grown significantly significantly over the last ten years. Exposure routes routes generally generally follow that of other chemical chemical weapons, including including inhalation and skin absorption. By the very nature of their design, they are intended to cause a certain amount of pain. This relates to burning sensations and physical discomfort once contact is made with mucous membranes membranes and the skin. skin. The volatility and and persistence of OC depends upon the surface surface it is applied. Its rate of action tends tends to be fast was exposure is made. Involuntary tearing tearing is typical among among the irritant class class of chemical weapons. Likewise, vomiting vomiting may sometimes occur with certain subjects. But, the overall experience of shortness of breath, breath, nose and throat throat irritation remains remains of primary primary significance in most cases. Irritants are not considered to be weapons of choice by terrorist groups or individuals.
89 Explosives In most cases, terrorist groups and individuals have relied on the use of conventional explosives. explosives. Approximately Approximately 70% of all incidents defined as terrorist acts are related to the the use of explosives. explosives. These devices have a long history, particularly particularly in regard regard to warfare. warfare. Grenades and other pyrotechnics pyrotechnics date back to very early centuries in ancient China. China. The word “grenade”, for example, comes from the Latin word “Granatus”, which referred to a th handheld device used by the Spaniards during the 16 century. The Spanish military called their explosive device “Granada”, because it resembled the pomegranate fruit. fruit. Such implements of warfare are suggested to have been th used by the Romans around 250 B.C. In the 13 century, with the advent of gunpowder, historians report that grenades, as well as other explosives were developed by Western Western countries. The tactical deployment deployment of such devices is reported to have taken place during during the Crusades. Containers such as as glass globes, jars, kegs and various types of pots were used to fashion grenadelike explosive explosive devices. devices. Later, in 1677, it is recorded that “rifle-type” grenades were fashioned fashioned from muskets muskets and used in Germany. (62)
According to FBI bomb statistics covering the period of 1990 through 1995, there were 10,122 actual bombings (including incendiaries) and another 3,278 failed bomb or incendiary attacks, resulting in 3,176 injuries and 355 deaths. Both the Oklahoma City and World Trade Center bombings involved detonation of high explosives to cause maximum damage. The World Trade Center bomb contained approximately 1,200 lbs of Urea Nitrate. The Oklahoma City bomb was approximately 4,800 lbs. Of fertilizer grade Ammonia Nitrate and fuel oil. The vehicle bomb used on the barracks in Beirut is believed to have contained approximately 12,000 lbs of explosives that have not been positively positivel y identified. An understanding of basic definitions, terms and concepts is essential for developing a complete understanding for and appreciation of the dangers associated with explosives, particularly when used by terrorists to attack their targets. (63)
90 Explosive devices may be configured so that they also expel or otherwise disseminate chemical, chemical, biological or radioactive radioactive materials. materials. Once exploded, exploded, the explosive device may may also produce produce secondary hazards. These hazards result in unstable building structures, disrupted utility services, and dangerous debris. debris. The construction construction of these weapons weapons may also contain deadly shrapnel. shrapnel. Items such such as nails nails and other sharp objects may may be incorporate in the overall design design of the device. device. Sometimes, the container is configured so that it fragments fragments on detonation. detonation. The terrorist preference for for explosives can be seen in the simplicity simplicity of acquisition and and design. Materials are readily available for the construction of low-tech explosive devices. A variety of components can be obtained to make simple, yet destructive devices to create terror and injury. From pipe bombs to truck truck bombs, the fabrication of a destructive device device can come come in many shapes and and size. For example, it is not very difficult to attach a homemade pipe bomb to a propane cylinder. cylinder. This type of device incorporates very easy easy to obtain materials, from both hardware and sporting goods stores. In very basic terms, explosives are substances that undergo violent decomposition once a sequence is initiated. This consists of an oxidation process that is essentially an instantaneous instantaneous event. This process is sometimes thought of as a burning sequence sequence of actions. actions. An explosion stems from this violent action that is the result of a sudden release and expansion of gases. Explosive devices can come in a variety variety of configurations. They can be unconventional in nature, such as an aircraft or vessel turned into a bombing mechanism. Vehicle bombs, bombs, for instance, have been very popular over the years to deliver deliver explosives to a target. Also, pipe bombs bombs have been used frequently in in attacks of all kinds. In this case, a quantity of explosive explosive material is placed inside a tube, tube, pipe, or other such configuration. configuration. After sealing the device, a timer or some some sort is attached. Or, a remote remote triggering mechanism is used, as well as motion motion sensing units. Basic kinds kinds of triggering devices devices can be purchased from electronics electronics supply stores. Pipe bombs of various designs continue to be the most common type of explosive device used. Sometimes, terrorist may construct a “satchel charge”. This makes reference to the military-like device enclosed in a carrying bag. Today’s terrorist “satchel charge” may be carried inside a backpack. Often, the contents include various sharp objects that cause more injuries once the device explodes. Bombs may may also be contained contained inside packages packages or letters. And, these usually explode when opened.
91 Low cost and low-tech explosives can be found in mixtures called propellants. In the the realm realm of ordinance propellants, these materials are generally classified classified as single-based, single-based, double double based and composite. These materials are generally generally black powder and smokeless powder. Single based propellants are composed of “gelantinized nitrocellulose” with no high explosive additives. additives. A high explosive explosive additive might be something on on the order of “nitroglycerin”. For the the double-based double-based propellants, they are are a composition of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin. The composite based propellants are formulated from mixtures of fuels and inorganic oxidants, and contain only small amounts of nitrocellulose and and nitroglycerin. nitroglycerin. As a propellant burns, the grains grains decrease in size and amount. amount. Black powder is an example of a “low explosive”, and consists mainly of potassium nitrate (sometimes sodium nitrate), charcoal and sulfur. It is highly susceptible susceptible to heat, friction and a spark. These materials are found typically in ammunition types, types, and used for expelling expelling a projectile. projectile. Smokeless powder, powder, on the other hand, is used use d primarily for firearms ammunition. ammunition. (64) Propellants are low order explosives. They are developed to “deflagrate”, which means means burn. As they burn, they they produce gases. When confined confined to a container the gases expand outward and and create an explosion. explosion. Low order explosives require burning or shock shock in order to initiate their their properties. By comparison, high order explosives are contrived to “detonate”. These are very sensitive sensitive substances that include include TNT, dynamite and plastics. plastics. Low order and high order explosives react differently with regard to reaction time, velocity of reaction and the subsequent amount of pressure generated. Low order explosives burn at a rate less than the speed of sound, whereas high order explosives detonate at greater than than the speed of sound. The reaction in high explosives is such that the fuel and the oxidizer are chemically bound to each other. other. The shock wave tears apart this binding and produces gases as a result result of the action action involved. As a bomb explodes explodes three things result from this action: pressure, fragmentation and thermal thermal affect. The heat produced from from the explosion depends depends upon the mixture mixture or composition of the explosive device. Naturally, high order explosives generate greater temperatures than low order explosives. TNT, for example, which is also known as “Trinitrotoluene”, is used as a component of many types of explosive explosive mixtures. Of the high explosives, explosives, TNT is considered considered to be more stable than most. It tends to have a storage life longer than than other types of high explosives.
92 When a bomb explodes pressure is released and three major actions occur. These include include blast pressure, fragmentation fragmentation and thermal effects. Blast pressure consists consists of two aspects: aspects: positive positive and and negative negative pressure. pressure. With regard to positive blast pressure, the action of the explosion at “ground zero”, or the the center, causes the pressure to move outward. This action of moving away from the center causes significant pressure of pounds per square inch. The pounds per per square inch are exerted exerted as the result of the explosive energy release. release. The pressure per square inch is in the thousands of pounds per square inch. inch. This primary primary blast wave can cause damage damage to humans due to the sudden change change in air pressure. The shock can tear vital organs, as well as damage damage the eardrums. eardrums. In contrast to the initial action of the pressure release, release, a secondary secondary phase occurs. This is referred referred to as the negative pressure. In negative pressure, pressure, air returns to fill the vacuum vacuum created from the initial initial blast at the center center of the explosion. explosion. Fragmentation concerns those objects that are expelled into the surrounding areas as a result of the explosion. At high rates rates of speed, the blast causes deliberate “missile-like” “missile-like” fragments, contained or attached to the device, to fire in multiple directions. In addition, parts of surrounding structures may also become fragments of the explosion. Debris such a wood, wood, glass and concrete can also become deadly projectiles. projectiles. These flying projectiles can can inflict all kinds of injury upon the human human body. While fragmentation fragmentation is seen as parts of the device device itself, shrapnel is sometimes added to increase increase the device’s device’s affect. Nails, nuts and bolts, ball bearings, and other objects are sometimes used to enhance the destructiveness destructiveness of the bomb. bomb. When the bomb explodes, heat is generated. The thermal effects, which may also be incendiary incendiary in nature, vary by nature of the device’s design and components. It is a function of type of mixture, container and additives (fuels, accelerants, etc.). The fireball produced at the time of the explosion is representative of the thermal effect. A bomb is activated by a series of actions that begin begin with initiation. initiation. This series of events, from initiation to explosion, is referred to as the “firing train”. The initiation of a bomb bomb can be either by electric electric or non-electric means.
Electronic vs Non-Electronic
93
Initiation of explosives is either non-electric or electric. With nonelectric, a safety fuse is inserted into a detonator and the detonator into the explosive; explosive; a fuse is then ignited. In electric initiation, the detonator is inserted into the explosive and an energy charge is initiated in the electric line to ignite the explosive. (65)
Explosive devices, or bombs, can be viewed as being either conventional of nuclear. The fuses are sometimes configured so that they cause cause the firing firing chain to activate when the bomb makes contact with a target (contact fuse). They may also be the type of device that explodes in proximity to the target, or otherwise called a proximity device. device. These bombs may activate due to a change in the air pressure around them, or they may use radar guidance and measure the distance to the ground. ground. Sometimes, Sometimes, bombs are described as being general purpose in nature, guidance directed, armour-piercing, fragtype (fragmentation), (fragmentation), and incendiary. The general-purpose general-purpose explosives explosives use mixtures such as TNT. Destruction results results from a combination of factors, which include: blast pressure, vacuum, v acuum, fragmentation and shock wave. With regard to high explosives, their reaction can be sensitive to the environment around them in varying varying degrees. High explosives explosives can be activated by various stimuli, such as impact or heat. Some are more prone to activation with the slightest slightest agitation than than others. An electrical charge, charge, such as static discharge or shock may may set them off off instantly. This would include include the group of high high explosives explosives known as “primary explosives”. Primary explosives are very very sensitive. sensitive. These substances are very susceptible to agitation. And, for this reason, they are used in the making of detonators. Some examples of primary explosives include: lead azide, mercury fulminate, silver azide, lead styphnate, RDX and PETN (66). Lead azide is a substance that is used in the design of detonating fuses. It is not as sensitive sensitive as mercury fulminate. fulminate. Sometimes Sometimes it is used as a boosting charge in other explosive mixtures. Lead azide is usually detonated by a blasting cap or heat source. By comparison, mercury fulminate on the other hand is very sensitive. It can be activated activated by heat, impact impact or friction. Mercury fulminate fulminate is one of the oldest initiating substances used as a primary explosive compound. It is very poisonous in nature, nature, and was used historically historically in percussion caps for muskets.
94
Silver azide and lead styphnate are considered highly volatile and sometimes unstable chemicals. They will readily detonate from heat or shock. Lead styphnate is sometimes combined with lead azide to enhance its properties of detonation when electrical electrical ignition is applied. applied. Lead styphnate styphnate is very susceptible to static static electricity. electricity. This chemical substance is used mainly in primers for ammunition, and also as a mixture mixture for detonators. RDX and PETN (pentaerythritol tetranitrate) represent very sensitive high explosive compounds. RDX, sometimes sometimes called “cyclonite”, has the chemical name of “cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine”. “cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine”. The letters RDX actually stand for for “Royal Demolition explosive”, explosive”, and originate from from Great Britain. Britain. RDX is a military military explosive that is often mixed with plasticizers, as well as other explosives in order to develop develop various compositions, compositions, such as C-4. PETN by comparison comparison was developed in in 1894 in Germany. It is used used in detonating detonating cords, which which burns at an extremely extremely high rate rate of speed. PETN is also found found in grenades and blasting caps. (67) From primary explosives, follows another group called “secondary explosives”. These types of explosives explosives need a greater greater force of action acting upon them in order to cause an an explosion. This could be a detonator filled with primary explosives, which turn activates the firing train by shock affect. Secondary explosive require a “booster charge” to initiate the firing sequence. They are not as sensitive sensitive to external external action as the group of primary explosives. An example of a secondary type type of explosive might might be an “ANFO “ANFO bomb”. This consists of ammonium nitrate and fuel fuel oil configured with with some some time of timing timing fuse. The category category of secondary explosives includes: TNT, Dynamite, ANFO, C-4 and others of a similar nature. TNT, discussed earlier, is a powerful powerful explosive substance and is composed of nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon and oxygen. oxygen. It is is sometimes sometimes combined with other explosive mixtures or compounds to produce a composition explosive. explosive. TNT is considered to be very very stable, with a storage capacity for long long periods of time. It does not not react easily to impact or friction. TNT is sometimes sometimes employed in mixtures to create a “booster charge” for other explosives. explosives. This may may include high explosive explosive artillery artillery shells, as well as other other bombs for for military applications. applications. TNT tends to work work well with other substances, without the apparent instability that some possess. For use in military military munitions, TNT can be melted melted and pour into the container of the shell casing for more effective utilization.
95 Secondary explosives such as dynamite, are important to many commercial applications. From excavation and and mining mining to renovations renovations of structures, dynamite plays a role in certain engineering and corporate related activities. The composition of dynamite consists of a significant ingredient called “nitroglycerin”. Nitroglycerin, a powerful type of explosive, is mixed with other chemical compositions and subsequently placed in cylindrical containers with plastic or wax paper type wrappings. Its composition is the result of the chemical action of glycerol and sulphuric and nitric acids. Over time, dynamite can become extremely dangerous due to chemical leakage. The nitroglycerin has a tendency to seep out of the packaging. Crystals may form on the “tubes or sticks” of the dynamite. dynamite. Given this condition, condition, it is possible for an explosion to occur from this state of the dynamite. ANFO type explosives are also used in surface blasting for various purposes. The type of construction work for which ANFO might be used could be underground mining mining or quarry quarry blasting. These kinds of explosive mixtures mixtures use ammonium nitrate as the main ingredient with some type of fuel oil additive. When ammonium nitrate is combined with fuel mixtures it becomes an explosive substance. Dynamite or TNT can can then be be used to detonate the resulting composition. ANFO can be used as an effective effective bomb in a variety of ways. Plastic explosives (C-4 for example) resemble resemble putty and can be shaped to fit the application involved in a particular operation. They are composed of mixtures using RDX and PETN, along with plasticizing substances so they become flexible in nature. A detonating device would be necessary in order to activate the firing of the “plastic explosive”. Composition explosives are generally preferred by covert operatives, such as terrorists, because of their concealment capabilities. These explosives can be applied to a variety of surfaces with a various configurations. They can be utilized to fit fit the requirements requirements of unique and varied applications. Configurations referred referred to as C-3 and C-4 appear to be be the contemporary types being used throughout throughout the world. world. Plastic explosives were used extensively extensively during World World War II. In the U.S., U.S., plastic explosives explosives became standardized as a composition explosive material, in which about 88% RDX was combined with about 12% oily nonexplosive plasticizers. Composition C was eventually replaced by “C-2”, and subsequently C-3, as changes evolved in the mixture and properties of of the substances. Later, C-3 gave way to C-4, which was viewed as a better composition plastic explosive. C-4 consists primarily primarily of RDX, motor oil, and other substances giving it more versatile versatile qualities. qualities. (68)
96
Explosives
High Explosives
Low Order Explosives
Primary Explosives
Secondary Explosives
In addition to composition types of explosives, “sheet” explosives have been designed for the inherent flexibility of usage in both military and commercial applications. It is adaptable in many ways. Both waterproof and applicable to a variety of situations and surfaces, sheet explosives combine PETN with other mixtures to be used in a wide range of temperatures. Flex-X is a type of sheet explosive that was designed for military applications. applications. Having a typical military military green color, color, it is used for cutting, breaching and and producing crater crater affects. Flex-X is particularly particularly useful against hard metal metal surfaces, such as steel. These types of explosives can be be quickly employed to deal with surfaces of various configurations and shapes. (69) Another type of composition explosive explosive goes by the name of Semtex. Semtex. It is considered a very popular type of explosive among the various terrorist groups. And, it also appears very popular in the terminology terminology of assorted media coverage of bombing incidents. Semtex is available throughout the world and is less expensive than than other types of explosives. explosives. Some consider it to be one of the best types of plastic explosives developed in recent years. Semtex looks something on the order of “Silly putty or Play Dough”. Dough”. In 1887, Alfred Nobel invented the early forms of plastic explosives. Sometime, around 1966, Stanislav Brebera, a member of the Communist Party in Czechoslovakia, introduced his development of the plastic explosive known as Semtex. The explosive was introduced in Viet Nam by the Communist forces. The Semtex comes comes from the name “Semtin”, which is a village in East Bohemia. Bohemia. This is the place where Brebera Brebera developed Semtex. Semtex.
97
Over the years, tons of Semtex have been exported to countries like Libya, Syria, North Korea, Yugoslavia, Yugoslavia, Iraq and Iran. Semtex is considered considered to be far more powerful than TNT and other other traditional traditional types of explosives. In addition to the composition types of explosives, booster explosives represent a group of explosive materials involved in the transmission of explosive force. Booster explosives explosives are designed to be components components of the the “explosive train” to transmit and enhance the force and heat of the initiating explosive. Their function is to ensure the firing sequence sequence works as constructed. constructed. The reliable detonation of the burster charge is crucial to the explosive action. Water gels are explosive mixtures that contain water, fuel source, an oxidizer and other components to ensure effective function of the explosive mixture. Tertiary explosives require well-designed containers and significant force of action in order to detonate. An explosive explosive device that includes includes tertiary explosives as components, may also require the use of primary explosives so that enough power is generated to cause an explosion. Examples include substances such as ammonium nitrate and ammonium perclorate. Improvised explosive combinations span the spectrum of individual human creativity. These have included car bombs, pipe bombs bombs and packaged charges of different configurations. Car bombs (or truck) may employ a large amount of explosives, and could be remotely activated or set to a time delay mechanism. While vehicular bombs have been seen in recent years as a large scale terrorist weapon, pipe bombs are generally the most commonly used explosive device. In terms terms of design and explosive explosive potential, potential, pipe bombs are vastly different from from vehicle bombs. Pipe bombs bombs typically are are configured from a length of pipe or tubing, with explosive material pressed inside. The ends of the pipe are capped capped off, and some some sort of timing device device is attached to either the middle middle section, or one of the the ends of the pipe. It is similar to a hand grenade or Molotov Cocktail. Cocktail. Remote sensors, sensors, fuses, clocks, motion detectors and so on, can be attached to the pipe bomb, in order to active the the explosive sequence. Another type type of low-tech, but effective homemade explosive is the “backpack” or “satchel charge” device. This device can be extremely effective, and is usually more powerful than a hand grenade. The contemporary contemporary “backpack” device is related to the old military expression that was used for a cloth-type pack filled with explosives. Metal objects, glass and so forth, forth, are sometimes sometimes packed around the explosive material to enhance the damage and injury capabilities.
98 Picture depicts an assortment of devices, including pipe bomb; dynamite-fuse-metal nails device, rocket-type explosive projectile, hand grenade, and land mine. (70)
Picture depicts various aspects of the pipe bomb device. The overall appearance of an improvised or homemade device is subject to the creativity of the designer. Bombs can take on a variety of appearances that can be deceptive. On inspection a suspected device must be treated with extreme caution and care. Also, one must keep in mind that the designer could be exceptionally skilled in the development of the device. Metal or PVC type materials are used in the construction of pipe bombs. (71)
Picture depicts the diagram of a sample hand grenade. This device device consists of a “body”, “filler”, and a “fuse assembly”, as the main parts of the overall design. It has a safety pin and safety lever attached. When the pin is pulled and lever released, the firing train is activated. A striker hits the primer and a flash is emitted which ignites the delay element. This burns and initiates the detonator (72)
99
Explosives can come in various forms and designs. The Rocket propelled grenades, for examples, or RPG’s, can place an explosive projectile in variety of locations very quickly, and with very deadly effects. They can be fired at both moving or fixed targets. The mail bomb, on the other hand, can be extremely deadly. The diagram pictured, portrays a sample design of a package or letter bomb. These can be activated by a number of firing mechanisms. They can also contain hazardous types of materials, such as biological agents. (73)
Basic precautions include the careful analysis of all mail received, prior to opening any pieces. This is especially true if the letter or package was not expected. Such mail should not be accepted particularly if it is being received in a foreign location. Staff personnel, as well as family members should refuse unexpected mail. If, for some reason, the item is suspected to be a bomb, then it should be treated that way. Indicators include things like excessive postage, poorly spelled names and common words, wrong title of person addressed to, oily stains, lack of return address, weight feels heavy, and stiffness of materials inside. Suspicious packages may also have excessive tape and wrappings around the contents.
100 Chapter 12: Preventive Countermeasures: Proper planning planning prevents poor performance. performance. Planning, of of course, requires resources, and resources require expenditures in terms of training, education and equipment. equipment. And, expenditures expenditures mean the use of limited tax dollars to plan for a range of possibilities possibilities that may never happen. Planning for for potential disasters also means competition for strained government budgets that must contend with other pressing issues. Developing tactical contingencies for the implementation of preventive countermeasures applies to people, people, places and things. things. That is, preventive countermeasures are designed to reduce losses in terms of people, the environment and property. Primarily, the issues relate to protecting the protectors, so that they can protect others. Officers should be trained to the extent necessary that they become tactically and technically proficient in the provision of public safety services. The use of the so-called weapons of mass destruction destruction by hostile hostile forces, presents a range of challenges to local law enforcement and emergency service personnel.
Events that include the use of the WMD materials are dangerously confrontational for first responder personnel. A broader, less defined perspective is encountered, as terrorists and associated groups become more creative creative and more dangerous. These kinds kinds of terrorist tactics require extreme caution on the part of the criminal justice and public safety community. Such actions require more intelligence gathering, more training and increased numbers of law enforcement personnel. Such possible situations also require a well-informed public that is better educated in personal safety matters. The criminal justice is typically used to traditional and more historic kinds of acts. While law enforcement has become accustomed to dealing with conventional bomb threats, actual explosive devices, gun incidents and hostage situations, more sinister dimensions occur when chemicals or biotoxins are added to an incident. Add the potential for a nuclear device and real problems emerge. The psychological aspects can be devastating for an entire population.
101 Traditional terrorist tactics appear to have adapted to more modern techniques, as well as technology. Innovations in science and industry industry can also be used for for more more sinister purposes. And, as the world’s only superpower, the U.S. remains a primary target for terrorist groups and their tactics. Our technology, technology, economy, and and political systems are second to none in the global community. The U.S. remains remains a favorite favorite target of just about everyone who has a gripe about something, both internally and externally. We are at the same time the most desirable place to live, and the best “enemy” to oppose and hate. As such, nations, groups groups and individuals hostile to the U.S. will seek out technological advances of various kinds. Their acquisition of such capabilities will be turned toward criminal actions. More non-traditional non-traditional attacks are likely in the coming coming years. It becomes becomes critical that each state and the local governments focus on local security countermeasure in view of rapid changes in the global community. Public service personnel and the public in general need to be educated and trained appropriately. Each will have different levels of necessary response capabilities. In particular, law enforcement recruitment, training and career development are essential components for ensuring effective public safety. Likewise, members of the community will need to certain levels of understanding and and awareness. In the the event of a serious threat threat to local communities, rapid deployment of public safety resources is critical. Priorities must be established and command decision-making must be set into motion. motion. The basics of command, command, control and communications communications very rapidly come into play, when an incident of significant proportion occurs. Of all considerations, life and health become aspects of the initial response that are at the top of the list. list. Officer survival issues are extremely critical critical aspects for the first responders. Priority Planning Life and Health Safety Issues Perimeter and Scene Control – Incident Management Property – Facilities – Area Stabilization Terrain – Landscape – Visibility and Access Line-Staff-Management Line-Staff-Management Issues Operational Control – Public Information and Notification Support Services – Resources - Coordination
102 Taking appropriate actions in light of priority planning objectives, is essential to the mission mission of public safety. Law enforcement officers, as well as all first responders, should endeavor to ensure the implementation of these tactical priorities. priorities. The preliminary phases of responding responding to the the scene generally involves rescue attempts with regard to injured persons at the location of the incident. The first phase of the incident incident response calls for for identification of the victims once they are located, providing medical care and subsequently subsequently removing them from the scene. In every case, officer survival issues are critical. critical. First responders must must be cautioned to be aware of the possibility of secondary devices, snipers, accomplices, booby traps, chemical weapons, and so on. For these reasons and more, more, first responders responders must take care not to to be over anxious anxious to rush in on a particular situation. situation. A careful on-scene threat assessment must be made quickly and decisively. As always life safety is the main priority for everyone associated with the incident scene. This especially includes the rescue personnel. If first responders become incapacitated, then they will be incapable of protecting or rescuing the victims. After the provision provision of medical medical care and protection protection of people, the focus focus can then shift shift to the scene itself. This relates to issues of managing and stabilizing stabilizing the crime crime scene. This means the scene must must be managed to the extent necessary in order to contain the problem at hand. Efforts are directed toward preventing the situation from getting out of control and spreading spreading to a larger larger area. In brief, the scene must be secured, the perimeter protected, victims and witnesses supervised, potential contamination contained, contained, and proper notifications notifications activated. activated. The following acronym may be useful in this regard. P – proceed to the scene quickly, safely and with proper tactics R – render medical assistance to the victims and ensure protection E – effect containment of the scene, arrest and detention of suspects L – locate and identity witnesses and manage their presence at the scene I – institute incident command system, establish chain of command, etc. M – maintain integrity of the scene, protection people, places and things I – interview and interrogate as appropriate to the people involved N- notify appropriate support services, resources, make notations A – arrange for decontamination, containment of WMD, collect evidence R – report information to chain of command, document incident, Y – yield responsibility to higher authority as appropriate (74)
103
Operational Considerations I.
II.
III.
Assess Security/Safety and Threat Level: response & initial approach should be done with tactics in mind. A. If there is one indicator, respond with heightened level of awareness, as known and unknown aspects. B. If there are multiple indicators, then it may be the scene of a terrorist incident, and extreme caution should be exercised. 1. Initiate response operations with extreme caution. 2. Be alert to actions against responding officers. 3. Evaluate and implement personal protective counter measures as needed for the scene, based on information assessed. 4. Determine the level of maximum respiratory protection. 5. Decide command, control and communications issues. Ensure appropriate law enforcement and other public service coordination and response: A. Institute necessary notifications and incident command structure, and determine whether individual, team or coordinated effort. B. Always approach with caution and use routes conducive to a tactical response. C. Approach scene from either uphill or upwind if at all possible, given the nature of the scene or incident. D. Consider level and extent of reinforcement and backup support resources. E. Be alert to congestions, density, layout and terrain as obstacles to the approach of the situation. F. Determine location for command post, grouping areas, staging points, etc. Command and Control: ensure appropriate command and control structures are summoned as needed for the scene requirements. A. Establish, or otherwise place into motion, necessary command, control and communications infrastructures. B. Ensure perimeter security and seal off the area, denying entry or access to all non-essential personnel, the public and the media (activate public information officer system). (75)
104 Securing and protecting property and other valuables become a secondary consideration to the the safety of people. people. After life safety safety issues are dealt with, with, then actions can focus on the environmental aspects of the surroundings. Terrain and layout of the area determine that operational aspects of the actions to be taken. taken. Certain personnel should be trained trained in special teams teams to deal with unique unique hazards at at the scene of an incident. This will require require additional resources and materials that provide for the protection of the first responders, as well as the environment. environment. Typically, the fire fire services division of the local government are trained and equipped to deal with hazardous materials issues (hazmat). Various levels of local government should investigate and assess the capabilities of the fire services in the local community. And, as a followup, followup, efforts should be made to ensure the acquisition of equipment and resources necessary to confront hazardous materials incidents. Unless specifically specifically trained in responding responding to such such hazards, law enforcement personnel should relinquish this task to the fire service. Responding to HAZMAT situations requires requires an understanding of the potential for exposure and contamination of personnel.
(76)
During an incident, law enforcement will be concerned with protecting the crime scene. Police and fire service personnel must work together to achieve mutual objectives. Joint training exercises will be crucial to fostering understanding in the coordination of achieving the required goals and objectives for each group. Evidence will likely be destroyed, contaminated, moved and otherwise disrupted. The recovery and protection of such evidence will become a difficult task. Explosive devices, chemical and biological hazards may be present. This will require caution on the part of law enforcement personnel. Alertness to the possibility of secondary devices must be seriously practiced at a crime scene.
105 Environmental and terrain considerations are not always easy to secure and protect. The incident scene scene will change as a result of the WMD incident. Likewise, depending on the nature of the incident, protecting first responders from the environmental environmental conditions conditions becomes becomes a high priority. priority. Protective devices, clothing and support support materials will be essential. Given the nature of American technology and scientific knowledge, critical support resources are essential to effective tactical responses. Such technology and scientific capability should be employed to the extent possible. The local governmental infrastructure infrastructure may may dictate the level of response. Interagency coordination and cooperation at all levels of government will be important. Local law enforcement may not have sufficient equipment or protective clothing to effectively effectively cope with hazardous hazardous materials. In addition, there there are limitations as to the extent to which law enforcement can be trained to respond to WMD incidents. incidents. The resources, tools, equipment equipment and time to train all all personnel personnel within a police police agency agency may may be limited. Effective countermeasures must rely on cooperative multi-agency alliances within significant geographical geographical areas. Basic awareness training training is essential for for law enforcement personnel in anticipating danger, gathering street level intelligence and planning coordinated interdiction. In addition, officers officers need to be able to recognize hazardous situations, secure and isolate crime scenes, activate chain of command structures, coordinate collective responses and manage people at the scene. For law enforcement personnel, basic common sense tactics apply to any incident scene. scene. This is especially true when dealing with with WMD incidents. It is very important that responding officers reduce their exposure to hazards at a particular scene. Reduction of exposure, in terms of dose, concentration concentration and time, will be necessary for responding responding officers to consider. consider. A number of factors are critical: age, fitness, overall health condition, sensitivity to the agent present, present, level level of exposure, etc. Some people may may be affected differently than others. others. An older officer, or or a less physically fit officer, may have a lower level of resistance. resistance. A number of factors must must be calculated into the equation of of exposure, contamination and dose level. In essence, exposure refers to how a person is affected once a foreign agent enters the body. External aspects concern the issue of contamination, which which requires officers to avoid avoid be contaminated contaminated as much as possible. possible. Levels of protection involve the use of protective types of clothing that first responders may employ. Standard issue police police uniforms uniforms do not offer offer a significant degree degree of protection at the scenes of hazardous materials.
106 In confrontation with a potential WMD incident, law enforcement officers typically do not have significant levels of protection. Avoiding contamination at a crime scene becomes becomes a paramount concern. Police uniforms offer little protection against chemicals, biological agents and other potential hazards. hazards. While some some local agencies are training training and equipping special units with protective clothing, masks and materials, the first responder is likely to be the uniformed patrol officer. officer. Personal security security strategies are crucial to issues of officer officer safety and survival. survival. A threat threat analysis on a personal level level is an important important part of the police mission. All officers should undertake a daily assessment of their individual security profile. From the home home to the office, each each officer should should evaluate his or her individual security countermeasures. countermeasures. They should examine examine the tools of their their profession, equipment, equipment, resources and support support systems. Everything should be analyzed in terms terms of developing personal personal safety strategies. strategies. It should be kept in mind that the opposition is capable of doing its homework very well. Organized crime, terrorists, extremist groups and so on, conduct their own research on the activities activities of law enforcement. enforcement. They seek to know routines, vulnerabilities and weaknesses. Their capabilities include access to information systems, surveillance techniques, infiltration, informants, political contacts, etc. Security countermeasures are limited only by the human imagination. Technology is constantly innovating and advancing by leaps and bounds. Some adversarial groups have access to advanced training resources from both law enforcement and military military sources. sources. This makes the opposition opposition potentially very well trained, knowledgeable and dangerous. Routine activities should should be carefully evaluated. evaluated. Officers must must ensure they train train themselves effectively in every aspect of their profession. profession. Awareness of the the environment, habits, patterns of behavior, off duty activities, routes of travel and methods methods of operation should should be assessed on a regular regular basis. The opposition is certainly capable of gathering intelligence, conducting stakeouts, following officers, making notes of patterns and assessing organizational weaknesses. In contrast, contrast, officers can conduct conduct their their own intelligence gathering gathering and monitor their daily operations. This should be a part of an overall personal vulnerability vulnerability analysis. analysis. Officers should should always strive to avoid becoming a target of someone who has a desire to attack law enforcement personnel. “Hardening the target” target” is a concept from class crime prevention prevention training. It applies to officer officer survival considerations as well.
107 Generally speaking, the levels of personal protection at a hazmat scene are typically described as Levels A, B, C, and D. The lowest level is referred to as Level D. This is the standard issue police police uniform which offers offers very little protection. Although appropriate appropriate for most most situations encountered encountered on patrol, it will not protect against WMD WMD hazards. Level C concerns the equipment that is generally provided provided to military personnel. This level of protection protection consists of material material that is worn over the military uniform. uniform. It includes chemical resistant covering with a hood, as well as a mask with respirator. The Level C suit (outer garment, hood and mask with air purifying system) provides protection protection against airborne airborne and radiological radiological hazards. hazards. It may not, not, however, provide overall protection when there is a risk of spills, splashes or extreme environmental conditions affecting the air purification system. Such aspects relate to atmospheric concentrations of airborne contaminants. This is a key difference between the Level C and the Level B. B. The Level B protection is required for the highest level of protection of the breathing system. There still remains a risk of skin exposure, exposure, since emphasis is on the the breathing system. In this configuration, configuration, the air air tank is external external to the suit. The Level B protection is appropriate in low splash areas and no skin exposure hazards (hard hat, chemical resistant boots and gloves, selfcontained breathing breathing apparatus (SCBA), (SCBA), resistant resistant clothing, clothing, etc.). The Level A suit moves up the scale to providing providing the highest level of protection. protection. This suit is a self-contained system with the SCBA located under under the suit. It can be viewed as similar similar to that that of a NASA “space suit”. suit”. The Level A suit provides a high degree of respiratory and skin protection in high risk zones. These could be areas with a high splash and spill potential, along with toxic respiration and skin exposure hazard. Protecting the first responder, who may not have immediate access to such equipment, remains remains a critical issue in response response to WMD incidents. Without proper equipment, first responders need to ensure that they exercise an appropriate consideration with regard to “time, distance and shielding”. Time concerns dealing with the crime scene in such a manner as to avoid exposure to WMD materials. materials. It involves effective effective management of the crime scene in an orderly orderly and planned planned manner. Time is to be used as a tool for implementing proper countermeasures in securing an incident location. Such utilization necessitates minimal exposure to hazards and threats within the incident scene. It also involves reducing reducing the amount of exposure time in contaminated areas and enhancing officer protection. protection. Time should be used to think, plan and initiate effective actions at the scene of an incident.
108 Planning an appropriate response involves the effective use of personnel, resources and equipment. equipment. Balanced with those ingredients, ingredients, it is a matter matter of implementing a good strategy, using the materials available, that results in positive operations. Good operational strategy is built built upon anticipation anticipation of problems, developing solutions, recognizing threats, and initiating an action plan. Along with timing, maintaining proper distance is also important. While it is necessary to ensure a minimum of exposure time to contaminated areas, keeping a safe distance adds to the protective aspects of the operations. Various governmental guidelines have been been established established for for recommended standoff distances. These distances should be evaluated in order that officers become familiar the overall recommendations. recommendations. Protective cover, or shielding, goes goes along with with time and distance. Buildings and and so forth should be used in order to provide p rovide cover protection.
(77)
(78)
109 The types of harm for which first responders must plan, in terms of protective countermeasures, have been described as six areas of threat. These have been defined as the aspects of WMD that pose on scene dangers to the officers officers responding to the incident. incident. Each type of potential weapons use presents presents unique unique hazards hazards that that threaten people. Protective measures should be considered with regard to the different possibilities that may exist. Thermal Hazards – Explosive devices present the possibility of extreme heat and pose thermal hazards hazards in this regard. regard. This are of consideration consideration relates to both heat and cold that are extreme enough to damage the human body. Radiological Hazards – Alpha, beta, gamma and neutron radiation present health hazards. hazards. An atomic atomic detonation detonation creates the potential potential for radiation exposure, as well as such su ch materials enclosed inside an unshielded container. Asphyxiation Hazards Hazards - When certain certain gases replace the the oxygen in the atmosphere, the human human blood supply supply becomes depleted. depleted. It becomes a health threat when oxygen cannot reach the body’s cells. Chemical Hazards Hazards - Toxic substances, such as nerve, blood blood and blister agents, create extreme health health hazards. When present, present, they present severe severe threats to people at the scene. Etiologic Hazards - These refers to bacteria, viruses and toxins. Such substances cause diseases, as well as physiological injuries to humans. Mechanical Hazards – These threats result from pieces of objects that are destructive to the the human body. They include such things as shrapnel and flying projectiles of various sorts. (79) Attacks may occur by a single or multiple incident initiative. initiative. That is, one lone terrorist may carry out a “murder-bomb” action, such as blowing himself or herself up as part of the terrorist terrorist cause. Or, he or she may may initiate a situation in which there is threat threat to smash a vial of alleged anthrax. On the other hand, a multiple incident scenario might involve several terrorists carrying out an attack, using decoys, diversions, secondary devices, booby traps and so forth. Actions may be overt or covert in in nature. A public health health crisis may be initiated by the planting of toxins in a restaurant.
110 Assessing Scene for Indicators of an Attack
Gather information from communications system as to any relevant data that may assist in determining nature of the incident. Written or verbal threats may have preceded the incident. A biological biological attack, for example, may show that a large number of people are experiencing extreme illness or death. Injuries may may follow a linear linear progression in the direction the wind wind is blowing. There may be signs of an an explosion with limited structural structural damage. Laboratory supplies may may be present at the scene, along with the accumulation accumulation of insects. Physical symptoms symptoms and outward warning signs of an attack may be indicated by debris, injuries, structural damage to facilities, the death of people, animals and plant life, as well as odors and vapor clouds. A bio-hazard situation generally relates to the affects of “etiological harm” (a primary harm hazardous effect). effect). Places where bio-agents have been produced may also present a level of “chemical harm” (a secondary harm hazardous effect). If explosives were used, the issue of “mechanical harm” subsequently arises in the investigation and response to the scene. In consideration consideration of these potential potential harm capacities, officers must ensure proper protective measures. Contaminated areas and people should be controlled to minimize exposure to officers officers and personnel. Movements should be tactical in a manner that keeps officer upwind, uphill and upstream from the threat. Debris field, casualties, structural damage, and so on should be analyzed to determine determine the nature and extent of the the incident. If the incident is suspected to be of a nuclear nature, then the presence of a “radiological dispersion device”, or mechanism may be at the scene. If a terrorist group uses some type of radiological device, then the public’s fear level should be expected to be at a very high level. To detect radiation levels and subsequent contamination will require the use of specialized specialized equipment at the scene of the incident. Signs and symptoms may be delayed for hours, perhaps even days, after the incident has occurred. Components may may be found at the scene scene that suggest the deployment of a radiological dispersal device. Communications of some sort may have preceded the attack, such as a written note, or a telephone call to the news media.
111
Pieces of materials may be found, such as labels from special containers, or radiological placards. Every effort must be maintained to minimize exposure, which relates to time, distance and shielding. shielding. This type type of harm is difficult difficult to assess upon immediate arrival at the scene. Due to the nature of radiological materials, primary and secondary harm factors relate to radiation and subsequently the corrosive action of the chemical processes (corrosive gases). Protective measures include: securing and controlling the area in question, avoiding entry into the area in question, awareness that inhalation, ingestions and exposure are involved in radiation hazards, deploy protective clothing and detection equipment as soon as possible and implement decontamination measures quickly. Determine available support support services: services: Fire, EMS, HazMat, EOD – Bomb Squad Emergency management Public Works Utilities Services Public Health Department Environmental Protection Agency Others are required by the nature of the incident Incendiary attacks may be preceded in a similar fashion by threats, either written or verbal. Or, they may come as a complete surprise. An assortment of accelerants might be used and configured inside unidentified unidentified packages. All personnel should be alert to suspicious packages, and anything that looks out of place. Exposure to burns and subsequent property damage concern the primary and secondary affects of incendiary devices. d evices. Chemical attacks may involve a variety of weapons designed to be inhaled, ingested, ingested, absorbed or injected into the body. Generally, symptoms of exposure occur within minutes of contact with the chemical materials. Chemical agents may be present if dead animals are discovered, along with the appearance of unusual looking liquids liquids at the the scene of a suspected incident. Vegetation may also appear dead of damaged and no other explanation can be found. Odors that are are unexplained, unexplained, such such as sweet and and fruity fruity aromas, may be indicative of the presence of chemical agents.
112
If a chemical agent is present, then there may also be fragments of munitions or exploded exploded ordinance at the incident scene. And, depending on the environmental conditions, low hanging clouds may indicate something out of the ordinary is happening. Chemical incidents present harm in the form of chemical and thermal injuries. injuries. They also present secondary dangers in the form of asphyxia and the presence of sharp objects (mechanical – shrapnel). Protective operations must must ensure that that countermeasures countermeasures are in place regarding chemical, thermal, asphyxiation and mechanical harm. Ensure rapid tactical and operational responses to the critical incident scene: o Isolate, contain, secure and deny access o Protect the public and officers – Life safety issues – evacuate people as soon as possible, or provide on-scene/ and in-place protective measures; o Implement self-protective and security countermeasures for personnel at scene o Minimize risks and reduce exposure of on-scene personnel by limiting the numbers of o f personnel deployed o Commit only essential needed personnel to scene activities o Confine and contain the critical environment – contain contaminated and exposed persons o Ensure decontamination procedures and actions o Protect and secure – water supply, exposure, utilities, fire suppression, Hazmat, officer safety;
(80)
113 Mass Decontamination
Decontamination area should be configured so that it is upwind, uphill and in a secure zone. Officers responding to rescue efforts should be fully clothed in appropriate protective gear, SCBA’s, and deploying incident specific equipment. Once protective measures for both scene and personnel are in place, then rescue personnel can approach victims. Contact should be avoided with any suspected substances, victim’s clothing, personal affects, surfaces areas and so forth. The high-risk zone, high hazard area or incident scene should be adequately secured and protected. Victims should be removed from the high hazard zone and isolated in a holding area for further analysis and treatment. Efforts should be directed to assess and treat injuries as well as gather information relative to the incident and the scene particulars. Depending on the nature of the incident, signs and symptoms may cover a range of reactions including: problems with breathing, reddish skin colorations, eye and skin irritations, nose and throat complications, pupils that are pinpointed, convulsions, vomiting and so on. Victims should be separated into groups as related to the nature and scope of injuries and complications. For example, symptomatic and asymptomatic conditions may be one group. Another may be those who are ambulatory and non-ambulatory. Support services in terms of medical personnel should have a secure and protected area to provide victim services. The type of equipment employed for decontamination purposes may depend on the incident scene, the nature of the incident, severity of injuries, number of people involved and the amount of resources available. (81)
Explosives incidents may involve a range of materials and components. Debris may be scattered over over a large area. There may be primary and secondary devices associated with booby traps and backup mechanisms. mechanisms. Extreme care and and cautioned should should be used.
114
Following rescue efforts, preservation of physical evidence becomes of critical importance. Proper planning and implementation of a crime scene search, along with the collection of evidence requires careful thought and analysis. Unexploded devices, for instance, may still be present at the scene, as well as fragments or portions of exploded devices. Attention should be given to the obvious and the not so obvious. Explosive incident present levels of harm as related to thermal affects, mechanical aspects related to fragmentation, potential radiological dispersal, chemical exposure and etiological risks. Special care must be exercised for all personnel in terms of self protection both before and after a blast occurs.
Before a blast occurs, and following the initial threat, time must be used to maximum advantage in order to safeguard people and property. Caution should be exercised in moving people into open areas once a decision is made to evacuate a structure. structure. The size and type of the device, depending on what information is known, may determine the distance the shielding employed to protect protect people and first responders. responders. Other factors factors include the the nature of the environment, the layout of buildings and the availability of other protective structures. Following the blast, additional security precautions must be employed to protect first responders and others.
115 Post-blast actions should allow for the implementation of appropriate security and safety protocols. protocols. Entering areas around ground ground zero must must be exercised with care and caution to ensure that first responders are fully protected. Unexploded devices, booby traps, chemicals, bio-toxins, radiation and other contaminants may present additional dangers.
Caution is important! Presence at ground zero must be controlled. Secondary devices and actions may be present. Incendiaries and other explosives may be present as booby traps. Use appropriate contamination reduction, decontamination and disposal.
In many cases, sufficient quantities of fresh water can assist in the decontamination efforts. efforts. Water typically represents represents a basic decontamination decontamination tool. The fire department, for example, can establish hose lines for this purpose. It is important to ensure that people, places and things are appropriately neutralized in terms of exposure to hazardous materials. Decontamination applies to first responders, victims, crime scenes, evidentiary materials and equipment used at the scene. In mass decontamination, every effort is made to cut exposure levels as they affect large population population groups. By comparison, comparison, extracting personnel from a hazmat site will require the use of field decontamination efforts at a different level. This process of “field “field decon” is more more extensive extensive that the basic decontamination efforts. Clothing, runoff runoff water water and other items items from the scene may have evidentiary evidentiary value. They should be properly properly secured for further analysis to extent feasible given the nature of the incident. Consideration should be given to patrol vehicles, equipment, documents, and so forth. Decontamination Decontamination procedures go from the overall overall scheme of things down to the individual individual and specific specific aspects of exposure. exposure. That is, from the general to the specific, specific, or from from the group to the individual. individual. These efforts require the combined actions and expertise of law enforcement and fire department services. Response to such incidents incidents is a cooperative cooperative exercise in the use of available personnel personnel and resources at the local level. The personal safety of first responder personnel is always of extreme importance in dealing with with such occurrences. Contamination, crime scene security security and possible evidence must be dealt with as effectively as possible.
116 In addition to dealing with the operational and tactical aspects of the incident, post-incident procedures should address issues related to “critical incident stress”. Post-incident stress may be compounded compounded by the nature of the incident, and its associated dangers, horrors and destruction. Appropriate management of this process is important to the personnel involved. “Critical incident incident stress” may may result when when events strain normal normal human abilities to adjust to extraordinary extraordinary experiences. Exposure to significant incidents may produce emotions that overwhelm the senses of the individual person. person. A person’s normal abilities to cope with with life experiences may be severely taxed. Competent professional professional experienced support support may be required for personnel who have worked the scene of a WMD incident. Such support resources should be highly qualified in the area of law enforcement and fire fire service personnel. Officers should should be provided provided with a range of options that would support and compliment their individual belief systems. This would would naturally include peer support mechanisms mechanisms that are representative of the officers themselves, as well as the involvement of an officer’s religious representatives. Competent experienced support personnel must have a working knowledge of public safety services and the implications that are associated with such work. This typically typically can only only come from people who have “been there and done that”.
Stress involves a range of reactions that may be indicative in a number of symptoms. It may result result in negative mental mental and physical responses. From a physical standpoint, stress may surface in fatigue, chills and bodily pains of one sort or another. Mentally, a person may experience self-doubt, nightmares, inability to focus and think clearly, as well as anxiety and and panic. These reactions may subsequently subsequentl y be expressed in behaviors that become acts of withdrawal, aggression and restlessness. restlessne ss. Stress is the body’s reaction to real or suspected dangers that prepares the individual for either “standing and fighting or getting away”. Sometimes, stress aids in survival efforts, and sometimes it has disastrous consequences. A “debriefing” may be necessary following incidents of intense exposure to extraordinary stressors.
117 Chapter 13: Tactical Implications for Field Operations Strategy: Law enforcement personnel must be given the tools, tactics, training and techniques to deal with a variety of dangers present in the modern world. From traditional crime fighting to non-traditional countermeasures, law enforcement must be capable of meeting all kinds of threats to public safety. These threats include WMD, Hazmat, cyber crimes, organized crime and terrorism of one sort sort or another. Tactical implications for for dealing with such incidents, as well as the typical street crimes, require effective leadership and planning operations. operations. Recruitment, selection, selection, education and training are crucial to the tactical tactical implications implications of law enforcement. enforcement. Officers must must initially be appropriately trained using a training model that is “real world” oriented, as opposed to that which is “politically “politically correct”. correct”. And, training models must be developed, designed and implemented by experienced professionals in the field of law enforcement. enforcement. Training must subsequently be translated into action based on good intelligence and investigative capabilities. Theorists, non-practitioners, “alleged experts” and inexperienced research “gurus” “gurus” must be kept at a healthy distance. We must be alert to the adverse influences of bureaucrats and politicians who are sometimes persuaded persuaded by special special interest groups and non-practitioners. Be wary of people who live in “think tanks”. In order to anticipate threats, intelligence must be gathered. gathered. Investigations and assessments must be conducted. And, in order to develop good intelligence, intentions intentions and motives must be postulated. “War gaming” must must be part of the thinking processes, where various scenarios are considered. Officer survival and safety tactics are essential training and life-style components. The officer as a “modern warrior” warrior” concept is necessary to the essence of professionalism in a contemporary context. Training should emphasize that officers be constantly aware and alert to everything in their operational environment, both on and off off duty. Tactical skills must be instilled to the point of precision. Officers must must be constantly constantly perceptive, perceptive, observant, vigilant vigilant and and inquisitive. inquisitive. They must must think prevention, suspect motives and be on guard guard at every occasion. occasion. Officers must know, do and be proficient tactically and technically. technically. To be effective, they must be independent thinkers and problem solvers. Officers must study and learn to outwit the opposition at every turn by knowing as much as possible about individuals, groups, groups, cultures and inclinations. inclinations. We must look beyond beyond the obvious and discern what lurks in the shadows.
118 We need to be alert to deception, adverse politics and diversions that may distract us from what it is really going on. Never underestimate the inability of “politicians” to rise to the occasion and and do the the right thing. thing. And, never underestimate the capabilities capabilities terrorists, terrorists, either as individuals individuals or groups. groups. As law enforcement officers, we need to see the big picture, as well as the parts that make up all the pieces that make make the picture. Vigilance requires monitoring everything from the neighborhood to the surrounding community, to the totality of the village village or the city environment. A distinction between the “normal” and “abnormal” must be discerned with clarity and keen insight into human human behavior. Our strategy must must include the ability to look beyond what we normally see, and watch for things out of place, moved or otherwise disturbed. disturbed. It may be very subtle and quiet, but observation must be critical to detecting the exception.
We must learn to look for the things that cannot be seen because they are disguised, or they are a deception. One must look in all directions: up, down, left, right, behind, and so forth. Being alert, means assessing the patterns and looking for the things that don’t fit. Stop, look and listen!
Officers must practice being aware, astute, watchful and ready to take action if it is required. required. We must be wary wary of our habits, routines and actions that that create opportunities opportunities for vulnerability. Hardening the the targets, both human and material must be practiced. Preparation and planning are important to the development development of an effective security posture. posture. First responders responders should always practice good security and and safety activities. activities. This applies no matter where you go or what you do. The world is a dangerous dangerous place, and, officer officer survival tactics apply apply no matter where where you are or what you do. Criminals, and particularly, the terrorist type, are committed to getting their way and doing what is necessary to achieve achieve their goals. They study and practice their their criminal career for for whatever their personal gain might might be. Likewise, officers must anticipate and plan ahead for the “what ifs” that might take place. Contingencies must be considered and balanced with good common sense, training, knowledge and use of o f effective resources.
119 Basic Tactics #1 Be prepared – proper planning prevents poor performance. Planning is the heart of developing an an effective strategy. strategy. And, strategy reflects one’s one’s belief system, which should be built upon a solid and well-defined foundation. Develop and implement a personal safety and security strategy for yourself and your your family. Conduct threat assessments, crime analysis and ensure ongoing training and education. Do not allow personal information about you or your family to be printed or published by any means. Keep phone numbers and addresses confidential. A personal security plan involves activities that occur both at home, at the office and when traveling for any reason. Conduct a security analysis of your home and working environment. Maintain a low profile as much as possible. Avoid emulating anything you see in the movies or on television “cop shows”. Being aware and alert to your surroundings, avoiding predictable patterns and training oneself are part of the personal security strategy. Gather intelligence and investigate the facts. Develop a proactive posture that includes good defensive measures. Alertness involves the task of gathering intelligence. This relates to surveillance and being keenly aware of suspicious persons, events, places and things. Practice enhancing your sensory awareness as to people, places and things. Develop a good sense of intuitive decision-making. Terrorist attacks may occur near the home, at the workplace or enroute to those destinations. Attention to detail is important in your environment environment in terms of activities, layout, terrain, etc. Conduct periodic reviews of innovations in protective equipment, weapons, tools and tactics. Activities should not follow a predictable pattern of behavior. Personal routines should incorporate flexibility, and you should strive to be as unpredictable as possible. Keep your personal affairs private and avoid divulging confidential information. informati on. Make sure your personal papers, finances and medical needs are kept up to date.
120
Basic Tactics #2 Establish a “buddy system” both on and off the job. Let people know know what you are doing, where you you are and when you you will return. On the job, the telecommunications system is you lifeline. Always stay in touch with dispatch communications and report activities in detail, such as traffic stops, encounters with suspicious persons, places, etc. Use good common sense in your investigative activities and always use a backup. Have contingency plans in mind before taking action. Always plan an escape route, and use communication system effectively. Know where to find civilian police, military police, government agencies and other safe locations. Be alert to cover, concealment and camouflage. Always have resources available to assist you in dealing with various situations. Plan ahead before you leave home and use your tools, tactics and techniques to your advantage. Weapons and support equipment should be in good condition and readily available. Avoid confrontations whenever possible, use good interpersonal skills and be ready to respond to the threat if other attempts fail. Attempt to avoid a public display display if possible. Summon assistance to ensure safety and survival. Have a code system for alerting others, family members, co-workers, etc., so that they know when something is happening and possible danger is present. Signals should be accompanied by appropriate protective action. When traveling, be conscious of your surroundings especially when using public transportation systems such as airports, bus terminals and so forth. Be cautious about wearing emblems, clothing and so on that may indicate your profession. Conduct yourself through security checkpoints as quickly as possible. Blend as much as possible into the surroundings and keep your surroundings in a good field of view. Make mental notes as to suspicious persons, objects and events. Understand the aspects of “spatial alacrity”, “visual acuity” and “body language”.
121
Proper Planning Prevents Poor Performance
Effective response countermeasures span the organizational spectrum from the individual to the agency. Protective procedures procedures are personal, public and private. Prevention and deterrence are relevant at at all levels of society in order that effective public safety safety is ensured. Individuals must train train and prepare themselves themselves as well as groups within within organizational organizational structures. This applies to public sector organizations as well as to private corporate entities. Everyone has a role role to play. play. Law enforcement, enforcement, and other associated associated public safety agencies, naturally, assumes the burden for much of the planning and implementation of key strategies. Officers in the field field must be able to recognize threats and respond accordingly. They must have the ability ability to observe and distinguish who presents the threat and what materials are being be ing used. An assessment of proactive capabilities should include at least a plan of action, supported supported by contingencies. Preventive measures measures also encompass encompass “incident command systems”, with specifications as to how various agencies and organizations will interface and work together. This involves emergency operations plans, as well as mutual aid agreements. Efforts should focus on coordination and liaison with all concerned agencies to support operational needs.
Operational Plans Emergency Response Operations Command Structures and Mutual Aid Systems Intelligence and Investigative Resources and Capabilities Threat Analysis and Assessments Detection and Monitoring Equipment Possible Targets and Protective Measures Leadership, Supervision and Management Support Services and Health Care Resources Inter-Agency Coordination and Information Exchange
122 Moving from the individual perspective to the organizational aspects, the process of the “Incident Command System” (ICS) brings together respective capabilities and resources of different agencies. agencies. The ICS is a process by which emergency situations and critical incidents are managed in a broader perspective. ICS has a range range of applications, both large and small small in nature. In general, ICS is a management tool by which multi-agency services are coordinated in in a more more uniform manner. The ICS process is part of the continuum of public safety services that is related to effective prevention and deterrence efforts. efforts. It is an extension extension of the strategies and and tactics related to WMD issues and situations. In general, local operations operations are concerned concerned with getting on scene and dealing dealing with the initial incident. This primary response response level addresses emergency rescue efforts. It involves recovery operations, victim-witness protection, safety and security, officer survival issues, securing perimeters, protecting crime scenes, communications, and investigative functions. In addition, from the local to the state level, additional materials and resources may be required required from the state government. government. This may be provided provided in terms of support personnel, equipment, equipment, the National National Guard, and so on. A state of emergency may be declared by the governor, and subsequently result in a request by the state state for federal assistance. The federal response may may be triggered by virtue of Presidential Directives as well as federal law, in order to address suspected suspected or actual actual WMD situations. situations. This response may involve the FBI, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), and other federal organizations. organizations. Action by the federal government government may involve involve what is sometimes referred to as the “Federal Response Plan”. Plan”. Under the plan, the federal government may become involved in both “Crisis Management”, as well as “Consequence Management”. Crisis Management concerns the immediate law enforcement aspects aspects of the incident. This is the “police” function that deals deals with the criminal criminal nature of the occurrence. occurrence. Immediately following an incident, this process will address investigative needs in order to deal with the threat, the actual incident aftermath and subsequent terrorist activity. By contrast, Consequence Management addresses those issues related to follow-up follow-up activities designed designed to protect the the public. It is the part part of the process that focuses on putting things back together and restoring essential community community services and functions. functions. Such management management generates generates the effort to restore order, ensure public health and safety, get business back in operation and deal with the aftermath of the incident from a social standpoint.
123 ICS operations cross over into several areas of law. These include federal federal regulations, directives directives and standards. At the state and local level, state state laws, administrative code, ordinances and regulations may also apply to a given situation. These must must work in harmony with with federal federal regulations. regulations. In addition addition to the legal aspects of dealing with a crisis incident, multi-agency coordination also involves the process of decision-making. decision-making. The decisionmaking requirements address issues related to what is going to be done, and who is going to do it. At the agency agency level, police police departments direct direct the operations of law enforcement from the standpoint of “standard operating procedures”, or “general “general orders”. By contrast, state state law and local local ordinance will normally address the public’s behavior, especially in terms of criminal violations. Policies, Procedures and Protocols Laws Regulations Directives Standards Administrative Code Operating Procedures Incident Management Includes: Command Post Placement and Organization Officer Safety and Security Priorities, Goals and Objectives Action Plan and Incident Resources Agency Coordination Media Liaison Expense Management Liaison & Involvement of Prosecutor’s Office Incident management begins from the time the first officer arrives on the scene. And, in all probability, probabilit y, the first officer on the scene will be a law enforcement officer. He or she will subsequently set things in to motion. His or her actions may have a long-term long-term affect on the overall operations as they develop.
124
(82)
Command, control and communications are involved in each incident encountered by first responders, and particularly law enforcement officers, concerns management management processes. A chain of command command is invoked, along along with notification notification and procedural procedural applications. Certain basic actions are required in order order to deal with with the situation situation at hand. “Command” authority authority applies in a variety variety of situations. situations. Someone has to to be in charge charge and take command of the operations, as well as support services. Operational aspects concern the tactical implications and are designed to carry out action plans. The planning function is essential and involves those components designed to accomplish the goals and objectives the mission. Planning collects collects and evaluates information and channels it throughout the command structure. From a logistical standpoint, the logistics of the process concern those efforts designed to ensure resources and services in support of the mission. Financial and administrative issues relate to the costs associated with the overall operations. This involves accounting, procurement, personnel management and ongoing cost analysis. There is no single best way in which to organize the management of an incident scene. The ICS should be organized so that it meets the needs of the specific situation.
125 The ICS should be managed in a manner that addresses the characteristics of the local environment and community in which the incident has occurred. Teamwork is essential essential in this this process. And, no agency agency should seek individual media attention or political political advantage. The overall mission of public safety and security must not be lost in the flood of media sound bites and front page stories.
Small Scale – ICS – First Officer on Scene First Officer Police Officers ----- Fire Department-----Public Works
The Overall ICS Structure On Scene Incident Commander Planning-----Operations-----Logistics-----Administration
Command Authority Someone has to be in charge. Direction and focus must be ensured. The command structure is important and delegation is essential. Establishing command and setting up a command post ensures the process in put into action. Liaison is also an important part of this function.
126 On Scene Commander
Information Officer
Safety Officer
Liaison Officer
The on-scene commander should ensure that proper staffing takes place in order to facilitate the the objectives involved involved with the incident scene. scene. Command authority will transfer as needed to accommodate the operational responsibilities of the agencies involved. involved. The agency with the primary operational responsibilities will most likely serve as the “Incident Commander”. Depending on the the nature of the incident, incident, the primary primary agency may prefer to assign the more senior person to take command of the overall command structure. Under the Incident Commander, the Information Officer handles relations with the news media. media. He or she coordinates the dissemination of information through news releases as appropriate to the information process. A Liaison Officer Officer is necessary to coordinate contact contact with other agencies that may become associated with the incident scene. The Safety Officer serves in the capacity to monitor the safety conditions at the incident scene. scene. In this role, role, he or she also evaluates evaluates and oversees oversees the safety of the first responders. Critical functions include: leadership, ensuring the protection of life and property, managing and controlling personnel and resources, supervising accountability, fostering effective liaison, and maintaining effective communications with the Emergency Operations Center. When a transfer transfer of command occurs, occurs, a full full briefing is necessary from the departing commander to the incoming commander. (83)
127 Conceptual Framework of Incident Command/Unified Command Structure
(84) The ICS process fosters fosters a unified command command structure. It is a management tool that can provide provide an overlay for various various situations. Some of the kinds of activities that may be approached, given the tactical implications of the incident, include, but are not limited to, the following: Fires, Hazmat incidents Individual and multi-agency situations Multi-agency disaster occurrences Search and rescue operations Environmental Response and Recovery Air, Sea, Land crash incidents Crowd Control events Urban disturbances
128 In reviewing the ICS structure it is apparent that the organization is designed to be flexible yet yet be consistent in terms terms of tactical tactical implications. Each level of the structure provides the basis for implementing appropriate responses to needs of the community. community. And, every incident, regardless regardless of size, requires requires a basic “Incident Action Plan” (IAP) in order to facilitate the implementation process throughout the organization. The IAP is placed into motion motion by the Incident Scene Commander and subsequently transmitted to subordinates in a clear and concise manner. manner. Documentation, when possible, is is necessary in order to ensure administration administration and and operational control control and direction. direction. As the scene develops and grows in complexity it is necessary to make sure that essential information information is transmitted transmitted accordingly. accordingly. Each incident scene will have a mix of political and social parameters that may affect the overall operations. The process of ensuring a “unified “unified command system” assists in coordinating multi-jurisdictional multi-jurisdictional interests. Cooperation is essential when incidents involve more than one jurisdiction. jurisdiction. This is especially especially important important when local agencies attempt to coordinate operations with state agencies. Such a process allows all participants to develop a common set of goals and objectives. Working together for common goals should not mean mean that agencies lose authority or responsibility for dealing with the incident. Multi-Agency Collaboration Ensures:
Common Goals Overall Mutual Objectives Joint Operational Actions Managed integrated Administration Coordination of Resources Single Authority System Cooperative Incident Action Plan Combined Command Post Shared Cost of Support Services Realistic Response Incident Situation Shared Responsibility and Accountability Coordinated Information Process Geographic Mutual Aid Interface Calculated Response to Recovery
129 Tactical Implications Prevention and Deterrence Prevention and deterrence include the necessity of effective tactical planning to interdict criminal activity before before it happens. happens. This means developing a proactive crime prevention strategy. Preventive activities relate to professionally competent police work at the local level. Local law enforcement, along with firefighting and EMS personnel, are the backbone of public safety services services in the U.S. Local officers will typically be the the first responders when an incident occurs. Effective community security measures rest upon the ability ability of local law enforcement agencies. agencies. As the first line of defense to protect cities and towns, local law enforcement must ensure a good plan plan of action. This includes: planning, planning, emergency emergency response measures, mutual aid agreements, cooperative intelligence gathering, multiagency coordination, support services and protective equipment, early warning systems, and quality training. Early warning and rapid interdiction interdiction are essential to effective prevention prevention and deterrence. Following an incident, good on-scene management management of the the situation becomes becomes critical. From a law enforcement standpoint, protection and processing of the crime scene becomes extremely important to the total process.
(85)
130 Phases In Responding to Critical Incidents Prevention and Deterrence Notification Response Recovery Restoration
Law enforcement response to critical incidents involve all the essential components of good crime prevention tactics, procedures and practices. Hardening potential targets and reducing opportunities from criminal behavior are vital the law enforcement mission. Activation of response systems takes place after an incident has occurred and concerns the notification process. The notification notificati on aspect deals with the information flow as it is related to reporting incidents. This may come from the public or may be initiated by officers in the field. Important information is derived from this process and fosters a response to the incident at at hand. In responding to the incident, law enforcement is called upon to isolate the scene, identify the situation and protect people, places and things accordingly. Necessary Necessar y actions require personal and public safety, setting up perimeters, preservation of the crime scene, crowd management, evacuation and securing information from victims and witnesses. In addition, officers will be called upon to document the incident in detail, and assist in the transition as phases change from incident to aftermath. (86)
In isolating the scene, law enforcement officers endeavor to secure the area in order to establish the initial phase of the ICS process. Inner and outer perimeters are designated, as the crime scene is preserved, officers are protected and the injured referred for medial attention.
131 Effective security countermeasures in the prevention and deterrence effort are supported by the the efficient and reliable reliable flow of information. It is a shared process built upon good working relationships among the various agencies. Agencies must foster good levels of cooperation and mutual respect for each other. Although intelligence intelligence gathering is a sensitive process, process, which requires security applications, it is important that significant information be exchanged as necessary to to the mission at hand. This is especially true true with regard to personal personal safety safety issues affecting officers and the public. In developing a proactive threat analysis as a component of the intelligence gathering process, every possible source of information should be considered and evaluated. evaluated. Perceptions and observations should be weighed against the known facts. All aspects aspects should be carefully carefully assessed as objectively as possible. A community’s community’s strengths and weaknesses should be identified and and appropriate security measures measures placed into action. Physical, operational and personal security measures can be implemented to fit the needs of the local community. Patrol tactics, tactics, investigative investigative efforts, public information and education, crime prevention objectives and so forth, all assist in the prevention and deterrence process. The tactical implications implications of prevention and deterrence suggest that agencies be more proactive, vigilant and creative. As a part of the process, threat analysis is ongoing and persistent in nature.
(87)
132 Threat assessments must also consider the impact of the various acts of terrorism. The psychological dimension cannot be overlooked in terms of impact on the public public and personnel. It should be part part of the overall overall planning process. Analysis of this multidimensional multidimensional element must be seriously seriously weighed in light of the goals and objectives for positive prevention and deterrence. The modern terrorist differs from the common criminal in that he is motivated by a political agenda. The actions of the terrorist—murder, sabotage, blackmail—may be identical to those of the common criminal. However, for the terrorist, these are all means to achieve wider goals, whether ideological, religious, social or economic. The way to the terrorist’s ultimate political goal runs through a vital interim objective—the creation of an unremitting paralyzing sensation of fear in the target community. Thus, modern terrorism is a means of instilling in every individual the feeling that the next terror attack may have his name on it. Terrorism works to undermine the sense of security and to disrupt everyday life so as to harm the target country’s ability to function. The goal of this strategy is, in turn, to drive public opinion to pressure decision-makers to surrender to the terrorists’ demands. Thus the target population becomes a tool in the hands of the terrorist in advancing the political agenda in the name of which the terrorism is perpetrated. (88)
Local law enforcement planning should consider the extent to which terrorist groups will use fear in order to destabilize the public’s sense of security. The media is particularly vulnerable to manipulation by extremist organizations. Every effort will will be made by such groups groups to play the media media to achieve their objectives. objectives. Law enforcement must must be ready to counter counter such activities by effective implementation of public information strategies. Careful tactical use of information must be b e skillfully crafted and deployed in order to carry carry out the law enforcement enforcement mission. In addition, information dissemination must be handled in a manner that does not unnecessarily increase the public’s anxiety, anxiety, fear level or insecurity. And, by contrast, local local law enforcement cannot afford to allow themselves to be used by the media, misguided politicians or public opinion where such influence is based upon irrational fears, psychological manipulation or other aspects of erroneous information.
133 Law enforcement should pursue a sure and swift posture in developing and implementing preventive preventive tactical strategies. strategies. These efforts should encompass encompass the analysis of things that are realistic realistic and practical. Common sense is crucial throughout each aspect of planning and subsequent implementation. Each step that culminates in action should be well reasoned and balanced with a focus on developing sensible cost-effective cost-effective approaches. The ongoing development of science and technology, as well as forensics and tactics, supported by aggressive patrol strategies, should underscore the policies and procedures for for preventive actions. Operational actions, reinforced reinforced by both both defensive and offensive activities, should be followed by persistent prosecutorial and punitive measures that are certain and swift in every aspect. The law enforcement enforcement community community should take take the lead in fostering emergency management coordination efforts. This involves bringing together progressive and innovative thinkers to provide an effective planning framework. Specific needs, resources resources and support mechanisms mechanisms should should be identified as early as as possible. Mutual assistance and cooperative efforts efforts are essential in the development of an effective response to acts of terrorism. This includes elements of the federal government working closely with local government to ensure public safety and security is at the highest level possible.
Operational Development Policies and Procedures – Deployment and Implementation Local Task Force on Major Incidents Local Community Inventory of Potential Targets Operational Guidelines and Command Authority Tactical Operations – Mutual Aid Policies Command Post – Evacuation Processes Information and Intelligence Gathering Legal Requirements Patrol and Investigative Operations Crime Scene Investigations and Evidence Collection Hostage Rescue Operations & Negotiation Teams Bomb Threat Policies and Search Procedures Target Analysis – Threat Assessments Detection and Early Warning Systems – Equipment Trai Trainin nin and and Educat Education ion
134 Minimum Safe Distances
Threat Type:
Explosive Capacity:
Building Evacuation Distance:
Outdoor Evacuation Distance:
Pipe Bomb
5 LBS 2.3 KG
70 FT 21 M
850 FT 259 M
Briefcase or Suitcase Bomb
50 LBS 23 KG
150 FT 46 M
1,850 FT 564 M
500 LBS 227 KG
320 FT 98 M
1,500 FT 457 M
1000 LBS 454 KG
400 FT 122 M
1750 FT 534 M
4,000 LBS 1814 KG
640 FT 195 M
2,750 FT 838 M
Small Moving Van or Delivery Truck
10,000 LBS 4,536 KG
860 FT 263 M
3,750 FT 1,143 M
Moving Van or Water Truck
30,000 LBS 13,608 KG
1,240 FT 375 M
6,500 FT 1,982 M
Semi Trailer
60,000 LBS 27,216 KG
1,570 FT 475 M
7,000 FT 2,134 M
Compact Sedan
Sedan
Passenger Van or Cargo Van
(89)
“A Sample Working Formula of Flexibility” Response = Scene Safe/Render Aid +Isolate and Secure the Area + Define the Incident + Identify + Activate Notifications + (Time/Distance/Cover) + Secondary Threats & Devices + Special Ops/Intel + Document + Recovery/Restore Operations + (Overcome/Improvise/Adapt)
135 Chapter 14: Further Considerations – Threats & Response Measures: WMD Threats & Response Measures
(90)
136 Insurgent groups around the world have used the “Stinger”. It is an infra-red man-portables type of weapon that is shoulder fired in a surface-to-air capacity. The range is about 5500 meters. Its altitude ranges is about 15,750 feet. The “Grail” has a range of about 6,125 meters, with an altitude range of about 12,900 feet.
In addition to the “Stinger” and the “Grail”, various groups have been known to use the “RPG”. Issued previously to the former Soviet and Chinese, and North Korean military, the RPG is used in a number of countries. It is a basic functional weapon that is easy to use and has an effective range of about 500 meters, and has shown effectiveness against armor-plated vehicles. The RPG is known to be in use by terrorist organizations in the Middle-East, Eastern Europe and Latin Latin America. (91)
The weapons listed above are sample possibilities of the types of devices that may be employed by terrorist terrorist groups. Terrorist organizations organizations use a variety of both conventional conventional and non-conventional weaponry. Intelligence,
research and training sources should foster a greater understanding and awareness for law enforcement personnel regarding the use of such threats. 137 Terrorism Prevention Basics
Terrorists focus on high profile visible visible targets that offer ease of access and escape. Target hardening is therefore important for to protect protect both people people and buildings. buildings. Proper planning is critical. Effective policies, procedures and plans should be in place, and regularly practiced. Terrorists use a variety of weapons, equipment and devices to carry out bombings, kidnappings, hijackings and other related crimes. Recognition and understanding understanding of the weapons and tactics that may be deployed should be part of the prevention process. Preparation for such acts involves the same practices and procedures that are required for other kinds of potential crisis crisis events, disasters or major disturbances. disturbances. Evacuation routes, escape systems, emergency exits, bomb threat protocols and fire drills are important to the planning process. It is essential to be vigilant with regard to terrain, landscape, structures, and so forth. Attacks may come without warning. Terrorists want a large audience watching when they do something. They want to maximize the “fear factor”. A proactive strategy of aggressive action, particularly by the law enforcement patrol function, is important to early early and timely interdiction interdiction into criminal criminal activity. activity. Law enforcement is geared operationally to problem-solving efforts by working in cooperation with community partnerships. Dealing with citizens on on a day-to-day day-to-day basis offers opportunities to develop awareness and alertness on a community-wide basis. Crime prevention by objectives should focus on strengthening community processes to ensure active problem solving, target hardening, training and education, intelligence gathering, criminal behavior interdiction, maintenance of order and service orientation. Investigative resources should assist, enhance and foster cooperative operations within the patrol force. First responders need the equipment, equipment, resources and training to carry out the function of effective patrol activities. activities. An inventory of up-to-date tools, tactics, tactics, techniques and training should be available available at all times. times. Training partnerships partnerships with other service agencies should be developed to the extent possible. Prevention and deterrence strategies are part of an ongoing process that involves effective leadership, planning, and resource resource development. Negative politics and personal agendas have no place in public safety and security security operations. A response to WMD and criminal criminal behavior issues, including organized crime aspects, necessitates a thorough threat assessment process and and along with emergency contingency contingency coordination. coordination. Specialized technical and scientific support is also vital to the prevention and deterrence process. Sharing and coordination of materials and services from the federal government and the private serve to enhance the local response capabilities. Information development that assists in the formulation of strategy and the implementation of countermeasures is vital vital to prevention and deterrence. deterrence. Field intelligence must be efficiently gathered from the street level and translated into a practical framework of application. application. Operational and tactical tactical use of intelligence intelligence must be shared appropriately and coordinated in a professional professional teamwork manner. The necessary tools must be utilized in a manner that produces results. A professional mix of practical tools, training, techniques and tactics should be deployed at the local level, i n order to maximize the prevention and deterrence effectiveness.
138
Cyber Tactics 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
“Cyber-Terrorism”, and the day-to-day use of the Internet for a variety of criminal purposes, presents a range of problems that could potentially be devastating to business, government and the public. The goals and objectives objectives are to maximize protection for associated systems and equipment by ensuring high-level safeguards. Cyber-terrorism is basically basically criminal activity activity carried out by criminals criminals to intimidate, threaten or coerce lawful entities, in the furtherance of their particular goals, by using computing resources. resources. This realm is inclusive of the potential threats by both terrorism and industrial industrial espionage. While there are no no foolproof methods of absolute security, there are preventive measures that can reduce the opportunities for attacks on computing systems. Basically, security countermeasures involve “locking the door and turning the lights on”. The basics include the use of encryption where feasible, feasible, firewalls, virus protection, passwords, vendor updates and security patches, testing and evaluation, and security audits. Also, when a breach occurs, immediate action is necessary necessary to change the network configuration and realign security security procedures. Skilled and knowledgeable practitioners should be consulted in the process. Protective countermeasures are vital. Critical infrastructure affected by interrelated systems includes telecommunications, business and industry, transportation systems, utilities and consumer services and governmental operations. All must be assessed, assessed, analyzed and evaluated in terms terms of protective measures. Threat assessment and risk risk analysis processes processes should be put into place place as an ongoing process. Efforts should be designed to provide maximum protection against intentional damage wherever possible. Priorities need to be established established given the nature of the operations and the systems to be protected. protected. Government and private private sector coordination will be critical to to the interface of security security precautions. Early warning systems must be in place, with established contingency for responding to emergency situations. A vigorous investigative and prosecutorial program should be established to work vigilantly with government and private industry to ensure a swift response to infrastructure intrusions and attacks. Prevention, detection detection and response response are essential to the overall process. Implementation of human and and technological security measures are are essential. A strong foundation of information security strategies and tactics includes: security systems, personnel training training and education, education, analysis and assessment, assessment, enforcement, policies and procedures, legal mandates and teamwork. An “Information Protection Counter-Measures” (IPC) program should endeavor to deploy safeguards prudently as appropriate to the nature of the operations and the personnel involved. Security needs should be well-defined well-defined and networks networks segregated as necessary to the operations. Some aspects may require more security security protocols than others. The IPC must consider both internal and external threats to the systems. Internal threats could come from employees seeking seeking their personal gain for one reason or another. External threats could stem from hackers, hackers, terrorists and industrial spies. Effective management and oversight oversight becomes critical to to the process of workable security countermeasures.
139
Personal Computer Security Considerations - Dialup -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Know that some people will take advantage of your electronic operations to advance their own personal gain. Hackers and terrorists look for targets of opportunity. Plan and implement your own security tactics. Conduct research and get good advice from experienced practitioners. Ensure that work products, operations, passwords, account numbers, credit card numbers and any other sensitive information information are protected. protected. Be cautious about sharing or using this this information over the Internet. In particular you you should never use any sensitive information in email communications. communications. Keep your IP address confidential at all times. Become suspicious if someone calls you, or emails you, and wants your personal information (e.g. password, credit card number, etc). The phone company, utilities services or your Internet server will not call you asking for such information. If this happens, try to get their phone phone number, etc., and verify the request. And, then call the police. Configure your computer for high security operations. Be extremely cautious cautious about “Chat Rooms”. Never reveal personal information in one of these sites. Protect your identify online at all times. times. Configure your your PC settings to preclude file and print sharing possibilities. If for some unexplained reason you experience difficulties while online, or system failures occur, then it is possible your system is being attacked by a hacker. If problems persist, then then be ready to shut down your system, disconnect and reboot. reboot. A sudden slow-down slow-down of surfing activity may mean potential problems. Use appropriate settings and security support systems, if you PC is always connected to a network and connected to the Internet. Alert appropriate appropriate services and personnel if you experience regular problems with your system. Make sure, before you submit any information to a website, that you check to see if the site has “secure connections”. connections”. Regularly clear your your temporary files, such as the “browser cache” and so forth. It is possible for hackers hackers to gain access to such information and then use it later. Be suspicious of email from persons you do not know. Avoid opening attachments to such emails as they could contain a virus. Any information you receive should be treated cautiously, especially if you are not familiar with the sender. Be ready to disconnect and redial if you are experiencing problems connecting to a website. Check your “Internet connection connection information” to see if there is a lot activity on your your connection. If so, and you have have not attempted to open a website, conduct file downloads, or other activity, someone may be accessing your system. Keep data files encrypted on your computer if you are doing any kind of important activity. activity. Use firewalls, virus protection, protection, security protocols, protocols, security updates to operating systems and so on to protect your operations. (92)
140
(93)
(94)
141
(95)
(96)
142
(97)
(98)
143
(99)
(100)
144 Website Sources http://www.iacsp.com http://www.hppmag.com http://www.ict.org http://www.terrorism.com http://www.fas.org/irp/thre http://www.fas .org/irp/threat/terror.ht at/terror.htm m http://www.spystuff.com/terr http://www.spy stuff.com/terrorism.html orism.html http://www.specialoperations.com/Terrorism/ http://www.terrorismanswe http://www.terr orismanswers.com/terro rs.com/terrorism/introduc rism/introduction/html tion/html http://www.terrorism.net www.terrorism.com/terrorism www.terrorism .com/terrorism/links.shtml /links.shtml www.globalterrorism101.com http://www.brook.edu/dybdocroot/default.htm www.us-israel.org/source/terrorism/terror_report_orgs.html http://www.state.gov/www/glo http://www.state .gov/www/global/terrori bal/terrorism/index.htm sm/index.htmll http://www.odccp.org/odc http://www.odcc p.org/odccp/terror cp/terrorism.html ism.html http://www.fema.gov/hazards/terrorism/ http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/t http://jurist. law.pitt.edu/terrorism/ errorism/terrorism1a.h terrorism1a.htm tm http://www.cia.gov/terroris http://www.cia .gov/terrorism/ctc.html m/ctc.html http://www.fbi.gov/congress/congress01/freeh051001.htm http://cns.miis.edu/resea http://cns.miis .edu/research/terro rch/terror.htm r.htm http://www.cdc.gov http://jama.ama-assn.org/ http://cia.gov http://www.hopkins-biodefense.org/index.html http://www.emedicine.com http://www.freerepublic.com http://www.emergency-preparedness.net http://www.csis.org http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov http://roguesci.org http://www.adl.org.il http://www.fema.org http://www.dhs.gov http://hazmat.dot.gov http://www.emergency.com http://emsnetwork.org http://www.02online.org http://www.emrtc.nmt.edu/ndpc/ http://www.doce.lsu.edu http://www.nv.doe.gov/nts/d http://www.nv.do e.gov/nts/default.atm efault.atm http://ojp.usdoj.gov http://www.cgsc.army.mil/milre http://www.cg sc.army.mil/milrev/english v/english
145 References 1. Carr, H. K., WMD – Special Hazards Emergency Response Reference Guide, (Milford, OH: AMEC Publishing Company, 2002), page 4 – 6; 2. Spear, R. K., and Moak, D. M., Surviving Hostage Situations, (Leavenworth, KS: Universal Force Dynamics, 1989), page 4; 3. Shavit, S., The International Policy Institute for Counter-Terrorism, “Defining Terrorism – Is One Man’s Terrorist Another Man’s Freedom Fighter?”, by Boaz Ganor, (Herzlia, Israel: The International Policy Institute for Counter-Terrorism, 2002) page 1 of 17; www.ict.org; 4. Vaughn, J.R., Editor-in-Chief, The Police Chief Magazine, “Current Trends in the Terrorist War” by W. Ronald Olin, (Gaithersburg, MD: International Association Association Chiefs of Police, 1986), 1986), page 28; 5. Louisiana State University, Emergency Response to Terrorism – Law Enforcement Response to Weapons of Mass Destruction, (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office for State and Local Domestic Preparedness Support, September, 1999), pages 2-9 to 2-10; 6. Travis, J., “Threat Assessment: An Approach to Prevented Targeted Violence”, (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice, July 1995), an article by Robert A. Fein, Bryan Vossekuil, and Gwen A. Holden, page 1-2; 7. Travis, J., “Threat Assessment: An Approach to Prevented Targeted Violence”, (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice, July 1995), an article by Robert A. Fein, Bryan Vossekuil, and Gwen A. Holden, page 3; 8. O’Hara, C. E., and O’Hara, G. L., Fundamentals of Criminal Investigation – Sixth Edition, (Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, Publisher, 1994), page 7; 9. Baltic, S., Editor, Homeland Protection Professional magazine, “The Fear Factor”, an article by David C. Wagman, (Western Springs, IL: A.J. Parrino and Associates, Ltd. September/October 2002), page 23; 10. Perry, N., The Journal of Counterterrorism & Homeland Security International magazine, “Defending the Homeland – Part One”, an article by Christopher Brennan, (Arlington, VA: Secure Worldnet, Ltd., Vol. 8 No.4, 2002), pages14-15);
146 11. Louisiana State University, Emergency Response to Terrorism – Law Enforcement Response to Weapons of Mass Destruction, (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office for State and Local Domestic Preparedness Support, September, 1999) page 2-12; 12. Louisiana State University, Emergency Response to Terrorism – Law Enforcement Response to Weapons of Mass Destruction, (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office for State and Local Domestic Preparedness Support, September, 1999), page 2-17; 13. Louisiana State University, Emergency Response to Terrorism – Law Enforcement Response to Weapons of Mass Destruction, (Washington, D.C.: D.C.: U.S. Department Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office for State and Local Domestic Preparedness Support, September, 1999), page 2-17 – 2-19; 14. Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism, “U.S. Counterterrorism Policy”, U.S. Department of State, Office of Public Affairs, Coordinator for Counterterrorism, Washington, D.C., www.state/gov/www/global/terrorism/index.html,, page 1 of 2 pages. www.state/gov/www/global/terrorism/index.html 15. Terrorism 101 – Understanding Terrorism, “Terrorist Weapons”, from the website: www.globalterrorism101.com www.globalterrorism101.com,, information has been adapted from this website, page 1 of 6 pages; 16. Federation of American Scientist, Intelligence Resource Program, Weapons of Mass Destruction Intelligence Threat Assessments, “Unclassified Report to Congress on the Acquisition of Technology Relating to Weapons of Mass Destruction and Advanced Conventional Munitions, 1 July Through 31 December 2001, Unclassified Report to Congress from the Director of Central Intelligence January 2003, www.fas.org/irp/threat/bian_jan_2003.htm Page 2 of 13 pages; 17. Sheehan, Michael A., Ambassador, “Terrorism: The Current Threat”, Thursday, February 10, 2000; (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, A Brookings Policymaker Series Event, 2003), P. 4; www.brook.edu/dybdocroot/comm/transcr www.brook.edu/dybd ocroot/comm/transcripts/20000210a.htm ipts/20000210a.htm 18. Louisiana State University, Emergency Response to Terrorism – Law Enforcement Response to Weapons of Mass Destruction, (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office for State and Local Domestic Preparedness Support, September, 1999), page 5-2;
147 19. Godber, A., “Terrorist Use of Chemical Weapons”, (Arizona State University, 1995), Page 1 of 2 Pages, from the website of A. Godber, http://www.uberhip.com/people/godber http://www.uberhi p.com/people/godber/research/cwpaper.htm /research/cwpaper.htmll 20. Freeh, L. J., “Threat of Terrorism to the United States”, Congressional Statement – Federal Bureau of Investigation, United States Senate, Committee on Appropriations, Armed Services, and Select Committee on Intelligence, May 10, 2001, Washington, D.C., Page 5 of 9 Pages, FBI Press Room, Congressional Statement –2001, http://www.fbi.gov/congress/congress01/freeh051001.htm 21. BBC News-UK, “Seventh Arrest in Ricin Case”, from a news article appearing at the BBC News website, Page 1 of 4 Pages, London, England, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/2637515.stm 22. Pollard, N.A., Director, Terrorism Research Center, “Terrorism and Transnational Organized Crime: Implications of Convergence”, The Terrorism Research Center, February 10, 2003, Page 1 of 2 Pages, http://www.terrorism.com/terrorism http://www.terror ism.com/terrorism/crime.shtml /crime.shtml 23. Louisiana State University, Emergency Response to Terrorism – Law Enforcement Response to Weapons of Mass Destruction, (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office for State and Local Domestic Preparedness Support, September, 1999), page 4-4; 24. The Terrorism Research Center, “The Basics of Terrorism – Part 6 – Terrorism in the Future”, Page 1 of 2 Pages, Terrorism Research Center, Inc., February 12, 2003, from the Terrorism Research Center, http://www.terrorism.com/terrorism/bpart6.html 25. Louisiana State University, Emergency Response to Terrorism – Law Enforcement Response to Weapons of Mass Destruction, (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office for State and Local Domestic Preparedness Support, September, 1999), page 4-5; 26. Carr, H.K., Hall, R., Carr, J.A., WMD (Weapons of Mass Destruction) Special Hazards Emergency Response Reference And Guide (Milford, OH: AMEC Publishing Company, 2001); Nuclear Incident Section, page 132-133; 27. Federation of American Scientists, “Weapons of Mass Destruction”, “Militarily Critical Technologies List (MCTL) Part II: Weapons of Mass Destruction Technologies”, (Washington, D.C.: Federation of American Scientists, February 26, 2003), Appendix D – Definitions, page II-D-1 to II-D-15, http://www.fas.org/index.html
148 28. Louisiana State University, Emergency Response to Terrorism – Law Enforcement Response to Weapons of Mass Destruction, (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office for State and Local Domestic Preparedness Support, September 1999), pages 4-13 to 4-14; 29. Dennis, David T., MD, MPH, et al, JAMA Consensus Statement, “Tularemia as a Biological Weapon: Medical and Public Health Management”, Vol. 285 No. 21, June 6, 2001, Page 1 of 2 Pages; 30. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), “Brucellosis” and “Q-Fever”, Technical Information section, from the CDC website at http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dbmd/diseaseinf http://www.cdc.gov/n cidod/dbmd/diseaseinfo/brucellosis_t.htm o/brucellosis_t.htm as well as http://cdc.gov/ncidod/dvrd/qfever/ dated dated 3/11/02, pages 1 of 2 pages, and page 1 of 5 pages; 31. Center for Civilian BioDefense Strategies, “Smallpox” Fact Sheet Info, The Johns Hopkins University, 2002, from the website at http://www.hopkins-biodefense.org/pages/age http://www.hopkins-b iodefense.org/pages/agents/agentsmallpox.htm nts/agentsmallpox.htmll 32. Chart courtesy of “Treatment of Biological Agent Exposures”, from the Images file of www.google.com www.google.com,, found originally in the text of http://www.ahcpub.com/ahc_root_html/hot/a http://www.ahcpub.com /ahc_root_html/hot/archive/mea112001.htm rchive/mea112001.htmll 33. “CBRNE – Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis”, by Robert Derlet, MD, (Emedicine Instant Access to the Minds of Medicine, August 30, 2002), www.emedicine.com www.emedicine.com article from the website located at http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic886.htm with http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic886.htm with reference to the signs and symptoms of VEE, dated d ated 3/12/03, page 2 of 10 pages; 34. “Viral Hemorrhagic Fever (VHF): Current, Comprehensive Information on Pathogenesis, Microbiology, Epidemiology, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prophylaxis”, by the Center for Infectious Disease Research and Policy, Academic Health Center, University of Minnesota, February 24, 2003, page 2 of 2 pages, from the website at http://www.cidrap.umn.edu/cidrap/conten http://www.cidrap.u mn.edu/cidrap/content/bt/vhf/biofacts/v t/bt/vhf/biofacts/vhffactshee hffactshee t.html 35. “General Epidemiologic Features of Hemorrhagic Fever Viruses” table reference from the aforementioned article, at the website of http://www.cidrap.umn.edu/cidrap page http://www.cidrap.umn.edu/cidrap page 2 of 2 pages; 36. Appendix C: Biological Agents, Central Intelligence Agency, Director of Central Intelligence, Speeches and Testimony, 27 March 1996, Types of BW Agents, from information located at the website http://www.cia.gov/cia/public_affairs/spee http://www.cia.gov/c ia/public_affairs/speeches/archives/1996/go_ap ches/archives/1996/go_app p endixc_032796.html
149 37. “Botulism Toxins Seen as Potential Bio-Weapon”, by Jon Dougherty, WorldNetDaily.com, Thursday, March 1, 2001, FreeRepublic.Com, Fresno, CA, 1996, page 1 of 3 pages, from the website located at http://www.freerepublic.com/forum/a3a9e06922039.htm 38. Louisiana State University, Emergency Response to Terrorism – Law Enforcement Response to Weapons of Mass Destruction, (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office for State and Local Domestic Preparedness Support, September 1999), pages 4-20 to 4-21; 39. “Emergency Preparedness: Biological Incidents – Sample Page 3”, by Emergency Preparedness Net, ( © 1998-2002), Bio Weapons graphic, located at the Images section of Google.com, from the website at http://www.emergency-preparedness.net/bio3.htm,, page 1 of 2 pages, http://www.emergency-preparedness.net/bio3.htm as of 3/19/03; 40. “Saddam Ready to Use Bio-Weapons”, by Anton La Guardia, Diplomatic Editor, filed 10/09/02, The Spectator, Wednesday, 19 March 2003, telegraph.co.uk, image is from Google.com, found in the above cited article that is from the website located at http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jht http://www.telegrap h.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2002/09/ ml?xml=/news/2002/09/10/ 10/ wirq110.xml,, page 1 of 4 pages; wirq110.xml 41. Oehler, G.C., Director, Nonproliferation Center, Statements to the Senate Armed Services Committee, “The Continuing Threat from Weapons of Mass Destruction, 27 March 1996, Central Intelligence Agency, Director of Central Intelligence, “The Threat of Nuclear Diversion”, indicated at Page 1 of 2 Pages, from the website at http://www.cia.gov/cia/public_affairs/spee http://www.cia.gov/c ia/public_affairs/speeches/archives/1996/go_tes ches/archives/1996/go_testt imony_032796.html 42. The Federal Emergency Management Agency, Emergency Response to Terrorism Job Aid, Aid , (Washington, D.C., FEMA and USDOJ, May 2000), Section III-2: Nuclear/Radiological, Page III-2-1; 43. Director of Homeland Security Programs, “Do Terrorists Really Have Nukes Here?”, (Gonzales, Texas: KI4U, Inc., 2002), from a paper presented November, 2002, as of April 7, 2003, at the website http://www.ki4u.com/loose_nukes.htm,, page 1 of 24 pages; http://www.ki4u.com/loose_nukes.htm 44. Louisiana State University, Emergency Response to Terrorism – Law Enforcement Response to Weapons of Mass Destruction, (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office for State and Local Domestic Preparedness Support, September 1999), “Nuclear Materials”, Page 4-23;
150 45. Curtis, R.A., “Lecture Outline – Introduction to Ionizing Radiation”, January, 1999, (Washington, D.C.: OSHA, 2003), from the website at http://www.osha-slc.gov/SLTC/radiationionzi http://www.osha-slc. gov/SLTC/radiationionzing.index.html ng.index.html,, page 1 of 3 pages; 46. Director of Homeland Security Programs, “Do Terrorists Really Have Nukes Here?”, (Gonzales, Texas: KI4U, Inc., 2002), from a paper presented November, 2002, as of April 7, 2003, at the website http://www.ki4u.com/loose_nukes.htm,, page 1 of 1 pages; image at http://www.ki4u.com/loose_nukes.htm at http:images.google.com/imgres?imgurl+w http:images.google.com/imgres?imgurl+www.ki4u.com/NUCLEAR_ ww.ki4u.com/NUCLEAR_ TRAFFICKING.jpg; 47. Louisiana State University, Emergency Response to Terrorism – Law Enforcement Response to Weapons of Mass Destruction, (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office for State and Local Domestic Preparedness Support, September 1999), “Nuclear Materials”, Page 4-25; 48. Louisiana State University, Emergency Response to Terrorism – Law Enforcement Response to Weapons of Mass Destruction, (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office for State and Local Domestic Preparedness Support, September 1999), “Nuclear Materials”, Page 4-26 – 4-27; 49. The Federal Emergency Management Agency, Emergency Response to Terrorism Job Aid, Aid , (Washington, D.C., FEMA and USDOJ, May 2000), Section III-2: Incendiary Devices, Page III-3-1; 50. Louisiana State University, Emergency Response to Terrorism – Law Enforcement Response to Weapons of Mass Destruction, (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office for State and Local Domestic Preparedness Support, September 1999), “Incendiary Devices”, Page 4-33 to 4-34; 51. The Russian Battlefield, article entitled “Molotov Cocktail”, (The Russian Battlefield, © 1998), and image of the Molotov Cocktail, from the website: http://www.battlefield.ru/index.html http://www.battlefield.ru/index.html,, and the site: http://www.battlefield.ru/library/bo http://www.battlef ield.ru/library/bookshelf/weapons2.htm okshelf/weapons2.htmll ; 52. Louisiana State University, Emergency Response to Terrorism – Law Enforcement Response to Weapons of Mass Destruction, (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office for State and Local Domestic Preparedness Support, September 1999), “Introduction to Chemical Weapons”, Page 4-36 to 4-37;
151 53. Louisiana State University, Emergency Response to Terrorism – Law Enforcement Response to Weapons of Mass Destruction, (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office for State and Local Domestic Preparedness Support, September 1999), “Introduction to Chemical Weapons”, Page 4-38 to 4-39; 54. Cordesman, A. H., “Defending America – Asymmetric and Terrorist Attacks with Chemical Weapons”, (Washington, D.C.: Center for Strategic and International Studies, September 24, 2001), pg.9 of 48 pgs., http://www.csis.org http://www.csis.org/homeland/reports /homeland/reports/terrrorasymw /terrrorasymw&chem.pdf &chem.pdf 55. “Blister Agents: Lewisite (L) Mustard-Lewisite Mixture (HL)”, by ATSDR, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, April 2002, CAS# Lewisite 541-25-3, (Atlanta, GA) from the website located at http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/tfactsd1.html http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/tfactsd1.html,, page 2 of 5 pages; 56. “No need to panic”, by Eric Croddy, Friday September 28, 2001, The Guardian (England, UK: The Guardian Education, 2002), pg1of 2pgs, http://education.guardian.co.uk/Print/0 http://education.guard ian.co.uk/Print/0,3858,4265998,00.htm ,3858,4265998,00.htmll 57. The Federal Emergency Management Agency, Emergency Response to Terrorism Job Aid, Aid , (Washington, D.C., FEMA and USDOJ, May 2000), Section III-4; Blood Agents, page III 4-5; 58. Louisiana State University, Emergency Response to Terrorism – Law Enforcement Response to Weapons of Mass Destruction, (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office for State and Local Domestic Preparedness Support, September 1999), “Introduction to Chemical Weapons”, Page 4-44 to 4-45; 59. International Association of Chiefs of Police, The Police Reference Notebook, (Gaithersburg, MD: IACP, 1970-75), Unit 51 “Chemicals Weapons”, Training Key #148, page 51-1/2; 60. International Association of Chiefs of Police, The Police Reference Notebook, (Gaithersburg, MD: IACP, 1970-75), Unit 51 “Chemicals Weapons”, Training Key #148, page 51-1/2; 61. Atkinson, J. M., Advanced Chemical Weapons, (Gloucester, MA: Granite Island Group, 1997), pages 27 to 39. 62. U.S. Army, Grenades and Pyrotechnic Signals, (Washington, D.C.: Headquarters, Department of the Army, December 1969), FM 23-30, Page 80;
152 63. Louisiana State University, Emergency Response to Terrorism – Law Enforcement Response to Weapons of Mass Destruction, (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office for State and Local Domestic Preparedness Support, September 1999), “Explosive Devices”, Page 4-46; 64. The Ordinance Shop, “Types of Explosives – Propellants”, page 1 of 1 pages, from the website: http://www.ordinance.org 65. Louisiana State University, Emergency Response to Terrorism – Law Enforcement Response to Weapons of Mass Destruction, (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office for State and Local Domestic Preparedness Support, September 1999), “Explosive Devices”, Page 4-49; 66. Louisiana State University, Emergency Response to Terrorism – Law Enforcement Response to Weapons of Mass Destruction, (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office for State and Local Domestic Preparedness Support, September 1999), “Explosive Devices”, Page 4-50; 67. Megalomania’s Controversial Chem Lab, “Explosives, 1997-2003, RDX, PETN, Lead Stypnate, Page 1 of 2 Pages, from the website at: http://www.roguesci.org/megalomonia/ex http://www.roguesci. org/megalomonia/explo/RDX.html plo/RDX.html 68. Hopkins, R., Fire and Safety Engineering Technology, Eastern Kentucky University, March 20, 2003, “B. Commercial High Explosives”, page 19-20 of 21 pages, from the website found at: http://www.fireandsafety.eku.edu/VFRE-99/Recognition/High/high.htm
69. Hopkins, R., Fire and Safety Engineering Technology, Eastern Kentucky University, March 20, 2003, “B. Commercial High Explosives”, page 21 of 21 pages, from the website found at: http://www.fireandsafety.eku.edu/VFRE99/Recognition/High/high.htm 70. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms, Identification of Firearms, (Washington, D.C.: Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Officer), picture from Figure 1, “Explosives”, page 29; 71. Petrousky, J.A., Bomb Threat Awareness, (Indian Mead, MD: Naval Explosive Ordinance Disposal Technology Center, 1986), picture from “Internally Fuzed Pipe Bomb” diagram, page 3; 72. Headquarters, Department of the Army, Grenades and Pyrotechnic Signals, (Washington, D.C.: Department of the Army, FM-23-30, 1969), picture from Figure 1, “Fuze Functioning”, page 5-6;
153 73. Louisiana State University, Emergency Response to Terrorism – Law Enforcement Response to Weapons of Mass Destruction, (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office for State and Local Domestic Preparedness Support, September 1999), “Explosive Devices – Package Bombs” diagram from Module 4, Page 4-55, on page 4-54; 74. International Association Chiefs of Police, Police Reference Notebook – Supervision, (Gaithersburg, MD: The International Association Chiefs of Police, 1975), Unit 4CI - III “The Preliminary Investigation, Page 4C1-7 75. The Federal Emergency Management Agency, Emergency Response to Terrorism Job Aid, Aid , (Washington, D.C., FEMA and USDOJ, May 2000), Section III-4; Operational Considerations, page II-1-1; 76. Image from Google Images file, “Emergency Survival Program Additional Materials”, CERT-LA, 2002-3, 07 May 2003, from http://www.cert-la.com/ESP-Additional.htm 77. Picture, courtesy Google.com, Images Section, from “Radiation Safety Primer”, Troxler Electronic Laboratories, Copyright 19972003, http://www.troxlerlabs.com/images/radprimer.gif 78. Picture, courtesy Google.com, Images Section, from the website at: http://www.butte.cc.ca.us/instruction/pstc/images/hazmat.jpg 79. Louisiana State University, Emergency Response to Terrorism – Law Enforcement Response to Weapons of Mass Destruction, (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office for State and Local Domestic Preparedness Support, September 1999), “Personal Protection and Safety”, Types of Harm Section, from Module 5, Page 5-11; 80. Diagram from the website at Google.com, Images Section, reference http:www.envectra.com/env/erg/ipadhow2.gif, U.S. Department of Labor's Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA, 29 CFR §1910.120), and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA, 40 CFR Part 311), first responders reference to the ERG2000; 81. The Federal Emergency Management Agency, Emergency Response to Terrorism Job Aid, Aid , (Washington, D.C., FEMA and USDOJ, May 2000), Section II-6; Mass Decontamination, page II-6-3 &4; 82. U.S. Department of Homeland Security, United States Coast Guard Auxiliary, ICS Orientation, 06/20/03, diagram of the ICS flowchart from the website at: http://www.auxetrain.org/icsmodule1.htm http://www.auxetrain.org/icsmodule1.htm;;
154 83. Louisiana State University, Emergency Response to Terrorism – Law Enforcement Response to Weapons of Mass Destruction, (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office for State and Local Domestic Preparedness Support, September 1999), “Coordinated Response to WMD Incidents”, Page 3-16 to Page 3-17; 84. Federal Emergency Management Administration, “Incident Command System,/Unified Command”, Figure 1, FEMA, Washington, D.C., 11 February 2003, from the website at http://www.fema.gov/graphics/rrr/conplan/fig1.gif 85. Appendix H, Federal Response Plan for A Terrorism Incident Response, Figure H-1, Relationship Between Crisis Management and CM; from Google.com Images file, from the website located at: http://www.globalsecurity.org/…/arm http://www.globalsecur ity.org/…/army/fm/3-11-21/flig y/fm/3-11-21/fligh-1.gif; h-1.gif; 86. Louisiana State University, Emergency Response to Terrorism – Law Enforcement Response to Weapons of Mass Destruction, (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office for State and Local Domestic Preparedness Support, September 1999), “Strategies and Tactics for WMD Incidents”, Page 6-15 to Page 6-21; 87. “Security Strategy for Buildings”, Gordon Herrald Associates, East Sussex, England, 2003, Figure 1 “Risk Assessment Methodology”, from the website: http://www.herrald.co.uk/riskass.gif , from google.com images file; 88. “Terror as a Strategy of Psychological Warfare, July 15, 2002, by Dr. Boaz Ganor, ICT Executive Director, International Policy Institute for Counter-Terrorism, Herzlia, Israel, 2003, page 1 of 2 pages, from the website at: http://www.ict.org.il/ 89. “Minimum Safe Distances”, by Wally Glenn, Edited by Neil Carlberg, et al, Artist’s Republic of Fremont, Safety Information, from the website: http://www.arfarfarf.com/safety/distances.shtml © 1998-202 by Wally Glenn; 90. Emergency Response to Terrorism – Self-Study, U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Emergency Management Agency, Emmitsburg, M.D., June 1999, Module 3 – Self-Protection, Self-Protection, page 35
155 91. ERRI Counter-Terrorism Archive, “Shoulder-Fired” and “Soviet/ChiCom” weapons, from the website of Emergency.com, located at: http://www.emergency.com/samissle.htm,, and related materials at: http://www.emergency.com/samissle.htm http://www.emergency.com/rpg7.htm,, http://www.emergency.com/rpg7.htm 09/12/03, Emergency Response and Research Institute, © 1996, Chicago, IL, page 1 of 1 pages; 92. Systems Solutions Group, online article, “Dial-up Protection – How to Stop Hackers”, SSG, Inc., © Systems Security Group, 2003, Page 1 of 2 Pages, from the website located at: http://www.ssg-inc.net/ ; 93. Diagram 1, “Countering State-Sponsored Terrorism”, an article by Boaz Ganor, ICT – Counter-Terrorism, Herzlia, Israel, © 2003, from the website: http://www.ict.org.il/articles/counter.htm 94. Graphic 1, “Introduction to Terrorist Intelligence Analysis”, Counterterrorism Analysis Course, Defense Intelligence College, from an article located at the GlobalSecurity.org website: http://www.globalsecurity.org/intell/l http://www .globalsecurity.org/intell/library/policy/dod ibrary/policy/dod/part1_ct_analysis_cou /part1_ct_analysis_course.htm rse.htm ; 95. Graphic – World Map, from an article entitled: “The Transnational Threat: Dangers from Terrorism, Insurgencies, Civil Wars, and Organized Crime”, at Defenselink.com, U.S. Department of Defense, Washington, D.C., original context from the website located at: http://www.defenselink.mil/pubs/prolif/tr http://www.defenseli nk.mil/pubs/prolif/transnational.html ansnational.html;; 96. “A Framework Against Terrorism – Intelligence”, graphic from the Google.com images archive, located at the website found at: http://sibelle.info/terror/intel.gif , ©Sni 04/17/02, original context at: http://sibelle.info/terror/intel.htm;; http://sibelle.info/terror/intel.htm 97. “The Terrorist Network in America”, map, from S2 Online.org, at the website: http://www.s2online.org http://www.s2online.org,, © 1993-2002 Omni Sys Enterprises, Inc., page 1 of 3 pages, as of 9/29/03; 98. Figure 1 – “Generic Terrorist Activities Time Line”, from an article by Lt. Colonel Andrew J. Smith, Australian Army, The Military Review, Command & General Staff College, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, January – February 2002, from the website located at: http://www.cgsc.army.mil/milrev/english/JanFeb02/smith.asp;; as of http://www.cgsc.army.mil/milrev/english/JanFeb02/smith.asp 31 July 2002, and images located at Google.com;
156 99. Figure 2 – “Generic Terrorist Countermeasures”, from an article by Lt. Colonel Andrew J. Smith, Australian Army, The Military Review, Command & General Staff College, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, January – February 2002, from the website located at: http://www.cgsc.army.mil/milrev/english/JanFeb02/smith.asp;; as of http://www.cgsc.army.mil/milrev/english/JanFeb02/smith.asp 31 July 2002, and images located at Google.com; 100. Threat Sources Graphic, “Tracking the Global Spread of Advanced Technologies”, an article by Eileen Vergino, Science and Technology Review, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, University of California, U.S. Dept. of Defense, September 5, 2003, Page 2 of 12 Pages, located at the S & TR website found at: http://www.llnl.gov/str/September01/V http://www.llnl.go v/str/September01/Vergino.html ergino.html;;
