Laboratory Management
Concept of Management Chapter I
Concept of Management Chapter I
Management •
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The art of getting things done through people Process consisting of planning, organizing, actuating and controlling Effective Effective motivation of men and the efficient utilization of resources for the attainment of a predetermined objective.
Nature of Management •
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Art – it results in the accomplishment of objectives through the use of human effort. It requires skill and careful study in its application Science - it is a systematic body of knowledge. It gathers and analyses facts and formulates general laws or principles from these facts
Functions of Management 1.
Planning
2.
Organizing
3.
Directing
4.
Controlling
Panning •
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It is the mental effort by which executives anticipate the possible causes or factors that may affect or change the activities and objectives of a particular organization It controls the nature and direction of change and determines what measures or actions are necessary to accomplish predetermined goals Should include several possible alternative courses of action that may be taken under varying conditions . The best course of action under the circumstances will be considered.
Organizing •
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The grouping together of men and establishing relationships among them Defining the authority and responsibility to the personnel who are to perform the work in order to use maximum advantage the laboratory’s material resources in the attainment of a common objectives
Directing •
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Refers to the way of getting all personnel in an organization to accomplish what management desires.
It involves both motivation and communication
Controlling •
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Checking the work accomplished against plans or standards The bases for controlling are standard quality, standard quantity, standard cost, and standard time
Three aspects involved in Controlling 1.
Planned performance
2.
A measure of actual performance
3.
Corrective measures
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Manager
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Director
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Administrator
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Supervisor
Manager •
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An individual whose job is to guide the organization to attain its objectives He performs the functions of planning, organizing, directing and controlling the work of his subordinates Takes charge of the management or oversees the functioning of an activity to achieve a set of goal or purpose His strength is his ability to use all of his resources to get things done properly
Director •
Directs the affairs of an organization by establishing goals and priorities that determine the direction of the organization
Administrator •
Administers or runs an organization within the framework or the various directives and policies given to him
Supervisor •
Oversees the activities of others to get them to accomplish specific tasks or to perform efficiently.
Essential characteristics of a Manager 1.
Motivation
2.
Vision
3.
Decision-making ability
4.
Good health
5.
Humility
What makes a good manager: Group by hospital assignment
What makes a good manager 1.
Appearance
2.
Personality – act with proper decorum
3.
Articulate
4.
Energy, driven, ambition
5.
Positive attitude – displaying a constructive, cheerful outlook in life
6.
Thoughtfulness
7. Overall composure 8. Aura of leadership – agreeable manner, self confidence
9.
bright, informed, a bit of sparkle
10. Breadth of interest – learn a little about many fields like
Management Levels 1.
First line manager – lowest level in an organization responsible for the work of others. They direct operating employees only they do not supervise other managers - often called supervisors
2.
Middle managers – refers to more than one level in an organization - direct the activities of other managers and sometimes also those of operating employees - their principal responsibilities are to direct the activities that implement their organization’s policies and to balance the demands of their supervisors with the capacities of their subordinates ex. CMT
3.
Top managers – composed of a relatively small group of executives. They are responsible for the overall management of the organization. It establishes operating policies and guides the organization’s interactions with its environment. ex. President of the Hospital
Roles of Managers 1.
Interpersonal
2.
Informational
3.
decisional
Interpersonal Roles 1. Symbol or a figurehead 2.
Serves as a leader – hires, trains, encourages, fires, remunerates, judges
3.
Serves as a liaison between outside contacts- community, suppliers, others and the organization
Informational Role 1.
Monitors – gathers informations
2.
Disseminators of information flowing from both external and internal sources
3.
Spokespersons or representatives of the organization.
Decisional Role 1.
As enterpreneurs are initiators, innovators
2.
Disturbance handler
3.
Resource allocator
4.
Negotiators when conflicts arise
Management Skills 1.
Technical skill
2.
Human skill
3.
Conceptual skill
Technical Skill •
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ability to use equipments, procedures and techniques of a specialized field The manager needs enough technical skill to accomplish the mechanics of the particular job he is responsible for
Human Skill •
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Ability to work with, understand, and motivate other people, either as individuals or as groups. Managers need enough human relation skill to work with other organization members and to lead their own work groups
Conceptual Skill •
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The mental ability to coordinate and integrate all of the organization’s interest and activities To recognize how the various factors in a given situation are interested, so that the action he takes will be in the best interests interests of the total organization organization
Managerial Performance Efficiency – doing things right - the ability to get get things done correctly. correctly. It is an inputoutput concept - an efficient manager is one who achieves output or results that measure up to the inputs (labor, reagents, supplies, equipment and time)
- able to minimize cost of the resources to attain the goals
Effectiveness - the ability to choose appropriate objectives. - an effective manager is one who selects the right things to get done
Indicators of Lack of Management Skills 1. 2.
Inability to maintain an adequate staff Recurring or persistent misunderstanding with the hospital administration 3. Frequent or recurrent confusion concerning requisitions or reports of laboratory work 4. Frequent rush orders for supplies 5. Low moral in the laboratory 6. Requests for deserved pay raise by competent workers (when funds are available) 7. Excessive cost of operation 8. Ignorance of the cost of operation 9. Expenditure of much of the manager’s time in making minor decisions 10. Inability to do one or more tests when a key individual has a day off
Management Planning Chapter II
Management Planning
Plan Planning
Nature and Importance of Planning To achieve the objectives of any organizations LRP – long-range plans
SRP – short-range plans
Values Derived from Planning 1.
The achievement of the objective of the organization in the most efficient and economical manner
2.
The use of efficient methods and the development of standards necessary for accurate control.
3.
Integration of activities of the different units in the organization toward goal-directed actions.
4.
The reduction of emergency and unexpected problems
Indicators of Poor Planning 1.
Late submission of results / reports
2.
Idle machines
3.
Materials wasted
4.
Some machines doing jobs that should be done by smaller machines
5.
Some laboratory personnel overworked, others are underworked
6.
Skilled workers doing unskilled work
7.
Laboratory personnel fumbling on jobs for which they have not been trained
8.
Quarreling, bickering, and confusion
Benefits of Good Planning 1.
Jobs turn out on time
2.
Good relationship with other departments
3.
People using their highest skills
4.
Workers know how their jobs fit into the total pattern
5.
Machines doing their proper jobs
6.
Equipment in good shape
7.
Materials available
8.
Waste kept to a minimum
Qualities of a Good Planner 1.
Good judgment, imagination, foresight and experience
2.
Ability to evaluate laboratory opportunities and hazards
3.
Proficiency in the determination of objectives
4.
Ability to accept changes
Types of Plans ( Hierarchy of Plans ) 1.
Purpose or mission
2.
Objectives or goals
3.
Strategies
4.
Policies
5.
Procedures
6.
Rules
7.
Programs
8.
Budget
General Principles in Laboratory Planning Strategic – identification of goals Tactical – methods for their accomplishments
Setting Goals and Objectives The first step in laboratory planning is the establishment of general goals and specific objectives by the laboratory staff Management by Objectives (MBO)
Mission – is a final ultimate goal Ex: “the mission of every hospital laboratory is the constant provision of timely and accurate test results for the purpose of assisting the physician in the delivery of good patient care”
Objectives - Represents the interim goals by which the mission is most logically and effectively pursued. - They should be quantifiable statements which are achievable over a designated period of time - May be immediate (priorities), intermediate or long range. - objectives require revival and updating
Management by Objective (MBO) - As a tool of management, it encourages discussion, interaction and consensus decision-making among all organizational levels of the laboratory
Planning: Strategic and Tactical Strategic Planning - Is conceptual and deals with the sweeping of what to do.
- It is concerned with the identification of the mission and of those objectives that will permit its most efficient pursuit - It is a function of the upper supervisory personnel with final authority and responsibility vested in the laboratory director
Tactical Planning - Implies action and deals with the method(s) for achieving the goals identified in the strategic planning process. - It often requires an operational or technical skill and is generally a logical responsibility of the supervisory staff.
Planning the Laboratory Design 1.
Laboratory director and the entire laboratory staff- in order to prevent misunderstanding all recommendations and changes must be documented in writing.
2.
Consultants or designers of laboratories
3.
Architects or architectural firm - they are essential in preparing the various drawing and contractor for construction.
4.
Contractor construct facility
Spatial Considerations in Laboratory Design 1.
The blood bank and the critical care laboratory procedures should be readily accessible to the emergency room, operating room and ICU. The location of blood bank should allow rapid access of donors and adequate parking donors if the blood bank is responsible for donor procurement, phlebotomy and/or apheresis.
2.
A specimen collection should be planned in proximity of the ambulatory care facility and the admitting office.
3.
If the laboratory is serving an in-patient population, accessibility to corridors and elevators providing access to the main patient care unit is essential.
4. The specimen receiving, data processing and reporting center serve as the hub of the laboratory. Radiating should be the various laboratories. 5. The critical care laboratories and large volume laboratories (such as hematology and chemistry) might be closely related to the central areas.
6. Those laboratories with greater turn-around-time (TAT) and or less volume, as well as those requiring special safety features ( such as clinical microbiology and radio assay and radio-assay laboratories) might be removed from the central area. 7. The intralaboratory traffic flow must be separated from the outside. Provisions should be made for ambulatory patients and blood bank donors coming into the laboratory.
assignment •
submit a layout of your respective laboratories
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Label each sections/directions
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Write down the names of the members
Organizing and Staffing the Laboratory Chapter III
Organizing Characteristics of Organization: 1.
Division of labor, labor, authority and communication responsibilities.
2.
The presence of one or more authority centers which control the concerted efforts of the organization and direct them towards its goals.
3.
Substitution of personnel
Concept of Organization 1.
Herd Concept -
“obey now, question later”
The subordinates follow the leader who yields exclusive power to decide and enforce unquestionable obedience in his subordinates.
2.
Man to man concept - the organization sees the individual working, in terms of direct personal relation with his superior.
3.
The social concept - the superior and subordinates are members of the team.
- the relationship is no longer man to man but man to his group
General Principles in Organizing and Staffing the hospital laboratory Organizing - Denotes an effort to divide total operations into size and type of units by which efficient and effective services are best assured and needs and weakness most easily identified.
- It is a major management responsibility for the purpose of securing a united and cohesive performance - Efficient and effective selection, grouping and utilization of personnel constitute a major responsibility
Table of Organization - Is a diagram (chart) that identifies the major operational units of an organization and their attending job position. - It is the single most concise representation of the organization and provides an important means of managing and monitoring all of its activities. - It also provides the members an understanding of their station and how they relate to one another - one position should have span of control (direct supervision) of 4-12 positions. 12 if functions are similar; 4 if functions are dissimilar
Table of organization Assignment: submit an org chart per hospital
Job Description - Are written declarations of a given job positions. - The supplement the table of organization by:
1. providing definition to all position 2. identify operational duties and responsibilities, and 3. salary classification and order to job performance
Job Specification - Represents the requirements for employment in a given job. - It provides the organization with the personnel requirements considered to match most efficiently with the demands of each job
Work Schedule - the arbitrary but firmly established practice of eight-hour shifts serve as the usual method of dividing each twenty-four hour period. - because of request patterns, the largest number of personnel are scheduled during the 1st eight period while the second and third shifts are staffed with fewer people
- whenever possible, one should strive for “two-deepness” in every position so that at least two people know every job on every shift
Basic Rules of Scheduling 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
7.
No more than 5 consecutive working days for each individual Provide two consecutive days off, except in the rare case where the individual prefers split days off Within the possibilities, give the individual shift he wants. Rotate weekend and holidays off with as much fairness as possible Post schedules at least three weeks in advance, even more if possible Stick to the schedule as closely as possible and make changes only when essential and only after discussion with others concerned Provide the opportunity for individual to ask for a specific day off on occasion
Reorganization - Is the process which an existing organization undergoes that brings about changes in the size and shape of the organization structure - There are two main reasons for reorganization: growth & adaptation
Directing and Supervising the Laboratory Chapter IV
General Principles in directing and supervising the laboratory Directing - directions must be written, comprehensive, current, clearly stated and reinforced by discussion and example
Supervision – entails responsibility in assuming that policies and procedures are followed
Characteristics of a Leader 1.
Liking for people This is the most important characteristic of a manager.
2.
Natural optimism.
3.
Good self-esteem - confidence
4.
Ambitious – work well
5.
self-discipline - to force himself to do necessary things even when they are unpleasant.
- ex. discharge an employee
6.
Good listener
7.
Poise - in the face of errors, disasters and accidents
8.
Accessibility
9.
Good memory - a good secretary
10. Good sense of values and sound judgment
Leadership Styles 1.
Style that evolves from a conviction of the merits of decentralized authority. - delegation of responsibility the weakness of this style: (a) if one part performs poorly, the entire system is jeopardized, (b) there is possibly a sense of isolation by the lower ranks.
2.
Style that is based on the concept of centralized authority. - authority to be concentrated at the very top.
Strength: 1. one person authority; actions and decisions are quick 2. avoids lengthy discussions
3. Leadership by absenteeism or inattention. This practice must be condemned.
Leadership Responsibility 1.
To formulate and document policies and procedures that are constantly current and relevant in effective pursuit of laboratory goals.
2.
To effectively communicate these plans to all personnel.
3.
To provide efficient means for assuring compliance with policies and procedures.
4.
To encourage free flow and exchange of ideas through all levels of the organization.
5.
To assure an awareness by all personnel of current trends and practices in the delivery of hospital laboratory services.
6.
To develop and maintain effective relations with the medical staff and hospital administration for assuring an open exchange of the needs and concerns of all parties.
Leadership Methods 1. 2. 3. 4.
5.
6.
To develop and constantly update all laboratory procedures and policies by preparation of appropriate manual. To schedule and conduct periodic meetings with the staff for discussion and review of policies and procedures. To delegate the responsibility for efficiently monitoring compliance with policies and procedures. To conduct periodic meeting with the laboratory staff to encourage innovative thinking and improvement in services. To fully support and generously budget for a meaningful laboratory continuing program. To assure awareness of the laboratory mission by requiring that appropriate personnel attend all hospital and medical staff meetings that call for laboratory representation
Leadership Responsibility 1.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
To formulate and document policies and procedures that are constantly current and relevant in effective pursuit of laboratory goals. To effectively communicate these plans to all personnel. To provide efficient means for assuring compliance with policies and procedures. To encourage free flow and exchange of ideas through all levels of the organization. To assure an awareness by all personnel of current trends and practices in the delivery of hospital laboratory services. To develop and maintain effective relations with the medical staff and hospital administration for assuring an open exchange of the needs and concerns of all parties.
Leadership Methods 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
To develop and constantly update all laboratory procedures and policies by preparation of appropriate manual. To schedule and conduct periodic meetings with the staff for discussion and review of policies and procedures. To delegate the responsibility for efficiently monitoring compliance with policies and procedures. To conduct periodic meeting with the laboratory staff to encourage innovative thinking and improvement in services. To fully support and generously budget for a meaningful laboratory continuing program. To assure awareness of the laboratory mission by requiring that appropriate personnel attend all hospital and medical staff meetings that call for laboratory representation
Managerial Grid 1.
Concern for Production - it is conceived as the attitudes of a supervisor toward a wide variety of things
2.
Concern for People
- it includes degree of personal commitment toward goal achievement, maintaining the self-esteem of workers, basing responsibility on trust rather than obedience, maintaining good working conditions and having satisfying interpersonal relations.
4 Extremes of Basic Styles 1.
1.1 style or “impoverished management”
2.
9.9 style or “team management”
3.
1.9 style or “country-club management”
4.
9.1 style or “autocratic task management”
Controlling Chapter V
Controlling - Involves measuring, restraining and correcting performance to accomplish an objective as it was planned. - It involves the measurement of certain elements such as time, quality and quantity and cost against a yardstick of standards or models which have been established and the evaluation of the work or performance of various personnel in the organization.
- A good control system encourages each employee to exercise self-control. Self-control would be possible when standards of criteria for performance exists to the point where an employee knows the specific level of performance expected of him.
Types of Formal Control 1.
pre-action control - controlling by means of personal supervision and utilizing control checks consisting of procedures for any given task or function.
2.
post-action control - controlling as the task or function is being performed or may have been performed and corrective deviations from standards or plans
Steps in Controlling 1.
Determination of the standards or basis of control based on appraisal of past experience.
2.
Measurement of performance by observation, reports or statistical data.
3.
Comparison of performance with the standards, models or criteria to determine deviations or difference.
4.
Enactment of remedial measures or steps to correct deviation or errors.
Determination of Standards Performance standards must be expressed in quantitative terms whenever possible. It may mean the average unit of output an average employee maybe able to perform per hour, per day or per week. Determination of standards vary from one laboratory to another ranging from those based on past experience etc.
Information Management Chapter VI
Communication - Is the process in human relations of passing information from one person to another. It is most frequently conducted by written or spoken word but may be conveyed by gesture, lack of gesture, manner of dressing, personal appearance and general behavior - The data generated by the laboratory has been called potential information and is not actual information until it has been utilized in patient care.
Interdepartmental Communication Interdepartmental communication – is the transmission of information between or among departments
Recommendations: 1. Be courteous at all times 2. Speak distinctly and in a pleasant tone of voice. 3. Be certain all questions and answers are clearly understood. 4. Do not answer questions about which there is uncertainty. Consult resources of department (immediate supervisors, manuals, etc) 5. Do not allow delay in answering telephone. 6. Never leave telephone unattended after call is received: if placed on “hold”, reassure caller at frequent intervals that attempt is being made to complete connection. When receiving calls, initiate conversation with “good morning…”, 7. department of laboratory. When transferring calls, inform person of caller’s name and 8. department 9. When making calls, prepare remarks with name and department 10. Be certain all written or typed reports are neat, legible and accurate; also that they are dated and initiated or signed.
Intradepartmental Communication Intradepartmental Communication - Is the transmission of information within the department. Communication is better within the department because of proximity, similar education related duties and common goals among co-workers.
Recommendations: 1.
Know the department’s table organization and all communication channels so indicated.
2.
Be certain of job description and all duties set forth.
3.
Confer messages by memo if face-to-face or telephone communication is not possible.
4.
Minimize conversations unrelated to job duties.
5.
Maintain effective contact with members of all shifts.
6.
Be constantly alert to the posting of all schedules and notices.
Public Relations Ten Commandments of Human Relations (Caltex Phil) 1. Speak to people. There is nothing as nice as a cheerful word of greeting. 2. Smile at people. It takes 65 muscles to frown only 15 to smile. Call people by name. The sweetest music to anyone’s ears is the sound of his own 3. name. 4. Be friendly and helpful. If you would have friends be friendly. 5. Be cordial. Speak and act as if everything you do were a genuine pleasure. 6. Be genuinely interested in people. You can like everybody if you try. 7. Be generous with praise. Cautious with criticisms. 8. Be considerate with the feelings of others. It will be appreciated. 9. Be thoughtful of the opinion of others. There are three sides to a controversy-yours, the other fellow’s and the right one. 10. Be alert to give service. What counts most in life is what we do for others.
Ways to Communicate 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Informal talks – this is he most fundamental form of communication. It is suitable for day-to-day liaison, direction ad exchange of information. It must provide opportunity for a two way exchange. Planned appointments- this is appropriate for regular review or liaison recurring joint work sessions, etc. Telephone calls-this is good for frequent check-up or for empathy or receiving information, instruction, data, etc. Interoffice memos-they are effective for recording informal inquiries or replies. Use of memos should not be overdone, or they will be ignored. Letters-the are useful for official notices, formally recorded statements or lengthy communications even when the addressee is physically available. Reports-they are used to convey information associated with evaluation, analysis, recommendations, etc to supervisors or colleagues and are most effective when based on conferences, visits, inspections, surveys, research study etc.
7. 8. 9.
10. 11. 12. 13.
Informal staff meetings- it provides opportunity for the development of strong group cohesiveness and response. Supervisor should hold staff meetings earl morning, at the end of the day or at lunch. Planned conference- they are relatively formal affair. Participants be given time to prepare needed data, information, reports, recommendations, etc. Mass meeting- they are conducted by management with large number of employees. They are valuable means of celebrating occasions, building morale, introducing new policies, or key personnel, making special announcements. Bulletin boards notices-they are effective for lengthy or formal announcements. Posters Exhibits and display Visual aids (films, filstrips)
Categories of Communication 1.
Upward communication – when a subordinate communicates directly to his supervisor or superior.
2.
Downward communication- when a superior or supervisor communicates directly to his subordinates.
3.
On-the-same-level communication- or communication among peers.
4.
Diagonal communication-when a supervisor and a subordinate not under him communicate.
Don’ts of Upward Communication 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
don’t try to shield the boss. The subordinate must not prevent any upsetting news form reaching supervisor. Don’t try to over protect yourself. Don’t “playdown” certain facts because we know that their disclosure would make us look bad. Don’t think that the need to discuss a problem will just disappear if you don’t say anything. Don’t be afraid of the result of communications. Don’t neglect to communicate because you are not directly responsible. Don’t rely on someone else to send the word upward. Don’t think you must have a solution before you discuss a problem Don’t use upward communication to blow your horn.
What Subordinates want from the Boss 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Back up the subordinates’ decision
Tell subordinates what he (the boss) expects of them and how they are going. Give recognition for work well done. Be interested in subordinate as people-make them feel they belong. Provide good leadership and be competent for the job. Give constructive criticism. Tell the whys of the job/work Follow the chain of command Pass along information-both up and down the line.
10. Get raises for subordinates and for the workers they recommend. 11. Have confidence in the ability of subordinates. 12. Recognize the difficulties in getting the job done 13. Take the responsibility rather than pass the buck 14. Make good decisions 15. Be loyal to the subordinates and to the lab 16. Welcome ideas and opinions; let subordinates have a voice in decision 17. don’t play favorites, be fair 18.Help subordinates in problems beyond their depth
What Supervisors want from fellow Supervisors 1. 2. 3. 4.
Exchange of ideas and information Have work completed on time for the next fellow Give and take constructive criticism Keep one another informed about new procedures, policies and rules. 5. Respect one another’s authority 6. Achieve uniformity in the interpretation of policies and enforcement of rules. 7. Try to understand one another’s problems 8. Render necessary assistance to one another 9. Straighten out differences in private and among themselves rather than carry them with the boss 10. Refrain from putting one another on the spot 11. Practice teamwork and refrain from passing the buck 12. Show loyalty to the laboratory and respect for its policies
Requisitioning Proper requisitioning procedures assure adequate identifications of the patient and the specimen, indicate the measurements or examinations desired, and facilitate reporting of the results. An additional important function is the provision of administrative and billing data.
Information contained in a request form 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.
Laboratory procedure number or other identification Identification of the patient name and hospital number Room number or address of patient Age of the patient Sex of patient Status (stat, pre-op, etc) Name of the practitioner Date and time the specimen was collected Date and time the specimen was received Date, time and by whom the specimen was examined Condition of any unsatisfactory specimen Type of tests or procedure to be performed
Reporting 1.
Compactness
2.
Consistency of terminology, format and usage of abbreviations and symbols
3.
Clearly understandable
4.
Logical and accessible location in medical chart
5.
Statement of date and time of collection
6.
Good description and source of specimen when pertinent
7.
Sharp differentiation of reference or normal and abnormal values
8.
Sequential order of multiple results on single specimen
9.
Identification of patient, patient location and physician
10. Assurance of accuracy of transcription of request 11. Ease of preparation 12. Administrative and record keeping value
Verbal Reports Telephone reports - Can be given in order to facilitate medical care, particularly in an emergency situation. On the other hand, this is a major potential source of errors and resulting medical liability. To avoid this, the laboratory should require proper identification of the person receiving the report and of the patient . The person giving the report should report the patient’s name, identification number and location along with the results in order to further confirm the identification.
Communication Cycle in Processing a Clinical Determination
The typical cycle of communications necessary to completely process a request for laboratory procedure is shown. In a physician’s office laboratory, only the patient, the physician, and the laboratory technologist maybe involved in the cycle.
In a large medical center, however, more than 3 persons and many more steps maybe involved in completing this cycle. With each additional step or person, an additional potential source of error, confusion or delay is introduced In order to contribute effectively to medical care, those in the modern clinical laboratory must concern themselves with the ramifications of this entire cycle rather than confining their interests only to the generation and dissemination of laboratory result
The first step in the cycle of physician- laboratory interaction is the encounter between the patient and the physician, resulting in a decision for a laboratory test. The physician’s decision is translated into a written requisition for laboratory measurements or examinations. The requisition included the requested determinations as well as basic demographic information about the patient. Following collection of the specimen by the physician or laboratory personnel, the requisition and appropriately labeled specimen are sent to the laboratory. The requested measurements and/or examinations are performed, the resulting data are processed and checked for validity, and a report is returned to the physician. Although this simplified cycle highlights the essential information interchange involving a clinical laboratory, many other interactions are necessary, especially in larger laboratories.
Personnel Management Chapter VII
Personnel Management (Personnel Administration) Is the phase of management concerned with the engagement and effective utilization of manpower to obtain optimum efficiency of human resources.
Personnel Program Personnel Program – consists of series of activities intended to carry out the personnel policies of the laboratory for the purpose of realizing objectives of the organization 1.
2.
3.
Employment - the recruitment, interviewing, testing, induction, placement, transfer, merit, rating, promotion, training, counseling, and separation of employees. Safety – provisions for safety standard, mechanical safeguards, accident investigation, safety rules, and safety records and statistics Employee relations – matters related to collective bargaining, wage and salary administration, grievance system, medical and dental services, labor management relations and morale studies
4.
Employee research and standards – job analysis, job description, job evaluation, job grading, wage analysis, organizational planning and employee manuals
5.
Employee services – recreational plans, insurance plans, profit sharing plans and miscellaneous services
Personnel Policy Personnel Policy – is the statement of intention that commits the laboratory manager to a general course of action in order to accomplish a specific purpose. It is necessary in an organization because management can not deal with each employee solely as an individual
10 areas Normally considered in personnel policies: 1.
recruitment, selection and planning
2.
Employee induction and training
3.
Employees rating and promotion
4.
Transfer, downgrading and lay-off
5.
Disciplining and discharge
6.
Salary and wage administration
7.
Changes in work assignment and hours
8.
Services for employees
9.
Employee’s health and safety
10. Employees’ participation and work problems
Functions of Personnel Manager 1.
Recruit and interview job applicant
2.
Administer employment tests to job applicants
3.
Indoctrinate new employees on laboratory history, objectives, policies and rules
4.
Introduce the new employees to his supervisor, the officers of the organization, his associates and subordinates
5.
Motivate employees to do better
6.
Keep employment records of all employees
7.
Assist in transferring, promoting, demoting, discharging or retiring employee.
8.
Handle complaint: grievances and disciplinary action cases.
9.
Negotiate with the labor unions or union officials
10. Provide personnel services, medical, social and recreational.
Sources of Labor 1.
Internal sources – refer to the employees actively working in the laboratory.
2.
External sources – include persons who apply in person, who answer advertisement and who are recommended by schools.
Process of Personnel Selection Steps in the Selection Process:
1.
Posting or advertising job vacancies
2.
Reception of applications / applicants either in person or in writing
3.
Preliminary interview - filling up the information sheet or the application blanks or -sending of the information sheets or application blanks by mail and returning the same to the laboratory
4. applicant is interviewed by the personnel manager. It could be used to determine what type of personality, the applicant possesses. The types of interviews used include: - planned and patterned interviews
- Non-directive interviews - depth interviews - group interviews
5.
Applicant reports to the personnel manager or his assistant who briefs him on opportunities in the organization. - performance tests - aptitude tests
- interest tests - test of emotional reaction / and adjustments - test of attitudes
6.
Investigation of applicant’s background
7.
Introduction of the qualified applicant to his immediate boss
8.
Selection from among qualified applicants
9.
Medical examination
10. Induction and placement of the new employee
* Job applicant who fall short of the required qualifications for the job in question or who may be over qualified maybe rejected
Personnel Interview Pre-employment interview by the manager is necessary in order to increase the accuracy of prediction on the applicant. The interview questions should be well thought in advance and should be in areas of interest as personal, history, education background, volunteer activities, work experience, aspirations and objectives, self-assessment and strength and weakness.
The interview should not neglect the following basics: 1.
Setting the stage in advance so the interview will be in control and not be interrupted by other visitors
2.
Asking general questions to set the applicant at ease
3.
Respecting the applicant’s individuality
4.
Getting the applicant to talk revealingly.
* there is a final caution “do not jump into conclusion”. There are three things about impressions. Sometimes close to truth, sometimes dangerous and always based on limited information.
Pointers in Personnel Selection 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
An applicant who has held 3 to 4 jobs within the past five years is a high risk. Chance are this person is a job hopper. Recent emotional crises in an individual may lead to emotional instability for a period of time. If the writing is sloppy, it may indicate a generally careless attitude. Unanswered items in the application from indicate forgetfulness or evasiveness. Over qualification is about as bad as under qualification. Check if the reference is a close friend or relative of the applicant. If the medical history is lengthy or ambiguous, there is a good chance that the applicant is either in poor health or somewhat neurotic. Hiring relatives or close personal friends must be discouraged. If other things are equal, hire people you instinctively like. Generally, the person who work for financial reasons is likely to be a more stable employee than is the person who is economically independent.
Personnel Orientation Personnel orientation- is the introduction of the employee to this new environment. The orientation must include the ff: 1.
A briefing of the history, objectives, policies, rules and regulations of the laboratory
2.
Introduction to his associates and subordinates
3.
Description of his duties and responsibilities and the role he plays in the organization
4.
Introduction to laboratory facilities and services.
5. Briefing on mechanism of setting problems, problems, complaint complaint or grievance and rules pertaining to discipline or reprimand. 6. Briefing on opportunities for education, training and advancement 7. Briefing on sick-leave policy, overtime-work, time and place for receiving pay. 8. Try-out the employee’s new job. 9. Another meeting between the new employee and the personnel manager before dismissal from work for the day. * it is a good policy to have a period of o f probation-usually about 3 months
Personnel Evaluati Evaluation on Personnel Evaluation consists of periodic written reports on employees’ performance. It is necessary because: 1.
It provides a basis for counseling interview with the employee
2.
It provides a resource document for appraisal for promotion, transfer, separation, and references
3.
It is a way to summarize day-to-day and week-to-week evaluation.
The most frequently measured attributes are quantity of work (productivity), judgment, knowledge, adaptability, adaptability, initiative, personal relations (interaction (interaction with others), work habits (attendance, compliance with rules and regulations, orderliness), communication (oral or written expression), creativity, quality of work and other factors. factors. Rating scales from 1 to 5 (outstanding, above average, below average, unsatisfactory respectively) can be used. Each employee must be evaluated at regular interval-twice a year. * assignment: Give example of evaluation form
Promotion is the advancement of an employee to better job in terms of greater responsibility, more prestige, or “status”, greater skill, and especially increase rate of pay or salary Qualities considered in Promotion: 1. Honesty 2. Ambition 3. Initiative 4. Determination 5. Enthusiasm 6. Common sense 7. Knowledge 8. Originality 9. Understanding 10. Communicative ability * No employee should even be promoted solely on the basis of seniority. Seniority is factor only when there is more than one candidate of equal capabilities
Discipline and Dismissals (discharging) Requires documented facts sufficient to support the contemplated action. Documentation should include the ff: 1. Specific instances of poor performances or misconduct 2. Circumstances surrounding performances or misconduct. - dates, times, places and names and titles of persons involved in he situation - whether the employee knew what he was supposed to do; when and how bad he had been told
3. 4. 5.
•
*
Prior misconduct, if any Evidence of warning that the misconduct should not be repeated or that the poor performance could not continue Records that definite time limit was set for improvement and followup don’t neglect the employees’ side of the story. Have all the facts before taking disciplinary action, especially if the action is to be contested by the union, in the courts or before civil rights agencies.
when an employee becomes a liability, rather than an asset, he should be dismissed.
Personnel Record - Provides a ready references to an employee, job description, education, experience, qualifications, length of employment, job references, written reprimands, comments and personal list… - Larger laboratory maintains summary and analysis records. This is to keep the director up to date on vacancies, personnel turnover, retirements, staffing patterns, recruiting services, and other vital data to maintain a good staff. - Records should be centralized with accessibility limits to appropriate supervisor and employee in order to maintain confidentiality of information.
Employees’ Conflict Warning signs: 1. Discussions between two people that flare up into arguments. 2. Open backbiting remarks by one about the other. 3. Complaints from one about the other. 4. No direct contact between two people. They take pains to exchange information thru co-workers. They even refuse to eat lunch with the others. 5. A request for transfer. 6. Other employees talking about the feud. 7. Increased absenteeism for no apparent reason.
Conflict Mediation Techniques: 1.
Phase 1: clarifying the problem The mediator must therefore guide both parties into perceiving their disagreement as the problem rather than each other.
2.
Phase 2: finding out what each side wants from each other The mediator must ask both parties exactly what they want from one another. By writing down the wants of both sides, the mediator shows that they have been heard.
3.
Phase 3: reaching agreement the supervisor asks each party what items on the list of wants they can agree upon.
Pointers in solving conflicts 1.
Do not affix blame on another.
2.
Do not threaten to fire anyone.
3.
Do not jump in and suggest solutions before you’ve gathered all the pertinent information.
4.
Do not nod in agreement as an employee explain his side of the conflict.
5.
Do not rush the process. It may take several meetings to reach an agreement that is satisfactory to both sides.
Habitual Tardiness This is a chronic disease of unknown etiology. Although cures are rare, some remissions may be attained with the ff therapy: 1. Dock salary for late minutes. It works only on the most miserly or penurious employee. 2. Reschedule for a later starting time, (a half hour to one hour). 3. Reassign to a different department where there is no overlap of personnel. When all fails, mark “ improvement needed” on the employee’s 4. performance evaluation. 5. If the employee has all other positive features, promote to supervisor. This is considered “shock treatment” but often effective.
Compensation for work The laboratory manager should review the salary structure from five basic standpoints: 1. Requirements of laws and regulations such as minimum wages and overtime 2. Correlation between salaries in the lab and those in other competing organization. 3. Relationship among salary levels or ranges of the various types within the organization. 4. General salary distribution- include number of steps from the lowest to increasing salary in each type of position. It also includes timing of payments, incentives for overtime and call back situations, night time or holiday differentials. 5. Financial conditions of the organization * The non-monetary compensation should be included. Such benefits like retirement plans, insurance, annual and sick leaves and free or discounted services play an important part in the total compensation plan
Motivation of employees Motivation - is a general term applying to drives, desires, needs and wishes of an individual in order to perform - It involves a chain reaction starting out with felt needs, resulting in wants or goals sought which gives rise to tensions (that is unfulfilled desires), then causing action toward achieving goals and finally satisfying wants.
Herzberg lists extrinsic and intrinsic factors of motivation Extrinsic Factors or Hygiene Factors 1.
Pay or salary increase
2.
Technical supervision or having a competent superior
3.
Human relations
4.
Organization policy and administration
5.
Working condition or physical surrounding
6.
Job security
Intrinsic factors of motivation factors 7.
Achievement (completing an important task successfully)
8.
Recognition (being single or out of praise)
9.
Responsibility for one’s own or other’s work
10. Advancement (changing status through promotion)
Maslow’s 5 successive levels of needs 1.
Physiological needs - these are hunger for food, sexual gratification, and shelter
2.
Safety needs - these are needs for protection against danger and threats. Expressions of safety needs are seen in preferences for job security, insurance, etc..
3.
Love needs - these are needs for love, affection and belongingness
4.
Esteem needs
- those are needs for self-respect, and for the esteem of others 5. Need for “self actualization” or “self fulfillment”
Job enlargement and job enrichment Job Enlargement - Is the process of increasing job scope. - Or a system of job rotation may be initiated, so that workers move from one job to a completely different one.
Job Enrichment - Is the process of increasing job depth.
- Individual employees maybe given responsibility for setting their own work space, for correcting their own errors, and/or for deciding on the best way to perform in a particular task.
Herzbers’s motivators
Maslow’s Level of needs
Self actualization needs
Ego or self esteem needs Social or love needs Safety or security needs Physiological needs
and hygiene
factors Work itself Achievement Growth Responsibility Advancement recognition
Status Interpersonal relation Supervision Company policy and administration Job security Working condition Salaries and wages
Motivation factors
Hygiene
factors
