Social Movements by edutap for rbi exam

Social Movements Importance: Importance: 4 marks out of 48 marks in Social issues section of ESI Questions pertained to the features of a social movement i.e. the questions asked were conceptual in nature

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Contents 1

What is a social movement? movement? ............................................................. ............................................................................................................................... .................................................................. 3

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What are the types of social movements? movements? .............................................................. .......................................................................................................... ............................................ 3

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Alternative social movement movement ........................................................ .......................................................................................................................... .................................................................. 3

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Redemptive Social Movement ...................................................... ........................................................................................................................ .................................................................. 3

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Reformist Social Movement Movement .......................................................... ............................................................................................................................ .................................................................. 3

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Revolutionary Revolutionary Movement.......................................................................... Movement................................................................................................................................ ...................................................... 3 What are the causes of social movement? movement? ............................................................. ......................................................................................................... ............................................ 4

3.1

Psychological Psychological Theories of Social Movements............................................................. .............................................................................................. ................................. 4

3.2

Social Theories of Social Movements .............................................................. .......................................................................................................... ............................................ 4

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What are the differences differences between between OLD OLD social social movements movements and and NEW social movements?................................ 7

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What are the internal dynamics of a social movement? movement? ............................................................. .................................................................................... ....................... 7

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5.1

Stage 1: Origin of Social Movement ................................................................ ............................................................................................................ ............................................ 8

5.2

Stage 2: Recruitment of Social Movement and Mobilisation...................................................................... Mobilisation...................................................................... 8

5.3

Stage 3: Structural Elaboration Elaboration ........................................................... ................................................................................................................... ........................................................ 8

5.4

Stage 4: Termination: Termination: ................................................................. .................................................................................................................................. ................................................................. 8

PEASANT AND FARMER MOVEMENTS MOVEMENTS .......................................................... ................................................................................................................ ...................................................... 9 6.1

FARMERS MOVEMENTS in MODERN INDIA ............................................................... .............................................................................................. ............................... 10

6.2

PEASANTS MOVEMENTS in MODERN INDIA .............................................................. ............................................................................................. ............................... 12

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BACKWARD CLASS MOVEMENT IN INDIA ............................................................... ......................................................................................................... .......................................... 17

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ENVIRONEMNTAL ENVIRONEMNTAL MOVEMENTS ....................................................... ....................................................................................................................... ................................................................ 18

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WOMEN MOVEMENTS ........................................................... ............................................................................................................................ ........................................................................... .......... 19 9.1

Community Rights (People’s) Movements Movements ................................................................................................ ............................................................................................... 19

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Women’s Women’s Emancipatory Emancipatory Movements.............................................................. ........................................................................................................ .......................................... 19

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What is a social movement? 

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The term 'Social Movement' was introduced by Lorenz Von Stein in 1850 in his book ‘ History of the French Social Movement from 1789 to Present’. Present ’. But the work on social movement could get momentum only in 1940s through the work of Herbert Blumer, Herberle, Wallace etc. collecti ctive ve ente nterr pri se to to esta establi blish sh ne new soci social al order order of li li fe. Blumer defined social movement as colle sust sta ai ne ned d, co colle llect ctii ve effort eithe itherr to ch cha ange who holly lly,, or or Otherwise Social Movement is defined as su pa p ar ti ally lly,, the the so socie cietty or to to res resist ist any ongo ngoing ing cha change in the the so socie cietty . All sorts of fundamentalist movements from Jewish, Islamic to Hindu is example of movement resisting change.

What are the types of social movements?

Though social movements have been identified in large kinds, it can be broadly classifi ed into 4 types:

1. Alternative social movement It attempts to bring limited social change in specific individuals likely through remodelling of lifestyle and behaviour e.g. Hippie Movement of 1970s. 2. Redemptive Social Movement It attempts to change certain sphere of society , religious conversion movement come under this category e.g. Mahar Movement in 1950s where Dalits of Maharashtra converted to Buddhism under the leader of BR Ambedkar. 3. Reformist Social Movement It attempts to change entire society in a limited way e.g. Temple Entry Movement, Literacy Literac y Movement etc. 4. Revolutionary Movement It attempts to change the whole society in a radical way . It leads to total structural transformation of society. French revolution completely transformed the socio-economic and political structure and value of feudal society to capitalist democratic society, communist movements too claim for such structural transformation. Besides these, other movements have also been identified like migratory movement, Millenarium movement etc.

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Hippie Movement of 1970s

Millenarium Movement It rises among people who are bottled up in a particular social situation and hence come to believe that they on their own cannot escape or come out of situation. They believe that in a 1000 years a Messiah will arrive and overcome their difficulties providing better life opportunities. It is a kind of fatalistic movement where one comes to compromise with their present conditions.

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What are the causes of social movement?

There are two group of theories that explain Social Movements: 1. Psychological Theories and 2. Social Theories

3.1 Psychological Theories of Social Movements These theories establish the roots of Social Movements in the personality of the followers. This is of two types:

1. Personal Discontent Theory People who are comfortable and contended with their situation have little interest in social movements. Only those individuals who are not satisfied with the present order participate in the social movements. 2. Personal Maladjustment Theory These theories see social movements as a refuge from personal failure. In the book, ‘True ‘True Believer ’ it is described that those people are drawn into social movements who are bored, misfit, the downwardly mobile and those who who are seriously dissatisfied with their lives. (E.g. Hitler’s frustration and Failure to become a good painter.)

3.2 Social Theories of Social Movements Sociologists counter the psychological theories arguing that without discontent and dissatisfaction there would hardly be any social movement. They are necessary but not sufficient conditions. Social Movements are not possible without widespread structural al strain. feeling of relative deprivation and structur Social theories are classified into two categories:

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1. Old/Classical Social Movement Theories 2. New Social Movement Theories

1) Classical / Old Social Movement Theory Theory

These theories have explained social movement from collective behaviour perspective as described by Gustav LeBon in the book, ‘Crowd ‘ Crowd (1895)’. (1895) ’. The classical social theorists equated social movements with that crowd behaviour perceived as irrational, spontaneous and often and often destructive. destructive. They are definitely long term, more organised but irrational collective behaviour . At this phase Social Movements were also considered irrational as it was not guided by existing social norms or collective actions were not institutionalised. The classical social movement theories are based on the perception of the Industrial Society. It is rooted in the conflict between labour and capital. During this period the labour movements were not recognised and neither institutionalised hence it was said to possess irrational behaviour. Post World War II there occurred a fundamental shift in the nature of social structure and state. The nature of state shifted towards acceptance of welfare state and the philosophy of welfare state institutionalised the conflict between labour and capital and labour movements were accepted as legitimate collective behaviour.

Difference between crowd, aggregate and mob:

Aggregate: Simple collection of people; each individual has his/her motive. Crowd: When people have common reason; common stimulus for gathering i.e. aggregate with a common stimulus. Mob: Active crowd Crowd / mob is highly suggestive i.e. it has irrational behaviour and the behaviour of crowd / mob is unpredictable. 2) New Social Movement Theory 1) Resource Mobilisation Theory (RMT)

This theory was first articulated by John D. McAarthy and Meyer Nzald in 1970. McAarthy and Nzald focussed on structure (meaning in i n their case c ase resources), organisati organisation on and its environment.

Structure of a Social Movement

Structure means pattern of interaction, arrangement of the elements and relationships in social space. Structure refers to certain external conditions that give rise to a phenomenon i.e. material conditions (according to McAarthy and Nzald).

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The pattern comes into existence only when there are factors outside the subjective consciousness of human being. Therefore, according to McAarthy and Nzald the structure of Social Movement includes:

1. Organisation 2. Resources and 3. Environment (Political and Natural)

The pragmatic reason for the change in focus is changes in society at large. Most important is the growth of middle class willing to allocate some of its income and students willing to allocate some of their time. Another important change is the invention and use of mass media facilitating the spread of message. RMT is based on assumption that participants in the social movements are rational people i.e. the people are calculative about the goal and possibility possibilit y of success. According to Charles Tilly movements are formed and dissolved, mobilised and deactivated, based on rational decisions about the goals of the group, available resources and the cost of the mobilisation of collective action. RMT assumes that participants must have some degree of economic and political resources to make the movement successful. In other words without grievances and discontent there would be few or no movements but widespread discontent alone cannot produce a social movement. Adequate resources and motivated people are essential to any concerted action. In short, though social movements in pre World War II era from collective behaviour are said to be irrational but actually it is not true about all social movements. Types or Resources

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Material Resources — Resources — Money Money and physical capital. Moral Resources — Resources — Existence Existence of solidarity and support for the movement’s goals. Social Organisation — Organisation — Organisational Organisational strategies and social networks Human Resources — Resources — Volunteers, Volunteers, staff and leaders Cultural Resources — Resources — Understanding Understanding of the issues, collective issue iss ue know how, prior activist experience

Lokpal Movement is best example to demonstrate the 5 types of resources. 2) Political Opportunity Theory or Political Process Theory

Sociologists with this perspective believe and argue that social movements should be considered as part of the political sociology and part of society’s political process. It should not be treated merely as form of collective behaviour. Movements are organised provided the political opportunities are available. These opportunities include:

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1. 2. 3. 4.

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Increased access to Decision Making power Insatiability in the alignment of ruling elite. Access to elite allies who can help a movement in its struggle. Declining capacity and propensity of state to repress dissent.

What are the differences between OLD social movements and NEW social movements?

Old Social Movements / OSM

New Social Movements / NSM 

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Beneficiaries were the participants

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Class conflict or Marxist ideology

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Largely focussed on lower classes

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Little focus on resources

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Considered irrational on two grounds: 1. Spontaneous reaction without goals and resource calculation 2. Not guided by existing norms norms that workers did not have right to strike organise etc.

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Legally recognised as right of people in a democracy Rational

Not directed against state rather they aim at lifestyle related issues and better life choices e.g. LGBT Movement

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Mainly directed against state because star was considered as an agent of capitalists. Movement for survival rather than lifestyle

Collective mobilisation to express grievances.

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Lifestyle issues are generally associated with middle class and hence associated with proliferation of middle class. Beneficiaries are not participants, membership is merely paper membership. Middle class provides monetary support hence NSM are largely carried out by NGOs, Civil Society and voluntary organisations. Paid Staff acts as activists e.g. Green Peace Movement, PETA etc.

NGOs not only get finances by people but also receive support from government.

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What are the internal dynamics of a social movement?

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Internal Dynamics of Social movement is also called Life Cycle of Social Movement and it consists of following 4 stages: Stage 1: Origin Stage 2: Recruitment Stage 3: Structural Elaboration Stage 4: Termination / Institutionalisation

5.1 Stage 1: Origin of Social Movement Origin of a social movement is never rooted in specific historical conditions . The ideology of the movement is never absolute novelty rather it borrows and adds innovation on existing ideological conditions. E.g. whole symbolic and ideological Solidarity Movement in Poland cannot be comprehended without the reference to the long tradition of Polish capitalism. The existing normative structure of society often serves as a negative frame of reference . A movement also originates when some relatively insignificant event breaks up the pluralistic ignorance e.g. the Black Civil Rights movement in US originated with relatively insignificant event of Rosa Park refusing refusing to take seat in the segregated part of the bus. The conflict over this event finally culminated into Civil Rights Moveme Movement nt.

5.2 Stage 2: Recruitment of Social Movement and Mobilisation Recruitment occurs in 2 waves. In the first wave the committed, aware, directly affected by deprivation, sensitive to the issue join out of conviction. In the 2nd wave those people are recruited rec ruited who seek community life. Then there are also a fringe of cynical opportunist opportunistss who join the movement in the hope of tangible benefits i.e. lucrative position when movement wins. They are ar e also called free riders. Several layers of participation is observed from core activist to followers, fellow travellers to free riders. This onion like composition becomes evident when a movement runs into trouble . Mere recruitment is not enough. Members must be organised for collective action. In this process leadership and organisation emerges.

5.3 Stage 3: Structural Elaboration It proceeds along a path from an aggregate of mobilised individuals to a full fledged movement organisation. The movement undergoes 4 sub-process of internal morphogenesis. 1. Emergence of new ideas and beliefs. 2. Emergence of new norms and values for internal functioning as well as dealing with external conditions. The norms deal with both internal members and external members and amongst the external members it includes both non-members and opponents. 3. Emergence of new organisational structure i.e. emergence of Social Movement Organisation. Emergence of new hierarchy of dependence, dominance, leadership and power within the movement.

5.4 Stage 4: Termination: The movement can be terminated on either an optimistic note or pessimistic note. Optimistic implies that movement has succeeded in achieving its goal and thereby lost its raison-de-itre i.e. rationality. Pessimistic termination means that the movement is defeated leading to its dissolution. If a movement succeeds it provides opportunity of backlash from opposing forces and this is known as crisis of victory . 8

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On being crushed the members of a movement get opportunity to identify their weaknesses, identif y truly committed supporters and opportunity for regrouping and resurgence. This known as victory of defeat .

In contemporary democratic setup the logical end of a social movement is said to be emergence of a new political party with its core ideological values e.g. Aam Admi Party has emerged out of Lokpal Movement whose core issue is anti-corruption. According to Yogendra Yadav, “Formation of a political party is the logical conclusion of any social movement."

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PEASANT AND FARMER MOVEMENTS

Agricultural communities in India are differentiated in t erms of their relationship with land. They have been categorised as:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Absentee Landlords Supervisory Farmers / Supervisory Agriculturalists Owner Cultivators Share Croppers Tenants Landless Labourers or Agricultural Labourers

The movements related to tenants, sharecroppers and landless labourers are known as peasant movements . An agriculturalist who is defined as peasant is associated with 3 factors:

1. Amount of Landholding 2. Productivity of Soil 3. State Policy

subsistencee , he is categorised as If the 3 factors together give the agriculturalist just enough for subsistenc peasants . During British period a large number of tenants were cultivating large amount of land. But due to exploitative revenue policy and the low productivity of soil they were leading a life of subsistence. Therefore, AR Desai termed all agricultural communities except the absentee landlord in preindependence period as peasants. Hence, the agricultural movements during the British period are termed as Peasant Movements .

Indian National Movement, the mass mobilisation and strong support from agricultural community owes to the promise of land reforms and productivity enhancing facilities by Congress Party. As a result immediately after independence Zamindari system was abolished , agriculture was exempted from all sorts of taxation and 2nd plan period onwards IAAI — Intensive Intensive Area Agriculture Initiative — Initiative — popularly popularly known as Green Revolution were initiated.

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All these policy and programme worked in favour of the peasant communities. A large number of them, mainly belonging to middle class, middle caste of peasants, moved above the subsistence level, produced more than their subsistence need and had marketable surplus. These landholders who had marketable surplus are called Farmers and their movements as Farmers Movements . The ambiguity of peasants and farmers movements is removed by AR Desai by stating that movements in pre-independence period are peasants movements and that of post independence period are farmers movements.

6.1 FARMERS MOVEMENTS in MODERN INDIA Bhartiya Kisan Union (BKU)

Feature

Shetkari (SS)

Sangathan

Karnataka Rajya Ryot Sangh (KRRS)

Sharad Joshi (Brahmin; Urban english educated middle class social background)

Leadership

Mahendra Singh Tikait (Vernacularly educated and belonged to rural Jat habitat)

Emerged as multi-caste organisation in Western UP where the GR had been successful

Characteristics:

Major castes were Jat, Gujjars, Tyagi and Rajputs. Jat, Gujjars, Tyagi were benefit of LR and GR in this region. Rajputs were traditionally well off so further benefited. Gradually other than Jats, other castes withdrew and it remained prominently a Jat Organisation

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Shetkari is Marathi term which stands for all those who are from agricultural community whether landholding, having marketable surplus or landless labourers Included not only the khedut but all agricultural community Took up the issues related to the unskilled, semi-skilled industrial workers i.e. Mazdoors in urban industrial area. Started the INDIA vs BHARAT Debate. Bharat is constituted by farmers, peasants, landless labourers and industrial workers (refugee from Bharat). India is constituted by capitalists, English

Nanjudaswami Rooted in Seed Satyagraha of 1980

It opposed introduction of Genetically Modified Seeds. Followed the GREEN PRINCIPLE e.g. advocated crop rotation, advocated avoidance of chemical fertilisers, use of organic manures, locally available seeds Advised farmers against cashcrop farming. Cash-crop farming is major cause of indebtedness. Advised the farmers not to sell their lands to MNCs.


Remained communal

non-

Remained affiliated to political party.

nonany

Remained rural; antagonistic to urban lifestyle; used urban centres merely for utilitarian purpose. Conservative outlook i.e. raised issues only related to well-off farmers. Nor issues concerned about poor peasants, landless labourers or poverty alleviation programme. Never tried to create an all India platform for the farming community

educated, urban middle class people, beneficiary of industrial policy and inheritor of colonial legacy. Critical of postindependence industrial policy i.e. NehruMahalanobis Model that industrial policy emphasised on large industries and industrial development was topheavy i.e. the approach is top-down approach. Major focus on industrial development and left over on ruralagricultural development. Per capita investment employment opportunity is very less. Tried to create an all India Platform for agricultural communities. The motivated the cooperative movement.

Increase in subsidy on agricultural inputs like seeds, fertilisers, machinery etc.

Demands:

Waiver of utility charges viz. irrigation dues, electricity bills etc. Increase in MSP e.g. for sugarcane, rice, wheat and other cash crops

Strategies:

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Organising rally in National Capital as they were geographically close to the capital. www.edutap.co.in

Advocated bottom up approach, major policy initiative should be focussed to develop agriculture and allied agricultural activity. Only surplus from agriculture should be invested in industrial sector.

Sittings/Dharnas, followed Gandhian Strategies characterised by non-violence.

Wore GREEN SCARFS and followed Gandhian NonViolence principles


Dharna before government officials, National Highways. Gherao of Govt offices as well govt officials Kisan Jails i.e. abduct the visiting government officials in a village keep them in captivity till their demand is met. Traffic Jam on National Highways. Characterised by complete absence of literary strategy.

6.2 PEASANTS MOVEMENTS in MODERN INDIA The Peasant Movement in India can be classified into:

1. PM prior to 1918 2. PM between 1918 and 1947 3. PM 1947 onwards

Prior to 1918

1918-1947

No contribution from political groups i.e. Indian National Congress

Active support of Indian National Congress Examples:

Examples:

1. Maratha Uprising of 1875 2. Moplah Rebellion 1882/1992 3. Wahabi and Farazi 12

1947 onwards

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1. Champaran Satyagrah 2. Kheda struggle 3. All India Kisan Sabha (1936) 4. Telangana Movement (1941-47) www.rbigradeb.wordpress.com

movement

Did not challenge British rule / Landlordism Arose due to difficult economic conditions by internal as well as external factors Aimed at enacting laws to gain concession as they were not alienated from the British or the rule of law.

5. Tebhaga Movement (1945-1951)

Coincides with entry of Mahatma Gandhi Gandhi ji focussed mobilisation

on

mass

Alienation from the British but not the rule of law. They wanted the rule of law and Democratic system to stay but British to leave because British will not allow laws for betterment of peasants to pass.

Alienation from the Rule of Law as the laws were there but were not followed and implemented. Legitimacy of the state was questioned.

Peasant movements in India in last 150 years can be classified on the basis of ideological affinity as: 1. Reformist — The The demand for change within the exiting pattern. 2. Revolutionary — The The demand for total structural changes from feudal agrarian to communist. The movements that occurred till 1918 did not challenge either the British Briti sh rule or Landlordism. Most of these rebellions aroused due to the difficult economic conditions caused by internal as well as external factors. For example the peasantry in Marathwada were facing acute economic crisis due to crash of cotton prices in the international market and as a result unable to pay the revenue. The Maratha uprising asked for reduction in revenue rate. Similarly, other movements that occurred in various parts of India brought acts like Punjab Alienation Act for the exemption of state revenue. The 2nd phase i.e. 1918 to 1947 coincides with the entry of Mahatma Gandhi in the Indian National Movement. Mahatma Gandhi did not see any meaning in the independence of India if it is merely a transfer of power from British ruling class to the Indian elites. Neither he envisioned the possibility of getting independence without mass mobilisation. So in order to make Indian national movement a mass movement they asked for support from different sections of the society most important were the peasantry. The various leaders of INC including Mahatma Gandhi started taking proactively the issues concerned with the peasant communities. Champaran Satyagraha, Kheda Satyagraha etc are examples of such initiative. But the most important formation was that of All India Kisan Sabha in 1936. About All India Kisan Sabha

AIKS motto was to create an All India Platform for agricultural community . Though in AIKS ideology elements of Communism was present but they stuck to democratic means to achieve the goal. The main objective of AIKS was to secure complete freedom from economic exploitation and achievement of full economic and political power for peasants, labourers and all those exploited sections of society. AIKS met 2 types of demands:

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1. Immediate or minimum demand Under this they asked for cancellation of land and revenue arrears, exemption from revenue demand for uneconomic landholdings and reduction of rent revenue and water taxes. 2. Fundamental demand or long term objective Consisted of demand for abolition of Zamindari system, replacement of present revenue s ystem by graduated land tax, cancellation of old taxes and allocation of land to landless and poor peasants for cooperative farming.

About Telangana Movement

Though Telangana movement had its root in Telugu Literary Movement , Hindu Maha Sabha which later on under the leadership of Ravi Narayan Reddy in 1940s came under communist influence and movement was propagated against the landlords who happen to be mostly Muslims as the state of Hyderabad was under the Muslim dominated Nizam rule. Basically the conflict was between landlords and peasants which had a religious coordinate. This attracted violent conflict between the supporters of Nizam i.e. Razakars and the movement supporters. Within the ambit of the violent nature there emerged a peaceful movement under the leadership of Vinoba Bhave known as Bhudan Movement.

Prior to Independence the social psychological conditions of the peasants community can be described as alienation from British rule but not from the rule of law. British period is pre-dominantly characterised by the term procedural democracy . They were said to be strict disciplinarians and abide by the rule of law. The major emphasis of the peasant movements which were mostly local and regional in nature emphasised upon enactment of laws providing concessions to the peasant communities. Later on with Indian national movement gaining momentum British were pressurised to deliver substance s ubstance which were against their interest. Peasant communities too t oo realised realis ed that t hat without getting total independence peasant communities will remain exploited i.e. why the peasant movement got mixed with political movement due to alienation from British rule. Immediately after independence the government enacted Land Reform laws that abolished zamindari system and therefore, intermediaries, put a ceiling limit on the land holding and above all promise to distribute the surplus land among the landless peasantry. But sociologists and analysts have found that land reform policies miserably failed. It remained beneficiary for only a small section of society — the the middle caste, middle class of peasants. Otherwise, landlords used various illegal mechanisms to keep the land with themselves. The reason for the failure ( or partial success) of LR policy can be listed as:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

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Absence of proper land records. Benami transfer of surplus land and transfer of land in the name of minors of the family. Use of force by Landlords The unholy nexus between political class, administrative class and the bourgeoisie landlord. The lengthy and long drawn judicial process that were beyond the comprehension of the illiterate peasant communities.

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Due to above factors land reform laws failed to be implemented and due to non-implementation there occurred alienation from the rule of law itself. The peasant communities came to believe that state and democracy exists to protect the interest of upper propertied class only. It does not work for masses. The disenchantment with state provided a favourable and fertile ground for the rise of revolutionary ideology in the form of Naxal Movement in West Bengal in 1967.

The international centre of communism has undergone various split and so the Indian Communist Movement. The one major ideological centre was Moscow under whose inspiration the Communist Party of India was formed. With the success of Communist revolution in China, Beijing emerged as the new ideological centre of Communism. The Maoist version of communist movement inspired the formation of a new political party i.e. CPI (M) in 1964. Marxists i.e. CPI (M) decided to pursue establishment of people’s democracy as the immediate objective but in the long run they aspired to establish Socialism or Communism. The leadership of CPI (M) acknowledged that the situation is not mature enough (or premature) for an all India revolution as the influence of communist ideology or communist movement was restricted only to West Bengal and Kerala. Therefore, they opted for participation in legislative politics and continued with other forms of struggle simultaneously. Unexpectedly, in 1967 United Front Government came in power in Bengal election. The leadership went with a strategy to do good work for the people first, increase their area of influence beyond West Bengal, create sufficient support for revolution but on the other hand the lower cadre members were critical of this approach. They expected immediate action from their leadership which leaders were reluctant to take. This gap generated disenchantment among masses not only against democracy but their own party. They were also disenchanted by the organised mass movement. So various splinter groups started acting against the landlords on their own out of which NKSSS — Naxalbari Naxalbari Krishi Sangram Sahayak Samiti — was was most important. This way Naxal movement emerged in West Bengal which adopted Guerrilla warfare pattern on Cuban Model CHE GUEARA. Major characteristics features:

1. Operated in the form of splinter groups at local level (as they were against Marx). 2. Through massive participation of peasants they went for forcible occupation of Benami, Vest and Khas land. 3. Emphasised on the liquidation of class enemies through guerrilla tactics.

The movement that originated in the Naxalbari village of Siliguri and which engulfed a large part of West Bengal in its fold was brutally suppressed by Government of India by use of massive force . Large number of cadres were killed by security forces, many thousands were imprisoned and tortured leading to a violent end of the movement . But the movement also acted as a warning for the government and administration. The Government of India became aware of the gravity of the problem, took a number of initiatives that acted as a dampener for the revolutionary potential :

1. Nationalisation of banks 2. Introduction of term socialist in the Preamble 3. Removal of Right to Property provision from Fundamental Rights. 15

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4. Launch of the massive programme of poverty alleviation (Garibi Hatao) that restricted the proliferation of revolutionary ideology.

The erstwhile revolutionary groups were persuaded to participate in democratic process. The marginal section of the society, the dalit community were empowered politically and economically. All these provided a sense of belongingness among the marginal section of the society. The communist movement remained (violent form) remained more or less dormant till 1990. Post 1990, with the adoption of the policy of liberalisation, privatisation and globalisation there has been resurgence in the Naxal movement . The 2nd phase of Naxalism is more ferocious and lethal as it has been branded as the greatest threat to t o internal int ernal security. Large number of military personnel, political class have been eliminated by them. The 2nd phase of Naxal movement had certain changed characteristics. Instead of agriculture dominated area it is prevalent in the forested mineral rich areas. Earlier the sympathisers were landless labourers mainly belonging to low caste and scheduled caste. The contemporary phase is sympathised mainly by tribals. One of the reason of shifting sympathiser is the feeling of empowerment. Due to government initiatives and Dalit movements a large number of people belonging to Scheduled Caste have attained elite positions. We have examples of a Dalit President, Home Minister, CJI, Judges of Supreme and High Courts, other ministerial births and above all there has also been a rise in Dalit Entrepreneurship (DALIT CAPITALISTS) e.g. Chandrabhan Prasad and Milind Kamble. Besides due to rising population and whatever little success LR has met, there is hardly any significant number of landlords in India today. India witnessed worst kind of economic crisis in 1980s. With the disintegration of USSR the traditional economic support that India was getting in the name of communist or socialist ideology was withdrawn leading to a balance of payment crisis situation. situati on. In the last 40 years since 1990 the socialist economy and polity also witnessed proliferation of rampant corruption. For all the ills of India the reason was attributed to socialistic ideology. It was believed that with the adoption of LPG there will be transparency in governance, creation creati on of employment opportunities for the educated people and industrial development will benefit the local population. But an empirical analysis leads us to the conclusion that corruption has increased manifold, major beneficiaries have been only the people belonging to middle class cla ss and the t he displaced are actually not the beneficiaries of the programmes. Though there is no reliable estimate of total tota l number of people displaced since independence but it is expected to ranging from 6-20 millions. According to sociologist Walter Fernandez 40% of all those displaced by Government projects are of tribal origin. These displaced tribal population are not the beneficiaries of the project be it Sardar Sarovar project, Niyamgiri Hills besides displacement there is a breakdown of community living too . In short we can say that in India we have people’s rehabilitation rehabilitation programme and not community rehabilitation programme. Since tribal people depend upon their immediate ecology for livelihood displacement takes away from them the right to livelihood. Also since the educational level is quite low they do not get work in the modern industry. Since tribal population does not benefit at all from the process of development they are alienated from it.

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In the new regime of LPG, corporate groups have a predatory approach towards the lands of the tribes. Earlier when the industries were working under the public sector PSUs were performing their social responsibilities. But with the disinvestment of PSUs the ownership has been transferred to private proprietors who are apathetic towards tribal concerns. 1. The rapidly growing concern for environment has also deprived tribals of their traditional rights over the major forest produce. 2. There is also bureaucratic apathy and high handedness on the part of government officials. They behave like boss, ill treat tribals and consider themselves belonging to superior culture. This vacuum created by apathy of government officials is filled b y maoist. Maoist are ready to walk miles to hold village meetings and listen tribals grievances sympathetically.

Objective conditions giving rise to tribal sympathy to maoist movement: 1. Development induced displacement 2. Displaced are not the beneficiaries of development 3. Deprivation from the source of livelihood due to displacement and ceasing of rights over major forest produce 4. Breakdown of community life 5. Apathy of government 6. Absence of feeling of empowerment as among the SC 7. The external logistics support (China, Pakistan) to maoist ideologue with an aim to dest abilise India and create Red Corridor ranging from southern Maharashtra to Bengal.

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BACKWARD CLASS MOVEMENT IN INDIA

What is Backward Class?

The term backward class was being widely used by British in the beginning of 20th century to denote people who had failed to take up western education education . It happened that most of the people who failed to take up western education mainly belonged to Shudra varna and Pancham varna each of which consists of a conglomerate of caste groups . Since the British period especially for depressed classes provision for reservation came into existence. Within the fundamental right chapter of Indian Constitution, state is empowered to take measures for the development of socially and educationa educationally lly backward class of people. Due to ambiguity in the use of the term caste and class the reservation policy was challenged in the court of law. Supreme Court in the case P. RAJENDRAN vs STATE OF MADRAS (1968) declared “ A caste is also a class of citizen. Thus, Backward Class Movement includes all the moments by OBCs as well Dalits. Backward Class / Caste Movement

It includes:

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1. OBCs 2. Dalit or Scheduled Caste Movements

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ENVIRONEMNTAL MOVEMENTS

The term environmental movements gained currency after the UNCHE UNCHE — — UN Conference on Human Environment at Stockholm in 1972. This conference paved the way for a number of studies and reports on the conditions of environment and its impact on the present and future generations. It lead to development of green politics and green movement in Germany and North America and witnessed emergence of a network of voluntary organisations raising environmental issues throughout the world including India. In India the Green Movement is carried out by a conglomeration of voluntary associations and NGOs dispersed throughout the country but in dialogue with global and western ideas. This entails in the mind of intellectuals that India does not have a trul y indigenous environmental movement. The other reasons of such notion is that many intellectuals are not ready to accept Chipko and Narmada Bachao Andolan as environmental movement rather want them to be treated as peasants subsistence struggle , the struggle for survival and livelihood. Chipko and NBA are both are said to begin as peasant subsistence struggle. NBA began against the tribal displacementt and consequent threat to their community life and source of livelihood displacemen li velihood . Tribal population depends on its ecology for livelihood. In the absence of skill and submergence of their immediate ecology they loose their livelihood completely, highly detrimental to their social deforestation due to 2 important i mportant reasons : living. Chipko movement also began against deforestation

1. Widespread devastation of areas just below the deforested areas in the flash floods of 1974 causing loss of wealth, life etc. 2. It was also against the state policy of granting deforestation rights or wood cutting rights to private contractors but not allowing the local people to cut the woods woods for their need.

Immediate cause of Chipko movement:

Flash floods of 1973 causing huge damage to property and bovine life. Villages most affected by landslides lay directly below forests where felling operations had taken place. Villagers assessed a relationship between mass-scale felling of trees and erosion of soil and therefore, floods. The villagers were not expert to do such assessment but they did so because of certain historic reasons. 1. 2. 3. 4.

The discontent and distrust prevailing against the forest department or state administration. Restriction on forest resources by state was seen as a forfeiture of their hereditary natural rights. Undue favour to contractors undermining the requirements of local people. High unemployment among youth.

Though Chipko and NBA began as peasants subsistence struggle in the course of their progress they have established themselves as environment environmental al movement but definitely not with a global concern but local 18

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concern. There has been a growing interaction with movements with global concerns and local concerns and each is using the other to fulfil their goal.

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WOMEN MOVEMENTS

Women movements in India can be categorised on following basis: 1. Issues that the movements address 2. Movements raising women’s emancipation issue but participated by men or women.

On the basis of issues it can be classified as:

1. Community rights movements and 2. Women’s emancipatory movements

9.1 Community Rights (People’s) Movements Women have participated in many movements like Freedom Struggle Movement , Peasants Movements, Tribals Movements, Students Movements etc et c . Though in such movements women a nd hence mobilise themselves related issues are not raised but women are able to realise their power and for their own issues.

9.2 Women’s Emancipatory Movements Women’s emancipation movement by men Social reforms movements by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, MG Ranade, Behramji Malbari etc. against prevailing religious and social customs subjugating women. These reformers influenced British government to enact laws banning social evils like sati system, abolishing child marriage, allowing widow remarriage etc. They also mobilised people to increase or spread education among women. But most of these social reformers believed in the separation of role of men and women. They were not against women working outside but also not in favour of women competing with men in all spheres. Women’s movements by Women In the beginning of 20th century many women’s organisation came into existence mostly for the spread of education among them . Prominent among them are:

1. All India Women’s Conference (AIWC) 2. Women India Association (WIA)

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One of the major failure of women’s movements have been not able to pass t he bill reserving 33% seats in Parliament and Legislative assemblies. Though PRI Act have provision for reservation for women but PRIs are not highest decision making bodies. Parliament and legislative assemblies without proper women’s representation cannot cann ot be sensitive towards women’s issues. Today hardly 10-11% 10 -11% representation on part of women in legislative bodies. The number is so low that it does not allow women legislatures to cut across party line to attain unity on Women;s issues. Note: Beijing Declaration has set 33% as the standard representation for women in legislative legislative bodies. Note: In Scandinavian countries the women participation participation in legislative process are 47-48%. Even Bangladesh Parliament and Sri Lanka Parliament have more women representative than India in highest legislative bodies. The highest gender equality is found in Scandinavian countries as women representation in the Parliament or legislative legislati ve body is as high as 48%. Another major failure of Women’s movements is Anti-Dowry Act. As per NCRB — National Crimes Record Bureau — every every 13 minutes in India a woman become victim of violence and the majority of them is dowry related violence. Still there is a big gap between legal entitlement and actual realisation of parental property.

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