ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS Wayne Tomasi, 5th edition
Introduction to Electronic Communications Electricity began in 1837 when Samuel Finley Breese Morse invented the first workable telegraph. In 1894, Marchese Guglielmo Marconi successfully transmitted the first wireless radio signals through Earth’s atmosphere. In 1906, Lee DeForest invented the triode vacuum tube. Commercial radio broadcasting began in 1920 when radio station KDKA began broadcasting amplitude-modulated (AM) signals out of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. In 1931, Major Edwin Howard Armstrong patented frequency modulation (FM).
A standard voice-band channel occupies approximately a 3-kHz bandwidth and is used for transmission of voice-quality signals; commercial AM broadcast channels occupy approximately a 10-kHz frequency band, and 30MHz or more of bandwidth is required for microwave and satellite radio channels. The process of converting a frequency or band of frequencies to another location in the total frequency spectrum is called frequency translation. Frequency is simply the number of times a periodic motion, such as a sine wave of voltage or current, occurs in a given period of time. Each complete alternation of the waveform is called a cycle. The basic unit of frequency is hertz (Hz), and one hertz equals one cycle per second (1 Hz = 1 cps).
Commercial broadcasting of monophonic FM began in 1935. The decibel (abbreviated dB) is a logarithmic unit that can be used to measure ratios of virtually anything. Zero dB-SPL is the threshold of hearing.
The International Telecommunications Union (ITU) is an international agency in control of allocating frequencies and services within the overall frequency spectrum. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) assigns frequencies and communications services for free-space radio propagation.
The threshold of pain is approximately 120 dB-SPL. dB represents the ratio of the signal level at one point in a circuit to the signal level at another point in a circuit. A power loss is sometimes called attenuation. dBm is a unit of measurement used to indicate the ratio of a power level with respect to a fixed reference level. When power levels are given in watts and power gains are given as absolute values, the output power is determined by simply multiplying the input power times the power gain. Modulation is simply the process of changing one or more properties of the analog carrier in proportion with the information signal. Digital transmission is a true digital system where digital pulses are transferred between two or more points in a communications system. Digital radio is the transmittal of digitally modulated analog carriers between two or more points in a communications system. If the information is analog and the amplitude (V) of the carrier is varied proportional to the information signal, amplitude modulation (AM) is produced. If the frequency (f) is varied proportional to the information signal, frequency modulation (FM) is produced, and, if phase is varied proportional to the information signal, phase modulation (PM) is produced. If the information signal is digital and the amplitude (V) of the carrier is varied proportional to the information signal, a digitally modulated signal known as amplitude shift keying (ASK) is produced. If the frequency (f) is varied proportional to the information signal, frequency shift keying (FSK) is produced, and, if the phase is varied proportional to the information signal, phase shift keying (PSK) is produced. If both the amplitude and the phase are varied proportional to the information signal, quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) results. ASK, FSK, PSK, and QAM are forms of digital modulation. The term channel is often used to refer to a specific band of frequencies allocated a particular service.
Commercial FM broadcast band has been assigned the 88-MHz to 108MHz band. Extremely low frequencies. Extremely low frequencies (ELFs) are signals in the 30-Hz to 300-Hz range and include ac power distribution signals (60 Hz) and low-frequency telemetry signals. Voice frequencies. Voice frequencies (VFs) are signals in the 300-Hz to 3000-Hz range and include frequencies generally associated with human speech. Standard telephone channels have a 300-Hz to 3000-Hz bandwidth and are often called voice-frequency or voice-band channels. Very low frequencies. Very low frequencies (VLFs) are signals in the 3kHz to 30-kHz range, which include the upper end of the human hearing range. VLFs are used for some specialized government and military system, such as submarine communications. Low frequencies. Low frequencies (LFs) are signals in the 30-kHz to 300-kHz range and are used primarily for marine and aeronautical navigation. Medium frequencies. Medium frequencies (MFs) are signals in the 300kHz to 3-MHz range and are used primarily for commercial AM radio broadcasting (535 kHz to 1605 kHz). High frequencies. High frequencies (HFs) are signals in the 3-MHz to 30-MHz range and are often referred to as short waves. Most two-way radio communications use this range. Very high frequencies. Very high frequencies (VHFs) are signals in the 30-MHz to 300-MHz range and are used for mobile radio, marine and aeronautical communications, commercial FM broadcasting (88 MHz to 108 MHz), and commercial television broadcasting of channels 2 to 13 (54 MHz to 216 MHz). Ultrahigh frequencies. Ultrahigh frequencies (UHFs) are signals in the 300-MHz to 3-GHz range and are used by commercial television broadcasting of channels 14 to 83, land mobile communications services, cellular telephones, certain radar and navigation systems, and microwave and satellite radio system. Superhigh frequencies. Superhigh frequencies (SHFs) are signals in the 3-GHz to 30-GHz range and include the majority of the frequencies used for microwave and satellite radio communication systems.
Extremely high frequencies. Extremely high frequencies (EHFs) are signals in the 30-GHz to 300-GHz range and are seldom used for radio communications except in very sophisticated, expensive, and specialized applications.
Atmospheric noise is naturally occurring electrical disturbances that originate within Earth’s atmosphere. Atmospheric noise is commonly called static noise. The source of most static electricity is naturally occurring electrical conditions, such as lightning.
Infrared. Infrared frequencies are signals in the 0.3-THz to 300-THz range and are not generally referred to as radio waves. Infrared refers to electromagnetic radiation generally associated with heat.
Consequently, at frequencies above 30 MHz or so, atmospheric noise relatively insignificant.
Visible light. Visible light includes electromagnetic frequencies that fall within the visible range of humans (0.3 PHz to 3PHz). Light-wave communications is used with optical fiber systems.
Extraterrestrial noise consists of electrical signals that originate from outside Earth’s atmosphere and is therefore sometimes called deepspace noise.
Wavelength is the length that one cycle of an electromagnetic wave occupies in space (i.e., the distance between similar points in a repetitive wave).
Solar noise is generated directly from the sun’s heat. There are two parts to solar noise: a quiet condition, when a relatively constant radiation intensity exists, and high intensity, sporadic disturbances caused by sunspot activity and solar flare-ups
Wavelength is inversely proportional to the frequency of the wave and directly proportional to the velocity of propagation (the velocity of propagation of electromagnetic energy in free space is assumed to be the speed of light, 3 X 10^8 m/s). The emission classifications are identified by a three-symbol code containing a combination of letters and numbers. The first symbol is a letter that designates the type of modulation of the main carrier. The second symbol is a number that identifies the type of emission, and the third symbol is another letter that describes the type of information being transmitted. The bandwidth of an information signal is simply the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies contained in the information, and the bandwidth of a communications channel is the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies that the channel will allow to pass through it Information theory is a highly theoretical study of the efficient use of bandwidth to propagate information through electronic communication systems. Information theory can be used to determine the information capacity of a data communications system.
Cosmic noise sources are continuously distributed throughout the galaxies. Cosmic noise is often called black-body noise and is distributed fairly evenly throughout the sky. Man-made noise is simply noise that is produced by mankind. Man-made noise is impulsive in nature and contains a wide range of frequencies that are propagated through space in the same manner as radio waves. Man-made noise is most intense in the more densely populated metropolitan and industrial areas and is therefore sometimes called industrial noise. Internal noise is electrical interference generated within a device or circuit. Shot noise is caused by the random arrival of carriers (holes and electrons) at the output element of an electronic device, such as diode, field-effect transistor, or bipolar transistor.
Information capacity is a measure of how much information can be propagated through a communications system and is a function of bandwidth and transmission line.
Shot noise is randomly varying and is superimposed onto any signal present.
The most basic digital symbol used to represent information is the binary digit or bit.
Shot noise is sometimes called transistor noise and is additive with thermal noise.
In 1928, R. Hartley of Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a useful relationship among bandwidth, transmission time, and information capacity.
Any modification to a stream of carriers as they pass from the input to the output of a device (such as from the emitter to the collector of a transistor) produces an irregular, random variation categorized as transit-time noise.
In 1948, mathematician Claude E. Shannon (also of Bell Telephone Laboratories) published a paper in the Bell System Technical Journal relating the information capacity of a communications channel to bandwidth and signal-to-noise ratio. The higher the signal-to-noise ratio, the better the performance and the higher the information capacity. Electrical noise is defined as any undesirable electrical energy that falls within the passband of the signal.
Thermal noise is associated with the rapid and random movement of electrons within a conductor due to thermal agitation. Because this type of electron movement is totally random and in all directions, it is sometimes called random noise. Thermal noise is present communications systems.
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Uncorrelated noise is present regardless of whether there is a signal present or not.
The ac component produced from thermal agitation has several names, including thermal noise, because it is temperature dependent; Brownian noise, after its discoverer; Johnson noise, after the man who related Brownian particle movement of electron movement; and white noise because the random movement is at all frequencies. Hence, thermal noise is the random motion of free electrons within a conductor caused by thermal agitation.
External noise is noise that is generated outside the device or circuit.
To convert ‘C to Kelvin, simply add 273’; thus T = ‘C + 273’.
Correlated noise exists only when a signal is present. Uncorrelated noise, on the other hand, is present all the time whether there is a signal or not.
Correlated noise is a form of internal noise that is correlated (mutually related) to the signal and cannot be present in a circuit unless there is a signal. Correlated noise is produced by nonlinear amplification and includes harmonic and intermodulation distortion, both of which are forms of nonlinear distortion. Harmonic distortion occurs when unwanted harmonics of a signal are produced through nonlinear amplification (nonlinear mixing). The original signal is the first harmonic and is called the fundamental frequency. Amplitude distortion is another name for harmonic distortion. Total harmonic distortion (TDH) is the ratio of the quadratic sum of the rms values of all the higher harmonics to the rms value of the fundamental. Intermodulation distortion is the generation of unwanted sum and difference frequencies produced when two or more signals mix in a nonlinear device. The sum and difference frequencies are called cross products. Impulse noise is characterized by high-amplitude peaks of short duration in the total noise spectrum. As the name implies, impulse noise consists of sudden bursts of irregularly shaped pulses that generally last between a few microseconds and several milliseconds, depending on their amplitude and origin. Common sources of impulse noise include transients produced from electromechanical switches (such as relays and solenoids), electric motors, appliances, electric lights (especially fluorescent), power lines, automotive ignition system, poor-quality solder joints, and lightning. Signal-to-noise power ratio (S/N) is the ratio of the signal power level to the noise power level. Noise factor (F) and noise figure (NF) are figures of merit used to indicate how much the signal-to-noise ratio deteriorates as a signal passes through a circuit or series of circuits. Noise factor is simply a ratio of input signal-to-noise power ratio to output signal-to-noise power ratio.
Signal Analysis and Mixing Signal analysis is the mathematical analysis of the frequency, bandwidth, and voltage level of a signal. Electrical signals are voltage- or current-time variations that can be represented by a series of sine or cosine waves. A description of a signal with respect to time is called a time-domain representation. A standard oscilloscope is a time-domain instrument. The display on the cathode ray tube (CRT) is an amplitude-versus-time representation of the signal and is commonly called a signal waveform. With an oscilloscope, the vertical deflection is proportional to the amplitude of the input signals, and horizontal deflection is a function of time (sweep rate). A description of a signal with respect to its frequency is called a frequency-domain representation. A spectrum analyzer is a frequencydomain instrument. With a spectrum analyzer, the horizontal axis represents frequency and the vertical axis amplitude. Any repetitive waveform that is comprised of more than one harmonically related sine or cosine wave is a nonsinusoidal, complex wave. To analyze a complex periodic wave, it is necessary to use a mathematical series developed in 1826 by the French physicist and mathematician Baron Jean Fourier. This series is appropriately called the Fourier series. Fourier analysis is a mathematical tool that allows us to move back and forth between the time and frequency domains. The Fourier series is used in signal analysis to represent the sinusoidal components of nonsinusoidal periodic waveforms. Any periodic waveform is comprised of an average dc component and a series of harmonically related sine or cosine waves. A harmonic is an integral multiple of the fundamental frequency. The fundamental frequency is the first harmonic and is equal to the frequency (repetition rate) of the waveform. The fundamental frequency is the minimum frequency necessary to represent a waveform. Wave symmetry describes the symmetry of a waveform in the time domain, that is, its relative position with respect to the horizontal (time) and vertical (amplitude) axes. If a periodic voltage waveform is symmetric about the vertical axis, it is said to have axes, or mirror, symmetry and is called an even function. If a periodic voltage waveform is symmetric about a line between the vertical axis and the negative horizontal axis and passing through the coordinate origin, it is said to have point, or skew, symmetry and is called an odd function. If a periodic voltage waveform is such that the waveform for the first half cycle repeats itself except with the opposite sign for the second half cycle, it is said to have half-wave symmetry. Frequency spectrum of a waveform consists of all the frequencies contained in the waveform and their respective amplitudes plotted in the frequency domain.
The bandwidth of a frequency spectrum is the range of frequencies contained in the spectrum. The bandwidth is calculated by subtracting the lowest frequency from the highest. The bandwidth of an information signal is simply the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies contained in the information, and the bandwidth of a communications channel is the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies that the channel will allow to pass through it. When analyzing electronic communications circuits, it is often necessary to use a rectangular pulse. The duty cycle (DC) for the waveform is the ratio of the active time of the pulse to the period of the waveform. Electrical power is the rate at which energy is dissipated, delivered, or used and is a function of the square of the voltage or current. With the discrete Fourier transform, a time-domain signal is sampled at discrete times. The samples are fed into a computer where an algorithm computes the transform. In 1965 a new algorithm called the fast Fourier transform (FFT) was developed by Cooley and Tukey. With the FFT the computing time is proportional to n log 2n rather than n^2. We can consider a communications channel to be equivalent to an ideal linear-phase filter with a finite bandwidth. In a communications system, bandlimiting reduces the information capacity of the system, and, if excessive bandlimiting is imposed, a portion of the information signal can be removed from the composite waveform. Mixing is the process of combining two or more signals and is an essential process in electronic communications. Linear summing occurs when two or more signals combine in a linear device, such as a passive network or a small-signal amplifier. In radio communications, mixing almost always implies a nonlinear process. Nonlinear mixing occurs when two or more signals are combined in a nonlinear device such as a diode or large-signal amplifier. With nonlinear mixing, the input signals combine in a nonlinear fashion and produce additional frequency components. Integer multiples of a base frequency are called harmonics. Nonlinear amplification of a single frequency results in the generation of multiples or harmonics of the frequency. If the harmonics are undesired, it is called harmonic distortion. If the harmonics are desired, it is called frequency multiplication. A JFET is a special-case nonlinear device that has characteristics that are approximately those of a square-law device. The cross products are sum and the difference frequencies. If the cross products are undesired, it is called intermodulation distortion. If the cross products are desired, it is called modulation. Intermodulation distortion is the generation of any unwanted crossproduct frequency when two or more frequencies are mixed in a nonlinear device.
Digital Modulation Electronic Communications is the transmission, reception and the processing of information with the use of electronic circuits. Information is defined as knowledge communicated between two or more points.
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Digital modulation is the transmittal of digitally modulated analog signals (carriers) between two or more points in a communications system. Digital modulation is sometimes called digital radio because digitally modulated signals can be propagated through Earth’s atmosphere and used in wireless communications systems. Digital Communications include systems where relatively high frequency analog carriers are modulated by relatively low frequency digital information signals (digital radio) and systems involving the transmission of digital pulses. If the information signal is digital and the amplitude of the carrier is varied proportional to the information signal, a digitally modulated signal called amplitude shift keying (ASK) is produced.
The minimum theoretical bandwidth necessary to propagate a signal is called minimum Nyquist bandwidth or sometimes called minimum Nyquist frequency. The simplest digital modulation technique is amplitude-shift keying (ASK), where a binary information signal directly modulates the amplitude of an analog carrier. Amplitude-shift keying modulation (DAM).
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Amplitude-shift keying is sometimes referred to as a on-off keying (OOK). Frequency-shift keying (FSK) is another relatively simple, low performance type of digital modulation. FSK is a form of constant amplitude angle modulation similarly to standard frequency modulation (FM) except the modulating signal is a binary signal that varies between two discrete voltage levels rather than a continuously changing analog form. Consequently, FSK is sometimes called binary FSK (BFSK).
If the frequency is varied proportional to the information signal, frequency shift keying (FSK) is produced.
The most common circuit used for demodulating binary FSK signals is the phase-locked loop (PLL).
If the phase of the carrier is varied proportional to the information signal, phase shift keying (PSK) is produced.
Continuous-phase frequency-shift keying (CP-FSK) is a binary FSK except the mark and space frequency are synchronized with the input binary bit rate.
if both amplitude and the phase are varied proportional to the information signal, quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) results. Information theory is a highly theoretical study of the efficient use of bandwidth to propagate information through electronic communication systems. Information capacity is a measure of how much information can be propagated through a communications system and is a function of bandwidth and transmission time. Information capacity represents the number of independent symbols that can be carried through a system in a given unit of time. Bit rate is simply the number of bits transmitted during one second and is expressed in bits per second (bps). In 1928, R.Hartley of Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a useful relationship among bandwidth, transmission time, and information capacity. In 1948, mathematician Claude E. Shannon published a paper in bell system technical journal relating the information capacity of a communication channel to bandwidth and signal to noise ratio. The higher the signal-to-noise ratio, the better the performance and the higher the information capacity. M-ary is a term derived from the word binary. M simply represents a digit that corresponds to the number of conditions, levels, or combinations possible for a given number of binary variables. Bit rate refers to the rate of change of a digital information signal, which is usually binary. Baud refers to the rate of change of a signal on the transmission medium after encoding and modulation have occurred.
Phase-shift keying (PSK) is another form of angle-modulated, constant-amplitude digital modulation. PSK is an M-ary digital modulation scheme similar to conventional phase modulation except with psk the input is a binary digital signal and there are a limited number of output phases possible. The simplest form of PSK is binary phase-shift keying (BPSK), where N=1 and M=2. As the input digital signal changes state, the phase of the output carrier shifts between two angles that are separated by 180 degrees. Other names for BPSK are phase reversal keying (PRK) and biphase modulation. A constellation diagram, which is sometimes called a signal statephase diagram, is similar to a phasor diagram except that the entire phasor is not drawn. A balanced modulator is a product modulator; the output signal is the product of the two input signals. BPSK modulator-the carrier input signal is multiplied by the binary data. The coherent carrier recovery circuit detects and regenerates a carrier signal that is both frequency and phase coherent with the original transmit carrier. The low-pass filter (LPF) separates the recovered binary data from the complex demodulated signal. Quarternary phase shift keying (QPSK), or quadrature PSK as it is sometimes called, is an other form of an angle modulated, constant amplitude digital modulation. QPSK is an M-ary encoding scheme where N=2 and M=4.
Baud is the reciprocal of the time of one output signaling element, and a signaling element may represent several information bits.
Offset QPSK (OQPSK) is a modified form of QPSK where the bit waveforms on the I and Q channels are offset or shifted in the phase from each other by one-half of a bit time
According to H. Nyquist, binary digital signals can be propagated through an ideal noiseless transmission medium at a rate equal to two times the bandwidth of the medium.
OQPSK is sometimes called OKQPSK (offset-keyed QPSK).
With 8-PSK, three bits are encoded, forming tribits and producing eight different output phases. With 8-PSK ,n-3 M=8, and there are 8 possible output phases. Gray Code or, sometimes, the maximum distance code. This code is used to reduce the number of transmission errors. Using the Gray code results in only a single bit being received in error. 16-PSK is an M-ary encoding technique where M=16; there are 16 different output phases possible. With 16 PSK, four bits (called quadbits) are combined, producing 16 different output phases. Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) is a form of digital modulation similar to PSK except the digital information is contained in both the amplitude and the phase of the transmitted carrier. 8-QAM is an M-ary encoding technique where M=8. Unlike 8-PSK, the output signal from an 8-QAM modulator is not a constant amplitude signal. As with the 16-PSK, 16-QAM is an M-ary system where M=16. The input data are acted on in groups of four (2^4 = 16). Bandwidth efficiency (sometimes called information density or spectral efficiency) is often used to compare the performance of one digital modulation technique to another. Carrier recovery is the process of extracting a phase coherent reference carrier from a receiver signal. This is sometimes called phase referencing. The squaring circuit removes the modulation and generates the second harmonic of the carrier frequency. The Costas loop produces the same result as a squaring circuit followed by an ordinary PLL in place of the BPF. The remodulator produces a loop error voltage that is proportional to twice the phase error between the incoming signal and the VCO signal. Differential phase-shift keying (DPSK) is an alternative form of digital modulation where the binary input information is contained in the difference between two successive signaling elements rather than the absolute phase. Differential binary phase-shift keying - an incoming information bit is XNORed with the preceding bit prior to entering the BPSK modulator. Data transmission rates in excess of 56 kbps can be achieved, however over standard telephone circuit using an encoding technique called trellis code modulation (TCM). Dr. Ungerboeck at IBM Zuerich Research Laboratory developed TCM, convolutional (tree) codes, which combines encoding and modulation to reduce the probability of error, thus improving the bit error performance. Trellis code modulation is sometimes thought of as a magical method of increasing transmission bit rates over communications systems using QAM or PSK with fixed bandwidths. Trellis Coding also defines the manner in which signal state transitions are allowed to occur, and transitions that do not follow this pattern are interpreted in the receiver as transmission error. TCM is thought of as a coding scheme that improves on standard QAM by increasing the distance between symbols on the constellations (known as the Euclidean distance). Probability of error is a theoretical (mathematical) expectation of the bit error rate for a given system. Bit error rate (BER) is an empirical (historical) record of a system’s actual bit error performance.
Digital Transmission
functions is called codec (coder/decoder).
Digital transmission is the transmittal of digital signals between two or more points in a communications system.
The most common method used for sampling voice signals in PCM systems is flattop sampling, which is accomplished in a sample-andhold circuit.
AT&T developed the first digital transmission system for the purpose of carrying digitally encoded analog signals, such as the human voice, over metallic wire cables between telephone offices. Digital signals are also better suited than analog signals for processing and combining using a technique called multiplexing. Digital signal processing (DSP) is the processing of analog signals using digital methods and includes bandlimiting the signal with filters, amplitude equalization, and phase shifting. Pulse modulation consists essentially of sampling analog information signals and then converting those samples into discrete pulses and transporting the pulses from a source to a destination over a physical transmission medium. The four predominant method of pulse modulation include pulse width modulation (PWM), pulse position modulation (PPM), pulse amplitude modulation (PAM), and pulse code modulation (PCM). PWM is sometimes called pulse duration modulation (PDM) or pulse length modulation (PLM), as the width of a constant amplitude pulse is varied proportional to the amplitude of the analog signal at the time the signal is sampled. With PPM, the position of a constant-width pulse within a prescribed time slot is varied according to the amplitude of the sample of the analog signal. With PAM, the amplitude of a constant width, constant-position pulse is varied according to the amplitude of the sample of the analog signal. With PCM, the analog is sampled and then converted to a serial n-bit binary code for transmission. PAM is used as an intermediate form of modulation with PSK, QAM, and PCM, although it is seldom used by itself. PWM and PPM are used in special-purpose communications systems mainly for the military but are seldom used for commercial digital transmission systems. Alex H. Reeves is credited with inventing PCM in 1937 while working for AT&T at its Paris laboratories. PCM is the preferred method of communications within the public switched telephone network because with PCM it is easy to combine digitized voice and digital data into a single, high-speed digital signal and propagate it over either metallic or optical fiber cables.
The purpose of a sample and hold circuit is to periodically sample the continually changing analog input voltage and convert those samples to a series of constant-amplitude PAM voltage levels. Aperture error is when the amplitude of the sampled signal changes during the sample pulse time. The storage time of the capacitor is called the A/D conversion time because it is during this time that the ADC converts the sample voltage to a PCM code. Droop is caused by the capacitor discharging through its own leakage resistance and the input impedance of voltage follwer Z2. If fs is less than two time fa, an impairment called alias or foldover distortion occurs antialiasing or antifoldover filter - its upper cutoff frequency is choosen such no frequency greater than one half the sampling rate is allowed to enter the sample and hold circuit, thus eliminating the ability of foldover distortion occuring. The codes currently used for PCM are sign-magnitude codes, where the most significant bit (MSB) is the sign bit and the remaining bit are used for magnitude. Quantization is the process of converting an infinite number of possibilities to a finite number of conditions. folded binary code. Codes on the bottom half of the table are a mirror image of the codes on the top half, except for the sign bit. The magnitude difference between adjacent steps is called the quantization interval or quantum. If the magnitude of the sample exceeds the highest quantization interval, overload distortion (also called peak limiting) occurs. The magnitude of a quantum is also called the resolution. The resolution is equal to the voltage of the minimum step size, which is equal to the voltage of the least significant bit of the PCM code. Any round-off errors in the transmitted signals are reproduced when the code is converted back to analog in the receiver. This error is called the quantization error. The quantization error is equivalent to additive white noise as it alters the signal amplitude.
PCM is the only digitally encoded modulation technique that is commonly used for digital transmission.
Quantization error is also called quantization noise.
Sample and Hold circuit periodically samples the analog input signal and converts those samples to a multilevel PAM signal.
Dynamic range (DR) is the ratio of the largest possible magnitude to the smallest possible magnitude that can be decoded by the digital-to-analog converter in the receiver.
The analog-to-digital converter (ADC) convert the PAM samples to parallel PCM codes, which are converted to serial binary data in parallelto-serial converter and then outputted to the transmission line as serial digital pulses. Serial to parallel converter converts serial pulses receive from the transmission line to parallel PCM codes. The digital-to-analog converter (DAC) converts the parallel PCM codes to multilevel PAM signals. An integrated circuit that performs the PCM encoding and decoding
Coding efficiency is a numerical indication of how efficiently a PCM code is utilized. Coding efficiency is the ratio of the minimum number of bits required to achieve a certain dynamic range to the actual number of PCM bits used. Three-bit PCM coding consists of linear codes, which means that the magnitude change between any two successive codes is the same. The worst possible signal voltage-to-quantization noise voltage ratio (SQR) occurs when the input signal is at its minimum amplitude.
Digital T-Carriers and Multiplexing Multiplexing is the transmission of information from one or more source to one or more destination over the same transmission medium.
Differential PCM is similar to conventional PCM except that the exact magnitude of a sample is not transmitted.
There are several domains in which multiplexing can be accomplished, including space, phase, time, frequency, and wavelength.
Digital line encoding involves converting standard logic levels (TTL, CMOS, and the like) to a form more suitable to telephone line transmission.
Space-division multiplexing (SDM) is a rather unsophisticated form of multiplexing that simply constitutes propagating signals from different sources on different cables that are contained within the same trench.
Unipolar transmission of binary data involves the transmission of only a single nonzero voltage level. In bipolar transmission, two nonzero voltages are involved.
The trench is considered to be the transmission medium.
The duty cycle of a binary pulse can be used to categorize the type of transmission. If the binary pulse is maintained for the entire bit time, this is called nonreturn to zero (NRZ).
QPSK is a form of phase-division multiplexing (PDM) where two data channels modulate the same carrier frequency that has been shifted 90degrees in phase. The three most predominant methods of multiplexing signals are timedivision multiplexing (TDM), frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), and the more recently developed wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM). With time division multiplexing (TDM), transmissions from multiple sources occur on the same facility but not at the same time. One eight-bit PCM code from each channel (16 total bits) is called a TDM frame, and the time it takes to transmit one TDM frame is called the frame time. The frame time is equal to the reciprocal of the sample rate (1/fs or 1/8000 = 125 us). A digital carrier system is a communication system that uses digital pulse rather than analog signals to encode information.
If the active time of the binary pulse is less than 100% of the bit time, this is called return to zero (RZ). With alternate mark inversion (AMI) transmissions, successive logic 1s are inverted in polarity from the previous logic 1. Because return to zero is used, the encoding technique is called bipolar-return-to-zero alternate mark inversion (BPRZ-AMI) With NRZ encoding, a long string of either logic 1s or logic 0s produces a condition in which a receive may lose its amplitude reference for optimum discrimination between received 1s and 0s. This is called dc wandering. Digital biphase (sometimes called the Manchester code or diphase) is a popular type of line encoding that produces a strong timing component for clock recovery and does not cause dc wandering. Biphase M is used for encoding SMPTE (Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers) time-code data for recording on videotapes.
T1 stands for transmission one and specifies a digital carrier system using PCM-encoded analog signals.
Miller codes are forms of delay-modulation codes where a logic1 condition produces a transition in the middle of the clock pulse, and logic 0 produces no transition at the end of the clock intervals unless followed by another logic 0.
A T1 carrier system time division multiplexes PCM-encoded samples from 24 voice-band channels for transmission over a single metallic wire or optical fiber transmission line. Each voice-band channels has a bandwidth of approximately 300 Hz to 3000 Hz.
Dicodes are multilevel binary codes that use more than two voltage levels to represent the data.
The system does not become a T1 carrier until it is line encoded and placed on special conditioned cables called T1 lines. Early T1 carrier systems used D1 digital channel banks (PCM encoders and decoders) with a seven-bit magnitude-only PCM code, analog companding, and u = 100. Another framing format recently developed for new designs of T1 carrier systems is the extended superframe format. The extended superframe format consists of 24 193-bit frames, totaling 4632 bits, of which 24 are framing bits. Six additional framing bits in frames 1, 5, 9, 13, 17, and 21 are used for error detection code called CRC-6 (cyclic redundancy checking). A data service unit/channel service unit (DSU/CSU) is a digital interface that provides the physical connection to a digital carrier network. To upgrade from one level in the hierarchy to the next higher level, a special device called muldem (multiplexers/demultiplexers) is required. Muldems can handle bit-rate conversions in both directions. Digital signals are routed at central locations called digital crossconnects. A digital cross-connect (DSX) provides a convenient place to make patchable interconnects and perform routine maintenance and troubleshooting. Essentially, picturephone is a low-quality video transmission for use between nondedicated subscribers.
T carriers are used for the transmission of PCM-encoded time-division multiplexed digital signals. The transmission bit rate (line speed) for a T1 carrier is 1.544 Mbps, including an 8-kbps framing bit. The lengths of T1 carrier systems typically range from about 1 mile to over 50 miles. Ensuring that sufficient transitions occur in the data stream is sometimes called ones density. With modern T1 carriers, a technique called binary eight zero substitution (B8ZS) is used to ensure that sufficient transitions occurs in the data to maintain clock synchronization. T2 carrier systems use an alternative method of ensuring that sample transitions occur in the data. This method is called binary six zero substitution (B6ZS). The coding technique use with T3 carriers is binary three zero substitution (B3ZS). In Europe, a different version of T carrier lines is used, called E-lines. Time slot 17 is used for a common signaling channel (CSC). T1 carriers using D1, D2, or D3 channel banks use added-digit framing. An alternative solution is to replace the least significant bit of every nth frame with a framing bit. This process is called robbed-digit framing.
Essentially, added-channel framing is the same as added digit framing except that digits are added in groups or words instead of as individual bits. With statistical framing, it is not necessary to either rob or add digits. With the gray code, the second bit is a logic 1 in the central half of the code range and a logic 0 at the extremes. With unique-line code framing, some property of the framing bit is different from the data bits. The framing bit is made either higher or lower in amplitude or with a different time duration. T1 carrier system use word interleaving; eight-bit samples from each channel are interleaved into a single 24-channel TDM frame. Higherspeed TDM systems and delta modulation systems use bit interleaving. There is an efficient alternative to synchronous TDM called statistical time-division multiplexing. Statistical time division multiplexing is generally not used for carrying standard telephone circuits but are used more often for the transmission of data when they are called asynchronous TDM, intelligent TDM, or simply stat muxs. A codec is a large-scale integration (LSI) chip designed for use in the telecommunication industries for private branch exchanges (PBXs), central office switches, digital handsets, voice store-and-forward systems, and digital echo suppresors. Codec is a generic term that refers to the coding functions performed by a device that converts analog signals to digital codes and digital codes to analog signals. Recently developed codecs are called combo chips because they combine codec and filter functions in the same LSI package.
There are two types of mastergroups: L600 and U600 types. The L600 mastergroup is used for low-capacity microwave systems, and the U600 mastergroup may be further multiplexed and used for higher-capacity microwave radio systems. Guard bands - a void band of frequency that is not included within any sipergroup band. A radio channel comprises either a single L600 mastergroup or up to three U600 mastergroups.
Multiplexers or combiners mix or combine optical signals with different wavelengths in a way that allows them to all pass through a single optical fiber without interfering with one another. Demultiplexers or splitters separate signals with different wavelengths in a manner similar to the way filters separate electrical signals of different frequencies. Add/drop multiplexer/demultiplexers are similar to regular multiplexers and demultiplexers except they are located at intermediate points in the system. Add/drop multiplexer/demultiplexers are devices that separate a wavelength from a fiber cable and reroute it on a different fiber going in a different direction. There are three basic types of WDM couplers: diffraction grating, prism, and dichroic filter. With diffraction grating or prisms, specific wavelengths are separated from the other optic signal by reflecting them at different angles.
A combo chip can provide the analog-to-digital and the digital-to-analog conversions and the transmit and receive filtering necessary to interface a full-duplex (four-wire) voice telephone circuit to the PCM highway of a TDM carrier system.
A dichroic filter is a mirror with a surface that has been coated with a material that permits light of only one wavelength to pass through while reflecting all other wavelengths.
In the fixed-data-rate mode, data are input and output for a single channel in short bursts. (This mode of operation is sometimes called the burst mode.)
The synchronous optical network (SONET) is a multiplexing system similar to conventional time-division multiplexing except SONET was developed to be used with optical fibers.
The variable-data rate mode allows for a flexible data input and output clock frequency. With frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), multiple sources that originally occupied the same frequency spectrum are each converted to a different frequency band and transmitted simultaneously over a single transmission medium, which can be physical cable or the Earth’s atmosphere. The message channel is the basic building block of the FDM hierarchy. A group is the next higher level in the FDM hierarchy above the basic message channel and, consequently, is the first multiplexing step for combining message channels. The next higher level in the FDM hierarchy is the supergroup, which is formed by frequency-division multiplexing five groups containing 12 channels each for a combined bandwidth of 240 kHz. The next highest level of multiplexing is the mastergroup, which is formed by frequency-division multiplexing 10 supergroups together for a combined capacity of 600 voice-band message channels occupying a bandwidth of 2.4 MHz. Mastergroup can be further multiplexed in mastergroup banks to form jumbogroups (3600 VB channels), multijumbogroups (7200 VB channels), and superjumbogroups (10,800 VB channels). Baseband describes the modulating signal (intelligence) in the communication system.
Electromagnetic Wave Propagation Free-space propagation of electromagnetic waves is often called radio frequency (RF) propagation or simply radio propagation. An electromagnetic wave is electrical energy that has escaped into free space. Electromagnetic waves travel in a straight line at approximately the speed of light and are made up of magnetic and electric fields that are at right angles of each other and at right angles to the direction of propagation. The essential properties of radio waves are frequency, intensity, direction of travel, and plane of polarization. Radio waves are a form of electromagnetic radiation similar to light and heat. The polarization of a plane electromagnetic wave is simply the orientation of the electric field vector in respect to the surface of the Earth. If the polarization remains constant, it is described as linear polarization. Horizontal polarization and vertical polarization are two forms of linear polarization. If the electric field is propagating parallel to the Earth’s surface, the wave is said to be horizontally polarized. If the electric field is propagating perpendicular to the Earth’s surface, the wave is said to be vertically polarized. If the polarization vector rotates 360’ as the wave moves one wavelength through space and the field strength is equal at all angels of polarization, the wave is described as having circular polarization. When the field strength varies with change in polarization, this is described as elliptical polarization. A ray is a line drawn along the direction of propagation of an electromagnetic wave. Rays are used to show the relative direction of electromagnetic wave propagation. A wavefront shows a surface of constant phase of electromagnetic waves. A wavefront is formed when points of equal phase on rays propagated from the same source are joined together A point source is a single location from which rays propagate equally in all directions (an isotropic source). The magnetic field is an invisible force field produced by a magnet, such as a conductor when current is flowing through it. Electric fields are also invisible force fields produced by a difference in voltage potential between two conductors. Permittivity is the dielectric constant of the material separating the two conductors (i.e., the dielectric insulator). The permittivity of air or free space is approximately 8.85 X 10^-12 F/m. The rate at which energy passes through a given surface area in free space is called power density. Therefore, power density is energy per unit time per unit of area and is usually given in watts per square meter. Field intensity is the intensity of the electric and magnetic fields of an electromagnetic wave propagating in free space. The characteristic impedance of a lossless transmission medium is equal to the square root of the ratio of its magnetic permeability to its electric permittivity. Isotropic radiator is a point source that radiates power at a constant rate uniformly in all directions.
Free space is vacuum, so no loss of energy occurs as a wave propagates through it. As waves propagate through free space, however, they spread out, resulting in a reduction in power density. This is called attenuation and occurs in free space as well as the Earth’s atmosphere. Since Earth’s atmosphere is not a vacuum, it contains particles that can absorb electromagnetic energy. This type of reduction of power is called absorption loss and does not occur in wave traveling outside Earth’s atmosphere. The reduction in power density with distance is equivalent to a power loss and is commonly called wave attenuation. The reduction in power density due to the inverse square law presumes free-space propagation (a vacuum or nearly a vacuum) and is called wave attenuation. The reduction in power density due to nonfree-space propagation is called absorption. Water vapor causes significant attenuation of electromagnetic waves at the higher frequencies. The first absorption band due to water vapor peak at approximately 22GHz, and the first absorption band caused by oxygen peaks at approximately 60 GHz. The effect of rain on electromagnetic wave propagation is insignificant below approximately 6 GHz. Refraction can be thought of as bending, reflection as bouncing, diffraction as scattering, and interference as colliding. Refraction is sometimes referred to as the bending of the radio-wave path. Electromagnetic refraction is actually the changing of direction of an electromagnetic ray as it passes obliquely from one medium into another with different an electromagnetic ray as it passes obliquely form one medium into another with different velocities of propagation. Refraction occurs whenever a radio wave passes from one medium into another medium of different density. The angle of incidence is the angle formed between the incident wave and the nominal, and the angle of refraction is the angle formed between the refracted wave and the normal. The refractive index is simply the ratio of the velocity of propagation of a light ray in free space to the velocity of propagation of a light ray in a given material. Refraction also occurs when a wavefront propagates in a medium that has a density gradient that is perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Electromagnetic reflection occurs when an incident wave strikes a boundary of two media and some or all of the incident power does not enter the second material. The ratio of the reflected to the incident voltage intensities is called the reflection coefficient. The portion of the total incident power that is not reflected is called the power transmission coefficient or simply the transmission coefficients. Reflection also occurs when the reflective surface is irregular or rough; however, such a surface may destroy the shape of the wavefront. When an incident wavefront strikes an irregular surface, it is randomly scattered in many directions. Such a condition is called diffuse refection, whereas reflection from a perfectly smooth surface is called specular (mirrorlike) reflection.
Surfaces that fall between smooth and irregular are called semirough surface.
Refraction is caused by the troposphere because of changes in its density, temperature, water vapor content, and relative conductivity.
The Rayleigh criterion states that a semi rough surface will reflect as if it were a smooth surface whenever the cosine of the angle of incidence is greater than ^/8d, where d is the depth of the surface irregularity and ^ is the wavelength of the incident wave.
A special condition called duct propagation occurs when the density of the lower atmosphere is such that electromagnetic waves are trapped between it and Earth’s surface.
Diffraction is defined as the modulation or redistribution of energy within a wavefront when it passes near the edge of an opaque object. Diffraction is the phenomenon that allows light or radio waves to propagate (peek) around corners. Huygens’s principle states that every point on a given spherical wavefront can be considered as a secondary point source of electromagnetic waves from which other secondary waves (wavelets) are radiated outward. Diffraction occurs around the edge of the obstacle, which allows secondary waves to “sneak” around the corner of the obstacle into what is called the shadow zone. Radio-wave interference occurs when two or more electromagnetic waves combine in such a way that system performance is degraded. Refraction, reflection, and diffraction are categorized as geometric optics, which means that their behavior is analyzed primarily in terms of rays and wavefronts. Interference, on the other hand, is subject to the principle of linear superposition of electromagnetic waves and occurs whenever two or more waves simultaneously occupy the same point in space.
Electromagnetic waves that are directed above the horizon level are called sky waves. Typically, sky waves are radiated in a direction that produces a relatively large angle with reference to Earth. Sky wave propagation is sometimes called ionospheric propagation. The ionosphere is the region of space located approximately 50 km to 400 km (30 mi to 250 mi) above Earth’s surface. Reducing the dielectric constant increases the velocity of propagation and causes electromagnetic waves to bend away from the regions of high electron density toward regions of low electron density. The higher the ion density, the more refraction. The D layer is the lowest layer of the ionosphere and is located approximately between 30 miles and 60 miles (50 km to 100 km) above Earth’s surface. The amount of ionization in the D layer depends on the altitude of the sun above the horizon. Therefore, it disappears at night. The D layer reflects VLF and LF waves and absorbs MF and HF waves.
The principle of linear superposition states that the total voltage intensity at a given point in space is the sum of the individual wave vectors.
The E layer is located approximately between 60 miles and 85 miles (100 km to 140 km) above Earth’s surface. The E layer is sometimes called the Kennelly-Heaviside layer after the two scientists who discovered it. The E layer has its maximum density at approximately 70 miles at noon, when the sun is at its highest point.
Electromagnetic waves traveling within Earth’s atmosphere are called terrestrial waves, and communications between two or more points on Earth is called terrestrial radio communications.
The sporadic E layer is caused by solar flares and sunspot activity.
Direct and ground-reflected waves together are called space waves. The cumulative sum of the direct, ground-reflected, and surface waves is sometimes referred to as the ground wave. At frequencies below approximately 2 MHz, surface waves provide the best coverage because ground losses increase rapidly with frequency. Sky waves are used for high-frequency applications, and space waves are used for very high frequencies and above. A surface wave is an Earth-guided electromagnetic wave that travels over the surface of Earth. Ground waves must be vertically polarized because the electric field in a horizontally polarized wave would be parallel to Earth’s surface, and such waves would be short-circuited by the conductivity of the ground. Surface waves propagation is commonly used for ship-to-ship and shipto-shore communications, for radio navigation, and for maritime mobile communications. Surface waves are used at frequencies as low as 15 KHz. Ground waves are relatively unaffected by changing atmospheric conditions. Ground waves require a relatively high transmission power. Space wave propagation with direct waves is commonly called line of sight (LOS) transmission. The curvature of Earth presents a horizon to space wave propagation commonly called the radio horizon. The radio horizon is approximately four-thirds that of the optical horizon.
Frequencies above the UHF range are virtually unaffected by the ionosphere because of their extremely short wavelengths. Critical frequency is defined as the highest frequency that can be propagated directly upward and still be returned to Earth by the ionosphere. A measurement technique called ionospheric sounding is sometimes used to determine the critical frequency. Virtual height is the height above Earth’s surface from which a refracted wave appears to have been reflected. The maximum usable frequency (MUF) is the highest frequency that can be used for sky wave propagation between two specific points on Earth’s surface. Skip distance is defined as the minimum distance from a transmit antenna that a sky wave at a given frequency will be returned to Earth. The area between where the surface waves are completely dissipated and the point where the first sky wave returns to Earth is called the quiet, or skip zone because in this area there is no reception. Free-space path loss is often defined as the loss incurred by an electromagnetic wave as it propagates in a straight line through a vacuum with no absorption or reflection of energy from nearby objects. Fading can be caused by natural weather disturbances, such as rainfall, snowfall, fog, hail and extremely cold air over a warm Earth. Fading can also be caused by man-made disturbances, such as irrigation, of from multiple transmission paths, irregular Earth surfaces, and varying terrains.
Antennas and Waveguides An antenna is metallic conductor system capable of radiating and capturing electromagnetic energy. Antennas are used to interface transmission lines to the atmosphere, the atmosphere to transmission lines, or both. A waveguide is a special type of transmission line that consists of a conducting metallic tube through which high-frequency electromagnetic energy is propagated. A waveguide is used to efficiently interconnect high-frequency electromagnetic waves between an antenna and a transceiver.
Directive gain is the ratio of the power density radiated in a particular direction to the power density radiated to the same point by a reference antenna, assuming both antennas are radiating the same amount of power. Power gain is the same as directive gain except that the total power fed to the antenna is used. EIRP or simply ERP (effective radiated power) is the equivalent power that an isotropic antenna would have to radiate to achieve the same power density in the chosen direction at a given point as another antenna.
Radio waves are electrical energy that has escaped into free space in the form of transverse electromagnetic waves.
Power gain is the natural parameter for describing the increased power density of a transmitted signal due to the directional properties of the transmiting antenna, a related quantity called capture area is a more natural parameter for describing the reception properties of an antenna.
The plane parallel to the mutually perpendicular lines of the electric and magnetic fields is called the wavefront.
The polarization of an antenna refers simply to the orientation of the electric field radiated from it.
The radiation efficiency is the ratio of radiated to reflected energy.
Antenna beamwidth is simply the angular separation between the two half-power (-3 dB) points on the major lobe of an antenna’s plane radiation pattern, usually taken in one of the “principal” planes.
Basic quarter-wave antenna or a vertical monopole (sometimes called a Marconi antenna), the conductors are spread out in a straight line to a total length of one-quarter wavelength. A half-wave dipole is called a Hertz antenna. A basic antenna is a passive reciprocal device. Active antennas are nonreciprocal (i.e., they either transmit or receive but not both). A special coupling device called a diplexer can be used to direct the transmit and receive signals and provide the necessary isolation. A radiation pattern is a polar diagram or graph representing field strengths or power densities at various angular positions relative to an antenna.
Antenna gain is inversely proportional to beamwidth. Antenna bandwidth is vaguely defined as the frequency range over which antenna operation is “satisfactory.” The point on the antenna where the transmission line is connected is called the antenna input terminal or simply the feedpoint. The feedpoint presents an ac load to the transmission line called the antenna input impedance. Antenna input impedance is simply the ratio of the antenna’s input voltage to input current. The simplest type of antenna is the elementary doublet. The elementary doublet is an electrically short dipole and is often referred to simply as a short dipole, elementary dipole, or Hertzian dipole.
If the radiation pattern is plotted in terms of electric field strength or power density, it is called an absolute radiation pattern.
An elementary doublet has uniform current throughout its length.
If it plots field strength or power density with respect to the value at a reference point, it is called a relative radiation pattern.
The linear half-wave dipole is one of the most widely used antennas at frequencies above 2 MHz.
The primary beam in a 90’ direction is called the major lobe. Minor lobes represent undesired radiation or reception.
The half-wave dipole is generally referred to as a Hertz antenna after Heinrich Hertz, who was the first to demonstrate the existence of electromagnetic waves.
Because the major lobe propagates and receives the most energy, that lobe is called the front lobe (the front of the antenna).
A Hertz antenna is a resonant antenna. That is, it is a multiple of quarterwavelengths long and open circuited at the far end.
Lobes adjacent to the front lobe are called side lobes (the 180’ minor lobe is a side lobe), and lobes in a direction exactly opposite the front lobe are called back lobes.
In Earth’s atmosphere, wave propagation is affected by antenna orientation, atmospheric absorption, and ground effects, such as reflection.
The term near field or induction field refers to the field pattern that is close to the antenna and the term far field or radiation field refers to the field pattern that is at great distance.
A monopole (single pole) antenna one-quarter wavelength long, mounted vertically with the lower end either connected directly to ground or grounded through the antenna coupling network, is called a Marconi antenna.
Radiation resistance is an ac antenna resistance and is equal to the ratio of the power radiated by the antenna to the square of the current at its feedpoint. Radiation resistance is the resistance that, if it replaced the antenna, would dissipate exactly the same amount of power that the antenna radiates. Antenna efficiency is the ratio of the power radiated by an antenna to the sum of the power radiated and the power dissipated or the ratio of the power radiated by the antenna to the total input power.
A counterpoise is a wire structure placed below the antenna and erected above the ground. A counterpoise is a form of capacitive ground system; capacitance is formed between the counterpoise and Earth’s surface. A Marconi antenna has the obvious advantage over a Hertz antenna of being only half as long. The disadvantage of a Marconi antenna is that it must be located close to the ground.
It is possible to increase the electrical length of an antenna by a technique called loading. When an antenna is loaded, its physical length remains unchanged, although its effective electrical length is increased. A loading coil effectively increases the radiation resistance of the antenna by approximately 5 ohms. With top loading, a metallic array that resembles a spoked wheel is placed on top of the antenna. The wheel increases the shunt capacitance to ground, reducing the overall antenna capacitance. Top loading is awkward for mobile applications. An antenna array is formed when two or more antenna elements are combined to form a single antenna. An antenna element is an individual radiator, such as half-or quarterwave dipole. The elements are physically placed in such a way that their radiation fields interact with each other, producing a total radiation pattern that is the vector sum of the individual fields. The purpose of an array is to increase the directivity of an antenna system and concentrate the radiated power within a smaller geographic area. Driven elements are directly connected to the transmission line and receive power from or are driven by the source. Parasitic elements are not connected to the transmission line; they receive energy only through mutual induction with a driven element or another parasitic element. Parasitic element that is longer than the driven element from which it receives energy is called a reflector. A reflector effectively reduces the signal strength in its direction and increases it in the opposite direction. Therefore, it acts as if it were a concave mirror. A parasitic element that is shorter than its associated driven element is called a director. A director increases field strength in its direction and reduces it in the opposite direction. Therefore, it acts as if it were a convex lens. A Broadside array is one of the simplest types of antenna arrays. It is made by simply placing several resonant dipoles of equal size in parallel with each other and in a straight line.
The typical directivity for a Yagi is between 7 dB and 9 dB. Yagi antenna is commonly used for VHF television reception because of its wide bandwidth (the VHF TV band extends from 54 MHz to 216 MHz). A turnstile antenna is formed by placing two dipoles at right angles to each other, 90’ out of phase. Turnstile antenna gains of 10 or more dB are common. A class of frequency-independent antennas called log periodics evolved from the initial work of V.H. Rumsey, J. D. Dyson, R.H. DuHamel, and D. E. Isbell at the University of Illinois in 1957. The primary advantage of log-periodic antennas is the independence of their radiation resistance and radiation pattern to frequency. Log-periodic antennas have bandwidth ratio of 10:1 or greater. Very often, TV antennas advertised as “high-gain” or “high-performance” antennas are log-period antennas. The most fundamental loop antenna is simply a single-turn coil of wire that is significantly shorter that one wavelength and carries RF current. Loops have an advantage over most other types of antennas in direction finding in that loops are generally much smaller and, therefore, more easily adapted to mobile communication applications. A phased array antenna is a group of antennas or a group of antenna array that, when connected together, function as a single antenna whose beamwidth and direction can be changed electronically without having to physically move any of the individual antennas or antenna elements within the array. The primary advantage of phased array antennas is that they eliminate the need for mechanically rotating antenna elements. The primary application of phased array is in radar when radiation pattern must be capable of being rapidly changed to follow a moving object. A helical antenna is a broadband VHF or UHF antenna that is ideally suited for applications for which radiating circular rather than horizontal or vertical polarized electromagnetic waves are required.
Broadside array radiates at right angles to the plane of the array and radiates very little in the direction of the plane.
With a helical antenna, there are two modes of propagation: normal and axial. In the normal mode, electromagnetic radiation is in a direction at right angles to the axis of the helix. In the axial mode, radiation is in the axial direction and produces a broadband, relatively directional pattern.
Directivity can be increased even further by increasing the length of the array by adding more elements.
Antennas used for UHF (0.3 GHz to 3 GHz) and microwave (1 GHz to 100 GHz) must be highly directive.
An end-fire array is essentially the same element configuration as the broadside array except that the transmission line is not crisscrossed between elements. As a result, the fields are additive in line with the plane of the array.
Highly directional (high gain) antennas are used with point-to-point microwave systems. By focusing the radio energy into a narrow beam that can be directed toward the receiving antenna, the transmitting antenna can increase the effective radiated power by several orders of magnitude over that of nondirectional antenna. The most common type of antenna used for microwave transmission and reception is the parabolic reflector.
The rhombic antenna is a nonresonant antenna that is capable of operating satisfactorily over a relatively wide bandwidth, making it ideally suited for HF transmission (range 3 MHz to 30 MHz). Rhombic antenna has a maximum efficiency of 67%. Gains of over 40 (16 dB) have been achieved with rhombic antennas.
Parabolic reflector antennas provide extremely high gain and directivity and are very popular for microwave radio and satellite communications links.
The folded dipole is essentially a single antenna made up of two elements.
Parabolic reflectors resemble the shape of a plane or dish; therefore, they are sometimes called parabolic dish antennas or simply dish antennas.
A widely used antenna that commonly uses a folded dipole as the driven element is the Yagi-Uda antenna, named after two Japanese scientists who invented it and described its operation.
Aperture number determines the angular aperture of the reflector, with indirectly determines how much of the primary radiation is reflected by the parabolic dish.
A Yagi antenna is a linear array consisting of a dipole and two or more parasitic elements: one reflector and one or more directors.
A parabolic antenna consists of a paraboloid reflector illuminated with microwave energy radiated by a feed system located at the focus point.
Center feed, the primary antenna is placed at the focus. Energy radiated toward the reflector is reflected outward in a concentrated beam. Horn feed, the primary antenna is a small horn antenna rather than a simple dipole or dipole array. The horn is simply a flared piece of waveguide material that is placed at the focus and radiates a somewhat directional pattern toward the parabolic reflector. When a propagating electromagnetic field reaches the mouth of the horn, it continues to propagate in the same general direction, except that, in accordance with Huygens’s principle, it spreads latterly, and the wavefront eventually becomes spherical. The Cassegrain feed is named after an 18th-century astronomer and evolved directly from astronomical optical telescopes. The Cassegrain feed is commonly used for receiving extremely weak signals or when extremely long transmission lines or waveguide runs are required and it is necessary to place low-noise preamplifiers as close to the antenna as possible. A conical horn antenna consists of a cone that is truncated in a piece of circular waveguide. A waveguide is a hollow conductive tube, usually rectangular in cross section but sometimes circular or elliptical. A waveguide does not conduct current in the true sense but rather serves as a boundary that confines electromagnetic energy. The walls of the waveguide are conductors and, therefore, reflect electromagnetic energy from their surface. Rectangular waveguides are the most common form of waveguide. Group velocity is the velocity at which a wave propagates, and phase velocity is the velocity at which the wave changes phase. Phase velocity is the apparent velocity of a particular phase of the wave. Phase velocity is the velocity with which a wave changes phase in a direction parallel to a conducting surface, such as the walls of a waveguide. Group velocity is the velocity of a group of waves. Group velocity is the velocity at which information signals of any kind are propagated. It is also the velocity at which energy is propagated. The cutoff frequency is an absolute limiting frequency; frequencies above the cutoff frequency will not be propagated by the waveguide. Conversely, waveguides have a maximum wavelength that they can propagate, called the cutoff wavelength. The cutoff wavelength is defined as the smallest free-space wavelength that is just unable to propagate in the waveguide. In other words, only frequencies with wavelengths less than the cutoff wavelength can propagate down the waveguide. Electromagnetic waves travel down a configurations called propagation modes.
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Reactive stubs are used in waveguides for impedance transforming and impedance matching just as they are in parallel-wire transmission lines. Short-circuited waveguide stubs are used with waveguides in the same manner that they are used in transmission lines. Rectangular waveguides are by far the most common; however, circular waveguides are used in radar and microwave applications when it is necessary or advantageous to propagate both vertically and horizontally polarized waves in the same waveguide.
A ridged waveguide has more loss per unit length than a rectangular waveguide. A flexible waveguide consists of spiral-wound ribbon of brass or copper. A flexible waveguide is also used extensively in microwave test equipment.
Cellular Telephone Concepts Mobile telephone services began in the 1940s and were called MTSs (mobile telephone systems or sometimes manual telephone systems, as all calls were handled by an operator). MTS system utilized frequency modulation and were generally assigned a single carrier frequency in the 35-MHz to 45-MHz range that was used by both the mobile unit and the base station. Large cells (called macrocells) typically have a radius between 1 mile and 15 miles with base station transmit powers between 1 W and 6 W. The smallest cells (called microcells) typically have a radius of 1500 feet or less with base station transmit power between 0.1 W and 1 W. Microcells are used most often in high-denstiy areas such as found in large cities and inside buildings. Omnidirectional antennas are normally used in center-excited cells, and sectored directional antennas are used in edge- and corner-excited cells. Frequency reuse is the process in which the same set of frequencies (channels) can be allocated to more than one cell, provided the cells are separated by sufficient distance. Two cells using the same set of frequencies are called co-channel cells, and the interference between them is called co-channel interference. Adjacent-channel interference occurs when transmissions from adjacent channels interfere with each other. Adjacent-channel interference result from imperfect filters in receivers that allow nearby frequencies to enter the receiver. Adjacent-channel interference is most prevalent when an adjacent channel is transmitting very close to a mobile unit’s receiver at the same time the mobile unit is trying to receive transmissions from the base station on an adjacent frequency. This is called the near-far-effect and is most prevalent when a mobile unit is receiving a weak signal from the base station. Cell splitting is when the area of a cell, or independent component coverage areas of a cellular system, is further divided, thus creating more cell areas. The purpose of cell splitting is to increase the channel capacity and improve the availability and reliability of a cellular telephone network. The point when a cell reaches maximum capacity occurs when the number of subscribers wishing to place a call at any given time equals the number of channels in the cells. This is called the maximum traffic load of the cell. Cell splitting is the resizing or redistribution of cell areas. In essence, cell splitting is the process of subdividing highly congested cells into smaller cells each will their own base station and set of channel frequencies. Decreasing co-channel interference while increasing capacity by using directional antennas is called sectoring. As a rule, antennas located 30 meters above the ground require a separation of eight wavelengths, and antennas located 50 meters above the ground require a separation of 11 wavelengths. Segmentation divides a group of channels into smaller groupings or segments of mutually exclusive frequencies; cell sites, which are within the reuse distance, are assigned their own segment of the channel group. Segmentation is a means of avoiding co-channel interference, although it lowers the capacity of a cell by enabling reuse inside the reuse distance, which is normally prohibited.
Dualization is a means of avoiding full-cell splitting where the entire area would otherwise need to be segmented into smaller cells. The radio network is defined by a set of radio-frequency transceivers located within each of the cells. The locations of these radio-frequency transceivers are called base stations. Roaming is when a mobile unit moves from one cell to another-possibly form one company’s service area into another company’s service area. The transfer of a mobile unit from one base station’s control to another base station’s control is called a handoff (or handover). A connection that is momentarily broken during the cell-to-cell transfer is called a hand handoff. A flawless hand-off is called a soft handoff and normally takes approximately 200 ms, which is imperceptible to voice telephone users, although the delay may be disruptive when transmitting data.
Cellular Telephone Systems Simultaneous transmission in both directions is a transmission mode called full duplex (FDX) or simply duplexing. A special device called a duplexer is used in each mobile unit and base station to allow simultaneous transmission and reception on duplex channels. Transmissions from base stations to mobile units are called forward links, whereas transmission form mobile unit to base stations are called reverse links. Standard cellular telephone subscribers access the AMPS system using a technique called frequency-division multiple accessing (FDMA). The mobile identification number (MIN) is a 34-bit code, which in the United States represents the standard 10-digit telephone number. Another identification code used with AMPS is the electronic serial number (ESN), which is a 32-bit binary code permanently assigned to each mobile unit. The system identifier (SID) is a 15-bit binary code issued by the FCC to an operating company when it issues it a license to provide AMPS cellular service to an area. The Personal Communication System (PCS) is a relatively new class of cellular telephony based on the same basic philosophies as standard cellular telephone systems (CTSs), such as AMPS. Home location register (HLR) is a database that stores information about the user, including home subscription information and what supplementary service the user is subscribed to, such as call waiting, call hold, call forwarding, and call conferencing (three-way calling). Visitor location register (VLR) is a database that stores information about subscribers in a particular MTSO serving area, such as whether the unit is on or off and whether any of the supplementary services are activated or deactivated. Equipment identification registry (EIR) is a database that stores information pertaining to the identification and type of equipment that exists in the mobile unit. The available mode allows all calls to pass through the network to the subscriber except for a minimal number of telephone numbers that can be blocked. The screen mode is the PCS equivalent to caller ID. With the screen mode, the name of the calling party appears on the mobile unit’s display, which allows PCS users to screen calls. With the private mode, all calls except those specified by the subscriber are automatically forwarded to forwarding destination without ringing the subscriber’s handset.
Fundamental Concepts of Data Communications The Baudot code (sometimes called the Telex code) was the first fixedlength character code developed for machines rather than for people. A French postal engineer named Thomas Murray developed the Baudot code in 1875 and named the code after Emile Baudot, an early pioneer in telegraph printing. The Baudot code is a five-bit character code that was used primarily for low speed teletype equipment, such as the TWX/Telex system and radio teletype (RTTY). ASCII is the standard character set for source coding the alphanumeric character set that humans understand but computers do not (computers only understand 1s and 0s) ASCII is a seven-bit fixed-length character set. The extended binary-coded decimal interchange code (EBCDIC) is an eight-bit fixed-length character set developed in 1962 by the International Business Machines Corporation (IBM). With eight bits, 2^8, or 256, codes are possible, although only 139 of the 256 codes are actually assigned characters. A bar code is a series of vertical black bars separated by vertical white bars (called spaces). The widths of the bars and spaces along with their reflective abilities represent binary 1s and 0s, and combinations of bits identify specific items. Discrete code. A discrete bar code has spaces or gaps between characters. Continuous code. A continuous bar code does not include spaces between characters. 2D code. A 2D bar code stores data in two dimensions in contrast with a conventional linear bar code, which stores data along only one axis. Single-bit errors affect only one character within a message. A multiple-bit error is when two or more nonconsecutive bits within a given data string are in error. Multiple-bit errors can affect one or more characters within a message. A burst error is when two or more consecutive bits within a given data string are in error. Burst error can affect one or more characters within a message. Error detection is the process of monitoring data transmission and determining when errors have occurred. Duplicating each data unit for the purpose of detecting errors is a form of error detection called redundancy. Redundancy is an effective but rather costly means of detecting errors, especially with long messages. Vertical redundancy checking (VRC) is probably the simplest errordetection scheme and is generally referred to as character parity of simply parity. Checksum is another relatively simple form of redundancy error checking where each character has a numerical value assigned to it. Longitudinal redundancy checking (LRC) is a redundancy error detection scheme that uses parity to determine if a transmission error has occurred within a message and is therefore sometimes called message parity. Probably the most reliable redundancy checking technique for error detection is a convolutional coding scheme called cyclic redundancy checking (CRC).
A lost message is one that never arrives at the destination or one that arrives but is damaged to the extent that it is unrecognizable. A damaged message is one that is recognized at the destination but contains one or more transmission errors. Error-detecting codes include enough redundant information with each transmitted message to enable the receiver to determine when an error has occurred. Error-correcting codes include sufficient extraneous information along with each message to enable the receiver to determine when an error has occurred and which bit is in error. Retransmission, as the name implies, is when a receive station requests the transmit station to resend a message (or a portion of a message) when the message is received in error. Discrete ARQ uses acknowledgements to indicate the successful or unsuccessful reception of data. Continuous ARQ allows the destination station to asynchronously request the retransmission of a specific frame (or frames) of data and still be able to reconstruct the entire message once all frames have been successfully transported through the system. Forward error correction (FEC) is the only error-correction scheme that actually detects and corrects transmission errors when they are received without requiring a retransmission. The Hamming code is an error-correcting code used for correcting transmission errors in synchronous data streams. Hamming bits (sometimes called error bits) are inserted into a character at random locations. Character synchronization involves identifying the beginning and end of a character within a message. Asynchronous data transmission is sometimes called start-stop transmission because each data character is framed between start and stop bits. Synchronous data generally involves transporting serial data at relatively high speeds in groups of characters called blocks or frames. Data terminal equipments (DTE) can be virtually any binary digital device that generates, transmits, receives, or interprets data messages. Data communications equipment (DCE) is a general term used to describe equipment that interfaces data terminal equipment to a transmission channel, such as digital T1 carrier or an analog telephone circuit. UART is used for asynchronous transmission of serial data between a DTE and a DCE. A universal synchronous receiver/transmitter (USRT) is used for synchronous transmission of data between a DTE and a DCE. Asynchronous modems can be generally classified as low-speed voiceband modems, as they are typically used to transport asynchronous data The 103 modem is capable of full-duplex operation over a two-wire telephone line at bit rates up to 300 bps.
Data-Link Networks
Protocols
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Data
Communications
A data-link protocol is a set of rules implementing and governing an orderly exchange of data between layer two devices, such as line control units and front-end processors. Enquiry/acknowledgement (ENQ/ACK) is a relatively simple data-linklayer line discipline that works best in simple network environment where there is no doubt as to which station is the intended receiver. A poll is a solicitation sent from the primary to a secondary to determine if the secondary has data to transmit. Flow control defines a set of procedures that tells the transmitting station how much data it can send before it must stop transmitting and wait for an acknowledgement from the destination station. With stop-and-wait flow control, the transmitting station sends one message frame and then waits for an acknowledgment before sending the next message frame. Character-oriented protocols interpret a frame of data as a group of successive bits combined into predefined patterns of fixed length, usually eight bits each. A bit-oriented protocol is a discipline for serial-by-bit information transfer over a data communications channel. XMODEM is a relatively simple data-link protocol intended for low-speed applications. With synchronous data-link protocols, remote stations can have more than one PC or printer. Binary synchronous communications (BSC) is a synchronous character-oriented data-link protocol developed by IBM. BSC is sometimes called bisync or bisynchronous communications. Synchronous data-link control (SDLC) is a synchronous bit-oriented protocol developed in the 1970s by IBM for use in system network architecture (SNA) environments. A public switched data network (PDN or PSDN) is a switched data communication network similar to the public telephone network except a PDN is designed for transferring data only. A permanent virtual circuit (PVC) is logically equivalent to a two-point dedicated private-line circuit except slower. A virtual call (VC) is logically equivalent to making a telephone call through the DDD network except no direct end-to-end connection is made. Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) is a relatively new data communications technology that uses a high-speed form of packet switching network for the transmission media. The topology or physical architecture of a LAN identifies how the stations (terminals, printers, modems, and so on) are interconnected. Star topology. The preeminent feature of the star topology is that each station is radially linked to a central node through a direct point-to-point connection. With a star configuration, a transmission from one station enters the central node, where it is retransmitted on all the outgoing links. Bus topology. In essence, the bus topology is a multipoint or multidrop circuit configuration where individual nodes are interconnected by a common, shared communications channel. Ring topology. With a ring topology, adjacent stations interconnected by repeaters in a closed-loop configuration.
are
Baseband transmission formats are defined as transmission format that use digital signaling. In addition, baseband formats use the transmission medium as a single-channel device. Carrier sense, multiple access with collision detection. CSMA/CD is an access method used primarily with LANs configured in bus topology. Token passing is a network access method used primarily with LANs configured in a ring topology using either baseband or broadband transmission formats. Ethernet is a baseband transmission system designed in 1972 by Robert Metcalfe and David Boggs of the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC).
Microwave Radio Communications and System Gain Microwaves are generally described as electromagnetic wave with frequencies that range from approximately 500 MHz to 300 GHz or more. On august 17, 1951, the first transcontinental microwave radio system began operation. Intrastate or feeder service microwave systems are generally categorized as short haul because they are used to carry information for relatively short distances. Long-haul microwave systems are those used to carry information for relatively long distances, such as interstate and backbone route applications. Microwave radios propagate signals through Earth’s atmosphere between transmitters and receivers often located on top of towers spaced about 15 miles to 30 miles apart. Frequency modulation (FM) is used in microwave radio systems rather than amplitude modulation (AM) because AM signals are more sensitive to amplitude nonlinearities inherent in wideband microwave amplifiers. Intermodulation noise is a major factor when designing FM radio systems. The preemphasis network provides an artificial boost in amplitude to the higher baseband frequencies. With systems that are longer than 40 miles or when geographical obstructions, such as a mountain, block the transmission path, repeaters are needed.
Hybrid diversity is a somewhat specialized form of diversity that consists of a standard frequency-diversity path where the two transmitter/receiver pairs at one end of the path are separated from each other and connected to different antennas that are vertically separated as in space diversity. This arrangement combines the operational advantages of frequency diversity with the improved diversity protection of space diversity. With hot standby protection, each working radio channel has a dedicated backup or spare channel. With diversity protection, a single backup channel is made available to as many as 11 working channels. Hot standby systems offer 100% protection for each working radio channel. A diversity system offers 100% protection only to the first working channel to fail. Terminal stations are points in the system where baseband signals either originate or terminate. Repeater stations are points in a system where baseband signals may be reconfigured or where RF carriers are simply “repeated” or amplified. A microwave generator provides the RF carrier input to the up-converter. An isolator is a unidirectional device often made form a ferrite material. The isolator is used in conjunction with a channel-combining network to prevent the output of one transmitter from interfering with the output of another transmitter. Examples of commonly used low-noise amplifiers (LNAs) are tunnel diodes and parametric amplifiers.
A microwave repeater is a receiver and a transmitter placed back to back or in tandem with the system.
At frequencies below 1.5 MHz, the surface wave provides the primary coverage, and the sky wave helps extend this coverage at night when the absorption of the ionosphere is at a minimum.
IF repeaters are also called heterodyne repeaters. With an IF repeater, the received RF carrier is down-converted to an IF frequency, amplified, reshaped, up-converted to an RF frequency, and then retransmitted.
Free-space path loss is often defined as the loss incurred by an electromagnetic wave as it propagates in a straight line through a vacuum with no absorption or reflection of energy from nearby objects.
With baseband repeater, the received RF carrier is down-converted to an IF frequency, amplified, filtered, and then further demodulated to the baseband. The baseband signal, which is typically frequency-divisionmultiplexed voice-band channels, is further demodulated to a mastergroup, supergroup, group, or even channel level.
All points from which a wave could be reflected with an additional path length of one-half wavelength form an ellipse that defines the first Fresnel zone.
The baseband frequencies are generally less than 9 MHz, whereas the IF frequencies are in the range 60 MHz to 80 MHz. In a microwave system, the purpose of using diversity is to increase the reliability of the system by increasing its availability. Frequency diversity is simply modulating two different RF carrier frequencies with the same IF intelligence, then transmitting both RF signals to a given destination. At the destination, both carriers are demodulated, and the one that yields the better-quality IF signal is selected. With space diversity, the output of a transmitter is fed to two or more antennas that are physically separated by an appreciable number of wavelengths. With polarization diversity, a single RF carrier is propagated with two different electromagnetic polarizations (vertical and horizontal). Receiver diversity is using more the one receiver for a single radiofrequency channel. Quad diversity is another form of hybrid diversity and undoubtedly provides the most reliable transmission; however, it is also the most expensive. It combines frequency, space, polarization, and receiver diversity into one system.
Fading is a general term applied to the reduction in signal strength at the input to a receiver. Fading can occur under conditions of heavy ground fog or when extremely cold air moves over warm ground. Multipath fading occurs primarily during nighttime hours on typical microwave links operating between 2 GHz and 6 GHz. System gain is the difference between the nominal output power of a transmitter and the minimum input power to a receiver necessary to achieve satisfactory performance. Fade margin (sometimes called link margin) is essentially a “fudge factor” included in system gain equations that considers the nonideal and less predictable characteristics of radio-wave propagation, such as multipath propagation (multipath loss) and terrain sensitivity.
A satellite is a celestial body that orbits around a planet.
In the United States today, a publicly owned company called Communications Satellite Corporation (Comsat) regulates the use and operation of U.S. satellites and also sets their tariffs.
A satellite radio repeater is called a transponder, of which a satellite may have many.
A satellite remains in orbit because the centrifugal force caused by its rotation around Earth is counterbalanced by Earth’s gravitational pull.
The simplest type of satellite is a passive reflector, which is a device that simply “bounces” signals from one place to another.
German astronomer Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) discovered the laws that govern satellite motion.
The moon became the first passive satellite in 1954, when the U.S. Navy successfully transmitted the first message over this Earth-to-moon-toEarth communications system.
Kepler’s first law states that a satellite will orbit a primary body (like Earth) following an elliptical path.
Satellite Communications
In 1957, Russia launched Sputnik 1, the first active earth satellite. An active satellite is capable of receiving, amplifying, reshaping, regenerating, and retransmitting information. In 1957, Russia launched Sputnik 1, the first active earth satellite. An active satellite is capable of receiving, amplifying, reshaping, regenerating, and transmitting information. Sputnik 1 transmitted telemetry information for 21 days. Later in the same year, the United States launched Explorer 1, which transmitted telemetry information for nearly five months. In 1958, NASA launched Score, a 150-pound conical-shaped satellite. With an on board tape recording, Score rebroadcast President Eisenhower’s 1958 Christmas message. Score was the first artificial satellite used for relaying terrestrial communications. Score was a delayed repeater satellite as it received transmissions from earth stations, stored them on magnetic tape, and then rebroadcast them later to ground stations farther along in its orbit. In 1960, NASA in conjunction with Bell Telephone Laboratories and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory launched Echo, a 100-foot-diameter plastic balloon with an aluminum coating. The first transatlantic transmission using a satellite was accomplished using Echo. Also in 1960, the Department of Defense launched Courier, which was the first transponder-type satellite. In 1962, AT&T launched Telstar1, the first active satellite to simultaneously receive and transmit radio signals. Telstar 2 was used for telephone, television, facsimile, and data transmissions and accomplished the first successful transatlantic video transmission.
Kepler’s second law, enunciated with the first law in 1609, is known as the law of areas. Kepler’s second law states that for equal intervals of time a satellite will sweep out equal areas in the orbital plane, focused at the barycenter. The velocity will be greatest at the point of closest approach to Earth (known as the perigee), and the velocity will be least at the farthest point from Earth (known as the apogee). Kepler’s third law, announced in 1619, is sometimes known as the harmonic law. The third law states that the square of the periodic time of orbit is proportional to the cube of the mean distance between the primary and the satellite. Nonsynchronous satellites rotate around Earth in an elliptical or circular pattern. If the satellite is orbiting in the same direction as Earth’s rotation (counterclockwise) and at an angular velocity greater than that of Earth, the orbit is called a prograde or posigrade orbit. If the satellite is orbiting in the opposite direction as Earth’s rotation or in the same direction with the angular velocity less than that of Earth, the orbit is called a retrograde orbit. Most nonsynchronous satellites revolve around Earth in a prograde orbit. Most low earth orbit (LEO) satellites operate in the 1.0-GHz to 2.5-GHz frequency range. Motorola’s satellite-based mobile-telephone system, Iridium, is a LEO system utilizing a 66-satellite constellation orbiting approximately 480 miles above Earth’s surface. MEO satellites operate in the 1.2-GHz to 1.66-GHz frequency band and orbit between 6000 miles and 12,000 miles above Earth. NAVSTAR, is a MEO system with a constellation of 21 working satellites and six spares orbiting approximately 9500 miles above Earth. Geosynchronous satellites are high-altitude earth-orbit satellites operating primarily in the 2-GHz to 18-GHz frequency spectrum with orbits 22,300 miles above Earth’s surface.
The Syncom 3 satellite was used to broadcast the 1964 Olympic Games from Tokyo.
Most commercial communication satellites are in geosynchronous orbit.
Intelsat 1 (called Early telecommunications satellite.
Geosynchronous or geostationary satellites are those that orbit in a circular pattern with an angular velocity equal to that of Earth.
Intelsat stands Organization.
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International
was
the
first
commercial
Telecommunications
Satellite
The former Soviet Union launched the first set of domestic satellites (Domsats) in 1966 and called them Molniya, meaning “lightning.” Domsat are satellites that are owned, operated, and used by a single country. In 1972, Canada launched its first commercial satellite designated Anik, which is an Inuit word meaning “little brother.”
Satellites in high-elevation, nonsynchronous circular orbits between 19,000 miles and 25,000 miles above Earth are said to be in nearsynchronous orbit. Apogee. The point in an orbit that is located farthest from Earth Perigee. The point in an orbit that is located closest to Earth Major axis. The line joining the perigee and apogee through the center of Earth; sometimes called line of apsides Minor axis. The line perpendicular to the major axis and halfway between the perigee and apogee
All satellites rotate around Earth in an orbit that forms a plane that passes through the center of gravity of Earth called the geocenter. Inclined orbits are virtually all orbits except those that travel directly above the equator or directly over the North and South Poles. An equatorial orbit is when the satellite rotates in an orbit directly above the equator, usually in a circular path. All geosynchronous satellites are in equatorial orbits. A polar orbit is when the satellite rotates in a path that takes it over the North and South Poles in an orbit perpendicular to the equatorial plane. The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) Molniya is an interesting orbital satellite currently in use. Molniya can also be spelled Molnya and Molnia, which means “lightning” in Russian (in colloquial Russian, Molniya means “news flash”). Molniya satellites are used for government communications, telephone, television, and video. One sidereal day for Earth is 23 hours and 56 minutes. A sidereal day is sometimes called the period or sidereal period. Satellites remain in orbit as a result of a balance between centrifugal and gravitational forces. The process of maneuvering a satellite within a preassigned window is called station keeping. A geosynchronous earth orbit is sometimes referred to as the Clarke orbit or Clarke belt, after Arthur C. Clarke, who first suggested its existence in 1945 and proposed its use for communications satellites. Angle of elevation (sometimes called elevation angle) is the vertical angle formed between the direction of travel of an electromagnetic wave radiated from an earth station antenna pointing directly toward a satellite and horizontal plane. Azimuth is the horizontal angular distance from a reference direction, either the southern or northern most point of the horizon. Azimuth angle is defined as the horizontal pointing angle of an earth station antenna. A spinner satellite uses the angular momentum of its spinning body to provide roll and yaw stabilization. Three-axis stabilizer, the body remains fixed relative to Earth’s surface, while an internal subsystem provides roll and yaw stabilization. The geographical representation of a satellite antenna’s radiation pattern is called a footprint or sometimes a footprint map. In essence, a footprint of a satellite is the area on Earth’s surface that the satellite can receive from or transmit to. Spot beams concentrate their power to very small geographical areas and, therefore, typically have proportionately higher EIRPs than those targeting much larger areas because a given output power can be more concentrated. Spot and zonal beams blanket less than 10% of the Earth’s surface. Hemispherical downlink antennas typically target up to 20% of the Earth’s surface and, therefore, have EIRPs that are 3 dB or 50% lower than those transmitted by spot beams that typically cover only 10% of the Earth’s surface. The wideband carrier power is the combined power of the carrier and its associated sidebands. Gain-to-equivalent noise temperature ratio is a figure of merit used to represent the quality of a satellite or earth station receiver.
A link budget identifies the system parameters and is used to determine the projected C/N and E/N ratios at both the satellite and earth station receivers for a given modulation scheme and desired P(e).
Satellite Multiple Accessing Arrangements Multiple accessing is sometimes called multiple destinations because the transmissions from each earth station are received by all the other earth stations in the system. Communications satellites operating in the C-band are allocated to total bandwidth of 500 MHz symmetrical around the satellite’s center frequency.
If half the bits within a code were made the same and half were made exactly the opposite, the resultant would be zero cross correlation between chip code. Such a code is called an orthogonal code. Direct-sequence spread spectrum (DS-SS) is produced when a bipolar data-modulated signal is linearly multiplied by the spreading signal in a special balanced modulator called spreading correlator. The most significant advantage of CDMA is immunity to interference (jamming), which makes CDMA ideally suited for military applications.
Anik is an Eskimo word meaning “little brother”. The Anik-E communications satellites are Domsats (domestic satellites) operated by Telsat Canada.
Frequency hopping is a form of CDMA where a digital code is used to continually change the frequency of the carrier.
Satellite multiple accessing (sometimes called multiple destination) implies that more than one user has access to one or more radio channels (transponders) within a satellite communications channel.
A digital noninterpolated interface assigns an individual terrestrial channel (TC) to a particular satellite channel (SC) for the duration of the call.
FDMA, each earth station’s transmissions are assigned specific uplink and downlink frequency bands within an allotted satellite bandwidth; they may be preassigned or demand assigned.
A digital speech interpolated interface assigns a terrestrial channel to a satellite channel only when speech energy is present on the TC.
TDMA, each earth station transmits a short burst of information during a specific time slot (epoch) within a TDMA frame. CDMA, all earth stations transmit within the same frequency band and, for all practical purposes, have no limitations on when they may transmit or on which carrier frequency. Frequency-division multiple access (FDMA) is a method of multiple accessing where a given RF bandwidth is divided into smaller frequency bands called subdivisions. The first FDMA demand-assignment system for satellites was developed by Comsat for use on the Intelsat series IVA and V satellites. SPADE is an acronym for single-channel-per-carrier PCM multipleaccess demand-assignment equipment. Time-division multiple access (TDMA) is the predominant multipleaccess method used today. TDMA is a method of time-division multiplexing digitally modulated carriers between participating earth stations within a satellite network through a common satellite transponder. CEPT is the Conference of European Postal and Telecommunications Administrations; the CEPT sets many of the European telecommunication standards. TDMA is a store-and-forward system. Earth stations can transmit only during their specified time slot, although the incoming voice-band signals are continuous. With FDMA, earth stations are limited to a specific bandwidth within a satellite channel or system but have no restriction on when they can transmit. With TDMA, an earth station’s transmissions are restricted to a precise time slot but have no restriction on what frequency or bandwidth it may use within a specified satellite system or channel allocation. With code-division multiple access (CDMA), there are no restrictions on time or bandwidth. CDMA is sometimes referred to as spread-spectrum multiple access. Earth station’s transmissions are encoded with a unique binary word called a chip code. Each station has a unique chip code. With CDMA, all earth stations within the system may transmit on the same frequency at the same time.
Time-assignment speech interpolation (TASI) is a form of analog channel compression that has been used for suboceanic cables for many years. TASI also uses 2:1 compression ratio. Navigation can be defined as the art or science of plotting, ascertaining, or directing the course of movements. With celestial navigation, direction and distance are determined from precisely time sightings of celestial bodies, including the stars and moon. Piloting is fixing a position and direction with respect to familiar, significant landmarks, such as railroad tracks, water towers, barns, mountain peaks, and bodies of water. Dead(ded) reckoning is a navigation technique that determines position by extrapolating a series of measured velocity increments. With radio navigation, position is determined by measuring the travel time of an electromagnetic wave as it moves from a transmitter to a receiver. Until recently, Loran (Long Range Navigation) was the most effective, reliable, and accurate means of radio navigation. Loran-A was developed during World War II, and the most recent version, Loran-C, surfaced in 1980. Navstar is and acronym for Navigation System with Time and Ranging, and GPS is an abbreviation of Global Positioning System. Navstar GPS is a satellite-based open navigation system. United States Department of Defense (DoD) developed Navstar to provide continuous, highly precise position, velocity, and time information to land-, sea-, air-, and space-based users. The Navstar Satellite System was completed in 1994 and is maintained by the United States Air Force. The standard positioning service (SPS) is a positioning and timing service that is available to all GPS users on a continuous, worldwide basis with no direct charge. The precise positioning service (PPS) is a highly accurate military positioning, velocity, and timing service that is available on a continuous, worldwide basis to users authorized by the DoD. The U.S. Air Force Space Command (AFSC) formally declared the Navstar GPS satellite system as being fully operational as of April 27, 1995. The satellite segment, sometimes called the space segment, consists of 24 operational satellites revolving around Earth in six orbit planes approximately 60’ apart with four satellites in each plane. There are 21 working satellite and three satellites reserved as spaces.
Each Navstar satellite continually transmits a daily update set of digitally coded ephemeris data that describes its precise orbit. Ephemeris is a term generally associated with a table showing the position of a heavenly body on a number of dates in a regular sequence, in essence, an astronomical almanac. The GPS system works by determining how long it takes a radio signal transmitted from a satellite to reach a land-based receiver and then using that time to calculate the distance between the satellite and the earth station receiver. All Navstar satellites transmit on the same two L band microwave carrier frequencies: L1 = 1575.42 MHz and L2 = 1227.6 MHz. Differential GPS makes standard GPS even more accurate. Differential GPS works by canceling out most of the natural and man-made errors that creep into normal GPS measurement.
