Addis Ababa University
Language Standardization A summary By Elizabeth D., Chimdi W. and Beniyam J.
2009
Submitted to
Zelealem Leyew(PhD)
Summary on Language Standardization
By
Elizabeth Demissie Beniyam Jembere Chimdi Wakuma
To
Zelealem Leyew (PhD)
Addis Addis Abab Ababa a Univers University ity Institute of Language Studies
Department of African Languages and Applied Linguistics Language Planning and Standardization Course (ALAL 601)
Addis Ababa December, 2009
Contents
Standardization? 1. What is Language Standardization? 2. Approac Approaches hes to Language Language Standardiz Standardization ation 2.1. 2.1. Disc Discri rimi mina nato tory ry Appr Approa oach ch 2.2. 2.2. ‘Pan ‘Pan dial dialec ecta tal’ l’ App Appro roac ach h 3. The Aims Aims of Language Language Standa Standardiza rdization tion 4. Strategies Strategies in Standar Standardizi dizing ng a Language Language 4.1. 4.1. Ortho rthog grap raphy 4.2 4.2. Lexi Lexica call enric enrichm hmen entt 5. Phases Phases of Language Language Standa Standardiza rdization tion 5.1. .1. Dete Determ rmin ina atio tion 5.2. .2. Cod Codific ifica atio tion 5.3. .3. Elab laborati ratio on 5.4. 5.4. Impl Implem emen enta tati tion on 5.5. .5. Cult Cultiv ivat atio ion n 5.6. 5.6. Harm Harmon oniz izat atio ion n 6. Stages Stages in Standardiz Standardizing ing unwritten unwritten Language Language 7. Criteria for Standard Dialect Selection 8. Who can standardize a language?
Bibliography
1. What is Language Standardization?
The definition definition of language language standardizati standardization on according according to Kamwangam Kamwangamalu alu (2001:194) based on Crystal (1985), is stated as “standardization is a natural development of a standard language in a speech community or an attempt by a community to impose one dialect as standard.” He explains the activity of standardization as direct and deliberate intervention by society to create a standard language in a situation where non standard varieties are used, by referring Hudson (1980). Similarly, Ekkehard Wolff (2000:332) said Languag Language e standa standardi rdizat zation ion is a means means in ‘langua ‘language ge develo developm pment ent,’ ,’ selection and promotion of variants with in a language. It is one of the major concerns of language planning, especially in Africa. It usually involv involves es develo developm pment ent of languag language e relate related d activi activitie ties s like like gramm grammars, ars, spelling books, and dictionaries, and literature. It is also changing some spoken form of a particular language to be written down in an official manne annerr with with the the inte intent ntio ion n of makin aking g this this part partic icul ular ar vari variet ety y the the preferred variety. When one deals with language standardization, as Wolff (ibid) elaborates, it targeted to turning linguistic varieties into standard languages in two senses. Firs Firstt in a sens sense e of appr approv oved ed and and acce accept pted ed norm norm abov above e all all verna ernacu cula lar, r, colloquial and dialectal varieties for general and normative usage in certain domains such as literature, science, education, the media, the churches and all public sectors. In the second sense, it is a regular and codified normative system of reference supported by a standard orthography, standard reference grammars and standard dictionaries. Fully fledged standard language will enjoy recognition as such by the whole speech community (for instance, as a prestigious high variety in a diglossia situation), and reflect linguistic (Possibly national or even ethnic) ethnic) identity, and moreover gain or develop a rich writing tradition and be potentially equipped to encode all necessary modernization in its lexicon. It is used effectively as high variety, predominantly for written communication in matters of official
conc concer erns ns on regio regional nal,, nati nation onal al or inte intern rnat atio ional nal leve levell (Wol (Wolff ff 20 2000 00:: 34 340, 0, Kamwangamalu 2001:43). Generally speaking, in such senses discussed previously, only a small number of African’s languages and even the worlds’ languages acquired the title of being being standar standard. d. Howev However, er, many many scholar scholars s agreed agreed that that standa standardi rdizat zation ion is a necessary and vital process in any language.
2. Approaches to Language Standardization There are two common common approaches approaches to standardize standardize a language. language. Based on the explanation of Mismang (2001:166), the approaches are the following. 2.1
Discriminatory Discriminatory approach selec selects ts one or two two presti prestige ge dialect dialects s and elev elevat ates es it/th it/them em to stan standa dard rd langu languag age e leve level. l. In this this appro approac ach, h, the the dialect(s) which have not been elevated are then excluded from the standard and relegated to an inferior position. This discriminatory form of standardization seems to be popular because it is believed that it leads to more uniformity. unif ormity.
2.2
‘Pand ‘Pandial ialecta ectal’ l’
appro approac ach h
standar ndardi diz zes
by
adopting
a
dialect
demo democr crac acy y appr approa oach ch in whic which h all diale dialect cts s may may be elev elevate ated d to the the standard level, which Wolff (2000:333) refers to it as ‘pandialectal’. In this this way vari variou ous s dial dialec ects ts are are unif unifie ied, d, thei theirr vari varian ants ts refi refine ned d and and neutra neutraliz lized ed until until they they merge merge into into commo common n standard standard language language.. This This approach is very akin to harmonization (Mismang, 2001:166)).
3. The Aims Aims of Language Language Standa Standardiza rdization tion The aims of standardiz standardizing ing a language language are manifold and some of them are discussed as follows thinking that they are frequently pointed out, Oyetade (2001:20).
To contribute in the development of a nation
The role of language language in developm development ent of a nation cannot be over-stre over-stressed. ssed. As wider wider and more more satisfa satisfacto ctory ry conce conceptio ption n of nation national al develo developme pment nt advoca advocate te development should be seen as total human development. The perspective emphasizes a full realization of human potential and a maximum utilization of the the nati nation on‘s ‘s reso resour urc ces for for the bene benefi fitt of all all to take take deve develo lopm pme ent as development. Thus, language as resource will be standardized to be utilized properly. Oyetade (ibid) makes it clear that every developmental discourse has taken note of language’s pragmatic and expressive values. Based on its pragmatic value, language is the vehicle for the transmission of scientific and technical education. And it is also the vehicle and manifestation of culture (i.e. the expressive value).
To facilitate communication communication
Stan Standar dardi diza zati tion on is beli believ eved ed to incr increa ease se the the comm commun unic icat atio ion n vale valenc ncy y of a language for literacy by simplifying the communication process. When there exists ists
an
enorm normou ous s
and and
magni agnifi fic cent
diff diffe erenc rence e
bet between
diale ialec cts, ts,
communication will be blocked. Certain standard rules must be followed so that people can communicate effectively with one another, Kamawangamalu (2001:194).
To be used as a model
When a language is standardized, it allows the language to be used as a model for everyone in the community.
To Enhance unification
As a result of standardizing a language, the community will be entitled to have and use a common, mutually comprehensible language which is believed to unify the speakers.
To Simplify teaching
The other aim of standardizin standardizing g a language language is to make the language language easier easier to teach in schools. In the linguistic community whereby the majorities happen to
use a differ different ent dialect dialect or langua language, ge, it would would be illogi illogical cal to maint maintain ain local local dialects as a medium of instruction when it comes to a higher education.
To serve a political purpose
Some political reasons like claiming autonomy from domestic or foreign rule can be the aim for standardizing a language.
Such Such aims, aims, whic which h are are list listed ed above above,, are are view viewed ed posit positiv ivel ely. y. Neve Nevert rthe hele less ss language standardization has its own negative consequences for its creation of a sense of superiority in speakers of one language and a feeling of inferiority on the others. Choosing one vernacular as a norm means favoring those who speak speak that that vari variet ety y and dimin diminish ishing ing all all the the othe otherr vari variet etie ies s and and possi possibl ble e competing norms, and those who use those varieties.
4. Strategies in Standardizing a Language Langu Languag age e mode modern rniz izat atio ion n or stan standar dardi diza zati tion on is view viewed ed as a comp comple lex x and and mult multid idim imen ensi sion onal al atte attemp mptt whos whose e sole sole aim is the the empo empowe werm rmen entt of any any language for literacy and numeracy of all purposes in formal and informal education. To achieve this aim properly the work of standardization will be done done base based d on two two stra strate tegie gies. s. Ac Acco cord rding ing to Emen Emenanj anjo o (200 (2001: 1:48 48)) thes these e guidelines are: 4.1.
Orthography- in this area the selection of accurate and consistent script will be carried out. As strategy it endorses doing the following activities.
Choice of directions of writing
choices in the design of a script
choice in the expansion of script between new letters, diacritics and new values
choi choice ce in a writi riting ng code code betw betwee een n ideo ideogr gram ams, s, sy syll llab abar ary y and and alphabet
The choice choice in the type of spelling spelling between between phonemic phonemic,, morphomorphophonemic and paraphonemic systems etc
4.2.
Lexical enrichment- with regard to lexical enrichment the following activities are going to be done.
Borr Borrow owin ing g
word words s from from othe otherr lang langua uage ges s for for scie scient ntif ific ic and and
technological concepts
Intra dialectal borrowings
New coinages
Adaption
Elevation of slang and colloquialism
Specialization of dialect words
Furthermore it would be important to keep in mind that successful language standardization is achieved when first the particular solution suggested for the problem is checked so as to know if it brings a fair chance of success and second when there is a situation of allowing several alternative solutions so as to see their merits and demerits and by imperceptible steps push one ahead of the others.
5. Phases of Language Standardization According to Wolff (2000:333) language standardization involves the following phases: 5.1.
Determination
In terms terms of status status planni planning, ng, determ determinat ination ion refer refers s to languag language e policy policy and involves choice of which of the countries languages should be selected to perf perfor orm m
part partic icul ular ar
func functi tio on
in
regi regio onal, nal,
nati nation onal al
and and
inte intern rnat atio iona nall
communication. But in terms of language standardization, it is the norm which is chos chosen en to serv serve e as the the stan standa dard rd fram frame e of refe refere renc nce e for for any any chos chosen en language.
Determination of language and norm may become a question of power which will favor those who already use the chosen variety and disfavor those who don’t. don’t. Select Selecting ing one particula particularr lect lect to becom become e a standa standard rd form form of a given given language means that speakers of other varieties feel that their speech forms are now being discriminated. dis criminated. In orde orderr to avoi avoid d soci social al and and poli politi tica call unre unrest st based based on dete determ rmin inat atio ion n of a standa standard, rd, an idealiz idealized ed norm norm can be create created, d, that is ‘pandia ‘pandialec lectal tal’’ varian variantt which is ‘nobody’s dialect’. Otherwise, when choosing a dialect, various criteria could be used and must be consid considere ered d against against each each other other because because existi existing ng languag language e variant variants s will will differ in the extent to which they confirm the criteria. 5.2.
Codification
The work of codification codification includes includes graphicisat graphicisation, ion, which which is the creation creation or unification of a standard orthography. Based on some general principles and the needs of any given language, the existing writing systems such as the Roman, Greece, Arabic or Ethiopic set of characters can be adapted to be used.
Generally, Generally, graphicisation graphicisation admits an orthographi orthographic c system system that has to perform perform polit politic ical, al,
soci socioo-cu cult ltur ural al,,
psyc ps ycho holo logi gica call
and and
peda pedago gogi gica call
func functi tion ons. s.
The
adequacy of a given orthography system developed to serve this purpose can be evaluated by the following criteria, as outlined by Jack Berry (in Ouane, 1991):
maximum motivation motivation of the learners
maximum representation of the spoken language
maximum facility for learning
maximum transfer and
maximum reproduction.
5.3.
Elaboration
Wolff (ibid) explains that, in elaboration, lexical innovation is a constant and unpl unplan anne ned d spont spontane aneou ous s and and ad hoc hoc proce process ss in any any langu languag age. e. That That is, as communication needs change and expands speakers develop strategies for creating or borrowing new terms which their language did not have until then. Such terms like ‘elaboration’, ‘modernization’ and language development are used to indicate planned lexical innovation which imply, in a very derogatory sens sense, e, that that the the lang langua uage ges s are are som somewha ewhatt ‘un ‘un moder odern’ n’,, ‘pri ‘prim mitiv itive’ e’,, ’un ’un develo developed ped’. ’. Elabor Elaboratio ation, n, there therefore fore,, is a constan constantt need need for enrich enrichme ment nt of voca vocabu bular lary y by crea creati ting ng and expan expandi ding ng the the appr approp opri riate ate term termino inolo logy gy for for commercial, professional and scientific domains as knowledge and technology progress. It is part of corpus planning and is usually the task of language academies.
5.4. 5.4. Impl Implem emen enta tati tion on Once the standard is established, usually with the cooperation of linguists, educators, leaders of speech community, putting decision into practice is left for the policy makers. This is most effectively realized through feeding the new standard norm into the educational system. A good example of highly effective implementation was the introduction of Soma Somali li langu languag age e as offic official ial lang langua uage ge of the coun countr try y with with new new stan standar dard d orthography in 1973. The impleme implementatio ntation n scheme scheme consisted consisted of various various simultaneo simultaneous us and follow-up follow-up activities. As wolff (ibid) explains by referring the experience of Somalia, the activities that can be done include announcing and propagating the decision by the mass mass media, media, engagi engaging ng large large scale scale litera literacy cy campaig campaign, n, inform informatio ation n pamphlets distribution and the like.
5.5. .5. Cult Cultiv iva atio tion
After initial implemen implementation tation of standardizi standardizing, ng, a language language needs needs continuous continuous support from language promotion agencies. The advisory bodies are expected to:
create guidelines as to matters of style and acceptable variants mainly in literary production
ensure that printed materials conform to the standard norms
ens nsur ure e
that that
lex lexical ical
inno innov vatio ation n
is
contin ntinuo uou usly sly
subj su bje ected ted
to
standardization in order to avoid uncontrolled competition of terms with similar yet different meanings Radio programs, newspaper columns and award-winning competition in oral as well well as writt written en skill skill in the standard standard variety variety will will play play an impor importan tantt role role in creating positive attitudes. In language standardization, the most successful inst instan ance ce of lang langua uage ge cult cultiv ivat atio ion n is that that of Afri Afrika kaan ans. s. It rose rose from from an ‘und ‘unde erdev develope loped’ d’
and and
margi argina nallize ized
Creo reole
whic hich
had had
bee been
heavil avily y
discriminated by colonial legacy’s language speakers.
5.6. 5.6. Harm Harmon oniz izat atio ion n It is a challenging phase because of some sociolinguistic factors. Conflict of interest is the main factor. As Wolff (ibid) discusses people who don’t belong to the standa standard rd variet variety y speech speech communi community ty tend tend to hesitat hesitate e to accept accept the
national harmoniz harmonizatio ation n of orthogra orthographie phies s, standard. standard. In harmonizat harmonization; ion; national international harmonization and language harmonization are included. National harmonization harmonization of orthographies aims at using similar graphic symbols in multilingual country for its various languages to facilitate reading and writing.
International harmonization harmonization is concerned concerned with cross boarder languages languages unific unificatio ation, n, where where speake speakers rs of the same same langua language ge are divided divided by nation national al boarder.
Language harmonization is usually used synonymously with unification to refer construction of a common language for a dialect-group by employing forms that are common to all variants in the group as much as possible. And when this is not possible usage as common form to the predominant majority or in previously attained literary forms. Gener Generall ally, y, the aim of harmo harmoniz nizatio ation n is to produc produce e one commo common n langua language. ge. Therefore Therefore in the process process variant variant forms between between dialects dialects are neutralize neutralized d or harm harmon oniz ized ed in the the com common lang langua uage ge.. It is done done on orth orthog ogra raph phy, y, the the languages themselves and also to develop common technical terminology.
6. Stages in Standardizing unwritten Language According to Haugen (1966) (in Oyetade 2001) there are four stages that are followed to standardize yet unwritten languages. These stages have similarity with the general standardization process, but still with slight difference. •
Selection of the norm At this stage the main work is dialectal choice. The criteria of selection can be one of such factors as: historical, resolution of some bodies of experts, by legislation, demographic and others.
•
Codification of the norm After the selection of a dialect, what follows is codification of the norm and and its core core work work is harm harmon oniz izat atio ion. n. What What’s ’s more more,, the the propo proposa sall for for orthography development is done at this stage.
•
Elaboration of function This is a stage at which which the selected selected dialect dialect (norm) (norm) and the codified codified form are used at different domains like education, media, literature and other domains.
•
Acceptability When the orthographic reform is welcomed by the people, it means that this this stag stage e is reac reache hed. d. Bamgbo Bamgbose se (198 (1985) 5) (in (in ibid ibid)) sugge suggests sts that that it is better to have few changes as much as possible in order to maximize the acceptability of the reform. Otherwise, if the change made is big, there might not be acceptability by the language users.
7. Criteria for Standard Dialect Selection To decide decide on one dialect dialect as standard standard over other other variants variants there are criteria criteria used widely. widely. Wolff (2000:335 (2000:335)) acknowledges acknowledges that these these criteria criteria are usually soc socioli ioling ngu uisti istic c
and and
som sometim times
pure pure
lin linguis guisti tic c.
The The
soc social, ial,
cultu ultura ral, l,
psychological and political factors which are related to language and used as criteria are the following: 1. Numerical muscles in terms of number of mother tongue speakers and
the degree of de facto use in vehicular function by by none mother mother tongue speakers 2. Degree of standardization and quantity of post literary materials already
available 3.
Histor Historica icall and cultur cultural al prestig prestige e among among a non native native speake speakers rs and linguistic ‘purity’ of the chosen variant in the eyes of mother tongue speakers
4. Historical, cultural and religious prestige of the mother tongue speakers
themselves 5. Political and economic dominance of its mother tongue or non mother
tongue speakers Mutual intell intelligi igibil bility ity of dialec dialects ts of a languag language e or language language cluste clusters rs 6. Mutual (Nyombe, 2001:134)
7. Scholars like Nyombe (2001:134) include acceptability of the dialect
by the users, as more important criteria.
8. Who can standardize a language? In the process of standardization may involve many people depending on the situ situat atio ion. n.
As
we
unde nderst rstand and
fro from
diff diffe erent rent
count ountri rie es
experi perie ence nce
standardization, the following are active participants in the whole process.
Governmental and nongovernmental organizations
Language engineers (linguists)
Politicians
Religious institutions
Media and the media people
Educators
Universities
Rulers
Individuals (like writers, literary persons…)
Speakers of the language
of
Bibliography Emen Emenan anjo jo E.N. E.N. (200 (2001) 1).. The Mode Modern rniz izat atio ion n Of The The Igbo Igbo Langu Languag age e An And d Its Impl Implic icat atio ions ns For For Holis Holisti tic c Educ Educat atio ion. n. In Prah Prah K.K. K.K. (ed.) (ed.).. Between Distinction And Extinction: The Harmonization And Standardization Of African African Languages Languages.. South South Africa; Africa; Witwat Witwater ersran srand d Unive Universit rsity y Press. Press. (pp.42-52) Fasold, R. (1987). The Sociolinguistics of Society . Oxford; Blackwell Publishers Ltd. Kamwan Kamwangam gamalu alu N.(2001 N.(2001). ). Lingui Linguistic stic Fronti Frontiers ers in Africa Africa.. In Prah Prah K.K. K.K. (ed.). (ed.). Betw Betwee een n
Dist Distin inct ctio ion n
And An d
Exti Extinc ncti tion on::
The The
Harm Harmon oniz izat atio ion n
And An d
Standardization Of African Languages. Languages. South Africa; Witwatersrand University Press. (pp.187-201) Oyetad Oyetad S. O. (2001 (2001). ). Issues Issues In The Harmo Harmoniz nizatio ation n And Standar Standardiz dizati ation on Of Yoruba Yoruba In Nigeria Nigeria And The Republic Republic Of Benin: Benin: Implicatio Implication n For Education And Development. In Prah K.K. (ed.). Between Distinction And Extinction: Extinction: The Harmonizat Harmonization ion And Standardizat Standardization ion Of African African Languages. Languages. South Africa; Witwatersrand University Press.(pp. 17-41) Msimang T. (2001). The Nature And History Of Harmonization Of South African Languages. In Prah K.K. (ed.) Between Distinction And Extinction: The Harmonization And Standardization Of African Languages. South Africa; Witwatersrand Witwatersrand University University Press. (pp. 165- 172) Nyomb Nyomba a B.G. B.G. (2001) (2001).. Harmo Harmoniz nizing ing,, Standa Standardi rdizin zing g An And d Classif Classifyin ying g Nilotic Nilotic Languages For Education. In Prah K.K. (ed.) Between Distinction And
Exti Extinc ncti tion on:: The The Harm Harmon oniz izat atio ion n An And d Stand Standard ardiz izat atio ion n Of Afric African an Languages. South Africa; Witwatersrand University Press.(pp. 125142) Rabim, Rabim, C. (1971). (1971). A tentative tentative Classificat Classification ion of Language-pla Language-planning nning Aims: Aims: In Rubin, J. and Jernudd, H. Can Language Be Planned? Planned? University Press of Hawaii. Rubin Rubin J. and Jernudd Jernudd B. (1971) (1971).. Can Language Language Be Planned? Planned? Sociolingus Sociolingustic tic theory and Practice for developing Nation. Nation. USA, The University Press of Hawaii. Webb, Webb,v. v. and and Kemb Kemboo-Su Sure re E. (2000 (2000 ). African African voices, voices, an introduction introduction to language and linguistics of Africa. Africa. Oxford University Press. African Wolff E. (2000). Language and Society: In Nurse, D. and Bernd H. African Languages, An Introduction. Introduction. Cambridge university press. Deumert Deumert Ana (2004) (2004) Language Language Standardizat Standardization ion and Language Language Change:the Change:the Dynamics of Cape Dutch. Nertherlands; John Benjamins publishers. publishers.
