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New) Dryland Farming and Water shed shed AGRO 102 ( Ne Management
Lecture N Lecture Notes
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Pr ef a ce This book is meant for undergraduate level students of agriculture of agriculture
management gement cour se dryland farming and watershed mana se. It will be useful for p
gr adua aduate studen de nts of agronomy and soil science. This book is also useful for offic
par tments, who deal with the implementation of agriculture an and horticulture de pa dryland and watershed technology at village level.
This book covers all the topics related to dryland farming a mana gement in a simple f or m. The topics were dealt along with t water shed shed mana f or mulae, figures and illustrations for easy understanding of the sub ject.
The suggestions from the readers are welcome to improve the text b text book ook .
Author s
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CONTENT To pic
S. N S. No.
Page
1.
Sylla bus bus
2.
Lecture outlines
3.
Dryland farming-introduction and definition and im por tance
4.
Dry climates and their classification- objectives and activities of CRIDA
5.
Problems of crop production in drylands
21
6.
Drought and drought management str ategies
2
7.
Tillage and seeding practices in drylands
34
8.
Soil erosion- types of soil erosion and factors affecting affe cting soil er osion
45
9.
Soil conservation measures – agronomic measures of s of soil conser vation
52
10.
Fertilizer use in dr ylands
5
11.
Choice of crops and varieties – cropping systems in drylands
63
12.
Contingent crop planning for aberrant for aberrant weather ondi nd ition onthis s title Sign upcto vote
13.
Evapotranspiration and measures to reduce evapotr anspi anspir ation
14
Watershed
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t objectives and approaches of
7
71
81
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Sylla bus
2(
Dr yland and Farming and Watershed Mana gem gement Theor y
Dryland farming – introduction and def inition. Management of land and wate
basic r es esour ces. Dry climates and their class ass if ication. Activities of research centres
dryland agr icultur e. Problems of crop production in dryland agr icultur e. Exis
patt erns in dry r egions. Drou patt patt ern of land use in in low rainfall ar eas eas.. Rainfall patt
occurr en ence, types and management strategies for d for dr ought. Soil erosion- ty pes, fac
affecting er osion, agronomic soil conser vation measur es es. Fertilizer use in dryl dry agr icultur e,
inor ganic,
organic
and
bi biof er tilizer s.
Eff icient
crops
var ieties, cropping systems, normal and contingency crop planning under abe weather condi nditions. Evapotranspiration – measures
to reduce evaporation
anspir ation. Watershed tr anspi
and appr oaches, steps teps
watershed planni anning. Land conservation
meas measur ures es
mana ana gement – objectives
use
capabili capability ty
and
ass if ication. class
Soil and
in watershed ar eas eas. Water harvesting and life sav
irr igation. Problems and p and pr ospects Pr acticals 1. Allotment of plots and preparation of seed bed seed bed 2. Fertilizer application and sowing 3. R ainf all analysis and interpretation of dr y farming im plements 4. Study of d
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Lectur e Outlines Lectur e No. 1
Dryland farming - introduction and definition - dimensions production from drylands in India and the problem -area and production Andhra Pr adesh adesh
Lectur e No. 2
Dry climates and their classifications - moisture index - sem arid and arid climates -objectives and activities of CRIDA - its main and coordinating center s.
Lectur e No. 3
Problems of crop production in drylands - climate - r ainf patt patt ern -distribution - variabilities in rainfall rainfall - short rain season - high intensity rainfall - soil characteristics - so fertility status - soil moisture storage and retention capacity heavy weed infestation and economic conditions of the farmer mana gement of land and water , the basic r es outlines of mana esour c
Lectur e No. 4
Existing pattern of land use in low rainfall areas - drought ana gemen definition definition - types and occurrence occurrence of drought - mana str ategies f or drought - mid season correction - soil mulch mulch population to limited moisture supply adjusting plant population increasing inter row distance - thinning plant p plant po pulation.
Lectur e No. 5
Tillage for dryland crops - deep ploughing - setline cultivation year round tillage - minimum tillage and zero tillage - seedin practices - soil crusts and their effect on crop and soils avoiding crust p crust pr o blems.
Lectur e No. 6
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Soil erosion - definition - losses Useful to erosion - types of s of s due to Not useful nat ure and extent of wind and water erosion - factors erosion – nat aff ecting erosion -universal soil loss equation
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Lectur e No. 11 .
Evapotranspiration - measures to reduce evapotranspiration – evapotranspiration – weeding - use of mulches - chemicals, windbr ea eak s, shelter bel
Lectur e No. 12 .
ana gement - definition of watershed - area of Watershed mana operation of watersheds in A.P. Objectives and approaches of water shed shed management
Lectur e No. 13 .
Components of watershed development programme – land use capability and class ass if ication.
Lectur e No. 14 .
Soil and water conservation measures in watershed areas Agronomic measures - bund former - bundi bunding, dead furrow ridge and furrow system -interplot water har vesting mechanical measures - gully contr ol, level bench terraces graded bunds unds contour terracing - graded b
Lectur e No. 15 .
Water harvesting structures - farm ponds, check dams percola percolatt ion tank - life saving irrigation - problems problems a prospe prospe cts cts under water sheds sheds.
Lectur e No. 16
Alternate land use systems - advantages - agr o-f or es est systems - alley cropping - silvi - pas - pasto to ral systems - agri - silvi pasto pastoral ral system - agri-horticultural system - silvi horticultura production system. purpose forest tree production system - multi purpose
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Dr yland farming-introduction and def inition im por tan ce
1.1 Intr odu ction Agriculture is the single largest livelihood sources in India with nearly thirds of people depend on it. Rainfed agriculture is as old as agriculture it Growing of cr o ps entirely under rainfed conditions is known as dryland agr icu Depending on the amount of rainfall r eceived ived, dryland agriculture can be gr o into three categor ies: es: 1.2 Def initions a) Dr y farming: is cultivation of crops in regions with annual rainfall less than mm . Crop failure is most common due to prolonged dry spells during the crop pe
These are ar id regions with a growing season (period of adequate soil moisture) than 75 day days. Moistur e conservation practices are necessary for crop p crop pr oduction.
and b) Dr ylan mo re d farming: is cultivation of crops in regions with annual rainfall more
r equent. 750 mm. In spite of prolonged dry spells crop failure is relatively less f r
are semi ar id tracts tracts with a growing growing period between 75 and 120 day days. Mois conservation practices
ar e necessary for crop pr oduction. However , adeq
drainage is required especially for vertisols or black s black soils.
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Useful Not useful production in regions C) Rainfed farming: with annual rainfall more farming: is crop production 1150 mm . Crops are not subjected to soil moisture stress during the crop p
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Dr ylan and d vs. r ainf ed f ar ming Constituen t
Dr yland f ar ming
Rainfed f ar mi
Rainfall (mm )
<800
>800
Moisture availability to the cr o p
Shor tage
Enough
Growing season (day days)
<200
>200
Growing r egions
Arid and semiarid as well as Humid and sub uplands of sub-humid sub-humid and humid humid r egions r egions
Cropping system
Single crop or in inter cr o ppi pping
Intercropping ppin double cr o ppi
Constr aints
Wind and water er osion
Water er osion
1.3 Importance of Dr y farming in Indian Agr icultur e 1.
population lives in dr y farm About 70% of rural population farmin ing g are areas as and and
ps livelihood depend on success or failure of the cr o ps 2. Dryland Agriculture plays a distinct role in Indian Agriculture occup
population and 60 % livestoc 60% of cultivated area and supports 40% of human population
po pulation.
up to vote on titleis about 42 3. The cont in this India contribution ribution (production) of rainfedSign agriculture
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cent of the total food gr ain, 75 per cent of oilseeds, 90 per cent of pulses and about per cent of cotton
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6. At p At pr esen esent, 3 ha of dryland crop produce p roduce cereal grain equivalent to
produced in one ha irrigated cr o p. With limited scope for increasing the area un
plough, only option left is to increase the productivity productivity with the modern technol and inpu inputs, since the per capita land availability which was 0.28 ha in 1990 expected to decline 0.19 ha in 2010. 7. The productivity productivity of grains already showed a plateau in irrigated agr icul
due to problems problems related to nutrient exhaustion, salinity build up and raising w
table. Ther ef or e, the challenges of the present millennium would be to produce m from drylands while ensur ing conservation of existing r es esour ces. Hence
strategies would have to be evolved which would make the fragile dryl
productive as well as sustaina ble. In order to achieve evergr ecosystems more productive
r evolution, we shall have to make grey areas (drylands) as green thr ough l technological inn innovations. 8. Drylands offer good scope for development of a of agr of or es estr y, social f or es es horti-sylvi-pasture and such other similar systems which will not only supply
fuel to the village people and fodder to the cattle but forms a suitable vegeta cover for e for ecological maintenance. 1.4 Dimensions of of the the pr o blem: Sign up to vote on this title
Majority of the districts in India are dry farming and covers 60 Useful districts Not useful cent of the total cultivated ar ea ea. Most of this area is covered by crops like m
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ea c) About 84 districts in India fall in the category of low rainfall ar ea d) Providing irrigation to all the drylands is expensive and takes long tim e) Even after providing all the irrigation potential in India 55 per cent remains as r ainf ed ed 1.5 Ar ea ea unde underr dry land s Globally the area under drylands is about 6150 m.ha. In India out of the cultivated area of 143 m.ha the area under drylands is about 85 m.ha, which comes
60% . It is estimated that even after creating entire irrigation potential potential for irriga about 55% of total cultivated area remain as r ainf ed ed. Except in the states of P Haryana and Pondichery the percen he percentage tage of area under drylands is high in all o states. In Andhra Pradesh the area under drylands is about 6.576 m.ha (60 %).
Dr y land area in diff er en reg ions of India ent reg
R egion
States
Per cent r ainf ed ar
Cold and northern r egion
ash mir ,Uttar an anchal Jamm u and K ash and Himachal Pr adesh adesh ,
60 to 81
Arid western R egion
Rajasthan and Gu jar at
66 to 88
Semi arid to arid central and southern r egion
Madhya Pr adesh adesh , Maha ahSign a r as asup a, vote on this title 76 to 82 tr to Andhr a Pr adesh adesh , Andhra adesh Pr adesh Useful , Not useful natak a ,Tamilnadu K ar na
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Dr y cli lim m ates and the their ir classification- obj obj ec tiv tive es activii tie activ tiess of CRIDA
2.1 Indices of Ar idity Aridity refers to a condition of deficiency of water due to either insuff i
precipi precipi tation or excess water loss over su pply. The term “arid” is derived from Latin wor d, “arere” which means dr y . ‘
’
Assessment of the degree of aridity of a place is necessary to serve as a ba a ba
interpretat ion of resource assessment for the application of technology, for the interpretat
for tr ans ansf er of technology. It also useful to analyse the climatic resources and identify specific climatic cons constt raints for planning agricultural dev develo pment. The degree of aridity can be assessed from climatic parameters and p
cr iter ia. More than 50 classifications of agro-climate was made by many scien Some of the important classifications are discussed be discussed below. 2.2 Class if ication of dr dry y climates 2.2.1 Thornthwaite and Mather (1955 ) They have taken the Moisture Index (Im) as the criteria for classification of
climates Sign up to vote on this title
Im = [(P-PE)/ PE] 100 Useful wher e, P = Pr eci pi pitation,
Not useful
PE = Potential Evapo-tr anspi anspir ation
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2.2.2 Troll (1965 ) Based on thermal and hygric variables and number of number of humid months, cli
is classified and said to be of agricultural use. Humid month is one having m pir ation.ICR ISAT classified r ainf all exceedi eeding the mean potential potential eva potr ans pi
Semi-arid tropics (SAT areas) in India by adopting this class ass if ication. According this class ass if ication, a climate which has 5 to 10 arid months(a
month
w
precipi precipi tation is less than than PET) or 2 to 7 humid months is called semi arid tract (SA where as humid climate c limate will have 7 to 12 humid months and ar id climate has than 2 humid months.
Humid months
Climate class if ication
12.0 to 9.5
Tropical r ainf or es est
9.5 to 7.0
Humid Savannah
7.0 to 4.5
Dry Savannah (Wet – dry SAT)
4.5 to 2.0
Thorn Savannah (Dry SAT)
2.0 to 1.0
Semi desert (Ar id)
1.0 to 0.0
Desert (Ar id)
Pap pada kis (1961 ) 2.2.3. Pa Moisture Index (H) based on p on pr eci pi pitation, soil moisture storage and PET Sign up to vote on this title
dev develo ped.
H = [P + W] /
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2.2.4 Harg Hargre re ave avess (1971) Moisture Availability Index (MAI) is used for the class ass if ication. It is the ratio
depe depe ndable precipitation to potentia to potentiall ev evapotr anspi anspir ation. It is a measure of adequa
of precipi precipi tation tation in in supplying crop water demand. MAI =
ion (75% pr Depandable pr Depandable prec ecip ipit ita a tion (75% prob obab able le rainfall) ion Potential evapo tra transpir spira a tion
MA I
Climate class if ication
0.0 to 0.33 during all months
Ver y ar id
More than 0.34 for 1-2 months
Ar id
More than 0.34 for 3-4 consecutive months
Semi ar id
2.2.5 Steiner et al., (1988 ) considerati ideration on of sev After careful cons sever al def initions, Steiner et al. (
consider aridity index concept of the United Nations Conference on Deser tif ic
based on the balance between precipitation precipitation (P) and evapotranspiration (ETP) to
appropriate f or wide scale ado ption. According to this definition the areas w P/ ETP ratio between 0.03 and 0.20 are arid and areas with the ratio between 0.2
0.5 are semi-ar id.
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ssiif ication 2.2.6 FAO class
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Moisture Index = 100 [(P-PE)/ PE]
Thornthwaite and Mather (1955) gave only six classifications while the IC
(Krishnan and Mukhtar Singh (1968) had eight moisture indices with eight moist
belts indicating eight zones in India. The scale adopted in defining climatic zone terms of moisture of moisture indices ar e Zone
Moisture Inde x
Moisture be belt
1
< -80
Extremely dr y
2
-60 to - 80
Semi dr y
3
-40 to - 60
Dr y
4
-20 to - 40
Slightly dr y
5
0 to -20
Slightly moist
6
0 to +50
Moist
7
+50 to +100
Wet
8
> +100
Extremely wet Sign up to vote on this title
All India coordinated R esea esear ch Project on dryland Agriculture of ICAR
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divided climate into three types based on moisture deficit index (MDI)
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2.3Ar id and semi arid zones
a) Ar id regions regions:: The arid zones will have moisture index between –66.7 to –1
Precipitation is less than potential potential evaporation evaporation for the grater part of the yea year . Ar
crop pr oduction is not possible witho witho ut i rr igation. Growing period is between 1 days days. b) Semi arid zones: They have moisture index values between –33.3 to –66.7.
production production is possibly by adopting moisture conservation pr actices. Growing peri
is between 75 to 119 day days.
A semi arid climate is essentially a mixed climate in which a fairly moist
rainy season alternates with a completely dry seas on. Hence, the climate is descri
as alter na nating wet and dry climate. Rainfall occurs during 2 to 7 months of the y
When number of number of wet months is 2.0 to 4.5, it is described as dry SAT and when r months ranges from 4.5 to 7.0 it is called as wet SAT. Rainfall quantity ranges 400 to 750 mm per yea year , with a variability of 20 to to 30%. But, the onset, closure
duration of r ainy season exhibits exhibits wide variabilit variability y between year s. Distribution rainfall within the season also exhibits wide fluctuations between year s. Mean ann
temperature is more than 18 °C. Ar id and Semi arid regions of India
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Not useful Total area under arid and semiarid regions in Useful India extends over 135 over 13 5 .8 mi hectar es es
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Temperature in arid and semiarid temperate region is maximum at 32°C
uar y. Temperature in arid and semi July and minimum at -14°C in Januar y – Fe br ua tropics is is maximum at 40-42°C in May and minimum varies from 3-5°C in Punjab Haryana and 18-24°C in in Tamilnadu . Distribution of arid and Semi arid regions of India Semiar id
Ar id
State
Ar ea (Sq k m)
Per cent to total area in India
Ar ea (Sq k m)
Per cent total area Indi
A. Tr o pics
R a jastha n
19 615 0
61
12 102 0
Gu jar at
62 180
20
90 520
Pun jab
14 510
5
31 770
Har yana
12 840
4
26 880
Uttar Pr adesh adesh
-
-
64 230
Madhya Pr adesh adesh
-
-
59 470
Maha aha r as astr a
12 90
0.4
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Bombay province by V.A. Tamhane. Later Imperial Council of Agricultural R esea esea (presently Indian
Council Agricultural
Research) started research
schemes
Bom ba as, Hyderabad and Punjab pr ovin vinces. Around 1933 , systematic bay, Madr as production under rainfed condi was started on different aspects of crop production nditions
findings of the period were related to r ainf all analysis. It was found that rainfall
not only scarce but also err atic. The dry spells during the cr o p period ranged from
to 55 day days. Ther ef or e, the emphasis on research was given to conserve soil moist and to reduce eva por ation. Based on the studies conducted between 1933 and production under rainfed condi pack age was developed for b for be e tter crop production nditions.
important practices ar e: 1. Formation of co of cont nto o ur bunds. 2. Repeated harrowing in black soils to conserve moistur e. 3. Addition of farm yard manure an ure to maintain the soil f er tility. 4. Wider spacing for crops grown on residual moistur e. The package of practices were named after the province from which were developed as Bombay dry farming pr actices, Madras dry farming pr a
Hyderabad dr y farming practices and Punjab dry farming pr actices. The adoption
r nm . Goon these practices was low due to marginal increase Sign in up yietoldvote yie vethis ent program title useful Useful Not employment mainly conc concentra entrated ted on cont conto o ur bundi bund ing which provided
per iods. During 1954 , the soil conservation tr aining and demons drought pe demonstt
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practices with improved dryland pr actices, alternate crops and other anc
enter pr ises. In 1983 , 47 model watersheds were dev develo ped. Based on the succes
this approach in in increasing the productivity productivity of dr ylands, the national waters development programme f or dryland agriculture was started through out
countr y. The chronology of events in dryland agricultural research in India is f ollows.
1920
Scarcity tract development given importance by the Royal Commission Agr icultur e
1923
Establishing Dryland Research Station at Manjri (Pune) by Tamhane
1933
Research Stations established at Bijapur and Solapur
1934
Research Stations established at Hagari and R aichur
1935
Research Station established at Rohtak Rohtak ((Pun ja b) b)
1942
Bombay Land Development act pas act passs ed
1944
Monograph on dry farming in India by N.V. Kanitkar (Bom ba bay, Hyder Madras Dry Farming Pr actices) es)
1953
Establishing Central Soil Conservation Boar d Sign up to vote on this title
1954
r es Establishing Central Soil Conservation C entUseful es
1970
Research Centres established under AICRPDA in 23 locations
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spread across the countr y. Pooling of expertise and leveraging the strengths
AICRPDA net work eventually resulted in the establishment of Central Resea
Institute f or Dryland Agriculture (CRIDA) at Hyder a bad bad, on April 12 , 1985 to prov leadership resear research ch
in basic str ategic research in dryland on locati location on
specifi specificc OR P s ‘
agriculture while continu
at AICRPDA centr es es. At present present
AICRPDA
and Man date/ o b jectives of CRIDA a) To conduct basic and applied researches that will cont contribute ribute to development strategies for sustainable faming systems in the rainfed ar eas eas
contribute ribute to b) b) To conduct basic and applied researches that will cont development strategies for sustainable faming systems in the rainfed ar eas eas
c) To act as a repository of information on rainfed agriculture in the countr d) To provide leadership and co ordinate network with state agr icu universities for generating location specific technologies for rainfed ar eas eas
e) To act as a centre for training in research methodologies in the fields basic mana mana gement of rainfed farming systems colla borate with relevant national and international agencies inachi f ) To colla Sign up to vote on this title
the above objectives , and
g) To provide consultancy
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Problems of crop production in dr yland s
3.1 Pro Prob ble lem ms or co nstraints fo forr cro rop p produ produc c tio tion n in dry farming r egions
Most of the cropping in the arid and semi arid regions continues to be und
rainfed condi nditions. A majority of the f ar mer s are small f ar mer s with mea
r es esour ces. The poor resource base permits only low input subsistence farming w
low and unsta unsta ble crop yie yields. The low productivity productivity of agriculture in dry farm regions is due to the the cumulative effect of many cons constt raints for crop pr odu ctio cons constt raints can be broadly grouped in to a) Climatic constr aints, b) b) Soil related constr aints,
c) Traditional cultivation pr actices d) Heavy weed p weed pr o blem e) Lack of suitable varieties and f ) Socio economic constr aints.
3.1.1 Climatic constr aints
Sign up to vote on this title rainfall is parameters A) Rainfall characteristics: Among the different climatic
ns production important factor influencing the crop production in dry r egio Useful
(i) V
i bl
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rainfall: Rain fall varies both in time and space di
i
A
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Table 3.1 Class if ication of India into diff er ent zones based on r ainf all
Zone
Zone I (very low rainfall ar ea) ea) Zone II (low rainfall ar ea) ea) Zone III (Medium rainfall ar ea) ea) Zone IV (High rainfall ar ea) ea)
Aver age annual r ainf all (mm )
aph of geogr aph Per cent of ge ar ea ea
< 350
13
350 to 750
22
750 to 1125
36
> 1125
29
bution: In gener al, more than 50 per cent of total rainfall (ii) Intensity and distr i bu substant ial usually received in 3 to 5 rainy day days. Such intensive rainfall results in substant
of water due to surface r unoff . This process also accelerates soil er osion. Distribu
of rainfall during the cr o p growing season is more important than total rainfal dryland agr icultur e.
aviour iii) A berr ations or variations in mo nsoo nsoon n beh beha Sign up to vote on this title (a) Late onset of monsoon: If the onset of monsoon is delayed, cr o ps/ var i Useful Not useful recommended to the region cannot be sown in time. Delayed sowing lead
i
l crop yi lds
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B) High atm atmos pheric temperature atmo os ph er ic temperature temper ature:: Because of high atm
atm atmos pheric demand for moisture increases causing high evapotranspiration loss
resulting in in moisture str ess ess. C) Low relative humidity: Low relative humidity results in high ET losses caus moisture stress whenever moisture is limiting.
wind s: Hot dry winds causes decicassion of leaves resulting in mois D) Hot dry winds:
str ess ess. High turbulent winds especially during summer months cause soil erosio resulting in dust storms and loss of fertile soil. atmos pheric water demand E) High atm atmo o sp sph h er ic water demand: de mand: Due to high atm
potential potential evapotra e vapotranspiration nspiration (PET) exceed the precipi precipi tati tation on during most part of t year . 3.1.2 Soil Constr aints The different soil groups encountered in dryland areas are black soils,
production are different in differ soils and alluvial soils. The cons constt raints for crop production
soil gr oups. The predomina predominant nt soil group is alluvial where the problems problems for c
constt raints production production are not so acute as in red and black soils .The different soil cons production ar e crop production Sign up to vote on this title
a) Inadequate soil moisture availability: The moisture holding capacity of soils
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dry regions is low due to shallow depth dep th especially in alfisols (red (red soils), low rainf and low
i
att att
t
t
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pr ed edominant. The erosion causes loss loss of top fertile soil leaving poor sub soil for ivation. cultiva e) Soil crust p r o blem: In case of red soils, the formation of hard surface soil la pu hinders the emergence of seedlings which ultimately affect the plant po pu Crusting of s of soil surface after rainfall reduces infiltration and storage of r ainf all, high run off . f) Pre Presse nc nce e of ha hard rd laye l ayers rs and deep cracks: Presence of hard layers (pans) in production especially in case of black s and deep cracks affect the crop production black soils.
3.1.3 Cultivation pr actices ana gement practices adopted by the f ar mer s are evolved b The existing mana evolved b
on long term experience by the f ar mer s. mana a gement practices ar e The traditional man
Ploughing along the slo pe
Broadcasting seeds/ sowing behind the country plough leading to poor well as uneven plant stand Monsoon sowing Choice of crops based on r ainf all Application FYM in limited quantity
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acute shortage of la bour . The weed suppression in the early stage of crop growth required to reduce the decrease in crop yie yields. 3.1.5 Lack of suitabl suitable e varieties varieties:: Most of the crop varieties available for cultiv
in dry lands are meant for irrigated agr icultur e. There are no any special varie
exclusiv usive ely meant for dryland ar eas eas. Hence still more efforts are required to deve ps exclusively meant for dryland agr icultur e. varieties in different cr o ps 3.1.6 Socio-economic constraints: The economic condition of the dryland f ar m is very poor be poor because a) Less access to inpu inputs b) Non availability of credit in time c) The risk bearing capacity of dryland farmer is very low Hence the dryland f ar mer s resort to low low input agriculture which results in in poor yie yields. 3.2 Ma nage nagem me nt of N Natur al R esour ces The national resources that are to be managed on susta susta inable basis are water , vegetation and climate .Indi ndia is blessed with vast natural resources of
Sign to vote on can this title life. water , vegetation and climate but with poor quality of up They be managed
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a) Char acter ization and development of sustainable land use plans for
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Drought and drought management str ategies
4.1 Intr odu ction Low rainfall or failure of monsoon rain is a recurring feature in Indi ndia. This
been responsible for droughts and f amines. The word drought generally den
scarcity of water in a r egion. Though, aridity and drought are due to insuffic
water , aridity is a per manent climatic feature and is the culmination of a numbe
long term pr ocesses. However , drought is a temporary condition that occurs fo short period due to deficient precipitat precipitat ion for ve vegetation, river f low, water su atmos pheric cir culation. and human consum ption. Drought is due to anomaly in atm Ar idity Vs. Dr ought
Par ticular s
Ar idity
Dr ought
Dur ation
Perman Permanent ent f ea eatur e
Temporary condition of scar city of varying dur
Factor s
Culmination of many long ter m processes , considers all climatic f ea eatur es es
Caused by deficient r ain
Aspect descr i bed bed
Description of Climate
Description of Water
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4.2 Definition of dr ought
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moisture and evapo-transpiration needs of an area over a fairly long period to cause damage to standing crops and to reduce the yie yields. e) The irrigation commission of India defines drought as a situation occurring in area where the annual rainfall is less than 75% of normal r ainf all. 4.3 Class if ication of dr ought Drought can be classified based on du r ation, nat ure of user s, time occurrence and using some specific ter ms. 4.3.1 Based on du r ation
Perm rmanent anent drough d roughtt : This is characteristic of the desert climate where spa a. Pe vegetation growing is adapted to drought and agriculture is possible only
irrigation dur ing entire crop seas on. b. Seasonal drought drought:: This is found in climates with well defined rainy and
seas ons. Most of the the arid and semiarid zones fall in this categor y. Duration of the c varieties and planting dates should be such that the growing season should within rainy season. c. Contingent drought: This involves an abnormal failure of r ainf all. It may almost anywhere especially in most parts of humid or sub humid clim ates. Sign up to vote on this title
. Not useful usually b usually br ief , irregular and generally affects only asmall ar ea ea Useful
d. Invisible drought: This can occur even when there is f r r equent rain in an
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moistur e. It refers to a condition when plants show wilting symptoms during the
part of the day when transpiration exceeds absorption temporarily for a short pe When a bs ption keeps pace with trans vive. (Mid day wilt) trans piration the plants r evive bsor
drolo log g ical drought: Meteorological dr ought, when prolonged results c) Hy dro
hydrological drought with depletion of surface water and consequent drying
r ese eser voir s, tank s etc. It results in deficiency of water for all sectors using water
is based on water balance and how it affects irrigation as a whole for bringing cr to matur ity. d) Agr icultur al drought (soil drought): It is the result of soil moisture stress due imbalance between available soil moisture and evapotranspiration of a cr o p par tly, usually gr adua adual and pr ogr essiv essive e. Plants can ther ef or e, adjust at least pa
increased soil moisture str ess ess. This situation situation arises as a consequence of sca precipi precipi tation or its uneven distribution both distribution both in space and time. Relevant definition of agricultural of agricultural drought appears to be a period of d of dr y during the crop season, sufficiently prolonged to adversely affect the yie yield
extent of yie yield loss depends on the crop growth stage and the degree of s of str ess ess. It d
not begin when the rain ceases, but actually commences only when the plant r are not able to obtain the soil moistur e rapidly enough to replace ev
transpiration losses. 4.3.3 Based on time of occurr ence
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selection. For Eg. A condition may be a drought situation for growing r ice, but same situation may not be a drought for growing gr oundnut. b) Physiol Physiolog og ical drought drought:: Refers to a condition where crops are unable to a b water from soil even when water is available, due to the high osmotic pressure pressure
solution due to increased soil concentr ation, as in saline and alkaline soils. It is due to deficit of water su pply. 4.4 Impo Imporr tant causes causes for agricultural agricultur al drought ar e •
Inadequate pr eci pi pitation
•
Erratic distr i bu bution
•
Long dry spells in the monsoon
•
Late onset of monsoon
•
Early withdrawal of monsoon
•
proper soil and crop management Lack of proper
4.5 Periodicity of dr ought
The Indian Meteorological Department examined the incidence of drought of drought
r om 1871 to 1967 , utilizing the monthly rainfall of 306 stat the per iod f r stat ions ions
countr y. It was seen that during 1877, 1899, 1918 and 1972 more than 40 per cen
periodicityof drou the total area experienced dr ought. Gener al observation on the periodicity of drou Sign up to vote on this title
in respect of different meteorological sub divisions India iis s given be given below. Not useful ofUseful Meteo lo ical sub di i io
Period of
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4.6 Effect of drought on crop pr odu ction p rell ation ations: s: Alters the water status by its influence on absor a) Water re
translo transloca catt ion and tr anspi anspir ation. The lag in absorption behind transpiration results loss of turgor as a result of increase in the atmospheric dr yness. b) Photosy Photosynthesis: nthesis: Photosynthesis is reduced by moisture stress due to reduction
Photos Photosynthetic ynthetic r ate, chlorophyll content, leaf area and increase in assimila saturation saturation in leaves (due to lack of tr ans anslocation).
c) Res pira piratt ion: Increase with mild drought but more serve drought lowers w pir ation. cont content ent and r es es pi d) Ana tomical changes changes:: Decrease in size of the cells ce lls and inter cellular spa
thicker cell wall , greater development of mechanical tissue. Stomata per unit le tend to in incr ease ease.
Metaboll ic reaction: reaction: All most all metabolic reactions are affected by water de e) Metabo promot ing hormon hormon es f) Hor orm mo nal Rel Rel ationships: The activity of growth promot
cytok inin, gibberlic acid and indole acetic acid decreases and growth regulatin hormone lik e abscisic acid, ethylene, etc., incr eases eases. . Since g) N g) Nutr ition: The f ixation, uptake and assimilation of nitrogen of nitrogen is aff ected Sign up to vote on this title
r edu ced. matter att er production is considerably reduced the uptake of NPK is NPK edu useful Useful isNot h) Gr owth and De eaves stems and f r Dev velo pm pme e nt: Decrease in growth of leav r
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consists of seeds as in cer ea eals, moisture stress at flowering is detr imental. When yield is fibre or chemicals where economic product is a small fraction of total matter moder ate stress on growth does not have adverse effect on yi yie elds.
4.7 Cr o p Adap tations The ability of crop to grow satisfactorily under water stress is called dr o
adaptation. Adaptation is structural or functional modification in plants to survi and reproduce in a particular particular envi envir onment. Crops survive and grow under moisture stress conditions mainly by ways: (i) escaping drought and (ii) drought resistance (Fig. 4.1) Ada ptations to mo moi sture str ess
Drought R esi esistance
Escaping drought
ance Dr ought toler an
Drought avoidance
Conserving water (Water savers)
Improving water uptake (Water S pender s)
Mitigating Stress
High toler an anc
ent mec Fig. 4.1 Flow chart showing diff er en mec hani hani sms for overcoming mo mo isutre Sign up to vote on this title stess
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Evading the period of drought of drought is the simplest means of adaptation of plants
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day days. The disadvantage about breeding early varieties is that yield is reduced reduction in dur ation. 4.7.2 Drought R esistan ce Plants can adopt to drought either by avoiding stress or by tolerating s due to different mechani hanisms. These mechanisms provide drought r esi esistance. 4.7.3 Avoiding Str ess Stress avoidance is the ability to maintain a favourable water ba water balance,
turgidity even when exposed to drought condi nditions, thereby avoiding stress and
consequences. A favourable water balance under drought conditions can be achie either by: (i) conserving water by by restricting transpiration before or as soon as is experienced; or (ii) accelerating water u ptak e sufficiently so as to replenish lost water . gem 4.8 Str ategies for drought mana ge ment The different strategies for drought man mana a gement are discussed under following heads.
population: The plant population population should be lesser i 4.8.1 Ad justing the plant population:
dryland conditions than under irrigated condi nditions. The rectangular typeof plan Sign up to vote on this title
patt patt ern should always be followed under dryland ndi ndNot itiouseful ns. Under dryl Useful co conditions whenever m oistur e stress stress occurs due to prolonged prolonged dry spells,
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contingent ingent mana management gement practices done in 4.8.2 Mid seaso season n cor cor rectio rections: ns: The cont standing crop to overcome the unfavourable soil moisture conditions due
prolonged dr y spells are known as mid season condi nditions. a) Thin Thinni nin n g: This ca be done by removing every alternate row or every third which will save the crop from failure by reducing the com petition b) S pr aying: In crops like gr oundnut, castor , r ed edgr am, etc., during prolonged spells the crop can saved by spraying water at weekly intervals or 2 per cent urea week to 10 day days inter val. c) Ratooning: In crops like sorghum and ba jr a, ratoon ratoon ing can practiced as season correction measure after break of dry spell. 4.8.3 Mulching: It is a practice of spreading any covering material on soil surface
reduce evaporation losses. The mulches will prolong the moisture availability in t soil and save the crop during drought condi nditions. 4.8.4 Weed contr ol: Weeds compete with crop for different growth resources
seriously under dryland conditions. The water requirement of most of the weed more than the crop plants. Hence they compete more for soil moistur e. Therefore weed control especially dur ing early stages of crop growth reduce the impact spell by soil moisture conser vation.
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ha rves ting and life saving irrigation: The collection of run off w 4.8.5 Water ha during peak periods of rainfall and storing in different structures is known
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Lectur e No. 5 Tillage and seeding practices in dr ylan ds 5.1 Tillage The mechanical manipulation of soil with tools and implements for o bta
conditions ideal for seed ger mination, seedling establishment and growth of crop
known as tillage. Tillage may be described as the practice p ractice of modifying the state the soil in order to provide conditions favourable to crop gr owth, (Cuplin, 1986 objectives of tillage in drylands ar e ( 1)
Develop desired soil structure for a seed bed which allows r infiltration and good retention of r ainf all.
( 2)
Minimize soil erosion by following practices such as cont conto o ur ti tillage across the slope etc.
( 3)
Control weeds and remove unwanted crop p crop plants.
( 4)
Manage crop r esi esidues
( 5)
Obtain specific land configurations for in- situ moisture conser va dr ainage, planting etc.
( 6)
Incorporate and mix manur es es, f er tilizer s, pesticides or soil amendm into the soil.
( 7)
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Accomplish segregation by moving soil from one layer to ano
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tillage:: of 15-20 cm depth is generally sufficient for most soils b) Medium deep tillage
cr o ps. It is recommended for medium deep soils, shallow rooted cr o ps, soils wi pan free hor izon and for stubble in incor por ation. c) Shallo Shallow w tillage tillage:: up to 10 cm is followed in light textured soils, and shallow
and in soils soils highly susceptible to er osion. In soils soils prone for surface surface cr us usting, shallo surface stirr ing or shallow harrowing is usef ul. As depth of tillage in incr eases eases, soil moisture storage from rainfall rainfall also in incr from about 7-8 % with shallow tillage to 9-10% with medium deep tillage and 12% with deep tillage. 5.1.2 Time of tillage Early completion of tillage is often helpful to enable sowing immediately
rainfall and before the soil dries up. Summer tillage or off-season tillage done w pre seas on rainfall causes more conservation of m of moist oist ure and also enables early pre-monso soon on sowing. timely sowing. It is is particularly useful for pre-mon
a) Year round tillage: Here the tillage operations are carried out throughout year in dry farming ar eas eas. The tillage operations are started immediately after
receipt of summer showers and continued till sowing of the cr o ps. After harves
the cr o p, by taking the advantage of the residualSign soil thetitle soil is ploug up moisture to vote on this Useful r s. Not once or twice to retain the soil moistur e in the lower Theuseful advantages advantages of laye
round tillage are reduced weed gr owth, better tilth, adequate soil moistur e,
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susceptibility to er osion. In heavy soils, leaving the land in a rough and cloddy s
prior to sowing is useful for more depression stor age.
The concept of minimal tillage is also practiced in dry lands. Here tillage confined to seeding zone only and the inter-space is not tilled. It not only saves energy and cost but also helps in moisture conser vation. The practice of "set
cultivation" adopted in some dr y regions is an example of minimum tillage. Here
seed row space is fixed and season after season, tillage is done only in this seed p. The intervening strip is not tilled. str i p 5.2 Mode r n concepts of Tillage
In dry lands, rainfall is received simultaneously over a large ar ea ea. In order
ensure timely sowing before soil dries u p, the interval between land preparation and sowing must be narrowed down. This calls for completion of tillage over a area in quick time. Dependence on bullock power and traditional wooden p may not help in this r egar d.
Use of more efficient tillage implements
mechanization of tillage operations are warr an anted.
Tillage in drylands also encompasses land shaping for in situ soil mois
conser vation. Implements that can carryout tillage and land shaping in one si operation will help in saving time and cost. If land pr epa epar ation, land shaping Sign up to vote on this title
sowing can be done in one single operation it canUseful save considerable Not useful time. Thi
termed as once over tillage, plough planting or conservation tillage. Suitable trac
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i) Reduction of soil com paction ii) Reduction of soil er osion iii) Increases infiltration of water iv) Increased soil fertility due to decomposition of crop r esi esidues production because less number of v) Less cost of production number of tillage o per ations
Disadvantages ar e i) Reduced seed ger mination ii) Root nodulation is affected in certain cr o ps iii) More nitrogen is required to enhance mineralization pr ocess iv) Require specially designed equi p pment minimum tillage Forms of of minimum i) Row zone tillage: After the prima prima ry tillage with plough, the harrowing is only in crop row zone
Plough h plant tillage tillage:: After primary ii) Ploug primary tillage special planter is used for pu pulver the soil, sowing the seed and covering the seed
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the tracto trac to rs are used by t iii) Wheel track planting: After primary After primary tillage Useful
wheels, for pu pulver isation, sowing and covering of seed of seed.
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c) Zer o tillage or or no-till sys sys tem It is an extreme form of minimum tillage w
prima prima ry tillage is completely avoided and secondary tillage is is resricted to c zone.In this method use of mechinery and hebicides with relatively low
residual effect on the crop to be established will play a major r ole.The mechin should have attach attachm m ents for four o per ations namely, cleaning the narrow strip crop r ow,o pen the soil for seed inse inser tion p ,placing the seed and covering the seed. Advantages ar e
i) Increases the biological activity in the soil ii) Organic matt att er cont cont ent of the soil is increase due to decomposition of
r esi esidues iii) reduction of suface r un unoff
Di ada ada vantage vanta gess ar e i) poor seed ger mination ii) High dose of N required for miner alisation iii) Some peren Some perennial nial weeds and voluntary plants pr ed edominate iv) More disease and pest in incidence 5.3 Seeding pr actices 5.3.1 Esta blishment of optimum po pulation
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a) Seed tr eatment Seed treatment is done for many purposes such as protect protection ion against p bio-fertilizers and inducing drought toler an and diseases, inoculation of bio-fertilizers ance.
den ing i) Seed ha r den It is done to induce drought tolerance tolerance in emerging seedlings. It is the pr of soaking seeds in chemical solution and drying to induce tolerance to dr ough moisture str ess ess immediately after sowing affects germination and establish Seed hardening enables seedlings to survive this early mo isture str ess ess. During seed har den dening, seeds are subjected to partial hydration followed
dehydration before sowing. Seeds are soaked for specified time in chemical solut
of p pr es escr i bed bed concentr ation. Soaked seeds are then dried in shade back to orig
moisture content. Dur ing soak ing, seeds imbibe water and germination proces started but not com pleted. The har dened dened seeds are thus in a ready state state
ediately. Such e ger mination. When sown in moist soils, seeds ger minate imm edi germination helps in seedling emergence before surface soil dries up.
oisstur e b) Sowing at opt opt imum soil moi
An effective rainfall of 20-25 mm which can wet a depth of 10-15 cm is need for sowing.
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Moisture stress at or immediately after sowing adversely aff
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germination and establishment of seed of seedlings. To ensure adequate soil moisture
i
sowing has to be done as early as possible after soaking rainfall is
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Pre-mo Pre-m o nso nsoo on dry seed ing In some r egions, where heavy clay soils dominate, sowing after rains
impossible due to high stickiness of s of soil. Here sowing is done in dry soil, 2-3 we
before the onset of monsoon ( pr e-monsoon). Seeds will will remain remain in soil and germin only on receipt of o ptimum r ainf all. pre-monso soon on dry seeding ar e The advantages of pre-mon
i) Early sowing ii) Uniform germination and good esta blishment iii) Utilization of first first rainfall itself for germination instead of for
preparation in post monsoon sowing iv) Early mat urity before urity before closure of monsoon and avoidance of stress at matur ity. pre-mo nsoon nsoon dry seeding depends on the f ollowing The success of pre-mo
i) It is recommended for bold seeds like cotton and sorghum only and not all cr o ps. ii) Time of advance sowing must be fixed based on rainfall analysis for date Sign up to vote on this title
continuity inuity of rainfall . onset of monsoon and cont after sowNot inguseful Useful
iii) Seeds must be hardened to ensure quick germination and dr ought
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pre-monso soon on sowing Examples of pre-mon pre-monso soon on dry seeding is recommended 1. For sorghum in black soils, pre-mon
weeks before be fore onset of monsoon with depth of sowing at 5 cm and seed hardeni potasss ium di-hydr di-hydr ogen phos phos phate phate or pota with 2 per cent potas potass ssium ium chlor ide. pre-monso soon on dry seeding is recommended at 2. For cotton in black soils, pre-mon
comm encement of monsoon, with a sowing depth of 5 cm and se weeks before comm
hardening with CCC (500 ppm) or pota potass ss ium chloride or DAP at 2% level. d) Optimum depth of sowing When seeds are sown on surface or at very shallow de pth, germination
seedling growth are affected when surface soil moisture dries up. Sowing at a de
where soil moisture availability is adequate, ensure early and uniform germinat
and seedling esta blishment. Optimum depth of' sowing varies with cr o p, especi seed size and penetration and penetration power power of p plumule. Sesamum
1-2 cm
Pearl millet and minor millets
2-3 cm
Pulses, sor ghum, sunf lower
3-5 cm
Cotton, maize
5 cm
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Cor iander
7 cm
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size, soil condi ndition, time availa ble, cropping system, crop geometr y, sowing depth,
Merits and limitations of sowing methods Sowing method
Mer its
Limitations
Br oadcasting
Quick coverage for small seeds like - r agi, sesa mum, minor millets, medi edium sized seed like sor ghum, pulses can also be br oadcasted
Spacing and depth not ensur High seed r ate, intercrop separ ately
Sowing beh Sowing behiind plough
For medium and bold seeds lik e cotton, sor ghum, maize, pulses, castor , gr oundnut, pu sunflower etc., Seedi eeding requires wooden plough only. Easy asy o per ation, row spacing can be ensur ed ed
Low coverage-spacing betwee plants and depth of sowing no ensur ed ed. Intercrop has to be sown separ ately. Only monso sowing is p is possi ssi b ble
Local seed dr ill (gorr u)
For medium and bold seeds Spacing between plants is n wooden im plement, easy uniform and depends on maintenance, less cost, row ex per ience of seed dr o pper spacing is ensur ed ed, mor e Intercrop has to be to be sown coverage than broadcasting broadcasting and separ ately. Cannot beused Sign up to vote onon thisstitle pre-mon pre-m onso soon sowing behind plough. Sowing owing. Useful Not useful depth and row spacing is unif or m
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Cr o p geom eome try (cm)
Cr o p
Sole crop in solid r ow Sor ghum
45 x 15
Pearl millet
30 x 15
Ragi
30 x 10
Small millets
30 x 10
Black gr am, green gr am, segr am Soy bean bean, hor se
30 x 10
R ed edgr am
60 x 30
Cow pea
30 x 15
Cotton
45 x 30
Cotton (Ar bor eum)
45 x 15
Gr oundnut
30 x 10
Sesamum
30 x 30
Sunf lower
45 x 15
Sunflower hy br ids
45 x 20
Sunflower va var ieties
30 x 15
Cor iander
30 x 15
pp ing Inter cr o pp (60+30) x 15 paired r
(60+30) x 15 in paired
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i) Reduced cost of cultiva ivation ii) As the crops are raised in the same same r ow, the rhizosphere is loose with
permeability without without development development of hard pans in the s aeration and permeability
soil 5.5 Soil crusts: Soil crusts are hard layers that develop at a t the soil surface due
action of rain drop or irrigation water and subsequent dr yin ying. Soil crusts ofte establishm ent of crop stand. hinder the emergence of seedlings and hence establishm Cr ust formation: The impact of rain and or irrigation disrupts the soil aggr eg
reduces the mean size of the structural units and causes resorting and repacking
water movement in splash splash flow and sedimentation pr ocess. On subsequent dryin results in the development of continuous layer of closely packed soil par ticles crust has high bulk den density, lower macr o porosity and higher mechanical str e than be below. Effects of crust on soil and cr o p
i) Reduce infiltration r ate ii) Increase runoff runoff and er osion iii) Impede emerging seedling
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iv) Injure the young seedling by movement of large blocks of crusts du ivation cultiva
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Lectur e No. 6 Soil erosion- types of soil affec aff ecting ting soil er osion
f ac
erosion and
6.1 Def inition Soil erosion is the process of detac of detachm hment ent of soil particles from the top soil
transportation of the detached soil particles by wind and
/ or water .
The agents causing erosion are wind and water . The detaching agents falling r aindr o p, channel flow and wind. The transporting agents are flowing w rain splash and wind. 6.2 Natur e and extent of er osion The problem The problem of soil erosion exists all over the countr y. Out of the 329 m.
Indi ndia s geographical area about 175 m.ha (53.3%) is subjected to soil erosion ’
some kind of land degradation (Dr uvanar ayana, 1993 ). About 150 m.ha is subje
to wind and water er osion. It is estimated that about 5333 Mt of soil is detac annually by soil annually. Out of this 29 % is is carried away by rivers to seas and ab 10% is deposited in reservoirs resulting in 1-2 % of loss of storage capacity annua The estimated annual soil loss is 16.35 tones/ ha ha/ year . Physiographically India is divided into three regions as f ollows: Sign up to vote on this title
region: Geologic immat a) Himalayan region: immat urity made this region more vulnerable
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er osion. High degree of seismicity of the ar ea ea, very steep slo pes, weak geolog formation and improper land use practices accelerate erosion losses Gullying,
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6.3 Losses due to e r osion: i)
Loss of fertile top soil
ii) ii)
Loss of rain water
iii) iii) Loss of n of nutr ients eser voir s iv) Silting up of r ese v)
Damage to f or es ests
vi) vi) Reduction in soil depth vii) vii) Floods viii) Adverse effect on public health ix) Loss of fertile land
x)
Economic losses
6.4 Types of er osion: There are two major types of soil er osion
ero os ion (Natural or normal erosion): is said to be in equilibrium w a) Geological er
soil forming pr ocess. It takes place under natural complet Sign upvegetative to vote on thiscover title
undisturbed undisturbed by biotic f actor s. This is very slow p slow pr ocess.
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b) A
l
d
ion is due to disturbance in
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ural equilibrium by equilibrium by the
tivi
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Major erosive agents in water erosion are im pacting/ falling raindrops a runoff water flowing over soil sur f fa ce .
6.4.1.1 Process of water er osion Detachment of soil particles is by either raindrop impact or flowing w
Individual raindrops strike the soil surface at velocities up to 9 m/ s creating v
intensiv ensive e hydrodynamic force at the point of impact leading to soil par
detachment. Over land f low detaches soil particles when their erosive hydrodyna
force exceeds the resistance of soil to er osion. Detached soil particles are transpor
by raindrop splash and r un unoff . The amount amount of soil tr ansp anspor ted by runoff is more t due to raindrop splash ash . Thus the falling raindrops break the soil aggregates detach soil particles from each other . The finer particles (silt and clay) block the pores and increase the rate of runoff and hence loss of water and soil.
water e 6.4.1.2 Forms of water er osion Water erosion occurs in stages identified as sheet er osion, r ills, gu
r avin vines, landslides and stream bank er osion. a) Sheet ero ross ion: It is the uniform removal of surface soil in thin layers by r ai
raindrop combined with surface flow is and runoff water . The breaking action of of raindrop
major cause of sheet er osion. It is the the first stage of is least nspic Signerosion up to voteand on this title conspi
but the most extensive ive. b) Rill
ion: When runoff t t
ch
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elisation begins and erosion is
l
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the spectacular symptoms of e of er osion. If unchecked in time no scope for arable pr oduction. d) Ravines: They are the manifestations of a prolonged process of gully er os
They are typically found in deep alluvial soils. They are deep and wide gulli indi ndicating advanced stage of gully er osion. pes, when the slope exceeds e) Land slides: Landslides occur in mountain slo pes and width is 6m. Generally land slides cause blockage of traffic in ghat r oads.
f) Str ea eams, r ivu ivulets, torrents (hill streams) a ea m bank erosion: Small str ea
subjected to stream bank erosion due to obstruction of their f low. Vegetation spro
when str ea eams dr y up and obstructs the flow causing cutting of bank or changing flow cour se se.
6.4.1.3 Factors affecting water er osion a) Climate: Water erosion is directly a function of rainfall and r unoff . Am
duration and distribution of rainfall influences runoff and er osion. High inten rains of longer duration causes severe er osion. Greater the in intensi ensity, larger the of the r aindr o p. R ainf all intensity more than 5 cm/ hr is considered as sev sever e energy of raindrops of raindrops falling over a hectar e land with rainfall intensity of 5 cm
equal to 625 H.P. This energy can lift 89 times theSign surface 17.5oncm soil from one up to vote thisof title useful Useful Not to a height of 3 f t. Two- thirds of the above energy is used f or sealing soil p
Runoff may occur without erosion but there is no water erosion without r un uno
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c) Vegetation: Vegetation intercepts the rainfall and reduces the impact
r aindr o ps. It also decreases the velocity of runoff by obstructing the flow of w
The f i b br ous r oo oots are also effective in forming stable soil aggr egates, which incre infiltration and r edu educes er osion.
d) Soil Properties: Soil properties Soil properties that influence soil erodability by water may grouped into two ty pes. i.
Those properties Those properties that influence the infiltration rate and pe and per mea bi bility
ii.
Those properties that resist the disper sion, splashi ashing, abrasion transporting forces of rainfall and r unoff .
The str uctur e, textur e, organic matt cont ent of upper l att er and moisture cont
determine the extent of e of er osion. Sandy soils are readily detachable but not rea
anspor ta ble. Soils of medium to high clay cont cont ent have low infiltration capac tr ansp and they are r eadi eadily transported by water
per sed after they are dis pe sed, but t
detachability is generally low.
ea st e) Man and b bea
Man and beast accelerates erosion by extensive farming and excess
pes, cultivation up and down t gr azing. Faulty practices like cultivation on steep slo pes
Sign up to vote on this title slo pe, f elling and burning of forests etc., leads to heavy er osion. Excessive gr a Useful Not useful destroys all vegetation and increases the er osion.
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A= R x K x L x S x C x
wher e,
A= predicted soil loss in t/ ha ha/ year
R= rainfall erosivity factor or iinde ndex K= soil erodibility f actor L= length of slope f actor
S= slope steepness f actor mana gement factor and C= soil cover and mana
P= erosion control f actor 6.5 Wind er osion Erosion of soil by the action of wind is known as wind er osion. It is a se problem on lands devoid of ve vegetation. It is more common in arid and semi
phenom enon enon stimulated stimulated by the soil mois r egions. It is essentially a dry weather phenom
def iciency. The process of wind erosion consists of three phases: initiation
movement, transportation and deposition. About 33 m.ha in India is affected by w
er osion. This includes 23 .49 m.ha of desert and about 6.5 m.ha of coastal sands. Thar Desert is formed mainly by blow in sand. wind er osion 6.5 Mechanism of of wind
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Lifting and abrasive action of wind results in detachment of tiny soil pa soil par t
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a. Saltation: It is the first stage of movement of soil particles in a short series bounces or jumps along the ground sur f fa ce. After being rolled by the wind
par ticles suddenly leap almost vertically to form the initial stage of movemen
saltation. The size of soil particles moved by saltation is between 0.1 to 0.5 mm diameter . This process may account f or 50 to 70% of the total movement by er osion.
f ace cr b. Sur f cree eep: p: Rolling and sliding of soil particles along the ground surface due impact of particles descending and hitting during saltat saltat ion is called surface
Movement of particles by surface surface creep causes an abrasive action of soil sur non-erodable erodable soil aggr egates. Coarse particles longer leading to break down of non-
0.5 to 2.0 mm diameter are diameter are moved by surface cr eep eep. This process may account for to 25% of the total movement. c. Suspension Suspension:: Movement of fine dust particles smaller than 0.1 mm diameter
floating in the air is known as suspensi suspension. Soil particles carried in suspension deposited when the sedimentation force is greater
than the force holding
particles in suspensi suspension. This occurs with decrease in wind ve velocity. Suspen usually may not account for more than 15% of total movement.
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Soil conserv conserva at ion me asu asurres – agronomic mea su of soil conser vation
7.1 Definition of soil conser vation Soil conservation is using and managing the land based on the capabilities mana gement practices leading the land itself itself involving application of the best mana profitable cr o p production production without land degr ada adation.
7.2 Contr ol of water er osion Water erosion occurs simultaneously in two steps: detachm detachment ent of
particles by falling raindrops and trans particles by flow trans portat portat ion of detached particles water . Hence preventing preventing the detachm detachm ent of soil particles and their transportation
minimize water er osion. Principles of water erosion control ar e - Maintenance of soil infiltration capacity Soil protect tection ion from rainfall - Soil pro - Contr ol of surface runoff and - Safe dis posal of surface r unoff
cons ervation programme programme every piece of land must be used For a sound soil cons
accordance with the land capability class ass if ication. 7.2.1 Measures of water ero eros io ion n contr ol
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1. Agronomic measures
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1. Land p Land pr epa epar ation 2. Contour cultiva ivation 3. Choice of cr o ps 4. Strip cr o ppi pping rotat ion 5. Crop rotat
/ cropping
systems
6. Cover cr o ps 7. Mulching 8. Application of manures of manures and f er tilizer s 9. Application of chemicals
a) Land preparat inf luen preparation: ion: Land preparation including post harvest tillage in intake of water , obstruction to surface flow and consequently the rate of e of er o
Deep ploughing or chiseling has been found effective in reducing er osion. Rou cloddy surface is is also effective in reducing er osion. b) Contour cultivation (Contour farming): A line joining the points p oints of e elevation is called contour . All the cultural practices such as ploughing, so
inter cultiva ivation etc. done across the slope reduce soil and water loss. By plough
pe, each ridge of plough furrow and each row and sowing across the slo pe of the c Sign up to vote on this title
act as obstruction to the runoff and pr ovide vide more time for water enter into the useful Useful Not to leading to reduced soil and water loss (Fig 7.1).
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c) Choice of cro ps :Row crops or tall growing crops such as sor ghum, maize, pe millet etc.,ar e not effective in conserving soil as they they expose majority of the soil
hence they ar e known as ero ross ion ion permitting cr o ps. Where as close growing cr such as cow pea, gr oundnut, green gr am, black gram etc., which protect soil
ros ion ion res res isting cro cro ps as they ar e very effective in reducing soil loss known as eros minimizing the impact of rain drop and acting as obstruction to r un unoff . d) Str i p p cropping: It is a system of growing of few rows of erosion resisting
and erosion permitting permitting crops in alternate strips on cont conto o ur (across the slope) w
the objective of breaking long slopes to preve preve nt soil loss and r un unoff . Close grow erosion resisting crops r edu educe the transporting and eroding power of water
r om runoff to retain in the f ield. The w obstructing runoff and filtering sediment f r of the erosion permitting permitting and erosion resisting crops vary as per the slope of f ield. The strip cropping resembles the in inter cr o ppi pping.
Width of crops (m) Slope (%) Er osion r esisting
Er osion per mitt i
Up to 1%
9.0
45.0
1 to 2%
6.0
24.0
2 to 3%
4.0
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With increase in per cent slope of the soil, the width of erosion permitting permitting
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iv) Buff er strip cropping: cropping: this type of strip cropping is practiced in areas ha steep slopes and badly eroded soils where strips of perm of perman an ent cover crops per enni ennial legumes or grasses or shrubs or shrubs are alternated with field cr o ps. The strip cropping is sim ple, cheap and effective soil conservation pr a and can be adopted by the f ar mer s. e) Cr o p rotation
/ cropping
syss tem sy tem:: Monocropping of erosion permitting permitting c
accelerates soil and water loss year after yea y ear . Intercropping of erosion permit
rotat ion has been found effective crops and erosion resisting crops or their rotat reducing soil and water loss. Inclusion Inclusion of legumes like lucerne in crop rot pe. reduces soil loss even in soils having 13 % slo pe
cro o ps: Good ground cover by canopy gives the pro f) Cover cr the protection tection to the land like
umbrella and minimize soil er osion. Besides conserving soil and moistur e, the co
crops hold those soluble nutr ients, which are lost by leaching. The third advantage advantag
the cover crops is the addition of organic matter . The legumes provide better co
and be be tter p tter pr otection. Among the legumes cowpea has been found to prod maximum canopy followed by hor se segr am, green gr am, black gram and dha dha incha g) Mulching: Mulching of soil with available plant residues reduce soil
considerably by protecting protecting the soil from direct impact of raindrop and reducing Sign up to vote on this title
sediment carr ied with runoff .A minimum plant residue cover of 30 per cen Not useful Useful
necessary to keep runoff and soil loss within the acceptable limits. Ver tical mulch
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Fertilizer use in dr yland s
8.1 Intr odu ction No Agricultural system can per sist, if it fails to maintain soil f er tilit dryland soils or SAT soils Nitrogen is universally def icient, P is low, and ‘
’
‘ K ’ statu
att er cont cont ent of SAT soils is usually less than one medium to high. The organic matt cent and hence is of low f er tility status.
app p lication rate es of f er tilizer ap 8.2 Low rat consequent uncertainty uncertainty of crop performan performance ce m Vagar ies of rainfall and consequent
f ar mer s of dryland agriculture to avoid fertilizer application. However , results
ex per iments demons demonstt rated yield advantage advantage due to fertilizer fertilizer use in dry land pr oduction. If the fertilizers are applied to meet the needs of the dryland cr o ps, there be prolonged breaks in the monsoon in kharif or limited available moisture root zone of r a bi crops may be exhausted before the plants reach reproductive
resulting in poor yie yields. On the other hand, if fertilizers are applied at rates below
o ptimum, the yields will be poor . This has to be avoided by assessing the y
potential potential of different regions and regulating the soil f er tility levels by adding o
Sign upthe to vote on this title such quantities of fertilizers as required for realizing potential to the maxim
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extent possi ssi b ble. Hence fertilizer usage is more in irrigated agriculture than dryla agr icultur e
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kg N/ ha ha on soils with low moisture stor age, where as on soil depth up to 60 sorghum grain yield increased up to 75 kg N kg N/ ha ha. 8.4 Res ponse to Phos p ph h or us Deficiency of pho of phoss phorus is less extensive than that of nitr ogen. Th several crops respond to P the response is not conspicuous and universal as that ‘
’
N N . Dry land vertisols possess high pho high phoss phorus phorus fixation capacity, ranging from 300 ‘
’
450 mg
/ k kg
of soil, hence there will be less amount of P in soil solution ‘
’
available for the crop plants. This explains the lack of response of response to P in vertisols ‘
’
the amount of the P added seldom exceed 25-35 kg P2O5/ ha ha which is inadequate ‘
’
meet the P fixing capacity of the soil and crop r equir ement. Response of dryl ‘
’
crops to P will continue to remain small and marginal as long as the poor yield ‘
’
crops are not increased through efficient soil and moisture conser vation measu and balanced crop nutr ition. 8.5 Res ponse to Potass ium
On a large scale, potas potasss ium has failed to produce distinct response in dryla cereals and millets as is common with irrigated cr o ps. Dryland soils pa soils par ticular ly sandy loam and red soils which are deficient in ‘ K ’ when
‘ K ’may
respond to moderate levels
recomm ended dose of NPK for different monsoon is nor mal. The recomm crops
Andhra Pradesh in furnished in table 8.1
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for r r ainf ed cro ps of And Table 8.1 : Recom ecomm me nded do d ose of f er tilizer s fo
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8.6 Res ponse to sec seco nd nda a ry and micr onutr ients Among secondary nutrients oilseeds and pulses respond to sulphur
calcium. Response to Ca and ‘
’
is of typical of rainfed gr oundnut. Among
‘S’
micr onutr ients deficiency of Fe and response to its application have been obse ‘
’
in crops like chickpea and gr oundnut. Zinc is deficient in many areas and many cr pear l millet etc. respond to Zinc Eg: gr oundnut, maize, pea 8.7 Res ponse to NPK NPK (Balanced (Balanced f er tilization) Balanced fertilizer application increases the efficiency of added f er tiliz Response to universally deficient N N could be low if other nutrients are lim ‘
’
r equently P limits the response of N More f r N . If N+P is applied the yield respons ‘
’
‘
’
incr eased eased. In dryland areas receiving less than 750 mm annual rainfall where p where pr olon
per iod, economical responses were obtaine dry spells are common during the crop pe obtain with low levels of N N only. ‘
’
nate sources of N 8.8 Alter na Nitr ogen There are several alternate sources of N N , which include organic manu ‘
’
bi biof er tilizer s, green manur ing, introduction of legumes in cropping system etc., Sign up to vote on this title
8.9 Gr ee n manuring
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This is considered normally uneconom uneconomical ical in dr ylands In Khammam di
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Vast potential for organic wastes like stubbles of millets and other cr
sugarcane tr ash ash , weeds and other farm residues exist in many ar eas eas, which can pu
agricultural use by by com posting. Conjunctive use of FYM FY M and these organic wa
improve the productivity productivity of soils especially sandy loam soils by improving pacity. moisture retentive ca pa 8.12 Rhizobium cultur e Inoculating legumes with Rhizobium could not met with success for in incr eas eas ‘N ’ fixation under dryland conditions probably due to unfavourable envir on
especially prolonged
soil moisture stress
periods
during
crop
season,
temperature stress and deficiency of other nutr ients. 8.13 Inte Integ gr ated nut nut rient manag managem eme nt system It envisages
use of organic manur es es, crop r esi esi
the conjunctive
bi biof er tilizer s, legumes in crop r otation, green manuring and need based chemic fertilizers f or sustained crop p crop pr oduction.
Mean yield of finger millet over a period of 9 years was similar recommended NPK rates rate s or with 50% NPK fertilizers along with FY M 10 t/ ha ha
Akola (Maharastra) and Kovilpatti (Tamilnadu) incor incor poration of organic resid
increased sorghum yie yield by 120 and 75 k g/ ha ha Sign as against andtitle 38 kg up to vote75 on this
f er tilizer s.
Biofertilizers like A
i ill
Useful
commonly found in
/ ha
w
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iation with roots
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8.14 Salient findings of f er tilizer use rese arch in dry land agr icultur e The results of fertilizer use research in dry farming areas indicated fertilizer dose should be low. Improved cultivars are responsive than local va var iet The following following are the salient findings findin gs of research on fertilizer fertilizer use u rainfed condi nditions: ns:
1. Response of crops to fertilizers varied with available soil moistur e. Hig the r ainf all, greater the response in shallow soils. 2. Responses to N N are univ unive er sa sal, responses to P are obtained on alf isols ‘
responses to
’
‘ K ’are
‘
’
limited.
post-rainy rainy season crops i.e. rabi crops to fertilizers will depe 3. Response of post-
on stored moisture in the pr of ile. Most of the nutrients have to be ban placed in the soil at sowing as basal application. 4. For kharif cr o ps, nitrogen can be applied in splits depending depe nding on r ain Second split may be avoided if the soil moisture is not adequate ade quate for dressing in in time. 5. Zinc deficiency is indicated in some ar eas eas.
up to voteduring on this title 6. Balanced fertilizer fertilizer use resulted in yield Sign advantage normal r ain
year s.
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tilize izer r use efficiency (FUE) in dry 8.15 Fer til dryll and agr icultur e It refers to kg of produce per kg of plant nutrient fertilizer a pplied.
Factorss aff aff ecting f er tilizer use eff iciency 8.15.1 Factor o
Choice of cultivars or varieties or varietal selection
o
Timely sowing
o
Establishment of adequate crop stand
o
Time and method of fertilizer application
o
Moisture conservation practices and
o
Timely weed management
a. Choice of varieties: Choice of varieties will depend on length of the
gr o
seas on. The traditional varieties are of long duration and their productivity productivity is
High yielding and short duration varieties give more yields and increase the fertiliz use eff iciency. b. Tim Timely ely se see e ding ding:: Timely sowing of a crop is an important agronomic f influencing crop yield and ther ef or e the response to fertilizer application.
leadin seeding gives ives good seedling seedling vigour and longer Sign growing growin season up togvote on thisthereby title
Useful yie Not useful . Delayed efficient use of applied fertilizers resulting in higher yi elds sowings
drylands drastically reduce the yields due to terminal soil moisture stress both
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population of 67 of 67,000 p 000 plants/ ha ha (in winter maize) application of 200 kg N / ha ha
the same yield as obtained with only 100 kg N/ ha at the population of 8300 plants/ ha ha.
r application: application: Entire phosphorus d. Time of f er tilizer phosphorus and pot and potas asss ium requiremen both kharif and rabi crops are generally applied as basal dose. Split application
has been pr oved to be effective for kharif on light soils. If rains are not received
time, fertilizer intended for to p dressing can be sav saved. However for rabi crops gro
on stored soil moisture entire N has to be applied at sowing as the chances
receiving rains after sowing are limited. Fertilizer r ates based based on the amount stored moisture will be more effective than blanket r ates. e. Method of f er tilizer application: Placement of P fertilizer near the plant
broadcastt ing in increasing FUE. It is of great proved to be be be tter than the broadcas
importanc importance e in crops grown on receding soil moisture during post rainy seas on. placement placement is normally done by seed cum ferti dr ills.
f. Moisture conserv conserv at ion: Soil moisture is the most limiting factor in dr y agr icultur e. Fertilizer
use efficiency
and
water water
use efficiency
are
mutu
com plementar y. Several moisture conse conservation rvation methods like setline cultiv vertical mulch, BBF, recycling of runoff has been recommended for increasing
FUE.
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Time ely weed control: Weed control has a major impact on crop yield in dry l g. Tim
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Choice of crops and varieties – – cropping cropping systems and dr ylan ds
9.1 Choice of cr o ps Traditional cropping patt pattern ern in the dry farming areas is dominated by pulses. grains viz., millets and pu
predominantly tly subsistence subsistence type of farmi In a predominan
system, such dominance of food crops is natur al. The choice of crops for drylands affected b affected by y • Rainfall quantity and distr i bu bution • Time of onset of rainy seas on • Duration of rainy reason • Soil characters including amount of rain water stored in the soil
• Farmer's r equi equir ements The major focus of research under AICRPDA has been on the identification most efficient crops for each dry farming r egion. The criteria for choice of crops dry f ar ming regions comprise the f ollowing • Tolerance to dr ought • Fast growth during initial period to withstand harsh envi envir onment • Genetic poten Genetic potential tial for high yie yield
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dr oug ht Not useful • Short or medium duration to escape terminal Useful var iations • Adaptability to wide climatic va
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9.2 Sel Selec ection tion of suitable var ieties In most crops of dry farming r egions, traditional local varieties still dom
The pr ef er en ence for these local local varieties varieties is based based on their prono prono unced drou
toler ance. But they hey are usually longer in duration susceptible to moisture stress
matur ity. They have low yie yield potential potential even under favourable r ainf all. They do
respond significantly to im pr oved management practices such as nutrient sup
The criteria now adopted for selection of cr o p varieties for dry lands include drou
toler an ance, short or medium dur ation, high yield potential, response to nutri
supp ly, high water use eff iciency, mo derate resistance resistance to pest and diseases. Suita varieties for all dry land crops have been developed in all the dry farming r e and have proved their high yield p yield potential. 9.3 Choice of cropping system
Choice of suitable cropping system must aim at maximum and sustainable
of r es esour ces especially water and soil. Cropping systems depend on o n rainfall quan
length of rainy reason and soil storage capacity. The broad guidelines in choosin cropping system for dry lands are given iven below (Table 9.2).
Table 9.2 Potential Potent ial cro cro pping sy sys tems tems based based on rainfall and soil char acter s
R ainf all (mm)
Soil ty pe
350 350 -600 Alf isols,
Pr of ile Gr owing stor ageSign up to vote on this title season Sugge gge sted cropping syst capa cit y Useful Not useful (wee k s) (mm ) 20 10 0 Single rainy season cr o ppi pping
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Crops and cropping systems selected should match the length of gr ow
season during which they are not subjected to soil moisture str ess ess. Climatalog
analysis helps to identify suitable cropping systems for different r egions. Feasib for in inter cr o ppi pping, seq sequence cropping and double cropping can also be known such analysis (Table 9.3).
Table 9.3 : Length of effective cropping season in diff er en en t areas (Randhaw and Venkateswar ulu, 1979 ) Categor y
< 20 week s 20-30 week s
Bellary (8) Hissar (17) 17) hansi (21) 21) Jhan Udaipur (22) 22) Anand (25) 25)
> 30 week s
Potent pp i cr o pp system
Effective cro cro pping ppin g seaso se ason(w n(wee eeks ks)) in diff er en ent ar ea ea s
Bhubaneswar (32) 32) Bangalore (36) R ewa (36) 36) Samba (44) 44)
11) Jodhpur (11)
Anantapur (13 )
Rajkot (17 )
Bijapur (17) 17)
Kovilpatti (21) 21) Sholapur (23) 23) Akola (27) 27)
Hyderabad (22) 22) Agra (24) 24)
Inter cr o pp
anasi (32 ) Var anasi
Indore (36 ) Dehradun (44) 44)
Sequence pping cr o ppi
Hoshi shiar pur (35 ) Ranchi (45) 45)
Sole cr o pp
9.3.1 Monocr o p pp p ing In general a single crop is being taken in dry farming areas where the ann Sign up to vote on this title
rainfall is below 500 mm . Rainy season crop is taken in light soils like a
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inceptisols and oxisols. Crops are being grown on residual moisture in vertisols
post rainy
in
i t
The most common
ropping systems
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r ainf all, market price and marketing f acilities. Intercropping systems are subject
change due to change in market price of component cr o ps. Intercropping is wid practiced in dr y farming since it offers many advantages as outlined be below. •
minimization strategy and provides an insu Intercropping is a risk minimization insu
against complete crop failure due to rainfall abnor malities. •
It provides more yield and income per unit area per unit time than pping cr o ppi
•
production is achieved Stability in production
•
Multiple products products for home consumption as well as for mar k ke ting made availa ble
•
When legumes are included in in inter cr o ppi pping, soil fertility is enr iched
•
Intercrop canopy suppresses weed gr owth
•
Resource use efficiency is increased viz., light, water and nutr ients efficiently used
•
One crop provide physical support to other cr o p.
Disadvantages ar e •
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Table 9.4 Inter ands Inter cropping sys sys tems tems suitable suitable for dr yland
Geometr y
Base cr o p duration (days)
Interc Intercrrop du r atio ( days)
Sorghum + Lablab
6-8:2
100 -12 0
150 -180
Sorghum + R ed edgr am
6-8:1
100 -12 0
18 0
Sorghum + Cow pea
2:1
100 -12 0
80
Cotton + Black gr am
2:1
150 -18 5
65 -75
Groundnut + R ed edgr am
6-8:1
10 5
18 0
Groundnut + Castor
6- 8 : 1
10 5
150 -180
Bengalgram + Cor iander
4:1
10 0
80
Maize + Cow pea
2:1
100 -11 0
75 -80
Ragi+ Cowpea + R ed edgr am
6:1:1
10 0
75 + 180
Cr o ps
Table 9.5 Dominant intercro intercro pping sy sys tems tems in diff er en reg ions of India ent reg Rainfa ll (mm ) Inter cr o pp pp ing
Location
Soil
Anantapur
Alfisols
550
Groundnut + pigeon pea pigeon pea
Ak ola
Ver tisols
825
Sorghum + pigeon pea pigeon pea
2:
R a jk ot
Ver tisols
590
Gr oundnut + castor
4:
Sholapur
Ver tisols
560
Chickpea + safflower
3
Bangalor e
Alfisols
890
pigeon pea pea Finger millet + pi Sign up to vote on this title
Row 11 :
8
sys tem temss fo for r diff reg g ions er en e nt re ndh h r a Pr ade ade And 9.3.2.1 Efficient intercropping sys Useful useful Notof a) For Tel Tel agana r egion:
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b) Rayalas Rayalase ee ma r egion: Inter cr o p
R atio
Groundnut + Black gr am
7:1
Gr oundnut + Castor
5:1 or 7 or 7:1
Gr oundnut + Pearl millet
2:1
Pigeon pea Pear l millet + Pigeon pea
1:1 or 2 or 2:2
Pigeon pea + Sunf lower
1:2
i ntercropping ping systems in Rayalaseema r egion, gr oun Among the different intercrop
+ pigeon pea (7:1) or groundnut + castor (5:1 or 7:1) was found to be the mo efficient system which result in maximum r etur ns ns.
and 9.3.3 Double cropping in dr ylan ds Double cropping either by sequential sequential cropping or relay cropping is possible
places with high rainfall (> 900 mm), extended rainy season and high soil moist
pacity. Double cropping is also possible with rain water harvested in f storage ca pa
ponds which is used f or establishing winter cr o p. Some of the important dou cropping systems of different regions ar e presented in Table 9.6 and 9.7.
Table 9.6 Important double double cro cro pping sy sys tems tems of diff er ent location Sign up to vote on this title
Location Ranchi
Rainfall (mm ) 1 370
Soils
Oxisols
Useful Double Not useful pp ing cr o pp
Rice-linseed or chick pea
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Table 9.7 Efficient ff icient double double cro cro pping system systemss for dryla drylands nds of India
Soil ty pe Ver tisols
R egion
Water availab ility (days)
MP
210 210 - 230
Double cr o pp pp in system Maize – chick pea Soybean – wheat
Maha aha r as astr a
190 -210
Sorghum – sa – saff lowe
natak a K ar na
130 -150
Cowpea – s – sor ghum Greengram – sa – saff low
Inceptisols
UP
200 200 -230
Rice – Chick pea
180 180 -200
Pearl millet – chick pe Blackgram – musta
Bihar
Oxisols
160 160 -180
Maize – chick pea Groundnut – ba bar ley
natak a K ar na
Alfisols
190 -220
Cowpea – r agi Soybean – r agi
Alfisols and ar idisols
< 120
No double cr o ppi pping
pp ing Double cropping by cropping by relay cr o pp Groundnut
/ R agi
(Jun-Sep) ep)
+
edgr am R ed (Jun-Jan) an)
-
Hor se segr am (Sep-Jan) an)
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Groundnut or ragi ragi is sown with redgram asUseful intercrop in useful 6:1 proportion Not
of groundnut in Se ptem ber , horsegram is relay sown in the spa June. After harvest of groundnut
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Contingent crop pl an ann n ing for aberrant ab errant wea t conditions
err an t we ather co nditions on cr o ps 10.1 Effect of a b be Rainfall behaviour in dry farming areas is erratic and uncer tain. deviations in rainfall behaviour commonly met with in dry areas include dela onset, early withdrawal and intermediary dry spells during rainy season.
adverse effect of these rainfall aberrations on crop growth vary with the degree deviation and the crop growth stage at which such deviations occur (Table 1 mana gement practices are needed to minimize Suitable manipulations in crop mana
adverse effects of abnormal rainfall beh a viour . beha
ana gement dec These mana
mana gement practices anning. Such mana cons constt itute contingency planni
done after
establishment and in the middle of crop growth are called mid season season or mid ter
corr ections. Table 10.1 Effect of r ainf all abe aberr at ions on cr o ps Rainfall a be berr ation
Effect on cr o ps
Delay in onset of r ainf all
Leng Length th of crop croppi ping ng seas season on or or cr o pp duration is reduced - crop sowing is delay
Early withdrawal or cessation of r ainf all
Moisture stress at maturity grain filling aff ected (terminal str ess) ess)
Intermediate dry spells a. Immediately after sowing
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Germination will be aff ected, plant popula will be will be r edu educed
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normal and depending upon the economic status of the f ar mer , certain amount risk is taken to get good profits if season is normal or be be tter than tter than nor mal. Contingency cropping is highly location specific due to variation in amo
and distribution of r ainf all. Especially in arid r egions, the spatial distribution
rainfall is highly var ia ble. It is common to observe that rainfall received varies f
field to field in the same location. Temperature gradually falls from August onwa
reaching minimum in November and Decem be ber . Contingency plan and midt
corrections vary with the type and time of occurrence of r ainf all aberration (Tab
10.2). for r diff er en Table 10.2 Contingency crop plan fo ent abn or malities Rainfall a bn bnor mality Delayed onset onset of r ainf all 1. Delayed a) Delay exceeding-4 week s Delay in South west monsoon Normal - June Delay - July Delay Delay in North east monsoon Normal - Octo ber Delay - Early Novem ber Delay - Late Novem ber
Alternate crops of short duration to be sow Gr oundnut
Ragi / pearl millet Sama ( little millet)
/ Cow pea
Cotton / Sor ghum Sunflower / Pearl millet / Ragi Coriander / Bengalgr am Sign up to vote on this title
b) Delay of 1 to 2 week s
2. Early withdrawal of
Contingency plan and midt erm corr ectio
i f ll
Alternate varieties of short duration of sa useful Useful Not crop Eg. Sorghum Co 19 (150 days) Co 25 (1 day days), Red gram local (180 days) Co 5 (130 da A i harvesting for f i
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Crops have to be selected with suitable crop duration to coincide with length of the growing seas on. Generally short duration pulses like gr een een blackgram and cowpea may suit the situation. However if the monsoon turns extraordinarily good, opportunity is lost if only short duration crops are
Farmers with economic strength and motivation for high profits with some amo
of risk can go g o for crops crops of long dur ation. The long duration crops with flexibility
elasticity in yield are more sui suitable. For exam ple, pear lmillet, and sorghum can ratoon ratoon ed if monsoon extends. Sunflower can be introduced for higher profits
certain amount of r isk . Crops like sor ghum, pear lmillet, can be grown for grain monsoon extends and if n if not, fodder can be o btained.
Contingency crops for different situations and regions of Andhra Pradesh other states are suggested in Tables 10.3 and 10.4. gge sted co ntingency Table 10.3 Sugge ntingency cro cro pp ing for diff er en en t situations in And
Pr adesh Time of onset of sowing of sowing r ains
Cr o p
Var ieties
R egions/ situat
May
Sesamum
Madhavi, Gowr i
Medium black s black soils, medium and deep red
June
Sor ghum
CSH-5, CSH-9, CSH-10, CSH-11, CSV-1.1,
Red soils, light black
CSV-12, SPV-462, SPV-475
Telengana r egion Not useful
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Castor
r anthi, Har itha K r
July
Gr oundnut
TMV. 2, Tir up upati-1, Vemana,
August
Cotton
Maha aha nandi, NHH-4, Jayadhar , MCU-
Useful
Scarce rainfall zone of
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Sunf lower
Any hy br id
Black s Black soils
Sor ghum
Rabi var i eties
Black s Black soils
Bengal gr am Annegir i, ICCV-2 (Swetha), IC CV37( 37(K r r anthi), JG-11
Black s Black soils
Saff lower
Man jir a, Sagar muthyalu
Black s Black soils
Cor iander
CS-6
Black s Black soils
Table 10.4 Contingent crops fo forr dry dryll and regions of India Onset of sowing of sowing r ain
Cr o p
Var ieties
Dantiwada region of Gu jar at July 15
July 25
August 15
Pearl millet
GHB 32, GHB 39
Sor ghum
CSH 5, CS H 6
Castor
GA UCH-1, UCH-1, CAUCH-4
Sor ghum
CSH-6, GJ-35
Castor
GA UCH-1, UCH-1, GAUCH-4
bean Cluster
Malosan, HG 75..
Castor
GA UCH-1, UCH-1, GAUCH-4
Sorghum (f odder )
Malavan, S-1049
Pearl millet (f odder ) August 31
Sorghum (f odder ) Sesamum
Pur va-1
Pearl millet (f odder ) September 15
Sorghum (f odder ) Sesamum
Maize (f odder ) Hiss iss ar region of Har yana
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an s pir ation Lectur e No. 11 Evap otr an eva potr an an s pir ation
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an d
measur es
r ed ed
to
11.1 Def inition Under dry land conditions soil moisture is the most limiting factor for
pr oduction. It is lost as evaporation from soil surface and as transpiration from t plant sur f of mo isture through these two processes is k n fa ces. The combined loss of m as evapotr anspi anspir ation. 11.2 Methods to reduc reduc e eva por ation There are three principles of evaporation of evaporation control under field conditions. a. Decreasing the turbulent tr ans ansf er of water vapour to the atm atmos phere growing plants, raising wind b wind br ea eak s, straw mulches etc., b. Decreasing capillary conductivity by rapid drying of the surface soil lay
c. Decreasing the capillary flow and moisture holding capacity of the su soil layer s. For evaporation For evaporation contr ol, mostly mulches are used. 11.2.1 Mulches Sign up to vote on this title
Mulch is any covering material applied on the soil surface to r edu edu
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evaporation losses. This material may be grown and maintained in place, or erial
and modified before pla
erial processed
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weeds help in reducing evaporation losses. Among the different mulches soil mulch the cheapest.
b. Str aw and stub stubb ble mulch mulch:: Straw and other crop residues like stu bbles, gr oundn
shells, cotton stalks etc; can be used as mulches on soil soil surface surface for moist absorbed by the conser vation. Straw mulches reduce both the amount of energy absorbed by and its movement above the soil and hence reduce evaporation (Fig. 11.1) How the availability of adequate crop residues is a problem for use as mulches.
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e. Ver tical mulching mulching:: It is a technique wherein trenches of 40 cm wide, 15 cm are dug at 2 to 4 m interval across slope and filled with stubbles or organic wastes height of 10 cm above soil sur f fa ce .
Runoff is check ed ed, collected in the shal
trenches and redistributed to adjoining soil layers and infiltration is increased i black s black soils.
mulching:: Is the term used to describe the covering of soil surface f. Live mulching surface throu the plant canopy in intercropping system. pea, sorghum + sword bean Eg. Sorghum + forage cow pea bean g. Pe Peb bble mulch mulch:: Where small pebbles like stone are placed on the soil sur
successful in dryland fruit tree cultur e. The pe The pe bb (Fig. 11.2). This mulching will be successful placed on the basins of trees not only r edu educe eva por ation but also f ac infiltration of rain water into the b the bas asiin.
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11.2.2 Effect of mulches on soil pr o per ties ps, 1. Soil str uctur e: Surface mulches reduce the impact of falling r aindr o ps reducing dispersion and sealing of soil pores leading to crust f or mation. Hence
soil structure is pr otected. The mulches also improve soil structure due decomposition of mulch.
pitation, soluble 2. Soil salinity salinity:: Under dry land conditions due to limited pr eci pi
move only to a limited depth and readily return to the surface as the soil w
eva por ates. Due to salt accumulation in surface layers the germination and seed
establishment may be adv adver se sely aff ected. Hence, mulches will reduce soil sali
problem by problem by increasing infiltration and r edu educing eva por ation. 3. Soil water : The soil moisture moisture cont content ent is improved by induced in inf iltr ation, r edu edu evaporation and reduced transpiration by weeds. Surface mulches also obstruct
free exchange of water vapour from soil surface into the atmos atmos phere and he increase soil water content. 4. Soil tem per atur e: The effects of mulches on soil temperature are highly va var
and depend up on the type of mulch mater ial. White or reflective type of pla
mulches gener ally decrease soil tem per atur e, while black plastic mulches m
increase soil tem per atur e. Crop residues moderate temperature by decreasing Sign up to vote on this title
summer and by increasing in winter season. This is due to useful combined effec Useful Not radiation interception and evaporative cooling. The sugarcane trash mulch
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an s pir ation 11.3 Reducing losses due to tr an pir ation. H Nearly 99% of water absorbed by the plant is lost in tr ans pi
transpiration reduction is needed for maintaining favorable water balance in th
plants. Transpiration has become unavoidable evil as the stomata, which allow C exch exchan an e also also allo allows ws wate waterr va our our tr ans ansf er into the atmos her e. transpiration contr ol There are four principles of of transpiration a. By increasing leaf resistance leaf resistance to water vapour tr ans ansf er by application
mater ials, which tend to close or cover stomata cover stomata (ex: both stomatal closi
and f ilm forming type of an of antitr anspi anspir an ants). b. By reducing amount
of energy absorbed by leaf surface (Eg:
r ef lectants) retar dan dants ) c. By reducing top growth of plants ( Eg: Growth retar d. By increasing air resistance to water vapour tr ans ansf er by shelter be wind b wind br ea eak s The transpiration losses can be controlled by use of an of antitr anspi anspir an ants, use wind b wind br ea eak s/ she shelter belts and efficient weed contr ol
Sign up toon vote on this title plant su an s pir an an ts: Any material at erial that is applied transpiring plant transpiring 11 .3.1. Anti-tr an
for reducing water
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ant itranspirants itran spirants are loss is called antitr anspi anspir an ants. The ant
known as transpiration supp r essan essants The best anti transpir trans piran ants ts reduce transpirat
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form a thin layer , they should be more resistant to the passage of water vapour
carbon dioxide and the film should maintain continuity and should not br ea eak . The
trans pirants may be of either thin film or thick f ilm. film forming anti transpirants Thin film forming type: Hexadeconol Thick film forming type: Mobileaf, Polythene S-60
c. Leaf reflectant type: These are the white mater ials, which form a coating on
leaves and increase leaf reflectance (al bed reflecting the radiation they red bedo). By reflecting
leaf temperatures and vapour pressure pressure gradient from leaf to atmos atmos phere and he reduces tr anspi anspir ation. About 5% of kaolin spray reduces the leaf temperature by 4°C and decrease in transpiration by 22 to 28 per cent. Celite and hydrated lime also used as r ef lectant type of anti tr anspi anspir an ants. d. Gr owth r etar dan t type: These chemicals reduce shoot growth and increase
growth and thus enable the plants to reduce transpiring surface and resist droug nditions. They hey increase r oo oot/ sh shoot r atio. condi Eg : Cycocel – (2-chloroethyl) Trimethyl ammonium chloride (CCC), Phosphon – D, Maleic Hydrazide (MH) Antitr anspi anspir an ants generally
reduce photosynthesi hesis. Ther ef or e, their use
r ess . If limited to sav save the crop from death under severe Sign moisture ston ess crop sur viv viv up to vote this title
Not useful tlyUseful . Antitr can utilise the rainfall that is is received subsequen anspi ansp ir an ants are also us
trans plant plantat at ion shock of nursery plants. They have some prac for reducing the trans
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in the shelter give protection from desiccating winds be belts. Gener ally, shelterbelts give protection
the extent of 5 to 10 times their height on windward side and up to 30 times leeward side. Due to reduction in wind speed, evaporation losses are reduced more water is available for p plants. The beneficial effect of of shelterbelts shelterbelts are seen clearly in drought yea ye ar s. In addi addition, shelterbelts reduce wind er osion.
Fig 11.4 Wind Deflection due to shelter belts
trans pire frequently greater amount of w Efff ective wee eed d contr ol: Weeds tran 11 .3.4 Ef
per unit of dry matt er prod p roduction uction than the crop plants. Therefore controlling we
especially at early stages of crop growth will be most most effective means of increa
the amount of water available for cr o ps. This is the most useful methodto r edu edu
transpiration losses.
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Wat ers ersh h ed manageme manageme nt nt – – obj app p r oa Lectur e No. 12 Wat obje e cti tiv ve s and ap of wa watt er erssh ed mana gement 12.1 Intr odu ction Soil, water and vegetation are the three important important nat nat ural r es esour ces. As
resources are interdependent there is a need to have a unit of mana mana gement for mo
effective and useful management of these r es esour ces. In this context, watershed ana gement of the natural r es important unit for the mana esour ces
12.2 Concept of of watershed watershed mana ge gem ment A watershed is defined as any spatial area from which runoff f
precipi precipi tation is collected and drained through a common point or outlet. In o
wor ds ds, it is a land surface bounded by a divide ivide, which cont contributes ributes runoff t
common point (Fig.12.1). It is i s defined as unit of a of ar ea ea, which covers all the land,
cont contributes ributes runoff to a common point. It is synonymous with a drainage basin catch catchm m ent ar ea ea. The basic unit of development is a water shed shed, which is a manag
hydrological uni unit. The watershed is also known as ridgeline in U.K .
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conservation measur es es. The developmental activities need to be taken up mana gement programm ridgeline to outlet point (ridge to v va alley). Watershed mana
drylands aimed at optimizing the integrated use of land, water and vegetation area for providing an answer to alleviate dr ought, moderate f loods, prevent er osion, improve water availability and increase f oo ood, f odde r , fuel and fibre sustained bas basiis. esour Watershed management implies the wise use of soil and water r es susta inable production and within a given geographical area so as to enable susta
minimize f loods.
Watershed management is the rational utilization of land and w resources for optimum production production with minimum hazard to natural r es esour ces. mana gement has been taken up under different pr ogr am Watershed mana
launched by Gover nment of India .The Drought Prone Area Development Program (DPAP) and the Desert
Development Programme
(DDP) adopted
development approach in in 1987 . The Integrated Watershed
waters
Development Pro
(IWDP) taken up by the Na National Wasteland Development Board (NWDB) in 1
also aimed at development of wastelands on watershed bas basiis. The fourth m
National Watershed Developm program programm me based on watershed concept is the Na
up to vote on this Programme for Rainfed Areas (NWDPRA) underSign the ministry oftitle Agriculture
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watershed development schemes under ministry of Rural development funds watershed
DPAP and IWDP
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-
Minimizing the silting up of the reservoirs and lower fertile lands
-
Protecting vegetative cover throughout cover throughout the yea year
-
Insitu conservation of rain water
-
Safe diversion diversion of surface runoff to storage structures through gr assed assed water ways
-
Stabilization of gullies and cons constt ruction of check dams for in incr easi easing ground water r echar ge.
-
Increasing cropping intensity through inter and sequence cr o ppi pping.
-
Alternate land use systems systems for efficient efficient use of marginal lands
-
Water harvesting for supplemental irrigation
-
Ensuring sustainability of the ecosystem
-
Maximizing farm income through agricultural related activities suc dairy p dairy poultr y, sheep, and goat f ar ming
-
r as Improving in inf r astr uctur al facilities for storage tran trans port and agr icu mar k ke ting
-
Setting up of small scale agro industries and
-
Improving socio-economic status of f ar mer s.
12.4 Objectives of of water waterss he hed d m ana ge gem ment
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management gement is synonymous with soil and w The term watershed mana
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-
Reduction of or gani anic, inorganic and soil p soil pollution
-
Efficient use of natural of natural resources for improving agriculture and allied occupations so as to improve socio- economic conditions of the local residents residents and
-
Expansion of recreation of recreation facilities such as picnic and camping sites.
mana gement program pro gramme me can also be described The objectives of watershed mana
lett ers symbolize the f ollowi symbolic form by the expression: POWER. Here the lett P=
r uit-f i b uel-f r Pr odu ction of f oo ood-f odder -f ue br e-f ish-milk com bi bined sustained basi basis - Pollution contr ol - Prevention of f loods
O=
Over exploitation of resources to be minimized by controlling excessi ences like over gr azing bi biotic inter f fe r en
- Operational practicability of all on farm operations and fol programm es including easy approacha approachability bility to different locations up programm water shed shed W = Water storage at convenient locations for different pur poses - Wild animal and indigenous plant life conservation at selected places E = Erosion contr ol - Ecosystem saf ety - Economic stabi ability - Employment gener ation
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Descr cr iption of 2. Des of w water shed. Basic information has to be collected on Location Ar ea ea, shape and slo pe Climate
Soil - geology, hydr ology, phy physical, chemical and biological p biological pr o per ties, erosion level pecies Vegetation-native ive and cultivated s pe Land capa bi bility Present land use pa use patter n Crop pa Crop patter n, cropping system and management Farming system ado pted Economics of farming Man power resource
Socio economic data 3. Analysis of prob of available available solutions proble lem ms and identification of 4. Designing the technolo technology gy com ponents a. Soil and moisture conservation measuresSign up to vote on this title
b. Run off collection, storage and recycling
c Optimal land use and cropping system
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7. Fixing the time f r of star t, duration of p pr o ject, time frame ra me to show time of s completion of each component activity along with the department
/ agency
to b
involved in each component activity 8. Monitoring and evaluation to assess assess the progress of the project and to sugg modification if an if any y
rese se arc arch h to identify solutions for site-specific pr o blems. 9. On-farm re 10. Organ Organii zational require requireme nt: Crucial component of watershed dev develo pm
is the or gani anization. Land use problems problems can only be tackled in c
project
association with owner s. As such local people should be involved in the p the pr o je
promot promote e such an interaction the size of watershed should be 300-500 ha at m
level and a cluster of about 10 such water sheds sheds could be managed by a sin
organizational uni unit. Watershed development agency at unit level may be an i organization for implementing the pr o ject. Since no project can be successful w
pe peo ple s pa par tici pa pation, the watershed development agency should in p incor ’
organizationall requirement requirement incl selected representatives of the local pe local peo ple. The organizationa
a. Water shed development agency with multidisciplinary staff b. Training to pe to per sonnel c. Training to f ar mer s d. Credit in institution
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Com ponen ts of wate waterr sh ed ma man nag eme nt pr ogr amm e
13.1 Com ponen ts of of water waterss hed managem manageme nt pr ogr amm e The main components of watershed programme ar e: 1. Soil and water conser vation 2. Water ha r vesting ana gement and 3. Crop management
4. Alternate land use systems
conserv at io ion n measur es 13.1.1. Soil and water conserv These measures coupled with water harvesting help to improve the mois
availability in the soil profile and surface water availability for supplemen irr igation. Based on the nature and type of hydraulic barriers and their cost conservation measures in arable lands can be divided into three categor ies: es:
Perman Permanent ent treatments treatments (Hardw (Hardw are tr ea eatments) Semi perm Semi perman an ent treatments (medium sof twar e treatments) and Temporary treatments (sof twar e tr ea eatmenSign ts). up to vote on this title
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Perm rmanent anent me me asures asures:: These measures are provided for improvement of r a. Pe physiography physiography and drainage features of water shed shed aimed at controlling soil er
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Ter errr aces aces:: Bench terr acing: suitable for soils having slopes 16 to 33%. B terraces terraces
reduce both slope length and degree of slo pe. At Ootacam Ootacamund und ero
rate decr eased eased from 39 t/ ha to less than 1.0 t/ ha on 25% sloping land by be
terr acing. b. Semi per perm m anent measur es: These are usually interbund treatments where
sizes are large in conventionally bunded ar ea ea. They are adopted to minimize th velocity of overland f low. These measures may lost for 2 to 5 yea year s. i.
Small section
/ key
line bund s: A small section bund may be cr ea ea
across the slope at half of the vertical bund spacing, which needs to be renovated an interval of 2-3 yea year s.
Leve vell ll ing ing:: Levelling of about 4 to 5 m strips of land above the bu p Le ii. Str i p the bu
across the major land slope help in reducing the velocity of surface f low. Str levelling can be can be done by running blade harrow at an interval of 2 to 4 year s. width on conto iii. Live beds: One or two live beds of 2-3 m width conto ur or on g pur pose. The vegetation on the beds may be annual or peren also serve the pu or perennial nial both. iv. Vegetative or live b arr ier s: One or two barriers of close growing gr ba
or legumes along the bund and at mid length of slope filter thetitle runoff water Sign upcan to vote on this Not useful Useful as recom m ended slow down over land f low. Khus grass is widely recomm vegetative barr
T
(S f t
treatments): These are simple treatments
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a) Selection of crops and cropping systems to suit length of growing seas b) b) Optimum sowing time
c) Fertilizer schedules and balanced use of plant nutrients for crops an pping systems cr o ppi mana gement and package of practices for aberrant for aberrant weather d) Weed mana
pping e) Contingent cr o ppi
na te land use sy 13.4 Alter na syss tems tems:: Alternate land use systems are discuss separately in lecture No.16
ssiif ication) 13.5 Land use classification (land cap capa a bility class
Land capability classification is grouping of soils into different class
according to their capability for intensive use and treatments required for sustai
use. It em phas phas izes the need for using the land only for what it is suited best to rea
optimum r etur ns ns, without land degr ada adation. Land capability classification sys
developed by USDA is useful f or Agr icultur e. Eight land capability classes
recognized and designated by Roman numer icals from I to VIII. The Rom numericals indicates increasing limitations and fewer choices f or practical field
use. Land capability classes from I to IV are suitable for arable crop pr oduction
Signalternate up to vote on thisuse titlesystems Land capability classes from V to VIII are suitable for land
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CLASS I: This group of soils has few limitations on their use. They are deep (> 90
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CLASS III: Soils have moderate to severe limitations. The soil er osion, shallow w per mea bi ively, moderate salinity and low fertility are bility, low moisture r etentive
limitations f or their use. Soils can be used for crop production with spe conservation practices lik e terr acing. Smothering crops such as legumes are
ps. They are represented by ps ideal than row cr o ps represented by red colour in land capability ma ps CLASS IV: These soils will have very severe limitations that reduce the choice
cr o ps. Steep slo pe, severe er osion, shallow soil depth, salinity or alkalinity restr
their use f or profitable crop pr oduction. These lands should be used for c growing crops or grasses with special soil conservation pr actices. CLASS V: These soils generally not suitable for grain crops due to limitations such
rocky soil, faded areas with no drainage f acilities. Pastures can be improved on th class of land. CLASS VI VI:: These soils are suitable for growing growing grasses and forest tr ees ees. Limita are same as those for class V but they are more r igid. Their use may be restricted woodland or wild lif e.
CLASS VII: These have severe limitations even for growing grass and forest t They are steep soils of extremely shallow de pth, used for woodlands and wild lif e
grass CLASS VIII: Not VIII: Not suitable for forest trees and grasslan as on they Signlan up ds to vote thisare title steep, r o
eNot , wild life tc.,useful stony mountains. Land use is restricted to r ecr ea eat ionUseful
Capability classes can be sub divided into sub classes with in each class class b ase base
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Soil and wa watt er co cons erv atio n me me as ur es in water shed
conserv ation pr actices 14.1 In situ soil mo isture conser Storage of rainfall or rain water at the place where rainfall occurs for
effective usage is known as in situ moisture conser vation. This can be achieved
diff er en ent measur es es. Improving the soil surface conditions to increase infiltration rainfall and reduction of runoff are the two basic requirements in dry lands. land configuration determines the ease with which water can
enter the soi
different in situ moisture conservation pr actices which result in changed l configuration are as f ollows.
14.1.1 Ridges and furrows: The field must be formed into ridges and f urr o pe Furrows of 30-45 cm width and 15-20 cm height are formed across the slo pe
furrows guide runoff water safely when rainfall intensity is high and avoid w
stagnation. They collect and store water when rainfall intensity is less. It is suita for medium deep to deep black soils and deep red soils. It can be practiced in
row spaced crops like cotton, maize, chillies, tomato etc. It is not suitable for shal
broad red soils, shallow black soils and sandy sandy/ gravelly soils. It is not suitable f or broad
sown crops and for crops sown at closer row spacing less than 30 cm. Since f urr are formed usually before sowing, sowing by dibbling planting alone is p ossi ssi b bl Sign or up to vote on this titleis p
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ridging:: It is a modification of the above system of ridges and f ur 14.1.2 Tied ridging
wherein the ridges are connected or tied by a small bund at 2-3 m interval along
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formation and sowing simultaneously, thus reducing the delay between r ec
rainfall and sowing (Fig 14 .1). Broad bed furrow has many advantages over oth methods. •
It helps in mo isture stor age
•
Safely dispose off surplus surface runoff without causing er osion
•
Provide better drainage f acilities
•
Facilitate dry seedi seeding
•
It can acc accom ommo mo date a wide range of crop geometry i.e. close as well wide row spacing.
•
It is suitable for both sole cropping and intercropping systems.
•
Sowing can be done with seed dr ills.
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ar tmental bu n d in g 14.1.5 Com p pa bun Small bunds of 15 cm width and 15 cm height are formed in both directions divide the field into small basins or compartments of square or rectangular shape rectangular shape
6 x 6 m to 10 x 10 m size using bund former .They hey are useful for temporar impounding of rain water which facilitates high infiltration resulting in high moi
storage in the soil. Recommended for black soils with with a slope of 0 of 0.5 to 1%.
M
sunf lower , sorghum per f fo r m well in this type of bunding (Fig 14.2).
14.1.6 Scoo ping
Sign up to vote on this title Scooping the soil surface to form small depressions or basins help in r etai
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rain water on the surface for longer periods (Fig 14.3). They also reduce erosion
trapping er oding sedi sediment Studies have shown that runoff under this practice can
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14.1.7 Inte Interr pl plo ot water ha h ar vesting catchm m ent and used in lower portion Water is drawn from part of a small catch lower portion
crop pr oduction. There may be 1: 1 cropped: catchment area or 1:2 catchm cropped ar ea ea.
terrr acing or co co nse nserrv at io ion n bench terr acing 14.1.8 Zingg ter These are developed by A.W.Zingg, in USA. Zingg terracing is practiced in to medium rainfall areas in black soils with contou contourr bun bunds. It is a method method of
shaping wher e lower one third portion portion of the land adjacent to the contour is contour is lev to spread to the runoff water coming from the remaining two third portion portion field .This rainfall multiplication technique ensures at least one good crop in
third area even in low rainfall yea year s. Usually during medi edium rainfall years w intensive crops (like paddy) are cultivated in the levelled portion levelled portion (r eceivin iving a while dry crops are cultivated in the unlevelled (donor) a r ea ea.
14.2 Mechanical / Engine nee e r ing me asu asure ress of soil conser vation When Agronomic measures alone are not adequate, mechanical measures
to be adopted to supplement the agronomic measur es es. Mechanical measures usu
involve cons constt ruction of mechanical barriers across the direction of flow of rainw
. The mechan to retard or r etain runoff and thereby reduce soil losstitle Signand up to water vote on this
measures in include: ude: Contour bund bundii
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14.2.1 Contour bun bunding It is most popular popular in the countr y. Contour bunding consists of narrow apezoidal bunds on conto conto urs to impound runoff water behind them so that it tr ape
gradually infiltrate into the soil for crop use. Contour bunding is gener recommended for areas receiving <600 mm rainfall (low rainfall areas) and
permeable soils up to slopes of about 6%.S pacing be between two bunds is commo
expressed in terms of the V.I.(ver tical interval) which is the difference in eleva between two similar points on two consecutive bunds. The following formula is for determining spacing of bunds bunds. V.I..= S/ a + b
wher e, V.I.= vertical interval (m) between consecutive bunds
S = % slope of land ‘
a and b constants depends on soil and rainfall char acter istics ’
‘
’
The height of the contour bunds contour bunds depends on slope of land, spacing of bu
and maximum intensity ex pected. In deep black soils, conto conto ur bunds ur bunds have bee failure due to cracking of bunds bunds during dry months and water stagnation above bunds for prolonged periods during rainy season (Fig. 14 .4). Sign up to vote on this title
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stagnation. In case of highly impermeable soils like deep black soils graded bunds
recommended even in lesser rainfall area (500 mm) as in case of Bellary region
constt ructed on upstream side of bund natak a. Water flows in graded channels cons K ar na
non-erosive velocities and is led to safe outlets outlets or grassed water ways. Chan
portion of the graded bunds is put under cultivation and the grassed waterways ass . permanently permanently kept under gr ass 14.2.3 Bench terr acing: pes, where mere reduction Bench terracing terracing is practiced in steep hill slo pes slope length is not adequate for reducing the intensity of scouring action of flowing down. In addition to slope length r edu eduction, the degree of slope is
r edu educed. Bench terracing consists of transforming relatively steep land into a se platforms across the slo pe pe to reduce the slope length of level strips or platforms
of ben enches by excavating consequently er osion. The field is made into a series of b from upper part and filling in the lower part of terr ace. It is normally pr actic slopes > 14% i.e. from 16 to 33 %. Depending on soil, climate and crop requirements ben bench terr aces m table top or level, sloping outwards or sloping inwards (Fig. 14 .5).
be nch nch terr ace Type of be Table top or level terr aces
Suitability Suitable for medium rainfall areas Useful Not useful mm (750 ) with even distribution and highly pe highly per meable deep soils. Sign up to vote on this title
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14.2.4 Gully contr ol: Gullies the result of sheet and rill erosion left uncheck ed ed. The basic a ppr
to gully control involves reduction of peak flow rates through the gully and provi of channel f or the runoff water . Agronomic measures of soil conservation
cont conto o ur cultiva ivation, str i p p cr o ppi pping, cover cr o ps, mulching etc., aid in reducing peak flow rates through gullies. The provision of the stable channel for the flow must be handled is accomplished by stabi abilizing the gully sides and bed establishing vegetation. Temporary structures such as brush check wood dams
rock dams, rock fill dams and woven wire dams, and perman perman ent structures su chute spill ways, drop spill ways, conc concrete rete check dams and pipe spill ways practiced f or reducing channel gradient to maintain velocities below erosive
(Fig. 14.6 and 14.7).
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arr ier s: 14.2.5 Vege tative b ba These are the rows of closely planted grass or o r shrub along the conto conto urs erosion control in Agricultural lands. They check the velocity of runoff and retain
sediment by by acting as barrier to r unoff . Khus Khus (Vetive r ia zyzynoides) is the m recommended plant for this pur pose. Gr ass ed waterways: These are drainage channels either developed by shaping
existing
drainage ways
constructed ructed separately separate ly for effecting or const
drainage
agr icultur al lands. They are used to handle r unoff , discharge from graded bu broad base terraces and ben and bench terr aces. Objectives of grassed water ways 1. To provide drainage to agricultural lands 2. To convert unsta unsta ble channels or gullies into stable channels by p by pr ovi grass cover ponds 3. For leading water at non erosive velocity into farm farm p Grassed water ways are normally dug to a shallow depth of 0 of 0.15 to 0.5
constt ructed one or two seasons ahead of the const They are cons const ruction of channe
terr aces. ress try Mea sur es: 14.3 Fore
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Forest lands are usually found at higher elevations where the slopes steepest soils are less stable and easily eroded and precipi heavy precipi tation is heavy
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Stabilizing the surfaces of water ways, cont conto o ur bunds ur bunds and front faces bench terr aces
-
Stabilizing the gully slopes and sides
-
Preventing wind er osion
The desirable characters of grasses for soil conservation ar e: o
Should be pe be per enni ennial
o
Drought r esi esistant
o
R hizomnif er ous
o
py Develop good cano py
o
Deep root system
o
Prostate growth ha bi bit
o
Less pal Less palatable atable to cattle
o
Useful for cottage in industr ies
Useful gr asses: asses: Cenchr us ciliar is, Chlor is guyana, Cynodon dactylon, Dicanthium annul Sign up to vote on this title idotale Not useful Heteropogan contor tus, Iseilema laxum, Panicum antUseful
Legumes es::
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Lectur e No. 15 Water harvesting and life saving irr igation 15.1 Intr odu ction
Rainwater is the key input in dryland agr icultur e. In a tropical country such
India which experiences extreme variation in rainfall both in space and tim
mana gement assumes vital importance in cutting down risks and stabiliz water mana
production in dr y ar eas crop production eas. When rains are received with an intensity far reach infiltration r ate, runoff is in inevitable. It varies from 10 to 40% of total r ainf all. Of
at least 30% can be harvested into water stor age str uctur es es. 15.2 Water Har vesting The process of runoff collection during periods of peak rainfall in sto
tank s, ponds etc., is known as water har vesting. It is a process of collection of ru
r om treated or untreated catchm m ents or roof tops and storin water f r or untreated land sur f fa ces/ catch r ese in an open farm pond or closed water tank s/ r eser voir s or in the soil itself (in mo isture isture storage) storage) for irrigation or drinking pur poses. Runoff farming and rainwater harvesting agriculture are synonymous t which imply that farming is done in dry areas by means of runoff from a catch
Runoff farming is basically a water harvesting system specially designed to prov
up to vote on this titleperiods of , especially supplemental or life savi savin ng irrigation to cr o psSign during
moisture str ess ess.
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catch catchm m ent ar ea ea, only the excess rainfall is collected and stor ed ed. However , se methods of water harvesting are used both in arid and semiarid r egions.
15.2.1 Inducing R un un off Rain water harvesting is possible even in areas with as little as 50 to 80 average annual r ainf all. Ancient desert dwellers harvested rain by redirecting water r unni unning down the slopes into fields or cister ns ns. This small amount of collected over large area may be useful for supplying water to small villages, holds, cattle etc., For collection of h of higher amount of r ainf all, runoff is induced e by land alteration or by chemical tr ea eatment. a) Land Alter ations: Clearing away rocks and vegetation and compacting the surface can increase r unoff . However , land alteration may lead to soil erosion
where slope is is r edu educed. When erosion is not excessive and low cost hill side lan ava availa ble, land alteration can be be very economical way to harvest rain water in
lands. atment:: A promising promising method for harvesting rain water is to b) Chemical Tre atment
soils with chemicals that fill pores or make soil repellan repe llantt to water . Some materi used for this purpose purpose are sodium salts of s of silicon, latexes, asphalt and wax. 15.2.3 Methods of Water Har vesting
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The different methods of water harvesting that are followed in arid semiarid regions are discussed
t l
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method for use in such a situation. Flood waters are deliberately diverted from
nat nat ural courses and spread over adjacent plains. The water is diverted or retarded or retarded
ditches, dik es es, small dams or brush f en ences. The wet flood plains or valley floods used to grow cr o ps.
Microc oc atchm atchme e nts nts:: A plant can grow in a region with too little rainfall for b) Micr
catchm ent basin is built around it. At the lowest point wi survival if a rain water catchm
each micr ocatchment, a basin is dug about 40 cm deep and a tree is planted in i basin stores the r un unoff from micr ocatchment.
water ha rv rves es ting sys tems: Tank a, nadi c) Tr ad itional water nadi, khadin are the im po
of R a jasthan . Tanka is an underground tank traditional water harvesting systems of R constt ructed for collection and storage of runoff water from natural catch cister n cons catch catchm m ent or from a roof to p. or artificially pr epa epar ed ed catch masona na ry or cement conc The vertical walls are lined with stone maso concrete rete and
base with 10 cm thick concr ete. The capacity of the tank ranges from 1000
constt ructed for storing water from natu 6,00,000 l, Nadi or village pond is cons
catchments. The capacity of nadis ranges from 1200 m3 to 15000 m3- .K ha
catchm hm ents are colle unique land use system where in in run off water from rocky catc
in valley plains during rainy season. Crops are grown in the winter season water is receded in shallow pond on the residual mSign oistup ur to e. vote on this title
15.2.3.2 Semiar id R egions
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ends of the tank bund to dispose of excess water . The sluice is provided in the cen area of the tank bund to allow controlled flow of water into the command ar ea ea. c) Per Perco coll at io ion n Tanks Tanks:: Flowing rivulets rivulets or big gullies are obstructed and water
percolatt es into the soil ponded. Water from the ponds percola soil and raises the water table percolatt ion the r egion. The improved water level in the wells lower down the percola
are used for su for su pplemental irrigation (Fig.15.1)
Sign up to vote d) Farm Ponds: These are small storage structures for ectthis iontitleand storage collon
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runoff water . Depending upon their cons construction truction and suitability to diff e topographic conditions farm ponds are classified as
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continuously wet, but cracks develop when dr ied. Soil-cement mixture can be used soil-cement lining of 100 mm thickness reduces seepage losses up to 100 per
The pit lined continuously develops cracks but no cracks develop when applied native ive sealant for alfisols is a mixture of red soil and black block s. The other alter na in the ratio of 1: 2. In arid and semi-arid r egions, rains are sometimes received in heavy d
pours resulting in r un unoff . The runoff event ranges from 4 to 8 during the rain sea
in arid and semi-arid r egion. The percen The percentage tage of runoff ranges from 10 to 30% of t
r ainf all. The size of the f ar m pond depends on the r ainf all, slope of the soil
catch catchm m ent ar ea ea. The dimensions may be in in the range of 10 m x 10 m x 2.5 m to 15 m
constt ruc 15 m x 3.5 m. The side slope 1.5: 1 is considered suff icient. A silt trap is cons
with a width of slightly higher than the water course and depth of 0 of 0.5 to 1 m and side slope of 1 of 1.5: 1. The different types of lining materials are soil-cement, red and black pitching, polythene sheet etc.,( Fi cement-concr ete, br ick s, Kadapa slabs, stone pi
to 15.4) In alluvial sandy loam to loamy sand soils of Gujarat and red sandy lo soils of Bangalor e, a soil + cement (8 : 1) mixture is" the best be st lining mater ial. Att
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Fig .15.3 Farm Pond lined with Cement Br ick s
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stored for two two months in deep heavy soils soils with out lining at Nandyal (AP). Clay
linings are generally the most economical. Evaporation losses can be reduced in f
ponds especially in arid arid regions by rubber or plastic plastic f loats. White plastic shee economical and easily availa ble. Farm pond technology is economically vi
Studies undertaken in the Jhanwar model water shed shed in Rajasthan showed that w harvesting in a farm pond of size 271 m3 and utilizing the water for supp lem
irrigation is economically vi via a ble.
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15.3 Supp lemental irrigation
/ life
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irrigation rigation wa watt er : Crops differ in responding to amount a) Qua uantity ntity of ir amount of irr ig
water by supplemented irrigation during dry spell. Gr oundnut responds to 10 mm
irr igation thr ough sprinkler on sprinkler on affisols during pod development stage. The benefi supplemental irr igation lost for one week . Cotton needs a minimum of 30 m
water to respond to irrigation applied either by sprinkler or sprinkler or drip irrigation system
ver tisols. Chickpea similarly need 30 to 40 mm of supplemental irrigation applied drip or sprinkler irrigation
during f lower ing. Pigeonpea responds to 20
irrigation water applied at pod development stage with drip irr igation. Irr igatio
be provided near the r ow, covering about 20% of the cropped ar ea ea, leaving 80% interr ow zone. Pot water ing, applying small quantity of water (around 250
manually to each hill, is highly useful either for sowing or for trans trans plant planting ing in wid spaced crops like cott on, R ed edgr am, castor , tomato, tobacco etc. Similar l to protect the seedlings during early cr o p growth stage is highly usef u watering to protect amount of water , if calculated over the entire ar ea ea, works out less than 5 mm exam ple, pot watering cotton seedlings at 250 ml/ hill works out 5,000 1/ ha ha
works out to 5 mm. Productivity of harvested water can be increased by apply
small quantity of water to large areas than heavy irrigation to small ar ea ea. If r occur immediately after irr igation, there will be no impact of irrigation and in b in b soil, it may reduce yie yield. Sign up to vote on this title b) Time of irrigation: of irrigation: Unlike in irrigated agr icultur e, the critical stage concept Useful Not useful
not suit well, as dry spell may reduce reduce the growth growth and yield of crop at any
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with out conveyances losses (Fig15.6). Subsurface drip irrigation is very efficient
providing supplemental irr igation. The main drawback of micro-irrigation system
high initial cost of the system. Pot watering is another efficient another efficient method being used the f ar mer s for tr ansp ansplanting crops like to ba bacco, chilly, tomato etc.,
d) Economics of water ha ha rvesting and use of water for s for so ha rves ting ting:: Water harvesting
and supplemental irrigation increase the productivity of wheat and onion i productivity Sign up to vote on this title Not mountainous watershed in Himachal Pr adesh benefit-co benefitst useful adesh . TheUseful ratio ranges cost
0.41 to 1.33 for water harvesting structures of different sizes with an estimated life
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c) End pr o blems: The final effects of watershed degradation i.e. soil er osion,
slides, heavy sedi sedimentation, water pollution, floods and droughts must be identi as quickly as possi ssi b ble. By analyzing the information like histor y, frequency extent of these problems these problems can b can be e deter mined. d) Socio eco nomic and other pr o blems: Serious sicio economic problems problems can
major obstacles in carrying out watershed wor k k. Any serious problem should identified at the beginning of the stage. These may include land tenur e, pover t of edu of education, low acceptance of inn innovations, seasonal shortage of labour etc.,
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na te land use systems – agr of or estr y syste Alter na
16.1 Intr odu ction Land use planning is a scientific evaluation of land area in question, study existing land use and their capabi apabilities, suggesting alternative uses and predict
pact to arrive at sound decisions for sustained land use. Land use is possible im pa application of human control of natural of natural ecosystems in a relatively systematic systematic m in order to derive benefits from it. Soils of the SAT regions are poor in f er tility, structurally degr aded aded, undu l patia in topography and mostly shallow in de pth. Since land resources vary s pa
drylands are not suitable for arable f ar ming. Soils belonging to land capability cla
ver y suitable to arable farming due to certain inher IV and above are not ve
limitations. Sustainable dryland agr icultur e demands land capability based altern mana gement str ategies. land use technologies and mana
na te land use sy 16.2 Alter na syss tem temss A pattern pattern of land use that is different from the existing or the conventional
be described as an alternative land use system. The term alternate land use applicable to all classes of land to generate assured income with minimum
up to vote onof alternative this title through efficient use of available r es esour ces. TheSign advantages of alternative land
systems ar e
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ley f ar ming. The possible alternate land uses as per land capability cap ability classification rainfall is furnished in Fig.16.1
Possib ible le alternate alternat e land uses as influenced by r esour ce Fig. 16.1 Poss (LCC and mean annual rainfall) capability (Katyal et al., 1994 16.3 Agr of or estr y Agroforestry may be defined as an integrated self sustained land managem
components r eSign system, which involves deliberate intr oduction/ r of woody tenup tioton vote on this title
Useful Not agr icultur al cr o ps including pastur e/ lives ivestock , simultaneously oruseful sequentially peo ple same unit of land, meeting the ecological and socio-economic needs of pe
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16.3.1 Agr i-silvicultur e This alternate land use system combines perennial perennial arboreals arboreals with ann
arable cr o ps. It integrate crops and tr ees ees. Tree component gives f odder , fue
tim ber , includi uding green leaf manur e. It is ideal for class IV soils of drylands annual rainfall around 750 mm. Eg: Leucaena leucocephala + Sor ghum Sesbania aegyptica + Pulses
pa stor al system 16.3.2 Silvi- pa prima rily meant for augmenting the scarce fodder supp This system is prima fodder supp ly.
system integrate pasture and/ or animals with trees (Fig.16.2). Eg: Acacia + Cenchrus + Stylosanthus Sissoo + Cenchrus + Stylosanthus
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in the interspaces of fruit tr ees ees. Some of the fruit trees that can be considered
uava, pomogr ana anate, custard apple, sapota and mango. Pulses are the import guav arable crops f or this system (Fig.16 .3). However , depending on the r equi equir em crops like sorghum and pearl millet can be grown in the interspaces of fruit tr ees ees
pa a storal system 16.3.5 Hor ti - p
Horti-pastoral system is an agroforestry system involving integration of f
pastur e. Guava, custard apple and ber suits well in an horti pas trees with pas
system with grasses lik e Cenchr us ciliaris (an jan) an), Panicum antidotale (blue pan
nato(rhodes) Dicanthicum annulatum (marvel) and Chlor is gSign ayaup vote on thisand title legumes Stylosanthus
hamata
(stylo)
Stylosanthus
atropurpureu atropurpureu m (siratro) (siratro) ( Fig.16 .4).
Useful Not useful scar ba (stylo) and Macr o p
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16.3.6 Alley cr o p pp p in g
Food crops are grown in alleys formed by hedge rows of trees or shrubs arable lands. It is also known as hedgero hedgerow w intercr intercro o pping or avenue cro crop p
Hedgerows ar e cut back at about one meter height at planting and kept pru during cropping to pr event shading and to reduce competition with food cr o ps pics, prima recommended for humid tr o pi prima rily as an alternative to shifting cultiva ivat
semiarid regions of Indi ndia, alley cropping provide f odder during dry period s
mulching the crop with hedgerow prunings prunings usually does not cont contribute ribute to increa crop p crop pr oduction. Advantages of alley cropping ar e: •
Provision of green fodder during lean period of the yea year
•
production per unit area than arable crops alone Higher total biomass production
•
Efficient use of off-season precip off-season precipii tation in the absence of a crop
•
Additional employment dur ing off -season
•
It serves as a barrier to surface runoff leading to soil and wa
conser vation. Based on the o b jectives ives, three types of alley systems are r ecognised. •
Forage-alley cr o ppi pping,
•
Forage-cum-mulch system, and
•
Forage-cum-pole system.
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seas on. A Leucaena plant for every 2 m along along hedgerows is allowed to grow int pole. 16.3.7 Tree f ar ming Trees can flourish and yield abundantly where arable crops are not p not pr of it
Farmers of drylands are inclined to tree farming because of labour cost, scarcity
r equen peak periods of farm operations and f r equent crop failure due to dr ought. A num of multipurpose tree systems (MPTS) have been tested for their suitability profitability profitability under different situations.
Trees rees fo forr areas where ann ann ua l rainfall less tha tha n 500 mm: Acacia nilo Acacia aneur a, Acacia tor tilis, Acacia a b lbida, Prosopis ciner ar ia, Prosopis jul
Pithecallo bium dulce, Leucaena leucoce phala,. Tamarindus indica etc., Trees rees fo forr areas where ann ann ua l r ainf all less tha tha n 500 mm: Acacia nilo
l bizzia le bbek , Azadir achta indica, Casuar ina equisetif olia, C Acacia f err uginea, A b l ber gia sissoo etc., stur ti, Da b 16.3.8 Tim Timb ber -cum-fibre sy sys tem (TIMFIB) It involves growing trees and and peren same p perennial nial fibre crops together on together on the same p of land.Subabul intercropping with agave appears to be more remunerative Bijapur area of K ar na natak a.. 16.4 Ley f ar ming
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ABBREVIATION AICRPD
:
All India Coordinated Research Project on Dryland Agr icultur Hyder a bad bad
AISSLUP
:
All India Soil Survey and Land Use Planni anning, New Delhi
CAZR
:
Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur
I
:
Central Ground Water Boar d, New Delhi
CGW
:
Central Institute of Agricultural Engineer ing, Bho pal
B
:
Canadian International Development Agency
CIAE
:
Central Research Institute for Dryland Agr icultur e, Hyder abad abad
CIDA
:
Central Soil and Water Conservation Research and Tr aining Institute, Dehr adun adun
DDP
:
Desert Development Pr ogr amm e
EGP
:
Effective Growing Period
GIS
:
Geogr aphi aphical Information System
ICARD
:
International Centre for Agriculture Research on Dry Ar eas eas, Aleppo, Syria
ICRAF
:
International Centre for Research on Agr of or es estr y, Na Nair o bi bi, K
ICRISA
:
pics International Crops Research Institute for Semi-Arid T r o pi Hyder abad abad
IGFRI
:
Institute, Jhansi Indian Grassland and Fodder Research hansi Sign up to vote on this title
IWDP
:
Useful Integrated Watershed Development Pr o j ectNot useful
LCC
:
Land Capability Class ass
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R ef er ences Ar non I, 1992. Agriculture in Drylands- Principles and Pr actices, I, Elsevier Pub London
Dhruva Nar ayana V V, Sastr y G S and Patnaiak V S, 1999. Watershed Managem in Indi ndia, ICAR, New Delhi Gupta U S, 1975 .
Physiological Aspects of Dryland Far ming, Oxford and I
Publishers Co. Co . Ltd., New Delhi
ICAR, 1970. A new Technology for Dryland Far ming, ICAR Pu blication, New Delh Mohd Shah id and Mohd Raza, 1987. Dryland Agriculture in Indi ndia, R pur Publications, Jai pu
ana gement in India, Willey Eastern Publishe Murthy J V S, 1994. Watershed management
New Delhi Sha r ma B L, 199 1. Dryland Farming- Perspectives and Pr ospects, Daya Publi
House, New Delhi
en k ateswar lu B, 1992. Dryland Agriculture – St Somani L L, Vitt al K P R and Venk Research in Indi ndia, Scientific Pub., Jodhpur Sign up to vote on this title
Principles of Agr onom Yellamanda Reddy T and Sanka r Reddy G H, 1995. Useful Not useful Kalyani Publisher s, Ludhi udhiana
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