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sta nueva edición de LA FILOSOFIA ACTUAL — publicada public ada esa esa esta colecciona en 1969 y reimpresa seis veces a So Sargo Sargo de doc e años— es la versión corregida y ampliada de un texto introductorio que combina a la perfección la dimensión instrumental con la investigación creadora. JOSE FERRÁTER MORA no sólo ha puesto a¡ día la descripción de Sas diferentes corrientes, orientaciones y escuelas en el capítulo dedicado a «Las tendencias filosóficas» simo que, además, ha dado cabida al examen de ios principales problemas en discusión. También han sido ampliadas las consideraciones en torno a la llamada «discordia filosófica» para señalar las etapas por las que ha pasado ese conflicto y el estado de la cuestión en el presente. En el resto de la obra han sido alterados o desarrollados buen número de párrafos, con los pertinentes cambios en Sas notas al pie correspondientes. Además de los cuatro volúmenes del «Diccionario de Filosofía», Alianza Editorial ha publicado las siguientes obras de José , Ferraier Mo ra; «Indagaciones sobre eí lenguaje» lenguaje» (LB 228), «Cambio de marcha en filosofía» (LB 497). «Cuatro visiones de la historia universal) la materia a la razón» (AU 225), «Etica (ÁU 30(1) y la novela «Claudia, mi Ciau*
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El libro de bolsillo
O cr o* C
a£2 2. oT O
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Sección: Humanidades
José Ferrater Mora La filosofía actual
Otras obras de José Ferrater Mora en Alianza Editorial LB 228 , LB
497
' LB 889
Indagaci ones sob re el lenguaje Cambio de marcha en Filosofía Cuatro visiones de la Historia Universal
AU 225
De la materia a la razón
AU 300
Etica aplicada aplicada
A /D
Dicci onari o de Filos ofía, 4 tomos
A3 95
Claudia, mi Claudia
^euiaai*^ b ib l io t e c a
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Primera edici ón en "El Libr o de Bol sil lo": 1969 1969 Segunda edic ión en "El Libro de Bolsil lo": 1970 Tercera edición en "El "El Libro de Bols illo ": 1973 1973 Octava reimpresión en "El Libro de Bolsil lo": 1995 1995
„ i. a, ';s¡ A la memoria
de Arta t Ví ct or Pradera
,í
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’ivi v
Reservados todos los derechos. De conformidad con lo dispuesto en el art. art. 534-bis del Cód igo Penal Penal vigente, podrán ser castigados con penas de multa y privación de libertad quienes reprodujeren o plagiaren, en todo o en parte, una obra literaria, artística o científica fijada en cualquier tipo de soporte sin la preceptiva autorización.
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Prólogo a la cuarta edición
Esta nueva edición difiere.de las anteriores en los si guientes respectos: 1. Se ha pues to al al día la desc ripc ión de tendencias, corrientes, orientaciones y escuelas filosóficas que figura en el capítulo 2 — con mucho , y comprens iblemente, el más más largo del libro — . Con el fin de dar una una idea idea más acabada de la situación filosófica actual se han tenido en cuenta no sólo tendencias y, en general, «ismos»,
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r
Primera parte: La situación actual
.
■ .
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Capítulo 1 La discordia filosófica
La filosofía, ¿qué es eso? No es la primera vez que se formula esta esta pregunta pregunta — ni será será probablem ente la úl tima— tima— . No es tampoco la primera, ni será será la última, vez que, cuando se formula, se quede uno perplejo, sin saber qué contestar. Como vivimos en una época en la que tantas cosas que antes parecían relativamente seguras se han hecho inciertas, la perplejidad aludida no parece afectar sola
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14
José Ferrater Mora
Desde 1900 aproximadamente, la física ha vivido en lo que se llama «un período de crisis». Numerosas teorías han sido barridas en poco tiempo; principios que, como el de la conservación de la paridad en las interacciones débiles, parecían inmunes a todo cambio, han sido arras trados como por una especie de hecatombe general. «Cuando, joven aún, estudiaba en la Universidad de Cambridge — escribió Wh itehead hace ya ya casi casi medio si glo— , brillantes brillantes maestros me enseñaron enseñaron ciencia y mate máticas, e hice buenos progresos en ellas. Desde comien zos de este siglo he vivido lo bastante para ver que todos y cada uno de los supuestos básicos de la ciencia y de las matemáticas han sido puestos en cuarentena. No des cartados, pero sí usados a modo de cláusulas condicio
La f i l o s o f í a actual
15
lar— lar— , de modo que puede hablarse hablarse en la ciencia, ciencia, y no digamos en la tecnología, de una «época de cambio ace lerado». El vértigo causado por la rápida sucesión de teorías científicas, no sería aún razón suficiente para engendrar perplejidades del tipo de las que se originan en la filo sofía. Las perplejidades surgen no por la abundancia, sino por la naturaleza de ciertas teorías. El éxito de la mecá nica cuántica es indudable: lo que Mario Bunge ha lla mado su «inconsistencia semántica» no parece serlo me nos 3. El físic o pue de refugiarse en una determinada in terpretación — com o la de la la llamada llamada «Escuela de Co penhague»— al tiempo tiempo que puede puede reconocer que todo este asunto tiene un aire «extravagante», «misterioso» o
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16
José Ferrater Mora
irados — adem además ás de ser ser a menudo «mi steriosos », « lo cos » o «extravagantes»— que parece parece que nos las las habe rnos con actividades, y productos de estas actividades, muy distintos entre sí y que no se sabe aún bien por qué se juntan bajo una rúbrica común. Es usual que unos filósofos consideren a otros como enemigos en po tencia, cuya ocupación principal no es tanto apuntalar sus propias ideas como desbaratar las ajenas. No basta, al parecer, decir: «E so es absur do», « eso carece de sen sen tido», «eso es un círculo vicioso», etc., hay que procla mar: « L o que está está usted haciendo no es es filoso fía », con lo cual se da por terminada toda discusión. Desavenencias entre filósofos las ha habido siempre, pero no en proporción tan extrema. El aforismo de Epi-
Capítulo 2 Las tendencias filosóficas
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18
José Ferrater Mora
bajo ninguno. Cuando se trata de ciertas personalidades filosóficas complejas, además, la distribución de la filo sofía en «ismos» puede suscitar malos entendidos. ¿Qué diremos de Sartre? Sartre? ¿Q ue fue un existencialista, existencialista, un marmarxista, un neo-marxo-existencialista? ¿Q ué de Heide gger? ¿Que fue un «onto-diferencista»? De Wittgenstein pue de decirse que al principio, y aun ello con grandes re servas, fue algo así como un «atomista lógico», y que pa reció a veces inclinarse hacia una especie de positivismo terapéutico, pero ni esto ni el rótulo «filosofía del len guaje corriente» hace justicia a su pensamiento. Lo mis mo ocurre con Popper si lo llamamos «neo-racionalista» o «racionalista crítico», con Gadamer si lo etiquetamos como «hermeneutista», con Foucault si lo calificamos de
La filosofía actual
19
He tomado en serio las objeciones contra la clasifica ción de corrientes filosóficas terminadas o terminables, en «ismo», porque quiero curarme en salud: una vez puesto en claro que el procedimiento tiene muchos in convenientes, hay que hacerse a la idea de que no hay ningún otro que pueda sustituirlo con ventaja 9.* Desde luego, la expresión «terminados en ismo» no debe ser tomada siempre literalmente, porque hay orientaciones — com o la fenom enología , la filosof ía analítica, analítica, la her menéutica, la neoescolástica— neoescolástica— que no terminan en en «is mo», y que, de todos modos, desempeñan análogas fun ciones. Puesto que nos atendremos a orientaciones bastante generales, tendremos que limitarnos a aludir a trabajos
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20
José Ferrater Mora
del lenguaje y con la titulada «ética aplicada». Para el propósito que nos mueve, sin embargo, el tipo de pre sentación propuesta es suficiente. Advertiremos sólo que nos atendremos a los rasgos más básicos de cada ten dencia, sin pretender explorar en cada caso sus múltiples y complejas ramificaciones. 1.
El idealismo
Según I. M. Bochenski, el idealismo «debe ser consi derado como el más enquencle de los movimientos de la filosofía contemporánea», al punto que «parece ser cosa del pas ado» 10. El idealism o carece del v igo r que desplegó en Italia, con Croce y Gentile, en Francia, con
La filosofía actual
21
gunas de las formas del titulado «holismo pragmático», pero en la medida en que se pone de relieve la «auto nomía» de los esquemas conceptuales respecto a las su puestas «realidades» que tales esquemas tienen por mi sión designar, describir, explicar, etc., cabe sospechar cierta simpatía por alguna forma, siquiera muy sobria, de idealismo epistemológico. Otra es que, tras el repudio del kantismo por algunos de los adalides del positivismo lógico, se han replantea do, inclusive dentro del marco del pensamiento analítico, «pro blem as kanti anos » 11. Estos no son necesar iamente «problemas idealistas», pero ya no cabe entonces con siderar el idealismo, en cuanto posición epistemológica, como una filosofía totalmente condenable. Con este re
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22
José Ferrater Mora
pero que se encuentra sobre todo en autores como Hans Freyer ló, ló, N icol ai Hartman n 1 67 y, en parte, Ernst Cassirer 18. La segunda fue con la interpreta ción «em piri sta » de Heg el, p or J. N. F indlay 19, con los trabajos de inter pretación histórica de Karl L owith 20 y con los estudios estudios de A. T ay lo r21 r21, entre entre otros. El Hegel tratado tratado en estos casos no ha sido siempre necesariamente el Hegel idea lista tradicional, pero no es posible evitar discutir pro blemas filosóficos que sólo dentro de la tradición idealis ta adquieren pleno sentido. Más específicamente se han adherido a la tradición idealista Brand Blanshard, especialmente con su obra sobre « la naturalez naturaleza a del pensamien to» 22 y R. G . C olling wood. Este autor protestó de que se le calificara de idea
La filosofía actual
23
car a todos los filósofos que es común declarar idealis tas sin incluir otros que todo el mundo está de acuerdo en que no lo son» 26 26. No todos los idealistas darían su anuencia a la descripción de G. E. Moore: «Si el idea lismo moderno llega a alguna conclusión acerca del uni verso, es que es e sp ir it u a l» 27 27. Pero todos coincidirían en que «ser real» es «ser dado a la conciencia» o «ser con tenido de conciencia». En todo caso, aunque se supon ga que la realidad existe independientemente de la con ciencia, se mantiene que no se puede decir nada con sen tido sin partir de la última. Dentro de esta concepción caben diversas posiciones. Según Croce, «debemos afe rramos a la verdad de que el pensamiento, si es real mente pensamiento, es siempre pensamiento del espíritu
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24
2.
José Ferrater Mora
El pers onali smo
La filosofía actual
25
sonalidad es idéntica a la espiritualidad; otros, que la
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26
J os os é F er er ra ra te te r M or or a
dos por Kant (Alois Riehl, August Messer, Johannes
La f il il os os of of ía ía ac ac ttu u al al
27
Roy W oo d Sellars, Sellars, no pudiera suscitarse suscitarse ninguna conf u
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28
José Ferrater Mora
en filosofía de la ciencia, a toda forma de instrumentalismo y fenom enism y, ni que decir tiene, a la
La filosofía actual
29
medición de lo observado» con «el observador es una integrant de la realidad obser vada
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30
José Ferrater Mora
que alegan basar su extranaturalismo (si no su sobreña- I
La filosofía actual
31
la metafísica trascendentales, supernaturales e incientífi
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32
José Ferrater Mora
subsistema de algún sistema de individuos biológicos que
La filosofía actual
33
de sus posibilidades, propia de quien no tiene una na turaleza, sólo hay una línea fija, preestablecida y dada,
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64
José Ferrater Mora
Sin embargo, no pueden desdeñarse los elementos que siguen quedando del existencialismo — o, en general, general, de de la «filos ofía existencial»— en varia variass tendencias tendencias o au tores. Se han llevado a cabo esfuerzos para desarrollar un «existencialismo esencialista»; ejemplos de ellos se rastrean en algunas de las obras de Louis Lavelle y de Georg Ge org es G us do rf 1012 0 .1 En el apartado anterior nos hemos referido ya a la fenomenología existencial y al existen cialismo fenomenológico, donde puede preguntarse si lo que predomina es el elemento fenomenológico o el existencial. Se ha hecho notar que algunos autores del tipo de marxismo al que luego nos referiremos bajo el rótulo «marxismo no ortodoxo» (o «marxismo vivo»), han ex presado gran interés por ciertas nociones como el «cui dado» o la «angustia»; así, por ejemplo, Kosík al tratar estas nociones como «momentos existenciales» de la «pra xis» m . El interés por relacionar ciertos conceptos del pensamiento existencial con nociones hegelianas puede rastrearse en varios autores. Puede mencionarse asimis mo el desarrollo de un «psicoanálisis existencial» que, a diferencia del así también llamado por Sartre, consiste en una práctica médica fundada en gran parte en nocio nes sacadas de la filosofía existencial, y en particular de Heidegge Heideggerr — o del «primer Heidegger»— , etc etc.. Cabe decir del existencialismo algo similar a lo que se apuntó respecto a la fenomenología : que, por un lado, se se ha diversificado en una gran multitud de tendencias en las que la inspiración original casi se ha perdido, y que,
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les» son básicos. De ahí que el existencialismo o, en pluralidad, el análisis existencial, hayan influido sobre todo en dos campos: el teológico y el psicoanalítico, o psicoterapéutico. Lo primero se manifiesta, entre otros, en Rudolf Bultmann, o por lo menos en la parte de su obra que incluye una «comprensión existenciaria» de la vida humana. Lo segundo se expresa, entre otros, en Ludwig Binswanger, cuyo «análisis existencial psiquiátri co» difiere, sin embargo, del «psicoanálisis existencial» de Sartre Sa rtre antes alud al udid ido o 103. Se ha distinguido a veces entre existencialismo y la lla mada «filosofía de la existencia», tal como ha sido cul tivada por Karl Jaspers, pero como las afinidades entre estas dos corrientes son mayores que las diferencias en tre cualesquiera de ellas y otras orientaciones filosóficas contemporáneas, es aceptable, en un tipo de panorama como el aquí presentado, aludir a dicha «filosofía de la existencia» dentro del cuadro del existencialismo en ge neral.
11. El estruct uralism o Como otrora el existencialismo, el estructuralismo ha sido por un tiempo una «moda filosófica»; es como si, habiéndose esfumado el primero, se necesitara al segun do para reanimar las conversaciones. A semejanza tam bién del existencialismo, las nociones capitales del estruc
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José Ferrater Mora
losófico, porque el estructuralismo no se presenta, estric tamente hablando, como una filosofía, si bien termine por presentarse como una concepción a su manera «totaliza dora». Sartre ha sido, para ellos, «el último filósofo» o «el último metafísico». Para complicar las cosas, es difí cil proporcionar siquiera una «lista» de estructuralistas, porque gran parte de los autores que suelen ser filiados dentro de esta orientación se niegan a reconocerla como dominante en su pensamiento — de un un mod o análogo a como casi todos los autores frecuentemente afiliados como existencialist existencialistas as negaron q ue lo fuesen— . Es Es corriente corriente citar como importantes autores estructuralistas a los si guientes: Claude Lévi-Strauss, Jacques Lacan, Roland Barthes, Louis Althusser y Michel Foucault. Pero algunos de ellos no son sólo estructuralistas; otros han desarro llado su pensamiento dentro del clima del llamado, por falta de un nombre mejor, «postestructuralismo»; y otros han mostrado escaso interés por concepciones, y no diga mos «ideologías», filosóficas. Trataremos de eliminar, o suavizar, estas dificultades de dos modos: por una parte, refiriéndonos a varios as pectos de la noción de estructura; por otra parte, desta cando los elementos estructuralistas que pueden rastrear se inclusive en autores cuyo pensamiento no se agota en esta tendencia. La idea de estructura como conjunto de sistemas que funcionan de acuerdo con ciertas reglas se encuentra en j . muy diversos tipos de investigaciones. Entre ellas figu
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güística estructural de Bloomsfield, escuela fonológica de Praga) se habla explícitamente de estructuralismo, pero suele reservarse este nombre para orientaciones que, aunque no siempre específicamente filosóficas, han sido discutidas apelando a supuestos o a consecuencias que se han considerado interesantes para la filosofía. Esto ha sucedido en los cinco autores mencionados en el primer párrafo de esta sección. No todos ellos repre sentan sentan el «estruc turalis mo» de igual forma y, com o se ind icó, a lgunos se niegan a representarlo— . LéviStraus Strausss lo ha repres entado con plena co ncienc ia de ^su naturaleza y limitaciones. Por lo pronto, ha reconocido que sus trabajos de antropología fueron precedidos de otros (Malinowski, Boas, Rivers, etc.), si bien ninguno de ellos tuvo en cuenta que las comunidades humanas imponen inconscientemente las mismas formas a diver sos contenidos. Ha reconocido asimismo, y sobre todo, la importancia que ha tenido para el estructuralismo la revolución en la lingüistica llevada a cabo ante todo en la fonología (Trubetzkoy, Jakobson), a lo que^cabria agregar otros trabajos de lingüística estructural (Bloom field, Harris, etc.). El estudio del lenguaje, que, según Lévi-Strauss, es fundamental, al punto que «todo pro blema es problema de lenguaje» 104 y que «la verdadera cuesti ón es el le ng ua je »10 »103, es un paradigma de las in vestigaciones estructurales etnológicas y antropológicas. Sin embargo, la antropología cultural no es una mera
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José Ferrater Mora
gencias de or de n» , esto es, es, lógicas de clasificaciones sis sis temas de trans form acio nes, etc. 108. ’ d e^ énVe ? f^ USS/ ° desecha desecha por comPleto la impor importan tancia cia de un estudio diacromco e histórico. La investigación es tructural no es el estudio de un estado «presente» o c ró n £ ntan ntane0 e0>> >>'' P
rtchalT .Slncromca,men men te. e n 1estruc turas. Lévi-Strauss no no
rechaza tampoco la razón dialéctica, pero la considera com o una extensión extensión de la anal analític ítica. a. No es, es, p u T sorsorprénden te que haya sido cri ticad o por Sartre. Sartre. Si’ bien
el abu abuso3 dNtld° dNtld° ^ Le Le/ i'Strau i' Strauss ss ha «Protestado contra bx^ ° Vf1 concepto de estruct estructura ura en regiones donde su aplica apl ica ción ció n es azaro az arosa» sa» 109, ha indi cado ca do a la vez que el estructuralismo de Lévi-Strauss ha contribuido al «des crédi to actual de a histo ria» . Lévi-Strauss Lévi-Strauss no ha ha acema-
f
° Z ta/ nitl nitlC Ca’ 51 blen ha recono cido la fecundidad de de al al gunos de los análisis análisis de Sartre Sartre — el cual, por lo demás demás ha hec ho asimismo asimi smo uso de la razón analítica no. no. ’ evi Strauss había encontrado en Marx y en Freud las figuras del pasado dominantes en el estructura r á 0 / en buen buena a part parte e en en el el postes postestru tructu ctural ralism ismo— o— pre cedentes de la la investi gación estructural. Aunqu e — para para emplear la jerga estructuralista— estructuralista— dichos autores admi tie ron que el hombre tiene sentido sólo cuando se consivez 3ane 3ane mimiST mimiST °i C° C° m° <
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Freud, por Jacques Lacan, que ha desarrollado un psico análisis análisis estructural estruc tural U2, y en lo que respect r especta a a Mar x, p or Louis Althusser, en su intento de fundamentar estructu ralmente el pensamiento de Marx y mostrar que es una ciencia y no una ideología. Tanto Lacan como Althusser han insistido en la necesidad de una «lectura de Freud» y de una una «lectura de M arx » respectivamente — lecturas lecturas liberadas de las «excrecencias» introducidas por sus nu merosos intérpretes, o supuestos falsos intérpretes. Según Lacan, el inconsciente se halla estructurado al modo de un lenguaje. De hecho, el lenguaje produce el inconscien te — en verdad, verdad, el hombre mismo— mismo— . Como muchos otros otros autores estructuralistas, Lacan ha operado ampliamente con las nociones de «significante» y «significado» intro ducidas por Ferdinand de Saussure, pero, a diferencia de éste, ha destacado el predominio de los «significantes» sobre los «significados». Para Althusser, el conjunto es tructural, en el que se integra la historia, es el con dicionamiento de la realidad humana; más que combinar estructuralismo y marxismo, Althusser ha tratado de desarrollar desarr ollar los mo tiv os estructura e structurales les en Ma rx 113*. Como ocurre con los otros autores aquí mencionados, especialmente Lacan y Althusser, hay en Roland Barthes algo más que un desarrollo de temas estructuralis tas. Sin embargo, estos temas pueden reconocerse en varios puntos: la noción de «escritura» como sistema de elementos que se distinguen entre sí y a la vez se entre cruzan; la idea de que un texto es un conjunto de sig
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José Ferrater Mora
cía constante a sustraer lo significado de lo significante que lleva llev a ^a rechazar toda idea d e una supuesta base ultima e irreductible de hechos o de «interpretaciones verdaderas». Una interpretación lo es de otra interpreta ción, sin que haya un «fundamento» en el cual haya neces aria mente que apoyarse apoya rse 114, En este sentido, hay analogías entre el pensamiento de Barthes y el de F ou ca ul tI1 tI15. Este ha sido consider ado a veces como el máximo «defensor» y «popularizador» del estructuralismo, pero lo cierto es que en Foulcault hay tanto un estructuralismo como una cierta especie de «nihilismo». Este autor estima que su obra es un «discurso», pero un discurso sobre «discursos». Sin em bargo, bargo,^ ^ este discu rso s obre d iscurso s n o es una base epis temológica; es simplemente la forma o el «estilo» adop tados por el autor con el fin de abrirse su propio «es pacio» dentro del cual se forjan los «enunciados». Para limitarnos a un aspecto, por lo demás filosóficamente el mas influyente, del pensamiento de Foucault, menciona remos su desarrollo de una «arqueología de las ciencias humanas», que consiste en gran parte en averiguar «a partir de qué los conocimientos y teorías han sido posi bles»;^ no se trata, pues, de describir el progreso de los conocimientos «hacia una objetividad en la que podría reconocerse, por fin, la ciencia de hoy», sino de poner epi steme me en de manifiesto «el campo epistemológico, la episte la que los conocimientos, considerados fuera de todo cri terio concerniente a su valor racional o a sus formas
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perfección creciente, sino más bien la de sus condiciones de posibilidad» m . Las ciencias humanas no son históri cas, sino estructurales, porque el propio hombre es «es tructural». Dentro de las ciencias humanas destacan el psicoanálisis y la etnología, porque pueden abarcar el do minio entero de estas ciencias 11 6171 8 . El hombre «deja de ser el viejo y constante problema que se creyó que fue»: el hombre «es una invención cuya fecha reciente exhibe la arqueología de nuestro pensamiento. Y acaso su pró ximo f in» us. us. Con ello se proclama proclama no sólo « la muerte de la filosofía», sino también la de la historia y del hombre. Es comprensible que Sartre se opusiera a estas ideas. Aunq ue, según Sartre, hay estructuras y conv iene analizar analizar su mecanismo, la estructura «es sólo un momento de lo prác tico- iner te» 119. El homb re es « un p rod uct o de la es tructura, pero en tanto que la supera». Es cierto, sostuvo Sartre, que no hay «hombre», sino, como había indicado Marx, obreros, intelectuales, burgueses; no se trata, pues, de defender ningún «subjetivismo» y ningún «fácil historicismo». No se trata tampoco, sin embargo, de recha zar la filosofía, sino únicamente el pensamiento filosófico que se engolfa en lo puramente técnico o que se deja llevar por vagas ideas generales. «La filosofía representa al hombre totalizado con el fin de apoderarse de nuevo del sen tido de la tota lizac ión» 120. En tanto q ue dialéc tica, ninguna ninguna ciencia puede reemplaz la filosofía
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José Ferrater Mora
que, a su vez, hace el hombre de lo que se ha hecho de él».
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curso curso del pod er»— ; el tem tema a de la la «Tota lidad », el de la la diseminación, el nihilismo, etc. Nos confinaremos a al gunos puntos en los que se han dado cita varias de las orientaciones calificadas de «postestructuralistas». 12. El pos test ruct ural ism o Varias tendencias con fluy en hacia el examen de las fo r mas en que se constituyen los poderes — académicos La palabra «postestructuralismo» no designa ninguna tanto com o polític os— . En muchos casos, este examen examen tendencia filos ófic a determinada — ni siquiera una tan tan es una denuncia. En buena porción de las orientaciones escasamente escasamente bien definida como el estructuralismo— estructuralismo— . Ha postestructuralistas soplan vientos de rebeldía, pero no es sido usada, y nos atenemos a este ya bastante arraigado : la rebeldía rebeldía más más o menos menos «humanista» del ser ser humano humano uso, para referirse a un muy variado conjunto de orien contra las «estructuras», sino la rebeldía contra una idea taciones que han florecido en varios países europeos, pero excesivamente racionalista de éstas. Las estructuras son muy especialmente en Francia, tras la boga estructuralista. mantenidas, pero a la vez diversificadas. La diferencia Algunas de esas esas orient acione s han emer gido de los deba ción y la fragmentación de estructuras son la consecuen cia, en parte paradójica, de la insistencia en el predo tes entre estructuralistas y «humanistas» o «historicisminio de las mismas. No siendo las estructuras explica tas». Se ha hablado a este respecto de una tendencia situa bles por actividades humanas ni siendo tampoco conce da «más allá del estructuralismo» m . Otras representan bidas como representaciones de realidades, se disgregan inestables combinaciones de tendencias y temas en los que • en multiplicidades autojustificantes. autojustificantes. Los estilos de pensar pensar se mezclan motivos estructuralistas, marxistas (y también siguen por un un camino similar. similar. La La arbitrariedad, arbitrariedad, el sin sin antimarxistas), psicoanalíticos, heideggerianos, hermenéu- | siguen sentido, la paradoja no son ya «defectos» que hay que ticos, nietzscheanos, etc. Otras son simplemente «tenden j evitar a toda costa, sino los instrumentos «conceptuales» cias de la época» y se las hace encajar dentro del «post | a los que hay hay que recurri recurrirr con el fin de introduci introducirse rse por estructuralismo» simplemente porque este término desig ha dejad o. Uno de los na más bien una época que una «ideología» filosófica. i los muchos huecos que la razón ha La sucesión de tendencias postestructuralistas se hace i autores típicos del conjunto de orientaciones a que nos referi mos, Gilíe s Dele uze 124, insiste en la nece sidad de comprensible en estas palabras de Xavier Rubert de una cierta «perversión», y hasta de una cierta «locura» Ve nto s: «Du ran te muc ho tie m po ... fuim os marxistas.
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totalizar el conjunto de las actividades humanas y de las ideas bajo la forma de los sistemas, pero al hacerlo así engendra una esquizofrenia. Al regresar, por debajo de la razón esquizoide, a una razón prerracional, se eliminan las falsas dicotomías. La fragmentación es un paso para superar la escisión. Hay en el postestructuralismo una decidida tendencia «antifundacionalista». Esta se ha ido abriendo paso en el curso de la filosofía contemporánea, y no sólo en la her menéutica y en los últimos avatares de la fenomenología, sino también en la filosofía analítica. Así, partiendo de esta filo sof ía, Richar d Ror ty 125 ha tratado de descubrir en ella numerosas numerosas «bre chas ». Heide gger — especialmen especialmen te «el último Heidegger»— , Dewey , Derrida, Derrida, Davidson, Davidson, Feyerabend y otros pueden de este modo convertirse en
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que, según algunos, los hace los herederos inmediatos de las tendencias anarquizantes de fines de los años se senta, y según otros los convierte simplemente en una maniobra de las derechas. Tales «nuevos filósofos», sin embargo, embargo, no conside consideran ran que la filosofía y la política política sean sean separabl separables: es: « no hay ontología que no sea una política », según ha escrito Bernard Henri-Lévy. Este mismo autor se ha expresado en términos que sólo se entienden dentro de la atmósfera filosófica postestructuralista: postestructuralista: «Contr a los deleuzianos que, a su modo, estiman que el Poder es una emanación, un producto de los dominados, pero atribuyen esta emanación a un perverso goce de servir, he tratado de sugerir la idea de una hemorragia colec tiva tiva del tipo de la descrita por los analistas psicoana listas cuando dicen que produce, fuera del Yo, un Ideal
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José Ferrater Mora
Barthes. En Foucault se multiplican las «epistemes» y los j «discursos» a la vez que se denuncia la equiparación de la identidad con la diferencia. El pensamiento de Gilíes Deleuze se apoya en buena parte en la idea de una dise minación. En ética y en filosofía de la ciencia se ha tendido crecientemente al estudio de «casos». Etc., etc. El ambiente estaba preparado para la eclosión de una espe cie de «diferentismo». En la forma en que ha sido prohijado por Jacques Derrida 127 — asimismo, asimismo, un autor «pos testructuralis ta»— , el diferentismo no es sólo el el de de la «dife renc ia» — como cuand o se dice que A d ifier e de B— , sino también el de la «diferan cia» — com o cuando se afirm afirma a que A se halla alla «di fer ido » c on respecto a B— . Según Según Derrida, la trad tradii
La filosofía actual
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únicamente únicamente presencia presencia de lo idéntico a sí sí mismo — reali dad perfectamente estable y circunscribible— . Lo que hay, o lo que se dice que hay, depende de diferencias, que a su vez dependen de otras diferencias; las diferen cias se remiten unas a otras en un interminable juego de diferencias que constituye justamente «la diferencia». El examen de textos, literarios y filosóficos, fundado en la omnipresencia de la noción de presencia, o en el «logocentrismo», muestra que en ellos reside una contradic ción interna, completamente insoluble. La metafísica de la presencia se niega a sí misma. Pero siendo el único punto de vista que conocemos, y acaso el único posible, su crítica resulta asimismo internamente contradictoria. Para salir de ella hay que renunciar a desarrollar toda
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78
José Ferrater Mora
La filosofía actual
79
el «fuera» de la filosofía es análogo al de la relación entre manifestaron constante hostilidad hacia la metafísica es el «dentro» y el «fuera» de un texto literario. En este peculativa, y en particular hacia la metafísica del idealis sentido hay analogías, y hasta «confusiones», entre lite mo alemán. Todos defendieron el empirismo, tal como ratura y filosofía, pero no se trata de abandonar la se había sido cultivado por Hume y, a fines del pasado siglo gunda para consagrarse a la primera, porque hay entre y comienzos del actual, actual, por Ernst Mach — y la la «Unión ellas no sólo «diferencia», sino también, y sobre todo, machiana»— . Los positivistas lógico s se quejaron quejaron con «diferancia». De alguna manera, el diferentismo (y difefrecuencia de la poca atención que los empiristas «tra rantismo) y el «desconstruccionismo» aquí reseñados in dicionales» habían prestado a la lógica y a la matemática. nuce nuce son una expresión del «Todo vale» que Feyerabend Usaron a menudo las técnicas lógicas codificadas en los ha propuesto contra toda pretensión de una interpretación Principia Mathe matic a, a, de Whitehead y Russell, y perfec única de carácter «representativo» y «verdadero». cionadas por un ejército de lógicos y matemáticos. Algu nos positivistas, o neopositivistas, se consagraron también al trabajo lógico. Grande fue la influencia que sobre ellos 14. El pos itiv ism o lóg ico ejercieron las ideas, o mejor los gérmenes, contenidos
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80
José Ferrater Mora
tendrán que ser descartados como pseudoproposiciones. En cuanto a los enunciados lógicos y matemáticos, que no son verifica bles, no plantean problem a: tales tales enuncia enuncia dos son fórmulas analíticas, tautologías, cuya verdad — o, mejor dicho, validez, o acaso acaso aplicabilidad— aplicabilidad— depen depen de únicamente de su estructura formal. Además, la ma temática se reduce a la lógica, de modo que el conoci miento consiste en enunciados empíricamente verificables formulados en un lenguaje cuyas reglas sintácticas son fórmulas lógicas obtenibles por medio de reglas de in ferencia. Frente a todos los descarríos especulativos, podía es perarse que el positivismo lógico ofreciera a los filósofos contemporáneos los implementos intelectuales en que ha
La f i l o s o f í a actual
81
según la cual ninguna proposición tiene sentido a menos de ser en principio empíricamente verificable, no es ella misma empíricamente verificable y, por tanto, carece de sentido. Para usar el lenguaje del «primer Wittgenstein», si lo que puede mostrarse no puede decirse, resulta que hay algo que «se dic e» — el lenguaje lenguaje que se usa— usa— que no se puede decir. Pero si no puede verificarse el sen tido de las «proposiciones» filosóficas, es porque no se trata de proposiciones. A lo sumo, de recomendaciones o «reglas». La filosofía no «propone»; simplemente «acla ra». Como Wittgenstein escribió, la filosofía no es una doctrina; es una «actividad». Aun que los positivistas lógi cos lograr on hacerse con numerosos enemigos, no pudieron llegar a un acuerdo en
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82
José Ferrater Mora
ver estos y otros problemas se bosquejaron varias doctri nas (por ejemplo, el fisicalismo) o se establecieron ciertas distinciones (por ejemplo, la distinción entre criterio de significado y criterio de demarcación). El pragmatismo, el llamado «movimiento para la unidad de la ciencia»’ y otf&s^tendencias y programas introdujeron cambios en , las posiciones originarias del Círculo de Viena. Algunos subrayaron la necesidad de traducir lenguajes materiales a lenguajes formales, y desarrollaron la sintaxis lógica del lenguaje. Otros dilucidaron la naturaleza y formas de los llamados «enunciados protocolarios», «enunciados de ob servación» o «enunciados básicos», y en particular la relación entre entre estos enunciados enunciados — o íos términos perti nentes^ nentes^ llamados «térmi nos ob servacion ales»— y los los
La filosofía actual
83
bert 130 hasta Imr I mre e Laka tos 131 y Paul Pau l K. Feyera Fey eraben ben d 132— , en buena parte a base de la investigación sobre la estruc tura tura de las las rev oluc iones ion es científi ci entífi cas p or Thoma Th oma s S. Kuhn 133 y de los estudios específicos de «casos» en la historia de la ciencia, ha sido considerada como la teoría «no ortodo xa» o «hetero doxa » — se entiende, entiende, respecto respecto a la supuestamente unificada teoría de la ciencia de los positi vistas vistas lógicos— .Por lo tanto, no pertenece al positivism o lógico, sino más bien a una forma de «antipositivismo». Sin embargo, no es enteramente impropio aludir a ella dentro de la sección presente, porque los debates filosó ficos que esta sección abarca constituyen su contexto histórico o, cuando menos, uno de sus puntos de parti da. El que Popper haya asestado, como el propio autor declara a menudo, el golpe de gracia al positivismo lógi
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84
José Ferrater Mora
tíf ico »— que a la de la fenomenolo gía, el marxismo, el el existencialismo, el estructuralismo, etc. Sólo cuando se
La filosofía actual
85
a los positivistas lógicos hay los atomistas lógicos, los russellianos, los moorianos, los wittgensteinianos, los
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86
J os os é F er er ra ra te te r Mor a
es muy probable que acabe por ser violenta y destruc tiva te e uls ada » 136
La f iill o so so f ía ía a ct ct ua ua l
87
han cla sif ica do a menud men udo o esas variedades varieda des 137: el análisis puede ser de símbolos, de significaciones, de conceptos;
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88
José Ferrater Mora
Quine). Los principales representantes del Tipo 2 son «los filósofos del lenguaje corriente» (Moore, el «último
La filosofía actual
89
que, estrictamente hablando, dista de ser cierto), los últi
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90
José Ferrater Mora
hablar de una una metafísica «revisio naria» — cual la la mayo mayorr
La filosofía actual
91
citado, según se aporto antes, la clásica contraposición en
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92
José Ferrater Mora
quiera operaciones filosóficas. El ejemplo de tal disci plina que viene primero a la memoria es la fenomeno
La filo sof ía actual
^
Carnap ha escrito que las cuestiones despisladeramente lla da tolo gic cuestiones tal ¿E xi
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124
José Ferrater Mora
otro pensamiento — ha escrito el el aludido autor— autor— la filo filo sofía «pien sa el pensa miento que dice pens ar» 181. Es cu rioso que, partiendo del reconocimiento de una situación similar a la que hemos descrito, alguien pueda amasar fórmulas que están a mil leguas de lo que tratamos de entender aquí por «filosofía como actividad». Ello de muestra que en filosofía sucede algo parecido a lo que, según Einstein, ocurre en física: que lo important e es es lo que se hace, y el modo de hacerlo, y no lo que se dice que se hace, o que se debería hacer. Esperamos que para que se nos comprenda a derechas se preste atención a lo que hacemos y también al modo como lo hacemos. Sería lamentable que en un punto tan delicado se tomara el rábano por las hojas.
Segunda parte: Las tres filosofías
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Capítulo 5 Los tres «imperios filosóficos»
Imaginémonos viviendo y profesando en Europa en los albores del siglo x i i i ; supongámonos deambulando, a la usanza de los maestros de la época, de un convento a otro, de una universidad a la otra. Nos hemos topado con muchos maestros, hemos asistido a muchas leccio nes magistrales, hemos aguzado nuestra dialéctica en nu merosas disputas. Nos hemos dado cuenta de que las opiniones abundan, los argumentos proliferan, los pro blemas aumentan. Como aspiramos a desbrozar la selva
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128
José Ferrater Mora
la doctrina de los universales, la diferencia entre esencia y existencia, etc. Rematada nuestra tarea, barruntamos que nuestros esfuerzos fueron penas de amor perdidas. Nos percatamos de que habíamos injustamente preterido cierto número de tendencias filosóficas, y que nuestro panorama resultaba provinciano. De hecho, nos había mos ocupado de filosofías que divergían entre sí consi derablemente, pero que poseían la característica común de ser «cristianas». Ahora bien, tras ellas acechaban ciertas opiniones filosóficas que no podían ser calificadas de aquel modo. ¿Era legítimo ignorar a Isaac Israeli o a Maimónides simplemente porque nos habíamos afana do en describir las opiniones de San Bernardo, de Hugo de San San Víctor o de Pedro Lo mbardo? ¿Era justo pres pres cindir de Abentofail o de Averroes sólo porque habíamos dedicado capítulos enteros a la interpretación de Abelar do, de David de Dinant o de Juan de Salisbury? Los propios historiadores actuales de la filosofía medieval se hallan un tanto confundidos por la coexistencia de las filosofías cristianas con las no cristianas durante aquel período; en vista de ello, deciden por lo común agrupar las últimas en uno o dos capítulos cuya misión consiste en recordar al lector que había a la sazón algunas filo sofías que no encajaban dentro de los marcos cris tianos. Sin embargo,.esa mayor complejidad de la filosofía medieval puede resultar a la postre más provechosa que
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129
del siglo x ii i, p ero só lo tres filosofías subsistían: subsistían: la cris cris tiana, la judía y la musulmana. Las diferencias entre estas «filosofías» no impide «jun tarlas». Cada una de ellas forjaba métodos, desarrollaba ideas y elaboraba conceptos en numerosos aspectos simi lares a los de las demás; aunque dos de ellas, la cristia na y la musulmana, estaban concentradas en áreas geo gráficas bien definidas, parecían irse acercando, y hasta en algunas zonas, como España o la Italia meridional, marchar marchar cod o a cod o. Pe ro en general general aparecí aparecían an — o, lo que aquí viene a ser lo mismo , creían aparecer— aparecer— com o independientes e irreconciliables: pensar como cristiano, como judío o como musulmán eran tres distintos modos de entender a Dios, al mundo, al individuo humano. Los cristianos vivían acosados por el problema de la personalidad personalidad — la de Dios y la la del hombre— ; los judíos, por los embrollos del Pacto; los musulmanes, por la cuestión del hado. No es sorprendente que cada uno de ellos usara las mismas palabras con el fin de hablar distintos y aun opuestos lenguajes. Solamente en el cur so de las cinco o seis décadas que siguieron al año de gracia de 1200, cambiaron las condiciones hasta el punto de resultar factible edificar un sistema que tuviese en cuenta algunos de los rasgos de las tres filosofías esti madas hasta entonces irreconciliables. Precedido por cier to número de esfuerzos parciales, la edificación de tal sistema fue la hazaña intelectual de Santo Tomás de Aq uin Este temi ó afront los probl suscitados
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130
José Ferrater Mora Mora
planteaban, filosóficamente hablando, problemas muy si milares. Descontado todo lo descontable, que es mucho, la si tuación en torno al año 1200 ofrece ciertos rasgos simi lares a la nuestra. También ahora nos encontramos con tres grandes movimientos filosóficos, cada uno de los cuales sigue su propia marcha, a veces codeándose con los otros, a veces ignorándolos por completo. También ahora se observan, junto a implacables cerrazones, in tentos de conciliación. Nuestra descripción de cada uno de los grandes movi mientos filosóficos que va pronto a ocuparnos tiene dos características. En primer lugar, se han cargado un poco las tintas por razones pedagógicas. En segundo lugar, se ha atendido en principio a la situación filosófica tal como se presentaba hace tres décadas. Esta situación no se ha desvanecido por completo; además, lo que está pasando en estos momentos en filosofía es función de lo que pa só. Sin embargo, muchas cosas parecen empezar a andar por otros caminos, por lo que al final trataremos de ver cuáles son éstos. Comencemos por la simplificación y, además, retro traigamos la situación un poco. Si se pide a un filósofo de París, Roma o Bonn que nos presente un cuadro de la filosofía contemporánea, las tendencias que con toda seguridad emergerán a un primer plano serán la feno menología, el personalismo, el existencialismo y, en época más reciente, el estructuralismo, la hermenéutica y el desconstruccion ismo. Los nombres más más frecuencia
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131
corrientes antes indicadas. Si pedimos a un filósofo de Oxford, Londres o Nueva York que presente su cuadro, nos abrumará con información procedente del análisis filosófico en diversas versiones. Los nombres de Moore, Russel Russell, l, Ryle, Ryle, Quine, A u s ti n , Straws Strawson, on, Davidson, Davidson, Dummett, etc. (y los de varios autores «continenta les»: Frege, Carnap, Popper, Wittgenstein) ocuparán un lugar prominente en su panorama. Si pedimos a un fi lósofo soviético que lleve a cabo una tarea similar, se abstendrá de referirse a los filósofos citados, o los denunciará como idealistas o pequeños-burgueses. Pa rece, pues, como si el planeta estuviese o, en paridad, hubiese estado escindido en tres colosales imperios filo sóficos, representados respectivamente por los «eu ropeos», los «angloamericanos» y los «rusos». Escribi mos estos nombres entre comillas, porque nos damos cuenta de cuán insatisfactorios son. No todos los «eu ropeos» son europeos; algunos son hispano-americanos, y hasta otros pueden ser ingleses o norteamericanos. No todos los «angloamericanos» son angloamericanos; algu nos son australianos, suecos, daneses, y hasta alemanes, austríacos o checos. No todos los «rusos» son rusos, algunos son polacos o alemanes. Sin embargo, seguimos usando estos nombres porque los principales promotores de los tipos de tendencias filosóficas aludidas se encuen tran — o se han encontrado hasta hasta hace hace poc o— princi palmente en Europa, en Inglaterra y Estados Unidos, y en la Unión Soviética.
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132
José Ferrater Mora
en numerosos casos. Muchos filósofos que agruparemos bajo el grupo de «los científicos» son muy formalistas, es decir, atienden a ciencias formales como la lógica o la matemática, pero poco, o nada, a ciencias naturales, como la física física y la la biología. Otros muchos filósofos — los los presentados como «lingüistas» en cuanto cultivadores del «lenguaje co rrien te»— no se interesan interesan ni ni por ciencia cienciass formales, ni por ciencias naturales, ni por ciencias so ciales, de modo que decir de ellos que son «científicos» es un verdadero abuso. abuso. Por otro lado, los filósofos «científicos» (merezcan o no propiamente este nombre) y los «humanistas» no se desinteresan siempre de las «cuestiones sociales», al tiempo que los calificados de «sociales» aspiran a veces a ser humanistas y en nume rosos casos científicos. Sin embargo, seguiremos usando los indicados rótulos, porque lo que caracteriza las «fi losofías» respectivas no es tanto un conjunto de doc trinas más o menos bien definidas como un «talante fi losófico» que se expresa en ciertas maneras de decir, en ciertos tipos de argumentos y en cierta selección de problemas, hechos y datos. Al fin y al cabo, los filósofos encarnizadamente «anti-humanistas» siguen ocupándose de «cuestiones humanas»; en sus escritos abundan las referencias a situaciones históricas, políticas y psicológi cas y escasean, caso de que las haya, las referencias a fenómenos naturales o a las ciencias naturales.
Capítulo 6 Los «rusos»
Aun que los fil ós ofo s rusos o, más exactam ente, sovié ticos son, cuando menos oficialmente, marxistas, no es just o identif icar la filo sof ía rusa, o soviét ica, con la marmarxista. Es posible que haya algunos filósofos rusos, o soviéticos, que no sean marxistas, y es seguro que hay muchos filósofos marxistas que no son rusos, o soviéti cos. Desde el punto de vista «ideológico», los tres im perios de que hablamos son los siguientes: el analítico,
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134 134
José Ferrater Mora
La piedra angular del pensamiento filosófico ruso es el marxismo en la forma del «marxismo-leninismo», por el momento más o menos «desestalinizado». Aunque la fachada JHe esta esta doct rina luzca pulida , y hasta «m on olí tica», tan pronto como penetramos en el interior descu brimos una mezcla-'dé mezcla-'dé esfilos — de supuestos supuestos filosófi cos. He aquí algunos:* fel materialismo «me taf ísic o» («todo se reduce a materia»:); el realismo epistemológico ingenuo, si se compara cuando menos con los otros «realismos» similares (el Conocimiento es como una re producción fotográfica de la realidad, aunque...); el evo lucionismo simplificado (de la nebulosa al hombre); la dialéctica hegelianá' (ddhde los «con trar ios» se convier ten a menudo efy«cqntradictorios», aunque también...); ciertas*vagas formas dé hilbzóísmo (todo, inclusive la
La filosofía actual
135
el lenguaje filosófico de los soviéticos una serie de expre siones que no parecen ser muy filosóficas. Vocablos im pregnados de significación política o, si se quiere, «polí tico-religiosa», tales como «desviación», «retractación» y similares, siguen reinando en artículos, libros y ponen cias de los filósofos rusos. A veces el vocabulario se hace un tanto agresivo: «espías contrarrevolucionarios», «víboras imperialistas», «fautores de guerra capitalis tas», «payasos profesionales», «charlatanes»; etc., son algunos de los requiebros disparados contra los no con formistas, o no demasiado conformistas. También aquí se nota hoy menos machaconeo que en aquellos tiempos. Además , los fil ós ofo s han aprendid o a manejar más há bilmente el escudo de «lo técnico» y ya se sabe que es menos fácil meterse con disquisiciones filosóficas en las
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136
José Ferrater Mora La filosofía actual
Chocante, pero, a la vez, «lógico». Pues este len guaje que parece tan poco filosófico tiene una razón filosófica. Es el intento de rechazar tanto la subjetividad como la objetividad, como características deseables en la filosofía. En opinión de los «rusos» la subjetividad es el rasgo típico de todo individualismo anarquizante, en tanto que la objetividad es el resultado de un univer salismo y de un cosmopolitismo poco apetecible. Así, esa subjetividad que, desde Kierkegaard, caracteriza algu nas de las tendencias humanistas, y esa objetividad que constituye una especie de constante de todas las corrien tes científicas, deben ser sustituidas, al entender de tales filósofos, por el espíritu del partidismo, pues sólo éste es capaz de reflejar la «realidad». La «buena filosofía» es la filosofía con espíritu de partido: con Vartiinost \
137
del mundo comunista, incluyendo los que cultivan «un marxismo vivo». En relación con los temas discutidos durante el Duodécimo Congreso Internacional de Filo sofía (Venecia, 1958 ) — y la la situación situación no ha ha cambiado tanto— tanto— , el profesor Ge orge Melv il, de la la Universidad Universidad de Moscú, declar ó3 que los los filósofos soviétic soviéticos os ma ma nifiestan ahora interés por «los problemas filosóficos de la ciencia natural contemporánea», por «la historia de la filosofía en los países de Oriente y Occidente» y por «los problemas de la lógica matemática». Pero los filós ofos soviéticos muestran asimismo asimismo interés interés — sigue diciendo Melvil— por «las leyes leyes del desarrollo social social en el transito gradual del socialismo al comunismo», por «los problemas de la educación secundaria univer
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La filosofía actual
Capítulo 7 Los «europeos»
139
nen» casi siempre a «metafísica». En todo caso, metafísicos o no, estos problemas suelen centrarse en cuestio nes humanas — o en cuestiones relativas a actitudes hu manas— manas— más bien que en torno a «cues tiones natura les». Llega un momento, en efecto, en que todos los pro blemas filosóficos parecen desembocar en una cuestión central y omnipresente: «¿Qué es el hombre?» (inclu yendo cuando se concluye que «el hombre» no es «nada» comparado con las estructuras que lo hacen ser lo que es) y en la cuestión de la naturaleza y función de las «ciencias humanas». En libros, artículos, reuniones, «diálogos», «conversaciones» y demás medios usuales de comunicación filosófica, los pensadores europeos se sien ten a sus anchas sólo cuando alcanzan a formular con
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140
José Ferrater Mora
lenguaje sobrio y desapasionado; otros admiten sólo lo que puede ser expresado en lenguaje patético y dramá tico. Pero en ninguna ocasión se desvanece enteramente dicho tema. Puede a veces quedar sumergido, pero sólo para emerger al poco con renovada porfía. Esta pertinaz «humanización» (incluyendo bajo la forma de una «deshumanización») de los problemas filo sóficos transparece en los términos más frecuentemente usados: «hombre», «mundo», «experiencia», «situación», «historia», «compromiso», etc. Es curioso comprobar que aun después de haberse «derrumbado» en Francia el existencialismo y haberse sustituido por el «estructuralism o», no por ello ha cambiado por entero el vocabulario. vocabulario. Sin duda que en vez de «sujeto» y «conciencia» se ha bla de «reglas» y de «sistemas». Pero cuán distintamente
Capítulo 8 Los «angloamericanos»
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142
José Ferrater Mora
que sea la filosofía defendida por los angloamericanos, suele ser presentada en un lenguaje más afín al voca bulario analítico o empirista (o a ambos) que a cual quier otro de los practicados por los demas füosotos actuales . . , Los rusos rusos piensan — o creen que piensan en tér tér minos de sociedad. Los europeos prestan oído atento a cuantos problem as suscitan las las situaciones humanas, i entados estamos de acatar el principio de simetría y de manifestar que los angloamericanos soslayan múltiples cuestiones relativas al hombre y a la sociedad con el lin de consagrar preponderante atención al tercer gran tema de la historia de la filosofía moderna: la Naturaleza, bin embargo, la fidelidad a la simetría implicaría desobe
La filosofía actual
143
logia de la ciencia, y en particular de las ciencias natu rales. De todo ello hay gran abundancia en el pensa miento angloamericano. Sin embargo, lo que se entiende aquí por «científico» es más bien una cierta actitud que se manifiesta de varios modos: en la escasa inclinación a deplorar que haya más cosas en el cielo y en la tierra de las que sueña la filosofía y en el cuidado de que no haya en la filosofía más cosas de las que existen en la tierra y en el cielo s; en la propen sión a distinguir entre las convicciones personales de un filósofo y las ideas o argumentos que propone o emplea; en un modo de pro ducción en general escasamente «literario» y consciente mente «anti-inflacionista». No es menester que los filó sofos atiendan puntualmente a los resultados y métodos
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144
José Ferrater Mora
los filósofos ingleses y norteamericanos se entiendan tam
Capítulo 9 Diferencias y simpatías
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146
José Ferrater Mora
vado que o bien no se dirigen la palabra unos a otros,
La filosofía actual
147
casi por entero tanto por las filosofías científicas como
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148
J o s é Ferrater M ora
de la existencia humana. En segundo término, ambos predican el «salto a la la libertad» — edio de la
La filosofía actual
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tradición constituye, a su modo de ver, uno de los ejem plos más notorios de desatino filosófico. Por otro lado,
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Capítulo 10 1 La nueva nueva situac situación ión
La filosofía actual
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dia antes de tiempo, pero que puede resultar molesta
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152
José Ferrater Mora
continente europeo y el análisis lingüístico que se prac
La filosofía actual
153
mostrar que varios filósofos del lenguaje corriente han practicado algo así como una «fenomenología lingüística»
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Capítulo 15 La filosofía en la sociedad contemporánea
¿Qué papel puede desempeñar la filosofía en una so ciedad como la descrita? Lo usual es considerar que muy escaso, o ninguno, a menos de cambiarla de arriba abajo. Uno de los cambios es muy radical y consiste en abando nar pura y simplemente la filosofía para pasar a «otra cosa». Los que propugnan este cambio afirman que la filosofía ha muerto. No les faltan razones; en todo caso, muchos filósofos han dejado de hacerse demasiadas ilu siones respecto a la filosofía y han experimentado con
La filosofía actual
185
filosofía por vías más accesibles y populares. Tampoco les faltan razones a quienes tal propugnan, porque si la filosofía se desolidariza completamente de los problemas más más urgentes urgentes que acucian acucian a nuestra nuestra sociedad — si, pon gamos por caso, se muestra absolutamente indiferente frente a la la lucha contra las las instituciones represivas— represivas— , puede terminar por languidecer sin pena ni gloria en mustios claustros universitarios. La expresión «el papel que la filosofía desempeña en la sociedad» cambia de significado de acuerdo con el tipo de sociedad considerada. Para las sociedades del pa sado — cuando menos las que, en palabra palabrass de Da vid Riesman, estaban orientadas en la tradición, o eran «in trovertidas»— 24 el significad significado o de la la mencionad mencionada a expre sión equivalía equivalía al siguiente: siguiente: «e l papel que la filosofía des empeña en la minoría dirigente intelectual de la socie dad». Se daba por sentado que el destino de la filosofía — y posiblemente el de de toda actividad intele intelectual ctual— — es taba ligado al de «la clase intelectual» o al de los grupos sociales directamente relacionados con los intereses de tal clase. A veces los filósofos creyeron que sus ideas tras cendían toda limitación social y que se dirigían a la hu manidad entera, pero entendieron esta noción en térmi nos harto vagos. La verdad filosófica es «universal» y la «humanidad entera» es asimismo universal, pero lo que se entendía por «universal» era algo así como «el hombre como animal racional». Para la sociedad del presente, el significado de la ex
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186
José Ferrater Mora
desempeñar (si puede desempeñar alguno) en el conjunto de la sociedad». Como esta sociedad es de tal índole que las minorías intelectuales van perdiendo su tradicional confianza en el carácter (relativamente) independiente y (relativamente) autónomo de su labor, se plantea el pro blema de si no habrá que cambiar el carácter de ésta. En el caso de la filosofía, la cuestión que se plantea ’ es much o más aguda aguda que en otros . El fís ico nuclea nuclearr puede tener dudas acerca de si vale la pena (o si es justo) seguir cultivando su disciplina cuando se puede usarla con propósitos destructivos, pero es dudoso que el ca rácter de su disciplina cambie. El filósofo tiene dudas legítimas acerca de la propia estructura de su disciplina. Preguntarse «¿Tengo que seguir haciendo filosofía?» equivale a preguntarse «¿Tengo que seguir cultivando el mismo tipo de filosofía?». El tipo de filosofía que se haga dependerá, pues, en gran parte del tipo de sociedad en la que se viva, y también, o aún más, del tipo de sociedad que se aspire a constituir. Ah ora bien, ello afecta a la filo sof ía de dos formas: en cuanto a los modos de pensamiento que los filósofos pongan en marcha, y en cuanto a la manera como estos pensamientos se integran con la sociedad. En lo que toca al primer punto, remitimos a lo dicho (en los capítulos de esta obra titulados «Una idea de la filosofía» y «La nueva situación». En ellos manifestamos de qué modo cabe cultivar la filosofía en forma que ésta sea «una filosofía en la sociedad contemporánea».
Capítulo 16 La comunicación de la filosofía
BIBLIOTECA
Esta cuestión puede dividirse en dos: 1) en el supuesto supuesto de que se disponga de un conjunto de ideas, propuestas, modos de pensar, métodos, etcétera, que quepa llamar | «filosófic os», ¿cuál es el el modo más más apropia apropiado do de tra trans ns mitirlos?; 2) ¿qué función puede desempeñar la filosofía en el conjunto de las actividades culturales, y específica mente intelectuales? 1) Se ha dic ho a veces que el el únic o mod o de salvar salvar
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188
José Ferrater Mora
desfigura por completo. El segundo riesgo es menos ob vio; refiriéndose al arte, y especialmente a la novela, Dwight Macdonald ha escrito que «nuestro gusto puede haber sido corrompido no sólo por la cultura de masas, mas también por su opuesta» 25. > Para Para escapa escaparr de este este doble riesgo, sugiero sugiero que los fi lósofos hagan todo lo posible por hablar, y escribir, de tal modo que, cuando ello resulte necesario, sean «tradu cibles» a otros niveles. O bien que, como recomendó Berkeley, piensen al modo de los pocos y hablen en el de los muchos 26. Fuera deseable que en muchas ocasiones los filósofos pudieran hacer lo que algunos artistas han conseguido: producir obras capaces de ser entendidas en niveles distintos, de suerte que muy diferentes clases de humanos puedan seguir lo que se diga de acuerdo con sus propias capacidades. Desde luego que a veces la tarea filosófica se hace «técnica» y resulta inevitablemente — como ocurre con la matemáti matemática ca o la física-— menos menos accesible, o accesible sólo a muy pocos. Si así es, hay que aceptarlo lealmente. A nadie se le pide hacer «la técnica» fácil, o totalmente comprensible a quienes no posean la preparación suficiente. Pero se puede pedir no hacer «técnicamente» (y menos aún enmarañadamente) lo que cabría hacer de otro modo. 2) Es curioso que que en un momento en en que que nos nos preocu pamos de «la comunicación de la filosofía», ésta parezca ser más extensamente «comunicada» que nunca. Muchos
La filosofía actual
189
más que en el pasado— en forma de instrucción peda gógica. Según Ortega y Gasset ha puesto de relieve, la filosofía posee inclusive «atributos materiales». Hay edi ficios en los cuales se profesan enseñanzas filosóficas; hay puestos que permiten a los filósofos ganarse el sustento ejerciendo su actividad; hay libros filosóficos que se pro ducen industrialmente y que se venden en el comercio 27. Quienes más deploran, o celebran, «la muerte de la filo sofía», dan por descontado que la filosofía «está ahí», en formas casi visibles: en cátedras universitarias, organiza ciones nacionales e internacionales, libros y revistas. Pe ríodos hubo en que la filosofía gozo de la protección de un emperador, de una reina, de la nobleza o de la bur guesía. No ha habido ningún período en el que, como hoy, goce de la protección «oficial», al punto de hacerse de ella una especie de «necesidad pública». El problema está en si con ello se logra una verdadera «comunicación». Sospechamos que no en la mayor parte de los casos, y ello por una razón: porque la filosofía no tiene por qué ser comunicada exactamente en las mismas formas que otras actividades intelectuales.^ No me opongo a que la filosofía sea objeto de estudio «especial», y hasta «especializado», porque la vida huma na es breve, no hay tiempo para todo, y el entrenamiento filosófico requiere muchas horas y concentración. Sin embargo, el estudio de la filosofía como «disciplina espe cial» es sólo una parte de la actividad filosófica acadé
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Indice 190
José Ferrater Mora
todos los males, y hasta es posible que algunos de ellos se reprodujeran al nivel de los «Institutos centrales o generales de filosofía» que Sacristán propugna. Además, creo que parte de dichos males podrían eliminarse dentro 'de las «secciones de filosofía». Sin embargo, Sacristán da ' en el clavo al pon er de reli eve que la fil oso fía funciona ría mejor si dejara de ser una disciplina «especializada» y se abriera más a otros campos del saber. Lo que he dicho en otro lugar de este libro a propósito de «la filosofía como actividad» se conjuga bien con las anteriores suge rencias rencias — lo que, dic ho sea de paso, confirma que el pro blema de la comunicación de la filosofía no es ajeno al modo de pensar filosófico que se aspire a comunicar.
Prólogo a la cuarta edición ...................................... Pr i m e r a
p a r t e : La s i t u a c i ó n a c t u a l
................
1. La discordi discordia a fil os óf ica ................................... 2. Las tenden tendencias cias fi lo só fic as ............................. 3. ¿Ha muerto muerto la filosofía? ............................. 4. Una idea idea de la la fil o s o fí a ........ ............ ........ ........ ........ ....... ....... ....... ...
H >
^
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192
Indice
Te r c e r a
parte:
Fi l
o s o f ía
y
sociedad
...............
163
11.
La historia historia como filosofía y la filosofía como historia ........................... 165 ........................................ ......................... ............ 12. Ensayo Ensayo de con cilia ción ......................... 168 168 13. Ras gos de la sociedad contemporánea ... 179 14. Objeciones y resp uesta s .......................
172
15. 16.
184 184
La filoso fía en en la sociedad contemporánea. La comunicación de la fil os of ía ........... 187 187