Grammar-Translation Method
Theory of language
it is possible to find native language equivalents for all target
language words
important for students to learn about the form of the target language
students should be conscious of the grammatical rules of the target
language
literary language is superior to spoken language
Theory of learning
fundamental purpose of FL learning is to be able to read its literature
an important goal is for students to be able to translate
communication is not a goal of learning
learning is facilitated through attention to similarities between the TL
and the native language
deductive approach to grammar
language learning is good mental exercise
there is one correct answer
Syllabus
grammar-driven
Activities
primary skills to be developed are reading and writing
committing of vocabulary, paradigms to memory
translation
no attention to pronunciation or oral production
Role of teacher
"knower"; authoritarian
uses L1
Direct Method
Theory of language
language is viewed primarily as speech rather than writing
vocabulary is emphasized over grammar; although work on all four skills
occurs from the beginning, oral communication is seen as basic;
reading and writing exercises are based on what the students practice
orally first
native language is not used in the classroom; when teacher introduces a
new target language word or phrase, its meaning is demonstrated
through the use of realia, pictures, pantomime;
pronunciation receives attention from the beginning
Theory of learning
grammar should be taught inductively; avoidance of explicit grammar rules
the purpose of language learning is communication; therefore, a great
emphasis is put on questions and answer activities
students learning better through self-correction
Syllabus
situational
Activities
Q & A
opportunities for "real-life" conversational practice
spoken before written
Role of teacher
demonstration rather than translation or explanation
Audiolingual Method
Theory of language
language is composed of structural building blocks (sounds, syllables,
morphemes, words, sentences, phrases)
particular parts of speech occupy particular slots in sentences; in order
to create new sentences, students learn which part of speech can go
into which slot
language forms do not occur by themselves; they occur in context
native language and target language have separate systems; they should be
kept apart so that students' native language interferes as little as
possible with target language
speech is more basic than writing
the "natural order" (i.e. the order in which children learn) is
listening, speaking, reading, writing
each language has a finite number of patterns; pattern practice helps
students to form habits which enable them to use the patterns.
language cannot be separated from culture
Theory of learning
language learning is a process of habit formation; the more often an item
is repeated, the stronger the habit formation and the greater the
learning
it is important to prevent learners from making errors; errors lead to
bad habits, and should be immediately corrected by the teacher
positive reinforcement helps the students to develop correct habits
students should "overlearn," i.e. learn to answer automatically with no
analysis
the major objective of language teaching should be the acquisition of
structural patterns; students will learn vocabulary afterward.
the learning of a FL should be the same as the acquisition of the native
language; we do not need to memorize rules in order to use our native
language; the rules necessary for target language use will be figured
out or learned through induction
contrastive analysis will reveal those areas where native language habits
need to be replaced by target language habits
Syllabus
grammar-driven, but structural — not by traditional Latinate categories
Activities
memorize dialogs
drills based on dialog (repetition, substitution, transformation)
spoken before written; in sum, learn good habits; emphasis on accuracy
(native-like speech)
Role of teacher
provides correct model of native language for mimicry
reinforces good habits; punishes bad habits
Natural Approach
Theory of language
communication is primary function of language
meaning is more important than form, so vocabulary acquisition is
emphasized: language is essentially its lexicon, grammar is secondary
in producing messages
grammatical structure does not require explicit analysis
input hypothesis: "… in order for acquirers to progress to the next stage
in the acquisition of the target language, they need to understand
input language that includes a structure that is part of the next
stage." (Krashen and Terrel, 1983).
Theory of learning
acquisition/learning hypothesis:
acquisition = unconscious process, parallels first-language
development, developed through understanding and using language in
purposeful contexts
learning = explicit knowledge about form, development of conscious
rules
monitor/learning hypothesis: conscious learning can function only as a
monitor or editor that checks and repairs the output; conscious
learning has this function only
natural order hypothesis: acquisition of grammatical structures proceeds
in a predictable order
errors are signs of developmental processes
affective filter hypothesis: low affective filter aids acquisition
Syllabus
basic oral and written communication skills
situations, functions and topics "which are likely to be most useful to
beginning students"
Activities
pre-production stage: nonverbal responses (TPR, pointing, etc.)
early production stage: yes/no, either/or, single words, fill-ins,
gambits
speech-emergent phase: role plays, games, problem solving, opinions
use of charts, realia, pictures for acquisition
Role of teacher
presenting comprehensible input
keeping low affective filter
Total Physical Response (TPR)
Theory of language
"trace" theory of memory: the more often/intensively a connection is
traced, the stronger/more easily retrieved it will be
repetition or combination of language with motor activity = better recall
(as in children in L1 acquisition—commands and motor activity)
Theory of learning
L2 = L1 learning; both follow the "bio-program"
Brain lateralization
TPR activates the right brain (motor activity)
abstractions are dealt with in the left brain
all cognitive systems are built together; language acquired along
with motor systems
language can be internalized as chunks, not just single lexical items
abstractions vs. non-abstractions
non-abstractions: imperatives of action verbs, concrete nouns
abstractions: "justice", etc.; delay in presentation
emphasis on meaning, not form
minimize learner stress (affective factors)
comprehension before production ability, listening skills transfer to
other skills
teach speaking skills after comprehension skills are in place
Syllabus
not grammar, but ease of assimilation, classroom situations
graded: Jump. Stand up.
Give the book to Mary.
Show the work you did last night to Fred.
Activities
imperatives
Role of teacher
"stage director" who initiates activity
no error correction at first; more later
Role of student
listener; performer; can speak only when feels ready
at times the roles are reversed and the student gives commands to class
(including teacher)