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INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA FOR EFFECTIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING
By
ADENIREGUN, Gbolahan Solomon
Department of Business Administration, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
[email protected]
INTRODUCTION
The use of multimedia in industries has been extensive, as it has been effective in increasing productivity and retention rates, where research has shown that people remember 20% of what they see, 40% of what they see and hear, but about 75% of what they see and hear and do simultaneously (Lindstrom, 1994). Multimedia is now permeating the educational system as a tool for effective teaching and learning. With multimedia, the communication of information can be done in a more effective manner and it can be an effective instructional medium for delivering information.
Multimedia access to knowledge is one of the possibilities of information and communication technology that has tremendous impact on learning. The instructional media have emerged in a variety of resources, and equipment, which can be used to supplement or complement the teachers' efforts in ensuring effective learning by students.
It is recognized that conventional media technologies can no longer meet the needs of our teaching and learning processes; as a result they are being replaced by multimedia technology. This technology provides a learning environment that is self-paced, learner-controlled and individualized.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Multimedia is defined as the combination of various digital media types such as text, images, sound and video, into an integrated multi-sensory interactive application or presentation to convey a message or information to an audience. In other words, multimedia means "an individual or a small group using a computer to interact with information that is represented in several media, by repeatedly selecting what to see and hear next" (Agnew, Kellerman and Meyer, 1996).
Reisman (1994) described multimedia as a ray of "computer-driven interactive communication system, which create, store, transmit and retrieve, textual, graphic and auditory networks of information.
Multimedia could be interpreted as a combination of data carriers, for example video, CD-ROM, floppy disks, Internet and software in which the possibility for an interactive approach is offered (Smeets, 1996; Jager and Lokman, 1996).
Fetterman (1997) also viewed multimedia as those resources used for instruction that include one or more media such as graphics, video, animation, image and sound in addition to textual information. He identified four important characteristics of multimedia as:
Multimedia systems are computer controlled
Multimedia systems are integrated
The information content must be represented digitally
The interface to the final presentation of media.
The power of multimedia lies in the fact that it is multi-sensory, stimulating the many senses of the audience. It is also interactive, enabling the end users of the application to control the content and flow of information. This has introduced important changes in the educational system and impact the way we communicate information to the learners (Neo and Neo, 2000).
Ogunbote and Adesoye (2006) expressed that multimedia technology adds new dimension to learning experiences because concepts were easier to present and comprehend when the words are complemented with images and animations. Stating further that it has been established that learners retain more when a variety of senses are engaged in impacting knowledge; and the intensity of the experience aids retention and recall by engaging social, emotional and intellectual senses.
The evolution of multimedia has made it very possible for learners to become more involved in their work. With multimedia technologies, they can create multimedia applications as part of their project requirements. This would make them active participant in their own learning process, instead of just being passive learners of the educational content.
Reinsman (1994) expressed that multimedia involves processing, storage, generation, manipulation and retention of multimedia system, and the resources could include text files, pictures, video, audio, databases, archives, library catalogs, course notes, relevant links to various websites and easy access to search engines available on the Internet (Shuell and Ferber, 2001).
A study by Ubogu (2006) supports the view that multimedia resources facilitate access to all human knowledge, anytime, and anywhere in a friendly, multi-modal, efficient and effective way, by overcoming barriers of distance, language and culture, and by using multiple Internet-connect devices.
It is important to say that the use of multimedia technology has great significance in colleges, universities and research institutions in the Western countries. In these countries, the technology is being seen as a key player to development in all ramifications and essential component of education.
However, Babajide (2003) identified different types of multimedia communication, some of which include computer hardwares, computer softwares, public address systems, slides, overhead projectors, opaque projectors, videos, cassettes, audiotapes, cassette recorders, flip, time sequence, streamcharts, Diorama still motion pictures among others.
MULTIMEDIA IN EDUCATION
Multimedia in Education has been extremely effective in teaching individuals a wide range of subjects. Multimedia is changing the way we communicate with each other. The way we send and receive messages is more effectively done and better comprehended.
While a lecture can be extremely informative, a lecture that integrates pictures or video images can help an individual learn and retain information much more effectively. Using interactive CD-ROMs can be extremely effective in teaching students a wide variety of disciplines, most notably languages and music.
A multi-sensory experience can be created for the audience, which in turn, elicits positive attitudes towards its application (Neo and Neo, 2001). Multimedia has also been shown to elicit the highest rate of information retention and result in shorter learning time (Ng and Komiya, 2000).
On the part of the creator, designing a multimedia application that is interactive and multi-sensory can be both a challenge and thrill. Multimedia application design offers new insights into the learning process of the designer and forces him or her to represent information and knowledge in a new and innovative way (Agnew et al, 1996).
However, information technology application serves different purposes, such as knowledge sharing-portal, search engines, public administration, social service and business solution. Oshodi (1999) posits that awareness created towards the use of information and communication technology over the years is increasing in the classroom learning environment in the third world such that mere verbalization of words alone in the classroom to communicate ideas, skills and attitude to educate learner is futile.
Omagbemi (2004) supporting this view expressed that access to multimedia information could stimulate changes and creates conductive learning environment and make learning more meaningful and responsive to the localized and specific needs of learners.
There is certainly no lack of vision within educational communities concerning the central role and importance of ICT in the educational contexts of the future (Wood, 1993). That vision is shared by many and is accompanied by an acknowledgement that in order to realize this vision, three factors – access, training and targets must be provided (DFE, 1995; Simpson, Payne, Munro and Hughes, 1999). However, Hoffman (2001) suggested that successful implementation of ICTs need to address five interlocking frameworks for change namely the infrastructure, attitude, staff development, support (technical and administrative) and also sustainability and transferability.
The many kind of ICTs implemented at teaching and learning can be used in education for different purpose. For instance, some of them help students with their learning by improving the communication between them and the instructors (Valasidou, Sidiropoulos, Hatzis and Bousiou-Makridou, 2005).
In a study conducted by Simpson et al (1999) it was found that 64% of the teacher educator used ICT in the production of traditional resources of overhead transparencies and hand outs using standard word processing package; 27% indicated that they made use of and had experience with more powerful communication and presentation software; 32% incorporated the use of any ICT software into the lectures and only 24% made use of CDi resource materials. The study also revealed that in the tutors' delivery of the courses, the students seldom experienced demonstrations of the use of ICT as a teaching tool, that is, the tutors seldom modelled its use through their own practices. However, these tutors gave lack of time to practice skills and the limited accessibility of some specialized facilities as constraint factors on their use of ICTs in teaching.
Studies have shown that, there are some factors that determine academics' use and non-use of new technologies for teaching and learning in the advanced countries and these include, the needs of the learner, the characteristics and experiences of academics, the technology available, the environment within which academics work and how valuable they perceive the use of technology to be for teaching their students (Spotts, 1999; Jager and Lokman, 1999; Chun and Kwan, 2005; and Munoz – Repiso and Tejedor, 2006) and the disciplinary context of which the academic is part (Rowley, Banwell, Childs, Gannon – heary, Londsdale, Urguhart and Armstrong, 2002). However, research have demonstrated that there are disciplinary and subject differences in the way ICTs are being used and adopted in teaching and learning (Jager and Lokman, 1999; Jones, Zenois and Griffiths, 2004 and Eynon, 2006).
In developing countries, Nigeria inclusive, factors like lecturers' attitude, (Agbonlahor, (undated); Perception and use of media (Mabawonku, 1987); Perceived ease of use (Mabawonku, 1987; Ehikhamenor, 2005) quoted by Agbonlahor (undated); Perceived usefulness (Aghonlahor, (undated); Characteristics of lecturers (Gender, Age, Experience; Qualification etc); Adekunmisi, Ojo, Amusa and Obadeyi 2009; Training (Osunade, Philips and Ojo (undated); Opinions of "significant others" and or peers in the university community (Agbonlahor, (undated); Availability of infrastructural facilities (Osunade et al (undated); Iloanusi and Osuagwu (undated); Cost of Purchasing (Ehikhamenor, 2005; Iloanusi and Osuagwu (undated); Management attitudes (Sife, Lwoga and Sanga, 2007); Use/knowledge of computer (Anadarajan, Igbaria and Anakwe, 2002); Power supply (Osunade et al (Undated); Iloanusi and Osuagwu (Undated) amongst others.
INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA FOR EFFECTIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING
What Are Instructional Media?
According to Azikiwe (2007), instructional media cover whatever the teacher uses to involve all the five senses of sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste while presenting his/her lessons. In a similar vein Adegun (1997) says instructional media are things which are intended to help the teacher to teach more effectively and enable the students to learn more readily. Instructional media are information carriers designed specifically to fulfill objectives in a teaching-learning situation. They are very important in language teaching, especially the foreign language, because they facilitate the direct association between sounds and their symbols and also words and the objects they represent. They help to vividly illustrate meanings of things because they are associated with materials used by the teacher to improve the quality of his teaching.
Types of Instructional Media
Instructional media according Mustapha et al. (2002) and Azikiwe (2007) are usually classified based on the characteristics they exhibit. There is a wide variety of instructional media which could be profitably and effectively used in the second language classroom learning situation. They could be broadly classified into four groups namely visual aids, audio-visual aids, audio aids and resources (human and materials). Visual aids are resource materials and devices that appeal to the sense of sight and touch as well as sense of smell. They consist of :
Non-projected aids which include chalkboard and adhesives.
Pictorial aids which include charts and pictures
Mobile
Three-dimensional aids
Projected aids which include film-strips and slides, and slides projector
Laboratory equipment, chemical and apparatus
Books
Learning resources that fall under audio-visual aids appeal to the senses of sight, hearing and touch. They include line sound film, sound strip projector, television and video tape-recorders and tapes. The audio aids are instructional materials that appeal to the sense of hearing and touch too. They include records and record players, tapes and tape recorder, radio and language laboratories. Resources could be human or materials. Human resources include the teacher, the pupils and other resource persons in the community. Materials include all those physical objects mentioned earlier such as chalkboard and realia (real objects such as bottle, yam, cup, stone, spoon and knife).
Instructional media, according to Adegun (1997), may be bought by the school for use by the teacher. They may be made by the teacher (improvisation). They can be borrowed by the school or the teacher or obtained free of charge by him/her. Some can be donated freely by individuals or non-governmental organization (NGO) to school(s).
Fundamental Principles Guiding the Selection of Instructional Media
The teacher of English is solely responsible for appropriate selection of instructional media and should, therefore, be guided by some fundamental principles. The instructional materials to be used must be
related to the topic of the lesson;
within the age and maturational level of the learners - bold and colourful ones at pre-school and primary school levels;
pre-viewed by the teacher before the actual lesson to ascertain that everything is in order; and
accurate in content and acceptable in other places for same lessons.
The Selection and Uses of Instructional Media
Instructional media facilitate teaching and learning activities and, consequently, the attainment of the lesson objectives. However, this depends on the adequacy and appropriateness of materials so selected. This, in effect, means that learning resources are not selected haphazardly (Azikiwe, 2007). Indeed, resource materials to be used should be carefully selected by the teacher. This is an aspect of the teacher's duty where special skills in educational technology and psychology of learning will come to his assistance.
Azikiwe (2007:98) identifies at least six guidelines for selecting resource materials which the English teacher must not lose sight of when planning his /her lessons. An important criterion for selection and use of resource materials is availability of the needed materials. In other words, before the teacher decides on materials to use, s/he must be certain that they are available as well as accessible to him/her and the learners. More often than not, the best materials to be used are not available due to the lack of fund. Herein lies the need for every teacher to avail him/herself of the skills for improvisation of instructional materials. If the need arises, the materials could be improvised.
The language teacher does not decide to use any materials just because it has been theoretically stated that the materials are effective for teaching a particular topic, whereas they are not physically available. Rather, the availability of the materials should be ascertained before the decision to use them. Availability implies, therefore, that the resources to be used must be physically provided and made accessible to both teachers and learners as and when needed. Secondly, consideration should be given to the possibility of having enough for members of the class to be equitably involved in the class activities. Furthermore, materials might require other special facilities such as recorder, socket, adaptor and electricity before they could be used. The teacher should, therefore, ascertain that everything needed for the use of materials is available and within easy reach to him and the learners before it is selected. The question form for this criterion is Are the needed instructional materials available and accessible to teachers and learners?
The instructional media to be selected must be relevant to the objectives as well as to the target population (i.e. learners) for whom the materials are to be used. This is important because the objectives that the materials are designed to achieve should be similar to those that the teacher and the learners are trying to achieve. Being relevant to the learner means that the characteristics of the learner such as the age, level of attainment or maturation, ability, aptitude and capability, should all be borne in mind to enable the teacher to select relevant materials for their needs, interest and aspirations. When resources are relevant to the learners they make for easy and meaningful teaching and learning activities. This criterion could be put in a question form thus: What are the educational and instructional objectives set out to be achieved using the materials.
In view of the cultural differences between communities, though the curriculum might be the same, resource materials that have been found effective in one cultural context may not be suitable and effective in another.
The teacher, therefore, should endeavour to select appropriate materials from the community for teaching its learners instead of using materials because they have been used and found effective in other areas. This is especially important for teaching and learning language, and some other subjects. Any resources selected for use must be appropriate to the objectives as well as to the learners.
The question form of the criterion is: How useful are the resources in terms of the educational and instructional objectives and the characteristics of the learners?
The physical features of learning resources are a very important factor for their selection and use. Physical features here means attractiveness, durability, size and clarity of the resources. Also, considered under quality are accuracy, clarity and usefulness of the illustrations, drawings and paintings and weight of the materials for ease of handling and storage. All these factors should be considered before selection is made. As a result of the present economic recession in the country, efforts should be made to conserve funds by purchasing resources that are of high quality, and so will last for a long time. The question under quality is: What are the physical features of the instructional materials?
In many developing countries that are experiencing economic depression, the teacher, in the selection of instructional materials should be economical. The resources should be cheap, but this does not mean sacrificing quality for cost. The teacher and learners should find ways and means of providing necessary materials which are very expensive by improvising them, using available local materials. Furthermore, it will be more economical to invite resource persons to the schools rather than take the learners to the person. But when the use of resource material is inevitable and the attainment of curriculum objective is jeopardized without it, such a resource material should be purchased at all cost and properly stored. Other considerations under this criterion are the cost in terms of time and energy to be expended by the users. The question to be asked therefore is: How much would it cost in terms of money, time and energy to use the instructional materials?
The Usefulness of Instructional Media in Teaching and Learning of English as a Second Language English as a second language in Nigeria is foreign and very abstract to the learners, especially as the language manifests features that are different from our mother tongues (MTs). The use of instructional media in teaching and learning of English is, therefore, more imperative than any other subject.
The following are some of the indispensable values of instructional materials in the teaching of English as a second language, as identified by Williams (1990) and Azikiwe (2007):
1. They increase the retention rate of learners; the use of picture or film for instance will establish an image more firmly than just listening to the teacher or reading about it. They therefore make learning more permanent.
2. They increase the ease with which teacher teaches and children learn. For instance a teacher, teaching listening skills could employ the use of recorded speeches played on cassette player. This is a very useful aid and it can even be used in rural areas where there is no electricity with the aid of dry-cell batteries. The aim of this is to expose the students to variety of voices other than that of their teacher. The level of their listening ability could now be tested by asking questions on the various conversations they have listened to.
3. They assist teacher to communicate clearly, accurately and effectively as they serve as good reference points
4. They supply the experiences which are not easily obtained in the classroom and contribute to the efficiency, depth and variety of learning. For instance pictures of air-craft, ships, boats, lorries, bicycles, motor cycles, donkeys, camels, horses, trains etc could be used in direct teaching of vocabulary related to transportation.
5. They relieve the teacher of the problem of presenting repetitive drill materials. For instance, the use of flash cards could be employed in teaching vowels and consonants through the use of minimal pairs.
The words are written on the cards with contrasting sounds underlined and these are presented to students for practice, e.g.:
/p/ /f/
Pair fair
Pit fit
/I/ /r/
Load road
Lead read
The teacher would not have to talk throughout the lesson as s/he may make use of the group leaders
6. They can stimulate a sense of observation and provide opportunity for developing critical thinking and objectivity as students may often have to comment on the instructional aids used.
Effect of Video on the Teaching of Library Studies among Undergraduates
Akpabio (2004) viewed video as a potential window that can expose the minds and heart of many to modern practices and environmental concepts, far more than what the traditional classroom teaching can achieve. He stated further that youths and children are so enthralled with home video films that they are described as video crazy. This interest can be exploited in the formal school system for teaching / learning in vivid and entertaining manner.
Fatunmbi (2005) stated that studies have shown that there is improvement in teaching – learning process through the use of video. According to him, video can be used to provide real experiences in almost all field of learning. It can be made to repeat information and demonstration as many times as possible, thereby, learning is made easier, realistic and concrete for learners. It allows for self instruction. It provides a cheap and fast way of disseminating educational information and practical skills.
Beshnizen and Van Puthen (2000) declared that video can help the teacher to work more closely with the learner and reduce the need for repeated explanation. It has the capacity to motivate learners and difficult skills are better viewed especially with the slow motion. Lastly, the high quality of visual images makes videotape presentation a more realistic package and gives the learners who are experienced TV viewers, familiar ground to work with.
Cuban (2001) expressed that video lectures are feasible through the use of personal computer. They are not recording of classroom lectures but cover lecture material as screen displays of content files with audio narrative are added. They can be produced before a course begins or developed as it progresses.
Dunn (2000) found that video lectures make available instructor – quality lectures that students can view and study as much as needed to meet their individual learning needs. They are detailed step-by-step explanation of materials used in classroom lectures and are presented at a delivery pace that is significantly slower than what can be accomplished in the limited time available in the classroom. They can be paused and repeated and thus can be studied by students at their own learning pace. Additionally, video lectures are more focused learning experiences than the traditional study of a textbook.
Sarker and Nicholson (2005) declared that for video lecture to be effective, they must be accepted and used by students. They must provide an enjoyable or at least satisfactory learning experience, be perceived by students as providing a time-efficient study resource and / or be perceived as improving understanding and grade performance.
Ogilby (2008) who worked on video lecture and teaching strategy found that, students who used the video were 73% of the respondents. The high use rate suggests that students broadly accept and use video lectures as a form of computer-based instruction and as an enhancement of traditional classroom courses. Moreover, 31.5% viewed the video in advance of classroom lectures, 72.2% used it to do homework, 72.4% used it to prepare for examination, 63% agreed that video is good for tutoring help and 38.9% believed that it helped to raise their course grade.
Whatley and Ahmad (2007) stated that, for video lectures to be most effectively used by students, they should appeal to their learning style preferences. Video lecture appeals are as follows (a) their content is 100% relevant to course performance requirements and it is presented at a more detailed pace than classroom lectures, (b) videos can be replayed and enable students to repeat the instructor's explanation (c) they can be viewed at a time, location and under environmental conditions of a student's choice (d) their portability enables listening and study without the competing distractions that often accompany classroom lecture.
Isiaka (2007) who researched on the effectiveness of video as a media found that video group performed better than the group without instructional media. The video group did significantly better than the chart group. He concluded that video was an effective medium for teaching / learning in schools.
Deveaney (2009) discovered that all his respondents were favourable to video tutorial. 75% reported that the tutorials were enjoyable and interesting, 84.6% indicated that, it met their needs, 100% reported that they were straight forward and easy to understand, 92.4% agreed that the length of the tutorial were appropriate and 90.8% believed that viewing gave them better understanding than textbooks and guide sheets. He concluded that video is a viable tutorial tool for online courses.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
From the findings of this study, it was concluded that when video is used in teaching, it enhances learners' positive attitude towards the course. Also it affects their performances positively.
Recommendation:
Having studies indeptly the effect of video on teaching, the following are the recommendations:
1) Every teaching / learning activities should always be supplemented with media such as video.
2) Teachers must have good training on the use of media.
3) Students' favourite media must be investigated and used to teach them.
4) Government must create more awareness through seminar / workshop on the use of media.
5) The Nigerian (federal) government should see ICT integration effort at the university as an embracing project to development in education and should support by allocating and releasing adequate funds to invest in massive Internet connectivity, as well as purchase and installation of ICT infrastructures. Also, the university must aim to ensure accessibility, availability and reliability of ICT facilities such that every lecture room and staff offices have computers linked to Internet and have equipment appropriate for accessing a range of electronic resources.
6) If the government is not forthcoming, the university management can solicit for both internal and external funds and support from willing individuals, philanthropists and international organizations. They can also embark on networking and partnership programmes for funds, technical supports etc but should ensure that funds or support realized are geared toward sustainability of ICT integration and application efforts.
7) The government can also help by subsiding or reducing the tariffs on importation of ICT facilities so that lecturers and others can afford the purchase of these ICT facilities and accessories since the price will come down.
8) It is also being recommended that the University lecturers be exposed to series of training and development skills in the use of these high technology facilities. Integrating the use of technology into curriculum in a purposeful and meaningful way is one of the many problems facing lecturers today. ICT training should be given to lecturers and other members of staff in the university on integration of technology in instruction.
9) Adequate, competent and experienced ICT technical staff must be made available should problem arises.
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