Fallacies from “Love is a Fallacy” (and additional fallacy handout) Fallacy: A mistaken or illogical idea; error in reas on Logic: The science of thinking Dicto im!liciter: an argument "ased on an un#ualified generali$ation% “&'ercise is good% Therefore everyone should e'ercise%” (eart !atients shouldn*t e'ercise) asty +enerali$ation: too fe, fe, instances to su!!ort the conclusion% (-o"ody on camo!us s!eaks French%) .ost oc: “Let*s not take /ill on our !icnic% &very time ,e take him it rains% /ill has no connection to the ,eather% 0ontradictory .remesis: “1f +od can do anything can he make a stone so heavy he can*t lift it2” there can "e no argument ,hen the !remises contradict each other%% Ad 3isericordian: A!!eal to someone*s sym!athy or !ity to avoid the #uestion% (3y ,ife is ari!!le the children are hungry4) False Analogy: Analogy: 0om!aring t,o different situations and making an analogy% The situations must "e cam!ara"le% y!othesis 0ontrary to Fact: tarting ,ith a false hy!otheses and dra,ing conclusions% “3adam 0urie*s discovery of radium ,ould not have ha!!ened if she hadn*t left the !hotogra!hic !late ,ith !itch "lende out%” .oisoning the 5ell: Tainting an argument "efore it has "egun%% (First man calls a second man a liar "efore he gets to say anything%) /egging the 6uestion: Assuming the !remise is true ,ithout evidence% “ave your !arents #uit making all of your decisions for you2” li!!ery lo!e: Arguing that one event ,ill lead to another ,hich ,ill lead to another% “1f 1 don*t study 1*ll fail the class have to dro! out of high school and get married young7” Ad .o!ulum: A!!eal to the cro,d% 8sing !o!ular o!inion to su!!ort an argument% Ad omein: Attacking the !erson instead of attacking the argument the !erson is making% 1gnoring the 6uestion: Arguing something else (0hanging the su"9ect%)
-on e#uitar: Does not necessarily follo,% (A man is a good hus"and "ecause he does not "eat his ,ife%)
Dicto im!liciter The /i"le says h >fficer There
y!othesis 0ontrary to Fact: 1n this country citi$ens are !ermitted to o,n guns% 1f guns ,ere outla,ed citi$ens ,ould "e una"le to !rotect themselves and there ,ould "e an uncontrolla"le crime ,ave% .oisoning the 5ell: Frank is !om!ous arrogant and thinks he kno,s everything% o letf course this isn*t fair% 1 don*t stand a chance if 1*m called an idiot "efore 1 even "egin my !resentation% The audience is cheated out of the o!!ortunity of finding that out for themselves7 3y o!!onent has “!oisoned the ,ell” "efore the audience had an o!!ortunity to drink from it%
&motional e'!ression% For many em!loyees their ,ork grou! is a !rimary source for social interaction% a) 0ommunication ,ithin the grou! is a fundamental mechanism "y ,hich mem"ers sho, their frustrations and feelings of satisfaction% ") 0ommunication !rovides an avenue for e'!ression of emotions and fulfillment of social needs% === Bole of Language in Cer"al 0ommunication /ecause of the various functions it can !erform language has a great role in communication% 5hatever codes ,e use to convey our message ,ithin a fi'ed frame of reference in a given language they serve different functions% The "asic functions of language can "e grou!ed into three categories: descri!tive e'!ressive and social% Descri!tive Function: 8nder descri!tive function ,e can include travel ,riting (descri!tion of !laces) "iogra!hy auto"iogra!hy and ,riting a"out other !eo!le diary and !ersonal letters technical and scientific ,orks% 5e can also include the ver"al descri!tion of !eo!le !laces and things under this head% 5hile attem!ting descri!tive ,riting or s!eaking it is essential that the ,riter or s!eaker has o"tained all necessary information a"out the o"9ect of ,riting or s!eaking% &'!ressive Function: 8nder e'!ressive function ,e have inter9ections e'clamations use of s!ecial ,ords and !hrases for em!hasis% 8sing inter9ections ,e can e'!ress satisfaction e'citement sur!rise !ain hurt and disgust% 1n order to lay em!hasis ,e either use a ,ord ,ith a stress or use an e'tra ,ordE!hrase to add em!hasis(ou have never "een fair to us at all)% 5e also use #uestion tags rhetorical #uestions au'iliary Gdo* fronted negation ( tarting a sentence ,ith a negative ,ord: -ever have 1 seen a fool like you) to !ut em!hasis on a statement or a !articular idea% ocial Function: 8nder social function of language ,e can include functions like greeting !eo!le "idding fare,ell to !eo!le giving a command or order asking a #uestion making a re#uest advising offering a suggestion e'!ressing agreement or disagreement acce!ting or declining an invitation e'!ressing ,ishes thanks a!ologies regrets condolences sending seasonal greetings offering hel! giving instructions e'!ressing o"ligation e'!ressing the necessity for doing something e'!ressing certainty% 8nder each function ,e have multi!le su"functions% For e'am!le under the function Gre#uest* ,e have Gre#uest for !ermission* Gre#uest for hel!* Gformal re#uest* Ginformal re#uest etc*% 5hen ,e choose a !articular language function ,e need to use the code that is a!!ro!riate for that function% The ,ords structures and sentences used to !erform a !articular function do differ from the ,ords structures and sentences used to !erform a different function% 5hile e'!ressing a !olite re#uest for
instance ,e use Gcould* or G,ould* ,hereas for formal re#uests , e use Gmay* and for making informal re#uests ,e use either Gcan* or G,ill*% The ,ord order in an assertive sentence is different from an interrogative or an im!erative sentence% 1n an assertive sentence ,e follo, the normal sentence !attern (Bahim is a sincere "oy) "ut in an interrogative sentence ,e have an inverse order (1s Bahim a sincere "oy2) and in an im!erative sentence ,e do not have a visi"le su"9ect (Do this ,ork at this moment)% Like,ise for sentences e'!ressing suggestions ,e have #uite different structures (5hy don*t you go to the !olice station2 o, a"out 9oining a ne, !arty ne't ,eek2 Let*s have !icnic at this ,eekend% ou had "etter consult a doctor)% >ne more im!ortant !oint to "e noted in regard to the use of language for communication% The language ,e use should "e sim!le enough for the receiver to understand the message intended "ut at the same time it should not "e 9erky% Too many small sentences in a !assage also s!oil its "eauty% 1f ,e use long and com!le' sentences ,ith a lot of ideas !acked into one sentence the receiverEaddressee ,ill "e confused and the message ,ill not "e !ro!erly transmitted% Therefore the "est ,ay is to maintain a "alance "et,een the t,o% mall sentences connected ,ith suita"le connectors im!art clarity conciseness and grace to a !assage and make it ,orth readingElistening% 5hile !erforming a !articular language function ,e actually have a !ur!ose in our mind% 1n order to see the !ur!ose translating into action ,e need to use the ,ords structures and sentences that are grammatically correct socially acce!ta"le and meaningful% 3oreover ,e must try to understand ,hether the receiver has the same com!etence as us to receive the message !rocess it understand the im!ort inherent in it and ,herever !ossi"le !rovide the necessary feed"ack to the sender regarding the effectiveness of the message "eing transmitted% ==
?) Fear H 1t*s a state of !re!aring to run a,ay from imagined or actual ,arning or danger% &ye"ro,s tensely get curled shoulders fall do,n neck gets stiff ga$e get focused or redirected eyes get ,idely o!en to let more light !ass to retina mouth o!ens ,ide to let more air !ass to lungs vocal tone trem"les res!iration soars heart"eats goes u! face faints throat dries and saliva*s s,allo,ed torso lo,ers stomach gets !ulled inside ,hole "ody starts s,eating and shivering hands a!!ear muffling mouth to su!!ress scream "ody hides itself "ehind something and feet gets ready to flee%
I) Anger H 1t*s a state of !re!aring to threaten retaliate or !unish some"ody% 5hole "ody is !rovoked tightened or "luffed to a!!ear "igger and hostile% &yes get ,ide o!en signaling to target of "eing caught and to ,arn inhi"iting its activities "ody tem!erature starts rising ga$e gets more fi'ated and short darts move all over target eyelids "at faster neck gets stiff or tilts either side face and eyes turn red shoulders "ecome "road torso elevates chest !uffs nostrils "alloon res!iration soars !ulse 9um!s li!s get tightly closed or o!ened teeth get e'hi"ited vocal tone gets fierce arms get crossed over chest or rest on hi!s and feet get firmly grounded and se!arated a!art to !re!are for attack% J) Disgust H 1t*s a state of e'hi"iting loathe or lack of interest a"out !erson situation or o"9ect% Torso and face gets disoriented eyes faint heart"eat dro!s ga$e "ecomes more fleeting than fi'ated mouth gets o!ened on either side ,ith dis!laying teeth li!s curl do,n lo,er li!s !ush out tongue !rotrudes nostrils !ull u!,ard "reath e'hales "riskly throat clearing sound generates sounds like “uck” “5hack” “>oom” e'!el from mouth vocal tone gets dull hands !ush or hold disgusting thing a,ay% K) adness H 1t*s a state of disa!!roval or e'haustion to make !erson a!!ear in demand of others< attention and su!!ort% .osture loosens "ack hunches res!onses dam!en neck hangs or tilts side ,ay do,n hands su!!ort neck or cover face shoulders lo,er res!iration rate dro!s ga$e gets hovering around o,n "ody eyes "arely o!en lo,er li!s rides over u!!er edges of mouth curl do,n !alms clam! together and rest on la! or hid in !ocket vocal tone get dull heavy and sluggish sounds like “mm” “5hoosh” e'!el from mouth%
) ur!rise 1t*s a state of curiosity and great attention "eing !aid to o"9ect !erson situation or !henomenon that is une'!ected ine'!erienced or takes !lace suddenly% &yes get ,ide o!en to let more light !ass to retina eye"ro,s raise neck remains straight or tilts "ack,ard mouth gets ,ide o!en and li!s get rounded hair raise 9a, dro!s vocal tone accentuates sounds like “5o,” “>hh” e'!el from mouth torso gets raised hands are ke!t in ready !osition ,hole "ody faces and !oints !artially or fully to,ards the source of sur!rise% M) a!!iness 1t*s a state of e'!ressing and en9oying some kind of achievement "enefit fulfillment or victory% 5hole "ody starts sending messages of e'citement friendliness o!en and outgoing sharing tem!erament%
.osture elevates footste!s a!!ear flying movements "ecome energetic ,avy s,iveling facial muscles get rela'ed mouth o!ens edges of mouth curl u!,ard teeth get !artially or fully e'hi"ited eyes glitter ga$e remains more u!,ard or ahead and a,ay from "ody !alms gets o!en and held u!,ard hands get se!arated and raised shoulder high or a"ove vocal tone gets crunchy chir!y s,eet sound like “a4a%%%a%%%” “urray4” “o%%%o4” “ey%%%ey%%%” “eah” “i!!ee4” “ee a,” e'!els from mouth% N) 0ontem!t 1tften sound like hhhh ra!idly e'!els from mouth% /oth edges of mouth dee!ly !inched inside cheeks is also an e'!ression of contem!t% == &motional e'!ressions in !sychology are o"serva"le ver"al and nonver"al "ehaviors that communicate an internal emotional or affective state% &'am!les of emotional e'!ression are facial movements such as smiling or sco,ling or "ehaviors like crying or laughing% &motional e'!ressions can occur ,ith or ,ithout selfa,areness% .resuma"ly individuals have conscious control of their emotional e'!ressions;O?P ho,ever they need not have conscious a,areness of their emotional or affective state in order to e'!ress emotion% >ver the last I@@ years researchers have !ro!osed different and often com!eting models e'!laining emotion and emotional e'!ression going all the ,ay "ack to 0harles Dar,in%OIP o,ever all theorists in emotion agree that all normal functioning humans e'!erience and e'!ress emotions ,ith their voices faces and "odies%Ocitation neededP The e'!ression of romantic feelings are sha!ed "y cultural and social factors .aralangauagethe nonle'ical com!onent of communication "y s!eech for e'am!le intonation !itch and s!eed of s!eaking hesitation noises gesture and facial e'!ression%
