Beliefs of the Church → Papal infallibility → supremacy of the Pope in all matters of religion → The Church was sole interpretor of the Bible and no-one else was allowed to read it → Purgatory → A state after death in which the souls of dead Catholics were cleansed of their sins on earth, prior to entering heaven. The period spent in purgatory could be shortened by purchasing indulgences (the money was supposed to go to improving the Church), good deeds, and pilgrimages. → Those who broke the rules of the Church would suffer eternal damnation in Hell. → The worship of saints and relics were thought to help the individual towards eternal salvation. → The Eucharist → Communion service/ mass. Bread and wine were taken by the communicants to recreate the last supper. The bread and wine were taken by priests only and it was believed that they actually because the body and blood of Christ. → Priests did not marry → Monasteries → This was were individuals committed themselves to permanent isolation from the world in search of truth and salvation. The Seven Sacraments → Baptism → This was when the new born child would be admitted into the Church. → Confirmation → This was when adolescents were formally admitted into the Church. → Communion → Penance → This was when, after confessing one's sins (at least once a week) to a priest, a Catholic would pay a penalty, usually prayer or charitable work, in order to ensure salvation. → Marriage → Holy Orders → being a priest, monk or nun → Extreme Unction/ the Last Rites → administered to the dying in order to ensure a shorter stay in purgatory.
How did the structure of the Holy Roman Empire weaken the Emperor's control? → 400 separate states, each with its own laws, leader and customs → little centralisation → came from the medieval idea that Christianity needed both a religious and secular leader Western Christendom → religion head (the Pope) and secular head (the Holy Roman Emperor – elected by 7 electors) → had a federal government (the Imperial Diet) although they didn't have much power and mainly met to argue → 1519 → Charles V Hapsburg elected as Holy Roman Emperor. He also inherited the Netherlands, Spain, and part of Italy. What factors weakened the Emperor's control? → lack of standing army → increase in power of the princes → they wanted to develop power at the expense of the Emperor → he could only raise taxes by agreement. This meant he was unable to acquire the funds to form an army → large territory → Charles was constantly moving around and as such it was difficult to control all of his territory at once → lack of centralisation → Charles had to negotiate with leaders of individual states → risk of attack → too busy dealing with other countries that were felt threatened by the size of the
Empire and so was left with little time to rule over his own Empire Wahlkapituation → concessions Charles made to the 7 electors in order to be elected → to respect the rights and privileges of the electors → to not appoint foreigners to imperial offices → to not bring foreign troops into the Empire → to not declare was without the electors' consent → to consult the electors on imperial matters This limited Charles' power and made it difficult to deal with the German Reformation.
Anticlericalism and Clergy Abuses → Heresy → Opposition to the fundamental spiritual beliefs and practises of a religion. → Anti clericalism → Opposition to the Church based on its abuse of power and influence. → Heresy was not widespread in Luther's time but anti-clericalism was. → Tithe → An annual tax in return for spiritual healthcare (10% of income). → Annates/ first fruits → The priests' first year annual income was given to the Pope. → People believed that if Pope Leo X had the power to reduce peoples' time in purgatory he should do so for free rather than selling indulgences to raise money for St. Peter's Basilica. Abuses → Simony → The sale of church posts and sacred objects to the highest bidder rather than the most qualified. → Nepotism → Giving posts to friends and family. → Pluralism → This was when a priest would hold more than one post at the same time. → Absenteeism → This was when a priest was away from his parish for an extended period of time. 1500 → Italian Wars → dragged the papacy into dispute → powerful families got their own candidates elected as Pope (Medici + Borgia)
Why was the Church particularly resented in Germany? → There was a strong feeling in Germany that the Church was under the control of foreigners. Nearly every Pope and Cardinal was Italian. → The German ruling classes purchased senior church positions for their sons (simony) and then charged the money in taxes to the poor. → German princes drew up 'The Gravamina'. This was a list of 102 complaints against the Church (e.g indulgences and the Pope appointing ignorant people and non-German speakers as members of the clergy) → Germany lacked a strong central government so there was no-one to stand up against the demands of the Church. → The Church exploited Germany more than other countries. By 1500 England, France, and Spain had all developed strong, centralized governments, enabling them to negotiate better deals with the Papacy (e.g. lower taxes). → Germany was highly urbanised (for it time) and its population was more literate. Some 10% of the people could read. 20% in towns. With more people able to read, they were more likely to read Luther's literature and other works that questioned the Church.
→ German towns were on the trade route to Europe and so conversations with traders helped spread new ideas. → There were many humanists in Germany, often in positions of influence such as city councils. → Population figures had just recovered from the Black Death of 1348. Peasants faced land and job shortages and wages declined. Also, a string of bad harvests led to food shortages. However, when they turned to the Church for comfort and support, the priests were illiterate, drunk or absent. → The number of German universities was growing, leading to an increase in theologians. → The Catholic Church was the largest landowner, thus the landowner for many of the poor.
Previous Reform Movements Lollards (England) → the followers of John Wycliffe → They stressed the importance of individual access to the scriptures (100 years before Luther did in Germany). → They produced a vernacular Bible in English. → They failed to make a real impact on the Church. → The Lollards were driven underground after their most prominent supporter, sir John Oldcastle was burned as a heretic in 1418. Hussites (Bohemia) → the followers of John Hus → They rejected the spiritual value of indulgences and so challenged the authority of the Pope (as Luther was accused of doing at the Diet of Worms). → They were somewhat more successful than the Lollards, particularly after Hus' arrest and execution in 1415 for heresy. → They gained control of the Church in some remote parts of Bohemia. Brethren of Common Life and Devotio Moderna movement → The Brethren was established by Gerhard Groet in the 14th century and educated Erasmus. → The Brethren inspired the Devotio Moderna movement which stressed that religion should focus on inward reflection rather than good works. → This was a move away from images of the saints in art to 'Christocentric realism' (physical suffering of Christ).
Significance of Humanism and Erasmus → The Bible was originally written in Hebrew (old testament) and Greek (new testament) but scholars used a Latin translation (the vulgate) which could have been corrupted by mistakes and person interpretation over time. → Humanists wanted to go back to the original version of the Bible in order to find its true meaning. → Erasmus translated the original Bible to vernacular. → Erasmus remained with the Catholic Church, unlike Luther. → Humanism was a reaction to a medieval academic philosophy called 'scholasticism' which argued that readers should take the most recent edition of a classic text and clarify its meaning, publishing a new edition form that new understanding. → Humanists encouraged people to read the Bible and other texts in the original for themselves
rather than accept the interpretations of others. → Luther used Erasmus' 1516 Greek translation of the New Testament. → Many Humanists held influential posts as leading figures on city councils and advisers to priests. → “I laid a hen's egg, but what Luther hatched was a bird of a quite different sort” (Erasmus) → Erasmus believed in peaceful resolution of conflicts. → Erasmus regretted the division of the Church into Catholic and Protestant, choosing to remain with the Church and try and reform it from within. → Erasmus argued that man must have free will but Luther argued that all things are decided by God's will.
The 95 Theses and Luther's Beliefs The sale of indulgences → provoked Luther into writing his 95 Theses. → They were sold by Johann Tetzel, a Dominican Friar near Wittenburg. → Tetzel appealed in his sermons for people to prove that they loved their dead parents or children, ensuring their salvation by buying indulgences. The 95 Theses → 31st October 1517 → Luther pinned his theses to the door of the main church in Wittenburg., the capital of electoral Saxony. This was an accepted way of making matters of debate public. → It was written in Latin and so it appealed to the more educated. → It was deliberately timed, appearing a few hours before the one day in the year on which the Elector of Saxony (Frederick the Wise) sold indulgences to those who visited his famous collection of relics (it was believed that this reduced time in purgatory by devoting time to God). → It was rapidly translated into German, printed and widely distributed (thanks to the printing press and woodcuts). The arguments in the 95 Theses → indulgences/ letters of pardon wouldn't guarantee salvation → people didn't need indulgences to have their sins pardoned → avoided criticising the Pope → said that the Pope was not personally to blame for indulgences → the Pope was unaware of the abuses → the Pope should pay for St. Peter's Basilica himself → If the Pope did indeed have the power to release souls from purgatory, he should do so out of charity rather than charge for it.
The Printing Press → By 1500 about 200 printing presses were functioning in Germany. → The years 1518-1524 saw the output of the German presses multiply by a factor of six times, largely due to the religious cataclysm. → Previously, all publications were handwritten by monks, so they could not be so widely distributed and were easily censored by the Church. → The invention of the printing press meant that there was no scribal corruption or copying errors.
The Church's Reaction (1517 – 1521) Luther is threatened by Cardinal Cajetan → Albert of Brandenburg appealed to Pope Leo X for support against Luther. → Luther was ordered to come to Rome but he refused. → Cardinal Cajetan was sent to Germany to deal with Luther. → 1518 → Cajetan summoned Luther to Augsburg to meet him. → Cajetan threatened Luther with punishment unless he withdrew his criticisms. → Luther argued that he had identified mistakes in the teachings of the Church and declared that he would only abandon his beliefs if proved wrong with sound reason or shown evidence from the Bible. → The Church argued that it was only the Pope who could interpret the Bible and decide the teachings of the Church and that he must be obeyed as God's representative on Earth. → The Church was offering no defence and so Luther gained increasing numbers of supporters. Leipzig Disputation → The Pope realized that threats wouldn't work. → July 1519 → a formal debate in Leipzig between Johann Eck (recognized as the the most skillful debater in Germany) and Luther. → Luther was forced to take his argument to its logical conclusion. → Luther rejected purgatory and several sacraments after Eck pointed out that there was no mention of them in the Bible as well as indulgences. → Developed 'Sola Scriptura' → Early in the disputation, Luther argued that the Pope was exceeding his powers but left believing that he had no special powers at all. → Eck technically won the debate but Luther's passion impressed observers. He began with a reputation of being a rebel but left as an inspiration revolutionary. → June 1520 → Leo X excommunicated Luther in the Papal Bull 'Exsurge Domine'. → Luther publicly burnt the bull. → Luther released a pamphlet shortly afterwards entitled 'Against the Bull of the Antichrist' whic claimed that the Pope was the devil. → This was the point of no return for Luther.
The Diet and Edict of Worms The Diet of Worms (April 1521) → The Pope called upon Emperor Charles V to bring Luther under control. → The Church hoped that the Diet would condemn Luther without a hearing but Charles didn't want to be accused of treating Luther unfairly. → Charles promised Luther 'safe conduct' but Church teaching said that there was no need to keep promised to a heretic. → Luther attended the hearing against the advice of his friends, believing himself to be in God's hands. → This demonstrated recognition that Leo X needed secular support to deal with Luther. The Edict of Worms (April 1521) → Luther was found guilty of heresy. → Luther's supporters hoped that the Emperor would at least compromise by restricting the power of the Church in Germany but they were disappointed.
→ Charles announced that Luther and his supporters would be punished unless they accepted the authority and teachings of the Church. → Charles ordered the terms of 'Exsurge Domine' to be carried. → Citizens of the Empire were ordered to burn Luther's writings and refuse to provide food or shelter to him or his supporters. → The Pope got all that he wanted except for Luther's imprisonment.
The role of Frederick the Wise Why did Frederick have so much power? → He was the elector of Saxony and so Charles needed his support should he wish to collect/raise taxes or use troops etc. → He had a relatively large and wealthy state and therefore had the resources to fight back and provide food, protection and shelter to Luther and his supporters. → He was traditionally a supporter of the Pope. There was little evidence that he was a revel and the Pope would not want to risk losing his support. → He was regarded as an outstanding ruler in Germany and so his decisions were respected. → Frederick never actually converted to Lutheranism but he was sensitive to the beliefs of his younger brother and committed Lutheran, John. → Frederick was influenced by his humanist advisor, Spalatin who was a good friend of Luther. → He never actually met Luther. What did Frederick actually do? → He protected Luther and ensured that Luther did not go into exile after the meeting with Cajetan. → He refused to carry out Exsurge Domine. He did not burn Luther's subjects and refuse to give him and his supporters food and shelter, nor did he order the people of Saxony to do so. → He persuaded Charles V to allow Luther to defend himself at the Diet of Worms and abstained on the vote. → Frederick 'kidnapped' Luther after the Edict of Worms and sheltered him at Wartburg Castle. → He did not carry out the Edict of Worms in Saxony.
Luther's Publications (1520) An address to the German nobility → an appeal to the princes written in German → It argued that it was the responsibility of the secular leaders to lead reform, the successive Popes having perverted true Christianity. → 'the priesthood of all believers' → Any man who had faith could be saved and was his own priest. Ministers were not superior to congregations, just representatives of them. → Invited rulers to overthrow Papal authority and assume control of religious affairs within their territories and argued that it was their duty. → Luther had clearly abandoned all hope of change from within. On the Babylonish captivity of the Church → most controversial pamphlet → The title implies that the true Christians of the Church had been enslaved by Rome. → It attacked the 7 sacraments, rejecting all of the besides baptism and the Eucharist (the only 2
mentioned in the Bible). → It condemned transubstantiation → the belief that during mass, the bread and wine physically became Christ's flesh and blood → It was written in Latin for an academic audience. → It shocked moderate reformers (e.g. Erasmus) into realising that Luther was not just a reformer of abuses but a religious revolutionary. → Introduced the idea of consubstantiation → the belief that the bread and wine contain the spirit of Christ's flesh and blood Of the liberty of the Christian man → theological audience → It denied the importance of good works for salvation (the faithful would naturally do good works). → It attempted to be more conciliatory towards the Pope, saying that he had evil counsellors rather than being evil himself. → It encouraged disobedience to Canon Law (the law of the Catholic Church).
Religious and Social Change Religious Change → Luther's policy was that if the Bible did not forbid an activity, it should be allowed to continue unless there were strong arguments for stopping it. → Luther saw issues over religious practises as unimportant unless they had a direct bearing on salvation but was forced to take a clear position as others deemed them important. → Vestments (ceremonial clothing worn by Catholic priests) were removed. Luther believed that priests should conduct services in regular clothing if vestments suggested that they had special powers. → Images were removed from Churches if the community saw them as a distraction from God. → Music was encouraged. Luther was passionate about music and wrote and published over 20 hymns. He regarded it as one of God's most precious gifts to humanity. → Monasteries were shut down with it being agreed that their incomes should be put to better use (providing food for the poor and education to the young). Social Change → Luther regarded a person's duty to family as second only to their duty to God → Luther argued that the Prince was head of the state and the father was head of the family. →There was a problem with what to do with monks and nuns from the monasteries and nunneries that had been shut down. This was not such a problem with monks who had developed useful skills and trades. → A typical nun came from a wealthy family which had made a sizeable donation to the nunnery so it was inappropriate for such women to become domestic servants. The only alternative was marriage. Bigamy Scandal (1540) → Luther's reputation as a defender of conservative family was dented by the part he played in the bigamy of Philip of Hesse (leading defender of the Protestant cause after the death of Frederick the Wise). → Luther advised Philip to take a second wife rather than divorce the first if both women agreed.
The Spread of Lutheranism – the Knights' and Peasants' Wars → People assumed that because Luther was opposed to the authority of the Pope, he would oppose all established authority. → The book of Peter talks about all governmental authority coming from God, meaning you'd have to obey them even if they were a tyrant. Luther believed the same. The Knights' War (1522-1523) → led by Ulrich von Hutten → During the early middle ages, the Emperor relied on the knights' military services to control the Empire but by the 1500s their importance had declined to relative insignificance. → The knights wanted the Empire to have strong central control and to eliminate foreign influences (mainly the Pope). → They objected to the Church being the secular authority in roughly a fifth of Germany. → Luther was well known for accusing the Pope of extracting money from Germany and the 1520 pamphlets (particularly 'An Address to the Christian Nobility') seemed to justify a rebellion against established authority. → They were easily defeated, posing little threat to the princes. The Peasants' War (1524-1525) → lacked unity and central leadership → Landlords had been gradually imposing heaver taxes and duties upon peasants. → Hundreds of castles, religious houses and towns were ransacked and abandoned. → Princes re-established authority by killing the leaders and frightening the remainder into submission. It is estimated that perhaps 100,000 peasants were executed. → Hundreds of Lutheran priests fought alongside the peasants. → Luther initially sympathised with the peasants but was horrified by their actions. → Luther wrote the pamphlet, 'Against the Thieving, Murdering Hordes of Peasants' which said that it was the holy duty of Princes to kill them. This lost Luther considerable support among the poorer classes. → The pamphlet appeared at the height of the slaughter of the peasants, making Luther seem heartless. → This re-established Luther's position among the rulers who were inclined towards reform of the Church and showed him not to be an anarchist. → The peasants fighting under Luther's name could have meant the end of the reformation which needed the support of the princes in order to continue.
The Spread of Lutheranism – The Cities → Nuremburg (leading city of the reformation), Cologne (remained Catholic) and Strasburg (housed more radicals. It was at the edge of the Empire and so away from the Emperor's power) → They were imperial states → independent states who were fearful of the princes' growing control →51/65 cities turned protestant. Lots of these cities had senior officials who were humanists. → There was a growing middle class (Burghers) and so a high degree of literacy (20% in towns) and access to pamphlets. → Nuremburg and Strasburg both embraced the Lutheran doctrines in 1525 as the city councils gave in to pressure from the urban middle class and artisans. There were a large number of formal debates which resulted in the legalization of reformed ideas as the magistrates wanted to avoid potential disorder.
→ Strasburg was more of a centre of learning and so more people would have been able to read Luther's writings. → Cologne was Catholic and reformed by two archbishops who became protestant. → Nuremburg was already quite humanist and had humanists on their city council.
The Spread of Lutheranism – The Princes The Catholic Princes → Charles was particularly limited by the fact that the princes questioned his right to interfere in the internal affairs of their territories within the Empire. → The princes were fearful of an increase in the Emperor's power. → They suspected that any army used to restore the Catholic faith would then be used to impose Charles' will on all the states of the Empire. The Protestant Princes → 1525 → Albrecht of Hohenzollen, Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights became a Lutheran. → 1526 → Philip of Hesse became protestant. He was to regard himself as the political leader of the protestant cause for the next 20 years. → 1527 → Frederick the Wise's successor, John committed electoral Saxony to Lutheranism. The protestant princes and the imperial cities could only be crushed by Charles V at the cost of a major civil war which he was unwilling to risk.
The Radical Reformation → Luther's revolt had divided the people of Europe into 'the Lutherans' and 'the Catholics'. There was no place for the radicals. → The radicals regarded the reformation as to weak and unfinished, rejecting the idea that halfmeasures and compromised were necessary to avoid social and political chaos. They pursued reforms that Luther didn't want to be associated with. → Iconoclasts → They agreed that saints in churches were a distraction but went so far as to strip them from churches in a manner approaching vandalism. → Anabaptists → They rejected infant baptism as it wasn't mentioned in the Bible but it was geared that this would lead to a generation that wasn't under Church control. → The radicals were easily crushed and driven underground when the Catholics and Protestants joined forces. → They demonstrated that organisation was key for survival. → They destroyed the credibility of the Lutheran movement as a 'people's movement', proven by Luther's handling of the radicals. He promoted mass murder rather than accepting their views as different from his own in the Peasant's revolt. → They clarified the battle lines between Protestants and Catholics by forcing each side to explain their own beliefs in clearer detail.
Luther's beliefs compared to Zwingli's – why was Luther more popular? → Zwingli was a Swiss reformer.
Zwingli's Beliefs → He read the Bible and saw it as 'purer' that Latin vulgate. → He felt that faith alone assured salvation and that scripture alone provided the ,eans of searching for that faith (sola fide and sola scriptura). → It was assumed that Zwingli was a Lutheran heretic which greatly offended him. He insisted that he had reached his conclusions independently. → Luther and Zwingli both disagreed with transubstantiation (the Catholic idea that the bread and wine became the body and blood of Christ during the Eucharist) but Zwingli believed that the bread and wine only represented the body and blood of Christ and Luther believed in consubstantiation (the idea that the bread and wine carried the spirit of the body and blood of Christ). The Colloquy of Marburg → Philip of Hesse's lands lay on the border between the Lutheran and Zwinglian territories. He wanted a united protestant front to deter Charles V and the Catholic princes. → October 1529 → The two men and a handful of leading supporters met in Philip's castle at Marburg to argue and reach an understanding. → Both were unable to convince the other of their beliefs or recognise them as a 'good Christian'. → The meeting broke up after four days and Luther refused to even shake Zwingli's hand. → Luther agreed not to attack Zwinglians in print although he wouldn't accept them as true Christians. Why wasn't Zwingli as successful as Luther? → Zwingli died early, just as Luther was reaching the peak of his influence. → Luther's charisma made local leaders more likely to trust his judgement. → Luther achieved fame before Zwingli and their similar messages meant he couldn't make an impact on areas where Luther was well known. → From Luther's base in Wittenburg, his message could spread throughout Germany whilst Zwingli lived in a remote and mountainous region on the edge of the German speaking world.
Charles' distractions The Ottoman Empire → Its sultan, Sulemain 'the magnificent' threatened to dominate the Mediterranean and to expand through the Balkans and impinge upon Charles' territories in Austria. → Charles was forced to compromise with the Lutheran princes in order to win the struggle with the Ottoman Empire. → 1544 → The Ottoman Empire scaled down its European military campaigns, enabling Charles to concentrate on the Protestants. Spain → Charles wanted to remain in Germany to ensure that the Edict of Worms was carried out. → Charles was forced to travel to Spain to deal with rebellions that broken out because the people didn't want a non-Spanish speaking monarch → Charles was unable to return to Germany for eight years (1522-1529)
Relations between Charles and the Papacy → Charles believed in the 'theory of the two swords' → The idea that there must be a religious and secular ruler (they should not be the same person). → Charles belief in conciliarism meant he wanted a General Council of the Church to be called. Pope Clement VII → He was a Medici → rival family to the Hapsburg → He was initially unable to decide whether to support France or Charles. → 1526 → He joined with France in the League of Cognac due to resentment of Spanish domination in Italy. → 1527 → Charles' unpaid protestant army mutinied and sacked Rome, leading to looting and destruction which appalled the rest of Europe. → Charles was in Spain at the time and there is no evidence that he approved the attack. However, he did not try to stop it. → The sack of Rome was beneficial to Charles because it subdued the Pope. Clement was imprisoned by the troops for months. Paul III → 1534 → Clement died and was replaced by Paul III. → He saw a need for peace among Catholic rulers for a reform of the Catholic Church. → He tried to end the conflict between Charles and Francis I. → He was the first Pope to back, with any determination, reform of the Church.
Time-line of Formation of Leagues in the 1520s 1524 – League of Regensburg → A Catholic league set up to support princes trying to root out Lutheranism. → Backed by Ferdinand of Austria (Charles' brother) and the Duke of Bavaria. 1525 – League of Dessau → A Catholic League set up by Duke George of Saxony (cousin and rival of Elector John of Saxony) 1526 – League of Torgau → A Protestant League designed to combat Catholic attacks. → Lacked military strength → Set up by Philip of Hesse and John of Saxony.
Diet of Speyer – Compromise Fail 1526 Diet of Speyer → Charles' brother Ferdinand's attempt to buy time. → Agreed Princes could interpret the Edict of Worms as they wished. → Gave Lutheranism time to consolidate its early gains. 1529 Diet of Speyer → Charles overturned the 1526 Edict and said that the Edict of Worms must be enforced.
→Demonstrated Charles' commitment to one faith within the Empire, whether by negotiation of force. → Led to representatives of the Lutheran states making a 'protest' and openly challenging imperial authority. The protesters became know as 'Protestants'.
The Diet and Interim of Augsburg (1530) Diet of Augsburg → Charles wanted the maximum possible support for a war against the Muslim Turks and thought it necessary to present a united Christian front but the Pope refused to summon a council of the Church due to concerns it would reduce his power so Charles summoned a Diet to serve the same purpose. → Theologians from both sides were invited. → Martin Luther was not present due to being under the imperial ban. However, this was a good thing due to his belief that compromise couldn't be reached without sacrificing his fundamental beliefs. Some of his leading supporters disagreed with this, still hoping to reform the Church. → Phillip Melanchthon drew up a statement of Protestant beliefs but left out the idea of 'priesthood of all believers'. → The representatives of the papacy accepted the compromises of the Protestants but were unwilling to make any compromises themselves. The Augsburg Confession → This was a statement of belief which could act as the theological basis for the Protestant cause. It was the result of many compromises and so was deliberately vague in places. → It provided a basis for Protestant unity. → Charles still hoped for a future Church council, despite the reforms having abandoned any attempts at reconciliation.
Protestant Successes in the 1530s The League of Schmalkalden (1531) → This was an alliance of the more important Protestant states, organised by Philip of Hesse. → It was actively seeking to unify and promote Protestant interests, despite being presented as a purely defensive organisation. → It demonstrated the power and determination of Protestants. → It showed that the Protestants realised that compromises would get them nowhere, with military action being the only option. → It was heavily defeated by Charles at the battle of Muhlberg in 1547. Its leaders (including Philip of Hesse) were captured, leaving Charles free to dictate whatever terms he chose. The Religious Truce of Nuremburg (1532) → Charles agreed to suspend all action against he league in return for men and money to resist what appeared to be a major offensive by the Turks against Vienna. → It persuaded the more nervous Protestant states that it was safe to join the Schmalkaldic league. → Ultimately, only Nuremburg and the principality of Brandenburg-Ansbach didn't join the league. Wurttemberg becomes Protestant (1534)
→ The large dukedom of Wurttemburg had been administered by the Hapsburgs since 1520 when the Lutheran Duke, Ulrich, had been deposed.. → Philip of Hesse raised an army (using money obtained from Francis I of France), marched on Wurttemberg and restored Ulrich with almost no opposition. → It was followed by Brandenburg (1535) and ducal Saxony (1539) after the deaths of their rulers. → The balance of power was in the Protestants' favour. The Catholic princes were more afraid of an increase in imperial power than of reformed religion.
Protestant Setbacks Diet of Regensburg (1541) → This was Charles' last attempt to get the two sides to compromise on their beliefs. → Cardinal Contarini led the Roman Catholics. → Phillip Melanchthon led the Protestants. → They agreed to the doctrine of justification but Luther and the Pope refused to accept it. → Charles accepted he would have to use military force against the Protestants. It was a turning point for the Roman Catholic princes who became more worried about the spread of Protestantism. Philip of Hesse's Bigamy Scandal (1540) → Philip had been forced into marriage at a young age to a woman he was unattractive to and he had a string of mistresses. → Philip appealed to Luther for advice. → Luther advised against divorce but said a second with was possible, provided both women agreed (based on extracts from the Old Testament). → It damaged Luther's reputation and the political position of the Protestant cause. → 1544 → The Ottoman Empire scaled down its European Military campaigns, giving Charles time to concentrate on the Protestants. → 1547 → The League of Schmalkalden was defeated in the Battle of Muhlbergy and its leaders (including Philip of Hesse) were captured, leaving Charles free to dictate whatever terms he chose.
Diet and Interim of Augsburg (1548) → Charles attempted to impose a religious settlement on the whole of the Empire in the form of the Augsburg Interim. → The document was based on Catholic doctrine with a few minor modifications to give the appearance of compromise with the Protestants (e.g. priests were allowed to marry). → The interim was mostly ignored :(
The Peace of Augsburg (1555) → The impossibility of reuniting Christendom was finally recognised when an agreement was drawn up at another Diet of Augsburg. → Assumed the schism was permanent and made arrangements for it. → Charles wasn't present. He left his brother, Ferdinand to make the arrangements. → In each state there was to be one religion (Catholicism or Lutheranism) with the government of
each state to decide which. They could not force their views on other states. → People were free to move to a state where their religion was practised.
Timeline Knowing the dates is very important! It shows the examiner you have a lot of knowledge, especially if you can explain the significance of any dates given in the exam question. 1517 → 95 Theses → Questioned the Pope's right to issue indulgences (though not at this stage the existence of purgatory. It was the catalyst. 1518 → Luther met Cajetan → Cajetan threatened Luther with being judged a heretic for which the punishment was death. This forced Luther to choose his views or safety. 1519 → Charles became Emperor → Leipzig Disputation → forced Luther to take his ideas to their logical conclusion. He departed with a reputation as a revolutionary. 1520 → Publications of the three pamphlets → theological justification of Luther's ideas → Exsurge Domine → Luther threat with excommunication. Luther burnt the bull. 1521 → Diet of Worms → Luther was questioned and declared a heretic. → Luther was placed under imperial ban → Decat Romanum → the final Papal Bull of excommunication → Luther was kidnapped and taken to Wartburg Castle → Luther used the time to write vernacular Bible. 1522 → Charles returned to Spain to deal with revolts → The Knights' War → convinced people that Luther was an anarchist 1524-5 → Peasants war → Luther gained support from rulers and proved himself not to be an anarchist. However, it made him look heartless. 1524 → Philip of Hesse converted to Protestantism → Hesse was to become leader of the Protestant cause. →League of Regensburg 1525 → League of Dessau → Catholics had begun to accept that military force was needed → Nuremburg and Strasburg embraced Lutheran doctrine 1526 → League of Torgau → Protestants league formed. It lacked military strength but showed that the Protestants recognised the need for self-defence. → Diet of Speyer → Gave Lutheranism more time to consolidate its gains. More Princes joined. 1527 → Sack of Rome → Imperial troops sacked Rome. Clement VII imprisoned for months, subduing the opposition of the Pope. 1529 → Marburg Colloquy → Hesse's bid to present a united protestant front between Luther and Zwingli but they fell out over the Eucharist. It ensured that the split within Protestantism was
permanent. → Diet of Speyer → overturned the 1526 Diet of Speyer. The Diet of Worms was to be enforced. Led to protestation. The Protestants now openly challenged imperial authority. Demonstrated Charles' commitment to one faith within the Empire, whether by negotiation or force. 1530 → Diet of Augsburg → Charles needed aid for the fight against the Turks, as well as wanting religious unity for its own sake. Melanchthon prepared the Confession of Augsburg, a moderate expression of faith (no mention of purgatory of transubstantiation, for example). No agreement reached. The Diet exposed the central contradiction in approach → Charles saw the Diet as a means of imposing unity; the Protestants believed they were being invited to debate. 1531 → Schmalkaldic League formed → The Protestants accepted that more than just a defensive league was needed. By the end of the 1530s its members including 7 major princes and 20 imperial cities. Luther had at last given approval to armed resistance on grounds of self defence. 1532 → Peace of Nuremburg → Charles agreed to tolerate Protestants until a General Council could be called, needing men and money to fight the Turks. It gained Charles men and money for the fight, but bought the Protestants more time to consolidate their gains. 1534 → Wurttenburg → Hesse made a deal with Francis to help get the deposed protestant Duke Ulrich back ruling Wurttemburg. It was a propaganda triumph for the Protestants and demonstrated the power of the Schmalkaldic league, encouraging other princes to join. 1535 → Brandenburg became Protestant after the death of its ruler 1539 → Ducal Saxony became Protestant after the death of its ruler 1541 → Diet of Regensburg → Charles' last attempt to secure a compromise. Charles was forced to accept that there was no alternative besides force. → Hesse's Bigamy → Luther had given him permission to marry again. Hesse pardoned by Charles and was now at Charles' mercy and ruined as a political force. The reputation of Luther was permanently damaged and the Schmalkaldic League seriously weakened. 1548 → Luther's Death 1547 → Battle of Muhlberg → Schmalkaldic League defeated, being no match for the experienced Imperial troops. Paul III also lent troops and money. Elector John of Saxony was captured and his lands and title given to Maurice. John and Hesse were imprisoned. It appeared that all of Germany was in the hands of Charles. However, this led to fear from the Catholic princes that he would strengthen central powers at their expensive. 1547-8 → Diet of Augsburg → Charles laid plans for a strengthening of central government. It proved that the Catholic princes' fears were correct. 1548 → Augsburg Interim → It was effectively a Catholic statement of belief, which gave few concessions to Lutheranism and which was to be imperial law until a General Council of the Church decided upon matters of doctrine. It was largely ignored by the princes and cities, yet Charles did not have the means to enforce it. But Germany (including Catholics) feared enforcement by Spanish troops. This showed that Lutheranism was too strong for Charles to impose his will. It was a chance lost by Charles to invoke a workable settlement. 1555 → Diet of Augsburg → Hardly anyone of significance turned up (not the Holy Roman
Emperor or the Pope. Not even many of the princes). They all just sent envoys. “Demonstrated the Empire had lost everything but it's name” (Elton). But it did bring about the Peace of Augsburg.. → Peace of Augsburg →The Prince of each territory was allowed to decide upon the religion of its inhabitants. In practice, the peace merely recognised what had been the situation for the previous two decades. Lutheranism specifically mentioned – no freedom of worship granted to others like Anabaptists or Calvanists. Subordinated religion to politics. Political autonomy or the princes was effectively recognised. Pragmatic and workable solution found. Catholicism and Lutheranism allowed to co-exist. Peace remained intact for the next 63 years. 1556 → Charles abdicated
Historians' Quotes You don't need to remember all of these quotes, you can pick which ones you think would be most useful. Also, some of them are rather long so it might be wise to remember only part of it. As long as you can get one historian's quote into your essay, you should be fine. :) → Elton → “The problem [of resentment of the Church] was particularly developed in Germany where the Church stood in an even worse case and had earned more deserved resentment than in other countries” → Bernd Moeller → “No humanism, no Reformation” → Lotherington → “The press could spread the ideas of one man more quickly and certainly than ever before, but it also magnified the explosion of differing ideas which resulted from the break-up of the medieval Church.” → Lotherington → “The Church had faced heresy before and had generally contained it slowly but surely, but now it seemed defenceless. He printing press gave it no time.” → AG Dickens → “The Reformation arose in its greatest strength in within the cities, that it arose largely because of their social structures and dynamics, their class struggles, their long standing anti-clericalism, their literacy and mental liveliness, their strong protective urge toward internal unity, their ability to evade wholesale coercion by the Emperor.” → Steven Ozment → “Ideologically and socially mobile burghers, primarily from the lower and middle strata, created a driving wedge of popular support; and government consolidated and moderated the new institutional age.” → Randell → “Perhaps the biggest issue for Charles was the expansion of the Muslim Ottoman Empire.” → Randell → “His [Charles] mistake was in setting himself unrealistic targets rather than in failing to achieve them. By the 1540s it was too late for Lutheranism to be destroyed as an organized religion in most of northern and eastern Italy.”
Past Exam Questions If you don't have too much time to do practice questions, it's still good to look at them in order to get a sense of what to expect. It can also be useful to simply plan the essay you could write, as narrowing down what to write about and deciding on your argument can be rather difficult. January 2012 → Why were Charles V and the Catholic Church both unable to suppress Luther's challenge in the years 1517-21? → How accurate is it to say that the Peasants' Was of 1525 was the key turning point in Luther's influence over the German Reformation? June 2011 → Why was Luther able to challenge the Catholic Church so successfully in the years 1517-25? → How accurate is it to say that the main reason why Charles V failed to suppress Lutheranism in Germany was that he faced several problems elsewhere in Europe? January 2011 → How accurate is it to say that the controversy over indulgences was merely the trigger rather than the fundamental cause of the German Reformation? → How far do you agree that the printing press and growing literacy were the main reasons from the widespread support given to Luther's ideas in Germany in the years 1517-55? June 2010 → How accurate is it to say that corruption within the Catholic Church in Germany wass the main cause of the German Reformation? → To what extent were the weaknesses of its opponents responsible for the survival and spread of Lutheranism in the years 1517-1521? January 2010 → How far were prevailing social and economic conditions within Germany responsible for the spread of Lutheranism in the years to 1555? → To what extent did Luther's influence on the German Reformation decline after 1525? June 2009 → To what extent did Luther's challenge to the Catholic Church change in the years 1517-1521? → ow far was the political structure of the Holy Roman Empire responsible for Charles V's failure to suppress Lutheranism during his reign? January 2009 → How far was the German Reformation caused by hostility towards the Papacy within the German states? → How far was support from the Princes responsible for the spread of Lutheranism within Germany in the years 1517-1555? Sample → To what extent did the failure of Charles V to restore Catholic authority in Germany arise from circumstances beyond his control? → Why were the weaknesses of the early sixteenth century Church so deeply resented in Germany in 1517 → To what extent were the weaknesses of its opponents responsible for the survival and spread of Lutheranism in the years 1517-1521?
Old Specification → Why did Tetzel's mission to sell indulgences in Germany in 1517 provoke a public response from Luther? → Why did Luther's ideas appeal to so many different sections of German society in the years 1517-26? → Why had Luther gained so much support from the German princes by 1532? → Why did it prove impossible to heal the religious divisions in Germany in the years 1532-45? → Why was Charles V unable to establish Catholic control of Germany in the years 1547-55, after his victory at Muhlberg? → Why did Charles V fail to achieve either reconciliation with, or the suppression of, Lutherans in the years 1540-55? → Why did Luther's influence and importance in the expansion and progress of Lutheranism decline after 1525?
