Global Implications of Western Education on the Antipolo/Amduntug Ifugao One should resist the temptation to view tribal societies in isolation from the influences of Western culture. This article shows the tremendous influence Western society has had on tribal cultures to the degree that some have become peasant societies. What and how they are affected also influences the way tribal and peasant peoples perceive Christianity.
by Tom Steffen
I
n t h i s p a p e r I w il il l c o n s i d e r s o m e o f
these “stairsteps to the sky” would
their children sent to them for educa-
the
span
miles.
tion in the cities. Wise Christian work-
e d u c a t i on on h a d , a n d c on on t i n u e s t o h a v e ,
They also depict the race that devel-
ers do not minimize the preexisting
u p o n t h e An t i p o lo lo / Am d u n t u g If Ifu g a o
oped
centuries
ago
linkages between the urban, peasant,
of the Philippines, and identify several
them
currently
today:
avenues the Ifugao have taken to pre-
ingenious,
serve their cultural identity in the
independent.
major
implications
western
approximately
20,000 and
persistent,
maintains
industrious, strong,
and
International Linkages
m i d s t o f s u c h p o w e r fu fu l in in f lu lu e n c e s . T o accomplish this I will first look at the major
international
educational
players in the history of the Philipp i n e s , t h e S p a n i s h a n d t h e Am Am e r i ca ca n . I will follow this by identifying how the two
educational
systems
influence
traditional Ifugao values.
A n t i p o lo lo / Am d u n t u g
d i a c h r o n i c v ie ie w o f h i s t o r y , a r g u e s t h a t
One should not view tribal socie-
no society stands totally independent
ties in isolation from the influences of
from any other society. He contents
urban society (Steffen 1993). While
that the world is totally integrated
geographical between
distances
some
tribal
may
exist
societies
and
urban societies, the latter often have plans for, and exert a powerful hold upon the former. For example, urban-
Background Th e
Wolf (1982), who takes a Marxist
National Linkages
educational philosophies of the two
a n d t r i b a l s o c ie ie t i es es .
ites provide public education for tri-
with each specific part affected to some extent by the whole. The basic cause
for
these
global
linkages,
a r g u e s W ol ol ff,, i s e c o n o m i c s , t h a t i s , t h e system of how goods are produced, c o n s u m e d , d i s p e r s e d , a n d s o fo fo r t h . As As
If Ifu g a o ,
b a l s ( of oft e n w i t h t e a c h e r s fr o m o u t s i d e
numbering around 3,200, make their
the tribal dialect). The urbanites ask
home in the Kiangan municipality of
for
Ifu Ifu gao Provin Provin ce, Centr al Luzon, Ph ilipilip-
issue land titles, and in some cases,
pines. They are located on the south
c o ll ll e ct ct t a x e s . T r ib ib a l s i n s t i t u t e c o m m u -
western bord er of If Ifu gao. The Ant Ant ipolo
nity
Ifugao speak the Keley-i Kallahan dia-
national government. They go to town
l ec ec t w h i l e t h e Am Am d u n t u g If Ifu g a o s p e a k
to purchase necessities and to sell
The Philippines has experienced
Ya t t u k a , b o t h o f w h i c h a r e i n c l u d e d i n
their goods. As for education, tribal
the control of three foreign powers:
Kallahan, a subfamily of Ifugao, a
families often find themselves sending
the Spanish, the American twice, and
branch of the Malayopolynesian lan-
t h e i r c h i l d r e n t o c iitt i e s fo fo r h i gh gh e r e d u -
t h e J a p a n e s e . Th e S p a n is h a n d A m e rr-
guages (McFarland 1980:76). These
cation. In the religious realm, major
icans brought with them their educa-
people, along with other groups of Ifu-
religions,
tional systems which has had signifi-
g a o , a r e k n o w n f or or c r e a t i n g t h e e i gh gh t h
Islam, etc.., continue to have some
cant
wonder of the world—the Ifugao rice
success with tribals, if not directly in
including the Ifugao highlanders. The
terraces. If stretched out in a line
the geographical areas, then through
An t i p o l o/ o/ Am d u n t u g Ifu g a o c a n n o t b e
land
declarations
councils
such
to
so
interact
as,
they
with
Catholicism
can
the
or
societies together
are
inevitably
through
brought
economics
and
modes of production, conflict results, c r e a t i n g c o n t i n u a l c h a n g e t o a l l s o c i eeties involved. Wolf views the conflict i n d u c e d c h a n g e s a s p o s i t iv iv e. e.
influence
on
all
Filipinos,
International Journal of Frontier Missions Vol. 15:2, Apr.-June 1998
98
Global Implications of Western Education understood adequately apart from an understanding
of
the
educational
Focusing response
on
to
the
Filipinos’
Spanish
education
Spanish—these would eventually cost him h is lif life.
influences brought to the Philippines
Schwartz also divides the educational
Other factors helped bring about
from the distant shores of Spain and
history of the Philippines into three
a c h a n g e o f c llii m a t e t o P h i li li p p i n e e d u -
America.
education
phases,
time
cation. One was the opening of the
and economics are closely connected,
frames:
teaching
S u e z C a n a l wh wh i c h b r o u g h t m a n y m o r e
Wolf Wolf’s p remise of in in tern ation al link-
roles in mission schools and start
v is is i t o r s a n d t r a d e t o t h e P h i li li p p i n e s . A
ages becomes obvious. Just as there
their own private schools following the
middle-class
are national linkages that affect tribal
Spanish pattern (1590-1640), 2) edu-
seeking
peoples,
cation
Another factor was the influence of
In
so
this
there
system
are
international
linkages.
S p a n i s h In f l u en en c e s In 1565, the Spanish discovered t h e P h i li li p p i n e s . W it it h t h e s w o r d i n o n e hand and a Bible in the other they began to systematically conquer the
m o r e a n d m o r e Sp Sp a n i s h m o ve ve d t o t h e conquered Philippines it became necessary for the Spanish government to set up schools to educate their own children, from primary to the university level. In that the Spanish did not separate church and state, education included vigorous instruction in the Cath olic olic r eligi eligion. on.
different
Filipinos
extended
take
throughout
the
primary education for every Filipino.
attended their own private and secondary
school
attending
along
the
with
a
University
number
of
Santa
T h o m a s . S t i ll ll o t h e r s s o u g h t d e g r e e s in in E u r o p e (1 (1 8 4 1 - 1 8 9 6 ) .
remained rooted in the propagation of Spanish values. This is evident in one
to the development of analytical or
and the love for independence. In
language
Sch wartz’s wartz’s first first p ha se Filipinos Filipinos began
1965:64).
their own private schools patterned after the Spanish counterparts. Filipino priests who were not allowed to establish their own parishes because of the type of blood that flowed in veins
often
pioneered
these
schools. Some may have joined the just
to
make
a
living.
schools.
social mobility, but rather dissemi-
economic,
the
Spanish
school
phase, the independence characteristheir
skills
(Hunt
and
McHale
The first American census (1903) revealed that only around 20 percent of the adult population claimed any exposure fluency
to in
formal the
education
Spanish
or
language
(S m i t h a n d C h e u n g 1 9 8 1 : 2 9 - 3 0 ) . N ev ev ertheless, Spanish education helped a small but influential group of Filipinos, formerly controlled by fatalism, to see that the physical world could b e c h a n g ed ed . Th Th e y le le a r n e d t h a t n a t u r e was not capricious; that people and
By the tim e of Sch wartz’s wartz’s th ird tic became evident. The Filipinos had own
primary
and
secondary
t i o n a l h i s t o r y o f t h e P h i li li p p i n e s u n d e r
schools
Spanish rule into three periods: 1)
t e r n e d a ft e r t h e S p a n i s h m o d e l) l) w h i c h
founding the schools (1565-1768), 2)
q u a l if ifi ed ed t h e iirr g r a d u a t e s fo r e n t r y i n t o
progress
the Spanish controlled universities.
(1768-1863),
1863
tion of religious materials in contrast
vide Filipinos an avenue of upward
education
of
of the Filipino: the ability to imitate
served as a model for the Filipino
of
Decree
consisted basically of the memoriza-
t h e C a t e c h i s m S c h o o ls ls w a s n o t t o p r o -
Alzona (1932) divides the educa-
Educational
raises two contrasting characteristics
or
ues.
the
way through the teaching style that
educate the Filipinos. The purpose of
nate “colonial-Hispanic-Catholic” val-
Even so, schooling for Filipinos after
Sch wartz’s wartz’s ins igh igh tful obs obs ervation
Whether their motives were religious
to
education.
resulted in the legal foundation for
they
schools
indigenous
same (1640-1840), and 3) Filipinos
movement
separate
developed,
European Liberalism on Spain which
interested in educating their own, so instituted
eventually
a n d a t t e n d a n c e r e m a in in e d v ir ir t u a l l y t h e
their
But the Spanish were not only
1)
with
islands but Filipino mission schools
i s la la n d s . Al Al on on g w i t h t h e c o n q u e s t c a m e a great influx of Spanish citizens. As
but
called Latinities
(still
pat-
God were all a part of a rational syst e m ; t h a t a n s w e r s t o p e o p l e’ e’s p r o b lems
could
be
found
in
the
West
(Hunt and McHale 1965:65). This set th e st age for for th e Filipinos’ Filipinos’ next colocolonial master.
American Influences
and 3) the educational decree and
But
after
(1971)
racism. Alzona (1932:168) was con-
Wh i le le t h e S p a n i s h u s e d t h e s w or or d
correctly
v in in c e d t h e o b j e c t iv iv e of of S p a n i s h e d u c a -
and the Bible to colonize their new
emphasizes the educational policies
tion was to make Filipinos “the pas-
subjects
and practices of Spanish colonialism
sive, servile and blind servants of the
rifles and American textbooks. After
but fails to take into consideration
friars .” So was J ose Rizal, Rizal, a ren own
the Americans defeated the Spanish
how the Filipinos used education for
national hero, who authored two key
and took control of the Philippines a
t h e i r o wn wn p u r p o s e s .
books calling for the overthrow of the
call went out for American teachers.
(1863-1898).
believes
this
Schwartz
breakdown
International Journal of Frontier Missions
the
Filipino
tired
of
Spanish
the
Americans
used
Krag
99
Tom Steffen According to the Philippine Islands Board
adult lives. They blamed this not on
absence of an educational system in
(excluding the Protestant work ethic),
the teach ers, bu t lack of time spent b y
t h e I s l a n d s fr o m w h i c h t e a c h e r s c o u l d
focusing on the secular. The reason
the
be procured” (1925:17) to set up a
given for the de-emphasis of religious
called for textbooks that would reflect
nation-wide public school system in
instruction in the schools by the Phi-
Filipino culture rather than American
the Philippines patterned after that of
lippine Island Board (1925:99) was
culture.
United
was
“because
States.
of
the
cans
separated
church
and
sufficiently to carry over into their
state
the
this
Unlike the Spanish, the Ameri-
children
By
S p a n is h e d u c a t io i o n h e lp l p e d a s m a ll bu t infl influ en tial grou grou p of Fil Filipin os, form erly cont roll rolled b y fat fat alis alis m , to s ee th at th e ph ysical ysical world world cou c ou ld be c h a n g e d . Th Th e y le le a r n e d t h a t n a t u r e wa wa s n o t c a p r ic i c iio o u s ; t h a t p e o p le le a n d G o d were all a p ar t of a ra tiona tiona l system ; an d th at a n swers to people’ people ’s p roblem roblem s could be fou fou n d in th e West. West.
Philippines armed with western values. One of thes e teachers, Roy Bartaught
and
1969b), conducted
significant anthropological fieldwork among the Kiangan Ifugao. Before the
teachers
arrived,
however, the American military
staffed
of
Filipino
replace
teachers
the
to
American
teachers. The training of these Filipinos, however, was all too often not that thorough. The Philippine Islands some
Board
provided
statistics
on
the
Am e r i c a n / F i li li p in in o teacher ratio after twenty
and
schools
also
tion was to develop develop a core
years of effort and the
organized the first elementary
They
the American administra-
e r s b e g a n a r r i vi vi n g in in t h e
(1969a;
school.
One of the goals of
1901, American teach-
ton
in
influence:
in
1 8 9 8 (G a t e s 1 9 7 3 ) .
t h a t a r o u n d a h u n d r e d y e a r s o f e xp xp e r imentation
with
th e Filipino Filipino by p roviding roviding every Filipino Filipino
American
public
c h i ld ld a fr e e e le le m e n t a r y e d u c a t i o n . T h e
resulted only in “religious dissensions
imported curriculum promised every
a n d a n t a g o n i s m s , ” t h e r e f or or e , r e l ig ig io io u s
F i li li p in in o c h i ld ld t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o l e a r n
instruction should fall under the func-
to read, prefer democracy, work hard
t i on on o f t h e C h u r c h a n d f a m i l y. y. N e ve ve r -
(long fingernails had to go as factories
theless, the Americans did allow relig-
needed
self-
ious instruction to be taught in the
free elementary education for all Fili-
improvement, have a common lan-
schools to meet the needs of a deeply
pino
guage, grasp scientific thought, move
religi religiou ou s society.
e n t i r e ly ly fr fr o m t h e In In s u l a r G o ve ve r n m e n t .
The Americans set out to pacify
workers),
seek
up the social ladder, and, be prepared to eventually govern themselves.
this
issue
school
in
the
...the crux of the whole spoken English problem lies in the oral speech of the Filipino teachers. Of the 27,305 teachers in the teaching personnel 26,980 are Filipinos. The influence on the spoken English of the Islands of the 325 American teachers who are now in the schools is practically nil (1925:154).
system
In that the Americans only knew English, and the textbooks were in
F u n d i n g fo fo r t h e m a s s i ve ve p r o j e ct ct o f children
While
the
could
not
Philippine
be
raised
government
favored the education plan, levying some education tax, the majority of
Board
English, English soon became the lan-
a r g u e d : “ Th Th a t e v e r y c h i l d s h o u l d h a v e
guage medium in a nation of over a
a n e llee m e n t a r y s c h o o l in in g i s t h e i d e a l of of
hundred
all
education”
uncommon for teachers to penalize
The Americans took schooling far-
(1925:33). So vigorous were the Amer-
students for using their own language
ther down several roads the Spanish
ican’s ican’s a ctivities ctivities tha t by 19 18 “virtu “virtu ally
at school. Filipinos found themselves
did not traverse. Believing that the
all of th e colon colon y’s y’s 8 00 mu nicipalities
again required to learn the language
“wealth of the Archipelago is agricul-
had at least an elementary school
of
ture,”
and, even more remarkably, one in
wished to be involved in commerce or
schools, e.g., the Central Luzon Agri-
four of the more than 16,000 barrios
w it it h t h e g o ve ve r n m e n t . W h i l e t h e Am Am e r -
cultural
had some kind of school in operation”
ic a n s i n c lu lu d e d S p a n i s h in t h e c u r r i c u -
s c h o o ls ls t o o k t h e e m p h a s i s o n g a r d e n -
(Smith and Cheung 1981:30). Even
lu m i t wa wa s s e ld ld o m t a u g h t .
ing in the elementary schools another
The
Philippine
modern
Island
public
their
languages.
colonial
It
masters
was
if
not
they
the Catholic Church was influenced
As for language ability, the Philip-
by the Protestant work ethic inherent
pine Islands Board (1925:45) felt the
w it it h i n t h e A m e r ic ic a n s c h o o l s y s t e m .
children were not learning English
the
funds
came
from
the
United
States.
they
instituted
School
step—farming.
at
The
agricultural
Munoz.
These
agricultural
schools were to be independent of other schools in the area, located in farming areas, and accept only stu-
Vol 15:2 Apr.-June 1998
100
Global Implications of Western Education dents who planned this type of occu-
abroad, especially in the U.S.A. This
p a t i o n ( wh wh i c h d i d n o t a l w a ys ys h a p p e n ).
d e s i r e c r ea ea t e s a “ b r a i n d r a i n ” a s m a n y
Not only was the Philippines in
youth leave the Philippines in search
need
of
agricultural
schools,
they
of lu lu crat ive ive jobs.
w e r e a l s o in in n e e d o f i n d u s t r i a l s c h o o l s
Elementary
continued
with six grades while secondary edu-
commercial goods from local prod-
cation
ucts. Through these “hands-on” types
resulting
of schools the Americans strived to
schooling. School uniforms stressed
make manual labor look attractive, an
solidarity. Occupation is often unre-
attitude
lated to college training, however, in
they
believed
the
Spanish
h a d d e s t r o y e d a m o n g t h e F i li li p in in o . The Spanish emphasized educa-
reduced
in
a
to
four
ten-year,
years,
pre-college
that who one knows is often more i m p o r ta ta n t t h a n w h a t o n e k n o w s (H (H u n t
Americans
a n d M c H a l e 1 9 6 5 : 7 1 ) . Am Am e r i c a n p r a g -
included females in education, where
matism, Hunt and McHale also note,
today, male and female students are
did not “lead to a stress on science
about equal in number (Smith and
laboratories nor has the lecture and
Cheung 1981). The Spanish pointed
memorization
Filipinos toward the west for scientific
placed by discussion and experimen-
answers.
tat ion” (19 65:6 7).
tion
for
males.
The
The
Americans
continued
approach
been
dis-
While the Filipinos Filipinos ’ ben t for imita-
created the feeling of dissatisfaction
tion remains, they have not lost their
w it it h i n t h e F il il ip ip i n o a n d a l u s t fo r m o v -
love
ing up the social ladder, which often
remained the national language until
m e a n t a m o ve ve t o t h e b i g c it it y .
Filipino (Tagalog) replaced it in the early
Contemporary Filipino Education The Filipinos have retained many o f t h e v a lu lu e s a n d i n s t it it u t e s b r o u g h t t o
1 9 7 0 ’s ’s
independence.
u nder
a
English
n ew
r is is e
of
na tiona lism lism . Becau se of th e Filipino’ Filipino’ss l ov ov e fo fo r i m i t a t i on on a n d i n d e p e n d e n c e , a love-hate relationship remains with their former colonial powers.
wide literacy program that provides a
accomplish
Lynch,
I
see
themes
encompassing the more important valof
a
society.
Opler
(1945:198)
defines a theme as: “a postulate or p o s i t io io n d e c l a r e d o r im im p l i e d , a n d u s u ally controlling behavior or stimulating activity, which is tacitly approved or open ly promoted in a society.” I will will now investigate eight major themes found
in
family,
traditional children,
Ifugao
society:
reciprocity,
land,
rice, rice wine, animals, unity, sacrific iiaa l s y s t e m , a n d e d u c a t i o n . (F (F o r a d i s cussion on the opposing themes, see Chapter 13 of my book Passing the Baton: Church Planting Planting That Em pow e rs .)
The Ifugao family is based on the Philippines, which includes relatives b a c k t o t h e t h i r d c o u s i n o n b o t h s i d es es of the mother and father. The ancestors and unborn comprise the invisible
extended
nuclear
family.
family,
(1969a:18),
a
Within
says
husband
the
Barton and
wife,
“...are never united into one family. They are merely allies.” Should a dispute arise between a husband and wife the families on either side will
their shores by past colonial powers. Positive features include: 1) a nation-
they
b i la la t e r a l s y s t e m , c o m m o n i n a l l o f t h e
this thinking. Both colonial powers
for
Following ues
education
that could train Filipinos to produce
was
and for what (1970:55).
T r a d i t i o n a l If If u g a o Themes
m e a n s o f s o c ia ia l m o b i l it it y fo fo r a n u m b e r
b a c k t h e iirr o w n . According to Barton (p. 85): “An
Every society has a shared set of
Ifu Ifu gao’s gao’s
fam ily ily
is
h is
n ation .” He
of youth, 2) a nation-wide education
values that serve as a guide to life for
states elsewhere: “The family is the
system that provided the ground work
its members. Bock defines cultural
only thing of the nature of an organi-
for the Philippines to become one the
values
zation that the Ifugao has, and he
world’s world’s h igh igh est st u den t rat io for colcol-
what
ideals
cherishes it accordingly (p. 8). Any-
lege
McHale
which the members of some social
thing that would attempt to break up
1965:70), 3) female students that bal-
group accept....and which therefore
the Ifugao family ( pamilyah pamilyah ) will be
ance the nu mber of male students, 4)
influence the behavior of group mem-
met
agricultural
highly
bers” (1969:407). Lynch believes that
should
esteemed, 5) age-grading for classes
values should be distinguished from
member be challenged by an outsider,
remains in that it corresponds with
themes when he states:
the accused can most always count
education
(Hunt
schools
and
remain
th e Filipino’ Filipino’ss own age-group ing (bark a d a), and 6) independence and indi-
vidualism fostered through the school system has helped erase the “little brown brother” image. A negative feature includes the search for education
as: is
“shared
desirable,
conceptions they
are
The extremely basic values, or themes, are....buried below two levels of less fundamental values; namely instrumental values, which are important only for what they can achieve or get, and intermediate values, which people appreciate both for what they are
International Journal of Frontier Missions
of
with the
resistance.
For
reputation
of
example, a
family
o n h i s fa fa m i ly ly t o b a c k h i m . A ga ga i n B a r ton sa ys, “A “A mem ber of an Ifu Ifu gao fam fam ily
assists
in
the
punishment
of
o ff ffe n d e r s a g a i n s t a n y o t h e r m e m b e r o f his family, and resists the punishment of members of his family by
101
Tom Steffen other families (p. 7). On the other
stingy (m a k i n i t ) , one of th e worst th ing
and spirits ask the spirits of certain
hand, should two brothers, or any
any Ifugao can be called. Just as an
things (animals, money, bolos, betel
children of a family, fight for any rea-
Ifugao is expected to share what they
n u t , s k i r t s , l o in in c l o t h e s , b l a n k e t s , r i c e
son the family is deeply shamed. The
have, they can expect to receive from
wine, and so forth) in exchange for
family should always stand together
o t h e r s t h o s e t h i n g s t h e y n e ed ed .
protection from sickness and misfor-
fo r t h e r e i n , a n d o n l y t h e r e i n , i s fo fo u n d
The theme of reciprocity can be
true security. The bigger the family,
s e e n i n t h e p a r e n t / c h i ld ld r e la la t i on on s h ip .
t h e m o r e s e c u r i t y. y.
tune,
or
gain
material
wealth.
Receiving gifts (tangible and intangible) is a two-way street.
The child (u-ungnga )
is
L a n d ( p u y e k )
t h e c e n t r a l f ig ig u r e i n t h e Ifu g a o
Life is ch a n gin gin g fas fas t for for th e Ifugao. Desires from within and p r e s s u r e s fr fr o m w it it h o u t a r e h elping elping create a n ew If Ifu gao cap a ble of of coping with with a fa fa s t ch an gin gin g worl w orld. d.
gao family exists principally for th e child m emb ers of it” (p. 30). Agreeing and adding the why,
is
another
important theme among the
family. Says Barton: “The Ifu-
reason
to
Hoebel
(1 9 6 7 : 1 0 4 ) c on on t e n t s : “ Be Be c a u s e children provide the continu-
Ifugao. Land provides the Ifugao
access
to
many
food
sources, cash crops, materia l s , a n d t h e r e fo fo r e t h e o p p o r t u nity to expand wealth. Parents have their children inherit the land early in life, with the old-
ity essential to the perpetua-
est child usually receiving the
tion of the kinship group, the
largest and best share—if not
small family exists primarily for its
Ifu g a o la la w d e m a n d s t h a t p a r e n t s t a k e
child
so
care of their children while they are
The Ifugao distinguish numerous
important to an Ifugao couple that
young. But when the parents grow
types of land. In the village (bebley ),
divorce is almost assured should they
old, Ifugao law expects the children to
families usually have a small piece of
not be able to produce offspring after
r e c ip ip r o c a t e t h a t c a r e .
land for their home. Outside the vil-
members.”
Children
are
a p eriod of time.
The theme of reciprocity is also
From the time of birth an Ifugao
evident
in
the
work
force.
all of it.
l a g e , m o s t h a v e p o n d s ( p a y e w ) where
Groups
they grow wet rice, the main food sta-
child is never left alone. Should the
(u b b u ) work together in the fields.
ple. Those families who own land with
b a b y c r y , h e / s h e w i ll ll r e c ei ei ve ve i m m e d i -
When a field owner calls a workday,
water
ate attention. If the parents are not
other workers, usually the same par-
their fields will receive ample water.
able to quiet the baby they become
ticipants, will join him. On another
Those having fields down the line will
e x t r e m e ly ly u p s e t .
day, someone else will call a workday.
have to settle with whatever water is
As the children grow, they are
He can expect to receive help from
left over. Some will own grasslands
never forced to do anything they do
those he has helped. Should those
( patulan patulan ) w h e r e a n i m a l s c a n b e p a s -
not want to do. For example, even if
summoned not be able to make it,
tured. Most will have forest land (m u y -
the child is extremely sick but does
they will send another representative
wher e firewood, firewood, wood for th e con u n g ) wher
not wish to take the prescribed medi-
from th e fam fam ily. ily.
struction
sources
of
a
are
envied
home
and
because
granary,
demon-
vines for basket weaving, herbs, and
ents give the children whatever they
strates reciprocity. One example is
so forth, can be found. Coffee trees
desire. Should the child desire an
fo u n d i n a m a j or or s a c r i fi fi ce ce w h e r e m a n y
will also be planted under the cool
education
into
animals are killed. In that it is often
shade of taller trees providing the Ifu-
extrem e debt to see th e child’s child’s will fu l-
i m p o s s i b l e fo fo r t h e p a r t i c ip ip a n t s t o c o n -
gao the biggest cash crop. All will
filled. The child is central to the Ifu-
sume all the meat, and there are no
h a v e la la n d f or or s w i d d e n f a r m i n g (h a b a l)
gao family.
refrigerators, meat is sent home with
t o g r ow ow c r op op s f or or c o n s u m p t i on on a n d / o r
the attendees and given out to the
s a l e . Th Th e n u m e r o u s c i vi vi l c a s e s d e a l in in g
From
neighbors. The provider of this meat
with land disputes argues the impor-
early childhood community members
will not go unrewarded. On another
tan ce of this importan t commodity.
teach the young the importance of
occasion his family will receive meat
s h a r in in g . No No m a t t e r w h a t t h e c h i ld ld h a s
from som eone else’s else’s sa crifice. crifice.
cine, no medicine will be given. Par-
the
family
will
go
Another major theme is that of reciprocity (m a n - i n d a w d a w a t).
The
sacrificial
system
he is to share it with those around
Reciprocity also carries over in
him for no one wants to be called
the spirit world where the ancestors
Rice ( pagey is th e Ifu Ifu gao’s gao’s ba sic pagey ) is food staple. Without rice as a meal, the Ifugao will not feel full. Much of an Ifu Ifu gao’s gao’s life life is sp ent in th e rice ter-
Vol 15:2 Apr.-June 1998
102
Global Implications of Western Education races securing the food he loves so
agreement,
the
litigants
drink
rice
dearly. Until the
l a t e 1 9 7 0 ’s ’s , t h e y
wine, signifying a settlement. The Ifu-
unity when they refer to unbelievers
planted and harvested only once a
gao consider it unethical for people in
as those who have not yet believed
y ea ea r b e c a u s e “t “t h a t i s w h a t o u r a n c e s -
disagreement to drink together.
(e llee g n i p a y m a n g u l lu lu g ).
believers
manifest
the
concept
of
tors told us to do” (“t e p h u m m a n in h e l
Aft e r l a n d , I fu fu g a o r a n k a n i m a l s a s
n i a - a m m e d m i”). Some new believers
the second most important commod-
the Ifugao world. Those who remem-
decided to try for two crops in one
ity. Of the animal world, they consider
ber the Japanese invasion often talk
year. In that the ancestors did not kill
water buffaloes (n e w a n g ) the most sig-
about
them, two crops per year are now
nificant. They use water buffaloes to
down in the school yard. The Ameri-
common in the wider, easier to work,
work the gently sloped terraces, sav-
c a n s s e t u p a n d a d m i n is is t e r e d t h e If Ifu -
terraces.
ing hours of manual labor. Should
gao schools from grade one through
Aft e r h a r v e s t , t h e Ifu g a o c o u n t t h e
logs logs from t he forest be n eeded for firefire-
six. Teachers instructed in English,
bundles of rice before storing them in
wood or construction, the water buf-
used American textbooks and levied
the granary. That does not mean the
falo drag them in. But water buffalo
small fines on students caught using
rice
Shamans
not only meet the needs of the living,
their own dialect. (Some Ifugao can
(m a b e k i) conduct special sacrifices to
they also meet the needs of the ances-
i n c r e a s e t h e r i c e s o t h a t i t w i ll ll e x t en en d
t o r s a n d / o r s p i r it it s t h r o u g h s a c r i fi fi ce ce s
t i ll ll t h e n e x t h a r v es es t .
called for in major rituals, such as
cannot
increase.
Not only do Ifugao store rice in
weddings or death.
the granary, in some cases they store it in the home. This provides those
a f t e r a n i m a l i s t h e p i g (killum ) fol-
opportunity to display their wealth to visitors. The larger the pile of bundles of rice in a corner of the house, the
The
Ifugao
plant
a
l o w e d b y t h e c h i c k e n s (m a n u k ). ) . Like the water buffalo, they use pigs only in s acr ifices ifices of significan significan ce. Ifu Ifu gao will go into great debt to secure these animals if the sacrifice demands them.
wealthier th e fam fam ily ily (b a k n a n g ). number
of
types of rice, one of which is d a y y a k k et . From this rice wine ( b u b u d ) is
made. While wine fermented for three days is quite mild, by the time ten or more days pass, it takes only a small a m o u n t t o m a k e s om om e o n e d r u n k .
Shamans use chickens in virtually every sacrifice. sacrifice. Before Before th e late 19 70’s, 70’s, the Ifugao killed water buffaloes, pigs a n d c h i ck ck e n s fo r t h e e x p r es es s p u r p o s e of sacrifice. When Christianity took hold the new believers asked what they should do with the animals now that they no longer sacrificed. Other
The Ifugao serve rice wine at all
the
U.S.
aircraft
that
went
still recite the capitols of all the states in
the
U.S.)
Those
who
attended
school initially tend to speak English without accent. Today, English often
T h e If Ifu g a o ’s ’s s e c o n d m o s t s o u g h t
who own numerous rice fields the
Schools have long been a part of
a n i m a l s , s u c h a s g o a t s (gelding), cat-
s e r v e s a s t h e m e d i u m fo r If Ifu g a o i n t e r a c t i n g w it it h o u t s i d e r s . Today, Filipinos staff the grade schools in Antipolo and Amduntug, some of whom are Ifugao. Teachers from outside Ifugao will most likely speak Ilocano although will be quite fl u e n t i n E n g li li s h . I n t h e l a t e 1 9 7 0 ’s , under the rise of nationalism, English textbooks were translated into Tagalog at the primary level. The young Ifu g a o s t u d e n t b e c a m e a v ic ic t i m o f t h i s policy in that teachers often spoke languages unknown to the student and used textbooks printed in English.
important occasions. Any sacrifice of
tle (b a k a ) , d u c k s (g a w g a w w a )
an y significance significance will in in clude r ice wine. wine.
d o g s (a s o ) w e r e i n t r o d u c e d f r o m t h e
While studying a western curricu-
T h e r i t u a l p r i e s t s s i p w i n e fo fo r e a c h s e t
lowlands and not normally used in
lum the young Ifugao is exposed to
of ancestors and spirits they call to
sacrifices.
va l u e s t h a t s o m e t im im e s c o n t r a d ic ic t s t r a -
attend the sacrifice. They also use
and
M os os t I fu fu g a o s e e k t o p r e s e r v e u n i t y
ditional values (hidden curriculum).
wine as a libation. Workers expect to
(u l n u s ). Few village meetings or civil
Teachers
receive rice wine at any work function,
cases go by without someone calling
beauty
such as planting, harvesting, building
for unity between the two opposing
t h e m a n d l ea ea r n t o t e n d g a r d e n s . T h e y
a house, sawing lumber in the forest,
p a r t i e s . T h e If Ifu g a o k n o w t h a t d i s u n i t y
learn to appreciate the delicate bal-
and so forth. The Ifugao believe rice
will destroy their closely knit society.
ance of nature in relation to farming,
wine
They
value
and
together
work for
should
wine
always
strengthens
go the
believe
they
survive
because
teach
of
the
flowers
cleanliness
through
and
the
raising
personal
they eat, drink, work, play and sacri-
hygiene
fice
members
t e e th th a n d u s i n g t h e o u t h o u s e ). ). Te Te a c h -
independence
ers also allow qualified religious advo-
wine is after the settlement of a civil
through verbal confrontation, or in
cates (Protestant or Catholic) to pro-
case. When both parties reach an
more
vide religious instruction.
worker. Another
interesting
use
of
rice
together.
attack
International Journal of Frontier Missions
any
Community
form
serious
of
cases,
sorcery.
The
(regard (regard ing
students
bru sh ing
one’s one’s
103
Tom Steffen Formerly, a student who wished
fices tend to follow the calendric agri-
r e t u r n , t h e a n c e s t o r s a n d / o r s p ir ir it it s
to enter high school had two options.
c u l t u r a l c y cl cl e, e, p e a k i n g i n O c t o b e r a n d
will will cau se th e off offerer’s erer’s a nim als to
The first, go to Kiangan (a three hour
November with weddings and other
have numerous offspring, thus mak-
hike away), board five days a week
wealth-oriented sacrifices. The second
i n g t h e m w e a lt lt h y . T h e i n c r e a s e i n fe r -
a n d a t t e n d S t . J o s e p h ’s ’s s c h o o l, l, p i oo-
class
tility tility can also exten d to th e wif wife.
neered by Jerome Moerman in 1910.
needed, such as sickness or death.
The
Whether
second,
the
Ifugao
Academy
of
sacrifices the
occur
Ifugao
whenever
sacrifices
for
The words that surfaced most freq u e n t l y i n a p p r o x im im a t e l y 3 0 0 p a g e s o f
established by Miss Myrtle Metzger in
wealth or hardship, Barton astutely
random
1925,
observes:
t h o s e p e r t a i n i n g t o w e a l t h ( pihhuh, pihhuh,
presently
under
the
United
Christian Church of the Phi-
secondary schools will receive instruction in the respective religions.
Today,
a
third
option exists, a government s c h o o l lo lo c a t e d i n Am Am d u n t u g . Most encourage
Ifugao their
parents
children
to
get as much formal education a s p o s s i b l e . Th Th e y p r o u d l y d is is play pictures of graduates for all visitors to admire. Their children ’s
hom ework
text
material
were
b a k n a n g , k e d a n g y a n g ).
lippines (Dumia 1979:39,53). Students who attend either
Ifugao
The
traditional Ifugao spends his
Th e Ifu Ifu gao worldvi worldview ca n n ot b e u n d e r s t o o d a p a r t fr fr o m u n d e r s t a n d in in g t h e g lo lo b a l historical, socio-economic and political influences on the Philippines. The values p r o m o te t e d in in t h e p a s t b y S p a in in a n d t h e Un Un it e d S t a t e s c o n t in in u e t o play a m ajor ajo r r ole ole in infl influ en cin cin g Ifu gao s ociety. ociety.
entire life advancing through the five major sacrifices pert a i n i n g t o w e a l t h (balihung, leteb,
balihung,
baleg,
h a g e b i) . S h o u l d a n I f u g a o b e
able to complete a h a g e b i (a large carved log that is placed under the home for all to admire) he will most likely have
exhausted
all
wealth
because of the nu merous an imals required for all the sac-
deco-
rifices. But while his animals
rates the walls. They willingly
may
be
sacrifice to buy the necessary
placed
depleted those
he
who
has
partici-
school uniforms and shoes. The par-
The constant demand for sacri-
ents know that should their children
fices has greatly stimulated economic
receive a salaried job someday in the
activity, especially that of the male,
Wealth is displayed in numerous
city some of that salary will flow back
a n d h a s l ed ed t o a g r e a t d e a l o f b o r r o w -
ways among the traditional Ifugao. I
to th e fam fam ily. ily.
ing, which in some ways strengthens
previously noted two, rice bundles in
While
kinship solidarity. The demands of
t h e h o m e a n d t h e h a g e b i. A third is
cha llenges llenges th e If Ifu gao’s gao’s values in s ome
prestige feasts are particularly note-
t h e a d o r n i n g o f h o m e s w it it h w a t e r b u f -
areas
w o r t h y i n t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e y fo fo s -
falo
standing separated from activity, and
ter
objects symbolize that the family who
s o f o r t h ), ), i t r e i n fo fo r c e s t h e m i n o t h e r s :
(1969b:210).
the
(time,
educational individualism,
system under-
industry
and
accumulation
pated in his sacrifices in his debt. Reciprocity Reciprocity reigns .
horns
and
pig
skulls.
These
offered them was wealthy, they could
peer-groups, family and kinship ties,
The Ifu Ifu gao sa crifice crifice for for th ree ba sic
afford the sacrifices, and will become
separation of sexes, discipline, and
r e a s o n s : 1 ) h e a l t h (e n d i d e g e h ) , 2)
wealthier because of continued sacri-
modesty for females (Steffen 1997b).
long life (k e t u - t u a n ), and 3) wealth
fice. Another display of wealth is the
Schooling
to
(k e d a n g y a n g), w h i c h s e e m s t o i n c l u d e
various types of loincloths and skirts
help their parents (some illiterate) in
the first two. The Ifugao believe that
woven by the women. As the Ifugao
the ever increasing amount of unfa-
long life and health are evidence of
complete the various wealth related
m i l ia ia r g o ve ve r n m e n t p a p e r .
blessing from the ancestors and spir-
sacrifices, the husband and wife indi-
its. This is important because longev-
cated their new rank by the type of
ity and health provide more opportu-
l oi oi n c lo lo t h o r s k i r t w o r n .
also
enables
children
The last major theme, the sacrificial
system
(b a k i) ,
is
the
central
theme aroun d which all other themes
nity to acquire wealth.
Even in natural death the Ifugao
revolve. revolve. The An An tipolo/ Amd u nt u g Ifu Ifu -
Here is how the sacrificial system
gao have two basic types of sacrifices
works. The Ifugao provide the ances-
fices
t h a t f a l l u n d e r t h e t e r m , h e n g a . The
tors
penengbuan,
Ifugao use the first set of sacrifices,
desire,
we a l t h . T h e s e s a c r i k e l e n g , t o a c q u i r e we
blankets, rice wine, and so forth. In
and/ or i.e.,
s p i r it it s the
w h a t e v er er
spirits
of
they
animals,
emphasize wealth. Numerous sacri-
gan,
(
penanglian,
panhengngaan,
penengbuan,
d a w d a w a t )
that
may
penglen-
take
a
m o n t h t o c o m p l e t e a l l r e l a t e t o w e a lt lt h .
Vol 15:2 Apr.-June 1998
104
Global Implications of Western Education They place dirt in the home of the
e d u c a t i on on . Th Th a t m e a n s s h o es es a n d u n i -
promoted
dead but do not sweep it out until all
forms for at least ten years. Should
through the local school system fires
the sacrifices are completed. To sweep
the children go on to college the price
th e If Ifu gao’s gao’s laten t desire for for pers ona l
the dirt out early would be to sweep
tag increases dramatically. Tuition,
independence. As gardens increase,
out the possibility of gaining wealth.
boarding, and books, soon deplete the
the need for large work groups has
Should a husband die, the wife is not
fa m i ly ly ’s ’s r e s o u r c e s . S h o u l d a n u m b e r
decreased. Group unity seems to have
to bathe for a month. When she does
of siblings desire a college education
moved from cooperation on the larger
b a t h e s h e i s t o d o i t in in t h e f a m i l y r i ce ce
a t t h e s a m e t i m e t h e fa m i l y fi fi n d s i t s e lf lf
level of agriculture territories to coop-
pond so that the wealth will remain
s t r a p p e d f or or c a s h .
eration on the smaller levels, e.g.,
there.
As the population increases and
formally
and
informally
churches and business adventures. The
Ifugao
still
value
animals
U n t i l t h e l a t e 1 9 7 0 ’s ’s , t h e d e a d
the water sources decrease as water
were transferred to the houses of his/
s h e d s a r e d e s t r o ye ye d , la la n d h a s b e c om om e
h i g h l y, y, b u t n o l on on g e r fo fo r t h e s o l e p u r -
her children. The wealthier the dead,
a premium. This has caused a num-
pose of sacrifice. Rather than waiting
t h e l on on g e r h e / s h e r e m a i n e d u n b u r ie ie d
ber of reactions. Many young Ifugao
for the ancestors and spirits to bless
(t w e n t y - on on e d a y s i s t h e l o n g e s t I h a v e
head for the cities looking for work,
the family through the fertility of their
heard). The person (usually someone
and
small
a n i m a l s , t h e y c a n g a in in q u i ck ck c a s h b y
of that village) who carries the body
businesses selling fertilizers for rice,
selling the animals whenever a need
o n h i s n a k e d b a c k (p e n g b a a n n i n e t e y )
and so forth. Others establish supply
arises. They can use some of the cash
fr o m o n e v il il la la g e t o a n o t h e r h o p e s t h a t
lines to the cities to sell goods raised
for their children ’s edu cation.
some
the
in the mountains. Still others, many
While Christianity played a major
d e c e a s e d w i ll ll d r ip ip o n h i m . S h o u l d t h i s
of whom are females, use advanced
r o le le i n c h a n g i n g t h e u s e o f a n i m a l s i n
happen, upon returning home he will
schooling as a means to land salaried
Ifugao
perform a sacrifice to gain the wealth
jobs. As the Philippines experiences
included the need for cash to pur-
of th e deceas ed. Lif Life for for th e trad ition ition al
“brain drain” to other nations, so the
c h a s e r i ce ce a n d o t h e r n e c e s s i t ie ie s (i (i n t e r -
Ifugao revolved around the acquisition
Ifugao community experiences “youth
n a l p r e s s u r e s ), ), a l on on g w it it h t h e e xp xp e n s e
of wealth through the sacrificial sys-
drain” to the cities. Those who remain
o f e d u c a t i o n t h a t p r o m i s e s f u t u r e d i vi vi -
t e m (e m i n u m la la w d i b a k n a n g a n ).
in
dends (external pressure). Certificates
of
the
body
fluids
of
C o n t e m p o r a r y If If u g a o Themes Life is changing fast for the Anti-
remain.
the
Some
villages
establish
take
up
gardening
influences
and
c r o p s t o b u y r ic ic e (n (n e v e r s u p p l e m e n t e d
replace skulls and horns displayed on
before) and other supplies from the
homes as status symbols. For many
cities.
Ifugao, formal education replaced the
While many Ifugao move out of
within the tribe and pressures from
t h e t r i b a l a r e a t o fi fi n d a w a y o f m a k i n g
without are helping create a new Ifu-
a living, money continues to flow back
gao capable of coping with a fast
to th e vill village. age. Children t end not to forfor-
c h a n g in in g w o r ld ld . S o m e o f t h e s e o u t s i d e
g e t t h e i r d e b t o f g r a t i t u d e t o t h e iirr p a r -
factors that affect the major Ifugao
ents. The use of rice wine has dimin-
themes include the following.
ished
b ut
alcoholic
the
I fu fu g a o ’s ’s
beverages
has
t aste not.
fo r The
diplomas,
other
(learned at school) to produce cash
p o l o/ o/ Am d u n t u g If Ifu g a o . D es es i r e s f r om om
The family remain s t he Ifu Ifu gao’s gao’s
society,
sacrificial
therefore,
system
as
a
begin
means
to
to
obtain wealth. Education moved to the center of the theme chart, replacing the sacrificial system as a means t o o b t a i n h e a l t h , w e a lt lt h , a n d l o n g l if ife .
Pr e s e r v i n g a n d Integrating
The
world renown San Miquel beer and
While the s acrificial acrificial system slowly
centrality of the children still remains,
White Castle whiskey produced in the
becomes a part of Ifugao history, the
but with a few distinctions. While the
cities has replaced much of the home-
desire for health, wealth, and long life
Ifugao
made rice wine used on social occa-
continues. The Ifugao search for a
sions.
s u b s t i t u t e fo fo r t h e s a c r i fi fi ci ci a l s ys ys t e m t o
nation
that
still
provides
desire
security.
children,
self-
administered abortion is on the rise, a s i s s t e r i l iz iz a t i on on a f t er er t h r e e c h i l d r e n .
While the call for unity (u l n u s ) is
acquire these felt needs. For many,
Why this change of attitude towards
still heard it has lost much of its for-
education has become that substitute
children? One reason is often heard—
mer power. Competing religious sys-
in that it provides the means to tap
it’s it’s exp ens ive ive to ra ise children . For
tem s n ow vie vie for for con verts, d ividing ividing vilvil-
outside sources to increase the fam-
children to ma ke it in today’s today’s world,
l a ge ge s a n d fa m i li li es es . T h e w e s t e r n v a lu lu e s
ily’s wealth. Many Ifugao believe eco-
reasons the Ifugao, they must have
of
nomic development is premised on
International Journal of Frontier Missions
independence
and
individualism
105
Tom Steffen e d u c a t i o n a l a t t a i n m e n t . T h e I fu fu g a o ’s ’s
whether one claims to be Catholic or
need for a religion that speaks to
Protestant.
t i o n a l S u r v e y , 1 9 2 5 , Educational
these same needs is found in Catholicism or Protestantism, with various modifications. The
of
Ifugao
is
slowly giving way to the macro-culture of the Philippines, yet retains the tribal identity in those areas of deepest concern to Ifugao society. And this is what most Ifugao prefer, tribal identity
within
including
the
its
national
global
system,
western
influ-
ences.
M a n i la la : B u r e a u o f Pr Pr i n t i n g .
References
of
Education
in
the
Philippines,
Th e
worldview cannot be understood apart fr o m u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e g lo lo b a l h i s t o r i cal, socio-econom socio-econom ic and political political influ influ ences on the Philippines. The values promoted in the past by Spain and the United States continue to play a major role in influencing Ifugao society. The macro-levels influence the micro-levels. Filipino schools, patterned off of Spanish and American schools, cont i n u e t o s e r v e a s p r o p a g a t i o n t o o ls ls f o r westernization.
Hunt
and
McHale
(1965:70) astutely observe: “By its very existence the school serves as a reminder of a world beyond the barrio.” Foster would agree. Observing village improvements, such as health facilities
and
schools,
whets
the
youth ’s a ppet ite for for th e good lif life in th e cities while at the same time better preparing villagers for competing in th e city’s city’s work force (197 (197 3:52 ). Schools
promote
societies.
values
Ifugao
that
society,
B a r t o n , R . F . , 1 9 6 9 a , Ifugao Law . Los Angeles:
University
of
California
Bock, Philip Philip K., 1969 , Modern Cultural
Peter
C.
and
Paul
P.
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Foster, George M., 1973, Traditional
E m p o w e r s . La Habra, CA: Center
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for
S a n F r a n c iiss c o : H a r p e r & R ow ow , P u b -
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G a t e s , J o h n M o r g a n , 1 9 9 3 , School-
Organizational (rev.
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M cH cH a l e , 1 9 6 5 , “E “E d u c a t i o n a n d P h i -
Dr. Tom Steffen served 15 years Photo Comparative Education Review 9 as a missionary here (1): 63-73 . in the of Philippines Steffen Lynch, Frank, 1970, “Social Accepwith New tance Reconsidered” in Frank Tribes Mission. L y n c h a n d A . d e G u z m a n , Four Currently he is Readings on Philippine Values. associate Quezon city: Ateneo de Manila Uni professor of Intercultural Studies at versity Press. Biola University in La Mirada, McFarland, Curtis D., 1980, “A LinCalifornia. lippine
Economic
Series No. 15.
Asia
Opler,
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Development.”
pino educational system brought to
the
Africa.
E.,
Philippines” Monograph
1945,”Themes
as
sought
D y n a m i c Fo Fo r c e s i n C u l t u r e . ” Ameri-
through the sacrificial system is pres-
can Journal of Sociology 5 1 : 1 9 8 -
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206.
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Smith,
Steffen, Tom A., 1993, “Urban-Rural
of
through
): 2 0 2 - 2 1 8 . Review 1 5 ( 2 ):
Sex-differential
s a m e t i m e b e i n g r e c r e a t e d b y t h e F i li li -
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Education
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Cheung, 1981, “Social Origins and
tives considered important, is at the
Wealth
Colonialism:
P r e s s . 1 9 6 9 b , The R eligion eligion of the Ifu-
guistic
Americans.
Spanish
tive.”
while retaining certain Ifugao distinc-
the archipelago by the Spanish and
and
t h e P h i li li p p i n e s P r e s s .
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1 5 6 5 - 1 9 3 0 . Manila: University of
Anthropology: An Introduction. Ne w
Conclusion
recreate
System of the Philippine Islands.
A l z o n a , E n c a r n a c i o n , 1 9 3 2 , A History
micro-culture
Philippine Islands Board of Educa-
Vol 15:2 Apr.-June 1998
106
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Inte Intern rnat atio iona nall ourn ournal al of Fron Fronti tier er Miss Missio ions ns
