Fevered Measures by John Mckiernan-González

f e ve r e d m e as u r e s Public Health and Race R ace at the Texasexas-Mexico Mexico Border B order,, 1848–194 184 8–19422

john mckiernan - gonzlez

Fevered Fev ered Measures 

Fevered Measures  public publi c hea lth and race at the texas-mexico border, 1848–1942

J J  Mk-Gzáz Mk -Gzáz

Dke Univer Univerity ity Pre | Dram and London | 

©  Dke Univerity Pre All rigt reerved Printed in te t e United State o o America on acid-ree aer ∞ yeet in Minion by Coerline Book Service, Inc. Library o Congre Cataloging-in-Pblicatio Cata loging-in-Pblication n Data aear on te lat rinted age o ti book. Dke Univerity Pre gratelly gratel ly acknowledge te ort o  te Oce o te Preident at Te Univerity o exa at Atin, wic rovided nd toward te blication o ti book.

In celebration o  Feliciano Enriqe Mckiernan Cordova, se hace camino al andar 

contents

ix Note on Labeling Place, Peo Peole, le, and Dieae  Introdction one on e

 From te U.S.-Mexican War to te Mexican-exa Eidemic: Fever, Race, and te Making o a Medical Border 

t wo

Te Promie o Progre: Qarantine and te t e Medical Fion o Race and Nation, – 

three

Te Aearance o Progre: Black Labor, Smallox, and te Body Politic o rannational American Citizeni,  

four

Te Power o Progre: Laredo and te Limit o Federal Qarantine, - 

five

Dometic enion at an American Croroad: Bordering on Gender, Labor, and y y Control, – – 

 viii



Content si x

Bodie o Evidence: Vaccination and te Body Politic o  rannational Mexican Citizeni, – 

seven

Between Border Qarantine and te exa-Mexico Border: Race, Citizeni, and National Identitie, –  Eiloge: Moving between te Border Qarantine and te exa-Mexico Borderland  Acknowledgment  Note  Bibliogray   Index

Notes on Labeling Places, Peoples, Peop les, and Diseases

A Note on Place, Peole, and Label Sared border don’t necearily mean ared label. In Mexico, mot eole call te river connecting Mexico and te United State El Rio Bravo. In te United State, mot U.S. American e Sani word in Engli to decribe te ame river: tey call it te Rio Grande. e e o “Rio Grande” intead o “El Rio Bravo” in te United State migt alo remind reader tat te reent olitical border between Mexico and te United State wa one o  te otcome o te war o . Moreover, te reence o Sani word in Engli old remind reader reader tat Mexico and Mexican till t ill ae te e o Engli and Sani in exa. e dierent name and te endring reence o Sani word or te ame river igligt an ongoing contention over te local and national meaning o a ared landcae. On te oter and, mot eole agree on te name or citie on te nort bank o te Rio Grande and te ot bank o El Rio Bravo. e crrent exa-Mexico border begin in te city tat once wa El Pao del Norte and i now bot Cidad Járez, Ciaa, and El Pao, exa. e river wend it way ot and eat, trog Big Bend National Park, at Preidio, exa, and Ojinaga, Ciaa, Ci aa, and by te town o Del Rio, R io, exa. exa. e  e citie o Piedra Negra, Coaila, Coa ila, and Eagle Eag le Pa, exa, exa, ollow. ollow. ee two t wo citie oe te main rail b linking te indtrial center o orreon, Drango, and Saltillo to San Antonio, exa, and te ret o te United State. I one were to ollow te river’ ow, Laredo, exa, and Nevo Laredo, Nevo León, wold be te next detination. ee two citie ave long been te biet croing between Mexico and te United State, te ite o te rt railroad linking Mexico and te United State, and te connection

x Note on Place, Peole, and Dieae

between U.S. conmer and Monterrey Monterrey,, Nevo León —Mexico’ Mexico’ econdlarget bt mot indtrial city. e river ten make it way trog te lower Rio Grande Valley, drifing at Harlingen, Cidad Reynoa, and Rio Grande City and ending in te Gl o Mexico. Brownvil Brownville le lie on te nort ide, and Matamoro, amalia, on te ot. ee eventeen citie are ofen et iece or a lace called te border. Wenever oible, ti book  willl reer to wil to tee citie by tee name. ee citie are key art o te exa-Mexico borderland. I ollow  Gloria Anzaldúa’ e o te term “borderland”—“a borderland i in a contant tate t ate o tranition” tran ition”— —becae ti ti term allow a llow or an emai ema i on te ongoing neqal ower dynamic.1 I reer “borderland” to “te border” becae it lace te olitical border between Mexico and te United State witin wit in te creation o a variet varietyy o border. border. i i better tan aving avi ng “te border” tand in or te variety o national, racial, cltral, olitical, and medical border till being drawn acro te er and lower Rio Grande Valley. I te name or te river i oen to dite, te t e term “American” “American” i imilarly  imi larly  ragt. Originally ed to decribe te eole living on te land claimed by Sain, “American” can reer to omeone rom Nort, Sot, or Central America, all al l in te American A merican continent; omeone wo wo grew  in te United State o America; or omeone wo reide in te United State; omeone wo i a citizen o te United State; or te term can be ed to exclde eole American believe old not be living in te United State. In te  in exa, eole tarted ing te term Mexican American and Latin American to claim teir belonging and teir rigt in te olitical commnity o  American in te United State.2 “Mexican” a alo been a oint o conict. e term entered into Sani wen Corte and i laxcaltecan and Naa allie met wit Emeror Moteczoma Xocoyitl Xocoyitl and a nd learned o te label tat t at member o te Aztec emire ed to decribe temelve.3 In , te Sani crown granted Coronado atority to etabli a New Mexico among te Peblo in te land nort o te Rio Grande. Dring te war o indeendence tat tarted in , Mexico became te banner nder wic many dierent orce ogt Sani rle. In , Mexican orce oted Sani military atority  rom te territory o New Sain and claimed te land between Oregon and Panama or Mexico. In exa, Mexican negotiated te bondarie o teir olitical atority wit France and te United State to te eat, Comance nation to te nortwet, and te vario Aace nation in teir midt. In

Note on Place, Peole, and Dieae Dieae xi

, te U.S. Senate annexed ti land a te tate o exa, wic many in Mexico conidered to be an act o war. e beqent war between Mexico and te United State eled create te Mexican/American binary. e reaty o Gadale Hidalgo accelerated te connection between Mexico and te United State and rter comlicated te deignation o  Mexican and American or eole on bot ide o te border. Between  and , reident reident and citizen, citi zen, men and women in bot bot  reblic, drew new  national bondarie, conronted te relationi o Indian nation to teir body olitic, ond neven way to addre te reence o lavery and te roce o emanciation, and ogt over te bondarie and rivilege o  citizeni trog vario civil civ il war. In Mexico’ Mexico’ cae, eole tere alo exerienced U.S., Sani, and Frenc military occation. occ ation. e endring contrat between Mexican and American obcre te t e entanglement entanglement o Mexico and te United State. Over te lat  year, Mexican and American A merican became imltaneo national, national, racial, and etnic et nic deignation. Eac cater will toc on te variety o way eole dene Mexican and American in te midt o eidemic. e roce o etabliing blic ealt at ti border demontrate te way tat “te notion o race doe not jt conit o idea and entiment; it come into being wen tee idea and entiment are blicly blicly articlated articl ated and intittionalized.”4 Pblic ealt camaign and intervention were not imly a way to revent illne. e act o deciding wo to rotect became key to etabliing wat it meant to be Mexican or American. Wen American blic ealt ocer claimed te atority to detain, bate, and vaccinate any Mexican croing into te United State, teir interretation reta tion o wo wa Mexican mattered more more tan te actal acta l ealt tat o  every eron— American or Mexican—walk walking ing acro or taki taking ng a treetcar into downtown El Pao rom Cidad Járez. Wen a long-term reident in El Pao remembered tat te U.S. Pblic Healt Service “diinected  a i we were ome kind o animal tat were bringing germ,” e marked te dierence between er el-denition a a member o a ared commnity  o man and te denition o Mexican enorced by tee American blic ealt ocer.5 Se alo demontrated er amiliarity wit te langage o  modern medicine. Wen blic ealt atoritie revented any movement o eole between Sot exa and te ret o exa, teir atority trmed oter orm o olitical atority or orm o citizeni. Pblic ealt, a mc a ormal olitic, aed te enconter between eole and te tate

xii

Note on Place, Peole, and Dieae

tat took ae in te exa-Mexico borderland. A blic ealt ormation i an ongoing olitical roce, te amtio a mtion n tat label old te ame meaning over time i roblematic. e e o deignation to decribe eole wit dierent acce to ower i alway comlicated. A rry o term develoed in Mexico to calibrate te relationi among eole indigeno to Mexico; te eole enlaved in Arica, A rica, Aia, Mexico, and te America and imorted to Mexico; and te etablied Sani elite, oldier, and oter Sani migrant. e reality o  exal liaion l iaion acro tee line and te etabliment o a variety o oeold led to te adation o name to deignate te rivilege o a given indi vidal. Criollo reerred to eole born o Sani arent, or to eole born to criollos. Indio reerred to omeone wo wa indigeno, or omeone wo looked indigeno to te oberver.  Mestizo reerred to te cildren o Sani and Indian arent.  Mulato reerred to cildren o Arican and Sani arentage. Chino, lobo, and zambo reerred to cildren o black and Indian arent. In nortern Mexico, coyote reerred to eole wo ad amily on dierent ide o te Sani/Indian divide. Esclavo and  pieza were word eole ed to decribe lave and enlaved war cative. Genizaro decribed lave and war cative brogt into Sani oeold at a yong age. e name give te imreion o timele categorie. Noting cold be rter rom te trt in Mexico. Hitorian Denni Válde comleted an analyi o cort record in Mexico City and ond tat eole reqently diagreed wit teir legal cate deignation on te record and tat te ame a me eole ofen ad dierent deignation accomany accomany tem in te cort record.6 e majority o eole in New Sain caed nder tee deignation, and afer tey wreted control o Mexico rom Sain, tey abolied lavery and ocially rowned on te reence o tee racial deignation in te legal lega l record. e word diaeared rom mc o te legal record, tog te ineqalitie were mc more diclt to end. In exa and New  Mexico, indio, mestizo, mulato, moreno (black), and negro (black) contined in e, artly becae te Comance, Aace, Peblo, Yaqi, and Navajo Nation actively aed te economic and cltre o tee once Mexican region.7 I will e te relevant national term or vario Indian Nation becae tey reect te dilomatic dimenion o te itory o dilacement, war, and eritence. In exa, esclavo tayed in te record becae te exa Revoltion reetablied lavery in town and rance tat were once Mexican. For tee Sani-langage term, I e indio to reer to indigeno

Note on Place, Peole, and Dieae Dieae xii xiiii

eole baed in Mexico or in Mexican commnitie in te United State wom oter eole conidered indigeno or wo ed te term to reer to temelve. I e it to remind reader o te layering o racial ineqality in te United State and Mexico. Crrently, eole e “Aro-Mexican” to reer to eole rom commnitie wo trace teir exitence ex itence to Arican lavery and a nd emanciation in colonial and otcolonial Mexico. I reer to e “wite,” “brown,” or “black” to deignate itation were blanco, mestizo, or moreno were ed to ditingi racially between bet ween Mexican. e reence o racial lavery in te Reblic o exa made “wite” mean “citizen,” “black” mean “noncitizen” or “lave,” and “Mexican” mean “omeone o Mexico wo belonged in Mexico.” Mexican in te exa Reblic tarted ing te term “ejano” in Engli to deignate teir long-term reence in exa exa.. In Sani, San i, eole ed  ed MexicoMexico -ejano to reer to long-tanding long-tandi ng Mexican commnitie a well a Mexican born in exa wo till articiated in Mexican commnitie on bot ide o te border. “exa-Mexican” aeared a a term dring te Mexican Revoltion to el American ditingi between recent arrival dilaced by te Mexican Revoltion and te eole wo lived in exa beore te Revoltion. In Wet exa, eole tarted ing “Hiano” and “Hianic” dring te New Mexico tateood debate to ditingi temelve rom immigrant dilaced by te Mexican Revoltion. Commnity activit in te  ed te adotion o te term “Latin American” and “Mexican American” to reer to te olitical commnitie o Mexican decent wit root in te United State. Peole ed “Mexicano” to reer to eole wit a dee level o articiation in Mexican commnitie in exa or Mexico. i book will e ejano, Hiano, and Mexicano trogot, will e Mexico-ejano and Mexicano or te time beore te Mexican Revoltion, and will tart ing te term exa-Mexican and Mexican American or te Progreive Era and te New Deal. Dea l. American in exa alo ed “Anglo-Saxon” or “Anglo” to reer to wite eole in conteroint to te American racial deignation “black ” and “Mex“Mexican.” “Anglo” a alo come to mean “Angloone,” wic mean eole wo grew  ing Engli mot o te time — in oter word, mot eole born in te United State. I e  e te econd ec ond verion or eole o Eroean decent wo do not ave ave trong tie to Mexican ocietie oc ietie in te t e United State and wo can robably claim legal witene in te United State. Anglo earned ti meaning becae o te olitical bordination in exa o Sanilangage dominant commnitie wit ongoing eronal and economic tie

xiv Note on Place, Peole, and Dieae

to Mexico. I will e te term black, Arican American, or black American to reer reer to eole wo are art o te commnitie tat till ace olitical and ocial otility afer te abolition o lavery and wo ave taken  reidence in te United State. State. I will wil l e te term “black” “ black” wen cltral or ocial ie eem te mot relevant and “Arican American” wen te olitical relationi to American citizeni citizen i i at ie. I will e “black “ black American” to reer reer to cltral or ocial itation in Mexico, becae becae tere are alo black Mexican national. e term “Negro” and “colored” aear in bot caitalized and lowercaed orm in many itorical orce, o core, and qotation rom toe orce are a re rerodced rerodced witot wit ot alteration to reect te ormal convention in te United State beore . I will alo e national deignation to reer to eole or commnitie wit tie to additional nation or cltre. clt re. In exa, exa, “German” “Germa n” mean “etnic German” or “German,” “Iri” mean “etnic Iri” or “Iri,” “Frenc” mean “etnic Frenc,” and “Czec” mean “etnic Czec,” not “Atro-Hngarian.” I will wi ll e “Algerian,” “Algerian,” “Syrian, “Syria n,”” and “Lebanee” to reer to te eole wit AraAr abic rname in Engli woe amilie lef tee contrie wen tey were nder Frenc Frenc control. Wen necear necearyy and alo oible, I will wil l e “Jewi” to reer to Akenazi Jewi commnitie wit tie t ie to Ria and Eatern Eroe and “Ladino” to reer to Seardic commnitie wit tie to te Middle Eat, Sain, and Mexico. I will try to modiy “Cinee” wit national deignation wen oible, ing “Cinee Mexican,” “Cinee American,” or “Cinee national” to reer to eole at te border negotiating te t e racial category c ategory “Cinee.” I will e te etnic and national deignation wen tey were olitically cal ly relevant to te itation or wen tey el comlicate racial deignation like wite, black, Cinee, Jewi, Indian, or Mexican.

A Note on Dieae Peole er rom illnee. Doctor evalate ymtom and diagnoe dieae. e act o naming a clter o ymtom a articlar dieae el organize individal, medical, and commnity reone. ee name or dieae emerge at articlar time and reect bot crrent medical teorie and te general cltre o te time.8 In te cae o colera, te lo o  id trog diarrea i o qick and evere tat te diagnoi old ollow te immediate treatment or id lo. Peole ed “colera” to decribe a dee melancoly, a lo o bodily control, and an ncontrollable eaving. e nineteent-centry aearance o vibrio cholera, te bacterial inection,

Note on Place, Peole, and Dieae Dieae xv 

in Eroe and te America wa o dramatic tat in Engli te term alie only to bacterial inection, not to te rage or te dee melancoly revioly  aociated wit colera.9 “Smallox” reer to te mall  bliter (ox) tat aear on te otide o te ll l l body dring te trajectory trajectory o te illne. il lne. e ox can damage art o te nervo ytem, and a nd te read o te ox add to te ain and internal tie damage aociated wit te dieae. d ieae. I te ox  ox grow cloe cloe enog, tey  mergee and trn an already merg al ready ainl and digring digri ng dieae into variola major  or emorragic mallox. i almot certainly lead to deat rom te internal bliter and bleeding. Smallox inection did vary, wic led eole to tink temeratre, midity, barometric rere, or atient dioition or racial backgrond migt be relevant to te diagnoi and te treatment. We now know tat tere were two major train o mallox, variola major  and cra m, ever, internal bleeding, and a nd ox or or variola variola minor . e ain, cram, minor were nearly identical to variola major wit one excetion: mot eole rvived variola minor . Familie and doctor ogt to nd way to ditingi between tem, bt deat or rvival rovided te bet diagnoi.10 In te nineteent centry, mot eole eole recognized te arrival a rrival o mallox. mal lox. e arrival o ty, ty , on te oter and, i diclt to diagnoe by by ymtom. e ymtom tart wit intene eadace and allcination. e irocete irocet e tat cae te t e inection begin to ierce cell wall, wal l, wic lead to internal bleeding o tie and damage to vein, mcle tie, and intetinal wall. At te eigt o te inection, te intracelllar bleeding will cae a red coat to orm on te back and older o te atient. Patient wo r vive may till er relae and allcinatio a llcination. n. However, However, te t e initial i nitial ain, cram, ig ever, allcination, a llcination, and beqent relae relae can be very ver y imilar to malaria malar ia or tyoi ty oid d ever. ever. Doctor ed te term “tyomalarial ever ever”” to decribe te way te t e ymtom overlaed overlaed yet varied. Wen ty t y grew  le common common in te t e United United State, te tyom ty omalarial alarial diagnoi lot it clinical tility, and afer te Civil War it died ot.11 e dicovery o ecic attern o intracelllar bleeding on intetinal wall dring an atoy eled doctor determine tat tyoid and ty were two dierent dieae, tog ti ditinction dit inction wa not ell ell to live atient. atient. i did d id mean tat tey were inection, and once clinician tarted identiying identiyi ng bacteria and acceting tat germ cold cae dieae, clinician tarted earcing or tyoid and ty bacilli. Clinician Cli nician identied identied tyoi ty oid d bacilli in te . e Weil-Fe Weil-Felix lix tet ed bacteria tat reonded to te reence o ty and t allowed

xvi

Note on Place, Peole, and Dieae

doctor to diagnoe ty directly. Nearly tirty year afer Robert Koc identied te colera bacilli, doctor were nally able to e laboratory tet to ort teir diagnoi o ty. ty . A evere cae o tyomalarial ever in te mid-nineteent centry cold alo ade into i nto yellow ever. ever. Here, Here, atient er rom cram, mclar mcla r ain, and ig ever. However, However, te diagnoi o yellow ever became clear once atient tarted vomiting digeted blood, ence te name vomito negro, “black  bile,” in many o te nineteent-centry ni neteent-centry record. Mot rigtening or oberver and amily member, te older and ealtier atient tended to ave ar more evere and deadly bot o yellow ever. Srvival, owever, garanteed immnity againt yellow ever.12 Unortnately, tere i till no reliable treatment or yellow ever. e bet remedy till date back to te beginning o te twentiet centry: cent ry: moqito eradication and atient iolation. ere are temorary vaccine vacci ne wit otentially otential ly dreadl dread l ide eect.13 Fortnately, Fortnately, moqito moqito  vector or yellow  vector yellow ever ever no no longer longer tend tend to concen concentrate trate in rban area, tog tog tere are till occaional otbreak.14

Fevered Fev ered Measures 

Ma . e Mexico–United State Borderland. Cortey o te Univerity o  Wiconin Cartogray Laboratory, .

IntroductIon 

Laredo’ olitical cltre trobled Gregorio Gitera. e United State Marine Hoital Service ad detailed im to coordinate te yellow ever qarantine in Laredo, exa, exa, in . e ditingied diting ied Cban American doctor robably exected te credential e earned by ending yellow ever in Cba to tranlate into roeional reect in Laredo. Bt te eole tere blicly  ignored i medical atority trogot te yellow ever eidemic. According to Gitera, local “eldom cal called led in a yician, yician, earl ear l tat tey migt be qarantined qara ntined or ent to a oital.”1 oital.”1 Even Even more rtrating rtrat ing to Dr. Gitera wa tat Laredo’ Laredo’ olitical and military m ilitary ato atoritie ritie reorted tat “te very cla o  cae I wied to remove to a oital wold aboltely ree to go, and tat tere wa no atority to orce tem to do o.”2 In Havana, Gitera ent in armed American oldier alongide Cban and American medical eronnel to move eole wit yellow ever ymtom directly to American eld oital.3 Laredo atoritie cononded Gitera’ Gitera’ deire to exercie ncontrained overeign atority over oter eole in te name o blic ealt. Peole at te border learned to negotiate te deire to exercie ncontrained medical atority to enorce national bondarie. In , Migel Barrera comlained comlained to te local Mexican conl tat te Unit United ed State Pblic Healt Service (usphs) doctor at te immigration tation in Camargo, exa, treated im like a medically ect or oreign eign national. national. “In ite o aving my  reidence in Sam Fordyce [exa], te doctor reed to ear my argment and vaccinated me.” A e exlained, “Wen “W en a boy I wa vaccinated at te age ally done in Mexico, aid vaccination aving taken; bt to be vaccinated at te age wen te danger o inection may be aid to ave aed i in my 

 Introdction

oinion altogeter nneceary.” Barrera reorted, “e doctor aear ineniblee to te jt reaon tat may be exoed to im enibl i m by eron like myel  tat are ed to deal wit te trt.”4 Mot imortant to Barrera, Dr. Jon Hnter’ real to recognize Barrera’ exerience and exertie callenged Barrera’ ene o el, a did te beqent vaccination againt Barrera’ direct will. National blic ealt atority worked at two level in ti enconter. Firt, Hnter decided wo deerved to be an American, wo did not lly belong in te United State, and ltimately woe border mattered. In Barrera’ cae, te bondarie o i eron and te exerience o i body  were immaterial to te imortance o te medical bondary between te United State and Mexico, even in tiny Camargo, exa. For Barrera and Hnter, te medical border tey ared and re-created meant Hnter’ vaccination needle trned Barrera’ body into a ite to redene citizeni.5 A tee two anecdote gget, blic ealt camaign rovide a ric taging or enconter between medical roeional, olitical atoritie, and working-cla reident; or rocee tat exoe te interlay o local and national identitie; and or te orging o etnic et nic identitie at lace were two t wo nation taged and bilt teir own canging identitie. Moreover, Gitera and Hnter were art o a larger drama at te Rio Grande border over te olitical and ocial imlication o modern blic ealt meare. In , King Carle V o Sain carged Dr. Francico Javier de Balmi wit te tak o  dieminating vaccine lym ly m rom Sain to every corner o te larger Sani emire.6 Witin or year o te annoncement, town and reidio acro te tate o Coaila y eja (one o te ar reace o te Sani emire) ad tarted regitering and vaccinating te cildren o military amilie, Mexican amilie, and enrolled Aace amilie.7 Imerial incororation and etnic bordination trog blic ealt meare re-dated te creation o te Mexican Reblic and te American-Mexican border. Pblic ealt matter at te exa-Mexico border were a mc a qetion o national belonging a o  medical atority.8 Pblic ealt meare came wit te roce o creating olitical commnitie in te t e exa exa borderland. By drawing a medical line between Mexican or American bodie, blic ealt ocer eled “reinorce territorial identitie, ymbolize and rotect an image o tate atority, atority, and relegitimize te bondarie o te t e imagined commnityy.”9 i commnit i  medical med ical border— te line blic ealt e alt erv ervice ice ocer drew to rotect American citizen — layed an imortant role in “te medicalization o te general blic.”10 Medical itorian, drawing rom Micel

Introdction



Focalt, emaize te way medicalization bjected te atonomy o individal men and women to medical crtiny and gave yician an ofencallenged blic atority over te intimate bondarie o rivate lie.11 i atority alo gav gavee a medical dimenion to inclion inclion witin te t e nation: te ower to determine weter eole at te border were otentially, in itorian Natalia Molina’ word, “t to be citizen.”12 Medical norm, like te ideal lace to treat eole wit yellow ever, became an imlicit art o te taging o citizeni. Pblic ealt rovided anoter teater or eole to demontrate teir ability abi lity to articiate a rticiate in national ociety ociet y—to ow tat tey  were indeed worty o citizeni.13 In bot Mexico and te United State, eole till trggle to dene te relationi o blic ealt meare to te creation o a meaningl national identity. Pblic ealt olicie emerge rom te way eole ndertand teir relationi to te world jt beyond teir immediate elve.14 Early nineteentcentry eole did not draw te bondarie we draw between illne and identity. Hitorian rogly agree tat or mot nineteent-centry reident o te America, “ealt “ ealt or dieae relted rom cmlative interaction interaction between contittional endowment and environmental circmtance. . . . e body wa alway a lway in a tate t ate o becoming —and t alway a lway in jeoardy. jeoardy. . . . i wa a ytem wic ad necearily to remain in balance i te individal were to remain ealty.”15 Moreover, te dynamic balance meant tat bodie were dangeroly oro. Peole ad to monitor and reglate te movement o air, ood, weat, blood, and oter excretion acro teir tei r eronal bondarbonda rie.16 own reident in nineteent-centry Mexican exa, te Reblic o  exa, Mexico, and te United State ogt way to monitor and oibly  contain te dangero air and mor in teir immediate environment. Smallox vaccination, one o te ew tranlocal dieae-ecic revention meare available in te early nineteent-centry America, deended on local amilie’ willi w illingne ngne to ndergo ndergo te ainl arm-toarm-to-arm arm traner o vacvaccine lym and on trong olitical and commercial relationi to lace tat oered teady lie o vaccine lym, c a central Mexico or New  Orlean. i wa a dynamic balance, bala nce, or te relationi relationi tat made mallox vaccine lym available acro acro olitical bondarie alo eled mallox move rom one locale to anoter.17 Political bondarie in te nineteent-centry exa borderland ollowed te danger o ti dynamic dyna mic and oro model model o border. border. Living witin wit in and working acro Mexican, Comance, and American ere o inence,

 Introdction

ejano and Anglo-exan lotted new border and drew on otide allie to gain ower and control over over teir olitical and commercial detinie. ee cometing deire de ire led to te t e War War o Indeendence (–), (–), te exa Revoltion (–), te Cordova Rebellion (), te Cerokee War (), te Concill Hoe Figt (), Conci (), te Mier M ier Exedition Ex edition (), (), te U.S.-M U.S.-Mexico exico War (–), te Cart War (), te Frenc Intervention (–), and te American Civil War (–). By te end o te American Civil War, Sain, France, Mexico, te Comance, te Aace, te Reblic o Fredonia, te Cerokee Nation, te Reblic o exa, te United State, and a nd te Conederacy ad all al l laid cometing claim claim  or art o wat are now now te tate o exa, amalia, Nevo León, Coaila, and Ciaa.18 e Rio Grande border, once tentatively xed by te reaty o Gadale Hidalgo, now marked te lace were Mexico and te United State agreed to tart exerciing teir olitical overeignty overeignty in i n . For medical roeional,  and  robably marked te low oint o teir cltral atority. Colera eectively demontrated teir inability  to redict or treat a dieae wit a ligtning-qick trajectory.19 Moreover, ramant illne and medical anxiety a nxiety accomanied te American occation occation o Mexico and te Rio Grande border in ; medical atoritie ond it diclt to treat tee illnee and t to tranlate tee ar-ranging anxietie into ederal medical olicie. American and Mexican bot looked to France or way ot o ti medical conndrm. In te medical cool and oital o Pari, doctor emaized oberving beore treating. In te United State, eole exected race-, lace-, and eron-ecic treatment. Watcing an illne il lne develo treatened treatened to ink even rter rt er te low nancial tat ten aociated wit American medical identitie.20 Doctor ad to rodce “enomena wic al alll — te yician, te t e atient, and te t e atient’ amily ami ly—cold witne witne  and in wic w ic all al l cold articiate,” ar ticiate,” and watcing doctor imly oberve te core o an illne rtrated atient and amily.21 Wen reearc minded medical ractice nderct nderct te articiato articiatory ry dimend imenion o doctor-atient enconter, doctor ond it ard to exlain teir ecial role in ociety. Moreover, eole were deely icio o roeional atority. Local articiation in te vat olitical tranormation tat ook  Mexico and te United State ad given eole and commnitie exerience managing teir own aair in a time o crii. e democratic cltre tat encoraged te abolition o lavery, local election, and local militia in bot

Introdction 

contrie alo eled generate orm o local cooeration dring eidemic. Doctor ad to learn to conorm to local more to rvive. e reence o te olitical border at te Rio Grande comlicated tee orm o medical commnity commnit y and regional identity. In exa exa and New Mexico beore and afer , eole canged national identitie at te border; more btly, national identitie temelve alo canged at te American-Mexican border.22 border .22 e treat and reence o vario var io eidemic raied te t e already ig ig  take invol i nvolved ved in creating and a nd maintaining national identitie. e material train o blic ealt camaign and te man cot o eidemic orced many men and women living along or moving trog te Mexico-U.S. border to go beyond teir local reorce and engage ederal blic ealt olicie and olicy maker.23 Wen blic ealt meare tarted adding ecic dieae and, later, later, ecic germ to teir t eir olicy goal, blic ealt ocer tarted earcing or way to rotect member o teir olitical commnitie rom te treat o oter dieae, eole, and germ. e orm o  racial exclion tat ofen accomanied te etabliment o national ealt olicie at te border comlicated local border engagement wit ederal atoritie, eecially in teir demand or ederal ealt reorce.24 Wen eole remembered eeling tat te usphs “diinected  a i we were ome kind o animal tat were bringing germ,” demanding more blic ealt reorce wold not addre ti demeaning dimenion o border ealt enconter.25 e border context alo comlicated te t e extent o racial exclion in blic ealt. Pblic Healt Service Ser vice ocer continally commented on te dangero indeendence o border reident dring te core o illne, exreing variation on te tatement tat tey “do not limit teir movement on accont o it, bt contine to mingle reely a ever wit oter eole.”26 Placing more doctor at te border imly made more doctor aware o ti general attitde among border amilie and neigborood. e increaed medical reence cold not garantee gara ntee additional additional cooeration by local wit medical norm. In te , ederal medical ocial gained te atority to imlement a variety o cltral and medical roject in te exa-Mexico borderland. ee roject eled ae national and international debate in blic ealt. ee roject alo arked a long-term, ractio, and occaionally   violentt dialoge among ederal  violen ederal ealt ocer, local, and a nd migrant over over te connection between dieae, citizeni, and tate action. Federal atori atoritie tie

 Introdction

ten became te t e eole connecting medical olitic at te bord border er to te olitic o blic ealt. ealt. e cae tdie in Fevered Measures track te canging medical and olitical ramework U.S. ederal ealt atoritie ed to treat te treat t reat o eidemic eidemic dieae to American.  te book make ma ke it clear ow medical border dier rom olitical olitica l border. Afer , blic ealt atoritie moved. e international border in te Rio Grande/Rio Bravo tayed in lace. e medical border blic ealt ocer created reonded to rmor o otbreak, ollowed te movement o eole, and ofen eemed to work ar otide local olitical ramework. e long ederal medical reence in te Rio Grande borderland made blic ealt matter more viible and reent in local olitic. e movement arond qetion qetion o dieae and tate action exoed ow concet o illne were olded into categorie o citizeni, ow emerging olitical identitie canged te demand made on blic ealt atoritie at te border, and ow rocee at te border cononded te eay deignation o Mexican and American. By te t e tart o te twentiet centry, blic ealt meare became key oint o trggle tr ggle over te rivilege o citizeni.

Pblic Healt and te Promie o Hitory  Unlike Dr. Gitera, I wa leaantly rried  rried by te ower tat eole at te border exercied over te togt and action o American blic ealt ocer. i tdy began wit my exerience a a gloried h/s eidemiologit wit te Cook Conty Deartment o Pblic Healt, working a beat in brban Cicago. In addition to drawing blood and interviewing eole wit s, I litened to oter wretle wit te otential cange in te elidentity tat tey migt create in reone to a oitive or negative h antibody tet. I ad committed to a bilingal-bicltral ractice in blic ealt a a way to imlement ocial jtice in te United State or, alternatively, exand Latino cltral and olitical acce to blicly nded medical ervice. Bt I grew rtrated wit te way Latino eemed otide te immediate concern o te blic ealt deartment. Wat articlarly irked me wa te way mot o my colleage earated medical matter rom “Mexican” matter, imlying tat omeow blic ealt ad never reaced Mexico or Latin America. eir  eir ignorance o itory —or teir idea tat Mexican are “new” to te United State —jti jtied ed teir tei r attitde attit de toward many ma ny reident o  Cook Conty, Conty, wic meant real dicltie d icltie wit Latino client. I ointlely  ogt article art icle tat connected te long Mexican reence in te United State

Introdction



to te intittional itory o American blic ealt. I wanted to ow tat Mexican, Mexican American, and Mexican immigrant were alo art o  te drama o American blic ealt. In te  and , te drama o American blic ealt cold not ave ad a larger tage. e s eidemic in Nort America galvanized new  orm o olitical mobilization in gay and lebian commnitie acro te United State.27 s and h advocacy brogt blic ealt roeional and divere coalition o everyday eole togeter.28 ee olitical trggle created medical and olitical enconter eared and deired by all involved.29 s activit worked on two dierent ront, exoing te general indierence o te blic medical reone to te t e ain o h and a nd s and conronting te omoobic omoobic and racit dimenion o te American cltral clt ral reone to s and omoexality.30 In or working-cla and etnically divere exally tranmitted dieae (s) deartment, itory rovided a nmber o way to dic or relationi to te world beyond te door o or s clinic. We diced te usphs’ ntreated yili tdy in Macon Conty, Alabama (te kegee tdy), te exerience o gay men and lebian in Germany nder te ird Reic, Jaanee American internment, te Second World War military rge o gay and lebian, and te general exerience o Jim Crow a cationary tale abot te ower o tate agencie to create minority identitie.31 On reection, Latino were generally inviible in tee American narrative abot civil rigt and blic ealt. Moreover, I nd it nettling nettli ng tat I remember no Latino blic blic ealt civil civ il rigt narrative or cae tdie diced by blic ealt roeional baed in greater Cicago in te mid-, even tog Latino rereented cloe to  ercent o Cicago’ olation.32 I decided tat itorical work cold el aer te ga between te long reence o Latino in te United State and te relative abence o olar narrative abot race, Latino, itory, and American blic ealt. So I marced o to te arcive to docment te enconter between Latino commnitie and blic ealt intittion. However, te arcival trace o tee blic ealt enconter were rriingly diclt to track down. A artial record o tee debate and dicion exit in medical reearc librarie, artly art ly becae American blic ealt atoritie ave been bliing weekly date on commnicable dieae in ecic lace ince .33 However, I wa rried to nd tat many o te record or te Eagle Pa, Laredo, and Brownville eidemic were nder correondence or Sotern Qarantine Station. i arcival

 Introdction

deignation wa geograically correct, a te Rio Grande border i ot o te (American) Sot.34 Clearly, te U.S. Marine Hoital Service drew  regional bondarie tat reected a dierent logic. e National Arcive did kee record or te dierent Rio Grande border tation in te central le or te usphs, bt te more itorical itorically ly comelling correondence ofen lay bried in te rgeon general’ maive le regarding ecic dieae like mallox, yellow ever, and ty.35 Some o te conict in te vario eidemic and qarantine involved Mexican conlar rereentation in te United State, wic laced te legal record in te State Deartment dilomatic arcive in College Park, Maryland. State Deartment ecialit in te National Arcive in College Park, becae o teir initial keticim, were alway rried to nd tat “comlaint againt qarantine” did exit and ad teir own decimal le. le.36 36 i  i roject roject owe tee arcivit an enormo debt, or tey eled make tee once-claied record available to me and to te colarly blic. e reaon te State Deartment regarded memoranda involving mallox, ty, and yellow ever in te exa-Mexico borderland a matter o  national nation al ecrity ecr ity remain a mytery to me, eecially given g iven tat blic blic ealt ocer gave gave reglar date on tee dieae in te rgeon general general’’ Public Health Reports. e record temelve revealed tat American citizen a well a Mexican national ed Mexican conlar advocacy to calleng cal lengee and negotiate te action o American ealt atoritie in te United State. at ti ti U.S.-baed U.S.-bae d medical med ical and dilomatic record rec ord i ndocmented — or idden in lain la in igt —eak eak to te t e way mltile arcive arc ive  Mexican Mexica n in te United State ot o te main crrent o American itorical exerience, ex erience, eling tem become, in Mae Ngai’ term, “alien citizen.”37 e oreign dimenion o ti blic arcival a rcival record i a reminder remi nder o te long-obcred relationi between Latino commnitie and U.S. ederal atoritie. ee dilomatic record rovide a rivileged way to ndertand ow local, migrant, and national blic ealt atoritie ndertood te medical dimenion o national identity, citizeni, belonging, eronood, and blic ace at te border. Simly nding tee record wa not enog. e reearc roce alo comlicated my initial ramework exlaining medical enconter at te border. I began my reliminary reearc looking or interaction between American ealt ocer and border border reident. reident. I tarted wit w it te telegra telegra, , memo, and reort generated by te usphs in El Pao, Laredo, and Brown-

Introdction 

 vil le. I ogt evidence o neqal treatmen  ville. treatmentt and Mexicano awaren awarene e o  tee ineqalitie. I ran acro memo and new torie abot te  El Pao y Bat Riot, a conict tat,  to tat oint, wa not inclded in any  itory o El Pao or Cidad Járez.38 e women involved in tee riot deed te usphs demand tat tey enter te clinic by te bridge, dirobe, lace teir clote in a cyanide cya nide mixtre, and a nd ten lace temelve in a keroene and vinegar bat.39 For te next tree day, women living in Jarez and working a dometic and landree in El Pao t down trac acro te Santa Fe Bridge. i riot conrmed te imortance o Mexican reitance in te itory o American blic ealt. e daily reence and otential anger o working-cla Mexican women wo croed te border on a daily  bai limited te ere o action or American blic ealt ocer at te El Pao border. However, my earc or Mexican or American reone to blic ealt ractice at te border alo retricted my ndertanding  ndertanding o te ebb and ow o  a comlex and mltietnic ocial world in ormation in te medical enconter. Wen I tarted reearcing te Laredo L aredo Smallox Riot o , I believed tat it temmed rom Mexican reitance to violent Anglo-Ame -American rican medical olicie enorced by te exa Ranger.40 I wa intriged wen I ond tat te (wite) (Anglo) exa Ranger deended on te (Arican American) ent Cavalryy to deend te Ranger rom Laredo’ working-cla Cavalr working-cla reident. Wen I tarted eeing Sani rname among te olice ocer and volnteer volnteer inector wo were orcing teir way into working-cla oeold in Laredo, I realized tat my American/Mexican binary —my initial initia l narrative tracing Anglo-American Anglo-Ame rican moderni modernity ty and etnic et nic Mexican reitance —did little l ittle to exlain te variety o reone in te mltietnic world o twentiet-centry  twentiet-centry  Laredo. ee nexected itation in El Pao and Laredo nderc  ndercored ored te way blic ealt at te border can bot contribte to or ndertanding o ow racial ormation move acro border and comlicate nation-bond narrative abot tate bilding.41 ey inired me to dig deeer and nd a larger tory trog tee t ee blic ealt enconter, wic I oe to tell tel l ere.

Marked Bodie and Moving Medical Border, – Medical border moved to reond to te erceived treat o illne, not te etabliment o olitical border. In , te drafer o te reaty o  Gadale Hidalgo inclded a medical excetion to te new olitical border tey drew between Mexico and te United State. Article III tated tat

 Introdction

American troo cold tay in teir igland location in central and nortern Mexico or an additional ix mont to avoid malaria and yellow ever dring te May to November November ickly eaon (la estación malsana) in te Gl o  Mexico.42 Mexico. 42 e treaty t reaty igner acceded to te U.S. Army’ A rmy’ demand to extend te occation in order to kee American troo and volnteer alive in Mexico. Afer te etabliment o te olitical line between Mexico and te United State, ederal action ollowed new o illne in te greater exa-Mexico borderland, not imly on te Rio Grande border. In te  Mexico-exa eidemic, te U.S. Marine Mari ne Hoital Service Serv ice (ushs) (ushs) drew a -mile-long line rom Laredo to Cor Criti Cr iti and qarantined qar antined everyone ever yone ot ot o te exaexaMexico railroad. i eectively erected a medical border between Mexico and te United State,  mile nort o te Brownville border. Dring te ame yellow ever eidemic, te ushs ired motly Anglo local cowboy to man te line and revent any river croing rom Laredo to Brownville.43 i monted medical gard receded te Border Patrol by orty year. Federal blic ealt ocer alo croed into Mexico to treat and addre te t e otential treat t reat o mallox, yellow ever, ever, and ty ty  to U.S. nationnational. In , te U.S. Army and te ushs eled ecort American citizen tree ndred mile nort, rom orreon, Coaila, to a detention cam in Eagle Pa, exa.44 Afer , te ushs tationed blic ealt ocer in key ort and citie in nortern Mexico to review te rogre o any yellow ever eidemic and invoke qarantine i neceary.45 In te roce o  croing border to rotect American citizen, te ealt ervice dened wo wa going to be an American citizen and wo wa going to be a treat to American citizen. e ushs (–), te National Board o Healt (–), te United State Pblic Healt and Marine Hoital Service (usphhs) (–) (–),, and te t e usphs (–reent) (–reent) atorized atoriz ed border ealt ea lt work in lace ar rom te Rio Grande border. e blic ealt ervice drew medical border and croed olitical border to rotect American citizen. e ongoing movement o American medical ocer acro tate and international border made medical border dierent rom olitical border. Mot medical border work afer  aened arond te key b o te Rio Grande. e main oci o ederal ealt attention were te bridge tation by te Rio Grande, te detention cam or medical qarantine, and te eole in te treet and oe o Brownville, Rio Grande City, Laredo, Eagle Pa, and El Pao. Pblic ealt ervice ocer treated te vario commnitie in ormation at te border in medically ditinct way. Far too

Introdction



ofen, tey conidered te many Mexican commnitie along te border to be one olation.46 ey laced (wite) American otide teir medical r veillance.47  veillance. 47 ey evalated te illnee il lnee in teir t eir midt at te border border by teir relative treat to lace beyond te border, not by te danger to eole at te border.48 Mc o te olitical atority o te medical border derived rom it mobility and it ower  ower to control trac t rac —oter eole’ mobility mobilit y —acro te border region. og te American medical border ad mobility and ower, te ditinct comlexitie o exa-Mexico border ocietie trobled tat mobility  and callenged cal lenged te ower o o te dieae diea e label and racial categorie c ategorie tat medical ocer brogt to te exa borderland. e reence o an etablied working-cla Mexican and Mexican American olation wit land bae in exa exa and a nd nortern Mexico gave local loca l a ene o ower and atority over teir own aair. e contrction o a railroad network between nortern Mexico and te United State accelerated accelerated te growt growt  o a racially racial ly divere and igly mobile regional labor orce on bot ide o te Rio Bravo. Finally, a modernizing Mexican and Mexican American middle cla ried aart remaining racial gene generalization ralization regarding exected Mexican attitde toward blic ealt meare.49 ee tree dierent clae develoed divergent exectation o ocial atority. A reident o te mot aent and edcated region in Mexico, many border migrant and reident rided temelve on teir edcation, teir ealt, and teir commitment to rogre. o t it imly, eole at te border — Mexican, American, Mexican American, Arica A rican n American, and oter minoritie —exected American medical medica l ocer to onor ared concet o dieae, ealt care, and atonomy. i exectation trobled te exercie o medical ower at te border. Working-cla Mexican, Mexican American, and Arican American demand or mtal medical recognition rom blic ealt atoritie on te border comlicate te ene tat doctor were te agent o medicalization on a bmiive olation.50 In an  article on vaccination, jornalitin-exile Jto Cardena eqated vaccination vaccination wit civiliz civilization ation and demanded niveral vaccination and, by imlication, niveral civilization at te border. i modernit imle imlied tat blic ealt and eqal citizeni were art o national rogre. Cardena’ writing ared te many viion o medical modernity and national commnity tat men and women were develoing witin teir etnic and national commnitie.51 However, late nineteent-centry blic ealt meare alo meant qarantine,

 Introdction

inection, detention, and orced treatment regimen.52 e demand or mtal recognition and eqal treatment conicted wit te exclion and miliation tat came wit inection, detention, comlory vaccination, and qarantine. ee contradictory tenion made blic ealt matter otentially otential ly dramatic dramat ic and volatile; at te border, ongoing ongoing qetion o national belonging accelerated accelerated te otential drama o blic ealt. e roce o deending a nation’ ealt meant ditingiing “Mexican” rom “American” witin deely interconnected border commnitie. I, a George Sáncez a arged or Mexican American in Lo Angele, etnicity i “not a xed et o ctom rviving rom a lie in Mexico, bt i a collective identity tat emerged rom te exerience o living in te United State,” te collective identitie tat emerged in blic ealt crie at te exa-Mexico border exoe te neay relationi between etnic and national identitie.53 Wen commnitie came into being to demand cange in blic ealt olicie, te blic ealt enconter “layed an active role in ormlating, ormlating, articlating ar ticlating and acting on te t e reing ie acing [wat wold ten be dened a] teir commnitie.”54 Moreover, te ene o ared crii in an eidemic alo orced individal wo articiated in mltile commnitie to cooe and dene teir immediate commnity.55 e reone by national ealt atoritie actively eled dene wat wa American or Mexican abot ti enconter. National blic ealt intervention reqired local articiation; national blic ealt intervention alo amlied local attern o exclion. e imltaneo engagement and exclion tat accomanied blic ealt intervention at te border made it diclt or border reident and ojorner to lly articiate in American or Mexican identitie. at eole arrived at dierent conclion abot te  vale o tee olitical identitie identitie—even given given ared circmtance— wa a tre ten a it i now. Wen blic ealt concern melted into qetion o race at te border, blic ealt meare tracked along racial line and redened te exerience o ared circmtance. circmta nce. Pblic ealt crie imlicated wite American in ti alcemy o race at te border. e ederal anitary cordon arond Sot exa and nortern Mexico dring te yellow ever eidemic o  orced wite American in Sot exa to reconider teir relationi to teir Mexican neigbor and teir wite colleage in Central exa. Laredo mayor Santo Benavide — a exa Mexican, a otern Democrat, and a Conederate veteran — arreted

Introdction 

and detained exa State Healt Ocer Robert M. Swearingen, anoter otern Democrat and Conederate veteran, or breaking te exa tate qarantine o Brownville tat Swearingen imel ad ordered.56 i ended  being jt one o mltile detention Swearingen exerienced; tey  trobled i nmarked mobility and atority a a wite tate roeional and orced im to eek olitical meare to reclaim i old on i callenged national identity.57 Swearingen tndered in i telegram againt te olitical atority o Rio Grande City, Peña, and Laredo tat i te mayor “ree to obey yor order, tey are not being more nor le tan organized mob and te tate old not ay one dime o te exene incrred by  tem.”58 Swearingen eqated te exercie o te law (e mandated) by democratically elected ejano atoritie wit democracy rn amok. e atial retriction o blic ealt olicie orced ome wite eole conronting medical border to rearm a wite American cla iden identity tity among a mong Mexican Mexican oter. Qarantine cold exoe, troble, or rearm te rivilege o witene along te border. Pblic ealt meare cold alo al o exoe and a nd troble troble te national erorerormance o Arican American identity at te border. e intervention became aoint were oberver recognized, incororated, rejected, and modied articlar etnic crit and national identitie. For examle, in , a gro o black otern worker rom Alabama tarted a labor rebellion on a cotton lantation in nortern Mexico. ey demanded tat te United State intervenee to end “te condition akin interven aki n to bondage” on te laalilo laali lo lantation and inited on being treated a American citizen wo ered rom a oreign comany’ breac o contract.59 However, te reence o mallox among ome o te worker’ amily member comlicated teir labor dite wit te laalilo Agricltral Comany. e U.S. Army and te U.S. exective branc ed tee cae o mallox to dene te worker a “Negro regee wit mallox” a tey moved te worker tree ndred mile nort to te U.S. border. e ushs ten treated ome o te worker a “an oortnity not to be lot to tet te erm teray” and laced tem in a mallox detention cam called Cam Jenner.60 e worker’ exerience wit ederal atority igligted te ambivalence o trannational American belonging. e worker’ negotiation ifed wit eac cange in te blic label —work worker, er, exile, colonit, citizen, wor worker, ker, regee, detainee deta inee — tat dened teir relationi to American national identity.61 e treat

 Introdction

Ma . Railroad Line Connecting te exa-Mexico Borderland. Cortey o te Univerity o Wiconin Cartogray Cartogr ay Laboratory, .

and tigma o illne and tate action orced te black colonit to orge collective identity identity tat t at emerged emerged rom teir exerience ex erience wit illne il lne and exclion at te olitical edge o two nation. Pblic ealt meare temelve rovide deely reonant metaor or tate intervention. Vaccination reqire medical atoritie to toc and breac breac  te bondarie tat t at dene te beginning and a nd end o eac individal. Qarantine creat createe bondarie arond ome, oeold, oeold, citie, contrie, and even ll region. e reence o qarantine may be a viible reminder o te ongoing labor tat member o teir commnity erorm to rotect, and t dene, te oter edge o teir commnitie. Sanitary inection can retrict acce to blic and blic blic ace, and te ectacle ec tacle o anitary  inection inec tion at te border tation can oter te imreion tat certain gro g ro o eole are alway medically ect. ee inection can alo garantee beqent acce to te general commnity. Develoment dring te Mexican Revoltion and te Progreive era eled make tee ederal ealt meare art o te rban landcae la ndcae o te Rio Grande. e ederal dimenion o tee intimate enconter between doctor and

Introdction 

eole meant tat local tenion moved into te national arena and tat national tenion aed local olitic. Racial tenion in te usphs germ control camaign in El Pao made te rban ace occied by women viible, blic, and oreign to American oberver in El Pao. eir avid and otentially otile embrace o germ control aected reident and commter in Cidad Járez, many o wom reited te generalization o tee germ control meare to treetcar rider, to reidence in Ciaita and Sot El Pao, and to bridge-croing commter. Uing germ control a teir len, blic ealt ocer aw and earated  Mexicans —eole wo ad been conidered art o te general landcae o Wet exa — rom te ddenly   American landcae in wic tey lived and worked.62 Rater tan treating “Mexican” aiction a an imortant art o lie on te border, ti newer “dangero “da ngero  bodie” aroac treated dometic dometic laborer in El Pao a te medical treat t reat tat needed reglation, reglation, ymbolically cleaning cleani ng te eole cleaning El Pao. American olitical rere cold tranorm te yical meaning o te t e body. Between  and , tate ealt atoritie in Caliornia, Arizona, exa exa,, and a nd enneee cold — and did —reond to local mal mallox lox otbreak otbreak  by demanding more rigoro and invaive inection in El Pao and Laredo.63 Afer ve year o tee rere, usphs ocer tarted actively dimiing te reence o vaccination car on Mexican bodie a evidence o   vaccination.  vaccinatio n. Mexican conlar rereentative rereentative organized againt ti t i rite o  tate medical exclion to el te Carranza C arranza regime demontrate demontrate teir commitment to Mexican reident reident o all nationalitie living livi ng and working in tee t ee border b. I, in te artit Barbara Krger’ word, yor body i a battlegrond, Mexican conlar atoritie atoritie trned tee car into lace to make te revoltion real in te United State.64 Pblic ealt ractice trned te body itel into a ite o otrevoltionary national overeignty. e border qarantine etablied dring dri ng te Mexican Revoltion aed te olitical cltre o te exa border trog te Second World War. A te reqency and everity e verity o mallox, ma llox, yellow yel low ever, and ty ty  — and te t e aociated diea dieae e revention camaign ca maign — receded rom olar  olar memory, usphs ocer began to loe old o teir exclive atority over te denition o dieae. Contie acro Sot and Wet exa exanded te initial mallox vaccination reqirement to create ll-edged medical jtication or earate cool. e cildren o a generation o Mexican national wo croed te border and tarted live acro Sot and Wet exa now 

 Introdction

aced egregation becae o an ongoing medical reone to te dilocation o te Mexican Revoltion. Local cool atoritie jtied te earate and neqal acilitie on te bai o te medical medical danger tat “loy” and “dirty” “di rty”  Mexican (American) cildren oed to American cildren. e tecniqe otenibly etablied againt lice roved very eective at erecting bondarie arond wite rivilege. rivi lege. Sot exa exa conty ocial ocia l aroriated te medical border bord er and te bord border er qarantine or teir own racial roe. r oe. Progreive exa New Dealer ogt to nd way to exand te medical border line into a medical med ical border zone. exa tate legilator ogt to create c reate an international border medical ditrict. Here ederal atoritie wold be reonible or or te ealt ea lt otcome among te Mexican majority living in i n te border contie along te Rio Grande. Jt a te ushs did in te Mexicanexa eidemic e idemic o , te tate o exa exa ogt  ogt to create a ace in exa bt not of  exa. For exa tate atoritie leading to te Second World War, border ealt meant Latin America, not exa, and te anwer lay in ederal or dilomatic reonibility. State ealt ocial trned te ene tat medical condition were dierent along te border into a diavowal o tate reonibility or te otcome along te border. Again, te mobile and a nd oro medical border wa deigned to earate and iolate a olation wit trong tie to te exa economy. Legilator ogt to draw medical bondarie between citizen and teir olitical rereentative. Commnity-baed medical atoritie ogt olitical mean to callenge tee medical bondarie. El Pao wa te ite o two c action: in  Dr. Larence Nixon initiated te two-decade-long p camaign againt te wite rimary in exa; and in  Jan Carlo Macca and oter medical roeional ro eional wo were member o te Leage Le age o United Latin American Citizen (u) ccelly beat back te attemt by te El Pao City-Conty  Healt Unit to reclaiy and lace Mexican and Mexican American A merican reident in te colored category or vital tatitic roe. By , Dr. Hector Garcia aw te imortance o organized citizeni claim in tranorming te ealt condition o Mexican Mexican American commnitie. Civil Civi l rigt mobilizing rovided ro vided an emerging trategy to conter te olitical eect o te t e medical border. i roject tarted wit te deire to connect Latino to te making o  American blic ealt. I wa intereted in writing a itorical analyi o  blic ealt meare tat wold demontrate tat Mexican at te border were in an ongoing converation wit tate medical eronnel over com-

Introdction 

mon dieae. I ond mltile examle o tee converation a I made my way trog te arcive. I alo began to ee te trace o a dierent roject. Federal medical eronnel ad tarted a dialoge wit eole in te Rio Grande borderland over te meaning o citizeni. e dialoge did not aen in cortroom, cool, or crcyard. Rater, blic ealt ocer tarted tee converation wen tey knocked on eole’ door and oered to bring qinine to ering atient. eir action on bridge and treetcar reminded eole at te border o te baic rivilege o citizeni. A ealt ocer moved rom one lace in te borderland to anoter, eole reonded to te way te ushs and te usphs imlemented teir blic ealt roject. e original ro roject ject abot olar ndertanding o ty, yellow ever, and mallox wold trn into a long converation abot te roer medical bondarie o citizeni at te exa-Mexico border.

notes

Note on Place, Peole, and Dieae 1. Gloria Anzaldúa, Borerln: Te new Metz = l Fronter (San Francico: Ant Lte Book, 2007) 2007),, 25. 2. Jon Morán Gonzá González, lez, Borer Rennce: Te Tex Centennl n te Eer gence o Mexcn Aercn Aercn Ltertre Ltertre (Atin: Univerity o Texa Texa Pre, 2009) 20 09)..  e Hernn Corté l eperor Crlo V., 3. Hernan Corte , Crt y relcóne e (Pari: A. Caix y Ca., 1868), 168–69, 172. Recent colari a tarted correcting etablied elling o Mexica and Talxcaltecan nobility. See San Scroeder, “Te Mexico Tat Sain Sa in Encontered,” Encontered,” in Te Oxor Htory o Mexco , ed. William Beezly (New York: Oxord Ox ord Univerity Univerity Pre, Pre , 2000), 75. te Mkng Mkng o Tex, 1836–1 1836–1986  986 (A4. David Dav id Montejano, Montejano, Anglo n Mexcn n te tin: Univerity o Texa Pre, 1986 1986), ), 5–6. 5. Interview Interv iew wit Señora S eñora X, December 6, 1979, 1979, condcted by Maria Nckol, Uni verity o o Texa Texa at El Pao, Intitte o Oral Hitory. From George Sáncez, Becong   Mexcn Aercn: Etnc Etncty, ty, Cltre, n Ientty n Ccno Lo Angele, 1900 1900–1 –1945 945 (New York: Oxord Univerity Pre, 1994), 56. 6. Denni Válde, “Te Decline Decli ne o Slavery Slavery in Mexico, Mex ico,”” Aerc 44, no. 2 (October 1987): 167–94; Dogla Coe, Te Lt o Rcl Donton: Pleben Socety n Colonl Mexco Cty (Madion: Univerity o Wiconin Pre, Pre , 1994), 49–67. 49–67. 7. Ramón Gtiérrez, “Hianic Identitie in te Sotwetern United State,” in Rce n Clfcton n Mexcn Aerc (Stanord: Stanord Univerity Pre, 2011), 174–94. 174–94. I e te t e term “Comance,” “C omance,” “Aace,” “Aace,” “Navajo,” “Peblo,” “Cerokee,” and “Yaqi” or tee Indian nation becae tey were te term ed in ormal dilomatic negotiation. negotiation. Eac o tee t ee groing o nation ave oter term in teir t eir own langage to reer to temelve. 8. Carle Roenberg, “Framing Dieae: Illne, Society and Hitory,” Frng  Dee: Ste n Cltrl Htory (New Brnwick: Brnw ick: Rtger Univerity Pre, 1992 1992), ), xii–xxvi. 9. Carle Brigg and Clara Mantini Brigg, Store n te Te o Coler: Rcl  Proflng rng  Mecl Ngtre (Berkeley: Univerity Univerity o Caliornia C aliornia Pre, 2004).

290

Note to Page xv–2

10. Donald Hokin, Prnce n Pent: A Htory o Sllpox  (Cicago: Uni verity o Cicago Pre, 1983) 1983).. 11. Dale Smit, “Te Rie and Fall o Tyomalarial Fever. II: Decline and Fall,”  Jornl o te Htory o Mecne n Alle Socete 37, no. 3 (Jly 1982): 287–320. 12. Margaret Hmrey, Yellow Fever n te Sot (Baltimore: Jon Hokin Univerity Pre, 1992), 5–7. 13. A alty doe o yellow vaccine may ave ave occaioned my coin Milko MartinMar tinic González’ deat, may e ret in eace. 14. “Ecaez de vacna en Medellin,” El Colobno, www.elcolombiano.com /BancoConocimiento/H/ay_ecaez_de_vacna_contra_la_febre_amarilla/ay_ ecaez_de_vacna_contra_la_febre_amarilla.a (acceed Agt 26, 2011).

Introdction 1. Gregorio Gitera, “Reort on te Eidemic o Yellow Fever o 1903 at Laredo, Minera and Cannel, Tx.,” United State Pblic Healt and Marine Hoital Service, o te Unte Stte Pblc Helt n Mrne Hoptl Hoptl Servce ed., in Annl Report o  or te Fcl Yer o 1903 (W (Waington, aington, D.C.: Government Printing Oce, 1904), 308. 2. Ibid., 308. 3. Mariola Einoa, Epec Invon: Yellow Fever n te Lt o Cbn Inepenence (Cicago: Univerity Univerity o Cicago C icago Pre, 2009), 55–73. 55–73. Wite and Mexican Mex ican Laredo atoritie may ave alo been relctant to end black ederal troo into wite, Texa Mexican, and Mexican oeold in Laredo. Jame N. Leiker, Rcl  Borer: Blck Soler long te Ro Grne (College Station: Texa Texa A&M Univerity  Pre, 2002), 118–44. 4. Migel Barrera, reiden reidentt o Sam Fordy Fordyce, ce, Texa, Texa, reorted, “In ite o aving my  reidence on on American Soil, te t e doctor reed to ear my argment and vaccinated me. Filed in Rio Grande City, 09/18/1916.” Record Gro () 59, Deartment o State Decimal File, 1910–1920, 158.1208/13 Enclore VI, National Arcive and Record Adminitration, Admini tration, College C ollege Park, Md. ( (p p). ). 5. J. P. Reynold, “Final Reort Regarding Comlaint at Rio R io Grande Gra nde City Cit y — J. P. Reynold, 05/26/1917,” in  59, Deartment o State, Decimal File, 1910–1920, 158.1208/11, Enclore VI, p. o Mecne Mecne 6. Carle V, V, king ki ng o Sain, “Orden real obre la vacna,” vac na,” in A Centry o n Sn Antono, ed. Pat Ireland Nixon Ni xon (San Antonio: Pat Ireland Ni xon, 1936), 1936), 56. 7. Jaime Grza, G rza, “Reorte “Reor te obre la bacna” (1808), (1808), Bexar Paer Collection, Center or American Hitory Hitor y, Atin, Tex. 8. Pricilla Wald, Contgo: Cltre, Crrer, n te Otbrek Nrrtve , Jon Hoe Franklin Center Book (Dram: Dke D ke Univerity Pre, 2008). (Her frt cae tdy, imagined immnitie: immnit ie: te eidemiology o belonging, age 33–67, 33–67, make ti t i oint. Te langage i mine.)

Note to Page 2–4

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9. Peter Andrea, And rea, “Borderl “Borderle e Economy Economy,, Barricaded Border Border,” ,” Nort Aercn Croncle o Ltn Aerc 33, no. 3 (1999): 16. 10. Cladia Herkam, Herkam, “Te Hitory Hi tory o Smallox Vaccination Vaccination in Germany: A Firt Htory  Ste in te Medicalization o te General Pblic,”  Jornl o Conteporry Htory  20, no. 4 (1985): (1985): 617–85. 617–85. Amy Faircild emaize emaiz e te way w ay blic ealt inection in ection certifed te t e rodctivity rodctivity o American immigrant im migrant laborer to American American in Scence t  te Borer: Igrnt Igrnt Mecl Inpecton n te Spng o te Moern Intrl  Lbor Force (Baltimore: Jon Hokin Univerity Pre, 2003). 11. Herkam, “Hitory o Smallox Vaccination in Germany.” For a ccinct ketc o te callenge cal lenge to medical atority, ee Micel Focalt, “Te Sbject and Power,” Crtcl Inqry 8, no. 4 (1982): 777–95. 12. Natalia Molina, Ft to Be Ctzen? Rce n Pblc Helt n Lo Angele, 1880– 1939 (Berkeley: Univerity o Caliornia Cali ornia Pre, 2007), 9–12. Frncco’ Cn13. Nayan Sa, Contgo Dve: Epec n Rce n Sn Frncco’ town (Berkeley: Univerity o Caliornia Cali ornia Pre, 2001), 8. 14. Linda Na, Inecpble Ecologe: A Htory o Envronent, Dee, n  Knowlege (Berkeley: Univerity o Caliornia Pre, 2006), 5–12, 16–48. See alo Poltcl Ieology n Dee Preventon PolSylvia Noble Te, Hen Argent: Poltcl cy (New Brnwick: Brnw ick: Rtger Univerity Pre, Pre , 1988), 1988), 3, 4, 4 , 11–15. 11–15. 15. Carle Roenberg, “Te Teraetic Revoltion: Revoltion: Medicine, Meaning, Meaning , and Social Cange in Nineteent-Centry America,” in Explnng Epec: An Oter  Ste n te Htory o Mecne (New York: York: Cambridge Ca mbridge Univerity Pre, 1992 1992), ), 12. 16. Ibid., 18. Ti i wy doctor diced te mell, , and excretion o, and te air arond, eac atient. 17. Pricilla Wald make te oint tat te act o rereenting a dieae, o lacing a microbe in a geograical rereentation o anoter lace, i deely cagt in te roce o deignating wo belong and wo treaten, and wo can belong in a national commnity. Wald, Contgo, 1–28, 33, 67. See alo Elizabet Fenn, Pox Aercn: Te Gret Sllpox Epec o 1775–82 (New York: York: Hill Hil l and Wang, 2001), 259–72. 18. Toma W. Kavanag, Conce Poltcl Htory: An Etnotorcl Perpectve, 1706–1875 (Lincoln: Univerity o Nebraka Pre, 1996), e. 294–387; 294–387; Brian Delay, Wr o  Ton Deert: Inn R n te U.S.-Mexcn Wr  (New  Haven: Yale Univerity Pre, 2008), 194–226; and Andre Reendez, Cngng Ntonl Ientte t te Fronter: Tex n New Mexco, 1800–1850 (New York: Cambridge Univerity Pre, 2004). 19. Carle E. Roenberg, Te Coler Yer: Te Unte Stte n 1832, 1849, n  1866 (Cicago: Univerity o Cicago Cica go Pre, 1962 1962), ), 121–31. 20. For a critiqe o te Pari cool  cool in te itory i tory o knowledge, ee Micel M icel FoPercepton (New York: calt, Brt o te Clnc: An Arceology o Mecl Percepton York: Vintage, Vi ntage,

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1994). For te imortance o te Pari cool to American medical reorm movement, ee Jon Harley Warner, Te Terpetc Perpectve: Mecl Prctce, Knowlege, n Ientty n Aerc, 1820–1885 (Princeton: Princeton Univerity  Pre, 1997) and  Agnt te Sprt o Syte: Te Frenc Iple n NneteentCentry Aercn Mecne (Princeton: Princeton Pri nceton Univerity Pre, 1998 1998). ). 21. Roenberg, “Teraetic Revol Re voltion,” tion,” 18. 22. Reendez, Cngng Ntonl Ientte , 3. 23. Fenn, Pox Aercn , 135–67. 24. Howard Markel, Wen Ger Trvel: Sx Mjor Epec Tt Hve Inve   Aerc n te Fer Tey Unlee  (New York: Panteon, 2004). 25. Sáncez, Becong Mexcn Aercn , 51. 26. Jon Hnter Poe, “Te Condition o te Mexican Polation o Wetern Texa in It Relation to Pblic Healt,” in Pblc Helt Pper n Report , vol. 6, ed. American Pblic Healt Aociation (Boton: Franklin Pre, Rand and Avery, 1881), 162. Cltrl Anly/ Anly/Cltrl  Cltrl  27.. Te 27 T e eay collection edited by Dogla Crim, aids: Cltrl  Actv, oered a way to tink o medicine and cltre togeter. Pala Treicler’ “s, Homoobia and Biomedical Dicore: An Eidemic o Signifcation” (31– 69) and Simon Watney’ “Te Sectacle o s” (71–85) eemed te mot relevant to my work in te Pblic Healt Deartment. Crim, ed.,  aids: Cltrl Anly/  Cltrl Actv (Cambridge: MIT Pre, 1988). Te term “” (gay/lebian/ biexal/trangender/qeer) ad not entered circlation yet. Tee eay are ometime conidered art o te emerging diciline o qeer teory, bt tey till ed te ormlation “gay and lebian” to dic  ractice in te 1980.  ro te Epec: An Orl  28. See Ronald Bayer and Gerald G erald Oeneimer, Voce ro Htory (New York: York: Oxord Univerity Pre, 2002) 2002),, or te variet varietyy o way yician learned to make teir way in ti landcae aed by graroot activim. 29. Steven Etein’ Etein’ analyi o te way engagement engagement wit medical atority trant ranIpree Scence: aids, a ids, ormed s activit i articlarly comelling. See Etein, Ipr  Actv, n te Poltc o Knowlege (Berkeley: Univerity o Caliornia Pre, 1996), 246–50. Bl ck An’t (Berkeley: Caliorni 30. Marlon Rigg, Blck I, Blck Ca liorniaa Newreel, 1995). 1995). I ond Evelynn Hammond’ Hammond’ dicion dic ion o te way te ocial recor record d eraed te t e exerience o black women wit s to be a comelling analyi o race and blic ealt. Hammond, “Miing Peron: Black Women and s,” Rcl Aerc (Aril– Jne 1990): 7–24. 31. Allan Brandt, No Mgc Bllet: A Socl Htory o Venerel Dee n te Unte Stte nce 1880 (New York: Oxord Univerity Pre, 1987); Crim,  aids; Jeanne Wattaki Hoton, Frewell to Mnznr (Boton: Hogton Miin, Mi in, 1973 1973); ); n er Fre: Te Htory Hto ry o Gy Men n Woen n Worl  Allan Berbe, Cong Ot ner Wr Two (Boton: New Pre, 1992). I alo ond te collection edited by Elizabet

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D ee (Berkeley: Univerity  Fee and Daniel Fox,  aids: Te Mkng o  Cronc Dee o Caliornia Pre, 1992), to be very el in my converation abot te imlication o teting oitive or h antibodie. For dieae a a ocial diagnoi, raming mecanim, and biological event, ee alo Carle E. Roenberg, “Framing Dieae: Illne, Society and Hitory,” xi–xxii. 32. “Illinoi Qick Link L ink,” ,” Factfnder.g Factf nder.gov ov,, qickact.cen.gov/q qick act.cen.gov/qd/tate/1 d/tate/17/ 7/1703 1703 11k.tml 11k. tml (acceed Jne 30, 2011). 33. Andrew Cli, Decperng Globl Epec: Anlytcl Approce to te Dee Recor Rec or o Worl Cte, 1888–1912 (New York: York: Cambridge Ca mbridge Univerity Pre, Pre , 1998). 1998). 34. Collector o Ctom William Fitc Reort, “Cam Jenner,” Agt 4, 1895, . 1–3,   90, United State Pblic Healt Service S ervice File, Fi le,  34, Entry Entr y 11, Correondence wit Sotern S otern Qarantine Qara ntine Station, Box 150, p p.. 35. H. J. Hamilton, “Reort on te Prevalence o Smallox on te Lower Mexican Border,, 09/24/1 Border 09/24/1911, 911,””  90, Sbject File No. 2796 — Smallox, United State Pblic Healt Serv Service ice File, 1897– 1897–1923, 1923, p p. 36. Ricard S. Kim alerted me to te exitence o ti decimal fle in 1999. He ond tem wile reearcing Hawaii- and Mexico-baed Korean exile nationalim in te National Arcive in College Park. Mexico ecialit Milton Gtaon wa incredibly ell, bt bot time I owed im my material, e ond it ard to believe tere wa a decimal fle called “comlaint againt qarantine” in te State Deartment fle. Il legl Alen n te Mkng o Moern Moern Aerc Aerc  37.. Mae Ngai, 37 Nga i, Ipoble Sbject: Illegl (Princeton: Princeton Univerity Pre, 2005) 2005),, 2. 38. C. C. Pierce, “Cae o Ty Fever in te City o El Pao, Janary 1–Jne 30, 1916,” File No. 2126, Ty, Box 207, File 1,  90, usphs Central File, 1897–1923, p. I reented a aer titled “Te Ty Bat Riot and te Invention o te Modern Mexican Border” at a National Mem o American Hitory colloqim in Aril 1997. 1997. See Alexandra Minna M inna Stern, “Bilding, Bondarie, Bonda rie, and Blood: Medicalization and Nation-Bilding on te U.S.-Mexico Border, 1910–1930,” Hpnc Aercn Htorcl Revew 79, no. 1 (1999): 41–81. David Dorado Romo, Rnge Set to  Revolton: An Unergron Cltrl Htory o El Po n C Jrez (El Pao: Cinco Pnto, 2005) 2005),, 223–44. 39. “Order to Bate Start Start  near Riot R iot among Jarez Women. Women. Abrn Haired Amazon at Santa Fe Street Bridge Lead Feminine Otbreak,” El Po Mornng Te , Janary 29, 1917, 1. 40. Arnoldo De León, Tey Clle Te Greer: Anglo Attte towr Mexcn n Tex, 1821–1900 (Atin: Univerity o Texa Texa Pre, 1983), 1983), 99. 41. For an elegant et o article ar ticle on te imact o te American exerience in Cba, Perto Rico, and te Piliine on te growt o te ederal tate, ee Alred W. McCoy and Francico Scarano, ed., Colonl Crcble: Epre n te Mkng o  te Moern Aercn Stte (Madion: Univerity o Wiconin Pre, 2009). For a

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collection on te edge o exloring national and borderland ace togeter, ee Samel Trett and Elliott Yong, ed., Contnentl Croro: Reppng U.S.–  Mexco Borerln Borerln Htory  (Dram: Dke Univerity Pre, 2004). 42. Nicola Trit and Manel Peña y Peña, “Te Treaty o Gadale Hidalgo,” 1774–1 4–1875 875 in  A Centry o Lwkng: U.S. Congreonl Docent n Debte, 177 (Waington, D.C.: Library Librar y o Congre, 1848 1848), ), 922–1065, 922–1065, e. 923–24. 43. Jon Hamilton, “Te Mexican-Texa Yellow Fever Eidemic,”  Annl Report  o te Spervng Sperv ng Srgeon Generl, usmhs, Deprtent o te Trery Trery or te Fcl  Yer o 1882 (W (Waing aington, ton, D.C.: Government Printing Print ing Oce, 1883 1883), ), 310–45. 44. George Magrder, Magrder, “Reort on te Etabliment and Adminitration Admini tration o Cam Report  10, no. 45 (October 25, Jenner, Eagle Pa, Tex.,” Weekly Abtrct o Sntry Report 1895): 957–59. 45. Gitera, “Reort “Reor t on te t e Eidemic o Yellow Yellow Fever o 1903 at Laredo, La redo,”” 303–20. 46. H. J. Hamilton, Ham ilton, “Reort o Invetigation on Tri along Lower Mexican Border, Setember 18, 1911, 1911,””  90, Sbject File Fi le No. 2796— Smallox, United State Pblic Healt Serv Service ice File, 1897– 1897–1923, 1923, p. p. 47.. For a ccinct decrition 47 decr ition o te ower o witene a an nmarked category, c ategory, ee Ricard Dyer, Wte: Ey on Rce n Cltre (New York: Rotledge, 1997), 1–40. 48. For Mariola Einoa, ti neqal geograic dynamic defne te relationi at te eart o nineteent- and twentiet-centry colonial medicine. Einoa, Epec Invon , 3, 5–8. 49. For te reence o an etablied working-cla Mexican olation, ee Montejano, Anglo n Mexcn, 1–1 1–100. 00. For land oeion, ee Armando Alonzo, A lonzo, Tejno Legcy: Rncero n Settler n Sot Tex, 1734–1900 (Albqerqe: Uni verity o New Mexico Pre, 1998 1998). ). For land dioe dioeion, ion, ee Montejano, Anglo n Mexcn, 101–28. For te rie o racially divere, igly mobile regional labor orce, ee Emilio Zamora, Te Worl o te Mexcn Worker n Tex, 1880–1930 (College Station: Texa A&M Univerity Pre, 1996), and Neil Foley, Te Wte Scorge: Mexcn, Blck, Blck , n Poor Wte n Tex Tex Cotton Cltre (Berkeley: Uni verity o Caliornia C aliornia Pre, 1996 1996). ). For te aradoxical imortance o ti Mexican middle cla, ee Montejano, Anglo n Mexcn, 83–99; David G. Gtiérrez, Wll n Mrror: Mexcn Aercn, Mexcn Igrnt, n te Poltc o Etncty  (Berkeley: Univerity o Caliornia Pre, 1995), and Leticia Magda Garza-Falcón, Gente Decente: A Borerln Repone to te Poltc o Donnce (A (Ati tin: n: Univerity o Texa Pre, 1998). 50. Focalt e te examle o te Pari legilatre, wic aointed doctor to decide wo deerved aitance and ow mc aid tey deerved. Focalt called ti te “decentralization o te mean o aitance atorized a medicalization o  it ditribtion” (Brt o te Clnc , 41). Te frt tranlation o ti book into U.S. Engli aeared in 1973. Te original blication wa Focalt, Nnce e l

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clnqe: Une rceology  regr ecl  (Pari: Pree Univeritaire de France, 1963). 51. Jto Cardena, “Nevo León cientifco: La virela y la vacna,” L Colon  Mexcn, May 6, 1891, 1. 52. Te colari on te romie and te exclion o modern blic ealt ractice i vat and growing. Key text inclde Focalt, Brt o te Clnc ; Lelie Reagan, Wen Aborton W  Cre: Woen, Mecne, n te Lw (Berkeley: Univerity o Caliornia Pre, 1997); Sa, Contgo Dve ; Martin S. Pernick, Te Blck Stork: Egenc n te Det o “Deectve” Bbe n Aercn Mecne n Moton Pctre Pctre  nce 1915 (New York: York: Oxord Ox ord Univerity Pre, 1999). On qarantine in articla a rticlar, r, ee Howard Howard Markel, Qrntne! Et Eropen Jew Igrnt n te New York Cty Epec Epec  o 1892 (Baltimore: Jon Hokin Univerity Pre, 1999). 53. For a atbreaking analyi o te mltile ace in Lo Angele were te cildren o Mexican immigrant orged a ared ene o identity, ee Sáncez, Becong Mexcn Aercn, 11. For a dicion o te way etnic Mexican olitical activit exerienced te dierence between etnic and national identitie, ee Gtiérrez, Wll n Mrror. 54. Gtiérrez, Wll n Mrror, 8. 55. Political reone to s in t e United State in te late 1980 and early 1990 eled generate commnitie o interet among eole wit s and callenged te idea tat eole wit s ared te ame identitie, commnitie, and olitiU.S. Poltcl Repone to aids a ids (Cael cal goal. goal . See Jennier Brier, Inecto Ie: U.S. Hill: Univerity o Nort Carolina Ca rolina Pre, 2010), 6–9, 161–85. 161–85. 56. Santo Benavide, “Swearingen Releaed nder Protet,” File 132, Box 301–118, Paer o Governor Oran Milo Robert, Texa State Arcive and Library (s), Atin. 57. Ibid. 58. Robert M. Swearingen, Sweari ngen, “Pleae Exemt Me rom Retriction in Yor Qarantine Proclamation, Proclamat ion,”” File 138, Box 301, Paer o Governor Governor Oran Milo Mi lo Robert, s. s . 59. Sam Claiborne deoition, deoit ion, “Failre o te Sceme or te Colonization Coloniz ation o Negroe in Mexico” Mex ico” (1896 (1896), ), in 54t Cong., 1t e., e ., Hoe o Rereentative, Doc. 169, Enclore 3, . 3, National Arcive Bilding B ilding (), Waing Waington, ton, D.C. 60. Jame Joe Kinyon, Ki nyon, “Preliminary Reort on te Treatment o Variola Variola by It Spervng Srgeon Generl o te te Mrne HoHoAntitoxin,” in Annl Report o te Spervng  ptl Servce o te Unte Stte or te Fcl Yer Yer 1897  1897 , ed. Walter Wyman (Waington, D.C.: Government Printing Oce, 1899), 1899), 779. 61. Earl Lewi, “To Trn a on a Pivot: Writing Arican American into a Hitory  o Overlaing Diaora,” Aercn Htorcl Revew 100, no. 3 (Jne 1995): 765–87. 765–87. 62. Erika Lee,  At te Gte: Cnee Igrton rng te Exclon Er, 1882– 1942 (Cael Hill: Univerity o Nort Carolina Pre, 2007), 162. 162.

296

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63. For Caliornia, ee J. C. Geiger, “Invetigation o an Otbreak o Smallox at Banning: Secial Reort to Jame S. Cmming, Director, Brea o Commnicable Dieae, Cali Caliornia ornia State Board Boa rd o Healt, 12/2 1 2/27/ 7/191 1916,” 6,” . . 2, Smallox Sma llox Sbject File No. 2796,  90, Central File, United State Pblic Healt Service, 1897–1923, Textal Record, Civilian Civi lian Diviion, Div iion, p. p. For New York York ee “Laredo y Nevo Laredo: Se eta et a  vacnando a lo trita,” tri ta,” L Pren (San Antonio), Janary 19, 1949. 64. Barbara Krger, Unttle (Yor Boy I  Bttlegron) 1989 Mrc on Wngton Poter , otograic ilkcreen on vinyl, 112 ince by 112 ince. 1989.

One. From te Mexican Border to te Mexican-Texa Eidemic 1. For a acinating analyi o te contradiction abot exanion in American olar cltre, ee Selley Streeby,  Aercn Senton: Cl, Epre, n te Procton o Poplr Cltre (Berkeley: Univerity o Caliornia Cali ornia Pre, 2002). Fre , ed. Joe Cance 2. Samel Ryan Crti,  Mexco ner Fre Ca nce (Fort Wort: Wort: Texa Critian Univerity Pre, 1994), 192. 3. Nicola Trit, “Te “ Te Treaty Treaty o Gadale Gada le Hidalgo,” Hidalgo,” in A Centry o Lwkng: U.S. Congreonl Docent n Debte, 1774–1875 , ed. U.S. Congre, 924–1065 (Waington, D.C.: Library o Congre, 1848). 4. Ibid., 924. 5. Te army recorded 12,355 deat, o wic 10,986 were by illne (88 ercent). Sligtly more tan one ot o every eigt American oldier died o il lne in Mexico. Te army alo recorded cloe to 95,000 oital viit, rogly eqaling te nmber o oldier wo erved in Mexico. See Vincent Cirillo, “More Fatal tan Powder and Sot: Dyentery in te United State Army dring te Mexican War, 1846–1848,” Perpectve n Bology n Mecne 52, no. 3 (2009): 400–405. 6. In a treaty tat demarcated bondarie o citizeni, race, and nation, only  blic ealt and rerial againt Indian raid diolved te olitical bondarie connecting and earating te United State rom Mexico. Giorgio Agamben, Stte o Excepton (Cicago: Univerity Univerity o Cicago Pre, 2005) 2005),, 3–5. 7. Crti, Mexco ner Fre, 60. 8. Romo, Rnge Set to te Revolton, 229. Alexandra Minna Stern and a nd Howard Howard Markel, “Wic Face? Woe Nation? Immigration, Pblic Healt, and te Contrction o Dieae at America’ Port and Border, 1891–1928,”  Aercn Bevorl Scentt  42, no. 9 (1999): 1314–31. Te lacement o body olitic at te end o  te edited collection Contnentl Croro imly tat body olitic and medical atority at te border began wit te Mexican Revoltion, even tog many o  te contribtor diagree wit ti narrative. Samel Trett and Elliott Yong, ed., Contnentl Croro: Reppng U.S.–Mexcn Borerln Htory  (Dram: Dke Univerity Pre, 2004), iii–v. 9. For exanion and lavery, ee Eric Foner, Free Sol, Free Lbor, Free Men: Te