IB - The Cognitive Perspective Introduction Cognitive psychology is concerned with how people acquire, store, transform, use and communicate information. Cognitive psychologists rejected the behaviorist assumption that mental events or states were unsuitable for scientific research. In this unit students will examine the model-based ap proach often employed by the cognitive perspective. Issues of ecological and construct validity will be explored with regard to the methods employed by the perspective. Memory is the topic which we will study in depth.
You need to be able to: Describe and evaluate theories and empirical studies within this perspective. Compare theories, empirical studies and the conceptual framework of this model with the other perspectives. Identify and explain the strengths and limitations of cognitive explanations of behavior. Explain the extent to which free will and determinism are integral in this perspective. Assess the extent to which concepts and models of information processing have helped the understanding of cognition. Assess claims that this perspective lack ecological validity, and be able to consider alternative research methods. Describe and evaluate the cultural context and development, the conceptual framework, the methodology, and the application app lication of the cognitive perspective. Explain how cultural, ethical, gender, and methodological considerations affect the interpretation of behavior from a cognitive perspective.
Historical Development and Cultural Context Challenges to behaviorism The use of the computer model The development of brain scan technology
Assumptions 1.
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Processes within the person are considered central to the understanding behaviour. These mediating processes operate in an organized and systematic way, not by trial and error. Focuses on the mental processes and on determining the role that mental processes play in determining emotions and behaviour. Deepened understanding of memory, psycholinguistics, and the development of intelligence.
Mental processes can and should be investigated scientifically. Cognitive processes actively organize and manipulate information that we receive - humans are not passive responders to their environment. Soft determinism. determinism. 7. Non-human animals may be used to help understand human behavior. 8. Models of psychological functions can be proposed. (Do not only learn this one basic assumption - it is often the least flexible for answering a paper I prompt.) 5. 6.
Key Concepts and Ideas
Cognitive’s definition of learning: •
The process of gathering information and organizing it i9nto mental schemata.
Basic Model of Memory Sensory memory - A modality specific transient form of memory, which serves as a buffer between the senses and short term memory.
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Cognitive’s definition of memory: •
The retention and use of prior learning
Short term memory - The component of memory which handles retention over relatively brief intervals of up to approximately 15 seconds. Stores visual information and sounds
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Cognitive Equilibrium: •
A state of mental balance.
Relearning •
In memory an improvement in performance which occurs by reviewing, despite the inability to recall or recognize information.
Long term memory •
Priming •
A phenomenon whereby a thought or memory increases the activation of associated thoughts of memories.
Processes
Memory process •
Mental set or schema (Tolman) •
The method an individual uses to organizes their perception of a particular situation such as a problem
Latent Learning (Tolman) •
A term used by Tolman used to describe situations in which learning is distinct from the performance.
Insight Learning (Kohler) •
The component of memory which is involved with retention over relatively long periods. Related to type of information and how it is encoded
Encoding/interpretation: the immediate representation of a stimulus; involves selection, comprehension, abstraction and integration
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Channels
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Depth
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Schema Activation
Elaboration/Rehearsal: The manner in which the stimulus is kept alive in the working memory.
Insight learning is a sudden change in the way one organizes a problem situation typically this is characterized by a change in behaviour from random responding to rule-based responding.
Key Theorists and Their Contributions Contributions Jean Piaget: (1896- 1980) •
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Was the major pioneer of cognitive theory. “ How children think is much more
Miller (1956) •
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Is best known for his work in determining de termining Chunking for the Short term memory Chunk: The basic measure of Short term
important than what they know.”
memory capacity representing a meaningful unit, such as random letters number or words.
Wolfgang Kohler: (1887-1967) •
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Was founder of the Gestalts theory. His studies with Apes led him to a view of problem solving as an active process of insight and on determining the role that mental processes play in determining emotions and behaviour.
Hermann Ebbinghaus Developed techniques for the experimental study of memory and forgetting.
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Endel Tulving’s Known for the three distinct forms of long term memory
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Edward Tolman: (1886-1959) •
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Developed a concept of “Purposive behaviourism” which emphasised the distinctions between learning and performance and viewed learning in terms of the formation of hypothesis and cognitive maps.
Semantic memory: Involves general knowledge of how the world, such as knowing the capital of Japan.
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Episodic memory: Contains personal experiences
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Helped to lay the foundations for the cognitive approach
General theorists to know: Hermann Ebbinghaus, F. C. Donders, Donders , Tversky and Kahnemann, Jean Kahnemann, Jean Piaget, Piaget, Leon Festinger, Festinger , Frederic Bartlett, Bartlett, Aaron Beck, Beck, Albert Ellis. Ellis.
Procedural memory: Stores “how to” information such as how to play a piano.
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biological ): Atkinson Memory Research (some (some are biological): & Shiffrin, Shiffrin, Craik & Lockhart, Lockhart, Endel Tulving, Tulving, Flourens & Lashley, Lashley , Glanzer & Cunitz, Cunitz , Thompson, Thompson, Brown & Kulik, Kulik, Milner, Milner , Morris, Morris, Maguire, Maguire, Joe Martinez (bio), Cole & Scribner, Elizabeth Loftus, Loftus, Miller.
Attitude Toward Determinism Behavior is “freely “freely determined”: there is some selection and interpretation of stimuli and some decision and choice, but these operate within the constraints of the existing system.
Methods Strengths and limitations of methods •
experiments
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interviews
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ecological validity
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verbal protocols
Applications (Where and how is this perspective used with specific examples) Memory How the mind works Mental Maps How we learn
The Cognitive Interview to improve eye-witness testimony
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RET & Cognitive restructuring therapy in the treatment of depression.
Ethical Issues use of human participants for research
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use of non-human participants for research
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Evaluation of the Strengths and Weaknesses Strengths: •
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Has revolutionised developmental psychology by focusing attention on active mental processes. We now understand the types of thinking that are possible at various ages.
Limitations: •
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Doesn’t take into account the person, the self Doesn’t explain complete behaviour Doesn’t take into account the physiological aspects of our bodies. The legal question of intent Unable to explain complex cognitive, emotional, and perceptual dimensions of human development. Incomplete picture of developmental influences. Focuses too much on the individual child, focuses to little on the social context. Seriously underestimates the role of biological and genetic influences. Contributory negligence
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Collusion
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Competence to stand trial
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Eye witness testimony
Key Terms chunking
declarative memory echoic memory effortful encoding eidetic imagery
elaborative rehearsal encoding
flashbulb memories iconic memory interference
long-term memory
maintenance rehearsal photographic memory
primacyrecency effect procedural memory repression
combining separate items of information into a larger unit, then remembering the unit as a whole memories for facts or events (scenes, stories, faces, etc.); conscious and retrievable a form of sensory memory that holds auditory information for one or two seconds transfer of information from shortterm into long-term memory by working hard to do so the ability to examine material for 10-30 seconds and retain a detailed visual image for several minutes making meaningful associations between information to be learned and information already making mental representations of information so that it can be placed or put into our memories vivid recollections, usually in great detail, of dramatic or emotionally charged incidents of great interest a form of sensory memory that holds visual information for about a quarter of a second results when new information enters short-term memory and overwrites information already there the process of storing almost unlimited amounts of information over long periods of time simply repeating or rehearsing the information rather than forming any new associations the ability to form sharp, detailed visual images of a page, then to recall the entire image at a later date better recall of information presented at the beginning and at the end of a task memories for performing motor tasks, habits, conditioning; not conscious or retrievable process of pushing memories of threat or trauma into the unconscious, from which it cannot be retrieved
amnesia
cognitive interview forgetting
forgetting curve
loss of memory caused by a blow or damage to the brain or by drug use or by severe psychological stress a technique for questioning eyewitnesses by having them imagine and reconstruct details of event fully the inability to retrieve, recall, or recognize information that was stored in long-term memory measures amount of previously learned information that subjects can recall or recognize across time
interference a common reason for forgetting; recall of a particular memory is blocked by other related memories long-term potentiation (LTP) method of loci network hierarchy network theory
a neuron becoming more sensitive to stimulation after it has been repeatedly stimulated encoding technique that creates visual associations between memorized places and items to memorize arranging nodes so concrete information is at bottom of hierarchy, with abstract ideas at top level says we store related ideas in separate categories or files called nodes, all linked together in a network
nodes memory files that contain related information organized around a specific topic or category peg method
proactive interference
a mnemonic device in which a person first memorizes a list of objects and then forms mental images linking those objects ("peg words") to a list of names to be memorized when old information (learned earlier) blocks the remembering of new information (learned later)
recall retrieving previously learned information without the aid of or with very few external cues recognition
repression
retrieval cues
identifying previously learned information with the help of more external cues a Freudian mental process that automatically hides emotionally threatening information in unconscious mental reminders we create by forming vivid mental images or creating associations between information
sensory memory
an initial process that holds information in raw form for a brief period of time (instant to several seconds) another process that can hold only a limited amount of information (7 items) for short period (2-30 sec) the process of placing encoded information into relatively permanent mental storage for later recall
short-term (working) memory storing
retroactive interference
source misattributi on statedependent learning tip-of-thetongue phenomeno n
when new information (learned later) blocks the retrieval of related old information (learned earlier) a memory error that results when a person has difficulty in deciding where a memory came from easier to recall information when in same emotional or physiological state or setting as when first learned
despite great effort, temporary inability to recall information we absolutely know is in our memory
EXAM SHORT ANSWER and ESSAY QUESTIONS
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QUESTION QUESTION 1: a) Describe one cognitive explanation explanation of human behavior, making reference to one empirical study. [4 marks]
b) Describe one strength and one limitation of this explanation of human behavior. [4 marks] •
QUESTION QUESTION 2: a) Explain one psychological or social question (for example, aggression, or gender differences) from the cognitive perspective. [10 marks]
b) Compare the cognitive explanation of the question selected in part a) with the explanation offered by one other perspective you have studied for this paper. [10 marks] •
QUESTION QUESTION 3: (a) Outline one assumption of the cognitive perspective. (2 marks).
(b) Identify one key concept based on the assumption outlined in part (a) and explain the relationship between the two. (6 marks) •
QUESTION QUESTION 4: Describe and evaluate methodologies used in the cognitive perspective (e.g. experiments, interviews, verbal protocols). (20 marks)
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QUESTION QUESTION 5: Choose one cognitive research study that could be considered to be controversial. a) Outline the method used in the chosen study. [4 marks]
b) Explain why the study is considered controversial. [4 marks] •
QUESTION QUESTION 6: Assess the extent to which one concept or model of information processing has helped in understanding cognition. [20 marks]
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QUESTION QUESTION 7: (a) Outline one empirical study within the cognitive perspective. [4 marks]
(b) Describe one application of findings obtained from the empirical study outlined in part (a). [4 marks] •
QUESTION QUESTION 8: Referring to experiments and alternative research methods (e.g., verbal protocols, interviews) assess claims that some research within the cognitive perspective lacks ecological validity.
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QUESTION QUESTION 9: Identify one study from the cognitive perspective, and explain one strength and one limitation of the research method used in the study. (8 marks)
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QUESTION QUESTION 10: Evaluate the contribution of the cognitive perspective to the scientific study of behavior. (20 marks)
QUESTION QUESTION 11: Explain one historical or cultural condition that gave rise to the cognitive perspective. [8 marks]
QUESTION QUESTION 12: (a) Describe a cognitive explanation of one psychological or social question. [10 marks]
(b) Evaluate the cognitive explanation described in part (a). [10 marks]
QUESTION QUESTION 13: (a) Describe one assumption on which the cognitive explanation explanation of human behavior is based. (4 marks) QUESTION QUESTION 14: (a) Describe one model of information processing processing that helps in the understanding of one aspect of human cognition. (10 (10 marks)
(b)Using psychological theory and/or research, research, evaluate the model described in part (a) of this question. (10 marks)
QUESTION QUESTION 15: (a) With reference to one research study, describe describe the main features of one method of investigation used by cognitive psychologists [4 marks] (b) Outline one strength and one limitation of this method [4 marks]
QUESTION QUESTION 16: To what extent is determinism determinism integral integral to the cognitive perspective? perspective? Illustrate your answer using relevant relevant theories and studies [20 marks]
QUESTION QUESTION 17: (a) Briefly describe the method used in one empirical study from the cognitive perspective. [4 marks]
(b) Outline one ethical strength and one ethical limitation of the method described in part (a). [4 marks]
QUESTION QUESTION 18: (a) Outline one theoretical explanation of behavior from the cognitive perspective. [6 marks]
(b) Discuss strengths and limitations of the theoretical explanation of behavior outlined in part (a). [14 marks]
