Fundamental Biblical Hebrew and
Fundamental Biblical Aramaic
ALSO FROM CONCORDIA CONCORDIA
Hebrew and Greek Studies
Biblical Studies
Workbook and Supplementary Exercises for Fundamental Biblical Hebrew and Aramaic Andrew H. Bartelt and Andrew E. Steinmann
Concordia Commentary Series: A heological Exposition o Sacred Scripture Leviticus,, John W. Kleinig Leviticus Joshua,, Adolph L. Harstad Joshua Ruth,, John R. Wilch Ruth Ezra and Nehemiah, Nehemiah, Andrew E. Steinmann Proverbs,, Andrew E. Steinmann Proverbs Ecclesiastes,, James Bollhagen Ecclesiastes The Song of Songs, Songs, Christopher W. Mitchell Isaiah 40–55, 40–55 , R. Reed Lessing Ezekiel 1–20, 1–20, Horace D. Hummel Ezekiel 21–48, 21–48, Horace D. Hummel Daniel , Andrew E. Steinmann Amos,, R. Reed Lessing Amos Jonah,, R. Reed Lessing Jonah Matthew 1:1–11:1, 1:1–11:1, Jerey A. Gibbs Matthew 11:2–20:34, 11:2–20:34, Jerey A. Gibbs Luke 1:1–9:50, 1:1–9:50, Arthur A. Just Jr. Luke 9:51–24:53, 9:51–24:53 , Arthur A. Just Jr. Romans 1–8, 1–8, Michael Middendor (orthcoming May 2013) 1 Corinthians, Corinthians, Gregory J. Lockwood Colossians,, Paul E. Deterding Colossians Philemon,, John G. Nordling Philemon 2 Peter and Jude, Jude, Curtis P. Giese 1–3 John, John, Bruce G. Schuchard Revelation,, Louis A. Brighton Revelation
Intermediate Biblical Hebrew: A Reference Grammar with Charts and Exercises Andrew E. Steinmann Concordia Hebrew Reader: Ruth John R. Wilch Fundamental Greek Grammar James W. Voelz Religion and Resistance in Early Judaism: Greek Readings in 1 Maccabees and Josephus John G. Nordling
FUNDAMENTAL BIBLICAL HEBREW ANDREW H. BARTE BARTEL LT
FUNDAMENTAL BIBLICAL ARAMAIC ANDREW E. STEINMANN STEINMANN
Fundamental Biblical Hebrew © Hebrew © 2000 Concordia Publishing House Fundamental Biblical Aramaic © Aramaic © 2004 Andrew E. Steinmann Published by Concordia Publishing House 3558 S. Jefferson Ave., St. Louis, MO 63118-3968 1-800-325-3040 • www.cph.org All rights reserved. No part o this publication may be reproduced, stored stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any orm or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, photocopyin g, recording, or other wise, without the prior written permission o Concordia Publishing House. Tis work uses the SBL Hebrew Unicode ont developed by the Font Foundation under the leadership o the S ociety o Biblical Literature. Literature. For urther inormation on this ont or on becoming a Font Foundation member, see http://www.sbl-site.org/educational/biblicalonts.aspx Te ranslitLSU ont used to print this book is available rom Linguist’s Sofware, Inc., PO Box 580, Edmonds, WA 98020-0580, USA; telephone (425) 775-1130; www.linguistsofware.com. Manuactured in the United States o America Library o Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Cataloging-in-Publication Data 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12
FUNDAMENTAL BIBLICAL HEBREW ANDREW H. BARTELT
Contents
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1. Spelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2. Noun Morphology: Gender and Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 3. Preixes: Article, Prepositions, the Conjunction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21 4. Verb Morphology: he “Perect” Aspect (Aormative Verb Forms). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31 5. Verb Morphology: Variations o the “Perect” Aspect . . . . . . . . . . . . .39 6. Verb Morphology: he “Imperect” Aspect (Preormative Verb Forms) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47 7. Verb Morphology: Major Variations o the “Imperect” Aspect . . . . .54 8. “Waw Consecutive” (wayyiqṭōl) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 9. Noun Morphology: Absolute and Construct States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72 10. Personal Pronouns, Pronominal Suixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81 11. Adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 12. Participles, Relative Clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106 13. Nominal Sentences o Existence; Possession; Interrogatives . . . . . . . 118 14. Imperative, Jussive, Cohortative. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 15. Ininitives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137 16. Object Suixes, Review o Qal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 17. Derived Conjugations, Piel Conjugation (D) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 18. Hiphil Conjugation (H) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 19. Niphal Conjugation (N). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 20. Pual (Dp) and Hithpael (HtD) Conjugations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 21. Hophal Conjugation (Hp), Hishtaphel, Qal Passive . . . . . . . . . . . . . .202 22. Geminate Verbs; Polel, Polal, Hithpolel; and Verbal Hendiadys . . .210 23. Numerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219 24. Masoretic Accents and Spelling, Sentence Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
A���������
I.
Noun Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .236
II. Pronominal Suixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .239 III. Regular (Strong) Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240 IV. Irregular Verbs A. I-Guttural Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .242 B. II-Guttural Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .244 C. III-Guttural Verbs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .246 D. III-ʾAlep Verbs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 E. I- Nun Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 F. I-Yoḏ (Original I-Waw) Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252 G. Hollow (II-Waw / Yoḏ ) Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .254 H. III- Hē Verbs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 G������� .
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B����������� . I����.
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Preface
he title o this textbook addresses at least two basic issues o scope and purpose. Te term Biblical Hebrew indicates a ocus on a specific corpus o Hebrew texts also known as the Hebrew Scriptures, the anak, or the so-called “Old” or “First” estament. Even within that limited corpus, however, the reader finds a wide spectrum o stylistic, historical, and even dialectical differences and distinctions, some o which still remain discussed and debated within learned circles. Variations in spelling, oddities in morphology, archaic orms as well as characteristics o later development, or the vast stylistic and even grammatical differences between prose and poetry soon conront the beginning reader o the biblical text. Nevertheless, there is significant consensus concerning basic Hebrew grammar o the so-called classical, “monarchic,” or pre-exilic period o biblical Hebrew, and it is essentially such a consensus that is reflected in the presentation in this textbook. With that ocus, this is also a fundamental approach. Te objective o this textbook is to provide a basic understanding o grammar, including vocabulary, morphology, and syntax, to acilitate reading o elementary to intermediate level biblical texts with the aid o a lexicon. While the presentation is consistent with the insights o more technical grammars, many fine points are lef or the additional refinement that comes with urther study. Already—especially—at a undamental level, however, students should be aware o two axioms o language study: “all grammars leak” (as one pundit has put it), and “all language teachers lie” (especially at the undamental level), or at least they occasionally conceal the act that all grammars leak! Tat is to say that a undamental approach ocuses on the regular and normative with the ull recognition that the realities o languages are filled with irregularities and deviations rom the norm, some o which can be explained and predicted, some o which cannot. At the same time, such irregularities confirm both the existence and the helpulness o recognizing and learning the regular principles and patterns. Exceptions prove the rules even as they probe the rules. Tis textbook unashamedly ollows a more traditional and deductive approach, emphasizing the memorization o basic vocabulary, morphology, and paradigms. While an artificial and unnatural mode o learning a language, this method is both time-tested and time-efficient in presenting and learning material in a systematic manner and logical sequence. On the other hand, there is an intentionally more inductive and “userriendly” manner to the presentation. Students will be engaged in the actual ix
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Fundamental Biblical Hebrew
biblical text already in chapter one. Examples and exercises move logically rom the known to the unknown, rom regular to irregular orms, rom general rules to exceptions. echnical fine points are acknowledged but not overly emphasized. An outline ormat provides a sense o order and is reproduced in summary orm at the end o each chapter to aciliate sel-study and review. Both students and instructors might note the ollowing specific eatures which may add to the useulness o this text: 1. Te chapters tend to treat a specific grammatical topic in a complete manner. For example, the definite article is covered in one chapter, presented in logical order rom the regular to the irregular eatures. Pronouns are discussed in a holistic way (Chapter 10), so that the students quickly see the relationships between the independent pronouns and the various uses o pronominal suffixes. Experience has shown this orm o organization to be extremely helpul also or later review and reerence. 2. Tus some “chapters” are longer than others and should not be perceived as “lessons” in every case. Instructors can easily adjust to the needs o a class, including multiple presentations on single chapters as needed. Certain exercises and drills are prescribed at specific points within chapters. 3. Te presentation o verb orms begins with the finite tenses (and not the participle) to enable understanding o common sentence structure early on. Beginning with the traditional paradigms o Qal (G) perect and imperect (using the standard third-second-first person ormat), the student is immediately introduced to the so-called “waw consecutive” (wayyiqṭōl) to acilitate reading narrative texts within a ew lessons. 4. Since the vast majority o verb orms are in the Qal conjugation (68.8 percent, according to Waltke and O’Connor, p. 361), this binyan is presented ully (moving rom regular to irregular orms in logical and regularized sequence) as a template or understanding the distinctions in orm and translation o the other conjugations. While traditional terminology is used (Qal, Piel, Hiphil, etc.), the student is also introduced to the general Semitic descriptors (G, D, H, etc.). 5. Te vocabulary has been careully selected on the basis o requency and biblical use. At the conclusion o the book, the student should be amiliar with most words in the 100+ requency categories. Te number o new words in each chapter is slightly smaller than in some textbooks to reduce the burden o rote memorization o vocabulary, arguably the most difficult aspect o learning Hebrew, especially or adult learners. Words introduced in a chapter are ofen used in examples within the presentation o that chapter, and no additional words are used in examples or in presentation that have not already been learned. Grouping o
Preface
vocabulary by idiomatic phrases, word pairs, or semantic fields has been attempted where possible. 6. Te exercises, like the presentations in each chapter, are structured to move rom the regular to the irregular, rom the known to the unknown. Te drills are constructed with very specific teaching objectives in mind or every question, and they move logically to illustrate specific eatures. eachers will quickly observe that drills can be used as supplemental and inductive teaching tools, and that ofen a student’s question will be answered by the next example. Tis also helps the student in sel-study and review. 7. Sentences used both as examples and as translational exercises are careully written to teach biblical style and idiom while meeting the specific learning objectives o each chapter. Tis has proven to be more helpul than finding actual biblical quotations, which, while psychologically helpul in presenting real biblical texts, do not always achieve the most effective pedagogical results. 8. A supplemental exercise book with additional and annotated biblical readings provides a workbook or completing all the exercises (in larger ormat), allowing the exercises in the textbook to remain clean or students to use as review, i desired. Te workbook will also contain an answer key, a composite list o each chapter summary, and a larger version o the noun and verb paradigm charts rom the appendices in the textbook.
xi
Acknowledgments
his work is dedicated to all students o the Hebrew Scriptures, past, present, and uture, as they share the joy o being engaged by the biblical text through its original language. As those who introduced me to the undamentals o biblical Hebrew and who taught with such a wonderul and contagious enthusiasm or both language and text, I am grateul to Roddy Braun, Herbert Spomer, Merlin Rehm, and John Ribar, participants at that time in the great educational enterprise known as Concordia Senior College. Tose who honed those basic skills into scholarly tools include Ronald Clements and especially Henry St. John Hart, whose love or both the language and his learners remains legendary in the lore o Cambridge. Recognition is due those at the University o Michigan who placed Hebrew into the larger world o the Ancient Near East: George Mendenhall, Charles Krahmalkov, Piotr Michalowski, Peter Machinist, and especially David Noel Freedman, whose dedication to a close and careul reading o texts highlights the importance o appreciating both basic structures and sophisticated nuances o grammar and style. Above all, I would honor my teachers, colleagues, and riends at Concordia Seminary, who share also the proound message o God’s salvation in yešûʿ hammāšîḥ, which is the truth that the text conveys. Among so many I would note especially Horace Hummel, Paul Raabe, Paul Schrieber, and James Voelz, whose encouragement has taken the orm o both personal motivation and proessional model through his well received and much used Fundamental Greek Grammar , to which this work stands as both complement and compliment. O those directly involved in this project I would hold in highest esteem the hundreds o students rom whom I have learned much in the teaching o biblical Hebrew, especially those who have served in the “living laboratory” as these materials were produced and tested. For some, those pages are probably long lost rom a loose-lea binder; or many, I hope, this book will serve as a more permanent replacement. Especially helpul, also in field testing these materials and offering numerous suggestions, are colleagues Stephen Stohlmann o Concordia University, St. Paul, and Mark Meehl o Concordia University, Seward. Closer to home, William Carr has made significant contributions toward both presentation and pedagogy, as has Philip Penhallegon, who has also come to know with patience and good cheer the very close reading o text that is the editorial process. Tis project would not have been completed without his valuable assistance, and I owe him a special debt o gratitude and my highest respect or his xiii
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Fundamental Biblical Hebrew
careul and diligent work. I would also extend to Marilyn Kincaid a hearty tôḏāh rabbāh or her encouragement and energetic śimḥaṯ tôrāh rom the perspective o the synagogue. Finally, I would express my appreciation or the support and patience o those involved with Concordia Academic Press, to Charles Arand and Ken Wagener, and especially to Wilbert Rosin, whose steady guidance has played a major role in bringing this project to publication. Above all others, it is to my amily, to Lucy, Marybeth, Allison, and Amy, whose patience and prayer, love and loyalty, support and sacrifice are treasured beyond measure, that I offer my loving thanks even as I repent o the time too ofen taken rom them. May God grant wisdom and insight to all whose study o biblical Hebrew will provide greater understanding o God’s torah and truth, o His goodness and grace, o His prophetic Word and o that prophetic Word made sure in the Word Made Flesh.
Introduction
L
earning biblical Hebrew is, indeed, undamental or anyone who takes seriously the text o the Hebrew Scriptures. Every student o literature knows the basic importance o utilizing the primary sources and original texts, but those who understand such scripture as an authoritative Word o God have a particular interest in the particularities o that text. Luther’s comments regarding the need or knowing and using the biblical languages in pastoral ministry are well known but worth repeating: Let us, then, oster the languages as zealously as we love the Gospel. . . . Let us ever bear this in mind: we shall have a hard time preserving the Gospel without the languages. he languages are the sheath in which this sword o the Spirit is contained. hey are the case in which we carry this jewel. . . . Although aith and the Gospel may be preached by ordinary ministers without the languages, still such preaching is sluggish and weak, and the people inally become weary and all away. But a knowledge o the language renders it lively and strong, and aith inds itsel constantly renewed through rich and varied instruction. 1
Te Hebrew language itsel has a long and noble history, though modern linguistic research has dispelled the romantic notion ostered at least since Jerome that God communicated a hebraica veritas through a special language o revelation. Quite the opposite is true, with even greater theological significance. Not unlike koine Greek, biblical Hebrew was a common and popular language, very much integrated into the everyday realities o lie and woven into the abric o a particular social-cultural history that, in turn, was set within the larger context o the ancient world. As a “Semitic” language, biblical Hebrew is part o a vast amily o ancient Near Eastern languages that is ofen divided into “East Semitic” or Akkadian (Babylonian and Assyrian) in the Mesopotamian areas and into “West Semitic” that includes the languages o Canaan. Further dividing into quadrants, the Mesopotamian languages make up a northeastern group, with various orms o Arabic to the southeast and southwest. From the northwest quadrant o this entire region comes the amily o “Northwest Semitic” that divides into Ugaritic, Aramaic, and Canaanite. Te Canaanite subgroup includes Hebrew, along with Phoenician, Moabite, Ammonite, Edomite, and some lesser-known dialects. Within the Bible itsel, the ew reerences to “Hebrew” describe persons or a social group. Te language o Jerusalem and Judah is once called only the “tongue 1
Martin Luther, “o the Councilmen o All Cities in Germany hat hey Establish and Maintain Christian Schools” in Luther’s Works, American Edition, vol. 45, ed.Walther I. Brant (Philadelphia: Muhlenberg, 1962), 359. passim. 1
2
Fundamental Biblical Hebrew
(lip) o Canaan” (Isaiah 19:18) or otherwise simply “Judahite” (as distinct rom Aramaic, 2 Kings 18:26, 28 = Isaiah 36:11, 13). Students should consult standard reerence works or urther detail concerning the history and place o the Hebrew language, including inscriptional evidence and the ancient poetry which reflects the oldest orm o the language within the biblical corpus. Te importance o learning Hebrew or biblical studies cannot be overstated. Both Judaism and Christianity share a common bond in claiming the Hebrew Scriptures as their own. Even or Christians, these texts (including the chapters in Ezra and Daniel written in Aramaic) comprise about 75 percent o the Bible, and knowledge o this “First estament” is simply undamental to understanding the Jewish religious claims o the first century that came to be called Christianity (rom the Greek word or “messiah”) and or understanding the Jewish writings that became the “New” estament. Indeed, anyone who would understand the Scriptures as authoritative certainly must recognize that they were not written in English. Such students will rejoice at the insight gained in reading the biblical text in the very language and words o Moses and the prophets. In addition to the obvious awareness that any translation only approximates the original, students will also quickly realize that differences in various translations, rom questions o vocabulary or nuance to variants in the ancient manuscripts, can only be addressed through access to the original sources. So also word studies, concordance work, and other textual research cannot yield any significant results without reerence to the actual biblical text in its original language and without an understanding o basic principles and practices o translation. o be sure, numerous scholarly tools, reerence works, biblical helps, and a host o modern translations can aid the Bible reader, but those who would be true students and interpreters o the text are soon aware o the limitations o a translation-bound approach. Although so ofen taken or granted, clear communication through careul use o language is ofen more difficult than it may appear, and students o even ancient languages may well discover a new appreciation and understanding or their own mother tongue, as well as or the art o translation and o the transerence o message and meaning rom source to receptor, both within and across linguistic, cultural, and chronological barriers. Indeed, it is ofen at the level o simple translation that much o the interpretive work is appreciated and already achieved. Finally, the study o biblical language draws us into the realities and the particularities o the biblical world, even into the very lives o those to whom God chose to reveal His plan o salvation, or them and or all. Indeed, the act that God chose an ancient language o real people in a particular time and place is significant in itsel, but it is also consistent with His mode o revelation and communication throughout history. Difficult though it may seem to bridge the gap rom ancient language to modern reader, God used, and still uses, ordinary words to speak the most extraordinary message, the common to communicate the most uncommon, even as He chose to send His divine Word in human body and blood.
1
Spelling
§ 1 The Hebrew Alphabet The Hebrew alphabet consists of 22 consonantal signs (read from right to left). (See table below, D, p. 4).
/ A.
Six letters have both a “hard” (stop) and a “soft” (spirant) sound: = bgdkpt, known as the “begad k epat” letters A dot (dagesh lene) marks the hard sound (used following a consonant or no sound). The absence of the dagesh lene marks the soft sound (following a vowel).
B.
Five letters have a final form, used at the end of a word: ( )
C.
( )
( )
(
)
( )
Four letters are distinguished as “guttural” letters (sound is made in the back of the throat, from the Latin guttur ), which cause some special problems in spelling and pronunciation: ( )
NOTE: Reš shows one of the problems of the guttural letters, to be discussed below (§ 3 F, p. 10).
3
4
Hebrew Chapter �
D. sign
Summary of Consonantal Alphabet name
transliteration
sound
ʾale
ʾ
(glottal stop)
beṯ
ḇ
v an
b
bed
g
dog
g
g et
ḏ
these
d
dog
hē
h
waw
w
hay w ay (also “v”, vav)
zayin
z
zebra
ḥeṯ
ḥ
Bach
ṭeṯ
ṭ
get
yoḏ
y
y et
ka
ḵ
ache
k
k ey
lameḏ
l
lad
mem
m
mad
nun
n
now
samek
s
sip
ʿayin
ʿ
(guttural stop)
peh
p
phone
p
pot
ṣade
ṣ
pots
qo
q
unique
reš
r
rat
śin
ś
sad
šin
š
shine
taw
ṯ
thin
t
top
gimel daleṯ
dagesh lene
final form
(
guttural
)
(
)
Spelling
5
COMPLETE DRILL 1A
§ 2 Vowels (See vowel chart below, D, p. 6) A.
Vowels are divided into three “families”: a / (e) i / (o) u
B.
Within each family there are long and short vowels. Long vowels can shorten; short vowels can lengthen. 1.
2.
“a” family: short:
paṯaḥ
long:
qāmeṣ ( )
“(e) / i” family: short:
long: 3.
( )
sōl
( )
ḥîreq
( )
ṣērê
( )
“(o) / u” family: short:
long:
qāmeṣ-ḥāṭû ( ) qibbûṣ
( )
ḥōlem
( )
NOTE: The name of each vowel is a Hebrew word represented in transliteration. Hereafter, the vocalic diacritical marks will be omitted for simplicity.
C.
Some long vowels are marked by vowel letters called mater letters (from matres lectionis, Latin for “mothers [helpers] of reading”). Such letters do not function as consonants but simply indicate a long vowel. used with “a” family vowels used with “e / i” family vowels (and sometimes “a”) used with “o / u” family vowels NOTE: Vowels marked with mater letters are unchangeable. They will not ordinarily shorten.
6
Hebrew Chapter �
D.
Vowel chart
vocal shewa
regular
composite (with gutturals)
ḥaṭe paṯaḥ (ă)
ḥaṭeseol (ĕ) (e)
ḥaṭeqameṣ (ŏ)
short vowels
long vowels
paṯaḥ (a) f ather (dad)
qameṣ (ā) f ather
seol (e) bet
ḥireq (i) bit
qameṣ ḥaṭu (o) bottle qibbuṣ (u) but
with mater letter
ā(h) f ather
vowel family
A
( ) (ê) they
ṣere (ē) they
(E) / I
( î ) unique
(ô) bone
ḥolem (ō) bone
(O) / U
šureq (û) tune
Spelling
E.
7
The shewa symbol ( ) marks two different shewas, which serve two functions: 1.
The vocal shewa indicates a true shewa, i.e., an inarticulate vowel sound. a.
The regular vocal shewa is used after consonants except the gutturals. EG 1
b.
d / ḇā / rîm
Following a guttural letter, a composite shewa is used. (1) This sign is also called a “reduced vowel” or a “ḥaṭe vowel.” EG 2
ʿă / ḇā / ḏîm
(2) Although there is a composite shewa for each of the vowel families, the “a” family is the most common. NOTE: Gutturals prefer “a” vowels.
2.
The silent shewa is used to mark the empty space after a closed syllable (see below, § 3 A). Words that end with a consonant do not show a silent shewa at the end, except in the case of final ka ( ). EG 3
miš / pāṭ
EG 4
mal / ʾāḵ
COMPLETE DRILL 1B AND 1C
§ 3 Spelling A.
Syllables 1.
All syllables begin with a consonant.
2.
Syllables are either open or closed : a.
An open syllable ends in a vowel: Consonant + vowel (Cv) EG 5
The first syllable of ( / = dā / ḇār )
8
Hebrew Chapter �
b.
A closed syllable ends in a consonant: CvC EG 6
3.
B.
The second syllable of ( / = dā / ḇār )
As a general rule, a.
an open syllable will have a long vowel;
b.
a closed syllable will have a short vowel (but see accent rules, below, C).
Accent 1.
The accented syllable (in a multi-syllable word) is called the “tonic” syllable (accent = tone).
2.
Most words are accented on the final syllable (ultima). (Such an accent is called milraʿ : “from below,” i.e., from the end of the word. Words accented elsewhere than the final syllable are called milʿēl: “from above,” i.e., from the beginning of the word.)
3.
For now, accent marks will be used only if the accent is not on the last syllable. NOTE: Words are accented on the last syllable unless otherwise noted.
4.
C.
As a general rule, a.
an accented syllable will have a long vowel;
b.
an unaccented syllable will have a short vowel (unless it is also open, see below, C).
Summary of vowels and accents in syllables: 1.
A syllable that is either open or accented will likely have a long vowel.
2.
A syllable that is both closed and unaccented will (always!) have a short vowel. long vowel
short vowel
open syllable or accented syllable
closed syllable and unaccented syllable
Spelling
3.
A metheg (a secondary accent marked as a short vertical line) is used to mark an open syllable and to indicate that the vowel ( ) is qameṣ and not qameṣ-ḥaṭu. EG 7
= bā / r / ḵā(h) not
D.
9
bor / ḵā(h)
The most significant exception to these principles is the “segolate” class of nouns, with an accented first syllable (and a dominance of the vowel seol ). This is due to their historical development from two-syllable nouns (when Hebrew had case endings) to monosyllabic nouns and back to two-syllable nouns:
malku
→ malk
→
malɛk
→
melek =
sipru
→ sipr
→
sipɛr
→
sēper
=
(“e / i” family)
boqru
→ boqr
→
boqɛr
→
bōqer
=
(“o / u” family)
(“a” family)
COMPLETE DRILL 2
E.
Dagesh: There are two dageshes: 1.
Dagesh lene hardens a “bgdkpt” letter (see above, § 1 A, p. 3). This has to do only with pronunciation and not with spelling.
2.
Dagesh forte indicates a doubled consonant. EG 8 a.
is really
/
Dagesh forte hides a closed syllable with a silent shewa: EG 9 cf.
is really =
/ /
NOTE: It is really the first of the two (double) letters (with its silent shewa) that is written as the dagesh forte.
b.
If a dagesh forte falls in a “bgdkpt” letter, the doubled consonant will also be pronounced “hard.” Thus a dagesh forte in a “bgdkpt” letter also functions as a dagesh lene. EG 10
is really
/
NOTE: Technically, this should be pronounced diḇ / bēr, but in reality, both “bgdkpt” letters are heard as “hard.”
10
Hebrew Chapter �
F.
Guttural letters cause some special problems: 1.
Guttural letters cannot be doubled. (They will never have a dagesh forte.) In this regard, reš ( ) acts as a guttural.
2.
Guttural letters followed by a vocal shewa will use a composite shewa in place of the regular shewa.
3.
A mappiq (another type of dot) is used to mark a hē ( ) that is used as a consonant instead of as a mater letter.
4.
EG 11
has three consonants, with a short vowel in the second, closed syllable: gā / ḇah
EG 12
has only two consonants, with a final mater vowel (in an open syllable): gā / ḇā(h)
Guttural letters generally prefer “a” family vowels. a.
An “a” vowel often replaces the expected vowel of a certain pattern: EG 13
b.
The “segolate” noun as .
is of the same pattern
A “furtive paṯaḥ” usually appears before a final guttural, especially ḥeṯ ( ) or ʿayin ( ), for the sake of pronunciation. EG 14
šō / lēḥ
EG 15
rûḥ
EG 16
nā / ṭîʿ
COMPLETE DRILL 3
Spelling
11
Vocabulary, Chapter 1 father (m)
king (m)
man, husband (m)
justice, judgment (m)
earth (f)
boy, lad (m)
son (m)
scroll (m)
morning (m)
servant, slave (m)
word, thing, matter (m)
evening (m)
day (m)
“Torah,” instruction, “law” (f)
night (m)
Summary, Chapter 1 I.
Consonants A. “bgdkpt” letters: B. Final forms: C. Gutturals: ( )
II.
Vowels A. “a / (e) i / (o) u” families B. Short / long / mater letters C. Shewa 1. Vocal (open syllable, will follow “bgdkpt” with dagesh lene) 2. Silent (fills space after a closed syllable and a short vowel, will follow a “bgdkpt” without dagesh lene)
III. Spelling A. Syllables: open and closed B. Accent: on last syllable unless noted C. Vowels: 1. Long vowel: open or accented syllable 2. Short vowel: closed and unaccented syllable D. Dagesh 1. Lene hardens “bgdkpt” letters. 2. Forte doubles all but gutturals (and reš [ ]).
12
Hebrew Chapter �
Exercises, Chapter 1 Drill 1 A.
Practice writing each consonant, including final forms.
1. 2. 3. B.
C.
Learn the name of each letter and the transliteration symbols. Insert dagesh lene in those letters in which it may appear. Know which letters are “gutturals.”
Name each letter and write in transliteration.
(1)
(6)
(2)
(7)
(3)
(8)
(4)
(9)
(5)
(10)
Write in Hebrew letters.
(1) dāḇār
(6) kāḇôḏ
(2) yôm
(7) ḥoḵmā(h)
(3) kōhēn
(8) ylāḏîm
(4) ʾîš
(9) ʾaḇrāhām
(5) ʿîr
(10) yiśrāʾēl
Spelling
13
Drill 2
Read out loud, identify each letter (consonants and vowels), and divide into syllables, noting whether syllables are open or closed: (1)
(6)
(11)
(2)
(7)
(12)
(3)
(8)
(13)
(4)
(9)
(14)
(5)
(10)
(15)
Drill 3
Divide into syllables. Identify every shewa as “silent” or “vocal.” Identify every dagesh as “lene” or “ forte.” (1)
(5)
(9)
(2)
(6)
(10)
(3)
(7)
(11)
(4)
(8)
(12)
14
Hebrew Chapter �
Reading Exercise Practice reading Deuteronomy 5:1:
FUNDAMENTAL BIBLICAL Aramaic ANDREW E. STEINMANN
Contents
Preace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .281 Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .285 2. Basic Concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .288 3. Phonology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .291 4. Nouns and Adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .295 5. Prepositions, Pronominal Suixes, and the Relative Pronoun
. . .300
6. he Verbal System and the G Perect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .306 7. G Perect: Weak Verbs and Pronominal Suixes or Verbs . . . . . . . .310 8. G Imperect and Jussive: he Strong Verb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315 9. G Imperect: Weak and Unusual Verbs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .319 10. G Participle, Imperative, and Ininitive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .324 11. Pronouns and Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .330 12. D Stem: he Strong Verb. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 13. D Stem: Weak Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .339 14. H Stem: he Strong Verb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .343 15. H Stem: Weak and Unusual Verbs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 16. Relexive/Passive Conjugations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .353 17. Passive Conjugations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .358 18. Numbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .361 Appendix: he Strong Verb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .365 opical Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .373 Scripture Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .376
Preface
he study o the Bible is not truly comprehensive without a knowledge o Aramaic. While many learn Greek and Hebrew to read the Scriptures in their original languages, the study o Aramaic, unortunately, is ofen neglected. Perhaps the additional effort to learn Aramaic is considered too high a price to pay to read a ew chapters in Ezra and Daniel. Perhaps the limited availability o instructors trained to teach this biblical language proves problematic. Tis grammar cannot, by itsel, overcome these obstacles. However, it is hoped that it will make the entire Scriptures more accessible to those who seek to study God’s Word. Te goal o this grammar is a modest one: to enable undergraduate and seminary students who possess a working knowledge o biblical Hebrew to obtain reading proficiency in biblical Aramaic. While it is not designed to introduce other Aramaic dialects, such as Old Aramaic, Jewish Palestinian Aramaic, Palmyrene, or Nabatean, it is written so the advanced student may continue on to explore other ancient Aramaic dialects. o that end, periodic reerences are made to t he historical developments in ancient Aramaic. o reach the goal o reading proficiency, this grammar concentrates on biblical Aramaic, primarily emphasizing the grammatical eatures the student will need to understand. Each o the eighteen chapters can serve as a one-hour lesson or students who already read Hebrew. Tis allows the student to finish the grammar and to read the biblical texts in a typical semester o about fifeen weeks. All the exercises, with the exception o the beginning exercise in chapter 3, are drawn directly rom the Bible, exposing the student to biblical Aramaic while learning the grammar. Te only variation rom the text is an occasional substitution o a qerê orm or a keṯîḇ orm. Te reading o biblical passages will be challenging at first and will require the instructor to review the passages with students. However, such exercises will build student confidence in handling Aramaic. In addition, the vocabulary introduces all words that occur five times or more in the Aramaic texts o the Bible. Words occurring less requently, but necessary to complete the exercises, are given in the exercises themselves. Because many students will learn Aramaic only to read the Bible and may never buy another Aramaic grammar, this grammar is designed not only to be a teaching tool but also a reerence book. Tus the student will find a complete strong verb paradigm in the back o the text, as well as a topical index and an index to Scripture passages cited in the text or assigned in the exercises.
281
282
Fundamental Biblical Aramaic
It is hoped that this grammar will be used ruitully by those who wish to explore the ull counsel o God in the languages that He has used to communicate His word o Law and Gospel to us.
Acknowledgments
I
would like to thank those who have helped produce this book, including students who studied Aramaic with me, especially Emily Carder, Ryan Markel, Kevin Austin, Paul Elliott, Adam Gless, and Aldebaran Schneeflock. I would also like to thank those at Concordia Publishing House who saw this project through to completion, especially the Rev. Mark Sell, or his vision that a complete set o grammars or biblical languages is needed or students, and Dawn Weinstock, who handled many o the production details.
283
4
Nouns and Adjectives
§ 1 Declension of Nouns A.
In Aramaic there is no formal distinction between nouns and adjectives, though the vowel patterns pʿil and paʿ il are more closely associated with adjectives (e.g., “frightening”; “wise”).
B.
Some patterns in nouns indicate various classes. paʿ ʿāl
profession
“judges” (cf. Ezra 4:9)
preformative or place
“dwelling” (cf. Ezra 7:15)
suffixed
“kingdom” (Dan 5:9, 20, 21)
or
abstract concept
suffixed (plural
) gentilic noun
“Chaldeans” (Dan 2:10; 4:4; 5:7)
C.
As in Hebrew, nouns and adjectives exist in one of two genders: masculine or feminine. They also may have three numbers: singular, dual, and plural.
D.
Like Hebrew, the dual is normally reserved for numbers, nouns denoting time, and items that are thought of as naturally occurring in pairs. The dual ending for both masculine and feminine nouns and adjectives is ( for dual determined nouns, see §2). Only a few duals are used in biblical Aramaic. They are: two thousand (keṭîḇ) (two) hands the two days two hundred (two) feet (two) horns the dominion 295
296
Aramaic Chapter �
the heavens (upper and lower sets of) teeth two (construct state) two (absolute state) E.
Nouns and adjectives exist in three states in Aramaic: absolute, construct, and determined. The absolute and construct states are familiar from Hebrew. The determined state corresponds to the noun with an article in Hebrew. The endings for these three states are: Masculine singular absolute
construct determined plural absolute
construct determined
Feminine
[none]
—
[none]
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
It should be noted that the feminine suffix is sometimes spelled and the determined suffix is sometimes spelled . The declension of masculine and feminine nouns from the root is: Masculine
Feminine
singular absolute
construct determined plural absolute
construct determined Some nouns are feminine but do not show a feminine ending. Most of these are nouns that naturally come in pairs (e.g., “hand”), though some do not fall into this category (e.g., “stone”). A few nouns and adjectives have irregular plurals: fathers
Nouns � Adjectives
297
women (singular does not occur in biblical Aramaic)
great names
§ 2 Determined State of Nouns Nouns in the determined state are generally equivalent to Hebrew nouns with the prefixed article. Thus means “the king,” means “the kings,” “the queen,” and “the queens.” Occasionally, Aramaic will use the number (“one”) to denote lack of determination. A few examples are: “a letter”
Ezra 4:8
“a scroll”
Ezra 6:2
“a statue”
Dan 2:31
“an hour” (“a while”) Dan 4:16 “a stone”
Dan 6:18
“one side”
Dan 7:5
The determined state also is used for vocatives; thus also can mean “your majesty” (“O king”). Compare the analogous use of in Hebrew (Judg 3:19; 1 Sam 17:55; 23:20, etc.). Perhaps the most familiar use of the determined state as a vocative is αββα = , which means “Father!” (Mark 14:36; Rom 8:15; Gal 4:6).
§ 3 Genitives A.
Construct chains are similar in Aramaic and Hebrew. Occasionally, the final noun in the chain is indeterminate (in the absolute state), making all elements of the chain indeterminate (e.g., “property fine” [Ezra 7:26]). More often, however, the final element in the chain is determinate (i.e., in the determined state, having a pronominal suffix or a proper noun), making all the elements in the chain determinate (e.g., “the house of God” [Ezra 4:24, etc.]). In general, nothing can interrupt a construct chain, but some exceptions do exist. Most common is the use of a construct noun before a prepositional phrase, such as
“the kingdoms under all the heavens” (Dan 7:27)
298
Aramaic Chapter �
B.
Use of The genitive relationship may also be expressed in Aramaic by the use of the relative pronoun (see chapter 5, §3).Two nouns in the determined state are linked by this pronoun, forming the equivalent of a construct chain. Thus “lions’ den” (construct chain) “lions’ den” (use of the lions’ ”)
; lit. “the den that is
§ 4 Adjectival Modification Adjectives decline in both genders and in all three states. As in Hebrew, attributive adjectives follow the noun that they modify. Predicate adjectives are always in the absolute state and may precede or follow the noun they modify. They will agree in number and gender (but not necessarily in state).
Vocabulary, Chapter 4
,
god; God (when this Aramaic word is plural, it always refers to pagan gods)
temple, palace
furnace
lord
Babylon
fire
interior
bronze, copper
relative pronoun
iron
decree, law
great; much, many; very
(m), one (f)
wise
heaven, sky
