Environmental Engineering 2 e

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Environmental Engineering: Fundamentals, Sustainability, Design Second Edition Authors and Editors James R. Mihelcic

Contributing Authors Julie Beth Zimmerman

IYIorti/\ 1. Auer Michigan rochnologlcal Um"",.i,>,

Do\Iid W. Hand Mi<:higan rochnological Univer.ify

Richard E. Hanrath. Jr. Michigan rochnological Uni"",.ify

Mar.. W. Milke University of Comeroory

Michoel E. f'enn University of Wisconsin--PIollflville Amy L St"",t University of Soull1 florida

Noel R. U,ban Mdigon rechnological Uni"",.ify

Brion E. Whitman Wilkes University Qiong Zhong University of Soull1 florida

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Preface Now m",~ than ever, there h,,-~ bee" an increasing a,,'arenes, of Ihe u,,"usla,,,ability Ira;.cl'ry our ~ely is currenlly [nIb" mg. (kcurring ,imultaneously,tl,e... ha I'e been numeroo., proc1.lm.uiOl~'i, in,ernal"'''''] "'_ings, eflorts to a,,,,,,,, the curre"t state of affai" ""d beg,n 10 design new lechnologi'; en v;rmunenlal engi"""'ing " Ihe "ery motivation f'" Ihis I>ook - pr",' idi"g Ix"h Ihe fu"d"menl"l""i"i"g to soh-e en"irmunen",l problem, as well as the broad unde",,,,nding of ,u""inabilny_ As we ""we from the SlMk and egregiOll' e'\I imn",e,,"" prnblem, tI,.,t ga,-e ri'" t" Ihe field of e"v,ronmen",l e"g,n""ring "lOre tI,,,,, fi"e decade<- "go 10 the more compl"" and gkbal chall""g'" of tnd.,}, the field 01 en ,;ro"m""tal e"gin""rIng m~1 evol\ e as l\"elL look,ng 10 Ihe fUlure, there i, a cle'" n~ lor em ironme"",1 engin""", "ho a,.., able to ""Hahn"te ac"",< disdpline<- and mmmunic-ale brOildly to Ihe "dent,fic ""mmunity, policyma""", a"d 'he public. Su"Mi'Mblhly ma"y "pp",tun,'ie<- for en"iromnen",l e"g,n""", In e,-ol, e from Ih""" "hn characlerize, manage, and remediate eXist"'g environ menial prnblem, 10 Ih"'" ... hn a,.., designing and developing new ll'Chl\Ologi"-' 11MI add yond the fundamental and "nportanl en, ,mnmelllal engin""r"'g curriculu m including the abiht\' to Ilunk crealively and crillcally, In "ork in Imerd isciphnary leanlS, alld to con,ider Ihe emire 'y,tem. A< 'ho" n In the I.,ble belo\\', Ihe ,'ery nalure nl Ihe ch..1Ieng'" faced by en,-imnmenlal engi"""'" i, cha"ging.

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TIli, _hift Ut foeu~ provid", slud~lll'; an opportun,'y to _,ucreed '" ~ngjn""ring pr.l£ipline. Afl~r all, Ihe only reas and Ihe le,·el of ""der-.landing w~ ha, ~ about these pmbl~ms will requ,re engi"""", to take on ne", skills, capabili,i"", and pe"'I""',i,-e about ho", w~ appr""ch our ",ork. II i, nOl,hal Ihe
Hallmar1< Features CHANGES TO THIS SECON DEDITION In th~ 2,01 edition several key upelales "ere made 10 Ihe ,tructure and ront~nl of ,hi, I~",book. o TI,e book is slin based Oil applying foundalional pnnciples ",lolled I" physics, ch~mis"y, biology, ri.,1<, ma"" baIaIlC"". and suslainab,li,y which are applied to the desigll and ol"'ratlon of tf.'Chnology and ,"alegi"" u>ed to manage and nnl'gale en"ironment.ll problems found ill la,'.d, wat~r, and .,ir. o

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is cont,"ued ~mpha'L' on problems impor!dnt 10 the Uniled Stoll"" and Ihe world, w,lh .l focus 0" pollution pr~,-~,,'im, and r"",urc~ rec",-~ry whil~ ,till pr", iding infontla'K'" 10 design lreat",~nt pr,lCeSSeS.

o Chapter I ",asrewrillen and is now I,tied ·'Sustarnable De;ign, En8'n""r"'g.and lnn,,,,a"on." 11 de-~mpha'i:>_ Engineerong (Chapter Ill,,~, t'llally rewrill"n and """ includes di""",s,on ""d applicalion of ,,,,,,,,ian f'Ium~ Mod~ls ~nd ~mpha,is of d"mand man.\ge",~'"slratrgi"" along ,dth ,radi,ional air pollulion commiledlllologies. o

Prerac~

ha, been reduced fmm 14 to 11 InIal chapt~rs "hich we beli~,,~ will as,e,l instructo'" ,ha, use Ihe book in a """,esler course and Ih~ t~'" h~, been a1iglloo "ilh Ihe Nali"""l Ac-ad~",y of Engineering'< focus on Grand Ch.. lI~nges related 10 ",a'laging caroon and llllmg~n_ Wilh Ih~ more TI,~ t~J
I'",",ou"ced ~mph~sis on innov,,!Ion and ~u,lainabilily in lh~ 2nd ed,lion, lher~ a,.., ~I\hance",enb lo"'ard, a dee!",," inl~gration 01 S}'SI~n~s tlllllking lhroughoulth~ teu and problen~s. On" nOlabl~ e~~mple of thi, is Ihe reerafti"g lh" chapt"rs ,..,laled 1o ",al~r "l"ch now appear as o"e ch.'pt~r focused "Wat"" Qu~lIlitv and Qualily" (Chapler 71 and a ,"",ond focu-.ed on "Wast"waler ~nd Storm",ate" Collection, T ,..,.'tm~nt, R~sou"", Rerov~ry" (Ch.. pl'" 9), In thi, "'''y, water L, oon.,idered holistically as a """-)\Jrre induding a d is<....ssion 0/ ",.. I~r r""se . • W" added ,,,,,~rallopicsbroughl to the autho"" .1U~ntion bj use" Ollh~ teXl, e.g., a seclion on ca!culdtmg a ""roon footprinl in Cl"'pter 2 (E",-il\)l\m~nt.,l M~asur~menls), enh.1nced section 0" e",,'Sy bolla""" in Chapl~r ,I (Physi""l Prnce;';5), I>o>ll"r d~fjnll;on of ~ "al~rshed .."d lh" addition 0/ lh~ IUtional M~thod thai is integrat"'" with ""."nples of how land use impads ",al~r quality III Chapt"r 7 (Wdl~r: Qu.",tity alld Qualily>, IIlleg,ati"n of m~lhods that "mph.1,iz~ ,-.";(lUre,, ree",-"ry associaled ",ilh man.lgem~nt of "ast"",al~r (Chapt~r 9). ....d a _'lion in Ch.1pter 11 (Air Qu.. lilj Engllleering) ,1"" enlph.1sizes the u,~ of d~mand managem"'lI"s solulion 1o air pollulion pmblen~s. Given Ihe crHical need 1o ~n,u,.., ,1"" sustain.1bllily alld interdisciplinarit\'.1r" uIll"grallo Ih~ trallling 01 e",·i"),,m~nt.11 ~ngin"""" lh~ sla"d-alon~ chaplers "Green Ellgineerillg" ,"'d Buill E,wimnmel\l" from lhe firsl edition ,,-ere elin,,"aloo, and il~qead, lhe rele,-allt conlenl wa, integrated into other chapters.

11",

• Se\'eral education.al modules (in powerpoillt .. nd \'idoo fOntlJ.I) 1o a"isl an In,lructor in mtegralio" of sustainabilily and other importanl envlron",e,,'al engmeering t'-'Pies ha,-e t-n de\'~~)peJ and a,.., a,-.. ,I.. ble as inslructor support "",teri..ls (_ 1>0>10"'). Ther" i.s a;"o .,n i"creaseJ empha~is 011 practical field orientaled applicalim~sof e"gin""ring pra'ii"" "lid ., fifty »"rcent i"",..,a", in end of d"'pter p""'I,,.-..;, for a 100al of ,1-15. [n ..dditlon. the solutlo"-s ",anual has been ca,dully ,.." iewed a"d updaled.

A FOCUSON SUSTAINABLE DESIGN PerM!" 0"" of the mosl Imp'"lant a,!"",b 01 the 1""lbook " Ihat it ,,-ill focu, Ihe sludenlon the el"",enls of 116iS"' Design of products, pmces""", "lid sy~le!l~s "ill 1>0> "",,,,nt,alllot only in ,"",pondillg to the ell< i",,,mentallS-SU",, III ,,-ay' Ihal our pmfession has done InSlorically but al,o in inlorming the de"gn 01 n"", producls, proces.ses, .. nd 'y,'em, 10 reduce or elimin.. t" probl~m, I",,,, occurrillg in lh" fj"t place. To use Ih" tool, of gree" engllleering design lruly 1o design lor ~USlaitldbjlily, ,Iud"n" need ~ command 01 th" framework for lhis design. Th" framework perhaps can"" ,ummarized III lh" fOllr 1"5: (I) lnherency, (2) ["'''gration, Ollnlerd"dplinary, alld (4) lnternati""a], Inherency A' a reader proceeds Ihmugh lhe le~l; il will re:ome ob,-iou, lhal we are nol m",'"y look"'g at h,~, 'ocha"g"'l""conditi""sorcircun...tal"'",, tha Imake a pmduct, proc.,.;" or system a probl"m. Read""" ill und"",.."d th~ ",h",,..,1 ".lture of lh" material .111d energy input' and OUlpUiS '0 Ih.,t lhey a", able to U,>:I",-.I.",d lhe fundamelltal basis of II"" haz.lrd a 1>:111"" root causes of II"" ad""'''''' COI"""'I.uen"" lh"}' seek to add"",",s. Onlv Ihrough thi, i"he,..,ncy app,oach can"" begin to design for sust.1in..b,lily ralh~r lhan generating elegant lechnok>gieal bandag"" for flawed conceptiol~s.

Inlegralion Our histoncal ~ppr"""h", toward m~ny e,wirmmen,al is",",,,,, h~, e heel, fr~gmented----<)flenby media, life q'cl.., cuhure, or geograpl"c "'8ion. U ndeNa"ding ,hat e,,,,rgy i, inel to food production, fund production to he-,lth Cdre, health care to Sf.,ieMI de,,,I..,,men~ and <0 on "ill be """,n~al in th.. new paradigm of ,usMinable d""ign. It is equally 'U'CKd th~, "e ca,,,,ot think .,bout .'pprroaching any e,w"ollm",,,al probl..m without looki"g .•t the problem across all elements of i" iife q'cle. The,.., ha,'e been wun,l"" allemp's I,~ i",p"',-" e",-"""me"tai eireu"",anees ,ha, have r""uhed III unint"nded prohlem< Ihat 1"" e ohen been wo"'*' th.", Ihe prohl.." they intended '0 fix. AUempls '0 incre."" drillk,,'g w~,er supply in funglad",h resuhed in widespread arsenic pni"",ing. Allempb '0 h",re"-,,, crop yieM, throlJgh .he productIon of pesticides ill Bhopal. India, r"""hed in one of ,he grea,es, chemical tragedies of our lime. Understanding ,he rompieA intem)l",ectioll< and e",unng ,he ;"1''8'''110'' of ",uhiple facto" in ,he de,eiopment of 'olu,io".' L< «,me,hing that 2bt cell'Ury e",'ironm..mal engin""ring requl""", Inlerdisciplinary To achie,'" the go"Ls of sust.linab~ d",osn, ennronmen,al englll""rs w iii be working increasingly wilh a wide array of oth..r d i"dplines. Technical di""plilles of chemistry alld biology and oU",r ..nglll""ring dIsciplines wiii be _",ial but so will the disciplines of """nomics, syslen" anaiysi" heallh, sociology, and amhrol-'ology. ThIS le.duce Ihe "'1t'rdiS(;I~m",y dimen":,,,>; ,1M' wil be i"'p:>rlanl'o ,he sliCflI of lhe tr di""'g of en"lronmemal engi"""".

/VIA TERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCES AND L1F ECYClE THINKI NG The book pro, ides a rigorou.< developmellt of energy a"d ma" bala""" ooncepb wid, "umen)use~,y-I()-folk",-e""mple prrolems.ll then ~ppll~ ma.,; alld enerK" bal .•nce wneep's '0 a wide rallge of n.llu rai al>d ellgineered <) ,Iems alld diff""'lIl I'll ,'irollll\en13lmedia. The book ha, appropriate w,-erage of life cycle a<"",smem and provides a life cycle-thinking al-'prlMdl in di",~,ion throughout o,her ch~pte",.

PEDAGOGYANDASSESSMENT Bey""d Indill ing ,I", ele"",n5 mentioned pre,iously 10 prep."e eng"'''''rs for Ihe 21" cenlu I)', ,h" I>o<'k ~i,.-, inmrp:>r.t1~ chang~ in pt'dagogy and ~'
rink's Taono:.ny of Signific~nl lu,ningO,,~,uch ~I~m~nl is Ih~ u'"' 0' rink', M.•onomy of ,ig'" fica "t lea "'"'g iII gu ,d i"g the d e"el "pmen Iof lean, iIIg ob1""11 v'" for each ch..lpl~r as ",ell a, in e""mple and h,.,m~",,.,rkpmbl~m,. Rnl', la.'()Jwmy 'e«>gl\;zes ,ix dm""i", be)',.,"'" tr.,d,tinnal 'nundat",,,.ll kn,.,,, ledge, induding; foundation.al "',o",ledge; applicat,m, ,,( k"o",ledge; integralion of kno" ledge; hum.", dimen,ioll' of I~.",ling and caring; and learning hoI-\' 10 learn. \\"1lhoul much background "n Ihe !.'I.""",my, il i, d~ar from Ih""" """I-\'ledge doma,n I",adiogs alone 11"'1 Ihese M~a, recognized by Rnk are crilic-alto a" eogineer M,ked I-\',Ih d""'g'''''g ".-,lull<'l\s to ma"y of today's ,u,"'inabilily d",neng"'. Important Equ.tions Box'" aroond important equatiOlL' i,,<,"cale for ,lud"'II' \\]"ch are mosll-rilical. learn ing [x~.Igeof InlOr",at.,n a ,-aildbleat go,,~rnmenl and !longm-er",,,enl Web ,iles.

BOOKWEB SITE AJdilional resourc", ,or ,tu.:le,"s and inslruclor,; dt~ available Oil Ihe book ,il~, loc.ted ~I "'\\ w.wiley.mm/rollege/mihelck.

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Cla .... ..,om M~leri3.l. fur In.trudor. n"oogh all NSF Co",,,,,, Curriculum, and ldboratory Improv~m~m grant a,,-ard...J I,~ th""" of thi, book', author,; (Qiollg Zhang, Juli" Beth Zimm~rman, and lam6 M,heleld ,,,,d 10 Linda Valla,up" (California Polytechnic Stale U ni "ersityl, we ha ,'e Je, eloped u,-d"l'lh t: l. Sy",~",s n'ink,ng

2. nnlrooucti"'1\ to) Sus"''''.lbiHly 3. Sy,tem, Thinking: Populalion 4. Sy,le",s Thillkmg: Ene,&v 5. Sy,le"" n,,"king: Material l>. Sy'I~Il\' n"nk,ng; Water

All materials a", a, ailable al the following .ubl<, link for dOl, nlo.,d; http;f ;",or"'.I:"'p"",,",ooml I,ana,up I fueh ..". pro" ides an .1rray of dassroom n"'l~rials .... I~ d"",gn ali~,,-s .... ,Ih educational """,arrh on how t,) foster more .ignific."lliearning and indudes: • Leanung ob"",!I"e; "ithin "",eral critical areas of learning (foundaliOlU\l knowledge, applicalion of knowledge, integration of kn"" ledge, human dime,~,iOl~S of l~Mning and canng, and learning how 1I,INrn) • A

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• Acli, e leam ing e,erci.,e; that railge from IWl>- minu I~ to three-hoo r in ,.""t "'~IIl>; notaled guid"" for faculty u.ing Ihe ~,erd"", • A _ of aso'n Education Re;ou",e (OER) Commo,,", und~r "n,~ Suslan",bilily L~arn"'g Suite;," TI~ 2·1 "id",.", are organized Mound Ihe Ihem"", ,)',ten" Ihll,kJng,su"la inabled~l'elopm~nl;energy; wal",; population; and material,. ht 11'; 1I w" '".""roo, n on ",\s.o rg; a uU,onng 1lliOO-t he-_ u.sl.. ina b,li I)' ·I~a rtl '"g,u'I""'I\'i~",

TI,,,,,,, malerial, h.we al", '-n ,ubm ined for publicalion at; Kati"",,1 Sciellce Digilal L,brary (NsdLorg),

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES FOR INSTRUCTORS Adduional resource; for

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Ih~ le~1 appropriat~ for

"-s« in lecture

,lid..,., Th..... r""""rces are a,'ailabl~ ollly to inslructors ",1", adopt lhe lext. Pl~a,~ "is,1 the i,~strucl", .ection of Ihe Wd> sUe al ",w",."il<,y.mm/oollege/mih~lckto "'gl,ler for a pass"'ord,

Genesis of the Book In 1999, W~ pubbshal a book tilled FUllffi>mmials j,,,,lude;

,,,,,,red

applicalio" of th.- fUIld.,menlal skill, 10 design alld operale ,Iralegi", to implemelll "..ur.::e reduclion, ,..",,)lJr.::e rec"v"ry, alld l",al",,,,1I.

Acknowledgements As ",e mar"el and app"",iale alllh""" ",ho ha"e dedkated Ihe",,,,,jveto lea, ing the world a betler place th.•n Ih"y fOlJnd il----i!n ,'iron",ental ""gil""''' and others-weare graleful for all Ihe lalenled people who ha,e h"lped m.•ke Ihi, book I""',ible and are poised 10 chang" the v"ry "atu"" of Ihe field of elll irOlu"ental engi"""nng, Be-.h:les all the ;"di, iduals who contribIJled mntem to Ihe book, Ihe follo\\ "'g facul!> pro"ided high-qualil)" "",'iew and ul,ight through. del'elopn.. of Ih" fi"'l .....tuin",

,,,tl

Zuhdi Al"*,,,h, Vol!"",i", U,,;=>iIV

Rob."t W. Keri

Fu"",~

H"rnbucU~,

IJr.
Unirr",t" '" I"""

lIcn}>min S. M"8b.:mu.l Jr.,

M;~",.il'r;

5101< Un;,.."il" Tah" F .'Iarha"". N~", /crsry 1",'iIJil<",T«hn<>l"llV William F ~lcT<'mom DUlh""", SMr U""',,,sitV Gblpn Sen8up!.1, UnIT"";I,, of Mzs.... ch",m, Thoma.' So,,,,,,,,,.', U,,;<>iIV of II,"""""

lillda Val"'''''pa (California r"lytechllic 5t.lle Uni,''''''''ty) "",'i",,·eJ Ille fiJSI editi,., chaplo'rsalld assi.<;Ied i" de""kll"''S lenr'u"g obp v", i"lhe conlex! "f Fink', ta.,onomy 01 'lgnificdlulfflrning. Lhkfa rlullip. (Ul~ ,..".sily of Soulh n.-..;d.<) ided ""'" int..malional pe,-..pect",,,, especIally regardmg in!egratttlg '"'!"'lice learning "',Ih practili,.,,,r inwi, ell"'n!. The ed iI oria lie..." of U ,kf a R.llts, Hope E1 ~" J~ce p ti\ a nd 'eluly IVeI ter from Ihe firsl ed,tion Ita' e ~l".. bolen a ke.v to SLlCl'esS. TIleir early "i.,io" of the book', pUrj-..-.;e and aUenl.iorl a"d mnlributio..,,; to dela~, qyle, and pedagogy have "",de Ihi, a fulfilling and equall"'rtne",hip. The following 'Iudents ~I the Uni,-ers;ly 01 Soulh Flnrida r"viewed e, er) chapt"r of the fi"'l edition and prm'ided ,aluable commenl' during tho> ediling p"JCeo.S' 'onath.u\ Blanchard, Ju,11I1 M""h, ColI""n N,lUg}llon, Ke,' in Om."., Duncan re.• b<-.Jy, drld 51even IVor",11. Ezekiel Fugaleand Jennifer Ace(Yale Unker
1-"'"

Jome. R, Miheldc:

Julie Beth Zimmermon

About the Authors J.. mes

R. Mjh~l
Stale 01 Florida 21>1 Century W,.,.ld Cla" Scholar al Ihe University or South Florid... He ;s founder of the Peace Corp' M."I"", llllern.• l;"".. l Program In Civil ""d Ell' irnnment.ll Engin""ring (Imp:! /""".eng.usf,Mu!l""'cec<>rps) '" hich allow, slUden,s to <",nbin" the;, grad uale qudi"" "tth """rMI;o""l sen'lce al,d ."",arch in the Peace Corps as w ate. I "",itd,10" engineers. He;s also d,rect", of Ihe U.s. EPA J\:"ri"",,1 Re"""n:h Certer 1m Re;'''''-'''llng Agl/lg rnfrast,oclure for I\:uttient M"'lage,,,,,n, (RAIN"'gl), His leaching .. nd inte'''''ts are centered .. round engll1,,,,,in8 and ,u,la;nabJily. ,pe.:ificaUy ,,"derl Englllet>ring Scit'nCt' AdvL",ry BNnh. Ht' i, IM,t presidt'ol of Ihe As"",i~lion of En"ironmem~1 Enginet>ring an,j Scf""c" ['roles"'.... (AEES['j, a BoanJ Cerlified En"imnm""t.\i Enginet>nng M"mber, and Bo...d T ru,let> " Ilh Ihe American Academ:- 01 I'll' ironm"nlal Ellgin"".... & Scientlsl' (AA EESI. H" i, le.ld auth"r fM Iwo other I"Xlboob, F,,,,,famelllaL, of [m'""",,,,,,,lol ["s;,"'o''''~ (John Wil"y & S.,n" 1999) (traIlsl.lted inlo Sp.lni,h) and Fid,j G,"do' i" [m'"""",,,,,lol ["si""'ri"s /
''''''Md,

,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,ta

Dr. J"li" Beth Zimmennan is the l)on",a L Dub""ky As"""i.1t" ['roles",r of En"ironmental Engnlet>ring, joinlly app"mled 10 Ihe Department of ChemIcal Engineering, En, """m",ua! Engntet>rlllg PrflOram, and IheSclnol 01 F"l't'Stry and E,wlm",n""," She Ls al", Ihe Sust.\inability and InnovatJon Coordi""tor lor Ihe U.S. EPA N~liooal R6"arch C"nter for R"i",,,,,,mg Aging Infra"ructur" lor Nutrient Man.tgement (RAfNmsl). Her research i",eresl, broadly focus on gret>n chemLSlry alld engit""",,'g " Ilh specl!ic e"'pMsi, "n gret>n down,tream processing and Hfecvde ~s""'S1nenl of algal biomass for fUfh and va iue-added ch",nkab as ,,..,,11 a, n",'el biobased ",rbents for purificatIon of d ,inking water ~"d remedialion ,'\I indu,trial wa,tewater. Other ongoing locu, area, indude Ihe de;ign of saler chemkab from fi .... 1principle; and the implkatiolls of "anomaterials "n human heaith and Ih~ en, ironment. Further, 10 enhance ti,e Ilkt>lihood of succe;,ful impleme",ation of Ih""" nul generalion de;iglls, Dr. Zimmerman ,Iudj"" Ihe dfeclivene" and impeJlln"nts of current anu potential policit's dev'eloped 10 au vance ,usiainablilty. Togt'lher, Ihese effort, ref're;,,,,, a ,y,teltl.lhc and holi,tk appmach 10 addres.sing Ih" ch.•lIenge,; 01 suslamab,lily 10 enhance ,,·ater and r6mrc" quallly and quanlity. to impro,e elll'ironn",nl~1 protection, and 10 pro,'ide for a higher qualily ollif", Dr. Zimmerm~" previously ",,,'ed a, an Engin"",r and program coordinator in lile Office of Re>earch and De"elop"'''''' al Ihe L',,,ted SI~te; En\"ironment.\1 Prol",,1;0ll Ag~ncy where ,he managed su,t.linability research granb and created EPA's [') (['eople, P""'p"rity, and Ihe ['1",eO Award program. lo.13rtin T. A""r" a pmles.sor of ci,·,1 and em m",mental engUleering at Michigan TeclulOlngical U,u""",ity. He I~aches introductory couN>s in ",,,,iron,,,,,nt..l engin""ring and ad,'anced coulSewcrk In surface ,,·aler---
and "",them,.hcal moddi"g of lak~, reser,'oirs, and m'el'S. Dr. Auer'~ ,.",..,arch illtere.t, in mlve fidd and laboralory ,It.o.:li.,; and malhemali", I m,>.!eU"g<>1 "a"r quality In lak", a"d ri, el'i. David W. I land i, a profes",r a"d chair 01 civil ..nd environmental englll""ring al MIchigan Technological UnIversity. He t"ad,,,, "",,,ior-lev,,1 and graduat" c<>u"",", in drinking ,,-ater I....almenl, "a..le"aler t....atment, and phy,lcal chemical proees_ in ennml\mel\tal engin""ring. Dr. Han.:!'s r",,,,,,,h interest., i"dude phvskal-chemical trealmelH proc",,-<;eS. ma~~ Iran~ler, adsorption, air r ill geological and min"'g engineering and >eiences and of civil and e",-imnmental e"gineer,,'g al Michigan Technological Uni,·e",,!y. ,,-here he al", direc!ed the Alm""pheric Sciences graduale program. He taught cou,"""" m Intr,-.:!uclory en,- .."nme'tal engineer",!;, ad,anced air qualuy engineering and ""ience, and alm""pheric chern;"lry. HIS """"arch ac-ti, ities il"'ill,.,J ,Iudies of Ihe larg.,.."eale impact, 01 air p"IlUt.llH em,,,,,,,,, from ,Ullhr"P"l';"nic ,ource; ,lIld frcon w ildtln!5, wilh a focu5<'" Ihe mteractiiln bet" een IralL~pori proc",,,,,, and chemical proces"ng. He al"" ..tudied phillochemi ..try in ice and snil"', including field sludies of Ihe "'Ieraclinns anwng snil,,", air, and ,unlight. Mark W. Milke i, an aSS,lei,He pmf",,,,r/,,,ader al the o..parlm"'H ilf Civil and Katural Res<>U rc.",. Enginee"ng, Universil}' "f Ca"leruury, 1':e,," Zealand. "here he h." worked ,"",e I'.l91. Hi., research and leachIng "'leresis are ,,' -,<>Ii.:!-",a'ie management. gr"c",d"aler, .1IId uncertamt:- analy"s. H" c~ d ch.lrtered pmf",.,i",,,,l engin""r in /lie" Zeal.ll,d Mir of a,-il and envimnmen!.>l engll,eering al the Unh'erslty of WiSCOlbin-l'laUe\"ille. He teach", undergraduat" roun;es in intmJuetory e,,\"ironmental ""gineering, fluid mechanics, ,Iil"",,-aler n"'lIdgemenl, wa ..te,,"ater and dri"king water treatment, and ",lid and haz.udilus ,,-a.. le management. Dr. Penn·s research inler"'I' focus on II\I'ol\'ing ulldergrdduates i" ,tud,es 01 agflocIk, 1"lrorIw,Iii''' III l"fra,l",ctll'" AJI 111",-grams. She lea1el",& suslainabilily, and a muli-discipli""ry en,·i"",menlal ".,,,,inar. Dr. Sluart', re",an:h is taill,Ibilit)' 1m work il" sustainable urlMn d""igJ' t,) reduce air pollulion ""1X",ur"" resultant health effects, and en, i",nmental inequalily.

Aboul the Authors

R. Urb~n i, a prof"",,,,, of ~i\ j] .\lId em ironmenul engineering al Michigall Tech"ol"gic.;1 Unl ..e",il}. HL~ leaching inlere-b focus on e"nro"menl.;l chen",tr} and ,urf.lee ,,-al"'--
Srian E. Whilman is al1 associale profes,or of en"ron",enl.,l eng",eering al Willes U"i,e"ily. He teaches cou""'"' in "al'" di,lribuli"" and "a'iewal"r collecllo" 'yst"", de-ign, hydrology, waler rt>SOurces ""gineering. and "at", and "-"-~I",,,'ater i,,,almenl p,ocess d.,.;ign. Dr. Wl"hnan', ,_arch ime,e-Is indal" hydraulic modeling of water distributIOn and was~,,-aler roll"'lion syslems, ",,,,iron,,,ental microbiology. bi""ngltlee,ing. and "",lamali"n of itld uslrial fly ash. He is Ihe recipienl of Iwo Wilkes L'ni,'ersny Oulslanding ra~ulty A "",,,ds alld has co-aulhmed Ihree bc.->k, ill Ihe ar"as of ",lie, dL,I"butlo" .,nd "aslewaler collection system mod"ling and design. Qion8 Zhang IS .ltl a"i,talll professor of ch il and "n,-imm""nlal engineering al the U,,,vef'il!y ofSculh Fl.... ,da. Sh" was p,,,,-ioosly the 01""".,lio,,, Ma"'ger of the Sust.tinable Fulure<; Irl,lilule al Midugan Technolrgical U,,,,'er,ily and is a ,,,,,,,arch direclor of Ihe U.S. EPA N.,tional R"""arch C,,"te, for Rein, enlmg Aging Infra'lru~lu""for 1' curriculum_ Her research foOJ''''' on exploring and ,,,,...].;ting Ihe d .v".tmie in~racl;"llS bo>l,,"'., "ater .1I,d en.e,gy ","'enlS, qua.ntify ill> Iheen ,irmmental i'''plicatio", of energ} 'y,lem, alld energy implicalim~s of waler and "a,lew.;ler ,y,lem" and "",kIng lechnical a"d nOnledmical ""Iu!ion, for ime-g",ted ",aler..,ne'gy mallag",n""1

Brief Table of Contents Chapter Eight Water Treatment

Chapter One Sustainable Design, Engileering, and Innovation 1

Chapler Nine Wastewater and Stormwater: Collection, Treatment, Resource Recovery 440

Chapter Two Environmental Measurements 37 Chapter Three Chemistry

68

Chapler Four Physical Processes ChaplcrFive Biology

115

Chapler Eleven Air Quality Engineeting 575

182

ChaplcrSix Environmental Risk

ChaplcrTcn Solid-Waste Management 523

246

Chapler Seven Water: Quantity and Quality 296

•

375

Detailed Table of Contents Chapler One Sustainable Design, Engi1eering, Md 1.1

~noyation

UnlS 40

1

Background: EvolUtIOn from Enwonmental Protection to SuSlanabll.y 2

The Path Forward: OpefatlOO3lizing Su5lailabilly 8

1.2

VoIumeNoIume and Mole!Mole Using the Ideal Gas Law to

2..2.1

Convert ppm. to I'-Wm3 42 2.3

Partial-Pressure UflItS 44

2.4

MolelVollnle UnItS 46

2.5

OtherTypesolUnlS 48

1.2.1

UfBCydilThnkng 11

:u. 1

Normality 48

1..2.2

Sysrerre Tlwlkng 17

2.5..2

Concentrauon as a Common CoffilllUEl1I 51

1.3

Englreemg lor Suslamability 21

ConcentratJonsof Carbon Dialude and Other GHGs 52

Frameworks lor Susta.nable

1.3.1

Desgn 22 1.3.2

The Importance of DesIgn am Irvw;)vatJOn in AdvanCIng Soslanabtity 24

2..5.4

Aepomng PartICle Concentrauons 11 All and Waer 58

2..5.5

RepresentltJOnbyEffea 60

1.4

Meas!f1ngSusminllbility 27

1.5

PolIcIes Drivng Green Engneenng and

Key Terms 61

SusranabJJ:y 30

C~ter

1.5.1

ReguialOlS 30

1.5.2

VoitnaryProgmms 31

1.6

Aeler5lCllS 67

o-gnngT(ltT'Offl)W 32

Chapler Three Chemistry 68

Key Terms 32

3.1

Approaches in EnvrormentaI Chernsl/y 69

3.2

ActJ>ity and Concentration 69

3.3

Reaction Slotdiiorretry 72

3.4

l1'IemDdynarmc Laws 72

3.5

VoiaUizallon

3.6

A1r-WatBf EqUlibrUm 80

Chapler One Problems 33 Relefenoes 36

ChaplerTwo Environmental Melliurements 37 2.1

Two Prkms 62

Mass Conc:efl\latlOO Units 38

2.1.1

Mass/Mass Unls 38

2.1.2

MassIVolume UOIlS; mgIL ancIlAWm 40 ;....,.~

3.6.1

76

Hervy's law Constant wIth Units for a Gas DissolvIng in a

lqlJd 80

3.6.2

3.1

Dimensionless Henry's law Constant for a Species Transferring from the liquid PhaseinlothlGasPhase 81

Acid-BaseChenistry 83

83

3.7.1

pH

3.7.2

Definition of Acids and Bases and their Equilibrium Conslarlts 84

3.7.3

Carbonate System, Alkalinity. and Buffering Capacity 86

3.8

Oxidalion-Redu::tion 89

3.9

Predpitaion-Dissdution

""

AdsorpHon, Absorption, and Sorption 94

3.11

Kinetics

4.1.3

Reactor Analysis: The CMFR 122

4.1.4

Batch Rea:tor 129

4.1.5

PIlJ;j·Aow Reactor 130

4.1.6

Retention nme and Other Expressions for VlQ 135

4.1.7

Materials Flow Analysis and Urban Metabdism 138 Energy Balances 140

'.2 4.2.1

Fonns of Energy 140

4.2.2

Conducting an Energy Balanee 142

4.2.3

Impact of GreenhouseGas Emissions on Earth·s Energy Balarlee 145

4.2.4

Energy Efficiency In Buildings: Insulation, Infiltration. and Thermal Wals 151

4.2.5

Urban Heat Island

91

101 101

3.11.1

TheRatelaw

3.11.2

Zero-Order and First·Order Reactions 103

157

3.11.3

Pseudo First·Order Reactions 104

'.3

Buildings: Right Sizing and Energy 160

3.11.4

Half·life and Its Relationshipto the Rate Constarlt 106

4.4

Mass Transport Processes 164

3.11.5

Effect of Temperature on Rate Constants 108

KeyTerfTti

4.4.1

Advection and Dispersion

4.4.2

Movement of a Particle in a Fluid: Stokes'lavv 173

109

Key Terms

ChapterThreB Problems 110 RelerBl"lcBS

175

Chapter Four Problems

114

ReferBflcBS

OJapterFive Biology 182

4.1

5.'

116

4.1.1

ContrdVolume

4.1.2

Terms of the Mass Balance Equation for a CMFR 117

IlYIlI Detailed Table or Contents

Ecosystem StruGlureand FlEIdion 183

117 5.1.1 5.2

176

181

Chapter Four Physical Processes 115 MassBalances

164

MajorOrgarismGroups Poptiatioo Dynanics 188

185

5.2.1

Units of Expression for POPJlatioo Size 188

5.2.2

Models of Population Growth 188

5.3

Energy Flow in Ecosystems

5.3.2 5.3.3

Chapter Five Problems 239 205

References

Trophic Structure in Ecosystems 208 Thermodynamics and Energy Tramfer 209

6.'

Risk and the Engineer 247

6.'

Risk Perceplim

6.3

Hazardous Waste and Toxic ChffTlicals 254

Definition of 800, CBOD. and NBOO 213

5.4.2 5.4.3

245

Chaplcr Six Environmental Risk 246

Oxygen Demand: 8iochemk:al, Chemical. and Theoretical 213 5.4.1

Biodiversity and Ecosystem Heatth 235

KeyTerms 238

Energy Capture and Use: Photosynthesis and Respiration 205

5.3.1

5.4

5.6.2

SOI....cesofBOD 214

251

6.3.1

HazardJus Waste 256

6.3.2

Toxicity 257

6.3.3

Pollution Preventim

6.'

Engineerl-1g Ethics and Risk

6.5

Risk Assessmerf

263 264

267

Theoretical Oxygen Demand 215

6.5.1

Hazard Assessment

5.4.4

BOD Kinetics 216

6.5.2

Dose-Response Assessment 270

5.4.5

CBODRateCoefficierf

6.5.3

Exposure Assessment 273

6.5.4

Risk Characterization 277

5.4.6 5.4.7 5.5

219

BOD: Measurement, Application, and liJTitatims 220

6.6

BOD Test: limitations and Alternatives 223

More Complicated Problems with at Least Two Exposure Routes 283

Material Flow in Ecosystems 224 5.5.1

Oxygen and Carbon Cycles

5.5.2

Nitrogen Cyde

5.5.3

PhoSp'lOnJS Cyde 230

5.5.4

SulflJ'" Cyde 230

5.6

6.6.1

Settin9 Water·Quality Standards Based on Exposure from Drinking Water and Eating Fish 283

6.6.2

How to Determine Allowable Soii Cleanup Standards That Protect Groundwater 284

225

227

Ecosystem Health and the Public Welfare 231 5.6.1

Toxic Substances and Ecosystem and Human Heatth 231

267

KeyTerms

289

Chapter Six Problems References

290

295

lIeWIed Table of Conteols

Chapter Seven Water: Quantity and Quality 296 7.1

7.6

Introduction to Water ResoUfces and WaterQuahty

7.2

298

Surface Watef, Groundwater, Walersheal 299

7.2.1

Surface Water and Groundwater 299

>.2.2

,.... 7.2."

7.6.2

Design Fkm Velocities and Pipe Siz.~g 333

7.6.3

Pumping Stations and

7.7

RiverWaterQuality

Esumatrog Surface Runoff ffom land Use 303

DrssoIved Oxygen and BOD 337

7.7.2

O~enSan.lralk:n

7.7.3

The OX}gen Deti::lt 34 1

7.7.4

0xyQfI1 Mass Balance 341

7.7.s

DssoIYed-Oxygen Sag Cl.ne and CritK:al Dista"lCe 342

Esumatrog PoIutant load~ In Roooff from Land

7A 1

Thermal SlrntIficauon of Lakes and ResenotlS 344

7.8.2

OrganIc;: Maner, Thermal SlrnuficaDon, and Oxygen

310

U.s. Water Usage 311

7 ....3

Public WatEl' Suppies 312

7......

WatefReclamation~

De~etlon

7.8.3

Watef ScarCIty and Water GG"lfict 316

Nutnenllinnation and TropNc State 346

7A4

EngIneered Lake Managf'fTlent 349

Cteatng Models to Estimate

Demlnd 319

7.5.3 7.5.4

7.9

Wetlards

7.10

Grourt:lwater Duality and Flow 355

EstJmalrog WalEI' (lRl WaSlewaIEl') Fkms 320

7.10.1

Tme,Varylng Flows and Seasonal Cydes 323

7.10.2

Fire Flow Demand and

7.10.3

Unaccounted·lor W<.f.EI' 7.5.5

346

Reuse 314

MunopalWatEl'Dema'ld 317

7.5.2

337

Lake and ReselYOlr WatEl' Oualty 344

7.8

PRnaryUse of Walerln the

7.".2

7.5.1

337

7.7.1

Wcrlj

,.,

System Layout 331

Water!tleds 301

Water Usage 309

7.4.5

7.6.1

Storage 335

"'" 305 WatEl' Avaibbilty 307

7 ....1

Water Distribution (and Wastewater Collectioli Systlms 331

326

Demand Forecasting 328

DfIl.Dlled Table of Contente

349

SoJces of GrOUldwater Polutlon 355

Groundwater Flow and Pollutant Transport 356 Subsurfaoe Remedialon 359

KeyTeflllS

364

Chapler Seven Problems 366 References 373

Chapter Eight Water Treatment 375 8.1

InlrodJction 377

8.2

Characteristics of Untreated Water 378

379

8.2..1

Physical Characterish:s

8.2..2

Major and Minor Inorganic Cornt~uerlls 381

8.2.3

Major Organic Cornt~uerlls

8.2.4

384

Microbial Constituents 385

8.3

WaterQuaity Standards 387

8.'

Overview of Water Treatment Processes 389

8.5

Coag[jatiOl'l and FlocUJlation 8.5.1

8.10

8.10.1

Classification of Membrane Processes 423

8.10.2

Membrane Materials 424

8.10.3

Membrane Process Types and ConfiglJ"atiorn 425

8.10.4

Membrane Selection and Operation 426

8.10.5

Membrane Performarce

8.11

8.11.2

AdsorbentTypes 431

KeyTerms 434 Chapter Eight Problems 435 References

393

Chenical CoagLlants

8.5.3

Other Considerations 396

8.7

Sedmentatlon

400

404

439

Chapter Nine Wastewater and

Stormwater: Collection, Treatment, Resource Recovery 440 9.'

Introduction 442

8.7.1

Discrete Particle SettlWlg 404

8.'

Characterislcs of Domestic Wastewater 444

8.7.2

Particle Removal During Sedmentation 406

9.3

Overview of Treatment Processes 445

8.7.3

Other Types of SettlWlg 409

9.'

Preimimry Treatme,"", ..8

a8

Fi~ration

8.8.1

8.9

410

Types of Granular Fi~ralion 410

8.8.2

Media Characteristcs

8.9.1 8.9.2

412

9.4.1

Screenirg

448

9.4.2

Gr~

9.4.3

FkJtation

9.4.4

Equalization 450

Chambers ..8 450

414

9.5

PrimaryTrealment 454

Current Disinfection MetOOds 414

9.6

Secondary Treatment

Disinfection

428

431

Types of Adsorption Processes 431

392

8.5.2

Hardness Rerrvval

Adsorptioo

8.11.1

Particle Stability and Removal 392

8.6

Membrane Processes 422

Disinfectiln Kinetics 414

9.6.1

456

Suspended-Growth Reactors: Activated Sludge 456 Detailed Table.' Co:\Ient:s

'.7

Modifications to the Activated-Sludge

KIl'ITerl'1'\S

Process 468

Chap.er Nine Problems 516

Memblane BloreoctOIS 469

IU.!

515

ReferRlCe5 521

Attad1ed-GrowtlReaetors 472

9.8

,.,

Removal and Reooifltyof Nutrients: Nitrogen and Phosphoru; 474 9.9.1

Nitrogen 475

9.9.2

Ptla;pIYJru;

OtapterTen Solid·Waste Management 523 10.1

InlrodJdion 525

10.2

SoIi:l·Wasre CharactEnZaion 527

478

9.10

Disirtll(;lion and Aerallon 480

9.11

End 01 Ufe Sludge Management and Energy Recovery 482

10.2.1

Soun::esofSolIdWaste 527

10.22

Quantities of MunICipal Solid

Waste 528 10.2.3

9.11.1

Sludge Stabilization 463

9.11.2

Digesters

9.11.3

Dewattrirg 486

9.1 u

Disposal

9.12

485

487

StabiilaJon Ponds 489

11.12.2

Wellards 494

9.13

Waste 529 10.2.4

Enefyy Usage cturngWastewatef

CoIectionofSolid~Waste

Characurizdon Dala 530 10.2.5

Natual T r~ Systems 489

11.12.1

Materials in Mun;cipal Solid

PhysIcaVOtemical Characterizalion of

Waste 532 10.2.6 10.3

Trealmert: 497

Hazardous-Waste Charact6'lZa1ion S36

Components 01 Solid~Waste Systems 539

9.14

Wastewater Reclamallonand Reuse 4!B

10.3.1

Storage. Collection. and T farlsp:lrt 539

9.15

Wet-Weather Flow Implications lor Wastewater 500

10.3.2

Recycling and Materials Recovery 542

9.16

Managing Wet-Weather

10.3.3

COfTl)Oslirg

10.3.4

Waste-Io-Energy 548

10.3.5

l
10.3.6

SoIid-Wasle Energy

Fbws 503

9.17

GreenStormwater Managemert 505

8.17.1

Gre8"I Roofs 506

9.17..2

Permeable (or Porous) PaWlT1El1ts 501

9.17.3

8I0ll!lenlioo Cells 509

9.17.4

8Ioswales and Other land Use T edviiQues 514

Detailed Tablfl '" Coni..,"

544

Tedtnd0ge5 566 10.4

ManagemEl1I Concepts 566

,.....

Poky Options 568

10.4.3

Cosl: ESllmalOl'l 56ll

10.4.1

Con>WtlOfl 567

KeyTerITs

570

ChaplerTenProblems 571 Refeflnce;

574

lU.8

Odorous Aw: 607

1U.9

Indoor Au Poll\Aants 608

11.5

Ambient EmISSlOOS and EmlSSlOOS

Conlrcl 610

Oiapler ElC\'cn Air Ouality Engineering 575

11.5. 1

Types of EmIssions and Sources 610

11.1

IntrodJellon 577

11.5.2

EmlSSl)(tS TrfJlds 611

11.2

ScaleandCyclesofAirPoIUtion 579

11.5.3

EmissrlnsCortrcl 612

11.2.1

Scale of Air PoltstJon Issue; 579

11.6

Asse!Emert of EmISSionS 632

11.2.2

TheAlrPollUlionSystBTl 581

11.7

MeteorologfandTransport 635

11.3

Atmospheric Structure 585

11.7.1

FlowFurdamentals 635

11.3.1

Atmospheric Temperature Structure 586

11.7.2

Winds: Direction, Speed, and Turbulence 636

11.3.2

Atmospheric Pressure and Oensty Structure 586

11.7.3

Atmospheric Stability 636

11.7.4

Terram Effects on Atmospheric

11.3.3

Almosphere 587

11..

Stnit)' 642

CompoSllIOO of the

Chamct9istesofPolkJ:edlw 589

11."1

CnEnaAlrPoIt1ants 589

11 .•.2

Human Health Impacts and Defenses to Particulate Maner 593

11 .•.3

MaJOr Sources oj Air Polutarts 596

11 .•.•

Recent Trends In Concentrations of Air Polutants 598

t 1.8

Atmospheric 0IspersI0n and the

Gaus.saan Pk.me DispersIon Modelng 643 11 A 1

FlA"JdarnMtaIs of 0tsper.;I0n

Modelng 643 11.8.2

Model Parameters 645

11.8.3

Forms 01 the Gaussian Dispersion Equation 647

KeyTerm; 650 ChapterElev8r1 Probiems 651

11".5

Air Quality Inde", 598

11 .•.6

Haza-dous Air Po/Ii.fants 602

''''.7

AnswerstoSelecledProblems

GrOlnd-Level and Stratospheric

loolJ( 669

Ozone 603

References

656 657

llIIiiled 1_III CDnb!nIs

•

chapter!One Sustainable Design, Engineering, and Innovation Julie

Beth Zimme
James R Mi~elcic rh" chaplw dio::u
d"",elopr1ent, h.J>-

lig!ling critcal apponunirie s lor eng ~ " ...." /0 design appropriale, re,;';"nt solution•. o..finitions (Of ..,slainable dev,.}opmenl and de
ing. and .y'Ifrn' rhinking--orering enhonceme"I:! 10 engin....'ing lundomenlol. leading 10 ';goroo, and woIojnabk design ..,Julion•.

Chapter Contents

1.1

Background: Evolution from Environmental Protection to Sustainabllily

1.2

The Path Forward: Operalionaliziog Sustainabilily

1.3

Engineering tor Sustainability

1.4

Measuring Sustainabilily

1.5

Policies Driving Green Engineering and Sustainability

1.6

Designirlg Tomorrow

Learning Objectives I. D.> .. ",lutiOIl of ,h.. pn'!<'ction of human heakh and Ih..

.. nvlffiI~n.. Ol fmm regwa'ory approoches '0 suslainalilily. 2. Relate Til<' Limil.' 10 Grou111, un,e Tragedy of 'f>.> Comn~wlS," and Ihe di'finiti"" of carry illg capacilY 10 _,~la mabie development. 3. DeHne s"stainabally, s"stainable develop"",n" and s"'tain"ble ,"'g~"",rir.g in your own word' and a",ording Olhe",.

'0

~.

5.

6.

7.

6.

Redefine enS',,,,,,rmg prrol""l> in a baL,,,Ure progress to,,"arLl achi... ing I"" sool of s"''''inabili'Y· De>cri],., """"ra! ft..m",work~ for ,""ainable dleS'sn and Under>lalld tl'" ''''p«la'lCe of dr.-ign and innovalion ,n a d ,'..nc1n& ,U'ita utabi lit~, D;"cu,.. 'he ",I" of regUI,ll."'. "nd other policy '00.. , ."d, as ,"o\."'lary program., in ad vandng e",;r""m"",<11 anLl hu man h"allh protection a, "ell as s,,"a~,abildy.

1.1

Background: Evolution from Environmental Protection to Sustainabil ity

In I %2, Rach~1 Ca",on (A pl-'lr.:alion '- J) publ;';h"'" Sil",,1 Sl'rDlg, ~-.tab IL~hing lhe ~a,," 'h"t ,h~,e may be rea".", be wnc",",""'" abo&. a nd early 1971Js, lhat "umemu, cl"ar and ,t"nb"g "i,ual ,,,,,ht,,,,, of human ;mp""ts on "'" em· imn n"'''1 look place. Thh induded """'g "F"""des in LOi Ang ... .,; II~, ob""ural ,· .. ~il~y, lhe Cuyah",,, Ri,.". (a,..,) calching Oil fire III 1969, and the loxic "",Ie and ~ublling. and "nk>,cem",nl aeli viii"'" \\ 'Ih Ih" mi".. ,illn "I ul"",,,,ting hum"" h"'lth a"d lhe e",·if",,,,,,,,nt. u Dur"'g Ihi,
'0

~ Bacilli Carmn am the Modem Fnvlronwmtal Mwemmt

Rom.! Co ""n~' f10 wi. MQc" "'". P.on+a-phok>goupO c,,- 194.'> by Sho'Of 8<'i/g, [P""clod ''''''_y'''",* Ln
,do;..,

C""'*""'"' C<>IIoe-I

Ruhel Cusom i'c<,,...ide ",d """ "II he 1«,de... , "f Ihe n"..I"m "",in",,,..,nlal """·"",,,,,l She wa, b"m 15 mil"" nmtr.-." "f rtt>h"gh III lhe y""c 1907. EduGlted .t lhe undeJg,aJu.:>t" and graJua~ 1"",.1, in ",;"ne".n
a

'ci""ri", ,he ".'
at cummuni""ting cmnpl'"

",;"nlifie cnne"ph I" the public thnough d"., aroJ aocur. Ie wriling. She .,-note '""'.,,.al b, .. ,b, including 1 ~ ~'" A ",wid U, (fir-.t publi,J,.,j in 1'151) and Sil"", SI''''''I> (fir-.t publi,J,ed in 1%1), Si1<'," Sl'm~ wa.," mm"..,TCia I 'uc:c,,", ""n ait", it> publira";,n. It ,'i,.,ally capl:u",J Ih" I.d thaI ""ngbird' w",,, facing '''P".ducl''''' failu", and ",,1. d"'th becau,"" "f manuf.cluring and pnolilX u"'" "I chemical, 'uc:h", UU'l' lrnt had b.",cOJmujar:ed in lheir 'maU h><.li"". S"m" lii.,tmi.m, heli",'" lhal S,f<"t SI'm,x w,,-' lhe initi.Jl oa'al),,' tholt jed h' the o"'ah111 "ftf.,., m,>oJ.".n "",·if,,,,,,,,nlal m,,,',,",,,,,1 in the Uni",d SL,"" .,kmg with tli" U.s. E",i""menlall'",I"di", Agency (EPA).

~ Tty: Rj!sk;5ul Era Af:!;J!t:d I jJW5ijrrl Reg,'a1jglJ.
has many

1<"", h! pm'toe' hum."

health and

the erwimnment, induding pd,tneT,hip', .,Jucati,mal p">gram,_ and gr.n!>'. J tne 01,,,1 'igniflCant t<~,t is writing regulations, which are mandatmy requirement. Ih.I! Ciln I,., "d",',ml to) indi,-iduaJ" bu,in""".,., ,Llle or 1<"",1 gnwmmenb, ",mpwfil '>Tgani. and en/mang '''l;ulah"n,. 01 my""" there ,,,e many checlc, and b.,bnee.

'0""'"',""

enn!>",,,,

public di""I""uTe "I intenl h> wrile m m,>
l",tent,.llv .ff""t.,J by Ihe regulatio" ha,'., an "ppmlunitv Ie> olier input '0 the pme""

[)raft and fi",,1 """er~1 "'S"l,tiuns are publi.,heJ in lhe Code uf Federal Regu lati ..\-o (CH(). Tf.., nurnber4U that is .""",.,("d wah enyirnnmenlal regulab"... (i.e., 41CFI() inJi~~bo> If.., "",tim uf tf.., CFK ",Ia",d In the en,..imnrnent

.1""1\ Ihe I",th fmm L,,,, '0 "'gulati,m, mduding adminbtratm. who l~ appoitlted by lhe president and apprmoo by Cntlgr,.,s. lea,h the agency. n,. EPA has il~ h.,ad'luarte" III W ashmgt"", D.C, regi(",al offie.,,; for each oi lhe agency's JI) regi",,, (Figure 1.1) and 27 """,arch lab",at"..."". EPA is org,lllizoo into a number of cenlral program "ifices as well as regi"oal "me,., and Iaboral",i"", each w,th it, (lW"

00

t';1>~

-

Flgure/l.1 Tho [P N. T"" Regio... £.xh region h... it< own reg",,,,,1 ~dm",i<dqw,"", a,e l(lm'm in Wa"'il1§lnn. D.C

IAd
regul"tory, ",,,,,,,rch, and/or enfnr""ment m"nd"u-.. The "genc}- conducts "",-,ron,nenlOl a""",,,n,,nl, re>.rorch, and ""'u~ation. It has Ihe respo'bibilily of maintaining a"d ellforcing lMI;"n,,1 ,lOndards under a ,'"riety of en",ro''''''''llall"",s, In consult.'lli"" "',Ih 'Iat". trib,,1. .nd local governmenb, It delegat"" .«>me pern"uillg. 1\)0nit0l"ing, ."d enforcemenl ""'pOl~'ibilily 10 U.s. ,l.1les and N.,ti,-e Amerk.n tribes. ErA enforcetn",,1 po"-e", indu de fines, san~tio,,-~, .lnd other measures. Theag ~ncy al",,,,orb w,lh i"du,tries"nd alllevelsof g()\,ernmenl In a wide vanety of volunl.r~' pollut,on pre"etllion programs and e'''''gv cOl~.,.,,",-alion e/forK The m,s,ionof EPA Ls 10 p,,}tect humall heahh and Ihee,,, ironment. EPA', purp,,,,e i, to ensu re that: • all A",eri""n~.re prolecled from slgnifica"l ri,k. 10 hum." health a"d til<, ell' ironment ",here Ihey li,-e, lean" and work; • n.aliOlMI effort. to redu<:<' en"i'0I"ne,,1.11 aV,lil.ble ,;c;e"lifk j"fonn.llion; •

fed~,.1

'L~k

are iM."-'
tn", protecling hum"n h"dltl, a"d lhe enl'iro"menl are

enfor<:t><:l fairly "nd effeclively; • em·,ronmentalp,oteclion is an inleg,~l oo,~~,derali,., in U.s. policl,e" ooncen'ing 'Mlural resources, human health, '-'COn",n;';: growlh, energv, Iran'portali"", ag,iculture, IIlduslry, and inlen",tionallrade, and Illes« faclors.re ,imiLlrly con,idered In ""labli,hing e,,, I!"t,nmenul policy; • all pa"-~ of «>d"\y---, Il1d iv ,du.l" bu,in"""",,, and ,lale, loc"I, and lrib.,l gm-ernmenl<--h.we a",-""", 10 M""r.le ",formali"n ~uffidenl 10 e/fecti,-ely p.'r1icip.lte III m.naging hun",,, health ,)I\d environmental ri,b; • e,,,,,ronmental prolection contribules to making our commun iii"" and ecosystem, d i, er",. ,u,tainable, and eco"omically productive; • Ihe U"iled States pl.y' a le.de",hip ,,}Ie in ,,"orl<.lIIg ""ith otl"", n.iuiOl~' to protect Ihe glOMl elll-ironment

TlleRegulabry Process h'tvj/w;,w"pa,¥",II.>~~ ~"1n.ior>oI nkx.h=1

Access the COlle of Federal Regulations ht-tvl j"""",.~ r<"'<:C<""'¥'" Ie <,-1

EPA work, d,-,.;ely ,,"ith the ,late> 10 Implemenl fede,al environmental progr.n~~. Stales .Ulhorized 10 mallage fede,al program, must h"ve enfm<:<'ment aUlhorilies 11"'1 ar" al lea'i a, slrlngent a~ federal la". EPA ",ork~ ,,",Ih "fficiaL~ III ,tale em'iro"menlal, health, .nd "grl""ltur,,1 age"de> "n ,tr.llegic plannlllg. p,iorily--<;eltll'g. and 11I&1,urement of re;uhs. \\~lIle ,,"e ha,-e made lremendous ,trides in addr",,,ing the "'<>'il egregious e'lI'iro"menl.l ""ulls a"d m"lnt"ined • gro",ing economy, lhe envirolllnenial ch.llenges of t,,,:ldy are mo,e complex and ,ubHe liMn encoulllered at Ihe start ,)I Ihe nto;je", e",-iro"menl~1 movement Fo, e~dmple,lhe,e "redear connectio,\~bet" eel. eml"~io,,-, to air, I"nd, dnd ,,- .le, e\ en if Ihe regul.hons ",ere nol ""itten ."d Ih" EPA wa~ not o!);'ln",."'" wilh Ih""" co,~~lderat",n,. Furthe,more, a" d'od '" ate, emL"~""C~come from many d"tribuled ,ources (referred 10 as nonpoint source emissions), .0 il j, much more difficull to identify a specific ,ource that can be 'egulated and

Chapler 1 SU_ _ DesiIJl, ~ 3IIIl1rln
m"nit",oed. IV" .1", IY,,, a m u~h l"gher 1",,,1 of und"rstalld i"g ()f tl", h"kag,;s among
"",,,,.,.u,,,,,,t.

,or

Global Environmental Outlook h~rJIWAW."n
Class DISQJssion ... I~,~ OC_U< "" 1J\< /Qrn< r<~t-llC,"or~ or coo ....'" p".JOt" -'u
~ Iralle~ Of the CommOffi The Tragedy of the Common. Jescribe> the ",i"lion,h,p ",here inJiviJu"l, 0< organiati'lIl' C
""eh indi,'idu;,l or ",&,nif.ahon i.il, '" ,ec";.;nife that e"erv indi"idual and "';.;anif-"tion i, arting in the ",'me way. II i" ,hi, togie th"t ha, led to the cunent "itu"h"n in "ee"n Ii,herie,,_ the Am,wlIl r"in f",,,,,l, and ;.;10001 dim"te elYn;.;e. tn ""ch e""", the cun"umpti,'e bt,ha,'i"r,,1 a few ha' led I" a 'ignifiea n' impa~t "n the m"ny and the d""trucli"n "f the integTity l1i the ~h"red '''''''UTce.

~ The I Wits to GmwtbarJ1 Carl:¥l~ C'1Iaejty Tire Limit., "Grou"h, publi'hed in 1\t71, w"rnal oi the limit",i",,-, "I the w"rld', T","-mre"" ""d pointed "ut ,),.,'" mi;.;ht n"t be en"u;.;h r"""ure"" ,emaining i", 'he de,-el"pi"g ",,,,ld 10 indu"ri"liLe. TIJ., au'h"rs. ""i,,;.; m",hem"'i...-"I m"del,. "r;.;u"" that "th~ ba'ic beh""i", m"de 11/ the ,,,,rid 'y"em L' exp"nenti"l g",,,,th "i p"puiatil1n "nd capital, 1<';t"",ed by «<11.,1""'" in ., phen"men"n !
k;.;.. b,,,m,,,,,) imp",ed thmugh envin",ment,,1 ,,,,,i,tance. In natuTe. thi' ,e,i"tan"" i, related to the ",'aibbilitv "f rene",able r"",,,,rr,,,,, '''eh "" h>
Figure 1.3 pro"id"" a timeli"e of th~ progr""~")" from the ,t.• rt 01 the Jom~tic "'" in.,.unental mo,""me"t in the 19f,O" through the pre'llr.,... sio" to ,,,,:o,nt nl.l~'f int"",a,io""l ,u"tainabihty act"',ti",. Based "" the ~,e"to. on the timeli"e, there LS a dear pn-.gr"""ion from initial regl1I.•tory resp01~_to eg'egio"'e1""ronm"'llal a"
IheStory of Stuff I-~tj'"

I.......... t-o
1.1 ElacklJl''''''''' Evolution from ErMmnmentaI Protection III SlJstainability

.. _--

.'---_._.._'-,-+.--:7

..

_ .• --. ..--' --"

-

..--

---

/ _....-

•

...

.'-.•

.. :

\

---~

•

,•

-_ ......

e ......

--

.

--"---

--._._..~

\ ---"--,,-

_...

•

_ _ _ 0 - ...

.---

_-~-

...

-

Flgurlll.2 Lim~. to Growlh and T «hnol"llyol the I\' ..... Ijn~ Indu.lmg ioou,lry ,\. \";Id pod, of ",11.>1"" are dN"'yro, findmg the 'ur"",,,, h... 00:<''''0 "'''''' dlfil.,I<,.", k~.,d oft. <"",Ucr ,'''' c"Pk>huJ ,,, h"p the ind",,"y ali,,,, W~h()u, r&" ",11.,10, are .J",,)"< token whe,.,,,,-.,. and ".hme"e, enmunlcred ThU". ll ","oll"" sub
''''h''''I''I\\'

IloM11 • A"""Il WOdWlooo... • ..... Y<>oo11

Chapler 1 SU_ _

DesiIJl. ~ 3IIIl1llrl
--

-,-,-. 'l:

---

:;-- -

..

-

--

-- -

.-

""'1.> r_.. ,,.,...-........ ........... ....

.-

.,-

---

- --

•

-

-

~

-

-

-

-

--

.... ,. ,

.

-- .- -

_._oI.. . . ".. ,...--.. . .

01

' . ' I"

-'---

••,,,.".;'!j'' ,,,

_

~1-1D>"f';"'i'1l",'S""""ta

If ynu Go.K>gle II>< ",,,,,h ,l<,IIIi>o,brl,ly. ,,"I"muM.. J",,lII""bI.. <'1'S"'.... will gel hund,ed, of definiti"",_ Trv ii' The abundanre of varying Jefinitio,,-, ha, made it difficullh, Teali/." co"'",,,u, on

",,1(. }""

wnal su,tainabilil\' is_ J l"w",,,,. ne.,l~· all "r the Jellof ,,,,tiIi,,,,bilit)' ",f", to integrating the th"", el"",enl, "f the triple bu!lorn line (em-i"mmenl, ""'momy, "riel,,). 1.1,,,1 ddiniti",,-, al"" edenJ ,u,ta;""bilily CTileT~' In indude 1m, aim or """,tinllllJ<,,,.,.,J, ". co,.,..,,,l and fulu", ge""""ti",,-,_ Su,tainabilily " defin<'d by Merriam-Wd--tef "' follows: (1) uf, relating I". m being a methoJ "r han-",ting 0' lL,ing a """mree '" that the """,u,re is nol nil~m,

d "p I",."J ,or p.,nnan~ntl)' d"mag...J and (11 or '" r~l"ting I"" lif""lyl~ im'"lving Ih~ u..,., of "",t"inabl~ m",h<,J,. SU'lainabl~ de"el"pm~nl i, d~fin...J by 1m, DrundlL:md Commi"ion '" -d~'"t"p"",nl which m""t>, lhe """'1 'y'''IT"Oo 10 ~",ur~ lhol hinn.lIlkind', u'"" or natural r",,,UI""" ",..j 9"1to, d" n,~ i""d I" d iminis~d q... lity "f lif~ d "" ~it~T 10 I,.."" in fulure "Cli ~Icic ~laL2Ill)).

(A pplicalinn 1.5). In 19M, the UN World Conu"i..., inn nn Em', ""Hnent and Dew,lopmenl released 0", Cmm,lO" Futllre. Thi, bnnk is al", rererred tn a.~ Ille Brundll~nd Commis,ion report, became "I>. Gm Brundlland, the rnn"", p,ime minlqer nf t', the fi"'l glnt",1 conference 10 ~pecific-"lIy olddre;.., the em ironmenl, led t,) Ih.. ni'"bllldUlg olgendd Ii" Ihe 21,1 c",,,tu'y, Ag,~"jn 21, which "'I forth g""lsand recomlnendal",n, ,elaled to em·imnm"ntal, econ",n;", and social i~~ues. I" "ddili"", Ihe UN Co",,,,i.,,ion on SIJ,tdinable Deve! np",e"l "as crealed 10 m·ersee Ihe imple",e,"atinn of Agendol 21. At Ihe 2002 World SlJmmli "n Susl.lindble De,·elop",e"t in Johdn"",burg. Soulh Africa, "orld leade... reaffi,med Ihe p,j"ciples of ,u,tahuble de,'elop",ent ~dopted .'1 the Earth SlJmmit 10 yed'" ..at! ieT. They ~l"" adopted til<' Millennium Developmenl Go.ls (MOCs), ii.~led in Tolble 1.1. TI'e eighl .'IOG, ,epresenl a" ambit,ou, agenda 10' ~ better ",orid Ihat c~n gu,de engin"""ng jnn,wati,,,, and 1" actice. Thi, i~ " good e"dmple of Ihe link bet"""" policy and e"gin""""g: policy can dri"e engineering innovdt,nn, "nd new e"gi"""ring ad,an,..,n",,," call encourage Ihe de.-el"l'menl of ne" policies with old ,·ol"cro standards Ihat redefine ''be.l available ledmologies."

,,.,.,,j,

'.

Class Discussion

I, "'",,h,hc" MDG~M
Millennium Development Goals v"" CM gDt<> WMI'.L1'1.D1"o/ ... .U~ ~o

Ieam "' """ at>oo~ P""l r~ ... """"',~ ",,,,,,""gtr< MDG<>.

1.2

The Path FOlWard: Operationalizing Sustainability

Gi,·en Ihe ",.lIIy d~finiti",,, ,-,/ ~u,t<"""b,lit) (refer b.,ck t<> Appli...tion 1.5) and Ihe complexlly of a syqems perspective to 1I,c1<>de the linkages and /eedb.,d bet",,,,,,, the en"i,o",nent. econmny, "nd society, the,e a,eollgoing effortSlo ",m e from di",us~i"'t' 10 operat,o".dly Chapler 1 SU_ _ DesiIJ>. ~ 3BIl1rln
Millenn;"m Developme>t Gools (MDGsl MDG! me en ambit;o,,, ogenda embro=, by the wodd corm1Unry fat ",dL<:irg p"""r'f and imp"O'Iing liv", ol!he gbbol co,,",unly. leern ma", at www.un.o
More lhan d bill"", p"of'le .t,1I Ii\'o on I""" tho,n S 1 • ddY.

(fa) Hah'e 'ho proportion of people lidng OIl 1<-,,<, tMn Sf • d.w dnd lh<>«e who
2. Achi",.., un"'",,,,1 pri""'f)' oouc.n"",

A. m.ny d. lf3 million children do _."end '
(2:» E""u", tMt .11 bm,•• nd giTls mmplcle

3. rmm<>le gende, "'l""lrly .ud empower womon,

T",,·third, of il htcr., te< dre .....omon•• nd lho rdto,,1 omplo>'"",n' .mong women" h·,o· thIrd. tMt n/ ""-....

(3.» Elrmi""to gendeT d"p.uit"",

4. Reduce child mort.llrtv

En"..,' yror, nodrl)' 11 m,llr"" young

Eradi""to L"( tre"", I""'<.>rty dnd hung''''

children die b<-fore their filth birthd.lV, "",inly!mm pn,Yen",b~ illne<.«,<.

b.Comb.l, HIV!AID5, o~,lm•••ndo
d<",,,-,,-,, 7. En,ure c",vrrono",n,.J 'u,ldi""bilrty

po"""v«hooL 10

p
"",oodary oooc",li<>n, prelcrdbly by 2005,.,nd dt .1I1"wL, bv 2/115 Redu,"" by twn--thrrd, tho mort.-.lrty Tdt,· .lmong chrldren und", 5 Y""". (4a)

In fhe d",-cloping wo,ld, tho m~ 0/ dyrng in chlldbrrth "ono in ~

(50) Red"", by thn""lu.,rt,,,...

III mUir.... people.re hrng ",th

(1.0 .nd

th" ,.'roo/ women

dyrng 10 childbrrth.

HI\', in
t.:l H.,lt .lod begrn h, ",V""", the 'p,,,,,d of HIV ! AIDSand ,he inrid""", of "",I."" .lod nth", ""'jor di..." ......

71>8 mill>on I"-'Ople 1.>c~ ...""". to ... fe drinlang w.,ler dod 2.5 Ixl1ion people I.1c~ imf'T"'-ed .<'lOil.1linn,

17.) In"-'gT"te the pnncrpl"" "r.u.l.1rn.,ble d",'"lopment iolocounlT-,' polin". dnd program• .,nd ft."'-Of«.' the 10-., 0/ endronmentdl rc'
II. Do""lop.gJob.11 I"'rt",,,,hip lOT d",,,lopment.

1!l.:I) o",,,1np furthe•• n npt,n, ",k~b.l""', pTedktabk nondi?,r"nm w~h lhe po'''le .,-"tor, moke a,'",loble the bener.~ "f ne..... lroml"i"S''''' eon, (81))

1.2 The pat/1 Fo:want Opera1ionaliltng SUslainabilily

Figure /1.4

Daily Adi,-;I}" in Mocll 01

IIl~

World of CoIkd ing IVai",.

1_,"""'yol1o..., ~ "'>.;0'1 dp~ying d sl-,-,td",
framework 10 org.",izat "'n.1I dlld e"gill..,r~'g dcth ilie,," The'" d '" oft"" con":dere-IeI'el d"";";;"H''''''''''' Illi balmg M:tll It." Mid est.,bli""ing org., IIi7.. ri ..",1 ,lroclu"" a "d i'IC"nri ,-es 10 pu.,h Su.,la i,,dbi lity ;,~O U., organizdl;;'11 fmm Ih" top, In the 011,.". sir.'Il.'8}, people thUOJgh".H II., organ ",.dlk., a re mol i,·, led to pur,"",e II",,, lunClIOrh in , ",...e ,~lajMble m.lI",er 'rod dn, e "U>ll.",.ili, lil)' into lhe orgdnilati.., Ihn,ugh gra."n)ots Illilidri"'" and seli-initi.. led dcb"~i,,,. n",,,, '''' examp\<, of ,oc""",,,ful d\ilng'" fn)", g",'... ,~n""lal "'Id n"''8m'''l1lnel~,1orgilnlzdrio,'" a, w"n a, mdl'rcorpor.. tion, Ihdl ha'" been realized from oolh of Ih""'" dpprnach"', but the n""'l su",-"",,-4ul example-s Me "I",,, .1U I",-e!s of II", organilah)n d'" wfrkl ug 10"-"'d 'iUSla"'''''~dy outromes. A suc",,,,,,,1 "xdlllple of IhL' "",lIlt;;,n to o~"r.. ti(l'lalize ~>z,liIi"abil'ty Cd" be ,..,,, in II", Path rorw",d.lI th" Offioo of Re.ffi n:h a "d Develop....,nl ., t II", EPA (de",nblrl in A pplic,li.., 1M. O'lCe II",re b a" in~n lion to pur,..,,, 'iUSI"'; '\iI bi bly, II",,,, i, .. cle'" n""d to identify"" dppn-,."ch to pn)b!em s.dl'ing II",t i, e''''iI'oo fn)", pre"iou, approach'" which hdd not sy"ermtkdlly inm'l",r.,ted tripl" ool!olll-line m,~sid"r.. ti""s. TI,e", are two critical framework.< that ca" be ulilized 10 ,uppo" Ihe expanded ,-i"" """""dry 10 mo," tm'drd ,u,lai'\dblllly gf>.,k 1if~ cycle Ilunk"'f> d'>.:! ~y~\>'nk- flunk"'g. \Vhi\< the'" I"''' frd "",,,,,r'.., ., '" related, II~", .. '" cle.. d ifr.,,,,,,,,es whe'" 1I1e cycle Ilunldllg 's focUioo 011 ",.,t....,1 d,ld ~""rgy flows ar>.:l the ,00"'qu""t impacl'i, w hilesY"e"", Ihhlking can dbo CdplU '" Ihe rel.'ll;;'nship of po~ticd~ cull"r,,!, social. a"d ""mon~ccOl>;,derali..", d"d polen~d1 f"oobacks bet"''''''' Ih",eco,>;ideralionsa nd "'dler"l and energy flo", .. Chapler 1 SU_ _

DesiIJ>. ~ anrl1rln
A

lication/1.6

The Path Forward al EPA's Office of Research and Development (Anastas 2012)

Since 2(1]1), 'ignifi<:ant ch"mg,s """~ bt.o.en m,d~ t" EPA's T~rch ~nteTf'ri",. All "I H'A's o>ct:i,ms,nd deci,i"n, "'~ b;,,,.,J "n ""i""C*' ,nJ ",,,,,,,,eh. 'n,., £1'A h,,-, r"""nlly ~mb;,cked "n, ma~,c elf",ll" c~,lil;n it> """,arch portfolio in ord~r I" ""lT~ ~fltrli"d}' add,,,,,, p"",i n... em-i" mm~ntaIchallen6"" and b.;t1e.- "''' -~ Ih~ Ag~r>cy" deci.,i,m-makin... lunct~m, into lhe lutm~ u,in ... ,u,l,inabilil,-""n m...,mLing principl~. In 20 HI. iiI' A cmnmi",oned , landm"k ,md,- hom lh~ ~"li<>",,1 Amd~mi", 10 pruvid~ """,mmendal,,m, on ho", 10 'Y'I~m,ticaU,· 0f"'T.li,maIiL~ Ih~ "mc~pl of ,u,l,inabilily into Ih~ Ab""'cy', ~nlir~ d~ci,i"n m"king. 'n,., fin.1 "'p"rt ~nlilled "SoJ.,tainabihly .nd Ir., U.S. iiI' A- (,I"" kn"wn a, th~ "G,,,,,n Il""k- >oullined ",veTal recomm~ndali,m" including id~nlifimti"n of

1.2.)

ky 'oCi~nlific and analyliG1ll<~JL" indical""', metrics, .nd b.;nehm,,,h I"c ,u,lainabililv Ih.1 can be u".,J to track pH,!;""" towaTd 'u,l.,inabihh g",k EPA ",ienh,t> h.w~ ""h'Un 10 d~,-dop Ih~ .-.cienlific and .n.lyliml t<~,I, lhat will be n,-~ ed in md~r 10 ""'p',nd to .nd impl~m~nl ,u,tai""bililj al EI'A, including lif~ C)'c1~ a""",m~nl. ""'''y't~m ",,,'i,,,,,, ,-.lu"li"n, lull "",/lull b.;n~fit " __, ,ounting. g:r""n ch~mi'lcy, gr""n inlr.~'truclu"', and mor~. Thi., df",t 10 d~"d"p Ih~ t,.,I, ol,u,tainabililv mirr"", p"-'l EI'A elf",l, I" d~vdop Ih~ I,~,L, lOT ."""""ing. ~,·.h'ling. and m.n....ing Ti.,1<.. Ace.", lho "e",.n Bn<>k"1S,.;L1in.bmly.llhe US. EPA).t h
UFECYQETHINKNG

Li fecycle thinki ng 'upports """'F;nl7.lng and underslanding how bolh C(\'~sumingprod ucts and eng"ging in "dh-Ui"" imp"d theem'imnment fron, " holistic pef'ipective. That IS, Iile cycle C0",ider"liom. take into acco"nl lh~ en"imn""'Ill,,1 perfor",anc~ of a product, process, or ~yqe", from acquiSItion of raw ",,,terial, to refin"'8 th""" ",at~nal" ntanulacturing. U"", and end-nf-hfe ,na''''gem~nt. Figure L5.l depict. Ihe mm",,," life cycle .I~ges for a cr",,,u,,,er produd. In the ca,e of ~ngif\""nng infr"-~Iructu,.." Figure ISb depICb the life cyd~ ,tag... nf; (0 We de,,~I"f'me"l. (2) mat.".ial, and product deli,-ery, (3) infraqrucl"re man"fadure, (4) ",Ir,,-,tructure ,l"d (.'i) end-of-Iile issu"" as.~,,eed 10 cH~,id~r tile entire lin, q'cle, becau,,*, different ~'" ironnlental imf"'Cls can """or Juring different suI\"'. r",r ""ample, <;t","", mait'rials ",,,y l"" e an adverse en\,,,,),unenlal m'"""luence "hen ~xtr""tN or bul '''''y be reLall\'dy benign in u"" and e,,,)' tel recyck. Alum"",m i, such a maleri,,!. On Olle h.and, ,nlehing of "luminum ore j, "ery ell"'llY ",1"'h'V!'. n,l, is ,~\e rea",n aluminu", j, a favored recydN n>eta!. Howe,'er, an aulo,,,,-,b,le will cr&\te the bulk of ii, etl\'imnmelllal im~>ael dunng Ihe u"" hfe ,tage, not onl\' becau"" nf «>lnbusti,~n of fossil fuel.;, but aL'iO beca ..." " of runoff from roads and the u"" of nldny flu,d, duri"g opera lion. And fN buildinB'. Ihough a ,a,l amount nf water, "ggreg,te. dlemicaL~, and energy go"" inlo the production of Co,~qru,1ion material" lr"'~'r.'" of til"", ,Iem, to the ;:.b "Ie, and CO'htroctim, of a building, llle ,-,~q amount of "at.". aM etlergy ocru", afler ,"-",UP"''')', d uril\g t~ "l"'ralion life ,t.'ge of tilt' bu,lding.

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LeA 101 ~''i'i I"""_, pa_¥,,/ Om" rII.uti'" aIIc.o.

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t.2 The Path F!lrwan!;

lIpe'aIionaIlinII Stmtinability

J Endo!

1

1

~o

1

,.,

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1

I

I-

'" Fl9url/l.5 Common Lif~ Cy~'" The m",t <,ommon Me
Figures 1,Sa ."d 1.51> al"",h""', .... feedb..d. 100?"lh" potenl"'l for '''''yeling, remanub"tunng. and While n",re are nften bene fit, a,,,-.cialed "ith Ih,.,., ,,,,iou, "nd-ol-life l"'''d ling qralegies, Ihey can also carry"''' ironment.l.1 [m\Mels and should he included when makins d"",8" or imp..'" e",elll design. MId in life cyd" m",ideratim~<. Further, .lnd polem ...lIy Inn'>! import.l.nlly. hfe <'yele lhlnking "ill mi"i"Hze Ihe possibillly of ,hifln'g imp""t, from """ lile cycle 'ldge 10 another by ro'ls,derm& lhe enl""'1sl"m. r'flr example, elfort. 10 red uee the energy demands of lighling led to Ihe ht<>l.ll.l;on of ""ninns of compacl f1unrescerll light bulbs (CFL,) (Application 1.n. Ho,,~,'er,

'eli"'.

The Life Cycle Initiative l1u..p-Ji\;", 11<3' "-<.U' ep. 'r I Chapler 1 SU_ _

A

lication/1.7

Energy O:mselVdlion. Reduced carbon Enisslons. and New Ligtrting Te£hnnlog;'

Gi,'en lhe g,,~,'ing c"ntu", and c1im,le, the", ,'" m;",y '!r;II,-W"; pn'F',,,,d t() impr,~'e e",,"8" effic;"n"y, lhe",by r<>.Juci:1g the a",,>l<>.J carbm emiT , .."'" Electricity pmductim c",al.,; .,b",1 JJ p=o""l oi "b I carbm emi"";""" while 27 p... "'nl of the t.J i, 10 r"j uce If-., ;lR~,unt of e"""8y"nd '~""jU"",~y caTbm emi ... ,,,,,>;, ."""idled wlih lighllng. Tf-., Uniled St,le" and manv oth... cuunlritS, .'" c",,,,nllv ph'''ng out ,altS 01 inrandesa"nt lighl bub fnrge""r.llighting.Theaim i, t() fo"ce lhe ""e,nd t",hntil''P",l d",'ek'f'"""t of ml,'" e""'l>'~efficient lighting ab ...""h"" ,uch a, C~L, anJ lighl-"".:tbng di,,Je (LEU) 1."'1'" A 1III \V incand",,,,nt light bulb I"" I run.' 3 h , d,y eH'Ty day will u"" amund lW k\Vh • y""'- A higheifici"",')' light u"", ab"ut o",,-i,., rth "f lhe e",,"8Y 01 a co",'.".,b"",1 buhll."Placingthe 11111'1 bulb wilha 15 IV CH.. w,.,ld t 1-oJ."."., 75 k \Vh a yIDT. Thi, r<>.J ucth.n in electrici tv u.",wrrtSp"nJ, I", ""i,\;, "falx.,llSOlb of caTh"n dim, a",,,,iated with n",,' .It'''''''''i,,e lighting lechimkgi",,II ,"'."'...., iii, imp"1;,,-,1 I" ""Ie tn, I c",,,,rt elL, <:unl,in .ppm,imately 4.0 mg of me,,:u')' P'" bulb, rai,,;ng "",iWfVllenL,1 and liu""", he,lth cum'",,,. FuelheT, iniball) In,,,, w...e p ...£mn;u"" C,,,,";deT.ti,,,,, ."""i.>~ w lih CH.s I h.> I ha,'" J<>.J I" T"; ;"Ian", in In, markt. including lighting qu.lhlv and "'.Tm-Up lime Wliile mercury i, ""llL",d in the manulacture "I LID bulbs, there a", ,till life c~de impact, d....."'>ci.:>led with lheir proJucti"", U'<', and di'pmaL 11l",'e,'eT', LEI) lamp> ,,~'" many "f lhe p..-k,.."",cce ",n"'deT.ti,,,,, .'",,,,i.,ted willi CFL" To make Ihe .,itu.lb,., e,,,n m,,,e comple •. lhec,'" "fCFb and LEU. i, higheT lhan th;>l "f in;t is r"Paid in In, I...g I""",.' lKth lighting I",hi-"~"g"" U'"' I"", """'-gy anJ Ii,,,,e l"'g.,,- "F""abng Ii,,,, th.>n incandtSCenl bull>.. Frllll1 th .. di""'",i , Iii""" ,,,,c1,,,r oppmtuniti.,; In impr"''' lheen gy cu umpt~m,and ,u~enl carIxm emi"io"-,, '''<::ialed with ligliting. 11,,,,'e,'eT, the jech""logical ad",,...,,,. pr"",nl ",)me tTad.,...,f£" in 1""",-, "I m=oury u'<' .nd di'f",,,,l and p ... kmTlO,cce f,,..CFb,nd c<,,1 b,th CH., and LElh The"" IT.,deoff, n""d 10 be C<"'''dered anJ qu.lnlifieJ r,,, infor"..,d doc"i<", making in tn, p"""'1 and ,hould be used I" guide future d""'gn .nd inl>.",a!i,,,, 1m impr"'..,J lighting h;chn,~og;", in lhe future.

f,,,

CR., couldm a ,,,,.11 allY:lullt of mercury. By focusing "olely on rro ucing ~nergy den~,nd al1d (,Mbon em;"~io",,, wh~e nolcm.. ider"'g Ih~ 10u::i1V "~",,d"leJ " ,~, manufacturing and di"l"''';ngofCFL" Ih~", i" Ih~ p"""n1.,110 ha '" a grffiler em'; n,runelllal a,>i' many em'll'"nnlelltal and human health ~,>,i.l1 a ,0:1 e'lergy input., a,.;rei.> It'd w ilh n'" just u,,;ng e'lerg} {nr hghling bul p",j uring a>oJ di"P'-...illil of light bulbs. Th",e traJe-o/f, can be quantifiaJ t10mu gh., t.-..l !<'¥lW" .,~ 1if.. cycl... sse<",,~nt (lCN. life cyde lhinking ""'P?Jrl, the g,-...,I 0/ nnpm,·,ng Ihe overall e"drnon... ntal per~Jnnance of .", engin""ring design a,>
Class Discussion ...

... If<>wo.hooW''''cl'''''''~O<:

J. .I,.

",,,,,,,wn;;~"'IC~~r~ ~i1"'~

of t-rad~.clfo(i.~..

R' ore ct"j""" foe c~'bon ",d"",-",,)1 '~"'i~ a """,Ir..al "",C'Olon; 5r.ooW t.l-o",,~oc ~Ior~ 00 ",ado Oy cOR'par oulDMorwl,," I"-!>I;c CDR""'>!'.? At.""~~""",,I.r--------Iocal. "r..."., ai, ,n"",," at..orari' How do wo '"Y""'R'.a'-ic allyw. ~ I't. DR. pat-<"~ia I 'R'p,o,;:, ''''' a p""'rt.lal 00"""t1

1.2 The pat/1 Fo:want Opera1ionaliltng SUslainabilily

_.m_ --. --~.-

"I

i1'<>rprctation

life cyde or the pro;:!uet, p"""",_ or _)',t"nt. one m",1 m'cs,der ,he em in."nenlal imp""'", f.... the "ntire life cycloe throogl' .. n LCA. An LeA is .. sophist ieated way of eM mining ,he t,~.1 env ir"""",,,lal imp""! through e,,,1)' life cyel<.
Flgbr.'1.6 CO"'P"",,,I> of the lil> Cyde ,\,,,,,,",..,,enl (LCA) Framework.

• IVha. ;, the PUff'<"'" of ,he LeA! Why i, Ihe asse;,;menl lJ.:,ing conducled!

• Hm, ""l1lhe ,"",ult- be lL""-'
'0 be Mid """,d?

• Ho,', bnMd Iv "ill alter"" ,i \'e opl ions be dell,... d?

• IVI", I ;",ues or c,..,"'"" '" ~ I Ihe "ludy add "'-"'! Alrther i Ie'" that """"S '0 be addressed a, I his l urul. The func6on~1 unil,er,'.,; a, lhe b",," of tl", LeA,the,y_,t.." bou,>:!a,;es, and Ihedara ""lLO,en",,,,,and a"Ulnpl."". Fer e"" "'pie, if yoo ",ere inler... 1ed j II delerminillg the e,,,,'BY U ""' and a"."",;',lro Cdrbon e"",.,in" [mm redaining 0' d"",hll36ng wa",r (o",r Ih" cnnpl«e Iif" cycle), II", f""<1'''' "'00 Id IJ.:, 10 ,,,,,,\ditll "aslewaler or d es<>litlal" w aler. TI", a",,,,idled fun<.1;'-',,,,1 U,UI m'8hl Ih"",.,,,, b" m' of ,..:\d "ned ,,~~,," Ie, or m' of d"",I"laled ",aler. On;:e Ii'o> g"'~ ""'I"', and fUlld ional uro, ha." bee" defined, Ii'o> ""'" ""P ol all leA LS 10 develop a flow diagram fOl Ih" ~ being ",-ah... and rondu:1 an im elll,ry a, ....]}"'". Til.. in",~ves d"",rib.'g all of II... "'pul<; and OIJtp.lb (includi"g ,na""',,], "'''''By, anj waler) i" a pn-.:l",-'I's lif" ~"Vde, b~in,.. ns wi~, ",11.11 lhe product ;.; COInJ"N"l ol, whe", tlllII... tl", pn-.:luCl U"",, "le<.1ricity or balteries. If 11", a1l.11y mdleria1Aow, itIIo a 'y",,,,n, 11", an" 110'1''-'''' ~ hin ii, and tl", out put<; fmm 11", 'y'''''''' I" thi, c.-, measu,,,,,,,,,,t, a"" b-.J Oil n",,,, (rr Hiume) 1"""'it'8' of c"""",I1,.,6"" ... Urh", mainial, flo", a,mlys', (someli"'''' r~ferred 10 a, a" urb.n m"Llbolism "'ud}'l i, a Il"'lhod 10 qu.l!llif) Ih" flo" 0/ "",te,iaL" II"" "nt~' .,,, u,ba" a,ea (e,g., "al"r, foOI.l, and fuel) a ,oJ 11", 110w 0/ m.,I..- .. " II", I exil a n urt"" dn!a (e. g., "oa lIuf i1Ct u,oo Sc.xls, waler • "" air poilu tan" indud, "g s""""ho~eSd''''', a ,l
O(''''"

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Chapler 1 SUslJlinable DesiIJl. ~g, ..00 ........ lion

,,,,"'..:1

example/I.I

Oetermln;ng Functkmand Functkmal Unit In Terms ofLCA

example I If you Me a,ked 10 mndud an LeA on !I,'O dlffe",nllaundry fuoc,ionalun!1 for Ih.. analy.";s?

detergenl~,

"hal could )'00 '-'-'" a, ,h..

solution 1

'Iff"'''''1)'

The b ...... of II"" LCA cculd b .. ,he" eigh I or wi.wn.. of rod, la undry d"''''!1'rlt 10 ru n 1.000 w ....hing n",cl~,,,,, cycle,;. (TI,;" says nothing ab.)UI t1"" perfonna""" of t1"" r..undry deler!1"t1<;.-m", d .."" Ih.. chlhes a '" a fter w""hi Itg-a, Ilia, is a",umoo 1(, be id<'ltI il:a1 f,'r ll"" purl"'''' of ,h.. LCA J

example2 If you a,e a,ked I<> conduct an LCA on paper """uS plastic grocery bag.., whal COllld you u.... a., th.. fuochonalun!1 for Ih.. analy,,;s?

solution 2 ~

b.t.i, of lh.. leA OOIJld be a .;d wi.um.. of gr,\("ries '0 be carried, in whid. ca.", tw'" pla,lic bag. mighl be .. qui\' alent m .... p,tp,.. bag, Or ll.... h-""1~)nai II I~' ccu Id be ,etuoo to It.... w",-gh, M gm",ri,., carrioo. in", tuch cas.. yw ww Id need lodelernlit.... wl.... lher paper or pla.:I hOl-\ many of .. ach "'wid be needed ,ocarl)' ll"" 'F"ofled ,,<'igh I

'il

~ llrbjln MetalllliSm all! a Case study on Hoog Koog Urban m,;tab"Ii'm ,tud"" a", imp,rt.m', bem,.. .. pla""..-, and .. ngin""", ean u.'" I"'m i'>r Tt.'C'>gni,ing p"bl.,-m and ,... >leiul gmwth, , ..tting pTiurrlie', and i,mnubling 1",liey. h>r .. ~ample, a mat..rials ,1<1'" a naly'" p.,.f"nntrl """ J [I )'''.,,, "n lhe 'lu;",,~}' "f f",,",,,,"a "" nt.,.s a nd "xit<. ,he G",at..A",a f"und ,hat ",al.,. inpu" had gnm'll 1Upen:t"" mor" tNn t'" "u'put<.. I', ..'>ibl" ..xpb,.,ti,"" fm thi, emld be leakinll ",a'.,,- di.,tribuhm 'ys"'n", e"mbined '"''''.,,- ""..-11"", ""~nt" and incre.I."-'<.l use "i wat..- f,,.- lawn car.., a 11 "f '" hich """,Id a I1nw inpu'ted wal..- ,,, bypas, "utpul m'ln~,rin& Tf-., ;maly'" a"n p"i nt"J h, a n""J In lurth.,. d""d"p ''';It..- C,",,,,,YaI'm becau", nf a fj""d a '" ilabil~y I
,IIa, ..

,hi,,,,,

T,-.-un",

,1<",

infrdstrudur... Alsn. a 35 perCl'nt m""",,,,d increas" in ma"".,I, u., ..,,,·.,. ,helO-y",
'pt.. m. l)uflng the 'hldy peri'-..I, ,he e~1' "",rumy ,l-i.fi"J Il11m manuf.octurinll '" a "",,;ce-bd."-'<.l ceft..... rh" III a II) p.,.",nt """'Sy ,l-i.fi fnlm ,he in/,..trial sed", tn th" OlfIll11L>Jriai sedm, y"t """'gy o""u"'Pt'm n ..... The lar!;" i",,,,;,,,, in ""''Sy u'" was a~rioo..,d ,,, incr""'L~ in d~,.-..I.'P"""'nt and r"'Odenlia!/'Kl.. .. p'I.m.,1 t<1I11f.,r1 and c(",,""''''''''. The ,at.. oi u.'" "I c,murnabl.. ma"'rial,abt, """ during Ih",ruJy I""i,-..I, with pl",t"_, acluaUy incm.l,in~ ~~) p"""ffil o.'..,all air ..missi"", ill Il,,,,~ Knng d""rea""J; h,,,,',,,·,,,-. air p'~ lu ~",I, a",,,eiated WIth m,~or d" u '" and f,,,,,,l Iud p"""" pnoJucti"n «ueh as ,'0, dnd CO) i"",,,,secI, land di.'I">sal of ",lid wast .. "'''' by 145 percent, e""ting a dil..mma f", ,he 'pacelimil"j city. A kl>.>Ugh a la'ge p,,,-ti'ln "f thi, w,,-' te i, cu"s!ructi"", d"nH~ih"" and ",dama",n ",,,,t..,

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1.2 The pat/1 Folwant Operalionaliltng SUslainabilily

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~,

M~leri.>1<

" " In t~n,,, per d~y. Arrow,a",

Flo ..... Imo ~OO through Ih. City of H""S K...,S ,\11 un~, inlrnded to g;..· • ...."e ind;"",,,,, of II» d",,,o,", 01 fl",,' "I

"""0";"1<. ~~"",AMBIO."_oI"'~fnw_Vd 30,(

W
'" .... C,"'. ll
municip"l ,,,lid W"'~ at." ,,"'. SO", wilh p!a"/i",,, h>d ""rap'. and F"I"" contributing the m,,,1 to municipaJ "'a"je. nm"t:h If.., ""0,,,11 .. Ie "f gJ'mth ~" ",ater lL"" .1""Ii,,,,.1 "'.." 'h< ,wdy (l(}-2 p""",ntl fmm .1"""""." in agricul bJ '" and ind..,tr .. l "'"', If-" p'" c.p~. in''''"";>1..- em"" mph"" " .. e fmm 271 I" 31'1 LId")' _ IV at...L' ,me "f the m"~>r ",,,-,te 'inl.., 1m the 61y, due ~, ii' 1"'!Ie ",,1um~ "lunlr~aleJ "'''"''g'' lli,"Ch=im 1"xyg~n d~""md (IJOU> I""di,,!>, mcr~~eJ by 56!",TC~nt. N il)"(>g"" d .. d>.,,-<,,' ab;" iTll:"'~..J ,,,,,,,,,,,bally. s.,,""g~ cont"minOlli,,, in 11",'1' """'6 ""te" i, n""c",.,iJereJ a ma;lTcr..i, f"rlh~city, h",i,'8 latg~ h.umful em;,,,,,m""tll.. em,..,mic, and h",llh eif"'l>.

Chapler 1 SU_ _ DesiIJl. ~ 3IIIl1o:ln
One cunci '" om i, I .... ~ at i b cu""nt mban mel,,""he Ta"'. Ilcmg K'mg i, exCt."eding 'b own natural pmducbo" and CO, fi""Ii"" "11,,,. M"terial, and ene'gy "'''l'mmph,m in the ~;Iy gTeallv outweigh Ihe natu,al a,..imilali,Ol c"l'acily 01 lhe 1"",1 ""~ 'plem lligh urb.1n metab"li'm ,how thai, ,dative I" "ther cit"" Ik.ng K"ng i, m, .. ~ effici""t ('ol a p"" caph ""-';") in land, energy, and m"k,i.Jb; u""' due I" I""e, "",I.,,-ial 'hie"" in buildin!>, "nd Ira ... pmlati"n infra-.lrudur" M' I"" ene');y "nd ""'Ieri"l, u'" (d"m,,-,bc co"-'ump!i,m), and h", highe' pmpmh",,-, ,>I 'p"O< d..Jic"l..J 10 parb and

,,,I,,,

"p'" 'I"'c"

n", I',orpc-.e of all "''''"to')' aIMIy"'~'lll«"r a full lif~ cyde or lun,lnl to nldLenal"-l" to qUdntif} "hat c"",,,,~ in and "Ildl 8'- out, mdudl118 11M< e'M<'llY and material ~iatoeJ ",lh e.... h ..1.l8e l11 t].., life c~d" lnpub ",el""" all n"lleriak, both ablol and """n'n"" ab~ and """'SY. II;" "nportam 1:0 "",.... mb.-r lhal OUlf"Jl.. Uldude the d ..... red prodUCL.. as "ell as ~-prodoctsanJ,,"'t.....uch a~em-.on;;

rl,...."

1:0.1"... at.!'r. and Land. It ... alsoimportA'" h)0ln.'IJ~ t]..,q.....hty nfda I.l for iorut;; anJ oulput.~ 10 thoo S}..;t""" "hen
........h ..., The lh..ll '0\"1' ,n.n LCA (or MFAle, 10cnnOOd.n ,mf'id"'_ mo>nl_ The.. ~ ,n, 01\." io.... i.lk'oJ "lIh 1M "'pouts anJ output;; Jbal " ",ng potenlwl. ozone ~d"ploi!'t."'.hun " 'o:u"," . ""'og Mrm.l.l"", nd land ...... Th", «tep oft.... "',01 .lo;,;um~ aboloUl .. holt h"man heallh .nd e." U'OIUIIeIII.I impa
g""" enu............

I .. ~ lit the ""p.t<1_merll ...o b.> rotltrO\ ......... l...,. ,I "" ,>I•.,.. ""'shims U - b..--..d ....' ,ronn.....wl impao:l ,a",&<'""" 1..-. yoelJ .. ~lIlg,", "Ow Mr the '" ""..n en, JnlrUnenul po:rform.<"'" of the product, p''''e-;". ,,,. ~Y'l",n being a""lyzeJ. nus ... ..-.Iten .. <;O(1rt.,1 COI~IJeralioll 11"'1 cao ''''y bo;t... ...,11 ,ultul"&. r.... e"''''ple, r.... if..- Run t~l.lIld lldlK>l.. Ill", 8"" g',"'l~ ""ighlll\g toclill",'e change gil l" UMI II,., loul 111\1""1 ;,en", Illdy b<'di>lnrtoo by ,,~,ghlin8 fador<;. It al,..-, ""''''1'0 Ih..1 f,,, .11' iJ""li,al life cyde I"'~nt()')'. the "","uhinS ded",ms frllm II'" il1\l-\lll '.e'I""'''''! tiM) .·ary f"~,, "",,,try tn rounlr)' or org.l"i7.a1~"' b) org.lI117 lk~,. Ultimately. LeA (.. lid MFA) can pro. Ide ,,'..ighl illl.' ''l-'p<'O"tulli_ fo. imp"" illS tiM< ""...mllmental Impact..-.l g" en I'roJuet, P"""'"', o. 'y_w-m. Thi .. Giln ",dude ''''''''''''g bet" ."'!l1 t ...o ort"''''' or idenuf} 1l1g areaM", Imp'Olem"nl for a <;>ngJe opti..... LC-A and MF A are"-'I",,,,el) ulua.ble on """"nng lhal en, ironmental In,pa<1 " being mimm
The fi

..,,«tern.

.0

Applying Ute CyeJe Thlnklnglo IntlrnatiORillIWalerand

sanitation DeielopnE..1Projects

.'""'-v.

"

~

~

........

12.2 SVSTEMSTHf\lCN(; Be> md tradong lhe p~"'<:aI'npUl"and OUlpu!'> to ... ~,.,1e0\ syot_ Ihinking 00ft"IJ"", roml"'"""'t parts of .. ~) _ ;l;; hoIung .> p<"JCentlal enl1ron.menlal,n,fl" I ofbl.-fu~, i.. pr""'.·. ."i in

... ppl...... ,onn I 9

Class Disc"ssion J.

.I. .I.

J.

""

~

'~.

~,

'§'

""' cat.,

"~~<1 ' .

"",,","o-~I"'''''''''''''''~'''. .:a""'"F"'~ '.< ....r. ~r

"'11y ........- '

. . _.......aytv

,.,'-'"""§...:<.....ut... ,.....~,...r. .,..t (~"

~~too

'P'-C"'~

"'~~"'~'L~ _ •. j ...... p'"

".., '"

.r.,
'~1

1.2 lIIol'alll_OI*.... ~Sl.tI·-,

n",

nalUl"t! ,~f .y>tenlS ll~nk"'g l1\al", it eXl",mely effect,,,e for ,01\; "8 II", ",,..,1 d ilr",u1l Iyp'" 01 problem" For e"-l mple. ,uslai,>abllily ch.,nenge' .• '" qUlle ampl"". d"l-",nd on interacti"", ard Inlerdel"'rd",,,,ifS. and are currently managoo or ",ilig.Hoo through d;'; para te m", ha IIi,""" I n I hi, "ay. pol"';", or lechnol"8;'" may be implemenled " ilh \\ e11-articulall!d g .....I,. bul can lead 10 unin..,nded c....""qu"'nces becau"" all of tho> potential sy'lem f""db",,"'-' "",.e nOl con,ide,ed. \\ay to beglll a sy,lems analy,i, i, thmogh a causal loop diagra", (ClD). elDs pro"id" a meal.S to ."lk'lllale Ihe dynan,ic. inl"''')J,,~ted nalUre of conpl"" 'y"' ..I.S. n",,,, di.lgranlS co's;'" of arrows crmnectitlg \'ariabl"" (Ihing, Ih.u change ""... Illne> in a way that ,how, how 0"" variable affect, allOlher. Each arro" ,n a ClD ;, l.iliel"d "i til a" s or 11. An s m...." Iha I " I",,, II", fi '" \·..,.;"b1e crn ng"", Ihe ,,,,ond 01'" chd ns"" ;n Ihe ,ame d irecti ..." (for e"""",Ie. i,,,,,,,a,,,":! pn)r~, I",d to h",,,,,,,oo i,,,,,,,,hn..,", in ,,,,,,,,rch and de"e1op", ..,tj An " mean, thaI Ihe firsl "ariable cau""" a change in Ihe opp"" ~e d ll"ecti,-", of the «'Cond ,.U"ia ~e. (for "xalnple, n,,',e g"'''' engineering ""'''' .Iion, "'''' lead I,~ rffiuced ",... ironmemal and hu"",,, heallh li.ilii~I",,,l I" ClDs. I I", a rro,,-, comel<>getl",r 10 form loop', a nd each loop is lab"led ,,-ilh .H' R or B (Figure 1.9), R mean, rri"f",[",~~tllal U", cau,,",1 relallonsl"p' wilhin ll", loop c",ale e,pOl,,,,,tial growth or col~,~. for insta"ce, Figu,e 1.9 sho\\', ,1"" lho> more fffi.sil 1",,1based energy ronsu med. Ihe more carbon dioxide Ihal i, emilled, d.S Ihe gk)ba II"m I"'ra tu "'s I"c",,,,e, a ,ld tho> m .... e e''''rgy 111.'11 "eeds 10 De CO'lSU'" ed. B mean, j'"I""""'g----lhal i<, Ihe cau,,", I infl ""ne,", i" 11", loop keep 11", ,-ar..,b/", in equilibrium. Fnr example, in Figure 1.9. Ihe more prof;!> generaled b" a company. the mme re",arch and de,elopmenl inv""t",,,,,ls that can 0., ",ad". which will ]"ad 10

0.,,,

I,.

~ I lie Q'cle all! S~stems Thjnki~ AppRed 10 RVhm!s A recent e""mpl" whe", Ih" ",Ie,-a"..., 01 ~Ie "ycle

Ihinking .mJ 'y'km., Ihink"'g w." "",J" cle.'T w;" Ihe pn,I"'''' 110 U.'" biob.,,,,d f",," I" '''l'l"" a p'Th", 01 lhe U 5_ 1r.""p')r1alilln 1",,1 porlfnli". The", h~ been ,i~ificanl "mpha'" pi",,"" "n alle,-,,'ing d"p'nJ..n", "n f...,.1 fuel bv pn,Jucinl; f",,1 ""'''In f"." agri.. 0"" or lhe d"art=>l e"'~mpl", 01 I hi, ;s Ihe"mph;,xi, in the UnltoJ St,I", "n pmjucing"lh.m,~ In'm «Tn. Wheth", lhe """,..,miL'" "I pn.,duci"l; "than,. fmm ,,,.,, i, cn,,,iJ..,,,d by m",,,hLing life cycle emi",io,", 0' .lind en,'imn"..,nlal ;mpacl>. (induding wa"'r. rerti~,..",. and p""icid" appli"'lion), wm-ro,e.! e!h;",,' may '''lui '" (F'" u,,; I of f",,1 pn,.lu",J) m'Te fo"il f",,1 ani f",tili"", inpuh Ihal en~ liar/;" am",n!>. 01 g"",nl..>"-,,, 1;;"";, particul.J '" matter•.H,d nutri",,!>. than Ill" eurrenl pd""leum-b~"" p""Jucli"".

Chapler 1 SU_ _ DesiIJl. ~ 3IIll1o:ln
Thi.' i, nol to 'ul;/;"'" lhal pmduci"l; e,,,,'HY fmm bioba"'" ""'''''''''' i, not an .pp"'p,iale OT uhim.lely ."z-tai""~,, ,tralegy. It i, father to 'ugl;"" lhilt pu"ing renew.bl" ene'gy in a way lhill only add "'''''; lhe ,ingu 1., r 1;'" I of ,od uting u""' of fi,,; to '''''OJrc", Can I",d 10 i""",;y,od em-i"",,,..,nI.11 ;",d hum;m h",llh impacl' and ",'"n g",aler ,IT"" "n lhe "arlh's s)" len" wil h.lUI uxi ng !if" """Ie and '~"le"" lhinki"l; fram"" m-b. rillu", 1 j; 'h"W' lhe em-imllm"nl.J imp.ICI of bi"fuel, c,,,,''''' Imm Jift"",nl em?, ,our",,;. 1\ole how lhi, ,uPP',.,,,,l "g"",n"," fuel e"n h."" ,\;nific.", .M v..-i",l em;nH..nffitai imp;"'ls acm", !he lite cycle. ",.",., imp,,,,!>. a", also highly d"l'""denl on II., f.,.,J,,~>d eh.,ice an..! pm.luc-lion I"c;,ti,m

~...J',e'Q'Q,tj'"'I!'",,,,!

_

ECOSYSTEMS

f'oa!>osood. IP CH Rapc........ D

••,-,

O"on'it",S limit" ,m!,,'1 th•.." Ihc con,·col.",,,.1 ,,~",m B",e.f "n m.lle,"'f from I,"", 5
Aglll"e/l.8

1.2 The Path Fo:want Operalionaliztng SUslainabilily

Rc",.,ch and dcvolopmoot

,,,,,,,,,'mo'lt.

Prot..

Figurl11 ,9 EXdmple. of Rdnforcing and 8~L1~cingelf),. L.,h .m..... i~ 3 ern is foi>e1oo ,,,th "n ","" r 3 n "0· . An. mm .... thot when the fi,.;t ,-.,-;"bI~ chans"'_ tho ",,:~d one ch.I"t:L'" in the sam~diT""bon. A~" mro", th.It lho firsl ,-ari.lbl~ c,u,,",s, ch.Inge in the 0pp"'il~ d'f<>;.-tion of !h~'CCDnd ,-,ri.,bI"" R m~.-.ns r~",f,,-c",g-
more gre"" eng i"eeri ng innOVdliot,.,. red """'g Ihe n umber of e",- irmu"enl.ll dnd humdn hedhh liabilil'es. "hieh leads 10 greafer pOleruidlprofils. ClDs can co"tdi" ",a"y d ifft>rent Rand n loops. dll co,,"ected ,,- ilh arn,,,,,. Dr., wi ng tho> ... d iagrd ms c. n develop a deep under.,ta,lI.llllg of th" dynamic,. Through this proc&~. opportunilies for impnW"n.,nh" ill be I"gl~ighled. For e""mpl<:. the links between r. nit e r"",urc" con, wn plion for e "'''gy p rod ""lion. caroon e m bsi ons. dnd globd 1 temper,Hur", ma y Ie"'" us 10 nltd n""-,our"",, of re,,,,,,,lble energy. Furlher. it i, through ~y'ilems thinking tll.ll ,,-e Cd" dM b~in 10 und ",",Ialld Ihe ",.;Iiel\.1""e more distributed a.1d lor ,maIler s~"ten... Ih,)! can cooUnue 10 eff""Ii,,,ly fUlnio.. ill uncertain ,iwation, ,,-ithgredler r"",lime... Exampi", i"dude ge"...alion and rainwater h",,,estmg dl the hOlN'lnld or conumnuty le,,,I, a nd d"""ntralized ",a.s1e""I~I",atmenl, Again, it i, n"" ....s ary tn emsider the life cycle impdets lhe e ..t iTe ~}"tem when d"'iglting a new, d i>tribuled ,}'Stem wilh m,..e red w,d! ncy 10 r"l'ldce.l m,re c..,trali",d This" in "n].". In undelSla"d the p""',bdl tr.>
'y"''''''

1"''''''

0'

,}"I,""

Chapler 1 SU_ _ DesiIJ>. ~ 3IIIl

""""".bon

ex am p leI I .2 OistribLted Systems Thai May Improve FlIlctionality and Re~llence P'OI ide an e:umple nl a dl~lribut.,;! syste", romfl"b"'l of ,nd"p"nd"nl yet imeraeti"e elemenl' Ihat "'''y d"li""r impm,''';! fun~'1iOl",lny and greater re.'li"lIce. What are the poI""IJal benefit, in lerms of ,u,la",.•b,lily?

solution A rollffl,nn "f di,tribut";! el"ct,ic generators (1m i"sUnce, fuel cells) ronn""I";! 10 a po,,'e, gnd may be

more ",llIble and fault-tol"ranl than centralized ""',elils ""'y include the I"U"" "'g'

]X""~

gen.er"lion (Fiksel,

2(K]]).

The susta"",bilily

• R";!uced """""rre; nece>.,",'Y for Iransmi""ion and dl"ribUli<1ll • R";!uc.,;! 1",,_ due I" 10ng-U fII 10 Ih" e,oJ u"", • P,"sible c",dit gi,'"" to owner for nii

,OOOCti,.,~ III

I~

toLll ""","gy need, I" be

a",.. emi",ions

• l'er o,,,,aU em, ",ions il d lstrtbutoo energy srun;e is cleaner tha n all"mal"e (e_g., r"",1 cells, landfiU

gas recov","y, b,,,,n .•,,,,) • Potential for reduced emi"i(nl~ by p...-..Judng energ} only 10 ",eet eurrenl demand (much nwre n"",ibmt y in production I.... <-Is " ~ h dlstributoo ~y"leno;)

1,3

EngineB"ing for Sustainability

Engineer,;, in pa'tieullr, ha I'e a un, qu" rol" to play in Ih" P.. th FOri, .. ,d 10 .. ,u,tall",ble lUlU ,e, Thi" i, l>ecau,,", they h.n'e a di,ecl effffl "n the d..,.ign and de"elop",ent of product" proces5e>,alld 'ple"'"a ~ well a, on 'Mlu,al ,~'''e",s through maler",1 "",-lectin.., project SllJng. and Ihe end-of-hfe management 01 chemiclL~, material" and pmJud'. Engi,,,,,,rs playa ,ignificant and I'ital ,ole in n",,,ly all aspecls of ou, lives. They pm"ide b,,,ic .."vic"", SllCh .., ",.. Ier, ,",,,iU!lon, mobilily, energy, food, heahh care, and sh"it"r, '" aJdition 10 aJ "..nres ,udl ... ",al-li",e communicali",,, and 'pace e'plo",l,o... n", implement"lion of all 0/ Ih"""eng ",,,,,ing ..chie""me"tsCioln I"ad 10 benefil~a5 "dl~, problems III lerm, of th" "'''''''''"l''''''I, ec""omy, ~nd """i"'Y. TI,e ad"""" impacl~ ollradiliOrl~1e"g",,,,,,ing d""ign, often implemented wnhoul a ,u,uln.lbiiity p"rspective, call be lound all around u, in Ihe 10'''' of "ale, u""' ineffid""dcb on Ihe

""t

Greoo Chemistry "'_'1"JIW*W"'pa,,!,,,,/'l<-uec!'.t:n'i.t.ry

BiomimiCly

en,imrlmenl drld soclelY. Muludl !>elldils resullll'g fmm Ihi, green engineerillg view of de>.ign ",dud" a mm]->o!llli\e dnd grm,-illg economy in Ihe gloOOI "\drletpllee. impm...,d qu"lily of life for people, a"d enlldn.,ed protecti"" and r""loralio" of nalural system,.

"''fil.........'''''''' mia)'.ro
1.3.1

I !

FRAMEWORKS FOR SUSTAt.JABlE DESIGN

To .upport Ihe design of Ihese sustainabie soIUli",,-s, Ihe l'rincip I"" of Green Engineering (Applicali,M' LJO) were developed 10 provide a framework for Ihinking in len", of 'i"slainable d""ign erileria Ihal, if folio" ed, .,all iead 10 "-""luI ad ,a""es for a wide range of engineering problem.s. Green "hemislry is a field devoted I" Ihe d""ign of "hemi",,1 prOduCI'i"nd processes Ihal reduce or elimi""le Iil<' u'*' arid generalion of hdzard(>\l' m.lleri.,l, (Anaslas and Warner, 199R). Green chemi,Iry I,,,,u,,,," on add"'-'5ing haz.J.rd Ih",ugh molecular desigll and Ihe proc"",.,., u-"'.. The fields of green eh",n"I'Y and greell engllleering also u'*' Ihe I""""ns and pro"""",,, of tldlure 10 illspire design Ihrough blomimkry (Benyu•• 20l2). Biomimicry (fmm hi",. meaning life, alld mean"'g 10 imitale) i.s a design di""ipline Ihal ,Iudies nalure's """I idea, and Ihen innlal"" Ih""" d""ig'" and 10 -'ohe human problem,.Sludying a leal 10 invenl a !>elter -'Olar cell i, an e>.ampl" of Ihi, "innO\'.,I,on ",,,pired by ""lure" (Benyus, 2fXl2).

",i,,,,,,',.

1'''-'''''''''''''

o

~ The prj!J!iplesnf Grlf!n EngiJeering (fUID Anastas and ZimUl!rmif) 2D031 ring b ,1", ,I"";;,,, oJi,.",-""), ""d ""pf",,,,.,,I.M" "f r",,~, r",;; ... I"h'''b "'lIh 00' .IUI"'",;, Qf Ih,y /"In,I;.,1 1>cr1"~I., .,,,1 th''''':,:h..''rt Iii,. "M"I<' "f G"",n "ngin

,ml"""

II» oJ",~", TI" :,:,,,1 "f YII'rn r'tgillln;trx i, IQ mnli""", ",Il""'" i,"I'""" ,,0/,,1,' ,im,lililllcrr.fjh ", Iile "'-Q'''''''Y, ,,~-j
"""w

and inputs and "utput. are a, ;n"",,,nlly n"nhiv.udoLL' a, I""",ibl".

1. It i., NoIt.,,- t" p''''.''n1 wa,t~ Ihan I" """I '" d~"n up w""t" aft.,r il i. fOTmed. J s.,p",atilm .md purificahlm "p"rah",,-, ,r.",hJ be a c"ml"m~nl "II"" d""ign f"..""work. 4. Spl"m wml"m""ts ,n,,,,id be d"";8""'1 ~J maximi,.., ma". "nerg}". and t~ml"Jfal dfici"ncy

5.

SY't~m

c"ml",n""l' ,t><>Uld be ,rulput pullC'd ralh.". thOln inpul pu,h.,J Inmugh th"LL'" I>f ""'''g}" and mal"r.. I,.

Chapler 1 SU_ _ DesiIJ>. ~ 3IIIl1llrl
~"tmp}"

and compl".ily mu,1 bt";.,,,'-'
6. IOmbeddC'd

7. Targd..J durabilil}'. nut immurtality, ,r.>Uld bt, a

,j""ign g""l. I!. u""ign for u"n""""",,')' caf'dcily or cap.1bil;ly

,h"uld bt, w,,-,id~reJ a d""'gn !law. 'fhL' inc1ud"" "ngin""ring "one ,i.l." fits all" ,,,Iutiun,. 'I. Mill ti-.:omp'''''n1 pmdu<'-' sr.>Uld ,IT,,'" 1,.- mar:.,.

rill unification II> pmmt,,,, d ....."'rrhly and r""',,fion (minim,." mal..-;a1 di,,,f'iily).

,-a1""

10. u""ib"" of pr"c"""" "nd '1'1"",-' mmt i""IOO" i"tegr.. film "f inl..-"'''''''If",ay win a",;L,b/" ~""I);y and mal..-ia" fi,",·" 1 L J'~rlo
forma""" in

c<>mm"rci.~

f,.-

p"'-

-alt"rlif>,."

12 lk-ign ,11<",1<1 boo bor.trl "n r""",,·abl., and r""dih-'

a,,,ilabl<, inpuls In,..ugl",u'

I""

lif~

c,,,I<,.

~ Examples 01 Green ChpuiS'Ql The funJamenlill ,,,,e.,,£h ,,{ g"",n chemi,try !la, t-n b< and health caTe. bint"" h n(~, >g v, na ,,,tee hm, I,ISY •con"" m er p",juct." and materiab-. In earn ca"" g",en ch"",i>lry ha, been ,ticc"",lui h' d eml'" ,Ir a ,t>J tn ,.,J """ i n t Ii n, ic

hilLard, ~J impm,,, mal"';a! and """'l':yeffici"n<'v, and l"i~rain a lifer}"'"" P"-'P""ti,,,. S"".., "nmpb "I 1''''''" ch"",i>t,y thod i1hJ,trate the breadth ", ,'pplicability include:

• a dramaticany, more eifa:b,e fi", e'lingu;;hing "geld lhn! eliminales halon aI'Ll utili""" water in combination ",~h an advan""d surfactant,

• production or IMge--;r.. 1e pl",nn""euhrAI act""

thousands of pounds of toxic " ..sle per pound of product,

illS"'''''

• elimination of from ,,--b.\<;aI pldo.l" that Il"" the p.".fmma"", qU.'ltiti~ nee.:led for a muh""illion pound ~ppliGllion, ...~ a food I"'ckagmg; • a n"" scher" sy
ingrooient< "ithout Ihe typical generalinn of

~ ExamplesQ!Bjomjnicry Th"", I",..,L, in bi"k'l;Y can ],., di,lingui,h",1 hum ",hid> i"",,,-ati,-e and ,u-L,inablt, I"'M"juIIY oan be modeled • Mnnieking naHJral meth,.:b of llI,llVJf.laure of chemk.. l comf')wlds tn creale ne" nn,,, • lmilaling """,hanesm,; found in nalure (e.g., ,elero) • Studying organizatlfll1.\l pri,,,,,pies f,nm so.:ial bella,ior of organisms, such as Ihe flocking bel",vior of b,rd, or Ihe emergent bella,.ior of I>ees and anls

f",,,, p.",.orul ca", pn>ducI' t" ;ndo,h,1 'y""=-. U,o,g bimnimicry ..~ a h,!. ,me ",oull I,~>k fm mgani,Trto Ihal inhe"'nlly demm",,>te thi, d"";r~le tr.;t ~\lr e~.."p", m.J and 1>""" at;"" prud",,, llalog,~,aleJ mel,.bolt",. primarily u tilif.i'll bn>TniJe, Ihat havedemm,tra ted ant~ micn,b;,~ a<1i-.-ty. llaoeJ on lhi~ aPl'n>lpet! a pmJuct,. Stabr",cn", a chk>rine alt..-..ati,,, to "",intaining indUolrial ct~,ling ,y~lem, Cl",n ,,-,thoul cllemiCiiI", 'fhere are m,mv e",·ir'tnmffit.J! "nd human health ci0ll00 wah emain el. ... ", '" d"eTgffih "n:! ",al"" So how dOL" na!u ce p ",,-,de Ihe ,e"-ice of de" n h nL'" w ith"ut polen. Ii.lDy tmic ehemital~' 0,.., e~:",'P1t, t" «",-~;j..- hu", Ir., t, ttl.' planl Ih,,1 pre,,,nt, dirl fmm inte.-fering wilh ph,~,,,ynth"'"'_ Lolu_' le.,-", ha,,, ",ugh hyd"'plwhe ,uri""", t 1>., I .!lo", dirt lu be carn", a ,,·ay by J "'p" \If w.lter 1h.1l "baD up" and n~t"ff lhe ,orh"". A numbeT uinew f'T,.Ju<1' ha,,, e"",o;;oo b....rl \In lhi~ "l"lu ... ef""=t" induding lulu,an p"int th:ll p"",iJ... . a ~imilar m,.",ular-"ructure t\l the k,lu~ leaf ~uch lhat d,rt i_, e.nied ,lway by lhe rain pn,,-iJinll -selkle.'ning" building e>teri",""

Pigm"" t- F",e Color. 'fllere oan ,iI>ni fica It! e n"in m"""'lal ;mf"ct> a"" ... ia~d wah d~, ink .. c,,,bn,,'" and painl.. l",ki"" 10 nOllurai '}",le"" f,..- ide... "f h,n,' l" creale el~''-, ",.., quickly fin:!, lhallldlure u'." ,true_ lure ratheT lhan pig""'nll" "ff..- lhe brilliant hue, "",n "n butterfli"" p.""""'].;", and hummi""bird" 'fheQJ~>r' "",n n,.u1l fmm lighl ,call..-ing "ff regularly 'F"ct"j mel."'Ilt mu. aoo interierence effects thmugh Ihin tare"""! ker.,lin. Qualc\I",m i, mimicking th .. ,I... tegv I:_",mple, a", b... tsl un Il,,,-,,,,,o, ry' J",,,,'\ll,,", J"'f',n:,1 by t<, Creale ~cr""ffi f,.- electn,nie J",-"", Presen-ati ,-",;: One"r Ihe """,rlf nIIch''mi",l cI '''''''' uf N"r"", l;mine M. lIffiY'''' with p",mi,.,.m "i Ilar?,Tct,,,,,,mare.nli-micn>bial, ,,-...,Jin a ran!l' "f.ppkah.,'" Cullin., l'ubl .. he",.

1.3 EnQjreero,g mr S,,"Iain.milily

Class Discussion

\.3.2

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Learn more about the theory 01 leapfrog ordisrupfive innovation n~tvj"""'~·"'" -""91~2J031
Class Discussion .I. "'''at.l~ar<'''''l"pl
.I.

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irn""..." "'nt.hnh.Ja

1"'"""< ''''pac:. t<>w..,.~ "'"~ '" -" 3"" i~~11'/1,..._a" ~"' pa'.-.. al ~-.o'f~ 0'1u1l""",,1< ;'l"r",m,n"'''''''n 0"",, "'," r ""..U or?

THE IMFORTANG Of DESIGN AND INNOVATION IN ADVANCING SUSTAINABIUTY

Embedded in lhe di",u"'io" of ~u~ta",.,b1hty and e"8,,,,,,,ri"g i~ the ",ord desiS". Design i.~ lhe eng",,,,,rin8~t.'ge "herelhe grealesl influence can be achie"ed in lenns of ~u'tainable ""Icon"",. Al the de'''gn 'tage, engin""r. Me able toselecl an.:! ",,'a IUJle the cha'Jcteri'licsof lhe final oUlcome. n,i.~ can jndude material, chemical. and e"ergy inputs; effecli. en"'-' a"d efr.dency; .lest l"'lic" Jnd fonn; and i"tended ~pec;fi cal;"'~~ such as qualily, ,,-,"'ty, and performance. The design ,late al~o rep""""n~~ lhe lim" for i"nm-alion, br.,i'~~lonn ing. and creath-ity, offerin8 an occ"-~i",, t,) imegrale ~u,tain.,bililyg"al~ into Ihe "pec;fic~tion,of the p"x1uet, process,or ,y,le",. S1lSIIIil1~bilit!l sl"'"IiI 1101 be "iew,'d liS a ,1".iS" eOl1sl ,.,,;',1. /I sluml,1 be "Iili"",' ~ ..'" "!'I'0d'mi 1!l1" le«rfr"S HiM i"S i,leas '>r ,Ies ~I< a 'ul ,Iri"" i",,,,,'~ Ii"" sollll ia"s Ihal om,sid,', sY"I""'~ lio 1Jo.>1"'fils amI i"'I"'0ls 0"'''' II,,' lifeIi",,, of lb., desi!l'1. ThL, pnlentiai is .hn",n in F,gure L 10. n'is figure demOl~qra,,,,, Ihal allm,-ing ~n i"cred.sed number of degrees '" freedo'" tn snh'e a ch.dienge, add,.."", d need, or provide a ""r"ice creal'" m","e d"'i8n 'pol"" to ge"er~le ,u.,lai,,~bie .,.-,lulion~. r"Or a gi"en in,-est men, (t ime, energy, resnurc"", c~pi,al), pnlenhai benefih can be reaj,zed. Th""" benefil.include i'\Credsed markel 'hare, red uced ",w,ronme"lal impact. minimized harm tohu man heallh, and impril'ed qualny ilf life. I" Ihe case in which oo"~lrainl' require mereiy op"mizing lhe exi.ling solu'ion ,~r making il\Cre""'''tal i"'pmven",nt" some mo.:lesl gain,; can be ael' ",,"ed. How"" er, if' he d eg"'*'s nf freed ron ,,- ill"" the d es;gll ,pace can be increased, more benefit,; can be reaiized. Thi. i, bec~use lhe engi"""r ha. an

I,I I I"""SImOOIS (limG. """"'1'. ros<>t>rCOS. """'VI'I

8.""fit5 wilh lncr.... i"l\ D~W• .,. of D~la .. ,b1. ",luh,,, ..

Figure 11, 10

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Chapter 1 SUslJlinable DesiIJl, B1giIet!ring, aoo itIoo'Ialian

,,,,,-,I,,, ,

opporlu,nty t.,de-,ign a newwluti.... Iha, rnaYapl"M very d iffe ....nt in f.... m but p""id.., the ,ame ,ervill'. TIlls may pa.e chill"" 8"s if ,he n"" d ",isn j, 100 embedded into a" exist inS a tid constra ined 'y,te,,~ Ultima,ely, the m""t ,,",nefils can be achie,'ed when the engi""", de>igns wilh ,he m""l degr.,.", of freedom-a, ,he high..., system <.ca le-t 0 e", ure tha t eadIcom I~)ne"t wi, hi" the,ystem i, su,tll"ab1." perfon", "i,h the o~".. 'y
exaIll pI ell. 3

Oegrees of freelkm and Sustainable IJesign

I" 2(X},1, Ihe a".,rage mil... per gallon for a car on the road in the Unital Slates "a, 22. I" ""'Jl'f"1Se to c(M,cem, abru, global cbmate ,,""nSe, policy mak"..,.. and enginee", a .... "orkinS t..., ward a "lOre i,mm'a''','' 'edmical and mana8"ment strategies '0 inlpn",,, gas m~ea8" and low ... carbon d ioxiJe en';"';"'"6. What a Ih" desogn <>Prorl"'> ~ies f.... imprr,.. ",uenl sea led "it h i...,,,,,,,.ng deg .... '" of f.-J con a tld " hal a lhe potential benefit>?

solution T abie 12 gi, es ,hree d", isn sol ution'i. A'i the d"8""" of f"",oom in the de>ign increase, eng; ,hi. """ mple hal" more f1exib,I'ly' 10 nmo., a~ a SolutIO" '0 the pmblenl.

,,,,,,rs in

Three Design Solutions Investigated in Example 1.3

~

_ _ SI"'om Ilo
Incromonlallrrc>roromonl

l"l'm,,, ,he effiac",cv <>f lhe C.mnten!'l'ne; u
ti"" a hybnd electrico, fuet "e1t 0)'<11: m 1..- ell<' 'l\ Yo "h."'8 e ,he ohape nf the ca, f..- '''l'm",d acrod,,,,,mi<:s; cap!"'" "..,tc, h",~ a nd e",,'!IY f,.. ,eu""

Meet mobil)' neoh w,th"", ",dJ,·i.:Iual car, lmpemen'a putiic 'T"",toy..em; d""sn comn., nih.. ..., com"""",,1 disln:tund empovmm' ore w,th", w,,!l;'IlI .,nd ",'d'ng d,s/ance; p",,,,de ae""o '0 deoi",j gorn, and ""'.."'"

",tI.",1 ,'ehkub, l,ano;port.Ilon Mnd=te fuel ",,'jill';

mode,ate ,c'
[mpmved fuel..,v'ng" ,mpm,'cd reducti",o In Co, enn"in",; iml"'mcd m.,le,iII1and energy elfick'OC)'

E1imi"",ion nf the ,."dmnmmt,ll impact. .,..-ri,'oo WlIh lhccnhtc auto"..x,ite hfe cvc~; "",~imi,.cd fud ..,,'inS'.nd Co, n'\:Iuct~mo: ,mp••,,-cd inf,.."trurtu",; den.... dC"ehf'mm' (,,,,,,,, 8rnwth); hc.llth of soric""

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wa!l;,'t: .nd 1"... .iT p<>lu~on

Fl1Iur.l.11 Pe",e~( Co.... lnru,,,,d ve...... Design Timeline Tho,o". can be (hcoughl nt a, e",nomk or en,irmmrntal. ThJ ring the d"':gn ph."", apfT",imollely 70 pe",enr 01 the m'" bemm"" lh:(~,a~d

u",-

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Coal commillll
j~

EPA's Design lorEnvironmenl Program 1-.'f'"J 1...-4'1I.¥"1 oprt-! J'tl

The design phase al"" offe.... uniqueopportunities in the lile cy de of ;\1, engin""red prod uc!, process, or ,ysI~m. As-ho\\ n in Figur~ 1.11, il i, nt Ihe d""gll pha.", of n lypiCdl product 11"'1 70--73 percent of the mst L~ ,et, e,-en IhOllgh Ih_ cost, \\ ill nnt be renl i7ed unti I much ).,ter in Ihe producl life cyde. n,e en,-"onme"lal costs are a,,,,logous to economic ones. For example, It Ls .,1"" al Ihe de;;igll phase th.al materials are spedfied. TIlis ollen d i~'1ates Ihe productklll pr<-..'CS.s as well as operation and """lI\le""n", pmcedures (Le., p"inting, mating, rust inhibiting. cle.anillg. and lubrkahngl. As "",n as a malerial is ,pecififfi a, a d""gn doclsion, the enllre life cycleof that material from acquLSllion Ihrough pmc_illg." "en." the etld of lile is now included asa part of the en"ironme"tal impact, of the designed producl, process, or sy,tem. Therefore, it is nt the design phase Ihal the engm""r has the grealest abilny to .,ffeet Ihe em iron· menldllmpact, a's<>ci"ted ,,\th Ihe fi"al outcome. A, an exa",ple, thin'" of an the ",alerial, and products Ihal go into COJl.qruct;.w and furnL~hing a building. At thi, poinl, the engin""r needs 10 '-Lsio" the future in regard 10 ho" these ",aterial, ,,-ill be mainldined, ,,-hal dea"mg agents" III be used, "hat Ihe waler and etlergy demand, of Ihe building will be, "hin WIll happen 10 Ihe bUildmg after ii, useful life ~s 0\ er, and ",hat the f.'te of these malenal, nt Ihe end of Ihe bullding's life will be. In lerms of tra'l.sportatlo" system" an engin""r ca" thll,k be}'ond Ihe d"",gn of a new high"ay inlended to relie"e urb.. n congestion. because dau c1"Mly ,hows Ihal these ne", Iran'portal;oll enrrid, ,,.,, ",ill become mogestN in just a fe" after the ]ogh",a) is m"'p]t>tro. It is also importalll to nole that il lS al Ihe design pl",se that the eng;lI....... has the opportunit} 10 ina"porale "'C....a."<'st.s, alld ",,,,t In'l'nrLH,tly, impart """ permno""", aoj eapab~~"'". 1V1uie "'''" y of Ihe other attnoo [>,5 ];"ted ea" be acllie",d Ih"'... gh "end of Ihe pipe" emtmllec]uH'i",ICS, il j'only by liNking "t Ihe d~sigll pM'"

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w~'",

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'0

comp."i .."" of Ir••dibOl,d! ,· ....su. s~tai"ability indical,... fOl" a community. a"d whal ne" ,nlormal",n Ihey provide aboul progress I(~, ard ,usla.u>ability Ihat is ",. captu "'d by n,,..e "ad; b,~,d! ",.:I icalors (Han. 2007). Se-.eral quanl~al"e ,u"tainabil~v metties a,.., he...-Hy utili""d b) e"gin..,r" of t l _ n,elrics b II", efficiency l.ocfor 4", E hcforl. '" ltich is a m",su re ()I material efficiencies. lhat " lhe ". ""Ie generation lor ''''''erial>. IVh,le efficiencies of all types h."e always 1Je<", a cm"po""'" 01 go"d des,gn, the g""""atio" of ,,·aste. panicularly

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example/l.4 Oetermining the EFa::lcr Cairo ld '" the E 1.\,::lor for ,I... d""irl'd product, gh I'l' ,I... f,~ lowing chenuca) production pn""".,;, CH,CH,CH 2CH,OH'" NaBr- H,SO, - CH,CH 2CH 2CH,B. _ />;aHSO, + H,O Table 1.5 prwide<; d"t
~ lnr..rma~an

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mMe ma.,; of n", ",riai il'f'ul'i a", ""qui,.",j II" n a", "",d in ,I", fin" I I n I hi. ""''''I'll', 211 product. Thi, l' not c1os" to Ih" valu" of z",o w" wouid want 10 sel a. a goal if ,he mmpany had z"ro ",as", as a ,~t;, and 25 '0 n'lOr" lI... n 111l f(Jl" phannaceUlicais. This ,I~",,, 11",1 'N ay llll'n! is g",.lI (Jpp,Ylu nil)' 10 ra.:!""" w""'" product,m d ur"'g d","umi manuf"",uri ng. B" a ",an! a>;oll"',hi, Iypeof calcu Iabm iSOl~y a m""sun! of mas, effid.-n0' alld d""" not consider ll", ,oxicily of ,he mal..."'I, u,""" or generated (,,,,, Cha pcer 6 lor nllY" Inlormolieln on loxicily and haz.1ro).

1.4 Me.." ..... SUslainomilily

1.5

Policies Driving Green Engineering and Sustainability

There is d de"",,, dlbeil often unre<:<>gn,zed. nnk beh,een polky .nd engi"....,ring design. l'olicie< Me pldllS or COU""," of dClioll, as of a go\'ernment or other organizalinn, imended 1<) inl1u~nce and ddermine ded;ion.~, dcti",~" and other malt~rs. Gm e mmenla] policies .re oft"n aimed al protectillg th~ public good II,much the <.am~ "a~ thai green chemi,lry and gr....,n ~"gin....,nllg a,-., aimed at protecting human heallh alld the en\'imnmenL Pohey can]).,., pow~rful d,,\'~r inllu~nci"8~ngin""rillgd,-""ign ill tern~~ of which m.ll~rial .•nd ~n~rg) ,ources Me u"""'" Ihrnugh sub-.idies dnd/or ~Inct regulaliOl~' on emiss;ons. In this wa\', policy can play. ,ignificallt role in supporting engi,,,,,,ring design for ~uslamability. n\~re are Iwo mall' Iypes of polici"" Ihal can affect d~sigll al I his ",aie, reg ulatiolt~ a nd \,olullt",y programs.

lSI

PrGd ucl Po lie r lnslilule F< ,?"J_ pr<>duc'..paII
Extended Producer Responsibillr in California r--_orJ _.<~ I",cycl<_GLlp;!
REGULATIONS

A reKu 1.lion i, a l~gal r""lriLllon promulgaleJ by governm~m adnllllislrali, e ag~nciesthrough rul~",aking~upported by a thr~"t ofINbihlies, .uch dS Ih~ European Un;on', (EU) Wa.~I~ Eieclric-dl anJ EI""trol1lc Equ;pmenl d"ec!il'e, hold the orig,nalm.,nufadurer r""'pons,ble for Iheir pmduct, throughoul Ihe hie cyde. Thi~ directil e d,m, 10 minimize Ihe impact of el""trical "nd electronic goods 011 the elw,rol1m"m by incredsi"g reuse and ,ecyding and reducing the anwu"t of el"ctrical and "lectronic equipmert going to l""dfill,. II ",-",b to dchi"", this by nMki"g prn.:lu""", r""'po,~,ible for financing the coll""tio", Iredl",,,"t, and r""OI~I)' of wdste electrical equipmellt a"d by obliging dbtr.bu!o", (,;"n"",) 1<> dnOW con.,u",,,,,, II) return Iheir ",a~l~ equ,pment free of d ... rge. This dril"" "ngin""", to d"",gll electricdl and ~I""tronic equ ipment "ilh the Principles of Gree" Enginee"ng. For "',1mple, Ih""" J"""g,c< wn,iJ"r "nd-of-life ",,,nagem""1 .",d "im for N.,ty. One pl"""'~ of concer,~ An e,ample d"""ly tieJ to Ihe Electricdl and Electronic Equipment dir..,!i,'e i~ tl... ElYs R"",trict;on of Hd7.1rdnu< SU!»I.",C-" (R"HS). RoHS i, fe.:",.,d Oil "the r",lriction of Ihe u,e of C.".t,ill h.uardous sub
Chapler 1 SU_ _ DesiIJl, ~ 3IIIl1llrl
\>.l.1\~ Ih"

r1"':lIls"'''

th" EU marLeI of """ t'll'Clrial ~"d "lectronic "l.UII'",,,,,t "'"tdu""g InO.... tha" as"""" l~,,,l, (Of l"ad, cadnuum. m"rw'Y' Iw...., alent cllmnlium, pol~b",nli""ttoJblrhl!llyl (rBBl, and poJ. llr"nll""t..J dlphenyl ""her (rBDEl fume retard.lnl" By bon",ng t ' - eh"""'Gil, of <.'OI"ICffJ1 In Slgn,fw:.J.nl Ie,,';,. thIS direct"" ;" dn' "'g the Im~1.ot>onof gr eh..m"t and grHn engl """,nns pnnnpl"" In t,,",,-,of d"",S"'''8 alt t"" d mical~.nd rnat....... b that rWUC1' or "11m.....'" the ...... anJ grr>o!f"at",.. ol haun:lol.l' ~"I> ~ ....... and r ...........ung polluuOl1.-

Elilopeall COi'I'1it:sluil Emilul,.ibI ntiatiYes '"'''V.I

...,~ ......

..........

...,.."......~

..-~

1.5 2 VOlUNTARY PR<'IltW'r poIH:\ \tr.t"!t" fot.....cour.s'ngg...........g,........."g deslg" L'

.nI'''''''' ....

Ihrough \01",,1• .,. P"'Y.ms. \'olunlan pn'>gram.' nd.bi'd bv ta", or ..... f,ln.:""bIe. but a .... m.... nt '" """",.ag.' .nd moIl"'lIi" d .... r.bIe b.h.l, "'.... The gm"mmenl, ,,'du,t ..... or .h"d·poony nong'" emlTWnt.1 ".gan'7.. bonscansp~.I""",,progr.m. \\1"1,, th...... • t>! man, d,fferenl ... net_ of ...>lun1.o1') prngranL'_ t I~I"'" that h.I, e ~ e-.l.ibilshai .. 'Ih ,ucee-, a,... "co-l.lbel"'g and pref....""t...l pureh.l,mg. En, '''","",''l.il '1.ondon!, .II"'" "" an "", ...",,,,,,,,tdl a,-.m"'11 of a pnld",!"_ im!,."1 on I""tor; sullu"""... ,Idlof" h.lbi tal, _rgy, nalural..",.lOJ~ mon" d"PIet,,~n and gl,",11 "'.Inning, a,ld tn~ic C,"'t.lmll...II"".Compan,es th.., ,_"'" ,ro""",nl,,1 ,t.lnd..rds for th"" ",.....ifk pnxloci or 0;"" ice c.. n .. pply an Ko:>-labo.l. Eco-I..bek ,lIl""'pt ILl pro",d",," i"dic..lor to COILSUme,.-.; "f th" pr.-.Jud's "n,'1",-"",,,,",.11 perfnrmanc" l",g.. '""'-"'ydo:d pad"'gi,,S~ (>r '"nn to~ic emi"l"",·). Iml~I"'"J"l\t third p"'I1"" sudl ,1' (;r""n s.... I. Vnll&:! St,ll"" (;r""n BuiIJing.' Couneil, and E,,~rg)-'Slar. 1'''\\ iJ" n"nb~,-ed '~rifl,.It"," of "n\'ir"nm~nt..llabeb. and c-ertification' ,'nJ are th" m...t r"liabl~ Ilrlgi'ldWr< oi eco-llbel~. r"'l·p.lrly eco-Iabels .. r" self--a .. ard&:!. and ..... a,... Mt indepenoJenth '''rifled In th" Unll&:! SLlIiS, til""" .... ,rt' ollabek a,... sm "riled ~ lhe f'Oi'eJeral Trade COIllln;';';;On', (ITO gUIJef'lr the ,,,,,, of en,"rot>mental marl~ing
......,.

To further ....1'f"lI1t""'" progra....., man, org.l"'ZdllOft!O ..re 'mple-onrtlI,ng ~n' il'Oflm..nlally ptO'f.. ubl.. 0< p.... f...... nti.l pun::hasingpob.,..... n- pol"'.....can beimplenwntr..l~.n, ''.&In,1..1~('''''" ~'our rol~.... nd un,,_" 'I and mandotr .. prrf~ ". pure""-"", prod_ _ fn>m oificllo "",."..... In rnmpuler,; la) ",d""nal <............... ,th Illlprrn." .... , ImOlnwnu.1 ..nd human health pr<'lfile &. ~'ng pun:~ '" thIS ~ 1"". orgaru.zat~ ..,... e...... llng a demand ,n the m;>.rl.!tpLKi' " products and .-.en ioc~ '" ,th MJlK1!\lIlll~on hu....n heahh and lhe ' ,ron......... ''''Y p""'rrfull'..... lodn' "",rom alJO
EnergyStar "".... .- ....... b'~:..or4'"

Green Seal "''-V.JI....... .IJ ... UM~ 1"9

GreoolluildinliS " "....J ...........

"'31';

4

s....ngsR

hedfn,m Environ lly Preferential Purd... sing Protrom•

~.~

nd..,u.-Im",'

... """ d ...Ib.. ~ "'I"""""",, ~

a""

.1,,,,,-..1 or-. by P'""""''''l':

Je,..w..~

Impr
L:::::::::::::

-.J

'epor'

A, "flled i" t1", liPA 0" ~m It,,,,,,,,,,,t.ll pref~re"tia I purd~<; i"g, m.lIlY com!"n;.,; adopted ~n";,onllle,,lal pur~h",mg policies for Iradi,;;,,,,,l busin..., '&ISOlL~ as Ii,ted it} Tabloo 1.7. Although 'h""" rea'iO'" re;ull in 'nliI/\gibl~ b..",rils, ,he,e are s~""ifk ~",mples of me",u,abl~ reducN cosb as'iOci.ued wid' ~n" ,,,,,,,,..ually pr"'e,.•bloo "n-.ducts. TI",,", include a lower purch.,,~ pri"" (e!\-. ,..nanufac'ured pmJud'l, reduce.! ol"',ationa 1a)<,/s (~.g., ~I\ergy elf.,i..,cy), ,rouced d i>!-~""I Cls (e.!\-, "'..... d urabloo products), a nd ,educt<.! h.vMdous rl\iI/\ag.."em Cls (eg., l",s tooic products). In addllio'~ purch",;"g e",ir...",,,,,'ulh p",ft,rabJ~ pn,dud., may reduce an orga"iza,ion's pllten,ial fUlIJ'" hab, ~ty, iml""0"e 'he worl ..n""",""",u,and mi"i"uz.. r"ls le",.

Enyironmental Pur
,,.;10,,,,,",, w1>:> h."" •••,ted

""""-'S' j n .,""'·Im""",n'. Dv triend Iy" product.and pTad;"'"

D,,ol"'lIu,,hing a Cr\lTf"m' ond ,',

'0 ",...

f'Toouc" fmm oompel"'" A n-idO\g hidd"n
rO"l"",;ng<

1.6

I ncn"-,, ng 0pcr"', ng dfirie",l'

Designing Tomorrow

By mnsid"ring tl", lundam~nlal """"!-"s of sus.,in.bihty, e"gin""", CiI/\ contribute '0 .dd",,,,;ng 'l'" chaU""ges t'aditionally a",,,,iated w,d, """,,,,,nk g'''''-'h .. nd de,."lop"''''''' Th .. new a",..,.e,,,,,,, pr,.."ides 11", pOl""tial to design. belt ... lOO1'"roW--«''' in " hidl our produc!>, pr",.".,,,,, and 'y"""'" a ",ore ''-'-''d1".lble indudi"g bemg inl"" .. ,t1y benign humall health .. nd en, imnment, minimizing m."",ial and e",,'llY U'"', and c""sideri n8 'f>.> "nt"e lif.. cycle.

Joimng an ,oo"""yor i"","",oo...,1 m"ht ITL'fld

'e

'0

U",

Key Tenns • biomi",;",y

• fu,r::tinllal unil

• policies

• Brund'l,'nd Conn"issio",

• g,,,,,n ch",,,i",y

• Principles of

• carrying

• g,,,,,n engi"""m'g

• 'egulali<>ns

• indicat",

• regulatory pr<>CeSs

•

• ,es, He"""

c"l"~tty

• CalSO'\ R.. dlel • causal I""p diagr.""

((10)

• Co.J e of Fed",a1 Regulalio"" (erR)

• d"'ign • eco-l.1be1 • effid",,") fac,or

(1: factor)

• en"i,..."n,,"ally pr",erabloo or preferential purchaslllg

• En,-in,n",..,tal Prolecl,,'" Agency (EPA)

•

e.,~,>.1"d

(ErR)

p'OOLO:1 r"'l"",sibili,y

]jf"

Cyc 100

G,...,,, ling",,,,rmg

• lif.. cycloo .",
• 'usldiMb"" de"e1op"",,,t

• life C},,100 stage.

• ,u,.,i""bll> e"g,,,,,,,ring

• Iif" Cy" 100 'hi "I" ng

• su,tain.• bility

• Til'

•

L~"ds

• ma'erials

10 G"",'liI

f1"',

a,ulysis (MFA)

• Mi!lI>nnium De,'elopn",m Goal' (MDC.s)

• "''''Point <;ource "",".io", • Pad' F"",.nJ • piDM'; of "Nauldbllit}-

Chapter 1 SUslaillable DesiIJ>. ~ 3IIll1llrl
,u'ldlll.b~ity

indi""'or

• sy"e"", 'hinking • Tragedy of'l'"

COO",,,,,,,,

• ,npl" bottom lin" • urban melaool;"m • vol",".ry p'<>grams

chapter/One Problems officidl on"-pag~ offic.. m~mo 10 your I,~,tructor thaI provld .... ddinil;otl~ lor. (d) su,talnabl~ d~\'~lopment (bv Ihe BrumLand Commi"ion), (b) su_tal""bilily (according I,~ the Am~ricall ACdde",y of E"v"')lu,,~nt.,1 Engi"""'" (AAEE) Body of Kno,,-Iedge), (e) ,u,t~",ability (acrording to Ihe American Soc''''y of Chil E"gln""", (ASCE) Br..:Iy 01 KI1owledge). a"d (d) sllqa"",ble d~"elopmenl (according 10 Ih~ "~I;otldl Society of Pmf"""ional Engl""""", {[\SPE} Code of Elhi",).

1.1

Writ~ ~n

1.2 Write your 0"" deri"il;"" of su,t."""bl~ de,-~l opm~nl "-~ II ~pplie, to your e"g",....".I"g prof""";o,,. Expi.lil1 ,l~ appropri"lenes.~a"d applk~bilily in 1"0 10 thr"" sel\t~nc"",.

1.3 Id~nlily Ihr"" defi"il,o,,,, 01 ,u,,,,lnabillly from Ihr"" .",un:es(e.g"locaL sl~le, or leder~1 g,w~rnm~nt; indunI7.11i",,). Co"'pMe "nd ro,,'r~q th,,,,,, d"fi",ri,~lS w"h th~ BrundlLand Comm,,,,,,,n der",il,on. H,'ll<.' do the definit",,,s rellect Iheir ""-In:es? "T ragedy of Ih~ Conu'\O'.... 10 a l'lCll em iro"men",l Issue. Be sl-_Ific dboUI "-l,,,t you ""'~" in lerms of Ihe "mmm",,~" lor thl< p.>Mkui.lr e..,mple, 1.4

Rel~l~ the

tI,,,,,,,,

and carelully explain hOI> '"Mmnull'-''" are b;"nil damaged for cu""",,t and luture gen""~Ii<"".

1.5 R"",~an:h Ihe prog re;, thai twocou,,'riesof your choice (or your i"struclor's choice) h~,e made In mMI"g each of Ihe eight MOCs. Su m"",ri7£ Ih~ r""ulls in a t.lble. Among Olher ",urc""" you mighl cO'l,ull th~ U:-\', MOC web sit~, "ww.u".orgl mill",u"umgo~L~/.

1.6 C.o 10 u,~ U S.

DepaMm~nl of En~rgv's

,,-eb S11~ (WWl> ,doe.gm·) ~nd """arch energy ro,,,u mplion ,n Ihe household, ronunerc;al, ind u,'rlal, and transportation "",tilTS. o",'elop a ~,ble on how I1l1s specific ~nergv cru,-~u"'pllo" relate, til Ihe pen:enlof U.s. ~nd global CO! emlssl"ns. Identify ~ suslai,,~b1e ""lution for each sedor Ihal wllUld reJ uce ""e,g}' useand CO, e",,,,,iOl\.~.

1.7 A, ~ cru"umer I",eresle..:! in reducing your Cdrbon eme""",",s, (a) whkh
Ih.tl a Ifl() W light bulb Ih~1 i.~ run J h a day e,''''Y d~y will u"" ~rou"d !Ofl kWh ~ yedr. A I"gh-dficiency lighl u'"" ab'l\JI25 pen:e,,' of ~ ron,'emiOOldl lighl bulb, RepLtdng it w,th a 25 W romp.>dnuor~llbulbwouldsa,e75 kWha year. TIli, ,,-ould "'lu.,l 150 11> o. "",lx,n d,o,ide or the ",me amount 01 carbon dioxide emissions "s",ci~led wnh burn,ng 7.5 ganoll< 01 ga.<;<>hne. (b) Gi,'en Ih~1 Ihe a,er~ge U.S. hOll""hold u",," lfl,Oflfl kWh ~ year of "hich RR percenl Is hghling. h,,,, n~,ny ganll''-~ 01 g'" dud poonds of CO! cool! be S~I eJ by 'I>itching all of t he bun~ i" d home? (cl For compari .... '\ il yoo d,..",e 12,ll(Xl mil,., ~ ye." ~nd upgr~deJ from a car t1 .. t g"" the n.,h,,,a 1 d ,er"8e of 2fl mil", I"'r g;sions on an ~nnu~llM,i,? (d) Whal II yllU upgr.,ded t" d car Ih., I gel~ 3fl-3'7 "'1'8? (Co",busl.", oIl m g
1.8 Visil EPA', Pre.ldenrial Gr..,n Ch..n;stry Challenge A Wdrd ,,-eb "I~ al ""~, '''Pd.!;OV 1gret"lldl",niSIl)/l'u;"'/pgcc/p~>t.hu"l. Select a pa,t aw~nl ",i"",ng project. B.l-al on the descripllon of Ihi, pn'jed, wh.u a", the e",'irm"",,~a1,""',,"""uc, and ,,,,ial b..,efil-i of tlus g",en cl",,,u"ry ~d,- a"",! 1.9 Discus.< whether ,hoe A (lealher) or ,hoe B (symh"'ic) i, bet",r for tl", ""viron"'''nl lMsed on Ihe dat~ giv.., In Table I B. Is it p","b1e III "'''ghl ,"'" a"f"'Cl (air, ",~",r, land pollution, or so~d I>ather? Ho",? Why? Wb., mal<.... Ihe", dec";Il"s Ill.. our ,,>.:;ely? 1.10 ToCOInl-" '" pla"j,ic a nd paper bags in terms of acqui":llon 01 r~w m.'t~r1.,ls, manufactur.'g ~nd pmce";Olg. u",,~nd dj"!-...,,,,~ "e ,,~I u", d~ta pnl"ldeJ by Franklin A,,,,,,;al,,.;, ~ ''''I,onally known cOl,suking firm I>h"", c~enlS ,ndl>.le II", US. EPA a, ",ell ~s ,n."'y companies ~nd ",du,try g'oups. In 1990, Fra,lk~n A"">.:iate, e<'''I''",d plao.tic bags to !-"'I"'r bags m term, of lI... ir ene'gy ~nd ~i'l wah". emi",io,,,, ;n manul.lOlU"', u"', and dL,!-~)';,~L Te", mo 1""h... lheper b.1g,

H)1>othe~cal

~

SmeA (Ie.ther)

Sh"eB (wnthffid

LifeCyde Envitonmerlallmpoch of Shoes ona Basil afper 1OOPairs of Shoes Produced

-

,-.,

RawMatOOol

_ _m

Usel8TlJl

limIted '''pply; ,ome """-",·...ble

,

l...:>.rge '''pply; no'renew.ble

I_,

Wa.... U...

"" 1'01I.<100

,

,

w_ _ m

liazaroous""d Solid w_

2 Ib 0
2 lb h",..n do", ,lOJdse

chemic.l,

,

1I1b men

''''''S"mlC

chemic.l,

..,.

ResulK of Study Comporing Pk>s~< and Pope.

-1._ -'"'"""'"

AirE",i_os

\1.> '<.'noll, m.u",f""t"",.

OJ)'Hb

0.01-16

\If6

""",." mou",f""t",". pmducl usc

Raw m,t","",I, ""'1""loon,

O.o'HO

0.('0-15

72-1

produc'di,!"",,.l

doe< Ihe choke ch''''Se? k) Comp.lre II'" energy reqUl",d 10 p,o.iuceeam b.'!>. Which bag Mk ... 1_ energy 10produ",,?

1.11 Y00 .'" p"'p-' ring • life cyde • m I]'o;i, 01 Ihree difle"'''' eledrif",a,io" 0Ft;;,rt; I,.. pO'...... U1g yoor 1,2fXl fi' home III rural C"''''ecticut. TI'e ""tio,,-' yoo a", cO'Ndering include: (l) jusl using yoor It..,al gnd, (2) putb',!> a ".,lar i,.. t1lah,n on yoo, rml, or (3) build ing a Ir.""t"''''io" ext"'''on l<~ ioi n up" It h ]'00' neighbor', a Iready-buill "ind turbme. Wrilt! • p""ible goal, ,c"l-"', f"nclim, and fu nclio"a! und for thi, LCA. E'plain yoor r",,,,ning. 1.12 C"n,id er U.., Iu111 ife ~ycle of each of Ihe Ihr"" electriflCatio" option' (ro",illv b"'r'ond "hate""r \''''' h.oe selected fcope of yoo, LCA) lI1 P,rblem 1.11. o.,cu,.; "hich of lhe life cycle
I lb h.iZ'ro",,. ,lOJdge: 3 lb noM'7.mi"", 'llJdge

i, mo,1 imp'K1ful flr each eledrificalion Iype. Yoo w ~l ""'d to l.lk" intoact:oul~ tl.., life cycle io'pact< 01 primary Ihrough fi,,,,1 elle,Sy i" Nch A, a r..n inde', Iii" cy<:1e 'l.1g", tn~""lly i '1CIud~ r... oo n:e exI,aditfl, n,,"ul.\Clure,lr"'''f''lr~ltitf''U""', alld end III I if'"

c."".

1.13 D,.w CLD for c","n-based elh"nol pn-.dudion us,ng tl.., folln"ing variable;: cUm.lte cl""'8e, cornbased ethanol use, fertlHze' demand, CO, etnis.~on" 1,.,,1 d ..n""d, fllS.. l fuel use, .nd c.... n d ..nand. 1.14 (a) b centraUzed drmklllg ,...t .... tre.I"""'! and di
1.16 Pn,,·ide an """,nple of a p,o.i ucl .. ~"" comm ....da! Iy • \'.,il.lbl~ or cu,rently u lid .... deH!op"",m thai u."", biominncry ., the b."l~ for lIS d~ign. Expl.,n how Ihe d~ign i, mimicking ., p,,-.duCl, pmce"" '" 'y'b>m I""rod in nalure. 1.11 Two , ...Clant<. b~l\zyl alcohol. a,1d I'''yl cl~o· ride, r",a in Ihe p'_''''e 01 an .""ili"y, I';"-'Ihy!.m",e, and Ihe ".,1\·",11 tniuene tn produce t1'" produ,"! ,uUonate esl .... (Table 1.10). (a) Cllculate II'" E fach" flr the 'ffidio'l (b) What ,wuld happen 10 Ih~ E lach" if II", ,olvent,. 'Id .u.xllial)' cl",,,,k,," w""" il\ch1Jed in Ihe G1lrulalnn? k) Shoo]d Ih""" types of maler"ls ,nd chemicals be lncludal in all "'fidffi"l' mffiSU "'? Why, or "hy "",?

1.10 Usefullnfl>nnarion NeededtoSolve Problem 1.17 ReacLm!

Ilcn>.ylalcohol

HUll g

0.10 mole

MVI' ]()!U g1molo

RoacL,n!

T""yl chklfldo

2L9g

fU15 moJo

MIV 190.1>5 g/molo

So!>"",,!

Tnl"""o

"uxil~lry

Tridh1.lmin"

"'"

~oc,

SoJlm".,!o ",teT

23.6g

'"

!>II'.' 101 g/molo

0119 moJo

1.18 Cl"""", three of the Pn nd?"" "f Gr ... n Eng;neen"g. For &l<:h one. (a) explain Ihe pr",ciple in your "w" " ..... d<; (b) find a" eXilmpio> (rommerd.llly a ,a ~able or urwJ.". de,-""I''''''''O. a,1d expl.l in h,,,, 'I d"",onslrale' Ih" pri'lCiple; and (e) d",cribe Ih" aSf,'.... dHtrl e,wiroo",,,,ntal, ""'''~)l"i", a,kJ ,ocietal ben.... fit" idenrifying which on", are t,ulgVle and which 'liteS are imangibl". 1.19 (a) De-dOl' fi "e .""tainabilily melrics or iOOicat ...... for a c..... ~,orario" or an i,kJ ustria Isector a,,,,logoo.lo lhose p"'''',ued for com muniri", ill Table 1.4. (b) Cnl1~re Il",m "it h lradirin,a1 blhh,,,,s lIIelri", or iookal ....... (e) o.scribe" hat new information can be delennined from the new ,u,ta,n"bilit\' meld,,-s or i"dical,''''. 1.20 A car mmpany I"" dev"loped a new car, eroCar. Ihal gelS 100 mpg. but th" ""I " ,lightly higl",r tron car, cur",ntly 0" the m.lrkel IVI",t IYP" of incenlil "" could the manufa~"1urer off"r or ask

MWW29g/molo,

Cmg"". 10 impl .."""" 10 ""courage cuslomers 10 buy tl", n"w ""'''.ar?

Do you agree or di""gr"" wIlh the lollowing 'tal"'''''~? Expl.lin why, or why nrt. in thr"" 10 fi, e ,,,,~e,,,,,,,. "Te,-"hn
1.22 You are about 10 bu\' a car th.,t "ill lasl 7 yea", befor" you h.ave 10 buy a n"w on". and Co,,gre,.; h ... i~ I p ....,.,d a new l.'x on gre.., ho~" ga.s.". A,,;ullle a 5 pen: .." ~nl\ual im"''''1 ute. y"u ha", two option" (a) Purdl.'se a useJ car for S12,llOJ, upgrade ll", catalytic con, ",tl>r al a C(l,1 of $1 ,nOO, and pay a S500 annual carbon 1"-'. This car ha, ~ ,ahage value '>l S2,{lOO. (b) Purcha,e a """ car for $1(,,500 and pay only SIOO annuall)' in caroon lax. This car has a ",,11.·"8e ,alue of $4,500. B._d 0" the am'ualized c.-.,t of Ihes" 1\\0 oplio"., which car would y"'" buv?

References ,\""",,-,_ r _T__ 20IL rnoo.""..... lc...nf;L... ," [rN"L.... ~"'h

\h"d.;,-, J- R.. l C Cn'.. ..J..... M.I- s....U. D R. ""'.".,,<1 D. R. II,"-'n...... Q. Zho"" 11. Cln..... S. A s..oby_ V L. J.o""--" J W Su,h.~woo,.oo r. LSd"" •• 101'. s".,..,,,,,boh'pc........· ,00 ""II'n...-nnK' Uno,'),...... ", •• """,",' ""-...1 ....,pl",,· [",';n_",.1 5.;""',./oJ Tnhool.\",. 3;(1.1), >JI-l---'i1:'~

A""-",,,. r.T... oo J. 8.

1'......, R. 1'lblJ - A"""'K Iv.ld W........ - N",-' 1." Z"I.""",I S••.i"'"

,,,,n,'I""" n.., r•• h r,~", ..... _[-""'n..""",,,1 s.;.",,_ T"In.~~..., '&1-""" A""-",,,. r .T., .ol) C w.""~. 1'1'11'. G,,,.. Ch""~''Y~.,"J P"",..,. O,'"nl o.r,>nI Un",,,,,,,, rn..... 7.mn~"""""

=1 O' ,h"" ,,,,d,,, r.""'pb,~ ~"' ... '""l\",.-"nng. [.,.;,T,,""~~. J:l "'A_lOlA

1I",",~h

,r

lI.... y·u"

J \1.

tho

"', s.""",,,,,"

=. P=","",l

B..m""" "" 1"'"'-"'0« 1"'1',,>1 lh,,~'

'i.,.rt~, P,>'1_lnldl
"'''-

Y,~~.1 w'f"'~

p",,,,,,""'"" P......"', 11,..· e- JU"""'\'" I""
[n,.,mnn~,,'a1rn ••~.. ~", Ah~'nc.

P";,h..,..1P'D !»wn.,. R..'1"'" r>:".

(rPM 1_.

rPA,~l_R_""'"

Fi.",U :!ffiJ. o.,.,'i<'u,,/; "-.... 10""', 'u.... ,""bI<,J'.." ..." L:n. ",","",'.1 So ....,,""" T" Iro.'",,,,. J7· ,1..111_'il."l

11.". ~1. =. S.""i,..", ~~~",n, ~'.-b ""', "'W~ ..,,,.. ,n.>h•.-n...... u"-....uom

\1.,,--., D.li- O. L ~kaJ.",·" J R,n"'oo W W Bd "" III , 1972. n.. ,.".-" I•• G..,,ri,. t...,d, P""lh 1,1.>n<1

l.,m,I.-.J,

Chapler 1 SU_ _

.\',,,,.k'''. (r-:. " .•..rn..~,

lOOI'I. B.,_.M",loW1", fo,>d "L"'U' "'d.

\I.oy J.

SI"_'id.,,, RA!fJ/J7 Tho, [loK• .-- Fil\o.,," y".... "n. G,..... CO"";",", 'Ie 1!73--1lKl Un~"'''''1y I... ..J,'<'L r",. ~ ........ H,'

Futun' IUISn!OOI\

5""';,_1i'" Joo."""",,, Qtu-J.",",,,',,. L'ISF ~.-b ",~,_ ".~..- .uhf

"'1':1 f'" ,,;,.m.._'"'I,~'ml. W.".-n-Rl.>d.... K...oo k K,... ix. lOO .. F.....W"'K '"",d,.n .h. u.I-.tn m.... boli"" "n 1."'1 K,,~ 1971_19'J7.AMntO.. '\ ".m"".~

,""lIu_ [",-.._I. .n

~!'I-I3~

chapter/Two Environmental Measurements Jame, R. Mihekic, Richard E. HOJYotdr, NoeIR. Urban,

Julie Beth Zimmerman In In,. en",ler, roooors bocom" fomiliar wil" the dill"refll unil. used I" measure pollu/onllevels in aqu<>au. {waerj, soil/sedment, almo
Chapter Contents 2.1

Mass Concentration Urlils

2.2

VolumeNolume and Mole/Mole Un~s Un~s

2.3

Partial·Pressure

2.4

MoleNoIume Units

2.5

Other Types of Units

Learning Objectives 1.

C..akuLll~ chemical

wn
,'ulumet""lume, m"l,,/ mule, mule/ mlum", and ..... ,ui,·.I"ntl ,'"Ium" unil>. 2. C,m,-ert ch"mical cunom".t",,, tmm mas> peT ,-"Ium" ur nn" per rn..." "nib 10 " £",cb per rnlllio" or pdrn per biIli
4. Calculale ~hernical "oncenlr"ti,m in mmmun "'",-,Iituenl unib ouch a, ,,"dter hardn""., carlxm eq"i""lenl', and r-.uNm di",ide "'l"i,-alents. S. Cum'''f! mncentral'm, 01 ind"'idual chemical 'peei", lor nitrogen and pho"phoru' 'pe";"'; ~,romrnonron,til"enl uni!> for Ih.." " nulrienl'. 6. U"" the ideal ,,""' law ~, mn,ert bo,m een uni!> ul ppm, .nd J-lg/m'. 7. LJesccil>e hi,t"ric and cur",nt alml"pheric concenrrati,,,,-, nl the ma~lT 11"""'1-.<",,,,, lI"-'-"'" ""min dil'\i.le, methane, and ",t",u, uxic!e

""'ri'''''

"f the ma~" g:reenho"-'-'" II"~ 8. Lk--cribe lhe prim.uy ""bom .lin'ide, melhane, and nil",,-,-, "'idr------th.'1 a", a-,,'o
,.

•l

• !

J•

,

w. n.

'" n.

Under>ldnd r'-'ll"Lllil1n, and "'porting ""lui",menl, a""'o'" emi"i,m, in cam", di""de "'Iu i"alent" U"" eCRlD I" cakuldtdhe g:reem."-,-,,, 1>'" ~'iu,,-, .........'ei.lled ..n th ele':lriClty b~.IK'" and In.,Cdrlx", f'.,(f'lint "I differenl inf,...,lruClu,-.,,; that "",I<., up ..... ilt en,-in'" f'Il. C"kul.lle JX,rtid" mncenlrdtim' in.,r .md walc'c I{ep""",nl ,pt"Cir;" ""em'<'id ""ncenlc.!I<'n in effe<'Kuch ..., uw!>"n Jl':pli':til1n t" e>.~UJl <»."',,..... Jem.,nd.md ~hernir-.. o\yg""Jerna

2.1

Mass Concentration Units

Ch"mical conc"nlfdtion i, on" of Ih" "'''''I impCIrMnl del"rmi'M"b in alm""l all a,pec!' of ch""'ical fate, Iran,p..'rt, a"d lreatment in both "alufdl and "ngin""red 'y'l"m,. n,i, L, becau"" concenlralion L~ the d",-,ng forc" IIMI conlrol, Ihe ",,,,-,,m""1 of chemical, "-ilhi,, .,nd between "",-,mnme"'al n\edia, a, ",,,11 as lhe rat" of many chemical reaclio,~~. 1" addition, concenlration oft"n del"rmines the ""'erily "f ad,'e"'" "ff""-"lS, ,uch as 10xictl.V, bioco"c"nlrdlion, and climat" clMnge. Conc"'1lrali",~~ of chemicdb are mulmely "xpres.<;e
""n" '"

2.1 1 MA5S!MA5SUNITS ClearWater Act Analytical MethClds ~~'1'11""".< pa~I~::r""""" """,,I .,."...hcd~

Air Pollution Monitoring Techniques

M •• "'m~s. "onc"nlrali"". are commonly expr"",<;&!

a~

paMs p"r ""Ilion, parl~ I"'r billion, parts p"r Irillion, and ..oon. For "xampl", I mg of d ,..-,Iut" pl,ced i" 1 kg of ",h-""I "'lu.,l, 1 PP"'OO' I'HIs per million by ma ..~ (r"ferred 10 ol.. ppm or ppm'K) i. d"fined a~ Ih" number of units of ma,,< of ch"mic..l!",r ""l1ion unil' of loul rna,.. n,US, "" can "'p"""" the pr"",ou, exdmpl" nl.'llh"nMI,cally;

I

1>'.'"1'11""" ~ pa~1t "'"a'l"tiol

ppm..

(2.ll

g of J in](l' g 10Id.1

Cortn\on Units of Con
--~

Chapter 2 EnvirMmenlal Measm!IIlI!'II\s

M••• chl.ll ,,~""

"'""""

T)'picaIUnns

mg/kg on ",il

mg/l& pl""m

M"".
mgtl in w.l.,,- ,,, ...

mglL ,,"81m'

\'"lu me
volufU' f,,,,,lom in .. iT

ppm.

Mob chm-.irnl/l
""'leo/l io w."'r

M

n,l~ defi''''ion I> equi,

alent ,() the fol!()wlng gener,'1 formuld, whid' is 1.1"'-'<1'0 ~alcula,e ppm", conc",,"ra,Ion fmm mea~ure",enlS()f chemical Illa,~ in a sample ()f to,al ma~~ "," ..,; !II, ,.. --no

(2.21

!II.....

NOIethat tl'" f""lor I if in Equat"'n 2.2 "r",11 y a coove",,,,n filCh". It has the implicit UI~ts of pF'''nJ",a,s fr""tlon (ma", fr""tim In, . . In"",,), as gi "en in Equation 2.3; ppnl",

~ x

IPI""",

111'

ppmm ma" iraclion

(2.3)

In Equation 2.3, ,,,, . . "'...., is defined a, 'he Ill,'" iraction, and 'he cm",e,.;ion factor of 111' is ~ll" ilar ,n lhe en", e",i,., lactor oillY u
fl.25 x 100

25,1

(VI)

5",,,1... defil",ion.~are used fm the unilS ppb,,,, PI",," and percent by ma,.. n',ll i', 1 ppb,. equaL~ 1 part per bill ion or I g of a chemical per billi()n (fO~) g 'otal, "" that the number of I'pb o ' in a ",mple is equal "'.1m","" x 10°. And 11'1'1.. usuaU)" mea,,, 1 part per Irillion (10"). Howe"er, be cau,ious abou, mterpretUlg ppt I alues, bee.u,," they may refer to e'lher part~ per thousand ()l" pari, per trIllion. M ... ~/ma% wflCemralions can al'" be re~'Ortl>d wi'h 'he un~s e'plicitly shl'"'' (e.g. mg/l.g m "g/kg). In ,o~, and ,edu"ents, t PI''''"' equa1~ 1 mg ()I p<>Ilutam per kg 01 ,010.1 (mg/kgl, and t ppb", "'l.ual, I 1'-8. kg. I'en:enl by ma"" is an,'logou,l)" "'l.ualto 'he number of gra "" of pollut"", per 100 g \"'al.

'0

example/2.1

I

1\nlhooy~""""sliSoo<'p/>oI<>

Concentratial il SOil

A 1 kg sample of "'ilis all,dyzed for ,he chemical ",!I'ent 'rkhloroethyle,... (TCEl. n,e a"alysi, indica'e> 'hat 'he ... mplecol"ai,,,,S.O mg ()fTCE. Wha,l~ lhe TeE concentration i" ppm", and ppb",!

solution TCE'

5.0 mil TCE

fl,OOS g TCE

LOkg .nil

Hl' g "",I

5 x 10..... g TCE "" g
Swu,,"

5.000ppb.,

Note that i" ""il and .
2.1 Mass Concentration LkIiIs

2 1.2 MASSjVOLUME UNITS mg/L AND ll9/m3 In Ih~ ~Ill\flSph~r~, il i, a"n",on tn use ro",,~nlrali()n ulHl~ n( 'H"-';<, per I ()lum~ 01 dlt, ,uch a, mglm' and ",g/m '. In "'dl~r, mas~h'olume ronc~ntration unilS of "'gIL and ",gIL ar~ willmon. I" mflSt aqu""us syst~rns, pplll", i" equivdl~ntto mglL TI,l~ i, becall"" Ih~ d~n"ily of pllr~ ,,·al~r is appn"'lllat~lv l,lnl gIL (d~lllonstratedin Exalllpl~1.11. Th~ d""51Iy of pllr~ ,,·al~r is actually I ,000g/ L al 5 C. Al 10 C, Ih~ d~I"ity has d""reased "light!y 1099ll.1 g, L This equal,t) is slriclly Iru~ only for ,til"l~ ",llllim~~, in ,,·hicl, dny dc'solved "'''t"..al d,-".,. nOl contribute signific"ntly 10 Ih~ ma,,-, of lhe ". aler, .",<1 Ih~ lotal de'~'ily reman" approx"nat"ly 1.000g L M.-.. t "'''.''e",at...s, rooallned "·.11""', ar>d "alurdl "·at",,, can be ronsid~red dilute, "'
exam pI e I 2.2

Concentralilll in Water

One liler of "dler b analyzed dnd found 10 contain 5.0 mg of TCE. \'Il,at " Ihe TCE rm",enlr"tion in mg/Land ppm",!

solution 5.0m8 TeE 1.0LH, O To convert 10 ppm." a nla,;.,s/ma"" unll, il ls n""""s.lry 10 ro,wertthe volu m" 01 "aler 10 mass o! waler. To do Ihis, di,·id~ by Ih" densily of ,,·aler, ",hich is approximal~l) 1.000g L 5.0"'8 TeE" 1.0LH,0 l.OLH10 l,OOOgH,O 5.0 mg TeE 1.000 g tOlal 5.0ppm..

5.0" 10'· g TeE 10" ppm", g lolal ,., mASS fraction

In m""t dilllt~ aqu"-'O\Js sy"t~n". mglL i.s equlI'al~nl 10 ppm .,' In Ihl' ~xampl~. the TCE ro",:enlrdlion is ,,~ll abo,.e Ih~ dl1owabl~ U.S. drinking waler qdnd.ud (or TeE., 5 ",g. L (or 5 ppb). whkh was"'" In prme<:1 human h~alth. n,'e ppb is a small l alue. TI,ink of itth" ",ay' Earth', population ~xc~s I> bill~lll peopl~, meaning Ihal)O individuals III nn~ of your das.""" ro,~qilut~ a human concenlration of app"",jmat~ly5 ppb!

2.2

VolumeIVolume and MolelMole Units

or mol" fradint' are Irequ~nt!y u.sed lor gas cnnc~nlralions.Tho> n""I rommon ,'olum~ fraction un,l> "''' parts p"r million by volum" (",f"rred I() as ppm,,, ppm,.), defined ,,~,

Uni", of

,nlu",~ !raCllon

ppm,

Chapler2

En¥irmmenIalM~

(2.5)

example/2.3

ConcertrationlnAlr

1V1"'1 is 'he carbon monwdde{CO)eo"cenlra,ion exp~>ed in Ilg!m 'of a Hll gas mixlu", Ihat mnIa1,~< 1O-~nlOleoICO?

solution In 'hl. c."', ,he mea
co

LOxlO~moleCO

28gCO 10 ltotal " mol" CO 2fl " 10-· II CO HI" lig 10' l <---<= IOL lolal g n\

2,800 lig

m'

where Vii V""" L< 'he ,olume fraction and 10" 1, a "om ersioll f.l<:t,>r, "'ith unilS of 10" ppm,_ per ,01ume fraction. Othe, common un1t, lor gaseous pollulan,s are parts pe' billion (10") by volume (ppb,), Table 2.2 pro,-ides examples of the "hange in 'he alnn"pheric mncenlratiR\ of 'h"'" mapr greenhouse ga"..s (GHGs) ,ilICe prelndLLQri.ll'1mes, around the yea, 1750. TI,e ad" anlage 01 "olu me! ,-olume UI1I'S l< 'ha' gaseou, roneent,atlons reported in,hese unils do not d",n&" as a ga, i, cClmp,es«rl "r eXl-"'nded. Atmosphe'ic COllcent,allons e'p,e,S
Change in AtmQlpheric Conce ...r..ion of MoiorGHGo Since Preindustrial Time. 2011

Almo"",oric

POfCGlI GhatljJl iii""" P""fIdunlal T""M

~m

Carbon dim Ide (Co,l

.wI ppm

2!l1l ppm

M"th,,,,e\CH,l

U!13 ppl>

700ppb

,25'1

J2l ppb

,m""

t 12I'Y

2.2 VoUrIoJVolo.m! ond MoIeIMoIe Units

m-

2.2.1

USING THE IDEAL GAS LAW TO COI'NERT ppm., TO Jl9/mJ

The ideal gas l~w can be used 10 com'ert g~seous concenlration, between mas.~/,olun'1e a"d volume/volume unlls. TI,e ideal g.os law slales Ihal I"'''''''''' (PI limes occul,ie,I(VJ equal, I/Ie "",pd~" o("wk, (II) lim".; Ihe go,coII,lalll IRI lim".; Ihe alJsol"I<'I'~"pt.,oll"e(TJ in degrees Kel"in or runkine. Th" is wrillen "' the f~miliar form of

,'Oi,,,,,,'

In Equalioll 2.6, Ihe un i"ersa I gas conslan~ R, maj bt! in many d Iffere"l selS of units. Some ('pf the n",,';1 common Rare, O.O~.xJ3 L-,1tm

"~p,..,,,,;ed ,~lu""

for

mole-K

11.203 x IO"",'-alm mole-K 11205cm'_~ltn

mole-K

1.99 x 10-' leal mole-K 113J.lI mole-K L91'l7 cal mole-I<

62.331lcm'-lorr mole-I< 62.J3Ilcm'-mm Hg mole-K B""au,,", Ihe ga' C"""'anl m,1y be ""1''''''''00 in d iHerem units, alway, be careful ('pf ils unils and cancelth"m oot t.~ "",ure you are u,ing Ihe correct ,alue of R. The ideal ga, 1,1\\ also sial"" thai the volum" OCCUp,ed by a gh'e" number of ItI01e.:ul"" ('pf ,my gas" Ihe same, no mailer ,,·hal Ihe mole.:ular weighl or comp""ition of the gas, a, lo"g a, Ihe pre,,"ure and temperature are constant. The ideal gas law call be rearranged to ,how the v('plum" occupied by " moles of gas

I::"'Tl ~

(2.7)

Al 'Iandard condItions 11' 1 aim andT 273.13 K), I mole of any pure gas will occupy a \ olume of 22.4 L. This r"",,1t can be deriye
e Xanl pie I 2.4

Gas COncentration in Volume Fraction

A gas mixlure colllau" fl.oolmole of sulfur dio~ide (SO,) and 0.999 n\Ole of air. \Vh
solution TIle concentratIon UI ppm, i, detennin.,.)

lL~il\g Equallon

2.5.

T o~oI ,." ~Oll I"n the numbernf moilS "fSO! to,oIume using Ii'o> Ideal gitS iaw (Equa~nn2.6) a nod Ihe lolal nUll,ber of mol~ to "olume. Then d,vid" Ihe Iwo ""pr",,-~iol~~' 0.001 mole

"

so, , p

(0.999..- 0.001) mnie total (1,000) mole t<"l!al x

~

"

"

P

p

Subslitut" Ihe«> volum" lem~< for ppm"

0.001

"

""ieso, "'p

Ht

"

UWlO nUlie lotal x p

PI'''',·

~-:~~IXllt 1.ompf~n.

NOIe al«l Ihallhe mole ralio (mol"" i/mol.,,; IOUl) b «Imet;"'''' referr.,.) 10 as Ihe mole fraclion, X.

alld pressure, the "olume occupl"') by a g"-~ b pmportinnal to Ihe number of mnle>. TI,..... Equat;on 2.5 is equi,'alem to Equation 21l,

ef""',

ppm.

mole.< ;

\2.8'

The ><,Iullon to Example 2.4 muld h"ve been lound ~imply by using Equal;on 2.8 "lid del"rmining Ihe mole ratio. TIlerel",,,, i" ""y gil en problem, you can u", eIther u"ils of voiume '" ulllis 01 mol"" 10 calculale ppm.,. Being a"are of Ihis wiil ,;a,e un"""essary con,ers;ons l>el"een moles and ,'olume. Exampl" 2.5 allJ Equ.•tmll 2.9 shm, how 10 u'" Ih" id"al gas la" 1<'1 con,'ert ml",,"1rati<'lllS between I'-g/ III ' alld ppm,. Exampl" 2.5 demonslrales a u
e x am pI e I

2.5

ClIl'o'ersion 01 Gas CCIlcenirallll between ppb. and Ilglm]

The mncefllralion ()f SO" l~ m&I'iured In air 10 be 100 ppb•. \Vhall~ ,his mn""ntralinn in unll" of I'-g/ n, '1 A,sume Ihe 'empera,ure l< 21! C and p,es;,ure l~ I .llm. Remember Il\al T expres""" in K i'i equal '0 Texp~in Cpl,,-~27J.15.

solution

,n

Tn acwmp\ish nus come",ion, U'ie the ideal g"-~ law co"vert ,he \"n1ume of SO, 10 nlole<; of SO", '''''ulling in u'u';, of mol",,/L Thi, can be c",we'te
Hf' m' air .-.olulion

Now converllhe \olu",e of SO, in ,he nume,alor 10 unil;, of ""'",. TIli, is done in ,wo ,Ieps. First, (on\"erllhe Hllume ,oa numbe, of moles, using a rearranged forma, i>f Ihe ideal ga'i la ,,- (Equa,ion 2.1,), n/V P 'RT. and Ihe g,,'en lemperalure and pre<~u,e: H10m!~ lli'm'ai''iOlu,ion

x.!..

IOOm'so,

talm

,•

,. ". x , t ,rma"""'UlOO 8.205xlO,m-am pOlKj mole--K

RT

4,[6 x

1O-~

mole5O, miai,

In the 'ieCOnd step, co",ert ,he moles of SO, '0 nUl'iS of SO, by u,ing ,he molecular weigh, of 50,,: UJ5x IO-b mole 50, m] air

I>4g5O, 1ffl'-!': , moieSD, ,--g

bet",,,,,n uni", of I'-g/m' and ppm,:

(2.9)

.....here MW is ,he molecular ,,,,,ghl of ,he chemical ,peei"", R equals O.OIl103l-a'm mole--K, T i, ,he t"mperatu,e III K, and l,flOG is a wl"e"i"n factor (l,OOOl m!). Note that for 0 C, RT ha;, a ,'alue of 22.-ll--..tm mole, while at 20 C, RT has a value of 2,1.1 l-alm mole.

Nilr og en Dioxide Ai r Polluli 0n """'L~-'J'Nlai'I'~~"~

Atmospheric NO. AIr Duality Over n~ """'-"pa""",I"'r'~r'''''''l""."'''"1

2.3

Partial-Pressure Units

In the a'nH....phere, co""elllralions of d",m,cab in the gas a"d particulate pha"", ",ay "" dete,mined ""para'elv. A ~ub<,ance will exi~t in the ga, phase if ,ho! a'lll"'pheric ,emperature i, alx","e Ihe suk,ance's boiling (or ;,ubl i",a,io"1 point 0' if ,l~ mncelllralion is belm, ,he satura,ed vapor p"""ure ollhe chemical a, a 'pecified

Chapter 2 Enviroonlenlal Measoo!fOOIIIs

CO,"pcultion of the Atm..ph_

"",,,,,0,,,'__ Iuy>n

e.t>o

'_

IA.,,-__ oJc.cu,. ~,~-

~·H
Mot"""" ICH"

~,,~----

..

.~

..

~

'"

,"

O.roJ18

t.."'"J*'OlI"'. H~JnwnCH"

lelll!"'••ltu.e (vdpor p.~,u." is defined in ("h,lpl". 1), Th" 1I1<1jo. Jrld minor sa~,u., COlI,I,lu"nIS of the .llm'''I'h".e .llllln d""Id" L, the Largt"it human CIlntnbul<.... to GHe;,. In lhe al""''''phere. ~ glob.1l atrnosphenc ~trdtl<1" of carbon .,hoxode h.o~ ,nc...... ;.«d t,,191 ppm. ," 2011 from prt!lndu...""l ..... nluhon I"'''b oI2l'1O rpm,-, Glnbalatmn-phenc CO
",,,,,,,.I-

.. ,th bunung u-I fueti. The t.lI.ol p~ ..""",nal by. ~ "'''lun! m.... be ,,",,,den!llI' .>f tilt' ..."tUtl' .. "tI' ~udd""l, n!""" I'd I'.rtial pt"f'SSUtI' is mnunl r''''~o.n> of { l ' ~"n ,n the atnli'-'p Po, IS O.2I.tm.

,

, , ,

Remember, the ideal g.... law ,I.ues 11Mt, al a given temperalure and "olu""" pr.",ure 1. direct!y p"l,ort,,,,,altolhe number of moles of ga, prewnt; the'efore, p'''''.u,e f,action. are identical to mole fractions (a nd volume fraction.). r~)f this ,ea"""" partial p",-",ure can be calculated as the product of the mole or ,olume Iraction and the toul p""",ure. For e""mple;

, , ",'lume fraction, or mole fraction, " p"o.']

X._OII1Jdo ....... Fl1Iurel Z. 1

C"~mi"J.I Strud~",

l(ppm./;

"f

(2.10)

IO-oXP""",]

Pol)'.-hk>ri""ted Biphenyk (PCB.f PC&; are" f.mJl~· 01 mrnp"......d<

pmdU£<.>d rornm:ro..,.]!v by chJorin.Jhng biph,'mJ, CM"",,, "h"''' ,-an be pL>:ed ,t any or an 01 10 <.ilL", ,,"'h 2m pol stabl.hlv "f PC&; cau..>.:1 ,,,,-,,,, h' M"C a "ide .-.lnge "f U""', mcludi-lt: ",,,,,og.,. moL"", in <> 19i1; Toxic Sub",,,, C""trol Ad ITSCA) ron"ed the m,muf.\ffirc 01 PCII'< and Pel>ron"'mOl& pmducts. TSG\ .L",

.,-"lable ""'8'-""""

"h"""c.ll"'"

-m..... "-'guLlto",-, ",san:ling the ruture use.oo ",Ie 01 PCEk. res. 1>1"'<.....)" ",-ore !,old a, rnhtu"", ""t.>b1",oo.J

mrnmool,· TefefTL'\l to.l.' ","",hie<'<. I'm =>mplo. the ,\,,,,.hJor 12ill mhllJre a>n,,-," of 00 1"-'<""" chlori"" bv ,,-eight. me.ming the tndi,-ldwll'Cllc< In the mi>Iu,e pnrmnJ.f are _",I>;"luloo &-'I rnlcorine< P"'" biphm;i molecule. In mntr.<~ Mochlor 12~2 ron,,-"" of ~2 f""TI'nt chlorine by "'-~ghl; Ihu•. H prim.u;tn~ln"I'" of PC& ,,,lh \....; ...,I>;t,tulro chtc.me< P"'" torl"-'.wt rnol<'ruh

,,,th

(1'...,. MihoIti< t' OWl, lopNood _....,;""", 01 Joj" Wd0l'&s""" "".1

Re.uranging Equalion 2.10 ,hows that ppm,. values can be calculated I",m pa't,al p,essures a, I"nows

U.ll)

ppm,

Partial p""",u", can Ihu, be addN to Ihe li,tol UIllltyl"" that can be u""d to calculate ppm,. Thai is, either ,'olume (Equation 2.5), m"les (Equat!"n 2.8), or partial pr_ure; (Equati"" 2. 11 ) can be u,...,.j in ppm, cakutati"" •. Example 2.6 appli .... th""" principles 10 the partial p'..... ure 01 a lonnerly popular fan"ly 01 chemical comp<,unds a. PCB., a. illu.t,aIN in Figure 2.1.

kJ'''''''

2.4

MoleNolume Units

U,,,b of moles perl ite, (molanly, "1) a,e u".,.;! 10 report concentratio'l' of compound, di""'ked ,n waler, Molarity i.d elin... larg... r Ih .• n 1 L Molalily i, more likely 10 be u...,<.1 "h n p"'l"'rtie, of th... '01" ..."" ,uch a, boiling and irffzing poinl', ar . mnc... rn. n,... ref"re, 'I i. ,a",ly used in ... ",·iro"",... ntal .itu.Ili",,,.

Chapler2 ErMrmmental MeastUtOOIIIs

e xanl pie I 2.6 Concertration as Partial Pressure TI", cm""ntrd~'''' of g<'lS-vha"" POls in the dll" dOO'" Ldke Sup.".;"r """ m",,,,,,,d '0 be ·15l1 pirogram, per cubic meter (pg m'). What is 'h" pdrtialpressure (in atm) of PCB,? A"ume the tempera,ure i. 0 C, 'he a,mospheric pressure is I a,m, dnd 'he a, erage molecular" eight ilf PCBs is 325.

solution The I"lrlial pres.s"", is defined as 'he mole or \'Olume fraction tim"" the toul gaspr"",,,",,. First, find 'he number of n",les of PCBs i" J liter of air. n,en use the ideal gas 1.1'" (Equation 2.7) '0 calculate that 1 moleof gas at 0 C and I atm occupi", 22.·1 L Subs,itute ,hLs ,. alue mto the fi"'t ""p.--ion to ddern"ne the mole fraction of PCBs, __

Dl!

·10ll~

m'alr

1 }fl

mole x - - . .,

3258

1.JII x 10-1' mole PCB Lair

"...£.

pg

,_ "",Ie PCB 22.4 L >< 10-' L air x mole air

3.1 "

Hr" mole PCB mole air

Multiplying 'he mole fMction by the to,al press"re (I atm) (see Equation 2.101 yields the PCB parlial pres.s"re of ). 1 x 10' " aim.

exam pI el 2.7 Concerdratlon as Partial Press..e COrreded lor Moislll"e Wha, would be 'he parllal pres.sure (in atm) of carbon dioxide (CO,) whe" 'he b.lmmeter redds 29.0 i''''1Ies nf Hg, 'he rela'i'e humid,ty is 80 percen" and the tempera,u"" i, 70 F? Use Table 2.) '0 oouin 'he concentration of CO, in dry air.

solution The partial-pre.sure roncelllra,ion unil> in Table 2.3 dre 1m dry air, s" the part,al p"""u"" must fi"" be correc,ed lor 'he moiSlu"" pr~nt tnthe air. In dry air, 'he CO, concentration is 391 ppm,.. TI,e partial pres.sure "'iIl be thi., "ol"me fraction 'im.... 'he toul press"",, of dry .lir. The ,otal pressu'" of dry air L, 'he 'olal dhn,-",pheric pres,,,re (29.0 Ill. Hg) nunus the oonlribution nf "'ater vapor. TI,e vapor pres.-s"",, of water at 70 l' is 1I.3(,lbiin' Thus. the ,oUI p'"""su"" of dry air ,.

1

29.9 in. HI'; Ib 29.0in Hg - [ O.3t>in.'" 11.71blin.' x 0.8 28.4 ill Hg The I"lrlial pres.s,,"'ofCO, "'ould be:

,01 fraction" p u...

391 ppm,. x

[

10-· '01. lradion x 28.4 ppm,.

,n.

Hg 'X

""" ~ .

29.9",. H

) ] " 10" .,tm

e x am pI e I 2.8

Concenlralilll as MDlarily

Thecm""enlralion of TCE 131.5 g/mole.

~~

5 ppm. Cmwert lhi, 10 uoit, of molaril)i. The molecular weighl of TCE is

solution Remember, in waler, ppm ,0 l, equi,· alelllin mgfL, "" Ihe ",,,,,entralion of TCE is 5.0 mg.. L Co", ~,."iOrl to "",Iarily unit' requ,re; only the ",ol"""lar ",eight 5.0 mg TCE

"'~T"'O L

Ig 1 mole ' 10= ,--~ mg 131.5 g

,

3.8" 10-' moles 3.8)( lO-'M

Dilen, c""""ntral'''', belo", 1 M a", exp"''''N in ulUl'< 01 malinnles 1'''' Iiler, or mmin~,lar (l mM 10" mol", L), or m micro",oles per !Iter, or micro",olar (I!'-M 10---" mol", ll. TI,u" the mncentrat,o" ofTCE muld be ... pr~ .-0.038 mM or381lM.

ex ampIe I 2,9

Corn;enlralilll as MDlarily

TI,e ron",nlrati<,n of alachlor, a rommM herbicide, in Ihe Mi'-'is."ppi R"'er "a, found 10 range Imm O.o.l to 0.1 Ilg.-- L Whal ,s Ihe m""e"tration range in """,15fL? TI,e n,ol,-",uLtr fonnula for aL!.chlor is C"H,.,o,1\CI, and it< molecul.tr weighl is 270.

solution TI,e 1m, esl roncentralk", range in nmoles/L call be found as follows'

-

,

O,lJ.lllg ",ole 1O--S _"if';;''','',m,'oe 0.151\mole L 270S Ilg mole L S,milarly, Ihe upper limit (0. I 1lg.:Ll can be calculated as 0.37 nmoles/L ,-~,

2.5

other Types of Units

Concelllraliml, can al", be expressed a, n",malny, expre\S&.l a, a enmmon mll,liluenl, or ""p""",me..J by effect.

2.5.1

NORMAUTY

Normality (equ" alenl,fLl Iypically is used in ddi,,,,,S Ihe chemimy of waler, especially in insta"""" where arid----bil", and oxidalion-reduction re"clim\< are laklllg place. /'o.:ormahty l~ al,o used frequently in Ihe lab
°

Chapter 2 ErMrooroenlal Mea
exam pI el 2.1 0

Galc[jalions 01 EqLivalenl Weigta What are the equi"alen, weighlS of HCl. H ,SO,. 1\aOH, Cacao and '''lueou., CO,?

solution (1

eq'- wi of HCl

eq"

+ 35.5 )g/",ole 1 eq' -mole

(2 x 1) + 32 + (4 x Inig. mole

w, of H,SO,

2 "'l" mole

"'IV ,,-, of 1\aOH

(2:1 _ 1" + I)gl"'oLt. 1 "'l,,/mole

"'IV w, of CaCO,

Ml + 12 _ 13 x 16)g/mrole 2"'1' mole

Deien"i""'g ,he ""lui, alent weight of aqueou, CO, r""luir"" add nionallnformatl"n. Aqueous carbon dinxide i, nOl an acid until it hydrate> in water and forms carbo"ic a<:id (co, _ H,O_ H,Co,). So aqueous CO, reaDy has 2 eqv..- n,ole. Thus, one can .""" thai the ""Iu",'alent "eigh, I'll aqueous caroon dimdde i, 12~(2

x 1Ii)g mole

2"q''1mole

llg eqv

of equ 1\- a;',lIs per mole 01 add eq.>a1s ,he nw"berof moleof H ~ ,he acid can poten,ially dona,e. r~.". e""mple. HO has I "'lul"alent/ mole, H ,SO, ha,2 equi ,·a1 ..'t,/,ml", and H ,PO, has3equ',alerll,/mole. Like",;"" ,he number of "'lui,-alen!'; per m<>le of a N'" "'lu.lls ,he number of moles of H~ ,I",t ,,-al rMd wdh I mole 01 tl", base. Thu" 1'\.1OH h." 1equi'l'al"'l/ mo;" CaCO, has2 equi "alerts/mole,and h.... 3 "'Iui\-aJerts/lmle. In oxida'ion........J""'ion reactl"'>-, the number of "'Iui,alenL< i, reLltoo '0 h"" ",any el":'n'I\s a 'l-""'ies dOl'lle, or acet>pK For example, ,he number of "'lu" alents of Ka - " 1 (where, equal. an el""ln,nll,ecau for Ca'- i, 2 because Col _ Ca'- _p'. The e'luivalen, ,,-eight (in grams (g) per equ,,-alent ("'Iv)) of a 'pecies is defin<.'\i .... ,he molecular weIght 01 the ,pecies divided by the number of eqUIvalent. in the sped"" (g/mol.. di, ided by eqvln\Ole equ.lb g/eqv). All 01'1"""" ",lution, must maintain charge "eutrallly. A t101her way 10 .Ia'e this i< that ,he
1'0,'-

1>.1",.

2.5 Otl1l'rTypes oIUnits

exautple/2.11

calculation of Normality

What i, Ihe nor"""lil} (!\') ilf 1 M ",luI;oo,
solution 1M Hel 1 MH,SO,

1 m..le HO

e

,,~

1 n",leH,SO, L

1 e9"

m..le

e

2eqv ,-mo,,"

2 "'l'

" 21':

e

1':Ole that on a n equkalent b ....., a 1 \1 ,olut"'n or ,ul fu nc add is I wice as 'lr,"g a, a 1 M ,000uI"'n of HO,

example/2,12

Use of Equivalents in

Deterrrini~ the AccII"3!.)' of a Water Analysis

PmF. Mil1elck was in the city ..f Duned",;n New Zealand 10 view yellow-eyed peOguUb and albatm'....". TI,e label OIl a bottle of New Zealand mineral waler he purchased the", ,lales that a chemIcal .n.lysis of the m",eml "aler resulled in the follow"'g calio"" and ani",~. being ide"'ifi".j with mrrespond,ng roncentration, (in mglll'

,Ca"-

.

,SO'-I I. tile analy.Ls enrrect?

" '"

[Mg'+1

[Fl-

'.0

''"

Na-

0

'"

"

K

"

solution FilSt, co", ert mn~ntratlOl\

concemralil'fls of ma,)r ;Otb '0 eqUlvitlenl ba" •. Tn '0 Ih;,;, mulliply Ihe ." '" mglL by a un,1 ",,,,..,,,,,Ion (g 'l.lXXJ '" mgl and Ihen divide by UIl! "'lu,vale,tt weight of

each sub>lance (g/eq, l. Then sum the c"'''''''lIrali,~~sof all c.li,-,,~. and an;",~. on an eq""'ale", ba,is. A ",luI;on "jth les, than 5 perce", error generally is con,ldered acceptable. Cations

Anions 1'15"10-'1:<)'

rCa"

e

1.67>< 1O~'eq,

M,;'+ 1

e

Na-

5"10-'''9''

K-

R5 >< 10-''''1'

e

,.. ,rt.

975 " 10-; "'Iv

'so',

" 0

e 4]3>< 10"'" "'I'

e 2.17" 10'" "9'

e

e

,.... '

,,-

.n'O... ,t of calms an",.. , "",ill. 9.S7" Hr'''9v L, "d h'tal an'O...,t 1.2 " 10'" "'I,'L TI,e analy,is l< not with", 5 ""rce"" TI,e analysIS """ulted in more th.an til"", tlllles more <.llioo.< Ihan anions on an "9ui,' alent b.bi,. Therefore, either of Iwo
Chapler2 En¥irmmenIalM~

"'

2.5 2 CONCENTRATION AS A COMNON CONSTITUENT Cm,,,,,,,tratio,,s ~a" be re!X'rted a, a rommon ronstituenl a"d ~a" ,herefore include mnlrlbution.s from ., number of d,fferent ~hemkal rompo- HPO.'- o--.npl""",), polypllOSphat"" (e,g" H,P,O:- and H,P,O,o'-" metapln;ph.ll"" (e,g.• HP,O/ l, andlor '''l'l''',k ph...phat.,;. &cause ph,o"phonh can be d ... m.callv ron,-erted between ,hese 1f",,,"S and call 'hu.s be found in "",-eral of 11""" f"",,n.s, il m.>\,.e,; """" ,11 ,ome Inn.,; M report ,I... total P CfIfI<'t1'llratirn" ,,-j,hnut ,pecifying ,,-llich Innn!s) are f""-"8'1. Thus, ead, o--.lCenlrabOn for evel)' indi,',dual fonn of phosphorus i, co",erted 10 mg PIL u'''''g lhe ,ooIecular "eigh,
ex am p I el 2.13

Nitrogen and Phosptllrus Pollutioo Policr and Data ""'w ~ p~ ,¥"ir ~nJppohcyi I r ~,-,,"I

Nulrient--taused Hyp.ic §.u",!~""",lhypo>;i.o

The Nitrogen Cycle wnw LM.nou _~""I~rr"" <>cUea< 01 1• .....".,---rI.,~m" ~'1.ro
Nilr09!n COoceltralkms as a COmmon COm;liluenl

A ",aterconta",,, '" 0 n"rogen ,~ies, The concentration ofNH , i, 30 "'gIL NH" ..nd th" co",-",,,tratii:1I1 of NO,' 155 mglL NO. . Wha, ls ,he totall\itrogell m'IC""lr,llio" in U,"ts or mg NIL?

solution

'0

U"" the appropria,e ",olNular "e'ghl and stoichiometry convert each ",dividual "peei"" to lhe requ""led units or mg NIL and Ihen add Ih" contribution of each 'pecies, 3Omgl'.'th ",oleNH, m~eN llg -x)( )(L 17 g ",ole NH, mole '\ 21.7 mg Nth - N

,

5mg 1\0, )( ,m:::oi",',',O", L

-

62 g

/.1

mg 1\0, - 1\

m"too

N x 14 g

" mole I\OJ

mole N

,

'0",1 nitr"S"n concentra,ion

2-1.7 + 1.1

,

23.R ms N

2.5 OII1... TypesolUnits

In Mid' igan, Wi,.,on,i,~ a"d M"u,,,,,,,,ta., u" Ireated wdllors 'NJdlly 1",'" d hMd"",-, ()/ 121-11'f1 mill l a, CaCO,. In III ilt"", 100,-a, a"d Florida ,,-aler LS h.",Jer, ,,-,Ih rna,,} ,-al"es gr&lle' than ISO mgll a, CaCO ,. T" find the 100al hard ness of a wate, ",mple, ,um Ihe mntributim" of a 11 d i'J lem ca tio ..., a fIe, con, elt "'8 Ihei' c,"",elllrill ion' In a m nu no" con,tiluen!. Tn co",erl the "'''''''nlratio'' of 'pecific c,"loo..s (Irom "'gil) to hardness (a, mg/l CaCO,), use Ihe iollo"i"g e,p"""ion, where 11.1'. repr"""llIs a d"alent cahm" M" in mg

50

l

"'l' wt "I M'-- in g "'l"

(2.13)

The 50 in Equalion 2_13 rep,..",en" lhe "'lui,-alenl ",eight of cakium c,"bonate (lOllg Cam
2.5_3

COI'CENTRATIONSOf CAABa-.I DIOXIDE ANDOTHERGHGs

The Kyoto Prolocol isa gbbdl agree"'ent to '''8u1ale si.\ major GHG'i. I I wa, adopted in Kynto, Japan, in 1997 and entered into f"ree in 2005. 11 ",Is binding targets I", 37 lI,du,t"ali7.ed rountrie,; and the Eu rope.an Union to reduce GHG emi"lo,~s. E.'ch ga' has d diffe,e"t ability to

e

X

am p 1e I

2. 14

Oeternination 01 a Water's HWdness

Water ha' U'" following chenical rompo.,tion, ~ ~ _ 15 nlg/ L; ,Mg'~1 \\~"'I i. tl", loul hardness in units 01 "'gil a,Cam,?

10mg.. . L:

-sof-

JOmg/L

solution Find tl'" ro"trlblltion of l"'rdness frmn each d,"alent cati"n. An;m" and all n""d,\'alent cations are not included III the cak...,ldtion.

15mgCa'+

50, c.co,) , ( "l'

38ml\ , - a,eaco,

n",rd'ore, th.. total ha,dn""s i, JIl -t- 12 80 mgil a. caCo~ n,i, "",Ie, i. m,lder,'le;y hard. Note thai if re.:lucoo irm (F"'-) or ma"gal_ (Mn'-) "ere pr"",nl, they wo"ld be incllldN in the ha,d"..... calculation.

Chapler2 En¥irmmental MellSIUfOOIIIs

ab-;(".b hea' in ,he Mm'-""pl""rO! (,he r"d~lll\~ fon:i"S), ...., ~ach d,ff~", III ;1' glnbJ.1 .... am';ng po''''''',ll (GW/'l. TI,e Kyol') rro,nenl h.l., Mil ra"fied by 191 "'"'" n..... "'un'''''''l. Hr",e,e•. i' ,,"-~ not adnptoo b~ ",an~ larg@e",iu.. ",ofG11G'.'ndudm8'heUm'oo Sta'es. f'urther",ore, in 2011, Canada , .. ,,0:.... ,11"0'<.1 ,he" o!arli.". ,uppon. n""'gh ,he U.s. g"',,",m~nl lIa, "'" ral,fled lhe Kynto I'rotorol. In 2007, 'he U.C;. '>up....".. C """"",,",,,,, ot carbon din"d.. and other GHGs.I" O:tobo>r 10. 2Ofl9, ErA publi,hed a rule III ,he '.....:I....al Reg!>Id (40 CrR ran 'lfll'ha' ""lu,..-d mandatory rO!f'lOl1Ul8 of GHG; fmon Ltrg~ ~O'H\.""" Tho.> "nplo-"_,a"o,, otlh", rule;" ref...."'" 10 as the G",mho_ G<>~ Reptwti ~ 1""8"",m II applie '0 a "Ide range of GHG enuttet>.lhal JJ>d~ "",,,I fu.>l rrh."'. "IdU!ltnoll g.os ...pp1m,.nd f.,d.]'"", "'JIl"I CO, ur.:li!fS" nd for "'""l"""","1Ilut.ln'" ..... funt..... a..finned U\ 2012 "hen the 1.:5. Coun ot APf"'l'" Ihi> OI"tnd ot Columbi.a unart1Jt1oC"lUSl~ u pheWI he Ii"" '" '" pnv....-.J ~ulal."", to "'Sula lee'ml.'".or....>fGHc.. The Alob......rming potenti.IIG\\l'l". nlulllflUt'r u.-..d to romI'd'" Ihr eml~'ot d,ffo?r , sn"""hc>uw sa""'" to. rommon ronsbtuent, '" th" caiC , ... rb<", dM ldo!. The GWr;,. detO!nnuwd m ..... "" lln1oo> f'i""-.1, h I'..·.. n~ 100 • ~ ,... .". ... hKh !he roOd ..",,, forang of the

'ho'

r.,..

po; ... ould roNIll. CWf'., ..U"" pobo:> ~ 10 roml'd'" emi!isions and r""al ... amung po>td1Ual. L .......... ..-. t-aI and ~ ~ .. nUn..""...-...: ..._ •• arbm d"',!do> ~)aIoonIs. T.... !.~ f'OO''Kb glnhal ".lnnlJ'IS p-.ba\;. b 1Iw ..., ....".IV"""'""'"' ~ lhat..., "'l'-", ........ """'" ~oft>
Regulating Greerftluse 6ase5 --"fIlL¥" ...r .........~ .........,.,....~

~peafic

"'*'

1 00- Y_. GI....IWo_ing P_nrioI5(GWP5J Uuol to C_ n M..u G.....h_M G
C>fbnn dJO\1d
,-

...

r

....

CO" ."'~_._ .

_

H,'JmIluom
,H 1IMl(Jq!end''''''I"",di
p.,.IlU.lm< ~n..- (I'f(".)

i.l'lO-l2,;!OO (.kpnId. "" 'proix: PFCI

WOO !.Ol.*:t._~c-.~1OO7~ ~ ~.....

1_.,

a-cloooo _ ...(,.,_ _....... ,~Gwr.\_., ...........,tl~

.....

F _ C _.. CIooooo"'""eo

._

'_...

1'CC ',Socoo
ood_

umed NatianI FiM,lllAU," COIwentiononClimateChange '"'"....

","r:

IllleljjOtfll.i.l6.ta1 PanIlI WI

"""'" """'" --

u.s, Green ......... Ga. Em"'.... Iram s ....
co, EqIents

.,)

1",~.OO .k~,l productio~

(co,)

C'-'DlL'nt pmd udion (C 0,1 Tr~"-.p"'t.>ho~(CO,)

Sod" •• h m.mufoct\lre ~OO flm",mphon (CO,)

Mol nu '" man.:lscmcn l (CH,)

Rice culth-,,"on (CH ,)

TdcO GIi3

co, Equiv-... SoI6c
'W

5,3R7.8

"gncultural..,il "",n.semenl (NPI

207.8

"'

Manu", m.:Jn.:Igemenl tl'<,o)

lH.3

~,

W""tc".-.I",. Irro""ro l (N,01

1,7~~'i

Coml""'tmg (1\:P)

'",.,

"

MoolJccomb...hon (r-i,o)

20,1>

]cr7.H

S1.1twm..u v mmbu,t~", (1\:,0)

"-,

5211

Sub,; of 07-"",-~depfcfjng 'Ub,;UllC'-'< (HFC_]

l1H

'"

Ek'Clric~1 Ir~ns,.m,;s",n~nd

lLH

dlSlnbuhon [SF,,)

"

St."" icond udor ""mul. crure (HFC.. PFC.)

'''uli,,,,

"

Gr""l\hou,~ ga, ~",,,,io,,, ~re ""n~lim... ~I", r~port.,.j

~'1uiv~lenls.

Learn the Impact 01 Climale Change Where You L1¥e WMI.'''1'a4O''1c im.n.ecn.."~<

a,

~~,.bon

In thi, ~~,~, th~ ma,s of cMbo" dioxiJ" equiv~I~"b is muitipliro by 12/4-1 10 oblain carbon "'lui,·al~nts. Th~ multipli~r 12/4·1 is Ih" molecular w~ighl of carbon (Cl di \' idro by Ih~ n\{\l~cular w~ight of ~drb g~s ~mis~io", ill II nils of CO, equh'~l"nl, (abbre\'I'uro CO,~). Note lh~ ~XJ><-"Cled l~rg~ ~'('lnlribullo" ~,soci~lro ",lh ~n~rgy u'" fmm bu n""g fos,il fu~b. BUI also Ilot~ Ih~ amOlJlll of gr"""houso> gas ~mlSsio", a"odated '" ith O!h~r hu I\lJ II actj"ili.... It Is d~M fro", Ih~~ l~bl~ Ih~l ~U,l~i"~bl~ d~\dopm~lll wIll r"'luir~ IhJI ~,~ry ~"gl"""rillg ~"ignm~"1 mn~id~r hoI\' 10 reduce Ih~ ov~rall "",i,sio,,, of gr"""houw ga..es. Th~ Lug... 1 amOlJlll 0/ greenholl'" ga, ~",i..~io,~~ are from carbon dim id~. In 2010, 101.11 U.s. greenh""", g~s ~n",sions ,,~re ". R21.R Tg CO"" (a Tg "'luals 1 nlinion m~tric to,~~) of" l\lch 5,706.4 CO ,,, \\'~re ca,oon di",id~ ~ml~sio,,~. Tabl~ 2." p,m'lue< Ihe bre~kdo" n of lh~ larg...t ,our~", o{ ca,oon dio,id" ~mlS,ioILS in the U"ilro St~tes m'~r tim~. Not~ hoI\' lh~ ,(I
Chapter 2 Envinnn>enlal Measoo!fOOII1s

largest S....
,-

-,

""""il fuel combu'Mn

4,T\ll.3

6.118.6

5,387.8

Elcctricilv ge"'"~b"n

1)l2(18

2.l12.8

2.25!U

T"''''porto,lion

1,-11\5.9

LR93.9

1,7455

=, 3-l1.6

=, =,

-~

InJ""""'l

~,

"'"

R..'
=,

Co""""",,,,1

2N.0

218.9

22U

Tol,lCO,em ... ion.

5,1005

(,,107.6

5,71\',,4

nf aboul 0.3':1. There ""~, slighl deerea"" in emlS~io,,-~ fmm 2007 In 2lXl9 !>eal\.l'" ill Ihe econnmic dn" nturn. EIlli"in"-'; incre,,,,",, '8-',n fmm 2lXl9 In Will, prirnMily bee,use nf ,n i,,,,rea,,, in ecnnnn"c emg larger. Of Ihe 26-1 Tg nf CO"e produced by U.S. lanufills, nnly 107.8 Tg CO.,,, wer" emilted !>ealuse "f r""overy, lIaring, a"d i,xidi7jllg produced metha"e. III comp.ln",n, wastewaler Ire.,lmenl and r""lamati"" acc
,,><1

tl"'''

Household carbon Footprint Calculator

"'''V"""'",rl'" '¥JV1c1_=ka"¥"1 ~r¥"', __""'ir
2.5 Otl1l'rTypes oIUnits

thai are 0\\ ned or ""ntrolled by anmher enl'l} (Cree"hou", Ga, Prolocol, 1012). T,'ble 2.7 gi~"" a lurlher categoriz.llion of dl"",t and ",dlrecl greenhouse ga' en""io,,,.

Categoritatl.... of Dlte" ond InditeclGreeo1house Ga. Elfiu;..... E>
S""P" I en,i",,,,o,

An d,n..-I cm,'C'wm, (i.•., >cm"", owned '" cootrollod by the reportmg en"tv)

Sml'" 2 """""01"

10dirL'<:' em,,,,,,KK>., Irom c,,,,,umpb<'" 01 purrh.><.ed electriCIty, hrol, or ,t",m

Seo?" 3 emi",wm<

Otho< md"ect L""i",ioon., (e.g, ~tr.clioo and producti<>n of purch.>ntrolloJ by a reporting en"'y, ou l>cmc.'en, ·,tieo, ",a, Ie d "I"""' 11

e

X

am pI e I

2. 15

Carbon EqLivaierts as a CorrmCll CCIlstituf!lll

The U.S. greeohou,"" ga_ emisslOlI_ reported In the year 1010 were 5,70li.·1 'eragram_ (Tgl CO c"'- "f carbon dioxide (COol, 666.5 Tg CO.", of me'hane (CH.l, and 3Oti,2 TgCO-", of ~.,Q. H"w ",any gigagrams (Gg) 01 CH \ and N,G w"'"" emitted in 201Il! n,.".e an:. 1.000 g'g.tgran\S in one teragra",.

solution n", solut'on requ""" a ut,,1 crn" e",ioll:

(Gg "f gas)" GIVP

"'-;0'"'", 1.lXXJGg

r'Or meth.",e:

M6.5TgCo,e 2.1>7"

"

IGg of methane gas) " 25" LlXXJ Gg

111" Gg of methane were emitted 1n 2010.

For ~,O:

"

(Gg of N,O lY's) " 29FI " 1.lXXJ Gg l.1IJ" 10' Gg of nitrogen oxide were emilled io 1010. II you go '0 the U.s. E,,,,irolllnenlal Proteclion Agen"} web _ite (",w,,",epa.gov), yo" can learn n,ore ..I>c".a emi";o,,," and ,inks of dilfe",nl greenh<><.L'" g.>_ 1n the United SLUes. n,e lntergm'ernmenldl Panel on Oi""'te Ch.l\~ web si~ {www,ipcc.chl ha, updaled Informal;on on Ihe sla'". 0/ glilbal dimalech""ge.

Chapler2 ErMrmmental MeasIUfIleIIIs

~ fmissilU5 and GC!J!raljon Bcsl!Im;e IntellrnlW patabase (eGAIDl Th~

Tabl~ 2.K p,m-id", a f~w "-~ampl",, "I th.." " r,m,-.".· ,i,m fact,)J'; 1m difl~f~nt ",!>,,,n., "Ilk united SI,t",. 1\.ot~ h"w "cRILJ Co,~ "utput ~mi"i"ns af~ 0.2-1A'i weal~f thon CO, tr., p<>inl "f cun.'umpti"n. l1>at c., Ill) kWh of d""'ricily "'"",umpliun "-"l"in=. -lightly more than Ill) kWh tricily !P"""atilm. In Ierm.' ,>I the ma"."ilud", jj"" k"."", difft,,- amund the ""'ntry: 1.7\15', in AIa.4a, 3.1+)1', in I bwaii, 5.333', ,,,,I ".",,1. h.l77\l in T~",,,, and ~.4(H'.i in th< ",,'>I (with ., US. a".,,-ag<' "f t\..1N'.; 1. Tim." if a u.....,,want>. k' """"'nl I"" Ii"" k,..,...", in the ....nmati"" "f greenh.ou."'ga; em;';"~""" lh<.oy ".",I1.J ho"~I"di,id~ thetI dtrlricity.

Emi • .,on. and Gene,-ation Re.our« Integr.>ted Oat. b.>,e IeG RID l all",,", " u",," h' d ",-elup greenh""""

S'" ;m-enlm'.,,; anJ carb.m f'dpnnl>. a,KILJ det.,,-min'" GIlG """"in", a,,,.oci.,led wilh eI""lricite g~n .".ali"" (e.g.• MlVh, CIVil) bv ml1\-erting electrical

"'"'ge ;nl" II, "f CO" CJ I,. and .\1,0 "",i"i"n, and II, of CO;,e. \\'''''1 i, uniq"" "bulll "c1{J[J i, it "",l", this mOH''-,iun LL'in,; the e""'ID' mi, 1">I1i<~i" trnt L' nni'Jue I" a p-'rticular "'!;ion of the United Stal.,.,. 1'hi, ;" MaLL'" the S"""'hu",,", &" '-'ffii,,'i'm' """'Jri>teJ wilh el""tricily gt'I,,,,,,b,m fnlm con'uming a _pecific amounl of e1"". lricrty differ. around the QmnlJ}", Th" f,,!" this is

"f""""

,,,,,,on

b<-<.;au "" a ~,m', energy mix u.".,J l<, P n '" """d""lrio:ilY c1,,,,, tho'l all"", a 1.1..,."-1,, rtt'J as MWh mGWh) k' Ib "fCO", CI i" 1\.,0, and CO",.

Compatioon of Greenhouse Gos EmisMon Rates oGRlD &oI>rngion mmc

co. (lb/MWIII

Cf4 (IbIGWhj

'1,0 ~I>'GWhj

CO""it>/WillI

WECCCahf~mia

72~.12

30.21

"~

727.2f,

SERC \"rginr./Caml",a

1,1.>t.R.!l

23.77

19.79

l)lISI

SERC Mol",,,,t

1,R3051

21 15

~~

I.fWlAI

fRCC.1I (FInrid,j

1"IR57

~5.92

lb.9~

1,,2U9

Uniloo St",,,,,

1.32935

27,27

20,1>0

l.J.,31\.J1

Do>o"","oGIOfl2007 _ _ I

exarnple/2.16

~

2001 dolo. s..~.// ......... ...,.go< 0126 u.~ ,,1><"11"""

Deterrrlne Carbon Footprint from Eleclricity ConslInptioo Data

As.
solution Using the ,,,,,,·,,,,,io,, facto'" p,ov,ded by .-.GRID (and listed in Table VI for th" sub~n" nf Virginia and th" C.amh,,,,.l, you can d"''''mi''" that th" emi••i",« of 'pe
2.5 OthfrTl'll''501Unit:s

example/2.16 Continued and 1,lXXl.tnl kWillI GW, n,,,,,,, emissiOl~~do not aCOOlJnl for lin" Jo;;,;e", which are 1>.-109 p"rc"nl in Ih" "a,lern Uniled Stal"" To accounl for line Io-;.<;e;, di"ide Ihese eGRID-g"ner"led emi,~ion v"lu", by O-fl.409/1(0). You can del"rmi"" Ih" carb'ln fo<>lprint by one of 1"'0 m"lhods. The "a,i"'l;s to nlUllIply the "Iectri-c:ity con.'umpt;on of 11,000 kWh by the CO,., ""n""",;on faclor of I, }·11.51Ib CO,e/MWh pnw ided by eGRID (and 1i.~led in Table2.1l1. 110m kW xLII L511b co,,, MWh x MW 1.FlOOkW

12.551> Ib

co,

12.551>1b co,e

n,is ""'utL. in a value flf 12-556 Ib CO"" You can find Ih" ""Iulion in a longer n",nner, summing Ihe contribulion from each of the three greetlhou"'" g"_ accounled for by eGRID, I"ing Ihe GWf', 1i~led in Tabl,,2A. 1l,omkW x l.l::l4.Blllb co, MIVh x MWllooo kW Il.OOOkW ' l3.nlb CH./GWh

GW 'H1' kW

I LOrn kW" 19.791b 1\:,OCIVh x GW. ](1' kW

12,48ol1b co,

llA84lb co,e

0.2hlb CH. " 25lb Co"e{lb CH, O.l21b CH,

~

2'11lb Co"elb 1\:,0

651b o:l,e 65.5lb o:l,e

The I"tal GHG emis.~lrn~, in CO'" are Ihe sum of 1!Ie;e Ihree "alu"", and equal~ 1l.55h Ib CO"". 1\'01." Ih" I....g" amou nl of CO, emi,~,ons from el""tndly generation here mmp",ed 10 the contribution of CH , and 1\'..0 (e,en with the" higher GWf',). n'L~ "alue could al"" be referred 10 a, Ihe carbon loolpnm of Ihe building for I y""r "hen only con,lder;ng dir""t emi'sion,. And agam, these "missions do nol acmunt for line los",,", "hid' a", 6.409,} in Ihe eastern Unlled SMIes. To aemutlilor line !os.<;e;, divide Ih""" eGRID-gen"raled emls.~lon "alue< by O-h.·I09/loo). If the building i,~,lall, ""I"r panel, on ,ile 10 red uc" Ihe grid-,upplied electricIty u,e by 2.500 .. Wl,/ y"ar, th" carbon footprinl a,,,,,,,ialed wilh grid-"upplied electricily "
(Example adapted fmm

Rrnl~""hlld '-"l

a!., liXl9.l

2.5.4 REPOl.TIf\K; PARH:lE CONGNTRATIONS INAIRANOWATER The coo"'lItrah(~1of p.-.rtide; in an air ~a"'l'le l~ del":",,u'le-l:I by pulling a known ,'olume (lor ",-,lallCe, "",'erallhou"""d m ) of air Ihrough a filt ... , The i''''''''''''' i" weight oftl'" fm ... d lie locollection of parhdtS 0" ;1 can be detennined. Dividing Ih" value by Ihe I'olume of air I",,<;ed thwugh Ih" filter g"'es 'he tolal su.p"nded particulale ITSI') mn""nIratlon in unit" of g/ m ' or "g/m'. I" aqUillic 'y""''''' .100 In lhe al... l~tical d"",nni"allon of ml'l.ll" Ihe ,,-,I id pha", i,d,hedby fillraboo u>inga filtl>r ol-",,\inS oro.45 Ilm. Thi, 'i2e Iypically delermine> Ih" cutoff bel"e,,,, Ihe di<><>lrnl alld l"'rliCIIlaj,· ph.,,,,,,,. I" water qu.llity, ""lid, Me di "ided into a di"",I"..,1 or "u3~",I,,1 IracI"m. n,i" is done by a comb""'I,on of fillral",n and e"ap;rati,., procoo ur.... Earn of lhese 1\\"0 tH'" 01 ,ol i<2- can be lurther broken dOlln into a fix,,1 and I'Olalil~ fraction. Figure 2.2 ,how, Ihe Chapter 2 Enviroonlenlal Meastremenis

~_.'mL

-_... ~-

.-Ull C

a""l~tul ..hff~ ...

-.-•• -= -.-••

RIJllr8 / 2.2 A.... lyllc.ol Dlff~"'n<~~ b
_ _......._""

_w..,ISoo
bf,t"""" Iotal
CT"61. tOlilI d",,,,,1\ nl ..oW~ lTlJ5l. and >"OIatile ~""f""'
solids ITSl .,.., deternunal b~ pJac"'g olI .. "ll_"uwd ,,,,I.,,. ...."'f'I,,"f In..... n "olume ,n a dr~1ngdl;h olI"d """f'OBI mg th" ..."" at IOJ C 1<110; c. nM' 'J'lCretSe "' tIw ...6ghtof th"d,,,"g d"h i, dll" 10 th" total ....ltd', .... 10 deten"",e 10LlI "",lid'. d .. id~ th" 'oc,..,a-.... in ....ight 8ol11" oi Ih.. dryin8 dISh ~ u... """'pie H\lun.... C""""nt'.h"'~' IWiallv M" "'fX"led In "'giL T"dete",..:"" '(>loll dis..,lvN solids ITOS) ..,d Intal.u~pendoo."Iid. (fSSI. fi "'I mhO' .1 well_ffil'N ,am ",eo, kn,...,'n .·(lwn.. th ",gh a 81 ... <;fi~, filler" Ilh a 2 I'-m nl"'''"'g. TI,e ,u~l"'ml.,.j ... ,11.1, Ihe r·1r1id", ~aught,",II'" fikd_ Todetermine the e<'O,,,,m,al""h,fT'>S, d I)' II", fikerat 103-10; C d"le,.,,,Ir,,, tIw ",eight incre..." , '" II", filte•• an.llllen didde Ih" ,,~,ghl gall' by lhe .... "'ple ""Iume. Result' Me g .. en ,n "'giL Su,;1'....Jed ;,ol.hcollect&l ""Ihe filler m..y h"",, "'lu't;,: ..,n.y .... "... by imp.II""g lighl I""wtralion or acting as a .. "'~ of "ulne",. or o.,~ g.;ndel'leb"6 ,''Sa,,,, m.lll'" _Al...,." hIgh," 'ioIid. nldY he U"",UIl<'d fOI' human consumption or ,..,ming. The TOS .. ...,do I>etgh, SI'" dl'.J.>d b\ t1w-.lmploe ,oIurni' ;" tlw CfInCftllrabOn of TUS. ""ted '" "'8/ L 0.;.,,01, e.i 'O "'S"n1C in rom.,......lJon and ~ fi dNoOl. e.i CAl""'" .md an Fnr~P'"'. hard "'~"""aNlhighmd"-"'-...Js..'llki>. f";, TD5. "nd l$GlIn bot> furtt- brol,..., dolo" onlO" fi>. s ..... pnI<»d 1IOIidsfrSS)The".. ~ lodetffmllWtM ..... t'lefr""'u'noIa. mp... '" ,.. !ale 8dt .... rnple """ d ~ .md 'SlUtit' II on olI fu",,",-? .. I 500 C .dO C' Thoe>-o fractIOn of_pend.,j <; .. n,ea..u..., of the numoo fi mlcmorgan,sn~. In tIw bK\log'G11 tr.. al~t process. f'gure 2.J ."""'~ hoI> to rdale lhe ,·.. nous ,.,lId d.,jem" ....

'''''1'''''''"''

u... .dAtiI"

u...

,he,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, t.""'•.

ITS

•

ms

•

• TVS

•

>
• •

•

'OS

VSS

•

• ITS

TSS

•

'SS

RsJIr8/ 2.3

R"IA~.... lip........ "8lh~ \ ..riou.MNW,,,_nt.ofSolid. in Aq ....... s"mpl.,. F<..- .....mpi<',otd..ThS .. nd \'SS Mi t!v'FSSan br~lwdlff ...........

'-

"'_"'

,I~ ~

__.. .-

ISOOO.1oc.1

2.5.5

REPRESENTATION BY EFFECT

In some ca>e>, Ihe actual con""ntration of a sl"""ific ,ub>tan"" is not used al all, especiallv in inSlances where mixlures of ill-defined chemicals Me present (e.g., in unlrealed sewage). Instead, repre,en· lalion by efled is u'ed. \Vilh thi' appr
Oetermlnl1g Goncentratloos 01 So~ds In a WaterSample

ex ampIe I 2.1 7

A laborali>ry pllwid"" lhe loIklWllIg a""lysis obtai"ed fmm a SO mL !Nlmple of wa,ae,,,,I.,,.:

tolal solid, 200 mglL, 100ai ,uSf"'nd"" ",,1:,,1volalile su.pended solid' 1~ mglL

100 n'glL fixed

sus~",ndoo ,.,lids

10mg L, and

1. \Vhal i, the c""celllrali"n of Imal di.''''h'ed solid, of Ihi' <;,ample?

2. Supp._Ihi, sample wa. filten;d Ihrough " gla"... fi1Jer filt"r. and Ihe filter was th"n plac"" III a muffle furna"" al 5SO C m-en"ghl. \Vhal would be Ih" "'eighl of Ih" "mids (in IlIgl remaining nn the fill"r alter Ihe nighl in Ihe furnace?

3. btl'" sampl" turbid? E'I;n,ate Ihe per,"'nt of Ih" <;<)hds tMI are orgo",k mailer.

solution 1. Reier 10 Fi gu re2.3 10 ""'I h e rela Ihus,

Ii"''' hi P beIW,,"," Ih"," a,;oudonn. ofsolids. TDSeq u a k TS ""nus TSS; m;

200mg C

100 mg C

IOmg C

2. TI,,, ",lid, remaini"g em the filter are slL'pended 1 remained (Il' Ihe filler was Ihe inert nr fixed fraclron of Ihe ,uspended ""lid •. TI'lLS, Ihi. pmblem " requesting Ihe fixed fracli<>n of lhe ,u'pended ""lids. Accordingly, Ih" 30 ml sample had FSS of·1O mg.__ L TI,ere!o,.." 4llmg C

,

"'I of ,u,p""ded solids remainmg on ",L s.ample

fill~r

aher ignition

';ll",l TI,e unk""" n, x, can],.. ""h'ed for and equal, 2 mg. 3. TI,e sa"'ple L~ lurbid bffause of Ihe su,per>Jed particles, "'easured as TSS. [f I h~ sampl~ wa. all""'ed I" sillm """le linle period, Ih" suspended ""lids w<)\Jld s,,!tI~, aoil Ih" """rlaying waler mighl nol appear lurbid. The
Chapler2 ErMrmmental MelISIUrOOIIIs

Ihe chemicals w,U"n Ihe ",i~lure depend. An exa'''pl" b oxygen d"pldinn from b,ological MId ch""'ical d""oml")';ition of II,.. chemic",l n"xlu"". For many organic-bear"'g wa~tes. i,~qead of ide"lifying Ihe hu"dreds of indiddual compound, Ihal may be pr""enl, il i, "'0'" con,en,enl to report Ihe eHeet. i" u"ils of the milligram, of owgen lhal can be consun,ed per liler of waler. TI'i, unil LS referred 10 as either b ioeheminl o~ ysen demand (11001 or ellem ieal o~ygen demand (COOl,

Key Terms • biocl..,mical "'yge" dem.,nd (BOD)

• hardness

• carbon dioxide equ"'ale"" • carbnn equ;,-ale,," • carbon footpr",t • chem'cal

"~yge"

• ide.,1 gas la", • ",d"..,ct emi."i"'" • !mergnvemmenuIPanel "n

demanJ

(COOl

• ""nn"", ,"""sliIlJenl • d Ifeet

• gr"""hou,,", ga_ (GHG,)

emj,,,o,~s

• En"'si"", a"d Generallnn Resnorce Inlegraled Dalabase (eGRlDI

Climale Ch.l.nge

• KYOlO Protocol • ",a,,/",as;; co,,,,entralio,,, • molailly • molar • molarilV

• ?"rts per billl"" by volume (ppbJ

• parts per n"llion by rna,,, (ppm or ppm.,) • part.s per n"llion by \'Olume (ppm,)

• part' per Irillim' by Ola" (ppl,") • percenl by mas., • represelllaholl byeffeet • tobl dls."'ked "'lid' nOSI • total "'lid' (TS) • toul

~\"'pended particulates

(TSPI

• "'lui, alent ba'is

• mole fraction

• equ"'alent weighl

• mole rali"

• tobl ,u,pended solids (TSS)

• fixed ,uspended "'lids (I'SS)

• mol'" per liler

• u"its nf mg CaCO,/l

• global ". arming pol""tial (GWI')

• normalily

• u"iI'e"",1 ga' C<)I\S!""I

• Gree"house Gas Rel""tll'g

• part,al pres,ure

• "olalile ,u'pended

Progra'"

• p.HI' per blllion by nus.s (ppbo,1

"'lids (VSS)

chaptcrtTwo

2.1 (al Durmg drinking water Ire8lment, 17 Ib of ddorine are added dally todi'infecl5million gallol~s of water. Whal i' Ihe aqueou.s """celltralioll of chlo· rille in mglL? (b) n,e clilori,~' d,'moHII i, the ""ncentr.>!ioll "f chlorille usal dunng dis",r..cri",c The cI,lor.It· ...'<,.1,,,1 is the concentration 01 clll"'ine th..t r"mains aher trealmenl '" the "ater I"ainlain, it' d"infectlng \-",,,er in Ihe di,tribUlion ~ysle",. If Ihe chlorine residual i, 0.20 mg/l, "'hal is the chlnrine delnand i" mgll?

2..2 A waler ",mplec,..,tain, 10 mg 1\:0, IL \Vila! i, the concemrali"" In (a) ppm"... (b) mol"'/l, kl mg Ko,-K, and (J) ppb",? 2.3 A liquid ",mple hasa concenlralion"f iron (r..,J "f 5.~ mg. L The density "f the liquId i, 2.ooog, L Whal ls Ihe Fe oollCenlration in ppm,"!

2A Coliform baLieria (e.g.,

[.d~·'IC!l., coli)

are excreted in large num""", '" hu",an and animal feces. Waler Ihat meels a standard of Ie" Ihan "ne coliform per 100 mL is considered safe lor human co"-"'mplioll, b a I L ". ater ,;un pie Ihal cOlllain, "ille colifon.~s 'NIfe for human co"sumptioll!

2..5 The trealed eftluent f"..,. a domestic "·..,,tewaler Ireatm""1 planl comail" ammo"ia al 9 mg 1\: Il anJ ,"I"le at 0.5 mg K I L em",erl Ih"'" conc""lrali",,, 10 mg 1\H.,/l a"d mg t\O,-/L

2..6 I"llrate cCII,cenlrati
2.7 Sulfale (SO.' l COrlC.",tral,,,,, i, 10 "'g SO,' Il a"d mon"hydrogen sulfide (HS-l wflCenlralion i, 2 mg HS-/L Whal is the lotal in,-.-ganic sulfur concenlration in mg S/L? 2.8 SUpf"'-'" you must determine the am"unl of hydrog"" halide, (HC!, HBr, alld HF) in the flue gas lea"ing a chemical reaclor. The emL~sion sampling train for IwJrngen halide delem\lnahnn call' for a toul of 200 ml of 0.1 I" H,SO, '" an abo.orbing ....Iulion. The absorbing ""Iulion will be localed on Ihe imping"", of Ihe "'mplillg train. (al Hnw many grams of H_SO, should be added 10 water to c....ale Chapler2 En¥irmmenlalM~

Problems

200 mL of a O. I N H.,50, ~olution1 (b) Calculalf! Ihe molarily of the 0.1 N H},O, solution (problem from EPA Air POllUli,," TraIning 1J~'ilitute), 2.9 The c",,,,,,mrali,,,, of cad ",ium (Cd) in a I;quid i, kno" n to "" 130 ppm at 2(1 C Calcul .•le the tnlal quantily of cadmium pr""""t in a I jl:allon ""mple. The ,;un\-te II ... a Je"'':I)' of 1>2,4 Ibl ft {pr,tJlem from EPA Air Pollulion Trallling In'litule!. 2.10 A, a qualily control check, a ""'pIe of aceI""e i, taken from a process 10 delennine the cnoce"lration of ,uspellded particulale maller. A" 1150 IIlL sample wa, placed in a beaker and elaporated. The ren'-'imn8 suspellded solids ",ere delermined In hale a mass of OJlOl g. The sJ-'ffific gra"ily of acetone" 0.79 g/em '. {al Delermille Ihe concenlration of the ,ample as mg/l. {bl Determine Ihe enncenlralion of Ihe ",mple a, ppm (probJt:,m from EPA Air Pollution Tr.Hning Inslilule). 2.11 A paper mill produces paper from" nod pulp. Pulp pm.:!udi,-., (al Ihe pulp planll ""gin, WIth Jig.".ting Ihe wood chip" in a ",Iulion of sodium h)'J roxide and sodium sulfide. n,e >OJ ium hydro,ide is dilutal ",III waler (,ho\\'n in the reaction belo"') prinr 10 being sent 10 Ihe dig",t."., N.lOH+H,O-Na~~OH ~H,O

If 4 kg of sod,um hydroxide is added for each J.{nJ l of water, detennine the following; (al Ihe molarily of Ihe r""ulting ",Iutlon, (b) Ihe Il,~rntahly of Ihe ""ulting solulion (probl"m from EPA Air Pollulion Tra",ing lr"lilulel. 2.12 In F1orid.l, ad,aoced "'asle",aler Irealmen! stalldards require 11'-'1 lrealed emuem have no Il""e Iha" 5 ppm BOD... 5 ppm TSS, 3 ppm 10lal nilrogen (TN), and 1 ppm total ph''''phoru, (TT'L (al Whal is Ihe ",,,,te,,,ater ~I.",dard for TN and TP in mg/L? (bllf all of the nItrogen is Iral~sf",med 10 nilrale during Ihe adl anced Ireatmenl," hal L'lhe eHluemlimil of IlIlrate In mg/L? (c) 1/ labora10') had obL>llIed and p~".,.j 200 mL ,ample of Irealed ",aste",.ller for Ihe TSS t.".t, ho" many mg of suspended solids ",ere caplured on Ihe flIler for Ihis sample?

,,"if

2.13 M ...."~ (MW 540) i""fullychlor"'dl<'
Arctic Circle in Norway ls 0.1> pg/m '. In th,s ",ea,,,,el,,,,n~ approximately 90 percenl of Ih" com· pound i, pr""'''1 in Ihe gas pita",; Ihe remall,d~r is adsorbed to parlkles, r~)f thi, probl~m, dssume Ihal "Illhe compound OCOJ" in Ih~ gas pha-e, Ihe humidity b negligibly 10"'. and th~ dv~rage baro"'~tric pr_ure is I dim. Calculale Ihe partial pres,,,,e of chiordan~. Tl,~ moleculu formula for d,lordan~ i, C"o.H". Th~ a"emge air t~l1lperature through th~ perio..:! of mea~u""m~nt " ..s -5 C.

2.14 Total mereurv concentrallons in Ihe Siln Francisco Bay A",a dre rep,..ted to"," 125 ny l in waler,l\ mg/L in rain, 2.1 mg/m' in air, and 250 ng i.. 1 1'1 ,~f dry sedi ...e,,1. Report alllh""" roncenlralii'lr'-s in ppl. A"ume Ihe dir le",!"'ralure i, 20 C

2.21

WhoH is Ihe mn""nlrduon III (a) ppm, ,>nd (b) percenl by ,'olum~ of carbon monoxid~ (CO) with d concemralion of 103 I'-g/m'? Assu",e ~ I~m pemlu"" of 25 C and pr"""ur~ (If 1 aim.

2.15 Leachate ls pl,.->dUC<' kg of b~n"""" (molo>rular formula of c"H,,1 were pldc<'
lio" engines 11"'1 gi ,,~ off e~hau.sl contaIning CO and 1':0,. A I'~rag~ CO mncenlr"ti01'-s med,ur<'
2.16 Chk..ophenok "nparl u"p1easant laste d"d o..:!or In drinking ". dler dl cnncentr.llions ~s I",,· a, 5 mg/m '. Tlley ar~ form<'3.5, ,nd 53, ""'Ixdlv~ly. 2.19 Tl,~ dl-,,,,lv<'
2.20

A,...,m~

Ih~1

2..22 lee-resurfacing n",chines use ",temal combu,-

2.23 Formaldehyde i, co",m(lnly foorw.:l in I"" indo", air of improperl), designed and construcI<'
2.24

Tl,~

c.-.-,cenlralion of owne (0,) in Beijing on a ,u",m~rdav(T 3OC,P latm)"125ppb,.. What is the 0, ";"ncelltralion in unit, 01 (al Ilg/m' and (bl moj"" ofO, per HI' mol"", of air?

2.25 Tl,e Nalional Ambient Air Quality Siandard (1'\AAQS) for 'ulfur dio~IJe (SO.,) b 0.1 1 I'pm, (2·1 h a,·erag~). (a) Wh.ll is Ih~ concentmlio" in I'-g/m' a,suming an alf te"'p"ratur~ of 25 C? (b) What j.the co""entrdlion in mol", SO., !"'r HI' mol"", of dir? 2.26 A bill100n i,fill<'
2.Il

2.28

uClean~

cotlC~nr.rdl",n

air nughl lM"e a ,ullur dioAide (SO,) of o,m ppm" "'h~e "pollul<'
migh, h.we ~ COnCen'r.llIon of 2 ppm,-, C
2.29 Cdroon nr>no,ide (CD) .• Ifeet" ,he oxygel>-Clrrying Cdpddly of y,)ur lungs. E'p""ure '0 50 PI'''', CO f<>rOO min ha, been found imp~ir olle', ~bili,y to JL""rllnin~,e "opping di-"ldnce; the",fore. motori,1S in hea"ily pollut"3 mg/m '? A"ume ~ temperature of 298 J<.

'0

2.Jll Hum"n, pmduce n.R-l.n l 01 urine p"" day. n,e annual Ina" of ph""phorus in ,his urine
2..31

A'i.SLUnef>(,~

Ille~I,"uall,,~s'iOlphosphorusi"'hl,urineisO.3kgl'.lf

hid"". "~Ier u'""ge is sn g.>llo1~s l-",rcdpiY l-",r d~y in d ,illgle itldiddu.ll ap.>rtmell', "I... t ls con""'llr~,ion (in mg I'/l) in II", wa"e",~ler ,I... t ls di""l...rged fmm Ihe ap.>rtmffi' unil? A='
by JMA 1,1C. h~s been observoo 10 l... ,e imp.lctoo n,lXXl g~l1ons of groondw~"'. ",ilh n.m lb of letracl~on",lhyle"" (PeEl. A"uming dll ,he PeE is pres«nl ill ,he di,,",hoo ph~", ~nd Ihe chemic~1 pollu,~nl is evellly di,t.ibu,ed ,hroughoul ,he imp.l<1ed volume of the groul\dwate., wh~, is the concenlr~lion of reE in groIJlld,,-ale. n, ppm?

2..32 A d.y

d,,~nillgfdd1i,y0" ned

2..33 A dry c1eanmg

f~dllty h~s

1>0£11 oo"erved I" ha,e imp.lcled 2n m' "f ~ ,a,urdleJ gn)uIIJ"'~ter aqu ifer (po.osi'} of n.30) ",ilh 0.70 lb "f telr~chlom ethvle"e {PeEl (moleculJ. formula "f C,Cl,). A binren...-diatk., '1,l»m is utitized that degr~d", ~1I o',he PeE p."",n,t" e,hene through the prnces, ". reduc,ive dechlnrinalio" (molecular fnrmula of ",hene i, C.,H,). H"" many moles/L of chloflne are p.""e,,' in ,he imp~cloo volu",e of ~qu ife. after .l1l1he PeE ls dffhlorina,ed! 1'nr""ily i, defined d" the number ()f "enlal Measoo!fOOIIIs

2.34 C"I'per

w~s

u,*,d ~, a fungicide in citru, orch.ln'" that are being con.,idered for ~ .,t,)""" ~'e. re,en"OIl ptnject." pdf! of the E,-e.gl••des r""lo.~ tion effof!. Cld to support ,he Eve.glades Snail Ki,e is 85 mg Cu/kg> Eml"gical threshold means thJI the ",il conce"lrati"n o' cnppe'C~I\I"'1HCeed lh" \"~lue. As,ume Ihe plow l~yer of "",I (uppe. b--l\ m.) for the 2,OOfl.-acre site ",eigl~, 2,lXXl,lXXllb.

2.3S The Deparl",ent of En,

lronmenl~l

Quality determined Ihat ,ox~phene mllcent.alion, in ,oil e"eeding MJ Ilg/kg (.egul~'nry aclion le"el) c~n PO'" ~ Ihrea,l" ullderlying g",u"dw~le•. (a) If a 100 g ,ample "f ,oil conl.,ins In -, g of ''',"phe,,,,, W hal ue ,he (~l I"... phene wU and (b) .egu ld,ory dCli"" IHel cn"",,"tr~lion, .eporle.:! in uni.. "f ppb m ?

2.J6 I'olvcyciic ~romalic h)'drocaroon, (['AHs~ are a cl~ss of nrg~nic che",ic~ls ~s"odaled with Ihe mmbu'i.tim of f"..;il fuel,. UII!ie"""p"d Jrms m~y ha,e 1<>I.ll 1'AH ""U concell,r~lions of 5 Ilg/ kg, while u.b~n a.e~s 11M)' h~,'e ""I cnn""nlrali,,", tha, r~nge lrom!if){] '03,000 fig/kg. Wh~, i, ,he co"",nl.~tion of PAHs in ulld*"eloped areas in UII;l, of ppm",?

2.31 TI,e conce",ralion "f ,oluene (C,H.,) ill ,ub,u.face soil ....mpl"" collec,ed after all u"de.groulld " ....Ji\" ,anI< "'dS ren~waJ indicated ,he ,olue"", cO"CelllrJli"" ",a, 5 mg/kg. Whll i, Ihe ,,,lue,,e concen,,,,,i,,", In ppm",!

2.38 While d"ling Zagreb, er"""d. Arlhu. Va" de L~y visits Ihe Mimar~ Af! Museum ~nd then t.•k"" in Ihe g.eat archi,ec,ure o',he city. He "lops a, ~ c~fe il\ Ihe old lown and ".de" a bollie oj mineral w~ler. The .epof!ed chemical cnncentr~ li
rsoti

TI,,, pH of Ih" w.,I"r i' 7.3. (d) WIldl i, Ih" hardn..,s of lho! wdler "' mg/L c..CO,? (b) Is lhe chemicdl dnaly,i" enrrect?

2.39 The c,ly oi Mdbourne, Florida, hdS a surface waler Ir"alm"nl planl Ihdl produce, 20 !\lGD of polable drll' kin8 waler. TI,.. waler >
2.40 A laboralory pm, ides Ih" following analysi, oblained irom a 50 mL sample of "aler. Ca'+ 1i0mg/L, Mg'+' lOmg L, Fe"+1 5mg l, F,,'·1 10mgiL, TOMl"oli.:b 200n'glL, suspelld&:l "'lid" 1fi{1mg . L, fL~l>.! ,usrend..:! solid" 40mg... L, and ",>Ialil.. "usp""dM "'lids 1211 mglL ia) Whal iSlheh,lrdnes""flhi,wale"ampleinunil",~fmg/La"

C..,CO,?(b)IVhali"th""o"cenlralionoflol"kli",ol,·ed "'lids of Ihl" ';'\lnple? (elll Ihi, ..."'ple w"' Fillered Ihrough a gla"'i-fiber filter, and Ihe" Ihe filler wa, placeJ "' a mliffle furna"" .11 S50 C ,,,,ernighl, "hal woold be Ihe weighl of Ihe'iOlid" finmg) re",ai,~ngon the filler after Ihe ,ught in Ihe furtldce? 2.41 1" 2010 landfills in Ih" U'"led S1alts produ~"f.'d approxllnalely 107.R Tg CD,.. of mrlhane emi.""",.s. \IIa.I"" aler U..,aUne,t pl,"'t, emill"'" lli,3 Tg CO.... of methan", (a) How 'lldlly pounds a"d metric 10", of meth.lne ("'P"rled as CO., "'1u"'alenls) did landfills a,ld " ~"'waler pla",s emil in 201 n? (b) Whal per""'" of Ihe 101.11 2010 melha,,.. emissiotl'i (and greenhouse ga" emiss,o",,) do Ihese ""0 sou"-""" contribule (101.11 methane emi"sion'i It, 20m we", f>li.6.5 Tg CO,.., and 101.11 greenhou,e ga" emi,,,"o'" in 2010 wer" Ii)l2LR CO.,.,1. 2.42 Mobi., ""mbustio" of 1\:,0 in 2010 emiltM 20.1i Tg CO",. Ho" many Gg of N ,0 ". as Ilus?

2.43 Rever", osnnsis is used 10 lrffil brackish groundwaler ",aler alld r"'1uII''''' 1 kWh of ellerg". per \ m of IrealM ",aler. In cOl1lpari,on, re,e,..,e ,,,,mo,,,, of ",a ". aler requIres ,I kWh of "nergy per 1m' of Ir"aled ",aler (thlS differen"'" is beeau,e of Ihe higher TDS collcenlralion of ""a ",aler1. According 10 eGRID. lhe carbon dtoxlde equlValenl

,

emi"ion rale i, l,32·1.791b CO,e/1I.HVh in Florida .",d 727.26 Ib CO,,,/MWh ill Californid. E,tlmale Ihe caroon footprinl of u_''''g re, el"ie ,,,,mosi, 10 de,alinale I m' brackish groundwaler and I m' seawaler in F1nrida and Cdlifo.,,,a. Ignore Ii'''' I",-;e" in your ""',ma'e.

2.44 Your home in Texas av",,'g'" 24 kWh/day of .,j""lrkily use. (dl Wha' i, your annual ",timate of indi, 'dual greenhou,e gas emisouII u,e I...",,, included in II", esl,male?

2.45 You are con,,;dering ""laDing a 10 kW _",Iar syslem lhal wm pnwide 1Vl)() kWh of eleClridy per year (a"sume you li,e in Ihe eGRIDsubregion SERC Mid",est). Assumrng your ele.:lricily con"umplton remainslhe same. h'M much i" roo r carbon fmlprinl red uced e, ery year (in pounds of CO,) if you inslall Ihe "m,l' pa"els?

2.46 You are c,,,,,idering pu",ha,ing a new lel"""i,ion sel and "'i,h 1(\ faclor illihe energy c",,,equell""" of your purcha"", You are co",idering a 55 in. ",reen mooel (",ree" is ,19,75 in. high and 29.75 in. "',de) and a 32 in. screen mooel (screen is 29.1 in. wide and 175 in. h,gh1. Research shows Ihal for Ihese part,cular models, Ihe 55 in. ",reen con"um", 0.10 W/in." and Ihe 32 in. _...:reen con,umes 0.17 W/i,,' (a) Comp"re Ihe Iwo lele,"ioos by delerm""ng Ihe pm"" raltng (number of "'alls) a"<>ciaIM w,lh each lelevi~ioll ,ize. Repml vour an"wer in "dllS, N-m/s. and U'- (b) How many kWh of energy are C"'~.! m'er a 3f>5day year (assume you ope,""le the lele""i"" 3 h per day). 2.47 A lat"ral"'y pr",idf.." Ih" foll"'"ng solids analy and Chap!erTwo F'mbIems

Ihen plac.-d in an ,wen al IO~ C unlil all moi,lUre b e,al"'raIN. The weight 01 Ihe dri....:! di-J, is recmd.-d as 11.5625 g. A similar 100 mL ,ample is filtered and Ihe 100 mL liquid """'pie Ihal p"sses IhrOlJgh the filler is eollo!<1oo and pL.oc d in another drying d"h (weighl O.5000g bd e Ihe

Chapler2 ErMrmmental MellSIUmeIIIs

sdmple is added). nu, sample is dried al llJ.1 C, and Ihe dried d "h's ",e,ght lS record.-d a, 0.5325 g. Delermine Ihe mnee"lralio" (i" "'giLl of (a) lotal solids, (b) lolal ,uspend.-d solids, (Cl Iota 1dlssolyed solids, a"d (d) ,olalile ,uspended solids (assume VSS 0.7 x TSSl.

References [n, ,n .",,,.,,,,Il'n "'-"
1(,.,h>
al-R,I~-all

f"I.'lOll.

""""1..",,,, C.."

pm....'~,

MlpJ Iw~ w.w.~pn""-'.''''l'"'';''~'•.J

lundl 1012.

\w.......... j. Il., 1_ r....."""'..I,,,; [n.'n.....,,'.1 ['I.-;...,i"X ~,w' Y.~L1"hn lI'il..,

01< So .....

".n.~w

!<.""

""1',11 "'·w" "1"'!I',,-I~ Ju""

~1,

w•.-IJ M""""''llK ..1C"'I',n,,""., {\\'M01,1012. , _ , _ 8.IMm, ~,. ~< '",,--m",-~ 19, !OIl, C"""-~'''' S'" "'-"""00

chapter/Three Chemistry Jame. R Mihekic ond NoelR Urbon Tltl. chopl'" presenl. several jmportoni chern kol proce, ""thai de5l:'; be the beha""" of chem,cal. in boil engineered and nOlJra .yslems. Th" chapl"r begin. wir/, a di,cu"ion of Ih..diIF".... nc fI be""een ad" iIy and concenlrolion. II then COl''''' reaction 51Oichiomfllry and Ihe,modynanic jows. FoJlowedhyoppli cm,onnflne... principles 10 a vo,lely of ttquilibrium p,oce""•. The b
Chapter Contents

3.'

Approaches in EnvOronmental Chemistry

3.2 3.3

Activity and Concefllralion

3.'

Thermodynamic laws

3.3

,.

Volatilization

3.'

Acid-Base Chemistry

3.8

Oxidaliorl-ReduclKln

3.'

Preciprtalion-Dissoluliol"t

3.10 3.11

Reaction Stoichiometry

Air-Wall!!" Equilibrium

Adsorption, Absorption, and

-"'" Kirlellcs

Learning Objectives I. U"" ionk ,Irenglh 10 calculale aeth'jly roeflki""b; ret eleclmlytes and nonel""ll'Ol} t,.;. 2. Write baLlnrro chemical ",aclion,. 3. Relale the fj"l anJ I.ll1oOi'-prlnciJ>1'" In p,.""J let Ihe p.lrtili"ning of ~hemi~al, am""g dillerent e",·ironme"l.al mroia. 7. E.,timat" h"" ron",ntraliolc, ,,-ill change dUring the cou...., "f react ''''''' lI,ing kin..tic rale ..'p .......ions for 7e'n "'te.

•

3.1

Approaches in Environmental Chemistry

Chemislry;s ,he slud y of ,he composition, r"'lCli",~s. dnd char.c'erislics of mdlter. It lS import.", be<'-.lL"'" ,he ullimale I.\te of m."y chemicals disch.lrged 10 .ir, water, so,l, .,ld ,r","men, f.cililies i, mn,mlled by ,heir reacti, ily ."d chemical .'pedallon. {Mig", CO'\5,ruct;on, .nd op.,rdtion of I",almenl proc.:I'bon,lha' w,lI e.•lsl a, equilibr,um. If reaclio"s happe" ,-ery rapidly relali,-e '0 ,I", lim.. fra",",of ou, illle"""', ,he fi"al c",ldi,i",,, ,hal ,"",uh fn"n !l", reaction are li""ly In be of more inte"",t than ,he r.''''' dt II hid, Ihe "",clion occurs. 1" ,hisca"" an equilibrium approad, is lL..."j. ExamplU" ph.ase inelude acld----ba", reaeliot", COll\plexdlion 'eacti"ns, a,ld """'" phase-,ra,e-f", read in"". ,uel, a" \-'oIalili7.a,ion,

3.2 ActiVity and Concentration For a sub gre.>t1y differ include ",a" alec, briny gmund"'dler, r""yded st,e"n",. and highly concentrated ",a
bet""""

f",

UNEP Chemicals Branch r_tf'/ I""",'" 1-",,,,.,,",,p'" hi

.ped... ), expr.... Ih"

a~th·,tl'

"""ffeiellt of an ",d ,vidual .ped""~, a functin" of Ihe i"ni~ .trength. The ioni~ strengllt of a ""lulion (",Ferred to as I or 11) ha, units of mol""fliter a"d ), a m",surenf tho> long-range electrostatic ;,lleraclioM i" thai solut,on. Fonic slrenglh.:an be calculated a.s f"no",,,

[11

12I:.C,::.'

I

(3.1)

" he", C is Ih" "'OIM concentralion of "n ionic spea"" i in solUlion and ' ; LS Ihe charge of the ion. In "'''''I nalural ",at""" the ionic '1"'''&lh i, derived primarily from the major backgr,~und ~alion, and anion,. Fr",h"'ate" typ,cal!) ha"e an ionic ,t",ngth of O.OOl--{l.il1 M, and the ocean has an ionic strength of approximately 0.7 M. The ionic .Irength of aqueolL' sy,tems rarely "x"""'
2.5 x 1O-·'(TDS)

(3.2)

l.ll x 10-' (,p.rific conductallce)

(3.3)

"h"re TDS is in mgll, or

11

"h"re 'f"'Cific conductanc" " i" micromh"" per c"nli",eter ( I'mhol cm) alld e, mea,ured lI·ith a conduct,,',ty met"r. The method. for calculating acti, ily roeffidenl' for electrol; teo; alld """electrolytes are ,ummarized in Rgure 3.1. [/eel ro(~II'S (for example, rlr'~ , SO,'-, IICO, '-1 h.we a dldrge associaled "ith them; """drclnlIylcs (lor example, 0,. II,SO" ChIlo) do lIOl.

e X ample I 3, 1

C3.lculiltin!llonic Strlllgth and Activity Coefficierts for ElectrolyEs

Calculale th" ionkslrength and all the illdi, idual adivLty mefflCienl' for a I l solution of waterat 13 C in which 0.01 mole of FeCI. and 0.005 mole of! [,SO, are di,,,,I,&1.

solution Aft.". Ihe t",o cmnpound, are place:! in waler, Ihey will completely de.., ,,date to form 0.01 M f-e M 11-,0.03 M CI-, and 0.005 M SO/-. TI,e i"nicqrenglh L~calculated by Equation3.1: I'

12 0.01 (3_)' _ 0.0111-)' + 0.0311- j'

+ 0.005(2- )'1

'1---,

0.01

oms M

This ,onic .Irenglh ,s relatkely high bUI 51,11 much I",~ 'han lhal of ~ea"·ater. The G untelberg apoproxinl.ltion (see Rgu'" 3.1) is u"",,ful lor calrolal,ng acti, ity roelflCi",u. 1M electrol}'", "'he" 11 < 0.1 M. n,e value of A" depend. on lemperalure alld "'lual~ 0.49 al 0 C, 0.50 at 15 C, and 0.31 at 25 C H

111 I'l

1l.78.1ICr)

1l78.1ISO/-j

Il·JIl'l(Fe'+}

0.11

The acti,ily coefficient> of io", w,th higher valence deviate much more Iron, 1.0 lor a given i",,,c .Irength; Ihat i" lor electrolyt"', u'"' 0/ acli, il} coeffidenl~ is omch more 'n'port.,nl for ion~ wllh a higher "alen"", becau~ lhey are ,Irongly influenced by the presence of Olher ion•. Thu,. while al a particular ionic sll"i!nglh, il may not be important 10 caleulat e acti"ity cnt'ffic,enb lor mlm""alenl ions, il nlay be ..ery inlporlant fm di-, tri-, and letravalent

,,,"So

Chapler3 Cllemistry

ex am p

leI 3.2 Calculating Activity CQeffidents lor Nooelectrotvtes

An ai. slrip!"" i. u'ied 10 .~mi:l,'~ bel\7.en~ (C"I [,.) from seawater and fresh w at~r. A•• um~ Ihe lonk st'~l\gth of seawal~r i, n.7 M and that of fr""hwat~. is 0.001 M. What Ls th~ activity coeffid"m for in
bet,?"",,,

solution

lL'" Il'"

Ile<:au~ be,,,,en~

is a ni:ln..r"'lnll}1e, ",,~_i(fl in Figur~ 3.1 to rodfid~nls. Th~ ,alu" f()l" k, (th" salting"ut coefficient) for ben7."n~ Ls 0.193. log.., log.., log..,

d~"mline

th" aCb>'it)

1<.~1.l

O. 195" (0.001 M I: resulK in 11 f.15hwat.".j 0.195xj0.7Ml:re;ullSUl..,(sea,,·ater) 1.4

Fnr fr""hwater, Ih" dcli' ,ty coefficient d".,.; not d"";at~ much lmm I. It turns oul th~,.., is hltl" d""iation for """ckclrolyJ", '" h~n l'- < 0.1 M. TII"'''fnr"" d~t~rmln ins dcti, ity coe/fid~Ill" for n,,""'I<.-ctrolyt"" Mom"" "nportantl"r solut;ons w,th high ionk ,I.engtl,s. For m..,1 dilul~ en, jronm~nldl sy'l~ms, activlly """ffki~nt. for electrol},t"" and non",I~<:tmlytesusually a.~ assumed to be equal to I. Places wh~.~ th~y can sail' imporlanc~ are in Ihe ocean, estuaries, bnny groundwate., and so",,, recycled 0 •• eused waste streams.

STEP 1

F1g".. /3.1

An..

calculalo ionic strroglh!rom

Two-Step P"",.", 10

D. t.rm ine A ct ivi IyCO. ffi< i. n l' for

[I«trol)·t"" ~nd Noncle
~ ~~ ~,C,z? iEQUation 3.11

If"""""'-"II999l.lof.-,"o,h., t'f'O"";'""" 01 )oM ~a s".", "'I

.stlma'o ""'''' strtIOglh allo' mo-..urlo\llhe soIulJOn's 1OlB.I dlSSOMId solids (Equawn 3.2)

()( cord.ICl''''Y (EQuatJoo 3.31

,/' II

sp<>cl
IS ....

~locIroIyIa,

r.... a.W""" !lit ~

t

STEP2

~

spocies IS. noo
\.

-

F",.n ionic st'cogtfls.

US
lor

Iho GUnt
,...,j. .j

oppro.
(A '"

3.3

0._"""""' " -_ -.-.... ........"""

CK<_rr,.""""

'"""""" _ _ (~ '" "'" Mu)

Reaction Stoichiometry

The law of ron... of concenlration bUI alSf'> for calculaling chemical inputs and outputs_

3.4 Thermooynamic LaM As Ihe roob of Ihe word imply {lhamo equals heal; dy,,~mo equals change}, lhermodynamics deals with con"ersions of energy from one form 10 allmher. T.lbie], I pro,'ides an overview of Ihe firsl law of thermodynamic< and second law of thermodynamic... Figure 3.2 illu,trates Ihe cha"ge in free el""gy (Ci during a reacti"n. In Figure 3.2, a process could pr(lCeed if il reduced Ihe free energy from its ,alue al point A in Ihe dir""llon of po"'l C, bul il could not proceed jf il raised Ihe "nergy in lhe d"eclion of poilll B. n,e process could proceed from A "' far as poinl C, but it c("Juld nlll go furl her 10hard poinl D, A reaclioncould also proceed frolll poinl D lo".lrd poill! C or poinl L Th" is because m", IIlg in either direction resulls in a decrease In free energy. POlIll [ i, called a local "'lu ilibn um. !l i, not Ihe minimuml"",sible energy point 0/ the syslem (I"'inl C lSl. bul lole.,.e 1"-'; "I E requlr"" an illpul of energy. Ilence, if the free energy oj a syslem under all ",nd,liOlLS could be quantified, W'e cnuld Ihen delermine Ihe changes 111.}1 could nccur sl"">lall""usl y ill Ihat sy
.'.l-:' ~ RT III (Q)

(3.4)

Ov........iew of the firotand Second lows of Thermodynamic. Whot It --.sic Us

fi"" law 01 tl>ermodyn.,mic.

"""'y

Ene'l;", L' ",n",rn'
flux", acr,,,,, ,he

w,tem I""",&n""

JU

dQ-JW_dG

wh= U

inl.rn.d ""ergv

",nten', Q - he.t mo'cnl, IV work done•• nd G - ""ergv of chemic.l input,

Th.. reIa'.rm,hip d,,,,,,m,rra',,, tha, 'he ch<""ical poIen'",1 (lho ene'gv ""hin ,hechomlC~1 bn<>d, 01 ,. 0-.01=1<)

co"",m,,,,, ~ f'd" 01 'he ",,,,1 energv 01 ,ho w,"'m. In ~ cl,.,..,.j system (io ",hich C"-"'. 'he th,rd 'orm 00 the right ",ould be ,,!>;ont), ,,'.>Chon.' ,hat change the chenuc~1

poIl'n'",1

""hou,

ch.,nging the ;n"...,.,1 .nergy con'ent mu,t ,"",ul, in "'Iuiml,-",' chang'" in heo, coo'ent ,nd in the ,'olu"", work performed

p"",,,,re-

,."Ild '0 k...,

Sec
All "-<'en,,

IhcrmoojTlolm,'"

u..,{ul ""'-'
Formal de/ini,ion 01 Gie/osfm:

"'''''l/!I' G

I;, Iii

N,

II-T

TIm, .., pmcc,s ",ll proct....... 'PO" ",,,,,,,,,-,Iv t", •""'!IV p'-" j"", the .",tem Imm 'he ""',>delo,,ly ,t ,l>e pr,,,,,,,,. le.>d, '0.1 d=,....., to ,he ITee """'l\yol'he ",,'tern "hat ,..,.I.G " III

,hou,

The Gibb< froo """'ll.v i< relined 10 ,he .}""""'~ en'halpv (1/1. enlmp" (Sl•• nd ''''''I''-'r.turo (n. Tho e~v 01 mtor· .nd inrra·m<~ocuL" bond. tn." bind ,,~~, at"",•• nd moloculo< toge!her i. ,.,."..,.j mlhD'I'V• ",hil.· ,." r"'l"l rot"", 10 ,he di"""'-..- of tho -"',,,''''''Tho chemk.>l poteot",l 01 all "ul>
P""""". ,.,.

en'h.:Jlpy ~nd cot"'py

""'"" "h~r~ .le" i. lh~ ehang~ in free energy delermined under """dllnl co>!.f,li",,",, R i. lh~ g., enn".nl, T i. Ihe .mbi~nl I~mper.tur~ or' K, .nd Q i, the re.ction qU"li~nt..lG" i. d~lennin.,.j lrom re.ction
reference, pro"id~d~t:.lil on deler",inalion .,nd apphc.tion of lhi.term hee, for ,,-,ample, Mih~ldc, 1999). n,e ",acti"n quotient Q i. d ..fined a. lh~ product of lh.. aeti"lIies {.ppar~nl COrleell"at,o". 01 lhe r~.eli"n product,) rai.ed to lhe power of their .toichiometric cnefficien", d,vided by lhe product of lh~ .clivilie, (or concentr.tio".) 01 the reaclall" rai.ed 10 lhe 3.4 Tl"""kldyn
power of their Slolchimnetrk codncle,,". Thus, for the ge"e,,,lized react 1011, all_bB_cC_dD

\3.5)

;11 which u moles of compound II react with b moles of compound B to fmm r mol ... of compound C a nd of ",o]e" of compound 0, Q i, gi,-en by F19ure/3,2 C~a~e i" F",e E"~8" lc.>d, I~ a d~,-TI."a.Se in fn-'e""''''1W lilla, i •. I"," lhe ~ ..ward TL'aCtioo, illhe 'lope '" a tangont ~,'he cun"" ""l:a~Ye). Ihro lhe Te.>cti<>n can pl"<"O'.'Cd 'pon~U\e(',,,IY. !'n",,, C and ['~'pn"rn'f""'.iblc ""Iu;libnum poinl.!x>:au..., lhe .Iopes'" tangen" .'II 11lL..., polO'" would be Z<.'1'O.

....M;I,olci, I' 9991·'.".-;..... ,.;0, f*"~,,,,,,,01

~

"",,,'-'Iloy & Son>. no_I

Q

1C}'{DI~

(3.6)

jllf'/!'!"

As noted in E.ample 3.2, activ~y coefficients (y) are usually assumed to equal I, dIU', Q can be calculated based on concentratioll'. Table 3.2 describes the four rules used to determ,ne \\hat "alue to use for the "c'''-ily (",ncemralion) I iJ in Equat;on 3.n. r'OlIo" ing th""e rule, is essential to make "cli"itie, ,,"d re"cti"n quotIents dime'l.io"Ies.• .

.ue,

Rules fOf' Determining Value of ['1 T}",,,, detetmine whol voue to u"" lor the achvity (thol i>coocenrrallon) ""me and leoclia" quali en\< dim"",ionle".

Rule'

fodiquid, (fore""mple. wat"", I ill. "'IILII 10 the mole tr.ldion 01 the ... ,.",,~ In "'1UffiU. solubon.<, lhe mole frac-oon"; ,...re, can be a,",umeJ Ia "'Iual l. Thl1<, IHPI.lwa)', "'Iuat, 1

Rule 2

for ruTe snl><1. in "'Iw1;bnum WIth a snlUll"" (for e",mplc,

eaco...." Fe(OH)...,,): Iii .,h,".,.. equal. ,.

Rule 1

f,.. ga"" "' equl1ihlUn, l\~lh. soluli
Rule4

fo, comf'lUmj,di
~f=y1-f-"\--

r

aG

_L

w

~L

_ E.. ..,tal~

Fl9ure I 3,3 Ene'll"t;c Relal;on.~;ps Rcquj",d fou Read;on t<>Oeeur ..IG "callod the Gibbs ITL~Ychange. ~"'"' Mftl<~ I'

9991·'''''-; oMd,.;o, f*"~,,,<>001

"",,,'-'Iloy & Son>. no_I

Chapler3 Cllemislry

Only ""lCli",~, that result in thermodynanucally fa,-or,.ble changes ;n their energy
Equ,librlum L~ definN ~,Ihe slale (or pos,'ion) ""th Ihe nnnimu", I"'l""ble f,,,,,energy. Th"nccurred ~I poinl C in Figure3.2 The v~lue cl Ihe slope ~tlhe po"'t of equ,librium (po"'t C) i, O. In other word" Ihe change in fl"f.'e e,,,,rgy " zem ~I equilib,ium. If thech~nge in f,.., energy e.G) L~ equal t,) 0 al "-luilibrlum, Ihe rea,'lion quolienl al equilibnum 1_ Equalion 3.6) i, u.u~lly "rillen ""h ~ special symbol, /C, ~nd is pro. ided a ,pedal name, lhe equilibrium consl~nt The equilibrium con,tant lor the react,nn "rulen as Equalion 3,5 LS given by Ihe equilibnum "'~dion quolient, Q",,,:

;c p,' A "n'

(3.7)

K

TheeqUllibrium COl"I3I,t is uselul be<:aU,",;1 prwides theratio ofthe concentr ~Iion (or act,vity) of individual reactants and produets lor ~ny reaclil..", al "'l.uilibrium. Rememn.r. aCbvily cndficient> ml.ht be indudN if cond,tions are nol ,deal and Ihese coefficients are r~ised to appropri~lestoichiometric, alues. Do not conf"", the equ,librium roll",,,,t. K." ,th the ,eaclion rate cO" and partotion coefficients are defined for reacti",,, Ihal describe ,'olallli7-al,nn (""Iuralonn vapor pr......urel. ai,-waler exchange Illenry's I~", constanl, 1(,,). acid-ba", chemi.try (I(. and /Ch)' oxidation-,eduction reaclions (K). pre.:ipllal,on---<:lj,snlution reacli"n. (K",), and ,orpl,ve pa,IH,oning (K".KpK",.l(l.

~ EfffX:t of Ierooerallre on the EQllljlrjnm ConstarJI Mo"labula'ed "'luilib,ium """t.,,,t, aTe 'e<'",ded al 25 C. The v~n'l HoU TeI~liort.hip (Ii'luatinn 3.~) i. u",,1 10 en""e,1 "'luilibrium cuo,laoh tE, tempe,ahutS oth".- 1h.J" tl.,,,, for whid> tf>., labulaled ,"ahle, a,e p",,-ideJ. Van"t 1I,,1f di""",,,rt>J Ihal the e'luilibrium ""n~;mt lK) "a,ied ",ith absolute lemperatu,,, a"d Ih" enthalpy of a ,eaction (.lIt~. Van't f10ff pTt'P'~",d Ihe I"n""ing np''''''''' I" d""CTibe thi" dinK

(3.8)

" Ile,e .ilf' is foo,>.:I lrom 11", heat "f fnrmali"" Oil,"} lor lhe ,eaction 01 inl",est delermin"" al

,la"J,;,rd wndil.ion", M,,,,t temperatur"" enC
,,'R , (2.T, _2.) T1

U.91

Equalion 3.9 can be used 10 cakulate an equilibroum ro'L5I~nl lor any temperature fth~t i" lemperatu,e 2, T") if the equihb,ium roJLs~mt is kn"",,, at "",>ther ab>nlule lempe,alure (T I. "hich is usually :m C or 23 0.

Equilibrium C.,.,.,.. I' I'

3.li ,,"...Wa'... Equilibrium

17Acld-BHaCheml0"Y _ _ ~ t e _ . H '

o 8a>o ~ C
• 0Ir

3.10 AdOOfllllon, A_ption, Sorption

~otor P"f!':ion

{K". "" K,d

r....-povamo....

{II; Ilnl

Figure I 3,4

Importanl Equil ibrium PlOce.."" for Em'ironmcnlal EnKincerinR-

[Moo..! r.,", M, '‫סס‬1o<119'>91

,..,., o>od "" .. po<~ ,...,.01)00.W..,..!. So"o, .... ·1

3.5 Volatilization A ke)· ,1"1-' in Ihe Ira,,,ler of pollutanls belw""" dlffere"l e""ironmenial media i, volatilization, All liquids and ,.,lid, e,isl in equilibrium with a ga, or I'apor ph.,,,,. Volalili£ation ('ynonymous "ilh "'''llOmli"" for Ihe ca", of waler) i, Ihe tra",formatio", 01 a compound Chapler3 Cllemislry

from Its liquid stale 10 it, ga""o,", st.,te, S"I'fiwallo" " the ....ord usal for lr"n,form.uion from the ",;;d 10 gasa'luS state. n,e re"e"" ",acl"~,, is tenn"'" co",1""",IIO", Most people h,,'e first-hand experience with Ihe phenomenon 0/ subli",alion 0/ waler. n,e waler I aJX>' In Ihe alm,"phere !the humidily) is a function of temperature. J\.k>d a pure liqUId or ",lid plYse i, delerm",ed by Ihe saturAled ,'apor pr"",ure of ,mmpound. Salu raled vapor p ,e
Spre.Id of Chemi<~bThroul\hVol.... iliz.... ion The pm",,,,,, of "'l"'T0"S toxic ChL'flllCaJs.to other IDIlntnL.. th.J, tr..'1\ ",-'!urn by otm'-.;phenc tramp"n h.J, OC"'" h.'TfIlL'nic I"'llu"nls (POP,) beanlecono..'TIlr>led in I"" fond Ch.Jll\ where th'-'Y can cause lOllOJnpmenl. and immunnl.rWp.utmenl h.", t~ rap.; "one ot the gm>t "",·i,,,,,,,,,,,,!.>1 ch.JII<.'I\ge< the "wid faa....." POPs inch1&> 1'"lychlori""Il.-d bIphenyls (PCllst 1"~,·chl,,,i""Il.-d dlbenU>-p-
fu,a,,'. and I""'tlCides such.lS DDT. lm.'phene, ch~",hne.•nd ""pl.1chlnr I''''''' M.koIti< 119991,1 "f';n!od 'Oi!h F-"" Won 01 JoI>n w; Ioy& s""" "',1· 3.5 VoIaliilaliDn

Class Discussi
'Llbstance that ~,;';b in "'luilibrium ",ith Ih~ ~quid 0' ,,-.lid pha", of Ihe gi,~n I~mperalure . ... ... """,~=-....~rDf't>tre The more "olalile a mmpound, the higher ,t~ ""Iurated ,-apor pres~ul ",,,,,,u'act.url~i1 """I:; uo1.1 fhm.< c""""",I~ p,"""su", of the peslicide lindane i, 10 .... aim al the ""me lemperature. YO~o.: rro~ ' ""J "",?"al prtS.la,ue at a

...

u""""

""tI,

"'u- ~ ar,J uo< 01

~""",,",'<:J

,I-""" e«".e"" G_"'n U-to .,Ianr...,..",. wn.:.~ ,,!,,It..>,,,",

aM

",,~t.a<~~
u-..... cor-"currJ

t.l-ie' 0'1

13.10)

Equalion J.IO ind icale, Ihalliquid ",at~r l~ in equ,lIbrium "ith g~'eous waler (water ,-apm). The "'luilibroum mn,t.,,1 (called Ihe ",1"",1,,1 I'".""re) for lhi~ reactio" is

""1""

II,Q~

K

[11,0,'

(3.11)

" here PH,o i, the I"'r!ialpres.~ureof waler. !lffau"., Ihe mncenlralion (~s~umed 10 equal the acto,ily, Ih,'1 is, l 1.0) of a pure liquid b defined a, 1,0 (rem~mbe, Rule I in Table 3.2), Ih" equ,librium ,,,,,qanl is simply "'luallo the co,uenlralion in Ih~ '-"1"" phase (called Ih" ,alurat.,.] vapor pr""ure). One way of ""pr"",ing ga'>-pha"., m,,,,,,ntralions i, as par!ialpr""~Llr",,; hence, the equilibrium ron,lanl ror ,·ol.'lIlizat,on olien is expre<>ed in unit~ or almospheres. If a mixture of mi""ible (mLllually soluble) Hquid<------ralher Ihan a pure ]jquid-wa~ P""""tIl, Ihe den"mi'\ilI'>, ill Equat"'" 3.11 ",ould be the mnc.."ur~tion of Ihe individual liquid (A) in "'ole fraet"",s, X,,;

, Class Discussi
...

I\r<""<",,,.
...

a",,-..'oI"h'n.n an< ~~ """ ""~ 01 .... , "." c~t)' ""'...&~I""", I '" Uon ""g".oec~ar< ".o~a~ri~'? I\re..y;

Chapter 3 Chemistry

13.12)

Equali"" 3.12 is know" a~ It~oull'. law. n", m"sunl, K, "'luaL~ the ,,-,Iurat.,.] vapor pressLlre. Raouh', la" i, '--'-""'Lll " h"nel er a mixture of chemical' (for e"ample, gasoline, diesel fuel, or lcen_ne) is oiling point ollhe mmpound, lhe val"" p,,,,,sure "'luals alm""pheric pres~ure. This 'lalemenl has pr~clical con,1>qu"nces. Fi"'t, almo,pheric concenlralions 01 voial,le sub"la"ces tend to be higher in summer than in ",nter, in Ih" day ,ersu, al nighl, and in warmer 1""~lions. Second, for any slruclur,llly .imila, group of liquid chemical, exp"""d I" Ihe air, Ihe equilibroum gasphase ""ncentration< ",ill decrea,e in "'der 01 increasing boil"'g poinl<.

A

lication/3.2

The ClITlplexily of Enviromamlal Problems: Mercury ald Enw!ly

Genpra!joo from Goal On~

f",tu", of ~",·iT()nm~nlal pmbl~m, i, Inat lh~" ",Idom .m"cunfm..J h'j""t "'.., m...Jrum. f,W" ~,,",mp ... ,a 1010' In... m~IT1JTV di""harg...J inl" tn~ "",;mnm~nt i, fi"'l ""'itlt." '00,,1 damaging ~ff""t> ,>ccur in "''''''' "fl~r il 'Om·..." thmugh tn... atmo· ,pn...n.., i, d"l"",it..-dnd, 01 fi'hing ad,·i",ri"" in th~ u5. tak"" M",t m~rcury i, rd"",,,,j inlo th~ ~n,-i",nm~n1 irum combu,hon oi en.,] a,,,,,,ial..- "i r~n~wabl~ ~n~rgv. In addili"n, China i, ~~pt'CI..- mal mn,umplion by

ex am pI el 3.3

20lU. and th~ mig,ati"n of it> population lrom rural to urban "r~a' i, r""ulling in incT"'''..-i it, plan I" cun,ume it> ,-a,1 ,tme, "I cua!' The binU~ "fI,,,... 1i",," ,,,,-·h,,, Ird"".",carbim d i,,~ide a nd other gn.,""o"", ga "'" i 010 t he "I"..", ph"" e. II al", illCUr> oth..-r futu", "",,,,""ie, ,,>cia!, 'md em;mnm mn thu, ha"e """"",I mUlu;,lty lJen..nciai Impact> 10 tn., """mm}', ><",;"ly. and lh-< ",,,.i,,,mn,,nl

,n,

Calculalioo 01 Gaseous Concenlralioo in a COnfined Area

On a Fnday afternoon, a worker ~pills I l 01 tetrachloroethylene (PCE) 0" a laboratory lloor. 11,e "orker immN iately doses all the ",t"d"ws and .100'" and lun~~ off the, entllation in order to a"old rontaminattng the relt of the blJitding. The worker notifies the appn'pnate s.tfety authanty, but It is Monday morning befo'" the ';dIety offtdal "0p' by It ilh" crelt 10 clea" up the laboratory. SIt""ld the cleanup erelt bring a mop or an air pump to dean up the room! The "alum" of Ihe Idbnralory tS 340 m " and the t"mperalure ill the roon, L~ 23 C For PCE, the "aJX'r pres.~"re l~ 0.1123 atm. the liquid d"nsity at 23 C b 1.1>2 g/"'" ',and the molecular weight is 1f,(, gl m"le.

solution PeE l~ a "olalil.,ehemical. The problem a.,1;." hm, much of the I Lol ~p~led PeE remai"ed on the floor ".,,,,us holt ",urn "oIalilized into the air. It any PCE ",,,,... ined on the flnor, the partial pres",e of PeE in Ihe air \\'ould be 0.0"---3 attn. 11", ideal g'" la"' can be used 10 ",l)e for lhe numoo of m
"

,v

"

l.OOOl) (nOaatm)' (3-lOm'j ><~ ( 0,08205 L-,"m mol.,..K ' (2'E K)

34Rmob

Tl",density oWCEean beu",d lodeter"'i"" thai tl'" I l.2Og. U" ng the molecnlar ,,,,,jghlof PCE, tl", I l spill wooll c""lain 98 moifS of PCE. Tlu< is much IfSS than t he an~Wlt thai cCOJId potenlially "olatilize into the air III the [(\(}m (34R molesl, a"uming eqUIlibrium ha.~ been attaIned. 11,us, it can be ronduded that no l'CE ",,,,,Id remain on the floor, and il \\'
3.5 VoIaliilalion

example/3.3

(continued)

Thi. problem dem",,~lral'" .",ot"". Important point' chemL'lry and eogi""",,,'g need 10 bllrome "gree"." If a g.""n chemic-al (with ~.em haZdrd) were ,ub!;lituloo for Ihe ",h-eol I'CE inlhe requ",,,d U"'. Ihe." would be 110 risk and. Ihus, no concen, relaloo 10 Ihe sp,lL Beller yet. perlMI" Ihe p"-.ce;;; lhal Ihe PeE "a, used for could be changed '" Ihat I\() chemical is reqUIred al all. This Iype of thinking I\'ould result in reduced hNlth c,",ls. because "-orke,,, would not beex~ 10 loxicchemkal•. Other .... >ing" would ,"",ull bec-.>u'" Ihere would be no ''''lu;re",enl 10 pay Ihe clNnup c.ew for re",edial;rIO, rIO e"ergy ,lffdl'd for lhe .emediation pha..., I.".; pape.wo.k "-,,",,,Ialed Wilh regulal")]" lhal goven, Ihe handling and 'Iorage of Ihe PeE, and no futu.e liability a-.eialed with ~I
Green Chemistry ~_"..P'J1 _"P" .p<1¥"""'Cr_'~"Y

3.6

Air-Water Equilibrium

The Henry's lal\' constan~ K Il • is used to d",cribe a chemical's equilibrium belw"",,, the air and w-ale. (oflen lermed Ihe di,solled or aqu<.'O!J') pha"",,_ Thi, ,itualion is referred 10 as air-waler equilibrium. Henry's law i, iU'l a ,peeial case of Raouh', ld" (Equalion 3.12) applied 10 dilute s)"'lems (mosl elwl",,,me"lal situatIons are dIlute). Bem"-,,, Ihe mole f.action of a di,solved 'ubstance in a d,lute syslem b a \ e.y ,mall nu ",her, concenlratiolL' ,uch a, 1\\0lesjL Iypicall) a.e used ralhe. Ihan ",ole fractinns. Equ.,tinn J.12 can aL", be u>&llo eslimale 1!enry'~ la" """lanls in Ihe a!»ence of reliable ,,-,penmental dala. To determine a llenry's la" con,tanl for a pa.ticular chemical. d,,-ide the salu.ated .-apor pressure nf Ihe chemical by ils aqu<.'O!J' "olubllity. ll\e ulUIS of llenr!,.l"" colL,tanl vary depending nn whether I"" airwaler exchange 'Ndion is wr,llen in the fo", .,rd Ji"'<:l;on for lransfe. f",m the gas ph.,-", into aqurou, ph..", or Imm the aqueous phiL", ,,'10 Ihe ga, ph..", In addllion. Ilenry" l"w COI"tanlS may aL", be unlll_. Thus. il LS importanl to u'" Ihe pn-.per unllS. understand" hy particular un,ls are u"-'<1. and be "ble to COIl'-""" betw"",n different unil,.

3.6.1

HENRY'S LAW CONSTANT WITH UNITS F~ A GAS DISSOlVIr-lG IN A UaUD

Gil."'.

The air-" .Her exchange of.. gas (in Ihi, oxygen) fmm Ih" at,nn< phere into"-ale.intllefor"-"rddl,,,,,tion(depictedinFigureJ.4)callbt>"-r11le"a, O"S' - 0, "l

\3.131

The equllib.ium expressl"" for Ihis reaction is

tJ.14J The ,-alue of Ihe ll"nry', ld\\ ml\SIa"l, KH, at 25 C for oxygen LS 1.29 x 10-' molesjL-aun. In Ihi" ca,e, the unil' of KH ar" ",,,Ies/L-alm. Chapler3

Cllemislry

ex am p leI

3.4 Usilg Henry's Law Constant 10 Delerrrine Ihe Aqueolfl Sok/blily alOxygen

Calculate Ihe colt""ntratiolt of dissolved oxygelt (units of moles/I. and mg/ll ill a water "'IuilibralN "·,11, ,he atm"'phereal25 C TI,e Henry's law co'~~la'" {or ox}'!;en at 25 C ls 1.29 >< 10-" mole/L-a'm.

solution The parti.ol pl"e'iSure of myge" in ,he alm"'phere i. 1l.21 atm, EqualJo" 3.1·1 can be rearranged '0 yield

( 1.29><10 2.7 >< 10.....

_, mOl,,) L-d,m "0.2Ia~n

~Ie

Thu" ,he <;olub,lity of oxygen at thi, tempera,ure i, 2.7 " 10..... 1tV)1... L 11 thiS \'alue L~ multipli.,d by th" molecullr "eight of oxygen (32 g/ molel, the S
The reaction Wol.~" ri"e" as o.ygen ga. trallsferring ,nto ,he aqueous pha... It, the fnrward direction be<."u"" i" ,his Col.'" "e are concerned ""h how ,he compositio" of ,he ga~ affecl, ,he "'''''p''''ition of Ihe aqueo". ""Iu,ion. Thu" the "'luilib""'ed dL~""h·.,d oxyge" ~,ura,ion co,>centralion It, surface" ale,.,. i, a funclion of the I"'rtia I pres,ure of "",gen in the atm"'phere and the llenrfs law constant. The coneentrali,,,, "f dissolved 0' ygen in "a,er "'luilibrated wnh ,he al"''''phere is 14A "'gil at 0 C and 9,2 mg/l al 20 C. Tni, "alue demOl~~,ra,,,, ,ha, o'ygen «)Iubilit~· in wa,er depends on "ater ,emperature (0,,", re"""n troot li", colder wale....]. for the re""tio" d"""ribed in Equa,i"n 3.13, ,he change in heal of form.tion (.ilf'l Jt 'IJndard con,!i,i",,, Lx -3.9 keaL Beeau"",, .ilf' i, negati,·e, Equalion 3.13 could be " nllen as (J.U)

An increa", i" ,he temperature (or .dding heat '0 ,he svSle", I Idll, according to le O,.• teHer's pnnciple, fa"or the reaction that ,end, 10 diminish ,he increase in ""'per.'ure. Theeffec, is tod ""e ,he reactim '" Equab"" 3.15 ,oil", lefl, which cm",,,,es h .... ~ di nu,uoJ,ing ,he '."'peralure ,nc....,a", in the pm.:...... TI,erelore. a, "'lu,libnum, more oxyge" "ill be p".""" in the ga< pha.., a, .n in",eased tempera,ure; ,I"", ,he solllb~ityofdi.'>'0I"ed oxygen ""n be 1m,..., at the increased tempe""u "'.

3 .6.2

DIMENSIONLESS HENRY'SLAWCONSTANTFORA SPECIESTRANSFERRING FROM THE LIQUID PHASE INTO THE GAS PHASE

In ,he case fo, Ihe I,an.fer of a chemkal dis.~oh'ed in ,he aqueous pha", inlo ,he atmo--ph...re, the chemical "'lu,hbrium between the ga" and liqu,d pha.., chemical i, described b) ~ reacti"n "mten in r~"el'i" ,~f Equation 3.13. For example, lor ,h.. ch~mka 1 ,richlo",ethylen~ (TCE) tran,ferring from ,he aqueous phase to th~ g.'eou' 3.6 Ai'--Water

EQli~

ph.,se (a, would be of wale,):

dOr\~

if you

""~,~

air ,t"l'p"'g

TCEaq,-TCE In thi, ~ase, the equilibrium

Ih~ ~hemicdl Dul

tJ.16)

S'

~~pr"""oll for

the,

ICE,.

'~detioll l,

"

,ilt~II

a,

tJ.17)

'TCE "'l'

"·he,,, tile ga,-pha", TCE i, described by unil> of "",I"'/lite' 01 ga" not a, part",II"""'u,~.Acrordingly, Ihe I I~nri' law ~(>I\,lanl, KH, has ,mits r>f moles per ]jl~r of g.. divided by moles/hter of "·.te,, which car\c~l ""I. ll,~ref",e, Ihe II~nry", l.w collsl.lnt in Ihi, ~a,e l,le,med d""~",io"l",, by ""llIe. In rdcl, il really has unit_ of lite" of water per liI~rs or ai,. Other ullils or Ile"'y'._ la,,· conslanl include atm and L--.alm/mole. 11",,'}··s law con"an!> Ihat h.,·~ units .nd I~ " It hout u nil> ~.n be ,,,lated u,ing the id"al gas law. Se,·"ral unit con"""io", ror 11"",,,,..< law coII,tant .,re pro,·,ded in Table 3.3.

Unit Con..... 'sion of Henry'. taw COnl!an!.

K"'alm) ~"h m(~"H,O

K,,;alml ~5.h mol"H,O

xRTx55.b atrn·L

o i1l205 moIe-K

Chapler3 Cllemistry

moleH,O , ...w

e xant pie I 3.5

Conversion constants

between Dimensiol1ess and Nondimensionless Henry's Law

TI...llenry" law rol'-~lanl lor !he react,on tr.o,,,lerring o"ygen fmm air inlo ,,-ater i, 1 ,29, 10-' moles/ L-atm al 25 C. What L' the d,me,,-~ionl,,,,sK" for the tra,,-~fer 01 o"ygen fmm Woller ",to air al 25 C?

solution The problem ,s requesling a Ile"ry'~ law con,lalll lor Ihe reve,.,." reaction. Therefore. the Ilenr)'" b\\ ron,tant provided equals the inverse 01 1 29 . 10-' moles/L·alm, or m L-ah"/ mole for Ihe Iran,fer of aqueou,; o')'gen imo Ihe ga, plla",,- Soh'e using the ideal sa,; law: 775L-alm

KHIdi",en~i on less I (NIK)

3.7

Acid-Base Chemistry

Acid-base chemi..r)' is importalll in treatmenl 01 pollulion and '" unde"ta"d,ng Ihe fate Jnd In~icity 01 chemicals di,ch,"ged til the "''' ir"nme" ..

3.7.1

pH

By delinilion_ U,e pH of a ""Iulion i<

I

I'll

(J.tS)

-log II

\\ here 111+ J i, Ih.. ronce"tratio" 01 lhe h)'dmg.. " ,on. The pi! genic acid-rain .. ",,,';;on, 1M, a I'll 01 approximately 5.6 due 10 the pre",.,ce 01 dissol, ed carbon dio.,ide Ihal or'gi".u,"" i" the atn""'phere. The concentralion, 01 Oll- a"d Ir are related 10 olle an",her Ihrough Ihe equIlibrium reacl;on lor Ihe d;,,,,,,,ial;on of waler: 11,0_11· ... olr

(J.t9)

TheeqUllibrium en",ta"t for Ihed,'>;ociation of wa"'r (K~) 1m EqU"-lion 3.19 equals 10- 14 at 25 C.

n,U."

IKwlOL<

"

'Oil

(J.20l

Equalion 3.20 allo,,", Ihe deter""nal,on of the concenlration 01 lIm 011- if Ihe other is kno\\ n, Table JA gives Ihe range 01 K. .,t

O'..ocidi"" C"".lIantfo, WOE'Ot Vori...,O Temp....alUre. and Re..lling pH of 0 Neut,a1 Sol"",,n

-.

pH or Nwtr.>l SoIttion

0.12,10"

7A7

0;

OH, 10 "

7.18

W

O~

~

IO! .

~

1.47

Tompora11 q

,

'" '" '"

" " "

,~

'00 1..92

SCl'JKE. I,,,,", M ......'" 1199'1); ,.",;~ ~th.-"" ~,ft

''"'" oIJolon W; Ioy&

I~ml"',alur",

of "n\"ironll\~nlalsi8!,ificanc".Al 25 C in pu,.., \\ale" II r I equal, 1011- J; Ihus 11-' _ 10-', and I~,fll of pure \\ ale, is equal 107.00. I 100"e,er, .11 15 C, II equab 10 .. ,'0 Ihe pi I of a n~ul,al ,olulion allhi, I~ml"'.alu,~ i, equal 10 7.18.

3.7.2

DEANITION OF ACOS AND BASES AND THEIR EQUIUBRIUMCONSTANTS

Acidsand ba_ a.~s.ub,lanc""Ihat ,~acl w"h hydrogen ions(1I+). An acid is defin&! as a ,pee;"'; Ihal can ,..,lea", 0' donat" a hyd.ogen ion (abo call&! a p">lonl. A base LS. defined as a chen"calspeei"" thai can accept. ,r mmbme " "h a p.oton. Equation 3.21 ,how", an ""ampleof a" add (lIA) as.<;ociated "llh a conjugate base (A -):

13.2t) Adds that h,we a ,Ir,~'g lendel\CY 10 dissoc;"le (thi, ,nea,~, Ihallhe .e.lclion in Equalion 3.21 goes fa. In the righl) a,.., caned ,I,,,,'S acids, "'hile add' Ihal ha"e less. nl a tendency tn dissociate (lhls meaR' thai Ihe .eaction in Equalion 3.21 goes Just a liltle to Ihe righl) ar~ called ar>J,. T"" s.lrength of an add i, I,ldicalro by ,'''' magnitude 01 the equillbroum rol"'a,,t for th~ dis.,,,,dallon reacllon. TI,e equilib,ium m,~,'anl for Ih~ r""ctioo d~piclN Equalion 3.21 is

""",k

n'

K,

"

A

"A

13.22)

"here K. LS. Ihe equ,lIbrium mn,lanl for the ,~aetion whe" an add L' ..dde
Cllemistry

Common Acids ond Soseo ond Theit Equilibrium Canstonts When Added loWaI«ol2S C

,-

~m

HO

HI-dmchlork

H",.

Sulfuric

H:\'o,

!':itrir-

H~.

B"uUale

H,PO,

r"""ph",k

CH~~

Acelic

H,CO;

C"oondiooocand caroolHc aCId

He

Hydrogen .... Ihde

H,PO,

o.hl"':Irng"" ph.... p""'.

H=

H,-dmcy.mc

NH,

AmmolHum icm

"".

_.

-

,-

"". .-

;

0

Chloride inn

;

H~.

B"ulf, ... ion

"\

:\' ilra '" i,,,.,

SO;

Sull.,'e ion

"12.1

H,PO,

Dihydmgm ph"'pll.,'e

11.9

U

CH,COO

Ace""o ic",

"'

HCO,

Bkamo..."c

" "

~

~

B;"ulf>de

, "

"

9.2

~O,

BlC~mon.." .

Hl'O,'

Monohydmgen pho"phale

" '"' 12.3

NH,

Ammon'"

D

~,

•

.-

., .,

Monohdmgon ph"'ph.>t<.

r,

Cyanide ion

NH,

Ammoni"

CO,'

Comon.".

ro'•

Ph<"'pllale

!':H,

Am«:le

much larger negal"'~ lree--<>n~rgy d ... nge n... n ",h~n adding a we.,k~r add. n,u" for Sirong adds, Ihe ""Iuilibrium constant K. "'ill b" large (and J.G will bt, "~ry negal'H'). SImilarly, Ihe K. for a weak add "'ill b" small (and J.G "in b" I""s negali,'~)' 1u.S! as pi I ""I"'11s -I"g -II ~i, pK, i, Ihe negalive loga«ll1m o( Ih~ add di.ssoci.,ijon cola"l {thai is, pK. -10811(.1>. Table 3.3provjde, "alues 01 ""Iuilibrium constanls for some adds and ba""" 0/ en, iro
_.

-

-

"

-

-

.::..

E

"

•

Class Discussiofl ~ W"'yt.I~Oe<_t.",IQr

&

.I.

1"0'<:""""0'"""""

rtrar~'o"" r v"¥r "" "';I.

"""" """'~ 0<'01"<"""''''' "1<, (2) tra r~fo""ir"! "'-"""l" r fro", a'l " ~a""o C~ ~r
dl.""",,,,,,

example/3.6

Acid-BaseEquilitrium

Whal pe=nl~ge of Iolal ammooia (th"l is, 1'(11, + t\'l NIl, - is 9,); there/"re,

K.

lO--'l'

r.-) is p,,,,,,nl ~s 1'(11"

"I a 1"11 of 7? n,e 1"10:. for

it\'l!, II Nll,~1

solution n,e problem is requesllllg

SolVing thIS pmblem requires "nother ",dependent ""Iu"tion beau,", Ihe preceding expr"",i,,,, ha" t ""0 u n"',own ... Theequilibriulll e"p".,s~lnforlhe NIl, - . . "'! I, "y,lem prmid"" Ihesecood required equ"tion, ,It\'ll,,''

"'Il,' n,us, ~I 1"11 yielding

7. .N'! 1,-1

WI

JNll, . jlO-'; Nllt'

200" ,t\'ll, This expres.sion can to.. "ub>htuled inlo Ihe fi"'l expres
tOO'"

0_5'~

Allhi" n"ulral pI I, ,,In''''''l an of Ihe lotal "mmonia of a s}"ilem e,i"ts as ammo,,,um ion {NIl, '). In fact,. only 0.5 per"enl exi"L, a, NIh! The form ollolal a",monia "'<><;1 IO'ic 10 aquallc lile 1" NII,~ 11 is loxic 10 "",'eral fish ,pedes al roncenl,al,O"-" abm e 0,2 mgfL Thus, ",aslewaler dls<:harges wilh a p! ! less Ihan 9 willI..., e most of the totala",mon,,, in Ihe less 10xic Nil,' lo,m, n'lS i, one ,ea
3.7,3 CARBONATE SYSTEM, AlKAUNlTY, AND BUFFERNG CAPACITY

""""

-

HCO, -

>tOO,. H

._-

Figure ),Ii sl",,, s the "nporta"t component_ of the carbonate syslem The ooncentratoo" 01 dissolved carbon dioxide in w~ler equilibrated wilh Ihe alm,"'phere (partial pressure 01 CO, i, 10-'5 .lIm) is 10-' ",,,I""fL n"s i, a ,ign,ficanl amOlJ"t of c"rbon d,ox,de dis<;o!>'ed in water. Thi, reaclion ca" be wnllen as 10110""

co,'. H

co, &' -

Fitlure I 3.6 Import.nl Componenl> ,,[lheCa,bon.le Syslem. ~ .... M;hok~

I' _I hI";......,.;!h por~; ..;",..,1

""" W; loy & SaM, ... j

Chapler3 Chemistry

Co,'''l

(3.23)

where K.. llr" molesfl-atlll, Upon di,,,oldng in ,,'ater, dj",ohed COo u"derglle"" hydralion ,eaction by reacting w,th waler 10 lorm carb,mic acid: (3.24)

"h~"" I( 10-2.0 Th,~ ,,,.ctiD,, lIa, 11l1~..'rtanl ''''pli,allO''-' for the rh,,",,'try ,lI' "aler '" conlMi with the 'In"~l'h..",. Fil'lt. "at"" III rontact ",til Ih.. at"""'phere (for ""amp!." .ainl h.1, the relalJ ...,I~ " ••"Ig Mid, caroonlC Kid. dis.<;<>],-OO m ,t. Th",_ the 1'1 r of ran, .. ale< no.... ,mf""1<'d by anlhl"Of'08""i<: ~, ",II boi! ""'''''', 1. Tlw pi I of Munpolluti!d- ra,n'UM L' <1pprm:imat"'-r 'V>. "Thu!.,.ood r.,n, .. Iuch I) p;.alh """ lIla!\u..,,;I pH ,.1.- of 3..5-4~. "arl"l"O~,m.ot,,1\ 16--100 11..- mo...... ..,IJ", \""n tu ] r.'n"at....., bul not \(I.(l((J Un_ more ...,;"l .... bo>Q 1"....1 n' b'f " "nt """""\ "uh a pll of 7.n In add,l , boou..".. natural ra,n".b'f " .J,ghtl~ «idoc a ..... IN partial p~ n> of c.rt>on djo~ld... ,[\ ......1 mA, .1"" b.. hIgh from bio!<>gocal_"h, " ..... lh.ol fOCJ..., an.! m,rwRI,.c.on 01--.1.., inn;. ,,,10 ......1""'. lnorgaruc ronsblurnlS d".,nho1;;pho!w proo. ,de<."Kid lh.ll can """-I .. ,lh the b.t>e; of rod..-_, rele.a,,'ng tlw ",d. ron"hl"""ts Into ....,....... ~ the, ... n ...!her r..m.un oJj;;....,!> o"IJ ,.. p""-'pll..1e ,nlo .. ",-.1>0.1 ~ II,~ ..ltffocull 10 d15tlngUbh .. n.oI~tcAlv lhe d,fl"~",n .. ppro.. ,rnat~ by CO ' b»c"LL"" lruo! 11•.('0, m.. ltoI up onl) "boul 0.11> "",""""1 of 11,('0,', Thu~, Ih" rono:Ii'nlralion of II,Co,' ,n ..... 1...... "'luilibrall!\l " ,th Iho! aln"",p"","" is

mrl_

'*""....

",co,

.. pp,.,,;m.\IIi'ly 10-' M. II,CO!' is in "'Iuilib"um with bica,b
1l,CO,' _ lICO,- _II

U.25)

,d,,,,,, K"

10-- " Al"o, bicarbonat" Is in "'1u,lib",,,,, with (.. ,I"",at" i'M' a' 1"11,'... ,,

13.261

llco,- - CO,'- _II

"l",,,, K..:

1O-'~'

Aro-. JmS 10 OUr ddln,ioon ot: an ....id .. nd ba"". blo."rbro""t" ""''' act ..' ...tl an .ACiJ ...... IlL.... Ilocarbo""t""nd corbnn.iolli' Mo! ..I"" coo"""", b.>_ on ... "Ier, llte 10>1. ;""'P""K ""Ilm cont"nt ot: • "01.1........ mp"" L' d<'fi""" iJro (<-.110M<.

T,ttal """Pnocurbnn

'll~'

_ 11CO.- _

Co,'-

U.27)

In tlwrll r.. ngeot:....",t .... tural "oller<; epll ~l.ll,co,· .oocoi..... ~mall .....", .. to IlCo.- Therefrtanl 'o detenJutung ....>1.. 11....·, ..l""hnlt}' !>orates. ph( acid ... f,tr "",mf-i rOO.. dige;!.... 'uf'!'Cn,llanl .. nd municip.d "~'t,,"at c...ntalO Lorge .. mount>. 01 ~ , ..,h .' .. mnUlfl;' IXII ,I, pl>c>!;pl\lt Ulro,:- ..-<1 1'O,1--). and b _ of, ......'" org.mc .rids. The

rCO\

ClaSlii Discussion

~

. ...... .".

~~.:: ~~~ ;::~

..

,~,,~.

~~<"""'"

,~~.

... ~.

~.-,.....,.,-,

..

...

'~Co1~r.

- ..

'N "" ...... ta.< .........,~-_ •."

~ ...

'"

-.

-~'"""

_

""

~P'"""""""~

~""..,'*~..-:')'.., ~p

"A~

......'"

'.

..

-""" ,.", "'~ , ..

rt~b-l

'

_

Explanation af Alkalinty and BuH....ing Capacify ll
Me,,-,ureof ~ w,I""-, mf"cilV 10 neulr~hze acid,

,\Ikdlin"y

AJ"dlnlty (....,]e,;/U

HCO,

In m<>'" natur.1 "·~,o,,, ".,,, pH

t 2,CO,'

+

OH

H

641. the concon".~!i"n01 blC,rOOn.>!e (HCO, I i•• ignifirnntly

gr""ler lI",n !""! 01 C'rOOMie (CO,' ) or hom.ode (DH 1; lhenolore, lhe """I .1..,11011,. c~n be ~pp""im.:lledby lhe blC~rbona!econcen'r"llOn. Abili'v of. w.1eT 10 R,.;.I e""nj;"" in pH when eilher ....; dic or .Ibllne m.11en.d ;,. ;,ddro.

Buffermg e'f"C'il"

In """" tre.hwator.v>!crn.<.thc buffC'rmg Gilp.-.cily i. due pnm.:lnl,.!o lhe 00_ (OH

Co,'

HCo,'l,ndacid«H' H,Co,' HCO, I.

Learn moreaboulocean acidification m. t.p"JIp.,.
+ie+Dc ",C+ lIciJoc 8'..iorol3f

e X am p Ie I 3.7

ba_ of .ilka (I 1,5iO,-) and boric acio (BIOI 1),-) can mnlribute 10 al""r;nill' in Ihe 'lCeaJ~'. In m,,,t nalural wat"",. the buffering capacily "0 u" prnn"'lly 10 the b."", (011-, CO,'-, 1lCO,-) .nd add, (l r.1 I,CO,-. lIC<\-I. Many lakes in til« lJnited States (for In,I,,,,,,,,, in New England and Ihe up!"'r Mid" est) ha \ I' a low buffering capacity and m'~""Iuently ha, I' been strongly jntlue"ced by addk depoolutlon of lhe under1.ving rocks .nd mineral, d""" nol result jn Ihe relea", of mud, alkali"ity.

Do Clll1ges in Atmospheric CD.! Corr:ertration Impact the Chemistry of the World's Dceans

Nali"",,1 Oceanic and Aln""'pheric Adl'''''L'lration (I>:OAAl ha, n~.ured almospheric CO 2 roncenlrahons al Mau,,,, Loa {lla\\ aiD for m·er 50 years. Their monthly mean atmospl......icCO, conce"lr.hons a", ,ho",n 10 be increa.'lng (_ Figure .1.1·1). Monthly mean atmospheric CO , """""ttlr.tio"s "ere approximately J 15 ppm n, 19liO and h,,,,... h~ 10392 ppm in August 2lJ12. I.e,·eL. \\ ere ,,"ly 275 ppm pnor I" Ihe Industrial Revnlulion lime J"'Ciod. Sc;"nlL
solution Preinduslrlal Time Period: 10- 1-" m"les/l'alm , 0.275 aim

8.70 x 10 • llloles/L

1%0, 10 -, -< m"les/l-<>tm x O.JI5 aim

9.% x 10-' moles/l

2lI12, 10-'" mI11es/l-.!m x 0.392 atm :mso: m· I.< mnles/l_atm" 0.556 aim

1,2.]

Chapter 3

Chemistry

10 _2 moles/L

1.75 x 10"! moles/L

example/3.7

(contiooed)

[n ~ctuahty, Ihe exe~n.~ ~bo..~rb approxII1lAtely 23 perrent of alllhe CO, relea'led inlo the ~tmo;;phere. ! [OI"~ver, Ihese "ery ~imp[e calCIJlatio,,-~den""'.'lrale ho" increa_ in the concemration of atmospheric co, can i"erea"" concentraliorl< of di",,,,,h'oo CO, in Eolnh's ocea,",. Remember lrom the uL>;cu",ior, 01 Equation ~.2·1 lhal dL,soI,'ed aqueous CO, undergoes hyd rallon to fornl carbonic add (II ,cO,). n,l.l<, """easing level, nf CO, in the atm'>,u,mic and
3.8 Oxidation-Reduction Some ch ...nical ",,,,,lions '>CClJr be<-"u,"" e[""ln,n, are I,.",sler"";! bet",..,n diffen'nl chemical species. n_ reacbOlL,are call"" ",idalionredudion or ,ed", reaclions. Ox,d.,tinn-,"""uL"liil" re.....tions colllllll the fdte and spe<:ialio" of "u"y metals .,nd organic polluldms III "alural em'iromnen!';, and nUllIeroustrmlmelll p""-_ employ rooo, chemi,;Iry. Also, m,,,,,' biologic-al pm"",..... are JU,t """,,' "'..... IiOll< ,l\f.'\iiated by mk"""'8"nis,,"~. n", rl)(l<1 cOlllmm,ly u.....J ",aste"ate, lrealment pm""''''''' i""oll'e red", rea~"Iio'L~ Ihat o.,idue organic <:arbo" In COo (",hi;" reducing o'ygen to "db") and midlZe and reduce ,'ariou, loml' n/ nilmgen. F,charglrl aloms, U... o~id.1tion slale is ,imply lhe charg""n the.'t(''''; forexampll>,lheoxlda hon,l.lleofCu'is +2. I" molocules mnla,n'''g mult,ple alom., each alo", is a'Signed an o,iualion qate according In Ihe con"enlinns prO\'lded in Table J.7. [n a redox reaction, a molecu[e's oxidali"" state e,ther goes up (in "hid, ca"" Ihe mDiocule i, IJxid,:rtll or do",n (i" ",hich ca,e Ih" mol""u[e L~ ""'''frol. Oxidized 'p&ies ca" be depicted as reacting "ilh free elecl""L~ k-l in h.llf-reactio". ,uch as the follo",ing; e[ect",,, a"ceplor {oxid,ml) _ ,- _

~[octoo"

donor {reductant)

43.281

[n thi, reactio". th" ~poci"" gaining the electlll" hhe e["dron acceplor or oxidm,n ;s reduced 10 form the corre
Co.....,,"';.... fOI A.signing Oxidali... 51.... toCommon Alom. (H,O,N,5}inMoiecuies I The on',-"Ikharse "'.. molecule i,."Ii"d",,1 ~mm<.

~

""'''8''" (",id.,'ite) '" it!;

2. The ~mm.< in the "",1"",11""f ron",,", h.>ve the folln,,;ng ""id~tinn le; OO",evel, the« numlJer., .h<",1d b" ..~ <'
o N

Oxilibon 5I.lte

, , ;

'NUCed molecules can donate electro"s (the eledron donor) and "'r\'e as ml"cla"I;. Con'ider two example<, In the fi"'l. ammonia IIitrogen (oxidatinn 'tate 01 -3) can be con,,,rted Ihrough nitrlf.,ati.., and denilrlficatio" to N, g." (oxidati.-", stal» of 0). In add,t;;,n, important atmosl....",.ic pollutanls include NO (ox,dation .tate of _2) .,nd 1\0, (oxidahon ,tate 01 --4). This co''''e'''iOll of nitrogen to different compound. "".,curs through ",aoy red"" ",acloo",. In the ,"",ond example. add raill is caused by emi"ion' of SO, (sulfur oxidation
e

X

a ITl p Ie I 3.8

Deterrrining OxIdation States

Detenni"" the oxidat'''''
solution We expe~t Ihe sulfur ill ,ulfate t" be nlore highly oxidized (due to Ihe presence of ox)gen in the molecule) than in b"ulfid" (due In the pr""''''''e of hydrogen). The ,,"erall dlarge of -2 On sulfate mu,t be mainwined, and .ince the charge fln each oxygen atom is -2 (see Tabl~ 3.7), th~ charge on th~ ,ullur In _,ulfat~ must I:Jo>, -2 - 4(-2) -'-(,. To m.1Ulw;" the o~~rall cl\arge "I - I Oil bisulfid~, Ihe cha.g~ "n .utlur nlmt be - 1 - 1-'-1) -2_ Here the charg~ on !! ~ ,,'a, + I (see Table J.7) As expected, th~ sulfur found in ,ulfate is more oxidIzed than ,ulfur in bisulfide.

Chapler3 Cllemistry

3.9

Precipitatiort-Oissolution

l'« ,""Iub~ "f"'<~ (or the "".""" p~ "he",1:n .....:Juble 'I>eoes n>art to prrc'p,ule ""t of soIulion as a Mt"'n thai "'nlel'....... OCCtlfS ,n h i _ L~ t.... Pfi'C,p,utoon of c.:o, If ..... ~.'" harJ. Ih.. rompo.onJ fOfm'" 'C.~ ,n lea a....t~, holt·,,"'.... heu.......nJ 1"'- ~1lJCh "Ifort" d .... nt~ to I'..... ""hng ....«:-.'" e rr«'l"'utonn of c.:o, U\ mUnir'p.alanJ ,ndustnal -.etlU\g<, anJ tho! rn"--."\Io of ........., Lng ..Ii. a ......1"""""" I....... "'M " n>ferreJ to ........lOT

...>A""'''5-

Tlw re;ll(hnn rommon 10 all of ~ "rnal......' " t.... c.." """"" of a ....hd ....It ,nlo d~~",d romponenb In th" example, """ ...Iid '" calcium carbona"" c..co., _ c.' - _ Co,l_

lho> ,u~npt (.. ) d"""t~ lhat lho> 'f"K,.... " ,lId Tlw "'{ud,brlllm '~"'''tiInt lot
II~ ....

c.co, _

\3.301

Solubilily i" d"f1tl~ a, th.. m.. ximu"" qua"t,ty (g"tlerally .. xpre,;""" as "'."S) ,,j " "u b-<'au~ th .. ad;' ,t} I" hich "e .,..um......I"a1'C("'''''lIral..,n) 01. ,coIid isddi ~ '~"'lU,,1 to I J) (Ru '" 2 "I Tabl.. 3.2), II", "'luilibrium const""t, K..,~" ""Jual to Ihe ""Iubilll~' pnxlud. Thu .., if ....... lno" the ""lui],bri",,, «'lIst"nt a"J tl... COt"-"l1t"'lion of Of\<> of """ "f"'
1"n pr 'p'lal" ,,"I lorm if In.. produ'" of In.. C
UN fonNt~ .,... cre.>18:f from doOa of h " -... lc..cOJ and "iokwrub> (C.. MJ;lCOJ~). You can n••,nsl'lVlL' IC.iN blrra,n Iwu.of In.. ....-..::.. of J) mal"" Ka.... t groun.f.... b>r .oqu,f..... In the Vn't..... State-. no..... fomwbons .... unport.ont l'o...-au-"'" IIwy ."". nw.,.. .....rce of "'''\;!-r 'urr" Tlw h~..I~ of .. lU"'t f"rrnat .... I.,. ch.1l1eng.-1o nwnag.. br<·.u~ the majonty of "at n".. neeu,", throtlgh fossur.... rracllJrt"'.• nd co,"""",,,, lhoIl .... int on""'\t!d, thu" "","'ng it ""~~ to contam,nat" and nploot.

... -

I

1

I

I

§

I

!

II·!'

1

!

, Ii J' I ! ! lJ I, ! I '! J ! iJ ,~ I ! HI! ii' llll III !j il I ' l h , Ii H:j;! Ill! i 1"IIIH Ii 1 I' , P llll! II' 'I ~ l! II II i I'll IV IJij ~ ! ilj! 'f ii' ,I I rilll H , ~ "j' III ,1 1 !r'j,ill ' I HI 1j ~ II j! f il!i l!: i hi ,Hr ,.lrblnl h

!ltl!

~ d.

h

;, 'i'j " jiPl'

C

_

N

..

- - - -

l

~1 'I

.

H tl iPd i",' j! 11lHi !Ili H i!! I lll·$ 'I! -

•, jl illll! ,!

ip!! . d' 'I I h. " i! I

Ii ill II ill if III II nill! fU

'"

b.ll!IBIIHHllil!!hil _N

f ~

~

o

Common P,... ipi!alic>n-Oiosol"rion Reocno.... , the A..o
co,'

33~10'

MgCo,."

Mg"

Co,'

C,'OHI,

._ c.-."

-t 20H

35

MgIOHI~,

Mg'

CuIOH)~" -

Cu'

IDH

ZoIOHI~

m'

IDH

Al;OHl x _

AI'

~H

FeIOHl x •

Fe"

~H

C.l5O",_C,"

1>,9_10"

Hud""",

""'Xl",1

7,R~lO"

H",,·y-met.ll remm'al C""gulatioo

,

~'

exam pie I

10

f>.3~lO·

IDH

(,>10"

C.... gulation, If01\ """",'al

~.4~IO'

Flu" &" d,,,,uliunza!>oo

5.5

Mgl>:H,PO,'f>HA" Mg' Nt{, PO,'

Hard""", re""...al, ""Iiog, ","roo "-"l",-"tratioo "f carbon d,oxid~

10"

25,,10"

fmm unne,' w,,"~w,t'-'f """n"",t plant, stru"'Ie precip,tation in "',krk-"" un""ls

I>H,D

3.9

Slfu",,, precip'tabm iOT I\."O\·"",oi phosphorus

PrecipitaliOfl-lJissolutioo Equilibrium

Whal pll i, ""luil'<.'d 10 ,rouce. high concenl,ation of d;"."",I\'OO re.ction i, 10- 1" •. Mg(OI [h",

-

Mg'~

to
Mg" + 201 r

solution In lI,i, ,ilmti"'n, the d ,-"""h'ed magnesium i, renlCl\'ed from soIuli"'" as a hydroXide precipitate. Rrst, Ihe coocentrat,on of Mg'~ is con"erted fri:ln\ mg/lto moles/1.: ~J

Then, the equ,libnu '"

'elatio,,-~hipl~

nlg g I o,ole ,-, l 1.0r0n\g 2lg

O.OOIRM

w "tlen a, 10-11 ,. Mg(Oll), ,

SobstilulJng vaiues for all the known par,1111eters,

,

10-"'" j,O.OfllR' X 011-i' Sol,'efor 01r: 6.2>< 1O-'M.This,,.;uIlsin II' 10-0,10 M,sopl 1 9.79.Atthi'pll,al1ymagnesium in ex"",", of 0.0018 M w,i! precipitate as Mg(OII)_N becalL'" Ihe ""Iubility of Mg'- ",ill be exceeded.

3.10 Adsorption, Absorption, and Sorption Sorption i"" nnnsp",ifict"'''' thai can rd'er 10 e;lh"" orbeth po""""",(,",) of ad.orption of a chemICal at Ihe ""lid "urf.ce and/or ab.orption (I"'rtitimulIg) of the chemical into Ihe v"lumenf the ""lid. 1" th., ca.", of org.nic pollUI.nt<, ""rption i. a key proc"". delen"",ing lale, .nd Ihe chemical iscnmmonly .!N>rbed imo the organic Iraction "f the particle due 10 la"",.ble ene'getics ollhi. prnc",•. The "",balr (ad,mbale or .bsorbale) i. Ihe .u\)"tance Ir.",ferred from the ga' or liquiJ pha", In Ihe .olid ph"e, The """,'/(I (.d""r"'nt or absorbelll) i. the ,,~id n.. teri.l nlllo '" inlo ",hich the ",rn,t" accumulates. Solid, Ih.1 ""rb chemical, may be ellher nalural (f,,,. example. ,uriace ",it harbor or river sedimem, aqUIfer materi.l) or allthropogenic (lor ex.mple, aCli".leJ carbon) materi.]", Figu,e 3.8 .ho,,'. a "'hematic of ."'ption proc"'.... for naphlhale"e 'orbing to. lIatural solid .uch.,. "'il p.ulicle from Ihe ",aler pha",. Why doe. this <;nrption necu,? from a thermody ...",ic "ie"poinl, ",,,l,,,,ul,,,, al""y. p,eler In be i" • In,,er energy .tate. A molecule ad,,-.-bed onloa ,urface h.., a low"" energy 'late on.' surl.ce Iha" i" lhe 'qu""", ph"e. Therefo,"", during the pr""""s of equilibration, the "'olecule i, atlracted to the .uri"ee and a lower e""rgy ~I.te. A tl racbo" of a mol""ule to a ,url.ce call be cau,;ed by physic-"I and/or ch"mical 100:""- Elec-tn-.slatic 100:",. go,"'" the i"tl>raclims bel",ee" ",,>;t .d""bates .nd ad"'rbent•. n,~ forc'" i""lude d'pnle---,j'pole inter"~"1i",\." dbpel"i"'" ;nleradions or London-van der Waals lorce, and hydr,'Sen bnnding, Dunng meilll.S c"'l.sMnt "lid 111"1"'" 'efers '0 t.,mperatu,e), The t",,, ""rption isolher",. ro~ered in Table 3.9 are Ihe rreundlich isothenn and Ihe linear isolherm. figure 3.9 ,how' Ihe relat''''1..1"p belwe"" Ihe f'eundlich .nd Itnear l<;n,her",. for ,'ario"s

,-""U",.,,,

Fl1Iure 3.8 Sorption 01 .n O~i< Chemiull N.phlh.lenelonlo.N.lu,,1 M.lori.1 ,uch ••• Soil 0' Sed imonl p.,lide Th;. 1\"p".,I1\· OCQJI" when the .",Tb.>.,. ei Ihe, ",rb<; on In '''''dh 'e ,tiff""e ,ile. (.><:I o;nrptwm) or absorb<; 0' p.>rtilu",.• into ",&,nic m.>t Ie, t h.> t ""'" the p.>rode (the ,,>rbentl, The "''"Ph,,,, p""""" infiuenn«. ~"""Miholci
10M W.I.\, & s.o.-... no·1

.... ;_";,"f*'~'"''''''''

Chapler3 Chemistry

Common Terms Used to DeKribe Sorption Isotherms ond OIh.... Potitioning Ph .....omeno

lJsIdy I'nlsoolocl as

q m,w' 01 M1...,,-b,,,e .d~

KC'

Freundlich

q

i.""therm

IEqu.tioRJJH

Line•• i!iOtherm Sf"-'dll c"""of Freundli<:h i.dhe.m wh=l!n llh.lt "" d,Jure

,

Sjml>oIs an
Drinking ,.,..le. ond ,iT

peT

unll ""'''' oj ad""rbenl.lte. ,'C]uiJimum (mg/g\. C -- """',01 od,;orb,'le in the oqu,,,...

u~

ph.>",., Ite. equihbriu m (mg I U K Freundlich i
,

~

C

IEqu.tionJJ21

000 C ore ""mea. Fn"\mdhch

i<.olherm. K ""I- or
OIlu Ie " .. lL.",., ".,.,.,., Ilv .",1, .
as /(pot Kd (unit. nf rm'I g ot Ukgl.

sl"'tem<) K;,; the ..un,,,.,, ,he J",e.d..,!heTm (at""
Norm.lizing K 10'Org'Ric ,~"

Oct..nol_w.te, p'llitioR "De fliel .. nl

Soil.
of em'l& "'[:o'nlC <•.,-bon (nT lIi;g "'gamc c,rb.ml 000
A,.......

, /.,.IEqu.tion J..J.I)

A"..... i. mncen".hon 01 d,en"c.1 d"'I<'I,,oo in oct.mol (C.H,;OH1. 'M A "roncen
w_

,,"Ole.-

,,_ ;,; un"!eo'< ,ad u.""llv .eponed ...

.. c.... • "'" _ '"""" "'" lor ",b o..l >od """"or I 2",,"'1"""'"'_'>'1, ...

HelpsddeTminethe hvdmphobiC1tvof. chern",,!. CAln be ",1.1'00 to ,~her "m~",nm<·nt.>1pmpe.hes
~"b ~,~ 0 k",,,",,,, or"",~ , ....... IW 1/'00,", "",,0.00' 10· t""l 0 ...."'" _1;1"•• ~ ......."""""""""". ItO
rdng"" of 1/ or. lie"" 1/" i, the Freundlich i"'therm ,nte"-~'ty pa .ameter

Persisteot Organic Pollutants

(u"itles.~).

~_t.p'j I~_'

A problem ""th the \'al"e

"r the S
(Equali"" 3.32, given in T3ble 3.':1), is tlMt it i, chemicdl- dud sorbenlspedflt:, n,u" dhhough K muld be meas".-....J f". e, ery .ele,·aut sy,tem, tlu.~ ",ould be time-.:mbuming dtld costly. r~~rtu".uely, "'he" the ""lute i.~ d tleUlr~1. "O/1p<>I~r organic ohe",kal, the <;oil-water I"'rtition c.-.effident
Ie'e,.,."''1''<

j-/

f"'P"


"

...

ShaulJao~"",",aIIM

DDTt>eoa"re~~k>~aly","

c""<>ide,,," a,;a Ok "",lut.ioR to"". ~" 'a" b~.J~MOIrr a lariat> a~ '" A,,"" rr a"y pa"'~ 01 t" < ~""ebP'" ~ ..."""., "I"'c ially Alr\ca. w.u.~ "'tu r... ble"",kJ'-loo 0U1 atIe't.ul"t: ~'""at.io C6 ' " , Lrr a" 0a, J ..,U '
00"""'"'

3.111 Ad:s
'

Figure I 3.9 Freu ndlich l""fueRn PloUed lor Diflore"t V.Iues 01 II.. 1'<" ".1""" oil /" I.,.. th.ln 1, the "",theRn L' mn,i<.Icred I.mr.ble lor '""'PHo" oc"'.u'" ~>w ,,,lues 01 the"'"""e l"lUld-p"'" cor,o,olT.twm yocklluEe ,·.Iuc", ol 'he "~id-ph.l,,, C01\centr.'Mn. Thi, m""n, th.lt it " e"'-"l\ct1caU,' I,,-orable lor the ",!'bate 10 be ",rbed. At higher 'Gu""",'C01\CCI\t,,,O(l1\', tho ,'blilty 01 the ",hd to ,,>rb tl", chL'fJlk.>1 d.,:ro,..." ,.l' II", ""t"'e ",rpll0n "t,,, bee",,,o ",tur"h,el with ",rb.lto m>loruk.... F", 11" ",Iu,," gTm'c,< th.:m l. 'he i",theRn c, cnn.,idt'T<'d uni"'o,,,ble I"""'rption hIgh ""1"",,,1 the l"luid-pha", "",rote mncontrolion 'TO "-,Tbent. H"',..,..·.".. '" "''Ption oeeo"" tho is modified b" the .",rblng che,me,l 'nd nerdo mOTe {,,",,roble I"r "ddil;"n.,1 "'tption. 11 Ihe 11" ...1",' c,theme

bec.,,,,,,

,,,,I,,ee

J""" '" hoI<;c I' 9991· lop<"1od wi" p"""',,"""oIloM W ..... & s.-, 1n<·1

exam p Ie I 3. ) 0

Adsorption lootherm Data Analysis

"'.'i

A n,ethyl ""Iiary-butyl ether (MTBE) ad5iOrpiinn l"'therm perfnrmed Ott d ",mple nf adi\'dted arhon. The L Freundltch i,;otherm parameter; (K dnd II ,,).

3.10 Isotherm Dda and Results Used in Example 3.1 0 ,~-

lnil. MTBE

, ,"

- "',

M.... of GAC,MllIJ

MTBE Equiillrio.m Uqui
,~

0.155

79.76

113290

,~

0-1-19

,~

O..'iol!9

"'"

7'I.bfr.'

2US

'\3.149

1.7255

139~1

""

O,q5/,

12.9ll

3'.!l32

1.5543

Lllll

,~

1.71

om

21 il-IS

131.12

","'U

,~

2.4

'M

15.142

UKl2

349

12.h30

1.1014

"""'"

,~

.~~

lJ9~59

0.22i'1

Gone""''''''''''. Co frngIlJ

,.

,~

,~

Chapler3

" Cllemislry

ConoonlraUon. G,lI>IJIl

,'~

0 __

2.(J5.I2

,-

"'0 1.9018

Lf>239

"~~

example/3.10

(continued)

solution n... "alues of lhe MTBE ad,.,rbed for each isotherm pouu (q) and ,he l"8"rnh", "alues of C and q can be de,ernllned and inputted ",10 Table 3.10 (lh"", left columns). T() delerm",e ,he Freu ndllch i"'lherm ""ramelers, !i,lhe logs of ,he isotherm da'a. log q ,'ersu, log C, us"'g ,he linear form {)f Equa,ion 3.31 (Table 3.9), e~ pressed as lilSq

logK_

(~)logC

Graph log q "er,I.lS log C, "-s sh<,., n in Figure 3. lll, and use a linear reg"""'ion '0 1i,Ihe da,a '0 delermine Kand 1/". From Figure 3.111, lite IInearfom, of Equa,ion 3.31 wilh "alues for K and I{" added is expr"""."j as logq 1l""'O logK 0,761, ", K III 0,t>906.

life"

0.761-(O.t>906)logC

'.77(mg gl(L/mg)'·. Thus, K

5.77rmgg)(l,-",g)'·, and

, ~

0

, 0

,

-

y.0.6900•• 0.761 R' _ 0.996

0

0.0

1l.5

loIJ equ_ Flgu~ I

3.1 0

1.0

1.5

!lQu"'' ' ' ' c:onc:er...-"""", "9'1.

2.11 (log C)

r..,undlich I.olhenn Data Craphed for Example l.W to D-e'ermine /( and lin.

f'Or sy,t""~s wilh a rel..tl"ely high amou", 0/ organic carbon (greater ,han 0.1 f"'1'C*",t), K., can be directly cornAned l<> a ""rameler called Ihe octa 00 I-wa,e rpartiliooroe ffioie 01, K..",ofaohe,,, icaI.Va 1u """f K.", range m'erma"yordeN1fmagn,'uJee<;(} K.~ u,uallytsreporteda,l"g K.w T.,ble 3.lllisl, some 'ypical \ .,lues of log K... for a wide "ar;el)' of ohe",kak VaIUfSOf K, .. lore",'imnmemall)""igni!irn nlohemicabrangefmmapprro:imatelylO' '0 Hi {log K.~ rn'lIrof 1-7).Thehigherthe,'alue.'hegrealerthe tend.",cyof'hecornpoundtopartit"",fm'"lhewa'eri"toanorganicphase. Chern",ai, ""h high "alues of K.,~ are hydrophobic (,,·aler-feanngl. The ",agnilude of an organiochemical's K.,~. call ,ell a 101 abou, the chemical's ultimate fale in the en"""'''''''''l r'Or example. ,he "alu"" in Table 3.11 iudic-ale Ih.•t "ery hydropl.nbk che",ic-dls such as 2,3,7 $telradllomdibe,\7.i>-I>-d iLwin "en,orehlet}' ,n biL",ccumulale in Ihellpid poll''''''{)f h u 1m"sand ~ n ima is. COliversely,chem ieal, sud, a, ben"",,'O trichlo",",thylene (fCE), 'elrachlo",e,hyl",e (PeEl. and toluene are frequently ide,lli!ied a, groundwa,er ron,a",i"an" because ,hey are relati"ely ",Iuble a"d ea,i)y di,,.,l,·e in ground",ater recharge ,ha'Ls

3.11 Example. of log K..., for Some En"ironmenl"'ly SignjfieonIChemic....

0.73 2.17

Trichlomolh;'lone

H2

T"'T.ch Iorodhvlone

,~

Toluene 2,1. ,Dichloropheno'r=-~k .Kid r-i·rhth.llene 1,2,4>T oIT;xhloroberm..ne

l'h"""olh",ne

4.57

'U3

2,3,7.s-TotrMhloTod ibenza,p-d." in DL,<".lb"'mobirhen;'] infillrating \'.".h:~Dy toward an underlylll8 aquifer. Th .. is in contr~llo py rene or 2,3.7,8--t rl ,ae h In "d benzo-p- di 0" ,~ \\. hioch a re both Ii...,Iy to be confined near the 5urface in Ih" Inc"llon Ihe 5pill. Fjgu re 3.11 ,h,,\\s hoI\' K,~ "nd K.,.. are lin""' ...• correia led for " set 01 72 ~hemic"t5 that
""a',

of

Figure I 3.11 S.. t1eT Plot of 1"1\ K ~Iem 'Ig 0'll"nk C.rbonh-ersm log K_ for nChemk.b Tho reI.lio,,'hlp " gi\-en by lIIe "'Iuall< undergone. qu.l"y check or u,"".n .ppropnale. 't.lti"lc.llly vahd.lled correlallon ~'",tllnate the ".,]ueof K,~ IF''''''1\alo< ,J , .. ).1, M.i>okK.ll. c.t..>w..... n. ~ ·[vaIuo-.olh"_~., .. o.g.."", c..boo_ad So.pO<>nCoollicio'" ' w_r.............. '--';"09 136-141 1991.Capj<;gh,W'[f _ _ _ _
Chapter 3 Chemistry

been correlaled 10 other envimnll\entall'ro~"'rt'es,uch a, b;o
ex am p leI

3.

11

Delerrrinalion of KIlO from K",.

The log Ku ", for anlhracene;. 4.(,S. Whal is anthracene's ,oii-water partihon coeffident normali7ed to organic carbon?

solution U... an appropnate<:orrelal;on bet"""n log Ih~s <:orre];lI;on ""lu""l" log K.. , n<\I K....' iogK""

K.. and log K,,,"' (such a, provided in Figu.... J.lll. I\ote that O.00J{4681-t-1l.()9~

432

ex am p Ie I 3. I 2 Use of Koo 10Pred[cIAqueousConcenlral[on Anthracene has contam,nated harbor -ed,,,,,,nt>;, a"d lhe ",lid portion of sediments " in equilibrium .... ,th Ihe pore water. [f the organic carbon w"tent of <;*'<:I,menls is 3 percenl and Ihe ",lid ,edi",enl anthracene mncemralion ;, SO Ilg/kg sed,n,en" whal i. Ihe pore" aler ro,,,,entration of anlhracene .II equilibnum? In Example J.ll, log K.. lor anthracene "as eslim.ued 10 be 432.

solution An organic ""rbon (OCl contenl of 3 perrenl mean. that Ihe fraclion of organic carbon, Equation 3.33 (fmm Tabie 3.9) to find the <;*'<:Iim"nl-
lIl''''cm' gOC

O,05g0C gsed"nenl

",,~, 0.05.

U...

I .ll-5 cm' , g ,ednn"nl

TI,e equilibrium aqueous-plla... co"",entral,""', C, i. then d ...ri ...,d from lhi' "'luiHbr;um .,pres,ion g"',e" III Equal;"n J.J2 (Tabie J.9):

SOil!>

c 1K

~

kg <;edim",,1 "l.ll00g l.{).6cm' gsedim..ll

cm' LOOJml ,--, ml l

,

O,lJ.lR Ilg

1\0'" thai Ihe aqueous-ph_ conre"lraHon of anlhracene ;s relall~el~ \0\\ compared with Ihe <;*'<:Iiment-pha", concentration (SO ppb .. in the <;*'<:Iimenl' and O.MSppb," in Ihe pore water). This is MaU"" anthracene i, h}drophobic. II" aque<'H.Js ",iuhilny is 10" (and K,... is high), so it prefers tn parhl;on ;nlo Ihe soiid phase. Also, Ihe ",lid pha... i, high ,n organic carbon contenl. A ... "d-gra~el aqu,fer would be much 10\\'er in organic carbon (f,~ ,ery 10\\-); I],.,refo"" I""... or the anlhracene ....."uld partilioll from Ihe aqueou, inlo Ihesolid ph,,-~.

3.10 Adsorption, A!IsDI]llion, and S
Partilioni'lg 01 Chemical belween Air, Wal~, and Sol Phases

ex ampIe I 3.1 3

A ~Iudenl uses a reaclor 10 mimic Ihe en"imnnlenl for" da,~ demon"ra,ion. The ,ealed I L reaCh)r mnla"" 500 mL waler, 200 mL soil (I percenl organk carbon and den"ty of 2.1 g/cm 't MId 300 mL air. The temperalure of the reaclor is 25 C After adding 100 II-g TCE 10 Ihe reacu)" Ihe 'h..o:lenl incubates the ,ea
solution Sel u p" 51 "'1'1 ifi ed ma"" ba Ia n", Ihat eq ~ I.... thelotal m a~,ofT CE added 101hem as""fTC Ei neach pha ",a t equilibriunl: Total ma"" of TCE added

+- mas, of 8""""-,, TCE, 1ooll-g

+

V",! x C"'!!_ V...

nu" of aqueou, TCE; ma" of sorbed TCE' C..,,_ M.,. x

c..•....,

The prrolem " ~">ling C.oo.r The Ihree known parametel'i a", V",! 500 mL V.., 300mL andma,sof,oi! M .... V"",xdensnyof""n 200mLxcm'mLx21g;cmJ 120g. n,ethree u"k""" '" are C"'j< C.", a"d C" ....,..; howe,-er, C.., can be relaloo to C"'l by a I lenry"s law cons'a,,', a"d C~ ........ can be related 10 C"'l by a ",il-waler partill"" coefficient. Cmwert Ihe Ilenry', la W COlt"anl 10 dimens;ollies.s form. K H 111.7 L-alln mole (by lhe u"'i:', we un lellihis I lenry's la,,- co,,,tant b for Ihe readi"" written", the following direction, C"'! _ C." l. Cmwerl '" dnnenSionless fonn u,ing Ihe ideal 8'" la" (<,ee Table 3,J): III.7L-alln 11.01 I mole n.MiSt-alm (296 Kl molE--K The I lenry's law COlt'ilani of 1104-1 is equal 10 C.~ ,IC"'!, 'iO C.~ n. II C"'!. Ihe soil-,,-al.er pdrlillnn ~oeffide"l. Remember, K K..· f"" a"d I percenl nrganje ""'bon mean, f" IHIL !IeGlu,,", K,~ and K are not pm'idelimale K,. fmm K..",: log K", 0.903 x 2.·12 -.- 0.()9.1 2.2Il. Therefore, K".- 10>-"", and ~rn"ne

K

If!'-'"

x 0.01

1,9cm'

g

and C"""",

Affordingly, ,u!>
'500 ml, C"I'

{

+ '300 nll x 0.01 I C"l -.- [420 g

[

C"'l 5OOmL+JOOmLxIUI- 420gx C"I!300 ml_ lJ2 mL-796mll O.07O"g mL lI.n711n,g;mL 7npJ*'", Chapler3 Cllemislry

g

'."m' me] ) g

< cm'

example/3.13

(cootinued)

The Irnalma,s of TCE in the aqueous phase i' 35 ILg; in the air ph..." " n is 9.2 ILg; "'rbed to ",II. it is 53.R ILg. The mas, of chemie-allound '" each ollhe lhree ph..." ", i' a functi"n of lhe combIned effec-l~ of partllioning bet" ""n ""ch pha",. The amount of chen"L'al that partitions 10 Meh phase ~, based on the physical/chemic-al pmperti':': of lhe chemical (for e""mple, 1lenry's law collslanl, log K,.... l and "'ill sediment properli.:.: (f,.). Th" is very Importanl when determllling "'here a chemical migrat.:.: in the environment or an engineered 'y'tem, ...s wen ...s ,n detem\;,,,ng "l"'l method of treatment ,houW be selec-ted.

3.11

Kinetics

The kinetic approach In en"imnmenlal chemistry addresse_ Ihe rate of reactions, Concepb indude Ihe ral" law, zero-ord"r and first-order reactions. hall-HIe, and laelo," Ihat alf""l Ihe rate "f reaction.

3 11.1

THE RATE lAW

n,e rale la w exp""""'" the dependence of lhe reactio" rate on ",easu rabie, en,- "nnmemal parameters. Of partkular inler""t is lhe depe"d""", of lhe rale on the cOl,,-... ntra~c.,, 01 the reactant". Olher parameters thai ",ay influence Ihe redc!lon rat" include lemper"l",e and Ih" pr"""nce of e-at.,ly'ls {jn.cludi"g microorgani,m"l. n,e rale "f an irre, e"'ible reaellon and the exacl form of the rat" la" depend
a I

H-C-H

I a

..

ow-

a I

H-C-H ..

I

cr

~

For Ihe 'eaction depicted h"re to ocrur, one mol""ule 01 DCM mu,t collide and react" ith one mol""ule of 01 r-. The rate ul an irre,·"",ible bina,y r"action i, proportional tn the ron"ent,ation 01 "ach ch~mical sped'" Fnr the hydroly,i, 01 DCM, it ca" be w,itten ..s R

kDCM]OW -dOrr-- dl

-d-DC)I,l idl d'CMdl del-]rdl

43.35)

"here R i, Ihe rale 01 ,e..clion, k is lh~ rale m,tq.. nl lor Ihis p"'tkular ,eaclion,IDCMj LS Ihe mncenlration 01 OCM, 1011-J i' the concentration 01 hydroxide ion, ICMI i, the con""nt,al,,'n of CM,ICl-1 ;" the concentration 01 "hlnrid~ ion, and I IS !i",~_ The negali"e SIgns in Equ
Th~

bold portion on Ih~ Idl side of Equalion 3.35 is reierrffi 10 a~ the react""", ",Ida,,', " hich expresses the dependence of th~ reaclion rale on the co"c~"tration, of the r~aclants, The rale Ia" III thi, case would be called first order ,,·,th r""peelto OCM alld firsl order with re
IR

U":B"

I

tJ.3b1

This reaction would be tenned alh oro er " ,Ih r,.,pea toA and I~h order wilh respe':1 to B. The overall o'derof the reaction would be la -IIj. Th" react,o" is termed an elem.nLlry reaction becau.", Ihe reaclion oruer is conlrolled by the ,tf1ichiometry of the reaclion. Thall~, Q equal, the molar ,toichiomelric coefficient of 'peei", A and I' "'Iuals Ihe molar .toichinmetnc coefficient for B. The order of a reaction shadd be d_rminro exrerimenlally. because II o/ten does ""t correspond 1<) Ihe reaclinn stoich,ometry. This is because the m""hani,,,n or 'teps of the reaction dn nO! always correspond 10 Ihat sho"'n in Ihe re.und invoh'ed ,"the reaction. liro--nrder kllleti", call be d ue to ""v'eral ,tems. includlllg the rate-limiting d iflu",on 01 oxygen lrom the "ir into the aqu",~u" phd"'. "'hid, may be "lower than the den"'nd for myge" by the microorgatllsm bi"degradulg the chemical. AnO!her explanalion lor an ob,;e,,· ation 01 zero--order klllet;cs l< the ,10"" rdte-limiting mm'emetll 01 a chemical (required by the ",icroorgalli,,,~« organi"" to ut,lize. One £hemical that ha" been observed to !la"e zero--order k,nelk" 01 bioo"8radatioll is 2.-1-D. an herbicide conunonlv u........J by farmers and household". 2..I-D "an be "a".ported ,nto a m'er or lake by honu"'tal rumfl or "erlkal migrano" to g"."Id",a"'r th.u is hydraulirnlly connected to a lale or river. 11 ha< bee" f.-lUnd to disappear III Iale ",ater according to ?ero--order kinelic,. The rdte la" for Ihis Iype of reaction £all be "nlte" a" (3.371 Chapter 3 ClIemislry

3.11 2

ZERO.al.DER AND FIRST.QRDER REACTIONS

Many enl'imnmell,al ~lluatl"'~~can be described by z"",Hlrde, or fil"'lorder kjneH,,-~. figure 3.12 rompa,e, the major differen""'" bel""",,n Ih"'" two types of klne'ics. In Ihi, seclion, we discus> these kllldic exp"",~ion, in depth by fir;, ron
IJ.3S)

The rate law that descnbes the dare"'" in roncenlration of chemical C w Ilh lIme can be ""lien as

I

de ',II

-,-Ie'

U.J9)

I lere,ICl i' the",ncent,alion of e. t l~ tllne. k l~ a rale cOl~slanl th.,t ha, unil' dependent 0" Ihe order of Ihe reaction, a"d Ihe reaction order, II, Iypically is atl I"teger (0, I, 2). ZERO-QRDER

REACTION

If II l~ 0, EquaMn 3.39

bern"''''

-AI

IdCidl

IHO)

i.,,,

Til" is lile I'll.' Ta,,' d,.".-,i!Jio'S a "'1\)-o..d". ,racl Ilere, the rate 01 di"'rpearal\Ceot C with lime l~ zero-order wllh ""'pee! 10 C, al>d the overall order 01 the 'ffiCli"" i, zero-<>rder. Equalion 3.'10 can be 'earranged and integ,,,ted for the folio,,"ing ",ndili",,-s; "t lime 0, Ihe concelllr.>tion of C "'Ju"l, e.. and "t 'ome fUlure time I, Ihe wl\Cent,ation equal~ C: c ,

f

d'C]

-k

c,

P,

,,:

I

-~

J "

hUG I'''''''' ._~

'.ro

IH1)

ill

--, • ..• • -" .. "J~ _. , -""" ."J~ , "" '" .- ......

Coo_* lei

1./1-

Coo_*

, PIoIoi ,

,

l~k

Sum ..... ')' of z~,... ond bo,,.,o.,,, o.lch of 'h"", ~'l"""'.i""•.

"-Coo 11

~

Ie) ... ,,,,,,,

.'J~ In[C) ]~k

FIgure 13.12

01

Fj",',(),d~rRolo

s',m,,' h'.day'

Exp",.. io". K,,'e the u,Ifcrc""",

f""" MJ>oI
(3.42)

A reaction is zero-order if con~e"trallon data plotled \,ersu. time result in a ,traiglllline (illu,trated in Figure 3.12\. The ~I0l'" nfthe re>ultlng Iille i, Ihe zero-order rat" conslant J:, \\ hkh ha. unHs of conc"ntration!tim" (fM exampl", moles!liler-day).

FIRST-ORDER REAcnON

If"

dC/,ll

I, Equation 3.39 beeome>

-kiq

(3.43)

Thi, b the rat" law for a firsl-ord"r rea~tion. Ilere, Il,,, rat" 01 dl"'rI"'aran~e of C \\ ilh tim" i, ro l'il-order \\ Ith resped tn ICI. aroll... owraU order of Ihe reaction i, ror<.I-order. Equation 3.·13 can;'" rearranged and in!o'graled lor Ihe ",me Iwo condiliol\.' u","d in Equa!i'ill 3.m to oblain an exp"",ion th.lt d"""ribe<; the mn""mration 0/ C with time;

Ilere, 1 i, Ihe rorst-ord .... reaction rat" COIL~ta "I and has unih of lime-I (for example, h _1 , day-I). A reacllon is fir--nrder reaction, the ,lope remains ronslanl over lime. This ,ugg<5l~ tlull lhe rale of a 7er.....-order reaetion i, illdepend"nl or chemical concentration (_ Equalion 3.421. \\ hile lhe rate of a firslorder reaction i, del"'ndent on Ihe c<",centration of the ~hemkal (see Equation 3A·11. Thu" a chemical wi""", disapl"'ara'\fe follow., ron""ntraliOlH.:l"l-",ndenl kinetiL"S, Ii"'" first-mder, wIll disappear more sl,,\\ I} as lis coru:entration d""",,,-<;eS.

3.11 3 PSRJDO ARST-ORDER REACTIONS There are many circum"anc<5 in whkh Ihe concentration of o"e parlidp.",t in a reaclion remains con~lanl during the reaclion. For e,ample, if Ihe concentralion of one reada nl ""tiaJly is much high"r than the con""nlration of another, il is imP'O'"ble fM the reaction to cause a ,ignificanl change in the concelllration of the sub"ldnce wllh the high inllial concenlration. AIl,,"',lli \ ely, if Ihe concentrati"" of one ~ub"t.,nce IS buffered at .. cOl",tanl "alue (lor e,ampl", pi [ in a Chapler3 Cllemislry

lale d"'" nol change becau,e II is buffereJ by Ih" dis.soluliiln .,nd prffipilalifl\ of albli"ity-<:"'lla",ing ",lid CaCO ,}, Ihen Ih" mncenIration of Ihe buHer&! ,peeles will ,"'I cha"ge, e,-en if Ihe ,u!>slallce f"!rtidp,lles in a reacti",,- A p,eudo fi"'l..:.rder ""clio" i, u,ed ill Ihese "Iualions. h ca" be modeled a, if II ",ere a first-order reacli"" Con'ider the 1011",,- ing ,m·,""";bl~ d,'",mlary rt'ocl;Qlr. 13.43)

example/3.J4

UseofRateLlfW

II"" )o"g "ill 1l I.lke Ihe carbon m"'lOxlde (CO) ml1Celllrat;o" '" a room to dff",a"" by 99 per""nl aller Ihe SOIJrce of carbon lllO'lO".:Ie '.' ",mo,-ed and Ihe ,..indows are openeJ 1 A",ume the first-order rale constant filr CO removal (due to dilutioll by inronl;ng de"" ,'ir) is 1.2{h. 1\'0 chemical reMt;o" i, occurring.

solution This I, a fi"'I-order readion, so u"" EqualJQn 3.4·1. Let ICO] uequal Ihe ",;lial CO m"eenlratlon. When 9'1 perce"t of the CO goes "way, COj 0.01" ;CO o' n,erelo...., 0.01 ,..here j;

,CO..

COo~-b

1.2{h. Soh-e filr I, "hich equal, 3.11 h.

The rale law for this react;m is (3.<16)

If lhe ro"ce"lratioll of A d"'" "ot change s;gnifica"t1y duri"g the reaction for 0"" of the reasru'- previou,ly di.""","'-'
R II If'

(3.471

-A"r.

" he,e l' ;5 the pseudo fi"'t-oroer ,ale mn,tanl ,"'d equal .. j; This ",anipulal'o" g,eatly simplifies Ihe rale la'" for Ihe di""ppearance of ,uo,.ta"ce B:

d Bldl

-J.'Bt

13.48)

If b isequallo 1,Ihen Ihe > "fEquation 3AII is identical to lila t for Equal;o" 3.4-/. In Ihl' ca"", the ps.eudo fi"t-o,ue, e,p'''''''o" can be

",itte" as fonows:

Il,,~ "

I

tJ.4'l)

3.11 Kinel".

example/3.15

PseudoFirsl-OnierAeaction

Lake Silbersee L~ localed in IheGenl\an cily of 1'\ u ",mberg. The lake's" aler qualitj has been diminbhed be<"'ll"" of high hydrogen ~ulfide conce'\lratlm~s(which ha,'~ a rotlen-egg sm~ll) lhal origi",,'e f",m a nearby l""kmg landfilL To comb-It tho! problem, Ihe city decided 10 aerale th., lake in an aU~npl 10 osid;ze Ihe odorou' 11,5 10 no"odorous .ulfale ion accord "'g 10 Ihe following o.• idali"n ......cti"n' 11,5 _ 20, _ 50/- _ 2111t has been detem'ined esperimenul!y Ihal Ihe reacllon follm.... fi"t-llrder kinetic,; wilh _ped to both o,'ygen and hydrngen ,,,Ifide con""nlralinn>: d'11,S1I1

-['II,S' 0,

n,e presenl raleof aeral,,,n ",.. ,nla ins Ihe'l\ygen concenlr.. Ii"n in Ihe bke ..1 2 mg/l. The rale con,lanl [ fnr Ihe re..ction wa, determined expern""nl.. lly to be 1,1lOl lj ",,,Ie-day. If the aeration completely inhiblled .. naerobic ""piralion .. nd tIm, SlOpped Ihe production 0( .ulfide, h"" I"ng would it l.. ke 10 redu"" Ihe 11,5 c""""nlration in Ihe lake from SlXlIO 1 jU\-1?

solution The di,.;.l!,ed oxygen 01 Ihe l.. ke i' m.ainlained .. , .. c",~,lanl , ..lue and therefore i' a con.,lanl. 1t can be cnmbined ",lh the rate cn,,,,tdnl 10 n",ke .. !"",udo firs!-<'rder rale cn,~,lanL Thll',

11,5

11,S~r--->'1

3.11 4 HALF-lIFE AND ITS RElATIONSHIP TO H-E RATE CONSTANT It oilen is u",,"ul to espr""-, a reaClion in lenn, of Ihe lime required 10

react one-half of Ihe concenlrali"n inilially pr"""nt. n,e half·life, I , />is defined a. Ihe lime required for th" concenlralion of .. ch"mlcalto decreao;e bv one-half (lor ex""'ple, C' 0.3:< 0), The relallo,e'hip between half-life and Ihe reactiln ratecon,tdnl dependson Iheorder litule .q 0.5:< Cn 11\10 Equalion 3.42:

'°

O.5·C'n

'C~

(3.50)

-U"

Equalion 3.50 c.. n be solved for the half-life,

[It! Is NuclearPowerSale? ---P"*'"

~_. ,-"...",,=,)1nd"" r

Radon: NumberOne SOurce ofNarural Radiation ......... "l'''.~''''/r'''''''''' "

Chapler3 Chemistry

OS'A'e"

I

13.51)

Like" i"', fM a I1rsl...,rder reacti"n. the half-life can be relaled to Ihe rorsl-<>rder rale con,lant, [. In Ihi, case_ ,ub>lilule Ie 0.5 Co. into Equ.. ,ion 3.44, 13.52)

The half-life for a firsH'rder relat,onship then i, gi"en

b}

.b93

'" -• ~ e Xanl pie I :3. 16

U.53J

Corwertin!l a Rale Constall! 10 Half-Ule

Subsurface half-Ii,'", for benzene, TCE, alld loluen" a", ILsted a, 119, 2J I, and 12 days, """pecti...,ly. What are Ihe first-order rat;> oo"slanh fM alllh"'" chen'kal,;?

solution n... moo,,1 only ae<:epl< oo"""ntration-dependent, firsl-order rate oo,,
Similarly, leTC>:

O.05II/dayand Ie.........

exam pI el 3. I 7

0.1>93

D,fB)

Ie

69day.

O.Q1'day

O.038 i da y.

Use 01 Half-Ute ill Deterrrillill!l Flrsl-Ctder DecaV

The 2011 FukutroYlI\g Ihe «>cial and ec"''''mie Ii' elihood of Ihe local region. A 2012 scientific paper reported Iwo greenling reclion by "hich cesium i' 10,;1 from Ihe fish is Ihrough radinacli ,'e decay and Ihe Cakulate Ihe oollcetltrat,o" of rad",acti",,, c"",um in a Fuku.,hinl.l fLsh half-life for IhL' isotope is 3 after 5 )'ears. (I>:'"te, A becquerel i. a m~asure of radioaclh'ity; 1 becquerel equals 1 radioartive disinteg,."tlon per """ond.) Would regula I"'" alle", th .. f..h 10 be co"sumed in Japa n or the Umled Stal""?

y"'''''

solution Becau,", the haif-life equals:l ~'ea"" Ihe ,."Ie r"".tanl 1 ran be delemlined fmm Equation :1.53:

•

0.693 I, ,

0.(,93 3 year

O.2J.·year

Theref"re,

'". c.",,,,,,expl-lcI)

25,000 Bq.-l

"x p (-0.23 >< 5 year) year

7.916 Bq. L

This fish is nM ""fe I" eat acmrding to regulations", Japan and Ih" United State<. The vallie greatly exceeds the Ihr"'hold values of 100 and 1,200 Bq per kgof fi.h ("et weight) ,el by each country" gmen,,,,en!. A problem to work "n oubide of Ihe d~"'m<>!n is, ho" years wOuld ,t take Ih,s fi.h to reach saf" levels set by "'oh rountry~

'''''"l'

3.11 Kineli:.

3.11 5 EFFECT OF TEMPERAlURE ON RATE CONSTANTS Rale co,,lanl for the """ temperalur" The Anhen ius,,'l ualion 's u""<:lln adj",1 rale c",,,lancs for ch.ltlg"'" in t"m!",,"alure, 11 is ",ritt"" a,

",,,rt

I' 'roml

(J.~)

" h",,,l ;s the ral" ({""lam of a particular ord"r, A is I"""ed Ih" p'''"'po"ent,al faclor (""m" unils", J;), [. i, Ih~ adi"ati"" en"rgy (kcall m"le), R is Ih" gas con,lalll, and T i, I"m!",ratu,e (K). TI,,, acli, al;oll ell"'gy, Ul. is en"'gy '''qu",,,d for Ihe collis;o" In resuh," a '''action. P"'-e
n,,, TI,,,

11,,,

c,,,;",

TI,,,

n,,,

(J.SS)

" h"r" l-t is a di m"".io"k!ss t"mp~"'lure
Chapter 3 ClIemislry

example/3.l8

Effect of Temperatll"e on caoo Rate Constalt

The rdt" con,ldnt for C'"drbona<'eOll" biochemiC'"dl o~ygen demand (CBODI at 20 C i, 0.11 day. What i" Ihe rale constant at J() C? A,sume H 1.072.

solution Using Equation 3.55, i"l

oL-day[1.0n1l>C-XI'C']

G.2-day

TI,ls e>..a"'ple de,nol\.strate Ihat, for biologiC'"dl systems u.sed in '" d,te", aler Ireatment and res(lurce reeo""ry, w" would often rn-r.'e d doubling in til" bllllogical reaction" Ilh e,-ery 10 C i""""
Key Tenns • .llN>rplion

• Fr""ndhch k<>therm

• oxidatwn ,tdle

• add

• Gibbs

• pH

• ac,i,ation e"e'llY

• half-life

• phnw"ynlhesi,

•

• He"N's 1.'1"

• pK.

• ac,i, Lty coefficienl"

• Ilenry" law ro,,'talll (Kill

• pre
• ad""rptinn

• hydmphobic partllio"m8

• !"",udo fi"'l-<)rJer

• alkahnily

• ideal

• R.loult"s ld"

• Arrheni", equalion

• ionic ,trengtll

• rate law

•

• kinetics

• redox reaclinn,

• buffering capacily

• K.

• s.
• carbo'''''le sy"em

• K" • K,.

• ."-,,ond law llf thermodynamic<

• K.

• ""I-w,ller parhlion m"[fide"t

a~1i\'ily

'"~

• dime""ionl"", lemperalu,"" c""mdent

• di,,,,I,..,,:I carbon di",ide • di"",I\-&:! o'ygen • eleclmn aceeplnr • electmn dm,or

• element.,,, reaetion • equilibrium

Ir",,~nergy

~yste'"

• ......il-water partlli"n e""meient

• ld"- 01 ro"<;erva!ton of ma"" • linear i<;O\henn • local equilibnum • melhyldt,on • oclanlll-waler partition e""fficielll

(K,,~)

• equilibrium eot"tarl! (/(1

• o"erall order

• first 1.1" 0/ Ihermtldynamics

• oxid ation-red" diorl

• fir;lordet

"",maliz&:!ln nrganic carbon (K,. l

• "''PI ion • ,toichiometry • thenn,ld ynam ic< • \-an't Iloff rel.lI,ol\.ship • "o!.ll,h?..tio" • zem ",der

chapter/Three Problems '3.1 110\\ m~IlY grdlns of NaCl ,,-ould y....u need to "dd I.... a I L water ,ample (pll 7) '" Ihe I...."ic .,Ire"glll equaled 0.1 M? 3.2 You Me ,tudymg lilt' f"""biUty of using a rev'''''''' ",mosl, "",mbrane ,yslem 10 d..".,1illale seawater 35,000 mglU and in1.llld brackish grc•.JIld,,-aler {TC6 Iypically rang"" from l,flXJ to 1O,1llXl "'g/U. (a) E'timate Ihe Ionic strenglh of the seawab" and brackish water. (b) A conductivity meier pmvld", a reading of 7,fIOO "mho/cm when placed III one 01 these" "Ier ,""-mpl",,. Which waler .'Our"" i, Ihe sample from?

nos

3.3 Calculale Ihe Ionic q",ngth and ",dJvidual activity a",/fidenl, lor alL ,0lution '" which 0.02 mol", of Mg(OIIl" 0.01 mol", of reel" and 0.01 mol"" olllC1 ~re di,soh'ed. 3.4 II~drogen sulfide I, an o.1or--caUiing chemical found al many waslewale, collection and lrealmenl fadlili",. TI,e follo,,- ing exp","",ion d"",,,rlbe<; lwdr<>gen sulfide gas ,eacting wilh aqueou,;-pha,e hydrogen ,ulfide (a diprOlic acid). 11,5 110"

11,,,,_",,,

U"'you'unde",landingofchemlcalequilibrluma"d thermod yna,fUcs 10 d""e"nl"e the llen,ys COI~qanl (molesfL-alm) 10' Ihis re~ctl....n al 23 C. TI,e £hange ill Fr"" e"ergy of Formallon at51andard condition, (Ul"I' of kcallmole) i, a, follows; II,S, ...,) -7.1\92, 11,S,...,....~.. -!is I, lIS- oq-..., ... 3,01, 50 , '-177.:>4.

3.5 The reac60n of di.'alenl. mangan."., "ilh "'ygell;n aqueou, 'OIUlI01' IS given as foll"ws,

The equilibrium con,tant ('\'1 for thi, ",action Is 23.7. h ha, been F"und thai a lake water ,ample lhal conla,,~s no o'ygen al 23 C, pI! 1\.5, o"g",all~ collla ined 0.1> "'gl L"F 11.1 ,,' - . The ,ample" as aeraloo (abnospheric (",,,.:Io~m.. 0/ Ihe d,,,,oh'ed ....xmen £ol'lCent,allm is ':1.2 mg/U alld aller 10 days 01 mn!.",t ",nh allno'pherlc oxygen, Ihe !Vln'- col",enI,atlon ",as 0.4 mglL. The molecular ",elghl of /I.-In ;s 55, 0 i, Iii, and II ;s 1 The change in F,,,,, energy of fonllanoll at ,tandard cmld ili"ns (ululs of kcal 1Ifille) I Chapler3 Cllemislry

are as lollow" !Vln'-54.~. 0, '",~"ti"" _3.93, 11,0 -'i6Ji9, 11.1,,0, 'M',~I -111.1,!lO. (a) "'5'ullling thai Ihe pI 1 remalJ~s con.,tam dU'ing aeralion, wil! Ihe pr""il'llate mllli"ue 10 fo,m after the measurellleni on Ihe lellth day? A"um" Id""l conditlo,~s. (b) \\~ldl ,hould Ihe Mn'- oo,,,:entral,on be hn mol",/Llal "'luilibrlulll, a"sumlng thai pI ! and p,esence of d"',,,lved OX) gen are the ""me a, III part "A"? Assume Ideal m"dili",.-s. (cl Whal ,hould Ihe 11.1,,'- wncentratlon (in ",oi,,-,/U be at "'l"ilibrium ;f 2 x /0 'mnl,,-s/Hlerof NaG are added 10 Ihe,olulion and Ihe pI I I, adjusled 10 2? (problem ba,ed on SnoeYlIlk and Jenk;,~s, l':IllO). 3.6 Ph"'phale i.... 1\ reacts in waler 10 form 1lI,,,,nI,yd"'gen phosphale acc....ding to Ih.,(ollo,,- il\g reacri",.-

Th""'l.u ~jbri"mcons'""I forlhis reaclion i, 10- ""'.Ia) GIven lhal I)"S Is a dilute system (so}'<",e Ihe site? (Explain your "'~s\\"."..)

3.9 What "ould be the

""urat~,,,

c()ncenlr
3.17

3.10 The log llenry'< law con,l.1nt (unil, of l-alm I mole and ",ea,ure
3.18

3.11 The dimen,;"nl"" He"ry's law ron>tanl f'" lrichlor"'1.hflene (TCE) at 15 C is 0-,1. A ".,.ded gla,,~ vial is prepared thai ha, an alt ,,,lume of ,I mL o ..erlying an aqu,-,'(b ..nlun,eof 3tl mL TCE is added 10 Ihe aqu"",-,-~ phase '" Ih.at inilially ill"" an aquenus-phase conce"lta"nn 01 100 ppb. After the ~yslem eqUllibral"", whal will be Ih" crule",,'rat;on (in u,,,l~ of ll-g/Ll of TCE in Ihe aqu""", pI",,,.,? 3.12 The I lenry's law conSlanl for II,S i' 0.1 mole/ l-aln" ~nd 1I,S''''I=IIS-+II+ "here K.. 10-'. If you bubble pure II,S gas iUln a beaker of" aler. ". hall~ lhemncenltation
3.14 Whal WOllld be Ihe pllif 10-' mol'" of hyd ronumic add (I IF) "ere added 10 I L pure "'aler? TI,e pK. of IIF" 3.2.

3.15 When Cl, ga' Is added to water dur"'g Ihe di.~inf",,,i(1'

of drinking "aler, ,I hydmlf"'-"' wilh Ihe ",aler 10 form I lOCI. The dis,nfection po"er of Iheacid 1100 "I'll! lime' bt>tter Ihan il""on~gateba,e, OCI-. TI", pK. for I lOCI i~ 7.3. (a) Whal percenL1ge of Ihe lolal d"i"fedio" power (lIOO -;- O(]-) exists i" Ihe add form at pi! Ii? (b) Alpl I 71 3.16 AIL aql>eOllS snlutlo" is prepared al15 C \\ ith 10 l mole,; of hydrncya,uc add (I ICN) a"d 10- 1 mol"" of d L<;odium carbonate (N~ ,CO,) and r"'ach'" equ~ibrium. (a) Lbl the ",ight unlo:no" n chemical ~ped"" here ("al",r i, nol unkno",n). (b) l"" (do nill "'lve) all lour equilibrium e'l-""e<>;i,..,, th.ll d""'rlbe lh" sy-ten\ making sure 10 indude Ihe "alue for the equilibnum mn,lan!s.

For Ihe "'''dothermic

so, &'

rea~lion,

5" - Q,

"'ill an increase in temperJlure increa"." decrea".,. or l""'e no effect on Ihe reaclion'~ equilibrium mn~t.",,? \\~,al

pll i, required 10 tedu~e a lughmncentralion of a dis
3.19 (a) \V1",' is the solubllily (in mol "'Ill of CaF, ill pure w~ter al15 C? (b) Wh~t is Ihe solubility "f Cal', if Ihe temper
rffi"'"

3.20 Al a W.1St",,·ater trealment pl~,," FeO",j " added to remm'e excess ph""phale from the effluent. A"ume the follo\\'ing rea<:t,Ol~S occur' feCI,,, ;= f"l-- _ 30fel'O" ;= Fe'" _ 1'0,'The equil,brium enn,'a"t fM the sec,,,ld rea~lion is K,p Hr""'. Whal con""nlrah,n oi Fe'+ i, n..,ded 10 "'auHai" Ihe ph,"phaleCOnCenlrali'" beJcm thelin"t of f mg r/L?

321

O"e melhod 10 remme ",alb !rem ",aler b 10 rai"" Ihe pI! and cau"., Ihem to precipitale a, the" ",el.ll hydroxidos. (a) for the foOo\\''''g reacl~)lL enn'pule Ihe ,t"ndarJ f"'" en"'rgy of rea~lion, Cd'- ... 2011- = CdjOllh" (b) The pI I of "aler "uliallv ",as h.R and then "'as rai,..."j 101\.0. I, the dis<;o;'·ed ~ad",ium concentralion red uced 10 below 100 mg/l al Ihe fi,,,,1 pI I? Assume the temperature of the ",aler is 15 C 3.22 "'aphlhal",ne ha-s a log K.~. of 3.33. Lstimate ils ",il-wJler pilrtilion roeffident nmmalized toorganic carbon and Ihe 93 per~em mnfidenc" inter> al of your ",t"nate. 3.23 Atraw,e, an l"'rb,dde "'idely used forcn,.", is a cemn...n ground",aler pnllut'lnl i" lhe c"',,producing regio"s of lhe Uniled Stal"', TI,e log K. ... for atrazine Is Vii Cak:ulate Ihe !ra
di,,,,I,,...d in Ihe Bay waler, a"d 250 ngl gm dry weighl of . ......Jime"!. U,ing Ihe i"fmm"t,on provided and a,;sumu'g equilibrium. whal i, !he sedimelll-""ter jJdrtitioo coeffICient fm "'ercury in Ihe S<>d,menl' (unit~ of cm \ per gram dry weighl nf s...:hmenm

3.25 Civen th... following general r"""tion, A_lB_JC_P_'1Q Sho", ho" the change ill mncenlrati,,,, of C \\ ith lime b rel.ued 10 Ihe ch....ge in roncenlral,ru, nf A, 6, P, and Q ,dth time,

3.26 Which of Ihe follOl,'i"g Slaleme,,!.~ aoout the .,tudy of chemical kineti<:s L~ true? (al lemperalure h." no effect on the rale of a re",clio". (b) chang'" in ",aela"l m,,,,entralion do not affecllhe ",Ie al whkh a r"""tion ,,,,",urs, (Ci Ihe addition of a cataly~1 to a reacl,on" ill ~peed up U", readion Out it ",ill not uhima tdyresult ina Ia rgermas"'fprod ucl, (d) forth"'" me reactants. lhe larger Ihe ~urface area, Ihe slower a ",action" ill occur (problem fro'" EPA Air Pollution Training [''-~l.Ilule, hUpoll",w",.epa.gov I apli/Ix""'1 I.

327 Pendisulfale (S,O/-) reacl~ ",th lhi.... ulf"le (5,0/-) "cmnling to tho> folio" mg reaction:

S,O.'- _ 25,0,'- _ 250/- ~ 5,°."(al Sho" how Ihe d"'nge in peridL~ulf"le co"""ntralion w,lh tllne i' relatro to Ihe dld"ge in mnce"lralion with time 01 Ihe '>lher Ih"'" 'peei",. (b) If the "'''''lion b deme'llary "nd irreversible. "hat i, Ihe OI'erall order of Ihe reacli"n?

3.28 A fil"l-order reaction thai rtrucllOn of .• pollula"t l",s a rale co""t""t of 0.1 Iday, (a) I If'" "'''''y days", m'tlake for 90 P"'"""nr. of lhe chemical 10 be d"'lroyro? /h) flo'" long "'ill it take for 99 percenl of lho> chemkallo be d"'troyeJ? (cl f [ow IOllg "ill il Idke for 99.9 perce"t of Ihe chemical 10 be deslroyro?

3.29 A bac1eria slraUI I"" \>eo,n bolaled Ihal call cometaoolize telr""hl,'n>etha"e (TCA). Thi, ~Irai" call be used fm Ihe bi"'emedi.llion of IldZ"tion lime would he r"'JU''''''' 10 reduce Ihem"""'llralion fro'" I mg/L "' Ihe ",fluent to 1 l'-g/l in the effluenl of a reaclor? Assume Ihe readnr L~ completely mixed. 3.30 A,,,,,,,e PO,'- i, rem,.",ed fm'" municipal w",I"','''lerlhr,ugh predl~l"lion w,th Fe'l-.- accordi"G Chapter 3 ClIemislry

ro:- _Fel-- _

to Ihe fono" "'g reaction, n,e rate lIw for Ihis ",actio" i, d'PO , '-j

- .

"

-1

F~'·

PO

FePO".

1-

'

(a) \\~l.ll i' Ihe ",act,on order ",jth r"'peel to PO:-? (b) WI"'I order i, lhis reachon ""eran?

3.Jl

Oblai" Ihe World II""hh Organizalion (W! [01 rel~"lon "Un ned i'''rsion: I I Yll'enk ",;ksand microbial guideh"es for re'-'-<;e." Rev,e" Rgure 12. (a) [ [nw ",,,,,y gra tnS ofN. p,,, nd K a ",e",,,,led e""y day in a S"edisllperso,,'~ uri"e?

3.32 Obtain Ih" World Ile"hh Orga"'7~1Iion (W! (0) rel.... rlon "Urined ""rsio,~ I I ygienic ri>ksand microb~11 gu,deli"", fm reu""." Read Chapter 4 (P.llhog'''ic micn".. gall1""~ i" urine). An,wer Ihe follo",ing que,lio",. ta) [s the "rine in a he"llhy ind"'idu... r ~ bladder sl~rile or n,""le"le' (b) Whal m"cemralion of dermal bacteria Ls picked up dUrIng uri""lion (rocleria! mU? (c) \\'holl percelll of uri"ary Iracl i"feclion' "re c"used by [.«:huiL!,i~ ("I'll? 3.33 Ammonia (1\[ I,) is a cru"",nn mn,liluem of many "alural ",ale", and ,,'i\.qewalers. When \\'alercontaining ammoni"" 1"'''led at" " .• ter 1",,,lme,,1 plan~ Ihe amn..."ia reads ""Ih the disi"f.....lanl hyp.:>"hh....,-', (! [CCl) 1" ,oIulio" 10 fonn mOl.... chlom,"nine (K[ !,Cll a, follow" NIl,. _ [[OCI _ NI1 10 _ 11,0

""id

Th~

rate la" fM Ihi' r~acti"" is d'N[ [, -1 I lOCI NI h

"

("l Whal is the reaclion order ""lh respecl 10 NIl,? (b) Whal order is thi, readio" ","er"ll? (c) Ii Ihe 1lOCI co""entralio" i~ held COl"I""1 ""d eq""ls 1[)-. M, and the rale co,,~t"ltl "'"lual, 3.1 " 10" L, mole-s, calcul"le tI", lime required 10 reduce Ih.. conce,llralion of 1\[ [, to ,me-half it' origi""1 'alue.

3.34 1\ilro&,,, dim.ide (/(0,\ co""enl.ratims are me",ured in an air-
a dl) d"n.He (0,02/year), ",ode""e dinlolle (0.0.111/ year), ~nd wet cLn""e (0.ffi7/yearl. Dry dinlolte is defined a, precipit.,~on plus rffitculated leachale being less Ih.,n 20 ,n./year, mOOera'e dima,e as predpil.ltion plus recircula,ed lead"'te rAnge. from 20 to ,10 In';year; and a "et dim.lle having precip,lation plus recirculated Ieacllolte greater ,I",n '10 in/year. E.lm""e 'he 'ime il lal"" fot 20 .,nd 90 percelll 01 'he 0'8""'c con!.lineJ I" a ",unieip"'l ",lid"a,te landfill '0 d""av in 'he 'h"'" dilferent dima'es. In pract;"", will be II", peru-..:l "hen greenhouse gases should be captured from 'he landfill,

""rb<'"

tI,,,

3.36 0" r>.1.lrch I I, lOll, a mas,i, e earlhquake and ,su,,,,mi triggered a maf" disas,er al/apan', Fulushima nude.lrplant A plumee"endinglo Ihe rotthw",1 of the sile del""'iteJ sig",ficant amounts of iodine-I)l, "",ium-I:\4, and ces,um-1J7 up to JO miles a,,·ay. IOOine-131 has an B-1);1 publica 'ions I pu bl ications- nudea r- po \l'er.ht, nil. 3.37 After 'he Chemooyl nudear MOO"''', the concentration 01 "'es in mill "a, proportio""llo th" c
0""';

3.38 Table). 12 "' a gi "en year is 'he dilfere,,,,e in concenlra'io" be,,,,,,,,,, 'he end 01 1J<.<:e"'ber a"d lite slart of January "f 'hat year. The Na'io".tl D.:ea"ic and AIm.....pheric AdminiSlr~t,on (t\OAA) report' 'ha' Ihe annual grow,h rate ls ,,"'iIM '0 Ihe glob.~1 gro""h rate of CO, Io", """.,~,

in 'he .lln""phere (Dr. P,etel' Tal~', I>:OAAI ESRL, hltp:II"''' ",.~ln.""'-g,wIgn,d/o:gg/tre,d,l, and Dr, Ralph Keeling. Scripps lt~,h,ution of o.,,,,,ngraphy, sen f'I"'i<'Ol.uc;d.ed u I). (a) Wha, i, the a'erage gro",th rate o(CO, in the a,n""'Phere mer this 20-year period (ppm CO,I year)? (b) Re, ,e", 'he shape of 'he figure shm, ing Ihe almospheric CO, mea,urements made a, M~una Loo m er Ihe p"'sl 50 "~ars (Figure 4.]·1 or Ihe web ,ite referred I" abovel. 0.__ 'he daLl folio,,' a firs'-order or zero·..~rder reaclor order? Explam y""r a,~,,,,er, leI A"ume 'ha' 'he 1959 monlhlv mea" concen,ration of CO, measured at Mauna loa "'as 315 ppm. Using 'he a,erage gro",th rate you de,ern"ned in part (a) m·er 'he 20-year period and the app"'pria,e read.r order, wha' a,mosphenc CO, """'e"tralio" "'mud you est, "Iol,e lor 'he year I91'll, 20 12, and 203m 3.39 If 'he rale cO'''la."t for the degradation of bioche""""l o'ygen den"'nd (BOD) al 20 C l, 0.231 day, "hat ls the "alue of Ihe BOD "'te con,t.t"t at 5 C a"d 25 C? Assume tha' H equals I. I .

3.40 Exc""-' nitrogen inpu .. '0 estuaries ha, e bee" >eiemiflcally linked to poor water qu~lity and degrad.,t,on of ec.....y'tem h.,b,tal. The "itrogen lo~ding '0 Narraga"setl llay "as estimated to be S,I·II,f>31 kg N/y~ar and to Ch""a!",a"" Bay is l,17,S39,-191 kg N/year. The "'al""hed are~ lor Narragan,eu llay i, 31O,~("1 ha and fer Cl""" ~..,ake Bay is fO,95 I ,W ~ ha. The nilrogen lood illg r.t", are ""'Iimaled for Gal"eston llay I<> be 1".5 kg I>: per ha per year, 2",9 kg I>: per ha per year for Tamp'" Bay, ·19.0 kg t" per ha per }'ear for Ma.,",",chu""u, llay,.\J,d 20,2 kg t" per ha per year for Dela",are Bay. Rank 'he loading ra,,,,, from I',"'''''t 10 highest for these si" esluaries.

3Al Exces, nilrogen input' '0 estuaries l""'e b""n "'ien'ificall" linked to poor waler quality and degradation of ec...ystem l",bit.~t. Perrorm a library "".Hd, for the 1'-'1""'" 'itle "I>:ilrogen inpu" to """"""y-four ,,'uthern Ne", Engla"d es'uaries: Applica,ion of a watershed nitmgen model" (latimer and Charpenlier, 20fO). Bas.ed on this Mticle, ",h.'t is 'he percent contribution 01 Ihe f,,110"'i"8 (our "i,ion to Ihe ",atershed of the "",u"'Y, alld (d) fertilizer runolf Irom lal"", golf C"""""', and agriculture.

1959 1'Iffi I%t l'lt>l 1....1 19M 1%1 1_ t%7 IO/'ll ,_ 1910 IQn 1971 t97\ 19,~ 1975 1971> Iq77 19711 t9;>1 I 0.9~ 0.5< 0.95 OM 0.71 filS ,m Il~ 0.7-1 till l.J' I Ilh 0'<5 1M '22 07S I 11 ~S~ ,In t.Jfl 'J5 17

References B.,k.~.j.

11-, 1. R. Mihd"M-, D. L Lud""...,"

Jr

I hdo.')', 1'1'J7

[""u,'.", ,~"..,,"",.'" .......J.. h~ "'>I"n~- .. ro... ",,,,,,,,],,...,"

"",po.",,,,,'fi,.-....,,.... w,,"" [",,-~,,-... ~ . . ". b'lc LJt._I~' l"'",n,). s.. ,nd M. A cn.'f"-"""~' 20m --'''nOS'," oopu" h' ....~.c-n,,_I.>,''''"',r...--n """ [.w.nJ L....U""""'

"."'r.h.>J m'n'!,,,,,, ""okl

""pi...,......

U","'n<"C""'.I,,.j 5Irlt"'i"",, •. ~

11.'>-1.'"

Chapler3 Cllemislry

~hhc~''',

J. 11-, \'19'1. F.,01.-.",I.,-,!, [ .. ".-..-.".1 [~X"..y,i"S

"" ,~')' '" 5."" "",.~·m'" V. 1.., .nd D. "nk,n, 1_. "'",~o.-..i>I,,,.1',,,, Y.~k ~.I", "·,le. '" So ..., 1"",,"

."k,~,h"

chapter/Four Physical Processes RichordE. Horvoth Jr., james R Mihek;ic, Julie Beth Zimmerman. QionsZhong

In lit. chaplet. rflOlhrs WI' /..an chad phYKcJ ptce Iht:w or. , ~ in /l,. 1IlO 01

m.

po/hIr:wJ Ihrouglt

m.

"",,>I """""'"

Chapter Contents

4.1

Mass Balances

4.2

Energy Balances

4.3

4.4

... _"

Botldngs: Right SWng

Mass Transpo1 Procl!!l68S

and proc.,.•• utMJ 10 control and "flO! poIulOnlemi".:JII. rhe,hap'.

begin. will> Q ,'udy of ,h.. uS" 0/ mOlt",rj and "".rgy bo!a>cft. and

Learnlng Objectives

IhflptOOt»4ll ofocJ..«_onddi."er.

I. U'" Ih" L", ,"If n"l"''''~hnn of "",So; to "nl" a mil>' hallnet'

fnetyybaSancflOfeapplie
lhat include. raw, of 'h""tical pmJuetito llw ........ ~b""", . '

SIO/l.

n..

~I ~naI sedtot'l of",is chope. ... ~ndJpr.";ou.cMW',pfo".oI"ons· porI proce.uu wIth a look at move-

l. DLffemlu.ato. ""letl ~,

4. 5.

6.

ment 01 fluids and porlicles In fluid.; ~ ut.Jer.t 0Itd lfIIIChanicoJ

dispetJlOll ond gr
7.

I.

~.

10.

II.

OlmfWtN mi,nj ...."" ........"....

and plug-a.:... lW<~ ReLItIUIa' "n.:! n"" Diff~M1I"'I~font" (>f ene"K}, "nd I"i~ .. n en....gy balance Rej.lte ,'" energy hll..""" In Ihe 1I"",,,hOlJse "ff&..1, h""_,,,,""l<1 e''''rg~' I"""", anJ ""plkation nf ".>ergJ' effic",ncy... nd Ih.urban ...... 1 i'lldnJ <'ffed. Ro-Lue temperalure ch.tnge Ill..,., \0>\ eI "-'0' unJer d,ffeftonl p"f'uwhnn, ~'" g:nwo tho "nJ ~ """naK""le,,1 -~ ~"" """gn'luJe "n..! sp.ufl< h """ 01 """""",I,; 1IoI.~ ",..,.....uN "'Ih the bt"lt ,ronmenl and the ,mpiu:.;>bnn>. nf I....... fIo,,~ford""'gn. planning.. .. nd m..nagelllt'nL C"I,ul.lIe """I k..., fn)1l\ bUild,,~~ Ihrough Ihe bu'ldlllg ~"jn "nd fTllm ;nfi!lr,llinn R..-Lll........ 1 1.-- in !>uilding<; I" d"lo\",...-11..,,11" 01 .....11

e,,,

1I-u'Og u-m.aI ",,11~

12.

IkLu~

f""'hl..... "f the buUi ..."In.............:, ...... h '-tmet"nJ bu'khng ~n. kxahu" ..nd nunlberolt "n.l " .. to-r, bu,lJ"'!1 m.l1"",,1 ..nd """f"n ~ ...~ surf tI, the urb.In h.... t

~1 .. IlJ

j

U:

.-fi""l_ . w"'nl"'k""lJ"1l\

U 1.......

"'n... n.J 0.1;:,~~~4

"1'1'1" n,l' ~ I..",

.""

~

4.1

Mass Balances

The law of cono;ervatioon of mass 'ldl"'; Ihat mas, can neilher be pr,>duce£'-'g)' balance; are the topic of Section 4.2. The principle of con",,,-atioo of nlaSS ,,,ean, Ihat il Ihe amounl of a chemi",1 incre",,,, <;('fl\e"i,ere (for example. m a laJ:..j, th~, that increase cannot be the '''''uh of r compound, tl"'l were ah'ead y in Ih<> lake. Similarly. if reaetim~, produced the n",ss ;""rea", of thi, chen""al, they mu,t .11<0 have caused a co,""",ponding d""rease in Ihe miLSS of il. ga,. and co.l-must main/ain a ma ... balance. A, a re,u 11, as these resources are rombu,led for energ)'. the origi n.ll ,<>U,ce is depk
_( ma", enlerin g ) _ ( ma,,;; exiting ) from 1 tol +.'.1 lromllol-.'.I "et m.'''s of chemical prodUCed)

- (

from other compounds by reacti",~s bel""",,n 1 and I +.'.1

(4.11

Each term,,! Equatioon -1.1 h... ullil<; of m ..... This form ofbalan"" i, mOil u""lul ,,-hell Ihere i,a CleM beginnillg and end 10 the balan,,, period (.'.Il, s<> 11"'1 Ihe challge in ""'''' ol'er Ihe balance peri<>.l can be determllloo. COlllinu,,'g our edrli.... "....logy. whe1\ balancing a che.ckbool, " balance period of 1 mOlllh LS ollen u-ed. In e"vir"nme"t,,1 problems. hOl,-e,-er. ,t is u~u<. l1y mor" CO"" e"ie"l 10 "-0'" with I al..." of mas. flux-the rale al "-l,,d, mass enter< or lea,,,, a sy,lem. To de"elop all equallo" ill lerm, o! ma« f1Ul<. the mas, balance equalion is d,,-ided b v .'.1 to produce an equalion wilh u,,,ts of mass per Unilti",e. D,,'iding Equalion 4.1 by .'.1 a"d mo\'i"g Ihe fir<1 lenn on the right (mass al lime I) 10 lhe Chapter4 F'I1ysicaI Processes

I nu.."

~t

hn\o! I _

m.lS:o (

.1q -

nuss

~I

Itn", I',

" .""lIng from)

11<>1-.1l

14.21

'\otf ,hO'm",~1 nu"" In lhO'Lo"" A • .1l - 0, lhO' 1i...1 ,......, on I"" 'ight ~iJ ....fEqu""'.,n l2 Mom",I"" ,al.. ~I" hldl m~~"nI"""I"" I.al... llh.. m~, flU>. inllH"" In..). aoJ I.... _ond I... m Nl'01,,,,I"" ul.. ~t .. h,... h nu,." .. ~Il' I"" Ia"" (thO' nu"" flu, nul nitlw ...""t The ~ h>rm oi Equal,,", ~2 is lhe Nd rtIJ. .. of d'.....ical product,,", or I....... 1'1>;, "m"'" .. ",,",, t.. ~ """" nU>. .. lIh UIIII< <>f nu bm... Substltuung nw;;,. nu~. u... "'l......1lon for n..."" baLt....... can Iw .. n"en a!' k>lJo,. <;

(

""~

Ml"Ulllu1.lI"'" r~I"

)

In~-,..~ nU>. In 1- 'm~"" nu~ .,.,,' -

(- "''''') dt""'ical

f'n-.d 1lCtJ""

(4.31

Eqwblll ~.J i<'h.. g,,,,,,rning eqlJ.llion for Ill.'... bal,m,... us.,j Ihnlugh(luI "''''''CO,"n.."I,,1 ""glll,"'ring ~"d "de"":..,

4 1 1 CONTROl VOll.lo'.\E Am.... bol1ol1ll:e is n'e'I'" "gful .. n1~ ,n I."."'" "I.. ~I....af... 'oi!l>il>n .. I,p""". .. hoch h.o<; "'",nd.>"", acn,.,,; ..hoch Ih.. teml~ "'_ ~Itd iii.... are di."t....m"w Th'" 'oi!l>""''' callall"" control .olum... In I.... ~iI_ ...... mplO'... e..-:l a Lo...... ." our'Mln~ "llu""'.mJ ,nduoJ.o.J m..'" nll,O'<,nl" and oul of the I""", TIwo.... o't,""lh. ~n. 'olu..... of an:- sh.lF'" ~OJ I",at"'n'.... he "sed asa "lRtrd • d~ R,,"Ii.",caD~. """ ........, <.. rt;l,n conlrol '01"............. _ u-.d"ullh.on oth".". The '"""-l ,mp',""nt .. Itnhutoo oi il control • oIun... '~INI It h.i;. bo",ndil'"'.., .......h.. ..nd iii- can "" c.akuLo.I..d

412 TERMSOfTHEMASSBALANaEOUATION FORACMfR A .. "II-m"....t tan!.!!' ..n iln.olog"" IOnS. For a.unpl... ,n 1M 1a..... It>.;lmpl II nughl he rea""""bk> III ~",... ..... th.Il the chenucals dl...:hargoi'd ont.> I Lo.Lo ...... nu~..u thn"'sho."" the .... t>.... Lo.le. Sudt .. ~~ ,\em ,~alltoJ ~ ( pl_ly mind Aow ructodCMfRI. 0lM18n\S. n",,' ronun...n!. conlmliOl61)i 51,rm1I1lr1l .....IIM IOTJl ~ """ ill..... ..-I for 'lUch "'''I~m~. A diagram of ~ CMrR is sh..... n in I1gu .... 4.1

""""""Ii<:

-oc Rtw./4.1

SChc

IIu lI!i<'d ;O<;il ,,-.nOOI '" .."healf' ,"", lhrOIFll ..

...<11 ",,"'-'II

,_,'1' ,'''''''"" I.....-__.. ........,.,.,&__ •• 1 IolBB I .....

..

The folk'" ing discu'5'on d"""rib
,I!VCJ

<11

dl

(4.41

I" m""t c"-,*,,, (and i" an cases i" Ihi-5te.,!), Ihe volume l5 ro'hLl.,,1 and can be mm'ed oubide lhe den"al;' e. resuUmg i"

,c

v-

"

(4.51

1" any ",ass b.t.lance s"ualio", on"" a .ufficoenl amou,,' of time ha. l-"'-~, condilions "ill appn",ch sleady.tal". me.""ng Ihal mnd,tio'b no longer change with lime. In ---anJ hen"" the ma_""hi" thecOluml "olu",e """",in, en,... ta,~. In thi. c"-w. <1", .',11 n. If, however, insulfic;enllim~ h... p.t«'iectio" ten", or other probl"'" modilio" has changed. th" ",a". in the mnt",1 "olum~ will "ary w,lh tim~, ~nd lhe "'''' balance ,,-ill be nonsl,,"lIy .lal" The a",ounl of time thai must pa'i.5 before steady 5t.,te is reached deJ>ffid. on Ihe conditions of Ihe problem To""" "hy, ron,ider the approach to 51eady ,Ule of Ihe amount of ,,-aler in '''''' l~rge. in,tially emply .i""-'.ln It.. r.",t ,ink. the faucel i, opened lldlfway and the drain is opened slightly. Jniti~lly, Ihe m", of water in Ihe sn,k illcrNses ",-er time, 'ince Ihe faucet now exceed' lhe now rale nul of the drain. COllditio,,-' are d~'''g'''g.'''-'Ih,-, l' a non5Ie.,dy-,t.ll~ 5"u~lion. Ho\\,e,-er, a, tm, ",aler level '" the ,,,'k rises. Ihe no\\' r~le out nf Ihe dr~", ,,- ill increa".,. and e,-enlu.,lly Ihe dra,,' no\\' "'ill equal the faucet now. Al this poinl, the ,,-ater 1"",,1 ,,-,II c""-w rls;ng, and Ihe ,,'ua,ion ",11 1,..,-" reached .lched depend. on Ih~ magn,tude of Ih" IlIa«, nux lerms, re!ali"e In the tmal ,na«5 in Ihe en",.o! "olume. Dt!termining whether or not a "'''''' balance problem issteady 'lale IS somelhing of an art. However, ,I rond,t;o,,, of the pm!>lem ha,-e Chapter4 F'hysicaj Processes

dlolnged """,nlly, Ihen Ihe proolem i, prCllMbly a n,,,~qead) ,late. Cm",,,,,,,,ly, if rondilim~~ have rem,,">ed cm~~lanl for a ,"ery long li",e, il is pml"'bly a qeady-qate proble",. Trealing " ,leady-5late pwblem as "m~sleady ,tale w,ll alw,ly' r""ull in Ihe rorred aJ~swer, wh,le treat,ng a "m~~lead"--;lale proole", a, 't""dy sw Ie will "ot. TIli, d.- no! mean Ihal an pr,"'lem, ,hould]'" Ireated ,," non,leady '~lle. howe, er. Nmhteady--;Iale ,.,Iulion, ge"erally are moredifficult, '0 It is a,h ,"'Iageous 10 ide"llfy qead y ,tale" he"e,-er presenl, I" te",,-, of emi"lml' M Ihe e",'imn",elll, steady ,Wle i, often equaled wilh nalure', ab'lity 10 as,in"la Ie "aste~ .,1 Ihe rale at "hich Ihey are released. For e"ample. in Ihe ca"" of carh-on dlo,ide em'''''ons relea<;ed fmm burning f,..,11 fuel,. al ,Ieady qale Ihe rale of emissions would equal lhe 10lal of all re",oval rale, fwm Ihe atmosphere. TIlI,se indude uptake by the oceans and the small fracllon of uptake by plan I, for photosynthesis Ihat is nol balanced by r""plrahon. which release; carbon dlo"ide. E,-enlually. as Ihe carbnn d,o"lde ro"':entration In the atm"'phere rl""", Ihe rale 01 uplake by Ihe ocea'l~ will b.llance Ihe rale of emi,slm~~ fmm los,ilfuel burn,ng. Howe,er, lor Ih.ll 10 hap!",n, Ihe roncenlralion in the al"",sphere would ha,-e 10 Increa"" "gnlflcanlly, and Ihe dl~,.,lved carbnn dlo"ide "-",,ld have 10 l""",me well mhed Ihroughout Ihe ocean. Snl-Ce Ihese proc""""" lake cenluries 10 ",ille",,,a, carbon dioxide em,ssion, a""umulale in Ihe atmosphere, where Ihey oontribute 10 the greenhouse dfed. A ,'mllar~'tu.llion can o"cur for Ihe release of Ind u'lrlal "hemimls tn Ihe el" Im"menL Currently, Ihe ease of as~imilalion by Ihe e",-i",,,mem Is n/ten ignored when chemicals are ""l"'-"'Ied or d""ig"ed and manufactured for uses Ihal r""ull In rdea"" 10 Ihe e",imn",e"'. In man" ca_, the result l~ accumulatoon in Ihe ell' "onmenl In a WSlem Ihal i, not al ,teady ,Iale. Th" l~ ill particul." oo,,,,e,,, with "hen"cal, Ihal b,na""umulate (build up in "'g.>"l~m,l, becr>ming ",ore ""ncentraled I" organ"m, further up Ihe /ood chain.

exarnple/4.1

Indoor Air in Large Buildings h'1")I""", _ep&_g""'iali_&r~e""'''''

Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Transportation co.~p") 1""",.ey&'9""iouo/oj;.,. ~...,

OeterninilY,l Whether a Problem is Steady State

For each ollhe follow"'8 ma...~ b.llance proolem" deter",,,,,, whelher a slead Y-5lale or n",,-"eady...,lale ",a,~ b.llance would be appropriate. 1. Vi,i"" a ",a'li b.lla"ce"" chlende (Cl 1dis,.,h-ed Ina lale. Two ri\'~rs bring chloride inlo lhe lake, and 0"" ri,'er remo'",; chloride. Nn ~igniflCilnt chemical reactl",,-~ occur, .J._ ddo ride I, soluble aM 'Illn",acti,'~. Whal i, th~ annual ",-erage ronee"tratinn of chloride In til" lake? 2. A degradalk,n r"action with", a well-mixed tank l~ used 10 d""troy a pollulanl. Inlet ron"entralim, and flow are held co"-~Ianl, and Ihe~y"lem ha, been operatUlg lor "",-eral day~. Whall~ Ihe pollul.,nl concentralion in Ihe e/fluent, g"-"" the inlet f1",,- and con",nlralim, and Ihe firsl-order decay rale con,lant? 3. TI,e source ill pollutanl In problem 2 l~ remm-ed, J"t'Sulting in an ins~lnwn""", decline mille Inlet """"""tralio" to 7-"m. H"" lnng would il lake u"m Ihe outlet ron"'''trall"" reaches 10 fX'rcent 01 il~ '''il,al value?

example/4.1

(continued)

solution 1. Over an annua! period, ",,,r fI..m" a nd concenlrati""s can be ",sumooto be .elati,'el], co,>;lant. Sine" condilion, are nill changmg, and 'ince a ,ingie ,alu" indep"ndenl of lime i' ""luesled for chloride con""ntrallon, th" problem is "eady Slale. 2. Again, conditions inlhe pn,b!em are c",,"'ant a ".1 have remai""d,o for a l""g time, s.o the p.eblem is sleady st"le. NOle Ihal Ihe p.esence or ,,!>sence or J chemical reaclion d()e<; nlll pmdde any informal ion on whether Ihe problem Ls slead y slale.

J. T" II clues re,'ea! Ihal thi, problem;" nmlSlNd\ slJ.te. F'l"'it, condilions 1M' e changed "",*,,,,ly; the i"let con""nlralion dropped to 7.e""'. Second, the solut,on ""'lui""" calculalion or a lin,e period, which mea,,, cond1t10'l~ ntu,1 be, ary"'g \\,Ih I,me.

MASS FlUX IN (m."l

Oflen, Ihe ","umet.;.,. flow rate, Q, of ""ch inpulst",am e" lering theconlrol vnlu nle i, kn"', n, In Figure.!. 1. Ihepipe h .... a flo" • _ of Qi~ wilhcorrespond, ngchemiC",,1 wncentrat;;,n of C... The /PIIISS _1111x il' CM FR i' Ihe" given by the follo\\ ing ""Iual...n,

,,,j,, j

(U) II il is "01 immedi.,tely clear how Q ~ C """ults in a mas.s tlux, cOlI"der the units of each I""n: In QxC ",a,,< lime

,-olume lime

mas, , ,'olume

Note Ihatlhewnce'trati,., m",1 be e"l-ye","" 1" un~sof ma",{vnlume. Illhe volumetric flo'" rale i' not known, il may be calrolal"'" fro'" OIher para meier>_ For example, if Ihe fluid ,-elocity ,. and Ihe cros,,ee1i"".,1 area A of Ihe p'pe a.e known, Ihen Q "x A In 5O",e situation" nl.ls.s may enler the control volume Ihrough di.ect emission inlo the "olume, In IhLs ca"" Ihe emissio,,. are Irequently specified in ma5.S flux um" ",a5.s/lim". ,,-hid, can be u"'-'<.i in a ilia" IMlance .1 i....:tlv. For ..., an'pl", if a ma" IMlance lS pe.fonned on Ihe air pollutanl carbon monoxide 0\ e •.1 cuy, we "ould use ""lImales of Ihe tOl.,1 carbon monoxide e"'i"ions (1" UI"tS of lon,/ day) from aulo",obil"" and f"lwe. pl.ln" in Ih" city. Anolher way 10 describe Ihe flu.' is in I"me. of a flu" den"ity. {, limes the a",a through which Ihe flu" occurs. I has un'" of llla",/arN-lime a"d i, di...",,,""'<:1 furlher under Ihe 10pic 01 diffu"ion. Thi' Iypeof flux n"la~n" is Ill«-I u..,ru Ial imerfa"", "'here II",,,, i' "0 fluid flo...., 'uch a< the inle./a", bel",,,,,n Ihe air and "ate. at the surfac""f a lake. Oft"n, Ihe ma" flux lS oomf""'-"l of ""·.,,.allerm,. For ....ample, a tank m"y have "'0'" Ih"" nne inl"', or Ihe all" m-er" cily may rece"" c"lbn" mo",xue blowing from a" ul",-i,o.J urban are. in ad .lit;'", to i15 own emi""io'IS. I" such ca""", lS the su m of all indi I'iduaJ contribution, to mas., inpul flu"es.

m,n

Chapler4 F'hysicaIl'n>cesses

=_. fl,,'

1'MSS FLUX OUT lmo..ll In m",t Ih~H' i~ ""Iv'''''' e/fl,,""! 11<", f,"", ~ CMrR. Th"n trn. ma"" ""I "ldV "" uk;"1 ~Io.'\l d~ In... " h",h ,,~, c.. lcul.. lo?d III Eq"dhon H>:

I,;"..

Q... >: C, •

I

(4.7)

In lh.> c_ tV ~ "ell-mi>.ed control ">I""",,, tho! c<~ahlln " Cllftot.Int thn.....ghnuL n.......tore, tJw ~~11...... In flo ""'lIng lh.> CfW>ImI I/unw '" ~ 10 <.tmply .. C. lh.> n_~nt _ ," thfo, ."....trOI I/u........Ad

NET RATE Of CHEMICAl. REAOlON (,,",--I

*_.. ,. . . '" m.nch.;m..·.>.l,.... Iwl/ogical *.~ ~

The ""'"

tJw noel rale of product..", f'i .. cns. It .... ~un't;; f'i ", tu'rliI'. Thus. if

other'''"'J''lUAd~n>oct ,,~fonn thfo,rompound, 11I, ,II Ngreo"" than ........; 1fthi' cnmpnund ... acts In form ........ otlw1- ~~..."po",nd(,),,,,,,,, 11-

mg In lI),o,., III". ",D be negat" ... Although lh.> ch.;mocol-re.>cbOn Ierm In ~ n.......... blIllIn'" hlIs UIll!>. of m;K;o ·Im""'. cho!nuCllI-telICtion r"I"" ~r" usulIlly "'r~ In t"",,,, of ~nlrdt""" not ""'.... Thu~. Ilun"'" to obtaIn II"", ..Ue of ' ....ng.> of m..... "'lh'" tl"'" cc.llml ...lI"n.e:

........

lsm about trle ClleIJiPUkl Bay

...

_~.....

-...".

'''-

Tampa Bay Estuary P~l1lIm "'-;po -~ -t

44.'1) "he,~

(oICldO...... ,.~

.~I, i~

"blallled f",,,, the ,.. Ie 1.1'" for II", ,e.,eli"n and i~ "'1,,,,1 hi th~ ,..te "f eh.."ge lt\ enncentMt,,)n th.'t ',",>\l1J occur If Ih" ....."i"n t"'-.l;. place in i<,olalion. "ith no influ..nt." oI"n""" • C"nse" .I;,ot compound. C<>mpounlu""" .... 1t'mM'd conserv"i,ot compounds. C"""""·..ll' e ro.npound' ..... not .. If... t....t by CNonUc.o.I orbool.'lg;c-..I ~~. <,0 Ide dll___ o. n..li>rm ""'c.""", tOOr """" '" lrU~ """"""'-.1\1: " ....1 &<""" '" "'IUolb "h.. t nuL

M.__

w-

• u......orrder reactJ, ~ Ji.;,cuf<'ol!d '" ChafJli'f 1 • first·order dotuy. r...... nm>pound ",th first ... rdn:Ier re>cboI\>. ..... J,,,ru.;;.,,J '" Ou.r-- l. • I'm"h"'ti.... t .. ra~ dotflltnd,.,.,1 on Iheconnntr.''''s of ollwr rompound~ in thot eM rR.ln thos "t.... u.-...lh.> clwmlC'.1 c_ pn-.du<:l'g other roonf'lOllnd' in t h.. CMrR. and ide dll_ IS greater than H'l"n. •• I lotB B I

"*"

STEPS IN MASS BALANCE PROBLEMS

S
volume and all influent dnd effluent flows. All mass flow, thJt are n or 10 be ""lculated muS! er.....s the mlll",1 "olu me boundaries, a"d it shnuld be reasonable tn a""ume that Ihe control volume is w"n mixed

J.J"",

2. IVr,t" Ihe ma.., balance equ.'!io" in general form; dm

" 3, Dele",,,,,e whether Ihe problem;s steady state (d""dl ""n.sleady ,.ute (d'" 'dl V" dC'dl).

fl) or

4. Dete",,,ne whelher Ih" compound berng halaneed i, con"""',,,i"e 1m,," 0) or noncon"""'ali, e ("'''" mlJ.S! be delenn,ned ba"".j on the rNet,on krnetrcs a"d Equalio" ,1.9). 5, Replace ';'''' and ""'" wilh k"ow" or required ,·alu.", as just

described.

n.

Finally. <;<>l\'" the problem. TIli, \\,,11 requtre lems and solutio" of an algebraic equalinn i" sl"ady-sL'te problems.

4.1.3

REAGOR ANAl. ¥SIS: THE CMFR

Reactor andl y.i. refers to Ihe lJ.'ie of nu" ballne",," to analyz" polluUnt concentrJlion.s in d nmtrol volum" th.. t LS dlher a chemical reach" or a natural system modeled a, a chem;cal redct",. IdeJl r"act,~", can be di' ided inl" h' Iyl"">' complel"ly mixed flo" reacto,.,. (CMrRs) and plug-fb" reactor, (f'rRs~ CMFR5 are u,,,-I 10 mnJel wel-mix.,j envimr"n",,!.,l reser"OrlS. PFRs, describ&:! in Se<:t,,,,, ,1.1.5, beh."e e ...""tially like pip... and are u""d In mndel silUdtions such as dowfl.slrea", tran,port ;n a fiver Itl whreh fluid b not mixed ;n Ihe u~"'lr""",---..:Io"t~"ream direclion. This"", I;on ~""""" ts several exd "'pi"," i n wi,' i rig eM rR, i n d i ffe"'''t cornbinatiOl'l.s of sleady-sld'" or "on>teady-slate condition' dnd cons"",·ali,." or ",~"ro"""" ati,'" compound,. as ~umrnarized '" Table 4.1 . Exampl" 4.2 dem",~S!ral.." 11", use of CMrR anJly,i, tn deten"rne Ihe c""celltratio" of a ,ubsta"ce result'''g from the mixing of two or more i"fluenl flo"". EXdmples 4.3 Ihrnugh 4.5 refer tn the tank depicted in Figure 4.1 and demm,tra'" steady-qa", and nonsteady-,tate "lLIIII;O'" with and

°

Chapter4

F'hysicaj Processes

Summery clCMF RE"" mpie, F""" <>IdmldI

Form <>I " ' _

E",,,,plo 4.1

51L"dy
Eu",plo.U

51",dv.l.11c

Fi,.;I-<"'I.... d<.'C~y

E"''''pIo4A

t'ioR,tcadv _<~,,~

Fir
E",,,,plc 4.5

r-;",,,t,,,dv

.~,,~

without firce. or the 1""'00 ""lujreJ for pollutant le\"el, to decay from a lake 0. reactor ,,,,ee a ,""u,ce l, ,e",,,, ed.

ex am pie I

4.2

Steady-State CMfR with Conservative Chemical: The Mixing Problem

A pipe from a munic'pal wa.te" ate, treatment plant di,charges 1.0 '" 'I. of poorly treated effluelll containing 5.0 "'~/L of pl""phoru. compoulld. (repo'too a. mg PIll into .. rive, with an upstream now ,ateofE III /. and a bdckground ph"'phnru,roneentralJoll 010.010 Illg P/l (see Figure ·1.2). What " the ,,,,u!ting roncenlrallon of phosphorus {in n'g/ll in the .i,er just dOWfl'itrea", of the plan! ,)utfinw?

II

"-

"

Flgu.e '''.2 M i~in~ PlObl~m U..,d in Ex.mplo ~.l The «mtml "olD"", L. indi",ted by the .m> i""id~ the dolted Ii"",," , .... "'00IUc 1\9991 Iop-.-d";,*, _""",oIjohn WJoj' & S-., .... i

example/4.2

(continued)

solution To osphorus concentration (Ca ). nl"il, a control "olu me ",u,1 be selected. To ",,-sure lhal Ihe inpul and oulpul n"""" cr,)';,'; lhi! conlrol ,'olume bounda.ies, Ihe mnlro! ..olume musl cros, Ihe '" er ul"'lrea", and dn" lLslrea", ()f lhe plant's 1ogical degradalion lS i'Lsign,ficant during Ihe lime sp""t in lhe ""nlrol \'olu",e, <;0 " ' ' ' Ireat thi, as a ,leady-,tale problem.

"1,,,

I. Det"rmine Ih" dO""Lqream flo", .ale, QJ. To find QJ, ""nduct a

"'.IS' !>dlance "n Ih" Io!.l.l ri""r ",aler

ma ... In IhL'i ca"", Ihe NCOllCentralk",N 01 ri"er" ale. In (ma"s! "oiu",e) unib "simply Ihe d"'Lsit~ of Ihe ",ater, I" oJ",

,"

pQ.. - l'Q"",

+0

"fIe.e lh" term ,;'". has been set 10 zem bf
"

,;,.. - n" .. + ,i,,,.

(0.0/0 mg' l)(25 m' 's) _ (5.0 mg, l)(l.O m'is) 2(,,,,1:'~

020mg/L

Chapler4 F'hysicaIPro<:esses

ex am p leI 4.3

Steady-State a.1FR witll Rrst-Order Decay

The CMFR Shil,"" in Figure ·1.1 i, us.ed In Ire..1 an industri ..1 wa,le, u"ng a re..ction Ihat deslroys the pollulanl ""cordltlg In fi.... l-<>rder kUletiCll, ",ith t 0.216/ day. The reactor volume i, 5lXJ m', lhe volumetric IInw rale oflhe .mgle inlel and exit i5 SO m '/day, and Ihe inlet pollulanl co"""nlrahon is 100 mglL Wlldl i, Ihe nutlet cnnc..mrah,,,, aft..r lrealment?

solution An 00, iflUS control "olume ;, Ih.e lank itself. "The problem requests a ,mgl.., COIIS!anl nullrl cnr""'ntr..li"n, and all problem mndninns are «)ll'I.. ,,1. n",refore, lhi, ;, a s~;>d}·-stale problem (dmldl 0). n,e ",a" balance equalion Inlh a r..... l-<>rder decay tenn \ [dC'oIl """".. ,..,. -1'C altd I;',," -V1'C) 's;

,tm

"'o

"'", _ maw + m". QCoo - QC - VkC

Solve forC

c

c"'X

C.•

X

Q Q

tV

,_ ( b

V) Q

Suboitilulmg lh.. gil en "alues, the nu merical ",Iutinn is:

c

5Om',iday 100 "'g., l x SO Ill'. d + (0.21 /'. day)(500 m '] 32mg. l

ex am p Ie I 4.4

Nonstea:ly-State CMFR with Fifst-O"der Decay

The ",..nulaclunng prO(."e<;.' lhal g.."erales llle "'aste in Example 4.3 h." In "" shul dm, n, and .Luting al t 0, lhe con"""lraho" Coo entering theCMFR ls set In O. Whal i, Ihe nullet coneemration as a lunction of lime afler Ihe cona.nlralton is s.:.t 10 II? Hi'" long do"", il ldk(, lhe tank ronc"ltlralion In reach 10 !",feellt of its initial, sleady-,I"I" , ..Iue?

solution The lank is again Ihe control "olume. In Ihis case, lh.. problem i, cleMI" "on,teady-,Iate, bffau,.. rondniOl~s change a, ., lu ncllon of time. n,e ",ass ""lane.. equation i,-

'm V

" "

dC

O-QC-kCV

example/4.4

(continued) ;c

,"

To determine C as a functinn of lime, the p,""'-"
lntegrati"n yields

-(~_l}

InC-InC.

Be""u'" In r - In .~ is equal In In (r f.~), we can ,..,,,,,ile lhis equalinn as

which y,ekl, C,

,,-fQ ,.....

Co W""a,werifylhallhi""lulinni"ea,onablebycnnsideri"g" halhapl"'''''''U Oand I x. All O,lhe eJ(P"",,,,,~al t",,,, iSequall" 1, and C Co. ase~ptrlecent,ali"" a, a fun~"I,on nl time,

c,

,

[("'m"'" son",' "''')]

L>lexp

( "''') ,,'

32 "'g Lxexp_

32

"'g

+~~,

day

-~~,

n,is .,.,lul,O" " plotled in ngure 4_10. Hn" long w,ll illake the cOI"",,,,ralinn 10 '&lch 10 perCI!111 of it, ;n,'ial. steady-st.ue value? 1lla1 is, al ",)"" value of I is CdC. o. 10? Al the Illne when C'i Co 0.10,

c Co

,;

Chapler4 F'hysicaIProcesses

0.10

( ""')

exp - - - , day

example/4.4

(COntillUed)

0 0

,., '00

,,

IIlI C_ 100"91.11

-8Xl'!-o::'_::':':'~'__------

~~

,

00

~

00

0

00

!

0 0

00

<0

Timo l
00 Figure /4,3 Con~n!.. tion nl>u. Tim~ rrofil~. lor th~ Solulion. 10 Enml'l .. ~.~ and ~.S (al FiN-.orrl~rdec~y in c",..c~ntT~'''''' Teemic~I·re.><:t",nI"•• th~ ~nd tl>o ""'''' flU)( ~t term In"",. (h} hp"nenti.ll appm.lCh ,,, "e.>dy,,"'to ..'(md"ion.< when a "",dori< Ce of • chomical-rea.ction 10<.< tenn. """"""lTation in ,he reactor '''
.pproae"""

f """ ....f>olti< II W'Il lO(,,,,.,.j

.",*,.-..i".... 01...... w.lo, & s...LIo<

T.king Ihe .....Iur.lloganlhm <>1 oolh sid",",

1110.10

Therelme.1

7.3 day.

-2.303

0.31f> ---, "y

e x am pI e I

4.5

NGllsteady-state CMFA, CcJlservative Substaoce

The CMrR reaclordepkted in Figure4.1 l" filled" Ilh dean water prior In being Marted. Aller ~tarl-up, a wasle siream contaming 100 nlg/l 0/ a cOl~,ervali,·e pollulanl is added to Ihe reactor at a no" "lle or 50 m '{day. n"" volu nle of Ihe reactor i, 5IXJ m '. What is Ihe concentralion e'it"'g the reactor a, a funclion 0/ time aller illS .'ilolrt<'d?

solution Again, the lank wIll ",,,e as a conl",l ,olume. We are Ioid Ihallhe pollutanl ls COll'iervat,ve, "" ';,,," o. n,e pll)bl"", a"ks for concentrdlion a, a funclion of lime....... Ihe mass b.llance muslbe nOl~
d'"

V'C

"' ,"

QC",-QC+o

'C

-(e)(C-C

"

m)

Beul.u."" of Ihe exIra lernl l'I/l the righl (C",), Ihl" equalion cannot be inlln<'d ialely ""h-ed. Ho,,-ever, with a change nf variables, we can tran,fornl the md'S balance equation into a simpler form Ihal (;In be integrated directly, u,ing the <;ame mf."lhod dS in Example ~.4. Lei Y Then dy . . dt (dCldt) - d1C",/dI). Since C," " colI,lant, dC",/,1I O,.'in Ily..-dt JC/dt. Therefore, the la,t of the preceding equalions i~ equi> alellilo

(C-C'n).

Rearrallge and inlegrale: ' --dl Q /, " V Integration yields:

0'

Replacillg y with (C - C",) "",,11, nl the follo\\ ing equation:

C -C"

Co

Chapter4

F'hysicaj Processes

C,

example/4.5

(COntillUed)

Sine.. d .. an waler i, p,,,,,,nt in the lank at qart-up, C"

();

C-C..

C" R.. arr "ng" to ""ke for Co C-C.. C

_C,.r Qn C'"~

(l-,,'Q···)

This i, I"" ".;,Iution 10 I"" qu,,",tion ~ in the problem ,Ialemen!. !'i:OIe w h,,' llapl""'~' a., j - '>.. : " Q'" - 0, and C - C"'. Tht< i, not inlet roncent"uioo.. 11,], final ""I","1on (plotll!d in Figu", ·1..11» prm'id", C as a lunch..., ()f tnne. Th" "'u, be u"'-'
4 1.4

BATCH REAGOR

,e.,do,

A lhal ha, "" inlet or outlet lIows is lem""d a balch ,eaclnr. !l is """,otiallya lank in "'hkh a reacl;on j, "n",,"M 10 occur. Aller nne balch is trealed, the ,e"cln, is e",plied, and a "'-"""Old bdtch can be lrealed. Ilecau"," the,e are "" 110""', ';',. ll, .nd "'''''' O.11,e,ef",e, Ihe ma,s b,,1\tI.,.. ""I",,'ioll reduc,,", t" dlPl

"

,It,,"

14.10)

/4.11) Simplifying'

"C) ( ," ".d.,," "'''Y

'C

dl

(4.12)

••

Th",_ in" balch ''''dor, thechange incc.tcemr"lion '" ,th time i, ,un ply Ihal" luch ,""ult< lrom the chemical ",acholl. For exampl.., for., firslord..r decay ",.chon, r -kC. Thus,

-kC

(4.13)

/4.14)

4 1.5

Flgurel 4.4 Schomo~c Diowom of 0 Plug_flo.. Rooctor. ~,

...MJoool
John Wd.,. &500•. o.;j

PLLX;-flOW REACTOR

The plug-flow reactor /I'FRf c~ used 10 nlodd Ihe chemical Ira Ic4",m .•hon of compound., as they .lfe lralc,ported "' sy,tems resembling piJ:-. A schematic diagram 01 a PFR isshown in Figure 4..1. PFR pipes m •• y represent a river. a region b"t" ""n two moullIai" rang"'" Ihrough which air f1m,", or a "ariety of olher englt\""reU or nalural conduits throogh ,.. hid, liquid, or g"'~'" flow. Of e.... "e, a pipe in Ihi, n",.lel Cat, e,en represenl a pipe. Figure 4.5 illu,lrate, e~amples of a PFR III an "ng",,,,,red 'y,lem {Figure .l.Sa} al1d a PFR in a nalural 'y,tem (!'igure 4.5b). As flUId flo,,.. down Ihe PFR, Ihe flUid i, mixed in the radial direction, but "'I,,,ng does nN occur in the a.• i .• l direclion. That ". each plug of fluid i, co,,,idered a "'parale entitv as it 1I0ws do,,"n the pipe. Howe, er. lime pa~""" as Ihe plug of fluid mOl es downslream (or dmm",i"dl. Thlb, there i, an implIcit lime dependen",. even in st... dys!., Ie PFR problems. H""',,,er, bocalliethe velreil y of the lluid (II); III he PFR L~ c",""ant. timeand dow"stream di,!.",ce Ix)are inlerchangeable. alld I x!~. That i~. a lIuld plug always take> all am,,,,nt of lime equal to x/~ to Iravel a di,tance r do" n the reador. nlls obsen'ation C.lII b" u".",j wllh the nld'" billallce formul.lli",,, ju." g"'"'' to drl"rmine ho" chemical c",,,:e"lrallo,,~ "ary durmgflow through .• pm.

_. W • • "t"~fON

_.,.,

OR
Figure I 4.5

Enmplo. of Plug.Flow Reoctor. in Engi nee",d ond N.tur.i Syslem. fa) rac~(,j-to,,"er b,nlils hdn>g<"" sulfide (H,s), from gas-ph.>", omc""~,,,-•. Biofil,,,,,, con,;'" of a column packed ""h , ,upport medium, such .,. rocks_ pi,"", flng', or .>cH,-.,'ed mrron, on ",hieh a boohlm '-s grown, C""tomi""k,j ",ateT Of air is ra-......"j 'IuO 00:",. 0" the trough, by eaTlv French "_,plnre..... " largo dam 1\." ,inee be<"" "mstrucW noa" The D.>I..".. The "",bnn "f the nn'Tdo",n_,u-e.,m of thed,m muld be modeled a, , PFR ~""" ",t.oIc;c 11 9991

Chapler4 F'hysicaIl'rocesses

R....,otodw,," .-..''''''' 0I~. wa.,. & SoM, OK. J

To J~, .. I"P the "'lu~llo" g;wernillg """('1'11lr~ti",,~, a fur.ctioll of di,\;"" .. dll" II. rrR, "e " ill aJt.l.lyze Ihe ......>Iut~l1. of C,'lllc""lration ",th hilI\! ",thm a ""gle f1md plug. Th" plug;" a"um.,J to be "'ell JlII'oo In tl"", .oId",1 d'rKtion but dOt'S '101 JIll' at all " ,th tho> flUId aheold or b.:lund ,t. A'tho> plugllo" ,doo" 'htream.d"""ical d«a ~ occur<,an.:l ....""ent.alo<>n d~. T1Iot' nldSSbaLo""" foe' ma."""h on Ih,_ m", IfIg plug" tho> ....moo ~ thai fot a balm ........' 1ot:

,. "

,., ---..- .....

o-o_v(":\ diJ

14.15)

_

(-1.16)

" ....... ......n<.! Iir.... are _ "'Il.LI.110 z....-. bo!.:-au ... the... '" no ......,." ".chang~ oIrn-"" tho> plug bouno.:l~...... Eq h.",,4 III c.n be tN'\J to d~(o..(""tr.. t IOn '"' a funchonoi 110m. tm "ub", ttw f"FR for .. ny reactJ<>n 1I...... t,C'. In ttw e- of fustonj"" d«av. Vide d l l _ _

,c

V dl

_VkC

-VI;C

14.17)

"hid. r.e
l;"'

""p"""

aU} ink! ('<"''''''''!ration and f1"R length ........lIum". ralho>r 11.....1\ till"'" 'p"',t u, tJw I'FR. 11\ a T'FRof length l, ~h plug I.a,d, for a J""'i.(oJ& l r l· A Q,,,he.eA,,,thec~'~-..alarea(.tho>PrR and Q "'It.> fk,., rate. T1Iot' pro.:Il1C'I of It'ngth and no<.<.-.«tIi-."'I ...... '" ,,,,'plv the f'FR 'oIun.... "0 EquaIIOn U8 '" """l"I\.u..n1 to It i.

(-1.19)

[quat.."" -&19 """ no bmt> ~ "kho""gh ",""",,,lraoon "lIluna S"ffi plugcha"8"''''''' bmt>a>!hat plul';no..~do.. nstream, the ~tra_ at as" ..... fi-.I "lCiiIoon ,, ~Ingthat Iocat."" ha,e 'I""'t..., iJffitlUoI penod ,n u... rnt

COMPARISONOFTHEPfRTOTHECMfR TlwIll"aIO,IFRand th" rrRa,,· funJ.n....talh. dilJ"""'tand Ih", botha, "difl"",n~,. IVhen .. pan,,1 of' fluid "nlo>'" lhe c.\IFR, ,I IS In.m",Ii..,dy nml'd thmtlghout Ihi> "III , ;i urn" of I hi> c.\1FR. 1n con tr.. <;l , ~"" h par«>1"I nu d "Iller lI\g lho> rFR ,"',.... ""1""...1" dunng ," ra-.......S.. thmtll';h tho> .....clO.

Mississippi River Basin t-.'1'li_L~

.... ""'

Flgurl/4.1

Comp..,;.onoff •• Compl1.1""""'od,,,""I'"'"""'"'"0I

John "'IorA.x..., 00<·1

o

-

<;.

o

-'-

,.,

,.,

To I"ghlighllh"", differen","" consider an ,,-~al11ple im'nll ing Ihe conlinuou, addilion of a pollutant tn each reaclor, "ith deslruction of the pollulanl "ilhin Ihe reach" accordmg In first-order kinelics. nle two reaclors are depicled in Figure 4.6, Th" e"ample a,sumes Ihe incoming CO"cenlralinn (e,..), Ihe fin" r.,le (Q), .,,,d Ihe fir-t-order rale co"-,ta,,t (l') are known a"d are tile <.'Ime lor bolh reach.".". Con,ider Iwo oommon problem,

",,,,:I,,,,,

1. If Ihe "olume V ls known {the <.'Ime for both reActo"l, whal is the

r""uhing "ullet conce"lralio"

(C,~t)

e",ting Ihe CMFR a"d rFR?

2, 11 an oullet co"cemralinn i, specified, "hat ,'ol"me of reactor is r"'!ulred lor the CMFR and for the rFR? Table 4.2 summ.lr;zes Ille

resuhs of this compari"''' and lI,ts lhe i"put "anables. The resuhs gl,en in Table .1.1 indicale Ihat, for ",!ual reactor "01umes, Ihe rFR is more efficient Ihan the CMFR and. for ",!u"l oullet wncentrati""s, a ~111.1ner rFR ls required. Why l, IhLs? The a",wer has to do wilh t he fundamenra.l difference bet",,,,,n the Iwo reactors----fluid parcels ente"ng the PFR Ir" "101 downslream ",thoul "''''''g. "'hil" /1u'd pa",el, enle"nE the CMFR are in""edi,llel." "'i"ed ,..ilh Ihe lowooncenlrillim /1uid "iri"n Ihe re""llY. Since Ihe rab> of chemical reacli"n ls pmpmt"""'ll" ooncentrat,on, lhe rate of chemical reacllon

Comparison of CMER ond PfR P....formonc,,' Eump'" I Dctormine

c.~•. 8;,,,n

V

1m L Q

5.1lli'.k· 0.0'i-'••

".

CMFR

e-

c.

II

c...,c~

kVQI

"~

C_

c;.O)P! kV'QJ

c_.-.'c~

- 0.11

EX.lmplel. O"..emnne V, g"·enC.... , Co. - O.5.Q- 5.0 L s.k - 0.05 ... OIFR

V-

rCm "C_ I'

11 x (Q'kJ 1m L

'f""

". IQ k)JniC_ Co.) V - 6'll

'L.-....... I «•• ~,OO<"'_"'" Ic...l f", 0 "".,..j CM!' 01 ,f>o ..... ""'-. ~ 2 """f""""" _ _,.. 10< ""'" ""''''''!)'pO ;to~ ... po« .-01 ,. ,..""".. SOU'C(.- Mihok;. I) <>991 1""'>_ ..... 1'«"'''''''' 01...... W;1or & Son•. OK

Chapt"r4 PI1ysicaj I'rocesses

. . . . . . . . . . . C1(~ .. PfR

•

I•

•j ~

"

I~

.. C&FR

F1gur.'4,1 Orl~lnol'h~HIKh.. DelIl.union Efflrloney of .. l'fR L nd~, Condi'ionoofFi ..I-O'do.lkuy ""'" rale <>I chern...1de<.tnJ<"rion {.. ~ I'I:C I< <1\0"... as. f" ..... ion'~ lu"" g<' •• lO'<>I~ '" u,., Pfll. .........·n bv. d.KhI"Il h.... n... ••"'ofrh
""""""" rJunushou. "'" .."d!-nu,N

"

CMfRM>d ""'lu.U to l'le. Son« "'" hogh inI« _ "d'MN ........w.....n·nn~.htOIFit. "'"

dul l!'Irnouf;houl_ d. "'" PFR .. nd .. \t>ww lh.on ""' ..,. . . . . "'."d.~ to th< ~d..-rnnn.. \o>o.... tMn

•

~

,

•

"

"

T_ _ n _ , S I

",tIun I""" CMFR ... rnluCO!\i N'l.lt" i' ro IN! ",than the I'fR.. This effec'I is ')IUSlr~lo'ICt...... '-~ equ.ollO -I'M:: in both JWl("l' Ho- .... d". ,n tIM' rrR. COI>CenIr.atwln dru "' apnowrtlJ.a1lv ... cYCh plug p..-lhrot!5h the £'FR. ... w.....n ~ the §OIJd run .. ,n Ftgure 1.1. Tho! .l\ .....i~ ......... f1U\ d .... 10 reocbOn ,n ,"'" I'FR'" ... mplv 1""" ..' ...... &'1' \,11"",('/ th"o eun~ ,oll.... ,nJ>Cdted ~ d.ashrJ IJJ'lo! in Ftgun! l.7 In ~""tr_, '!
nw

t""

rrR"

RfSp'''''~

10 Inld Spike. C\lFR.• .and .l~ d,ffe, in that """""""'" to 'p,l..6 in tho! mid ronct'nlr.an"n.ln mo.,,)' poIlullOn-alntml 5~ ._t<;, 'Rid "Or,,:~nIra t"....., or fl(,,,,, .Ui' not C<>n-.u III For ""d mpl.., flo.. In '0 m u... ~J P'" 1 "aI'dl,,_. And .... "ill bot _n '" C.... pt 9. ~"'.,,"p.oa d",,,lopmenl 'eJ1nn"-.g~· ~uclI. ~~ b......I!l"nl;on ",ll~ dn! d~.gnallo r""l 'lor" ,Inmo" ..t"r In,n, d d~,,,,I.,pi'd urb.ln M .. ~ dr>J lh..n ft'l"~",, it bdd. into III." en, in,n""'''1 ~1".;Jn., r"l"', .aluClng 'ri~... in inlet """""trallOlb a,k.! reduclI'g tho' of '" ""blll'u"llIng "..,;t",.. alt'f ' .....'m""1 (""ibne>. S,'utL-" redu"'in" i~ ,I),',h·' lilt> pr"f.... red ..lI.."""h" In Ift'al",,,,,l. Ho"", "t, "h"" """,." raludi"" ,et:hnlqu'"" ..... nnt in pl.l<:", redlh:ing

",,"\CO!

Flgurl/4.8

Re,,,,,... eof~CMFRand PFR loa T en'po.a." Inerea.,e i n In leI Conccnl.aHon The inllu",,! m=n!Ta'km.•hom"n in lhe 10..."'. in....'1 figure, inc"""'-'S to 2.0 during lhe p<--nOO I -1}-15 •. The rL'Sullin~ a:mcel\1.aMn' e,,'mg the o,lFR ,nd PFR nf [""mple 2 m Table 4.2 ore shown .. a function of lime befoo,. duong. and afler the tempor.,,)' dalblmg of inlet eoncentTa'wm. The concentration ""itiog lhe CMFR ".,hown wilh ., da.hed 1"",. lhe concentralion exiliog the PfR i, .,hown with a ",lld 1mI'. The "",ximum co=otTa'l(ffi r"''''!Ied in the o,lFR elnucol ;. I"", thao tho,l reached m ,he PFR dfluenl becau,,", the incrm....-d inl'" m=O!Ta'wm i. diluted by the mlu"", of lower'<:<-.lccotralion flUId ,,,,lun the ~ffi.

I,... Ml>oI<~11999).1""",'"""';"' po,.,; ,_01 John "'lor'!' Son.. ""

0.10

".~

J

c...lromCMFA

0.06

".~

".

o .>"'"t;n"'u.. .!::

S

!"

L

10

11.11

-------

".o+-,_~~_~~~~_~~_~~,

-

"

~

, .... (s)

or elimil",U"g 'pikes in "ullet con..:entraU"n requ're> lhe u,eof CMFR. a, a re«Jh of Ihe mixi"g Ihal ocru '" " ,1I'in CMFRs but "01 with'" PFR,. C",.. ider Ihe efle-cl of a le"'lx.·ary doubling "f the concentration enlering a PFR and CMFR Noeh is Jesigned to reduce Ihe ",fluent mncent",tion by Ihe ""me amounl w,th Ihe flo,,', fi",t-order decay rate crntcesse5

ex am p

leI 4.6 RelJ.liral VokJme lor a PFR

Delem""" lhe volume r"'l""oo for • PFR to ob","" the ...me degree of polilltatli rOOuctiotl as lhe CMrR in Example 4.3. A"ume lllal Ihe lIow rale and fir<\-{)rder d~aj rale ootl5L"'1 are unehatlged (Q 50 III., ,I dayandJr O.2hi-dayj.

solution TheCMrR in Example4,3achie\'ooa poliuLlnl decrease of C.... ' C\n

0.32

exp - (

11.216, day X 5Om',day

32,100

0.32 From Equalion 4.1'J,

V)

S<>l\'e for V; V

In 0.32

SOm'day O.21liday

26~m'

A< eXI""'IOO, IhL, \'olume L< smaller Ihan Ihe SOIl m ' ""luired for the C\ffR in Ex.lmple -1.3.

""n,illvil\' to ,pikes, follo",aI by a PFR for effidenlu,e of resources. Dffjding bell, """ a CMFR and PFR hiLS olher en"ironmenlal implications. If 0"" reaelor design is found 10 be more efficienl lhan Ihe olher fM a gl ,-etl wI of operaling condition" u""g Ihe more elfidel11 design can cut e"ergy requiremenls, "_,,Ie production, and u"" 01 0p"'rallng malerial,. In ".Hural 'ystenh, the choi"" i, ba-.ed "n " helher or 1I01lhe system is mixed (in which ea"" a O>IFR would be u.
.4 1.6

RETENTION TME AND OTHER EXPRESSIONS FOR

via

A number 01 lerm<--lIlduding relenlion li_, di;mli.., ''''''', and

10 the average period spent in a given control "01",,,e. U n,e retenllon lime i, gi,en bj n.. tdmcc

li",,~refer

44.20) where V is lhe ""Iume of the reactor and Q is lhe 10Lll \'C.,lumetric flnw rale exiling the reactor, Exampl"" 4.7 and .l.1l il!uslr.lle Ihe cakuialion and applicalion 01 relentioll t""e.

exampIe/4.7

RetenlilllTimeina

Cf*A allla PFR

Calculale the retention hm"" in Ihe CMFR 0f Elln'ple 4.3 and the r'FR of E~ample 4.1>.

solution For Ihe CMT'R,

,

V

Q

SOOm' SOm"'day

lOday>

Udm' 5Om"day

5.Jday.

r.... rthe PFR.

,

V

Q

ex am pIe I 4.8 Remotion Times for the Great Lakes TI,e Creat Lakes reginn i' 'hown in FIgure V~, Calrulale Ihe retenhon limes for Lo1<.e Michigan and La1<.e Ontario, u''''g U", data provided in Table 1.J.

solution r....r Lake Michigan.

,

l.9lXlx 10'm' 3(,,, Hi'm'iyear

\Jt>year.

r....r Loke Onlano, Hi).l x ](f' m' 2\2x IO"m'/year

Volume ond flows for tile Great lokes ~.

VoIumol0'm'

{)Y,now ,0" m'/yoa<

Suf"'rx>r

""" ,.""

"

'

'"

H._

l>Ii.ch,&,"

,~

~"-

...'''''

~

1~2

211

S<:'OJRC[. M"'-ID< t11'9'/1.1......-&,.;'" F-"';...... ol.Lohn ~~

, Chapler4 F'hysicaII'n>cesses

w..,.&

example/4.8

(conlilllled)

Th...e values mea nlhaI La,,", M ir h iga n changes it. water v olu me Mmplete 1y o,,.,e e.."ry 1J6ye a I'< and l.J. ke Ontario on"" e, ery I> yeaI'<. Tlu: higher flow and ,mailer volume ollakeOntario result in a s'gnificantly shorter Men"on lime. n,i.~ mea,~, pollutant con""ntraljo'l~ <:an increase III l.J.ke ChllartO much more quidJy Ihan they""n in Litke Mkhigan and will drop much more qUickly ill L,k.e Ontario if a pollutanl
Rgur.'4.9

Th~

Norlll Am~,ic..., Gre.1 L>k~, Tho Crro' Llkt-s "re ,n import.,n' p"r' 01 'ho ph,..;.", "nd cultur"l h"";l.l80 of North Amcric.l, Tf><, Cn,,' L,ke< conl.:lin .'ppnlXim.lloly IS perro'" 01 I"" world', ,upply of frc<, lug"'" 'y,'"m 01 ","",I"ble ",ri.1CO I""hwah'r (onlv tho I"~>T "''' cop' am'.,in more I""hwal<'r). nu, human' dITh-,od in ''''' d.-ea apprmimdloly 10.000 ago_ Amund MUl )"ill" "go, coPP"'" mmmg bo.1',"n ah"'g tho oouth lh c",,'ury i, ","mah,d "''''''''en (,(l,OOO and 117,noo-, ""'d that r",,,ltod in I",,' hum.,n d"turo.,nc<..y.....mfor •• lllfl8 pt-'riod "' tim"_

y"'"

fi,,'

_""'tee.'<

, """ '" f>oI0<1",,", .....'"... 01-",,", w;loy & Son', 10<,1

4..1 Mass fIaIar<:..

4 1,7 MATERIALS FLOW ANilJ..YSiS AND URB.4.N METABOLISM

Nutrient PolkJtion ~'''f>I''''''''"''''P''~O'I".r..n~t"tf<>I.r..on/

A~

di""us<;esures the maleri.1 flow. inlo. sy,tem, the sl ocb .Ild flows wilh; n ii, dnd the outpul, fmm the >V,le",. III Ihis case, measu",,,,e,,l~ are ba"'" Oil "'''-''-s (or volume) load",!:, i"ste"d of concentralion,. An urban MFA (",met"nes referred loasan urbdn melabolism study) i, a ",ethod 10 qualllily Ihe flow of malerial, Ihal ellter d" urban area (for example, ,,-"Ier, fnc.:l, ""d fuell and Ihe flow of maler!dl> 11MI e"il an urbJn area (for example, manufactured gnc.:l~, ,,-aler and dir polluUnls induding greenhouo;e and "'lid "a'lIes). Chapler I a Iso p"''''llla:lthe r",ulls from an urbJn ",,,,,,Wi,m ","udy performed on Ihe city of Hong Kong (Applicalion Lll).

Gut 01 Mexico Inegrated SCience ~, """lli",!~"l""

Lake olthe Sk~: Lake Tahoe Basil Research '¥" ",t)'.""9""l",,~1431 II UlJ-OG'Ic,Q"

sa""',

~ ElM gf Nldrierts jolQ the r~11f Qf Mexi:Q ID."",",i"e nutrienl' (thot;", nilmge" a"d ph."ph"ru.,) th"t rna"" Iheir "'''y tn ,uriace w"I"" (I", e,ampl", L.k"", ""tu,,,i,,,,, ""'T ,h.".e C1""tal "",,,,,) can fuellh" gmwth 1>£ wrge amnunt. nf alg'''_ Wh"" algae di"" and d""""" il co",um"" "nog""_ l'hi, pn>e"",,'an ,,,,,ult in" ,-"ne "I I"w di""I"eJ "'yg"n (.1"" ,d"rreJ tIl a, " "hyp'''ic L''''''-') lhal COln threal"n Ih" Knl,'Sic-,,1 health "I th" ",I"r body and th" "conomie and "'ri,1 ",,,11being "f et>mmuniti"" thot dep""d 1m ""1,,,- 'l"',lity~". li'hing "nd II"'Tc,m (w.ter"lu.lily i."u"" like thi, .re cm'ered in Cholpter 7). A m.~". e=mple "f Ihi' hyp"xic L""" ("I"" referred t" .., a dead ",,,,,) i, in the .'"rthem Gull "I Mexico. a h,.ti,,,, "f (lne "f the lI1l"t p",>f)- Ilmrd to ",I reducli<'" ton-liel' 01 all"",1 ~S percent f", b"lh nitTIlgen ,nd ph,"phmu, in an eflort lo,hrink the ,u.e of the hYP'"ic wn". l'igme4.Uhh"w' tMI the deli>-ery ,>£ ph'''ph.m'' to the Gulf "f "Iexie" i.s highesl fmm ",.le",heJ, in the centr,1 anJ ea,tern p"rti"n, l>f lhe Mi."i."ippi Ri,'er lJa"n. The ..... me hl~d, lrue I", nitT
m

C~apler4 F'hysicaIProcesses

ph."'ph.,ru, lhot reach"" !he Gull "f Me.,ie". These ,tate> include lllintli', Iowa, 100;;"''', ML'''''''ri, Ark.:m""-s. Kentucky, Tenn.";"",,,, Ohio, "nJ Mi"i"ippi. 11"",e,-"r, these nine ,tal"" onl}- rn""" up "ne-third 1>£ lhe L:md .rea Ihal drain' !I' the Mi"i."ippi Iti,-",- (,,-hieh enct>mp"""""" tiltal "f 31 ,l.:1les). I'igu'" ~.II ,how' the ""'re"" of ph'''phmu, ,,,,d nitr'>gen deh,,,,ed I" the Gulf of M",im. Thi., fib"'''' indimt"" tMt M perrenl "f nitrogen "riginat"" fTIlrn culti"alion 1>£ cTIlp"(pri"",rilyct,m,,,,d ""ybe.,n,J, with "nim,1 g",jnl; and m"nme ctmtributing "Ix",t 5 pe£ Me>.icu.ln ct",lr."t, the",a", n" ""'~" .,t"""pheric en,i."i"n, of phll"phoru' and "ni111.:>1 m.nme on p"ture and range 1.00, ctmtribute """dy a, much phl"phmu, .., culti"aled cr,,1'" (37 ,'e"u, 43 perrent). Figure 4,11 clearly ",,"-,W, IMt agricultur,,1 ""'''''' C1mtribule mt"" th,n 71) f"'TC""t of the nill'l,&", .nd ph."phoru_' deli,-",-ed I" the Gulf of "I""ico. ,'""u., only '1--11 f"'TC""1 "riginating Imm mban ,,""c"". ThL"" mban "",ree. include nlmp<>int lertih,.er ru",>£f f",m ""'idenhill .,00 "m,mt=ial bnJ"""ping. 00 P' lint"·•."ee de"'ho"!."", i",m w..":""-.I,,,- tTe.'lmenl facihli"". Such finding' ,u)o\g""llhe d<,mina""",~' agricultural ""np',;nl "''''rces; h.", e,-",-. u,-b.,n di"""'');"" tend I" be nmcenll'.,led, ""p"'-i.:lllY in ma, to,1 """'-'. Inl"'l11.:>t~m "nd much "I the texl obt.. ined by the Us. (',e"logical Sun,,}'.

"I

.,L",

~~I"'"""I!""","m"l)

1

_ _.11 Viokl

Yield DoIiwI,1Id to Gull

. .,

YioId (~g 1
_

11025

_ _ _

25 t> 5ll 5010100 10010200 200 '" BOO

Total l'llosphO
Rgu,./4.10

fR'"*"w' froooU.S

tlopoo ,_. 01""""",, 11..1. GooIogocoi s..-;j

NITROGEN

PHOSPItOAUS

Source. [] Com and soyOOan crops OU"" crops

o

Flgure/".11

•

P""tLJftlond '''''IJO

•

um." and populallor>reIa'od >O
• •

Atmosjlhralland

Sou",.. of Pho5phoru•• nd N ilr
jO:o&-aw"I"""U.S. ~ol ..... "",U.S_Godogo
4.2

Energy Balances

Moo~n,

society IS d~pend~,,' on Ih~ use of ~nerg)'. Such use ""lUll"" translorm.llio"" "' th~ /O,m 01 "nerg)' and cOlllmi of ""''')lY 110w<;. r-or ~xampl~, ",11~n 00.>1 I.s btJm~d al a \X'",~r plam, Ih~ ch~mic-al ~nergy present i" 11", coal is rorll'erted 10 l1~al which is U",n oomerted i" th~ pla,,!'s ge,,,,,,,',,,,, 10 ~h'tticdl energy_ Eventually, Ihe ~1",-1rrcal e"ergy is converted IMcl into h&ll lor wannlh or u,..,.j 10 dn work. Hnw~,er, energy flnws and Ira'blor,n..tio" can also call."" en",n)n"'~ ..tal pm!>len.s. f",r """mple, therm••1h&ll ~""rgy Imm eh'tricalpo" er plants carl ,,",ull in i,,,,,,,ased t",nl-_alu,"", in ri,-e", used for roolrng wa"", g"",nhou'" polluta,'\S "' tl", atn"....pherealter Earth's energy IMlan"" and may cause "ign,f1cant increa_ in gkn.\ t",nperalu""",, and buming rn f",,-sil luel." to produ"" en"'rgy is "-,,....,taled wilh ",ne"";,,ns 01 pollutants. nle mr,,"em~m of energy and changes in its form can ],., tracked using ~n~'gy balances, ,,- hie!> a,~ analogous 10 mas. balances. The fitsl I..... of thennudynamics stales Ihat energv can n~ilh~r],., produced n"r d",,'royed. Con"""-atj,,n 01 ~n~rgy pro, id""a ",..i, lor ~nergy ba 1.1"""'", just as the 1.1\\ of ron"er"atio" 01 Ina", pro, id .... a ba,is fM ma"" balances. Ho\\e,er, all ~n~rgy balanc"" ,.'" I....aled as ron"",,-ali,,~; as In"g a" all p'.... sible lorm, 01 en~rgy are co,.,iJ",ed (and in the ab<.enceol nud~a, ,~action,), Ih~,", is "0 t~rm in en~rgy IMlances that is analogOlJs 10 Ihe d,~mi("al-,",acl,on I~rm in mass balances_

4,2.1

Energy and tile EnviroRl11lnl h~'f>II""""Lf'lrp
FORNoSOF ENERGY

Th~

I"n••' of ""ergy ca" be di,'ided 11',0 two Iype;; i"I,...,,,,1 and '·l'I<...""L En~'&l that is part rn U'" molecular _,'ruetu,", or organi7."i"" of a gil''''' "u\>"tance is int~r"aL Energy r",ultong lrom th~ localion or moho" 01 a su\>,.t.",,,,, I., e>.t~t'r\aL fumpl", 01 ""t..nlal energy indud~ gm~'lal;",ml /,00,"1;01 ,>nergy a"d ~".'I", e""'gy. Gra""tali"'lal ~...-.t~"t",l """rgy i, t1", energy gained when a n",-S" i, ",,,,'ed (,) a higlt~r local"''' ab",e the Earth. Kin<.-tic ~n~rgy is II", """"8y Il"'t ,,,,ulls from tho! ",o.. "m~m of ob,,,,,,~_ When. rock Ihro",n off a dill acc~l~rat.... loward 11", grol.Hld, u,., sum 01 ki,,,,tk a",i pOI~lllial energy es ffi"",,,'ed (n~glecting Irktim,); dS the n-.ck lall." il k""", potenl;.,1 ~"ergy bul ,ncrea"" in 'I't""i, gaining kinetic ~1"'rg}'. Table -LA gil'''' th" ",ath~",alkal r"P,_nYUo", of enmmon Ion", 01 e,,,,rg) ~'ICOIJnt.ered in "",-irru"n""Yl ~ngin"ering. lI~al i" a form of illl",nal ~nergy-il "",,,It,; lro", Ih~ random ",otio"" 01 ,.tom". H~al j" U'us r~ally a Imm 01 ki"etlC el\~rgf, although ;1 i, ffi,,,,id~red separal~ly because th~ motion 01 th~ al"'''~ cannol],., """n. Wh~n. pol of ",aler is h~aled, ~n",rgy i, added 10 th~ \\ al~r. lnal ~nergy e, stored in Ih~ fom, 01 ",t~mal ~n~rgy, and th~ chal\g~ in imen",1 ~nergv 01 th~ wat~r is exp"",-sed a~ follows: chang~ UI

\\h~,..,

~nergy

(ma", ofH, 01 ,.- r , .'>T

heal capacity or 'I""'ilic heat 01 Ih~ W.ller, \\ ith unil.. 01 e"~rgy/ma,<;-temperature. H~al capacity I.~ a prop~rty of a gi,'e"

Chapler4 F'hysicaII'n>cesses

c

I.~ th~

inlernal

Some Common fonnsof En....gy Repre""nl.olion forEn'-"'f;yo.Ch.>nll" fn Enorgy .l.E-

m.I"~<~.l.T

~ Anolh". Ener"" Classifjca!jm SVSleor Renewable and NonrelEwable En~rgy r~"lUro~, c"n nonren,,,,-,,bl~.

be d""'ribed a,

,~n~wabl~ and

Renewablo on",sy ,,"''''''' com be r~p]an.']y ""ailable). Th~ ,un. wind, "nd lid"" are ~xamp]", 01 r~new abl ~ ~n~""v f",,~ locb. No n ",nowa b10 on. rgy "ru ro"", un If.., "lh", h,mu, "", c,"',.., ~ lor-Ierl Mn Ir..y can b~ replenish.,d. h,-,,~-ba,;eJ f.",J"I'>cb a,v cun,jJ~,eJ

n"m",,~wabl~ beGlu"" th~r "",n,~

be

repl~n"heJ

a, f.,I" Ih~v.", wn,umed (Ih~ ",urc~ i, finild. E.ch tv?" of ",,~rgy ,,,un,,, r",,~wab]~ and n(mr",,~w.b]~. f.ll, wilhin Ih~ G,I"I\'''-;'''' li'led in T.bl~ 4A. "or ~xam p]~, If.., ~""rgy <>m!aineJ in I"",i] fu~L, i_, p,,,,,,,nl in lhe lorm of ch~mical inl~mal ~n"'l;r, wind 1""'"'' cum"" irmn k.i,,~lio ~"~rgy, .",J ,,,I.r I"'''~' "-"'" d""lTom;'g-

netic ""~'IW'

ClI""imi i"le",~ ""ergy reflect, Ihe energy ;n Ihe chemical bonds 01 a su!»lance. TI", /orm of energ"" romf""'-'d of Iwo parts: L The .trengths of fhe atomic bOflds in fhe .ubstan.... When chemical react;",~, oec'Ur, il Ihe sum of Ihe internal energies 01 Ihe proouds i, I"", ll"'n Il"'t lor Ihe reactants, a reduc!
The Debate over Nuclear Power

eo., "'ttvjhw....NJc"'r¥Mu:;~,' pl&r"",mr"",,".o"l' r", H'rJluLf"'lY4""',,,,I,,,,,1
",""'..or-""" r''*''l'''.

for Ihe ph."echJ.ng... fmm "'lid I" liquId ~nd fmm liquId to lY", n'e lalenl he~t of mnden""ti"n for a given 'iubsla"Ce b equalt" lhe h"al ,..,1ea'ied ,,-hen a ul,,1 of ",a"" of Ihe ,ubsld nce mnden",", to fnr'" a liquId_ (An equal amounl nf en .... gy i'i reqUIred for e, aporalion,) Tne lalent heal of h"'ion is equal to the hrol ,.., lea
ClassDiseussion .I. 5o
J. J.

pow~,~~~~ruol '"~~torq>l.oc,'=
fc~I~.

~Md

a-.r,,..,",,,, ,,,.. ~ ~ "",c c n~y ri
r.a,," ~ ~~M~'~"""'" Ipro ol~",.

",lo""" to ~UJ ri r'l "3~t.<. u. io~

4.22

CONDUCTINGANENERGYBAlANCE

In analogy" ith Ihe mass bal.,nc"""lualion (Equalion 4.3), Ihe fon"w ing equalion can boo u>ed t,~ mndud """"gy balanc.,,; change in internal) plus e~t.".nal """rgy ( per unit tI",e

akliMitoor oI"".""';oao"

_,Iof>rr' r1.. JD<~ 0uc",3 r F""'~r

(""ergy nu.• Ill) - (energy nux OUI)

n..-,u rol. i' <>W"ua".I","",~-:.icr tr~a .... ~"'" i cacl< fu~cr
," " 1lIe "-"" of IhL" ",Lui",,,hip is illustrated in Exampl.,,; 4.9 and 4.10, n,;,; 'ian..., appm..ch for calcuLuing heal bal."""", can be "-
nuking about Ihe "nergy eff",ie"..:y of a building.

ex am pie I 4.9

HeatirJ;j Water: Sceraio 1

A 40-gallon el"'-"Irk waler healer heals water ent"ring Ihe house," I"ch ha" a lelllperature of 10 Cas il enlers Ihe healer. n,e healing le\'el is set 10 Ihe nuxlmum "-l,,le several J-' pI" tah c",~"",uli,e show"",", ff. al Ihe max;mum healing level, Ihe heater uses 5 kW 01 el"'-"tdeilY and the waler use rate L" a ro"linunus 2 gaI1Ol~s/m;n, what L" the lemperatu'" <'Ii the ,,-aler "" it"'g the heater! A""ume Ihal the syed heal" the wat"r.

solution n,e ~olllrol \'olume i' Ihe ",aler healer, Because the sy
," "

o

f.", -f._

n,e ""ergy flux nUn Ihe "-al,,r I",alercomes from 1"-0 sources, II", he..t contenl of the" ater ent"ring Ih" heater and the eleclrical heating elemellt. The heal cc)ntenl of the ",ater entering Ihe healer is Ihe product nf the waler-mas, flux, the heat capacily, and the Inlel temperalure. The ""ergy added by Ihe healer;s gi,-en as 5 kW. n,e "".".~- flux oul of Ihe ",aler healer i, ju,1 the inlernal """'"8y of the waler l"". ing Ihe 'pi "''' (mH,O >< c >< T..oj. n,e,.., is no net rom"",irnl of nlher fom'-' of energy. n,eref"re, Ihe energy bala""" may be ,..,,,,rillen a'i follow"

Chapter4

F'hysicaj Processes

example/4.9

(COntillUed)

Each t"rm of U,is "'luation i' dn "''''gy Jlln and has 1h" unils 01 "n"rgy Itim". T t"I solv", pIa"" "aeh I"rm in 11", ,am" llluls----in thisc"'", Wdlls (l W "quais 11/s, a nJ 1.000 W I k WI. In addllion, II", .... al... f1"",' ral" (gan",,-s! min) ''''''ds 10 be Wll\'i!rted 10 unil$ of mass of w.11"r per u,ut t""" u,ing Ih" d""'
o

o

,;'K,o«T.... -T L.)+5kW

~'".S;'H"',Oe" . 3.785L" l.Okll" 4.11'11 ,,(T.. - T.... )+ 5.01I1) ,,_"'_' "'''' gal L kg" e ''''in 3.16" 10' min)"

e" (T.. -T.... ) + 3.00 " IO"~in

T"", T,o+95 e (10+9.5) 195 C n,l' i5 a cold ,ho",,,r! Bul it ""'k"" sense; many .--.ple h,w" laLct, waler in the tank wa, used up by p",viou,

,ho"''''"''',

ex am p leI 4. I 0

~ueh

a wId ,how"r aft",. Ih" hot

Healirg Water: Scenario 2

Example ~.9 shn"'ed Iha',' i, ,,,,,,..;,,,uy to ,,-a,l ul1lilthe "at"r '"lh
solution I" Ihi' ca"", a,su",ing th" homeowner i' not laking advantage of
From Table -1A, .H:

nuss " C" .I.T,

","

<0 we

df. dl

'"'

t"'-t....

t,.-O

call express lhe relalk,,,,,h,p a, follow,'

(",,.,sn!H I OjxcxJ.T .1.1

Ima>s ofHI01 x c x J.T ~

'.

5,000)5

Th,s expression an be ",lved for Ihe ehallS" in tune, .1.1, given Ihat J. T ls "'l.llallt"l 54 e - 20 e

34 C:

("''''s of HID) " r " J.T 5iHlO/i,

(-lOgaIH1Ox3.~~~L,I.OLkg)(lll>lkg~

20 C)

5.0001' 4.3><10',

L2h

4.2 Enl!flll' Ilalar<:I!S

Although we h~,-e neglecled heat I,,,., in Ex~mples 1.9 and 4.10, in the real world he~t lMs often significanlly aflec!> the ene'gy efficiency of proces.<;e>, sy,tems, and product,. For example, heall""s through a poorl} ""ulaled 1100-,,-aler heale, I~nk requir"" add ilional energy to maintain the waler al the de,ired temperalure and Cdn be a ,ignificant fraclion of the tOlal energy required. Similarly, window, and po", in,ulation in a 110u", often act a, co"duilS fo, heal 1o", increasing lhe amounl of energ'- 'equi,ed to ma,ntain a cmnf()rtahle tempe,ature. The addilional energy u,e due 10 largely a""dable heat I""s" .ignificant; the energy u,ed 10 off,.,t unwallted heal I,,,.,,,, and gain, through windows in r""idenl,.1 and commerci.l build,ngs c""L'i the United Slales len. of billion. of dolla", e,'ery year. Howeyer, "hen properly ,;elected and i,~slaned, "",d",,, can help min"nize a home'. heating. cooling. and light"'g cosls. TIti. nOlion is further e_
ex am pie I

4.1

J

Thermal POllltion from Power Plants

The second lal< of lhermooynami"" sial", lhat heal energy cannot be con,erled h'> I'>-70 percent of the lotal heat relea"'-'
sol ution n,eS problem i. similar to Example -1.9. beul.use a ~p"dfied a",oun! of heat is added 10 d flo" of \\-ate,. and Ihe resulting temperatu", ri"" mu,t be determined. An e"ergy balance can be \\ritt.,11 ",'e, lhe ,egiollof Ihe ri,-er 10 "hich lh" heal is added. Here, T," r"pr"",,"!s the te"'p"rature of th" water upslream, and T,.., rep""""llI' Ihe tempe,atur" an", h"atillg'

," o" ..

(1_ -j)(] MW 01 heal from POl<'" pl~"t) _ (';'",0 ~ exT...-.o..!


- (,n"", " c" T",o.~)

example/4.11

(continued)

Redrrangi"g,

The rem.l"kier"f th .. probltm """"",,!iaDy unil co'" ..",icol. T "obtlin "'><.-<> requires mulliplicalioll "fth" gh"n ri ,,,r ,olumelr;,;: nOl' ralf' b} Ihede,.. ily of w. ~r (dpprcodmately 1,roo kg/m 'I. TI~ h<cap.ocily 01 waler. c .1, H14 J/kg- C, al"" i.<; requJroo. TI\lL~,

lA3Ilx 1I1'J/'

5<'>1 ,'i"g for .1T: .1T

3,4 C

lemperalure in"",a", is importanl, as Ihe Henry's 1.", constant for oxygen changes w,th len'P"r.ture, TI,is r","lt' III • rrou"'<.l d ISSCJI ,'oo-
Co,,-~,der.tion

.4 2.3

of

Ihl~

IMPACT OF GREENHOUSE GAS EMiSSONS ON EARTH'S ENERGY BALANCE

Earth's .,'er'ge ,urface lem~'f'r.ture is dete"ni"oo by a b.l.'lCe between the energy pm,ided by Ihe sun .,nd Ihe energy radialoo .,,'ay bv Earlh to space. The e"ergy r.di.too to 'pace i, e""Ued in Ihe form of i"lrared radi.lion. A, ilIustraled in Figure .1.12, ,ome of thi, infr.red radiation i, absorbed in Ihe almo,phere. The ga_ r"'f""lSible for thi, .lh.nrptiCIn .'" called gr... nhouse gases; ,,,Ihoul them, Earth would nol be h.b,t.lble, a, de"",nslr.,t<.-d i" ApplKalion 4.3. Chang'" in almnspheric con"entr.t,o"s of caroon dioxide-Il,e "''''I im!-"orlant gr..,nmu.", gas-------<>\'er lime .n, ,how" in Figure 4.11. f"",e..i"g .Im""pherk conc'f'ntrat,o,t' 01 carbon d io,ide-a, well a, Ihose of melha"e. nllrou, oxide, chloronuorf>::.rbons, ."d IWl""'pherk ozone. "hich h..1\'e occurred . , . resull of human aeti",lies--inc""."" Ihe ,alue of [,.......,.~_ TI,i, enha,,,,<.-d greenhouse efleet, lenned the anthropogenic gr""nhouse effec~ i, currently equi,aletll hl a" inc""a", in the energy 11m 10 Earth of approxim.ltely 2 IV / m'. Pro;.,cliclIOI hki icalt> Iha Ithe ;''''",a,ecoo1d bea, high., 5 IV /",' o,,,r Ihe ,,,,,,t SO yea .....

4.2 Enffg; IlalancI!S

Somo sola, radoatJoo is

relcclod "'" Eo""

_tho otrnoo.ph
Somo of lho onIfarod radiattoo

pass.. "''''''It'lho _ """'" is _ a~, _ ,o_om""'
Figure /4.12

The ereenho,""" Effect

o..a..,g"llPlono<. ,,,"fI' I_U.5. GIoboIChongo 11_ Progtom.I"I""" bylhoSOb<.-._onGlOOolC""'V01.....",c.....;n..oo[,,""""*"'ond........oll"""",.. l ...... hol'''"~S<_.ondl~I''"I ., .....,t',~t«>l, (l:odrn_~,,",

,-A~

t.'"""'•

the energy ab>nrbed by g"""~'OU'" gJ",", incred_, some other term it1 the energy bdldt1ce mu,1 r"'pond 10 'Mintain 'teJdy >!dle. If Ihe ""lar rddidl,on .,!>sorbed by EMlh remain, con5Idt't, then EMlh', a,'erdge temperature mU5t incre"-",,. The nMgn,tude of the ''''ulting lemperdlure incre"-",, d~l"'nd5 on Ihe r""f'<'nse ollhe romplex globdl dun.lte 'y,tem, indud"'g dM"ges in doud",,,,, dt1d ocean circulJtion. Chapler4 F'hysicaII'n>cesses

~ fartb's Enfrgy Rg1ilDCe and the GreenhouSe fflec! The ",,,ergy !Mlanee of the f.ulb is being increasingly altered by human _,cllvil;"', mainly through the addition 10 the almosr"",e of carbon dimide from /",,";I-'od combustion. Calculal'" the global a,'erag" temperalure of Earlh "ithoUl 8"",,,11011'" ga"" and ,how the o",,", 8"-"'" M,.., on E.lrlh', "nergy b.\lance.

energy i, radialed ai, ~y from Eal1h du,ing !>nth day ~"d nighl.l

Tn ,ohe lhe energy balance, set C., equal 10 [ ....,:

solution An energy bala,,,,,, can be "'rltlen ",tb the entire Ed.lh as the control \'olume. Fnr Ih,s 'yq"m, the S""I is to ""leulale Earth' S .'Ulual ,,,,,,rage temperalu"", O,er time perioos of at leasl 1 y&lr, it j, rea"""",ble 10 assume tl"'llhe system is at 'leady le. The energy bal.1""" is

t,. - t,., The e"ergy lIux in is equal 10 Ihe sol.\< energy illler".."lI>d by Earll.. A t Ea "h',d islJ oc" fmm the sun, the ,u,,'s rad iation is 1.31i8 IV I III ' •...,ferred 10 a, S. Ea'ih intercepts ~n ~mount of energl· equ.llto S t,mes the c"",, iion~1 are~ of the Earlh, 5 ~ Howele" bec~ ... e Eal1h refl""l~ ~pprc.dm.uely J() percent of lIli.< energy back to ~pace, t... eqUdt, only 70 percent of this I·"lue:

orr;.

The"",,,,ld tenll, ~" "equ,lIto tl", en'''g) rM! ial&! to 'f'-,ce by Eanh. The en...gy em,tW p"r unit surf~ce are, of E.'l1h i, gi I'en by Bolt7.m~"n's I~ w: (Energy nux per unit area)

!TT'

"here " i, BoItzn""u,', c",,"anl equal to 3.67>< 1O-'W m'-K'. Toobldin t,.." th" ,·~lue is muhiplied by Earth' ~ total ,urface are~, ,l-rrR.'. (The 10l~1 surlace ~rea of lhe ~phere i, used here because

Sunplily'

ll.75

Plugging in the lalues for Sand !T y,ekls Earth', al'eragean"uallempe,alu,e, T 233 K or -I~"C. Thb is too cold! Jn fact, the globally averaged lemperalu,e at Earlh'~ ,ur/ace i, much warme,: 21'\7 K. TI,e ,ea",n lor the dilference" the presence of g"''''' in the aun,-..p1, ... e lhat alJ"orb the inf,ared radiation en"tted by Earth and prevent it from ,eaching s!Mce. These g~,;es, II hich include II,ller ,'apm, CO" CHI' and Np, were neglected in the initial ene,gy bal,nC<'. To indude their influence, lie can ~dd a "ew lerm in Ihe ene'gy baJa"ce, Ihe "ne'gy flu" .,bsorbed and ,etained by the", g"""'. If the impact of greer,house g~" ~bsorption i, g"·e,, by [~~... ~_ then lhe corrected t"" lerm is

The red ucl,on III t,,,, thai results from greenhou<"ptIClll is sufficient to ca ...e the high ... oboe,,'&:! surface temperatu,e. cr",rly, lh;" I~ largely a MturaJ phenomenon, ~ince su,lare temp ...alur,., "· ...e \l'e11 abo,e 253 K long before huma"" began bumi"8 f",,~il lu"'s. Howeve" human actilities-primaril) the bun"ng ollos,il fuel,-are changing the ~tm"'pherk compo"iti"n to a ,ignificanl extenl and are jncre~,ing lhe mag'''tude of Ihe greenl",u,e elled.

4,2 Enl!flll' Ilalar<:I!S

~ lise nfGljlzjng as a B!ljIrtioo Gluing

j, "

n".y imp'"!,,n! wmp"""nl of windo"",

",b, h"l-wat~f he"""" gr"""ho""",, and ,~hef ,,,,,h"o1<>g"'" thai il1wTf""at~ I"L"i,.., ",laT heating to trap the heal ;b"",i>led ,,;Ih i""oming ,,,kIT radian"". Ma~riaj, u'oed for gluinl; induJ~ gLJ"" acry Ii"", poly",,,b,,,,,,t,,,, anJ pulyethyl""e The gb-.ing allow, ,h",;ng th,,,ugh the gl",jng. II>; ,h",tw",-" Flgure/4.13

,adiation i., th~n ab-.,rb",j by ,orf.o=o. ond makria!, ,uch "-' wor", .nd m.",my lhot moke exed!ent ",11",,lll,e 4.lJ, gl.Linl; makrio!, funct;'", ,imilolT!y I" the g"-",nhm-,-,,, &""'" lhol tr~p ",I~, ,adialion .md leoJ to dimate
FuncliOOl "r Gluing

5hortwav1I '''''''''''''' ~om h"'"1' Iho glazng
MaINi.l, c.l.:lZlng m.>tcri.lL_ .11",,' ,hortwa,'c f.,d",'"m from the 'un to 1"'''' thmu~h the gbzin& but re",-oc'L'C! ~"",gw.we ,old.,Mn cannol 1"'''' lh""'Sh lhe gl.J.,ing. Thi, is "mi!.>, to ,he gn",nl>ouse &''''' tf'P '01.:1, T"di.J,io:m .mj Ic"d lod,m.,,~ .>nge

.... _

~

,""t

-- . -_ R
--~~

,adlatlOn

...",

tlIa glazing

Flg.I' 4.1..

Clob~1 A'·~T.g<' C~,bon

Dioxide Concentr.tion T",nd Th"", "",."me"...,,,t,'" CO, WefC m.ldc allho, M.1U"" l=. Haw."i, "b"""dto,,· by the 1\:~tl(K\"l ac",nk ~nd Atm"'phe,k Adm;n;,',,"on. T1>e "n",,,,l iI>C,"~",of app'.:! to f"",il-f",,1 mmbu,tj,on."d ddo"",~,bon, Theanno,1 .-de i, the ,,,,u1l of phol"';yn th""i, ~nd ""'pi,. tj"n, ""hieh "",ult in a drawdown of Co, dmmg the 'ummeT gm,,;ng ""'''''' ~nd ,n I"crm", during ",nt.".. The w""Uy a""~gea",,,,,nt'.tion",",elK>.:! 39950 ppm on M~y~, 2013. [Rod,,,,,," fr"", do.. p""'
....t.noo<>,plrll«ooI_I.1


Milierial

n..,

Inb>rgovernrtlenl3l Panel on Climat.. Change (lI'CC) (a,wi,,,..,,,, of the 2OJ7 N~I P~lce Prize) "aseslablishoed by Ihe Workl M.eIt!
Class Discussion .&

U",n9t.heece,",,,,,,,an.J ;I. llUt.cGme~ ,"",d,n Ta ~.~. 5. ,~ ... <10 I"'f'u la~"," a,d cDr~n"ed"""of fe_I 'u
m,,,

Temperon.e Ch....geand Sea Le",,1 Rio.e Re...ltng fram Varia. . fut..-e Sc""aria. Seem"", H\C~deKommic and papJa.~n9'"""". mc1ena land energy efucienoy tedTlalagy develop men!. ar.d can\Umpli an pattem, fa.- 2090-2099.

-

Tomporlll..... CI\3ng& ( C at 2090-2099

Sool
(mal2ll9O-2099_

-,. - -".....,..oro 1980-19991

'0

1990-1~

~.,

E.limo'G

BI: "pld oconomic grow'h ,,,.....am a """ice .",d ",Iom~,tibal ",I u li"n, 10 "'" 1.>., "" bill I}', including ,mpr",-",j L,<]uilJt A IT: rapid emnrnnic growth; pnpul.>.llon p"a"" in mi.keotury and lh"" doclin"" rapid ",t.oouctinn 01 nL'",.nd e' I""",t loch nolngJe<; m,we,&""", among "-'gion" nnnf",,-,,1 fuel e".,rgv sourc"" BZ: k",.1 ",Iution, to ,u't.11nab,hty; rontln",,,,,,," ,=,ing pnp'-'~ltinn; intL'mlc>d ;,,11.' k,,'ek of oe<1'!m '" d",'d"pmen' that", prim.mlv rL'gwm.Uy """.Hcd, ,~",. and tragmente>d p"r capit., """nomic growth .nd technru<>gk,1 ch,nge A I FI: ",""'., AIT e
,.,

11-2.<1

0.18-;13<1

U_~;:-

112H145

-

" ,.• " ,."

I.-t----J.~

0.:!fl---{I4.~

1.7--4.1

1l.21---i1.4I!

2,lh5.~

0.23-;1.51

2,.l-t.A

0.2....0.59

4.2 Enffll'lllalancl!S

-

•

_"

""

w.~

_ " ' _ .. _

,

_,,"''''''' .

" ••_

,

,-,

•

'

.. N ............. ' " ' "

H~M~_

-""""'. __.. . , __... ......_---""_ - '-.10_"""_ - - - -- -- -. _ .•. -._--.---_. - --- ---_. - -----------_ ........ ----------, "-'--'-"-'-- -- ---""_ ... _ - ..... t::=::~-"""~-=:= -, ...........lI>t<>f...

..._

""'....... "......,""-

..... -...,.

..... _ , . - - - - - - __ - -

'~l.>oMI

_t ...

.....

'

-.-.........

.........._ _,.. - - - - -

-.-........_oroIng"'.............. -

fI09OIlw-.

,...-,t."

~104_.

_

..........

,...,...lIntI

__

"'_"'_'00'_,

.._

_""

c

' .....,

....

---

,

_'

__

, ,

,•

-

'

""""..._ , _ --

-Ioo!ot

_

0....,.0 .,,"'.......... _ _.. _ _ ...... - - - - - - - - - - - - ... - - - - - ...

-----!.!-------7"------~.-----. _ _ _...,'."_..

•

.

- - '" '-',"("=)

,-,

Figurel 4.15 1IIu.lr;llli\·~oHmp!« of glob.l imp.d. projected for d Im.le ,h,"!l'" (.nd ON lo,·eI.nd .tmo.phcri< c.rbon dio,ide whe", ""c,·.ntl ••..,d.lcd wilh differ,n' .moun's,,! in,,,,••• in glob.1 ..'N.S' 00,1.« ,cmpc"luro in t1l011>1 «"tury. Tho bl.Kl'",,,,, I;n>.. ,mp.>ets and oollL,j am",'" indicate imp.><""" conllnUlns "',lh incrro,inS tempera",re. En,""" are pl.l,,-'<1 ", th.1t the ldt-h.1nd .K1eof 'he t",t indlG.""" lhe app,mdm.lte """-~ of as"'",, ,rnp.>C1_ QJantlt.>th-. entries fo, water ,"""" .md 110<>0.1",& rep"",-",t the ;>o.ld,t~,"al irnp.>ct,oI dim.lte eh.mg. ,dab,-. to Ih. cor.d,tions pm~"k,j acr,... the T.,ngeof Sp'-""'] ReI"JI'l on Em,">",", Soce""",,, (SRES) ""-",,,no. ,\1 Fl. Al, 81, and B2 t..,., Endbo~ 3). ~"'-cJ..noo"""'""k.dod

.. _ .."_.Conldoo
~....-.I,..... on a-.~""f='>,~

and _.....-"..

s.....u., .. ""

hq. .. ~_"",,,d lo1>loSl'M.2 200Jl

The globdl "Olt""'l"""ces <>f "'Mm"'g ""II be .ignific."'. Figure 4.15 pro> ides 'Olne expected imp.cts 0" "'.Ier, e<:o"y,'em,;, food, c"",,tal area" and health a, Ihey relate to Ihe 'pecific incre..w itl glohal mea" temperaltlre. Not only are """"V, lent•.•nd wildiife headl} dependent on dimale, btlt hllman health and 'he ecOl,omy are a, well. The im!Met of climale dldnge \\"11 of course differ by I..,at,on. For e~ample, small bland ,..lin"s,p"rtS of the de, eloping "orld, at1d particular U.S. g...-.graphical region, will be affect.,.J to a greater e, ten!. Some ",dtl.I';"" will be .ffected more Ihan olhers_ Economic s&:!o"" thai de~.,,,d on .•gricullure "ill .truggle "'ittl more ,,,riabillty in "'eather !Mltern,;, "nd Ihe imurance ind u.try " ill ha"e a difficlllllime responding to more cala,trophic ",eather events. Chapler4 F'hysicaIProcesses

42.4

ENERGYEFACENCYIN BULDINGS: INSULATON, INFlLTRATION,ANDTHERMAlWAllS

PreviOlJ,ly' j" Ihi. chapter. we de, eloped an energy ",a.. balance upression (Equalion ·1,22) a"d then applied It to healing "'ater a"d Ihermal pollution, SillU"lrly. an energy balance can"" used to d""",ri"" a heal balance In a buJdil\g to den~,,"'rale meth,).h to design and co,,,,truCI bu~d ing, that Me more energy effidenl, 1n a building. lhe heat balan,,,, can "" 'Hitlen a, fono"" change in internal ] plu, e,ternal "",ergy [ p." unittllne

heat 111101 [ buiiding

[

heat Ins, ] from building

14.23)

In many """,narins wilh buildmg•. it is assumed Ihat Ihe bu,idlng temperalu,e Is maintained al" constanl "alue. nu,s. the change in inlerml ph~ e~ ternal energy per un;tll"", in Equal;""n ,1.2J ""1",,1. zero. In Ihis case, after the heal I......., i, delermilled, a healing sy,lem (!-"'-ssi"e solar and/or mechanicaU l'a" he ,ized to munter Ihe h..at Ins,. n,.. I,,,,,I/,,s;; 1"0" lhe bu ilJ mg is relat
HEAT lOSS IN A BUILDING FM de,no, ..tration purpo;es, leI

~

develop a heal b.;ia,.,e on the l",at 1,0", a.sociated wilh a 3,0lXl fl' home. n,ere are "",'eral way_' to perfonn thi, analpi•. For our analysis, "'e "ill introduce a"d u,.. a IeI'm called degrec-d"Y. We will 011,.-, u,e Btu as Ihe mea""reof energy (I J 9.4787 x 10 • Blu). A Btu i. defined ~s the amm.,t 01 he~llhat n"-,sl be ~ddoo 10 lIb waleI' to rai,e its teml-_alu", by I F. To simplily the calculallo", ",e assume Ihat the 3,OlXl fl' home i. a ""'pIe cube; Ihu., the fnur expnsed "all, are appr."imateiy !,U ft (",dlh) by 14.~ fl (length) by 1'1.4 fl (heighll. The area 01 each w~lIl, Ihen a,Ppro'imalely 207 It'. The roof area of Ihe cube would "1,,.-, be 207 fl". This build"'g i, axsumed tn have Ilhulatioll 'p""'ificalion, 01 R-19 "'ails and an R-30 ceiling. and the arr infillralion rate" SI.'IOO to be 0,50 air changes per hOlJr for heating.

HEAT lOSS THROUGH BUILDNG SKN nle heat 1,-", thrnugh Ihe

~kin

of Ihe bu,ldlllg (Btul F-J,.y) is determined

a~

f,-,l1o,,"x;

14.241

4.2 Enl!flll' IIaIaI1:I!S

Th~

R ",~"" i, a ,nea,ure of re,i'tan", to heat flo". TI,e i,we"", of R O!R) is defined as the flow 01 Btu throogh a I ft' ""'tion of building ,kin for I h, dUring "hid, the lemperature d,f/eren~e beI"""n Ihe i,,-,ide and ouhide 01 Ihe bu,ld, ng ,kin i, I F. In Equalion 4.2·1, A is Ihe are.lOf a !-",rticular """tion 0/ the,kin (wall, "",dow, door. and ceiling) and I is t"ne (usually 2-1 h). The daily IOlal he.,t loss through the I"ur wall, and Iheceiling ~an be determined a, follow" heat lOS/;

_

1( ' •• ) -

\

)(Jlt"-

f'-h

. "'J

(4.25)

xlee,hngx207ft'x-d.,y

Sol\'ing Equalion 4.23 results in heat loss

I.()'lh Blu +".9~ f'-day f'-day

',!';":'c F-day

1.053

(4.26)

The un,l of .. F-day" in Equatim, 4.2(, i, defined as a d.gree-day. Defi,""" for heating, a degree-day is the number of deg""" Fahrenheit belo" (,5 r: fnr 21 h. Application 1-1.5 dL<;Cl.lsse. degree--day, in more det.>illn our ,,-,ampl~, the ,-alue delermined in Equat,on 4.21> can be ,,-"lien as 1,ll53 Btu!deg,ee--
_

You may ha,'~ ",~n Ih~ leTm ,u')..,-rr-da¥ u".,J on your win"',d.y w~ J2 F,IIU, wuuld "'1u.II~toJJdeg'-""'-da.y, g.... or~htrie bill A d~grer.,;/ay i, an ind"" lhal ,ell",,!> f,,, h~dling "'.." IMI 2~ h per1oJ. J~m.nd fo, ~n~rIlY Ih.t is u.s.,.j I" h~al ur c",,1 • A d"l;,-",,--day d~fineJ fi" ".,)ing L' th~ nurn""r 01 builJing. Til.; l\OAA C1irnat~ l'rt>.Jicti,m C~nl.,,- pm- d"l;""" Pahrenh~il ab",~ liS F fur a p",tieulaT lim~ ,-id~s d"l;,,,,,--Jay dal. I", .1m,,,'lOl) ma~)f wealh~, period Lik~"i"" ifa m~ ... Jaily t~mpel'd bJ", fur d ,ums~,'i"n, in lhe UnileJ St.1"" (wWW.Cp<.T1C~p.n,,,," m~rt~mper;, lurewa, '''P' >TleJa,HS P,thi,w,'"1d"'l u.l~ h, 211 d"l;,-.,.,.-J.y' f,O' ",~,ling ,n'eT lhal 24 h per~>J. 'II''''!), Til.; b,:,,,,line ,,-'-"
F'hysicaj Processes

e Xanl pie I 4. I 2

DeterminillJ the Import3ree of Insulation in MjnimizillJ Heal Loss throu!!h aBuildin!! Skin

Detennine the heat 1......., lhrough dll in,ulaled and u""'-,ulated walL' Each \'. all oonMi,1S lhe followm8 "",tena1" whkh h.we the R factol'< g"''''' ," the followlllg L
R fador

o.m 1.32

0..15

"'" 0.17

The 3.5 in air space in Ihe unin,ulaled wall has dn R facl"r of 1.01. If 3.5 in fibergl.ss ",sulati"n i, pldced in lhL' -'p'''''. it \\ ill ha ,e an R fdelOr of 11.0.

solution Remember Ihdl Eqmuon 1.24 dllo\\",j u, 10 detern"ne the hedl 1",,-, Ihrough Ihe skin of Ihe bUilding (Btul F·
0.17 +

0.20~

1.32+ 0.45 + 0.6Il_ 1.01

3.73

For Ihe l,,-'uldled wdll, the rombined R "alue "'IUd!s 0.17 + 0.20 _ 1.32 + 0.'15 + 0,68_ 11.0

1372

The hedll"", Ihrough the uni,~,uL'Iled w.• lllhIL' equal,

, 3.73" 100ft'

f>.l3~ F-day

Alld Ihe heal loss Ihrough Ihe i,~,ul.ted wall equal,

ern

175-,. ·....ay

175

Btu deg.....,..d.y

"'ole Ihat Ihe" an Wilh m~y 3.5 in fiberglas., in>u1.uinn added ha, mud,l_ heal 10,., Ihmugh thebullding skm. By knowing Ihe number of degree---day, for. pMlirular d.te 01 Ihe }'Klr Ihal requll'" heal,ng, we can a1"<' delermine Ihe daY' hedling requirement.

4.2 Enl!flll' lIaIar<:l!S

HEAT lOSS FROM INFllTRATION

T.... det...n"ne ,he heat I",. iI u" to infiltration, ",e ",us, kll....'" ,he room sl7e. Fnr our slInplified cakulltim\ "e ,,-,n as", me ,1>11 ,he 3jlOO ft" h...."'e i, .... ne gian, ",om and the air infiltration ra,e es {l_5(J a" change per hour for healing. 1l\e heat 1<><, as'iOCia,al ",ith,nfiltrat.'" i.theamoontofenergyr"'1"in>d tohea'thea,r 10,;' I,,~m the room e,-ery day through cr.>cb and holes in ,he bUilding envelope. For a partieul.. ""Iu",e 01 roo", or building, ,hi, can be detennined as foUo",", heatloo-s 1m",] [ infillration

,olu",", x

[

,;,

lI,f,ll"",io" r.,te

] [ ,,"" '0 x

'''~

tempera,u", of ,heairlF

]

(U7)

Heat capacity i, ,he ,erm used 10 describe ,he heat r"'lu"ed to rae'" the ten'pera'ure 01 air. At sea level, {l.01~ Btu e"ergy i, n....,ded '0 i"c....a'*' the ,e"'pera,ure of 1ft' air bj I F. (At 2,lXXl ft ele"a,ion, thi, ,-alue is 0.017; at 5,lXXl It ele,'allo", thi, \ alue b 0.015.) Note in Equa,ion 4.27, the importance or righbi7.ing .l bu,lding because hea, l<>
'0

,(O.5airCrnn",,) B,u 2·lh 3.000lt x x 0.018-,- , - h fl -h day

.,,"" F-h

Again, u'>lng our Ill.. h,>.:! of degre"day" ,he ,-alue of fi 18 Btu/ F-day can be ""tten as M8 Btll/degr...- he.u Ios.s thmugh the building skon and hea, 1"", fmm ",fiIlra"on,

TOTAL HEAT lOSS

Btu B,u 1.033 F-h - M~

""

L 701 F-h

""

L 701 degree-dav

(4.29)

The total energy demand to m ....t the heat iost is found lrom Ihe f"lIm,-ing "" pres, ion, Total e"ergy demand


,otal hea,I,..1 ~

'",',"",'Y' '~] ~eating:",

[ Ume perlOO

(ot.30)

A,~um~

all.lIn that tlk, av"rag~ t~mp.,,·"tu,... nn a particular" inte, ,JaJ i~ n r R","ember fmm the earlier ,J<.-fi"'t~~, of a d"8..-.d.ly lhat th.. :n r I~n'f""ralu .... "ouId ,..,.,ull "' 32 J~", ~ ,,,5 r - 1J r 32d"8~a"~1 fur that part>cuLot day. Thu~ f", OUr nample, "here the ", ....018'" ~f"""ahln' "as n r, thIS "oukl mean that the buildmg "flUid ""'lu,"'" the 'oUo,,,"8 amnul\l of ~ ,oput for doilv Iw.otmg:

&. PASSIVE SOlAR GAIN ANDTHERMALWAllS

In the e\.m1ple """" ;0 tlu~ « ~ ..... uu·...J h. mal«> up for """I ......~. " .. determ, Ih.at for a particutar "mt.... dov "hH o'IM"r'K.". Fonun.1teIJ ...n "" part of Ih,~ hoNt ,nput un be d ...... nl bv !.ILng ,oJ\ ant.>ge 01 the """'l\l' pn)\ Ido>..l by the .... n. 1hL~ ""..I ",put,~ uliood p.s";,·" soLor yin. Th"",," w .Ill; tAL. ...h an!.lg<' of pa.o;,;,,, oj! """'r ~y and therm.I1 condud..", to tr.. ,~~fe. heat from " .. m'.... h) ,,,,>It.>r ~. n...,.. lyp;eallJ ""'ploy .. 1.. rS" n",<:r<'le or """""my " ..n to <'I1l1 t a"d ~Iore _rgy and lhen dl~tnbul<' thlS en....gy as h""1 inl," ooildmg ~pace. A m..;;omv nno. or fi.... pL>ce 011.... can aca"npllSh thi, tool ~ ...,I<'nt. Fig" .... I II> ~ho" ~ n .."'pl.." of how Ihen",,1 w"ll, ,',," be inocorpor"loo Inl<> "",,,, ~u,laln..ble building d~ign lhat t;l~0!" ,,<.I, ""t"S" nr ""tu,al • ""til,'ti"n and o,·.. rt"ng~. The An"'i.,zi cliff dwelling, nr the Amer;Q'" Sonthw~1 i",YI'pn,.te n",ny of th_ d""gll f".lln,,,,,. Therm"l " .. ll~ can be ~izoo t" """nunt I,,,. p.,rti.." 1.,rf...,1mll n! the h\lal h~,lt",g load The ""l""latoon Ii"'t II... d<'l"',m;,,,,I,,,,, nl Ih" h..~ting 1,........., wa, I'bl pe,l"rnlN ill thi, .....:t"",. Then. I". a p.lrtirular 1nc.linn.OO . ....".. "",,,mpt,,,,,-, ~I,lteJ 10 Ihe tt""n"... l con,Juct" ,t.v and .llIum...lric heal capaotJ of Ihe "aU "'.t....ial a.~ w..ll as the 1\ pe Ilf gl"l"'!> thai i~ placed bet"",!" Ihe " .. n ilnd the ,un, Ih.. p"...... ntay of lhe Iw.ot, ng k\ad th.at Ciln be a,'wunted for 1>.0""" "" a part"ulil' iI~a (Of Ihe.......1 wall un be calculat"" 0.." to,~ COIl'lra,m~. "e ",II not g" inlo the<.e CilIcuLoh,-.n~. Rooade.... iI~ d'n'CIild "''''''' 1wn> (for e,""mple. W;bon, 19791 A~" "ha, .. " nl1en ,n 1'-' f"bll~liher"i<:"..-t.t.2OOi'l, iln nul.... "'1 lor <'I'In'truCtIng. therm.lI wall "flUid be """'nductl\ ,1\ I. IV.."", has. h.iglwr llumetno,·1w.o1 Capool)' (6:': Btu leu ft- F'llhan" ocd. adcbe.•ndcorterot Th;"e maier",\,!; h.a,,, he.cap.oc'l\ ,ill..... rIwt .ang.. ,n the 10<.. Will...- 0;; .1;.0 iIn ide.ol ""'t........ lin ",k;a,... "Uln'd Iherm.oJ """"'K" .... """t min .. ootld'ng ~f'Ke. bec.o""" n".d~ Can""",, Ct....., ectlOO to dlSlriOOif' '-'>1. ,u."•. tlw them..1 ~llC I.. ,1\ of " .. t.... I0.15 Blu·ft ft' -h- A;" mud> Iuglwr lhan /(or "Ol.-..J olIld ,J"" adobe. Thu~. illhermal .. .oll ron,tru<1e.:1 nf "iI!<>r" III pm,.u.. .. Lotg.... froKt...... rot lhe ""'Iu,re.I """hng In.oJ th.a" iI ... m,Lorl)' ~ih'lJ .... II oo,lt rot Ct.""'''''e or
""Lo,

''''l''" ....

,de.

e,,,,,,

''''''l''''''''''''

·U EnqJ 9 I ICII

~ Pv

0

~

..-"" -

<>'

/

-, -

,-~

•

_ -.

'~M

•

"-

"",_,,01

,.,

,

'-.

••

•

,.,

•

,,6
,,6
P <>'

__ P V <>'

V

•

~

~

-,

radiation

-

~r

•

(

••

'"'

Flgurll 4.16

h.m pI"" o{ Pu.ive Sol .... o".ij\n .nd V.n,il.llion Ai>plk.. bl. to North..... Hem;.ph.", ~ mL~h",b c.m be u ...'<1 10 ehm",,,'. or minim;". the ",rn for mech,mC.ll h.ating .nd "",Img. (.» n.crm.>1 ,...1.. "'" "Nt lr.. nsf., ", collcct and di«"p'''' ""',. (b) "enll"'bon .)"',""'" .." u"" ",owclion to prodd. ",,!m.l heating. Ie) VentIlation l propert"", 01 the .'un durn'll wm'e" month. wh,le minimi,ing lhe .•un', im",ct during W.lrmL'f

""'''''"Sob ,.... Uy",,"';"'."" ~--· ..iIl

B......au... (If its high effect" e conducti' ily, ,,',U"'r " a" ""p"dall} au,aM" e n,,'terial in i".. ta,~ heat c~ rvquini!l.l early in tho> ddY. Eun'pl.... (If rloOCe'< "he'" heal i' reqUIred ~Arly in tho> dd~ dre schools ar>J offiCI."'.. In ''''d.... 'tial ,rtwbons" here a fan,~v may"" g ....'''durutg InU( h of Ih",d.~· and heal l'i need..:! in th"e, milt enlicnal n...... "aU ma~' bt! a better choice beca""" ,I r d _ It.. ~Il>n'd """'8~ """'"

"I"""

"""'ll-.

,10" I~'

4 25 URBAN !"EAT 15lAND T1w t.!ml hul island ,...{er< to urban au and ....ri""'" 1~J""'dlur"" th.ol ..rt' Iuglwr than In ...... ~ rural ....,..... \tan, n""", and ....bulb< ha,e .. u \ftIl.po!Ti'IU",,", up 10 10 FISh Cl " .....-- lhan the "Urmundmg ....tural land .,...,.,.. Fi~u","_I; """,,~ .. I~ pic:l1 OIv .......1 I'Jand profi}., l:rtwn "'n'f""'ralu' re "poc.aU~· 10"......' IN urb.on-rurill bord... lhan In lknst.> dot< nl< n "rr.L' Tbe sIr.eldt .. l..o.~.,hoo,,;, ....... p;lrl..-~ ..nd 0f"'fI. land a...at.. ",,"\I..,. ........s. TIt", i' one re-.n thai gr"""",ng \he budt en, "'>rl""'nt pro' Ilk;; """",I and en, JlUrtrt\o'nt.oI benefit<. H~"I ...Llnd.. form .' atl"" repl.>a1 naturill land Ilh p"" e"'",nt. bu,ld",S". ar>d oIh'" Infr..'lru,lu,,, Ir~f.... ,i!\l 10 d.. Ih" bUIlt "'" lronm..nll, [),,;pL>cing rr- dnd ,egetat,,"" numm;7.tS the ""turdl (O"lr~~ffec~ of .. h.odu'tl dnd eV"P""'ab'nof" aIi'l' f....n o;oil.nd lu, es I.... ap''lIrans,,,ralion). Non"",.,.iousmale,ials ha' e .ignifocantly d,fferenl Iherm,ll bull p,opert,e;; (;,,,,ludi"g hoMt (apMity dnd Ihe.",al n>r.Juet" ily) a,td "Urid'''' radiati, e I""0pertl r",>eh higher temp"'''IUre.-I11",lSur,;d t>.'lIh "" the.u .fa"" .. ntl iI' tl." ,lir-tl..'n it...urroundIng~ 10le, 191U). T.. II bllildings and nMm", ... lro'<1l, e,llI Il< al. that i~ tr·'rJ'
co,..,. . .

lsl.1lld eff.>ct Urban h",.. islo"do; ca" ,mf'd-'fa City" rublk health, arrqu.. IlI~·, energy de""'I1IJ ..."d ,nfr~truQurenlSt' '" ....' ..-al "a~' IR.o-.enfdd

----

l.rl>anH",atbJ..-d nu.. pndto.".,..... thai

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1510 0 r .... br ~nd lit dtIO\i .......... m..-J"'5 runl~

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W-"'b" '" c_.>nd buol..I"'F' ~ WIlh It><- bud! ",'~ronlnl'ftl·.

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thrnn.>1 bulk

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.......

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et aI., 19971. Heal islands prolong and inlensify heal ",aves in cities, making r.."idenls and "orkel'S unmmfortable and pUlting them at increased ri,k for heal exh,'uS!ion and heatstroke. In addition, Ingh mncentrations of ground-Ie"el ozone aggra, ate r""piralory pmblen,-, such a, aSlhma, pUlling children and Ihe eld"rly al particular risk. Hott"r t""'peratures and reduced a"f1o", incr""-,,, d"mand for a" mnditi",,,ng, ",c,..,a,ing energy use "hen demand i, already high. This in turn contnbut", to I"'""r ~hnrtag'" and ral""" e""rgy expe"· dilures al a 11m" ",hen e"ergy "'....ts are al Ih"" lughe,1. Urban h"al i~lands mntribUl" 10 global ",armmg by increasmg the demand for electricity 10 mol our bUIldIngs. ,Iudy of urban h"al island, is mmplicaled, though. for e,ampi", i" cooler dim"tes during Ihe "i"l"r, Ih" urban he"t island effecl can cause niglmi",e temperalures 10 1><> les~ se,ere, "hich ",ould "'''Iuire l",s h"atmg. AI"" fe"er S1",,,fall and f""t events m.ay ,,,,,,,,r, and chang'" in mehing patten" of sno"fall may change Ihe urban hl'drology of .,n"" melL To further ""''''ligale Ihe cau""" of urba" heal isla"ds, an energy balance can be ,,,,illen 0" a ,lldUo" "', er (that is the c"nunl "olum.,) al Ihe urban land surface mnlaining air ,!I\d ~urface elemenl', a, shO\\'I\ in figure 1.18;

TI,,,

/4.32)

The lerm, in Equalio" ,1.32 are defined i" Ihe "'''plion for Figure .1.18. He,.., Q. i, Ihe net radialion, Ihe sum of Ihe mmmUlg and oUlgoing

o·

"

.

Figurel 4, 18 EnolJlJ' B,I,I1OO WriUon rOf' Sh ... lo"·l.)",,,t Ih Urb"" land Surf.", Th" lav... mnl.,,11.< ,i, ,nd ,,,,f.1ee olemen" th.J.t "",1.0 up the buill ""dronment. Q" i. the net ,.HIlau"", Q" '" tho ",n"ble h",,1 flux, q" '" tho ;"t"", heat flux. G. i, lho, ground helt flu., Qa " tho ant!"nl"'$""'" helt di

,h.,lr!"~'~

atll.l 10ng"~' ~ 'adiahon. [ncol1utlg So,LI, ,hort" a, ~ 'adiahO" " a futletto" of "'lar 7-"1Ulh a"gk, and a fr,\Clio" of il i' the" fi'fk\"!t'J ;l!o outso",S ~uri.Ke, The ltigho>r lho> a[~ of Ih~ '>U,f""", the "',"" solar ~ IS M1...-ted bad: uUO the alnV>oOrh~n> and Iea,e- the ,h;oll,.... Ia,~ """.',-n in Flgu.... 4.18. IncomH\gIon8'''''' '...:lidO<-.. is em'\ti!d fnom the -.l.~ .nd g klng..a,,, I~dl.ll""" ",d~ both thai """IW from lho> '>Uriace.nd the ~'tO\J ,ncommg long...... radl.llJOn. Q..... Iho> Il">talanthmpogeruc""'l d.,.,h;orge,n theb<>... ThefiN 1.. 0 I""",,, IQ _ Q.. I..... bai.ln<.'N ~ the_bib!" ""al flu' IQ\..,I, 1a""'1 '-I OU. 1""1, And ground """I fun (Q.-J. SerNblot ""'I ,~ ' - I ~ tran,<.ten\'d bd>-~ the ... rbce.nd au-. \\'lIo!n lho> ....riace IS "a~ I",""IM au- .Abm... """I .. m be Ir...... ~ up"~rd mill the au and Iea'e the bro. ... ronduction foDo\o,.."j bv "",,,'«b'W\. The 1.0""'1 heal Ou' os pn'ldU<'N ~ transptralJOn 01, ~hon.nd... aporallOll oIbnd ...moK.. " at...., .. lu tho> la~""1 of, .. 00 ""'I"""k ioc<"P'.... ati!d into, lho> bu,lt "",.,.Oltnwnl. "MgnlluJ~ of the ulban heal i,land '.l" be J"""ri!>o>d "" lhe difl",..,,(e in te"'I"',alu,e urban (u'.ull.l ruMI (,) ",o",lori"g ".\llm'" (.I. T ~ ,j, .I. T ~_, "'ill be greal....1nil cka,. w"l "'lihIS, but it al", h.a' ~I\ f,,,,,1d '0 depelld on ,1""'1 g....-m,,,lry. In Ih~ nlost d .."", of th" ~I" Imnment, Ihe mag"jludeof II", I,,,, lerm (p.lrl "I Q' >is "'"I..-lll"" by h"" ell the .• h is , i~wed M gTUU ,1l.l1~,·~1, ThIs .,I.y' Ie", f"'lnt h.l, ~" f, "d to t... appm~,male.J b) Ih.. ,.Ik) 0( bUtld"'g ~ight to """" wIdth (11/1\1. n nla~",'um .1T ,(i" 0 <:.an be ",llted \(> II,.. 'Ir<'t't geo"'''' ')' by II foll"'''''g "'r'~' (0...... 1911l).

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(;I..H I

WhIle climate ~",ation!; related !<, .t'hng citJe< Illtle Gln be d.III mod'fy I~ eff«tof the _ can~'ln llI't d onloll~. In "l> modlrled by selecb...... of 'uri.... ~.(\..t,ngs.• nd "'geulIor, .. IuIo>.Nl ...... "'-~ng theamounlol ..-""""'.1 .. ""'".....1 thatcibes

"""'oc.

T.b1 ...1.oteo; manyoltho>tenns ,n 1~"......-g."NIa....... IEq...."""

1.321 ",th ~8'.-.-...I f"uur"" 01 the urb.on en"mrnrwnL Some r.,.tu",", .... ,<'lall!d \(> the ph~>oI<:.ill g&-.mo!lt\ 01 t .... "'.-t la~OlJL 01""'" ,nclud~ modifiedhon 01 surfac"",. trIoItltrl.ll" (...-...""., ""'" of ,mpoen iou;. f'd,,,,,,,,nls. pre;en .Iion nl .. "'Llnd<. ~nd onrorporabon 01 gr""n roof<.nd Io\\·,mpad d"'"I.-.pr
.""r~.""

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1>,·"",hot'"",'e .nd long"''''e radi.'ion, Q"

~B3I:nceTerm

~_Tha'fIod""" Irn..,.;!)' a'Urblln l-loal'aIan
c"n j'on g""mo'ry of the "rc"" ,nd buildmg

c,,"\'O" g""",elr)" infl""""", the ""y """rt"",.., ,.-...l",tXln ",,'c,", .1nd i<; .tKcfbc'
He".>dded by hum.n. (Q.-..,J

Em""",n of ",."te he.' from bmldmg', Iaclorie<, .ndnohid...

Th<>ugh Ih", "'., ,,,,,111 term m th",,,'c,.l11 energy b.l1.1I>(e, building. ""n bede<>.l.

Sensible "".t flux, Q"

Typ'-" of ""g,neo.mng rn.-lteri.:JI,

Inc,,,,,,mg tho ""f,ce .111><'
'0

Nam'", c"nylm goome«" can "",ult in ,,-'<1uced all flo",. whICh oc.. n""" ,ho df,,,, of Qt<. T,l"'" of ""s,,,,,,ons rn.-ltenal. .nd,lom, wOler o"'''''ltemcnl

The laic"" he.-J.,llux out of tho ,,"'em '-, lhe """It of w.ter "'''p'".I;''''. Thee""'l(v" earried "Ul 10 the film, 01 ",a'c, v'po' (in the f"rm "f tho higher cnergy m tho ,,-ater Jll(~l'CU"'" in lhe forml, Tht· hea' '" t.ken fmm ,he "
"'P'"

p"""'"'''

Imper"'ous and n"nv'-l\et.l'ed surf"""" hind",-"·.p"rab,·e "",~mg (unl"". Wat", i< "J"inUcd on Ihcm}, 10\...~imp.x1 development recog0l7C< ' .... 'Irovmg some 'landmg "·at,,,-on lhe .url""e '" ~ot b.ld and '''8ela'wm 'ueh as S""'" mof, and trees i-
lncre.l"<->d "orage ofhbll

Dlffe,en' .billll", lo,IOfe hb1t m d,ff"",n' tn"'" of <0"-" ruct",n "",Ieri.l1s

n.e tberm.11 rondu>c"no/ 01 ..'pb.11l and concreIea", ,imila, (1,94 ,'c,",,,,, 2.11 J m 1 K ""'P'-"'''vdyl. n.e tberm.11.-...lmill.mn, of ."p.... ll.nd roncr"'e ,,,;ult, in

,,,,,,,,,,,,,->;] '''''age of heal.

t;rb.ln ,uri.""", ho.1t up 1."",- than ""'ur.l.nd ,mp""'w"" 'urf"'-"'-'" tb.,' re'a in "'.ter.

'0

B",I'''''''';mn111ffi' rn.-ltcn"l, ....ve. h'gh abi~'y "n", and relea", hml. P.1\"ed .urf."", .ue IhlC~ and in am'.>c' ",ith.m und",-Iyinl( g"",nd 'urf.>ce. BUIld 109', though, have.1 thinn",'~m ,hat "'f,,,.'t"" ind,,,,, and OYtdOOl' .lIl.

4.3

BUildings: Right Sizing and Energy

The. \·e'.ge Am"ric.n "0" '!",,'ods ",·e, R5 percent of 1"5 or h", lime ind,,,,,,. n,i, f.et, .1ong \\ i,h ,he I.rg" lIl.t"ri.i flo,,"' ""Iuired '000""rue,. ope'.te, ",1."". btJIiding. ha, impo'tant ro"""'luenees 1m "n!l''''''''''' in Ih" UtI"ed St.,le" bu~djtlg~ u,,*, apJ-"">xi,,,,,t,,ly

."d "...


e Xanl pie I

4. 13

Urban Heal Island and Street Geometry

Assume a downlown area ha, Iwo 12 ft. Iravellane< fM vehicle<, IWO 12 it. bus lane<. Iwo 12 fl. metered parking lane<, and a 12 It. ,ide"'all on ead. ,ide. n,l, IS all ,urrounded by llhlory bUilding, Ihal are 125 fl. tall, Wlldl i, II... IIldximum ur!>.", heat l,1and imp.let that can be expected?

solution The maxImum urb.ln heat i,land in Ihe downtown oore can be oSlimaled ""ng Equatlon ,1.3). The ,treet width Indud", the ro.ldway and the sidewalk areas.

maXlIlIum .l.Tu _.

7,45 + ),971n (125ft ,/96f1)

8,5 C

1\oIe how Ihls exan'ple ,how, the importance of street atld build ing geometry (referred 10 a, Ihe "",,/ "'''!,o''') on the urb.ln heat i,land. Try doing Ihis example again for the <.arne qreet size bul sliMter building" A neighborhood with Ihe ""me street profile but 40 fllaU building, wIll 11d,'e a nlaXlmum heal i,land Impact of 4.0 C (Cambridg" SY'I"malle<. 2005). Try doing Ihe example again for all old hl,toric city ,,'lIh lIarmw ,treelS but shorter buildmg helghl" Whal do you dISCO' er aboul urb.ln heat I
one--th,ro of Ihe lolal energv. t,,'n-lruro, 01 Ihe electricity, and one"""lghlh 01 the waler and Iranslorm land thai proddes ,'aluable ecological ",rvlce;. BUlldll'g< also acc<>Umlor '10 percellt 01 global ra,,"male rials u""' () billion lOll' annually}. n,e sL. oompollent' ill a bUIlding are, 0) foundal"''', (2) sUl"'rqrueture, 0) exlerior el,,'elol"" (,I) interior pMtJliOlb, (5) ",ech.. tlicai 'yslen", and (6}fu m bJ, II '8s. Each of th"'" cmnponen", dunng eachslage of a build,,'g', Ii" cyde. has a po,..,tial ad"","", impacl on human healtl~ as ,,'ell a~ l-;su"" of energy U"". "'aler ,-,-<;e, blooi,e"',ly. and u'"' alld rele.l'" of haz.lrdou, chemic-aL,. Energy effi
Thenand Now, Increasing 5i1.eofthe American Harne

2.~2

in 2IlO2

217 01' (2,3-ll1 II') in 2002 4I\'il 01 _'ingJe.-Iamlly

hd .1

garagdor 2 or mOl'e caT" 10 1967 Alr-.mndltiomng

--16'> 01 """. lion..,. had "",Ie.l.,e-

rondilioningm 197'i

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,i,-

4.3 BtJ;ldn\lS: RiQllISl>ingand Enerll'l

• •• M""""ials Used to Construct 0 2,082 "2 [193 m 2) House in the United Stoles larger home, ar" ~jjo coo
-"

~Framing luml'Cr

32,701'

Shealhrng

1j173

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""'" Chapter4 F'hysicaj Processes

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1-',

,

I~ MI!P,oujowooi',OOl¥9"

Ih" ,.... ,ag~ l\<>",,, ~i7.e i1>c....ased i mill 1,100 1<>2.1-10 ft:, Th~ increased S"~ ,>( ,,,,,.d~nli.ll dwelling' Ita, larg.. i"'pli<:ati,'n~ f,.... resio nal and gl<>bal mal1ng "',Ih lnal""ah U"oumlllS """" and mOft' ....""&.,. bo!c-",u,"" of I""', Iarger.1U (thud.. of I~I<'. ,......... 'IUI. Rjghlst~jns~oderob.lI, .,..,.."...,,,,..1. and 1ll-'llluIlO....1b.nld"'S" L~ a rnap_ J ...... gn IOoIIr> ....., .. 1I.. t..riaIs and prnJuc" \to;(, p>lluhon Junng d 'otaS"" of the b.nIJ",s ~ Ilk ~ dO'. As an ~mpl". '" a """"nl -.tud~ , JlfroH"fflt~ ,,,,,,,,Ia""'" ~ .. ~a pplw I,> I, "'IX! ft: and J,lIllI ft' h""'" the Mung and rooIong """'SY n!qU,,",,n~.-..:i.ated",th ..adt bu.Id",&- Ak.-. ro.npaJ1'ti os the p""'t ......... oflhosbool'.loe.ad ..uthor, " ..w,n thenorthem U",t&l

"'~ Tho! .t.. ta ,n T abl.. 4.9 .ho"

n."• ..

lhal "hen ~ ,~ltal. t'd, healing CO'ob an> ......tUCN ~hghtly more lhan half... nd o'lOllllll c.......,. are >t'duc.;J ~ aboul ...-th,n.I. Tho! .maller. but lo!..,. """"8y effk....,!, ~ull u""" I....,.........-gy Ihan lhe n.", ",nd bt'tle",,,-,,ulalt'd larg"" hou>t', Be<;ses a"...-":"'Ie.t wilh lhe nln'e,a,,,'" of w,,"n ai" chilled air, .0"0.1 hnl "ale, (Wil"", and lIo..... hl.>n.t.2005I. Th" h'Khl" ill~ul,.I ,""Ih.,,-II \'lid wesl (,..modd;;J by Ih.. l""d "ulhM or Ihis b""l) k" 7... ,n ,,",ling <'<'>graph,. I,)(;",tio", Ih" bu,lding L~ deslg.\ed '" tholt ,,,'u1.llioo ,~moI alt obUnno>o.t b, "P""mg wind",,, during the "ighl n"", 'trategic p~'"n""nl of "">d,,,,~ that CAptU'" p~",ihng b"",,~ and lhe ..... <>i tffll!.hao.ling alt
.-.td"' ............

rocoI."'lI Tho!

h,ghl~

ho,,,.. 1S;at.... desognt'd I.) lit .......hanl,"&, of

",,"ulate
h ",h ...qu,"'" n" other "'",,"'S _.., on <;un", ,,~ d.1~~. The """"" ,u.... 1t1C dl) {.n .... In tlw ... "'I«I IS prefen'e..l ... .". nwd...nial dning. EnergY &""><"'" mad.. nol on], from nor: ha.,,,,S lad\ .. house i bu,ldmg o.>MttuctJon, .)(Xup.onrv, "'00 end of M.. "Illto".. "

"""'go;

'''''8''''

4.3 1II*kIgIs' IIil)'IISlmg InolEnerllJ

Compar-ali .... AM .... I Energy U.elo. Small ver.... Looge Hou .... R foetor j, a memureatre,j'tan<:e '" h""t Row R·19 "camporol>ela RS/.3.3 In rhe melf", 'y,rem.

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"",,,,,,,,7

4.4

Mass TransJXlrt Processes

Trans!X'r1 proc"""", mo.e chemicals from whe ... ll>ey a", generated, r""ulling in in'pacls that call be di~tanl from lhe pollulion source. In addrlion, Ir"'''po,t pr.-",..,.."" are u,..,J m Ihe d""'gn of Irealn",,,1 s},tetns. Here, ()IJr dis£u....sion has t\\"o purp.-"""" to pm"ide an under.tanding of the proCt',,,,,, lhal cau"" !X'lIuUtlllral~'portand to pr"""nl n"d apply the mathemalicaliormula.s u...ed 10 cakulale the "",ulling pollutanl flu" ....

4.4.1

AD\tf.CnONANOOISPERSIOi'-I

Transporl proc""",s in Ihe etl> ironmenl can be d .. ided rnto 11"0 categortes; ad, "'-'lion and dispersion. Ad"ecesses

",i,,, a.1
~"''''oI:"lr"tl(ln pmlil..... Ad ...

pr<>O:l>:-""" u~ually u" b.> w'Nd~r.,.j independently. For I"" '1''''1 ,,{ nf Ihe d ~ e ,jn" " ...Iream, d i.""t'""'" ~J""d,j... oul lhe rona>lllral&l .pot nf d,,~ 10 " Lorg<':r. ~ Iralt'd '~IOO.

nI'"

""""en-

M",~ nu~ (iii. ",th un'l~ rof ""'...~ I...",l. oJOSCll~ .... rller In lh,~ lum<' on m.1.... b.lLo~. BeuUSo' maso. baLonce c.kulAllOnS.n! .I".~' made "Ilh I'<':ft>r~ e.> .... ~ mntrol. \oIume. th", ,"I cJ,,-..rh m...... h~ tIw TilIo1: .., .. Iu.;h _ IS trA~ _ _ ,Ir ,.,...lI'''f'Ir c.." l Mit..... /-i(M ..... er. ,n calcuLt!JOnS 01 ...:1> ecm e and di. I"""", 01: f1u~ . I.ll m.ss flu... acros;; .. botlll
DEANTON Of THE MASS flUX DENSITY

.t

bounoJ.l'\I.

[m

14.34)

I· A

TI,e ma..... lra'>Sfer proc"",'lhal Jdesenbe< Cd" d,s"".... I.)I\. or a ,..-.n,bil...,;"" of both proc...-.

~uh

f",,,, aoJ '·"""'1i"".

CALCtlATION OF THE ADVEOIVE FLUX The .d,·«I;"e flu... ref<':.... 10 the mo, emenl of .. rompotJnd along" uh flo).. II1g air or "aler. The a.-" ...."I" e-flu~ den;;l!y depends .""ply ..... Cl""'oI:nlrat,.-", and fIoI-, \doclh

Ie,

(~J51

The flUloJ ,e!o)(',I), r ... a \rctor quanbly, It ' - t."h .....8'''100.. and d"......"llOn. lind tho! f1..... / tekrs to the ""'" ........ nl of pollulllt1l mas", U\ lhe ........ d,r«tiorl "" the flu"" Bo..... The tn'H'd,...."'" ""em .. ~ ~ dftined "'" INII"""-"",;; ison""...... In Ito. d.....:I.'nf>ffluid n_ . Jn lhis """"". the flu... I ",II ~ II Ihu on tIw r-d,n'ctJoon. lIndlhe ';0('1 llu.l JIS Molh II ' - - ' quanl"~ "ill be ignoreJ.

DISPERSION o.'~OXl fiSllb from random mnt"....., 011\'0 I) ~ u... randtm\ ....,,"'" rtf molecules and u... random i'doJIl"o lhal a...... '" lurbulenl f1"". O'''I'''lS,m f!Un the rand"m "".ecul.... m,t,m IS lennt'd m.>/m."'rdrHlL;oon; dl>per
e x am pI e I

4.

14

Calcw.lion of the AlWective-FllIX Demily

Calculale Ihe average flux den"ly J of ph"'phoru, do",,,,lream of Ihe ",a,te",aler dio;charge of bample 4.2. TI,e cro;,,-
solution 10 Exa"'ple 4.2, Ihe follm,-iog conditions do"-n,lrea,,, of Ihe S)Xl1 "h.ere a pipe dio;clldrged 10 a ri,'er ",ere d,;te,mined; volumetric flo'" rale Q 20 m' . . ' and do'''''I'e.''n mn""nlration 0.20 mg/L Thea,'erage ,h-e, ,-elocily i, II Q/A (20"""')/(30"") 0.1l7m..-s. Using Ihe definitio" of flu, de",Jty (Equalion 4.331. we can soh e for 1;

c..

]

[(020mgLj

~ I~JlJ x (O,87m/s)

I71 m8/m'- .<",0.17 g/n"--<

rick', law rick', law L< u"ed 10 calculate Ihe d llion 01 ga, "'olecules. I The purpose of thi, den, alio" is 10 pro, ide a quali!.ui ,'e a "d imu ili,e unde"landmg of why diffu,ion occurs, and the deri, alio" i, u",ful only fm that pur!"""'. I" proble"" where it isn"""""ary locakuL>!e lhed ,!f",i"e fiu" we wiB useFick', la '" (Equatio" ,1.43, de'i' ed bier in Ihi, ,"""Iionl. Con,ider a 1><" Ihal i, i"itially d" ided mlo Iwo part" as ,hown ill Figure.!. 19. Eadl si~ of Ihe 00.' h'" a heighl and depUI of one lil1i~ and a widlh of lenglh .~.\'. Initially, Ihe left portion of the bo~ i, fined" ilh 10 "'oleculesof ga, r, J ,>.:I the 'ight siJ e is finoo " ith 20 "'nl"'u1es of g.,.; .v, as ,how" ill Ihe lOp half of Figu,e .1.19, Wh.,! happe"s if Ihe divider i' remov"-'." are cOllSlamlv m,,,,i,l'; arru"d, and at allY mome"t Ihey ha," ""me pr"babilily of cros,ing the imagm",y li"e al Ihe ce"ter "f Ihe box Assume Ih.. llhe m"lecules 011 each side are COlJllted every .'.1 ,"""o"ds. The prob"bility Ihal a ",,,leeule cro,,-..... the centralli"e duri"g the pe,iod bel"''''''' """"" .,ti",~<. c-a" be defined ", ~, "hich L< ""u",ed 10 equill 20 per"'"1 (,'ny' Jlue "'rold do f.... Ihe p"'"",t purpo.-.ttOlll of f-igure '1.19. Eighl moleeul"" of r remai" "n Ihe lell, and t",o h"e "''''-ed tn Ihe righi, while 16 "lOlecul"" of y "'main on the righi, four ha,-illg ",,,,-ed to Ihe left. are equal in 'ize, Ihe cn ...,enlra!ioll ",m,i" Bernu,"" Ihe each bo, l<. pmpo,I,o'ldlloth" number of moleeules ""Ih,,' ,I. TIle,efore, the r""do", ",olion of n",lecules i" Ihe box'" has reduc"-'
lx''''''

, Thi, dcri"alicm i. b>.sed clr>selv on """ p""",ntcd bv Fischer", al. (1'1i'9)

•.

Chapter4 F'I1ysicaj Processes

-. -

'" ''"" '" " '" " '" '"

'" .....

"

C>

''" " '"

C> C> ~Q () () GCJ C> G a CJ G

.. ..., G(J)o ()

,a

'" C>'" '" ,. _.... '" _ai,

fItIlreJ "1'

C>

()G100 CJ

C>

C>

iii

0

,

S

C>

C> C> C>

GGGG C> C>

, ...., .,.. =doo"~

C>

2

Oi fl~.oion of r ... MDI"'D~In ~ 8n, A "'... ;, dmd."j ,.... ..." ~_," "{wi Ten &>" moIeculeo .... """ IVp<> C.1 ~",.>JJ....:I hI ,"" left '<>de "'hi'" 2IJ~' moolrcu~ of ~1>Olher tvpe (y)~,.. ad the n~l , ••k _\llhoullh lhhab.... It", ......, ".pt.... ,II ""'~k-.. ~'" "-:\..,1101 in ""en< ph'-'IC,I ..".p< 6"-..1,,," «",,"10111''''' lwo "'II""" ;< A.. ""'"II of r.,..j'>m """,on, 'O'l< II "",~""l" wit hOI ,he 1>0, h... " 20 f"''''''''1 p,("o..t "l'h· of movmg to ,ho> ''I'r'''''I~ "" :11. TII(" ",,"ull "Ik' 0"'" tim<' ;nl".....1 i.< ,h""'n in Ike t-.>I,.. m Agu,.."

_=

"""","t.'d

0'

, _ , , _ .. 01 ...... "'Il .. _ _ c ~ w "'rlCO',lIr~ti,.,

C.,'I""gI..,U_1191'Oll

bell,,,.,,,

Ih.. l><>~ ",th the diff"",,,,,,, falling frnm (20 - 0) 10 (16 - ~) for the "..'I«ul.... of Y. and from flO - Ol ..~ (II - 21 for ,"" nlOlecul"" of X. Th;~ .,,",ult ["old, to a fu,ldamt!nloll f'1""f""h of dj'~"'f'Si," pro.~ d"IM"iaI """'" ma..... from n>gi"'" of high """"",Udl"'" 1ft n>gM..... of "'" OOoce"UdllOd"""" """""'Udl>on grad""'~.... n... flu, ,j"""'ly J an .o.l..... be ,j.... , nI 'or !he I...,.·b.." e'penrnenl r..... Ih", ... kuLotJ.... I"" ....1"""bOn w...n on Figur.. ~.14;" u,;al.og.o.... ",Ih I"" probabduy of .n~ ......wule ~ng lho' ~ ....l bound.ol) dunng .. ~ .11 eqUoli I<> to Sona> "-k:h """"""'" GIn "" ~ diff"",n",

,ndtf"iSIJdllly_ t .... """".""""", 01.. "ngl.. ~ t ~ ~ , mdea1Ie If---Qn be .an.lh7-"'.1 lO'I" "" Ow IlUl ~ol ~!I in the WI ""II of Ow """.and .... "'l"""ll.... . . - on the nght ""If. s.n.... nur hn, h.l.. un,t ""'gill .and lkpth. p«pendocuw tom.. d,"""""'nof d,ff......... .,...... ""1....,.. un,t Th",,_ I"" flu, d""",ty (the flUl< per UlUt .a",.al j_ JUSt equ.. llt> the .dto!.l/' m.i:>' Ir• ...J.... .ocrod from nghl to left dunng IIw 'lint' I"'",,,d ;, kmw.. Thu~. tlw ~ rdt<> of """" flu_, from left to right .KTOI' bound".... j,

1""._

(4.36)

I

5",,,,, il l~ more co,,,,,,,,,enl 10 work" Ilh co""'ntralions Ihan ",i1h total ",as;; ,alu"-,, Equation ,1.3(, n~, to be convertoo 10 con.:entralion uniK TI,,, roncentralion in each half of Ih" box is gll'en by

_h" (heighl) x (depth)

(4.371

Because lhe height and depth both equ.11 1, ",e can ,implify; (4.38)

For Ih" right ,ide of the box,

c, Substlluting Ci\' for the nta" the flux d"'blly'

11\

(4.3'1)

each half of the box, "''' can ,01,e for

('1.401

I

f'in.\lly, 1I0te Ih.,t a, i\' _ O.le. - Cd'.lr _ dC/dx', TIlerdore, il we multiply Equation I,ll by l.ll' ,h), ('1.42)

I

(4.43)

,,'e oblain

I

(4.44)

The negali"e sign in Ihl~ equation is simply a ,"",ull of the com'enli"" Utat flu.x is p<)1 depend Oil arbItrary va1uesof .'ll or .'lx, Chapler4 F'hysicaII'n>cesses

Ih~ f~l'to)r l';.!AXl ' .!AI must beeonsunt. TIl" pn-.Jurt i, lh~ '-dlu~ called tl~

diffush", rooI'ffi"; ... ~ D. R""Tding ['1.... Io'n 14-1 ""uliS ,n

rIC~'sl.l"

Tho> umh .... tlw d,ffuslOl\ coeffic_t ~'" d ..... fmm.n .....1',,,, of tho> un'l' of [qu.lIon 4.45 or from tho> un,b "f 1M f'lr.meie", In [quA"'n 4_~1. the ddfusion e""llia,,",t h., lhe '.om~ u .. 1s .s l-.1xI ' .It. Slnce k lS. proh>bthl~ and thu,!\lI, no unll$, W un,1S of D.r-t (Io!nltl~: I tut",l. Dlffus.on~"..... ro.nmonly "'f"YIed lit uml~ of em IS. '\ote tlw: form of Eq..... bon 4A5:: (·Uti)

n>nn

n,,~ of "'l""uon .. ,I .o1s<>App"'t Itt Chapl<'r 7" hen o,uef ~ 1.0" '" CO\~_ Darcy'. 1.0.... lIJ"""'" thlo tale at "h"h "al<'r fkn..< through

porou~ rrwd , "" in gmund"al<'t" flo" The ~n'.. ;oquah,'" .o~ gm'........

""at

t'~ll~f

, replacing the concenlr..t,on grad,.."t .. 111I .0 !t'1tlper.oture

gradlen!.

n,,,

\lolteul.. Diffusion n..,I'-"C"I",.in"".bo.~ ~""lys;, ,,""-.l ".o,lie, """dlli,llly dlld ndl}.,jsof molecul... d iffu'''Jll r",,,ty m<1lt'CU 1.... diff,,slon k ~1,'th~ly ,low Table UO lbtstypir,t! ,-"1,,,", fM th~ dillusion eOt:flki"m_ Th_ vdlu .... MeaPl'wxilll.'Ildy In 2 hI I0 "T'" I sf", Soh'" and n",,1i t" .... ~ •. Mound 10 ' em: Is, 10' liquids. dlfler~nce '" difh""m {,,,,Ifiei,,,,t bet",e..n ga_ .ond liquids Ls ""d~"'I.ondable be<".oU' " bi!c.lu..... U'" a, .....g..

n,,,

4.10

s..'ed MolKu...·DiffuIion CoeIfi<.nlS in W. . . and Air

-E,"""',.,

t. i

I ~1rdunnI'nH'O III

H,o

"

1_ 1';

__ (&1

.

D.....""&_I(.........

'" ,, I-

,\(flIC and In H,o_

~

i " ilOJ

Elh\1bomA-noo In Hp

~

111

co, '" OUt

~

nl~'

'OHoo_ _'

• '"

-

.... ,

.._

.....01-... ..._ _..

I- , SOUtCl M.h«.. l' ...... _ _ _ _...

K

In' ,,;.

,

t_.. . .

.._"'....a.s-.""4.4 M-. Tfa'lSllOI'\' .... "_e

.pet'
e

X

amp 1e I

4. 15

Molecliar Diffusion

n,e Iran'l"'rl of poly~hlorinaled biphenyl> (PCB,) lrom Ihe alm""phe..., lnlo Ihe Gre.ll lakes i' 01 concern bec.'luse of health impact> on aq",ltic life and on people and wildlife that edt fbh lrom the 1.lke., PCB tra"-~I"'n i. lim,ted by molecular dilf",lon acro... a thin 't.lgnant film dtthe ~Uridce of the lake, a. ,h"",n in Figu..., '1.211. Cdlculate Ihe flu.• de',-<.ily , and the toul annual an,ount 01 PCBs dep""ned inlo Llke SuperiM if the t"'''-~'i1'r1 L~ by moleculJ.r diffu.ion, the PCB cooce",,,,t]oo in the air jusl above 11,., lake', ~"rface i, 100" 10- 1 g/m'. and lhe roncentration at a heighl of 2.0 cm ab'" e lhe wdler ,urface i' 450 ~ 10'" g. on'. n,e difflL,iorl coefficienl for PCBs is "

lfl'"

Rgure/4.211 Vu;at;"n of PCB Cnnc~nt ..Hon ",Ith H.I&ht.bO\·~ hke Superior C_ i, the PCB mr,c.,nlratlOn In tho at""",pho", aoo". the 1.>••.•1nd C" ;,; th~m""""tcati"n .It ,he a,r-",at", in",rface, ",hich i. d,'termlncd b)' Hemy.l.-.", equilibrium with the dissoln'
a",\'O ,he I.>~.,

fl'""" Mil>okk tI 909l.1~";1h ..mWiloy&SoM, ....1

P"""'''''''''''

..

solution To c.alru1.lte the flux densily. flnot determine fhe concentralion gradient. A"ume that concentralion changes linearly ",ith height bet",,,,,n ll,., surface and 2.0 em, a, no roncentral;"n informati"n ",a, pro,'ide..:! bet"'""n tl,.-,.;e Iwo he,ghK The grad,ent is tl,.,n 450" 10-'" g m' - 100" 10-" gfm ' x Hi cm 2,Ocm Ocm III I,ll" 100"g..--m'

Chapler4

PhysicaII'nx:esse!;

example/4.15

(continued)

Fick'. law (Equalion -1.43) can be tl
I

_D de

"

-(0.0101 en,:'.) x 1.8 x 10" g, m' x

m' 3.15 x Hi" 10' em' " }r

-24 x 1O..... g/m'-yt Here, the nesativ" "8n ,nd,,,,,t,,,, .he flux is d'>I\ "ward, but It is not n""""'<;a'y to pay alte"lion to Ihe s'8" 10 drlermine tlld\. Remember, diffU'i;on al"ay, ,ran'ports Ina" from hlgher-..:nn<:entralion to lowerconcen!ral;on 11,e lotal depositional flu" is gi...,,, by 'i< 1 x A

reg'''''''' In

-2.-1 x 10-0 g. m'-y. x R.l -2.0)( 10' !l:yr

lO'~ tn'

Ihe tOIa] an .... al input of PCB. inli'o La"" Sup";'" ["on .he at"""Ph."." is approximately 200 kg. Allhough ,hi, is a ,mall ""nll"l flu); lor such .. large lake, PCBs do nnt readily degrade in Ihe em iro"ment, and they bio•••:.cumulale in the fl'ih, re-ulting In unh""lthy lev"k Th~,

Turbulent Dispersion In turbulent disp..... ion, ",a,,-. is transferrro Ihn,,,gh themlxll>g of lurb"h,1 ,,,Mil'S ",i~,inthe f1LJid. This is fundMllentany different f",m the proc.....esthat de"'m~ ne moleml ... diffusion. In lurbulenl dlSp"rsion, the random motion of Ihe fl"'d dnes Ihe nuxi,,!\. "hile In molecular diffu,ion. lhe random mOlion of the poilutant mo1"'-"'Ul"" " ""p"lidnl. Rand')111 mOlion, of Ihe lIuid are generally present III Ihe form of " horls, oreddin coefficient i, Ihe 11"" ,'elncity. Turbulence i, presenl only at 11"" velocilies above a criticalle""l, and Ihe degree ollurbulen"" is C("",,,"'ted wllh velocily. More precisely, Ihe prese,,,,e or absence ollurbulence depends "n Ihe

,MOole."""/iS.o"'.phoo<>

4.4 M_TrnnsportPrncesses

Reyll"M5 ,mmb..>r, a dime",,,mless "um""'r lhal de!",n,:!> "" ,'elocit". widlh of the ri,er or pipe, and ,·~"''''',ty "I' tho, fluid. In .ddit,on, the deg""" "f turboIence d"l""Id' "n the mil1m,I 0.' er which the fin" ",,",u", '" that lI"w ""er bumpy ,uri""'" "'ill be llI"re turbuleHllhan ik,w ""er sn,.-.nth ,uri"ces, and the ,"erea""" turOOlence w,lI cau"" more rapid ""xillg. [n I"les .nd in lho, atmosphere, buoy"lIl mixing th.1 results irom le",!",r.,tu",,";nduced dert.'iily gradienlS call "l"H.Use turbolel1t m"'ing. e"e" ill the absence of ~"Urrents. Except in the ca"" of tran,port a""",' " bou"dary, such ." at the airwater interface n""oJered in Example 4.15, turbuknt d~'l"""ion "I",,,,,t alw"y' entirely d""'i""I"'-' molecular diH",i,,". Thi, is becau '" e\'e" an occa,ioll,,1 an""""t ,i weak lurOOI"'''''' "ill cau,., ",ore mlXillg tl"," ""veral d.y, of "'olecular dilfu';o". Fick', law appli~ 10 turOOlent dis!""Si"n just a, it d"esto molecular diffusion. TI,us, flux de,~,ily calculal,o,~, are the ""me for both proc","",,; only lhe "'''gllllude of the d iSp""ion c""'Hieienl i, differe"l.

Enviroomental Protection In SOuthern California

m. '-Vj ' -w "P~ -"P"! ~ icrOO!"""..1

Figurl14,21 Proc... of .\leeh.ni,'" Di.po"ioo in Crou ndw.terFlow T"u fluid p.>reels s~lTling oro, ",ch ",hCT ,tloc,tioo"s B ,'od C are disf"""""l 10 locations f,rth<."f '1'''1 (I.l' and Cl dunng tr,n'port Ih'ough tho ..,,11""-"", while p.>ITe'" fmm A and B "c bmughl togclilor. """I'ing in rnhtng of ",,10' f,.om 'he Iwo region...

ck"",

,....,

~, ... -.dondr_ll'l9·I~

Ch.pter4

F'hysicaj Processes

M ech ani"" I Di'pe.. ion TI'e filial d L'p""io" proc""-sscOl" id e red iII th~, chapter i., similar 10 turOOknce i" Il",t ,t i' a ",,"ult oi variations in the """ emenlol thelluid thatea rr ,ed by Ihe fln" "f water thro"gh the pore> "f Ihe soil, """d, or Olher materi.'l underground.) Ik... . u""' transport Ihrough Ihe "",I ~,limiloo 10 tI", po'''' belween .""il particles, e"eh lIuid particle takes .. c",,,,,,l uled palh through tI", ""iI, alld "-~ il is Iransporled horizontally w,th Ihe m""n lI"w, il i, di,pl "cOO ,ert;c"l1)' a d~qance thai depends on Ihe exnet lI"w p.,th ;llnnk The greal "ariely of p",sille flow pad" r"",,11< in" r",,",,om dbpl"",eme"l in Ihe directi",~~ p"rp"ndicul.lr 10 the mean fl"', palh. TI,u" a spot 01 dye intrnduCf.'d ",to the ground wale, flnw betw""n poinl' Band C in Ihe figure would be ~pread "UI, 0' dL'p"rsed, int" Ihe region belw""n poinlS B' and C' "-~ il II"", through Ihe ,.,."L

Th.. "",."w I vi"'"f m""h.lllic.ll ..1"1"''''....' ","ulls f",,,,..I,ff..,,,ne,," In n"w "!,i~.'!d, AllY" hO'r;, Ih.lt ~ flo" "'g fluid (/~,I.KI, ~ ,~'I~"'-'ry u... 'I-t ~I "h'ch th.. flmd mo " ,II I><' lN on Ih",ce,lI",r ofa rn« .In.! c 1><', ... yslow near theedH"" Th"'.if .I1.. ",of..l~e" ...e ..."""00" I.Iw """"", u... n' .... al on<' p nl.. 'I " •.,.,\d bO' n the no,,'. ",Ih thO' ""'t..... p.lrt rtltlw hne mo"ns fol5ler than tM O'd~ Thi,; t~ pe of d'sr---un ,prl!olcto,... of """,n a.....

'.1,

442 MO\fMfNTOFAPARTK:lfINAfWD STOKES' LAW The """..nwnl of a parti...e In a fluid .. det.;rm,rw,J by a ......1'10' of lhe • t!'C'OU, .lras ft'"'~ """"-'hng lhe part>de "",,,,,,,,,,,1 " ,Ih gra"121ion.i11 or 01"'" for«-, lh.ll ao ........ lhe """_I. In thl!> _'1 .......... foro- balance on a part.. 1.! j, u...,;d ro doeli' etlw reL1bonship bO't"--' la" " use..! In e>.amrl... In' oh "'s J'.lrtJCie--<;etthng ch.1mlJer;,.

GRAVITATIONAl SETTllNG

Consld .... th.. «;Itll'lg p"rtidesll.l'''' "" ard gra",lali"",,\ fore..,an up" ,..d bu"~'a,,cy for~..", and ,lIl uP",'rd drag f"",.., Th.. gr,lI itali""..1 fnree F~ b "'lu.. t 10 11l"llr,,,,,t,ll,,,,,..1C...Il.talll g li",<,< th.. ""',, "f th.. I"'rlk"', "'p' In lenn, of IMrlide d"m,jty l'r and di,lI"el"r DI" ,/I" is "'1uall" (pp"," '6D;). n,....,r.'....

'.

(4.,m

1-1.481

,,""'" flo ,,~I .., tlw fluid do;n,.,t~

T1wnnl\ r~m", .. ngf The dag f..-c.. i!; IIw re flo" of flul
"".-tide

,""""'v.

Rtu,./4.22

f .. ",esAc'I"ll .. n~

1'~r1idr s"lIIinA Ih""'Ah

The bcu»'ancy f"""" F.;', a Ilelllp....ud fnn:.. th.lt r""ult, from I"" 'llCn'a"" /'If p....... u.... " ,th depth " ,thl/1 thr fllll lho! gra' ,t.>hnnal c"""t.>nthmes tlw nwNo "f thol flulce.:l ~ lho> pamd""

'.

'. W~t",

"I. 0'

T1'lr II"J.~t.>IM ..... II'~ r, .. In lhedool-n"'JN d,_",~nd '" rnun!<.'rJdrd bl'I"" bu<>o-Jnn' fcrcr r. MId lhe d,J!t """'" r... ,-..., , '0'991 "~ _ _~

.... w-., .. s- 10<.,

cr""pll'g 1I0w co"dilioll_~ (Reynolds num!Jer less 'h,'" 1). In Ihe S'oke,;· drag fon", can!Je uS
tI", caS
wher" I'- l~ 'he lIuid \·i""",,;ly (unit> of gl cm-,) and ". i~ Ihe dow,,,, ard ,eloc;ly "f 'he p.
(4.51)

(
The p.'Irtlcle " ill respond '0 Ihi, force according to "",'" ,on', ""'ond ;a" (fmce equals ma<;;; 'i"'''' ,'ccelera'ion). 11,us, Fd<..."

IfI p

x ac""leralion

'lip

x-

(
,1<.,

,"

This differemial eqlM!Jon call !Je 'oh-edto de,emline 'he ,lme-, My"'g ,elocily of a p"rtkle ,ha,l~ ini,ially a, ""I. 11,e<0Iullon indkales Ihal, in al,,~-,..;tall ca,...;of em imnmemal ""'''''''', 'he period 01 Ii"'" requ""d !Jefme the p"rticle reache; it> final settling ,-elocily c< ,-el) short (much l",,-~ than 1 ,), For ,hi, rea""", in Ihis 'ext. o"ly the final (te",,,nal) ,etlhng \'eloci,y is mlbidered. When 'he p",ticle has reached ,e",,,nal ,·elodly, i' l~ "" longer ac"Celera,ing, "" dvidl O. Thu" Imm Equallo" 4.51. F........ O. Setting F.... ~" equallo zero and nmlllg 'ha' ", is equal '0 'he Sdtling "eloci'y ''a, ,erminal ,-elocl'y. Equation ,1.52 can!Je rearranged '0 yield (
(
c.

Equatio" ,1,5Ii i, referred to as Stokes' law. The r"""hing selll"'g ,eh;;~y L' of"'n called theS,(j;;e4 Yeh'ily. Stoles' la" "oca lled b..."uo<> it is b",<>:1 on tl", S",k< d rag force, i, tl'" fundamenlal equation U"""" '0 ca1cula"'ten"i..,l""ttl ing "dnei,;"s,,1 parlid"" in !>nIh a"and w.ller. II is U~ in' hed ""ign of Irffil""'Ill 'y' re,m '" part ic Ies from e, ha "" I

'eI", '"


ga_ ~nd from d"nking I> ~ter and I> a,tel>ater d' well "-~ '" dlldl.._ of M'!t~"g partide; in lak5 .. nd in theatnnsph...... 5<',,,r ,lI ex"'''ple; oft he u,e of Stokes' law Me pt i, that the setthng velocily i"ereaS5 as the srre/<' I'~rlicl<, ;,'1l/int_ In situation, where partiele concenlralion i. ""lremely high, particles fonn agglnmeratlllns or mats, and Stnkes' law ma} no longer be ,-alid.

Key Terms • ad, ""tion

• fi,.,.h-".der dec-ay

• nonperviou, materi.'l,

• advecli,-e flux

• flux den.,uy

• ,,,,nre'lewable energy

• albedo

• glazing

• nOI,'teady,tate

• anthropogenic greenl"",,e effect

• greenhou
• passi,e S
• batch reactor

• lleat

• plug-flow reactM

• c..rbon di"'ide emi"i"",

• heat bala,,,,,,

• r"'>etnr a,,,,ly'i.'

• enmpletely mixed f1nw reactor (CMFR)

• heal i,land

• rene\\able energy

• heat k.., due to infiltration

• retentio" Itme

• lntergo\'ernmentall'a"elon

• right'i>''''g

• con",r"at;"e compound

Climate Ch.,nge

• mntrol ,olume

(Il'CC)

• degr.....-day

• la\'\ of en,~",r,"atio" of m"""

• diffu"o" meffic,ent

•

ma~,

accu,,,ulation r.lte

• d'spersio"

•

nld~s

b..lallce

• energy balance

• mass flux

• energyefficien.cy

• nldteri.. l, flows

• Fick', law • Ii",t la\\ of therm"'h lIam;cs

(Pl'R)

• qeady,tate • Stnk",' la\'\ • thermal walls • turbulent d'speNo" • urb.ln met.looli.,m

atJal"~l'

(MFA)

• mechanical dbpe,,;on

• zem--{>rder decay

chapter/Four Problems 4.1 A wa"'e stabilizalim pond;' u".,.j 10 Ir",t a dllule municipal wa,te"'ater bdore the liquid i, disc hargN iflloa ri, er. The inl1"", tot he pond has a 11
42 A mixlUre "f I"''' ga,llo\\s is u oed localilra", a" air I"'D u Ion tn "'" u remen! in-.l ru ",en!.Th Ha Iill r.' t....n .'y.,te", is shown in Figure ,1.23. If Ihe calibration gas co, "'e1uration C, ., is~.901'1' m, ,I hecaIi b r.n ion ga ,110'" rale Q,~, ,,0.010 l/min, a"d the ,,-.tal 8'" 11m, rate Q..., is 1.000 Llmin, "'hal is the concentral,on 01 calibrallon ga" after mixing (C" >? A>-sume Ihe co,,,,,,,,trati"n up'lream of the mixing I"';nt i, zero.

Flgure/4,23 ~, ... MihoI
C6

1

c".

R

0.OIOU""" '.90 ppm,

'~";"'f'O""',"""oIJoMWOIo,-&Son.,

In<

1

4.3 C"n-.ider a hnuse inlo \\ hich radon i, enulled through cracks in Ihe basemel1!. 11,e lOla] ,'olume of the hOlbe .. 630 m ' (a"ume the volume i. " ..ll mi.,N throughoul), 11,e radon ",uree emil, 250 pei/ •. (A pkcCurie (pCi) is a u,ul P"'l"lrt,Olldllothe amoun! 01 radon ga, and indICate, the amou"t of radioacti"itv of the ga,,) Air inl10w and outllow can be modeled a.s a 11m, 01 dean air into Ihe hou,e of 7'1.2 m'/h and an equal air flr", oul. Radon can be considered cOl~...,,,al,,·e in thLs probiem. {a) What is Ihe ret"l1lion lime of the house? (b) What" Ihe "ffid}L,IJ'e concentration of radon ,n Ihe holN' (um" of pCi/U? Chapter4

F'hysicaj Processes

4.5 In the ,implified d"Pict;,~n of an ice ri"k will, an ice-re,;urfadng machine operating (shown]" Figure ,12,1 l, point.; I a"d 3 represent the ",-",malin" all" intake and e"h.,u", for the emire ice rink, and I",i"t 2 is the ,,",urfdCing ",adune', e.:! e (COl, cmld tl un s at e.lCh I"'i'" ~re~, fonnw,; I"'inl I: Q, 3.0m'/s. C, llI"'8- Ill'; 1"''''t2, emi"ion rale 8 IUg/s of non"",cl1"" CO; point 3; Q" C, unkno\1'n. The ice nnk's volume (V) is 5.0 " Ill' m '. (a) o..rrne a control ",'Iume a" the interiof<,f the ice rink. IVhat i, Ihe mas" 11 uxofC 0, n 101 hee"" Iml" olu n,e, in u" i ISilIm g I • ?( b) A,.;ume Ih.,t Ihe resurfacing ",,,,,hi,,e ha"been operating /or a ,'ery long tnne and lllat lI,e air \\ illli" II... ice nnk i, "en mi,,"';!. What i, Ihe mncenlraUon of CO w,thln Ihe ice nnk, '" units of mg/'" '?

• •• ';" ~; ••

c •• C.. ibrali.., Sy...",.

9'19l

4.4 You are in an old 'py movie and ha,e be.., locked inlo a ,mall room (\'ollnne 1,000 ft '). You suddenly reall>.e a I"'i",n gas ha." ju,' started ~nter ing Ihe room through a ,'entilalion duc!. You are .",Ie as ion8 as Ihe concentration is ]"'"s Ih"" 100 mgl m'. If the "emilalion air f\',w rale ,,' the room i, 100 ft ' Imin .,nd Ihe Incoming ga, concentralion i, 200 mg/m', how I"ng do you I"" e to escape!

~

Figure I 4.24 Schem~tic Di.~r.m 01 .n 1",.Re.• ""t.cin~ Mach in. in.n Ice Rink.

4.6 T'fI
tO~"""

area 01 10 m', whal is lhe BOD ennce"lra!lon SO km do" n~tream! (BOD is re"",.. ed w,lh a fi"t-order de<:ay rate enll,tant equ.l1 10 O.WI day.) 4.7 A, shm", in rigure 4.15, dUring an air emk.~im I""l,the illlel gas ,lream to a fabric filler i, 100,000 actu.,1 ft'; min (ACFM) and the part,culale loadillg " 1 grains/actual cubic feet IAO'l. The oullel ga, ,tream Irom lhe labric filter i, lfl9,OOO aclual fl'l min alld lhe p."liculal~ l,-,,;dillg i, 0,015 grain,; actual ft'/min. Whal" lhe I1,",xllnum qu.'nliIV of ash lhal " ill ha,'e lobe ",novoo per hfilr from lhe fabric filler h'-'pl-"r ba,ed,-,n lh."., lesl r""ult,? A"",ne Iha17,000 grai,~~ of p.'rtides equal, 1 Ib (problem Irom EPA Air P,-,Uulion Trainmg lnslilule).

tao,OOOAGFM 2 II"ACF

109.000ACFM O.025I1'IACF

Sa

tT

I

TaTtronJ
Figure' 4.26 S
Fill~r

Uoed

4.8 T",,-, I,m',>;, localOO dlrOCIly acr""" from each olher, oper.,le municipal ,,'a,tewaler lrealment pl... ,ts situaled along a ri, er. The ril'er no" i,50 ",illion ga D,-,,>; perd.,y (SOMGDI. C,-,lif,-..m m ..Usare u""'<:l as a me.>sure 10 determine a waler'~ ab,hly 1,-, lransmll di.",a,e 1,-, humat~~. TI,e ml,Ionn count III the rh'er u!"lrearn or lhe Iwo lrealment pIa "I' i, J mlilorm~; I OOmL.T 0" n I d L'>Cha'!l""J MGDof" a"~""l... " ilh a colilom, munl 01 50 ro!if,-,rn...1 100 mL, alld lowlI 2 d i."charg"" 10 MGD 01 wa,te" ater with a coliform cnullt of 20 ron.... ,ns/lOO mL. A,..ume Ihe ,llte requlr"" Ihe dnwn,tream m!if,-,nn rount not exceeding 5 roHf",m,/100 mL (a) I, lhe .•late water-qu.,lity ~landard bemg mel d"" ,~.tream? (A"ume C(l/ilonns do "ot die by the lime they are me.. ,ure,t tre..t its ".,,, age lurther so the dnwn,lream 'landard " met. U"" a mas... bal.",ce approach In ,hnw Ihal lhe s~1Ie's requ""t i, unfeasible.

4.9 Ho" mllch waler ,nuS! be e0l11inu.dly added 1o lhe "et scrubber sho,,'n in Figure ,1.26 in nrder to

k""p lh" u'''l rum"ng' Each of the <.ing w;lhdra "" fortrealm"nt and disp'"",1 (slream 4) is 2 gpm, A«ume lhat inlel ga, >lream (number 1l i, c""'pletely dr}' and thatlhe nullet qream (llumber {,l has 10 lbm/nun of ",ol..lure evaporated i 11 lhe,crubber. T)", walerbeingaddoeJ 10 the ""rubber is ~lream number 5. One gallon of ,,'aler weighs 8.34 lb (probl"m from EPA Alt Pollution Training 1I"t1tute).

4.10 In the wi'\Ier, a str"am Ilo\\'~at 10 m'I' alld reeei,'"", discharge Imm a pipe lhal en"lains wad runoff. The pipe h", a flow 01 5 m' Is. TI,e ",e 20 "'gil? (b) Whal l.. Ihe m.lXi",um d.lily nld" of chl,,,lde (melric to"./d.l}') thaI can be di""harge
w11.11 mu,t be Ihe daily trk'SS <>f chlorine added to Ihe reaclor (in g.a",,)? IOOlb,.~"

4.15 The concelllrali'lIl of BOD in a 'IS'er just dow,,-

~.~

Stroomo

74lb,.,m1"

,Iream of a "-a,lewat,,r Ireatm"nl pl~nl's dfluenl pipe is 75 mgll. 11 Ih" BOD is desfroyed Ihrough a first-<>.der reaction" ,Ill a ,ate cm,,~tant equal 10 O.llS/day. "hat is the BOD concem.ati.., 50 km downstre.,,,,? TI,e ,-ek"'ily 01 the moe. l~ 15 km! d.,y.

4.16 A l.0" Hf gall"" .eaclor is used in a water OutJollJQuod Stroa-n

W",,"",

49lt>~lm,"

Flgur1/4.27 5chom.Jbc D1agr~m of Wob5crubbeT U,,,d to RL'fl>O\-e P.uticulai"" fmm Ai"

4.11 A wet ""rubbl'l\ sy>!e", h~, th_ ""f'".lle Inlet qre~m, (Fil;ure .1.27). The flo" r~le'i In th~ inlet qream, ~'" 100, 51\, ~nd 7-11b m /mln. TI,,, w~ter 'pray into the
""'50'

4.12 Cakulate the hvdraulic ""s,den"e tim", (Ihe retention time) for LlleSuperlor and fm Lake E.ie us"'g data in Table -1.3. 4.13

TI,e tOlal fl"w at a '" .e;t",,,atertr,,,tment pldnt is f>O() Ill'! day. Two biological aeratio" baSinS are us.eJ 10 ,en,-,,"e BOD!rom the ",,,-st,,,,"'ater ",Id areoperatal In pM,,!leI. They each have a ,illume <>f 25,lnl L In hilurs, ",l",t is the aer"tion period of ,,~ch Mnk? 4.14 You arede4gning a ,e"",to. that u-eschl<>rinein ., PFR or CMFR 10 destroy p"th"8e", in ""ter, A n","mUln ",,,,t,,,,t time of J() n"n is required to .educe the p.1thoge" conce"tr"tion From HIO p.,tl\ogell,/l to bel"" 1 pathogen!l through ~ first-tt,nem i, 0.15 mglL,

."Ie


redamal;on pl~l1l, The ",fluent ""ncent,~I",n L~ 100 mg/l, the effluent ""ncenlralion i, 25 "'gil, and Ihe fl,-,w rale Ihrough the ,e~ctor is 501 gano'''~/n"n. (a) IVh~1 " Ihe fi"'I--orde. rale consta"l for dec-ay 01 BOD in Ihe .eactor! A,~ume the .eaclor can be modeled" a CMFR. Report you, ans,,"er ,n units per hour. (bl A"ume Ihe ,eactor ,hould be modeled as a pm with firsl-
4.17 You are I" desil;n a re""tor For ,,,,,,mal of reduced iron {Fe'-I fro", waler. n,e mfluenl "'.,ter h~, an ,ron concenlration of 10 mglL, a"d IhL~ must be reduced to 0.1 mg/l. TI,e ,,-aler has a pH of 1i.5 and the plan is 10 "",dize the iron 10 Fe '-'- us"'g pure o"ygen ga" Ih"n .emil"e Ihe ,esulli"g pMllculal" mailer in ~ sediment.,tion ba,in, 11 h~s been fOIl"d th~1 the reduction in Fe'- mncentrali"n o\'er time eqoals K."~~,, " IFe '-1. "here K"~~~,, equal~: S " 10" x lp"'rt,al p'essu.e of 0,1 " K",'/IH-!"'. The un,t~ of K"~~"",, detennined F",m IhL~ expres,io" are n"n 'and Ihe parrl"l pressure 01 "'ygen l~ 0.21 atm "nd til<> d,s"",ia"on CO''',lant for ,,~Ie., K", equals 10-". Delerm,ne the \'olume (m ') of a plog flow reactor to Ireat 1 MGD of ",aler.

4.18 How many ,,-all, of power ,,-ouk] il fa .... to heat f L of wale. (weigh,ng 1.0 kg) by 10 C m 1.0 h? A,~ume no heat l<><-;es occur, ," ali of Ihe "nergy expended goes into healing Ihe ""ter.

4.19 Your house

h~s

a ,m.galk,n "Ioclric wale. he~ler thai heal> w~le, to a le"'pt'r"lure of 11ll F. Sew, aI frlends are ,-I",t"'g you", '" th" weel r.lIe i" mnhnuous 2 gpm w,th Ihe ne" waler-sa"ing ~ho" erhead you "",e"fly i,,.,ra lied. Y"". \ ery old ,[",,,elf,,,,,d h.loJ used 5 gp"'!

You rep1.lced Ihe ,ho",erhe~d bec~u,~ you le~rn.,.j IIMI he~ling wat~r ,,~s the semnd high~t energy LL'" III ynur home. IVh.• t is the lemperature of the "'nter e.
4.20 (,,) Determine lhe heall""s (ill Btu

F-d~y

and Btu/degree-d"y) through ~ 120 II' in,ulaled "'all d~ibed in Ihe following lable. (b) Deierm",e the heal k,,;s lhrough the "'llIe "",,ll whe.. ~ 3 ft. by 7 ft. d()()J" (Rfdcl<" 4.·1)1, inserted into the ""IL Comparent of Wall

R FocIOf'

2 in. Slvrofo.,m oo..rd i1l>uI.J.non nn nul,lJe nf wall under .idmg Old ced." log wall FibeTgl-..", ,,,'ulahon 0" i"slde "I wall I 2in.drvw.,llnnm,ideofwall In"de air film along inSIde of wall Outside air film a~,ng nuts>.:len! wall

anJ det"rmin~ the ,,"ollih.

lemper~lure dIfference<;

in

e~ch

Idenlily an urban core ofa "'~jor "''''''polilan area Ihal you are familiar wIth or that ls d""" 10 your college or unkers'ly. ('-"leu late Ihe m~gnitllde of the maxllnum urball h".n island i'''p''''t In the u man cnre. Provid" >om" det.•iled alie"... li""" fnt rNudng the urban heat isl~nd III this mre Mea and relate lhem to ,p"cific ilen,s in the energy balance perfnrmed Oil the urb.>n ""n"py.

4.24

4.25 A"ume ~ sn... 11 dowlllO"" Mea has tw" 12 ft. trawll"""" wIth h ft. sidewall..., on eaeh side. n'LS LS all ,urroo nd ed by build u'g' th~t a '" 25 It, lall, What is th" m~x,mum urban heal island impdcl Ihat C~II be expe.:ted! U,ing the syosten,-, thinking apl'''.......h, dr~w a 'ysl""" diagram lor urb~n he~1 island., includ",;.; I""""back meel",nlst"-, lor incre",..,.j """rgy denMnds for moling and refrig"r~tro", incre~>ed alf pollution lrom Ih""" increa,..,.j energy JemallJ" ~nd nth"r effects ,uch a, global warming and public heallh.

4.26

ID

"

0,45 O.M 0. 17

4.21 The concefllratiooo of a pollulant alollg a qui4.21

Look up (a) the tOlJ.I degree---days for heating

and (bl II,., total degre,,-ling for your unh ""'Ill' tn" n nr city (or homelown).

4.22 In 5e<:tion .1.2.4, we worked out a problem "here \he m",bined heat l.--..s from a hypothetical 3,tm 11- bu,ldmg wa, 1,05..1 Blu I degr.,.,...;j~y,. Determine Ihe 10MI energy requirem"'l, (in Btu) to heal Ihat hypothetic.. l building for Ihe I'"'~lton, in the foU",,·,ng lable.

"""em" aler--conlain,ng lube i, ,hown in Figure 4.2~. The diffusion coefficienl for IhlS pollulam in w~ler is equal In HI ' cm' Is. (al Whal is Ihe It"ti~l pollutant nu.• de, "it) '" lhe }·-dlrecti"" ~I Ihe follo,,""'g locati""s:.t n.5, 15, 2.5, 33, and 4.5? (b) If the di~meter ollhe lube is 3 cm, whal j, Ihe ,nitial flux of pollutant "'~S> In Ihe .t-dir""t,oll ~t Ihe ""''''~ Ioc-~ltons? (c) As tllne pds"",-, thi, dlffu,i, e flux "'ill cl",nge Ihe ,Il.lpe of the c<.,n""ntr~lioon pmfde. Dra" a ,kellCh of

Healing oeqree-Days

T--~'······ ¥

•••••• , ••••••• , ••••••• , •••

,\ncho
W;n,lnw. AZ Yuma AZ ROCht"tloT. /'o,'Y

Pi'tsburgh, PA Rapid City, SO

4.23 Go to Ihe Wealher O,annel web ,ite ("w" .wealher.com) and lOI)I.. up Ihe monlhly a"erage lemper~lu'" for a nMI''' metrnpnlil.Jn "''''' and nearb, rural ar~a anywhere in Ihe world 0"" ~ 12-n",.. th period. Use Ihe dala yuu looked up 1<1 ""tim~le Ihe m~gn,lude of th" urban heat "Ialld effeellor U,at cih'. Gr~ph your d~la in two figure<;

, ~

. .......>

<.

".

'-__i-__'

.

•+---;--i--r---i--i--i

,

•

,

...axis kx:alIOn (em)

Figure' 4.28 Clo",dPipe. ~ """Mit,.I'"

,

Hypot~lic.l

I, ~. 1..._

C... conlra~on Profile in •

",," ~'''''oIJ
Chapl.... F.... Pmblems

£01"'''rltrdli,.., '" Ihe lube veriUS x-axi,-lo£dlion show,,'g whalll,,, ,hal'" dl d Idler lime mighl look Uk" (1l b nol nee ...",')' lodo"ny £alruld Iious lod rd w Ihis ,k<>tch.) As.sume Illdllh" con"""lrnllon al.t 0 i, held "13 "'giL and til<' £O,,,,,,nlrdli,,n al .\' (, is held al 1 mg/L. (d) Des<:rib>, in one paragraph, "hy Ih" co,,,,em,alio,, p,ofile changed in Ihe way Ihat you .,ketehed in your ",Iulion tn l'd'l (c).

4.28 The lub> in probl."n 4.27 " colI''''''led 10 a """',ee of 110",illg "dler, d"d w al", i.s p.""..,j Ihrnugh the tub" at a rale 0/100 em'/s. If Ih" potlutallt concenlrdtion in Ihe ,,·.\ler is consMnl al2 "'gIL, find, (,,) lhoe m.tss l1ux densily of U", pollulanl Ihrough Ihe lube due 10 ad,,,,,tion and (b) Ihe lmal nlds., l1ux Ihrough Ihe tub<, du" 10 "d"ection.

4.29 TI,e f"l1owing oondit."" ""i.'l dow,,-tridlo", rale of 17 m 'Is. I:letrl"mine thto a"erag<' flux del"ity of phf"'phoru.s dowl,S!",a", of Ihe disclldrge poin!.

:,


4.3ll Calcul"lo! Ih",etlllllg ,·"Io:ily 01 a parlide wilh 100 lun d id",,,le, alld d 'f"'Cific gra"lIy of 2.'1 in 10 C wOller (I'I.B>< 10 'I\'.,;/m' "nd Ihede"sllv of wal'" equals m.7 kglm '). .

4.31

Calculale Ihe,etllil1g ,'el, -.:,Iy of " p.•rtklt! wilh 10 I'-m did",,,t,,r "lid a ,pedfic gr""ily of LOS in 15 C wOller (I'1,14[1,,][1' 1\'-<1 m' ",>.:I Ihe de,,-sil" 01 • water equdL,m.l kg/m ).

•

4.32 O"e tvl'" of p.'Ilh"8en commonly f«Jrld in Ihe de,elopi"g workl are hel"""lhs (th"l is, pard,ili£ inlesli,,,,1 ,,·onns). TI,,,,,, "'orlll ,pedes are generally transnulted in J <;nil (or bio;olid.) e",',"mlllen!, direcll)' from one human hOM 10 another. The eggs of hehninths de,'e),,!, inlo Iheir inlecth'" .ldle in a ,;nil en"ir,)ll",e"t. (a) o..tem"ne Ihe ""UIi"g "elocil} fM ;l«ari, IWPI/'rim.le<, in ~ ,,·a>l.ewal"" Stab,li7.dlioo ldgo",. "hkh have a diameter 01 50 I'-m, denslly of 1.11 g/cm', and assumed sphe,ical ,hal"" (b) o..ler""ne Ihe settlillg "dodly for hf>
References C.mb"J"" 5,'",-"""'"'-', 200, C."I P..·.""'''', R,l"~" Do-oft n,I'-'" P"'l"'".... I,~ Il,~' 1,10ruJ Ruh,,'• ., lru""t"", u.s. En,·,nom..",L>J P"",,.",", A~",nry.

~'obol di>
r;...·lu, II. B., r. ).1.... '.1- 1mb<'
\l,n... G, 21onJ. ,AUC T.'"'·h,"IlIU-..... t<,~, cuml'-~"" fo ~ ,.., In',,",,,",,",1A"" .... ',,", h" U tl>.on 0 i"",,'" T.''"' h eng Ro",.. nc C, omm,"'-"'. ~'~' ~ .utl>.on d,""'t,'.,"~IUlll_C,,"'I" .I..J( ...~ ~ Octo""-~ .l(I.1PIr7.

..

"".I r.). r""·h,,,-~. 1994 C/rmi.1 f,',' i,,"-"'. Son 0;.'11" Ac..d,,,,,,,, Pn.""

1I,-mo~..U·I. f ..

i" ,!wE.,

.. ,J T ""~''''

= ..

P, ...,1 ,.. (:~n"'t"a,., n~..., urea, ';'.m,,,,",')' ~~ I'-,Io<}',,,,,k ,,,.ln CI""",,, o.m"" ;>0:",. Thi_oJ 50 '110,,, Comlri""t ,. II', 'llu"ll (;n .. p I t,,'h>' r, ..mh A" "",..", It. 'I' '" •• ,t.., Inh"H",·"mm.......ol Pond,., Om",'" Clwnb",.5. So,~"",,,, D. O:n. M \un",,,!> 7. Om..\!. Mo"i"'" K. B. '\""~'" M. T '!In, .., .ruJll L M,II,~. 1'.1,. ~,'" y,wkcC.mbndb'" 1.:8O,·,,,;ty PO'-"" lnh''1<'~unnuL....

,,,,,Ie

(11=',

lnh'I);''' ',~",'~'n .... P....i ,.. n Own"" 1OO7b Sum.....')' ~ w P ,10<)'"", I....". rn, Cli... r" OwnS<' 10K· Iml~' "oJ V,I.. _MII.e-m.u""'h'I\\rij".~C. . ...p II ,,, '"' &1'"" ,~ II><' ,""./(',.-."".,.,., Poolrl "" CIi_" C1>oo,""' \1. L Pony. O. F C-"n",.md. P. Polu"...., P.) "on J,~ I.'ndo......... C. E I 1.>."""" uk Combn..l!;". UK Combn
A.I.o/".,,,

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911-!, 277_!!',

chapter/Five Biology Matin T. Auer, James R. Mihelcic,

Cha

er Contents

MidlO,,1 R Pem,

5.1

Ecosystem Structure arld Functkm

5.2

Population Dynamics

5.3


5.4

Oxygen Demand: Biochemical, Chemical, and Theore!ical

5.5

Material Flow in Ecosystems

5.6

Ecosystem Health and the PUblic Welfare

ondjulie Be~ Zimmerman

in 111 .. chopM<, readers

0'"

inrro-

docfld t",he (Ulloomenlal biological principltts g<:Nwmng lIC<>lyslell15, with special 01""'00 10 proc"",."

Iha. mediale /he 'ole of chemical in "alum! 000 ellgl· flOOred e'''''OMl''''''. rhe chapler begms w,/h 0 disc"..i"" of ocosy
.umlotlc",

and olEndantdemandon ,eo;oura". Ecologica! foolprj"l and /he IPAT equation ore djscusred 10 explain lhe rela,"oo.nip b~ween ".",,,"',, limaaHons and p"".Jation OM coo· .umplion. Produdoo and consumplien are thM exom.,od,

leading

10

co,uioo,ol'oo of ecooyJlem trophic and '''If''9Y flow rile ch
.It...,"",e

ler 0150 intodt.oce. material

Flow in

eco,yvem., focu.i'9 on k")' biogeo-

chern knl cycl... {for e~o""'". 0")'9"". emboli; ",rrogen, ..,IM. ondphosp,o,.,<} and effects of h lIIIO(1 0CIi.,/)' on

the,., flow•.

Fina/y. COOC1p5 rsal;"g

10 h
learning Objectives I. U=ribe tn., ",labO""~'P" among ",doddu.,! nrgamruo and stnJclurc. 2. l)i,tinguish ,ho., gi,oc.. and Monod models fm population growth ,ime3. lden'ify and u'"' tn., appropn.>t<' n",:Ie1to ca!cuIato change< in population ow,. ti"",. ~. Dotonni"" ,he carrying capoci'y of a population. and articu!.lt<· how e.,m,;ng capaci'y i. . I[<'Clod by en\"imnmenl.l! cot1dit~",s. S. U ... tho Monod gm"ih limitat how hum.,n P"T" lalion srrmth, qmo;un~tm.,lchc'Tllical mn\en d"n~,nd (BOD). 'klo" biochemical o"J'gen "",m.md (lIOD.,l, ullimate biochomi<:.:>1 ow!:"" den", nd (000,). ca rbu"""",....., b"",h"",ica I '''l's"n dt'molnd (CIIOD), "'lmg""""-' bio<"hc'mirn I ""Yllc", demand (l\'llOD). and then,..,hea I ""tW'n dem.-.nd (ThOm. 9. Dc'llnn 0/ bhlCctl"'l'la'im f&Ctn'" nf""lo«imCFo),

""C'"

""m"

'r

"'''''gv

'd

""""''''''1' on ,..,!.lhon /unct;'",.

•

i<>kogy l~ d"fined as \1>;, ..oe.uiflC .tu.Jy of IH" "nJ Ii, ing thing<, ()ft"" I......" include the" oTl&m.. ..Ii, " ... It~, ~lru"ur... a,li, iii....,

B

t."

dnd "«t"bUlk)", Bi<'>lc>g' indud~ tlw> study of b,otic ..11...:",- Biot;( dk>cts--tho.__ prnJ ull'1.l b~ or inmhing0'l?""~'",mponant ,n rnaoY 1'11..,.".01 «l"ronmolnt.ll ""S,,,,,,,nng. Tlu!. c.... pter'.... ,plorauon .1I ;>n' imnn.enwi b,olos:-- .. III f<>c:u-< on tho>.e .octl\ Jl.......-tlw "' .. " org;o".. ms .. t .. • ff"",t'd bv ..nd ",,-, .. olJ\ <'fieet on tho> ",1\ ,ron""""l """"'" u>o:lud.., III di "1~ 00 hum.ol'l§ (lor """"P.... ,nJOOCbOUS d,_1; t21 imJ'M1S on I ' ,mnnwntlfo, ...... m~. '1""'-- lntmdun......... t imp«ts by hum.> lfor .. ~mp"', rnd.lns-J s~_l. (I) nwloll..... l'l "iron""",l.>ltran..Jt......,tJnn (for ...... mp!o'. tor-\.Jcw.n of I''';'' d nicab);

n.

..nd l"il uhli1.aI"'" on Ih;> tre>tmenl of ronl.al1UlVlt.'d a,r... alt'r. an.! <.
5.1

Ecosystem StructlJ'e and Functilo

In Rl;urt ; 1 Ii>;> Urlh is ~ ~ «rnrnsmg -gmo! spn..re." 0111\ lIlsaoo n<'>f'lII\ rog malirtaL n.e.t"""'f'htrr(airl.Ir,..l""',.,.,....( .. a_I, and 1111Ioillm""tLllll" In.. "biotic, or no"'","& co~.....nt The biJ"" .. llof Ihrli'ing Uu"Sson E.1rth AI'" in~of tho! bl""f'h«e .. Jlh th" noI~j, ing ~p'-'..-I;" Ing Ihu'SS .nd II",.. • U.."da,,1 al"ntic ."l\ It""menl---
",'.1" lr..allll..nl)

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;.2). Takn

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•

•

logdh~r,

[(nlogy is lhe

G,,,,,,

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=--"""'"

.. W Inlcr«ln' ..""" oboIr.~ .md u., ~_..,-, £" x-.. I ..

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Prl..." ","""""0'''_.'"

"'.........

E""'V!".,.

IOn. , .."

Fig ... ! I 5.2

"-fI !I''''''''' _

.-..

,0,. . ._

cOy_

An Ecos}'stcm: PJ.n", Animal., M icroorgan"m., and Thir Phy.ical-Chrmial

Environmenl

..udy of ,tructure and fune!ion of 'he ec bd.weeo Ii'-ing Ihing' and 'heir abimic e,..-imm"e,". Allhnugh Ihe r",ld of 'axnn",,,y (cla"~fi,,,"innof organi.''''') is highly d yna mi. a nd heme '0 vi i1" ,~s d elM II!, bioi <>gists 'nda y pl""e Ii>; ng 'h ing, ,,-ithin one nf 'h"'" domai"s, (J) Ihe Arch.lea, (2) Ule Bacte'ia, and 0) Ihe Eu \..a rp, TI,eArcha nd the Bacteriaa re p TO ka l)'o!....mea "i "glha" heir cellula,contenlS,'ucl""pig",entsandnuclearmate,ial,are'lO''''l;'egaled within cellular "ru,iur"" (for example, ehlnmplasls and 'he "uc!eus), While meml>ers of!l'" Archaea and 'he Bacteria are 'imilar in phy"ical appearan,"', Ihev differ in "'",,'al impo'Mnl ways, induding cellular enmp.",ilinn and ge""'ie slruclure. In our funeti",,,,ltrealmenl of organi.",n.'i, we mr..ider 'he I"n" 1>K1,'riQ Ini nd ud em em be r'iotool hthedoma in Arch"".. and U,e domai" Bacteria, TI", 'him dom"i", EuLlrya, mn,i.",'i nf organi"''''' ,,-ilh "'8"'8aled or mmpartmenlalizc ule<, a, in '" ngpom PIa rll.l.e), and "line by III!:,'SI"'" (in"'''e of partieulate nultien", as in "'ngdom Animal;"). Som" of 'he kil'"d"ns Pl.ln"'"and Pmh,,,, ec."lo"" pl1<'tolrophy and heten-.tmphy in m,xotmphy, a practice where "u'ri,ion comes from pho· If..y'''he,,'' ,'nd 'heuptale of dis,.-,h
&I.'

",,,,,,he,,,

Chapter5 lIiDk>gy

,-, ,

-

------------

-----,

j

,-,--

I ECOSYSlEl.o

FI9Jr./5,3 Bioli< Cornl""'enl of .. n EcosJ'stern, Ol'f\..ni.cd AcclWding to Spo<)"'tern. ""Iu,.. l. ",,&ineered ... oo indu,lri.. 1em'lronmenl' mov he mn,iden.'<:t,,·otOO ,Iudse. wetl.lnd. ~'g""n) M,"C'["ommuninc'< mmf""'-'cll". 01 lhe w,,.tew,,ler enteTmg the ,,·,Iern.

rmc""""

1"',,""""' ..

1'_ M.>.oIci< 1199'9) l

""""tod ",th 1'"'''''''''" 0110M W,loy&

500~ ...·1

Dom.i". =y be ,utxli\"ldt'd illto kingd",,,', phyll. da,ses, "ru"",. f.milies. g"ner•• and spedes. A sp""ies i., a group of ind,vidu.l, tllat fl"'S-""'S.«'S a common ge"" pool .. ,xl tllat c.n 'uc<:essfully interbreed. LId, species i, ""ignin w tilt. 10. \'oid confm' on assod.uM WIth common "'lines. Und er th i.• ., yste m<>fbi I10mill I",,,,,,ndalure. s.""dt". ,'11"",. is Ihe ",iemilie ",une for lho> fi>h species commonly referred loas ",.n"),,,, "·,,neye pike, pIke, pIke perch, pickerel yello'" pike, yell"", pic"erel, yelk,,," pike pt'l"Ch. or yellOl\ ",,,lleye. Alloflh"membe"of"'pt><:iesinagi, en",e"''',lk"upa popul.oilonfor e"""'ple, the w.II")·" l-Xlpul,lli"n "I' a lake. All of th" popul.t,,,,', (of different ,pedes) !lut interact in a gl\ell 'plem make up lho> ""mmunily_inr example, the ft.,h ronununity of a I~ke. Rnally. itS shown in FIgure 5_1, .11 n' the rommuniti"" pi", th" abiotic faclor< lll.J.ke up II", """"Y'teln O",re, .l lake> alld Ih" ecosy'tem" Ihe ecosphere.

5.1 1 MAJORORGANISMGROlJlS A \lide "ariely of organc,n" ~re encoulltered '" n..lur..1 syste .... (I'm """mple, lakes .nd ri'H·'. ","'boos, ."d soil) ,,,xl engineered system; (for "",,,"'pie. "',l.<;!e,,·alet ttffitm""l and re;ource """,,,e,y p.U\l', .",dfill,. conslructed "",-land,. and I>ioreIenI;on ceIL,). frolures of nlilfl<" organism group< especi.lly impottanl in e""ironmemal engineering are illu'I",teJ ;" FIgure 5.4. More tlun lulf of the endallgered 'pec;es

Learn More on Ecosystems ~_t.p"J IWNW .'p-" .~""I "'.... rc", 5C.ec""i

S.l Ec""l'Slem SlnJclu,•

.oo FlIncIion

•

. . _.. . ,~

-

1

--

_

'.-."" ~ ._, '-

-

_. I~+ -- -

--_kl_

_,......... _ .. .. _ .. _ 11o<,.,......_,.. _(..... ..._,,,'_-.Ie..- ,., -mo.,.,...""""""'..... w__ ....,_-1"", c_~,

.... ~ .... I.........• .. - · _....... _ · _ .. ,

,,' the U'UlOO Slates are higher plants. TI,e la,..., ""POrt frmn II", Inlerna" till"., I r anef on Cli m.lle Change (lrCCI indicate;, with vel)' high confide""e, tllal "",enl "anning L~ strongly aifed,,'g terreslrial biolog,cal ~YSlet,,-,. ",dudi"g pokward and up" ani ,h,fk in species ra"g"". earlier spring g_ning. d,ln.< from appmximalf
ClimaleChangeandEcos~slems ~~'fll ..."", "pa "1",/c I n-... "'''''a r ¥

~ PoodlEjng Rjmljl'gl foom Algae Uioui"",l " • renewable fuel thai ca n b" manufaetu,..,J IhlD! ,'e;;t't;oble "it., anim,,1 (""" ",,,>Ie ""t.lU,,,,,1 g'e""'. ;md ;,Igae. While a numb (with dc",bling Ii""", f", many 'peei"" ,m Ihe ",deT "I h"u",1 .md com Ih";,-e in ,-irtually any clim.te. ",-ere"ming a limil.ti"n "r pmdu
Flgure/5.5

p"tentially pT.'" di'I\ide, ,ueh., Imm nutrient laden d"m",tjc ",a,te",.ler m p"",er plonl emi"i""-,, and c""'-eTting it int" " high-den.,ity li'luid ("nn ,,( enefJ>Y' n;,tural ,~1.

Conceptual

Renderingol L..-ge.Sule P~otn· B i O",.
",at,,,,. eartx", d,,,~j,Jc. and ",me adJcd nutri<",t,.•1g.e Coln produce .ooul 10,000 g.,I1",,-' 01 b,ndi=! 1"-'" .>cre f"'" year.

5,1 Ec""l'Slem Structure Md Function

oflenle.,d 10 dr.lr"alic ,hifls ill populalion .ize and ~<'I""nu'''ly.Iru~· lure. FM e"ample, Ihe Irampa""ICy <'Ir danly of Idles vari... ",ilh lhe quanl~) 01 soil pdflides and lerti~zeN deh... ed from lerrestri.>l sources by IribuYry .Ireant•. The abunda",ce of algae ",ay, ii, lum, flucluale" ilh Ihesi"" of Ihe microcru.<;lacea" populatiOll'o lhAt graze on Ihem and with Ihe a, aildbilily of nulrienl, inlroduced from Ihe ,,·alershed. In ",me lales, ",aler c!drily can go fwm "CI)"tal clear" 10 "pea ,oup" 10 "cryqal d"ar" O\'"r a mailer of day, as algal and microc,,-,-,lacean populalion, ",ax and "a"e.

5.2

Population Dynamics

POpulllion dynami"" pl"y a wle in Ihe fale of fecal !>deteria d L'>Charged 10 surfac" ",ale"" Ihe dficiellcy of mi"roorganL'I'lS in biologi"allreal",enl, and ,u!>slrale-organl,m interaCliom; in Ih" de"nup of ",,"llll';"alJC'd 'o~,. Other appliml ion. include conlrol of nuisa""ea 19ae gro",lh in lakes, biOlnan,pulaUon ... a ma""ge",enl approach for ,urface ",aler qualily, and Ihe Ira'bfer of loxic chemical, through Ihe food chain. Our ability 10 ",,,"ag" "nd praect Ihe en"ironmenl call be enl",><:"d Ihrough "n underslanding of populal;on dy"amics, for e""mple, by simul"ling or modeling lhe r"'p.."t"" of popul.,Hmt< 10 em irOl"nenYl slimuli. In ,Iudying populalion d \ n"mics, il i, i"'porldnl to remember Ihal. like olher org"nis"", human, repr""""1 a populalion, o"e Ihal may gro", exponenlially and experienc", Ihe Sires.. of approadlrng it. carrying capadly.

5.2.1

UNITS Of EXFRESSIQ\l FOR POPULATON SlZE

Allhough il i, Ihe ind"'iduallhal is born, Ih" individual Ihal reproduces, and Ihe ind,vidu.•llhal dies, in "n en, iron menial conl""l Ih""" e"enl, are besl apprecialed by e"amilling enlire populalion,. And ,,·hHe il i, pos,ible 10 characlerize individual populalion, Ihrough direct enumeralion (for "".unple, Ihe number of alligators), Ihe populatio,,, making up "alUrai or engin",ra.J ee'''ysten" indudeorga nis,,,, of widoelv differing ,i"",,- TIIU'. a "h... d munl" p"'ddes a poor rep""",,,lalion ,~f populalion SIze and funclion ,,~re an eslimale of allli\ing mdlerial or biOln..... l. dhired. An ahernal,ve appr""ch l. 10 use a comm"" co,"q,lu",,1 ,uch .., dr\ ,,·eighl (g OW), organic carbon conlenl (g 0, or, for plant" chloroplwU con lell t( gC h l). Fore"., "'pIe, w em i8htreporl I'la n Ib ion" "a,gOW / m' for 8r;>;<;Iand" metric 10'" C/heclJ.r~ for fo"'eU a, tOla Is uspe",j ed ,ob d, (TSS) or vola! iIe, u'p" "d ed ,olids (VSS).

5.2.2 MOCflS Of POPllAT10N GROWTH A ma.. b.,lance """ be applied 10 Ihe
Ii, "'g o,»,,,isnt•. COllSid.". Ihe c,,"" of Ihe .. lgal or !>d~I~rj.l1 com"'u'''I}· of a lake or ri, er or lhe c",n"'unity of ",krnorgani,nt. in a ",acto,,-,-
Chapler5 lIiDk>gy

bin"'A"" ill a IMkh reactor

'"

,-

"la,

be "riU"" a, f,~h)w"

QX", - QX '"' ....artll""

"

(5.11

\' i, ,,,lurn.. (tt X " b,onwl§ (mglLt I is II"... (d~~,t Q i, n"" (Lid.""I, ..nd ......1"'" n'I."... to .11 the linebc p""'-e:<"'" nlt'\liallng the g...... th or d ....lh of IMnrgarti>...... Each ""m in [quauon ;.1 ha., un,ts of ....,." per

lImo' (mg!d.~ I Tn ~Imrhl" 1M <:on""'I'I.. <>I de>..topm"", ('/ llw mo"ldek thai I.-.Ilm., ,'''' 0.",. tnm~ ",ll boo ignored "'"'" Cth"", Q i~ "'luallO 0 in .. batch .............1 A"""mlng thai fiN-on:I;,r lir.-t;c-. .J"'l.... I~I, d.....:nboo lho> ......noon t;,rm (In th,s use, 1""P"1.",on gm"lh1. [qual.... ; I <.lin boo ..... "Uo!n.t<; fol.....'"

'"

"

.. ""... t L~ ,'''' r.....I .....der rAte roeffo.:a..... 1M ......:bon term L~ d.s-riblng growth, lhe ..ght ,..:I" of ~uation 'U i~ I""',u, e. lVe .. UI ...... thl~ ""Iwlinn 10 de,elop reolliS!i". bul not 0\"'1)1 ""'''pk... mod..1. 10 .inlULue the rales ,~ "rg.'"l~m g")" Ih in • bal"h 'earl"". Thr.... ",odd, ...re inln-..J"M h....... d.s-"bm8 unlimll...J (e,po" ..uti"ll. 'IM(.. limil~ (I,'8..,id.... "d r ,n..limit"" (Mo,....:!) g"",th. EXPONENTIAL OR UNUMITED GROWTH Tho> '"'l'ul"Uo" d)l"""'''' of org.oni",,'. lrom bdcler~~ to human•. llot': do'SC,ibed u~iIl8'" "'I"'''''''''"~ the e'pone"lial-gn'wlh modeL

".ll'

"""')I

""'rl<>

I ~ ~Xl

(5.41

[qUolt"'n ; ~ ,• ..:Ienhc..1 to Eq.... tion :;.1. ",th ~"tlt.> n.. umum 'I""if", gm"lh rato' ooefflcienl (da~ _I) j),,;ng .. 'I"""iill._ of tho> Iir. unaffo1Clo?d ~ f.-..dbad. from cr<>\'>,itng or .......... rc-' romf""llUon or limlt;>I"""" In • .,1..1010 to dln'lt,ng energ' ............. taM.ro gm.. tho •..-g<>nt>ft\S mu.<;t pol' .II of doti• ..J .. nlunld"""y, Theorgaru...m' ...... pir~toryo.iem.ond....y bo, ..."......... t.-.J

as

dKA' ro.1ft",,,,,,t;

In

""0.. 5.4, using •

['1...

fi",,~

nsp!r.hon or

(5.5)

wh"", ~J is ,he r""l-"ra,ion rat" coefficient (day -I l. He"" the right-side term" "ega,i"e bffau,e it represen,s a lo,s of biomass. In ,ome si'uatio",. th" definition of ~J Ls expanded to include other I""es, such as senling and preda,ion, Equa,;",,, 5.4 a"d 5.5 m,ay be combined for a lM,ch reac!!,.. (5.6)

(5.7)

where X, is the bim".."s a, ....me lime I and X" is the initial biomass. reported as numbe",or as a ,urn'gilte concenlrati"". ,,,,,h a, mg DW/L Th" ,erm (...... , - i:JJ ma~ also be though, of .. , ,he lIet dfect of ener~;)' applied to g,,",th mi"us the energy applied to resp"a"on and ,ermed .......' /5.8) Th" "-,pr",,sion u,ilized in [qua,ion 5.7 will be reuined he,e for darl'y.

exam pI e 15. I

Expollential GrWJth and the Effect olthe Spll':flic Growth Rate olllheRaleolGrowlh

Consider a popula,ion or communily in a lMtch reactor "ith an inilial biomass (Xol of 2 mg DW /L. a maximum spe<:ific grow,h rate (I'm.o,) of l.t/day, and a respi,ation ,ate eoefliden, of D.l/day. o..tennlne the bloma-s con""'n,ration (mg DW ILlmera,ime period of IOday....

solution A"Uln" "-,pon",,tlal grow ,h. The b,on....., at any ,ime LS gIven bv Equa,ion 3.7:

X,

2 X ,.(I' ..., _n.t "'y)'

Table 5.1 and Figure 3.6a p,,,,,,,nt ,he ......ulls. TI,e ]-,haped form of Figure 5.M i, typical of exponential growth. The steepnes, of ,he curve is determined by the value of the net spe<:lfic growth ra,e coeffidem (....... ......, - i:J). The influence of the value of ~ on ,he shape of ,he growlh cu,ve ;" ,hown in Figure 5,fib. Nme the similarity belween the exponenlial-growth models (Equat;on SA) .'pplied here for living organisms In a lM,ch reactor,

"

Chapler5 8ic>k>gy

example/5.1

(continued)

ResultsofCalwlarion. in fxo ......... 5.1 for 5ionw... 0.0 funclion of Time Using Ihe fxponenrio~G...wth Model

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2.193

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,.,

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•

'"

Flgure/5.1 Eff~ct of Sperific Cro"'l!l R..t~ on E'pon~"t"l Crowth tal E,'l""""'tL>1 populaho" growth ... del~'fmincr<'dse<. the 'dtN>f f"'P"L>tion growth (dX/dll dOO Incrro
""""fie

~"''''M, 'ooIOc [I

'19'91, l.,.w.d "'"'_"" •••",,,>fJoi'>, wa.y & 500>, Inc.I

with Ihe e, pre<;.~io" for ro ...t-nr.ler deeay introd uced in Chapte... 3 and ·1 for dpplication to ch"mical 1""-",,, in a batch reado" -lie

Bnth of these are firrder expre,,,ions; that is. both rat.,,; are a .lir""l function of concentration (nrganbm or chemical). However. organism concentration.. typically increase eXpo!l""lially (gmwth). while chemical co"c"ntrati"'L~.leerea", e,,,,,,,entially (decayl.

5.2 F'opuIaIion Dynanrics

lOOISTK: GROWTH: THE EFfECT OF CARRVNG CAPACITV 11 we e'dmin~ Ihe

prl'l.lictio,,-< g~n~ratl'l.l by the ~xl-,,)n~lllldl-grO\,·thmodel a bitlurlh~r dl,"'g ii' linle. w"oi>se" esomeinler"'ting blom.lS.~l~v~l,. For examf~~.in lOOddY~, Ihebiom.,-,~,Imulat".j In EXdmp]" 5.1 \\'"",ldreaeh 5,4 x 10" mg OW /L! Doe, thi, m., ke any"""""? t\o "'onder the ~xpo nemidl-gmwth model i~ ""n""tinu.. eall..:! ,,,,I,,,,ilnlgrowlh: Ih~,..~,.. no constrai"ts or up?,,' bounds 0" biom~,s. Th~ "X JX"ential-grm'11, model h.a~ SO""" a ppmp ri at"a ppli ca tilliS, a, ,d we ,,"£In l""rn nllIeh fmm Ihis ,imple ~pprOdCh. Howe'·e<. Ihe logislicg ro wlh model pr"" Ides.> fram",,' fY k morei" Iu, '" ",it h our COl ICe ~ 011",", popu"I"'"s"nd eommunitie, bel""" H... ~, "e i"vo~ a canying c,p,eiI)', ,~r II pper 1in~ I, 10 popula Ii ffI O«"{,IIl' n \lJ ni Iy. ize (b"',nass) imfX..ed by en",mnm~n~,l ""ndiUOlt'i. Figure 5.7 illu,trales Ihe concept of carryi"g eaJ'dcily and idffll,Hes -d"P"tld~'t k",,,,," • ucll.ls d iSffl"" a lid pred\tiOlla 'i cOIn P"""1l' of ~'''' ironn",,,ta1 condi lio,,'. I'ood Iimil.\tiOl' i. n(~ dddressed, a.~ Ihe conc~pt of carrying c~1-'3cily i, lin"led h~re 10 ~J'dce-rel~led or ''''''rel",,,,~bleresourc& Th~ logisbc-gro\\th m,>.lel i, d~"eloped for ~ b~lm r~ilCtor by modifying the expon~l\tial-gmwlhmod~l (Equation .'i,n) 10 MCOUnl for carr),;ng--caf'ddty effects,

r::c-------:c-, ,
,"

(5.9)

carrying cdl'ddly (m& DW/D, Ihat i" the maximum ,u,t~inabl~ populal,on biomas.~. To appreciate Ihe way in which Glrrying e~1-'3cil)' nlOOiales Ih.. rate of populaunn g"",·th. e",m',e Ihebel", vim of Ihe _mill lenn ;1\ 1-'3",nO,..'''' in Equ~lIon 5.9. Kote Ih.ll '" h~n popul.,lIon size L'i ,mall (X ¢: 10. Eqw t"'n 5.9red u""" 10 Ih,,",x P"" ~lt i.lI-gro"th ",ode~ ~ nd as theca rryi ng \\'h~re

Effed on Biorn.", of LimiLltion b)' Nom"new.ble Re..,uK•••• ~hnife.tedthrough C.nyingC.p.dt), AcmTdingto the ~>g .. t>c-gmwth modcl,envirooment,l ,,-,"cnee (n1're'Sented b)' the d"""w.rd pre""u", of the h.mdl m:luee< lhegmwth T.te. At ",me time. the popul.>ti"" "-,,ehe< • e.",·lng e.l"'city th.:>t tho P"I'uloltion mnno!

K is

Ih~

Figlll'e/5.7

e>.ca'CI (8<>.... ""1_ ....

,20IO.I~,"IT","M;'>ok.c

119'>9lIopi_";,",-~;,,'onoIM
"",,,WIoy & Son>. roe·1

Chapter5 fIilIIogy

~-~

I

••

•

!• -,

-~-----

'"

I ! •

,,•

,"

I

cap""ity i, appro.lChed (X - K), lhe populalim gmwth rale appro""h", zero. [qualinll 5.9 can be imegraled 1M., balCh r.... e1M 10 yield:

X,

,

.'1

'+[('x.x,), _

(5.10)

Equalion 5.10 perm,ts calculation of b,nmas' as a lunclion of time acmrding 10 the l<>gl'lic-gro\\lh model.

exalllple/5.2

LogisticGrow1h

COII-,ider II", populalion from [xample 5.1 (X~ 2 mg [J,V L, 1'-"". 1. 1 .day, l:" fl,I' day), but \\ ilh a carrying capacily (10 of 5,lXll mg DW/L Delenni,,,, the I"'pulatlOll biom.l..<;s over a time period of lOdays.

solution U", lhe carrying-eaJ>
~--------, Popukltion over Ti .... Delermined for Logistic Growth Examined in Example 5.2

,-""... , , , •

,•

, • • " " " " ".-

Iloorn.>ss lmlI DWIll

, , "n

~ ,~

,,,-

-

0.%4

1,745

0 ...., 1

3,201

,~

232

.,,,

,~,

II.U•

4,737

0(1.19

4,92~

om-

'.=

000'i

4,993

0.001

•.-

'.;~

l
'0.001 <0.001

"'" 5.2 fWulalion Dynanrics ~

example/S.2

(COntillUed)

. , r f, ___':~""",_e'I • ,. " /-"'= J'.==• ,....-/", J I • • • • . " . '" _~_ooo

•

;

4000

" 3.000

0

,.,

Tmol
.

0

T1rM1""Y01

FlgIl'IJ5.8 Appl ic~lion of th~ LOlliolic-Crowlh Modd (a) PopuL'hon bio.....",.nd <' k>gi.tic model pn,;:]ictx a" .pp."ach 10 the<:.l'r,·mg mpadlv {f",,""'>ooIcinW;t.y&5oM.loc_1

RESaJRCE·U'v\ITED GROWTH' THE MONaD MODEL In nature, it i. mo,e oomm"n 1m organi.ms 1o ,,,,,,,,h the hmit. i",~ by rese,-""" of ,eoewable ,esources-for ex.."ple, foco:l-than to approach the limits esta b1 i.hed byca, 'yingea padt}' .TI, erel a tion.h ipbet w""n n u triemsa nd the pOpul.llion or rommunity growth rate can be described using the Monod model. In this model, the maximum .pecific g'<'" th ,ate i. modifiootoaemunt lortheeffffts nl I imitatiOl\ in th", case by renewable ,esources,

(5.11)

whe,.., " is the ,pecifie growth ,ale (daj '), S i. the lHllrient or ,,,!>strate conee"trati"" (mg S/l), and K, i.the half-saturation con.ta"l (mg S/U. The substrate or "foco:l~ in Equ,tion 5. I I may be either a macrnnutrientllor i'~,t.'lCe, nrganicca,bon in biological waste t,eatment and ,,,",,un:e rec",-ery) or a g",,,th-lin"ting micronutrient (such a. ,,,troge" or ph"sphoru, in all estuary or lakel. A. H1".t"ued in Figu,.., 5.g~, the h~lf·... t"fJtion ~"nstanl {K.,l i. defin«.t as tl... sub
Chapler5 lIiDk>gy

Rgu,./5.t Th.Mn"c>
---"'---.:;-----=--=-----~-- -

Il.:><>dtx...."..., tht>ll<'onO rs IlL >f'I"""'''''' u< ......mlUm ...... _ . _ th
.. , .. ,II " ti", "

", , ,

,

'"

..

b
"-1.

_< .

~lolqJb
(th.>, ...

~

I.mtft<-
..._ _ t
ro

" "

»

~

»

~._cth.>t

~

... n

bnriJo,l (bIA~.al In

.....

>ilNJm 'f""CUI< lI""'"Ih.-'" ~l<"«.... n1r.l>
""',- ~.... ~h"e

""'.I\US"'- "'-

lhJ.o; Iiv;wT .. d ....."

K,,_so

.. Ii

"d>r-~1
l:.. arpn-. ..1th ........ A:..rrn-to

lhra:

ti ::

~

..,...s.,. ~ tll"'1",,"'" ".>rWJ
~Sl'"¢l

K,,_O.S

..~ 1'_ • I

b thr ........... /<1.>,-

~......,I'-._ _......,., S- ""-I

" "

ro

Substr_, S(rr¢)

'"

conc~"I~.uiO
,-"ltre, th;,1 is.

~

c: 1:,.).,. ..

dmrth' ~...-l1Ooub
-.------------- ------

" •, ,

(.0)

1'-.." 2.

"

»

~

the growth rate .. 01,...11.l11 of

it~

nla.• imum

t'"

The nl.\gnitudol of K. ""n"cb abilltv of ..n '»"gam,,,, to m"-Strme ...." ..." . .1... ,..... >ure"" (s"bstr.. I") al difl".- .ub<.trat.. i.., ..I,. Org.on,_n,'" ,th..l"" 1C."ppro,Khthem.."mumsp«ificgro" I "-,,,'''<,...., I

e" I"" ,ub>.tr"'.. oo"".."tratlOn<;. " ha.. thO'o"" illl high '<'<:j'''''' hig I.., "Is of sub .,'h,..,,, In.. ... m..

,it comp.orat"

K.. \,llu,,", I.., d of gro"lh. Figu 5.9h illustral,..; 00.. , .." ..bllltr in Ih.. ""1(....11..... II'"ln ",,,,,,,ani aff""l' gro..th ••It... The ph,.... 'nlogicll N.SIS for th .. r1'lo!no_nm li& in I"" role of "n7~"""" in c.ualyzll'lg booo..h "'"'I ....... l.ton<; h.alf- ... tur .._ <'o'lft'iIant> ~t .. ...trong ..ffln of lhot ~_lll an be .... bo.t'luloi!J "'to E.q.....bOn ;/> (Iho> ~fl""'"'<'l ... l mo.l.,j11D ,...t..l

I;,'!

(,-~-")x

I

(5.12)

..- -

example/5.3

Resource-Limited Growth

P."'''','fi",,,

rlgure ~.10 'h(m'-' population density a, a function 01 lime fM Iwo specl.... of (a proto:>=n) grown ,eparal.,]y and In mixed balch eullure. Grown ""paral.,]y, bolh 'peele; do well, acquirIng -,ubstrale alld aehl""in/; lugh b,onld-'-' de,~,llles. In mixed cull .. re, ho\\ ,,' er, olle -'peeies <.lomi",ll"", eliminating Ih" olher 'ped"". Organl,m, \\ 'Ih a -'mall K, ha ,,, a competitl'e ad ,antage because Ihey can reach a high growth rale al lower -,ub,lrale Ie, lob. Thi, can be demonstrated by In,,,,,,,li"n of Ihe Moooo model. A b,.. le concepl of ecology, lhe principleof comp"titl"e urga"i-'ms cannot c""..i-,I if Ihey depelld on Ihe .... me gro\\ Ih-Hm lling re""urce. How Ihen do Ihe,e 1"'0 -'pecies of manage 10 «>eX;,1 in Ihe nalural world? \Vhy i,n'llhe poor ron'petitor exlinct?

P."'",....,,,'"

solution The an,wer Hts In another ecological priM;ple, "id~> ""!"roIit",. The term "ichr rele'" 10 Ihe unique functi"",,1 role <>r "place" of an organL_m in Ihe e<:o>yslem. Organi,m._ Ihal ate poorly rompetilh'e from a purely kinetic p"rspe.:ti,·e (lor exampl", Kl can -,un' Ive by expiolting a time or 1'1.1... "here ""mp.,tillon can be amided.

Fig~e/5,10

T"'oSl"'ciosof Pu.meclumCrownSep.r.lely.nd In M I,eeqUiring ,ul>
th<, nth<". 'peeies. ~ood""I.dJol.1\ 9all.

y.-..m.. M;>.oIci<

fI909].lop-i _ _"....... -..._W~& s.,.".,

"'.1

~

__".",..,;.,.c.-:-~ • •• • e'.

..•..

•

f

- P. . . . .

•

~

i

i

-.p~

Gf""",lnmuod<:
• .;;.,;

• ,

...•...•. .... ... ,

"

4

e

•

"

'0

12

'4

,e

18

T.... (~l

YIELD COEFFICENT: RELATING GRO'A'TH AND SUBSTRATE UTlUZATK:lN Whi~ allelui"" h,,, """" largely devnted here 10 Iracklng bioma,.;, 'iul>.trale fare may be of mlYe InlerlSt ln mall) e"&""""""g applicallons_ To mooel ,u!><;lrale co"... nlrati",~" or In ",lale 'iuklrale consumpllon to organl,m g1"<",lh. we apply Ihe yield enefficienl fYl. Chapter5 lIioIogy

defined as Ihe qu"nlily of org,lllisn~, proJ""'ed p'" u'\I1 sub"lr.1e consumed;

\5.13)

Y has units nf bioma"s pmduced per mass 01 subslr"le ro'~SllIned. A yield meffkiel1l value of Y 0.2 indk"tes Ih"t 20 mg 01 b,omas, are produced lor el'ery 100 mg of sulhtrale co"-sumed. Note Ihal ) for organic carbon i' al"",y, less than 1, be<:au"" org"ni,n" are 'lilt 100 percenl effieienl III ron,'ert,ng <;ubslrate 10 b"lnlil.<;'s and beause ",me energy mu,t be expended lor cell maintenance, n,e yield c""fflcie'" Is also commonly applied for a batch reactor t,~ 'elale the rate of ,ubstrale utilization (,lSI dll 10 the ,a,e of organism gmw,h (dXld/l:

," "

(5.14)

Substrtule 'he Monro gm" Ih l,milalion modd (Equ.ltion 5.12) fnc ,IX/dl in Equation 5.14:

',~~ -H~""K.~S)X

(5.15)

We ignore Ihe d""ay coeffidenl (i-J) in Ihis e~ pr"""ion becau.,lrale utili7.ation isonly tied 10 how f,bll he o",.",isn .. gmw .lr...J n()l how lhe) die off. TI'is express,on is llsed in a ,'ariety of engineenng appliedli"n" fnc example, to de,'elop the m.l'S balanc.... on organi,m gw,,'lh and substrdte ulili7alion lhal support til« d...ign dnd opera lion 01 a w",te"dler lrealmen! and resource recm'e,y f.ldlily.

ex am p

le/5. 4

Yield COefficient

The orS""ic mdUer presenl III dnm""'ic wa'le"aler is ren"wed al a 'die of 25 mg BOD ,/l-h in .I batch aerated binlogical re..tor. BOD (biochemical oxygen demand), defined In S<>ctlnn 5.4, refers 10 the amounl of nxygen ro,~sumed in nxidi7ing a giwn amount of '....S"nk n\aUer, here. repr"""nl.tion by effect of substrate roncentratinn. Use the yield """'ff,dent In romput" the m"-,, of microo'g,,,,lsm. (mea,ured as V5.';) produced daily due tn Ihe cOl~sumption of organic mailer by micrnmganism, in the aeration basin. Assume Ihal 'he biological reactor has a volume of 1.5 x Ht L."d tht, yield cnefHcienl Y equal, 0.6 mg VSS/mg BOD...

solution n", yield c""mel"nt Y relales the rate of substrale (in this Cdse, orS""ic matler) di"'pp"ar~n""to the rale or cen gm" tho n'is 'e!.\Iinn'hip (Equalinn 5.14) is wrillen in • batch reaclor ~. follows: dS dl

I dX Y dl

5.2 F'opuIaIion Dynanrics

example/S.4

(COntillUed)

ydS

dX

,II

,II

Substllule the gi"e" "alu"," fm Yal1d Ihe rale of ~ubslrate depletion; 1l.6 mg VSS" 25mg fDO; mg BOO; l-h

15mg VSS ,~,

N""t, cm",ert Ihi, "alue 10 a mao.;; per day ba.ic: 15 mg V!:6 "" 24 h ., "1.5,, lu l "-:;"ay

L-'

5.4 " 1(1 mg VSS day S,lOkg V!:6 day

Note Ihat a 1m of biological Slliid. are prod ueed al a "asl""aler I",almenl and resource r""O\""')' plam &tch day. TI'l, ""plai,,-, why engin""r<; spend so much lime designing and n!",rating ladlnies 10 handle and disl-~)Se of Ihe residual bi<~,lids C>ludgel generated at a ",as~", .ller Irealment and resoo rce reeOl ery plal1!.

8K:lKINETICCOEFFICIENTS TI,elerm.....,,,. K" Y,and to arerolllmol1ly referred 10 as biokinetic coeffidenls becau,e Ihey prO\' ide information aboutlhe mallner in which ~ubslrale attd biomas.~ change O\'·er time (kinelicallyl. Values forlt"""weffid.,nt, maybederi,ed lrom Ihermodynamic calculation, orthrough fieldobsen aliolland I.looratoryexperi mellla I ion; 1ilera lure conl pi lal ions of welf"ienls de r;,win Ihi, fashion Me a"ailable. Table ~,3 provides ,"'"le representati'e v"lues for the biok.llletlc coefficients as applied ,,' municip"l "asle",,,ler I",,,tmenl and """",rce recm erv.

TypjcolValue. far 5eleded Bickind< Coeffi<.ienls far the A
,

~.

Chapler5 lIiDk>gy

Rango<>IV_

TypicaIIV.....

",

0.12 h I

05h I

,

25--100 m6 OOo../l

bO "'l\ 000.. I l

OA-llll VSS/m6 000.,

0.~\'SS/m611OD,

C

O.l102ll 0.0ffi0 h '

O.{)(l2'ih '

BATCH GRONTH; Pl/TT"'G IT All TOGETHER Re'l~r~tion ~"d the growth-nlediating mechanisms inlroduced earlier ma} be illlegr"led int" " ,inglo! expre",im de..,ribing pOl-'u1.ltiOl' growth in balCh cullu,"" dX

"

" -+5' -,.)(,-')x (r-'''''K, " K

/5.16)

n,en we can relate ,ubslrale utilizalion 10 Equalion 3. hi Ihrough Ihe y,eld coeffICient;

","

15.17)

Again, we ignore Ihe dec~y c"",fficient (1,,) in th", expre",im beGlu"",, substra to! Uti1i7.. ti.., is only tied to how fa'l the o'S.,n"ms grow ",.:Ilia ho" they die "ff. Although "r cmLsiderable impnrtance in ""Iural systems. Ihe cMrying-..:apacity term Is not Iypically included il1 binkinetic models for Illutlicipal ,,'aslewater engineering, because these systems are designed 10 operale below their max,mum sustainable bl"mass. Figure 5.1l ill",lrale, ,u!,,;trale ulilizalion and the attendalll ph•. ,e, or populalion gm" Ih in balch culture (no inn"" or "utnow 1. accord ing I" Equ.lIi"ns 5.11> and 5.17. For slmplicily, it is .. "u mN Ihat "0 sub,trate recycle occur.. n"ee pha"", or growth are de,cribed in Table 5.4; Ihe exponential or log growth phase. Ihe stalionary phase. and the death phase, Certain s; "'plilying assumplions regarding growlh conditio"s during Ihe exponential and death phases permit the calculalion of substrate and bio"''''' changes at those times.

T""" (
Rgure/5.11 Popul~;onGrowlh;n Batd. Cullu"" ThIS gTa~ illu;! by a "'allonary pM"" who", pulation i, 10 ded;,,,, due to uo,upf
Phases of Population Gl'Owth in Q 8..ch Readar PllasoofGr"""""

DoscripIion

dlllr/t

hponeotial or ~>g ~m"1h ph"-,,,

Suo.tr.teupta~eandgr""1ha",,,pod

dX dl '" 0

Growth

F',~"rn "' wcllappm~,nl.:llrobv

tho, exp'.",ot.,l modd ([G""tw,," 5.41.

Stati,..,arr phd""

Gm"th
dX'dl

Droth pm.""

Subr1 gm"1h .nd 10• ..,.. 10 c,",pirati"" "'00 dmth. AppfO~im.tod"-' ao e~poneoti.ld"".w (EGuation 55)

dX dl
5.2 fWW,1ion Oynamics

0

ex ampIe 15.5

Simplified Calculations of Substrate and Bkmass

The diffe",ntlal "'Iuatim~~ Ihal describe biomas.~ atld ~u"'I,ale dynamics (EquaIi01~~ 5.1n and 5.17) contain noniinear lerms thai ''''lui,e ~pedalizOO numerical method, for Ih"ir soluli,.,n. By applying ce,lain simplifymg a",umplloJ~~, howe"er, we can learn qUIt" a bil about lhe dynamics of mkroblal populali,~~" and communi II.... C01~~id.". a populalion of microorganisms with Ihe following cha,acterl>tics growing in a balch cuhu,." inilial bioma,,~ Xn 10 mg OW L maximum ,pecific growlh ,ate """, O.J.,'-day; ha1f-",lurallon ro'~,lanIIC I mg L: carrying capacny K 100,000 mg OW IL ""'pi,ation ,ale coeff",i"nt Ic.J O,ns,day; inillai substrale mn"'IIl,atioll So 2.000mgS,'l; alld yield coefficienl) 0.1 mg OW Img S. I. [),:,tern"ne "hethe,

Ih~,

popuiation wiii .,...er approach its carrying capacily.

2. Calculate Ih" population

bimna.<;.~ after

the fir<;1 3 days of growlh.

3. Calculale Ihe su","lrale concent',llio" afl.". Ihe fi",1 3 days of growlh .

•1. If Ihe population peaks al 100 mg OW IL when Ihe "uMlrale run. out, calculale Ihe bioma-s 10 days aite, the peak.

solution 1. Changes in ,ub>trale and biomass CO""enlralions m'e, lime are reialed by the yield coeffici""t as

gl""n by Equallon 5,14. n,e maximum all;lIMble biOlnas.~ of Ihis population, ba."'
liS x )

200 mg o.V

n,l" is well bekm Ihe carry"'g capacily of loo,lnl mg OW Il; therefore, the populallm, ",ill nol run oUI of ,u!»lrale and lie,''''' approach the carryIng capacily. 2, Early in the growth ph...e whe" 'UMlrate conc""lralion" are high (M,-.-.od lenn, S/ (K, + S). approach"" 1) and bio"",s." mncenlra!ion. are 10\\ {carrying-eapadly lerm, 1 - X,: K, approaches 1t

Equation 5.1 to reduc~ 10

'","

,

21 mg OW

x, 3. The change in

su",lr~l"

mncenlrallon ("'.". Ihe 3-da)' period i, give" by Equation 3.14;

-~(~~) I I Chapl.,,5 lIic>k>gy

example/5.5

(continued)

"rom lhe previou, calrulation, dX1011 m',,,3 day, i. X, - X"

_(o,lmgm~-1

"

21 - 10

> IlmgOW

"'llS) L The .uh;lrale concentration after 3 day. of growlh b given dl

s,,_dS

11 nlll OWiL, and

- llOm SS C

b~

2.000-110

,"

4, \Vhen .ubslrate "' e"hau,led, Ihe Monod lerm equals 0, and Equation 5.16

reduc~

to Equation 5.5 and il. analytical solutIon, X, ~ - "'. In Ihi, ca."', Ihe peak population decaY" acmrding 10 Ii!"torder kinetics, <0 Ihal 10 day' aller the peak, (;l

mg OW C

Class Discussion

rea"""

GROWTH MOOE!.S AND HLW.AN POPLtATION I:le
.L H.~"9 corrfllc.d

plexlly of Iheir reproduction, populatl"'l.' of huma,l.' can be ,imulaled u
of

f"'F"LT.ion ."..,........ "0 m"lr-_ 8M

<_

" •

8 ~tu

"",.t.r.. 1""'",,"Ud ," F"l"'" 5.12 8cd "hr" ~hr_ "'''''''" ~~. ,~ l,lol)' '"

""Pf"'" """"

~ ~.

, = • ~ 0 • • , "" •, ,

, •

"-Ago 5'"""

-""

(Natto ~.,

o.)..... -,~

moklnyoaco

Flgurel5,12

Hun~,n

== B.C BC.

~ 5000 4000 JOOO 2000 1000 BC. B.C B.C B.C BC

Population Growlh ovcr Time

~ ""'" W
"""Y""'" P"'''''''''

tro.-r~ I~ 110_, Wo_. D.C]

5.2 F'opuIaIioll Dynanrics

I~Class Discussion lOr",! run> l-....~ a "'"' to

fUll In "''''"''J6lIr~ OUrr
d"'in...~r~ ,r§<,r~ wrt.l1 dmi,j'''' "'a~ I
"'UJ'"

",""ron~-'"

;""p"C'''<;. How do)'OlJ

..ayour rei< u a ,,"*,a oi,""," ar.d a~ .... ""'l'CU,,"~ pro'~al?

1

i !

t

~-;;:===

Figll'e I 5.1 3 M.llhu,', P",d iclion. of ropulot;"n .nd R~.o~rco.TreJ\d. At 'OlIl~ point, .,ccoTding to ~1.l1lh"", demon
At this '''Ie, [arlh', p<'I'ulatillr\ wdl dflUble every f>(J ye3rs, " illl mOil of lhi, population gm" th nccurnng '" urban a,.",,-~. The 1RIh-<",nlury Bnti,h ,""onomlQ Thomd' Mahhu' £m~'iide,..,.j the questions of whal moo ..1 d"""ribei p0f"lalion ddM ~nd "hal il predicK Recognizing lhal population in..:rea<"lence" (food) incre~sro in a lin~ar f""hion. Th~relnre, il would be only a nMU~r of time unlil demand oUI,lripp<.':) ,lIId ph,"phoru, (1') that ha\'e prodded num~mus ,odal ~nd ""onomi" l>en~fils, primarily through meeling demands for lood pr,>duclion a, population and a ff1 uen"" h.l \' e incr.."ed. Un fort u ""leI y, Ihe d I, lIJ rb" lICe of th" EM Ih' s equilibrIUm lrom e,c human and e.""y,lem health wncern>, TI,e,,, concerns include fr""h",aler 1\' and l' imb.,lances, gr~"nhou,e g"s emi,sion; (111.11 is, n ilrous oxide), a nd acid iflCa lion and e"lrophic"li"" 0/ ler""'I,;,,1 "nd aquatic """"yslems (EPA's Office of Waler (EPA, 2007b\\, In ~ddition, for Ihe two major ingred ielll< '" fertilizer, "hile we r"l ui ""energy tooblai nN l1\1m Ihe a if, ",em ust mine r. Alld whil~ Ihe,... i, abundanl N in Ihe Earth's atm()<'J in Chapler I, Remember Ihat il ,,-arned ,~f Ihe finit~ limilal101tS of Ihe world's reso<..lf"C*'S. In nr, Limils II> Growlh, the Club 01 R,~me ",arn",:1-

If 'preefore fami"e, Ihe "1~,1 and "'0<1 d r""dful ch""k 10 pop")"tio,,," spre"d across our planet. A"Olher "ay to describe Ihis phenomenon ls Ihrough ~ relaliOlt,!1lp de..el0J-""'l in Ihe 1970< ,lnd kno"-,, "s the II'AT equ.6on,

-

.

P>rAxT

ChaplerS lIiDk>gy

(5.18)

I" Equ'",; il clear lhal "''' i",n"'''nlal probl..,,,-, in""h'" mo'" lhan pollulion dnd are driven by muh,pl" faClOf"$ aCling logelher In yield a compounding dlecl. pmducl "f Ihe aftlu",.ce (A) and lechnology (n t"",IS in Equalion5.18 c.;m I:Jo, "isuali7ed as lh" per capila dema"d on ero-
n,,,

""""''''''S.

crass Discussion j.

... \\fr1<=""I<~lfoo-:prirt. d.o<~ ~~r""al

J./

f""""'
;"I"""~",,,,

al>xIt- t-h. rrpa<;t.o <>Iwe""mf""..ior. ","",~ are ""rr. 01 ~~ li
dtf'.rertly"''''' lacd u...... fcr ~""""'~ "';.0'''' <"'P"l IIt... ~ oha I£'¥" ~ ""1f'1"'"" i' c'fii"'l ocohli<:al foo"..prirt. &~ " " ..<.1'0........ 01 ",.->'iroorrm-...J

I>(i!;t-.o in.o!> Iityl

Calculate Your Personal footprint 'I.'OW, ,.,yoot.pnn~~,I

~ The fCgtQrlcijl fgglgrinl Table 5.5 gi' "" the ll>giml f'~>lp,int and a"aibble city (both a, hert""" 1"" capilal of the ",,,,Id and ",I<.'de.'1;ah,·e numbe", inJi""le a d"ficit (lho,l is. ",,,>l'>giG,1 ",-"",I>gical Glp.>cil~ ",m.,i", wilhin th~ ""untr)', bONe, ""Ii"nal bmd.,,-, do ",>I bind manv en\'imn' m~ntal "mi",i"n" .,,' th" imp.>ets "'ill m,,,t lil.ely be fell bey,md the 1><""" "nuntr~. On a 1'1,*,,1 ba.,i,. th" ,,,,,,,.'ge fultprinl ,~ II>" ,'llrr""l wmld i, 1.7 ha P'" P""'''', ",'ulhng in an ""o1.'l;ieal deficil of n.'} h" 1"" I"'"",n. H i, de,,, lholt, I" be pulalion m d"""'a", lhe bu,den ",eh!""",m pl"r"" ,m I"" """imm"'.",t (lhnlUgh mme "'luitabl~ 'haring "f the w,,,-l..h """",n:e. ()f wid.,,- u,", of grt"'n 1",Iicies ""J t"dmok'l;yl, ""p"'i"Uy in de",l"ped munlc;"" lhat e",,,urn,, an unfag- ,h..-e of lhe "",Id', '''''''''H'''," 5.2 IWWIion Oynamics

~ (contjOllerl)

Ecologiall footprints Ar...nd tile World E<:<>IogicO!prim

Ihapcrcap'"

WOTld

2.7

!l.>ngJ.-.d""h Ilrazil

,."'

U~.

6..1

Chmd

2, l

("..-rm.>ny

"

Tn
"' "

1~_9

.

\Ie""m l'cw Zrol.md :-':i~en.l

Ru.""",n h-der.lhon "oulh ,unc..

Unih'Cl Stlt""

+6.7

." l.2

" "' ,.• J.h

.

0.2

" " " " " "

-+5.9 1l.3 t 2.2

"

" "3.3

U

.'-9

.

]..';

,

03

"' "'

4';

Kjn~d"m

--, ".•

llolfaOOCG(lla

"'

2.1

l°rdan

Unih'Cl

"

"' "

Japan

Il4ologicaI Gapaeity (J>a por cali"~

'r:::;.;. .

.

;.~;.~

---

L'r,

ju In.:

"",~"',

-,

.,.,..,.""""

,'''OJ

__·,O,','"--'-C,'~"'-~'-C,'~"'~-"=~'"-"~~ ,-

Figure I 5.14 Trend, in Ecok>giml c.-.p""ily dnd Bioc.lpac'lv Sho,,~n~ the Ina""'" in Emlof.ical o.'"",h,'O! ""cr tl", L:>.t.w y",,,. (Rod-..... "~""'WWf l;'irg PIa"" I...,., 1201 2]., 2012 WM [p
Chapler5 lIiDk>gy

~ (ContjOlle d ) In fact, ",

global I'''pulatio" appmach"" J(J billi.,,, p"',ple in the "1"'0"';'1; dec,..Je" lhef(~)lprinl •• lke..I''''' '" 1.1 h.. ,>i f'T"duct;\'e bnd P"'" f"'''''ln will appH",h I h., placing e \"en m"", a ''''nt iun giml G>p;>I, >giG, Icapacityi_ much ~,wer than that "I Ihe United Slat", ((J.'/ h" p<" tho,

I"""',n), and it> curl"nl (">!print i_ much (2 1 ha!",," 1"""''''1.

~'w",. a,

well

1'."le ai,,, Ihat China h., nn ""diti,,n.,! "f'K~print" of it, own ,,, ulitiLe. Im ••gine wh•• t China', <,<,.,Iugiml 0""".1" .. , win be if it>. P"pulatiu" lOr m"", tr.an J billio" .• ttempt, 10 emulate the cUrTenl re"m,ce

c",,,ump!ion pattern> oi the United Sl"t~, (r~m~m ber th~ IPAT "'juation). In addition, ~'uu might a,1< Y()U,,~Jf wh~th~r it i, ~lhicalJy n"p()n,ibl~ for cili/.~n, of th~ Lnit~J 5Ial~, and olh~r d~,'e1op.,J c,mnlri"" !<, ,"""um~ Ih~ wmld', ",,,,,ore,,," al CUTf~nt non,u,tainabl~ r.• I"" wilh Ih~ T,,-,ult that I",,-d~,'~l oped c,mntn~, wi1l1acl< f~'()UfC"" 10 ,upF',rl fulun; d~,'d"pm~nl

From Equat,nn 3.11\, il is app., r~nt Ihal only Iwo options exi.1 fm reducing en,imnmelllal impact L Reduc~ populalion numbers (P) m

2.

RedUl'~ Ih~

magniluJo> uf

th~

per capila

d~maod (A "

TL

perh.., P' of pa ramm.,t i'" portanc"" a nd of afllue""" {Al M" policy-«)rienled ;,;sues many engineer<; worl< on. Other efforts of Ih~ engine.". in redllci,'G ~,,,,imnm~mal impact and a,handng s,,-"Llinability focus 011 {n, U", de..igll of greener less """",rce inl~nsi,'~ leClmologies and "-'" of a 'Y'lel'~' .lppmach and life
5.3


Thecharact... of Earth's mallY a "d ,ari«J ecffiy."'m, is d~l~rmi"ed to a larg~ ~.ett'''g ,,,clud,,,, climatic fa not require thai they be imported. En~rgy nows through and propel. eco>ystem.; that i" jl does not cycle bUI r alh~r i, converled 10 h"al and l,-",t for u...eful purf"""" fore, er,

5 3.)

ENERGY CAPTURE AND USE PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND RESPIRATION

n,e 'u" is r""pomible, d""ctly or ind"""'tly, for ,'i"ually all of Earth's e""rgy. Sunlight indd"'t 0" "n aqual;" or lerrestrial eco;y
Class Discussilln 1M 'fAT "'tL.6to.>n al""

"'.

aMr<_~",,,i_<

a'-

I'DW <'tLI,:>, ar.d ol1a~ art: ont.ic.ol'4CtO<'!> ir ",~"",r-"OIt:

~'opr.,,"", for """"'rI', ... u,e:Z h lir,al inrorr<. "...1-" ""aIt.I')I part''''' at" f"""M ~ ttl g=r

t.I-",

'* *,

""'''"~'" t.I1o!>< P"'''~ DI '*< "arid '" i«.oo\ "''' lJo'Uan "",cror".etTta1 '''P'''''- of ",co<""", ., ac,d aIIIc~nu. V\t1.... oo ao t.l1~ gk>bal "".","c ttl tH. rorrpk>< f""0It:"'?

f"'f"-"""'"

,.,.,.,a :a.

Class Discussilln .I, I. an 'wIo'Jo:aI100:..p"'T',

... "'" a~ a caroon foo:pri"~{ (Tho "",,,,,or i~ '"), Co ""'" fu
.&.

~·h,

t.,,,,,,.

'1"'''''''" t<> mro<.Jer. W,~ a "" ". "orr

"""....... p--"'" Dlm-I ~ ttl

""",a§
5..3 En"'ll1FIow in EcllSp!""s

tr,,!-val by plal\ll'igmells. p,im"nlychklmphyn, dnd thallighl el\..-gy l. <",w"ned toch"",kal""ergy througb" pmces.. photo'roth...is. A,tificial photo.ynthesis is th" I",m oft"" used tn d"",ibe ""gi""",ed SClI", or pl10lmnltaic c"ll 'y,I""'s d""igned to captu'" light "n"rgy and oo",·"rt it illlo "l'-"Ctrkal """'gy. Th" \.1.<;00 (If ",I", """'gy 1o "I\gm"",ed 'y""ms ralh", than Ih" oomi"g of f,,,,,il fu"l. can add"". many of Ih" Curt"lll ""vin,nm""t.ll chall""g-.. includ i"g air pollution, c1imal" chan8'" and d"pletio" of fin;t" reSClur""". Ch"n~CJ.i en"'"gy .Im",j through pho"",y,,,h"":, i, .utr..qu.miy mad" d"ailltol" f,r uwby mg., 'usn.... thn'ugh '''''I'ir~lion. Figu '" 5.m prO\'ides d <.impiifiOO "'p,,.,.,,,Lllioll of pllOl''''r''''",,,i,, ,ep""""'uoo a, follo\\"

"'",,00

PO"''''

I CQ,+H,O~.1-C(H,Ol+o, I

(5.1'11

wh"", .'I i, Ih" .un'. """rgy am] C(H,o) b a g"n"r~1 '''p",,",nl~ti(l'' of orf}' n ic ca (fer exa "'"I", g I ""''''''"'', \\ hid, i, C"H, A <>rl>C( H ,0)). Th" free-",,,,,gy char-ge (.'1(;) fo, phet,-,.,y"II"",", (Equilin" 5.19) i. f'<""tiw, so th" 'ffKtiet' coo ld "ot pn)C,..,.j '" ithcut th" inpl.l 01 """,'8Y f,on, th"sw\. Chl<>rophy II as"'!. a. an ant"nM, absorbing Ih" light "n"'gy, which i. th"n q",ro '" Ih" ch"",icall"",ds of th" carbnhyd'~t"" produced by thLs ,,,action. Oxyg"n i. an iml"',tanl by-product of th" p,ocf lagnon-ba<&l I",alln"m ,y,t"",-" R"'piralion i. Ih" p'oc"", by \\ hich th" ch"",icdl """rgy stor.,.,] through phnt""ynlh",;. i. uitll'Mt"ly r"l"a
,1>.,,,

(5.20)

Figure/5.l5 Pholooynlh",,;•• nd R"'piT.'ion (.) Simrlif>SY",II,,",,o pmc",,-•. Tn< ""'''8Y in ehe,m,.:.1 bond. ({OT ex.mpl,'_c,110011yd r.tes) is rd",,
0,

.,ored

"",,'
~ .... ""'" "'""""'" (I 09<'l. ",.. _"" ......

0110M "'>Ioy.!. s....·ln<·1

Chapter5 lIioIogy

,

CIH,OI

~.I'b

pn"'id,,, a ",mplified "'p..-"tal'oll of ,",""piratkm. The re' ........ (Of p....>tO;",lIlhesis, thi, reoction ",lea"..., ,toral elldy;). maLng lid' allabld"rCt'll reprOOuc!iOIl, allJ growth The e",,'"&.~. d.. nntrd .1 in eq.... tion 520. i. "l.ual b'l th.. m.., """'It} -50 f"""""'t) of the IOtaI hw,,~ of this reaction. Thu,. 1111 f.lrTTl' ,j d ..." ....allv a, an o,ldatoon-...-d..'b..... ,... ~o ....action, .. hieh can be .. nl!<'n ,n terms 10110.... mg t.. n hali·~ Fo.rst., tho> ,,,,dalt<>n •• tM ~ carh>n: Figur.!

,,"''''t'''''''''''',

(5..21)

.......... ttw '.IIt'nCe stal<' of carbon ~ fn.., 101 ,n ClH,:OIIo 14-) '" CO". ,ldd'ng four riectron>. ANI __.....-d. l\w n!'<.l"nic>n of 0.1'&=

tU21

.. tw... 1M 'ale""" n dethe!- oon'pow,"", lIS eIectmn 3CC't'f"'...... M.lny bact..ria c.lll ullli1A' "'\'ll"" lIS an electron """"f"'lI" bul ,n iloi a~l(-.' may util;"" enher Ollr.>te nr .... If"te. Soudt h>cleri.a ...... f«"M~I~ ~"",I", and I"" ... dNlnn. The wnns • ....-mnr and.1llIXJ(' an> f~ useo.l '~"""ymolJ;;IJ In .. _ ..... u-m.nI and

.
.','Il

i,,,,

""lW NI:u~ _

.pplic.alJOrlS, anou" r..-i'........ Ilw.a"" ... '-''''O\}'S''''

nsruauon

.axe'.....

and I'fO"""'b ... tlh 1U1J'al<>.II> the .......1 rul T.bIt> :;.1> preoI<'f1'-' redo>. ~ for o,oJ.tion nI o'lrpnK malter ""ing a 'a,....h oi a1tem.1le electron a.«Pj>1.-........... h ;I., "'I.a.... mmga--........ anoJ r.e.n.: ,ron. In the en, ..........,.,.... ~ 1'lMCt thought 10 taL? pl..1u ,n the ~ listed------tlw oo-der ,~ proc-.fs Hrst foI...... «t ~ Oltr.l1I'. moonganes<', f"",,,-" ,roro. and ... l'al".• nd fin.tD~ f...nno.>ntauon OCCUr<. This order ;" U>tI'no'J the «olOSioc.al ~(l), ..... WMif. ... ,Ih ~h f'I'O"""" ~ oul bv Jift t t~ f"'" of b.><."tena (for """''''plo>. n,t,..te redocers.nd ~"If~", ....J I.1\ow l....t ,n.U of t~ n"'t.ln... CO, Ls prod..,M frrm tIwJ<'grawt.,nolol"&'nir: nun...... n- ba~" CO, ..ouss;on,. a.... J ... hngui\IwU., a ,lIIf"""'l g....ohou.... gas emL""ion (but ...." ,hll,"'po:>rtaot) fn.m I.... CO , ..... ,Ital Is absent

sen

,.rtIo."

lrom burning 01 '''''''''1 fuels.

ManagingEcosrslems III Fight

I'tMIty "'f>J por~......,.;'

'"

~,...

Redo .. React;" ... fo,O.. ido~on of Organi< Matter Using Vorious Allier.... te Electron Acceptors EqUOlion No.

_....:, -Co, +

Kitr.te

C(H,O)-K~

HC~

\l.ng,n"",

ClH,Ol T Mn" - Mn" + Co, T H,O

+H,O

(523) (5211 (5.25)

Ferricimn

Org.mic compound.

ClH,Oj-SO.' -H,S+Co,+H,O

(5.1f»

C(H,O) - CH, - Co,

(527)

-

••

Figure I 5.16 Contribution of Vniouo Tenni n.1 Electron Accoplmstothe O,idalion of 0'll.nic MaUo, in Ibo Bottom W.INS 01 OnondaR. L.ko,

New York. (00)0 .... ffiIo'11 10000"to
Fe,menlalinn (Equalion 5.27) i, .>1, anaerobic proc"", medialed b~ }'ea,ts and c~nain bacreria and djff~r,; fmm tl1~ OIlier reaclion, in lllal organic matt~r i, .-.xid i7ed Wlthoul al1 ext~nMI ~lecl"-'" acceplor. H~re, organic compound, """'~ a, both Ih~ el""tm/\ donor and Ih~ ~Iectron acc«plor. l"t'>ulting In 11\ n ~nd products, one of which i, m.idi700 " ilh r"'l""'l to th~ sub,;lral~ and Ihe nth~r of "hich i, roouce
La"".

5.3.2 TRCYHK: STRUCruRE IN ECC5YSTEMS In addlt~)n I" e"""gy. Mgan;"m, require a .,nurc~ "f carborc Organ;,;",_ Ihal nbui" Ih~ir carbon frmn Inorganic compound, (I", ~.xample. COL in Equation ;.19) "'~ called aulotroph•• 1<,,-..~ly IraJc.1.lI~d a, ,~If-feed~rs. TI,Is cal~gmy includes ph()t1-..ynthetic organi,nc~ (green planls. including alga~. and ,om~ bacI~ria) Ihal u"" lighl a, Ih~ir en~rgy ,ource and Illtrifylllg bacteria that u,e amn",nia (KH,) a, Ih~ir ~"ergy ",urc~, TI,e siml-~e carbohydra"'" pwd""ed thrgy

in [,quat;on ~.19 arid II.... nlO'" rompl", organic d,enlkal. '}'nll"",iud 1.It"r (for ,""tanee. ;,tolrch. ,,,lIuh_, bts, and p,,"ltt;Inl art' collecti,...I!, t.... med organi< nuuer Organi.m, that depend on organic n,att.". I'"ld"""'" by others 10 ob\;11l\ Ihdrc.rbon ar" tem,al heterolrophj;.]<>< y tr"""lItal as other l"<'de.... ThO. Cdrbon ......."'" could be a ;""",1 ~~I... uch ... mt1h.>~ tCH.1 nr a more cornrle>. ,'h""''''al ;,uch thoc1eri.1 lr Glrbal ..oo ........rg_ In"" orsal1k ...... Iter and thus ..rt' ut<"g(lfUi'd ... Iwt...-otrophs. T1w amounl 04 .-.ganlC "",""r pt~t al an_ "",nt In II""" '-' tht' s~ '.'O'nl'. bi eg C/ lor DW fl.g C/m' '" DW' m'l.a nd lhi' .... Ie 01 proJud.... of~ ,.. '" t1,... ;,~ ~.,...... prod"",i. II)' egC /1...J.., or DW I L-dooy. g CI m--dooy or rnV'm--dlyl. Pn-n, p-rNUiJ_ refw< 10 the J"v*'oi'_ntlwuc gener""on of orga_ ...... lO'r b\' rlaras .. 00 certa.ln ~ aJ&,""ln bl,.".and fk.ldc"'f'" on land. 5tm pnmuy prodttt"'" 10 8",n "1l<'r'!I~ and ten.o.6 ..nd", lurn g"......a ... mo.... blOnl..oL'fi th~h gn th. 5«ond.1')o prot1uc""" indu.... l.or>pIdrU..lon in ....uat ~...I"rn. OO cattl<' on I.. ."L Th" Inlrhk, or f..."jing .lrudU in "';0'" ,t"m< i. comp<>le simpl .. ,h...micdt. "nd ut,hze the ;,un'. """rgy In prod uce and Slor.. "'m"lh. "nergy-rich compound. lhal J'ri"'itl" an o'Sanis", "ilh ."b~tanc" a"d .! tropl,ic le,·..l, Me p,l""h'" (tenia')' and qU.ltPrlIary cOn.u m~",). C"nsu",..", that eat both I'I"nt ""d d nimal mal~ri8ll MP t"rmed omn;~o"", Rgure ~.17 iIIu;,!rat... II", \'ariou.~ nulrit,,,,,,,1 nr tmph..: I...... ~. in a ... mpl.. aqu.ltic food ehai n. This i. a llJl mnre up fnc>tl ,,'~bs ~u. h a.' the one ....... n tn Fill;Ul'I! 5.111. L,J..e" the """rial fooJ ch.un iDu.trati'd in Figure ;.19 L. a h ""b--.>t of tl><' cnr_p••n.hng food .. ;>b UI Figurt' ;.11).

I~

rllOl<"'~ l\th.'''i~C(H _OJ

"<

Tl,,"'''

fMod Chain for 1ak~Sll porinr l'h'·l''l'l\n~l"n ..re

rrim.>ry prod,"'...... ".'I'I.ln~t"n are rnmarv en"."mo'" ror ""fbi",,,... ,md the .,ie"·,f,, and L,I..' l",ul "'•. """,ndarv and lert",,,, ",n,umo'.... r'''p«hel<', both ,am"..........

099\-...._.."'.,...,...-

' _........., 1

_W.,.
.i...,1t> '....

T'ho! fi",t Ia" oIltwnnoJ ~....... ;"s.Ia~1""' ...... '8" caRr>;>! hoecf\>aaJ or destr""o..l, bulIlC.anhoecon.-ertedl"""..... f.. mtn.....'th App6ftlto .an

t'o:''''' ~t""'. thos Lo"

that "" ""&"n,,,m Cdn ' 1" ,ts "'" n """"S. ~upph For pIe. pLtnL. t~h on I " for ~. and gruing .lni""'!,. .... ~ plants (and Ihus mdJr 'I~ on t1w
..,j

DiSOlSSiorl ...

,

...

_....

53.3 THERMOOYNAMK:SANDE!'EIlGYTllANSfER

Aqua~e

F1gurI15.17

~.....

...

t'o'r'!'

....,..,.,. .. a....e-.~...,

..., P"'" ~

-~

-

""'"

_ _ '" "'

........ ...:l\

_~~5co.'l.I'~..... .... """'-~ C.,.... _"....., 1oo
-""to....

~

__

d,~ :-q.- """""

..or.

_"_"I"'~""""'= III ,....-'" nt' ~ '""' ""

_

t.. ..,...., -., '" , ......a< ~lIC'\I-'" __ f ~

~.d""' ~

__

,

lhat~y

5..3 EntogyflooilnEcOIphmS

,~r_R1"",,,

_

G----L---figlr8 I 5.18

Fnod Web for l.ke Superior

ThLs illuotration slu"," the more mrnplex inlc'lTelatio...,h,1" enmmonl,' f"und in ,n c'X,,,,,,t,,m,

Food arlll Climate h1.'f'"Jlwmv_'ac~dlm.n=h

Chapler5 IIiDk>gy

.... q<'"

Fig1r8/5.19 Simple food Ch..in lor. P<~irie [<... )"otem ThLs "''P"-"""L,I",,, indud""., prim."" prod= (,wit,-hgr.,,) .,nd pri"",.,· (gra",hopF"'-'fI, scomd.uy (lJ.loO"-od ground "luirn>l\, and l<"rli.J.ry (coyote) con,umeN.

The ""'"nd la" of thermodynamic.. ,lat", th.. t in ",-ery "nergy lr..n.lmmatiOll, ",me energy i' 1",,110 heat a"d becomes un...... n.'ble to do work. [n the food w"b, th" inefficiencv 0/ en"rgy Iral"fer i, reflected in 1"""" (Figur" 5,20 (potemially recycled through th" microoi.ll loop) and resp"ati,'n (heat). Be
Rgur1/5.20 [""y.t~m

SimpUfiffi Food

W~b

for a P.. i,i~

n,., «1)"'''e. idenllfied a< a temu)'

.,,,,1

mn:>d ,holm (Figure 'U9). '" <"'.'t1 WIthin the ronte,t oIlh.~nh", f,m woo to be an omn""'''', While "'" 10<>.:1 woo may "",m comple>, it i< actu,ny.
;, Kan., ,by Do

--........~ The

A"''''''Y

"*,,""""""

1-.pod"" ..... ~""'" Pro;'" S>oto Un._,;,yI

Class Discussion . .& tl.od on t-ee ,,-'ormr,",,, . V ~ ,n ~ .......,., 5.3. - ...t..... 'YP" at dirt ..ooid ",;o"r", the ""...."" ".,cul ,,,. p3CI. """""..",,; wtt.l1 'ood I "",""",.7

!>o,,,.......

Food We Fa!' Transfer of FoPlUV liP Ill! HllmjIJ Food DIaD

bch p'''''''' in Ihe United St.te, annually wn,um"" an a,'erage "f 1911 lb "t me.t, Mme th,n 6(1 milli"n p"uple wmldwide ""uld be fed "n Ihe gr.in .... ,'ed ii Arnerirn", reduced t"'ir meat int.ke by jU>t 1U p.",",nt Where we li,e un the f""d eh.,in h •.• "th.,,- impact> " "ell C""side, tr., f"lklwing (G~tdl.nd, lW7):

• Agrirulture ro'~'U
• Seven pounds of cattle feed is required toproduce a pound oibeef. coml" ",d wdh 2 Ibof fish feed fer some aquaculture s""",ie,;. Cattle are al", one 01 the bigg""l produce", of methdne. a pOlent g"",n· hou", gas.

• Another 21l"'rcent of the land is "sed as pasture 10 graze 111 ""lock lor meat and n"lk products. Marginal bnd lor past"re,; makes !-"""sible the production of n,eat and milk producls on I.,nd un,u,tdble lor food cr0l-".

• In Ihe lIlUtro Siales, lo.t ",ulinn calile are the country's lIrge;t ll..er of grain

• 1\1,>;t cropland is Ihr",,""....:1 by atl",,<.t ""'" type of degradation (iocluding e"",ion,
• Growing an acre of en", to feed caltle lak"" 535,~ gal1m~s oi water. Currentl) inlhe L1nited State.<. i'lh"iJ I"'rcent of the corn a
5.3 En"'ll1FIow in ECIISpt"".

'-----

orloot_ho.. _ flO

Ion\IOJ avaQblo

10 Ih
ina Fo<>d W~b A
<""t1al p.>rt oftht, """rgy inSeeTetion. de,uh, and "",piT.'Mn. Th" inefoc;,..ncv of oO<'logy tn world l"'P"l.>tinn growth.

FIg ... /5.21

E~"'KY Loo ...

If""" M;>.o!ci< I' 9991· 1... ,,1od """ f*"';,"""01 Jol>o Wilor & s...., "'·1

I --~ I I I-,-,I_-_-------..JI--I Fig .." 522

Ene'l\Y Pyr..nid Showing lo.. of En,,'l\Y 10 D,,'riti,-ory and R..piralion with Mo,-rmenl up lh. Food Ch.in A ,urpri,ingly ."",11 fTMtIOn of the """'m·ongin.llly fi,ed n'm.Jin. ,,-,iL,ble In tr.n,f.". In high....trophic 1e,.."I>.

IF""" ....1>ok;c IT0991·1...'".... Chapler5 lIiDk>gy

""'",-..d- oIlol>o WI.oy

& Som., ""·1

5.4 Oxygen Demand: Biochemical, Chemical, and Theoretical Tilt! topic of "_'ygen dem~nd invol,es" <;\gni/ic3r11 3mount of ne" tenninology and nOlalinn, a, ,ummar/zed ill Table 5.7.

5.41

DEFINITJONOFBCO,CBOD,ANDNBOD

Organisms de,;, e the energy ''''lu"",d for ",,,i"lenanc,, of metabolic function. growth, and reproduction through the pre,."""",; of fermenlal;"n "tid '''''pi,at;on. Bolh organic "nd inorganic mailer may "erv" ", ~our«" of Ihat energy. C/r""wlocl<'ro1rol,lI; are organis"" that Uliliu, organic maller-e(Hp>----a" a carbon and energy ,""ure" and, under aerobic conditions, consume oxvgen in obldinins thai

energy' CiH,O) +0, - Co,

+ H,O_..\.

(5.28)

ClI,'"w""lolw/>I" are organi,,,,,, Ihal ulilize CO, a, " carbon source aod Inorgank "utte, a, an energy ,.,uree, "nd u,ually mn"um" oxYlleo io obtaining that energ) , All ."ampleof chemoautolrophy is niltiiication. the ",icl'obial ro,wersion of ammonia I,~ ,,,,rate (with bicarbonale ion romribuling COol' NH, +

_

2HCO., _ 20, _ [\10, - _ 2CD, _ 3H,O _ .l.

(5.29)

Oxygen Demand: DefinitionandNatation AIII..-rM hove u..j.ofmg o,!L. BOD

Bioclrrn ,cal ru:Vgcn dmlQuS_lhe amoun I of oxygen Uu1",,-od by m I
ThOD

Tll/:orctic.1 "r~~clI d","o ,>I-the amo,,,, Iof owg'''' uti Ii7ed by mlc<"'''-< a rd I ornitr,,/;onou. nrganic m.lller. assuming lhal all of lheo,&,nl< matt",. i. su~,,"o m,crobi..,1 breaWo"". 1h.1l is. il is biod'''8r>d.lble

BOD.,

('ioclrrrr,iClili urlf:.::I of 5
000..

UlI,m~, ('i",h
uxy,\'/erring 1o it< potential formv!\en mnsumptlo.:Iahnn.

COD

C"""",,,I "-'YSrnd1 o"d.lnl. e,p"--......od m "wg"" «ju,,-alents. requi.ro tn completely o,>.:Iiz-" a
hlo.~

""'"8""

F" f'" f' f'" f'" f'

f'" f'" f'" f'" f'" f'"

f'

f'" f'"

FlglI'e I 5.23

" --

Ch~mi<~1 SlJuchLr~ of

Rep"'''''''''' i ,-c C~,bon~"""u, • od Nit"'llonou. Compo.md.. Muniop.-.l

"·.",,w.te, cnnl.m, a ,-o,! numlx-r"'d,ffe,ent "'&'''''' ch''mI<:dL., including _'u~.'" (2il-l'i"l

), amino and fatty add. (1m I

""id. (-l
(11",0<1,," MoI 10M W.I.\, & s.om.. no·1

Chapler5 lIiDk>gy

In lhto;" microbIally mediated redox ,..,aet;m~" the "Iecl"''' dOll"", are C(H,O) 'oJ NH, ~ .•"d the eledmn acceptor i, 0,. Oxygen" COll"umed in boil, ,e.lClions. lIiochemical oxygen demand (1100) can thLL' be defined a. the amount of oxygen ulili7ro by microorganj.n~, in perfonning the oxidation. BOD is a measure of Ihe ".trength" of d waler or "-a'lew.!,,r: Ih.. greater the mn,,,,nlrali,)n of ammonia-nitrogen or d<'gradable orga"ic carbon, the higher Ihe OOD The ,,,aclio,,sd,,,,,,,ibed by EqLl,uions5.28 .. tid 5.29 arediffe",,,na,,,d b.l-.l on Ihe SOJrce mmpi.lu"d for llw elooro" d"n"" mrl.,,,,,c,'<'''5 and "ilrog."",,,,. Chemi~al ,'reng'h (mg C(H_.o)/L or mg NH,_N/LJ is e,pressed here in term, 01 it> impd~1 on Ihe e,,, ironment (oxn;en ~..""u",.,.j,in mg BOO/U This is re~.......,n!aHon by ellec~ a, diOCMled ",ilh a di.'e"", and b.llan~ed aquatic ee...ystem_ Domeslic and industrial wasles often cnmain high le,els of BOD, which, il did where the ,upply of BOD and "'ygen, Ihe a,'ailabilily of Ihe microbial populations thaI mediale the proces" and the rale .,t which the oxidalim" Ihe",,,,I\''''' U:qu.,t!ons 5.211 and 5.29) proceed may "" ~ar..rul1y cnntrolled. TI,e efli~ie,,,,y of BOD remm al is a common perfon"ance charae:ten_"i~of ",a,te" ater treatment plants, and BOD is a major fe.lture of treatment planl di.
5,4.2

SOJRCES OF BOD

The simple carbohyd r.It.... produced Ihrough photosylllhe,i, a,.., u"."j by planl< and animal> 10 synlhe"ize ",ore oomple, c-aroo,,-ba do,,"lheam in" adds, yIeld ing a carbon slelet"" (CBOD) and an amino group_ Con• e""on ollhe an,in" group 10 ammm\ia (amn",nificati"n) enmpleles the degradation proces-. The an"""nia j, Ihen available 10 exert a nilrogenous biochemiClI o'yg"" dem.nd INBODI Equalion 5.29, whe" utilized by microorg.nism" Figure 3.23 Ill"-~Ir.ltes Ihe chemical strocture of ,om" rep"",,,,\lal;,;> carbollannus alld niln)gen"us compounds_ DOl\\ffilic \.a,t",,'ater and many industrial wa""" are highl) enrich&! j" organic m.,tter c""'pdred wilh "atural "ale",. Protei"s and carbohyd rales (m",~ut» 90 pen.:enl of Iheor&,nic matler in dome;tic" aste""ler. Sourc""i nd ude feces a" d urine Irotn h u ilia"" 1""d " aste Irmn smb; soil and dirt from bathing, "ashlll8- and Idu,>dering; plus .ariou, ""'I"', delergent" and olher deaning products. Wastes from

""ruin in..h.L~lries, such as bre,,'eries, canneri..", and pulp and paper pmduc...-s, also ha,'e ele"ated le,'eb of "rganic m,llkr, Table 3.8 pr",e.nb BOD ,'alues for ,ome. re.pre.se.,,'ative ,,'a,les. Eve.n ''''polluted natural ",alers rontain some BOD, as<.<>ciat...J ""h Ihe carbonaceous and nilrogenous organic maUer d ... rived Imm lhe. Ivalers/,ed and 1m", lhe. "ale.rs lhem",l,,,,, (fer ex"mple., fr.... n decaying algae and macrophytes, leaf liller, and f""al m,.tter fro", aqualic organi,,,lS), Di",,'lI...J-oxygen 11'.11'1> in ,urla"" ",aters...xcluding tho,... ",ilh e.xces,i,e. algal pl>olosynthesis and a!lendant 0, pmJuction-.,flen are. bt
5.4.3

800 of Seleded Waste Stream.

Dom<'
wa,_kwalor Pulp,nd J'<'per mill

THEORETICAL OXYGEN DEIMND

COmmerTIdl laundr.'

Theoretical Hysen d ... mand IThOD), gken in "'g 0 .,fL, i, calculated from the stoichimne.try oflhe. oxidatio" reactio", i", ohoed, A seneral a pprOdCh f", ca leu la tion of (a rl"",am,,,, n ,aD (Equa Ii on 5.211) is ofj"rro by a Ihr....-step pmeess pro"ided in Table 5.9. The. cdle"lalio" i, similar for the oxid .•lion of ammonia (1':H .. • lit Equalion 3.19) to nilrale; 2 moles (or M g) of oxyge" are C01.L~umed for 1'., ery mole (or 1,1 g) of ammo"i.l-nitn-.gen oxid ized. Noll'. Ihat ammois repU"ted a, mg N IL al 14 g/"\ole, n~ asa nunmia ( 17 g/",,,le) or ammonium (18 g/n.ole). Th... qoichlC>lnelrk coefficienl for oxidatio" 01 ,utrogenou_, wa,les i, Ihus (,4/14 or 4.57. A w,.L'te.mnlaining 50 mglL of NH,-N "ould ha,'e a "il,o!!""o", n,OD of 2-"9 mg/L

,... lO,lll(J

15,om

n"

Cty,,,,,..-anning

53/OJ

;,.,1",,'

Step. to Calculo.. the Car-bonaceous ThOO

-

S lep I

W,,'" 'ho '''lualion d"""ribi~ lty, ",,
Step 2

&1• ...,0 the "'I0,II.,on In tho followlllg ""l""no.', (al bal,nce!he noni>.-.,. of carbon .lomo; (bl balall<..., tho nomoc.,. ofhydrog,-'O alom.o;and (d b.ll.nce "'" norm",- 0; ='gen .1100"_

ta) place a b III fronl of CO;, 10 balance tho <.rboo; tbl pL= a 'I in tront 0; HP '0 balano<' 'he hydrogen, and (e) plaoo a 7_ 'i in fron' oitty, ""l'g"" 10 bal,nco lho owg"'"

SI"p 3

U.., tho otoid"omorryol tty, balanced chc.-mical ""cbon, .pplying "nlt con",,,,,ion,, 10 d,"erm;ne theca rbon,x""", 0

A,,'ume the Inilial ,,,,,o.'nrr.!>on 0; lot.'07.ene

~D.

co,

For

H,D

b<.'O""""

I;" ml! b.."'7-""" L

I mok be""-,-",,, 7~ g OC'OT"""

,

l'i6 mg/L

73 moll,o, "",10 oc",,,'Oe

,12 gO, , moleo,

e x am pI e 15.6

Oetermination of carblllacews, Nltrogeoous, and Total ThOO

A w~.te rontains 300 mg/l of C{H,o) and SiJ mg/l of NHrk Calrolate the carbo'IM"'lU~l1,OD, ,he m'mgenOl..l' l1,OD, and the 1<>1.>1 l1,OD of ,he" a.le.

solution Refer '0 T~ble 5.9 if you need ~ re"iew of Ihe o~iualionof C(H,o) t,) CO, and water.

prl\Ces.~ 10

b~lallced

write the

equalion u",""riblllg ,he

C(H,Oj +0, - Co, -+- H,O l1,e re~ct,on .how. Iha, 1 ,nole of oxygen i, r"'1.u,red '0 ""idize each mole of ClH ,0). 11,e c~rbona"""us l1>ODi,detemlined from lhe sloichinmetrv, 300 mgqH,Oj x

g xlmoleOH,OJx lmoleo, ",32go,x 1.Offimg Hlm"'g 30g0H,m moleC(H,O) moleo, g

32fl "'giL

Next, wrile ,he balanCt!d equalion d""cribing oxid.llion of ammonia-ni'fIlgen to "itra,e: !':H,-2O,-!':O, -+-H· _H,O n,i, reaclion shOl." ,hal 2 moles of oxygen are requi~ 10 oxidlz-" eMh mole of !':H ,. Be a" are that the ammOflia coocenlralion i. reported a.~ mg Nil, not mg!':H ,Il. The "itmgl!1"".I-, ll>OD i-, determined fmm ,heSloichiometry: ....

, ......

~.,

.,umg,~",-"

LX

g IOmrng

"

1mole"'H,-N ,. x Hg"'H,

"

11,e tolalll,ODof the waSleequal.320 -+- 229

5-1'}

2moleo, moleNHj 1'\

X

"' "':;:'_' ' 8

32gO,' xmoleO,

g

2:Nmg..l

mgll.

To detem,ine Ihe 1<,1"1 nOD of a wa.Sle Slream conYi"ing multiple chemical. (for example, ammon~, and organic mauer), add the conlribu,iOl-'-' of the componen, compound, (see Example 5./>l. The ,toichiometry for ()~,da,ion of amm",,,a does nOi vary (tlla, i., Equalion 5.29 hold. in all cases) because ammollia-ni'fI-.gen occurs in only one form" "h ni,rogen in a 'illgle ,alence -'la'e. 111i. is nOi Ihe c~se for carbon-ba""<:l compounds (Ih.u i., [quallon 5.28 does ,,," hold in all case.), as organic carbon exi," in • wide variety of chemim I .~",c;"'; with carbon in ",,-eral ,-ale"", .Ia''''''- For th .. re""on, Ihe reaclion 'lo,chiomelry for e~ch CMb"I\-oo.""<:I compound must be in'!-"",Ied a,,,.1 ,he oxida,ion equali01-'-~ I",lanced indh-idually,

5 _4.4

BOD KNETlCS

The l1>OD calculation defines ,he o'ygen requlremen, for comple,e oxidation of amn",nia-nitrose" 10 ni,rale--ni'I\>gen or a carbo,,-ba"'-'>i compo"H1d 10 carbon dio,ide and wa'er. l1,OD d,e< not, h,,,, e,-er, offer any inl",,,,,,,;,,,, regard ing ,he lilelilwld ,1~lI Ihe reactinn "ill proceed t" comp It< i"'~ Fnr N BCO, ,I" sis n,,1 a n is....e, bee.!. u,., ammon ia-" ~rol}'n is re.ldily oxidized and the 11,OD "nd .\ClualI\BOD are idento:aL Carbon"c",)u, compoullds, III contra,t, are nol all ea.ily or comple,ely oxidized by micr(J()rgani,n-,-. (biodegradation), and the rale of tha, oxida,ion may vary" idely among dillerent "",rces of ol)';"nlc , Chapter5 lIioIogy

maUd. r,.... ~"'!l\I'I~. II... ca.bon-cont.uning ' np''''",J' p,;-<;en, in d 'itrrci'MI1l cUI' art! "'" as b ..-.d~rdddblo< dS lho f.>und ;0 ,"-"" I"d' ""', dnd bo,~, "'~ l~ b,oJ.. gr.. dJ.ble I","", Ih.. c..""", Wlllf"-'nd ,hal con«",ul"" _uga'. Thus. "hil.. a ""'-'" of , .. rbon " .......ol ..S sugar or tn'o' l"d' ~ or';.. mh",m ""'y """,, the ... In<' ThOD. t\..,;r .>o:lual ""}"lI"'" d .."",oo ""''" 1>0' sut>st " " ,.. d rnmpl<'_ m"tun' of (say, St~ rof""m + t"-"" ....., sugarl. Jl"""o'fll In '''ry log ..........nlS. ".>0:1'1 '" Ith d difh>rO'nt w.;>/ .w bio-..J"1l,M1.bil't~ Th., ''''''r~ 01 m.~~ndlng"~ is.oddl'&,"", through BOD l".. C~ tho> ""..taIJOn of organ" ""'IIO'1'OS d functio.. of """', a>o ~n on ('is'''''' ~2~. In FogUfO' 3.1-" 1" os t1wCIlOO .. ~ (""Y8""" """",,,mo>U. on "'IS O,il). and r.. is the CIlOO ~UlIng (~l.J.ll1o nftIU_ (»<,~. in mg 0, L) .. "'n~ lime. r, A, r O. ooCIlOO has ~.......w(",... Ol... n.:Ia.ofthep«... balf....o"g... c.-t..........,bon ....... n' fL, La. I"" ullun"l.. C600l. As ,he ""dat,on ptol.""'" bO'gl........... ,goon is ~ CCIlO[) .. ",...-t/oJ .nd .w. ,rocr"..._ l. and the l"lOI~t",llo ......... ulm' o'ygen ... M:luced tCBOD remaInmg. l." d<'Cn>i_I. no. 'd'e ..1" Iuch CIlOO is "'O'II..J ;, 'dpid at 6"'1, butLl'....

,"""""ats

l'l,'' '.

0

3-

t, 1 I ~ u

0

"'

"r

0

•

r

I

~

0

lbl

F1

n

'0

2lI

30

00

rn.t...-l

,U. 81 h ic.l O,ld.6onof0<&Jnic " talCllOD od, w• .md lbICBDO .........""nj\.1

)Mo-.:11999I - . - " '....... _.Wioy&SoM ....

hnrlionof

Iu""""'nI h"""

it slow< dod eventually apprOdcloes zero as an of the biodegraddble organic mdUer h." been ",idizM. n,e tCltdl "mOUnt of oxygen con.umed in oxidizing the ,,-a,te l, th" .. ltimate CIIOD (L"l. The expooentidl decline in COOO renMining {L, the potential to consume oxygen}, illu.lrated in I1gme 5.2·lb, can be nlC.:leled dS a firstorder decay:

,"' G -

-I<,L

(5.30)

where k e i, theCilOO react"n ra!>! coofident (day-I ), Equ.lIi"n5.31 ca n be integrated t" yield thedl",lytic.
Nnlo! that y" theCElODe,""led"tany lime I (s'"' I'igure5.2-la), i, gi,en by the difference between the ultimate COOO and the CBOO rema",ing: y, Lo - L, (5.32) Sub-.t,tuting Equati"n 5.31 into Equati"" 5,32 yield<:

I

!I,

LoU-e"'ll

(5.33)

Rearrange to) ield an e.'pres.,i"" for the ultimilte CBOl);

Lo

.~,

11 " "'}

(5.J.j)

Equation 5,31 "apple:! in predicting the change in COOO over IIIne in natural a nd engin""roo ,y<;len~. EqUillinn 5.31 can be u<.utn com en la oord tory mea",re"", ntsof C BOD (COOO~ d iscu ,>ed . ba>ed on the stoichio",etry of Equation 5,28 (4.57 mg 0, COJLnd 1.>&< tn.,t 01 c.ubnnoc.'ou< dem.:loo bO<",u,", the nitrihing fl
Figure I 5.25

~hoki<[19'I'I11_;...d,.;thf*"""~

mw,&x....1o<1

. Chapler5 fIiDk>gy

~

S

'00

• Totol BOO, CBOD, NIlOtl

., '00

" 0

00

•

00

!

•

•! • ~

00

"

00

0 0

'"

"

00

Timo (.-,01

RIIU~/5.28

V~.i~ij .. nl in R.t~ al W~ kh O'II.ni< M,Uer to $I.bili""d, MonoCled In lh Ko.d;nn R.I!n,ng.. /. Im8 U. ''''''''ing 1'11""1 nI '-,'''''Iio", in Il, ~""'II 'I99l _."'""""..""""'...... oIJohow.a.,.... 5om, "" I

5 45 CaCORATECOEfFK:IENT ~.Kh"n

tu

CBOO r"ku1Alj(l"-~. is .. n,...'ur.. oI" th.. bl<>Jl'gTdJ.ab~il"!of.. "LV. Tho> n>l.lt.,n.;"h,p ber.. ""n ilL ..00 I"" r.lt.!'o of CBOO .... enion (dylJll.rod c......, ,,mpt..... (dL/dJl is 1I1ll.nl .... pr_'lI...J in T.ble5.10 R 'bn... in th.!m.lpullld.. 01 t. .. lwn ""''' Ing ",om unl.....1<'\.1 dorne.. M". 10 I...... ted d,..wn A< ...th t micmbs.ll'" nwd... ~ I"'~, \;01.- for 1M CIlOD .. nd ~BOD l'NCticwl ,.Ito, nw{l;n;".,ts ,~ ",th temper.I"... \-"l~ ror lho> C900 reoction ,.". <.'O...T..._I ra" hi! ""pt'l"lnwnto>lv ,n th.> Iob.....~ usmg the n..-..~l/lII'IhM_\ ~

1lw

,at;' «l<'lfk",nl,

uuhz<'d

In

d.>t"""''''''''

lIWrl~riCllOD~(1II1

...... lI'Iadf>d...h lori-10.u., V.aI..-1ot the f"ran,~I VI' . a""'~I.I.Ia1.and l:.. L~d~ .... m,Otd f,,-.mll..- rd'r>g '" Equation 5.35: i,

1i_01

~Iope

11".,,,--.,>1

15.351

._e.. .

5.10

10111'11 of Vol... lor to..

t'"

elOD

.I, ,,",'

:O_ll'i scutCl ~ ..... _ ~ ' " , -,~

5.4.6

BOD: MEASURfMENT, APPUCATION. ANDUMITATIONS

Noch"mi""l method ofaO
,,,,1

.,,,d

5.11 Fo......... le Conditions forthe BOO Test Gondilion

--

"",1""'.,,,,. ,,',teI"..

""""'nee, ,f a ppmr""'" micr<>:>rg.mi",,,,

T YF'CdIJ~' abund,ol in untreated aoo tn.'<1"'\:1 dom""ti.e and mf>'! ""tu••>! wato"", mic","ial I"'pulaoon.. a," abs.."flt 01" presco' m 10", oumbo."" in "",nv Industri.:ll 01" di,inlect"d ",a-"~"" and in «>me n.,tu,al 10 II",,,, <"
Fa,wable and c""-",,,"enl locuba hem ",,,,:l,tions

s.,mrl"""f<' I",-""baled at20 C to'-"'OOU"lIe mlCmbial acth",>" (........ plr.. tino ,. leml"-""..ture.tea>mf""-...o 01 ,,",ult. among """'pIing Ioc.>tion.,nd the I.J.bo"'orie< pt"r"rming the """,,,,,. Til onsUf<' tMt n,,'8"" " nnI mmpl<'ldy derl<'led "<.'fmc ,I><- c'lld <- iO<"Uballem period, a......ted d,lullo", ",..t", 1< addcod. 1l\cdllution ",.. 'e, "",,,_,I... con!.:>in io",&",ic nutricn .. (fn. """mrle. Pe_ 1\'."00 Pl n'<]uired by lbe microbe<. Some ""'y be I""i.e to mio"",,&,oidju.ted and diluoon ""tor .>dded to reduce or d,m,,,,,te t"wi!)·. Tl\c BOD b\ro.'''''y c' conducted m the do,~ mhib,t o")1\on prodUctJOfl Ihmugh phoc""yot1u5k .h",,1d olgae be tbe ca"e 101" ""'ov ""mrl"", rmm

W"'L""

'0

1"',-",,,,,.,, "

""tur.,l w,"-.... 5ef'Ma';~ OlODaod

Chapter5 lIiDk>gy

1\'BOD

The .... nd.>rd BOD '''''' me..str". bo,h CBOD .. nd NBOD. On "cCd';on. it " o~'Ce<""ry '0 '''I',,,.,'e ,he two proc"""-",, ,,, "'rporl rl..o' d'-"'Ign 0' ope,..ti,,,,. A CIl..'1""C.1I ""',. be .>
example/5.7

Labofatory Determjllltion of CBDD

A 15 mL waslewaler sample l~ placed In a standard JOO mL BOD boUle. and the boWe b lilled ",th dilulln" waler. Th" bottle had an Illitial dC<&l!\'ed-oxy sen conce"lration ()f 8 "'g/L and d findl dis.-day incuballon period. The BOD reaclion rale roeflidenl for Ihe waste Is O.4/day. C,lculale Ihe 5-day (y,) a"d ullimale (l.",) BOD of the w' a,te" at",.

solution The BOD.; (y,) is Ihe amount of oxy sen co,,-,umed original sample. This carl be I ' flUen a, folio" SO

DO",. ,,' - DO,.... '

y,

Equation 5.33, w,lh I

ml sample toullesl volume 5 and "'" ~

exam pI e/5. a

"

"

lhe 5-day perlox:! corrected for Ihe dllulion of Ihe

'm,0,

,

2mgo,]

,

,

120mgO,

15ml JlllmL

day, is Ihen applied 10 determine Ihe uhimate BOD;

~;

e' _I

0\ er

, )

"

,,_M""..."

,

lJ8mgQ. <""~')

DelBrminalion of Safl1lle Size lor the BOD Test

Remember from Chapter 3 Ihallhe amou"t of oxygen Ih"l UI" be Ir",x,ferroo 10 "'ater from the atmosphere is ,,01 ,ery high (Ihal j" maximum .....Iubillty of 8-12 mg 01/L for ""Ier equilibrated wilh Ihe almosphere). MOSl w,,-,Iewaler ""mples Ihu, ha,e n'ore BOD 10 exerllhan the amounl of oxygen avai!.able in lhe BOD sample bOltle. Ileh'ed-oxygen re,naining be allea,1 1.0 n'g/l.

example/5.B (contiooed)

solution TI,e minimum and m"-xi,,,um ... lim.ued dilution ""n be detennined a, follm,'" minimum dilution(eJ""lr'" al ledSt 2 mg, l ol oxygen i. depleW) i. delermined a. full,,,, ,. ml ... mple added to the BOD bottle

min,mum ... mple (in mL)

minimum allowable oxygen depletionl in mg/l) " mlume of BOD boUle{;n mL)/estimaled BODjin mg II

:(8mgo,iL - r,mgO"l) X 300 mL 100mgo, L (,00,--100

12mgOliL" :lOOml), 100mgo, l I 'iml .... mple added toJOOn,L boUle

Maxin'ulll dilulion (ensures Ihal 1 mg/l of oxygen remains in Ihe bollie at the end oflhe lest) is detennlned as follows. ml .... mpl., added 10 tlw BOD bollle

ma.~imum ,;.ample(in

mLj

ma~i mun,

allowable oxygen depletion(i" mg.-'Ll " ,olume "f BOD bOltle(in ml),.- estimated BOD( in mg,.. l)

,\8mgo, L - I mgo" L) ,,3m mL, 400mgo" L {7mgo,iL

~

300 ml)/400 mg 0" L

2.100/100

5.25 mL added " Ihe 300 IlIL bott\>, Bealuse tl", BOD value u.<;ed to "'Iim.ue Ih" ""mple volume j;; 0Il1y all "'limale, .\I1d BOD bottles do not always ha"" a volume of exadly 300 ml, ,e.-eral boltles wilh differenl "olumes of ""mple are typically WI up 10 en..ure Ihallest requlrem""," are n,et. For example, in thi, ""ample, four botlles mighl be ... t up lhal u... sample .ize of I, 3, 4, and 6 m L TI,e results would Ihen be a"eraged to delermine Ihe final !IOD~ Th"", ""mple dilution.• thaI deplete I"". than 2 mg/l m'er Ihe ~ay period, or Ita"e a final di"-""I,,ed-
ex am pIe 15.9 CSI for Environmental En!lileers: Wastewater Forensics A "midnighl Jumper" discharged a lan>'lruc>. full of industrial wa':;e in a gra,'el pit. TI,e lruck "as spoUed there 3 da}, ago, alld a poi>l of pure wa.le ren... i,~., A laboralory lechnidatl determined Ihalthe wast" ha... a BOD, of IllJ mg/L with a r.lle ro'l~lant of 0.1 Iday. Th....., faclori... in lhe \'idnily gener.lle

organic wa,t"", a winery (uh,male BOD" 273 mg/Ll, " "inegar manubct"rer (uilln... te BOD" IllJ mg/Ll. and a pharm.oc"'-'tical rompatly (&JD l 2iXl mg/Ll. Dete",,,,,e lhe .ource of Ihe waste

solution

,

(1

....

Chapler5 tIic>k>gy

:"-1:;, 1

80mg" L

example/5.9

(continued)

This ,. alue most closely match", the phMmaceutkal manufactu,er, bUI il fails to take into acrounllhe fad Ihatlhe wa"'" has b"e" a way from i lssoo rce (and decaying) forJ days. Theorigillal uln mal" BDDu may be cakulaloo by

Rearrange and

,;01"", 2ffimg; l

The "midnighl dumper" culp,it appears to be Ih" winery.

5 4.7 BOD TEST LIfv\ITATIONSANDALTERNA.TIV'ES \Vhile t he BOD, te'" ,e,,,,,i ,.. a lu t1damen~.1 tool in "aSle tn,.lmenl and "aler qualily d,,,,,,-smenl, ooncern, regarding its logislics a"d accu racy ha", ll."d tn pr'V'-..a),; for repldcem.. ,! by nther Illea;u,""" Whil" ,elal,,'ely simpl" to p"r/orm, Ihe lesl has three major ,i>o'icoming>: (/ ) lh" lime required 10 obtain ,,,,ults (5 days is .llmO'iI unthink.oble in looay', world of ,""aI-time data acqui,ition); (2) the fact that it may t\{)l accuralely as,",y wasle st,eanlS thaI d,,&,"ade m'er a lime p"riod longer lhan 5 days; and (3l lhe inhe,elll inaccuracy of Ihe pro,:oou,"", large;) due to "ariabilil) in seo>d (b.tcleria). Table 3.12 p,",wldes
5.12 T,... ble.hoo~ngGuidefotlheBOD.Tesl

DO ",admgs drift down,,-a,d

Weak b,.,ttc";"; for,ti,fing u",' n"SUlt m itlddo.'1uate flow dCTn'I< m<.mb,a""-"'pl,,,, balleri""

BOD, dem.lI\d in dilution

DL"""i7ru w.,1er ronl.1Ill..< ammon.. or mlatileo"!;amccompou"".......incrca.., pun~' of dIlutIOn water Of nbtain Imm a""th.". "lU'''''. AS" wak.,. fo, 5---10 da\'" bef"", u.",00dD";urce. Ag~ water for 'i.--IO da,,,, bef"", u.., !l.l .>nd F""'lv d",,-,ro g!.ls"".. re-rnorc ,igomu< "leaning 01 gla«wa"" includms w"-'hmg lollow\.'<1 by a 'i In I 0 pern",t HO nn.'" followro bv .;"'i rin."", wi,h
wall'r;' g,,-"le, thom t"'· acc"pt;WleO.2 mg/l

5.lmpJe OOD ,-al""" are unu.su;uh·low in the dilutl'd "''''pIe (OOD, dilution "-dtor i. within the dcceptable ,.,n~o)

='"

Dilu,ion Wdt.". mntdln. int"rf"re",.-"" inhi~iting the bioclk,mical ",idahon p"l("""-'inc,ea.., pun'" 01 dilution wat,·"", nbt.lin from "nothe, ""rn:e" U.., dd"ni,ro wal", ,hdl has been through mi~\.,j-beod resin columo •. u.., "'pf',,,-li,,,od ,till•. Distilled wah" rnav be con~lml""tc'
f''''''''

1\:"v",

Oth,'r a"alyl"", such a. lotal organic carh'n (Toe), pr",- id" gr... ler accuracy ~nd precision bUI /aillo r""dily disl"'gui,h biodegradable and nonbiod"gradable org~nic cuoon-pr<'Ci,ely Ihe ilbjeclive of the BOD lest in Ihe first plac". f'urther, Ihe BOD lesl ca"''''1 be used 10 ev alua te Ire"tment efflCi""C} for ",a'ilesthal are poorly biodegradable or loxic. Here a different I",t is applied, one for chemicalo,ygen demand (CODI. In thes 1"'1, a 'ampl" containing an unL,n"-,, amoulll of organic matter i, added loa 25(J ml /la'k. AI,oadd"'" tothe /la,k are AgSO, fa caldl} 5t to en"ure complele "x,dat!"" "f lhe organic mailer); d SI"'n!; acid (H,SO,), d,ch",m.,te (Cr,O;---, a "twng "x,di7.II'g agellt); ~lId HgCl, (to prnvide., Hg'- i,," that comple,.,. Ihe chloride lOll, Cl l. The chloride ion interfe,""" ",ith Ihe t""t and i, presenl in high amounlS in mallY "dsle"aler " ..nples_ This i, bffause il can be oxidiz'-'<1 to 0 " by d ich""nale as "ell as by orgallic maner. Howe""r, the cOlnple,"'" fmm of Cl- is nol oxidized. TI,u" if uncomplexed CI- i, an"wed to be oxidized to CI", it can ,"""ult in a faL_po,ili,e COD value. The .... mpl" and al1lhe reagellls are combined, alld the ,ampl" i< re/lu:xed for J Ie Th"orgall;c matt"r is oxidiz"'" (dOl"'le, e1M",ns), dlld the chron"um i, reduced (acceE-1S "1",,lrOl'<) f",m the hexd' al"nt Imm (C....-) 10 the lri ,-alenl form (Cr l. Thll.', Ihe COD t",1 drlermin'" how milch of the h",a,-ale"l chromium i. r""'uc"'" during the COD test. Aft"r Ihe sample is cool"'" to room lemperalure, the dichromale Ih~t remain. in Ihe 'y,tem e< delennined by lilrali"" "ilh ferrous ammon ium 'ulfdle. Tl'" arnow,1 "f h""a,a1enl chromiu '" iSlh"n rei.' If.od to Ifl<, amounl of org.Ulic maU"r that ",a, ""idized. Re
5.5

Material Flow in Eoosystems

Th" natural pas.<;age of chemical~, ... m""'iat"'" by organi,ms, occurs within biogeochemical cycles. chemic"l, are of panicul", importance ill e"""""menlal ellg",eering; C, 0, 1\:, P, and S. I" .,ddilicm, Ihe hydrologic cycle (,ee Chapt"r ll) is of inlerest bffau," it plaY' an imponanl role in m",'ing chemical elemem. Ihmugh the """"phere, This section con,ider, each of Ihese key cycles. Note Ihal hu",a"s use dlld cycl" a much g real"r number of chemical "l"",,,nt< in indmlrial application. thM' are f"unu in li,-ing organisms. This can aff""l Ihe ell"iroll",,,,,t through the mining of e'Mic el"",,,,,t., colI""ntratlllg thes" onc...-di~pe....,.j chemical" alld e>.po.. ing humans alld nalural syslems to el"valed concentralions, oft"" dam.'ging healthy fllnetio".

n""

Chapler5 lIiDk>gy

5.5,1

OXVGfNANDCARBa-JCYQES

n,.. o'ygen

9c1~ ~nd

,a,bon
~r.. d.-l~

linl.oI'd lhrough lh.. pm<:~ nl phf>l",,~nl""'L~{Eq"~lion 5 191 and .....plrahon (EquAtion ~.2111. Pholos,nlhesL' L' the pmnary a lid the orig;n of lhe organic caroon«,." ..no'd lour\>m. "IS"'" 01 organic camnn I.' ,.arl>nn d I.... 'dt In tlwcart.on,} d ... Phol....) nth.,. .. i.urrio'd out b~ pLant,; ..nd a-Lances .. 00 ,n ""''''II-,n,ng I,,", o'ygen 10> ...1, ""'IUlro1'd ~ h~ in aq"a.tic

"lI"

..... ,ron""",1!-.

ngu ... :;.27 dotpo """ lhe ""1"r..1'arbon C\' 10> hI-' """" I-I""'o'd ~ human,; lho> lop fig"... ""'" tho> ""1':11',,,1 a-bncol'd 1T.. ""f bd" ....... Ih.. 1-", o"",,,,,, ..nd bnd H(I"", 6. I-nthroP"'S""-'c Kh"h ,,,'1I 1-' burning (II losSiI lu"lo .an> di'pl g "",bon 1""1 " ..i (IN'" 'Imol'd In Ih.. idnd 10 Ih~ at"""plwr" TIlt' Iur"l carbon c}d" /w., "'" ~ ..blfo h' al&t.......t ,',nb"n ",10 "",ling """"n "nd l"nd ......."·0'..... Thi' ""., ,,,,,,,Itoi'd '" lMg.. ,"ere""", in

'.>1.. '"

.-

FIgllRf5.Z7 C.rbon Cyc" und.. N.I"..I Cond il;on •• nd •• Mod med by Hum.n l'eo1urb";nn l.') Tho I'I.ltural
",mf'!'trnenl'" (b) "n'h"'I"'Il""1<' G1rbo" "",....'O,I<.J
11>1 _ _

-t

•

_ _

:':'~~"'-

M_~tt_.

_ _ '

--

5.13 GreenhoUl" Go. [mi.. io.,. Auocioted with Pol1icular ho ... mic AclHitie. ECOOOfTlIC Acti"'Y on
Ene"!:v ,upph' account> f,,,.2';'1 of gk>bal GHG emi.. i"",

Burnmg of 1"",i1lucl, .uch a. cool. ",,'ural 8"'-' nd ",I ,,, prod",,,,, elc.-lridly .100 he.lt

loou'(/....l aclidly occo..ml. fo, 19'1 ofCHG emi"'km,

Burnmg <>f f"",il fuck for ,m-"te gen.'.... ,'''''' 01 '-""eTtlv .,nd .11", enu."o." tmm d",mlC.ll. mcl.>l1""8ical. and TIUneral p,nduc,;on

proc"""".

U"'.

Lmd I.:md-,,-,;e ch.:mge, and fon"'')' occ",mt> for 17~ of CHC "",i",ioo.. A~ricultu",

ac£
cm''''km•. T ,a"'l""ta!km

"",,,,,,mt> f", I 3"1 of CHC,

emi",;'m.

Defore
Ones,',> '''''''S)" g<"llCtallon and burnmg of 1"",,1 f.....l. u«'d for h"'tin~

Commcn:i,1 and "--"idenl,,,1 bUIld mg. ""","m' lor ll<; ofCHC "",i"io"•.

and cr>:>l:;ng m

W,'er '00 ,.."tew,'er aclivit"", .>oco
em,,,,,,,,,; nm"",.-,... melh.:me, and 1\',0 emi"",n, pmdu=:! from

J<;

homc<;

~te'h.1",-, emi..ion,

from l.-.ndfiIL< """",nl for 'he m.>.;':'ritv of lhese

",,,, men t ,>I ,.. '."ew ,t.". ,re , L", im 1""1.> nt Incine,a'ion of """'. ""hd

and Ind",,'ri,1 wa.h", ,L." "-",,ult. in em'''''''''-<.

Figure I 5.28 Bn..,Wown of Gk>bal co, [m'...41". from Fos.ooh"",1f'CC 200Tbl

Chapter5 IIioIogy

global CO, roneent,at,o". (see Figll re 4. J.I l. In f.ct, Figure ,1.1·1 showed that in the past 50 years, .tm<>ociaied with Ihe consumption of e".."sy. This figu", .how.

sa-.

,}lher larg~ 81,"'al e,,"lt.,..,. of gret'nhou..., ,ndud illS the LUrl>""an Union. rndid, Ru.,;ian Feder.otion. Jara,~ dnd Cdn.>Jd The Ln,tO'd <;Iat~' ~omrjbulion in 2010 for Int..l sr....nhou""' sa, emission, ..... 1>,~21 ,8 Tg CO>" (remember thdt I T8 equal. 1 m,llion In",", Ion,) of .. hieh 5l.ide

em,_ _,

552 NITROGfNCYClf Tho> bo.'S"OC""""cal tr.ursform.oboln< ft'Itb.)(!,<"d in tlw rutrogen <")Ide (Figun' ;.29I.n> ;nlportanl in both nalu....l..,.,J eng;............ ""'lemS. A. a n;suh 01 tlwtr -.:i.Ibon ",th '-'-iA..,.,J pl.lnllo, man~ r...IUI'e' of lbe n,tro&"" <")0"' ....... Ilnl.ftl ",m Iben~,8""and carbon ~ d,s, I'IanlS uk up .. nd ul~,,.. nllrnwn In lbe fntm n( "mno"ln.. nt n,lr..'" ehi r"'PJ' .........nlS fnr f..n.,Iiz.II....... C...u.. b.>'>pheric n'tms"" ('\,1. awl,erllng " In ..mmnrn.. through. le~ "iIl'OS"" fi .. tinn rLlnt.. ,nmrror.>l.. amrn)". . .nd n'lral" ,nk> a .-ano!!v of '''sani<: mn'pound~, sudl a, prot.. ,,~, and nud,,1C .dd. cntic-.Il!(> met.abohc lunclJth tloi!'rbi,,""".nd c..nuH)rl!'oltunsfer I niltoger\-rkh oomP':'und' furtber up the fnod eh;lI". The n'l"'g " 'pee;es pr""""1 in <>rg.'"i,m, dr.. r"le."rd In Ihe ..", ''''''''lo'nt IhnlUgh "-"'ret;n,, ..nd mort.>hly. "'Ilo'th.... in ""Iu.. or ill Ih.. f<>rnl <>f hunl.ln "''''Ie e",K.i"", The !<>rlll' of nitrogen depicl.,..-) In Figu'" ;.29 M" referred ... 'e,'dh'" ",'r''S''''' Other redeli, .. nil'ng.." .p..d"" r"dud.. nlh..r el,..",k ..1,>,il<>gk,'lI)' a(li~ .., ch"",i~dHy ,pacth .., .md radidu\,.. ly ani,'e nitrogen con'p'...... ,Id. !lwl ar~ found III the Earth', atmn"l'l",r.. dnd bi.... pll....., Figur.. S,l:) .ho..... th..

1"')""""

-

--

fItllrtJ~ Tho ~imFn Cl'do Snor\...,bnd \\'~ln'Chomwrv. I."....

1mL...

"l'""lN ..,th I"'"""""" ,1/ john

\\,,10>\' Ir ........ Inc. , _ ...-... ,

... •....,oI_W.lo¥4.!>oo<.1oc

.. .. ftturIfs.3ll

Sou,_"fRo.K'~"ilrOtlon

I n!rod u leo in zoo::! ITIlSiyurl.

~

,_EPAM'l INF ......"'........,....._ _ ~ _

b,..,aW"w" "f the ">lJrces "f react,ve nitroge" In the United States. Nille the d"minant ",Ies played by anthropological acti"itie; of agriculture, jnduslr~', and combustion of f""sil fuel,. Th" production 0/ anthrop<>genic reactive ,,,tr,,,en through fertaizer production (re/erred hI as Haber Elnsch N fertilizer in Figure 5.JO) and planting agricultural fields with nitrogen fi"ing legumes (referred to as culti"aUon BNf i" figure 5.JO) have brought many economic an,t social benefits to huma,~s. especially through inc rea"" in fnod producti"n that 'ustain bill,o"s of people world" ,de. Unfortunately, almost all ,eacti,-e nitrog"n that ha, been ""ated b~ human, is ultim.,te!y released to the ell' i",nment. Thls major disturbance in the I"'turalnitrogen cyde ha, brought many ad"e"", public health and e""i",nmental <'ffects. T.,ble 5.14 summar;",... many of th."., imp"'t" induding reacti"e nit"'gen', role in production of photochemical Sln,'g. decreased at",.-.;pherlc ,- is,bility. acidification of terrestrial and aquatic ~y'te",s. eutropl,,calion of inland and coastal" ate". negati"e impacts 0/\ our d rinki"g ,,- ater, and mntributmg to greenh"u'" gas e",i";o",, (1:1'A, 2011). A, we " in learn in laler chapters,envir...,menl.ll e"gin..,,,,are il1 ,'OI",d in acti,-,ties to mitigate and control ,..,lea", of r"acth'e ,"tr08e" inlo the en,-i",nment. Figure 5.31 de;cribe; the nitrogen cycle that i, c...nmonly ob,en'ed in a munidpal ,,-aste,,"ater treatment plant. In the first step, ammon ification. org.• nic N (for example, protein) is ron \ ert...J h, ammonia (/'{H ,-/KH ,). The next ,t"p I",·ol"es the Iransform.,tio!l of ammonia to nitrile ("'0, ) (by bacteria of the genu, Nilro
ConfiguntiM Fig ... /5.31

W.Ioy&"""')",,1

-~I !JfH,'I~

~'-

,00,

I It
--• - - - "-•-,.-. ~ ~

~

/

0,

Chapler5 lIiDk>gy

."",

,

5.14 Examples of Impa
Dc"",.... In

Fine p.>rtic"Uldlo "",!te,

1\'.bol\dl PO""" dnd wild""""", dr.",.

1\0..00 I':H, fmm burnin& I"""if luek .M .&r>cullu'" .,cti,,1ieo

Co...<1aroJ•• nd fo.",t, in !h<' UnIted rc<'C1,~ng N d'l"'"lh,m In .... of criticdl Irnd.

Electric utilil;"". "dlile,doodnlmdf forn"'" .gricul'urc

[.,.k,m dr>:! "..,""m Unoed Std"'"

Electric u tililie<, ".Ifie, dOO dnl"",fforn""j dgricul'u",

Roducllon 01 crop

E:.>ob..'ffi'OO we<1em Unil.'\!

y;'~d.,

~~

Electric ublll"", dnd "dfile

\'i.,ibihl"

"'""'

Sta",.,

bK..:hw,"ily

.t=

c"""

Acidlfic.>Iion of 'urf""e w.t""" Io<.of bio.:h""",ity

,\ekh/ic.>ti "" 01 ""If" m" ,l 00 1""", L' c.l1"-'\! 1>\' dlmo"pheric deF""'llion of ,,,]fu., HI':O" KH" dnd dmmOOlUm ",mpound.

Primdrih- ""'" n ldl nou' region.' 01 the Unih'\! St.le<

Fo",illucl rnmbu
H l'I""'''' of «>a..lo! .00 In1.Joo wdl"",

E.>=<""·C nu I,;"'nt l...d in g. ""tmph ic.:>tirm, \".ri.lb!<' I"",hw.le,

Cou If 01 ~k'\tCn. Ch= pc.>"O fl.J.y. othL.. ",Iu.,rioe dOO

~~,

"",.ldl

Nil"'8"" .00 pho>pooru, from ""'-"8".nd food product"",

Hd,mfuf.lg.>J b1",m,

h.-..,.,h-c nul,ient f... ding. dim.ue ,".rubihty

w."''''

[""",
No...nd I':H, fmm f"""l flK'!> .nd .glimllu '" .,,1h-il;'" o"ITId&O 10 pubflc hNhh "nd 'ho.'

1':0, Into dlr

MobIle """ ..,'"

I':H, ,md n,,,.Io reI"'-..... in'o dlr .nd " ..u",

Agriculture .cth,l;""

on \~'OI\monl o"ITId&O to pubflc

"""llb dnd lho '"IwirOl\rn<'I\l

5.5 MatlJial FlIIwin Ecosyst.....

5.5.3

PHOSPHORUSCYQE

Pho"phoru,,-~aring

minerals Me p<>Orly s.,luble, '" llIo,t surlace "'ate" naturally c<>ntain ""y hUle of this import.'''t pl.U\l nutrien!. In addition, readily av.,ilabl~ ..,urc"", of thi, mined malerial are expected to ru" oUl during thi' cemury. IVhe" ph,"'phoru, i' nlined and 'nc<>rporated Imo cleaning agen" and fertilizers, biogeochemical cycling (the routing ,~f the element through the environ"",nl) i' ",,,,Iy accelerated. SuJ>.;equent discharge, to lak.,;;, ""tuaries, and rivers, "he'" ph. Thus, inlegraling the phosphorus cycle ",i~, ",asle"at",. Ir"'llment and resource rea",er) proce,.. Slream, i, very important.

5.5.4

SllFUR CYCLE

Lik>< the oxygen and nilroge" cycl"', Ihe sulfurcyc1e (Figure 5.)2) Is to a large extent nucrobially medi,lled and Ihu, linked I" the carboll cycle. Sulfur reaches lakes and rile", as organic S, incorporaled inlo materials ,u~h a, prolein.. and ." ir\()rganic S, prim.uil} in Ihe form of ,uUate (SO,·-). Hydmge" sulHde (H"S) L' malodorous and loxic 10 aquatic life at ,~ry low mnce,"ralio",. Pyrite (FeS,) i' often found in and around geologic fon'MHons that are mined cnmmerdally, as in the ca", of coal or metals such a, ,ill er and "inc. Lxl""'ure of pyrite 10 Ihe aum"'phere initiates ~ Ihree-
,.""""It",,,,

/5.36)

(5.371

'IFe'+

+ 12H,O _

.IFe(OHh"

T

12H-

15.lS1

Thi' proc..,., "ield, add m~,e d ra inage rich in sulfa"" acid dy, and ferric h"d m'ides(a yelk,,, "h-nrange precipitateorfloc termed "yeno" boy~). ""

Chapter5 8ioIogy

-s.-_.

(A'JOl _ _ ....... ~

•

(Jloo'

...

....•

s" _ItS "..,so_

•

-g;;,/ .......

~ Pr

, ..... _

~/U2 S~lr".c,.., .. Rrdu<1>anol"":",,, "0,' "'h,-d"'fl""< f"" ~_.~ ~ and In'd""""""".ond dJ.rnk b .... '"
\\1,i~ Ih., sulfate I,

rail"" in,lOCIJou~, add'I}' (0""", III.. pH oIllI.. ,uria", \,,\t~... (Oft"ll !
5.6

Ecosystem Healh and the Public Wenare

All enS'.-rnt pn.p...-ts ,houkl "" deignal. ronstrucl-.J. and op<=led ,n an ....' ,roonwntAlIy ""rugn n...n....... Itwl .. >11 ultim.l~l~ ~ ..... ..ocio>l~ "'l.u,t.>bl" aoo proto"C1 hum.lJ\.lIld KO"}"I"'" alth t.,.. futun' g<'"",at ........ thIS 'o«tinn Introduces hH'topics 1""1 ,mpo""'''' from IJti" J""f"f""-"tj ..... l<».ic ~b;u.nces ..nd bKJdi' ....... ly,

.5 6 1 TOXIC SUBSTANCESAND ECOSYSTEM AND HUMAN HEAllH T,,~ ...... ~ mI)

influence l'CO>oy ......... "".ilth d,_tl.. through

<'ff«ts mllUfN."j .it tho> pt>pU1alJOn or ""stances. Bioconttnlr",tion L< I"'" d,,,,,,", .ib merrory m".... ms

Acid Mille Drainage O':I.I'"Jlutb""""..y lpolwutel"r-' "" Id ~ "' ...." fro,

Ecosystem services h. tp'.J ;~_"'F~-¥" I... <>al rd'}

""""""'''''''=....,'''''''•."'.<1'

fmm waler illlo phylOplanllon a~ms.s Ihe •."n .... ,11 or i"lo fi"h ,i" th~ gill,. Bioaaumulalion (al".;, termed biOl""gnifi~ation)refers to Ihe aaumulal;on of ~hemica], bOlh by exposure to cnntamlnaled water (blo-cnn~entration) and ingeslion of ~onlaminaleJ f.....J, For e"""'ple, bioconcentr"lio., ,~f a co"ta",i""nt by pl.,nllo" r",ulls in bi""~cu,,,u ]"Iion in the next trophic le\el, fLsh. Ahh"ugh there are signifi~ant 1o,,,,,, in tra'Lsferring e.,ergy and biomas.s up the food ~hai", as in tlk case of oxidation and n~retion (re'er bacl (,) Figure, 5.21 and Figure 5.22), >on", chemical, (f", example, mercury, PCB" DDT, alld ",me flame retardam,) .re retained by orga"ism<. Thi, retention, coupled "'llh the I.,." of biomass, produces a concentrallng effect in ea~h "ucc""i,'e le,el up the food chain. Figure 5.J3 depicls this collcenlraling effecl fm mercury in an aquatic "y'lem. 1\00e thai Ihe "",,,,Ingl,, "mall water concenlration of O.mll-g/L (ppb",) itlcreases by fi, e mders of mag"itude 10 2,270 ppb", al the lOp predator Ie, ellhrough bioconce,,!r"lio", and bi"",..,umulalio.,. I,. there a higher Imphic le,'d than fish? Yes, potentially hu"'''n" o!her mammals {'m example, I>&Irs, ...al<, beluga" hal",,} and b,rd" "uel, a" gull, alld eagl"". Ele,'aled level, o. bioaaumulatlve

_

~~E""""'."'.'mllS'.'''';'re''''"''"''llE'''''''~'t".'m"'H'."'II"L Society deri,'~' many e-.,e"tiai g,x"h fmm natural ea"')',Iem." induding ..,.,o',~Id, game animal" I,lddL'f, 'udw"xl. timbeT, anJ phanna"",ulical p",Jud'. Th"", g,~..J, repr"",nl impmt"'l and 'amlliar port, "f Ihe "'"nomy. Whal loa, been 1"", apprecialed until recently i, th.,t n,tural "'o'y"tem, al"" perf",m fun· damental hie .'uppml "",'i""" inciuJing regulati,,,, Llf c1il"'t~, wat"" 'Iorage, fl,,,..J c.. nlml, bufh,ring again,t e~treme wealher e,ent>, purificahon of air .",J w.,ler, n-gen~ration aTe not Iraded in ec, they carry' no pTice l0!l' that c"uld aler I "><.i ely

Cliapler5 lIiDk>gy

I" chang"" in ea"'y'lem he"lth inlluenong the ,upply ,,'Iho,,~ benefit> <>T deteTi""di"n "f th~ ",',Iem, thai generale them. To undeT-.lanJ Ih~ m"g:niluJe of Ihe e"",ornic implicatim.., "f """'iCe> pro\'ided by nalural ec''''y'lern" c"""iJeT th~ following ex.,mple. In /l.ew YOTk Cily, wher~ the qualil" "f Jrinking waler had fall~n heh,w ,1.",d."J, ""luirel 'y'tem.' and ",rii micr<_>rgani.'m" imprm'ed water 'I"",lily to le"el, lhal mel g",'emmenl 'laOO,,,d,. The ",,,,I ..I!hi, in",,,,tment in nalural capital wo, e-.lim;,led 10 be bet" een $1 billion .",J $1.5 bilii"n, eontT,,-'hng dramalically with the ",limated 5ii bilii,,,, I" 51! bill~)n ",,,,t of mn,tructing" new water filtrati,m 1''''''1 with ,,,,nu.1 oper.,hng "",,, "I $JlXl milli"n (Chichilni,ky anJ I leo!. lWHl

",iI

w_

(pIOCivoco)

2.2TI9'g

~. (pi0cMJ<8)

0.9'

I-9\l

Giuam oIIad I~·)

0.2319'1l

Flgur.f5.33 Bio.ocomul.li"" of Mercory in the Food Chain of On,md,&, Lake, .~c,,· York A pplic.l tion «iT" "'p""""" blOm ",., (dec rmsing u p the f,n.:I dlol.l n t hralgh inefflCk",cv '" energy tr.,nslc-fL and shadmg "'P,,-_nl< I"', mcrrury <:o""""rr.lli"" of tI", b",,,,,,,,, (mere"-',,,/; up tht, food rn.lin b..",.ose il i.. "'l.l''''''; '" bio=•• i, rroUCL>dl. TI><' coocentrationn of rnerrUTy in the w.I<'1" m1umn i. '" 0.01 "'Ili L 1!laIa....... _ . , a"'!;gho ~ [II"J 5j.'

~ ... ~"'" M.holU< 11_1

lopMtod ",j, _~, '""" 01",", W.1oy & SoM 1..<.1

<."!»I.""", are routinely "b,,,,,-ed ill wildlife relying 0" I"h a, a signilka '" portion of Iheir diet. Bioaccumul.l;"n of toxic ",bst.nce-; ha, led 10 ",vere impacls On many 'f"'<';'" 0/ ,,-ildlife. Table 5.13 iIImlrales lhe impact of chemicals such a. DDT and lead binaccumu1.l.ting in bald eagles. In add'lion, bioaccumul.,;on c·a., mntribule .i&"ifica,~ly 10 Inul hu"... " e"l""'ure. anel tim, e",.""."""e"...1 rl~k, for a particular chemical. as elisc,,-<;.<;ed n, Chapler n. Becau"",, ollh"'" eHeel' and Ihe Ihreat I""ed to human pnpulaliol~~. I~re l~ a pr",,~i,,& need for beller u"d""Undill& of Ihe d }',... mic, of hioacrumulalio" and it~ 1",'e"lIal impaci "" huma,~~ and Ih" ennrm""e,,1. TI,e bioconcenlration f ador (Ben is Ihe ral~' oflhe co",""nlra hOI' "f a chemic..l i" an 0"8"nism 10 Ihal in Ihe surrounding e",vironmemal 5.6 fcosrslem Healtl aIKllhe Pubic Wettar.

5.15 Hiolorical Numbe.. of Nesting Poirs of aold Eagles in lhe COnfig..,us (lower 48") SlOles The ban on leod ,hd in hun'ng i nto nded to ,educe "'x; <;ty 10 W<>",.-fowl that olt~n d i 9"" the ~ len odd; ';0",,11y ,educed to.ic:ilyla eagle" which feed andeadex cr;ppledwa",rI~ Land u", al", hm

had a 'lrang impoctan ,occe"lul n.,,"ng af ""gle"

1700<;

50.000

Pre
1\1.1(1

/'.:umb.runlr.""u; 'thrrot"ned ",ith e
Il.>Jd E,'gle Prok'<1,,,,, Act prohibited killing.. ",,1I;nll- "'f'O"'-.... ing lh~

e<.Im",ted r<>puJ."bon.

'I"-'Oe" H.1bil.11

~"'" Io~d

po1..... ing.. ~nd

r,lUU'" due!o bio~",curnu1.llimor the p"'licide DDT; Rachd Cd"""" Siln,/ SP''"S ;.; publi,h<,.J. reprodudh~,

1'172

1'00

1991

3.000

DDT u"" b.Inned in Ih<' Unite,] Sl.J.h", u ...d ,hoi b.mned (rn ""1<."1(0,,,1

huntmg. 2007

fO.IDJ

R.mm·,1 from End,ns,,,,-'<1 5pe'
l,,1 by U.s. Fl ~nd \\'rldh/e "",,,'k<-

ClassDisc.ussioo J.

J.

.1 • V

""'~~ ~~ aa.,1~n~~"""~C

n p.' 8'-Yt<

Of

~

n<;~rOancg ~tr..,7 ~.~'" "'~ o~em""," <>I <,.,url"? 1'.1'1~" i. "'~

","",in o'"Lhto" o~""I<:~11I (po*!'.

di!'<;"~,¥. l""'I"f"""C
ri.""

\','n",. f"'F'" l6t..i!I<:y ~ 1"<1 '""0 "nok>:!.ul) oan)'
Chaplel"5 lIiDk>gy

medium (gener"lIv air or W"ler) "hen uptake di"'<:lIy frrm thai med ium i, the only meelldni,m oo",idered, The bioaccumu1.>lion bones in "un} 'Mtes, from norida In nnrth",n Mi,m"""la. 5p"dfl< remrnn.l~,>:Ialio,", ar.. made lor ,emnval 01 ["tty tissue when cleaning and prepa.ring fish I" minimize humdn mn~umplinn (and bi"a,.."umulalion) nf mntaminanls, Howe,er, e"p"sure to some conla,ruMllts, induding mereu,)'. is not red ured by selec:ti \'e trimming nf fatly ti-sue, heeau,", thes wnlaminant is ullifnm,l y distributed throughout the fi~h. In !hi, ca."", the (1111y way mn,ume",
5.6 2 BIODNERSlTY AND ECOSYSTEM HEAlTH

n,.. t.....m biodivtrsily, a conlraction of ~wlI>.~'1ll1 ,I",t""".\',

r~"'"

10 the grwl • an~~ pre;;.-nl in all formsoflik. Whil" thecooco?pi biooJ" """I} 01"18'110111:; fllc..-.! "" indiudI.U.l "f""CiIes, n...n:; ""k'n!is!S "''" consid... ~IC dr.vr. It .. lno.. n thai Slgndio::ant • ana",,,, "",n ;,',,;.1 ,n lhe ~ ~pofp'f'Ul.lr.-nt p.uale,j in IJJt>i'(lor ,,,,,lanct', by-.nlnr",~p.><'i' Th.- .anatlOnma~ Iud ","111_ '" ttw ~ of p>pulalions lOen'lfOIUJ"IO'f\ldl-tre<~nr~""I"'" functitan. r...... lhr> .......' "'- r ~ briogisb ...nons I" ......u.bb .. "f"i"C"'" '" .. Iomwrh' degrOldi!d h.obotal .--l.. ~ .....ng fi;,h In_ b..al nr ~ ~l()ma,1\I.lmttw~.,. lnbOn •• lhni;o> ~ lO m.tml.lJn btOI.Ii."""h

0'

""'<.a.....

THREAts TO BODlVUSlTY I'rocei!o.lmg .. t

.. b.ldgn',,,ld roll" nt ""'" ",_ _ p<'1" millIOn !if'i"- per ~ear, ""IInctIon ha~ J:">.e,, OUI~ ~ .... of"I>""" <100 Earth', boroii\f.'!'S'I~ has a ~ a 'l....uy """""-"" >II bloUi'd'oltv " • .,. 11\0> f'l-'t flO[) millim ~ .... r< Thi' ''''......... ha" be
met"""t" Im~"1S. ,
8ecauJe a/

/he mogr,rude and speed w,th which /he human

ateri'lg 'M phy,icol, chemical aoo biological world. biodrvew'Y II b.ong dft
Whil~

it i, th,,~p""';l!Slhal bernm... ""Iinct, it j, impo"tant loconsid.,. thn'ilb I" bio>d" """,Il' ",th,n "'"' £onk':~l of ~",,~,ti'lll n Tlk' Int"rg",,.,.,,menl.'Ii I'anel OI' Chmat... Change (IPCO

"'1"-' rt... ,.l_a! 01 m .... y aa>.cnge oSJOClOfreddo~ ... (eg, lIoodilfl. «ought. wJ4i'e. ...-;a

on-

«IOn «dJicoIOflj, OM gfehal (halge dt..." /eg 10M .... ~ poA._. owr.-pbb'ion 01 resource!J -lf1CC 2007a

C........ nl\ ",~ t"""f'i"- that lSoften W'geiN {for ...... mplo>. b:o hunhng ... ~hingJ. bul h~ gall .... dt .... I"'" ;>on,!..tern. Thn>.. b In biooJ,. """I~· con hi> orgaruud into fi .....al~ (II '" .,.han "'I. 121 habolal d.strucbnn. 0) llutoon... n.J 151 global atmosphencch.ln8'" Of t"",",. ". i'fh.l.... "-'*. has J"'fhaf" tll;> 1nng<">1 hisk>r\. n.. hu"ting of ""1<'1"1,," I. han""l of """",g bird" for lhoo., r..atl~. and ...It!ntlt'Si' I'''r
t""

Urban llIodiverstty "''f'"'._''''P ~ uT'"_"'" """......,.

'"

m.I ..,...;: , " "

BOd"etS~ In Alnc. .\I- .....clCI

""'1"

_..-::ar: _~ _

I5IaAco-o

'"

....

ClassDjso·ss!on ~

... -

~

......... & ot'U"" ','"

_-"""' ' . . . 1:.00-... ~""" (1;.<,:''''''·''0",''(' __ "U 'v< ".rtyor ..""~ ?.t'1 P",.. ...l)iCMf'O'" ,. ... """c.lI.tl"ty (",~

f""'W",1

.....c

.tc:l

of b,,,,,, ....e ",~ll kllown fmm l'hh ","tury America, More ra.... llly, 0\ .".ha .... _ from IlO'L_usld",able m m,_hing L~ Ihrealening Ihe fUlure of ",arille rl~her;e". Gras.~land and fo"",\ ecosystem_ thai or><-... ro....red thou<.",ds of square n"les are now absenl or so altered in rom?""ition as 10 be unrecognizable. Togelher "ith urban de,'elopme"l, Ihese land use changes ha I'e led 10 h.abital fragmentation. ",ith Ihe formerly romiguol.l~ habitat. ""luired by .",me sf"'Cies reduced to small patches. The p""""'-~ 0. 'l-""";"" introduction L~ a nalural feature 01 ecosy,tem e, olulion ." condili"'L~ ch~nge and range> expand. Ho"'.,, ~r. human acceler~lion (acddenldl or inlen!i",,..n o'lhL~ pro<""~ can be crilically d~mag,,\g 10 u.lli"e species a"d th"" ec<>syS.~ of key bi(~ic romponellt~ t'peeiesl. Alien in" ... i"e 'peci"' ....e Ih""" that becOlne esldblished ill a Mtural em'y,tem a"d threaten n.ll,,'e biological di"ersity. 1I1\'~sil e ,!-"""i"" h•.,-e Deell i"lr"d uced to aqmlic ",,,imnment~ illlentionall y (""rtain speei..,. O'IJ'OIJt in W""ten, ri, e....) and ~""idenlally (se.. l..mprey Ihmugh c.lll.,l fI)'L~truction, ~ebr... mus.sels in b~lI.~_t ,,'aler, dud As~", carp through aqu.>rulture escapel. In lerreslrial ec,-",yste"". llnd dislurbance duting conslruclion of the built ",,,,,,on,,,enl and Ihe entry of motor ,'ehides Into previously roadless ,lreas haw bet>n d""umented to spre..d in"...~i"e speeies. n,e rapid spread ..nd agg"""i, e nalure o.it" asi .... spedes LS due. UI part, to the absence of competition and predalio" pres.~ure rommon to their home ecosyqem. I",asi"e 'peci..,. mnlribule ~igniflcalllly 10 s!-~ exlinctioll and k.., of biodi, e!'illy. a pmbl~m th.•t i, increa,illg due 10

"0"

IRY3SiveSpecies Ct."V1""~""'" "f'" -¥"hwd "c<~1

...."i"..H

"~~

.....' _

"'f"'<;"~_ir\k:<£/".,

globdli~dlioll.

In t.".ms of d,~mical JX>lIutiou. 011 spills, lIulrie"ll. inpul from ",...q e"'dter lre.. lmenl pl.,nl', agricuhurdl and urball runoff. and hea"y metdls ,uch ~s mercury and pestIcide resIdues h•. ,-e had documenled "egalive effects on ec<>sy'len~~.Glo1>.>1 dimale d",nge i, also pred U:led to 1",,,e a drd"",lic eflect on ecosyqem he..1Ih. n", WCC report,• ..Approxi",.. td) 2lJ-J()'{ "'plallt and dnimdl 'peeies .,,,,,-,,_1 '" far ~r~ likely to be at i""",...<;ed ri.,k of extinction if ;1"'''''''_ ill global d,'erage lemperature exceed 1.5-2.5 C" (IPCC, 2iXl7al.

SEENG VAll£ IN BICOIVERSlTY Since I""sage of Ihe End,"'gered Sped..,. ACI in 197.1, mosl Am"rican.~ 1"" e become familiar ",ith Ih" concept Jnd illlr;'L,ic ".,lue of bind,,'ersity. Howe"e<, Ihe applicdlion o. a phil"""phv supporting bindi, e!'iily may becomeco"'plex ill some ",anagemenl and regul.. lory arell...s. III Ihe case of the Ilorlhern spotted 0\\ 1 ill Ihe old'l";rowlh 'orests of Ihe r .•cifk t\:orlh",esl, Ihe timber induslry look .. strong ~t.",d ..g",n,t Ii,ling the sl""'ies, drguillg that ",~,uing jobles.'"es.~ a"d relaled """i,,,,,,,onomic i"'pacb far oUI\\'eigh~d Ihe v.du., o'protecting tI", ani",al .. lid biodi, ~""Iy. n",,,, re..smL' are "'1~1l ,upplied lor elleouraglllg progr.",,, ~upfX>rt ing biodh'ersily. n,,, tlmt evolves from Ihe couc"ptlh.. t planl~ .. nd ani,,,,,L~ may play .. crilic.l n,le in the de,'elop""'rli of more-pmjudi, e I<><>J supplo.sand meJjdrlesth~1imp'''''e hum.n heallhand prdo", life. Chapter5 lIioIogy

~ Aldo

L~opold

U.S.•,ml,,!;;,t,

Aim I CQlXlId

BinrfvP'Sib'

and IIr I and Etble

(HI1l7-1'!-I1I) was a

1'''' ",plll!"'" I"" MU)-.JI"'''' lei",,"'" I" ill ",de, th", rl,,'" r,,"v Iv" pl",e", "''''I",re fu' I_ nr< I,,,,d etlr;c ..",ply

f("-~,t.,,.. ;md ~nyi

mn""'nt>li-.t. lIe w." ;nAuent..1;n

the de,-dol'mer! "I m,>de,p em-;"mm""tal ""hi"" and in Ihe m",..,.. ment fm

,,,I",;>;,,,

"f 'he

u"r,,,,,.

,,,,,,mm,iIV '" j",b"l, >urb. 1'1"" t, ."".1"" i"," I." "" ,,11,di''<'Iy' tI", l"IllI.I" ,"ml
wildernL~' pT",",,',ati,m.

.Jw,'.. "

Aid" L""I",IJ i,c,m"d"",d I" bea

f''''''

",1<"f 1-/""'".'" pie'" ''''''f".."","f th" I,wd·wm"",,, j Irj I" I,I" '" ""'m "", "lid, j rr','" "f " _JI i "'1'1 i"" '''''I'''' t f'" II i> fd lrll~lI.:",hrr:>." ",I "I"" ''"'I'''' fu, ,h< "''''",,,,,i ty ", h.•

pi"""eT"! wildlifemanagem""t in the Unite..! Stat", and wa, a lifel'mg fi,)"" and bunter. In hi, S.""I

l'u""ty Almana,. pub~,b.,j ,b",tlv • iler hi, d"'lh, L""p',ld put furln the -Land Elbic,- wI",,,,ling,"A thing is right when it knd, t" preo"'''''' Ihe integrity, ,tability, and bt,.ut~' "I the bi"lic mrnmunil,', II i, ",n,pg'" heo itt""d,,,th.,.,,".'''' • u")I',,ld went no 10' ,ta!te

rhe~'JlI"d",'"

>I,.

L""p"ld call, up"n u, I" ,"""gni"" "uc wle a, memb"" "f a f'hooo<"" ,Io.y oftt.. Aldo l""f"'kl di,'""" but fragile em'i"'nmenlal cummunil~ and t" u,"" "ur engin""cing ,kill, and lraining in 'uch a wa) a, jn pmlecl II>" land and iind ,-al"" in biodi Ye",ity_

''''''''''''.....Iv''''....

All ",~I"Im.'m,.,· rh~1 Ih, i ",I""J,,"I i,~ me",I"" uf d. um"",,,ir.~u! i" rem, ,,,,1,,, r pol rr" III> ""I." r, 1"'om'I'1 II iIII r" "'IIIp"'~-~" I,i; 1'1"", ill ,IIJI ,"""""mry. ~lIr hi,
.Qu,,'ed fr"m II Sarli! C"""lyAIr"", ..,, IVII), b"',v,,"r C"",..,."ni"" by Aid" u.>p"ld fllXll) Chime! Uni,-er-ily I~"

Inc.

FC'or ~,~mple, a spec;... of m~i7.e dL"'''' <>red in Mexico,." er.d d<>eades ago pns._ _ di""..." " ,..".isu,...,., and gn'\\ th pallems II...,t may ,.."olulionize the mrn industry. In Ih~ field of medicine, examples indude aspirin_ a m~jor romponenl of which is derived fmm willow bark or Ih~ herb me~d,m's"",,', and anticancer agents produced b}- tho, "'''} per!wi"lJe, a II"" ering shrub lou"'" ,~nly ill Madagascar n,e se.:o"d reason ofl~" gi,en in supporl 01 biodi,e"ily is Ihat """'ystem structure ls detennined by Ihe inleractio,t< oj its mm!-,,>nenls, so lhe l",s 01 a single mmpnnenl (such ...s a ,pedes) could I""rm"nenlly and {.,Ullv disrupt """"y,'em funclime For e,an'l'le, inva,i,-e sp"d'" can d""im,"e "",i\'~ plauts and animals, mmplelely al"'rmg Ihe fa"" of • n e<:""y;tem. Th~ U n~ed Siaies is no\\' e"perleocing ,uch "''''ystem disrupl,on; for e,ample, pl\,1iferalion of lh" "on",,'i\'~ Spoiled knap\\'eed is cro\\'ding oul nali\'~ species .",d reducing li ....' ... slock forag", Purple k'o,""rife is becoming dominanl in ",.ny \\"~I I.'nds, "lin,inaling ,''',,,-,, planls I1Mt a,.., more nu,,,,i.,e 1o" ,Idlife n,e final reason i. an elhkal one relaled to Ih" role 01 huma,~< a. ste\\'ard< of vasl .,nd cnmplical.,J ec""yqents. Our ,....,iely's e",-imnment'" elhic h.lS undergone an ~""luI,,'" of Ihoughl, m", ing from Ih~ ap",,,,,nlly li",ill""s resources 01 colonial America, Ihrough periods of e~p
Key Tenns s~",wm.,

• commllrut...

• noltu.al

• ,J,oolh ph.i~

• rulnficabOn

• aerobi< r;e<;p"ahon

• denllnfkation

• mttogen I"",t,oo

• .."",will fkation

•

• """embk ..."p"ali""

• ".;ologk.1l.we",hoOI

• an""",

• «<>Iog"",1 n>o.k)x-J.lh'nClI'

• "biota<

• .rtJf",ul

pI'oolns~nt~

-"""""

'ens~s,,~

• boo«cumuLuoon • hlO;ao::un'ulahon factor bioc~l1lic,,1

f"<>lpnnt

• e<'DS~"'lem

• ;a1l1Otn'Jf'h>

•

~0Iogk.11

(BAF)

oxygen """,and

"'OD> • hiomnc..nt.alion • bo.:onc.ml.;ation

f.K"" (BCFl

• bioldt'g•..uhon

• ...,ka')·01""

• nit..'S"ou"" bl.....l"''''i''''! d .." ..",<1 {NBODI

'''Y6''''

• org.oni<: malt.... • o\'gen demanJ

• rM'-phor'us ~d.! • photo..", nlhe-,,, • I'h'>l,,,,,ynll"'hC ."Ource (of

• eUlmphicati,>l1

"'YS"")

• e\p"'letllidl-gmwlh mod..l

"''P"lalion

• ..... ponentl.ll ,... log S""'" th phase

• 1"'P"labOn d,n;>n,;"",

• iood ch.ilRS

• pmOpeclC\'\m~h\e"""ko,;j,.Yl

• food "ebo<

• rnodueti"lv 'rroLlf)Ole;;

• hio",.",

t",rbI.,,""'"

• ,.......ti'" n,trog.."

!\derotmph"

• ,o>d,,~ r&lct~'n

• hi."'phe.e

• h~drologic q'c1e

• ,.."e"'"b[" ."..'c•." ,....

• biot.o

• Internati."",l r.neI 00 Oimat.. O>.>nge (IrcO

• r"'piration

• biotic

• arbon" do!' • arbon dio.... do,

• c.arn.m.lr;:ous ox~gen demand (CllODl

• IrAT "'l""uon • bnd eth",

• loopold, Ald,'

• carnh"""" • c.arrymg

cap.acil~

• d>en1lC.ll ""~-gen dem.l.rd (COOl

---

• Iogislic-gr"" th model

• mlJfers

"~

• ."'tiona') ph.l'"

• ,,,}>;;I.,,le • ,ulfur cycle th~icdl o'~gen <1"""'00 (ThOD)

• rneth.J~ ..

• ,,[tun,,1<' Cl'lOO

• \ionod ",,'I<.ld

• ,W'id mefi,u..nt In

chapter/Five Problems n,e W ,el'ort, Ih~t diarrhea cau",," 01 percenl of ~11 deaths worlel",de. killing 2.2 millloll JX'<'ple e,'e'r yea,. mostly child reo in de"el"l-~ng munlri",. Di"'rhro LS a 'y"'l-'Imn ',f ",fl'Cl,oll caused by membe,." of which four orga"ism grool" listed in Figure SA Ihal call be 51'",ad by mnlan",,,,ted "ate,!

5.1

5.2 Figure SA d"",r1bed Ihe ""'jo' ,~rgani"m g'oop" impnrta't to envim,."e,'Ilal engu,eering. many of " hichc~u", "aler-r~aloo di,,"''''''' Waler-,~atoodise"""" indude th..""di,.,,,,,,, deri"'d lrom exf"""J'" 10 mic,,,,o'8'mL''''s or d'emic.lls Ihat are l..,u",1 in "ater hum.'b drinl:. OIher "aler-rel.ued d,S<'a".,,; include Ih""" thai ha"e part of thei' life cycle", ,,'ate, (for example. ",hL5l"",mia'LsI, d i..,a,,,,, like m.,lari~ thai ha,'e waler-.-e1ated \ ""to", due """,et;,,,'" to imp....'f"r management 01 ,trom ",ater and ""lid ",a"'e. alld nther di_"", "ud, a, leginllelklii<;, who:h i' camed by a"""",I, that mntain di",a", cau,illg nrganism,.lI'" Figu'" 3.,1 alld ,e"",a",h yoo perf,... m Oil the World Health Orgatlization's web ,ile on "watrer'el.'ted disea"""''" 10 a,,,,,,e, the follow,ng qu""ti{},.s: (~) Giard" i"lI"ti""li, .",d Cryl!t<'SJill'i,j",,,, Me members cI ",l",t g""'I'. (b) u-gi,mell" i, a n",mbe, 01 "1,,,1 gmul'. (c) Hepalilis A and E a recamed by membeN of " h"t group, (d) I,'phoi!1 int...tine cau>ed by Ihe large ,oundwo,m. A
5.3 figu,e 3,4 d"""ribed Ihe major org~ni"" gmup" Imp are si''t;le-c~l o'8""i""" fowm in biolcgical wa..5lewatertre~tmentandr"""urn> ,ec"'..-y 5},ten~, Il",t kefl on IMcteria and algae. (d) a", multicenu1.>r <>rgilni,.", f",..,d in bIOlogical wao,lew.,t..systems, (e) indude the gram-p'''inve ....gan;;m. Noomli1!. whim i, normany found in ,,''';~\\''''er Ir",lmen! 1'1.>lIt... but if H experien"e; e"""""""

,

C~1l

growth. "",ult in foaming an poor. lli,tg'::r ,olid, in the"""o,ua'Y """Iling ,each... (lhal is, clarifier).

5.4 The WHO,e~"Ortslhal malari.' islhem.... limJ-~" unt I"'ra"lic ",Iecliou, disea",. The WHO """mal"" therea ,e300-300m ,11 ionca""",1 OM la'iagl oba 11Y\\ ith the prnnary burden .. ,'umed by Ih""" li"ing in sul>Saharan Alrlca. Hun",n, contracl malaria afte' being billen by a m~IMi.'I-Inlecled """'Juao. These '''''"''''luitoes breed in I""'h and ""metim", b'acki,h \\,ale,. \\hich m.,y be l>e
5.16 field Obseovolion. of Populcllion Size OYe,Time nmo(
, , , ,

B_.("'O'L) ~ ,~

~

"'"

2.730 7,421

Cakulale """, for Ihi, p0l'ulatiOll. assull"ng exponential gro" th; indud" al'l''''priate ullil'.

5.6 OI,c"a"aluef", 1'",." hasbee..oblal"ed.lhemooel ""'r be use<.ll<> l-"'f'I"cI. populatio"
\\;th ~n inilul bionlllss (X,,) 01 5 mg YS.'>/L, ~ 1lI~,imum 'p""iHc gIT'" lh rate (......, I <>f 0.91 d~y, d"d ~ ''''piralion ,ate meffident of O.IS/day. [)(,te,min~ lhe bioma,~ concentrat,o" (mg VSS/Ll at the end of (~l 5 days and (b) 20 d~ys. 5.7

Cm~~id~r ~ r(lpul~lion

a !X'pul~tio" ";110 th~ 100l"'''''g d'M~ct~risti",; init;"1 bionlllss (-,",) of 200 mg TSS/L, m~."/Ll dfter 2. 10, 100, And 10,000 ddYs.

5.8

Consid~r

.,Id

5.9 T.,ble 5.17 pro.,id<5 the U.s. C"'lSIt'; Buredu ",fimale 01 the population 01 the city 01 IIon to 4 m,llion? How man~ years did illale to double the populalion to 8.11 m,lli",,? (c) Using your knowledge of half-life from Ch.pler 3, determine the ule c",~st.lnt for lhis popul.tion growlh. I, the r.ll~ of growlh chdnging '" ~r time? If 'M', by "h.\I percent?

Pcpulatic>nofBostonfrom 16flOto2010

,,~

-"'" ,~'"

,=

,m

lMU}

,~

1.3111,001

,~

24.900

,~

3.lIl\-l.flOO

,,~

"""

,,~

,~

,-

,,,~

,-

37HIOO

~

I,009fOl

~'"

-t.36t.JO]

1.7-l1>,fIOO

3.J5~j)()(I

'Jill"

~,W7,001

5.10 Tl* dlilpter de;;cribt'd th"t in 2007lhe aver"ge rdle grO\\ th of the glol>..\l p"pul"tion \\ as 1.2 perc~nl per year. Det~nni"" th~ doubling lime '''J'ffled lor the glol,.l pOpul'I,,,n u,ing Ihi, inlormalion.

5.11 The ra1eo! il"'''''';'''''' tl... human fXVw"lion in M",im w., 1.5 pen:enl.. (a) H",,'lo'l'; \\ (-..lld youexpoct their poputnion I" double fmm its currenl level of l1f> ",Hli"" people to 232 milli"n in 2058? (b) Whal might p,,,,'ell the 1";'I'W.tiCfl Ir,-.l' re,",hing this le,..,l?

5.12 Chin" .nd the United Sldte; were tl... lOp t",., p,oducers of CO" emi""ions a.""""idted "ith energy n-.,sumptico, in2Offi. Tdble 5.1 8 pnwide,d"ld o! CO"

5,18

c_

Uni:lod Statoll

~

2.....9.75

'i,ll6I.R2

1.997.69

~,

2,%'1.';8

;,7'H.711

2,.j../9.1&

5,09353

~,

3,464Jl.l

',soU7

,~,

2,(,2b.l>l

~,lRl1.1l7

=

4,lX.9.24

',I\
,~,

2,ll31.55

~,2h1.H

~

'i/ll9.711

;,9MA9

2,Sb1.t:>8

;,3t9.89

=

5,~12.70

;,9\lU7

2)l93.JIl

5.5Ilb37

~

5,/\17.14

5.913.i>i\

"'"

3,ll11.7~

5.571\.43

,."

6,21>0.03

6.oUU3

1.%7.26

~,n17J13

n,Kll.92

'i,l\.D.13

''''

2)\1\5.72

~,"'7.10

1-=

7,710.50

'i,42BJ

Cor-bon Oioxide Emiuic>ns in Chino ond the United 5t..es (in malic>n metric IOns}

,-

=~

lJnnod Stales

,~

1,4.lilA6

4,776.57

,~,

',4J9.i\b

lp.u,l'$

,~

1$l6.9~

,-

~

tklilo
l,2h971

~,(J.l11lO

,~,

l,JIfl.25

HIOll3

,~

''"

1~"'I3.39

BMill

1,71H9

H18113

1985

1,l\'V.i\1

''" ''" ''" ''"

1.97082

'''''M

''"

H,12.9'7

2.10271\

~.769.9b

l,24iU7

~.9R9.'i5

2,273.3-1

5)1(,9.%

, Chapter5 tIioIogy

,,,''"

,-

'""

from ene'8Y COI~.umptior\ (in Il\illim~, of metric I<'IOS) by ,f>.> Unilt!d Stat", an,j Chi"., from 19f10 to 1fXl9 (d.,ta lrom ,he Energy l"formatlOn Admini,'ralion). (a) Enler ,Iu, data in,o a 'preadsh""t an,j IlIJ.ke a graph of CO" emissiOl~' from 19f1O 10 1fXl9 for ,h""" ,wo muntn.",. (b) What is Ihe percen, incre.•"" In emis,ion, for ead> coulliry ,il"'" 2lXXl? (c) lit a halfpag", dl"'...., how lechnology eltlciency, price of f!t;,il fuels, and gn,wth of Ihe en,,,,,,ny wOllId ha,,, im~"cted U.s. Co, emis";o,,," in 20ffi an,j 2009' (d) If ,h" P"lpulation 01 China wa, approximately I.2R billion .lnd lho> populatio" of ,h.. Uni,ed Sta,es was appro"malely JO] million people_ "ha, "ere ,h";r emi,,",,,,, of CO" on metric '0"" per p ....""" bas,,! Comp.>re your resull< '0 the 2fXl9 global "alue of 4..19 metric t",,-, of CO, per person,

rommunity 01 1.5(W) people after 15 yeM' for eslimated p0l'-'la,im rate 01 gr<"'·'l~ of I, 2..;, and 5 percenl. (b) A"ume Ihi" Nral communny LS l",itlg popula,ion at a rale 0/ I percenl per year be<:aus.e of Ihe global phenomenon of rurnl n"gralion 10 urban ",edS, What is ,he "xpeeled population of the communi'y in 15 years!

5.13 E"ponential growth cantlot be 'uSlained for.. , er be<:ause of constrain" placed on ,h.. organLsm by its ,,'" iron me",. tha, is, ,h" ,ystem's carrying c",p.•cily, Thi. phenomenon is d"""i\>.,d ll,ing ,h.. 10gbbc1lr''''·'h ",ooeL (a) Calculate ,he si", of ,he popula,ion in Proble", 5.3 after 10 days. assuming that logblic growth is follo"ed and thaI ,he carrying capaci,y i, 100.000 mglL (b) Wha, percelll.lge of ,he e" pon"ntiall y gro" ing popula,ion size would IhLs be!

"",

emi"iOl~'

5.14 As repor,ed by Mihelcic el al. (2009> ""a,er ,j"mand is a fuoclion 01 ,he d",.gn population, minn"u", pe"'."ldl wa,er requ",,,men,,,, .tld factnrs such as "",,,,,nal activilies and infra>lruetural demands (e.g" from <;ehools, churches, and dinics). o".;igtl popula"on (PN I is ,he projec,ed popula,i"n in ,he lasl ye", of ,he d""ign life," It can be calcu1•• ted ... foll,)ws: for populalioo, < 2.lXXI

P~

PO(1

+rl~V)

A'<;lI",e ''''0 rural conunulIII;"'; in Hooduras h .. " inilial populalions of 1,500 and 2,200, re,peeti"ely. ff you are design",!,; a "'a,er sy,tem "i,h an e"pected lif" of 15 )'ea" (Nl. and ,he perc'''''''ge rate of grow,h b e"I"",led '0 be 3 perc""" what i, the rommunlly ,ize you would d",ign for ,,' 15 years for "ach commulll'y! 5.15 U,ing inlorma,ion prm'ided in Probl"m 5.14, (a) determine the expected population for ,he

5.16 FooJ limitarim of p"l-'ulatim gm\\lh is de;crib.> M..-.oo mooel, l'ol-'ul"ri,", grow,h LS characlerized by Ihe ",aximum "pecitlc grow,h ra,e (1Im.o.) .,,,d ,he half-"a'uration con"am lor growth (K.,). (a) Calcul...e Ihe 'pecifk growlh ra,e (jA) of the popula,ion in Proble", 5.5 growing a, a ,ullilrate col,",e,urd,i('f\ of 25 mgll Mmrdillg to Monod kine1ics if it h." a K, of 50 mgll. (b) Wh"l percentage of the maximum gr<",th rale for lhe e,ponenlidlly gro" mg popula,io" siz" would ,hi, 5.17 Llbor,..ory sludies ha,"e "hown th"t miooorga"is"" pnxlu'" 10 Illg/ l ofbinma..... in reducing lilt> oon~entra"on of" pollulan, by 50 mgll. Cdlcula,e the yield ~...,fficien~ specify ing ,f>.> units of e'p,"""sion, A pl1m ,;cale fa~~lity m .•int..ined under aerobic ~o,.jilions has monih>red Ihe ra~ of re",.wal of pollulant as 10 mg/l-h. Whal i, th" rale of growlh of ,f>.> micnlorl}''''''rt; oxidizing ,he poIlutan, (mg cens/l-h) if ,heir yIeld cneffide"t LS repor,ed to equal OAlllb ~."Il'/lb sub>lra,e!

5.18

5.19 Wf>.>n fooJ supplies ha,,, beenexrnusted. popularimsd iea way, This eXfX""'''tial decal' isd".'iCrib"d by a simple modifkation of the e'l-""lffi,ial-grm'1h modeLE ngi nee rs u s.e Ih "model to ca leula teth e Ie" g! h of time !lldl a swimming beach ",u,t re"",in d""-"ded animals alld do nol grow in Ihe nalural e"",mnmenl. TI,,,;, I"'I'-'laoon dVII"mics i" lak", and ri "'I"'I--Ihat is, foDowil,!> a di",h.".!;" of untrea,ed domesti~ "'a,lewater------can be describosl as one of expone"tial decay or de.lth, Ho" ,,,,,ny days would il,ake for a bac",ria c..-.cenlrab,.. of 1rr celli mL '0 be

reduced to Ihe public health ~t"ld",d of 10' ~ell/mL if the de<:ay roeffid""1 l~ 21 day?

S.22 TI,e 2012 li, ing Planet Report from Ihe World Wildlife Fund (lNWF, 20121 reported 11Mt in the year 2fn'l. the Earth's h-.l.,1 biocapacity w~, 12,0 billion globdl hectares. which ""Iu~les to 1.8 global hecta,..", per 1"""""'. In COtllract, humanIty'. ecologk~II00t prinl was reported to be 18.2 billion global hectares. which "']U.lI'" to 2.7 gllwl hectares per pe"",n. (a) U.ing Ih""" valu"" how mallY ye.,,,, ,,"ould II t.,le Ihe Ed,th 10 fully regellerale Ihe rene"-dble ,"""""-,rc,,, Ih.u huma"ily c",,-_umed in 1 reM? (b) "[roIogkal 0. ers1.....-.l·· l~ a tenn lhal descriJ:><,; whe" Ihe global e.:oIogicdl foolprim i, larger Ihan U", furth', biorap.lCily. Wh"l wa' ll", "ecologic-dl ",ershoo'" in 2lffl ""JX"ied in global hectares!"", per., ,"'? (el Re~iew Chapl~r 1 of the Li,-iJlg Plane! Report, by \l'hal pe",el\l d,d Ihe gk,b.>J Ii"ing pl~'let ind"" dedh", belw""n l'rnl al\d 2008? 1'IIh.d percent did lhe fr",l", dter index dedi"e m-er the "line lime period? S.2J AccordIng 10 Ihe ,,-ell SIll' m~illldi"oo by Redefining Progre;;~ its Idl"'l footpnnl "'Mly,i, indiml'" that htu""'" are exceeditlg their ""ologkdllimit~by 39 percent. C.o 10 Ihe following web site dnd determine your own ecol"gk-dl foolpri"l. Recmd y""r ,'alue dud compare II wilh IIK",e for y""r countl)" .,,,d Ihe world. Id~l\lily ",me "hang'" you can make in y"ur current lif",t, I~ and Ihen rerun Ih~ lontprinl cakulat", to reflecl th"", d\.lnges. Sunnn.lrize the changes )'OU make and h"", Ih~y .,Heel your ""ologi~al foolpr"'l. n,~ w~b ~Ile l~ \l'ww.rpmgres.~,nrg! "",logic,,1 foolprilll/about ecological fo"lprim.hlln. S.24 Renledi.,ti"" of 101u~IIe in a ea, found 101M'" lho! follow ing b iok,i "e~c coefflden Is for m icrobial g''''' th. I'-,,~, l.21day and K., 0.31 mg!L What i, Ihe g"'" th rale 0/ Ihe micmorg~l\l~m (day-') rem", ing thel"I"",,,, iflh""o""","!rdlim of !lie pollUlal~ is 1ppb .",d 1 ppm? A biological I.ealm~,~ proc""s u>ed 10 Ir~dl wa'l~water wa~ found 10 h~\'e Ih~ follm, ing biokinelk """,fid~1I1~: vield coeff...ienl (1.52 mg VSS! mg COO, half-<;aluralion mnSldtll (,(] mg COD/L, and maximum ,perific growlh rale O.%/d .•y. WIM! i, th~ gm" Ih ral~ of Ih~ organi.~ms(unil~ of day -') if th~ organic matl~r ill !he reael'" i>: (a) ~ 1m, -slrenglh ",a,te,,; oller wilh 12S mg CODll, (b) a high-slr~nglh ",asle,,-.lter wilh COD 325 mg/l? (~) If Ihe
Chapler5 lIiDk>gy

5.26 W1MI i, tile 11.00 of Ihe following chell\kal~? ShfM' Ih~ balane..d slolchion"'lric equalr.n '" ilh your ",ork: (a) 5 mg!L C,H" (b) 0.5 "'gIL CoCl,OH; (c1 C"H,,," 5.27 A wa,le ~onlains 10fl mg/l elhyl"",~ glycol (C,H"O,) and 50 mg/L NH,N. [)elermine Ihe Iheoretieal ca.oonae~ous dnd Ihe Ih~o.elicaillitroge"ou, nxygen d~m"nd of Ihe waq~. 5.28 Cdlculal~ Ihe 1\'800 and ThaD of a wa"-e mnlaining 100 mg/L i"'l'ropal~,1 (C,H,-OH) and 100 mg/L NH,-N. S.29 A w,.,1e Cfll'laill~ 1m mgll ~",lic acid (CH,COOH) al\d 50 mg/L "'H r"'. [M~.mine the th""reti,-al carJx"MCff>US '''yg~n dem.",d, Ih~ Iheorelical nilrog~no,", o~yg"" demand, al\d Ihe loMI ThOD 0/ Ihe ,,-a~I~ .

5..3ll A ",a,le has all

ullimal~ CIIOO

of 1,000 mg/L and a kr of 0.1 Iday. Wh.,t i, it> 5-
5..31 A """ m~nufaduring faciliIV;, being loc~led in your lo",n. It pldll~ 10 produc~ 2,000 m '/d~y of ~ wa~t~,,-ale. Ihat cOl"ist~ primarily of \\-al~r a"d the cho!micalp1",nnl d " ...ked '" II al a ~once"lralr.n of 5 mg/l. Phenol ha. a ch~mical fonnuld of C"H,OH. The comp~ny has asked th~ mUllicipal "",t~"..,ter treatm~nt 10 consider lrealing Ihi, induslrial ",asle. Your plant currenlly tredl' 3O,fl(XJ III '/day wllh an .,-erage infiuenl of 350 mg CODll. (al E.~limale the increase inCOD INding(kgCOD!day) if you accepl lhe indusl.ial ",a'l~ dis.::h.uge? fb) E.,limdl~ ll", additinlldl amounl 01 nxyg~n (in kg O,/day) needed to oxidize the phellol al Ilw I,...alln~nl planl.

5..32 Unl",aled

mUI~dpal ",a"-~waler

in [ur"!'" may a\'er~ge 6lXl mg/L for Ih~ carb",,,,c,,,,,u. 1100.,. \l'1~\o, ill lho! Uniled Slale~ lhis a "er~g~ ,-.11"" can b r coned iflll .)sl ern. (a) If IheBOD rail> cOl"lanI for umr"'loo """I",,'al~risO.:EIday, ~alculal~ Ihe BOOt. of Ihe uHlrealed Europedn and U.S, "a~I~"alers. (b) A"um~ Ihe di,,,,h-ed-oxygen concenlr"li"" 0/ oxyg~n saluraled dilulion \\'"ter u
"'Pffi

5..33 (al Calculdle Ihe me~,ured

roo.,

of ., wa,l~ thai has a BOD, of 20 mg/l. a"uming a BOD ral~

cOOfki."'1 010.13/ d"v m"... ured at20 C. (b) E,timale Ihe rate "",fficie,,' and resulling BOD uhimate if the l"mper"lure of Ihe wa~le i, rai,ed t,) 30 C. 5.34 A 3 mL ",an of 5(),OOO people, an a\'"rage hou",I~)ld generated ",a
If the Il(U rate c,..,,'ant at 20 C is O.12/day, "halc~ Ihe BOD ",te COllSlanl allO C? Wh.•t fr.\Clion of BOo., wo"ld remain in a ~.unple Ihat has Mn ,ncubaled for J day, (a) ~t 20 C and (b) at If) C? (e) Soh'e for Ihe fraction of BOD LJ ,emaining al20 C and 10 C, but aile, (, days of incub.• tinn.

5.40 Supp,..,~ Ihe ""tim.ll.,j BOD of an inlluenl ... "'pl~ is e.,pe.:ted 10 be 130 mg/L and Ihe di"oh ed oxyg"" ilf oxygen saturaled d ilul;O" wdter uSt'd III the BOD lesl CS 8.5 mg/L If you a,e using a 3CKl mL BOD bollle, estimate Ihe ma,omum and minimum ,unoull! of .sa"'ple you would add 10 Ihe BOD bollle to ensure ""-hsfaclorv I""t """ults. 5Al Ex""", tlilrogen inputs 10 estuari.", have been scienliflcally linked to po", wate, quality and degradal,on of ec,"'y,tem h.•bita!. The nitrogen loading to Narrdgan",U Bay "'as estimated t,. be 8,44·1,631 kg N I year and to Oles.lp<'ake Bay CS 147,sJ9,N~ kg '" / year. The walershed area lor Narraga"selt Bay is 310,IM ha and for Chesaf'<'lke Bay is 10,931,07,1 ha, The nitrogen l,wing ,ates are eSbmated for Gah'eslon Bay 10 be 16.5 kg N per ha p"r year, 26.9 kg N pe' I", per yffi rlC'O" Tamp" Bay, 019.0 kg N per ha pe' year for Mas",chu""t" Bay, and 202 kg I>: per I", pe' y"lr for l)"law are Bay. fa) R.",I.. the loading ,at"" from 10"''''' to highest fm th""" six ""tua,i.",. 5.42 Ex""" n"rogen input< 10 """,uari.,,, l",,'e been >ciemifically linked to 1"'"" ". ate, qu,dity and degra,bt,on of ec""ystem l",Wl.ll. Perform a library search for the pa.per lille ""'ilr'>gen inpuI' to "",enly-lflIJ' s""them I>:ew Engla,>d esluaries: Applicalion of a watershed nilrogen model (J. S. Latimer, atld M. A. Cl",rpenli."., 2010. £,I"a,,",', Coos/al ",,,t S!tdf Scir"n', 1'l9, 125-136). fu,ed on Ihi, article, " 1I.1t is the percent conlribution of Ihe follo,,;ng fou, sources of nitmgen to th~ ",alershed ill' Ihe "'ew Engla"J esluaries? (al di,ecl alm""phe,ic deposition 10 the eslua,ies, (bl "·aSlewal.,,., (e) indi,,,,,'atm,"'phe,ic dep''';ilion 10 the watershed of Ihe estuary, (d) fertilize, runoff from la""s, golf courses, and ag,irnlture. 5.43 HUm.lns pmJ,-",e 0.8.--1.6 L of u,ine pe' day. The annual 'Has, of phosphorus in Ihis urine ...n a per capila basis, .mS", Inllll 0.2 toO.'! kg P. (a) what is the ",aximu", concent,al,on of ph""pllorus III human urine in "'g P/L? (b) "hal is the ..,,,,central,on ill ",oles P/L? (c) ",oS! of this ph""p""'us i, presenl as Hm, '-. Whal is Ihe concenlralioll of ph""p""ru. in

",gHm,'-/L? 5.44 Assume 5() pe,cellt of ph""pl.,rus in human excreme,,' in fOl1'>.1 in urine (Ihe remaining 50 perce'Hcs found in feces). As,ume hu""",,, p,oouce 1 L of urine per da,· and the annual mass of ph....phorus in this u ,in" L~ 0.3 kg P. 1/ indoor ",ater usag" is 80 gallons per day in a single illdi"idual apartment, ,d"'l i, Ihe I",,· and high ,ange of ph,-,.,pho",-s cnnce,,'ration {i" mg Pill in Ihe wastewaler that is

di",l",rgoo from the ~f"rtmen, uni,? Malle su,"" you accounl for ph''''phoru. found in urine and fffeS.

5.45 fi,h ,ha, reside in the Potomac Rker Estuary h~\'e

BAF, r"P"rtoo as 26,200,lXXJ {units of Ukg} for largemouth 1M" and 1(I,5lXl.lXXJ for white perch, If the concentration of PCB11li di"...ol\-ed in the wa,er colum" is 1l.0f>1 ngll, what es ,he es,imated roncelllra!Ion of PCBl f6 in the fish (ng/kg).

5.46

Ctlncentr.;liOl~'

of on" f"rticul.lr PCB des>;(lived in ,he wate", of Lake IVa"hing,on near Seaule ",ere reponed 10 be .12 pg/L Es,imate ,he fj,h-.peociHc BAr (in units of Ukg) for (a) cutthroat" ith a measured fish concemration of J75 ppb, (bl yellow perch \\ ilh a measured fi"h concentralion of 191 ppb, and (c) pikemil""''''' ,,-hidl ha\'e a mea"ured fi,h cOlIcentration of 1,000 ppb.

5A7

C~1

to the IPCC web "ite (ww",jpcc.chl. Choose a "perific e'''''y"te", '0 slud y, a,ld lLse informa,ion Imm ,he web .i'e '0 r"""arch ,he imf"ct.-'/ dimate change on Ih.,t """ys,em, IVri,e a one-f"ge es"'y (properly referenced) sum,,,,,rizing your findings.

5.48 Biofuels are being _ugges,ed a. a me,hod to clr",e Ihe carbon loop. Doa library and Internet search on a particular 'ype of bioluel. IVri,e a o""'"page """'y that addresses the link bell,een bioluels and the global carbon cycle. AI"" add"",,_ the imf"ct that your particular biofuel may ha\'e on "ater qu"li,y, food supply, biodke"i,y, and air quali'Y.

Chapler5 lIiDk>gy

5.49 Accord,,'g to ,he US. EI"ironme"'al r,,>,ec· !Ion Age",cy, mountain,op coal mining co,~_e"ls of """,wal of mountanltops 10 "'I""'" COdl sean~s .Ind subseque", dis~""",l of the as.sodated "'in,ng o\'erburden in adjacent ,-alley' (see hllp,/ /w"''''''1''' .gOY / regionJ/mtlllop/l. In your own words, dc.;cus.s the environmental imf"clS as"",ia,ed whh mountain top mining. Ho\\ 0.1""" tlli" relate '0 EPA's Healthy lVate", Priori,y Program, and 0.1 ...... this melho
5.50 The U.S. En,ironme",al Pm,ec!lon Age"cy defines a TlI..1DL as ,he calculation of the maximum amount 01 a pollutan,tha, a waterbody can r'-""'il'>' and still meet water quality es .Ire required '0 develop lists .1f impaired wa'el'S. (".0 ,he following ",eb ,i,e (hUp:/ /".,Ier .epa _gOY /]a \\'s regs/ la '" sguid ."lce / cwa / tm
References !l1. !I<~l>.om, 1"'" n..tribut ,,{ """,my in tt-.. "'fU"b< "oJ ~,-b,~ On...""", \""',~"l VI''' , ,,", ,,.j ~il I\JM~.., sn .....'l---<71

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=

,... ,,, Ilill.

De""T, C. C.'i \\ \1<1(,,,,,,,,r;.~,Du, Bn·... """"'\(hy~,... De"""nJ, U.S. "''tl••1Su ,wy T., hn "l"'-~ ,. Wdt.T _R,,,,.. ,,,~ Im""",!!,t.,"" R ...... ,\7, ,,~. 7.0. ".",,-mbo~ !ro7 ~~~....-.I ~""",-~ U.lllll, ",on .. 1l1"1/1"'b"....d ~.u'!NI''',I rflI>.71

C.,

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[jft..~. <;. W .. 1_. bm.. ".~L.I.nJ ["Sm A........ ;,of. 1'"1]",,.1 [,""",...., "'0'Iw.-1" ["." ............1 ~~"",,,,_ .~nn....lt,~ 1.Al..' N.'", y"". ",," y •.-'cSf'''''/.'~' l:ng<.., L D .• .-.I B. r s.",'h, llllO. [",,""' ........1...... " A 51".... of 1.1'''0'1.,..,,,",,. 12fu.-.I Ib,.... , M,C.,.,,'_llili

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W,"~ ~

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Inh"};''' ',..-n"" 'Ot,,) P<....t ,.. ct; ,,,,,t.· 0.. OW' (If"l:"O, M17 <, Sum"",.-v ~. 1"'"'V "",1-...",. I" CIi "",t.· 0...."" 2<.,;.. 1"'/.. ,_ _,""' \ ' , I _ l i '•. C.",,,Obut.m .>fll"~"m~C'''~r l\ h. tt-.. r, .. rth A, ,""...., Il..>p'~,.>f ,I>. Int'~f;'''·,''''''''TDI P,ud "n C\,,,,,,t.-CI>.o,,W, \1. L Pony.O. r. Com,,,.,, J. P. P.lu"">f, P J ,." u.~ l~nd, ~,C L Il.>n,,",- r..l.. .c-"mbOOh~c..mbnJ~,L,.""·,,,ty rr.. 7 n. Inh"};',,·.-mn~'O"'1 P.nd

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".. Chon# (IPeCI. 2OO;b C, ..'riI>u"m ,,.- IV.".. "~ """P I h. th< r,,,,,'h A..",..",~,nt Il.'l""""- t"', In"-"-b~"·''"'"'''O'''' P..n,i.", el",",,", Chonh'" .'017

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M''''-'''''.J R.. L M. roy, dru.1 R S1u"', lOll C.~""'II"."'t..1,. pl"~pl>"","-"~,'n' f",m 1m"",,, u",.·.nd h,-,,- o..-mu,r'-", 84 (hh';J2...oJ1 M, I""'""u"' r.~''''r'''''''' ,\__~"m.-nt (~1 r,\l, :nl". L,"",1.""'''' 11.",,_ Wn-II' L~k,,R.I..l,-f... R L, l'Ifll T1It [." ....... f

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w·. '''S 1'1. "'" R.-po.-'

chapter/Six Environmental Risk James R Mihekic and

Chapter Contents

Julie Beth Zimmerman

6.'

Risk and the Engirtll8r

In tho cOOp"", roode... will loom

6.'

Risk Perceptioo

6.3

Hazardous Waste and Toxk: Chemicals

6.' 6.'

Engirteering Ethics and Risk

6.6

More Complicated Prob~ms with at least Two Exposure Routes

about the d',tinction between a hazardous ond a to";c chllmicalfmaterial, the memi'9 01 en.,;'oom.... tal risk, ond me"<>
"''''''''''9

ling fodo". Th"" this

en"" ... emp,o-

.ize, thai one of the b"" stralegi." for mirigoting,i,ki.toreduceorelim;oole the "'" or g...,.,otion of hazadous chern",cf' or maerial. r!."0'-9h design. Read.... wi' be in.O
0'''''''''''11,

"xp"'l.fe o''''.. m.... t. ond risk charocterizoron),lhe impod of si I.... pe<; f;c cord lio", on exp"....e to chemical. ond woy' that lond u", ub,,,,,,lely offect. en~iron"""'loi ri,k. finely, the cooper demo",lrde. lhe d;lferer>c:e. in developir>g ri,k chor· oc!...izalon lor cO<0OO9"nic ord nor<:on:inogenic c0"1'O.... ds. The ~ ell"f'ho~, i, on risk del",mioo~on d 10 10 conlan;"a..,d ] c ""rols fo,-"d in wal..-, 0", ond , food. The chaper olso demon,tro"', the melhod u"'ld to del mine olow<>ble chemical ccoc lratio'.. in - , groundwarerl;mdcontominoledsoil.

Learning Objectives I. OL.,Cribe how h> minu"i.<~ '" ~"mi",,~ r;"k by d""'t.'Tlu\g I",

2.

3.

~.

5.

6.

°

-t

e"p'''''''''

1

7. I!. 9.

10. 11.

o

Risk Assessment

n..Jtr.,J ha".-d andl uH",jtr~d ~Xp'hU"'. Sum,,"";& lhe JiH"rC'nlln'" ur h",a,d a nJ Ihei, p(t~l1ti.al ad, .." '''' impact>- un human h"" kh anJ II", ~m-i-r(.\ln"nl A rticulal~ lh~ n.."ning ur g"",n ohemi,rry. lhe tm,ic ,de~ 'nv..'I1~'ry, and the pullu~"" pre,·""n ... h;"r,lI'l'hy. alld h,,,,, Ih""e th"" i"-"", Can lJ.t, """,d i" ""gin",ring prartie" tu rc.l """ "nv;".""""la] ,i,l<. [).",hip lu ,uSl.1inabilily. Ot.'li"" II>< It!Tn,,,~m'i,,,,,,,,.·,,taliu;'li,-~ and '''''''<7>flbir /''PuIQt''''1> in rdatitm tu r;,,1< a;o;"",,,,,,nl arwJ "., plain lhe n~"" "'>gi,,.,.,,-, can p!.>y in adtlr"',ing th"", t"pi"", A rtioula'" th" I;mital~"" "i th" ,i.1< .~",,,,,,I parad igrn f<..-Ih,· p",,,rt~'" "I hwn, n h""lth and Ih"""v;""m",\1 ., nJ Ih" fac~I'" 1h.1t .ff~'d Ih" I""ieil,' oi" gi, e'l1 cl>< i,", r M J ,i.1< ""'''''''''''.'I1t,nt< """nIT. I"",. f,>tod " ..-I> r dl:to ,,,,0.1 1<' '.' . P,-"lim" a b..,i,- r.. k m t ""-''''''''''1':< "un:.1Tti""Il~" gi,,,n app'" Ida", ,ndudinl; I ul a d""",-""I""'" cun..,.

NOT

"'"''1'''''''''''

ATED

6.1

Risk. arxl the Engineer

r,.. ,I.., lo10 yo;l" of ,1~ 21)h c."tury. gl-.b.ll dl;~",kal pn"kiucft'" i """'''''00 <.........1 h ...,Jral '.n.... ~" that by till! ",-.I of Ill;, 1i,,1 J""ade of ,he 21 st c""luI}'. appr",jm.lI"ly 9OJ)(lll chm.jeal< are",n""only sold in ",,,unere,,. Addi,.)".dly. hund n-,h,)f ne'" eI,.."i",l. are il\tr"Juca! into ,h.. n",rlet "",h •·...,r. Ind,dJual. "taV be ,olunlarily or ,nwllunlarily b ~ to 11~ c~,;,als at honll!. al .-.chool, ,n U", "orkpl...:e. "h,1e t ra, d'"6. ,.... n"ly "hilt ie,;;gi ng in a large urhln .."'... The ,OO""r em ...,."'''',. i< .. t;,,) oo:m''''g .. n impI ... ""II,ng , .... p'" ing. crnt'ng.. and adh"'"E;., 'an h .., ... l.... g,i! ""fI'C'I m human heallh. "lany rnn'f"'n",~ a", maLng efffiorts In ..' ..1 1" the pob'nl...l rLou' >upply ,ha .... Risl h the 1il.t'lih....'Hl ,,f '''fU"'. d ..OOl..... nr d ...",. In g...,eral 'erm. (6.1)

En, ;lOfImental riok ,'1"'" r..l_u1llng fn,,,, ;>~"""l: c~ icals o.d",m,,:..1ml.,IuN<,,,,h .. ~ "".....u...nd nd aUliIe e>.h n..y c........ benlh... hu.AnJ:.. ' ... h., b.,~'S' 1 p.oIh<>ge...., _lral pI> " olOne d"l'IeDm. ,~ 'hange.• nd " "'II} In I'" il k •.", nIl 'u" ""'......",lIO hum d ... n.-.:l from ""p<"W"l' to dl..~ .... the « £tot of e,.. omnmemal nsl '.0 be .rrl b., lhol heaollb of plants. anunab, and ""II..... """,,, dih..;'Id.nd em 0 'l.... lit> of I""" T.I*' 1>1 ,,_ "'" hl"'!' of !>aunL ,••::h.ol.ng ph~",,",a1 hazM,J,., ,.... .01 haurd- .• nd gl1wl ~ ...J" 11 i_ lInp.--.-lant '0 0"" thai .d"",D'" .=do!ot.....- "'It .,nlv unply cance'-<:""ng. bu, a '..... Iudoi>< a,,~ impart tn h.."""" ..... 1>., the en, ,rOrtmOi!RI as. r u1lofe'p"" lo. ' ...." ....-alo. mat..... t Further.,""'", a", m ....)

."",l", ..

,,"'pi

"',."8

t""

acl._

,'l9''''

h.. z.. rd. be)m>d "' ont!> Th" r",l of • , ""Gll 0'" ~ III..-.h .,. ,t-. 10\1' ef~(h or I he haz...d,t

pr_ris 10 .. or~ or 10 .. ,mununlt......-l.. ",u""l;>, by c...... ng an "'PleNe.-. R,.;l has ~n h,.;I(>n... I~, m;anag.-.:l b~ .dd ""'"''''g ,"'" i. ""I'".ur;> ..... v be h ".\f
....l",,,, """r p"'ledl\ '" dlthng or b~ d~ e1"PlI'Ig ".'.ng rn'>duct "f.. funch'" Llf hill'.M,1 a nd "f "'''l''''''''''

,\\0 i'..ph:.........

~

b"",...... d .... r. A~ haz.lo1 .'wrN~ mr"'l~ (i. .... maunum 1000 •• y). r..l '.. n only b,,~,,!'V a,-:I e'l';'''d'n,l'; .'" m","ho...... ,1 7."'0.

F SH CONTAMINATED

Haz..d Categaries and Examples of Potential Haz..d Manifestanaru

Huma> Trndcly Haz"d.

--

C.UCln"l\em",y

lmmu,"""",KIv

Aq""hc ,,,,>city

"'eu""",id'l'

Reproducti,·o ten,ci'y

Avl.ln 'oxici'y

Cklbal \\"~,mins

H'1"",,,idty

T"'~'''l\""id'y

Amphibi.,o '""cit)"

enooc dcpk"lJ"o

Mut.lgenic,rv (m.; ..\ t",icily)

l'Iwlol""iotv

5ccunty'h,,-,"

Dermal u>\KJrv

Mammal",o t""klty looohumao)

W~t.". scarell\" I

C.m:lio'o,icJty Hcmatolq;i<:.J.1

hplosidty

~oodiog

\'iolen, ""'ef'OO ,,"lth water

to'lClty

ACId raio

Pc",,,,,,,,,,,! bk>ol<"Cumui.:luoo

Endocr",o toxiCIty

GreenCtlemistry I·t tp'J!>I-ww.<~!g I,,,,"cn, "".. tty

I" green chem~'try, ri,k i, ""l1imized by reducing or elimin""ng the h,7... rd. A, Ihe illirins'c h.'7.drd i, decrea"'-'surerol\lrnl~aIld therefore lo:ss likelihDod for faHure. n,e ultimate g... l wOIJld be to use rompletely benIgn m"teri.. l, or chemic..ls 'uch th..t Ihere "no n""'" to co",ro1 e'po'ure. That I"~ the chemicals and ",.Heri"ls would nO! cauSO> hann if they are released to the elwi",,,,,,e,,, or hu",...ns are e"po,ed to Ihem. Th_ relatl",~~hip",,,,o"gri,k, h,zard. ,nd "-'I""'ure "re e>:tremel} i"'porta'lt bee"u,", ~"'Urre'lt methoos to p"""'" hum"n h",lIh ,nd the e,,, ironment .,re doso>h tied to Ihe ri,k par"digm "nd depelld "lm",1 e,dusi,'ely on controlling '''p'''u"". There are effort, under to de,elop a compll1nenl.lry p"radlgm based on a fOlJrld.'"Orl of Su,Wulability to provide nO! only pmleetion 01 hu",,,n health of the el" irollment but also ron,ideration of social "nd economic benefit>.

"'''y

_

~_'G",,",,,""C'h"",""ist"'~>Green cnemi.try, which emerged "'" cuh",.i,'e "n,a "f ,,,,,,arch in 1\191. i, defined '" the d",ign of product, .nd pm"",,,,,,,,, th"t ,educe m c1imiTlilte the 11.'" and generation of h.u.,d"u. ,ub>L~nC. The g''''-''' chemi"lI)- appnMch wa, outiincd in ,r., ira"",w,,,-k of the J 2 I'ri'~ipb "r Crr,," n""ni."ry (Ana"la." ,,,,d Warner, 1'I9!l), "hich n:., "",,·cd '" the guiding document fOT the ficid. C""", cr.,mi"Ty i." ,me "f the mo"t fuoJame",.,i ricld" reb,ed to -.cience "nd "",hn'~I>gy 1m "ml"inabiltty in th.t it fon""", a' the m"lccular le,·c1 t" d""'gn cr.,miG,l, .,oJ "",teri.i" tUo;.

Cnapler6 Envir..........mal Rffik

The fund""",ntal ",,,,,.uch "f g""'" cheme"tT)' h..., been brought to bear ,m a di,'e"",, ""t "f chanengcs, including en.",;)" agriculture, pn:.r"""""'ti""l" ;",d heallh ca"" bi,~"d",,~,'SY. TliIOl,t,,-'hn,log)'. ""","umer pn.Juc-t" ani mat"-"b. In eooch c",,,_ g"''''' chcmi"'f)' h,;,o; b""" 'u",,,,,,,fullv detOlm"',aleJ t" ,educe intri",ic h,;,,,ud, t" iml"""''' ma.." .. 1and en..-g)' effi<:i""cy. and t" ingrain. iile cycle p""'p",hc. TaHe~.1 pm,-;Jc" e ... mpb "i green chcmi"ry tmt iU""tra'e it> brc,oJ th

"I

"ppli""bii~y.

h.omple. of Green Chemistry Gf""n Ch"",Wf ",dL.Ce' ro..ciy. minmoze' wa~e. ,"'." en"'gy, aod 00" dawn on m. dePelian 01 nallrel re> in ,htmi>lfyloOCQlf .. a mud. m"", e"""anrrenlally benign woy. In me hJlJle, wh... gr""n O"""~I)' i, procllCed by,,11 ,h.,."i~, ond "II ,h.,."ic:o,"",lded ,a"1"'nie~ the Ie"" • gr""n ohem,...,.' wi. ideallydi",pp"'" a, "II sbc<; .'Te''''''r;.~\'hef''- Thos' ~Te u.=! 10 Col". comput"",. p);m,,,,. h""",,", e""gl..""". ~pph~nce<. ",,-'", ... !Mil"';"",. aod pip'-"" M"", ,ho,n f01 mllhor, f""lnds 01 polymer'< aTe Pf<>:l1K'<>.l in the L;mt<.'d Sl.,te< each y'-'''. Tho feedstocles tha, afe lJ....J to pmdUfC Ih""" pol""""" afe ",nnallv aU m.\do from p<-°lwlL",m .• ""n",n""'able n'SOUfCC. App",,,,rnotdv 2.7 rceAt of all crude oil IS u...J to gOneTa'e ch
p""'''. 00.1\<.

In :ludng poly"",rs fmm reo",,'. blo ""ourr"" .uoh a, blo"", ... N'., ,,,,eWofle. polyladie aad (PLA) IS ~ polvrnL'" of naturally occurring l",,'ic acid (LAl, .nd LA com b., proJucro f"'m 'be f"""cnl.J.hr", 01 '""TO. Tbe g",,1 i. '0 os·ont...., llv maoul.eture ,hi. pols'me, frum ",..ste b",m.,ss. lI""th.". ads'anl.J.ge of PLA '" th.ll, unlike m",t .ynthellc polyn'o,..; that hUer ,he laodsc.,1'" ~nd pack. LIndfill•. It " !>i<>:legrad.ble. PL\ Coln .1", "" ",,-,ih' recycled by ,onvcrsir", back. into L\. It can "'P1.uo ""'ny pe'roloum-based p',lym",..; in pmducls such as carpcO;, !Mg•. cups. and t""tile fiber< Computo, cb if'S. Tho m.:Inulacture 01 compute' chips "'qui,,,,, e""... n·e .mounts 01 ohemicd\!;. I<"at."., .,,-.1
'0

'0

Dry cl,,;aning.Condcn.. ..,,] ph.no raTbnn dim.,de L' .1<0 usod "-' • ""1\·",,t fOT tho dfl{de.lning of do,th"". III'houl;h Col,ror. d~"irIo ~Ione i. not a gooJ soh'''''' fo.- oil•. "'a'''''.• nd ~""""'" ,he uso of earb<", din,ldc in comb",.t;"", "'ilh a SUTf>.rt.ln' an""" lor the f'-'1'Io""''''nl "I permlo""-~h\'l"",,(which" the
",,,,,,pi,,,, of g""n eh""".r)" ",dud> 'he I"Yo",ng:

• tol<;"8 chromo.Lm an:! a",,,"e, which .'" '''''ic. "ut nf r"'''UfL~trm'''d "",,,,\d • using n,,,,' k.... cheouml< f... bleocfu,,; p.",,,,. • .ub
'''''tc

I".

W,tlUll the ri,k p"r.digm, the resuhing ellg,,,,,,,,,ng efforts to lower the prob.p'-"'u"" to a wide range of ha7.Mds ,nduding lro.ic.ms, re~cli"e ~ub,;ta,"'es. fl."m""bl"", ~nd e.plosi"es h~,'e been significdn!. Howe,·...., Ihi. str~tegy is t",,,,e,\dou,ly ""p'""is·e. Wo 1'-1 of all, such ~n .pproach c.n and,~. a prob"bi1ily f"n"',on, " 111 e"enhully f~il When e~JX"u", controls f.,il, ri.k L~ then "'I"all" a fUll"lion of 1\.'7""-rd (_ Eq u.ulonh.ll. ThlS",lahOl,~hipatgue-sfm ,he,,,.ta i,,,,ba,ty p"",digm. ThaI i" there i' ~ "eed h) design n",]""ul"" produm, p>'
.".1

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,1,\ 0"". ~~" """""". ,,-~.oo at man"'!ir", Ii<>< by

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rio,

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ex ample I 6.1

inlentiOJ",lly or accid"'!dlly) but i,~,tffid rely OIl Ihe IL* of benign (minimally hd7.lrd(.J,) ch..n;r,,1s "nd lIIa"'rials. O"''''g 11", early st.>gesof de-ign of a mdllul""turing pnxe,.." there " a g"'dl a "'Owll of l1""ib~ ily ill d",-e1'l' ,ng ,01 u! .ms thJ I P"'>'ellt~ or n"n.inuze; risk bv n",kong d€Cis~ns th.u elimina~ 11." use Jnd pm· d ""tinn of hazMdrus chemica Is. An engi,,,,er woo 1d not imffiliotlJlly de;ign a manuf""tIJring pmce", if a d ir""l re;u11 ",,..e Ihat the proce", would Cd~e planl ,,"orkers a n.1 community m.. nber« tOCOnlracl cancer nr Illdt fL,h localeJ '" a local stream wflUld die d/ter e.'posure to ,,"a--lewdlt.:l eoo.y,tem it"pdtt' are the un",telldeJ c"'~-Juenc", of many of our current pr""tias of engin,.,n"i'; de;igl~ H""ev .... e,'Gu"''''''. with new ,usLlinabully a"are"""" .• re no", embracu'g "g""'" chenu,lry d'>.:l "green engineeri ng" as d mean<; tn d", eI"I' chemica Is, male.., b. pn-.ce...es. arid ",rvices Ihat rrouee", dimi lhe 1.1'"' a ,Id ge" ...ali"n nf hazardo~ ~ub,la nee;, leading tn reduced risk In human h""llh arid the em ".o"""",t by rroucing hazard. T! 01 material, and c""ling~ "".,.;! In d""'>rdle, furni,h. and ilbulale d bUIlding, and Ihe l"'ge number nl chemicab u".,.;! during opera linn dnd mainlena"ce of lhe building. How many of Ihese .truclural

''''Ie

UmitatiCllls 01 Controlling Elcposll"e

J:)e,;cribe a pasl or ""rrent ""ent "here the failure of d" e"ginee..oo conlrol e~pD.ure nf humans alld lhe envir"" ment to a hazard(..,., release.

~Y"te",

dlin",eJ for the

solution Ma ny "".",,,,; d '" p"'",ible. 0,,,, e"""plo! ocrur",d III the ea riy-nnr,u IIg h,"",rs of l:)"cember 3. f 9H when a holding lank cnnlain tng 43 Inns nf ,k'.-...:! methyl i",X)'anale (M1Q fmm a Uniotl Carbide factoJ)' in Bhnp.>l, India, overhedted dnd released d tn~ic, hea,-,er-lhan.... " MIC gas mi~t"re. MIC Is an """''''lely read ive chem,cal atlll is u-.ed in pn>ried wl."n a tank cotllalning /\lIC leaked. It is p,"""umed Ihat Ihe «:ientific rea",n for lhe accidenl Wd. thaI wdler entered the tdllk where abnul -10 m' <"If l\-lIC ",a~ sto",d. Wl"," water am MlC mi:wd, an e""tl'le=;" chemical reaction
I

ChapterS EnvirorvoenIaI Rhlk

_

~~lG,r,e,e,nJ.lBUI"i,ldUl·Ug.S'-

n.., u.s. G"",,, Buildi,,!; Council

1\;" "",-doped ~

LEE [) ,,,,ring e>i",

f,..- "",,' c''''''l\Jd~m.

e,;>ling

'l'h= to cerfify pmb";,,,,,," anJ the d"'ign. cun,tructio", and <>peralio" or gr""" buM",/;,- This "ling

bUlldi,,!;,_"nd co"'IIlt'Tcial interim'". Currently unde, de,,,k,F"'''''' a", In''th<,d> for c,..., and ,hen. h,."",

sy'tem is r~f"Tfed Ii) as L",d"".hip in En..-gy and Environ",,,nla! Design IlEEIJl. l!uilJinl; <>Im."-,, pmf"" i """". a nd UP"'".l ~)" ,"". d m n l.:J g"" '0 tia"ing Inei r building LEEI) rertified. As an ""1;;""'" (~,-en as a stude"l), l'u" can ".le an "Hm to b"mme a L~LD

and n";gl-t>",h,~>.lde,,,l"pmenl. Table ".3 p""-i,",, the "",ring for LEED c"rtifiulio" rdat"J III n~'w ,"""m,,,· ci.d or ""jt.- ,,,,,,,,.,Ii,,,, pmi'd;. :-;, ~e th.lt lhe cal"S'~

A,"",lir,>lI'n>f6-,iull"l. II d..", nut ""Iui,e .my ""P"'"'"'ICe but d,.", ""lui", that you ,tudv {", and pOl-"" a IHltlen exam",d!inn.

Ii"" inn,h'e ""m)" thing> that engin""". de.d with.

The", irduJe i",u"" ,ueh;"

waler m;magem!.,.-;"", ird "IT ~ ir ,!""hl)', ~nd ene'l;Y cu"-""",·,,ti,,n.

mal"'''''' •.• dh""i'· .... ,,,,,lant'. noor al'O.1 will cm","u,t'. furnitu"" corn?",.,nt", and c~an,ng agenb are , ..""led b",;rl on the criteria In max imize t he he.,lth a nd productivity of the build ing', inhab,tants by m,nim17,;ng poIential adve""" impact (the ri,kl tn human, "r the en"imn ment? U n~'rtull.llely Ihean",'er 10 thl< "Iue>tion is "'''''y few.• Green build ing d .,;ign lak... inlocno,';dera tion Ihe health 01 building occup"n IS along with Ihe impacl on the en" irno"nenl a"''''''''ted " ilh nlaterial choire" Poorly ,je'i.ig",rl and ma"'ged in.:l....". ",,,;n,,,,,,,,nt, haw" l.U"ge ad, "'"'" emnomk in'Pacl on ,,,,iely tmt i, a""..,ialed "ith i,,,",,,,,,,t
6.2

,~e m"'''>gem
Risk Perception

R i,k perception e ... nlines the joogmen IS p''''ple make ". hen they are asked to characterize arll.l eval ,"Ie hazaroo .... act iv ities arll.l t<.dUlnl<>gioes. PeJ riski"e", of mallY diffe",nt IM,. . rds thn)ugh everyday choice; al\i.l bd"" io". These d",is~"15 are b,,-,oo on the perceivt'l"t, lit f.le"r is hOI, familia, we a '" w~h the hal.lrd. If" e bel..,,, we kllnw " 101 .,bout a ha,.. rd bffause we are ollen exfl'O""ltn it, we oft"" u,1I.l er.,;li'll.lte lhe deg",e of r"k. Amthel' factor i, wl",!hel' or nol we are ,olulll.lrily being exposed 10 lhe IM,.. rd. Whell a person

0,,,,

UED Credits Associa .. d will> New Commercial Constructian and Majar Rena\ldian A p,oject can obtc>n a ma~imum al69 paeven p'~'equi"t~, I,~fened too> Prereq in tobl~lthataUbuildin9' mu,tm",,'. Napoin" are 0>>I9ned to,. m""ti "9 p'efequ i, ite>. Point> (relerred 0> aedi!» me ob'a ined ;n live eategor ie., wh,eh are nat equally balanced: lll.u,tainable "Ie,; 121 waI", eflici~ocy; PI ~ne'9yandotmo,pher~;141 matenol,and ,~"""e~,; (5) indoarai, qua Iity; a nd 161 i n"""ali"" and de';9~ 1""""". C~rtinca,i 0 n i. 9 ranted at Ioud~.~I., be >ed an lh~ nu mbe, af poi nh rrwarded:c."tilied, 26-32 point,; 5ilver, 33-38 paint>;~d. 39-51 point>; and P1ahoom, 52-69 point>

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, oIun Ll ri Iy lake; nn a r"l<. he or ,he aN> u,uaU y unde",'" tina I." the ChaIlC'" of a ,"",uhing injury. TI,;' 111.'1) ha,'e 10 do wilh 110" "'uch ennlrnl u'.di,-idual, leel Ihey have mer Ih~ "';Iualioll. bdlllpl"" of ,·olunldry ri,1< illclude ,mol be pUI al ri,1< by go,emmelll or i,'.dusI'Y_ This altilude lowdrd ill mlw,la 'Y ,'el'iU' ,-olunla'y rioJ: eXF'aill' " hy Ihere is usually a publ", OIl""y whell a facI"ry amlam,nales local d ri IIk"'g wa lei" nr a" qua bl y lS foond In be un",1e. III Ih",e C'"'''', II." addt>.:! rlsk fn)m e'p",ure In cmlami na l»d waler and air is 1101 ..,1Iunlary. I nd i\" id lI.lk f..,l a, if Ihey d re beill8 ,ub"'ctaJ 10 hazar.i< beyond lherr cnllrol ",Id wilhoul their kn"",laJ8". Example. 01 inwliunla'y rioJ: are in hal"'g ,emndhand ,,,,,,ke, ha nng a highway or high-voltage p"" er Iin", placed in ym, Cmlmu nity, a nd 1M\" "'-g p",ticide r""idue Oil Ihe outside of roor pr",:h",e.

6.3

Hazardous Waste and Toxic Chemicals

E. p..»ure In a lo,ic or ha7.uoouschem ica I can reI, inhalu'g airOOnle cnntantill.'l"l. Ihdl muld be in a vapor or parliculale form, and enlllaeling chemical, th.l I are t ra '''l-~) rted Ihrmgh Ihe .kl,~ Expo;ure can abo be acu '" or chronic. The Toxics Relu ",£Ie and I..",,,, ehe,,,,,,.ab. Thb illl em0l)' "''''' e,tabb,he.:I undt5fl chemkak a,1d chemica I caleg...........ubmitted by Chapler6 Envir..........mal Rffik

_.

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Till Di.pow! ~"d Othor. 1I~1~-.lkpclf.~d10 .h~ ErA i"

1lI1D T......•... 3.9Jbi_pounJs'd.> .. foomEP,\ 2il1la.!

()', ~ 23,l'lXI ",d""trul ~nd f...Jer~1 f.oclhlloi!!>. nw TRllTrKb dL'pth ....... rt.. dnd off-,'!<'.n,dud ing " ... ~d"""Uy to ~If, land, _u,f~ "dlt'r, dnd ground ...·dler. It ~L"'l p"... id"" ",1"""'.111"" on ....ho!r ... ""t.. m.I'\dg""lt'nl.tral"S'''''. '"eha_ ~" 11llg.. "''Ietltv """" ery, t,,,atll1o"l,t.dnd di""lIdrg"lo "dsl""dle'tredt",.. nl pldnts, EPA "'It'.ased Ih,. WID TRII'\,'ti",...1A.... lysis in !dll",IIy 2012. fig" .... 1>.1 thO' br..aW"" n 01, .... 1,'13 bi11"'m l-"CI.mds cl ""kch""'kaLs d;~p<....-d <>f,or 'eleaSo'l.i, ill 2010, 1'\01... llldt Ihe la'g"'" "f ""k ,h""ncaL. 1, dl'po:lM!d/r..l..a,.,.) to lalld, follo"N by ,.it, and ,u,f,,~ ,'.1'1" al1d und"'gwul1d in;"':tinll. n,.. TRI databa,.. 'An ilt' ""'rchN b} year, g"''S'''l'hkal localion (ZIP ,.-..1,.), "'... mical leaSt'd, '" lnd,,-'t'} tyl"" Glil"", and ,,"''''_ gelln-r""po""" 1,.,.....,"' 1GIll l b toue ~ ...... man.lged ,n too, mnunu,uty, Figur" 1>.2 ,;J"n., tilt' loU,l " .....s ni TRI """,,"""' .... n<'e 2001 (.1..1.1 is .., ..,bbk> brlel.. to I'IM), along ",th tilt' numt>.>r "f f.lOlu..... "'(...-tIng ~ . n... TRI data help tilt' publ",,_ 8"'ern nt nf6a.. l<.• .-.:I ,nd,,-~n th..... oo,..ct.,;s; III id.",.;h pnt<>nt l ~ .-.:I ga.ut .. boppnrtun'ht'S 10 "on.. ",Ib ,nduslro aroJ 8"'''"'n.....,lo reduce 1<"'... c~ ..l d",p...alorot!lt'r re~ .. nd pnlo!nl l n4.• ........,..M.:I .. "h 1Jwm..nd 01 es.tabb>.h reJucbnn t""S"t' .. roJ I-...osrI",,, .. n! reJlKtlOl\goab... Figu,d..1 IiWn .. ~ :\"nk ,n Ihis figur.. tlldl In Dl>n"'T" I frOClhtle .. '" ~<'nt•• h'oJ cJo.
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n_

" oJ"",..

Identify TAl F..cilities by lIP

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A"'.

6.3 Haudoo,aW_IOdTOlicCllemclls

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o

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Flgbre 6.2

TRI Emi.. ion.lin mil~on pound••• ;n,~ 1001 ~nd N urn be,ol Fo,il;li., R~po,tin~Emi ••ion•.

Rgure 6.3 and

F~,~ili".

L"",I.d in UrNn A",.. (Iolt 10 nghll 0"",<'1". ",ml<'l" 51. Lm';,.

Ph~.,d
I"~Class Discussioo ... 'IIry&Oya
...

TRJ

m

TRI do" f,om EPA. 2011.,),

hundred 1~~iIili", lhal nl\.L,1 ""1'0" Ih~i, ~h~",ic~1 releases under Ihe TRI. AI"" ea~h or Ihe urIMn area, r~p0rL' \\ ~11 ",'~r 1 Ib 01 rel"'rl~ble loxic chemical> emilled per person. ""Ie al", how only Iwo of lile k""'li"n, (C""~ler St. t.
."._<>l-.....,,~,,
:.

,,",o wmm"c'~y

p""'.LC< a. a """,I<,ofoh, ,,'Cr"ll'la"""" o",r~ pcOli<;1y ....au""l ChapterS Envirom\enIaI Rhlk

6.3.1

HAZARDOJS WASTE

In Ihe Uniled Slal"".~ lt3~3r
, YR. Rel.....es (left 10 tigl"ll: Denver. Grea"'. 51. lGuis, ...d Philadelphia Melropo5tan Are... from EPA, 20 1\ c!

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(1)Metal... (2) o1<.'dric uli~ti,-~, ()\ p leu rn. (~\o""mic.1<

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th" ,,-aqe', phy,ical olid" waearded material nClt excluded by .10 C.ER. 261.4(a}. [rd"drd wasil'S include ilems ~uch ...~ domestic ""wage, household h",ard"u.s ,,'asle, lly ash and botlClm ash lrom coal combu,tiolt, and m.•lture Mumed 10 s"iL C. ER. i" the abbre"ldtion for ende of Federal Regulaliml', tile documenl in ",hlch lederal regulalion.< "re pubIL~hed. TI,e number ,10 indicat"" Ihe ,gn.ued ...~ ha, rdou, ullder federal regulali",,,. W...< I",are d""ified a, I"" ... rdou, lM ed on, i 1) phy~ical char.cter;"ti"" 'uch as re"cti,ity, c<>rn-..i",ty, .,nd ignilabilit,; (2) lo.,icily; (3) Ihe quanlity genera led; altd (4) the hbl,)'Y of the chemica] in ler"", "r ",wironmenlal dam.•ge ,I cau,.ed and Ihe likely el\\'""nmenl,,1 fale. H",... rdous ",a,tes Ihu, mayor may nol exhibil lO'icity.

(1)Ch
12) pM",I"",...

(31 pro"."y metal" f"cd/bew,agL../lob.K= 15) cle
m

Access the Code of federal Regulations '~'l'"JI~_'~""'-'l""I"fd

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6.3.2 TOXICITY E,w'Nlllmental loxicology, als" "no"'n a, e,\\'ir"'ltnelttal heahh sciences, i, .u, ItlterdLsdplin.ary field dealing w,th Ihe effect> of chemic "I... Olt li","g orgall;';nL~. Because energy "lid m.'ler",1 "re di,Iribuled altd cycled Ihrough lood web>, il L~ likely Ihal an "npaL"! 0/, "ne le",,1 ,,'i 11 be renected in olher le,el"". well. For example, there L, e.-iden"" Ihal ele,aled polychlorin.ued biphenyl (PCB) le"el, ilt fish resuh" in 6.3

~,,""'" Was. ""dTo'it CMmcaIs

_

~_,H"Qow,"C""Q"C,g'"P""'Y"Q'QQ"' Cn/lar rl'!"r; 100 gT,'Ii I' 0(,1, ;eIl""; IIIN/<';" if, a b"''''''0I, ,naligllao,' "S,,,,'gro,,'III. R""""cI,lla, ,,,,,,,I"d Ow/II", 01'...·'·/0/'""." I,,( ca IIetT i" ,,,I,,,,, a COni I'kr S<'rIt" of

,1<'1"'. a"d co rr "10 gr",- ,"" ,v o/,,',a lei" Q " " '" ",.",.r ,liff!'T""j ''''y.;, UlI""alrly, co"n', rt-,;"U, fro". a "'''',''

"f,ltferl' i" g,~,,·s (/",I",lIilll: eel! gro"'O', di~i;i("" alld ,li!f<'rlmlialwII, C",,,,'ic,I,,r,,,.,, Im,lillS I"calle,', may ocm r ",",a",,' Q ellr III ical f ('r "I ill'!' en rr i 'lOg,,,,e ag..'" I) damas", DNA ,lir,-diy. AiI,'mal i"t'ly,"" og,-"I m"y haP/' ilUlm...1'if,-cl' 1/101 ",crt'll'" /il,·/ikdi',oXJd.
'" I<'rae I'" g "'II h DNA. F"r ,-X,HI'I'It>. a" Q g~" I ""gill willi DNA "1",i, m,dm,,,,,,,,. lI,rrrby merro, i" S II,,· I,L1 ii,,,,,,! I Icd1,I" 'l< i"" JJ.' ilI g i~~ ,,5<' 10n'l/, u'ilJ, oI,''''~g<,oI DNA, A"~g"", migl,' ~I;o i" em'.'" "",.,. "fall 01 "'" i" cr,'~,i" g Ihc 1"" ClII ,~I for gm"1 ic crrors 10 "" i" I rod IIml D.' all" "'I,licalc tl,,'ir DNA HI I'"?,,,ali,',, for di"i,i,,,,

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IEI'A, "EtCl Shed rn, Guideh"" 1,,1' Carci",gt'n R.. k A''''-''>ID~nl,' Marth liKE).

dd",..,;e health ~/f"",1S to children born 'n,m mOlher, "hn ildud«l conI.""''''' led fish i" theor d iel While bioac~umulalion (ro''''''''lrdlk", nr a ~hemi~dl build, up in an "'l';d"ism m·er l,me) of PCEk nldY I"" e hoOd nnd ir""l ad""r", d'''''1 n" adu k fish. Ihe'" " "" d" imp""l nn fi,J, offspnng d'>.l tl", ned In'phoe level (hum.",,). T",ic eflecl~ ca" be di"ided intn Iwn Iyl""0 carci"og~ni~ "rid nn"carcinogenic. A ~Md""gen pmn~~tes '" i <>due'" IUI''''''s (<:a toeer). Uldt is, the unconlrolled or abnonn,,1 growlh .nd di,isinn nl cdb. C.... aCl by "llacking or dllering 11", 'lrocllJ re d t>.l 'unClion nr DNA'" it hin" cell MiIl'y CdrCUlOgen, Sfl" Me "nt cMd''''ge'''' bllt M" m"'.w,,1 i7.aJ 10 'orm c.... d'~)ge'lS dnd Ihu' indirectl} iruti.lte Cilll"'r; co-c~rci''''gm; are not cardn''f;ens but enl, .•"", Ihe c"rci"q;eniclt y nr nlher chenticals; a,'od enlld"ce the gn,,,,th o. cancer c.. ls. Ci.lssi fica linn o. a chem ie"1as being card lO'gell ic In h u "'..", 'equ ires ,offlcient ""idence 11",1 hu",.." eXJXlSure l..,d<; tn a 'ignified,rtly higher incid"""" nr C"n"",. Soch ""ide'''''' i' often cnileClt>.l from "'.... krs in ~-.b e,,,,i,,,,,,,,e"I' wllere Ihe,e i' prolnngaJ conLlCI ,,·jth d chemical. (Thi, is c.. lled e!-~d.miningicJ.ld"t.l,) While th..." are fell 1;"""'11 hUlIldn card'~'ge, .. (/or e"'''''PIe. bellzene, ,my1 cl~CIfide, .. ",,,nie... ,'od h",,.. ".. lent ch,emium), m .."y chenticals.H" hun",n can::i'",gens (/or """n'Ple, be"zo(a)!'l""""', carro" letrachk>ride, cadmium. dl'od PClhl. and hu"dred<; of chemicals lid," 51ISg,,,,Ii,,' ",'id,~ ..·,· th.l.1 they are c"n::inoge,~,. As "''' ""II di""u" l.ller. chemical' Me liSled as suspeded ".. ",inog.",. "'hen expe,"nental e,idellce indic"les i,,,,re....oo cill",er rioJ: in 1,..", oH'er tl"," ca,doogenic, "r w lll"h there ., re coonll"" examples: "'g.", d" nl..ge (indudu'8 kid,,,,y Ii,· ...), neIJrohgical dilln"8e. ,up~"''''""d immulllly, a"d borth ,,00 d",elop",e"t,,1 (lld,mi"g a" nrg"nc~m" reproooc~,,, .•bl,ty nr "'lelHgencel "ffect;. F
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Rgure/8,4 eonhu"," of He,ll. Ri,ks Due 10 hf""u", tn Nnnc,n:in"ll"n., lUnging from Lc.. S.rious to Morc Scri",...

lead le,'eb ;n child,..,,, have been ,1m" n Iocau,. learn; Ilg diS()rders and lo,,'er IQs. TI,e Imiceffect- mall if""t.,,) following ""I""ure to a chemical olten "",ult from interfere"ce with enzyme (cataly,t) splem-s thai medi,lte the biochenucal r""di"", critical fM "'gall fu".::t,on. Flguref>.4 deplcls the mntlnuum of rbh due to e~ f"l'>u"" 10 ,.oncarcil"'!\ens as rallging from Ie,,, seriou, to rHO,.., ",rious, Ri"h that are ,..,,'ersible, not debilitating, and/..... not ],-fe-thr""ten"'g a,.., con"idered to be of Ies.s co"cen, than th""" that are irre.ersible, debHitatlllg, alld/or lile threatening. Chemical" collectively kno,,"n as endocrine disruptors e"ert their ",feels by mImicking or illlerfering "'Ith the action, of hormones, biuci",,,,kal compounds Ihal control basic phy"ological procbs"," ,uch a, gr"" lh, melaoolLsm, and reprod uClion. Endocrine d L'rup10" may exert "o'>earrirwgen;c or carcinogenic effects. They are belie,,"') to conlrrbule 10 brea,l cancer in ",omen and prostate cancer in men. Chemicals idenlllied as endocrine di"u pto", include peslicides (such as DDT and it, melabol iles), ; nd uSlrial chemic ai, (such as S()me surfactanl, and PCBs), ""ne prescription drugs, and other conta",inalll" such as dioxin. (Nali",,,,d Science and Technolog) Council, !991>). The likelihood of a t",icologi<:al ""'p",,,e LS determin.,,) by lhe ,,,!,,,,,u,,,, to a ch.miall (one factor in Equalion li.l): a product of the chen"cal d,-,,;., and the duration m'e< which Ih.lt d
Endocrine Oisruptors

'"t'f'" 1ww2._.JIG.or.y r
f""", ... That AffectToxidtyofo

Chemicol orMo'....iol

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ab><"b"J in'" the body, "ill"" mimic", b1<.:k I><'rm,,,,,,, and d .. rupllf.., b"dy', "'J altering n, .. "",l r.",rn.,,,,, 1",.. e1" halh,...; '" stimulating the production "I hormo""".

ch.mginl; the way

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l"H-d thI<1ugbtne b<>Jy. thu, afftding Ie., fund.,,,, oj the", h",rnm", contml. Of

T!..", chemimb ar>J ,ub""""" are accumulating in ii,1> and ",;Idlil,,_ and the num~r of ",,,minl;' .,bo-lUt ""ting ,,( fi,h and wildlife due to ""docrin" d;"rupl'''' i, inc"""ing a,," has ,,,,che
laling in fi,h and wildlife t1 the f.ud chain, including ""..J ing binh, alliga'o"" Horida panlh~r-, minh, pula, bear-, and hduga and "n:a '" role,_ Man)' ,ubp.'pulaIi",,, ",ilh ,ignil'i'''n1 ~xp< ..u", .lf~ ~~P"'"i~nr '''Producti '" elt>,clS, ,,,,ulting in inf~rtihlyand r~F""u ducti,,~ bilur""

,,,,,l,,

In hum;m" ,."",..1 h", lth prthle,m p<)",ibly linJ...,J Itl end("c,inoo-d>.rupbng cherni""l, h",-~ Mn """,,,j.,J; (1) dedin", in 'p''''ID cuunl in many c,",mlri",,; (21 a 55 pe""nl inc""", in incidence "I l",iiculM c,,"c", rn,m I W~ 10 I Y; lin EnglH\d and W...JL"; 0) inc"",..", in pm-.t;>!e can"'r; and (~) an inc",,,,~ in b",,,,l c;m",r in ",,,me,", incbJding a nann"" I in<"'.,,~ "I I P"'""'n1 in lhe Uni rd St,~, ,in", lhe I \I.llb (h.,nd, ur lhe E....-lh, :!lXI\/),

In wiUlif~, th~ r"n,ming"~ ",;unpJ".. "r efft,ct" Ih•.r. h,,\'~ b",n Iinkd I" ~nducri,"",- whdh (" Iv?, 01 ,heUf"h); (2) ~,." l'Olnd in I",,,,, or ""ch fi-.h in milll v ri,-",,; in lhe UnileJ Kingdom; (Jl 10" "!)g ,'i"bilily. ~nla~.u ",,,ri,,,, and reduceJ p""i, "'" in H"i"I""'; "",j (4) ~g&,hdllhinninga nd le""l.,....rem"~ pairing in bir~ (h;.,nd, "r lhe EMth, 2m~), The ri_l.., """>.:i.l~ ,,-ilh ~rd,>.:ritr-di._rupling chemicaL, .'" only ;u.,t ~nning t" be di",,,,..,,..,,j "nd '1u.mlil'i.,j. b",,,u,,", lhe lh"t cau", the elr",!> "'" much 1"",", Iron tho"" 1,.,dilinn...J!y I,;,,,,d in t""ic_ ily'hidi""

tI,,.,,,

Ill"'"

Iypically presenled '" the mas, or ronMmi"""t d",ed per (body "eight) of lhe 1"'1 organi,,,,, using units of mgtlg. Th~,,, rnJelllidde" ,th a" LD.., of 100 mg!lg would ,"",ult in Ih" .:I"alh of 50 perc"m 01 " popul"I'O" of r.u" each ",eigl""g 0.1 19, if

Oral Medi... lema! Oo5e fot Various Organism. and Chemi.a1.

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Tl", u"i,,;ly nf chromium varie, g",a d V d~nd ing 01' wh",-h oxidalll'e ."ale il is in. Cr(1I or Cr ". i, r£'iari wi} not't<>xk. whe",,,, CnV]), nr Cr~·. came, ,luI or t\ilSlI damage and IUlIg ~ ..,,""'. Of cou"'.... chemical, can ulldergo nxldalinn a nd red ""lim r""clio,.. in envrrmm"nlaJ cmdi liot". so r£'i"""" of lhe lower-toxicily form dne.. not mean th.,t the ch"',m,um "ill P"""' no ri,k to human health or the en",rmunenl,

applied .,1 J d""" ollfl mg per rat. A dn"" of 10 mg per !l.t 19 rat should r~ull i" Ihe d ea Ih of mnre t1... " 5!l per"" nl of lhe pnpulJI io,~ and a d ....e of 5 mg per!l.1 kg ral would r""u1I in Ihe dealh olles, Ihan 5!l p.".cenl. A ,im~ar I... n~ Ihe median lelhal concenlralion lLC..... i, Iypically u*g"" can a~" reflect ., t<" ic r""po''''' bUI are diffICult to a'i.""', 'lO/llethal end point< a", m"",,-,reU a, an ellective con, .. ,lrat~nlhal alf",,~ 50 1"'0:"'1 of the pupulatr.n (EC...,). Ra;:a11Ihal "'hal d"'errni 'le, tro.id ty i, nol on! y l1le do,"", bul a 1'0 du ralim of ex~'O'iureloa chemical nr,ub'ilance, Acule loxirilyref..... to death (er ,ome mher ad,er"" re'f"'n".,) rlSu1lu'g from .. mrl-Ierm (hour< 10 daY") eXJ>O"'ure 10 a chenucal. Chronic loxi~ily refe", 10 a r"-,~"",,,, resullolg fmm long-",,,n l"""h tn y"'''') exp..",ure tn a chem,caL Acuh> ella;:ts a", Iypically experienceJ al higher c.-.,bm, 'lant C<'O'centrati"", ttt.HI.He duooo,ic effa;:1>;. Fer u:an,ple, Ihe EPA h'b e"abIis.lll!{) acute (1.7 Ilg/Li alld duoOllic (0.91 Ilg/U waler-qu,dily cr,lenJ for mercury (II) 10 prquali.- life ,n the Gre.lI Lakes from IOX;'effec~. Her.... lhe acule criter~n i, higher Ulan Ille chro"ic value. As dur.>I"," i...,,,,,,,~, Ille coo,celtratiOll" Illal can be lol ...ated ","houl adver"" elf..,1 a", I"",er. AWle cOPP" Inxicily frY rainb"", lroul h", been shown 10 da;:rea.,", from an lC~) ofO.19 mg/L a Ia I 2 h d ur.\I jo" 10 0,13 mg/l al 24 h 10 O.llll mg/L al % h. The lo"kily of a sl""-~fic doemical may a~, ,.If}" amons 'pe';"" Table nil demo'~lr.,~ IN, elle<: ~ «Jm~... ring 48 h lc.. value, for 2A-dich~~r'l'h"'''lXyaceticadd (2,'l-- OJ. a coon "",n herbicide u
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48-H... r LC... Values for 2.4-D

10. Selected Organis ..... ~C'" [mgIl1

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Dolph"", t zoo p1:l.Ok'on)

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Rainbow ITOUI SOlAlCU"""".IW2

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chem;cals in runoff do ",crea"':' folio" "'g 'pnng rall~' and ,n",mlell>, Ihe ,""-'rved ,ariali"" in LC..., valu"" ,uggesk a ,;coOnan" "' which ,edimenl-I,,,;ng ""crncru,lacea" popul.tion.s I",-'uld "" affecled while fish populations would not Sud, a scenario muld potentially aher a"d disrupllhe food "eb, wi lh ecosysleln-wide impact,_ An underslanding of food web funclion and Ihe binaccumulationand loxicily of mnlami'lanls (al each lrophic le,-el);s ,Iee...... ry to adequalely as-.s lhe r~"d by lhe m}riad chemical contaminanl' introduced inlo our e,,, ironmenl ("", Chapler 51. The sperie>-sJ't'cific n.llure 01 loxldly presenls a fundamental shmtmmin8 ;" prfO.,edure; ""m",ollly applied I" esllmale eff""l, on humans lMsed on experiments "ilh tesl animak. Indh-idual humans may"" ,ubslanlially more or les< su'eerLlhuies ill' oh'ed In ulllizi ng Ihere ....lls .reacmunleJ for lhrough use of conservali, e a5..lch ba....u on a "beller ""e than sorry· philosophy. In addition, lhe bel lhat ""ne ,,- ildlife may be more",,~slli...,to toxkche!ni cal, Ihan hu "lan, has led 10 lhe promulgation of ,,-aler-qualily crileri. in "hieh the more .lringenl of \\ildllfe- or hum.n-heallh-based standard, govern di'ici,arge Ii n"K For example, Ihe nlax;m"m conl.lminant le,'el (MCl) for allowable chrnn"ulll in drinking waler i, III mglL, "hile the aeuleeriler;on for freshwater aqualic life i, 21 Ilg/l. Inlhi, case, Ihe wildlife sl.lnd.rd i, appro"""'lely one-fifth of lhe human-heahhlMsed ,'alu~. Sen.Sllive ,..:,gmenl' of a populallon, known as susceptible populations, musl receivedistinclmn.sid""al;on in Jelertl"ning t<>Xkeff...., ls of chemical< or ,ub>tances. The embryonic, j",-en,le, elderly, and/or ill ,;egnlenl' "f any populalion (human or en"iwnmemal) are IIkly 10 "" more su",",ptible to aJverse eff""ts from chemical ""po"u"" lhan are heahhy young adulls. In so",e ca"", the sex 01 an ",dividual may also influence il.'i 'u.'>CeplibiHly. Sy""gi;/i, loricil!!, r.,;;ulling from Ihe e~l""'u"" 10 mullipl" chemicals, is a phenomenon lhat l< recei,-ing incr~atjc eff",1.'i are lacking, l.U"gely becau...e coo"l\e,.; numbers of ehemi""" and mmbll,ali",~, of chemicals e"i'l and becau."" e"J't'riments requinng e"p... ure In cIlelnical< of pOlentiill c"".:en, iI",nhe inherenl difficullieS.

Po.."lial Combi,,'" T_icity Resu"ng from ,,,pot.... to 0 Mu.'.... olClwmioo"ltond I

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633 POUUTlONPREVENIlON ('ollulio" p'~"e"lion ,s 100000>OO on ,ncrea""g tlw eff;';ienc~ of a p...... ""~ to n!\iIlill tal... , nto a«rnlll II... t Ihe Curn! nl de-ign orul: ~ n.... be Ih.. btst or "".".t a ppn,,,,"'te for Ihe cu••ent appll<:ali"", n,dI is, Ih .. currenl p.od...::t, p..-..e-s, ," ~Y"te:m wa' n5) w., pa,;d Sta_ II e
s

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P"lIullon Prevention

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follow'. • So.. rce nrd.. <.1io..-W.•-"t" (1n7.. nl... ~ ~ub
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• T ~almml-\\''';,t" lhal ca.......1"'" ."' ... ~d -to... ld be I...."", to n!\it.t.:e ,t'; ha.urd. ' • Dispoo.al-Wa.""" WI IS not lrellN -Jw.JId b .. d,~ "f "'.&n

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In lhe c_ of .. "" l ...atlt1li>nl. the pdluti.n r",,''''llI1iln .....1.reh~ [email protected]'t~ that", Y.. ani 10 f.-.: '" .. flori,,," Idt>nt"'u~ .. a~~ 10 ..lInun," ..... '!" "",,,,,- h f,oon b...og ~ ...t ano.! Irart>po til 'mprm~ng lhe de-18n of l"'dllt1Ii>nt fac~,I"'" In l ~ of '001 d,,,.,,-r ",... agem"'~ II i.

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~ poP"Voo PrevPoVoQ Art Of 1990 Tho" j'", in pmduelim, "I"""n,"" ~nd ,~w-m~Ie.-"L_ u..." Oppmtuniti", I", "","'e ,,,Juction",,, ,,~en n;Ie m""'ll"ment '" p,~luh", "..,.,.,,1 (2 US.c. lJ,lllI "nd 13, J()2, ,f_ e' I'HUI.

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feu"Nr, ,.. lI,al />t' ,;)",,,Id be ,wych'd III a" e""lT''''''''~''olly ,of,' ".'h,.,uf'," f,'o,iole; 1"'11"1"'" Ihal b<' 1'''''''''11'<1 or "Y.~ch'd ,lw"ld be I ,,'oh'd i" a" ,·,,,',",,,,,,e'!la/l.~-,of" mo",,,., ,d,W',<,Cf f,'a",N,.. a11.1 ,I, 'Ihl~' 1'" '" Jrr re 1..'"", '" 10 1/", c"",. '"'' m"" I ,I,,,"ld ~,. cm I'h'.~,'.t ""l.~ a' a 10,1 ",_,''', "d ,/,,,,,1..1 b<' n'"d"cltlj ill 011 "",'iroll",,,,,'a'ly ,of,·

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Where can I Recrcle Mr Sluff?

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ZeroWasle nt'f"1;"""" _rr", Ie o.~ """",." 'u.J""rowa9w

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dear th.,t I.",dfill disp'.....,,1 L~ nOl ,he tI,c<,nln"'nJed alt",n""lve for mal~.glng m.." t 0011l1"",en" of d "d,!e ,tr&l.m.l" thi, ""se, d"engll''''' r ",,,,,Id think beyond design ofa landfill and rocu,on broader innia,i \'es to reduce the dmou,,! of ",a"e that l~ genera,oo .1lId dl",ardoo_ AlIowlng more deg,""""of design I,"'-"'om dnd n\lll ing up't'.... m for tlpl"~rlul\ities!o red",ign ,he product, proe.,,;s, 0' 'ys,em offer g,ea!"," tlpportuni,y lor ",aste mjnimi~3tion or e, en ",~,te elimln.uion. \\~.j]e the", mdY be current b~rriers, induding ,denhfi<:, !echnical, or ec0nomic, '0 zero-wa.,e d",ign, i! l. illlporl~tU ttl "Ole thJ! the oo"""'p' 01 Wd,!e i, humdtL In other ....ord" ,here i, llOIl",,!> inherem Jbout ma!"riab, energy, 'I""e, or tim~ ,I",t male.< it ",a.le, It 's ,,'a,te only MdU.se n" one h." yel IIMgln"" or implemen,"" a ddin"" l1.se lor it. If the c",,,,;on of ,,'aste cam"..' be ,l\'oid"" under gin'" conditi",,, .... drcumst.lnces, de.UrCf'S lor \'alll..-addoo pur!""""". r....r example, Ihewd,!t."could be beneficially u"",,, d'.l f""""ocl, by "apturlllg it and recyd"'g/reusing i, wnhint "" prflCf'S/;,'heorgani7.a'io.., ....bey""d. Th;'; tllr,,' a w"t aruJ !labili!y into a ",,,ing._ and benrut. Or pe,haps wll'i,ructio" "a,te coold be Cd plured Oil Jfill,"'-' U",t it can be repurf"l"""l for O\her building applkatinlL_. It l~ iml-'mt.ln' h) colL_ider ,I"" m."erial, and "'''''lIY th.• t were utiliz"" and a", .-.n,,' ",,'a"e~ l",\'e ernJxodd"" en,,,,py ~"d comple"ty, rep""",,"ingan ",,'estm,,'" in <:os! dnd ,""""un",_. n,l, jndka,,,,, ,hat the ,,,,,m'erv of was,e a_ a f_:btock "'pr"",nt.' both poIential en,i",,,m"ntal and "",onomic betk'fi1S.

6.4

Engineering Ethics and Risk

Engi"""'" mil" unde",tand en"i",nm"m~1 ri,L in order '0 protect dll "'8m,,,,,, fli ",riely d"d ~1I1nhab,lantsof """"y__tern". n ....... illdividuab indude U", "",iden" of colllmunities in which the ""gil"''''' "",id"". dquat", Hfe "",;ding ,n a ,i,,,, downst",am of a co'Lqruetion _ne or lr.... 'mem plan!, and ,he global oommun,ty of more than 7b,llion prop;e.

Cnaple,6 Envir..........mal Rffik

"ft"",

All'"'' ""gi"""" "''''k tn """i"'i7e or "li""".lte 'h" ri,k (>f an u""nlge "'e"'ber nl ....,iely (>r an "'-"<>Sy"e", illhabiwn"ha, i, v.,lued lor r""",a,;""al ~P""M com"'''rcial profit. Thi,ave,ag" "",ieta] "''''''ber is so",,,,,,,,, 'ha' been",,,s part "f a num"rical .'J"all(>n det"r",in", 'isk, and il'hi, fisk to be ""'''agoo through a 'egulation, the,.., i~a]Sg"iz" 'he su"""ptibl,, seg",,,ms 0/ a"y p"pula'ion tha' may be Slgllifi",n,ly m",.., '"'~~;''' "to env,ronmen,al <,xp""u,,, '" a ch""'ical M su]",w For example, 'he impact oj a d'emi",1 "'ill vary with a person's age. gend"r, h""Uh .Wlu,. """upati"l\, and hIe"yl". I" th" ph"n"m""on "f en "iron mental justi"", "",Iai" ,;"gm"n" ill ,,-.d"'y 'ha' ar" o.ociany """""",kally di.<;ad ,-a"lag"';! ""'y be burd""ed " i'h a grea,,,r amnu", of"",,; ro"m""Ial 'i ,k. An "'" iron,,,,,n,al ju,Ik" is...,,, is ap~\\",,'1 in Sd,rta Clara Counly, Calif","""" ",I""" fatil,li", 11",1 are r"'l.uired '" 1...1U"'" t",,", ",ni..,in,lS i" ,I", EPA'" TRI a", located in ""''''''••mi"", ",ith m«i"''' "",,,,ne; (Figure (,.7). Eco",,,,nkally

'ha'

Global Burden of Disease r~.,yjl..-..w,"'O.>MI

'1-" r',ify\r~"" iorpac">l'nf

''''e.

I""",

o

TAl tacililles

Median income

0$0-26,598 0$26,599--44,459 S 44,460-56.607 S 56.608--150,001

FlgUf.'6,7 Loco'i"" of TRI FocHiti .. i n Sonto Cm,. (Coli 10m;") ond Mod ion Ho"sohold lncnmo t\ n1e tro' '''' f,,,,il ~ .... 'h.1t emit r""", ctoomicaJ- .'" h-.t«:l prim.1ril.,. in ."'.. with 1m,,,, medi~n Inmm"". ISAG<, s..~ .. _A __ Moo__ M ,.,.jA_S""z, 2000. -u...-dod, _ _ l .. ~ a1h._ _ """,","a.. " Sonoo 0,,<0 Co..nrr_Colb"",_· ........_ _ ,3/-111>02--.32

Sc'."""

Environmental Justice "~'?if.......,."!'" ~"" f""'" p1ia
"","",,.,.,.,,-WI U"" tI<~1

Class DiSClJssioo ... ...

...

L ~"",""",,",al~
coolJaI""""'I'''',,!lra

oca""" ," ""~

"""lop'"" "",<1<1 ",,",r<

"''')I "'" ~ ""
u.'<"g path"l'M In 1."-'" "m
ar-t:ar """ ~ bY'g~'

IIC.O" imr>=" at HlI'lAID-o artd O"rooj: &~of,ul.>
a""'..l.O ice i!> d-~....mr "! "'" """"'~"'"'" I '~~ty~~ a' t.h< '"",~ p<0ri'. ";-ll I"", ie arc"" ""Iioo~. a~ ""'~ ...

poL.' b
ar
c","",ueltj!

di'>eialed wilh olde, cm~~tructi,.,nr are "",,'ed by agmg infra'ilructure; r Ihe) ha,-e employment th"t ,"""u\b I" increaS<>d ""I""'ure 10 ha7.ardous materials. The;;e hIgher-risk i"di,-idual, m"y h,'~ in urban or rur.•l Mea.~. lypically h.l\'e liltl~ I"'lihcal clOUl, and ofte" are ",,,mbe,,, 01 "",ono",,cally dl'>On,ibilily I" con,ide, lhese "I-,isk indil-idu.ls "nd Ihe c,,,,,,nul"li,,, they inh"bit .",d 10 III ininuze. or elimin"te. lhe likelihood th.1 Ihev be... "greale, proportio" of e,,,,ironmenlal ,isk th"" wealthier. better educ"I""'. or more poHtically powe,ful "'8menl. of society. Wilh our "et\' and i'KredslIlg kilO" ledge 01 ,u,lallldble d""ign "nd gr""n engm""ring. \\"e lld"e Ihe "bilily 10 "'''''I Ih_ ch.lIeng
°

,,,tes

~ FnyjwlIijcrdalJlIstire am Hllrrnn BiW1s 'n,., £1'A d"fi"", ."wi",nm~nlalju~lic« '" tIM, "fdir _,1m."" and """ningful in""I\'""",,,1 uf alll""'ple regafdi"" of race, c<~or. nalional ,>rigi". '>r inc, nne with ""I"'" I I" 1m, de,·ei"pmenl. impl"""",lahon, a"d ""~"""m~,,l "f em'irun""",bl l.aw" "'lI"lahon." and I"~;rn"... Th~ \VorlJ II~allh OrganiL.llion·, con,hluli"n (fin. w ri II "" i" 1\l.ll>l ~ lol.", "T r., e rl u)' "'" nr: "f Ihe high""t ,U"inabie ~lanJard ul h~alth i, "n~ ,,( Ihe N


(""da"",ntal right- of e"", human bring." In 2102. ",,,I~r wa, recugniLe rl" ,ince iii, 0"" "f I he m,,,t i=da _nr:,,; cun
'.0

i, "

F1gUfII f 6.1 tndd ...... of ",.I.. l>nm. dl....os In H I.pnl•• nd non_HI.p.nl. Popul.ll"n. (fig"'. Ir,." CDC. 2001)

• NOIHUpa,,,.

Q "'-""

,.-dr.""

" I" ! " •I "" 1---------1" ~

" "'

0.37

mlrr:I

,L_-:;::::::;

._:;;:::~_:::;;->_;;: Ea:J. . . . . ooI

6.5

RJS1. "~l~ ...dd .....~ qwnlMnl~ Wh..1 '" ttw probabthty WI h"ma U f'i!no!nCl!' an ...I.e..... he;U!h efhocl "hen ""f'O""'d 10 .. 'f""'ific m ,:~ _ (If cholm".Ilr Ho........... "Ill the ...h _

b
lb,_

ro.:u-.

~.- 1>;0,' 'Jh qu.lt1l1h ttw ",...xlolti.'d ",11'1 ..,p'......... to dlemials

.on.! other ... \ 'Oll\Jlwnu! "S....'" and ,"'" .... ~.-.I lmp«ts on human ""-'hh., Thr fou, cnnp.1fWnt;, rl. <¥lmpWte ri,l ..,.,...."."",nlMe: III haz.anl _ " " t (2) ,J,._ _p'...... "'. " •• Ol .... p-...ur....,.."..n ..,,!; and W nslo. charao."'to!fl7..>11Oon. Fog".... /'LlJd.".ets""'" u-four " ..... <...... ,ntl'gr.ltrJ A rid ...- ..... , OfSoilUUS.Ind ..... ~7_ .. Lug.. set of

"

RfIlnILt

tho! fro. romponmts Iodeterm"", ... ~ "''''''' ""lIUI'lImlal hoV..lN ",II nsult In an ..... ""'" ""p.>O: on hu or tho! ...."".... moml Tlw "n''''''''''t.ll haz.anl coulJ ""' ....f"I'" In

c....ngo>.

C

_uIoM.

c....pldrRw.A ~

'

I

.'

....,nl T1I
•..J'""~.

,.,.", ....

cnnhn<>.l 10 ,.,.U. r ..l

-~

"",ot;

,nform.'iIIon ;embi!ddcd

0

,

'-

Risk Assessment

.,,1...

._-.. ... --

- ..

All .. fr.-qu l """"""'lwn,.... rt I" ,ng in Condll""" .. ,11'1 poor . . - s 10 ..'ald "'!JI1l..... , .. nd 1'1,&_ rQumt..ro-S<.n.o,n, ..00 QUInJ>.longo, 2001).

ClassDjsnlSsiM

...

"",",~"",--""",,,,,,

" V

.. ~~""""

...

~,-,".r_ ~~,_

,""" to< bI.r-.. ""' a

oolo,+''''''' ..". """''''r~.rr

.•

--~

__ '"

p'r"",~ nol. . .,. ''''- a;:UM

......,....J

""ar.....,~c'~._

65 I HAZARD ASSESSMENT A ha7... r.,l ~"'lO'II1 L~ """ a n.l ..... ~,~l. A h.uard a_m~nt consists CIl a 'e-~" alld an..h~.. CIlt.>"icily dat.o, ""'gh",S e-,d.....,.. thai a ~bo;tan.<~ cau~ , ~.,""'" I'"'' df«"', and ~,aluallng ",hether l""ic df""", In ,"... ",n",g ",11 nocur III r>tlw. -ett,,'~ T1le h.>z.>rd a~~m.,nl Jrt.,m"""" '" h<'1~ .I ch..mi<: al n. un\ Ihl' h.17.IN ~~'n",n\ '" ".,0 ~, \he "-"~llr.,

a-.,m.,nt

....,,~-"" ""'_ a

~.ar:ry

...,.,., pbc<. .....

",,~, 'i """-""'''~''' ..,"'"'., ...._ ... r~""JI
"

ar~·r._to<

.......~".a!=d.".F"",",.u ~ Do "fOIl

.".r

'"'1= u· "'" 8t.r......-.-i 5l-~a'l J>«'PI< ""'~ to< gu.......~ ....... ......, a;:<""" :.0 ........... _ , "OUd _ " , .."",

"'I"'" 'i&lIrV' of"--:'l_.~

"""'" ,,""......

6.5 Aisl<.t.ssessrntnI

~ HillOOn anr! EcrriYstemTmjmloojrn! Patatljlses Inlegroted Risk Inlormatioo System (IRS) Th" IiUS L' .n dlrlr<",ic d.taba", Ih.1 ",,,,I.in, hurn.n he.llh "f'"d in'urTn.h,,,, f"r hund,,,,..!> "f ~h"",ical,

(_ wW"'''p''.g in t"xic"jo!>y. IRIS a",tain, d"""ipti,·" .nd qu.ntil.li,·" inf"rrn.,ti,,,, "n h,,,... ,d id"ntific.tion, 0,.1 ,Iu!", !act""" or.l .nd inhal.h,m unit ,i,b (ILK'» fur Glfcin,,!>,,nic

'L'"

dfect>., ., w"ll .. ural ",'",,,n"" ,I<""", (i{f[),;) .nd inh;:,lati"n ,,,f,,,,,oc,, mncenlr.ti",,-, (iHC,) I,,,. chn",ic nOnG>rcinoll""i< h""lth dfect,. Th",.., t"p;e,; "" di,..
Ecotoxicology The lei' A"",int.i", th" !ccarox d;,taba", .. ;, ""u ,oe for ],,,atinll ,ing:le-ch<=icaJ I""icily dal. iical-h..-.,,d ",,,,,,,n,,,nl, amI ",·.Iu.t" Ih" potenti.l hu.. ,d ...."'iattU with w.,,t,,,,-.t,,,, eftlu",,1 and/.". I".chate.

Sources of 1O"'Clly dala indude t",t tube stud;"', anin",l slud;"', and

human ,tud",sand "",rea"ngl} roml"'latim~,1dald. T esIIU]x,Sludie> a~ fasl and ,e""ively ea,y, so they a~ mmm"nly u""-'>lto screen chemi""ls. Anin...l . !lie)' could in"est'gate a general end poill! (for ""sial ICe, death) or a o\Ore spedalized end poInt (""y, a birth defect). Conlmlled l.lboralmy studle; are rommoniy empk>yed 10 dete,mlne Ihe loxicily of spe,:ifIc chemkal, 10 aqual;" hie. Hum.", stud;"'; Iypically cm~,i,t of case studies n",t alert sndet) to a problem and n""", ~tel~,,,'e mnlrolled epidemiologic studi"" The beo.l ,tudy 10 dlelermine the imp.'lclon hU'lIdns i, the epidemiology study. Epidemiology i~ the ,tudy of di""a,,,, in POpulaliOl~~ of human, or other animals, 'peciHcally how, "'hen, and where Ihey occur. EpidemiolngLslS alte"'pt 10 dete,mine "'1"" fact"'" are a' afte, lhe,e is sufficient evidence ,,' Ihe gene,al popu!.ulo" to sugg",t 11"'1 there may be • chemical on the ",.rJ.et that i, caus<> for concern. Ep,dem,ological studies can be di"ided inlo twoba,ic Iypes depending on "'hlelhe, Ihe evenl, ha,·" al,eady happened (ret""P"Clive) or whelhe, the event< may h.'ppen in the futu ,e (p'''''l'e':1'' e). TI,e n""1 common ,tudies are re"""peel,,'e studies that a~ .11"" called ca_ cmuml stud ,es. A ca__..."nlro1 ,tudy may begin when an ootbreak of di"",,,,, is "oted and Ihe cau_ of Ihe di"",,,,, are 1\01 "no"'n, or when the di"",,,,,, i, unusual within the p<>pulation sludied. Th_ types of ~t udies 1..."" diffieuhies, how""er, a, sunu"arized in Table 6.Hl. W,th epidemIological ,tud,es, II ls e.~I~mely Jlfficuh to pmye ""u""lion, ",,,,,ning proof Ihat a ~pec;rlC risk faclor actually ""u""-.! the di",a", ]x,Ulg studied. Epidemiological e"iden"" ""n, howe"e" ",adily show th.1t thi, rLsk !.let", ls a--.eiated (co,relaled) ""Ih a highe, Uloidenceo! d,,,,,,,,, in Ihe population e"f""£'d 10 that risk factor. The h,gher Ihe ror,ei.,tinn i" the more certain the associatinn. Chapler6 Envir..........mal Rffik

6.10 Difficulties of Epidemiaogy Studes M.llrn;"g c< ai>ocl health.

fac~,,-;

t1"'1 I",d ,,, e'P""",e In a 01"'''''<.:11 rna" ~a ...oci.lW w.h "IhL'"

Soc."y It", bee"me m...e mrode, 'l' ,Mi\·idwl< may n" 1'..geT I",e i n the ",mec.-.nmO:lI'lil)· all "I their life o."lh ,-",-tificale< t"Pic"'''' m",,,,,re the "f lheir hie.

en"""

"I'll" ,he ColIJ'" "I d"'Ih,"" thoy mo" h",klt cditi,,,,.that,M r..id ..... 1< h>d "ver

1"'.".'

O,he, ,,,,jd}' end _dc,> de.,lh le.g.. mile e'p""""dala c.", bedi!flCult 'oobt"," I", a I..-ge gm"p "I 'M,vid """ La'Se p'l'ul,'l"'" a,.., r"'l"red f.... lhe", .ludi", <0 l""t'igo,,,,, •• l.:J nnyd

"''''''-"< <>n 1.Jl.e v"'''' tod",·eI.,,_

Weighl 01 evidence i.a brief narra hve lha t ;;uggetance can act a, a carcinogen to huma"". C or"'ntly, "',-"ght of evidence i, categorized by 0"", of [i,'e d&crip~)r< H
6.11 Explanation of W";g'" af Evidence Deseript.....

Com',ndng de",,", demon'l,al"" c."L,-,llty !>et....""" h""",~ ""ro'UI"e "nd :1 inl... "",ti;.

.let.,,,,

'''''I

'0

Tum.-.r:e tod=m'4rn'" ,·.-..-citngellle potential to hum"", b'" do not rrod! ,he "'eight of e,ide...-e I... being ColTCB>ogenic 10 h"m.>ns.

5" M""i'" edd "" re of c,uanog"" ic P"lcnti.tl

Hum.n or arun",1 d.tII are '''g8'''4;'''eol cMatngeoidlv. ",Iud, ,ai",•• "",rem f,,, 0:01'-;"''8''0;0 eff",'" bul i. iudged not ."fflCient f
.tr""s'"

In.:>.l,,,,,a''' ini."n",t",n to a."".' ca'c'o>og",,"e P"tential

N'" lll.eI Yto be c.vci""8"ruc t" hu"",rc.

A ,-"U,lble d,na a", c",,
6.5 Risk ",",,"sment

dVailabl~ ddtil. IRIS (d....,nl:oed in Applicalion n.7) pm', Id;". in',,,ml,,,n "n II", d&criplnr a,.....'id l.rl "ith pMticuldr chemicals.

6.5.2

OaiE-RESPONSEASSESSMENT

A do."" i'aheamou "t"bd,emical reeei, <.-dbyasub;e.:llhdlcan interact " " h the sub".,t', met.lool ic p,..-"",,;, nr 01 herblol ogical reee pi,,r,; aft... I110m",,,, a n oul .... bru nd My. Dependi ng "" 11", C('f\~Xl, lhe d.-..e md ybe,( 1)Iheamountoltheehem icalthati""dmin,,'er<.-d Inth,-",ubject; DOSE

(2) theamounladmin .. I""<.-d '" Ihe,ubjocllhat re""h& a ,p"",lfoc ]r"",'im i" the organism (lor example, Ii, ....); '" (3) the alllouni ava,lable Inr

int.". .."Ii"" wit hit, Ihe I~I org.,n"", aft.... lhe chemical IOn"",,,,, a barrier ,,,,,h a, .l ;e..,ia led with a cl",mical d<'l ....mine the m"" tn., chemICal admln,,'ered per u'"1 lime and divide Ihal by lhe w";ghl "flhe i,>.:\iddudL I" Ihe ca.,e,,1 an adult nr child" In i, drinking W.,t .... that cOl'tiIi", lhe chemical cn"""n>. lhe de"" can bedetemlined a, ,hm", In E>
"r

"r

example/6.3

DelerrriningDose

A""wlle Ihilt 11", c1",nlical M cill''''nI h.." a c(f\""llrati"" 01 I 0 my L I" drinking" at"", and Ihal adult, dnllk 2 L "f waler per day, and children drink 1 L nf "-dter per day. A,;,;u",e aL"" thai an adult male ",elghs 70 k", a le"ule ,,-eigh, 50 k", and a ch~d "' ...ghs 10 kg. IVh.lt is lhe d""" fm each of the.... th,.,.., membe", "I society?

solution To find t;'" d.-..e a,.,.-,datoo wi~, a chemlca~ d eler",;"" Ihe ma", ollhe c;..,,"icallak..... In per unit t u"" a"d dn ide thi, by the ",eighl "f the individual. In Ihi, ,,'ua'lon, Ihe only route of e'p
m,

,

ll~x"-

adull lemale dose:

adu It ",ale d.-.."

L - da" :;Okg ,

mg L W-,'L day

. l child d,-,;.e

70 kg

~L

L xld:\V 10kg ,

Illg kg-day

Note tlLlI, in Ihls ""3Il1ple, the d""" rec";,ed by lh~ child and aduh fe",..le Is grealer than Iha! receiva.! by the adull m.,1e. This is nne ..""'" c... '" in 'egonell'" of ",riel Y maybe a I g",at ... rt;k whe" Hp"'ed to • SreciflC che",iCilL Anoth ... r... I ~,y adu II.. TI", ",me "'ou Id hold true for planls and a llim.b t ha I inhabit erosy"'~m...

, ChapterS EnviromlenIaI Rhlk

Wl",n .1 £'I..".",,,,, ns II", d .... e. ,ci",ui,IS can accOtJnl f... at..... plion of lhe d"'''lical For ,,"" "'pie, 11", ,h)mad, ". all may act a, a b,lrri.". 10 II", at.....plion of some Cheffilca b lhal a re ing... ~d. while lhe ,kin may act a. a barrier 10 chemica Is lhal coni.",' 11", hands. To accOtJ nt F... II", facl Ihal 100 pen..,m uplake (or a])"orption) of "''''" chemical, doe; nOl. occur. multiply 11", d.-..e by lhe p""""'11 ab"orbed (I>'nnoo f in Example nA). Tl'" val"" oFf ls I}'Pica ny 0 100.1 (1 1010 pe",en t) fer meta band 0 101.0 (0 In 100 perrem) for ",a"y organics. lit man} slales, lheab Mau"" inh..lalion Imidties are no\\ derivro a, ref""'nce cOl'o
roSE RESPC>NSE

loa'" mal laboralory ,Iudi .... heallh damage i, Iypically mea,ure
ex am p Ie I 6.4

Accoortiog for AbsorpUoo Efficieol.)' Wheo Delennioiog Dose

A",utne ""enli,ts know lhal ""ly 1ll percent of Ihe chemical dl.cussed in Example n.3 i.. a"""rbed Ihrough lhe .tomach wall 1" lhis c...... 11", expn;ure 10 tl'" chemical was ()l~ y Ihrrugh d ritll"ng COl'!.'I mi"aled "at.".. Whal is lhe d.-..e For II", Ihree lat&,1 populaIiOll<;!

solution Su"", 10 per"'n/. of II", che,"';ml " lra"'p"J1ed Ulroogh lhe ,to"... ch wall f O.l(l The d.-..... tl... 1 account for nplete trd '''p''J1 of II", chemiCdl of cOll""m for our Ihr"" !,egn",rtsol ~oc"'ty a '" as follc",s,

i,,,,,..

""

'r

10 l ,,0.10 x 2 adult (emaled.-..",

da

50kg

me

,

10= >< 0.10 >< 2-L dav adult maled ....", 70kg

1~>
L

da) JOlg

0.1129

mg kg-d.. y

O.IO~ kg--day

H.".e II", dffie b mtrh I......... 11... " wl",n 11", elfa.:1 of ahs.-rpt~ln \\ ~ negleded; howe,·er, c!li Id ",n and adu 11 females still recei \"e .. g",aler d ....e II ... " adull mdl ....

6.5 Risk ","""sm",,t

.a,'" lim" alld mon"y, applied d""'" "'u.1 I>.. at ,..,latl""ly high c,.,,,,,"'ra~oll" t]~ll i" dt c""ce"tr"b"'S high'" tha" wl"'t "'" Iyplcall:- "I>",,,,,'ed in Ih, in the ,,'orkplace al>.:! hOI""). AccordIngly, a dose-re'ponse ..se§sment is p."I0"""d to al1o" extrd!")]at;"" of ddla OO"'i''''d lo,m ]aIHl.atdrapolati"" PO)ce",. tl'" a"'''''"ilnenl ",ay o",
Figure 6,1 0

lin"~,

D"'.,..R•• po..... Rcl~li 0 ROh j P f o.a Co rc i nOli" n i< ChomicalorSnb.tan", TIl<"".~ ln~r"'pt mdic.>!.. 'hoi, dcolTdlllll to tht< mod"_ til<", "no thr",1>o1d "If,,-~ lho p"t>.bilt,- of .-ti"g c.",er" z""oonl"lflll< ""1""""0 to. c ''''''''''8'''' iu""" Til< v-,-.xio c"" ~ tmugh/ of., til< pmb.,bihn' of c,..,tr.>:hng ,-"""" .ltd gi\'<.'11 dO'<'. Til< r·...';.; "til< d ",e(rrs :k,.. "'dh unt, of 1m",,,,, rng/kg-d.,y.

oo,.."•

""

Ca.einogens Sci""tists h.,,,e knowledge of the carci'lOgenic "ffecl of ch""'i",l, primarily Ihrough labnrat"')' loes! al,imal ,tudi",. Llbnrato') "uJ iel ar~ co.-.:l ud ed a t high e, d ose"o,;cie n Ii, t<; ca n ob.:!",. the ~ ...umplion tmt.,ny e" j-wo. re t(1.' c~ """r-causing su I>"tane e "'ill, '" i~, some dew"" 0 f u ''''~, lainl ~, ,,,,,u1t '" tl'" inibab'JI' of ca"ce,. Figu'" n.l (I ,1'0",,, an e"" mple of a do;e--respon", H""",m"," for a carcillOl1'nic che'nical Ilecau'" ~ cot,setval,,,,, sci"nlir., aPl'n)""h is u probability of conlracting cancer L, zero only if tl'" eXI''''ure to the ca,d,,,'8"" is zero. TI,e 'lope "I the d.....,..resl"'''''' cun" at ""'y ],.... d 0;00; i, c.illed Ihe polency facio. '" slop~ l3elor. T he sklpe f acll" i, u",d i n ri.". \ ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,t of d "'" that Coil' b" used tn est "ndle c.... d tlOl1'n;c ,r.k prooabo Iii"" fnr dille",nt eXl-n actua Ililne of e,po;ur". a, w" will di""us.~ later when ",e put """rytlung logell"" to C<>llduct a ri'k a",,,,,,,,,,,," t" deter"'i"" a risk-baseJ c]"""up 1",'eI of e"",,,nina,,,, foond in drinkIng ",aM' a,>.:! ".:t Nonc.3rcinosens l'<"n,,,,,c"''llenicchenucal'do nol induce tu m...-s.ln lhise"'" the "d"",."", end poi,~ "'mid be a h"'ll h "''PJoCt 'tiCh a, Ii' ",. d is",,,,,,, lea ming d;"order, "'eighl I",s, or i,If",lmt}. Db" imsl:- "'''''y end rc"nts do not 'esult ,n canee. or d"ath. An Impo,tant point 10 u,Id",<;t,,,,d "'hat. c",up'",d ",~h cardoog."", nnnrnn:iI''ll''''o; a",


aro;umtlJ to) lid, e a Ihr... hold eff"So.I<>... "him It I~ ~I",..J IJ..", b nn am ......, in'J"',1. r 'S"re 1\,11 '00"'" the d'~_f'''\'''a~_",n",," for a nrncar. 110".... if', bfJ: ... ,ho!o-ei~"~",nt,,In Ih .. ",Ie <;eol a .... '"''fI''I'' ",.. nlL,~ appl~ """''' f ......-.r-. to ,he ,\;OA£L 10 d ......".."" the nf~~na dow (RIDI RID" d .. m..J b~ [I'A a... n OSlima~_ .. ,ill uOC.... liI.nh ,p....ng f'd''''' f'" an "Nif' of m,,&.. lude, 01 a d ...h. llIal 10 the human pupuloll.'n (ooud",g ......"'."" ,.mg."" f"' II"", h I"ely In be " an all"mall'" r.. l of del""...",... ri..". d,,"'ga 1'l'Ime. Tho! RID c.. be "'I'~ maho!""'I..:aI\-

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1"nt"th.. cqwt..,n6.2"n.lFlgund,.11 bnlll~h..... lhall RfOL,InI.. .... Ih.on Ih,,1"OA[L Th.... nc~tb.intyfaCIo< (UOh pcally ra"g fmm lOin 1)}Xl Al1'lica~m "flh" ur atrOunb fur nunlt;r(U, UI., U",~~ In applling r-OAEL • a I..... loestim1l" RfO ,·aluoi!!'. (LIt.. ,. A Pli,,,,",,,, 6.9 .I..........."" Ih....... ,.,.".tai"Ii'" and h...... Il~ UF "ah.... ~ a<:too,. f,... ,........ u"~r1all""" in n;l chMact.... iZolI~n. f Indu"''''' of Ih.. UF in d""enninaI~I" nf a ~l~' d, TIl;! .~ r.. n!:n <~co n<..,I, ai on (RfC)w dsnS,. Tlw IRIS d"tabase proud... ...."..... Ii! 'alUi!'> fbt.lIna cho!....al penf>1or.""

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65.3

0--""1'_ ~b'_.wplet a ClI<.ko'D.S"houna '_It>.~of.llt-,"»Jd<>oornN 1""hr""'J"ft"'bn...._ -n..,...,,0<'" t>.-'Mu(lht of d< ,he f"<'l'>ldtv 01 •.., lr"".. ~ dn ."'·.....,..If ocl dl d It,,'ftl d....,. -n.., ~.""" .. ,hed"", I". «'d' ,,'hI... no ..n....., h...>lth elf"" ;< -"'cd Dr_I.,... 'h.1n or "'l"" ,,, lhi.l",'r!".., b.,«", .. J"",d ".>I... Thi, RO "dO "" ....Il< J Ifd01le

/10...,.,"'.........

"f.,

d""",,,,,, i, likel",,,b\' w~to, ....

Nfl>; "'<11"<'<1 r",,,,.. in~L...'.," 'h,,",~h "'1'''''''" ,oo", .urh

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d.d,nltng "'d_"

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6.12 So,.. au..io... An__ .ed du.ing"" h:po.... A__......,I Wh.> u ... ,"" ''''P'.-l.>n1 ~

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dppl..-·"'''''·C''i--c

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Wh.>, .'" Lh.. p.>to u fR>dl.od

\\ h.>1._,ot ,"" <1or........ 1....

It.. "",..,t an.:! f""l ...... ~ ofhuman "'P"' to I.illgt-'l c'"-'mical" 01 It.. q...-to n!lt-tal ,n T..bIl.l2. The .... po r _ _1 can aN> d"' ......... \'01 the numbot- of people ....p.,,«J "00 tt.. .1'8"'" of ab.orfhlO by ' ••_ nlUl'" of ""p......... ~-.nbe-r t .... Ihe.. 'J'O"U'" ",-"-_ _"",,,,1 "00)' ,h<.. Wal,.-, detern.."",lh" "'J"""'W'l! '" a,,,,""l!" ind"Jdu.II" in ..>
",...lo<""

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EXPOSLRE ASSESSMENT

nw purp_ of I.... "'''f'OSun _ _ nl i' h.. d~

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r-v H

po'fW"'f"""J'_

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w""· .. ~"-"'rd

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Who.. "'S""-'nt,,,r......IV (,,,

................)d'" m""~' r..12

0.5 II!ll 'U" ...

6.13 Some Key Borrieroto Bl'Ownfield Redevelopment I".... """f liabi~ty DIfference.< m dmnup ,t.",d ... d. (c"", 1-'''' belw""", .tolte .md fedoT.,] 8m 'L'TDment.) Cos! unre,t>llllv

''''''''''tnJ w,1h

"""'''ng mn~lfm"".on.nd dronup Ob'a",ing li""ncmg, bee."", "'nd~ m.'v w""t tl>., gm-"'-lU1lmt tn I..~ib'l· wllb ,h""" ,i.." ,

a"""",tnJ

"-oi,,,

C~mllnllnltv con"""

gmu?" old.". aJulls, .",a ,..",ldem.). Children typically ha,-e a more llmitt'd diet Ihat ",.'y lead to relat,,"el}- high but ,nlen,u!tent "xp.....,"". They al,;o engage In behado!'i ,uch a, crawling a lId 1l,"-)Hllling (pl.,cing hands and ,n Iheir IllOUU,), "Ilich ,..",ult in.n increa""<:l ""p""'reo f chemicab viaoral ingestioll. n",eIderly .1Ild d''idbled m.,y h.".e""<:lenl.lr}liftS}les, whkh cllange their ""p....ure. Pregnant and lli'labng \\I~nen typically cOll.1ly, tl", many physi<~ogicalJiffere""", bel w""nme" and women, such as oc.Jy w"'ght and i,Uldl.,lion rates, coukllead to imponant d,ffere,,,,,,,, '" expo.w-e.. n", lOP A lid, a lid ,ldbr-ok!lldl pnwldes guidance on "hat sf"'clf", ,alues to tlse in the ""I,,.,ure a""""'ment (EPA, 2011 b). ExiX"'ure asses,me"t can also be appht'd 10 a ,pedfic location. As me"tioned earlier ;" thi, ch.•pter, add,lional e, I""'ure could be as.<;<:I<;.ted with li"ng ne." to a high\\".,y. indnerat"', l.. ndfill, '" factorf. It cOdrlicular w.ter supply. or ""ling a parhcul.lr type and amO
00"""

ax".,..,.,,,,,,"

_

~_""""'""""Id""

AcctITdmg to the EPA, b",wnfield, are -ab.,ndoned. idled. 01 undel-med indu,trial ,,,,d cummelcial ,i""whe", ~--'pa,,-,i(m '" ,-.,de,-dopment i, compliCilted bv 1",1 ( I f pelcei,'ed em'imnmenlal ",mtami""tion:' In the Uniled Sti,t"". th"", ore an ""tim.ted half mil];"n bmwniield,. pri"",ril} h"',ted in urban areas_ Con"""'-, III em·imnment.l and emnomic ju,ti", are a",,,,>c~"ed with th"", ,it"", beeau", ""mf are l,....ted in p'K"'" ""mmunities U nf,,,lunately, bmwnfi dd, typically lie idle becou"" pureha",,.,, lende", and del'd0p"'" ,tay away f,,, j~,bility "'''''''''-' and """.. out gr""nfidd ,iles. that is, "pen 'P-'-"'" typical!>' lo",ted "n the edge "f I"w,,-' and cilies. II"we,',"" del-dopm""t "f !>"""nfiekl 'p.""" nol d""irable 10 ,ociety and the """imnment becou", "f i,su"",ueh a, j,.., ,'" f,fTTl;"nd .nd it, a,,,,>tructure is

Chapler6 Envi'.........maI Rffik

I"'"",nt (unlike in an umm areal, "', it mu,t be built and paid for (which ""n,umes en",g)' and "aw materiaj,l_ In aJditi"n, the h",.,Ii"n "f ""'ploymenl away fmm tm, urbanmre",n i""lale employ"'" fmm wmk",s wfl<, ,:an",~ .ft"rd "w"",.,hip of a ,'ehiele tIT might h;we t" lake "",'el.l bu, tTa"-'''',, t" TI,ach , jo" ,ite. ,1,1,,,. d",'dl'Pment of S'""n 'f"'" u,ually ",",ull> in futu,e I"',>blem, of ,prawl and ""ngestion. In emir"", bmwnfielJ, "" Iypo:aliv l",,,lIed n.13 li,t, .""me key b,mieN I" b-rllwnfield oem, "I I he "JIllred"" el ''I' me Ill. L" Ie";",; tot f., munily, en!fll;ing.'I;lkeh,IJeI" and ",,,,li,,,; with IOGlI unils "f g'"""lfneTt in the planning ph"'''''' aleClti", I a""p<'''''n1' of lhe engin",,", ~h in ".,,,,,,,,,,,1 bn,,,,nfield red""eh,!""ent Y"u c= I",m ,b.mt bn"''T\fi''~ by I'o,iti'l\ the El'A'., web ,ite. www.epa.go,'/bwwnfidd,

"Jt\

"'''I''

co",munilV ",."n\)er". nongo..ernment'l mgan,zaho,~,. g,wenunent official,. fin'''IC~llle"d"",. r"'" ",t••le agenlS, and de"el,)~"mder 10 achie, e •• ,'alue-added use for til<> ~ile, Table fl. I I gil'.". three ty!"'" of land usage a nd a,,,,,,,iated paramelers lhat might be us.>
Green Buildings on Brownfields h:,vJ1'IoWIiLpa.,.,..J'browr,fIorl<>!II

"""",,",r..m

New Jerser Brownfields M,'i'"JI'IoWIi_";..pvla"1""'1'_'>eYo

6.14 Land U.es and Exa,....le. af Expasutfl As..... m..... t Associated with Each Use The EPA publ,.he,an fJ IR fo.-

Dmkilll WlIl"" Al' Inhaa""" """ Soi'

-~

R",idonl"" tpli""'ry "d"'it" i~ R"id""""I)

Soingk.-I"m,lvdwdlms-'_ mndom",iu m" .1 1''' rtmen' bUlld"'g'

El<""'Jlc Expo",,,, F rnq-.cy {EF] (
Child",n drink

For drinki "ll

lL!d.~·

EFe 350 d","'/y"" ED: 30 yea",

Ad~ll,d,ink

Fo,.;' inhala'icn EFe 35(1 day'I"'''' ED: 30 ,'ea"

2 Lld"y

,,-.'~r

Adult,inIYlo

Fo,,,,,il ing""'icn

2{)m'/day

ED: Ii )'ea'" lor children l---fi ED: H y"''' I"" adull,

Child",n .go 1-6
EFe 3;0 daY" I"" child",n.oo .1dul"

2OOmg.".I/da" Ad~H,
100 mg ,,>il/day Indu~tri.l (pnm.ry

.>didly", indu.rri.ll, or 7.onmg l~ indu,;.l",,1)

/l-i.1nulacturing. "l,lttie<;, indu~lr;;,1 ..,..",,,,h,. and d",'o~'pm"n '. pelroloum bulk

""""g"

Adult.d,ink I L!d.,~, Adwt.inlul~

IOm'/dav

Fo' d,inki"ll W.tN EF: 245 d'''''!"",r

-

ED: 21 y"" Fo' .ir inh.I.'icn EFe 245 d.,,,,I,,,,,,r ED: 21 ,'eaN Fo,,,,,il ing",,'icn ED: 21 tOT adult, EF: 245 d.,,,, lOt' cluld"," "nd .duH,

y"''''

Commcr",,1 (Use".l bu,i""", or '" i"'''nd"d 10 house. or

ed=,,,.

pm\'ide ""'" lor child "'n. ,he "lde
0",,-
I""il",,,,,

,ta'ion,.

Ad~ll.d,ink

For d'inki"ll

I Lld.lV

EFe 245 d.)",/y"'" ED: 21 "ea"

Adw .. inlul~

Fo,.i, inh.I.'icn EFe 245 daY"/y"'''' ED: 2 I )'
lOm'/day

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6.5 Risk ,,"",,"smen!

of la nod u ... ge cnosid ... ed in Table t;, l~ are r~idel\l ial, indu~trL, I, and commeraal E"""'ple> of specific adi"llie> lhJ.t ''{>II,I 01 r... lr ;"liolls 0" public ace,"" and d iflerem up..,ure Ie' els to "" ... k" and c"-,k,,,,e,,,. Tab'" h.1·1 als" estimal... hum.", inl.lle 01 ehe"irn k Ihroogh m""han is" l' such as d rnlkJ IIg \\.a ler, b "''''h ir~ a ir,a "d 11I~t:.\gsoil (d tz..I).TI,e", m")' a Iso be dermal COlltlel by d ira.:t cnntact "'illl chenirn" or COlltlm;n."oo sco Is. The estimat"" of the.., inlake rat... (lRl are b~oo on sde"tir., 'lUdi",. Ihe In,e 01 illd iddw~ a lid the ael", "y thaI tak'" at lhe s-ure a",,,,,,"'''''l For example, T.lble t;.1 3 gl"'s Ihe a""'unt of soillh.ll adller... 10 the b<>.J Ya lid is ing""ted daily for s~.,drlC human poput,t lo'l' b"-'f.'d on I""d u'"" and a""",,,ted emptwmenl To determine soil adh"re""." sd""tist> need 10 l,..,,, h""" much ,j.J" .. exp..,oo for pol""tial dern~,1 (skIn l « .. tad wilh ehemi .." .. dlld e",,1.l mimled sriL A, an e", "'pie, ,elem,st> a,su me that an .ld wi ,,·orl... ",eo ",a short->J"""'ed ,hirt, long pants, a nd s1¥>&. The amou" I 01 "lin surface area exp"'oo 10 d "'I alld d irl lor the... assum pi 10,.. of elothh'g is akna luneli"" of lhe " ..... ""~ s body weight. TI,e 101.11 dermal area a'aHable lor OOlllact i' tllus assume...! to be 3~100 em'. TI'i' a,su",.". exP"'>"'" slill c,-""i,ls "f lho! heild {1.2fl{J em'L hallds (000 emo), a 1>:1 flY ... nn., (1.200 ell"').

"'1'''',

1''''''

6.15 Amountof Soil A.."med 10 Adhere 10 S"rface of Skin ond Token inD.,;lyf... Specific Pop ... otio .... Based on LondU.., ond ....o
SoiI _ _"""" l"'IIO
Daily ImwdayJ

Adul' li.i"g III "",ide",tial arc.1

om

~

Chidl",ns", "",>.:I""ti.:ll are,l

"

2(ll

Aduk w(.-\;cr at mm"..,rci.:ll HI

om

~

Adult w....\;era' mmmerci.allV

"

~

Indusln.-.] worker

"

~

Targo< PopWIIion

for a~"" I---f,;

I ~~f('uaoth."..

(ommo,< icI ~I, .10" ""~. ,*"1.;)(",,, ""'d.ol.o .h,p" ,_a wo,""'".... t hot """l", popul"..,," i.~ ;" "",,,,Ii..,,, tlIo P'''f'''' 'Y 'hoI ",.01" 1<- .oil-.""",~_ ""," ,. (.....-6,,1 N ,010<• ., ......., p''''''',,,,,,,,1 01 f""", bonk•. A ij'......doibooo ido"tJ~ "."" """"""_ 'OC"!'''''~"" lhoy.ng"9'''" """~l""'" "'" f><<>F-'Y lhul 0'. 01,,"; B~ >cil-i.-.~ .. """".

,ionha.


C~n~'tlc

c,,"".htim, 'och a, "'''', CfA ~ a 1-.1 f",elIllS.,...,d; ,.." ... a", nnr a.. o':n'uoo ...... nl c1... rly afloL'ma",.. f........ CO\ .... and Ift,,,,,n 1101 a f'U'I po':nOd oft"" ~ .....IIMI lunl' .1 ..",,1 cool;ld ba"lOd\ 1and ,l.i... Fur "ng.......... l..,"i..JW or n,l and "'f"........ _ _ I pl\"'d;,-. ""_linn I,r dd nwung """"'- a <~ ....J"""o':.-.I, 10 t... ''''''''''..iN. .old ,f 10" mil", l'I.. COI>to"" IOO .....1an:! gAltInIh.·...... al b,n -nf1l'l.d .."'" e... boo ",maJi..I
'''S9'<.l

Ii,04~

AIIl!r

I... mriog...", and 'n.l.IUb"""" NIT...... GIn be.-f 10

m.um "", r~""'11 ".'I"l'lt" F
~

J>n"'!fII .I 11'1'<1 dermo IronLIcI " ,th rontonu l\l to':d ...IiI< Ihall ... u nd.........1h. A lItwr ~n~, In thL, ""'" I.p""'" 10, a"ll.lmUloI~ gn' a...... t... fOl' lhe prq._ty dili:\llo rla~ a r...tnrlion on r"~"""n1 01 ,,041< ,I. r"'''''"Y i' ...."
,,""kl

6 5.4

RISK CHAAAGERlZATla-.l

A. ~I.'''n in rigur.. f>.9, Ih. ri,I< cha••
1i"1 Ih..... ~Io':f" ill .ool ~_.""",t 01:inng...... An ''''p,rt, "I q..,-IIion is, \\Ih.ll i~~" aoc."t'bl~ 1.... 04 of r.. k? r~ "'ymalonand ..coentOOI'"", "determ,,-.d Ihalan .~."I"bleen,lffiI,n..,nLII toJ,; ; •• lidinll! ri ...... of 1 em""" in. mi h'" 110 "I 01 an ad, ....., ",ffect .nd .n unac~ptab'"roJ,. i' 1 em,,,,,,, in l,om (IO ... of a n ad, ""'" .ff...,l A 10 • noJ. "'''''''''' lhat ,f ] m,lIi"" ,n..t" ""ual~ .."'" "'f'O""'d to a

a....

a",,,,,,,,,,,,,l).

I.... ic chen~c'" .1 the """'" I... l'I. a nd "''f'<'''''~ tho?n 1 lid" od wi .....11.1 ....'''.n effect from this .... po.1d f«i.,.,lf g"" ""ts ha, ...." lhe a","I''''bW '''l 10- , .1kI ] 0 ., ",Ih 10 and 10bl>ing the _ Cf'InmOrI.Iy ..-I ,al.- in pubo..... "'" IJ:. '\Idle'.nd the ff'f" lOlhe h.,......d "'.., lhe bac1 ~oncenlr.bon cl •• In air, "oller. or.-.oil for.n "'""f't"blo' n. II can.obo be """.I to .I......"".... the < S ""''',,",fl'O!nlal r f a part ......... ,hemic. al. gn"" e""" tr.. m and ."" ..... f', ....fa- IhilI che"~.alln. P<-'bculilr "'''' U',rlln"nt.aI m r ...l .1 a l',«i..termin<'d 1e",1 ("'Y. 10- , 10 1Ir-"'t .nd Ih...Uo....abl.>Cf..... a1lon of the doe",,,:..] In. pa
.Id,_

l.....,.'"

bet"...,..,

""""".1

t"d"'.,.""....

r"'''.

"nt.

0.5

II!Io;

'U" ..c

Ii,.,

woo Id be estima'oo. 1" the s""''old s~ualinll, the ~''o\c'''''ra of the ~hlemiGll ill a parlicu l.1r on...:l ium i~ 1o:.l.w. 'L a nd 'he r;,,1: ,s d l.'Ieronilled When de,,,loping a risl:dla""~leril-"Ii", for ~ard,, oge,... a 1\ impcrla "I p.-';,~ is I hal 11", d"'" i, a,.;u n",d '0 be a" .""ra&, d ailyd"""r""ei,-N bya,ub,ed"" eraI, fe! i """,fex!"",u reo Forea rei nog""'. lhis ]ifel"n.. of .. ,p,....ur .. i' a,.;urn&:l be 70 y''''''. later in this ....'lim. we " ill d ..",rib.. hOI, ,h" ltj"lim.... xpo;ur.. i. a~munted fCO". In ,unple I "", ,he , .. I: .... o~iale:l by th.. u ,lit r..1: a",o~ia ,&:I wrt h a dose 0/ 1 ong/l:g-<1ay:

CARCINOGENS

'0

I

nsl:

d,,,,, .. r ..1: pe' lInt do.e l

(6.3)

R..",,,,,,]).,r that lCO" ~Mci'"'ge" •• th.. u ni' , .. ka ...ocia,..d ,,- ith a d"'''of 1 mgl kg-<1ay is ~alled t h.. ,lor" f""to,. EJ:1 tha, i"d i" id Uil~ "-.".,,e,po;<>:I '0 th.. ~hemiGll ~a'ci,..-'t"n for 'heir 7[J..year li/e1,m". What happe". in th.. ~ ..... i" '" luch .. xpo;ur.. is aClill By 1"". ,h." a" in.:! idd 1I1I1', ent".. I,Ietim,,? For e""n>pI...." lIlne tha, ex!""'ure oc~ur red m .". a Ja-y'" r p" riod of ..m ploy m..m whe"a w,..ke, w,", e'P"""d to th.. ch.. miml Ol~y.' ",,..1:.1,, llu. C"'"". !'i.,k

example/6.S

,~,

nsl: IInit d",..

lim" of expo;ure lifetime le"gth

(6.4)

Delerrrining Risk

III Eumpl<> t> 3, we del.".,,,; ""d thai thO' do; .. ICO" a" adu h male expn;e.:! to a ~hemim 1100 nd i 1\ drinking water at 10 ",gI L was 029 mglkg-<1ay. What i. ll'" , ..I: a""",iiI",d w,th thi, ..xpro.ure? Is this r ..1< '" i,lli" a~~eptablegu i deli"",,? A,.;ume this do;e i. a pphal 0"" a 7[J..ye,1l" lifetime ",>.:I ll'" ch.,mical foo,>.:I iIl,l", ",at.". i. oo,~,,,,.a kt'llwn can:U'og"'L The IRIS dalab_ pro.-jd", all oral sk,p" r""tor of 01)55 (mg/kg_dayl-l 10' or"l ingesli on ()f be""""".

solution R"'nembl'r 'hal p",,,ioos!y we I,., me.:! 'hal ,I", slnp.. f.oclo, equal. ,he II ,lit rf;k for a ehr"" ic daily intake ilf I mgl kg-
1l.29~ " n.ll53l
"'g

1.59" tn· 1

Th;. sol uloo" m,,,,~, lha', f Im i'>.:I ivid ua Is ",ere "'p,.. ed 10oo,ze"" a, a ~""ceJll rali"" of 10 mg/ LO"er their Iife'un ... 1.:FJ indi' oduals" oold develop ca neer. Extra fOlated to. population of 10jlOO, 'his m .... '" t hat If a U of them had • imilar ure ,() b""""'''' .s 'hi' .du I,. 159 i"d ivid ual. would develop ~ance,. Edrapola ""d '0 a popul.11ion of I million. we w,., Id eXp""t 15.950 indi" od ill ~ to u "velop ~"ncer. This is ",dl a b"''' a",,,,,table , .. I,,,, of 1 in 1o.mn (10 . 'I alld 1 in 1 million \10....,. Tli. is one re,.;m tI", nla,imum ~()IlI"''''lI.lnt lewl (Mew fa b"n~lIe in drinking ",.a.r i. 011(5 mg/L (.... 5 Ilg/ll, much lower th.. n ,I", 1() mgll "aI "'" u ...d in thi. """">pl<>.

""P,..

.

Chapler6 Envi'..........maI Rffik

I

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e X am pI e I 6.6

Deterrnn;ng an Allowomle COncentration of a Carcioogenlc Chemical in Drillkillg Water Calculate an acceptable groundw a,.... co"""ntral;"'n for lh" chenucall""aph""" if a r,.,idffitial d ""eI"'Pmenl i~ plal.'l."d abo", a groundw a,er dqu ifer Cflnl.>minaled ""Ih 'o"aphe'le. AS6ume y"" det..... rru,Ie 111e rl
solution The [R1S dalaba.
Con"en,ral,nn

N.....e ,ha, if lhe aa:ep,ab le n"ik were 1 ill 1 miDion decre,.;e 100.077 IlglL (or 0.077 ppb",l.

;I.

I'::I"~ w~,~

",,,,.d ... \.ion

to ","",' ~

~um to

'".,.;,~'""'~'" by ",.i
mcUl", ,...tw '!'""ucOw"'''''', in b:ample 6.6.........., a'" """'" ",c..l-~ J<>L coold t,_i'Y00 could

""".=ct.,

de",!". a"d "I"'r..."", a ~t=""",,a'-"r ",.. «J..r.1<... ~'"''"

u .... flU""!'" "'~ o/Dur.d......""" ...ria:. acod t-I"t:a.... u< co....... '!' Mtw "",,-,,, ic ~"

to ""

"'=,"""", ""otr~,

~ro.~",uc-d

"f'f""""h roU.O irvolv, t-r
pia"" "~i'~.n ~rt-u

"'ch"ok>.n'. lh~ ,",orn<>lo.Jycoold ","Iill:..,....", "'*"l"a . cr~ ....... 1. Of' pt)o>i<:al (Of' .,,,""

p"""••

""",Wiat-ioo "" .... ~ "" ..). ~a," a", ..,....~ ""''''" ,cnt"a",",,"," ".""'oJ.

"" ,1.,.",0'" "'f"'"U'" :,

(Ja-~),

'x year

,he all
Ann~I'"

ClassDiSCIJssion

;I.......

3li5dav~

LlXXJl'-g 1 mg 1.l kg-dav 35(ldap~" .~ x-",y",rx 2L mg year day a.77llg/l M O.77pI*>m

7tlkg x 10 'x 70y"'''' x

ChapterS EnviromlenIaI Rhlk

e''8",,,,,rillg solu,,,,n nMy be '0 i'" ""ligate wl"'lh"" ,Ile", is a IIIw,i"'pal w at... ~uppl y cl
NONCARCINOGENS

As qa'N pre,iou>ly. ri,k c1,.1raeter;?alio", perfonnoo for "OIlG... dl~~ge"S are handloo d iflerenlly Ihan fnr carcillOgel15. Reca n Ulal nOlI .."rrinogen~h"ve J ,hreshokl dffie, below ",hidl no adverse effecl is eshm.uN In o""ur. A ""fe dose tt!ferred In a~ Ule RfD esl",,,,tes ("jill an uncertaully nI 0'''' order of magnilude or gred,er) a lifetime d.--..e of a 'H-.,mrrin,'l"" ,hal i~ 1ikelY to be '" ~houl ,;g,uf",.."t risk tn human pnpulatoll". The IRIS d.u,ma,e. d;"cu,.,oo pre\'ioo>ly. pnwides v.due~ for RfDs. The acc"!"l.Ible r"k fmm e'p""ure '0 a IInnrn rrin<)';enic chemica I " de... rminoo by calcullljng a h" .. rd quolient (11Q). For ,he e'p.--..ure '0 a card mgen. lhe d
A

lication/6.9

AccllUlting for lklcertainlies in Dose-Response Assessment kJ ProviM COnSClYative Es'imatps Of RiSk per I'oit Dose

In tr., dn•.,...n=.F'lTl><' .. .....",.,..,,'11 pn,,,,,,. au"",n'", ,,,"'c'" ur.:..-t,inn·. Cau", u"",-,<"'inn'. in ~>timal.,. n' th~ !",runit u...,J in b4whon(,.3ImGlrti,,'I;.n' (the ,bf" I"""T) an.! n"u"rtin,~.~" (th~ h""."d quoti"n1). Hu....·""·..-. p"'~e p'~ry h,,,, t>ct,o d""·",,I'<>.I tn,l aemu nb 1m t"""" un""tainl;"" a nJ 1",.,1. tn c<""""'" an,·" ,,'lr., ....l"", u.d 10 '''k en.ract..-i.<"lom. 10 lr., e~" nf earci",,,..,,,,,, Ir., lin.", '"'"'''''''''P''''''' m"J" In.t i, e<>mmcnl v .. Pl'bd (~"'ur" (,.1 III ;" c,",,,,,,-ali,,, t-::au..., Ihis m"d" lead< t"" higr.,rT"'F"""" (,,>ok) ""imat,, at I"w d,~.,. t h, n "th..- m"Jd.;, ,oeh a, t r., S-sn.p"J mulli-hil m,>.!d .. col lr., lJ..,h" po""",at,,<1 u,inj; t"-,, "nim .. l ,tudi", lOU>! b" "dr.Jpnlatoo I" 'ij;nifimntly Inw"," ,.nng Can"" i, ,,"imat...r ... r.,n nn thr.,.l>.,kll",,·e1 i, ""umoo.

'''k

0'

,I<""

""un"'",

""rl'''.

FOT n"nca"'in,,8""", applican,", "f Uh in det"rmining RID "n:! RIC (..00 t!I.L, IIOJ ,·.. 10", pnn-;d.,; cr.,,,,,,, .. n,,, ,,'oIimat.,. "f I IQ, "l.",. Tr.,..., Uh"cmunl 1m ...an"'ilon in ''''''''p1:iba~y a""ng !r., 10"'" bef, nf Ir., human p<'pul.. tim (inle,~nd;,'iJual nr intra,peci'" "01'ioiJaily), uncert.-Iinly in ",trap".'IIinj; aDim.u d.-II" tn nu"",,,, (in~,,,p.ri'" """er"'inly), uncert;linly in ",I,ap"l.-.li"tj IQ)m data nttai,,<>.1 in .. ,wdy., ilh 1.,..... th.lO-lifetime ".sF'",,,,, ("'trap'~atirt; Imm ,ulx:hmDie tn ch,cn ic ",P'"u",). un cert,linIy i n "~t,,, poL Ii"tj from a low""t o~,...ali '" ad,-""", ~fkt 1"",,11 LOAEL} ,,,th.,,th.m fmm .. ;"'OAIl. ".u,-"" "ad u R:er"'inty """""'''le.I. Thi.s "PI"',,,d< u"'" "U .-w.' ita b1"
f""""

Aocd 01 expn- ure. Th.!o;, lhe HQ is llle a """'8'" diU Iy d
HQ

a,,,r"ge daily
"D

16.6)

HQs t '" I a re Its" lha n or eqw 110 I "",,,n lhe,e i~ no a ppreriable nr ad, er", n,k; HQ~ grea t..r I"'" , ",,..n lhere i, a I"""ill ility I h., I s,-.ne not-en,e fmm cM"luI 'looy 0/ Equation hi>. If II., HQ e1ividual 0' c",n u·••"lily ;, e~p""..J equal, II., RfD (Ih" "afe dCt.d. Equal"''' fl1; ",>1 II., inlormatio[\ discu,.;ed p""iously can be u
"""81'

HQ x, Rill" BW

16.7)

" 6.5 Risk ",",,"sment

All ,I", I... ".., in Equatim (,J have b"''' dt'fll'oo p' ....·hJsly. HQ b II", haza,d quotienl. RID,s the dn.", BIV ;s ,I", boJ Yweigh, oftl... largt>! JXlpulalJOn. and IR i, th" ,ntak" ratt' (in U'LS """'. 'h" "'alt" ingestion ra~).

,"'er""",

exam pI e I 6.7

Delerrrinin!llhe Risk of Nmcarcioo!lenic ClI!micas

Though bannoo ; Il 'h" European Union. alrazin" is a w;del) \.Lduetion of "or'L II is a h""ld' "..,cern beeau", of pn.sibl" ad" ...", impacts on th" ca"lio'" ascular sy""n", and r"production. The U.s. Geological Survey has re~~)rted a,razine con"enIralio", III ,he Arkan.<;;Is Ri,'er as high as 14 ppb. If II><> ref"""''''' dose fo' atraz;"" is rep<'lrted in IRIS a,Oil35 mg!kg-da y. WOIJ U a 50 kg !"",ale b" a, risk; f ,he drank 2 L of unlr", "r per day!

solution Determine tl... ha7..l,d qliOti .. ,1 using Equahon (,!>. R.." .."ber Imm Chapler 2 mg 2L ~ llXX1llf: day 0.035 mg/kg-
Lx

HQ

~

I 5f1kg

,1~ll

I pfb equ.l1s I Ilg!L

0.111(,

Be.:ause Ihe HQ I> I"", Ihan 1. we "an a"ume Ihere Is Il<) appreciabl" ri,k fmm the alraz",,, fo' Ih" ind,vidual dru,lJllg ,I... """ ..... aler. 1>.:'01" 'ha' tl... ,na'.IInum c""Ununanl 1""e1 goal (I>ClG) for alrazine is ) "'hich a CRllmw, ~ y d ri "killg w a,,,," lreal ",,,nl. pia nl can'IOI e""""d. In add ~ ion, an eroiogiml r"k a"""''''''lent could b" p ... nlnned for ,1... aqualk life living In 'h" ri,'''',

Pro

ex

am pIe I

6.8

Delerrrining Acceptable COncenlratoos of a Noncarcinogenic Chemical in Drinking Water

Calcula'e ,I", .. oceplable gn-.u,>.!wa"', pmll'<:tior, S'JJ,danl for an unnamoo ch.. n;ca~ d_lfied a, a noncarci"og"". An Ind..,;trial d",'e1op",,,nI i' pi,e£'
solution A""ume H... IRIS d.llaba'" ,tal... the c1"'mical'.' RID for oral ing tiOll isflill mg/kg-
"""ta

acceplable con""nl,ation

mg

, ,-day

1 "O.ot 19-
HQxRIDxBW

"

0.35mg' L(or .35Oppb orO.J5ppm)

:~

Chapler6 Envir.........mal Rffik

6.6

More Complicated Problems with at least Two Exposure Routes

E'p<>;ure a......"n""1$ ca n b..,.-xne n,,~e complic.lltrl 11~ n sIx"", i" Ih" e""ml-"''''' p,e;enled p"'H,~ly, up I" tho; point th" d"."miMI"'n a,.;ume.:! only 0"" of "'poiur" Tlli, fil~1 "'-~"" in''''~gale'; h'M' "n\'ill>rim"" tal ri >i: ca n cOJ~siJ """',-er al rou I"',,f "Xl-"(WJ '" a I0",,1 im"a nd h",,' .m,,, 01 lhe ell" ire,,,,,,,,"a; par~~mmg p~'" slUdit>.l in Cl",pI..., J anJ 5 an> inc'lI"poral£"d imo m",""cc."p1e<, mulli"..,dia pn)b!"",,, i" " llim a d..,nlic:a I partitim. bel"...., lhe! ",.'1..., a .... .lAd lor-olid 1'1",,,,,, Th" 1i,.;1 e",ml'lo> \\' ill u", a ,;"L characteriz ...",n 10 del",,,,; '''' a ,urfa"" l\'ald-q .... 1ity standard fm I\'hid, Ih" "xl-'''''''''' a.""...",,,m id""tiliff! mg... tim fn,,,, "almg cmlamina led fi-J.,hal I i,-" in Ihn", ",al"", i" add d"''' In d ri"Li"g I he cmt, mi,~!l>d ",al"". The .ecmd e",mple ",ill u.e a ri, k cha racl ",i 7-"linn 10 del erm in" acc."tab Ie d "" nup, la ,xia ,d.s f", cm'la minalffl ,n~ Ihalc:an p"lrent •• lI} l"ad. ,. "rl;"ally illln Ih",ul>;urface a nd mnla ",im '" u n
.I,..,

''''It>

6.6.1

SETIlr-.GWATER·QlJAUTYSTANDARDSBASEDON EXPOSURE fROM DRINKING WATER AND EATING fiSH

Tabl,,/>. 16 pr",-ide, infm",al im 1re.n Ih ",ed iff"",nl hypo'l",'ical ,laI", "" c(XJ1d indep"ndently US" In sel a surface \\ al"'-<]"" lily ,tandard lor " hyp,.h"tic:a 1 chemi,,,l. Careful """,Ii,,,,tim nf Ihis I.•ble sIlO"" Ihal lhe tl....., i"dical ... INII lhe stale< use d iffe",," a",,,,n plio,,, i" tl", .. "'poiur" ass....s m""'. Each hyp"'l",~c:al ,tH" a",um", U", same \\ eighl of an adull (711 Lg), I!", i'>g",'i"" rate of "a!t
Class Discussion

...

... 11+-"",,,,, """""!lOCi<>
...

""lh
,,,,,,e

6.16 Exposure A...... ment A...... ption. U.ed by Three Hyp....encol St"e. in Selling 0 Wote.. Qual~y St...do,d for 0 Chemical Th .. 8ioaccu"..lole. in fi.h SIal. 1

Sta'.3

Inge
2

2

2

Iloxlv ",,,ight 01 "Jull (~gl

70

lnge
1>.5

'"

'"

Bi""crumul.,im lact,,,",, lhol Is, m"",un.od """,enlT.>I,,", III

Sl.500

3.>i>,OOO{mld

15

)(I

",,,te<)

7.310

~fl!ll> (",.'Wm "'''lCrl

r"h d"idtd by ""''"'u..,,;/ mnc~nlr.. i,", m ",,,10. (L "'.Io'/~g !i,h)

6.6 Mor. Cornpkatoo PrnUemswnh aile,,;! Tw. Expo"". Rout.s

fador. H"'H'I-er, each ,tatea,,,,,,,,,s diffe",,,t rate, or fish COJ"umpl~n by the aduh populalio" and a difre",,,' ",ag,,,'ude of parlliioning behal ior or Ihe chemical from waler into the fLsh (the b""'L'Cumulalinn factor I. Nete thai slale 2 even .",um"" that the 'n" or fi,;), roo "d in cold waler h"" a g",aler fal (lipjd> c"', lenl, ,otl", d",mical or c""een, (which i, I ery hyd n,phooic> partiti",,, to a g",aler extent illl<) cnld-\l-ater fish lhan warnl-water fi...I,. The total dOie in lhise,,--eeon,,,,, from drinkmg II" aler ,\lid ealmg f....h , ar..:! III Ihi., ea.,e, mOil or lhe dffie r",ult> fn,m "al ing eonlamjr",ted fish. n", lugh b",acrumuiation fac",I" rn T.•ble nJf> indicale thalli", concenlralion or the chemical rrl fish i, much grealer Ihan rr' Ihe ,urf.lee "",,Ier 10 \I-hrch II", fish ls exJX""'-'d. IVhen mulliphoo by the dail) Ing",linn rate ror fisl~ quit.. a large ,alue ,esults ni, " because, in Ihi, ca"". Ihe chemical i, lery hydrophobic, '" rl does not lend to d is",l,e toa g",al e""'l! in II" aler bUI ",stead partilion, 10 a greal ext"," imo 11", rat (lipid) or the crcid-\\"ter fi,h. Rdalw to 11", uisru,..i<>n topic, the ,~n",nlS of society expo,i>.J to h igl",r risk rrom fi,j, c",,,urnpti,,,, are probably child ren (higher d",e gil en lrM bn.:ly ""ight}, p"~;o~llll ",omen (f"rh"l'" the d.,micalls e,e" '~f"etoo to impair retal d",-e1'l'n.,ml. or r",,,,at~nal or,tV.i,ter"" anglers \I-ho cOl,sun", n",,,, fish or fish I"'r" Ihal conlarrl higher Irp;'1 conlent Ihan lhe g""eral p'l'ulal;',n (incr",,,.,d exp<... ure d lie to i '''''''1»00 con"OJ mptinnl. Thi, I""t gn,up could be vacali",,,,,, who a '" con", mi"g a 1,,,8" amounl of fi<,l, ror a SMIt d ur .uio" during a fi<,l"ng trip. More likel) il i, individuals" ho depend on Ihese fi,j, for .ubsistence. For e,,,,,npl~, in rnJ n} pa rls of t I", U,~ led Stale;, Nan ,-e Am",i",n and ,mnigrant p<-.pulal~'.. are I part... tha Ic,..,win higher cont..nti ""nl enneent ralio", tl",n olhe.... co,,--un,,,.

6.6.2

HOW TO DETERMINE AllOWABLE SOIL CLEANUP STANDARDS THAT PROTECTGROUNDWATER

N,,,, lei u, t ur" 0'" a Itennon 10 determining an "ppropriale cleanup lewllo '" hich an engineersl~)uldrem"dr"'" at a sit" co,~ainir'8colHminaled ,oa. For th .. partic"Ular preblem, a,,,,n,,, an "'l-nsLL '" asse',;r,,,,nt inuk,,,,,,, th,u thecomammated ,nil does not p"'ea directlhrealtoadult. or chad",,, " ho ingest t h"cnri.",~nated ';Oil or b",a~,,, '" "1"" Ihat may emil fmm th" contaminated ",il. TIlis could be the Col"" for leaking u ndergrou rid .lfIrage tanb II"1",re Ihe C(lIm n~ "",inn" belo", Ihe ,nil ,urface and t I", rnil ae",' a. a source of polluli"n_ and Ih" chemical 01 coocenl may leach lrom the ",il and c",~arninateundoer!)ling gr,untfy,'aler, TI,e grcund",,, ...r may ser,-e asol so"",e of d nnklllg \I-aler lor a hon", or municipal dy , or perl", fl' t I>e gn1U"dwale' ra:harge; a ,lream, \\ here t t... chellucal Col.n II... n e~erl lo."cdy loaqualic life. figu'" n. 12 ,h"",s Ihecomplexrt y of tlu, prrblffi'. So;"ing Ihi, Iype of problem '''''lui"" "",eral .,tep", delailoo in Table 6.17. W" will locu, our effor" on "nly one 01 """el"a1 hu,ldri>.J d ...mk.. ", 1(0.1".:1 in petrnleum pnxluets, b""2a>'le. lVe " ill abo a,..um" lhat 11", gmund,,-ater d""" not re.:harge a .tream, '0 lhere is "oconeem about ",I< 10 an aqual ic een,y"'''''\. Chapler6 Envir..........mal Rffik

Flgure/e.n

Comple>.ityof. Sit ... ti.., in Which. Le.kin~UndCf~ro~"dSI"..!\" T.nk H., Di.«huged. Chemie.1 Th.tl,C"nt.min.l;n~Sub,u,f.ecC,,,u ndw.tor. Th<>ehmlic.,l mov pMtiti... b..twcm .ir "oid<; in 're «111, wotcr-6Dill ,.,."d<; in the " .. 1, .md mg'''ic o(\] b'l\' on ",,1, He'D"'" i< u.",d '0 tre~ .... 00 0"''''''''' e"'''''nlT'';'''' of ,l><> ",,",miGlI.1 "luililTium A «l~-w"tc dicnl grouoow,lc~.

coo".""

",j""

,,,I.l'"

''I'"''''''

We anli.ll u""" of 11", grou,' prr.";dal u, inlOrmatk" on Ihe e,'f"",ure frequency, expoiu"" duratiOlL d1'<1 time for this p.... brul.Jt type 01 lanJ u,." TI", .B'-M'''''., benzene rone..,,,I,,,I,on is delennined as follo"" (using the appmpriate <1,1'" f""tm of Oil53 (mg /kg-day)-\ fmm the IRIS d.,tab""",}.

'''''''&,'>g

roncenlral;on

70kg x 10"" 7O,'e.,." x 3li3daY" x LOODllg . vea, "'g {6.S) 11033 kg-d.v x J'll days x JO) ears" 2 l mg year d.y

The aUeM',1ll1e cno'''''lIr,.lino, is determined I" be ISllg!l (ISpl->b m), This value i,. factM of three higher than lhe m",,;mum contami"a"l I", eI (Mel) for b""7"ne, " hieh is 5 Ilg (L The Ma is the enlor""ablo! q,mdJ.n:1 "'-"I by Ihe EPA, sn thi. default, iIIue will be ,,-sed 10 rompule lhe S1~ I cleanup .tand ,,,.d in ,ub""'!u,,,.1 step;. MO.• • re b"-,,eJ u 1-",1\ 1,"'lme"t led\nrlogies, .ffnrdabilitv, a"d olher leI'l;Y, and C'" lor dch;"'''n8 1",'e1< of r..nm "L n .. EPA guiJa ""~ for e<""bIhill 1.,10... a re e"lore..,ab., ,t.l.ro:lard, ,.,0:1 "re 10 I;;hi "8 "" Ma be
"..,."'u;

,,,,tt,.

6.6 Mor. ComlJka,tl'Ol P~.m,with at ll!asi Two Exj>Mu'e Rout.,

6.17

Steps to

SI~p

So"'" the More Compl"" En .......mEllKJI Risk Pcoblem Th.. OcQJrs in Sol ondGt""ndwa1er Media

I: [)d.nn,..., lond u,", and

St~p2: Wh.J.t

mJ~' 01 e'P"'lIfe

--

.S.

"",urne lhere i, und.,-lyinggmtIldw>l" lh.J.t iscor"'nlly u,.,d (fT ml;ht beu"Od In ,Il< f"'lIfcl s' pmple mav be exf''''ro 10 'he conlamon.ItllIl. Assume lho,' a 'eguLa,or\" body h.s,'" tbea=ptIble ,i
is theacc-eptablo flskl

SI~pJ' Wh.J.,

'0

is ''''Cl'~ll:l~ 1",'eI ofbm7me in ,he g,ouoow.te,'

Perionn • '"'" ch.ra,~enza"m d""',mone theco""enl,allm 01 b"""",.., I" ,Il< "mbmi""k,d gmundw.t",- ,ho,t will no! c""ced ,Il< ,cc"l''''ble c;'k sbt
SI~p4'

Delennl,.., how ,heco..-enlr>lllIl 01 the d",,,,,rnl ;s cha~ro as II mo'.-", ,-",-tirnUy thmu¢' lheu"..'t...atcod "''''' 10 Ihegm.mdw,~,

This I< deumplm,, lhol prm'ld"" 1I><;gh' mto the dilutIOn .nd .'!em.,I,,,, of Ihechm,,;:,l

510p4.: Delem""" ,h~ .1Inw;~leco""enl,.1fi""in the "",I per" wa'er ,hat surmw,d<; the Conl.1m",.. i"" Ihedc"'p"b~ coo",,,I,alion in the ground",.,ler

\;'" ,,,,ul>- from lhe h)-drot'J'oIogk'a1 stud,' 0" dllUllOn dU""""lOO f.ct'" lOAF)

S,~ P4b:

Apply kno....lrogeof m.:l'" b.1lance .1nd chm"rnl p.>nl"o.. ng betw"",n .", .... 1. '00 "'luc'OU, pho«",

'I'" f,,,,,,

Eso rna te an.n,wdb Ie ""~ co""c nI '.:Ill"" (0,,,,1 bm"",.., per ,,~.>l m",' of wei ",,1) fmm lhe a II"w:>ble P'''o wd1",- cooem ITa "0"

51'-1' 4 r n'm Table n.l7 Is In d i.'t""ru". how Ih. "onc.,,1 ra tion of I N> eN>miml is chang..:! as il moves ".rti:ally Ihroogh Ih.. un""turalaJ zon.. 10 Ih. gm'-"ldwa"'r. A" "ngin..,r cooid J>"'"form '''- First, II", ct",nliClI "''''I p.vunon (lrom s,..t..d or g"'''''''' ph"' ) into Ih.. por.. ",a"'r Ihdl surrounds Ih.. colrtanliMlro a ..... Th"" lhe u1lin8 I... chal .. "''''I b"lrat .. poneJ , ....tically 10 lhe u,o.:I .. ly,ng gn,Ufld wa 1<',. As II." d .."",I".d ct."miClI i.s Iran'pon.,.] "--,,l p"""'".... II may abo b .. d~ uta:! "i Ih II." un""ta,,,j,~, I<'d waler it "'."', Ihdl IS f mnd upg,anl III th.. gmundwal..... For 'unpli<::ily. as CN>miClI c""",mranotl in II", por.. ....a ller 1ha I ,u """",nd,, t I", cflllam lnal~n d;" id"'] by 1 ~ ""II ..qua I II",


cOl'oncen,ralton in Ihe I'":...e w~,er w,lhin 'he c<>"I~mi,...led soil zo"e 'hal '" ~ll""d, , ...lically In not ad"""""ly aUec, I"" gn'Ul,dwal... is O.0C6mgLx 16

O.OfOmg/l

R,,"'errber 'ha' ,hi. "a1ue of Oill'lJ mg Il is nnt 'lie c<1' i, '0 lale Ihe a Uow able a"lu ....... pi"''''' cm""nlrati"" in 'h" po,e "'ale, (mg benz""e l-ler L \\ale,) and ro"""n il ,n a soil C<>'lCe"'ta!lon (mg benze"e per kg \\el soi1). To m.lke Ihe probl"m "."ler, .,<;sume 'lie berl7.e'Ie.... ir--\\·.lI......"o;J ,)'Stem" a, equilibriUl". n", anu.. III of ber''''''''' I1"" is partil ",ned • I ""lui ~brlUm a 'he po,e ",al»r, air ,·oid<., and 'he 'iOrbold "'il ph""" i' d el ... ,ni ned. Thi, Ioial masso'ille ben""!1e (fr,." 'lie a"lu .... '" pore wa'er. air, and lth a, a ,!.lied aa:eptabl" r"k. To carry out Ihis com pul' IiOl'. ",e n""d rface pn'l-"rty iruormali",e A,;sume 'h" ,ubsiJ rface 'y.lem is hoon"S",»us, IIIe soil 1'01"<>;Ity isO.3 p ... ""rt, soil org,mic carl'''n Callen' is I per"'lll, ",111 soil bulk densily is 2./ &ml an '. A'<'ume abo tl"" "''''--IhinJ oftlle "oid 0' Ille
'i""

''''''''8

'ub'"

'1"''''''

(6.91

Here, C,. ...'" " 'he pore watt.rcn""ellirati"" of Ihechemic...l d"ler",i"eJ in ,tep .Ia ((lll~ "'gil), K i< !lie soil-water partilim cneflident for our 6.6 Mor. Cornpkatoo PrnUemswtth at le"" Two Expo"". Rout.s

ch"'\Iml of co,,,,e,,,. KH is Ihe dimen'i"" Ie", H ..,ry·, law coo"I",,1 for lhe chemical 01 c<.,C@nl. H~ ...~ is Ihe soil poro>,ly filled" 'Ih ""Ier. II... i' 'oil poro> ity filled with air. "nd I~. i' lhe ,,-,;1 bul k den.. Iy (dS<.u med 10 be 2.1 g/c",'). 1" Ih;s """'. "e lid ,.., It», 101 k'"i ng ,. diu '" f,r I he,e var iabl",; • C~ ...... "'", delermilled ill 'IeI' ·1" 10 be O.OSO mgll. • tl uh., 11", snil prro;d y filled '" dh waler. b equal to lhe pora;ily (0.3) mullil'htrl by U", f r 11"'1 an:. filled ",i Ih "" Ier (20 ill

IIti' pn)b!em). In this C
H~ ...

i, equdlloO.2 (~I"'... ""d ill ul~1s of

• II.... lhe .",1 pora;;ly filled wdh "lr ,'-';
p.OOlem), In Ihis ca"". 0." equdl, 0.1 (""I"'",,,,d in u ,,; Isof l.,,/l,...,). • K, U", ,nil-""Ie. partibnn cneffidenl, c.u, be e<,tim,lted fn,m I""

oct""ol-w"ter partili"" coef/idenl, .15 d ;"cu-.;",I i" Clldpier 3, A-.;ume b,,"zene h""" leg K,,,, nf 2.13. For ben""",. the cor"'''tinn fn,m Figure 3.1 1 c.u, be u.,a.! 10 e>lulla Ie Ihe ,,-.'1- ,,"ber part II.", coefficient 1I.... m.'lizedlo ",sa,lic carbon (log K.) ", 202 (K" equals 10'-"' II kg orgilnic C3 Ibnnl. !Iff.;ur!.",,, doe. nft gre.llly .dfe<:t the "i'-I'.'_'ler pMI~IfI""'g beh
!>en,..e,,,,.

Plugging in Ih".., "'lIoes for lhe ",lkllow"s "' Equ"linn ~.9 , ... u115 in allow""le <;oil cnnceotration

O.0~X0.18l~-"" l

-0-

xO.l 1..."

L."

)

4"""

g ",';1 cm i kg ( 2, I l X 1.000---- x cm L 1.000g,oil

46.10)

Sr',ing for Ihe c",,,,.. 'lr kg (
~ 0.007~

illS/kg

(.....t..,)

0.1l92 mg b..,,,,,,,, kg ,'-';1


+

ll,omtIJ mg. kg (m,)

46.11)

Th .. "lk,wableso;l conc""tration of O.l1.l2 rng/kg (0.ll'92 ppon",) j" tm, c<:o",,,,"rah'n of b",z."", t1 ... t c'Ill r"naU' in Ihe"";l a,o.:! qilll"<:oat Ihe gn'Wldwate, ,,,,rure,, tn drinku'g-w"ter ,1""d",
."'dS

Key Tenns

"'P"""'" pall",.. ,·,

acUle I",,;city bi,.,ccumulali,m

R""lUrC" C",,,el'\',,ti,,n "nd Re<'",,,ry Act (RCRA} r;"k ri,k a,,..,,.,men!

1\""'" chemi'tf)"

bmwnfield ..,,,cinngenie

h",... ru """",melt

ehnmic !<>.";citv

ha""d"", ",.,-te Le.Hlel'hip in Ene,,;' aru E",in",men~-..l [)e"jgn (LEliD).

hal_ard q'-"'tient (I tQ)

di'p'",,1 du,,,, d",e limit d",e-r",p"''''' """",men! du,e-r",p"''''' CU,,"., ecn-efficiency ea~",icity

£m"'g~cy I'!.mning

Corrununity (EI'CRA)

and

Righ!-tu-KnI~"

Act

ri,k ..hal""leru.. ti"n r;.,k pt'",epi,", ,luI"" factm

LEEO c"rtifi~"lilll\ median lethal e","'eniTali,", LC'"

"J~d

med i.m Irlru I d,>-e (W,">

s"'"'''Phble p"pul.,ti",.,

n,,, >b>.e n .. ble" d '"'''' df.,cl le",1 (1'.OAELI nu thr",h,,1d elfe,:1

''''P''''ted "'"cinnge",

nnne" n.; '" '!len i~ F",lIuti"n ple,,,nti,,n F",lIuti"n ple,,,nt.,,,

wa-te

"nue..

redu~tiun

1IIr",h"ld elte..1

I"xicitv Tu";,,, Rele"""

In,,,n~lrY (TKII

lleatment hier"r~hy

end''l:Tine di,rupl"" en,-ironmenla! ju,lic" environmenla! Ti,k

P',b"ncy 'actur

wa,te mm
r""yding

weighl "f ",idence

epidemi,,!ugy

ref.,ren~e wncenllJli...

e_'F"",ure

re",ren~e d,,,,,

e'F""ure a,"""'men!

(RIU)

(RIC)

"n~!I"int;· f"ct"r (L~)

ti,,,,

, a.1

chapter/Six

Wha, i~ the regulatory diff""''''''' in RCRA a ha1.."dOll~ .."d toxic subst.one,,?

be,,,,,,,,,,

6.2 lde,tify ,,,,·.,,a1lype. of r;';k during YOJr co",mute to school Whidl 01 U",,.,., risk_ "00 Id d .. ""lfy a, ",...111",,,,..11..1 fI,k?

,,,,,"ri'"

6.3 Rank tl_e III on] er of 'lI"ir en,. i:r",,n,,,,,tal ,"k 001'- 10 ll1gheslr. (al A ftect i''" brNlh i 'l> eq'''I""""llll.lt r"",,,,e, 1m p"'''''''1 of a h""ard!.,." ctw:.mical. (d) A factory worker ha' been pm,'W<.-d prrlef a d ... micalthat h"" heel' jtrlged 10 hd"" zero lM7_Md. (e) A 'oxic chemical was identIfied in a laclory'. drinking ,,~Ier supply_ The ".CO' ker y"" M" e,·~lu~ling h~ ~ desk jd>~ nd isn'" exp,-.....J lo~ny of a I""k chemical enult..d i" II", ~ tr o. Ih" f....1 "')' m~ I~ U fd<:turing a", Thi. wCO'ler ~ J..,o brings an her w.>let .,,,d mh ... be, "." fron'home in reuSdbleconta",,..,;.

6.4 R~nl Ihe'" Ihr.., s",,"lfi,... in "rJ .... "f Ihell" env ~ rfInmental r;"k (1,", '" higl>esl l, ta) C",,,,,"'ts ,. j" il ~ bar ~ h per weel in ~ loeuion where Ihe Slale has pa,sed regulal.mslhal pr""enl cuslUmets IWlnsm"'ing ill,ide resL,ur.u,1S and bars. (b) Wail slaff ~re exp"sed 10 "'-'C011acoo smoke ~ h per d.,y during work (c) Cus!,-.,,,,,,, ~ '" Hp"'a.:I 10 .<... hand lob""'''' ",..,ke 2 h p'" week w luJo. d in i1'g ~ I 11", r""laura ," a, II", wa d ~t
,,,,,d-

"11''''

6.5 Wh~1 a", Ihree considerations besid"" I",dcily Ihal conl"bute 10 ~ chen"c~1 being I~beled

Problems

6.7 Th" EPA released Ihe 2m 1Toxic Rei"".., I",·entl'O"Y l\ aI innal Anaiysis in January of 201 J. Lrc~te Ihi' informatio" ~nd fiii in T.ilile n.1 R for loxic chemical di'Jl"""'1 and rei"""" (in lhe yeM 20111 lor the 101io" il'g Ihr.., large aqualic em,,;- -.tem .. Long Island 50",,,1<1, II", Gulf "IM""ico, and Ihe S"', Frnnc;'.cn Bay DelL' Estuar}. Ali Ih"'" waler In:Ii''' of ,,·~Ier are """'S,u7.ed ~, being imporlal" f,r ec,-,lll\icat economic, and ,ocial rea"""•.

6.18 ToxkRelea... h",erlory Dolo A..ocio!led witl\ Three Large Aqu""ic (cosyste.....

,~

GuRal Moxie<>

"land Sound

!':umboTOfTRI

Fdcilil"", Tol'" 0"''''' ,nd off <~Cd"f""oll

or o,h",

rclro"", T obl O"-<11e

rc~,.,,.,.

10'" ToL,l on... i.., rd".,.,.

'0""",,'" Tobl O"-<11e rd.,.,.,. ",l;md

Underground

'nl'-"'hnn Top fi,'" indu,tri.-d ,,"'1<... mn
Hh~zdfdous"?

6.6 lde,"ify lhe lop Ihr", chemin'i rei"",,, in yoor hon"'t"', n or uni' e"'ily conununily usi"g Ihe EPA'. To_"k Relea.., h"''''lOry dal.lbao.e. WI",I in~"mlliol\ G'n y"" find aboUl Ihe 1m icily of II",.., cho
ChapterS

Envirom\enIaI Rhlk

6.8 DefI"e ponution pr",,·elllioll a tId describe why il i~ Ihe prderred apprn«:h I" add",~"':ngIh"chdllellge 01 "·...le. 6.9 \\~,al i, Ihe dll""",,,, bet"""" p,-,llulion pre"enli"" and ~u_<,tainabiiRy?

6.10 U"" 'he pollution I""'en,io" luerarrhy to ra"k 'he foll"w,,'g """''''ri'''' from lu>llo must preferred. In add it,on, label each ""'''''rioasan example of snurce reduction. recyding. treatmen'. or di"!"",,,I: (a) Ammonia nitrogen b lraJ~,fnmled '0 l_,oxic ni'rate ''''mg"n a, t"" "-.btewa'er treatmen, plant and 'hen di"d"'rged to a receiving water body, (b) Urine (which ronta"'.s 75 !"",.."m of the nitrogen ,,-,creted by 'he human body) isron""ted in th" hous"hnld .Uld applied 10 a backyard garden as a fertilizer, (e) A hm"""",ner decides to '10 l''''g place f<><>.:l scraf>5 in a garbage di'I-"",,1 rollllected to 'he "nk a"d ill,tead set, up a b.>ckyard roml""ting mach,,,,,. (d) l\"'lrogen in the "a,tewa,,,r ls prropil.ued out and """"ere.:! for ftd i" 'lie community. Ie) TIle ronlmun,ly chang"" ,ts billing pIa" fn,m on" fla'la,e crnrged I"'r hOlheholJ 10 .. pia" thai charge< hou""holds for each bag (or ,ra"h can) of "olid "'''-Sl'' placed on m.. curb for pickup. TI,err idea ls this will ca u"" homeo" lie'" reduce 'lie amoun, of wa,t" 'h"}' produ", and di-"""rd. (d) A nalion•..:I fclicy i, ill,'ituted to reduce tI", dnlOUnt of p.Kkaging a"",,",taled wllh oo"sumel pm.luCIS. (e) Hou""holds beg,n purchas<> locally grown foOO frnm local outlets 'ill Ihe p.lCkaging a"",,",taled wi,h foOO dL,tribu,io" ls red llCffI. If) TIle "",nmun"y soIid",,,Ie duthori'y r""lui...... "'par.•tion of gla"", pa!",,"/ mrdboard, and metal by household, in a new curbsid" recycling pmgrdm. (g) TI,e cnnu"unily b1Jn~, ,olid "a,le at a h,gh tem!",,"a,ure '0 recover e""rgy, ",1",,-<;iogsome ,oxic chemicals i"lo 'lie air and pm.lucing a" ash prodUCI, but reduc,og 'lie ,olurne of "a"e tha, ,.."."j, 10 be dLsp"""'-'<:l of in J landfill.

p"""'"

,Ie"

'0

'0

em imnmentdl ri, k:. Ho" much "",-rronmen'.,l ris k i, Imm faclors "uch J' UMaf" ",Jter and ",n'l.\tior~ indoor "rr, urban air, .lnd dim.lIe!

6.14 Recalling Iha' 'he EPA d"fi"'" endron"",n",l justice aSlhe "fair treatment and meani"gful i"""h'em"n, of all 1'''01'1" regardles, or 'act<, rolor, n"lional origin, or income" ,'h """peet to 'he develop"",,,t, il1lplementalron, a"d e"fo,""",'''''' of el" ironmental law,. regulalion" dnd polic;""," """,.,rrh an Lssue of emirollmentdlluSlic" in your hometo",n or """,, Wha, is the endm,unental i",u"? Wha, groups or """iety are being h.lrrned by ,h"en, ironm"ntall"",ue? Whal ,nju.tic" i. l.l.klng place?

"""'el'

6.15 O"line ..t ww"."""recard.org, you can for 'lie l,.,.dtion and "'unher of haz.anlou,;.-w.ts'e site; by localioll. U"" i'10 se.Hch for ha ?ardou.....waste.ite; II I your hometown or a city cJo"e your u""-e",il,,. Comment on "I""her 'he number and location of h"zaN""..... " "",e ,il"" pose dny e",-irOl"''''''l.l.1 inju.qice to re>idenls 0/ tho> commun'ty you are in,-""tlgating.

'0

6.16 Ll"t 'he four compo""n", of a complete risk ..s"""",,,,,,n'. 6.17 The Integrated Ri,k I"forma'ion Sy,t"m (IRIS l, an "lectnmic datab"-,e 'hat ident ifi", human heahh "ffeel" "'lated to eXl"""ure hundred" 0/ chen'icab, i. available at "w"."pa_gov/iris. C.o 10 IRIS and del""nin" (al the "''''ght of evidence deseript,,,; (b) the ""f"rence d"'" (RID); and (d the 'lope factor, 'f availdble, for the rollo" ing si, chemicals/ SUbsl"'''''''' arsenic, ",,,thyl mercury. e1hvlb""",,,e, "lelhyl eth~'l ketone, napl~halet"" and d ,,.;e! engin" e,llau"'.

'0

6.18 Why rnu,t d'ild"'" e;pecially be prot .... ,ed fmm em·ironn"'lllal mntam",anls? U", the term lei hill d ow (LD) in y"OJr "'.. ".,,-. 6.19 A ,tudy of 'he potent'JI of aeryl",,,,rile '0 produce bra'" tu,no", in rals ,,-J> conduc'ed by adminlSlerin& the carcino&"n ,n drinku'g walel" Inr 24 me.,th" Tl'" re;u1ts of 11", 'lUdy Inr female ,alsa re tabulated below.

6.12 (a) Lis' a diffe,enl envimnnlenl.l1 risk a",..-.cia,ed ""th an indoor e,,, ironment in 'he de,-"l,'l""! world and d",elop"'g world. (b) Wha, particular b1J,ld"'g occupants a", Jt the greJ'''''t ri,k lor the i,ems you ha"" idelllified?

"

6.13 C.o to 'he ,,-eb ,it" nf the Wo rid H"ahh Orga",z••tion (w"",,,.wllO,org). Basal on 'he infom~ltion ,he"" ""te a refereoced ,wo-page essay on global

1.23 3_63 10.89

Do,", (mgll;g-d""l

0.12

(})(,

1/179

'I'"

2(91 4/R5

'I"" 23/M

(a) o.,te","ne Ihe sl,)pe !.ldor (SF) ,)f the d~ ""'I"'n,e relati.-""hip (a"ume it i, li"ear). (Do"'t forget to account for Ihe one rat Ihat had .• brain tumor t>\ en though he ". asn'l ege d""'-Tlblllg Ihe a""",sm,,," nf the Refer"nce [)o"e (RID) for chronic oral exp""'ure (hltp) I "wI" ."pa,g"" I nc,," I iri,/ ,ub"t/02ll9.h,m. u",fm.,l) for the chemical atrazine. Alrazlrle i, a popular herbidde: ten, of millions of I"'unds of atrazine are applied to 'egelalion in Ihe U",ted Slales annually. and il b a widespread drltlking w"ter rontami"a,,!. Aft.... read"'g th",,-,gh Ihe brief provided by IR!S. plea", .u"wer the following: (a) What I""ls did the EPA/Cibd-{'".elgy perform IrI order 10 .,,-.; Ihe toxicilyof alra"ine? SUnlllldrlZe in Llbular formal the '''''' ,ubjects, tJlne period. alld overall key lO
621

Vi"t the page d.s:ribing the a""",me," of the Reference Dos" (RID) fm chmnic oral eXl""'ure (http'llw"",.ep.l,gov/ncea/iri'l,ub"t/0209.hll\>. umfnr.tll for the chemical atrazi",," Alrazll>e " a popular herbicide: tell' of millio", of pounds of atrazine are applied to ,·eget.ll,on in lhe Uniled Stat"" annuany. alld, LS" ",k1espn>ad unnking ".lIer conta",ina,,!. (a) Wlldl are Ihe NOAEL and RID for alrazine, and 10 which respo"..., do tI,...., d"""", Mer? (b) Assume the foU"w"'g addi"onal toxicity daW poin", LOAEl-3 mg/kg/uay (.,ffeels 3':l of pnpulat,on); LD30-13 mg/kg/day; other data po"us-22 mg/kg/day (affects 75,} of populat"",). 30 mg/kgl day {afleet, <;50/, of populalionl, Dr.",' a d.-..e---""'l-lOllse cU"'e for lhese daLl. (c) What is Ihe dppmximate ,lope of the cU"'e? (d) ,",'ow consider applying alrazine 10 your lawn and dssume !lldl the", are babies in Ihe hm,...,llOld thai like 10 eat gra"" Wh••t i, Ihe ",,,ximum a",ount of grass Ih"t a baby ca" eat safely in a day! A,;,-u me II Ie following Coru:!it;OllS: baby weight _ I0 19.. ,..".idual atrazi"" co,\Cenlration on grass from one .•pplicalion is -Q.Ol" (whert< I" 10.000 ppmm)' (e) Given Ihese result<; from part (d). d.-- ,praying your la" n "'ith alrazine pre",nt any ""linu, rlsk in tI,is Cd""? U,.., Ihe "ha7.ard quotie"''' to nldke IhL, detenninalioll. "

Chapler6 EnvirOl"Olll!!llal Rffik

6.22 1lle sigmoid curve used in a u""""'r""p"""" a""ly,is (and nl.lny olher englll""r"'g dpphc••hoolS) ha, Ihe form I

+ ,.Llfil

,

where x i, Ihe d""e ill mg/kg/day. (a) Sh"" llldihellldlically Ihal the inflectKm poi'" of the dose-""'l-"lnsecu"'e ",h..., x LD50. \\~l.ll d""" Ihis mea" in practicallenn,! (b) USIng Ihe infornldlio" p"wlded ill part (a). pm"ide Ihe d",..,.... respo"'" eqU.ltlOll for atrazine, Wha, is the do
""'--u,...

6.23 erutsider a phanllMeulical proou'-1 ",ilh tw" d"."..,...~po"-'"CUrl'''''. one thdt show, Ihe effecti"e df",e (ED) a"d a second Ihal sho"" the lethal dose (lD). A"ume lhal LD50 2" ED50 and lS equal 10 2~.27 mg/kg/day. ThlS ph",maCtI'on in problem n.22 6.24 VL,it Ihe follo,,""'g EPA Office of Peslicid"" webJ-"'gl' U"" pnwiJe" infor",a~"" 0" the sldtt. of the US. federal "aent,fk debdle on alrazine: hltpol/ "'w w ,epa.g"" / 0pl"'rnlll re reg'-',rat,,,,,, I a Irazi"e / alrazine update.hun IVri Ie a o"e-page ""mo from lhe perspa:lhe of the sb",tegy 1..,111 a ISYIIgl'nla, Olle of Ihe main gk,bal manufaclu",,,, of all'azine, gi" ~lg a sun""" 'y of Ihe EPA ad;"ilie" fi,1d illg', a,1d rulings. From a 'lralegy per,pecti,.... whal o,eraU recomrne,ldatiollS woold yOJ gi, e, knowing w h.., y"u doaooUl hOI, Ihe EPA is "",,<;ider"'g alra"ine?

6.25 A"sume .Ul adult fe......le "ho weigh, SO kg drinh 2 l 0/ ",ater e"ery day and the absorpt"", lack" for Ihe chemica Iof c.-.,cenl is 73 percenl (so 23 percelll of Ihe chenlical i, ,"''''ted). The c.-""",uraI;'ln of the cllemical inti.. d ri Ilkillg ". a ler i, 55 ppb. Delern~ ,.. Ihe dn,e in mgl kg-day, 6.26 (a) D.etenm"e the d""" (in mg/kg-day) fm a Ill' !lldl l~ biO.llCCumulat"e chen.. ""l lI·ith BCF lnund ill "'aler at a collcelltra!ioll 01 fl. I "'giL C.akulate your d""" for a 'ill kg adult fe",ale ",ho drillK.. 2 llake waler per day and con,umes 10 g of

fL~h

per day lhal is caughl from the bki'. (b) WIldt I"'r£ent of Ihe 101.11 dose is from "x!X"ure 10 Ihe waler, and ,,-hal p."""nl is from e,!X"ure 10 Ihe fi~h?

colltamilldted soil, ""tnnate Ihe allowable roncentraIi,,,,, 01 benzn(a)pyrene in the pore "-dler of ",nlamin.• ted ,nil

6.21 e.kulale a risk-b.lsed groundwater prOle<:lion sl.\ndard (in ppb\ for the £hemical 1,2-..:1 khlornethane fnr a residenlL,1 hom""wner "here the pe""'"'S "ell u,;ed I,,, drinking water lS ron!.'lnlinaled wllh 1,2didlk>roethane. A"ume you .,re determining ri.~k lor an .iI erage adull who weigh, 70 kg. The slale where you work 1I.,-s detemulled thai ai, acrepl.,ble rcsk i, 1 £ancer occurrell,:e per 10" people. U"" Ihe ..al"es for n>ule of in!.'lke, exp''''''''' f""luenq, ""P<~ ,ure durat"..." a"d a"erag;ng lime pm,-ided for resIdential use in Table 1>.) l. A,;sun-.e an oral slope factor Inr 1,2-..:1ichlomethane 019.2 > Hr~ per (n\g/kg)/day.

6.31

6.28 Delern"ne if eX!X"llfe by oral il1ge,lion 10 Ihe d",micab xylel1e, loluene, a"",";", and hex,,'alellt d"o""ull1 !X"es a "on",,,cinogelll£ he.dth risk. The chemical--specifi£ reference do",e., {mg/kg-dayl obtained from IRIS are 'ylene (0_21- toluene (O.R), .,,,,,,nk (0.0003), and he,,,-,,lel1l chromium (0.003) A"ume a 70 kg ",dl\"ldual oo"sun"" 2 L of ,,-aler per day with these £hemkals dlS«>fI ed at" OOl\<:elltratio" oil II1g/L 6.29 A rommercial area had iLS own ""pa"te ground"ater supph- sy,tem tl\ill prm-Ided dril1kmg water. Unlortunately the ground "aler w '" oolltaminalN wilh ar""nk at a ronco,,,tration olIO ppb. n,e property 0" I",r pla£ed .• deed teSlrkt,on on acressing Ihe groundwaler and .11«> oonlacted Ihe city to oomplete a hookup with the clly water supply. Detern"ne il exposure by oral i"geslion to Ihe d,emkal arsellic P"'"" a nonclrcinogeni£ health nsk fM individuals oolLsun"ngdri nklllg ,,-aler after the property o\\"ner" aClio'L~ h,,-e taken pIa"". Assume a 70 kg indi, idual """umes 2 L 01 water per day and the RID lor arsel1k ls 0.0003 mg/kg-day. 6.30 (a) Calculale a risk-based ground"ater protection standard lor the d,emi",,1 ben7.o(a)pyrene. Assume you are detern,,"ing nsk r", an a"erage adull female who weighs 50 kg and mnsumes 2 l water and eats 30 g of r;,h per day The slale has delermined th"t an ...,""ptable risk is 1 ""n""roccurrel",e per 10' people. U,.., the valu,,", lor ex!"",ure lrequel"-'). ex!X"ure durah"", dnd "eragi"g tIme I'rm-ided lor residential Ltnd use. (b) Acrording to E£'A', Inlegraled Ri,k I"f",,,,ation Syslem (IRIS), what Iype of ca,,-"lI'ogen is benzo{a)pyrene, ",ing the weight of e, iden"" of human dnd dl"mal stu d,,,,! (d A"umlng the dtemical is leadling rrom ",,,,e

I, there an ulLsafe ",k dssocialed wilh a 70 kg adultealing 15 g or fi,h e,'eryda y thai ront"ins 1 mgl kg of ",ethylmercury? Methylmercury has been shown 10 cau,", de,-elopmel1ldl neurnpsychol'>sica/ Impamnem "' hun\il" beings. The RfD lor methylmercury j, 1 ~ 10 I mg/kg-ddY. 6.32 Is Ihere an ulLsafe rlsk d"-"OCialed wllh d 70 kg adult eatlllg 15 gol fish every day that £OIlta"" 9.R I'-g/kg 01 Arochlnr 125-1? Amehlor 12501 ""n e~hlbll no"carcinoge"i£effects "' humans Use Ihe IRfS da taba", 10 find dlly other inlnrmalk", required 10 ""l,'e Ihts pmblem. 6.33 COl\celltralio,,< or toxaphene in fish may impair humal1 heahh and fi,h-e.llmg birds (,urn as bald eagl,,-,) Ihal feed on Ihe f;,h. (a) II the log of Ihe octan"l-w ater partition meffident (jog K,,~) for lo~a phene i, ass"med 10 be equ,,1 10 ~.21, wh.'t "the e"peeted ooncentration of lo"aphene in fish? (As.sume Ihal the equilibnum aqueous ph.•"" to",,phene £o"""nlralion i, 100 ng/L) (b) II ;1 " a"umed Ihal all a.-er.'ge per""" dnllk.< 2 l untrealed water dally and colLsumes 30 g of mnlamin"ted fi,h, what route of ""f"",ure {drinking wdter nr ealing fi,h} ,"""ullS ill lhe greate.l risk lrom t""aplte"e in 1 year? (e) What roule 01 eXI"",ure is greal",t for a higher-risk group tml is a"'umOO to 100 g fisl, per day? Supp.)r( an 01 yoo r aILs we" " it h eakulatk)",. A,.;ume Ihe InllnwIllg £or",!at;on appli,,", to lox.'phene dllll our p",blem's sf"'CiflC fi,J"

a.,,,,,,,,,,

IngBG

0.1l5IngK...-0.D7

6.34 ldentify a brownr",ld In your local enmmunily, 1".''''lown, or a "ear~ dy. \V1\i11 "as specifICally do"eallhe ,ite? Whal are several sociaL ec,nomic, and envll"onll-.enlal i",ues associated with restoring lhe bm,,,,f,,,1d "te? 6.35 The ,.ode of F&leral Regulalions (ITRl i, II", aid ilk"I"'n 01 11", general and permanent rules publis/led in the Federal Registerby lhe "",....uthedel'''lm",,1<; ",Ill age"".,sof Ihe Federal G"",ernm""tll £a" be a£""-,,ed at http://ww,," ,gpoac,-"""s.g'l\' Idr I. \V1,.l! CFR number isa-.::ial&:! WI~' Ihe Inllo"'"'g seetio"s? (fm example, 50 CFR for Wildlife and F.. h-eries). (a) Protectio" 01 E,,,"ir,,,,,,,..,t, Ib) Tran,portali"", k} Conser,-abon of ['ower and W.ter R~un:"", (d\ rubli£H ... ltl~ and Ie) H'8hways.

Cd""

6.36 R"",arch Ihe ,,'Iety of y"'" I""""nal and hou"",,hnld c!edning p.nduct~ u,inga ",eb~ile ,ueh a~ hllp' I / I&~ t' '" I. D",·e1np aMble th.H Ibis 5'" en cur", .. t per
"'''''t

6.37 On "...,me ""ckground "",,,arch. Some good pl...,e, 10 I""" forth" and reidted in~"n",h'n indude EXTOXI\·ET, Ihe 1\atin",,1 To"rok>gY l'r'>gram ("''TI'). Ihe Age''''Y for Toxic Sub5lances anJ D"'ea,,",

ChapterS EnviromlenIaI Rhlk

R"gi<;t ry (A TSOO). a nd Ihe Nario'l.,llibra ry of Medicin" (chro>e n,,,,). (a) b alr..,.ine binacrun..,l'b,·e and/or pe";"te"t in Iheenvimnn"'lIl? Ex pia in your a n.." "". (b) 1\nw coo<;ide. awly ,ng a b" a>.ine In you. iii" n and a,,"~ume thai there Me children in the hou<.ehnld and they Ioke tn ",u gra". Jirt, alld " "rnlS " h/Ie pid yi ng On gra'6. A"ume Ihe alraz",e ;5 both bioaco.Jlnulab", a,1I.l persblenl Ho" doe5 Ihls new informal;on aboul the pMtitioning alld persi5tence bella\' in. of aIr"".ine a neel yoo r coosiJeralion of the !X'tential lo,icity 01 alra>.i"e 10 humans!

References T..• noll. C II" 'n><', 1_. C..""CI...",.,,,,.- T.... ",.nJ P... '0'. 0>.1<,...].- O>.h""] Um,,',,"'y P'L......

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Fr.,nd".'"'" I'.u
[n"''''n""",.Il'n ••...,.", A);,-",y (1:1'''', XllS. ·r.... ShL...., [rA , Cu.Jd, ...., h~ e ....u.'!."'n RW. A_....,,~'"'· \I.>,.,h .1'l,J'OO'i

["''''11''",1 [If,~",. [oJ,~.,.,"" o.,rup""Il {],,'m~·.t..o A r ,."" ,",k h~ I'I.onn in b . C, ",mu"'-" "" I:m ,n ",,,,,,n' r>:, 'u••l

Irltl'! ,,,,~.,,,.'l'" !I'~ 1'."".~~.J.-l""""<""u_lI".Jd,",-",, f... ,,"'.... .hIm. ...~,......,j Ju"" I~, 101.1.

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[nn" "''''''nlol r" ••,1. '" A);'-""Y fl:l'A I, mil•. 1fH n T .,,"',

p. "'" il.. I' 1'1":.'. "- u oIC'"'" 1 ,"1>,,,,",,,. r>:".. ,,,"'. v.~ I'".... ....J ,""onh•• .l

'"',..,,'" rn,'"n"~y """,,,,1 """Iy"" Do,en """. httl'J I ..... ~ ....".. ~. ~ ! hi IlnJolo '''' tD I ""h, "",10 ""' "". ,""e.,..h'm oK', L''''-..I Oct<""~ l1, 1011

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r>:.'.""'I5.....""".nd T,,"hn<*'l'. (',,,,n,,l. 1-'11", Ik.lth.oJ

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Qu .., .s.'m",•. A .. ,nJ \1 Qu",coJ"'l>".1oo.l [ ••--."......"..., 11",lrh 1Ju"u, '" .11.- t.."""C"",,."m';o. "e... ".10 ",,,..,,,,1

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[n, ,n",,,,,-,,,,.ll'n ... '"n A!I''''''''' '1:I'A1,10111> r"f"""'" r..... "" II..noll",,. ([1'11).-1011 [,J,,"... US [n'·'n .."".....1 r,,~.,,1" .. .1,;0........ ' W"-.. h'"f,~, D.C. [PA/oMl R-ffl!ll';2f.1011

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chapter/Seven Water: Quantity and Quality Ch.pt.~

JcmM R Mihekie, R
7.1

7.2

Su1aceWatM",Grculdwaler, Watlf'Sheds

and wale, qud,'Y

7.3

Water Availabl~ty

wo,•• quo"',ry IFor,,~ompl ... Ir,

7.4

Water Usage

and w~..

7.5

Municipal Water Demand

quoli!)' ""9;"_""9' ,. conc..n~

7.6

Water DistrbutJOn (and Wastewater CoIectionI Systems

7.7

RrietWalerOuaity

7.8

Lake and Reservow Water Quaity

7.9

Wetlands

~nfll 0'" o...x.io.c

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InlrOd\.octJOn to Water Resources and Water 0uaIitY

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bond

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J ol_ftodvatd

7.10 Gfoundwaillf Quality and Row

Learning Objectives 1. Dtsaibe I"" C h,o.! m1<'SK' ndo' .. roll........ speclfk.lll), Ihe mllY'r romp"'''>'.' llf gr.... n
"'''lffi.

2. Dd ""., ... /I "'/llt'r'oho'd /1M """mal" rundf "'ill\ln /I ",lh,,·,J,ed. 3. "-'" i"",I~ II"", d",,!\o ,n 1... ,.:1 u~ /I lid pm!<'Ct;',,, 01 "",.. ods anJ g"""" ~~" ... imp.-:Il"" h~m1aJ'I'f;~"fpollul"oISI"-'::lwi~ nulriml ) h'" " .. .,~ 4. lddlti .. tlwqtuOtt_ ....,...,.... ,.. ntJ g"",;urh" d,:;trmul,," "f l..,..n..".,. 00" 1t., 1bas.... S. loIi' lho>m..,.... u ol_~ "nd lbe p ...." ... u .... .....,.....1hI " t hi) f'<'" of u,",,,, 6. Empllth'7.I' wilh tt... g.'b.l I p<,',ol"ti"" tl~,II" e. ,n .....,,,. lI,t "'lually ~ ",d by Jl,~,bal ,,;>t "o.! , ... II lid u"dfr".."d dl.olil""g '" ~", ....n,hl b, 1 1'1" l,,,,,!'j ,n Ih....... Mh

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II. Di"i"8u "h daily d~n", "d cyd,,-, for industry, r~,,;det,lial, and com,,,,,,,,,ial u"." 12. Est~nat~ d~malld f""I..., alld hoo,.,hold waler u"'ge rale. fr,on historical 13. o"",rmille \\ a"'r den,,,,,d a''''-lCial&:l with fire p"tooion and I",,,,, d lie to ite''''' such as I"" kage and u nmeter&:l utnmer. 16. lay oul a waler d islribulinrl sy,te,,~ 17. Size a \\ ""leW. ler "oIlection pipe b""""" on Il.. ful~pipe de-,gn flow ,'ebe,ty a "d d""'gn carryillg capactly. Ill. Size a "et "ell b......:l on pump d",rac"'ri"iL... 19. Apply mas, bal.""'e","'''''p's and "'IOWI..Jge of plug flow reacl..., to inveslig.:I relate illo i",,,,,, of water q"" bly ,,-,,,h as excess nulriem add,t "'" and 0" ygen deple!i,.1. 23. E'l-~au, nutrient el1liclunenl offre.h " .. Ier al\d c"""tal "'atoe,,, a,ld lhe adverse huma" a~'1;,·,I..", U",II",d "' eutropl,ical ~,n. 24. Develop. ')'Slent; .'ppn-.ach to red oc;ng I\ul r",m I",ds 10 a "aler,hed Il"'t «o,,,;de,,, poinl and nOl'f',inl scu ",e- of polluli! collln,ls "ulnenl "'pub. 26. a we! land, II .." import"",,, in buflionng n III rielll. and o~,er poilu ldlll I",dings, and de;cribe lhe m",I C()lnn.,n "OI'tribul ....., 10 ,. etland I(t;, .1,>.:1 method, 10 r"''',re Ihem. 27. DeserVe ",apr pO.H .. nd I\
""""d>.

>Ce'' '

.,Id

Deli,,,,

p""""'''''''. 2lI. A ppl, u,tdel'Slalldln8 of Dar"y', 1.1\\ .,td Ihe r"ardalio" facl...

loest,,,,ale the \ dodly "f gRlulIJ" ater a,xi groundwaler pollutanK 29. Deseribe s"" eral ",e~\o(b 10 remediale soil and grcu"dwater coma m",,,Ii 0". 30. l:k.cribe a regional. nalo"'" I, and ghbal waler qUillily chanet',"", a,1d pre"'''la solulion lhal m",·~ ,ociely loward su<;tai"able ma''''g",ne,,' of Ihe 1'.1 rd,'s wa"'r r_,urce..

Wat...,Dualltily and 0Ilal;1y

7.1

Introduction to Water Resources and Water auality

,ci""""

The fw,d"neol.\! Ihal deab Wilh the "",ur",nc,,- ",,,,,,,n,,,,~ and d ;"Iribul inn of a Ie. nn Ihe pia nel is hydrology. n", hydrologic cycle (Rgu'" 7.1 ) is d ned as the pall,,, ays f"" l"", ". al.... ",,,,.,,, a od i, distribUioo a lJo" e, m~ a od bel,,"' the ,urlace of Ihe Earll•. The d"S"", 10 "hich p",cipilatim pn"ide.s f",>!, wa te. In Ihe surfa"" anJ e,'" po•ation ,lI1J e,"potrao'pi.alio" return wilter to Ihe al''""'''PI",,,, ch.,oge " II h geogra~~,x:allocat im. I"ne ofthe year. and yea •. Chang", in land u'. [mpor'" III In nur d ;"cu",inn in thischap' ..... the quanl,ly a ,'0<1 qua lilv of wilt .... also ""ry as it m",'''' Ih.nugh the hydrologic cy.:\>'. Wat .... 'fSoorce; engin""ring includes Ihe "'''''''g",n",'' of hy, 10 tra "sport wal .... for ,upply al'or for collectin,\ p", ..enl nnoding, and pro\'i,jo, ". aler ""'bl-l>rlalinn net".",,".s. Poll ution ",a y be J "..:1 a, the intrroi trtifl' of • ,ub".n", to Ihe em irfll1ne,,1 all",,,,, I dillg toa I"" of a ben"'cial u' flux (....- l",ding) of a p(~lu la nl d ig"". ph,..,p!>."u,- organic mailer. and ''''F",llded ,oIi,j" (SS}.1 ,edischarged tn riwrsand ~"uarilS oftl",,, orll by U", len~nf mil~nn,oft""spe. }'ear. Figure 72dSroW" U", bioch~mic.l "'ygen dema"d (BOD) hld,"g (in !n"Sdlnn" year) to gloool \\'at"''''dY' for agricultural. dflntrldl ,,-,,,I<.'IS ill f 993, dS ",.. I as d "d,arge' exp'-"'ted ill 2010 a ,Id 2020 f"" cOJ.ntries lila I are m",,,bersalld 1I00"ne,nbelS of IlIeOrg.>l\inliOlI for ECOllflnic COCf'e",ti"" and De\ ..",,,,,,,ll (OEeD). Figure 72b "hnw" the agricultural ,,~n'gel\ lmdill8 r", OECD alld 1I00,-OECDcou ntrilS for lhe "",,,,e lime p .....-.d,. Nooe lhe large cOfltribulioll 01 lhe agricuilUral ,ector 10 gboo I

1-'' '

Flgurll7.1 Tile Hyd,ol~ie Cyoh"" 1' ..... oIIW.~ ~""M'I-oloc 119901lop; "-
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""'. • Chapter7 Water. O,"",tity and OuaJiIy

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...,...,-.tem

b.Jsed. c.olling for .oddillOnlll trO!Qtmoml ........... ron,bboro. """";n Mgr~

foI](n.'ng 'mpl;o"... ,lt.ItI ;;t,>1\d.ml ~hnoIo.~ L'nder tho> Kabonlol r,~luWlt o.""h.trge 1J"", t.1Ol s.'<;b>m (XT'lXSI. J'O'f""b ..... '""IULTN for.all thr...-"""L.ing l(l d ~ c f ~It>n be metbo. <>'guullngrn..ron.:Iit"""" of tlw pembl, I/wt .... 1.... 1o.od tNt mi" be d''oCharg;!ol. In ~ .. lIKe rontrob ..... n<'It 'In''S''nl .........s" .ll m.lin!;>,,, the ok-i"'" "ab>r qualit~" an ..,,,,I, <>s '" oond~ \l'>""t.lbl,.;h the 101111 ,,,,u,,.,,~,,,lUlllIlo.IJ(TMDU that ma~ be do;chars~ to .... .lt~ bod, .• ,d pomt'IIS."'_ oocrordlngly.

7.2

Surface Water, Groundwater, Watersheds

7. 2. 1 SURFACE WATEll: AND GIl:CXJNDVv'ATEl! 1'" OlXUf" ., f"",hw.ll
Surf.""

fonn a, ,now or

"'".1

K~ Wl~n I'rKipltat~ln bll,

10

Il~

ground surf""".

'.

. ..."

Clasltli'amlon ~

F"""""::

,U"",,

o=J!'Y"""''''~ ... ¥ .... -r....,.... _ poo..l...."."'"

..n-.zr...,... ...c ......""_ V~lICCUI' " cr.J ~ ...._.."
-a
.U"l-
'ood ...<1

"ac_

k.fwI.

som~ "ill run olf 10 ,urldce wdte" dnd ",me will i"filtrale i11l0 lhe ground's ,urldce. The "aler lhal infillrale, Ihe grnIJlld', ,;urface due In gm,·,I)'. £,'e11ludlly. it mf.'el-' the ",ller Llble, where 'l' direction changes 10 a 1lI0re horizollidl !l\O"",,,.,,,L n,e t~n aq uilerd""'rii.oes til'" undergn)IJnd ,..,il or mek through "hich grmJlldwaler tr-",..,ls. n", ""luT.led ,one 1, ~ to d...."ihe thoedquifer ifl< ",t urated "',Ih w""'r. Th,s is II", 7."'''' fmm which gn)IJJId".Jler is extracted 10 II", surface. n,e unsah" .I~d,one's 11",7."'''' ...l",re pore- are filled wllh air "nJ "'''Ier. In Ihi, 7~"'''', flUdu"ti",~< in Ihe mol,ture contenl ,)/ II", pores can occur d"ily .,ld
tI",

bet""""

Confined/Unconfined Aquifer

FIg ... e I 7.J

C.... r.""d .nd Unconfined Aquifers.

(ltoy;g .. 2007 TOo"'"""-
Chapter1 Water'Ollalllill' and Ouality

Confined ond Unconfined Aquleco ladop1ed from U.S. GeoIagical S""'''l'' Wote.- S<:iena> ScheXlt {hnpJ190· wale.- .""9 '.Il""1eel ul Wced m all unronfined "'lUlie" a pump wHi be ""lUl,,-'
" confined "'lUlf.,,- h..:os a l.Iye, oi ,ock Of a confining 1,,,,,. of clav ab",-c and bek",' it IMI ar<' not "cry I"'""""ble to "'>lc,. t'oiatucal p"""ur<' in Ihe confined la)'Cf Cdn Ihu. ""..I, ,nd Ih.. p"",'ure ""'" be on<1Ugh 10 pu.h w.llc, in d well to lhe "",1= (nok'd >qUil"", proJucc thIS died,.., pumpmg m.:w shU be ",",uh'l",. to tl-.,
oontrasl, the unoonli,,"'" aquifer', upper b"und.rv is not a .:onlining l.yer, but '5 lhe I"p ,,[ Ihe ".ter t.lble, T~ble 7.1 prmid... addili"".l "-'pl.""lIioJ~',,[ Ih""" 1"'0 type; of aqUIfers.

Groundwater Assessment in Africa I-_tp-J I""".trepffr,,! ~roo r"*"'=rroj
7.2.2

WATERSHEDS

A watershed ;" delin"'" ~, the l.nd area 1h.1l d .."" In a point of ro,w:enl. Ac<:ilrdingly, l.ke. and rive,." h"'e w'lersll",h. Dr~i''''ge in lh~ wal~rshed i, due I" gr3\'lty; lhu" "·'le",h"'" bound,,,ies are delined (nr d~lil1e'led) by I"pograf~,ic~l "dges" ,h"",,, in Figu"" 7.4. Predpll.ti"n thai f.n" wllhi" ~ w~le,."h"'" mu"t lhus drain ".-,mewhere.

F1gUnl/7,4

o.rD\OO iar.

i j

•

"Sm
low.". llouoodC)' of Bill Fio;h l.k. f....."'I;"" cl",-.Ilion, &7Il it .1>0,,,.Od IC"el~ n .., d .... hcd line dp.wapru.e ~1lL'" (l/ "'Iwl Lolt.. .·dOOn (in IhJ!; ''''-
""",. runofl ",-,"'de of !he R.1tlle<...,ke C",,-'i ",,,,,,,,bed {cilhc.,. to tho I\onh '" .lI\Olbcl- W"L~ <>c ""ulhw.ud {",,, and we
1.2 SUrfaco Water, Groundwatl!f, Wall!fSll
·

• '-n_"""

---,,...

a ""......._ .....

• 1'1_-'"

Mo'

Fig ...I' 7.5

Th~

'"

hko .\10"001. (1"11 W.te .. hed, Which lncludo. Portion.• of lh Cityol

M.di."ln (a) TI>< /rnr,ub-"·>lcr-J."hof tho L• .., Menoo., ",.1"-"'00 are dehnm"--d bv d""hed lin"", (l) Yah..- <> Riv"'-.12l S;"-:'!~eCfLoek. (3) PhL"",nl Branch, and (4) d ired runoff into b~c Mmdo.,. The 'ub-w"""sJ1oo< numbefL' w .>t,,,.,I,,>.:l.l':.lur.,l.,,,,,,, i...,llld< wdlmd ~ r ......~. g",,,,,lan.io. and wollar>.:l .. IV.Ier include< the
t""

watershed, may .1"", too. .:I" iJed into .1 er<;tanding "alersll....:!s is i"'p"rtam fnr issues "f water q ""nlity a ltd qu.,hty _Fnrham pie, lhe am...,nl "f slnr'llI'- ab>r ru 1",1f wilhl" a waler>Jloo determines .he p<""",lial fnr f!.-odit>g (",a,,",&,,,,,,," of slOnnwalt>r is d;"cu,.,....t in Chapter 9J, The Inposraphv (slope) ar>.1 snil (pnlemial fm infil.ra ••", into Ihe gmund ,'elS ru ""ing "ff al...'g I"" ~urL1",,) a re bf'll h ley fach'''' i nfl .... ""ing I he a "f run":f or infil.....i,.., in a "aler,ha;:!. O.her importd III facti'''' .h.1. ",flue,,;:e Ihe hydrology of a ",ale",llI:d and ",,,,'em,,," of p<'llul.,n., "-,.h,,, a wa.ershed i~ Ihe e"lenl .h.11 human acti\ i.ies ,uch a, agricullure and "rbanI7-"liol\ influence .he production of pollulants and the preset>.:e (nr "!>;e,,ce) of wetlands a,>.1 j"'f",rn",able surlues. n", ex'",,1 10 whid, urbaniza.ion .1,>.1 .1", conslruetion of impermeable .urfaces IIlIlue"c.. Ih.. degree of surface runoff and ground"ale. infil. fa lion is d epid..d I n Figure 7.6. n",,,, ,arne facto"'. a"d "ri,er", a '" a Iso impnrtll1' f""h'''' Infl .... flC~'g .1"" a 1llO\.IlII of pnllu tion in .1", runoff. I....lrg~r

,1.>""

''''''JJl'

Chapler7 Water:ClWllit\' and Cl>aIily

--,--

----

Rgu..17.' N"n~"""o>bl"Surf...,... Chan&" '1atu.al Hyd",lns1nl Crele ,. n......11 ~n""'d «,...,.... """"'..... nd repl......-.:! """P"""".t..... uri.....uri> •• bullJ'''S'''- .nd f""i.uIl\ 100;, ~ ... '~n" ..ff.nd.'P" ..... nl.h·~

,,-,III

pr._

--.-- ~

~

... ,

-

~

~~.. otllrnund>
-,--

j

-

-

~

,~

7.2.3 ESTMATING SURfACE RUNOFF FROM LAND use A ~.'l"'""" ~ Il''''''d' '" ""1Il1d to! ..... "'ff j" ,I... K~li",wl m~lh"d 11,,, p&ll ru" >ff no", rill" COl n be ""Ii"",ted d~ II f ..,eti"" of p."'ipi I,}lim i I""d ,,<0:. II nJ "ater,hal II"''''

nt",,"'''',

I

Q

LC"

I

17.1 )

"~,, Q i~l h"piea Io.ru noffOn"

r.. Ie(f! '
i (.Kfi"'l pn:>dua of C. t...n.J A """'1lS ,"" " .. IS Ilh u .. ~of dUo',n,' h. B., Co.ncid~Q'. h ;" "l1"""unalel~ 1 K> I It" ... Thio otrnlO" of lh.. "nol Il''''........ bon iscoru;odeA'd m~......l (le
",,,.. tNt In Equ.ll.'" 7.1, , prm'ded r~ullS ,n. f1010\ I '"'~ e<

r m

In

"'.>n ..

INIlIUIlIfln;;. ANl, .. 'isM ,nE"".."'n; I,,, h'S"".,"'...,for .. rlnlff uot>ff,,_t CC,1 "iII ~ rurw>ff klr .. Wlrm int...,..", (thal i" t. ,"" p....a!"lab. l .. nd "dI~o.J .....1. A_ Runoff codfi~n~ ..... ubul""ftl In m.." ..... K"'"' r'l'O'411 ,diI .....

S''''''

..... prn\1de<.l ,n r 72. R""off C",lIiOdll> Un thto..t!I".aI~ , S" f n,m II to I .no.l ,ftIU''''''M by tl>;, p.orb<1l Ia. m........ ofl.... d u~. tt... t~ f'" r4 ..101 or t'l\&1IlO'eft...... and the ..k>poo of tt... L>no.l. A runoff fi>ftfj~nI ck*'
AI,..

"1'C'dU
...... 1.1'1\"'_"" ot '0<4'" rn ....... [D\ftW\'!-.. Thor f"ln"O' ot ......,......r..- •....,Ill< ,n. ad,. ~t...,dil

\>" • .., '...... l"""'f'W"l whO'" •." ""'8"1<' lIw:lmpa<1 ... U _ ..... ,~ (EPA'2lJU1

·_

Typka' Runaif C....fficients and Petcen! Impe .....iaus A.eo VaI"es far Va";...,. Land Use. Ru",,! <""lficien~ me g ........ 1or IWO land 'lapo om"9"'''' f", t"-,,,,, 'YP'" .. I ,ail.

,-, ~~

--- --

Run<>II Co<>Ificiont I",

Runan Go<>IIiclont 101" San
L,nd~('1)

Indu-.tri.ll C.omm"maJ

HlglMlen.":ty re
~

1-·

I" ~

~

,,-__olon'.,] (; hmn""!a.,,,) Low·den"'·,, reSldent,,1 (2homes!ac",)

"

Ar.nrulrurai

;

Opm
LInd

~pe

('I )

~,

H

~,

H

~,

H

0"

"~

"~

".~

o~

I~I

(l.71

071

on

on

"~

on

0.~7

0~9

o~

"~

0.51

0.53

O.:'R

OV

o~

on

o~

0.19

0.17

IU]

~,

o~

o~

0.13

0.11

0.15

O.IR

0.23

0.0;

0.10

~

0.13

O.lb

0.:'1

- Iii"1~

0.25

1-

,

Lmd~{")

fIunatI Gooniciont I.,. CIay..... SoiIo

sou.CIO W;"""',, o.,..,..,.~ 011".",.,,,,,,,,,, 12012,

",aJorn}· 01 rainfall i' ru,llU "8 01110 ~ 10c~1 ". M",. ,oun:,,- A' e"l'Kted, ,andy ,,-.Is h~,·e the I,,,, "'I ,w,,-if coefficients ., "d d..)'ey..-.ils hal e the highest rWHif c",II'dents. Also, a,]dIld 'hpe inc",,,,,,,,. II" runoff coeffIClen' As " .... d"l'icted lit Figure 7 ii, I""d uble p~"",n"" IS wUI p",v~nl or lun~ Infillr~ rio" of wM",. to II", subsurface. Tlus oa:urs in ind""lri.l~ e ,urf.",,,, such~, iO"--d,,,lS~} ' .... d""I"'J. agriru JILlral, a lId "pen green space. Ag'icuJtu ra J pr~d ices 011 th" J~nd also inn"",,,,,, runrif. Pc... r ~gri cultu,~ J practic'" such ~s overgruJ ng nfJand ,,,,ull In Ie.s veget~t i"e I~"d co>",. and cn",pact soils. This Iim Its illliit ,a lion of predpit.lti.., into Ih"g'c,u nd, " Illch can Jedresri ngly, " I~, P"'l-''''' m~tlagem""1 of ,lorm""~I",. using lechnn!()gi"" and 'Ir~tegi", th.>t m im;" n~lu, al eondlri"ns Ilia I enh~",:e infillra (re!erred 10 ~5 I",,-Imp~et de,elopment, ,,·hich i' di"",seJ in Chapter 9). il i' f'05-srb1e to de,ig" ~ n,,"" dev"Jopmenl "h.".e lhe amount "f po
;11""'''''''.

use,,,

ti""

ChapterT Water'Ollalllitl' an
e Xanl pie I

7. I

Use 01 Rational Mell10d 10 Delernine Runltllrom Chan\Jls in Land Use

An agriL-ullural wa",...h..J lhal i' maml}'d lomin;mize runoff coo"'" of 1m acr... Ih,'1 h ... a genlle land sk>pe (1-2'l1 and ,i~y/>andy "';b. Tl'" land is pldNIN 10 be d'" eloped into a r... idenbal ,ubdid,ion (60~ a, a 10'" -<:len>ity r...idenbal area and 4(}':; a, d medium-de",ity r
solution Tl~s problelll

'''''luir,,; tl., use of the RatIOnal ",elhro.llo deternu,,., to flow rate d ..-ing the peak storm int"""'ty. Equalion 7.1 is writlen as

Q

e"i

·:A

Using infnrmation pro. ided in Ihis prob),(,m and \dIu"," of Ihe runoff co"Hicienl (0 pro...id.,J in Table 72, wecan d "'ermi ,'" II", f1..., rale (Q) for 11", I're- a,id p<:t>t-de""klpo"""1 land u "" """,,,,ri,-.;, PrNl<~..,j0I''''''''' su"arn Q

0.11" 0.5,,~ 'h " 100 ac",", 5.5 fll ,'s (cls) Pos'-
x40acre:<]

105 ft' ',( ds)

K Ole II", largt' ,nere..." in runoff d lie 10 I~ change,,, land u""" I n..m open dgrlCuilU ral to pm"ision of r-..idential hOllsi'l';. Tlus r",ults in l-..s r""ha rge of any pred p;ta lion 10 ground" aiel" where il coo 1d be sklred for fUlure use. The resulting rundf must nOi only be 'n.l .... ged 10 pr"" elll floro.l ing of local a rd do'" properties bUI also ",ay c""lain p<>llu lam,.. This a,,,,lysi, ~ bosuggesls thai Ihe planner and d -"18"'" coo 1d e""loy pn11edion of wetlands a,id green sf""" or I"",' impacl d""'e1op'''''f11 sir alegie' (for e""",p),(" permeabl" 1'""",,,,,,,1;;, green r,.:lIS, a "d binretemion cells) 11",1 mimic nal",.,s hyd n'log:ic proc~ Ih'" mi ... miling runoff and .u,,,ff poilUliilO'.

,,,,lrea,,,

7.2 ,4 ESTMATING PCXWTANT lOADlNGSIN RLNCfF FROM LAND USE Whil" '" e "ill co... "," ",a ler quality in d "Ptll laler i" I his d'" pier, il IS "",Ih menlio"ing at this poinl Ihat land use impacts both ,,'aler qua"I,lv a ...1 q,"lity. High amounl' of runoff rl""n"'-", of bnth1m 'edunem, "'hid, can ,,,,,rease loadings of sU'l"',>.Ioo ",ll<1, (and pollulant> all...,hed 10 Ih"""" particles) 10 d""nsl",am ",aler bod;"';. Tl~s can have I.'rge ad ",roe imp""l "n ,ocial, em,,,,mic, a "d ."",i",nn"'''la 1'y_tem., Ih,'1 d "'I'""d "n '" ater quality. In ",a,,} C~-". 11", "'ajocny of pollul'''t> 11"'1 <:<,&!. KOlable e,cepI,m, a re mercury Iha Ior ig im Ie; frn" oo,,"",u, I.", of fo-.;, 1fue!, like coal a ,>.I coo 1d originale locally o. hundroos or lho"'ands of miles a ",·ay. 1.2 SUrfaco Water, Groundwall!f, Watersheds

Typicd VaLes far Pdluta.. Export Caefficil!nK ham RunaH (pound./a"el year} Ad...,l.alue, vayg",atly, often by on ord... 01 mognillde, dep.... ding on h)drobgy ,Iorcl ,lope, orcl 0"'" loc.,,,,_ A~ic""rol.alue, 0'" e>pllCialyv
C",nme,ci.:ll

--

Indu_trul

;00

Pa,king klI

~

F"-""'. a '"

;00

m

High-de,,,ity ,,,,,ident;"1

,m

~

Mcdrum-de'Ntv ",,>denb,ll

~

~

~~

un)

Low-dr.",.ity "",ldenl.,1

,'"

P.uk,

~

,m

"

~,

,

,-"

u

"'0'

'"

0_3

"m om

0$

" '"

ILL

1>.2

" "'

AgTJ
V100-20,rrn

0.tll.-3

,~

-P~,tu'"

200-2,000

Olr:Hl1>

~"

Dao

'''''~. ; _

B"." ....

'It

1:lOOlll",,1. oral I1980]. .... U!IlA Ill'XlO~

Wa",r,hOO delineation and land llse delermin.lliflll can al<;(\ pre" rde estimatrs of polilltant loading 10 r""" ,-i"8 wat .....,. U .ut a""~ poIllltant loadl "8"- also ref..... rtrl to a, e~port c""mdenls or y",1d coefficient>" a", r"l'or!l>d in lllUIS of mas, of peilu talll '" rw,,,,f In,m ~ u rut a",~ of I~nd ,urfa"" p'-"" t Ulr"- T~ ulU l< ,'''' typicafly repor"'d a_ po" r.hl ""'" I ym, (or kg/hKta",/ye... l alld ,'~ry with land u,", as 8iven ,n T ~ble 7 .3. The ~nll",,1 mas, loadrng 01 a poilu lalli, L, i.~" ~ ,,,,fa,,,, wat ..... br
(7.2) whe", L " Ihe a'Ulwlloading of Ihe pliluta"l (ma..,/ye . ,), A, is the surlao:' a",a within tN> wal,-,,",J,l Sllm of aU A, ,-~I"", nllM equ.l.llhe water"j,OO a",a.

e X am pl e I 7.2

Eslimlting PolkJliIll loadiFJ;j 10 a Watershed from Changes in lall:l Use

A" ~gricultu",1 watershoo that I~ ",anagoo ti:> nlr"inll~e ru"off ~ClrISl'" 01 100 aere. of clliti ",r.,d land thal h~ a 8"n rle land shf" (1-2 p,-,,"<:enl) and s~ ly Isa"dy sak Th" land is I'll ",,00 ti:> be devl.'l'l'oo rnlo a """dentlal sub.:!,,-b'on (60 p".cenl as a low-den,ity reside"lial ar&l and -10 p"",,,nt as a ",OOiu",density r",0<1""t ..1a",a). Est ,male the p"'- a.o (9)) a ",j pho'f'mrus {Pllh" Ia '" In run
"

Chapler7 Water:OlWllit\'anllOlWily

example/7.2 (contiooed)

solution In ,h" a 1>;",,,,,, I'If ~p"dfic "'''4iur"m",~s of flow a nd cOI",,,,ur at..,n al a part;,:,u l.lr lo"at.,n ,ha, ,,"oold an"" ,,, 10 det.....",; "" poilu tan! loodi"g~ from field """""I", ..... " can estimat" ,h" loodi ng u<;i reg ,,,for,,,-,lim provin ,he", is a ran!>". IY" " ill uJ P prior Inde...~np"'''''1 can b" "Slimated as

"''''''ill

Lq; Lp

100.1<""''' 2.0001'00'",''' 55"acr". y"ar lOOac~xO.06pnundsP:acre,')'ear

200.000 PU.lM" 55,/yt'M 6pnund"ofP year

U", ng "imilar ",ethods ......e can "-Sli",ale ,I", !oodings for 55 a,.J P after d ...'e1opmenl' ..l<.... pia"" a"

L;,

(6lJ acres" 10 p,",u.Js 55, 'acre . . y"ar) ~ (40 acres" 25(J roo"""- acreiye.lr) 1,600 po,u.Js 55/year

Lp

(6lJacr... "O,O,lpoond" P.- acre yeM) + (40 acres" 0.3 pounds,' ...:rei year) 1·1 poun,:b r year

Tl... percent c,,",nge io pollubnll""dl1'8' fmm ,I", c,,",nge in land u"" can a\<;o be det ... mi""d. [(Posl-
~ HKY'

For 55, ,I", p"''''''d ch.. Il;e is 1(1(,,000 - 2OO.ooo)/201I.llOO x 100';£

-92'

la 92' ( reduction)

For p. tl", 1'..."'''1 change is

[1101 -1»/6 "100',,

+ lJ3

(a 133', inc",,,,,,,)

t"ote III'>" chang... in Land u.", ,hal impact pollulan, di""h.. r~ to surrourldill; surface wa,er are impacle
7.3 Water Availability n", ,otal \,oIull\eof 'h.. world', "al... i,e-.timaled Inbe I .3M x

10" km '. Ocean.s hold %.3 percenl of II", total ,,,,lu,,,e, a"d ,he a,n""'phere coo'la.'s n'~j' 1.29 ~ lO'km' of ",a,er ("'hid, b only 0.001 percenll'lf ,he ,ntal hvdrl'lSpherej. Table 7,·1 gives the world' s fr",hw~"'r re",,,,,,,, n,e ~otal am"u'lt "f freshwater on 0111' pIa" .... i" approxima,e1y 3.3 x 10' km', In '",n-.. of f""h".,t>,,1 isest im.,led In be f"""l,wa ''''', and of ,lu" altllOS' 70 I"""e"l is c-urrently a.s glader, a"d lee ,heels, A-s g"'en III Table 7.'1, a IMge percenlage of ,he ",orld', fr",l",a,er i, a"ailabl" a.s .. gr'lIJnd"dler """'lUree, mud, ,-,( "hkh ha,,, re"ewal p",iod of oyer 1,000 years, All nf II", informali... ,00", ,h.l! "ery I,ttle

1"""''''

7.3 Wate, Av
Stale olllie World's Waler r~tpjl"""'.Lj1ep,org!dtff~"'a~1

irldexh",'

of the toM1 f""h",aler budget" ava,I .•ble a~ surface water (lake<;. rh'e,.,.) or a, groundwaler Ihat j, recharge..! over a ,hor! dur at",,,. Figure 7.7 ~hows Ihe rel.uiOl~"'ip of glob.\l ",ater a,-ailabi1ity to populalion. TI.e Amerjc.a.~ are relalj,ely rkh in a,'ailab1e water

Percent of World'. TOIa! f re.......ote< in Different Lo
At"""'p"",e

M.,,,""" .nd .",om!" BlOlogkal ",ate,

0.003

"-

fliurll1.1 Glob>! Overviow of W01"" Av.il.bilily versus Popul.~on Cont",,,,,,,,) di'f'.rit;"" ",i,t. p"'hru)orlv on the A,ion ron~n""t Aroul r;(l percent of [h" ",,,rid', f"'pulation resides in A yet only 3f, po,,,,,,," of the ",,,,!d', ""teT "".,orn...,. ore Ioc.,ted lh"re. ~ov.'..... 0 ,,;'" P"'~._""'""TN lJo;"'~. WMj W_~1'''I'''''W_k< poop. W_1o. ~f." ry.-oo. 2'Wo_ """,bb.I'Y_"""""'Io...' P 69_
Chapler7

Water:QlW\litl' and Quality

""'IU":... ,~L'h'~ tn II",,, pnptll.lhn". l\:orlh ,Ill'" C,,"I,~1 An""ic... co",bin&! hAH' II ~<"'u of m., worl""~ p<)ptlL'h,'" ~nd 15 1"''''''''1 of tho! "0I'1d ~'~ll.Ibl.- ",~,et """""..,... In <""I,~;.t. A~'" contains In p<""""t of lho! "ort.r ~ . . ,.. il.lbl.- ". "''''r .......... n:.-;; but hnu.""'1lO 1"""<....1 ollhe glnb.ol pnpulatlOll.. J.

J.

.a. ..

7.4 Water Usage '"

NI

......

,.nety

"'qu,n!li br. "Ide of hum.ln ........... , "w:ludmg ......u....t..1 I\<'omr<., rommen::..1 enlll.."". "wJu~try, .gr.:ultu,e, .nd Impnrt;lnll~. o!«lOi,... ~... The """"'1'" of the «Ol''f;,••1 I.-.otpnnt (d,~ In Cb;op!e'r 51 a,;"u ....... WI 'iOflW of 'M "orlJ' ~ KOlogocal fll)ITU< ... eflbelng. much of the ,I'IJ.·s poor (tho..... I" I "g "" 1_ than 51 or 51 1_ ...... ~I 11.>1""""" "" mn.... "" """"'~< "lwn l\\,O .... g"'g """ "aler ,_ dl~l,ibuLrd ... mong w.~

~ ,,~<:~•

...-yo<.

r-

~~,..,

-.

:<-: ~ ,~r."

.....

"""-",,. :7' ........._

.....""""~'

.... .,

"'"'"".

~,. ~. ... ~........,"'" ~ ..... ¥'"-

~

""i%-< t
".-.rI'" .....

",nou~

u .........

Glob.lllv, ))'IOCllm' of water ...", ",lhdra"" ..... erv. .,.,...r. Of this. f • 2.100 lm aRl .........""n>a:l. Consumed w.le. 15; .... apot'...n't'''atOO or inrorp,.....'h..J in'" J"""luets 01' organism~ (L'N·t !db,,,,t. 200)). n", differenceoll.700 lm' .. r.:tumo'J lillocal "'''''et b.·oJ,.... u~ually ' "'a"~'alet ,I~,t ,,'",''''' prill",';I}· Imlll d.-nll""tK alld i"du",i.,1 u"' n, .. Idrge .."Ill "'" ~"rn,!\1 h' ,h.. lncal "atet ~y-'t,,'" Ill.,y II<" be .1 ,·... ,I bl.. for ....,y "",,;0,, tlw"lIh. dfrend ing 0" ib ""\l lL..... a,>oI. illlp,-"I.,,,tly. wh<'l1,..,. i, M~ ~" ,,""t,Hl\i1\\I&! .lnd lor treated p,lor In JI",h,,'8'" Sjn"Llr 1<' th~ "cologic~1 footprint ,h~t c.llcul,'Io'lJ tho' l.>nd M.... reqUIre..! l\) ",pport I",,,,,,,, act"·,"",, a fOOlp,;nt d~tet""""" the ....lIet ,~u ..ed 10 support hunld" .ocl;, Ih~. Eight count'.... (i" order ,'If o"... umph"n) ....... ""'ponsibl.. for hAlf of lh.. "orlJ'~ "ater footprmt In..h~, Chu"', th~ UnIted States, Ru"" ..., lOO,,,,o!''''. X,gena, 8raljt ~IlJ r"ll<;tan. On a pet c.lp'u b;o,I"'.1or 1997-2fIlIl. the U""ed Sta"'" hAd lhe IlIg......1 fuotpnnt 2.-lKJ m' {GoIp'U-,"'.... In con'pari......., for the ...... n... po'ri••,i. 1M globol ""let fo:>trnnl ".l.~ 1.20 m' /c.opo of olher counu_ (m' Ic.f'lt.o-~~ar .... n> Australia CLl!!ll. 8rud 11.3111). Chll'" 171m. ("""""",nv 11..... 51, Ind", ('ll'IOI. and South Af".... 49311 (Ho.-.el.-.ua "nd Cb;op.og.o,;" 3'(7), As""ted ~ iI" muehof the d.-..-II,- ... "ter '" u ..... n.......,.;,;. dL..rna~ b.ocl Into the .... ,rI't"OUJWflL nnnl bout the mulllJ'lo" deI...:1o rt'".';;'?' ol , , _ along ........g ",er h ~ the CoIora.-Io. OhIO. or M'_rr< ... dnnLng " .. In ... nbtoIuwd fn_ • ;;;(}Ure..

",.t",

",th mult,pito uf"l'_m ... ,,-~ .. \er "'N:~ H ~ , urb.ln ........,. md th.>I. ",,"'" .-:i~ from ""'......ria« ""ter<;. Ci~ th.... ha,,,.., ,mI""",nI """ 10 rla~ In """"""8 that "aM t~ rep1.aoc tMn""Jou.~ amounts of Illf.astl'\Klu," ,n,e;;trnl:nt and "-'o§OCial~ """'l!.~ fIlt!ctinn. ~lOtage. and t,,,n;;fer

-

wort! Water AssessmBl"lt

r-: tv·, I......... "".'" "'"fl.....--nl"""'p

Class Dlswssl(m ...". t<> cl.al.... '

''''''I.

....a. .a.... ..:r.~~~-,""~'''~.l ;a 0

,...-n

,00-'.""

'"' """, ""....,....

"~

""""""', ~

"",,,...,1 ....... ""~ ,.- ...."9 \.N "~ '-&0 "".r..,...~_

'¥¥~"

tu"'~.p<*y-_~

...,...a,.,

'oc-_ _

r''''''C '_a-L<:>,,_. c ......

"""... ~_ 101> ~

__

"~9""'"

....'" cr., . _ " " ,..4

calculate lotl"W.ter Footpml _~ ""f""""'L'o"f

. . ---=.....

Petcent of An ...ol Waler Withdrawals Ass... ia..d witfl A9,icullura~ Industrial, ond Domestic Secto..

World

~(%J

IndosIry f%J

DomolIIicC'lIo.

'"

m

'" " .-'" ,

t"orth Am,-,"",

~

Lmn Am",.ic.n .nd C"ibbeao

n

Eumpe

~

Africa

M

Wesl ,\..... 00 A• ..,.oo POClfi<

~

," "

•

,~

•

SOJO:a.lI>HlobOct 200l ~rmal and

0lh
0.5'\0

7.4.1

PRMARY USE OF WATER IN THE WORLD

T.ble 75 gives the primary u""" 01 "'ate' throughout the w.-.rld (excluding the u<;e of "'.ler j" produchon of eledridly). M""t of the usage li,ted in T.ble 7.5 in"'~I'es ag,icultural USe (glolxtlly .1 70 perce,,!). ,egio".l diff"re''''"", h"\\e"e', particularly i" Ih" industti.1 uS<' of "·.t,,, III higher-inoo",,, a",as such ., Europe .od "'",th A",,,ric•. pen"'''1 of .""u.1 water "·,lhdra,,,.ls for dom""tic USe raoges from h 10 18 pen",," of the total \\ithdraw.ls. t'ln.'id"-'l"ed, o""r h.lf of Ihe w.l"r u~ i" for PO"'''' g",,,, .. I;on. Figu", 7.8 sh"",', Ihal then",,1 el""lridl) p,..-,duction ""counts for Iwo-third, of glnbal ~1e<:lricil) pmdudiofl. Hyd"'po",~r p,m'id"" 19 perc""t nf the 101.1 ele<:trkily ge'....r.l;o" and "ude.. 17 perc",,!. Other ,ou""", such as gooll....'mal, tid.I, ",ave, soi..,.nd ",,,,d "nergy (which .. '''OOI."...-ri.lted \\ ilh large ",.Iet u,",ge) accouol for 1"", Ih." 05 p"rcenl of th" ",orld', el""t,icily pnc..:! uCliofl. A ""'I"'r b<.',,<.'fil of hydropo...·", i, Ih.1 "ach ..ddit;o".1 !e,.. ,...u f>f hydmp"\\"" produC"-'d per hour Ihat di,places coal-gener.ted el<.'CIrkily .nnually "ff""l' 1 million 1o,,, of CO, "'lui,·alent<. Hydropower ha, other ""nefils, such a" low 0l"',al;on .. "d mai"lenan"" COSIS, fe" .I""...pheric e""";on,, ,,,,d no production 0/ hu.ardous solid ",a,t"". Howe,--e" 1.rge-<;c.I" hydropo"",. h." probl~nlS, including large in"""I"'~nl c,,,;I,, i"ues rel.ted 10 fish "ntra inment a"d ,eslrict;on of pa"",,8", los, .nd modificalion of fi,h habital, ."d disp1aC"-'ntelll of huma" and "'jJdlife population.,.

TI,,,,,,.,,,, n,,,

"'.1<."

FIgIl'II 7.8 8"'....dO"Tl of GlDb.1 Electridty Production 11>,,,,,,.-1l elo:trritv S""",.I'''' .,"'(Tl; It" Iwo.lhrd. ~f elo:tOCiv pmducllon worUw..r H)'d ro:tnch.

World Commissioo on Dams F-_'pJ 1""",.irT'-"rt"..>' ." ... In.• .....""" "" "'P" ~ rt>Ith,.,,'<'I'!d· c",," '" """"". oo~_

Class Oiswssion ~Wh",."t"""""of"t.

.I.

""c~

a,J .e",om-""ul aI- Lo,." h ....", Th. W",I.lC",",,~e"" Dam" ~a~ ,"'orma~<>" ", ~,...,.

,"'p""'....

fir.""

a" "...

'''''''''''''''''''-cq

Chapte'1 Water'Ollalllitl' an
Many "f the """pie di'placed hy Io"g"""",,al~ hydT<>I")w."-,~',~",-",,, I"Klf, I"", educaled, and tndig~n"u,. "~m~mbe,"ur Ji"-,."i,,n "n envlmnmenlal ju'tlce in Chap~r'" A, ju,1 "n~ ~xampl~.lhe lKl-gig;"'-~tt (GIVI 11""," G>q;t" d~m pm;"ct In China i., ",limall'd t" ha,'" al",.tdy di.'pl""..,J m"", than I mi!li'm I""-)pl~ thai ""iJ~ in "'.",. 1,101 \'ilb\"" and many "d tio31 kIn ,which incluJ", hu""l "I"", h"I""" ,it,,, "f cultural 'igniiicanre, ~nJ ~",-I"mm""lal lr",,,ur"'- Th"", hunJ...,J 'f"'Ci"" "f fish h~ in !he Yanb'tL~ Ri,'"", anJ manv ho,\'~ Mn """,r."ed fmm lheu- 'I"'",ning 1I'",md" C"mplelt'd in 21111, the Jam i.. ",IImal~d I" pn,,-;d~ "n.,.nlnth "f Chi",,', e1l'Ctricily n"",:1>.

7.4.2

In "mlTa,l, micH>-hydTUpower 'pt~m, (g~n",.at ing 1"" th'm lW klV) a nd mim-hydrtJ1""''''' 'y,t~m.' ( lOll k IV I" \ M IV) ha '" a mueh I""", n~g,,1i,-~impad "n Ih~ ~",'imn,""nl and ,,>ei~ty than larg~ h)'dmI"",~r sv,l~m,. Th~y a", u,ually dl'C~nl,ali"..,J and n,,1 e,,,,nl'Cled I" th~ ~1l'Clri" grid. In t~,m, "i ~",'if()n m~nlal ben~fil', enmpa,-"d ,,-ith an ~'1ui,-al~nt m.d planl, a I MW mini-hydmp''''''''' 'y't~m Ihat pH>due"" b,(XWl MWh ~'-~'y y~ar w(mld ,upply Ih~ dl'CtTicily n"",1. "i 1,51.KJ famili"" and .,,,,,id ~mi"i"n, "i ~,(XWI t",,-, "i caT",m di"xid~ and 175 1",,-, "f ,ulfm dimid~ (U,'ESCO-IVWAI', lIX13).

U.S. WATER USAGE

Total ",aler w,lhdr~I<~I, in Ihe Un,led States ex"*"'<:<, lhe mid-19llOs, varj'ing hy I",,~ thao J pe,cenl, e,-eo though the popul.,ti"" 1\." incre~"f"d 0\-"" thi, I"ne pe«oo. Surf.'ce wale.. h." made up 80 percenl of Ihe 10t.,I, a"d groundwater h." made up 10 perre"l of Ihe

-,-------------------------,-

,,-

•2 ""

.--

I,

,. ,

,~

.. !

"ro

""0

Flgll"l/1.9 1~50-2000.

''''''

"lOll

TGtal Freoh and Sa'n. Wa"r Withdrawal. in the United Stat. . The,ewithd-awok total 408.()(x} m,lIioogrd. Fre'.... ate< aceo."f> fa- 8S"" af thi. t~al. and ,,,rbee wo"', occoo,f> fa.- 79% af rhe

Por<:ontafT_

1= o

1--~pj 1"",,,,,.""1"-¥"I

...

D .,..,,,,.,. 1:1 . . : : - _

••

i

Public Water Infonnation

'OM

'071)

"'"

"""

,...

'''''

"""

"""

u.s. F...,.Inv.ler \\' ithdr• .,..I. by So"",~ .nd Pop"I.'i,

FrcshandSdino ~

WaU.. Wnt-dfow
Thcnnodcclnc

-til

lmgab'm

1-1

Publir.upply

1l

lnd"s"",1

'i

Aquaculture M,ning

7.4 Water Usage

--

-.

_._. •..(....... pI)

•

•

-

•

Figll'! I 7.1 0

G~0!V"phic

--

o

IJ-lto

•

_',110O

•

''-'''''TOlI

Di.triootion of Indus,,;.l IV.Ie. Withdraw.l. in the United 51..c •

• ud , .. Territori ...

tOM] o,-er the f'J-st SO Yffirs. In rontrast, lite percent of withdr."".ls M.sociated ",~h public waler "''1'1'"'' h"" tripled sina. 19511 In lennsof induslfid! withd ra ",ab, f'jgure 7.10 ,h,,"', the geographic Ji,t,ilull"" of indu,tria! ,,-at ... "ithd,a".b in the United Slales. Lou;" .."". T""as, and lUi,,,.. , aec"" III for J~ I"'"'''''nt 01 t(tallnd It.'ilri.ll '" aler ,,1lhd ra" ;t d ""'''''tica lId i oJ '"1mI u,,"'" th",r ,,- aledrem surface ",alers (strealTh, ri, ers, lales. """,rI oi,.,;) and groundw"er. HO"-""er, deouHnation pllnt, all,,,, .ea..... ,er 10 be u>eJ. rr""id~\g safe rel6ed ....aler (ted.>i",ed .....tterl is ledu,ically f",-solie R..,nm.lIinn is b"",.ning an ;,,,,,,,,,ingly importanl smr", 01 ....dler and nutrients and is lIO... employed by a ...ide range of users-for dflffie.tiC 11."", agriruKute, ia,u"aping, and rrola'8ing 8mJ ,ldwale!".

1"""''''

obi".,

7_4.3

PlllUCWATERSUPFUS

In It.. U,uled Sl'-. public walersupplies a '" too.., Iha Is.n-e al i",,, 23 p..-.pte a nd h,,-e a mil,i1num 0113 C"'''le1:Iiol~.They can be o""e.:l by Ihe public or a pri.ate orga"'7.•.,;on. Tni, "aler can ""'..... e domestic, Chapler7 Water'ClWllit\' and Cuality

c"",,mercia!, industrial, and """" ,he",~e1edric u~,,- fig"'" 7.11 'lb.,,,,, Ihe 'OIa1 ",at"" ""lhJra\\'a" d5liocialed ",~h public ",ali.. sup-

plies for

''''e'} "llle and ,"""" aI I"""tori", of ,1'0> U ruled Sl'les. Public

wat"" usage is strong! y dependeot on ps lhal deC,,", III lor 3R p""",m of I he U S. p,yula"~n (for .,"" mple,

Water SOurces Tho '.."" .._
Califorllld, T""..". K.,w York, florida. al-.:llllinoi,) aoc.-..J1rt for 40 perc"'11 01 Ihe I,tal "ilhd ra "'at; I mill pllb lic w at"" .",pf'l-le"-

SoU'ces of Walerand I.wes A..ocialed with the Saurce SOOlCcorw,"...

H'{:h fl",,"\ e ... y '0 cm~"llIrn le, rd"'~'dy high "lSf"n.:I<>.l <,j-.:l, (t",,1 'I"'f"n.:I<>.l ;.cl-.:l" T9>\ l hdi"" an.:l p." .... !"''''. In p ... ts of thoo wc.-li. r;"'er:!
"1m"

L ·... fl""," but 0",....a1 fil... ingc"l'''''''y rh.:J I rom,wL" ''''f''t>:!<>.l 'olid, (15'i1, turbldi tv•• t>:! palMg<''''. Mav be hil:h 10 d".... k·<>.! bl d .. ""lo.·<>.! :! M~ (h.-.rd Dlfficult'"cle"" up .fter cnnl.:lrrurnlL'd. Rmewal tim", c.:m be"..... Inns-

...,,,,,1.

E""'Kv-inle",~"eto

d",a1,,,,,.o, .oc",dy m01f'.lrCd ", til oth... :! di'.-e,",,,..n,,,,,". e1oorodial)"'i<, aoo ion ",ch.mge. Of th,,,..,. multO< toge d i
! commON" u"rl (thoo,· .emun! lor apl"'0>dm.>leh· ~7 percen! of ",orld",d"d~_""I",abon,- 'P.K~y~ The",.", m",c '''',......, 1'1.>...., in lhoo "''''Id, h""·,,.-er, thooy a", "pOcally ,,,,,,R.,,. i~ cop.oc~y lk.,o d",'illatom pl.n",

o
Reclaimed .nd

".~

T :!""'ping.gmlmdw.ler redI''l\e••nd pnbble wale' lhnlUgh d,n.'<:' .nd IOdim.:l u'e. lndud.... dC<1:nlr.bed useof gT"," ",.ler Iw.~'c.....a", pm.lu
,,·.le,

,- ,-. ..,'------------------------------------------'&...," 16.000 8 S.OOO §.

i

4.000

~ 3.000

i

2,000

~

',000

Rgure/7.11

Pu b1ic Suppl~' IV.... , Wilhd,.w.b io the Unil.d State>, 2000 TI-..
tc", ... "olU S- ~
s......f. H,OOM< 01.1100..1 7.4 Water Usage

LearnMGreAboulDesallnation ~~'V)I""

-C".~,.,.,..J«lui

7.4 -4 WATER REClPJv\ATI()'o.l AND REUSE

Class Discussion

a.

•.a.

.I. W!".. ~~weol... 6t.U· e'lk,,"~ f<""c",~

Si"gl...-f.l",ily U.S. Mu",hold, a, """g~ In I gal1m~, of ,>"Her 11.'" p.e' day I"'r cap'la (gpdd. indo.... a"d oUld<,or, In mu1Iifamily dwellings ,ueh a, ap"rtmelll~. w ate, 11.'" c~n be~, 1",,· ~s ,13 to 7U gpecaus.e these h<"''''hold, use I_ ,,~ter, h~"e le"'er fhtu res and ~ppli"nces. ~nd use liltle .... no ". ~ter oold"ors (V kkers. 2001). Ouldoor us.e may e,,""'<:1 llatur~1 rainf~ll in ",me k"'~li"l\s.11 rang"" from 10 1,,75 I"'",enl "ft"I~1 re;idenhal dem~nd. d"I"'''dll\g nn 1000atlnn. T~ble 7.8 gi,·.", ~ bre~ld"w" "flhi.~ household use by different actl\·lties. The table also gi ,."" ,d"'l the ""me bre~kdown \\'oold be il household' inSlalled more efficient wal~r fixluresanJ I"'rformed regular lea .. delecti"". If e,el) U.s. h01l."'hol
Bf'cau.", of

a,e

p","",...lnorrr".~~fro", ~ou" coc"", ~ocr ap''''"",en. or ~o .... toIjl a"d ~OLr un""""", 0.".1'''';' D"". c"" of ~"" t.e,;t,...,.,~ ",,,,it'< ar~k"",,,,,,' ch""~",, Oy u",,'" or '" ait"",,,," aeeL .",ili' D",. i~ ,e'!-,t'< "01'>;,1''''''.1<>1 of ~eroeror "uh"" di"e","",. ~r"' <"" u"""';'

.

-,\Jeh dS in.:red,ing pop"lalinll, d"mogr~phk ,hill,; in where people he ~"d ind1l.<;Iry locates, ~I\J \"3'" r"""" l""ebecomecor!l """'pla",, i" "'''''y ,lite; asa rn&l,"'to"'I-~,,,dll",,,·~ter supply pnrtfnlin ~nd pnwide ~n ~dditiot",l dn-.Jght-res"'lant suWly. Red~im"'" "al"r ~l"" Llk<:1 "","u.' ries (NAS, 2m 2). Sldt.", ,uch ~s C~lIfnmi~, Arl7.(J1Ia, Ge"rgi~. ~I><:I Rorid.. ~I",~dy in.::orporale \\'~l"r red."''''ti'''' ~"d reu,," into the "~ler llldl.'geme"t iten~,

""*

Water Usage in U.S. Household., Typ;cal and Efficient Allernatives Typical waler u'<>3e in 0 U.S. hau.ehold j, fm!l,etter ,f.an wh... ,",ole
W",... Usaljo wHh Wau.._Etrciool Fix'...... an
1%loUllu..) 116 (16.8")

8.8 (19.5'1 )

Ck>!hc.o; ,,"..,hmg

t5.0 1217', l

lo,n eU.1 'I;]

lJI'hwa,hing

LO(1~")

0.7 (15'1 )

T",,","

183(26,7"1)

Kl (18m)

1.2 {\.7" )

1.2 (2.7" }

95(13.7")

4.0 lK8', I

10.9(15.7'1)

10.81239't }

16 (2.2'1) Total

MUgpdc

Chapter1 Wat...,O"""litI' an
de_on Pe«:ertoge, me

n.3gpdc

d ...ds"-,,IS. Thls i, du... to ,h...ir dim.,te, ""I-",,,ding popula'ion" and e."en,i"" wa'er-depe"d...n' ~g'icu1tural pm.:luclio". HOI,·..." ...... with "al..., """",i,y llOW !>e<:oming a rommon occurre"'-"1', ar..." tlut w... re once 'houghl to be wate, rich ;/"",Id al;o «",sider ",w'1",,,,lntg waler r...useand redama'ion imo water managem...m decisions. Wa" ...w.,ler 'reatm... m pllnlS ha'· ... typically b...e n ,ited '0 lake ad I'anlage"t gra\ ity tolrallSport collected waSlewater a,ld to makelhe dl'!"",",l of treat ",I effluent easy, 11..._", are tim rea,,)lI.< why nuny lre.lIm..."t p la,lls are I"""ted '.....r ""rface "a'..... bod iel. T """tme"'plants are also situ.lIed ch;er to uri"", .""'-", where the "a'I'llafmty of wa -te"'a,er is ge".....a t"-'Ccossful water ""lanl.'tionand reuse i' to pair 'he qrnhty of ".lSlewat..... effl"e"t "'i,h the "'a,er q""lity ""I. uire"'enls of new""..,.,;. Me.,;1 maimed "aterMdav ls u"'-'lion pl;U\ts are being design"-'
WalerReclamalionand Reuse

r-

h' J!'I.WW LJ'a.
An 'o....c.. af ,edaimed wafe' are """ted m dame,1e WQ5tewatCf

~",ample. «Waler Red.m.. ion and Reuse

a gldxJl ",de, wate, reu,", ca!'Kty i, expeeled 10 inae",e from 19.4 to 54.5 mill .... m' /day by 20 I 5.

On

1.00000SoIwd by El>llcol, porq, on"ch ~Uli",,"

H.mpton

Ro~d,

5.-.nl"'I,,,, Dl,trid,

'onne'"

ro<,-'Cdcd 10 ,re,lt ~m"",n", durmg mid wrolh", ~nd pmduce wate< WIth ma,e co""i,tcnl turbklny I",'el>.

Lmd«:.lp" img.>t"'" fOT publIC and bu,i"""""" dual'plumbed off"" bUlldlng. "'"' w~teee

TDS bu,ld, up m """'clcd water. Se.1.'iOI'UII demand' '''' land",~p" Irng,lbOfl n,.",.j to be balanced WIth "'''''Be Ilmltal~m,oI um.n

oooIinB """er<; "l:fICUItu,.-.l

"",.,ronment.

'ioe'VlCC wate< .nd boile,

fe.>j

w.'e, at "il

Virginia

I",,,,, R.:mch W.,,,, Drstnct. C~l dom;"

""""linn

5.-.n AM"'X' Wate, Sp'em, T"'"'-.

POW",

pLmt cooling w.'et'; indu"",,1 ,~)()llng; ri "'-"main t<'l'UInce: Lmd«"p" ,mg.lIx",

Wato, Guaht,· dctcrioT,'"on in dL'lribubon " ..'em can occu, from higher ",id, co",'ent of recLlimed waler. Con,...,m. of CffiO\' connecllon with potable W.lte, ,md imf"C' of high..., TU5 1""eL, nn n'g'-'i.ltion,

South R"l\~",.,l w.te< R,,<,lafl'Ulbon F.lCili'" FIorid~

Agnrultlral and I.nd=pe ifng~li",,: fn=e prole<'llm af c~"" <"'P', g,,,,,ndwa"',

r"""ilie ,mf'lct. nn inl8a1i'1\ w~h ,,-'.:l

... C",mtv Wa'~ro;..nct, Cahf"mla

Gmundwatef "-'Charge .hat ,ubtion

o.-~ng

wate<.

n"Cba'B~

EmefB",g , ~nd end"",iT\",ji"~"ng chomo:at. in ",01, im<."j ,,;., tef.

7,4 WatefUsage

dom...lic "a,tew;,I.".. TI,e reddinled wdler I",s d vdriety of lLses, including dnme,lic, i"du'lri
R",,,,"

Class Discussion ,l

M~"Y""&co,,~I,~,.,"~ ~o""eill-:.M .... tI1 .. ~,,"

,.,.; I,..,. 8 t tl ~o ...

r 80M.""" r~'"

8U="WIy "dJ.""§<
","',or".

,,,,,"''''! ,,"',or

*',

t.,

7.4.5 WATER SCARCITY AND WATER COI'EUCT 0,,,,

0'

tl", most press,ng glob..1""",,urily pmblenLs in Ihe fulure i, like!Y lobe waler sea ",ily, d "tw.lio" where Ihere is in",fr",i ... ,t "·dler 10 sati,fy normdl humd" requiremenl<. A counlry i< defined d<

e'p"rie"cing waler sir,"" "1",,, • n" w.1 w aler ,up pi'" d mp bel"" 1 ,700m' perp"r~()". When annudl wdtersu ppli.esd rnp bekm 1,000 m ' per per50'~ Ihe coo rt! ry is defi ned a, ",.let sea rce. By one me"""re, n&l rI y 2 billion people cur", nlly ,uft"r fmm ~e\ ere ". dler s('".Hdt y. nn, numbet i.~ e'pected It, incre..", 'i"i>st.lluiilny a, popul.tion incre",e; a,1d •., 'itdnd.lrds of liv,ng (.md Ihe",lore c,,,,,,,mptlOn) rL'iedmw,d Ihe wMId. Cl"",,!e cl~"'ge i.~ ""peeled to h....e dn impact "" predpitdt"", ( _ Table 7.10). Sune a ",a; may benefit f 10m 1n I" ,10 pen""1 ;,"'",_s in r""i
7.10 Exampleaf Pauible ImpoclsafClimateChange .... WalerResource. ProjectedfottheMid 10 Late Century U~oIihoOOelFmuftiT,o
_

01\ p,oje<:~OI\Sler

Plloo"""""",and[);mcOOneITrnnd

21S1ecn,...,.

Moj<>rlmpo<:tfsl

0.,,, m",t land a",

Virtu.1I1" cert.lm

[!feel.OI\ ....It''' "-"""IT"" ,eh,ng on

, "',rr"..,, and few","

mid da\" and nighl< ..""." ,lnd frequm' hl"t d.v' and nighl'

WaTITl.'p".'/hrol ......eo; lrequeney mcr<'~o,",,, mCl"lland

VL'f}' hi:el)

Inere.1
Ve,Y hi:ely

A
arms

Hea,y p,OOp'"I''''' eYen"'; 1''''JUe"", mcr<'~o,''''

lO
01 Ie,
,10d l\,oun.m·.Ie,; cor'll,,,,,n..;"'"

mCl"l am..

Iner"a", In 'Tm ,ftec'ro b\' drnugh'

al",

likely Po...", out.lg"". C,l"-"''''g d"ruphon of p"bbc ...ale"urrlY

Incre.>"e
"'I.,...,...,. "","'_>PM'

Lih-ly

lJo-.>croo,,--.i I=;h...al<,,- a"a,lab,hly due to ...Jt.... h" inll,,,,on

SOJtCl LJ.od wi/, ".,..,•• "" 01"'" 1'"'\P""o_,bi Po .. ""ao..-Ckmg. a - ~ XIOl· kop>d>,~",.j~ s..."""''l'fo<

Chapler7 Water:Cuantill' and Cuality

ba""'"

in rainfalLSon'" "'8iOl", Ihal " ill_an i,,,,,,,a,., in r.""fall will aL", "u]nerable 10 ""Ire"", rain e,,,,,1S "-~Ied wilh fknJrng and """""",. n", I",pulali,,,, Ihal \\ ill be n»J ""Inerable lod"mte ehom&" is P""'" and d"P"'Id' "" ra", for agricullural "'atel" and OI' local ,,·..Ier """"fee. for ""allh a,x! ecrolOlllic li,e1ihoc.:I. Tl"""'!""'P1e al,..-,Iend to live i" area, Ulal a", pn."", ~~ ",ate,-associ.>led di.<;a'le,..; of droughtalld fIoo.:li"g, Waleds eXf"'Cled to be a of both len,i,.", .,nd cooperallon in Ihe fUIU"', This. i, becaLL'" mo", Ihan 215 n\djor ri ,·e,..; dJx! J(X) gmu"d\\ ale, aquifers are ,ha'ed by Iwo 0' ",o,e countries. n", Or gani",tion for Ernllo",;" Co-operalion alld 0", elopme,,' (DECO) eOl"i"s of J() member countn.,,;, n,e DECO De"eiopment AS-,t.-1iI1\1 Co",milt"" writes Ihal "Wale,-retued le,,,i,,,,,, can """''Be on , arioltS geog,aphical and I,m ,ecord"'" ",aler eooperali"e e,enl<. HOI,e,·er. Ihere ha,e been I",., than 40 recorded report' of ",olen"",,,,''''' waler. Thi.' ,how, Ihal wale,co"niel is I"""hap' ,,01 a, """

7.5

. I.... Class Diswssion .I. Haw do ~l>Cr i',J;.-id.... 1

prof, .~""'~I "",,""" '""~"''' "" .r
,.."'r ~l.I'p~ ae.J "~. IF ,.al"' ,br, M"'"

~~~ ""''' Iy ~ f'",,~ ~'" :.ill"" a' """ worl
;",p,,,,,,tdl

I-I

'00

00

F~·

ro

I

Municipal Water Demand

The a",nu,,' of ",ate, u,..",j (or n"""jed) "e,itrcai III the pl.""""g anJ d",.ign of a rnun,cipal "ate, ,y,tem. n,e ",.,im.lIN "ate, usage rale is commonly called the municip.l w.ler d~m.nd. In ge"",.al, Ihe "lUrce(,I. ",ate, f.lcili'y loca'ion and ,ize, and ,I", pipi"g 10 connect lh""" facilit,es 10 the cu
w.~

qWln'""t

'" " Rgur.'1.12

W.'erG>opwn 0'" I!l< p'-~a,nl of e",nt, lrot ho,-" eM!l
conlHct. 0' Ie.":! In ",o~r co'l"""ti", jlodoo,,"" ...'" ~."'" I""" UN IP,o:;llt>h._ 200'1. W"~oI"" ",/w_

Gro<>/I'" 2. ~) 1........ ~ ..."tIl"'f'ho
1 _1__<_oa«<0
Class Diswssion .I.

R,,,,,,,,,,,h ••.d

Ji~.~.

"f'OCilic ",~·-",.
~ Hptcb HplchV Va"ey in YOOWi'P Natjr!!!al Park "U"m I Meh Il~t<'hy! As well dam ~lr water-t.,ub the p"'Jple'~ Gllh""!T,,I,

and churches, I", no 1>.,1;.,,- temple h", e,-e, r..",n ""''''''rated by the heart of man," -Inhn Muir

Figure I 7.13

Joh" Muiral tho Mcreod Rin' wilh Roy~l Arehe. a"d W"hi"lIt"" Column i n b~ckllrou"d. I'"",m ite N,'ion.1 P.,k,C.lifom i•.

Helen He/
I"""'""~ w;~

It IV., D.mmcd. ISO()III:T s"".cu. !"Ioo,. Vol 'it No .•.

19a.M";'....... r,"·1

llelcb lldohv Valley i., Inc-died in the 1",,-, rr"..,l"J ",,,-Ih,..,,,,t «"-,..,, "f Y,,,,,,,,ib,, r-.ati"".,ll'a,lc y,,,,,,mite :-'.,ti"nall'."k i, the United Sb~' """mJ ""t;,,,,,,1 p'"k, created in 1!l'J(1. II attra""')..'; million \""il<"" eHe'''y yea'Tl", Tu,,]um,,,, 1(;,..,,- run' thmugh the ,""lIey 11<.,,- and th., ~"Qile ,,,,templ'in&,, thdt enclose the ''alley''''' 'imilar in b"",dtb and re.uty t" Ih",,,, in the ht»\'il,' tr",-ekoJ Y,,,,,,mite V"I1"". John Mui. (aulh, .., 1'""""",,,,ti''''',I. and Immd.,,- of the Sierra Club) des.-Tib; that

D.", 'up!""'e,, ,,-ere c<",,',nced 'ha' a """n',"T could nffe, 'rcm"och.....< .-n:ial and ee,,,,omloC

Ix.',,,,..

fit<;. The la"""'g""""8 ('It)' In ,he 1'1'1.. ... s.:.n F"mw .., f.xi"g ., chronic wa',-'1' and POWL'1' 'hmage. I" 1_. an "a"hquake .",d fire d",'a,lat<-od s.:.n F""ci,c<'. addm8 "'8eno; and publk'pl1pa'hy '0 "'" ""a,ch for an adL"lua'" wat", ,upplv. C,"'8"'-"" pa_od th" R.1kc, Act In 1913, authorinng the «l,,-"rucoon 01. dam in Hdch Hooch}' Valiev ..., wdl a, a"",h"" d.1m.' l.lke El"a""" Tho fi,,' pho'" nf cnn>tru,'ion on 'he O·saaughfl<."";Y o.-.m I"""',-od In' the chid eng'noeT) wa, ro"'plcled in 1923 and the hn.1 ph."" ,a"ing the heigh' 01 Ihe d.1m w.,. compleled m 19'\l1. Tod.>, 'h" 117-bilhon-g.,Uon "",-,,,c,,i, ,uppH'" w>to, '0 2,4 milhol1 !l.>v A,ea n,,,dent.' and indu:tnc powe, 8el1o,ated bv 'wo pl.ml' down"Team. The "-",,,,",,iT i<; eight 11"1,,, 10,,& .1nd Ih~ Lug"" 'Ingle _}' 01 wal"" In Y..... o=tt,,'"

ci"",

,,,,,,,,I

1>.,,,,,

ca",

Chapler7 Water:ClWllit\' and Cuality

01 j"," M", ~_" Hd .... ~ ..""

s,.."nl Col",,,.. , U"~.~'ty nl rh. P""l~ Llr..y Cqo1'a"

"",,,""Y. II'
' .., ~a,h- ... lR82, Hdch Hot,-h,- Vall",' h.->d Clm,idc'ro-J a r<>!""b.11 "re 10' a n=' """,n'oi,. Pres",ntinfl_. kod by ]olm MUI'. wa"ted "'" mlk'Y to """''''' u"touched. 1l\ey "",i"t.-.ined that ., d.>m muld be S'-'CU,,-od ",-,t,>de rJU' "ild mounL"" pa'I<." Mui,.oo h", I"l~,,,',,,, Iau"d"od a mmp.ug" to pTaL'" lhe ""I"", of Helch H,~chv. Fo' lhe fiN lim" i" the '\"""loCa" e,pen= a ""1l"",,1 aud;ol>O' eo(l
".,..,;.,'"

""K•. m." -"1"""""-' f'b",,""·..... ,ur".....'..........,b..

bl"""" I",.,·~.......", • us ,,,...... P" .

,

,"" ""I'

"

.pJ,

,~'WW

U~ """".

.~

7.5.)

CllEATINGMODELS TO ESTII'MTE DEI'MND

Class Discussion

E,linlil,ing 'he wa,er demand generally i,"'o1>"" crea,ing , nlfO:lel of U,e ~yslem U"I m""....,; the realsyslem. Deci';im~~ m.>de to create an accurate m<>.:lel depend upon U'" intended P"'l""-'" of ,I", model anJ ,1", informa,ion r"'lu"ed fmm ,I. 1l\eref"re, the 1"''1''--' for Ihe nlfO:lel are defined at ,I", ou'''''''', so ,l~.t 'he app""pria,e lype or nlfO:lel,~ selected. 10 general, modeli og objedi"e, for Woller demand are twofold, L Lr;sh"t sysl""'''' De,·elop a model 1o <.cruralely s,mul'le 'he opera"on of 'h" exi,hng 'plem.

2. Proposed sysl"ttI" De,elopa n1
.I.

1'..,..... !>OGal

~c,iro"r.",.1.aI.

8,.<1 oerno";'; oo",fi'_~ C I>' ",,,"',,,d","ok t
,a,,.

ResloreHelch Helchy 1-_~pJ 1...-."""" h,·.<; ~ ,oro/

The 'ype 01 m<>del and Ihe a"ocialed detail are d~fined ba.ed on Ihe 'p"";fic m<>del objeclil'es. TI,e deta,l "r a "'<>del mn be cla'i-'ified a, ei'her a "",.M or ,,,,cro.«,,It· ",,,,Id. M.len-..cale moJel, .l,.., u"-'ciH'i"', and 'plem 'Iorage r"'luired '0 .l£Count for daily "oller u""'ge cycles. TI,e detail 'hat a specific-~i7.e pipe i, connec,ed '0 fi"erommercial cU~lOmers residing in a le,de",hip in Energy and En I'imnmental [).,sign (lEEDkerlifled green building m, Main Street would nol be r"'luir"'" "' thi, case. Howe"er, a mieft""'ale model of 'he specifoc p'P" diameter and nearby surrOllndingsyslem might be useJ '0 sizea pump in a pumping ,tal,ou u,ed lor fi,.., protection. For Ihi, mse, Ihe ,,·aler demand ",ould be the \\aler n"'-'
""'''rost"le

7.11 Types of Oalo Thai May Be Needed 10 Creale 0 Wale.- Demand Model TI'PO d Oot.o

Doornplion d Dala

5or'tem dal.1

Thi' '" tI.., ph}"'>eallayoul 01 the '}'''It.'1Tl Ex.1mple<; 01 dac, IlldlJ lhe "}""'-~11 d""""",n, (Ic'ngth, "...J'h, "'-"8"U ,nd cle<".";o,,-,,.

Ope..-ahonald,la

Th.. c" lhe i~hmn.>I,n~ ,boullhe ')"'lc'111 when il '" III ~per.'bf1O. Example< of dat.:l mdude waler Ie<."j" in lhe ITrolmc'1\' plan' t.:Ink. or .•Iorag.., "'~b. pumpmg rale< for pump<. nr ,,·el· .....011 waler >e,'ol". Mum of thc. inf,"m.m"" I" known by lhe "}"'Iem <>per"I"""

Con,ump~ond.'~1

Thc" i.< es~m"lod .....,tt,r use by lhe cusk''''''''. D.,la includes II"" per c.1!"1, dOli" .....al..... dem.u>d. w.,I1... dem.md "~lue fo.- "p''Clfic cu,lomc'1"' ,uch~, .'1.:1rge building ,nd Ii", protecti"" dem.>nd. ,\[", 'hero .m' tl'piC.lll)' eslim.:lles 01 ch.mgmg W~ICf u'" podlem.'. ,uch a, ....."tC'f con""rv,b,,,, "".,I'1"iL,<.

Clim.:lle dat.:l

Th" crm,;,
f,inf~ll dat.:l

T""'peralure ,,00 r"nbll C.ln

h.>...., a grea' in~ue"",on the e
Demo1';Taph>eand land u",datI

TIu, i, dolla ~boul ,he cu<"", nurrbt,.. 'nd e~f'-'Cled luwregrowlh (ord.." 'inel.lhe tVf'-'< of cm.!o"",,, (""'idential C<1nwnc'fc;"l. mdu,tri .... etc.), "nd Ihe 1"""'lOn nf these ou,",omers T r.:.n'f"TOll00n plann",g h~, l.'zge inlhJor..-e on ,hi<;

1.S MlIIIit:ipaI Waler l!em
H:slC
ProjoclOd domogrophic, Wld use, _ <:limalO

Sy>'om
ctuI
".,. custorT>On:

~rndus1nal, ..."tatlO
Figure I 7.14

Ge"",aI

•••

Da;Jy _ ""asonal walCf use potroms

'os_,

~-

_=00

~

laClar. Sl.d1 as wat., co""",vaM" _

Climat.
oconomlC

toC.u'e a Modd to

Proj
E.~male Future

1I1--.lO y'

in-.ce.

IV at~r Demand.

it..-,

''''lui.ro mav be 0"1' or ,,,n IV p"'. or addll,o"a1 data Itla} "a.ied ~...,d ",lla' i' I"ted in TdNe 7. 11. n,ea"dilab~iry dId dCW racyof th" dal.\ "'iD ,aN gr&1fly. 1\1ap;; anJ dra"mg' of 'he exi-,'il'g 'ysl"'''. hi>torical dIna,e dat,. a lId ol"'rati."",l data are usually reld~y a, dil'ble ~l1d g"n,rally dcwrate. D.>ta ""l"ired for future pl.l1U\il1g, ",,'h a, d"mo· gr~~~,ic cI"'ng.... future land U'"'. at'" pn';'~1ed cb """". can ltd'" 'igni ficant uncelt~inly. Ch...'t> an} dau Me Ioca'ed, lhey n",-,I be crilically ,,,,·.,,,,,d flY 'Llilab'lliry to m"",It.. model's II~. AllY h ..lmical dccl>m.. ,~ mu-, b.. ""ablated and ,.... ifo..d '0 d....." ,I", aa:urdCY 01 II., d,II"n", ge"",.,1 modeling ptO<>'ss 10 " ..imate ",ate, demand is p,odd....J in figu,,, 7 H. n", p"""'''' beg"'s " ith coll...ding al'od e ..a lualing hislOri"" I i",or"", ti..., about ,I", 'ype of cushll'lers ."""d. f mm Ihis, lhe ddi!v and s"",'OI,,,1 C}'CIo>' can be d"''''''ti''''d. '"cluding ""f'oc,ed fu,ure demog,apillc and lalld u'*' data (alld """" d",,,,t.. dUIlg.. I,... """"ti ng) mak'" i' po.s.ible '0 estimat~ tl'" lut ut" '" al'" d "m""d Becal.l'" 01 data avall.,bility and uncertau,ty, II i.s common '0 use dilf"",n, methods 10 estima'e iu,ure del1\.'nd. fM exampl". ",h..n estim"l illg tlle " al", d,,",'''d f.... " rbid,,'tial dt-ea '0 siz.. a t ",,,,n,,,n, ph nt, a ,i'" rte a ""lysis of t1", cur",,,t ". ,u ... u'" p'" h""sehold III u1tipliN by Ihe prnJ"dN numbe, of hOl..Lsehnkb nllghl be d' good dn 1'<;1 imale a, .. c
7.5.2

ESTMATNGWATER IANDWASTEWATERj HOINS

Thnugh ",,,cm,,, "a>t"",aler I,,,,,tlllettland re",ure" ,eoo""'y in d lale' chapt,,'. ",e "ill cm·..r eslinl.lllOn of wale, and wasle",aler flo" logelher. b""au-" Ihey a '" c1o,",ly linked. Obl.""''''g IV at'" d,1J "~le ",,,,e, data i, a fundamenldl 51"1' in d""igning a ",al... dLstriblJlion ,; )"le111 or ,"'...... cnllea"'n system, or in .izing a '",~'mem pl., m. FIn" ,ate. a I'd 1-'" tt",n; .. ary gt-eaU y fm'" 'yslem 10 svst ..m d'Id a", high I)' d"l'""denl on the Iype dllJ 11 wn ter of c"'lOn",,,, s... ,,,d. c~n", Ie. a lid local "",)"""tics. figu,e 7.15 sl"',," tl'" daily ",aler flo'" cycles d"pending on Ihe Iype of c~lomer. IVai ... u'"' (and ",,,,te,,,ate, pmduClk)n) " lIme d.."",dem d' hoo,.,holh al'od nfl'''' u,",,,, of lhe 'Y"lem inc.... ?',all' " al'" i ,~o 'h"lI" daily lif."ryle. Demogrart' ics 'l"'ciHc 10 a 'eg;,,,, "'ill change the ,I", F'" oflhi' Hgu t-e. for .."''''pie. in II", U niled SLlleS, the "'O/'l1l1lg I-"'ak i, l.l,ually higher Ihan the afte",o"" pedk. And "' bedr""'" communities. the,e i, u,ually a ,'e'r eMir mo"""g pedk as people ",a ke up e"rly flY 10l1g cm> 111U ll'-'S into url:un "'''''k d rea" .1

Chapter1 Wal""Ollal1ti!1' anrl OooJily

.,

....

"

l~

I

•

,

-

"

•

I

-

Atur.'l.llI O.i1ylk .... ndCycl•• Cl"'" d~lN. d<.'p'.'nd'Ill nn , "-pen' cu,",o""",,,,, C..lln.:lu< .... , lbl dm'.. l, Idcron"""''''..L.. ~ (dlthr . rnmrnumlY

CD

--

....

I

Th.. boN ~' ,,(>! of "'(ortn.d.b'" fer "'bn"b~ d""... />J is U>lLll~ r"",ds, "hkh lIIay I""e metered 110'" a"")(~lll'\l ""h .1..."" but ll",,~ wi n I"'''' iJ.. only a '"'31';''' ,"''''" 1 '" 2 """" I.... TYl'k,llly. mo"", d"laiW 1l\~)rn",'O)" Is a, . fn'~ ." lilll"" ~ (:\'" Y'" et .L. I

"iIII.""

".n...

"""se

''S''

u""

(7..1)

" , - \ ... ,,"" InJ,........ " ..~ """'I""" ~ (Sf'JI .. nd X .. "'" n...,be. of f"!"P"''-- h........MU. r... n...... n ....""'rs, hriloncal "ael' u'" or "';';;lo!""IIt. &.............,n ••t>es GIn be .....,.;I IfI -''''''1'' "'" ""'" ,,0lil ... "'<'motn.J. T1w ~I .......d;. ...... u-.!'d h~""'IlJ\oIII" ";>j"""for f'd UIll' ....... u .........

""'Il!\,"1oe1

gener.at""'. T..blt'J.12 pMll I..... l~ pc. , .. lutS"n n...,be,of n"" ""'''' .&.IN 101 he '''!II'm "d",."...ned ba..-d 00 ,ho> ,nfnrm.alioro for lhe ptoje
7.12 Typical Water Use and Wastewaler Generanon Value. ",..I fore"m>2i"3Iu."e ":<.,,,n,,>-

-

,-

Wa., U""!l" Flow !galoosf..,f d"l'l

'\f"rtmc"'"

~

"-

~~

,~""

llLodr",om

'00

Val..." a", ,he"", for diflo",rt <",lome" and con be

,"

W......._ Goo...,. ion Flow 11101 oosf..... f d"l

",~

'W

lID-I"O

D
Restrmm

~

Hold

C"""

~- 1_00

~~

m

Pe""" Pe""" Per...."

~,.

,~

m

7'>-ISll

1~m_ 1-"

Z5-SO

"

7-]1>

U

7~]O

•

"

,~~

"

"

,~m

"

Indl\1du~1

~"O

,~

~

-

n-
Tvpical hom~ h",,,",,, Sum...,. mtt''l;e lu",,~'

Oftior~bUlldmg

Empkl)'''''

R"""'ur~n'

Cu.'ton..,.-

~"

Soc!>",,,!: W,lI> 00"''''''', sp". and,ho"",,,.; W,lI> c.,"lc'l"i~ o,,1v

S
15-3<1

Stud"nl

Hl-20

~

,

00

-

.l'"

Wat"" u""'&' r ~l"" for i nd uslr",1 'flJrc", highl Y ~ile-'f"'l"tf,c and should be b"'ffI 0" hish1nClI ,eclYd~ m lh" d"'ign fl,M ,at,,; f,.. ,",,, inJuslrial waler g""""al&:l fmm i,uu.,trial SfOJ "'''' also greatly 'M"" d"P..,d",& U ~'O" how much" 31... i' u",d a ,>.:I "hat II", ",a ~r l' u"""" flY. For ma ny ;'>.:1 USl ri,,;. ",a ler i~ u.~ffI in p,oc","~". where much of Ih" wa ler can be 1<>.1 a~ "V apm When p,,,sibl,,, ind ,hould b" m"'''''..:l In d", ... ",;,,,, lhe actual flo", .. Wal ... u,"8" and ""'le,,,ale' g...' ..."' ....n ,.de; can also be ""un"'N u.~ing land use d .. la. Although lhis melhod is pnm.. rily u.tgJu"g "aler distrvution or wa.'ol"""It... collection -')-'>1:""'" for fUlure d '"-ehpm..' I (\V.l1"" i "I aI, 2lXIl; 2001. A W\VA.20071, j I ca ,,,,Iso be U"'-"<:I t 0 ""im.d" Ih., e~p"'''.J n",,·s fCO" slz,ng ",at nd ",~lew nt... t",ntn",nl fadlili TI", la"d u""' ,S d .. ",r u.'i.lgto' r.. le or wa,l""aler g.., ...ation rnt" p'" land a rea can be d", ..."u ,"'d n",n the local zm 'ng regulal ....'" for lhe pr,~ d'" "hpm"ll pm, id" info,mal",n fo' d"le,"""o'g a ",..I... u"'8" ral" .. ,>.:I ",,..lewaler g"'''''I"alton 'ale.

F'''''''' ..

I1'itr."

..

ChaplerT Water:Cuaolit\'anllCualily

.n.",.

7.53

TIME-VARYING FlOINS AN:) SEASONAL CYCLES

T"" m~ lood;. deacluald""'8n ""...hlo buble 10 hMdIt> I"" ll''I''''1a1 d.w~, ..n:! at., ... ,,, "at..- fl"" A pr.-perl ~ d "''8''aI I piai'll. mu;;t be ..1W 10 hMdlt>. , ans" oJ "'''J'<'.!l?bul ....,.,.. .. ~ .. "n~K. .. ~ d rol~ C<1n b<> u"",", 10 ""'Nmuethe ddvfl,.", IIOClwl.,ns,nlod 1 1""'1ll p1a,,~ bul_.....ul ,a".a.-c.on hoo' "'a gr811 ,mpKto" thelr"'''''''''1 fao:~I,.. l\d """" 'I '~Ofd.ll.<'d.AL"O. I"" PlJ'i"8 " .......,... 'IndJ ""SOl",", 10 h.... ,JI'" lhi! "~IN ............... n 0_ r.... buI aM "or\. "B""b'''''' for,....-\ 'mill IIfJlo\ rate. Tho! ,d tio" i" 110..,. for m"';.,op;>I "~iII!n ... I'flal ~ fdlo"" .. 2~ h "cit> B"" "". I c~'''' c..... gr.."''''' (1","8" It.......gboul I"" "..,l C.. AfJlo\ ' b .. ~n:! 0_ l ..nJ Thi! "at....- u.'O' Ln I~ dfh,,-;',,'n oJ d hot,................... ~nJ d , .. be .... rnno ..I"" 10 ...."'J;o "at.... " ,...,10, as" .ot....-"'g Id.. '" dnJ fiD",g f" .,k, All " to...." ....' .." '.. r d"..""t... 8""""";"" " ... ~ I'll I,,,, a t~ fleal JdY f""lt..... t ..... liNd" .. dIet ""'" """IJ til' l) p":aL All I" dY. on d mnI, .'" nv day, ,,"'... ",,", ..-ruld "" 'ypic.ll. but .. "" A"" , cOO U b .. h igh Md"seof ,1,..-", "'alet""I",.i"glh" colkt.'n .. ~ ill!m _r..... """" d a y~ in '''''llllUOIb",. II",,,, h 'ef'.Y littl" II"" Juring thi! "ight, a" ino:",~.. in fl"... d lIn rog t h" '" ....'u "8 hoo "', a "d In .. ' .....'" A,,,, d uri ~ Ih<'d a y, fcU,,,...d by" ~ ,,,Ill i""",..." i" fl"" during th,! """"""11 hroN, Tl.. d,'~} .-yd f,... i"dj \'id ",I"se,,; ca" al~ \>o,d"'to>""in«J F'igu '" 7.13 sll" , ""i<"'l'lts r~ th" d,,,ly ",al.,.. u.'-'g" r,"'" f,o. diff......'1 Iyl"'" ot c Io:'n ...r<. r-.:,.... ho,," th~ hill ivid wi d",,'''.nd p,'K"rn ':,1" "" dilf.....'t fn"" II.. J ..." ..,d p.ltl:er" f..... II.. n."".J1"1Y _M n-t nl tl.. ti",.., an i'llll ,ld..,1 .1","",.1 i, i,.. ig"ifirnnt a,1ll h.. ~llltl ..elf.... t (m 111...."10'" """"IU'tty" p"'.. n,_ ef'. a large" .U:1 p.ut..." in II",J.-...al ... ""'rdl"ribu!..... nr ""'-ef' roll;cl;"n"'''..n\ """""iolly Ln a sn",llro""'UI1t~ "th a 1<"8"''''81. """r. F..,y,"'....., a d..m ....d factor Ion .. d"'....."u!ted from hL~ri,·'" lo ....lImal" 1..... ly pic.al ""'''",um dnd mull..... '" da~~ n.c-... rdl [),;,td"11\Ull"8 d........-.d faetllr'; con"""Ol'- I> rdM" i'l., ,. b .... au ... II"" ..-do. """ at lhi' t ""'1ll f""itI " " The·d ..:..
".ot..-,,'O'

"""""'I'll.

,....;n,... ,....

"""J"v

"'nan'

"""a"""

<1,_

p.l""""

,err

",t.."

Ii""-,,,

"'''''.:'p'''

,...,,.&,

,.li" ,...

f.'" .mI,'"

(H)

.. hi!n> Q__ '~Ihe "'''Ill",," ,aI" ('00"'" 'omel. Q.._,~ I"" a''''''ge 11..... ,a"h ••""""'; Ilmel.andDF J~l""'-l..mand fM\(>rf"Nd_l, Tabi<".lJ pror.'dr!< 10,,,,, d.manJ f..-ten a", """j .. ,It> f"ln~.ur .... om... H .. ItJr.-a/ r..:.-...Ll< c.... "" u....J t"d"' "", ,"" am,"1 a",,,,S". m"" ... "'UI'I\ and m,..mum..,."..-,jal ..dl... lI>a!l" ra\o'
t"""" ,-

7.13 Co"..."only Oetft'mined Demond fact... E"e.... for Communities Doman M."-~imum-
The ''''''-''8" ,,,Ie of ,,-II ",m,ded ,,-oowl

m.l~imum-
1.2-3.0

Mimmumdly d""",n
The """'''-go rote 01 ,,-II """lrdod ,,-oowl minimum·dwdem,od

O.J.-{I.7

I\.,,~-hou, dem"n
The "v",age ,,,-tc of all rL'<'O,ded ,,-nowl """imum-hou, dermnd

3(J-f,.0

\!.>"mum dJV of ,,,,,rrd

Tndetermi,,,, lhe maximum .nd minimum de,ign 110,," rale> for a Ireanne,,1 farUav or ptping ''''l'",ork, a peaking fact", (sunil", 10 Ihe den and fach>r) is a pp~ed In II.... vera&, doli Iy II",,' rale. The p"aking factor trFl is a mul b pI;er Ihal 's ur"ge lanb, ,,>:1 ,,' forlh). Equallflll 7.5 can be u"&l 10 det...",i"" I r - de;ign fln", rale;;

"",&,

I Q",-, Q"....... PI' I

(7.5)

",here Q""",~" ls 11", d",ign fln" ,a", ("'>tume/lime), Q.,.~.,.. i, II", a"e,ag" II"", rale (v"lume/lnne), .nd PI' LS Ihe peaklllg faclnr for de;ign (UII ~Ie",~ Table 7.14 provides peilkll,!\ laclms or d", ign tl(""s u:I ,..,,-,lewa!>!r cnlJeainn ""t.>n", (Wal;ki el aL, 2001 ~

7.14 Oesign flow. and Peolcing fadol'S U.ed forSiling OrinkingWoler ond Wostewoler Treatment Plants T"",tmoot I'roceu

01 F""U~ Opom'"" rl,~

W.....-..-T"",tmoot Wm~Trn.~Pb~

~

hvd,,,u1ic

C"'f""'ty

Sludg~ pumf'og

Chapterl Water,O"""litI' an
Q.. ••

Qm.."..

(1.~",lOI

Q..~....

xll.~t02_0)

example/? .3

USllg Historical Reconls to Estim3e Demand FacllrS and Household WalerUsageRale

E-tun.ue lhe nlax,m lJln- ~ 00 mi"""um- 7.1S.

~

Meteoecl flow Values fo, Example 7.3

,"'" =

A_lgpdl

Mal
"""'......., Doy (gpd)

-~

!lJ.lSll

U15.4Rt.

32~)I
0;;;1;7

R.j}M2

L15·IJll....

314,51!4

5Pll

!l5l,247

''''''''''

JOCI,145

t,.}41jl24

365,~'H

!l2l\,103

1,3b:l.4S7

:!'lIl,7&l

ll58fl7b

U"<'>,214

325,141

=

AAum

1,.lS4.982

"'"

~.150

U611."2I1

=

~

"'" =

='"'

. ..."" 0;,671

"' '''' '

"'''~

''''

310,247

solution: Demand Factors Determl'''' lhe demand f.""t... e,..,ry y"" for lho> exlre"", ",ento;, For year 2001, OF",.... or

Q..........

t.32341l1i gpd

<2.,,,,..

1lJ.1.51.1 Sl->.:l

Qm.....

'"'"

J24.851 gpJ Q"...."" 8J·1.51
.. ..

'M'

~-~

~,

=

1.61

=

,ro

~

"'" =

,~

~,

I.bl

"'"

,~

,he,a

,~

•

,.ro

'»

Of""",,",

"."

"" "~ "~

"." "~ "." "~ "~

The Illaxilllum--d~yd"lll~nd factor" 11>0 and the mil\lmum-
1.S MlIIIicipai Water Demand

example/7.3 (continued)

solution: Usage Rates N",,~

we e"un~le t1", H-e'd!\" hoosehfJld u~ge •ato:, u<;i ng th" d ilia fir all yea ..... T"" hoo,,",I"Kl1d ",mer u"'ge .ate 1<... each yea. C"" be del"""; ned flY erh y"'" of ddla. rlY yea. 2001: u~ge

rate

Q.,.... >g< met",OO household<

1'04.511gpd 5.S67households

150gpd h
Using the same flY"... Ll, the a"""ge h....,,,,I"Kl1d use" ..,e C"" be delermi,,,,d I,.. II", .",nai ,,;ng y""lS, a, gi, en ill the foll<>,,"'8 t..ble: Year

Househokl Usage Rale (gpd/hClU:'l8ho

2001

1';1)

2002

151

2003

151

200l

U5

2005

un

2006

144

2007

143

2!Ol A",,,,!'I"

144 l-lf>

The d,-e.age hoo
Remember Ihat a,-erage ,,,,,ide,,,i,,1 waler usage is approxim.alely 101 gpdc. Sn it appro" this cnnunu,utv is a, ....aging apprnxim.uely 1.5 indl ,·iduals per hoosdlOld. Leak de"",tin", inm'l""atim of ..-a""-"'''''8 lechnologo." public ... ni",:1",~ to COIL"e,",,, wa!t!<, an:! pn,molinll 01 t1", u,e of lIaIlve '-egetal~)n Ih.t requires Iilile wale. ,,'" some mel1n:ls Ihal call r n""d to devel"P additional sou n:e; of Ih.. t a", expel'"'''' and .-cnlogic.. lly or ,ocially d e;lructi,'e.

W",,,,

7.54

FRE FLOW DEMAr-JD AND UNACCOJNTED·

FOR WATER A "-at,,, 'ys",m must be able 10 ,upply "-at,,, quickly flY "..,ieldl "",,quate pn\ledinll d "" 1o fi", elnerg""de;. Abo, .1 plYtim of lhe .,uppl",d w ..t", ",~l be laa d "" to leak.lge, ullrn""ered me (fi,e pn,,,,,,,in,, and mili "'",,,.nee), 1fw,f1, or ou,,,, ca""""," Duri"g .. fi", e""'q;;""~, the fi,e protection ..... ter dem.! nd co n h.. ,.. a lalEedk,clon supply and d ;"t,ib"tion. Ilia conununil)i, ",ale' u"'""" f i""" Office (ISO) lL,ing Ihe Fire P",tectin" R.lllllg Syr a munld!"'1 sl"'''''''' II", ISO ",~I e"dluat" U'" ",,,'er ,upply sou rce, ''''.\tme''' pLlnl

'Y""''''

.:

Chapler7 Wat..,ClWllit\'anllClWity

al'O.! pUIll rOilS ca!"dl.,,,,. "aloof d '.'>Ifibulim r'pU'8 n~I"""l.,and pldel'n"'''l and ~pa\' ~'lual""' I""fi,~Oowd.,mand ,,~;Ollolhi> I~·~ d"" "lin;,d netdod Ii... 0010' I!\Tn for re.o:I;nhal. nwnm«cial .lId ,ndlblnal. pn'f'«I..,. T..tl\o>, 7.16 p".... ide. lhi> C\:FF r.... ~md r ~, ,.... ~'"' .... TI>e 'IT ,~dde'nrllnalhosedonth"~pac"gorlhe ..... d twl d ",.,I~ng.. F•• ~.""n,,,~... 1or ,rid""tr.. 1~lrucbJ lhe 'IT" ho.....J on lhe ",.., or ,"'" buildll1g. Cal",-",ct",n cLL... lkl ....,\0>,. ",od flan... l, "T'" or ocn>~~ If... ",""mp", ~'" <.10......)..... po ., 11) .10.1......" bwkh"S"- .00 .. h.al '" ..".".. n .os a Mnunu""'.." " f.octnr (1n:.olJOn. .ond "re" 01 f.... f-'I"""'«I'l d ......) """" 8""'"".01150 equa,.... "" .. M.romum l'\fFbeI"5 5m g..ums p« RlJIU'" Igpml i,

...

....T F

18.f.A".O"I ... ~X_P.

7.16 NFf f .... 5..... Famity I .....ne•• n

,

n 11- 3(

ll-lOO

",

f7.6J

.. htre ",rr l~ tJw .-dl'dlire fJo.. (gpm). F" thi> CM;ot",ct"'" r.-:lor (0.1>-1 -'i). A ,~ lhe b .. UlfIg e/fa:h,,, ..",.. 1ft'}. 0 .~ lhe '>a:up.on A \'IW A'. \1.0"",,1 M _311 A \\'\'1 A, 1991111" adol ,lion ,olhe t\ Fr. Tolb\o>, 7.17 1''''' "10,, flO" II... '0),;'.." n.. r>Jtd ,"rage flO" Ii", p .... lo!et"'n alt">n8 ,,~h 11'0> dur.n",,, lhal .ho,u1J 1><' .. ""plrduCt'd by a h"..l n... ,l1 facility," do1l" ",.,j lo a "",r in .. wa,O!I" d ;,tribuI"n 'Y"''''~ How,", "'. a porllon of lha I wa,er d....... n,. n\.,k~ 'Ill' ,l~ r",;~}n",,,, or i, u..,d u!Un"' .....,;l fk"" Tlu, unmet., d flow 10,-11>.1 e.: (1) "h.. l i~ hbl '" II 'y"",n d Uf' '0 I...,k... t>.l b"' in pi!"" ."Id joilll<; (2) ullmetered u'"'" ~u,h a, n", p"'h.rliotl ...,d n~~il\h."""",; OJ ",.,er theft; .. nd (4) a ,an"'y 01 ott..., m;,,'" waler I,..",,, c;"" ... a1I}'. in .. U case.. mrre" "'''' "ill 1><' I'nxluCt'u ~,11",. ll... d ..,n bul "'" '~'l ... ,,~n., Il..., "n.ocrou nlt'J.for ;....0\",., ,liltracllhe ..wn of lho> mi't...t'J ".Iter flO" .,ach u..,. f ....'" Ihe 1ll""",.1'd ".",. I..",ng Ihe ''''atn.."t f adl ~""'"

7.17

lu'"

,
"at.,.

.,>.1

";II.,.

" ..,,,,. F'ru,jurt'<.!- nlec..M.l uo;.,

" ..,,,,. pmJuced

'00

f7.7)

t""

\I , "'. UN.lllw I J.;,.., I n 10 J""""nI or lhi> .. ""'",. p........ ~ .. )1 boo lr",,,~ unaoc,...,nto>.l-flO" " HoI""" "'" flO" 01,)"" ~~'51""", ,he unax<' muoh h'8he, d ... 10 ,he ..gu'll; P.... hodl c.... h "'" "S... Ii:.." amount n( 1..a~.a.:-I~ I>'ICJIllon'Ig the" n.>a:no.II1l"O'f"' a I... "",n..lbo "'" ..,;nl .IS .. n ud"""", or ,,""" ~, "n"Ml! In the ... at..d .. trib....'n ~,""'m. An ,nr",_ ,n ""''''ilUntt'J-fJo:""'", .. l",l. ,n ,hi! 1'''1118 "h.dI smuld boe ..""",Ml."'" ''ll,.fo:..,,1o.s dUO! " anotlwr p",blen" such .." .... ter ,!'oafl Wllh ...ough mtemal metetll'fl; (m"'.." flO" "a..... nt.lI.n';, punfl'ng ,1.lIl"..... ...:onl,l, ,I~, IX_ibl., I"J",,,,,,,, .... Ihi> 8_<11 location or n-W p">bl,,,,~

_....,tI.....

""''''''Iung

_""n...

''f''''''' '"

-''''

__ !lett

l ..om ........dN. .dodfir. fbw('*f) D.,.OIionf... fir.

'_lion ,-, ,C>

Cu'at"""~

,

".»- , " "''KI ,

--

,.-., ,"",",

~"""-

I ~'t;I,~

~BO.)

SCUC~

VoLo."""' ......... 0101_

-

""''"'

Alii ance for Water Efficiency r~tpjl ........ .......".C'I"~1

Class Oiswssion &) D"""""",,",,,,!>Uc~,,,,

J. J. J.

(5)~f"d~c""y<:,-,

1"",,"_,," t'''~ OM 00 ~
w~'..., f"'rt,/<> I~ ~c oJ ~O""" "'" 1~'Y

~",h ~~ ~,!".

ea..c.at'. ~r
~',,",,~h;

'"
7.5.5

E,hmaliog fUlure scena.i", " a mai.-.r part .-.f d",igning a treatment facility. ". aterd i,t"bulion,y,tem. .-.rse",eHollecti.-.nsy,lem. 10 aim"'t dll s'luallm~" there \\,,11 be a ie"el .-.f uncertainty regarding how mu ch "'dter i, required dnd wasle"'aler i' &en.erated. The lo,,&-Io>rm pian"",& .-.1 a c",,,,,,unity usu"Uy indud"" tl\{, "'tin"'liml .-.1 Ihe futu,e water demand l.-.r 5, 10, 2lJ, o. m"", yea". It is com",on 1.-. ",tunate the fUlure dell"'nd for "",e'dl doffe""u.",enari"" bd.-.re droding 00 tI,e actudl ,~lu",I.-.. d",ign. Ai""lhe compare"'" of ~lIernali"e IUlurepm;ecl.l1~S pnwid""a way Ii> under-.tand Wh.lt "ffeclstheillpul dat".-.r .l"umpIio"-s Cdn ha"e.-.n Ihe luture "·,,ter demand, TI", C.Ul be lLSffl as .• ,,,,~,iti"i!,, anal~ si-s 10 guidewmmunily I""ders in the deci-s,on-making proces' fnr how to plan fUlure de,·elopmem,. influence \\,.•110' use pra~"1i""",.-.r u nder.;talld the impdct of IMge "·,,Ier uSoe,.., on Ihe ,,v,lo>m, Determining Ihe 'f"'Cifi", .-.1 futu,e """'Ian", r"'lu,,~ d C()<~Soe'''u, tI"'l mCf"l""al'" e,,,,imn,,,ent,,l, ""OIIOlnk, and "'-.:i.Il ".,.",j, for current dnd future 8",,,,r.Hi.-.,,,, d,1d is de"el.-.ped b~ engin"","", pid''''''''', ulilille-, dlld commun,l" ,lakehold.,.,..,. Populat,on ~,Id d""mgr"pluc lrends and the Ioc~t,.-.n of an} ''''''' u""'" "iii g,ea liy influ"nc" future walerd",,,.,,,d. Other ,,"pnrt,"'1 i"u", "",Id indude impact.-.f elin"'"", nn waler ~\'.lil abilily, d,mdle ch"nge, and i",""" rn land \\·,~,i" Ihe ",al""'hed. Often more d.'1a are collected than are a~"1Llany l.l""-'<:l in the a,,,,ly,i,. Figure 7.111 shm" ",me .-.1 the polelll,,,1 "'enarins Ih"l Cdn be e, aiualed t.-. "'Ii"",te Ihe future \\ ~ter dema,ld. TIli,appr,,,,ch ",,,,ly7.~ ~"d extra pnlal'" hi,torical dala 1.-. future "'10,,,,(;00;. Cauli.-.n ,h.-.uid be u""-'<:l "hen 'impiy "\I,apollti"g forwa.d (linear gmwlh), becau,"" 1"1-'1 influen""., 'My nOl hold in Ihe future. Rather Ihan ha,ing pn-,ectinl'-' us"'g an eXlr~l'<>lali"" method, ~,e 1,"""",ler can d",'eInp d more in--depth ana1r,;' of the pc>tentia] "ause; f... pmjedBJ chang'" in ,,·at... d ..n,md Thi' a naly,,;s i' ba,.,d.-.n esI,m.lting t he fut"", popuial,.-.n, dem.-.graph;e,;, "'dter l.l"'. 1a,1d U'"', number of large u,.,,-.; (f... eXdmpie, industry), luture climate "'''''''';'''', and lechnoIogocal "lid ",,,,ieul iss""" tI"'l a free! \\ d ler COI,'.,r".I!inn. I" Ihes case, lhe waler de"""1d is Soeparated im.-. disaggregated ,egm""l' to detenn"'"

u""

'",-------------,

Flg.I' 7.16 &t,o""loled C",wlh Seeno,io, of \\' .ler U.. B•..,d on Hi'lo,iuf Demond.

DEMAND FORECASTING

!

i ,. 2.00

j

--

f. ,.

,,.

.... Chapler7 Water:OlWllit\' and Ouality

,-

Flgua/7.17 D.ily Acli,-ity of ColI~cling W.lerTIl.I I, S~en in lsi ucll ofllleWorld. 1I'""",,,"'.'y 01 1m,., t ""!.lOCI

II,., volu",e,,1 wat u""d (or w.. stewdt... ge".....I.,J) per u,~l Thenlhe pm;'a.,J ~hange 1< e""h ,"S,nenl i. pl&iicttrl. an.:! II,., r",ulting ,\<,\, "ill... dell_,,1d i'd (AWWA, 2007; Wd!,",i el .. t, 2m3). n..,,,,, d .... gg"'&'l>'d '~'''''n1' .,'" lyp",... D~ bao-e.:l "n prpul.. I"''' ",10".'''''' or equi\·"Ie,,!s, or 0" l"'ld u'"'" de..ig""bm" A popul"!ion "'luiv.l"nl i'i .. method of oo,,,,...ling Ihe "-"I.,,. use (or ",..sle",,,I,,, 8"" 1 ,,) of conu"" n::i al or i "d us Iria I u..... j" lot he eq ui .. a len Ia mou nI of " at u""d by a N'ul"ho" numt..r. For """mple, a n hldiblr" I u"il ""'y us.e t1.., "'''Iff "'lui,"Ie"1 of Elll"'''ple III a resid""tial a"'a. n.., p'¥~ "'lui \'"Ie"t populatio" (r"d! pnpul.. tio" pIllS POPU lalin" equ il a \emsl i. e<;l im.lIed 10 d £'I ... ",i"" Ih" fUlure II- ..Ier den.u'd.

"."eJ

example/? .4 Projecting Future Watl!" !remand, Usn!! Extrapolation MethlXls Pn'jeet Ih" fulure a '''''''1\'' water demand m ym f'i 8, I I, .. ,id 2-1, u",:"l'; lhe foll<»"'>g h>;lr>rirnl records. U", an ""trapolal;;,n method Ihal indudes line"'8towlh and bu ildo"I, .,1'1-,11" in Figur" 7.11>. A\llIrage

Metered Wate,

'M'

~I"'"

~,

1)'W)1<15

~

1)W3,Ml

~

1.9fl7)Ul

~

1,ll13,1Ul

= ~

"'V'" 19(1) 15

~

1)l91,lWl

moo m" m"

:!JI12.2(J1

WO;;;A"-' 2,051,J39

1.S MlIIIicipai Waler IJemand

example/7.4

(continued)

solution Firsl, graph Ihe ""'(>1".1.-:1 valu"" to ,.;,uali>£ Ihe h .. lorical trend (_ Figure 7.18al. Based OIl these ob"""'alo>",, we can rna .... as,tJlnpl,..,nsol eXF""'l&! growth (or dedi .... ).

",-----------------,

F1gurI11.18 Hisloriul.nd Projected W.1., o.,m.nd (a) R"-,,,de.:I val"", of ",al.".
rot.lI'.... mothod ond dat;,

fo' h""'ple 7."'-

,....

,.,

20lll

2001

>002

.-

2000

2004

=

200II

2001

2008

200Il

",,-----------------,

"

,.,

'<,

Chapler7 Water:ClW1Iit\'andClWily

...

example!? .4

(continued)

1" tlus C"'''' we wal pn,,,et the fwure I~"d using the exira po\;lIi,~' method (FiSU'" 7.16). BOIh lut u,e "'et,an,.. a", sheM'n In Figure 7.11tl. The follo..... ing lable cmla~" Ihe d£'laik of Ihe pn,p.cled ",aler u sa8". For li"... r gm"11~ lin ... , r~", ....inn a f\.llysis ,,4. u,",d 10 pn>;..cr the future wat... demand. The buildnul eu,apolali"" method requires additional "-.... umptim~<,, In F,gu". 7.18b, \\ e assume 8 yea .... of Ii"... r gm\\1h (ollowed b~ buildou 1,tartu'8 in y",r 9. N Ole Ih.,l ma"y oiller a<6lrtn pt "',.. can be made to eXlrapolale the future waler de'l'.lnd. Projected Average Wale< Demand L",,,,,Cmwlh

A
BUlkl",,' AS'umpb
:l..I90.mo gpd

2. 19;).om IW"

2(Jlb

1.318,00J SPd

2.23'1IDl gpd

'""

2J,O.t,mo w:l

1.13'l.om IW"

'ro.

'"'"

Water u'"" lnr w,..I"" ,Her gene....I"" I call aM be categlliztU b.,sed 0" la" d '-'-s." ud, as Ii gil' reI., ,lte for""ailer d",...",;"". a pm;'etal ",a,er d""w.nd. "'nolher importa", i...."" i, Ihitl UselS do not a6 'equu'ell", saOle 'lwuty of ",a"r in raal;"n to U", s"-' n:e a nd 1"-,, .. of 1"'.,ln",,>I..

7.6

Water Distribution (and wastewater Collection) Systems

Aga~,. ~"use

",aler prllduetim and \\ aSle",a,er generation are do;ely lied and yet d iff.....' l we \\ 11 d >,CU'>' tl", col ""'non nf ,,,,,,,,,,,,,--laden ",,,-s1ewa,er In thL,"""'ion almg "'l,h the pil-",d pr""isio"nf \\ a'er. Beli"e ,he design nf a water di,lribution nr wa,lewaler collection syslem, a comprehensi"e in",stil'f'tior, 01,1... PR'l-~l..,J s.n'i", a",a 'al... plaC<'. r art of Ihis in ,,,,,,tig"'i,,n ,ncud ... ,or"""'s1ing ". a,~ detmnJ Ihn ,-,gl"ut ,h.. """'"ICe a",a, as p,e';i>U,ly di,.,,,,"'-'<:I. Oth~ ,aalr' ,uch as pipe maleria~ locahon of a!'Purle"""'''' (mannolos, jundion" i1~e1,. anj nll",r Qn.lCll1l'es), l",dran, placement type" tid locaUon ()f vat""s, design atld loca,im, n, pumping sl.1lion,.and "a,er ,IoragelocaliDrls all nM'o be delenm"ed "nd IIltegrated I() design a ",,,,I...ng ",lidet,1 sy,lem TI,i, pro::."., ,ypicall~ u"" ""mpul... ""Itwa", (See Wal,J;;i etal., 2003, 2001 for a fuD de.cription nl such moJ"ing sottware.) The remail>Jerof ,hi,,,,,,ti,,,, ",ill d i"",,,-ssy'il~m laymi, design no" veloci,ies f",es,imaling pipe ,ize. and .'Y" .. n needs rebl..:! 10 pumping at>.:l storage

7.6.1

SYSTEM LAYOUT

A ". aler dis! ril:.Jtion ')"""" and a Wai!e",aloor cfllle<1ion "",em both carry" aler. H"',·"'·.... they do '0 very differently. G.."",a1ly, thepi"'ng 7.6 Water DislribulioR (and Wastewater CoIleclim) Systems

FIuuren,19

EumpleoofaWal! f"" • wal..- d"'lribuli>n .,-stem (b) Thi< "branched" sj"'lem J. tVl"c,l1 for a col ..' Ct".. ,,""em,

""",,,,,,1..-

0 0 Ii? 00 D 0

000 000 DO

,.,

'"

i, p!.>teed under or alo"s r",d,,' "Y' d&:! ;Cal&:! for publk u!ome" by rna "1 d iffe"'''t rout 10 J;,o, deli..... &:! 10 lhoallocal.,n a, effICie"lly •• pfl.'ible. H yd,anI, ar" pl""ed a lo"g roads al ill~r",ctiOll.and ,p, M ...I of II", time. ",a""".l toer flo"" by gra 'i Iy in on" d TI", ,malle,. pipe, are loal&:! a Ill'" .. ~"d" of II"" b"'nches and pnl8'''''' ,,,,Iy gella'ge' a, ll'"

""f

,,"'ti,....

Chapler7 Waler:ClWllit\' and Cl>aIily

"d...... "It', fl.,,, ~ I_ d rd 11", lA'dl",.,,1 pla'lI S.'O! II", "a.."" 011..fln" • by gM' ,IV, an ddequill" pipe, h~.., m~1 bO' md,,,t," ,11>(1 th'i>.Jghnutlho> ~~"bem. Tho> ... ,..., bO'"""b""s" 1",... " lIt'wabl" h pU"'f"'I'Il d f.... w a<;1t>"dl», til" h' -ab"" hHS"ilt n......· by g"1\ ,'Yo or to) I,..O! " ...It>"'d"'r "phm d .... tn the l<'p<""gr"'Ph,· ('"....,.. dl~· m.lnhofi!S d'. placed dt ",pe d",IIWI". dunl'/"o 'lope 'NilS". JUnc1"'" """ ill" more I"pe!> jouungJo .nd "p"Ir..am p'p< ends. \1dnhole< ..... ~p.><;o.'oJ "" .......... th.on JOO..5OlJ ft. (90-1:;0 m) ho
""""r

762 DESGNFlOWVB.OCITESA!'I) Pff Sizt..lG The • nd. ubnn.nd "."I.""dl... rol<.'dlm~. "'..m. fl,... I,., n.I In " ..... d ..trbUit ~~"len ,,""'" I""" d"h.O'ft'.Jghout II", .,...lIem" ,0.1 to inc........ lho> P'-''''b"l f, "'011" t ''' iems (inr ..""mpll>, ~ .II... holm me,> Typi<'ill p"'''' '''''I.uire",..,,'' an' pn'"Jo>J in Tdble 7.18. In ,e,.,J"lli,lI ron""u'''' ..... , ,I is """''''......}' to II1aint., in " m,,~n'U1n p,,,,,ure f"'~,'eh~".. "n~' Ihdldlln"',fM ""nr"'dr' '" _t"-,, u,",," h~n 111., nn" .. " dt...""II'1> J""ic"i. I" ,..-,. "~"I\ thi- ,,,,,,",.I ,~"')'. A...... tI", p ...... ltr" dt ,I", '''' OJ .."" ,luuld nft "",..,d 80 p."; oO, ... ,,;~, tl.. 1"'1,,,,,.. 1f.-.. in__ .............."J,., , ",,,,a._,"xc,,'.,,.,, nOle" ;n ,h<1l<.· _ ,I ltd f dIX"'"""1docc u', Ih", hft-,,·al'" p...... ur.. ,e1ief .. <"uld dl,och.,~... OpO'n-c:h.nn ..l (onditio"s a A' ,,",,n..-.n1} fN ...I in ". ~It>""",r f thoe time. Dunng Joy,.no.. rond,tll"m'o. tIu.~ ... the ,,~"'''a''', • "",-...11. III b .. lA> ~"",D In mOl ...~ d ... "t.<.i, lhi-n
"·n""

r"'........

c"".it",." "'"

.,n

..

,"""'..d.

'''''''a>

'''I''''

.,td

aI,·.

u._

7.18 Typio:allleqo.Ored s.n.ic. P~.u. . in 11........""1 (-....nitieo

---

I~

-

M,,,,,,,,,,m J"""'U"" d~ F"""k-h
rn-u... d~ r=.

-

7.19 M

Sew

and Maxim..... 5bpe forG",vity flow inCircularC...aeh!

P"efara M... ning'. Raugh...... Value EqualtoO.o13

--

Mi........" SIopcI (2 nI•• O.6m1.)

(IOftl., 3, 1 mI'l

'00

OfOUI

0.21030

,~

O~OO

OJ22~7

oro

OlXB'\.!

O,O!lJ.l~

L~

0.fW124f\

0,06197

n,

0.00194

~;

O.oo14~

,~

,~

O.fmn

~,

0.l\Xl92

""""

"

0.01'l19

V

""

0.0008"'

h75

O,OOilll'

0.01M!l

~

~

,~

0.01132

""

OOOJR'

0.01123

O.OOJR·

OJIll>5S

1'ipoDiam<:l«

in.

1.':.I!' '" 1,,-1--'.

" I;,

:~ ~

"

mm

,~

,001304

Ihe millimwll full-pi?, ' e1ol"ilv is 2.0 ft Is (Uli III Is) or g"'~ter toe,.sure that solid <~'" fl", hed oul. dur,ng pm k flrM hour< oft he ddY. A Iso. 'I i, 00""'"'' practice lorthem~",;mumvelocily 10 bedboull 0 fl.l, (3D mls) to ~ ,
~

~

(7.8)

where D is Ihe pipe d ia",eler( m.• nun), Q is t he d,.;ign fl"",' rale (gpm,. Lis). \' i, the d",'8" ,'e1ocily (ILl" ",I,). dJId l r""...,..,IlL- a C,"",S1ant tl",t L< O.M for US eu,",mary units or 33.7 for SI "JuK r.". example. if Ihe d ...'gn How r~le i, li.OOO grm 0&) Lis) ~nd Ihe de
.

Chapter1 Waler,O"""liII' an
woo II b~ 222 il~ (;;"8 mm). Tt... ll",t large'll "ron in,11 pip"" il~ "'ooll be ... It.o<:tt'd ~. ~ ,t"'tll'g 1'0"'1--'" Ihl~n"",. 2~ i". ~t>O:l ,,",,) p'f"'. TI,,,,, .. ",,"uEl ".-...ll be u...,.;llo,,,,, lual~ ...1..11'.... t h" pip<> i' t t... b..., chf>lc~ fro". '·... ;;,Iv of diffo>roenl !Inan...'.

7.63 PLMPlt>G STAOONSAf\[) STO!AGE A I'" mpinIJst..tion ,. loc"'8.i "h..." " ..."'"a"', ni!ll!'d- ,0 be lif"'d 0. lncr_d pn!'l'Ur<, '" 1'u"V' .... clwtaet .... litoi'd by 'ho>.r c"'P""'h. r .... l"re: h... J, "lIici""<:,, .nJ p"""<" r""luin!m;enl... n... d""ogn of .. pumpng ,buon ''''1 lhal 1'.... 1", P"'"i'tnnan", cu".. (Glpoluly , _ s h.... d cu" 1 m.d> II.. h...d cu"e. The ",,"'m car'" i. d .... eI,."....:I by add ing ,.... ~bbC h6lld to ,he h...d Il'OoS IfrKl1Iln rh.... m,ner I~I of lhe" ~1.'''& pumJ'" '''' can he obta"wd from the manulactu 01 I"" pump_ An "Id pump ma~ not I"'rfoima, It did "Iwn 'I " , " In fact. "*I.... pump" """"10.1 "" ch
'''''1'''''''

,,""h

.,,"'rn

.ne.. eu,,"

Lil~ mo:.t

..,.......lI...

ha,.cal ""'dtne., a pump be.l .1 It- b""l "ffici... cy po>int mer) A>. a pump .".,.,.• ..,. furtM from ,,~ BIT, the hf.. of t lli! I'u mp or ;"'1-"'1.... d..,,,,,,...,. ro,... pwnpi"s elfici.",)' ,11..1 '" in in,;".e ll~ I'u"" I""~ ((h" "'hi It' ena bl inll llli! lad III ~ to dd" .... tI", ...,qui..,.j ""I." f,~ ,I ""de r"n~ of no" c"",diti",,, . Inlh ,al11p1t' ,I"~, n in Figufe7.2l\ ,hu< lu.lll'umpeff.·i..'q-I, neat ,he B[r, hJeh I' ai' he pea k of' h.pu n, p"lh,-~...,c. (II" ~_ Th..... i" e. 'h I< rl\o!l;

/--,.--Pump-""

Pump Clt~"<1erl.t;< Curve -n., m ... l.,n·' f"""",""",,",~cun~ ..".j " ... Irrn c..-.~ rho """, ,.ore ..nJ J"K"P'''' haod I.. .,~ lho J"K"1"-"5 F1g1l1'8/1.1lI

...... -- "'-..

--

,lid.,....,.

l

!~

! !

Flgll'l/1.21 Op..~lion~1 Stor~R< for a Sto"'R< Tank in a W~t
pump e<.,figurMion b working near it; ",axi"'um "1f1Ci..,'Y. A, tl", ')'Slem cur"" ,hill. b""au,", 01 chi "g~ ," the 'Y""'m (,,•• It>r ele' atio", chl'l:~ or required pumping rate ehl'l:",;). the m.Heh point ".ould "'''' e rlght or left J long the p ... ':>nnaneeeur,,,. II il m",'"" 1m far tot he right or left tl'" pump elf",ienq can d"".",,,, 10 the pi'''' t wi",,,, t hi~ configu.ation may no lo"ge. be ""'Y efficie"t or "uy be n'.IIside Ihe ,,·o.king rangenf the pump". I" thi, e....." adddio",1 pump" ewld be Iur"ed "" or off In b"U ... ma..,h tl'" nt£d ed pu mp; ng •ate whIle ma ximaing efr",""",y, or difl""""t pu"'p" ~hc",1d be i,..tall8.J thaI ha,e elf;';'i ..,'), c'IJ r"", "here t I", m.lCh p",nt i, eh.e. to Ihe pump'., BEl'. Th."., chang"" " 1111"""''' the a mCU" tof ..., ,,,,ia t..J en...gy cn,..u "'pI im. Ofte" a pwnpi Ill'; ~latico, i, "ear a nod emtrolled by a ~lnrage t.m k or ,,·et well TI", wat... Ie.'e!, i" Ihe tank n. ,,·et-well cAuroi when pum F" a", onoroll a,1d how many pum]" are "..,ded. I" II", c""eofa ,. a.iable-.peed pu"'p. Ihe Woller 1""e1 contmk lhe ,peed nf Ihe pU"'P mnlnr, A .torag" la" Ie is eoo.,,,~,~y """d to set an elevated h yd .auli<: grade Ii ""aeros.., a " a t... d i,Irl but iOl'~Y,Ie", For lIa I t,~pograph y "~tm age tanks a", "a'iily .r.'ge if "..,ded. As ,hm'" in Figu." 7.11, Ihe ""..,.al,mal ,1""'8" i, detennUl~ by ""imat"'g the additiona I... Illume 01 "ater """d&lhY lhe maximum-..l ,'y d.."and ab,...·e lhe ""Iume 01 " .1Ier pmdu""d at t he lal\kl"catiol~ The 61 ,>no i>'d fir>.> floo.' sl"nl!>,'" " as pnwided in Table 7.11. Again, moJeling ",rrware i, u"'-'
Ii"""

ff

(7.9J

". here V "u" i. the ad"" wet-well ,""Ium", Q~~",. is II", pU'" p'. d&ign 110w .ate. and 1..." i, tI", "u"lmum pump cycle time, Denv,ui"n of Equation 7.9 i. pnwided by /co""" a,-.:/ Sa"k.. (3)fll). r"il' example. if the pump·~ d""ign lInw .al" i. 5IXl gp'" a,1d Ih" pumpcycl~i. "x tlln ... p'" hoo. ho that each pwn p.' cycl" time" Ollid be 10 ",in). Ihe "'limatN ",in,,"um "et-well ,"olu",,, ,,,,uld be ),230 g"llo,,~,

V"u"

,

5IXlgp'" x IOmil'

1250ganol0i

(7.10)

Thi ~ , ill "" is kIlO"" astl'" adi, e ,·Ill wne in tl'" ''''''' "'e11 0. the a 1l"O'Wl t of wa bel" b"" "een t he "rump on'· a tid "pum p off" wa ~r I.... e1. in the .. ; Chapler7 Waler:ClWllit\'arlllClWily

wei" ell. An additional amounl of volu",,, b n""<:led in Ihe we, "ell '0 maintain a ,uclion hBad for Ihe pum?" and mo", ,'olume i, added "-~ a margUl of safety.

7.7

River Water auality

TI,e l",aUn"n, of river wal"r quali,y in Ihi, seclmn focu_ on ,he ",.... nagemen' 0/ dis",1 oed oxygen EDO~ in relal,on to Ihe disch.'rge of o'ygen-
CleanWalerAcI h, p-J!'I.WW LJ'3 ,.y:N1 "'~u I.n.ioc"'~ cw~_h.ml

'0

7.7,1

SurtYourWalershed

1-_'r) Icit'u!> "P~ ~","Iourf!locr",I ~~

DISSaVEDOXYGEN AND BOD

'0

Di",olved oxygen i, requi",d maintain a balanced enmmu'\I'y of organi,m_, in lakes, ri.'ers, and the ocean. When an oxygen-elm, ""uralion le,'"ls (figure 7.21). Wh"n oxygenle,els dmp below 4-5 mg O,/L, reproouction by fL,h and m,lcrn'",e"ebral... l~ imf"',red. Oxygen depletion i, oflen ,e,'ere enough ,ha, an.,embk enndi,ions de,'elop, w,th an .lttendanl 1,,,,s of bloo, ,ers"y and poor a"",heli", (turbidi'y and odor pmblem,). Figure 7.'12 al-dema,ldmg "'a,,*,, on ""yg"" resotJ"""- "",mp;" 75 .'pplicharge_ To app"",ia,e ,he jmf"'ci of ,hI< demand on a m'er', oxygen resources, il l~ nee""",,')' 10 unde""and 'hecap.leily of ,,'a,er 10 hold ",ygen (""Iura,ion) and Ihe rale a, which oxygen can !>e ,"",upplied from Ihe alm""phe",(reaeration).

'0

"'""'' l->ts

'0

7.7_2

OXYGEN SATURATION

The amoun, of oXY8"n lila, can be di,,<;<>I\'ed in \\aler a, a 8"·"" ,ernpera",,,, (,Is equilibrium or
K",

I

DO....

K".

Po,

I

47.11)

" he", 00..., is ,he satura,ion DO cfll,,,,,rura!iffl (in ""ll", 0, ILt KH l~ ,he Hen!)'" law Cffl'il."" {l,Jti " 10 'mol"'fL-a,mal 211 0, and Po, l~ lhe f"'rtial p_~ure of oxygell in Ihe a,m,,,,pher,, (_21 percenlor 021 aim). 1.1 R"erWalerClla!iIy

Flgur117.22 DOS"l\Curveloll.nd "~..,d.lod IV.lorQu.lill" Zones ((bl(dU Re~
Volooty U ~

fF"""""IwlO' II WOl t"f'''••ow;'' f'O""i",,,,,oI

....... .......,. & s.-, ""'.1

-•

1n1
-~

, -~ .n

'-

-,-, • ~~

PoItLJI.'Of>loIorant

"'9"""""

"II ~

-.-".

t> --

,,-

.-'"' .='9.-=. ,-- -- ------_.- --"-, _.-- --_.-... -------. -....-,-, ----,,' ~

'N~

~-

~"'

""

G,ayflsh

-~

~

:.:=,

"--,'"

....

,, • ~

i Chapler7 Water:ClWllit\' and Cl>aIily

'"

'So

;-.

e Xanl pie I 7.5

Mixing Basin Calwlation forCBCID A "asle "il h a 5-day COOO (y.,) of 200 n'g O,/L and a t, of 0.1 I day ls di>.<:harged 10 a river al a rale of 1 m' I '" Calru l.H" Ihe u ll"nale ClOD (Lo! of It>o:. "as!>! b"'... e disd,arge to U", ri,..,,-. A",umu'g i ~la"ta

n,.".. ""xing afler d6rnar!l", cak" Ia.., t t>o:. ul tima Ie CBOO of Ihe river "a to.r afler il has ",,::"', I tin.. ha. a 110'" rale (Ql equal to 9 ""Is and a b:lclground ,,It,mate CBOD of 2 mg O,/L ups Irea m of II., IVa -.Ie di'Cha rge. A k> ca Ieulale U., uhimale CBOO (Lul "nd COOl); {J.J n, Ihe ri, er SO l", deM'nS! rea m of Ihe point of d ""I"rge Tt... n wr has a "id~, (W) of20 m a nd a d epth (1-1) of 5 m.

solution Thi. pmblem has s",.. eral Sleps. First, calculale Ihe Ull1male CIl:lO of the" a,1e b"'c..-e d ;,;d,arget

Lo........

(l

..--'- '"..-',

2DOmgO,.L (I rO· 1 "-,, '"or'l

50RmgQ.:L

'" exl, perrom, a mass balan"e mi>:ing basu' calrula bon 10 determine It... u~ ,m.<:harge.J and mixed ",ilh Ihe river. 11,e general relalio"sh,p Inr calculatiotl oi Ihe c""""nlration of a nv che"~c,,l in a mixing b",,,, IC n ,,) i, Cup x Que + C,n x Q,n Q~

Here Ihe loIall1",,', Qn" equalsQup

+ Q.., and

Ihe ullllHaleCooDequab

2mgO,iL x 9m' ... + 508mgo,:L x 1 Ill' . S 1On,\i5 S2.(,mgO,/L Th;. is It... valia! of It>o:. u kim ale CooD of U", rh'er "'Mer aller it has rocei ,."d II", """to.. To ans"er It... laslllm quo;"tion. c()n""ming Ihe u ~unale COOO" nd 5-<1aJ COOO 50 km dnw n.lream of d isd, ... &", fil'i Icalru lale Ihe 5-day CooOM Ihe m,er '" ater a fler ,I h"" "'Cel ,,,d It... ". """';

11,

Lox(l-r-~")

.V".

52.6mgOdL" (I _ r&·l "-,y,,,",,")

11\....

2O.7mgo, L

'" ""'~ calculale It... u ~Ullale CIl:lO 50 k", d "" ,,,,Ir,,, m of II", pd.nl of d j,;d,ar!l'" A, U'" WI-,... ~r l",et",,,, Tl., mer deM·,.. lrmm of Ihe ",,,,ing 7.""ecan be n,ndeled as a plug 11",,' reactc..- (!'FR). Tt...refore, L,

4,"1<"-'"

H",,·ever. It... lune of Ir.' ,.,,1 n..,
10m'.'. 8liAfDs llll Q ----..2..11 Wx II 2flm"l< 5m O.lm S"l< day xl.e«)", R(, llnvdav Tl",,~ 10 determin" It...lune of Irave~ divide It... d .. l1Ince b) It... river "e1ocit y: 1I

x U

50km 8.(,4l",/d"y

5.7Rdays

1.1 Ri'le,WalerCt>aIiIy

example/7.5

(continued)

Thi, ,- alue ran tl""n be uS
and a 5-<1ayCBCOof ~,

y".,..

4.x(l-,,-~

'j

29.5 x (I _r
11."''''80, L

co'''''''''1

The Henry', la '" ,aries", iU, lemperalure(s..,Chapler 3), '" the"" lur iIli", c.-..centraliOll of 00 "aroos as ,,-ell Ii"" mple 7 h iIlu_t,allS lhe caku l, bon of the ,alurati,,, DO concenlral~" T1", ".l1 lie fo, DO..., ,ailS"" In,m appro.;",a!eI) 1 1.6 mg 0,/ L a 10 C 107.6 mg O,/L at 30 C TI",,,, are typical tfmperollure ""trem", fe.. Ilatural a nd engi"..".:.:1 sy"'e",.,. This ,h,,,, s '" hy fbh w,th lllgh oxygen '''lui",ments are a<6OCiated wilh colder "'.11""., and ,,-hy !I", illlp""ls 01 oxygen-demanding "a,tes on wate' qu.,lily may be greate.1 in U", ,ummer. In 11", wanne, "",,,t/l,; of ,It",m flo" is Iypicaly lower as "elt offern'g Ie., d ilulion oft he w ... te. The c..,ce,~ rali.., 01 0_\ ygen in ",ale' al
'!."Ill''''',

ex alll pIe I 7.6

Deterrrinalion of saturation DO COnamtratkm

o"le,mine Ihe ,alU'a1ion OOco",ce,rtralion, DO..." .1120 C.

solution Df.-termine DCl.... from lhe appn)priate tempe,ature-!...,' anJ t1", o'Yl:"n partial pr..... u'«

1.36 x 10- 1 mole L-.ll'"

X

,., .L

aim

,

VG x 10 'moleo,

Cc,werllomgo,/L 2.l'Gx 100'",oIeo, x 32gO, \( 11100mgo, L moleo, go, 9.1 mgo,

,

Ihat t h> ph ,a'el di5SfJh",d--il:tygt't' .,al"ral i,,,, cmk""dralwol and 11>e inlerchangeably . ",",)Ie

. , Chapler7 Water:Ouanlit\'anllOualily

sd,tb~il!l

of

".""8"" are ,..;ed

ex am p leI 7.7

Determining the Oxygen Defi::it

Detenni"" Ihe d iS501 ,'ed-<>xY8en deficil, D,a I20 C for a Iral ....' of 5 mg O,/L

ri~er ",~h a n ambiem

d ;"
solution From Exa mple 7.6, the 00..... al 2f} C ",a8 del ermined 10 be 9.1 mg 0 1 1 L Applying Equal;;,n 7.12 yield, Ihederl<;t D

'U-5

llmgo,/L

The act.... l DO I" IhL~ ea", L, 5 mg Ol/L, wh;"h is below the s.llUralion Io".. et Micrroial nxodalinn of orgallie matt"ror ammonia-nilrogen in Ihis ,",'er may be leading to oxygen d""lebro,.

7.7.3

TI-£ OXYGEN DEFICIT

n,,, oxy8""

delial (D, exp"",-,ed in "'g O,/U i< de/il1ed ... th" depMlU '" of U.. .,,,b,~nl DO e"""""lration fmm ,.Uur
00....-00""

17.12)

b II", ambienl or ,neasu"'<:l dis,.,l,ed .. )x~);"" £on",ntralio"

(mg o,/n t\llIe III.lI "elflb'" defidh may oo:ur "he" ambielll oxygen £ro,£""traboll' "."'-.] Ih" salU,ah,,, val,--"" This happ"'l< in I.lk, .,,,d ,i, er, under q ui ...""nl, ",..,Iu rbulertl condi liOl" wl",n alg.", and m...,r'l'hyte> .. re a.:l,~e1y ph(~n,ynt""si>i"g a,1d pn,du£u'g d"-",,I\'ed "'yg"'~ Th" o,ersalu,allon i< eli """aled ,,""n sufrleiem turbu lone" i~ a "ailable-----for e"" "'pie, d '--"' 10 ,apid" w a, ..., and ,,- al""fali"

7.7.4

OXYGEN MASS BALANCE

Exampl", 75-7.7 d""",,,,lra!l>d Iha t BOD "x",",ion (e.g., 29.5 mg O,f L m "" a 50 km Se.:I by Equation 7.13. n", ,at"o! rea .....hon i, pn'fX'rt.w"lln I"" ddiol a!1d ;5 d>S.l using fi"t-order kin"'",,,,

bet,,,,,,,,

k,,, D-K,;< L

(7.13)

Here t"" i,,-.'IImd""'yg"""lioll rat~ ""eme"nl (k" da Y-') is mml"r
CBOO read ion ratecrefic;"nt (A', ) d, 9.:u,.,.,.j in Cl" pi er 5 but aMi lid tid IS il\->l",,,,n p""".nne,,,, ,LO::ll as ,,"'pllon alld turlJule,..,e a,ld rroghne", effeas. The reaetat.)" ra'" crefficiem (Ab day - L) ,'an,.; ",ith tenl_alu'" and turbulence(ri,,,," velocity and derth}and ran8"" from -O.! to I .2/ day. In pr aclJ."', Ihe nla"; bal.lIIce i, .... ril..,n in lerm, of def",~:

'D

,"

(7.14J

t"ote heM' Equation 7.14 i, a ,imple re> er", I of Ihe on:ler of Ihe sro n:e-,ink lerm, pre""ntro il1 Equal'nn 7.1), Equal lon 7.! ,I can be imeg"'I&.!, yield ulg an e,p"""inn Ihat d ... cribes U", "xy&"n deficit al any IOLal,o" d,,,,,,,tr... ,,, of anubil",rily establi,hed ,tarting poinl, _,-",h as 11", poi'li .... I,.,.,.e a waste is di",hargro In a ri, er. D,

A', xL" x (e-t,d_r-t,·,)_Dox r"'" (k,

17.15)

k,)

wh"", L" l' II", ultim."e CBOD a"d DOl i, the oxygen defidt at Ihe ,tarting po"u (.r 0, I Ol, and D, i, the ox)'gen defidt al ""ne dow",lream location (x ,t, I n. The notation t ref","s to limeof Ira ,'e!. ddinro here a, II", lime requi,ed for a pdrcel of ",aler 10 Iral'el a d",lal1'" ,t do"1Istrea,,,. Thereft"e, I x/lI, ",here x i, d;,,~~,\Ce do"">1,,,,,,,, and U is Ihe ,",'er ,e1oc~y. The tune---di,"'""" reL,I,o"ship perm ii, ex!""",,,i,.., of Ihe arl.,lyticd.! ,oIUlIO" for U", oxygen deficit in lerl1'" "f x, thed,sta,\Cedo"~"tream of the slart,"g point' 17.16) Equation 7.1" is called the Streeter-Phelps model a,1d \\''''' d ",eloped in Ihe 1920; fCO' stud b of poIlulion in II... Ohio Ri ",r.

7.7.5

DISSOlVEDOXYGEN SAGC~VE AND CRITk:AlDISTANCE

n ... d ismarge of oXJ'&,n-de,,,,,,lding '" "".." to a ",'er y;,,!d, a charac~ teristk """pon"" in oxygen level, Ih"t l~ termed the 00 'idg cur"e (Figure 722). Figure722\ demm"raleslhala typICal D(hagcune h", three pha",s 01 re-p"""'" 1. An inter,'al \\ he", DO I", e1~ fall b""au",", t"" rale of deoxyg..,alion is grealer tha nil... rale of rmer at .,n (Ic, xL> k, x DJ. 2. A ",,,,,,,,um (Iermed the ct~i",1 point) ",here Ihe rateof deoxyg..,alion a,1d r""eral,ona", equallk, x L k, x D). 3. A 11 inter,al \\ he", 00 levels i,\Cre;he (",,,,,tually reach ing ",llLration) bec.l.u.aIily

10'dl;",,, bI'CdU,", if stl "dard, M" mel d I Ih" erili ...-I poi IU, Ih"y w ~1 be mel eb"', h",.,. T" delermin" Ih" hrdl;"'11 "f th" eriliml pni Ill, fil'il u'"' Eqwti"n 7. 17 In d"lern\ln"lh"cril imllime.'nd Ih"" multiply Ih"e';!i",,1 liln" by the ,iver ,'~c.,~y In d"letmin" Ih" cril '011 1n"u;

(7.17)

To Ii nd Iheoxyg"n d "r.,it .,11h" crili"" I d I >td lIC"," ubsMut" Ih"erl irallime int) Eqwlion 7.15. K,n",lOOge of oo~, lh"n pmvid"" II." aCludl 00 eOl.,,,nlr.lI ill\ dI t h" erit i"" I d i>ta ,,,,,, Ex.un pi" 7.1l j,11ut, of'PC'"tu 1\111... f..... il< appticatinn in r" er mi.nag"ment

ex am p Ie I 7.8 Oe1ermilll1g FeabJres of the DO Sag ClI"I/e A fler r"o;<.i '~'l; It... d "'d'arge from a

W""~"·dtt.r t",alm"nl

planl, a ri,,,,. h"" a dis....h,ed-ox)"gen con""nlrdli"n 0/ 8 mg O,/L and an ullimat" coon of 20 mg 0,1 L Th" ",turatic., d i~"k"d-oxyg"n c<",,:o,nlralinn is In mg O,/l,lh" d"""'ygenalim ra!l' eoeflioe't 1:, is n2/day, and lh" ,,,,eral;',n ral" eoefficienl 1:2 is Oil /d~y. Th" river ICd vel< a I a "''''''''1)" of In km/ d.>)". Calculate U." lrealion of II", eritim I pcinl (lin", and d islance! a nod II." oxygen deficil and concentralion at lhe critical point.

solution Fi,st delern\ll", th" inillal DOd e/ici Ia Ill'" punl of d"dMrge. u
Do

DO... - DO.." 10-11 2mgo,il n",n u~ Equalion 7.17 10 deler"'i .... 11", cnli""llim" and knowledge of lhe '" ",.'~ ~e1ocity 10 deler'''' .... lh" ..rilical distal"'" I"'t

I,nt

(I:,-I:,)))

_'_. ''In(''<(I_ DnX k, - k , t, ", . I.;,

0.6,day

, /1.2,day " In (O.f> day " O.2iday

I,nt

2.2da)",

;t",,,,

2.2da)",,, 10"", day

( 1-

",mcg''0.2/da)" iii..c,~,,(~O~'&NC'2Y"-i:'"'.I''''YUI)) 20mgO,'l ~

22"",

Finally, US" Equati(., 7.1510 delerm;"" II." o~yg"" delici anJ E
", X

([,

l., ,,(r' ",)

"-~-"")+Dox~-"'''

D,

0,2 day ,,20m80,· L ~ (~_Il''''Y 1.!~ . ., (0.6 'day 0.2, d .•y)

D,

4.J"'gO,/l

_

~-"I."'" '--'J ..,)

+ 2mgo,,'l ",._".~ ..... :wJ .....

10-4..3 5.7mgo" l In 1m, """ mple, the deficit oo.:ur< 22 km d""'~lr""'"from II", point of initial discharge. DO

1.7 Ri'I",WalerCl>aIiIy

7.8 lake and Reselvoir Water auality Lake Tahoe Planning Agency

'vJ/""".up..=~

1-,

Woller qu"lity condilio,~. in l,kes and reser""irs Me influenced by Ihe magnitude and routing of Ihe chemical and energy fluxes pas-ing thmugh biogeochemical cyd"". 1l1e cultural perturt'dl;rn~. of IWO of th""" cycles, phosphoru,and nilrogen, resuh in a walerqua lily issue of "" id""pread inler""t: ,'''Irol~,i,·ali,,,,.

7.8. 1

THER~l

STRATIFICATION OF LAKES AND RESERVOIRS

A maf"diff~rence bet",,,,,n lakes and rivers hes ,,' Ihe m&ll~< of mol"

tran on "oller quality. The proc,"" of therm"l ,Iralificat,on i, driven by Ihe relatIonshIp bel\\ ""n \\'aler temperalure and den-'Ily. Figure 7.23 .ho,,", the maximum den"ly of w.lter occurs at 3.9~ C. lee thus /1.-...t. and lakes freeze fwm Ihe lOp do,,"n, im.-tead of fro", Ihe bOllO'" up, as Ihey ",,,uld if the maximum de,~,n}' were al n C (Con,ider Ihe implicalio,~< of lhe oppo
,\Inimum o..n.ilyol Tho maxomum dm",ty O<'ClIf' at

W~t
C. Tha<;, ".a.'r a' approximalel)' ~ Cw~lbef,•.mj belowcd-deTwat",.. (i", 01,0 T) In win"" aM w.-rr""" w.-.l<~.

(2tlO in the ",m""". ft""" '" """w...,

f»\;<

II WOl. l.,.-, .... ",;th p"'~;.; '" 01

& Sono, 10<.1

..1~'= ! ...-

'=j------

"E 0.0015

O.OOltl

•-!--+,-----cc:----,:---,---,,,--,: o 5 10 15 ro T_ _ rcl

Ch..pter1 Water,Ouanlity an
Flgure/l.U

,

Mid... m......' T.ml"'''lu~ r",nl. ro, a ThO'rm.lly

• ,

Siulified l.~.

','... lh....pilm.,K.. "",...lImn"", (..'d•• IIw",m
hpolunruum. ~_

•

<

J"•

..."*'"

1900\ _ _ ~

_.-w1o,o'_ . . .

•

"

-_ ..... --- ....

FJgureJ1.25

,l.nnulCyd.. ." SluIi6u'io... O'·.ttu .,d G",ul.lin.. I" T ~......"' \-

"" Wk"" ....d 1" " ..

mrm>rol
"'"'v

, .....''' ..
. ---..~ ::-...-

•

_n

•

I1',fic.n1

um"l1'~ .. \t""t "I

·"",•.

_(199'lIlop', ..... _ .. _...,a1

..... w-.~_

---

",. (~.lu"'.

""I

TI", p""'''''' 01 mixing by ro""ee11"n, aldeJ by wind e"",rgy, drculales Ihe ",ater wlun"" leading I,) an i",lherm.,1 mnditl'''' termed spring turn.Her. As Ihe la"" "alers mnllnue t" "'ann ab'" e4 C, Ihe lake thermally 'Iratlfies. StJrfa"" walers are ,ignilkantly ",armer and les. de,~", th.'n the lower waters J unng .ummer >!ratificalion. In Ihe I.• n, the inpul 01 gather .,t Ihe ,urlac"', and Ihe I.'ke reenters ....inler slralification.

7.8.2

WalerlmplicalionsofBiofuels F-~' p-J I do_ Oolt/_1in3l.p
ORGANIC MATTER, THER.MAL STRATIFICATION, AND OXYGEN DEPLETION

The Inlernal production 01 ","ganic ",aller in lakes, resultIng from algal a".1 macrophyte gro"lh and .timulaled by dl"'harges nl g",wlhlimiting nutrients (ph,"phoru, and nitroge"l. """ d ". arl Ihal ,upplied e"en",lIy, lor "-,-,"'pie, lrom wa,l"waler tre.,tment pla"l, an.1 surface run"ff. Organic maUer proouced in well-lit upper wat"rs ""-II"" 10 the bollom, where il dec"mp"""", ron,uming oxyg"n. TI,,,,.,, i, little resupply nl oxygen u".1er .d the opJXl'ille is lrue '" unproJuchve walers, where enid bolt"'" waters l""'e a lugher "'yg"" ""turatinn Ihan the warmer surface walers. Oxygen depletion le.td, k' .m.'elerali"n III Ihe cycling 01 chemical, thai "",id<, in Ia "" sedi""",,,, (espedally Iron ,,,>",.

7.83

NUTRENTLIMITATIONANDTROPHCSTATE

Troph)' i, defined as Ihe rale al "'hkh organk matter is supplied I" lakes, both lro", the \\,ale,."hed and Ihrough ;nten",lproduction. TI,e gmwlh of algae and macr'''phytesln lakesis influellCed by condlti",~s,,1 lighl and lemperatu'" a"d by the supply 01 growtl,-li",iting nutrienls. BecaLL'" levels nf light a,>
Ch3pler7 Waler:OlWllit\'anllOlWily

lak... can be"lo""ififfi "'10 Ill.... gn,up' a""ord"'g 10 II"'if trophic ,taled eulrophic3tion. n,i, i, cnnside.e:I I<> b" a nat ur ill aging p.oce,.; in la ks. Figure 721> sh""" the ,uc",,,,,;on of """,ly lorn>eJ ",ate. bod",,, 10 dry la"d. Addilion 01 phosphorus Ihrough human act,viti", alld II", .ed cwlur31 eulrophic3tion. Varialiol\ in land u"" and population d"""ty can lead to a .an&, of I mphic ,10 l
7.20 Cl.... ifical..n of Wote. Bodies Based on Thei. Trephic Status Ohg<>lrophic

"Ulriml peo'" 1",,' 1",..c1, "f d !g.... m"'Toph,'k'~ 3nd nrganic m, n"r. 1\00.:1 tTdn
E"'mri'''

:-:"'rim t rich, h ish 1e,,,1< "f dig"". m"""'Ph }Ies and "'ga"" maa,,: p"n, tran'f"'rc...,..; "ften '" }'gm-depclLxI in the hYI'"lanl1lm

M"""''''pllic

lnlenr"dJ.1f" ~ ... c; "tim ",~h alund",,' fiq, Ii" h6:""", of "I""dled le,,,I'ol m&,,,ir-n,,I"'r pnxludicn and ad"lu.>Ie ,ul'I'l.,. "f "''l,\en

(0) Newly formed 101<0 (oligolrophoc)

(cl MotHlowlm.vsl1

(dl Dry Ia.-.l

Rgurel7,26 N.lur" Succ"..;o" in L.k", 0"" ''''''''pi of Mlur" ,U<',,,,,,.,n in 1.11,-", <"&P'''' trollhc....., "~."r" po'''' through d "";,,.. of <1.>11"< d' lhlor b"''-nUv inlluencaj bj'loc.>l molmnlklg;GlI cmdilicn<, 'hlo depth "I IhIo Idle. dod IhIo
Iop-;,g,jw,~

f'O'"';.;a, oIJoh, W;oy& s.", ""'I

7.8 lJIlo! and Res....... Wat.. Dua.I«y

~ DWllcQ-Deplptpd Dead Zonps Arollly1 O,er .j(~1 m",b.! """" in th" wmld aTe "'pmt.,J tn nperience ,,,,,.., /"nn "f eulruphi"",!iUQ (I'igu,", Z:IJ). Of lh""", 1M! are repmteJ to experience hYP',xia. Th.,., " .. "" 11...1 J""d "m", "xl'.,.;"nc" Hon' low "'ygen le,'e!, (Ie", II"," 2 mg/ll t tu t C.111 b" ""'"'''' I Uf melinoal A 'm.I ndead "..., may "a:"pv 1 km' a nd ""'liT in a

bay ur '" lu'lTy _The laq;e de.-.J ",me l"co,led in the G uIf "I M""iao h.b bden me...urt>.l at "'..- nJKXllm' (Ib"""",,! M... ",m",,,,,,,~ Thi, I"cah.m, "If If.., L,"' ,., ,1.''''_ c,.., tIm' If.., m,"" imp<.-tml 0...,,,"",,,,,,,1 fish y in t r., 1"",... 4~ ,l.:J~, and j, ftrl by TUP,iffmm t \.., 1>1 " .. ",,,,pi Ri,-.,,-. The M;""",'Ppi drains4 I p ...""nt "I the landm ..., "f the low ... 4~ 'l.:>~' "..J include, Cum Ikh ,tJ""-,uch.s Ohin, Ind.,,,,,, IUin,':.., aoo I"wa. lJ",jJ", u_o;i~ "xc.,;·

,i,,, amnun" of fertil;,...-" lli"'''.'l,''", li"" d'aiTll"Ll up

"f their w<'llar.h, which ' ... ,,, a, nutri""t bur",,",. In f.ct. ~5 I"'ccenl "f lhe nUlri""t inpull" lhe Culf C".. ", de"d LOne ''';b~''''t''' in the Com Belt, .n ote" ll.>t pn,,;Je, I,,>d lor" gn",;"" pupul.tion.nd i, I" ll{I pen"ne

Allurll1.21

C".,l'" Eulrophic .nd Hyp"~icZ,,ne•. ~db,"'"",.'oI12OOl1

Chapler7 Water:Cuanlit\' and Cuality

the Wprld

n"w "iew"," by ",me a, a """'IT« "f energy ind"P"'" d"",e lhmugh bi"fuek OtheT nutrienl inpul' (lhat c,,,.,t,in nit",!;"n "nd/m pho'pl-",u,) "'" a..",,,.,~d with municlp,,1 ",."'e,,",,l.,,- and indmtrial Ji...,harge;, url"", mn"ff, .nd "lm'''ph.,,-ic d"l', .. ito>n a,"'''iated with f'''''1 f",,1 combustion. Alm''''ph,..-ic input> c;m be 1",,!9' "'".,tribuhI"- hI e ..,mple, "tn".. ph.,,-ic nitmgen input, ll.>t mi:,;i""~ with f'''''1 fuel cumb",ti"n "'".,trioote 25 I"'rt:ffit "f lhe nitm!;"n input to the Che""l"'ake U.. y d",d "".,e. Left u ntm.:h"J, d~",d ~""'" can c.use lhe c-"lla p'e "f ea""""",, "nd the em,..,mi c and sc""1 ')' tern; lhat depffid "n them. F"rtun.,tely. de.ld m " " , c"n be r",e"",", For example, the mack Sea "nee had a dead LIme that "n:upied 2U,lXKl km'. Aft..,- II>" 1!Mtb coll'p'e "f m"n" centr.li.J in t he ",,,t..,-"",,,", t I.>t d r"in t" lhe Ulack Sea. nilmgen inputs felt by toU pen-enl. Thi, en...,tually r",ulted in the dead "me shrinking .nd in f.ct d""pp""Ting in 1\1\16 {La"",", 21JJ4; Selrn"n d aL, !lXlSI.

7.8

<1

Class D1swsslon

ENGIf'fEREDLAKE MANAGEMENT

TI,e prefe.1'al t"\ptin" in 'lu.lIlty m.l'1.1genlenl of "uri""" "ate. j, alway" 10 pre,'enl 0. el im"ul" dl"Clu'8eo; through nI.1I1"8"mel11 "Irateg''''' IMI wotlld empha"i7.<> ..,..",:.. I'aluetio", r.!Cwling. anoJ reu."" of ".OIe. and ""'n,,llIS. fig"'" 7.21lIuti"'~, p.-nli.'d here apply 10 OIher poll"Lmb. (Ro'IlI<'1llM tll.ll in Arphcati.~' 7.3, Il",nagenlenl of de.td w,.... "otIld al..... """,j,j... mi mm'~lng n,'rogen inpu!,;.) In lhe ......... of pho"J'h"""'. g....at ,trooJ..- in I",alnlent Iffhnologoes ho"e red.uc..J pho"'rl>or", "'n.:.. nlratM"~' Itt nlUn,nJ"'-l "a.,lewdl". effluenl """" than 1"0 oru..... 01 m.lgn,lud.. fro,,' tlw ,nfl,..,nl Cu......uy mo>tho"d, .I"" ~ng 0.1.., t'Inpi!d Ioru;; that bo. omplen_bol\.l at 11'01 bu,k1m8 or I...... tnlent pLlnlle,el. Foraample, un... Cdn bo.rol.....:ted .,IIw ............ or builoJ,ng le>el ,,1UIe -tN, rte to phroon bLM:LouI f""ri<'d, .....,.. belioc)' InoI in some IbIrd 10 agnrullur.:J praetJ<.lS. FuwI).. "'orm"01111!r ~ ba;;m;;, ilr'bf..:idl "et1on
00""'"", ""..

c."

...

...

H"", '" .... ytJ , ........ nJ'i" .... "'. . ~..,.I

...

u... r~ •• Y"'l.or~ n,~ ;O\''""'''!'

.'''.,¥, "".~".

pop..I01!.,"" ....... ?j "

u ,. t..-,,,.,

cO...'-aI

.PP"'"''' '

"'. ~''''.,

" v-, """""-1 al ............
..rJ _

~""Y""""""",",.>r_

rc",~ ..

f'<'l'Ur.""

,a", '1 ... d

._r.' . .

Ldtraour.cr ',N r-J I")

CD<"

:z...., 's

.l""""',,¥," """" ~

...,,', pa"'~

,~,

~'"'

·...,.....

r

...to

,

r....- .:~,.. >-....:cr toe

..

~:..aI ~~........ ~'" .".,...,~_."'l.......

_,,~o~f'""d...:
. .. '
...'.,....._. ."..."

......

~..,.,

Tradl coastIl Areas 1mpz:1ed by Eubophication atKUor

--

r.= _ ....

~f"""."

~~.",."...i:.lr..,.. ~'""

7.9

Wetlands

W..uands ..... ua,&I........ LuIlk betv. ...... tn><' aqu.tb': ..,,, rn-.nrnenlS ...... d~ ~ I.ond (~ I.. Ii> upL>rw.k1 T'heo. n 'idtur.. W the" hoIe~.... r In f.Kt,.llt, h~ oJ .........'8", and "'" ~rilythe I""''''laof plants, thaI rom""" """ ... etland ;., iJd'lJlOOCI.l~ and <'fI' ,,,,,,,,",,,,,,131 benefit.... r..... aAmpie, ...",L1n,;h r"" Ide M.:....allo.w benefit, rel.oloo \0 fuJung, GI.""",-ng. .nd blnl"atcillng, T1w~' aM ....,h..,.... propert, dan",S" ",ILl 1o!;sof lik, as t~' a .... cnli<:.ll forronlmll"'8 f\oo,jm8- \\'",l.ond, ..1;;0 lead 10 ,mrrmed "al.... quain, I>oeau ..... nl tllt'lr .t
"''''''r- """""""-

"Ole

'dnrl"

.,lo.l

7.9 WeIIo1ndS

lp .1): .If ~ iilHi iUWh1 l'i

$~,

l\.

~, I' .t .l, 8. I !'" rl!~lilUI _

,

.!'Ill! 'I! tid

)lhlH ~ <1'1 ,1:1 iT1!I~ !

i

li'H!lh ~Ei H

! ,jl!!'jl fl.),ll.!

~

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.!!.

iil~~l(~e"

!

!

!

, ,

,~

--------

,.. _, ...- .. -.,-. ..... .-................... _. ,,",0,..' ... ,

•

~=~~::

~

..,.II"'"-"· -.......... -...........

j

~i

f

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z

>

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:lljttJ.l1

1"J.!lJh .li,!p ii!

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h~ll ~ll

IT'l'l' r

.~ thlHHI.I r . ·ll·, f

I

L

-

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'I' '"

.. ••

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' -' ~ I Hlihlh .. iii 1 I,' ! 'I. i is ! '1111'11 • II ~lllill ,~ , !

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il1ljlilf

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nil 'lfi,1! 11 I .~

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;

7.21 Wetland. Include the following Areo. That fell into One off....e Cotegoneo Ifrom Doij. 2011)

",h...ed,;>;tio "u,~u,lIioo in wo~, Ie,,," "'0'" .<~on. tmb,d,ty, or high concenlTalh... of ",1t., moy p",-onl the growth of hvdro~v""

A"",-,

,,~thOlJl hydro~VlL'"but ",ith hydricsoU,-fnre~"'"ple,"o~

Am•• wi th hydmph y""' but llnnhydric .soil" ,urn .' rna'}:"" of imrounJ mrn b '" h.,-e b«..-.neehed but hvd,k""''' h.,'e nnl )... denlopill

e"
ali,..., '"hore h"dro Fh y""

The EPA and Ih.. US. Arnw Corps of Eng",,,,,,,, h,we "'Iabli,hed 'tandard, foc;"kd '" ith "",,-.truct inn nf 'lS~ dellbal d", ""pn... nl, rrod" a,>.Il",·"",," St<:ti,~, Hll of Ihe Cle.", IVai.". Act allnws Iil<' Anny Corp, tn j",,,,, pt"mib. Figure 729 sl...." ... Ih.,t jU'it by I-"ese""'g "'eiland, in all urb.ln endmnment, nne can reduce nilrogen I",dings In II... urban" "I.".shoo, The US. FL.I e
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EJoSling Wotlandt.· 11 a<:f8S 1::1 AooSllllll_ W",_ - :l6 """'" _

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Up:Io - 75 a<:nlS

FlglI'el7.JO Wotl.rnd R""to,.tion ,\ 12l-.x",,,,elland ,,""'obl,lurent rm~'Ct '" " .. th"", W.. mn~n 00",.<1< of p"--....,n·... ~ 11 .cre< of on <'>.i.I,,,,,·n hom 0""1. 2011). Chapler7 Water:OlWltill' and Ol>alily

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FlglI'el 7.29 lml"'
d rdined. U"forh"Mtely "'etl.",.:! l""s raJ"" dre ,Iill inc"""i"g "'ith dll ove,all m"""'Iuence Ih .•t Mlional 1"""", Me outdistancing gain,. l""s of ",etland, ,,,,,ults in habnal loss .• "d fragmentalion, lin"t"'" opporlu,,,',,,,, for laler reeslabli'hmem of ",eiland" and roouclin"s in futu,e gene,a"o", abilllY 10 prol"'" a"d r""'or,, th" ben"ficial use; of a ",at"...hoo. Th" ""-,,,1 rommon cau"", of ""tla"d l,-",s are li,leJ In Table 7.22.

National Wetlands In¥entory "~~I'")I'I.'IoW,"""~.'_ .... r.o.

louisianaCoasla1 land lDss ~_~I'"II""",',r""",u"'l.'''P'I"'f'U''V ~rdlo!.o.~..n-

Class Diswssilln ...

1-;"", .... oUd yoo 'rae",!"

... ,.., b-'''l""t",,,..,. , ...

7,22 Most Common Contribuloland comm>'ciol devel'pm",' (UThm"",",,n) C"n
b•. a"'i'-'l"""i>I"corl
ju.U<,.• r-d """"",."n~ ~ "".t....dl ro~ It:ad t-o I"". if 'f'I'OmJ<',y f,,, c,-rt='t .'Ll ft.t.u ... 0/,,,.....,,..., WhllC """"< '''Y i.. ",. .;oooc ..,d wit.n ......-t-
'\"" ,..,.. ro.J Vtm.r..ion. ou """'. """"I i.o
...,1"",,"" ""

~I-JIh""CEB!",ri'rt"UFF",e",,'Ia,rt""L in tl-., St.,te "f ~lorida """",,,flhe,,,,,,ld', truly uniyue,-"""},,,terro;. Il meW", "etla",1> and a "v.". "nee ",bma,ed ~, be 51) mile, "'ide..\l"r" ,h.,n 51) f"'IT""1 "f tl-., original wel1".,,1> ha"e """ n I, '" I ,,, ",,,,,'e ",;.'" h' agri.:ulrure aoo urOOni,... ti>",. hff",ts h' pn~ecl 'bi' """"'TCe h.",e '''''''botheT>t.-d bu' "ften amflict ,,;lh i""",,~mg d","""'P"""" demand, h,,- Tapidly gn",;ng "",idenl aoo blUri'" populati"n." SO"", 19:JJ. the P"f'Ublild, I'mm 21XI,lUI h' mo", than 5 million, a gn,,,,lh rate appn .... imate Iy HI ti""", fa""" than 'hal "I tl-., Uni'ed St.,lto-. In 1\1017, !Ove~ "'a' imaJ Park ",a, h>~. I' """, " , n ' " " , 1.4 milli'm a"."" (J,.""ly 5 f'eTC"nl 01 lhe 1md area "f ~l,rida) and h." I riple d in ,if.e ,i"", il "'''-' e .,labIi..hd. In 21U), lite U.s. Gm!>"",,' au,h"ri,.eJ ,he Cmnprehen> ive heT$lad'" I{""t"..ti"n l'1m, ,he b'1>'" Iem;mn"""'L,I "",1<>Ta!i,m pn.;.rt in hi,"".y, "'i'h a JI)-}e., ti"", frame and a SIO.S billi'", budget. A, p.>rt "f lhe "",1"".>Ii"" pbn. 4(~l krn "f canal, 000 1e'I'""" (in_I,lled III the 1\141" 1<' am'ml and di".ort w,le,) ,,'ill be rem""ed. M~a,u"", will be 'aken ,,, ""ntn~ m\,."i,'e and exolie 'P""-;"'" and 6.4 billion 11k"" dav "fTU II< >if "'ill be Irealed to rem"'.... nu,rient> .md ,~her"mbminanh. I{umfi will he "ured and t't.'<1ir",,'..J t" mme c!,,,,,ly """,nille pre",lIl""",n' (""rural) fI"", p.'lI~rn., I" H"..id., fur, "-, ,h"",n in Figure 731. M"'.... 'run 21X),lXl) """'" "f bnd

'n", h" ..glaJ",

_ ha,.... b '''P',.-ling "n thi.' pbn (ww",.e'·""glaJ""pbn.,,'I9. Ihe Anm' G,,!,, "f !Ongin""" 'pell, ou, il' pmmi.'" and impmbnoo:

,..,,,Jt

l"'I,lmrt"t.du'" "f the f"'I"M.i.'" pi"" "'iii ill rht rn""""'Y <1 h....hlry, ",,,Nt" "'y' r",,, i" """ rh n,nJa 1'1", rlJ'" ,,,1/ ,.-.I",,,, 10.,,,, "1>1.... " oM.,1 '" ""'III. H".i.I" '" rJ.UI tr",,,, b 'lot I.'" M Iht """". or,,1 i/o> r",J b< " ..,II",,, pr""r II.. ., !D..I/ 0, ",hom",,,lu;;," "ir""J ,,""!>. Th,ob,Jrry I" "" ~I ill 0" "'S",,,', "" I" mI ,.,.,,'""';. "', ".I q"" I ~.v lOrIIf' .Iq""J\ I"".I'''ld t;t rad ,lIrr I h.· ""'''''',,'f rh, ~, ... ,I.."". p,.Ud bel~r nl""'S' II.' ,~,,",'; ,,,,r,,r (USACfO, 2OlJ&,.

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One key elem,-."t ,,/ the m"nagemenl p1m i, lhe FI"rida p.>nlher, " ,ubo.f"-'Cit" of """,ntain li"n. '\'he p.m''''''' ,,""" ",ngeJ in eighl 'blL'" "'..". ,he en'ire ....Ihea"ern United St..lto-, bu' 11<"" it h",; , "ng<' reJuceJ h' "FP",ximolely 1U ""'nli", in ",,,,them ~1,..- id" (1"", 'h"n S l""'""nl "f i" nali, e ,angel. '\'he ~-',HTe,,' p"pulati"" i._ ""ima,eJ a' app"",imalelv \Ill animal,. 1'he p"publi,m Jecrt'-"-"-,J drd""'ticallv "ver 'M, p"-,t """tuN due h' hunl;ng all
~ (conliolledl ..."><11.,,,..1 . I" ,~ri<'ultu,..,. While k",~ uf h.:>bilal i.~ .i""iliranl. h.,biLll degrdr lfu-t,.,!>;.

The p,..,ferral prey fm- lhe pomlher i, white-L,ileJ de,,,, lhe p"puldti,m "f which h,,, ,[", declined. Sec"nd,'Y h-.d "lU''''''''''''' feTal h"g> ,el",c,..,J f", hunling, • nnadill, .... and "'CC<''11.'. In a",,, wilh h,w d"", J"->Pulali,m,. "',:",.m••,.., an inc",,-,ingl~' imp'"tml pout of Ihe p,nlh"" diet. 1Jecau.", ,acer.JM feed "n Ii.h .,nd

Figure I 731 ,,"'"

_

crayfi,h. Ihey hd\'e in""",,..,J mercury ermlt'nl i",m bi'>1c<:umul.li,m. lncftlJ"."J mem,uy le,,,l, in pomlh..., ""'y be hnl..eJ I" d",.,..,..".,.j hNlth ;md repn>d",:ti,,, .,ur: <""". bul er>nclu.";,'e 'Cioenlific ""d;"" 1-."" neither pr",,,n no, d;"pm,'"" Ihi., hyp.lthto,i>. \ ehicleOlIl;"io"", ;US" 1-."" l>een , ,ignil'ica"l "ruT'" of parth... ID.JrtJlily. Figu '" 7.32 .h"w.' Ii"w i nlegTa ling wild lif" WTrid,,,.,, in~, lr'''-'p'Jrta!iun sptem.< n,,' only p"~ect:. wildlife bul .1"0 linb ",-,~()~ico>l are", and wildlife habilal.

The Florid. Enrgl.d"" SilOwing Flo...· of IV.le. from Historic,

C~rrent••od

Ful"'" 5«n.rios.

~_a~, ",all", d "'" U.S. _vC..,. 01 '''ll'-''' ~,,;'""'" S<>..th fIoO
,.

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Figure I 7.32

Use of Wildli Ie Corridor,; 10 link Etc 'lOSn,,"!u,lIm,c P.,,,, E." Project. which Imks Pugc! S..md to"".•tem IV.,hing'''''' The' "",1 11... t..= recogniz'•• rc .""",-,--ted m lh" proposed <'ruetu"'.• od Ix~h I.'S" on
."If""!>

~ ..... U.S_ ~011"," "";","--0,1«~.;...o5

_ _ f _ ~ Mono"'......" 1-..lo'f"O"'n1ial.... ',

""1

Ctiapter1 Water,O"""titI' an
~'II"""" 1h,""-
7.10

Groundwater Quality and Flow

Ground",.,!"r quality is all impmtam IOpic because of Ihe large nu"'boor of ",d"·,d,,.I, and that """,, groundwater a, a wat",. source and lhe n"mbe. of en",}'"t""" lhal depend on groundwater IMsdln",. Groundwater pollution is Ihe degradation of ex;sling groundwater quality_ II can occur from anthropogenic aclivit;"" and alS() through ".,lural prOCf."'5eS "here pollutants leach inln the ground"-"l"r from surrounding sub--urlace minerals. Th"'" human acti' ilie> .. nd Mlur.tl p"""",.e" can ,"",,,It In pl>llutant level, th.,t I"",e a potential risk III human heallh. Somet,,,,,,,, Ih,.,., natural leaching p ~ are acceleral<."d through hum" .. acli,-n,,,,, thai change Ihe ,<.'do, chemi51rv of the ",,""uri a,,,, or of metals Ihal.He mm'ed 10 the su riaee d,,"ng mining. eha nses in ,ro", mnd 111m" ca n cau"", metal s 10 beoon,..,rled from an oxidized slale 10 a reduced ,Iale where Ih~y are then m",~ mobile. Ele,-aIN meMI concentrallons th~1 occur Imlll "atur.,1 proc"",s occur In many pM" of Ihe United State" and "'nrld and ca" '''''ul! In u,~",,/~ l~, eLs of m~l.l1s ,uch ." a"", nic, f1uorid~, and uranium in gmu"dwal~r.

bu,;""",

7.10.1

Glob aIArsenic Cris is h' I'"J!'I.WW _"..'" j ....Jtop
SOlJl:CESOfGROJNDWATERPOllUTON

Figu.... 7.)3 ,ho,,-.< ""amp"" of ._~\'~ral hum~" ~eti \- iii"" a nd h.~,,- Ihey can in'pact gmundw~t.". quality. acli,'itt"" ",c1ud~ int~"liol\al a"d uninl~nliollalinpubdirectly 10 l~nd or Ih~ _ub,urface. AL", not~ m Ihls figure 1m" Ihe pollutanls can ""gj"~le from I"'lIlt ",un:", dnd nonl"'inl The In_ of 1"'1Iulallts thaI degrade gmundwal~r quality ar~ li"'illess l"-"C"duse of all Ih~ dIfferent aCli, iii"" Ihat take pl~ce on Ihe 'urface and C~II iI' lrod uce palhogens, inorga"ic c1telnirnls

TI,,,,,,,

""U"""".

-

Grolftl Walcr M""""""" l<"e,"""",II'"4""

---. UnirltooUonal lnp
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f\epor>ng on TOO Ton

Cor<.lTW'aflt Sout<:
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R"l'OfInII on ContOlTlof'a'll

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05101520253035

~

Number of States, Tribes, and Territories Reporting Figure I 7.34

~bior Soure..

01 Ground ..·.lor C"nl.min.lion Identified by SI.les, Trib.., .nd To.. ilo';o••nd ~po"od to EPA (Fr
UrIlIerground SlCIrage Tanks in Your Area h

'l"jlwww-"f'A~IOOSfl~k,.

hm

State-Specific Septic Tank Information l-_'r-Jlwww.r-"!IC.""~.d~""f'l.",_"JI,/

~"~

. Chapler7 Water:ClWllit\'andClWily

kg., !Heu!>, arsenic. lIuoride, nitrdle), radionudid"" (e.g., urdnium), al1d org.>nic chemiral, (for ""ample, fuel prOOurls, ""Ivents, f""ilicid"", dlld herbidd",,), dnd ~merging chen\lcal~ like pIYnnareulicals. Anot.her importanl groundw.t.er comami"."t. l~ salinily. Salt",aler intrusion ,><'Curs from Ihe """'pumpmg 01 f"""h",ller fro", wdL~ loc.led in c""swl Mea,. TIIi, proces.~ of pum p"'g more" .Ier from ., m",~~l "quiler at. .1 rale lhat. j, f"ler t.han II i, recharg"-'!"-"t thredt~ identified .,re, (0 ~tor~ge of luel in underground .Iordge t~nh, (2) ,,~,t.e dL~1"""1 ~cli"illes rel.ted 10 o"-~lle lL<;e of ""pli~ Mnk., 10 lre~1 "."lew~ler ~nd Id"dfill~ "here ",ul"cil'-'l ~nd h~7-"rd"u. "a,l"-,, Jre di.~!X"ed of, (3) agricuhur~l acli"itl"-" thJI indude rol\cenlraled u,,", of .Uli",,,l feedlot~ .• nd land apphc~lion 01 lertilizersand 1""t.lCides,~nd (4) industri~l prachces Ihal reled'" met.~I, and orgdnic chemical•.

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7 102

GROUNDWATER flOW AND POLUTANTTRANSFORT

Gn>Undw"ler poIlulanb are tran'pon",," by Ihe p"',:"",,,; of ad,-",,,,,", a "d d "perilon. fn Chapter ~ we d d1n.,j ad,eeli"n .•s 1".nslX,n ,,-ilh lhe m""n flUld flo",. This cau Ihe direction of ground",aler flow. Chapler ,I al"" defined dispersion as lhe lraR'pnr! of ch.emical. Ihrough Ihe actinn ,~f rando'" mOlion•. Go back 10 Ihal eha pteI' a,d r",-iew Figure421, "'hid' d"l'iLted lhe proee'" 01 mecha ni<:al d lhal occur< d ur"'g grow.d",aler fl"",. The flow of a groundwaler i, a ,inul." prnc"". "-. fl,'" Ihr()lfgh a "'''d filler or sand column and L' Ihus bd"....j on DaTcy's la"'. Hen')' D •• n:y w ... a French hydraul ic engin""r w horel-~-,rled resulls fr..." sand fiher experimen'" Ih., I were cUlduCl.,j "' a columrc DMCy fOOJ nd II~ I the flo" rale (Q) II"o"ough a porou, media (ll "" a ""nd fillfor or gmw'J.'"aler) ,,- ... pn'pmlionallhe h"'d I",s (ilL) and j", er
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The negal ivesign in EqtJalinn 7.11\ a",,,u nls I,... the fact tha Ill'" h"'d is d.,..",... in8 in the direction Il~t 11", ,,-ater flo",... Hydraulic cor.h.:tivity i. a IWlCtiUl of Ihe aqtJUer malerial, anJ Table 72J pm"rde' Iypical ,aI"", 01 K f,... a wide ran8e "I g,,,;-,g,,,,,1 ",,"erlil k 11 " .., ran!\" fn,m 1:ilIO 2m m/day {,... mal ium 8'" ,-eJ... 23

7.23 Represenlal;"'e VaLes fa. Hym-aulic Cand..:l;"'iry and Patasity fa,s.,;l, and Other GeobgicMal«iolo {dalOfromTodd.19S\1. I'anlcIo Sim (mml

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OB

"~ 1142

1-O~

"" "~

tll 12 ",/<.In lor fin" to ",,,dium ""lid. OJII! m/d~. f.ld 10;,...., ,..nll.., a~ head 100;< ~ un,1 k>"8Ih (dhI41. dun",,~io"' n.., • ,n thoo 1011<'"'''8 "QU"-I.''''

cia.•,

...,;).

.

..-"'Is

~KA 41

Q

(7.191

I'qua.bm 7 19 c.. be ......... ~ 10!Hll... f..... tho OuC'y ulocity. 1'.

Q

.,

(7.20)

nwDOlm. .d<..,h .. onIp"WfotRr) rolltJ',nurrWr.; I,,-~... gn.....,.. .... n"" IS uLng pba a<»',,--, lho omt.Ii'C""" ~ CAl of I"" ",,",1M- In tho. ....~a: .. l!nJgtl. I "n!' "llod'.lraJ 1""''' 'iM"~ pn!"tnt. ThonofIW. ttwoKa..ol t1cM of .. .III , [,""10'<11(> tho. f"T"'p""uod """ a, ....trgt> , ......,,!y C...I through lht»e ~ an bio ~ ~ dn ••lIng tho. o.ny ,d,"-~y by lho po-o.~y
t""

..

(7.21l

"

Tho! pc>rosity .\{11Io. "-'1"lf... rna .... "'1 i, d ..UW\l ", .olum" of lho wlid ,f\l,..... bun. "olu"""

P.22)

T ~bl" 7,23 pr", iJ...s r"pr..",ntah.e valli,," lor po...-,";I y. TI,.. porosily i. a rll",'t"", or th" dqulfer Il\dteri,,-I. f..... "d"'ple. it ,'"n f'l.J",,1 0.32 1m m
f",

(7.231

""'t

In I:quMoon 7.2.l, K~ IS lhe 'oil-.. partll"-.. ,,,,,,f!latfll (L ~ or em i mgl tholll ... -.1i."",-, mChdpl'" 3. 'I "the f'<"I""i1~ (u,~t""-,).• od PIo ,. bull dtfl"ty ofthe soilor ~if... mal .....1fem 'I gl.l"ho> .-..L>rd.bon .""lIi";""t '"lJ'ti... lhal ••"".... al that i, u,.J"'l!Ping '
t""

~ ..n>undir« ~I or .'1"If... """' 1.. ~11".el "I" ,10...... r",,~ than the .' ....!Ii! • ~loc~~ of th"glUl",," a1 no....,••t..-m""I.. ,1h a ~rdal"'"

c<>i!ffio.... lhe

t""""

,~~~ of

105 .. i1lt..."I.", , d",~y lhal

the grounaI...

,.fj." lim", ,Io.."rlhao

no.. d"".......l\i!'d ,n Equalton 7.21.

7103 S18SUIlf,tCEREMEDIA.T1QN

.ft..-

R"",o'und""'"r r
ex ampIe I 7.9

Delerrrining Travel Times of Groondwater and Subsurface Pollullllis

,et,,,,u,

neE)

A lffiklng underground storage lank h~ disrnarged lho> lrid,"","'''''''''' i,~o g,mll,dw at",.. A water wdl u,",d for d ri MU'g ;<; lreata.:l 120 m dow ''8radielll from lho> I... kl,'8 Ian k. To e .... ure II~ sar"ty of lhe wa ler supply, II... lank is r...."o'a.:1 In sl"l' II", s,.,r~ a,td a J!lonitnri,'8 wen i, d rined halfway bet',,'.,,' lhe water wdl a ,td lhe sol","" d i!;dtarge. The differ""", in hyd raul", head bet we"" U", '00 n:e attd Ihe mon doring wdl " 35 cm (wllh II", head in II", monlloring "dl higher). A sde lnve;tiga1~J1' ,I",,,, II", ,ul",urf3Ce aqu,ler maler111 COlN'1:,; pnma oly of mal iu 111 ,and. (al How lOIlg d""" ilia .... gn)Undw.ller u nJ er''''a1h U", leaki ng 1d/1 k 10 rearn II", mOl,itoring "ell? A..,umi! II", TCE m"" ,., al tl", ,an", ,. e1,,,,it Ya, lhe gO>l",dwaler. (b) If Ihe aquifer maleria I has an organr caroon cill,tl!m of I per",rt aoo y<'JU nOl' 3""'" nl ler sorption bet """" II", TCE and aqu iter m"'eriaL hl'..... 10llg " Ul it laki! ''''' TCE 10 r""cit U", monilor"'g "dl? A..,ume the bulk density of Ihe aqu ifer maleria I ;5 2.1 gm) on '.

solution Fill" pa n (a), Ihe Ira ,el I une of Ihe gn, ..,d wa Ie, and d",n"ca I (""-<;l.lI,"ng;1,; n""",n""t is nOi rtiardeJ by ",rpl",n 10 aquifer m."erials) is delernll,t<:f discharge 10 lhe 1"''''1 "here Ihe mo,,: lO,n'g well is l(l(atf.\:l. [I is foond by fir"'- calru btl "{; II", D.t n:y ,e1reit y (Eq .... nOll 7.20) a ,td I;"'n d i,' Id ing this value by II", 'rt'll por.... it Y (Equa hon 721). Table 723 prm ides inforn~ltiOl' on lhe hyJ raulic conductivity (IC) 3,>J p........ lIy (TJ) I,", ,nediurn .and (IC 12m/day and TJ [1.391. [>

Kdll

TJ

TJ dl

O.lSm/day

The Ira ,,,1 lime of lho> ground" ater from lho> poIluta nl

'00 n:e tOlne mOl,iloru'g "

nom

".

1I.I~m

ell i>

3:lldays

. . day

Fo, pari (h) we.>eeJ to d.,termine ho" sorplion impacts lhe le10cily i>f II", TCE. In Example 3.13. ,,·e detenn"'N Il~lt Ihe ,oil-waler p.:Irln;on coefHdenl for TeE in a 0;0;1 m,nr;' with an organic (a,bon "')I,lenl of 1 percent "a, 1.9 COl) Igm. EquahOl' 723 allows us 10 ,.,I,male the elfeet lhal sorption has on II", vdreity of a chemiGlI pollula'" ,dativ" 10 lhe ",,,,,'en, .." 01 Ihe groundwdler. I n lhis caM', Ihe relardalion coeflkiem is d""',minf.\:l dS

,

1+£1> K 1_

2.1 gm . cm'

'»

'

., 1.9cm /gm

10.2

R"",,,,nbe.r thai R,;s unill""•. TI,e \dlue oi 102 impltes Ihal Ihe mmem",,' of TCE is slo"er relali,e 10 Ihe o,o,"""",nl 01 Ihe "aler. 1l,us, we can expeet Ihal Ihe TCE would arrive al Ihe mon iloring wd lin (330 days x 10.2 3.3i'O day .. nils may"""''' It .... a 1000g Iinte, but ; n ma ny cases ,pi lis llO'ur",d year; a,>J dec.od ... bet....e they were det""",d i:Ir betler manasal and 'egulata.:l. A Iso ~rve in thi, example ho" Ih" mmemenl of gmundwater and Ihe chemical are ,'rOflgly jnfluencf.\:l by sub,;urfa.ce pml-"'rties (hydraulic gradienl, hydraul;c conduct;vily, por""ily, organic carbon conlent) and chemical pmpenie, (hydrophobicity 01 Ihe chemical). AlIll",.., paran'e1er, can r,.,,,11 ;n g o,unJ "aler arid c1",mical, I ha, m",'e a I a rd,e in II", slJb"url ""''' su"i It r 10 or sl "",'er IIta n Ihe rale al whid, II", go,und" a1er d""..

;,

Chapler7 Waler:ClW1Iit\'andClWily

A

lication/7.6

Usilg Ceramk: Porrus Media to Treid Water at the Hrusehokl Level in DevelQping-World Communities

'n-., principb 300 "'I"ali,n. that g"'"''''' Iluid flllw 1""",# p,r"" media ean be app~ed 1<' a ",ile ,'..,-idy Ili eNDffi~s ,dilled to s~lain"'l. d"'dllpmffil 0.., e~ •.-npl. is the do=.ign "nd .,,,,,,,,,,ent "i a I""pul\, "I"',int Ilf wat..- t",iIIn.,nt t",lr",[,loIY i,r lhe d",·d"pi,..,; w,.-Id-the e..-a",;" "T el\~ fik..- {"", ~igure 73fl/, which i, m " , u....J in ""," 111 e",,,,t';"';. One ad,'antage "f t;""'" iilte", is lhal Ihey can be pn,du,,,d u''''K kcal1)' .,,-a~abk mal..-;.,.I>; (e.g.. el\y. ,a",du ", "''''cd This'" ixtu", i, f<,,,..,d "nd fi ",d in a k~n. ~iring in the kiln f,r"., the e..-am;" ",aI..-i.\h and emnbust, theur!t'n;" "'a;"rial. making thenl"'r I"'",'u, and !"""",abl" I" ....-.1..-, The p""'" a", s;".ed I" T"""",e larg..- "'. temur,., pa ,tiel"" anJ ",s",i, ta! miem "gaoi",,", til i"'prm'e ",al..- qu'lity and 'ubMoqu",",llj reduee h""llh ,-i,Ie... A typical filt",- LS 'ho'J"'d lik ,

u,.,··

c.

b"",1 or a 1"',1 lho'l mn be n",ta! "'ilhin a ""Tag" """-1"ade. 'Ihe filte' p"b. "re '''-'I'''''JeJ in a 1"'1>"r e"nlain..- (for e"''''ple, a buck!) M' INI when ,,,,,t.,,. i, p'UTed inl" the iii ...., il !ll~'" by gr."ity II.-,",gh the nit", and inlll lhe Il~' '" e".,lain..-, ",he", I",ated ",at..ean be a",o=...,d T],., a
Flgu1I11.36 Cby filler (P01'Oll.' Mediuml U'l\ani.,m.lmmIV ale' {Ref"ooucN wilh pn IV, Sch""eh.,,.)

Filler f!oso
_"Tap"tip

gmu"d,,' at... a, a 5"" rce of d ri l1k"'g '" .>ter or lor 'UP!-""""'g agri"'tItura] .,eli",tie" Remediatl"" or Cf>ntrrl of subsurf""" 1"',1Iut.\1,t, ea" pro"" to be dleJ forms Ihat are mo", e,"'Oy to treal or sorbed 10 soil I","ides, "I~ch sb"" thell" abilit\· 10 be pumped In lhe ,urllce f.... I"'aln""ru. In addit.'''. 'i'" i" ",shgatl""s ha ," h' ma"" d"terminat ioo' of ho" mud' dala i, req ui"'d to del."."u ,"" U"" type and e,te"t of eo"tami""t],-fl, tl"" ",,,,'eme,,l 01 ehe"'ica h. a,>.! the risk they pose; all w,t h t]>" certainty II", ttl"" sub'" tf doC" " "d h""'rg""""" Strateg"" U"'I "'muniz" rL" "",rce of conta"';tlilhon or r"",ediating tl"" e]>"",i",1 7"10 liI'ooOllwalerOualllyan:l Flow

concentratluns to lower acreptable le,·el.<) or reducing or elin"nating e.posu,..,. Sirategies th.,t eliminate or redu~e ex!""u", can illClude requiring placemenl of barrier~ between conta""""ted >oj) a"d Ihe public (e,g., laye", of fM' ement or ""ill. Other ,trat egies to reduce or eliminate risk include placing deed restriction, on u,;age of contami"ated ground ". ater or pm, i,io" 01 a different piped ",aler ,upply. In Chapter ~, we al"" pOl> ided I"format;,,'" on methods 10 determll,e whal would be the allo,,' ableool",e"trati,~, 01 a panicu lar contami"ant that can occur in >nil or grf1und water lltat would "'~ """ult III e",e"I\'e ri,k to Ihe public or the er,,'ironmenl if they Were explNed to Ihe f,~,tammanl

Innovative RemediatiGl1 Technologies I-~t.p"J 1....-.Lpa-¥",1t.I.:>1

Chapler7 Waler:OlWllit\' and Ouality

Salt" ater inlru,;on can be re"ersed or pre, ented by decreasrng Ihe withdrawal rale of grou tId waler 10 allow lor natural recharge rale, to reslore ground",aler. In mller ca"", reclaimed "a,tewaler call be inJ"Cted In lothesubsurface 10 repleni.shan aquifer while al"" providing a cost--elf""tr"" method 10 ,tore ",aler for lulure u".,. In many other ca""", remediation LS applied to conta""n"ted <;('Iil or groundwaler. Figure 7.37 p"l\'idesa d""",riplron of ",..eral remOOiatron lechnologies. Note th.ll Ihey e"'pl"y biological. phy,ic.ll. and cl'ernical treatmenl pr,,,,,,,,,,..,. A, ,flo" " III th" figure, in pumpand treat oil can be e,,~a\'atedand di.sf"""-"J of ill a landfill or IrealOO aoo\'e ground using chemical. biological. or thermal process. I" .some ca","", Ihe conlanunanls are treatOO in place or in ,itu, The word ;/1 snll implies Ihemnlam""'''I, are treatOO ill place veNusnca,'al "'g them or pumping Ihem to Ihe surface. In m~IIY ca.".., ""mbinalion of technok>gies and ,trategi... are employOO. For e"ample, al Ihe Baird and M.-Cuire Superfu"d ~lte (Mas.sachusetts). ,oil and groundwaler ",ere contamlnalOO by chemical. ,tored in tanh tltat leaked, n,e chemicals migraled do",nward fmm the sourc"" and re~c1leJ an underlyrllg aquifer, which no"eJ off~lle and contaminaled a municiJ>d1 waler supply. To remOOiate Ihe ~lle. engin""", In.stallOO a pump and lreal sy,lem that cOle,i,tOO of eighl wells Ihal pumped a total of 1T7 Ilpm. n,ls "a.~ to mnlain the cnnlarnUtatOO ground"",ter plume from ,preadrllg and al'iO Iran,!,,'" ""nta",iJ,.,tOO ground""ter aoo"" ground for tre,.tment A small lrealmenl planl "",-s designOO and OOn.SlruetOO 10 prm ide treatment of the groundwater/or hea,'y metak A <;e\ of airstnp P''''I were also rndudOO 10 remm'e ,'olatile organic chemkals and aeth'aled carbon ",as used to ren"",e a ny remaining contam;nallls. An e.''''n,."e groundwater m",,iloring program was al<;('l rlllegraleJ wilh Ihe remediation pIa" 10 dem",,"rale the ",m occurrrng. EPA pro',rd"" many on liner"",u"''''' to learn aboul e";,,lrng and new remdrticular technology (e,g., hltp:11 www.eJ>d.gm·l.up..rfund/remeJ).tech/remed.htl.. ),

Teemc:l

Wt'BtlheTecmc:l

looks like

r..mp ..... ",,,.. ~ d

..-.. "'" or ""'" _ n!too

artilrnnal:Jd9"~ to ""~~¥Jmi

1!l't""""""tl'eW Ia I."'"

lr_5ntbe ~ tocrR1on ItI<

s.,.""...,.....,... _"" _nIhnJIp' 'sto,*""""",

•

~~, -.-)""'W .... ib_"d ~ l
l~gtr! i<

mntrm:Jlo_mne

_c
Lrdlr_

dI.m:l. _ t " .

m"M"9

~

or

ardil
m
T~

-.atv_ n "'" Slbufa, '..... m ...;..... " " " " " d

"""* ""'"

-

~ ~ m-11m",",mtti't ""'"" In I..,.... d g,J _10 "'" ~ or _ _ ~ . T"'plrtltXt<
_m

arMrt!hem1r>I_~

d ..

n"'" nIt-e _

>me: (3)

I'd L.trt< 10 "'" ""JXr

lam ""dl ",""""!hem'" ItI< lOr, ",(41 Dbw '" I... IS 10 lherttt< _ m """'!JO"I"fY;"""!>"'I'rt !tilt rr..- lJ""", 1rl/;j In

Flgur1/7.37

Ex.mple 01 C""undw.lor Remro i.Uon

Teehno\o~i.....

I""'<>od Iran ~PAs.. .. AC,,,... ',G.,,;,,,,,a...n.., lod..oog;o, I"" ~OI~I~

7.10 Gl'oornlw.lerOualilyand Flow

Key Tenns • a,.heclloll

• grou".:l"·at.,,. pollul'o"

• phyturemro ,." ion

• agricultural u'"

• huusehold u'"

• poinl ...... ree

• a'lude.

• hydraul,c cOlllluai,ily (10

• pollulion

• ba""!l,,w

• hydrology

• populat,,., equi,alent

• besl dfide"cy poinl (BEP)

• hydroklgic cyde

• po....,ity

• branchro

• hydropo"er

• public water

• CIe"" lVater Aa

• hypolim",o,'

• pumpa ...:1 tre.,t

• nmfined aqeuler

• illdu.trial u'"

• pump characteris~ccu l'Ves

• ml>;umro wa""

• in ;;itu chemical uxidation

• pump cycle lime

• critkal point

• John MUir

• pu",ping ,t.lIio"

• mllural eutmphic."iu"

• l""d UGO>

•

• Dan:y ,·ek>cily

• loof""l ,"!>sy,te",<

• reaerali,,,,

• Darcy" la"

• maximum and mnllmum d.,.;ign

•

• d""'''''d faclOr (OF) • d"""ygenalio" • dfSign "at... ,docity in • di""ggregaled "'8"",n" • di'l"'"io"

• d,,"'h ed oxygen (00) don",,~c

• mesotrophk • ",elali,,,n;on

Woe

• ecobgical footJ-"..i,,' • en,in,,,,,,,,.,tal ju.tice • epil"nn!o" • ""hmating water demand • eUlrophic • elJtrophicalion • fan tum,wer

• modeling O¥h"'S lor "ater de"l.lnd

• modeling pn"""" 10 estimate ",aler de"'a"d

• mu",cipal ",ale. de'''and • natu.a] aHelloati"" • needed fi'" !l"w (I\'FFl • n"n]Xlitu ,ooree • nut.ien" • oligolrophic • on-511e (" a<;1",,·ater "","nenl) sy.tem.

",eth,-.J

Ra~m",1

Re~",ldlim

codficienl (R,)

• .e",ed wale. • .unofl """frICie,," • saltwater

• m icro-hvd "'I-"'"er

a pipe

•

!l(", ratos

,uPl-~""

salel~ Ie

intr~ion

reda,,,,,',on pIa""

• ""turated zoo", • ",tu.ation (oxygen) 00' ICe" trat, Oil • ",awater •

'ep~c

lank

'mng tummer

• qorage tank • Stretter-r'helps modd • ,ub<.urfar" re",...tiali", • " .. Ill"""

'If al",cal"'"

• surface ""lI>r

• fire fl'", demand

• 01"'rH:hannel rollditions

• fire pn'lt'<:liOll "at.". d ..nand

• ",e""'u.ati,,n

• f""h"ale.

• o'ygen derICit

• unconfined aqu,ler

• futu." "at", dema"d

• p",k.i'>g factor (PFI

• unmel",ed !l"w

• groundwaler

• I"'nne.lble (m IX'n,u,)

• u,,,,,,turat&l zo,,,,

p"vement Chapter1 Water'Ouanlill' an
• Ihennocli"" lrophy

•

,,~ria!ion

'"

1I,~,'s

•

w~t'"

reda"'''l,''''

• ",al'" U""&, ral""

• ",a,t",,'ale, mllfflion

• waler reu..,

• watershed

• w""'"waler gen,,,,,ti,,,, rates

• w,,"'r ,carce

• "'.. well

• waler Ji'lnbuh,,,,

•

'" J

• wetlatld,

• wab>r fortpnnl

•

w,,"', slress

ler <,cardly

• wimer

~ar.ltjfical'nn

KeyTerms

chapter/Seven Problems TI,e averase annual 'ai nfall in an area i' f.O Cnl. TI,e average annual evapol,a'~'pi,ali",n b 35 Cnl. Thirty percenl of the rainfall i"fillr"I'" a"d pe"'olal'" inlo Ihe underly,ng aquile,; Ih.. ,..,,,,ainde, i, ,unoff Ih.'1 ",,,,"es alnng or near the gmu"d 'urface, TI,., underlying aquife,'" co"n""ted to a ,I,..,am. A"uming are nnolher inputs or oUlput> of "ale, 10 Ihe ullderly"'g aqu,f",. and aquifer i' al ,teady ,tale (n..ilh..r gai'" n", lIN'S waler), wh"t i' Ihe amounl of ba",no"" conl,ibuled to Ihe ,Ir""m from the ground""te,?

7A P..ak rainfall im"'bili"" ,ary by geographica;

7.2

7.5 Wesle", Au,lr•• lia is

n,.,,..,

n,.,

An agricullural walershed Ih"l i' managed 10 minimize runoff COl"iq, of 150 acres Ihal ha' a land ,lope of 1-2 percenl and <;andy ""I,. TI,e land ;s planned 10 be de, eloped inlo a residential subdi'l'ion {30 pe,cenl a, a low-densi!>' residential area,30 percenl as a med;unH.Jen,ily ""'idential area, and Ihe ,emainJllg tlnd p,-".;",,-ed a, g,een 'pace. (a) Calculate Ihe ]J<'dk ,unoff now 'die (ft' I mill) before "nd aher Ihe de,'elopme"l lak"" place for a storm" ilh ra",lall inl..nSlty of 0,33 in/h. (b) Determine the ]J<',cem chang.. in peak ,unoff bel ",een I\\'o land u.'ie see'ld,i"". (c) If green'pace ",a, equally developed 10"'- and mooium-d..,,'il) de" ..k'pment, how doe, you, ans",er 10 pari (b) change? (d) Ho'" do your a,~,,, .. ,,, fm Ih.. pea]" runoff flow ,al.. in pari lal chang.. if 100 p"",enl of Ihe land l' develop",l in a highd .. ,~',t) resid ..nlial?

n,.,

bet"'''''''

n,.,

7.3 A ru,al ",al.."hoo that i' ",a'ldged to mill""i"" runoff consi,tsof 1Wac"", nl cuU,,- aled land Ih.•t ha, a geml.. land 'lop" (1-2 perc..nt) "nd silly/,andy soil>. nle land " pl"nned to be d ..,eloped inlo a r""idenllal hou,ing w,th pI..", for 25 percenl lo\\,de,,,,,ty "",id.. "I,..1 ar..a, 23 pe"''''u for medlUmden.S1ty resid ..nllal .•,..,a, and 50 perc..nl ""I asid.. ,., green ,pace. (a) E,I"""le Ihe annual mas, loading due 10 runoff for 'uspended solids (SS), ph ""phoru, (Pl, and nitrogen (Nl flb/year), (bl Ho" does you, a,~<,,"er 10 p.lrt (.. ) change if Ihe sk'pe of Ih.. land i' J perc..nt? lel How does your answer tn part (al change if the gr""'''p''c"e i, de,-eloped into comm..,cial de,'el"P",enl 10 ,,-.:;.,1 and ""onmnic """'h of the communily, withouII..a,-",,, _lilY lIalural a,e,,-' as 0l-",n green space?

"",,'e

_.

Chapter7 Water. O,"",tity an
regiOl~

As>ume Ihe peak 'ainfall (in"hes of 'ain) reportoo ill diff......"t ,Ial", o""r a 30 n"nule per.
10 """ .. Ill20 percenl in'''.... ' .. in peak 'ainfall intensity 1'00' Ihe ef/""ts of dimale change by Ihe year 2030. If Ihe "u,,..,m pe.. k r.. infall i"l.. n,ily .., 200 mm of 'ainfall falling m- .. r "n IR h pe"oo. ,,-hal i< the pe.•k ru noff now ral.. ) OU .. ~pect for a d ..n.""l y populaled urban .• rea of 2fl ac"", on sandy so,ls ""Ih .. 'lope of 1.73 pe"''''u, thai consi'I' 01 one-h..1f l"gh-d ..nsity resid .."tial de,-,,;of'm..nt a"d one-half mmm..rdal d~,·e1of'm..nt? R.. porl your resu lIS ;n cm '/ mi" and It'/min.

7.6 A ,mall public "'ell is u"'-'<.1 to 'upply drinking .....al..r ;,) a 'm..n resid .."lial mmmunll~' localed in a 211 km- ",aler;hed. For Ih.. month of June, Ih.. m"",;.ured rainfall "'''-, 12 em, the esli",ated .. va potra",pi-ralion " .., 7.5 em .. nd Ih.. ,urfac.. "ate, runoff enl..red a ,"'all ,Irea", ,,-ilh "n a""rage flo" of O.J2 m' Is Ih.H le.. ,.es Ihe wat.."hed. Eslimale lhe ."''''''g'' 11",,- (m' Id .. y) from Ihe public ",..11 ..... ithoul depleting Ihe und..rlying aquifer (n..ilhe, gai,~, nor l"""" "'ater), A"ume dldt ",aler thai infiltral"" ,,-iii per"olale 10 Ih....qu;f..,.

"n

7.7 Go k' II,., United

"'ati,,,~,

Environmenl Prr>granu"..', Glnl",1 Environm.. nt Oullook "eb pag", hnp' IlgeoJal.a.grid.unep.chl . Look up I",,,,,nullln,,,, located ,n diffe....m hemisphere;. (a) Wlw a.... Iheir cur....nl ..mounts of wal..r w'lhdrawal' .nd f"",hwal..r wilhd,a",al,? (b) Are Ihe,., """"tries "urremlr ""pen",ndng "aler ,,--..roll' or expected 10 w •• ler >ea",Hy?

""1"""'''''''''

7.8 Golo II",,, "" ,ite of II", US, G",'hgic.. l Sun.. y (USC~<;). ww "".u'8'.gov, a"d ''''v'gale 10 "IVai.... U", in Ihe U'''led Sutes:' Look up Ihe loul ",at..r

" ,Ihdr.,,, aI, ~s"""ialed w,lh Ihe fo!lowing u_ in your'ldle, thermoele.:lric, irrigalion, public supply, indu,lr",l, dom~lic, liveslock, ~quacullure, and mining. Place Ihe eighl u'*" ,n a lable '" order of greale,llo lea'l ",ater withdra",~k Deter",i"e the percenl of Ihe 10MI ,,-aler "-,Ihdra,,,al, a"social&! "ilh each of Ih_ u_. C""'pare t h""" percentag~ 10 Ihe "ali",,,,1 percenlages IL,leJ '" Table 7.6. Di,cu.,;,; ho'" your ,1.,le con'p.'Ires ",ith Ih~ nat,oMl average. 7.9 Go 10 Ihe "'ffi .. ile of lhe US. G...,logical Sun"y (USGS), ",,,,w .u,gs.go" ,and ".., ig.de to "Waler U... i" I he U ni led Stales," look up Ihe 100ai ,urface w "'~ and gn,ur,d",aler w~hd r.1 "al.< a",....:i.Hed ",Ih ynu r '1.'le. lJo,lerll\ine the percent of ,urface w"ler ""d grelU nd,,-ater '" ,thd ra,,-a1.. relal,ve 10 total'" j ~,d ra "'als in your slale. Coonp''''' Ihe'" percent.1ge; "'dh Ihe "alin",,1 d",tribut",n of surface waler a,1
tl"''''

7.11 la) E:.tim.lle yoor o",n "'1Ui11 '" .ller "ed by 35 people per dav.

7.13 Eshn"", Ihe daily waier de""",J and ",,,r u.sage for each building; (a) a 2oo-ronrn h't" "il h 35 emplOj-'ee, "nd one kHd,e,,; (b) tlYee r",laurar,!';, nne Wng an orgal~c re;tauranl "ilh reginnally produced foods, anoU,er an an-yelU --can..,al buffel (di ,mer o,~ y). a,1.7 "'L """,ers. Dur~\g Ihe ''','11 0 Y'" "', il" e'peeled thai n"" r",id""lial d",elopmenb for 15,000 p....'I~e " ill be bui R, along'" dhan add ~;onal 6.3 1Ili. """e,..;, TI,e ,",,,,er i, a"sumed 10 leak 8,SOJ gpJ/mL (il) Pm;ec1lhe "'''''im"m daily d""'and for I he ",""lew" '" r I reat """ ,11 Pla "I ., fI er tI", n"", d ""e!opme'l i, burl!. (b) Should lhe w""lewaler lre"lme", pla nl's capacilY "" i,,,,re...ed? 7.17 You are hired I" "pgrade lhe existing ",aler lreal",ent planl for l\:iUany U"n Cily, Using Ihe hlSllYicai re.:ords pr"'idal in Table 724, forecast t I", ",a tel' dema,rl IlYoogh 2112 l. The P"PJlal'''' ls expecled 10 increa"" ab"'n 1.8 per",nl per year. (a) Creale a graph Ihal h." Ihe hi,lorie-,,1 a,-erail", m~,hnum-jecle.:l fUlure ",aler d~mand Ihrl\lJgh 2015. (b) Use yoor grapl' 10 pr...:J '
7.24 HistoricolRecords Usedto Solve p.oblem 7.17

,her~~o

MinImum

M"mmm

--

~

1)"07.190

ljll~N."

2,bl~.41~

14,251

~

1,713,2311

lm-.21l1

2)\17.h7~

14,_~'2

"" =

l,!l2O,Hl2

1,Il94,~15

3,iXlUll

lU'H

1.90U~5

l).jIl,Oll

2,9~5)21

14,'WR

1}l91 }l(,O

1.06,1.574

3,11>11,1'>7

14.5117

19481>18

1,124.125

3J176,.s.12

14,6R~

1,'aHSIl

1.I!l4,214

3))1\7,821

14)\;7

,-

Watorllomond 19pdl

= = =

waler u""' by calruiaun!; Ih" a,,,.age ". al"" u""" dn idal by Ih" population ",,,..,,:1. (d) Detern"n" a d"ma".:! faet()( 10. 11", mll'imum-
1.18 You a", hi.allo upgrade the exi<,ling

"'.,le.

I",aunenl planl f.... U!'F C~y. U,.ng the hb'....i""l ""'ONS in Tabl" 7.25, 10""'11,1 lhe ",ale, dema"d through 20::1,1. A ne" ind U'itry i.< "'p...,ted 10 ''''lUI''' 1'>5,000 gp.:l 'IMting in 2mt>. (II) Crffite a g"'ph Ihal

Hist....icoIRecord. Used to Solve Problem 7.18

--,- , --

Dom",uc Comm<,1Ci.>1 Ind",triaJ

~

1#17.517

R:'4,247

423,229

92j,76

,m

1,789,<15-3

1137/155

4(,5,232

102,707

~

1,74;,6"11

!l2lum

476.129

76,916

1,72Il,750

11511,07~

45,l.92R

79.029

l,m)!"1

!l61JlH

~''''

117.422

1)\2hR')

1175,.s.111

475;15-1

91,214

1)l72,~';b

~-";

~79.Hl

"'~

,~

..

"" 2J"

!••! i iiiiii!!!i!!!! "'" '''' ,

'""N, 2" ,., •• '0" """* 3. 2llOI

. , ••

Flgll'l/1.38 Wilk", Cily W•• lew.>lor Melored Flow Role (U""d i~ Problem 7,1~.,

ha< Ihe historical do"",qic, commercial, and ind u,;trial d","a"d fnr """h y"ar, EXlrap.'!.lIe 1",,>.:Ilil,.,; I Ih" po,1'c1a.J fUlu,e waler d "mand Ihrough 2m.'! I """h categnry. T.
1.19 Th" r"""rded metered flow fnr Jun" 3 allh" \Vii"", C,I Y w asle"'a la!r t ",ai"",,,1 pLJnl is sho",,, in Figur" 7.311. (d) E.,lllnal" Ih" ave,age flow ,al" for Ju"" 3,

7.25

= = = =

"

Mcl
Chapte.1 Waler:Ollalllill' an
1.20 A sto."S" I"nk is d.,;ig""d 10 supp! Y \\' at"" f.... fire prot...,lio"al a .maD mdU-"lry, The NFF f(l' Ihi, i"du,lry is 3/100 gpm. (a) E.qim.u" Il'" "olum" of wal". Ih"t wouW be lIea.Jed fo' fi'" p'OIedio". {bl Estil'''';., lhe ",.."i,,,,] pi Fe si,., of ., si ngle pi j-'" su pplyil'g lhe rite pr
1.21

E,lim"le Il'" ,iz" of a
1Zl

A pum 1-''''8 ,1.1 Ii..,

"a h "."" "

d I i, to be sizal in a ",,,,,I,,,,,ate, colledi"" system f,-". a d.,;ign pumpi"g rale of I ,:\lO gpm. (al Est"""lelh" miro.mum deli ," ",>;!-well "ohu"" wah a pump cycle of four lim", per hou,. (b) Size 11", fore" ""'il' (pumping qalnn d;,,eha '8" plf"') wd h a d"'ign , dodty 01 7.5 flls.

il''''

7.23 Idenlify regi"'lal ~nd "ne gl,)1>.<1 w~ler SCd",ily i,sue. [)e,'ek>p ~ long-Ierm susla i'ldble ""Iuli"n Ih~1 protecb future generalj",~, of hu lIldns and Ihe en,i",nmenl.

7.24 G" '" Ih" u.s. G"",n Building C"uncil web slle (hup:/ /ww\\.u'gbc.nrgl ~nd r"""~,,,h Ihe LEED credils a"sod.lted ""th ne" rom"'ercial ronslruclion and n",~" reno\"ali"n iVe",i,~n 2.2. fmm US. Creen BUlldmg C..,undl). A pmject c~n obtain ~ ma.x;mum "f ffJ p"inK (a) H"w many l""S"ible P""\IS d"",,11 Y rel.lte tn Ihe calegn'Y waler effldency? (b) W)",t are Ihe specifIC credit, provided fur II", category water efficietlcy?

7.25 c~) the /nU"",ing web site (hltp://ww",.un"""" ."'"8 / '''',,' / en/ ""tural-sdellC\'S/ en \'I 0 ,,,nle tit / "" at.../ ",wapll ~nd locll< Up !I", report. n.. l,;/ UN WilI">:I Wal,,,. De"'I"""",1 Rqurl; W"lerfor Propl,·. W"t,.,. for Li~{a}Of

7.30 The me","u red di"",lved oxygen ronl,entr~II"" USlllg ~ 00 ",eler 'Jf a ri,er i.s 6 "'giL Th~ oxygen defkil i.s 2 "'g/l al U,e .. me loc~lion. What is U,e ,alu,~tion cmcenlr~ric .. 01 d;';"oll 00 oxygell ilt (~l "'giL, (b) ppm. (c) ppb. and (dl mole;; /l ? Dr. Mil,e1cic is c~noeillg Olt II", Hillsoon'ugh Ri' er in n"ida. j~t U f"lre.lm of T o,ut C",ek W ildern"" Area. He i, collecting di,"'hed m
7.31

w~, p~ddiing,

tl'" II d"'llenge areas. li" 11", ones related 10 "lIfe ~"d \\ ell be'ng" a '>d 11"'01"'" related t" "n"""'gen",,~." (b) A<:<:ess Ihe lj,lk on "f.•cts a,>d figures 0" ",-""uring

ll'" food "'pply:' De,eIop a table with cnlunub of proJU<."1. unit "'Iul,ale"t. ~nd wat"r in m' per umt for II", folk>\\ ing proouets: callie. sheep aM gool'. f""h beef. f""h lamb. lre.h poultry. cereal" cilrus fruil>. palm oil •.u>d root!\ and IUbo.-rs. U", !I'i, t.lble 10 a'l,,,er tl'" q.-tion whelher. on a per kg h.I'i." pmvidmg meal or grams/fruIts u""'" """'" "alet. 7.26 GOlOlhe folICM'u,g web ,~e to I",", I",,,' you can .....ve water ~t home (hul-~//,,"ww.epa.go\'/ Wa"'rSe"""/puh./,imple ,'e!".hlml). For Ihe folIO\\II\g Ihree .,reas (;11 II", I>.dry, '''-'Idoors) Ii'l a minllnull\ 01 Ih"'" ilem, you Can d" at h"",e to co",.,r\,e \\ ater.

7.'El

If I he H e'I}', c('f\<;Ianl (K"l f..- d l.<'iOl\'ed oxygen isOillllJli mc'es/L--.lbn al 20 C and the cCOIcenIr~lic", of carooll dioxide in the ~In""'phere ls 39:1 ppm". whal i., Ihe c"'''''''''ralion of '''ygen dl,sol \'ed in w~ler equ il ibrated wIth lhe ~tm(t,phere il~ (a) m''''''/L. (blmglL. kll'-g/L. ~lId (d) ppm",! (e) How does your ~",,,,er to pMI (b) change if the H",\ry', "",,,tant is 'epork! In diflere\t uni'" (K" equal 10 735.3 L-.'Ilm /mol"'l. 7.28 A ,t'edm at 2~ C has ~ d o,,,,,ka.:l-
7.32 Cakul.,te tl"" d'w>II'ro-<>Xygen ddleit 1..- a ",'er at 30 C a,ld a "'... 'u",d d "",I, ed-
Ix"""

7.34 A cm,bi,,,,,d ''''''... Ol"rll,,,,' (a;()) di,charS'" an em '-"'111 c('f\~"nlng fl mgl Lol dl.<,<,I""J oxygen 10 a ,Ir.."n tltdt h;r; a dl.<",,"'a.:I·<>x)'ge" CCll'''''t1rablll\ 01 7 mglL u~lr",m of Ihe d"d,,,,"!?,. Calrul.,te the d",ol'N-OXyge" deficil a I the mi,ing ba,u' if U"" ""t lJT~ tio" d ""0" 00 oX)'gen f..- the ,,\,er I, 9 mgl L A'»"me t h~ tth..cSOtlow ra lei",,"ehaIfofthe,t rea III flo" , ~ te, 7.35 A ri,'er lt~ ,eling at ~ \'e1ocd y of 10 k"'/day has a dLw->keJ--o.x)'get' rontenl of 3 mg/l ~lId an uhin",,,,CBOO of 25 mg/L ~I d",ancex n km. Ulal is. inunoo i.t lely dow ,...lredm of ~ ""''"' d I.:x yg'" deficit? {b} Whal,s tl'" loc.lIi"" oi the cnrical poillt. in tune a lid d "lH",e? (cl Whal is IIIe d __",11''''' -n alllle critical pOI"'?

7.36 Tl"'" .." ..,,'" "'r I",atn",m pl"nl lor Pine C~y Ji'd'Mges 1 x 10' m'/day ()f Ir&lled "a,le In Ihe Pme RiH'r. lmm".Hale!y up'tream 01 Ihe l",al""'llI pl"m. 11", Pu,e R,ver h..... an uk imaieCBODof2 mgl L and a fl"" 0/ \I x 10' m 'I day. AI a d,sla nct! of 20 km d",,·nslre.ln' of Ihe I""'bnenl pla"l. ll", Po", R,yer has an uhimale COOD of 10 "'giL The slate', De~rtn"'tll 0/ Envir,..,n"""a1 Qua~ty (OCQl has "" all ullima!» COOO dischar!\!, Iimil lor Ihe Ireal melll plalll "f2,oro kgl Jay. n", m er hilS a veloc'ly "f 20 kml Jay. Tl",CBODd",ay c"efficielll "OJ Iday. lIhe plall lin yi,lal ion 0/ "'" DEQ d ...,lmge Ii mil?

7Z1 An IIlduslry di><:harges 0.5 m'l, 0/ a ".'
5-<1a" C BOOnf 500 mg Ill"a ",-er w,lh a flow onm'l,and a 5-<1a" CBOOof2 mglL Calrula'" lhe 5-<1 ay CBOD 01 II", '" er aller mil< iIIg " ,I h 11", '" ..... b<

7.38 A high 'I"'nglh "asle having an ullnnale COOO 0/ 1,InJ mg/L is discharged 10 a mer al a rale 0/ 2 m 'Is. The ri'"rh''' an UlbmlleCBOO of 10 mglL and is flowing al a rale ,>I 8m' I s. As..uming a "'actioll rale memdenl of O.l/day, calcuLue the ultimale and 5-da~ CBOD oIlhe ,,-aste al Ihe poilll old ",d,.,,!\!, (0 kml a nd 10 km d""""'lreanL The '" er i' floWlllg al a ,elodly of III kID/day.

7.39 A new", ",Ie"", ler I"'at,,,,,nt pla"l proF''''''' a Ji,scharge 01 5 m'l S 01 lreated waSie 10 a ri '''r. Stale regu!.>lio". prohibil d;"d,arges Il~l! rai'" Ihe ullimaleCBOOollhe ""er at.we 10 mg/L n", ri.-er ha ,a flo w 015 m' I sand a l\ u IIimateCBODof2 mgl L Cakulale Ihe m""i mum 5-<1ay ClDD I h.ll call be d;,,ch.uged ,,-,11'ou1 violalll>g sta., ""8u1aliolls. A"uo,e a CBODda.:ay eMflCient nf O.l/day for brth Ihe m'er "'Id tl'" pn,r-o"""" ""..Imen! pl,nt. 7.40 A ri,er flnw,ng ,,-jlha velocily 0120 km/day has an uhimale CBOO 0/ 20 mg/L II Ihe organic m ..ll.,r It", a d",ay coeffkienl ,~I O.1ld ..y. whal i. Ihe ullunate CBOO ,10 km dn..... '..Ir&lm?

,,,,,,1I

A r;, er Ira ,·~ling al a ,e1.-.,it -" 01 /0 kml d.l y h..... in,li.. l oxygen deflcil 01 ,I mg/L and alt ulhm.. te CBODol 10 mgl L The CBOD has a d",ay c""/fid..,, of02ld ..y, an.:l lhe ,!ream', reaer"lion weffidenl b 0.4 Iday. What i' Ihe loc"llOIt 01 Ihe eli tical poinl; (a) in lone; {bl in d;"lanc~!

7.41

"n

7.42 A paj-",r mill

,ts ",a>le (k , 0.031 Jay) 10. ri,-er fl"""'>g "'ilh a vekldl y of 10 km/d ay After mIXing" ilh tl'" '" asle, lhe ri,-er h..... an u IllInate earbona""""s BOD 01 50 my L Calcu lale tl'" 5-<1ay carbona""'-lJs BOD al Ihal I",,,ali,,n alld Ihe uM im"l~ carbonac""'" BOD r..nai,,,ng /0 km dow''''lreall~ d;"Lhar~

, Chapler7 Water:ClWllit\'anIlClWily

7.43 F.... ead' 0/ the folkl",iug c ...", • ...... um~'g aD other lhings und"'"g.u, d"""'ribe the effecl "Ilhe fnll.I\\"\8 p ...ameler varialinr's on the magnilude of lhe ',,",ximum oXYgen deficil in .. over. Use Ihe I"llo",ing ,ymbols 10 Indicale your .ltswe"" increase (+,. d""",a", (-l. or remam Ihe Silme ( l. Ma~n;tudc

lncrro"'-'
ot tho Deficit

in;,,,,1 dcli<11 ullInale

CIDO.h -0 Inc",a..,,-l d""'~Een.~on

rate lReTea."'-'
Incre.>;C(\ThOO@x -0

7.44

HUm"tLS prnduce 0.&-1.(, L of urine per day. The annw I m."" of prospllOnls in Ihi~ u line Oil a per apila b ..... r""!\!,, I n,m [1.1100.4 kg r. (al Wha I i, II", ma"mum e""""nlr.. ti .... of phosphorus ,n hu,,,,,n urine ill mg PIt? (bl What is Ihe m""""tralio" in moles PIt? (4 MO;l Oflhis pllOspllONS;' pre""nl"s Hl'O,> '. Whal is the cOl"""uau"" of phnspllOnl' in mg Hru/ '/L?

7.45

A:.
01

ph.-.,phor~

ex",.,..

in humall menl in foo ,>rln"'''1 unll! Accou"l for phosphorus ilt un,,,, .. nd I"" ....

Ii''''

7.46 COlll.>CI your loc.. l ",..stewaler Ir&llmelll 1'1...'1 10 Ii nJ out Ihe a vera!\!' d.li Iy t re..l.,j fl"'" r..le a "J II", average collc~lllraliorl of pho"phorus ill Ihe unlre..lal influent a,>.i I",atal ~/tlue,rt. Use c..,sus dalalo delen"",e tl", current p'-Vul"llO" n/ -"OO r area arid a"'umlng., gro"th rateof 3'*, Ihe population ,n 2m5 a t>.:l 1ffin (a) 11 nOllu ng is d ...,e in ho'" I he pIa'" treats ploo"ph'Ns a,1d h"', each human d"'d'arges pho..pl~'Ns. "'hal isthe cur",nl a,>
p'"''''''

10 local wal"r ch"ng"? (A",u",e "n the '''''b"ned ""t", Infilt,."l"" to groundwaler.)

7.47 U'" the lib,."r} or rntern"t to research one dead

orl~mperatu"'gradi""K"Under the Hvp"'"

101 ",eb ,ite, hypoxic waters "'we 00 conc"'ntratio,~~ of I"", U",,, 2-3 mglL (hllp:I/"'''ter.''pa_gm,/lype/",ate',hoo,/named/msba,in/hyplxia/Ol.cfln). (a) Lisl the f,u, of nUlri~nts thl t "',!,""t thi, w:der b<>.l y.

7.one loe-atoo in the U,,,loo Slales "nd one localoo m"""'as. 'uch a, th" fultic Sea, north"n, Adriatic Se", Y"llow Sea, 0' Gulf of n"'iL"'d. W,it" " twopag" repml discu,,-,ing "nviro"",ent"l. """'ial, "nd econ"",it- L""es a,,;.-,daled w,th the d&ld 7.0""'. WJ~.I m"nagement ""Iutio", would you prof""" to ,everse Ih" de"d 7<>nes?

(al What wa, th" 'i7.e 011
7.46 C.oIO Ihe EPA', Reg'on9 webpagede"oted 10

7.52 Li,t Ihe Ihree most ronunon cnnlribul ....' 10

Lake T"l"'" (http://www.epa,gov / reg'on91 wat", / ",'te,shoo/tahoe/). Lake Tahoe (Calif",nia and I\:e,adal can be differ"ntialed inlo d"",p "-"t,,, and ne""hore 7<>n..". The EPA 'eport' Ihat "in addilion In being a «enic a"d ecological treasure, Ihe lale Tah"" Ila'in L, one of the out,tanding 'ecreation.l1 ,,,,,,,ure,., of Ihe U"itoo St.,l.",. The co"'munnies and the economy III Ih" Lake Tahoe B."in depend on th" prolection "nd resloration of i" ,tunning rlatu,al !>e.luty and dh'e""" "",re.llmnal opportunit,es ,n the r"l>lon." (al li,t the .,tat"" which EPA', Region 9 ,er"es. (b) La.." Tahoe I, li,led under Oea" Water Act Secti, ,n JO].(d) as impaired by input hat three pollutants? (c) Wh.>I one poll"Llnl I"" the g,ealest Impact on Ih" lake', deep water qualit} a, m&ls"red by "al", I,an'parel\cy? (d) Whal tl\'O addition.l1 pollutants play an "nportanl role 'egarding "at", quality of the neil' shore 7.on,,?

"etla"d l.-r;, in

"f"

7.49 The EPA reports that "in addilion to bemg a ""enie and ecological trea~ure. the lake Tahoe Ila'in L, "n" 01 tit" ,-.u L'I" nd ing ,..."e" ti"na Ir"",u rees of the United Stat"'. C~) to Ihe rollow,,'g web dllce ,,"e proper! y labeled and captioned graph thai pro,-ides the ,umme, a""""ge, ,,- ",Ier a,'erag", and annual ""e,age Secchi depth of l"ke Tahoe from I96/! 10 201 L Use Ihi' figu,e to an",e, th" qu"'tion "-heth,,r ,,-ale' quality in Ihe lake has improv"d since I96/!. 7.50 C.o to the "eb
Sf'J"'''''

7.51

I~

U,,,ted Sial",

7.53 Using Figure 729, e<,tim",,, tl", nllrogen loading (lb I\:/"lu,lre mil,,) to a urban ,,-.uer-.l>ed if th~ waterO. Wha t is; (al tl", Darcy ,elochy; (b) the tru" velocity of the groundwat", fl""ing between "ell,; and leI Ihe period it lak,., ,,-at... to travel bet ",e", I~ Iwo wei k, in day'? 7.55 The hydraulic gradie"t of groundw"t'" "' a ce"a", location i' 2 m/loo m, Here, gn-.und","ter fl"ws Ih'rngh ,and, WIth a hydraulic cond,"",udty equal to 40 m/da" and" po,""";ty of 0.5. An oil 'pill h.lSc"use.:I the poilu! i"" of th"gr"" ndwale' in a "".ul regi<:tl be"ealh an ind <>-trial 'ite. H,",,' I"ng ",,,,,Id it lake tI", polluted wa Ie, from II'H Ie"" Ii<:tl 10 r""'h a dri,~ing-",ate, "ell kcated 100 m d"",'ngradi."t? ASb"''''' "0 'etardation of tl'" poilu t.l"'" "'''' .." .. ,t 7.56 An underg''''' nd 'torage lank has d isdlargt'd d ",,,,1 fuel into groundwater. A drinku'g-wate, ,,-ell i, I"catoo 200 m do'" ""r"diem lrom the f",,1 spill. To e,~,ure the
"\
7.'51 Spill, "f "'gdnic chemicdl, thdl conMet Ihe gn)IJud .....metun'" rNd, II... gn)uud,,'a~r lable, "here Ihey are Ihen carried dowogrddienl w,lh Ihe groundwdler n"w. The rale dt "hieh Ihey are Iransported "ilh Ihe gn,undwdler is d""",.,-,OO by ""pli"n 10 II... ".,l.b in Ihe groundwater dquifer. The m"ta"H"at~ ground",a"'r can redell "en" " hiell is d.mgemus if Ihe waler is u",d inr d ri,"'ing. (a) For a snit ha",ng I'b nf 2.3 g/ eln' d tid ., per,,, il y

Chapler7 Waler:Cuanlit\' and Cuality

of 0.3. and for whieh Ihe percenl "'gd'';C carbon equal, 2 percenl. deter",i,... 11", retardall'.' l.-etor; nf IrU,klr""lhylene (log K"", 2.421. he.'
References ".......-.... ~_"H::n,,[ : ... " ....< ;I;[.;u>:" c...-ns.-"

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Ifl).

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~r~,,~

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"'."."""",A_, ''''''W.•. 1_. ~ "'.... r ... _ _ .\W,..... Y.o.....E"-."

_llo+

0......... """ .... W,d>,,_,............"W... '~. _ k.._"'--J:. .'nJ..I. A"Vi.' ,"'...... 0....."" 11\\...'· ... !IuJ,Io.. \l.1 1'17~. aa.. lA ....... \,.I.c~...... rn-. ""~,

,...

,Po"

r :_. TNC,r,J r •.,

,.. ~ ''''''''~.~. 1Io.~ Rab""Clt("

"'n..nJ1. St.'''''....,,.,. r

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'I'''.. ''""I''''-',.,#''. S<

R.i,.'

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chapter/Eight Water Treatment Do..dW. Hand, o~dJaMf!.R

Q;~9Zhol'9.

Mihelcic

"'is

Wl'

In cha~. rMJdMl Man obouf /he cOO'uhlUlIttIlS J/I utlltealed

and _ quality .Iondon;h ouociol«l WIt/! mem Ma.. be/onc. conceplJ, J.\:)ocn,cmllt'Y. and lOla"c. are ftm~oyed 10 de""l", t1x,:.... lIio.... describing phy.icokhemicol rreo/· menl unit p'ace..... "~ to ftlmo... _,

lheir

Tn",,,

br lIM·'

........g. and ,&fItOYOI 01 ofher diuol-J 0f90tlic and illl:N9G'1fC ch."oa>& by oct. woled «Jfbon cmd _btorle JIodI. noques ~. wiI also t.om abo..1Ite.-gy ~ 1ot_"9

-

ond other

COll

"",,'''9 •__gy

de....

_

'

In

"..,..,/1

over the /if" cyc/.. of ptovi.1OI'I of

.I

1

Iftto
82

Cteractlri5locs of lJf1:reated

Water

ConaIM'OI"",,

conMilutnll. un,' ptoc s ,"eLde COrdfHlu ,1tllIOYOI

weier

8.'

8.3

W31er0l.8llySI&ldatds

8.5

---

8.6

Harooess Removal

8.7

Sedmentation

8.8

Fitraboo

8.9

Disi'lfection

8.4

O'-'!lrWlw 01 Waler Trearmenl COOgJlall::H'I and Flocculation

8.10 Mentlr_ Processes

8. \ 1 Adsorptial

Learring Objec:tives I. lJ,;,nlIfy

ph."ic;ol c'-ncal. .. nd bi..l(\g~1 roMbluenbNI

eusl '" untMlIo'\J ...._.00 ry pio.:.ill n-,,,o:..mtr.'1On ,..nge;. for tho> rna"" ronshh~"lS. 1. \1.11('11 nld,"" r,1\' · ..... ter rono.t,IUi'lll<> ",lk I.... urul P
3. lcl""hfv Ih.. d if""HICe~" __ ""'XII""'''' Cll"Llmina.. t 1",,<,1 g""l~ (MCLG<) an.! maximum £o<'tamil1''''' l",'el. (MCLs) arlJ ,."IdIP Ih6o! ,- .,1u<'!. 10 loxidl)' .laid .,nd Ir..... I"..'rIl "b;eeti, "" al a ...aIP,. I,....\lm.."1 pl.",!. 4. Dewlrlp .. dnnlinll·..-at... Mandar.J from hlxlCily data. 5. ReLue ~llO'("W•• l>iologl<.-.. ll"'thogon< '" ~I""-ifi< hun............Ilh ,mJ'dC'1. 6. ne.d.. p' ... blo! 'II'ltllOnS that ,nclud" '\;tl... _ 10 addr.,""

,"" """&'l'lud"....- ~lobal " ..I... pm. ;"",>n notIl&llo ,mp"''' "'8

hull'Wn,......llh L·~a ..'~aPf'l""""hl<>d qlwrt:latoo. pbet» ....... " ..to-.......... ma~........t ~ I.lnJ u,,", i<,.. u ,......,iaile\.l ",ib "a""~hh. ~ thO' t.l""'P -.J nf .... al...

,

'....

U

f't'''''""''''''''

.......nJ ."

f'l'oI

<'If!o, ra"'fnl"d"'ljI;n

'I. Size ,lrId u"der;!.lnd Ihe operat"'" of w"ter treatmenl unit pn"''''''''' used for m"gul"lio" "".1 tloccul,'llll1l, """i",,,nl"li,,,,,

10.

II.

12.

13.

Chapler8 W.terTrl!almelll

granullr filtrat,on, di,in/e"',on. hardness relno. .11 by lime-soda softenmg. and reme!wee" r",idual chlor;,,.. a"d Ihe three d,emic.l ~peci", that make up combined chlori,,,,, OemOJ~'lralean in-deplh u,tde"lattd ittg of disin/ectio" pn"'''''''' for d,fferenl dc,infecta"" used in a deyelope..:l .1".1 de, "loping ",orld ""Uing. Di/ferentiate between the differ"nl types of membrane filter, and the size and lype of constituent, Ihey are designed 10 remo"", ld""lify the magnilude of e"ergy u.'" d un"g pla,t oper.llll~rI for differe"l unit proces_ while .11"" bei"g a" are of "nergy c",~,ideralJO"sassociated w,lh Ihe life cycle 0/ part,cular unit p""""--"""",

8.1

Introduction

1'.e.hWd"'r i~d fi",l... ~"..., dnd r...tJ,1v aCre"'ilie ~Llpplie; arebemn>ingl"'.1""'1~10 fu.1 M ",b" I e,h i.• o.s\.lOl. A.:h i"-" ing ining, CtulTlS MId deL • ..,"8 mdl.......). dnJ dwrroo.:al.. u-...l duoTtg pumJ"ng .. nJ I lmi'!'l n.",,,,kw. !he dlSta"'-"" III d "" dtoi!'r ....... r« dnd it;. qu.>hh roulJ ""' 1o'1!l" ~ ,",p!o,.. from. hfo> ~d.. ~I"" C\Io<'t.'" 2011\.

0.

"'''''''L""",..

""''8Y

la""

And.~

«oaety

de",1or'< 1.>-., d""...ble ......""'" of ",,_ I" meeI

UlC"'"'-"'ng d",,", '>J.I..... ~'I ,If embl>diold .. ~rSlo ,n,.... " oIII Uppl~ IS ""f""h'd III inc....-. C""""l~tJ,. the<-oi!' ..... . - I 10 d ..top .." .}~"'m'drJT"'""h lO \Ier ""' g....- 'ot• .II"S'.... (ior .... amp\i':. ~ ....bIt> ...~ g.onwnt "'.... ~ a1ion. " .. I.... _ !'r..tal_lto n_ the gk'tral dem.l.nJ k.- o;afednnl:.l1'& 1'" In IImni of ......... appnnunald~ 12 billion galba!< of mu"""pa1 effluent IS dL di<;.e,,",rs"'-' .... "'Y ddv ,n !he Lillie..! Sla\le.i'l:~ .. null onl>· _ I........ "","-<;tal di>.
,,,,,,,,"'0'<1

11 1""""''' '" pubb.:

pph C'\: RC. 20121

M

purp ...."'" thaI IS p.a.1oublt>. rouble ler 1 h' " ..I... lhal L~ h.... lth~, lor hu.....n """",umpuon and I 01 harmful m'"""'S".... ms.nd organIC ..nd """8"= " n\olr not be ",f.. In u..,d<>pe..I '''''nlr'''''. " ..I..... Ir""'O' i"' ;;e,J u,'" 01 ~ poinl..of·u"" 1"",1""""••, l<'n and bnltleoJ 1",. 8'wrs." 10 ....."", beo""" peltO.....,,, is usallo proJuc.>lhe ..... ter cnua....... .and tJ>;,r-e ..", ~-ding or dL<""",,1 rost!l for lhe bnu"'" durln!:I""'r ;>nd-ol~life lif
c."""

.-1<'

n'

8.1 IntrOob:Iion

~ Global PefjnlUpDS pi Irmmyert Waler Simnles

Global

Defini~o...

of Improved and Uni"'f',oved

Wa"'rS~pplie.

Imp«NOdWatrr Suwl_

lJnImJ>llvod Wal... SuwIHB

Hnuo;d,,,k1 mnncdim,

UnpITte",,-"; well

h" th,,,,, """,kin!,:",, engin"",ingp"'i"cl> in thedeHI"pmg world, , waler .uppl)" ",dO be impn,,-ed with man~ tv!"" "f prnj<'ct> .nd appmpri.te h,chn,,!ngv, from p,,~""ling" w.ter ",ur'" I" building" di'tribu-

lion "·,tt,,,,_ Table ~_1 d""""ibes h"w the World Ile.hh o.,;.niLl "",r"""f'I'I,,',. ll<,ul.,J w.le,i, c",,-,id ...1'd unimp,,,...,J l>"c;,u>e of p',..,ible pmblem., of 'ufnci""t 'lu.ntity. n<~

'lu.ll!)-'l. \'~",dor-rm"idN

PmlL'doo dug ...e1k

I'rnteded 'prins' R.>inw .,1.". col I
w.lt.>r

IlolUed "-.,1.,,.

T.lnxeT truck-prodded w.,le,<

8.2

Characteristics of Untreated Water

"1,>51 consumers expect dnnkmg w,.to" 10 be dear, colorl""_ oonrless. and free of harmful chem,cal' and p"'hogenk micrnorgal1;'ms. Nalural "ate" u,ually mntain <",ne d"8"'" of di"",lw..u, pdrticul..t", alld miernbiological em._I,'u"nls, which arenbta",eJ I,mn th" ,urr"" Ilding ell"ironm"nt T•• bl" R,2 ,n.U1y "f lhe importanl chemical anJ biological mll,t,lu""1< founJ in I>at",. Chapt"r 7 di",u,,,.,.,] how preopil.'!io" and I.."d u'"" imp"Cl th" qua,,'ity a"d quallly 01 runoff Ihal ellt"" a \>'atef'ihed. figure R.1 'ho",
Con,en,ro'on of Mojor Con_"uon.. found in Wo'.

FIanII<>

~Com_

T~

1-I.OO1mgll

mn,l,tuenl<

Caldum(C>"l,chloriddO l,lIuoriddF l.imnlFc' I, m.lnga""",,(Mn' - l, mlTa'e INo, ). 'Od;um (N. ),
\1",,,, in"'ll"nic amslltu"",<

Cadm;um, ,hnnmum, '--opper. INd, me
"1-IO,..g/l

1'., tu ,ally occurring

t'lialurally
".I-Wmg/L

Syn lhelic '''PInk chom ical, (SeC.) and

IIelow l ,..g/L and up Illth< "'""oImgil

Ma~" inn'g.>nic

o'go"",mmpound< Anthmp<'g..... k org.m, mn.' ht""" '"

e"""lling chemical, 01 roncern u'led III 'ndu!'!,)". hou",lv>ld•• and agriculture (e.g .. be",,,,,,,,, "..,'hyl ""'-OOl\·J l'lhor, tc\'a
ChapterS Wale
Gonc""lntlion

,.

•

~

RgIIr8/1.1 SU'nJ.. IDlf~.. n<. . ln TCK: and Colorof HlII.b<""",~Ri"~r R.w", .t~rThai S~r.-e.. h~ CUrof T ."'p. (FU l\ .t~. T ",al",~n' rt..nt (_ZIlIII n.."".lft'qwlltv

i.:IflI"'I'-'"''''

fIu ' ....T. lD\poo
D

"'""vw..... n.., ........... ~ .......". ..

rrvnan!" the>GrfttI <;0.--""", Inarrd '"

~

CrnIr.olAond>

• •

lJunr-"'-1'

• •

D

,.! • • ,.,.

., I

_D

~,.

.~

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the>

hN ,.

-..."p_ ........ mbu....-t>.-.. I fllo_"

, lOIl_...

_I

• • •

~

D

•

imp.... t~"j ",lIo!J qu~lty w,~"it"e"I' ("~ifically TOC ,.. ,.1 ml,..) eh,mlle '" er till! "'..""" bee.. ",.. of """""""I d"m~ in P'~lp'lah.~". 1'."..11.1,..1 geolog< "'tN..ms pm.:_ c.." .:I,_,I\e.:I

c""""

inn'll"";'; ~)n, int.'

",""'<\

ter, and th Cd" problems n>lat;,d to color. h.mlne-." 1..,10', oJor... nd h llh. 0.,,,,,1, e.:I orgoonk matler In " .. ~r, "h.. h js d;m ...,oJ fr",,, d"""'~lI\g "'lI"l.-I".., Cd" Im~"r1" ~o>lk>,. ru;;h roI;.. 10 l!w .... tel". Tho> ""m'IUnJing k"",-,,1riaI en, Irl" m t C.. n ,.01&' ""'" II or colooJ.ll d ..y po" ,,'Ie<, 1<) boo! ..... p;ndal In the ....I« hidl m'part .. 1Um..! or cloudy "f'P",u,mu nil,,", " .. b>r 1\..1"••Uy occurnng m"'rootgo1nlSnL< """h lo, Nett'.;"., "....-. iln..! pmt07.N <:.in ......l.> Ih.o,t ..... ~. ,nlo .....Iu ••l ... .Ite... anJ Cau,,", "",,••lIh tssue<. s"nllwb.- <>rpnIC Chern.IC"~ tSCX::,,1 Ciln ~ >O'J ,nlo U.. "'" ,mnment and 00'- chronic or.ACUte lwalth probkms 10 humMIS .nd '"'{..,me COlftSo!.1""'\l~." rh,.. il:al, c~i< ..1. .. nd mlCrobiookog 1 d ........ neN to be rorL'-Id.... ftl In the tJ;,sign ..nJ "1""'".,;. nl .. ,,-,pp1~ and lrelln""" ,,~-.tem.

."I....

II"'.

..,,.,,,1Jcs

...........,

Test Yow Knowledgeol WiterUSing llehniorsanclWill.5ning 0ppcIrtwI1Iie5 "''-'' """..

8 2, I

PHYSICAL CHARAcrERlSTlCS

s.,., wal al\8"1¥t.' phr'""" Ich.>r.tcten"u;:,; of natu lat .. a loY Ia\,.. ",r..-re.l to as nr.r or ""I".,Itd ~Inl a '" u..ed to q.......i.v the a f1"'OlJa [>; ~ or a ",Ill",,,,,, nf the "atotr. parametrr<;. d....,ribed In Tab"" 11.1, a"" tUrbtdlt~, nunlb« and h'peof par1~, color, _and o.kw. and ~p""ature.

n-

"""~

r_

r ................__

Drinking WIlei' It ltJe World

HeaIUl Drpnlllltion .....'f'- _.. ... .....

"~~r...../"'"

Phyli

Turb;,:hl)'

Tu.:lity mea,...,. Iheopticll c1artyof wa!el". I! .. c.-J'C'd by the sca!lerill(\ .ro:! ,bsorb.> ......, of ighl by "',pend..... p.>rtic1e. in lhe wat•..-. A turbodimelel" i, used 10 measure the intori,..-eru:e of the light p"-''''ge IhmuSh III< wat",.. Turbidity " reported in tenn.' of nepbelametri, turbidilyunil5lNTUl The Wno-kl Health Or-g.>tu,..>tk>n ,eports tho". turbich", of '. ~ /\''lU i, "-,,,.111' .>ble but ""'v vaIV dep"ro:!m~ "p'm the .\".i1.>;"h", and """,ure,,, for ,,,,.tmmt. In the Unil..... Stat,,", manv wat.". utibti"" .im to "&lithe w,tel" tn <11.1 KIll. Pa,t>:I", In ""Iu",l w.llers.", ."h~ lorS"" !han mol"""h but goner.>.l1,· n<>l dlslo-gUlshable by!he u""oded ,-;-·e. Tnev mav ,d",rb lo,i.e m
Cnb,

Cob, '-, iml"nod '0 ""IO' b,' di"",I",':Im can mig;""'" from di""lv,'
.,1".

Sud"", water t.omp<'
,'.ry "om 05 C to 1 C in lhe "in"'" and 23 C 10 27 C in lhe'ummel'

Gmund""'lC
Tu,bidily ",,,,,su,,,,,,,,nls of ''''Iural ". "Ier> vary depending uf'<'n the "',lte, sourc". LOI' lurbidily measuremenls (less than I "TO) are typic",1 lor most gmund".lle, sources. ",hile surface ""Ie, tu,bid,ly ,. ",ies depending uf'<'n the sou",",. in l"kes and ,ese,\'Oirs. lurbidity is usually stilble a"d ra"ge;; Imm I to 20 NTV. but so",e "aters can va,y seasollally du" to lurno.'er, storms, and algal aclivit)'. Turbidity in ,iI'e,-.; is h'ghly depelldenl Oil p,,,,,1pital;on e"enls can range from 1"" Ih.,,, 10 l\TU 10 ",ore Iha" -l,Inll\'TU. Beeau,", dnn.lt" change i, e"peded to d",ng" ",eathe, ",·ents in .,..,,,,e p,,,ts of the w",ld hnduding Ih" U"ited SI"test the ""';U!t1l1g runoff and er.-",ion m.ly result in d""rea-ed 0' increased "",so,,,,l tu,bidny of some ra "-",,,Ier suppli",. W" als", u,scussed in lhe previous d"'pler hoI' land use n"pa.:ts Ihe quality of surf"ce runoff, Tu,bidity measuremenls are p"",a"ly u-ed for p"lC"" COlltrol. ,egulatory complianc", a"d comp",;soll 01 d,lferenl ",aler sources. They ",e also used as a" muicator i"cr"ased concenlralions of ",icroo,al ""Ie, m"'lituenl~,,uch "s bacte,ia, C'yplrtSl"",dw", oocy,ts. a"d Gi,mlia cvsl,. r "'tides foulld in ,,,,tu, ,,1 ",,,Iers Cdn be ",easure..:! in terms.-.f Ihei, nu ",bet> and size. Particle counlers can ",easu,e Ihe numbe, of 'uspended pa'ildes ill size ra"ges generall)· from 1.0 to (,(J "m, Partid" ,emo""l i, i",porta"t bee"use il has been sugges!eU as an i"die"lm of

",\L!

0'

Chapler8 Wale
""t....

r~"""'~l "r Giard;" ",Id Cryrl<>
""li"..

""'"y

'0 prt'l<'t"<'"'<'Onlrol d"";~ioon> Su'J""'IdO',.1 C'<1n>htuent- ... 111 ........ '" In ......ul.."'. 'UCh a, ttw 1m. .... -rnr AppIonrl coM., IS .....,.......ro''d ~ples. §O II .nchl<.l IIw roIor import..u br turbl<.llh T.....c....... is _u..-J on ......,oll" mple' ~ tnn.. rok>r Imp.lrl>'\.l br dL",..,ih O'd ~,h ...n'" While rolor " not a .-..gulaled "".. lth ronco'm.. 'I GIn be.on ~'" p",blen, for.........., U>d.. io..lu.l1., .ond cnmm"ml....... nd Irnillpnn Ided T .. >t~ and odor l"""-hold concenl'al , nalural oonr--causII'g n''''p'lUnd, in ,uri'.ace "ale", con\~ r"'lll I d"'a... of .. 18"e (for ",.. mrk g....''''in and melh."l isnbnrn.M1. whieh i"'p.lrt" mu,'~' oJ,,, "I r"""""'Mlio"s ", Iowa, O.mom~ illS Ill. \\I dllertr"""'-.l "ilh ",..,.;srh~"u'""'1 n h" '"'' chklr,ne odor, whirh """ be do'lecloo .os 10.... '" 0.010 "'gIL Gr"..",dw"'e,,, Ih.ll h.. \·~ ,I 10.... r~"x potenl;~1 nl.. Y co",aln ~ ...l j"oh·/!J g..s ,ud, .. , hyd"'s~n ,,,Ifid... which smells IIle rollen ellS'. W•• , C')"''';'''''8 d i,,;,ok"" in"'S,,,,k compound, ,,,ch "-' iron, ""'''Sa""", "d copper nMy h,,, .. ,I metallic Id,te. The Id,le or r~dur..J ir"n (fe"") c"" be d"''''led .. t 0.001-0.01 mg/ L ~ nd Ihe tao.le 01 r"'-.l '" >'d III""&, 1_ (M,,'-) c~n be delo'("l&I,,1 o.~-J() mglL. Some "alural Llr '~nLh..tlc nrg..uuc """pound, ",ll illlp.ul an objectionable 10 ""I..r E.... mple; of IhOolinrlwephaloL hichcdll bedeterl&lal a co,. ..'.r.... ,oo 1mg/L. Waler 1""'p""~I ""~ ,mportanl becau.;,,> it .. rrt'ct> man." ph~ ,ic~l .. nd ,lwlllie..1p"rdmetef" ol ...... t...., sudl a.~ de","". , '''''''''}'. ~u 'urf.ace ~""".....ubihly. and """'-loon r..I........ h",h ~re u.~ in th.. d ,gn .. nd operal'C'n 01 ~ nd .. ,~""tal cnn\.., ~nc-e~, ,tern.

"'""" '" ""uanr

la''''

or

'''PO<

"""_n, rl.lnt ..

822 MA.K)li:ANDMNORINORGANCCONSTlTUENTS T ~bl .. fl.~ 'u""""07"" the maprd"""',;;j ,n"'&"mcco_~u...1s found 10 .. ~~. C.ok,um ... . - 01 ttw """" .. bundanl Gil...... found 1I1 ...._ .and '" 11'10' maJOr con~l.Ltuent ol .. al"" hardnesli '~Iong "uh magne-"',,,nl. C ~k,um con<:entrdlion> S.....,..... thAn .oboul f>il n'g.' L ~re rona n""",,,,,~~ '0'''''. CNori (0 -) con. ettr.otL<"Ol5 in I.." ....r ..... ....!oH'o , .. ~ fnlm I 10250 mg.' L d."...-iJrng on tho> ~x,,'lOn nd Iy pior:.ol ~urfa\ ...... Ier j, " ' lIy Ie,,;; IMn 10 mgiL CI lI...... e' ter. afi...I"" br "'11..... t inlrU>oon .. nd ground" ah'<' Ih.lll"ru..,,,,, Irapf""'l bru>t m.t, ha\ .. chknle C
,1<.1.,.""

Majar Di..a .....d

Can.~lu.re.

faund in Wa'...

n

W.,... Supply

Gonstil""'"

ProllIorn

Cal";um

Ab",'o60 mg/lean be «m.idered nui... "", ... ha 0:1"""•.

,00 m.'g",---""um

Surl>.", wal.,,-. nd gm." nd,,'al""' .... It.,. .,1.,,intru..""

Above 2'\/1 mg/l mn imparl ..llv l.l.,le. Below .r,(J mgil Coln be <'C>TrO'n'e 10 ",me moIak.

Sud.,,,,

T0'>< In humans at «1"'" n«.,lion. of 25{}-.4'i(J m gIL; fa!.:ll .t a:meenlTa'"",-'abm'o 4.0g/L

wa~r and

guund.,.a.,r

Son-.;, water

utihl..", .";d fluoride in llle fcorm of .odmm fluooo., or h\'drollUSilic add at d,,,,,-, of about 1.0mg/l

I"", and manganese

Surbce .... leT.1Od g"",n.l",at.,,-

Talang.,n"", ion can 1m!"'" • d.,k brown roIo•. Al ronct.'Iltral~m. I ~round O.~ mgil, man!:'"",,", can I impartanunplo....-.nlt;..'letr, waleT and Coln laundrY and fi"ures.

".m

.,..-.t,r

Sufur

Surf."" and gm,,,,d.,.al.,,c.:I n conta '" high ""neen tra of nilT"'" from omoff from fert,hze", found m urban and a gnC\l1ruTal wat"",hed.

V'''Y h'Sh mITaloCOll<<'Illr.lion. may pm.:luce infanl

Surf.,,,,

Gm..-d.,.al.,,- I"",' m dis",h'oJ o,~'8"" mn mntain m:lu=:I sulfur mDlfr; such a' lhal ol egg•. Sulfal""a", also rremo;il'C in C
tl,.,.

.,.a~T .,nd gr""nd.,.a~r

f\aogoo in NaILol Wa'IIn

For e.kium, "---",, than I mg/lh' morolhan500mg/l

Surfa,..., ,,'ale. moe"" tralion. ol m.'gllO"ium are 1"".lhan Illmg/L upto20 mg/L Gmundw.leT roncenIT.,lum,,,,,, I"".lhan Jfl mglL up 1040 mg/L

Typic.1 '" rf"", w .1,,,. "' "sua Ily 10«. lhan 1ll mg/L For .urface ",at," wl,h ,ot.iI d ... ",I""d ..-.lid, (TDS)

,oo".1es.,

con"",t•• lhan I,roo mg/L, Ounride i. u""aUy !es.. than 1.0 mg/L In "...-gena 100 .urf""e .,..,1""" Ihe «>n
melhemoglobi""m",.

,.,1",,,,

Sui fa Ie colla'nl io fresh'"~I", can a pproac h Illmg/L

""ten

as.-;,,,,;al...:! ",ilh ferric ion, aluminum, and berylliUll~ Some water utiliti"" add !luorlde ,,' the Inrm of ".".jium fluoride or hydm!luor.--...iiic acid .,1 c,,"centrali"J~~ ('If about 1.0 mgll. lmn ;,; abl",dant in geologi",1 formalk".. and is l""luently found in waler, If 1>01 remOled, il Can impart a bmwni,h colnr 10 lau,,,;ry and Chapler8 WalerTrl!a1melll

b.'Ilhn-.om fixlu"". At wn",ntr"ti,,,,, around O.2---{).4 mgIL, ""'nga""'" can unpan a" unpleA",,,t taste to the ",aler and ,tJ.II' lau"dry a,ld fixlu"",Surt>ee ",ater can wnlain high wncenlralio"" of nilrale (and other form' of nitrogen) lrom urb.on and agricul!ural runoff. Groundwaler can also wnlain high wncenlralion, of "itrate, especially in .lgricullural are.", where ammonia fertili,..,,, Me b,ochemically conH11ed to nitrate i" Ihe -"oil or area, i"'pacled by ",,-,ite t",atmenl-"uch a, falilly septic tanh. t\'ilrate L, reglil"ted beeau,", lugh ",,,,cenlralion, Ina} produce inlant methemoglobin"",ia. Sulfur""n oc...' ''' a, ,ulfal'" (CaSO"l>.'a,SO" MgSO,) and reduced ,uIrKl"" (H,5, HS-). Sulfides can be found in water "'here Ihe'" i, -"ignificanl organic decoml"'-"itmn Ihal r"""I!, in anoxic wndilions. Groundwaler 10\\ ill di'sol, ed oxyg"n can mntain reduced ,ulfur Ihal imparl' objectionable 000". Sulfales are also w!TO-"i\'e i" cOllcrele ,Iruclur"" a"d pipes. Se,,,,,l m"'or inorg.u,ic con,hlu,,"l, Me ",metul"leS a ,ignificanl h"al!h wllcen, or dimin;,h waler qualilv. Exa"'pl"" i1lClude copper, ...hro"'ium, nickel, men.:ury, ,tronhum, a"d zinc. So",e of th"", wll.slituenl, are Ihe ,,",ul! of Ihe surrounding lIalural en"imn",enl, "1"le others are p"""nl due 10 human acti,-ilies. For """mpl", ",me indu<;.Irial -",I", Ihal u"'" a w""j pre,,,,,,-ali,'e haw wntanunaled "aler -"upplies, "-1,,1,, ""turally occurring arsenic i' "-idespread Ihroughout much of Ihe world. In Ihi, laUer arsenic i, found mO-"lly .. s a solid in Ihe mineral form. Howe,'er, il Cd" be found di""'h'ed '" grou"d" ale< in Ihe form 01 arsenile {H,A"o,l .."d ,,""" ,,,,te (H,AsO.- . HA"o/,) spede". In ronlraq, lead wntalllu,.,lion i' u,,,ally a,,-""'iated ,,-ilh human .,cli",t,es tl"'l e,-"" include lead"ng from old di,tribulion -,v,lem,

Lead In DrinkingWaler ~-:.'I'll""'" _'"1'a~DV1....'
,,,.,.,,,ic",

ca"'.

Global Arsenic Crisis +-~'fj I~__""" J ....Jtopic'!li a~c>d ~c I

~ Thp GlrtJal Arsenic Crisis A~

Table 85 shuw~, ""tur,,lIy "ccurring """n;c i, wid"'p""d in w"te, 'uppl;"" Ihmughoul the w"rld. Un(mtu""ldy. ,,-hen hum"ns Ofe exposed ""eT hlg

pt'ri'>d' t" l"w cuPcent,,,ti,,n, "f """nic fmm "'msum;ng cunt"min;,led w,teT, ",,'er,1 f"rro-, "I canCeT can del-dup. n.., W",IJ 11",lth Org.:>ni,...til1n h."

~-----------, Globol

Loca~an. Where

Na ...olly OccU'ring Ar..",i< Ho. Been Detected in DrinlDng-Woler Supplie.

A,i"

n"nglad""h, C,mbod .... Ch"'ol. Indi.>, I'oln_j"!,,n, My.n""'T, Ne1"!. P.,IJ,"'n. Thl;L:md, \"""n.lm

Eu",!",

Au,tri.>. Cr",ti.l, Finl.nd. Fr.n"" Genn.:,"y. G"""'e. Hung.uy. 1"'1)'. Ro""'IlLI. Ru",i.l, So.'Tbi.:l, United Kingd
8.2 ClWacte
_

~l-iIC'QQQolll'"QI,'e"')I-

OK'<\m.lingly "",. drinking-waleT "r l() I'-gl L (]() ppbl.

guiddin~ for a""",i~

The magnitude of the pnulem i, m,,,,' ,ee;"", in !J;mgl.d""h and IV-=-l B"ng.l (lndi.). In ,f..., 1'filJ" and l\1ll1),;,4 milli"1\ h.nJ-pump well, were in,tallt.'
p.th,ogen-f"", drinking-w'leT "'pply. The p,,,,,,,nce ",( • ""1\io,,,i> bccurTing. T,,,j,,y it i, ""bmat",J lhal, e,-err d.) in llangbd."h, up I" 51 milli,,,.. ""''PIe are ""1"lSt!
'"tiu,,-, /l,e.ter than III .,g/L In W""

Ileng"~

''''lui"" nu electricity "r chemical ,tdJi!ion, '[,he unil " p.dtBl ",ith gr.mula, acfiml..J alumina, wh"h ,emuv"" Ihe a,,,,,,ic fmm the ",ateT. The unit Ciln [,., '<1\",er.led '" iIhc..: m, tic '" >d" • buut e,'ety ~ m, mth.,. Th~ mrnmumtv is i,,-,tructed ~, d;,;p'''''' ccupy 56 ft' .

;m

",timatcoJ ~ miDi... pt"'I'le .Ire e,l"",.,J l
••••

::::::: • •

nih>de "r the pmbl= sl>.",.,. wh,- """~ ha,-~call
'>CCUrTed.

Tho; m,,,1 wmm,,,,ly u,..,J a""",ic ,..,munl"Y'I~m, in b,~h lro, d",-e1'>ped and d",'duping w,,,-Id a,~ ba,,,J ,m cmgu!;'li"n----"'I"'Talion and ad"''l'liun pn>c",,,o;. Membc.n~ fillTafiun (,uch ", ,,,,'e,,e ,,,m,,,i, and nan"fillT"liun) i, aI,,, ellecti,'e al """m'ing a"",nic from w"ter; howe,'er, il is n,,1 p,,,,,ti,,,,1 in much ollhe ",mid beeau,", 01 lho; high "",Is im'oh'....J. Acwnlinl;!y, appmpciotte lechm,I,,!>ie.' ha,-e been Jeveluped lu t,eat this ",alec. Figure K2 shu"" ,me .,uch technul'>gy. Thi, unil L' in,I.lled di,ectly .,1 Ihe hand-pumped ",ell, thaI ",e,e in,\;tlleJ in the 1\l7tl-. .md 1\1~I-.. It

8.2.3

"""'nIc·I,... water

AtoonlC
Il'oundwatm

Figure/8.2

w.n H•• d "'",ni< Remov.l Unit .... 1 L
MAPR al.GANIC COr--.lSTITUENTS

Orga"ic co",lltu~nls found '" ",ale, call eilher be n.Uu rally occur,lng or a,sod.ued ",ilh hunMIl aeli"ties. Natural organic malter (NOM) in water i, the result 01 the comple,ation of soluble orgauic mdteridl derived Imm blochemica] degradalion of ""SeMlin" in the .u "ou ndi"g ell'
ChapterS Wat""T'MImeIIt

Ule" aI Nelu",1 O'geni. Matte, INOMj an Wa'", ',ea_n' P,,,,e..,,. W .... T"'.."".. Pm~

Elocl re.>n

I\o.~l

NOM r=ct.' ,,;lh,.nd mn'""",,,. ""'Sulant,, which Incre..SC "'1"irod ef kell\'''' Imuid "y aL

,."nm'

d~

to .>ch...,....

Ad''''ptiofl

NOM ad"",,,, In act".alL>d c.ubon, whleh depl<>t"" ad,orption capacity nf the ,arbon.

ML'n1b,."",

NOM ad-,,- In memrn-an"", dogging membrane f""""_ and louling ""ria""" ThL' Imd, t<>dechn... to ,,-.,te,p""-sed 1hmuSh tho "",mb,a..., NO~l

mal' load 10 c",,,,,,;.,,, and ,limo growlh in dc,triool><>n " ..,I""", t"'I"-",;"II1' wbe... ",,,danls are used during lmltmL'nl).

Anlhropogenic organic COltqj lue"l, lou "d in ,,'aler a re a,socialed "ilh indu,lrial aclivity. I.,,,,j use by agricuhure, urlMn runoff, and nlunidpai effluent, fmm "a,le,,'aler treatment planK Me",t 01 these organic contaminanls are das,ifled as synthelic organic chemicals (SOCs). Representati,e SOCs are foun,j '" fuels, deaning ",lvellls, che"ucal lee,blocb, and herbicides an,j peslicides. Emerging chemic-als 01 concern are '''''' lound in \\ aler and "a,le",aler fmm Ihe u'" of personal-.:are and pharmaceulical products.

8.2.4

MICROBIAL CONSTITUENTS

['olabie ,,'aler mu,t be lree fronl pathogenic micmorganl,;>'t'. A" ju,t otle ".,ample"f the global magnitude of the problem, the WHO report< Ihal diarrhea contribuled 4.7 percent of the global burde" 0/ di",a", in 2011. Of IhOIl ,1.7 percent. approxun.llely AA I"'",ent was cau""",, bv un.afe \\'al"r, ... nitalloll, .1nd hygie,,,,. Palhos"ns .ll't, nucrro"ll"ni,,,,, U"'I cau,", ,ickHe", and dL",a"" Palh''&'''''' ,ndude many cia"""" of microorgane,nt,_ amo"g tll",u V,"''''''', !Meteria, prolozrn, a"d helnunUr;. Detail, aboul ;;on", "'I'""",ntat" e palhogenic organistn, foo "d in untreal<.'Ll water and a..,,-.cialed heahll effec", are pfi'\ ided in T abj~ 8.7. No", Ihe .mall size of palhogensthat can prevent their r~mo\'al via co",'em;o""l gra, ,ty """imentation pr""",,,,,,, Bee au", Ihere are "",,,y d ifferem "'aler-ba"",,,, palh<>gelb, m"'''lom'g and detect,ng all of Ihem ",ould require a prolubi", e a",ou til of resource,. C-"'t""'lu~nlly. indi· calor organism. (~uch a. col ifonn.) h.IVe Mn id~nlifiio:l .•nd are u"""" 10 m"",tor lbe mkrobi.ll ,,'aler'lualny. At presenl, the EI'A requ"", waler ulilities to m"!litor Iheir water distribIJlI"n s~"leln m"nthly lor 101.11 coli lonn •. The loMI coliform rule ,naximum co",ami"a", level i, based on frequency "I det""lion (no

Phannacwticals and Personafcare Products 1-,'fJ 1<("1 ¥"! f'P"pll_
How's Your Local Drinking Water? b:j>JI"",~ .q>a~!dnrtJ1oca~ink>< <~

8.2 ClIaracle
Rep'..... nt
!l.:Ieteri,

Vibriod,,~m>

Shape: wormhke 50,.0: 05 by 1-2 I'-m Sol"'ondlo r••"..".al

0.",.", c hde'" ,--.." pl<>
'1""""

'I"'cieo<)

HUm.ln .lomach .nd inl""'''''''

S. rvplli <:.lu"",enlioe..nd abdomi""l!"in

lnl""h""" of warmbloode.:l ani"",l.

B.ldlL>,ydy",nk>'" .bdom ... 1p." c,.""!",, di.-.n-hm.I"'·e' ,'omlt",s, blood, .nd mueu. In "001.

HUm.ln .lomach .nd inl""to",,,

Shal"': rod 5<,-,,: 0.6 I'-'" !l.:Ieteri,

SJlig
Shape: round 5O'A"O.4l'-m f.>drm,hiJIroli Shape; rod 50,.0: 0.'\.-05 by 1-2,un

n"ffind

Poh,,,,ru, 1\1"" 1. 2, 3 SlI.'pe' round 5<,-,,: 28--30nm

Virl><

"""'

~'ITU'

Rot."Iru.' A Sh.lpe' round 5<,,,,Mnm C"ll~''''I"
hmd>ehe, .tiff n,,-brrl b",k, deep mu>de ",in, .nd ,kin ",n,,"dry F<.~.",.. '''''",e

Sen"e inf",,~..,. in lunS', eY"" un"" ". ge'" l.1 t•. 'om,,,',, In••ffeel In le< lin'"

Hum.m .d"",,,,iru. Sh.ll"': 12 "erlk"" 5<,.0: 7l}.-9() nm

lnl.." l",,,, of "'armbloode.:l ani"",l.

So"""

,,,,ct,

Human intO<-linal li'.Kl

di.ln-hro and dooyd,,'ion

"'In,

P,oto"",

5e<",ed,..-,!y'·., .bdomlul """'Ilins, and f",,,,,

Pmloro.l

Suddm di.rrhea, .Wom",.,l c""'P". blo.lbng, cr.ml",and we,sht I.>s"

Helmmlhic

!'
/,"'.''''''

HUm.ln ",'""ti",,1 li'.Kl

n.l>
Type 1 OOC)-.t Sh.ll"" elhp;odi.ll 5<,.0: J..S I'-m Spo,m:oile .,nd ""-...07All'.."

Sh.lpe. wormhke Si,,,: 10 by LSI'-m

Gi."J.. lomblw Sh.'pe:-1< wide, 2---4

"m

"m

od

Sen "I"""""

'-molol>;,,,,, " wormhke ... m

o,~,n

Chapler8 WaferTrl!almelll

Blood ,'e.,d,of th~ hUm.ln bl.>dder and '" m.>.mmab

more th.u, 5 I"""~e"t for 'y'ten~s ~olled.Hlg ,H IN,t 10 "''''pI'''' per mo"th) or Ih~ ro",bll\.lt,o" of a f'O"ilive L;d,erichia coli ... mpl~ (or fecal co]jfnrn~') ",ilh a f'O'i,I,W toYl coliform ",mple. WI,ile Ihe 1"'.11 coliform t""t~an pr.widea good indication of f""al ronlan",,,,tion. ilc,annnt prm e lhal Ihe <;our"" woller i, safe. Other melhods mu Sl be used 10 confirm the absenceof longer-surviving org.>,,,s,,,-, such as ,·"u"""and

"""<.h'..m

Interactive Presentation to Understand the safe Drinking Wafer Act I-~'fj l...a':U.
'1""""'.

8.3

sale Drilking Water Act I-~'J>j I"""-"pa..,...-'.... '",,:r..<:,I_a!

.,,,,,.em-

Sale Drinking Water Hofline 1·lllIl).-426-4191

Water auality Stand..-ds

The Safe Dnnking W.lIer Act (SDWA) (Public Law 9:J..-323) was pas.sOO by the U.S. Congr""" ,n 1974 and amended in 1986 and 19% 10 p"~lecl public h&llih b}· regulaling the public woller supply. Under this law, Ihe primary responsibility of selling Ihe woller quality regulations" asn"wed fmlll the slales 10 the EPA. To prm""l public health, EPA established prnnary drinking-woller standards by ",ltinS heahh-based ma~imum contaminant level suals (MClGs) and muimum conlaminant levels (MCls) lor a l.>rge number of poIlUl.,nh. TI,e ~·lCllS Ihe enforceable slandard and is based not only on health and resk a,,,,,,-sment ,n!orm.lIion, bul .11", on costs aod the a,ailab,ht) of lechnology. The MClGs are ba.<;ed solely on health and risk as,e,smenl infonnalioll. Table 8.8 pm"ides the MClG, and MCLs for "'''eral nnportalll chen"""ls fou nd nl walersu ppl ies and lhe" potemial health eff""b;. A similar "'I of MCL, has been ""ubH.shed by the World Health Or gani7-"liol1 ("", "\\ w .who.org).

I, '0l"I"l' a~"" a 00<. t ~"" ",!. wa'..u an d 'l'OO'"".....<:, f"""9"'a... 0 a c""Dri~ cn"","'< SOW,,"

Class Discussion ;I. I\tpt=><,,"~rl\hao

.J.

d "".,..,. "o~ a,.. p,""""n~Of m. nim iu f'U 01 ic ~r<..-id< Opr; ar d (;) '-" .ltd co 1r1-< r~ed "" ,
c".m

...

Rep.elOn'oftY. ChemiOle be",d no' onlyon health and ",,,,,,,,,en informo'on, bu'olX>on em" ond me o.
'i'"

Synlhetic O."",n ic Chorn;,," (SCJCs) 2A-D (2,4-<:1 ichlnrophe""''''' acebc .>ddl

Al.:>chn. Alraz;"" IknT.o(Q)r>"rcne

Chlord,ne Lmd~ne

P",I,,,hlnrilt.lted b;phenvl (PCB)

Vol.llllo 0,,,,,,,,1< Cb"",ic".l '1OC., 1.1_Du-h1oroelh'·1ene

I, L I·Tricb~", ...~It.me

".ro

0.07

" " " "

"""

"=,

"""

"""

0.003

0.0002

0.2

n.00.1

"~

n.002 0.0002

0.2

,, ,, I

Iconrinuodl

1,2-Di.chloroelh..m e Benz"..." Carbon tL~",chlonde ri.<- 1,2-Doeh ~",dh,' len" Dichloromelhanc Elhyl beI\ZL'Il"

T... U<" ...• Tetraddoroethylrn" T richlorocthylro<' \1nyl chlroride X,'let= (loIdl\ Inory.nia; AT"enk CadmIUm

Chromium (lDt.,1)

Cy.ni.k Fluoride

lmd (.>( t,'pJ Mcocury t"i ITat<.' t... /';) !'Iim!e la.' 1'1)

""

11,00';

0

II.OO~

OW

om

0 0.'

1I.\ffi

0.005

, " " 2l'

"',

" ", , " ,"

0.01

(um [Uffi

0

II.lXl2

" "~

0.005

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0.'

0.01 5 \.Irtion 0.002

O.llO2

bL~)

,'"

1ho"".,""~""'oI.",""'~,,,,,"'''''do_d.,,Mdod.'''9IJO<,",,_",,,,,,,,,,",,,,,,,,,,,,uwhK''_'Y''"''',,,""I_

SQlJIC!

~P... 20 I 210'""" olt.. "''''I; "II Wo'" S
~ DeVe1qJjoli a Drjnklng-Water StarJIard from Toxicity Data [n tlli, example we demonstrate ..me way EPA de,-elops a drinki"g-wat'" ,tandard from to_'icily i"foon.,tio". ]n Ihis case ,,-e will us« EPA' s decL!" the "oncarcinogen perch]..... (CIO,-). EPA reports lhal perchlora!" (ClO, -) is bOlh a naturdlly occurring and rn. "",aJ" "hemlc~L It i, u,..",] '0 produc~ ,ocl I perc~m of publ;';' ,,"~l ..... W'I~nl' ha, ~ d~lec,ed pe,chl"rale, and 5-17 m,llion p""pl~ n1..'y ~ ~xp"""-'ec-au"" scientific researrh ,ndicat..,. il ca" di,rupl,h~ ,hy,oid', ab,lil} p"-.:Iuce importa", de,'el"p",en,al hornlC,n6lhal are crilical (or n"rnl.ll brain de,-~l0l-'m~n, ,,,,d gro\\lh of (elu""", ",fan,s, and younll children. To g,,-e you an idea of Ih~ effort i,,,"oll-;,..1 in de, ~loping a

,t"

'0

ChapterS WaiefTrMImeIIt

s,andard (nr "ne ch~mical, in Ihi, pm.....,;" ET'A ool\,id~red inpu, (rom ,hei, Sci~nce Ad'isnry Ilo.lrd alld aim",,! 39,lXK1 public oom",en,e", ,ince 2007. EPA d""id;,..1 10 "'I';ulate perchlnra,~ unde, ,h~ SOW A (""" hltp'I/\\-a,~r'''JM'llmI drink/colllamilIanls/ulI"'l';ul,ted/l"',chlnrale.dml. In ,he pmc""s "f developuIg a d,;"Io"g-\\ aler ,t.,ndard, iiI' A firs, de,-ek,p" a pri,mry d'inking-wa,e, slandard (or perchlora,~ by >d''''1l a hea1lh-ba>ed MClG, Afl~r nus is acc"mph,hed, they """h~ enforceable MCL jn ,h" ca,) ,hal is hkely I" ~ \\-"hou' an appreciable risk of del""",;"u, effects du,i"g a lif,,'ime. TI,e RID (or drinking-wa,~r

~ (cpntjn"pd\ perchloral~ """ J><,

oolain.,J from th~ d .•!., a\'aibbl~ in the Inlegrat",.] Ri,k I"formation Sy,tem (lR!S) (hUpJ !ww".ep...glW/JRIS/I. IRIS repOfb the RfD for I"'.chlorale is 0.7 "'8 per kg of bod} ",eighl per d"j (0.7 Ilg/lg/Jayl. TIlis RID ls based on Ihe No Qbs.en,ed Hred 1£",,\ (NOEl) of 7 Ilg/kg/day and aprt'G1lion of an "",.,rlainly factor (UF) of 10 to ..""ounl for d,ffe,,,n"e> III ",,,sitt>il)' \)o,tween Ihe heahhy adulls "nd the "",,[ <;e,~sll" e population, lhat is, fetw•..,. of pregnal1l WOln"" who might h.w" hypothyo"di,,,, or iodide 21 deficient. s.~ how d ""5 EPA go f n,m II,., RID IoH d rinku'g".,kr ,tandard!The heahh-IM~ MClGs EPA ,,-ill "'I for d,",lm8 water can bo> detennin<.-d as; )(llJ(

_kg

~g

J.",_)

In Ih .. "'l,-"'I:',,,, EPA a,<.U""", Ihe default ,- ..lu ...

forlx",!> weight(70kgland drinl
8.4

perchlnrat~

Ihrough other roules of e"I"",ure t-id"" drinking waler. The RSC is ba>oed nn stud ie> perfmmed by Ihe Fond and Drug Ad",i"istration (FDA) and in Ihis case, EPA is prop""illg 10 u,e an RSC of 62"1 (so the RSC 0.fi2) lor a pregnant woma n. Th i,me.lnslha lfi2'~ ofa pregnant wmn .• ,,', e>.po""re In perc1~orale would be Ihrough drillkmg waler. II you pla<:<' the>e values inlo the ab,-.-.e equation, you will obla", an MClG for perchlorate of 11 Ilg/l (15 ppb) in drinking waler. R"me",ber fmm our reading in Ihis clI.• pler 11"'1 the :>.lClG is a 1I0n""fm",able goal defined under the SDWA a, lel'el al which no kno"n or anticipated ad I "r", effecls "n Ihe health of persolls ocrur alld which alln,,", an adequate ",algin 01 safety." The SDW A ,peeifies Ih.•t the enfmceable MCl be sel as close 10 Ihe MClG ... I"a,ibl" u,ing the t-I available le"';",ology, treatment te,:hniqu"", and olh~r mea,,-, (con,idering mst). n,is proce>s w.., nOl yet fill.ltiZ&l .IS we ''''''''e wribng this oo.,k. but it d"",-" ,how II", MCl that EPA will e"entu-llly ",t lor perchl"rate will be ~15 Ilg/L

"11,,,

Overview of Water Treabnent Processes

n,,, Iypical ,,,,,1 pl'O<'iSSR< uSffl for the treatment 01 surfa", water and br acli,h waler; are "'0" n in Flgu'" R.3. T.lble ~.9 ,ummarize> the unil pr"""""", a"-,,,",,;ated with signified"l removal of particular "'aler constituenl'. T"'''Iment "f ,u rfa", "ale,..; (Figur" 8.3.1) moslly requi"", Ihe rem",' al of particul.ue malll>r and palhog",,-s. Removing parti..,;... also

P,oce . . . Thol Remove 0 SignificanlAmount of R.._Wol... Con.. irue,," Un~

Unit Pnx:ess(oo)

Turbid;", ard p..-tid",

c "'gull tion !O ecru I, l,
1\\"1'" d"",I",>.I ir<>rgani<:< Minn. d "",h'o:I ir<>'lI""'"

P,lhog<'n-<

Sc>Ji",,·nla'IOO.

f~I,,,linn.

di
M"I'" d"""h.. <>.l org.",'"

8.4 tM!Iview D1Wal.. T,eatmem Processes

_. ""'- -----..... ,.,....... --

.......-

w_....."

-,

.

'"

,

--

•

---'"

"'i'~

w_ _...,

--------------------------- ---------- --------------------------

Flgurll 8.3 Typic~l lV~lor Tn,.l",ont Unit I'roc.,...,. dnd Their Arnngo"",nl Th= pmc"""", ~re typimllv used fOT: fa) tr<,"""nl 01 'urf••eo ""~I",, ,nd (b) lreal"",m 01 "",1",, ,,,ih hIgh k..-dsol di"".h·«! con"ituenls I''''''' C,""", ., 01. 12012). lodo",", w'f> "'""',.... oI}oM w,~ & 5000,

".ct

~ Visualizing the Water Trealmenl Process

n,es.> Internel "idee.. will

~Ilo"

yOlJ

10 lour

waler trealm"nt pl~nt, and beller ,'i,uaHz" man" of the unil proc....." "" desc,ibffllh,oughout Ihi, chapt"'.

Video J (5,2('), Cove", p,e1realment and"*'<:! imenlation (devdoped In a<.,,;'1 wate, t",allnent operatn'" obtain ...,rtificat;on). "7'''''.",,111 u/.' ~utIJtuul P IIqrDo 1FDU I-\'r8&

r1,'

ft'illll .... ck""",I,';'I,'O 1111,'

Video 1 (5;2(,); rroduced fm th" Beauforl '",per \Vat", Authonty. this ,'ld"" lou", a 39 MGD I,,,almem pl"ll! located in Soulh Ca,olina lhal exl'oK" and treal< ,,'ate, from the s,,"alulah River. ""71'.""IIJIII".ra,n/uule/1 ?" ObXlqS5N< RY Vi deo 2 (3;20); Cove", Ihe ba,icpn-.cessesof treating drinling water. ""7''.",," J1I1".eoon/uulell? ,,,,,9~ 14<'151 /Swg& NR_I Chapler8 WalerTrl!a1melll

Video ~ (hi}); Cm'e", roagul.ltion. flocculation. and "*'<:!imentation (den,loped to a<."i"l "ate, t",allnen! operalo", obtain ..."Iificatielll). ""COl'.",,11111 I., ,com!,mlch' '0 oQOC,sym U,j Yg& !mlllr..- ".'!m!"

Video 5: Tale a virtual Inu' or a dronling-wate, tr"atm""t pi.lm. lllll>:!fu" I,., ~'I"" g",# ri, Ikll" IIr/

,,-,,~ists

in !",lI'oOgen ""moval, becau~ m...t !",thoge'b either are parlid", M are a"oci"led ",ith particles. Applk"lion R.3 anJ Figu re 1Ll.4 sh'''' Ihe much grNter cmnple"ly of" ~pecific w"ler treatment plant. If Ihe waler source conlain, di,,,,I,..,,:I con,lltuents, then additio"al unil processes can be added to remole them a, "'ell. Membrane processes are now widely used for drinlmg-waler UNtmenl, aud a ",hemalic diagram for the treatmelll of brackish ",ater i' ,h""n in Figure IDb. ntis trealmenl proc",,"s wili become more imp"rt.lnl in Ihe future as increa,es in popuialion .."d dem"nd, along wilh climate ~hange, force ...-..:iely 10 ,earch for w"lel'S of poorer quality. n,,,,e ,oorce; a", ,,,,neli,,,,,, high in TDS and a '" pre,;e'll .15 bracl;';h gmund""Ier, ",a" aler, and ....claimed w>ler. Reclaimed waler is now beIng "'''"dered it> many wal....-'caree area, tn pro-ide an aitemali"",ource of "aler. In lernlS "f ",,,Ier lrealmenl, "ne is,ue is whether Ihe " ..,Ier ,h"uld be trealed for polabie or nOI !X'iable applicallon" ,uch as irrigation "f residenlial yard" "gricuhure, or public green s!",ce. n,,,,,,, IIonpolable u,,,, can I"ke ad,·.lnlage of Ihe ,aluable nulrients Ihal engineers can lea,e in "",Jaimed waler.

Application/8.S

The Real

Thi~:

The Treatment Process at the David L. Tippin Water

Treatment Facility Drinking-waler IrNlment processes dep"nd on a ,-ar"'ty of factol'i, induding ' ... 50rldi f""tol'i (reme",ber Figure R.l) alld ",helher Ihe source i' ,url""e water, groulll:1\\'al...., or red"'med "·,,Ier. Here we d~""u'i.s a reallreat",enl proc""-' for surfa"" w .,terth.,t """ '" the Cily "f Tampa (FL) <;<) a reader Cdn undersland the en"'plex;t\' "f "ater Irealmem. n,e Dadd L TippIn Waler Trealmelll FacililY lreal, ,u"-""" waler frrm the H iUsb.>rough R"
mal\1getnenl "flhe ". a .. rshed Some oflh .. indudes Illanaging ho" much ground" ater (which pro, id"" ba""now) catt be withdr"wn farther up ,,' the I\' ater,hed and through managing how land i' used (or prolecled) "ilhin Ihe watershed. The Ire"lmenl planl i' perntilted for a maximwn n,~\\ of 12fl MGD "nd "',.,.."" approxim.lleiy (,(X),fJlWl people. Figure BA ,hl~\5 the 1".,lmenl P""'''''', which col"is!5 of CO.>gulalton and nocculali",~ "d,'a'tced o"id"!ion by O7.0ne, b;nfillration, and dl<;infection by chlma",;"al;"". NH~

,~

F, 0,.

,~

1 1 ,

: Illen
._-----_._----_..__._--_._.__.._-_ 6.5-7.0

_4.5

: lJiSIIili
.................... ..... __ .. _-_. ___7.0107.2 ._----_.. _7.5.,8Q ~

_6.5

_--_._~

AU~ 18.4 The Cur",nl \\'.lerTr""I",,,,,1 Pme.....!lh. Dnid L. Tippin IV .Iel Tre.,monl F.dlily(T.mp., HI. iC"'""" ,yo! til. "" &aIo, 20 I 2, -.;!h f'O'''';'''''''I

8..4 Overview D1Wat1!f Trealmool. Processes

~ (coo'io'lfrl) begins by pumpin,g surface water i,,~) parallel rapid mixa n,j Actll1,l' .y"''''''''. As Ih" n,~ proce,~

wd"'r trave}; bo!l,,<£" the wdler ,"l.ll" and Ihe beg; n" i ng of I he coo gulaliol\ I 11,",cul" tion prnces5e>. ,ulfuric acid, polymer, .."d ferric sulfate are added 10 the waler. Adiflo™ is .. high-rate "'tiling and coagulation/flocculation !-"ocess lhal u'"'" sand In pmm"te lIocculation. n,e ,,,,,ulling f1rocs from the two coagulalion/I1",:cul.llion p""""'''' ,,,Ille by gra,·ily in ,;;;limenl,llioo ba,,,,"s. Folio" inil Ihi, Ihe pH is rai".;,J 10 bet",,,,",,, ~ and h.3 by addll'g lime (Ca(OH)") prior 10 ozon ..tioo. Ozona!ion enn,ist, of an eight ch.. ml>o>red enoLKl'" w,th weirs localed each ch.l.mber controlling flow mnditi,,,,,. 1).,11"""0 0.5 and 3 ppm of ozone is d,Hu_oo ",io the "'dter in Ihe Ii"'l Iwo ch...nber-;. An) ,emaming ozone at the end of Ihe chambers l~ queoched by the additk,o of hydrogeo

bet""""

""rox,de {H •.Qj. Cau,'ic (NaOH) is theo u~ed to raise the pH 10 I>et",,,.,n 72 ,,,,d R prior to b,ofillralioo. Biofillr.,too" c,.",~iqs of a 24 in layer 01 granular MI"ated carooo (GAC) on top 01 12 III of ,and. Microbes reside in the GAC and inaease removal of lurbidity and 1""~m
8.5 Coagulation and Flocculation The "'00.1 common methe.:! used t" remo"e I"'rtides and a portion of db'i.ation
8.5.\

PARTIGE STABILITY AND REMOVAL

Surface charge is the primary mntribulion 10 particle ,tabilily, Stable particles are likely to remain ,u'pend....J in So,lution (and mea and fine partid,." are relath'ely 'L1.ble and ""nnol floaulale and ","1e in a rea"",able ""rio..! of Inne. The .tabihty of partid,." in nalural walers pmna"ly depend, on a Niance of the repuls" e and allrach"e for""" bel" "",n particles. M....t particle, III n.\lural walers are n«gati,'ely charg&!, and a "7',,15;"" deel""lal r fora exist, bet<, "",n partiel"" "Ilhe ... me charge. Counleracting Ihese repul~i"e fore,." are "lIme/i"" fnrct'S bet",een p.'rticles, "'""", ..., l'all de, Wa"t.< fare",. n,e pote,,'i~l energy from Ihe combined rel-'ul~i,e electrostatic fnrce and auracti,'e ,an der Waal, forres i, related '" Ihe dl~~l"ce belw"",n t",o partides. Because the net allracti, e force L_ ,ery ",eak at long dL_tances, flocculation u,ually will nO! occur. A I \ ery ,hort d ",ta"us, an energy barrier exist" and the kinetic e"ergy ari,ing from Bm" nian motion of partiel,." is nnl high enough 10 ""ereome the energy barrier. Aller a coagulanl i, added, Ihe repul,i,ee fo".." " are reduced, IMrliel,." ",ill come t'>gether, and rapid flocculation can ocrur. T.l ble 1'1.10 explains thecorr<:.,,>ed mernanis"... 01 magu!.ltion a"d flocculalion in grealer detail. Chapler8 WaterTrl!a1melll

8.10 Me
""&l''''''

Camp.... ion aflheeledriul dauble l.yer(EDl)

Mco;l p.>TlIde< in .... 1", Il..>",. net suri,Kecllolrge. Tl\e EDL "",,-,i,!>; 01. la,,-'rot Cd'",n. bouoo 10 'he I"'rllCIe ' ",,''-'''d, lhe EDL .hnnh (the cepul,i"e fOIT'" ,ne reduced)

Cha'll" "culr.1 ..at ian

S",ce mt>< fouoo in l'\.:lrural wa'"", arc oega'inly.:lIolrged at oeulc.1.I pH•. lhey .ao be 'iliYely cllolcg.-d c""",,, or pol""""", f .uch ..,ll.or polymer" ;,; crilkal foc .ubces•. Wi,h lhe plOp"" dose, ,he cltarg" will be neu',ali,ed, ,'nd p.lrhdc. ,dli come ~W"II<", Howe',,,,, ,f ,he d""" i<; ''''' h'gh, ,he I"'rllele<, ",.lead "f bemg """'r,,li,ro, w;natt.m a chou-ge .nd beeome .table onee .gain.

1"""'' ' '

Adoarpl iall. • nd in lerpa rlicIe bridging

W Ilh !ho.' furlher addilion of ""nio"irgc poIYn"""', • I"'rticle can bc .d"lIbcd on ,he ch.'in, and 'he TCmaiooer 01 lhe po!>"""'" mal' adsorbon ..-a,lable ",ri,,,,, ,lie< of other parlloClJl,'es. Th" ",,"ull. m 'he formallOn "f. Imdgc I"','iclc<. Agam, all. "I"imum dose (In mgl L) "f lhe noniorlic rch'mcr L,>,l•. If '00 much poIvmer "added. particle< ",ill bc enm""hed in a P'~vme, ma'm aoo ""ll no! fIocculale.

bt""'"""

Precipit.tian andenme.hmcnl

8.5.2

Enmeshmen' (al'" reIL'lT.-d ~, •• s"""p~"') occu.. ",h"". high enough d"", 01 aluminum (and imn ..,11') "added .,nd Ihe1- f"rm ".u;o,," hdmu, poh-n,e" Ih,,' ",)1 pTL'Clpila'" fmm soIuhon. A, ,he amorphous p"edpit,1te fom-", partICUlate ""liter i. tr,'ppe-d wi'hln lhe n"" .,nd '''''1'' fmm ,II<, waleT w"h ,he ",W"'g ",Ie. Thi, m"d",ni,m p"->dom'I'\.:I''''' in w.",,,- lrealmenl applie.. t~"'-. whe'TC aluminum or icOll ..,ll"Te u,;cd a' high coocen'Talion.and pH i. malnl.,inL-d nro, neulcal.

CHfMlCAlCOAGUIANTS

A coagulant i, the ehe",ical'ha' i, "ddf.'d to d"'ldbilize pa,tiel", and accomplish erogu 1..tiOIl. Table 11.11 pl'm ides e,a",pl", of oommonly used coagulJ Selection 01 'he pro!",r """gulan, depends Upoll: (l) 'he ehal'acten,tics of the c""gulln'. (2) eonee,.",ati ...., and 'H'" of partit:ula~, (3) conc",",a,i"n and eh",.IoC'er;"ti", of NO~l, (,I) lem!",falU,e, (5) "'atel' 'lualtly (for example, pH), (1)) e""t ,u,d J "ailability, ,llld (7) dew Jle'ing charJele,;',iL.of 'he solids 'hal a", pmdueed.

n',.

".1,"-

8.11 Type. of Coagulanll Commonly U.ed in .he fidd

In"'g.:", 'c rncI.\llie coagulant<

,\lum",um 'uifa'e (at", referred 10 a. alum. Al,15O, I, t4H,O); sOO,um .Ium,n.,',· (I<;",A1P,); alum",um chl"ride (Alel,); Iern.- .ulf"e IFc,(5O,),), and ferric dlloride (F«:l,)

Prehdrol)'Z"d mct.,1 ",II,

Made from alum and iron ""It< and hydm"de under conlrolled cond""",-" ",clude f",I)'aluminum "hlnnde\P,\Ol, pol)"'luminum ,ulfaleWASl.aoo pol};mn chlnnde

Ocg.,nic polyme".

Catiml< pol}",,,.., anionIC polyme.., and nomonic polymer< (Io,,)-n,r.,'ic potyme .., "",lcoculaT weigh' in lhe cange "f w'-](f 8/"",le)

".lu",l plan'-ro.
0ru"l.. 'pp. aoo M"",r~.
8.5 Coagulation ani! flocculation

1\!~lural ~""gulanl~ ~r~

being prom"teJ in many paris "f Ihe wmld Mall'" Ihey a", ooll~lder....:l rene" able, they call be u""d as fcood and fuel, and Iheir produClion relies on local m~terial~ and labor. Crogulant and Ik~culant aids a", sub>tal\(l!S Ihal enlun"" the cmgulati,," and l1occulllion proces'"'-<. Cmgulant aids are typically insduble part;~ulale "'~Ierial~, such ~, day. dial...,,,te. po",dered aeli> aled arb"n (['AC), m fine ... nd. Ihat lorm nudeallng ';1"" for th~ lormation 01 larger 11",,-,. They are UM ill conjun~lion ",Ih the primary ~o.'gulam<;. F1oa:ul.lIll aid, ,uch as anlm,"c and no"io,,,~ polymer<; are 0-.110 ~Irengtlwll 11,-,.,,;. n,"}, are added after Ihe addllion of ~oagulallb .."d lhe d""tabI1i7..ltl"" ollhe p.1rtkles, The mosl commonl) u,ed coogul.lnl" aluminum ,ulphilte, mmmonlv referred to as alum (molecular ",eight 01 594 gl molel. Addllion of ,1,1 '"- In tl'" form of alum for F~'- ill the form of Ihe iro" ""Its ,uch ... lerrou, ,ulphale (Fe,(SO,), or ferric ~hlmide, FeCI ,) ~t cm,centralimb gr",ter than Ih"r ,olubility limit' r""""lls In Ihe fonnation of lhe hy-urnxlde precipilale Ihat is Iyplc.all} uS&! in the s"'''''p 110~ mode of operahOll Theo, ...all ,toichimnetri~react ion for addition of alum in Ihe formali,m of a hydrmide precipilale i, "-~ folio"''' ,1,1,150,)" 1411,0 -f>(IICO,'J _ 2,1,110111,

~JSd,

- ~ 1411,0 + bCO, (8.1 )

In Equalion RI. alkalinitv ("-'pr~ ." HeO,') l~ roll,umed ",Ith Ihe additloll of alum, n'is i, becau,"" alum and the olher ",on ... Us are weak add,. Based on qnl~hi",nelry. I "'giL ,'l alum "'ill con,ume appro";m.llely O.otl mg/L 01 all.llinlty (a, cam,). If the natural alkalinily of the ",ater I, nol ,ulfident, il may be """""ary 10 add lll"e or soda ."h (I>.'a"cO,) 10 reacl wnh Ihe alum to mallltalll the pH in the appropriate range. n", pH 'ange for opera ling region of alum's 5.5-7.7. and for Iron ... Il~ i, 5-Il.5. la, lesting is" id~ly u n in Figure 8.5. II ~Oll~l,b of >IX "'luMe balch reael"..... eaeh equipped ",ith a paddle mixer Ihat can lurn al variable speeds. III a jar t""t, balch .,dd ,tion, 01 "Mious types 'lnd diflerenl dos~g"" of """gulanls are add....:l 10 Ihe ,,-aler ""mple. A rapid-mIxIng ~tage is ~ombined ",ilh the addition of Ihe ~oagulanl. Thl' stage i' lollowed by a ,lol>--mixUlg stage 10

J.r Test Ap ..."lus U""d 10 S
C....lI" bot .od Proper DO"l\e, (/'I'K>b «,••""oI00,d

~

Chapler8 WaterTrl!almelll

~nltanc~

floc fornldlion. Th" <;a"'ples ar" th~n dUm, ed 10 ""tI~ und~r u"d ;"tur!>ed mndili01>;, dlld Ih~ lu roidity ollhe setll"'" ,upern,llant " O1ea,ur~d alld plotled a, a fun",ion of magulanl d""" in order 10 drier",,,,e Ih~ proper rodgula nl dO"ag'"

example/B. J

Use 01 Jar Testing 10 Delerrninethe Oplirrnl CoagiJani Dosage

A ;ar t.,,;1 wa, conducted on untreated water \\ ith dn init,al turbidily of 10 1\T U dnd a HCO,' <:oncenlralion 01 50 mgll a< CaCO ,. U,ing Ihe foHo\\ "'g ddu obuined f",m a,..r ,''',, .,.;limal" Ih~ opl;nlum alulll d()"'g~ for turbidity r~mm'al and lhe theor~lical amounl 01 al""linily Ihal "ill be w,~,umed al the optimal d"""g~. Alum Ls added a, dry alum (molecular w,,;ghl oj 594 gl n,ole). Alum d"",. mgll TurbldllV. :-'"TU

;

I • I "• I "" I

w

I I, ~

~

;

1.5

solution The data are graphed a, ,ho" n in Figure S.n. n,e graph slim,·, Ihat Ihe lurbidily reaches the 10\\''''1 value wllen the alum d""" is 2iJ mg/L ThIS i" the oplimum alum dosage.

,•

, ,!,

• ,• •

,; .......r ............... ,, ,

,

lew... turbodrty valuo

"" Agln/8.S

;

'"

: - optJmI>'t1l1lum doso

"

ro

Al\lrn _ .

mIJ'L

~

"

~

JarTesl Re, ..I'" nul Will Aid Identification or Prop.r Coal\" bnl Do
","ext, we nlust determ",e the allloutlt of alkalin,'Y consumed and ch""k this "alue again,' the naturall} occurrlllg al""linity to determ",e whelher addilion..i ..Ik.alinily needs to be .. dded. U'" Ihe S!oichimnetryof Equation S.I to detennin~ the al""linity con.
(2f1mgl AI,(SO.h' 1.IH10) x

(1.0:; mJ

(Imn1e.'lAl,tSO.h HH10)

x 5~gmoleAI,(SO,h.MH,O x

C

( "

nmoleHCo, ) lrnoleAl,lSO.h 14H,O

eqv alkalinilY) ~ ( ]OOgCaeo, ) I mole HCo,' 2eq, alblinity

0.0] g las coeo,

10mg. la, caCo,

Thu" 10 mg/l "f alb1",,'y as CaCO, are mn,umed, and the watrT ",mple had an jnil,al al....lin,ly of 50 mg/l as C'CO~ 'f],.,relme, the al....lin"y in lh" rdW ",al"r i'i ,ulfident 10 bufkr Ihe addily pro.:luced aheralum addition.

8.5

~"Iion and

fkx:culalioo

8.5.3

OTHER CONSIDERATIONS

CoagulilnlS are dispeJ'ied im" the ",~ler ,Iream da rapid-mi.• ing .yslem;; (1) pump«l mixing ([..... ex.mple, pumped f1a>h mixing. " hich can be .imple .nd reliable); (2) hyd r~ulic method. (for example, in-line .Mlk ",her, which i••i"'ple, reliable, ~nd nOlllnechanic.ll; and (3) ",echanical mixing (cmwe"tional ,tirred tank~ being Ihe ",,,,,t enm",on). Se"eral of Ihe Je, ices are mu,tralN in Ftgure R.7. Oi fferential ~eJi m""Mlion .nJ Brownian motiona re the two"'."r ",echa,,,,,,,, for particle .ggregation (Han and L~" l"r, 1992). Thu •. the g,-"II,- mi"i"" of the "'aler" Ihe key for proper f1occubti"n. To ••~i.. particle aggreg.lion, ",echanical mi"IrIS i, lypic.lIy empl"yed 10 ",.,nlain the particles in ,u.pensio". Flo.:culalion ~ysI"ms can be d" ,d ed into Iwo groups; (/) ",echankal floc.:ul.ltor, (,'ertical-,hah turbin ... hon7...,mal-sh~ft p.ddle) .nd (2l hydr~ulie f1occulatrts. Three common t}'pe~ of Iloa:ulati ..., sy"'e",_, are iIlu,trat«l in r-igure 8.8. R.Ipid-mi"IrIg 'y"em, and mo-
(8.21

wllt',e G is the global R1I.-1S ,.eloe-ity grad ienl (energy inpul ,a "'. in •. \; Pi, Ihe p..,,,,,,r of ",ixing i"pull" the (II.), I'- is the dynanuc , ,,,.,<>Sit,, of ",ater (N-~ '",'), and V is Ihe volu",e of the mixing """,sel ('" '). n;e ,'.lue OfG.l"U"'''_' Ihat .111 elemenlal cubes of l!!:iuid in Ihe "olume V a,e ,he.red .,t Ihe same ,ale (on ...e,age) and G is a lime.",erag&] "alue. _ The mi .ing performance depends not only on Ihe ,'elocitY.B,adienl G but al".-, the hydraulic delention li",e (l) and Ihe prod uc.!.ill G a--,--,d I. a ",,,,,sure of degr"" of mhing. In practi""..!I,e ,·alu,::,..,f G a"d GI are u""<:l., d"",ign croteri •. Typical ,~lu"" fM G. I, dtld GI in Ihe desi"n of ~pid-n"x ~y,'e",__ and fIocculalion Ynb.re prodded in T.ble R.U. G h., been found to no! be a, important a. pre";..,,,,l) thoughl in the d"",8" of floe-rul.,I;;'n la"b '!leh as h",,,,,,ntal- and "ertical-_haft

,,,,,,,,1

8.12 Typical Valu.s U.ed in De .... af Rapid-MiKing end "acCllI"tion Sy ....... RMSVoIocIIyG_.~I' '1

\k'Chamml mixing In·line mixmg

Dcxcnllon T'""'.'

GrVauos

tll--12(1-

;.0 x 10' 105.0 x 10'

,,

1.0.10'101.0,10'

Horim,,",I ..haft p.>Jdlc "OCCUl.:JtoT

2ll--'\O

1ll--'lOmin

1.0 x 10'101.0 x 10'

\'L'rocabh"ft turbine IlOCCULllor

HI-;o

HI-30 min

1.0·

Chapler8 WalerTrl!a1ml!lll

10'~, 1.0 >

10'

(01

P~"';"1!I.
flow us.od to d"l"'rm
buIl_

-'"

-

ChomOCllI

/'~

~c)

,

00_00

",00 wato' ~

,., MEXOO WOtll, and "'-nul

Wa'., 10 1>0 mJxoo

.-th ch<>rl>cal

", Mixoowator

• ~~=J ~• ChDmOCllI

-c_l-J

.. -

W.'or to be """00

Rgurl/8,1

L

Rapid_Mixing" pplO.>

,.,

-'"

~tod

''''e" chamoI

POOO
•

,,'

I_worn "...-

0 0 0 0

~ ~

~ ~

'"

-,-

"...""

,I

~

~

~~~

r. I

~

~~

~

~

~

,-

Figure I 8.8 Common Typo< of C~ntl~ Mi~i"l\ Employ~d in F1occulalion Systoms The dr.,wing show 1.) • ,·oniGlI-,;h.,fl turb"'e ~",-"<:u).tion'y,"'m. Ibl a horizon"'hh.lf' paddle whe'" l\ocC\lL>!~",wslem, and (c) d hydr.,ulic ftc,",,,u!.>!>on .ystem. !':ole how the hydr.,ulic f1occu1.Jtion " tern ""lui,,,,, no en"rg)" mput during the use lIf" sldge. Iv

....., 0<01. 1101

~

lod.,,,,,,,;,"

I-""~'" a1joh,

Wl..t & 500" Ind

floccul.,o,..; (Han and lawler, 1992). I" 'hese cases, it j, important though I" design the flocculalion tank at 'he low"",' ,'alue of {, Ill'" "ill ensure Ihe partkle; rem"", It, ,uspe,~,i"" and ""der 'he upper li""l to avoid brN>:u? of fnrm&! floc•. Using .he 1",,-"'1 achie,-able. i': will .1... resuh in less "nergy ...·'lu'remenl'. Ele.:lricitv LS "eeJ"
el""tridly m'bumpli,," per m" w~ler produced decrea_. This indie"'I'" Ihat the larger ce"lr~1ized Irealment 'yqem may h~"e lower dIrect e"ergy requirement for coagulation and Ilocculation proc..., during Ihe oper~l",n ph.-; hOl>ev ....., theen.....gy neal"'" forc.....gula"t manufaetllring and deli ''ery i. nol cOllsid .....ed h .....e. For e""mpif,. ",290 MJ of etlergy i, con,umed 10 produce I metric Ion of alum (PRe Cntlsullants, 20(4).

8.13 £I.
Ollll

"~

'"~ "~

Floccul,tlon

0,003

0.00.3

0,Ot12

lI.OO2

0.002

IlOt12

Alum f"",d System

O.oo2t

lJ.()005

"~

"~

O.fm2

(I.OOJ2

Pol)"merfecd Sy.tern

0.m2t

,~~

(1,0012

O.fm2

(1.0011

ex a III p I el

,~

B. 2

,~

ro~

~~o

,oo~

O~

"~

"~

""""

Design 01 a Mecll~ical Rapid-Mx Tank

A conventional stirred tank i, used for rapid

100 . Ill' L, day. The waler lemperalure i,

I()

ml~ing

in a water lreatmenl plM,t with a f10l>' "f C. Det",mi"" Ihe lank ,'olumeand rower requirement.

solution The tank ,'olume equal, the 11"., rale (Q) linle, the hydraul", drlenli"n lime (H). Table 11.12 pro, Ides appropriale delent;on limes. CD",entional ,tirred lank> are con,idered ~ 1m", M mechankal mi~i"g. and we will select a detention lime value of no ."

v

Qx

~

,•0• 0",'::"",,-" X.on' K ' SIX m in 1d~ v --' nos

d~y

IAlDmm

"

--;',",'" LOOlL

69m'

To dete",,,ne Ihe ~wer requiremenl, use Table Ro12 I~""lect an appropriale RMS velocily gradient. Here we will select a G "dlue of900/', and Ihe product of G dnd , (900; •. no. 5.·1" lO') l, w,lhi" Ihe range (5 10' toS" 10') pr""ided in Table R12. Al lO C, Il 0,OOI307N-s/m". To obtam power con,umplion, rearrange Eq"~ti",, 11.2 to ",!>'e for p, ~,

C "1l"V k,',,· m

n-,

,

1\:-.,

(\lOOts) "0.001307",,,,69m x

I kl"

IOffiN

73kW


~ lise Qf Bcrewab1e EOlfQY Ipr Water SIIlJl!y alJ1 Treabner¢ K()rlhbmok, !Ili"oi" i, the Ii,."t community ,n llli""is and on" 0/ only a Fe" in the U,,,tffi Stale> 10 the energy used to run ,ts "aler pl.,,,t. TI,,, l\'orll,brook "ale. trealment pl."'l prMides 2.1 blllio" gallons "ater p"r yeM for 3<1,000 ,,,,idenb. It bega" purch."ing 153 MWh/yeM ill ,..""",'ableenergy ""'hlic.ues from ,,;;nd r",nls", north cen,ral

"ff..,'

lIhnois """eraJ yea", ago 10 Dff",t electricity deri...,d from mal (ngure 8.9). After ''''''''g the m", Ie All IlIm"",,,i,,,1 rml/4 ""orthbrook", dir..:tor 01 public "'ork'i ",."",,",ended Ihe "ill.'ge increase il. purd"'"e 01 renewabl......,,,ergy certlfieales tn ~,5((J MlVhlyear, e"ough e"ergy to "l"'rate Ihe "ater lrealmenl plant,

Flgure/B,! A Wind F.. rm in North Conl•• llllinoi.' Wind tUTbill"" prodde """'Sf 1M' the wale. trealm,,"' plant for t'<"'lhb,,,,k. 111m"", rued..."" through rencw.b1c~el\('rgvcortjf",.,c<. The commumty 1"'1'<""-",,, enough "neTg'- to or.'e the W.1teT t",,'men' pl.>nl

1_ ,,,,"or 01 l.o,d-oIo 1.'-"0 llel-

8.6

Hardness Removal

IValer hard",,",s is caused b, divale"l cations, pnmarilv caldum and ""'g,,,,,,,um ion;; (Ca'~ and Mg"" IVhe" Ca'- .l"d are a'W'o,idled witl, alkali"ity anio,,-s (for ""ample, HCO;!, Ihe h.lrd""",, L' defil1on aled hardness i'iu ,ed IItheCa',,,Id Mg'+ are a"""idled with nonalldJinit} aniOll'i (lor e,.ample, SO,' -). Thed i,trib"'i .., ofhanJ ",aloe", i" theU nitro Slat""is ,1~l\\1l in r:;gu",8.1O. C",,,?eXltion agenls can be added 10 p"'H!l1 dkalenl cab",.. fro", prropI41Ii,"f>. or hard""", can be ",mOl'ed, A process flo" dldgram lor a tWIl-'ilage exas. lim<"---emu,", th" CO, j, a 'Ironger acid Ihan HCO,-. (Re",,,mber that, by deri'''lion. HCO, can act a, an add Dr a ba",,-) The chemical ,..,adi"", for Ihe re",,,,' al 01 carbn,,,,te and "oncarb"''''le hardnes, are prO\'ided in Equation. 8.3-8.7,

"'Ii'""

'.

Class Discussion

... Wr.. t-en"oJYe'ful.oo"y t-ed,n''1c 'Mru.eo' ron ...... Ok: e,.." 'b' c"c you "0"'01011 rorJ<>ur OC.o' ""-..,, or ...... ~ .."" r""e'""" m,- f'la" t. pc"l", "",
Co, ChaplerS WaterTrl!almelll

+ CatOHl, -

CaCo.,., .,. H,O

(8.3)

c::J SdI ...., o-M "'t\.

F1gIll"I/I,10 The

.m"

,_'20......

1Z!:I 0 _ _.'

....

0 ....- -

· .....

Di .. ,ibC0l'hown defino arpmXlm.:l~ "'"dnc.... \·,lu.,; for muniap.>l ,urp""".

w,,"',

1-- ""'"-

I::::;

- -Row .......

""",'

.~.'

1

._i;'''t~I~;J-~f~~~~;~!§·~~ ---.-

w_ _

_'" _otirV

~,

RgwI/l,ll

w "'

.....

.-

","'

-

.

..-_ ,-.

..........

hoco... flo..' Di.gr.m fo•• Tw,,""St.K' hee" Lim.... SOO. T",.'m.nl P,OC....

U••d toT",.I H.,d IV.,... C""",de..t;"n••hould be m.>do fOf If,,,,.,C,.-.,oI.I20121

l ~ ",'h_",;,_oIJoMW;loj.l.Sao•• ln<·1

CalHCO,h MgIHCO,b

+ Ca(OH),

+ 2C.(OHI,

MgSO,

"""'''<: all wa,;(c,t,o.,m..

_ 2Caco"

+ CaIOH),

caSO,

_ 2CaCO, _, _ 2H,O

+ 1'\a,CO,

(8.4)

_ Mg(OHh., _ 2H,O (8.51

_ MgIOH),

,I

+ Ca.'iO,

_ CaCO,., _ 1'\a15O,

(S.61

(s.n

A. 'Imll n in Equa'ion. 8.'1-8.7, lime will remove CO, (Equalion 8.3) and ca rbonate han! ,,"". (Equ"!i",,,IU and 8.5) and repld<" magn.... um II i'h calcium in .mu'ion (Equation 8,6). Equal;"n R7 ,how' 'ha'..--..:Ia ,,-,II (N.lOCO,) b th<'" u,..",j to ,..,move calcium IlOl\Carlxma'ed lldrdll""'. \\' hicll may be pre""'" i It 'he u,urea,ed ". a,er or may be ,hi' r""ult "flhe precip"ation rtf magn""ium """carbonated hardn..., (Equation 8.(,), 8.6 _ . Removal

Th" a"",unl of >Oda ash requ"ro d"pends on ,h" a"",unl 01 ,''',,caroon"l<.od h",d",.,., 1>00 rem",'ro. Comp!"''' en,,,,er,inn nl bk",h",,"e In£a ,.., ,dnr£abum pr..:ipita I ion wit lla Iceplac"",nly a 1.> p Ha bn,-e 12. n, enpl i m ulll p Hd "I"'nd son th" en""",nlratin" of oolh calcium a"d bicarb"na,e inn,. In pra£tice, the op,imum pH f", maximum calcium c."bo""l" pr""ip,Ia,in" may be as In" as '1.J, because m",,,carbonat,, Ls Innnro due tn .,hift in caroonat..-bicarbonale equilibrium a" calcium caroon"le precipi~ll"", The rem", al nf magn...iulll as Mg(OHh p"",ipllal" (Equa,ion 8.1» requires a pH ,alue of at leas, 10.5, n,erefn"" exira lim" (JO-;O n,g/L as ClCO,) "' "xc..., nf Ihe "nicl"omrlric amnun, " adde.:! tn raLse 11", pH. lar ,es,ing can be u,ro ,n d",etln",e ,he amnunl nf ex£",,-s l"ne require.:! fnr a gh'en waler """ce. Similar ,n the c""gulation and f1occula,ion proces,. eleclricity i" needro for t;<>/Ieni"g p"''''''s. The electrici,y mn,un'pli"" fur a lime f".",j ,)'stem "ari", rnr ,y,len,s wilh d,fferelll capacilies. !l ca" range imm 0.0021 kWh/m' f,)f a I MGD '",a'ment.,y,lem 'nO.0tom, '" ~l be mu..::h higher if II", £hemical p",duell,,, Mid del ivery is abo included in ,he ws,em bnundary 01 e,-alua,inn wl"ch ",,,,,Id occur il the ,y"te",', life cycle ,,-as ""n,idered.

'0

tI,,,

e

X

am p 1el 8.3

Ume-Soda Ash Softel'1ng

ground"al .... £""la1l1S lhe fnlk-.",,,'S conslduenh>. H,eo-; b2mg,.L.Ca'- 8Om&LMg'~ J6.6mg/L.t\
L Determine ,he ,mal, caroo"ale, and '''''\Carbon,lled h..,rd",.,., prese", in ,he raw ",aler.

2. Delermine the lime and snda a,h d""'g"" Inr softening (unil< nl kg/day). A"ume Ihe lome" 00 pe",ent CaO by we,gh, and Ihe ,,-.Ja ash i, pure ><-.dium carbo"ate.

solution ThLs problem requires several ,Iep'. Fi,.,,1 co,~
(200+ 150)

3;:tl mg;L as CaCn,

TI,e caroona,e hardness is Ihe ,um nf the calcium and m,.gnesium inn, a",....,ialro w,th bkarl"",ale 'OlLS. Because the tn,al hardn"" (35(] mg/L a, CaCO-,l is greater ,han bicarbo"at" alkAlin,ty (250 mg/L CaC~), all ,he bicaroona,e is as"""iatoo ",i,h calcium (200 mg/L CaCO,) and magn.,.;ium (50 mg/L caCOJ. nle caroo"ale hardnes~ is 'hu._ equal In bicaroo,,,,le allah"ity as CaCO" carbona,e hard""""

200 +50

250mgILa,

Caco,

The '''''''''''''"",te l",n:i,_ equal< tlle '''''gl\esium """ not a",,->dated "ah carbon.a'e han:ln",,-, (M~ .),

''''l\Gubn".ale hardness

. ,

Chapler8 WaterTrl!atmelll

(150- SOl

1m mg; L as CaCO,

example/8.3

(COntillUed)

The ,"-'<:o"d queslion r"'1ue.-S.6. CaIOH)) requ,red to r"act w,thCo, C"(OH), required 10 re~cl "ilh Ca1HCO,), Ca(OH), required In react" nh MglHCO,),

2m mg/L as C~Co. 2 x MgfHCD;,h

Ca(OHh required In reaci with MgSO.

1mmg/L a, CaCO,

1mn'gLa.C~Co.

"'"

lOOmg.LasCaCO,

Remember Ihal Ja-70 mg/L nf extra lin,e muSi be added 10 rai'" the pH "b",e 10.3 to ensure Ihat m.>gnesium i, remo,ed a, Mg(OHl,. As,un,e 30 mglL (as c..c0,) of additinrldllime i, required '" Ihe process. The Intallim" requlrem""t is Ihus determi"ed f....m Ihe ,u",m~llnl\ of all Ii..., i"di'iduallime requlremenb; li"'e reqUired

coomg C~cn, 200mg ClCo, lOOmg c..Co, 100mg caeo. )Omg c.eo,) L+L-t-L+L-tL "

56 n'g ColO, n'mole lOOmg Cleo, mmc;le 16.500kg/day

• 1ft"mg

",

.

,", "kg

"y

bull: lime n,9kg c..0

TI,,, soda ash (I\'~2CO,) requlred!.s ~I", determmed by re~ctj(m Slokhiometry' sod~

ash

noncarbonate I"'rdnes, 1000mgl\'a,Co,/mmole ~ 100 mg ('...Co" L" • "X lOOmgCaCo, . . mmnle Hrmg

~

C_

;;0 "

'" ,

"y

5.JOOl:g/day

Tabla Ca .....ru<.. d la Sa"'a hl....pla 1.3 ~

~.-

H,co.'

'""""

Cat",,,, C,,"

M

Mg'

~

""' V,

" Ani"",

Alk(HCO,l

~,

""

%,

0

•

"

-, Equlval"",s1

, ,, , ,,

,rat"'"

Eq""'alon' WIligItlIlll"'l"1

Cone....,"""'"

WaQ'rl 19lmolct) ~.o

,-'"

Gonc.... (1TJlI/\- ". GltCG,I

31.0

'"

'00

~.,

W"

2U

122 230

'" .10

~

V,

'OW %0

ns

T,,'.I

•.'",

""

'"

~" 35.5

T,,'.I

'" "

~

~

'" •.'",

'00

'" ••

"""" A'k<>l.";",~....f"".-to,CoCO>-

8.6

~sR....... aI

8.7

Sedimentation

Sedimentati"" is the proces, in "hieh the m..j<>rit), of the particles" ill settle by gra" ity within d reason.. ble lime and be rem", ed. Particles with densities grealer than 1,000 kglm' will e,e"llfdlly seule, and particles ",ith densities less th.. n 1,000 kglm' ",HI float to Ihe " .. ter ,urface. In "-dler lre"lmenl, Ihere "re colllmon type> of setlling' ,1'5<'",J, 1""1 ide srlllillg and flr>r:COIlm,/ ""'llli,,S'

8.7.1

DISCRETE PARTICLE SEmll\K;

Di..,,,,,.., partide settling 0"'''''" ,,-hen particles dre discrete and do nOl interfere ",nh one anolher as they settle. F,>r this Ij p"' .... f setlling, Ihe on",' eme, ,1of.. p" rt ide, n '" ateri".j et erm i' 'ed byabd1.'1 neeof..d 0" n ",a rd gra 'iL'tio,"'llon:e,.. n u p".. nl bu,".. a~y lon:e,and an up".... nl drol8lon:e. ThesetUin g' elocityolpa rlid"" in..liquid suellaS"-aterea nbed escrlbed by e~her Slok",' L", or l"ewlm', I.. w, Table R.15 descr,be> ead"'l II"""" i.. w; in gm'll'" df.'ld~. Sh"es' 1.. " wdsuen"".:l '" Chap..:.r4. 11 I, a p~~'a1ble to ,~~,... ical parbd'" " hen the R".,.nolls mJlnh!r is 1"" Ihan or equalt" 1 (Iaml,'" !1o"j.l"",,-ton's la" is usalto de"'rmi"e thes.etthng "e1ooty of particles" hen the Reynold, n"mber I, greater than 1 (tran,ition .. Old lurbulenillow). nte dinten-siml..,s Reynolds n"mber(Re) is defined as

f8.8J ,,-here I' LS Ihe dens,ly 01 the liquid (kgl m 'I, d,. i, the particle diameter (m), ", is the settling "e1,.,it y ....!the partide ,lIan:-- pninl i" tune (m/,J, Il is the dynamic ,-i""""ity o[ the liquiu (N-si m 'I, and" ls Ihe kinem.. tic ,- isco
8.15

....

De .. rminrnion 01 Selll;,g Yel<>i

-~

,-

YolociIy(mlo)

S1okL"" 1,,,"

"

S is tho aCCdL'fdb"" d"e to !\TadI)' (01/"); .... i, the dL'O,;j~ol the I"'rt",Ie (kg/m ; p .. tho d~.nSltv 01 the liqUld (\.g/01 '>; r " the I'" rbele di, me'fer (01); dnd I'- is ,he dvnamic VI!'<'(>
g(pp l')~ ><,

Dr.>g Co<>Ilicicm

App!ic_v

Forla01m,ulkmc

Appl~-able~" ~-al

C _2~

1"'_ ,,"hL'O lho RL')"oiec.>"", ",""i,ions m most tredtment ldeihli", are nolla01i".".

'

d

-

"

(I\-./m~>

'-:ewt",,', la,,"

",

4;:

\

(fl,. Me"

)dp

P

S "' the aoceJ..'fation d". h' gradt)" (m/.'); .... i, 'he dL'O.,itv,,1 the !"rtirk(~~/011: l' is the denSltyol the liq"id (~~/m 1; Cd i, the drdg "",Ilid"","

For the tr,mitim "-'1\''''''

Applicabk- tm part.de< when the Remold, nUOlm', t (lransibm , - ·11.34 ~ aM turbul""t now). ~ bo.""""", mn.t.lnt m turbulent r"t\i"",

c..

, " ,"

(Rc> 1O/0l)

Chapler8 WaterTrulmelll

ex a

III

pI el 8.4

Application 01 Stol
Calculate Ihe !ennill..1",,-tling velocity for .. "'lid particle th..t h.., a dian,et", of 1m ... m alld a den"ity of 2.650 kg/ m'. 11,e "'aler lemperalure i" HI C.

solution The temullal ""tiling "elodly of the particle ""n be ""lculated u"ing Stoke<;' law (Table 8.15). For waler all(J'C,p 999.7kg{"" .... l.307"lO- J N-e.m'a"du 1.J(Jf>"lO.....

""i'

g(I'r-")~

,.,

'"

9.81

mi" " (2. f>5ll - 999.7 kg/nl') " (1.11 " 10-' Ill)' IS)(I.307,10"N--<;.'m'

J.f>(lh ,--h

21.8~

"

We must ,erify Ihe flow mndjtilll~s to e,~sure Slole;;' law I" applicable. The Reynolds number ls caleu laled I() ,-",ify Ih.u the particle Ls setllillg under laminar condilions: 1.0" 10-' III

24.8 mth '" (l h,.'3.lifll ,) 1.3Ol'i • 10 " ",'."s ¥

0.53

!Iff.o","" Re < I, l.. mnlar flow e,.l-ls. and Stokes' I.. w ls applicable.

ex a

nI

pI el 8.5

Applicalion of Newlon's Law

C.. lculale Ihe tenninal _tling velocily for .. "'lid panIcle Ihal ha, a d ,ameler of 2lXl ... m alld a den,ily of 2,b5Okg/m'. 11,e ",.. Ier lemperalure;, 15 C.

solution The lerminal velocily oflhe particle is calculated ""ing Stokes' law (T.. ble S.15). For "'aler at 15 C, ' p 999.1kg,m.1l 1139,,10 N--<;m'.andu l.139xlO ..... m"s.

,

"

9.81 tn/s'l< (2.f>5ll-999.1kg

m')

I<

(2.0" lO.... m)'

18,. 1.1391<10-'1'1-..... ""

3,f>ffi, ,--h

Check the Reynold, nu ",her (Equalion 8.S) 1<) ,'erify the p.'rtkle l. ,""llIing under I.,n"n... mndilions' (2.0" 10-'

ml " (113.8 mh) " (l h,-J.6m ,j (1139)(10

0

",'ls)

5.55

Bec.ou,"" Re > I, S!<>kes' law" noJ ,·..lid 11,eequation for Ihe drag coefficient i" pro"ided in Table 8.15, and lhe ...tIling "docil}' <:an be calculaled u.inS Newto"'s]a,, [Table 8.15).

e x ant p 1el

8.5

(continued)

BecdlL<;e ''- cannot bed""ennined ".plidtly, a 'ridl-ilnd-ermr
J

5.SS

\I~.53

-+-=_0,3-1 TI", termi""l ""'ding' "locity aL.;o can be recalcul,lle
", 971~

"

Th" R""nolds number ;, calcu ldteJ again, and 'h"'" 'he d'dg coeIfici"llI and terminal <;etUmg "elocity a,e ,,,,,,,I"'la'aI. After ,.,,,,,r J! ite,a~o"-,, a converg""t a,~'''''' i, oblained, a, II"''''' in Tabl" R Hi 11,e ",Uling ,elocity begi,~s '0 Cll" \ "rge at 'he si~th or se,,'nth 'nal and l"', d ,. alue of 865 m/h.

8.16 n ... a~n P,ace. u.od in b
, , , •, , ,

Ao~)

G, (nsoonlDsoj

_. (mIlIl

<.5';

5.9~

~,

~.74

4.H

""

00'

7.111

~3

0'

73&

m

.~

7.43

AA>

W

7A7

AA'

W

,~

!l65

4.22

749

f!i,5

8.7.2 PARIIGE REMOVAL DURlNG SEDIMENTAlION Figure 11.12 sl~,,,"s pdrlide lraJ"Ctnri", in a ,,,,,Ungula,,..,,j i",,,nta,ion ba,in. H"", it is dS,U",ed 'l"" p.lrtides m""e h,,'izonL'lly a, the ""me , elocity as th" "a'e' and are rem""ed by 8'''' ity once th"y 'he bo,tom 0/ 'he baSIn. Partrcl" ,rdjoectori", in 'h" ba'in depend uron the particl" >dtling ,docity .'\) dnd th" nurd ""loci,)· ('"f)'

.""el,

"I'

Chapler8 WaterTr....tmelII

_.

,

F1gu~/8.12

Tr.joclorie, in. Rect.lll\" b, Sedime"'.tio" B"in,

;--;

,

""\:

p-~

, '-

Di,\,,,,,lo P.,tkl.

""-2 "

,

•

'0

"<000",_'

,~

""'"

n,,, "'lthng ,"locitv fM di""r",e particles is rol~~l.>"l, bee"u,,", pan,elo>, w ill od Imerle... '" ~h 0'''' a'~)lher. a "d .he size, ,1",1"', and demit) of partic!"" L~ assumed I,) not c1... nge a, Ihey "'0\'" through .he ,..,actor. A p"'hde (p.;rt,de 2 in Flgu ... R 12) lha. "nters al 1m, lOp of th" bd'"' and '*'illes ju,t before it flows out of the baSil! i, call.,.J a crilicall"'rlidr. Its settling "",Ioci'y is defined as .he
where '0, is the ctit>:"l particle-settling, eln:ity (mfM. "" is the d "PIll of Ihe'K.'di tnelllation basin rOll, and II is II", h yd ra ul "'
f1,'"

.,'.

II.,

"

It"Q

,,'"

Q A

IS. til)

0'

where II i' th" surfa", area of Ih" top of the ""lliing lM'i" (Ill ') and Q i, Ih" proc"", flow rale (m '!ll). Impor1ant 10 our di",,,-,,,iorl ~, th" lerm OK the '''''rfl''\\ rale. 1\'01" in Equ,'tion S.IO that the OR is nol a functi"n of the lank depth n.., OR (m' I tn' -h, ill'" " •• ten.b m/h) is ""IudIto Ihe critical "'lt~ng velocity, ",_ AllY parli.:b" dha ,',!IUnS \ e1""lly(<>J grffil... tha,,,,requoll 10 t', (..... the OR) ",ill be ,,,,no,,oo. Pil :1" I ,,-ill nOl be rem.... ed. 3s..'
"''''0.

perc",u of particles ,emm ed

c,

0',

""

/8.ttl

8.7 SI!dimoolation

e x am p leI

8.6

Deterrrining Particle Rerroval

A t~atmefll plant h.il~ 3 hon7.0nlal flow
solution Rrsl, delen"ioe the
0'

2.1 m'/m'-h

3lim~~m

The per",ol ,emoval of partid... fm &tch particle size cao then be calculaled as follows. r..." panicles ",ith a ,..,tlling "elocily of l.fl m/h. becau,.., P_ equal~ l.fl m/h (" hkh i, Ie,,, lha" Ihe 2.1 m/h), Ihe percenlage of ""'''''''al i.~ calculaled using Eq"alion II. 11: f,adion of partidiS

~mil\·.,.j

e.

P,

of

o·111

0'

For partid""" ilh a ,elllil1g velocity of 2.5 mlh, becaU'ie "_ equal, 2.5 mlh (which i, g,eater thao ", of2.1 m/h), all p"'ticl.." ",ith this '
I.fl

TI,e noal qu""lion is 10 deten",oe Ihe mi,,,mum particle size thai would r... ,,11 In complete remo"aL n"s partIcle size can be dete,m;ned using Slok",' II w. The '
I'

e.

g(l'p -

I').~

'"

9.81 m,' x (2.~50-999.7kg{m')" (d p )' 3.~00s <--III 1.307 1O-'I\'-s,n,' h

11.411 x 10-'"m'

2.1~

"

To H"ify Ihe flo" cond'lio"", check the Reynold, oumbe, (Equatioo 11.11) to "'" if Ihe particle i'i ",Wing unde, lan"nar mnditi"n" IIAII , 10- to m " 2.1 m' h x I h/3.nOOs

1.306 x 10 "m'is

3.11 x Ill' TIle Reynolds number i.~ ",,,ch Ies.~ lhan I. n,erefore, lamlll'" /low exists, and Slok",- 1..1". ;5 ,alid. Readers should oote Il"'t hori7.onul "'tlliog lanks can be d.."igned and operaled without Ihe use of mech,,,,,cal ra\..e< and othe, "'O\'iog parts Ihat requ;,e energy, n,aime""n"" and fuod, 10 purchase 'ipa'" part,. TI,ey may be lnore apprornate technology for many appliuu;o'~~lh,{)ughoullheworld.

,:

ChapterS WaiefTrMImeIIt

Typ,cal detent,o" lim.,,; for a recl~"gular ,;edimenldl,on b~,ill with honzonldl flow are in U", "'''ge of 1.5---<1 h. Poor inlet mndition" de"-~'Iy cu rrenb, and u" "",'en ,,- ei rs ca II deere...., Ihe design d e len tim lune (M ~ ler and E~ler, 2013). Other lmportanl de,;ign criteria are cOl~~idereJ in the de;ign of s""h b .... including Ihe numberofba"'" (n~,re lha" 2 ,""o"e can be la """ offline for l1Ianue"""",,), b.."m depth fJ-5 ml, tl'" horizonlJl mean flow ,'ehcily (fI3-1.1 m/mill),o\'erfl"", rale (12~25 m/hl, lenglhto--" -id Ih ra tio{
\1'"

8.7.3

OTHER TYf'ES OF SETTlI'lG

Table 8.17 ,ulllJ,.."iz"" Ihe ,-a"OI1' Iypes of setlling obser""d during Ireal",enl of watl!r and wa"cewater. TI,e 'n'" of d ;"cn>le parliclesetlling discuso.ed in ""ample 8.6 i, al", refe,.,..,.j 10 a.~ T~ I'" I 'enlmg, In T y p" I selll ing. parliel"" settle discretely .11 a con,lam ""Uing velodly. IVh" n pa It ide, f1oo: ul.11e d u ring ~ellling due 10 Ihe ,-e locil y g r;oj ien t of fluid, or diffe"',""'" in Ihe senling "el'>cil,es of parlicle,;, Iheir ,ize i, increasn'g, and Ihey ""Ue f,"ler ", lime 1-"'-"""', TI,l~ type 01 settling is kn''', n a. f1occula"l or Type II selll ing. ",hich is fou"d ill magulalion pr();,,,,,,,esand m
8,17 Typ". "f Parlicl" Senlng (ncoun'ered During Drinkinv-Woler ond Wa.lewa'erTreamen'

'-

ar Settling

Typer

P."od"" .""lIe di-a","'y ,11 a eono;l"", selH;"g ,·e1",-ily.

Tvpell

racOcb fi"ccula'c durog ""ttli,,~ due ,-e!crit\' pad",,,, ,>f fiuod, "T d"fc""""-" ill lhe
eNgu;"I;'", proot.""",.oo m,>sI mn, "",,,,,,,,I ..,.J ,,"enl.1 Mn 1>.1.'""

Typell!

manke' of pdfli.:les c' f",,,,,x1 a' high p.>ltlck c"ne",',a."n. (abo,·e 1,llOO mgll), and a cle.. i"'erface L' ,>I,,,,,,,,"'; belwL",n !he bl.lnh~ and oL",f.x1 wate< abo,'e it

Urn,,....,;'"n;ng
'0

Ihoch"""

8.7 Sl!dimerllalion

settling, "'hid' oc£ur, il1 lim~ften",g "....jh"elll.llion, "cliv,lte
8.8

Filtration

fill"ti"n is ",idely u..ed fnr ren'I\\""g ..m .• l1 11oc, or pre.:ipilated pMtid"". It may be used a, the primary turbidity' removal proc"'" 'uel, .. " dired filtratio" of raw ,,"aler with low turbidity. 11 i' al
8.8.1

TYPES OF GRANULAR FilTRATION

Granu lar m«.l ia filtralion £an operate at eilher a high h yd rauli<: I"'ding rdte ('>-15 m Ihlor a I",,' rate(0.ffi--{l2 mIll). (TI,e unitson Ihe h "Iraul Ie loading rates Me r"ally m'/m"-h, which reduces 10 m/h,) "I" ""Ih proces,es. the inOuenl ",ater" dn",n by gravity 00" Ihrough a !>ed of granular malerial. and p",llCles are ro11""led within Ihe!>ed. II igh· •• te filt.at ion (al,o kno",n a, .apid filtr.Iion) is Ihe proc"'" u,&! by lIearly d1l US. fillralioll pla"I,. Slow sand filh;>!;on is dn appropriate waler lreatment t""hnology for rural commu,,,t,es due to its ,implicity.la"d ava,lab,lity, .nd low energy requirement. It 1, ai,,, commonly employ&! in community and household p"int-ofuse sy,tem, implemented 1" Ihe del'eloping worlu. Table 8.18 comp...e;; the process ch....cteri'!ic' of ,I"", sand filtr.lio" a"d rapid filtr"Uon. Figure 8.13 ,hows a .""hen",lic of a dUd I-media granular f11lrati"" 'y,lem. Filter med'd in rap,u filt,.,tio" must be fairly unifonn in ,ize l,~ allow the filler; looperate at a high l".dinS ,ale. Coagulatio" I'relre.,Iment is neces<;.uy befor"fillration be<-"u,"" panicles ha ," to be pr¥rly destAbilized for eff""ti"e remm'a\. Bi""'nd Filter used f,~r hOlJ>;ehold ,,"ate, treatment ,n many p.>rt, of the de\'eloping world. IUpid filtralion ''l'''raI5 o\,e, .. cycle mn,ist",s of a fillratlon ,tage and a backwa'h stage. Ouri "g the fill rali"" lhe ba,l;,>a;!, 'Iage, "ater 00", up",ard and Ou,h"" captured particles up and away from the bt.d. Typically, Ihe filt,alion -'lep \a,t... from t to 4 d.y', "nd the bad.washing!.lke<; 13 10 3il min. The head loss dur~lg Ihe filtrdtion and bad,,· ... hh'g ,tag"" is imp"rtant for proper design of granular filtral,on ""tem>;. For a gi""" depth of filter med ia and the effective ,izeof mil:! ia, Ihe dean-b.,d hud ·

,


8.18 Comp .. ri."" .. f Typiideofthe", ,ang'" Slaw Sand FtIraOOn O,~,25m!h

(O,OJ.-
05-1.2mm

0.9-13 m 13-< It)

O,/,-LRm(2-1>f1)

09-1.8 m (3-1> It)

lfi.-30 m (6--10 ftl

Run I""gth Prdr""tmont

G",~uL'h""

Rq;""'-.. ~~"" method

5':T.'rm g

B.1d:w~,hi"g

M.",irmell r~w-w"", lurbidll\

IllNTU

UnlDllit<>.l w~h r"'p"rp",trm tn,mt

loss d"P"nds on Ihe bed poroslly. filtration rail'. and ",at"r lemperalure. TI,e erf""" of th" porosily and filtralion rail' 011 head lo"s is illu,lrated in l'igure 11.14. The dean-!>&l head loss increases a, lh" porosity deerea,..,,; or as lhe filtratIon rale incr"a,..,,;. Th" figure also sl~)w, Illallhoe dean-bed h""d In', is n""e,,,,,sili '" to flllralh", ral"ala lo,,'er I"'""ity. TI,,, dean-bed h"ad I""" also inerea"'" as le"'r",rature \).,ca""" fluid' iSCCbily i""rea_. For e,ampl". lh" elean-heJ head 10,," al 5 C i. (,()-70 percent higher lhan il i, al 25 C. TI,e bad.wa'h rail' 1\111>1 beaboo.·ellle muun.,,,, fluid ;;'alion .."ooly of th" [argestmedia. Th" [.ug",t media is lypicaHv taken as th" d", diam"ler. The l11il~1\1UI11 fluidization \'el,-,cilv ean be cakulalN by inpuuing th" fixeJ-bed I",,,,,,,ity ;nt,-, design equat;,-,ns. fuel" ."h range from appro> mfh, wid, atypical rale OOng45 m fil. Th" largeted ",pan,ion of lh" t""" is app""im.,ldy 25 perc"nl fnr anlhradl"and 37 perc"", for "'nd,

<.l"""""".

1'3"'"

--

Ifill"",,!

~

~r~···~y~yr-w.'"

w_",e,

Anll"...,'"

F!glll"l/l.13

Du.I·M<>.li. Cr.nul.r Med" Filler.

from

-~

Aglll"l/l.14 Effed of I'o.... ily .nd Fill •• 1ion R,te I"l"n Cle.n·lled He.d Ln" Ihrough Clun Gr.nul., Filte' Bed The d",.,n-!>L,j h""d ~"" iocn",,,-,, " th", por,,,,i!>' deaea"'" '" ., Ih", filtr.~on inm,..."""

r>'"

~

tcno-lo'oIoIl200';] Mapoorl"';!h""'"",,>io.o!JoOnW....ol.SOO','n< I

01 01 12012], _

"""'1'""";''''" 01

"""" Wd.,. ol. Son, 10<,)

ll.8 Rltratioo

8.8.2 MEDIACHARAGERISTICS T""""nd ud for 'low 'and likrat"'n i>sma ller a<1d l",sullilonll than tl'" m<.-di., u """" m rapid Iil II... t">II. Oil IY ,,- a"h<.-d "" nd 'hoo Id \:It, u"""". Beach or riverbed "and cannot I><' used before processing, because ii' ,ize and unifon'uly are u,ually higher Ihan Ihe criteria for a ,lo" "'nd filter. n", coagulation prt'tr&llment Slep~, "'~ required, l><'",n.J.'" d""labilizahon L, nol importanl for ,1,,1" sand filtration. Cnnununity 'low "'nd filter; are typim 11 y hou >ed in rei nlorced-crmcrel""truetu re, w it hgrad <.-dgra, ell 0.3.O.n m} a, a support layer and an undenlrain 'y,tem for 1".11.... colkrlion, Slow sand Iiltration 0l"'ral"" flyer a cycle Cot"i."ulg "f a filtrallon 'Iage .•nd .1 regenerahon ,uge. In the fillralion 'lage, wat",r now, downward by gro, ily through., ,ubmerg<.-d 'and bed (0.9--1.5 m) at low rate, a,1d head los' build" When the head reach... t"" a ,ail""le head (Iypically .liter weeks or ",onllo;), Ihe Iilter i' draUl<.-d, and tl>e lOp 1-2 cm of ""nd are scraped off, cleana!, and then 'Iockpil<.-d oll·Slle. The nper.,tlon and scraping cycle repeal' m er ""'eral year; umH Ihe 'and b..J reach... a minimum dep~1 of OA-n.s m. The 'tockpiled ,""d b then replaced u, the filler to r""tore Ihe origiMl bed depth. Filter mNia and bed charaeterLSlics are "ery imporlant for e,-aluation of Iiltratiou proc~, performance and design of fillr.l!lon .'y,te"". I'or rapid filtralion, ,and, anthraCIte COdI, gamel, and ilmenile are commnrdy used for Iilter media. Sometimes CAe i' used "het' IiltratiOIl i' co"'bined wnh adsorplion ill a 'ingle unil process. Sand" Ihe granular media uS&1 in slo>u' """d {illr«lw". lmporlalll media characle";,lics include medi•• "ze (described by the eff""li"e ,ize), size J i.'lributinll (described by a unilon",t" coefficient), den"ity, ,hape, and hard"ess. Table 8.19 cnml-"'res "nportanl filler and bed characterbtic., for rapid a"d ,10'" ""nd filler;. Figure 11.13 ,how, hnw a 'and sa"'ple is analyzed by a ,I"''''' analys,-, 10 determille appropriale size for use In fillr.uion. In FIgure Il. 15, a I JXXl g sample of naturally occurring "'''d wa, ,ifted thr,)ugh a ,tack 01 ,ieves, and the weight retained on each ,ie,-e ",as recordedand plMed. Hered ,n (143 mn~ and
I"",

I'""''''''


8.19 fih, MeaG Gnd Bed ChGra,,,,,,,,"',lo, RGpid Gnd Slow SGnd fih ..

,j,,,'"

R~pid fill.~lion

The d("c1iv" ,in lES "'" ,1 00 1 "dolormll\OO by orLlly.i•. It '" the medi.l di~"",ter at which 10.. of 'he mc-di., by weight i•• m~llo•. TI\< dfec,ive .i,e i. delermmOO by .ie\'e ~n.Ily.i•. The tvpk~1 dfecllv" .ize fo, r~pid fillronnn mc-di., orc s.>nd 0.~---md 0.2-1H mOl, ilmenite 0,2---
U"", gT~nul." m.,,,-,<,,,O; .uch~. "md, on,hracit" c",t 8",nel, il"",nit", ~nd g••,nul." ...ti\·oIOO c.>rbon (GAO

The uni form itycodfi,ionl(UO" the ra~oof the OOth-f"-"'O"'ble modi. d",meter (the di.,,,,,,'er.' which 6O'l of Ihe ",,"'i. b)' ","ighl i, smaller) to the df""tive
L'C _ d K >

'.

UC '" on importanl poromoter In 'he design of ropid fil,o,", be<-",u", it diro;-Uy offect< the ",·....-~II dfecti""",,,-, of the filtor bed bee"u,", of moo;" .tra,lfloColbOOl during Nc"w~.h. Duong b.-.ckw~sh, gmin< (more w"",h') ,,;11 oct,le '0 'he i>.,ttnm 01 the bed ond ore diff>c-ult ,,, fimdize for oflecth'o<1",ning. Fine gr~in. lie<. wL'ghtl ",II mllO<'t~' ,h" top of the fil'....-, whi.ch in tum ",Il c.u'" ",,"-"Si,'e he.... 10M during the filtration .toge. TYP'""I r~ng"" 01 unifo,mitv rodfidcol< fm ropi.cl fiIIrabon mcod", .re ,. folklw<: .. 00 1.:J--1.7, ,mthroclte cOolIl.:J--l.7, g.>mel Ll_1.7, iln",nite 1.'l--I.7, G,\C 1.'l--2.~,

c<"''''''

Slow ..1ld fil"" med,~ h.l.•• <"",Il",ellectIH nn " I\Ol • concern. The "1"""1 cflt.'Cb\'" '"'''' for .lnw "",d filu-atinn '< be'",,,,," O.3~nd OA, mOl.• 00 the uniformi,v c""ffoc"",' 1< I"", 'h.m 25-

Slow",nd lill.. li"n U_ ..,10

Filterbed poro,ily;' li~e soil po..... i1v. Po"",,,' h.l.< ~ ,Irnng inOue....c "" th" he.... In< .ru:lliltrotion eff<.'<'ti""""-,,,. If ,he p""",it)· i< ''''' <"",II, the head I"" ,,;11 be high. alld the hltr.'ion ,~'e ""Il dcc:"",-", '.pidlv """""pcrali"n ~me. If II\< porn,,,,,, i;; high, the filtr~'ion ,~'e ""Il ,.~"1<-"d lh"cnteo",,: 000 lhecm""nl ",ill IlOI. rncellh" t",olmenl ""lcc:t"",. T'1"c.Jll'oJlue< fm I""""tv are in ,he r~lJge of 4fN---foO"!

'00

, , ,, , ,

"

"" Rgurl/8,15

An~1y.i. of

..

/'

I.

"

llIbora'<>
I

00 % med", p....ing .ieve

Ih" Suil.lbil~yof ~ s..mplo 01 N.Ii,'" S
fi1l,~bon.

8.8 flllnllioo

8.9 Disinlection By· products ~~'f'J I""", ,< pa,~"'I""'
d""nl
Disinfection

PaUoogen, <:
"aler.

2. Secund.ry disinfectiun, m.linla",jllg a dbinfec!..nl r""idual in Ihe tre.ltN-\\aler di'lribulion s~~lem (also called ...",iJual mai"tenance).

8.9.1

CURRENT DISINFECTION METHODS

,~

c

= •• = ; 0 0

, , <

•

I

• =

~

./,

, •

. • " '"

Eff""t of pH on t~. hod;on of F..., CIllorin< P",•• nlo, H)'poch lorit.lon (ocn.

Flgur1/8.16

C.e,,,,rally, disinfectanls can be da>-'iified as oXJ cn",b",ed chIMi'''', mone, chlorine dioxide and ullraviolet (UV) light. Combined chloril'" lS often limiled to secondary dISinfection. Table ~.20 'u ",,,,ariz,,,, Ihe effecl"'en"",, regulatory limns, typical application, and chemical source of Ihe fi"e n,,-..I common di,infecl.\llls. Table ~.21 provides detailed informatio" on Ihe imporunl disinfeclion cllen",try a"d application c",~sideralion, lor Ihe fhe mmm"n di,infecl.\IlIS (indudi"g the importance 01 pH, as shown in Figure 8,lnl_ Rea,'!o"" u.-.ed lor dismf""lio" are u,uaUy ""ned mularl""'. Free chl"rin~, mmbineJ chl"'i'''', and chlori'... dioxide are m,-".I ofte" uo.ed in contaclO'" dr_ 10 id~al plug now reacto"" ,uch a.s b.;ffled, "erpent",e cnnt.lctor cholmbe",. Both Iyl"" 01 conlact"", <:
8.9_2

DISINFECTION KINETICS

The mechane-ms for pathogen in.lCti"alion during di'i"f""tion are enmpl"" and not ,,"ell unde"'t.....-..:l. TI'erelme, kinetic model, lM,'e bee" de,'eloped IIMI are b.;o.ed on laboralol) o\)"el"\alion,. Chick's law (Equat,on ~.12l i, ll'" m""l ,traightfor\\ ard model 10 d""""be Ihe di,inf""li"n process. 1l a...sumes Ihe rale of lhe di'inf""lioll reaction is pseudo first order \\ ilh respecl to the concenlralion of tlte p.lthngel~s being inactivated, (8.121

"'here ,IN/dl is the r.lte ollhange in the number nf organ"ms "ilh tim~ (organLsm,/\'olume/time), N lS Ihe concelllr.uion of organ"n~s Chapler8 WaterTrl!almelll

_... 0.20

........

'

.......... ,...........

,.-

".._....

~

.. _

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8.9 Dtsinloction

(orgd"L""-'I"ohlIn~l, dnd /( is Ihe Chkk', la" rale COlblarlt (lime

1

l.

Integratms Equaliilrl R, 12 "",ult, in

In(:J

(8.28l

-K·

,,-here No i, Ihe inn",1 LOIlCl!rllratiorl 01 orgall"",s{orgdJ",ms/ "olume). The rale 01 di,,,,fect;illl can be delermined b} ploUirlg Ihe log organ;,m LO,,,,,,ntralion rallo (N/ Nul versus time. To better eslimale the r.lle of di,lnf""tiorl, "'" eral me,,,ureme,,l, ,hould be maJe al each lime 51ep. Due lil it",,,,urale measure",ent, Ihe fil often n",y nOl p""s Ihrough zero. The d "",Iection rate In,,,, Equalionll211 is relabod 10 d i,.jl1lec~nl LOncelUral;iln, arid there""'tion ha, .• J ifferem rale Cil'''ldJlt for each atio...

""'I

"""""m

e X am p

leI 8.7

Application 01 Chi:k's Law Gi,-en the data in Ihe fir-;llhree columns of Table 1l.2L graph Ihe data for Ihe i,,,,cti,,allon of P"Jiopi",. type I, u"ng Ihe di,Inlectant bromine. Dr"lermine Ihe Chick's law rale cOl"lallllor each of the 11'.'0 d i,in feel ant COllee" Ira IlOlLS.

solution CalLulale the log nf Ihe ,urvi, al ,-alue (N IN,) for each data point. The results are ,hown in Ihe two right mlumns of Table 8.22 Then plOllog(N INnl as a function of lime Ul and fil a Ii"""r line through the data. Figure R.17 shilWs Ihbgraph. n,e ,'alue of Ihe ,lop" of tl", line ," FIgure 8.17 cor""'JX>nds 10 the Chkk's law rale oo"sld"l, For a d~,infeetanl co,,,,,,ntration of 21.6 "'giL, the rale ooll,tant /( (1).0,,, 10) is 1.8333/.; thu" K (b,o,;e~) ~S 4.12ls. For 11", dis",fectanl ron""ntralion of 1.7 mg/L. Ihe rale mnstanl /( (ba.'Ie 1m is 0.6667/5; Ihus, K {bJ.", <'l i, 1.54/•. Remember Ihat, a, we discu,..,.j pre",ou,ly, this is a ?",udo firsl-order rate OO'l5ldn~ '" the rale ronsUllt differs fnr differenl di,infectant ron""nlralirl's,

FIgblll18.11

LogIN/IIlol.'. Fu nctioo

011 forEumple8,7.

'~--------,

-,

-,

_. . . Chapler8 WaterTrl!a1melll

exaInple/8.7

(conUnued)

~

Do'" U.ed '0 Solve P,oblemApplyr.gChick'.lowin hl.... ple 1.1

c,""""

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Ct appm3ch u._ Ihe product C x I. which C3n be \ iewed 3S Ihe d"""'g~ nl dis,,'fecI31\1, C lS the oollCi'ntr3tio" of 3 chemic31 disllliectani (mg/Ll.!1 lS me3sured afler Ih~ time ""gmenl. I, wh~re I i, Ihe I;"'e required tn 3chi~v~ 3 le\'el 01 ;'Mch,al;nn. A ,in"la, concept lS the produ\'1 01 It.> UV 1ight ;III",,"'Y (/, In W J em') and the tuneof e'p<>'>ure, I. r >< j (un;!., of m W lem' . so, mJI an'> i, u""d d u,ing UV d ;,u,fed;"11 to compute Ihe d""" of UV light. n,~Ct approach isa u""luI way tocompa'" the 'elall\"e erll;;:ti, en"", of different di.sinfecl.l1l1, and Ihe r""istanc~ of differenl organisms. Figure 11.111 illuslral"" this by romfMring Ihe CI and II required for a 99 percelll il",cth'atlon 0/ ",,\'~,al mkroorgani'jns using Ihe fiv~ common d ;"'lIfee"'nlS. Figur~l\. III show, Ihat oz..,~ requi'esa 10"'" CI for most micrOfC"g3I\is".. than Ihe othe'th""'cl'emical oxidal,ts n""-"<.:l; Il'erefnre, ozo"e is a stronger dlsinf""tanl, Abo. Ih~ microo'gallism called C. /om'''''' ""'lui"" Ih~ highe.1 CI .•mong lour eh~mieal o"da"I.'. '" Ihis microorganbm" m",t ,,,,i,tam 10 Ih""'" d,sinlecta"". Th" /I data for UV disinfection are included in Figu '" 1\. Ill. Hn",~, er, nol much can be colldud&l by comparing th" /I ""Iu", "',Ih til" CI '3Iu", fnr Ihe same organism. n,~

8.9 Dt<;.in1ection

--- 1,-1 -0.'

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Onni~"" of Di,i of""Ii""

Roqui..,m""t, for '1'/', lo.IL" Ih~ CI or It ""luim.:! 10•• 99'1 i"","ti.,.,ion of ",,·~••i p.>th''S0n'. u,ing n\'~ common d"infc<:l.nl, (Ii,ted on the lopl. (h""" "-'qUi..".. Io"'er Clfm n"",l p.>thogem l!l.,n tho other Ih"", cl\eml<:dl o",d.mt" '" owne i,. 'tmnger di,inlc'Ct.lnt. The microo,&,ni,m C. I"'",,,m IL'
During lhe di'i"fecliol1 pr"""",,, ele.:tricily i, usal by ",ixe,.." prlle""'; ",aler pumps. chemic.ll pumps. n,e prnducti"" .. ,K! deh"ery of d isin fM;" g age"ls In I...... hn enl facll, hes .. l,oreq ui res en""gy ;" put, IIta I o'''C''rl»"er Ihe lite cyde ollhemat:eriaL Ela.:lrici'ycn.-.'tIInpti"n h..,. been fnund 10 be .. ppm,i l1Ialely 2 k Whl '" ' fnr Ihenper"l;"n nf .. chk"u",Ii"" di'infection pf'rchlnri",uo>" .. 1 gl, h",,'''''''', ",as fnund tn be abru 19 k Whl Ill' (Bu ,I"", 1996), n,l, ,h"",s II"" energy use JI a drmk,"g-",aler ,reatm~nl plan, is influenceU by Ihe ,,-)Orce 01 Ihe ra" ""'er.

",ui

Chapler8 WalerTrl!a1melll

example/B.B

Applicalion of Cf Value

The Su,f~ce Water Trealmelll Rule (S\VTRl requires .,t I"a,t '19.'19 I"''''''nl (4-log) rem,wal and/o, inacli, atm" ()f ,iru_. A ",at"r t,..,atm",,' plan, prd ,,-al'" temperatur"" of 5 C and 20 C. Tl,,, CI values are pro, ide<\; CI ~ min-myl. a, pH 7 and 'empera'u,..,of5 C; CI 3 min-mg/1. a, pH 7 ~"d temper~tureof2{) C.

solution The required re;iJual conO'nlration of free chlo,,,,e (mg/I.) for ,he giwn con,act lime of 30 min is detenninN "-< folio"",, 3 min-mg" l C. O.lo'gl. 30min

C,

Rmin-mg,il 30min

0.27mgl-

Kote th.,t ~, ,he lo",er ,empera,ure, higher 0 ,-alues a,.., required. Tl,,,,,,fo,..,, a higher concenlra,ion of free chlorine may have be appliN during ",illler mon,ll<.

'0

~ Palhooen Al'lI!nval and Disinfection in 100 DeVffOoinn 'Muld I" the de,el'l'u'g ",orld, "''''Ii,-at.." of microbiol<>gic~l rontamina"" is acrompli,hed through ,he ~dJition "f disi"r...::lio!l agellls ,ud, a, fr"" chlor","" UV light. ,~r he.,t cr~ble ~.2)). Wa,er ,tor~ge n""d, t() be carefully conside,..,d as welt 1><.:a",e "ater ""f" a, ,he po,nt of rollect,on i, often recmllamilld,ed with fec~1 ",.aller duri"g wHeclion, ,ran,pori. and u"",, in home_ V""<;eL< ",i,h narro", mO\JlIt< and ,aro; reduce ,he chance of rerontllnin.,lion. anJ open cortai"e", sl~)uU always j", m",re.:l (M,helck aI., 2i»9). HanJ-dug "ell> can j", chlmilld'N by 1m, er"'g a chk-,r.,a,ion pol (Figu", R.191 intll the ",,,]1 or dir",tl) in,,,,,li"g d~ .... il'" ,,110 ,I... well daily. Some communities t.lke ,he i",ermediate """"ure 0/ peri,-,.jically ,n""ling chlorh,e i"ln J ",en to reduce contamination. Ho",e"er, Ji,;"ft..:tion will be
e,

Rgu,,".1!

Ex.mpleof. Oolorin,*ion

1'01. ~"",,""_"",01120091_D....,;"lI,..... 'YoIljodo

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8.9 Dtsinloction

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,

J~,

I" ,,-, '" ·tu"" '" .,~" " ' •• n,';, 'rt.oJ bo.'"·,,,n P'''' d.> II,...... ' 1"''''"... n, loy ...." ""'n 9j}')

h

"~I"

.,lIy ",'h '_2 J.y

1.."

".'Y'. "" ;." ~r.tollW' mo....... '""w "'...., I..m.. , f"1"-~, ,""'.', ,n"

"uo"".

8.10

Membrane Processes

By 2007, 0\·",20,000 membrane (induding re"e""" .",mor COthUmpt,lln i"cre..",.,. Membr~ ... p"'<"""~' hwoh'e ",,,Ier pumped under p,""""ure, called /
w,,'"

Chapte,S Wate
D;~IP""" "fM~mbr~"" s.,p~r~Ho.. PI'1K~" n.., lnflllL'fIl i,

Agur.'8.20

"'p.>r.l<>:l in!,u I"""""a., 'lrt'~m (~JI'

s...-i'

,,-.le<

......-

~ ....

(2OO}l

~",..,0I0S-

_~ ........

10<..1

Thoe re.t of the .. ~~ ronla"'iIlg lho! filh!'''old mn'IJl~lS pa_ by I"" fill......nd lS ""fWd mmLllt. "••I\o"n ,n Fig.."II.20.

n... p,""""ur.. ""lUlri'I.l I (onstant fillr"llon ..... f1u.~

through I"" m....,br...... L' uled lhe Inlo' /onr"" p,.o!">.~ .... Th,s p"""""" pro>ide;, the dn, 'ng fon..... for filtr.l n In t.l~ pt>.". A. Ih.. J'Oft' sin' of the

1I'Iefnbo"."" d

.....-. lho! 1,..rNTlotmbra..... J""""U'" jnc~ Thoe II ... ,.at.... the , t " hid! I"" J-mt''''.. f1l'M' IhrClUsn lh" mom.hr""" ..",.. • nJ k'o"-\p-...I •• l m'-d,,~ 19pm 11'1. rch'd. ....J ""'110'. lho! d,;,tribuh<'" ,,~tem.

810.1

ClASSlfICATIONOFrYiM8RANEPROCESSES

SI'.Ioocbnn 01 the 1\1'" 01 mo'mbr;uw .,~ do'foo-i.' upon WrnrtSblUlObi'. f""-mO\ll'oJ. r......,.I\p"" ,. nwmbr.......,................. . - l '" ..". 1rNt"""-llt. ",......nIt'Alion l"tO ,,It,.;UiltrAlionlUf) n.&nofiltnilion L. n .ond , .. ",n.. oo ....... iIi IRQ. Figu... 8.11 d •• tho' (fOU' mm>br_ 1"'" ..,-..-J in dnnLns-".t.>r 1n!<1lmi!lU. T<1ib\o'Il.21 f'IO'l~"-" "'f......... Don.boI.Il"" 1,_ h J-nf nl
en"

>."".....

, "h o-

J! Flg_'I.Zl

. --

,..

'

---5'

\ '.I

D

,

•

'.~

~

•• -, ·0

-§.. h

"'I

__

..... rCo··

~

••

w_

Cb..ir".,l"" of F"", P........ re-O.l..... Membuno Proceo""" Th.e p~ .",mocmliltr.ti<-oI

"ltr.lillr.'"m. "" .. ,filtr.,~",.• nd ........""" ,""" ... (.'
.... 120' 21 _ . _ ' " _

an.-

-"~

--~

W

".,ob...

drinking ... ;,leT).nd. ",,*,nl.le<.ln,un "'I\ickculT'-'fIU" bee"""", ..... a." ch.>lIenge to lhe lm>1m<.'fI1 rrdusln' i,lo lind b<.-ne6
oI,IoIooWl.tI.s.... "".j

. -..

8.24 Types 01 M"mbr..,,, lihr Sy.""'" , _ 01 Mrrnlr.... eFllor

Cor"irlornsms

Micmfil
H ... mmlbr.rne p«e oil."" '" 0 1 In nomi",,1 diamel",.

Rem",,,,, p"rllde<, al&,e, b.>ete";", aoo 1'''11''',0,' tMt howe .".."
Ha, meOOT""e 1"'''' ,i=.,. 0",,>11.>.. n.1ll ,.m in nom",al d.,met", C.n rem",,, con.' ,m"l1 collold,and <"1m"",. OpeTallto~

p""'U'" ron&-" .1'" 1..-'; bar (1~75 p
Ha, meOOT""e pme ,i"" a'.,moll a' 0.001 fUll in n",,,,,,,,1 di.lm~""'" Rem,,,",,,, di""kL'\l "rg.>nic n~1ttor and .ome dh"alen, il'n.o 'uch a, ""klUm and ""'gn",,;um ion"

Re\~

OS"""" lRO)

Fillo,.;are con,ol..,-~'\l nonp'Tou,. and u,,,,,ly onli' m",tituen" that arc the ';7-,-,of ,,-al..,molecule< .. n P"" th,,-,ugh the filler. TT,,,,.mcmbTaneop"'.tmg ?"",.ure ,.,nge< are 13.t---SO.l ba, (20.}-L200 p<'g). Ihe} pri,mrih r"m''''e p.rt;"ulille cOlo;tituenl,. Nanmltroti"n and ren"""" """,,,,,i, Me ""n,eti",e<. dds<>,fied ... reVe",*, """,,,,i, proc",,,", l>ecau.'" (hev re"'","e dl.",<>I\'ed collStitu"nt" The energy use reqUIred I" pdSS "a,,,r thrnugh d ",embrane Cdn be d"ter",i"ed a, follow"

Q ;<.P 1.714 y

Hp

(8.29)

". h"re HI' I., th" I'"",,,r required 10 p"'«" ,rullion galiollS "I water per day through Ihe ",,,,,,brane (I< IVhjMGD1, Q i. the flo" rate (gpm), and .'lP i, ,he required f'-"'<:l pr""ure (psi),

8.10.2 MENBIU>J'..IE MATERlA.lS Membra""" "e manufaclured i" ,ubular form, fla, ,heet, '" a, fine h,,11,w.' fiber<. Th"y are COlu~ of e"h"r ''''lural or 'yu,hel'C ma'enals. M"dlfied na,urallyl"'"
'0

Chapler8 Water Trl!atmi!lll

rang" 01 15-30 C and are not tolerant abo,e 30 C. They are also ~et,,,jti,-e 10 hydroly'i' at high arlll low pH. Tl", tn""",ate arid dl/tri.lc.Ute bl""d, haw improwd hydrolytic ,lability in water ,,,Ih high and 1o" pH. P
8.10.3 MEMBRANE PROCESS TYPES AND CONFIGURATIONS The m,-",I common Iypes of membrane configuralio", u,ed in waler Ireatment are ;plml-"",,,,,,I and l,ol!<"'~fi1",r ",odldes. A 'piral-wound e Ietne,~ cm"i"s. of s.h.., Is of Ihe nlet"bra "e, per I"""Ie ma Ie ria I, chanllel spacer, and outer membrane ,,-rap woun.:l around a porous """neale lube. Water ente", one end of Ihe ele...e,,1 and f1ow~ acros.~ Ihe wound filter ~urlace area, arlll the" .lter pern",al"; through t he membr".ne inlo IhecoD"'-liOl' tube" hile Iheconcelltral"or retel1l.lI"nO"" out Iheolher end of Ihe filter dement. Spiral-w,>und ele"',,"h call rang" from 100 10 3m mm in diameter a,1d 1 ton m m let'gth. Bw,dl& of elen",nt" US'MllV JO.-50 in num~, are >kid mount&! (calloo ,kids or array,) and o""rated in parallel ",ode. For ROoperalion, skid- n",w'l<.-d u nilS or array' can also beol-"",r.lloo in paral1l>1 and il1 seriesoperati,,,c For example, I" oarrays mayop...a'" ill parall,,1 (firsl ,tag") and the r"t""lal" from "ad, array is f<.-d 10 two olh"r arrays (<.econJ stage) to mcrea"" ,,"aler ",,,o,·ery. Figur" s,n display, an RO planl with four ,kid-moutll&! unil,. P"rhap' Ihe "'0<1 "idelv u".,,;! ",,,,,,bran,, i, the hollow-fiber tyl"'. 110110w fibers. have oul,ide diamel"l" ra"glrlg from [1.5 to 2.0 mm wall

F!glll'l/l,22

Ro,..,,.,., O.mo.i. Drioking.W~!e,T",~tmem PI~nl Sho,,"jn~ Four Sk;d·~touoled Unit•.

(1">00> p<".;dod..,. Goo
8.10 lII!!mbranel'rn:i5Sl!S

TroolIld wale<

(p<>rmea'ol Wllhoon"" by .ocu"""

RelOOlale

Figure/8.23

p ... odo> 0101

Mcmbr~t1C. Submcrr;ed

1201

~

i. Tuh.

10<1.,... ,..;;' .... ""..... oIJoh,

wl..t & Son,. l,,'-f

Ihid,nes, ranging from 0,07 10 0.6ll mm, and l~nglh, of aboul 1 m. Typically, 7,000-10,000 fibe", are hou'ied in ,IdUll"""""I""[ or fibergla"" p"""urized mooul"" with diamel~'" r angUlg f"m, 100 10 ~ m", and length, ranging from 1 to 2 '" In addition 10 pr""ure I-"'W[', microfillralion and uhrafillralion m~mbran""can oper.• t~ submerged in "nh. Figure R23 i, a ""'",mabc of " h.ll i, ""lied a
,,,I"''''''ged-m,.,,,b,,,,,,·

(CMFR).

8.10.4 MEt...·BRAf\lE SELEGION AND OPERATION Membrane op~rali()" is highly d~p"nd~l\t upon Ih~ ",flu~nl waler characteristic_, and the type of constitu~nts in Ih~ ,,-aler thai llee
1--

---

Recydo ...... (QllII
- -

-,T_ _ t>

-

_,IIa...

...

""OI~_

AIJUr8/I.24 Typi<.IC"mpa""al.
~'''12012l t _ ......

'" ,...'"

_w-."~ Ioc

--

., it\l~.f~.",g

",th m~nlbrdne ope'dtion, ch~",ie..l pr~lredl" ..."t Sl"p' m"y 1>e ,e'luire<.l F",,<.I pump' Me utili7.e<.l to provi<.l" Ih" lrdl"memb,.. n" I""..;,ur" "".",<;,ary for rilt.atio" to onu •. OH' tim". parlicul.lte ""J d;",,,·~,,&1 co",liluenls builJ "p'''' the surface or the memb.""....·au,;ng the permedl" flu' to <.I""...." .. ole inaea'e Ihe I •• n,,,,.. mbra,,,, p.~su.e. A I "On.., p'. . "t ;n Iheoperab"'. Ihe menilran"'.equ i."l>-a,l... a>Jlirt; 10 ..... t(lor;! the" pe.f. the Noek,,""" "",It! ''lC'C\lr. "J'f""O"1mab>h '" "" »-'Ill mi m.. pern1"dbiln~ T1w Jo,<; of Au, ",<.f~1<> f. an be ..... tore<.! Irrrt'<'r
p""""'"

"""'J.,

""""'&

"'1>""....

5.10 M.n. . . .

"'«!!, ,

MoreonOesalinalion h' "VJI """' ,w~~r.G~~",I ~jr¥..iorl

A, ,ho" " in Figu,e ~.2-lb. ,e,'e"", ""n""i-~ plants requi", dd d dnd chem;cal addllion 10 I'",,,,,nl ""ale formatio" 0" Ihe memb'd"es. The scale lormalion i, cau,ed by s<,lub'" '-, Il~ in I he feed ",,,te, ooncenlrat;ng In Ihe membrane 10 a degree Ihal they exceed their solubiiity product a"d begin 10 pre~ipllale a,,, s<~1id o"the membrane ,urfd"", Addmg acid "'ill ~h""ge Ihe solubllily of Ihe ",ll~. and Ihe dnliscdld"l "'ill help pre,-ent the lnrmalion of Ihe ><:ale or at lea~1 ~lo", dm,n Ihe rale of p,edpildlioll. Prefill,ation i, LL.,."j 10 p""eol partides from clogging RO membrdn"", For ~urf.lce "'''I~''. cartridge filters, gral1ular fillrdlion. a"d/or mkrofiltrahon m"y be n""""'<;'lry 10 r~m",-e partid"" !>efore RO filt'ation. Di~infedjon may al,..-, !>e required 10 pre,'enl microb",1 fouling of the RO m~mbranes.Car~ must !>e t.1k~n to e'bure thai the RO membr""es are nO! ~u""'plible 10 oxidalion by the di'i"f""lant. Perlneale ",alerquality;' usually addic (pH"" 5.0). 10'" i" aikdlinily. a"d oorrosi"e. dl1d del"'nding uJl'~n Ih~ ",at~r sour~e.l"'f1n~ate may ennuin di,"'h ed ga' (forex"mple. h ~dmge" ~ulfjde if Ih~ ",al~r "lUree is reduced groundwal~rl.Som~ p~rme.'t"" m.lY r"'lu,,~ aeratioll 10 ",m",'~ U""-dllted di,sol,-ed g"""". 11,e mrrosi\'e"es.~ of Ihe ",-ale, ''''Iuires "dju,tments 10 pH and "lkdli"ily by using a basic ,01ulioll .•nd adding a corrosion inhibllor (SOldium 'ilica Ie dnd sod,um heXdmetdphnsphale). A di-,mfeclanl i, usually added to th~ wat.... bef"'e il elllers the cleM wen and disl'ibulion syqem. Si"", Ihe retentdle qr&lm is under high pres.,ure. a mncelllrate wntrol "ah,e i-~ u,.."j to ""plu", the energy and reduce the pressu '" of the ret~"lJte st",a",. The wneentrate £Ontrol ,-ah e i, an energy reco.ery ,y,te", "nd can be ,-,-<;aj t" reduce energy u"., al Ih~ RO pl"n I, 11,e retentdl~ ",,,y l>t< further Irealed, d.~ ",ilh llw u'"' of e, dpo'''tion p"nd~ to furth'" £OlIcentr"le Ihe ,)f m"y be di>ChargeJ intn Ihe brackish ""tu"l)'. or Ol'er, or 10 .l "'uniej!"l ."",-"'. Ob, io,,-,Ir. lhe ret~ntdle ,Irea", l' &lsi.... 10 disf'O"" of in cnastdl areas, "here Ihe di""l... rge does 1101 preselll as man v proble",s, Il... n al inland loc"tim" where f""",h",aler is present. Ho"'e"..... I"'mliUing ",m j,., r""luired 10 e,~,u", prot"':1io" of COdSlJl """"y,tem~.

""II,

8.10.5

DC""".

MEMBRANE PERFalMANG

T"bl" ~,25 summarizes typic"l 01"" "ti"g ch.araclerislic, and general I"'rformance 1-'",.""ele" for membrane 'y,le",,_ For microfiltration spte"", typical ",,,ter rec,wery exc.,.,.js 93 perc"llI and sU'I"'"doo"olid, re",o,",,1 l~ around \lO---98 I"'reenl, del"'nding upon Ihe menlbrane's nominal pore size. Microbiologic"l re",o"al can be as high "s 7-1og renw,-al for proloZOd such as GJarolia lamb/i,' cysts and Cryplilil",ri,liwn nocvsts. Bacteria remo.'al i",s t-n rep'lrted fmm 1- 10 ~-Iog ,e"..wit!, and \irus rel1,..",aJ fhrn 7- 10 Hl-Iog removaL Fm RO ,y'l~ms, "'.Her reCOlene~ r""ge from 50 10 9{1 perce"l. depe"dl1'g u poll the i"fIuel~ ,,-at..r Iyl'" MId th~~tagj"g. TDS ren....".I, ca n be In Ihe ra n8eof90---'J95 perC""1 reU'.waL M icrob;ological ,emo,'a! ;s excellent, "'ilh grealer Iha" 7-1og ",mm-"i for proloZOd dlld bet",.,.,,, 4- "nd 7-108 ""n", al for bact""ia "'Id \ If~ ret''''' al (A,ano et aI., 2006).

,.,n,.,nl


8.25 Ope,ofionoIPo,ome,e"fo,Memb,one. e_~

M<:rofllI"""",

Flux r,le.l/m'·d

400-1,600 O.lKX17-{lOl

""""'Img p,,,,,,,ure, F""h"',t..... Sc.>""ter

~~

II}-)_

12-20

O,007.-{17

.1;0.._0;0

1,200-1 jlOO

,~

~.,

Energvm,,-,umrt~m,lWh/m

F""h,,·.,t..... Sc.>""ter

--

H3n0r""aIion

-- I ~,tUl

, 0'

'0

0.li-1.2

5,500-11.500

15-25 5-10

RO memb, ~"es are ~I"" ,ery effooi"e in remo"",!; SlX.s. Table 8.26 d"""rit:.e. """e,.ll mechanisms lhat 101l1lhe membranes as "ell as methods to ,,,,,,m'e or p,e"em Ihe r""h"g. I" gen", ai, men"iJ,an" p,ocestiesha \ e mud, high... energy con'iumption ""luireme"ls comp.ued 10 othe, ",aler Ir"alme"l p,oces-.es. For example, ,e"e",,, """'OSl~ used for seawal"" ,j"""I",al,,'" has ,eported el""tri~'ly consumption Ihat ,ang"'" from 2,3 10 7 kWh/m' ",ate, pn-.duced (Ha"",ock et aL. 2012; M un", el aL. 2010; Stn,""sand Hor"~~I, 2lXl9; Lyon, et aI., l(X)9; Raluy et ~L, 2lXJ5a, b). TI,e energy co,,-sumpl'o", for membra"e proce.ses "dries wilh Ihe sal""ly or the ra" water .,nd Ihe pore ,ize or men,branes. For e"ample, RO used for 1'''''lmenl 01 br.,cki,h gr"" tldw.te, (which ]Y, lower ... Iinity compa,ed "ith ,"",,\\ ale,) h,,-s 10\\ er elect,icily enllsumption; only 055-2 kWh/"", which is qu,te lo"er th~n Ihe rallge r"I"'rt<>J earlier in this paragraph. In add iti",~ changing the pn"""", Imlll RO 10 NF (which r",ults ill a l",&,r po,e size) \\ ,11 reduce Ihe electricily con,umplion by 65'1 (Villce et ~l., 2OOIl). O"erall energ" co,,-,umplion C,all be al", be reduced through ,eco"ering energy contained in Ihe high-pressure rejoe<:ted ,t,e.m and lra,,,lerring illO Ihe lo"-p,es.su,e leed stream (VIllee el aI., llXlIl).

8.26 Type'o! Menob,onefoulng ond Me"ocb ,oConlrol ICri:tenden e'ol .. 2012] Type 01 F"'*'II

Foulmg by p.-.rlkle'<

l.:I'ge p.-.rtJeles 'n,m • ,-.,kelJll 'be ,uri""" of Ihe "",,,,b.-one.

Il.,ck""shmg ",ll rL""m'e p.-.rtkleo;

,h.:Jt "e I."ge, th.,n me",b,.,ne I"'re ,ize<.

B.,i",ling

BiofJl",

'""n.1 "''''' ."..",110

""trocefluI." m.:>'en.:>l ",hieh .:>dd, to 'ouhng. At I.>c hmt.,,,,

Chem,c.l d~in'e\:t.>~l' Iikechlorino Ofe .dded t~ thele<.'d ",.1.".

i. slmng '" l>.l.-k""'lung ..~II not ",,,,.we

N,tu",lorganic maUer

r-<.lur.,1 ",&,mic ma,I,.,. (t\O~l) .:>dsorb< to Iho l fr,c!>onclen t .,i7-" In "",triel me",b,.ne 1"'''''''

C.:>Tclul "-"",,,,".1 of NOM thrnugh C'Oolgul.lt,on, filt",t;o~. n, hioofilt"tion,

e x ant p 1el

8.9

calculation 01 MicrDliltration Membrane System

A munidpalny i, upgr~ding its mkrolillraliotl planl by replacing membrane< of 0.2 ",m pore ,iz.e ",ilh m"mbran"" Il",t lId"e 0.1 ",m pore 'ize. n,e plant cm~~i~l, of eight arr~y~ ",ilh 90 modules per array, and the planl <.'padly is 29,2J.l ""/day. nle modules are 119 mm in in'ide diameler and 1.19-1 mm in length, and they h.>"e an a, ~i1able filtralion ,urface area of 23.4 m'. The ne" lIo11ow lit...", ha,-" 1.0 mm oUl,ide diameter and length of I, 19-1 mm. Cakul~le tho> foliowing: 1. Totai

~urface

Mea a"ailable for fillralion

2. Membr~ne f1u~ rate III L/m'-h and gpm/ft'.

3. Tolal number of m""'brane Ilbe'" for Ihe piam and each module

solution n,e tolal .'iurf""" area a,-ailable for filtration i. detennined a. 101101,,,

tOial

~urface

area

, array
1t>,ll4llm'

The membrane!lu~ratei, delem,inoo a, follows;

!lu~

rale

lotal plant flnw rale (h-.tdl .urface area a,-a;iabie fnr filtration)

('.') "(LOOO' ) ("2"",'1''') 16.11411 m' m' 2·1 h

72_ 25L i m '-h

!lUl( rale

_ • g;>llnn, m' 72.25 L, m"-II x 3 7115l x , . (3.2llfW

h < 7n"""""""

""mUI

0_0296gpm oft'

The tolal numbero! membrane libel" required for the planl.lnd each n,oouie i.

IOlal numt...r of fibe",

lotal plam
16.8.\11m'

'""

16.ll-lllm' 2 .. x (0_001m1 (1191 m1

2.2.16.00J

number of fIbers per module·

tolai number of fibers number 01 module; 2.246.00J

8afTay, _, (90 modUles) array .

I

Chapler8 WaterTrl!atmelll

3.120

8.11

Adsorption

8 11.1

TYPES OF ADSORPTION PROCESSES

Ad"'rpt~ ....\ pr",~a ...

"iJ"h u«'oJ 10 ","",H-organic"nd inn.gank """"titu,,"lI; from "at~ and air. r"'r ">dmple. granular ~i,aled c,,,"on (GAO and p" ..'de""d adi ... ted c.orbon (PAC) ar" ",d"J~ use;:! ffl' ..." ..~. illS <;OC~ and lodor ",,,,,,,,,,lids fmm dnnlm8-" ab£.1" §upph",. Under tho! .... f.. DrIJ1l..ing W.t<>r Act, t ..... CPA ""~ d...ignated GAe '" ,"" !leo;1 Al olilable tKlmo,"'&! f,.... 'en....' illS m.ony orgAnic and Inorganic a_I'1 w"t-. front .. at,.". .... rrJ ,.,.. If"r"' "'p Ie. 5CX::-', ........".,ic, and tad~'nudid....l_ GAC i.~ "l.., .. id"I~' ".;at for 1 IUl g indoor .. " (for ...... m~.l". ...,.",... f<>nn.lI.J"......t.>. h"l/U"''''. and raJonl. Adso'Plion i<; a proo:r-.' .. h~ mol.·("u~ ,,'" Ir.nsfHred from a fluid st.",,,m and ('<>f\(o!nlfated on .. ""'..J ",.uf~ ~ phy ~IC.II fon.-e... A J,!iSOI,M ~Ioi";n I"" fluid ''IN.1Im ~""~ ...... ,lth';lIlSatlracted to .. no:I ad>O" hocl> I..... 0><1 .. '"""1" ~>rb<. " ul\o>d IIw ad.. .>rtnrl. The phy...col atlr",-"tJ<... is n>rotmlled b\ Un <.I W,wl_ype """,,, nonspecifi< bon,hng morlI.o.nl-mt I.oltrM"ti,,' fon: on. molecuLar "'8), "" the .tt•.oct,,;> fOl'Cf!'o bo1......... Irw .d......t..l\o' .nd tho> .d"..n"nl ~url,"""," soc.~ th.ol an> .nlo!n.lbW 1» aJ~""" .... ttk_lhal .... h~dropht.I;,anng). """"'"' th.ol .... h~ d"'J'lUlic ( ter·..... II\SI ptefw to .... ~ '" ....t;", "" 1ho1I, alluulv \Ir> aJ.... T.bIe II.Zi pmo,ode. """"'~ d scx::~ tNl .... f.,_abl, and unfa,nrabl> .odsor'bN nnlll .KtJ,-.t cam:..... ~bo!r that ChaJ*'f JdN:.-.Ithe """,~d ao.isotpbnn. _WillS u;..> d tIw r"",nJl>ch ~ tndecribio "lUilibnum bo>rn ....... tlwad...1fbo!,J.nd ~ "'aIWc<-..LInunanls.

"'s

,ot...,;,.

,

rn-d

8.112 ADSORBfNTTYPfS T1w mosl "..kh ~ aJ~1 " .oct".\o'd carbon. Act".10';:1 corbon c.....- '" lWh gr.nular (c..... O.nd J"}\oJ"n,d (PAO form. T..b\;> 1'l.2!\ rom~ the.- d C.....C.nd PAC.nd • Fe.. ph,~ic.aI P'''f*'bi'' of 1"'-1...0 aetl,.\Ii:lJ arbon .d«Wb.>n~. A""'11wr ad>Ol'tloont os granular ktric h~ dnlll,l,dGnil. "hat. .. u"o.'\J pnmaril~ fur """'" lAg '""'"' nic .nd ...,...... ''''''-101 rompan;.on to> C.....C.nd PAC. GA-f h.ls. "'f'<'cilk lZ>S •• n!png from o.n 10 UIOmm. n-ad.nrl>omt~.r~p.""'lU,.ndha,~.lars" ,nt;"nalsurfoKlO' a ..... fur ..u...-.rpt"..... 10 ' ........... Tho! lugh lot..1 ~p"ufk~urf....- ........ oflh;os;o a, Illedlol m filto!!" .>pe,.\10,.... a...J~ in ""rall..l C f...-l 10 Nch b;>d .. nJ the i!fflUOffit l~ bl.!OOl!d PAC ... typo;;;> D.v.oJd l!d .t Ih! ra" ."..t;" ,nl.lU bo-fon.tho- ,a ptJ-mu. u lUI. or .. t I,,", filt..... inld bn .. nd/''',..... SuL>I" ' pro..-......... ~Iu"g in hiSh..rPACtJ S"' "",!",,,,n'''''l'' Th.. PAC n nbMn.. "_ .. n)l''PJ.ldy mi-'·f!ow "''''''lot (CMrll:) for .>d"'lu.t~ con~"'1 lime. folk ..,."J b) r AC/"ater ""I""'rabon ".i"S"'nllltr.filt,.'liolllll.. mbr.'''''."KlI .....rACi.,rKy''I...-1b.lcktothehead

pn."""'"

Practitallnformatlon Dll Sm.11

community Water Systems "~:.p-Ji..-.,~o<

... ..-

.........~."".<.",

."

8.27 h .... ple. of Sy.-.hoti< O'gonic Co",,"ound. Tho! ""0 foyo,ely and UnfaYOI"obly "'doo,bed onlo .... hol.. d Carbon f,om Wo",

-

fa~Ad_

,~--,

1-,1minoboJl.1""

A~ A',.uin~ Ilcn:len~

urb«l ,,-~,... hl,,ride Chl"",form E'h.1nnl

C...."'min Lindane \1c~h.>n,,1

),Jdhl i.obom",,1 Te,,-bul\1,lmhol T d"chlomelhylen~ Toluene T nchloc",-~hrle""

, , ,

, , , , , , ,

,-

,

','

- '-,

-

8.28 Comp"".on of .....iY_d ... d ...rb.. nu Uood in Wo.... T'..o .....n' ,emo"" or",nic and ",len iu m

GfCr
TOIoISpK:iIic

",anul., "",i""ed carhon ("AD

I'owdored ...h,·,lerhon (PAQ

Rem",'01 ,,( neg' n", c",~,!it""nb, ",neg.1n", con,;liluenl' 'och ,lS men:ury, f1u()rid~. I"-""hlo,,"'. and ..sen",

Pnm.>riiy fm ",,,,m',,1 of """"""I "ste and oooc: aL", u"'-'.lfoc perio.:lk pmblern> wilh agricullur,1 poIlul.1nl. ouch" I"""""d"" and horbiocid"" (e.g., during .pring runalfl

Area Im'flll

~-

SO",(nm)

'\00-2$lO

O.:J.-H

Panic..

D "'iIIn C..... ida ""....

urried "'" in a lhed-bed mooe of oper.>lion e,lhe, a. g.... ;ty feed

or u",k'T P'''''''u",. The ,h= com"",n mod",of fi,ed-b<.,j operalion "e, (1) 'ingle .>dsocbeT "pet'.lion, (2) .>dsorbe.. ol"-'T,,'ed in p.1"IIeI, "nd 13) ,d.mbe,..,

""-",,,

~pet'a'ed m

I ii'iUi-fHl74

""riL".

I~"-'
rom=tion.ll ",.11", '''''' lInenl 1'1.10"00 ..,n"".-ed during "'-'.Iimenl.1lian,oo filiTalic",

1"'>=<-''''''. Kcv def'''''''e." rt.'lam,,j "-'1ng Jol' lest•

. ,

ChapterS Wat..-TrMlmeIIt

oiCl\I FR.TI\ememb, ~ne",~cto",onfigu r., tion,,, La ybeu,..:,J " henchron ic pmblen~, ~re ~-.:iateJ ",th !.l,te alld odor or microponutanh Energy ron'umption for CAe ~d""rpliOll i, ,,,,,,I... ~, in fihraholl process, prim... ilv fmm pump,ng during operation and backwash. TI", el"",lricilycon;ulllption is~ppn"imately0.01 kWh!m \ "ater produca.1 (Vincent et ~1., 2!m). rrom a life cycle perspeclive, energ,· coll".unplion for the pmc_ shoo ld al", ffit1sider Ihe ene'gy required 1m ad ...,benl product.", and delive,y, ad,orbent regene,al"n, ~nJ "aste handling. TI,e dect,kily u""-'<:l in the operation C~t1 be reduced by il1lpm"ing Ihe energy efficiency of Ihe ,y"em~,di<;cu,.,...j in the filtration sa""lion. The em!x>J i.,j ell"'gy can be ,edut:&! by m<'lhoJ,lhat indllt.1e u,,;,'8 ad,.,rbent regeneration p,oces
~--'S'm""a"II-'S""'"le,S"",I".""",,,j"n''''W'''I''''JT'',.aat'''',.''11 By definition, a public drll\king-" ater 'y,I"1lI ''''Sul",ly supplies drinking water to atlea,t 25 p""ple or 15 "",,,'ieeconn,,,,,"lIls. Of Ihe appro"""ately 151l,tnJ publIC w ale"uppl y 'y"enli ill ,,,n')fietectio,, Agency ill2fXl3. al"'....t93 !-",rc"llI "ere da ... ifled assmal (p'-l'ul.llion 301-3,300) or "'''y ,mall (p"pu!''''''''n \es:; lhan 5(X}) sy"e",_,_ These small wste,ns serw a rallge "I f.. dlill~, including _,mail munid""lilies, mobIle-home ped 10 lreat "'aler al a ""'....II<"alet.l ill nlYthern M in"e."Ia_ Water" puml"'d In,m Rait1" Lake and flc",. Ihrough """·,,,~It,..,atmentproce;sstep< before being _""nl inlothe di'tribtJltnn 'y,I""" Lake ",ater i, first chlorinatet.l ~lId then enters ~ ,"I of p,essu,e ","d fiiters th~t ren",,,, larger partld",. A 30 lun bag fiaer

_

prm iJ6 addit",nal pret,e.lhnell!. W."er tl",n flows th,"'ugh twn ultrafiltration membrane Ulllts operating in pa,.,nel, pro"lding more Ihall the req,",et.l 2-log rem""al of Crypl"'I"""I",,,, """ys,," Storage tilt1,,", provlde chlorine rontad tim" 1m inadi\'~lion of "iruses ~"d nther ""thogens and ~l", pro"ide disl"bution storage volume. Bec~u,e of the high org~nic rontent ill the ,,,,,rce water (Ill-12 mg/L TOC), high l""ei, of di,illla"linn b"-pmd"d' h.we formed ~tthLS poillt in Ihe pr~s. W.lte, theref"rt< flows Ihrough a CAe filter (not lOhm, n) 10 rem,we the dilOll,lecrio" bY-I""duds. lkea"",,, 'eguialio'L' ''''lui,e thai a di,infectanl re'iidual be maintait1ed at all point, of the di,tribution ,y,t"m, a flow-paced r"",hlnr",ati"n "ystem (nOl sl",,,,") pmdde; tl", fin.l1 step of tre~tmelll_ Some challenges lor this type 01 r, obtaining ",n·ice in a ,emole a,e~, and Ihe e"er-changing techn"logy market a",j cost cm~sideratiruL', Rgure I 8.25

Sm.Il_Sule W .10' Supply System Se,,·ing. Se.,o".l R..o,hnd R..... ",."t Ne., Voy.geu .. N.lion.1 P.,k L\li"n"","" "''''.ge "",,lOr usc fn, Ih.. ",slem i. apl"""m.lldl- .l,lJOO gp
8.1 I 4ds
Key Terms • granu1d. Mti •• t.Id c.uboo. IGACl • pn!<"ipllat",,,

• pnm...)' d,",,,fa'li""

• t",d.Wol!\hing • c.lrborwl'" hanl.• charg" """Irall,..."on

• Chick'~ lal>

• high.r~I" filtrall<>" • holl..... fibi'r;

• ,nJ"",1Or corg.on"'ms ~gu1dnl

•

• «>.
• mt
• rombi.ned du.....''''' • cntocal p.>rt~lmg , "l.>cily • Clappn...m

• d,..aete p.>l't>
d",nfect~n'"

• ..lo~,,,Ia:li, ..n • d".;;ol,,',J ""'&lnic "",Jb,...... flxel • d",.oho'd p.1rt,de. • ~ffa:l"" ~iz" ((:5 or If,,,l

• .",';0.1 ",i,i"8 • ,«!.I.,nwd ...1et' • referenc" 0.1....,

(RID)

• j.or usting • 1I...........,.,J• .".. ... >i_,ng P"~

.",,~

• rapid mlrat,,,,,

• m.l~,mun' oon",mh"''''I",,,1 gool (~1CLGl • ll'Iolumun' con",m"",nl le\ d

(MCU

• m"mbra"" procoe.-.._

· Re\~~ "urn"",, (Xrl

• root medn "l.... re (RM51 , ..lncily gr.,di""t • «
• -J,menlatJon

• slow s.>."d filt.at,on • SC......... I.l...

• m",roliltration (\IFl

• su"pendo'd snIiJ~

• """"fillralion ''\:Fl

• ,}n~'dl:nrgankch"nucal(soa

• "alnral org.anic mall"r ''\:0\1)

• t.l,I" "nJ roM

• nepI>e\oron>etfir turbld," unli (1'o.'Ul

• _'f""'.lure • loI~1 chlol'H'" re<;,du.1

• to\;I.l

ro1iforOl~

• tnl\olblwlhan
• Tn'" I, II... ,,0.1 III ""'\l,ng

• lurboJUy

• fil"" Nd I""'O"'ly

• wtrafihr.ilion (un

• fihralM>n

• u",M""'h ~lic;enl (UC)

• flllCCllldllOl'l

• f1u~

rdl'"

chapter/Eight Problems 8.1 n,~ EPA pr,wides r~ports (som~limes r~f~rred 10 as COl~,um~r col\fld~tlc~ r~ports) that ~xplain "h~re your dritlkjng "al~r comes fmm alld ",h~ther allY mnlan"nants are itl Ihe ",ater. Go 10 Ihis information .11 th~ "local Drinkmg Water Info""ali"n" fMg~ of EPA"s "eb ,ile, (hltp://"al~r'~fM.govl drink/1ocal/illdex.cfml. look up lhe ulility th.ll ,~r... es your un"'~",il} .!nd Ih~ largest city near your ho",~to"n. (a) W1MI is Ihe source 01 "aler! (b) Ar~ Ih~re any violali,,,,,? (e) if '0, ar~ Ih~y for physical. biological. or chemical conshlU~lIls? 8.2 i'\ ,Irale C,"lCenlr.ll;on, ~xceeding 10 mg NO, a, N /l are a ro,,,,,,n in drll,king ",al~r due 10 Ih~ ,nfa"t d i"",,,,,1.nOl'" as melh~moglob;n~rrOa, Nilral~ron(>'n Iratim" near lhr"" rural ",~ns ,,~r~ reportM as 3 mg NO, l.33mgi'\O,' ·l.and30mgNO,-/l.Doanyof Ihese "ells exceed Ihis 10 ppm regul.llory sland.trd? 8.3 Whal are Ihe major differences .",d similaril,es bell,-""n Ihe "',ller qualily ill a Iypical surlace ",aler and Iypical groundwaler source? 8.4 Jar leshng "."" per/onlla! u,ing alum,", a ra", drinking-" a1ersource Ihat ronlalnoo an inil ..llu rbi.Jily of 20 1'\1 U and an alkalillit} of 35 "'gil as CaCO" Theoptimunl c""f;u1ant dfl< HY' g.lU"", day ill ra" ",aler are 10 be lrealed, delermine Ihe amounl 01 alum r""lulred (kg/)earL 8.6 A ulility l,trylng tOMhieve25 percenl ral1<)"al 01 TOC and i, using jar lest to dete",,,,,e Ihe optimal coogula,,' d,,,,e, TI,e follo"'ing lable conta;,~, their jar I""t dala (dala Imm EPA 815-R-99--012, 1999L \\~lal i, Ihe opti,nal coa!,:ulant d,,,,,,, (ml!./Ll? setlled Wale<

TOCImg!ll

" '" " " '"- ,

H'; 5.301

5.'0' 5.1l1 4,7'11

"

"' .,'" "'Hl'

HoI ,U~

3.ll'

UH

m

Ferric ,ulfale is availabl~ as a ron"'''l'dal COdgul.",1 and i, popular at remm i,,/; 'urbid,'y and color, The chemical reaction lor ilS addition 10 waleI' i,

8.7

Fc.,ISO,h

3C.>IHCO,h

2FeiOl-lI~.

'CaSO, j-OCo,

Results of a jar lesl 10 determine the oplin",l coagu1.1'" dose are pro> Ide
I' I'" I"I I I';

~

1

ID 09

~ 2

~~~~~':\~ ,~e;~~;:,~ :~a;~o~:;rl~c,;~~~~I,,/~~. gallons/<.Lly to a turbid,ly below 1 i'\TU (a,sum" 100 pen:er~ purity of Ihe co.lgul",~). (h) Do you ha,e In add alkalin,tv 10 the sy,'e",? If so, ho" much (in roncentratlo" un;ls as mg CaCO,/Ll? A lll",h.. "ical rapid-mix lank is tn be designal to 50 III ' I day of water at a t e"'perature of 12 C U,ing tvpkal design \ alues in Ihe chaFCer, determine the (a I lank volume and (b) PO"'''' r<'quirement

8.8

If"'"

8,9 All in-line n,;",r i, lobe used f,w rapid m;>.lng. The pl.ll\t n"", lS 3,7M m"/ day, the" oller v,sc"""y is 0.001307 N-.;/",', a"d the RMS ,'elocil)' gr.ldiem is 10'/" CSllmate Ihe daily I",,,,er requiremenl for the ill-Ii,,,, mi.,er. 8.10 The cily of Melix'olme, £'lorida, has a ,urf,.,e waler trealmenl planl Ihal p"".iua's 20 !<.lGD of potable drinkmg ,,·ater. The water <...urce has hard""'" m".... ured as 9,1 mg/L as CaCO-~ and afler I,..,atmelll. Ihe hard"",,,s i, reduced 10 RS mg/l as c..cO,. (.11 Is Ihe treated water ""ft, ",,>wUlg analysi, oolained fn.,." a 50 mL sample 01 r.'" wa""', Ca'- tiOmgjl, 'Mg'- lOmg l, Fe'- 3mg,ll, 'Fe'--] 10 mg/l, 100al soh.:!, 2m mg..'l, "usperded >01;.:1, 1/il mglL, fixed "'''l-"nJed solids 40mg L.

and vola'ile "'-'-~I"",dN solid~ I:J) mglL. (a) Wh"t l' the hard"e., of 'hi' water ...mple in units of mg/l. a' ClCO,? (b) WI~I is th" cm",nlratinn nl t
8.12 A

~oun.:e

wa1l>r mineral a,...lvsis 51... "" 'he li in Ih,,· wa,er, Ca'~ 7Ilmg/L. Mg'~ 40mg L. ",1od HCO, 2~mgiL as CaCO,. o..t",mi".. th.. \\ ater'~ ca,b"''''I.. h"'dne.5, "nnca,borLlloo hardn..iS. a,>.:I totaIIL,rd,,,,,,,,.

8.13

(0) Calculal.. th" lim" J,f;ilge ""'IuireJ /0, ",-.!t-

..ning by ",Ieeti,.. calcium ,,,,,,,,ul fnr Ih" fnllnwlIIg ",,,,er am]"s;;. n", chemic"-] co<,stitu..,b in Ih" ",a,erMeCO, 17.limg L.Ca'~ !i3mglL.Mg'+ 15m& L.Na+ 20mg L AIk(HCO,-} 11f.hng/L as C-"CO,. SO " ~Omg L and cr' 10m&lL. What l' the fi"i"hoo-\\ .,t"r hardtt
8.14 A ml.Ltt;cipalily 'r..a" 15" H1' gall","~(day 01 gmUl,dwiller cmttinittg 11", f;fa a,h i,90perc.. Iumcarbon" '..... ,'d ,h..li m"i.<>Il3perc..nl "'eighl Can De"""i,'" th" and ,roa ,.;h d"""g... fnr precipi,atin" soft..ning (kg/day).

,,'>Od

"""""""ry

"h"

Ii"'"

8.15 Wat... co",a;,>; 7.0 ,ng/L nl ....Iuli.. '0" (F.. '+j tha, is ,n be o"idized by aeralion to a ennc..nlr.llio" 01 025 mglL n", pH 01,1", ",a,er i.li.O. a,>.:I,I", t"'''!-''''''lur.. i. 12 C. A",U/".. tl'" d"""ked orygen in tl'" w i' III equilib,ium ",Ih ,h.. ~urroullding at"""ph..r". laoor"t
a,,.,

r..,'-

8.16 Calculal" th.. s"ttl [lIg "e!"dty "f a p"rtid" with 100 I'm di"met.., a"d" ,pecific gra"I')' ,,12.-1 i" Ifl C water.

8.17 C.-lcul"~ th""",Uing , d,.,i", nl a particle "ith 10 I' md ia metera nd a'p..d fi cg'a", tyof1 .05;n I 5 C w" '..r. 8.18 A wa",r ,,,,,,,,,,,,,t pl""t proc"",e. 21,fl(X1 m' nl ",a",r p'" day. Assun'" ')P"" nl floccul"lfod part.,les a rectangular sedim.."tatinn bastn tha, ha~ dim",,,,;nn~ of d..p'h ,I m, wid'h lim, and I.. ngth 'Iflm. Th" first type nf partid" h"s" setlling velocity nl 0.3 nt/h "'td 'h" oth.... 'ype ha' a .""ttling ,,,lodty nl 1.~ m/h. What per",,"t nf particles ar.. r"",m-ed lor "ach nf ,h.. ,wo 'y!"" of particles~

e"''''

,,\'!,

. , Chapler8 WaterTrMtmelII

8.19 Wl",t I"'r"tflt nf particles w"h diam"'''r nt 100 I'nt a,>.:I a particl .. d""si,) of 2,ti30 kg/nt' a", r"mn""d in a 1,500 nt' rectangular "-'Lin"""t",;,,n bil~", "f 'hat contains wat"r a, 10 C? As,um.. the pl.",t flow rat.. is 1.2li w 10· Ill'/ d"y.

8.20 A ,,,,,,,n,,,," pia," h'" a hori>''''''''l fI"", sedim"n,atin" basin" nh a d ..pth of r of 0.0029 cm attd " particl.. d ..nsi'y nl 2.1>.';0 kg/m', attd th~y are in "a,,,r "t a I"mpera,u", nf 10 C1

8.21

Re5ffirch th" use of ., filtr"ti"" m"U,,-..:I th.u pm"ide, h",...el..,ld (pO"tl-O~u",) Irea,n",n, in the d",·..]nplng "orld. Wri'" a n"e-p.'ge "'port ,I"'t is cI"arly r"I""'nced. In ynur report, d".;c,ibe th.. teellltolog.v anJ "dd~ th..,;., l..~u"", Is lhe 'eehllnltogy afford"ble tn the klCal population? Does it u"" 100:,,1 ma,,,rial~ and loo:all"oor lor il' constructinll! Wh"t are th .. observed health i"'prm·"m.. aft"r imp]..m""'atio" ,'f Ih.. tr..atn,e'" system? Wha, specific tr"illl1tg do ynu belt.., .. i, requir..d Ii' ""sure proper operatinn nf 'h" tffhnnlngy 1

"L'

8.22

R""",rrn th.. global arsenic pr,iJl,,'" in th.. U n~ed S'atesand I1t Bangladesh. In a t\\'n-pag.. "",,,y, id ..,tily, cm"p"r.., "nd cmuas"heexl"'" of Ih.. pr,--bl..m (,patially and in t..nns of population "fleeted). Wl~,t are the currell' methnds nt trea,,,,,,,,, .."'pl"yed to ",mn".. the ",..;e"ic in both enu"tri",,! \V1~t is 'he CUlT..," r"gulalory ,'''''dMd ior ar""tic set by ,h.. EPA a"d the gUldelin.. 5ugg""ted by th" WHO?

IL23 A 1,1XXl g 5iImple of ""lUrally (lCcurring ... ttd was sifted 'hmugh a s,ack of " ..",," ""d the weigh' "'tained n" ..ach si ..ve is reenrded as g,,·..n in the table below. Del..rmi".. 'he ..lleeli,e slz" and uttiforn",y c""ffici..n' for 'h" ",e...J,,,. &-

~

W"'..... ,of

--,~

Opening,mm

R"tatne
'" " '" "

2,OOn

l..am

,.,

1_','ll1

'"' ,m

tI.1I5l1

ltll

~

tI.71t1

" .,"

tlblll

~

~,

~

"'

-

1-"'

8.24

\'~1eI1

0,

ga~

i, added 10 ,,-ale. during Ihe di,infuclion of drink"'g "aler, il hydrolyzes wilh Ihe "ater lO lorm Hoo (Equalion 8.13). A"~un,,, Ihal ll'" d1,inle.i,,,, (Hoo _ 00-) exi,l, in the add form at pH Ii? (b) Al pH 7?

8.25 Gi,en Ihe follo""'g d .•ta, graph the dala for Ih~ Poli.''''!I''lilJ> ' U"lJS, u,ing hypobro",it.. a, a db1nfecunt. Determine Ihe Chick's law rale COl.,t."'1 and Ihe lime required for 99.99 percenl (4-log remm'al,) in.Kti".,lion of Ihl~ I-ir", N 11'lJITI00r 01

Tine(sl

"." '" '" '" '"10_1l ,

""""""""" '1m

~ ~

ID

, ,

8.26 Gr•• ph the lollowlngdata for lhe inaclivalion 01 a "iru, u,ing hvpochlorous add (HOC!). Delermi".. Ihe mefficienl of specific lethalit) and II", lime requ ..ed 10 obt"". '19.99 percenl i"a."1"-alio,, uSIng 1.0 mgll 01 HOCI Tine(m"l

'" '" '" '"

'"

logjN/N.,j

"~ "~

,~ ,~

,,

8.27 (a) Define Ihe meaning of CI product. (b) In addilio" 10 C alld I, what facio", i"fluence Ihe rateof chemiCdI d"inl"'"1ion? (c) WhJI kind of mi.TOorgani,,,, i, ",osl reJdlly inacli, al.,.;! by free chl".il"'? (d) Whal kInd i, mosl dlfficuh 10 inacti"ate? 8.28 During drinkn.g-,,-ater trealment. 17 Ib of chloril'" are added daily 10 di'inf"'-"1 3 mill;"n gallon, 0/ " ..t.... (a) WI",Ii, !l'" aqueou, em.",nlralion of chlonne in mgl l? (h) n ... chlori'''' dem.",d i.~ theco'"-~ll"Hio,, of chlori'''' u>ril during di~lI,fection. TI.e chlori"e r..,idual i, II", cOllCenlralion 01 chl,.. ine thai remai"" after trealment so Ihe "Jter maintall'-~ lIS di,infucl"'g

po",er in tl'" di'lril"llio" ~y'lem. If the chl"',ne "",idual i,02\l mg/l,,, l",t i, II"'chlorined..mand In "'gil?

8.29 Vi,it II", web sile for th.. World Heallh o.gal"zalion ("WI" .",I~),o.g). Wrlle a relerenalU through mnlami,,-,ted w.• t..r. WhJt" tl... global e'lent of the public !leahh cri~l~ in ternb of "1"'1",1 .md populuion effeet,;? Does Ihe d""a"" aflect \\'eallhy or poor ron"nu"iti",,? IVI,-,t are the social and engi,.....red ba rne", 11'-'1 can be u,;ed 10 ...",juce human exF""'" '" 10 II", specific p.uhogen' 8.30 R"""""'h Ihe prof"""iol'-'I "'.gine....i"g society Wal..r for Pe"pl"lhal "'ork'" on "ater ,upply in II", develop"'g "'orld. Determi'''' how you muld em,lribUle losuch a prnfes.~iOl",1 society a. a .tudenl and after gradu.,tion. Pm,-ide ,peciflc de!.>il aboul nlembel'ilup r"'lulrenlt'l'IS, """l~, and I~)w you mighl be "'W>!\'ed. 8.31 (a) U"" the Jnt..rnet 10 ,..",.,arch the ",umber of peopl.. in Ihe world who do n,,1 hal e ace.." 10 an imprmeJ \\,aler ,uppl). Th..n look up Ih.. Millen"iilln De\el<>pmenl Goal, (M[X;,;l al Ihe UnileJ N."ion.~ "eb "ile, w\\''''.un.0'8. MIX; 7 ~Iales Ihal by 2lJ15 Ihe ,,-orld will deerea"" by half the number 01 people without ace""" 10 an improved ,,- ater supply. Selecl a COUI~ ry in Africa a Ad anolher cronl!)' in A<;ia or Utili America. Comp.>re Ihe progr,.;, of these Iwo oountri", in meeting goal 7 i" lenn, of the number of people ~Iill ,,01 6 u"."j 10 treal thi, "at.. r in ord..r of ",-",urrence a" currenlly praclic.,.;!. Whal ".ller m,\Slilu..nl h} d"'" each ullil proc",,-~ ,..,move1 8.33 Idellti/y Ihr.... ,ignificanl "aler u""'" in your lo",n nr city that could b~ne/il Irom Ihe u~e of 'eclai"'ed waler. Whal economic, ,,-,dal, and em-i,,,,,,nenlal challenges do you """Ihal mlghl need In be ",'ercome before you c-a" implemenl vour plan lor these u~ers 10 u"" reclaimed" al.. r? WI"'I would you do a, .. ngineer 10 m-erc-ome these barri...... ?

8.34 A city is un;radlllg it,; ""Ier ,upply capaci!)' h) 8C37fl m' /day, u.~ing ",icro/iltral;"n, TI,., '''''' planl membrane ~v,lem "ill ml\.'i" of 23 array" with 90

",odulesperarray.Them,>, and (c) Ihe h'llal number "I' melllbranefibe",r"'luirediortheplanialldeachmodul...

,

8.35 A ",uII,d,>,lI,'\' . u""'; d ",icrmlt ••tti,,", "',,"'bMIl" sy,tem Mlredt 33,lnl m Ida)'. 11,e membra'le 'y,tem con,i,t> of nin" array' Wilh &l modules per array. n,e modules are 119 mill in in"ide diameter and 1,1\11 "'''' ;"Iength, and hal'e an available filtration surface area of 27 ",'. Determine the (a) lotal -,urface area a,-ailabl" filtralion, and (b) mem-

•,m

• brane nu~ rale in LIm -h, and gpm/W.

8.36 Alra;>Jne and trichkm-.ethylene can be """""00 from water bv ad ....rption to Mli,'ated carbon. n,e rreundlich paraJ~ for ..1,.• 7.11,., a", K 1fl2 "'g- g (L/mg)' ,. "tkl lfll O.IR. n.., pM"me,,,,,, for lrdlll'>roelhvleneare K 5~m&ig(l/mg)'I" and il" 0.48. What ls the ad",rbed concentration of bolh contaminant, (unit, of mg chemical p"r gram of "e!i,'atN carbon) If you" ant the "qu""", pl,-,-"" corlCelllralJO" at "'lui lib, i UIII t "be10 '" gIL?(lh i~prohl~m ""'yreq ui", you "', ie", II,fnrm..tioll pre.eItIOO in Ch..pter 3).

8.37 A "'~Ihyll~rt bUlyl ether (MTBE) ad.......ption I'nlhe,m " ..., pe,formoo oll .. n ..cti, .. led carbon .'II 13 C u,ing 0250 L .. mber botlle, with .. n i,uti ..1MlllE cOllcenlrati"n, C," of ISO mg.! L Tl", i<;o>1"w. C.. lcu;',1e Ihe ad",rbed-p1""e roncent,..tion, q•• for each i<;
MTBE EquilibriumUquiCent,atlOO. C•• mglL

O.H';

7'1.7h

0.339

~~

0.o;g9

2Ull

0.956

12.9ll

1.71

.m

'"

•.i>l

LO

,

ro

-"

00

,00

,,-

I.

•• "

00

0

Flg~rI/8.26

00

R~.ult.

fmm Jo, T..t lnn.tigoling PO"'dN~d Aclinl~d Corbon U... g~ 010 \Vole, T",olmentPbnl.

8.39 Ret erse ""m",i51, u"."j 10 1",..1br..ckish grotJl Idw.. Ie, waler and requires I kWh of energy I""" 1 '" '01 t"",ted "'.. t...... In romp.>ri'i(lII, "', er-.e ""n"lSLs of se..w.. I~' '~q u I,e54 k\ Vhofen", g vper lon' "fI ,e.l ted wa I~' (lhis d lfl><",nc~ i, ""'au,",ol U", hog1"" Tl:li c""""'t1rdtro" 01 ",a",ate,). Accmd,ng 10 eGRID, Ihe caroo" dioxid~ equi"..I""t emission ,at~ i, l,32V'9 Ib CO",,; MIVhinnorld .... nd727.26IbCO"";MIVhinCalllm"ia. Est,mate Ihe ca,bon lnotptlm of usittg rev""", osmn,is to d"""I"'''I~ 1m' b,..ddsh grou"d"'olIer dnd 1 Ill' ""awaler in Rorida dnd Caillon"... IgtlOre lI"e 1,,,,-_ In,! 00 , £!"t i",al~ (you m ay h ..""10 go bdCk I0 C I" pier 2 to ",,-iew carlx", IOOlpn'll' alld .,GRID). II.4a Fill In Ihe rest of Ihls uble, pn"ldiltg lhe ~I",, t'idl)-' requirem.. us 10 Ir",t I MOC",fl,eal
349

,~ ,~

"

8.38 PAC L~ to 1>0> added 10 a wal~r 1'&llment pI.. nl to remove 10 nglL of llIe1hyli<;ooon"",1 (MlB) which Is cau,ing rxior problems in Ihe flni,hed \\ .. I~'. A 'ta"dard jar t""l L~ pe,lormed 10 ~,· .•lu.. t~ Ih~ Imp"cl of PAC d f>iage 0" the ren,,,,' olI of M m. n", r""ullS" '" ,ho\\ n in F1gu", ll.2h. If 60 percenl MlB 11, required, det~,,,,i,,e Ih~ d''''''g~ of PAC requi,"'" .. nd quattl,ly of PAC needed for 3 ",onlh, (00 dar) of tre..t",enl if the pl.u,1 flo", r at~ lor i, ·IO,lXXl m I d ..y.

"''''0\·..

Chapler8 WalerTrl!almelll

U""f'n>ce.s

ReQutrltdlO T,eat1 rn'

Requiredlo 1_,1

MOO

O"'gul.l'..... i H,..... ul.l''''"

Ui.,i"',,,~,,,,,

"ith Chlllri"" I\J_p'''''' ,,·ithCI\C

-

-

References M,n,~,

T_I- 1:,...... 2flll. Wh.I .~~ry

"I~""'.

""'''', T., [ L 11m""', II. L u,·.-n."". R. T""h,lw..tu • ..J G. T'b.",",,,,.,;~ "'" NO>. \\.,,, '"'"'" 'J",,,,,, T" I".~"X'<>.. "J Aj~"ouI''''' 1\'.Io..f,,;J. \1c UonJ [JJy

,h<>u1J I.,"",. ,1>.., ,.,,, • .J''Y,L,,,fi<.n,>n. """ [J"·'n.,.....' • ..JT"I....."'" !51

""~....

D. \\'.. ::GU. Opl,m '"'" ,~,n Ad, ""uJ I\'",~ T",,"","" Pl"nC 1I"""",,'C.,,,t.. ~ •..J 11."'1"...., Iml"''''''''''''',- MS Tho.~". Cml", r,m ,m",....... tal [nw..,-~m!\- UN"''''''''' ,>I",,,,'h Il.,-,.l,

M". 1'1.. Q 7Jwng.J.R. M,.dn<:•• ..J D. IH.",,,",. ;>1)11. [mI>o1~''Y''"''f''''''"''~ ,,,,I,,,,,, "'d"~ .t>J S~..nJM ,te. '.FV1~ "pt."". I 'n R.-><... "- ~.,"17k "77_~""".

,m~

\1.",.,.1.. \101.0·1 ". L, r~.",;'.J~N\llio.• "d'\' R. 2010. bl. C yd.,"..., ." .......", .'-11'. ~~ Surl'ly Pl"n. m \1.'<1 " .....d'."'"""""TI", I:h.-" 11.".•" T "'0,1"" .~'u, 'b" "GU,\ I'~,,:r.mn,,-,. j.1"J••,

Bu",... r. L. 1"""- W.."-,, ""J \\,,,,,-.., ".~ l..Ju,'''''-~

'I'

CIw, .m"; ,,;c., • ..J r "'-~f,'Y M, ....1<""""'1 Oi'!" "'un ,",--~. R.l" I"''P'''-.I "~ [ .., ...... r,,,,·C', R..-""·,,ch I"",,,,," IEI'RIlCR_I!lIi'l-I'

,,,,,.mln,,,,<", W..I.

",d'."", III.c....,...·h C, .. ",-il (:-;11.0 .1012 .• 1'1.. k~ R........- I\"',nt",1 h" r"'p.md "'~ ,f>., ",d"''-' 1'1 dM Sul'1'1 v 'h ""'f,'" 11"..,., ,.-

,1.>,.,,",,"""'.= -[",');,

IU....",., drt Af'l"" ....-h to' M"",,,~ r.. lu... W.", Sup!,lv '<1"..1". I\',,-,hi%~, ... D.C 1,"'"",,my'ofS. i..",,,_,

Cnt"-".].",.! C. R. R. T "",<11. D. \\'. 11.ot>J, G. ..nJ ... II""", .'ll1:!. I\'J",T"",,,,,,",P,,,,, ",,,,·l,~" J,oIm

Wi"-')''' s.""

Td."",,,,'l>~_

Ell" •. T.. B. 7--".~, I. ""!I'''d,.~, .• "J C. L·",., W,...,,,,...n', Dnnluns W."', r....'I'hL'.' [CW R.l"~' ".mb.~ ill_I W,.....,,," r, ..__..",," E",-~sr'" E",-"'R' C.'nl,T'~ W"''''''' \l..J,... ,"(July~. 11,,, M in n.

t>J D.

r. I.."".~,

1.>,.... ,...

I'l'll. Th, (,d.t",,1 i"-"h"";"--""''''~C ,,,,,1'1..1 ,",'",On W.,,,, 11'",1..> A.......,,,,", ~ 101

~,

II ...",,~,", 1.. \I. D. B'" k.• nJ T.' Coil.. 2012. A ""ml'''''h'''' .,~ h ;·1....1 J,lu'... d .....1",..,;.", ."d ,,,,..hl,"',-.I ...~ '" ... ~ J "".1""".", .. ..J '".",,""•• ~ .. ~I.o "'" t.", I'"~'-''''''''' W",,,, R.,...~h, -I6I~l. 11~'-ll'i-l lil~

"".'1<

""""-",, ,.-

[~UI .'lllOUlbl.
''''n<.''

Mu";"!,,,1 W..,,,-,,,,·.,,,,c.,,,,m,'''-,,,., tb< A"~~,,,,,,,,' ,.- \I'.t.~

r..;,'....

r,"ru,,~'.k,- B..

S. Shd,m.o, j. C S,.-hipl"'''' ,..J K. Sh<~d'.:1007 ""'-'nK i" Dm"l"'g I\~",~. Tho....... bro'''"'·;.,''' pdl"-~ 17. o.lfl, n.., ",.ih"l.>nJ, IRC 1"""""''''"",1 W''''d..J 5"""" •., c.",t.., rR.' c.",,,, l..n'" .n>-I, Si... P", Do' ,loo>,.' M, ,,",Ie Tht BU I' '..11. ,>0 l.iJ."'ru. Tho, ~dh.~"nJ" IWI.. v, R. C•. L s.~,•.• ..J j. lkb<. 2005... bf".·y<~, "'dh" 1",01"" ... L"hn"I.'S;,~ 1"''' 1 LOI.' d,rr.~ , """"",..,,1 t."h.. ",'lI"~ (\1S[, Mm. RO) 1~ .. """,~ lif---J'i-l

,,,,,....,,,,,-nJ ,.

1,,"""'

uChc""UH~,

\1. \\" ,nJ W. D.,",..',,,, 19'>". G'",I... nJ C'YP'''''1''''01,"''' i" 'd"'- ."d fi"'....od ""."-~. AW\\'''S:(QI, \+-M.

IWtu), R. Co.. L s. ..J I- lJ..h.... K'(l';!>. uf<" 'yrl< ..""- ,...." "f d......h"" ,.'" ',,,h..,,, 'H"-..... i" t, 1;" ,,'
I.)""", L. r Zlwng. T Il.-nn, [Slwnl ... 1." I- Cn""nJ."" M. e. ..una, d oJ Y. S. Chc"" 2fffl. l.if" ry_~' ..,.","",n' •~ ",t,~ ,uFV" 'y,••-m., ,m!,""'''"", n."I.on..... 'n ""d d....,1i""'..... \\",,, S. """d;' T"l.noI",~. '>(~), U'_-4
v.,.,I,,,,,';"",

,h".,

M>l-.•-k.-. J. K. L .\. Mln>, L. \1. r'Y, L D.I'b,U,I'" 'nd B. D B."kin",__ [">" ..,,,,'"X \>01Ht'¥'l.~,

1\'.""""

.,.1

I~"',,,,

5o.i',,'."', 1.-.1.." A" RL",,",·

""M"""n ",n1y,~c;"il [n~,,,,-.-,., rn~,

J~ 1_-'~ ~l-"J

S."....~,! "..J A. 11.>.-,..lI•. :n>I. ["'"I\Y • ..J.u ,..." .....""d''-'', ,of "'d"-~ ,upply [",;~",,,,,,,"'IS. ..... ,'f.-Tnh... ,lo3'. ~.ll~~ 2f1O--2M7

\' ,..'C, r L "'''''''". I' lin',"'.''''' r \w,,-,h.ol 2OOI'l.. l.cA I,.~ h" u...,.",·",,,,",.,-,n"'l ",·.1 .... "'., ''-1''... 1>1< ,,-,te. f""'<1"''''", [ba I".. 'O>n, 1!l1( \ _)J__ )7_"".

chapter/Nine Wastewater and Stormwater: Collection, Treatment, Resource Recovery James R. Mihelcic:.:, J...Iie 8eItl Zimmerman, David W Hond. ariQnE. Whilmon. ond Marlin T Al,ItIf

9.1 Inttodt.c:lIOn 9.2 CharacterstlCS 01 Domestic Wasle....alllr

In /hach..,,,,,, rttahln wi' ~ ob:w, rh.c~",;"n o!wo"-o.rond,h" unit proc""'u t1mpbyed '" ptOIKl humon 1teaJm, ,mptoY/l WO/otr quaMy, aoo,~ rewvn::n Mas. b%na. and bicch.lmo:ol Lnehc, Of. employed fo develop -...preUlOflJ 10

"",iou,

9,3 Ovefview 01 Trentmanl Processes 9.4 Prehrril111ry Treatment

9.5 Primary Treatment 9.6 SecoodaryTrealmenl

--

9.7 Mod,fcallOl'lSlolheActivaled-

"zlfOreoc.bnlsed~~

col0X}9end.no.d 1•• medIo,uld ond pn:lCeUti well as Fr. ....rom Wft~ /qJoo>., Md JIJF'fc /DnL; ..... ~ 1M &01<1,,_ and ''''''''''''Y 01 IlIIt'llgM ond p/tospJtaus ........ cMc.vWMi.

rtOIufDI.""......

"'fIIlfilhfns

con>fHtJmoI

t--a

9,8 A1taehlld-GrowthReacIOf$ 9.9 Removaland Reea.ery of NutrierllS:

Nlbog." and Phosphorus 9.10 Dtsonltct»nandAfrat»n

sa.

9.11 End oIl.1le dge Mu1agemen1 and Enetgy Aecc OW)'

oppooches as wt!I OS $N0Ieg1ti /Q .«.bom the.. nllfn,"",1s For~ opp4ca,;ms. 1tIduct"'9 ~,orocessmg

9.12 Natural Tntalmenl Sysll'l'TlS

"a!

9.14 Wastewatltf Reclamation ~ Reuse

o(Wdgltond'f!lrolt!J,n_'ll'Y~

Reod.. WI'

leo-II oboo, "nergy"'''';'''''''''/I.II (ondenl'9Y lOIN' ellSl in NIfm, of wa,""""'1er Ireolmenl lIICilrteIogiM and how operOlion 01 " piau 'nlire,.,.....n...gy"Kge. S,mikr 10 _ _I

0/",

~

m,.,. _ _JIof

R ._l.~ plants. ""~_Iel ...... js i. alto ~ed as " _nJ 10 MOra

. . ... , ,. . i

,,bIe woMr

'''>()lIIl:. manage-

..- f,,.,iy. rn.,,,/a'"CI,,J,,pol_

ooldwoa ] 10 ....,.... >d how.". v O!l .,' 01

, •• Itd

_

ski'''.....

~

9'* '"9'.... '1

~

J'~ .b-...,a;t

i .'-'

_

cN.... '!jIIIS

d.o.t"",..

9.13

Energy Usage during Wastewater Trealment

9.15 Wei Weather Flow Implications 10Wastewaler 9.16 Managi'lg Wet-Weather Rows 9.17 Green Slorrnwalll" Mana~menl

Learring Objectives 1. IJ",OU/\

1 h.... "",->giQl. Ef'v-.r.:.al ........1 ....... : ··th.""",Lc,uplllumnfWI"'-__ list

hi "l·" . . "" ", .....~C.-hlueftl!l,o&n..I... ~ ~~"""""..nN th",~.-.

..

z. " , . . . . Ityt

oJr

I¥

h I ....it rrC";;',..~ >f..:h ~'

3. Apply Ola.,,; baLI"""" and Nher de>ign relato"bhip" 10 design a grit chamber, 110w "'I.ualizali"n basin. acth .'t&l--.Iudge b,ological treatment system, .,nd ,,'asle ,tdbili7-'1lion pond ~.

llllegrale ma<-" balatl""" "ilh biological gmwth "inetics 10 Je"emp acti, aled-sludge J""ign equaliOlls and ,..,Iale ",liJs retenlion tnne. lood-If.-m;"roorgani"n ratio,
5. o"n"",

roverage

and ,,, ,..,1."ion
""tling char.Klerislics "f sludg". 9. Relate Ihe rollfiguration and "perali"" of a wa,t"" aler

1!"&Ilmenl and resource ree",'e') plant 10 the re",,,,,al and ,ee""ery of ''''rogen and p~pho,,", l"ia biochemical and chemical processes, 10. o.",crH,., ,pecif", ,..,moval proces...,.; thaI ocmr in different

lrealm"nl 7-""es in facult..tlve lagoon, .,nd lree sunace wetlands. 11. Apply theoretical oxygen b.,lance and s,'e--.pecific ""Iar

,nsolation dala to d""ign a waSle" ,lIer 1..gnon. 12. Idenhf" Ih" magnitude cI energ\' usage du,mg w",te" ater

lrealmenl and tho; greenh"",., ga..,.; em,lIed from differenl u''', proces_. 13. Ident,fy sources of nutrient< alld

energ~

Ihal can be recovered from ",a,te" aler I,..,atmenl .,nd reco, ery pl.,nl ... ",ell a, oppmtunilies for '" .•ter """lama lion and appmpriale reu"".

I~.

Discuss ""-"'I\(·,,,ic, social. and e""""nm".ttal benefit'i 01 waler reu","

15. Den",n"lra", underslandn'g of hnw d""ign of unit proc,.;se, fnr

,,'alo;r reu"" mllSl be integraled w"h inlended applicalion('i). 16. Calculale ",el-",eall",r fir"" ba'ied on inflow and infillralion

17. o.",cribe besl ma,wgemenl pradi<""S (B;,,!!',) for cOl,'n)n"'g

urban ,tor", ,,'ater Ihal are referred 10 a, low-impact del'elop",e,", ,uch '" rain garde,v"perm"able pa, eme,,", gr""n roof" and b,o"", a16. IS. Differentiate bet",een Ihe oonlf'<",enl' of a green roof and calculal" Ihe "oIume of ",ater .'I gr""n mof can Slore. 19. Design a bi",elenl;on cell for g,,'en precipitalion a"d design

scenar,,,,,. Wastewaler andSloonwaler. C
9.1

Introduction

1\.1 unkipal wast.....'ale' heatmenl plants, ,,1,;0 ,..,ferrl'd I,) as publ idy 0 .... ned l'ealment wo,ksIPOTWs), ,,,,,,,i, e inputs fmm many oome'ihc ""d i"dusl,;,,1 ,nu,c,,", "s "ell as from cnmbinl'd
""'''Y

Flgure9,l

\\'a."e".a1or Inl...,irudu", Managem""l The' «hom"nc ,hn"." the I""",ible h\·d,n~>gk.,1 "nd chemlC"l "nd b,oIoglc-1I poIlu,",," m",ribu~"" 10 munic,!",1 "·"""".al<....

Chapter9 Waslew.tlr ..... Slormwatl!f". CoIectm, Trealmenl,

_ct!

Recovery

~

Imrxoverl Sagj!ahoQ Tecboglpgics

Table 9.1 f"'" ides the glob.l1 definili'''' for i"'I"""YI and """"pro,~>J ",,,iLuian 'ffhoologies. Currently. 2.5 bilhon p""l'le in the world.,.., wilhout Me"", tn improved "'''il.'ll;otllffhnology (including \ billion "ho h.we no fadhlles at all), and lad. of .lllltalion ,'arns "gtllficanlly from culture to cultu",. IIII pm"'''''leIll'i in hea1lh a '" not II", ",~y rea....." tl~ll rommullil,es ~ >.,nllaliOl, pr.-;OC1S. Aco...-ding to a "'-"',ey of rural h'lU....ehold~ in II", Phihpp;noes. the rel'iOll~ "hy people "'''''' sa ti...fied WIth Iheir ""wly llI.llll Ialrllles indt>ded L>ck of ,"leil and flie'i, deane,. surmul"'ill&-', pn.-a.cy, I""" embatta........ ""\1 whell friel"', .-i.... ,!, a,'" fewer incidences of gaslrointe.linal &
",,,-~ '101 a

pnn",ry """tadeat a global scale. Howe, er, ",ater a"ailablhty ",a, fou,'" to be an important barrier In as many a'i ·If> million people, depending "" th.e ",nilJ.lIOn techllology selected.

Imp....ved and Uni"",.aved Sanilalian Technalagieo: Global Definirions

Connecti"" to .. public "'W~'T

Co"""<"6nn to a "'!*'r <)"tern

SL..... Xe Of bueket 1.lm""" le,en.'!.:> afC fCm(""~,,j man""IM

Public l.'lrinL"<

Po",-{lu'" la ""~~ \'enhlaled impm\''''' 1'''

"m_

Cornp""b n~ 1.1 trin""

Simple pill."'i",,.

Do"bl.,. V~"ll CompflOl L.',in~ Being Con'nne IS used lOT up to 12 mon,h•. whIle the olher side IS mmp""hng_ 0.-....00.:00'. 'uch as wrod ash and "''''du'' aTe .>ddL-d to ",:Iuce 00"" .1M kill p-lthog"'''. The prj'-"'>" shelter LS bemg cnrL'!ructe
r-~, d ~
1""""'/. &uIt d ~"'11_'.,.><",_",od Or 0.. loon.

C""'''''"I

JointMonitoring Programmetor WaterSupply and Sanitation

1-_, p-J I""""

W<><> rlo.arg/

9.1 Inlrll
CleanWalerAct ~~'VJ/"""", -"l'" """,!l.>~""",-'

"""" _1-.", I

Two pu'l_~ <>f lllunkip.•1 "as!ew.,ter Ire~l",ent are!o pmlec! humdn he~lth ~nd pr"""nl p<>llution of a receiving surfaoe ",at"r or gmund",ater. ha"'pl,"" <>f p<>llutan!.< a"""ial&! with unt,..,al&! w~q""al"r indude d",<>h'N-OXyg"" d"pl"li"" (m"a,ur&! a, binohemkal o'ygen d"n... nd (BOD) and ohemiodl oxygen denldnd (COD)), ul"ightly a"d o,yg"n-d"plehng "'lids (!01~1 ,u,pendoo "'lids, 1'55), "u trlent~ !h~1 cause eu tmphicalion (/\ and ['). chemical, thai ewrt lo,i£ily (NH,. metal>, organic,l, "merging chemkdls of conc""" d"d pathogens (b~ct""a and v",u,es). Aeslh"lic problem, includ~ ,i'Udl p<>llution and odor. I" terms of palhog"''', hun\an~ p"xl uce on .'\er~ge 1fl1l_1O" colif"rm bacleria per day. \\Tl"le t,..,at",enl pm'"'''''''' are --ery effid"m al ,enw"ing palhog",,, .,nd nth'" ponul~nls, i" Ih" n"ar fUlu re, !,..,a!",,,m plan!' ,,-ill n""d to be roncerued wIth re",odng OIher chemical, now fou "d In our w a,le"'~ler_ Th""" indude fragra"c,"". 'u r/aeldlll~ found i" "'" P' and d"le'g"'lls, pharnlde"ulkdl eh"micals, "ndoerine--d i.. upting ohen"eals, and other "m"rging chemio~l, of roncem. Through the F&!"r al Waler Pollution Control Ac! of 1972 nly kn"','", d' Il'" Cle~n Water Allutanl' into Us. waler,; (zem d l'>Chargel. n'L~ i' acallnpl"hed Ihrough Ihe NMional Poll utanl Discharge Elimi ""lion Sy'lem CNI'DES), "hich i"ue- P"'"mit~ defining Ih~ Iypes and amount, of polluhng suo"tallc,"" that md) be di,eh...ged. n,e "rOES perminmg 'y,I"", i~ admin"I""&! and enloreed allhe ,Idle level. Vio!aholl of the technology-ba"""1Ii,",, (fi"e,;) aod crimin.•1 penalli5 (,mpri",-",meml.

«om"....

Class DiswssiDn How-.. ,llr.1oora"~ <>l.~c """""cold """""" ~"""""'3~bn ,n~L"n" ~c"

on",""""riI de,.. ~ l.ic ..._ .......3t<:'3'.d mtllm".......,,' n..nal'i' ~~~ ',hm ~o lot<:, " t.I1" 0031"'" t
tn:3"'
",,,,,,,reo<>- ..".1 ~t.om""'3t<:r

",... ,~o",ont-.

9.2

Characteristics of Domestic Wastewater

Rail' (th"t i" untreal&!) wa~te",ater L~ considered highly p<>llut&!, yet lhe amou,H of ron!am",ant~il conlau... may "",m r "-eigl,, approxinMI"ly I million g, )el il may comain only 5(X) g pollul,.n!,;. Thl, 'mall f,al'llon of poll ulion can IM,'e .,.".iou, ecological and he,'ltl' impact,. hO\"e,-er, if di""h"rg&! U!lt,eat&!. It al"" ron!a"", ,'aluable Illal energ}' and nulrient~ can be ,ecmere:! from Do"'''''lie ",a,t"",ate, ~ppe.H' gra) and lurbid a"d ha' a lo>mP"'"a!u,e of JO.-W C. T~ble 9.2 pr,~,-ide,; Ih" cmnpositlo" of an a"eragestrenglh municip~1 ",aste", aler al>J ,hows II", "'''''I com",o" municipal ",~ste""~ter con,tituents. We ",-ill ,....1 go illlo g,eat dl>l~U about each rol"hlu"lll ~t thb tim~ bec~u."" their m"",uremenl al\d im!X'rlance wer" d"""'ibed in p",,,iou, """pie"" a, "OI&! in Table 9.2. As '" e di",u,.,; Ihe ,-arioU< ulul pmce-,..:,s for I",almenl, you m~y wan! 10 Mer bad to Ihls tabl", because 'J"'Ciflc proc""".." ,emO\'" dlqinct ,,-asle--

'""''''''c'"''

Cruiseship Discharges nt'VJ I..~t<:,,Op~,¥",1""""",.UN""" OnJI""_"" f'"_lndoKOfm

""~!,,r co"~tilu"nt(s).

Chapler9 W""tewall...... Stonnwat'" CoIIoct..., T,ealml!!ll, FIesoorce Flecovery

Concentration of Mojor Conni""'nls found in Average-Strength. Wostewoter

Conslotoont

_lOooslo/ U.

~-

'-

BIOCh"miGlI,,,vgen de"",oo (1100)

Chap''''' 2 '00 5

200 mg/L

O""lle"-dem,,,dml\ m"te,io!.c.>n doplctc Ih" '''yg'''' mnlL"Ilt of IL"""'ms w.""",.

S""pendod ""lid,

Chap!"" 2 and8

210 mllIL (lot.:ll ",lid.' "'p>calJy 800 mglLl

Cau"" ,,"a'e, ~,be turbtd; may ""n!.lln org.,m,- motler and IhlL' corltribute~,BOD; mov eo,,"';n nth"" I"~lu"'nl.< OT path,'8"'''_ Organ", 'Ml1jdx mn bc ,n.>c'fnblcallv dil\"'tcd topmduce",,"'l:\V

P,thosen,

eh.'pt" ... ~

3 mlliion roitf",m., P'" 100 mL

Dt"",;e--<.dU", nl\ fec.>.1 moltc,.

.~;

Conoontration

m,cn~"san IX",< """,,11,' a
,,,th

Nulric"Ill' ,uoh a< nlITog"".md phosphnru.

Chapl",,2, 'I,.,nd <;

Total nit"'l\L"Il 3'imgN/L I"or&-,ni< nltrosen; 15mSN/L T01.>.1 phtl
c., n occele,ate SrcM'lh of ""I""t", pl.J.nt•. corl tribute tu

To,ic <""m'Gle_

C,,",p"''''3. 5.6,.'008

Va""bl<

Hca"" me~,l< "Kh a. me",ury. e.ddm;um, and eh rom ium, 0,,\;" nIC ehenu('.d\< '"lie h ax I""ticid L", ""Iv"nt., Iud p,,>duct•.

EmcI'j;ing d .."m,
Chop''''' h and8

L;nkllO"" or ,'a""bl<-

l'h..>nn.lCeutk.ll., r.,II"mo, .u ,fac~, nl,. frawanee<, 1""1Umc<. 01 Ilc, "oo,,,,nno-di,,uptmS d."m,eak

eutrorhicatilln;ammnn~,i.

lode to "'I""t", IIle, mn mnlrioo", to l\."DOD. V,lue ... erAP r"l1;hzcrdunng waler"",,,,"

9.3 Overview of Treatment Processes o""igll alld opemlton 0' a wastewaler 811d resource ree", ery trealmenl facilily r""luire .ll\ under be}'o,td end-Hf-pipe treatment stdn- !-J;"F)1_..." -"P" -¥Nlo.:: ",d,j dards and cap' tal and operalmg "",l" (for e"-'lmple. waler reu,e and "...~=...,co,i "'~"""'-L fm energy cm~,umption) Figure 9.3 provides an aerial vie" of a typical munic,pal ",,,,te-- Primer for Municipal ",at"r lreatmen, plant. The ...,hematic dra" mg in Figure 9.4 ,ho"" Wastewater Treatment ho" the different u,ut proces.JI ¥" I~="'" I""".1 proc"",""" occur for the Ire.llment of liqu,d ,Uld ,olid-",,,,,,, s'ream,. cplc3d12OO5_oe,_19....pn ,."".pJf ,Ieps "",oh-ed in con,'entiona] w."tewater treatment are:

TI,,,

9.3 0YeMew aI Tre.atmenl Processes

Flgure/9.3 Ove,h""d Viowof W'.,tew.lorT",olmonl Pl.nl n"s pL:1nt ",.,"" .pp,mi"",tolv l~.OOO peoplo. ~~_yol,"o'''''''lJO
~"'"""""YI

,~

clari!ier

0::.

·:::."

-..,. to landlil

Figure 9.4 Typic'" L.youl of Convonli"".1 IV•• lc ..·.I"'T,e.lmenl ['r.,bmm.lTy trml"",nt ,,,,Ih "CroOns.nd S"I "'''''''-01 is followLod by. prin~...y cl.rifie,. b,ok'pcol trrul"",n~., sec""d....y d.-. rifie, _.,nd , n.>cmbic Irru I"",,,t of t 1><, sl ud~e ~ \-om

I:9"'o","""'-d "'Do-_ l>;ogo R",,,,.lJn,"""',,,oICoIiloo-.,,, ~

(I) prel,e~lment, (2) prim., 'y t,e~lment, ()} S<.'<:ond~rv Ire.,tment, (4) lertiMy I,ealmenllo remo,'e nutrients Ii\', PI, and (5) dlSlnfeel;oll. \IIit h waste,,- aler n"" "iewed as ~ re,,,u'ee by many wmmunilies, the flow chart fo' e",...-enUonal wastewater Ireatment i, ehallging to accomnlOdate i.«ue, of e'''''gy "'emery, nUI,ient ,,,,,o,ery, and waler reuse. Pu"uant 10 Sectinn JO.l(d) of Public l.l" 92-500, Ihe EPA published il> de/initio" of mi,,"num 'Iand.mls fo' secondary treatment. T"ble 9.) prO'l' ides a" 0' ",view of the;., 1,,,,lmenl ,tandard, ~nd thesp""ifle Ulilt proc...".", IIMt ,en""e ,ignificant ~mounts 0/ specific wa>tewater consliluents.

tI""

Chapler9 W""tewattr ..... Stormwa/". CoIIocIil>:l, T,e_, FIesootu Flecovery

~ V1s"a!jzjolllhe Wastewater Treatment prpcess Th.".., ["ternl'! ,idOO'l will dUm, you I,) l()ur waste1,,,,,lmenl .,,,d te"<>Urce ,,,,,,,ery pl. "Is alld !>ell". , .. ualizemanyof 1A> "'", ~d"""ribed throughout Ihes ch
".,t",

Video I (10:29): Proouced by Ihe LIke County (Ohi,,) and show, ea<:h unit pr..,.,..., of the 311 MGD Gary L K,o" Water Reda"'''l;'''' f .• dlity. hlll>://l1"'-""'Y'",t ,,",.com/1,u!c/,?,' Sl MfSR11DJU Video Z (4:10); An animalion ,,-nh le~l, bul no >ound. Co,,,rs Ihe basic proces.

Vid"" 3 (\(1;0)): n,e Waler E,wironmenl F<'derallon's nMralN ,'ideo prm-jd"" a ",rlllal tnur Ihal includes 1"'''lmen!, "·,,te. reuse, 1n.J.!Iagemenl of ,Iudge, .,nd energy generalio" from anaerobic dige-llon. l'III':II",~"~·u'i1J'g/u'1-",d">-I",(h''S-iII>J''I-
li",,-<>!-ullle'-re 10 "",over ~n~rgy and nUlr\~nh from "· .. ,!~,,.,!er.

htll'://Il'IJ.'"',u"'f.",s/cIKnmd
Minimum Standards for T'eat..... nt ond Unit Ptoce..,.. Thd Remo ... 0 Significont Am....ntof Majar WasiewaletConstiluents

Bi()Chemk~1 orygen

dem.nd (BOD): Allowa~1e JI}-d,., DOD. 1< 30 mg/l, .nd 7-
IIOD Cdn b< in • di"",l""d 0' pal'tiruL,t" lonn, Bk)logical ,,,,,clOT: pri """y and «'Cond.lTY
Su<~nded ....Iid"

f'ti m.1 rv a nd .•ecrmda'Y
Allowable ](\.,jay TS51. 30 mglL

.nd 7-
"""''1;''

mn.uIld,. Palhogen" O<.'P"nd< upon tho KPDES ponnit bao ",,";dng "'alL,, (o.g., at thc pL,n' dc-picral in Figu", 9.3. lee.l cohlon,,>, doo munt
Pnm.1I)' and
1'rL'
Nutrienl.....ch .. nitrogen .nd phMphol\l." Dq>end' upon lho I\PDESd,<;
/IIu'nent< can b< in • d,,,,,,",,,,, '" paJ!lcuL,te lonn. Sod 1I""n """"'; biological "-,act",, add, <>on of chenu<.l [, 10 I"'-""P''''''' and pho< pl>nru•. /II "1'08"" n:em,,,ed ~"tru",le or m bi"""lid, and both nulri""",,,, p"""",t m rec!a;m"d ,.........

To,,;< chcmic",

Some are
"":<"'","

,"mo,"" ,i.

'0

"""","""

pH: [)i,;cha'}:o mu,l b< in tho ,angc 01 b.5--I(l.O,

KOI .'pphcabTc'.

9.3 lIYeMew aI Treafmenl Prncesses

9.4

Preliminary Treatment

l'relimin.ryIrUlmenl P"'P' "'" Ihe",."e,,"ler lor further lrffitmentlt is used to """0' e oily scum, l10aling dron" .nd grit, which may ,,,hib,t biorog im Ipm:..."" .nd lor damage me(fI.,n "a Ieq u;pm"nt. Equal iza tion Un Ie....""'''' 1'],'yed loba la ncel10w >nrorga Iti doad ing.1 "d usl ria]ell1u ~nt~ may additionally requi", phv,it:al-<:h~micalpretredtm~ltlfor ",,,,,,,,al of ammo"i.>-"itrog~n (air Slnpping\' dods/ba._ (neulraH,.. lk",), h~",) m",ab(oxld .•tion-rrouetio",predp,Lltion),oroiL,(di"",lI,'ed-dirllolJ.liOlI).

9,4.1

SCREENING

Barracks (parallel ba", or rod>, 20-] SO mill) ~nd bar .cr~""s (perlorated platesor m~l~ 10", mor i..... ) re!.lin Ihec"","",,~oIid< Oargeob;cls, rag;, paper, plastic bottl"" etc.) p"""'lll ".,I~" al~r, pr''''ffiting damage to the piping and mech.ll,kal equlpmenl thai Ion""" IhL~ treatment st~p (Figure9.5). They arec1eaned by hand i n ~omeolder, ,mall~r pla",<;, but "''''I .'" equipped ",iU, '''lo'''''lk c1~anlng rakes. s.:reenlll)~ are Iyplcally dl~1"""'" of by landfillu'g or incin~ration. As an alt~n",m'~ 10 "'",.,,'s, some pldnl~ uliHze a comminutor. '" hkh gnnd, up (co",mlllut~)coarse <..equ"nl operalion.< ll~.t ""'ploy setlhng, Cronmin"",,", "]imil\al~ Ihe n.,."J lor ha n'-'h ng ."d di, p.'''''] of cna """,,] ids rem,..,,,,,, d u ru 'g scr",nirf;.

III

9 .4.2

GRlT CHAW.BERS

Gril "",-,i,1s of parl;"ul.t" m.t"ridl, "' wa., frUIt alld ,'eget.,ble pi....,..,; and seed.<, and coffee ground.<. Grt! is prima"i) removed 10 pr""el\1 ..bra"", 01 ]-'1 p;ngand m""h",,leal equipment During grit ren~\\'a1. ,,"He orga"ic materi.\ls are removed ~iOl'g with th" grit. S ide, de..e an a"raled gril chamber. TI,,,,,,, chambers are no",,,,n j designed to r"mm'e partlde;; ",th diameters nf al l"a" 0.21 mIH. Detention lime.< range fmm 2 to 5 min ba-""" 0" peak hourly 110,,', and air flow rdles range from 0.2 100.5 m' 01 air per ",,,,ule per l""glh of tank. EHll\pl" 9.1 ilIuslfal"s Ihe de.
.n,

",,,"X

Flgure9.5

B., St,,,,,,,. U""d 10

R~m",·~Co.rse \\'.,!~,,·.Io,

Sol id. hom

If no<

,,,,,weal. ,t><""

""'y d.lI""g~ p'ping .rod ""-,,,Mmc.1 "1uipmcnt L11<-'1" in Ih~ 11'ffitm~nt pmc"",, 'I()~d,

Chapler9 W""teWlltl...... Stonnw:l, T,e_, FI!!soorce Flecovery

Design Irlonnalion U.ed 10 Size Aerated Grit Chombe..

r""k flow detontion Orne (min)

-

lJc1'th (mt

2-5

Leng'h (m)

7.5-20

\"Kllh (ml

2.5-7

I,'idlh-t<>-dcp
1)",5,1

u",gth.t"..",dth ratio Air ""lUl"''''''''' per I""g'h of ",,,k(m 'I m-mln)

02-05

Qua,,"'" of ~nt (m 'I HI' m'l ex am pIe I 9.

J

Oesi!ln of an Aerallll Grit Chamber

[)e,;ign a" aerated grit cham""r ~y"em to treat a I day sustatt,ed peak Ilou rly 110"· of 1.5 m 'Is" ith an a'erage no" of o.n m 'Is. o"lermin~: {al the grit cham""r ,'olume (a,suming two cham""rs "ill be used); (bl the dhnensinns 01 Ihe two gnl chambers; (c) the a\'erage hydraulic retention time in each grit chamber; (dl air requirements, a"suming 0.35 ""im-min of a'r; alld (e) th" quantity of gril removed at peak flow, assumttlg a typical ,-alu" of n,OIS m 'I In' m' of grit i" the untreated wastewat."..

solution Much ollhlS problem can be ,;o\ved by u,ing the des,gn guida"ce provided ttl Table 9,4. The "ol"me of the gnl chambers i. detem,lned "-""u,,,ing a det"'''ion lime of 3 min; tiltalgrrtchamber"olume volume 01 eMh grit dlam""r

, '2

1.5m'/s><3min><270m'

2i\lm'

135m'

As<;Umin8 a ,,-idth-In-
/.5><;;m 4.5m ,,-()Jume 135m' "idth"depth ~.5m,,1m

/Om

The a,-erage hydraulic delention time in each grit cham"'" is ba.-ed on the average flow rale;

dete"tion time

135m' {o.n m'Is 1/(2 t.."I...,]

I min -tlOs

73min

The air requirem"nl', a.suming 0.35 m'/m-min of air, are t01d1 air requirement Finally,

~,-e

{2 tallb) >< {1O m l"'8'h) " {0,35 Ill' air1m-min)

7.0 m 'i Ill'"~

for tll<.> amounl of gm In be di-sl"""'d of, a'Suming peak flo" mnd ilion"

gr,t \"Olume

(/.5 m ' . . " " (0.0 15m' /10' Ill') >< {8liAOO s..-day)

1.9<1 Ill' ..-day

Similar design melh<'Jd. are emplnyed to ,ize hor,ultltdl-f1il" and ' .... rle~ 8ftl ,,,mnval

d~",ces.

9.4 Pre-..ryTrealmoot

9.4.3

flOTATION

flotation i, ,he op!'f"iite 01 ,edimenl'tion, utillzin!'; buoyancy '0 ,epara,e ",lid particles such as !.lIs, oils. and grea""" which wiluld nol ,et~e by sed imenl,''''''. The,e!",,"a,inn pr"",,-, isaccnmpl"hed by imrooucinga irattheoounm nf a floatati, ",tall k. Thea irbu lilies ri", tn Ih""urf...,e. w herethey areremovedby 'k,,,,,,,illi} A populM variatioll on this ,che",e is termed oli=I,'cd-air flolali", .. Re.:ycled emu",nt i, ret..ined In a pr""sure 1''"wa'er. and as Ihe pres,u,"" ""urn, '0 a'm""ph.".;c. di"olved air mones nut "I .... luli"", carry,n!,; floatable ""lid, the ",rlace. where ,hey may be sknnmed and colle.:ted. Tooay. falS, "n, and grease {Iermed HJGl-----specifically, "'alerial generaled al local r""tauran" '" ca"'pus u ining halls----.:!o nill ha ,'e 10 bee",n" part or Ihe ,,·aslewaler stream_ Tl,,,y can be eastly converted bil>..lie.e1 (,,·hirn could help luel your municipalily's ,,,hide fI""l) and u,ed to !,;"""ral" energy. when mmbined ",th diges,,,r !,;a>. or used a, a ,uppl"mentary fu"l ,,' "..,lid-waste-toe",,'BY plan".

'0

'0

9.4.4

EQUALIZATION

flow eq ualuation is implemented 'il dam!"'n 1I", fin" a"d organic k>ad;ng rat" to a "as",waler ,reatm"nt f.lcilily. R"memb".. lrom Chapl"r 7 Ihal larg" variatio"s occur in ,h" flow for many r"ason,. I"'plen",nt"'s flo" equali7... tion in ,ome in,ta"ce. can o\"e",ome operational proolen~ associal.,.] ",Ih lar!,;" fl"" '·arialio.....,nd imp"'v" ,h" performance of ,h" d"w,,,trean\ un,t proces"",,_ For exampl", ,he biologic",l proc"""", u,ed duron!'; wasl"water Ir"all"enl can b" ",,,,e "as,ly controll&! with ., sleady flow rale and m"sl,nt BOD loadi"!,;. In addi"o". "npl"men,a,ion of flow equaliutio" can reduc" ,h" size of dOl, "stream tr<ment pTl..,e,,,,, a"u in ,,,,ne c....."., improw, perronnan"" at pl.J.m, Ihal a", o,erloaded. Figure 9.ti compare, Ihe diurnal flnw ra,e anu BOD l"ading ,arialion wi,h .HI "'1ualiz"d flo" and BOD loadi"g p'llern. BOD lnauing" equal,,, ,he flo" times Ihe mnt"nlration of BOD III Ihe wastewater a"d h." unilS "f kg BOD/ '" ' nr ",lSt"wat", f'l'r day. A, Figur" 9.ti ,ho"",, ,h" damp"nn,!,; nr the fI"" ral" anu BOD can be mn,iderable. Flow equali7...tio" can be acmmpii.,hed in way" in-hn" or of/ill'" "'lu,liz'tio". III-I"" ,'q"QIi""t"~1 i, ,he pr,.,.,,,,,, wh"re allihe flo" passes Ihrough ,h" equalization baSln_ III mnlr"l, wilh off-I"'" '''l"ali",,1 iOll, only a portion of Ih" flow is d"·",,oo ,hrough Ihe equaIlzati"" basin. Off-line flm, equ,lization requires tha, ,h" diverted flow be pumped .,"d ",i~ed "i,h Ih" pIa", influent when ,he influen, flow r,lle t" Ihe platH" reduced. Tl,is typlcally "ccurs la,,,, "I night In Ihi, c,,,,,. th" flo,,· Cdl' be "'lualized, bu'the challge ill BOD k>auin!'; LS reduced I."" Ihan ,,·,th in-Ill'" flo'" equalization. Tl,e,..,r",e, ",-line equalizati"n is typically used wh"" ""ng"'" dampening of bolh ,he flow and organic loading i, requiroo.

""ar-

,h"

'''"0

Chapler9 W""lewau...... Sionnwat". CoIIoctil>:l, T,ealml!!lt, FIesoorce Flecovery

A,url/l.S

Ch.I1JlOO I" R<&ul .. F1ow

~Iu"d R~ ..I.,

1"" .... I__ """""M"'_"'_"~I-_-:L __,,__,:,,_./.__,::~ It / \ I _....._

Ro9Mr IlOO

/'.-.;

I

;", /

/:..

.

,~

,-

._

_/ ····r /'

'.-._-...-

-..

,_.:~~

..

\I ... IIOD L...di"l\ "".... TrpicollJ'r Tlwo "'l".>1lZ<'d _ . <.u" .. """"." .... <"",mnl. .nd tho~ IlODk\old,n/ll
...... _ " ,..... lbood.>.· ....

~,·

_m

---.

-.

E'l'_ _ BOO

-

-..

T_"'*, M.h.~

d ... sr.m.~ II"'" the on.. sho" n in F,gure 9,7 un t>.. u"...,j In Jd,mmr.- thoo ""lu,red "'.... I""".m "'lu,llu.ahon ,'olum.. rli'\jUir>'d, I.".. the '''''liea] d~<;tanOi b<'h''''''''' th ....,,,,.,,se .·"lun,e .."d Ih.. 1'. ....11..1[;".. tl"'ll~ "'''8''"110 the (um"I.1me (11now ",Iu"", CUn .. for figure 9.7. Tl'" \.l0g.<"1 I"~n\ on I"" cumuLlt" .. Inn"" nor". is "he", lhe "'l.uab.alin" 1.. ,,1. i, e"'ply. As I"!': (0, dr.Ilu~).

,,,,I_t,

ti"'"

""',,'S

A,urlll.7 C.. mllloll"" Irlllnni Vol ...... nd Cllm"luh·" "" t;. l"lIu.nI Volum" . . . runeti

I I

Tlwo<1lm.. L>tn-. """'11" tnfI....., ,·,~ ........nd th< ""mul.o"," 'nf!uml '-nIu"", un .,. pIonNt 10 ............... I"" ""I"u-.d l.Inl 1>t,,-. on&-l , ...... tr.-.......'1\'" 'nlhw!>1 ,.......... u.. rrqutr.-d .......po ,~~ .. "'" n.r ........ d ......" l!lroullh th< t.>~"'" f""nl p""..o... 1Jl~'"""I"'" "n .... h<-n ,'''' ""'''/l' , .... I< follonll.nd 'IJlrl'..m~ Tim.ofO.,.

-j I

-..

of

~

I

-

T_al,..,

"'n',,,

-..

1''"''

1I.•

~TrNI_

For Figure 9.7, .he "'jualization I'olum" ,,'ould ],., found a ••he I.ogent of both p"rallellioes 0" II", cumula.ive influelll I-olume cur"e. During the tllne ],.,tween lhe 1""0 .angen. pOlOIS, app""imately 1 P. \i. 10 about mid"igh., .he equa1i7.aI'Ol' 1>.>s", is filling, a, Ihe slope of Il,e cumula.i I e influenl mlume cu,,·e is gre.ller .h." the a""r.>ge influent volume curve. From about midnight 10 1 P,,,..•he slope of .he cumulative influent volume eun'e is less .IMn .he .,erage influe", volume mrve, al1d .he "'juali7..I,on tank is draming.

exarnple/9.2

Sizing a Flow Eq.Ja~zation Taril

GiI'"n the data for a,'erage hourly flow, gh·en in Tabl" 9.5 (in the '1'0 lefl requ ired online flo\\' equa1i2a.ion I'olume (m 'i.

colun,,~<),

I,...a-

00" and 1.....111 fa. Flaw Equalization Problem;n Exampl.. 9.2 The ""'''
TmoP1oriod

Vol.nmofFlowDl.I'ng PaiDd(m'l

Midnlght_. A, \L

,""

1-1

~

1-3

m,

~

~

'-""

~,

'"m

'1m

,,,.

2'

""" ..n

~ ~,

..

'"

H

'''''

'1m '.~

',375

7.053

~'"

I.'\f,.~

8.(,Il'I

llHI

'.~

10,248

II-noon

1,M9

Up'

N'non-l

'.~

13,537

1_1

',545

15,lllU

1_3

1.495

1&,577

~

U9(')

~,

1,170

19,337

~

L170

mjm

""'" (CII"I i /111M)

Chapt..r9 Waslew.llr ..... Slonnwatl!f". CoIectm, Treatment,

_ct!

Recovery

d"lermme .he

example/9.2 (conlilllled)

~ Ti'nol'
Vo l.n,.. 01 F low DI.I'Olg P..iod

lm"l

CumuIaI"", InIkMm Voltmo

H

'''''

21j!97

U2~

23321

~

L'4ll

'l--1
I ,~5(J

"""

10-.-11

1,471>

27,89';

ll_mldoight

I.J.U

2'J,2J7

~,

(rn"l

2f.,4N

solution Thi, solulIo" requIre; "",'eral steps, Fi"'L deternline the mlllulalive hourly 1101<.' during lhe period. The ao,wers are given "' lhe right columo of Table 9.3. For o"e time period, rhe culllulati,e hourly 1I0w is [mlllul.Hi"e hourlv n"".1-2 .. ,,,,,

1

v",_,_v,_>

UJ90 ~987

l,077m'

Then, In determine Ihe cumulati,e a,erage ",lIuenl volume (nnl li'led in the table), d"'ide lhe cumulatIve 110'" (li,ted io Ihe table) by 24 h:

average 11o"

rulllulati,'e 11o", 24 h

29.237m' Nh

1.2IS",'.'h

The ""lulio" no" requires a graph nf the cumulalive 1l,lluem ,'olume and cumut..live average inlluenl ,'olume, (The figure i, Hot ,ho",n, so readers should "",,",ult Figure 9.7 and complete thi, 01' their o",n.) rrom Ihis graph, Ihe requireJ ""Iuali>oed 110'" volume L< round to be apprnxim.tely 4,100 m '.

9.4 PreIimirIary Trea!mooI

9.5

PrimlJ)/ Treatment

The goal of pri mary Irealmenl i, to remo\'e ",lid, Ihrough quiescent. grav,ty _Umg. T} pically, dom",t., w .ste" ater is held for a period of .ppro,imately 2 h, Setlling tanh, also referred 10 as sedimentatinn tanks or d.rifieI'<, can I>o. eilher rectangulM nr cireul..., During '*'o. added to impro,-e the remov..l of partkulate maUer, TI'i, may reduce Ihe o\,er..ll energy <:o,l, required duriug second treatment to biologkally """\'ert Ih""" f"rtid"" 10 CO" water, and new biom..... The darifW effbJenl Ihal e,,,t, primary trmtn",,,, i, r,'uled to 5econd.try t,..,atmenl, and Ihe ""lid, (Ihe ,ludge) remm·ed during settling are ,egregated lor further treatmenl and recovery of energy or reu"",, of bio,olld', Primar} 'ludge i' malrld",ou" ""y conldin p"th"S"IUC or&,n"n~, .•nd has high \\a1>tion theory .nd des'gn principl"" induding ho\\ to u""" est..bH.,hN ,...erflow r3Ies"",,,,, sellbng lanL,. Of i",p.-'O""'" nole, Ihe.dual h~Jr.• uliedetentioll t"necan be much ,l"'rter lh.n calcuLltN beca.u"" nf unev".. \\'eirs, p""r ,nlet conJ'bnffi, .. nd den,it y cUlTeli".ll "'hkhc.. ncortriJute to a reducti"" in tl'" efficiency of ""lids removal (Miller alld E'ler. 2(13).

Flgurel9.' Sc'<'In" (d.mfier In b"tt,,,,, "f phnmlmd (Cf) W~'"r P"lluti"n Control Fadmy The pl.lnl i.d""igned I" treat .,n ~''''~8e "'~,te"".,'erlkI,,' '" 2~

MC.D

Irom Ihe City "'SI.1mf"ro ~nd Ihe Tow" of 0.,.,,,,," T""led eWuent ;. dL«:"""8'"j I" "", E",;I Br.meh of St.:Jmfnn! H~rbor which i. h:~lc,j "" l<>"g 1.l.lnd Sound

,-.

~_lolD<,Joo __ ~_"'''";_'''lol

Chapter9 W""tewall...... Stonnwal". CoIIocI..., T,eaImI!CII, FIesoorce Flecovery

exam pie I 9.3

Sizing a Primal) Settlllg Tar"M

A municipal ",a,le",aler Ireaunenl planl I...... l~ an aH,rage flow nf 12,000 m \ / day a"d a p"ak hourly fin", of 30,000 m" I day. Two circular cI.. rifi"" are 10 be designed, ,,-~mg a d"pth of 4 m and o,'erno", rale of 40 n\'1m' -day. Cdlculal'" Ihe a,..,a, di..",,,,t.,,., "olum"" a"d d"'lemion lune required for each da"fi."..

solution To calculale Ihe surface area required for clariflcalion, divide Ihe a"erage flo,,· rale (Ql by the o"ern,)" rale (ORl: 12.00lm','dav 40 m' .. m'-d..;

Q

OR

300m'

Since Ihere are t\\"o clarifiers. Ihe area for each clarHi",r would be 300m' 2 darifie", The I...,k d,ameter can be cakul.,ted from the area as folio,,'" clarifi.". area

150m'

clarifier area

clarifier diameter

D.Rm

••

The dj~meler "ill be rounded up 10 14 m for Ihe fin.• l des'g".

11,e actual ar&l fM each clarifier i, ,alrubled a, follows: darifi"'rarea

"

,

-(I.lm)-,

154m",

The ",>lume of each clarifier is calculaled as (oHow,: danfiervolume Tode~rmi"elhe

areaxdeplh

(~(l'lm)1)x(4m) 611>m'

hydraulkdetenrion lime, divide Ihecl ....:ifler "olun", by then"" rate (Q) toeachdarifler.

'"Illume (,I(,m' x 2.1 h/day Q 6,oro m",'day The ot>ser\ ed ""erf!o", rale (OR) is calculaled as follo",s; detention lime

Q

6.000 m' Iday 1';4m'

De1em,ine the dele",ion lime and overnol\' rate al OR al peak no"

I"'~k

(Q ~t p"al n"",)/2

'detentio" tune al peat.. flo",'

'"'

2.11> h

J9m"m'-day

no",: 15,000 m '.ida\, 151 m'

clarifier volume Qal p"ak flo\\'

97.4 m' ",'-day

I>ll>m' ,,2.1 h, day 30.000 m'" dAy.. 2

O.99h

At Iheavera&, flow, theca ~ulated va luesof detent;,"", In.... a"d overn,."., rale ....e ",i~,i n Ihe range;; ",e dL~cussed in the pre,io,,-~ chapler. AI peat.. floI\'. the calculaled ,alue of detentio" time is fine, bul Ihe o,""rn"" ra "" is sllghtly l"",e r than d esi rai. The fi ".11 cia ri Ii er d "'" gn may need 10 ha \'" a" i ncre""",hu rface area t() pm\'id'" enough detenlion tune for ~ufficienl ",lids 10 settle.

9.5 PrimaryT,.. lmerrt

9.6

Secondary Treatment

Th" wa,tewater thai "xii, the prill\MY clarifier h." lost a ~Ig"ificanl amount of the p.rh~ulale matter it mnldll,ed, bul il st,ll ha' a high demand for oxygen d ue 10 an abunda'''''' of dL,<..,h'ro organic mall". (mffi,ureJ as BODI. Second .... y t",,,tmenl (wh>':11 is. form "fb~,logiCd.l t,..,atmenl) utilizes mkroorganlsm, 10 decoml-x"" Ih""" high-energy mol"""I", The,.., are II,,, b",k approach"" 10 bjologicallrNtment differing in the "",n"", lit whICh the w"-rga"i'"'' ,,'" "'Mehe.:! 10 a ,uppm! struet""" and Ih" "',,-
"',,&:!

organ,,,,,.,.

9.6.1

SUSPENOEDGROWTHREACTORS ACTIVATED SLUDGE

The most common biologiCdllrealmenl ,y,te", is a suspended-growlh ,},tel1l called the aclivat<>d-sludge p""""". Elllue'lI fro'" Ihe p"",ary clarifier i, routN 10 an aer.lion lank (al,., referred 10 a, an aer.lion b"int usually by gra,-,ty, and m,xed with a di,'e"", ll\d>S of ",icr,.orga,u,,,,s comprising ba~'1.".ia. fu"g;. "'Iif~. and prmw,-"" ThLs ",i,tu'" ofliqu id. ,,- .'>le '''lids. and ",icr,...-g,uusm, ls called lhe mi,ed liquor, A ",ea,urement "f TSS oblained from the "eralion ba'in is tern....:! the miwd liq uor susp""ded sol ids eM LSSl, expreq;ed in mg/L V"Ltlile su'pended ,olid' (Vffi) ca" be u<&l as a surrosate 10 d"",ribe the reaclor's biomass. This is becau,e ",,,,,t "f the ""lid' a,e ",icromganis",s that lIa,-e a high cMoon conlenl in Iheir cell "rueture. T vpically Ih,,' olalile fracli'''' of the mixed Iiq uonolali Ie susp""ded solids 1M l VSS). expr.".,t>d in "'giL, is 6Q.--,&) perce"l of the MlSS. The fn--such as the ",~d, retention lime (SRTl. which ",n be discu,se.ed 10 further understand the u "iqlle microb,al ecnl"gy of "a,le,,-aler l",al",e"l ,y,tem•. The majo"ly of the BOD is degr.ded ,,' Ihe pr"""'ICe of oxygen, '" air is "dded to the ,e.,ctor to ,uppl) oxygen. ,,-hich mu'it be lra"sferred 10 Ihe aqueous pha,e. Th" requ;r.". e"ergy inputs. In praclice. Chapter9 Waslew.tlr ..... Slonnwall!f". CoIectm, Trealmenl, Resour"" Recovery

A,url/'.'

f"""1'm«U.of tho \\'01>

Activ.'N·Slud~

11'''''''........11-. .... dOd ,,,_ _

__ w-,. & Sooo. 10< I

""'

-

dL"....)!' i'd..,~ yge" concenlrahons In the dlera"n" la"L

mainl.lmed

at 1..5....,.0 mg/L. ,,,,h 2 mg/L betng a c""u""" ,011 te, ..l~ gr....''''" ,I1o1n I mg/l do not "glUlicanll~ imp."' .. ~"I~)" but '''''''operatIng (\,.", ~au"" of the energy "-,socl,,li'd "illl 'orcing air mto the Sy~l""'. Low O'rll"" 1.....,15 can lead 10 ;/"dS' ~'I!Ai!t.~. an abtJnda'lCe 0/ fil"n,,,nt.),,s n,!l""'s"" "nh 1""" _""Illi"g ChM,lClt',istk". 6,"ie"., Me primarily '''''l-''''Lsibl" ro, ","'m,I,lt"'ll the ,lL,,,,h-.,,j "..ga"i,- m,1tl",;n "a,l"".t"" and Ihe ,,)Ii Ie... and 1'1\>1,)1.0., .,'" hdl'ful in .... mo' ,ns the di,p""""-l b.l<:u..ia. "hi,'h 0111",,, ,.... ",)\)Id 1101 "<'IU.. l"'l n,l, "ou 1<.1 cau,,", II... pl.lnrs efll "en, h. not ""'''' !""mit ""I",re"",nt' .usl"""'''''''I -..lId" n", """''K.v deri, ed In..." It", decolllfl""it,n" f"'I"""'" is pnn",,,1 ,. lL-ed forcell mainle' ·".lIId '''produce",fW'' n'i",....:••g.u'NnS. Once nlO>.l of lhe di.' micmorg.uu~ms are muted 10 I -«'r fin.all d .. nfi er fn, ....".",.. ,....... In lho> '«Ondary danf_, two _tream" "r~ pn,Jl.K1'd Ill .. danfied .....fluent .. Iuch IS .......1 10 the ....d stago! uf tr.... ,menl (........ U~' di>inf«ilool; anJ C21 a loqud....-.olid sludgo> I.>rgdv "lmrri'ing micronrganN'l'o (bul I"""hoIp< 2--4 petC8l1 .,oIJ,M. luns at ~ bott..., of I.... _"Ono.Iary OO-of lIw~ludgo> ;.. lho.n f'U"'1""'! 10 I"" ho:-aJ of I.... tan1. (m.m. ..mUI..... ludS~)... twrt. tlw rroc- '>I.al'tS .lfi0\ ... "ga'n. Thlo ~of lIw.t_~l~lt "'~ Ulnlntln",U'J... _ from ~~_ to baLlna lh;> ~ ,n boocn.w. that ,..:m. Uvough nU(">bo.l1 S"1'o> th. 1..:"" Id f"'rl,......",naoof a ~') """I,ns tanl. ... lhe q....hl~ of lh;> a«1Or f'("O"~... mple, ,I' ~...... hi" ~ .. "Mil orut>de""ze,j """ondA') """l,,,s tAn'" a ~lud8" lhoIl ",,"Ie> f.>._t~. and hal; a k>I-. ....
f",.

"\01

,.,.1.

TI'Hl National Small Rows Cleamghouseproyldel tethnical asslstllnce10 t1e1p

smalcommonitiesand tIomeoWAllI'5 wilt1 their waslewiltertrealmenl

you. II is also nilicallhal w."" be level 10 a"oid hydraulic short circuiting ",ilhin 1m, >etUing ldnk lnlels in Ihe S4>IUmg ldnk', feed ",ell can also be ada piN by i'Lwrtlng an i'L_t Ihat i, designN 10 dis,ipale Ihe energy of Ihe incoming flow, Ihu, promoting flocculallon and ,ettling of the biological ....lid" "hich are small ,lnd not ,'ery den", (MIller and Esler, 2013>.

DESlGNOFTI-lE AcnYATED-SUJlX;ESYSTEM A ltling unk (callt>.l Ihe clari",r}lhal f"now" Ihe biological reilLtor captu "'"' the particulate mailer (sludge). The typical life of a m"'''''''gan"m '" a ""-Slewaler planl i, fi",llo feed in Ihe aeratIon baSil' for ",,'eral hour-; (4---b h, for e,a"'plel. then flo\\' 10 Ihe sec<>ndary clarifier for "",'eral addilional hours, where the orgalli,m r""ls \\'hile il ",ttl"" to the of Ihe t,,,,k. When the organIsms are hUllgry again. they are recyciN back I.) the biological reilLlor to ~ Ihe biologica] reilLt.... wilh a mel,.b,.,cally acu"e (hungry) group of organ""'Ls. For a microorgani,m in Ihe P")C""'. Ihis pro",",s is repe"ted"", erall;m"" (Ieed ,,"d r""l, f"'-'
;n'''''''''y

boll,,,,,

P"""""

Flgure/9.l0

S
"cliv~led.Sludge Process,

~""'''''''''~II<>99I,~;.-!,,;th'''~''''''01 """ W loy & SoM, ... j

1r>lIue<1t (I""'" p,ima
1---_~~a!~_t:'!~_

q,. So. "'<>:

:,. ,

i,,I ,

~_.

V.X,S

-------

-"

._--_._--

c1a,~ie,

«.q X,,

q,x. Retu,1"IfId acIlValed • (RAS} .

Chapler9 Wastewau...... Stonnwat'" CoIIocIil>:l, T,eatmool, FIesoorce Flecovery

-

-';'-'

EHh.omt

: (10 di"",rtlCtion)

, ,,, ,, ,, ,,

«

•

.-

0.

x.,~

I o.x. a.. x,.. s" .•

•

Waste

._1,• aotivated

To d",·,,"'p a Illa,."r d""ign "'l",'tion, ",e will f,rst set up arid a'\dlpe ''''0 ",a", bala"""" mnduclffl on di,..",h-ed org.,nk m"Uer (,ubstrate) a"d ,.,Iids (b,onla"l. n", a""lysis, whe" comb",ed w,th our under'land ing 01 microbial g"''' "'ill an"", "-, 10 detern""e ",dume of Ihe aerati"n basin, In alllh_ expr""iOl~" Q rep"""nls 11""" expr"'>ed in m' / d.. y, S i' ,u!>str..Ieconcentr..lion (u""a11 y roo as mg BODor CODperl); X i,,,,~ds (bi""""'lcon",ntr"lio", me"""m:I ..smgSSfl or mg V5.<>/L; and V i' the volume of the ..eralio" lank, ."pr",sed '" '" '. TI,e ,u!N:ripl' ",rer 10 innuenl (0), effluenl (e), recycle (r). underl1m, rrom cI.. nfier-; (u), and wasted ",lid, (w).

tI"

tI,,,

"""'<.u

A

lication/9.3

Shoo\d you 1M Iirre derivatives (e.g., dXldtand dSldt)or rates of growth (rgl and substrate depletion (r,) in aflow through reactor?

\\~tile

il ",a, appropri"le 10 u"" lime de",.. li,·", i" a b.'lch ",.. ctor (like ",e did in Chaple.. 4 and 5), ,I i. ,wi appropriale 10 "-'" time deri' ati"'" 10 "-'pres, rat.... "f b,omass grm, Ih ,)r ,ubslr.,le depletion in a 11m, Ihrough "",ctm at 'leaJ y 'l.lIe. Careful exami"alion "r Figure 9./0 sho,,' il i, "01 a balch re..ctor, bul "i,~qead a flo" through react", (that i, u"Jer ,lead y-,t"le ffindjti",~').TI,U'. '" Ihe lonow ing .. ,,,,1ys.. "here "'e work to derhea final design "'lwtio" lor the acth'aled-,ludge systems depicled i" Figu'" 9, 10, "e "ill use the terms rate or gr,," Ih (r~) and rale or ,u!l<;trale depletion (,J n~,te.. d of dXI,11 a"d dS/dl, respecti'ely. Wean 'ho'" how IIXldl a"d ',are eq".. l i" a b.,tch re.. ct.... by ,..eltil,g u p a mol.'" bal., nee ror bi oma,.;.

MASS BAlANCE CN SOUDS IBIOMASS)

Accumulalion

flow i" - flow out production - sin,,",..- """umptlOn

_""'1"("'.

Pluggingin,alue,rorabateh'ystem(thereisnoflo" illlo orout or the reaclor) and ass"ming Ihere are no sinhl ffi,~,umptionor bioma" resulls In VIIX.dl

O-O+(Vxrg)-O

D,"id ing boil' ,j
A ma..., balance on mkroor-

ganisms ('olid,l "'ilh," th" Sl.lled com",l ,,"lume (the dashed li"e in Figure 9.10) can be e"p"""..ed a, foll",,""

[

biomass le..-ingj wstem

(9.1 ) Using Equalion 9.1. Figure 9.10, and the ,tated rontrol ,,,lume, the mathem..tical e"pres.~"", lhal d"",,,be<; Ihe ""M, ma"" lwl,,,,l'l' i., (9.2)

Here ,~ is Ih" rale 01 gro"lh "r the microorg..""m. (",,,t. r"r "-'ample or mg VSS/L-dayl. A...~um,,'g that Monod ki nelics d"""ribes 9.6 Sl!<:ondary Treatlll!fll

microbldl grm,-Ih and Ihal fi"'l-md"r dec..y d"""ribe<; ",krolli.,; d"dth. the ,,..era11 rdl" 01 blonld'i.~ growlh ,,' Ih" derat,o" 1MsII' (r") tl"'l resu;l, fmm gm,,-th .,nd decay Cdn be ",,,It,,n a, folio"" (9.3)

Thisover.,D g,,,,,.. lh I"on (Equdlio,,9.3) Cdn be.u bsliluled mk)lhe md"; bal.'nce expr..-;sion ,hown in [,!"dlio" 9.2 for I" dddllion. ",e ca" assume IMI X" dnd X. Me ,-erv
r""

(9.4)

EqUdlion 9.-1 is importa"l. It will be redsiled III Ihe ''''''I secllon, <;0 read"", ,hOlJId Mome Idmil,ar" ilh il

MASS BAlANCE ON SUBSTRATE IBCO]

1\'",,1, am ..,", balan"" i,

performed "" Ihe di,""l,eJ orgat1k n"'lerial (Ihe BOD). which is ,ub.lrale fm Ih.. organi,n". A t1ldS.< b.,lance on .ubslrate (fo.-.d) "ilhin Ih" ,wed conlrol ,"olume (Ihe d ..shed line in rigure 9.10) can be "''''ded as follow< sU!»lra.le et1lertt1g [ .,erallon 1M,,,,

1-

[,Ub"I~ate con,umed] by m,croo,&"n"m<

,ubstrate lea\"i"g] [ .y,lem (9.5)

U"ng Equalion 9.5. rigure 9.10. d"d Ihe ;1 ml,' mn§ 1"ln"c~

(9.6)

In Equalion 9.(', r. b Ihe r.,le of ,ub,I,ale uilliz.. lio" (unlls for example of mg BOO,/l-<1ayl. He,e Ihe elnu..'" subslral", S•• and Ihe subslratao in Ihe ",..ste sludge. S... are "",umed 10 equal S IS S. Sw). n".shoulJ "'dki>s"'l~ebecau""lhe""",,,,d.uycldrifier·~ pur"""" i' 10 ,em", e ,,,ltd,. nol 10 bIologically l,a"sf"rm sU!»lr"le 10 ca,ooll dioxide and waler. Chapler9 W""lewall...... Slonnwat'" CoIIoctil>:l, T,ealml!!ll, FIesoorce Flecovery

The yidd ",,,,fide,,t (n rel.ue; 'hech."'ge in ,ubslr"~ <",,,,elltr",ion (FJ to the ch""ge I" biomass co""e",ra,i"" ('"l. TI,US, the cha"ge ill su!:lStrate ro"
'.

('1.7)

TI,lsexpressio" ror', c"" be subsb'Uled illlO Ihe,ubslr "Ie ""'''' balln", <[qu'llion 9.1il. Rearranging ,he m e,all exp"""i"" Ihen rfSIJll'O in

('1.8)

No,e Ihat the left ,ide "r the t",o final reMr"n8ed expr""sion, nbldineJ r",,,, the ""lids (Equ,llinn 9..1) and su"'lr"te ",as, bala"",,", (Equa,i"" 9$) are the ""me. TI,U" ,hese two expr"",io,,, ca" be sel "'lual t,) prm ide" d""'8" exp"""io,,: ('l.'ll Equall"" 9.9 can be used 10 ""h'e 1m ,he "olume oj ,he ae,a,io" bas", I VI. This ;s because all ,he other ,ern" e,ther
0'

bplanatian of Terms U.ed in Expre.. ion fo< Activated-Sludge Design (Equation 9.9)

nioki,o'ic <"dfici,,,,'s. wh,ch are ci'h",. m"O-UfLoJ ore<'ralo m""","alinn III "",,'or (5)

Pl, '" om""n' HW\co",rnnnn, whim" set h lho sble throug/> ,ho /'>PDESp<'rm;tting pr<>=
Imo••1_s"l>
Independonl po,ea",,"o« Ih.l, .>TO •• funcrilm of mmmum')" d"mograph..,; ""ch ..< I"'pulaoon.community ""'.:Illh, ",.te, enn",,,·al,nn nlffiOTCi.1l and industrial oclh'I,)" in a rommumly

Rate of ,,·a
Items., planl opera'..... can mll'ml by ....ashng sludge. ee Ta'~ al whICh solids.", rL'",,,,-ed (w""a1) 1m", tho ,}"Iorn

9.6 5econdary Tteallll!lll

SCUDS RETENTlON TIME 11", te,m 00 lh", left side of Equ.,tion 9.9 LS a n import."" e, pr e",ion Ior.:l e, i&' a nd ope,at ion of a n ac Ii" dted.." I00 ge plant It i, the in"",,,,,,, of d lerm referred to as Ihe solids relenlion time ISRTI. SRT i, somelimes a1", ,eferred loas sludge age ilfId mean cell relention Ii me IMCRTI. SRT i, d",fined as

>RT

vx

19.10)

Q"X" II you look do,dy atlhe u,uts of thi, e'pn""ioo, you ,,·,11 "'" lhal it hds units olt"ne (typically days). 11,e ,tudge age in n")'il lrealmenl pldnt. tYl-'Kalt} rdng"" lro", 2 to 30 days. TI,,' SRT ,s m,l Il1d, _~dra"li( rel~,11 io" I lOne (VI QJ. Sludge age refel'i 10 the a"e'age lime a micm<>'i}'ni,m ,pends in the acli"dted-s1udge pro<...".,-,; bel",e it i, expetted, or "'d.ted, from Ihe 'ystem. Remember Ihat Ihe organism. le-ed in Ihe ae,alion basin and Ihen r""t in the ,econdMy clMifier until Ihey dre recycled b.>ck ;nlo Ihe aeralion basin 10 f...d and lhen a re senl b.lCk tothe rv cldri r"" to '51. 1111s p"'''''''' i, "'P""led many tim", until the oqpnism i, fi'lally ,emOl &:I fmm Ihe proc,-",s, or ""'1&:1. The SRT thus ,ele" 10 the number of day, that all a,e'dge nHcroo,»,ni,m underg.-- Ihlsleedand-""", cycle. Equalion 9. trl can be ,u!>sliluled inlo Equalion 9.9 10 yield our final desigo equation;

""""'Ua

(9.11)

Equalion 9.11 can be u"ed lo,ize the aerat,oo basi" (,ol ... e for VI lor a gi""n (or ,ange of) SRT.

e X am pI e I

9.4

Design of the Aeralion Basin Based on Solids Retention Time

Gken Ihe following infnrm.>tinn,
1-'''''''''''''

,,,t,,,,

.

;~

Chapter9 Waslew.tlr ..... Slonnwall!f". CoIecIm, Trealmenl,

_ct!

Recovery

example/9.4 (conlilllled)

solution For Iik'Mra/;a" 1m;" rni"m~. n,is problem provld"" a 101 of infi:lnndtion. Tosohe for the deralion !>.Lsin volume (Vl, you need to know" hat IIlform.uion i.s important and wh.1l is nOi ""luir",:1. l.ook closely al EquatIon 9.11. Her.., equal. Ihe substral.. (or BOD.,) ent.enng lhe blolngkal r..aclClr, "" as,um.. tlMI sollle BOD, i, partkulal.. and j~ removl!d in tho> prin",ry clarifier. As.sunHllg 11>.\1 30 percellt of the pla"t ",nuenl BOD, is ,emmoo during pnmary ,l!dilllenlalion,lhis means Ihal 0.70 x 444mg/1. Jlflmg/L. Accordingly,

S"

S"

, [%:lSo-SJ] -I:" m , [(n", .. ,~J .(o;;,I~) (""" ""J]

--

--

x 31

I days

Solve for V

V x (4.300 Illf'S)

-20

L

I.

0.05

o'V

lI7J x 10" L.

For 1111' """,Iitm {'"iN. n,e pla,,!'s aerallon period is the number of hours thatlhe wastewater is aeratl!d d unng tho> act"'ated-sludge p"""""" This equals Ih.. hydraulic detention hme of Ihe biological ",actor: 0

V

-

Q

,117.1

33.75

>

~

Ill" I.

0.12day

IO"...!:..

,'V

"

example/9.S Use 01 SoUds Relenlioo Tlnl! 10 Calculale Sollls Processing Us"'g data provided from E~ample 9A, h
solution A,;.sume Ihatthe amounl of solids proces..
33.75"

lit...!:.. ~ day

(200

mgTSS mgTSS _l00 ) x L I.

(-#£-) Img

J,375 kg primary solids per da)

lVe are not prm'ided "'ith the concentration dllference of suspended ""lid, across Ihe "",,,ondary sedlmenlation L\nh. so we Cdl"",t delermllle Ihe amount 01 secondary solids produced daily ill lhe ""me n",nner t""t we u""" for primary "",lids. Howe,·er. careful ""am"l.lti
I day~

VX ---

1.173 X 10"1.>< (I.JOOmtSS)

Q",X w Q .. x X~. Sol,'e lor QwXw. whkh equals ,I,·IM kg "",,,ondary dry solids per day.

9.6 S
R8.ATING Sa..IOS RETENTlQ\l Tl/vIE TO MICROflIAl GROWTH RATE You may h.w" alr",dy notf."d ,lldt th" inv""", of SRT ha, 'he unib of day'. Reme"'be"ng fro'" Chapt"r 5 the ddit"tion of 'he 'I~"'fi( srowO' ",t<. (If n"emorgani,n~,. '1

I'-X

(9.12)

ThL' expr""'ion can be arrangf."d 10 "'h e for 'h" specille growth rate, 1'-:

'.

(9.13)

X

Equation 9.13 ,llOw, tha' the ,p.rific grol\ th rate (units of day _1 >equab the ""'-"" of bio"''''''' pr(lducN m tI,e aeration I>.",s (kg MLSS proJuced per day) divid.,j by 'he mas,olb;"ma,., p"""",t ,n 'h" reac1,.. (kg M LSSl. Remember thai SRT refers to the a,-"r"ge ',m" a mleworg"nis", 'pends in 'he acli, ated-,iudge pmc"", belore it is expelled, or "a,,ed, from 'he syslem. If a treatm"", pIa'" opera'or wa"ts t(l ma,ntainlhe ,amI' eonce"ltat;on of b,nn ...." in ,"" biological r"aclor (,ha, is, ).\ 'he opera'or \\'ould hav" to ,,-aste th" ""me voiume of s<>hd, per d"y (Q",X w V) tha, are produced by micmbi.>l gro\\"h (,.), Equatio]~s 9.13 and 'J.lll are 'hu, related. In facl, lor a completely mixed acti, ated-,ludge p"-.ce,;,, the SRT (which i, con,rolled by 1\ asling "'lids) i, th" m'he a,-erage 01 'he 'pecific gro\\'th rat" of the micronrg.] ni,n~"

h"''''''''

(9.14) The r"lat;()J~ship ,11O\\'n ill Equa'ion 9.14 is importan' for a d..,;ign engi"eer ""d piant opera lor beeause it ,ell, us th"re is a ailimf ,-alue of SRT. Bell''' thb eritin
nu,

15R~~n '"

1'-....

-kJ

I

(9.15)

""d k.J ,,-ere defil1ed prev,ously in eh"p'l'r 5. NI'''l'r design ~ biolog,cal treatmelt p""""'" "'here ,lie SRT Ls equal 10 'he SRT ",,.,! In I.\cl, many treatml'''' planl' a", d""igned for an SRT 'ha' L" 2-20 tim'" gted'l'r than the SRT""". ~.

F(X)[)-T0-M1CR(X)RGANISM RAno TIle rate of fcOO mlrndudion (BOD loading) L" lars"ly fixed by the f101\ rate (Q..) and BOD (5,,) 01 the influent, Tl.., "i1.l'of the mico'Nal popu1.'t~ll\i''''JUdI'o t"" pmduet of th" MLSS (nr MlVSS) mllcl'nlra~on ;n 'he b,oI,'!)i""l "'''dot ( Xl and Uti' ",aclt" volume (VI. E.lrlier "''' sta,ed ,l~ll nperating "'perience in ",,,'itt< Chapler9 W""tewatl...... Stonnwat". CoIIoctil>:l, Tle_, FIesoorce Flecovery

,,,,all,,,,,,1 plants ,uggbb ,h..t .\llSS oo"""nlr,Hi,,",, in ,h" re.l.clo",h<",1d b" m"inl.. ,11 I",..., rangi:'g fl\.,,,, 2,0:10 to 4,000 mg/L Too I"" =""Ira,ion, (I"", ,han 1,lXlO mg/Ll mav l"ad 10 poor ",Uhrig. and todary d."ifier ,.",erflo" and e"c"""i,'e o"yge" ""lull'e1,,,,,nK Anolher ""'y Pl\)C..", desigrl paraml'ler (b&id", SRn i, reft>rred ,(\ as ,h" food-to--microorgarlism /FlM) ralin I, C.ll' a ko "" ..,,,,d 'oe.alen! t,., Ihe BOD l""-d,,,S r"'e dl\ id"j by the Illa,,; of MLCO in ,he r"'et..... TI,e 800 lo.>ding ",.,(kg BOD/n, '-dl y) islhem.h",f food ,ha,ellt>
",,,j

19.16)

F,M

F/M hasunitsofkg BOD/kg ML%---day. Remember"'g fmmChapter4 ,heddinilion of h yd,aulie re,ention Ii"", 10 V 'Q), ,he F I :VI ,atio ,-,," aL"., be ",rillen ..,

F M

S~

/9.17)

'"

Rele""'g back '0 Table 9..., S" and Q" are1argely fixed by local demographics ,ueh a, popula,ion, "'&lllh, a"d ,he mix of r""ide",ial and mnune,dal e'tablislu"e",s in a conununill'. I\'ote Ihill ",a"'r wnser\' alion measures \\ ill no, reduce ,he mass of food entering Ihe system. lVa,er n,,~ser,allon ",ill redu"" Q,. bu, ,he ,.,.;uhing S" ",ill inc,,,,,se proporlimally. Remember also tha, the cm,centration 01 micro"'ga"i,,,,, ;n Ihe biological re.l.ctor (Xl L' co"lrolied by hm, much ",lid, ,he ope,a,,,, " ..,t",,_ Thu" a particular react", "olume (V) can be ",Iect"-'
exam p Ie I 9.6

Cak:ulaling tile F,.,., Ratio

Delennine the F/M ratio (in unils of Ib BOD,/lb ML<;S-dayl, u,ing dala pro"id"-'
solution Remember ,ha, by definit;"n,

FM

Qx Sn

---

hV

O.5A

(13.75

x

llr~) x (31~)

(I.JOOnt55) x(4173)( Ill" L)

kg BOD; kg MLSS-day

0,511

Ib BOD; Ib MLSS-day

Note ,hat cO""ert"'8 u"it, of F/M ralio lrom n,etrk to Engli,h unil' reqllirl'5 nO cOl",,,,,ion factor, Mau,", ,he nlaS> un,l i, in both ,he nUlllera,or and d"n"m;na'or. At"" be ca,elul ;n your unit;; for F I M, because the d"n"minator L.... " ha"e unil, nf ML'iS or M LVSS,

9.6 secondary Tleallll!lll

Relalia .... hipaf Sa&d. Relenlion Time (SRT) and food-tooMicroorganism (f/MjRalio

0.10..(105 soutCE" _ _ - J . " , " T ~

oI",pooll

EquaTion9.1 f> .ho"" Ihe F1M ratln i, re.dly a feed"'g rat". n,.. 1m,." Ih" F/M ralio, Ihe low"r the feeding rate, the hungrier Ih" m,cm· nrgal""n., and II", more efficient Ihe remO\,,1. Likiowl"', if Ihe SRT i. lo""red, thenperalor" in be wa>l"'1'\ ,ludlJl' and de.:rea,ing Iheir sol ids in,enlnry (d""rea.ing X). Examin.•tinn 01 Equatlnn 9.16 .how, thai in Ihi. ca."" w,lh lower SRT and lower X, the F/M ratIo will increa"". Our e,.unirot""wf F I M w ill "nt go ink,addilional detail H,,,,',,,·er, readers n'-"'gic"l reactor (X) inc"",-....,. B"cau,,, Ihe inmnllng fn.-.d (5" lim"" Q,j is ...-.1 mnlmlled by Ihe pl,Ull 0p"ralor, exami"alion 01 Equation 9.11> sho\\". Ihallhe FjM ralio would d"",..,ao;e. At Inw F1M ralios, Ihe microorgani,m, are m.lim.linro in Ih" dealh gro"1h pita ... nr endugenous-growlh phas... meaning they are .Iarved and Ihus ,'el) emdenl at BOD rem.wd!. BffdU"" 5" l' reldm'ely en"slanl for dOIll~tic w a,t"" ,,"d llff.'Iu,,", Iher" are limils on ti><' I...."ls 01 X Ih"1 a r""dorcan ,upr"n, maiHt"'MI'''' of a low F 1/1.1 r,ltin requIres either a very ,mall flow or " ,ery l.uge lank ,·olume. In either case, thIS l"ad, 10 a long hydraulic residenc" (a"ralion) lime. 0p"r.lting an activated-sludge plam at low F/M rati", i, lermro Hlended .er3Iion. n,e msl 01 op"r.llio" and ",aime""nce l, high for large ~.nk "olu "''''', ", extended ""ration is largely limilN to 'y"en" wilh .mall organic l,,,,ds (for ",,,mple, at mobile-home p",b and recrealional facililies). AI high F1M r.llins, Ihe n\lCl'O<'rga"i"n~ are n""n!.linN in Ihe "xpo· nem,al-gm" th pha",,_ These .-.rganbn.~are mnre f....-..:! ".turatro, ",e~n ing Ih...re i, an ""cess 01 ,ul",trale, "" BOD "",,<,,",,1 i, I_ efHdenl. n,i, approach is t"rmro higll-ll/I~ acl,,,,,I,,j ,jll.lg.-. In thi, "pp",",ch, hIgher MLSS con"emralion, are employed. 0;0 a .honer lwdraulic residen"" time is achie"ed, "nd ,maIler aeration Mnk "olutH"" are required. In ~ddit,on tn influencing BOD r"mO\ al elfidenC), n", ....,Iechnn .-.f an F/M ralio aH""ts Ihe ,eltleabilily of the sludge and Ihus the efHciency.-.1 TSS remo,,,!. In genera!. as Ihe F/M ralin decrea,es, th... ,ellieablilty .-.1 the ,Iudge incre",es. Slarving n"c"''''g"ni,ms flocculate ar.d thus "'Ille \\"ell, while th,,,,e ma"'lained al hIgh F/M rai,,,, form buoyant fil.lmenlOu, growlhs, ,,·h,d, "'I~e p"'... ly, a mlldilion lermro ,jlldg,· b!ljkJllg.

Il,,,

",ll

SETTUNG CHARACTERlsnCS OF AGIVAT!D SlLOGE Design .-.1 ,ettling clarifiers is similar 10 Ihat.-.f primary clarifiers, ex~"'pl Ihal the hvdraulk delentlon rales and o"erflow rat,.; reflect the lad Ihat the f"'rtici"'- are ,,,,aller Ihan in primary settling. The effidency of .ettllng in Ihe second"ry clarifier l' i"f1ueru:ed by Ihe 1.1"8"'" In which Ihe MLSS f1occulal"" (lh.ll is, Ihe ab,lily of II", MlSS to 'lick t,'gelh",r 10 lorm a larger tH.", 01 ""nides). 11li, f1occulalion cap.leity is low"-'SI in "'-f"'nelllial-growth ph ...e p.-.pulalion, (lllgh F 1M ralio), incre...es in d",,"ning-growlh pha", f"'pulalion, hnt",rmroiate F/M ,alio), and is highesl in end.-.genous-gmwth plMse f"'pul.llion, nm, F/M ralio). Chapter9 Waslew.llr ..... stonnwatl.'f". Collect..., Treatmenl., Resow"" RecOlferY

exanlple/9.7

Relalilg FIM 10 Aerallon Talk VollJ11e

The ,"-l di,,-<;()l~ed >n!id, in U"" plant influent i, Jl}) mg/L. and the ""ncentralion i>f tOlal di,,..,h ed ",lid, e"iting the aeration ba,in is 3,3fll mg/L The BOD, i, 150 mg/l mea,u,ed after pnnwry Ireal",ent and 15 mg/l e.• iling Ihe pl~nl Toul nurogen le"eb in Ih" plant are appro,im.Hely:JO mg NIL If the F 1M ratio b 0.33 lb BOO,/lb ML%-day. ""lim.,te Ihe hydraulic retenilon li"'e of the aerat'on ba,in, if th" total planl flo.... i' 5 mmion gallOl.
solution [\ote lhal lItis proble", ,tate",ent provides a 101 of e"lra mat~,al,so "'ade'" ",u,1 und""'land ihe order of '·driou. un,t proces...,,; in .• "·af BOD, e",ling Ihe prim.ary .....Jimenlat,on lank ('" hich thu, enter,; Ihe a"ralion b.l'in). TI.i...alue i, S..

F M

033

Ib BOD; lb MLSS-d.• y

Q x 5" V x X

(150~)

Q " V ( mg \tL'>S) x 3.lXXl l

Q."V 6.6..· day. and bec-au,e Ihe hydraulic delention lime equals V IQ. Ihe delention tin.e (lIJ equals 0.15 day or 3.n h. The .iz" of the aeration basin. can Ih"n be found from kno" ledge of the d""isn now (..... Q) M Ih" plan!: V Q x 0.

There are t "'0 r"'<;fl'" for thi> b"ha, ior. FiN, f10cru Ial.'" i. aida.:! by the pr"""nC'e of micrcb,al-prootred 'lin'" (poty",-ccharide gum,). "hich help, th" partid"" .tick IOgeth"r. SIi",e i. pr,lduced Ihrough Ihe ,'Urilio" of 'li"'e lay"r, "n the zoogle~l ma''''''. Sit",,, I~yer,; are m{)';1 abundanl ill populations gm",n under the e"dose"ou, pha.. .. and are lea,t abund.,nl ,n e"l"'"enllal-pha.s.e populalion•. Set....,,,d. a. ",e d"""ribe.:l in Ihe pre" iou. chapler. t1.-"",ulal,,'" ls greatest under """ditions "here !",rtides can be ea,ily brought logMher. I"acll ..e. endog~n''''-'rpha.sec"ll,beha,·ea.s ,impl~ conoids and flocculate ",ell. Acli,·e. highly mot,le part ides characteri.'lic of e>: I",,,,,,nlial-plt""" l-'0pul~liO/.. (lugh F/M ralio) t~nd 10 flocculate I-'"orly. If you plac" ",nle aCllv~ted ,ludge in a f.fKXl "'l graduated cyl",d~r and watch lho! ,ludge sett;" o"er lime. you" ould four 7.0""" of "'lIling. Ne'" Ih" top of Ih" cyli"der, you would ol»e"e disc",t~ "'tiling, ",hid. i, typical of 1"" particle c,..,central"''''. III thi~ >-nn", the partides ,etlle~lon"according 10 Sloke.' law. Bel1ealh thlS, you ,,"ould nbs.e",,·e no<:c"lenl .eltling. Here th~ part,des """I"""" dormg sediment'lliOl~ and Ihe .... mple i' slln relali"e1y d,lute. Th~ third zon~ Is ",.lIed hindered .•eltling. He,.." a.< the ",lids concentralio'Ls increa",. inlerp~rtkl~fore"" hinder ""t!ling of n"ighboring pMtides. You can actllJ.1l y ol»""'e Ihe parbd"" ".'Itli ng a~a unil." nd y'" ol»"n~ "snIidliquid interfMe. The fin~l zone. called (o"'pre,.,io" setlling. ocw", lI"ar!l", ooltom of lhe cyilltder and i., i,ible as lime p"'''''''. Here lhe co""entralion of ",lid, i, no" larg~, '" II", d"wn"",d mo"eme"l i>f ,,'ltds i. opf""""'l by the upward movement of ",aler. In this ca"'. "0 ",uhng can occur until" aler i. compressed from lhe .ludge.

,,,,,*,,,,,,

9.6 secondary Treallll!lll

,,,,t

"

Flgure9.11 Detern~n,tionof Sludge Vol" me lnde~ The 5\'11, """"unxl to d<.'lcrmllw ,he
lnlerprek:lt;on of Sludge Vol .....e lod"" (5VQ

Valuo of SVI

Sot!k>allililyolth<> SIudgo

0- 100

G"",j

1ID-::'!iO

'\""1'~lble

',200

Poor

A ,e,mro the sludge volume inde~ (S\1I\ L< performed at the lre.l",elll pl.nl to Jelen"i"" the >eUleab,litv of Ihe ,Iudge. The SVI i, the \'olume (in mU occupied by 1 g MLSS(dry ,,-eighl) aft... seulmg for 30 min in a 1,000 mL graduated qlinder (Rgu .... 9.11l. n,e units of the SV] Me mllg. Another w.y to ,J"nk of the SVI IS Ihal if i. the percen' ,-olume """UpiN by .Iudge inan MLSSSdmple. It tim, tell')'"" h"\\ well your ,Iud ge j, J 10 inll>rprellhe ,~Iue of SVI in lerm, of how "ell ,ludge "ill . .ettle. l~ru ".,ming dl.lr""teri. begin to I)'''' and su!>seque",ly become foo..:! Inr other. hrgher orga"i"'l5 such as stalked eili.•t", and rotile.... Dunng endogenous respir~lion. lh., biological ..~1iJ, appear "ery de"'" ("", the SVils \'e')' lo",}. A common occurre"ee i" an aelir'ated-logy of Ii,e read"r ~nd n",} fa",,,. lhe prto.en'" of Ihese d i,perer .urface bal~. Appa",,,'''-, te~cl, leature; thai encnur.'ge Ihe ",Iecti"" 01 di,J'<'-""'ll n"cardiofonn, '" a cl",nl-..",] and ,etlleallle bj,tngie.JI floc resuh in grNler for f"""'ing (Jenkins, 2OO7l,

"""m

1/,,..,

el"""'"

9.7

Modificatioos to the Activated-Sludge Process Opera lion 01 Iheael,,,aloo--n"e"lio"al a
Chapler9 Waslewatl...... Stormwat". CoIIocIil>:l, Tr"aImI!!II., FI!!soorce Fle
bamples of Process Modificotions Modeto tile Conven~onolA
Com"nlio",,1 amv~too • Iudg~

Pri"",ry e1ftue'O' .nd rdum .cti\'~'<.'d .lud8~'roin,rnjlJC<-'\:I ,t he.ld of ~"".1Mr, b",;in The .,.".01>00 i. prm~dod in. nonumloT111 "",ooc.,-m·",.,he Ionglh 01 Iho I.>ol os more aer.lioo i• ,e'lu,rod "Ihe beglOmo8 "I' the 1.1nl, .inco Ih~ """"nle h,dlOg e. htghe. Ih"", I>."",u", the IIOD i. rem",·oo ~lon8 the kog'h of the""""oo b".10

5t~p

ModlflC,ti«> whe"", prirn>rv ,I.lnfi""effl..,ot l. iotm:lueed .t ",,·.,,-~I point< ,long the oc'glOmng of the .""ation ro,ln. The peal o'ygen dem.md i, th"" """" ''''enlydistnbulod throughout the ..,r.,lwlO '~nl. 1\",,~lwlO l< unilcmn aloog the length of the ""r~lillO b,,,m.

leed ~or~tion

Cool~cl '~1b,h,l...n

The~eraboob,,-.In

l. "--ramloo in'o. '~1b,Ii1..lI,~ zone r-.1I0",-'ct zono fir
Exton.:lod ••r.bon

SlmiL>. '" con,",,,lm,,,,1 ,elm,1ed sludge p.hm,v cLu-'iier l. ",u.1I1'eli",:",,'ro. SRT "' v"')' IA>g (20--30 <1.->,,,). ~nd h>'draulic detention limos'Te ck><" to I <1.->1'. L:sed pnm.lrily by "",,11... mmmun".."..
.,c"P'

rL""'"

O,ldol,oo dilch

().,-al ,eactor whe", wastL....... I." mov",.,1 ,obti\-c;"· h'gh \·olocillc... Return .>e,;......'\:1 L' r=-.:led b.>ek tn beginmng nl lhe rc.>ctn,

,Iud~

Fill and draw ,c.K1or< \I'hcTe~ mlO,mum of Iwo rroct"", are used While or", re.>ctm", Ix-lOg filloo. ,he nth"...e....I"'"' n.,""""';og lhe b,ologic.... r=tinn•. ""~lOgnl
dfidency and c""t of "perati"n. Vui"", reactor mnfigurati"ns are d\'d,lable h .... Table 9.9). edch "Ith its ""n ,'" of adVdnlag"" dnd de,.•dvdnL1ges. Th~ two IMsic I~,- are plug flo" dnd cmnpletdy mixed fio", re~ctors. Plug flo'" redct,,,... oifer higher tre~tm,,"t effidency Iha" completely mixed flow redctors bul .•re less able to lMIldle sp,,,,,, i" the BOD load. Other modificd""''' of the p'''''''s d'e bd<&:! "n lh~ ""'''''er in which ",,,ste and o'yge" dre i",,,lduced to th~ sy,,",n.

911

MEMBRANE BIOREACTORS

One of the fd"""t-growmg "'8m~nts of biological" aste" at~r tr<",enl p"'lC~'''''' "nd "dt~' ,""uS<' is th~ """ of membran" biorextors (M BR"). n'ey ~re dIs<> appropriate fm deployme"t in "''''e.... "'h~re lh~y can be used to ~"'lfdct dnd 'eu,,", "'ater that mnlai,~s nutriellt, upstream 01 a contrali>....:! plant, "hore the" ater d"d nutrie"" are of u".,. n"s prnc""s is referred to as ""''''~r mining. MBRs combi,,,, Ihe sUSf'el"'ed-gr"'dh acli"atoo-,,]udge pro-cess prwiou,jy describ&! ",ith the ",;cr"filtr~ti"" ",e",brd'''' p"lC""S (discussed io Chdpl~r R). Figure 9.12 displays t",o types "f p"lC","' c""figurdt,ons: (I) Iilr ",j)"nerg"i-m,,,,/mm. prO<>'<; dnJ (2) II,,· ..x/a,wl-II"·",l",,,,. procrss. For b<11h pmcess flo" configurations, the m,'ed Itqunr in the de,ation ba,l" b filtered through Ihe ",embra"e, ,ep",ali"g the binsnlids fmm the em uent "ater. In th e ,ubmerg...:! -m"mbra"e process.a vacuum of less than 50 lPd is appE...:! to the membrane that 9.7 _licalion; to Ill!! ActIvated-SIudgI! I'ro
Flgur119.12 TwoUio....lor M.mbranoProcos.oo. (aj ~mR wh.", lhe n"""bra"""a", imn"""-'0" ,.."i".(b) MllR wh= th. membra""" a", ext."....,llo tho acr.'"", ;",,.;,,.

.,- '", f- .. •.' • , ·• . • .---_._ ......._.• --_....._.. ,

W.st_ater

....

:.~h 0 •

..

•

•

. 0 _,. ~

,.

_. --

,(t•

,.,

--

• """'' '00 basin \ . t •• • ,•• • • • WostllWiltDf •••• " • • • •••••• • • •••

· .'. ·

,/ ,

,/

,1-'

Activalod sIudgo Mra..

fille.... the ,,- .ter through the membra"e ,,-hile lea d"g the bic""Ed~in the aeralion ba'in. For the external-membrane sy,tem, a pump i, u",d 10 pre""uri"" Ihe"'i xed liq uor al Ie,.; than 100 kPa, and Ihe water is filtered Ihrough Ihe me",b,.ne while the b,n"oEd, are ""nt back to the aeration basi n. In both sy,le"", w.,ling 01 ""'lid ~ is done di r""lly frolllihe aeralion ba'in. MBR~ ha,-e """eral ad, a"lages o"er COlli em",,,,,1 activ.ted-,iudge sy,te"" ITch"b.lIIoglous d aI., 2lXJ3l. The u,", of MBR, dimi"al.... the "eed for seco,>.:!al)' darif",r~ or fil""r" The MBR, call Op.".lte al much higher MLSS loadi"g', "hich d""re."", the ~i7.e of lhe aeral,,'" ba-in; can operate .t lo"ger SRT" leading to iess ~ludge produclio,,; and can operale al lower DO conce"tratio". with the potential of "itrilication/d..ulrjf]calio" al long SRT~. The MBR requir.... about 4{l-{,(ll"'rce"t l.....~ land use f<>otprillt than a cOlwelltio"al aClivated,Iudge pl.nt, " hicl' i.....peeiaiiy import.",1 in urban areas, where ia"d i' a premium and f'CIpulations are e'panin more disl"'l'i<.'\:! microorgani~ms, and the reiU 11ing biological floc. le"d tn be sm.ller Ihan obtained from gra __ il) ,e1tling. For an example of a f.cilil}' Ihat ha~ r&lllzed "",me of these benefil', see Figure 9.13 and Figu.... 9.1 I .nd Tabie 9.10. MBR, dn have senne di""d,."tag...., including (1) higher capilal c""ls, (2) Ihe penenlial Inr shorl membrane life due to membrane fouling and higher energy coqs resuhll'g from mlldul.. a"'''I,'''', .,,,d (3) Ihe operalional is,ue Ihal "'embranes "eed 10 be deaned "" a cyclic b."s. In add,lim', a mor.. ,kHled operati"" qaff i, needed i" ca"e of problems wilh plant dislurbances, "IBch can upsellhe planl operation , .. ry quickiy.

,"'I

Chapler9 W""lewall...... SttKll1wat'" CoIIocIil>:l, T,ealml!!ll, FIesoorce Flecovery

Flgur.f9.13 A","l Vinl =pI<,y" rnL'Illbr.,.., Th" rl.nIC'O,""i~oleigk l",in... conl.:lining 13 c _•• nd MCh c.>.""-"!e of 32 mernb<.me mOOub. n.c t:nl ...". In,t1.llfv de>ogncl~' tn"tI9,fnlm lday (maximum montllly I\owl .n.:! "'.., upgraded

b;m.,,,"',,,

00<""""

;;~~~~;:~~.=;:~~.::t f>IljOl m'/d.l\" (I""k-dly Iklwl or ",.,'<1<-",'."-" With adM.", or tf><, MBR,- tho ph,"teIy .\I.l!"-'rO.'fIl ... tho "'.,.,
cLu;f.",.-" -= ro, Irng<.. . "'JU".-ro. ~yolDo,;dW_""ndl.

FlgullI f9.14 .'l.mh,."" C.,,,,tt. Being LO"'ered inlo II•• Aer.lion B,.in.t the T..,-er... City, Michig.n, IV"Iow.le, Pl.n!. jPI>ooo,,,,",",yol Do,;d W_""ndl

9.10 Co....,ari.on of Effluenl Cha..,cteri.na of Membrane Bioreodar (MBR) ond Conventional Wa.lewaler Tr. .lmen! allhe Trav.....e City (Michigan) Wo.eWCII.... TrealmenlPlanl p,..",,,,,,",,,,, 01 Coo__ioml Act" 3Iod -SiJ Plo.. Bduo I........"'''''' 01 M IlR

< 2m S/l

2-" ms/L

I mg/l

ll--20rns /L NH,-N

F=lmldorn...

,-0.113 ms/l

OJ0--4n ms/l

<05ms/l

5O-2flOdu (cotmy-Io,minS

uni~)/lm mL

9.8

Attached-Growth Reactors

In comra,t to >u,pende.:l-gr.'\\ th ,rea,me", sy,tem>, dlscu",""" i" the pre, iou, ""-'Ction, mic,norganc'Ilb can also be aUadl&:! (or fixe.:l) a ,urface dur"'g biolngic-al'",al1nenl. Table 9.11 I""";des an ""erview of spedfic 'ype; of attached-growlh p,oc"""",, identifying some advantages and disadvantag'" a"...",iate.:l with each of ,hem. In the trickling filler, primary em"enl i, "trickled" ,,,er and pen:nlll'" thn'''gh a 1-3 m de,,!, tatlk filW \\ i,h ..,,,,e media. >Iag, or pla",c med,a (termed the filler bed), An ac,i,,, biological g"""h form, on ,he ,olill ,url.•ce, (,he acti,'e biofHm ,hid,ne". ,ang'" from 0.07 to 4.0 mm) and db<;<>l\'ed organic malle, (BOD) diffu"" from the wa,e, phase in,o ,he biofilm a. ,he "'btewat..r trickle, dow". Design of lricklmg fiI,e" i. b,bed on ., max"num allowable hydrauli" loading (5-10 m'/m'-day) and a ma,,;mum organic loadi"g (250-500 g BOD ",'/dl. The organic IOdding must be I""ited <0 lha, the sukt""'e uptake capabilities of ,he 'y,tem are '"'' "",urated (which \\,o"lll in poor remo,al efficiencyl. The hydraulic IOdd mu" be limi,ed ,otha, ,he fille, is "'~, flooded. f" thi, case, pond,,'g muM occur, " Inch ",nuM limit oxyge" tran.fer ",to ,he sy,tem. TridJi"g filte", are a \'''l)' appmpna,e ,echnology (al",,!; wIth ",a,te stabIlization pond,) in many part> of UnIted Sta,e, and the ,,'mId because of ,heir 1"", e"ergy and material ,equi,eme"b atld reia,i,ely fe",er o!-"'rahon and maintenance r"'lu;,e",enb.

'0

,,,,,,,l!

9.11 Attached-Growth PrCKuses Used to Treor Wastewater The ""ree pmce,,,,. me conhgtJred in ",.eral opeciFic type> al,eoclaf>, which ha.e d iffer",,'ocMmtage. a nd d I>advantage,

t'.: ",,-
"",t ing

Trickl mg fi lie",,; bIota",e",; biologlC.1 conta,">r< tROC.)

le<.< """rg)' ""1ulrod; "mplorol"","on and fc'w,-" cquip",,-'" I m.:l inte,,,,nc~ need, th.m ,u,!",ndcd-gmwt ~ 'Y"tene" bel "" ro",,,·er)' fmm .hock tOXIC I,,,.h than
Submerged ROC" .,."..000 "',m. w,th
I""",• .....J treatment c. f"C' ".; gre.> tor p"""""" >t.:Iblhtv: m.:luccd ",Hd.I""dinS' on th~ >OC'rifi."f; "" incro."" in n!"'r,t.m .md m.:lmt~nancecco;",.

Upllow,,,,,:1 downf)"", p.-.ekro-bcod T'roC1O" .,nd fluidIzed-bed ... tlul do no< u""

Sm,lI ph)'
'y""'m,

Su'p""dcd-gmwt h ~",ith

fixod film I"'dJng ~_oo

att.:lchcd-gm"1h aerobic

pr"""""'""

,,,,t<,,,,

"",,,,d ."'" danficd """

Chapler9 Waslew.tlr ..... Slonnwall!f". CoIectm, TleaImenI,

_ct!

.,n"

RecOlfefY

~ On-sUe WastewalIJ Systems' The Sep!jr Tank

"",,,Ie".'er

Appmxim.l!ely ",...-Ih",i of the in the United St"ltS IS lrffitoo using on-"te sySletlt... n"""" 'ySlellb are designed lO reduce the ml: of ""p'-,.,ure 10 pathoge'"'''''' nlher pnllul.'InlS (for example, TS5 and BOD) bu. are not d ....g""'1 d,lI1 optin\i7.ed for Qu,nenl ""no. "I. n", n.., ""semen, of mKi Ie ".",leWd Ie< Ir&Hmenl 'yqen.. i" ulld"rgoing a "luft frorn 01'" ba able lOaccommodate lransiem loading alld long idle lim"" (for ""."ople, when 110m""" llefS dreon ,-""at;on or are "'''so''''l .,.,ideo", as l~ comn""",n ~o,,'" ",-.a,t,,1 .lr&l.~). TI"")' must al'" I""e 10" cOlnpl".'ity becau... they mu,1 be m.ulItan,...:I by hmnoo" n"'" ",]u, oflen 1\",,, hUI" oper,,lim" and m"i"le"",,,-,, """"nen"". A ""PI'c tank romp,i_ a ...,,1...:1 t.,nk ",nh an in I'" a "d outlet (Figure 9.151. W "-"t'" 110'" by gra" ity inlo Ihe ta"k a,l
,\ed.

='\

_Jhi

/

-~,

--

"""'~

~I_ZOllO)

bi1I deg,,,de or "'I,'ill son", addiliollal pollul,o". In II'" ta"k, solids """lie oul by gm"'ly all p,oduclion of ,,-al"", ga', ,Iudge, alld a !.lyer of floating ""''''. TI,e ",UIro "'hd' gradually build up al Ihe tank bolto", and musl be periodically ",,,,,,,.&1. A "'plic lallkcan be ';7ro h,,,.,,.j OI'lhe numbero! bed,mn,' (001 b,nhre'O",,) in a hOI'''. O"e ""y 10 ."li"",Ie lhe, i7.., of.., ptic tank """"""'ry fora II a I ho,,""hcld would be I" '" ultiply lhe lIumber of !Jej....om' by 150 gallo"... p"r bedn-.o'" 1"" day, and II"''' muhiply tillS number by 2 '" 31oa11o", for 2 0' 3 days ",M'lIon time in lh" unk. TI", u"" of walt',-",dllg del ice; ,,-m imp...."e tl""y~lem"""onna"c,, beea....,., Ih"y """"h in 1""8"r ""'id"""" ti",,,,, f'" p"-,jlulanl~ ill tI", lank "nd ...."me Ihe I"ochfi"ld is not o"""I.-....:l&l. Whal ,i7'" "'plic U"k would YOti "",,,,,,n,.,,,d 1m a Ih...,.".!Jej,oom hou'" a,,~um"'g lhe a,·"ilable unk ,i"", are 750, 1,1lXl, 1,2lXJ, a"d 1,500 8"110,,,1 A,.-.u"", you "'i,h 10 h",-" 2 d"y~ ill r",ide"""lllne lor lhe poliutalll~ in lh" lank.

""'8"

solution ) bt,dr'K.-n' '" 1511 g .. ll,,~ relnK,m

2

~ ~K)goll,,~

",,1""1 lh" I ,(OJ gallon t.,,,k which i, Ihe de"""l siz" a, anabl" 10 n",,,1 Otir d""ign guideli"",.

Agur./9,15

" ~~

-

-

Sepli
_ngwal

Septic Systems eo'i'11W3....,r.ep"-
9.9

Removal and Recovery of Nutrients: Nitrogen and Phosphorus

Secondary lreal"'''''l;5 "...."'ell"'...' "",d"'lUdle tn pmtect Ihe recei"lnS "'die" Add ;IIOMl ",mo,al or "I)' of pollutants, especidlly nUmgen (N) and ph""phorus W), i. acrompIL~h"<:l lhrough a yar;ety of physiched-gmwlh biological ~yslems can treat inorganic nit'''8en dn",n tn 1-1.5 mglL and ph""phnTUs 10 a~ low a~ fl.l mg/L (after filtration). DL<;5<,hed organic nit'''8en cnncenlralim~~ ",i] IsHU ,emain attl", ran&" of fl5-15 mgl L An e""e1len! ,,,,'iew of the hi~lol) of biological r~mn,al of nilrogen and ph""phoTUS i~ a,a,lable elsewhere (Runard, 1(X)li). A 'ignifJ.:a,1! fraclinnof pl",.,pl"''''' ". a"emo,ed in 'ome pa 'b nf the ",orld via "<"lIJrce redl>Clion bv "lin"naung it fmm "'-"1'" and deterg~nl~. Inte""t.'gly, up to 90 l"""e"l of the total "'Irog~n .",d 75 percent of Ihe 101.11 phO'iphoru; di-ehdrged fmm a housd,rud into a ,",nilary sewer L~ 'H"" foo nd in urine. M uch of lhi, isd ilUl Ihal sel"',ale u,i"e from fa.... and dual-",,,'''' sySlelll' that handle each "'."te Slream Composling t"il_ can also be designed 10 sep.uate urine from fee"". Th.,. are uo-ed Ihn"llJghoollhe "'....Id and can beC01Mrueted f,om roncr"'e

ree",

Class Discussion '.

...

&'> U""o=n"'i"~m",,~of

"',"I"""len~cda~aod

pa-.4"', f>l'o~phart.~;c "".,."o~ic .. """"~'......". W 0< a~u~ W t. 1.1;'-'1 a<.U Id n ""d U> ~e aJd r<....w i' U, 0 <~"" OI",~ calh;t. an
~e-TLh"'-'CJh"""m"ist'~"-"LI,II" ••",,-

_

Ung Ihe chemisl'}' of hum.l" urine i, hydrolysi.~(>f urea catalHed by urea",-!"",it"'" bac_ cent,alto identify"'g inno'" ali, e 1"00;<;"'" f,,, ,ecOv- lerla, ",h,,:h ...e ubiquitou~ in collectio" 'yslen" ery and reuse of lhe ,aluable nut,ienb found in Hydrolysis com'erb I mole of urea into 2 moles uri,,,, Human un,,,, contain, urea, am"" ...,:..., of anunm:'" and t mole of bicarh,nate. This inorgan,c anion~ (0 ,SO,' ,ro,' I, inc""8''''ic cat- increases lhe pH to 1>-9 and total NH, concenlralim, ion, (Na +, K-, Ca 2+, Mg'-j, "at ural organje mel.lb- to 123 mmole NH,--NIL In mnt,a~l, totalph",,phal"" dee,... ,,, 10 2.3 mmole f'/l, Ca'- 10 OJ oht"" (fm exa",ple, cilralel, and pharmaceultcl1s. mmol/L, and Mg'- 10 O.o.l mmoi/L Thi~ i, from R~ports of urine composition vary" idely III Ihe lileratur", Rep"""n'ali"e charaeteri>tics of fresh p",dpiLlt"''' 01 m",,,,,ab slJCh a~ struvde al>J u,ine are pH 6-7, ionic ,t,e"gth (O.I--{J,4 1\'1), u,ea hyd,oxyal"'lite (Darn eI aL. 2lXlll). (415 mmol1\/Ll, tOlal NH, (18 ",mol NH.-1\/Ll, Mg'- ~ 1\Ht _ ro; o (lOB mmnl!Ll, sof (8 n""oI/Ll, tOlal ph,,,+ bH,O _ Mg1\H,ro, 'liH,o",(SlTU"ile) phale< (12 mmol f'/Ll. 1'l/Ll, C,,'- (3 m",ol/Ll, Mg'+ (] mmol/Ll, and lI)ea1 011), -t- bt I ,1'(\ _ C-"lU 11'0, ),IOH), " nalural organic metabolit.,,; «20 m",ol/U (Udert + l~t £,0 I hydmx~-ap"ht,,) ela L, 2m3; s..ude el a1, 2007). Reeenl , ...",rch ,I",,,'~ thallhe majorily of pham",ceutic~lscOlbun"':l, T,eatrnl!!ll, FIesoorce Flecovery

blod: or m<>tic un.s that res.mble ceranHC loilets (Appliedlio n9. 11. Tn elead .. uthoroll hisbonkh.."'" orkingcom I"" Ii"gtn, let. Both Ihe unne .. nd composled leces be \..'-,;00 to amend agricultural soils.

c.,'"

9.9 1 NITROGEN 1\0l1h Ameriean tre..tmell a nd res«Jr"" "'c.... er~ plantstypically r"",i, e inll .... "1 nilroge" in the r.. nge 01 25-10 "'g N fL. Thr; ,-.. Iue can reach Ihe 1o", hutldreu rce r""",'ery pl .. nl. Slru"ile (Mg!\'H,ro,-f>HPl pr""ipilaliOll c.." err.de,tly cnmert I",,) don~n,,'e "'.. stewal.... nUlrienls inln .. gO<'>..! slnw-rele..", lertili7er (Johnslo" a"d Rich..rds, 200) ""lh lhe chemical reacli"" provided in Applic.. tlon 9.3, Appro," n",tely /0 percell of Ihe "on",.. It', portinn 01 .l micrnbal cen Ls n,trogen. Therelore, tI,.. grc>l\lh "f biolngical ",lids ,em",,,,, ,ome nitrogen from lhe di,,,,,I,,ed I" the particulate pha",. Howe,-er, this rem",-al 01 '''lrogen Ls "o"he,e ,ulfident 10 prot""l ,,,,,ei,-ing ",,,'er bodies Imm pollulion, Nilrifi~dliol\ the c",,..ersinn nf .. ",moni.. (NH t) In "iltlte 1-) .."d Ihen 'Htrale (KO,-), i, ..ccnmplLshed during "",,,,,d.. ry lre.. lmelll by Speci.. IiZN genera d Iilholmphie bacteria. Nilrosomoo,a, (and NJlro;:OCOCCII') b..cl ....ia cm\lert .. ",moni.. lNH,) 10 ,,,t,,le (1\0,'), a"d NilrorocllY (.. "d Nil M};l'im) bact"ri.. m,,,.ert Ililrile 10 nitr.. ,e (1\0,'). n'e nver.. ll reaclion for these t",o prc-.:e",,,,,, can be "rllIen iL~ Inllm",

,1'°

(9.18) II y"" work nul the Sloich,nmelry III [qu.llinn 9. IR, y""J w,lI find thaI .1.57 g 01 nxvge" .. re requiral tll mid;"£ e,ery 1 g 01 '''lrogen (.. , ,,). ['lu,ll;on 9.19 indud"" nnt "nl)' nilrificatinn 01 .. ",monia bUI .. I"" the inoorporalinn "f di,,,,h N inmg.lllic carbon and ""me nl the .. ",mnni.. illln biomiLs.s (" riue" ..s C,H. KO,); NH,

+ l.1lIi1O, -

(l,ll9!lCo, -

0.0196C,H,N01 _O,9R"O, + O.ll9
19.191

In Equali"" 9.19, onl) 4.52 II oxygen are requtreJ I,~ oxidi7e e, erv gr..", of "itrogen (asN). Th .. ,tnichinnldric "alue " In".er Ihan [qual~'" 9. III bec.. u'" [qu"linn 9.19 accounts. 1m ",,,,e an"non;.l being u"oo lor ",,,the,is nf new cells. [qu.. llnn 9.19 als<> ,how, thai Iilhnlmpl~c 9.9 Rl!fIIIVaI ..... Remvery 01 Nullie
P~hlKlls

",icmnrga,,,,,,,, oblain £arbon for Iheir cellular nla" nol fm", dL<,oil ed org.lnic caroon, 001 by con~erting innrga,uc carbon (di,,,,l~ed CO,)_ &)~t Equatio,,, 9.18 and 9.19 shOl' th", ""ne alkal."ty i, c"',ecau", of ffil"tituenb found in do"...."ic was~ .,uming the biooegrad.,ble organic ",a teri.,l (measu ,ed . ,CiIODlin" agen go.... ca" be ",itlen a, foll"ws; ConH,.,o,N

+ lONO,

- 5t'<, 'I""'

-

lOCO,

+ 3H10- NH, + 100H /9.20)

In Equation 9.211, alk.>h,,,'Y is produ£ed <-""lien as OH-l, and no d;ssoll ed "xygen is ",ritten m the expression. In t,eI, Ihe pr<,,,,,n£e 01 d is."oll ed oxygen w,ll inl"bilthe nilrate-reducing enzymes required fo, the de,,,'rification ,,,,,et,on. This occur> at di",oh-ed-<>xygen roncenlratl",,,, a, Iowa, 0.1 or 0.2 mgll Du,ing the design ~Jld operat"", 01 the biological ,eaclM 10 denitrify n,trale, the amouot of CBOD in Ihe w~,tewater " a crotical de<-., is Iimiling '" the waste "t,ea"" a ,,- ~'''' organic Slream (lor ex~mple, dairy ",aste) or chemical, (lor ex~mple, ",ethanol) can be added in carefully controlled amounlS 10 "Upp'lrl denilrification. Howe"er, the a",,,,,nl added lIIu,1 be carefully contmll...:l to ensu re lhal no lll'tr"aled ,,,,;dual BOD remai,~". M",e Ihan ,,,ne patenled melhod" are a, ailable 10 configure the biolog,cal reactor "urn Ihal nilwgen Cdn be ,emo,-...:I via nitrificahm and d en ~ ri fica lion reacti 0"". Figure 9. Ins Im",s the "'''''' co",mon1y usai proce." lenned U,e mod i/ied ludzak-Elting... IM lEl proces,. Here an ano,k zone is localed.tt Ihe begi,,,,,ng of Ihe biologic~l reactor. All the pmce,,,,,,, use a comb",alion of ~erobic ."d a n",ic zones whe,e Ihe biologkOil ,eacloY i"ron r.gure:lto ,enr>l e "'ga"ic carl><-.., (in theae,ob1<: and ~n<,-,1<: zo.-l, COlwert inorganic amn",nia nitrogen (in the a",ob1<: 7.
_ct!

Recovery

FIe

clod m",od I

Anoxic

Oxld.'ion

"'"II"

,,~

To
Flgu"/9,16 Modifittion of ,mmon;" 10 mlra'e occurs ,nd Ihe mlraleconlained '" ,he mhcd liquor .. "",'cled b,,,,k 10 'he fi"l anox", slage (,\noxid for
One key to biolngical nitrog"n ri e 10 inhibition by 10xic chemical. Ihal can find Iheir way i"lo a tre"tment plant. Compared ",th Iradili"nai "a..te"aler treatmen! or a plant that Ireat- BOD and ammonia nilrogen, Ihe nitfllying/de,ntrifying prnce",.e, have J>e.:.n found to have I",,,,, 100dl operaling cosls if one ""'\'ide,..; Ihe coo.l of a"ralion, .Iudge d,sp'"",l coo.l., and credih 1M relea,ing I"". melhane. Table 9.12 ,ummariz"" Ihi' information in delail. Sludge di'l""'-'l c""lS CT.'ble 9.12) are grealer ill COl",e"tional acti,ated .Iudg" !>eca",", theSRT i' lower. Remember that "'hen Ih" SRT i, h,gh, there i' greater "ndog"nou, respirahon, so more of the ,"""ulting ",a.le ,Iudge is oxidized duri"g Ihe treatment proces.., and 1"", .Iudg" L' produced. When f""er .olid, are produced from the biological reaclor, lhere ",ill J>t, les. sludge produced thai \l'ill require sludge digestion (and a rorresp""d ing darea'" 11\ energy re''''''ery vi.• methane prMUch<>l' in Ih" sludl';" d,g""ter).

9.12 Operotional Costs for Activoted-Sludge Practices Auumptioo> pion' How a120,OOOm'/dcry; infl
wi'" N i1riIicallon and OonrtJiIIcatioo Range of SRT (d»",)

12-ll.5

12-21

0-22

Siudgo d"p"""1 "',,' IS/day)

-

0\ ygcn fL'lic
Metha"" pmdocoon ,-redi' (S/d,>y> Tobl enol Nudge di'f"""'1 """I ..... 'Ion c.-.s! n",lIIa"" r"..Juct~'"crcd,ll (S/day)

71

9.9 Rl!fIIIValar
P~hlK\ls

Class Discussion A:I Gi',.nall~h.ohQ o.~,n

...

.... .1.

TaOl.9.l2.h,... ""uWyau opl'" "'" nt al.""'" ia:.a nJ.W< omi<; ' ... L " " rola"'J"" pro-..ecwn af humar hoa~> ar.d ..a'""<'1u1i'y "" ....'1a. ~r<. ,""ccwo')' in a naOil:".,.",-r
""'00

A".,,,,,,b,c ,ludge dig~lk", I'rro uce<; methane. d"d if Ies.~ ,ludge is p",duced, I",~ meth~ne ~l",,, ,11 be produclOd. This mdh~ne c~n be u hli7£d ~s~n e''''rgy "." rce tosupply h< nrelectricily. TIll, is ,,- hy !l'" cnn"enlin,,~lpt'flCf!S' Ii'led III T~ble 9.12 ~hnw, a higher "'ethan" production credit Ih~n Ih" nth"r proc"",;e", Readers ,hould ",,,,sligat,, whether lheir loc~1 "-~,tewat,,r I"".,tmenl pl~nt r""mer> methane thai" proouced t,~ u'*' lor he,lli"g or elect"dl} gen",rali"n. With future energy need' ~"d clunat", change upon u" ""'''y Ir"atmenl and r....-.ur.:e r'-'COI "'Y pl~"t~ ha,-e imple",,,,nt.,.j th'" ~uCl,es.~ful recOl'"ry .,nd u'*' nl g"n",rdt.,.j m"'ll",,,,,. H",,", ",,-er, technology t,) c o " , erl mdhane to elect"dly ,!ill produces CO" I>ec~u.", it is an e"d product of moeth., lIe combu'lion "ith oxyg"". Howe"er, CO, ha' a globdl w.. mi"g pol""ti~lIIMI i' 25 lim"" le,~ Ihan CH" 1" alllh..,., proc~
c"'"

9.9.2

PHOSPHORUS

Tr~diti"n~lIy, chemkals such as alum (AI,(SO,k. ferric sulfate (Fe,iSO,I,I, and ferroc chloride (FeChl ha,e t>t.",n ddd.ed to ,..,move phosphorus bj pl"ffip,lalio... All th,.""chemical, pl"ffipildt", di'S<'lI\'N poIyphosphal"" (d' illu,tralN h"re for .llum);

Al'- _ PO,'- _ All'O,.,

(9.21)

Chemicals are typic~l!y addN eilher during primary or ,econdary trealment. They Ihus gener~te a d'''micdl ~ludg'" in additi"n to Ihe sludge as<;()("iated "ilh Ihe r""peeli"'" Irealm",nl proce~",", Of mur>e, ""urce rNuction dcti"ili", ,uch a, prevenllng pho,phoru, u'"" i" del"rgenls '" r""o,,,ry nf urin", ca" reduce Ihe need for a porlion of this t,..,atmenl requiremenl, Biological can .ll", be u."', it "as detem,inN Ih~t ",nh~,lo<"e
1''''''''''''''

Chapler9 W""tewatl...... Stonnwat'" CoIIocIil>:l, T,ealml!!ll, FIesoorce Flecovery

-

~.-

f-

--

Rgu~/9,17

Confill"r.lionofa Iliologi.al Reactorlo Romo,'o

c!Iul!i«

To

rn.~

(lIsin!OC1ion

pooopooru. Inthoa....orool< comp.utIn.-'1\!, ph"'pn."to;'; ston.>d int"",,llly by phO.ph.lte-....culn1lating mlC«",rgaoisms. Ph""phon.Ls;' thus ",m(woo by com.",ting ,t from d,• ."j,'oo ph""phatc tn F"rt,culale phosphorus slom.:! in biologic.l cdl., whkh .'0 in tho ",-,-~mdatv c1.,rih",.

Act"", octiv.too .ILJdge

"""""00

Fnrlun.tely PAOs are pr"""n! ,,' waslew.te, lrealment syslem" TI,e) ha I'e Ihe .billly 10 lake up "olaIHe f.lly .cid, such a, acetk .dd when myge" .nd nilr.tes .re nO! present. It w.s found Ihat if PAOs ",ere firsl ."posed to.Il .n• .".obic 7.one (no oxygen presem) folJowe,J by an aerobic zone, Ihey would l.ke up phosph.le as Ihey grew on Ihe orgilllit· carbon in Ihe .erated zone of the biological reaLtor (f'igure 9. 17). TI,i, exIra ph""phale is slored in energy-rkh polyplk"'phale chain" ,,'hiel, are sub>equennv u-.l to I,,\..e up the "olalile f.U y .cid". This .b,lil}' t,) Ira,~"fer ph,,,phorus ill Ihe di.~"OI,ed aque(lu, ph.lS<' 10 Ihe p,lrticular microbial ph.", does not require chemical add,lion, and Ihe particul .•le phosphorus can],., removed ., ,Iudge and land applied to reu,e Ihe nu!rient.

,,-'1'.

A

lication/9.6

Pltospturus in Oelergerrts-Ap~ication of Policy to Achieve Sourt:e Rpdlw'ign 01 Nlllrjeot Inp"ls IQ Ihe EnylroQwenl

In lhe mid 19f>()", many of the n.tion', ,,'.,em'ays were r.pidly turning green and "uccumbmg 10 planl .nd algae gro"th. A primary reasoll for thi, impacl on ",.ter qualily was Ihe high level, of pho"l'hatiS, moe of ,,,,'eral m,.;''' pl.nt . Pho'ph.t"." h.ve trad,tionally ],.,en u,ed as an aeti,,, .genl ill I.undry and di"hwashe, delergenl, ... builder and ,cavenger of cation, fnund in hardll'.le,. They we,e ulilized ,n COncenlratinn, of 30-40 pe,cent of Ihe final produ~l. Because th" effluenl of Ihe ".ste",.ter lrealmem pl.nt" are dir""'lly di""h.l'ged 10 I"ke,;, ponds, and ri I ers, the untrealed phosph.I"'" are .,' ailable as a nulrient and can promote .lgae gm" th, cOlllribulillg to eulmphical,on. Hi<;/.orically, half Ih" ph .... phorl1'i inl'lll In L.h<, Eroe .lId Om.rio can", f,ml mu",,:i~l and industrial ",,,stew.le, ,ou,c".", of "hich 5070 percenl came fmm delergent" O,'e, half of lhe ph,.;pl",r... inpul to Ihe l'otoo,ac esluary al",

came fmm dele'genl' in munidP"'1 and ,ndustr,.l effluenls (Cong,,,,,,,io,,al Reporl HR 91-1 004, Ap,il 1,I, 1970). It was ge"erany agreed Ih.! dete'gent, accounled for aooulSO per~enl of Ihe ",aste",ale, pho>phoru., IIdlinn" ide (Han""ond, 1971). There was a gro,,'ing public COl"e,,,u, Ih.t In order In ,.ve lak", (like Lake Erie), pho,ph.l"." mu,t be banned from delergenl'" Givell Ihe challe"ges in remol''''g phosphal"'" u.""'g secondary ",,,,tewaler treatmenl.nd grs(lJIi,,,,i.,,, I"d .. Maryl.,nd, Ma,..,chusells, M, chisa n. Min n.,..ll.l, M,)n Llna,

",a,

9.9 _oI3f1l1 Rerovery of Nullie<\1!l: Nilr
~ New

!cpntioued)

P"""'yl,.

Ohio, Oregon, an;a, UMh, Vermont, V, rgini.. , W..,hinglnn, .."d \Vi",,,",,,,) banned the <..lIe of d,';'umlr,'r delgulJtnry fr.. meworks 10 "l"""''''e or ,roue" the amounl H~ml"l"re,

of phosphat,.; p."milled ; n laundry and d"h deterg"nt" As J .esult ()f the ban_ ra",iliM br.. nds Me offering ;,,,,O\,.. li,"., new d,sh delergen", ",ith Ie" or no pho"pha,es, ,,11Ile trad i,lOl",lh eco-friendly brands such a, Se""nth Gene.ation a"d Method I..."" gained It, popula.ity.

Flgullll9.18

p",",phorus 10.>.:1 for .. ,,·..,Iew.ller In" tmh"" dod .. ft", the ,mpl"""-,,,!,,"m o( .. m.>ndatnry n...metion on the u,<,,,f 1'''''''1'11.,''' ddL'f&eolS. 1\:<>Ie '''''I the lot'" ,."lu"", of """I",,' .l<".. d l...:h.lrgC from t "" ladlity dId no! dedi"e. .., lhe deer=.", In ph""phdk" con be altributed to lhe f'-~U1.>tU"'_' on dotergen" and "01 to. dedlne in Wd'"''''d 1<" gener.l loOIl. (I:"'o... ,troo,U.~.

Dopm.....,,,,, ... 1 _ . U.S

"'~s....,.~-IIll" ....... ,'lI'.lP"

~

,.

•, ''" D • -

'" U

c

• ~

..../

9.10

""""".

"' ~f"jt"",,,,,.epa¥" {""I"L;C j-j Wd .tet<:o

n'upbAd!

2002J'l"U,t>_

n-' b_cok><-rJ1

w';',owator -~

«

i

""""""",,,10
Disinfecting Combined sewer

- ,7"

,,, ,, ,, ,

,,

V-'1~

.......,

lOSIIicIIoo: on LlO
-•

§

---_. "'-.....-

'00

= , = •i> =~ ,~

= ,~

o'. ,

c

-

g,~

'00

~a

~

0

,"

•

Disinfection and Aeration

The Ii",,) rga"l~nlS. ntis j, most commonly accomplIshed by the addition ",liquid <;Odium hypochlorite, chlori"" di,,~ide. or chlnr",,,, gas; o,,-,ile hj pochlor,te g~n.,ratic",; ozo""lIo,,; or exp....ure to ultrJ, inlet light. Di,i"fectinn wa, COl ered in Chapter 8, '0 it j, nold l'>CU'iSf."J furlher in lhis chapler. During aeralinn. "'ygen i, lra,,,ferred from a ga~u, phase 10 lhe liquid p rn,e, Remember in Chapler 3 lhal "'e di,;cusse mor" easily f
.r;,,--,"'"

Chapler9 W""lewall...... Sionnwa!". CoIIoctD:t, T,eatml!!ll, FIesoorce Flecovery

9.13 Aeration Device. Used during Wostewater Treolmerl

Sh"", "mIL"w,"-,," surf~,,-, wilh • mc,e, or turbine 10 p,rouce ~ .pro}' of fine dmplL'f' tholl Lmd on the w~"ew""" surf""e ove, , rod,u, 01 .""'",-.1 mele". Cao be mnOL'clL'
bubblel

KI>ZZIes 0< porous .url"""",,,, pl""0:1 in the lank bottom. wh"", Ihev rd""", bubble< lhol, IT,,"'" upw.,d k1w,n:llhe ,.-mk's ""IMe

Fine bubbles 11.-.,,<, ~ d",rnct"" I"" tholn ~ mm; co.>J"<' bubbles hol,... diam<'!er< ... Lng<, a. 50 mm.

Fi",-,"po«-' diffu
lfine I"'",.nd """'"

Fi=-I""" dilfu""" ~~n be k,uJed .... I'Xperi<'=e ..~le bUlldup.'" U"'y N'<'d """" hl'i<:.Ilh· ~m,-,,"s "'either ~mptvmg~ lank. U
''''I''''"''''

The t,~nsl"" clfiriency 01 &,., 10 liquid In Ihe P"""-'fICN>f w,.I""·~t",, rnnlaml""nl, kg... u,lacl~ols.d,,,,,,h'<'d '''8~"ic matl""l i., qUolnlifK'd b" the "- !.>elm. TIu. "!....-to, 1< ~lW"'- fo< fi",-~p"'" dilfu",,,, which 'holilhe p"""oo"" cNllami""nls inhibIts th<· tr~nsl"" 01 ")[vg"" to, g",,"e, e,[",,1 tholn for: eN"" bubble...

"'U"''''

Rgur./9.1 9

Fln"..P.,.e Diffuse.. (.) Fine-po", d,lfll"",".t bottom 01 'ed.:lngul.>, ,,,,-.bon baslo. (b) Fi",-,"p""-' dlffuSt'l" in "P""tlOn In ,.m", ,,,,-,tion b,.,sin. 1"""",,"","lyol_r "hokq 9.10 Q;siflfectiornUldAeralioo

~ prtXll!dng the BCSQl'U1! of "Sallie Wall'l from WastCWj!tCr C.... ,~...,r'\ ,11;0", improvl'",em in effide""y of use, dnd ....,1'••eclam.'i"n and 'euse are all methods U... t can t.. us.ed to bridge Ihe gap betwee" den..."d for and supply of water. Treatmell"echno!ogy is now ,;('l ad,-anced lhal ,,'aqewaler can be converted 10 "",alet "-lUrce for use in a var,"'-y of ,,,,,idemi.l, mmme"'ial, ,nduslrial, and agricultural applications. GlolMlly. "aler '''''''' capacity is increa,ins rapidly. One challenge, though, " "'d'dung is-SUe> 01 qua],'y, demand, and ,;uppl". For example, the exlel~ske w.ller """,15 0/ .gricullu.e are lypically located r", away Irmn t.... alml'm plan', lhal coli..." wastew.ter, "hich ,,'" I"aued in u rNII "rro,. In this httle h) I..l'ie energ" 10 pump case, "

"'''k''''

,*",,,,

I-

wastow.>"" (t 6.000 m"I
_tewa", (t 9.000 m'idoy)

---

'realed "aslewaler bad; 10 rural area,. One<,ol"I,oll 10 this problem i, Ihe u"., of small->£ale salellite reclamation processes. nle,.., Iypes of small plant. Ireal and reclaim wa,te",aler ",he,.., II i, needed, All ",ampleof using tech"oIogy d'SClIs>e:! III OIlr drinJd"g-w.,ter and "aqe"aler chapters to reclaim waslewaler L< Ihe Gipp facility I,..,al< 1f>,lXXl m' of mUlucip.ll "a,lewa""r _HId 19,1XXl m' of indu"rial wae:!losupplement a cu""",,t ,.,,-m:e of ground"'at", (Daigg'" et aI., 2\XJ7l. RccycIodW",'" '0 Pine GLJIV ~-,

(8.000 m"i
llisinfoctIOO {<:Nomol

,-

flo......... .,..,.,...

Ozono

L

aclivatcd G,.... LJa<

I

Rc-.oono

_ _• JL J

f

(3.0r0 m'i
-'

~••

w.~" ~

ootfIow .........

(27.000 m"idai)

Combination of Drinkin~.Wat~u"dW a,'~,,·at.r Unit Pro<"".'~' Emplol"d 10 Produ", U."bl~ W..... r lrom , Dom.oIic "nd Municipal Wa.I~,,·"t~r SOUl'clory I,-.call,,] III \'i
FllJUre 9.211

fDaow.-. G. T.. "- ~"",", and!>. !"'". ~ s...",""IloNooc_ a..-al'Yw_ Rodo~"",""",",b ~ .... ~Wa-.a.. lopM4....-"',dWHTfC' 01.1I>o_""""'W_ E"",,_f~ro
w_ f""""""""t~,~,\'''1.....·

9.11 The WaleReuse Association "t 'f':llw.IW, wr...,rt:""",, =~I

C"Ck_

End of Life Sludge Management and Energy Recovery

The sludge gelleralN IhrOllgh prlllMry and ....,ondary treatment ha.< Ihree characterist;cs thai make its direct di'Jl""d1 difficult: (0 Iii, "esthetically unpleas;ng in t"rn~s of odor. (2) it is potenhally harmful

Chapler9 W""tewall...... Stormwa/". CoIIocID:t, T,e_, FIesoorce Flecovery

becau,", of Ihe p,esence of p.,thoge",; and (3) il con!.,i", 100 much "aler, which mal"" il difficult to process .md disf'<'S" of. The first two problem, are olten sol"ed by ;;IIIdS'" slal"li""I.", and Ihe thi,d by ,I,rauleri"s·

9.11.1

SLUDGE ST.A.8IUZATION

The objecti"e or sludge sl~biliLalion i, 10 reduce problems ~,s.-,daled ",Ih ,Iudge odor and put,,,,,,ence a"d the p""",nce of palhogenie orga,~sms. The first stabili7.dtion ahemalive,aelllbicdigestion, is s,mply ~n extens,o" of the acli\'ated.,;ludge proc~,. Wasle aeti"aleJ sludge is pumped to dffiical&l aeration I~nk.s for a much I""g", tnne period Ihan ""lh the a<:u"aled-sludg" proe"",. The wncentr.Hed ""hds a,e allowed 10 prog""'" "ell ,nlo th" "nd"8"nous '"*"piral,on pha,"" in ",hid, ,,10<1 is oIIla,ned thmugh Ih" deslru,'1ion of ,iable organisms. ,esull ls a nel re.luelion in organic ",...Uer. Another melhod of sludge Ire.•tment i, anaetobir dis"sl;"n. It is more cnn"nonly employed, becau,", it does n.1I requ,re energy-int""siv" a"ralion. It is prnna,ily a t h,..",-st"l' biochemical p'.-..:fS.S mediatal by specialized gmup' or mieronrga,"sm, (T.•ble 9.14). Anaembic proe""" are "OW being eOl",dered for r"pl,lCing ••"rollie proc""""" for ,e",ral 'e....-.,... , includins the pnld ""lion of m<1ha,,,, and ilsa,
TI,,,

9.14 Three·Step Biochemical P«ICe•• during Anaerobic: Oigestion of Wo.tewOler Solid. &~

StL'P I

M >cr<><>
Organic

H)'drolv"'"

wh,eh ,,,lub,l,,e p",ti<.'l.Jlateorg.>mcs on Ihe f'T""'nce

~lucose

"f"'al,,,

C"H",o,

StepZ: Aeidogene
A "f"-'Ci.lli7.ro group ofb.>ct.,;." l....".,."j ",,-"acid 10"""", use I"" prneess "I aridogcnesl< '" fi,,1

ClJJo:'fi
,00

com'",t the «>luble o"Sanir<; (thins, b~c ,ug~"', amino ;Ind•. faltv and,) 10 ml.,t>1e fatty aeid, (e.8-, ",.....ko,g.>oic acid. 'uch ... p'''PlOOic.-.rid arid acdK Kid). Then ma second pn>e<... termed acetngcneo;c•. hyd~en and c.:Irboo dlO,ide~", oN> lormed. The m"::r<""&,n"",, that ",,-d,a'" Ihe hydmlj"''' ~M fermenlation sI"I" are fa-rult.:lt>,..,~rId obh~.'le 0nae.obk OOe lena

a",,"'lI""'""

Step3: MdhanOS"""'''

,\ group of. .p
w~,le (C"H,
2H,o

com'e,ted 10

c,..H,,o,, 2H,

""",,,,t"" 10'

pwpionk ~
:!CO,

Then rnm pou od, ,uch "-' P"'I""""te 0re rom..,..,"" 'n h"dmgen .,rId a""'c acid

CH,CH,COO 3H,O HCO, 3H,

co,

4H,

CH,cOOH

CH·COOH

CH, t 2Hp CH,

Co,

.,rio

9.1 j Endol UleSltJdge ManalJ'mlJll and En"'9I'Reco""'Y

Class Discussion sri ""yol.«,...... l.p'O"" Y

""""'1>."""" olk"",

'Of'

ct, .p"0 Iftc 00""""'. o· yOW" g""g'3pt.ic 1"'''''''0 ("'" .., I•. pia r. ''''I ruf"O, hDm.
""oir,,,,,. ,"""......Gul. .. r'"

,r>"iro" m, '1.3. M""'3""") _Hold a public C'3n"g ooa row I""f"'"al fo, loca,mga ~'a"", ",d.. ",at."" aM ''"""'' lac; ,ey "you,comml.n;t.y ";t.h t-l-, u rd< '" wocd I r g t.-I- .." w""", '0 ret"""ccc'. Boawa", and """. it.~, w , dlf'"" rt- cu ttL,a' p'"'' 1'".""" 0 t.C, ",anr g. Dio<:l..... ",a"'p"oafrud'l n'lt-hat. COLld "' u&o<.d ttl Ir,rnd Lc, C'W "'C3"'" a r<110' ""0" rology In y"'"c com,",,,r ti""d,aIWlt.h~o",oo' w.....u oc.occ~'i' ~"""",,"I ,co,"'" ~""1I
.. fi"""

,na r,wdicut.iDn I>y a '"nng'"'

pr,,,,,,,,""'....

oh"" <0 .....")' a '" u" P"""J Ie'l u"""'" 01 '"o!.> ". e c,d" I, loan'....". pi oolt." I.

wa"",

A pH lIear neutral is prefer"'-'<:l for ,lllaembic dig"'tlon. a"d al a pH !>elm, ~.ll, Ihe melh.me fonne", begin to I>e illhibiled. If thedigester i, not operated properly, U", metl,-,ne-Imming bacteria will not!>e able to u...e lhe hyd rogenl hat i, prodllced at a lastemughrale. III thi,ca"'.1 he pHol Ihe reowe\'w. Ihe add f,..mers keep on mediahng Ihe ",-",ond ,,1"1" TI,i, al", lm,ers the pH, whiclt nuy 50ur the digester and ~top U,e proces" lJme is often added to corre.:'! this problem. AII".,r,tlie d ige,ler_,) ield snHd r.".dues I1Mt can I>e ll",d to lllak amendment". n,e gase<; c"n I>e u.~ to pm.:l uce he.l.I, electricity, or fuel bec.;u."" U,e ,"",ult"'g ga" 01 an anaerobic dIgester i, compri-.ed 01 approxinute!y 35 pen.""nt CO, and ..5 percent CH ,. [n term" of greenhou", gas emi""ion" rememl>er thai in Chaplt'r 2 we leanled that th" radiatiye lorcing of g"""" differs. Thu" I Ion of ",elhane emi,."ions eq'-"tes to 25 tOl"; of c"mon dioxi.:!e em;s";I)I" in ten", of their "'lui v..lem gletlal wannin8 potential a, gr... nhou,", g"'le". The me~,a.... Ih..t ,"",ulb lrom allJerobk J Igesllol\ should I>e viewed as .; valll..ble ga, lhat ,hould not be enulled direcd) into the atm""phe,..,. Melhan" geller"ted at .. w ..Sle\\·ater Ir"lIme"t and re",," rce re,."m·er}· pldllt can !>e COl" erted to electriCIty or usro for heating, Combushng ",,,,han,, "Iill result" in pm.:luctlon of a greenhouse ga,. according tl", loll owing equation;

",,1

Ctt. + 20, - Co, + 2H,O

,-",,,",,

Dl<>e c.... '"""'" 01 u, poT"" n..a

,corom", ac d, c, lro" ""r"" 1 ',rm-~~wa·",r"".-'ngo- ,~a,

""'" Id U<>Ltt 'rom '",a""

,ce",,,,a",," an.J ,"""", TYol· .... """'!" er, IlluYGIl:I"'plloa·~lor.a~w,lIao

"'" '"""IY"''1~'-''''".,rt._ ~

(9.22)

Eqllation 9.22 ,how, Ihal. on an eqllivalent b.;sis, 2.75 kg CO, are produced for every I kg of CH, Hut is CO",bll,led. BUI although ""me gr"""holl"" gas" produ",d by mrr''''Sling methane,lhere " 1I0tonly a benefit from converting melh.lIle 10 ""roon dioxid~, bllt al".;, "lin" eMoolI off..et .""""i..led wIth generating elect"dly fmm Ihe meth""e.

Enf!(gy prll1'jf;tjop Imm WasteWj!lf!( apd SpUrt Waste

n,e polemi,,1 for electricity productIon lrom w .."tewater lre.;tment '" nol IriviaL TI,e recm e"'-'<:l en"rgy can I>e sold back to the grid a, "green" PO" er or can be u.~ to ope"'te pump< and blowers at the WWTP or to m.;intain optimal d ig",t"r lelllperatllres, dry the bi...."bd', and prOYide 'p""e he,lhng lor Ih" IVWTP. B",id", the re.;1 p"""iblllty to use ,olar, wind, or micn,hydro p"\\'er, w"tew,ler ,hould .;I",!>e viewed a".; ,ource 01 energy (and water ..od nulrienl'). Do ""erage, a typic,,) IV\\'TP proc"''''''' 100 gallon, per d.,y of \\'a"tewater lor eyery 1""""';''' se,,·ed. Apprro.imately /.0 f1' 01 ;jige.ler ga" call boo pn-.dllced by a na ""er,bicdig,,;ter per per""n per day. TI,i, ,olllme 01 ga, can provide approximately 22 IV of P(M er generat.'". The h""ting val"" of Ihe biogas produced by .. n an.lerobicdige"cer is .1pP"",mately fiOO BTU per cubic fnot

A, ju"t one example, Ihe I.", Angeles Saoit.3 MW from landfill g"s, alld 4(1 MW from c"mbusting solid waeh"eell h)Jn>gen and OX)'gell.

Cltapler9 W""lewall...... Sionnwat". CoIIoctil>:l, T,ealml!!ll, FIesoorce Flecovery

n'

Reca n Ihe n,ethane production cred,t~ compared Table 9. 12. TI,,,,,,, are ",Iated to the qu"nlity of sludge proo.iuced during the different biological configuralioOl' of the ad,,-.ued-,Iudge used to remme nilrogen.

pm,,,,..,

9.11 2 DlGESTI:RS 101 the pasl, a t",o-'ldge digesler ,,-a, employed. 'n Ihi" proces>, Ihe primary lank was "",ered, heated to 33 C, ,,,,d kepi "ell mixed 10 enhance the reaction rate, The """o,,dary t.lnk had a flo.lImg ,oof "",·er. The ..ecoOldary lank would not be mixed or healed and "'.IS u"ed for gas Slorage and for concenlrating Ihe ""lid, by ",tiling. Sellled S-120 min 10 mainl.l.incOl"tan lCO".:!ili"", "",hin Ihe dig""ter. The dig""t"r l~ typically sized b.,,,.,,,j on.\ d""gn SRT. In Ihis ca"", the SRT equals Ihe m,,-<;o, of ,.,lids in Ihe reactm didded by Ihe ma" of <;o1.:!s ",n,..,,'ed e,-er ~- Jav ' Typical design SRTs for anderobic digesters range from 15 10 JO Jays. Egg-sI",ped dig"'ters (Figure9.2lb) are no", preierred by "'dny pradilioners becau""they requ ired ~mdner phy,ical foolprint, I\",e lo\\'er operali"" and "",inl"ndnce C""Is, pmvide for beller mix,ng and healing of ."",lids, and do nol ace"",ulale ",-"um and grit like lhe co", enlional digesler ,ho",,, '" Rgure 9.21a.

DC Water Blue Plains WWTP Digesters h.,+,I !'I..." "Acwa'-O",ClJ'Y1 .......,_ a",~;,

SI
lJiges'od_

-~

,.,

.,

Rgll"el 9..21 (.:oj Single-St,ge Dill••le, U.ed 10 SI,bili.., Prim.ry .nd Seco>x.......yolOr Joo"... 8<.....,u..-'''rolc..._''''~ 9.11 Endot UfeSIOOqi! M"""lJ'mIJlI and EMfgyRe
9 11.3 DEWATERING After stabihz..ui:>n, ,oli.:b Me Iypi""lly dewatered before di,~~...al. Dt~''''I~ri''g is generally Ihe final "'ethoo of ,olume red uClion before uhi",ale d"f"""-'L Sludge pumped lrom the primary and 'ecelhod is Ihe centrifuge, a "",lid 0011 1 "here "",lids are ",o",...J 10 the wall by centriltt";"l 1o,"", and ",raped oul by " ""rew con,'e.,or, TIle perfonnance 01 mechankal d.."alenng de, i..,,; may be impro,'ed by "",me Iype 01 chemic.ll pM'eall"'''''. Here, polymer; "re addt<.! 10 imprm" dewa""in&There i, gre.H polr
- - ---- - - - - ------- - -- ------ - -

--,

0<]""""'"'

Flgule9.22 B.U Fill.. P",.. A bdt fill",. appkc< p,,,,,,u,, 10 'ludg~ ",rueh nul waler, The part.< ir>clud" dewalering belts, rollo,", ,1nd """rings, a bell tracking and lonsioning sY'lcm, r ",,,n Ih.ll) on lhat there i..",",ugh TC.>Cbon tim"'o ..""I ,,;!h dewalering.

bef",,,

/todrowo ...... £PA, XlOOoI

Chapter9 Waslew.tlr .... Slonnwatl!f". CoIectm, Tteatmenl,

_ct!

Recovery

Qlj'! ~II~

JJ~t;lf,;Z:

~_i"

1lt"~'lt

5"'53"'

..

i."

-,,,-'

,"I ~H'

'-"'I,

:

~i=r.~, ~,'" 1 1'," Ei:t'" •~i'.~~~~~~~2~~ I . , . , • ~, . . i.

~

j

•

Ii

I!

~

,

l1

~

tit

Iii

!ll!,..III~.lf~i.!.J~~'!'lil"~"

~ ~if.~~~!~~;I[,jli~lir~l~l~~~~~lia -~ i.~"~<' ',~ .![ ·"r i~'···'.'!l 11111~ijl~~!I:!·ll~I~I!I~I~I~~)l

"

••• ~~,~.,.~ ~ _I} "' "0~~f,;"~~~~"t~~ , , ~.... I 'I '.'.'j' .. ' , ",'

..~~=CIO~g.1i2~"" __ ~..

,. ~}::JIJ::l t ..' .., :J [ ~ ~a..~ H'~~"'t'llJ"O>' E,I'"I't"'j-t-·=l. it

:;·~.if;;::;;~'E..~

s

"',,:<,c..sc:.

..

"jO_".~_~' S"~9"L'j:!!3

..

1 £=c ..

c.. 5:>0 .... -

..

~~~"~-~~~ =~.iO' 3~_."'!f:(~s:- .. :;:;;:'T~'};

.

f

...

"

'Pj~

~'£'}I!-

!l..:=''' i.

,

,I,;,

!. ~

~l ~

",e~~"o_.

,.['. . " , .•.. ",-" I11 ., ·'1-' ••..• ," i f

";a,i,i~ io,~~" -"<:7 '-.-. ,,~ :111:,;"'" O~! i !' .-'_-:of'=' ~ ., .. -'

.~~~~~1·~~lt~~~5·:~ !::'q1 ~ 2'" ~ - ci i. Co. F ~ ~ L 2.. ~ ~

,•. j,,,,,.-I".,.,,

'~.

'.,'. _.~ " ,. ~.< ~~ ~~§ ~f~;;b'~~f~~,

_~

f§1

1l_!!O~"i\'~

~~i", ~~ ~11 i § .... ~[~~~,~ _ ii;;tc..

~G.l it -. . . .~~ .

i ~~ ~ ~~ 11~~~ r5~i""S~iKkt

~J~=i$la .. ~~~=.~~i

,,~-

; ~ I ".".., .... ' fIOi.

\lO

:'I!~~"'1!1'~',¥~l~!I!~';·~I·'! ~i:a"H' i' ,~h13H'l fH~ cl:r Hi ~ = 3 ,D~_c.._.g ~~~!!:.~ 5... ! .. '5 i":! Q "a.!" Eo .a.7f-

~"12~::.e:

~;~~1~~

Sl~~~lf~I~·S{:'~;t~ b' ~l jl:,g, o~\':'J ,3 " f l'"1~,,"~1~;r~!i'!I"""

~r1g~~~~

h.~~~;:-; !·~i'·P~,l"iiH~

mll~t~';-H ~

""=-r -'-~ 1" ~l''''~ ~J; ~i ~~~, [.. [~:ll~ ~ri~ ~iSir:; f~~

14~~jlli'f

",nsILniH~"'5'1

9.15

Class Discussion J.

J. b",e"iop""a'''P"""lo, .I. 10<>.0 ""rap" ha. ~ i"",.",-.

J.

,rrpac'.o,t.h<

rner'.=.'

in OomesncWo.lewater

,,,"c.,.,.,

",,,,ran r~~ o... r~ .~,...d 01 ODe i.<'. .. 1a"~p"'r ,. Tnlr, ,~o".,~h~""ol1 rrp=t.of & .. 1 "~WIt!" lood "'''.''., "," 3t.""" kl y' ard (2) .. ""nioipa, 0 ",n,7'1

°

s"""';"al Time. in Soil forCommonlyQUUoTing Pathoge .... fa...d

C(rJllTDnOboclMld Mo";"",m

2 mot1,h.,

""'''PO

'=""
Viru:""

Helmmlh,

yo<. tr ,. c,,""'-It>'-)"" <.lIr ... "",,,

~r~ ..n....., """' "'." Woad .YO"'''' • ..ppro..," W'O"" cp~ a "'Or< &tJ 0"" '''' 01, ""!u'i",,, Or",,01 u'-'on ~~i'~ u.io uwy... to NI t.t1a~ c'""

t.'

pro"u"" ..... r~,

Sludge that" a pp~ed to land b bn)kend "'" n inlO Cia...., A alld Ck'iS R bi'>soI"I" Cia", A sohdscan be., ppUed in areas Opell 10 Ih" publ i<:. The"" biosoHds may "ven be prM'ded (orsold\ 10 Ihe public in a small bag. Theref","", Oa" A ",lid, mu,t be further Ir"aled by ""al or chemi""l treatm~nl to red uce pr"""'\<:e of p.lth"8e,~~ 10 ulldetec:ldble level,.

tI,,,

~ Dealj~ wjlb HOIISf'l!Qlrl Food Wastes G.ubage di'p"""'I, have bec"m" a Other opt",,~, to d~al "'Ilh food ~Iandard fealure in ma,ly ho,,_ ""r.p'includedep""~ingthemi"lh" becau,,", oi wn~Ullle, percepli"''' ';nlid-" a,tesirealll," h~reth~y",ighl of ,talu.~ alld roll \·enienc". GMbage be lalldfill&!; ",u,;ng Ihem "s a,,,,,,al di~l"""'l, ,,,,,uh III a 1>r&" fractioll f"*""forlocalfarms;wllectinglh,,mal of fond ",a,les enle,ing Ihe "'a,teIhewmmun ity level forromp,..tUlg, woller colll!ction system. TN~ and t''''IUlg them with bad;van:l can increa,~ Ihe BOD "nd TSS of cnml-~·..ti"g_ landfill. produce Ihe wa"e"'"I''' by 10-20 pen:",t, As g,,,,,~,ou,e g"ses CH, ard Co,.; e.,pldllle
Chapler9 W""tewau...... Stonnwat'" CoIIocIil>:l, T,e_, 1Iesoo"" llecovery

Th "lIll t"'~lI1"'''t ,~" ro.~'iist of he~t .II)' "'g 0,. compo.... ting. Chemil:~l t t".. nl typif incr"d'N pH .. nd tu,'' l l i.... B -.oliJ~~,.., pro<:-....:IIO" pornt "hen> p;ltho'So!rlS may ,btl "'" I""""'nt. bul1.ond re-lrio:t>ons are in pI.Ke to lin,,1 tlw public'.. nw nlOSt e('nm"'" ""","'pi" of re-tnetai 1.ond u""'" hen> human ""PO.... '" "" hnut«l "oulJ "'" 10 1.000 .pply a..,., B ""'IilC C1Of"'r r q hly on locdl 'it"","", .. nd 11.~

h''''I'",...

""p""""'"

9.12

Natural Treatment SystEmS

1'o:.tural " ....t.. ' 1..->1 s~......... "A' d~ '" Ih,~ 'o«tiiJn. "hidt .....rM'~ IIw W tment ""'hnoIog~oI1.o~..nd "et\And,. no,.",.. la:hnolo>g'i"i not nn1~ ...., mote .... tu....1 rnethc>d, to lre.>1 ".0;;\»\\ ater, but "I,.... "". e k»..". capstructe.:l from ,t....I· "'fnrc.>oJ ~e, """"I, or pl.llsuc. Tlw\ .. I,.... h picall~' Iu, e kmer OfH'r"t,oo ('()'its booc.>u ... lhe) ''''"' ,eh Ill' .... t ...al....,r~b""methods l\'el'O.l' llIeo;.l\a"i,...1...,.alil") .. ".I n"'l ut,h7.<' ,)(m<""'S",,~1rd biologlUlI p~ ""lu.,,1 """'Ie".ller 1",,,I,,,..nl "y-t.."" ~'" aL"" employ <'d in d......"tr.. lIl<'d l,..,alm",,1 ,~". I"",S. ngur" 9.2.'1 ,1)(,,,", 0"" surn ,yst""" the Li. II1g Ma<'hu,e •. " hid, C.. n boo """Int tl' hmn"" dornulor,,,",, ofli~, .0,,01 ",:1".,1,.

9 12,1

STABIUZATla-J PONDS

St"bili~.ti,,"

p
f."

F1g1l1'8/1.%3

The Llvl"S Mxhh.,,'

nu.. """,mplr '" ""fI"'"""">l "" tur.J ~ _ I"'>C' ........ U..... llW1hod.' th.>I "->co< ",.~ko boctcn.>.l""""""", pt.>Ns.

_

~Ir>lrml ".~.lIrt"

I"""

T1Iot

EPA

II
"",,,-no th<' c.m!ftllt Ill)JI'(IN"!

Tlon Iu,,,,, pmd~_""IlltIlOD .. ~,.....t I
9.16 Type. of WOIte Stobihati... P... do ond Auocioted Oeoign Infonnali...

_>a
Typeol

~-

~-

Wa'er Doplh (m)

TIme l
U_2.~

m-lRO

I.>gO<10

U",-" cnmbin.1uon 01 "",,00,<, a"""c•• nd .""e",b.. p"""""''''. Kot t;'plCally mm>.:! ar .er.ted. 0.,.,. ""t fuoctw", ",L'll in mid..... eli""""".

Aer.W"goon

T''P,mJl}' placn.l In senL'<, "' fmn' 01 • I.,."..""" p,",d

,~

Io-XI

'"

,~

F.,cul~,t,,-e

t,.".,t~n

«m,,," 01 cither mechomcal ,urf= .."-.to,, ,,,'ub"""l:"" diffU><>.:l ..,,-ation ,,"',""'-,. Re.julCL"I"", an" tMn a f;}C\1I""h'e 106"'''' and an opera'e cl"feco,."lv In the "inter '\"""roo,c pond

,.,.,

\'!.I'u•• '"",

U",all\- used '0 prdrrot b'gh-,trcngth ",.,,,,,,,.te,,. 0.."->,. """,,,,,.h>J•• oo no mIXing. Perform.mce deerm"".t tempe',,,u,,,,, below 15 C. Tvpicallv tm," el~ucnt from an oct,,-ot"" ,Iudge pro<""". 'ri<:~lmg filt...... ar f;...ul'ollve 11g'."'. AI", ",Iernod to." 0 terliarv ar pol«hmg pond, [).,.ig""" to ",,,,,n-e pathogen•.

,

'M

Table 9.16 deseribe> the "arious 'ypes..,f %.bilizali..,n I"'nd<. I-'..lch 'y!'" of ,wbiliz~liOf1 I"'"d rts dlffe",,,, bk,logical procesigned in .. l~d, of food and nutrients, .'iol.l.r ultra"i..,l", radiali,~n, 'e",!",rature. pH, p'""O"" of an anurobi< lagoon" '0 re",O\'e BOD and TSS. Anaerobic lagoo,~< a", '}pically the r,,,t in a ,eries of several I"goon, ond a'" ch"rac'erl7.ed by a lack of oxygen resulting from high organie load "'g rales. There~",,, BOD remwal pn>c",,",,sareanaernbic. Th"",,-, bgoon, are d""igned ""sed on ,he "olumetrlc BOD k""d"'g, ,,'hieh i, calculue.:l by di"iding Ihe produc, of ,he influen, BOD coneentrali"" (s,. in earlier secl;",,, of this chap,er) and ,he a, erage flm, rate (the numera,or in the F1M ralio, ['lualion 9.1 f» by the ,'olume of the pond. as ,I",,,,n in E'luation 9.2) (Mar••• 2lJ(4): V ,-,Iu ",etrlc BOD Lnad ing

Chapler9 W""lewatl...... SttKl.l1wa!". CoIIocIil>:>, T,e_, Fles
1100.. V

~

Q

(9.23)

Rs... /I.24

co,,'"

Lo-1'111,; _ 20, -NO, _ 211' -

_

_

C/H,OI-

NO> • H, - co,. HICO,'

- H,O

0-1

.... -

-

~ -01. - co,

-mOu.. nl BOO 1",'"r....J 10 a •.~....a,Ii... In Ihis clwpt.-rl. Q i.~ th.o a' ..... g" I\owral... ..,.j V h IIw lagoon ..olu"'.. AII"",!""aIU'''' abm" 25 C, .. pprm.on.. Il!I~' 70 ~l ofllOD ma~' be r~""" <'d In an anaerobic lagoon .. ,UI .. ,oIullWlrk ~ong ral" of up 10 Jill g BOOI m 'Ida, lI«ause!he booch.,.,,,,c..l .....ll'tll\n1 of BOD is """m'ed .. ,th ""lun~ri<:\".. d illS ral""of up 10 100 g BOD/",'Iday !'iiiu'" 9.2'1 .11<"" th" various ZOl''''' found I" .. hcull .. ti'"" lag<>o" and til" ""'I>o!C:th .. bi"I"gic..l pmc~ tltdll..:cur. An Q(r<~", ::.",r i.. 1''''''1'''' "".,. Ih~ ,urf.• c~. 11 is .... rat"'" due t" "')'11"" tra,"'f.... from Ih" tb'm of a 'aeultatt' .. tagoon, .. Iw", Ihe >IId. sell"'. nus pari of Ih.. l.. g,~", .upports ana"robic boologlC.lII mentat,.,n pL'OC..~ dl.'I<:u, CH, .. nd CO;. Bet......" t........ t..-n la~er-; I""'" m.o~ be .. ~m.111 1,,'1". also Iennet.i IIw fM'Ultal,," :>:oI"Ie. In rJu.. Z"""". dn ....act...." may tal-.. pLoc"... 1wnI "'lfatoO CoOn bto rNucN WI nUmgetl g.o.'. "\,dlZmg C800 In the p""""'"". H"""" , ........al stud,... t.., p:.orte.i thai ",lnfKahlln d.....lln,o<:atJoa IS ghgiN.. In -ubll,1..lI J""'ds- 1hefto.K>re. I.... """',>n'vlll"'trogftlretnfA.l .. bebn..d 1OIlCl:U' , ... .ammonia , oLol i'7.al ,m 1<) lhe. t""'" ~""" d .... to PII , ..Iue<." ""'" .IgaI _"I~ InC.........,... 01" fro.n algal .nd bk........ uf'Ul.e and """""""'al...... of nllmS"" Imo I.... 'oed.oment. r..... a f«ultat"" Logoon, th.o amount lll ....nhght IWOl'dl;j lO produce """,,-,gh 0\\8"" 1<' ~ lhe ClIOD ,n IIw ....."'.....1... (;tn ~ .1"'",,nn..,.j u .. ng lho> ~lIn,.u<>.:l effi",,;ncy 0' .lp In Ih.. lag""" .nd monlhly .. >Ia. l"""""loon dna (Od.J"y, 200'il, Alga.. u .-.ola. rad""lIOn, carbm dl(lO,id., .mrn
.. hen>

1l(X)•. ,~th ..

ert"'"

"'I
,.......,oN'd

lnn... nf,

f,
IhlL~ ~""

elin""., te the need 1M p1\wi,in" 0/ "'ygell t" the ",,,,te"'''ter by ",,,,ha,,iml aeral,,,". l00cD, . h'iH,o

t6t11H,

' H,PO, ~... ,.........• C ....H,.,O"t'-:,.p·

11~

/9.24)

In thi, equati,m, C,,,,H,.,O,,K",.p (MIV of 2,'12S g/n,ole) repr.".,nt"lg.,,, bio",a", Appl, illg ma" balallce .1IId sinich"""elrkpri''''iple- of Equalion 911 de",o'lqrau,,; th.,t 1.53 kg 01 "'yge" i, produced for e,'ery kg nl "I!},,, biro",a", pre",nl'" 11""ysl em. For !aCUlt.lli, e lagoo'l~ l"""ted in r"8iOll~ with "''''Old imales, il can gellerdlly be a""med thai 24M kJ 01 sunhght " ,11 produce "ppwxlI""tely' 1 kg 0/ .. lgae. a"d the ,,18"e "ill have d con,'e",ion elflcienC)' (CE) of Ihe SUII'~ energy of 0.111). 11,eref",..,. lhe 11,,,,n'licnl "ppr,-..xim.lldy 3.0 pen:enl (so CE ma~'-m,,,,, ''''faa- 1000di"s ral,' (SRL,,~.l (un,ls nl kg O,/l",-day) for providing o'ygen to a lacuU"tll'e lagoon c"n be calculated ", l,xCEx

_'go, .. , ) ( 1.55 ..g a g.. e

SLR"."

kJ 2l,o:xJ

/9.25)

kg al8"e

",he", I, b the ...,I"r in,.,l.llinn (k) ha-d.,y) and CE i, a ron,e""on effic,ency ('t) oflhe ,un'~ energy to "Ig"l biom.. s~ a, d.,,;cribed pre, iously. Equ"lion 9.25 is then used 10 ,i7ethe ,urf"eedrea requi",melll of a fdCUlt"li, e l"g""" .,long ""th infoml.,tion on Ihe org"nic l,,,,ding. a~ ,ho",n i" Ex"mple 9.S. Typical .. rea org"nic loading ,'alues of faruit.llive p"nd, range from 1510 flO kg/l",/d..y (K"me ho", in Ihis l""di"g rale the denom""'lor lerm l",s unil, 01 Mea in ,to nOl ,oi"me "s fou,>d lt\ a "olumetric loading rate described p",,',ou';!y). One ,,,,,,sible problem" ilh these p"n
e:ll: am pIe'

9. a

Sizing a Fawltaive la!JIDn 8ased on a Theoretical Oxygen 8auna!

In Ihi, problem we ",in determitle the m""mum .urfac e area for a la~uitalh e lag""n tre"tmg "'u"idl-'"I ",a>l",",'"ler to be ,ited in Tamp". Florida. We assume the c",,,,e,,,i,,,, efficiency (CEl of Ille algae i, 3 percent and that 24.ClXl kJ nf .unlighl Me nee:fed 10 produce 1 kg of .118"e bioma'6. TI,e a \ erage d"i1y c,meenlral1on of COOD in !lie i"f1u""1 ,,'''-~Iewaler i. 2lXl mg/L (0.2 kglm "l. and tile .. \ erage f1o",r"le is 1.5MGD(l3,230 m'/d .. y>.

solution The ~urf"ce area of Ihe facultatl,'e lag""" can be designed u,i"g a theorelical o.'ygen bai.. n~e, a, described above. ""ng "te-'pedfi~ <;olar insolation dal" and Ihe es[""ated effidency of alg"e in the i"goo". Monthly solar in.<;olalio" data thai ,~ inca"o" ,pecific i, .. , ailable from the "'ali",...l Aer,~naulics and Sp"ce Adn"ni'''''lion (tliASA) ",eb ~ne (http://,,,,,web.lan:.,,,,,,,,.go.-/sse).

."

Chapler9 W""tewatl...... Stonnwa!". CoIIoct.... T,e_, FIesoorce Flecovery

example/9.B

(continued)

The s.olar in.olal'on dl ground le'el "ill ,ary <>Iar radialion, For "umple, in Tampa, Florid" (27.95 N, 1\2.46 '1), Ihe lo",,,,,t a"erage monlhly .olar in",lal,on "'dde'" on a horizont"l ,,,rfMe l. 3.32 lWh!m---day (1.2 . 10" kJlha-dayl in December. The maximum .urf"ce load illg rale of o'ygen 10 a f.teu halh'e lagoon in Tampa Inr Ihe monlh nf December is ""kul.lted "-s'ng Equdhon 9.25 10 be 232 kg O,/ha-day. a. sho" n below, /,)( eli" 1.55

l:-.go,

kg al&," 2I,lXXl k] kg algae 1.2xlct

kJ .0.03,,1,55 kgo, ha-day kg algde 24,lXXl

232 kgo,

lM-day

kl kg alga"

Th" voiumetric organic lould ha,'e an ar"a 01 at I",,-S! 11..1,1 ha (that is, 21\3 acres),

lagoon drea

0.2 kgCOO,D" n~ m da" ' 2J2 \:go,

II,H ha

hJ-day ~

a",are that Ihe .hape and hydraulics of a lagoon c"n affecl Ihe lagoon's oxyg"n balanc", For "'umple, a long, ,,,,rm,,, fMUlt"liv" I"goon "HI 1"" e higher loading 0/ COOD al Ihe innu""1 Iha" it will near Ih" diluent. Flgurl19.25 F.cuHali,.., SlabHiulionl'ond. in hn.I.,

Boli,,1•.

9.12 Hat..... Tr.atroonISyslems

As ,LUM prevIously, Iypicdl ntgdnle h'dlllg vdlu"" nf f.Kulldli,'e pco,ds in lemperd!» dun.,"'s rdngelr,"" 131ollO 19l1ld {day, a l~,oogh in ,,- Mm Impieal dimale>, .'urEdee I""d ing ""lues m"y "'nge Imm 100 10 I,OJOkg/1M/ddy. One pdeb Ihathave"""', p ~ lode",gna ",alU'ati"" lagro" fcs Ihe r",n""al olbd,ler" 1palhl,/;"n indie"'cs", all 01 whid' a re bd,;e,.j on pseudc>-fi",!-<,n]er kinelics. On" of Ihe more Widely dcceplN mooels is a modified "e,..;jon of Ihe Wehner-Wilhelm equal 101' (1956) for dispersed for II", "",,,,val of £;'c/I,'I'id,'" roli '" ls di'iCll,-ed by Mara (20).1);

n""

C'" c,orel

:al

J )"' .... ,.

. (~)'

(9.26) (9.27) (9.28)

Here '"8 "a !"",odo-fiN-<:>,de, ,ale COI,sta,,' (day _1), H is Ihe hyd raulic relentlon lim" (day>, Lis Ihe length (m), W is the wldlh (m), C..., IS Ihe pathogen "ffI""nl concentratIon, and L,", is th" p"Ihogen Influent concentralion. \'alues for l-B ha"e generally been reported belween 0.7 and 2... for a lemperalureof10 C The rale inere"""" at lemper.l.lures ab<.... e 111 Ca nd d'-'Crea.
9 12 2 WETLANDS N.llurJl ea-..y,"""~sU<:h a, "etl."ld- Me Ihe prototype for rai,ing "dt.". quality by using natural "nergy (sunlighl) and ambient lemperature, ,,-ilhoul ddJing n~lterial, or requ"ing large amounts of human ldb<~r. TIley am al"" I'm,-jde Ihe public wilh "I"'n 8"",n 'fMCe. A wa,lewaler Iffiltn"'nt 'y:l, T,eatrnl!!ll., FIesoorce Flecovery

fREE WATER SURfACE lfINSI WETIANDS

Free ....aler surface (rWS) wellands, .11'0 called surface flnw wetlands, are simIlar I" nalural open-"aler .... ('\Iand~ in appearance and Ireatment mechanisms (,o,e Figure 9,27). The ",a;o"ly of Ihe "elland surface Mea lMS aqualic planl_ moted in soIl or ... nd below Ihe waler ,urface. TI,e ",lSle"aler Ira, els In deep sheel flow m'er the soIl and Ihmugh Ihe planl siems (zooe;; 1a ndJ). Thea rea (zone2)" IIh nO"u rface, '1\ela I innisex p"'eJ In ~u nhglu and ('1-"'" In theair tn increase Ihe I"'lelllial fflr '''ygen Irall4er fmm Ihe ga'ee loin rm a nd " Illd ependnncl iIna lea "die",pera lu reaswellasnu IrlenIII Illi la Ilons.l" IheU "iloo Sial", and Camda, th .. Ii"'" ISlyp.:cally betw""n 2 andJ da)"'. TI,e hyd r.•uli<: r-..idence t""e for Ihe """'nd ';,gelaled zone (zo"e 3, al "aler deplh of app"'",,,,al,,l) I ft.) is 1 day to ach,,,,,e denilrlficalion.

Flgurel 9.26 Subsurface Flo.... Wclland (bdor< rlanlin~ of Ve~clalionl Thai Sen'", More Than ZOO Siudenis allhe Pis~ah All A~e School !Jama ical SSF ....etL:md, I"plcally u"" gra,'ct ,.the aquatic planl "",tlll8 moo", and Ihe ....aler le"el i~ IIllenlumally m.:"nla",oo below Ihe ]'. The wo'land h.1, Iwn p,uallol pla---25 mm) dldm"'o,- The media por""ily "'.. me'oIo """"'y oIld _ , _"''''''' 0...... 01

~-Decentralized Wastewater Treatment h-~t-p"jl~'a·"".
~c<'

Flglll1l/9.21 Z"ne-' of a F,ee WaieT Su,J.ce \\'ell.nd.

OUIlol

9.12 Nalir.II TlealIn!ll1 Systems

9.17 Maxi..... ", Wetland A,eal Ma.. Loading Valles and TnoiUlI Re... ~al'l HfluentCan ined lor a "'" iely 01 applicanon" ham ''''''''ge k> 'te,m..,a"". a r>d cave, a IQ "9 e 01 tem pelQte climate locatIon>, hom FloridotoCanada

c""",......,

F'"" W3lo
1100

I\(l

TS5

50 kg/h.l-dav

aXHl\'ho-d.:>y

'lOmg'L

TKN

5kg/ho-d.y

Nol,'ppllC.bk

10 mg/l

kg/h.l-d,w

Subou~OOQ Flow ISSFl Wc1and lolldl~

h(l

kg/ho-da,'

EtlUert Goncort".ioo

3()mg/l

Th""" "'~ Yb" m ull If'Ie \'''8''taled a nd or"'" >-0"'" 10 achiew Ihed esi ,ro lre~lmenlobJ"Cli,'"",n...cakul~liOl",n,eadlos.~I"'\gthelenglhofa"F\VS

wetland i, lL~udlly n"l 11eCes.~r), sin,"" d typicdl FWS "etland with ~ recommended 5,1 10 lQ 1 dSpecl r~!Jo (LW) n",y ltd, e d hydr~ulic s!ilpe grad i"'lnfonlj 1 cm in100m (EPA, 20mb). Theu,eofhydrdulicr""oJel..,e tllne dnd lhe n""dmum areallOddi"g gukleli,.... (see T ~bl .. 9.171 nldkes ,izing fDr TSS, BOD, and nItrogen an Iler.ni\'e d""ign pn,,-~. nle \'alu"" provided in Table9.l7 ~nt maximum monthl) mass loading rat.,.; tl",t ,hould reliably keep an F\VS wetland's dlluenl b"lnw tI,e noted CotlCenlral;nn. Table 9, 18 compdres FWS wella"ds " ith SSF "etl~llds. On.. ad VdnI~ge of FWS wella"ds is lhal tl",y can be d""igned 10 prm'id" long-lerm nilrogen remm'~1 becdu-.e olllt" aerobIC op..n-",~ter Ulll"" ll",t allow biologic~lnitrirIC~tio".Howe,..". thi, L~ onl.v lhe c~-.e for ,,"ll~nd, lltdl Me shallo" or ,,'ell mixed. In d""per waler z""es, good 10?-,,,-ooltnm mixing ma) nol occur, '" deeper ",aler "ldY not .\CI""y" nitrifICation I""e"- SSF wetldlld, not typicdll) prm ide long-term "ilrog"n remm'al '" ilhout planl hd'"""ting or son", oxygenMion of the" aler by ",ea,~, of c.a",,~di"g or mechdnical derali"".

",ll

9.18 Comparison of free W,.e, 5..-foce and 5ub •..-foce flow Wetland.

IV..lew, Ie, "'p""'u",

enlt,,,,,,

Of"'n.w, I",. "",.,01< Zone!' hi. ,Iogic.l nilrifimhon "nd pm,'ide ",ildllf" h.lbil.,!.

--

IV""',,w,'er "'''''',''-, 2--4 in. below lhe fIlLodi., 'uri""", >0 1lO 'Url.lCe wa,,-.,.lo .Ilr,xl "'llLlti, b",j" link ,,<1<01 hu"",n e-,pn"U"'. and no """"l"il<:l

,he"" '"

b'l.~rl",g.

Hyde.lUl""

-":01 hkely 10 ",·erlk",· t",m,n o
Sun"", floodIng will ,>ccue al the inlel if lh.....,," "'""'-' ".., ,}('Cumu;, bon 01 «>11<1..

IIoJd"g

The "'nd o".mdy 1o.,m pl,n' ,ooling m"h, h.l,·e" In",,,. m.leri.ll"..-", Ih.n lhe g..-a,..,1 med", u,.."j '" SSF ",etlond.,.

n", ploo' mobog rod mOO", ,houkl h.l,.., di.:m"-~,,r, 01 0.25-15 in.•nd be ",lou,·e!v I"", 'If fin<..", Tlu.,", more ""1"",-,;,.., lhon FWS ",,~;,nd mOOi..

DlITIL"'''cn,

RemmITIL"1lded a'pxl ','110 (l:W) i, 5: 1 In ]():I Depth 01 "",h.,- m.I1' '.mge from " ;".,. inclleo; in '''l\l.'!.llro '''''''' k> 4 II. in ''r''''-watet" ,.""".

Recommonded a,I"-'" Tali<> L< in lhec'''ge .-./1:1 I" l1,25:1 Depth 01 sra"e! m.:I\" be 1_2 fl

Chapler9 Waslew.tJr ..... Slonnwat.... CoIectm, T'eatmenI, Resour"" Recovery

9.13

Energy Usage during Wastewater Treatment

w","""",

En~rgy

u,,", dum'S "~st""',u",, is I1lll In> loll. In fOld, ,Jnnlmg.....1<'1" "nJ """~ .. t.... lreatmenl romb"''''! .Krollnl f,-.. 3 f'"'1"""\! 01 elo'ctrk:,tv u,,", ,n thI> UntIed Star..., and ~v .n;t~ C-"n ",,--mulll for up 1<'>10 ~ ol .. 1nM!ml.'n1 p1dnh toul.."......'."" "oJ m.lJnl~ ro-.IS.. Tlu~ lTiIn:'Lltbor. "'1ef8) • .mddwn ~ n..,.oIso

pt"',,",.,j

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b......"."g.-..nents ... land , _ d ~ 10 rf~ ........... I...og"o">n I_townl ~,>lrmS are .llso b . "wdwn.ll'Ii'\i. "" d.~ 1""'..-.u;Jo, \\lulotlatgo> PWaltS (In ~ olloo MC'OI ........ nun,-

(,,_.ltd.. "'rg<' f'd(£ntagl'ollhe Cs.I"'f'Ul.lt.ltI. """"......n
pLonls ,n tIw

nt<'II'Iln1IOtmenl

t.:",,,,.'d Stat.:=. ~ Ih.>nI ~"'.". 11>,lDl ... _

In f<¥'t, ,.... ITA ..... trwtnwm plant.... '""" "''''' 110 ~I .>1 ~,,,,,ng pLonb ....,,, .. CoIJMClt~ J"". than :; MGD. OJ'o'raling M>d mwtl;,n.oroce CD!>to; ..-x:wt...J ""Ih .. ~"I"" tre1It,,""', ,ncluJe Ltbo pun::haseof chern"",\;; .. nd ~ t <'qU,pn-u, and ~v In 'e. 11ft ..... ~, and pump ... ~>C\i' al;,d-<;Iud&, J'fOC""" acrount> (or ~ ""rrg) u""' tl~m lIr~"ty ,,",tiling anod sluJu~"1i"" .11><1 I'" 1,1.'" are ..,,,,,,ialed "Llh nM"y e,,,,inK""""ldl pmbI""h, incluJing ",I"a.'" of airbom.. pollu\.'''ls .",<1 gl,>b,,1 "'.",n;lIg, !'igu.... 92'1 sh,,,,·s .n' ",..mpk of "''''''ll-Y ""lui...."'''m' 1<> I.....'1 a milli"" g.>Uons pt'r day (MGOl of wast""'at.,,. wllh ",<'(l~'nkal, lag""n_ and ter"""riallnMlrnent s~"t"""', 1'<",,, Ih" rn",h h'gholr "''''''1l.v CfO,IS a--.da~ ",th ~hanicaltnMh ......lt. ThIS .. pnrnarH~J.... M lho< n_hanical .......01"'" Ii "aLo!f. "llieh acrounls for 45--73 J'O"'lffiI of. tn!'alllli,'nl plant" """'ll.~ U-. H'lW"' ..... ~nic.ll trealnWnt ,,-...lem< aN' "dl tJocu-

"\Or1'

eff_,,,

.""" al treilbng ... as_ ah'r COl'l:'>I'I"""ts 10 'PO.'CifitoJ Ie'd, ",p«ially 8""" tIte smaller I.1nJ ....... ""lu,n!J f"'!'" unil of """'~ II' bo>

9.19 S....downofl ..... ;y U.. o'o 7.5 MGDWo._ _ T• •''' .....

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Class Discussion J. J. M'"""" n4)'< I
"a""4'". r. pI.nt \.(l~, "'o.......bWO "aOl~,'u d~""4,_n f'C'f'" ....,., ~ r"I'l'01 ", • i"; ,,'.' P'" '"",,"" "~O f c~,..~""'" ' ....,.• ~ '''",""lit y." """ "" n, ~ ,,"'" .,.""

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... " ... """4 ........' ..,7~a, ""'""''' "'..,,,......, ?

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EnergyDemandson W~ter Resources; ReporlloCongrus i":'f< _

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flluR/LU TOI~lb.. 'KY Ikq.. i",,_nlt f.... \ ......... Si>"," ...d TfP""'0f" _~t.rT""~'....I",",,u Lo<~1
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w."e"'.Ier tr"ated. Ob \ nu sly, thelu lure of '" ."e w.l"r Irffi tm,,,n Inee:l' 1010"" bl.yond lrealment object,,,,,,, and ,ntegral" C..~u"" of "ne'8Y .",d ",ateri.l, u,e Ihroughout the proc"" life cycle, For ju,1 one ,mall example, pump,; selected fur ".,te",ater lreat",elll and drink,ng "'aler are Iypically purch.l.<;ed basaj on initial """-', n
9.14 Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse The use of recycled "'aler ofle", 11"0 highly sig,,,fkant ad "anldg"'" Ihe red Rction or pollula nlloading on recei"ing bod!"" and the pnwi"on of a ne" ,ource of ,,'aler. Wasle",aler reclamation i' Ihe Ire.•tment or p"""""ing of wa,lewaler I" make it reu...ble, wh,le w.slewaler reuse is uSIllg ,,'aslewaler in a ,ariet." of bl.neficial way>, n,e foIJ"dat;on of water reuse requir... three fundamental" (1) pr'" iding reli.•ble tre.• tment of ",aslewaler to Illeet ,trici "aler quahly requirements for Ihe intended reu~ applicatnn; (2) protecling public health; and (3) gaining pubhc acceptance (Asano eI aI., 2007). Whelher "aler reuse l' appropnale for a ,p...dfic comonunlly requ,,,,,, a careful r "i ...w of econom;" cnl,-sid ...ratiuns, polenti.l u".:,s for Ihe r""laimed ",al r, and the current regulatory requirem...nts 1m th... le" ...1 of lreal",enl, Design irs for wa"'r re"", requ ,,,,,an understand,ngof Ihe intended applicalions, "hich "'ill gf)' ern the degree of wa,lewaler Irealment required. Th... dominant applications for Ihe u"" or reclaimed w.l...r indud ... J"ect u",," ,uch .s agricuhural irrigation, landscape irrigalion, industrial recycling, and reu"" .nd inJ"ect uses tablc
",Id

Flgur119.29 IV.tor Quality Clung'" d" ring,\'" ni, ipal U.., in a Timo SoqRonre.

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'....-..onoo'... ooolol Chapler9 W""tewau...... Stonnwa!". CoIIoctil>:l, T,ealml!!ll, FIesoorce Flecovery

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2012 EPA Guidelines for Water Reuse ct'VJ!r<~.q>'I"l",!~PDFI

rtO.')ff:>7K.pd'

«-",I-flf""ti"e ,n u,., long run, Ihe addition"ll,..,atmenln' ",,,-qe,,,,ter beyond semtlr. How""er, the energy sa, ings dnd other social, ec....nomic. dnd en"lronmenl.l1 benefils Cd" I>e m"e1, grealt>r.

9.15 Wet-Weather Flow Implications for Wastewater Given Ihe Irem.... ,d"", energy a,l "tid catch"'''''l" and dd",-is orcr"d., in Ihe piping net,,·ork. Dn",,,,hc "",a-,Io>,, .ter collection 'yslem, a,.., d.",ig''''''' 10 ~arry only d,,,n.,,,tic """ dg<' (,,,,,,In'Y ,.",1..",) or 10 carry both donle'itk .""" .lg" a,1d runoff (C1""bi"i'd s.!I,lm,). Whet' a ",,,itary 'ystem i, u>ed 10 coll"'l do,,-....tic ""wage, "'.lIty times a sep.;rate Slomll' .ner coll""tion ,)'Slem i, designed for runoff ",'"nlS. Wel-....ealher flo...... are defined d' Ihe ,Iormwaler or ,,,owmelt thaI di""-1ly enlers a combined ,",wer syslem Ihrough desIgned inlel' and Cillchmenl' or th .•t e"ters in!o Ihe """ta'YS<'",er through nldllholesdlld pip" def"C1s. n,e dmounl of wel-w"alher no" Ih~t ent"rs a ... nnary ""wer is generally in t1,,,,,,,,,e order o. magnitude d, Ihedo",,,,lic (d rywealher) flnw". Ho" e\'er,!ho> w"'-II·e.
9.21 Calegories o.Wel·W.... the. flow l"fIow

Wal", lh.>l e"t"". ",11,-,<11>" ,~.....", lhmush dind «m"""to",-, 'uch., 'lorn.w.l", rald"J1e,~, "",f leader- ""mp pump<, ,.ar
["fill,.,t",,,

Water !hal o"top; • coUc'Ctio" ')"'1"'" tlYnugh plp"dclc'Cl<, pIp" joil1~, manhole ",.ll,. OTOtruor I\OI\ol1gl",-"roo d""ignoo mfln",•. It i, ""tom.ltoo ., tho> ",,"o,,>(] flow ",rh' i" tho> morning who" do"",,", u."" i, ,dati"ely 'mati alld tho> ""w"" ,>"tem has beer! dr,mcd of dom","c .•ew'ge. n.e remairu"g floll" i, """U\' infi IIT.tion.

Chapler9 Wastew.tlr and Slonnwall!f". CoIectm, Ttealmenl,

_ct!

Recovery

III \alu~ for ne" ,aniln'y ,e"e", are gene.ally bel","",,, 200 to 5fO gpd per ;n~h of pipe diameter and nule of pipe length (Hammer and Hamme. Jr., 199(,). An aged ",wer may have lughe. ,alues. III based on Ihe "umbe. of ma"hol~ is gene.ally dh'lded i"lo Ihr... ~a legon." basal onlhe rain fa lid eplh, (1 )low, or3,lXXlga II filS I :.,.- manhcie; (2) me.:! UlIn, or 7,;no ga D",.. I in.- "'''', hci e;a nd (3) h igil, 0. 20 jX)J ga lionsl ;n.-n",nhcie (Wabki et aI., 2ml). Common III "alu",," based on land area range fmm 20 10 3,lXXl gall"""l a.:re-d..y In. non.ainy days. Dunng sto.m e, enb o. sno",melt, III '·alu ..... could ",,"""-'daling a largeamoulllof storm",aler (!if'A, 2flO.lJ. cso,. are the direct dIscharge of unlre.,ted ",a.,le,,·aler and stn"" II' ater 10 receiving w.,lerbndles. A significal1t a ",ounl of pci IUL,nls ina CSO e,..,1lI can be allnoo ",d lott... slonn "'aler induding oi~ gr""s", fecal cobl.....m from pel and "ildlife "aSle, I""tiddes, a. well a. ]Xlilulants Imm mad"ay,. To minimi7e 'If eliminale C'iCk, which i, mandaled by Ihe EPA, Ihere are ""ve.al ,Iralegles including ""we. sep.tralion, CSO,lorage, e~pand;ng capacily, and constructing relenlio" baSIns. Municipal stonn sewer separation syslem.. (MS4) il",o"'e build"'g a ",c,,,,d piping sy'lem 10 manage Slnrm",aler eliminating Ille need fm Ihe c"",bi"ed ""wer s"slem and Ihe W\VIl' 1o accommodale .ain wate., Th"", P'01"'IS, while effective at add."".ing CSOs, are e,I ...nely exf"',~,i"" a"d do nol pr", ide any Ireatmelll "f Ihe pnlluta"ls a.ssocialN wilh the ,Ionnwaler 1)",1 lS "0" di"'-'Clly di><:harged. CSO slorage faci litie. or relention basi ns can abo be cOI~'lru~led 10 hold e~""", fl,,,, thai can Ihe" be slowly relea"-'
ex ampIe I 9.9

Projecting Wastewater Generation Based on Types of Customers

A ""idenl..,l m"'llluni,y "·,,h a p"'pulation of 1O,1XlO i< pldl1ning '0 ""p.>nd ,l< wa
solution Ba,.,.,.,j on ,he inlMmalion provided, we 1i,..;1 need to es,ima,e lhe variou" col1,ribu,i,."", '0 ,he ",'erall wa"e",a,er generali,.,n. We Loln "-'" inl<"lrnution prodded in thi, chapler and lrom Chap,er 7. n,e cu,"'''' e.<,ima,ed per capita ge""rat,on 01 waslewaler from d,lferen, source< i, a. 101101' '"

I I

2.800 gpd mi x 11>.5 m;

dmneslk "'aslewa,er generation

melered flo", - I

per capita wa"ewater genera'i"'n

r

41>.200 gp
1.lXXU)fl) gpd - 16.200 gpj

d"m""lic ","a,lewaler gelleralion I")pula,ion ser\ e..:!

953.800 gpd

'J53.!IOO g pd IIHlOO prop Ie

95.·1 gl-uc

We can nOl' eslinu,e the fu'ure a,'erage ",a<,ewaler flo" rale to be 2, 1·IIl,900 gpd from lhe ro11owlllg lour contribut,ons:

95,4 gpdc" 0.92 x 17.000peop'"

I .~92,OOOgpd

Apartmen, romplex a,·erage flo" (u
27500gpd

Industrial park aver.'ge flow (from problem "a,eme",): 550,000 gp
u/n: 116.5 _ 9) m; x 2SOO gpd m,

"

7/0400 gpd

Chapler9 W""lewatl...... Stonnwa!". CoIIoctil>:l, T,eatmoot, FIesoorce Flecovery

example/9.9 (contiooed) [n "m11M la,hio", we can al"" e;lim.•te II... future m~ximum-d~y w,,-,lewater nn", ,ale (,,-,~uming the dry-d~y dom""tic w~,te",~te, generatmn i< equal to the wet-da) don\estic "~ste",aler generalion} a< J,1>21,000 gpd lrom Ihe following fou,conlribu!lnns: I'uture di:Il"estic maxImum IIm,- (including R percen! wa,tewale, reductioll): 95.4 gpdc x 1192 x 17.000people

U92.Ofllgpd

Apa,tmenl compl"" max imum flOl' (u,ing "alue-. lrom Table 7.1 2): 55gpdcx500peopl" Indl1,ttl~l

27.500gpd

pa,k maximum flow (from problem ,ldlement): 750,000 gpd

M~ximum inmtr~llon/inflo",
(16_5+9) mi

5JJlOOgpd mi

LJ5f.500gpd

the "alu.., ,,-<.ed '" thl~ ",,~mple are "Iypic~l~ alld nol o".erly ~gg"'s,i",, In lernls of waler con",,~-alion. Reade" a,e encouraged to th",k much bigge' '" lenn, of 'USI~i""ble wale, man.•gemenl. For example, can the projected R perren! reductio" in "',,-,Iewater generation be raised much higher 10 aehiel" more ~u,lainable u"" of eXI
9.16

th~1

Managing Wet-Weather Flows

There are ""'''tal "gray~ ,Iral,,!";"'" as discu ...ed above Ihal ha,,, Iraditionally been utilized 10 m~nage ,Iorm"alet and 10 limIt ii, undesirable impacb on w a,t"" ale, Irealmenl and re""""ce tee", lOry. Th""" traditional techniques .lre Intended ""lely t,) reduce Ihe peak flow rate 01 waler enle,ing Ihe planl. HOI,e"e" Ihere l, a gro,,-ing awareness Ihal more effecti I e management of ,torm" ater c-~n benefit noton1) pl""t operalion, but pm.. ido> 0l'P"nu'~tie<; forbeneficia 1u'"' of captured " ,ale, but .*0 cnl~,id"", Ille linllng of tJ", dl""'" 'fMC", ,,-aler
--

FlgUf.9.30 Combined S...", Sy.Iom During dry ",-",n.r (~nd
man.s""

ja............... W,

200011

0,,,,.111 plllL Table 921 C<'Ollf'dre; Il.. pl~b«>rtl;"'; or traJ,tin"ol) "ormwater '''''''''1;''''''''11 "'," 10" -imJMd de,-el0l'menl. There Me "'''rly benefiL' '0 PUr<;UIIIg .1 low-impact de,'elopment "I'I-',,,,,.h. Olle molj'" problem of the buill en ,-;",,,,,,e,,1 i, lhe imp.oci of IIIl"I"-""",,blt· ;"'fau, nil the "ollllr011 hydrologIc cycle" nd wa,er quality. E.l.r1y in Chapter 7, Figure 7... ,ho\\-ed how cOH"ing '''''urdl ,urbee.-, ,,- ilh buildIng" roofs. mads, and ""rking lOIS deered"'" Ihe amounl of procipildllOll that i"fiItrale< 10 groondwallor. In natural systems. app""imalely 50 perce"l of predpildtioll r""harge; to the ,ut.;urface, bul ill a highly urIMnized elWlnlnmell!. thi, d""Hnes 10 13 percem. ",ilh onl.v 5 per~elll redching deep ground ",ater. Hem"", ollhe ",.1... problen ... a<;."rial«l wllh nonp."n,."ble ,ur!alonn "''''''' 'y,lems (called 1\1 SIs) !<)a Jdr"", ,I rrm wa ler ru mil freo l\ Ih..."ite wilh Ih"recroll"ended Chapler9 W""lewatl...... Slonnwat". CoIIocIil>:l, T,e_, FIesoorce Flecovery

9.22 Compacison of 5tonnwote, Monagemenl Philosophies Site plon,willtypically integra" the u... oI ... veral ben ma noge"", n' pWa Ie>, and even unde,g, au nd 9' avel bed, for ,tormwate, derentian

C..,tchb.>,;tc< ~OO pipe< {I.low<>.l detcnoon basrn L.vgecemoll "c~",""n p'"''

5m.>1. d"tribuln.l ddrn oon ~"''''

Runoff .. le

Runoff T~'e and yofum<'

Fk>,.j o.g is pti rrnry c""",m

Amding an.:!

w.' IOrqu"i'y '''' primary crna"-,,,

Time"f m ....m'•.ltion reduc:ed .ll"rtkl",. .' 00 fl.l7..,rd"". rnale';"l.

Runoff «""!i'"",,,- '",,'cod by S"dlv
and inler.>ctlon with microoq:.m"m. ,nd '"'-'gel.>lion

u,..,o/ ,I'uetural best man3gemenf pTactices (11M I',;). E.... "'ples of BMPs related 10 Ihl~ 'egula'io" are grassed s" ~les, l-'enl\e~bk< pavement';, ~nd bio""enl,ollcelk. Forll..Ola'e1y. B~IP~cal1 bee,,-~~v i"'egrMOO ItIlna """,or e.,i,t"'g developmen', e,·en at the hOlJ""hold le,.,d. Beyoru:! ,,~ler qu~ljly l",ues, 'he i"'p...,t 0/ uro.lni7..llio" 0" runoff ab,o a f b.'IS ~ city' ,~b~ ity to s',refresh", a!let .For e ,.un fie,i" ur].." iO'."" c<-"".;'" I are~" ptedpl'a'io" th.1 becomes runoff "ill travel qUlcldy to "..line ""a",ater. wh",,, i"hell becomes "'''''8y i"''''hlve and e>.pec,i", In Ire.1l 10 drinking or agncuhural ,I.ndard,. Th .. prrolem ;ssignificart, baause 'he a , era!* l"'Pui.ri "" de,,; "y '" C",",laI arms is ,,,,ice 'hegl rt'd la,·era!*. rron~,ting gmundwa"', recharge by p",,~rrn>g pem..,able ,urfaces ~I~'uld th,,-~ be considered" melhc.:l to <10"" fresh",.ter for l.1ter "-'" by ""'''o/,Ie"" .. lid hu,mll'. TI,is l~ espociaDy imprrl.",t becau;e ground"ater m..kes up 0\'"", 30 nf tI,e "orld', fresh,,·afe, """,,,·es.

J>""Ct'' '

9.17

Green StorlTJlNater Management

St",,,,,,·aler managemelll systems thai minu" nalure by i"tegr"II"g 'Ierm ",a ter Intoou i Iding a IId "Ied e ,·el "l' menl ca" red uee the da mag Ing effecL, of urbanization on m·ers and sl""am" Di",,,,,,,ecfing Ihe flo" from ,torm """'""'. ~Ild d irectillg mll"ff 10 nalural sysleln, like 1.I"d""ped pl.",lers, ",ales alld rain garden. or implemenling a g,een roof ,educes and filters storm"'.,ler runoff. All of Ihese stralegies pre>.ent benefif,lo wa:.or man"gem""l lecl"",logies alld ,Iralegies <1i",,,-,,"'" p"""""u ec",,,,mic cn.L' and be1",fits depending"" cap""ily, abihly 10 I""at ronldmll",,,I., ec""",nks, perfonna"..., vatidbi\lly wllh season and age. 9.17 Greft1 Sloonwaler Management

9 17.1

GREEN ROOFS

R"oftop ru I~)f f c~ n be ~ 'u b, t a nli~ I m" tn but"r to mu nici I"I,Ion" 8O Km', and '" cIties ,och a, Phoe""" Seatlle, and Binningham, it i, ... timated that oo,.,ooed resid..ntial rook acrOllnl for JO.-35 perc.. nl of annu~l ru""if volum... Compare<..! wilh tr~dltional b1.lcklop ~lId m..l.>1 roo£<, gr.."" rook prOl id .. mallY pflY ate ~Ild public benefil,. Ii,ted ill Table 9.23. Snme of th""" bellefits induJ .. e"hanced 'lormw~l.... m~"ag ..m.. nt, reduction '" bUlld"'g ..nergy "",l,. II,er....." , of green 'pace and habit~I, ;\I,d reductio" ill urban heat i,land, Th..,... a .... th,..... Iyl"" of g...... n roofs: L 1"1,'1I;:u,,, gm'II rocf;: have a thicker soil layer (/50-400 mm) and weigh mor... so they require mor.. ,truetural ,upporl. TI,.. y work well WIth e.,i'lillg conerete roofs ifor ",,~mpl... on parking ded..s ).

2.

£xlc",i,~' Sr<>ell

roof; 1M' e a thin"er soillay.... (f,O.-2lXJ mm), .0 Ihey

""lu"e I""" .Iructural support. J. The ""n1i-i"I...,ai'>e gm'" '<>of ha, son", components of both th.. e.• len,i ,'" and the inl..",ive roof .ySlen~,. T.•ble 9.2~ .ummanzoo. d""gn a"d ma ;"tenallCe criteria lorearnlypeol gree" roof. Native veS"lalion isal "ay' the preferred alte""uh e. Wheth... or nCit the plam, a", lI.ui".. play. an n"porta"t role in deter"'ining Ih.. degree of mainte""nce and irrigation. E,te,~,i"e green mof< tend to be the more manicured ",Ih lo~, of mukh co, erage and sedum "egelalion, im~~yil,g th.. n.,.,j to weed regularly thll,ughoollhe lifetlmeof Ih .. roof. Intell
9.23 Pri"..eandPublic BenefitoofGreen ROOK

Innb'-ro ",,,f lilo

--

lit"", I",-tanev '" a "naked"' fut roo; i. 15.--25 y...' .... b<.'('au.,,,, and U\' r.ldi.,tion degradation. Gr~,," ",of, inue.,ct.<.

Thern"l insul.-ltion T''''''pir.-.l''--.I duringgr«>n r<,,,,,1~ m a

molecbu~d",g

d""a"

Can beinwrp."ated inr.-" 1""',.",,1, c"",mel'Cl.-l~ .m':! pwtic'I""" Pr"d.:!,-, habitat 1'('1" pluol an.:l anima l,p."""

Runoff can be .-oducal by ~ ,"'peei.,lIy important during I"'.,k p.-ecip,t.>ti"n ''',,"'l'. TranlIng the 1oc.,1 bUIll en";ronment

Chapler9 Waslew.tIr and Slonnwall!f". CoIectm, Treatment, Resoor"" Recovery

9.24 Oetign and Maintenance Critetia fot Gteen·Raaf Typeo Eod. has diferen'eharooemie, in tern>, of plmtng de»h and ,tllJcl.l'cO laadlrg ,e""rem ... t~

em'

Poo_lieU ..

6ll-ISOkg/m' 13-lJ Ib/H'

L,.....

Ernk>gic~1

120-200 kg/m' 25--4Illbl It'

M,ddl"

Oe'IIg"-x1 g,,,,,n

180-'\00 kgl m' 35--IOOlb/fr

High

r",lJikeg",den

Wlil#"

Int""",,, g""'" 'f"<'f

1...-400 mOl on u"';c'l;r"""'; gatoS"" "1.000 mOl

n", g"",n ronl nn Chicago', Cit) Hall i, pIa,,""" ",ilh "ahe praine vegetatinn, "all"e "egetalion """' gn,w den,..,jy (so it requ""" lilile to nn mulch), and il mnre dr....ly repltc."... a '~ltil ~ """"ysl~m, n,~ u"" of nali"" 'peeies in Il", design of an int",~,i"" green roof "''lu"", lItCed ~pee""_ This implte<" lesser n-' for irrigalio", 0"' al' inl",~~i..e g........n mof pl"nled "ith ","i"e ,p""ies. Note lbal Irrigation need~ ...,d Ihe relation,l"p 10 Ihe Iype of "egetalioll will depend nil Ihe deplh 01 Ihe snil. FM eumple, img"'ioll requtr",n~nlsf",a sllcculent IlOJ"",ti\'~ plant mllld bt! equal In th"""f", n"tI"e ""8eutinn in Il1e~hannw,",ils 01 a green ",nf. n,is Is M,auselhe deep-mol ad"anlag~ 01 "."m~ ""I,ve planls is I...""ned In Ih~ ~hallow soHla}'e", 01 green roof, Fi8ur~ 9.31 shows Ih~ compon~lllSof a Iypical 8re~", roof. Such a rnol cn,,~i,l~ of a ",uhilay~red ~y~l~m Ihat ,il~ above Ihe rnnfin8 d""k "nd p"",id ... ,,·at~r and n¥>t protection (il~ms 3-7 '" Fi8ur~ 9.31). TI,,,,,,, lay~rs ,il u"d~r a dra""'8esySl~m (item 9). On top of Ih~ dra""'8e layer is ,ome gm"'in8 ,n..leri"l (,uch ... ,",ii), which LS planted (it~n~s II and

pmtLoction I~y".

,,,,i,

Chicago Green Roofs .w.w,C"JC~~onY

12, r... pectj,~lyl. n,~ ,·oIum~ of

". ater tl1.11 a green mol call ,lore after a rainfall ~,,~nt (V) is det~rmined '" (9.29)

"I",re Pi, the precipitalion (mmJ, A Is th~ roof area, and C i~ a ",~",ure nl tile wal~r-I1"lding capacily of Ih~ gro\\'illg medillm (rang"" from 0 10 1). ThL' volume of stnred water call hoe compared Wilh Ih~ v"lume of slormwaler 8"n"raled by a ron"~nlio,,..l mol (P x A).

9.17.2 PERMEABLE (ORPOROUSl PAVEMENTS l'ermeable (or porous) pav~menl is pa"~111e"t 11,"\ allows lor Ih~ "~rtical ra-<,sa8e of water. n"s pal ""'''''' ,lOt only reduces runofl by 9.17 Greft1 Sloonwaler Management

~.....uliOO

3

5 n. R·30

4

112 n.l1fPSU"\ proIO<:IIOO board

5 75 molllllJylDno dieno IT>
B. P,OIOCliOO fabn< ~

f",~.~

1O.F,.. ,fllbnc:

12. St""" f"","lOS. 00o

FlQurB9,31 Componcnt, of ~ Cre"" Rf This !",'hcuL" Trnting area,. It redu",,,] the noopom"",bl" 'urf.coa",a 3/,Y, tt', ""'lUlled an ongi~ ""pport of 6llb/fl'. and c""t S31.R0/1t' In 2005.

lC->o>,oIWoIIo .... 5MI...... s..a..,.,.",..... Goo ......-, Vol

enl" ndng ground "at..- ,echarge but al9.' reduc,,", theu,hln heat isLand Penn"able p..\'ements .•"" als" belie, ed t" be mor" ,kid-,,,,i,I,,,,t and qUlefer fhan c",,,'enti,,,,al True} al", eliminate n"-"'J [rran g,a,s, gr""el, crushed ,I"",,, conc,ete pa,'""" co"."el", and asphalt ("", Tabl" 9.25).

P-"''''''''''K

Il,,,

9.25 Example. of Pet....oble (Potou'l Pavement

,itu."'""

E'dc !<-<>Iball "t.-.dium 0' on edgc of big b", "t",,,,)

Cnl

Ccmi. stiegrid, ., nd H

For P'''
Chapler9 W""tewalrr'" Stormwa!". CoIIocIil>:l, T,e_, Fles
I'm......, P'" ~",o>nt Cdn bo> as "mplo> "-~ grass}' ~u,I"ce; and into>rlo<:ling P'" ing .tOIl"" th.lt alkJw ,'''S''''ation to gnm' bo>h' .... n tl", bl.xl rdge.. I'a';>, .ton"" Can also be placed along Ire,,;.. Mau<.e Ih~l not hann nR"lt ",<10'",-, Itle IrMlll"""'] 1"" ..'....."1 d........ h can also ro>f.... 10 a muhila, .... "","'n lIut ,ocludo'S a f'O'rmo>able C'<>n at lhe 'urf..,.., .. romp.octed s.ond .ubb.a.... imm""h.. tell beln.. tho' po>rmeable CO\er," fabric. filb.-r, anJ a ('(\Q'P«~ NSO' on t.... bntlnm In "huhn....... ""u "'...... gth of lhe pd' ,ns m.l1.......1 i. of u.""n~ f"""'W>"blo> POO' """""I c.ll\ be nu.,ed .. ,th 1r;>o,I,llolrYll"" """""L In tlus ""..nann. poorl.,"3 areas and ped&lnan ....Il.. a' .. a~ "f'irifie..l pd'... n-.t. anJ trolldlt>oml p" .. ng nuttr.. b ..... uw In Um>1o'd-uso> .. ~ .. ""u hell,~ lo.ads ...... broughl lfor eumJ>io'. truck I"", o>l l<\ a lNding docH In Uus GllSe. PO' _ t m.v"'''S' or "'8""8" can guLJe 1.1'5.... deI"eflo trucks so u- ........,n ofl tho' porous poo,e...,..t llul ....rmun..b the Irad,bon.ll poo' ""Ioef\t. ,,"-N<' n - . . a-..sosts oj con, ""tion.ll con.:n>to> nuterul, .. ,th tho> ............ a8S"'&'w being 1... 11.-..1 ,n ,I>. ran9' nf .~ .... arU tho> p ......"'ce of fine a85"'8at.< be,ng mnunul nr """"'",I..m (/'CA, 2llf).jl, parr1/£< ~I i, '.>nd t.~ by asplult cern""l, .. III> 'ufl"'I""1 Int"""""""led ,'<>ids t
,,,II

',>I"'"

9173 81ORElENTIONCELl5 Hin,et""t,nn nll~ a", ,,11.1110'" d ..preo..!Orl' ill th" ..,ill<. " hich "Iorm"at~r 1, d1ro' and to rIla,in,iu il1fHtrat",n, Th"l ar.. ,d"rred tn a.. bJOi"fillralim,ui/.', 1~'SI""II.\1 Iliail/'as, • nd r"ll! s"nll'll.'. n,..y ~,,! Il\f>';t nft.." mulch",) (f,~r ,\~tho>tl<: • ,.Iu.. and water lreal",o>"t) ,mJ 1'1.ntrd wilh 11.1.1"'0' '''g;>l,!!'(", Ih,u pr(.. ,,,~.,,; ".'al">Irall"!'"ahon Th .. do'S'8" "b;..ai.e of ",.. ,,,nil.mg infilt,al n '\In ~u(e tho' ,,)lum~ of w.ter lhal ,Io'o'd" ,,, 1>0> ,,"~ .nd/ nr 1 led n ...,.... tl"" "'1""" bioI"fiItratinn cell). Flguro> 9.32 .hn" , Ihe det.. il.,,) do'Sig" "I a bior"to>nt,n" c..lL It ;nduJo>< thf' u""' of an und ..ldrain, .ub.I3nI\l1 aggregai" hddJil, and g.'.-......ll'"' hn,ng. Booret.....lion cdl, ..... oft..... inror"poral..... along """",.. t" GIIptu .... rOodd runoff, "luch ""lU'''''' the u... lu~""" of .. curb eutnfl. On.> ""f""-1 "Ihal they GIIn bo> oJe.'8ned I.. 'ncorpnral.. a "oJ.. 'ano>tr of """"" from Iugh infiltr"liaI I<~ prd""'In-.1 '" urb.J.n rur.,ff and ro'rOO' aI '" n,trogen (.-...e Figu,e9.:U f"ro>,amp1te>l, ll,,,!, c.. n ..1;;<1 bo>;qA!\J.-J u......lJed ~ """-"".-.. fWD'l:R.:!OOJ1. A. lhe 'o>geI<>ll' e emer gt'<'" '. """""",,,I"'" cetJ;, ..... 6~N to hd.o> 'n<,eadO~ to t...-.K lhe rooc _ .. orlo. of the pLol1t~ and Inc.-- lTansp"..t""'. In rontr~ I" ""f'b<' Llnl Jra"",so> fit'kh, .. here b;om.ol>. can &, ....'1' oJuo> to ",1.111, o>lr lugh ....-ga.n.. and nut nt NJ,n&". no '>1"..1,,,,, lid, e ,,,t fOlJnd ]0,." of ",filtrallOn perf mance ,n bion .. ..tJ.... If 1Wf'Iie,J, the ..... l ..... ~ to> GII.-..fullr k~ (anJ ....... ~) If> r""tore the ...fihnt" .. ""'p«lt~ ..nod bkdl up I..... btonullhdl m.a~ d.., .. t<>p on the u~ hO'"lZont.ol pia......'If 1M 001 "here "ater .....1""'. On.. ("('•...,,,,on n'yth l" nut bk~ret""t,on c..u, altrael """"'Iu,~ Mco.qultLlo" r"'lul'" 7-12 J.ys I" la~.nd tho>n h"t,h tlwu "8&-', Th..

..""..,i"'....

1'10\'"

11'\""....

dOC"'" "..

P"lflQ'"

--".....'""""'=,,-'

- -. ,----"""'--_.._....

---

' ..... ...... ............

~,,- -

------ -- ,-""__

,

,

tTl>!'-

..-"'-~-

FJg~rlgt32

Typic.1 Dosign of • Commud.l 8io.. lonlion Coil 1\:<>Ie 11>0 k",.b<>n of .mend,,,] ",ii" underdea;n,. 001101 ,Irule ""c~filt <>r grot""li~t lining.

I'=""""yol Sp;
Sojj'..... ""'•. DoooJ~', 200II1

.lallding "dler in a pml"'rJy desIgned bioM.,nllon .ell will be pr"""m for ollly """.,r,1 hou .... dfler > rain even!. Abo, the pJams '\'Ill dltract dragonlli,-"" '" hi.h prey on mosquil"'"

DESlGNANDCONCEPTOFFIRSTFlUSH

Many ,Iales now recommend or requI", Ihal Ihe 1i"1 Ilu~h 01 a qonn event be <:.l.plured and I"'dled. B,o",tenl,on cell. can be ,ize.:! bd,eled OI'er Ihe em,re nrnlpermealJle area of a .Ile. In a re,,;Ier volume mu,1 be rele."ed o,er.' 1- 10 2-day I"'rlod or inlihrale.:! i"to Ihe ground \\ltI"n J day', For regional delenllon Chapter9 WastlM.tlr ..... Slormwall!f". CoIIocIm, Ttealmenl, Resour"" Recovery

. ......,....",._ .

Flgure/I.U

(.1"-_"""'__

OroiS~ fa, l)iffc~nll'u
..... _~~
"'.nrom.

~_

_ _ _ <11111

_,.,!!w

_,_1<1'.....

._----.......--_ ---

..,.,

01._2511. ...

lbITho

....

,_

_._..... ~

~_.\ii"_

Tho .. 1

.. _

~"-'N_

• • _2511.

---... _..... -----"' _ _ a

---. ....... "'""""

-

"'ll'* ~ -..t>ci_z ..

---_ ----_....- ._____ ... ... _-_ _ ... _. . . . . . . _n.._ ... - - --_ _.. _.-_. ---"'~_lIlI \IftCltflII.", Tho _

_

"'~.ItI"'" ~.ll
.... ...:Nrvo ZOlll

""'.._ ..- :.:ir;;1E! .... ...---

....

(dITho_""c. . .

-.gnealot~_

-

-

..-

~

..........

......

_ _ lIIlOO'

__h

.....

of lho> 90 ~ none~ c-.La"",.. "WO'm (Iho> <;torm ",enl fot" h",h 90 ~ l of .11 runoFfprodu...ng '1..._ .... -.m.oller th.on /Y " "..... 11... I"'" _pecif1ed
• rplK'uoon_,

aia~I""I;anCrU.

M",h,~ ~uggesb unl","",1

{W.nt 2007).

Boor-i>to!T1I"'" <'''Iems .... nal m"lh.-><.l \lOll..hng progrant5 such •• ErA SW\I~1. IVIX-~-'i'i. HEC_H\t".• n"! ~hdroC..d .... applteabh> wr mo..!ffins otonn"aler dl tho- ~nl.lll "t.. to I'l'gK>f'ld1 "'GIl.. T""~ 10..... 1;; hd'" Itnu!.dl"'.... in I....n" 01 'm,u1.oting
From top '" l,al ;nfill'ahnood utIiIlT.>""'" fblli.kw"," and ~ ~ fanb,,·, lclinfill_-onh·bonr..--cdl

,..,..-"-,.rem,<.

~

-~';

• ......

,

l'OOO

hydrologi~

mechani,m, III biorel"n!l,," ~t the site sc~le, bUI kllowledge~bl" users have applied Ihem 10 de"elop ~(""er... aliv" d.,.;igns. Two good ""ampl", of wid"ly used model, are II", Prin~e G"orge', Coullly (Maryland) BMP module ~nd RECARGA (from the Unil er,uy of Wisconsin-Madi,on). BinrelenUnn ~ells ~~n ~I", be d"'igned b~sed on the firsl flush ~nd on " helher th" w~ler i, sloreased 01\ siorage below grad" requ"'e an ""I"","e ollhe cell's por""ty. Sizing Ihe~,,11 based on the "olum" 01 "'aler IIMI ~~n be "ored above grade requ".,.; an unde"'ldnding of how d""p a ,,_,Ier I""el Ihe pl~nl speci.,.; r"'luir"" 10 ,unoi, e lor a ,hor! per"x1 01 I""e, ~Iong w,th ~~munl,ng for Ihe ~bOle--grade volume I.,ken up by Ihe plants. To estimat" Ihe ,olu",e of ~ bio"'t"l1I,on ~ell requ,red 10 II", fiN flush below gr.-de, de",r",;ne Ihe volume of r~h, waler generated al a sit'"

",11

"or"

(9.30) In Equali"n 9.30, th" Ii"" f1u,h is IIS-I.1I in rahm aler gener.uN during ~ precipitalion en,nt, and the llonpermeable ar"" includes Ih" a",a being drained to Ihe ceiL n,e ma.imum volu",e of III" bim"'e",ion cell belo", grade can be delermine.:l a, folio",

,-olum" of bioretel1lion cell

""Iume "f raUlwaler I,) be slored

(9.31)

The por.....'ty Ls defined a, ,·"Jume

U,e void s!"'ce IoUl \'oh",,,,

"

01

V, V,

(9.32)

Equalion 9.31 assu",,,, thai th" soil pom";ly is s~lUrale
A

HIIL!me of bioret"n!lon deplh

~ell

(9.33)

wh",.., lhe below-grade deplh is typiCdlly:l-ll in. When de,igning a biorel"nli"n ~ellio ,t",.., water above grade, Ihe de'iig"er ,hould ~o""der the volullle ,)f ,vater ge"er.He
abo." ~ gr,ld" for th.. bior"I""linn ..,,11 10 tinn i.

",·,,"1

~tor ..

Ih" ti .... t-fiu,h pr..ciplta-

[ '"'"~"' 1 ['O'"'~"""] ra,n"al...-tn bo> ,10<1!d

+

upb~

'<'get.ahon

19~)

In Equ.lt...... 9, l-l. the \Ill....... cl raUl" atli'r .....-.xiatoed ",th lhe fir<1 OU!Jl thai ,,111 . - I to be stored is J..trnrunoed &juabOn 9.JO. Tt>o. .oIum" abo>"g;rado> t.a...... up ~ 'o>griabOn '"

m>on

v

[

[""""'" . oi pl.onts.

a un to. '"~''''' "."""""] pl.,"1

~ub",o>rgN

fur

a
W,lh thot i"f"rnldlion prm id&l by Equ~li"n 9,H, Ih" I<)tal • olum.. ""Iuiro'J ab.."" grad" for Ih.. biorel..nl"),, .. ,,1l Can bo> d""',n",,<'<1 from Eq'Mli.m 9.J.I Thl~ ,·olum.. c~n be di> odo!<.! by th.. '''getal'' e-specifIC allowabl.. d ..plh Ihal a pl.''''1 can l>I.. ill Equalion 9.J5l 1<) Jeter",i".. Ih.. ''''lui,..,] area, Thi~ ar..,' m"y be ' .... I'.. in<'d by ~ite c"",I,ai,,t<, AI ..., pe,,,,e.. bi,, pa ",~,,\~nl< Can bo> u,<' arr.l "f a reff from a h<>n"",,, roof typically range- from HIO 10 100 fl', In all ca-e;, bKlreto>nllOfl Ml. (e;~l1y 11\0,,0, '"thoul a" o, .... fIo,.. draIn) are g.Adoo ..... that" h.." I~' me.fl",,,", 11.,,, ~ a"a;.' fmm buikhngs. r"'lutg k'>l ~u.., ~ys\em§ bri" ...... """. oi p.1rlmg I", Ii'!. of such .. n.-.ut"'t ",.. ld ~bU ref)a:' tho> ",...dalKlll ""I""."mmts of lhe planl'> .nd/o, refkI th.. d_ro!lJ ,<>lu""'''''p1u ..... lf...- ...... mple... 1i""-flu;J,dN8""''lO p"",..rt ~~Co'l'\J de;.ignl. Rt>-.W hAllo.....-ntJOa all, can ..I"" bo> ~i/ed ba-.I on under"OO up"'" 'eggahon mundot"'" Inlo>r_l al<-..g ",.h """" led~ of u... ""I "P'" In thi> ........, the _ of lhe eft!;,. ~ as ioIl
"o'!"'.

"a_

'f"!'C''''

a ..... of .--denbal btor-..t..... ~dl nortpertn0'3ble a..... "
19.36)

n.... ~11" fJ_ lOr is Mdted 10 lhe pon>"'l~ of the .....01 and 11>0 ablht~

f."

,nlilt'AI" '.1m", al... Table 9.2.. ptDl id... ~17." (acl,"'" b1orei.... t .. 'n cell< .IS a function of ""II
10 fe>'d ....I... 1

9.26 5i1e factors fot 5i1;"g Retidentiol8;orelent;onCells !lop!! DI CIll

~'-

~in.

6-7 in.

Sin,

SonJy."il

0.19

0.15

O.~

SlI'Y'",l

O~

",-

.~

0.1f,

Cl'\'-'Y .."I

W

O~

OW

SOUIlU W!lI"-lt. 2003

9.17.4

Bi,,'....ale. (aL", t...retl"f.'d 10 as gnl5> .",,1,,< a,1d "'jillml'... 11'l'J~!l<'S) are engineered con\'ey~rtCe cham ",1, Ih~t co,"~iq "I ,,,,ti\'e \'egetation. nleY ate II0t lilled with a ""'Ieri.d ,ueh a, concrete. To Ihe untrained e)'e, a bi""...."I" will app""t 10 be a gra<;'i~ cl"'rmel \\. ith a ridg" of higher <;oj] pl-""'t-""" al,"'g tile length for cor"'''Ya,....,"", lVI,,,,, tll"y Me pl.'l""'",,,,,,n als" be p"""''''ro 10 pr.." ide """,nal flrJOJ slorage and m.my oll",r b<.1lefil~ (T~bl" 927). H"'e tl", green 'p~"" may fl",>.:! dUring "'.1",·"",1 h&l.\'y-rain e,'",nlS nr after ,nown,ell Dunng these t irn"",lhe ~pace ""'y alsopro'..J" wi ld 1ife 1'" hi t.ll ., nd ree I"ffi tioIbUCh a~ bird" atehlrlg. WIlen II"" pik."d n", oullat.". in ~ummer arid 1.,11, it can be uS<.'
Take a virtualtaur at anatural drainage system, review the sealUe SEAStreets praJect h.tv) 1.......",Q.Cf,"""""a,,.I< ,cc.1"tW

='"'"

BIOSWALESANDOTI-ER LAND USETEG-lNkJUES

!>e.>~t.r_.l" u"Hc,.".

Class Diswssion I-«>w """'~ ~r d""", ,uc,,¥U1< ~","",.",= ¥c,,,,t.i<>
bet""""

"'e"-

""'''''''M. ,,".J

e·r""...uoc~?

9.27 8enefittofGteen 5pu:e (basedonWrig'" Wendeletal, 2(11). SocialBcoolits

Enhancoo Tee""'';''''''] '>ppo""n""", 1"",,,,,,,-"; I","cls of ph)"';KJI ""'i,,t}" Il1Cl"""-"; s,,,'-'" 01 se
Improwd ""-"ntal h""llh Reduced crr"", dnd p,,-.nile dclinGuency

EJ ...

"''''''r.... _

Imp",,",,d drr Gualr')' W."e, pollrr'dn' filffalion Inc"-",,,-"; ennff,,1 of S'''mlW.,'", nm,,1f &. Ooodrng

Reduced lo.>dson .s'ormw.,"', "),,'crn. Co roundwdl", "'"harge Redu..-ro h<>I' i.1.lnd elf,'Cl WJlJlil" habil,'

Chapler9 W""tewatrr .... St"""wa!". CoIIocIil>:>, T,e_, fIesoorce flecovery

Eoonomic Bonor..

Increao;ed I""P'-"'yn]u"" Imp,m"oo dbrhty I" d'ff"'" dnd """in 00"""""", ."ld ""oJ""" T"",,,,m o.,.,,,,a,<;<>j need. f,,, polke.nd pnson.<

R,-'<1"mJ poilu!>"" p""""oon

mm.'U""

Key Terms 0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

,ludge aeralion ba,in ~dj,'aIN

aeralion tank aerobk dlgesl;'", anaerobk digeslion anaerobic lag""" altad\<.-
• binrete"lion celi, bios",ales 0

0

0

0

BOD lO.'lditlg rale carbon dioxide cla,ifiers

• • • • • •

Clea" lVater Ad mmbined se"'er m",bl"ed ,ewe, "'·...flow (CSO) mmminutnr compres,im, <;eIlli"g con,trucled wetland

0

c<"" entionai achval<.-
0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

hydr.lUlk retenU"" lIme

0

0

lInp"wed ..."italio" i" fillra lio" lnllm,

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

di""rete setll"'g disinfection 0

0

0

0

• energy • e.de"ded aeration

green roof

0

0

0

crllk~l

domesllc waSlewater emerg"'g chem",als of (""cem • ""dnsetlou,-gmwlh ph"-,",, • endogenou, ,espi'_li""

0

0

s"t chamber hmdereJ settling

0

0 0

f"", "~Ie, ,urfa"" (1'WS) ",eliand

0

0

0

dealh growlh ph.l"" denItrificatIon digesl&! ,iudge digesler

0

green 'pa"" g,eenhouS
0

,ludge SRT CSO,I()fage

facult.lli,
0

0

lag"on maturalim,lag""n mea" cell retem,on lime (MCRD membrane blnreadors (1"IBR,) l1lethal\e mix&! iiquor "",&!llqunr ,usl"'ndeJ ""lid, (MLSS) ml,<.-<1<.-<1 ,,,lids (MlVSS) modified ludzak-Etlitlge, (MlE) p,oces, Monnd kineti", municipal ,""p",ate ,Ionn sewe, 'ystem (M&l) munidpal wa,le"'ater cm"hluenls municipal wastewaler Irealmenl pIa,,"

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

"allmldl Pollutant DL",harge El"nl".'I1"" Sy
I' he"pha Ie-aeromula Iing organism, (PADs) pl""'ph"",s photosynthetic oxygen prelimilldry trealment p,,,nMy Irealment pubiicly o,,'''&! t,eatment worh (ronV,) ,etention ba"ns relu,,, acli"al&! sludge -"atelhle "",1.lnMI;o" p"",es"", _m,dar\' darifie, """m,d.ltv treat",e"t "."jimenLltio" t.",b setlling tanb sludge age ,ludge stabi1i7.alin" ,ludge ,oiu",e index (5V1) ""lids retention I"ne (SRD ,tab,iizal"," pol>
chapter/Nine Problems 9.1 Rese..rch .. " e,nerging che",ic..l of c'w.c...." ,h.. , might bed isdurgl'd tna w..s"'wa'erlreatmenl plan, or ho<-,-",hold ""!->Iic sy'te"". Exa"'ples wooid ,nclude phannac....Jlical,. calfein~, surf.. ct.. nls found in drlerg""'lS, fr..grancfS... ,Id perfume,;. Wro,e a" ""'"'y of up to three pages on the concen,ration of thi, chemical found in ",a'le"·at,,, ",fluent. [M1!n"",e" l""h", the chemical you are ,.",.,..rchmg ls treat"'" inlhe planl. ,hn1ugh ulllrffi'tU, or acrumulate< on Ihe ,ludge. lden,ify any ad,''''''' ee'''')·''",n or hu",a" heahh impacts Ihat h.we been found for ,hi, chemical

1''"'''"'

9.2 R"""arch whether Ih....e are "a,e or regio"al pollutio" pre,·el1l""l pmgrams "eel' mercury OIJt of vour k"",1 mun,cipal ",a't~water treaUnen, plant. TIli, ",errury "ugln m",e fmllt your utlil·e...."y l.. bora,ories or local dental offices .."d lI.-".;pitak Wh.ll are ,ome of Ihe specifics of ,hese progra'Rs? Ho" much mercury has been leI" ou, of ,he e",·im"",em ,ince the p"'gram's inception?

'0

9.3 A l..boratory prt1l ide,; Ihe f"l1o"ing ",lids analysis for .. w"-"e",.. ler "''''pi", TS 225 mg/L. 1D5 40 mg/l, Fffi 30 mgll. (a) Whal i, the total ,u'f'endfrl M>lids co,",entra,im of Ih .. , .. "'pie? (b) Do.o. ,his ",n>ple haw apF'"eciable M&in ic ",.. tier? Why or ..... hy nOll

9.4 A 100 mL w.. ter ..."'ple i, colleete.:l fmm ,he activated-sludge proces, of munici!",l "'a'Ie"'at.... tre"'ment. The s.. mple is placed in a drying dish (",e'gh, O.3(X)J g before the s.. mple is added) and then place.:lin an ",·en at HJ.I C un,il .. l1 moisture is e".. pora''''''' 11,e "eight of ,he dried d i,h is I'ff'flrded ." fl.3li25 g. A "milar 100 mL "..mple I, fillere.1. and the frO", Lli:Juid """ple ,hat p,",""st hroogh Ihe fil,er i, coliect"'" and placed ,n a"mh", dry,ng dl,h (weigh, fl.5(XXJ g before U,e "..mple " ..dded). This ...."'ple;' drie..! .11 101 C. .. nd ,t.. drie..! dj"h's weight is recorded .., 0.5325 g. Deter",i"e ,he concen,ration On mg/Ll of (a) tot.. l ""lid" (b) tolal sU'i"",d&:! .",lids. k) ,01..,1 d l<;solved solid" .. nd (d) \'olalile suspended solk:ls. (As..,ume VSS 0.7)( TSSJ

9.5 Obuin ,h" World Health Organizal,on (WHO) reporl on "Uri .." diversion, Hyg,enic rish and microbial guidelines for reuse." Rev,e" Figure 21" Chapter 1 01 thi< repf'O"' (llllrodueti,.,). (a) How ",..ny grams of ~, p. and K are e.«re,ed ever)" d ..y Ill .. Swedi,h person" uro"e?

9.6 Hum.."s produce 0.S-1.6 L of urllle per day. 11,e a""ual m,,-s, of ph''''phnru, ill Ihls urine 0" a per "'pita 1M
0'

_ NH; _ m,L + 6H,O _ Mg:\H,m, nH,O_,

Mg'~

11 ,he cO"'l""'i,io" of lhe wa-te" .,ter u"der "",-
'0

9.9 De;;igo an aerat&:! gril chamber sy,tem tre"t ., l-d..y sustained pe.," hourly no,," of f.6 m' I < w"h an a"erag" nnw of 0.65 m'/s. Determine, (a) the gro, chamber ,'olume (as,unung two d".. nbe.... will be used); (b) ,he dimen,ioos of the two gro, chambers; (c) the .1\ erage hydraulic re,entinn tome in each gru chamber; (d) .lor requ ""m""t" as,"" mingO.:xl m 'of .. if per m leng,h ofunk per mi"ute; a,>.:! (el the qu.. mi'y of gnl r",n", ed at p... k now. a",uming .. 'ypical '" aluoe of 0.20 m 'of grit per one thou,",nd m' nf unlreat&:! w."t.ewa'er. 9.10 A "".1"-"".11.... tr... tmen' plant recei ,",,'a flow of 35.COfl ",' Id..y. Calcul.'le ,he r"'luored ,·olume (m ') for a 3 m deep horizont.. l-flnw gro, chamber Iha, "HI rem","e particle,; w"h a 'I""'ir", gra, ity of mo", Ihan f.9 and a size gre.. t.... ,han 0.2 mm diameter.

, Chapler9 Wastewau...... Stonnwa!". CoIIoctil>:l, T,ealml!flt, FIesoorce Flecovery

,,,,,,i..,,

9.11 A ",a,lew,,"', trealme,~ plant will a 11<", of 35,000 m'/f"'l\deJ "lIids. A"sume the ,urlace Me,l1m, rale u"'-'
9.13 A wa'lew","r trealment plan, has a 110\\ 01 35,000 In '/day. Cakutne Ihe mas.s 01 sludge wasted each day (Q~.X.... expres.-ed in kg/day) for "It acti,ated-sludge S\',tem "!",,aled at an SRT or 5 day •. Assume an aeralion lank "olume of 1,6010 m' and an ML'i<; concenlration of 2,lXXJ mg/L

9.14 You are prowlded willlihe followu'g informalion about .• municipal ""ble".,I", lrealm""1 plant. n.l~ planl use; lhe IrMlllional a~"Iivaled-,ludg" procebes reach h.,l! nf Iheir ",...,imulll gm\\lh rate "hen Ihe BOO. cmcenlrati,•• i, 10 mglL There a", 150.000 f"'Ople '" thecom",unily (their "a,lew,,-ler pmduclinn i, 225 L/day-cdplla, 0.1 kg BOD,lcapit.,-day). n,e dfluenl ,I ...,dan.f is BOD, 20mglL .u-.d TSS 20"'g L. SU'J-",nded solid, were mea,ured as 4.)O(l mg/L '" a "aslewale, sample nblamed fn)m II", b.,logk..1 r«let.-.-, 15.lXXJ mg/L in Ihe ,econdary ,Iudge. 200 mglL in Ihe plal1l inOuent. a"d 100 mg/L in Ihe prlt.. ary clarifier eHluent. SRT" equal tn -I day,. (a) Whal is Ihed",ign volume of II", aeraliln basin (m')? (b) Wha I i, tI", plant", .,erat.,,, p ... ",d (days)? (c) How milrlY 19 of ,,,,,,,,-.dary dry ""lids need to be proces,..:,d daily from the I",almenl plants? (d) If Ihe sludgt' ,,-aslage rate (Q~_) is increa,..:,d in the planl, will the solids retenlion time gn up, go down, or remain Ihe same? (el o..lem"ne Ihe F/M ralio in units of kg BOD4kg MLVSS-d.'y. (f) \\~",t i, the mean cell res,dence tim,,?

9.15 USlllg infonnali,., prmldeJ III E.,ample9.7, determine Ihe cnlical SRT "alue (",met""", referred 10 a, SRT",,,,). Th" term rekrs to Ihe SRT" here tI", cdls in 11", acti"aled-,hx:lgt' pn-.ce.... would be "-",,h&:l oul or r..",,,ed rn,m lilt! 'ysle'" la,,,,r Ihan th<'y can reproduce.

9.16 1/ Ihe ,pecific grn"1h

ra~

for an dCb\'aled,Iwge pm: eqwls (l.IO/day, wl,.t is Ihe SRT for Ihi, 'Y" m (units or days). (b) What is Ihe mean c,,11 Mentio" tIme for tI,e >ame system (UI"I> of day)? 9.17 In Ihe following senl...ces. circle Ihe corroct lerm in boldfa,·e. If Ihe SRT is 10"- (for example, ,I daysL which cond,t",n, ".,i,t! (a) The F/M rallo is lo.../high. (b) n,e power requirement, ror aeration will be less/greater. (Cl The miaoorg.nj,,,,, will be slarved/saturaled wilh food. (d) n.., cell relenlio" lime i. low/high. (e) n." ,ludge age" lo...thigh. (f) n.., ,ludge ".stag" rale may haw been recenlly in
Ill"''''

9.18 n,e s~l"'nded-"olid,mn""nlration entering a Ir"almenland ""'<",r"" "",o"ery plantls 200 mg/L in Ihe plant influenl; 3,lXXJ mg/L in Ihe pnmary sludge; 12,500 "'g/L in the -"-",,,ndary ,ludge; and 3,500 mgt L "X~Il>g Ih"a"rali
9.19 Determine the .,ludge "olume index (SVl) fora lesl "-h,,re 3 g 11.-1 LSS occupi", a 4J(l mL "olume after 3f) min ","ling. 9.20 A 2 g ...,mple of ML'iS oblained Imm an aeralioll bas", i, placro in a l.lXXJ mL gradualed cy Iinder After 30 mIll 'riUing, Ihe ML'i.<; occupies f.OO mL. Does Ihe rollo",ing sludge ha,-e good, acceptable, '" po", -"'Illing ch... aeterl~tic,?

9.21

Figure 9.16 ,h,,,,,, Ihe modified Lu,b.lkEttinger (~1LE) proces" ,,-hid, is used 10 wnfigure a biological reactor 10 remove ."Irngen. Explain the roleor the lwo comparlment, in tern~~ of, (a) whelher Ihev are oxygenated; (bl whether CBOD i, ",,,,o,-ed in the compartment; (c) "hether dmmo"ia is con,erted in Ihe compartmenl; (d) wl"'lher '''lrogell is remmed rrom the .que"us phase in the compartmenl; and (e) Ihe primary elocln,n d",x,,(~) and electron a""eplor(,} i" eaell compartme"t

9.22 Investlgale Ihe 'J->ecific mochanlS"'-' by which a",mon;a nitrogen, IOlal ,ulrogen, a"d ph""ph",us Olapter Nine I'mbIeIIls

Me treate.:! or r"",,\<,red al your local municipal wa,te,,' ater tre~tmenl plllli. Are the proc",,,,,, chemlCdI or b,ochemical (or a combl''''ll,,,,I? o;""u" your answer.

923 In\'{sligate lhe 1'ecific mecroni
9.24 A wa
9.25 Table 9.2R pr,,,'ldes

,us~...ndoo

solid, mncentral,on, in ",,'eral different" al.ll pi.lnt fio" i, 5 million gallons per day, wr"'l i, Ihe F/M ralio I" units of lb BOD,/lb MLVSS-day. (bl Suppose Ihe plant engineer wi.h", to inc",,,,,,, the conceriralion of mbOO'lla,,;,n>; III the binlogical ",..,1(1' healu,", ,he expoos Ihe ,ubstrate level 10 incre~se. Whal would she wmm~nd Ihe opera lor 10 do 10 ac.:omplbh n,L, goal?

9.28 Suspended-Solids Concenitation far Different Process Sirea ..... in Problem9.2S

PI.Jnl ioll"",,1 Pri""''Y.Wge S".-""d.,,)" ,ludge A",,>non b.>
eilluent

""" 15,000

9.26 {Men";lIe Ihe mil1imum
n,,,

9.27 {Men"ille Ihe mi"illlum .urface ar&l for a lacullali,'e lag"""" I",almg mUllicipra~teri,lics of your lo.,al area and obtain an a"erage dally concellIralim of CBOD III Ihe "aSlewaler and a,'erage "aste"'at,,r 110w r"te from your inslructor thai is for your area_

9.28 The ""m"..,nily "f San Anion.,

loc.aled in Car"na"i Pr,,,,ince, BollI'ia. Accordmg to Ihe 2005 year ,urvey, Ihere are 420 h..bnall!> Oflhi, mmmuIUly. TI,e l-'npulalion i< eslin",ted 10 increase 10 9-10 by the }eM 2035. The a"erage peak lIow is curtetllly 1.2 L / s and Is expected 10 increa,e to 2_ 14 L Is by 211J5, TI,e organic lo..d is esl""aled 10 be -15 g BOD,/ Cdplla-..:lay. The commu'''ly is mJ'S1dering a free ,urlac" wetl .•nd 10 Ir"at U"ir wa,le" al"r. (al \\1MI is Ihe BOD, loadi,,, gen"rate.:! in th"ye", 2035 (kg/ d.ly)? (b) Use the BOD lred u'g 10 e,,- i ""1Ie Ihe ilia xi mu III su ri ace ara> (hal r"""ired fora f"""urface wetland Ihal "'001<1 ,er,'elhecommunity, n 2035andremO\'e BODand TSS to 30 mg/L. (c) Assuming you a", no" considering ,izing a lacultalh'e lagoon i",tead nf a free su,lace wetl.md, quickly ""lImate Ihe required 'urface area (m') for a lacultali"e lagnon tn )""ldl,," peak f101\ in 2033, assuming a design waler depth of 4 m and a hydraulic d"lenhm time of 20 davs. IS

9.29 (al What
9.30 T.,ble 9.1 il1d iCdled Ih.•t pil lalrin", are co1\so:lere.:! an impnwed led,nol,'l';V for tr",tit'g waste"ater. Deleonine the depth required 101" a pd lalr",e 1 m x 1 III in. area that "",,'es a household of se, en people and has a de
Chapler9 W""lewall..... Siormwat'" CoIIocIil>:>, T,._, FIesooIU Flecovery

occup,"'t~

u'" bulky or nonblU1ning U", mas, 01 food "'a~le alld "'"'ewat,,, ,olid. goonerated in a communily i. Ihe "line, would y..... r"""""nend that a municipallly d""e!op a program 10 collecl and d ig"';l (w itl1 energy rec", ery) f{)Oj wa~te or wa,tewaler 'olid,? Exp!..in your a,,'wer 00"*'<1 011 l-,,-,j""tial energy product",,, bul .11'0 at> Impldnenldlion ,tandpoint. A",ume Ihe n",than" prn· d u i, 120 m'I "leIlic tOlt fo"j wa"'e ha.,hree """" lhem",h""" pro.:! u~i", pOb>nl,.ll per \'olume of wa,tewaler ",lid" and n...tha,... make> upf\(J P""""~ of ,'''' Intal gil> produ<>,d In,m a"aerobic dig""'io,,.

9.29 Oata farPrablem9.34 A.. m'onTmclcn\'ll)

-..umFlc<:ommond
9.31

9.32 fa Ilfmethaneha,ane"ergywnlenlof)9M/j nl' and di!1",er gasis awn,xnnately flO perce", melhano; "hat volumeof 101.11 dig",,'er gas mu,l an anaerobic dig""ter produce annually 10 prm'ide f"t.lbl" water for a fami!> of ,ix ror a year? (b) If the methane i, pro\'ided from anaerobic dIgestion of food "a~te, how ma"y p on I~mperalure. U~ing II1~daM in Table9.:::9,

"

•

calculale tile appropriat~ dlge'iler cap'c"y and din"".,i",,, (diameter and heit;hO i" m for eadl temp~ralurelisted ,,-~,uming 20 L of input per day. Fi.\ Ihe dig.,,;ter dime,,-,ion.' at 1,3 diameter 10 height.

9.35 A 2.5 MGD wa"'ewiller treat"",nl plant is currently ",nning at I'lflpercent capaclly during Ihe a,,,,,,al maximum day """'icing a cIty of )1;,500 pe0ple "'llh 21>.7 mil", or "" .... ers. During Ihe next 10 years, il is expected tl1.• t ne" residemial de, elopmen" for 15,lXXl people alnng wilh 6.5 olClre n"les Clf ""wer " ill be buill. n,e ""wer l~ prCIjected 10 l""'e an 111 equal to 8,500 gpd I mil~. {al i'rCIject the maximum daily d~mand for Ihe "a~te",al~r trealme", pia", after Ihe ne" developmem IS buill. (b) Should Ihe "."te,,·aler trealment planl c"I'-,euy be inc,..,a'it'd? A resid~",ial ecI~d 10 commul~ 10 proJ>""'-'d juniClr rollege from oul"de Ihe area. A ne" industry "'ill also move in and contribule an a"erage firM' or 3"tlflOO gpJ and maximum- gall"n,jc.1plld day and ma."llIum day 111 is 42 gaIlCln,/cap'll day (rainy day). Reside"t,al per capila "aler u"" i.~ expected to be 15 perce"lless i" 20 "ears due tCl in-ho""" "al~r-Sill'illg ~trategies. Thede,,.,nd f.lctor fordon...,tic (rJ by cur,..,m populalion.

9.36

9.37 Li.t fi,e ad,·ant..g... to predpilaling ,truvllo> fr",,, themtrogen and ph,l"iphorus found primarily in urine disch.lrged 10 mu"icipal wa'le",aler.

9.38 Forth.,{oll '''' ,ngllln uenIW dlerq u.>1 iIyola w a,lewa lertreal m...upld nllhalem ploysslru, ile"'"", '"ry lIlal is 70 !-"",,,,nl t.:I wh)'! The influenl COl'laIllS 11\Ht - NI(I'\O.5mgN!U""dr'O, - PI(2fl.7mgPjLl. 9.39 A«.uming d h"",,,,,w,,,,r i,,<;IaILs a (,().gail"" ralll barrel al Iheir ",une "hid, ll.'ls rod w,H, 215 rl' oi __urr,.,earffi, h......., nu-",h rdin/all(in l'-"-"lcoulJ he" .... trl! A,sume Ihal only 90 perc.." ollhe ra~, Ul.'III.,n, on lhe r.-.or etlle", Ihe rain b."",1 due In leaky do"

"_I""''''

9.40 A,.,umetl~,uhernnf "'ffi rord ,e<.id..,lial hon." i. 12ft x 30 It (a) ria g""n roof is p1d""donl~hOlne, Wh.ll p",,,,,,"ageor a 0.5 in. raille,'''''' " m beslO",d on Ihe mol ir Ihe gro" IIlg medium ha.s a waler-holding ca?"cil)' of 0.25? (h) Wh.,1 i, Ihe ""iume nf ,,'aler (in gaiion,}lhal i. slored during Ihi., rdlll e\ em? 9Al Whal area (in rt'l is n.......Jed ror Iwo bioretenlion cells Ibed 10 collecl rainwaler com'"g from a hou,,",hold roof? n,e r"or has dim"nsions or J() It x 4fl it. II dra"" 10 Iwo d.-." I\.spo"t" each.-.r " hich "iil be r,""ned I,~ a biorelenlio" cell. As.sume Ihe soil ,urroundlllg Ihe home is silly and Ihe cell will be dug to a deplh or I> in 9.42 A I-acre pa,ro parku'Il lot mea,.,reo 50 It x 20 fl. \\~~U ,olume of binretenli.-." ""n is reqUIred (in II'llhal can hdnd lea fiN f1u,h fr"", Ih" ""'P""mffible pa"emenl or 0.5 in! A"ume Ihe".-.n por.-"ily " 0.30. 9.43 Selecl a 'pecific IOCdlion on your Cdmp"s lrul ll.'ls a bu,ld ing and a,,,,,,ialed parking lot. Red",ign Ihis area, incorporat,ng al ieast Ihree iow-impact develo~pmenl lechll;ques. Beso.:les Ihinking aoout

.,

Chapter9

w"'tew.llr ..... Slonnwall!f". CoIectm, Trealmenl,

n",nagemenl or "ormwater. dlso cm"id"r Ih., mm'emelll 01 people and ,eh id",. alld Ihe u,e of lIaliv" pl."'l 'peci",.

9.44 Size a rau, garden for your cUlTenl home, Jparbnen~ or donml0'Y 10 "eal "",m",aler Ihal original'" from lhe roor. 9.45 TI,e a"erage ensl or delive.."g an acre-Ioct nf lrealed waler in a "'dter .Cdrce region is SS.9OO a"d lhe ~""" of dehering an aCr...... rOOI of recla"ned \\,dl...in Ihe ""me ,egio" i. %.-100 (due 10 Irealme,,' .,,,d Irdn,porl), G,ven Ihal the foilm, '"g I...ior, can be crediled 10 recla,med ",aler, whal is Ihe range of cost .-.f redanned water a.s mmpared 10 Irealed waler a, a I""'centage? Increased p<)ldNe waler supply: SJOO.-Sl,OOOj acre-fo", Water suppiy reliabihl)': SH)(}-Sl,IO! acre-fool Effluenl di'posal ,a"ings: S200--svn)/ acre-ront

Do,,''''lr'''"' effects: $-1lXl-Sfl(lOjacre-/nol Energy mn.",r"allon: $O--S2,lfljacre-foot 9A6 Assu",e Ihe e"ergy require",,,nt In lreal WdSle",ater u,inll a mechallical proc"", i, I n"ni"n kWh per m,liion galln".< 01 ",aler lredloo. AcmrJing In ...eRID, Ihe carbon dio,ide equi\alenl en""ioll r.lIe i, 1,324.79Ib CO,e/MWh III nnnda at>.:! 7T7 21> Ib CO",,; MWh i" Califor",a. E._Iimale the caroon 1001prinl ollrealJllg 50 m,iiion galln"s or "a,le"'dler ,,' Florida and California. Igno", li"e k",,,,,, in your ",Iimale (you may ha"e 10 g.-. back In Chapler 2 10 ",view carbon loolprints and ...eRID).

_ct!

Recovery

References A",,,,,. T.. r. L Burt,." It L low".•". R. T""M'"-"j,;, .00 C. Td .. ","no '!!~ ..." 2007. lx_ '''' T" /",,>1 ".<"'>,' oJ

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Chapler9 W""tewatl...... StormWa!". CoIIocIil>:l, Tle_, FIesoorce Flecovery

chapter/Ten Solid-Waste Management Mo,k W Milkeond

Ch.pt... Conlenb

lomes R Mihekie

10.1

IntroducUoo

In 11.. d'opllt" ,eader. wi! Jearn

10.2

Solid-Waste Characlerizatioo

10.3

S,._

10.4

Mar\agenwd COllcepls

oboll mCl'lagem..t of m....icipci solodwo'!el rhfl/yp'" of scJidwol/e

and th... ql.Olf~,'" cOO'I'lpOSltOfl, orwJ phylliml p'OpMI&< 0'"" ~IS' decti&.d TN chGpNr odd"... the U>mgec coilKtion, ttonsp:HI. '''''''''''( ofJd d..poJtJI of uh:J ........... lII<:IW.ng,ecyd"'9 ond_ riat. r~. compOI/''9, inc;".... lion, and lom/i'ing. Mfllhodi 0'" ,,,..,,wed to eSrO'llolll 1M" ptodJclion of 9,",,,,,1.001/1 gas "minions 'rom

Iond,D4 including Ih" public bene/;t lhe ImdiJl gas ,an pll)"'" 11. c"Cf>l- co"durJ& 10',1> 011 .ntocioc· lion 10 pc,bk ,,,,,..,blO'\, pdlk policy, rndcOUtilmdlOlt. fmpha.;. ..pk>cttd ",,1M oppIlC.QltOtI 01hCJl/e mo.bab~conc~.10 wld-woJle problems, Wllh (I "''''/Urealquonl'Jo. 1M> plDtiemJ ond ddOlIJlOO of broader mcrno9"m""'Iopi<:•.

Components ot Solid-Waste

Learning Objectives I, o....:ribe lh" hv rompo"""'l~of ~ "
.)'.,. "'.

2. Integrale prll1dpl~ of Ihe pollul">11 p"" emi"" hl;>,ar<:hy into a \.Olid-w ",t.. n>'lIl<"ti, e of ""Ii.!·...a't" n... nagen~l1t 4. ~be lry .... l"'~nt U.s. legir.!.lhon M.ned losolid "a.-. S. DlstlngulSh bd ....... nmrUOl"'l oolld "olS"" and 011..... '
... ulcub"" dry and "et "~l 8"""'"atJoon fa"", fo.. 'f"""Ih<;,oloJ·"oISl"n>mpl_ m.n a' ."Lob'" ......U. 1. o.s.-..... ttw d,ff""""""" bo.>I...~n ","oJ·" _ """ .....8""""'1 II> d.... ~ng.-ndd .... ~muntfoe; 8. ['plain I"" i""u~ oI5:OOCi.>ted "ilh d~lgn and op.!rall"" of sU
.'n,

'I. Soh... mi"Hlg probl"",.. to det~n"no! an appropri.u" C '\' rali<>

furromposting.

f !-

10. Cilcu"'"" o'~gm ""Iu,~K>r .aeroboc booIogial or 11'wnn.oI tJe.ltnwnl •• OC Sf>:. olS ",,".s nwtNo... b IV"""''''''~18"""""ti<>rtrlI~ from "'ndfilk. USIng ,.tood".>nWIt) and rna"" romP"""horl dala. II. &'pIain tJK. L....-m' ",th .......Hi. Sib and ~...:h.lt" and """ I""> a ... add~_ 12.

0......:""

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14. Emp.,thize with conllmJluly ,1.keh"lJers rel.lled 10 'iling ~ l~"dfill or "~Sle-I.......,nergyfdcihty.

and cdrefully d""iJe how 10

reach col""n~us. 15. Idenlify key public consulldlio" ",elh"ds dnd Iheir strengths ~nd "·e~I",,,,ses.

lb. Idenlify key public p<>licy "pli"", for ""lid_" ~sle ma ..... gement ~nd ,um",~nzetheir

strengths a tid ",e~kne,,_
10.1

Introduction

Solid .... ~I'I!S ",d..,,", paper and pl""t;" g~l\er31<"d at h.'>me,..,,1\ produud by mdu-tr-:--, ""fete.... f
f",,,,

.........io1'lv 1>0'11.>, i' tJw.. no loonger "",, .. , alllO'

Solid,wast.. managem..nt un;,s g,.... 'l,. b.>l.. ~ culture. ~ cnuntrw<- .and Iw.'i .. 00 m''''' ""..... Th,u"'mf'Olid·....." Ie

",1\

.......... ~I Ue d"J"Ch"'l,n Figu.... 10.1. S<>l'd·.. .l'it.. "",nag_I ~u,~ an unJ poon." ,n f'lIur.. 10.1 ...... r«\doo matenals. , ....1'0"1, and i"IWf8' r«.)O,""?o. I"""" ftld pnint_ ",II bK rommon as~, USl.am.l>li! ...."'le m..' sen , pr~;"'" lha' ~ .... th"u,Jng. Ikf"rnng b.KL to pre""'" ,.... pI....... r..mwmber Hut ""'/" IS ..

",q_

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..nd ,h,po""-'
1>«."""

So:,lId .... 'tl!" d,ffer front liquio.l 0.- g.>-''' Ih".i... HI.Is1 and lhu~ can bo! rontall....J nlOr\! ~a<,k Th""" d,ffur"",,e, led I" diff"""'nl arrmac""" lor n'd'l.lglng ......hd .. a.,,,,, Ihan ,"" appmache" de-criWo.! on p"" iou~ dtapt~r< fllr hquid and gas<'OtJ' ... aSl~ <'",ams, Pr<>po>r n"""'8""""u of ...-.lid "'aSl"" IMS Ii< ~ "lOlin "~Ih ...:

h.""

I.

F"n,,", lh~

pollution pr~,,~nlion hi~r,"ch.l', which pr~f.,rs rnlu<"'lion and ""'ycling mer Ir~"t""'''I.Uld dl~I,......,L

zero Waste as. Oesliln Principle

lor ItIe 21st Cenlury

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-~

, 0. 1 ImMK:Iion

4. Add""" ".-.cial conc",,~~ (equitv, el\"ironm~"tal jtL~I,,:e, a""thel;cs, ri,k, public pref~"",,,,,,,,,, r""yding, re,,,,,, _,hIe ~lIergy>. 5. Minim;?e eco'l("'''~. soc;"l, and "tl,.ironm"nlill cost.. It i' common practice for IndIvidual rommu,"lie> 10

,-arying ,,-e,shls on these objoect,,,,,s. n,erefnre, ""my dIfferent ,yst""", exi"t to ",.""'ge "'lid ,,~,te. Preindustrial con"nUJ"t,es arrans<."d 10 ha.'e sohe "'plnred. As p"pul.'tlon, urbdni7.'tioll, d"d consumption increased, ",lid " ..,Ie becdme more 01 d problem. 51"" ",e,e len in st"",l~ and alleys, f.,..jmg dogs, pig-s. a"d rah. Other "a,l"" were hauled oul,ide of the city and dump<."'! in large "'''".mds. n,e increa,ing popul.'lion of citi"" and Ille large dealh rales e'perien.:ed in many po,rts nl the "nrld due to plague. cholera, and nlher ",f.,ctious d,*a_ led In a demand 10 dean ci lies of solid ""-,,e. Organized collecti....', Ireal",ent. and d,sF""-'l of soliJ "a~le began '" the late 1S()(),;and we", do«>ly lied 10 Ihe objecti ,'e of Impr'" ing public health ."d sa"iullon, Early approach'" 10 ",lid-\\a,le n"""'ge",enl included feeding filCld wa~tes 10 farm .ltIimals, burn"'g "."Ie to heal cily waler, and creahng ~olid-"a,le dumps (oflen in weI!.""h) 10 red.'i'" land Durmg lhe !9O:k. inc,..,a""'" ind""'ri.'lliz.alion resulled in the prrxluction of different" a,les--more l,a"",",I,,,.. solid ,m"",. At Ihe san,e It",e, increa""g urban pnpulal,,",", along ,,'ilh illC,..,a,ing aHlue,,,,,, altd cOlI,umption, i"""""-""'" the a",ounl of ",11.1 "a,le produced. Nonr...co, ered "'lid" a,tes "ere placed inlo engineered facihlies, "hid, were CdlleJ engineered '" sanllary tandf;ll .. TI,e impm"en,enl In'''' dumps to engin""red sanllJ.1)' la'td fill> Ila' ~n a grad""l proc...., '" er Ihe pa,t 100 year; Ih.ll ha> led '" technically ad"allced a"d "'PhLoJ.icaled ~~','en\> for prot"'::lion of human health .,,,d Ihe en, imnmen!. The m.'j ..... piece olU.S, leg,sl.lIion .,!feeti ng solid -\\ aste n,anagemenl is the Resour<'e C"""e",ati"" ~nd Recovery Act (RCRA) 01 197fi. RCRA al«> lnandated Iracking and "gor"u, management of haz.ardou> wa,I-... It al>o led tn regulahon, to impm,e Ihe design ('If la'tdfill, and reJu"", Iherr ri'k. nle Pel/,ll;'" Fr,,'mlifll' Acl then foUowed. I" the 1"'-" 2f1 ~ea"" Ihere has ~II all increased emph,,,,i, on ""Iidwa,te ma"agement "r.degieo; Ihal prefer "",,,:e reduelion and reuse, r""ycling .,nd c{'lmPfi'ling. "lId energ) "",m'ery, o"er Ire~lmenl and di'JX""'1 '" p.trt of Ihe pollution prevention hi....archy discu,>-e
So"",,, ..

ReRA ht "1'".1,. """".q>a 'P"! ~<>fu"'" ",ra.~",1

pl~ce

10.2

Solid-Waste Characterization

Solid wa,t"" "'Ill be ch",.'et~r1z&l by their ",,,,,,e, o,iginal u.", (e.g., as 81.;ss or pl."lid. h""-,,d, or underlying ph,s,cal or chen"c.1composition. IVas!es 11Ml spre.,d dlwa", are termed pul,e..,ible wasles. TIl"Y can spread disease dire<:lly (as ill the case of dirty dIapers) or indirectly by pl\w'ding a r.......J source fnrdL"'''''' "eclnrs such as "''''''IS (rues) or aninldLs (.ah. dog,_ bir,h).

10.21

SOURCESOFSGIDWASTE

The "",ure",, ()f ""lid waste ,'nd lypical m'''tiluenb are iJ"nt,fied III Table 10.1. Some "'lid waq"" (e.g., "u"ing ",,,-,Ie<; and "''''I agricullural _,,,d industrl.,1 was,es) Me managed by tile ,,-a,le gen,""tn,. Smaller sources are usually IlMIl"8M jointly ulId", nne int"graloo

10.1 SoU'ces of Solid Waste and T:tPi... 1Pel
F,,-..l ".." •.•. yardl &'rom w ... lL.., p"l"'r, pl.>..'hc, 81.,,,,_ "",tdL h""",hold

CnmrrerClal

510''''. red1 r '''''P'''
h",a,d"". W."L", Same•• db",..,. but """" ".n.bl" from

bu.;",,,,,,,,,,

to 'OUT"". Sm.,ll quanti'''''' of .peeifl< 1>..,..",:1<,,-,-, ",,.los

)nst~utom,l

SchO<'i'<. h"'pllal<, pri",,,,•• milil.uy b.>""', n""ing hnn.".

Same d' ohm", ,"druble ",mpn'ilion "'-1w<"", ..",m,..

Construct;""

Buikl,ng """"ruction or dcmol,t>on ,,'es, n>ad ""n>lruct"", .il",

COncr
o.,aningof .•lre.,I., parh. dod

W,"'e """e"" ,·~rv ~mo"8

be.>ch",,; "·.1....- dnd ,.... t",.m",n' gn' dod bio<.olid.; 10"f rolleehe",; did dnlm.>l<

mUnlClf'dlili""

L'p,ht dnd he.wy mdnuf;>:tlIlng.ld'l\c

Cm pmJu,," l.lrge qu~n"""" '" '"l.llh-dy C~ n include~.""', ",nd<.1"'1""" m,ll

,00 demolition

,to"".,,,,

lndu'bial

i,w'rn"",.,,,ng p1.>.",., POWL" pl,u". eh.,mical pl.:mt.

OQU""

2-5";

l-H1'\1

r->nl \ISW

""""""""CO,,, '"..."".

.Iud~e, lrull

p'l.,

l.lnl.;ludl:~ ~1SW

Agricultural

CTnpt'ng I.urn'. doi""', f.,."jl1t" r>rch,,,,ls

Spoiled 100.:1 ",osl"", ",.:mmL", unu"-'CI pl.lnl ITIoltt", kg.• ,tro",). M7.udou. chcrnie.>t.

r->nl

MUlIn8

Crolmin'ng. ur.m;um m ... 'ng ml

Cm pmJu,," ,-.<1 01''''''''''' of .. ,lid " ....Ie ",-""", ng lized

r->nl \ISW

mining..011/&'.=pl".-.oon

""'''''g""'L"'I.

'plem. The ",lid" asl"" joinny ",a''''ged by a munidp.llity .'" called municipJl solid wast" (MSWI, The focu, of thi, chapler" 0" Ihe Ill. nage",ent of MS\\'. Ihough m~ny of the pri"ciples ~nd p,oces""" di.cussed ~re also rele"anl 10 Ihe ",.nagemenl of indust,idl. agrkultu,al, .nd ",i"ing wa~les.

10.22 QUANTfTlESOFMUNCPALSalDWASTE Table 10,2 prm ides IhequdnlitifS 01 MSW ge"eraled and llldn .•ged '" Ihe Un,led Stdles fmm 1%0 10 2010. ho,,' g"""rdtio" '.,t"" h."e incredsed d'dn"'lically in Ju,1 (wer 5(J yeM';. n",ugh ,ecychng increa'*'<:l ,n the pa.q 30 )'&1"', over the same period, Ihe rdte of \\'~ste productio" ~Ie.,d,ly ",crea""" a~ ",elL The 2010 generalion rale of 0.74 Mg per person per year excludes construction dud demolilio" deb,is and biosolids fm", wastewater lreat",e"t pl.lnls (which, dS listed in T"ble 10.1, i, often included in Ihe .ohd ",.ste n"""'ged by a munieip~lil"). As a roilS!! ,,,,,, af I!u""h. a" O1~""'U S"'""",/;,m ml,' far MSW ill ",os! i"ojllslriali:,'1f ,,,,mines ;,; ",lU' ~PI'm"'ipII~ltly 1 Mg 1'''' y"'T. !kcau'" res,denli.>! ""lid \\'a~t~ makes up 3G-30 1"''''''''1 of Ihe MSI-V, Ihis c<>""ert, 10 a ",,,.I,,,li~j ",asle gr",..... ral,' of al'1'1'Oximaidyl kg /"" """"" "..,. ,I~y. The ~"I(>U"t of gener.lted MSW can 'My will"" a year. bet",,,,,,, urbdn and rural are.'s, geogr~phlCdny, "'ith i'><:<>rlIe, and d1l",ng countries. n", fr~~'1io" nYllaged by ,ecycling. cOrllp"'lin& inci,,,,ration, or lanolfiU",s "ari", e, en "'....e ~cmT.:!ing to local c"...:Iib"'.... It is CO!l~"on 10 red.:! report' th.t a j><1rtiruld' cily or """niT)' produefS more waste th~n oil"" ... H""',,,er, Ih,.,e '''Forts nea.llo be Te.>d cauti ..... s1)', be("~u"" dijf~re"t dulhorities cnun! dilferent ".,Ie slream" and ',om~ define l,rodm,'1f ,,~sle a, ,,~ste Ih~t re"Yin, dft«' recycling dnd """?.-,,.ting. O"e key i.~ 10 undersld1ld Ihe differences beh",."''' S"~p""'lpo" mlts and .1;;0",1 mlts (Ihe d,ffe,enee being Ihe part of Ihe \\'a~te q,eam Ih.t i, ,eused or 'ecycled}.

1\,,,,,

,.\!'"

1''''''''' 1''''

Class Discussion

....

.L ~~"'"F" t.r,am<><.n~ J. <>! M" oI.l "" lid "'~. ""

... J.

in<".Uc;""IiSt.~"'"

t.YP"'alty ico'"a.... Oy25~=",. .<~'''''''cft~n k"'l ;." c ~ a'1.d f.
we., v",~~"l'I>oy. acd "LO,. an """ a,;o ,. Ic h.o c ~,. can ~ em. ~h<>l.l a cd 0""' "'" r, t.y ,mpl<-.,.
I"'''

10.2 O"",nrilie. of Municipol Solid Waste in the Uned 5rate. oYer Time M gp'" POIlIon pe< Y0..-'

,-

=

row

O,hl

0.76

0.7lI

0,74

O~

OM

0.11

0.l7

0.19

Negligible

I\'eghgible

001

OM

O.~

""

001

O.ll

OJI

'M

O~

"~

'"

\1.40

,~

..ro

,~

,""""a"o/l

OA~

O~

Rt,,'dm 8

om

Composbng

N"1\I'giblo

(na"",-at..",

'00

Lmdfilf'

o.n

O~

,II-. ""' ......dolo"""'""""" 0 ... <10_ _.' .... _

.... ....,oplo...'""""'" 'I,,,; ""'-lo,..-.cl """""""" "",,,",""_00<1 "'..... • -a< '-=-Y"""""-<"",,..doDo ""'OM ",od.
""""",,,"9,"""'-I.·g ""-l SOUlCE. lP,,:l'O' ,

fll_ 10.2 C_"""" li.s. ._U.. f

II'

r~runl.o&~of v Miouo M~kri.oI."'" ~ M..... _ill T1ul M u n icil"l Sol id \\ Hlr. mIll.

C1Q'

1023 MATERlA1SINMJNK:IPAlsarowASTE

rig"", 10.2 ;,ho",,, Ihe e.tll""ted

br..,lWrm n ilf I"" 'd'iotI~ "Mh.·...... lou,..l,,, \1SW dllhe pant 01S""....dn....' In 2010, Th.' i"'[o"mllin" Cd" be ,,""" 10 ....._ "hich ""~I" ,I'''d'll' On be tArset<'d for C<""J'O'ling." nldleri"ls "'"'0""')1 prog,ams, fM ",ampl", Rg","" 102 ~h"" .. Ih,,1 ,I high pt'rc""ldge of Ih" '" .. rail w,,,t,, is y"nl "d,le (13.-j pt'I'l"etll) ,111.1 Ildpt'l' I CdnllxldrJ (28.5 l-",rre"ll. n", Iyp"" "' "",t"ridl, in MSW!\,l, e,II",d"'"gai ,Wer tn"" Figure 1O,Y.h"w,l1,i .. ch""g~,w"'lh" polSl <,(l ) edr;, ""peo:idlly lor ,,~,teri.. l, a,,,,,,,a~ w;lh P.Kk.lWng (pl..,lk anJ p.'I"",/canlbNrdl.

~

i

I :••

I•

c_

._0-

~

D

~ ~

----

~

'00

•

v....... ".9'

0'000-

~

• I

,-

o_~

,,~

,- ,- = ,-

R.lrof (An~r.liD"of Solidl\'ul~.I__2010.

f ..... 1 10.3

~U,,(20'lN

Class Discussion

p""'....... g..

•

•

~"

v........ ,\I,,~rI.ol. in U.s. Municip"

J. fl......" '.. • ....,.. ""'" I.F'9L'~~ 2.',d103, flo, .. ~ .W 1rY.... ~,;L."~1y /k'«-
&.£. .£. ~O~

".r ...."',.,.. "'"

p,,,,,,,t orp"'9'.""V,'t1!
"OLWY"" '-"'9" I""

"'' L' '..<>n.• rd "t c~ I... ,uy
,co ld)'O"'-"roa""-

~ G10lJai cbarar1erjzgtign pI Solid W~sle Th~

",lid wa,t~ g~n~fat.u in d~"~k'p;ng munl,i", i, mU< I"wer fr'lCtiun "f manufaclurl'd p",dum, ,uch as papt'T. meL,L,. and gla". lligh."--;"""",,, h.m",h"kl, ttenJ I" geneTale n~)Te

;""'ganic m"terial from !Mebging ,.."",1,,, ",h"",,,,

I"wer-;n",m" h",-,-",h"lJ, p",Juee a great.,,- fractil1 pTep."ing i,~>d fmm ingrt'dienl'. 11"w-e,-e" 'n"", hi!>h-inmme h"".""" hold., in the developing ''''rId r=y ge""""l" the ""me amounl "f ,,~anic material """",U,,, the~ p",!"'re more fr"'h, un!",cbg.,j h,J. The", diffe",na;; tend to becume Tedu<:eJ "" cmmtrie-; de,'ek,p theiT "",,,,,mi,,,,. Combined with fewer fi""ocial re> and ,Ojll" the differenc"" ;n ",Iid-wa,te producti"n mean that unique" ,lid -w",te rn., nagement practice-;" re ""Iu i,-",j in [,,,,,,lion., with de"doping "",mom;"".

bi,,,,

10.3 Solid,WoSle Co""osition fot fi"" Ciri"" ofthe Wotld

loca.lioo

B.mgalnre,lnd .. Manila. Ph,hppin""

"'-"m
w_. 75.2

'"'

W.

-, '- - ", "" "' " Plastic,

lH

12.2

~,.

11.9

B''801.-.. CdoniJia

55.4·

'"'

"""""",01 wood, i>ay. GOO""". SO!J«Cl. D;", 0101.. 2OOJ.

" " ,".•

",. '" " •• '" 1.3

35

Oos"AsII.

~-

"-

IMljlponon-yoorl

0.14/,

D

275

"

(U4/,

" "'

13.2

0.1611

~

O.2-1i\

"3

0=

L'

M"";roGIv. M",,,,co

lncio
T... tilo.

lm""

""""""'

3.R

Typ,callj, solid-waste generation rales (in kg of a specific material generated per day or year) are determined by coll",,'i"g data for the tnt.,1 wa,te generated and the l-",rcenlage of a spedf>c material in the ,,,lid ",a,te. ft Ca" be ",i,leading to compare percentage mmpn,it,o" data bell, ""'" Iwo different ",onth, "r Iwo different localion,. Ma"", d>fference> are likely in the tntal "'ilsle generation rate. I"'tedd. one ,h<",ld compare "'a,te generation r.'I"" on the ba'i, of kg I"" y,-ar for each materi..1of >!lte,,,,,!. Thi" point i' demonstrated in ha"'ple 10.1.

a

10.24 COLlEGION SQIDWASTE CHARACTERIZATION DATA The characlenz.Ilioll of MSW i, a complex ta,k. Beeal""" sol id wa,1e I·a""" grea~y in c">!lp<>"itinn and quantity ""thin a res,on and m'er lime, there will always be large uneer!.,i"ty in ""timal"" of ".-,Iid-\\· a,te cco"l""tion. The g..,eration of gcod data a"'Oits ,,",th ",ak"'8 Chapter 10 SoIid·Waste M..,,,,,,,,,,ent

e Xanl pie I I O. 1

calc~aling

Soid-Waste Generation Rates

The ......lid-w..ste ron'p""ition .. nd the quamny of ""lid d,,~eloping wMld "re"s foll"w.:

wa~te ge""r..ted

fmm two cili"" located in Ihe

~".,.,.

City 1

Cily 2

F
17.0

/,55

",,",0

"10.2 '"

Paper and c"n:1lx"rd

(~l

A
Wa
(~

,

,.

10.7

l""m-dw1

,~

Which cily gener..tes more a,h on a I""" rnpiLl ba.~l~? Which cily generat'" mort! non..,h ",aste on a per rnpira ba.~l~?

solution To d",ermine " hich dty produ<'e' more ash on a per Cl p,la ba.~I<, n\uhiply the ""erall waste ge"er..ti"n rale by the I"'fC"nlage of Ihe ""mpon"," of Ime""'l (in this ca';e ashl in Ihe O\'eran wa~le stre..m: CIty I Crty2: 0. 2Rk 8ipel'Son-
~~

0.03 kg ..,h ,,·..sle pel'S"n-d..y

CIty I prodll<'e' slgn,fiClnUy more ash on a per person ba,;,. To find Ihe no,,",sh wa,te generation rale. fil'Sl determ,ne Ihe nonash ",a,te pen..,ntage by ,ublradion and Ihe" I\luh;ply thIS ~alue by the loral w..sle generation rale:

City 1. 0.38 kg, I"'"",n-d..y )(

City2 0.211 kg. person-day )(

(100

)6.0)

100

024 kg no,,,,sh waste, pel'S()n-
(100 - 10.2)

100

The I\OIId."ition can differ ""llhi,, a country and around Ihe world.

10.2 SoIill·Wasle CI1aracteri,alion

rlppr"prial" manag"",enl d~bi"''', bul reduction 01 ullc"rtamly In e,li",aled OOI1\!X"ili"n can be ,,,ry expensive, Three meth,,,f> are cnmmonly used 10 characlerize ""lid "Aqe; L Lacral",,, rCl;'~"'. This melhod relies on using past daM 10 characterize Ihe makeup 01 solid wa,te. It has ""me limilations, Delinltion, u-ed 10 wiled Ihe dala can be undea r. Solid-"aste g"nerdli"n pallert~' ,ary wilh lime and 'pace. Mosl hi,lorical dald lack an analy,is of Ihe dala·.' unc"rta",ly. And m....1hi,loriml dala l""k a joinl ">.Iimale 01 100ai wasle a"d p ... <:t
2. 1"1'''1---<>''11'''1 a"alyslS. Thi, method reli"" on u,ing dala on Ihe consumplion nf malerials 10 esllmale Ihe generation of wasle, n", £1' A dala used lor Figures 10.2 and 10.3 are exampl"" 01 Ihis melhod of allalpis. TIll, appr",ch al'iO has weakne",e,;; 11 requires dear bnundaries '" Ihal impmls "nd ""poriS ou!>ide Ihe boundary (e,g" oul>id" Ihe U niled Sidles) can boo aaounled for. II requires a",umplio", about stmage and c",~sull\pli\'e use (e.g., "aling) of purcha",d g,,,-..h. fl require; a,sumption, aboul "a,l", generaled wilhrul an econ",nic: record (e.g., yard "asl""), 3. Sampling

Sl"''''yS. Thes melhod relies on coll",-'!io" 01 actual data

and stali'lical nleth,-..ds 10 e'timale averages and uncertainly. Many locali",~s reqUIre pe"od IC 'u" eys, and a nunlber of method, are a\'ailable 10 aiu '" """'pIIng ,uney' (ASTM, 1992; New Zealand Minislry for Ihe E",'ironmenl, 2(02). n,is approach has Ihree weak"",,,,,, Large \ ariablllly ",eans thai a IMge number of ""mples are n~ed, wluch in tur" dri,,,,, up cosl,. High \ ariabihly from one ""''''''' to anolher Can mea" thai period,c su,,'e)~ musl be conducled for a year or t,,'o before uselul data are obtaIned. f-illally, beeause uncerta",ly increa.ses a, Ihe percen! d~reases, Ihe melhod I.s nOI ell"'I;"e lor relalively ul",,,,nmo,, componenl"

10.2.5 PHYSlCAVCHEMICAl CHARACTERIZATION OF WASTE The ""ecti,", of a I-"rtirul,,, managem"nl option lor ""lid wa<,le<; depend, On 'I""'ilic phy,ical,'nd chemical characleristics 01 the \\'aSle. Dala nn waste generation rales are prodded in term, of ma55 uI"ls (ma,s/ mpiLHllnel and nol "olume unil', beeau,"" Ihe den,ily 01 1\ aste can vary greatly among ",aslesoro,'er lime. E<,IimaleSol wasl~ d~n,ity are imprrtant 5(\ tha I '1M"" ''''luiremenlscan be e,;jimal&llor Ih~ '" ""te al \ ariou, sl.>ges (e.g., mll""l",n, Iransport, di'p.."",n w ilhin Ihe waste management system. Table I (].'! pro, Ides Ivpical de,,,ilies lor diflerelll tyf'<" of ",lid ",aSl" during dii/erent ,Iages of ""lid -1\ le wa~lelOl" or landlill, and lrom baling r",,,,'ered m,lIeriab, are importanl in waste-to-energy produelJon in Japan evalualing the econom';cs of relaled sol,d-wasle ",a""g"""'''1 1""""'''''''rl••yol"""",.R IM"""'I oplion,.

lOA Densities of Vorio... Mun''ipol501id Wostes ond Recovered Materiols

,".,

~~-

Doos
MiudMSIV

'"""

l'1.L" Ie """t.>j ncr<

32--lR

~

~'M

MisceILm<-'OUS p.>1"'r

~

Lor><.< (.knloping ,...mtrie<)

~

)\""""p.>I"-'"

M-1l0

In mmp;>ct
""'W

Af'er dumpmg {n'm oomp.lctoT
21ll-240

,.-

M"O

In laoofilllinih~l)

,~""

Cia" bottle<

,~~

In L100fill {with mwoordcn)

700-1,100

fuod w,,-"c

,~

Shredded

12l}-240

T,n "'''-'

~

ll.llc'\l

4M-710

Rcear""d ",a retia I. 1l00!lCI

Powd<-"'L'\l rel..,.,.,jcrived fud

~~~

-"

[)rm"l!ed refuse-dcrived Iud

C.:",j"" w~sr:"

21ll-2W

ReeD,,,, ..,,,1 ",ar"ial. Idm.ificdi 11.>1«1 aluminum c~'"

,~"'"

Cubed ferrous mn,

1 Jl.lII-- 1.500

1l.,1«1 mrdbo.ml

l5O-51O

Aluminum scnp

~~

II.>lc'\l no,,"1"1"""

\70-530

ft-'fIllU'SCrop

370--12<'1

ll.11«1 high-gr.>dc PO'I"""

C.:lrdbo."d

,~n

Bolled PET p!.>s.tic

'''"'"'

32--lR

11.>1«1 HOPE pLT,tk

Alummum

Cd'"

soutCE, o;.zoIoI" 2003

Th~

moislure conlenl of ",lid

mojstur~ oo"t~nl

,,"asl~

is d~t~rm",ed as Follo"",,

rna,-, of ,n""lur~

110.t)

Thi. d~fi"ili(\" is diff~r~"l from th~ dry-,,"~ight basis, lh~ d~fin'li(\" commonly used in gt'Olechnical ~ngjn""ri"g apphcal'o"s. Ho,,"~,"~r. it i, 1h~ '.un~ as Ih" "'et "";ght b",lS, I"" dffi".itk., con, ...... ,~ YuS&! in th~ ,oil ",i"",-es. Th" dry \\""ighl can t>o. f,,,,,,d a. follo,,"s,

110.2)

21ll-300

~""

10.5

_.- "''''' -

Corrmon PhysicoVChemicol Chorocleo-iste. of So5d·W..le Co......on...l.

(,. by

"-

V.........

" V...... allof

~

fund w"W", \!.l~"zm""

1''''''''

~.'

;0

"

13.9

~

12.1

12.7

n.

15.R

17.6

U~

'12-7

3.'1.4

ffi

'"

20.5

~

\ord w",tt-; \.,\.,.j trn;",'<1)

W

I'Llst"", (rni.<'
~~,~

C~.

:>let.lls

.,

-I

" '" "' '" " '"

r "I""" {rn,,,,-'<1)

~

("by

ffi

, ,

~J

25.6

17.4

18.7

""

15.4

""0'

-

15.1

19.3

"' 0.7

"" ffi

I-~

~9.6

"' "

-'""'" .,-'" "' ,-

""'- .," - ' .,

('lI.bydry

(,. by

-I

-I

'A

,

37.6

" '"•.,

~3

., ,• , "' "'

~.

Nrt_ ('Iioby

",

!'Iioby

-I

o,

233

",

0.2

m

' 0.1

dU

~

U

,,0.1

<0.1

"',.,

"W

11.6

10

~

l.4

03

"'

Id

42.7

0.2

<0.1

15

"''-'

"0.1

<0.1

'0.1

<0.1

'"

• '" '"

~.

Differenl ..mounl, "f moi,lure are ..'socialed w,lh d ifferenl ,ol,d ",.. ,Ie" .nd dal• .He lypic.l1y coll"cted "" m"i~1 ,,,lid wa.le "' r«<'i,,>I. Thi, ..alue '-, Ihen co"v~r1ed I" dry ",a,l" m.. 'i.~ before lurliler c"ku1alio,~, Me made. T..ble 10.5 provid"" lyp,,,,,1 ,'alu"" for the moislure conlenl 01 differe,,1 ""lId-wasle ooml"'"e,,"... I""g wilh inlmm.Hi"" "" Ihe e"ergy cClIHenl and elem"nt.\! chenucal eomp.-,.,itio". Th" Jesign of 'y'le"" for energy recovery requires d.la on Ihe energy collleni of Ihe w.,Ie. S"nil",ly. ".... Iu.. lion of ",a"y ""lid-",.,Ie Ire..I",,,m s},lems " in require i"lorn"'li"n "n the "lem"n",1 mmp'-,.,itio" of ",.,1.",. Th" high-energy en",!,(",e"l' of MSW are pl."tic .."d paper. Food", .,Ie and }",d ",.,1" h.we high moi,lure HIllI""I, " Illeh Illnil. Ih" e""rg... th"y relea"., when burned. The moi,lure eonlenlS provided in T.. ble 10.5 .r" Iypi""l v..lues. These ,.•Iu", c.n ....ry gre.. t1y depend"'g 011 Ih" 'J-""'ifk com!"""lion of Ih" " .. qe compone"l or local f.etor, .uch .., the wealher. For "-''''''1'1". y"'d ",.,Ie Ihal " g""er.. led during Ihe sun,mer could be !,redomin"lely gra". a"d .. fler eol1""lion in "el w"alh"r. Ihe yard ",,,,te oould have a ",oi'lure Clllllenl of I'iO p"-"-",,nt. 'n 1..1" "ulu",,,. the y.Hd "",Ie rould be pr.,.jomi''''I"ly le....es, and .. fter mllectio" in dry ",e"lh"r, il mulJ h",~ .. m",-qure m"I""I." 10" "s 20 percenl, Th" \·ar}· u'g Il\oislu re mlll",,1 of " "'."Ie m"leri.1 c.." .. ffecl '" "Iu.. hon 01 the ",·er.. 11 COmp'Yi,I;On of, ,,·..~Ie slr""lll (..s sho"n in E".."'ple IO.l) ""d ",timates of Ihe 101..1\..·~sl". It is Ih"",f,)re prefer.ble In work wilh the d ry n",,, of ",.sle Juring itllermedi.te e.. leulations.

e xa mp 1 el

1 0.2

AlIjJsting 10rVal)'i'lg MoisbJre Content of Waste

r....x1 wa,'es can It\.,~ up a ,ignilieant fraction of a municipal !ream. In order to design a food "aste coli ""lion >Y"em. a municipality i~ inle"",ted in delermining Ihe amnunt of food wash! generated. The ",lid wasle was anaiyzed fIl' one particular day when il was fnund thai the tntal all"ual wasle generalion "'a, 700 kg/pe"",n-yea,. TI,e ,Iudy aL<;o showed lhal Ihe fnod waste" as 20 """,ent nf the Intal (wet) mass of waste generaled ("", the folio" "'g lable). TIn-,-s, Ihe ,ate of fnod wa,te generation is I,m kg/ f>e"",n-year. TI,e sludy did nOl, I\n",e,'er, mea.u", the mOlstu,e wnlenl nf Ihe wasle. Assume Ihal the wa.'e percentage data we,e wll""ted on a dry summer day with a low moi,ture conlent. As>umlng a tj pical moi.ture ronten!, ,,,,,In... 'e the fnod wa,le generahon .. te and Ihe tolal wa,te generalion rale, P...ceOlage of Total Ma""

low M,*"ure COOl"'" (%)

TIP"a1 M,*"ure Callen! (%)

~

, '",

"

rape'< was'"

~

Yan! n'a''''

~

Other w,)'k

~

~

'" , ~

solution R"" delermlne Ihe d ry g"neralion rate of Ihe .'arlou, ",asle .I",a"" on a day'" he" Ihe ",a,le has a lnw moi,ture ronten!. TI,ls value can t>t, converted to the typical dry generation rale (which is probably ,nore applicable 10 the ",hole year). The total generalion rate 01 ""ch componenl 01 the SlI/id-wa.le slream can be calculated and tabulated a, gi""n in Table 10.6. To est"nale "",willfll" on a day ",ilh a typical mOlSlure content, de~rmine Ihe dry ge~raliol\ ra!>' by u>lng an a,sumed low n,o;"ture colue,,1 (prov,ded in the p"",eding uble). n,en add Ihe typiCdI moi.tur" !>dd: 10 Ihe dry generalion ral". Equalion_. 10.1 and 10.2 can be combined 10 ><>1,,, fnr the t,>tal mao;" a, a function of dry rna,,-s and mof,tu re content, dry ilia" tolal mass 100 mobture ennlent (in 'I,)

'00 The result, of OOr analysl~ are a~ gi, en In Table Ifl.6. TI,e e,pected typical tOial generation rale of .,.,lid " ..,~t" ",ilh typical moi.ture added i, 1,02,1.1 kg/ per:so"-year, dnd Ihe wei nla" generalion rdle (Ii fnod waste i, 233.3 kgl pe...,n-y""r. nuse ,alues an!
10.6 Ruults for Example 10.2

-'-,. • Gooo",,",,,, R.no

(kg/pofson-y.-j

r",J w...'" r.l"~ ~·."c

Y.nl",..."

ou"-'<"'...... ,~,

"" !IO

,.

-

Coot""'(""1

,

,"

m

-........-

,.

m

ll/>.J

~

~1O.0

l."l7.2

;

'"' ',m•.,

DryGonorabooRalO

""~-

"~" ,~.

,.""

-~

Coolonl!"")

T)'pOCaII T olal

m.l

10.7 Metho.h to C.... sifyo Solid Woste o. Hourdou.

Co,m.;i,·~

], the w~,'~ """Y ",-i.IL, or M'ic .nd '" .blo to "",,>d, "m"" (e.g., oottef)' ~,id,l?

Re.>et;,'e

Can the "'~"c 1""1Ici",,,,, 10 rnpkl ,!>emie.11 n .... 'lioo, lNd;og tOexpic"'kl"-S, tm" furno""
strong o,id07jng agents)? Tmic

=.

Can tho w,,-"o ""u.., intornal d>m.,~c to a PC""'" 0' o,»,ol
"""'""'11""-'»

R.:>dk..rn,'e

C.n tho ",,-'te rei",,,, ,IL"S tholt CdO c..:ou.., to,ic elfect, I"-g., ",me medic.l1 ~nd laboralory w"-,,,",, wa,l"" .,"'-"Ci.Ilc'\l ""h noc]"", energyp,-oournon)?

lnle"!>,,u.,

uo the w,,-,te INd to t!>e tr~,,-,mkspiW rnoJic.li wasle
10.2.6 HAZARroUS-WASTE CHARAGERIZATK:lN Wa"e> are "",..,i
Is II Noohamrtlws or Hazlrdous WaSE? ~.

'-¥j ' -WLp.II-"f'J'I<>O'W1 ClassDiseussion

.I.

... \IOi6!.o/".ora!tan.>u,."" J. J. coo.. )""u"" .....,.,..,

"""'" "'" a".,.-ur tr, to """ r......,"""afMut>
o:;uc""", ImJ" ic'l"a.r.fI

M""I counfrie> have law' a"d regulaIiOl'" related (0 ha7.i1rdous n·asl... and provide a defin,toon lhal cll"ifie> parlicullr ""I"" a, legally hazardous or not. In Ihe U"ilro Sfales, Ihe rei." ani regul.llim.., are prmnulgateJ und"r RCRA and focu, prinl.\rily 0" large generalors of relati"ely homogenoou, waSl"". The "'.'''''geme"t of ha7.i1rdous waSles i, a ,pedalized topic Ihal ls beyond Ihe >cope or this bnnk. IV e h"-\'e described in Chapler Ii hOI, gree" chemislry and green e"gin""ring can be deployed to reduce or el""i".;ue the pr<>duction and use or IMz.ilrdou. chemical, (a"d the" a,,-,ndated risk a"d wasl""). Small quantllies nf "a,l.,; thai ""hibif Ihe characteri,tics of a ha7.i1rdoil> wa_1e are ofte" not legally coI.._ idered a haz.ilrdmts "."Ie and are ,,,,,,aged (and Ihus di,posed of) along wilh mun'C1p.\l waSle. Table ]0.8 li,ts com",on hou".,hold ha7.ilrdnu.' produc'tS. n ... ,torage a"d u"., of Ihese product' in Ihe ho",e i, .1 concen, (espee"n) becau"" of tI... poor indoor air ",,,,irollmentsl. Mam' mutlicipalilies pm"ide hou.sehold hazardous-wasle pmgran..s Ihat educate "')]"'Ullle", 0" using gree"

10.8 Co",",on Hourdo.. Prod"d' F.... nd in Ho....hold. H ~ J C,...... ,IIK

l'n>Joorts

0...... ri.ond~.~

c.........,...

.\1',,,......,... (·~rNll ........

Tr""

.nd to.~..., lluld

l ........Jg.nla. p..ooMd. H.~...

.......

,n.
W,>
M,.h n'J"'IIrn... \h"'..... nd 1'.11 f""-"'T"

Ho,,"'

"'./~Ir~ .......!hobb. "'1'pUrI

Odnr ..... md.-..J I"',nl'

r.m'
alllt"miltl'''''' (_ ..·..-".,~·gt1ftW"ngll"hil.<.aN'< rolloo.:lm& Learn abol,j Ph;lIm~tieliI COIettiOIl hnu;;drid tw.Jnbls ..- . ~ -bould consider tho> m,f'lC! t'ri 1001' puK.......... on tho> -=-""" -~ -.,.. ~ ~~~ ..... , trnnmenl. T" , n '''8 ~ . hou;;d'lOL,l ha7.drd...".... _ prod- ~ "'*':'.-r;:", uo-", .. ,II ,ocr_ ".-onrr-..ntal impacts mf'O... ," .-t'ri Polulon PrllllerCkJt Act l~'t~m~tn th.>honwor ,,-orlpLaceptt''''''l.'oan ...."roru" talnsl.1o "''-<>'" --"P"~ - ' I"""""~ h""",,,,, .. Ill, n.-CU!'l' bulld,ngs. SpKif) tng and UNns d"llradable and """1"'11: .-ldmng prodtK"tS ... nd equip"'.....' ""hKe-. ~m"",ions ... nd ~at'.-", and nloltntena""", CO!>t'l.... nd ,mp""~ ,ndoor ..... 'lualily ....nd """I>.lnt proJ .....1 ." "y.

.....

--

A

lication/10.2

SaHli-Waste Managemenl inlhe Oevel~illQWorld: Case Siultj from Mali WestAtrjca

J'T"pe, ,,,liJ-wa,te management i, imporlanl in all part, "f the world' The cumpJ of lhe city "f Sib"" {Mahl, "hidJ hoi, a popul"t~m of appmximately J5Il~~~I. figure 1O.~ p"",id", an ,,,,en'iew 01 the comp
Collection T vpic"lly, ....,hd-"'a'ie wlledi
Transporl ond Transfer Ii yuur h"u>eh"ld ha, "n acrount ",ith the wHeelion (Jrgani~alion, a

Oil-Site Siorage Women '''..,~ their 'm"D ,hop" an.l hom"" e""'-l' m",ning ,,00 e"L'lling ,,,,d place Ihe """Ie in" t,,,,h ""n or corner. """ident, ""'y purcha>e a IT,,-,h ""n mn· ,!fuded "f h"h-ed met"l.lrum" ",him h"" hule,,,lmg Ihe ",,,II." l(""iJenti,,1 ,,,Ii.l ",,,,Ie cun".'" m"inlv of pap"'. "'gomi", (.lu,t. le",-",,). alki ,orne pla,tic. 'I'hfle i, ,,1.0 ,ignificant ",lid ",a,te generaled al market>. "'peei,~l,' "'g,,,,i,,,, and ...." r.lbuar.l.

man ",ilh a dun key Cart will c<>me t" yOUT wnce_"ion/h"u>e each day. emply y"ur tra.,h can, and lake the ",,,,Ie 10 a wlle"li"n area "n the pt'riphe,,· of Ihe cily. They ",ill n,~ empty yuur ITa,h without" Ira,h ""n. Th,,,,, ",ith"ut I,,,,h c"n, an.l agreement> will ,,-,k "hildren to """y Ir",h 10 Ihe "ollecli,,,, are",. In ,,,me ca,e" Ihe """,,,r '" a pri ,-ale collection organu.a!ion own,,, large ITUck an.l Ir"c_ I"r and can Iran,fer I"'ge pile' "I ITa,h I",m cenlr,,1 "rea, I"" c"!Iecti,,n ",e". In Sib"", there are 10 wllection "rea, "n Ihe pt'ripheT),.

Flgurl/lQ,4 Solid_W•.,I~ M.na~om~nlin

Iho Cilyol Sika..o, Mali IPopulation ApplOx-imald}' 15(1,0001.

("_>C",....yo! 1<00I.. T_",",om"..I1on ~to.-I. ~

-

_

~,-,(r;"o"ol'i,g.,g,e",I,-

Processing £o:iI"~ng~"', "'peri>lly

child",,,, hing near lhe coll",,liun .",,, m.y pick Ihmugh lhe ,<>lid wa,l~ b"i<,,,, lh~ cnU",tiun I""m arri..." In l",,~ lhe lra,h nul";o., lhe eily_ Snm~ ,,,,,id~n" ""')' bum th~ Ir."h '>CCa,ionally illhe pil"" bO!Com~ 1m b'g,,-

Disposal Lal~,

"n, ""lid ",a,I~ L' bumed '" carried Imm Ih~ p"riph~,)' In ru,,,l "r~",. It may b.- 'p,,,,,d ,rul ''''~r 1.11,,,,, fi~ld" Jik~ com!,,"L CUH~rtly, lh~", a,~ "" "ffiei.lla"dfil1, fm de,!"""I, bul pl",,-, fm ct",-,trucli,m .r~ ""nding.

Sou ree Reduction, Recycli ng, Composling

ca,,,,

Much of Ih~ " , f u " , i, ',,-gonic. I'''''PJ~ "'u'" bag', "rod olh.." p1.:>..tic., and m.t.Il'a, lung '" II-.,y can.

10.3

T""...,

may b.- u.,.."J i<" ClInt"""", in lh~ ,,,,,,,lIing '" prnduct, kg., juie~, 'pic",) '" '''''yc1ed inln Iny' .nd aTI kg., meL>1 mitk can, hamm~..,J inlo I"y true!...,).

DiseaseVectors it,I" mie~, ""'gg'>Is, cock"",c""','OO mn"Juiln"" m"y b" i"u"d in ctI11""tinn "''''',. Th,,,,, hing i" p,,,-,imily In lh""" '.nn"" m.y ~xp""i~"e~ increa...,..j he.>hh ,-i,h. Many I""'pt~ Ihwugf<.>u1 the wmld ,till d" ""I uOO~r ,1'00 Ih~ ctm"eel~)n b"lwt>eTl Ih""., "eelm'- ."d diaTrhe.>1 di"",,,,,,, m "",t.,.-;•.

Cultural Considerations 1I.J~n

and

",,,m~n cm,-,ideT

l",n'!,,"lIng and burning ""lid ",.>t~ child",n', ",,,Tk, un",,' lh.,. ha,,, an """,unl wilh Ih~ c<>lleel~,n ",»,ni,",h""

Components of Solid-Waste Systems

R""all from Figure 10.1 11",1. ",hd-\\iLqe sy,lem rompr]".,,; w.",le ge"eraliul\ .
10.3.1

STalAGE, COLlEGION,ANDTRA.l'jSPORT

St"rdge, roll""t;o", "nd tran,porl of MSW typical!) acroullt< for 40-80 pereenl of Ihe lotal c<",t of sol id_w' a>le management. Four quest]"n, nooJ to be ro,,,idertrl wh.., d""gll]ng " ,Iorage, rollection, and trdn,porl'y,l"m: 1. WI,ich wd,les ,hnuld be ron"",ed from the ge"",al...., and "Neh shnuld Ihe generdt'" transpurl tn d pr"""""ing facility? 2. Tn w hal e"tent ,hnuid the genera,res bea
Solid-Waste Sioragein FIJi

IPl>ooo ""'" '.'1 01 J~. R_MOMl<"'1

Chapter 10 SoIid·Waste M..,,,,,,,,,,ent

wlled;on of n~""l'dpeNv~NUS a ,y,t~m wl",re n~" '1-"'1"" is dropped off at recydmg ce:nl~"'. If '''''' 'I'dP'" is wllecled hou,," to hou,,", .111 appr"priate system will be required for households 10 collect and deliver "~,,,sl'dpersto Ihe curb for adlection. An a~smenl Is needed ,,- h~lher a separ"le ,'ehkl~ should be used 1<) wllect ne",p"pe'" or ,,- h~lher exosling c"necli"n for recycl&l goods or ge""r..1"asle could be used. If a separ..te ,ehide is u.sed for """'I'dper mlleclim, il might be more efficient fer Ih""" trucks 10 dn ..e dorectly to a r resid~'llial MSIV, the llI",t common collectoon method is eurb"de. R"'ldems are a,ked I" segreg,lle ",,,,t,,,, ;mo '-,>nOu, types (e.g., recyclabl"" organic ",ask alld general wasle), usong different contamers or bag" ,,-hid, are placed at Ihe curb for collection. Collection is performed by on~ or more Irucb. The number of workers per truck ,-aries among commu,,,lles, wilh some Irucks ol,,"raled by only one person and ,..",idenl' using large wheeled bins for" aSle slorage. Some com mu "iii", u,," coll<,.:I;"n 'ystem, Ihat ,,-";gh bhlS (nr cJur&, per bag) "nd thU'i biD thege"erator Mrordi"gty. For r"';d ..,t;"l wa-.te coned;"", the c.-.;!S Iocre"-'ie m""l rapid ly wdh Ihe numl'O>rol stnps, II", nwnl'erof workeN, and Ihe total num""r "f Irucks ,n sen ke. Th""" f"clors ha,,~ influenced rnlle<.iion 'y'lem" '" they nm, Iypicall, u"" large ",a,1e mntainer; fm ,..""clenls, more multlU'~,ruck.>, h,gher clen,it)' of ",a,le per lruck, a"d fe",er ",orke", per truck. Commercial and I'''t,tutlonal ",asle generator; typically use larger slorage conla,ne", and ha ,.., a separate'y>.!e", fnr ",a-.te coneeti...,. Th;; sy"em 1.1.. ... vehid", specifICally d",igned for rollecllon of large quan,itoes of ,,-a,le per SlOp, High-rise commercial "r residential build"'g' are a special case. Many ha,-~ 'peciallzed ","siems 10 Iransport ,,- .. ste '0 the bollom "f Ihe building f", ,Iorage anJ c""'p,Kti"n prior 10 wHed;on. Drop,-off ~Ialions for recyd .•bles are ""olher ,-alu ..ble pari of an MSW collection 'y,'em. These can be designed for u'" by people "-00 are walk,ng or rldmg a bicyde, a, ",ell a, dri.- Ing \ la per"onal ..el"des or uSIng shared public tra",il. Drop-off system, can al"" be used for gener"I wasle in rural areas w,thoul door-In-door colleclion. Where ,'ehieular acc"", \\"ould "" mappmpriale or d,ff><:ult (""y, in a "ery old cily or a too nSi Z a,les by ,-acuum out of Ih" urban core. Transfer slalloos are uS&! in larger citi", .1nd 101-> IlS 10 reduce the c",ls as"",,,laled ""th tr""'port. They h,lt'e al,o become common l>ecau.se f>f the ",,,,,emen, t"w.1rd region.1l d;,pr,..,1 ",es ("ersu, the on"ny 1"",,1 dlsp"'''"l ,ile, Ihal ex.-Ied se,-eral decades .•go). Collection Irucb are specialized \ ehides and are mo,t efficiemly

(~I

This 1"""-"00 ]Ndiog "chide i,common!>' used for ",I !<"lJ<""

"'''''''''',001

(b) n,., 'i
"",,,j

for

if't""" "'''''''1 01 He;! E....""~

(c) The ",ar-~",dmg ,-"hIde i. sui!<,
(d) Thc< i, a <1=' and f''''!path
colla:bon

tF't- «><><'*'y 01 Hoko GrrillI1j

tf'l'- """''''1 ol HeiI ~""''''''"'"'*''l

.'.... (cj This bio otfc"," a "",an, !ocolk'Cl ""'}'",I.II>I",, in a 'hoppmg dc
FIgll'I/l0.5

Dc,,;"', 10 Aid SoLd_ IVa,le Co II 0< I io 0, S longe,. od T f . 0' porI.

tf'l'- o<>J""y of (;k,>dotI Gmup L"';1II
10.3 C
Recyd iJ\~ Sy.t.m" \\'••to C.ner.to.... ~btori.l. R""onry f .. iIi tin•• nd ~ 1. ,kot,lor Rom v.TO'd ""tori.I•.

FlglI'.,10.6

::

+

Papc,.m • ""nlbo:1rd

~pta'l!C

--

~

•.

,.,._ .....,. u".",j tn wiled, r..ther tIYn tr"'hpnrl, ",aee 10 wasle tr"'lImenl and disJl'O""I sit"" .. ,ui the a",ount ,~f "aste generated. urban Iransferslatiot~,generally become "lOre ,-,<:"nomica1.

10.3.2 RECYCUNG AND MATERIALS RECOVERY Recycling requ,res "'Pdratio" of ",aterial, al1f separately collected "'a,tes (figure 10.nl, E"pa",ion in rffyclmg requir"" the de, elopment 01 new markets. OtherwL,*,. the e,,,,,,,,, ill su ppl) mer demand will le.ad to decrea"", i" the value 01 the recovered ",aterials. to the pr>i"t Ih.. t ",ore res"u rces are u,reJ to recm'er the ",at"rial, tha" are ,.I,.&] bv Ihe recm'el"\'. In ,,,,,,e Col'''''. add,tio"al recvchng can occur by distrrbuting inlorm..ti"" between "a,te hold"", and potential u,er<;. IVa,te ".eh""ge system, carl be oper,ned to help one ,,,,all bu,in"", (or hotne"",,,er) ,oh·e. "'.lsI" problem" hile another find, a valuable inpul. Not" Ih"t in recycling progrdms. the conlrol "f impurities c"" be critical. For e".. mple, a ,,,,all am""", of ceramics in gla,s can m"ke tile gla,s ;mpracticallo recycle, Li""ting the ,,,,mber of impuriti"" requires e'ten,i, e and o"g"ing communication ,,·,th ",..,te ge""rato"" " llelher they be children. adull" bu,in""" ow"ers. or wrnmu"ity lead"",.

TYPES OF MATERIAlS RECOVERED OR RECYCLED

Pla,tic., recyclIng i, a challenge I"'l1ly because the plastic;, industry h,,-s Jewloped .,,,d nyrketed marly un'que Iypes or plast,cs that are "ot nec",,,arily romp,.lible "hen recycled To assist with plastics recycling. an internatl,,,,al res,,, code is ,,,,,rked on most plasllc ro'tsu,,,,,r products

10.9 Type. of PIostia found in Commeraol Products with Resin Codeo Used to Aid in Re..."",ry A",nC_

Ma~."

So~oAPl'lmtDn'

h ell

P"1)'<
PI",t" bo~l", I"r",ft drink., fr>
L"t

H 'sh -.rn,.ly I"'o/e
Bo~l", lo.mill; b'g:<

et

PoIydnyl chloride

BI;,;lc'f packs: b.:JS-' IOf bc"'dmg, pipe

l"... -de,.;ity pdl"~b)'~'''''

B'plmd,y ck·""ing,n.:! flfl",n l<>
Pohl'T<>pylcnc

C"nl.> '''''''' f,,.. t,"""" t """,]e

Poll"'''''''''''

CUp",oo pL>te<: furniture ,nd c!,'rtrom,o< pacbgin8

L't Lt &

(Tabl" 10.9). Th" m",t common I} reowe.-...d ptaellcs are poly"'h}len" t"""Phthilbt" {PETl (Iyp'" II alld high-ging product", Reow,,""" \"'I"'r is Iypically transformed I>.>ck 10 n"" p.'l"'r product,. IVaSlepap"r ls of higher valu" when Ihe paper fibers ar" 10llger and Iher" are f"wer Impurities, Gl,-,.;,sy magazines currenlly hav" a lower value than office paper beeau,," they u""" min"ral., Ihat pm, ide the glc...., 10 the pal"'r. I're"ioll,ly " ..,}'cled paper l""",,s ,alu" beeau."", Ih" ",,'ycling p""""" ,horte,., Ihe fiber-. Because 01 the high energy requireme"., to prnc"" .,lumil\um me, aluminum is Iypically of high value per uml weighl of recovered llIalerial. Ferrou.s metal, (i roll, "t",,1) ha, e beell ree",'"red by scrap metal procesS<\rs for many decades. IVllh a de,'eloped ",..ket for "'a,te ferrou' metal, Ihe recm ery of ferrous metal, from appliances, ,·ehid",. equlpmenl, can" and demolillon debr" is no" common. The 'ystem fm turning wa<;le gla"", called cullel, illto new gta<;<; i, well de\·e!opert"lion 10 a gt."" smelter can nuke il impractical to t urn "a,le gla<;<; in 10 '''',, gla". As a ,"""u1l, lIew markets for this materl,,1 a", under devel"pm",,!. Construction and d"",ol ilion debris Includes met"I" ",ond, "tn"e, and cotl<:rete. Some btJild"'g malerial, (".g., liles and fitlln8"1 can be reu"'<.l, while nthers are prncess<.od fnr lie" use;. Broken ,tone alld concrele call beeonle aggregale for new collerele or for other bUi1.:lingfill purp<-,.;,e.<

I"rgr""e';".

E· Cycle YClu rElectronic Wastes I-~'fJ I""", -"p&."""/...""U1I! <0'11"",,<1

""""'""'""uyc I r~r..__ h",

SEPARATON OF MATERiAlS

A ,,,de ,a"ely of mechanical "'luip",ellt i, av"ilable for "'paralion "f wa,te n"'l""ials Magnets C-d" '''parale ferrous 111",.,1,. but "nl)' aher any 1>.>8' ha, e b""," Opelled alld Ihe wa"te ha, beell placed on cm"."Y0"". To separale papers and plastic.s, macl"nery can "'ploilthe lower den"ily and larger ';7oe of these mateflak Method, call i"voh'e screen,. ,ieve-like inclined ,haking l.lbles, burst, of air, and "'Ialillg ,ie""" called lrommel,. 10.3 C
~ RPIe of Sqvcnrjng jn!be peyeklQjng Wocld In de,-doping ""untn..., it is c"mm"" ~" ",,,,,,,,gt""'. the ",~rmal _,":A". 1<>

!"'rticip',te in ,,~id-wa'tem;mas""'''''l <",Ii"ili",,_ 1'hi, i, due primarily hJ inad"'luate municip"1 ",n'j"""" hich n",te a large Il<'ed informal waste c"Utodi"" anJa n "pp,,1u ni t yim i """"..,,, TTl"n II Ihep<.", Medin;] (2lUl) wril""

f",

.
Wr"

p,rf=

i11",,~r"'~lor of .c~t";cab!o

~"..r.. G~n

DO a
k,'"op""' .....

~re

frioj W<>i.t jo"" a", cc"..." "d, f"""rty'~ ",~c<4 "'" ",at
a,,, CO"",,,,,,
co"'rr..i"""M~). F~"". pole ,"or I~ '''''"''''". ar,d "co e"~m'''''''~ ,~

pro'"",o''''''

'n s",ne ,,~_. paper and pl'>lk wa'les are "'paraled from other 1"",en"rg~ male rial, dnd then 11011 in a mh<'d sl~le 10 be used as a source of fuel. The l-"'perjpldslic mix is termed tdus..-deti,-ed fuel (RDn dnd Cdn j,., ,hredded ~nd Ihen compres>ed to les.<;en tr ~nsl"'r1 eo,ls. Med\d"i2ed lechniques a", ~l,,) a vaildble 10 <;eJMr~le aluminum from other malerials a"d to d "ti"guish ,-arious colo,." of gla..s. I" man, siluation.', p""'ple are employ.,.;! 10 aid in Ihe ""'p.,rall"n of ,,-a..1e m.llerials. In ""me ""<;e';, pe<>ple e'bure lIMI high-qu~hty rec",ered goods are prod uced. In other ca_, ..!
10.3,3

COVoPOSTING

Composting is a microbial proces.s Ihal treals biodegradable wasted dOWII to ~ suitable size, water is added, .•ir is allowed to emer to tr•• n..ler oxygen inlo Ihe ,,- a..te p,le, amJ the "',,-Sle is mi.'''';! to en ..ure evet' degradattol\. The m;"r<'Organr,ms Ie..:! on Ihe Mgil n;" malter In the ",aste. pmJucing CMOOII d,oxide and Ie... tug j,.,hind a ",lid (calleJ fO",~1) Ihal can j,., applied to ""il. The two m""l common applicalio".. of C1)Inl""'ling are 1M' (I) ",du,trial/ag"cultural ,,-a,tes, 'uch a, wo"d ,,-aste, r.,h-procei.sing waste, and solid, gener~led at a municipal ,,-aCe lhe m"" 01 ,,- asle to j,., malMged; (2) 10 reduce pollUtion I'0tenlidl; (3) to d"",troy dn, p.. lhogen,; and (·l) to pr,xiuce a produci Ihal call be marketed or u".",j by Ihe loedl communIty, Table W.W pm,-ides ",me detail of Ille two "'()'it comlllOll Iypes of composhng 'ystem, in use, ,,,,,d,,,,,, and In-,""<;el. rigure J(I,8 Chapter 10 SoIid·Waste M..."""",ent

1

--

V>SLIOI cllocl< !of !lazard. Impootc.

1

--

Rocovcrod lom)u.

Molal bo.1or

sep.".'"",

1 I

'R

AOC
II'''''LJI''", ~ HOPE _

Rooovorod HOPE

j....

-, ...

ll'"mJla""

~

,~:;V

--

-

A~d
.J ,

WaSlo !of

troatmcn<\ispDs.l1

flg ... '1 0.7 Prou.. Flow DiaKram rm. ~bt.ri.1s Reco,'cry Facility n"s fad IllY t. des'gned to p"""'" ..",rce-«.1"',atcd PIT and HDPE r"'.tico. md,,] and alummum c"n', and clear

g"''''.

illuslrales ....eh of them. A windrow is a trapezoidal pile or proces"'-'
10.10 Most Common Type. of Compodng System. SystomTI'P"

,mil

Pllttlcl
y.m Y.m.oo frood Mi~,-'\l

WindrO\<... ';.-10 mm

to 0bt0i
anc., per w<>cl<

2--1 O1U,,,I1.-<

I-luurty

1-2 month.<

(.1 Wind"'.... mmposling '" ,-,ud .... a'te

I\'IlOlO 1,,,,,, U.S Dop<._ or .o.g,;o..Io." •. Ag.",.-... <.I R.-..cil

(b)ln-,-"",,1 cnmposung '0 treat kitchen and jOan:! .....'te

Sot""'.I"btrl<>hon S"""I

Flgu ... 10.8

T....o Compo,ling Syotcm•.

P,oduction of cnmf'O'>t 'equi,,,, maintenance of te",!",ratu'''' all", e 40 C for "" e,al day, or longe,. PrO\ iding the righl condilions for aembic microbial growlh lead, 10 ,apid rele..", of ene'gv in Ihe fo,m of heat, and composling 'y,lem, c'an commonly read, lemf"ral""'" of 70 C lor ,llOr! lime !",riod,. The high lemperatu", e,~su"", d,.;l,ucli,., of path''8e,,, and unw.nted """"s, and leads to a fa,te, prnduci,on of Ihe fin.>1 prnJuct. The proc.".; is cnntrnllf.'d Ih mugh nutri",' (esped.tly nilrogen) conlent, pH, moi,lu,"" mntent, and the air co"tent The "utrienl mnlenl i,conunonly e'l-... .......-d a, a c.,hon-I,..n ilrugen ralio ()n a dry-weight ba,i, (lheCN ralio). n,i, ralio should he in U,e ,ange of 20--<10 (20,1 10 ·lfUl 1m malerials entering a cmnp<>,ting pr"",,-",s. Table 10.11 li'ls Ihe nitrogen enntenl and eN ,atio for. ,.,iety of materials commonly mml"""'led. When oue wasle is nol eoml""'table on its own, il ca" he mixed with other materials 10 ensure Ihe pro!"'r nutrie,,' conlent. pH, moisture cmuent, and air porosity. Ex"onple 10.3 demm~strales a Iypical calculation u"-'ckyard mmpnsling can reduce Ihe c""IS (.nd a,,,,,,,ialed en"ironmental impacts) of collectio", transpmt, and l-",..:es.sing and disp,,,,,1 of org"nic wa,I",. M,,,,y n'unicipalihes no" p,m'ide subsidized or free home con'posting unit, (or worm f.. m,) 10 encr'urage Ihe !,ractke. To he effecli"e, home monl-_ting must have Ihe p'oper mi.' ()f n""'8en- and carbon-,ich malerial, .nd have .Jeqt.t.lte airflr..... a"d ",o,>I,,,e. Poor Il<\useholl c()m~'OSli,'t; practices will not reach lhe t"",peratures required for effecli"e lrealmenl. can"""I"oo,.. pr,tllems, and can at[met .nima'" M unicipal,ties need t,~ find Ihe pmper balance ()f educalion. subsid ,es. a"d enfo,.".,.. ment 10 achieve effective backyard cnmpnsting systems.

10.11 NultientContenl of Vorious Moterials U.ed in C0"1>0sting Compo"'''9 'y"'''''' perf<" m be.. wheo It>o ccfborl-lO-nll",ge n raflO;' apli mIZod io the fa nge af 20-40{CNaI20 lla40: I) Mal_

,-

l,.drym3os1

Uno",

15.--1H

Hmm" fee""

5.5-f>.5

Co.,. "",nu",

1.7-2

I'oull..., m.mur<'

~~,

Hor
1.2-23

Acbvokd _ludge

,

"'''''leg, ume ,,"S,"',ble .,.0"""

25·-1,0

Pol.lfn fl,!",

C:NAaoo

Idrymaasbaoi.)

"'

~w

- " " n ,

-

11-12

-

"

n

0.J__'!.5

Wh",,,t,o.,.

-

130-150

0." 'f,.,,·

G""., clippiog_ Fresh

lea,,,,

"

12-15

2 ........0

0.5.--1.0

';".,.du"

0.'

Food "',lst""

" "

M,,,,,j ",per Yard

~

0.19

.,."-_t,,,

" "

200--50.1

,~

-

"

SOlNCUI""\I,1993

e Xanl pie I I 0.3

Delerrrilllllg PropB" Illgredierts for SuccessfiJ ComposUrg

A pou hry manure h., a mOiSIUr" ronlelll of 70 pe",elll and b.3 I"''''enl N {Oil a dry mass basisl. n,e manure is In be compo>led Wilh oal ,Ira" "illl a mol,lure conlenl 01 20 perc""t. The desir&l CN lor the mixlu,e is 3lJ. Using Table 10.11 \'alu"," for Ihe nilrog"" com!""ilio" and eN ralio for Ihese I",... malerials, del"nnlne Ihe kg of nal "Ica,.. required p'" kg of "",n"r" to aUatn Ih" desir&l CN ,atio.

solution Assume Ilg of mOlSl poullry "",,,uredry ma". Let X 19 of m0151 nahlra" on a dl} ""'ss baSIS. n,e ilia" of carbon and "ilr'->ge" obl.oned from each ",aterial in Ihe mixture is

Dry ",ass oilrogen from poohry manure

1 kg '" (1- 0.7)" 0.1')(,) 0.01~9kg Dry m." carboll from poultry m."u"" 1 kg x (1 -1l.71" 1l,0b3 '" 15 O,2835kg Dry ma>s Oilroge" from nal >Ira" X kg x (1 - 1l.2) x O.llll '" (},OOAA X kg Dry ",ass carbon rm", ""I ,t,a,.. X kg '" {I - 0,21" O.llll '" 48 0.421,1", X kg 10.3 ComponefllsolSdid·W.. teS,..lems ~

examplellO.3

(COntillUed)

(ma" cdrbon from pouliN manure (nLlS.~ nilr...g~1I from p<)UlIry n,anure

+ mol>-' c.lfboll from NI stra",) + n",,, nilrog~n Fn,m 001 ~Iraw )

(0.21U5 ~ 0.4221" Xl (0.0l1'l9 ~ OlOl8" XI

Soh ing F...r X, "'~ find X I.R kg. Thus, For e,·el)· I kg 01 poultry manur~, I.R kg ...f NI ,Iraw mu", be added t ooMin an opt,mal eN rallo of 30. The rea<;ooior tl", is that Ihe poullry nlal1ure;s a betl~r "lUree Fnitrogen and Ih~ .....1Slral\' pro,-jdes a belter SOuree of c.. rbon.

HowtoCompost "'-'f"'fI1owt.ocon'l""".txgl

Allhe l.. rger ""ale, rompidel1lS "ho gener.Hed Ihe wasle. Ll rger markeb for comp.-",I i""lude municip.11 p.1rh, golf cour""" nu"",rie>, lal1d<;
10.34 WAS1HOENERGY

'II

~ 1<>1.•• 2 _000 pound. '" MSW '" oquol tho ho,a, ...., ijy ;" ~oo

f">""d. '" cool

lVasle·lo-energy (..bo Cliled incin~r..lion) ;s a combustion proe.s., I\'here oxyg~n " u.sed al high lemperalu",," to liberale Ihe energy in ",a,u:,. [n Ihe Uniled Slale> in2FJO.t, wasle-Io-energy lacilltie> burned 29 million lon, 01 MSW. In addilion, JS(J US. landfill, """ rec"'·..... n"'th.. ne. lVaste-I()-~nergy can reduce the amounl 01 ,,·a,le "eeding di'l""'-'l, gen~ral~ ~lIergv 1m a communily, and .11.;0 reduce MSW Ira'''
10.12 Common In
T_ or Ina,.".."'",

Sy"....

E,p .....t""

M.",·bum

Un"'-'gr'-'8"tt"d M5W L_ comb."IL"'.

Mooul.1r

Sm.111 I1\cmer.to,-.; loru, "" In."tnl<'n' 01 specific w,,-_I~ ,lTNms (~.g.. rncdirnl w,,-,'el.

Retu.e--dcriwd fuel (RDFl

E"".-gy-rililule for f"",il fuels such a' coaf. in p,m"r pl.1nt'. Wa.lewater treatmen' biooolid. are n"" 'uch w"lc .IDrom.

C<>-iOOneral"",

Spffific po.lmKlu.lnal w"-.I",,.
drit'Cl w ..lewat,-..- tm.,'meotplanl b,,,,,,fid, to pmdure,-","'lIY H",."dnu.

w.,I~

C""""",, ~lf""

H.>7.1rd",,. o.-gamc w."'e< W.1<1e<. lhough lhi,

(~.g., .of,,,,,I.,

""1"'''''' ""ry

1"-"'tcj,de
'0

~'d,-""my lh~

'-'-""'-'01 t.1<1,,"'-'< mav pmdde 'Ultablt, ",ndmon. 1...- combu.lIOn "j manv W""e<. ,ncfudmll wa.lc """and wa
b.>ckyard bunting of solid wa.te (e.g.. bunt barrel,);, now the m.tjor .ource of U.S. dioxin emissi",•• (EPA, ml6). Sufficient "'yge" mu,1 be prm'ide..:l 11\ incineration pl'OCeS
--_..-

8ackyardBuming ~''f'II......... '~I"'.'3'" I ".0,""",""" ,,"u ' " 'f'" li~""

ri!JzJ

F1gUIll 11 0.9 M ••.-Bum fndnor.lion Sy.tem for Tr. .tment of Muni<",,,,h,>Id MT.. "",,,te< and hro,"y """",,,I. (e.g., 1>."",";"') rmm a ".",1<, "",.,m mn be"",rdi"",,'" with indner.Ikll\ 'Y' kl in i,e f"leD"al ri,~ a«ocia,ed ,,;Ih pollul.ml' found ;n lhe oUga. aDd ,,-,h.

mi,,,,.

'em. m ,m

••

._--' .....

10.3 C
Class Discussion .I.

Ind""ralion ~yst"ms oll~" Ita,,~ high CO,,,lructlon ,11,d operating costs. Howe, er, the ""'I, can"" off"'l by ~.wings '" Iran,porli"g ,,-a,tes to ~ di,p<1Sal .ile, land requiremenls for di'lX""'l, a"J r"",werable energy. Succe<4ul illcineralion 'yslems are Ih""" where the ,,-a,te is appropriale for incineralion and Ihe ensl off""l, can"" found. In addil.,n, indnerarion sy ~du"" ,ncineralion .y,tem, 10 be preferred in more economically ~d\'~llced regk>llS of Ihe world and "h~re land \'~lues, e"ergy COSIS, and Irall,pnrt.ui"n eo>ls associaled w,th nther allernali \ es are high.

.I. How,,""i,;yculoa&a ... public rroo""1 ...roC< l"'"

... ...

_0'l"nqtod>OoCU""

bot.."",a Ic~ar¥~ t.na~ ,""u i,; docrLt
example/IDA

Air RequirerTllnls for Coml1Jstion of MUrlcipal Solid Waste

A refu,....derived fuel (RD!') ~ompn'*'S flO percent ",ixed paper, :J(] perrelli n"xed pldstk, and 10 percent textiles. A"unte 'I is dried before combuslion. Delenn",e Ihe volume of air (Ill L\ at 20 C, 1 almO'iphere pre<~ur~ th~t LS required I,,~ombu,t 1 kg of Ihe RDF.

solution Use ,,~lues of perrelli ~oml""'ilinn of solid ",asle fmm Table 10.5 10 dete""ine the moles of C, H, S, and o in Ihe wasle, (The molecular" eights are 12, I, 31, dnd In gl mole, re
MoiesC

Moles H

~~,

Mol.... 0

Pdl"" (m,Xi'd)

~

21.7

~,

003~

1&.1>

f'h"ic (mixe..l)

~

1';.0

21.&

<11.01

<3

Te,~1e<

'00

Tot~1

"."

,.,

.,

,~

~;

~,

.U

0.05

n.'

n'e ",oles 01 0, required fm combustion dre dellermined for oxidation reactions are a, fo11m,'"

ea~h

",ol"",ular sr-i"". The balanced

C~o,-CO,

H+',o,-',H,O S+ 0, -

so,

,

f.rom Ihe bdlanced rea~tion" 1, <, and I mole of 0, are required per mole of carbon, hydrogen, and sulfur, resp""'li\ ely. In addnion, ea~h mole of oxygen (O) in the wa,le ~an off.;e1 Ihe requiren,enl for 0.5 n\Ol" 0, ga,. The o"erall moles of 0" required to incinerate Ihe waste ar" th""

[(40.7md... C)( 'm,'eo) - + (n2.8mCII""H" 1m,;e"') • + (Q,03mClleS)( ,"m'.o,)] moieC moleH mnieS - ( 23.4 mCII"" 0 " O.5moleo,) moleO

,

Chapter 10 SoIid·Wasle M..."""",ent

11.8n\0I50,

example/lO.4

(continued)

Thi, ,-alue of 0, can be con"erted In lilers of oxygen, '''ing 'he ideal ga~ 1.1", after which "" can de,ermi"e 'he volume of air. Rearrange Ih" id"al g"-~ ld" (PV "RT) 10 sol"e for V. U", a ,-alue of R 0.0ll2L-atm_ mol ... K, along w"h the ,-alues of 20 C and 1 atm"'phe", pr""ure,

v

liB mol." 0, x 0,01\1 L-a'm.- mole-K x -

1273+ 2O)K 1 abn

1.nl1O LD, "g

Beeau,"" dir is appro"""al"ly 20.9 percen' 0", lhe liI"r,; of 0, can be converted '0 li,ers of air:

1 Ldir I.080LD"kg x 11209LD,

5.200 Lair kg "d~le

10.35 lANDFK.l landfills are engineered fddl"i"" d""igned dnd operated for th" long,erm containment of ",lid ",a~les. De,;ign of 'he landfill "'ill vary greall} ba>ed on 'he ",a~t" and 'he I')cd';o" "f 'he ladli'Y. B.ls.ed on "-,,-~I,, 'Yl-"", 'he four main types ()f land fill~ are li,'ed in Table In.13, aln"g "'i'h lhe rele"ant lederal regutallnn~ under RCRA. 1" landfill" '" .~"'" a", plac'ed ,llld c.-.-np.,eted ;mo,olid f«nb, Ihen c"" ... ed ,n limIt upo,;ure 10 ,,-a,er alld air. leachate L, "'.,Ier Ihal contacl~ 'h" ",,,-q..,, and bed wa~"'wd''''. A~ binlq;lcal ""terlal~ decompo,;e in I.",dfill" o'yg"" i, con,umed, and caroo" dioxIde l~ produced. O""r time, a" anaerobic en"imnm""t evol"", th.'t lead, 10 'he pr.--..:ludion of methane ga" Chapler 9 di",,~'i.&I III detail 'h" bioch"",;cdl pmc",;,;.." in ",hich organic "'.lsi.." are con""rted 10 men"'ne. As ,h'-M n III Figure I 0.10, 1dndfill~ are tech nically ad ,-anced fadliti,.; "'ilh ~nphi,tic-ateJ em ;mnmen,al pr<>te.:!I()I\ ,}',tems. E",,;mnmen,al pr,)lec-tiol\ ;n la"dfill, OC'Curs Ihrough a combi'''''ion of four barriers: (l) appmpriate "''''g; (2) engh,,,,,red d""gn tha, i~ carefully ,,"pIemented dunng con'lruetion dnd operatio": (3) ""du,ion of inappropnd'" wastes; (4) collection a nd use of landfill ga., dsa s..... r<:e of e,,,,"8Y; and (5) ~horl- and long-,,,rm monnonng.

10.13 MajCO' Types of l ... dfill. Regukrory o-te

R,,&u1~linnof co",tlUct.m

,ro! d<=n1~",nd,,,,;, ""'n.lsc,j ,t !he "'~'e Ie\-cl III ,he United SL>te<

Mumcil"l ,,,'td

w~,;Ie

loou
411 C.ER.

P~r!

,,,,,dfi~<,,

25I'l

40C.FRP..,-,257 411 C.F.R.

P~rl< 2(,.j

aoo

y,~

10.3 C
FlglI'e/l 0. 10 C""" Sectinn of ~ Modem hndfill, ShowinK Ou,io .. Incorpo'dled i nloEnginoe,ingDe.,iKn n.e m.:Inv b.>rri..-s hdp p""ecl public h",lth ,,,,d lhe """ll'Onm<",1/iod<""'" _ _... "",01... """"",,,,'5oIid w..... ~ A u o c. ."'"/NSwMA.l.2OOJ.1

LANDFill SITING

Class Discussion J.

Oio<;"M",~"o~of or~ror.,.orul~.jc~ ,"

'-
no'

0'tu ''-''\+y. Ooy"'- c okr8'-" od "'y .,.acypooploJo 001. "ar~at..r~hl' o-i'..od i,tl1'irhd'yarMWro aro:.l1o: i'" f"'''' 8"" ~ ""1:'"0 1.10..... 8 r,j ~ow """u LO you 8M.."" ~"' ir cone,,,,. to 8m", 8' "".,., con...,r",,,."

L~nJ

fin, nee.] to be 10mlOO whoerethe risks to the

el\virmunem ~nd ",,,jely are 1m" '0 that e"en in the e~se of po'" d""gn, eOll-qruelion, '" 0p"r~linl\, Ihe resultIng ri'k L' minllnized. r-.iegdling j",ues ~',oddted wilh ."",idl .• "d el\\ imnme"I~1 justice b also '-filled!. T~ble 10.1-1 ,umnMflZ'" locatinns t,) ~"oid "'hen siting a ldndHlI ~nd olh.". i"ues that neeJ 10 be COll-~ide.-.,J, Landfill ,itlng i' a highly contenliou, ""'i.,1 issue, ., "d the engIneer', mle i, I" p«wlde inpul ~nd ~Mlysi, in an equitable ma""er. A common 1001 for e,'aluali"g potenti~llandfin,it'" l~ a g,,,srapillc i"for",,,,,m, <)lSI,"" IGISJ, GIS is.l ,. ~Iu~ble mean, of processillg large amou"t; of d~l.l ~nd e'buring dn e, .,]ua!lo" of dll ophon,. Figure 10.11

10.14 h"ms toConsiderWhen Siring a L... dfill linn_spodfi< iIems lo~,'o id Flocdpl.lln< A<'!IW g""logic.llldu Il, Land 1'''''''' ,,, ,lips"" """,K-.n Wctl.lnds.nd in""lid.1 '''''''''' A, s wllh 'Ign; flC. nl <'C("f;}'"tems dnd Import."" bood;,...·f''" t). A, " of crIllu'~I n•• reh.J""Iopc~1 'Igmoc.""" Dnnlung-""t... Gllchm<'l\t,

Loc~

Dlh .. ilemsloI communil}'.nd u..., ,h~ proJIKed <~I"'l;V Drt,,'~~'P c"lul"'bl~ ",rumns I" issu,,. (II ",,\"imnm~nl.ll ju"l, an m~ke bcnofici.-.l u'"" (If "",,~ m.:I,~ridl" OT d~ri"I"j ~""rgv.

FIg ... /l 0. 11 Cr'pllic,l tn/orm,tion Sy.'e", Ev,t o"ion of Po'en,i,l hndfill Si,,,, SuiL,ble"ro..,,,, hlShhshtN in the SfOV .h.>d,od ,n"". which can lx, romp.uN to ""is'inS "Ol1I'p',.ution

LsSVCIs Island

Nl

",,'wOTlcs .md w"s'''''proJocins urb.>o .""a. hlShllSh'N in d.,k dLod a,,,,,,. n", k'G.tion " ""'\'0< l
",,
II~~","I D,~"""",,'"

Waw

262,
,'''"o9._'',,,d~.21IJI

200J,I"l";""'borF-"',,,;',,,,·ISAG£P~,

K'

-----

.~

-~-

shn"", ,he r""ull 01 a GIS e,'alu~tl"" nf po'enti.111andfil1 "'''''. In thi, case, Ihe locatinn 01 exi"tlng ,ran,porla,;on ;nfra,lru~'1Ure can be jllle-grated "'I,h the loe-a,um of high-volume urlMo w""'e gener.uo"" and other I"'-'atlon i"u5 1i,led in Table 10.1,1. GIS ai", allo\\', Ihe engin""r In add demog,aphk inlorn... lioo ,1M' is rela,ed to olher ron""",.' ,ud, a-, equilable dis,riblJlioll 01 n,k.

LANDFu.l DECO/v\POSmON Waste"hatal\'disp<>-ed IIlkla iandfill u",lel)';o a .,.".ies of ",te,rel.",ed chemical alld biolngkal reactions. n_ reacliru~, determ",e Ule quanll'y and rompot,ro"", 1..,.. pr"",'al
8"""''''

,,,,,eI,

10.3 C
FIg ... flo.12

TypialL.ndfill

Decomposition P.Ihw.ys The upf""T figure tal g.,oc""""p"",ti"" land prnluclion)m'cr ti""" n.., lowe' figure lb)
.1><,,,...

" ,, ;

'00 00

• 00

f

01 ,-,,,,ous mn,Utuen". A. the ,aleof go" prnduclwm ,ncr,,,,,,", lhe 1c"ch.>lc OOco""" 1.."" s,.ong m 'erm., of the wncen".lion 01 leach.>le en,..sl, ",,,,,I•. conc,,,,".l~on

00 0,

•" '"

i~

00

'00 8/)

H·a

. ' 00 ,

00

" could be the pr",e""" of methan...-inl"biling chemical, in Ihe ", .. ,Ie stream or infiltration of ""yge" fmm a poorly designed w,'er. Dunng stead y- Ih" hazard oi l"achal" because the d;"""ked organic compo"e,lI. "r l"""lldl" (m"aSIJre:! a, COD or BOD) are cOll,erled In ga-"'Ou. m"lhan". LANa'lll GAS The pmduction of landfill g,.. is be,1 vie,,-ed as bolh' pmbl"m and an "PpoMunity . [,irst, co!~,ider the rea""". Why il is a pmblem: (J) II can be ""pl""lI,, "he" m;,ed ",Ih ""ygen. (2) It ciln be a human h""llh c""""rn for ,ile w"'kers. (3) It ciln creat" odors. (.1) It can displace o'ygen in ""il., which milY .ufioc.le ne.rby pllnl" (5) It can ""'il mel han" to th" al"''''pher", which conl"bute> 10 greenhouse gJ§ emission. The main ""'-
The lolal amoo"t of meHldne Ihat CM' be pwJu<:ed wi! vary del"',ding onlhe amnu,. of bl
110.31 " here Q, b, c, a"d ,I are qO'Ch'Olnelric coeflidenl~ for a 'pedfic organk chemical. TI,e actu.. 1 amount of melhane produced may be 0,,1) 10--50 percem of lhe ",..."mum a",,,... ,,l estimated fmm Eq..... lion 10.3. This l~ bee.. u,e ",me "'g.."ic w ..sle Is nol degradable under a"..emllic condilio'" and beeau,e i" ~ome "'-'<:llons of a I.. "dflll, en""ll.-e 1l1<>deg,adalion may be h..mpered by 10'" moi.~Iu,e, p,,,,,,,,ce of 10""", ad,e"", pH, or .. I.'ck of nUl,ienl~. Figu,e 10.12 showed Ih.lt the rale .. l "hiLh melhane b produced (in units of l melhane/kg ",a,Ie-yea,) i' commoniy d"""'ibed "jlh a I.. g ph..", of zero methane production, followed by exponentiai d""ay, a~ fonows (for I ,,1"sJ'

I

,ale of CH, pmductlon

V&"" x ,,:.

~ _b

H ..

110.4)

"here VlV' i, Ihe 101..1 voiume of ga' (l) lhal c.." be prod uced per kg 01 "a, Ie, " i, .. lirst-ord ... da:.. y ,ale (lime-I), I i' lhe time measured from lhe point lhe "a,te i, di,l-"-",."j, and I"", l~ the iag lime req... lred bef"'e lhe " ..,Ie bl>gi"-~ 10 produce methane. To determine Ihe methane produced bet"""",,, I""" I, .. nd I" ",e can into;g,ale lln~functim 10 pr'" idelhefolhwa'g"'luolirn (" jlh I L· /, > 'loS)' rum...lali,-e CH,

V&"'" x

[1 - ,. -1",-'-0 ]- V&"" x [1 - e - ~" -""- ] 00.5)

(to.6)

TI,e lirsl-o,de, d""ay rate Chaple, 31,

l~

related 10 Ihe hail-life, " , (a, di"'... s"'-'<:l ,,'

,

0_693 It ,

110.7)

H..U-ii,-.", for melhane productio" 'n.l iandfill d,,!-"'''d on the w..,le'.< d'1;radao.lity and c..n ,- ..ry fn"n I 1035 yea rs (Me Bean et .. L, 1995; Pie",e et aL 2003). TIleY ..i", vary wilh the moi~lu", colllem of lhe "a'le. Dry """,,Ie wiD h.l'" a io"ge' ha If-He lha" mo"le' waste_ Acmrdingly, """II" 13,'" mlsrecycle leachale i"" lhe ,,- ..stepile 0' add olher"""'"","of ",.. Ie, 10 Ihe wa,te 10 ;n<:rea", lhe ,..Ie of decoml""ilion.

ex ampIe I 10.5

EstiITllling Methane Prool£tion

Calculale lhe vrnume of methane thai can be collected (in til '/""rson al fl C) from landfilling 1 year's wa,le I", each ""rson. U", Ihe landfilling rale for 2010 pro'ided in Table 10.2. A""ume the thr.,., wa,te comP'menl~ Ihal produce melhalle are fi\Od w"-,t,,, (15 perceHI of I()tal). mixed paper (30 percelll of 100al), and )'ard "'aqe; (25 percent ()f 100al). A"'ume Ihalllll percent of Ihe focoi and ""per wasle and 4lJ percelll of Ihe yard Irimmings decomJX""'.

solution n'is problem requ",,,, thai we delermine the "olume of methane produced for e, ery 1 kg of landfilled wa,le and multiply Ihls "alue by the ma,,-, of w"-5Ie land filled per person per year. r.or each kg of "a,le, delermine Ihe mole; of ""rbon, hydrogen, and o"ygen Ihal "'ill degrade 10 methane, and Ihen u""' the molar sloichiomelry from Equalion 10.3 to detem'ine Ihe moles of melhane pro.:luced. A" Table 10.15 ,hows, lhe ",Iulion uS'" not only infMmation lrom Table 10.5, bul also 'alue; provided in Ihe problem ,!.llemenl and molecular" e,ghts, to find Ihe required molar ratios.

10.15 ReMlII, fo.Example 10.5 WW

Cool..... I"')

Weighl(g) ~

21.6

'"

~"

117.2

'00

~"

r.'!"-'r(mhed)

~

""

Y,,,d w,,--re.

no

~

~.

~

Tolal

"'" Wd
r.perlmi,ed)

'ram w""t""

~". ToLlI

Carbonllll

-,. "

,-

,-

,-

16.9

"".• "

O')'lIGO(g)

13.7

119.6

'"

~"

NiIr"llOO(1I!

...- ...- ...- ...- ...- ...- ...- ..."",-, -, ""'-, -, '" '" 'M " '"' ' " "'" m, m '" "' " '" " " "" ~

1'0<>.:1

,-

WoilIht{gl

m

F"od "",<01""

.,

-~

13.0

IRA

. "- . "-

~

1.71

".M

912

U9

,~

,~

.~

13.~ I

"-

0.0'1

0.10

,.,

11.18

From Equalion 10.1, Il~ mol'" of methane produced a"" deternllned as ('Id + b - 1£ - 3<1)./8. from Table 10.15, Q 8'16, h 11.·11, c 6.07, and d 0.18. Usin8 Ihi, expr""sion, Ihe methane pro.:luced per kg of "'a,le is ,1.12 moles. Us"'g Ihe ideal gas la", al fl C (273 Kl, Ihere are 22.4 L gas per mole or 0.022~ m' of gas per mole of gas. n,e volumeof methane produced per kg waste is Ihen 4.32 mo""" CH, " 0.022,1 m 1 .- mole 0.0967 m' ""r kg

example/lO.5

(continued)

TIleprrolem ~Idl""Ihat 90 pe",e1ll of Ihe "",tI>ane wdsreawered; Iherefore, 0.lJl7 m 'mell~ne is prod<..o::ed per 19 W dsle. F"'m Tabl" 10.2, Ihe U,S, IMldfiliing rale in 2nJO wa-' 0.40 Mg (i:Ir 100 kgl per person per ~ear. Therefn"", the gas produClIrn, rale LS 0.0%8 m' jkg )( ,100 19/person-Yedr . 3S.7 m' melh.l.ne pe....ln-~"'r alOe TI,e production of landfill ga-' leads 10 pr.,..;ure in J"ndfill,. Thi' re.any simibnli"" to ground"'dler flo". Tocomrnllhe movement of gas, gdSimp"rmeabl" b.lrriers a", incorporah'd inl,~ Ihe design, and oUl.,id" Ih" landfill high-permeability S(lil~ are plaM, which di"",t ga, fio" inlo I""och"" E,en ill p.>51 drcur,,-,tanC5 " hen la"dfi 11 fl'" wd-,n't coll""lro for energy, il wa~ common 10 collecl a"d cnmbu"llhe ga, 10 nHnimize n"gall, e hnpdct, as"....,idled ",ilh landfill ga,. Full c-dplure "f landfill gds ""lu"",,,, i"-'tallitlg in,lde Ihe J"odfill "dSle, ga, ",eIL~, .. nd ga'-permeable laye..., along "'ith pumping d"d piping sy-,tem, (refer b.1Ck 10 Figu", 10. HI).!':e'" landfills can Iypically caplure more lhall 90 pe""'lll "flhe methane produced. Latldfill ga-' can Ihen pr
Land/ill Methane Outreach Program '~".f'jI""w .q>a -'l""1!>'r or

~ GreeolllllSC Gaslmooctl ofl alJ1fjPs Landfil;" prm;dea g,xKl e'ample "I tf.., challeng'" aod c",npte,ih"" of a"""',ing Ih" di"",I""",!l;",ge impac'!> "f an "",momic '" ""'ial activity. Tf..,re a", fi,'" path"'ay' bv which landfill, g"""r.,le g"",nhou.", ga""'. L lI.·te>lhane

(O'!,l atm'''pf>.,re.

pnKluchon

leaking

I"

Ihe

2. Storage "I bingenic carbo" fuund in wa,te mate";aI, ,uch "-, p.'per. hKl. and yard wa,te. 3. llirect ",""umplion "f ~",-,i1 fuel, ,,,.'" tr.e landfill', life ')'de th.l.t i""lude tf.., life .,t,1;"" "f """-'tructi"",nh"u_"'g,,-' emi....." un""·'" tf>.,landfill', life cycle from u,., life ,lag"" ,,/ """'tructi,,n, ''F'''ah,m, and ""d "f life (i.e., d,"""'l. 5. A ,-.,duct",,, in u'" "f/"s"iJ fuel, fur en"'g)' Mall.'" "f .,ub>htulion wilh landfill mtolhane ga'.

P.,thway' I, 3, and 4 I",Kllu a w",,,,,,,ing ,U'" g"-' imp;><±>. whi;" palhway' 2 and 5,-.,due., tf.., ",,,,all !>"",nhoru.'" g"-' impact. 'rf.., ntol effect i, tf>., ,urn "I the "''''!ribuli"" f",m "'teh "f 1m",., he p.>thwavs. TheT<.L It"", landfill, m" ha,'e an "''''all negali'e "r p' ..ili,,, imp'oct ,m !>"""'N,U.", g.~' emi"i",,-,. I'athway I ;" a .".,ru"" ",,,,,,,m boocau.", ",.m 11.", "f mcirum., rdt-..,,,.,,j hao- 25 ti""", tf.., ~"""""''''-''' ga' impact "f., Ion "fcdrh '" d io~ide( ",leTt"T"b;" 2 4 and <1i"""...., i, m ,ugh ""me "'ill ,till """'I"'. In addih, ... "'" micnx.-ganNns p"""'" in If.., ,,~I diTa-tly ab.,,·ea landfill can oxidv.e a fr.Kti<'" "f the n1<'lho,,,,, boof",e it ""cht" the atm<. ..phere. An ",timatoo "f p.>thway 1'eqoi"", an ",timale nf If.., ga.' a~lec· t"lr1 f.ctm. anda "')~ "'ibtinn/acI"r, n"theru/whicha'e welll""wn (I.e,';" and ll.lTu ... llJll 1.

10.3 Components olSdid·W.. te S\'SlI!ms

~ lcooljolledl I'all",-ay 2 appli'" to f'nJ, P;'!"", .od yard W""~,,,"j),. The.., m"'",,"\", if n(~ d;,.l",.,.,J of In" lanJfill {which i, ao..."-,,bid. "'
em",i"",,,j Co.,. Thi,d"." n,t apply lu pla>tic.,. which ..e mmp..""d "f mgan;" ",uborn, but aTe mo.,ider"J ""obi,');",""c ca,lx", Man,., they are m.nuiactul>'d

Imm (,,,,,il fuel. or. lole 1U.l5 (inbample 105}p"~'iJ"Jther",u1I,,,fa ""lcul"lim' '" he,e we detennirnoJ th., degr'todeJ ca,"',n ,,-,,-,,>cioJteJ with hxl. !"'p"'. and yanl ",a,n",."'" ",n,degc'd.,J bit 'K" nil: caTb.," i, Ihe carlxm t h" I;, rele,-, nI: tu this p;>th",ay b"mu,,", it L' whal i-s ""l"""t",ed in the

1.niliill (and Ihere'"ed'"",n"td""U "'lP"'" >.I'.. t h w" y 2 ''''lui"" .. n ""lima" of t he tot,,1 ,mnunt ,rf degradali<>n of tr..",., bi,,~enic carbon "'JUrce>o. Th" ,... ri", wilh w,,"/e comp<"ition ..., well a, bndfill d"'ign. 1Me ,-.Iue L' curren~y nol we1l1m",,'n, .nd it>. ",'im,'e i, d,,,,,ly tied t<, lhe ",tnnate "I a!l'" wllectim fact,,,, which furlher complicah" ",lim,'i"n. l'alhw.Y' J and 4 ha,-e l-n lound I" be negligible mmp.JfeJ I" Ihe olher p,,'nwaY' (Camobreco el a1.. 1'1'1'I). P.,'hw,y J i, e."ier to ",ti"",,,, Iwm an e,,,minali"n "I Ihe h,-,iI fuel u'"" in ,-enid""nd ,~he, direcl

e X am pI e I 10.6

""" Ih.t,-upp<.l1 Ihe '-""OlL' lile ",'g'" "I di.'I"",ing <01 w"-,t,,, in' I.ndfill. 1',,'hw,y 4 r"'lui"" the u'"" of life cvcle "'''''''menl meth,,,j,. which inlwduce a""umpli"n' in,n ",li""de "f indirect "",i"i",,.;, P,'nw,,,, 5 can 'mh- bemunted when lhe landfill g~ "pul to benefici,1 u".,. Though il i, ,-erv am,m"n 10 h""e" ben"'ci.,) "'"' "f l.ndfiD g~ "",oc;"ted wilh n"w I.ndfill" il i, not .1",,,)" lhee",,,- The MJefit Iml "ri"" al", ,-.ri", ,m Ihe fo,," "I energy Iml In., landfill!;''' ,uo"ttule, 1m. Fur "'","pie, if bndfiD meth,ne i, burned I" p'"d""" el"",'ricily .,nd lhal red"",," ,n., ~ for hydr"e1ectric p<'w"", tinle il any g,,,,,nhou,,",, g'" reducti'lIl r""u h,. 1101""""'-, if Ih" u,e"f th" I.JfrlfiD g.' Tedu"", lhe e"",-umpti"n "f e""ll", gen"r,,'i,m of e1ectricily or heat then" large ben"fil i., g.ined Th" ben"fillhu, ,.ri"" gr""ly by "'gion, ""untry, 'mol m-"r lim" (e.g., re",,,mbeT our di""",,-,i,m "I . a", ",,,eJ f", ""I.",' MIV-h "f en""gy pmlu=l fmm bi"g"nic c"rlxm (USOOE, 2W7). Thi' ,-"Iu" when cnmbined wilh. C"nvn"n ,-a"'e 1m co",-""im 01 g"' to electricity (27U m 'I holCH, I" I M IV of g~ ((~\'OI', 2Ul2> ),,,,,,,11>. in" ,.,-in!>, ,011" "fUlKHI m<'tric I"." CQ,e/m' 01, 8'" lL..eJ (r"",,,,,,ber ,h" I metric Ion _ 1,(0) kg).

Oetermining the OWlrall Greel1louse Gas Emissions from Landfilling Solid Waste

Use Ih" data and r~,uh" fmm Example 10.5 10 det"rmln~ Ihe ",-.,rall g,,,,,nhou.e g." eml",ion" from landfilling 1 ye.r's ",orth of ",,,,,Ie fo' one pe""''' (in Mg "f CO ,e), As,um" SO p'''''''''' of Ih" landfill g"s is coll""led and combu"tro fo' "ne'gy ."d 20 percenl of the unc<>l1""ti'd melhane is o,idi7,ed in Ihe son before il "captured fllr cOlnbu"I"n. We will al"" a,,~ume that ll.OO3 Mg of CO.,e can be off"" per n,-' of CH, COmbU$led for "nergy. In addnion, "''' w,ll neglect Ih" di"",t and indl""'l ""'i"io", 01 gr"""hou.e 8""'" frnn' Ihe con,umptinn 01 I"".il fu"l, during construelion, opo!,allon, ..nd d""ure ollh", I""dfill.

solution Our la.t a",,-umplion allow~ U$lo ignore u." contribullon fmm palhways 3 and ·llhal were di,,, ."",xi"too with landfillmg the p"rson's I year of "'lid wa.te. r'Or pathway 1 (th" di""" methane en",;sion impact), We mu,1 fi",1 d""~nnine Ihe melha,,,, rmduced by Ihe landEDoo w",t"of one person o'.."r 1 year. In Exampl~ 10.5, Ih" ""s fou'rllo be 38.7 m of CH, .t o c. n'is ""lu~ L" reduced becau,e we "-';su",,, th.t r.",t, 80 pe"",m of Ihe methane prnduced L~ oollffted,

example/l0.6

(continued)

and then of Ihe 20 percent n",t is not collected, 10 percen' of ,t is oxidized by miaoo'gani,n,s In Ihe ""erlying < (\ - 0.2) 6.19 m' CH, en"tled (20 percent or 155 m ' CH, ox;di"ed ,n Ihe
6_19 m 'CH, l.(l{l) Lm' >< (l mole CIi,'n.4 LC H.) x (1i'>gCH, I mole CH,) x (l Mg/lfl" g) < (25MgCOoe MgCH,1 0.11MgCQ,e For p.,thway 2, subtract Ihe l<>tal degraded l>iogenic carbon from the I<'ltal biogenic ca'bon '0 determine Ihe 'esldual, n"ndegraded biogenic carbon 'hal is ""lues,e,ed in the lJ.ndfill. The ,'alues we,e generaled in Table 10.15 (Example 10.5) for ead' of the th"'" bi"genic sources of carbon (Le., fCJ<)j, mL'ed pal""'", yard wastes). (l1.bgC - no gC) + (l17_lgC - 70.1 g C) + (-16,0 gC - 111.4 gC) l'lJ.l g ""i"e>ten;d carbon, kg of land filled wa,te This \"'alue of sequestered carbon can be con"erted to CO,., by mulliplying by 'he mass of was,e tha' IS l.lndfilled I"'r person per year, and then u,ing simple q"ichi"'me1ry t" convert from mass <'Ii carbon t" n",,,s of CO, ""I.ui\"·alenl'. Table 10.2 s,aled Ihal 0.-10 Mg of ",as,e b landfilled per pe"",n per year ;n Ihe Uniled States. TIli, equals ·100 kg of waste pe' person per yea,. IIJ.I g C ""'Iuestered/kg "aqe landfilled >< (-100 kg "a,le landfillt:d pe.......n-year) x \~ IgCD,e. 1 2gC) x (1 Mg Iff gl

O_12Mg are

For !M,h"a" 5, we Slart wi'h 'he total \"'olume of methane prrxluced, multiply i' by 'he collection effidenC} '0 provide Ihe \"alue f", 'he melhane used 1'0' energy and then apply a con,e..;on factor 10 obtain theCO.,e pe' ,'<>tumeof me'hane used for energy 3Il.7m'CH, produced x (0.8 m' CH, combustedl1.0 m'CH, produced) x 10.om Mg CD,ea"lida.:l ",' CH,oo",bus,ed)

0.093 Mg CQ,e

Note ho" pa'h",ay 1 has a negatIve g"",nh"u,e gas impact (it '''''ulls in prrxluction of me,hane), while pathways 2 and 5 are f"l"uile, because Ihey e,ther ''''lu""le, caroon in Ihe subsurface or u,ilize til;, generated ",ethan". TOlaling 'h""" "alues provide, the ne, m'e'all effec' in a per per"'''' pe' yea, basK -0.11 Mg COoe + 0 12 Mg CQ,e + 0_093Mg COol'

+OIOMg me

The r"""l"h,,""s lha' it i" I""'sible 'hat modern landfills can help to reduce merall g,eenhouse ga, iml""'l.... Remember, ,hough, that as""e dL"",,~ pre\'i"u,ly, 'hls l~ not 'he ca."" for all landfilLs III all selllngs.

10.3 C
10.16 Compo.iion of Young ond Old Londfdl Leodlotel ~,-

~.

Y"""II ~'o

~~"

000,

mg/l

<0,."

'00

~

mg/l

IHnl

m

mg/LoL' N

~

'00

Oni.c

nit~""

Alkall",t\"

mg/loL' c.:.co,

,,.,, •

eH I-L",l ""'"

mg/L .' c.:.co,

Chlonde

mg/L

''''' ~

~

,

m

m,

SO<.I'CL l~ ...._, 19'13

LANO'ILL LEACHATE "" matter ,.,hat mnlr.-'" are implen",nt'-"'.lIO mUl;mi7e Ihe mm'e"'e,,1 01 ",.ter inlo. l.ndfill, so",e .... ter will enler .nd produce leach.ale. Control of le.chate n,,,,,:I> 10 m,,-,ider the quantily dnd quality of Ihe leachale, "-' well ..., it. pOlential advers.:. effecl" ledch."e mn""nlralion, ",ill ,'ary dramatic.olly by loc.lion and the liFe of Ihe landfill (refer back 10 Figure 10.12). T.ble 10,1(, pro,' ides typic.1 mncenlralions For young .nd old leachales. Concenlratio"s of le.ch.,te mn,liluenl' are much higher lhan ,imilar con,liluenl, found In untreated mutlicip.1 ,.,..tew"ler. The inlon""lion provided in Figure 10.12 .nd T.bie 10.1 (, .1,0 ,hmn ho" the m"cenlr.Iion or the """,I,tue"t. decre.se; .... Ihe l.nd Ail 'g"" and the read,ly I&lch.bl" «'mponen!""" rel1\oved, In .dd ition 10 pollulio" p,.."entio" qraleg'es, Ihree nth"r slrategi"" are u..
L [;0101;",,_ W.. te i, Isol.led by limIting Ihe entr.nce of ",.Ier .nd Ihu, Ihe producti"n of leach. Ie. The w,,1e may be bound 10 ""ne

phy,ical or chemic.l malnx 10 reduce ils leaching potenli.L TI,i, laner oplio" i, n"..t ,u,t.,ble for highly h"..1rdous ",.sles (e.g.. "a,te that i, radioacllve) bul L. all, 'y' pari 0/ any o.'erall ,Iralegy 10 limit leachate impact.

.11,..".,1..",. TI,e ",tur.1

phY"c.i, chemica~ .nd microbiologic.l properties of soil Ir&ll Ihe leachale_ TI,e methcoJ .lso relies on Ihe d,lubon of lead..,te. ThL. oplion i. very su,t.,llIe for poorly resourced communities wnh ,m"l1 qudtuities 01 "o"h"".. rdous w.stes.

2. N"illrof

3. C""i rd!d Ilinn, dre mod,fied to opt;mi7e degrad.llion, Thi.. option lyplCdlly ;m "II''''' addUlg ",oi,lure al>d ""sunng sUIMble mixing, ensurn'g Ihal IOxic chen"cal, are kepi nul of Ihe ",...
~nd

i, mO>t ,u,l~ble for l~ndfill~" h"", ~d"~nced techni""l ~kills Me a, "ilable "nd 1\0nh~z~rd0u,w~sl"", a,.., di'I"-,,;ed. Thi, 'tr~legy ~cceler~l"", ~t.,bilizalion of the wa,te maleri~1 ~nd '" reduc"", the long-Ienn rcd, from leachille. Ludtale management requir"", a sero,,, of subsy,tems: (J) hydraulic !>drrieN 10 I"nit Ihe ~bililv d,e of the landfill to an eXle",al localion; ""d (3) a le"ch~te treatment ,y,tem. Figure 10.10 depict, Ih""" ,u\><;y,te,,,-,. Hydraul", !>drriers ~re cottqruded fmm comp.lcled d.,y. manufac~ lured geot"e",bra""",, or g"""ynlhetic ddy p".,du~"1s. A combin.uio" of Ih_ can be u"'-'ctor olum or more over ex"ting ,;oil<. Qualily conl".,1 of the i't'I~Il~lion of the barriers" critical 10 e't~uring good performance. Colleclion .,y,te"" rely on gr~vily t,) co',,"ey leach~le to a low poim, a ,ump. w,thin Ihe l~ndfill. Highly permeable, rounded gra,'el and perfor~led p'P'" are placed Ihe liner 10 "'t~Ure rapid m""emenl of le~chale and lhu~ reduce the likelihood th~1 pore pres~ures "'ill inc",,,,,e 10 the point where lead,alecan '''''pout of Ihe landfill orcau,", prilllem, of geoteclUlical ,t~bilily. From a 10\, poin~ leacllale is Iypically pumped oul to a ,Image l""a!Jon. Ilec'~use l~"dfillleach"te is ,imilar in many way~ to a high-,trength induslrial "~JlI flow. Other optiott, ~re 10 tr""t ;1 on-,ile ~,Id Ihen d c",harge il to land m \\'.uer. or el"" 10 pari]" Ireal,t on-"Ie before con,eyance 10 a cemralfac,lily. The choi"" depend., on Ihe nalu re of the leach.lte. Ihe env;ro,unenlal effeas of discharge of Ireated leachale at th~ I.,,,dfill, and the co>!s of cO""eying Ih~ lead,...le 10 a larger tre~tm~nl fadl,ty.

.,bo""

LANDFill DESIGN A, .,It",,,,

in Figu", 10.13, a l."ldfin is consirucli'd ." a """'" of d",l)' ~ells, where a d" y' ~ "a~te i, compacli'd and """ered. Wa~le i, deli,,~red allhe llmk,,,s!o,,' ...,d then com~",cled FIgwI/1 0. 13

l~ndfill

Con.,tNclion

fromD~ilyCdh~ndlilt.

Adailvcdl

of. ."lid w.,sle "c~,·""e.! "ith d."J)· ",;1; .>
m.,l", a 11ft.

.

,. ....

'

.... ... .

,,', .. :... ~.-"., ,.:---:.. \... \... \. -... , ,. ,... , " .' .' .'.

--.-.--

.:.'.~".~.DoilI',...

•

c,

again" theedge or 1110 ""dfiO or pre,.",,,, Jail} celL A horiz""ldllayer 01 dd,ly cdb is callf."d a lift. The number of hll' will dep':"'d "n the topography of Ihe site and the d""ired working hie of the landfilL The two pnndpal design t} pes are area alld valley. A n area landfi II ''''lui"" a 'dat" ely n.ll a"''' ar\d allen,!-", 10 fi Ias much ",ash! into IMl A 'pace as IXlssible (mMIll/; ,-ertically upward). n,l~ """",,, 10 be """ompH,he&! pyramId a, depicted ill Figure 10.14. Usn'll the dime,~,"",. pro"ided m Figure Ifl.l·l and le~ing 'he slope, G, be 'he length d"idal by the h"'gllllfl.5 x L, - L, ih],the wlumeof forth< this pyramid is g,,'en a, folk"'s'

:.' '-~1"-"-""-'-'-' ._._, /' S8cboo A-A

"

Ceo"",'r;c De.ig~ A",~ l~~dfill The 'op figure (a) is a phn '-;0\',.1>.:1 ,'''' bolt"'" figun,(b) " ,
RgUfll0.14

v

, (

3'

L,xW,-IL,-2Gh)IW J -2Ghl (10.B)

T

,L,

IV,

(L,

2GI,)(\\',

2G/11}

Note 'ha' 'he volume determmed in Equat,on lfl.R is 'he n\.lxunum amru n, of compact&.! solid waste 'hat could be contained in the landfill, a-suming ,1"'1 no ,olu",e is "'ken up by daily or fin.•l cover ".-,,1. The soil located under this 'ype of landfill can be u-ed I", """ering COtnpadoU MUse nr fm other purp<-""";. 11 is ,hu, connnon toexca,'ate so~ under an area landm before mmotruc1ion. Equation 10.1\ can also be adapted 'oe,tim"'e the volu n", of compac'ed "a>le placed behw grade. To determine the "olume .,,·ailable from a v.lley fill landfill d"';igu, compare 'he topographk cnnt,~u", 01 a s"e before filling .,nd es,ima,ed conlours after filling (Figure 10.131. To maximi7e 'he ",aste placed pe' unit surlace area, 'he fill needs to increase al "\.lxi,,,um slope from the 1m, poinl 01 the ,·"lIey until i' reaches its final height. M,Jdern compUler-aidN d""ign ""Ih' are can qukkly a'i.'*'S.~ ""Iumes of ,alley fill" Typical densitie, for compacted ""lid "a,;le va,,' from 700 to l,fOJ kgl m '. Pre, iously, Table lfl.A prm ided 1m" the densi'y 01 ""lid ",a,l" inerea,.,.., as 'he "'a,te i, mUffled, ,ran,pm,ed, an.d 'he" l..ndfilled. The denSltv is 9fi-17R kgl m ' for I"""" refuse a"d increa.;e; II) 475-m kgl m ' ",hen fi",t placed ,n the I.",dfill. n'es dens,'y inc,..,a"" I urlher "'dh p""",ure from lifts 01 was", abm·e. The d",,,,,ty as>wnoo in design "'ill "al)' ". ith the compOSition of the ",asle (e.g., CO'>s"ud;on and demoliti"n "'."t" is denser) and 'he dep,h 01 ",aste (g,ea,erdep,l~s lead to g,e.• te, p"""ure and ,hu, grea,er denSl'y), In addi'ion '0 cnmpact&l ",as,e, Ihe landfill "olume "'ill often include ,ub.'amial am",,,,b of daily soil eo""r. Thes ""'i is usuaHy obtai'.,.,] from the la"d fill site. A 'ypic:al,hick"",s, T, of da,ly soil en'..er is 200 m",. n,e daily cell is desigtled ba
., ,

.,

...-----~-----... .... ZllO

,

.~

' ••, - - - - - - ' ' ' ' ' ' '_ _'·_'0''"-

............ -_

'...... __

''''~ .. 249

no

---- ----

....,

FIg .... /1 0. 15

Top0II"phi,Conl<>urs lJ.cd 10 Determine A nllable Volum< for lYu'" ~bt"ri.1 in, \'.ney FiIll.ndroli D".ill" TIle top figure (a) sho".. the 1"P''STaphlC contours n.e bottom ngme (h) ,!l< upper figure. jr.a.,,",..;
u..pan;o,

"""v-I SolO! W_ ~ . 1993, «<'l"'ll'" Tho""""....1;1

romp.,cted refu,,", {V,l a, follows (Mil\..". 19'.l7):

v. V,

110.9)

TI,,, height of a daily cell (II) usually d"P"nds on ,it" m"IIdgemenl facto.... and can, at} f",,,, 2 to 5 m. G L'" the grade ralio of length to heighl .. nd "unitless. The dail) ,'olume of compaclM rdu"",, V" i, S",'",,' by II ~ L ~ IV. TI,e ""o,,,"'g ra,... ,ddth "'ill depend "n the number "I vehIcles the "te can accommodate at allY ""e lime under ,afe mndilion,.

",orking fdee ",idlh can [,., teSlim.llro bv djme,~,i()nal an.lly,;,. For e"ample, Ihe ",,,,king Id~e width can be determined, d,,-,uming a dd,ly d i""am ralo> of I,mo Mg/day (e,,'Mb 1,()J() tOlU'''''/ ddy) (and nOhng Ihe dssumptio,~~ relatro 10 lru~k ,i7.e and operalion of th" Id,>dfilllllmrpo,aled in Equdl;"n 10.10) a" f.... I1...."''': Th~

l_000,oJU,"" llrud IJ"y 6m x x . x-day IIloltrle.~ 6h,'pe,al.,n Iruck x

O. I1>7h UJ~O
21 m

nO.10)

This vdl "" ....121 m imp~'" lh.ll3.5 lrud
example/IO.7

Sizing a Landfill

A l"ndfil1and a<;S(lCiated ,truclures Me 10 be bu'Il ...." ndl ground. The dimensions for Ihe I.. ndfill port;"n dre I,OCO m by I,OCO m. The rnaxnnum he,ghl allo",ed (h) is 9 m aboveground (excluding final em·e.). n,e Idndfil1 ",ill be 0l"'n (, d"y" a "eek and aaept 1,000 Mg (equal, I,OCO I....nnes/ddyl of "a~le per day of ol"',ation. How many yeaN can Ihe fadlity "I"',ate? Other a"-~umplio,,,are a, follows; thkkn""" 01 daily soil cover (T) 0.2 m; refu"",, height ,n Jaily ",II [J I) 1 m; mmp.ldro del"ily 1.000 19lm'; working face ,. idth [IV) 24 m;and ,It"Ipe[G) 3.

solution n,e lotallandfill ,-olume l~ obtained from Equal;"n 10.11: V

9;; x {1.ll00 m x 1.orn m -.-II.OOOm _ 2(3)(9 m))(I.000m - 2j3)(9mlli

+ /l.OOO m x

LOOOm x Lornm

V

1",

2(3)[9 ml(1.000 m

2(3)(9 m))}

x{-u1' "," -t-1'l94.916m'j_ 9-\(',000 m"}

11.5227 x 10' ",' The 100ai \'olume of a daily cell c",~~i"b ()f Ihe volume occupied by romJ'ilcled relu,", (V,l and ddily co, er ""il (V,). lJ,ing Ihls kno"'ledge and Equalion 10.9, the "olun,e nl the daily cell can be Jetermined as foUnws:

V""""" V,+ V, Sol ..e Equal;"" 10.9 for V, and sub!;lilUle it '"ID the p,",,"iou~eqUdtion:

V";w<
;•

Chapter 10 SoIid·Waste M;r,,,,,,,,,,ent

example/l O. 7

(continued)

V, If"W

501'''''g lor V... J ,. ,""

"c""'",cMc',c,,:!ay>< 1.000 I
1.000Mg l.000kg l.OffiI<2·lm

l,om I
{(,

+_0,_'_",) +

(

3m

13.9m

1 ~ 3", 0.2m) + (1_ 3x 0.2m)) 13.9 III

2,1 m

1.J.lilm'/d~)

Find

Ih~ ,olu",~ of ~\llh~ dally ~~lb

V...... """

per year, a"U1lli"8 6 d~y.' operalion per 7--day I.1-I0m) day,,365da y ,x y~ar

"""I<:

6day, 7-
136.7oom' 'h Mllally, d~t~rmll\e Ihe number of y""N of capacity in t"~ 100ai yea",

R5227 " H1' ",' 3511.700 m\ /y~ar

"otum~

of th~ 1,l1ldfill:

2,1 yea",

Re.d~", may ",~nllO

resolve thi, problem ~"umingIh~1 Ihe dl'f""-,l rale dec...."'" m'er I;n,~, m thai Ih~ populallon lI",rea..,.; and Ih~ wa.t~ di>£ard ral~ N'll'<"'~< Ih~ sam~.

A l.ndfill r~qui"" careful m.".,&*,,mell! O\'~r II, lifetIme. The d""""'I""',lioll of ",~,te alld the incre~"" in pres,ur~ from w~,t~ ddded in higher hit> will CdUse Ihe wa.t~ to ",ttl~. Thi, ,,,,,,,,,,,,Iales th~ r~pair of rO.ld" ga, coll""tioll. and ",~t~r drain~g~ 'Y'I~"". Surf~c~ "'~I~r can be ~a"ly co"t.,,,,i"~led if It colll~cl, Ih~ ",a,t~: thu., careful ""par.,tioll of r~i""'aler and ",a,t", i, needed. Landfill, r.equire h~a"y maci,,"ery ~"od~led with ~~rlh ",orb and "~'te mmp.1ction after the ",~,t~ i, pl.lee..:! 0" the working face. Rood. Oil a la"dfiU r"'lui", ca",luI ma",.g~me"t. 'lOt ol1ly becau'ie of the u'" of hea"y "~hid",,, bUI al", because of "f!ltlem~ll! of \\'a.~k A detaIled a"d rigorou, 'y,lem for protection of sal~ty a"d health of worl be good n~ighbo" !<) the ,urrounding communily. n,erefor~, \ igila"l m~a,u,es ar~ reqUIred 10 ,educ~ impact' from noi"" odor, bird" du,t. and llller. Good ma"~g~m~nt i. d""ely tied to good mo"]loring. En"irollmenldl protect]o" .,nd occup.1tional ""fety ''''lui'~ mOllllnri"g of g'''. lea~hate, groundwaler, d"d ~urfare \\'al~r. I" addItion, landfill ma,,ag~rs \\'111 monitor the" a,te Ihat ~rri\'"" to e,,,ur~ that i"appropriate mdleridl~ ar~ not dep'-"';lteJ ~"d to p,()"id~ data on the r~te of arri"al of wa,te. Wa,te de'b,ty " dl ... oft~" monilored to alln" for pl~""i"g the landfill', life. Londfill, "ill typically charge for "'a,le 0" II", ba.~i, nf Ih~ Old'" N'Ceh'ed. TI,e charge must be )ugh enough 10 p.1y for larg~

LANDFill MANAGENIENT

co,'-~truction c,",l~

and dbo prm' ide for ongo,ng mO'''loring and malnl"na,IC'" dfter the !.lndfill hds ffilllpl<'led 'I, u",fullife.

10.3.6 SOU[).WASTE ENERGVTECHNOLOGIES Because of an i"crea~i"g illl"rtSl in obldining en"'"8.1 from wdS!e. a number of dlle"",t'l'e energy lechnologies are undergoing de~ek>p ment. An3eroblc digestion l~ d biologicdl process of co,,,,erllllg ""pdrdled Wooegrad.,ble ""'iJ "'.lSles Inlo metl""", gas and d solid rtSidue Ihal l~ ,u,Iable for tumlng into romp<>sl TI,e process ",m"-, lery ,imildrly to th""", Ihat proJuce landfill g"'~, 1lIe d,fference i, U",I In an a,,,,,,,obic dig""ter (discu~ in Chapter 9), the .......s 1'" a", ml,ed u' ., large .'.".,,;eI, and opum.ll degradatlor, condilions dre "'tIller dlle"",tll'es dl'dildble, such ...~ Id,ldfill or incinerdl''''', mllq be "-'pe,,,ll'e. Cd,l/icallon l< d proc"",. ,imiidr I,~ IIId"erdlion, where 1"" Il",,, ,1.)Ichiomelnc am"""ls of oxygen a", applied 10 Ihe waste in Ihe ,,,,,chon, ",,,,,i. The high lemperalu",", Ihal rtSull from parlidl rombu~ tionledd 10 Ihe pr.->ductJon of high-energy 8"""", \\ hid, ,n lurn Cd" be converted ;nto po"er, u
TheCollege and University Recycling Council (CURC) organizesand supports environmental program leaders at institutions of higher education in managing resource, recycling, and waste issues "'"up:1iWNW ,0 r<;.~ ,C'r¥

Flg .... /l0.16

10.4 Management Concepts Successfui ",Iid-,,'...q e manage",enl requires a "y,lems approach. Ralher U,an altempllo alldl, ze whether ind ividual 'y"'''''' components .,e betler or not, "",iety need, 10 e,·aiuale. in a hnlL
---

Enmploof.Sy.I"",.

App",,",ch 10 Solid·W... lc M.n~gomcnl Kolc the m.:Iny tcchnol<>g'co on.! ",... te ,;.Il'ffims lhal OTC inl.'gT~tcd In thL' ~prr""ch.

E.."",

_

~ HouSehOld MBoaremeni aryl Sg"a;c AM"dinD W,,-,t~ m;mag~ment

!"~icie> and

lechniqu"" ,uel1

liun "n the incenli",,,, "nd barrie", 1<> r=ycling pmgr"m, can be f,,,,nd 'II Tn"",hin.Vand Mihe1cic, :nH,j 1"" l7""t""t !,,>lential for initiating ",,-,Ie reducti"n ,t",teg;"" ,nJ di"er!ing ",,,,Ie fmm" I,,,,dli ~ in thi, ,""ling

as mffip'"ling. ""-yc1inl;. and """,,:e rI".luctiu" in the ,,,,juclo,,, "r lr.,

,,,,wi

'lucmtilv of ",a,le bnunJ I", d"I'"",,1 "p~"''' ""m ", landfilhrt;. Three ",a,le noJucti"'&,tio", fuJU.'<'hold ""uGltion, em";mn"",,,tal am-

w'" thu, within the h",..""ulJ, ,peeilically by cUlTUIlunity-b",,,j ",a'-le reduction initiati",", lhal build up"" ,,1r...,d y ex>.t i ng pradic,", and imp R",e l"c.,j .... ~id-wiL'
Cern. .",d kno"'eJge--wh"",." Ihe oo"';"""",i, t...:l p1"imni Iv. t the""l;, m...1 OT regional 1".-.,]" namdy gm'C"mment

[",mpo, ,i ~ .. rr£

CONSUlTAllON

Public conc"rn about 50lid waste i. high, a, il " lor ",allY olher engi""",ring activ,li"". A, a r,.,;u1l, enginee... l<-.:Ia1 must discu,s pmfl"l""'d pmjects and progran,s "',Ih Ihe various .takeholders 11"'1 make up Ihe public-an effort Ihat ,,,dud,.,; lislelling to Ihe public' ~ COl,een" and ide~. A 1i"'1 ;;lep in a of c""'ilJllalion b Ihe iu.,"lili", bOl' of st.,hhold.", who have a direcl or indirecl inter,.,;1 ill Ihe project. Stakeholde", can be "eighbo..., the local mn"nu,,,ty, Ihe widt'r mmmw,ily, ne".. meelia, ela.:led "rr",iab,e,,,,i r.-.-Ilnenlal a "d ,ooal inter"'t group". and m1lural groups.

1""""'"

f

ox'""' ,t tho· p.nt ,. on l..o,'."", l"""a ,. b""",,>llbo> 'dn' , .... "I-"'d,,,·,,

rho"', "·.,,m (ri~l,

",\~"."'-

(C""""'yolJo"',~ M;o.!
an "".u"ple of h"", municiIMI >olid-",,,-,Ie "''''liIg'''''''''l Call "wolve d complex nux of ledHlologies appropriate 10 Ihe types of ", ..,Ie. Arri,ing .,1 a 'y,le", like the ,,"" ,hown in Figure 10.ll> '''''Iuir"" focu, on lh~o,,,,,an nb1"'ti vi1~y 01 trealing Ihe waste along will, waSl"",aterde.. veel "olid, beeom,.,; an oplion tllat did not exisl bel",e. Seraralloll of wa.le Iyp"" by ",a,le genera to.... kno"," a, "".. r~e separation, i, a key part of a good ,yslet'\. If a communil) i, abl" a"d "illing 10 separate ""lid-\\a5Ie component" tI"" abilily to creale "alue from til<' "a5l'" i,,,,,,,a_, Ii, alllatl<)11 of tho, ""onomic,; of ""u,", .....paralio" should ""'bider Ihe a,'oide..:! di5!""",1 cosl 01 separal
10.4.1

Ii""""",. (M",e infurma-

"

Class Discussion .I) Wt-~"tYP""Im<~r r~'d """",~redccuoncae d 00

,,.,. p'",'~r"'J ," ~aer "",", ~"L""hoId? How W
pI.1 n wtt.h a II m0 m~~"" of 'i"L'

Mc"",or ~part-n"o"~?

10.17 Consullation Method. ond Thet Potentiol to AUlt in a higher ",,
,,""""'"" -

-

"'-

~w

~"'

lnfonn.>tion ,-de"-",,,

High

-'. -.-

Held ''';p
11.1000<."0

M..-..:I""re Moderdt" Mod",a'e M..-..:Ierate M..-..:IL'role Maderato

Low

lof""",,tio" , ...,,,hfcful,,,i.. ,,,

M..-..:Ie,.,I"

M..-..:I",.1c Mod",ato Mode,,1c

Cont.>clp,,,';
L,W

H'gh

,-,

Mod",a'o

High

WOlIe,bop;

Mooerolc

High

lid,",,,,')' "",uni""",

L,,,'

\loJ.,ooo

~w

,"-

Consullaboo

,~

-~

~,.

~w

~

"""""""

"'"-'"

Mooe,.,le

Con""t

~-

Moderate

Mooo[,le

,·""l'

Publi<:

"",,-~ing'

~w

~"

~w

M"de,.I"

L,W

~w

~"

~w

M..-..:I",.1c

MooL'ul"

~,

~w

~w

~w

High

Mode,ale Mod",ate Moo",.to Mod",a'"

M,>.:Ie,.'e

Mooo",1c High

High

High

High

High

High

MOOL'f".1c ModCT'1c

~w

High

H,~h

MooCT.llc

Hlgh

EPA'sWAste Reduction Model (WARM) Tracks Greenhouse Gas Emissions Reductions from Different Waste Management Practices i'
"'l'" -9""1 cI ",a",c>1ar ¥! t
,-

T.•ble 1O.l7 ~umn ...rizes re.""" to """ult ,,·ilh ,takeholder< all,j ide"tifi", metho.:!> !Ildt h.w" g,,,.'er po,,,mi.1 '0 ma,ch ,ho< d",ired oulcom". In gen"r .1, Cil,~,ulwtion "'£"Iho,b th", i,,,"ol,,,, g'Nter c""t and long'" Um" pe,iod, ,,,nd 10 result in bclte, outcomes. To ];", "ffecti"". Cil,~,ul,ation mu,t begm "arly. ];", prm ,ded ",Ih ad"'lu",,, ,,,,,,,,ras, ];", openand ,in~.....",.nd i" "ol"e good li""ning. In g"n"ral, giv,ng up a deg"'" of powe, 10 ""k"holde....."d allm,jng mooifi~ati",,,, tn th" pro;ec' \\",11 ,esult I" ,h" gre"lest cha""" of public ""'''ptal>C''. C01~,ult.ho" i, the,,,f,,..,, a critic,,1 part of ""'''''gmg all) ""gi"",,ring project.

Warm_~Qfl"". h.o1l

10.4.2

POLICY OPTIONS

Tabl" 1fl.18 p''''·ides "n o\·"r..-ie" rn ,he policy oplio", 10 m""t ,'b;ecli"es for soIid-w"'t" ",a''''g"m""t. r ~ policy d",·"lopm",,' ''''Iu ires """""m""t, of """l_ .nd ];",n"fil', a focus OIl obJ'-"ti"L'S, ""d " COl~_id_ ",,,,io,, of ri,"-' ulUnt"nded effecl, (Au,I,alia" P,od"c!lYit) Com",i"i"", lfOIil.

"".1

10.4.3 COSTEsTIMATION Soci"lly "c~"pt.,bl" ".""" ma"ag,,"'''''t /deihlies can ];", "'I""~',,·e, "nd "'IuJl"bl" romp",,,,i,,,,, ];",t",,,,,,, cos" a"d social ];",n"fil' "''' "eeded. An underlying cau,," of d iHkulty i, th" economy of "",le or

10.18 Policy Option. for Meeting Objedi"",. for Solid-Waste Manogement

,-...

PolIcy Opl"",

llMcripOOn

!'l.lbllc

Inlonn th~ public of p.d.......<'o.l beh.",o",

hch,mg""of commerci.ll w,,-
...."..., toea-...

m-.IoAooid

Inlorm"tion", in indi,idUdj'< bo....., inle.""l a. well '" helpful 10 w ""''''''ge"...,., ,.

Ch..m gmg beh.l,;". inlormation

""t<,

ErnL>behnS

]nkmn lh~ publIc who:h ron'llJn<'r S".;-od, am l~ fewer w"-,,l~ prrbIom...

R""""bIe bd<'\l detergenl,

Con·• .m",.... 1.>cl inlonnalion on imp.>
Difl""-"",,,Irlw... ,n opboo.. ,,.,, 'm.:IlI 0' diffirull '0 """"<.

l'I'a.le 'a'glt.

Cm..".nmrnlor indu-;tn' group< ",llulur~ gOo1"'.

50"< incr"""" m p"p"r .""yeli,,/;

Society ag"",",,,n

dir<'Clion boJll.lcl<.<" locu<

Targe' do". no! con,ider cO
Ell '-I mnr""nl.ll di"..... not ,dlccled by c""l...

G.anl. awarded for ""thili", lh.J, would h.JPI"'" in ..ny c"-,,,-

bv2fl20

".".t<'

C""',,",""-'0 I,u rr"'l< ",c'\"ell"/; or wa!
Cronl.lo communlly

t;..,.p,,-'

Pmdu",,,, of w"-,,k, ,alhe. 'h.ln I"" 8mwnmenl pay the lull cos, of ""'''''gemcoL

Weighl-ool ""lid w,,'"

C,,,l 01 c""'ging ,,-..r.em i-"'m.:IlL

L'",,,, aw>id ch.lrs"" bj-- i1"-,,&,1 f"'"-elie",,.

Enbro.'mm!

\'lnI"k,r< 01 rub p"'-" fin,,-

Tid~t<

lor h'knng

Beh.Jdo.;'; el""ly n"&lll''''. and 1",,"01.>101'< ~,,,l.

Man,- ,"'>I.,I1"""od

o.'P"'il-'efuod I",beve,age coo~""" ... "nd ooll""",,

High 0"8"n,,, coo "-'<]"'-'2lC'e< of improper",...'" m.:I""'gomenl.

Largecn<"'lo operale .)-..r.em_ "nd Ie", ooci.>l aod eo,';",no",nla] benefi,..

L"" dll I I..n

T"-"o
La'l\e cc><'" 10 01"","0 ,""em or "od""""l>lo ",de df"""'-

GO.....' rnrnenl ,ubsid"",

o"l"'"'il-

~"' Wa,;t~L1"""

C"o.'umer;
Go""mmc'Ol I"'P""'" la~ 00 wa,lI,.

recvcllngeflor~,

c",

""1'

meh c"u""" 'm.:I]llmp.>
""""ilies. Pro.:l",,~,

'''''P''''-

=-ponsibillly

Pro.:l ""ef' ck good. "I ""d..,lU!Ie life '~'ge.

Compulo, ,eturn <"
Co
II.>nnfso"d. aod p,,,
C..,,-ernmeo' prohibil. g,,,d. or pT.>c!l"--...

B.m nl
Goods/p'.>cb"---" h.." " hIgh pnI""I~,1 lor h"rrn, ,lOd oilier pob"" opllon, ,'"0 ton ,-,,,,,lh·.

Larg~ cc>
"-"'p""S1billlv colk'Chnn_ ""'ged with ",lio, P'~I0""

1 0.4 Management C!n:""ts

...

Class Diswssion

... .l

... So.,..

Ir.J",,"""~

Ir·"'",d

,n ...,LH,,_t<:

... .,.an"'t''''''''' n

100. "'l

l<> h", ",.or ~",.m~ ~u ,.,.i!I~ .""",,"",
m"'l ",a~l~ management fa"ilities, which III ean, thaI a f~cilily I" i"e ~, large does ""I "'''I Iwi"e a, much. For example, the OM!; of a landfill per t",,"e (Mgl O,er a year in Ihe Europedn Uni"" (in 20tH eur",) had the f"lk""ing form (T,ilemou ",d Panagiot.lkol-"'uk.., 2001»;

"""" ...Q!iJ "" ... orohyal "" tic""" pro;~ "" Mr.l.

I

"'*". a,d <"""".....""'01" proJ«t
5.0-111' X-

I"tallalldfill """I

nl

I

00.11)

ooM-w..~t<-to-.r<"lY

I.~I!; cI_fll. ,u"l.\' ",,",t;<. b,l""", """' I~ .n d>r= '1'f"'¥,ion "" the rono",," ~'u.rn 'IIa<;,.e, ...t-d at"".,.p'" ta oIi,.,i" ", ..... ~"'. not da ily, 1. au r< r ·al>!. r«lO<. roo ~ a r< 'JOu r t~<>Uqh""? Sl. 0l.1 d ¥"" rr.,. ,nt p'OO>i~'"""
So.,.,

... "-l",~",,,,,,IIJ"...a~t<:

i,..jc~""'~

""'~.,. -'!ctmmp"'''' ~a not. Mrd. ""'ar.ar.Jcon""""'~,,"pr,*:"'-'"

""3d .,.-
for ,ituali"ns where X wa, betw""" !ill,flOO and 1,500,flOO Mg/jNr. From Eqlldli,," 10.11. Ihe lotalldndfill c,-",I l-"'r ).,·Ig of di"",rdoo solid w~"te for liO,flOO Mg per year c~" be 51imaloo ~t If\li euros/ Mg. Fm 10 tim", the ~nlOll"l of ,.,lid was!~ di",ardt>d (liOO.flOO Mg per year), Ihe c,-",t d"..",ao;.es to 9) """-,,,/Mg. Ec<1"o"'y of """Ie m~a,c" Ihdt larger landfills, i"c,nerator,;, "nd cmn!-""'t pld"ls ar~ eoo""micdlly fa,,"""". H""·en·,,. Ihey a", ",me hkdy 10 face public opl-""',liml.Of rou ""', ,ustd i"dbl~de\'elopm~"1hd' ,he""lI thdt loc
h'.~p"J"""". ""'""'"" .. b.oro/ "".,"',~ ""<>J"""",,a ot<: Ig_a'ld

Key Terms a"""wbic Jigt-",Ij,m

in-, ·",,,,,1

"'''' LmJfili •

eafb"n-~>-nit,os"n

(CM ,ab"

~"

mll""tinn "nmp'"ting mn.,lrueti"n .md

final •

Cun"",,"atiun and ~"''''Y Act (ReRA)

• ",u""

""lum~

",lid

•

I"'Kh.t~ man.a~"",~nl d~m...ljli,m

m,'~r

~""'gy """"'~ry ~n~'gy

Iandrill landfill

techn... ~>g:y

OO"~f

lif! lin", ma!t
",a,,'~,y

facility

ma ... gt'm~nl

""P",atiun

'tur.1g~

(MR~)

!ran.,f", ,tati,,,,-, lra"'I"'rt \'alley fill landfill

mui,tu,~ amt~nt

municipal ",lid wa,~ (lI.lSWl p',lIuh,m pf~"~nl~)n p',lIubun p",,'~nhon hi~,,,,chy pr,>c",-"n~

put,,,,,,,ibl~

g~nt_.,.,ti,m .,I~

"",)'din~

Chapter 10 SoIid·Waste M..,,,,,,,,,,ent

,.,jid-w",l~

,tak~huld""

"",Ih.. ""

,-"ductiun

w,,-,t~

"""e~

g",ificati"n gr""nhnu,,", g'" ~mi,-,i"n.' • h.u.ilrd"m w,,-,t~

fu.,J (I1.l)FI

R""''''Te~

1~.Khat~

d~bri,

d"ilv "ril di.'p'"",1 dump>

• ",Iu".,.d",in,d

• jnci""rati,m

w,,-,t~

• •

""d,t~

den'ity

wa,t~ g~n~r.Ih"n

wa, too- lo..""""gy • windn,,,

chapter/Ten Problems with a population of l50jOJha~ a ~,.,jid-w,,-,te &",eratio" rale of 1.5 kg ""lid w,,- m""'" u p 15 per",nt of Ihe h"llal w"-~Ie gen,eralN (by weighll and y"rd ",,-,te j, ban,,,,,,:! by the ,utelrom being di'I-~-.....J of in a landfill; Ihere~"e. Ihecon~1\W\jly ha,,"" up" pre,;ram tocoll«:t and composl yard "asle. As.~ume lhe den"ly of Ihe I""", ,olid ,,-,,-,Ie l, 140 kg!m -, allhe cu rb i, compacIN 10340 kglm' ill Ihe lruck thai collecl' Ihe waqe allhe Imme, and is 220 kg!m' after Ihe m.lIeriall, rem", eJ from Ihe compacler Iruck al Ihe landfill. (a) Is Ihis geller.lIton rale above or bt,lm, !I,e cu"",,nt ,alue for" US......idenlial community? (h) 1'1'11.11 " Ihe ,'olume of "aste thai is dL.-.cardeJ e"ery day bj m.. community al Ihesou,""" (m ') ?(c) Whal isll", ,-o!"meof w~te lhal wUl removed from Ihe comp.>cter lrock al U", landfill (m 'I?

10.1

A

comn~n,'Y

10.2 A new ,olid-waste land fIll "Ie i, W ngdesig'-..d " ~ h a pn'I'L"ted I ~e of 1nyet IS. The landfin " ill " .....,a population of250.fffi Ihat ge"erate. I kg ,,~id w,,-,tel day-per<.on. A"ume thai yard waste mal.."" up 15 percent of Ihe 10!.ll wa>le (by weighl), paper lIlakes up In per"",\! of II... 101.'11 w~te (by ",eighl). and m""a1~ make up 10 peree", of Ihe "a"le (by weight). The mw,icip,htv b.lI .. thepiac..""," of y.,,'d ,,-aste in Id'ufill alld hasa r""YcUng prrgr.l1" Ihal coDedsnn...ha Unl alldiscardedmelal'.Whatisthe"olum""fw,,-,tethati, dis£arded by Ihe communily Hery ~ay (a",ume a "asle den.ity at the curb 01140 kg!m ). 10.3 Design and safely perfon1\ a ",a,te characteri7.3tio1\ 011 the ",lid waste at YOlJr residence and al an office at your un"-e,,,ily or colleg~_ (al Ho" do"" your waste char.lderizatic., co"'pa", will, the ..laid In Figu,"" 1O.2? (b) Which 01 n", fnllowmg polluI,on prevemion ~lralegi"" {,,'uree red uCllon, reu".., recycle) "ould yflU implemenl 10 reduce Ihe discard rate?

lOA Id ..,tify one .nurce of solid wa..'" nn your campus thai could readily be reduced, one
10.6 U""g Ihe \" alues p"..... ided in EX.l1"p1e 102, estimale Ihe 10" mnislure ronlent and Iypical mnislure cOlllentror Ihe w,,-"e "-~ a wh"le 10.7 Wasle composilion has been ",ea,ured for Iwo Cili"", The resu 11" a,"" ,un"narized in Tabl.. 10_ 19.

10.19 Dala fa.P.... blem 10.7

'" . ""••• 2_0

l\'cr."",iglllgt'n<·mtion ,M,· I kg! p<-.,..,.",-..l. y) IV, t·"... ;glll composition ('{ I ,~

"

e.,.,.

"

'" " "

"' "''"

, ,•

~

w

y,~

~~

Moi.tu.. cont",t of fraction. (~ on w
Pap'''

Y,ro

;

~~

~

~

(a 1Which city generales more p.ape' on a dry-weight ba.i,? (bl Find Ihe percent moi,tu,"" {wet-weight ba.i,) fm Cily f. (c) A nearby di"p,.,,;al .ile """,i,·"" all of il" MSW from cities 1 and 2. The average n,oi,ture rontenl for MSW disposed of al th..
10.8 Whal i, thedry-w"'ghl percelll compo.. tion fm Ihe following combined "aste?

Compon....1 % Com»,.,'on

e.,.,.

~

YaTd/ff"<\d

~

Orhe,

~

% Moisture rNl'!WegM

,

,"'

p.'per is n per£elU ""roon. ~ perren! hydrogt'It, ,II percelu '''ygen. .",d 7 pe,,:e,,' other. ESlim.,te Ihe lilers of ~ir required to bun, 1 kg dry p~per. A""ume ""roon dioxide ~nd water are Ihe onl}' products 01 mmbu,lion of ""roon, hydmgen,and oxyge,,- As
10.9 The m,,-'O; mmf"l'ili", of

10.10

dr~

E"im~'e

the oxygen dema nd lor mmpo'il to NH~", dur"'g mml""'ling. TI,e fiMl eN r~lio i, 9,,13. The fin~l mol""ular comfl"">ition is C \,H, ,O\N. W ."Ie of lhe c",nl-x-,..;j~,", slx,wn in Ihe following lable is dbl-""ed of ~I a rale 0' 100,000 Mg/year Inr 2 yea", in one ""c~on of ~ i,,,,dfill. A",u,,,e Iha I half {'II Ihe ",...s t" lS d"f""""I of al lime 0.5 year" ,md half al a lime 1.5 years. Assume Ih~1 ga, produclio" 10110"', Ihe firsl-{'lrder rel~lio",hip u'£'
10.11

'""i.oi ~l.I .. 'MgI HUO!

H.It_lifo'!'",,"

'"

"'-'.Ill! 10.12 Assume allihe ,,·...s te in o"e "'<:lion of a l~nd fill wa" added al Ihe same lime. After 5 ye~rs. Ihe gas produclion rale reached i" peak. After 23 years (20 v"'''' after Ihe p",k). Ihe produdio" rale h.l<:l d""reased 10 10 percent of Ihe peak rale. A"sume fiN-nrder deGIv in the ga, p",.:Iucti"" ra", alter ,..,adung ils peak. A",su,,.., no ga, i, produced prinr 10 Ihe peak of 5 year<;. fa) Whal percentage of Ihe 100al ga, production do you predicl h...s occurred aller 23 years? (b) How long do you pred ict u nl,l99 pe"'''''1 of Ihe gas h~, been produced?

10.13

Equ..1 an""mlS of I"" Iype; 01 wa,,,, are di,f""""I imo a """tion 01 a iandfilL They oolh sl.1rl produ£ing g~s .,t I O. ~nd '0 there LS no lag I,,,,e. A"ume firsl-nrder d""ay lor ga, production, Each Iyp" 01 "asle ""n produce 130 l CH ,/kg of wa"le. Wa,le Iype A produc5 g." "jlh a hall-life of n ye.,rs. a"d "aste type B produce, ga, with a half-life of

3 y""rs. HfW>' long (to Ihe " .... rest yearl u ,tt il 90 p",cenl of each gas has been prooucN?

10.14 Deler",i"e "'hether your iocal (or regional) landfill proouc"", energy lrom melhane gas. If ."". " hal i~ lhe m",,~ol solid -W"'1e d ;"l-w""d allhe landfill on an annual b~si" and "'hal is Ihe an,ounl of CH. generated? Relate Ih..... numbers 10 a caicui.,lion you can perform "ilh appropriate ""umpl'o"s.

10.15 (a) Calculale Ihe ,"oiu ",e of me~lal'" produced (m'lyear) due 10 landfilHng for Ihe ye"rs 1\170 and 2010. A~sun"ng Ihe landfill<>.:l MSW produce; gas in a ~""ila, la"hion betw""n Ihe 2 years. TI,e U.5. Ce''-~u, Bureau rel">rt, Ihe U .5'I"'pulati"n was 2OJ,392,.031 in 1970 and "a~ 3011,745;;31 in 2010. U,e Ihe land fining and mmp<..ling ral'" prm'ideJ in Table 10,2. A",ume Ihe Ihr"" "'~"e compduce methane did n"l £hange o,er lime and are lood wast", (15 perce", 01 I"al l. mix<>.:l paper Cllpercem of I,tal). and yard "a>les (15 percenl of ">la\). A"ume Ihal till percenl 01 Ihe lood and p.>pe' waste; and 4ll percenl of Ihe y~rd tri",mmg~ win J""oml-"""" if piacN ill a landfill. (b) Dete,mine Ihe energy /in MIV) of landfill ga~ p,nduced in 1970 and 20W. A"ume 1 MIV of g"'~ i, produced lor e"ery 270 m '/h of CH, pr,ldu(eJ al Ihe landfill

10.16 Return 10 Exampie 10.n in Ihis chapter. The '" erall greenhouse gas eff""l of a i"ndfili is ",n,il,,'e toa numberof parameter, and a.... umptio'''. In E>.ampIe lO.n, an ~ssumplion of!lCl percenl gas ,"""o\ery i, u'£'
10.11 IVh.,t percenlage reduction in yard w~ste would De required 10 reduce the NH,- ,elea."*",, '" landfillle.lchale bv I kg per Mg 01 MSIV? A,,~ume only y"nl wast" contribute, 10 I\'H, + in ieachate. the waste con"""":,o,,\ pnwided '" Figure 10.2 and Table 10.5. AS'ume all N in yard ",."te is e"emually released as NH, .

A,,,,,,,,,

10.18 Daily ,-ells lor a landfill are operaled '0 thai Ihe follnwing co,ld ilions a re ilia intai n<>.:l, Ihick,,,,--,,sof d~ily awer 0.2 m; slope (horiz"nlaherti(ai) 3:1; ,,,,,king face for refu,e 30 m; heighl of refuse 3 m; and ,""lum" of Jaily relu,e I.ROO ", '/day. TI,e iandfili lS i",e,esled in reducing 'equlremenl' fill" d~oIy cmer soil o,'er ,IS 2{}-ye~r lile and i,

ro""id"ring 'hr""

'h" \)."t? 'A~'}?

optim~". \\~n"h

op"on wou Id \).,

Opt"''' I

Inc""'" h'-~ght of relu"",, to ~ m.

Opt",,, 2

1""""", d.lih· refu<.c mlu"", to 2.000 m 'Jday.

Opt"''' 3

D<-".~."",

wo.kmg f","~ to 20 m,

10.19 E,tll",ue II", l",dr.1I a,..,.' ""'Iuired, in hfftores. gi,e" the follow"'g ,peo.:ifirnl,on" daily rowr lIuckt""', 0.2 Ill; toul final ow"r 1.0 III (in addition to dailv ro, er); height abOl'" ground before b'ooeca)' and "",~ement 10 tn; Jif! h"ight :>---5 Ill; depth \).,1011 gn",n.d le,'el thai WM,e CiI" begin 10 \)., plac..d 5 m; I"'ldftll "i,e ",..,a l" ,;quare; MSW g",,,,ration ra,e loojXXl MgJyear; "ide ,,101"'" at 3 horizonta~ I vertic-al for daily cell. a"d ""'e",al "lopes; workiog fa"" width 8 m;open for di,!",,-,I JnO day, per y"ar; JO-~ear iiI,,; a,ld in-place d",~,ih of f""'h MSW 700 kg!m'.

10.20 You "eed to budg'" for a ,'''"' transfer "ta,in" in your de"rici. A "milar 'rat~,f.,.. ,ta,ion cO", $1 ""Ilion, bu' thai "ta,;on wa, SO perce,~ l."g"r than yoors. How "'uch m,,,"'} "hould you budgtel "" lha' your local go"en"""", will have ""ough mon"y 10 pay for tho> ''''" tra'bkr Sla'ion? A""ume tha' 'he """,~"ny-<)I ""al" /aclor for Iran
10.21 c~) ,"" World H"allh Org.""u,ion "eb We {" \1''' ,\\'ho.org}. l"a", about a di,,,a,,,, th.ll i, tran,"'itled 'hrough IInp.oper di'I"",,1 of "'lid wa"t". Whal i" 'h" "xlen, of th" dl""""" on a global l",'e!?

10.22 Idenhfy an engll"",ring prokiona Isoc;""'} that you could jo", as a "ud"'" or after g ra.d uah"" that d"al, \\'i'h iWJes 01 "fIlid-\\'a"te Wha' are 'he dues /or joinmg Ihis gnlUp? What \)."",fib \\'1lU1d yllU .....' eiv" as a member while \\'orlcing in pra di
'''''''''gem''''1.

10.23 Drlertru,'" tilt> number of "ud"nb currentJ" ""'oiled fulltllne a, your u,",'e",ily or ron"g". Th"n, u,ing 'he informa'ion provided in Figur" 10.2 and Tables 10.2 and 1l15, determine the en,,'BY co",,,n, as",)Ci.lled w"h a day'" worth of ""lid "'a,,,e that would be gen"rated b} Ihi' population.

10.24 A"um" ,I", popul.";o,, of 'h" Un"ed Sla,,,,, will ,..,.,eh 420,0CXl,0CXl in 20511 E,lim."" II", a'\lI",,1 ""''''' 01 mu"icip.ll solid was,,, that 11,,11 \)., genera'ed ;n Uni'ed SIa,,,,, in 2fl.5() and 'h" annual amoun, Ih.u will r""luir" la"dfimng (bolh an"",,,,, in m"tr,c tOl'''). U.., i"lon""'io", prodded in Tabl" 10.2. Ju",ify your .hSUmpt,Oll' 0" chang"" III ",ltd-wa,." g"n"ratin" P"'" P"'" ""', a,ld la'ld fill di'f'<""'1 P"'" pe"",n from "OW ulll,1 2OSO. HII\;T: Graph "'."t" ge""rali,'" ,''',""U, time and al"" 'h" !",.-c"m of w.''''e la"dfilled ""'-''-'-5 hllle a"d th" tr"nd,. Mak" your own a,,;;umptio""(,,.g., 1I'."I"g"""''''ion ""II\)., th"",.",e III 2050 a, 2010; ",a,te g"neratio" ",,11 decrea'" back 10 1%0 le""L,,; a"d/or 'ho> perce'" of landfill ",a"t" "ill decr"a"" a" recycling becomes more mai,~slr""'" or It will ren"'in 'h" sam">.

II,,,

,m..e",,,

10.25

"",o"legu",,, ""8",able ",a"t", ha,'" a mo,,,lur" COlIt""t of 80 perce"t and ar" 4 per""'" ""' (nn a dry ",,,s,, ba,i,l n,., ""8",abl" wast"" a,.., to \)., comp'-..'ed with r"adily a"allahl" sawdu".. The "'''dust ha" a mobtur"co",,,n, ofSO pe"",nLlnd ;s 0./ per""nt '" (n" a dry ma" basi"). n,,, desirffl Ct'oi lor 'he "nxture i" 20. Th" CN ratio for ""getable II a"te. i" 11, a"d 'he C N r.lhn I,... "awdus, b 5(J). Delel"lllille th" kg of """du" required l-",r kilogra'" of ""g",abl" lI'a"e tha, resulls;n an initial CN ra,;" 01 20.

10.26 A "nXlu", 01 organic ""''''riak i, '0 be mmF',,,'ed. n,~ mi,ture \).,g"" II ,'h 40 perc"'" 1lI0istur" a"d 8IJ perc"n, "I 11,,, ",lid, ar" VS. A,,,ume tha, SO perc"n, of ,I", VS ar" I"'t 'hrough co"'p"",ing along with 70 perc"nt of 'h" "'o,"ture. Wha, is U,e moi"lure COl""m of 'he final CO"'P')';I? EPA pro,;diS fil" m~th,.,j" of cOlnp""'lng at till.' "eb site: hltp:! / \\'\\'w.epa.go" / """'post I,yl""" hun, o.,""'''p a table lhat 11."" 'h" fil'" Illeth<,.h III 0"" colunm a"d brief d"'-Criptio" of th" m"t1,,-.:! in a _ond colum".

10.27

10.28

E.,tll"a'" 'h" 'Olallandfill c,,,1s (jn 2003 """-,,,) fur a situat,on wllt>re you musllalldfill (a) 75,000 Mg of solid wa,l" per y"ar ..nd (b) lln>,OCXl Mg of ""lid waste per year.

References AsrM InlL,,.,...'",,,,,!. 1'1'12- ASTM S"",J.n1 [)';211_~, ",,,,IL,J r"" ,'.f."n.,} '"' Do.........,..'''''' ui ,1Ir C"'"f">' ,. '" '" Un,....."""" .\l"n. 'lui s..;iJ Vl.b" W.~tC,""""",~l.c",,A.'>n.ll"lL""",h,,.,.,J.•\, "L.bI..' ... ~",~"m.,"1<

I"'" rn "1.,,,,-, "y Co nnm,..,'"' (Art::l, lOOi\. Ala""" '. R.I'"'' ~". JIl- Conbo.TT" Arc. Au

W,,,,,

R. H.m. \1. 11..>....,. E. R..,I"" M. r~-1""',. c. R.",,,,-"u, .nd J. Il" thI<, 1'»1 u o,-<"}'
c.,,,,,_~,,. V,

"f, ....

17· "I'I4--lOfl Do'I"""~"". r-",-",!"

{DOEl, r,.-m [IA_lhffi (1007). V"lun"''''

,,,r. ..."'C.."'-,, App",d" p I'kd,.."y em,,,"",

R.l""'''n~ ,.r....

,-~

0.", L r..... M. s.."'f>'. L L rl\t<•..-th,.OO c. G r •• ""k.1OO3 s.,iJ 1\""" 1>11"',,,,,,,"'", ~. [,,,,,""ull> D."~".,G..m'n.,,2nd .-d. C"..",..1. c.,1 Il"<,,,"~y [n, ',n ",m,-",aJ rn ••~i.", Ah~-nco ([1',\ I. :'roo. A. 1",,''''''')1 ui s".,,,,.nJ [ .....,'"_.1 R.'I.. ,..,,~ D;"rio I.J..-C,-""P""'oI. i. '101 Umt,J 5',1<> 1'",,,, 191r 1(OJ. W "hm~"" D.e[1',\. [r A11ro/ I'--(l] /0021.

,.,/0.'

[nnn"m.,nW rn"'-~'.", "1""")' (cr.\ I. 2011. Ai",,~,1"1 S.1"","", Junn~ ..,Iu... ,J..... "nl."'.."'. w,..,. A"" """ s"l 1',01,,,,,•. 2, ·IRl_-4'1'; ..MOl' «".1.,.",1 ~I ...,", "" o..."e",-h I'n '1;'oml. l() 12. 1",,",,,,._1 f)"" _ ..., G.ol.· "" 1.'",<1fill r.., [ .... ~ Projn " 10..1'''''4' USEr,\. -' ,.;], ~~. " M'I'J / ... ~''''.!?> ""'In... ,.".~ ~

..-'. ...n"/.'..... '1',.,

-I"".. /••

llou!> R. T.. 19'1.1. TIoI P".Ii,,1 'l,odh""'-,ifC","I''' ["X.....,...X & .. llohonc I~'",,, I'uhl"r.", \.:,m"... T. D.. D Il. \.:,,,"'1.......1 C. r. 1l.1,·...!,k... .'OOl. So"-n~ \!SIV "'00611, "" ,-"".,~ 1,l.>nd ~ ,'h. "l'i-b",..,] "",'h,,j,",W \\'""" ,\1,. .,-.--." • ..t J(.,...",h, 21 262_177

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chapter/Eleven Air Quality Engineering Jome, R Mihekic and Amyl Stum!

Cha

er Content&

11.1

Introduction

In 1/,;, cl>opier, reader. learn about /he >ou""" of air poilu/jon, 111.. choroct.:,.,iic, of cleon and polluted ouldoor and j,,<10<"". air poIlulanl. hove On humon heo/th, and e"vronmenl ,h" 1M, Iro,,".....o<1 of how oj, poIlulanl. '"'' '''lJUlolOd j, di"""~. iM.,di~ ,~..nl ~ol deci,;on' now allow lex (esula~"" of 1M g,-.hou",

11.2

Sca~

11.3

Atmospheric Structure

11.4

Characteristics of Polluted Air

11.5

Ambient EmiSSions and Emissions Control

11.6

Assessmef11 of Emissions

11.7

Meteorology and Transport

11.8

Atmospheric Dispersion and the Gaussian Plume Dispersion Modeling

wi'

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th" IrOfD,phe,e 0'10 IhM de. The conlro! of em'«i",,,,, rJeo,,, "n ",.."e" ,edudoo and d"",...d maoogemeal ""''''9''''. four<>IM. ,lroI~ie. Jt!:<. ""d rnmci "",hnologie.) and -oJ c""ItOIIe<:/o.nobg .., far 9""" and palid", ar~ de><:,jbeeJ with empha>j, an appkabi~ jfyandd""9rt. Th~ of how otm".lplwic and 9,ound-Je"'(

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10 eflrmale dc-.wrnd of oi, po/IYla1l/J

modtJ.l

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and Cycles of AK Pollution

Learning Objectives 1. Describe how the urban, regim.ll, and globdl "£ale 01 differe"l

air pollutant problems influences chemical ",act""" transporl, and impact. 2. E'plai" how n\a''''gem..,t of air pollution e"rompa'""'" noj only ~fa"t, but, imporl.lntiy, human den",,,ds for good,. services, and ""til'ilies such a, transportal,,'n, and apply the IPAT equ.lt,on 10 aut",,,oti \ e air emissi,m,. J. Describe imp
'I. Demonslrale emp.'thy for populalion gl\JlJp" Ihal are unfa"ly

10. II.

12.

13.

14.

15. 16. 17.

18.

Chapler 11

AirCoal~y

Engineering

assigned a grealer en,.,ronmenlal ri,k due to rel"a_ of air p<>lIut.,nts. Different,ate betw"",,n poi"', a",a, a"J mobife sources of air emissio", Ihal Co", also indude fugit,,-e emi"sio",. Expiain how "ngi"" comb""ion l"ad, to "",i"i",.. of "itrogen oxides, carbon m",\Ox,de, carbon di"-"J,,, and hyd ",carbo,,,, Dif"''''ntiat" bet",,,",,n dilf"rellt Qrat"8i"" to <",,'rol emi"ions that includ" ",mce .....luctio". d"mand ma'ldgen",m. regulal<)ry approa<:hes, mark<'1-bdseJ approach"", "olun!.>ry approa<:h"", and cnntroltechnofogi",. 11I,,,,,,at,, differenl metln:ls of tra"sp<>UuLlnl conlrof tedHlOlogies for ,pecific ai, pollutanls adsorption, baghouse, biofihe<, cyclone, "I""'roslatic f""dp''''IO', thermai M,d,,-,,,, ,-entiiatio" hood, and "enturi ""rubbe" hlt"8,at" ma" balan.ces ",ith chell~cal k,nelies 10 ,ize a Ihermal oxidizer. E.,timat" air emi"ion, using metl,,-od, 'uch as monit,"~'& modelin&- ma" baianc"" app,oach"", and en""io/\ factoN. Explain ho\\ "'et""",log,cai and ground-ievel featu,es i"fluence atmospheric "ab,iit)' and Ihe \ ertieaf and ho,izonlai mO\'",,,e,,' of ai, parcels. Appfy G"u"i"" d iSf"-'Nioll models 10 ",limate d"""",ind co"""nt,atio"s of air poliuLlnb.

11.1

Introduction

In Chapler 2, "''' p."-",,,ted d t.>ble Ihal ~ho,,"ed the ro"'I""',uon of Ihe atmosphere (T.,ble 2.3). Though almOSI e,'e'1 element I"ted in Ihe periodic t.>ble is found in Ihe atmosphere, if )'OU go back and re, ;"" Table 2.3, ynu ",ill notice the almn,phere is composed m<>'illy of ",",'Sen (7R 1 percelll\, oxygen (2119 percem\, "nd argon (o.'n percenU. Fnr mmran""", carbon dioxide now m""",,, up "\',,. ll.OJ9 percent of th""t"'.."'ph",.... How",'"r, anthropogenic act!" iti"" CdU"",, the reI""", of man) d,fferent comp.",,,ds inlo Ihe air at concentrations llut are high enough 10 CdUse adver", im?"ct> on huma" health, crops dnd nlher ""8etalioll, builJ ing materials, dun"l", "nd e, ell lldblLlr\l' ('If aquatic e.:n'y'le1'l'C 11,., nI","",nenl ()f "Ir dl",~ dre, nOl ""peel II", geopolitical bounda.'" of d mUllly. st.lle, (lr nat;..",. T1lerefore, It dl~"boulld.lry a" pollllllffi p,rolem, d'ecomme Ih"c"", h' olhe", whoalso u'"' that ,,,"ourc,," Thesnci..L eco""mic. and en"i,mmental «,,;Is a",,,,,ialoo wllh air pollution are large alld could ,,,,,..II In increa>e
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load 13-mon1h) NO,jomual)

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Ono or rnoro NMOS

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'00

N u mborof Po"!'lo (in mill i"",) li,'ing in U.s. Counti .. with AirQuamy Concentrations GroalorThan tho lo,,01 of tho Primary IHoaUh·8a..,d) Nalional Ambionl A iT Qual ily Standard, (NAAQS) in 2010 11", hIne J""lod I~I<'" refer< to tho .".OTago.8 lime ba
Allur./11.1

jf.... -......,Ir... ~PA.IOllol

11.1

~0lIlJcti00

to prolect hum.. " hNllh. ",ot" the "umL>o.r of ~ pIe exl'f""d 10 high le',els depends on ~ p"'ti~ula, ai, polluLlnt, bUI ranges from te,~~ to hundr~h of millions (the popu lation of the Uniled States i, ,lIghlly O\'e, 300 million). H"toric-ally ~ir pollutioll h." be"n aso.ocidted w,th hUllldn communilies and ind uStridUZed ""ti,'ilies, We now unde"'l~nd tll.\t tl", m'~""l"",ncesofdi, pollul,on are fou"d '" e, ery locali(", of the Earth. Ai, pollution is found in dties from lh" mmbuslion of di, atld foss,l fuels in a coal-fired power pl.. "t a"d ,ehide~' engin"", in ru'dl ",ed' from lhe parliculal"" gene, ~ted from ~b,asi"e ~gri<:ultural""t,,,ities, ""d in lh~ I"d"",e", ,ron'''''nt fmll'~' dPO' ali"" nf chemicdis from bu,ld,ng malenal~ "r ,urmundh'g soil hnc1udi Ilg ,,,,tu, ~ll y "ccurring r.•don). Emis,i","~ fmm combus li"n of fos.~il fu el, in lhe compar.uiwly pnnrly \'e"tiL'Iled enclrned ,pa<:es nf lhe indOll' en, ironmenl ~re abo a concern. billion people in lhe ",o,ld still burn solid fuel, f", heMing ~nd cooking. In lh~ Uniled Sidles, indOllr cdrb.~n monoxide poison"'g isa 1", common probl"",. Nilrogen Mld ~ulfu, oxidesem illed fmm combu,tion process.es are lran,porteJ to locdl \I'dt~, "OIJn:"" dnd mdY make up a ,ig,,,fic~nl am"''''l of nitrogen load ing d"d acidifi",,till"', ",-,pecti,'ely, t" surf""e wat~rs ]jk~ th~ OlfS.'pe.,ke Raj and T~mpa Ray. a"d lakes ill the Adi,,,,,ddck MIlUIlMi,~, "f ul"tat~ "'~w York, ,,·hileemi....~ion" of ai, poIluM"'" l",,,e led I" melting of polar ice dnd ""I-"'",u'" of Artie Beluga" hales t" l,,~ie chemical,. III the U"ned Slales, fede,~l 'egu lation of air pollution I~rgely began with lhe Ai, P"llution C"mrol Act of 1955. Thi" was fon"wed by th~ Cledn Air Act of I%J and n", Air Qu.,liN Act of 1%7. n,~ Clean Air Act {of 1970\ "'''-" a majo' mil""t""" in ddinlllg the fed","~1 g""emmellI'" ""p",~,ibihlies for pmlectitlg and 1I1lpm""'g the nati",,', ~"qua1ily. n", Clean Ai, Aet (CAA) was ,igned i"to la\\ in 1970 and W~, .11nended '0 1977 .md 1990. ft prill ide.:! legi,lati ,'e ,1ulh"rity for lhe g""ernllle"l 1<, de,'el"p federal alld ,Idle ""Su lal,o", 10 III"it emi,",m~~ fmm qati"""ry «>un:"" (for eX.lmpl~, 1I,du,lrial slacb) dnd mnbile '1lU"'" \for eXdmple, aUlomnbile ta,lpipes\. Table ILl p'll\'ides """,eof the Uldjor pro"i,ion, of lhe Clean Ai, Act and lhe Clean Air Act Amendmenls, o,,~ of lhe m.'jnr ""Sulal"ry programs ,~f Ih~ Cl~an A,r A~t Wd< tI,e creali"" "f the /l.:alinnal Ambienl Air Qualil\'Slandanl, (I\'AAQSl. which will L>o. discu~ late, I" lhi, eh~pt"'.

n"""

Air Pollutants h'_'1'Jl....-w.< I'-'-¥",I ~I r I ~i 'I"!lut~"u> ~

Air Qua~tyWhere YCHI Uve h-.t.yli WNW ,
History 01 eloon Ai" Act h'~'-P'II "l'~ 'llNlo~r!cuI<1UI_~ i. t
h'..ml

ILl Major P....Vi.ians afthe Clean Ai. Ad and Amencmenu

{",,. oblaired from hl1pJ/~ "P".9avjai'll

Clean A ir Act of 1970 , [""d""'01 ofthoCIo"" A.. Art of 1970 'L"uJ oed In. mojor n dulhnnzL'l mmpreh""-,,,,, f,-' bmi, "",,-,,,inns from b<><~
11".

""riot>..

• Aulhnm.ed the ""tabli,hmen' of Nation.l Ambien' AI< Quahh-' 5tand~,d< (NA,\QSl , E.. ~,b li.'SI'S) for n",,' .nd mod Ified
11

AirOoal~y

Engineering

CI".n Air Act Am"ndm"nls of 1977 • Auth""z,,j pm,;"ion' lor the PrL·"""tior! 01 SIgnificant Deter"'T.'",n (f'SD) to pmteel de.n (.IL,in"",n!) .n.,." I"rtirul.rly .",,, of 'f"-'Ci.1 ,-.1"", ,ueh "-' Lug.' ""00...1p.rl' • Spea fied requ inommr. 10<"'" ITe< in .reo., ,h.>t do not """-~ the 1\-. ti""" IAmbien t AiT Qu.l htv St.l nd.fd fOf m"",n,.r"",,). A non.ll.inmen' .re. " • geogT.phi.< or"" ll",-t d,,,---.. nnt me,,1 0"" ,,.. mono of th" led."..l Olf qu.>h
1m

• Su"'Lln,,,,lI,, iocr",,"<>.l lhe "nlor-c"m"nt .ulhon", and "-"p<>n,ib1h'" ,,( ,he fede'T.I sm-em"",nt. • Authonz.ed n"". regulat"'}· pmgTdm, 10< mntml of "",d d"P'""non (lh.1l;", arid .. inl • Th" r->.!io""l Em,,,,,,,,, 'i<.-.nd.rd. k>r l-LI""rd"". ,\IT Pollulant> (N'ESHAI'. • hl"ooed and mod,fied pmvied a pr"gr.m '0 ph.1<;e ""I th<' u"" 01 ch",mul, thot depl"'" ,he .tr.""phenc hed IT<]uir""",nl' foc op,,,.ting permit, for all mo~>r all poIlut.lnt """r"" ITlll" \' f"-'TTml.)

~ Thp EPA'S Air Polh'jnn Trainj'l;jlnstill'tp The iiI'A', AiT !'ollution Tr.,ining I",titule (AI'l"f) p"~ "id", training fOT air pollu'ion pmr."",i,mal,. ",., goal "' to f.cihL,Ie pn.r"",ion.,] d", elopment by enhor.cing the ,kiII, n..,.jed '0 unde"'t.lnd and impkmenl en"imnmenial p" Wa,,,-, and pohc;"". The." fTicu hJ m i, di,i d""

by ~,b function Ifor e".mple, aiT t"-"~, perm' ",riting amh",' morih,..ing) and indude> d",'nK,m•....,~' in,tructi,mal, and "eb-b.:J".,J tTaining, Spooeial amr""" .nd ",orbhop' are .L", o!fered. Learn more.t http:// "'''''' -"' pti -Ie.>m. nel

11.2 Scale and Cycles of Air Pollution 11.2 I

SC.AJ..E OF AIR POllUTION ISSUES

Figure 11.2 .lmw, II1 .• t ~ir pollulion problem, are "-,,,,,,iated Wilh a "ide variety of .p.lial ""31.., fmm urban, 10 ""8i[mal, 10 global. Table 11,2 gi\es Ih.1I the ,patial ",ale of air poilu Ii"" pl1en"meno" can occur", er di'lances th.u ra"g" fmm <: llm 10 Ihou,a"ds 0' km. Emi"ion. of alf pollutanl' al gmu lid le",,1 .• lld llea r hu man MII"ilie; Ifor ex"mple, !r.ffic emi"i["" and burning bio",,,,, in household coobt,we;) lead to ",icro-en"ironmenMI and local <;cale air poll ulion i"ues. The", include dlrecl 1"'""" ...1 ex po..ures 1o cnmbuad area, \\',Ih high ie,el, of own" 11.2 SC'" and Cyclesol Air Pollutiln

U"'~

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spoc;o. ",met.",

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Figure 11.2 Th Spa~al Scale 01 Ai. Pollution Oc", ... ov.. U.bon, Regienal, and Glob.l Scalc~, Who", It Resull. in Difforen! S<>
11.2 Spatial Scale. of At Pollun... Phencrnen...

[bo>ed 00 Seinleld oM

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AirCoal~y

Engineering

"'~n~

po,nut,,,,t'Me l'd"sporlOO 10 hIgh... dl1itudi!" in Ihe almf>sph.".,. o.,u~ I""..... Ihey """ be Irdn_porl.,d '''·''r I""g d"ldnce<;, lmp.>ctmg d" .. In Ihi, '-"'''',.IT 1'"lIut.lnlS ,'.n .., ..... u,t.. uet ",th in'pnrtant nalural dl"""ph.... K' c""m"lry cycles .nJ ......'8' flu",,",. t...dmg 10 strall""'phoer.. 07.0"" derleti....nd gl.>NI eli ...... le change.

11.22 THEAlRPOUUnoNSYST£M TnCfn"d... I""df••,t"..-ofaU' poIub,n cnnIlrnl m....u_, lllSusd'ul In, ..... .,otu.hu lhe ............. rre ..........g........... t ,,"'Iem "•• "de thai "",~>mJ"l_d.......nd toeffec1 (as sb<'d from hu"",n o.km.ond "" gnods. "'" 1Ce',.and other act... ,1_ tlile ..:II. 8""""ated d~ to .II.1nd pt'TO'I,eoi """",,S fnr the betl ment of ~ . m d "" 1 U-h>IIl&- "fhLs dem.ond Ie....i. to ,""''''"'' of .I" pollutants ' r th .. life c~de of the product or ...,. " ... >r dm'cll~ from the ....1 " ,tv J'U"UO'I.! Em.-.s""'-' of .Ir poIlubnt•. "hlrmed ,n lhe .trnoo.phere thn..... gh • 'dr,cY'>_. Ihen ito.... to concentr"tinns 01 po~lIutanlS 1I1 ....."ronmental n,edi.l Ithat " .•", ".II "";\>.1. A_ hplault'\l III Chapt 6 dunng Ih.. d"""",,,,"'" of em 'nln"""'tal n'l." h<>n 00"""'1•.11....." high t"IW>Ugh .nd kad 1<> ".Ih a ''',In..... blt' '-"':"1'1". (hum."n or"n"'mo"....nlal "',I"rnl. t .....y m,,~ CdUse .I "ari"l~ nf J"I"I"riou,; otllComes. jnduding hUmdll h"dlth "ffeclS ra"ging frn", "~'e irroldlinn 10 d"ath, acid d"i".... il~'" ,1n<.l fnr""t die nff. ,. i",b,ht~ im\Mi,,,,,,nt in 'ldlin""l potrb. and glnool
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M~n'lI~nl of Air Polio.. ;".. foll--s.

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(11.11

The [PAT equation can be wrtllen 10 undersla ..d air pollut,on generalion (as Ihe impad, n.

'I

Fuel Economyol Aulomobiles rr,'-Vll_, fut:I
AirCoal~y

Engineering

PyD'TF!

01.2)

I.. Equalio.. 11.2, Ihe amounl of air pollution gener,,'ed can be ,implified 10 be the product of huma" popu lalion (Pl, per eap"a den", ..d for, lel'ssav, eleclridl)' orl..."lluello power a ,'ehide (D, also ohen lermed affluenceor con,umplionl, and a I"",hnology 1.lclor(Tf. in Ihi, ea,;e, Ihe ratio 01 a" emi"icns per unil de,,,,,,,d). In the ca"" of a lecln,,~logv factorf", "ehickemission" TF would be,..,.j uced "hen a ,-ehide's luel ecm'Olny increased. Equation 112 ,hows that a, human populat,ons incrro"" a" emis,ions(thal LS, imp-'d) w,ll gmw unl",,-s I"",lmology impr", es or de,,,,,,1d per capita d"""e,,_. Fortunatdy, tech,~)logiesand ....'''''gen",nl ,tructures Ihal control eOlL';sions (or d"",rea,;e coneenlralions at r""eplorsl ha,-e imprMed '" er lime. Hence, en"ssioM (and eff"",lsl per unil dem., ..d of many tradition.,l a" pollul.\n!' ha,'e d"",reased ," many areas of the world over Ihe paSI ""'eral decades, d"'p,te ,u!>slanlial i",:rea_ in f'!)pul",ion. U nfor'u,,,,'ely, Ihe flip ,ide ollhi> coin is Ih,,1 dem"nd per c apila ha, al"., increased, in pari 0.1 ue to new technologies Ihal imprMe real or p"",ei, ed qualily of life (lor example, more and larger lelevlS,on., cell phones, or e,-en eleL"1rk clothes 0.1 rye.. versus u""" of ,un' s ~""rgj for drymgl, A, ""ono""", gmw and Sstanlial impads on social equily; ".,me of Ihe obsen ed decrease> in emi,"",,, per ""it demand are local, wilh processes and II",,, em,,,io,,, often e_ported from ,"eh 10 poor neighborhood, and countries. To creale an air managemenl sy,lem Ihal is eff"",live al multiple spahal sea Ie;, addres,ing Ihe dema"d part "f the air l-",llulion 'y,'em cycle cann,,1 be ",'erlooked. lI;s importan! for a reader 1<) recog"i>:e Ihal ,ome of the demand leading 1<, air emissi"ns m~elS real need' and Cdr""" be eliminaled, but also to undersMnd thai technologkal imprO\-em~nt,alone a,.., unhkely 1<) effech ,-ely add"". air pollution fully or equally.

example/I!.l

IPAT Equation and Improwd Fuel Ecoromy in Vehicles

The purpose of Corporate A "euse r lIel Ewnomy (CArEl standards is to reduce energy consumpl;on by ioc",,,,,ing Ihe fuel economy of p.",,,,ng'" cal'< and light truch. They were 61'
""""""'y

solution The II' A T equaUon can be wrillen a,

,

I'>
In Ihis partieular ,ituation of i""esl;galing how improvemenl. i" fuel economy might lesse" the ",wlronmental impact fmm vehide air pollulanl emi.";"n,, I' would equallhe populallon of IkellS£'d dri,e"" D can be Ihought as the dem.. nd f<'ll" u,ing a "ehide (which can be measured '" the number of vehide mil5 traveled per licensed dri, erl, and the lechnolog) lerm, TF (emissions per "'ehiele mile Iraveled), would decrease as fuel """nomy inc",a,*",. Figure 11.4;>-< ,Ill)w, th"", lrends o,er the fe" decad"" i" Ihe U"ned St.1les. First, Figure f 1.4a show, a ,teady n,crea", of 1211 nnllio" dro"ers on U.S. high",ay, from 1950 to 2000. Notice the large increa", in the I' lenll mer IhL' 5l'>-year lime Spo"'. Currently approximately 88 percem of Ihe d ri ...lng age populallnn i. Iicen-.ed 10 d ri, e a motor ,'ehide and the number nf lice"sa:t dri, el'< is Increasing al a slnnlar rale In O\'erall popu1.llinn. In 2IJIO, the U.S. populat,on was esti,,,,,,ed 10 be J09 million, with expected ",crease of 21 I"'rcem to 375 million In 2lJ25 (and J!l9 million In 2035). Figure 11 ,4b ,ho"" thai P""""fI"I ,ehide tra"el demand, measured a._ vehicle miles tra ..eled (VMl1 per lice,~sa:t dm er, grew .•t an a,'""age annual rate of L 1 fmm 1970 102m n, fmm about 11,700 miles per drover in 1970 co",pared to 12.700 mil.,.; per dri ..er in 2mO. Increa<;&! tra,'el Is caused by se,'""al faClnrs that include grealer income, declining ""'Is associaled ""th dn .."'g (determined by fuel """nomy and fuei price), and demngraphk changes (s"ch a, sub"rban sprawl!. The Federal High,,' ay Adminblralion assumes th.,t ,ehide mil"" traveled per licel~wd driver" ill inc",a"" by a" .. erage of 0.2 percem per year, 10 13,330 miles per dm'er in 2013. If "e apply IhL_ ..nnu"l r"te, "e "ill see an increa-", of 3 perceot in 2IJ:!3 '" er 2010.

1''''''

1"'''''''''

,

I'

"

,.

f-. / ' _

V

-

)" ,

-

-,

,.

•

-.......

(~l

--/..

[.

•

i

-

, . . . >DO>

""0 """

-

.... ~

,

~

-

'SO'_'''''''''=='=''''':<1=

,,'

Licon.•• d DTi",,.. iR URiiod St., •• frolll 1*51110 2lJl1J. jbl V.hicl. Mil", T•• ".I.d p.r Lie.n""d Dri .... r' 1970-20]51.1<1 Fo.1 Eronomy Impsl lOT N.w P...ocnsor Cn•• nd LiSht True,," 1.\100.1 Y..... 1_20251. ,;g.n......... _ ... U S.I_~""_ ..""",, ondU,S 1_iJ)'~_,y",;,,; ........ Rgu11l/11.4

l.~'

!

, I

,_,_,.."..., 'so,... '... '_,__ "'" ,-

- ...

11.2 se.... and Cyclesol Air PoIIotiln

example/ll.1

(contiooed)

Figure 11.4c sho",~ th~ impmvements from ,~hkl.. and ~ngin~ design ""p"'-'led if Ih.. ne", CAFE fu~1 ,,",ollomy
1=-,

[',,,,nil +211""0'''1) x

~1011

+31"'",.. "1)

TF""oll-SOl"'rcenl)

(11.31

The owrall change in Impact L~ Ihi, Ihus","limaled as I """ . I"". (1.21) > 11.113) l< (05) t'>21"'"",nl ll\L~ indicales thai tI,e ""peeled impm"emenl> in fuel I'<'Onomy ha"e Ih~ F'ltenlial 10 reduce air ""'i....' k"'s fmm """ of ,ehid... by up 10 aboul 38 I"'n.""'l Ho"",,, ~r. a 'iJgnificanl part of tho> technologyrdated reduclion is offset by the large i'lCrea.ared I,an_porl.. illmrporalioll of high occupancy ,,~hide Lln",". ,mpmWmetllS III bicycle alld ped""lri.ln paths, or changes in conulJunity d""igll an""''''1l a""",. bet.... e"n daily acti"ily cenl......

c1""",

"'b'-

_

..

~1-'S'm"~DIJ'.r'~

Sm..1growlh i._ a term u..,."j hJ d""",ibed",'d"p"""'l "f acorn munity til•• t p" >IKJ> ""tu raJ,..". ru"",,". "pen 'paet'. and h;"!mi,,,,1 m ndturdl dllribule> of a mmmunity "hil" al..., ",,-,-_in,; land lhal i., already d".... I,>ped. Tabl" 11.3 ll._b I"" J(J prineipl"" of ,marl l>",wlh. ;.."~,, how lhe principl"" are "'~ ba.,."j ,m d""ign "I

,'ehide·-domin..I,;J mmmunili"" and h"wthey proI",~e di""...;I} in l<'eneIlI, or "n."t gmwlh in t"rm.' or ail '1ualil}. walel '1u,lily. "f"'n-"f'JC" pI""",,·atum. and ~"""nfield, red",,,I''Pm,,nt.

11.3 Principles of Smort Growth I

Mi~

1.>00 u..,.

2. T ak ,.,h·,n',&c 01 compacl bmldmg d""gn.

3. eTC.1Ic, .,ngc of hou,,"$ npp"rlun"''''' and oholCeS4. Creale W,dk.,ble '""'l\hbnrhnrxl.,

5 ro.ter di
7, S'rengthen,nd d""", dC"e1np"""" 'n""",] <,,,tlllg ",mmunil"". 8. Prodde a """"'y oIlTdnlCL><. 9. Mak dc,'elnp"""" doci.ion. prediol.1ble. I,i,.,nd "",-..rl".-I;',,-

10, Enrourag
Chapter 11

AirCu"~y

Engineering

~

~

~ny;ronmenlalSenefils of

'CQnljmlpdl

Smart Growth

BcncIil

~"

lmp""nl~"

• Sm ng ""'''' d",-c1opn.., pI in dn existmg nc;ghborhnoo, in 'h."d of "" "l"'" 'I"-.co .t nodu,," air pollution redudng dulnm"b,lc miiruge .m~-fnmlll1g

qu.b'y

",.

em;,,;no.' Irnprm-ed wdterqlldhlV

"0'

• CCInpa.-", and by .11""-;08 Pdtur.1 Lmd. tn filler r,;pw.ter and ru""f1 bet",c il "-,,,"he< drmlJng_wdler .upplies. • Runoff from d"''''''r<-d .rm. oftm coptain. tooe chemic.l<, r"'"'pboru<, and mt"'ll""; ""tlonwide, it .. rnmmon 'OUrre of w.to" pollution for ""tu."i"". the Ihird """', mmmon loT L1keo.•md the !...,rth mo
I"" ",:".u:l """',

Open ...!,,''''

• Pr""-",,,mg ""lm.,1 L:md, anJ "noomaging gmw'h in ""c"ing c"mmUN lIes pm'ec'" f,nnl.>OO, wilJhfe h.,bltat. bIOOi,'c"itv, and outd'~'T ,ec,eati"". and pmm""'" ","ural wa"'f fillTOl"ln. • A recent Tml.>OO by 2B'l. open 'p""e by 43't.. and """lfonmentall)' fuglle Lmd> by fl(l'l:.

Brownfield red",,,loprnen'

• Oromng up and rede,...k>pmg a bmwnflcld c.,n r,'m",.., blIght and ,,,,,',,,,,,mcn~,l conl,ml ""flO'" ",,,,1,,,,,, neIghborhood rc,;'a1i,,,lIon. I"""", d''l-elnpmel1' p,,,,,"urc a' ,he urb.lo edge, aod u
pro,,,,,,,',li""

SCJIJK:l. I,,,," [n.,."""",,*" r r - """,,,y, """" ._.pI........ ~

11.3 Atmospheric Structure For purfX1"'" of tI,i, bonk, "'e "'ill just be mncenled wi lh lhe I \\'0 Iowesl !.lye" of lhe atmosphere: Ihe lroposphere a"d ,tratc"phere. The air layer Ih.•1 ede"d, from the ground ,urface 10-15 km i" altilude i, referred 10 a, the tropo'phe",. n,e layer that ,,"above the ''''po,phere and e."end_ from .1lXlul 15 10 50 km in allllude l< referred 10 a, lhe sfrafo-phere. It i, Ihe lmposphe,.., where pollu lion from anlh"'pogenic alld ",,,ur al ""'"..", i, "milled. n"" Imp,,,,ph,,,,, i, an ""p""i.•lly lurbulem layer because of daily chang'" in lhe solar energy ,h", cau.""daylime,urfac" ""aling and "ighu""e c...-.ling. rigure 11.5 ,how,lhi, "ertical ,Iruclu re oi Earth', atm"'phere that j,defined based "" ,""tempera,ure profiles a, .. funcl;on of ahilude (or pres..ure).

,

"

. /' . "'-

Flgur./ll,5 Teml"',olure Chooges wilhAllHud".od Pre"ure io the Atmosph",e. 11.3 A!Jrlool>/leIiI: struct...

11 3.1

ATMOSPHERl:TEMI'fRATURE STRuaURE

The lroposphere is the ",,,,,t imporlanl layer relevant 10 air polluli"n issues. Ills ~haraclerized by a" a, erage prome of d"",ea,i"g lemperature w,th alt'lude above the 'u,face, ",ilh highly variable local promes that ch."'ge in lime and 'I-"'ce. Du" 10 heati"g by lhe ,un, Ih" Earth', ,urfa"" heals daily and r.,diales that heal, increasing Ih" le"'p."at ur"of Ihe air near Ihe ,urb"". Radiallve he.llitlg dmps "ff ",ilh d i'Llnce from ii' source; Iherefme, the influence of Ihe ,u ,fac"" decrea,,,,, rapidly ",ilh altllude and, on a"erage, Ihe lem!"'ratu,"" decrea"", wilh .,llIlude. A waml lroposphere is abo mallltallled due t(, Ihe p,.,.".,nce of greenhOlLS<> g.<_ (indudll'g ",ater ,-apor atld caroon d,oxide) Ih"l preferenriaUy abrp',oll of ,hort"-a,,e uhra,-,olel (llVl r.•diation from lho> 'u tI by the n.,tural .tralr"pherie 0'-""'" lay.".. Du" 10 Ihi, ""ry ,ubi" temperalu"" qruclure, Illta"li"lIy in Ih~ ttof'O"p1,ere, bul Ihey do r"aet in Ihe stral""p1,,,re where shorler wavelength (more energ,;toc) radiati"n i, p,..",ent. In Ih" ,Ir.ll""phere, chlonlfloorocarl>o'Ls ",.., itl\'"h-ed in ~alalyb~ reacti""s ~ydes Ihal deslroy lho> natural ozon" layer, allo,,-i ng mo,.., dangerous r,ld i.ltion to ,"""eh Ihe ,ur/ace of Ih" &trill.

) 1.3 2 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE AND DENSITY STRUCTURE In add'l,on 10 characteri,lic lem!"'ral" re ,truetu,..., Ihe alm""pher" db" has a ch..."eler;"lo: det>;ity alld pr.,;sure structure. o.."ilj decrea"", exponential!, as Ihe gra",taliolldl fnrce also d rop' off wilh Ihe ,;quar" of dbl.llll,e. Th... e~"", Ihe ma,..]"e Eatth holL, ga_ comp"''''g it> al",nsph"r" ",or" Ilghlly near Ih" ,urfile", and Ihe majorllyof Ihe "",th's al"'''''phe,.., lies in a ,-ery Ihin ldyer. As den,ity decr"a""" so doe; pressu,.., (the gra,-ilati"",,1 fore" per horizontal a,..,a Chapler 11

AirCoal~y

Engineering

d,,~

M Ih~ ai, abm.,), ..nd p,ess"", lfilln,,~ .. '~ry ~imllM pmm~ as d~ns,ty, fill a..e.as.. , Lo.:al "an"'i,,,~s in P''''''u''' (a"d d ..ns,ty) .. Is<> """"r alld ..... imp
1133 COIvV>OSlTONOFTHEA1MOSPl-fRE to und""'''''nd air qu.. lol~·. " .. m",,1 und......land lhe ",,'ural """'f" tlOn of the atrnnspbere.&rld ho" 1""1 000lf"""'11OO L< dwnged ~ tho! rr-..ce of oMr f"lIlubon. As ,,~ ...... nllt'lrWd at I .... bo>gmnmg of 1M the ""iural aUttolhphere os I.lrgeIv """do> up 01 a ft." &1_ "hfo;,,;, f.iICt'('n.I1 mmpJUon d.- not '''''' m""h. "~J"I under ... ~ tughh pMurbo>.J rnn.... b0n5.. '"-8"""" lI.dud"IUI~(':to~ at 78.1 J""'"~ b~ dry .·dum.. of lhe .... m"tu",I, o"8"n 10.. 2119 pl!I"i!"i f.. ,th ,01" nu""'8 r.. \o,>;; .. II.... ppm, Ie. .,I or beIo><). TOjIj~""'r I~ ... dl-nu",d S malt' "I' .. bo>ul 99.9 p"""""i of the ""Iu...l .. t""""pt-, but ,i l~ lhe """'1"",'110'" of lhe g.a-. .md pa.brulab' matt.... Wt , .. ~ ,,,'f.........al rommon and 'a" ing COOlpoo""'ts of the alnlO>-p........ \\' "t.... '"I''''' is the m~1 ,mP')r1.11'1 of Ih_, It j, instrumental 10 tI~ h. dmlog"'.tl cyd" ..oo " al,.o .. p.,t.."t g..... nhou'"" gas. Cnnc~ntrah"'~~ 01 ...·,'i..' ,apot" ,drY sul>1 f,,,,,,,1 f""ls, I..., .. in.-,.. a...u rapidly'" .... Ill" last 200 y"a,...;. A, .. ,ag" mnc~nl... ti",ts are nO" g ....,t... t""n )99 ppm., and high", ronc.."t'.tli"" a,,,as ,n u.ban r~S.'n' a.e Conunon Beau,." of ,IS abunda"",. CO, .. a •· ..ry ,mP'''lanl s~nhou.... ga•. M..I"""" " another ,,,,porlanl sreenhou ..... ga~, .. ,Ih 2511""'" mor.. absorph-."'" ,of urth'~ ",frared .otdt.ltilln f"I!T ,,,,,It>cul,, t""n CO" bUI ,t i~ ra. I...., abundanl. Ho....' ..., metlwne "'no..--entr.uons lw, .. a1.-.o 'l'ICh'lI...-.! .. ,th Ihe d "lop""'nl ofh"man C;"h1-"lIon; mncentralion< ,n tlw mid Il1f1ll;; ppmJi''''''tel., Ml ppm, T1w ~irung rompouods gi ..... ,n T..ble 11 S "n> .. ll conllnonl) P'~" prilulanls" ,lh both nablral .. nd .nlh,!l"'I".. ~ ........OS' Ozone ....n ,mport.onl ..... mfuI componenl 01 urbin """'8 m the tropo'eo nf h~Jm::arbclngase.; they ",dud.. "orga,ucga._ (ROGsl an.-! ",lattle!>rS"IlIc compound~ In onJ

.""pI<>t",

"""'I

,h

"'.oct"

11.5 Appto"imale Con
0_

_00

IV,t"" "'po.- (HP)

3ppm..

,5.000 rPm,

c"rbondimidelCQ)

3995 ppm,

M~lh.",dQ{,)

L()-I.9ppm,

c.y!>:", m,",,,,,i.:I~(m)

j()-3JOpfb.

07.01\< 1Cl,)

Hl-IOO ppb.

.3511ppb.

Su If"r d ioxid~ (SO,)

11.2_1 ppb.

dOppb.

Ammon", (/'-iH-,l

I ppb,

<25 ppb,

F,rm.,J.:Imyde (J-ICHOI

IU-I

N,lne,od{NO,)

ll.02-'1.3 ppb..

1','n'S,-", di""de 1"0,)

1I.0l--{l3 ppb.

N,tric oxid~ (NO)

1I.005-111

ParhnJ1.:I'~

1.000 ppm, <2.5 ppm" Ill,om ppb.

PrO>

2OOppb.. <50 ppb.

~"'"

rrbv

.1OOppb..

mo,ll"" (1'1>'1)

C""N.' I.i,,,, > 2.51'-"')

lO,.g/m'

:,500,.g/m'

fine (1':1.1,.,.) (.l7e· 25,.ml

5.,.g/m'

<&lW\/m'

(VOCs). Th""e lerms Me u>ed int"rchang",bly for Ihe purf"""'S of thi, eh'pler. Sulfur dioxid", """Ued !drgely fmm burning f",,~il Fuds, is the """,t impmtdnl ""'''''' of ,cid deposilion and """olldary particle formalion. Am".... ",hose dominant <;rticle formatlOlI and acid ,,,,,ulraH7..ltio,,. Particulate mal1er(PMJ, particularly sm.l11 pa rtid", lhal can p."",Ir'le d ... p "'10 Ihe lung~, are Ih" c"legory of common pollut.",ls Ihat )",,,e been nlO<;l .Im"gl\ a<;sociaied wilh hu""'" mon.llity and morbid,ty. In ten'" of repmting cemeentration of "ir poilu10".., rememl",r From Chapter 2 we lea",ed th.t {or idelll gil""', mill/'"' "'I ;o;;Il"d mol. ral;o; are "I";,,,,i,,,l. This is dear fmm the id~al gos because Jt co"stanl t~mperalureand pressure. lhe "olum~ occupied by a ga~ is proportioll,110 Itt« "umber "f moles. Aerordingly.

"i'"

I.,,,,,

ppm,_

mnles ; mol.,,; lmal

"Hr

(11.4)

AI..." the ideal gas law (Equation 2.1i) call be used 10 co,,,,,,,t go"""', con",ntr.tio,,-~ bdw"",n n",~s colI"""tralioll (n"'''I""lum.,) .",d "01um~ mi,ing raho (""Iurn"/\'olu,,,e) units" ,howII It, Ihe follow"'g ~"mpl~.

Chapler 11 AirCoal~y Engineering

e Xanl pie I

11 .2

Conversion 01 Gas Concentration Between ~b. and f-lglm3

TheronCenlral;On olO, is measured in air 10 bo, 7'i ppb,. What is Ihi, ron"""tral;cm '" u,ul< of Ilg/m '? A<;sunle Ihe temperalu"" i, 2fl C and pres,ure is I .11m. Remember thaI T expressed in K i, equal 10 T expre>....ed m C plu, 273.15.

solution To acromphsh th" mn,ers]on, use Ihe ideal ga, law to co,werl Ihe ,olume of 0,10 moles ()f 0" resuhll'g i" u ,,,,, of moles/L. n't< can be ro",'erted to Ilg/m \ using Ihe molecular weight of 0, (willch equab 4R). First, use Ihe delinilion of ppb, 10 obtam a uniUess "olume ralio for 0" 75 ",'0, Ill" m' air ",Iulion

°

1':0\\ mn ,'ert lhe \'olume of 0, III the numerator 10 unil, of ma<>. This" done in 1\\ >!ep;;. rirsl, con,ert Ihe, olu",e 10 a number of moles, using a rearranged form of Ihe ideal ga, 1.1\\ (refer bad: to Equation 2..M, ,,,iV P. RT. with lhe given temperature and pres:;ure; 75m'~

P ,lo"m'airsolulicm RT

75",'~

10" m' air SCllut;"n ><

In Ihe second step, ro,wert Ihe moles of

~;",;;,:,;:,-,;o;-;,~,,~,mole--K '~~~,mf<;,;o;,~K;' l

°,10 ma"

3.0.1 " 10-' mole(), m' .lor T1,~ ,tep'

I .Ibn

01 0, by

3.0.1 x 10..... moleO, ",'air

u,ing Ihe nlolerular weight of

°

~

48gO,,, 10"Ilg moleO, g

can be inverted to rot",.".t fmm a lTId.'lS mn"e"tral;on to a \'olume mixing ralio.

11.4

Characteristics of Polluted Air

11.4 I

CRITERIA AIR POllUTANTS

The Clean Air ACI requires EPA loset nalio".,1 air qUdlily ,Ia"dards lor ,pecifi<: pollul,,,,I< 10 ",fegu.lrd human health and lhe e,,,,ironmenl. Th""" air quahly ,tandard, defi"" Ihe allowable m"cenlralion, of air pnllutan" th.,t EPA has detenn,ned humans and the en ,-;ronmenl Cdn be expo-.ed to wnhoUl rge popul."i"n, "r Ihe en",ronme,,!. These
Clean Air Act ~'''I"J!.,..",. -"P"-'¥'" lair!cMAI

NAAQSRegulations ~"I"J IwwN~pa~avlarI c ""'...... ~"" I

World Health Ofganizatioo Recommended Air Slarlllards lor. "I"J 1........."""iTtJtop;c.... air----f"'Ilut.Ian/eni

Access U.S. Air Pollution Data h'''I"J I........-"P"~!ltir
.erond.1)' SI;U1d.rd. Me J""igned Io!>e protectivenf public wellare, i""luding preties, and people wilh pree.,isting heart atld luns dl",a-.es (for example, heart f.lilu'""/l",he",ie heart d;'... a~. aSlh",.•, ""'physema, and chronic bnulChilc,l. Table f f.S su",,,,arizes Ihe major ,,,ure,,,, ,)f lhe criteria air pollutalllS and Iheir ,pecif", heallh effeet', AL,o inc1ud"';! in Ih,s table i, oU",r important informalion .,bout the erneria pollutant>. A, \\'ith " .ller qualily a na Iy,i" pa rti mla Ie m.me" n air Cq 'IOnu n, for '" combination of differenl ""m?;",,,,:1>. Colled,,,ely, all partic1"" wnh aemJ y,~"nk diameters :'0 10 11m are referred h) as f'lvi", AU particle. :'0 2.5 11'" are referred to a' PM '--'" A' dl'Cll"...,.j in Table II.S, I'rilPlIJl")I I'r,rticfd-,). St"'OfU~"Y I"rtid,.,.a",fort'l<'
',lU"'"

EPAClimate Change Regulatory Initiatives 1or_'p"JIWW"-"P""'!O"lc,,,,,,uclla~
trAac-..Ml.ruJ~.ny'L"'t.-<~

~"'

\'eI1;cle;).

11.6

11.7

Nolio....1AirQuolity Siand...", forlhe Si"C.;I....io Air Polutont. Ip,i"",!)' ,tarKhrd, to p'0t«:! "'man hea~. Crt".;,. Polh''''''

Nali011 A6 QuaIty Slar
Particul.1le "",t ter (PM " ,)

150 I'g. m' (24 ~ an'raso)

Fine I"'rtio:u la '" "",Iter IPMl.')

331'g m'l24~a,'erago) 121'g m'lannu.la,"cragd

CUroll

mon"xid~ ICO)

9pprn., (~~ a,"cragd '5ppm, (l h a,"erage)

Si" Ways Air Pol"l;"n Adv.....ely Effects Human Healrh Prc"", lu '" d",lh

o.."""

",oJ lung function

lorre oed '"""epbb,J"y l~ ""'plra'ory infection" Aggl.wati,,,, nr ""'plratory and ,-am,oya,;ru l.1r

d""",,,,,

ll\C"reased frt."1ut"0' and ",,"en tv "f

l(11pp!>. tl haH..agd

"-"pilatorv "'IIlplo"",
53 ppb,

difftruh b.-"'t~jnt:atld""'ghlllg

(a~nual aycroge)

Sulfur din,ide (.<;0,)

7'i rpb.. II

Ozone (0,)

O.075pprn., (R h .wcrago)

l=d (l'b)

0.151'<1 m'\quart"rk.,wagd

C~apl",r 11 Ai
Engineering

~

,,·erage)

Eft",!, "" the ""'V"", 'Y'tom.

mcluding the 1,,-.,,". 'och.>s lQ 1"", and iml"'cts"n l",mlll& "",mOT'." and beholdor

11.8 SO","", Heoith Ufecl:s, and Othe.lnforma~QI1Associoted with Criteria Ai. Polluta.....

lodapoed from EPA.

201201

rarl,euL,te matto, (I'M)

F""lc-ombu,tion Ifn, e""mple, burnmg oml, ",ood. d,,,,,,,lj, ,ndu.,,,,,,1 p""""''''''' ~grieultu ,e (p~,wmg.nd burning

f",lds); and omi"i""sl",m unp"wd .-o.1
'-"'posu"'"

Shon-tern, Cdn au,a"~te h<>ln or lung di""", k..-.d'ng ,,-"'pi,~t0'Y spnp''''''s, m"""sed u,,",of ......- d""'llOn h<>'pital admi
'0

Long-term ""I""u ''''' <:., n lrnd 10 the den,lop"",nl of h""n m lung d""'a", ~nd p"""atu,e mor1al,ty.

P"ticu1.:lle n,-,tte, is cat"S"rizoo by p"'helo SIze; ,me gmuping IS inlo fi"" p"riicl"". (IT p"md"" n n",t rut"f!. An,~he, "omm,",I}' used <"'''80'Y IS PM "" or p"riid"" sm.,lIe, than Ul .. m in dc,meh" P,imofl/ f",tid", are gen....-~'ed di""Uy from •."",n-e (fo, ""ample. <,,"'pllo"" (1m "".mple p"""'''''''''' origi""to f",m pL,nl-<, induqr)', and ,'ehicksl.

1"'''''-''

Fuelenmbushon ("'pt'<:1c<1.

Reduct'" the .mo.ml of 0.')1';"" Te.><:hing ,he bod1lsOl'gan••nd ll..~, A U ..~,. aleS hN ri d '''''''', """"lllng in <"""t p"in ~nd othe, ')=plo"", Ir=lmg 10 hosp,~,l ,'",!Sand e",,"Scoc," mom Yi" [S.

Prnducro from iru:ompleined ,-'<\ulpmen I, ., i,fl"w limita hons. m 10", toml"-"ature<.

,.,1",

While hrgh Ie,'elsa"" ,arely enmunt""'" in the ambkn' a"""'phew, a'ph""",""" mn 0ITlJ' m mdo".. en,'r"m......",~" ,>f'on through a combi""!>",, of I"""ly furu:t;' m ins h<>lll ng and in.-od",!,,-,te "-,,,"l.-. h"".

'r-t"",-,

N"">gel> ""id,-", (NO,) ~ (NO + NQ,)

Fuel mmbu>tion If,,, e....'m pie, elec
Agg"~"ate lung drs"""-,,,

I""dmg 10 =pir,'h"}' 'l=p!on".lIosp'l.ll ~dmi
",-",,I"",,-,,-ed sUscepliblhty to ""'p"~ to", inlection,

Luge amalBts"f airl,h.ll conl.l",s > 7ll'1 1>:,1 .1Ie used during lhe combu"Mm "f l"",ill",,1... The high 'empo,.,lme (and """"Ii roes p"""me) t h.>t can e, i,l d u"ng Iud mmbustion r,,>duoes KO, ,,'hich is then qmckly I,~nsfo,med to 1>:0,.

p,,,,,,,,,,,,, to forn", 1m" of gmund -k",'el ""-""" (0,) (an

,mporl.l"l rompement 01

m-h.msmog1.

NO, ,e.cts to fann nit,k acid (HNO,l in the alm""phcTe~nd ,mporl.lnt cnntribut", to.>c>d ,.,in

i-Lm", h"tOncdl bmldings and ,Iructures m.. de 01 11 ......" 10,.., or m .. rble. (",,,,i ",1<"<1 1

11.4 ChaJa<1_ of Pollutell Ai,

•• I
,.",

di
Fudcombu1): electric uti~li
p""""""'_

N.ru,.l ....... rre< such as

,TIlc.:>"""".

A ggT~,.,,,", ...hma and incrroscd ""Pualory

Sullu. '" 1""""'" in ""'0)' raw malL""'l., indudlOSCOdt nil, iron, alummum, and

''''''plum".

""'"

Cnnlribuli<>n< to p."tid" fOrm.:lI,,,,, "ilh .",o;od.,lcd hmHheffecl<_

'-.po<

S(h react< wIth ,...>Ior In form sulfuric.>cod (H,so,), tho m",,! ,mporunl oontribulo< In ,lC,d '.110 and 10 ",,-=d.>fV particle "",no ""n.

I-LlmL< h,,'nncal

buIlding' and .""""UT"" "",de of 1> m""'","", or ",."ble

{)7.0""

(OJ

Onl)- crileri. polul,mt Ih.>! I.." ""dued "",
This
p"""'''''''

Cm'

Sorl"", (l11<.'t.:Il ~I ;md ollrr ml'!.:Jl,ndU.m.""

Combu,1Jon of Imcled io pi,to" ""8,neer .i",.. II,

""",it""

1'1.,10 ",ciocr.,'''''' Il.:lI i<"ry ""'flU i.>ctuno 8

~

Dec"",,,,, lung function

and mu,"", ""pi,.,o,,, wmproms,sucha. «'ughing and .•hon""", of b.",th

("AlO d.1rnage "",
Reduce" ,i
""""ph"",.

AggTa,-,""',,""hma and ",IlL,,- IUog di",,,"_.. k'->di~8 to ;OCfO.,.."j IDL>dIC~tiOO U'C, ho'dm.... ;"n'. 0""")':" I\C}' ,oom ",.. ". and 1""""'1u," mort.>lilv

o,,""'g"" lhed",,,lopioS O'-'IT""''''''''''', "",ultioS io IQ \ct;<; .nd ,mp.xl' on le.>miog.. m<."lllOr)', ,nd b"h.:""or '0 ehildn't1,

l.e.>ded g.>-",I",o.,nd !"'i~",re ,Hll u.."j 10 .....,oy !"',tsof the ",,,,]<1 .... peeL.:>lI)' ",b-5.lh.:tr'o Altic.I,nd !",'l.of A,;", Omlnbut"" II q 01 tho glob.1l ,-""',om"",o,,,l n_l..

em:!>o",,,,,,!.,, ,od ,,,,,,,I eft,-oet. '" .dul",nd ""Tlv effect... ",,,,,ed to ,,,,,,,,;.,

Cao Carbon Cioxlre (C!l!,) Be Aegillated asao Ajrpolhltaol?

The ,n'WeT to thL' 'lu",ti,m i, y"". The Supre"", C"urt ru W io 1(~17 Ihol corb"o di"xide .md "tltc, g,eenh"",e ga"" ~re "m e,ed b), the Clean Alt Act', b",,,d defioiti"n ,,( .ir poilu"",!>. The C"urt ",id th.t liPA must decide whether green ho""",, g""" end~nger public health "r welf.,e, .nd whethe, em;"i,,,,, fmm ne" rnol<>T ,'ehic!"" c"ntribut" to thi, .ir pollution. After coo,ide,i"g ,", ex"-"'-,; '" ,...;"ntific e,'ideo"e, hl'A i"oed eodomg"rmeol ""ntributi"n finding, m Decembe,2Ul'I, 00 June 2h, 21112, th" U.S. Ctmrt "f A ppe"l, fm Ih" ur. Circuit uphdd hi' A' <; "nJangermen! finJio& it, greenh"",e g~' em,,,,,,,o ,!~oJ~ni< (m lighl-Jutv ,'ehid", .nd it, T"ilming I{ule, Thi, rule e,!abli,he, " ph.>ed ~pp,,,,,eh (m .ppl),iog ",,'.io CI""n AiT

""'


Ad pennitling ''''-j ui ,e"",n ts

,,, ",Ii"o,'}' ...,ur,,-,'

b;,,,.,J "0 gra-o"'->u'" g~' erni..,i,>o', (".:u'iog <'" I.lrge ... ,ure"" rhe C"urt ""ofi,med that iiI' A foll"wed the

..oeo"" .nd the low in both th",e acti""-,, In uph"lding tl\t, end~ogerrnent finding. the Court ,tated: "The body ",;""tific e,-idenee m.:,,'. ha 1eJ liPA m _uPP"-,rt "f Ih-c EoJ~n&,rmeol Finding L' ,ubs!.:m!;"L" Th" court ~ L", confinned that Cleao AiT Act ''''-juireJ EPA to ,egulote g,eeohou,e go" "m;",ion, fmm ".'" ~nd lighl trucb, ~oJ Ihe elmT! ruled th.t Ihe litig"nts in the c",e we,e 001 ha,med by hl'A', 'r"il",ing I{ul",

',.

,,'

«.

AJ.oJ"" ''''''''~'''''''''''"I~" .. \l~'A..""" Adm.......· •• ,.. A" ............."'L!i F....,o.-..r.; ........"''''''-'''... ....... """"'8 on FPA "'ll""""" '" (".....,"'.... (".-... J_ N, """

e.-..v-

11.4.2 HUMAN HEALTH IMPACTS AND DEFENSES TO PARTICULAT'EMATIER figure II."

.y.to",,,

~hnw.

hn" II", humiln respir;>lory has "",eral ml'Cham'''~'I''oomb.ot a,. po)lIuli"Il. espl'Cially that Ii". lars.,,- particles. 11k .lm,nwanl tun"'" "",ml.ulJ tnrt""'". """,I pa"""geway' """"raIl' la.g" p"rhd lrom Ihe ,u... tre.>m, the IMge-1 cannOl I,a,el illto th" """" and dep,"'il du.. I" inlerc"pti')11 by "os.. hai,.. anil mucus. HOI'''''''-, ~null"T ~fi"e" part"'l.... anJ <;(Hn.. part,d."..... ith Idrg.. a"p"':1 .allO" lor l'~dung.. ,'of ''''8'''' anJ carbon dioud" by tn.. body. U1tr.fi".. parllC1.... ( 0 I ILml a .... b<'I,,,,~ h) through bod~ n......brane;. includmg ""to?rm8 lho> bloodst""..", ... here ~ ma~ ,mp.oct tn..lun.-"t~", III in~n.ll nrgan~. Up"""''''' In fin<' particles b al-u
01""

mo.""

Class 1)lsc""1on

<" .1

."1""",. "'...

-5

,.

'

'''''..rr.

•

Afun/l1,1

'bjarr~"Dfthe"".aD

Reopi"IoIyS~1etn

-

mock _

_,

_

c".., ~ ""Ir.~ "';0:.0'" 'N'

~.

-

- ........ .-

~-"""-""'" ~ ,..

~

Finrpart><""'"

be drpo
~

->-==-1-'-1

_....

...

11.4 Clo.aIa
-'II. '.

~!.i't,t

. . - '.

c:3: ./

•

...

••

'

CJ·· ~"

-~" -~ _ ,00-,.. 0 _

~1'"

"""" _ _

. -__ Figure /11.1 elob.l E>:p",ure k> rarlid". IPM,.,! in Urban ATe.' forZOOJ-!OlO b.,,'h pemn'>"''' "fWorld H""llh Org.mi,.lio" ~bp Pmdudion. Pubh" Hrolth Inform."ion and c,eographlc In/mm."ion Sj""cm. (GIS), Wmld Health Org.,mzallOn. 2fJ12).

~ Solid File's HQllselIJld Energy HealilL and Climate Much "I 111" world', I"~>T. ""J"'Cially lh,,,,, li"ing in d",,,I"ping ,-ounti"". u.S" ",lid bi(~'ud, (,uch a,

dim~t~ chang~.

,,,~>d,

CO;:),

.mirnal dung. eTOp ",.-'es. ,trawl as lh,,;,

prim."" h"u",h"IJ energy ",uree 1m

co~,king,

he.,I-

ing. and w •• ler purincalio" (lhat i,. builing) (llTuee rl aI., 21H)) ("", Figure 11.H), Tradihunal Iud u", and re,ulling eXI""ure t" ind,.," combu,ti"" em;",,,,,, (including p"'ticubte maller, c;"lxm munoxide, and t",i"') lung h.,-. lJe<,n T",'"sni"eJ "a n... ~or rou.'"

_,i,

"f mmtalily ~nd mmbidity in lh~ d~,.d"ping world, wilh di'pf()p"rhon~l~ ~ff""l> "n w"m~n, FUTth~, mm~, ,,,,,~nt c~,b"n ~m;"i"n, in,-~nl",i,", ,ugg~'1

th,t

h"u,~h"lJ ~mi",i"n,

carb
10, rani<

Chapter 11

'~a>nd

AirC()"~y

f,,,,n

c'~Jbt",,~, "f

bl,c>' forcing) ,r~ ~,Ii CO, in T~g."J" 10

dim.t~

~hinJ

Engineering

Ih~

being r~'p"n,ibl~ f"r 1~ F"'rc~nl "f plan~l's warmillg (wmp,,,,,J wilh ~U F""Cl'nt

Th~ energy l,dder (fig"'"'

f",

1 1....1,h,,,,-, h"w fu" Ivpe

may chang~ ~, , h""""f-o,ld', ,,>ei~1 and "",..,,,mic 'Ial"-' inCT~~_"" (Smilh ~I ~I., 1\1'13), A" h"u,~h"ld ~J"an",-' up th~ ~n""gy l~tl~r, th")' ina""'" Ih.,;, ~"F"'ndilu'''' fm fud bul ,l", deer""'" Ih~ir ~mi.'\.,i(>n' <>! l",rtiClJIa~ m.,u", (in thi' """'. m"",ureJ ." I'M ,,~. ",""I ~"""y h",,,~h,,ld f"U,"'.... Ih~~x,"'t p'tl~m d~F'c~d in th~ ~n"'l;y l,dd~'- II"u""h"ld, "ft"" wntm,,~ I" u"., ",lid fud, ~,-~n wh"" th~y ha\'~ Ih~ t.'C<"'''mic ~bilily I" m.".~ up Ih~ ~n~rgy l~dd~" ~ilh~r bec;,u"., Ih~ ",lid fuel, are m(,,~ .",e;"bl~ '" b""~m,, In-ir n",,-lv acquired "",,,ure,,,, .,~ u...eJ for "lh~, h""".,h"ld naoJ,_

~ (cpnljm,pdl

-

.

~ '. :. -_-'1IIrtF!. .

..

C): ./

' .. co< taoo

Dd

~

,,-

."•••

0"'""........~-

RgUf1l/11.8 Clob.1 Popul.>lion L I,i ng in Ro ..l A.... Th.1 u.~ Solid fuel. (with penni"K>n of World H",lth Org.>nu...tion ~I.lp Pm.:luclion, Publk Hrolth In[ormation and Ceogr.'phK Inlorm.>lion s.""'ITl< (ClSl, World H",lth O
•

Flgure/l1.!

I,""",,, l IlPG. _

I'·-~

ll""

Ene'l\l" L.dd".Showing

Ho .... ell.oS.. in Foc1Typ".nd PM '" Em ;.. ion. AI" Impocted by" H0" ."hol d'. Soc i. t "od Ewoom i< SI.too.

~

l

I~l IWoc
ICrop "'"'000

~

~

""" 11.4 C1aJa<1"';.ti<:s of PDlluted jijf

11.9 Major SOUtee. of Ai, Pollulort.

Sl.ll ionary fuel cc.nbu.lion

Eledrk u III ln"". irtdu.lJi.Jj l>
Sl.llio.... ry ,ndu.lriol

Me",l .meIt""", perrol"'-lm ,er.".".,:"". a-men t kdn.'. m.mufacturing faclblie<. ,ok""t ulJl17.>tioo

p'''''''''''''' ~rtd "'"'-""

p,o=.';C';

Mrn~e"",I'l"'"

H'I;hw"y "d..;:Ie~ l'lln.wucbon "'IUlpm",l. mari",,,""""I>;. ~lTC,~fl. 1<""""'CIti '''''

Webinar: Test Results of Cook Stove Performance ~.t.p-jl ........~"".or'"

P'''''''''''' "'J~ Webinar: Health Effects of ParticulateMallerfromWood Smoke "~'Vli11

Partnerstlip for Clean Indoor Air and Improved COOkstove TecI1nologr .........fClf.a.r,l

""""g

11.4 3 MAJOR SOURCES OF AIR POllUTANTS T.ble 11.9 liSl'i th" "'~jor '0"""'" of dir polluMnt'i and pmvkl.,,; exampl... of lhe I)'pe; of these "",rees. Kote lhal air pollul.lI\t, are emitted Imm .I~tiondry sources ~nd mobile souro,,". A... t!isrus"ed in T ~ble 11.9. pollulanls emilled direclly imo the "ir are called I',imnry I>o/illta"i;. whil~ poIlUl.llIl~ like oWlle .nd <;on"" p.lrtide. Me formed in the air ~nd arecalled ;«0",1.:1'11 1",,11,10,,/;;. nli, lon'Mtioll ,~ a lunction of "'''''lher (temper~ture. moislure. and "iMS) ~nd ~I<;o geogr.lphk~1 iNlu"",,, (for ~.,alllple, pro,se'l<:e of 'unlight is required lor ozon" fom"'l,on). Some SUlfdt~ pdrlicles.,.., fon""'-" by reaclio,,-~ aller emJ'i"j(),"~ 01 ga"",,,-,-, SO, into the ~lmosph",re fl\'''' m.,I-fired PO" er pld"l' d"d some indu.qriill fdcilili", Figure 11.10 pro> id"" infonn.lion aboul lhe p"rc~"t 01 emj,,-,iOl'-~Or cr;ler;d .nd other .ir pollul.lnls th~t dre em,tted by. p~l1;mlar .'iOur<:e

II...", PM,.•

.,.... PM"

i !

•

~.

w, 00,

= 00 ...... {2OOII1

•_O
•

Figure /11.10

Pord

lor2fl(ll). ~ ...... ~r"'2Q12ol

Chapler 11 AiJOllal~y Engirleemg

--

•

,oo

,·~l"",,~,..,

cal",&0l). Elfflric ul,lili"" accou", lor ;> no percem 01 SO., enti",jm~, w jllle agricultural pr IlO percent 01 a",,"onia ("H ,) emi",iOl~' (acC!'lullted lor", ,he other category 11\ the figure), VOC emi.<;.~iol\' orig",ate lro", ",I\'ent u<.e (whICh ), al,.., accounted for ill ,he "nlher p"""",,*,," GI,eg.....y of Ihe figure). For CO emi<;.~ioI~., appro~imalely IilJ perrelli 01 emi"lon. are I",m mobile
Lead AirPoliution ",'l'J !~pa¥,1~I rilea.il

"r,",,,,e;,,,,,,"

~ Air !>nllll'inn and Environmental InsUre 1',,,,,iou,I}' in Ihi, ehapl"", ,., ble 11.7 li,ted ,ix di (1",,en' w'y' ,hal "i, polJuli,m .d l'e,,,,,ly ,mp;,et.<. hu"",n he"I,h. Many lim'" 'he burden 01 ,he en\"i",nmenL~1 ri,k """riLOme "nJ SO." "hieh "re known 10 ag,,""'a'e il. It L'" T~ Ji.""a", ch,,,,,<,leri'.ed b)" in~"mm"rion '" ,he lun" and airw,,}' 'rol ha, 'ymph",,-' ,,,nginl'; in ""''''''1)" imm mild '0 liie-thre.'ening, It peNi,'" in~, aJUlthd, and "nn",,1 health care e-.5 percent), bbck children (If> I"""enl), "nd Ame,ic.n Indi.n/and AIa,1<.;, ;..,.ti,,,

duld"", (Hl.7 I"""""t) tll..n while child,,,,, (K.J I"""e,,'), Th"u!;h n<~ -.I..,wn in thi, fi"",re, I"KlTer children al"" ro,'e IugheT I",,,L, o( ,,-,Ihma Iron child,,,,, 1m", hl,,,-,,,,h<,IJ, with hi","",r i!>a)me. '['he Ji.'p"riti.", in ,he pre""leoce oi a"h"", ,how in Fil';ure I L 11 ,re "L", ",,,,>ei,;,led wi,h ,>Uta,m"" 01 ,hi, iJIn."". For eK"mple, bbck child,en wi,h ",h"", are """" likel)" h, require h<"pi'"Ji,.a'i"n, ro,'e ,'i,il "n emergen"y IIKlm. "nd die In'm ,heir a"hm" 'ro" whi'e "' I"barro ,m"ke "r cri'eri" "i, pollu'ant.<.. KemembeT tha, ex!""ure nlOne "nd so, _"n ,&,>",'ale ..thm.,. Other underl)"ing lactm, "'mId be lrom gene'i<, I>T ""!",,,u,e en"i,,'nmental allergen, {tl" e,ample, h,,,,,,, d"-,, mi'''''. co"hmch pa,'id."" ""I ,md d"l; d,mder, ,nd m,MI (CllC, lOll}.

'0

h",

'lJ

Flgure/11,11

r""'~l""
et A.thm~

in ,h. Unil~d St.,.. Amon~U_17'I ~~ •. Old.byR~e~.

_crwn.om

lP" 2012bl

'" 11.4 ChaJa<1_ of Pollulell Air

11 4.4

RECENT TREJ'oI)S IN CONCENTRATIONS OF AIR POLUTANTS

"1,.,1 air pollutants h.1' eshown a steady decline in air £O!lCe'1lraIIOl~' lhe 1970. and 5pecially ,in,,,, I 'l9O (EI'A, 2012a). Areas ,ha, do not adde\'e ambiem air quali,y mn"""tralions belo", ,he ""'Iuired '" AAQS are referred 10 a, a nonaltainmenl .rea. Table II.to gi""" r.....,Il1 Irend in air pollutatl'" in ,hese no""I",i,,,nent areas.

' '1<:<'

Identify Nonatlainmenl Areas """" "'r~~ I~""'1 ""I e_yl ~=rU>ooI;

11 4.5

AIR QUALITY INDEX

The air quality ind"" IAQU pr,w,,j,,,, an easy-Io-unders,an,j ,,-ay 10 rela,e ,he daily .,ir pollu,ion mn""rllratio,~s of £tlleria air poilu,an'" measured ill • particular geograpi,,£ area '0 £fltl<:emralio!L'; 0/ a"

11.10 Re
Paf'icul.1le ma'h."(PM,_,)

IllOt,.,.""" 2001 .,nd 2flJ() ll\ ,he Uni,ed 5Mb".. lhe ann",,1 ('<)ocenlralion of PM~, declmed by 24 percen' ,00 Ihe 2. h mnco.'ntraoor.. 1m P!l.1 L , dL~,hned by 2W'1. [n 2fl10, 3.1f=< In the Unll
,n=

[n 2010, ,he h'She<1 onnual """'0se ""","""",'io,,< I", P!l.l~, ."port,-xI In Colifom"" [nd;""", Po"".c<'<'d II\" NAAQS.

c.-.rtxx< 1IlOI>Oxide

eo"''''''•.lbon.' 01/\ h ,"'OOard lor CO dec.""-....... ~2"

ICO)

Iho annual NAAQS staOOord'l\"'-"" "'ported In 2010.

Kllmgc'n dioxide (1'>:0;,)

The annu"l ",ean concenlr.1Uon, "f t\O, d'-'CJ'e.l
Sulfur di""ido (SO,l

Th" annuol mronconcm'Taoon,,,f so, d"",,-,,
betw""n 2001 and 2iJ1O. No ,;01,00"-' of

Ill."wl.'''' 20fl1 ond 20 HJ _n.1ti"",,1 av"'-'ge S"'JUd lc~'ol O'oon, orCUT in Cahhlm"'. Tho "",'ml"~llan m"mbmng .. I""
"..,re

COrn'nl• .ll'llll
,It/u,,

Chapler 11 AirOo"~y Engineering

11.11 lnlerp,etanon of the Air Quolity Index Al, Duality In>tlAOll NumoncalV_

l .... or_ Co<>c
0-50

,.><><1

,\ir qu,II"·,, mosodered ""ticlnTV,.nd a" poIluhon poses l,llle", "" ri,k,

51-100

M,>de,~te

"ir qu.,11 Iy '" accept.,ble, h<",·,,,,er. I", ",me !,,,UUtII nt. there n\dy be ~ mod""", hrolth m"",m for, ,."'" sm.,11 numbe, "f P'-'OJ'le who a,,, unu
WI-ISO

Unhrollhv for "'''-" IIV" g,nu I'"

2'll-3m

Memkr< 01 ",,,-
Unhrol'hv

he,y""" "",v ~io In e~!",,-;ence brol'b etlc<:t<; mcmbef<; of -«n
V"'yurui>.dy

Hmlth Wd1lUog< nl o""''l:'''CY c
Hm.h ~Ie", """v"",", ""'y"" F"rie= molt' .",i.m' hm n efeds.

f",

pollulants. This informalion is lhen imerpreted Ihe general public and ""nsili,'e pnpu1\lio,,-'. Fi, e of Ihe c,ite,ia air pollutant,are lracked for Ihe d<>lermin..uion of Ihe AQI in a I"'rticu1.lr location (lhat is, I"'rtk'ul.le matter. CO. 1\0" SO" O7.<",e). AQI vJ.lu,", rangelrom Oo-Ia irqu.dll y) [0500 (wor;[air quality). n*'), arecalcuLne..1 for "ach pollul.>nl by linear intef}'Olalion bet",,,,,,, ~Ire;hold COl """,Iralio"culoff "al u.s Ior &lch I"",lth concern cans". An AQI ,.alu e that "'I Uil1, 100 for a" i,1d i\"id Uill cnl"'~l poilu la III mrrtSponds 10Ihe ~.I air qUillily 'tandard for ~ldl pollutant. Valu,," > 100 aremnsidered unheam,y. ,'alue; ~ 1m "re """"idered "'!lsfactory. Table 11.11 prodd ... Ihe he.lIth concern m&lninS lor AQI "alue ranges. n,e O\'eral1 mmb..."", AQI "al"" is <;eI "t lh.ll of the hiS]...."l indh'iUnd Ihe Unned Sl.lle;. M"" 101 these e,ceeda",:.. uay. a", II"'" due 10 high ozo"e or particulale m.mer """cenlrdlmns. These Ildp!",,' to be two criteria air pollutanl' 1m whith ,,'ealher rondili"'L' play an in,po"ant role in lormalion. "'Ole Ihal alllh.. ",e"s reported III Figure 11.12 expe"""ced " large Jecrease in Ihe lOumber of days "n "hid, Ihe AQ! wiI< exceeded for Ihe 2002-2010 period.

,,,,ii<.

Whal's Ihe Air Quality Indu WhereYouli¥e? 1r~'f'"Jl...-..wAIrnOW~I

Compare Your City's A1rQuality 10 Other Cities

-

"~'-P"11...-..w,.p~"la.18irr;a"'I"'",II""'"

AlrOuality In Your Neighborhood Ir,'-V1 I~__,,,GO"",,.,a""'j

11.4 C1aJacl";.li<:s of PoUuted jijf

-

•

III • "

,

-

FlgullIlll.12 N uwborof D.Y' O~ Which AirQuol ity Indo< IAQll '1.1"". W.re C",.ler TIl''' 100 d "ring 2002_2010 in Sdccted CHic•• [bd<_

example/ll.3

"om £1'" 20 I 201

Identifying Ihe Air Quality Index (AQI)

Find Ihe AQ[ in Ihe neMesl cily 10" here you are talll'!> lhl~ mu",",. Wh.. t is 11... Ie...,] of rn.ahh roneen" and what does Ihi" AQI mean m"a""'l> for general and se""he populations]

solution On ~mI>o.r J(J, 2012, Dr. M,helcic planned d tripc",oe;ng near hi." home;n Ta mpa. Florida. He wenl 10 the Airl\'ow web ,ite 10 determine Ihe AQ[ for III.,! day belore going out TIl" Airl\:ow web ~jle (hlt!,,1 ja,n,ow'8m Il w"-,, de""[nped by EI'A, Ihe I\:allona] Ocean;" and Allnospherk Adm,n;';lrahon (I\'OAA), the Nati"""l ['ark Sernee, and [rlbal, 'tale, and loe-al agencies to p,m'ld"lhe public w,lh ea,y acees, 10 Rational air quality informalion. The Air"",," ,,"~b ~jt~ prm·ides daily AQI ,eal-lin\~ AQI condilinJ'-~and ro,,,,,a~b lor up.,on"ng day~ for ",·~r 3lXJ citi"" a~l'OS-~ th~ United 5t.ll..... n,~ AQI ",d~x (>n thl~ dal~ wa, reponed by AIr,,"ow 10 be 2R. Acc<>rding 10 Tabl~ 11.11, th~ ai, qualily is ~OI,-~id~re.:I "good" and ai, pollution f"""'S hll1~ or no ",k 10 th~ health (>f g~""ral and "",-~it,,·~ populallon.~.

• 11

Chaplerll

Ai
~ HQWHjghQwIMAQlr.t:V OnJanuary 14, 1l1]J,1r., AQI in lIeijing "" .. ).Il.nJ the I'M,_, w,~, mea,,,red a, 2'11 ",!Wm'. Two d.,.., "'Th~f at th~ I"'ak of the- p.,tlcul.lr ai, p'~juti()n «i,i,. If.., AQI wa, del=rnineJ to b." 775 and the 1'11.12-' w"a, m""urN to be !lII~ .... g. m'. In wnlr,,-,t. for air quality in the United Slat", we", all in Utah o.A'I;'tn, Ogden, l'n,..<>. s"I, LJke City, and the lVa,haki" Indian Ik"'''Y.li,m n",r the Utah-Id"hu bur-

derl. Soh LIke City (Ulah)

w",

'ulfering

P'''''

air

qualily 1,0'" em;""m, lhal we", mmp AQI was 141 com f',,,,d t.. , value th.lt J "l' ,,{ /0.7 in 5.., h.tnc",,,,.l rod a ,-alue "I 2J in L;" Vega,. A,dto-cril-eJ in rable 11.11.an AQI gn">I,,rthanJlXI is wn-i.JemJ huanl",.. to.1I hum.,.... m~ imt lh."" t"." ",-""iii,.., grtruf"'. wI>.> ""'y ha,-e heart ",. 1unll ail""",,,The AQI "f H2 ,,,&;,,,,,-, thai m"mboT. "r ""n,iti,-e

p"""'''''''

mo'y ""perie""" h",llh effert,. R",idenl> "I !lei~ng~nd man~ ,~he, "iii"" in Chi"" were w~m"" to ,lay

gr'OJp'

~ C"mte ChOOllc

i",i~ lheir

h",,,,,, in the miJJJ""f )anllal) a, thenah,., laced """ 01 the wU"II"',i,>d, "r ai, qua lily in ,......",t hi'lmy. The Chin""" g",'emment ",d.,,-ed fact",i", to ,mle h.-tek eme...., i"''-" while ffi .. piL,b '"'w a 2H-311 p"rcent in"""", in F',t;"nl> com",aining "r '''''piT"tury c""u",,. 11".... muld the AQJ gt!! .," high> ,\1,,,t fi"" particulate matl.,,- lhat i, mea,u,-"d a, I'MH ",iginat,,-, from the burning "I I.",-,il fuel, and bi",,,,,,, thilt ""n include w,ui fi,,,,, and ,'gricultur.Jl burning. Chi"" hiI, ",,'e,al Iact"" lh"l e~n ","u.'" I"~"- ~if qu~lity; a I~rge P''I'''I~ t"., dep"ndenl un fo,.,il Iud" e'F"ei.111y C()~l, 1m heating. elect rici ly, ~ nd Ir~ ,,_ p',TL'li"n; emnom ie ~cti," ity thai has 1"'''- regulalion or ind,,-,tri~1 ,m emi"i",,-,; chomg"" in lif""tvl", lhill ha,-e led 10 i"",,,,-,,-'calf regi,m~t metrot"gi",,1 crmJilion, ~11 crmlribute h, lhe maj", heahh pmblem (lext "n China adapled lfUm ,'ASA', Image "I If>" ll.ly Gallery, January 15, 2m 31.

Impacts m Ai' f)lati'v

El'A ,ep'''!> lh"l c1im.,te change i, ex!""'t"" to impa<.-t ai, quality by

• Pm.:ludng incre.-, and <1"",,,,,,,... in particle ",aUer pollution nver diffe....nl regions

• Prooucing 2--ll ppb, incr""",; in ,ummertnne a,erdge ground-I",-el W.ilne COneenIT,>!io", in n",ny regiOJ'-~ of lhe rou"try

The erni"i",,, reductim,-' lh"l have "CCUTTed wilh regulati",,,, p',licy in<~ti,'"" ducti'lll 01 n~w It:chn,,togy ar~ "ccurring f~,le, lhiln c1imat&dri,-~n impact>. The,efme, Iher~ may boe wa," 1<> mit'gate lhe imp'let, <>r clim"t~ chomg~ "n air qualitv lhmugh rurtr.,r impfO""ment, in ~iT qualily.

• Further exltl:erb.ting "zooe eoncentr.tions on d.,·s when wea~,er is alTeady conduc;,e 10 high oznne concemral,OJ'-~ • Lenglhe,"ng the ozone sea"""

11.4 ChaJacl_ of Pollutell Ai,

11 4.6

Mercury h~'f'J IMW>'-"pa..g<>.'i "',"'"
HAZARDOUS AIR POLLUTANTS

IlaLanlous ai, pollulanl. Me al,,-, knnwn "-~ toxic alt pollutant, ()r air tn~ies, TI,ey may caus< cancer m no"cance, hu man he.llth impact" a, ,,-ell as "egati"e ,mpact, onr from G,apter ~ th.u nm""",cer effect. could include reprod IIeti, e 0' birth del«.."lS. n... EPA is ""lUlted to control II'V In~ie air pollulanls lind..... Ihe Clean Air Act. f-igure 11.13 ~h{w,', the decrea", in emi,,-,ion of mo.t to,ic air pollulJ.nl~ ,ince 2IXJ). Figure lLl.l depicb Ihe lifetin", canee"i!ik lor a pe'".)11 li "ing in the U,IIled Stales th.,t i.~ "-"",,,i,lted ",ith e"I-","ure 10 .lir to,i"" in a particular geogr.lphic reg,()n. The "al,o,,,,1 a"er,'ge lor cancer ri.~k le",,1 from e"l""'ure t.~ air to'pically inc"""..,. in u,ban areas and al"", fo, Ih,,,,,, who live in lrallsporlali,~n mrridors, In addil,on, al""",Ili() perCenl of Ihe ca",cer ri,k i, as,;ociated wilh lwo air loxie<, fmmaldehyde and bo>nzene. Exposure 10 diesel e.• h.lusl (a likely hllman ca",inngen) is al,,-, large in the Uniled Stal'" and i, not induded ill thi, figure. 11 i, a1<0 assodaled "ilh I"'ing III urban a",as amI .•Iong Irall_port"I,,'" corridor,;.

FlgulIlll1.13 Ch.n~.inAmbi.nt C"n.entr.li"", Reported.t U.S. To,i. Air Monitoring Sil .. 12003-211lUl Report i. p]

,,""ago mn'",,-'1Ilr. lion.

Cn",,-..ovOC. ~

:-•

,- •"--. ,-....- ,

2.2.'·T~

·1

•

"",-

.• •-

O<'/lI"n..... vOC•

~

_,J~

, ,

~

•• "1·

"'0-,';0"'"'" " - Cl'Io<>\lO po< v_

-Ct
Chapl",r 11

Ai
Engineering

v_

FlgUR/l1.1"

E.tim~lod C~J>Cor Ri.k

A.d,.,t<--d with ""p""ure 10 lo,ic air I"'lIul.1ol•. ~",

.... _"~..,[r,,20 1201

..

--~ ~.-

,

."-'""-".. --"'~. ~.

_.,,-~.-

11.4.7 GROOND-tEVELAND STRATOSPI-ERK: OZONE OW"" ,,-"5'S in 1><1111 the 1"'1""'''"'''''' (th~1 ls. Ihe ground Ie, e1) and the slrah»phere. Ozone LS good "he" p'''''''''1 in Ihe ,Iralos!,"".e bUI bdd when p"""'''1 in II", lroposphere whe... ,I L, .. n impn"""'l romp"nenl of urlMn '''''>g. Pre,'lou"!)' in this chapler_ we I"" e di",u""'-"d Wllh exposur.. lo 8wundlevel ozone. 1" lhis ,"'010"',\\" wiD d ,,,",U'" Ihe [""nalleo, of grou nd-Ioevel ozon" a,>d reactiolLS that result in depletion of the ,Ira,osph",k ozo"" layer. n'LS ""1U're> an undelblanding of photochemical reactim",. Pho'oehon in the ,,-<>rId, phol,-,.;yntl_is. Light is differentiated according to ,l<. W.\\ elength. Table 11.12 gives the entire drclmmag",.'1ic ;pt.-I",,,,. light ra" },., e,,,,i,ioned tocm"i,lnf

1"""

11.12 ~ledromog....lic Spe
-

X-Ta)...

uv Vi,i~1e

(4OO--
\'iolol and

~2ll-75(J -

,,-xl)

10fTa=!

11.4 C1aJa
,m~lI bundles 01 ~'lt"K' emilled by "'.Hte,. The compuled ~,Io11m",

c~lled en~rgy

I,J"'I"",,, which 01 ~ pholon, [

, ,,,

[~n

be ~bsorb&l or of joul",,), is

(unil~

01.5)

'" h~re ), equ.,b P1~nck', collq~nt (fi.1>2fi /Il-" ]-s), r L~ the ,peed of l'ght 13 x 10' m ',), ~nd L i, the lighl" "pecHk wa,'el~nglh. Equation 115 ,hOI,', lhal greater ~n~rgy i, con",ined in pholtms "ith ~ sho,t~r w~,elength.

This Iighl ~n~'gy can be absorbed by ~ molecule. A molffule th.lt ~1Nl,;", Iighl energy' ha~ it, ~'''''gy i""",a..ed by mt~tio,,,,l,, ,b,ational, ~nd el",-"Ironic e,citation. Thl~ molecule typically I",,, ~ "ery ,hor! lime (a fraction 01 ~ ,econd) to eithe, USf< the ~nergy in ~ photoch~mjcal '&Iction 0' k.... ii, most Iikel" a, heaL All atom~ and molecules h~,," 1~>'Ored ,,'a, elength, ~t "hich th"}' ~bsorb light, Th~t is, an atom or molecule ",ill ab"",!> l,ght ,,'ithin ~ ,peeific ,ange 01 w~,'elenglhs. Greenhou"," ga_ ,uch a~ ,,'ate, "apo', CO" "',0, a"d CH, al>s<>,b e"ergy emiued by Earth~, inl,~red light, while th~ mapr compo,,",n" f:II the atn~"'phere ("'>. 0" Ar) Me incapable 01 ab-.orbing inf,ared light. It i" thi~ c~plure of energy ,elea,..,..j by Earth Ihat partially cOllt"bule' to Ihe warming of the planer ~ ,u,lace. We dL<;c,,-~""<./ n, Chapler ,I ho\\ anlhropogenic emis,iOllS 01 greenhouse ga",", ,uch a, COo, CH" and CFC~ l", .. e jncr~~,.."j the amounl of thL~ "captured" ~nergy. Unlike the olhe, criteria pollutants, 07.one ;s notemntlead, oz""e is indirectly cre~loeJ by the emi,.;,on 01 other air pollutan" th~t und.....goa complex "'"'luenee of chemical "'~C1;01l< tl",t i" d,i, en by ,unlighl. The o".....all pm"",", of IhlS photochemical system of ,e""lim, issi "'plified in one "'luation a< follow", GROL"'ll-LE\ 'EL OZO:':E

RH

T

"'0, _0",," _ 0, + othe,

(11.6)

In Equation II.fi, RH i, ~tl abbre,i~linn fnr ...~cti,·e hydroc~rb()ns that we eMlie, ""d for pur!"",es 01 thi> book rould be ,eferred tn ~s voe,_ Re~C1,,'e hydro<~r1x>n, a'e ~ d~s< 01 emnpou,ld, including manl' c<"nm",d~I, ",du,lria;, ~nd l"'""",al product, (lor example, benzene, pr0l"'n", c()ll\I-~",el\lS0/ ga,oline, and "th.,.,,). Some of th"", ",ateri.,r- esc~l'" 10 the atmosphe... as fugitile emi""ion, or Ihrough d~i1y ad i,' ities{hk filling u p y""r vehicle', ga" lank), and s"",e m~y be ,ele~sed in sm~l1 or large quant,ties th,nugh l"'nn,tted d,,,,h~rges_ The nilr"Sen oxide tenn (KO ,) b Ihe ,um of Ihe tw,) nitrogen ,peele;;, 1\0 ~,>.:II\O,. They are pnmuced d U'Ulg Ihe cc."oo>l i"n nf f.-..'iil fue~ with nitr"Sen-rich alf. Wh~n RH and 1\0. are pr"",,,, in the ~ir and the sun ri"'-'i, the lorm.Hion nf 02nne e"mmet'C<'S. The ozone co""entralion increases O,'er the course of th" d~y~, the i",ell';ty ill the 'Uri increases ~rld emi."'OlI' of RH and 1\'0. (""I'""ially from ,'ehide exhau
AirCu"~y

Engineering

• Fl..... ' 11.1 S

'"n,U.. in"",nl ..nd ."bin""""." Are...

-- --.r". Ozon...

,_O":lOI:l
<"''':~"Ir.lli,)t\''I} pio:ally

I"'ak UI early aft"",,,,,,, "I ., ,i""IM lime" he" Ih.. light """"gy f,.o", II\<> sun b the 81"&0\"" and tho' all' ,e",!",ral""" ;" high""\ (lhu' ;nuea'lllg the .e.. dinn ralel, Aft". the ",n 'idS, th.. phnlr.-h",,,,.-al ...,,,,,1;;'11 SUl...",riU'.1 in E'lwt.", 111> ,h'P" Tho. .. l~)w.. ,.. Ih.>l dN'"" ozme .. , "t'll a, rh,.. ifal p'i'U.."...., that """0' Ii.' '>7.'_ 10 dOOnllldl<' ..00 I't'dua. ,"" (lUlI,e ....." ""'''''''11.)''' through tlw ~ ..r"ng

.-.t.""

STRAlOSPtElllC OZONE DEI'lf'1lCX'>l Anot....... e~mploi! of moI;,cul& ..t>-orb, nglighloi.'no?rg~ L n thai II"nngoftheU\',ghII 1\.11"" ,,,,,,Eo rI h 's .I~ 0, moIn. Je. Io.::;".,ed .abo\ .. lIw f oullor ..b«wbl _ ..f lIw 'rw;nnllng li\' I>ghl: ... lhe nnS" oll20-22O nm. And oIho>r lIo'- ...... h ._ N" filt.... out tIw L'\' "gilt .. lib ...' dtngtl'o. ,m.iller tIwn 121'1 nm. Tlu;.".."...... "" U\' light ",Ih .......,l'Wngth Nk"" no run r...m." [aru., ... fh .. Idd.. h;:,Ip f m........",Io:!; '" .".. a ,.Ioo"fil t" f•• CIIOn<>fl:\'1 ighl,othe ••
.om<>,

Ozone Layer Protection and the MonlJealProtocol

Slral"'phetlco, ;, formeJ bllhe ,,,,,ctio,, of atomIC oxygen (0- l wllh m,""""ulM o~ ygen (o,l o\Ccnrdlllg to the lollowlIlg redctio",

"'~'f'J 10'ZDl1<.ut1< PDr'o/

0-+0,,-0,

Class Discussion .&

•.a.

.&~ Stra~.cDzc""

The (0- l ''''lUll'''''' in Equalio" 11.7 isde,ived from Ihe ,eaction of 0, ,,'ith UV ph<>lm~'i (A < 2~3 nm~
Jep'''ion itla OUljD
Q, _ UV pMIOl1 _ 20_

-

'JOu r "",",u.-oM, G
In g""'lcaph)i. Jr"""l raphi<;6. oufo-"",. aM.d g""""",,,,,e

111.n

I11.Bl

Howe,e" i" the slrat"'phere, lhe "'djmity of ""ygen ",isIS a, 0" so only d l,ltle 0- i, d"dilable. Therelore, e,en Ih<,lugh Ihere i, hllle in the slrdl"'pl",re ,e1.'I,,·e to 0" the ~mall ."nounl, of 0- created here will ,eact wilh the dbundd"l 0" 10 form ozo"e {O,l, dcmrdi"g to Equdli"" 11.7. EqualiOl~~ 11.7 and 11.8 e",plaln Ihe nalural form .•tion of owne in Ihe 'Imtosphere, They also pro,'ide il~.iglu a, 10 whv the roncenIration of oz"ne i, much higher in Ihe ,I'dl"'phere (ppm, le,elsl ,'e",u, the lroJX"Sphe,e (ppb, le"el'i)_ Thi, is heedU"",, lhe _'trato~phere C<>"'di.~~ much more 0- Ihan the lrop""phere, "here O· is not. produced by Mlural ",echdnislll' in b'ge dmounlS ...,cepl u"der humdn-md..,ed cond ilIon, 01 ,mog formalio" (d,,,",u,sed ble, in Ihis ""'!lonl. Ozone j~ d",tmyed Mlu'dlly in the ,t'dl"'phe,e by Ihe re
°

O-,+UVpholon_O,+O or 0,+0-20"

111.9l

Alomic oxygen can Ihu, eithe, ,e.lel wilh 0, to fmm ",ore 0, 0' else d""lm) 0,10 creale 0,. Fortunately, the de>truction reactinn MS a ,elal"'ely high a,ii,'alion energy, '" thi, ""Iural d""lruction re~clion occu", al a ,low rate. Ozone is d""lroyed cmlli"uou,,]y in the ,Iral"'phere, and the amounl 01 ,peei", thai de>lroy ,)7-""e m"wlI'g i"lo Ihe ,t,al"'phe,e h,,-~ been augmemed in ,,,,,ent )'''''''' bv hum.," acti,'ili",,_ Although the chemical cye!"" IIMt de>tmy ozone are compiex, a illu'lrat,,'e ,hared caldlylic m""lM""''' i.~ .. s follows: \11.10) XO_o_X+Q,

(l1.11l

0-+0,_2Q,

{11.U)

O"erall ,eaction,

The ~peeies X in II"se ""Iuall"'~~ act "-~ C..Ulysl', .pee.:lmg up the '&lCli"n OO""",n 0, and 0. TI,e mn..e common ,pee;"" of X h.we been identified in Ih ....... cdtegories' HO-, ,ad,cal, {OH, CX>H-l, t\0, radicaL~ (t\O-.l\Q,.), and ClO r .. dicals {el ClUl. III the ,lraln,phere, HO radical, accou"l for as much a, 70 po...,.,,,t of the tot••l oz"ne de>lruc· lion. Ahhough they are I"", abundant, BnJ rad ical, can al>o eff,denlly cal..lyze ozone k",,-~. Chapler 11

Ail"Oual~y

Engineering

F......."'dlall eM"."" al <1m. ~ ,e ""'y efr.: i...11 ,~ta I,.. I~;" 1he d ""'" 't.ll:1 nIl of 'm>not. Thu~. lhe gre~"""lnrea. 10 s.raU¥.J'h....... 0, ;,. from ,hlonneron.ainins cht>:micab. forlu"".ely. 99 pere~n' nf M.a""'l'he.k Cl '" '4J.~ '" nonn>.octl,... io.n.,; ~och a~ HCl and ddon",! IUI.alot (eM:>XO ,1. ~ ..m.'1.,,1I oj _tralospheric ,iIJ be Iorm<. 0 ~nJ eM:> ' A natural" occu.nng ,hlor"""·ro"ta",,ns <:hemK.o1 is chlorurno!1h.lno> (CH ,al. ..-hich os fornlt'o.l ,,, ......... oceans and m.l}' .... Ir.. ""~ up Into the ;.tr"I0-...pl'wre CH..a rnoIen>ie> can """"" ..-ith L"\' foho ...... (" ..I. dength of:!OO-2Mnmllo rroJ...,..chI<>n....... f_ raJ •.-dl;., 0, Tlw majn" a... ~""'" ....."'.. of chll'r"''''' fmm 1101' m", ...... '.of 'hIoTofl..:>maa,Ix-..... (CR::.~I "'... tho;> -t .. nd .... ~ ,dooa"" oi ciIJ'\t commonly u"...,j crc, .. "", CrC·l2 tel' ...a'" used ..._,.My ..... rooIanl and mngerant. and embo!dJo'd ,n ngJd pLhbe f...... ml. CFC·II ICf(J~ used '0 bin.. hole<- In ""It ria'''' 'uch.&S 'd'J""I p.>dd,ng. and car """'-,). .. nd CFC_n (CF,a...cr-o,. u-' It, dot.. n CIrcUIt boards). CR::., are telat".M~ 'Iilblot in ,he lrol'0~1'1w!n>. but aft.>r being tran,pon&! up ,nlo thot ,t ... I<:.;.ph....... they'd" unJergo rh,lh">Chomica! "",clio.., ,hat r..!~ Ihot'"UI} Ii. ,hlon"...f..... radical. CI·, F." ..~ample, the brealdo\\ n "f Cr-C-!2 OI."Cur< .... foil"".,.,

"orld·.

..".... ..

......u

c\1.,I",.",.

cr-;:o: + UV photo.. (200 - 2!lJ nm _ cr-;:cl + Cl

(11.13)

1148 OlX)ROUSAIR ()Jon'''' .11...""ull&l In,,,, "atural and e...gi,'o*'rt'd 'y;.tffi'!i. T~b(e 11 .I) 1i!il.'

*,....,11 oJorou, rnmpow,d. a",,-.;iJ.Ii!J "ilh Unl,,,,lti!J munkipal

"a"~,, ~It'l" ,or

asncullura( f...,;llol\ and Ihe.. ~",,;>,·i.lto'lJ II. ~"t~ n"""'gem~l. fad It...,.. A I"" indu dedor t hresho Id,Ihal i s, Ih" km ....t ('(~I(~"tral".' of Ih" odl'r Ihal can bo! do1""Io'1J bv humans

11.J3

.no" for SomeCompound. AU

Odcr 'h..

w........ "'.r

.".,.,"" ~

""-" ~

,,...,..

....

H,'dn.., ~

-

~

"I

1:""'"

I ~,

I~;-

.,

CH_'>-<:H,

H'

M

.-

CHPH

......-c~f'l.ln

5CUC!

er-_I
t

ci"ied with U...-..tell

- OdcIo"TIoowl_ ~,

,,·_"(11

,

1-

''ctl....!

,

n

•

"991

Of'O.l.l:"

"''''

~

,

I ...........

......... D.,,,~

.....-

,,-

0.._

The de,,,,,!i,,n ci. odor is n{)! ~ g",-,.j melric for delermining the he.alth effect. n'L~ i, because th"",hol,j, Me nN re1ued ,n health eff""t'. Thu" if ~n ",d "'id ual d,_ not ~mel1 ~Il od"r, ,t does n", ",e~n exposu,"" 10 Ihe odor is .... fe, Furthermore, while i, may be mitially ea,y to det"", ,,,me odor"us em"p<>unds a, ~ low roneenlra,;on, a, higher ronce'1lration, a,>d m·er t,me, the "do", paralyze the ~bility of the body to sen"" the od..-. Regula,orv l,nnt, f", <> bemmmg in<:rea.~,ngly ,Inngelll. For e.~ample, many munici!",l wa,tew~ter ,realmen' pl.uu, must now con,rol oo"mus em;",ions 10 """Je,,,,,uble le,d, a'the p1",t boundary.

,h.l,

11.4 9 INDOOR AIR POllUTANTS Chapter" ,uted ,ha, the ,,,door e''''''....''''en' has been",e all imp<>rtant pll"" for exp,Riur" '''CN.",';ca k. "ne ",a",n b.. ng ,hat US. ciliz.." n"" s~",,1d SSp..-""nt of ,heir lime i,Id"",.,.. Of parriL"Ullr ",n""nl a '" i,Id,.-.r en"i",nmenb ,hat are pnnrly ,enlil~led, by n<,tur~l or mechanical methods, and ,no,.., lha, rontam ehemic-al-emlllmg building ma,erial~ ~nd carpeting, ma"ng', and ~dh",iles. cigartt,e sm,,\.;e, ,ynlhetie cleaning and fragr,,,,ee prrx1ucl~, ..nd ex!""ur" to ""tural p.'llnta,,'s like radon. TI,ere are currently n" enforceable s",ndMd~ for r""wenti..1 .. Ild ",mmercial inooor .ir quality Ioke ,here are for ~mb,ent air. However, limit> and guiddines h",'e been de,el"ped for induslri.,l seltmgs by theCkru pational5.llet y .. nd Heal,h Administrat~n(OSHA) American Industrial Hyg,ene As.<;odau"n. m.l~)r <;(lurc", of indnor air p<>Dulilnls are p",dde
",ld So.,,,,

11.l4 S......:esof Indo.... Air Pollution

Combustion ""'''''''

Bumiog oil, S"s, kcr"""lle. co.,l, ",ood, aod lobacm products C.:lO rclmse fine p.>rtirul.:llo co,.:Ioo h.:ILlroOUS .:Iir pollu"lOt. iolo lhe iooC
""'I"".

P"""id"" aod "uld""r.:l" pollur,lOt-I cao 00'''' lhe ,od",.. e,,,,i,oo,,,,,,1 through opeo "indo"... crack,_ lhe "oolllatioo IOL,kc, .:Iod from dus' carned iolo ,he buildlOg 00 .00.". R.>don c.:ln eotL..- 'hrouf;h the build iog's f"o.md,Jlioo. Buildong m.:l",r;"", 000 h""-,,,hol
A"",""", .nd l""d are fouod 10 bmldiog io.ula!>on .:Iod p"inioo older hmr..". FOrm.lldeh)"de

and olh<..- Wx:.s.:lre em,ULod from 1""",.,.) ",ood pmduc" fouod io the buildong struc!ure.nd furnilure. VlX.'.:Irc .:II", cmit!L'd from ..." lallls, adh"",,''''', "od I",inls. Fl.",,,, rdard.:lo!<.:Ire emil!L
\'oc."

Hou"'-"'old pmducl<

h.:ILlrdrlus.:ll< pollut.ol<, aod fragT.:l""'" "'" cmllt<.'d from rom"",o household clN"'..... maio I""""", pmduel<, pcr;rm.al c.", .:Iod h"bln' product<. ood pnoter 10k.

[)"mp"""<.:Iod ,..at<.-< k"ks

B,oIoglC.:ll pollUL,ol' .uch o. mold.

H""",hoId onh.>bltml'. f""'I!', and I"'" r .>eli "j I,,,,,

Pet>, 1"'OPJc. rodeot,. i"..,a<, and pl.,ol""ll r.n .h<'
Chapter 11

AirCu"~y

Engineeriog

c~n

be in\lnedi~,e or long term, ImU\edi~,,, eff"",s spa" th" ,ange From irri,ation of eyes, th,oot, and nose '0 Jea,h by asphyxia',on. SubJ"Cts call also ,uFFer from headaches and Fatigue and a,tluna. long-,e,m eFF""ts can ,esull in resplra,ory di,ease, hear, di,ea,e, and cancer. Table I LI5 pro,-id"" a lbl of \\-ays to improve indoor air '1uality. Note Ih.lllhe main \\ay to impr""e ,,,door ai, '1UdI ~y is Ihrougl' ooutee ,eduction through ""relul seleclloll 01 materiab and consumable product, ,lIdt are u'<'d ,oc""",,,,,t, Fu,ni"]" clean. a,1d maimain ,he homeor l"uIJlng. Venlliation i, ,he ",-,<:ond m"" importanl wav 10 Impr", e ,he indoor air e""ironment. 11\ lMt. a I••rg" 1'''' of ,he lEliD g,,,,n building ce,Micahon process is rela,ed 10 illlpro"Illg i"dnn, ai, quality ,hrough redue'lion and p'oper ,ent,lalion. Son", m,"'r"b u.'<'d promote energy efficiency ill a building Cdtl enu, vacs. Acoo,d,ngly. liP A de,-elopt'd a document ,i,led I1<,,"I/I1( IlIdOoJ' [",';rolllNl'IIl Protocol, for I/o",,, [II'TI;Y Upgmd", that provides a "'" 01 bes, p,actices fo, improvitlg indoor air quality in conjunctio" with home energy efficiency projecK

'0

S
11.15 Methods to Co ..rcllndoo. At Pclluna>

Soureeamtml

Prefernd "nd mn<1 effc,<"lve b<"au..,,' dlmi""'",, ,he """""of 'he pollu,.,nt. Slr,"-'S",an)· placed "'''1''-'1<''' W,,", e'fller the hou", can cap'uredu" f'"t",l", Pu.-ch.J..., and"", varuum de,ne"", wllh h'gh c'pru",and fillr"i
,,,,,,n f"rticleo.

Eliminate wn,helic carp<-'I••,nd their .>dho... j,'"" th.l, emil Vex:: and r "",,,nng' h,~th ,..,mor 10", Vex:: ,dh",hL'S) 'och ... w""d, tile, and <>dhe
"",W

E1lmi""to w.,le"- leak.- th.lt

re~".., ",,~,ruTe tntn

build"'g ,lruclure.

Pu.-ch.J..., and"", yaruum de,ne"", ","h h'gh c.pru",and filtr.,i
'p,lI. quickly

CIe,n .lIr duot<, filtoT"<. and ... "-'d/du'''' "",,,,,,,,I, "-'guL"],,

l.1",h.J.meal "o""L,hon ')"''''''' draw oulSlde au mhl the bUlkimS and can emp"'" ene'S" officiency lhmugh u'" of .ir....." heat e'dyanlag" of ""tur,] ,,,nbl.-.lirm. U",of ,..ell-d""gned ehimne"'"nd appl",,,,,,, """t,l.lion are ,mportanl hI """,,,,ng gaseou< "m;....on. fmm mmbu.bOn,nd r~her hUTn.ln

act""",,,.

Airelea"""

Thi. i, a 10a.1 pro"",...><1 m",meI of Ihe polhJ';Cntr,,1 or impro....><1 ,'entiJ.-.tion

bee.,,,,,, Il typic.lly i
CIe"ner< are g"n""I1,- noI d,,,;igned 10 rem",'o ga"-"""-' pollut.",,. .,nd fine F"rtIoula'o "",Ber. Furthe.,-_ the" eff"",,,',,,,,,,,,, ,'an"". and h'gh throughpu' r.t,,,; ""'" be n""""",'Y for <"-"nmg a I.-.rge room.

11.4 C1aJa<1";.lir:s of PoUuted Nr

11.5 Ambient Emissions and Emissions Control 11.5 1 TYPES OF EMISSIONS AND SaJRCES

Air Pollution Irom Burning Moo.,I"",1 SolidWaste (Santa Cruz. Bolivia)

IC00.

"'v'" Hooo*'-o W00<101 w, ,ghIl

Table 11.16 gives how ".-,urc"," of em",ion" of ai, pollulanls can be broken do" n ",10 Soevera j cal ego';"". Emis."iOl~' are u"ua l1y reporh,d In umls of ma", emiUed per utlil I,me (for example, gIs, Ib! day, kgl dav, melrk lo"sl year). SlaliondfY """rces are f.ldlilies whose emi,sion, are fixed in 'pace. Typ"" of sLllionary ",ure"" include point sources, "ho
""II,

11.16 Definition of Some Mojor Anthropogenic Source. of Ai. Emi ...o .... Emiuion Source

Poln'"," reo< altO

AT<~",ure..

crn~",d

f,ern a <",de

,Ill""

are em"';",,s tho, are no' a,'ocla'oo ".ilh a stack and are ind,dd",l]\" "'n ,m.,ll 'n b< treated ..,

pom'"",,,,,,

P"""TpJa,.." indUS!fJaI boile",_ pe"oIllJ m ,d.,.,nc" ",d ""Ina1s",f"", ma bng', and chern ic.>l nl.,nufadu,i ng ",d ""In"". SO<"
M"bHuoUTce. arc ca"1\"""'" fo, h'gh".a)· and off· hIgh". av );Omc"".

H 'gh",,'y <;ou ",,'s ,ndud e au Inmnb,lc, I>u."",. lruch, a nd oth"" ,'ch>eJe,; Ira,'cllng on local and high",,,' m.ct... Offhigh".,,,, ,ourc,--.. are an,' mobile combustlnn "'UITe> ,uch "-s Ta,lmad" maflne,'""",L nff-m.d "","',cvel" ''''''''l\lob,iL... fa,m. co",true",,,, industrial and la".n! g.,n!cn "'lu'P"'
f"r;ilinemi ••ion.are rei".."", "f &'''''' and parnculalcs that are nO< 'hrough a collectinn ...,'em,

lJ 'uo Ih' .....""ialOO wilh ind u"ria1aetm'"",. Em icape capture by hnods arecmltted dunng "",",,,al tr"",f"", a,c cmltted In the at"""ph"", Imm a "",ree area, Of are e",u'ted fmm pm,,,,,,, equipment. The')' can ,ndude those fmm p""'SUn7.cd equipmen', \m,,-, from ".,h'"" and pipe mnncction..s_ ernL'
Chapler 11 Ai
11.5.2 EMlSSONS TRENDS Si""e tW), ,h",.e h.t> beffi a ,ubstilntial ,.."jUCtiCill (59 p..... c..'ljin the , for ,he parlkubte malt... (measured as PM,.• al\d PM "J, nit""8e" mides, VOC,,- carh,,, mo,lO)(ide (CO), lead, and sulfur di""ide (SO,) (Figure 11.16), In ,en", of ,pedflc poHutam level" direct PM H em;,.;;;'n, ha '" ded i,"'<:I by more ,ha" half, SO, emi..,;;'", by mo", than (,()<;l, NO, and voe em,,,io,lS by more thall·W p"rcenl. TI,,,,,e large d """,ase. in em"" inns occurred e, ""as Ihe lJ S. pol""' la uon ,nc",a 5 ""rcen" energy cOl,,,,,m.,..ion increatr.""" olle of the g",at f"'l",ti,,,ou!l:ol\\!, and fed ... al go""rn",,,,,ts a"d en ,irom,ental organiza!io,-,;. PeN",al choices by individual, and homeowners alSt' resulted i" Ihe d""rease '" o,erall elll,,,i,,,.. (EPA, 2012<1). One im!"lna", tlung '0 ob>.e,,'" from Figure 11.11i is the impact the .."o"omy ha~ 0" erni"i",,, of air pollu'an'" During ,he ""onomic dm, ",urn of 2007-2009, there" a nolic<,able drop in gr"", domes,ic product, ,'<,hide mil", tr.\I de e\'en though Ihe ecnnl)IllY

'0

,~~~-----------~ "" ~"

...

...

.... ..

,."

".

..'f----

(Jf0S5

DomoS\oc Prock>:o\

&"

'

- - -'-

-~

Rgur./l1.16

Comp.rioon of Gro.... th M ....
~od
"""
11.5 Mlbient Emissionsand fmiS1ioosConl,oI

gre,,- (as ll\ea~UrM by g"""s dom"'lic product) and Ihe U.5. population and number of ,-ehid" mil." lra,-eled abo illCrea"".j. In wntr.1st, 0' erall CO, emis.sion, have iItereaSffl by., ppro"imately 8 percenl from 1990 10 2009.

11 5.3

Learn more aboutCap andTrade h~'-Vi ;w.v",-"P~-'l"" i ~

".". rn,! v4
Market Programs for SO Reductions h~,.".J IWMI'-"p~~1 ~."."."'d&I

pr<>q0l""'J
Chapler 11

AirCoal~y

Engineering

EMISSlONSCONTROL

There are many way' t,~ cOlltrol the emb"on",f air polluwnls. Source reduction atld demand managemenl strategi", can be u.Sffl to ellmitlale or reduce air emLs.~IO"-S by changing .leti ,'it,es Ih.,t pmduce Ihem. Applicatlo" of green ehemi,try ..nd engineering can .. Lso be u,ed 10 elimi'ldte Ihe hu-"rd aod amoutlt of air emission,. TI", Sucres""" of regu latory approaches L...",e Ihal weredcscusse.:l previ<>U,ly) included pro"i'If"" of Ihe Oean Air ACI and il,amend menlS tlldt required n\oljor emillers of alt pollulion 10 obla;" a p."mit from a qate regula lOry agency. Thi, permll then 'pecifies Ihe Iyp"-' a"d qu.,ntilles of air pollutalltstl\olt may be relea,ed, along ,,-ith legi,laled contml qralegies, ,uch as Iyp"-' of colllml equipmem re'Julred. M3rkel·b~d approaches ha"e ~n con,idered a, a rolllrol ,Iralegi", SlllCe p"-SMge of the 0".1" A" Ael Amendments"" 199(1. Marwba"".j app""eh", allemp! 10 creale financial inCelllj'-'" 10 reduee "",issions. Many sueh appr,..,ches allo", fM Iradlng of emissi<\n, bel,,-een ,<>Urees .II d iiferent scales (lor example, from" ithin a fadlily to acmAAa slolte, region, or lIatioll), '" that "'lUrees th.ll are I"",,,,,!-,,,,nsi,-e 10 conlrol ",ill ,alue ;mplemenling conlml mea,ures. 01", e".,mp'" of thlS approach is 10 ,et an upper le,-el of 10MI allo",able emis.siol" for a particulM pollul.lnt. TIli, rap i, then Illeore1ically I",,-ered over lime and in.lividu..1busll","_ can d~u:,nni,,,, if Ihey ",i,h 10 purcha", emcs.slm" credils from Ih~ marlel, or in, esl in other ~mi"ion, colltrol ,tralegles tlldt can indude souroe rMuetl"", .lemand "'''MgemelU, or control technology. A natJon,,-idecap-and-lrade "l.lrket ha, ~n dev~lop"dlor ,ulfur dio"ide emissimls and the "",tern Sidles of Ihe Uniled St~les de, eloped a similar markl for "'0, em;";m.... Cdlifon,ia is currently iOlplemellting ,uch ~ market fnr CO, emi"im~,. Ahh<>Ugh cap-~"d Irade cs an important strateg~ for e",;ssion reductir.., il can be conlro,ersial beeau,"" trading of emi"io,~< ean lead 10 Irading or effeclS lor " , m e ponuldnts, wilh pntenti~1 erwironmel'tal equity ImpHe~lt"'l'" Volunlary a pproache. u"" education campaigns to promote ,<>Ure" rMuctiOll or provIde ""cent"es 10 individuals or organi?llion, Ihal pmvide r'-'Cognlt",n or a financial it>eenli,-e to reduce e",Ls.slon" r"r e"ample, a bUSlIl_ could provide financial ineentive to employees who participale in rid".shanng prog.anLs through recognitIon. OOIlU""", free !-",-sses 10 u"" mass tral'-'l-"'rLllinn, or u'" of a ,h.,red ,'ehide 'upporlM by the company. III addllion, hom""" Ilers can be educalM Oil how Iheir daily aCli, ilIesand purclMsingbehavio", impact relea"" of air pollulant-. The la,t ,Irategy to rolllrol air "ml"io", i, Ihrough Ihe u," of conlrol teol,n<>l<>gie,. Olll'i<>u,l) treatmellt;s a 1"", p",ferred ~Iralegy for ",a"agll'g air em,,,,,,,,, than <;ouree reductio" ,tr~legies. One rea,on i, ])""".j on cm~"",,-allol\of ",ass prinCIples. Trealme,," ohen con ,'ert pollutam, of ol\e Iype to anOlher, or remove pollulants from the a" into anOlh"r med,a (thai i,. solid or liquid waste). Treatment

proc~

alt""'plt
ENGINE FUf'I)AMENTAlS AND CONTRa. OF AUTO EMISSIONS As r"portN previou,ly, air consi't' of 7R_ 1 perc"lll N, and lfI.9 p."c"nt 0,. TI,e production of NO. i, primarily from n""l-J'Mde combu,lion Ihough nalural proouction can occur from for",,' fire;, lighln"'g, baclerial action in soils, and nx,dation of NH-, in the almllsphere. fn an engine or nlher proc"", Ihat combu,l. f"""l fuels (fnr nample, burning cOdI or nalural ga, to proouc" el""lridty), air i, drawn into a (mnbu,t,on e1Mm!>"r and mixed wilh fu"1. Al high lemp"ratur"", Ihe nilrog"n and "'yg"n Ihal occur naturally in Ih" air r"act 10 form 1\0... in Ihe following gen"ral "'lualion,

Ill.H) Remember Ihal NO. is a It>rm u,;.,d 10 d;nalion of NOand t\O,. Appr,,,imalelv IlO-9O perc"nl of Ih" t\0, IhatL< formN in your car "ngine is NO, "ith Ih" r"m.linder being 1\0, according to Ih" lolk,,,,ing more specific "'luations:

I "1 _""0 I -t-

0,

111.15)

HUh)

rn .lctuabty,lh"", t wo r"dCl~)I"ar"mud, more mmpl"" and depend on mnditiOll< in Ihe engin" and Ihe fud Iype. Temperalu,"" in/lu"ne«s II", forn~,'",,, of i\:0... and higher lemperat"''', I"od to lamr proou<'1".' of ,,0 ,w"r 1\'0,. 1\"0... formed Ihrough Ih" proce>< dmbuSlion; Ihi5 i, callN fuel NO. and ""n ac~....unt for up 10 about SO p"rc"nt of the total t\0. gen"raled_ AU"mpt._ 10 minimiz" NO. emLssio"s from a .."lude can occur by ,*,,-eral mo>lhods 1I1.t include l"ffludng peak toomperatu re; .lnd oxygen "",\C"ntralions bv rec;rcul.'!Ing /lue l}l""', l"fflucing Ihe air 10 fuel ral;o alld ~ldged mmb. Manubclure", also spend ,ignificanl df"r!s to oplim;z" tho> de-.ign and O»"ralion of Ih"jr engine> to reduc" "m;"ion, of 1\'0 i ' CO, hydrocaroo,.., and particulal"" (e to reduc~ "",iss;orL< of Ihree air pollutanl" CO, hydrocarootl__ (Ihat"" r"a<'1i,-"hydn-.calbonSl\1\ ... E'luatior.. 11.17-11.19 {Hilli."., 2IXlil. C"rta,n ""mpounds in the fuel can POLJ' lhe calaly", for ex"mpl". lead Ihat would be foo nd in leaded gasohne:

,,,tr'l\""

1''''''''''''

11.5 """bienl Emissillll.... d [m;,!i<>n.Conlrol

2C0 + 0, - 2C0,

(11.171 (11.18)

21\'0, -.to,

+ N1

(11.19)

Equation 11.18 is Wflll~n sp~dfi""lly for Ih~ ron...,,,,ion of one ly p" of h)'d mearbon (an alkan~) lOCO> anJ ". aler, "h~re a is.n integ~r. For ~,ampl". for Ih~ alkall~, h"xa"", (C"H,,), a would "'lual h. Equalion 11.19 r~pr"""'b Ih" redu~tion of 1\0, by a re.:lucing ag~nl pr""'"1 ill th~ uhilusl ,lr~am; reducing ag~nb indud~ CO. H" and ullbum~d hydrocarbons. use of the catalytic ro",'~rler ther~I"", resulls in ]o",,,r emIssions of CO. hyd r"""rbo,~s,and NO" but note ho" lhe "nd producI,slill ,""""It in Ih" production ,~f CO,.

TI,,,

TRANS~TATIO'JDENIAND MAf\lAGEMENT The EPA and Fed""al Hlg]",ay Admini,lrallon ~ncn..""ge transportation d~mand m.n.g~m~nt a, a "ay to reduc~ .. "hid~ cong""tion and air ~mLSS'O"S. Demand manag~m"nl ,tralegies in Ih" lran,porlalion >ffIor focus on changing tra ..,,] beh.wior of u",,.,; of .ulomobil"" alld lighl-duty Irucks and also changl1l8 policies rel'led 10 land U,"" For "xampl~, air pollutant "mi"io,~scan be reduced by red ucin8 lhe nu",b~r of tr ips, Il\" l~nglh 01 a Irip, Ih" "'00" of lrH~I, and lh" lim" of day an individual or bu,iness conducts Ih"ir tra,·,,!. M~th".:b of d~mand "'.''''8em"nl ar~ also oft"n focused "n reducin8 Iraffic Juring con8e-ted 1"'" k I"'r iods and have been silO" n to reduc" ~mis,ion, 01 all cril~ria pollutanl'. ne",.lnd mana8emenl ,Irategies ell\ also indude lrip reduction ordiMn""" m.,de by k-.cal, regi,.,al, or st.1l~ 8m'enu"""t to ~ncourage Iransporta tion a Ii"... and ~"""\ ~r.oou ra8e lel~communimllonsubstltu les for tra .. e1 to a """tralized workpla"". n_ ordinances are typically ai",ed al ~mplo,~", and ldlld d~, ~lol""'" EPA (2007\ also r~ports how local gm ",,"ment, use methc.i" of land U.sa8~, ,ud, as HI-fiil d<"Vl'I",,,,,(,,,~ !<) e"""u ra8e d", elopmetll of for"",r II >d ,,-, tri.lI s, les (that ls, brown field,), dedilUn8 suburban mall" vac"nl p"'l"'rti"". "nd "U",r ul\lferutlhzed lar\lf for f\'de"el"p""'nl (EPA, 2 ek-.p",enl ""n lhu, redu,"" ,pr.,,,,l and tI", lting a ir ~mL"i"ns a""",ialed "',Ih longer cum,,,ules from sIngle vehicle of Ira'~'JXn1alioll. Table 11.17 provIdes an "v~r\'ie", of 1~ Ir"'~'p<"·tall,,n demand """"8"''''''\1 stralegi"".

It,,,,,,,,

Traffic Congestion in the United Slates m;'Vii mot>iiII.y,"" ou

""'u

"'00""

11.17 Examples on.an.portoton Dem ....d Management 5tr"egies Thot Reduce Emissio .... of Ai. Pollutants (adof>l'd from U S. Departmenl'" Tran!pOl1c1ian. 20131 f.d1ili•• ",dud. !hec"",t",dum o. "'paR""n 01 pa,kmg In'" In 'uburb.>o or "".,1 .."" whe", peopk ,ao par~ ,hL" ,."hic\e<; .1Od then jOin a ':'''I''''~, "'''pool or I,ao,il "'-'n'"",. P~,k·.Rd·rid.

Chapter 11

AirCu"~y

Engineering

High occup~ncy vehide tHOVlI.nes u", Iwo Impo<~lOl mb, hlv 110 ma.,m;"" the pc"",n....rr\"ing ca f"C' ly "f a ,,,,,dway. ThedcpeTahon of !he ,mdwal" "g'. from ,jngle vcllicleoccul"'nrv In pnnnly lre.,lm""ll.-.- HOV" ,,-,ch as carpools. bu.""" and ,-ans (ront,nunll

Il (.uch a. fn", g... c~n:I.,dr~",ng•• aw."d pmgr~m.,subs.ch",,). Rldem.llchlns m.:IV be 'T~.>t LS, !,,-'blc.h "ogul.J.r cupo,,1 "'" tm",,) ,,.. dVTl.lm I< {re~I-Ii"", "">tch Ing of md h'ldu~[. who w~nl to tr~,..,1 ~,/f",m
V,npool progJOn" ~re p""hcul.J.rly "'eU .'UIlL't IVpicoUv c.\fT)' 7-15 1"";''''''S'''''.md o!,,-'I','k' wL",hl",,,_ 1T.,,,ling betwe""" """ or two coo",,,,,, px:lrup Ioc.,ool\.' (lvp..... lly a t'ul-.1t\dnde lo< "'. tr,,,,-,it ,I.,;;'",) and the pla
B icycle~nd ped .. t,i~n projectolprogums Include a "'Ide ,angeof In"",,"""n" ~nd .t,.>t'-'l;ies tn f.,MHt.>'eand el,cN,lr.'ge no",nntonzed lT~vel. !!:.m d""lgJI enha1K'e1noOn Ill. bicwle .sh.lre p"'P"1n!', blCJ'cle Incen 11\''''. • nd ,neI,'!"".tio" 01 .howering f.>dlities Into boJlldins•.

No,,'ore'p~nded

buso", Ils• .,.IeI"'T.'i
Impm,'ed t".,sit .. ,,'Ie< ",mh',--'S increa.ing ,he f""l"""C)' Of h"" ... of ",,,-ice on ""i.tmg 1T"n,,1 "'ut,,,. Incrmu", of ",,,ice .Un,," peorle In use th" "",h,.l h""" th.>t were p",,'inu,ly .".il,ble.

InCTe~sed 'ron.• 11 m..keling,

provIs;on of more widely ~c~llon,~nd.dd I' lon~l ple u,,"8 publ... 1T.""p<>T!.>t""'. Pn."'i.oo,, of IT~",," ,helt"..., benchL'S, ma!"".nd ,'"ually plm.I"S .",thetJ"" nr Impms;"s lhe oomfort of .",d lTam, ""'y be • 'upporting ,t""-1\)' 10 I"'-Te.,se rid"",hlp. Sen;ncemL",t, an Include Impr",','" lrnn.f", f.dllh",.OO "mmg "I t,a""it se,,'ice<; 10 ,,"'''''' waH ti""",

T,~ ns It P ri< Ingsl r 'le~ I"" red uled WIth uslns tTd""I, lh"rebv ""-"hng i"",nll\"-'" for P"''P1e 10 shill from o,her trd"eHng mod",. F.re reductil,.,Hdn be I"'plem",,'ed ...'tomwide, In .pecific f....f"'" ,,.. reduced·fare mne". (lr nffered thr""sh L'mplOr",-bat are ful'" '" p,,,,..,Jlv p"ld 1»-' lhe ""'pk>,,,r

P".ki"ll pri,,1 at\d!"T l(~'led ,,;!h dridng. pri"ate ,,,hid,,. throuf>b Png on eith", end of the tnp. IVh,le ","'" policies iocm>."" the <0"<1 of p"fkmg 'hn"'gh I.,x"" or Implemenl.:lh"n of F'"lJn/: 1,-""" some ,,,.,t,,&,,,, red"", the .upplv of ugh the cr",ti.:m" ,,..
no'

00""

,1""

COO'''''''''''''''-....

"""""lion•.

R.,..d prlcingch.>nge th<, c""-, 10 con"un",,, 0l"'r~ting pri,'ate ,'"hklees. Examp"," include new or increased toll> on rNd" ~od hIgh ,x:cul"'I\CV "'II L,n",.

VenioIe mil e. Ira ,'ded· b~.. d p rid ng imp""'" d Ie", b.,sed on mik.'S d""en. The f""" Ofe CrgL'd wIth., I"',-mlle component .nd could be I",;"'; ona monthlv oT..,mi,mnu.,1 b,,,,,.

Fuel p.icinsslr~le~y'=',"---'S the I.n ,.,"" 'pphed '" <'-'l.lll ",I", of mot", fuel" Fuel prx:ms al,,' crc"te<; .,n lneen "ve for pur
EJ"pl")~.. b.lIoed 'ra,~1

denund m~n'gemenl P"'S""'" .,red""g",-'" to enmu,.'geernplm<."" rooffer ~ r~ngeof wrd.nur<; while pnl\-idmg a wide ,,,n..iy 01 mnbilltv np!inr<'; Indudmg leIemmmuting.

None"",I0l"' .. b~5ed ,..m d."",nd man~l'J"m.n' progr~n,. reduo., """"""Mule trip" to .-Iddn..",. 1]-., 8""'111 in nonwOIl trip'- E\:o,mrlees of noocommute ITawlmdlJde 'p'-'Ci.:ll ,",en' tr.,"" (to '1"'r!"'S ",',,,,,,and enlel'Lll",,.._,,,1 "-",,,,,,,I, 1",,0."" tr."e1, and ...hool-hasal 1T."eL

L~nd

u.•e " .. legl •• Include t,a",it-<>ric""L'd d.",elopment and dle,tL""" ,,,,tn'll)' cente", In'egr.'",s I.md use ,nd 1T.""p"'I.1tlon planning m.:Il"" mmmon d",,,,,,,tion. .-.a:"",ible by .11 tef"" Ii, 'e mod"" of tf> "-'por1a lion, 1,...,ludlng t,an,lt, ",.Illnl>- and blling,

11.5 """bienl Emission.... d [mi,!i<>n.Control

.. "IUin"g,-

_

~I-JT,r,a,Uli,c,C"O'QUgu Th~ T~xa,

Tra'>-p"rtalio" In,litut~ r~pmt.,J lhat in 2I1I 0 traffic .. The total o",t "I thi, "'''g",tinn j. ""timattod ,,, exct'ed 5](X) bilh,m, with a $751l ", ..I h. ""eh "",nmUreL In additi,m, ,tudi", "0'" ,ho,," t"',l!Talfic mng",liu" i, in""'a,ing uut>.ide ,,/ the ru,h h'>Ul with 4lJ peTe""t ur tTalfic del,y' nnw '''P',rtal JUTing midday and ",-emiliht. In the Unital Stat",,_ l".fi;" rID bv 1912. A, "'>Tly a, 1~)7. then, we", "'l'0Th that ""dwidening project, that had Mil eXpt'Cted 1<, relie,-., wll!l"'licm "F!",lfol to bt,do,'l; theupp' .. il" W,x,tl"'W \\'~.m ""mm""teJ in 1911> th.,t m"tmi,t. ,,"ere u,,;"I; up mad. alm,,.,t a, r",t a, Ih")' """"" made.lh-the 1921)",

",,,..t,,,,

omg""ti,m had d~a".,J vehide 'f"""lt., 4 mph on 1\~w y",k', Fiilh A,'~nu~. I 1I,lmy ,hm,'. Ih,1 building r",d, and wid"ning"x<.lmg wiU n<.... ""(JI"~lh"prubl"'" "f traffi~ cong""tiun ("", 'I',bl" I L IK1. Pmviding ""-,,ral oph"n, lOT 1'0'.,1 i, 0 ky wmp"n"nl ", a ,u,~~inabl~ o""""ibilily plan, Thi.. nut "nly ,.,Ii",,,, wngoo-ti,m but .L", pn,,'i h, Ih" publi"- A, nn" "x.,mpl~, withnul raill,.n.'11 tu and fmm Manm.n.m, 1\"w Ynrk wnuld ""lui", llil ""'w highway Ian", ond :'U 11~" Unx,klyn Urid!>",_ AI>.<, LB. liI~p.)'''''' rea",.". Ih"i, SlS billion in 1I1\-",tm"nt in publie I,on,it with conll""tion c<,,1 ",,'iog' "Ion".

,,>ad,

ID<,'"

ILIB What Actually Happen. When Addilional Vehicle lane. Are Added to Redur
1..1"" eID«1I18 dL
C""g""ti"" ",hoI" u.""" C~It.'" .:Iddlh"nallo<..."f "I"'" sp.>C<'. b<"I:.1u,,", d",..,lnpmenll.:Jke< pLlee .,lnng the m.>d mrridnr

Chapler 11

AirCoal~y

Engineering

e Xanl pie I 11 .4

Estimatinglmpacl 01 Transpmalion Travel Demand Mana!JfJlllenl

Park-~nd-,ide

fadlities include the con,tructlon or expansio" of parking lot' whe,e people can !->;Irk 'heir "ehid"" and 'hen j<>in a cMpool, ,anl""'l. or ,ra""it service. Typically, park-and-ride fadliti"" a", u"""" in .,uburlMn are..,. This st,ategy reduces ai' emis;;i",~s b} dec",~sing 'he numbe' of singleOC'Cupancy ,ehides on the lThId. A ,ra,el demand management action will add parking ,paces '0 an e,i,ting pa,k-and-ride facility th"t IS n'" ,e"oed by t,a,~,i'. TI,e plan ",ill add (,() parking ,pac"", Assume 'he ne", '!->;Ices will have a 70 percelll ""timatoo utiliza,ion ,a,e and 'h"'" indi"dual, "'ill join an e"i,ting "''''1'001 or ,-anpool. AL
'ha'

solution (spaces

~dded

,n lot)

(estimated utilization ra,e)

!iO space; " 0.70

12,?,ces

/'\e'" "'e determine the expeeted number of people that" ill reduce thei' ind i\'idu~1 driving. ('paces used) x (pe,ce", of use" ",ho pre,-lously dm,e ~l",,,, )

42 space. ,,0_1'10

J3.n fewer d ,i,-ers I"" day

1numbe' of Ie" er d'i, el"i per day) " (""ima,ed round trip) y (total operating days) (l3.1> fewer d 'i ""'" I"" day) x (50 miles per d ,ive, I x (250 day')

IW,OOOannual 'eduction in ,ehide mil"" tra,-eled

n,is ,educt;"" in ,-ehide m,les d" ,'en per day can then be con"erted to reducti..,ns in ai' emj""Ol~'by mult'plying ,he reduction in "ehkl" mil'" d'i' en by the an,..,unt of a partimla, criteria poIlu,an"ha, i.s "milled per mile d,h-en. TI'Ls ,'mi,,;i
"'eI.. .

11.5 """bienl Emission.... d Emi,!i<>n.Conlrol

.

EMISSIONS CONTROl. TEOiNOI.(X;IES

Figu", 11.17 ,h''''', Ihe complexity 01 ~ Iypk.l! air poilu!ion tr<"",nt proce... U'Ulg lechnological control, to rem"ve parlkulate m.lIter Irom an airstr""m orig,nat"'g from a t"'ochambered indnerat...., In this case. the pri,nary a" pollution rontr'" technology isa "enl" ri scrubber that is foBowed by a mLst eliminator. The pr"""nce 01 a stacl: indicates this is a station.lrY ,ouree; hOl,,,,-er, the incmerali"n proces, may al'" produce lugill,-e emissions as "'ell as Ih" collection a"d Ireatmenl .'lef'S relaled t,~ conlrolling the emi.,,-si,"'<. Because oi the great e"I""cse and regulat,,'}' requireme"ts associ· ated wilh tr"ating air poButi"" emi",I",.. , polluli.-., prewllllgemenl straleg;'" d iscusse
-

,,:::~:':";-"'--~

Flgur. 11.17 S~v<... l Compoo~"tsof ~ P.rtieul....~ Wei Scnlbbing Ai, Pollutioo Conlrol Systom Not ,hem" are tile Luge numt..". of lans, hu""t-, .nd d"""",t that 0"',""" the pme""" ""Iwp"""" and tho, air puUut,,,t, a","'~ equipmen' k'l;L'thor. jl_I..,.~P>.APl'

Chapter 11

AirCu"~y

Engineering

11.19 Cont... Technologi.. ond P..lunon P.....ention Adivilie. 10 Cont... Em;.. ion. of Some SpeoklIIY

r,rtieuL"" matte"

ElecfT<>o;",hc proci p' "'lOT, b.>g hou,", fill""'. p.>rticle "'rub!>L'C'<, and cyekm=

RL'
'0

Ene'gy

5"" pmg,.,n" pm,';d" con.ume", wIlh

;nlonn.~o" on

""""gy clficlency "I .'pplianc"

pUteba"",. Sulfur d"",ide

Flue gao desulluri.z.llIDrl t>I" de.lning .ulfur lrom mal larcnmbu.,ion.

Reduce demand ft>l" COiI1 geneTa'I.'>! I.>lectnclty through d"mand ,t,."-'8"'" ,uch a, dL'ctku1> Ie matteT

"",1

1",,'''''-

Fuel .";',,h;ng ,,, ",lh .ulfu, cont"n', a ddl.,ent 1,,1'" 01 fuel, OT ",newable ""-eTgY ""'tee Thenn.-.I ar c....}1ic ,,'the.- tc<:bngie< ca ptu'" r>f fugiti\'e I'''''''''''''.

I",

Sub
olf-,,~,d

,-cl"d"" Use demand manage"""" .tra'I.'S"'" p<"""'le.OO p,m"lde ,ncOl'"'''''' f", the publk 10 u
Control "I 1\U,aOO Vex::.. a. di.-=-<.
Reduc" "ohicle m,les "a""le.:l ,nd demand lot ok'C'ndtv.

Inp.'Clacb",lle.:l e.lINm ,n~ 'he n"" ga. follnwI'>! bv • p.>rticle ""lkx1l"" 'echnnlogv

Reduce de"",,,d f", olcctnc"v. Reduce u
""."'pI"'"

Me",u,,"

'ha'

C... "'lvbcrom-er'I.'C'< for 'L'>!ucoon In '\0, "mi"lon.' Imm ""himL" ""'fee<. SeIec'''''' teduch"n. ",--rubber<, aOO ""'I.'m. f", romt ''''''ce<.

Scpo"le mefCun--<:onlainmg product< fmm med'cal and m"nk'pal ",..'e indneTat,on ,,,,,",m'.

renewable energy and reducing dema"d I", ele<:tric,'V aft' alten"",,'e melho,h Ihal ",ould reduce Ihe need for effluenl lrealme,,!, as Ihey reduc" Ihe mercury produced, A conlrn.Conltol

Conltol TechnolO{lY and OperaUng PrInciples

Illustration

&'-''''''''

Adsorplion P'oc~",,,,,,.,lIow 101" p'.lllul.1nl' like Voc:,. ~nd SO, to 1>0 1,~,,-d",rbcnl. The urruni:'<
A b"Shou,"" .1I0w, for pa'hculale m.:Jlte' 10 1>0 fillered bv a !I<'IoH.bnc filler!>.lg<. The b.lg' are p",oodbllv c f'uhculale matt",. lOt" an unde,lvlOg hnp!"-'r from "'h"", II mn b" •..,IIe<1~'<1.

A biofilierd"l:rade< g.>"""'-' pollulant' (Vo:::. ~nd ooor,) bv umdhing ,uch as la,'~ rock 0' a mIXture of com?"'1 ond woodchlp<. Air'" tvpically p.>--..cd up Ihrnugh the bcd. Pen<>dimllv. moi,tu'" m,..· b" ~dded I" lhe filler.

In • cydooo, parbcul.1le poIlulanl< oo'er wl'h lhe g.>' ~nd aT<' ",,,,,(w<'d bycentrlfug.>1 lo~ b<-cau... Ihc partic\e< ha,,, more mo""-'htum _,nd c~nnot tum with ,he So" The.If i< mo,-ing in ~ hell""l p"'tern. Partlc\e< lhal impaelll>c C}..:~meouterw~i1 Il>cn 1.11 by g,~,1t.,. lO'n ~ hopper where I....'V can b.'coll"ctcd.

-

Fl1lu.-./ll.18 Comm ... Air Poll "'~nt Emi."ion Conlrol Technol"l\ios(add'holl.1l dCl.l,l< on dC\'gn and opeT"ion c.>n b., found in EPA (WI2e.dl. and Th",>do,e (2()ffiJ. Chapler 11 AirCoal~y Engineering

Control Technology and Operating PrInciples

1I1115I18tlOl'l

In "n oloctro'l.licpro~f''''lrul,to "",tter i,li",t ch.ugod by .ppl,-Inga high ml~'g". whi<:h p">duc",, ion, Ih.." "t,\("h ,I", f'"ticl,,,. n.., chargc'<1 p"rtldL" aTe then fon:od to coI""'hon pl.lt"". Rappe... u""' imF"'bcor ,;br.,lng method, 10 remOl-" th" f',rtICk" hun th" coIl""t~lO plaw '" 'hey 1.1I mlo the hopper. whero th..", ran be remon>.i.

'0

=

In • p.rkod bod ab..,."lion, o;crubber pollut.nt, (,uch .,SO,. KH" Hell are Ir.n,fom.'",. AI,,, ,mport,lOt "' tho rat" al which ,he pollu ...n' Ir.n,f"", from lhe .lr ,,, liquid ph.:>'"

10 • theOOn c""mher R"">o,".1 "bell.". ,,;Ih gre.".,"""p"r"tun'S, .moo "'nee ,'nd go" "",id"nce

u"'""'. In • ,-rtIruLn" m'lI!"" .nd other p"llu'.n'" ,uch., SO,and HCl can be ",,,,,,,-ed I"Selher by 'mp.:>nll on """",,, drop'- A ...""..- 'p"'v c.ln he added by ""'."..1 mel00d,. indudlOg mjectlon 1010

--

.--,-,"-,_",'' =E_,,0i,;:::C - - -

fIm.,' 10 8gas.

Rgure/l1.1B

lco"tinu,,1) 11.5 Mlbient Emissionsand fmiS1ioosConI,oI

PAROCUlATE MATTER Particul .. t" n",'Ie, i, Iypically controlhl by Ihe u'"" of fihr.uion, ,,"et ",rubbing, or n"'d"'nical colleclors. TI,e Iype of technology lhal i, appropri.He can be "''''''''''d by us,ng Rgure 11.19. As sho" n in this figur", if Ihe p" ,ticulal" mailer contat1'-S sulfid"nl tUOiSiure '0 il LS ,,"'" or Slicky, "'''b ""ubbers or a ,,"eI electrostatic precipitator ",ould be Ih" most .'ppropriale conimllechnology.lllh" a,,,,tr,,am mntai"s dry particu lal" matl"r (a"d "0 ""pi"";',, gases), particl"" can be ren'o'·.,.j by a ,,",der selection of controll""hnologies, Th""" include Fabric filt"", (for e""mple, a baghouse1, "Iect"""atic precipilJ.to" (E<;l'<;l, and "et scrubbers. Wet scrubbers .,re u,u,,11\ m...... e'l-"'n'"" to co,,,'ruct and or"'rat" Ihan fabric filtrab"" 'y>len-,;, cydones, .,nd olher m""hM"cal sy,tem,. ElfCTROSTAOC PRECIPITATOR An eleclm'lalicprecipilalor LS sho"" in Figu 'lS 11.11\ a"d 11.20, They are ",,,,,,,,,nly used 10 I",al fly ash Ihat origit\Jt"" fmm mal combusti"n dunng Ih" 8"""'atio" of "Iairicil)'. Theya r"n,,' u,ed i"" t II a lion,,, IIe '''anex p los i vega""" a porisp rese" t becau.se of tl'" sparking tlul n:curs ",'h the remo,-al d"'mber. Figure I 1.19 h.ld p",,'ioo>ly ,oo",n h"', the particle ran&, olth" polluted ai,.",ream and regulalory requ,ren,""ls influ"nce the ",Iectio" of a mnlro] technology, For ",ampl", fabric fill"" hke a baghou,"" are u",d 10 treal p<>lluled ai' "'here Ihere are a significdnt number of partid"" ]""s Ihan 0.5 11m in did",eter and a lugh deg,ee or ,e",o"al is rl'qu i"'d. In conI,asl, ,,- hile el ""It... lal Ie p ""'ipi I.llors ca n ha 'Id Ie higlo ,,,Iumes "r air and operdie al a 1"", pr"".ure drop. they are recom"'ended for t""'lmem of a large' size range of particles. Qb"e"'e in

'iz"

"b~k;·~m~} __~~ Yes

... r PM W.t

-,

SI>Cky or

Sc~

No

Ar. PM.

WOIESPs

1JOSOlI, or

Yo<

mw.&.JJ I -~--

,::::",

~,

I-----~

j

_.-,-

IVO?

Whola,.

.-., O1't..""1

I

I

ll-O.5 ~m H>'j1 E"icIoncI'

0.5-5 flI'"

--

H'1' E".<:lOnc:y

~·-SyS~1

F"11a_

FigD,e /11.1 9 ~odro",""""EPA.

Chapler 11

AirCoal~y

Engineering

~-PM W<:< S<:r'
,'~ MOOor.' . EllicIon<:'I

Fi

&l..,

Symoms

EIocl.......1IC Proc..... tors PMWOI~

-~. C~nN.>l Appli<.bil~y ..FConlrol T<'Chno\"l\i ..

2012
for P.,li
Flgua/l1.211

Electrostalic P"'cipilalo,'ESPI Thcla'g""t .'ppbmo.., i~ ""'" in wmo,'al 01 fl,' ,,-~h gener.,'ed during mrnbu,lJo" "I "",I 10 generale oI".:tricih·. Ga~ flo.... ral", ""o;oci.-.ted ,dlh a 1.000 MW po...."," pl.J.nl rn.,)' ",...-h milfion.~ 01 cfm, The p,,,,,,un, .Imp mav beonl,' 1 inch """,u~ to-lOO inch.,,; am",~ a c' ""rubber 0' filtcJ baghou",. to ~ulfUf """, p"".:hro a fly a~h wi'h Iowo' resL""·'Iv..... hich rn.,~", thc p.lrlkle<; mo", d,lfK'UI' to acccpt acharge. Th",· .,'" thus more d,ffi",lt locoll,>.::' ....ith 'h" 'echnology and chemical add,tlon into the 8"""",-s "ream ""'y be ,,-,,!uiro.:l 111"'od""', ~,

I·C_£.~'

Figure \1.21 how Ihe electr""tatic precipitator ha, les~ rem"val effidetlcy lor pMlicies in Ihe 0 1-0.5 11m ~ize range. T1u~ i, because the ahilny ollhe elect,.,.,..I.H'C precipilator to charge parlicl'" " I"""er III Ihi~ size raoge (EPA. 2012..1). BAGIOJSI' 8ag filt"'" COIISi" of a 'el "f fabric fille'" Ihat all"" polluled air 10 1"''''' Ihrough Ihe fabric filler of the bag and n",,· OIJI of Ih ebag. I" Ih ep roce,~, part icu la lema Iler i<;coll"" led onIh""u t~ld "",II he ""g. Whoe" several bag filter; Me I~,u.<;ed logeth.... Ihe """.,,11 ~yqem i, relerrro to a, a baghouse (refer back 1<) Figure 11.IRl. For a shaker

,oo,-----_~

Flgur./l1.21

Pa,lido Siu Emden')' Removal fo' an Elccl"",'a' ie PTedpitato'.

'" !

I~odro,",""""£¥A.1\l t

Id I

~50 <

o

!

8~

"L 0.1

~

1.0

___.J 10.0

Panicle di.me"". 11m

11.5 """bienl Emission.... d Emi,!i<>n.Control

baghou", like Ihe o"e depietl.'d in Figu,.., 11.18, lhelMg ,izedi.,,,,eter might bo! 1>-20 II in length w,th bag diamete'" of 5-12 i", The ~urf.",eofll'" filler ca,,,;!, of a fabric filter a"d .'OI"e5upl"'r1mg "'eel"'''ism to hold Ih" fabric in place. Duri"g operatio". particulale "",Il"r accumulales as a filler cake on Ihe oul~ide of the baghou',,'s ",any Fabric filte'", incre""i"g bolh cnnffli"" erf.,ienc;e,; and th" p"""u"" drop acro>, Ihe filters. To reduce Ihe pr...,u,.., drop. bags a,e clea"l.'d pe,iodically by meeha"ically shaking Ihe acc... ",ulall.'d particles ofF the fab'ic and i"Il' a hopper. The particulate is ''''''o''''d Fro'" the h"pper and Ivpically <.lisposed "f III a I.lndfill. Bag filleNarea conunonl y ""'pk,.,.ed conlrol techn"ogy. befau,"" coOection effie'enci..... 01 p.'rticl..... can ,..,ach 99--99.5 perce"t parlicl"" III Ihe ,"'-" ,."'ge of around 0.5- I lun and l.l'ger p.'rtiel"" a,e eFFeeli,'ely ,..,n"wl.'d (Er'A,2012o». TI", failu"" of II... bag, i" lho! baghoU>e can be oJ>;erved a,>.! cnrrecll.'d qu,ckly by da,ly ;,~specli"n and "'o"itming. Table 11 ,20 lisl, "..,"'" mn"""" fause; for f.,bric failu"'. Bagb..... "",, may also fail l>ecau.w Ihe shaker Ihal "'-'gularly c1"a,~s the b.>g "ncountered a problem that uIL';n "Xc"",;,"e buildup of particl"" on Ih" surface 01 Ihe bag. This r ulb '" an i"e,ea'-"
m.,It",

11.20 CorrrnonCausesfo
10dopJed Irom EPA, 2012e)

Hoi.,; Of I",,, in b"C'

RLodu
High 1eml"-"'alu"," (fabric sf"-'Cific and "",-"mum IC""F""'Talu"," ,.lnge fmm 180 f

l..lck of prope' ,-end"" m>l","'"",-, Pw, aITL'S> '0 rog' by i,,-,talle... Jmprope' ten..ionmg "" 'ough handling ,uch ." bending n, .teppmg on Ill<> rog. Bag' to "gh' fe,.. cag'" Shoup rog'" nn cag'"

u..-of Jabn< slrenglh Attaok on the rog" fin"h 'ho,' cau_ ab,,,-,,,,n

Jml""'P"" fabric fill ",,,-ic-o No h'gh """F""'colu",al,,,,, C
,\llL..... adh",;"'n
UOII nol preh"""od OT purgood p"'l"-"'lv Ai, 1
10550 Fl

T<.'>ulbng in mudding"" blmdm& O\<.'mk.,1 attaok em tho fabric

H ig h- temP"'" at ure d mp

A tl"d" fit..>.. of lhe fabric ,c-.ulhng in loss of .t,,,nglh

Change ,n manuf.l
Inc"'''''''' b"l\ ab.-""om lha t ,,,,,ull.'< io ""'... in Ill<> fahn.c

Pon.- clroning. bllnd rog', ;ncrL"'" in

Worn or tom rog<

Chapter 11

Ai
Engineering

,-.,h,ilv

sa'

Contacl belw......" rog and ,nothe, .u,f"", High I"'rncle Ioading< l..lrg" pal1icle i"-~;ion on rog

hopp"" ~",u,., of f"i1ure !<, re""wethe partie"'" !lldt "crumula~ i" the hopl""" (EPA, Wl2el. Il.lghouses a,e designed by cm~,idenng , ,"i.'bles Ul.lt include characterization of th" polluted ail'it,eam and ,,,Iectio" of" ga'-Io-cloth ratio, The ga.·ter-c1oth •.;Iio i, ""m"Ume referred to a, the GC It is defined as ga.-to-cloth 'atio

g'" flo" ,ate(ft'lmin) c101h are.. (ft")

\11.20)

Thega,-!o-cbth 'ati"i, detennined based on the part>:ul.... material being filtered (for example, c'xll, ""me lit, hmestone, sawdust), "hether the fabric I ype is "'0' ell or felt, arid the "'ethod of mechanka I clean ing (tll"t i., ,haken_ pul... ;"t, 0' reverse air). n,e ",Ieclio" of fabric type " i"fluenced by the fabriC. te"'l"'ratu,e Iimitatio". and its resIStance to chemic-al attad: fmm other compounds fou"d in the pollut&! ai,,l,e"m. Table I 1.21 p",,,ides ex"",pI"" of ga,-lo-doth rati"" for dIfferent f.,bric,; and method. toremovethe p",tid", f,...n thebag. T ypicall y as the ga,-to-clnth ratio incr".,,,.,.. the p,es.su,e drop "'c'ea....... (TI'....x1ore.200!ll. Afte' the ga.s-l<>-doth rallo lS determi"ed, the baghou'" l'i 'ized by d"""",;"lng th"total filter d.-xh dfffi 'equired forcollect""1. AddItional 'p""" i' pm"ided fo' a number of "-"U,,, "nd i' influenced by the

"I""

"y'

11.21 Gas-to-Cloth Ratia_1ft/mn) for Designing a Bagha ...e Fabric T\'PO IItl
PuJo.n,Jotll'c11 Fobit:' flBO MfFoft Fol>ric

F1y,,-'h

" "

• •;

GYP'um

2.0

Iron"'"

,.0

l2.Id ""do

'"

-Boing Rcmo.odinF~t",.

C-"mmt

G.,

u"'"

U"""",,"" Rock du.,t s"wdu."

"'~

2.5

'" 3.5

" " • "• •j2'

"

"

"

2.7

-

11.5 """bienl Emissillll.... d Emi,!i<>n.Conlroi

;

example/II.5

Ba!lllwseDesi!ln

A baghOll'" IIMt employ, a ,h.,ker coll""tion ",elhnd i' hemg J..,;igned t<) ",mm'e 99.75 percent of an incoming stream of particles originaling from a cement plant. Whal fabric area" requIred for the baghou,e if il trealS 21.000 ft' /min of polluted air? HoI' many bag, are required if the bags a", cyli.\d rical alld are Ii in. in dian"'ter alld 20 ft long? As
solution Table 11.21 .uSS..,;ls Ihat the appropriate alr-!c>-doth ralio for cemellt parlicl..,; Ihat a", collected by shaking i, 2.fl it min. The total fabric area required for the filter df)jh (m ' or it') required for collecti<)n i, determined as II\let now rate ga.<;-Ic>-doth-ralio

21.1lOCJft' 'nnn 2.0 ft min

10.500ft'

nle number of cylindrkal bJ.gs reqUired ls determined from the 100ai .•red requirement and Ihe surface area of each 01 the bag,. The ,urface area of ooe bag (neglecting the top and bottom area of the cylinder) equal. '" x diameler x heighl' lotal filler ared required "." d ... meter x height

11'

l0,Sm ft' x 0.5 fl x 20ft

33-1 bag,

,

' required for 'lope of Ihe hopper. n,e total filter c10lh area (m or W) collection 1.s delennined as

filter doth area

inlet now rale ga,;-tc>-doth-ralio

111.21)

THERMAL OXIDIZER As" as Jp"cribed in Figu", 11.18, a thermal o~i· diar rem,,,.,,, air pollutants ,uch a, Vo:::.s Ihrough high-lemperalu", combu,tion. n",y are also referred to a, incineralo,.". Figur" 1L 18 show&! that Ihe sy,te", consisted of a bum"r and redction chamber. Remo,-al of organic compou nd, neru,." at t"mperatu,""" of 59O-f,SO C (1 ,100--1.200 nandm""llhermalo~ld Izer",r""peraledattemperalures much h ig h"'. For exa mple)ta 7.trdolls w a, Ie inci lIera I,r; a re opera led a I temperature; a, lngh al I,SflO.-2,200 F in an aUe"'pt 10 aclne"e "ear m",p:eteo"idatlo".CalalY'lslhalmlltainplatUlum,mp~",r,chron~unt.

"a!ladiu tn, nick,,~ and coooitare nowbeulg u'oo lode",,,,...,, Iheoperaling temp"'" lUre 0 fca la I ~1ic 0" id ize,." (lyp i", Ily for s"".,!Ie1' s y <,I" illS Ihal lreat Vo:::.s inlo Ih" 65O---AAJ F rangel. Unforlunalely. he.wy ",etals a", nol ren~wed in a Ihermal oxlll;,er and SOl"" hnarJo", by-proJu<.1scan abo be produ""". ••; Chapler 11

AirCoal~y

Engineering

n,e w",,,,rsion N a voe to carb.~" mo"o.ide and w"ler v.'por in .l Iher"'''l ,.. idlzer i, ,h",,,, as follo,,"s:

\11.22)

n,e carbon ""'noxide is Ihen w,werted to carbon din.ide as loll"" .. " (11.23)

[" Equ.ltimls 11.22 and 11,23, .l" alld yare ,toichiometrk
ex am p leI 11 .6

DelermiringSloiclliometric Dxygen ReQuremenls for a T1Jerrml Oxidizer

A Iherma[ oxidizer 's used to Ireal 1.00011""'''' 01 air Ihat conla",s 1 lb of Ihe VOC benzene {CoH,J. b the", ~ulficient 0, '" Ihe incoming air to achieve complete combusholl 10 caroon dioxide and waler!

solution The correct stoichiometric equalion for romp[ele oxidatiim of benze"" to Ihe end produc~ of waler and caroon d i"'ide i' "rilten below. You can obtain Ih" in one of Iwo ways; you rouM refer back 10 the di..::u,sion on Ihooretica[ l>xygen demand (rom Chapler 5 or "·,,Ie Equa!il>ns 11.21 alld 11.22 for benzene, and then add the I"" eq,,"tiollS tn obtain an (...erall reaetion. c.H.

+ 7.so,

-!>Co,

+ 3H,0

n,e amount of oxygen Ihat i' required 10 oxidize the be"".ene " delerm",ed from the reaction sloichiometry as 10110"" llbc..H. x kg '2.205 [b x molee.H./78gC.H"

7.5 ",olea, moleC.H o

32gO:" mo[eO,

I I kgo,

This" the mass of o.ygen required 10 ox,d ize the lib (thai is. 0 .-15 kg\ of c.H, th"t i' foo "d '" e"ery 1.0fl) ft' Nair Ihal i' prnc...-l every minute in the Ihen"al oxidizer. /'\""t we m~1 determine h'''' m...,h oxyil"" is p"""nt in II", 1 JIOJlt' of air. B""ause air at allnnspheric p,..".,ure rom;;sls of 21 percent oxygen, Ihere i, 210ft' (equal to 5.95m') of o.ygen '" the 1,000 ft' of air Ireated per millule. Assuming that Ihe pressure is I aim and the lemper"lure Ls 25 C, the nun,ber of mole ·'5.95 m' of lrealed air is found from the ideal ga, la".

"V

ni5-'lSm'

P'RT

lanni8.201S>< 1O"m1_alm mnle-Kx298K

Sllh'Illg this "-.p......s ion for It, "hich ls Ihe nu mber 01 nlOl"" Ilf 0> ;n Ihe 1.000 II' (or 5.95 m1) of air. Thisequal, 2H moles of 0,. n'LS value can be ro",·"ru.d to the mass 01 oxygen "'ing Ihe moleeul"r "~;ghl of '''ygen. 2.u",olfSo, >< 32go" ""ole" kg. 1.(}1ll g

7.8 kg cI 0, in th" airslrea",

Because this val"" fl.8kg 0:,) i' 1"'8"r than Ihe n",,,, of oxygen ""luir..:! fM complete oxidabon

(1.4 kg 0,), we I"" e sufficienl oxygen to perf","" the oxidalion. "'ol.e thai our ",lulion did n<1t aa;otJnl lor Iheoxidal ..... 01 nitr",,,,, gas (" hieh;s 78 percenl 01 the air.-lredm) and" ould produce NO, III thep"""""'. 11.5 """bienl Emissioo.."d Emi,!i<>n.l:onlrol

;

Flgur.'l1.22 Coupled Efloel, 01 Tomp,,,alu,o and C ••""U., R""idon« Timoo" Pollutanl D.. tru
,-- '" I---

O. t ooc

tRodo-o... ,~"", n-.do<.I200sI";!h f*"~;"",01

Joi'>o 1'.'10,. & Son~'" I

/

/

0

001 ooc

O.oot soc

In,:<"","'11 '0'--.00 limo

iOO

~

'//' .= ,=

..00

.= ,=

In,:<"","'11 ""'4l
Class Discussion

.a. ...."...
<>
mpIo
DiN"'" mpt<"",n""~ion 01 f"";"r~ f"'Ilu,""", f""0"I'!.l"".c'iYi~",oo""h.~. ""'. re~. a M r
c."

koop m.toriIJ I~ a "" po 1Iu""".. .. 0"," of • <10 It.> ... 0'" t<> "' ",,, 1nero"''' t.ha~ 0.111 ,,!>U 11.1 n "Jaud • ir p<>llu"" nt. ~ _ .

Chapter 11

AifCu"~y

Engineering

=

l>enzene (C,,!-L,l, r dnd!l Me bolh "'l'MIIo n, BOlh reacli"n, con"ume oxygen. which i,,, hy perfonndnce of lhe redclor can I>e me.l."ure.:l by the IdCI: (or very 10\\'1 dmou nl of oxygen in the effluent gd. (tYP,cally only 1-2 percenl 0, \er~u" 21 percent in the illpul amb,enl air). Equation 1123 al,., "b.)",,, Ihdt complete mJd.llico, 01 Ihe VOC e, elllually result" III prod ueti,,,, of the greenhouse ga" CO,. Pollution prevention aCliv ilie, lIl:e Ih""e de<;eribed previou"l)' ill Tdble 11.19 Ihu" have added l>enefits beside> ju,1 rooudng emi,.i"n 01 a \'OC or olher hazardous dir pollulanl; Ihey abo ,educe CO, emi... "on. di"""lIy through reduction of Ihe e"ergy needed for therl1\dl oxidation. Incomplele combustion in d Ihermal o"idizer Cdn ,,,,,ull in formation of dldehyde, dnd orgdnic add, ",hieh Ihem",I1'''' can act a, air pollut.",lS. In add Ition, illhe org.'lnie mailer l>eing o"idized conl.l"~~ su!fur or halogen" olher "n wanted by-pro.:lucl' call I>e lormed thai can include so" HCI, hydrofluoric add, dl1d phosgene. Thi. may then ''''Iuire >ome Iype of web s.:r"bl>er or ab>Orplion I""hnology to I>e pldCi.'l.J after the thermal o,idizer 10 r~mo\'e U,.,,;e hazardo". product". The effieie"cy of pollutant rem", al i.~ a functi,m 01 the 1""1-"""1""', Ihe ~~ r,.;id~l,,"e rime of Ihe react"'. MId degree 01 1",1'"I~"cc in the '&lcl",. n", l~ shown ill Figure 11.22 where the percelll of pollutanl d";lructi"" i. ,h",,,,, to incr""", wilh high.". gas re>id~nce time and al." higher lemperalure. nlU', a" illcrea"" ill lemperature Cdn dccommooatt. a d""reas~ in ,.,.ide"ee ti",e (a"d vice ,·ersal. Ilecau."" of Ihe energy r"'luire.:l to ral'" Ihe temperalure of the combu~lioll dldml>er, il ",av ben.. t eff""b Ie to i""",,..e lhe volumeof Ih~ mmbu" ion chamber (which i""",a_ the gas residence time). Recomm..I1d'-"" ga, ,esldene..,; time> are 0.2-2, "'Ith a lenglh·lodiameler ralio fnr Ihe "",etor of 2-3. A,'erdge ~~ ,eiocitles typically r,mge Imm IOto501t '~lId are u>ed 10 dis<:ourage _t"'g of pMtld"" dud nllllimi7.e dangers of fire ha7... rd. n,e h&llth.,ll~ reled"'-"C! during lhe oxidatIOn ca" be r"""'·."....,j by d ,"'''1 h,-" I ,,,,,,,,.-ery orth,ough u..,ol a" exte",al heal .."chang"" (ThffJdore. 2IXlR).

exanlple/ll.7

Sizing a Thermal Oxidizer

A bench "",I~ plug flOl' Ih~rnu.1 0"idi7~r il\Cin~ralor i, being ~valuated 10 0p"ral~ al a I~mp"ralur~ 01 225 C and h.,,'e a ga~ """iden"" hm~ 01 n.3~. If Ih~ pollulJ.nl (diethyl p"rox.id~) enl~rs lhe incinerator al a flow ral~ of 12.1 Li~ and it i.< d",ired In remo,,~ 99.\195 p"r""nl ilf Ih~ pOIlUlanl, w hal sh()Uld the lenglh i>f Ihe Ih~n""l oxidlz~r be? The fil'it-al is 3R3Is al C and Ihe in,ide d ",m~ler nf Ih~ Ih~rmal oxid izer (whkh L< ~haped like a cylind~r) i, II cm, R~m~mber from ChJ.pl~r 4 Ihal w~ d~v~lnped an ~"pres;;,on 10 describe pollulant ,""mo"al in a plug flnw r~acIM.

m

Take Ihe n.,lurallog nfbolh <.id"" of Ihe expression In'(1 - 0.99995)/1 Solve lor lime

0.259~. n,e thermal

""idizer volum~ i~ del~nn"'M a, T

whICh results in a "olume of 3. 13 L Ilecau,"" the r~actor i, a cylinder.

-383/""" '" I

0.2:i\1,

V

v

Q

n.IL/s

3, 13 ~ 10) n\L (or 3, 1:Yl .m]. Ih~ l~ngth equals

3. DJcm' ,,-(lIon("-4

BlOFllTER Emh.<;ionand control 01 odorm~ g.,,,,,,, i, a gm", i'~ co",,,~m in municipal w...q ewaler mllection a"d lreatmenland ,ome indu,lnal p ~ . Theodor i, prnnarilycaused by hydrogen ~ulfide(H,S)and nli'o>r reducal ,ulfur compoonds ,uch a, methyl m",c.plan .nd dimelhyl,ulfide.n,ep""",nceofth""",hemical,c.nr",u)l,noompla,nl' from oommu,uly members who live "e", a trealmel\! planl (or pu "'p qatinn]. n,,,,,,chemical~may al<:rubbing. ad,.-,rption. Ihennal nxid'lion, odor m...~k"'g, a"d binfillralion. A biofiller conlrollechnnlogy (refer back 10 Figure 11.111) canlre,,1 odnrs and some VOCs. They ",e c1a"ifiM 11111' II"', c.lego"",,; bintrickling filler-; a"d biofihers. Binfihratoo" ulilizes n"cmorga"i,"'s Ihat are atlached 10 a packing ",.teri.l ('y"lhetie or "",ural]10 break dn",,, pollula"t~ in a ronta",inalM airslrea", Ihal is I-"'''M Ihwugh Ihe packing m,HertaL II waler i~ added ~",~n u ,,~, ca"also be co,..lruc!ed alx..-eor belm" Ihegrou nd surface. They ca" becn, ..lruc!ed a~e"dn""d or 0P"" t() Ihealn~)Sphere. 11.5 """bient Emissillll.... d [m;,!i<>n.Conlrol

11.22 Examples of Working 8iofilte... for Canlta of Odorous AilMajorOdorG.ousiog Comp
Cc-.f.r Rapid, f]A) Water Pollution Control E,dhtv

T wo ful~<;caleb",file,.;. 1211,()[\) dm

W.,.tem l.lkc 'iul"'n"r s.,n,t.,lV DI,trlct

T "",,"'l.1ge b'nfilt.". loc.t1-.f .llihe Scanlon Pump5l.1tion 2.500 ctm

(Duluth, Mlo.l

Mdropollt.,nCoundl En,imn men !.,l s.e...iceo

IT Win CIt"""

(&!ldcpthl

Methvl mer.-.lptan 1'Wl ppb.)

Dimethyl sulfide (21.200 ppb.l

Twin Cio.,. Metro Pl.lnl. 127,00J dm

Prin~mly H 25 (conce", tr ,tion unknown)

Empty bed tesidence limelo khie"e RemO\lol of Mony Cd....

,--

--

,.

C""'r<>'lmg

,25,

conce'lltr. li",,-, of orgo nO( su Ifu. con'pouoo,

Duncthvl d i,u llide f1 ,~llO ppb.,) H 251<13ppb.l

11.23

Empty Bod Aooi<>ooce

1...l," rock

1lI0hl,erloc.>'L'
s.",'.,,1 ",..... 11•• lHoIille,.; of different medi, (<;',00. wondchip/romf""ll

~l:--l

H 25 (100,000 ppb..l with ,tIl"II.".

Orgonioc suliu. compounds ." lowed"",,!.,

C.-.npt i woo.:I chIp (35ftd"!,,h)

Con,posl/ wood chIp

OHdcpth)

Open spten,-, &,,,er.1Iy h.we. lo\\"er capital cnst .nd are ide.l when there are no 'p.ce constraints. Howe, er, Ihey m.y be impactro by he."y rain which can saturate th" p.cklng ",roium. P.cking mroia t"pic.ny consist of • combination of wood chip' .nd compost, I.". r,..,k, or ,ynlhrlk packing m"eri.1. TI,e "",di. pnwlJes. high surbce are.. / "olume rallo wh"",. biflfihn of organisms c." grow. Table 11.22 prmides furlher informatIon on «"eral "mking biofilters u"""j t,) control odorous .ir em"si",,, from w.ste" ate, con""tion and treatment systems The primary mg.ni",,-, ,"""ponsible for H >-'i nxidatl,,,, is belinro to be members of Ihe g""us 11"01:<>(;111,,. They are obbgate ch"mo.utotrophic org.nis"" th.\! deri, e ,h"ir energy from ,h" oxidation of r"duceJ sulfur compound..nd ob!.,in Ih";r c.rbon for gr",,'th frcOll the r.x.tion of ..mospheric caroon dIoxide. AlthCllJgh lh" oplimum pH range lor Ihe growth of th"", org.nism.' vari", ",me" h.l, Ihey ar" p,..,.jomil\antly .cidopj"les ,,'i,h optimum growth ncCUrrtng under .dd,c conditiol"'. Th"re are differ"nl ways to size a biofilter .nd many "m", a pHol scale study is j>"rformro befo", full ",.le design t.k"" place. an" ",,,thod '0 size the ,'olume of • bi"mter is b.1sed 01\ ,he emp'y b<-d ,esld"nc" Illne (EBRT), (11.24)

Agrirullur~1

wh",.., V is th" "olum" of Ih" fil,er (It' or m ,) \\'I,hou,lh" ~ ..'s.,,\C" of th" pack,,'g mdt""dl and Q" the air f10\\ ra,,, (dm or m is). In ,h" """', V is ,he "olum" of ,h" filter \\'ithou, ,he pr"",nce of p.cking "",terial.

SO()KI. Man ... 01., 2002

Chaplet 11

Ai
Engineering

C

Rfurefl'.Z3

F

W'

l.. ... o'H ....... I••• h.d......I... ' _.

........ _U... 20'211-

HOCOS

llood'i an!

,~

coounc>n ,II1'
rroc-

"'lu'pmenl. n... noLou"n~h,p of a hood ",th tho;o "'luipment and oMl pnIluuon ...lntnlI ta:""""'f:;.. " ""'" n In Figur" 11.23. Hoods are I~ p"'altr ..t_gno>d 10 "p"Ut" und." ""S"'h'" ~re. ..tea" Ing air inlO tho;o 1'w:>.-..J bot>au><,tho> '-LIt", pr........ n!,~ I.,""Jd<> tn.. hoo.l th.ln ,n tM ~urrouOO,ng .Ir. Tlw pu.f""'M' ", ><1 IS to c.rlue" .. pollulanltO p"', .. nt ~p"'un! "'" " ... l .... 1111 poIlulanl .. nd In m>nom17.. or "hm,na.to> fugtu, .. flni,,~..--. fug,I"" em" ..,..."", c.o.n 1"'-'"' ,nto Ih.. "orl-'i'.ICI.' ,,00 'h"" "'~" IIw ""'.... I;orturul> f.. cil.y th'"ugh d.....,.. ",ndo" • ...J rod ,;ent.s. roluLlnts nOi ""ptu...... In U... hood .r" ('Ons,d....-..l fugll.. " ..... ,,;,;ions .. nd con be .Mo>murw.J .,..

n-

t11.251

n... em'''''IOM I....' ""I tho> ,,..,l t ....,

fnlk-...s lho> hood ..... 'hen

"'lu.1 to:

,,...

100'.

..

(11.26)

11.5 AmbiontEmissilmonclEmiSliOn!Cont,D1

ex am pIe I 11 .8

Oetermlnl1g Fllgitlve and StackEmlssloos in an Iml.lslrlal Setll~

Determl"" th" lugil"'" ""'l,si.."" and slack """",lim' Imm proces, equipmenl Ih.,t generales 100 kg h 01 VClC:-~. A'i.'iume Ihe hood caplures 95 percent of the VClC:-~ and Ihe con""t",n effidency of Ihe air pollut;lm conl",1 de, Ice i,95 perco!111.

solution EqualiOll' 11.25 and 11.26 ran be used 10 dMer",l"" the quanlity of lugltl,e and sldck ,.,,,,b,iOll'. Fuglt"e eml,;,;ion"

lolal eml,,
The tolal emL"ion'i C'i equdllo Ihe sum of Ihe I""'" emi'i.'iion'i and Ihe'iLack eml'i.'iion< 5kg.h+'I.7Skg h

9.7Skg,'h

t\iote the cmllribulion to fugili, e "",i"iOll< lor Ihose 001 cal'lU,..,.j by the hood. You might wanl 10 ju,1 change the collection ellidenry 01 the hood from 95 percent 10 90 percent In Ihi, example 10 see the hood· s importance in n"nlmizIIlg fugni,'e emC'i'iion'i. Of cour;e, a more Id ,'orable action would be 10 use pnooples 01 green engineering 10 minlnuze the ha7.Md 01 Ihe air eml",iOll'i SO r-dpIU,"" and treat",ent 01 air emissiOll'i l'i no longer required.

""-"....-.",,,,, '"A 1<''''' 11.6

Assessment of Emissions

As.-","'g Ihe e",l",iOll'i a'i........i ated wnh a particular ...,uree or ,ndu,tlial aelivity has MOIne "''''&isingly importJ.nt for ma''''gemenl 01 air quality. Figu,"" 11.2 I depict, fi, e approaches to eslit""te all" emc,;,;ion' and their hierarchy in term, of c"'l and reliabillly. More CO'illy and relidble eslln"'li"" mMhod'i (,uch a, _,,,,,,,ific med,urements) w"uld be remnunendeJ ",h"" the resu lling risk'i h' hun"n health or Ihee",''''''Illenl .He l.uge or Ihe ad,e...... regulatory oulcomes a''''''''dled w"th Illdking an error are high. In wnlrasl, s,tu.,lIon' w'here Ihe risk l'i low and ad I·erse regula lory oUlwmes are at... low', I.,..... e>:pe'l'ii,e and les'i rehable methoos may be etnpjoyed. T.,ble \ \.24 prO\',d"" an o ... er",e" 01 ,ome method, u"'-'
Ie

AxEF

I

111.27)

where L is Ihe emi"io", n' IlId" or rna", per Illne (for example, kg or kg/ dayl, A i'ia mea"",",of Ihe'ipedfic ...urceacli "ity (lor eXiUllple, Iile... 01 fuel used or chemicalmanufarlured per unllt;",e>, and EF i'i the ;

~

Chaplerll

AirCoal~yEngineering

Flgu~/l1.24

App"'.o
sing....source t....

con'in"""" monitori

~

rn., [PA Tockoology T"",oIo<_

CIooringhoo.... _ _ &[,,; ....... t"""~

I Proceu

M... b11111nCt1

~.-

modeling

I

,

,

Emlulon Iacl
C

t

I

,

Enlli"""""11 judgrnMl'

• 11.24 Overv;"w of Method. 10 h~mole AirEmi..ions for Invenll

(odopMlrom EPA Tec~r>ology lron,fer No""""'" Cleor'"9~<>J,e

Dunng ,ingll'-"",",rl"'ting"l<""ti,",o"sm,'nit''1il!~. a ",mp!et.) L' mllenhnuou<
O«'U"'"

.n..,

'0

Dunng ~ ,,,,,.«""!'I!cr"J'pnlllch. a m.,Ieri.l1 Nlance i. do,...lop<-'cturing pme"",,. "Ia'e""l b.'l.J.n..... should t... I""'fo"",-'d nr "hemi,-"II" romb",ed ;" Ille m.llluf",-ruring p"""'''. They .r.. mod during.n u...""ntrolled """lOg The a ""n",,-,',->d poUu',n' ""mpon,-",'
'0

M

prrr"""

rn",,,,,

(11.28)

M" ..... - MI"''''''''' - M ...~ ..... ~,"" - M•• p1......

where M~ n~ is 'he mass of ,he f"'lIuL,nl rompon""t '" the row "",leri~1 f,-~>d, MP" ..... i, lhe m.:I'" nllh" """I"'""n' m IIIe fi1\Ln,'o",-'f ,he mok'CUlar wOlgh, "I ,he poliut.:lnt ~"he c"mpo"en'. For """mple. 0 n~..., NI~n", '10 .ullur In fud m.w be perf,,,,,,,->d, wl,ll M multlpli,-'-1/32 10 ""timoted ",lIur d,,,,,ode ,-,mi",~""

lLcrit... ,he flow of "",,,-,,,,,]; (omd '-""'rgy) 'hrough ,he p"""-"-"'-' of ,he",'",.on m.mufaetunng ',""em. M,,-,,' models are pn'l'''''t.:IfV ~r.d 'p""'f,..'o 0 "",nufactoring Proc""

"">ddm~

pr""""

"io"

".1""

0

Em.. r"c/ors PT',,,dc , rcp'L....nt.lIl'·.. of em,,,,I<,,,, amounts .....>ci.-.ted "ilh .pecific ,m"unt oj ~ proclu,mg ac';';I)', Acth'"" om"unts.re 'hen multlph,-'
'0

pollut~nl

11.6 AssessmenlotEmi'ssions

em.i,,
r.

AxEFx(I-ER 1001 (11.29) where ER i, exp~ as .1 I"'"",nl .",d is relaled 10 Ihe control technology and Ihe caplure efficiency of Ihe control ,y,lem. Emi",ioll fa,1,)'" I.we bee" developed for a l.lrge number of ,.,uree act"',I;"" fr
example! 11.9

USllg an EmisSion Factor Madel to Eslirmte Carbm MOIllXilE Emissions from Oil Combustion Con,ider an industrial boiler Ihal bums 1I'1O,lXlO Lof dislillale o~ perda)'. Accord"'g 10 AP~12, Ihe CO eme",ion faclor for "illu,trial boile", lhal bun, oil dblillale L' 0 l, kg m per m' M oillhal i, bun'ed.

solution The aelic'ily in lhis ca,e" burn"'g di'lillale oil in an indu'ilrial b
,

A)( EF

1110.000 L oil/day" O.hkg CO m l )( m' 1.000 L

example/ll.iO

1000kgm,day

Usng an Emission Factor Madel to EstimateSullll" Di{ll(ilE Emissims from a Manufacturing Process

A "... nuf.>eturing planl ....,,,vert:; suliur trioxide {SO, to ,ulfurk add, H,SO,) at 97,5'1;- dfidencv. The planl produ,'e' 200 melric 1o", (Ihal L" 200 )( HI" gl of pure ,ulfuric add every day. Whal are Ihe da,ly erne"';"'" of SO, from lhe manufadunng fadlil)'?

solution TI,e emission factor for SO, air enussinn, from IhL' proce<... L' relaled 10 the effideocy 01 Ih.. oo,,,,e,,,ion process AP-42 ,iii!"" the emission factor (in unit. of kg SO,/melrk ton p"""",,,,,.jj i, delermined a'i EF

b!l2 - ':h.82 x ':{ ool",er,ion effidencv of SO, 10H,SO,

1>Il2 - 665 l"ourcase,EF (,R2- :6.111 y 97.5 TI,e emi'
, A.,

; .

17kg so" Ill" g pl"OC>"Ssed.

200 " 10" gi da)' " 17kg SQ., 10" g

Chapterll AirCu.. ~yEngin.ering

JAOOkg SQ./day

e Xanl pie I 11 . 11

Mass Balance Approach Appied to Indirect Measurement otAlrEmissions

A company purcha""" M.OOOL of a VOC-ba,."j coolmg. The} .lpply 75l>/)OL of a cootmg onlo Iheir product and the retn,"nder et,d, up on material~ lhal a", for cleaning. become solid wa-'le, and are ~ubsequenll)' dl-'posed ,n a landfill, />.:one accumulates in Ihe "",nufacluring 'pace. and there i, no 011sIte treatment of Ihe VOC eml<;si",\-,. n,e cooling COluah\-, ,." eral Vee., Ihal are e""tted to the -,hop noor and eoter Ihe alm""phere IhrOl1gh " indow. and "elU" Detenni"" Ihe m...'i..-' of VDC emitted l."t year Itl Ihe alln"""phere (kg/year). Pari til Ihe Maler;"1 s"fety Data Sheet (M5OS) i. sho",n beltlw,

lL"""

Chernic:oI Compa""on/lnfa,...,tion on 1"9ledienl> c~.

P"""ent by W.. !1>t

100414

~

Xvlene

Ll30-20-7

~

C...oonblaok

1333-ll
IVa..".

77)2·I!I-'i

C~ca1

Eth)'1

NarM

ben",,,,,

['1,,,,,,,.1 ..... 0..",,,,.1 rr."..'ri"--,,,

'W

'"

o."""y RIO Ib, ~k ..

solution The mass of VOC per \'Olume or CO.ltillg (lbl gal or kg/U L-' calculaled using the \lOC's detlSily from the M5OS"--,,

';( by weight VOCi 100 . R.l fllb .'gallo" lb VDC/gallo" of coating M., 1m 8.lfllbi gallon kgl2.2ffi Ib " gallon3.7!l L fl.7~ kg L TI,e kg 01 VOC en"lted In the year is ""''' VOC .-gall(\n of c""IIIIg " gall'~11'I <'If cooI;ng used per yro.r 0.78kg L >< 73.Mll L, year 59.000 kg.'year r-.:ole;n our problem lhat we a,-,ullled no"" <'If Ihe VOC i, accumulated in lhe product. Hm,ewr, 4.·100 L or the cooling aceumu!.,tes onto solid" a,te; therefore 3.'132 kg of Vex::: (4,400 L " O.7R kg/U are tra'lSported to a landfill" here Ihey mighl be ",leased 10 the almO'ipl",,,, during Iransport M d isp"""'1.

11.7

Meteocology and Transport

11.7.1

flOW FUr-DAMENTAlS

A.. n\a'i..'ieS are a ",lat" elv hom<>gel""'--'-~ and macn-".cale phen",,,en,,_ extending upward for Ihous.",Js of mete!" and cm ering hu"d r••.J- of Ih,,,,,,,,,,ds of klll'- figure 11 ,25 ,h,~", lypicallrajectcrl<'S of air m,,-~ found in r-"-"",, inlo an air ma" lroll .. and ared l-'l-"","",d " Id,in theair ma,s. A ir ma""", u,uallY"''llin''le insp""ific '~g., ns tlIa Id i''''11Yim pactthe... lemp"rMu'ea nd humid iIy as ,,·..1as It.. a ir polluta n\)( thai are e,rutted 10 It..m. for e"" mpl<. It..)' can ,mginate from ocean or cont"'''''tallocali",,-, or can be lropical 0' arctic dep"nd illl on their latilude of origin (EPA, 2012g). 11.7 MeIeor!lIlNlI' oM Transport

•

I

-Figure/l1.25

Tr~i~clDri..

of Ai, M,,-.. ~. in North Am",ic,,-.

~"""""from£J'A. 2012a-

11.72

WINDS: DREGION, SPEED, ANDTURBLlENCE

Wind diredion ~nd ,peed IMS d greal influence on the hnriz""L\1 directioMI flo" of air mas",",. Winds are named b} Ihe dll".,.,ti"n in wInch Ihey origm.,t",. Thu,>, a "'~l "ioJ Ira \ el, from" ""I 10 ".,,1 and "Mtll"",,,;! wind Irdvels from Ihe north"",l toward the ""ulhea,t. Wind speed increases ",ith heigh! and L'i al'Kl influenc<'d by d ifferenl ,urfaee element, III"l '-My in rough"""", Figure 11.26 sho"" <;on", differenc"" in "ind ,peed as a function of heighl in uri""" ,uburwn, and le, e1 rural areas. As sh,,\\ It in this figure, the de"", COJ~'ilrucljon t\'pkal of a eil} pro"id"" a 'Irong [.kliot...! force on the ,,-;nd. This causes Ihe willd to <;1,.".,' dow", eh .•oge direcbOt~ and be more turbule"t. In wnt,a_,1 a le,el munt,,',ide ha, le'i.'i. I,iclional force and Ihus Ild'i. stronger "i"d spee,j, near Iht' sur/ace (from EPA, 2012g).

1\7.3

ATNOSPHERIC STABIUTY

The ,tabi1itv and mixing he,ght 01 the alm.:e, the cm>.:"ttration of a pollutalU in ambient .. i,_ TI,e pnIential for ,ertical mixlllg of a rele.l-..d ai, poliutant is p,ima,ily ""ntrolled by the deg,ee of almo'pheric >lability. 11 i'i. im~..,rti"'tth31 a readerca",fully read and undoers/and the le,m, ILs/ed in ; ;

Chaplerll

AirCo3l~yEngineering

Urban

aI....

'00

Flgur./l1.26

Wi nd Spero I. Influence Element. Thol Hove Di lIerin~ Ro"Sh ne... ~odro_ ~"'" tJ>.... 201

2\N

T abl~ 1125 b~k>r~ mo',in8 on in Ih,.; ch.'!'I.... n"""ild~"'la",iin8 th~ vertical mi..ing of air pollutant~and In ou rla t", ~flCIrt< t,>"" lima l~ down" ",d con""nIra Ii,.." of ana ir poR u Mn l. T abl~ 1\.25 d""""ibe5 how if lh~ air l~"'per.llur~ "Jthin ,Ill a" p."..,~1 Is "a",,.,r lhan 5U rmu nd I,'l': air ("h,ch ;.; usuall y tru~ ffll" air pnUulanls ~",itl..-d during combu-7 C/km). Figure f I.V shows Ih" diff~renc"betw""n th...., lwo lap"" r.ll .... Here you can visually see how lhe <101'" of lh~ dry adiab.ltic lapse ral~ is 8r~aler lhan for lh~ "et adiabillic lap'" rate. lIth~ lal"~ ral~ of th~ a" parcel i, I""" lhan Ih~ ~um>unding .ltme"'ph"", (wh,ch i.< cooling dow" al " ral~ gr~ater than 9.8 C/km), lh~ air parcel "ill ",ma", buoyant and ront",u~ to rise. n,i• .....tical mixul80falia" par""l is \ ...y imJ><""lant;nhow lh~a,q>oIh.lt.lm is d iSf'" r;ed a" d CM ri..-d a way from (or relU rned to) a g roo nd-le\"I rec"Pl.... At"'''''ph~r;c slability i, an importalll £Oncepl to undersland ;Il t~rms of th~ ability of th~ alm""ph~r~ to disl"'",e and cMry a"ay air pollution ~",is.~ioll'. Figur~ 11.28 pro,-ides description< and .. isual r~pr"""ntalion. of diff~r~nt ,labilily £Olldllio".' Ihat "",,,ur in Ih~ alln ... spher". Durulg u n.t.bl" cood ilions, , ... tical "'''' "mer,1 of an air pdr",,1 in Ihe at"'()Sf'h"r~ i.~ eoooura8..-d upward or dow"ward. As shown in Figure 11.2~, U,,, lemperalure difference bell,·""" the ",w,,,,n,,,,,nlal laps~ rale (ollhe surroundin8 alf) and the dry ad,abatic lapse r.l~ in~reases " nh h~ighl. n,i~ lemperature dlffer"""e "nha nces buoyancy 11.7

MeteoroI!NlI' ood Transport

11.25 lmpoltart Terms to Underst..,d the Vertical Mixing ond Stability of Ai. {odopoed hom EPA. 20 I 2h~

-

Air parcel

,\ rebtn-ely wd-defired bodv nl.;' thai .([0; a•• whole .nd h.sa eo....t;"'t nurrbt..,.of moleculos. Ai. p.lCol, '.,n be thou~ht of .s 11", air inside. b.>lhm. We a",umo Ihoa" I"'rcc1 doe<; not mi, WIth ,urrouMm~ air and II", temp<-..-.ture wllhin tbe 1"'",,1 is unifonn,

BuO'
An ai, p.rcel wi. e~p'nd and (onl. If Ihe .ir te~r.'t..ow,!hm an .Ir p.rcol Is w.rme< Ih"" ,""rrnunJinG .,ic{,,-hkh .. u,,,,,Jly Ime to, .i, poIlut.1nts """,,,-'<1 dunng romoosbon.nd othef industrilll p"""",-",J. il ",11 be IL"" den", tn.,n tile ""oler surround;ns .i,. """""'" buoy.nl.nd therefore ri",. An.Ir 1"'"",1 tho,t (,-,;,1, has tile oPl""itoeff".-t; ,t ",11 bernmed"""" .,M thus Je,;s buoyant, '" it WIll descend. By dcfiniboo, Iho lap'" ,.10 (]') is th" r.t;" 01 the den",,,, 10 air lemper.ture ,,;th inc"-",,, in heIght {r .\T.l.:1. II d"""rii><.", the up"" in temp<-·..ture wllh .lltlUd". A l'O>ili1"lol'" role is ""e wh<...-e the lemper.ture decre.:l."-'" with he~~hI. A"(.~.li1'<:1.,,,, ,.1, is """ where the tom perature ",,:re.'-"---'" ,,;th heIght [0 the "op"'phere, the .,w.gee,mmnmeo",11.11"'" ..te" &-7'C/km 1001."'" in .ltitude but can '-''1' wIdely loc.ll,·. Rcmm,bcr.l.1"'" "1C5."ros'li",~-lu-lI 'hr ''''" T"'''' 1"1< de.:'''' ",'j Ih. II i Iwie

Stablo. tmco.p'Hro

A ,"bleatmo.phoro "",..ts "ert..-.,l molion.nd thu.s wIll howe a low .bd,ty ~,d"f"'<"'.Ir pollut.:m" tlut are e,mttoo to ,t.

Dry .dl.b.>h( 1.1p""

Ad~,b.loc p~.re ones

where "" Iransf", ofhe., or m.....s occurs """"'" the round.riL", of thoe.Ir p"",el. ,\ dry.m I"'rccl ""lOg m tho .tm<"'ph,,,,,cools ot a d'l'.d i.b.tic l.pse r.teof 9.R' C/Icm. " drv p",celsmlemg in the atmosphere he,,"at • "'e 01 9.8 C/lem

Wet .Idi.,b.>tk lap"" rate

A cLsiog I"'lt ron",i"s w.,I", ""I"'" ,,;11 (00/ at the 1.1 ..- adi.,b.>tK 1.11"'" r.le uotil It reach"" Its de,,' po;ol tomperalure ("'h"" the wate..- '-'por p"",sure",!u.,l, tile ""tur.t",o "'P'''' pret temper.ture\. COM"""""'''' rele."", uteol oo.,t m~, tho." I"'rcl,l; thus, ,he ",olmg rote of lhe l"1fce! decrro"". [0 the middle of tho If('r<'''pll<,,e, tho wel.d i.batic bps< r.te L< aboot .....7 Ci lem.

En,;mnmonL,1 L,I"'" ,.te

The eovironmenl.ll.pse rale es lhea(tuallemperature I"oflle of the .tmosphe,e a,. fUl\Ot~", of .llttude. 11 ".1", refOfTed to as lhe l""'-al1i~g or .,tmospher"1.lpo;e r.,te. T empe,.'ure u,;u.llv d~'Cre.w", ,,;th hetght ,,,ccpt in the c.,'''' of. te'"'per.'IU,e m,'""",n where the tomper.lture 01 the ,,;th heIght, thu.' pro..-eotmg mIxing.

,,"

.'mosrhere ,oe"",,,,,

,""'IC.1

.,1

Tht, mi,inglleighl " tho m.mmum h<.~ghl .,n ."r I"'rce~ CdO .""M. It is o,...,11y Ihe hei.~hl which. "sm~ air p"rccl tn." i,e<>:>liogat lhe dr" .,d.,Ntic L,po;e ,.te int<'l"'<'Cls the .,mbient 'en'f"".lto ... pmfile. At this pomt the .ir I"'rcellos<", ,t, buo,-anev boc.lu."" II is no lonj';'" wa""", tMO the "'-1rmundmsa" (it " Ihe <" me "-,",per.turo)

,el,,,,,,,.

Tht, mi,ing layeds the.Ir below the m"m~ heighl to tile poml "f lhe . I f eme,""'o The Lug",- the mIXing 1.:I,'er, tl>;, g"-,,"',,-olum,,,".m ",to which.lf pollut.,ntscao \)" disl"'''''-'
of a rising air pdfcel thai is cooling at the dr.v adiab3tic 13pse rate. During ,table condif~,ns. "eflkal m""emen! of an air parcell, dL~ couraged. Under, ery ~ldble mnd itiOIlS, a cooler layer of air near the land ~urlace is appeJ by an uPI""" ",anner air layer. Thi, colldition t, referred to as inversion and p""venl~ ""rlical m',tion 01 an air parcel. Neul .. l stabilify ()CCU,," Whell the ellVlfOluuelltallafN' rate i, the ""me as the dry adIabatic lapse rate. The "ertical mOl'emellt of air is neither encouraged nor SUpportN ullder these conditlon~ (EPA. 2012h). Chapter 11

AirCu"~y

Engineering

',-,,----='~-~~~~~~---, ,

,

,

" "

"m'm

"

_

" "

"

,...,.,-"-~

~

~

Innfl'inns (IoXUr ... hen IN len'I"""~lu",of tl~ .un r~ ,rlCf"'-...... ",til ~ghl f_ r 'gure 1I2S1. In Fig","" 11.:!iI,~ o! INt th" ,n, er""n ,. occurring at I J..m ab",,, the g......."d ~urfa{". In''''''liKlS a", imp«u,," in II... I.ue H.-.ing thnlllgh the early ",cr"Il'g. "h.., the land .'urfa~ coos rapidl> _u",...I, As the l.nd surface C<'>l,ls, d'..... tit" lay", of air e...... It' IhI! glIlUII<.! surf.•"". If thi_ a" 11,,1 r~iJ r J,.'''ch And en-.de the 0" I.,"r ~'Sraph" pl.lvsan ,mportanl role in Iheocr.:."nl:n'1I1 of an in,,,,,,,"o,,For e....mrl.>. for ~",alions In a ,,llJey. the ullo!y 0...... C.ln oll)o>,:t moler ... 1"" nn""'" do"" hil.lrr our IA~;!t ongmahOfl'" the ..... lAg ~ .......... tbe ,·aIley·~ fIcow. "h,l" "arrl\O!f aor Ulln be tr..... I"""..-d ab< " tho. eound",smounulro. and ~ ar~ O"INlhng a Cilpptl1g IA~er in u.. An~. thr ... h.LIlJOI> un bolo ffimpo>undedge of plu",", beh,,, ,or and Il!' rdanor",h,p In atrnl'oopner;e -.tdblltty .. crItICAl for air qu"li~ m"",,-8""""". nSun> 11.29 pro<. ides a

",",M'"

.,ft",

""'101<

Agurl/11..21

Difle",,,,e bet",·e""

Oryand Wd Adl.b.tlc up.e Rale•.

R~ure ,ho,,,ng

Siabil ity Condilion

tempe,a'urech..>nll"" "r a hVf<>lbdlC.ll .Ir I""eel (h..>,hed I",e) .nd ,he ,u,roundlng .i, tenyironment.lbpst· ,.tel ,..ith hcight

Dunng "nstablccondition" H'. heat .nd t,an,fcr< "<'mc beat t" lhe surface Ol' I."",. ThIS Ol' ",arm" bccom,,. I"", de",.'" (.md ,hu, mn", bu"j-'.lOt) tb.,n the surrounding .,,, '" It ri"" "erlically.

'1"-""'"

During ,Labl«ondilion.. ,,,rtic.l rno"cmcnt or.n ai, I"',eel i., d''''''''''gN Unde" H'rV ,..,ble conditit"'-',a c",,1oT I.WC1' of O1rr..." , the 1.00 oo"'"" is ",,1].,rJ .n invc.. ion and p""'C<1ls ,'ertic.1 molicm of an 011' parcel

, !

•

",'yr""--

--

I,,=~

,

--

I Iky./"....

--

• "

T_'C

Nculrolst.bility occur< ",hen II\" em-ironment.l!.>?", .. tc e' thc ",me '.' the dry odi,b.Ili<: !.>?'" rote. The '=t..al mon""""t or ai, i, "",Ihe,encnu,age;j "'" 'upl""k;j unde.- thc
, ! •

\

, ~r "

..

-- \

--""

T_'O

A lempt"'tu'" in,'c..;"n ","cur< "'hen , wannc.-l.w1' or OIl' ,,,,,de< .hm.... mole.- 'urf.-.ee byer (fmm EPA, 21l12hl. Arro.' tb.1t are pmne m in""""",-, on..,., where Luge popu!.>11on.' or humo,n.' ,,,,ide- Thc...... nd Ioc.:>tioo"" nca, mounL,i...,

, " -"$ , ""

I

, ,

", •

'-< Fl9ure 111.28 Dcfin itiOM or Almo.'pheric SLabilit)· Condition .. SCl'Ja, ~rA.. 20t 2,


"

Plume Type

Almospheric Stability and Visual Description olllle Plume

Looping----{kru" tn highly un.t.lbl~ col.:lltion•. A ,apid tumov~, or air ""u,"" turbulence. looping plum<." ,11" u.•",lI1y ra"""ble lor d",p""ion or .i, pollulant. and u.ually n"ult In low ""p""u", to 10", polluLml ",,,,,,ntr,,t,,,n•. HO\-\-'",'~r. Ih.,,,, ""'y be ,hon 'l'iscdos or 10 higher amrentr,~",,-'of aI' poliuLmt, where the plume loop" dO\-\-"1\-wa,d to ground 1e",1

,

o o

!'"

"'P"""'"

hnnlng-----Or
--

"r"".,.

o

--

"r"". 0

•

! •

--

0

•

L.

0 0 0 0

•

'" '" '" '" Con Ing----oe
, j

Lofting ~RclN", of all poilu tant".cru" I"-.t "bm" the I",,,,,ion. Tl\e 'lTab<"" the in,,,,,,,,,n i.< un.t.lbl<~ which~nmurage'l ,'''''ical m"'tng ,lbo,,, the tn"",••," lwer. In tin. ""'" gmund-Ie",1 ,ecepto"'''' ronun..Jto mau", ,t.lek height i••bo", th~ d,,,·.lmn or the tn""",,,,".

fum;galion~Alf

pollut"nt1''''' Tl\e.ur bek",' the rlume in thL' c,,'" L< un'l,ble. C;mundk.'v", ren bee,f"""'d to high b'cl< or,lI poIlu!.>n'<-

~r"_"..

-o o

•

o o

--

o

o.,~'.

\of-l, _.....:C'-""'= J'~.J ,

,

'."'.<1"''''

'-'

Rgur./l1,29 Plume Tn'" .nd Ihe Inn""nce of Almo.pheric 51.bilil}'. sc:ua. [P~, :Kl12h 11.7 MeteorokIgyMdTransport

m-

des.:ripti,," of five lyJl"'S nf plum"" Ihal one would coll""o"ly o])"er...e origlllal,ng fr,)m" s!dck. In Ihis case, the ~!dck could be en...."ioIlN "s " t"ll indu~lrial sl"ck or " ~horter household chi,"ney. TI,e type of plume ;s controlled by the ~l.lbilily of Ihe "Im""ph"", S() th.•t informatin" i~ pn",ided a~ ,,~ll\',(eal<;n h"", Ihe d iffere"I type; of plull"" impacll"" pot..'tial for eXp"'ure of gmu,ld-le,el receptors 10 air pollutanb, whelher Ihe ""p"'ure will ocmr 10 a more diluted form III the air parcel, or "hether the plume is conduch-e 10 Iran,porlmg Ihe air polluta"ls "" ay from the local ~ourceand 10 """edmm w~,d re",plor.

11.7.4 TERRAN EFFEGSON ATMOSPHERIC STABIUTY We menlioned previously that l""d fe"lu"," impact turbulence ",1d the horizontal ~l-"""" nf an air parcel. The vertical ",ol;on of an air mass;, alS() impacled by liflillg of air Ihal occurs 0\ er lerrain. r~" example, Ihe horizonlal arId ,erlical direction D! a" air parcel" influenced by topographical fealure<. that can include hills, ",oulllai"s. and valleys. In addilion, ,~her land fealur"" like Ihe p""""",e 01 "ater or trees can impacl the movement of an air parceL For e,a,"ple, ",aler he.'I~ at a much slo"er rale du,"ng the day Ih"" mncrele infrastructure beeau"., Ihe ,,-aler has a lower heal cap.,c,ly (thi~ ,,-a~ discussed ill eh.'pter 4). The concrete can Ihen relea"., ih heal back 10 Ihe air at nighl" hile the waler will not reiease heat \<) same degree. A1S(). tree-cm ered .Heas ad>orb heall",,~ lhan rocky- slope; or bare ground do. Land "nd the fealures on the ground heat up and «",I dow" relalhdy quickly. In COlllra~I, "al... healS and cnols relatively ~Io" ly. In addilinn, "aler lemperalu rIO d."", ,ary greatly fmm day to day or week 10 """k be<:ause waler temperalure~ tend 10 follow" """,,)nal pallern. A~ shown in Figure 11.30, "hen the land surf.lce heal, up, the "If adj.lcent 10 Ihe I,,"d up and

''''I

"""'lS

«. ,,;:::---

_ II I

~~

If --~~) Low ~ _ _

eosLJr1l

,(

H'1' ' '--

.............. .-"" Hq1

_

_

_

pro."",.

<=ure

- -- - /:.-~- ~ /

-~~

/)

-

~

~

~

/

_

--::,./

----=-= -= - ~

~

-~

_

_

6

--

Worrn
(bl

lal Figure /11.30

Diff."mlial H•• li"l\ B.I........ I\' ,I... ,,,d L. nd Lud.• 10 t~)

"odr..-fron,[¥" 20121li

Chapler 11

AirCoal~y

Engineering

S. .

low

pr..""'"

Br••", ~nd fb) L.nd UfOOZe.

-

- ~

t"",o",.,,; less d~nse ~nd rise. n,~ roole' ~i, il\'"," Ih" wale' l~ Ihe" d,a"" i"la"d (k"own~•., ,~ .• b,,,,,z,,), At'Hght, Ih" alf ,We' Ih" l~"d cool~ rapIdly, "hich C'e~teS a r~tum 110" fmm land 10 Ih" "al~r Ihal i, called a land b,,,,,7.", Thi. mm e",e,,1 ai, can ha,'" a large impact Oil mov~m~m of ~If IMrc"ls "h~n ai, ""'''.''on. occu, ,,~ar larg~ bodi", wat~"

0'

0'

11.8

Atmospheric Dispersion and the Gaussian Plume Dispersion Modeling

0'

EstImation conc"nt,ation~ do"" wind of a S()urce i, u,dul fo, ai, pollutio" man.lg~m""t.Mod~li"g is particularly neees",,,y for predicting imIMct~ of chokes lhat ha,,, y"t to be ",ade III tenn. 01 p"rmiuing "mi"io". a"d applicatIon of d"mand ",anag""'''''t and comrol teehnologies 0" IM'hculu air emL"-,i,,,,<;. G"U.,,-,i.l" di'p"",io" ""hm~tion '" a enmmo" appr"ach that unde'pilL~ a suit" 01 moo"l, for ""ti",ating time-a, eraged air poI1utio" c"uc"mrati01L<. d"" "" in
11.8 1 FUNDANlENTAlS OF DISPERSION MODELING Dispersion models are fundamentally ba>ed nIl Ih~ '*"'e"-ati",, that a" pollution "",i";"n,, are carried h",izomally " Ith Ih~ a, ",age wmd fI(M, bul abo, l-,"""ad and d ilut" in the vertical .'II>.:! h"-;;'.(o,lo>1 d I",,,lions d u" to ttlrbul"nl eddies, buoyan"y in Ih" "ertic-al di,ection, a",i ,\lh", fluctu.'timL~ m "ind di,ect;on, n,,, equation, u,ed loapproxlmale thi~ beh.wior a", grounded ill I'hyskall~"-,, il\eluding rick's law and th" matl!ri..l balan"" (,"" Chapl~ 4), ~s ""n as ,latisliG.l tl"',,,y repl\!Sel\ting Ihe app"""i",al"ly ra"dom dfeQs ", turblliellc" a"d ,,-ind fluetuati",,,, ror C~u..i~n mod~ls, Ih" population ,,' pollut.lnt mass i, repre"'Med u"illg C... ussi~1I (.'II", called nor",~1l pmb.lbihl) di"tributi"n fu",cli"ns, The b~,ic st"ad"-'!at" Cau.. i~n plum~ "qu;\lion is pmvidf.'l.i in Equati"" 11,30, wilh the corresponding coordinale ~ysl"'" depicted in Figure 11.31:

\11.30)

n, .. m<>..lel equation pro',ided in Equalioll 11,30 ",ti",ates Ih" ti",e-av"raged col"",mralion ,~f all air pollul.lllt (C, Ina,,/,',~ILllnl', for example, "g. '",) at any 'patial locatioll (x_!l.:) do" ",wind ,,' a ,",--,"'~.III I'igure 11.31 and Equation 11 30, x i, IhedO\\1\",,,,d d istane", y l~ Ihe """"wind mordilMte, ~nd ~ is Ih" \'~rtIcal wordi"ate (that i.,. th" l",ight). n,~ fi"'tte,m to Ihe right '" th~ equal Sigll in EquatIon 11.Jf1 pm'-Ides U"" collCelllr~tl"" directl" centerline of lhe p;UIl'" (roord IlIat",,,f x, G,ll). n,e"""o",j t~nn ~df'sls Ih~col",eltratoon as yoo "''''-'' in th",id~",ay, ty) dlrt<:lim. a"d th"third t~r",~dilhtSlhecOlIC",,1rat"-,,, in th~ ,"ertkal (:) directio", Here U"" (or ,tack) is located at x.!/.:

,,"'rI:"

11.8 Alm,.;p_ Displrsiooand lite Ga"",ionl'lume [)i,pmionMOOeling

RgUR/l1.31

,

Th.C.u......n Plume.

1_ _,1",,, T=w, 197(l

I', -y. 0)

°

COOn:!'MliS 0, 0, a nd at a h"'gh~ II. ab(~ e Ihegr....,nd ,un..,..,. s (m."'~1 time, lor example; kgl d .. y Ib/h) i, Ihe "'ntinuClu, po,lluldnl emL~~"'n.~ rale from Ihe s'!Ur<:e, and 1/ i, Ihe eff""tive 'eluse height ollhe plume (shown in Figure 11.32). H represents the height al which the plume I""", it~ "eul" Ihal ""limate the momentum anJ buoyancy of Ihe alt emi",,,0"5. A demon.'lrali- e hi,torical plume ri", "'luatinn i, the Holland f",mula for neulral ,tabllity condil;"",· (11.31)

RgUR/l1.32 Diff.rence bet"·e<~. SI.,k H.ip;hl V,) .nd Effedi"e Role••• Heip;hlIHf.

-~-.,......,.---~-~ ~ _:... - ~~- -

,

"

; ..

Chaplerll

AirCual~yEngineering

--: -.::j--

"here I' is Ihe e.•il vdo.:ity of t he ~lack gas (ml ,.td is Ihe in,.. rd i".meli'r of the sldck (m), T, lS the exit lemperalure of Ihe '!dd: gas (K), T. i, Ihe ambienl air lemperature (K), .",d P i, Ihe ambie,,1 pres-,ure (mb). Note in Equ.lt,on I l.Jl Ih.,' Ihe first enn,lallt l' unitt"", alld the "",ond ha, unit, of mb- 1 m t). an..:e rel""""",], Ihecellle, of Ihe plume Ira,els wilh the speed ( !I) and d""ction of Ihe meall "md. Dispe"io" io Ihe y and.: d"eelioll' of Ihe total plume mass .11 all' J: localion are each represenled b) a normalized Gauss,all probability density function 'h,,' h." a ",ean at Ihe plu",e ceole,line (y 0," II) and standard devialio,,-s (0-, and "z, r""pectiv'ely). c, and ", are refe,red to as .I i,pe",;oo meffi
11.8 2 MODEL PARAMETERS In order t" apply Gaussian dispe"ion "'lualions, a fe", parameters "'Ie ''''Iuired. n,e,e indude dispersion coeffide"ls, effeeli"e ,el"""" height "f Ihe plume. .1lld the meall" ,nd ,peed .11 Ihe s!.lcl: height. As di.'<:u,sed '" Se<:lion 11.1>.2, ",ean wind speed increase w,lh dhilude from Ihe ground ,una,.., alld the grad ie,,' of the increase i, d"P"ndenl on the roughness of the 'u rlaee. Wind speed ( ,,) at Ihe effecti,"e s!dc),; heighl (II) can be est"naled from ",ea,ured ,,,nd 'f"'<-"'I ("0) ",e.1Sured .11 .1 ,eference height I:,,) using Ihe folio" mg IX',,"er 1.1" relalionship;

"

(11.32)

In Equ.•'io" 11.32,.: is Ihe I,."ghl alld Ihe""lX'nenll' is .1 funclion of Ihe stabilily cLoss of Ihe air .1nd surf""" roughness. Values range fro", 0.07 for ,,,,ootl, (rurdlllerrain unde, the m",,' un,table .1ln""pheric condilin,,-~ (referred lo~ dS d.1s~ A 'lJb,lilyllo O.n fo, rough (urban) lerr-ain for Ihe ",,,st ,I.1ble .1I"'''''pheric ,lJbility (cl.l."~ Fl. Table 11.26 pro\"id"" descriphon, of Ihe ~i" das,.,.; (,\-1'} u""d I" describe Ihe stdb,l,ty of the . Ihallhe stabilHy d .... IS ba<&:l on p"' .... iling co"Jib"''' of w,nd 1 cur..e fitting "'IuJli"ns used 10 det",mi"e Ihe J "persion coeffide"t- in Ihe .t .,nd y di"",'i",,, a,e Ille B"ggs "'Iualio,,", pro"ided '" Table 11.27. In Ih",e "'1""1"',,", the vawe J: is Ihe 11.8 Atma;ptleri
11.26 o ...
-- -. _.

HiI1II. limo Cl
~--

Day-T1m<>lsoIation

10m)

~.

d

A

2·3

A~'

A-B

.. "'""

~

..".

,

~

-

,

m ~-

,

""~

C C

D

, ,

~

C

CO

D

D

D

"

C

D

D

D

D

I~

A--.Iy",,__, ~
11.27 ~q ...tio...

to htimate Ho,hont"'ja ,) and V.,..liml (a.l Di'p""ion Coeff"KientsforGo..sion Plume Modeling. 10' <' JI (in m) <: 10"1

,-

Class <>I At~ •• m

'v COM,/"'",

Opnr-C,,,." I

I

~

.. m

A

11.22«1

lI,lnlbl

O.20x

"

11.16..-(1

II,OOOlx)

D.I!.>:

C

O.1lnl

o.,-n'llr)

0,1&0

D

O.OIWI

O.lnllxl

Dl'full -t 0.0015:<)

11.1),,-,(1

O,lllfllxl

D,01,,1

OJ»:<{1

O,OOOII)

O.Olh<{1

, ,

D.lnl2:r1

O,lIOJ3:r) 0,0003:<1

U,,,," C",JdJlion> A-O

03ilU

0,000-1:<)

02hO t O.OOh)

C

"=<.

O.lIX\.lxl

D

OJhx(1

O.<)l(}lx)

"=

H

O.1lx{1

O,OOO-lxl

SOUtCU;""""olal,1911

;"

Chaplerll


OlhO t 0,0003:<) Ollflx( 1

0,0015:<1

,

, o'

,"

i,~lu,,-

~ ~}u ...~

,~~~~-,;;,~~~:~:='":~'~~~:,~I~-::_J ,0' ,0> 10'

"'

lMlan<:
10'

~

:"-,,-

,.,

OI'I"'",;on Co
flgur./ll.33

G~u .. i...,

~"'";..,.,,~"........ , 19821

dist~"c"

in the.~ direction d"'Hlw,nJ of the emission
11.8.3 FORWtSOfTHEGAUSSlAN DISPERSlrn EQUATlrn The b.lSic plume equalion presenled in Equallon 11.30 provides Ihe mosl importanl coIlcept~ in almospheric despe",io" ",,1"Mlion bUI is rarely u,ed in practice. Some in'porta"t limili
Th. simplest form of th~ Gdus,idn disl"',,;on "'ludlion thdt is u>ed for eslin ...tion includes the bMrier In ,-ertkdl uis!'t'f"'iion ""pre,enled by Ihe ground surfdc,," To dCCOUlll lor Ihe surfdce b.lrri..., d fictitious ,ource at d heighl -II (thai is. ""low ground le,-d) is u,,",d 10 Mid back Ihe m"". of pollul,,,,1 trot would hd' e been ....\lhemdlieally dlSl"'..-i inlo Ihe ground. n.i. result. in dn e,trd e'poll.,nli.>1 term addoo 10 EqlMhon 11.J(J d. shown in Ih., foilow-ing "'l U dIion:

I'

_,.,)1)) '"" Ot.33)

Eqmlion 11.33 is reft!rraJ tn a. Ihe gr",,,,d rrf!ccli<""·'l"ali"". Abso'}>tion. ralher lhan ,..,fle<:tion. can be repr..,.,,,too i"sl&lu by subtracling (ralh.". Ihan ddding) Ihe fil",i expo,,,,nh.,1 term. We Me aLso ",ost li ...es ronc.,rn.,d with Ih., ronc~ntralion of an air poilutant a I grou tld le,'el becau,," this is ,,-he,.., eXl""'ure of humans and crops wouid lake place. In Ihi. case. the lerm 1 in Equation 11.33 can """"t 1<) zer" (1 0) so Ih., refle<:lion equ.,tion (Equalion 11,3)) is wrilten dS: C(x_y_O)

,

TTl/a,.,,-;

(~) ".'1' ("') -~ =,

""I' --tl"'"i

(11.34)

Equation 11.34 will "" u""" ill our e_.ampl., ""'10" 10 estimale Ihe do" n wind COllC.,nlralion of an air pollulanl for a particuiar "tuation. In Equation 1134. Ihe ma: th., po;nl "hen Ihe ,-erlk,,1 di"pef"'iion mdficient equals:

0,

1I..n

01.35)

Thu". Ih., .,H"",ti, e relea,e h";ghl of Ihe plum., ( II) can be plugge
;'.

Chapterll AifCu.. ~yEngin.",ing

e Xanl pie I

11 . I 2

Use of the Gaussian Ph..ne Dispersion Model

A manufacturing pl'OC'eS> emits 2.4 g 0/ the pollutant SO, e, ery ",inute. The stack heighl is IS m and Ihere is zero plu",,, ri,*,o A<;sume Ihe " ",d ,peed ,>:J m/s and Ih" honwn!.>l dLs!",,,,ioll coefficiellt ( is 25 III and th" \" "nkal dispe"'ion coefficient (a,} Ls 15 m FM IhL, ",Iudl;on. What i, the concent,ation of the ai, poliutanl n.5 kIll down",ind of the release aiong Ihe celller;'lIe? IVhal is the collcent,alion al Uns ",,,,e di,ta""" down" ind bUI at a location 100 m 10 Ihe side at ground level?

",I

solution The proble", is a-sking us 10 est, mate Ihe ground-le"el ""n"",urallon of the pollutant '" Iwo I"cations. Both estimatloll> are at g",und le"el <0 "e "ill use Equation 11.J4. For Ihe firsl quesl",n. "'e are "'I,mallng Ihe con",,"lraUon of the pollutaltl along Ihe plume's ",,"terllne so the .r. y. ~ cnordinales are 500 m,O, 0. Equat,on 11.34 call be "rillen a" nnn

C(500.0.0)

2.1g/min

""'!iii:

(\Oml')

(

(15"')')

","J",s_25m~15m""P -2~(25m)" e"p -2~(15m)1

1'1-"""

IVh.>1 ha Iot he gr"" lid -Ioev eI reneentrall 01\ a tUn" local;;' n; Fth es lad< he;gh I(I,) i, ",creaseda nd " egel some plun", rise (.till <0 Ihe \" Jlue of II L' increa-n"" "here Ihe max,mum concenlratlon 0/ Ihe pollutant occurs. F..... lho> ....,••'d question "'e are a"ked 10 ""'u"ale Ihe SO, oF500,loo,l1.

coll~elll,ali"n

al

r.!I.~

COl,rd'lI.lt""

C(SOO,1oo.0)

C

23 x 10-0 g, m' x J(I" "'S.'S

0.002.1 fLs/m'

","ole ho" Ihe SO, con""",ralion '" Ihe !I diredion LS much lo"er than Ihe concentr"lion along the amte,l;"eof plume becau"" of d";pe,,,ion.

Fictiliou, sources Ih~1 are Formulaled similarly Coln .11>0 be u<;ed to accounl lor ,eflection Jue to a capp"'g in"e",ion laye" a"d mult,ple rdEcbo,,, beh",.,n IheS ....JnJ .1nd Ihe in"'....:on. Sourc", in a line, sIale ' ... u"ian puff d Lspe "":on eq uat iOl" a re u ,ed. Th"", eq u.1I, 0'" f01 ~w d lseretee ",;s.s;;',~, puff, IhrouSh dl.lI\ges in meall ,,;nd direction alld speed. MallY olhe, aJapho'L~ha\'e al".-, been applied 10 "'-cOUllt lor nlher a,peeI, thaI OCCllr in p,aL'Iice, lI,dudlI'S ele"aled lerrain, ,tack lJp Jowllwa,h, ,eaction or Jel"-",~ion of pollutanl ""''', and alternal"'e a"eragins limes

11.8 Atm,.;plleric Displrsiooand lite 6o"",i.. I'1""," [)i,porsionMOOeling

I" practice, ""-,,,1 m,..!eli"g of air poIlutio" de'p""",lll no", """" e",nput~r mooelmg sy,lem, b.>sed 0" one or more of the a"alytical equ.,Iions d~ribed alxwe. TIle sy'lem, eust",mze Ihe equation furm ",le,'a,llln Ille mnd,lions 10 bo> modeled and al«> ""irmale ""'''y of Ihe """""So"y paramete.... TI,e EPA powid", a eieari"ghouse of di'l-lersion modeiing program, lh.H a", appropriale for dine",nl application< al hltp:! / "'''''' .epa,gov/lln/",ram/ d'~p"",klllindex.httn, along "',lh gUIdance on Iheir u'"' for regulatory applicati",,,. The curreml) p"'" rerred model/or sleady-qate (plume> ...timalinn i, lhe AERMOD ,y.... te"" " hne CALPUFF i, p",l"",ed for lIo,,-,te.\d y--<;l,lle (pum modeling.

Key Tenns • adsorption

• e"v,ron",enlalla!"", rate

• regul.uory apprmehes

• air qualily i"dex (AQ])

• fug'li"e emi"ioo,

• seco"dary pollutanl

• air parcel

• S"-'-lo--cIOlh ralio

• "",ondary standards

• air lmics

• Cau"ian models

•

• C"u,s;a" plume equation

• source redud,on

• area
• hazardous air pollutant,

• 'palial scal...

• baghou"",

• hOi..!,

• stable "Im,"'phe",

• almospheric

,~~bility

• bag fil1e"

indoor air quality

."""rt growIh

• 'Iable

cn"d,li",~s

• Cl",n Air Act

• ,,,,e,..,iOll

• stack emi",mb

• biofiller

• Il'AT Equation

• .,t'Hi",,,,ry soure""

• buoyanc)·

• laJ-'S" rale

• slral""phe,..,

• Cl""n Air Act Amendments

• market-based apprNeil'"

• stralospheric ozone deplet,on

• conlrolt""hnologies

• mi.""g heighl

• Ihermal oxidizer

• Corporale A, erage I'uel

• mixing layer

• lo.ic air

• mobile

• traffic rong""tion

Economy (CAFE) Sta"dard,

• criteri .• air poIlulanl' •

(r)

«lU rees

• Nali",,,,l Ambie"l Air QlMllly Standards G\AAQ5}

cydon~

I"'llulan~'i

• Tragedv of Ihe Common, •

Ir,\l~'portali""

• dem.",d ma""gernenl

• "eutral ,I.,bility

• di'persi,m coefficients

• ""nattainmenl area

• lroposphere

• odor Ih"",hold

•

(D. and e)

• di'l"'",ion rnoJe), • dry adiabalic

lal"~

packed a]",orption beJ ralt<

demand

rna"agemenl

uJ~slable

mnd iii"",

• venluri ",rubber

• pholochemical reaction,

• VOlullUry approaches

• en""l,,'e reI"""" heighl

• plu me

• wei adiabalic lap'" rale

• el""tJ'()'il.llic precipiLl.Inr (ESP)

• plu",e ri"",

• ",,,,£I direction

• emi"ioll faetor

• pornl «>ure""

• wind 'l-,."..j

• energy l"dder

• prim",)' slanddrds


chapter/Eleven Problems 11.1 CM!>.'" m"n",id~ (CO) i, n",a,urro to i",,~ a c,.",,,:entration of 103 .,.g/m '. What i, th~ nmcelllration in (a l ppm" (b) ppb" and tel perC~1ll by ""lull"'? A,--,um~a temperatureof25 C and pr...--,u,~oll .lIm, 11.2 If th" atnY:l,~~,ellc ma", concentratioos 01 nitrogen m,.,mid" (NO) and n~n>g~n dioxide (NO,) Me 90 and 120.,.g/m" r....p""I"'ely, "'hat i, the NO, ooncentta!i"n in ppb,? A"um~ a temperature of 30 C and pressure of 1 atm. 11.3 11 the ma,;..' mllcentrati"n of p.>r1iculat~ maller is 12.501.,.g/m'. ""I""rl th .. conc~"tratioo a, the numter oon"""tranon (II pMticl,."lcm'). A~sume sph~rical particles of 1l.5111n di.,m~ter "'Ith delhlty of liquid ",aler (l g ·cm'l.

11.4 Forn.... ldehyde i,

commol~y

foond in U... indoor air of imprnperly desIgned and constructN blJildings. 11 the concentration of fonnaldehyde in a home lS 1.1 ppm, and the il~,ide "olume is noo m', " hat ma", (, n grams) oHolln,>1dehyde "apor i, in,.de the home? A"ume T 29'!K a",J P 1 aun. T1 ... mol""ulM ",eight of fmm.>ldehyde 's 30. 11.5 The NatiOl,..l Ambien' Air Quality S!.>ndard (NAAQS) for 'ulfur diOXIde (SO,) isO.l1 ppm, (24 11 a"erage). (a) What is the concentration ,,' .,.g m' a"unnng a" air temperalUre of 25 C? (bl What is the mncentrahon i" mol ... SO, per 10" "1<,1"" 01 air? 11.6 Table 11.5 pm"ded inbrmati"" thai ~ug g-..ted "dean" air mIght ha,e a ,u1fur d'f"iJ,., (SOo) mncemralion of <)(1 ppb" "hile polluted "ir might ha, e a ooocentratioll of 1 ppm,. Co",'ert these tw" C(ll>centration, to .,.g 'm '. A",ume a teml"'rature of m K (note the difference unit' of ml\centratio"" ppm, ,e",us ppb,l. 11.7 Carbon m"''''xlde (COl affa"'!s II", o"yge,\-<:arryillg capaclt} of your lungs. E"p""ure to SO ppm, CO 1m 90 min l...s been found to imp'"r olle·s ability to discrinn",te ~topping dIStance; therefore, motorists ill hea,ily polluted areas may be mme pro"e to accidents. Are mntorlst, at a greater rbl: 01 accident, if the CO fOncentratio" is 65 mg/m '? As~ume a temperature of 291\ K.

11.B Diesel engin", enut "ery fi,

partld"", I" the atmosphere, these "",t particl nften agglomerate with other particles as they" age." Assume the

agglomerated ",,)I particl,." are initially suspended at a height of 22 m, nleY are spherical (diamo>ter 0.5I'-m) a"d have a density of 1.1 gl cm'. (al Calculate the I"rmi".•l settli"g "elocity of the soot particl"". (bl Ho", many hoo", ""lithe ",,-,t particles remain ,u,pended bd'o"" ,etiling by gra\'lty to the ground? TI,e de",ity of alf is 1.2 kgl m' and its Iluid "i,;o""ty i, 1.72 x lo-~ g.·cm..,;. 11.9 This problem all .......,s you to thin" about hm" e"p""ure impacts Ihe ml>ce"tratin" ,)I air pollutants ynu are exposed to. (a) Ma",tain a diary fot 1 full day and remrd all the location, \'ou "i,it, Include the tim"" of entry and e~it for each location. Also recnrd any inter""tlllg air qu,>lit' inform"ti"n for each locati"n. Calculate the percentage of time 'pent in each type of locat",n. Summarize the datil in a table. (b) In which location did ynu spend the m,,,,t amoullt of tIme? TI,e l",,,t? (c) Calculate the 24 h t,me integrated a"erage I'x/"",,,,.. COl/mIl ral "''' (uni" "f Il-gi m ') to alf!>.une particles ba""" nn your re.:nrded acti",t} patte...,s, ,,-sing the a\'erage airbon\e PM '" mn"""trati"" for differe"t locations pffwlded belm,. Ave
Locat""

Goncenllal"'" lI'gtm"l

Home

OIf..,.,.f,c1ory

Oth....-Ind"", tn, vehick' Ould"""

(d) 1\nl\" add a 35 .,.g/m' "pro~innty elfect" to o"e of your locatioll' abo"e that we ",ill a,;..sume i, from eXfl'O"ure to cigarette ,nlOking at thatlocatioll. How does thb change your 2·1 II time integrated a,·erage n",n"I",li,~l (unit, 01 .,.g/n,'lto airborne particles?

,'x/"",,'"

11.10 {al Deli,... NAA(Ji .,nd (b) id,,'lIify the NAAQS pollutan".

",,)I

11.11 OnJ,ll",ary 12,2013, U... AQI in Be~ing (O,i,.,) the AQI """ determined to be 775. In contrast, Oil

January 11.2013. Sdh lake City (Utah) has .. reJX""ted .... QI of 1']2mmJXlrro loa, ..lueol67 in San Fr a"cL"'o'~ .,,,d a \'alue of 23 "' las Vega,. o..,elop .. lable wllh three mlum"" list lilt< IrloJr cilles, Ihe AQI reported ab
,%, 132

,~,

155

2~1

,%,

243

,~

,-, .,-

Vetfcles

,~

'"

,~

""

'"

~

" W

,w

105

211

2001

,0> 'ffi

,= 'W, 'W,

'",%

,~

,w,

1'173

,~

2&5

,~

,-,=

,~

17<

,%,

"" ,,%, ,-

'"

m m

'992

,~

'" '"'

172

,~

0'

Drivets

,~

'"

"'"

11.12 n,e followIng Jata '''' US populalion, number of lice""", dri\ e,..;, and Ilumbo!r of ,'eludes" as oot.linlld from Ihe U.S. o..pdrlmenl of Trall-sport,,tin", Federal Hlglm.,y Ad",i",stralion (hllp:/ I ww" .fhw.. ,dn 1.g o..lermi"e Ihe rale of growlh (on a per year basis) for the popul.ltinl~ number of licensed dri,ers. and number of vehides. (b) Are Ihe rales growth simIlar or dlfferem!

H7

2003

2711

'M

2t I

273

,.

21&

,~

... '"

,~ ,~

112

'ffi

'" '" 122

m

~,

no

M

12&

M

,.

M

215

m

210

21~

,~

210

142

'" '" '" Chapler 11

AirCoal~y

Engineering

'"

152

,%

11.13 A Ira.'e] d...,-,and man.lgement aeli"n is planned th.lt wIll add p.arl"ng 'JXlc"", 10 an exi,ting park-and-ride f.tdhly Ihat is ",rved by tr"'I-sil. n,e plan \\ ill add 120 p.arkn'g spaces. """ume Ihe ne\\' 'paces will ha, e a 95 percenl eslimated utilization

r~I" and th""" indi,-idual~ w,lI u'*' Ihe ~, ail~ble lighl rail and bu, ",,,,ice. Also a,~ume thaI Ihe average commute thai" ,ll beelim imled is 42 m lies TOWldtrip (distance Imm lnl to de>tinaUon and return), and there a", 250 operat,ng d~ys per year. (a) Wh~t is th" annual reductivrI in v"hide miles Ira,;,Iw fm", Implemenlalion of the p-'rk and tra,~,it ride facility! (b) If the "mi,<~ion factm Inr reacli,-e hpirocarbOl~~ i~ 0.23 g/mile dri,-en ~nd for "0, ,,0.40 g per m,le do, en, wh.•1 i, the estimated redu"tion in air emISsions lor !>.'th of Ih"", air !X'lIul.lllts over the year! True orf~i,.,! Con,!-"" raj toa bagholbe wdh a high-pres~ure drop, a baghnu,*, "ith a low-p"",~ure d '''p'' mid rleed a large fan aoo require moreen,,'Sy tn m Ihrough Ihe baghou",. 11.14

11.15 A baghou", that emplnys a shaker collect;"" metl\0d is being de>igned 10 remo,"e 99.75 percent of an irlcon"ng streanl of sawdu,t particles originaling from a sawmill planl Whal fabric area Ls ""luire:! lor the b,'ghnu;e jf ill",ats 13,mo It' / min "f poIiuted air! H"" many ba~are r"luired if Ihebag, arecylind ""al alld art< f> in. in diamet;,r and 13 It k,ng? Assu",e the filt"r manufacturer lid, specifiaJ a ",,,ven !.lbric. 11.16 You are aS5ig"ed I,) detenni"e the number of filter bags required for an eight-compartmenl bagho",", that u""'" pulse-J'·t!ing ~s Ihe meth<>.:l 10 ren....' e particul~le m~ller from the bag.. The fnUo"ing informalinll is known: proce>s ga, exhaust r~le is lOO.~ h'lmin and the reCl,,,,me,,ded air-lo-d<>lh ralio is 4 Ilj mill. The bag, specified by Ihe m.~nufac lurer hal-e a diameler of f> "' and height of 10 h. (a) "hat is the l<>lal required fabric ~rea? (h~)! (b) What nu",berofbags is required? (c) HOI, m~lIY bag, are in each cvmparlmenl! 11.11 A thermal <>Xidizer ,ncinerat,,,. vperale> a, a plug flv'" reaclor al a temperalurenf 250 C and has a gas reside"ce lime of 0.) ,_ (a) If Ihe pollulant (\"inyl chloride) ellters Ihe incineralM at a flo" r~te of 3.000 m '/ntin .,ld it i, desire.:! 10 rem",-e 99,99 perce"t of Ihe pol/ulant, "hal.,hould Ihe lenglh of the incineralrr be? (b) Wh~t is Ihe lenglh of Ihe inc",er.~>r if Ihe des,re:! rem", allS ;'k."",a.'>ed tv 99.99993! The first-order rate cm~"a lit f0'" inyl chlrrid e rem", aI is 45/ s al 250 C and Ihe in,ide d..,,,,et... of the inclner.,tor (which is ,h.ped like a cylinderl is 1 m. 11.18 A tut:.J1J.r lhermal oxidizer i, np.......d al 225 C 10 rem",-e lolue"e (ChH,) from" polluled airqream. The "",iderlce Innefvr the ga' is 1,. (a) W"le Ihe balanced re.ction for Ih"""'lkal oxid.lio" of Inlue"e 10 car!>.", dioxide and ,,-aler. (b) If Ihe tvlue"e

ente", Ihe i"cineralor at a tlv" r~le 0/ 2,5ilJ It '1m", and Ihe reaction r~I" mn,"'nl is 7.2/, al Ihis I""'I-",r.lure, whal percelltage vf Ihe t"luene i, ren....ved! (el Wl,at is Ihe lenglh required for Ihe oxidizer if Ihe inside diameter is 4 ft? 11.19 A bivfilter d""'gn u.....,; a media Ihat CllllSt'ls of a miuure of we"'" chips and ffilllposl al a ralio of 1 103 parts ",ood chip, 10 lllu,,,cipal compnst. The biofilter ha.s Ihe dimens",'ls L ~ m. W 4.~ n,depth 0,35m. and Ihe air fI",,- rale is 2.(,m'/s. (a) What" the empty bed residell'" lime(s)? (h) U.. n8 Ihe table prdaled "ilh.l hocld system Ih.,t generat'" 22Okg::h of VOCs. the h<>od capture efficiency is 87 percent, .lnd Ihe mll""tion efficiellcy nf Ihe air pollutioll comrol lechnnlogy used l<> Ireal the c~plured air elllLssions is95 percent 11.21 A mallufacturing planl c",,,,ert, sulfur lrioxide (SO,) t" sulfuric acid (H,SO,) al 97.5 percent effldency. The pblll produces 350 metric to", vf ,uHuric acid at 100 percenl pu"ty e, ery day. A wet scrubbing svste", is installed 10 reduce Ihe SO, em,'
11.22 Assume Ihe enu"im, factor fur relea", of mercurv from a ,.,lid-waste ",cineralor is 0.107 Ib per ton incineraled and for dioxin is 2 1.1" 10 'lb per Ion ",lid "aste incineraled. E.stnnate the da,ly emi.s-silll' r~l"" (lb pollutant/day) and annual emis""',, rate, Obi yeM) vf each of th"", h.uardous air pollutants. Assu",e Ihe incineralor proce>"",,, 2.1\8 x If!" lb of solid ,,-a.qe per year. 11.23

Ac""tone is rel",...,d fn,m cm,w,lion of l00,~ metric Ions of ",aste p"r year. The 1"'''-..:1 w~sle ha., an a,erage heal cvntent of 0.03 M\-l BTU /Ib, The reported emi",on factnr fm acelone emilled from a wa,te bark-fired boiler w,lh 110 e",<,sio",; co'u,~ is 9.3 x 10-' kg_ metr,c I<.",f ",nod burned. Whal are Ihe annual en",
,,,,,xl

CI\ajlter Eleven F'mbIems

11.24

A comp.my a,mu.,lIy app],'" 25,lnl l of • surfa"" roahllg to their pro;:lU<:t TI,e surf""e Q)J.tll'g conl.i". the VOC acetone. TIle emissions Me wUecled and an emissio"s control technology i, i,~<;!alled Uldl reduces Ih" VOC e",i,,~~,~, by IlO f"""C""1. nle ffilllP""Y i, required 10 report Iheir eml",im", 10 lhe .h''''''phere u· UleY exC£'ed 3,500 kg/y",r. for this '-"fining f"'OC""<' operalion, there is no \,-,,;, of lhe ~oalil\g cmnpound to the maling "'lu'pmem .nd no ioss to Ule ,y,tem', Hquid or ".-,lid W.LSle ,Iredn~s. All the VOC applied l, captured by Ihe wlle<:tiOll sy_.tem poor 10 I""'lmenl TI,,, M.lterial Safety D.,ta Sheel "'l-"""-s Ih.ll lhe ,urface roaling pro;:luct wntall~' 25 pe...",t by weight ""elm", ,,,,d the
11.25

A ....mp.'w appiies 2UXlfl L of a coaling every Yedr lhal conlain, three Vex:,; (Uli kg ~ylene per liler of c""ling, O.WO kg ,,·bulyl akohol per liler of coahng, and n, n kg elhyl be""..",,, per iiterof coalmg. (a) Wh.,t i< thi< lotal mass of Vex: in the coaling (kg VOC/liler of c""ling)? (b) ESlitlMle the 101.11 nl.'" of VOCs rel"a
11.26 A eom!",ny perfonn, n",,,-sure,,,e,,l. that _.how Ihe Vex: xylene is p""",nl in lhe slaek gas and Ihe gas flo" rale i, 2,200 m' I min, The oon""ntration of 'llene ". a, m"a,u red exiting Ihe slack on • weekly bd,i, and a"eraged [l,h2 kg/h, n,e manufacturing pl'<'lCe'6 ru'L~ n,M h every year, [f 11", reporting Ihr....hnld for lhe "ylene i, J,2oo kg/year, u""' U,e ,ource n",,-
"ng,ne i,npro\'e,nenb, emi~sio" conlrollechnologi"", .'utn redesign, and fuel reform.tion_ Whal are fhe tra'L~porl.llion demand man.'gement ,traleg'es l'-.u can u,", 10 redu~e emissions of .ir pollulanl, in an urban area'

11.28 Inv""logate snun:es of haz,ardous air potluemitted near your commun,tv, C;n to Scorecard (\\'",w.';':"""""I'\1.org) 10 gather dala .boul air pnllulanl ~mi"inn" The Scor""ard "Ie mak"" Ihe Trudo; Relea'ie Inve"lory e.,";ly 'i&lrch~b1e; by enleri ng your ZIP COO", you ean find a Ii
11.29 Allhe w<.( adiabaliL 1.1 fb" rale, Ih"ci'Oling rat» of the air parc,,1 is u,ually' (a) ,lower Iha" Ihe dry adiabdl,c lap'" rale, (b) Ihe ""nea, Ihe dry .,diab.,lic lap"" ratl>,or (el f""ler Iha" Ihed ry .diabalida 1'''' r"le!

11.30 In the 10110"ing figure, an .lor parcel i, displ.\ced and boc"",,,, sal'".lIed .1I arl eie,·al"''' 012 ko~ Which of Ihe !ollo,,-j"g ,I.bilily conditim~~ does U", diagram depict? (a I ,table only beln" I km, (b) ,t.tble only above I km, (c) un,table above 2 km? (problem from EPA, 20l2h)

'.

,

•

; ,

Chaplerll


1---6 'CiI
•• •• •• •• ••

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r '.,/

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flI'" ..... \' '.•••• 1-1'Ci1
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11 Z7

Between l~ and 2000, the a, erage CO enus,ion factor 01 the vehiele fleel in Hillsborough County, florida, dropped by alm",l hal f, from aboul n5 In J.l g "f CO per I'ehide--nule dri""Il. Howe,er, the total m,les dn,en in Ihe coumv by all vehic1.... increased by (,lJ !-"""enl during Ihi, ",me lo",e period. (a) Did oounlywid" emi,s,m~sof CO go up or down, a nd by hm, moch bet\\'e..n 19I1O.nd 2000? (b) V"hiele exhau,t i, gelt,ng deaner Ihrough a ~Omb"ldll()n of

W", odial>alic 1 _ rat.

/

...

'.

11.31

(a) Name Ihe following Ihree plu me tvpe;, (b) Skelch a graph of ele"atinn on Ihe .V-a_.i, and air temperalure on the .t-ax" Ih.t w"uld de><:robe Ihe ",,,,ir,,nment.tllal"e rale and the I.,p,*, rale nf an .lor

p.lrrel being "milled f",m Ihe ",~ck for Ihr"" plume Iype>.

,.,

e~ch

of th"",

for rough urban lerr.lin for Ihe n",,' stable aUno,phenc """d Ilio", (b)

11.:s1 Whal i" Ih.. ",'n'liIled \\ ",d "f"""'I at a 45 m elf""li,·.. ,tack h.. ight located in the c",wtry "ide? Assume Ihere ar.. very u''''table atm""pheric conditi"'l< near Ihe ,lack and wind mea"uremetlls made c1""" 10 the ",ack location "howed lhe "",d s"""'" wa" 3 mls al ~ height 01 5 m.

'"

11.32 A f.",ning plum" will occur "he" ~bn() sph.".k rondllimt~ a", gener~ny f~) ,!.lble, (bl highly ul\,l~ble, or (d neulral? 11.33 For '" tremely un"table al"''''pheric '!.lbllity condilions, wl"" a", values frr the disr"",ion coofidelll in the y and z directiOlt~ 1,000 '" down",,,,am in ~n ur!>.", area from Ihe point of the pollulant re!ffi"'? blhnale your ,.a1",,~ using Iwo metho,!,;: {a) the rorr""l BriU" equalion, and (b) a gr~phical method lhat allow, vou 10 ""til" .•te Ihe dis!","'ion """lfidem, lrom established figures. 11.34 For neulral .• Im""pherk "'abilily rondition~, "hal a", values for the di"l"'",io" """lfkiem in Ihe 11 and z directions 5 km do,,"sirrom III ~ rural area f"'Olllle point ,{ Ihe poliuLltll ",lea",,? Estimale your v.llues U""'g two ll\e~H).h, {a) Ihe cOfTell Brigg~ eqwtion and (b) a graphical melhr>.J Ihat albw" you toeslin",'e Ihed i"J><'fSion c"""fidem, from established figures.

11.38 Whal i, Ihe ground-l",'el con",,,trallon of a pollu!.lnl {",g!m') 251), 500, 750, .lnd 1.000 m down"i"d lor a 'tack release along the ""nlerl i"e f)f the plum,,? Th" poIlutanl is rel",
bel,,,,

11.35 For slighlly unstable ~Im""pher;cwndll;ntt', \\ hal a re Ihe ,alu",," thedi"!,e",i",, c"""fidenl", ", ~nd "" 31"n do"",'ream in ~ rural Me~? Pro, ide your valu"" I,~r (~) Ihe corr""l B"gg~ formula ~nd (b) a graphic~1 method llut ~Ilows you 10 eslim .•te Ihe di"!",,,,io,, c""fficienls from ea.lbli,hed figures. (d Ho\\ do Ih"", values cha"ge if Ihe almosphere is moderately,!.lble?

11.41 A" ~ir polhL'''1 i" rei",,,,,,,, al .••at.. of 2 g/" lrom the lOp 01 a tall ,I.lek Ihal is 110 m lngh. n,.. plume indi.-lly ri"" up\\"rd an addilio,,,, 110 m abol'e Ihe "lack e'Jl, afle. which il tra"e!, wIth a \\·ind ,"""'" of 5 ol/'. n", am""ph..", h.tS ,,,,"'.,,.alely .,'able rondillon" in Ihe 01"''' rounlrV. ia) Whal i, Ihe mncemraIi"" 01 11", p"nul.'nl (",g/~'') in the, e0' ""nler of the plume 750 dow"w",J of Ihe "dCk and al the elfecli, e ,,,,ck heighl? (b) Whal i, the ""ncenlra"on of the poUu!.lnl (",gl m ') al ground le,·..1 T:>O dow""·,,,d of Ihe ,I.>ek? (c) AI " h~1 dlS1.1nCe do" "wind d""" Ihe ma.,""um gmI.JIId-;",· .. c"'ICentrali,.., occur? (d) Wlul i" the conc..ntral,on nllh.. pollulant (",g!m) at Ihi, locallo" you idem]fy in part (c)?

11.36 Wind l~ measured al 1fl m abm e Ihe ground surf.lc" al 2 m/~. E"Il".ue th.. wi"d s!""'d al ,In eff""'l,,·e ,,"ck h.. ighl 01 ~·m m {~) in "mooll, rural I..".a,n lor unsl~bi.. ~Imc>spheric concllli",,, and

11.42 An air polhLml i, ",Iea-.,J at a ra'" ofll72 g/" 4 m above ground le,·el. The \\ind 'J>"""I is 2 m!". \Vhat i, thema>.:imumgrru,d-Ie,·e! Cfflco""r.'I....n 1knl do""nw,,ui? As-un", Ihal G, 45m alld G, 2(,m.

References AI",n1,

~.lOO'l Di,"M

Y...,C...,' , ..

"".>1.0 ',1.>....,1':",. s.x"'"

II,,",", , .. II.. r",,,,_p..J,Il., ."J R. .\Ib.L.l.lOCO. I..J.. ~ 'u

I'~lu"" ;" ....~""'I""K"""h"'" • """ ~ ."'. '" ",""-",,,,1 h,~I. h d",I"-"'1<'" B"ll!","""",". ,8, l~Hl"l. c..","",I,~o.",.",C~."",l.nJP"'...."'.'"

ICOCl, 2011. CDC """II" J"p"""'-, ..... ,",-~ .... I;'" "-T''''-L",,,>11>11\'R 2011, riO(SoPl,II, ~ Coi',,, R.. ,00 G. T.....,...,,;""'., 1'1'l!' S_II lV......,. rOT 1>1. ,'"."'.....", Su>/, 0. ~""" \1cC

[h"'f.li:rJ w· H, II.

DoLl" rtnb"''' OJ WL'p< d't f.-dLT.1 Il",hw.y AJm, "''''', ,",", :-on Mulh· P"llul.> ,,' Em..,.",' "IT.."'I"rt.....'" 1"L" n p.vA hhpJ I,., ww.lh" ,.J, •.I\' n ,-'.m'on omx'"' 1 "'_'l'-"'h.y 1 1< ...",,, --,,"'.rrh mp"_bono-lio.lml,.Qldm ",-=,,..j J." '" E, lOU

80"".",

Stt,.,

-d'

E" "''' mmmW P"•• m A,,"''''''' (EPAI. 2007. M. ""u";".< riot fI" (>w1'•• nJ T "m~.,,'''',,''' 1,,1""'" Mil D""i'I_. IrA lll·R_ w~,

E"",,,m,,x,"',1 P"."i,m Ap,nn- (EP.\I, lOll.. nr;,." •• fli, "0.., tIod"'•••,01 T~ 'h"..~" lOW. rPA... '>! R_ll-001.ll PI"

Q...h'l' )'j.nmug • .J

,"'>lomb,

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."i""

r".',,,,m,,,'"W rr. AI"''''''I (rpA', :'Ollb. P"--,lf,>n.-.: \l.y lOll. httpJlwW'W'.,l".I\'"l<-hilJ""..... ,U..,..,.' f<.-.3.HI_."h"",_J "I"'"h""_HI... _pI." .~l ..'n."",--.3 o.x, ...bo.~ 1',:'I1Il.

r..,·,,,..

[""''''""..",oJ f'" ••xix '" A~~'''''V ([P.\ I. :'0 Ilc. C.", .",IIJo>,·." T,,,h.. ~. 'Kl" ,\ Q.oio
["",,,,,,,,..,,,,1 f'" ••x"'" A~~'nrv ([P.\I. !Ut:~J. AI'TI 41; G.,t,,~ ,,11'urt>C \ .."". Em",",,,,. "ttp'l t,.·w,. .•!";.l,·.m....~ oca,,..jJull'~ lOU [" n" ""'..."'" 1 rr. .,xlx m '\X""'y ([P.\ I, lO1!,,- ArTl 411 C ",h.l ,or '''0=1.>.. ~l,,'b [m,,,• .,,. SluJ,,"t M.m..1C""P"~ 71 [I'A A.. P.~lu"'", T""""K l"",ruk, (.\rTll h'lpJ Iw,.,w .. pti "'m. ..........=_-.3 J.. ly R. :-OU

Chapler 11 Ai
E", ,,, ..,,,,,,,,,1 r-..~"i... AX'"",y (EPo\). :'OIl!. ,\rTI~ I" C,m',,~ •~,....., "'-, [m",. ",-"Chop"" 3, A" P,~lut".. Co,"'n l S~"""'''' J-li PF' [l'A Au P..lh."'", T..,ruoK ,",",",", (ArTil. "ttf,11 k>.o""",.,W .rt'I~ 1;,.xnbo"'.J.p.lI ....n'''>
,.·w,. ...

Em' i" ..""""", I r-.."',1... Ah~"')' 1r PA). :'01lj;. A I'TI V; , ..... 1 o."mom, l .......,,"'.k The Dyn.om. St"",'u""~ ""••\'m'~I'''''''' J-l f'l'- [PA A.. r.~!ut.", T","i"~ '"'htutdM>f!l. "'Ip) 1 }""'''''''''l'"');<'')'""-11'" roc.h'm.,,-,I1

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............>J ""• .,nbo.~ In.l\lll.

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0;""""". l~...." '" 4, \" ,"",I M, .M" ..... ,'>""... ph","· 5<.bd,'. )() Pl'. EPA A.. r.~lu'.'" Tm,","~ 1"",tut.(.\PTn. "up) I y'...."....,"l".H' W'), ""-11'" roc.","....>1 1.bbkf,,2',-" lJ..162"""'I,flWUr, ~ I I, 'IJ 4921>7.,~f4f<.-85~b4.,'.· $lll.E II~,~ '"'; 2flj pJ 1 .oct1...,.><1 "",·.,nbo.~ E, lOll.

11,""", S. R.. C:. \ II"W" .• nd R. P. 1I....l,,, J'.. I\IKL 11,""1wI. '"

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Answers to Selected Problems Chapter 1. Sustainable Design, Engineering, and Innovation 1.7

a Install more efficient lighting for your home; b. 99.000 100 CO 2 • 4.950 gaJlons: c. 200 gallons, 400 Ibs CO 2: d. 76 gallons. 1521bs CO2

1.10

a.Plastic; b. No: c. Plastic bags taklliess energy to produce

1.17

EWi'hout .<>,,,mt = 1.4 kg waste produced/kg of product; EWith = 23.2 kg wasle produced/kg of product. These chemicals should be included if they are not recovered and recycled because they also contribute 10

""'.,It

the lolal wasle of the process. 1.22

a.PV=$2,501;b.PV=$2,399

Chapter 2. Environmental Measurements 2.1

a. 0.41 mg/L; b. 0.21 mg/L

2.3

2.8 PPrl\n

2.5

10.9 mg NH:Jl; 1.6 mg NChil

2.7

5.28 mg S/l

2.9

490 mg Cd

2.11

a. 100M Na-, l00MOH ;b. l00NOH-, l00NNa;-

a. i. 0.002 ppb",. ii. 2 ppl"" iii. 3.7 ,. 1 O-~ .... M; b. i. 0.002 ppm, ii. 2 ppb 2.15 a. 23~; b. 2.3 x 104 ppbm C 6H6; G.3.3x 10 2¥c"H 6 2.13

2.17 0.741'-gIL 2.19

a. 0.5 mgOJL = 0.5 ppm"" 8 mg Q,lL = 8 ppmm; b. 0.5 mg O;JL = 1.6 x 1 O-~ moles O;JL, 8 mg O;JL = 2.5 x 10 ~ moles O;/L;

2.21

a. 8.9 x 10 2 ppm; b. [CO] = 0.0lXXl089%

2.23 0.7g

225 a.384 l'-g/m3 ; b. 6.0 x 10 s 2.27

15 ppm,.

229

y"

tlr....s:::

2" 5.5 x 103¥ 233

2.2~

2.35

a. 100 ppbm. 100 ppb ;;, 60 ppb; therefore, the sample

may pose a tllreal

2"

5 PPlTIm

239

a. Moderately hard: b. 34~: c. 20.41!?Q a. 3.10 x 109 metric Ions, 6.84 x 10 12 1bs;

2.41

t"

b. % 01 methane emissions = 18.6%; % olGHG emissions = 45.5%

FL brackish water = 1.32Ib~: CA brackish water = O.73Ib~ FL sea water = 5.28Ib~ CA sea water =

2.92Ib~ 2.45 2 24 x 1

.

2.47

as !.!!.fQ;; "

a. TSS = 170 mg/l; b. Because volatile solids coosis! primarily 01 organic matter, il can be concluded thaI approximately 70% (1401200) of the solids are organic.

Chapter 3. Chemistry 3.1

5.8g

3.3

I'- =

3.5

a. Mn 2 is slill being oxidz:ed and precipitate still forms;

0.12 moUl: y(Mif ) = 0.35: y(Fe3!) y(OH )=O.77;y(CI ) =y(HI-) =0.77

=

0,096:

b ..Mri'"] = 2.5 x 10 II mo1es/L; c. ,Mw'] = 3.3 x 10 4 moles/l 3.7

a. 3.2 g1m 3 ; b. 1,4-DCB, because a higher boiling point lTIBans a lower vapor pressure.

3.9

15.3 mg/L

3.11

C"",

3.13

a.pH=3.8;b.pH=12;c.pH=4.4

3.15

a. 97%; b. 76%

3.17

An increase i1 temperature will increase the equilittium constant.

1-<20 =

96 lLgfL

3.19 as

3,0,.10

8

M:b.s=1.54,.10

8

:

c. Because activity coefficients for electrolytes are < 1, the K.., wlH increase. thus the soIubilily will increase.

3..21

a.1G

78 4 kJ mole: b. No

3.23 . ."

us a,; _~ = ~Ia:

=

a: =

3.27 a<25~ - 61"~' = b. 3'" order

~

f})"SC;'

3.29 999 rnn or 0.7 days 3.31

149 N, 29 P, and 4g K are excreted every day In a Swedish person's unne.

3.33 a. FlrSl; b. Second; c. t = 1.4 " 10 3 S 3.36

20 years

3.37 3,780 EklIL 3.39

K2S _ 031 day: K s = 0.055 day

3.41

i. 31%; ii. 36%: iii. 16%; iv. 12%

Chapter 4. Physical Processes 4.1

Cout=11mg/L

4.3

a. 0.9 h: b. 1.25 pCiIL

4.5

a. 38 rT!9"s; b. 13 mgIm3

4.7

1,6911b/tv"

4.9

Os .. 3.2 gpm

4.11

fTlaulIII _ _ = 243:;

4.13 2 hours 4.15 Ct-64mg L

4.17 V .. 720m3 4.19 a.T.... 4.20

47C;b.T"",=S3C

a. 68.1 b1uf F-day, 68.1 Btuldegree day; b. 171 Blut F-day, 171 Btuldegree Gay

4.25 6 C 4.27 a. x = 1.5cmand2.5cm.J = 10 'mglcnr-s; b. m .,.., 7.1 1< 10-8 mg/s at x = 1.5 afld 2.5 cm;

d. Theconcentratn:n profilein part (c) is changing due to the random motion of the molecules. The chemical is allempting to reach equilibrium through high concentration areas moving to areas with less concentration. 4.29

J = a.850m¥---.

4.31

v.=2.4x 10 4 cmjs

Chapter 5. Biology 5.1

Viruses, Bacteria, macroinvertebrates. and protozoa.

5.3

a. Algae; b. Bacteria. c. Protozoa; d. Rotifers and microcrustaceans; e. Bacteria

5.5

/1""", = 1.0/day

5.7

a.X 5doys = 213mgVSSjl; b. X2Q
5.9

a. Exponential growth; b. 80 years for Boston to double its population from 12.000 to 24,000, doubles to 4 million in 50 years. the population of Boston will double to 8.8 million shortly (less than 30 years); c. The rate constant is 0.023. The rate of growth changes exponentially over lime.

5.11

a. 46 years

5.13

a.X t = 91,680mgjLb.8%

5.15

aPISyewsatl' IlID"thrat.= 1.725people, PIS yea« at 2.5 grt,, = 2,400 people.

5.17

Y = 0.2 mg biomasslmg substrate

5.19

5.8 days

5.21

4.6 days

5.24

Ilt"UMII'" , DpO = 0.OO39jday. 1lt00ene3t' WTI = a.92jday

5.25

a. J1low ... onglh VNI = O.65/day; b. I't.,gn IIfOn\lth ww = 0.81jday; c. Il\OOO"'llVSS l = 0.91jday

5.27

Nitrogenous oxygen demand = 229 mgll; Thooretcalcaroonaceous oxygen demand = 129 mgll; Total theoretical oxygen demand = 358 mglL

5.29 Nitrogenous oxygen demand = 228 mgll; Theoretical carbonoceousoxygen dema1d = 107 mglL; Total theoretical oxygen demand = 335 mgll 5.31

a.10kglday;b.0.02k!A>/day

5.33 a.t.." = 38mlPdl; b. k30 = 0,30/day, t.." =

26m~/l

5.35 L.." = 269mgQ>/l 5.37

kL = O.20/day, L.." = 144 mgCh/L

5.39 a. 0.30L,,; b. O. 16L,,; C. Y8 ""')'S, T _20 Y6doys~T_2Q C = 0.30t.."

C

= 0,51 L",

5.40 minimum sample (ml) = 2 ml, maximum sample(mL) = 7 mL 5.43 a. P""" = 1.300 mg/L; b. 0.04 molP/L; c. 3.838 mg/L 5.45 (PCBl16,~mou1I1b== 1.7 x 106 ng/kg; 5 (PCBl16,wt>te ~ = 6.7 )( 10 ng/kg 5.46 a. 8AF = 8.9)( HF lIkg; b. 8AF = 4,5 x HF L/kg; c. 8AF = 2.4 x 10/ L/kg

Chapter 6 Environmental Risk 6.3

1. e; 2. and 3. a and d; 4. c; 5. b

6.5

Physical characteristics, toxicity. quantity generated, history of the chemical

6.101.a.,2.d.;3.and4.candb 6.11

c. source redl.Ction, d. source reduction. e. source reduction, b. recycling. f. recycling, a. disposal, g. disposal and source reduction

6.16 Hazard assessment. dose-response assessment, exposure assessment, and risk characterization. 6.19 a. SF = 0.023 (mglkg-dayj-' b. The linear model of data is accurate 6.21

a. NOAEl is 70 ppm (3.5 mglkg-day) and the RID is 3.5)( 10-2 mglkg-day which is based off a 2-year rat feeding study; c. 3.2 % effect of response/mglkglday; d. 350 grams of grass; e. Spraying your lawn with alrazi1e presents a serious risk to babies who eat grass.

6.23

17.72~

6.25

1.7 x 10 3~

6.27

0.93 ppb

6.29

Exposure 10 arsel"llc in this case poses a noncarinogenic heallh risk.

6.31

There is an unsafe risk.

6.33

a. [toxaphene-J = 0.32 ppm (orO.32 mg 01 toxaphern/kg offish); b. Note that because the toxaphene bioconcentrates strongly in lhe food chain, an Individual is exposed to a much greater mass of chemical by ingesting contaminated food versus drinking contaminated water. In this situation, the dose (and risk) increases with an increased in fish consumption. This amount could be much greater for segments of our population which consume more fish than the average person as well as for wildlife which depend upon fish for food. Also note that for chemicals that persist (do not degrade by natural mechanisms) and also bioconcentrate, what seems like a low water concentration may actually turn out to have a great environmental sfgnificance. This effect can beeven more greatly magnified if the 8CF is higher

6.35

a. CFR 40 Protection of Environment; b. CFR 49 Transportation; c. CFR 18 Conservation of Power and Water Resources; d. CFR 42 Public Health; e. CFR 23 Highways

6.37

a. Atrazine is not bioaccumulative but it is persistent in the environment.; b. Children are a high risk population since they have lower body mass than adults. A persistent and bioaccumulative chemical applied to grass where children play and may even ingest the grass, would be dangerous to human health.

Chapter 7 Water: auantity and auality 7.1

18cm

7.3

a. Lss = 7980~, L..., = 12.B1¢!', IN = 129-'CW'; b. Sameasparta.; c.lss = 67,800~, L..., = 100~, ~ = 717~, d. 'Yo: ChangeLSS = 750 {increase;

\':: chang8[p = 733 C{ increase; 'It chang8LN = 456'1, increase

7.6

Q = 310....!l".- = 8.8 x 106 Cm 3 /min m" Q W1II = 11 ,350~

7.12

Daily water demand = 13,200gal/day,

7.S

Daily wastewater generated = 9.600-£ij. 7.13

Daily water demand = 21 ,640gal/day, Daily wastewater generated = 16,860~

7.15

Daily water demand = 9,OOOgaljday: Yearly water demand = 3,900,OOOgallonsjyear

7.16

a. 2.743.200gpd; b. Yes

1.19 Average flow rale = 1193 gpm 7.21

Storage = 1,257,000 gallons

7.22

a. Vmin = 4,5009allon5; b. 0

7.27

a. 00.... = 2.85 x 10 ·~;b.9.1¥;c.9,100¥; d. 9.1 ppmm e. The answer to part b does not change.

7.29

D ~ 6"'!'"

7.31

DO"", = 6.2~

7.33

D=4mg/L

7.35

a. 00 0 = 4 mgjl; b. lent = 2.6 days. lie", c. D, = 7.4mg/L

1.37

CBOD s _

7.39

Maximum 5-day CBOD = 7.1 mg/L

7.41

a. critical time = 0.91 days: b. critical distance

""""II =

= 8 inch

pipe

=

26km;

102 mg/L

=

9.1 km

CeOD downstream = 49 mgll 7.... 5.5x lo3 P 7.42

i

7.50

Fertilizers, sew~e. atmospheric nitrogen, freshwater discharge, soil erosion.

7.51

a. 2.889 square miles: b. Smaller: c. Summerdroughl condilions

a.

7.53

~2.800

Ib N/sq mi lolal nilrogen ~llutant load al 5 percenl of its wetlands; b. ~600 Ib N/sq mi lotal nitrogen pollulanlload '1115 percent of ils wetlands

7.55

v. = 1.6
7.57

a.Rfttc~=30,Rf_~=3300. Rf"'c~

= 3.9; b. Dicholoromethane would be traflsported the furthest followed by trichknOlllhykme. Hexachlorobenzene would travel the least far.

Chapter 8: Water Treatment 8.2

The wei with the nitrate concentration 0150 mg N03-/L exceeds the 10 ppm standard.

8.4

g mg/L alkalinity consumed

8.5

862.300 kg alum/yr

8.7

a. 5.3 kg/day; b. 235~ must be added

8.9

P=5.7kW

8.11

a. tOlal hardness = 201 c.x=2mg

ol>;l

F: b. IDS = 40 mgIl;

8.13

Dosage of lime required for selective calcium removal = 197.5mg1LasCaC03 Finished waler hardness = 61.5 mgll as Caco 3 8.15 For CMFR: V = 4.286 m 3 and I = 2.6 hours. For PRF: I = 19 min and V = 528m 3

m /h

8.17

Vs=8,7x'0

8.19

Fraction of particles removed = 0.71

8.20

100% of the pa-ticles are removed

8.23

ES = 0.43 mm, UC = 2.74

8.25

Chick's law rate constant =

8.27

a. CI product is a combined effecl of disinfectant concenlratkm and time of contact to achieve certain level of inaclivation for a given microorganism.; b. pH and temperature; c. Adenovirus and calicivirus: d. G.parvum

8.28

a. JCI] = 0.41 mg/l; b. chlorine demand = 0.21 mgIl

8.34

a. total surface area = 52,650 b. flux rate = 64.4 Um 2 h: c. lotal number of fibers = 7,018,013: numberol fibers per module = 3,119

8.35

a. total surface are = 19,440 m 2 ;

3

0.61. t = 15s

rrr;

b. flux rale = 75t!;,

hr = 0.031 gpm/fl 2

8.36 qotr.rnr>e = 23 mg/g: qtnchor~= 0.22 mg/g 8.39

Fl brackish water = 1 ,32Ib~:

CA brackish water = O. 73Ib~: Fl sea water = 5.28Ib~:

CA sea water = 2.92Ib~

Chapter 9. Wastewater and Stormwater: Collection, Treatment, Resource Recovery 9.3

a. TSS = 185 mg/l: b. Yes, the sample has appreciable organic matter at over half. 70%.

9.5

14 9 N. 2g P, and 4g K are excreted every day in a Swedish person's urine.

9.7

7.4 x 1(il¥

9.9

a. 144 m3: b. w = 4.5 m.1 =10.7 m: c. t = 7.4 min: d. tolal air requirement = 7.5 m3 /min:

e. grit volume = 2.1 ~ 9.11

A,0Il = 583 m 2; D = 27 .2m: V=1.749 m 3: II = 1.2 h

9.13 O..,x.. = 656kg/day 9.15

SRT"", =20days

9.17

a. high: b. less: c. saturated: d. k}W: e. low: f. increased: g. increased

9.19

SVI = 150

mUg

9.20 The sludge saflllie has poor settling characteristics. 3 9.24 V=1,640m : 8= 1.1 h 9.25

a. F1M = 0.33,,,,, ~~~: b. Increase the solids retention time {SRn

9.26

Pond area = 14 ha

9.29

a. 1.000 gallon lank, b. 1.200 gallon tank

9.30 The total depth to be dug is 6.8m

9.33

1 pig

9.35 a. 2.743,2oogpd:b. Yes 9.36

Fullse average flow rate = 2.3 MGD: future maximum flow rate = 5.3 MGD

9.39

0.041 It

9.41

Each wil have V = 6,050 It3

9.42

an area 01 150 ff' with a depth 01 6 in.

9.45 38%-92%

Chapter to. Solid Waste Management 10.1

a.8elow;b.V=1370m 3 ;c.V=869m3

10.2

V = 1430 m 3

10.6

Low moisture content = 17.3%; typical moisture content = 43.5%

10.7

a. Dry paper mass lor city 1 = 0.54 kg/person-day; dry paper mass lor city 2 = 0.69 kg/person-day; b. 32.8%; fraction 01 dry weight = 31.1 %

10.9

4,295 L air

10.11 Time to 90% decay lor k lor slowly biodegradmg = 33 years; time to 90% for k lor rapidly biodegrading = 10 years 10.13 t = 15 years 10.15 a. V Cl4

1910

= 7.67 x 109m

'?J;,

VCl42010=1.11x10 10~ "1';

b. E'970 = 3.243 MW, E21110 = 4.693 MW 10.17 64% 10.19 Option 1, because the same 0.2 layer will be used to cover 4 m instead 01 3 m and that gives 25% more reluse to cover ratio. 10.21 Cost of the smaller station = $740,740 10.26 0.30 kg 10.21 25% 10.29 a.total cost = 13,030,OOOeuros; b. total cost = 79,880,OOOeuros

Chapter 11. Air Resources Engineering a. 0.0899 ppm,; b. 89.9 p~; c. 8.99% 11.3 190,OOOparticles/cm3 11.1

11.5

a367~g'b

11.7

No, motorists are not at greater risk.

11.8

aV.=O.()()()87~b.t=70hr

iii"

.

al~molo.SO, I moles ""

0'

11.12 a. Rpop =~: R>'l>hIcIo =;;:; ,R =:;;":: b. Similar 11.13 a. 1.20 x 106~: b. 275,000 grams hydrocarbon redlX;ed, 479,OOOgrams NO, reduced 11.15 total fabric area = 4,290 ff; ncytOOtJcal bogs = 182 bags 11.17 al=13m;b.l=14m 11.19 a. EBRT = 52 s: b. Composting 11.21 a E = 5.950 kg S02/day: b. 179 kg~ 11.23 E:>oofOne = 1,05

tons

11.25 am~1'OC = O.79¥VOC: b. total mass of VOCs = 16,590~; c. total mass of VOCs released to the atmostphere

=6.205~ 11.27 a. Emissions would still go up; b. Parll-and-ridefacilrties, regional rideshare programs. new/expanded bus/rail service, bicycle and pedestrian projects/programs. vanpool programs 11.29 (a) Slower than the dry adiabatic lapse rate 11.32 (a) Stable 11.33 a. <7y = 270m, <7z = 339m; b. <7y "" 220m,
Index A Abiotic, lllJ--l!l5, 209, 2.12

Ab"o'POOn, 76, 9~-101. 1~5-147_ I fl.t, 131, rn, 271, 273. ,s/" 587J>21, 6211, 648 AdJ. 41\-50, MI, 75, 76, !l3-911, 211, 224, 227, ill, 231, 2-11\, 394. 395, <100, 427- 12S. Hil, d ,.rOOn. 9;, \lb. .lo63, 31\5, 611>-<\20 granuL:" (GAO, Jr,l, 392, ~ 12--113, 431--133, .jji2 p"wd<'1'<.'d (PAC), 39-1, 431-431

A.!h-.I,>;! ,ludge, 1R3, 19R, 45b-17l.. 477-179, ·1113, -lil5. 4\101,

497.516,'>t7 ,\cti\'.'<>d-=-s, 45/,.-.4511, 402-4M, 4M-471,

~SJ,

4Il5.~97

Aclh-ation '-"'ftoc"-",,t, 69-71. 7~. 75 Arut" Imial}', 2f, 1-262 Ad""rption. 76, 9~-1 Dl. 232, lilt, ~. 3Il5, 3m, 393, ~ 12,

431--4J3,473.4'lO.619.b2fl.b'19 Ad\"«:lion. 16-1_11.5, 180, 35S-- 359 Ad\'cclh-e f1m, Ib5-1M ,\era';on n",in. S« A.,.-anon t.:Ink Aer.'km tank, ~ . 4&1.-472,~• .jRJ Aembie diS""h,m. 4.1\3 ,\embic resp,,~tion, 207, ~ Afnc~, K 19,9;,204, 235, JOI JlJl, 'I()\I, Jill, :JIU, 5."'\-'B9, ~,

'\ggT,*,I"", II. ~51O, 543 Air m",,,,,,, (,J'H,.J<, Ai, p,"cd, 1>37--MD, M2--M3. 047 Aiq,,'lIuI~nl'

",ntn,1

rec-hno~"""

.00 pollution p,~...-e"'tIOn acl;,il;",;,

M8---<>22 he,llh cilL"'I', 590-592, 599. I.()]. ~ ",m,a.., <%-597

AI, pollulKm ,od e,wi,onmL",t.:Il ju"'"", 597 Ai, PollutIOn C-",,'ml Acl 01 1955, 5~ Ai, poilu lion,
47h,

5(,f]

AmbIent ~k, 5R9, 591\, 1\3t" M5 ,\mblent emi"""" lofai,), h III Anaerroic diB""lIon. 4fG-.l&, 5(,(, An.>erobic ""'plT,tion, IIlh, 2fI7, 2Il! A"",dc, bTl, 22K :JIU. 47b-477, ~911, 491

Appa,enl cOflcenlT~ti3, sm A,~, ",,,,.-ceo;. "10 Arrheniu,,-,,!u,'ion.10ll Art,fICi.1 phoI""ynlh"" .., 20h At~""pheTe, ./0, U_~O, 03, 79, RQ--.81, 8.3, !l&---R7. 119, 145-1~7, 159, 1M, 18.3-1!\4, 201, 225, 252, ¥l!l, .137. 4&). 557, <'77. 579, %---'>'lIl, 591. 592, b3<>---MO, M2, 045, M7 mrbo~ dioxide, 13,.j I. ~5, ~7, .j9. 52-51\, 79. 11.3, !l5---87, 93, II/>, 119, Ill, 145, 147, 141\, 150. 187, 2iJ8, 215-21';. 225, 22i>-"7, 2-10, 2.9, .Jm, 47/>, 483, 41\-1, 54~, 551. 55.j, 5<7, 577, 5117, Sll.'l, 592, 593, "27, b30 mm!""',lIon, ~5, I ~7, 577, 5117-"AA 2, 22R, <;'O-'\llO, Sl\5, 5117, 5'11. (,(1'1, bO(, ,t'~t""phL"e, 585-51\7. ('{)3, ('{)5, bO(" ti07 Ir'''-'port, 579-SII1 ,bJ5---i,.j2 Im!"",phe"" 51\5, 58<0, 5..'!7, h03, bO(" 1-fJl, 6.>f! Atm""p'''''IC d I'p""'ion, M3-f,;Q Atm""ph<.'nc p'''''SUTe, .nd de,,----5i\7 Atm"'phonc st.:lbd",", 1i.lb---f,.j2, 1>15,1>11., M7 mndlllo"-,, d.olimtwm" MIl plume "'P'" ~nd inlluL''''' of, M 1 leITam dfL'Cts on, M2---f>.l3 At~""phenc kmp,,,,IUle ,ITUL'lU"', ~ Att.leh,'o.l Bmwlh, 451., ~72, 47~ Au["'mph" 2Il!, 213. 231

'mos.

B ll.>g filter<, 1.23_+.2A ll.lghou"", /.20, f>ll. to23-f,2J, Il.u ,.lelc',-/.I8 ll.l. "''''''''-', -/.Ill il.>."", 7';.83--89,4(X/ il.>.tch reacto" 1"19, 131 IR'l, 1\10-191, 192-19-1. 197-19R, 199. 3'l~_J95,~'i9,4I-fI

Ilell nlte, 1"""<. 41\/. &,,1 m.ln,semonl p,aclIC"" lBMP,I, 5iJ'i Bio.:>ocumul.>ti,m, 231-23-1, 2c"".mIC~1 o»'gcn dCm.lnd mom, ~I, lOll, 11I9, 197-19R, 21_1-215,211.-22~,298-299,337,3J9-340,3tI-3t3,

~28.

-/.I~, .j.j5, ~H, ~5O-l'il, .j54. 45;, ~5ll---4;9, -161401 .jf,2---4(,J, .jf,.j--ll\5, ...... 4ffi, .wJ, 170, 471. 472, 47/>, ~77---47!l. W, 489, ~'KH93, ~%, ~99, 'i53-554, 5hO BWlCil"",-",,,.licm, 38. 9;, 231-233 lack" (IlCFl, 233 BlOdegT,dltm, H12, 21i>-217. 31>3. 473. 555 Bw>di"""l, 19. 187,.50 BlOdh-L""ly. 229, 235-237, 2~R. 309, 349. J5.l, ; 1~, '\52, SR5 BIOfilte" no, sm, "19, (,20, f>23(l Bw>Jud<, 17-1B, 209, 299, 345, MR, 591--59" Biogeochemical eycl"". 221--231, J.l--l

BIOlJnctoc cocificK,1t<, 19R.-U>1 BIO""''', 5, 57, lM-2Dl 205, 200, 221>. 232-23.1, 2N, ,51, ~5-,1, 459-464. ~73, ~7h, 491-492. ~79, ,;01 Biom,m,cr\',22-23 Bio"'''-'nl~m ",,11., 133, 11.5, 305. 50;, 509--51.1 BlO'OIid, is<>' .Iudgc) 191\, 44h, 447, ~54, ~1\9-t7lJ, 4R3-4AA, 527, 528, ';.I9,5foI, cl.J... A ""lid,. 4R8 cia" B .. ~id,. 4&1, 489 B""'phe,.." 11'3, 227 Bios",.I"", 5Il5,511 Biotic dfLd., lR.1 BOD. S<-r n"xhemical oxygen dL'ITl.nd, O<}'gL'n. dcm.nd BOD Io.oding.. II>, 29S-29'l. 450-451. 4f>.I--.\b5,.j<)(J B",,,,nfield,. 252, 274, 275, V7, ~ , f>l4 Brundll.md Comm,,,,,m "'I"'". 8 Buffering c.>p.>L,ly._ BUlldmg..151-1_7 mmponcnl',152 energv IMlan.e, 151 L'rol 10>,. 151-155 f"s,,,,'e goin, 155-157 tl>cnnol ",.11,. 151. 155-157 Buildmg "",IU lorre, 173,.j().J

""la,

C C... rbo""cCO\LS b,ocherruc,,1 oxvS'-'" dc"",nd (CDOD) '.'0 rucffocicn,.I08-H19 c"rbo""tes}""cm, _ c"rbo.m cyck-. 225-227, 230, 255 c"rbon d im ,de "'lui,'.lent<;, 53-58 C."oon dioxide, n-gulatinn ..s "" polluLml, 592 C rbon "'Iu;,·.1e nk, 54--56 C rbon f""'pnn'. 5;, 57-Sil, 2il5 c"rbon monoxide, 41, 1m, 120, 57S, 5iIIl, 589-591, 594, 591\, 611. 627.63.J c"rbon-I<>-N"ms,-", (eN) ,,,lio (com!""l), <;.jh, 547 urn",o""" 209-210, 21'J c"m.;ni\c"f"'Cilv, 5. 1!l1i, 192_1'4.199-200,3..14,61.1 C"'TSOIL. R.:>chcl, 2. 7, 23.J c"t.:I.),,,I. d,,.;criptK'on, .l./l, W-7_, 11ll, 1l(J, 1):1. I'lL 28<\ Chem",,1 "xyg'-'" dc"",nd {COD), lh, hi, Hl!!. 109, 21." 21.1, 218, 22.1, 291'- '137. 4.J-1 . .J-l5, .J-l7 Chemrou 'r>lmph" 213, 63IJ Index

ChcmolLclcmtmph" 213 Chick'. L1w. S<-r Wote" dlSlnIL'<'ttrn1 CIIock'. L1", C111".,,,,,lh,,,, 414-422, .125. .133 CII~)m"u"roc.rbon. (CFe.), 1.15, ,;&1, 5111>, foO.l f{f7 Chmnic loxicity, 201 a.nfiL'f'S. Sa- Setllmg.. t.:I.nk. amn Ai, ,\ct{CA,\J, 2, 5." 57ll--579, 589-590, 592 ,;02, hll.612 of 1%3,578 Omn Ai, Act ,\",,-",dmcnts ICAAA), 578-579, 612 oll977,5i'.l of 19'10, 57'1, 612 amn IV.1",. ,\d, 299, 337, 3.J9, 352, .J-l~, 57B Oi"",,,, g=nOOu"" ~"-. and "mi",ions. 53-57. 79. 119, I8, 570, ,;&1, 592, 593-5%, 597, /OJ2 hum.,n he.1llh and, ISO, 554, 577, Sill, SAA. 590. 597, 602 imp"cllln ",al",. ''''"''''''''' atld ",,, lL.",,] rise 1.19-150 rnlergm'emrncn~ll r.nel em Oi"",,,, Ch..1nge ([rco and (Sa- IntcTgo,,,rn,,,,,,,!.>1 r.nd on Cli"",leCh.lngc) C1osl!l. 51>6, ;"7, 6JO Comp"",-,ion 2, 3.34, .l./l2-_'83, .17.1, ~!!5, 0189, 506, 508, 5119, 527, 543,1>l2 C,mfi.....'3, 11>1, 2.'<>, 250, 251_253, 257, 2M. 21>1>, 3fI2, 317, 31B, 327, 352-'53, 497.501, 510, '\25.527.528, 539, 542. 5-13, 549, 5511, 551-552, ';57-559. Soil, 5h2, 560'0, 590-591, 5%. 610, hl.j,b36

Con",,,,,,,,, prim.uy, XJ'I, 110.111 .emndarv, l\l9, 110. 211 Cnntmu-63l.. f>l3 Control ,·olum". 117-11", 111\-119, 13<. I'[!-IH.

[)"tribu hOCl coefficient. s.... Soil-wate']' p" ,t""", mdficlent r>.-..e, 259---W, Yo7, :zro-273, 278, 00, 2Il1, 338. 385, 1'iI!--38'I. 393,m.~I<,421 ~hmil.Z73 1~7,

15Il,

1
Cu",'"nl""",1 ~Ob,·~tL.,j .10011", .w\--nl<, 5/l9-<91, 597, 5'l8-.599, &II Critical di,t.>oc", 'J.ll~).IJ Critic,l f"inl, 3..18, ).I2-:J.U Criti<:.l15RT, .JM C"Ilm,l eutrophication, ).17 C rcln"", (,ul, (,19, 1>.-'>0, (,22

r>."""''''''poo,., ,,,,,,,s,,,,,nl, 2
soun-es, 312-315

tn"""""',lT:>-l33 ""t", qu.:>lt,y in 1.:Ike> ,nd """,,'oi.., 3~~-).I9

Dr;' ,d",b>hc t.>1"" "tt,. 637--(,,11

E

D Dams, 31()-311, 318 o"rcy's L1w, 169,358--3;.",. 1'19, <1M Degl'<.'<'-Cl.>v, hl-155 O"m.:md =n,s""",n'. 51\4, 1>11,1>1 ~--(, 17,1>18, 1>19. 1>13 O"",'nfiGlt;'"" 90, 21)\, 217-218, 357. 47\1, 47(,.-471\, ~9L 495 [h>~ysen.:Jtlon, 337, ."l1-3·B o........Iln.:Jlion. 311. 313, 314, ~, 419 o.".'gn of th" bUIlt e",;"",,,,,,n', 159-160 ait""',3%,_,507 1m di,.",;embly (DfD), 21. >0 I", "n,,.onm,,,,t {DfEI,l(' for sust,in.:Jbilitv, 21-27 o...."S'gn w'w, ""locit,· in ~ P'P", 133-3..15 Detent~", lime. s.... ROle",""n lime o",.·cloplnS wo,ld, 5. 9, 95, 15(J, 2hI>, 31>1 ..171\, .*t. 393, 41 0, 421--tll..5lJ,~5l9.544,593-S95

0.,..""...'<1 sl"d~e dLsp"""I. 4I\7--48l\

D"w'lcTing, 390. 393, -lIlI, 481, 4 _ . 497 Dlffusiotl, 165, IM--I71 DM""o" melfki<",'. 169-171 D1S'''lC'd sludS'" 4i15 DiSe<"", 87, 4.\<,;. 41~--t 18 mdliods,41.t----422 Dlsf"'T'i0n. 1f>l-I71, 351l. 6.l3---M9 Disp'-'l5--fl.17 Dt'p""',on moo"l, lin ",1, (,.U-j,5(J Di'p""'L (w,d "-"t,,t 1<, 3'XJ. 457, 487---4ll'1, 515. <2(" 539, 5-.l5,5 Di""""", """ co""t.> nt of 8J-S.l D1...,h·<>.! carbon dio,id", 8-3, 86-89, 119 Dt"""h·<>.! o~Yl\"n, 8O-ll1 10,;, 138, 145, 11~, 211, lll, 137-343, .Jill.. 383.457, ~76. 4I\ll---4f\I, 495 Di""h·<>.! ""YS"o "'S rur,"", 338, ).I2-J.l3

W''''''.

E.uthSummit, 7, 8 Ec-o-eff> 263 Ea>-t.>bel" 31. 5i-fI Ecological foolprin', 203-205, .109 Eco~>gical mj", "-"ju"",c"" W7-208 Ecok>gY, 183-184, 1%, ~5/. Ec""),,Iem. lunotion. 183-188, 231, 237 ho,I'Ii, 202, 231-237 m.:l'erl.>1< flow, 185 ,tructu,"" 18:>-188 Ea",,,tem ",,,'i,,,,, 232 Ec",.:.x;'-ology, 2M' E factu.,19 Elleeh,·" c"""",,trohoo. Yol Efl«th'" rd"",,,, Ik,ight, I.U. f>l5. 64~ Emi",on< ,nd C"""" ,lion R"""-J"" Intog"'<>.! D,t, b.:J,., (<.CRIDl, 57-"Il, 5511 Eleelm=8nenc 'I"-'Clrum, 1.03 Electron ;xc''I''''', 71>, 89, 2(11. 2a;!. 214, ~7(', 478 dono<, 7h. 89--'lO, 208, 213, 21~, 476 Elee ""'''' tic pn'Cipit, lOT (ESP), 6 19, 6.21--(,23 E1ement.>ry ",;xt;'-"" un, lOS 1'.""-"8"""" P1.:Innlng ,nd Communltv RiShl.lo-Kn"w Act 0119!lh (EPCRA1, 251 Erner-ging "liem,."I, 01 concern, 23, 35l', 378, 1ll5. 4-I~, 4-15 Emi",on l,ot",,1>17, ti32--(,J5 Emi",o"" """,mo.nt of. (,31--(,35 rontinuou, ""''''"0''-' monitoring. b33 control willi d"""md m,nag"""",t, bl'Ho17 control witli t«hOCl~'8Y. ('1!H>3l ""gi"" ,,,,,,,,,,,, 1<'<1. 6 13--(,14 sources, I)l"". (, 10 t",och, bl l-f,12 End of ],f", II. 12.21,2(" TJ, 30, 163, 203. 377.482. 557 End.>.nSOfe' Endoc",,,, dLSruplo.., 259, 1('() Endog"""'" growth pM"'. s.... O"... tli Sro,,~h pha.", Endoge'tl
E",,'lI}' rolaoce,l¥f-l5'J cL,,,,,fic.,t~m of ",,,ewable and "omeruowablc 141 dunate.13,IH-147 oo,,-;nab,hty. 21-27 Engine fundamental,,1i13 o.mtml oJ auln em"""ns. (,1:J,-{,14 Em-;mnmenul J\l,tio>, 2~2('7. 311. 526, 552, 5'f7 Em'immr.,nl.llap'" fa"', 637....... t Environmentallv pref.".ential purchasing. 32 Endronment.1 r ..nlc'CI:um AS""'1' (EPA l, 2. 3, 7, 56, 232, ill. 299. 433, <7ll, 583 Endron"",,,!.1 risk, 4, 7!l. 233, 2-lb-251, 21.1, Yo7, Il7.2IB. 2!l6, 537, 5,<;1, 592, 597 E",.ym<-'<, 195, 2W, 471., 4il3 ;nlerolCtio,,_. Nil

EP,\ 's Air P.-.llulion Training In,hlUle tArn), 57'9 Epid '-'ell io!<>gy, 2N\-269 Epillmnion, 344_341. EqUlhbrium, fR, 20, 46, 69. 72-AA. 91. 93. 2115

""id-ro.e, 7("

Il3->l9 aie-w>!e" 76, RlHU eflect of tempe,ature on, 75 lexaL 71 n,oJ."lOo-'L,jucti"n. 76,Il'HlO precipll.,tion-d~ub---79 Equilibrium ron'lll, 75, 71>, 78, ~ Equi""lent ba..., 4&-50 Equn'"fent weight, ~9. SO, 52, 403 Ethie<. 237, lM-2('7 Eub'y"l1_.., l!\.l EUlmphIGIOOn. 13, 202. 2~219, 230, J.1-l- 351, 347, J.l9, 4+1, ,\4'i,479 hal""rou"p",,""n, 157,2911. m, 303, 4, 2(,7, ]1,9, 'ZJ3-277, 279, ~, 21H_2!l9, 31\7, 411>, 4%, 51\1, 593 ",.e,,,'m,,,,t, '&7, 273-277, 279, m impart on "-.~, 247 hlendl.'d a"",lion. 4/,f,--4/,9 blendl.'d p.-oouct rc"l"'n.iblhtv (ErR), 30

f Faeullati\-e Ias",m, 4119--19~ Farullati"" mic1'OOcganiIlu'ion Contml Acl of 1972. Sa- Clean Wat".- Act Indu

FL'mlI.",'at~"', 55, 2f17-2lll, 213, 249, -lll3-48-1, 491 Fick'. Law, If,f,-I(,9, 171-172, (,43 Filt"uon '\1\,381,38-1, 389. 390-39'2, 401. ~ I1H14, 422, HI 473,499,505 s"nular, ~ 10-113 m"mbrane,422...aJ rapid (hlsh-rale!, 410-113 ..",d, ~1(}--I13, HI Fir;, Uusli. 51l1-5U FiN-' "'Iuah7.atinn, 450-153 F1OL>' of raw n~""ri.-.ls, 7, 11 'ZJ4, 5'12, (,33

A",

ad"ecti,'" Uux, l1i5-1b9 "-"''''8'' Uux. 142-1~7. 3·U ""'" !lu,. llf>---lll1. lm-121, 1'ZJ. 133. 142. 1(,5. 1(,7,298 "",-,,-Uux d"n"t)'. lb5 Foam l"',,,'ewalL'l'l, -!tiS Fl:1and_ Sa- WL>l:land, lree wat"" surl= F,,-'Undlich ''OIherm. 76, wms. WI. (,10, ('1!4. 19, 631---<>J2 Functional unit LCAI. 14-15

(I,,,.

C Ga. con,'.n', 42, 73. lOR C...sifica Ii,,,,, 5t,(, C••-to-clo,h rallo. 625, 626 C" u..lan di, I"-'",,,,n ctdficlent" (,43, 1\-l6---4t9 G.u""i"u disp'-""'on ,-"!,,,"wm, I>IJ-.M<) C".,u"""'n model<,1>I3, (,5f1 G,u",;;,n plume di'P"r;ion mooot (,,13 ''':IU",i"n rlu"", "'Iuation, 1>13. M7---M9 C"""ration role (wa..t"",.tor), 321-322 ,,,,,,,,,,,Ie rate (solid ",. .tel, 5211, 530-532 G"ometry of st,,_,-~s .nd building' (impact on urban liill' ,,1,001- 159 Cibbd"", """"P', 73, 7-1 Clazmg (in bulldmg "",terial.), 1~~, 155 CI,*"I w"rmmg poIenl",1 (CIVPI. 17, 19,53. 203, 4i~,-I84, 55-1,557,559 Cro\'ll.tin",,1
GreenhooJ.., S"" "",i"'Wln<. 53J;7. 119, Nl. 22I>-:U~. 4~ 497, 554-559,56Il.5IlO,592 Gn"",hooJ", g.:L"'-'<. U. I~, 41, 52, 53--51\, 79, 119, 143--150, 2m, 211, 22f" 227, 22!1, 47h, 4I\4,IAA, 497, 554-559, "bll, 5M, 5,ilo" 592, hill. h2~ Gn"-,,, rouk, 1';9-100, 305. 5Il5-5.-lR G = 'poce, 27~, JO.I-305. 391, 4'4, 5(1\ SOl" 51n, 514 Gre"n
cn"lamin.:ln«.97. ,53--357 Oow. 172, 285, 3Il2-3OJ. 358--359, 557 princip~1 K.Irst fr>mlol';'ln" 92 reffiL'tion. 2~. 2Il4--2!19, 359-JhJ 'ype< of .>qu,fe"" 300-301 withdrawak.311-312 Gmw,h carT},ng e"p.>d'Y, 5. 1M, 1"2-194. 1'19-200, nt, <\14 e'p"""nli.>1. IS, 111,20,189-194 199,-IM human population, 201-2ffi hmit, to grow'h, 5-7. 202 Jnsi"k 192-194 Monod, 1\4-201, 45'1-4hO n'I.:J.'lOn,iup to .4(,1 'tall"" of II",,,,th in batch rulture, 199 G",,,,,h model<, lAA-205 Gulf of Mex,,,,, 51. 131, 131\-139, 229, 34R GWP. Set- Glnb~1 ",~rming potenhallGWPl

H Half-life, lID. lOt>. 107, 555 Half--
2~7. 254-2h2, 2<\7_270, 310, J.lb, 35h, "'-3. 5();, 52h--S27, 'i.Jh-.-537, 549, '\51. 55·!, 599, 6Il2, 1i1Il-f>09, 612, <\21>, <\2!I a"""""",o', 267-270, 277 quotient.2f()-2R2 Ha7.ardou' air pollu"',,«. 575, 578, 579. <\02, I\ffi, 101 Hanrd",,-, ",a, 'e. 29, 254-257, 259, 2<\1. 351\,~, 52b, 527, ;3h--537,5-l9,551.554,hlt. H",' i.... "d, 157-1 <\1. 252, 303, SOh, SOl. 'iU Hen')'" L",'. 75, 7b, !lIHU. 1lR, 170, 285. 337. 3.j(), <\21 Herbi'"",e<.1fFJ.227 Hcleh H"tch,' VallL')' in Y"",m,le l':a,,,,,,,,1 Park. 31~ Het""",,,p"', 1~.1fFJ High pr,--,«u",,,,,
..,il<. 352

Hydrolot\k eycle, :U~, 29Il, 5().l Hydrol<>gv, 91. 151\, 29Il, 302. 301\, 349, 503 H"d",phobic part,t;'ming. 94 H>·dr"P""""',311J.-311,317 Hype"mnion, 344_3-17, 35G-351

I Id",,1 ga.' la\\', U--l~, 46.47, 79, 112--llJ. 100, 551. 55b,.559, 5&\-'Il9,<\27 Ideal S}"tem, IfJ Impact A"""",,,,,,nt (for lCA), 14, 17 IOOnerati"", 21<\, 44i>, ;25, s.-tR--551, 561\, blK bl9 I~d""r air p"lIu"'"",. ~ I~d""r air poilu""" m<'!hod, tr>control, HI,IOl ""'IT"", I 19. 251 , f,ffi---f,()9 I~dour a ir qu.1I "', l\OII----609 Ind""r "",'"o~ment<,78, 119,251, 252, 277, 5Jb, 579, 591, 5%, I\ffi. j,()Ij I~cff>cien<:yof """'By trail.' 1<'1', 21 ()-212 I"herr.,ncy, 22, 23, 27, 32, ill, 247, 248 In'egroted ri,k iofonn.ltir>n 'l"'tem (IRIS), 2t\Il. 270. 272, 273. 27lI, 280. 285, 3Il9 Interg",'en",,,,ot.:JI ra~e1 r>n a,mate Change (IPCO, 7, 45, 149,153, 15l\, l!l7, "h,B5, 236 Im'"n'o')' an.:ll~"I<. I~, 17, 138 In""",irnc,. 5AA. 598, b3Il---<>tl, 649 In -""...,j (com po
=.

K K.u..t format>Cln.<. 91-92 KineLK ene.-gv. 1.j(}-141 170, 392 Ki""""',/fJ, 101-109, lAA-195, 211>-219, 339-343, 41 ~--lI!l, 459--461. h19 K}"<'lr> Protocol. 7, 52--5.1

L labi!e,219 lag'''',,-<, 185, 206, ~fl9--.49t lake dL,<..,ln'!« b.>1.",ee in, 111>---117 molerulardiffu"on, 1<\5,11>'1--170 "utrient ltm'ta!ion, and trophic n and ""'''''11'''''''''',349--351 ,elen"rm fo< Great lak"",, 13(, slr~hfkaMn, .J.t.I-J.16

"me<

La\." (Continunll suc11.5/,1-"65 oo,'e, Id~il>' and final). 5-18. 561. 5<,2. 5f,.l dailv ",il em'.,,-. 55-1, 561, 51\2. 5f,.l doc"mf"'" Mn, 553-554 d.,,;ign, 37-'fe g'cle "a6"". 11-12 life C)'de th;n~jng. 11-17, 79. 205. 412. ~45 Lim,', I" Growlh, 5-7, 202 Line grow'h (w".,,- demand), 318--331 Line i,,~he,m. \4--'l7 L"",llng (DOD. hvdrouhe. "ill"8en, ",lid,). R II>, 131\, 229, Y'J• .n5- lJ7. 352. 357. 410, 450. ~5L 45-1• .\f,.1---465, 469. 47ft 472, 4&'., ~90 Log"'1< gm,,~h model. 192-19-.1 L""ped ,ubs',",!c""" 331 L"w impact deYelcrpmenl. 133. 159--I/oO,;().I. 3()5, 3-19, 503-514 t.n... p""",ure ,~""ems (alm"'ph.>,ef, f>l2

M Malthus. Tho"",s. 202 Marke<-ba><--d appmach"" (for air), 1.12 Ma" Mcumula,u", late. 117-1111 baLlIl-139. 14ll-U2, 151, 1111\, 190. 341-34.\ 4.511-41>3. ~92. 1..."9, 1.33---<>34 oonc<>nlrotion, .lS-4O oonc<>ntration urn". 'lI'-4!1 flux. 111>-1111, 12ll-121, 127, 133, 142. 11.5, 167, 29S part, 1"-'" billion (ppb). 3II--IO,42__U !,,\rt, 1"-'" milllun (ppml, 3Il--1O, ~2-41 !",rt, per million by ""Iume (ppmy). 3/l-4fl. 42--1~ ,,\It, per lrill.m (ppll. 3Il, 39 pe,cenl by rna"", 39 Index

"~"'porl pm'''''' '''', 11>1-175 ~t"leri,IIlo" .... ].I,

13Ilm 1/00, 22~-231 flow anah-.i, (MF M, ].1-16 M~te"",l, ""u"''ry f.-.cililJes (MRF<;l. 525, 537. 542. 545, 50/, Mro" ",,11 retenlion lime. 462 Mecham",1 d"I"-""ion. 172-173, ,511 Mc-d.,n lethal m"",nlral..n, 21>1 M<-d",n klhal d""" 259--21> I Membrane mo""dOl,.J69--471 482 fi Ilr,lt'O<1, 311·4. 41 fl 8u,membrane, "<'>1 holl"w fibe<, 424, 425. 4J(J "!",ra'",,,. 4:1h---l2ll perlo"""",,,, 4211__BO pmcL'S"-".412--130 ,dL'Ction.421>-4211 M~leri.-.l,

'n""'. ~23-425

"tet.-llr mnion. 3·U-'\.15 "k'lal, ~""",l<:, 2W. 25R. 335, 35(,. 378, .JII3,- 3I!4. 3111\, ~31. 432, ..)2 "-..-.d, 31. 37l1. 3113, 3-'.11, 577, 589-992. 5%-598. fifl. 611 merrury, 13,78-79. Dl-rn Th, 2~ 1. 262. 305. 35-1. 378, 'liI3, 3-'.11, 432, 4-15, 54iI Mc"lh.-lIl"8"""".... 208. 483-411-1 Mc,1\. 470, 472, 47~, ~78. 479. 4113, 505. 514. 553. 557. 559. 1..."lJ, 629 "1I1"'nnlUm O"..·dopmenl (""",I, (MDG,\. 7--" MI~L<:1 hquor, ~5(" 469. 47fl, ~77 ,u'p"ndL-d .I---lh7 ""la,ile ,u'p""d..-d 311 "lIx,"g 1.>"""'@.8 Mobile .",m"", 578. 591>-597. 10», 610. 634 M"difiC'd Ludzak-Ettingef (MLEl ~7i>--477 Mol,lllv.46 M(,j,u,46, 7\1, HT./ Molanly,.\6. 4R Molecular diffusion, 1h5. 1(,9.-172 M"lo fl.KtJolJ. 40, 42, 43, 41>. 47. WI, 74. 711. M Mdel (and kJ""',,-,l, 19-.I-2m, ~59--lf,(l Mui'.John.3111 Mumdpal
P<""'""".

1ifl___<
N NAAQS all qu,I,')" criteria air pollutanl., 5119-592. 598---599 t'<.1 0""",1 ,\mb",,,,, Air Qua hlY SL:mdards {t'1 Pmlechon '\<1 (NEPAl. 2

N,tio",,1 Highw,v T r,ffie 5.>fcly Administr,tion (KHTSA), ~,

1'<,00",,1 Pollu"'n' Th.'Ch.>rge Ellmi""tion S,... 'em (1'
l'<,tm,l "tenu,tion, 31.3, 560 N,mr,1 aplt.J.L 232 /'.:,m,a1 org,nlC m,"e. (KOM), 38il, 31\1 3&-1. 31\5, ~ 17. ~29 N,tur,1 ,'enlil"""" 15;, fnl I' Fiow s,,, W,ter o.,mond. 1'<,,--.:Ied Fi,e Fi"w Ne'\ll"l ,t.J.bihly,1>J8, Mil, I>U. MIl I', ~78. ~77, 491. ~% Nil'<>g'''' cyde, 51, 2:1'1_2..."9, 230. 299, 471> Nil"'!\en di",ide, 4~, 588-591, ~ l','",senou., n'nen dm..,nd 21.l.--21~, 218, 220 t'>it."sen ""Ides (1'<0.), 5li, 2!I>, "112, 5ll7, 590-592, foIM,,,ll Nnc.nJ",l"rm.4hIl No""',,,inmen' ,rm, ;79. ~,foffi None,rdnogen,. 25i\, 259. 2oi1!, 272-273. 277. !ll(}-!llI.

~-

Non,'e,d)' ,"'te, 115, 11&--IW, 12_l.--125, 1!ll Nil ,x-'rmN., ,..h-,,~ dl"ct 1c.,..,j (1'. 51 L '>II>, 547 en!\ince-J.lf\ pollulion Imm "n--<,te 'y'tem" 357 .em.w.1 ,nd ""'''''-cry. ~7~--4f\O, 481\, 487 ""Ikl w.,t" .nd. 546, 5-17. 555, 5W 'emree.. of n""u,'e mlrog"... 227 ,lorInW.I", ,nd, 349, +1<), 4-12, 444, ;m, 509, 511 w"-,Iew.t.,, ,nd, 3-11\, 341\->-19, 357, ~73, 4'X1 wcll,nd rune""n, ,nd, 349, ,52-354

o 0erup.1bOfety,nd He,lth Admme" •• b"" (OSHA). ~

Oo""n ""ldific,ticm, AA-89.235 Ool.:lnol-w,'e'r p"rlIUO<1 r.-.effidenl, 95, l9-4.3O Odor thn" ncl.:ln"l-w,'e. p"""UO<1 ",efficient" 95, '18. !AA ')'fIthebr, ,78-381, '085, .'087.432 ,'"L1uli7.-.tion of, 71Hlll Orgonir m,tte., 55, 59,1>0, 9~, 197, 207-!il9, 2 13, 218, 34 I, >-11>,3-17, 378-3It.1, 31\5, F2, ~II>, ~17, 423, 42~ 427. 429, 4-1", ~"', ~57, 45.'l. 431. 4l'l3, .JSIl, 5-I~, 5-I5.1>!ll Our Common Future. SIder Ifor , n",oon), I0l-11J.l

,ct"",,,

O.-""lIow rol,,", 407. olO!l, 455, -1M O\'e.....tur.H"".3-Il Oxid.:luO<1 I""'d" 4f\9--49~ Oxrd.1tlon-,,-.:Iu,89-90, '1J.Tl, 214 Wfl Ox rd.1 t"'" ,'" le, S9-'J() O>.ygen ",rt"",areou',213 mem>:.I,213-216 ryrle,225 defICit, 3-I1-,U dem..:lnd ;_;,&1,213 deplcllO<1, I> 1. = , 337-343, J.l6. 350, ~U d',<
kincH"-'l,21Ji-219 m""",remen', 218. 219. 22fl-224 nitmgenou', 213-21 ~ """"", 7. 17, 19, 31, ~5, 5-1, I ~';, 1511. 202, '29. 2~7, 2~8, :Nl, .N2, 414, ~ H, ~ 17, ~ 19. 42fl, 432 577. 579, ..-0, 5.'l5, '\M. 587. 5&'1-592. 59R.I>01.I>034---w7, 619 rote c<""t,nl, 219 rel,oon'hip to COD. 22~ ,mrog I~.ound level ozonel, 17, 2!S, 579, SilO, 585, """, 591, 1-iJ3, I>Oh O>.ygen cycle, !25 Oz""e I",.,.., 7, 202, 579, 5.'l5, 5R6,I-iJ3, (,05-f,()7

I' PAC. .'i« Artl.... tcd e"bon P.rked 'b«>rpli"" 1Jc-.:l,1>21 P A H'. S« P"lycyrlir .."m,tir h}-.:I me. rho"" P.rti,l pn,"",ure, 4~--46, 7~, 7<>---WJ, 81, So, !l7, 337, .J.j{J P."irle,,-~tlms

crlhe,ll"'rhele ""tllmg ",Incltv, 407 d', -109, ~7 llorcul,nt o;et,ling..JO.l 1'ld' numlJc.,. (ReI, 173-174, oIf»-405 5<,,"-',' I.:l", ,nd, 173-175, .JO.l-. 405, -1M, ~4l'l. ""7 t.'P" 111 ""tllmg. 409 "'P" II ",,"Illig. 4f)Ij h'p" [selling. 409 p. ,tirle ,ize, 40l.-409, !>23-f,24 P.rlic:uL,te m..:lttL"-, IR, 2..."9, .'IIl9, )9" 117, 422, 45-1, 451\. ~58, 5-lf\, 5f\O,582, 5.'l7, 5lIl', 590-591. 59" 59~, 5%, 599, (,01

_,I>18.(,20,622,
hnm..:ln IIrolth Impar"'.ne! dcfen""" '0. 593 P.,t";,;,,, meffrrienl s.... S",[-","e. p.untion metfie;"n' P,thogen, 2...., 27<1, 31.'. 35;, 357. 38-1-3117, 4lO, 4H, 420, 422, ~·B, 445, 473. WI, 00, .m7,4AA-4S9, ~90. 49~, 54~, 5-lIi PC&<• ./6, 47, 77. 1m, 171 232, 23~, 257. 258, 271, :JS7 bioroncenlroHO<1,232 IonS c.nge tr.mpo", 77 ,truetu.e and detmil",n, ~ Pe"l,tC'flt "rg.>nir ""lInt,nt" 77, 95 pH, 8.'l---<'9, 9,. ml. 2.\11, 391, F~, 402, ~17, 4!ll. 471>, .\Ill, '>1(,,55-1

rh"'phole .rcumnl.>ting org' n",,1.' (PA 0<;), 478

!'hno;phmus. 51. 93, 1'0'-139, 1M, 2il2. 2....9. 2:'<1, 29Il. 301\, '\.14. 34&-349. 350, 351, H5. 4~7. 45-t. ~74 47!l--llO, 4117 C)'CIe, 230

PhoIochc'fl'lCal ,eacli",,-s, 51'<1. t\lD-flO5, 1m Phot""• .417. 001 PhoI"")'fI'h""" 23, 119, 14R, I R.I 2Q5, 2[\'" 209, 21 ~ 2.."0. 225, 491, fill Phot",,)'fIlheric ''''Y~''''' 491 l'hoI""vnlhe,ic source (<'l "'~'g<.'fl), 206 Ph,'loterned .. J(,J Plug-flo", ""ctOT (1'FR1, 122, 1.l1l-133, 33'1, 414,.JMI. 629 Plume, .3ltl- 3&3, 639. MI. f,U....bSO Plume d"!",,,.m modellng.!>l}-{,5() Plume rise, ~~l, t>l9 P1uo",Ivp<',641-b42 PM, 5« P.mcu1.:l", nW'cr P"m' 19 P"Ik)', ~, fI, 15. 25, 3ll-31, t, 2f1I, 309, 315, '\.19. ~79-4IlO. 523, SNI--5711 P"llut.ln", a",,-~,ic. 249, 258, 355, 356, 37S, 3R3-J8.l, 3f\8, HI. H2, ro2 carbon d,mid", 45. 52--5ll, 7'1, 8&--1\7, 119, 145, 14K 1511, lf17, 313. 225. 311, 00, .mI, 544, 551. 553, 554. 557, 5f\7, 5&1, 592. ~ri carbon """"",od", 41. IW, 57f1, 5AA-59I, 59.\, 596, 611. Iil2, HI criteria att, 9'.lII--591 g"",nho"-,,, ",,(cos) ("HG), 14, IR, 41, 52, 53-5!t 79, 119, 145-150. E, 211, 226, lE, 22f\. ~7h, .\1«. 4f\8. 497, 55-,1-559, SNI, 580, 5&;, 592. 001. 62fI ha7.:1,dou.s all' pollul.1nls. ro2, iollR, t\09, b2f1 m"",my, 13, 7S-79. 231-2.3-1. 236, 261, 262, 3flS, 354,37S.

",o",

3R3,lf\8, 432, 44.5, 5-lIl

nilrogon dio'lde, 4~, 56f\-59I, 598 """'1'.7,17.19, 31. ~5. 54. U5. lSI!, 202, '29,247,

2~fI.

5n.

579,5R
""

pa,liru1.:lle ITI.lltcr. IR, 229. 3Il9, 39" 417, 422, 454. 4S1>, 451\. 548, 5I(), 51\2, 5R7, 51\1\, 5911-, 5'11, 59" .... 4, '<%. 599, hilI, WlI. b IS, 631, 6l2. 621 wlfur dioxide, 43, 311, 5AA-592, 596, 611 612,619,633,

rn p"nu't.od ail', cha,act"mli"" 5il9-5'12 p"nu'",n r""..,n~on,4, 7, b2-11>. 254. 26.3-2(,.1, 514, 525, '26, 329,537,5.39,<52, 56fl,tiI"»,610,bI9,62fI Pre,-eno"" Acl <'l 1990, 7, 254, 263. 264, 526, 537 p"',..,l\h"" hioe'OlChv, 2-11>, 26.3-264, 525, 526, 569, t\09 P"f"'lalion carryc.:Ipaaly.l92 d)"l.:ImlC< and moddmg. HI.2, lAA-2fl5 oqu;n).,nl,329 hUlTl.ln I"'f"'lalion gro,,1h. lOl-M p",,"';ty. 21iJ, 2f\8. 351\. 35'1. 3t\O, ~ II, 413, 495. 512, 51" 5.J6 fu'
Priori'" pollulanls. 4-12 l'm<-"", moddin&- b33 Prod""l;"itv (~'C01ogv), 2\l'I k'",e, "'o,h.. (from poIlul.n' ""pam,e), 251, 254 Pro''''')'"""",,I84 Pseudo r,,,l-ordc, n-.xlion.', lL14-IIl6, 41.J, .JIR, 49-1 Pump cycle I,mI', 336 Pumping ,Ialum, 319, 317, 331, 33'>-337

R R.:Idialion, I ~5-150, 1"f" 15i>-lfoO, 41 ,1, .J17, 491l--4W, 5()f" "86. SIl7 Rad~n, lor.. HI, WlI

Rain ga,den, 505. 5ll9-5H Raoult', 1.J."', 78, M Rail' L>."" 11l1-1Ob. 121 Raho",,1 m.,d.~(1. 303-.'lJ7 Rmcl;"n """'hiomchy, n 73, 102, 216, 0103, &27 Reacl''''' hd.-oc.rtx"", 587,1>0-1, 61 ,1 Rrocli,~ty, 69. 257 Rmclor .""ll"i•. 122-137 Reacl"'" ba'ch ,,,.clor, 129, 131 1S9-193, 197, 199,45\1. ol6'J roml"'n.on "ITJ<.tFR I~ PFR, 131-1.35 cornple'dy m;,ed flo", rrocl'" (CMFR), lfJl, 117-129, 131-13<,.J26"31469 plug flo'" ",.t, 315, 349, 4lJI. 451l, 46R, .Jll5, 525, 52b, 528, 5.39. 540, :>-12, 'i6b,567 '0"'''' "-",,roh,'n, S.U-545. 561>---5&7 Redm re.>cIIo,,-•• R9---9(l. 2fl7-2OIl, 214 Ref"",n", concenlrotioo (RIC}, 2M. 271, 273, 2Rl Rd"",n"" .I"", (RiD). 2bR, 273. 2fl1-2a2, 3f\8-31!9 Ref.. cton· ",,,-st,,,, 22.J Refu.-19, 'i5ll Regulalk"'-" SccClea"A" A<.1;CI",n ,\;r A<.1 Am""dmenl_'; Enda~e",j Spoci'" Ad; KaID".1 Amb"ol Ail' Quahty S1alld.rd<; N.t.."al E""I-Immenbl _ I . m Act; R<'>ourceCom,...\'.ti<,n and R"cm-ery' '\0' (RCR,\); Polkll~n Prt.,,-'enbon Acl, Safe Drinld~ Water Act, Wah.. rolkl'.'n Conlml R~u1.J.I~'... appmaohe<, 2-7, &11. &12 R,,;olmcint: and balancing <:.-..,,,,,1 lnop Di.>g-526 R""",rr...hm,tod ~m"'lh. l1N-192. 194-1% R"""'rre< non-,enc",.ble, 5, 192. 249, 543 """-'",able, 5, 19, 19-1, 195, 2fl3-:IDl. 2~9. 5711 R"'pir~Ih'u, 1ll6, 119. 1.Jll, lR9, 100. 199, 200, 205-2Oll, 211}, 212, 213, 220, 225, 46/1, 4n. 4lU Rcospi.. I"...· s)"'I""", 9'.13

Reo;.tricli
~9~. ~95

R;,;~(,1

,,,,,,,,men', 265, 267-21U. 387 charade';"alion. 267, 273, 277-283, 28(, de'enninmg. 278 '-'="Y'tem, 4, 233. 2~7-2-lR, 251 2I>l, 2M, 277, 2RJ, 2!!1>. 'U7,5.'l1 en dmnment.ll, 4, 2,j;,-294 l"-=cpt~lU, 251, 251 Rh'"" wak" qUollitv, 337-343 Runoff rocffiden~'l.303-307

S

S..'ption, i(', 94-101,3-12, .Wl, 360. 31.3 Source ,,-.:Iuchon. 133, 134, W. 2bl, 349. 474. ~75, 47ll---1-RO, 525. 526, 53'l, 552, 567. 1i09, 612. h28 Sra'",'..".ales (of ,i" ?,>Uunon), 579, 51\0, 5R2 SpecifIC c""ductaoce, 711 Spring ,umo""r, 345-34(, Slabi!> Iv eond "'oJ\.< (C'l .'rnosphere), 1>37--M3, f>1h---M7 ",,,ulral,6-lO---i>tt stable, f>ll}--M 1 un,,,,blo. 1>37. o\4O--Ml 57.-.t~", f""":I'. 472, 4R9-494 Sf.,ble ,tm""p""'''',1.3tl Slable mnd i'",n" 63.'l, f>lIl---M 1 Slac~ "",;',ion,. h 10. 1>31---f>32 St>~el1oldefs, 27, 274, 328, -18-1. 5.""), 552, 567~ St>!~",.r)" 'ourc"" 578. 592, 5%, 59Il, ('Hl, (,18 ,t.lt", 1Hl-I20, 122-129, I ~2, 1-lb, 147, 459, 553-551,

""'>
t>1.\ b5tl

Sale Drinkmg Waler "cl, 387 Sa,cl1Jte reclamation (wak'(), 315, 4R2 Satu,a",d ,'apor p"""ure, ~~-4Ii, 77,7R. /lO Sa'ura'ed zone. 28(, Scrub!J<.'l<;, M8, h 19, 621, 622. 628 s.xondarv poUutant, 587. 592, 591> Semnd,lrv production. 209 S•.'("ondary ,tandard •• 5\lO Semndal''' '",.lmcnl. Sc< \\'a,lewa,,-'1. Irmtmenl s<-.:Iiment.lti,,,, tan~, 409, 45-1. <163. 467 Septic t.lnk, 355, 356-357. 383, 473, 494, ~9" 509 Sct~ing

actInt,-'<:I 'ludge. 45(,.....159. ~61--4i4, .JNl dclem""" '",n of ,em","al ef fleJenc:y, .m>-4O\I. 46<>--167.472 di.olid,; Solid, "",-",Iion "me age, <02 bulkin!\- ~57, 461\, 4711 com'enl~lUal .cth-a'c'<:l, 1<{,---..k,9 dewaterc-.:l, -lll6-487 diS","-'<:I,483-4l\5 di'posal 477 ,,-'fUm a"'l\'ate'<:l. ~57, -1(,9. ~7(). ~79 ,Iabil"..-.,ion, 456, 483-4115 ,'olume ind", ISVI). 457-451\• .j(,8 wa,le ac!i,-a'c'<:l, 457, 40;;, 4711, 48.1 wasting of. 451\, 462. ~7() Sn~lIt grow! h. 25, 5R4---5I!5 Smarl STOw!h, en"iTOnmcntal he""nt" 585 Sn~ul growth, prindplL .., 584 S",I-wa"-,, parlin"" coefficient, 7h, 'J5, ~101, 2RJ, 287, lSR, 'l59,3I\f1 norm.-.li,cd to organic carb<1f\. 9'. 9fl-IOl, 2ilR Sohd, ",""'t~lU Ii"", (SRn. 456, 461--4i4 Sol>d- 'I' ,,-,te cha"ctero.-.'~m. 527-537 Sol>d-,'.-",to '~,,"'ms, mm?,,,,,-,,,',,, 525. 539 Solubihly, defined, 91 Solubill')' pmducl, 7h, 91, 93,.t2>I

c""",

S"'",1. 16,51, <;()j, 'i-H rcinlOl'Cc'<:l. -Ill') "aml"-"',426 Stol=;' fa,,', 173-175• .JO.l--40S, 408, -l4il, 467 Storage Lln~, 2M, 285, 319, .m. 324. 331., 3-"0;, 433. (,10, 618 S'<5-587, 1.03. 3.I hdmgen ",Ifid". 85. 106, 130, 230-231, 381, 428, 1017. (,29 Sullur ",."Ie, 230-231 'iu mmer ,t" Iff>ca'~m. J.l4- 347 Surf.K'C ~o,,' ",etland. Sc< W"tlmd, I"", ""ter 'urface Su.sceptiblc popul.-.lfo"", 262 Su.'l"'ndcd growth rmc1Of'<, ~5f>--WI Su.'pendt'<:l ",ltd" 59. 1.0. 188,298, 305. 3()(,. 313, 4H, ~·17. 451, 456, 457, e.-.I, (scx::.,l, .173-381, 385. 387, 4.32 s-,,,,,,,,,,-, thinking. 10, 17-21, 525, 52(,

T Tdeeommubng615 Tempe,ature eflee' on "'olngical pm,,,,,,,,, 1118-HJ,I ,-"feel on ""' «lU",n'. 75. /lO, &I, 100001lllJ Terliarv I",al"",nl. Sc< Waste",a','(, t""t"",n' T'-'l'!i,rv ",.,Ie",aler Ire,!""",!, 315, 44(,. 47~-4llO Th"""ehcal "".g''I\ d""",fld (ThOD). 21.3. 215-21 h

The"",,1 ""idlli'f, 621, ~~ The"",,1 <.lc,lif",,'wm, J.l.I-J.U, T1>e,modine, :J.U,J45 The,modyn.>mic 1.:1"'" 72-75 Ii"" 1,,,, of, 72-7.l, 1.uJ, 209 seo.md 1.:1", nf. 72-71, 14~, 21 0 Tho""", .•1,,1'" "",'hond, 219 Thre.hold eff",,', 272_= Tnt.ll dL.",I",d ,,~id. (TDS), 59--+.0, 70, 71, TIl :J.B, 382, ~67 Tnt.lI,I>O'g.>n1c Glrlx>o1 (TOC\ 224. :J.7~, JR.l Tnt.ll m.lximum d,ily In.:>d ITMDU, 299, :J.:J.7 T,,,,,l ""lid, (IS), 59---+.0, 4.t5 Tnt.>l 'u'l"'ooLxI I"'rtiru1.:l'", ITSI'), 58 T,,,,,l ""I"'".:kxl ",lid. (l"SS), 59---+.0, 1!Iil, :J.B, 444 T poIlut,n'., f>()2- h03 T chemic.>", 23, 77, 1'<1, 149, IR>, 1M, 254-262, 265, 2M,

""jc,,,

".i<

270,277,NJ,445,~47,4ffi,476,477,56(1,5711,5R5

Tn.icJt)'. B, 17, 19, 21 ?!I, 1\\ 'N, 220, rn,

247-2~9, 257-2/;3,

2h7-2('<}.2M,m,:J.I\S-~,4U

,ru'c,201 chmnic,261 'Y"".-g'<.lic,2,,2 T".i"" ,d"",,,,, ,m'c"lory (nUl m_257,21>5 T,.fn< c""8""'io", 61~, 616, 617 TrogLxly "f the Com"",,,-,, 5. 577 T "'1"{"'- ,t.>iion, 525, 'i-lfl-542 Tron'p,,".>tind m.ln.lgL"""nt, 51\4, 614--b17 slro'''8''-''', reduce ""'''''''''-' of ,i, p"nut,n'., 614-615 T"''', 157, 509, 514, 1>12 Tncklmg fil",,", 472, 490 Tmphl<. 2ffi-209, 212, 232, 258, :J..l6-347 T '''I'''''I'hL'fe, 51\5--51'17, 6Il3, 606, fI.'I7, 6:J.Il Turbulcnl di,I"-....,"", 165, 171-172

U Ulum.lte.nd CIIOD, 2B, 217-21~, 22!J, 3:J.'J- J.1(1, 342-343 Uncert.mty f.>c'or (UFJ, 2n, 281,JAA Unmnfined 'qUlfL"-, 300-3/11 UJ, Environmen, Programme, 7, 149 U.N. W",ld C"mmi"l"n "n En\'iwnm"n"nd o",,,x'pmenl, 7, ~ UninlL'Ildtxl c""""1UL"'''''', 111,250 Uni,,,.....l C"n<"'nl42 Un.tlblc moo,b",,,,, 6.>7, 640, 1>-11,647 Urb.ln he,1 i.l.lnd. 157-161, 3ILl, SOli, 508 Urb.lni7..lh"n, 302-3ILl, .349, 35.l-:J.54 442, 505, 526 Urb.ln m",.bolism, 1~-16. 1.'18 Unnechcmi,I,,·, 47~ US En"mnrnc"'tll p""""!>[,,, Ag"""y S
C."

V ,·.n de, IV"l. Imc"" ffJ, '/.I, R2, 4:J.1 V.n't H,~f ,,,I.l'ion.h,p, 7< Vcgol.:luon '..,)O<'l«>n (,II. bi<",,,,,,,uon pond.), 507 \'L""Uri .«rubbe" 611\, 621 \"'ftic.ll ml.ing (in ,,, .t.>bilit}').~,1>41 \'id<'O lelpfwg ,00 d"rupti,'" inl>O,·.li"". 2~ Indu

L:J.ke T.1>oo """,.rch, B8 .nd ",.,1.",',1<" lrN'men', :J.9O,4-I7 \'OC <'1m"i""" 5%-597, 609---<.11, 618, 6:J.5 \'oloulc ....pended ..oIid,,~, 1M,45/.. Vo1.luli7.:100n, '!>---lli.), 491 \'olun I.lry • PI""'"hL", (lor ,IT mL,,~m. ron In,1), 61 2 V olun I.lf)' f'T"ST' m' (to onroucogo gn.'eI\ d""i gn \. :J.{)- ~2

1'1'.,,,,

°

W W.ste .>ctInt"d ,llldg", ~S7--451\, 470.4il3 oollection, ~32_:J.:U, 'U5,53&-541 """trudJon,oo dcmohti"n debri., 257, 525, 527, 528, 'i.U, 54:J., 551 d"n,itv (for ",lid ",..'d, 5.32, s.1O,565 di'I"""'L 15, "6, 255, 263, :J.56. 157,477, 4fl7--489. 525, 526, 5.32,5:J.9-54iI dllmp, O;2~ g"".".ouon, 28, _25, 528, 5'10-532, 5:J.;, 5R, 552 ....Llmnu.', 29, 46, 254-257, 263, 265, 266,:J.5b, 'l1,},4R7, <26, 527, 5.36-539, 5-l-L S·N, 551. 5..<-l, ~, 5Ii> inci""cot~K\. S---5411, 555 munKip,1 'OI,d. I-l--I~, 527-570 plllro. 5<.7 reduc'ion, 263, 567-5/.1\ ""''''', 2t.:J., 539, 54:J., ...., 569, 621\ sohd ",..I" m.l"'8cmL",t. _27---57ll """CO "'poTOlion, 5-12-5-15, 545, 567 ,toc'go, SJ9.'i.lll ",.",feT .t.>tion, 525, "l0-542 ",o,'e-lo·-c",,'8Y 226, 4~R. 525. 52ll. 5:J.2, 5:J.7, 5-1&-551, 5(,(" 570, 61 R, 619 """ \\'"t", !""in"'-"km)

W,.,,,,,,,1cT

'\"TOtion,4I>O-4IIl b,olJnctkrodoc",nt., 198,461 IlOD (binchemiml dom.,nd),

"''1;''''

~ I,

lOS. 1m.

21:J.-211,:J.:J.7,4~5,~47,454-467

rollccl1nn, TIL 32il-325, 500-5ffi d i• ." I""""" 4IlIl--481 do""",'ic (municip.lil, 12:J., 187, 2O!l, 21 ~ 219,2->(1,232, 32fl-325,442--514 food ",eb, ~<6-457 ilCflL'T,hon TO'''', 32il-:J.26 on-,,'" '''''ltn",nl. Sltmen', .J-l5-4-l7, 454--455 TO'O ron't.>nl" <162, 4q~ rcc1.lm.ltkm (,,00 fL'tl"")' ~12, :J.14-31 b, ~77, ~~5---4-17, ~7~, 4112, ~9~, 498-5111 =",,1 (.nd TL'CO\'<'T)') of "'Irog"", 221\, :J.57, ~74--4711, ~91, ~%, 5I1'l rcmo,'oJ or pho
'emperaturc clfL,<,ls. 111'-109 ,en""y '",.." ment, 315, 446, 47.t-lM 'Tmlmenl, 4-125--199 u", of mO-" b.1lanc<....., ]]&-117, IN, 13&-137. 1
Watee Ole <",d, 73--71>, RO-S3, 1m, 172, 2R8 aqUlf......, 91, 92. JfO->OI. 317, 356, 301\-31>0 af=n.. and. 13. 2~9. 3;$-351>, 380, 383--JR.I. 431. 432 O\·ailob;h"·, 307-J09, 316. 32S, ~43 b1o.:K'Cumul.:".m f.>ctoe and 232-2J.l,!R3-;>l\4 b,omnccnrrabon f.>cloe and, 9" '19, 131-134 b,,,,,,'ention ceU, and, 1:13, 305, 505. 5O'J--'1 ~ b,os""al",, .1nd. 51)5, 51~ built endconmcnt and. 1'7, 159, 160, 5().j c,uoon..:"c hard",,,,, and, .uxJ-.103 Clean Wat..... Act, 7,2W, 337, 349. 352, 4U <'001gulan" .1nd, 390. 392-391>. ~54 rn.:Igulahon, 175•.\111, 3Il4, 38', 390-399. IDl enlo<.377-3llrticle",Uhng ,'clocilv. 40'7 ctyp'''''p''''id,um, 1hb-267, 3M, 381, 386, 410, ~28, 433 dL",,",nd f.>ctor, 323-325 mcdclm80 31~32O, 32ll-331 den2, 392, ~ 13, 431--133 h;ghrale,410 t.,nO.... fibcT<;, 424, 425, ~3ft membrane pn>a"""', 191 422--l3fl, olf.9-.I70 m>emfiltl'atmn, 422--1:IJ, oWl nannfiltra""". 423-424, 426, 42'1 po,,"de"'" acl1\'at"'" carbon, 39-1, 131--133 rap,d, ~IO

=,

""OS,

"".""'" """""''', 3B, 3RI, JR.I, 422-42~. 427--128, ~3Ii, ~,

slnw",nd filtration. 41 o-l13 u Itrafi liTatk"', 423-424, 426, 431, 433 lire prolection, 317, 319, 126-327 l1occulant""tl"'g and, IDI ll"cculatLon and, 17'1,3Ill .lIl9, 391-399, ~1I9, ~ le<>d and, 211-212 !,,.-,tpnnt, 3fI9 I""L'<'a"",8o 321l-3.,1 g;amia, 3.'lO, 31\1, 3l\h, 410, no, .wi &00,,1 bumen 01 dL""'" a"d, 385 gl00,,1 warmin~ and, 150, 298, 316 ground",a'"", ffJ, 71, 91. 95, '17,102, liJl, 1h9, 172, 173. 255, V7, 279, lIlO, 282, m-2!lR. 299--.W. 311-3B, 315-317, 3·19, 3'15-363, 377. 3.'lfl-3.'l4, 3Il7, 391, 120, 421, 428. 429, U4, olS2, 4Jl7, 4911, 500, 503-5Il5, 5(lj. 511, '57, ">05 ham"",,-' of, '1-;2. 93, 131, 313, .\IIL.uxJ-.103, 412, 42(, lLnusclLold U"', 31~ ;mpr""""',37!l ind ..atoenTgolni,m,,1Il5 indu,tr,,1 U'", 310, 312 jaT l",,'ing ~nd, 39-l~395 le.",ha'e, '\51, 5'13-554. 56fl-56I, 565 loado"'h;p;n ""","&v and L'm;mnmcnlal d""ign ILEED) and, 251-253, 319 hfecw",'tageol,19 lunc--><>da s"Ueninl\ p"""""', 0100-403 maximum amlaminant gnal",,,ci, (MCLe,l, 3Il7-3il8 "",-ximum mnlam;nan' I",'cis (?l.lCL,t If;2. 178. 282, 21\5, 3.'l7-'11\9 microb,al "m, btuen!.'. 316-.l87 mroelin~ ,*'jcclh..,. for ,,"aler demand, 319 moochng f'T""""-' to ""tima'" dL",,",nd, 310 munic'p,,1 ",ater demand, 317-331 naMnal poI1ulani d''''''''CSe dimina';"n s}"lern (r-nnc.:lrbona'e hardn""" and, 4llJ--.403 nulriL"'''' ""n,,,"al fand recoH'ryl. 47;J--l8f1 mull"", Tate. W7--108, 155. 11.6 pa1.ltabiblv,377 particle> in, 3N-lIlI, 0104-110 p.>lh<>g""s i~, 21.6, 355, 357, 31\5-."""', .lAA, J'll, 410 p"al.ing facloT (PFl, 324 permeable paL""",nl and, 159, ~, 305, 505, 508--509, 5U,'U pHnl,83,_ pore ",a'cr, 99, 283, 2!l6-2!lR potablhly, 315, 132. 337. 1Il5 powdCTL'Cl acth·.:llcd caronn, 394 431-133 prcllminary,4-lll-453 primarY, 4-15--147, 61--155 ....-noda ry, 4-15--147, 451>-471 sludge, 472, .J82--189 rocl.'ITL.100n of ",aler (and fl."''''). 312, 31.$---31(" 377, 4-15--147. ~74, .J82, ~94. ~'lfI-501 """Iution 01 conflict, 31&-317

,,·at.....

""at,,,

\II~to,

(Conti"""n

«"J.:un" ,i~n) «'Use ~uido1iI\L'"49'1 mol "",an "1u,re (RMS) ,'oh:ilv ~r>d;"nl and 3% ",Iollilo ,,-.:I'm.:I"O<1, 315,.tIl2 ",a,dly, 20, 247. 31~, 31&-317, 377, 41'-1 'm.:IlI "",...'""-"",,n', 5ll-ffi "01ll1",,>k,. 323. .w2.. ~H, tal coljfurm,. 3IlS- 3M In" lInen' nf ",m 'owa 'e, (~nd ,,-"'OUr,,, n'CLlL 'erv),

Wet1.:lnd" 159, I ~;. :!OR. 237, 299. 3G2, ¥J5, .>N-35·t

"'" '" (s.-" \II~I,...,

""J-~ ~Iioon • .JJlO-.482 .ltt.>ch,>;] grnw'h pror,,,,,,,, 472 mem br .ne biore;xl~rs,.\1\9-471

nalural trmlmen!.,}"'"n".4;\9--<1% lurb>d,lv, 175, 113,337, 352•.'77, 379-3IlO. 392.. 395, 410,

'W

unmetered fin",. 32&-327 ,'anatlOn in flo",,,, 321. 323 ",~,h ""', 46-1, 46R ",a,'e """,,1,>;]
Index

,~%

"""lructOO.I85.494-4% In., ",ale, ,,,,f,,,,, (FI\'SI ",-elI,nd. ~9t-4% iml"'cl nn nitrngen lrodm&- .132 n"I~,.hO<1, 352 subs",fa.e 110w wL'Ll.:Jnd ISSFl 'YP"", 3;2 Wet w"",he, n"w',500-505 We< well. 323, lJ<>.-337 Wild"""--..... 2, 229, 237. 31 ~ \\"Ildlife mrrid...-, .15-1 Wind d,n'Ctilln, 6-.'Ij" 1>13, M9 W,ndroW (--+J7, f>l(), 1>15, (,.17 \\" in I,']' ,trat ifio:,tionn. 3-I"-.J.l(, World H",I,h O>:gani7.alinn, 2M, 37!1-3110, 31B, 387. 590,59t_595 Wnrld Summit on Su<;i"in.-.blo DL.....,k.rmenl, 7, ~

y Y;"k! ,,,effidL,,,, (in blologyl, 1%-201. 461 Y;,,1d meffocicnl (in ",~I,..... hod runoff). 301>

Z lirn--v I03-H14. 121 Zem--o.-d kmeli"" 1111-[(14, lOt., 195 Zeri,-o,,:k'f re.>
,

Periodic tlIb.. 01 1"- ,"menl.

"

• .. " n " " .. ,. " no "' .. "'-Ii" ........ C, Ho ..... Tl "''' Pb __ Bi """ Po At ," . L... HI .T!.. W Re 0.', JI. PI Au ""to ." Rn "'"

.

,.~

M

-" ...

,,,_

..

R~

,....

.. I ....

A~ ~

"'" '" '" ,,,,,

_

, ....

,'" •

.,.

. """

,....

_

' ..........

'"

Unp lJnIi Un.

""',

.. ._. - 1c.1 Pt I N'dI p;"'1S';,..I ~IGdl ib10V 1~I it IT~IY"'bl L~ I I ;"'~.I":..J ... t.1 ,..: I ;~ 1,~::'I ..,:':'J,...I ;..;.., I~I ':"':"I-.:lol ",';'1,1.:"1

. _._-_- ..........

. .,.. "'- MI .. __.... __.'.__ .-::._-• Cm

,_.-:

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c,• ."

...

Environmental Engineering 2 e

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