How to Write Articles
Steps 1. Determine Determine your your topic. topic. Exactly Exactly what what are you you going going to write write about? about? Brainstorm for ideas if you have to. When writing for wikiHow, you may even wish to refer to requested topics for ideas. It shouldn't matter that the same type of article had been written before or not, just think what you want to write. 2. Figure Figure out who who your your audience audience is. Are you you writing writing for a beginn beginner, er, an intermedi intermediate, ate, or an advanced audience? For example, if you are writing an article about "Creating PowerPoint Slides," are your readers new to PowerPoint, or business people looking for advanced tips? 3. Do your your research. research. How How well do you you know know the topic? topic? Is it someth something ing you can can write write easily about with little or no preparation, or do you need more information from experts in the field? 4. Decide Decide on the length length of the the article. article. Teachers, Teachers, magazines, magazines, and and newspape newspapers rs will often often give you a limit. wikiHow articles, on the other hand, are often "as long as they need to be and no longer." 5. Compile Compile a list of possible possible sources sources for for you to consult. consult. This This can include include document documents, s, internet research and people to talk to. 6. Write either either an outline outline or a summar summary y of your your article. This This will will help bring bring the concept concept of the article into sharper focus. 7. Write Write the the rough rough draft draft of the the article article as follow follows: s: o
Tell your readers what you are going to tell them. This is your introduction. For example: This article explains how to create a PowerPoint slide presentation. It covers the following information: choosing a theme, creating a title slide, and creating topic slides. The information in this article is written for a beginner. The author assumes that you have never used PowerPoint. Tell your readers what you promised to tell them. In this section you tell them how to choose a theme, create a title slide, and how to create topic slides. Tell your readers what you just told them. For example:
o
o
This article taught you how to create a PowerPoint slide presentation. You learned how to choose a template, how to create a title slide, and how to create topic slides. 8. Check Check over over your your piece piece for for presen presentati tation. on.
Check for faulty information. Have you double-checked your facts? Delete any unnecessary or contradictory information. The only time you o should have information that doesn't support your topic is if you're doing a "point-counterpoint" piece. Eliminate anything that is just taking up space. Don't fill your work with fluff. o If you need to do more research, go ahead and do it. Check for grammar and spelling errors. o Read it aloud to yourself to make sure the text flows smoothly. o 9. Rewrite Rewrite the arti article cle as often often as it takes takes.. 10. Turn in your your completed completed article. article. o
[ edit edit ] Tips •
•
•
•
•
•
•
Neither the outline nor the summary for your article has to be in traditional I, II, III format. The point of formatting is to help you. If you feel you can find your focus by writing a list of incomplete sentences, then go for it. Later, if your teacher wants a formal outline, you can create one from the article itself. By checking grammar and spelling errors last in the editing process, you won't waste any time by correcting those on something you may delete. If you're writing for a newspaper or magazine and are new to professional writing, it's customary to introduce yourself and your story in a query or pitch letter. Find the name of the editor who will be handling your piece (i.e.; if you're writing an article about cars for a newspaper, find the name of the car-section editor). This information can be found in the masthead, a box containing the names of the editors, usually found near the front or comment pages of a publication. Write a catchy but brief outline of what your story is about and why that publication's readership would be interested in it. Also include a few lines about your experience as a writer. The tone of this letter should be professional, but affable and friendly. It is not the place to make demands, or admit your shortcomings as a professional writer. Discussing wages and freelance fees should come after the editor has accepted your pitch. If you have no experience as a professional writer, do not start off pitching columns (opinion pieces). Columns are generally reserved for people who have either been working at a publication for a very long time, or for people who have a particular expertise in a field. If you're new to writing, start small. Think obituaries, humaninterest stories and simple news articles. It's generally easier to start with newspapers than with magazines. Try writing for life, fashion, arts, cars or travel sections before pitching stories to news. These sections tend to be understaffed and therefore have a greater budget for freelance writers. If you're interested in pursuing a career as a writer, be realistic. People who make their living as writers generally start to build their portfolio of published work as early as high school. It generally takes even the most dedicated writer several years before he can make a living off of the trade. In other words, don't quit your day job. Ease into writing gradually, perhaps doing freelance pieces while maintaining a more stable job part-time. Take some courses in both non-fiction and fiction writing. Not only will they help with your work, but also you can make contacts in the business by getting to know your professors and fellow writers. This will help you to be taken seriously when you start pitching articles for publication. Being a good freelance writer means knowing how to write and how to network. Make sure your article answers five questions: why, where, when, what and how.
[ edit edit ] Warnings •
•
•
•
• •
When writing for a newspaper or magazine, do not do so for free. Ask what their freelance fee is beforehand. Your pay will usually be calculated on a per-word basis. Your work is valuable. Writing for free demeans the profession and makes making a living more difficult for those of us who depend on freelance fees to pay the bills. (But if you're just starting out, volunteering to do some articles for smaller community papers, student publications and trade magazines is a great way to build your portfolio. Be warned that these publications rarely have the money to pay freelancers anyway.) Make sure to give yourself plenty of time to write the article. If you don't, then you'll be rushing at the last minute to create something that isn't representative of what you can truly do. Do not be a diva. Your work will go through several editors, copy-editors and fact checkers before being published. It will be changed. Pulling a temper tantrum is a surefire way to not be invited to work for that publication again. Your reputation as a writer is almost as important as the work you submit; do not make errors or plagiarize. Copying something without attribution is the quickest way to get blacklisted as a writer. Keep your notes and source lists handy so that your editors can verify your work. If you do make a mistake, come clean immediately and apologize profusely. Don't miss deadlines. Generally speaking, a late article is worse than a mediocre one. Literary circles are small and gossipy. Don't say anything bad about a fellow writer or editor, ever. You never know who's married to whom.
[ edit edit ] Things You'll Need • •
•
•
Something to write with: computer, pen and paper, etc. An email account to pitch and submit stories. (Something vaguely professional, no one will take
[email protected] seriously.) Research materials. Either go to your bookshelf, the library or find an expert on the topic. Access to a database like LexisNexis or Factiva. Be sure to see what others have already written on the topic.
MODAL VERBS can, could, may, might, be able to Modal verbs can be confusing for learners because individual modal forms can be used to express a number of different meanings. This unit looks at the modals we use to describe ability and possibility, to make deductions, arrangements, suggestions and offers, and to ask for and give permission. (For the use of can and could with sense verbs see 1.3C; for the use of modal verbs in conditional sentences see Unit 8.) 10.1 ABILITY 10.1A Present and future 10.1B Past 10.2 POSSIBILITY, DEDUCTION AND SPECULATION 10.2A Present 10.2B Past 10.2C Future 10.3 ARRANGMENTS, SUGGESTIONS, OFFERS, ETC. 10.3A Arrangements 10.3B Suggestions, offers and requests 10.4 ASKING FOR AND GIVING/REFUSING PERMISSION 10.4A Present/future 10.4B Past 10.1 ABILITY
10.1A Present and future We use can to describe an ability and cannot or can’t to describe a lack of ability in the present:
She can speak Spanish but she can’t speak Italian. If the present ability is surprising or involves overcoming some difficulty, we can also use is/are able to:
Despite his handicap he is able to drive a car.
! We cannot usually usually use be able to with with a passive passive: x This book is able to be used used by complete beginner. beginner. This book can be used by complete beginners.
To emphasise the difficulty or to suggest a great effort (in the present, past or future) we use manage to. In more formal English we can also use succeed in + -ing form: Do you think she’ll manage to get a visa? The army succeeded in defeating their enemy. To describe a future ability we use will be able to, not can (but see 10.3, 10.4):
x Can I speak fluently fluently by the end of the course? Will I be able to speak fluently by the end of the course? We also use be able to where can/could is grammatically impossible, for example :
x I haven’t been able to drive since I dislocated my wrist. (with the perfect aspect) We love being able to talk the local language. (with -ing forms and infinitives) Another form for not be able to English:
is be unable to. to. It is more common in formal
The lawyer was unable to persuade the jury of her client’s innocence. We use can (present) and could (past) before sense verbs (1.3C): I think I can smell something burning in the kitchen.
10.1B Past
We use could to describe the possession of an ability in the past: Mozart could play the piano at the age of five.
! To describe the successful use of an ability on a specific occasion we do not use could, we use a past tense or was/were able to: x Mike's car broke down down but fortunately he he could repair it. Mike's car broke down but fortunately he was able to repair it. But we can use could in questions, and in sentences with limiting adverbs such as only or hardly: ‘Could you fix the computer yourself?’ ‘No, I could only back up the key files.’ She was so exhausted she could hardly speak. We use couldn’t or was/were not able to to describe a lack of ability or success: Mozart couldn’t speak French. Despite being a mechanic, Mike couldn’t fix his car when it broke down yesterday.
She could have paid by credit card but she preferred to use cash. (= She had the ability to pay by credit card but she didn’t use it.) I might have gone to university after leaving school but I chose to get a job instead. (= I had the opportunity to go, but I didn’t take it.) We often use these forms to make a criticism :
You might/could have told me about the party! (= You had the chance to tell me but you didn’t.)
We can use couldn’t have + past participle + comparative adjective when we want to emphasise a past action or feeling: They couldn’t have tried harder to make me feel welcome. (= They tried very hard.) I couldn’t have been more pleased when I heard about your results – congratulations! (= I was very pleased.)
10.2 POSSIBILITY, DEDUCTION AND SPECULATION 10.2A Present We use can to describe things which are generally possible (we know they sometimes happen):
Drinks in restaurants can be very expensive. (= Drinks are sometimes expensive.) In scientific and academic English we use may in the same way:
Over-prescribing of antibiotics may lead to the rapid development of resistant strains . To talk about specific possibilities we use may, might and could (but not can). The meaning is similar to ‘perhaps’ or ‘maybe’:
x There can be life on on Mars. There may be life on Mars. (= Perhaps there is life on Mars.) The rash could by a symptom of something more serious. (= Maybe it is a symptom ...) We use the same forms f orms when we are making a deduction based on evidence or on our experience:
He always wears smart suits. He could be a businessman. ‘Why isn’t she here yet?’ ‘I don’t know. The train may be running late.’ We can use well after may, might and could if we think the possibility is quite strong. (If we are very certain certain of the possibility, possibility, we use must 11.5.)
Don’t worry, the contract could well be in the post. (= It is probably in the post.) To describe possibilities which depend on certain conditions we use could or might (8.4A): ( 8.4A):
She could learn much more quickly if she paid attention. (= She would be able to learn more quickly if she paid attention.) We use can or could (but not may) to talk about specific possibilities in wh- questions or with adverbs such as only or hardly:
x Who may that be be at this time of night? night? Who can/could that be at this time of night? Where can/could that noise be coming from? It can/could hardly be the postman, he only comes in the morning. It can/could only be Steve. He's the only one with a key. We use might for a more tentative (less direct) question: Might the losses be due to currency fluctuations? We use can’t or couldn’t for things which we know are impossible and to make negative deductions:
You can’t get blood out of a stone. (I’m sure about this, it’s impossible.) He couldn’t be a doctor, he isn’t wearing a white coat. (I’m certain he isn’t ...) We also use this form to say that something is impossible because we are unwilling to do it:
I couldn’t pick up a spider; they terrify me. When we think that something is possibly not the case we use might not or may not:
The shops may not/might not be open today; it’s a bank holiday. (Perhaps they are not open.) ! In spoken English we often contract contract might not to mightn’t. We don’t usually contract may not.
10.2B Past
We use could to talk about general possibility in the past (things which sometimes happened ):
Teachers could be very strict at my old school. (Sometimes they were strict.) In scientific and academic English we use might in the same way :
Wealthy Victorian families might keep as many as a dozen indoor servants. We use could/might have for a specific past possibility :
She might have done it; she had the opportunity and the motive. (Perhaps she did it …) John could have posted the letter. (I’m not sure whether he did or not.) We also use might have for a past opportunity which we know was not taken (10.1B).
I might have gone to drama school, but my parents wouldn’t let me. (I had the opportunity but I didn’t go.) We express a negative deduction about the past with can’t have or couldn’t have (11.5):
She can’t have fixed the computer, it’s still not working properly. (I’m sure she didn’t fix it.) When we are less certain we use may not have or might not have:
We’d better phone them, they might not have heard the news. (Perhaps they haven’t heard the news yet.) We often use can’t have or couldn’t have to express surprise or disbelief:
She couldn’t have done it; she’s such a nice woman.
10.2C Future If we are certain that something will be possible or impossible in the future we can use will/won’t be able to:
We’ll be able to travel to the moon, but we won’t be able to travel to Mars. For predictions which are less certain we use may, might or could. Could usually describes a weaker possibility than may or might:
The directors may call a stockholders’ meeting. (Perhaps they will call a meeting.) You never know, she could meet someone suitable tomorrow. (It’s possible, but unlikely.)
Call me next Tuesday; I might have finished the project by then.
10.3A Arrangements We use can, could or be able to to describe possible arrangements for a time in the future:
The doctor could see you at six; he can’t see you before then as he’s too busy. I’ll be able to see you after the lesson. If the arrangement is uncertain we use may or might:
The dentist might be free to see you immediately after lunch; I’ll have to check the diary. I’m not sure if I’m available; I may be working that weekend.
10.3B Suggestions, offers and requests The choice of modal verb for suggestions, offers and requests depends on the formality of the situation. May and might tend to be more formal and tentative than can and could:
We use can/could always for an alternative or more tentative suggestion :
We could always go to the Italian place.
When we want to make a suggestion with the meaning ‘there is no better choice available’, we can use the phrase might as well: Now the children have left we might as well sell the house and get something smaller.
PARTICIPLES
9.1A Active and passive participles There are several participle forms which we can use to make phrases:
simple: passive participle : (not) repaired continuous: active participle: (not) repairing passive participle: (not) being repaired perfect: active participle: (not) having repaired passive participle : (not) having been repaired Participle phrases have active and passive forms but they do not have a tense. Their time reference reference is usually clear from the verb in the main clause:
Not having a ticket, I won’t be able to go to the concert tomorrow. (present/future) Not having a ticket, I wasn’t able to go to the concert yesterday. (past) In participle phrases, the active participle (-ing form) has an active meaning (see example above) and the passive participle (-ed form) has a passive meaning:
They haven’t identified the body which was found in the Thames. They haven’t identified the body found in the Thames. (passive participle phrase)
! We can't usually usually use modal verb s in in participle participle phrases: x The questions must be answered are not easy ones The questions which must be answered are not easy ones. Verbs which are not normally used in the continuous, e.g. be, own, be used in participle phrases:
possess (1.3), can
x Yolanda is rich and is owning six homes. Yolanda is rich, owning six homes.
9.1B Participle subjects In many cases, participle phrases do not contain a subject. The subject of the main clause (in bold below) usually acts as the subject of the participle phrase:
Moaning with pain , the victim was examined by a young doctor. (= The victim was moaning.)
If the participle phrase follows the object of the main clause then either the object or the subject of the main clause (in bold below) can be the subject of the participle phrase, depending on the meaning: We saw her plane coming in to land. (= The plane was coming in to land.) The company has opened a new factory, creating many new jobs. (= The company has created many new jobs.)
! A participle participle phrase at the beginning beginning of a sentence cannot refer to to the object of the main clause:
x Moaning with pain, a young young doctor examined the victim. (= A young doctor doctor was moaning, not the victim.)
9.1C Different subjects In formal (usually written) English, participle phrases can have a subject which is not the same as the subject of the main clause.
Horns locked, the two stags struggle for mastery. I crouched in the alleyway, my eyes straining in the darkness.
9.2 TYPES OF PARTICIPLE PHRASE
9.2A Defining phrases Participle phrases are an efficient way of giving more information about a noun and can often replace a defining relative clause (21.1C). Compare these examples:
The man is very noisy. The man lives upstairs. àThe man who lives upstairs is very noisy. (defining relative clause) àThe man living upstairs is very noisy. (active participle phrase) The portrait was lovely. The portrait was painted by my brother. àThe portrait which was painted by my brother was lovely. (defining relative clause) àThe portrait painted by my brother was lovely. (passive participle phrase) We can only use a participle phrase to replace a defining relative clause if the subject of the main clause and the relative clause is the same. We cannot use a participle phrase if there is another subject between the relative pronoun and the verb:
x The house living in is over a century old. The house which we live in is over a century old.
x The man engaged to has disappeared. The man who Trudy was engaged to has disappeared.
In defining phrases, we only use an active participle phrase (-ing form) when we are describing a continuing action or situation. We can’t use an -ing form for a single completed action: x The thief taking her bag has been arrested. The thief who took her bag has been arrested. (single completed action)
9.2C Time phrases We usually use -ing participle phrases when two actions happen at the same time, or one happens immediately after the other. The -ing participle usually describes the background or earlier action. This is similar to the use of the continuous aspect for actions in progress (1.2B) and background situations (2.2B): Leaving the motorway , we noticed an overturned truck on the verge. (= As/ When we were leaving the motorway, we noticed …) Switching off the lights, I turned over and buried my head in the pillow. (= After I switched off the lights, I turned over …) In written English an -ing participle phrase often describes the setting or background situation: Living in Los Angeles, Brad was one of those ever-optimistic movie wannabes.
! When we want to to emphasise that that one thing happened happened before another, we can use a perfect participle for the earlier action. The participle phrase can come before or after the main clause: Having passed my driving test , I was able to buy my first car. (= After I had passed my driving test, …) I was able to buy my first car, having passed my driving test. The perfect participle can also describe reasons or causes as these usually come before a result (9.2B above): Having forgotten to take my keys , I had to borrow a set from my landlord. (= Because I had forgotten my keys, …)
9.3 INFINITIVE PHRASES – FORM AND USE
9.3A Active and passive infinitives We can use the following forms of the verb in infinitive phrases: simple: active infinitive: (not) to mend passive infinitive: (not) to be mended continuous: active infinitive: (not) to be mending passive infinitive: (not) be being mended perfect: active infinitive: (not) to have mended passive infinitive: (not) to have been broken Infinitive phrases can be active or passive, but they do not show tense. The time reference is shown by the context or by the tense of the verb in the main clause :
The tax bill will be the first item to be debated in the next parliament. (future) Their proposal was the first one to be debated at yesterday’s planning meeting. (past) But we can use the perfect infinitive for an event that happened before the main clause : Not to have acted sooner is his greatest regret. (= He regrets he didn’t act sooner.) Her greatest claim to fame is to have been chosen for the last Olympic squad. (= She is famous now because she was chosen.)
9.3B Subjects and complements An infinitive phrase can act as the subject or complement of the verb be:
To reach the top is their aim. Their aim is to reach the top.
! We use for with an infinitive phrase phrase if the subject of the infinitive infinitive is not the same as the subject of the sentence: x Their aim is the team to win. Their aim is for the team to win. An infinitive phrase can be the subject or complement of a sentence :
To find her so distressed took him by surprise. They struggled to keep up their standard of living . Sentences with an infinitive phrase as their subject can sound rather formal. We usually prefer impersonal it or an -ing form:
It is difficult to keep up a friendship. Keeping up a friendship is difficult.
9.4 TYPES OF INFINITIVE PHRASE 9.4A Defining phrases We can often replace a relative clause after a superlative, an ordinal number (e.g. first), or one, next, last and only, with an infinitive phrase: The youngest person that entered the programme was just fourteen . àThe youngest person to enter the programme was just fourteen. The window seat is usually the first one which is taken. à The window seat is usually the first one to be taken. Linda was the only one who stayed for the whole performance . àLinda was the only one to stay for the whole performance.
! We usually don’t don’t use an infinitive infinitive phrase to replace relative relative clauses containing modal verbs, because the meaning would not be clear: x He's the only player to save the team from defeat. He's the only play who might save the team from defeat.
9.4B Purpose and result phrases We often use an infinitive phrase to describe a deliberate purpose or aim. This is the infinitive of purpose:
Davy took a year out to see the world and broaden his experience of life. We can use an infinitive phrase to describe discovering something unexpected, unexpected, especially with only:
He returned to the field to find the army in retreat. Eliza rejoined her friends, only to discover that Mr Darcy had left.
