Egypt in the Age of the Pyramids

E G Y P T

in the

P Y R A M I D S

Yvonne

Markowitz

Joyce

L.

Rita E.

Haynes Freed

EGYPT

in the the PYRAMIDS ^iighlights

from the Harvard

University-

Mi^keum of Vine Arts, Boston

Expedition

Yvonne

Markowitz

Joyce

Haynes

Rita E. Freed

, MFA

PUBLICATIONS

division

of the

Mliseum of Fine Ar ts, Boston

MFA

Cincinnati Art Museum, Cincinnati, Ohio

PUBL ICATION

division of the Museum of Vine Arts, Boston 465 Huntington

exhibition

"Egypt in the Age of the Pyramids: Highlights from th

Harvard University-Museum of Fine

Arts Expedition," organized by the Museum Fine Arts, Boston, in collaboration with the Nagoya/Bost Nagoya/B ost on Museum of Fine Arts in Nagoya, J a p a n .

please contact th

March 1 8 - J u n e 16 , 2002 Memphis Brooks Muse um of Art, Memphis,

venue

Massachusetts s 02115 Boston, Massachusett Published in conjunction with th

For a complete listing of MFA Publi cations

slightly different version of

this exhibition was shown at the Nagoya/Boston Museum of Fine Arts from September

20 01

o

r

c

Tenn essee

Front Front cover: Triad of King Menkaure, th

February February 25 -M ay 18 , 2003

Hathor, and the Deified Hare Nome (cat. no. 5).

Generous support for this publication was prov j d e d b y t h

A n d r e w

B a c k cover: Triad in situ, July

Goddess

, 1908 (fig 9).

Publications

Fund

'

Library of Congress Card Numbe r: 2001 0980 92

2 0 0 2 by M u s e u m of Fine Arts, Boston

All rights reserved.

Available through D.A.P.

part of this book m a y b e

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ax: 21

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mission from th

Distributed Art Publishers

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reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical mean s, including information

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lei.:

to February 3, 2002.

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7 369 3 4 3 8 .

a

FIRST

EDIT ION

Printed an

bound in Italy

9484

Contents

7

Director's For eword

9

Acknowledgements

Chronology of Ancient Egypt

4

Maps

Egy pt in in the Age of the Pyr ami ds Rita

Freed

E.

Excavating Giza Yvonne

J.

Markowitz

Cata log ue of Objects

Joyce

L. Haynes

and

Yvonne

J.

Markowitz

Appendices Analysis of Old Kingdom Gold Artifacts

Richard

Newman

Analysis of a Seal of Office Inscription Construction

Joyce

Bibliography

Haynes

Yvonne J.

Material Analysis

Glossary

L.

Richard

Markowitz Newman

and Michele

Derrick

Director's Foreword

Boston is home to one of the world's great collections of Egyptian art from the Age of the Pyramids. Excav ated by by the the Harv ard Un iversity- Museum of of Fine Arts Expedition during

the early decades of the twentieth century, it features si gnature wo rk s created ov er

4,500

years ago. The period, known as the Old Kingdom, was Egypt's crownin g moment—a

time when stone was fashione d into archite ctural marve ls and the human figure wa s cele brated by superb statuary designed to last forever. The decorative arts also flourished, as evidence d by splendid f urnishings, exquis ite jewelry, and graceful stone ves sels. The style is elegant but restrained, a reflection of an Egyptian ideal that became the stan dard for

centuries to follow. The scope and exceptional quality of the Egyptian collection at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, owes much to George Andrew Reisner, director of the Boston team at Giza

and a pioneering force in the application of scientific methodology in archaeology. The extensive phot ogra phic and written re cords created in the field under his superv ision are

an integral part of the collection and a continuing resource for all those fascinated by this chapter in Egyptian history. The Muse um is pleased to share over a hundre d obje cts from its perman ent collec tion in an exhibition that reflects the epitome of Egyptian civilization during its first true blossoming.

M a l c o l m

R o g e r s

Ann and Graham Museum

Gund

of Fine Arts,

Director Boston

Acknowledgements

The encouragement and efforts of our colleagues at the Museum were evident from the project's inception. Katherine Getchell applied her extensive managerial abilities to the exhibition, and Gen Watanabe's superb organizational skills and diplomacy aided it at every step of the way. Thanks also go to Emily Lasner for her assistance and coordin ation of many details.

Our colleagues in the Art of the Ancient World, Lawrence Berman, Denise Doxey, Laura Gadbery, and Kaitlin Shinnick were always ready to lend their expertise and assis tance at every level. We appreciate the support of the entire staff staff of the Department of Conserva tion and Collections Management, headed by Arthur B e a l e . We are especially grateful to Objects Conservation under Pamela Hatchfield. Special thanks go to Abigail Hykin and Mei-An Tsu, who were responsible for the conservation and cleaning of

objects for

this exhibition. Skillfully working with them was Susanne Gansicke, Kent Severson, and Vanessa Tucom. In addition, we thank the conservators for sharing their insights on the

ancient techniques used to create particula r objects, thereby enhancing our understanding Scientific c Resear ch, spent spent many hours of these works of art. Richa rd Newm an, Hea d of Scientifi performing valuable scientific tests that enriched our knowledge of the collection and also advanced the understanding of Old King dom metallurgy. Jea n-L ouis Lache vre, along with George Hagerty, performed extraordinary feats in preparing steel mounts for the large stone objects for display and shipping. Gordon Hanlon, Head of Furniture and Frame Conserv ation, over saw the cleaning and restoration of the the Hetepheres furniture ensemble, bringing a new gleam to the already spectacular furniture. Than ks also to Nad ia Lok ma, Chief Conservator from the Cairo Museum, for her valuable insights on the assembly of

the Hetepheres

furniture.

We appreciate the careful restoration of inscribed textile fragments fragments from a mummy and assistance with the beadnet dress project by Meredith Montague of Textiles and Costumes Conse rvati on. Thanks go to Sheila Shear for her her research, e xpertise, and infinite infinite

patience in reconstructing the dress. Jessie Ring and Harriet Heyman assisted her in the sorting of of the the beads. Hamdy Mon em Abdel Moha med performed the pai nstaking cleaning of the ancient beads. A l s o , thanks to Millicent J i c k for her her useful useful information, support, and encouragement in this endeavor. Herbie Johnson lent his fine craftsmanship by making the frames for the beadnet dress assembly. We thank Collections Care Specialists Karen Gausch, Will Jeffers, Seth Waite, and Garrick Manninen for mounting the objects for exhibition in such a way that the artwork is enhanced and protected. The unsurpassed expertise of the Museum's Photography Studio make this cata logue a visual delight and we express thanks to Tom Lang, Jo hn Woolf, Damon B e a l e , Gary Ruuska, and Saravuth Neou. Our very special appreciation goes to Greg Heins,

who graciously addressed all our individual visual concerns. We are grateful to Emiko Usui for her patience and careful scrutiny of this manu script, as well as to Sarah McGau ghe y for the the thorough editorial wor k. Cynthia Randal created the boo k's fine design and also managed the producti on with the assistance of Dacey Sartor. We are indebted to Mark Polizzotti for moving forward with an English

version of this catalogue and recognizing that it woul d be a useful useful scholarly addition to the Museum's publications. Many thanks go to the members of the Registrar's Office for overseeing the com plex details of the loan and the packing of the objects. They include Patricia L o i k o ,

Tsugumi Maki Joiner, Kim Pashko, J u l i a McCarthy, Adelia Bussey, and Mary Lister. We are indebted to the experts of the Paper Conserv ation Department , including Perkinson, Annette Manick, G a i l English, and Consultant Paper Conservator Elizabeth Coombs for cleaning and mounting our letter to the dead. For the coordin ation of images and preparati on of prints and chromes, we are

grateful to members of the the Department of Visual Archives, including Jennifer Riley, Angela Segalla, Kristen Bierfelt, and Erika Field.

We would like to give special thanks for the many references, suggestions, and assistance in finding archival material to Peter Der Manuelian, Research Fellow of the Andrew Mellon Giza Archives Project. His expertise and knowledge of Giza mastaba tombs was invaluable. He also created excellent maps and graphics for this publication. The catalogue has also benefited benefited tremendously from the scrutiny of Ann Mac y Roth, who read the manuscript, made many insightful comments, and gave her expert advice . We

1

would like to thank Peter Lacovara for lending his expertise and taking time to answer many queries. Diane Flores, Research Associate of the Andrew Mellon Giza Archives Project, was extremely helpful in locating glass plate negatives of objects and work in progress from George Reisner's excavations. A l s o , we are grateful grateful to Joh n No lan Assistant Field Director for the Giza Plateau Mapping Project, who shared his recent findings findings on Old Kingd om cylinder seals and impressi ons. We would like to thank Joseph A. Greene and James Armstrong of the Semitic Museum of Harvard University for graciously loaning objects that were part of the Semitic Muse um installation on Giza. Our many volunteers eased the workload of this project by giving their time and energy. We would like to thank Margy Faulkner and Meg Robbins for their careful and painstaking work on the bibliography. Libby Mottur and Nancy McMah on also gave valuable assistance.

Y V O N N E J O Y C E

R I T A

M A R K O W I T Z H A Y N E S F R E E D

Chronology of Ancient Egypt

Predynastic Period

300-3IOO

First Intermediate Period

2130-1980

Dynasty

100-3000

Middle Kingdom

1980-1630

Early Dynastic Period

3OOO-2675

Old Kingdom Dynasty Dynasty 3

Second Intermediate Period 1 6 3 0 - 1 5 3 9

New Kingdom

1539-1075

Third Intermediate Period

1075-656

L a t e Period

664-332

26 75- 26 25

At least five five kings, including Djoser,

Sekhemkhet, and Huni Dynasty 4

2625-2585

Sneferu Khufu

(Cheops)

Greco- Roman Period

33

. C - A .

2585-2560

Redjedef (Djedefre)

2560-2555

William J. Murna ne, "The History of B a s e d on William

Khafre

(Chephren)

^555-2-532-

A n c i e n t E g y p t , " in Civilizations of the Ancient

Menkaure (Mycerinus)

2532-2510

Near East, ed J a c k

Wehemka?

2510-2508

2 : 7 1 2 - 1 4 .

Shepseskaf

2508-2500

Dynasty 5 Userkaf

2500-2485

Sahure

2485-2472

Neferirkare Kakai

2472-2462

Shepseskaf/Reneferef

2462-2455

Nyuserre

2455-2425

Menkauhor

2425-2415

Djedkare Isesi

24

Unas

2371-2350

5-2371

Dynasty 6 Teti

2350-2338

Meryre Pepy I

2338-2298

Merenre Merenre (Nemtye (Nemtyemza mzaf) f)

22 98 -22 88

Neferkare Pepy II

2288-2194

Rulers including

Queen Nitocris Dynasties 7-8

2194-2170 2170-2130

An undetermined number of monarchs ruling from Memphis

64

Sasson ( N e w Y o r k , 1995),

Mediterranean

Alexandria

Lower EgvDt

Heliopolis

Giza

CAIRO

Zawiyet el-Aryan el-Aryan .U aq qa ra Memphis

Fayum

EGYPT

Hermopolis

Sheikh Farag

Naga ed-Deir

Abydos^

Dendera

Upper Egypt

ed

Coptos Thebes

kLUXOR^

K a r n a k

Hierakonpolis Edfu

First Cataract

ASWAN

Abu Simbel

Second Cataract

NUBIA

Soleb

Third Cataract

Fourth Kawa

Thebes

ancient site

CAIRO

modern city

Cataract

Gebel Fifth Cataract

milesj

Th

Western Cemetery at Giza

G.A. Reisner Reisner 190 2- 190 5 (Hearst) G.A. Reisner 1905-1942 (HU-BMFA) G. Steind Steindorf orfff

190 3-1 907

H . J u nk nk e r 1 9 1 2 - 1 9 1 4 , 1 9 2 5 - 1 9 2 A.-M. Abu Bakr 1 949- 1953 Schiaparelli 1902-1905 C . S . Fisher

1915

= Lepsius tomb number

Egypt in the Age of the Pyramids

I

A

E. F

E

Of all the monuments created by man, few have attracted as much attention

earned

much respect as the pyramids of Egypt. Designed toprotect toprotect and preserve the body of the king so that he might enjoy eternal life, they became became international tourist attr actions short

ly after they were built, and tothis day they engender awe and admirat ion for the culture that created them 4,500 years ago. They are products of

golden age that later Egyptian

dynasties actively, but unsuccessfully, attempted toemulate. toemulate. The civilization of the Pyramid Age with its three basic tiers—kings, bureaucrats, and common workers—repre sents

high point in cultural development and forms the topic of this special exhibition. Pyra mid Age, also called the Old Ki ngdo

over

( 2 6 7 5 - 2 1 3 0 B . C . ) , evolved from well

thousand years of cultural develop ment in the the Nile Valley. With the gradual desic

cation of the Sahara region, the Nile R i v e r invited permanent settlements, which grew in size, social organiz ation, and material goods during the fourth millennium b c The river

not only provided

reliable source of water, but also left behind

layer of fertile silt in

which crops could easily be gro wn following its annual flooding. flooding. By about 300

B . C . , pop

ulation centers along the Nile from the Mediterranean south to at least the first cataract at Aswan shared

common culture and were united under the umbrella of

often identified as Narmer.

single ruler

Narm er became the first first king of Egy pt' s 1s t Dynasty . Egy pt'

first two dynasties are now known as the Early Dynastic Period (3000-2675 B . C . ) . monuments of Narmer make itclear it clear that the foundations of Egyptian art, architecture, and culture were alre ady in place by by Dynast y 1 . On head, for example, an early king excavates Nile (fig.

large ceremonial mace-

canal and thereby controls the waters of the

The crown and garment he wears, including the bull's tail tied

his waist,

label him as king—these symbols would identify monarchs for the remainder of Egyptian dynastic history and beyond. Even

this early date, reality bowed topropaganda topropaganda as the

king's height was made todwarf to dwarf that of his attendants. His one-foot-forward stance and

G r e y w a c k e s tatue of

combination

King Menkaure and a q u e e n ,

Dynasty

(detail).

representation.

profile and frontal views likewise became synonymous with Egyptian relief

the time of the unification of the country, many cultural landmarks were achieved. Most importantly, a written language developed from pi ctograms with a few alphabetic signs into

syl

labary with complex grammatical forms. Writing was now used to label, number, and describe people and commodities. Later it would be used for narrative pur poses as w e l l . In the sculptural arts, artists grew accustomed to working in the round in addition to two-dimensional relief. Their struggle to liberate organic

Fig.

Line drawing of K i n g " S c o r p i o n "

forms from the stone matrix became ever

on a limestone m a c e h e a d ,

Dynasty 0. Th

more successful as they rendered first ani

Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.

mal and then human figures naturalisti-

Fig.

cally. Some of the earliest sculpture rep

Colossal limestone statue of Min from C o p t o s , Dynasty 0.

Th

Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.

resents divinities whose size and awesome majesty bespoke their control over the universe

(fig. z). Temples established for the worsh ip of such divinities continued as holy places i enlarged and elaborated forms for millennia. Many of the great urban centers of the Pyramid Age were alrea dy thriving in the Early Dynastic Period according to both tradition and the archaeological record. Of these

areas, much is still buried under later remains. Such is is fortunately not the case with necropoli, cemeteries that were situated in the desert outside urban and agricultural areas. There , rulers expended considera ble energy to build massive tombs in order to ensure the preservation of their bodies. Located at Abydos in Upper Egypt, and later at Saqqara at the juncture of the Delta and Nile Valley, these consisted of roofed undergro und burial chambers and separately constructed superstructures.

At Saqq ara , the superstructures

took the form of rectangular buildings, called mastabas, with niched facades. They could either be solid inside or contain a series of progressively smaller rectangles resembling steps. At Abydos, in addition to the the tomb, separate enclosures as large as io o by 55 meters were built closer to the Nile V a l l e y ' s edge and presumably served as staging areas for funerary rites. Mudbrick was the primary building material for all of these constructions.

Because it was believed that the body would be rejuvenated and enjoy a blissful eternity if certain conditions were met, tombs of kings and high officials were equipped with items considered necessary for the afterlife. These included food and drink in approp riate stone and ceramic vessels (thousands at times!), beds, chests, jewelry for per sonal adornment, games for amusement, and ritual go ods. At first first servants were sacri ficed ficed and buried in subsidi ary tombs within royal enclosures, but by the end of Dynas ty

this custom was abandoned. Although the king himself was not worshipped as a god at this time, the office of kingship was considered divine. The king's power, both real and magical , and the artist's ability to render it by the end of the Early Dynastic Period are shown by a statue of Khasek hem (fig. (fig. 3), one of a pair erected in the temple at Hierako npol is. The king wea rs the crown of Upper Egypt and an enveloping cloak, signifying that he has just perfo rmed (heb-sed)

that

rule. Awkwar d proportions, a thick thick neck, and limbs stiffly clinging to the body show the artist's lack of expertise in executing human sculpture on a large scale. Yet the subtle modeling of the eye and cheek focus attention on the head and show an ability to render detail in a naturalistic manner. An inscription on the base of the companion statue alludes to the king's worl dly power in overcomin g internal struggl es. A speared and bound figure wearing a papyrus headdress of L o w e r Egypt lies beside other fallen captives whose number—47 ,209—is prominently displayed on the front! front! In nearly every way, the Early Dynastic Period provided the cultural, eco nomic, and phil osoph ical building b locks for the Pyramid Age, or Old Kingdom. The Old Kingdom was a prosperous era of approximately five

hundred years ( 2 6 7 5 - 2 1 3 0

. C . ) beginning with Dynasty 3 and continuin

substantial informa through Dynasty 8. Recent excavations have provided substantial

tion about the Old Kingdom's domestic, administrative, and religious establishments, although as before, funerary material remains a primary source of know ledg e about these areas. Challenges to royal authority as alluded to in the Khasekhem statue seem to have been over come by Dynas ty 3, and the authori ty of the king became absolut e. Power was centered in the Memphit e are a, which included the necropoli at Saqqara, G i z a , Abusir, and Abu Roash.

Fig.

Schist statue of K i n g K h a s e k h e m ,

Dynasty 2. Th

Egyptian Museum, C a i r o .

P Y R A M I D S R O Y A L

S C U L P T U R E

Mastabas with internal steps may have provided the inspiration for the next stage in the evolution of funerary struc tures, seen in King Djoser's Step Pyramid of is

Dynasty 3 (fig. 4). The Step Pyramid not only the first large-scale stone

structure in the worl d, but also one of the most beautiful. It is thought to repli cate, in in a permanent material , compo

nents of his mudbrick palace comple in nearby Memphis, Egypt's capital. A series of enlargements transformed it from a simple rectangular mastaba to a soaring, six-stepped edifice. Perishable materials employed earlier such as mudbrick, timber, and reeds were now imitated in limestone and faience,

he Step Pyramid of King Djoser at S a q q a r a , Dynasty 3.

a self-glazing material composed of quartz, lime, and alkali. Beneath, corridors

stretching an amazing three and a half miles connected four hundred roo ms—an eloquent testimony to both architectural prowess and the king's ability to command the resources to build and equip such a labyrinth.

(Robbed in antiquity, the thieves nevertheless left

behind an estimated forty thousand stone vessels.) Outsid e, a 1 0 . 4 meter high niched wall of

Fig.

stone enclosed an area of appr oxi matel y 1 5 hectares, inside of whic h, in addition to the

pyra mid, were structures relati ng to the jubilee ceremony that guaranteed the renewal of his kingship. Other aspects of the pyramid also addressed its religio-magic function, including fourteen false gat eway s around the pyramid' s perimeter, perimeter, a second structure that replicates aspects of of the the king's undergro und tomb cham bers, a large-scale representation of the king to house his soul, or ka, and an altar to which offerings for for consumptio n by the king in the afterlife afterlife might be b rought The evolution from step pyramid to true pyramid was a rapid one. Several 3rd Dynast y successors of Djoser' s attempted step pyramids but died before their complet ion. The first true pyramids date to the reign of the first king of Dynasty 4, Sneferu, who actu ally built a total of three large pyramids in the course of his fifty-year rule. All were in the

vicinity of the capital, Memphis. Sneferu began the earliest one at Meidum as a step pyra mid, but at the end end of his reign, he added a smooth , straight-si ded casing, thereby co nvert ing it to a true pyra mid . Sneferu's second pyramid (fig. (fig. 5), now kn own as the the Bent

Fig.

Th

Bent Pyramid of K i n g S n e f e r u

at Dahshur, Dynasty 4.

Fig. 6 Th

pyramids at G i z a , l oo oo ki ki ng ng

northwe northwe st April 24 19 99

Pyramid at Dahshur, was built as .

,„„

.

.

true pyramid with a steep slope of approximately 60 .

.

. .

,

.

.

.

degrees. When the pyramid was enlarged, construction problems forced a reduction 01 the slope first to about 55 degrees and then finally to 43 degrees. This change gave the structure its unusual shape. There and in most later pyramids at Giza and elsewhere, chambers were constructed within the pyramid itself rather than beneath as before. Sneferu's third and final pyramid, most likely the one in which he was buried,

conforms

to a mana geab le 43 degree slope throug hout. For his pyra mids and associ ated mor tuary temples, it has been estimated that Sneferu moved an unbelievable 3.6 million cubic meters of stone—at least a million more than any king before or af ter. It was Khufu, Sneferu's son and successor, who selected the

plateau as the site

for his his funerary funerary establishmen t and built the firs firstt and largest pyramid there. Hi s mon u ment is known today as the Great Pyramid (fig. 6, far right). Scholars estimate that builders used 2,300,000 limestone blocks for this structure that once soared to a height of

146.6 meters.

It was situated just a few feet short of true north, an

orientation

shared by several of the internal corr idors. Thi s orientation was thought to have facili facili tated the king's afterlife journey to join the circumpolar stars in the heavens.

The pyramid was but one element of Khufu's mortuary complex . The complex also

included a temple only recently dis covere d at the edge of the flood flood pla in (val ley temple) , a causeway connecting that temple to another adjacent to the pyramid's east side (pyramid

temple), and an enclosure wall setting off the sacred ground. Each element in what was to become the classical pyramid co mplex layou t either either pl ayed a role (as yet poorly under stood) in the ceremonies connected wit h preparat ion of the king's body for burial and rebirth, or replicated on a small scale the king's palace." Tantalizing fragments of relief make it clear that the walls of these these 4th Dynas ty structures we re decorat ed (cat. no. 1 1 ) . Near the Great Pyramid were three small pyramids for Khufu's queens and possibly

his mother, Hetepheres (cat. nos. 1 - 2 ) ,

seven pits for boats used in the transport of the

king's funerary entourage or to facilitate his travel in the afterlife, and mastabas neatly laid out in streets to the east (Eastern Cemetery) and west (Western Cemetery) for the king's close family and highest officials. By the next reign, further out, behind a wall, the

support structures necessary to sustain an undertaking of this magnitude were construct ed, including bakeries, breweries, storage magazines, and administrative buildings.

13

The

houses and tombs of some of the estimated estimated 25 ,0 00 laborers who built the the pyramid com plex were also nearby.

pyramid establishments of Khufu's son, Khafre, Khafre, and grandson, Men kaur e, fol

Th

lowed the same basic layo ut as Khufu 's, although they were smaller. smaller. In In additio n, the p re served statu ary of the king in the temple has a timeless appeal and an unsurpass ed beauty. (Khufu's mortuary temples probably once housed statues as well, but to date, none have

been found.) As surrogates for the king's body, such such statues were intended to receive food offerings and served as resting places for his soul.

seated statue of Khafre (fig. 7), the best preserved of twenty-three that originally stood in his valley temple, shows how much Egyptian artists had progressed since the Early Dynastic Period. No longer hesitant about carving stone, they now exploited it to

perfection and even sought out exotic types. The Khafre statue is made of anor thosi te gneiss, a variegated hard stone quarried in the Western Desert of Nubia. With its broad

shoulders, taught muscles, and ageless, transcendent transcendent gaze, it eloquently expresses the Egyptian ideal of kingship and its connection to the divine, a concept reinforced by the falcon, whos e outstret ched wings embrace and protect the king's head. The falcon repre

sents Horus, the god of kingship. In this instance, Horus is shown zoomorphically. He, like many other deities, may also be show n with a human body and animal head. Th

statue of Menkaure and a queen (fig. 8) from that king's valley temple repre

sents the achievement of the same ideal in standing gro up statuary. Both king and queen

Fig. Anorthosite gneiss statue of

K i n g Khafre with the Horus falcon,

Th

Dynasty 4.

Egyptian Museum, Cairo.

into a timeless eternity. Menkaure's per

look beyond the v iewer, out of the here and no

fectly formed, athletic body exhibits no sign of age or infirmity. His queen, with her slender

tors o emphasized by a clingi ng garmen t, arti culates feminine beauty. Althou gh the queen's arms embrace Menkaure, no human emotion is expressed. These were the concepts private

Fig.

G r e y w a c k e statue of K i n g Menkaure and a

queen,

Dynasty 4.

statuary imitated but rar ely achieved (cat. (cat. no. 2 7) . The king's forward left left foot conveys a sense of motio n, al though in contr ast to Greek sculpture his weight remains on his rear foot. Most often females stand with both feet together, but this queen's left foot is slightly forward.

Despite the the number and qualit y of sculptur es found in Menk aur e's mortu ary temples (cat. nos. 6, 7) , his pyramid, at a mere 64.9 meters in height, was considerably smaller than those of his two predecessors.'

This trend towards placing increased emphasis on the mor

tuary temples would continue in Dynasties 5 and 6 with the pyramid complexes at Saqqara and Abusir.

15

In Dynast y 5, rulers als o erected temples to the sun close to their p yra mids

Beginning with the reign of Unas, the last king of Dynasty 5, inscriptions on the inside of

pyramid s, now kn own as "Pyramid Tex ts, " presented presented a series of magical spells spells to insure the king's deification and well-being in the afterlife.

16

Themes from these texts carved on the

walls of pyramid temples, causeways, and valley temples highlighted the king's prowess, illus

trated his role in maintain ing order in the universe, demonst rated his closeness to the gods, and provided sustenance for his afterlife. Occasionally, they even seemed to refer to a specific event such as a famine in the reign of Unas (fig. 36, p. 7 3) , or the plac ing of Sahure 's pyramid capst one. Another scene in Sahure's Sahure's pyramid temple depicts the the conquest and imminen t e xecut ion of a Lib yan ruler, ruler, whose family begs Sahure for leniency. While this may have been a historic event of Sahure's reign, it certainly was not the case during the reign of Pepy II of Dynasty 6, who copied his predecessor's scenes to the point of including the names of the Libyans! discus sion of the pyr amid s would be complet e without a mention of the sphinx, located due east of Khafre's pyramid. A natural outcr opping of rock was shaped, most believe, during the reign of Khafre to resemble the

head of the reigning monarch and the body of a lion.

Almost

every subsequent ruler would represent himself (or herself) as

a sphinx, an icon of power that became synonymous with kingship. In the New Kingdom more than a millenniu m later, the great sphinx at Giza was deified and worshipped as Harmachis, a form of the sun god.

LIFE

DURING

P Y R A M I D

The structure of Egyptian society has often been compared to a pyramid, with the king at the apex, the bureaucratic class made up of the king's trusted officials in the middle, and farmers and other

laborers making up the broad base. Estimates place the populati on of Egypt in the Old Kingdom at about two million, although only

the smallest fraction of those numbered among the official class and left records.' Most information about these people and how they lived comes from their funerary remains, particularly from the relief

and paintings that decorated tomb walls. Substantial towns of the Old Kingdom have been excavated at Elephantine and A y n - A s i l in the Dakhleh Oasis, both remote from the Memphite area. These

densely packed houses, administrative buildings, industrial areas, crafts workshops, and temples to local deities.

20

Just as pyramids and their associated structures provide most of our information about kings and kingship in the Old Kingdom

burial places that surround ed each pyram id for the king's elite sup ply a wealth of information about daily life, including family struc ture, clothing, food and drink, occupations, and leisure activities. times mimicking the layout of royal funerary establishments, they could reach an enormous size. ' Substantial numbers of pri vate tombs were also located in provincial centers, particularly during the later Old Kingdom. Statuary and relief indicate that Egyptian men married one wife at a time and were proud ly represente d for eternity with their

spouses and children. Depictions rarely provide reliable indicators of age , for just as kings were depicte d in the prime of youth with

perfect bodies, so too were most officials and their w i v e s . The occa sional corpulen ce in a man signified maturity a nd prosper ity (fig. 9) Generally faces as well were idealized, although a few exceptions Fig. Limestone figure of Hemiunu,

demonstrate that artists were capable of superb portraiture when called upon to produce it. The bust of Ankhhaf (fig. 1 0 ) , for exam

Dynasty 4, reign of Khufu. Roemerund Pelizaeus-Museum, Hildesheim.

ple, depicts not just any stern and capable man but a distinct indi-

Fig. 10 Painted limestone bust of

Prince Ankhhaf, Dynasty 4, reign of Khafre.

vidual. Children up until adolescence were shown with chubby, androgynous bodies,

naked, with their right index finger touching their lips and their hair arranged in a single side lock (fig (fig.. Altho ugh in their their depicti ons adul t women wear tight-fitting, sleeveless sheath dress es, rare surviving examples of ancient Egyptian garments are pleated and have sleeves (fig. 1 2 ) . All are made of undyed linen. Men wore wrapped kilts that varied in length

from knee to shin. In tomb relief and on statuary, most garments were painted white. Beaded

37-38),

anklets made of faience, semiprecious stones, or even gold added color and interest. Both men and women seem to have kept their natural hair short and wore wigs for festive occasions. Mal e laborers occasionally wore no clothes, as the task warrant ed.

Although just how many meals Egyptians of the Pyramid Age consumed each day is not known, what they ate is known, thanks to food remains and their depictions on tomb walls. Scenes frequently also show far ming (fig.

and food preparation. Wheat and bar

ley were staples whose harvest was recorded and taxed. The king's share was stored in

grana ries for distributi on to those who wor ked for him, or made into bread and beer for the gods. King Sahure of Dynasty 5, for example, awarded the goddess Nekhbet of Upper Egypt eight hundred porti ons of bread and beer daily, while Wadjet Wadjet of Lower Egypt received 4 , 8 o o !

(It wou ld have been redistributed once the the deities had their fill.)

Pyramid work ers also consumed beer and bread prepa red in a baker discovered at the south end of the Giza plateau.

23

that was recently

This diet was augmented by fish fish that

was also processed nearby. In addi tion to these these foods, fowl trapped in the marshes and a variety of vegetables probably made up most of the diet of the average Egyptian.

The elite class in their ideal existence as recorded in their tombs fared much better

than the pyrami d worker s. Some tombs contain a detailed menu for eternity. eternity. Nia nkhn esut, for example, in his tomb at Giza lists nineteen varieties of bread and cake, ten types of beef, seven kinds of fruit, four different sorts of fowl, but just one vegetable (onions).

To drin k, he included beer represented by seven different brews and two types of wi ne

The king granted land to the officials who served him, and these properties were not only large but also included a substantial work force. Activities on a large estate typi Fig.11 Painted limestone statuette of

Ptahneferti as a child. Dynasty 5.

cally included farming, animal animal husbandry, viticulture, food preparation, and manufactur

ing, and every stage in each of these these activities was carved or painted on tomb walls. In order for the same Nian khnes ut menti oned abov e to insure he had wha t he needed, his

Fig. 12

estate employed five butlers, three butchers, two bakers, and a cook. There were, in addi

Pleated linen dress from a woman's

burial at N a g a ed-Deir, Dynasty 6.

tion, eleven scribes, two dining room directors, two overseers of linen, one seal bearer,

and a director of workers. All of this was the responsibility of two estate overseers.

25

R o y a l estates, temples, and the necropolis had respective activities also presided over by long lists of officials, which grew in number as the Old K ingd om progressed . In all , the nearly four thousand known titles and epithets for bureaucrats of the Pyramid Age illus

trate the complexity complexity of its its administration and social orga niz ati on.

Fig. 13 Agricultural relief scene from the offering chapel of Sekhemankhptah, Dynasty

Fig. 14

Line drawing of the pull saw scene from the tomb of Ti at S a q q a r a , Dynasty 6.

26

Although remains of actual workshops are few, tomb reliefs provide valuable

Fig. 15 Boat jousting scene from the offering chapel

insights into industries and manu facturi ng t echniques of the time. The tomb of the 5th Dynasty overseer of pyramids , Ti, at Saqqa ra is partic ularl y rich and informa tive. Detailed scenes feature potters, sculptor s, stone vessel makers , carpenters, ship buil ders, leather workers, seal makers, metalsmiths, and mat makers engaged in their craft. Texts above each scene either describe it or capture the worke rs' conver sati on. A carpenter, for example, a dvises his colleagu e using a saw, "Take another! It is h o t ! "

This and similar

scenes demonstrate that woo d was cut by lashing it to an upright pole and pulling a sa throu gh it (fig 1 4 ) . A w l s , axes, adzes, mallets, bow drills, and a variety of chisels (cat. no. 4 ) made up the woodwo rker 's tool box in addition to s aws. These items are not not only depicted on walls, but also found in tombs and workshops. Presumably most of the products being made made in Ti's reliefs reliefs were intended for his his tomb. In another scene from the same tomb, extra goods are bartered in the market. (Coinage did not exist in Egypt until millennia later.)

Although life for the average Egyptian of the Pyramid Age was

29

of Sekhemankhptah, Dynasty 5.

According to these scenes, male children played leapfrog and wrestled. They also engaged in various acrobatic feats. Adult men used sticks to wrestle or joust from boats (fig. 1 5 ) . Much tamer w ere board games where playin g pieces were moved across a board shaped like a rectangle or coiled snake. A different type of amusement was provided by musi

cians, singers, and dancers. The tomb of Nian khkh num and Khnumhot ep at Saqqa ra includes an ensemble of eleven, including two harps, two flutes, one clarinet, and six singers or so-called "chironomists" whose hand gestures may also have served to conduct or guide the musicians in what notes to play.

Dancers frequently accompanied musi

cians. Workers sang as they toiled, and although time has not preserved their melodies, it has preserved their words: Where is the one It is

skilled

at his

job?

zv

l!

E P I L O G U E After more than five hundred years of stability and prosperity, what br ought an end to

the Pyramid A g e ? In all likelihood, the reasons were multiple and complex. Several hun dred years of pyramid building taxed resources and generated no income. Over time, the king appointed and supported an ever-g rowing number of bureaucrats, and this placed an additional drain on the country's coffers. Further, institutions such as temples were g rant ed tax exemptions (cat. no. 2 1 ) . During times of prosperity and opt imism, the count ry coped. Belief in the king's absolute power, however, was challenged by a series of inade quate Nile floods that brought famine and perhaps even attacks from desert raiders. Particularly toward the end of King Pepy IPs long reign that lasted an unbelievable nine ty-four years, the king appears not to have been able to bring relief. He was succeeded by a series of rulers, including one queen, who held po wer for only a few years, and the country fragmented. The production of sculpture and relief diminished greatly both in quantity and quality, because there were no longer ample resources to support it (fig. (fig. 1 6) Fig.

16

Limestone statuette of a seated man.

Dynasty

6.

Provincial centers answered to their own rulers, and no central autho rity had the strength to challenge them. An overall pessimism had set in. Egypt had entered the First Intermediate Period.

NOTES

Narmer may be the same person as Menes on later king lists. For an overview of this problem,

se

Brewer and Teeter 1999, 3 2 - 3 3 .

Robi ns 1997, 58-62. It is further interesting to note that this very scene, including the Libyan names, also was

Manetho, the Greek historian who lived

copied about 1,5 00 years later at Kawa in the

ing the time of Ptolemy II (285-246 B . C . ) , first

Sudan during the reign of Ta har qa . For the dif

divided Egyptian history into dynasties. It is this

ferences between Sahure's original concepts and

system that is followed today, although in many

Pepy IPs copies, see Dorothea Arnold 1999,

instances, including the transition from Dynasty

96-97.

to 3, the reason for changing dynasties remains unknown. See H Hornung ornung 1999 , 13 One such example is a temple to the goddess Satet on Elephantine. First established in the Early Dynastic Period, it was enlarged or rebuilt repeatedly through the Ptolemaic Period

For another view that dates the sphinx to the reign of Khufu, see Stadelmann 1998,

73-75Stadelmann 1998, 66. For Elephantine, see Kaiser 1998, 2 8 3 - 8 5 . Ayn-Asil, see Soukiassian, Wuttmann, an

ser 199 8, 283-87 ( 3 3 2 - 3 0 B . C . ) . See Kai ser

Schaad 1 9 9 0 , 3 4 8 - 5 1 . Other Old Kingdom set

4. For a recent overview of the location and

tlements existed throughout the Nile Valley and

development of the Early Dynastic Period's royal

Delta, but l e s s is known about them. See Wenke

tombs, see Seidelmayer 1998, 3off.

et al. 1988.

Dynasty r, reign of Azib (circa 2800

B.C.),

Th

th Dynasty tomb of Ptahshepses at

illustrated in Smith 19 98 , 19, fig. fig. 22

Abusir encompassed an area of 80 by 107

6. For these and other amazing statistics, see

meters. See Jan osi 199 9, 34. The

Lehner 1997, 84ff.

chapel of the Dynasty 6 vizier Mereruka and his

7. In addition, he built a small step pyramid at

S e i l a . See Lehner 1 99 7, 96. 8. Lehner Lehner 1997 , 105 9. Stadelmann 199 8, 57. Lehner Lehner 1 99 7, 108 Lehner Lehner 199 7, 27. Stadelmann 1998, 64. Lehner 1997, 2 3 6 - 3 7 . Lehner calculated that Menkaure's pyramid only one-tenth the building mass of his grandfather grandfather Khufu's; see Lehner Lehner 19 97, 1 Stadelmann 19 98, 70.

funerary funerary

family consisted of thirty-two relief-decorated rooms! See Altenmuller 1 99 8, 79. Breast ed 1906, T59. Lehner 1997, 2 3 6 - 3 7 . Malek 19 86, 44. Lehner Lehner 199 7,

31

Jones 2000, 2 : 1 0 1 7 , positively identifies

3 , 7 6 5 . A number of the titles seem to have been honorary and without real responsibilities. Malek 1986, 56.

8. Manniche 1 9 9 1 , 3 0 - 3 2 . Manniche 1 9 9 1 ,

Excavating Giza

Y V O N N E

M A R K O W I T Z

When George Andrew Reisner (fig.

became director of the Harvard University-

Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Expedition to Egypt in 1 9 0 5 , he already held excavation rights at Giza. The site, located southwest of modern Cairo and the ancient capital city of Memphis, served as a burial place for Egypt's mighty 4th Dynasty rulers, their relatives

and functi onaries, and a number of leading leading officials of the the 5 th and 6t h Dynasti es. Although Giza is best known for the three towering pyramids and carved-stone sphinx

that dominate the landscape, a vast compl ex of buildings and tombs lie hidden beneath centuries of wind-blown sand. It promised extraordinary treasures and insights into the workings of an ancient civilization at the pinnacle of its development. Concessions or permits to excavate at Giza were granted in 1 90 2 by Gaston Maspero, director of the Egyptian Antiquities Service. Maspero was intent on stopping

the illicit looting and destruction of Egypt' s most historic monuments and divi ded the plateau among Italian, German, and American missions. Ernesto Schiaparelli led the Italian team, Ludwi g Borchard t (for Geor g Steindorff) Steindorff) represented the Germa ns, and the Americans were headed headed by Reisner. The manner in which the competing pa rties were

awarded the concessions is vividly recounted in Reisner's notes: In December, 1 9 0 2 , the three concessionaires met on the veranda of the Mena House Hotel. E verybody wanted wanted a portion of the great Western Western Cemetery. Cemetery. It was divided in

three strips East-West. Three bits of paper were marked marked

,

, and 3 and put in a hat.

Mrs. Reisner drew the papers and presented one to each of us. The southern strip fell

to the Italians, the middle one to the Germans and the northern one to me. Then we proceeded to divide the pyramids. I perceived that the Italian s were interested in the First Pyramid (Khufu's) and the Germans in the Second (Khafre's)...I was perfectly willing to have the Third Pyramid (Menkaure's)... Reisner's early field field wor k in Eg ypt was under the auspices of the Universit y of California, Berkeley, with funding for excav ati ons at sites such as Nag a ed-Deir, ed-Deir, B a l l a s , Painted limestone statue of Nefu

and Giza provided by Phoebe Apperson Hearst, mother of newspaper mogul William

and Khenetemsetju,

Dynasty 5.

Randolph Hearst. Born in the American Midwest in 1 8 6 7 , Reisner earned undergraduat

and graduate degrees in Semitic languages and history at Harvard University. After gradu ation, he focused his energies energies on Egypt ology , studying sev eral years in Berlin with phi lolo gists Adolf Erman and Kurt Sethe. By 18 96 , Reisner was back in the U.S. and lecturing at Harvard. He would soon embark upon a journey that would remain his lifelong pas fieldwork. ork. Alon g the the way, he would be come a pioneering force in sion—archaeological fieldw the application of scientific methodology to his profession. officials who served under King Reisner began wor k on the tombs (mastabas) of officials Khufu in Giza's great Western Cemetery (fig. 1 9 ) .

The choicest were in close proximity to

the pyramid, providing a tangible symbol of a person's status in life, and by inference, in the afterlife. The oldest of these tombs were arranged in a highly organized pattern of streets and each consisted of two parts—a superstructure of brick or stone and a subter ranean burial chamber (fig. 1 8 ) . The superstructure was rectangular in shape with a stone or rubble core, a flat top, and inward sloping walls that were sometimes faced with stone. Fig. 17

G e o r g e Andrew Reisner, J u n e 26, 1933.

the 4th Dynasty, small chapels had been added to the superstructure with rectangula stelae featurin g the deceas ed seated before a table of offering s (fig. 20 ). The stelae eventu ally evolved into elaborate false doors (cat. nos. 24, 44) that facilitated the passage of the

spirit, or ka, of the deceased from the burial chamber into the land of the living. Offerings of either act ual or mod el foods wer e often set on a table placed in front of the false door.

F i g . 18 Mastaba tomb construction.

Fig. 19

G e n e r a l view of the Western Cemetery, looking west, from the

top of the Great Pyramid of

K h u f u , J u n e 25, 1932.

Fig. 20 Painted limestone slab stela of

Prince Wepemnofret, Dynasty 4, reign of Khufu. Phoebe Apperson Hearst Museum of Anthropology, University of Cali fornia at Berkeley.

Fig. 21

Reserve heads at Harvard C a m p , December 17, 1913.

A l s o attached to the chapel was a sealed statue chamber, call ed a serdab, with sculptures

of the owner. A small slit in the serdab's wall enabled the deceased to participate in ritual offerings provided by priests or visitors.

Dynasty 5, mastaba chapels evolved into a series of rooms that were sometimes decorated with images and brief biographies of the deceased as well as representations and textual lists of goods for the afterlife. Some even included lively scenes of daily life such as harvesti ng, boating , and craft producti on. Th e largest and most extensi vely deco rated chapels were built by Egypt's elite as signs of their status and power in this life and the next. In most mastabas, access to the burial chamber was located behind the false doo r and down a deep vertical shaft and a short horizonta l pa ssag eway. This room , which contained the sarcophagus, was typically cut into the bedrock or lined with stone during Dynasty 4 and contained few, if any burial

items. An exception to this rule are the "reserve heads" whose purpose is not com pletely underst ood (cat. nos. 9,

fig.

).

When Hearst support for his fieldwork came to an end in 1 9 0 4 ,

Reisner was

forced to look elsewhere for a sponsor.

By

then, his reputation as a scholar and excava tor was firmly established. Fortuitously, Harvard University and the Museum of Fine

"5m\

Arts, Bost on, were searching for someone to head a field field expedition in Egypt. Their

goals—t o advance learning in in scientifi scientific c archaeology and to add work s with unquestioned provenance to the Museum's growing collection—were met in what turned out to be a long and productive collaboration.

M E N K A U R E ' S

P Y R A M I D

C O M P L E X

In 19 06 Reisner began his his work on the pyramid complex of Menkaur e at the southern most end of the great Giza diagonal (fig. (fig. 23) . The smallest of the three main Giza pyra mids, this monument abuts a dip on the plateau known as the Mokka ta m For mat ion It includes the king's pyramid, an adjoining temple, and three satellite pyramids for his queens. A causeway connecting the pyramid temple to a smaller temple located in the val ley was largely under sand. Named "Menkaure is Divine," the pyramid of the dynasty's

fifth ruler was dressed in white Tura limestone except for its lower courses, which were F i g . 22

Line drawing of a cross section of a pyramid.

Burial tsr • •

s h a f t

of Queen

Hetep-heres

F i g . 23

D r a w i n g : Map of the G i z a n e c r o p olis, showing the pyramids and the Western and Eastern cemeteries.

Photo: Aerial view of the G i z a plateau (Great Pyramid of K h u f u in

the foreground, with the pyramids of Khafre and Menkaure in the

b a c k g r o u n d ) , looking southwest, mid-20th century.

encased in red granite. It measures 65 meters in height, is 1 0 2 . 2 meters by 104.6 meters at the base, and slopes at an angle of appro ximate ly 51 degrees. degrees.

with its immediate predecessors, the Menkaure pyramid employs an east-west axial orientation, aligning the the sides of the monument in th

true north position. This

alignment was accomplished with astonishing accuracy, illustrating the importance of cardinality in Giza's cluster of pyramids. Mark Lehner suggests that the Egyptians deter mined true north by measuring the movement of the sun and its shadow and then plotted a perfect square on the ground that was subsequently leveled. A stone platform served as a foundation for blocks set set in horizontal steps or tiers. Temporary ramps, co mposed of limestone chips, talfa, and gypsum, were constructed to expedite the transport of heavy stones upwards while casing blocks, dressed to produce a smooth, polished plane, were custom-fitted to the surface. It has been estimated that two crews of of two thousand men each—mostly each—mostly peasant conscripts—were needed to build the Great Pyramid. Thousands more, however, served in support roles as metalsmiths, potters, bakers, and brewers. The workforce for each of the constructi on site. Their sim G i z a pyramids lived in tax-exempt town s established near the constructi ple, mudbrick dwellings were largely abandoned after the pyramid was built. However,

those involved in administering the cult of the king after his death continued to populate the plateau.

A c c e s s to Menkaure's burial chamber is on the pyramid's north side, about 4 meters above the base. A descending passage leads into a paneled chamber that exits into another passage with three portcullis blocks . These large granite stones, installed to prevent theft,

block the entrance to a horizontal passage that opens into a large antechamber.

The

room, hewn from bedrock and possibly an earlier burial chamber, is situated directly under the vertical axis of the pyramid. From here, a short passage slopes downward into the granite-lined burial chamber (fig. (fig. 22) . The king's basalt sarcoph agus, decorated wit h a carved, palace-fagade motif, was removed in 1 8 3 7 by Richard William Howard V y s e . An English army officer, V y s e reportedly used dynamite while exploring the pyramids.

To

make matters wor se, the the sarcoph agus was lost when the the ship transporting it to England sank off the coast of Spain. However, it was not Menkaure's pyramid but its associated temples that drew Reisner's attention. The pyramid temple (also called the mortuary temple) located along

the pyramid's eastern side started out as a stone building but was finished in mudbrick after Menkaur e's death by his his successor, Shepseskaf. The structure included a processional ramp, vestibule, rectangular courtyard, colonnaded portico, sanctuary, and storehouses. Within the building and its immediate environs, the excavation team found fragments of a colossal statue of the seated king. This magnificent magnificent sculpture, carved in translucent

F i g . 24

Head from a c o l o s s a l alabaster statue of King

M e n k a u r e in situ, April 1 4 , 1 9 0 7 . C o l o s s a l alabaster statue of King Menkaure.

Fig. 25

Th

discovery of the triads,

July 10, 1908. Triad of K i n g Menkaure, the g o d

Hathor, and the de ified Hare dess Hathor, nome (cat. no. 5).

alabaster, was probably the focal point in the courtyard (fig. 24). Fragments of other stat ues of Menkaure (cat. no. 7) were also recovered from this part of the complex. In 1 90 8 Reisner and field field director Oric Bates projected the axi s of of the temple causeway and began the search for Menkaure's Valley T e m p l e .

At the mouth of the

main wadi, they found the remains of a structure that had undergone three building phases: a stone foundation laid by Menk aure , a mudbrick temple built by his his son Shepseskhaf, and a mudbrick restoration undertaken by Pepy Pepy II of Dynasty 6 after after a flood.'

Excav ati ng the southwest corner of the building, they discovered the the now-

famous pair statue of King Men kau re and a queen (fig. 8) and a series of gre ywa cke tri ads featuring King Menk aur e, the goddess Hathor, and nome deities (cat. no. 5; fig. fig. 25 ). Although Reisner believed that there were several dozen triads, one for each nome, or administrative provin ce, a recent interpretation interpretation is that there were originally eight group sculptures symbolizin g major sites associated with the the cult of Ha th or Over the next three decades, the Boston team divided their energies among twentythree sites in Egypt and Nubia (the Sudan). In fact, Reisner's discoveries in the land occu pied by Egypt's southern neigh bor were as extrao rdina ry as his Giza finds. And, at each site, he he followed a meticulous meticulous pro gram of record keeping , documenting each aspect of the excavation with detailed maps, plans, notes, inventories, and photographs.'

His goal

wa

to create a field record so comprehensive that it would allow an outsider to recre

ate, in reverse, the the site as origina lly found. This notion of replication, a cornersto ne of scientific method, helped to establish archaeo logy as a legitimate means of understand

ing the past.

1 9 1 0 , Reisner's duties also included that of Curator of Egyptian Art at the Muse um of Fine Arts , Boston, which had moved to new facilities. Within a few years, he was joined by a young Harvard graduate, Dows Dunham, who became an indispens able colleague in the field field and eventually a cura tor in Boston. Unlike most most exc avat ors with institutional affiliation, Reisner spent most of his time time in the Nile Valley and, while excavating G i z a , lived west of the pyramids in a house known as Harvard Camp (fig. Fig. 26

Th

living room at Harvard C a m p ,

1934.

2 6 ) . A significant amount of his time was devoted to orga nizing the expedition's records for publication. His thoroughly documented writings, including A History of the Giza Necropolis

( 1 9 4 2 ) , disseminated his technique as well as his results. Reisner eventually

developed theories on the evolution of tomb development from an archaeological per spective that included typologies of stone vessels, pottery, and tools.

T O M B

Q U E E N

H E T E P H E R E S

On February 2, 1 ^ 2 5 , an exciting and puzzling discovery was made on the plateau. At the time, Reisner was in the United States and two of his assistants, Alan R o w e and T. R. D. Greenlees, were excavating the mastaba field east of the Great Pyramid of Khufu. Documenting their finds finds was expedition photogr apher

Mohammedani Ibrahim. The camera equipment was cumbersome, and while Ibrahim wa

repositioning a tripod, one of its legs sank into the ground revealing a patch of

plaster. Closer examinat ion led to the discovery of a sealed opening in the the und erlying rock that led to a stairway of twelve steps and a vertical shaft nearly 27 meters deep. This steep passage was packed with masonry and it took nearly two weeks of steady work to remove the the blocka ge. About a third of the the way down , excava tors uncovered

a niche containing parts of an ox, two beer jars, some charcoal, and basalt chips. Although the shaft lacked the traditional superstructure, they believed that a burial lay below and that the organic material was part of an ancient ancient food offering to the the tomb's

owner. When the burial chamber was finally reached, R o w e and Greenlees removed part of the doorway. Using a mirror to reflect a beam of sunlight, they identified goldencased furniture ( cat. no.

vessels of various materials, and a gleaming alabaster

sarcophagus (fig. 28). Visible on the sarcophagus lid were several sheets of gold with inlaid hieroglyphs of faience. Among the glyphs was a cartouche, leading the excited archaeologists to conclude that they had discovered an intact royal burial dating to the time of King Sneferu. Further work on the newly discovered tomb was not carried out until Reisner's arrival

Giza

July.

proceeding further. further. Ther e were conside rable difficulties difficulties clearing the burial—a system o lighting had to be constructed, a method of working within the confines of a small, dense

ly packe d space devised, and on-site on-site research and consulta tion arra nged. Beca use the fur the first recovered from the Pyramid Age , it was necessary to reconstruct its niture wa s the forms from the surviving gold encasements. Apparent ly, the the wo od had deteriora ted to a fine fine ash. Working under extrem e heat and in cramped posi tions, the team often resorted to using tweezers to remove the inla ys and gold sheet (fig. (fig. 27 ). After two se asons, the room w as finally finally cleared of the furniture suite, jewelry, pottery, stone vessels, and remain ing cultic items. All that remained wa s the stone sarcopha gus (fig. 29) . To witness its opening, Reisner assembled a group of notables, among them the American ambassador and director gener al of antiquities. To everyone's surprise, when the lid of the sa rcopha gus was lifted, there wa s nothing inside! Jos eph Linden Smith ( 1 8 6 4 - 1 9 5 0 ) , a friend of

Fig. 27 Noel Wheeler excavating in the

tomb of Queen Hetepheres I,

July 22, 1926.

Fig. 28

Th

tomb c hamber of Queen

Hetepheres

as shown in a painting

by J o s e p h Linden S m i t h .

F i g . 29 Removing the stone sarcophagus

from the tomb of Queen Hetepheres I, April 17, 1927.

Reisner's and an artist whose paintings of archaeological sites in Egypt form part of the Museum's documentary record, was present during the tension-filled event. He was later described as turning to Reisner and exclaiming in a loud voice, "Geor ge, she's she's a dud!" Reisner responded: "Gentlemen, I regret Queen Hetepheres is not receiving."'

The myster y of the unplundered tomb and empty s arcophagu s of Hetepheres I led Reisner to conclude that the Expedition had discovered a reburial, the original interment

having been in Dahshur near the pyramid of her husband Sneferu. He surmised that shortly after the queen's death, her tomb was entered and robbed. The thieves were prob ably caught in the act and the queen's son, Khufu, arranged a second burial near his own

pyramid at Giza. As for the mummy, it was in all likelihood torn apart as the robbers hurriedly ripped jewels from the body. All that remained were embalming materials used during mummification stored within a canopic chest. Although Reisner's account has been challenged over the years, it continues to offer the most reasonable explanation for several strange facts such as the absence of a superstr ucture, the small, unfinished unfinished b urial

chamber, the presence of sherds from the same vessel in different areas of the tomb, and the chip in the sarcophagus's lid.

GIZA 'S

RUL ING

ELITE

Between the the years 1 90 5 and 1 9 4 1 , the Expedition systematically excavated the Old Kingdom tombs of Egypt's ruling class. In 1 9 2 7 , while clearing the mastabas of Khufu's sons and daughters in the the Eastern Cemetery, Reisner uncovered the the three-room tomb chapel of Queen Mere sankh I II—a granddaughte r of Khufu, a daughter of Prince Kawa (cat. no. 1 ) and Queen Hetepheres II, and th

wife of Khafre (cat. nos. 3, 4). The rock-

cut chapel , believed to have been built by Hetephe res II for her daughter, was unusu al in

that it was underground rather than part of the superstructure.

18

It also contained multi

p l e , life-sized statues of both women carved out of the bedrock (fig. 30) and walls deco rated with painted reliefs depicting Meres ankh and her family, family, preparati ons for the the after

life, and outdoor scenes (fig. 3 1 ) . Reisner recalled, Our ey es were first startled by th

vivid colors of the reliefs and inscri ptions around

the northern part of this large chamber. None of us had ever seen anything like it. Then gradually, in the obscurity of the two adjoining rooms, statues and statuettes became visib le.. .si xtee n figures cut in the the rock and four inserted in a niche in the south wall.

Fig. 30 Subterranean chamber in the

tomb of Queen Meresankh III,

May 8, 1927.

19

Among the artifacts found in the burial are the first known set of canopic jars and a

Fig. 31 Drawing of Queen Hetepheres II

unique pair statue of Hetepheres II and Mere sankh I I I .

Hetepheres, shown standing to

the proper right of the the youn ger queen, wear s a heavy, shoulder-length w ig and affection-

an

Queen Meresankh III in a boat

from the east wall, main room, tomb of Meresankh III, G i z a .

ately embraces her daughter with her left arm (fig.

3 2 ) . Other distinctive aspects of the tomb are two inscriptions on the tomb's outer door—one stating the date of Mere san kh's death, the other her funeral da te. The Boston team also continued to make excep tional finds in the Western Cemetery. Of particular interest is the late 5th Dynasty family burial of the overseer and purification-priest Akhmeretnesut (cat. no. 20). Reisner and assistant Clarence Fisher began excavating the tomb in 1 9 1 2 but work on the mastaba, which had undergone several modifications and contained seven shafts, was not completed until Other mastabas such as the

1935.

th Dynasty tomb of the

pyramid-temple priest Penmeru yielded outstanding sculpture.

11

A triad featuring three representations of

the deceased, as well as a family group with two fig ures of Penmeru, his wife Meretites, and two children (all located in the statue chamber of Penmeru's mastaba) are among the finest group statues known to exist (fig- 33)-

One of the most interesting of the tomb com plexes at Giza is the mastaba grouping of the Senedjemib family. Loca ted near the northwest corner of Khufu's pyramid, it contains the burials of eight

men who represent four generations of high officials, most of them architects and viz iers. These men served a succession of late 5th and 6th Dynasty kings, and their tombs reflect a century of architectural, artistic, and economic change. The burial of the last member F i g . 32 Limestone statue of Q u e e n s Hetepheres II and Meresankh III,

Dynasty 4.

of the family interred at the site, Ptahshepses Impy

(cat. nos. 3 8 - 4 1 ) , was intact when discovered. Its form and contents offer insights into the twilight days of the Old Kingdom.

While other activities at Giza may have lacked the suspense and drama surrounding the discovery of

Hetepheres Fs tomb, their scope and depth have added greatly to our

understanding of the period. Reisner had many assistants and colleagues in Egypt and Boston, and their efforts, both scholarly and curatorial, greatly benefited the Museum and the growing field of Egyptology. In

particular, Dows Dunham, William Stevenson Smith, and William K e l l y Simpson left a rich and enduring legacy. The Museum continues to explore the G i z a plateau and its ongoing publication, the Giza Series, serves as a model of archaeological documentation.

Mastaba

2i

NOTES

Boston was assigned the Italian con cession in 1 9 0 5 . For result s of the

Italian expedition see Curto

1963.

Although it was the smallest of the

three Giza pyramids (one-tenth of the building mass of Khufu's pyramid), Reisner's assistant Arthur Mace had already determined on a scouting mis sion that Menkaure's

pyramid

prom

ised rich finds. See Lehn er 1 9 9 7 ,

134

the quote, see Reisner n.d. a, 5. The Eastern Cemetery contained the

Reisner 1 9 3 1 , 3 4 - 3 5 Reisner 1 9 1 1 ,

17-20.

Wood 1 9 7 4 , 8 2 — 9 3 . The Expedition's records are divided

into daily dairies, photographs, and object registers. For a detailed descrip

tion of the documents, see Dunham 195 8,

23-24.

Smith 1 9 5 6 ,

148.

Mark Lehner believes this to have been the queen's original tomb, the

tombs of Khufu's wives and close rela

body having been remov ed after layou

tives.

changes were made in the Eastern

The "reserve heads" that date to the reigns of Khufu and Khafre were found in either the tomb shaft or bur ial chamber. See Roehrig

1999c,

73-75-

hat at Mrs. Hearst Reisner states t h experienced a financial setback in South Dakota's Homestake mine. Reisner n.d. a, 6.

deposit rather than as a reburial; see Miinch 2 0 0 0 , 8 9 8 - 9 0 8 .

2 1 2 - 1 7 .

Penmeru, Dynasty 5.

tomb

7 5 4 0 ) , see Reisner

64-79

d Dunham and Simpson 1 9 7 4 .

1927b,

access to burials were circumvented by

ingenious robbers. See Arnold T 9 9 1 , 222-24. 50-53.

31 , 108,

pis.12-17.

Arts, Boston (MFA 3 0 . 1 4 5 6 ) , see Capel 1996,

103- 4.

Porter and Moss 1 9 7 4 , 8 2 - 8 3 . See also Smith 1 9 4 6 , 5 3 , pi. 2 1 b , c.

The series has just published its sev

enth volume and several several additional uscripts are in progress.

Fig. 33

Limestone group statue of

For a detailed discussion of the

For a disc ussi on of the statu e, now

It appears that all attempts to secure

Reisner

inter

funerary

in the collection of the Museum of Fine

Lehner 1 9 9 7 , 1 0 6 .

Lehner 1 9 9 7 ,

recently, Hans-Hubertus Munch prets the find find as the queen's

Reisner 1 9 2 7 b , 64

Dunham 1 9 5 8 ,

8. Lehner 1 9 9 7 ,

Cemetery; see Lehner 1 9 8 5 . M o r e

man

Dynasty

Although the mas sive stone blocks , llife-sized ife-sized

Sneferu (2625-2585 B . C . ) , is known to have sent

statues, and enclosure walls of King Djoser's

troops into Nubia to secure Egypt's southern

Step Pyramid complex of Dynasty 3 provided a

border and protect the quarries, gold mines, and

template for future future royal burials, 4th 4th D ynas ty

trade routes for luxury goods such as panther

rulers refined and altered the plan. The north-

skins and ostrich eggs. In another campaign dur

south layout became an east-west orientation

ing his his reign reign again st Libya, both prisoners and

while the stepped superstructure evolved into

cattle were obtained while an Egyptian presence

the true pyramid form. The pyramid temple

in the Sinai guaran teed continued exploita tion

originally located on the northern face moved to

the region' s copper mines . To meet t he

the center of the eastern base, and a causeway

demand for building materials such as cedar,

leading to another temple in the valley was

fleets fleets of commercial ships sailed to dest inati ons

added (fig 34). Some of these architectural

in Lebanon and Syria. Later kings, notably

developments reflect reflect ideological changes con

Khufu and Khafre ( 2 5 5 5 - 2 5 3 2 B . C . ) , followed

cerning kingship and the growing influence of

similar foreign policy.

the powerful sun cult at Hel iopolis . In this con text, the true pyramid represents an expanding ray of light illuminating the earth from above. This interpretation is in keeping with spell 523 from the Pyramid Texts. It suggests that the dead king ascends heavenward to unite with the Re via the sun's rays, thereby becoming part

F i g . 34 Model of the G i z a plateau

(scale 1:2000), 1998.

of

an eternal cycle of renewal.

The addition of

to the king's titulary, beginning with King Redjedef ( 2 5 6 0 - 2 5 5 5 B . C . ) , formally established the associa tion . Another viewpoint pla ces the pyramid at the state's political center center and identi

The builders of the pyramid complexes num bered in the thousands.

men, stone haulers, mas ons , metal workers, and artisans. Many were peasant conscripts organ ized into crews of one thousand men divided

into five groups, or phyles. They lived in settle ments on the plateau and were provided with daily rations of bread, beer, and fish. Priests and officials who maintained the cult of the king also lived in the necropolis. They occupied tax-

exempt districts and tended to the produce and livestock supplied by provincial estates.

fies the pyramid's monumentality and location

in the necropolis as concrete expressions of the tight central organization that characterized the period.

2.

Private tombs also reflected the political dynamics of the dynasty. Proximity to the pyra

They included quarry-

The royal workshops, located in precincts around the pyramid, were part of industrial compounds that employed skilled workers. Among these these workers workers were potters, metal work ers,

and sculptors . The stat uary created during

this dynamic, innovative period includes some the finest work s ever to be prod uced (fig. 35 ).

mid was reserved for those of rank whose wel

of

fare—in this life life an d the next—dep ende d upon

Idealized, elegant, and restrained—they es tab

the largess e of the king. Members of the roya

lished a canon of body proportions that endured

family often held the highest posts, including

throughout the course of Egyptia n history, history,

that of chief executive officer or vizier. A case in point is Hemiunu (cat. no. r3 ), vizier vizier under

Edwards 1985, 299-301.

Khufu (2585-2560 B . C . ) and owner of one of the largest mast aba s in in the Western Cemetery. for private tomb substructures, there is a

R a h o t e p and Nofret, from Meidum, Dynasty 4, reign of S n e f e r u .

49-50, stresses the dependence of

officials on the generosity of the king, pointi ng out

the decreased distance between royal and private

resemble houses to single chambers with few

tombs at Giza.

grave goods. Accompanying these changes were

4. Grimal 1992, 6 7 - 7 1 .

new attitudes towar d the hereafter hereafter bas ed on the

5. Lehner 1997,

belief that the king would sustain the deceased

twenty-five thousand workers built the Khufu pyra

in perpetuity.

mid.

complete the building projects of of 4th 4th D yna sty

Seated limestone statues of Prince

1984, 1 9 - z i .

Roth 1 9 9 3 ,

shift away from multiroom arrangements that

The human and material resources needed to

F i g . 35

O'Connor 3.

kings reflect reflect a period of social and ec onomic stability. In fact, Egypt's rulers were so powerful

that they extended their influence far beyond their own borders. The founder of the dynasty,

6. Lehner 1997,

- Z 5 , estimates that twenty to

-39.

FURNITURE

FROM

central component of the suite is the

INLAYS

TH E TO MB

OF

sloped, rectangular bed with a leather-webbed

Q U E E N

H E T E P H E R E S

frame in the center, a footboard decorated with

a. Bed canopy (Reproduction by Joseph

faience, and four leonine l e g s . A wooden head

Gerte)

rest sheathed in gold and silver sheet completes

Dynasty 4, reign of Sneferu, 2625-2585

B . C .

the sleeping unit. The low, wide armchai r incor

G i z a , tomb G 7000

porates rope-bound papyrus stalks in the sides

Wood, gold sheet

and repeats the lion-leg motif found on the bed.

L. 3 1 3 . 7 cm, h.

The construction and inscription on the carrying

cm, w. 258.8 cm

Departmental Appropriation

chair suggest that it is later in date, possibly a

38.87

gift from the queen's son Khufu. The gold hiero

Th

G i z a tomb of Queen Hetepheres I, most

glyphs on the back were originally set into strips

likely the wife of Sneferu and mother of Khufu,

ebony, while the ends of the carrying poles

contained the remains of a unique collection of

feature palm leaf capitals covered by heavy gold

furniture furniture excava ted by by George Reisner and Dow

sheet,

Dunham in 1 92 5 and 1 9 2 6 . ' During the 326 days it took to clear the queen's tomb, each step wa

he e n t r a n c e

Queen Hetepheres 1925

to

I'

tomb,

or

1926.

meticulously recorded and documented. The

For a discussion of the queen's name and titles, see Baud 1999, 2 : 5 2 5 - 2 7 .

burial chamber presented a special challenge, as

2. The excavators created more than one thousand

the wooden compone nt of the the queen's funerar

photographs and nearly two thousand pages of notes

equipment had largely collapsed and disinte

and drawings. For an overview of the project, see

grated, leaving an ash-like residue among the

Reisner 1 9 2 7 a , 1 3 - 3 6 , and Reisner and Smith 1955,

scattered gold encasements and inlays (fig. 28,

41).

1 3 - 4 7 . W. A. Stewart and Bernard Rice accomplished the actual work on the Cairo canopy. Stewart fabri cated the bed, headrest, carrying chair, and jewel box.

Reisner's methods proved invaluable when

In Egypt, materials expert Alfred Lucas and Egyptian

attempts were later made to reconstruct the

conserva tor Ahmed Youssef aided Stewart and Rice.

extrao rdinar y furniture suite found found in the

The Boston suite, excluding the curtain box, was fab

burial. The suite included a square canopy, a curtain box, a bed with headrest, two armchairs, carrying chair, and a jewelry casket.' Although the wood had largely deteriorated, the gold and copper sheathing covering the wooden surfaces survived. Reisner described the metalwork as

extremely fine; and on several items, including

ricated by Boston cabinetmaker Joseph Gerte several years after the Cairo grouping was reconstructed. Many other wooden boxes (much deteriorated by the time the tomb was opened) contained pottery, textiles, and other equipment for the afterlife. 4. Both on and near the gold casings associated with the bed and curtain box were faience inlays. These were later incorporated into the Cairo suite.

the carrying chair and jewel box, the queen is

5. The hieroglyphs on the canopy jambs are raised

identified by name and title.

relief worked from the underside (repousse) with

The recreated bed canopy is composed of a gold-encased wooden frame with three floor beams, four upright posts at the corners ,

ten

slender columns, four roof beams, and five roof ing poles. The copper-cove red joints are bou nd by leather strips secured to copper staples. series of copper hooks along the floor and roof

chased detailing on the front. Some signs, such as the bee in nisut bity (part of the king's titulary), are exceptional in that they demonstrate an attempt at foreshortening. 6. The interior panels of the two posts served as

entrance jambs where an inscription gives the names Hetepheres's husband, King Sneferu. and titles of Hetepheres's 7. The joints between the roof beams, jambs, and

beams would have served as fasteners for the

floor rails are mortisc-and-tenon joints; the roofing

linen curtain panels. These panels were proba

poles are connected connected to the roof beams by dovetail

bly stored in the long, rectangular box bearing

joints.

the names, titles, and images of Sneferu, the

8. For a detailed discussion of the reconstruction, see

queen's husband.' Another box, a replica of an

Reisner 1 9 3 2 a .

inscribed jewel casket, now houses Hetepheres's

9. The inscriptions appear on the lid and sides, while

silver bangles . Inlaid with semi-pre cious stones

the images of Sneferu Sneferu are on the ends. Both the hiero

arranged in a repeat butterfly pattern, these adornments are representative of the "stacked bracelet" style popular among court ladies during the late 3rd, 4th, and 5th Dynasties.

10

glyphs and the images were enhanced by brightly col ored faience inlays set into the wood. For a discussion of the dating, usage, and con

struction of these ornaments, see Markowit z, Haynes, and Lacovara 2002.

Curtain box (Reproduction by Ahmed

Youssef) Dynasty 4, reign of Sneferu, 2625-2585 G i z a , ttomb om b

B.C.

7000 x

Wood, gold sheet, silver, faience

1 5 7 . 5 cm, h. 1 8 . 5 cm,

w.

2 1 . 5 cm

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

39.746

c. Butterfly inlays from a silver bracelet Dynasty 4, reign of Sneferu to Khufu, 2625-2560

om b Giza, ttomb

B.C.

7000 x

L a p i s lazuli, turquoise, carnelian 1 5 . 5 cm, h. 0.3 cm,

7 cm (including

mount) Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

47.1701

d. Armchair (Re producti on by Jos eph Gerte) Dynasty 4, reign of Sneferu to Khufu, 2625-2560

B.C.

om b Giza, ttomb

7000 x

Wood, gold sheet H.

79.5 cm,

70.7 cm, d. 66 cm

w.

Gift of Mrs . Charles Gasto n Smith Smith and Gr oup

of Friends

38.957

e. Bed (Reproduction by Joseph Gerte) Dynasty 4, reign of Sneferu to Khufu, 2625-2560

B.C.

G i z a , tomb

7000 x

Wood, gold sheet, leather cm, h. 43.5 cm,

w.

97.5 cm

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

29.T858

f. Carrying chair (Reprod uction by Jos eph Gerte) Dynasty 4, reign of Khufu, 2585-2560 om b Giza, ttomb

B.C.

7000 x

Cypress, ebony, gilt copper, gold-plated

electrotypes H.

79.5 cm,

w.

70.7 cm, d. 66 cm

Gift of Mrs. Charles Gaston Smith and Group

Friends

38.874

Headrest (Reproduction by Joseph Gerte) Dyn asty 4, reign reign of Sneferu to Khu fu, 2625-2560

B.C.

om b Giza, ttomb

7000 x

Wood, gold, silver sheet H.

20.5 cm,

w.

1 7 . 2 cm, d. 7.8 cm

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

29.1859

Craftsmen in the pottery workshop of Ti at S a q q a r a , Dynasty 6

C E R A M I C S

F R O M

O F

H E T E P H E R E

T O M B

f. Jar stand

The Egyptians used Nile silt and marl clays

Dynast y 4, reign of Sneferu to Khu fu,

for pottery destined for the household, temple,

a. Jar

2625-2560

and tomb. The silt, rich in organic matter, silica,

Dynas ty 4, reign of Sneferu to Khu fu,

Giza, tomb G 7000

and iron oxides , was particularly abund ant

2625-2560B . C .

Nile silt

readily available. Dynasty 4 potters shaped their

Q U E E N

Giza, tomb G 7000

1 1 . 1 cm, diam. 10.8 cm Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts

Nile silt 22.9 cm, diam. 1 9. 2 cm

Expedition

37.2736

37.2696

Dynasty 4, reign of Sneferu to Khufu,

and polishing with a cloth.

2625-2560 B . C .

Dynasty 4, reign of Sneferu to Khufu, 2625-2560

Nile silt

The pottery from the tomb of Queen Hetepher es is an impor tant , l arge corp us of ves from a dated cont ext. Alt hough mo st of the

6.8 cm, diam. 6.6 cm

vessels were found in fragments, George Reisner able to devise a typology of shapes used

Harva rd Universi ty-Museum of Fine Fine Arts

Nile silt 8.6 cm, diam. 22 cm

Expedition

included

Further

burnishing with a tool

enhancements

Giza, tomb G 7000

Giza, tomb G 7000

reddish brown, and sometimes the porous sur

g. Small jar

b. Bowl with flaring rim

Com

pleted vessels were then heated, turning them

faces were coated with a wash or s l i p .

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

clay by hand or by turning it on a wheel.

and

37.2668

during the reigns of Kings Sneferu and Khufu.

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts

Many of the forms derive from older stone ves

Expedition

h. Lid

sels or from containers made of metal.

Nearly

Dynas ty 4, reign of Sneferu to Kh ufu,

all were fabricated from red-b rown cla

that

37.2698

c. Footed vessel

2625-2560 B . C .

Dynas ty 4, reign of Sneferu to Khu fu,

Giza, tomb G 7000

2625-2560B . C .

Nile silt

Giza, tomb G 7000 x

24.5 cm, diam. 34 cm

forms, such as the bowl with flaring rim,

7.5 cm, diam. 18 cm

Expedition

37.2691

i. Model bowl

d. Bowl

2625-2560B . C .

Dynas ty 4, reign of Sneferu Sneferu to Khu fu,

Giza, tomb c 7000 x

2625-2560 B . C .

Nile silt

Giza, tomb G 7000

T u r n i n g is m u c h s l o w e r than t h r o w i n g on

2.8 cm, diam. 8.6 cm

D y n a s t y 5, as e v i d e n c e d in a p o t t e r ' s s c e n e in the

t o m b of Ti at S a q q a r a ( l in in e d r a w i n g at left). See A r n o l d and B o u r r i a u 1 9 9 3 , 43 2. W a s h e s

4.7 cm, diam. 19 .7 cm

Expedition

37.2666

Bag-shaped vessel Dynas ty 4, reign of Sneferu to Khu fu,

e. Spouted bowl with recurved rim

2625-2560B . C .

Dynas ty 4, reign of Sneferu to Khu fu,

Giza, tomb G 7000

2625-2560 B . C .

Nile silt

Giza, tomb G 7000 Nile silt 19. 2 cm, diam. 34.2 cm Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts 37.2688

pigment

water while

3. R e i s n e r c o n c l u d e d that m a n y v e s s e l s w e r e b r o k e n

d u r i n g the p l u n d e r i n g of the

ueen's original burial

that the p o t t e r y f r a g m e n t s w e r e i n c l u d e d in her

r e b u r i a l at G i z a . S i n c e the p o t t e r y wa s t o r e d in w o o d e n b o x e s , a d d i t i on on a l b r e a k a g e o c c u r r e d as the

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts 37.2695

composed

slip c o n t a i n s f i n e clay, p i g m e n t , and w a t e r .

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts

Nile silt

wheel.

T h r o w i n g d o e s not a p p e a r to have been used until

Dynas ty 4, reign of Sneferu to Kh ufu,

Expedition

received a red slip and high polish,

37.2712

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts

Expedition

While surfaces were left left undec orat ed, several

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts

Nile silt

Expedition

smoothed with a wet hand before drying.

w o o d d e t e r i o r a t e d and p o t s fell to the floor. In the

e n d , R e i s n e r wa a b l e to r e c o n s t r u c t 2 8 1 v e s s e l s . Se

R e i s n e r and S m i t h 1 9 5 5 , 6 0 - 6 8 , f i g s . 5 8 - 7 9 .

R e i s n e r ' s t y p o l o g y for the p e r i o d , t h o u g h not c o m 

p l e t e , i n c l u d e s s e v e n t e e n t y p e s and t h i r t y - f o u r s u b  types.

1 1 . 2 cm, diam. 1 3 . 5 cm

The b a g - s h a p e d v e s s e l s , b o w l s w i t h r e c u r v e d r i m s ,

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts

and neckless jars with plastic rims have metal precur

Expedition

s o r s , w h i l e the f l a t - b o t t o m e d b o w l w i t h w i d e m o u t h

37.2649

nd no rim a p p e a r e d f i r s t in h a r d s t o n e .

H E A D

KING

Dynasty 4, 2 5 5 5 - 2 5 3 2

K H A F R E B . C .

G i z a , surface debris south of tomb G 2 3 7 0 Egyptian alabaster

1 9 . 3 cm, w. 1 7 cm, d. 1 6 cm Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

34.52a-b

The pyramid temples of Khafre, son of Khufu, were once adorned with countless statues in fine hard stone.

George Reisner found a few com

plete sculptures but recovered mostly fragments, including numerous pieces of Khafre statues in the surface debris around mastaba G 2 3 7 0 . Reisner believed that sometime in the late Old Kingdom, when the royal sculptures were only fifty to one hundred years old, they were broken apart to make the ubiquitous and valued stone offering v e s s e l s . Such was likely the fate of this frag ment ary head of Khafre that once belonged to a nearly life-sized sculpture of polished

translucent

alabaster. It wears a striated nemes with a nar row headband and a false beard.

Although

much is missing, Khafre's recognizable facial features are still visible. Characte ristic ar e the high, angular cheekbones that swell beneath the

ey

and again under the tail of the cosmetic eye

line, and the use of elongated, squared-off raised ribbons for the cosmetic eye line and eyebrow. The broad mouth with its upper and lower lips nearly equal thickness is a l s o typical.

Th

refined features and subtle modeling indicate

that this image of Khafre was certainly a master piece in its entirety,

Ziegler 1 9 9 9 c , 2 5 2 , identifies alabaster, black granite, quartzite, anorthosite gneiss, and schist or greywacke. Reisner 1 9 3 1 , 1 2 6 , estimates between one and two hundred sculptures. 2. Smith 1 9 4 6 , 3 3 - 3 4 ; Ziegler 1 9 9 9 c , 2 5 2 . 3. Reisner n.d. b, chapter ix, 20. The raised band is only visible above the right ear. The back of the head is plain, as is the root of the tail

of the headdress. 5. The corners of the mouth are softly drilled, and the centers of the upper and lower lips protrude. The philtrum is broken. The lowe r lip is not deeply

undercut like that found on sculptures of Menkaure. See other Khafre sculptures with similar features in Smith 1 9 4 6 , pis. I 2 a - e ; Metropolitan Museum 1 9 9 9 , nos. 56, 5 8 - 5 9 , 6

KING

K H A F R E

Dynasty 4, reign of Khafre, 2.555—

2532

B . C .

G i z a , debris at the northeast corner of

5330

tomb

Egyptian alabaster H.

20.4 cm

1 2 . 5 cm d.

w.

cm

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts

Expedition

21.351

This life-sized head is identified as King Khafre because it was found with containing th

piece of statuary

king's cartouche,

an

because

its resemblance to other extant Khafre images. The fine-grained, translucent white alabaster is

a l s o typic a l. Many fragments of such statuary that once adorned Khafre's pyramid temples have been excavated from various locations in Giza' s Western Cemeter y. Geor ge Reisner believed that they were dragged to these places and broken up for the manufacture of stone offering v e s s e l s . This fragmentary head was

ad dorn orne e d with

reconstructed

large a n d t w o small. It is

from four pieces,

uraeus and has a slightly raised

h he e a dba db a nd, all that remains of the now missing nemes. Overall, th cheeks an

face is youthful with smo smooth oth

minimal subtle modeling. It is an

idealized idealized imag e, and the pro prono nounc unc e d "v" dip in the upper lip between th

philtrum lines is a fea

ture c ommon to many Khafre sculptures. fluidly curving, raised-relief eyebrows ar tinctive, as they ar

dis

closer together than their

counterparts on other images of the king. fleshy, rounded nose reveals th

family resem

blance to Khafre's son, King Menkaure.

r. Reisner 1 9 3 1 , 1 2 8 , no. 4.

2. Ziegler 1 9 9 9 c , 252. Smith 194 6, 33; Reisner Reisner 1 9 3 1 , 1 2 8 , no. 4. 3. Smith 4. Smith Smith 1946, pl.i 2c-e

KING

MENKAURE, G O D D E S S

DEIFIED

nose, m o u s t a c h e , and protruding lower lip—

HATHOR,

HARE

AN

are all characteristics recognizable on other rep

NOME

resentations of the king. Unlike the female fig

Dynasty 4, reign of Menkaure, 2 5 3 2 - 2 5 1 0

ures in the group, Menkaure's musculature is

B . C .

well defined, giving the overall impression of

Giza, Menkaure Valley Temple

youthful,

Greywacke

are at his sides with the left hand holding cloth or staff while the right clasps

84.5 cm, w. 43.5 cm, d. 49 cm Harvard

University-Museum of Fine Arts

Expedition

athletic, and forceful ruler. His arms

He wears the white crown

ceremonial mace. Upper Egypt,

09.200

false b e a r d , ' ' and a pleated

sbendyt kilt with belt.

George Reisner discovered some of the finest Egyptian sculpture known to exist in the Menkaure Valley Temple. An extraordinary pair statue of King Menkaure and a queen was unearthed there (fig. 8, p. 25), as well as

series

triads, each depicting the king, the goddess Hathor, and a personified nome god. The con text and precise meaning of the triads is not well understood. According to an early theory, there were originally thirty or more, one for each of the thirty-odd

nome s. Their presence in the

pyramid complex guaranteed the deceased king continuous supply of provisions from all regions of the country.'

more recent interp re

in the form of

ritu

hafted,

painted neck ornament

multistrand, beaded collar and

pair of bracelets once completed his a t t i r e . ' Standing to Hathor's right is

personifica

tion of the Hermopolite or Hare nome. Each of ancient Egypt's nomes or provinces was associ ated with

male or female deity.'

This nome

deity wears the Hare standard (a symbol of her district) on her head, and holds an ankh in her left hand. Carved into the base is an inscription

that reads: "The Horus Kakhet, King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Menkaure, beloved of Hathor, Mistress of the Sycamore. Recitation— 'I have given you all good things, all offerings, and all provisions in Upper Egypt, forever.'"

tation is that there were eight sculptures, sym bolizing the major sites associated with the cult

The sensitively modeled and beautifully

pro

portioned triad illustrated here is unique in that Hathor, rather than Menkaure, dominates the group by her central and forward position and larger scale.

major deity since Predynastic

times, Hathor was the celestial mother of the sun calf,

Reisner 1 9 3 1 , 3 4 - 5 4 ,

guardian of the necropolis, and the

protectress of the king. Depicted with gentle curves in contrast to the block seat and the rec

0 9 . 2 0 0 , Cairo JE

JE 4 0 6 7 8 , and JE 4 0 6 7 9 ) ,

one incomplete triad (MFA Boston 1 1 . 3 1 4 7 ) , an fragments from

sixth groupin g were recovered from

the si te. See Reisner 1 9 3 1 , triads, see Pirelli 1 9 9 9 ,

1 1 0 , no.

For th Cairo

70-71.

Smith 1 9 6 0 , 46 Wood 1 9 7 4 ,

82-93.

This pose is the same (i reverse) as that of the queen in the pair statue from th same site (fig. 8). Field photog raphy s hows black pigment on the

tangular slab in the back, Hathor's left arm

eyebrows an around th eyes. The cosmetic lines

embraces Menkaure's waist while he right

extend outward, stopping at the end of the brow.

crosses he midsection to rest on the king's

arm.

The goddess' face is full and round, with

subtle modeling of the eyebrows, folds on the upper eyelids,

small mouth with puckered

lips, and a chin that recedes slightly. Her head dress,

solar disc and cow h o r n s ,

is prominent

ly displayed above an incised, tripartite wig, but

This headdress was not in standard use until Dynasty 5. However, However, th solar disk,

sheath dress—a wesekb broadcollar with tear drop pendants and a wide band bra celet—have largely disappeared. Menkaure stands on Hathor's left with his left foot advanced. His remarkably individual ized facial features—the p rominen t ey es, fleshy fleshy

symbol of the

sun god Re, indicates th increased importance of this deity by the end of Dynasty 4. The ornaments are clearly visible in photographs taken in the field. Traces of black pigment arestill visible. mace, like th crook an flail, aresymbols of

the jewelry that once adorned he sleeveless

K i n g Menkaure's pyramid c o m p l e x .

1 0 8 - 1 1 5 .

All together, four comp lete tri ads (MFA Boston

Hathor.

earthly power. 1.

symbol of kingship. The beard's strap, original

ly painted b lack, is no longer visible. Evident in field photography. The Hermopolite nome was th fifteenth nome in Upper Egypt.

HEAD

KING

M E N K A U R E

Dynasty 4, reign of Menkaure,

2510

2532-

B.C.

G i z a , Menkaure Valley Temple Egyptian alabaster 29.2 cm, w. 19. 6 cm, d. 2 1. 9 cm Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

09.203

This alabaster head was once part of a seated, life-sized stat ue, one of four of Menka ure

found

in fragments by Geor ge Reisner in the king' valley temple.

The youthful qual ity of the f a c e

caused Reisner to propose that this was the head Prince Shepseskaf, Menkaure's son.

How

ever, ever, this is undoubt edly Menka ure , as it it shares many features with his other known representa tions: the blunt, rounded nose, full cheeks, bulging upper eye, prominent

brow ridge, and

deep undercut bel ow the the lower lip. The head is adorned with

uraeus^

and is

covered with irregular and roughly carved hori zontal grooves that represent either natural or, more likely, a tight-fitting wig or c a p .

hair An

unusual area behind the ears and at the back the head is smoo th. On e explanat ion for this smooth area is that the king's headdress may have been recarved.

B e c a u s e the area resembles

the shape of wings wrapping around the king's head, another theory is that a falcon originally sat on the king's shoulder.

1. Reisner 1 9 3 1 , 36, 1 0 9 - 2 4 , pis. 4 7 - 5 3 . One of the four seated sculptures has been reconstructed and is now in the Cair o Museum; see pi. 48.

2. Reisner 1 9 3 1 , 1 1 4 . 3. According to Johnson 1990, 1 0 8 - 9 , this is the ear liest represent ation of a

uraeus

lying directly on a

horizontally striated head covering. Earlier examples

of

are depicted with

nemes.

She notes that,

amazingly, this is the only

uraeus

remaining intact

uraei

from the Old Kingdom. 4. Each sideburn on Menkaur e's head is different; the left has vertical striations and the right one is plain.

5. Peter Lacovara 1 9 9 5 b , 1 2 6 , has suggested that an original

nemes

was cut away.

6. Roehrig 1 9 9 9 a , 276, note 6. See Verner 198 5, 267-80, pis. 45-4 6; and Smith 19 46, pi. Vc.

The temple adjoining Menkaure's pyramid was

ba c k k.. In the front are the pleated lappets, while

Dynasty 4, reign of Menkaure, 2 5 3 2 - 2 5 1 0

the largest of its type on the G i z a plateau, per

the ringed tail rests at mid-shoulder on the back.

B.C.

haps reflecting an increased emphasis on the role

KING

T O R S O

MENK AUR

G i z a , Pyramid Temple of Menkaure

god.

Egyptian a la ba ste r H.

31.8

cm, w.

46.4 cm

d. 1 9 . 7 cm

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

11.3146

the king as a direct descendant of the sun It consisted of an entrance hall, a large

1. Reisner 1 9 3 1 ,

135.

c ourt with limestone pavement and paneled

2. For an account of the pyramid temple's e x c a v a 

brick walls, a portico with double doub le c olonn olonna a de ,

tion, see Reisner 1 9 3 1 , 9-33. Stadelmann 1997,

and an inner sanctuary of Tura limestone

1 - 1 6 , suggests that the pyramid temples at Giza

flanked by numerous rooms and corridors.

included false doors through which the deceased

Outside the temple, about twelve feet from a drain hole in a wall, excav ator s found

fragme nts

statuary depicting Menkaure (see photo at

left). Several fragments were joined to form this life-size calcite torso.

The broad shoulders and

king passed to partake of daily offerings.

3. The most important find at this site was an impos ing head from an alabaster c o l o s s u s of the king. It was later reunited with other fragments found in and around the temple to form what is now object num ber 09.204 in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston,

muscular outlines of the upper arms and chest

collection (see fig. 24, p. 37 ). In In all likelihoo d, this

convey a youthful stren gth an d vigor. Even the

grand statue was once prominently displayed at the

back musc ula ture , further defined by a subtle vertical depression along the spine, supports the impression of a physically ideal ruler. Re mna nts the nemes are visible on both the chest and

end of a long corridor of red granite on the main

a x i s . For a list of the pyramid temple finds, see Reisner 1 9 3 1 , 108.

UNFINISHED

S T A T U E S

KING

While excavating the Menkaure Valley Temple,

the emerging figure, the stone was polished with

M E N K A U R E

the Harv ard -Bo sto n team discovered fiftee fifteen n st at

abrasives, and hieroglyphs identifying the person

a. Unfinished statue of King Menkaure

uettes in various states of completion.

Dynasty 4, reign of Menkaure, 25

2.-2510

G i z a , Menkaure Valley Temple Anorthosite gneiss 35 cm,

w.

1 5 . 5 cm, d. 1 9 . 5 cm

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

11.731

Unfinished statue of King Menkaure Dynasty 4, reign of Menkaure, 2 5 3 2 - 2 5 1 0 B . C .

43 cm,

w.

16 cm, d. 24.7 cm

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

11.729

c. Unfinished statue of King Menkaure Dynasty 4, reign of Menkaure, 2 5 3 2 - 2 5 1 0 B . C .

G i z a , Menkaure Valley Temple Anorthosite gneiss 36 cm,

w.

cm, d. 23.2 cm

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

11.732

represented were carved into the base or back

statuette features the king seated on a throne,

support. In all likelihood, the most skilled sculp

with arms bent at the elbows and feet flat on

tors executed the final steps.

the b a s e . In the more detailed examples, the

king wears an

nemes with a uraeus,

shendyt,

false beard. In addition, the left hand is

presented open, palm down, on the left thigh, while the right hand is closed and resting on the right thigh.

G i z a , Menkaure Valley Temple Anorthosite gneiss

Each

The unfinished figures provide a visual record of the work habits of the ancient sculp tor. George Reisner used the the grou p to identify identify eight different different steps of produ ction . The earlier states represented by catalogue numbers 8a and

8b

retain the red lines drawn by the artist on the

quadrangul ar block. These contour lines, lines, made to guide apprentice cutters, provided a silhouette

of the desired form. ed

Once they were obliterate

new ones indicating areas in need of deeper

carving were added, as on catalogue number 8c. In the final s t a g e s , finishing points were given to

Reisner 1 9 3 1 , 1 0 8 - 2 9 . There is no evidence for the use of squared grids during the Old Kingdom. See Robins 1 9 9 4 , 64 Smith 1 9 4 6 ,

1 0 5 - 1 2 .

R E S E R V E

H E A D

Dynasty 4, probably reign of Khufu, 2585-2560 B . C .

G i z a , tomb G 41 40 A Limestone H.

27.3 cm, w. 1 7 . 5 cm, d. 25 cm

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

14.717

George Reisner coined the term "reserve head"

according to his theory that such a head was an extra, or reserve, for the mummy. Few (between

thirty-two and thirty-seven) thirty-seven) are known, and their purpose and function have never been fully understood.

Their inclusion in burials appears

to have been part of a short-lived practice that had no direct precedent and that did not evolve

into another sculptural type. The reserve heads are exceptional in many wa ys. For instance, it is highly unusual to find

sculpture of only a head in Egyptian art; most human representations are complete figures.

A l s o , aside from slab stelae, no other sculpted images have been found in tombs containing

reserve head. Further, while most sculptures have been found in either the offering chapel or serdab, reserve heads appear to have been placed in the burial chamber near the coffin.

The typically long, flat-bottomed necks indicate

that they were meant to stand.

Most inexplica

le is the seemingly intentional mutilation done to many of the reserve heads before burial. The da ma ging marks consist of roughly chiseled,

deep grooves up the back of the head an around the hairline, as well well as the destruction

of noses and ears. Even more puzzling is the ancient patching of the broken ears on certain examples. At present, there is no scholarly theo

ry regarding their creation that can be supported by all extant reserve heads.

pointed inner canthus lines are typical of early

burial chamber, chamber, near the coffin. coffin. See Hassa n 1 95 3,

4th Dynasty sculpture. The eyebrows are

4-5, pis. 3 - 4 3 .

defined only by an incised line at the bottom of

4. Lacovara 1997, 28-2 9.

the brow, much the same as the hairline across the forehead. The extrao rdinar y cra ftsmanshi reflects the work of a royal atelier,

This reserve head was the seco nd found by

Reserve heads have been found for the most part

credited to Meretites, the owner of the slab stela

in Old Kingdom mastaba tombs, primarily at G i z a .

Reisner proposed that this

more masculine f a c e must represent Meretites's husband, but no inscriptional evidence supports his theory. L i k e all known reserve heads, the naturalistic features appear to represent a specif

ic individual. This head has full cheeks, high cheekbones , deeply set set eyes, and a prominent nose. The eyes are carved with great precision—

double line details the upper eye and lid and a beveled line defines the lower. The extended,

back of the head is damaged. It is not possible to

attribute the damage to rough handling by thieves because the tomb was discovered in an unplundered

George Reisner Reisner in mast aba G 4140 . The other is

from the same to mb

The head illustrated in note 4 above, for example,

is missing both ears, and the plaster coating at the

Lacovara 1997, 28, attests thirty-two; Hawass 1 9 9 5 b , 97, says thirty-seven. According to Roehrig 99

, 73 , 79, twenty-seven twenty-seven were found at G i z a and

four were found outside G i z a , one each from Lisht, Dashur, Sakkara, and Abusir. The bust of Nefertity in Berlin and the bust

of Ankhhaf in Boston (fig.

p. 27) are also

exceptions.

Scholars came to this conclusion regarding the positioning of the reserve heads because one example

as found tipped o ver on its side in the middle of its

state.

6. For overviews of current theories, see Tefnin 1 9 9 1 ,

passim; Roehrig 1 9 9 9 c , 7 2 - 7 8 ; Millet 1999, 2 3 3 - 3 4 ;

L a c o v a r a 1997, 28-36; and Junge Junge 199 5, 1 0 3 - 9 . 7. Reisner 1 9 4 2 , 462, pis. 52a, 46c (in situ). Only one other mastaba, G 4440, has been found with two reserve heads (see cat. no. to).

H E A D

R E S E R V E

10

Dynasty 4, probably reign of Khufu, 2585-2560 B . C .

G i z a , tomb G 4440 Limestone H.

30 cm, w. 21 cm, d. 26 cm

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

14.719

Tomb G 4440 is one of only two tom bs discov ered with two res erve heads (see cat. no . 9 for one of the heads from the other tomb, G

4 1 4 0 ) . It is nearly impossible to know whether the pairings were original or created at a later date by intruders.

However, because in each

tomb one head appeared masculine and one particularly feminine, Geor ge Reisner original

ly hypothesized that each pair represents a husband and wife. Both of the heads from t omb G 444 0 ar

greater than life s i z e , larger than most other reserve reserve heads

The one illustrated here is in

extremely good condition (with only minor chips missing from the ears) and exhibits none the seemingly deliberate damage of many

other the full mouth with a large upper lip and upturned nose appear on other examples, this head has many features that distinguish it: prominent cheekb ones, wide-set, unusually round eyes, and a profile that projects for ward. The f a c e is a l s o broad and substantial

with a high forehead accentuated by barely perceptible eyebrows. A short, thick neck that flares at the base supports the considerable

See Roehrig I 9 9 9 d , 2 3 8 - 3 9 , fn. 8, for a discussion

volume of the head. Such individualization

of this possibility.

allows us to g a z e at the f a c e of the royal court

2. Reisner 1 9 1 5 , 3 1 - 3 2 .

member for whom this head was created. Reisner described the reserve heads in

when he wrote that: " [These people] had spoken with Cheop s [Khufu] and Chephren [Khafre] and had seen the first and second

3. For illustrations of both heads from G 4440, see Reisner 1 9 4 2 , pi. 54a, b. 4. The damage to these ears does not appear to be intentional; there are no chisel marks. The other head from this tomb has intention al dama ge in in the form of roughly cut gouge up the back.

pyramids in building. Without doubt they had

5. See Roehrig i9 99d, 239 , fn. 2, for other examples

made their offerings in the funerary temple of

of the eye shape and a discussion of a possible

C Che he ops op s [Khufu] and had witnessed the carving

Nubian identity.

the Great Sphinx."

6. Reisner 1 9 1 5 , 32

1 1

P E R S O N I F I E D

chapel with the personification of nomes.

E S T A T E S

Dynasty 4, reign of Sneferu to Khufu,

RELIEF

12

B e f o r e each offering bearer on this relief, the

FROM

THE

C H A P E L

TOM

K A W A B

2625-2560 B.C.

name of the distri ct represent ed is indic ated in

Dynasty 4, reign of Khufu, 2585-2560 B . C .

S a q q a r a , north wall of the chapel at

raised hieroglyphs. Each name ends with a sign

G i z a , tomb G 7120

firth 3078

c ompose d of two road s cross ing, surro unded by

Limestone

Limestone

circle, determining that the name is of a place.

H.

46.6 cm, w. 85 cm, d. 2.5 cm

Edwin E. J a c k Fund

63.489

H.

55 .2 cm, w. 36.8 cm, d. 20.9 cm

The woman wearing the c l a s s i c tripartite hair

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts

style and sheath dress represents offerings from

Expedition

34.59

district called Nebutet. The man in a short kilt This boldly executed scene in raised relief comes

brings provisions from Senen.

from the chapel of a mastaba whose owner's name has been destroyed.

It depicts a man and

woman, each carrying a basket of provisions on the head and a pinioned duck in the left

hand. The figures would have been advancing toward a large image of the tomb owner to the

This relief fragment comes from a chapel in the large double mastaba belonging to K a w a b ,

The tomb is located north of the Step Pyramid; see

Porter and M o s s 1 9 7 4 , 4 4 3 . The relief comes from side wall D of of the mastaba ; see Jacqu et- Gordon

1962,

and fig. T 1 7 . Reisner 1 9 3 6 , 3 6 4 , originally

dated the scene to Khufu's reign, but Helen K.

eldest son of Khufu and perhaps Meretites.

K a w a b ' s mastaba was prominently prominently positioned nearest to Khufu's pyramid in the row of tombs to the east. The chapel was one of the first in

Jacquet-Gordon pushes the date back, based on the

the Eastern Cemetery to be decorated with

style of the tomb, to the reign of Sneferu or early in

reliefs, and its surviving fragments show the

real or imagined, from which the deceased tomb

Khufu's reign. For i mages of th north wall of the

herding of oxen, butchering, papyrus prepara

owner woul d receive provis ions. The personified

entrance, see Smith 1 9 4 6 , pi. 34

tion, and fowling. Nearby, an image of Kawab

left. They represent districts or estates, either

estates formed an essential part of the m ortuar cult, ensuring that offerings were provided for the ka, or spirit of the deceased, forever.

King

Sneferu first utilized this concept in his pyramid

Roth 1 9 8 8 c ,

would have been positioned on the wall so that

See Smith 1 9 8 1 , fig. 68, for personified estates

it would appear to be viewing these activities.

from the Bent pyramid at Dashur.

4. These places have not been identified.

This fragment was once part of a larger fowling scene. Here, an overseer stands on a skiff, leaning forward on his s t a f f and lifting his left foot slightly. He is dres sed in a knee -lengt kilt and has short hair with a receding hairline. Behind him in the hull is the catch of the day: tw

c a g e s of birds, five pintail ducks on top,

and four different ducks (perhaps wigeons) below. A domesticated heron, used as a decoy to lure other birds, stands on the c a g e s .

The

decoy s u g g e s t s that there was likely a clapnet scene nearby. The execution of this relief is com

petent and clear but lacks fine detail or delicate rendering, rendering,

Strudwick 1 9 8 5 a , 1 4 7 , notes 1 - 2 . Smith 1 9 4 6 , 1 6 7 , assigned this block to the long east wall of chamber B, the major chamber of the

exterior chap el, based on the type of scene and the thickness of the block. For a photograph and line drawing of this fragment, see Simpson 1 9 7 8 , 3,

fig.

g and pl.VId. The other decorated fragments

believed to have been part of this chapel are illustrat

ed as figs, nb-f and pis. V l a - c . 3. See Harpur 1 9 8 7 , fig. 1 7 7 , for an overseer in a similar p o s e .

4. For other herons on a skiff from the tomb of Nefermaat in Meidum, see Harpur 1 9 8 7 , fig. 1 6 8 ; for ducks in a box on a boat and herons on the prow, see

f ig ig . 1 2 0

For a description of herons as decoys in

both ancient and modern Egypt, see Houlihan 1 9 8 6 , 1 3 - 1 5 .

R E L I E F

OF

HEM IUN

Dynasty 4, reign of Khufu, 2585-2560 B . C .

G i z a , tomb G 4000 Limestone H.

1 2 . 1 cm, w. 39.5 cm, d. 7 cm

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

27.296

Hemiunu was a high-ranking official of noble lineage.

is

father, the vizier Nefermaat, was the eldest son of

King Sneferu Sneferu and a builder of pyramid s at Dahshur and Meidum. Hemiunu followed in Nefermaat's path, even tually serving as vizier under King Khufu. His most important job in this position was proba bly the planning and construction of the Great Pyramid and its associ ated buildings at Giza. his own burial, Hemiunu obtained a sizable stone mastaba in the center of the cemetery west of Khufu's pyramid.

The tomb's surviving decoration, e x e 

cuted in the high-relief style characteristic of Dynasty 4,

is of the finest quality and reinforces the image of Hemiunu as a powerful man of influence. The facial modeling, with its deeply carved eye, soft musculature, and exaggerated nose, is highly individualized.

Some

scholars have suggested that it approaches portraiture.

The fragmentary text to the left of the face is part of a traditional offering formula that begins, "An offering

that the king g i v e s . . . " The relief was part of a scene depicting the deceased seated before a table of bread offerings and comes from the doorway at the entrance

the tomb,

Porter and Moss 1974, 1 2 2 - 2 3 . Steindorff 1 9 3 7 , 1 2 0 - 2 1 . Smith 1942, 527.

S T O N E

V E S S E L S

a. Shoulder jar Dynasty 4, 2625-2500 B . C .

G i z a , Menkaure Valley Temple Egyptian alabaster 17 .4 cm, diam. 1 4. 7 cm Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

11.604

b. Cylinder jar Dynasty 4, 2625-2500 B . C .

G i z a , tomb G 424 0 Egyptian alabaster 10. 5 cm, diam. 7 .1 cm Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

21.2617

c. L a r g e bowl Dynasty 4, 2625-2500 B . C .

G i z a , tomb G 424 0 Egyptian alabaster 10.6 cm, diam. 39.3 cm Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition 14

O F F E R I N G

T A B L E

A T T A C H E D

WITH

S T A N D

Dynasty 3, 2675-2625 B . C . Zawiyet-el-Aryan,

Z500

Egyptian alabaster 9.5 cm, diam. 30.3 cm Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

11.2394

21.2609

Offering tables were customarily placed in the chapel of a mastaba so that relatives, priests,

d. Cylinder jar

and visitors could deposit offerings for the

Dynasty 4, 2625-2500 B . C .

ka,

G i z a , Menkaure Valley Temple

the spirit of the deceased. This beautifully grained alabaster example originally found in fragments, but it has

Egyptian alabaster 22.4 cm, diam. 7.3 cm

been restored to its original shape. It was e x c a 

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts

vated from a large mudbrick mastaba at

Expedition

11.620

Zawiyet-el-Aryan, six kilometers south of G i z a , but the exact spot of the find is not known.

e. Cylinder jar

Clarence Fisher (under the direction of George

Dynasty 4, 2625-2500 B . C .

Reisner) excavated Zawiyet-el-Aryan for only

G i z a , Menkaure Valley Temple

three months, and the records on Z 500 were

Egyptian alabaster

never fully entered in his diary.

2.

We do know

15 .3 cm, diam. n. 2 cm

that over seventy-five stone v e s s e l s and six offer

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts

ing tables were removed from Z 500, most in a

Expedition

11.514

fragmentary state. Fisher wrote, "These [stone fragments] are carried to the house every day

f. Bowl

and are being pieced together as quickly as p o s 

Early Dynastic Period, 3000-2675 B . C .

sible...There are a large number of offering

G i z a , Menkaure Valley Temple

tables, three with low stands or b a s e s attached,

Siltstone

the rest simply large d i s c s . "

This example is

6.1 cm, diam. 1 2. 3 cm

one of the round tables mentioned with the

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts

slightly flared, low base attached. It replicates

Expedition

flat disc resting on a ring stand, stand, JL

Porter and M o s s 1974, 3 1 4 ; Reisner and Fischer I ? " ,

59

2. Dunham 197 8, ix, 29. 3. Reisner n.d. d, entry for April 16.

11.388

Model flat-bottomed flat-bottomed basin

Throughout pharaonic history, finely crafted

used for many vessel types from the Predynastic

L a t e Dynasty 4 to early Dynasty 5,

stone vessels were highly valued symbols of

period through the Rom an era (cat. nos. 1

2508-2485 B . C .

wealth. This group comes from the Giza

and e).

G i z a , tom tomb b G 46 31 B

Necropolis—most are from the Menkaure Valley

Egyptian alabaster 2.7 cm, diam. 5 cm Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

21.3093

Temple and the rest are from mastabas of upper

1. The large bowl of catalogue number 15

c l a s s o f f i c i a l s . Geor ge Reisner found the remains

found with the cylinder jar, 1 5 b , inside it. Regarding

of over six hundred vessels in the valley temple

the transfer transfer of antiques to Menkaur e's temple and the

alone. Curiously, many dated to earlier dynasties

(cat. h. Opening of the Mou th cup Dynasty 4, reign of Khufu, 2585-2560 B . C .

no

these antiques were trans 1 5 f ) . Likely these

ferred from older temples during ancient times. Vessel shapes changed over time, and the

G i z a , Menkaure Valley Temple

types of stone used went in and out of favor

Quartz crystal

as well. For instance, siltstone was used in

4.2 cm, diam. 4.3 cm Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

11.770

a, d,

was

number of vessels excavated by George Reisner, see Reisner 1 9 3 1 , 103, 180.

2. Stone vessel types are identified in Aston 199 4; see pi

6a for a siltstone example. See Keller 1995, 1 2 1 ,

for a siltstone bowl dated to Dynasty 2 that is similar to catalogue number 15L

3. Catalo gue number 5 0, a Dynasty 6 bowl inscribed

Predynastic to Early Dynastic times but rarely

for King Teti, is similar to this one. See also Aston

thereafter. A thick-walled bowl such as cata

1 9 9 4 , pi. 1 4 b .

logue number

f was a common form for this

4. Catalogue number number 15 b was found in a ritual set

s t o n e . Anortho site gneiss was used for vessels

with a peseshkef knife inscribed for King Khufu (cat.

i. Bowl with recurved rim

from the Early Dynastic through the Old

no. 1 7 a ) .

Dynasty 4, 2625-2500 B . C .

Kingdom periods, and was especially popular

5. Aston 19 94, pi. 10 a, notes that travertine is the

G i z a , Menkaure Valley Temple

for delicate cups or bowls such as catalogue

accurate name for the stone that Egyptologists erro

Anorthosite gneiss

num numbe berr

5.5 cm, diam . 9.8 9.8 cm Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

11.461

Quartz crystal was rare and used

primarily for vessels involved in the Opening of the Mout h ritual, perf ormed t o give life life back to the deceased, during Dynasties 5 and 6. A few date to Dynasty 4 (cat. no. 1 5 b ) .

Egyptian

alabaster was the most popular stone; it was

neously label as either alabaster or calcite. However, because travertine is not commonly known, we have chosen to use the term "Egyptian alabaster" through out this text.

16

F O L D E D

PAD

OF

I N S C R I B E D

LINEN

Dynasty 4, reign of Menkaure, 2 5 3 2 - 2 5 1 0

B.C. Giza, tomb G 222 0 Linen; pigment

24 cm, w. 19 cm, thickness 1.5 cm [folded]

"J .10

11,2.

While excavating an intact burial chamber cut

into a shaft of a large masta ba in the Western Cemetery, George Reisner found an exceptional

ly fine cedar coffin and its mummy.

The tomb

devoid of funerary go ods and textual refer ences that could identify the deceased or the mastaba owner. Within the unadorned coffin, excavators discovered a small, elaborately

wrapped body lying on its left side (see photo b e l o w ) . It was padded with linen—over thirtyseven layers of wrapping—to simulate the con

tours of the the human figure. give the appea ranc e of the woma n in life, the body was fashioned with a padded wig with twisted tail at the back and a long linen dress

with v-neck and shoulder straps. Anatomical features were made of linen as well. Beneath the dress, the breasts, including nipples, were entire

ly formed of linen, and the legs and feet were individually wrapped.

Linen bandages also

were modeled on the face to form a perfect nose

with nostrils and lips. The eyes and eyebrows were painted, further lending a lifelike quality in death. As in in many Old King dom attempts to preserve the human form (see cat. no. 47), the body tissues disintegr ated beneath these exten sive wrappings, leaving primarily skeletal fragments.

On this pa d, one of tho se used to fill fill out the contours of the body, there is one horizontal line

of hieratic text in black ink. As with most linen in offering lists, the descriptive terms relate to the quality of the cloth.

This piece is identified

as shemat neferet, " f i n e l i n e n . "

1. For a description of the burial, see Reisner 1942,

4 5 0 - 5 1 ; Roth i988d, 76-77. 2. Reisner described the coffin as a "...plain box with flat lid and overlapped bevel-joints." See Reisner

1941. 451-

Wrapped mummy

of a

woman

from tomb

2220

B.

3. Reisner 1 9 4 2 , 452, provides a summary of the mummy's examination by Dr. Douglas Derry. 4. Smith 1 9 3 5 , 1 3 8 .

PESESHKEF a. Knife inscribed for King Khufu Dynasty 4, reign of Khufu, 2 5 8 5 - 2 5 6 0 B . C Giza, Menkaure Valley Temple

Flint 1 8 . 3 cm, w. 2.

cm, d. 0.4 cm

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

11.765

Fragment of a knife inscribed for Queen Khamerernebty Dynasty 4, reign of Khafre, 2 5 5 5 - 2 5 3 2 B . C . Giza, Pyramid Temple of Menkaure

Flint cm, w. 4.7 cm, d. 0.

cm

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

11.766

Peseshkef (pesesh, "t

d i v i d e , " and kef, " f l i n t , " )

are sharp-bladed flint ritual knives that ha

been

used in Egypt since Predynastic times. They ar sometimes mistakenly referred to as "magic

wands." They have long straight shafts an fishtail tops, an to

their surfaces ar

glassy sheen. Th

split

finely ground

listing of peseshkef in

temple inventories indicates that they were used in such institutions as well as in tombs. Th

rit

ual knives have been found in the Menkaure Valley an

Pyramid temples as well as in

mastabas at Giza.

Recent research ha

revealed that peseshkef

were employed as part of Opening of the Mouth ceremonies.

Such rebirthing rituals recreated

many details of the physical birth process. As reborn, the peseshkef was used

the deceased

to symbolically cut the umbilical cord, thus sep arating the child from the mother an child his or her own life. Th

knife wa

giving the also

held to the mouth to "f ix the jaw" so that the child could begin nursing.

he ceremony

as

performed not only on the deceased bu also on statues, reliefs, an

paintings, in order to bring

the depicted figures to life in the next world.

Peseshkef were part of ritual sets that usually included si

vessels. For example, the complete

because the ritual set had been kept in a wooden

tray that then disintegrated. The fragment of a much larger knife inscribed for the "mother of the king, Khamerernebty" (cat. no. 1 7 b )

found with a set of stone vessels in the

found in the

Menkaure Pyramid Temple. Khamerernebty

knife inscribed for King Khufu Khufu ( cat. no 1 7 a )

daughter of Khufu, wife of Khafre, an successor, r, Menka ure mother of his successo

Both of the

Menkaure Valley Temple. The set wa s no in

inscribed knives were likely antiques at the time

situ, but the individual objects remained in an

they were placed in the temple complex.

order that could be recognized from from intact

Apparently, they were saved as sacred equip

groupings—four small stone cups and two long,

ment.

narrow-necked stone bottles flanked the knife. The order ma

have been preserved in the tomb

Roth 1 9 9 2 , 1 1 6 , cites the Abusir papyri,

docu

ment that gives extensive details of temple procedure, ritual, and inventory. 2. Roth 1 9 9 2 , 1 1 3 ; Otto 1 9 6 0 , 9 7 - 9 8 . 3. Roth 1 9 9 2 , 1 2 0 , notes that "fix the jaw" comes

from Pyramid Text

The breasts were then offered

to the deceased in the spell after the peseshkef knife.

The full full inscript ion reads: "The Horus, Medjedu, the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Khnum Khuf[u]." See Reisner 1 9 3 1 , 2 3 3 - 3 4 , pis. 6ie-f,

65a-b. 5. Reisner 1 9 3 1 , 2 3 3 - 3 4 , P^

6ie-f, 6 5 a - b .

6. Reisner 1 9 3 1 , 1 8 , 2 3 3 , pi. 1 9 a . Baud 1 9 9 9 , 1 : 1 9 2 .

C H O K E R

Although no complete examples have survived,

underside that facilitate stringing, and wavy sur

Dynasty 4, 2625-2500

the neck ornament known as the choker is fre

The two-part f a c e s that lie over adjacent beads . The

Giza,

quently represented in Old Kingdom sculpture,

terminals each include a plain, vertical spacer

Faience

relief, and pain tin gs. This form of adorn ment

and a semi-c ircul ar segme nt through whic h the

popular among women of all levels of society

threads are gathered into a single unit for tying.

B.C .

25 cm, w. 3.8 cm , d. 0.4 0.4 cm Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

24.1749

duri ng the 4th through

th Dynas tie s, was w orn

The latter, now buff-colored, may have been

both with and without an accompanying broad-

glazed in a color that has since disappeared, or

collar. Later, it was feat ured on servant gi rls of

perhaps it was gilded.

the Middle Kingdom and on coffins of New Kingdom ladies.

Representations of chokers suggest that they were composed of several rows of beads strung

1. For an analysi s of the choker's distr ibuti on du ring

the Old Kingdom, see Staehelin 1966, 127.

2. Andrews 1990,

1 1 7 .

between terminals, with a number of spac ers in

collar has two functi ons. Firs t, it 3. The terminal of a collar

the form of perf orated bar s to keep the rows in

acts as a spacer for the stri ngs of beads to which it is

alignment. The elements used in this reconstruc

attached, and second, it brings together the various

tion have two interesting features: zigz ag-sh aped spacers and terminals in two separate parts.

The spacers have straight, perforated bars on the

strings that hold the collar in place around the neck. 4. Fragment s of gold foil were were found in the same location in the tomb.

19

Reisne r identified six types of flint im plemen ts

T O O L S

from the Menkaure temples. He regarded these

a. Knife Dynasty 4, reign of Menkaure to Shepseskaf,

with handle (cat. no. 19a) and the t riangular

2532.-2500 B.C. G i z a , Menk aure Valley Temple, room 1-332 Flint 20 cm,

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts

11.780

Expedition

exhibiting rough workmanship. His explanation

tion that copper implements had begun to replace flint tools during the Old Kingdom.

et flint tools remained symbolically important even when they were no longer prized for their

Scraper Dynasty 4, reign of Menkaure to Shepseskaf,

2532-2500 B.C. G i z a , Menk aure Valley Temple, room 1-32 1-32 Flint 9 cm,

scraper (cat. no. 19b ), as traditional burial items

for the lack of quality is based on the observa

4 cm, d. 0.5 cm

w.

flints, which included the straight-backed knife

w.

derives from finely chipped Predynastic cutting tools that were used in the sacrificial slaughter

of animals. However, by Dynasty 4, knife blades included in burials were thick, coarse, and dull

5.5 cm, d. 1.4 cm

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

artistry or efficacy. The knife, for example,

with pointed tips and straight handles. Another stone tool used for cutting, scrap

11.788

i n g , and boring, was the pointed flint. Within this category are triangular forms worked on

c. Pounder Mid-Dynasty 4 to Dynasty 5, 2 5 3 2 - 2 3 5 0 B.C.

G i z a , street G 750 0, south of tomb

7530

Dolorite H.

18 cm,

w.

7 cm, d. 8 cm

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

27.1549

one plane with one or more sharpened edge. Exc a va tors to rs recovered several summarily worked e xa mple s from the Menka ure Valley Temple's magazines.

Pear-shaped dolorite pounders (cat. no. 19c) were used as hammer stones in the quarrying of hard rocks such as granite. Depending on s i z e ,

they were either held in both hands or hafted onto wooden handles. Once worn, they could

be recycled into rollers for moving heavy objects such as sarcophagi.

The finest flintwork flintwork was produced during the Late Predynastic and Early Dynastic periods. See Spencer 1 9 80 ,

91 -10 1.

Metal played an increasingly impor

tant role in daily life, but flint implements such as knives, scrapers, chisels, s a w s , and drills were used throughout the p h a r a o n i c period. See Nicholson and Shaw 2 0 0 0 , 2 8 - 2 9 .

Earlier knives had curved, concave handles and curved tips. Lehner 1 9 9 7 , 2 0 7 , 2 1 0 - 1 1 .

Dynasty

shortage of source material leaves several gaps in

(fig. 33 , p. 45). Servant statues (in troduced in

what is unders tood about the royal succession from

Dynast y 4) also became more popul ar and were

the 4th to the 5th Dyna sty . The first known

shown performing a greater variety of tasks (cat.

5th

Dynas ty king is Userkaf, and the prevailing theory

no 3 1 ) . However, with few exceptions (cat. no.

holds that he founded the dynas ty with Queen

2 5 ) , sculptures are smaller in scale than those of

Khentkawes, the last ruler of Dynasty 4.

Dynasty 4.

It is cer

tain that Userkaf's sons succeeded him and that the

Another hal lmark of Dynasty 5 was the copi

new royal family chose to return to the Saqqara-

record keeping in which the state was

Abusir area to build their tombs and temples,

engaged. Edicts (cat. no. 2 1 ) , king lists, and tem

reducing Giza's role as a royal necropolis. The

ple accounts abound from this period, reflecting a

move most likely was due to a combinatio n of fac

large bureaucracy whose membership and politi

tors that included family rivalry, a new source of

ca

suitable limestone, lack of space on the Giza

more, its officials officials were able to appropri ate

plate au, and close proximity to the capital city. The kings and queens of Dynasty 5 encouraged significant architectural innovation, and the ground

influence were gradually expanding. More and prerog

atives formerly reserved for royal relatives. Even the import ant

posi tion of vizier now could be held

by non-royal officials. At the same time, some

plans and decorative programs for their royal pyra

nomarchs were choosing to be buried in their own

mid complexes became prototypes for other tombs

provinces rather than near their sovereigns. A few

in Dynas ties 5 and 6.' Some new features features reflected reflected

these local gover nor s even dare d to deify the m

shifts in religious emphases, such as the creation of temple complex for open-air cult ceremonies to worship Re as both the sun and creator god.

Both

and Osiri s, the god of the netherworld, became

selves in their o w n t o m b s . The power of those

serving the the king was growing, and the decentral ization that woul d ultimatel y bring a clos e to the Old Kingdom had commenced, commenced, JL

more prominent at this time. By By the end of Dynasty

5, King Unas 's pyramid included stone-carved

interpretations as to her her parents and children. See See

deceased king's travel to the next world where he

also Lehner 1997, 1 3 8 . Krejci 2000, 474, suggests

woul d be reborn as Osiri s and join Re in his daily journey through the heavens (fig. 37 ). rulers continued to Because the 5th Dynas ty's rulers build pyramid comp lexes while while mainta ining the funerary cults of their ancestors, an increasing num ber of priest ly and secular personnel were required

F i g . 36

Relief scene featuring starving b e d o u i n s , from the c a u s e w a y of the pyramid of K i n g U n a s at S a q q a r a ,

Dynasty 5.

by the state. An importa nt consequen ce of this

3. Arnold 1 997 , 63,

Krejci 2000, 475, also notes

became the standa rd that Sahure's pyramid complex became followed followed for pyramid complexes of Dynasties 5 and 6. 4. Lehner 1997, 1 5 0 . The only precedent is the tem ple of the great Sphi nx at Giza dedicated to the sun. Dynasty 5 built sun temples but only two have been

The sheer numbers, as well as the wealth, of this official, elite class helped to spur originality and

found.

5. Lehner 19 97, 154 . While While the pyramid of King Text decoration ins ide the pyra mid's burial chamber,

e r s , captives, views of shipping and markets, the seasons of the year, and even famine victims (fig

36).

also Krejci 2000, 472, who notes that six kings of

the first first to incorporate Pyramid Unas at Saqqa ra was the

reliefs, innovative scenes included victories, foreign

Private tomb relief, relief, too, saw an importa nt

the Pyramid Texts were already very old by this time. 6. A number of complete reliefs from royal funerary temples of Dyna sty 5 have been preserved, whereas those of Dynasty 4 have survived only in small fragments.

7. Smith 194 6, 189

evolution a s images from from life came to decorat e the

8. Eaton-Kraus s, 19 95 , 61 . She gives an additional

inner offering room of chapels. Such reliefs depict

characteristic of pseudogroups on p. 57 as "each

ed men at work in the fields, on the river, and laboring in all types of workshops for the first time

Saqqara, Dynasty 5.

2. Krejci 2000, 473-74.

Se

fresh liveliness and naturalistic style. Among royal

of the pyramid of K i n g U n a s at

parties struggling for control.

could afford to build and decorate private tombs.

With new genres of relief and sculpture came a

Pyramid Texts from the a n t e c h a m b e r

that the royal family was divided into two or more

trend was a burgeoning class of bureaucrat s who

variety in the sculptural arts

F i g . 37

1. Baud 1999, 2:546- 52, note that there are multiple

passages from the Pyrami d Texts descr ibin g the

( f ig ig .

p. 29). In sculpture, pseudogroups, free

standing statues with more than one image of the same person, were introduced,

and figures of

children were added to pair statues of parents

could be divided into at least two separate statues of the owner without damaging any figure included in the composition." 9. Hornung 1999 , 38, notes that the official Izi in Edfu and Hekaib in Elephantine were worshipped

as gods until the Middle Kingdom.

20

SEATE D

style is parted in the middle and swept back,

STATUE

flaring at the sides. His wrap-around kilt with

AKHMERETNESUT

pleated panel is secured with a tied knot. The

Mid-Dy nasty 5 to early Dynasty 6,

end of the tie, also pleated, sticks up above the

2455-2338 B . C .

belt, belt, JL

Giza, tomb G 218

Cherpion 1 9 8 9 , 1 2 3 , note 2 5 7 , claims Dynasty 4; Harpur 1 9 8 7 , 2 6 5 , note 8, Dynasty 5 (King Unas) to Dynasty 6 (King Teti); Baer i 9 6 0 , 5 2 , end of Dynasty or later. See also Reisner 1 9 4 2 , 3 8 0 - 8 1 ; Smith

1 9 4 6 , 1 9 8 - 9 9 . Roth 1 9 8 8 a , 8 3 - 8 7 , dates the tomb

Limestone Lehner 1 9 9 7 , 2 3 4 - 3 5 . Jones 2 0 0 0 , 1 : 2 4 1 , title no.

68.5 cm, w. 24.7 cm, d. 45.5 cm Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

Baud 1 9 9 6 , 4 0 - 4 1 , dates it from King Menkaure

of Dynasty 4 to King Nyuserre of Dynasty 5;

12.1482

Akhmeretnesut w as "overseer of of the department

of those foremost of the royal precinct."

This

8 8 2 , offers an older translation: "overseer of the

to late Dynasty 5 or Dynasty 6. Metropolit an Museu m of Art 1 9 9 9 , 3 7 2 - 7 5 ,

department of tenant-landholders of the Great

shows seated figures of Nikare with similar propor

House."

tions, heavy legs, and detailed knees, which date to

2. Lehner 1 9 9 7 , 2 3 4 - 3 5 .

King Nyuserre or later.

Ann Macy Roth provided this date by personal communication. Previously, the earliest attested

6. Pink stucco fill was often used for ancient re pair s. would like to thank Susanne Gânsicke, Associate

title reveals that he oversaw a group called the

occurrence was during the reign of King Djedkare

Conservator, and Kent Severson, Contract Conser

the k i n g ' s p a l a c e .

Isesi ( 2 4 1 5 - 2 3 7 1 B . C . ) ; see also Lehner 1 9 9 7 , 2 3 4 ,

vator, of the Conservation and Collections Man

khentiu-she in

Khentiu-she

served the king either in the palace or in his mortuary cult and included all classes of work ers from farmers to high officials. Because the first written example of the term occurs during King Nyuserre's reign (2455-2425 B . C . ) , the title provides the earliest possible set of dates for Akhmeretnesut. This seated statu e was found set into the floor of Akhmeretnesut's mastaba chapel next to large offering basin (see photo at right). The masta ba has a complex architectural history

with three distinct building phases—evidence suggests that the tomb was enlarged and refaced during its owner's career. In its earliest state, it had a simple one-ro om chapel, now identified identified

as chamber A, with tw

false doors. Later, a

second chamber, B, and a courtyar d, C , were added. This statue and its offering table come from chamber B. Akhmeretnesut's t omb has been dat ed widely, but both the insc ripti onal evidence and the style of the relief and arch itec

ture indicate a range from mid-Dynasty 5 to early Dynasty 6. The statue was carved as a single unit on backless seat. Its solid figure has a commanding presence with stocky arms and legs in the style

of the time. However in contrast, his open hand has long, smooth delicate fingers that lie flat on his lap. The face is finely carved with round cheeks , full lips, and lar ge eyes accented by a double-carved line on the upper lid. There

is an unexplained pinkish red color on the bro ken surfaces of the nose, mouth, and chin, possi bly representing ancient repairs.

Traces of origi

nal red pigme nt remain on the legs and to rso and blue-green is visible at the edges of the crisply carved hieroglyphs on the base. The space between the cal ves was left roug h a nd painted black. The shoulder-length, shoulder-length, striated hair

and Baud 1 9 9 6 , 2 1

agement Department of the Museum of Fine Arts, this information. Boston, for this

D E C R E E

N E F E R I R K A R E

Dynasty 5, reign of Neferirkare K a k a i ,

Neferirkare Kakai near the Temple of Osiris in Abydos.

2472-2462. B.C. Abydos Limestone

106.3

This royal decree was erected for King

65 cm, d. 26 cm

Gift of the Egyptian Exploration

F u n d 1903 03.1896

It is addressed to Overseer of Priests

endeavors, exempting the priests from any such compulsory work "for the length of eternity." The priests' only job, the king notes, was to

Hemwer, the highest-ranking priest of the da y.

maintain the temples and make them prosper.

We know that it was originally on papyrus

Any official who did not obey the edict would

because its text tells us that it was put in writing

meet harsh penalties: the l o s s of all possessions

that "the king himself was present at the

an

and forced hard labor.

sealing on the second month of summer, day I I . " '

The edict's function wa s to free free Aby dos 's

1. Excavated by W. M. Flinders Petrie; see Petrie

1 9 0 3 , 42- 43. See also Porter Porter and Moss 1 9 3 7 , 40.

priests, especially those of the Temple of Osiris,

2. Ranke 1 9 3 5 , 239. A l s o , according to Petrie 1903,

from forced labor for the nome. With it, the

42

king placed limits on the growing power of local nobleme n and officials heade d by the no marc h. (Such locally based powers would, at the end of

the Old Kingdom, usurp all political control.) The king decreed that they could not press priests or priestly s t a f f into service for the nome's large building projects or agricultural

the title belonged to the head of the local temple

administration. In fact, the nomarch himself might combine the religious title with his civil duties. Leprohon 1 9 8 5 , 49. Also published in Goedicke

1 9 6 7 , passim. 4. The punishment included "the loss of their house, field, people and everything in their possession and

they wpuld be put into hard labor." Leprohon 1985, 49-

S E A L

name of the reigning king, Djedkare I s e s i , and

O F F I C E

When the

Dynasty 5, reign of Djedkare I s e s i ,

official titles, but no personal name.

2 4 1 5 - 2 3 7 1 B .C .

office represented by the titles was passed on to

Reportedly from Northwest Anatolia Gold

the seal was no longer valid.

6.4 cm, diam. 2.9 cm

68.115

Centennial Gift of Land on T. Clay

Cylinder seals bearing royal and private na mes titles are known from both the Early Dynastic Period and the Old Kingdom.

success or, the seal wa s handed over to that individual, but when the king's reign changed,

They

are typically made of stone, but there are also some examples fabricated from gold and silver. Amon Among g those, however, a sound context is rare.

The provenance of this seal—unique in its size and state of preservation—is uncertain. The seal is classified as a "seal of o f f i c e , " which is always anonymo us. It contains the

Cylinder seals of

For Early Dynastic examples of cylinder seals and seal impressions bearing royal and private names

recovered from the mastaba tombs at Helwan (oppo site S a q q a r a ) , see S a a d 1969, 1 8 - 1 9 , 2 2 - 2 3 , 7> 67,

pis. 1 7 4 - 7 6 ; for the largest group of provenanced cylinder seals from this period, see Reisner 1908,

1 5 0 - 5 1 , pis. 9, 43-44. For a comprehensive listing

this type were used to identify d ocum ents

of cylinder seals dating to the Old Kingdom, see

b o x e s , provisions, and even doors. A relief

K a p l o n y 1 9 7 7 and 1 9 8 1 , passim.

from the pyramid temple of King Sahure at Abusir illustrates their standard form during the

ld

Kingdom: long, with a biconcave body (see

illustration at left). While most precious metal examples are

For a gold Early Dynastic cylinder seal from N a g a ed-Deir (N 1 5 3 2 ) , see Reisner 1908, 1 5 1 , pis. 9c-d.

Fo

a silver cylinder seal inscribed for King Khafre

from Menkaure's valley temple (MFA 1 1 . 9 6 2 ) , see Reisner 1 9 3 1 , 234, pi. 64-I. For an unprovenanced

gold cylinder seal inscribed for King Menkaure, see

ma de from sheet metal with a chased surface

Schäfer 1 9 1 0 , 1 5 , pis. 2, 7; Kaplony 1 9 8 1 , 1 0 2 , no.

decoration over a core, this piece stands out

9, pi. 33; and and Müller and Thiem 1999 7 0 - 7 1 , fig.

because it was constructed of cast cylinders that

142.

were subsequently decorated. The gold from

3. This gold seal was said to come from a cache of

which the cylinder was created has a high cop

gold objects in Northwest Anatolia. For a discussion

per content, suggesting to some scholars that it

of Anatolian connections, see Young 1 9 7 2 , 1 1 - 1 2 .

not of Old Kingdom date. However, with recent analysis of excavated gold samples from

G i z a , it can now be shown that the copper con tent is within the normal range for that time and place. For a detailed discussion of the inscrip

tion, construction, and materials of this seal, see Appendix B.

4. Kaplony 1977,

calls this seal type, "Amtssie

gel." Kaplony 1 9 8 1 , pi. 92, no. 38, publishes this

seal. 5. Kaplony 1 9 8 3 , 295. 6. We are grateful to John Nolan for his insights on the uses of cylinder seals in the Old Kingdom.

7. By comparison, Early Dynastic seals have truncat ed cylinder forms.

LINTEL

FROM

TOMB

NEFER

L a t e Dynasty

about 2400 B . C .

G i z a , debris of tomb

1461

Early to mid-Dynasty 5, 2 5 0 0 - 2 4 5 5 B . C .

G i z a , street

activities of the department an

vizier.

85 cm, diam. 20.4 cm Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts

21.3080

would have

Limestone

is other titles, including the one that

H.

names Khufu's pyramid, were most likely hon orific, lower-ranking o f f i c e s .

above th

entranceways of Egyptian tombs.

These architectural elements originate in the wooden l o g s used in the mudbrick mastabas of earlier dynasties. This example, found in the debris of

tomb in G i z a ' s Western

Cemetery,

is inscribed for an official named Nefer whose tomb has not been located. However, we know from th

centrally placed inscription carved in

raised relief that he was "overseer of scribes an keeper of the secret matters of the pyramid of Khufu, the one who is provided for by his lord, the overseer of the treasury, Nefer."

important dating information.

They place hi

high-ranking o f f i c i a l s often chose to be buried at

Giza. Sanborn 1 9 2 2 ,

1 2 1 . 2 cm, w. 62.5 cm, d. 19 cm

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts

Nefer's epithets,

somewhere in the latter part of Dynasty 5, when

7 7 0 0 in the radim east of

7753

tomb

direct supervision of the

31.781

Expedition

along with certain paléographie forms, provide Inscribed stone drums were sometimes installed

I N T Y

D O O R

F A L S E

24

this position, he was responsible for the daily

operated under th

Limestone

Expedition

The most important of Nefer's duties

that of senior executive of the state's treasury. In

This f a l s e door inscribed for Inty,

priestess of

found in the radim (fill) of street G

Hathor, 7700, 7700 , bu

Inty's tomb ha

never been located.

Without an architectural context or associated 7.

Porter and M o s s 1 9 7 4 , 64 Strudwick 1 9 8 5 b , 4 3 - 4 4 . See a l s o Strudwick

1 9 8 5 a , 1 0 9 , 2 7 7 , 2 8 1 , 2 8 3 . This Nefer is not to

be confused with the one of tomb G 2 1 1 0 , a 4th Dynasty overseer of the treasury. See Smith Smith 1 9 4 6 , 1 6 3 , note

Strudwick 1 9 8 5 a , 2 8 3 - 8 4 . Strudwick 1 9 8 5 b , 5 0 - 5 1 .

6. Those who held offices in Khufu's cult at Giza were particularly likely to be buried there.

grave g o o d s , th

f a l s e door can be dated only by

stylistic means. Several features lead scholars to place it from early to mid-Dynasty 5: the lack of cavetto cornice or torus molding, th

presence of

two pairs of jambs, and the high-relief style. In addition, th

manner in which Inty holds th

lotus (grasping it near th

calyx with her whole

hand and not with her fingertips) has not been attested before Dynasty

inscription pro

vides further support for a Dynasty because it mentions the god Osiris,

date practice

not likely to have been in use before that time. Inty's name is found only once on the f a l s e door, on the panel. She is seated on

prise her name ar erly take th by th

stool

lotus, and the four signs that com

smelling

placed before her. They clev

shape an

space normally occupied

table piled with offerings. Inty's titles,

"royal acquaintance an

priestess of Hathor"

and "lady of the sycamore," ar lintel. Curiously, th

listed on the

place where Inty's name

should appear after th

titles ha

been left

uncarved. S o m e have suggested that th

false

prefabricated and not inscribed until

door

after purchase.

However, the fine quality of the

carving and the high status of the titles make this unlikely.

wonders why the ancient

artist neglected to write th

owner's name, th

most important of all inscriptions. Th

inner an

outer jambs bear th

same

texts in near mirror i m a g e s . T h e t w o outer jamb formulas are to Anubis, requesting that Inty be buried as

revered on

before th

great god.

The prayers inscribed on the two inner jambs are to Osiris; no epithets ar

given. They as

that invocation offerings be made fo every festival, every every day.

Inty at

Reisner n.d. g, field number 2 9 - 1 2 - 1 0 6 ; Porter and Moss 1 9 7 4 ,

203.

Strudwick 1 9 8 5 a , 1 5 - 1 6 , Harpur 1 9 8 7 , 1 3 4

35-36.

pi. 9.

Bolshakov 1 9 9 2 , 2 0 3 - 1 0 , suggests that the first writing of Osiris dates to mid-Dynasty

He disputes

the evidence presented in Begelsbacher-Fischer 1 9 8 1 , 1 2 1 ,

note 2, that the first mention of Osiris occurred

between late Dynasty 4 and early Dynasty 5. 5. Manuelian 1 9 9 8 a , 1 1 5 - 2 7 , discus ses this theory.

STANDING

FIGURES

OF

B A B A E F

a. Babaef Late Dynasty 4 to early Dynasty 5,

Limestone 1 4 7 . 3 cm, w. 36.5 cm, d. 62.5 cm

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedi ti on

2i .953 a-b

Khufu, is unique in having two s ymmetrical ly

vated status and importance. The text carved

into the base of these two statues identifies him

Each of these structures contains a trans

civil admini strat or. as a vizier—the state 's chief civil

verse offering chamber near the entrance with

It also claims that he held the title of "prince,"

wind ows revealing four narrow sp aces in the

although this designation may have been merely

building's core (see (see illustration be low)

honorific.

Late Dynasty 4 to early Dynasty 5, 2508-2485 B . C .

under whom Babaef served is not mentioned; scholars generally believe that he lived during

from an assortment of stones, were excavated

the reign of King Shepseskaf, the last ruler of

At least two sculptures are

the inscription reads "prince, overseer of all con

images of the same individual.

struction projects for the king," perhaps refer

including the two here, are complete except for

140.3 cm, w. 30.4 cm, d. 67.3 cm Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts a-

Dynasty 4. On other sculptures from the tomb,

pseudogroups, freestanding statues with multiple

ix of the limestone statues excavated,

Limestone

Unfortunately, the name of the king

dozen seated and standing statues of the

Giza, tomb G 5 2 3 0

Expedition 2 1 . 9 5

Several

deceased, of varying size and form and carved

from these channels.

Babaef

size and complexity provide testimony to his ele

placed serdab houses built in front of the masta-

2508-2485 B . C . Giza, tomb G 5230

Although Babaef's tomb was undecorated, its

Babaef's tomb complex, located in Giza's

Western Cemetery opposite the pyramid of

their head s and feature a youthful,

athletic

Babaef standing with arms against his sides,

ring to an office held prior to that of vizier. In

that capacity, Babaef would have been responsi bl

for major architectural and engineering pro

grams.

hands close d, and left foot forward. The se ideal ized repre senta tions are nearly life-size and are

distinguished by their attire—either a short kilt

Porter and Moss 1 9 7 4 , 1 5 5 - 5 7 2. Dieter Arnold 1 9 9 9 , 46

with pleated flap and knotted belt or knee-

3. The estimate is that there were about thirty to fifty

length skirt with apron. All have back pillars

statues of the vizier, many of them fragmentary. See

and are inscribed on the base with the owner's

Smith

name and titles. While these sculptures may

-5T.

е is a red-gr red-gran anite ite statuett statuett with two standing

appear at first glance to be uniform, close exam

figures; the other, also of red granite, features t wo

ination reveals subtle differences in the modeling

seated fi gures. The standing pair is the the first known

of the arms, legs, and torsos. Considering the

quantit y of stat ues made , it is likely that several artists were involved in the final steps of pro duction. Traces of red and black pigment survive on the extremities and base, a reminder that Egyptian statuary was typically painted.

Reconstruction in

drawing of the s e r d a b

front of the m a s t a b a of B a b a e f .

example of its type. For a discussion of pseudogroups, see Eaton-Krauss 1 9 9 5 . 5. Strudwick 1 9 8 5 a ,

82-8 3.

6. A sculpture in the Vienna Kunsthistorisches

Museum, Ägyptisch-Orientalische Sammlung collec

tion (number AS 7 7 8 5 ) bears this title; see Ziegler 1 9 9 9 b , 298.

B A B A E F A

R E P R E S E N T E D

SCR IBE

L a t e Dynasty 4 to early Dynasty 5, 2508-Z485 B.C.

G i z a , tomb G 5 2 3 0 B l a c k granite 36 cm, w. 25.2 cm, d. 19 cm Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

21.93 ia-c

The mastaba tomb of B a b a e f housed numerous statues of the importan t official (see cat. no. 25) but this sculpture was recovered from a nearby pit where plunderers had discard ed it.' Hiero glyphs along the front of the base identify In contrast to standi ng B a b a e f as the subject. In is on the o wner's figures in which the emp hasi s is youthful, athletic physique, this seated represen tation distinguishes B a b a e f as a man of wisdom and learning. He is depicted as a scribe with l e g s crossed and an open papyrus roll across his lap. palette with cakes of red and black ink rests in his left hand while his right thumb and fore finger are joined as if holding a reed brush. The head is bent forwar d slightly and the body leans toward the right so that it appears oddly asym metrical, but ove rall the posture is one of con centrated energy. B a b a e f wears a flared wig with central part and the features of his round

face

are softly softly modeled into a reflective, otherworldl expression. This impression of B a b a e f as

sage

elder is reinforced by the minimally rendered musculature of the upper torso and the creases the f a c e ,

1. Porter and M o s s 1974, 1 5 5 - 5 7

7

P T A H I R A N K H N Y A N K H H A T H O R

Dynasty 5, reign of Neferirkare to Reneferef, 2472-2455 B.C.

G i z a , tomb G 1501 ed H.

granite

49.2 cm, w. 32.7 cm, d. 3 1 . 4 cm

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

12.1488

Recovered from the far-western edge of the Giza necropolis, this statue depicts a couple seated on bench with a back slab that rises to the neck line.

Both figures are summarily carved with

greater attention afforded the heads. Their faces are temarkably alike, with full cheeks, raised eyebrows, eyelid folds, broad noses, and welldefined mouths. The material and block form,

as well as the thick necks, short waists, and heavy ankles, lend a sense of containmen t and

inner focus to the sculpture. The man, identified by an inscription on his

la

as "the steward Ptahirankh ," is seated to

the left of his spous e. He wear s a short , tightly curled wig that covers his ears and extends to the base of the neck, a style style popularized during Dynasty 4.

The modeling of the arms, l e g s , and

torso is subtle and the pleats of the short, belted kilt are barely visible. The name a nd title of the woman, "the king's king's acquaintance, Ny ankh-

hathor," is also provided by text carved into the figure's lap. She is only slightly smaller than her spouse and is shown w earing a plain, she ath

dress that ends at the ankles. Her mediumlength wig is composed of twisted locks parted in the middle and arranged in vertical rows. In a gesture of simple affection,

Nyank hhat hor

encircles her husband's waist with her left arm.

1. Porter Porter and Moss 197 4, 64-65. See also Smith Smith i946> 74-

2. It has been suggested that this style dates to the reign of King Nyuserre or earlier. See Cherpion 1998,

104-5. 3. Natur al hair, in the form of horizontal bands across the forehead, is also visible. For this feature as

Dynasty 5 dating device, see Cherpion 199 8, 1 0 1 .

28

S E A T E D

S T A T U E

N Y S H E P S E S N E S U T

Dynasty 5, 2.500-2350 B . C .

priest, overseer of linen, and mani

curist. However this statue of him, with names

found in a tomb belonging to another, higher

Limestone 38 cm,

1. The title ir 'nwt is translated here as "manicurist."

M o u s s a and Altenmiiller 1 9 7 7 , 29, cites the the title "the

ka

and titles incised on the sides and back, was

G i z a , tomb G 441

H.

Nyshepsesnesut was a minor official whose titles were

w.

1 1 . 5

cm, d. 23 cm.

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition 2 1 . 3 5 2

official.

Nyshepsesnesut was likely related to

the tomb owner or perhaps employed by him as priest.

The inclusion of such a priest's statue

would thereby enable the tomb owner to receive eternal services for for his funerary cul t.

At the

same time, the lower-ranking Nyshepsesnesut

would have considered it a great favor. Nyshepsesnesut is seated on a backless

throne with both hands on his thighs, the right

king's manicurist" for both the officials Khnumhotep and Niankhkhnum. Faulkner 1 9 6 2 , 43, translates 'nwt

as either toenail or finger nail, so scholars have

interpreted the title as manicurist or pedicurist. Reeder Reeder 199 3, 25, notes notes that the unusual sign used to write this title is the animal paw with extended claws. The more common hieroglyph in the Middle

Kingdom is the horizontal human finger; see Gardiner 1 9 8 2 , D 5 1 . 2. The text inscribed on the left side of the seat is

oriented in the opposite direction of the figure. Customarily, the hieroglyphs are oriented in the same direction as the figure, as is the case on the right side of the seat. Reisner 1942, 5 1 4 , found this statuette

grasping an unidentified object. His short hair

and that of another priest, Isiankh, as well as a pot

style is composed of concentric rows of curls

tery bowl, in an offering room of a small mudbrick

that cover his ears. The diminutive nos e and mouth and smooth round cheeks lend a youthful sweetness to the f a c e . This aspect is a l s o empha sized by the prominent eyes and lightly modeled

eyebrow ridges. The body, too, appears soft, as it lacks defined musculature. Much of the origi nal pigment remains on the sculpture, especially the red-brown on the body and the black on the seat, b a s e , and wig. Traces of a painted broa dvisible,, J collar are a l s o visible

serdab only forty centimeters high. See Porter Porter and

M o s s 1974, 127. Simpson 1977,

Reisner 1942, 514.

4. Russmann 1989, 32.

S T A N D I N G

Mid-

FIGURE

W E R I

to late Dynasty 5, reign of Nyuserre

to Unas, 2 4 5 5 - 2 3 5 0 B . C .

G i z a , tomb G 24 15

44.7 cm,

w.

1 1 . 5 cm, d. 1 6 cm

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

Meti was built behind the north end of the Senedjemib complex in the the Western Western Cemetery.' the north end of the chapel within the tomb's se rda b, excavators found an intact assemblage

Limestone H.

The stone-built mastaba of Wen and his wife

21.2599

statuettes—seven of limestone including this one,

and four of badly decayed wood (see pho

The rest of the grouping included a limestone pair statue, perhaps of Weri with his spouse (cat.

no. 3 0 ) , and anothet featuring his son and

daughter-in-law, Ikhui and B e b i . Two serving statuettes, one of a woman heating bread molds (cat.

no

and the other of a woman grinding

corn, complete the grouping,

tograph below). Three of the stone sculptures recovered are

Porter and

os

1 9 7 4 , 9 3 . Reisner dates this

similar in that they represent a standing man

tomb, base d on architectural features, to the the second

with cropped hair or curled wig, a short, belted

half of Dynasty 5. See Reisner Reisner 1 9 4 2 , 2 5 3 .

kilt, and hints of a broadcollar. All three are pre

2. The wooden figures were so deteriorated that they

sented in the traditional attitude with

could not be identified. See Smith 1 9 4 6 , 7 4 - 7 5 .

youthful,

idealized bodies, and all have back pillars that exten d to the midd le of the head. Of those three, this sculpt ure is the only one on which the t omb owner's name, Weri, is carved into the b a s e . Traces of pigment indicate that the kilt was

painted yellow, the belt blue, and part of the collar blue-green.

3.

Meti is identified on a false door located in the

west wall of the chapel, where her image and titles are carved into the door jambs. 4. The pair statue of Weri and his spouse (MFA 2 1 . 2 5 9 6 ) is not inscribed and may possibly represent

either a brother or son of Weri, and his wife.

PAIR

S T A T U E

TOMB

FROM

THE

ciated with the mastaba tomb of Weri and Meti

W E R I

Mid- to late Dynasty 5, reign of Nyuserre to Unas, 2 4 5 5 - 2 3 5 0

B.C.

G i z a , tomb G 24 15 56.5 cm, w. 29.2 cm, d. 1 7 . 8 cm

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

(cat. nos. 29, 3 1 ) .

Two from the grouping,

including this unidentified couple, were pair statues. Although lacking an inscription, the figures probably represent clos e relatives of the

Limestone H.

Eleven statuettes were found in the serdab a s s o 

21.2596

deceased. The overall contour of this sculpture deviates from the standard block form of 5th Dynasty sculpture. The husband and wife lean outward, creating an inverted pyramid, and the rectangu lar slab behind the couple ends at the woman's shoulders so that both heads are sculpted in the round. The man is in the typical striding p o s i 

with advanced. He wears a short, curled wig that conceals his ears and a kilt with a stiff, triangu lar apron. His broad shoulders, muscled torso, and slim waist suggest a youthful athleticism while his forward g a z e is distant and other worldly. The woma n stand s slightly apar t from her mate, leaving an area of negative space between her torso and her husband's left arm. In a man ner typical of the 5th Dynasty, one arm extends around her husband's shoulders while the hand

of the other rests near the crook of his elbow. Her curled, shoulder -length wi g is is parted in the middl e and a band of natural hair is visible along the upper forehead. The sheath dress is

c l o s e fitting and ends above the ankles where remnants of/painted anklets may be seen. It is likely that she was once adorned with matching wrist ornaments and a beaded broadcollar.

1. Porter and M o s s 1 9 7 4 , 93.

2. Smith i960, 56.

3. Labbe-Toutee and Ziegler

T999,

378-79.

31

I

WOMAN

HEATING

BREAD

MOLDS Dynasty 5, 2500-2350 Giza, tomb G 2415

H. 23.8 cm, w. 1 2 . 5 cm, d. 32 cm Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts 21.2600

By the middle of Dynast y 5, statuet tes depicti ng

people engaged in daily life activities were included in the mastaba tombs of officials. These figures were often placed, along with stat ues of the tomb owner, within a close d, inacces sible chamber of the serdab. This room was typ ically located behind the false door and featured one or two window-like slots at eye level. For many years, it was thought that these three-dimensional figures represented servants on a nobleman's estate. In this capacity, they would be magically transformed into workers

z. I would like to thank Ann Macy Roth for her

their gazes are directed toward the openings,

insights on these statuette s by personal communica

insured access to the next world and allowed

tion, May 10 , zooo.

This serving statuet te was recovered from the

found there: three standing male figures and two pair statues. There were also traces of at least four wood

tomb of a man named Weri (cat. nos. 29, 30)

en bases from statues that had decayed. See Porter

and his wife Meti, along with another of

and Moss 1974, 93; also Smith 1946, 74-75.

kneeling woman grinding corn.

4. Statuettes of men and women heating bread molds

Here, the

female figure heats bedja pots, bell-shaped ves

are paralleled in relief representations. The Dynasty 5

sels of clay used for bread making, over an open

tomb of Djaty

fire.

Seated on the ground with right leg bent

under and left leg raised and bent at the knee, she stokes a fire with a stick while pr otecti ng her face and wig from the glare of the embers

with her hand. The figure wears a short skirt and a cloth covers the crown of a curled wig. Although the woman's posture implies agility, her pendulous brea sts suggest advancing age. break in the middle of the base appears to have been repaired in ancient times. As with many stone sculptures of the period, the stat

tomb owner in the afterlife.

uette was once complete ly paint ed. Fort unately,

Macy Roth has designated these objects as

3. For a description of tomb G 2 4 1 5 , see Reisner

limestone sculptures were 1 9 4 2 , 253 . Five additional limestone

rituals such as censing.

who would prov ide life-susta ining services to the More recently, Ann

See Breasted 1948.

Their inclusion in the serdab, positioned so that

them to be beneficiaries of certain revitaliz ing

Limestone

Expedition

humble tas ks as a demonst rat ion of their piety.

ings, and brewing beer (line drawing below); see

Simpson 1980, 28-30, pi. 41 5. For a further descrip tion of this figure, as well as

another example of a baker heating bread molds, see Breasted 1948, 28-29, pL 6. The jewelry and curled wig on a recently discov ered statuet te of a woman grinding gra in (Giz a G 7) has been cited as evidence that the woman represent ed is not a servant but the lady of the house. See Hawass 1995a, 9 1 - 9 5 , pis.

considerable amount of the original pigment

"serving statuettes." In this interpretation, the

remai ns—yello w on on expo sed skin; black on the

figures portray highly placed personages rather

wig, eyes, vessels, and base; and red covering the

than anonymous servants. In fact, an analysis of

stacked, conical pots. Less visible are the the bl ack

inscribed examples suggests they were often the

outlines of a necklace with pendant and orna

relatives, friends, and retainers of the deceased.

ments on the wrist.

These relations are shown engaged in useful,

Line drawing of a relief from the tomb of Djaty (G 2 3 3 7

for example, contained a 2337 x) , for

relief of his daughters making bread, bearing offer

featuring his d a u g h t e r s m a k i n g bread, bearing offerings, and brewing beer.

3 1 - 3 Z .

32

OFFERING

The only title provided for Khnumu is kken-

BASIN

tiu-she, "those foremost of the royal precinct"

KHNUMU Mid- to late Dynasty 5, 2 5 0 0 - 2 3 5 0

G i z a , tomb

B.C.

2009

( s e e cat. no 20). The khentiu-she either per formed personal services for the living king in the palace or they served in the mortuary cult

Limestone 36.6 cm, h. 1 3 . 3 cm,

2 1 . 9 cm

the deceased king.

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts For

Expedition 06.1884

similar offering basin found sunk in the

ground, see Thomas 1995, 1 3 5 , no. 46. For an

B a s i n s were often set before

tomb's false door

identical offer ing basin from tomb G 2009 inscribe

with rims flush with the ground (see photo at

for Semerka and now in Cair o (JE 38674 ), see Leh-

right). Th

mann 1 99 5, 25, 46-4 7, pi. 22. Lehmann Lehmann notes that

shape was designed for receiving

funerary libations such as water, beer, wine, or milk. Here, crisp hieroglyphs on the flat ri request non-liquid offerings as well: An offering that the King and Anubis, who

is foremost of the divine booth, give:

very

fine burial in the necropolis and possessor

Semerka's basin is in situ in the photograph. Khnumu's may be seen in the foreground of the same pho tograph, upside-down.

2. Abou-Ghazi 1980, 9-10. The text runs from upper right to left and down to the lower left corner. It resumes in the right hand

of veneration before the great god for the

column and runs down and across to the lower left

royal servant Khnumu. May his invocation

corner.

offerings of btead, beer, fowl and oxen be

4. Lehmann 1 9 9 5 , 46-47, identifies eight individuals

made every day, at monthly and bimonthly

in tomb G 2009 who have this title. For details of this

festivals, for the royal servant Khnumu.'

title, see also Jones 2000, 6 9 1 - 9 2 ; Lehner 1997,

With this prayer, eternal offerings were ensured for the spirit of the tomb owner.

2 3 4 - 3 5 ; B a u d 1996, 1 3 - 3 8 ; Roth 1 9 9 1 a , passim.

During the mummification process , the soft

are only hollowed out to two-thirds of their

Dynasty 5, 2500-2350 B . C .

orga ns—lungs, n s—lung s, stomach, liver, and intestines—

depth and their uninscribed surfaces have been

G i z a , tomb G 7249

were removed from the body and separately

lightly sanded. From the same chamber, a cylin

Limestone

dried in order to reduce the risk of the body

der seal of black mud with the impression of

dec o omposi mp osing. ng. The earliest evidence for this prac

one of the royal names of King Nyuserre helped

C A N O P I C

J A R S

LIDS

a. H. 25.2 cm with lid, diam. 1 4 . 5 c m H. 24.5 cm with lid, diam. 14. 3 cm

c. H. 25 cm with lid, diam. 14.8 cm d. H. 25 cm (no lid), diam.

5 cm

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

27.1553.1-4

tice was found in the tomb of Queen

Hetep heres

I, mother of King Khufu in Dynasty 4.

Her

George Reisner date the tomb to the 5th

Dynasty, Dynasty,

organs were wrapped in linen packages and placed in an alabaster can opic chest. Some of

1. Reisner 1942, 1 5 5 . See also catalogue numbers

the earliest canop ic jars were found in the tomb

1 and 2 for a suite of furniture and inlays from the

Meresankh III, who died in Dynasty 4 during the reign of King Menkaure.

2. Brovarski Brovarski 1 978 , introduct introduction. ion. Meresankh's Meresankh's

This set of canopic jars was found in the

burial chamber of a tomb whose owner is unknown (see photo bel ow).

same tomb.

The round lids

have flat tops and tapering sides that fit flush

into the mouth of the jar. The thick-walled jars

canopic jars are in the collection of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (MFA 2 7 . 1 5 5 1 . 1 - 4 ) ; see Dunham and Simpson 19 74, 8-9 (page 23 incorrectly claims

that they are in Cairo). 3. Porter and Moss 1974, 1 9 2 ; Reisner 1942, 3 1 1 .

M O D E L

O F F E R I N G S

a. Duck Dynasty 5, reign of Djedkare Isesi,

2415-23 71 B.C.

G i z a , tomb G 47 33 E Egyptian alabaster H.

4.3 cm, w. 5.1 cm, d. 7.8 cm

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

21.2817

S m a l l models representing various foods were

ninety-five ala baster models of 1. Reisner recovered ninety-five

sometimes included in burials as magical substi

food in this burial. Reisner n.d. f, 62 3- 26 . See See also

tutes to be consumed in the afterlife. This grouping, which includes a duck, a conical bread loaf , a joint of beef, beef, and an unidentified fruit or vegeta ble, was once part of a larg a ssembla ge of miniature offerings placed in a

tomb in Giza' s Western Cemetery

owner's name is unknown, a mud seal impres sion found in the debris of the tomb bears the cartouc he of Djedka re Isesi, a late Dynasty 5

Bread loaf Dynasty 5, reign of Djedkare Isesi,

ruler.

S m a l l models of food were merely one means

2415-2371 B.C.

G i z a , tomb G 473 3 E Egyptian alabaster 3.2 cm, diam. 2.5 cm Harva rd Univers ity-Museu m of Fine Arts Expedition

Although the

21.2832

by which the deceased insured continued suste nance should mortuary priests and descendents fail to provide essential goods. Another method

as

a list of offerings carved into the tomb wall,

often acc ompan ied by an image of the deceased seate d before a funerary meal.- In addition to

c. Joint of meat Dynasty 5, reign of Djedkare Isesi,

2415-2 371 B.C.

G i z a , tomb G 47 33 E Egyptian alabaster H.

4.7 cm,

w.

3.0 cm, d. 7.0 cm

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

21.2824

d. Fruit or vegetable Dynasty 5, reign of Djedkare Isesi,

2415-2 371 B.C.

G i z a , tomb G 473 3 E Egyptian alabaster H.

1.0 cm, w. 2.1 cm, d. 6.0 cm

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

21.2833

naming specific foods, the list list would would include items such as water, incense, and sacred oils. An alabaster tablet divided into seven sections with deptessions for ritual oils was also found in this burial,

Brovarski 1988b, 93. Porter and Moss 1974, 1 3 6 ; Brovarski Reisner and Smith 1 9 5 5 , 53, fig. 57. For a detailed discuss ion of offering offering lists, see Barta

1963.

M O D E L

STONE

VES SELS

a. Openi ng of the Mouth cup Dynasty 5, 250 0-2 350

G i z a , debris of pit

B.C .

2347 x

Quartz crystal 3.5 cm, diam. 3.5 cm Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

33.1019

Model jar with handle Dynasty 5, 250 0-2 350

G i z a , tomb

B.C .

2360

Egyptian alabaster H. 8.8 cm, diam. 7.0 cm Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

13.3128

c. Model cylinder jar Dynasty 5 , 2 500-235 0

G i z a , debris of pit

B.C .

7550

Egyptian alabaster 5.3 cm, diam. 2.7 cm Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

28.1149

d. Model round-bottomed Dynasty Dynasty 5, 250 0-2 350

G i z a , tomb

dish

B.C .

4610

Egyptian alabaster H. 2.0 cm, diam. 4.2 cm

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

35.2030

e. Model bowl Dynasty 5 , 2 500-235 0

G i z a , floor of pit

B.C .

7740 z

Egyptian alabaster 3.7 cm, diam. 4.5 cm Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

27.1552

Mode l vessel offerings were not completely hol

stances, and each one can be matched to an item

lowed out because they were intended as sym

request ed on offering lists. Tall contai ners, for

bolic representations rather than as true contain

example, represented liquid offerings such as

ers for food and drink. Most are solid with only

wine, beer, or sacred o i l s . The alabaster cylinder

slight depression at the top. Even the handle-

jar here (cat. no. 35c) represented a large con

on the small jug of this grouping was suggested

tainer of unguent. Cups and dishes represented

rather than fully carved (cat. no. 35b). None

all types of solid food, and sometimes the actual

theless, such model s of eternal s tone were highly

food was sculpted in stone as well (cat. no. 34).

prized items for both tombs and temples, wher

The number of models placed in a tomb's offer

ever offerings were made.

ing area varied widely, from a few to over six

S o m e model ve ssels had specific ritual pur

hundred in one Giza tomb.

p o s e s . For exam ple , the rock crystal cup here ( c a t . no. 35a ) would have been employed as part

1. A s t o n 1994, 65, 1 7 0 , pi. 15a.

of an Openi ng of the Mout h ceremony. ' How

2 . J u n k e r 192 9, 1 0 8 - 9 .

ever, most mo del vessels simply served as minia

ture substitutes for food, drink, or precious sub

O R N A M E N T S

36

IN

CHAIR

FROM

" G I R D L E

FORM

K N O T S "

Dynasty 5, 2 5 0 0 - 2 3 5 0 B . C .

G i z a , tomb G 7690 Probably bone H.

20.2 cm, w. 23.3

Harvard University-Museum

Fine Arts

Expedition 2 9 . 2 2 1 7 . 1 - 1 2

Surviving objects

nd depictions on tomb walls

s u g g e s t that beds, chairs, stools,

nd boxes fo

storage were popular throughout

th

Egyptian history among those wh such luxuries.' During th

course could afford

Pytamid Age, furni

ture was made in a bold, massive,

technical

ly sophisticated style that reflected th

accom

nd restrained elegance characteristic

plishments

of th

period

s a whole. A 5th Dynasty repre

sentation in the tomb of Seshemnefer, fo

ple, shows th with

owner seated in

side panel decorated with three rows of

cut-out "girdle knot s." known

exam

high-back chair

"girdle knot," also

s a "girdle tie" or " I s i s knot," is

believed to represent folded cloth, perhaps mate rial associated with menstruation reproductive powers.

female

earliest known "girdle

Naga

knot," from an Early Dynastic burial ed-Deir, is a gold ornament believed served

apotropaic function.

have

Fourth Dynasty

chairs featuring openwork de signs made of

other protective symbols ar

also known; fo

ex example, am ple, each side panel of

chair from th

tomb of Queen Hetepheres

incorporates an

image

f a winged falcon on

colum n (see illus

tration at right). The materials used fo

such furniture orna

gold, silver, semiprecious stones,

ivory.

Sources of ivory in ancient Egypt included both

hippopotamus tusk. While th

Asian elephant (Elepbas maximus) supplied some of the ivory during dynastic times, it wa

the dentine of the African elephant

africana) from th

luxury item. See See Manuelian 19 82

(Loxodonta

Sudanese savanna and the

Nilotic hippopotamus (Hippopotamus

amphibius) that was most commonly used in the fabrication of luxury goods.

64.

2. Baker 1966, 3 9 - 4 1 . 3. Smith 194 6, 291 , fig. 1 4 1 . 4. From N a g a ed-Deir

2 9 - 3 3 , p'- 9-

1 5 3 2 ; see Reisner 1908,

example of ornamental "girdle

ties" used on a wooden chest from the 3rd Dynasty

tomb of Hesire, see Quibell 1 9 1 3 , pi. 18.

5. This chair has not yet been reconstructed. For

mentation were often often precious. They included

elephant an

1. The stool was the most common type of seating; chairs were

reconstruction drawing, see Reisner Reisner 1 9 5 5 , fig. fig. 32

Fo

other furniture from the tomb, see catalogue

number i. 6. Krzyszkowska and Morkot 2000, 320-2 4.

c. Wrist ornaments

types: the wesekh ("the broad one") broadcollar

Dynasty 5, 2 5 0 0 - 2 3 5 0 B . C .

that consists of multiple, horizontal rows of

Dynasty 5, 2 5 0 0 - 2 3 5 0 B . C .

G i z a , tomb G 2 4 2 2

densely space d tubular beads strung in an

G i z a , tomb

tomb G 24 16 D III)

upright position, and the shenu ("that which

Faience

encircles") broadcollar composed of trapezoid-

J E W E L R Y

P A R U R E

a. Counterpoise

2422

(with cylinder an 2 4 1 6 D III)

ring beads from tomb

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts

5 cm, w. 3. 5 cm, d. 0.4 cm

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

shaped segments of tubular beads alternately

10.8 cm, h. 5.2 cm, d. 1.2 cm

Faience H.

(with cylinder beads from

Expedition

arranged in horizontal an

37.1311

end pieces at the nape of the neck an

ments is based on excavated examples from th

between th

Dynasty 5, 2 5 0 0 - 2 3 5 0 B . C .

G i z a necropolis

balance th

G i z a , tomb G 2 4 2 2

on sculpture an

from tomb

broadcollar (with ring beads

III an 2 4 1 6 D III

tomb

Faience H.

19 cm, w. 27 cm, d. 0.5 cm

Harvard University-Museum Expedition

appear

as well as

1102)

37.1313

Fine Arts

These

p o i s e , an element joined to the hemispherical

37.1312 Much of our knowledge of Old Kingdom orna

Wesekh

vertical rows.

collars were often accompanied by a counter

well

depictions of jewelry

relief. Beaded ornaments

have been popular among both s e x e s range of anthropomorphic

deities in

hanging

shoulder blades. It was designed to weight of the collar in front an

generally repeated its bead pattern. Wrist ornaments were particularly favored by women an

often were worn

part of coor

ancient Egypt. Such elabora te adornmen t served

dinated or matched parures. Wristlets were simi

as colorful additions to the near-white kilt fo

lar in construction to chokers (cat.

18).

men and the plain linen sheath for women. recent survey of Old Kingdom broadcollar representations indicates that there were tw

For

discussion of the various forms of the

collar, se

Brovarski 1997, 1 3 7 - 6 2 .

Dynasty

The transition to Dynasty 6 was by all accounts

in royal art of the 6th Dynasty. The effect is oth-

uneventful. Iput, wife of the dynas ty' s first ruler

erworldly—more mystical and transcendent than

Teti, was probably a daughter of King Unas, the

naturalistic. In private statuary, it is perhaps best

last ruler of Dynasty 5. Additionally, several of

reflected in the wooden figures found in serdabs

Teti's officials, including his vizier Kagemeni,

(fig. 38). A great man y of these were produced

had also served under U n a s . Saqqara remained

in provincial centers and, like their royal coun-

the royal cemetery an d kings cont inued

tetparts, are smaller in scale than earlier works.

the

pract ice of insc ribing magica l spells from the

There is also a tendency to depict a single indi

Pyramid Texts on the walls of their burial cham

vidual at various sta ges of development, development, from

bers. The text s als o appea r, in in a limited fas hion,

youth to old age , as illustra ted in the multiple

on the hard-stone sarcophagi reserved for kings. life found in 5th As for the lively scenes of daily life Dynasty pyramid temples and causeways, they are no longer as varied or complex. They were transformed into fixed, formalized expressions

that define aspects of kingship.

images of the architect Nekhebu found in the ser dab of his to mb at Giza . Relief work from the chapel of the sa me burial s hows the new style as it applies to two-dimensional work (fig- 39>-

Perhaps our best insights into the twilight of

Other trends rooted in the previous dynasty had repercussions that suggest Egypt was experi

the Old Kingd om can be found in the writin gs of Ipuwer. Although produced at a later date,

encing a declin e. Several Several chan ges, including the

the text describes a state of chaos and distress

increased power of local nomarchs, can be

believed to reflect the socia l, politi cal, and eco

tra ced to a weake nin g of the institut ion of king

nomic situation at the end of the Pyramid Age.

ship and an ineffectiv ineffective e central administ rati on.

Ipuwer lamented,

The nomarchs of Elephantine, for example, con trolled access to the granite quarries at Aswan, the prime source of the prized building material,

Lo

the face is pale, the bowman

ready,

while Pepy I tried to remedy his own decline by

Crime is everywhere, there is no man

marry ing two daught ers from a powerful pr o

of yesterday

vincial family family at Aby dos, an Upper Egyptian site

Lo

of growing political influence.

The servant takes what he finds.

Eventually, Egypt's foreign relationships were affected. For exa mple, the the lucrative cara van trade with Nubia came under the control of southern governors. In addition, two relief scenes from private chapels suggest hostile encounters with Libya and western A s i a ,

the robber...every where,

Lo

Hapy [the Nile god] inundates

an

none plow for him,

Al say,

We don't know what has has

happened in the land.

and a

biographical inscription from the Abydos tomb of Weni, a senior official who served Teti, Pepi I,

F i g . 38 Wooden figure of Meryrehaishetef,

from Sedment, Dynasty 6, reign of

King Pepy I.

Smith 1998, 68. 2. Smith

battle—a land and sea operation near the Sinai

3. Roccati 1986, 8 5 1 - 5 2 . See also Lichtheim 1973,

region.

There are also hints of conspiracies conspiracies an

the usurpation of royal prerogatives. Djau, son

18-23. 4. Hornung 1999, 38-39; Strudwick 1985a, 302.

of the provincial nomarch Khui and a vizier

5. Examples include a schist statue of Pepi I kneeling

under Pepy II, was the first non-r oyal person to

(Brooklyn Museum of Art, 3 9 . 1 2 1 ) and a schist

place a statue of himself in a temple. The king

sculpture of Merenre I as a sphinx offering nu pots,

defer himself appea rs to have taken on a more defer ential role toward the gods, perhaps a sign of his diminished status during this period. royal representat ion set As in earlier times, royal the standard followed by courtiers and officials. new style in sculpture and relief character

Fig. 39

Strudwick 1985a, 1 5 4 - 5 5 .

and Merenre, provides the first description of a

body propor ized by large heads, exaggerat ed body

Relief figure of the overseer of all

tions, narrow waists , undeveloped musculat ure,

w o r k s , Nekhebu, Dynasty 6.

elongated limbs, and asymmetry, appeared first

small, globular jars for liquid offerings (National Museums of Scotland, Edinburgh, 1984.405). 6. Russmann 1 9 9 5 , 269-79. 7. Lichtheim 1 9 7 3 , 49 63

O R N A M E N T S

FROM

P T A H S H E P S E S

TOMB

IMPY

a. Bracelet Dynasty 6, reign of Neferkare Pepy II,

G i z a , tomb

Ptahshepses Impy in the large Senedjemib family

existence after death. Many of the beads on

complex of G i z a ' s Western Cemetery, near the

Impy's necklace (cat.

northwest corner of Khufu's pyramid.

value. The blue-green turquoise represented

2381

0.5 cm (band), diam. 6 cm (band), 2. (disk) Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts

13.3414

The old

mastaba in the group belongs to Senedjemib vizier an

Inti,

Gold

Wesekb

would have ensured the deceased continued

es

2288-2194

Expedition

Excavators discovered the intact burial of

chief architect under Djedkare

blue reflected the heavens and the life-giving

King Unas an

under King Teti, the first ruler of

Dynasty 6. Their Their gran dson,

Me rpta hankhmeryre

N e k h e b u , served Meryre Pepy I. Nekhebu's

o f f i c e s including

Impy held important titles an

G i z a , tomb

"count, overseer of all works of the king [under

H.

the tw houses, overseer of the

1 7 . 4 cm, w. 1 7 . 5 cm d. 2.

cm

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

13.3086

c. String of beads Dynasty 6, reign of Neferkare Pepy II,

2288-2194 G i z a , tomb

builder in both

workshops," an

"chief lector priest."' It is a l s o likely that Impy held the post of vizier towards the end of Pepy

IP

long reign.

On the gold, semicircular termi

nals of the wesekb broadcollar (cat. no. 38b)

cm diam. 0.8 cm (largest bead)

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

13.3422

also Brovarski 2 0 0 1 , 3 3 .

cedar coffin now in the collection of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (MFA 1 3 . 3 0 8 5 ) ; see Brovarski 2001,

34-35.

4. Strudwick 1 9 8 5 a , 9 6 - 9 7 ; Brovarski 2 0 0 1 , 3 4 - 3 5 . 5. For an analysis of gold from this necklace as well gold fro as additional samples of Old King dom gold

G i z a , see Appendix A. For a detailed description of the beadwork, see Markowitz and Shear 2 0 0 1 , 1 - 4 .

6. The most common bead material fo surviving col lars of the Old Kingdom is faience. The six double rows of beads in Impy's neck ornament formerly

chased hieroglyphs as "the overseer of all works,

thought to be glazed steatite were recently analyzed by Richard Newman, Head of Scientific Scientific Research,

Impy." The wesekb broadcollar breast of the mummy in

as found on the

remarkable state of

preservation (see photo at right). It is composed

faience

2. For a biographical sketch of Nekhebu, see Dunham 1 9 3 8 a , 1 - 8 , pi.

recovered from the tomb, he is identified by

23

Gold, turquoise, carnelian, steatite,

10

Neferk are Pepy II], architect an

Porter and M o s s 1 9 7 4 , 8 9 - 92 92 .

Impy's name and titles appear on his inscribed

Following the family tradition, Ptahshepses

2288-2194 B.C.

glazed steatite

dynamism, while

Nile.

Dynasty 6, reign of Neferkare Pepy II,

Gold, lapis lazuli, turquoise, carnelian,

the red-orange of the car

nelian stood for strength an

and Khnumenti, held similar positions under

be buried in the family complex.

2381

11

symbolic

I s e s i of Dynasty 5. Two s o n s , Senedjemib Mehi

s o n , Impy, wa s th last of four generations to

broadcollar

regenerative growth,

o. 38c) a l s o ha

of six double rows of turquoise cylinders, eight rows of ball beads fabricated from gold sheet, one bead row of semi-precious stones at the top, an

a row of sixty-three buprestid beetle pen

dants along the bottom edge. The necklace is unique among broadcollars in its use of prized material imported from the

turquoise,

Wadi Maghara in southern S i n a i .

Another s p e 

Department of Conservation and Collections Management, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. He determined that the beads were turquoise. For infor mation on ancient Egypt's turquoise source see Aston, Harrell, and Shaw 2 0 0 0 , 6 2 - 6 3 . 7. Reisner 1 9 0 8 , pis. 6, 9a.

8. George Reisner records three broadcollars with gilt buprestid-beetle pendants from three different tombs

2 0 0 4 A,

6 0 1 2 A, and

2 3 8 1 A) dated to the

th and 6th Dynasties. See Reisner n.d . f 6 3 7 - 3 9 . 9. Firth and Gunn 1 9 2 6 , 6. A 9 cm long string of carnelian and faience barrel

cial feature of the collar is the inclusion of

beads now in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (MFA

buprestid beetles, powerful powerful s ymbols of resurrec

0-34I5)-

tion associated with the goddess Neith that date

The steatite barrel and cylinder beads were once

at least as far back as the Early Dynastic tombs

covered by a blue-green glaze, but it has largely dis

of N a g a ed-Deir. The beetles ar

appeared.

a l s o known

from several neck ornaments found in the G i z a necropolis, from the Saqqara tomb of Queen

Input (mother of Pepy

as well as the bed

canopy of Queen Hetepheres

(cat. n o . i a ) .

L i k e many of Egypt's elite, Ptahshepses Impy buried with including tw left wrist:

number of other ornaments,

bracelets that were found on the

string of b e a d s

and a flat gold

band (cat. no 38a). The band is pierced at each rounded end and surmounted by

disk of gold

sheet held in place by string. The disk, as well as the gold, had solar, life-giving life-giving ass ociations an

Wilkinson 1 9 9 4 , 1 0 6 - 9 .

Ornaments on Ptahshepses Impy's body when the opened, 1913.

coffin

was

first

C O P P E R

F R O M

M O D E L

V E S S E L S

TH E TO MB

P T A H S H E P S E S

OF

IMPY

f a c e an

were made by means of copper rivets. A rivet

a. B a s i n

2288-2194 G i z a , G 2381 A Copper 2.8 cm, diam. 6.4 cm Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts

13.2954

along with

in a wooden box that was placed in front of the

Reisner 1 9 1 3 , 5 9 , pi. 1 5 - 1 6 .

deceased's cedar coffin coffin (see photo b el ow)

The box had decayed over time so that only frag

Th

mode ls, typically deposited in large numbers,

ments remained when Reisner excavated this intact

would have served the same role as their full-

burial.

s c a l e counterp arts by magically supplying the deceased with food and drink in perpetuity.

manufactur e of the models s u g g e s t s that the

Dynasty 6, reign of Neferkare Pepy II,

2288-2194 G i z a , G 2381 A Copper 5 cm, diam. 4.2 cm Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

13.2957

Dynasty 6, reign of Neferkare Pepy II,

2288-2194

99%) with traces of iron, tin, lead, and sulfur.

Muhly, and Brovarski 1 9 8 4 , 3 3 - 4 1 ; Schorsch 1 9 9 2 ,

Skilled metalsmiths used the ingots as casting

1 5 4 ; Lacovara 1 9 9 5 a ,

material or cold-hammered the metal into sheets. These shallow v e s s e l s were formed by "sinking" the sheet metal into a mold; larger containers were "rai sed " by hammering the

needed. J o i n s , such as those between the sur

1.5 cm, diam. 6.2 cm Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts

13.3237

d. Offering table Dynasty 6, reign of Neferkare Pepy II,

2288-2194 G 23 81 A Copper cm, d. 19 .6 cm

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

i3.2938a-e

Spouted bowl with stand Dynasty 6, reign of Neferkare Pepy II,

2288-2194 G i z a , G 2381 A Copper 6 cm, d i a m . 1 2 cm Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

13.2944

SEM analyses of these vessels in 1 9 7 9 . The trace

result of deliberate alloying. See Maddin, Stech,

B.C.

cm, w. 1 8 . 7

Management, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, conduct ed

resulting in copper ingots of high purity (average

Copper

H.

Department of Conservation and Collections

elements were considered impurities rather than the

G i z a , G 238 1

Expedition

The three steps were smelting, refining to remove

slag, and casting in molds. J a m e s Muhly of the

ancient craftsman used a three-step process

metal against a hard surface and annealing it as

Dish

no. 39e) to its biconcave stand,

number of stone v e s s e l s and tools,

examination of the metal used in the Neckless jar

legs of the offering table (cat. no. 39d),

a l s o used to attach the spouted bowl (cat.

ture offering tables and more than a dozen small

v e s s e l s , all made of copper. These were stored,

Dynasty 6, reign of Neferkare Pepy II,

Expedition

Among the burial equipment of Ptahshepses Impy (see a l s o cat. no. 38) were several minia

P t a h s h e p s e s Impy's burial c h a m b e r ,

1912.

1 3 7 .

Softening of the metal by heat ing. Typi cally, series of hammering and annealing operations were

needed before reaching the final shape. L u c a s and Harris 1 9 6 2 , 2 1 2 - 1 4 .

S T O N E

M O D E L

FROM

V E S S E L S

TOMB

P T A H S H E P S E S

1. Roth 1992, 1 1 5 .

2. The ritual is described in Pyramid Text 33 . Roth

rounded by an array of funerary objects, includ

IMPY

a. Opening of the Mouth

Ptahshepses Impy's wooden sarcophagus discovered in his intact burial chamber sur

bottle

ing countless small model stone v e s s e l s . The

Dynasty 6, reign of Neferkare Pepy II,

shapes of the three illustrated here indicate that

2288-2194

they are of the type found in Opening of the

G i z a , tomb G 238

Mouth sets typically accompanied by peseshkef

Quartz crystal

knives (see cat. no 1 7 ) . However, no peseshkef knives ar

8.4 cm, diam. 4 Harvard

University-Museum of Fine Arts

Expedition

13.3268

listed in the field notes for this tomb.

B e c a u s e these v e s s e l s were not hollowed out—they

re solid with only

the Opening of the Mouth

up

slight depression

rather than

functional purpose in the Opening of the Mouth

Dynasty 6, reign of Neferkare Pepy II,

ritual. In a complete ritual se there ar

2288-2194

two types of v e s s e l s : four cups like catalogue

G i z a , tomb

2381

number 40b, and two narrow-necked

Slate

with flaring rims such

3.4 cm diam. 3.5 cm Harvard

Expedition

13.3258 bottle

Dynasty 6, reign of Neferkare Pepy II,

2288-2194

B.C.

G i z a , tomb G 2381 Slate 7.4 cm diam. 4 Harvard

University-Museum of Fine Arts

Expedition

13.3262

bottles

catalogue numbers 40a

stone

nd half in a white stone or crystal.

Accotding to the Pyramid Texts, the black white bottles ar

c. Opening of the Mouth

typically

and 40c. Each vessel type is made half in a dark

University-Museum of Fine Arts

black

nd

lifted u p a n d identified as the

nd white eyes of Horus at one point in

the ritual.

1 9 9 2 , 120, 1 1 6 , notes that written temple inventories provide th ancient Egyptian names fo these vessels and tell us that they were made of black an

white

hard stone. Th bottles are called hatash and th cups

are called henwt.

T O O L S

FRO M

THE TO MB

P T A H S H E P S E S

O

IMPY

a. Model chisel Dynasty 6, reign of Neferkare Pepy II,

G i z a , tomb G 238 Copper 8.9 cm, w. 0.6 cm, d. 0.1 cm Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts

13.3470

Round chisel with flat tip Dynasty 6, reign of Neferkare Pepy II,

2288-2194

G i z a , tomb G 23 81 A Copper 8.6 cm, diam. 0.6 cm Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

13.3468

c. Wide chisel Dynasty 6, reign of Neferkare Pepy II,

2288-2194

G i z a , tomb G 23 81 A Copper 0.6 cm 1 2 . 8 cm, w. 1 .5 cm , d. 0.6 Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

13.3428

d. Mortise chisel Dynasty 6, reign of Neferkare Pepy II,

2288-2194

G i z a , tomb G 23 81 A Copper

1 2 . 2 cm, w. 0.7 cm, d. 0.7 cm Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

T3.3426

build

weight than masonry tools and so are either

ing in stone and the widespread sculpting of

models or sculptor's tools. The tools were made

royal and private statuary, metal tools were of

in open-faced or two-part molds while the

great importance. B e c a u s e bronze was not avail

model was cut from hammered sheet metal.

able

2288-2194

Expedition

In a peri od characte rize d by monum ental

until

Some

with

Kingdom stone craftsmen used copper s a w s ,

tip (cat. no. 4 1 b ) and the square-sectioned mor

chisels, and drills with an abrasive mix of quartz

tise chisel (cat. no. 4 i d ) ,

sand, gypsum, and water. Due to the relative

wooden handles.

softness of copper, the stone stone worke rs would

ing tools, used for making designs and inscrip

have had to sharpen the tips of their tools

tions on stone and meta l, had fine fine tips and were

repeatedly on slate hones. Leather workers, bead

often hand-held.

would have had

Copper chasing and engrav

drillers, textile workers, and woodworkers a l s o used copper tools. The last of these used the tools for carving statuary (see illustration below), architectural elements, furniture, ships,

and funerary

goods.

Lehner 1 9 9 7 , 2 1 0 - 1 1 . Chisels used for cutting or dressing stones are typi cally 1 5 - 2 0

cm in length; see Arnold 1 9 9 1 , 2 5 7 - 6 0 .

For other examples, see Petrie 1 9 1 7 , 1 9 - 2 1 , pi.

The chisels recovered from the tomb of

4. Killen 1980, 1 6 - 1 8 .

Ptahshepses Impy are smaller and lighter in

Scheel 1 9 8 9 , 3 9 - 4 0 .

S T A T U E

T J E T E T Y

L a t e Dynasty 6, 2 2 8 8 - 2 1 9 4 B . c . S a q q a r a , near the pyramid of King Teti Wood H.

40 cm, w. 10 .8 cm, d. 26 cm

Gift of the Service des Antiquités

d'Egypte

24.608

Cecil Firth found a remarkable cache of sculp

ture in the tomb of Tjetety.

One stone and sev

enteen wooden statuettes of Tjetety, and seven servant figures and funerary funerary models were includ ed in his burial. They were deposited in a recess in the wall of the tomb's shaft.

The small

serdab chamber protected the sculpture even

when the butial chamber itself was completely plundered. Tjetety was a high official; most notably he was "seal bearer of the king of Lower Egypt, overseer of scribes of the sealed documents, and overseer of the double grana ries." His tomb has been dated to the time of

King Neferkare Pepy II. In this sculpture overly large eyes angled upwards and long, straight eyebrows lend a quizzical expression to the f a c e . As is the c a s e

with much of the sculpture from the end of the Old Kingd om, the head is dispropo rtionat ely large for the body while the torso is short. The

chest and limbs are slender and appe ar underde veloped. He wears a short hairstyle with rows of curls on the bottom, topped by striated bangs.

No specific location for the tomb is given; see

Porter and Moss 19 78, 566.

2. See Peterson 198 6, 3, for for all the objects from Tjetety's tomb.

3. Strudwick 1 9 8 5 a , 160, n o . 1 5 9 dates the tomb to the end of the reign of Pepy II. 4. This striding wooden figure is carved with exten

sions on the feet that fit in holes in its wooden b a s e .

S T A T U E

43

F

S E A T E D

WOMAN

Dynasty 6, 2 3 5 0 - 2 1 7 0 B . C .

G i z a , tomb G 1021 Limestone H.

38 cm, w. 1 2 . 5 cm, d. 18 cm

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Expedition

21.2603

Origina lly, cemetery G 10 00 in in the northwestern part of the Western Cemetery contained a num ber of burial s dating to the end of the 4th Dy nas ty. As time passed, the spacious, solidly built mastabas of stone were phased out and replaced

with smaller ones of poorer quality. George Reisner viewed these additions as a demonstra tion of the diminished wealth and resources avail able at the end of the Old Kingdom.

Alth ough the identity of the wo ma n depi cted in this statuette is unknown, excav ator s' com ments on the position and architectu re of the tomb indicate a 6th Dynasty date.

Such a date is

confirmed by the lack of naturalism in the figure and the exaggerated body proportions. Notable characteristics of late Old Kin gdom art exhibited here include the elongated upper torso, elevated breasts, narrow ed waist, suppress ed musculature,

and long fingers. The woma n is shown seated, wearing a curled wig parted in the center and extending to her broad shoulders.

Her face is round, with raised

eyebrows, eyelid f o l d s , a long nose, subtle nasolabial creases, a prominent philtrum, and small chin. Trace s of red and black pigme nt on

the neck are suggest ive of a choker, an d wi de band s carve d at the wrist s represent be aded orna ments.

Growt h in this part of the the cemetery was from south to north and from eas t to west. Ma ny of the later tombs were made of rubble cased with crude brick. For many of these later tombs, the names of the deceased were not recovered. Reisner n.d. f, 1-6.

Reisner n.d. f, 1-6. Russmann 199 5, 269- 79, views this manner manner of sculptural representation as a "second style" that first appeared in royal statuary during Dynasty 6. The subject sits in an unadorn ed chair that may have once featured the owner's name. 5. Additionally, there was a considerable amount of black pigment on the hair, in the negative spaces between the arms and torso and between the feet, and on the chair. Traces of black paint also outline the eyes and pupils. Yellow pigment covers large areas of exposed skin. Both arms, including sections of the

upper arms, the forearms, and both elbows, have been recently restored. A repair to the right foot and b a s e , made in antiquity, antiquity, is compose d of pink pink gyps um.

F A L S E

D O O R

S E N W E H E M

Dynasty 6, 2 3 5 0 - 2 1 7 0 B . C .

G i z a , tomb G 21 32 Limestone H.

1 8 3 . 2 cm, w. 76.8 cm, d. 24 cm

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

27.444

This f a l s e door was first photographed in situ, in a complete state, by George Reisner's team in

1 9 1 0 (see inset photo at left). However, when Reisner brought the piece to Boston sometime in 1 9 2 5 , only the top half remained because the lower portion had been stolen.

The stolen por

tion, cut into small blocks , was later found on the Paris art market. The Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, purcha sed the blocks in in 19 37 and

reassembled the two halves. Th

f a l s e door belonged to Senwehem, a

royal official of Dynasty 6.

Senwehem is promi

nently depicted at the top of the single jambs above four registers of figures on the right and five on the left. Several members of Senwehem's

family are depicted in the other scenes. The c a p  tion on the drum lintel state s: "A s for these

they are my children of my body, truly."

Th

oval opening just below the drum at the top the niche is often referred to as a "s er dab squint," as it would have provided a connection

into the serd ab, or statue chamb er. This f a l s e door has a number of unusual fea tures. For example, in the central niche below the drum, Senwehem's son, Weser, embraces a woman named Nefer, likely his mother. One of the earliest hairdressing scenes a l s o appears in the second register down on the right jamb.

1. See Porter a nd M o s s 1 9 7 4 ,

for information on

the tomb.

Brovarski I 9 8 8 d , 89 , notes a serda b in which which all the statues faced the serdab squint.

2. According to Dunham 1 9 3 8 b ,

"In 1 9 2 5 the

Expedition found at Giza the upper part of a false-

7. The relationship between the figures is not certain, but because of the dominant position of the woman

door belonging to a man named Sen-wehem..." No

on the spectator's left, Fischer 1 9 5 9 , 2 4 8 , no. 39,

field numbers are given in the field notebook for this

suggests that it must be the mother.

object for that year.

8. Here a small, unnamed hairdresser arranges the

3. Capart 1 9 3 9 , 1 5 8 .

hair of the woman named Nefer. See Riefstahl 1 9 5 6 ,

His titles were "royal acquaintance, wab priest of the king, and funerary priest." Based on stylistic analysis, Fischer 1 9 7 6 , 50, no. 40, dated the false

door to the beginning of Dynasty

6.

However,

Cherpion 1 9 8 9 , 1 2 2 - 2 3 , presents parallels in iconog raphy to suggest Dynasty 4.

5. Fischer 1 9 7 6 , 50

no.

Fischer 1 9 7 6 , 49

A R C H I T R A V E

I R Y E N A K H E T

This large rectangular stone inscribed for

served in the funerary cult.

of the architrave, an offering prayer to Anubis

Acro ss the top

Dynasty 6, 2 3 5 0 - 2 1 7 0 B . C .

Iryenakhet was once an architrave spanning the

G i z a , tomb G 2391 x

top of a doorway.

Limestone

among the debris of a shaft of his mastaba.

lines of an offering pra yer to Os iris fill fill the r ight

Iryenakhet's chief title was "overseer of com

side of the the block,

H.

45.1 cm, w. 1 8 5 . 7 cm, d. 9.5 cm

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

13.4333

It was found in two pieces

reques ts a goo d burial for Iryenakhet. Five more

missions for the funerary priest s of the vizier

Senedjemib Mehi."

(Senedjemib Mehi had

served under Kings Djedkare Isesi and Unas). Characteristic of Dynasty 6 is the inclusion

of several family family members on the architrave. The long offering text and the sunken relief dec oration are also features associated with this period.

While crisp detail is lacking, many

small chisel marks inside the sunken relief pro

vide the figures with impressionistic

modeling.

Iryenakh et and his wife Kaesite s stand at the left. Three sons and one daughter bring offerings to them; their names from left to right are Mehi,

1. Holzl 19 99, 18 , 106 , illustrates an architrave of similar size, also in sunken relief, from the cemetery "en echelon" in the Western Cemetery in Giza. It belonged to the 6th Dynasty official Hamekai. It

is now object AS 8 5 3 2 in the collection of the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Wien. Also compare 8524a, b.

2. Porter and Mos s 19 74 , 92. Iryenakhet Iryenakhet was one of three generations of priests buried in the tomb com plex. The lintels of his son Mehi and his grandson Neferi, both from tomb G 2 3 9 1 , are also in the col

lection of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (MFA

1 3 . 4 3 3 7 and 1 3 . 4 3 3 8 ) 3. Reisner 1 9 1 3 , 65; Fischer Fischer 19 68, 222 , provide

Senedjemib, Sheshyt, and Khnumenti. The sons

"overseer of the apportionment (of offerings) offerings) of (i.e.

are named after the prestigious members of the

deriving from) from) the funerary funerary p riests. " Jones 2000,

Senedjemib family under whom

Iryenakhet

1 : 9 6 , title no. 400, provides the translation "overseer

of commissions of ka priests." He also holds Jones 2000, 1 : 2 4 1 , title no. 882, "overseer of the depart ment of tenant-landholders

of the Great Hous e."

4. Harpur 198 7, 46; she also provides a list of other Giza lintels and architraves with depictions of family

groups on page 305. relief gained pop u 5. Strudwick 1 9 8 5 a , 24. Sunken relief larity at the end of Dynasty 5 and became the norm for Dynasty 6.

6. Sunken relief is best suited for outside walls, as the sun creates shadows that enhance the carving, and it endures the elements better than the more delicate raised relief. 7. According to Brovarski 2001,

note 1 3 3 , nam

ing children after patron s was often done by late Dynasty

funerary pries ts of the Senedjemib family.

111

46

HUNTING

R E L I E F

OF

QAR

6, 2 3 3 8 - 2 1 7 0 B . C . Giza, t o m b G 7 1 0 1

Painted limestone 53cm, w.

cm, d. 1 4. 5 cm

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

27.1130

The large and spectacular tomb from which this relief came belonged to a Dynasty

official

Qar's hair is also bou nd by a fillet with two

named Meryrenefer; he was also known as Qar.

papyrus umbrels and one long and one short

Because the "Meryr e" portion of the name

streamer, common adornments in marsh scenes.

derived from the prenomen of King Meryre Pepi

I, the tomb cannot date before that king's reign (2338-2298 B . C . ) .

Idu's, both men are depicted in low rather than

remov ing only part of the stone surr ound ing the

then tapering and blending the edges

Idu stand s behind him. Idu owned a tom b (G

figures an

7102) adjacent to Qar's and shared with Qar a

into the background. Other than Qar's eyebrow

number of significant offices relating to the cults

and cheek area, the figures also exhibit little fine

of Meryre Pepi I and Khafre. The two were

modeling of musculature. The hieroglyphs, espe

likely father and son, but the texts are not clear

cially those around and a bove Idu, are summari

as to who was the father and who was the son.

ly treated—they are merely incised.

Qar dominates the picture on the right as he

3521

Althou gh Qar 's figure is is carv ed higher than

true raised relief. The artist took a shortcut by

In this scene of Qar hunting, a man na med

Stela and bust of Idu, tomb of Idu (G 7 1 0 2 ) , 1925.

while Qar's is short, curled, and covers his ear.

Muc h of the pigment for the red-br own skin

hunts birds with his throw stick poised over his

tones and black wigs remains, along with several

head. Idu, depicted on a smaller scale an

patches of the gray background color. The red-

sepa

rated spatially and stylistically from Qar by a

brown paint was hastily applied, sloshing

vertical line, stands behind him passively holding

beyond the figure onto the background. It is

his throw stick in one hand and three ducks in

ap ppa pa re r e nt that the gray background color was

the other. Both men wear short beards and broad

applied after the red-brown flesh color, thereby

collars. Idu also wears a kilt and bracelets. Their

covering—at least in ancient times— any spills

hairstyle s are different but both are known

of pa int.

from

this period: Idu's is long and falls behind his ear

According to Simpson 1 9 7 6 , 1 - 2

pi. 4a, and

figs. 1 5 , 1 8 , this block was positioned in a stair

way that led to an underground chapel in the mast aba. See als o Porter and Moss 1 9 7 4 ,

184-85.

Khentiu-she of the pyramid of Mcryre Pepi I and inspector of wab priests of the pyramid of Khafre.

Further confusion arises because Qar had a son named Idu and Idu had a son named Qar. Simpson 1976, 1-2

note 2 , believes that Idu was the son of

Qar, contrary to some scholar s. For an overview of the opinions on this relationship and the date of the tomb, see Strudwick 1 9 8 5 a , 6 9 - 7 0 . Although it looks as though the incised lines are filled with black pigment, the dark col or is encrust

ed dirt. I would like to thank Susanne Gansicke and C. Mei-An Tsu, object conserva tors at t he Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, for this informati on. Again, I would like to thank Susanne Gansicke and C. Mei-An Tsu Tsu for this information. In the

throw sticks, hieroglyphs, and other areas, traces of a paler orange paint still remain.

Standing statues in the tomb of Q a r ( G 7 1 0 1 ) with an inscription giving his chief titles, 1925

11

P L A S T E R

M A S K

OF NIMA ATRE

Dynasty 6, 2 . 3 5 0 - 2 1 7 0 B . C .

G i z a , tomb G 209 2 Gypsum plaster 22. 2 cm, w. w. 1 7 cm, d. 20 cm (front to back of head) Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

37.644

Experiments in mummification during the Old Kingdom were not successful in preservi ng bo dy

tissues, as evidenced by skeletons found inside body-shaped coverings of plaster, mud, or resinsoaked linen.

Mos t of the known bod y covers

of plaster dat e to Dyna stie s 5 and 6 and come from upper-class tombs at Giza.

George

Reisner found this face covering along with sev eral other pieces of thick gypsum plaster and some skeletal remains in a burial shaft belong ing to a high high palace official official named Ni maat re. Together, the fragment s once formed a full full b ody cover. The mask's distinctive facial features—a broad mouth with full lips, deep eye sockets, and clearly defined brow ridges—indicate that it meant to represent a specific individual. However, because the mask's interior shows only linen fabric impressions and has no facial contours, it is not a true "death mask," a mold made of the face of the deceased. Nevertheless, scholars believe that the mask was made on the

f a c e because other known coverings extend well beyond the ears to the back of the head.

The

thickness of the plaster (up to 3.5 cm in some areas) and the band agi ng of the face before the plaster was applied would have prevented

the

mask from reproducing specific features. Instead, the wet plaster had to be sculpted by hand on the mask's exterior. Both the mask's funerary function a nd its preser vation of an individual's likeness link it to the reserve heads found in other tombs (cat. nos. 9, 10) .

among the 3. "Overseer of palace attendants" was among lofty titles of this official; for titles and tomb see

1. David 200 0, 3 73 . Renee Friedman Friedman of the the British Museum recently found non- royal females in Predynastic burial (about 3600 B . C . ) with their heads

Roth 1995, 1 1 6 , and pi. 65b; for the tomb see Porter and Moss 197 4, 70. 4. Compare the restor ed full body cast of MFA

and hands wrapped in linen. This attempt at mummi

39.8 28 from nearby Giza tomb 20 37 B, illustrated in

fication dates five hundred years earlier than any pre

Brovarski 1 9 8 8 c , 91 ; see see also Roehrig I 9 9 9 d , 476.

viously known examples.

5. A ridge that represents the hairline on this mask is

twenty-eight ex am 2. Tacke 1996, 3 2 1 - 3 3 , provides twenty-eight

not present on most examples.

p l e s , all dating from Dynasti es 5 and 6. While the

6. See Hawas s 1 99 2, 33 6, fig. 6 for for a mud and p l a s 

majority ca me from Giza , Tacke also noted three

ter mask that once covered the whole head except for

from Abusir and three from Saqqara.

portion at the back.

48

B E A D N E T

D R E S S

Dynasty 6, 2 3 5 0 - 2 1 7 0 B . C .

G i z a , tomb G 2 3 4 2 Faience

1 1 4 . 3 cm, w. 73.7 cm (as recon structed) Harvard Museum-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

33.1020

Although the standard dress for women in ancient Egypt was a plain, linen sheath, depic tions of women in sculpture, painting, and relief occasionally feature garments decorated with an overall lozenge pattern.

This design is believed

to represent beadwork either sewn onto the dress or worked into a separate net that wa worn over the linen. During excavat ions at Giza, the Boston team found evidence of elaborate beadwork composi tions in several tombs dati ng from the 4th through 6th Dynasties. One intact burial dating to the reign of King Khufu (2585-2560 B . C . ) yielded a complete beadnet dress that was later reconstructed with the aid of field notes and photography. Swatches of beads, many with the stringin g materi al preserved, provided

infor

mation on the arrangement and pattern (see be below). lo w).

A similar beadnet construction made

beads from a 5th Dynasty tomb at Qau in Middle Egypt includes breast caps and a mitra shell fringe. This beadnet reconstruction

was made from

faience cylinders, floral pendants, and ring beads found in the debris of a subsidiary burial at

G i z a . B a s e d on the vast number of beads found, the uniform size of the cylinders and ring bead s, and the presence of the floral elements, Reisner concluded that these beads once adorned a linen garment.

Using the 4th Dynasty beadnet dress

from Giza as a model , a form-fitting beaded net ting with high waist, halter top, and lozengepatterned skirt was created. Although the color the faience beads has faded, the beadnet was originally brilliant blue and blue-green in imita tion of lapis lazuli lazuli and turquoise ,

beaded garments." See Reisner, n.d. f, 6 5 1 - 5 3 .

3. The beads from an intact Giza tomb (G 7740 Z) were used to reconstruct another beadnet dress in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston ( 2 7 . 1 5 4 8 ) . See Jick

1 9 9 0 , 5 0 - 5 3 , and Jick 1996, 7 3 - 7 4 . 4. This dress in the Petrie Museum of Egyptian

1. For Old Kingdom examples of women we aring

Archaeology, University College London (UC 1 7 7 4 3 ) ,

patterned dresses, se Jick 1988, 79, fn. 1.

was restrung in 199 4. See Metropolitan Museum of

Noel Wheeler cleared the burial in pit G 7440 Z

Art Art 1999, 306-7

and documented documented its contents in his his April April 21 , 19 27

5. Reconstr uction of beadwork by Sheila Shear,

diary entry. Reisner later described five additional

Consulting Bead Speciali st; construct ion of form form by

Giza burials (G 7 1 1 2 A, G 7143 B, G 7765 D, G

Meredith Mon tague, Head of Textiles Textiles and Costumes

4 5 1 6 C and G 5 5 2 0 ) , as having faience cylinder and

Conservation, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.

ring beads that "more or less certainly belonged to

6. Reisner n.d. f, 653.

S T O N E

V E S S E L S

a. Jar with pointed

bottom

Dynasty 6, 2 . 3 5 0 - 2 1 7 0 B . C . Provenance

unknown

Egyptian alabaster

1 7 . 2 cm, diam. 4.5 cm Purchased by Albert M. Lythgoe, 19 03 Emily Esther Sears Fund

03.1529

Opening of the Mout h cup Dynasty 6, 2 3 5 0 - 2 1 7 0 B . C . Sheikh Fara g, tomb 520

Slate 3.8 cm, diam. 3.2 cm Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

24.734

c. Cylinder jar

Dynasty 6, 2 3 5 0 - 2 1 7 0 B . C . Provenance

unknown

Anorthosite gneiss 7.9 cm, diam. 5.9 cm Hay Collection, Gift of C. Granville Way 7^-574

The tradit ion of includi ng stone vessel s in the funerary assembla ge was maintained

throughou

the Old Kingdom period. The corpus of vessel types that appeared in Dynasty 4 also continued to be made in the following two dynasties. However, as the Old Kingdom progressed, there was a trend towards having fewer practical v e s 

s e l s in favor of model v e s s e l s . Eventually, there wa

a decrease in the number of mod el vessels well. The cylinder jar of catal ogue number 49c

was a c l a s s i c unguent container that was partic ularly popular in Dynasty 6. The delicate taper ing from top to bottom renders an elegant form to this small translucent vessel.

inscri bed exam ple s of this type have been fo und

with the name of either King Pepi I or II, s u g  gesting that they were royal g i f t s . 49b

is from an Opening of the Mouth ritual set (see cat. nos. 1

ed to imitate similarly sha ped vessels made of metal.

Several

The small slate cup of catalogue number

tom of catalogue number 49a was likely intend

, 40). The interior was not hollo wed

They were also com mon in both the 5th

and 6th Dynasties.

1. Reisner and Smith 1 9 5 5 , 9 1 - 9 2 .

2. Aston 19 94, 104 , no. 3 5. These containers can range in date from Dynasty 5 to

3. Aston 1994, 104 ; Ziegler Ziegler 1999 a, 448; 448; Hayes 19 53 1 2 7 , fig. 77. Reisner and Smith 1 9 5 5 , 93, fig. 137,

out and there is only a slight indentat ion at the

notes that this vessel type, with small disk lids, was

top, so the cup was not meant for practical use

found in the woode n toilet bo x of Hetephe res con

a container.

There were usually equal num

taining cosmetics and eye paint.

bers of white (either rock crystal or alabaster)

4. Aston 1994, 1 4 0 , no. 138 .

and b lack (slat e) stone vessels in in the set. Such

5. Reisner 1 9 3 1 , 233.

cups have also been found on offering tables.

6. Arnold and Pischikova 1999, 1 2 2 , fig. 72.

The slender alabaster jar with pointed bot

7. Aston 1994, 1 3 7 , no. 127

B O W L KING

This bowl was found in a rubble-filled

I N S C R I B E D

Dynasty 6, reign of Teti, 2 3 5 0 - 2 3 3 8 B . C .

G i z a , shaft G 2 3 8 5 A in tomb

2374

Anorthosite gneiss 4.5 cm, diam. 9.4 cm Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

13.3141

shaft

the tomb of Vizier Khnumenti, son of

T E T I

One of the most interesting features of the bowl is the lightly incised name of King Teti as

Senedjemib Inti. The contents of the shaft had

"king of upper and lower Egypt, the son of Re,

been badly disturbed, but in addition to this

Teti, living forever." Khnume nti must h ave

object they included a large number of stone

received this treasure as a royal gift from his

food c a s e s (cat. no. 5 1 ) , bits of wooden statues,

sovereign.

few stone v e s s e l s and fragments, beads, and crumpled gold foil.

Reisner 1 9 1 3 , p. 58; Reisner and Smith 1 9 5 5 , pi.

That this delicate bowl survived at all is

45c and fig. 147.

miraculous. It is made of anorthosite g n e i s s ,

2. Aston 1 994, pi. 14b , notes that anorthosite gneiss

material compo sed of translucent white plagio-

is often erroneously referred to as diorite.

c l a s e and dark hornblend that was used to

3. Aston 1994, 85, 1 3 4 , no. 1 1 7 ; Reisner and Smith

fashion stone v e s s e l s from the Early Dynastic

1 9 5 5 , 1 0 1 ; Jequier 1 9 3 3 , 2 8 - 3 1 , fig. 9 - 1 3 ; Jequier

through the Old Kingdom periods. The bowl's finely carved walls are so thin that one can see through them, and the rounded bottom fits per fectly into the palm of one's hand. The carinated or angled shoulder and the recurved rim of this

v e s s e l are typical of Dynasty

examples.

1 9 3 4 , 1 0 7 - 1 2 , figs.

4,

17, 19.

4. Reisner 1942, 1 5 3 , 267-68; Brovarski Brovarski 2001

3 0 - 3 1 , 79, 1 2 9 , pi. 1 0 1 b , fig. 94a.

FOOD

C A S E S

a. C a s e in the shape of a dressed goose Dynasty 6, reign of Teti, 2350-2338 B . C .

G i z a , tomb G 238 5 Limestone H.

2 5 . 1 cm

w.

24.5 cm, d. 39 cm

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

13.3478-9

b . C a s e in the the shap e of a roun d c ake Dynasty 6, reign of Teti, 2350-2338 B . C .

G i z a , tomb G 2385 Limestone 9.2 cm, diam. 29.2 cm Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

13.3489, 13.3491

Khnument i was a son of Senedjemi

Inti, a high

official who lived during the reign of the late 5th Dynasty ruler Djedkare Isesi. Khnumenti Khnumenti is

an

interior surfaces suggest that the cases were

once brightly pai nted. Prepared foods were one means of providing

believed to have served the first first 6th D ynast

ruler, King Teti (cat. no. 50). Like his father,

Offering lists, representations of provisions in

Khnumen ti held the offices of vizier, chief j u s 

relief, and model offerings (cat. no. 34) were all

tice, and overseer of all works of the king,

an

was buried in the family tomb complex at Giza

meant to supplement actual offerings left by mortuary priests and relatives, relatives,

near the the northwest corner of Khufu's p yra mid. He was interred in one of the sloping burial p a s 

For a list of his titles, see Brovarski 2001, 129.

s a g e s (G 2385 A) of his stone-built mast aba (G

Porter and Mos s 197 4, 92; Brovarski 200 1, 3. 2. Porter

2374)-

3. Reisner 1942, 1 5 3 , 267-68; Brovarski 2001, 1-2,

When Reisner excavated the Senedjemib complex, he found more than a dozen food

c a s e s in the debris of the shaft of Khnumeti's burial. These limestone containers originally contained geese, ducks, small birds, beef parts,

c a k e s , and a variety of breads. Each case con sists of an upper and lower half that rests edge to edge with no visible means of fastening. Traces of yellow pigment on both the exterior

1 1 5 , 1 2 7 . Burial passages in Giza mastabas were typ

ically vertical. Khnumenti's was sloped, as was Ptahshepses Impy's (cat. nos. 3 8 - 4 1 ) . 4. It is possible that the halves of each case were secured with strips of linen or thread. See Brovarsk

1 9 8 8 a , 93-94. 5. It has been suggested that the use of hard stone for the cases was intentional—if the food offering decayed , the container would m agically serve as a substitute. See Hayes 1 9 5 3 , 1 1 9 .

MACE

H E A D S

Teti, the first ruler of Dynasty 6, built his pyra

3 300 000 0 B.C.).

Maces are integral integral to "sm iting

a. Mace head inscribed for King Teti

mid at Saq qa ra . It was the last royal burial

scene s" in which the king is shown

Dynasty 6, reign of Teti, 2 3 5 0 - 2 3 3 8 B . C .

located on a northeast diagonal that includes the

with an upraised mace in one hand and the

Saqqara

3rd and 5th Dynasty pyramids of Sekhemkhet,

enemy held by the hair with the

Limes Limestone to ne

Unas, Djoser, and Userkaf.

poignant moment before delivering a lethal

6.8 cm, diam. 6.5 cm Gift of the Service des An tiquit és d'Egypte

24 .601

Although the Teti

stand ing

other—a

pyramid and its associated structures sustained

blow. Mace handles were made of wood, and

considerable damage over the centuries, rem

inscribed head s of vari ous material s often often served

nants of Pyramid Text decoration survive in the

as commemorative items.

tomb's interior chambers, and a basalt sarcopha Mace head Dynasty 6, reign of Teti, 2 3 5 0 - 2 3 3 8 B . c .

Saqqara Woo Wood d 6.8 cm, diam. 5.4 cm Gift of the Service des Antiqui tés d'Egypte

24 .602

with text was found in the plundere d burial chamber.

Early excavations of the Teti pyramid

Siliotti 1997, 1 1 6 - 1 7 . 2. Teti's basalt sarcophagus is the first with an

complex (conducted by the French) yielded few

inscription from the Pyramid Texts. See See Lehner 19 97

objects. However, several pear-shaped mace

156.

heads inscribed with the king's name were found

3. Quibell 19 09, 72, pi. 5.

east of of the p yram id.

4. For information on the different different m ace forms, see

Stone maces were used in hunting and battle and evolved into emblems of pharaonic

power

after unificati on of the north and south (circa

Payne 1993, 1 4 8 - 5 3 . 5. D'Auria 1999, 1 6 6 - 6 7 .

S T R I N G

OF

Sacred eye

A M U L E T S

human body parts, perhaps because the color is

(From left to right)

Dynasty 6, 2 3 5 0 - 2 1 7 0 B . C .

a. Hand

Carnelian

Helen an

Carnelian 1.9 cm,

Helen an

w.

Alice Colburn Fund

35.1502

Dynasty 6, 2 3 5 0 - 2 1 7 0 B . C .

Carnelian

Helen an

1.8 cm,

w.

must have protected th

Carnelian

hawk is in the archaic crouched positi on found

Alice Colburn Fund

35.1505

Dynastic Period. Sokar

1.6 cm, d. 0.4 cm

It most likely symbolizes

Horus an

would have placed th

he sacred eye (wadjet), an emblem of the

Dynasty 6, 2 3 5 0 - 2 1 7 0 B . C .

deity.

d. Sacred eye

Carnelian

restored eye of Horus after th

Dynasty 6, 2 3 5 0 - 2 1 7 0 B . C .

H.

Carnelian

Helen

1.8 cm, Helen an

w.

1.7 cm, w. 1.4 cm, d. 0.4 cm

nd Alice Colburn Fund

35.1509

The wearer may have also somehow assimilated

n. Hawk

35.1497

1.

the power of the evildoer, gaining strength and con

trol over malevolent forces. Andrews 1 9 9 4 , 9, wisely

H.

Carnelian

Helen an

Helen an

points out that our knowledge of the meaning of

cm, w. 1.8 cm, d. 0.3 cm

Dynasty 6, 2 3 5 0 - 2 1 7 0 B . C .

w.

Alice Colburn Fund

35.1504

1.3 cm, d. 0.4 cm

Alice Colburn Fund

35.1506

popular c l a s s of ornament in ancient Egypt as

the amulet,

talismanic device whose

f. Sacred ey

power depended upon th

Dynasty 6, 2 3 5 0 - 2 1 7 0 B . C .

material used. Amulets predate recorded history

Carnelian

and were worn by adults an

1.9 cm, Helen an

w.

1.6 cm, d. 0.5 cm

Alice Colburn Fund

35.1496

specific form an

children of both

1.7 cm,

Helen an

w.

number of amulets from th

1.6 cm, d. 0.4 cm

Alice Colburn Fund

35.1508

late Ol

large Kingdom

cemetery at N a g a ed-Deir in Upper Egypt, few were found at G i z a .

Of the twenty-two record

d, none were associated with 4th Dynasty buri

h. Sacred eye Dynasty 6, 2 3 5 0 - 2 1 7 0 B . C .

als—three were dated to late Dynasty 5 and the

Carnelian

remainder derived from 6th Dynasty tombs.

2.0 cm, Helen an

w.

The dated amulets include th

1.7 cm, d. 0.5 cm

Alice Colburn Fund

35.1500

1.7 cm,

Helen an

sacred eyes.

L a t e Old Kingdom amulets were made of gold, shell, bone, ivory, steatite, carnelian, green

Carnelian H.

l e g s ) , vultures, j a c k a l s , lion

foreparts, f r o g s , an

i. Hum an head

following shapes:

hawks, a p e s , human body parts (heads, arms, hands, fists, an

Dynasty 6, 2 3 5 0 - 2 1 7 0 B . C .

w.

feldspar, calcite, limestone, an

1.4 cm, d. 0.5 cm

Alice Colburn Fund

35.1507

the several dozen beetle pendants found with collars; see Reisner n.d. f, 665. 4.

This does not mean that there were no 4th Dynasty

amulets, because most of the tombs (and the bodies of their owners) were plundered. A l s o , Reisner human body parts, and sacred eyes, found in the

While George Reisner recovered

Carnelian

120-42.

3. Reisner does not include in his corpus of amulets

organic materials such as s e e d s , bone, ivory, an

dered harmless by the very act of their creation.

Dynasty 6, 2 3 5 0 - 2 1 7 0 B . C .

2. Reisner 1 9 3 2 b ,

seventeen amulets, identified identified as animals, excluded the seventeen

the shape of dangerous animals. They were ren

Shell

these early amulets is speculative.

s e x e s . S o m e of the earliest forms were made of shell. Early representational amulets often took

H.

and regeneration, regeneration,

1.6 cm, d. 0.4 cm

Alice Colburn Fund

Carnelian

1.6 cm,

god' s mythic bat

tle with Seth, had the power to bestow healing

Dynasty 6, 2 3 5 0 - 2 1 7 0 B . C .

H.

he

owner of the amulet under the protection of the

m. Hand

35.1499

wearer from harm.

on the top of serekh beads dating to the Early

.7 cm, w. 1.3 cm, d. 0.3 cm

Helen an

Alice Colburn Fund

shell (Cardium edule) occur in burials

of th

Dynasty 6, 2 3 5 0 - 2 1 7 0 B . C .

Carnelian

Helen an

sacred eye. Representations

although their specific role is unknown, they

I. Hand

35.1503

H.

w.

35.1501

1.5 cm, d. 0.4 cm

Alice Colburn Fund

Hand

1.9 cm,

Alice Colburn Fund

hawk, an

beginning in the late Predynastic Period, an

Dynasty 6, 2 3 5 0 - 2 1 7 0 B . C .

H.

shell, th

1.8 cm, w. 1.3 cm, d. 0.4 cm

H.

three non-human amulet forms incorpo

Th

rated into this string of protective charms are the

Carnelian

Sacred ey

Helen an

to serve as substitutes should the mummy

as

Dynasty 6, 2 3 5 0 - 2 1 7 0 B . C .

perma

sustain damage or deterioration.

k. Hum an head

35.1498

strength an

symbol

he purpose of the body-part amulets

nence.

1.4 cm, d. 0.4 cm

Alice Colburn Fund

the hardest stone worked by the Egyptians,

as

it was a l s o

1.8 cm, w. 1.6 cm, d. 0.5 cm

Dynasty 6, 2 3 5 0 - 2 1 7 0 B . C .

H.

closely related to skin tones. B e c a u s e carnelian

faience. Of the

hard stones, carnelian was the most popular fo

Menkaure Valley Temple; see Reisner 1 9 3 1 , 2 3 5 - 3 6 . 5. Brunton identified Qau.

similar corpus of amulets at

See Brunton 1 9 2 7 , pis. 3 5 - 3 6 , 48

6. Faience, typically glazed

bright blue-green, con

stitutes more than half of the excavated examples from G i z a . 7. For

more detailed discussion of the function of

body-part amulets, see Andrews 1 9 9 4 , 6 9 - 7 3 . 8. For a list of known contexts, see Petrie 1 9 1 4 , 27 pi. 14; Brunton 1 9 2 7 , pi. 48 no 5 6 D . 3 . 9.

example

this type from

of King Djer, see Andrews 1 9 8 1 , 40, pi.

Abydos tomb

no. 1 9 8 .

fine example of a single falcon of gold dated to Dynasty

was found at Mostegedda, tomb 3 1 2 . See

Brunton 1 9 3 7 , 94

FLINT

breaks with conchoidal fractures, leaving a

TO OLS

LETTER

TO

D E A D

TH

a. Double-ende d scraper

sharp cutting edge useful in the home, field,

Dynasty 6, 2 3 5 0 — 2 1 7 0 B . C .

Dynasty 6, 2 3 5 0 - 2 1 7 0 B . C .

work shop, a nd construction site. Flint Flint was a l s o

N a g a ed-Deir cemetery N

G i z a , tomb G 236 0 A

crafted into ornaments and v e s s e l s , including an

Papyrus

Flint

inscribed bowl found in the Menkaure Valley

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts

Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts

By the end of the Old Kingdom, flint imple

13.3452

ments of various shapes were included in burials

Knife with handle

Although tools and weapons of flint would con

Expedition

part of the the funerary tradition (cat. no. 19 ).

Dynasty 6, 2 3 5 0 - 2 1 7 0 B . C .

tinue to be used in daily life, they would rarely

G i z a , tomb G 2 3 8 3

demonstra te the skilled craftsmanship

character

istic of the late Predynastic and Early Dynastic

Flint

periods. Eventually, copper replaced flint as the

16 cm, w. 5 cm, d. 0.6 cm Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition

15.5

Temple.

cm, w. 2.8 cm, d. 1.5 cm

material of choice. Double-ended flint scrapers, for example, were replaced by copper razors of

13.3454

500

47.1705

Expedition

Only fifteen letters to the dead have survived. From their content it is clear that the Egyptians felt they could communicate with the deceased. Those who were in the next world could either

help them or curse them here on earth. Main taining the cult of deceased relatives thus took on great importance. This letter is composed of black painted hier

similar shape.

atic in four vertical columns under a horizontal Flint is a microcrystalline form of quartz

that

occurs as nodules embedded in soft stones such limestone. It is abundantly available in the N Nile ile Valley and wa s used by the earliest inhab

itants to manufact ure simple tools and weapons.

Its popularity over the millennia is

based on a unique property: when chipped,

flint

Nicholson and Shaw 2 0 0 0 , 2 9 - 3 0 . Surface flint, freed from the limestone by weathering, was a l s o plentiful. See L u c a s and Harris 1 9 6 2 , 4 1 1 - 1 2 . 2. The bowl was inscribed for the 3rd Dynasty ruler

King Hetepsekhemwy. Reisner 3. Spencer 1 9 8 0 , 92

1 9 3 1 ,

102.

heading (see line drawing, inset at fight).

The

wear patterns suggest that the papyrus was not rolled but folded, once vertically and once hori zontally. The folded letter wa at the tomb. so

then deposited

It is addressed to Tetiseneb, the

of a man named Hetepnebi.

The letter is

unsigned, so the author is not known.

Although

some p a s s a g e s are difficult to interpret, it is

clear is that the letter wa

written by or on

behalf of Tetiseneb's son, who w as suffering greatly on earth.

The letter a s k s the deceased to

help remove the demons causing Tetiseneb's son his undeserved misery. It ends with a plea: "Heal your child! child! You must seize this dem on. .. now ."

Quirke 1 9 8 8 , ro 6; Grieshammer Grieshammer 1 9 7 4 , 8 6 4 - 7 0 . 2. It is inscribed on the recto of the papyrus (the side

with the horizontal fibers uppermost). 3. The tomb from which it came is not specified in the field notes. It is cited only as " N 3 5 0 0 , Mizlif's tomb"; see Simpson 1 9 7 0 , 58 Quirke 1 9 8 8 , 1 0 6 , and Simpson 1 9 7 0 , 58, provide the translation "Tetiseneb. " According to Goedicke 1 9 7 2 , 95 , however, however, the name could

also be

"Pepiseneb." Goedicke also s a y s that the text is addressed solely to Tetiseneb. However, Quirke and Simpson suggest that it is written to two individuals,

Hetepnebi and Tetiseneb. and 5. See full translations in Goedicke 1 9 7 2 , 95 , and Quirke 1 9 8 8 , 1 0 6 . Quirke 1 9 8 8 , 1 0 6 .

Appendices

the analysis of

A P P E N D I X A N A L Y S I S GOLD

OF OL

K I N G D O M

gold-silver and gold-

copper microprobe standards. These correc tions were carried out by David Lange, super

ART IFAC TS

visor of the microprobe facility at Harvard Samples from each object (or parts thereof)

University.

In the attached ta ble, the averag e value for

were taken with a fine scalpel. The small bits

of metal, each typically less than one millime

each element (and the average analytical total

ter in size, were then individually mounted

fo

in Buehler Epothin epoxy resin and polished

standard deviation given in parentheses.

all three elements) is reported, with the

so as to reveal a cross-section. The polished samples were coated with carbon and ana

R I C H A R D

NEWMAN

lyzed by wavelength-dispersive X - r a y fluo

Head of Scientific Research

rescence in a Cameca

Department of Conservation and Collections

electron beam

microprobe equipped with a Tracor Northern

Management

5 5 0 2 energy-dispersive X - r a y fluorescence

Museum of Fin Fine e Arts, Boston

system and a Tracor Northern 1 3 1 0 stage automation and wavelength-dispersive X - r a y fluorescence system (Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Harva rd University). Three to four areas on each sample were ana lyzed, using a rastered b eam. With one excep

tion, none of the samples appeared to be inhomogeneous when viewed with back-scat tered electrons. The exception was the sample from the band of bracelet 1 3 . 3 4 1 4 (cat. no.

3 8 a ) . The sample contained a substra te metal that had been gilded. The interface b etween the gilding and substrate showed some diffu sion, indicating that the likely method of manufa cture was to place a piece of gold leaf

onto

then heat

wich.

To produce the quantitative results, pure element standards were utilized, and matrix corrections were carried out on the data by the fundamental pa rameter

( Z A F ) method.

he ZAF results were then corrected with ref-. erence erence to calibration curves prepared from

December

2000

Results of analyses of ancient Egyptian gold by electron beam microprobe

Object description and part

Date

MF A #

Wt. % gold*

Wt. % silver*

Wt.

copper*

Dynas Dynasty ty 4

24.1749

69. 2(0. 2)

21. 6(0 .4)

7.4( 0.1)

98.2

Dynas Dynasty ty 5

35-8-54

49. 1(0 .3)

44. 2(0 .5)

5.7( 0.2)

99.1

Foil Foil (G 2200 B)

Dynas Dynasty ty 5

33-2-115

7 8.0 ((0. 0. 3)

17.0 ((0. 0. 2)

3.9( 0.2)

98.8

Foil Foil (G 7143 B)

Dynas Dynasty ty 5

27-2-462

73.5 ((4. 4. 3)

19.9 (3.7 )

5.1( 0.8)

98.5

Dynast Dynasty y 6

13.3424

77.0 ((0. 0. 9)

1 7.8( 0.4)

4. 1(0 .2)

98.8

Total

Cat. no. 38b

Foil associated with choker (G 4341 A) Foil probably associated with broadcoll broadcollar ar (G 1360)

Foil associated with rock crystal beetle pendants (G 2360 A) Cat. no. 38b Broadcollar: Broadcollar: bead 10 (G 238 1 A)

Dynasty Dynasty 6

13.3086

77 .5 (0 .5 )

16. 1(0 .6)

4. 8( 0. 6)

98.3

Broadcollar: bead 25 (G 2381 A)

Dynasty Dynasty 6

13.30 86

77 .4 (0 .7 )

16. 2( 0. 3)

4. 8( 0. 4)

98.4

Broadcollar: bead 37 (G 238 1 A)

Dynasty Dynasty 6

13.308 6

77 .7 (0 .3 )

16. 4( 0. 1)

4. 6( 0. 1)

98.7

Dynasty Dynasty 6

13.3086

77 .3 (0 .6 )

15. 6( 0.1 )

4. 7( 0. 2)

97.6

Broadcollar: end-piece (viewer's right side) side) (G 238 1 A) Cat. no. 38c String String of beads: bead 1 (G 238 1 A)

Dynasty Dynasty 6

13.34 22

73. 8( 0.3 )

18. 7(0 .3)

5.4 (0 .1)

97.9

String String of beads: bead 2 (G 238 1 A)

Dynasty Dynasty 6

13.3 422

73. 9( 1.7 )

17. 8( 0.7 )

4. 9( 0.1 )

96.5

Bracelet: circular element (G 2381 A)

Dynast Dynasty y 6

13.3414

43. 0(0 .5)

29. 8(0 .4)

22. 9(0 .2)

95.7

Bracelet Bracelet:: band (substrate (substrate)) (G 238 1 A)

Dynasty Dynasty 6

13.34 14

65 .3( 0. 5)

22. 3( 0. 1)

9.3 (0. 1)

96.9

Bracelet: Bracelet: band (gilt surface) surface) (G 23 81 A) **

Dynasty 6

13. 341 4

95.8

3.0

1.1 1.1

99.

Cat. no. 38a

N O T E S :

*Three to four spots on each sample were analyzed and averaged, unless otherwise noted. The average value for each element is included

in the table, with standard deviation given in parentheses.

was analyz ed. "'"'Only one spot in this area of the sample was

Many scholars have suggested that th

APPENDIX OF

SEAL

writing of the title khentiu-she occurred

OFFICE

Dynasty 5, reign of Djedkare Isesi,

2415-2371

B.C.

it has a much older oral history originating several reigns earlier. Recently,

back further than Djedkare, to Nyuserre

Gold

(2455(2455-2425 242 5 B . C . ) , based on stylistic evidence.

diam. 2.9 cm

Centennial Gift of Landon T. Clay

68.115

Inscription:

Construction:

The inscription on this seal is composed of two

This cylinder seal

titles of the reigning

names

sec

king, Djedkare Isesi ( 2 4 1 5 - 2 3 7 1 B . C . ) , ond, th

private titles of the seal holder (see

illustration at right). Th

king's Horu s name,

se pa ra te pieces of gold—an outer cylinder,

inner cylinder, a n d t w o flat rings at the top and bottom. Th

absence

seams

solder

joins on the bodies of both cylinders suggests

wax"

Gold name, "Bik-nebew djed," in register, indicate that he wa s the living

the

ass embl ed from four

that these sections were cast using th

"Djed-khau," repeated in three serekhs, Horus

Macy Roth

written example that she has dated

found

Reportedly from Northwest Anatolia

pa rts: first, th

during

the reign of Djedkare. However, all agree that

( c a t . no. 22)

6.4 cm

first

"lost

method. To create hollow parts such

open cylinders or spouts for v e s s e l s ,

waxy

ruler while this seal of office w a s i n use. Th

su substa bsta n nce ce would have been applied around

seal also bears

clay or organic core. Th

cartouche

King Menkauhor

B . C . ) , but it is included only

is customary

fa

part

title relating to his pyrami d (see title title

below).

cylinder seals

this

kind, official titles of private persons appear in the vertical spaces between th

repeated

in the horizontal names in serekhs an d in at th

bottom. A l s o , th

Horus band

serekhs and the long

horizontal text at the bottom face in one direc tion, while th

rest of the vertical inscription

f a c e s in the opposite direction. Th

horizontal

text begins at the place where often start to read th name. Th

would

have been coated with clay and the item heated

(24252415

surface

should

vertical columns, at the H o r u s

Horus falcons atop th

wear more than on

serekhs

type of crown,

common

feature of seals with multiple serekhs from Dynasty 5 and Dynasty 6. The four office titles inscribed on the seal

wax . Finally, Finally, molten metal

would have been poured into th nel and the clay covering

empty chan

core removed

after cooling. Evidence of this technique extends as far back as the Early Dynastic Period a n d m a y have been used in the creation

of large-scale statuary. It is difficult to deter mine whether th

circular end-pieces were cast

or hand-wrought, but the crafting of gold sheet by hammering would have been th

simplest

method of forming these d i s c s . The thickness of the metal on the outer

0.6 m m and th cylinder is 0.6 decorate th

hieroglyphs that

surface were probably made with

copper chasing tool. Th

depressed areas,

which create an intaglio effect, include outlines m a d e with

single stroke of the chaser

well

furrows formed by multiple strokes. Th

are:

Hery-per khentiu-she per-iah: " c h i e f of the kentiu-she of the p a l a c e . " Hery seshta: " m a s t e r of s e c r e t s . " Hem-neter nefer-Djedkare: " P r i e s t of the pyramid 'Beautiful is D j e d k a r e . ' "

Sehedj khenti u-she netery sewt sewt Menkauhor: "inspector of the khentiu-she of the pyramid 'Divine are the places

to remove th

King Menkauhor.'"

depth of the grooves varies and it appears

if metal instances,

have been removed in some result of repeated us e of the chaser.

Fine detailing

within th

texturing of the surface

hieroglyphs create

play of light

and shadow, features that make this seal miniature work of art as well document, document,

s a historical

Material Analysis: Non-destructive energy-dispersive X-ray fluo

Sample

Sample

Sample

Sample

outer cylinder

outer cylinder

inside cylinder

top r i n g

Gold (wt.% )

60.5 (±0.7)

61 .2 (±0.8)

61 .3 (±0.2)

Silver (wt.% )

28.8 (±0.3)

28.7 ( ± 1 . 2 )

30.1 (±0.5)

28.3 ( ± 1 . 6 )

Coppe r (wt. %)

9.8 (±0.3)

9.9 (±0.7)

8.6 (±0.3)

10 .3 ( ± 1 . 8 )

Gold/silver Gold/silver

2. 10

2. 13

2.04

2. 17

Total (wt.%)

99. 1

99.8

100. 0

100 .0

Element*

rescence conducted by the Scientific Research Laboratory at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, indicates that the alloy of this cylinder seal contains gold and silver, with some copper.

An analysi s of an area on the top where sold er appears to be present did not reveal the pres ence of any elements other than those in the alloy itself. In order to quantit ativel y determine the

(±1.1)

alloy(s) used to make the seal, small solid

pieces of metal were cut with a surgical scalpel from edges of l o s s e s . These were mounted in Buehler Epothin epoxy resin and polished for

*The weight percentages for each element are av erages from three spot analyses with standard devia tions given in parentheses.

analysis in an electron beam microprobe. Three spots were analyzed on each of four s a m p l e s , which came from three of the four

individ ual pieces of metal from which the seal was made. The results were as follows: The analyses indicate that the metal used in the cylinder could have been a natural alloy of gold and silver to which copper was added

(natural gol d or gold-silve r alloy s usually d not contain much more than about two per cent copper ). The outer cylinder and top ring are virtually identical identical in composition , suggest ing they may have come from the same batch metal. The inner cylinder is similar, but appears to contain a little l e s s copper and a lit tle more silver. The ratios of gold to silver in all three are as, however, are virtually i dentical

(a little over 2 to i , indicati ng perhap

that all

came from one bat ch of gold-silver alloy. The cylinder seal is filled with a white to gray material, tinted pale green in places. F T I R analysis of samples showed only calcium car bonate. The outer surface of the seal contains some patches of gray, green, and red materials. The gray deposits are translucent and some what hard; F T I R analysis showed that these consist of calcium carbona te (calcite). The green depo sits are quite soft and

trans parent

F T I R indicated the presence of beeswax and the pigment Prussian blue, which was invented

cates that the deposi ts are applied and do not represent natural corrosion or accretions from the burial environment,

RN & MD

Line drawing of the inscription on the seal (cat. no. 22).

Glossary

Ankh. in

Hi erog eroglyph lyp hii c si gn gn

emb emblem lem mean mean 

Anubis. J a c k a l deity, guardian of the necrop a s s o c i a t e d with mumm mummii fi cat i on on..

olis,

anopic chest. W o o d

vis

body. f a mummifie d body.

Cartouche.

O v a l that encloses th

at th

never-ending loop

nomen

queen; repre rope,

kno knott t ed

base.

bined th the Re

unity of the Tw White Crown Crown

L a n d s . It c o m 

Upp er Egyp t

Lower Egypt .

p e r s o n ' s birth

survived

s a recipient

the offerings left for the deceased. angular ular st one Mastaba. Rect ang

mudbrick

Kingdom tomb

w h o s e top is typically flat

walls slanted.

Headdress Headdres s worn by ki ngs consi con si st i n ng g

Nemes.

lappet et s in front with lapp

striped headclot headclot

a l k a l i . When c o m b i n e d with

quartz, lime,

water, it can be m modeled odeled by han hand d mold. Upon heating,

Nomarch.

The highest official in

shaped

reflective, vitreous

nome.

They were often hereditary rulers. In the lat e K i n g d o m they b e g a n to govern independ ently from th

Faience. N o n - c l a y c e r a m i c c o m p o s e d

in

t

created

and tied in the b a c k .

Double crown. K i n g ' s crown worn to s y m  bolize th

"li fe force, " i t w a

S omet i m es t rans lat ed

superstructure o f a n O l

an and d prenom prenomen en of the ki ng sents

O n e o f t h e spi ri t ual component s o f a n

death, residing in the t o m b

stone chest divided

into four com part ment s used to hold th cera

Ka.

individual, symbolized by up uprai rai s sed ed arm arms s

"life."

Eg Egypt ypt .

cart ouche,

king's titles

Dynast i es 5-6.

t emples

ed Crown. The crown of Lower Egypt . Arabi c word fo

Serdab.

s t o r e r o o m ; th

ber in

t o m b in which th

Serekh.

Im Image ag e

rect ang angle le

ch cham am

statues were stored.

f a palace facade with

op open en

Horus n name ame of the ki ng

top.

angle, gle, and a falcon, th is written in the rect an s symb ymbol ol

Horus, perches o n t o p .

Shendyt.

short linen kilt worn by the

k kii ng.

Stela. Inscribed recta ngular st on one e carved

rounded sl ab

somet i m es wood; st elae could painted. They could be found in

to ombs mbs,, servi serv i ng

funerary

monuments.

Votive

or com commemor memor at i v e st elae were placed in

The given name of the ki ng,

enclosed in

Creator /sun go d whos e cult was locat ed in

during Dynasty 4 and m mani an i fest ed by the sun

k kii ng.

Nome. An admi ni st rat i ve provi n ce Nomen.

e.

Heli opoli s; i ncorporat ed into th

accompani ed by

t emples.

g l a z e f o r m s on the surface.

the epithet "Son

False door.

Opening of the Mouth. C e r e m o n y in w h i c h

geograph i cal di vi si on s

priests perform rituals intended to bri ng th

Nile flows from south to n o r t h , th

deceased to life in the next world; a l s o per

p a r t of the land is calle d Upper Egy pt, while

An i mi t at i on st one doorway in

tomb, through which th

spi ri t of the

deceas ed coul d freely p a s s to receive offerings nd to travel from th

t o m b to the heavenly

realm.

Heb-sed.

Festival of the renewal

throne

i mages in relief in the

statues

long

father's brother

emb embodi odi m men entt

kingly power

s a falcon o r a m a n with

falcon falcon's 's

head.

Horus name. T he first name in the ki ng's tit ulary, identifying hi

written inside

with t h e g o

serekh.

Osiris.

Isis,

Horus;

th

n o r t h , including th

Uraeus.

o d o f t h e underworld, husband father

Hor us; trans figured dead dead

king became Osiris during the 5th Dynasty.

renomen.

Isis, Horus

Egypt after

struggle against Seth, hi murderer; th

f a ki ng's

Sed festival.

Horus. A so n of Osi ri s a w a r d e d th

k kii ngshi ngs hi p,

more frequent inter

thereafter

v a l s ; a l s o called th

shown

Upper and L o w e r Egypt.

tomb.

usually held after thirty years reign,

formed

Re."

Th

religious name of the ki ng

given at the time

ascen ascendi di n ng g th

throne,

a c c o m p a n i e d by the epi t het "Ki ng

Upper Upp er

and Lower Egypt ."

wo t r a d i t i o n a l Eg Egypt ypt . Because th

Delta, is Lower Egypt .

S erpent in the f o r m

with inflated hood;

southern

ng g co cobra bra f a reari n

symbol

ki n ngs gshi hi p

nemes.

at t ached to the front of the c r o w n

Vizier.

highest-ranking

official in the

admi ni st rat i on.

Wab. Purification priest

lower

rank. ran k.

Wadi. Wadi. Dr r i v e r b e d .

Portcullis. L a r g e st one placed in an ent rance-

Wesekh collar. K n o w n as "the b r o a d o n e , "

wa

it w a s a pop ular beaded neck orn ament

b block lock

Pseudogroup. Free-standing statue with mul t i ple i mages of the same individual.

Pyramid Texts. Religious texts carved pai nt ed on the pyrami d cham chamber ber walls of the 5th and 6th Dynasty rulers.

by both s e x e s an d

range

worn

anthropomorphic

deities.

White Crown. Egypt.

i t re-s haped crown

Upper Upp er

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PHOTO

AND

DRAW ING

CREDITS:

Unless noted otherwise, images in this catalogue

are © 2002 Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. No image in this catalogue may be reproduced with

out the express permission of the the copyright

holder.

Fig.

F i g . 25

Agricultural relief scene from the offering chapel

The discovery of the Menkaure Valley Temple

Sekhema nkhpta h, Dynas ty 5. Muse um of

triads, July 10 , 190 8, and triad of King

Fine Arts, Boston 0 4 . 1 7 6 0 .

Menkaure, the goddess Hathor, and the deified Hare nome, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

Fig.

09 09.20 .200. 0.

Line dra wing of the pull saw scene from the

tomb of Ti Ti at Saqqa ra, Dynasty 6. From Epron

Fig. Line Drawing of King "Scorpion" on a lime

The living living room at Harvard C amp, 193 4.

stone macehead, Dynasty o. From Smith 1998,

Fig.

fig.

Boat jousting scene from the offering chapel of

FigColossal limestone statue of Min from Coptos,

F i g - 26

a nd Da uma s 193 9, 120.

F i g - 27

Sekhe mankhpt ah, Dynasty 5. Mus eum of Fine

Noel Wheeler excavating in the tomb of Queen

Arts, Boston 0 4 . 1 7 6 0 .

Hetepheres Hetepheres I, July 22, 192 6.

F i g . 28

Dynasty o. © 2001 The Ashmolean Ashmolean Museum,

F i g - 16

Oxford

Limestone statuette of a seated man, Dynasty 6.

Painting of the tomb chamber of Queen Hetepheres I as it appear ed when first seen on

Museum of Fine Arts, Boston 3 9 . 8 3 2 .

FigSchist statue of King Khasekhem, Dynasty 2.

The Egyptian Museum, Cairo JE 3 2 1 6 1 . © 2001 200 1 Jurgen Liepe.

March 8, 192 5, by Josep h Linden Linden Smith. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston 27.388.

Fig-

F i g . 29

George Andrew Reisner, Reisner, June 26, 19 33

Removi ng the stone sarco phag us from the tom Queen Hetepheres Hetepheres I, April April 17 , 192 7.

Fig.

FigThe Step Pyramid of Kind Djoser at Saqqara, Dynasty 3. © 19 99 Brian Snyder. Snyder.

Line drawin g of of mast aba tomb construct ion by

F i g . 30

Suzanne Chapman for the Museum of Fine Arts,

Subterran ean ch amber in the tomb of Queen

Boston.

Meresankh III, May 8, 19 27

F i g . 19

Fig-

Fig.

The Bent Pyramid of King Sneferu Sneferu at Dahsh ur,

General view of the Western Cemetary, looking

Dynasty 4. © 2001 Rita E. Freed.

west, from the top of the Great Pyramid of

Line drawin g of Queen Hetepheres II and Queen

Khufu , June 25, 19 32.

Meresankh III in a boat from the east wall, main

Fig. The pyramids at Giza, looking northwest, April 199 9. © 19 99 Brian Snyder. Snyder.

FigAnorthosite gneiss statue of King Khafre with the Horus falcon, Dynasty 4. The Egyptian Museum, Cairo CG 1 4. © 200 1 Victor Victor R. Boswell, Jr., The National Geogra phic Society

Fig. Greywa cke statue of King Menka ure and a

room, tomb of Meresankh III, by Suzanne

F i g . 20

Chapman for the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.

Painted limestone slab stela of Prince

Fig.

Wepemnofret, Dynasty 4, reign reign of Khufu. 2 0 0 T

Phoebe Apperson Hearst Museum

Limestone statue of Queens Hetepheres II and

of Anthropol ogy, University of Californi a at

Meresankh III, Dynasty 4. Museum of Fine Arts,

Berkeley 6 - 1 9 8 2 5 .

Boston 3 0 . 1 4 5 6 .

Fig. Reserve heads at Harvard Camp , December

F ' g - 33 7,

Limestone Penmeru family grouping, Dynasty 5.

1913.

Museum of Fine Arts, Boston 1 2 . 1 4 8 4 .

queen, Dynasty 4. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

Fig.

Fig- 34

11.1738.

Line drawing of a cross section of a pyramid.

Model of the Giza plateau (scale 1:2000), 1998.

Fig. Limestone figure of Hemiunu, Dynasty 4, reign Khufu. © 196 2 Roemer-un d PelizaeusMuseum, Hildesheim.

Fig.

From Lehner Lehner 1 997 , 16

F i g . 23 Drawing: Map of the Giza necropolis, showing

Seated limestone statues of Prince Rahotep and

teries. © 2001 Peter Der Manuelian.

Nofret, from Meidum, Dynasty 4, reign of King

Photo: Aerial view of the the Giza plateau (Great

Dynasty 4, reign of Khafre. Museum of Fine

Pyramid of Khufu in the foreground, with the

Fig.

and CG 4. © 2001 Jurgen Liepe.

pyramids of Khafre and Menkaure in the back

F i g . 36 Relief scene featuring starving bedouins

Painted limestone statuette of Ptahneferti as

F i g . 24 Head from a colossal alabaster statu e of King

06.1881.

Menka ure in situ, April April 14 , 190 7, and colossal

Pleated linen dress from a woman's burial at

Sneferu. The Egyptian Museum, Cairo CG 3

ground), looking southwest, mid-2oth century.

child, Dynasty 5. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

Fig.

35

the pyramids and the Western and Eastern ceme

Painted limestone bust of Prince Ankhhaf, Arts, Boston 27.442.

2001 Harvard University Semitic Museum, C a m b r i d g e , Massachusetts.

from

the causeway of the pyramid of King Unas at S a q q a r a , Dynasty 5. Musée du Louvre, Paris E

1 7 3 8 1 . © 2001 Bruce White.

alabaster statue of King Menkaure, Museum of

F i g - 37

Fine Arts, Boston 09.204.

Pyramid Texts from the antechamber of the pyrami d of King Unas at Saqqa ra, Dynasty 5.

N a g a ed-Deir, Dynasty 6. Museum of Fine Arts,

20 01 Victor R. Boswell, Jr., The Natio nal

Boston 34.56. 34.56 .

Geographic Society.

38

F i g . 38 Wooden figure of Meryrehaishetef,

Cat. no. 28 from

Sedment, Dynasty 6, reign of King Pepy I. © 2 00 1 Trustees of the British Museu m, London EA 5 5 7 2 2 .

F ' g - 39 Relief figure of the overseer of all works,

Nekhebu, Dynasty 6. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston 1 3 . 4 3 3 5 .

CREDITS:

Seated statue of Nyshepsesnesut in the serdab of the offering chamber, December 24, 1 9 1 5 .

Intact statue grouping from the tomb of Weri, Summer 1920.

Detail plan of the Western Western Cemetery at Giza

Cat. no. 31

showing the different excavation concessions

Line drawing of a relief from the tomb of Djaty

1 9 0 2 - 1 9 5 3 . © 2001 Petet Der Manuelian.

featuring the daughters of the deceased maki ng bread, bearing offerings, and brewing beer.

The entrance to Queen Hetep heres Fs tomb in

From Si mpson 198 0, pi. pi. 41

1926.

Cat. no. 32 Offering basin of K hnum u in situ (upside down

Line drawing from the mastaba of Queen Meresankh III showing a bedmaking under canopy. From Dunham and Simpson 19 74 , fig.

in the foreground), 1 90 5 or 190 6. Cat. no. 33 Canopic jars in the burial chamber, February 6,

1927. Cat. no. 2 Line drawi ng of craftsmen in the the pottery work shop of Ti at Saqq ara . Adap ted by Elizabeth after Epron and D aumas 19 39 , pi. Simpson after Cat. no. 5 Pyramid complex of King Menkaure. From Lehner 1997, 137. Cat. no. 7 Alabas ter statuary fragments of King Men kaur found in a drain hole outside the king's pyramid temple, April April 1 4, 19 07 Cat. no. 8 Three of the unfinished statu es of King Menkaure found in the Menkaure Valley Temple, Temple, 1908

Cat. no. 36 Drawing of the second chair from the tomb of Queen Hetepheres I. From Reisner and Smith

1 9 5 5 . f'g- 32Cat. no. 38 Ornaments of Pthashepses Impy as they appeared on the body when the coffin was first opened, January 3, 1 9 1 3 . Cat. no. 39 The burial chamber of Ptahshepses Impy as seen from the entranceway, December 3, 1 9 1 2 . Cat. no. 41 Line drawing of the sculptor Inkaf working on a statue of Queen Meresa nkh III from the main chamber of the queen's mastaba. He holds a rec

Cat. no. 16

tangul ar chisel chisel in in his right hand. From Dun ham

Wtapp ed mumm y of a wom an from to mb

and S impson 1 97 4, fig. fig. 5.

2220 B.

Cat. no. 44

Cat. no. 20

The complete false door of Senwehem in situ,

Seated statue of Akhmeretnesut in situ, April

September 29, 1 9 1 3 .

1912. Cat. no. 21 Drawing of the decree of Neferirkare. © 2001

Peter Der Manuelian. Cat. no. 22 Line drawi ng of a relief from the pyra mid tem ple of King Sahure at Abusir of a person holding cylinder seal. From Borchardt 1 9 1 3 , pi. 53.

Stela and bust of Idu, west wall, tomb of Idu

(G 7 1 0 2 ) , J a n u a r y 1 7 , 1 9 2 5 . ix standing statues in a niche of Qar's tomb with a carved inscription above providing his name and chief titles, titles, November 29, 19 25 Cat. no. 48 Line drawing of the pattern and bodice line of beads as described by excavator Noel

Wheeler

Line drawing of the cylinder seal. From Kaplony

and used in the reconstruction of the beadnet

1 9 8 1 , pi. 92, no. 38.

dress. © 2001 Yvonne J. Markowitz.

no. 24 Drawing of the false doot of Inty. © 2001 Petet Der Manuelian. Cat. no. 25 Reconst ruction drawin g of the serdab in front of the mastaba of Babaef. Babaef. From Arnold 199 4, 23 5.

of Egypt with ancient sites and modern

cities. © 2001 Peter Der Manuelian.

Cat. no. 29

Cat. no. 1 the area east of the the Great Pyramid , 1 92 5 or

14 Ma

no. 55 Hieroglyphic text from the letter to the dead from N a g a ed-Deir ed-Deir.. From Simpson 1 97 0, pi. 46A.

Designed by Cynthia Rockwell Randall Edited by Emiko K. Usui and Sarah E. McGaughey Typeset in Sabon and Frutiger

Printed and bound at Arnoldo Mondadori, A.M.E.

Publishing Ltd., Verona, Italy

A R T / A N C I E N T

C I V I L I Z A T I O N S

E AG E OF T

I>

Y R

M ID s,

S29.95

I S B N

or Old Kingd om period, wa s Egypt's crowni ng mome nt,

known

to many as its

"Go lde n Ag e. " It was a time when kings and queens commanded stone to be turned into architectural hum an

-87846-63O-4

marvels,

the

figure to be immo rt ali zed , and exquis ite furnishings a nd jewelry to be fashi oned for this this life life and the one be yond

the to mb. The Mu se um of Fine Art s, Bos to n, has one of the wor ld' s premier col lect ions of Old Ki ngd om art, than ks G e o r g e Reisner's celebrated expeditions during the first decades of the t w e n t i e t h century.

Although

individual

to

objects

from the collection have appe are d as quintessential exam ple s of their time, never before have they been presented in a single, lavish lavishly ly illustrated vol ume. Nor have many of the fascinating archival photogr aphs of the the excava tion s, preserved

on fragile g l a s s negatives, been published as they are here. This boo k provi des a gli mpse of lif e—and deat h—at pinnacle of Egyptian civilization, and conveys the excitement of the excavators who discovered its treasures.

P R I N T E D

ITALY

the