CIVILIZED SHAMANS Buddhism IN Tibetan Societies
Geoffrey Samuel
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION PRESS WASHINGTON WA SHINGTON AND LONDON
To my mother, Gerty Samuel © 1993 by the Smithsonin Instit!tion A"" #i$hts #ese#%e& 'o(y E&ito#) Robin A* Go!"& P#o&!+tion E&ito#) D!,e -ohns Desi$ne#) .th"een Sims
Lib##y o/ 'on$#ess 't"o$in$0in0P!b"i+tion Dt Sm!e" Geo//#ey* 'i%i"i2e& shmns shmns ) !&&hism !&&hism in Tibetn Tibetn so+ieties so+ieties 4 Geo//#ey Geo//#ey Sm!e"* Sm!e"* (* ( * +m* In+"!&es bib"io$#(hi+" #e/e#en+es n& in&e5* ISN 1067890:310; 1* !&&hism<'hin
'ontents
P#e/+e %ii INTRODU'TION 1* Int#o&!+tion) Shmni+ n& '"e#i+" !&&hism 3 :* Tibetn n& The#%&in So+ieties) A 'om(#ison :; PART ONE 3* Tibetn So+ieties) Int#o&!+tion n& 'ent#" Tibet 39 ;* Tibetn So+ieties) .m =Este#n Tibet> 7;
6* Tibetn So+ieties) Am&o =No#theste#n =No#thest e#n Tibet> 7* Tibetn So+ieties) So!the#n n& Weste#n Weste#n Tibet @* Tibet n 'o 'omm!niti iti es 116 * S o m e ' o n + " ! s i o n s 1 39
@ 99
'ONTENTS PART TWO 9* The Rit!" 'osmos n& Its Inhbitnts 16@ 18* The Fo", Re"i$ion n& the P#$mti+ O#ienttion 1@7 11* The .#m O#ienttion Rebi#th n& Tibetn "!es "!es 199 Tnt# Tnt# n& the o&hi O#ienttion O#ientt ion ::3 1 2 . 1:* 1:* The The Lm n& n& the the Tnt#i nt#i++ Deitie itiess :;; 1 2 . Tnt# Tnt# n& n& the P#$mti+ O#ienttion :6 1:* 1:* Lm Lms s Mon, Mon,s s n& n& o$ins $ins :@8 :@8 1:* 1:* Fo", Fo", Sh Shm mns ns Tertön, n& '#2y Si&&hs :98 13* Tibet Tibetnn Re"i$io!s Re"i$io!s 'omm!niti 'omm!nities es =Gom(> =Gom(> 389 1:* Some Re+ent Lms 337
1:* 1:*
PART PART THREE THRE E 1:* F#om #om St#!+t!#e to P#o+ #o+ess 369 1:* 1:* In&i In&i) ) ! !&& &&hi hist st e$i e$inn nnin in$s $s 37@ 37@ 13* In&i) Mhyn S+hoo"s 3 1:* In&i) In&i) Tnt# Tnt# n& the !& !&&hi &hist st Si&&h Si&&hss ;87 1:* Tibet to A*D* ;1 ;37 1:* 1:* Tibe Tibet) t) The The Lo+ Lo+"" He He$e $emo moni ni++ Pe#io Pe#io&& ;6@ ;6@ 1:* 1:* Tibet Tibet)) Mon$o" Mon$o" O%e O%e#"o #"o#&s #&shi( hi( ;1 Tibet) Ge Ge"! "!$( $( Synt Synthhesis sis n& Shm hmni+ ni+ Re+ e+tio tion ;99 Tibet) bet) Ge Ge"! "!$$( Po Poe# n& n& the the Rime ime& Synt Synthhesis sis 6:6 6:6 1:* 'on+"!sion 663
E(i"o$!e) The Tibetns n& Tibetn Re"i$ion To&y To&y 6@; A((en&i5 1* The Monsti+ Po(!"tion o/ Tibet 6@ N o t e s
63
G!i&e to Tibetn S(e""in$ Re/e#en+es In&e5 793
736
71@
P#e/+e
This boo, hs been "on$ time in the #itin$* My initi" /ie"&o#, ith Tibetns in In&i n& Ne(" Ne(" too, ("+e in 19@1019@:* 19@1019@:* The /i#st %e#s %e#sio ionn o/ the boo, boo, s s #itten &!#in$ nine months I s(ent t the Uni%e#sity o/ '"i/o#ni in e#,e"ey in 1910 19: s #ese#+h sso+ite in the De(#tment o/ Anth#o(o"o$y* In the s!bseC!ent e#s the ("n o/ the boo, hs !n&e#$one se%e#" &#sti+ +hn$es n& th#ee +h(te#s tht o#i$in""y /o#me& (#t o/ it h%e $#on into se(#te o#, on nth#o(o"o$i+" theo#y (Mind, Body and Culture, 'mb#i&$e Uni%e#sity P#ess> hi+h s (!b"ishe& in 1998* The nt!#e o/ the (#oJe+t hs "so +hn$e& si$ni/i+nt"y o%e# the ye#s in (#t be+!se o/ the eno#mo!s $#oth in Tibetn Tibetn st!&ies sin+e the t he mi&K19@8s* My (#im#y (#i m#y obJe+ti%e th#o!$ho!t t h#o!$ho!t hs been to (#esent +ohe#ent inte#(#ettion o/ Tibetn Tibetn #e"i$ion b!t I h%e "so t#ie& to (#o%i&e (#o%i &e n o%e#%ie o%e#%i e o/ the (#esent (#esen t stte o/ #ese#+h #ese# +h n& bse"ine bse"i ne /#om hi+h othe# inte#(#ettions +n be$in* This s!#%ey s(e+t (("ies (#ti+!" (#t i+!"#"y #"y to the o%e#%ie o%e# %ie o/ Tibetn so+ieties so+ie ties in P#t One b!t I h%e t#ie& t#i e& th#o!$ho!t the boo, to $i%e the #e&e# n o#ienttion to#&s the +!##ent "ite#t!#e* This hs not been ttem(te& sin+e the PREFA'E s!#% s!#%ey eyss o/ Ro Ro"/ "/ Stei Steinn (Tib (Tibetan etan Civiliz Civilizatio ation, n, 19@:> D%i& Sne""$#o%e n& H!$h H! $h Ri+h Ri+h# #&s &son on (Cul (Cultu tura rall Hist Histor oryy of Tibet, bet, 197 197> > n& Gi!se( Gi!se((e (e T!++i T!++i (Religions of Tibet, 198> boo,s hi+h e#e / i#st (!b"ishe& i n 197: 197 197 n& n& 19@8 #es(e+ #es(e+ti%e"y ti%e"y n& e#e e#e in ny ny +se +se not +on+e +on+e#ne& #ne& i th the nth#o nt h#o (o"o$i (o" o$i +" "ite#t!#e hi+h h#&"y e5iste& in those times* Wo#, on Tibetn #e"i$ion is s+tte s+tte#e& #e& o%e# o%e# se%e se%e#" #" &is+i( &is+i("in "ines es n& "n$! "n$!$es $es n& it is not esy esy /o# be$i be $inn nne# e# in the th e /ie" /i e"&& to ((# ( (#ee +it +i tee ho ho m!+h m! +h hs h s been be en &one &o ne in ho ho mny m ny #es o# /o# tht mtte# to see the mJo# $(s tht sti"" #emin* I h%e no &o!bt tht my e//o#ts in this &i#e+tion i"" #(i&"y be+ome o!t&te& b!t I sti"" ho(e tht they i"" be o/ !se /o# some time to +ome* My on inte#(#ettion o/ Tibetn #e"i$ion hs "so +hn$e& o%e# the ye#s s I h%e h%e "e#ne "e#ne&& mo#e mo#e /#om the the o o#, #, o/ othe#s othe#s n& /#om my on #ese#+h* #ese#+h* Tibetn #e"i$ion no ((e#s both mo#e o#i$in" n& mo#e n e5(#ession o/ !ni%e#s" !ni%e#s" h!mn h!mn (#o+esse (#o+essess n& bi"ities bi"ities thn it &i& hen I #ote my &o+to#" &o+to#" &isse#ttion* I h%e t#ie& in this boo, to s!$$est some o/ the ys in hi+h the histo#y o/ h!mn tho!$ht in Tibet is o/ %"!e to !s "" n& to s,et+h the s(e+ s(e+i/ i/i+ i+ /o#m /o#mss tht tht $ene $ene# #"" h!m h!mnn iss!e iss!ess n& n& +on/ +on/"i+ "i+ts ts too, too, in Tibe Tibet tnn so+ so+ieti ietiees* Tibet betni nist stss my /in& /in& some ome o/ the the (ositi sition onss I h%e %e t,e t,enn +ont#o +on t#o%e#s %e#si" i" /o# e5m("e e5m("e my +omments on the &e/e+ts o/ Lhs0+ente#e& Lhs0+ente#e&
%ie o/ Tibetn so+ieties o# my $ene#" em(hsis on the shmni+ s(e+ts o/ Tibetn !&&hism* I o!"& be ("ese& i/ the boo, e#e to (#o%o,e some &ebte in #es tht h%e been too (#one t times to the #es(e+t/!" #e(e #e(eti titi tion on o/ #e+e #e+ei% i%e& e& is& is&om om** The The #ehe #ehe# #si sin$ n$ o/ t,e t,enn /o# /o# $#n $#nte te&& ,no"e&$e hs "itt"e to &o ith $en!ine insi$ht hethe# e #e t",in$ bo!t samvrti o# !aram"rthasatya# o# !aram"rthasatya# It #emins to thn, those ho h%e ssiste& me in mny ys & !#in$ the #itin$ o/ the boo,* They in+"!&e in+nne A&ms Mi+he" A""en An, Do#Je Nm$y Nm$y" " Mi+he" Mi+he" A#is A#is #b# #b# A2 A2i2 i2 e" ento# ento# E& e#nb e#nb!m !m Ri+#&o Ri+#&o 'n2io 'n2io .#ystyn .#ystyn 'e+h Anne Anne 'hyet ##y '"#, #b# 'o!sins So(hie Dy Dy E"ine Dobson L##y E(stein Ste%e n& -on Goo&mn Ne"son G#b!#n Toni H!be# G!n -in M#ie0Anne Ho+,in$s #!+e .(/e#e# I%n . #( #( Li n & .em( Pe# Pe# .% .%e e#n #ne e An& n&#e #e Lose Lose#i #ies es D Dnn M#t M#tin in Pe# Pe# Mtthiese Mtthiesen n i"" Ne Nee e"" "" -my -myn n$$ No No#b #b! ! M#i M#i Phy Phy"+t "+to! o! F#n F#no ois isee Pomm Pomm# #et et Snt Sntii Ro2#io Ro2#io I"n Si"be# Si"be# M#tin So!tho"& So!tho"& E"%i# S(#o$is S(#o$is -ohn Ste(henson Ste(henson D%i& Tem("e Tem("emn mn Di$ht Di$ht T,ts+h T,ts+ho o Lin"ey W",e# ",e# Gehn WiJeye#&ene 'h#is Wi""+o5 -n Wi""is Pete# Wi"son n$ En0 PREFA'E h on o n $ $ n & h n n $ L i i ns n s he h e n$ n $ * O th t h e# e # s h %e % e & o !b ! b t" t " es e s s b ee ee n !nintention""y omitte& b!t I m no "ess $#te/!" to them* My &o+t &o+to# o#"" #ese #ese#+h #+h in 19@1 19@1019 019@: @: ss s!(( s!((o#t o#te& e& by $#nt $#nt /#om /#om the So+i" S+ien+e Rese#+h 'o!n+i" =U*.*>* This boo, hs "so bene/itte& /#om #e+ent /ie"& #ese#+h on the Ges# e(i+ n& Este#n Tibetn so+iety hi+h s m&e (ossib"e (ossib"e by n A! A!st#"i st#"i Rese#+h Rese#+h 'o 'o!n !n+i +i"" # #&* &* I thn thn,, the the !tho#ities o/ the Uni%e#sity o/ Ne+st"e ho ""oe& me #ese#+h "e%e /o# this (#oJe+t n& "so s!((o#te& th#ee o%e#ses st!&y "e%e (e#io&s n& my tten&n+e t the 'som &e .#s +on/e#en+e in H!n$#y in 19; n& the 6th IATS Semin# t N#it -(n in 199* The st//s o/ the A!+hm!ty Lib##y t the the Un Uni% i%e# e#si sity ty o/ Ne Ne+ +s st" t"ee "so "so &ese &ese#% #%ee m!+h m!+h $#t $#tit it!& !&ee /o# /o# thei thei# # ssistn+e (#ti+!"#"y ith +o!nt"ess #eC!ests /o# obs+!#e inte#"ib##y "ons* Stn"ey Tmbih Tmbih s!(e#%ise& the initi" st$es o/ my &o+to#" #e se#+h se#+h n& n& his en+o!#$ement then n& in mo#e #e+ent ye#s hs been &ee("y ((#e+ite&* The The &ebt &ebt I o oee to his his on o o#, #, on ! !&& &&hi hism sm in Thi" i"n& n& is e%i& %i&ent th#o th#o!$ !$ho ho!t !t this this bo boo, o,** Pete Pete## Wi"son "son s!(e s!(e#% #%is ise& e& the the /in /in"" #it #itin in$$ o/ my &isse#t &isse#ttion tion** I thn, thn, him n& ho(e tht he enJoys enJoys my ((#o ((#o(# (#i iti tion on o/ some some i&es /#om his Crab $nti%s =19@3> in 'h(te# 11* I o!"& "i,e to thn, Ne"son G#b!#n G#b!#n M#i"y M#i"ynn St#the St#the#n #n n& the st// o/ the e#,e"ey e#,e"ey n& Mn+heste# Mn+heste# nth#o(o"o$y &e(#tments /o# thei# thei# hos(it"ity hos(it"ity in 191019 191019: : 19@ n& 1998 1998 A#ie" S""eh /o# "ettin$ me "i%e n& o#, in he# G"ebe +ott$e +"ose to Sy&ney Uni%e#s Uni%e#sity ity n& its "ib##y "ib##y &!#in$ &!#in$ the s!mme# o/ 19 190199 0199 n& M+ieJ n& I#in 'io"e, /o# thei# /#ien&shi( n& en+o!#$ement &!#in$ the mny times tht I h%e stye& ith them in 'nbe## hi"e +ons!"tin$ the A!st#"in N Nti tion on" " Uni%e#sitys Tibetn +o""e+tion* -net Gytsos +omments on n e#"y %e#sion o/ this boo, #eo#iente& my thin,in$ on the +ent#" iss!e o/ Tnt# n& shmni+ insi$ht n& so +ont#i +on t#ib!t b!te& e& %it"" %it""yy to the /in" te5t* Deti"e& Deti"e& +#iti+is +#iti+isms ms o/ "te# %e#sions %e#sions by Hmish G#e$o# Lisse St!t+hb!#y n& D%i& Stott e#e o/ immense immense %"!e s e#e my &is+!ssion &is+!ssionss ith Tshi Tshi Tse#in$ Tse#in$ o/ the Lib##y o/ Tibet Tibetnn Wo#,s o#,s n&
A#+hi%es* Robe#t P!" #e& the boo, /o# the Smithsonin n& I o!"& "i,e to thn, thn, him he#e he#e /o# his $ene $ene#o!s #o!s n& n& he"( he"(/! /!"" #em #em#, #,s* s* Mny Mny e##o# e##o#ss n& n& misinte#(#ettions !n&o!bte&"y #emin &es(ite "" the ssistn+e n& $oo& &%i +e I h%e #e+ei%e #e+ei%e&* &* I "so ish to +,no"e&$e the mny Tibetn "ms hose te+hin$s h%e (#o%i&e& essenti" essenti" $!i&n+e n& ins(i#tion mon$ them them PREFA'E the "te ."! Rim(o+he Mt#!" Rim(o+he n& 'h$ym T#!n$( T#!n$( Rim(o+he An&2in Rim(o+he Rim(o+he Ato Rim(o+he Rim(o+he 'h$&& 'h$&& Rim(o+he Rim(o+he 'hime 'hime Rim(o+he Rim(o+he Lm .#m .#m Smten .!n$ Rim(o+he Nm,h D#ime& Rim(o+he Nm,hi No#b! Rim(o+he Gesh Ge shee N$ N$ n n$$ Dh#$yey Dh#$yey Phen&e Rim(o+he Rim(o+he Se#,h!n$ Se#,h!n$ Rim(o+he Rim(o+he So$y" So$y" Rim(o+he T# T!",! Geshe Th!bten Lo&en Geshe Th!bten Tshe#in$ T!",! -i$me n& n$tn$ T!",!* The st// o/ the Smithsonin Instit!tion Instit!tion P#ess in (#ti+!"# Dnie" Dni e" Goo&in n& D!,ee -ohn D!, -ohns s h%e h%e +o(e +o(e&& $#+e $#+e/!" /!""y "y n& n& e//i+ e//i+ie ient" nt"yy ith ith the the +om +om("e5 ("e5it itie iess o/ (#o&!+in$ n o%e#"on$ boo, by n o/ten in++ess in+ +essib" ib"ee !tho#* !th o#* Robin Robi n Go!"& Go!" & the boo,s boo, s mn!s+#i mn!s +#i(t (t e&ito# e&i to# hs &one m!+h to t#ns/o#m my !nie"&y (#ose into #e&b"e En$"ish* I h%e &e&i+te& this boo, to my mothe#* As the Tibetns #emin& !s "" sentient bein$s h%e been been o!# mothe# t some (oint (oint in be$innin$"ess time* I ho(e tht the boo, boo, i"" be o/ bene/it to some o/ them*
Int#o&!+tion
I
Int#o&!+tion) Shmni+ n& '"e#i+" !&&hism
This boo, is n ++o!nt o/ the nt!#e n& e%o"!tion o/ #e"i$ion in (#emo&e#n Tibetn so+ieties* The !tho# is n nth#o(o"o$ist n& the ((#o+h is tht o/ so+i" n& +!"t!#" nth#o(o"o$y in i&e sense "tho!$h I h%e m&e e5tensi%e !se o/ the o#, o/ histo#ins o/ #e"i$ion n& o/ othe# s(e+i"ists on Tibetn so+iety s e"" s o/ in&i$eno!s Tibetn s+ho"#shi(* The ("!#" !s$e Tibetn so%ieties, is inten&e& both to st#ess the &i%e#sity o/ these so+ieties n& to em(hsi2e /#om the be$innin$ tht +ent#" Tibet the D"i Lms $o%e#nment n& the $#et monsti+ instit!tions #o!n& Lhs /o#m on"y (#t o/ the +onte5t ithin hi+h Tibetn !&&hism n& Tibetn #e"i$ion s ho"e too, sh(e n& o(e#te&* P#t One o/ the boo, ='h(te#s 3 to > +onsists o/ s!#%ey o/ Tibetn so+ieties n& +#itiC!e o/ some s(e+ts o/ the nth#o(o"o$i+" "ite#t!#e on these so+ieties* The te#m (#emo&e#n in&i+tes #o!$h"y s(e,in$ the (e#io& to 1968 hen the stt!s o/ most Tibetn so+ieties s +hn$e& &#sti+""y s #es!"t o/ 'hinese mi"it#y inte#%ention n& o++!(tion* E"ements o/ the (i+t!#e (#esente& in this boo, sti"" o(e#te both in 'hinese0o++!(ie& #e$ions o/ Tibetn (o(!"tion n& mon$ Tibetns 'IILIED SHAMANS "i%in$ in In&i Ne(" n& h!tn b!t my (#im#y intention is to &es+#ibe Tibetn !&&hism s it &e%e"o(e& !nti" 1968* The te#m #e"i$ion hs been !se& in n##oe# n& mo#e e5ten&e& senses the sense inten&e& he#e is i&e one* As n nth#o(o"o$ist I ss!me tht the histo#y o/ #e"i$ion in Tibetn so+ieties +nnot be se(#te& /#om the histo#y o/ mo&es o/ +ons+io!sness o# /#om the histo#y o/ (o"iti+" n& so+i" st#!+t!#es ithin those so+ieties* Fo# Tibetns the %o+b!"#y n& mo&es o/ thin,in$ &e#i%in$ /#om In&in !&&hism +me to (e#%&e mny #es o/ e5(e#ien+e tht e &o not ne+ess#i"y thin, o/ s #e"i$io!s hi"e the +on+e(ts o/ Tibetn /o", #e"i$ion s!+h s the mintenn+e o/ $oo& "!+, n& $oo& /o#t!ne +ontin!e to !n&e#"ie %i#t!""y "" /+ets o/ "i/e* Un&e#stn&in$ !&&hism in Tibetn so+ieties mens !n&e#stn&in$ the tot" (i+t!#e ithin hi+h !&&hism too, sh(e* Amon$ othe# thin$s this boo, is inten&e& s +se st!&y in the histo#y o/ +!"t!#" (tte#ns te#m hi+h I !se in this boo, s n eC!i%"ent to the mo&" sttes o/ my (#e%io!s boo, Min& o&y n& '!"t!#e =Sm!e" 199o n& see 'h(te# 19 be"o>*
The histo#y o/ +!"t!#" (tte#ns ithin Tibetn so+ieties hs some !n!s!" n& +h#+te#isti+ /et!#es* The +om("e5 monsti+ s+#i(t!#" n& (hi"oso(hi+" t#&itions o/ !&&hism "in, them to the +ent#"i2e& sttes o/ So!th n& So!thest Asi* The "imite& (#esen+e o/ stte ((#t!s hoe%e# s!$$ests n"o$ies ith stte"ess so+ieties s!+h s those /o!n& mon$ the t#ib" (o(!"tions o/ So!th n& So!thest Asi o# e%en in s!b0Sh#n A/#i+* The im(o#tn+e o/ ht my be +""e& shmni+ mo&e o/ o(e#tin$ =see Sm!e" 1998)18701:o> in Tibetn so+ieties hi+h h%e hi$h"y &e%e"o(e& n& so(histi+te& te+hniC!es /o# the em("oyment o/ nono#&in#y sttes o/ +ons+io!sness (oints in the sme &i#e+tion* As +onseC!en+e o/ these /et!#es Tibetn so+ieties n& es(e+i""y thei# #e"i$io!s instit!tions h%e (#esente& +onsi&e#b"e &i//i+!"ties /o# +on%ention" ((#o+hes in both nth#o(o"o$y n& #e"i$io!s st!&ies* Re"i$ion in Tibetn so+ieties nee&s !n&e#stn&in$ in its on te#ms n& these #e C!ite &i//e#ent /#om those o/ so+ieties s!+h s !#m Thi"n& o# S#i Ln, he#e most e#"y nth#o(o"o$i+" o#, on !&&hism s +##ie& o!t* This (oint is &e%e"o(e& t "en$th in 'h(te# :* !&&hism in Tibet my h%e the sme !"timte im s !&&hism in othe# Asin so+ieties b!t it o(e#tes ithin %e#y &i//e#ent so+i" +onte5t* Anth#o(o"o$ists #e on"y be$innin$ to ##i%e t n SHAMANI' AND 'LERI'AL UDDHISM &eC!te (i+t!#e o/ tht so+i" +onte5t hi+h is hy P#t One o/ this boo, (#o%i&es $ene#" (i+t!#e o/ Tibetn so+ieties in the (#emo&e#n (e#io&* This (i+t!#e em(hsi2es the &i%e#sity o/ those so+ieties &i%e#sity tht ent "on$ ith the "imite& e5tent o/ stte !tho#ity th#o!$ho!t the #e$ion* In P#ts To n& Th#ee o/ the boo, I (#esent my n"ysis o/ !&&hism in Tibetn so+iety* In P#t To Tibetn !&&hism is &es+#ibe& syn+h#oni+""y s it s in the (#emo&e#n (e#io& n& s it +ontin!es to be to %#yin$ &e$#ees mon$ Tibetn (o(!"tions to&y* In P#t Th#ee I "oo, t Tibetn !&&hism &i+h#oni+""y &es+#ibin$ its e%o"!tion /#om the !&&hism o/ In&i n& the in&i$eno!s s(i#it0+!"ts o/ Tibet !( !nti" the /i#st h"/ o/ this +ent!#y* In this ++o!nt I inte#e%e the &e%e"o(ment o/ ne mo&es o/ +ons+io!sness ith the histo#y o/ the so+i" n& (o"iti+" instit!tions tht (#o%i&e& the +onte5t /o# thei# &e%e"o(ment n& s in its t!#n &i#e+te& by thei# &e%e"o(ment* It i"" be ((#ent in the +o!#se o/ the boo, tht I m sym(theti+ to#&s my s!bJe+t* I m mo#e in+"ine& to %ie Tibetn !&&hism s one o/ the $#et s(i#it!" n& (sy+ho"o$i+" +hie%ements o/ h!mnity thn s n i&eo"o$i+" J!sti/i+tion /o# the o((#ession o/ Tibetn se#/s by thei# o%e#"o#&s* This is n nth#o(o"o$i+" st!&y ho0 e%e# #the# thn o#, o/ &%o++y* My intention is to (#esent Tibetn #e"i$ion s ho"e ith its +!"t!#" so+i" n& #e"i$io!s b+,$#o!n&* Th#o!$h the +ti%ities o/ #e/!$ee "ms the metho&s n& te+hniC!es o/ the !&&hism o/ Tibet #e be+omin$ (#t o/ the o#"&s +!"t!#" he#it$e* Tht (#o+ess +n on"y be i&e& by bette# !n&e#0 stn&in$ o/ the o#i$ins o/ those metho&s n& te+hniC!es n& the so+iety ithin hi+h they e#e &e%e"o(e&* ASI' 'ATEGORIES OF THE OO.
!&&hism s one o/ the o#"&s mJo# s(i#it!" t#&itions +ente#s bo!t the (!#s!it o/ En"i$htenment o# bodhi1 $o" o/ (e#son" =n& /o# the Tibetns t "est +o""e+ti%e> s"%tion tht "ies o!tsi&e the +om(ss o/ o#&in#y so+i" "i/e* I #e/e# to this s(e+t o/ Tibetn #e"i$ion in the boo, s the Bodhi &rientation* M!+h o/ the +om("e5ity o/ #e"i$ion in !&&hist so+ieties s in othe# so+ieties he#e s!+h s"%tion0o#iente& #e"i$ions (#e%i" &e#i%es /#om ho (eo("e +ome to te#ms 'IILIED SHAMANS ith +on/"i+ts #e" o# (e#+ei%e& beteen the s"%tion o#ienttion n& the o#&in#y so+i" "i/e* S!+h +on/"i+ts /o#m mJo# theme /o# e5m("e o/ M5 Webe#s so+io"o$y o/ #e"i$ion n& they h%e been #e+!##ent inte#est o/ nth#o(o"o$i+" st!&ies o/ The#%& !&&hist so+ieties* Mo#e #e+ent"y Stn M!m/o#& hs !se& /#meo#, &e#i%e& /#om the o#, o/ Mi,hi" ,htin to &is+!ss these iss!es /o# so+iety on the /#in$e o/ Tibetn sett"ement in Ne(" M!m/o#& s(e,s o/ the $#oth o/ in&i%i&!" s!bJe+ti%ity n& e%ent!""y o/ sense o/ histo#i+" be+omin$ tht "e&s to the b#e,0!( o/ the n+ient mt#i5 o# shmni+ o#"& %ie =M!m/o#& 199)17//>* We +n o%e#stte the !ni/o#mity o/ the n+ient mt#i5 hi+h +o##es(on&s +"ose"y to ht I h%e e"sehe#e #e/e##e& to s the shmni+ mo&e o/ o(e#tion =Sm!e" 1998>* The #e"tionshi( beteen these (hses is best !n&e#stoo& s "o$i+" =n& &i"e+ti+"> #the# thn +h#ono"o$i+" the n+ient mt#i5 in Tibetn so+ieties s +onstnt"y !n&e# tt+, eithe# o%e#t"y o# im("i+it"y by !&&hism b!t it +ontin!""y #e+onstit!te& itse"/* Th#o!$ho!t Tibetn histo#y it (#o%i&e& b+,$#o!n& $inst hi+h !&&hism too, sh(e n& in te#ms o/ hi+h it h& to J!sti/y itse"/* S"%tion t#&itions s!+h s !&&hism o/ten o#i$inte in moments o/ ntist#!+t!#e n& o((osition to estb"ishe& (oe# n& hie##+hy* Histo#i+""y hoe%e# they h%e #(i&"y been t,en !( n& !se& by +ent#"i2e& sttes* 'onseC!ent"y e #e most /mi"i# ith !&&hism s ith Is"m Hin&!ism o# 'h#istinity s s!bo#&inte to n& +"ose"y inte$#te& ith the (o"iti+" o#&e# o/ the so+iety in hi+h it is /o!n&* This s not the +se in (#emo&e#n Tibet n& it is min"y /o# this #eson I be"ie%e tht the #e"tionshi( beteen the o&hi O#ienttion n& the othe# +om(onents o/ Tibetn #e"i$ion &i//e#s m#,e&"y /#om tht +h#+te#isti+ o/ othe# !&&hist so+ieties* #ie/"y in othe# !&&hist so+ieties the o&hi O#ienttion hs be+ome s!bo#&inte in mny ys to se+on& e5("i+it"y ethi+" o#ienttion* This o#ienttion the 'arma &rientation +ente#s #o!n& the (#in+i("e o/ ,#m o# o/ the "in,$e beteen n +tion n& its #es!"t hi+h mni/ests in s!bseC!ent "i/e o/ the sme in&i%i&!"* This ,#m0+om("e5 (#e&te& !&&hism n& /o#ms (#t o/ the (hi"oso(hi+" b+,$#o!n& ithin hi+h e#"y !&&hism &e%e"o(e&* The em(hsis on mo#"ity n& +o##e+t beh%io# n& the i&e tht the #i+h n& (oe#/!" e#e e"" ("+e& to se+!#e /o#t!nte /te#"i/e th#o!$h $en0 SHAMANI' AND 'LERI'AL UDDHISM e#osity to the !&&hist +"e#$y &o!bt"ess ((e"e& st#on$"y to #!"e#s o/ In&i+ so+ieties* A thi#& #e"i$io!s o#ienttion the ragmati% &rientation is +on+e#ne& ith this0 o#"&"y $o"s s!+h s he"th n& (#os(e#ity* Its #e"tionshi( to !&&hism is +om("e5 n& i"" be +onsi&e#e& /!#the# in 'h(te# :* The n+ient mt#i5 n& its shmni+ (#+ti+es e#e $ene#""y "ess ((e"in$ to the #!"e#s o/ !&&hist sttes thn the ,#m0o#iente& s(e+ts o/ !&&hism* Shmni+
(#+titione#s mi$ht o//e# the (ossibi"ity o/ m$i+" +ont#o" o%e# the (#ob"ems o/ e%e#y&y "i/e b!t they "so #e(#esente& (otenti" sites o/ #ebe""ion $inst the o#&e# im(ose& by the stte =see 'h(te# :>* They e#e $ene#""y to"e#te& in (#emo&e#n !&&hist sttes b!t they e#e ,e(t /i#m"y s!bo#&inte to stte (oe# n& e#e seen s in/e#io# n& m#$in" in #e"tion to the !&&hism tht #ein/o#+e& tht stte (oe# =see Sm!e" 1998)1310133>* I #e/e# to the !&&hism o/ s!+h sttes in $ene#" s +"e#i+" !&&hism* S!+h stte0s(onso#e& +"e#i+" !&&hism s ty(i+" o/ The#%&in so+ieties s!+h s S#i Ln, !#m o# Thi"n& in the (#e+o"oni" (e#io&* The $ene#" e,ness o# bsen+e o/ stte (oe# in (#emo&e#n Tibetn so+ieties ent "on$ ith &i//e#ent sit!tion* '"e#i+" !&&hism s (#esent b!t it +oe5iste& ith n& s in mny ys s!bo#&inte to ht I sh"" #e/e# to s shmni+ !&&hism* Within the Tibetn +onte5t shmni+ n& +"e#i+" !&&hism #e/e# to to mo&"ities o# o#ienttions ithin the !&&hist n& n(o : te+hin$s #it!"s n& (#+ti+es o/ Tibet* '"e#i+" !&&hism i"" be the mo#e /mi"i# mo&"ity to most #e&e#s sin+e it #esemb"es mo#e +"ose"y the monsti+ n& s+ho"#"y !&&hism /o!n& in othe# !&&hist so+ieties* Shmni+ !&&hism is mo#e s(e+i/i+""y Tibetn mo&"ity "tho!$h it hs s e sh"" see in 'h(te# : eC!i%"ents in The#%&in !&&hist so+ieties s!+h s Thi"n& he#e it +o##es(on&s to the !&&hist e5(#ession o/ the m#$in"i2e& n+ient mt#i5* The Tibetn %e#sion o/ shmni+ !&&hism is hoe%e# !n"i,e tht in The#%&in !&&hist so+ieties +"ose"y inte$#te& ith the $o" o/ En"i$htenment n& the o&hi O#ienttion* It is in no y m#$in" (henomenon* These to te#ms shmni+ !&&hism n& +"e#i+" !&&hism #e mJo# s!bJe+t o/ this boo, sin+e n e5(osition o/ thei# nt!#e n& o/ the #e"tionshi( beteen them /o#ms the bsis o/ my n"ysis o/ Tibetn #e"i$ion* They #e o/ +o!#se no mo#e thn +on+e(t!" too"s @ 'IILIED SHAMANS b!t they h%e the &%nt$e o/ "esse# ei$ht o/ (#io# sso+itions thn othe# %i"b"e +on+e(t!" too"s s!+h s S!t# Tnt# The#%& Mhyn o# n* As #es!"t they he"( to (#o%i&e /#esh "oo, t the t#!e nt!#e o/ Tibetn #e"i$ion* I !se the te#m shmni+ s $ene#" te#m /o# +te$o#y o/ (#+ti+es /o!n& in &i//e#in$ &e$#ees in "most "" h!mn so+ieties* This +te$o#y o/ (#+ti+es my be b#ie/"y &es+#ibe& s the regulation and transformation of human life and human so%iety through the use (or !ur!orted use) of alternate states of %ons%iousness by means of *hi%h s!e%ialist !ra%titioners are held to %ommuni%ate *ith a mode of reality alternative to, and more fundamental than, the *orld of everyday e+!erien%e# The te#m shmni+ hs been !se& in %#iety o/ ys ithin the nth#o(o"o$i+" "ite#t!#e o/ hi+h this is on"y one* I h%e &is+!sse& my !s$e t "en$th e"sehe#e n& (#o%i&e& some theo#eti+" J!sti/i+tion /o# it =Sm!e" 1998)18701:8 1;;01;@>* He#e I i"" sim("y note tht =1> shmni+ in my !s$e is not #est#i+te& to the Sibe#in shmni+ +om("e5 =:> it my in%o"%e ny o/ %#iety o/ s(e+i/i+ %o+b!"#ies n& te+hniC!es in+"!&in$ s(i#it0(ossession n& s(i#it0me&i!mshi( s e"" s so!"0/"i$ht n& =3> the te#m is in no y t "" &e#o$to#y* In /+t I be"ie%e tht the so(histi+te& bo&y o/ shmni+ (#+ti+es ithin Tibetn !&&hism (#obb"y +onstit!tes Tibets most im(o#tnt sin$"e +ont#ib!tion to h!mnity =see Sm!e" 199>* I/ e !se the te#m shmni+ in this sense Tibetn #e"i$ion hs to &istin+t i/ o%e#"((in$ shmni+ +om("e5es) Tibetn /o", #e"i$ion =to &o(t T!++is te#m
198)1730:11> n& shmni+ !&&hism* Fe o!"& &is(!te tht mny /o",0#e"i$ion (#+ti+es in Tibet in (#ti+!"# the em("oyment o/ s(i#it0me&i!ms to +omm!ni+te ith "o+" &eities my be &es+#ibe& s shmni+ in my sense* y shmni+ !&&hism I men somethin$ #the# &i//e#ent hi+h is +e#tin"y #e"te& to these /o",0 #e"i$ion (#+ti+es b!t is not sim("e &e#i%ti%e o/ them n& nee&s to be t#ete& se(#te"y /#om them* My +ontention =hi+h is not (#ti+!"#"y o#i$in"> is tht +e#tin s(e+ts o/ J#yn =Tnt#i+> !&&hism s (#+ti+e& in Tibet my be &es+#ibe& s shmni+ in tht they #e +ente#e& #o!n& +omm!ni+tion ith n "te#0 nti%e mo&e o/ #e"ity =tht o/ the Tnt#i+ &eities> %i the "te#nte sttes o/ +ons+io!sness o/ Tnt#i+ yo$* I sh"" #$!e tht this +omm!ni+tion /o#ms the bsis /o# m!+h o/ the Tibetn "ms #o"e in #e"tion to Tibetn so+iety* This /o#m!"tion #e%e#ses the !s!" Tibetn (#esenttion o/ SHAMANI' AND 'LERI'AL UDDHISM J#yn !&&hism* A Tibetn "m s,e& to &e/ine the J#yn i"" no#m""y &es+#ibe it in te#ms o/ the o&hi O#ienttion s te+hniC!e /o# ttinin$ En"i$htenment o# !&&hhoo&* The s(i#it!" (oe# $ene#te& by J#yn (#+ti+e n& !se& /o# the bene/it o/ the "ms "y /o""oin$ is by0(#o&!+t* I/ "ms em("oy the (oe# o/ J#yn #it!" /o# the e"/#e o/ thei# "y /o""oe#s this is he"& to be n e5(#ession o/ thei# +om(ssion o# thei# s,i""/!" mens y o/ &#in$ thei# /o""oe#s on to#&s the !"timte $o" o/ "ibe#tion /#om s!//e#in$ th#o!$h the ttinment o/ !&&hhoo&* At the sme time "ms #e e"" #e tht mny o/ thei# /o""oe#s #e (#im#i"y +on+e#ne& ith the !ti"i2tion o/ J#yn (oe# /o# this0 o#"&"y bene/its o# /o# se+!#in$ $oo& #ebi#th in /!t!#e "i/e #the# thn ith the t0 tinment o/ !&&hhoo&* !&&hhoo& s $o" is o/ imme&ite si$ni/i+n+e /o# mino#ity "tho!$h tht mino#ity is o/ %it" im(o#tn+e to the system s ho"e* To (!t this in nothe# y the J#yns te+hniC!es /o# ttinin$ !&&hhoo& /!n+tion in (#+ti+" te#ms s mens o/ t#inin$ shmni+ (#+titione#s* Lms in Tibet /!n+tion s shmns n& they &o so th#o!$h the te+hniC!es n& (#+ti+es o/ J#yn !&&hism* The s(e+i/i+ /o#m tht !&&hism hs t,en in Tibet is bo!n& !( ith this ne5!s beteen the (!#s!it o/ En"i$htenment by mino#ity n& the &esi#e /o# shmni+ se#%i+es by the mJo#ity* This (oint i"" be e"bo#te& on t "en$th in "te# +h(te#s* Gi%en "" this e +n +onsi&e# n initi" /o#m!"tion o/ the +ont#st beteen shmni+ n& +"e#i+" !&&hism) Shmni+ !&&hism o#,s in te#ms o/ #e"tionshi( ith n "te#nti%e mo&e o/ #e"ity =&e/ine& by the &i%ine /o#ms o/ the Smbho$,y n& the Tnt#i+ mn&">* This "te#nti%e mo&e my be e%o,e& th#o!$h J#yn =Tnt#i+> #it!" /o# the +hie%ement o/ !"timte En"i$htenment o# !&&hhoo& +on+ei%e& o/ s (otenti"ity (#esent ithin "" in&i%i&!"s* It my "so be e%o,e& in o#&e# to b#in$ bo!t e//e+ts ithin this mo&e o/ #e"ity s!+h s "on$ "i/e n& he"th (#ote+tion /#om mis/o#t!ne o# s!itb"e #ebi#th in ones ne5t "i/e* The (#im#y mo&e o/ +ti%ity o/ shmni+ !&&hism is n"o$y n& met(ho#* Its ty(i+" /i$!#e is the Tnt#i+ "m ho !n&e#$oes (#o"on$e& #et#et in o#&e# to $in the shmni+ (oe# o/ the J#yn n& s!bseC!ent"y !ti"i2es tht (oe# on beh"/ o/ "y (o(!"tion* The te5t!" bse o/ shmni+ !&&hism is m&e !( o/ the O"& n& Ne Tnt#i+ s+#i(t!#es n& +omment#ies n& o/ the te#m #e%e"tions o/ "te# Tibetn %ision#y0"ms* '"e#i+" !&&hism sh#es ith shmni+ !&&hism the $o" o/ !"timte
9 'IILIED SHAMANS En"i$htenment* It &ismisses +ti%ity ithin the +y+"e o/ #ebi#th s i##e"e%nt hoe%e# ith the e5+e(tion o/ the +C!isition o/ me#it th#o!$h %i#t!o!s +tion n& the %oi&n+e o/ non%i#t!o!s +tion* Its (#im#y mo&e o/ +ti%ity is s+ho"#shi( (hi"oso(hi+" n"ysis n& monsti+ &is+i("ine* Its ty(i+" /i$!#e is the s+ho"#0mon, st!&yin$ te5ts o# en$$e& in (hi"oso(hi+" &ebte* Its te5t!" bse is m&e !( o/ the iny o# monsti+ &is+i("in#y +o&e the S!t#s o/ the Hinyn n& Mhyn n& the #itin$s o/ In&in !&&hist (hi"oso(he#s n& o/ thei# Tibetn /o""oe#s* These +(s!"e s!mm#ies i"" be /i""e& o!t s the #$!ment (#o+ee&s* The +ont#st beteen shmni+ n& +"e#i+" s(e+ts o/ !&&hism is +om("e5 one in (#t be+!se the to #e +"ose"y inte#o%en in (#+ti+e* i#t!""y "" Tibetn !&&hism hethe# tht o/ the Ge"!$( s+ho"# ith his $eshQ &i("om o# tht o/ the Nyin$m( yo$in in his o# he# mo!ntin he#mit$e +ontins e"ements o/ both shmni+ n& +"e#i+" o#ienttions* In &&ition the s!bt"e s+ho"#shi( o/ the "ms hs &e%e"o(e& "" so#ts o/ ys o/ #e+on+i"in$ the to mo&"ities +!"mintin$ in the to mJo# syntheses hose &e%e"o(ment is &es+#ibe& in the "te# +h(te#s o/ P#t Th#ee) the Ge"!$( synthesis o#i$intin$ in the o#, o/ Tson$,( =136@01;19> n& the Rime& synthesis +#ete& by $#o!( o/ nineteenth0+ent!#y "ms in est Tibet* The shmni+ n& +"e#i+" s(e+ts #e ne%e#the"ess #oote& in /!n&ment""y &i//e#ent o#ienttions to#&s the o#"& n& to#&s h!mn e5(e#ien+e n& beh%io#* '#oss0 +!"t!#""y one o# the othe# o#ienttion (#e&omintes in most h!mn so+ieties o# so+i" $#o!(s* y n& "#$e sm""0s+"e (#e"ite#te so+ieties h& n& h%e &ominnt"y shmni+ o#ienttion hi"e (#emo&e#n sttes ith &e%e"o(e& "ite#+y n& +ent#"i2e& b!#e!+#ti+ $o%e#nment h%e been (#e&ominnt"y +"e#i+" ith shmni+ e"ements (#esent in s!bo#&inte +onte5ts =see Sm!e" 1998)930133>* Tibetn so+ieties #e !n!s!" in tht the shmni+ +om("e5 hs st#on$ n& !tonomo!s #o"e ithin ht is !n&o!bte&"y "ite#te n& so(histi+te& +!"t!#e* A NOTE ON N AND THE N RELIGION P#e%io!s &is+!ssions o/ the shmni+ s(e+ts o/ Tibetn #e"i$ion h%e o/ten been +on/!se& by in&is+#iminte #e/e#en+es to the so0+""e& n #e"i$ion* 6 The te#m n n& its &e#i%ti%e n(o h%e been em("oye& by mny Tibetn n& Weste#n s+ho"#s to #e/e# %#io!s"y to "" so#ts o/ 18 SHAMANI' AND 'LERI'AL UDDHISM ""e$e&"y (#e0!&&hist n& non0!&&hist e"ements o/ Tibetn #e"i$ion o/ten in+"!&in$ the /o",0#e"i$ion +!"ts o/ "o+" &eities mentione& bo%e* S!+h !s$e +on/"tes so mny &i//e#ent thin$s !n&e# the one "be" tht se#io!s n"ysis be+omes im(ossib"e* A mJo# in/"!en+e he#e hs been He"m!t Ho//mnns Re"i$ions o/ Tibet /i#st (!b"ishe& in Ge#mn in 1967 n& s!bseC!ent"y t#ns"te& into En$"ish in 1971 =Ho//mnn 19@9>* Ho//mnn #e+onst#!+ts on &mitte&"y /#$ment#y e%i&en+e (#e0
!&&hist O"& n Re"i$ion =19@9)13:@>* This s /o#m o/ nimism =/o# e5m("e 19@9):1 ;> +ente#e& on #e%e#ent n& s!bmissi%e ttit!&e to the (oe#s n& /o#+es o/ theV i"& hi$h"n& "n&s+(e hose &i%inities e#e #e/"e+te& in the i&e o/ n!me#o!s $oo& n& e%i" s(i#its the Tibetns tho!$ht to see "" #o!n& them =19@9)1@>* The min (#+titione#s o/ the O"& n Re"i$ion the shen e#e sVhmns* * * * %e#y simi"# to thei# +o""e$!es o/ no#th n& +ent#" Asi =19@9):6>* They (#+ti+e& so!"0/"i$ht in stte o/ t#n+e 7 n& !n&e#too, e"bo#te /!ne##y #it!"s /o# the Tibetn ,in$s* S!bseC!ent"y in Ho//mnns ++o!nt &e%int /o#m o/ !&&hism hi+h he +""s P&mism o# the P&mist #e"i$ion s +#ete& !n&e# +o!#t (t#on$e by st#n$e ho"y mn n& so#+e#e# /#om In&i nme& P&msmbh% =19@9);@ 68000 76>* The o"& (#imiti%e n #e"i$ion n& +!stoms s!#%i%e& mon$ o#&in#y Tibetns b!t nti0!&&hist Tibetn nob"es s(onso#e& the +#etion o/ ne Systemti2e& n #e"i$ion* This Systemti2e& n s syn+#etist system ith &e%e"o(e& &o+t#ine n& s+#e& "ite#t!#e in/"!en+e& by !&&hism (e#h(s "so by Pe#sin n& Mni+hen te+hin$s =19@9)6>* A/te# the +o""(se o/ the Tibetn ,in$&om in the mi&0ninth +ent!#y !&&hism =i*e* P&mism> "on$ ith the ne Systemti2e& n ent into (e#io& o/ &e$ene#tion n& s "#$e"y bso#be& by the o"& n #e"i$ion* The #e"i$io!s #e%i%" o/ the e"e%enth n& te"/th +ent!#ies n& the s!bseC!ent Re/o#mtion initite& by Tson$,( /o!n&e# o/ the Ge"!$( t#&ition #e e5("ine& by Ho//mnn (#im#i"y s ttem(ts to (!#$e n& (!#i/y Tibetn !&&hism n& to #et!#n it to somethin$ "i,e the !&&hism o/ the The#%&in +o!nt#ies =19@9)1:1 17o 177017@>* Gi%en the "imite& so!#+es %i"b"e in 1967 Ho//mnns o#, s (#iseo#thy ttem(t t !n&e#stn&in$ the histo#i+" e%o"!tion o/ Tibetn #e"i$ion n& notb"e &%n+e on the +#!&e +#i+t!#es o/ its +#est0,non (#e&e+esso# L* A!stine W&&e""s The !&&hism o/ Tibet 11 'IILIED SHAMANS o# Lmism /i#st (!b"ishe& in 19; =W&&e"" 197@>* Ho//mnns o#, is mis"e&in$ hoe%e# in mny #es(e+ts* His O"& n is +#ete& /#om /#$ment#y e%i&en+e n& &!bio!s (#""e"s ith no#th n& +ent#" Asi n& his P&mism is n histo#i+" mQ"n$e o/ mte#i" /#om %e#y &i//e#ent histo#i+" +onte5ts* It is si$ni/i+nt tht hi"e Ho//mnn &is+!sses J#yn =Tnt#i+ !&&hism> t "en$th it hs no #e" ("+e in his e5("nto#y s+heme* J#yn eme#$es in Ho//mnns #itin$ s +om(o!n& o/ $nosti+ m$i+" n& e#oti+ o&&ities to hi+h the Tibetns #e ine5("i+b"y tt+he& &es(ite the best e//o#ts o/ thei# "ms to en them y /#om it* et ny #e" ttem(t to !n&e#stn& the #e"i$ion o/ Tibet hs to #e+o$ni2e tht the J#yn is t the +ente# o/ Tibetn s(i#it!" "i/e* Un/o#t!nte"y Ho//mnns o#, s &o(te& !n+#iti+""y by se%e#" nth#o(o"o$ists =/o# e5m("e F!n,e 1979> n& his %ies h%e "so been (#o($te& in (o(!"# te5ts on the histo#y o/ #e"i$ion* To m,e mtte#s o#se hi"e Ho//mnn +#e/!""y &istin$!ishes beteen ht he +""s O"& n n& Systemti2e& n @ /o""oin$ the +ont#st m&e by Tibetn s+ho"#s mny o/ those ho h%e bo##oe& /#om him ten& to +o""(se the to to$ethe# "osin$ %it" &istin+tion* Whi"e the#e #e some $#o!n&s /o# !sin$ the te#m n /o# the e#"y #e"i$ion o/ Tibet =see 'h(te# :3 > the#e #e /e /o# (("yin$ it to the +!"ts o/ "o+" $o&s n& s(i#its s they e5ist to&y n& I sh"" %oi& !sin$ n to #e/e# to this +ontem(o##y /o",
#e"i$ion* In this boo, /o# "" +onte5ts /te# the ninth +ent!#y A* D* n n& n(o #e/e# e5+"!si%e"y to the #e"i$io!s o#&e# o/ n n& its &he#ents* This o#&e# is simi"# in /o#m n& nt!#e to the #e"i$io!s o#&e#s o/ Tibetn !&&hism b!t +"ims to &e#i%e /#om the te+hin$s o/ the (#e0!&&hist mste# Shen0#b Mibo #the# thn /#om the histo#i+" !&&h S,ym!ni* This mo&e#n n #e"i$ion hs shmni+ n& +"e#i+" s(e+ts simi"# to those o/ mo&e#n Tibetn !&&hism n& i"" be mentione& /#eC!ent"y in s!bseC!ent +h(te#s* Tibetn /o",0#e"i$ion then is shmni+ in my sense b!t it is to be &istin$!ishe& /#om the shmni+ s(e+ts o/ Tibetn !&&hism =n& "so o/ the mo&e#n n #e"i$ion hi+h is essenti""y in this +onte5t %#int o/ !&&hism>* It is the inte#("y beteen the shmni+ n& +"e#i+" s(e+ts o/ !&&hism =in+"!&in$ n> tht (#o%i&es the inte#(#eti%e /#meo#, o/ the (#esent boo,* The #emin&e# o/ this +h(te# is inten&e& to $i%e some s!bstn+e to the to te#ms shmni+ !&&hism n& +"e#i+" !&&hism hi+h i"" ("y n im(o#tnt (#t in 1: SHAMANI' AND 'LERI'AL UDDHISM the #emin&e# o/ the boo,* A +on%enient ((#o+h to these to te#ms " +om(#ison o/ ho the o&hi O#ienttion the e5("i+it +ent#" $o" o/ Tibetn !&&hism s o/ "" !&&hism ((e#s ithin these to mo&"ities* En"i$htenment =bo&hi> o# !&&hhoo& is %#io!s"y &e/ine& in &i//e#ent s+hoo"s o/ !&&hism b!t it is ne%e#the"ess ++e(te& to be beyon& %e#b" &e/inition* It in%o"%es the t#ns+en&en+e o/ the no#m" +on&ition o/ h!mnity =the +y+"e o/ #ebi#th o# sms#> th!s #e+hin$ the stte o/ /#ee&om /#om s!//e#in$ #e/e##e& to s ni#%n n& the ttinment o/ +on&ition beyon& ny ment" o# (hysi+" "imittion ++om(nie& by omnis+ien+e n& immense m$i+" (oe#* This s the ttinment o/ the histo#i+" !&&h S,ym!ni n& it is the hi$hest $o" o/ "" !&&hist (#+ti+e* Ho &oes the (th to En"i$htenment ((e# ithin the shmni+ n& +"e#i+" mo&"ities The /o""oin$ e5m("es i"" "so int#o&!+e some o/ the (#in+i(" +on+e#ns n& mo&es o/ e5(#ession o/ Tibetn !&&hism* A SHAMANI' APPROA'H TO ENLIGHTENMENT) THE ASPIRATION OF .UNTU SANGPO He#e is ty(i+""y shmni+ sttement o/ ho to $o bo!t the ttinment o/ En"i$htenment* This is the o(enin$ se+tion o/ sho#t te#m o# &is+o%e#e& te5t the 'unsang Mönlam =P#ye# o/ .!nt! Sn$(o o# As(i#tion o/ .!nt! Sn$(o>* Lms ho &is+o%e# te5ts o/ this ,in& th#o!$h %ision#y te+hniC!es #e ,non s tertön* This te5t s /o!n& by one o/ the best ,non o/ "" te#tn G&&em+hen =133@01;89 see S+h!h 196)555K555%iii>* HOX The (henomen" o#"& n& "" e5isten+e sams"ra n& nirvana, A"" hs one /o!n&tion b!t the#e #e to (ths n& to #es!"ts< Dis("ys o/ both i$no#n+e n& .no"e&$e* Th#o!$h .!nt! Sn$(os s(i#tion In the P"+e o/ the P#im" S(+e o/ Em(tiness Let "" bein$s ttin (e#/e+t +ons!mmtion n& !&&hhoo&*
The !ni%e#s" /o!n&tion is !n+on&itione& S(ontneo!s"y #isin$ %st immnent e5(nse beyon& e5(#ession Whe#e neithe# sams"ra- no# nirvana- e5ist* 13 'IILIED SHAMANS .no"e&$e o/ this #e"ity is !&&hhoo& Whi"e i$no#nt bein$s n&e# in sams"ra# Let "" sentient bein$s o/ the th#ee #e"ms Attin .no"e&$e o/ the nt!#e o/ the ine//b"e /o!n&tion* =Domn 191);> The te5t is in the /o#m o/ (#ye# o# s(i#tion by .!nt! Sn$(o* .!nt! Sn$(o =Smntbh&# in Sns,#it> is not (e#son b!t Tnt#i+ &eity* He is symbo"i+ #e(#esenttion o/ the !n&e#"yin$ ,no"e&$e o# #i$( hi+h is inse(#b"e /#om the !ni%e#s" /o!n&tion ("en!m o/ ""0(e#%si%e (#im" s(+e =Domn 191):>* He is te#me& the P#im" !&&h 9 in the Nyin$m( t#&ition* As .eith Domn e5("ins =19:):> in the int#o&!+tion to this t#ns"tion (#ye# he#e is to be !n&e#stoo& s the &eitys s(ee+h &is+!#si%e mantra, #esontin$ to in/o#m the sambhoga."ya 18 s n inst#!+ti%e %ision o/ the &eity ho in this +se is .!nt! Sn$(o* Fi#st .!nt! Sn$(o**** e5(#esses his %ision o/ #e"ity n& then he e5("ins the me&ittion by hi+h this %ision is s!stine&* The mens o/ #e"istion o/ .!nt! Sn$(os %ision is (ssion he#ein "ies A#eness in its /i%e mo&es* Re"5tion is the ,ey to the me&ittion !(on (ssion n& the $o" is !&&hhoo& o# i&entity ith .!nt! Sn$(o himse"/* In the s!bseC!ent se+tions o/ the te5t the /i%e mo&"ities o/ (ssion #e t,en in t!#n thei# o#i$ins in i$no#n+e o/ the t#!e nt!#e o/ #e"ity thei# nt!#e n& thei# +onseC!en+es #e e5mine& n& the (#+titione# &%ise& not to s!((#ess o# in&!"$e the (ssion b!t to #e"ese the inhe#ent st#ess n& ""o the (ssion to &isso"%e into the !ni%e#s" /o!n&tion* He#e /o# e5m("e is the se+tion on &esi#e) A &!"isin$ min& b#ee&s &o!bt hesitn+y n& inse+!#ity An& ith the &e%e"o(ment o/ s!bt"e +#%in$ =in +om(enstion> O%e#t +om(!"si%e ,#mi+ (#o(ensities $#&!""y +#yst""ise* Foo& e"th n& +"othin$ home n& /#ien&s The /i%e stim!"i o/ sens!" ("es!#e n& "o%in$ +om(nions< Obsessi%e &esi#es be$et to#ments o/ /#!st#tion 'om(!"si%e &esi#es #e b!t o#"&"y &e"!sion An& the ,#m o/ n e$o +#%in$ obJe+ts is ne%e# e5h!ste&* When the /#!it o/ +#%in$ #i(ens 1; SHAMANI' AND 'LERI'AL UDDHISM
o#n s h!n$#y $host to#mente& by /#!st#te& &esi#e Oh the mise#y o/ h!n$e# n& thi#stX Th#o!$h this my (#ye# the !&&hs s(i#tion A"" sentient bein$s (ossesse& by +om(!"si%e +#%in$ Neithe# settin$ si&e n& #eJe+tin$ the (n$s o/ /#!st#te& &esi#e No# ++e (tin$ n& i&e nt i/yi n$ ith +o m( !"si%e +#%in$ Sho!"& #e"ese the st#ess inhe#ent in &!"isti+ (e#+e(tion So tht .no"e&$e my #es!me its nt!#" (#im+y Let "" bein$s ttin A""0&is+#imintin$ A#eness* =Domn 191)7> He#e e +n see ht s ment bo%e bo!t n"o$y o# met(ho# bein$ the (#im#y mo&e o/ +ti%ity o/ shmni+ !&&hism* P#+titione#s #e inten&e& to t#et .!nt! Sn$(o s n im$e o/ ht they themse"%es +n be* In #e+itin$ the (#ye# n& in &oin$ the me&ittion they #e +on+ei%in$ o/ themse"%es s .!nt! Sn$(o mo&e"in$ themse"%es on .!nt! Sn$(o n& th#o!$h this n"o$i+" shi/t t,in$ on his C!"ities* .!nt! Sn$(o is &eity o# &i%ine /o#m o/ the smbho$,y* He #e(#esents mo&e o/ #e"ity tht h!mn bein$s =n& othe# sentient bein$s s!+h s the $o&s nim"s he""0bein$s n& so /o#th> #e "" theo#eti+""y +(b"e o/ ente#in$ n& ithin hi+h the o#&in#y &!"isti+ ((e#n+es tht +onstit!te them s h!mn bein$s ith (#ti+!"# "i/e0e5(e#ien+e $o&s nim"s n& so on #e &isso"%e&* As is $ene#""y t#!e o/ Tnt#i+ &eities .!nt! Sn$(o is best #e$#&e& not s some ,in& o/ e5te#n" s(i#it0 entity b!t s mo&e o/ bein$ tht nyone is theo#eti+""y +(b"e o/ +t!"i2in$* An n"o$i+ shi/t o/ this ,in& +on+e(t!"i2e& s t,in$ on the i&entity o/ one o# nothe# &eity is the +ent#" +t o/ "" J#yn #it!"s* This is t#!e hethe# the (!#(ose o/ the #it!" is s he#e the ttinment o/ !&&hhoo& o# some othe# $o" s!+h s the &est#!+tion o/ &emoni+ /o#+es o# the +hie%ement o/ $oo& he"th n& "on$ "i/e* Smbho$,y &eities %#y in ty(e n& +om("e5ity n& the mo#e e"bo#te #it!"s my in%o"%e the %is!"i2tion o/ s!++ession o/ &i%ine mn&"s e+h +ontinin$ tens o# h!n&#e&s o/ &eities the %is!"i2tion o/ e"bo#te o//e#in$s em(oe#ments n& othe# mni/esttions the +hntin$ o/ +om("e5 "it!#$ies ith ++om(nyin$ me"o&ies n& hn&0$est!#es* In some +ses es(e+i""y in the "oe# Tnt# +"sses1: the &eity is %iee& o!tsi&e the (#+titione# #the# thn &i#e+t"y i&en0 Hie& ith* Des(ite these %#itions the essenti" (#o+ess th#o!$ho!t 16 'IILIED SHAMANS is s in this e5m("e the shi/t into nothe# mo&e o/ #e"ity b#o!$ht bo!t th#o!$h the !se o/ the &i%ine /o#ms* A 'LERI'AL APPROA'H TO ENLIGHTENMENT) THE THREE MAIN POINTS OF THE PATH No "et !s +o!nte#(ose +"e#i+" ++o!nt o/ ho to $o bo!t the ttinment o/ En"i$htenment #itten by yo!n$e# +ontem(o##y o/ G&&em+hen* The Th#ee Min Points o/ the Pth (/amtso 0amsum) is sho#t inst#!+tion" te5t by the
/mo!s "m Tson$,( ( 1234 1;19> "#e&y #e/e##e& to s /o!n&e# o/ the Ge"!$( t#&ition*13 A/te# to int#o&!+to#y %e#ses in hi+h Tson$,( nno!n+es his intention o/ e5("inin$ the essenti" menin$ o/ the !&&hs te+hin$ to those ho #e not tie& to the ("es!#es o/ sams"ra n& ish to m,e /!"" !se o/ this h!mn "i/e =i*e* /o# the ttinment o/ En"i$htenment> he (#esents the Fi#st Min Point o/ the Pth #en!n+ition) Sin+e those ho h%e not +hie%e& #en!n+ition n& &esi#e Sams"ra-s Joys h%e no mens to #e+h (e+e An& sin+e too thi#st /o# sams"ra ho"&s "" bein$s Tie& !( /i#m"y then /i#st see, #en!n+ition* IV H!mn bi#th is h#& to /in& n& :V this "i/e my soon en& Th!s t#in the min& n& t!#n /#om +on+e#n /o# this "i/e* 3V On ,#ms +e#tin +tion n& ;V on sams"ra-s s!//e#in$s Thin, "ys n& t!#n /#om +on+e#n /o# /!t!#e "i%es* The /o!# to(i+s hi+h I h%e n!mbe#e& he#e #e stn&#& set o/ me&ittions /o!n& in "" Tibetn t#&itions =see 'h(te# # # > inten&e& to +hie%e the initi" t!#nin$ o/ the min& y /#om this0o#"&"y +on+e#ns =# :> n& /#om the in/e#io# $o" o/ see,in$ +om/o#tb"e /!t!#e #ebi#th =3 ;>* When yo! h%e t#ine& th!s i/ "on$in$ ne%e# #ises Fo# sams"ra-s hi$hest Joys /o# e%en moment When &y n& ni$ht on"y min& &esi#in$ o/ "ibe#tion ((e#s Then #en!n+ition hs #isen* The ne5t Min Point is the &e%e"o(ment o/ bodhi%itta, the &e/inin$ moti%tion o/ the bodhisattva# Bodhi%itta is the &esi#e to +hie%e En0 17 SHAMANI' AND 'LERI'AL UDDHISM "i$htenment in o#&e# to #e"ie%e "" sentient bein$s 1; /#om thei# s!//e#in$s* Fo# Tibetn !&&hists En"i$htenment +n on"y be +hie%e& th#o!$h bodhi%itta5 the "esse# moti%tion o/ &esi#e /o# ones on s"%tion /#om sams"ra is ins!//i+ient* Hoe%e# #en!n+ition i/ it is not +ombine& ith A#o!sin$ bodhi%itta, +nnot yet be+ome Th#o!$h hi$hest En"i$htenment the +!se o/ (e#/e+t Joy* So those ith inte""i$en+e #o!se bodhi%itta# '##ie& y by the /o!# mi$hty #i%e#s He"& by the /i#m bon&s o/ ,#m so h#& to #e%e#se
T#((e& in the i#on net o/ e$o0tt+hment 'o%e#e& "" o%e# in the b"+, /o$ o/ i$no#n+e o#n n& bo#n $in en&"ess"y into sams"ra To s!//e# itho!t b#e, th#o!$h its th#ee so##os y thin,in$ o%e# "" bein$sV o!# mothe#s +on&ition 16 As they t!#n th#o!$h s!+h stte m,e the (e#/e+t min& #ise* The Thi#& Min Point is insi$ht (!ra67") n& he#e Tson$,( o!t"ines his +h#+te#isti+ (hi"oso(hi+" (osition &o(te& by the Ge"!$( t#&ition hi+h he /o!n&e&* Its +ent#" /et!#e is (#ti+!"# inte#(#ettion o/ * the !nity o/ ,#m =+!stion> n& sunyat" =%oi&ness em(tiness>* !t i/ itho!t h%in$ the insi$ht tht sees into ht is o! on"y (#+ti+e #en!n+ition n& #o!sin$ bodhi%itta, o! +nnot +!t o// the #oots o/ sams"ra# So o#, t the metho& o/ !n&e#stn&in$ &e(en&ent o#i$intion* Whoe%e# sees "" the &h#ms o/ sams"ra n& nirvana As ne%e# &i%e#$in$ /#om the seC!en+e o/ +!stion Whoe%e# hs &est#oye& +om("ete"y "" t!#nin$ to obJe+ts o/ the min& Is then on the (th hi+h &e"i$hts the !&&hs* o!# !n&e#stn&in$s o/ &e(en&ent o#i$intion in the o#"& o/ ((e#n+e An& o/ srinyat" /#ee /#om "" sse#tions these to As "on$ as they ((e# to be se(#te o! h%e sti"" not !n&e#stoo& the S$es tho!$ht* 1@ 'IILIED SHAMANS When t the sme time not h%in$ set them !( se(#te"y Th#o!$h tht %e#y seein$ o/ &e(en&ent o#i$intion A"" hbit!" %ies o/ obJe+ts s +e#tin"y ,non #e &est#oye& Then the st!&y o/ %ies hs been +om("ete&* F!#the# i/ yo! ,no the y o/ #isin$ s +!se n& e//e+t O/ sunyat", hi+h th#o!$h the ((#ent &est#oys be"ie/ in e5isten+e An& th#o!$h the %oi& &est#oys be"ie/ in none5isten+e No e5t#eme %ie +n &e(#i%e yo! o/ yo!# insi$ht* =Tson$,( /amtso 0amsum5 my t#ns"tion> A /in" %e#se #e+ommen&s tht /te# #e"i2in$ the Th#ee Points the &is+i("e sho!"& me&itte in so"it!&e* The &i//e#en+e in ((#o+h /#om G&&em+hens te5t sho!"& be e%i&ent* In ("+e o/ &i#e+t ent#y into .!nt! Sn$(os mo&e o/ bein$ e #e (#esente& ith se#ies o/
st$es enti#e"y ithin the +on%ention" ((#o+h o/ Mhyn !&&hism* The &is+i("e sho!"& /i#st +hie%e Ren!n+ition o/ sms# then #o!se bo&hi+itt the "t#!isti+ moti%tion o/ the bo&histt% 17 n& then +hie%e the +o##e+t (hi"oso(hi+" %ie(oint tht &e/ines !&&hhoo&* The#e is no s!$$estion he#e o/ me&ittion on J#yn &eities* Tson$,( s not o((ose& to the (#+ti+e o/ Tnt# b!t he n& his /o""oe#s s it s n &%n+e& (#+ti+e to be !n&e#t,en on"y /te# e5tensi%e (#e"imin#y non0 Tnt#i+ t#inin$ on the "ines s!$$este& in this te5t* The Ge"!$( o#&e# in theo#y t "est hs mintine& this (osition* The .!nsn$ Mn"m n& Lmtso Nms!m #e both e""0,non te5ts o/ $#et !tho#ity ithin Tibetn !&&hism i&e"y #es(e+te& +#oss the ho"e #n$e o/ t#&itions n& #itten ithin /e ye#s o/ e+h othe#* 1@ They ne%e#the"ess #ti+!"te C!ite &i//e#ent ((#o+hes to the /!n&ment" iss!es o/ !&&hism* In $ene#" these te5ts #e #e(#esentti%e o/ the to t#&itions ith hi+h they #e sso+ite& in tht the Nyin$m( t#&ition in%o"%es mo#e em(hsis on the shmni+ ((#o+h n& the Ge"!$( on the +"e#i+"* The to othe# min !&&hist t#&itions .$y&( n& S,y( /"" somehe#e in beteen hi"e the n(o #e simi"# to the Nyin$m(* We #e s(e,in$ he#e hoe%e# on"y o/ &i//e#en+e in em(hsis* It o!"& not be &i//i+!"t to /in& Nyin$m( te5ts ith +"e#i+" /et!#es o# Ge"!$( te5ts tht #e shmni+* We #e on"y se+on&#i"y +on+e#ne& he#e ith n o((osition beteen #e"i$io!s t#&i0 1 SHAMANI' AND 'LERI'AL UDDHISM
tions o# monsti+ o#&e#s* The to mo&"ities $o #i$ht th#o!$h "" o/ Tibetn !&&hist (#+ti+e* SHAMANI' UDDHISM AND THE GREAT TIME OF MTH One o/ the most im(o#tnt +ont#sts beteen +"e#i+" n& shmni+ !&&hism ((e#s on"y tn$enti""y in o!# e5m("e* '"e#i+" !&&hism is s+#i(t!#" n& it #e"tes to the te5t s so!#+e o/ #tion" #$!ment* Shmni+ o# Tnt#i+ =J#yn> !&&hism is o#" n& it &e#i%es /#om "ine$e o/ te+hin$s tht +n be %iee& s h%in$ o#i$0 inte& in (#im" time o# G#et Time o/ myth* G&&em+hens te5t s I note& is te#m* It is #e$#&e& not s te5t +om(ose& by h!mn !tho# b!t s #e%e"tion /#om the (#im" time* The te5ts o/ Tnt# #e (#im#i"y "it!#$i+"* They #e s(e+i/i+ mens =S,t* s&hn> o/ in%o,in$ the Smbho$,y &eities n& they #e s!bsi&i#y in im(o#tn+e to the e5(e#ien+e o# #the# the stte o/ bein$ i&e""y b#o!$ht bo!t hen the in%o+tion s!++ee&s* The G#et Time o/ Tnt#i+ !&&hism is &istin+t /#om the o#&in#y time o/ e%e#y&y "i/e* The bein$s m"e n& /em"e ho (o(!"te it =!&&hs bo&histt% n& othe# Tnt#i+ &eities "on$ ith $#et "ms o/ the (st /#om Tibet In&i n& e"sehe#e> mi$ht be &es+#ibe& s +!"t!#e he#oes* Th#o!$h thei# +ti%ity in the G#et Time they "i& &on the bsi+ (otenti"ities /o# h!mn beh%io# in $ene#" n& !&&hist (#+ti+e n& #it!" in (#ti+!"#*
We i"" meet mny s!+h /i$!#es in the +o!#se o/ this boo,* One ho ("ys (#ti+!"#"y im(o#tnt #o"e is 'hen#esi$ =S,t* A%"o,ites%#> the $#et bo&histt% ho /the#e& the Tibetn (eo("e int#o&!+e& $#i+!"t!#e #et!#ne& s se%e#" o/ the Tibetn em(e#o#s n& t,es h!mn /o#m s the D"i Lm n& othe# hi$h "ms* Anothe# o/ +om(#b"e si$ni/i+n+e is G!#! Rim(o+he =S,t* P&msmbh%> the se+on& !&&h ho tme& the "o+" $o&s n& s(i#its o/ Tibet n& bo!n& them to the se#%i+e o/ the !&&hist te+hin$s* Fem"e /i$!#es in+"!&e D#"m =S,t* T#> ho is ,in& o/ /em"e +o!nte#(#t to 'hen#esi$ n& "so hs si$ni/i+nt #o"e in Tibetn histo#y n& Do#JQ Ne"Jo#m =S,t* J#yo$ini> n initito#y $o&&ess ho is intimte"y "in,e& ith the #e%e"tion o/ mny Tnt#i+ "ine$es* Amon$ the $#et "ms #e /i$!#es s!+h s G#b Do#JQ Lon$+hen RbJm( M#( Mi"#e( S,y Pn&it n& Tson$,( /o!n&e#s n& +o&i/ie#s o/ 19 'IILIED SHAMANS #e"i$io!s o#&e#s n& +ent#" /i$!#es in the %#io!s Tnt#i+ "ine$es n& "" &i#e+t"y in%o,e& s Tnt#i+ &eities in thei# on #i$ht* This "ist in+"!&es mi5t!#e o/ histo#i+" n& (#t"y histo#i+" +h#+te#s =Mi"#e( Tson$,( G!#! Rim(o+he> "on$ ith bein$s ho mi$ht be bette# &es+#ibe& s &eities o# hy(ostti2tions o/ h!mn (otenti"ities ='hen#esi$ Do#JQ Ne"Jo#m>* Wht "" the membe#s o/ the "ist h%e in +ommon is tht thei# (oe# is tho!$ht to be sti"" +ti%e n& +n be +ont+te& n& m&e !se o/ by those ith the ((#o(#ite s,i""* In +e#tin +onte5ts s!+h s the Re/!$e %is!"i2tions o/ the gu ruyoga (#+ti+es they #e "" im$ine& s ##ye& in %st ssemb"$e +ente#e& #o!n& the me&itto#s (e#son" "m in t#ns/i$!#e& /o#m* Any o/ these +!"t!#e0 he#oes my ((e# in %isions $i%e te+hin$s n& i& the (#+titione# to +hie%e this0 o#"&"y (oe# n& !"timte En"i$htenment* The (#+titione# +n "so ss!me the i&entity o/ mny o/ these /i$!#es &i#e+t"y in the +o!#se o/ Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e* Th!s ithin the shmni+ !&&hist (e#s(e+ti%e these +!"t!#e0he#oes ((e# s t#ns0 histo#i+" so!#+es o/ (oe# n& !tho#ity* At the sme time Tibetns (#ti+!"#"y monsti+ s+ho"#s #e e"" #e o/ the histo#i+" nt!#e o/ (eo("e s!+h s G!#! Rim(o+he o# S,y Pn&it* As this s!$$ests mny o/ those hom I h%e &es+#ibe& s shmni+ +!"t!#e0he#oes +n "so be %iee& in the (e#s(e+ti%e o/ +"e#i+" !&&hism s h!mn bein$s ho "i%e& t s(e+i/i+ time in the (st n& (e#/o#me& se#ies o/ +tions #e+o#&e& in the histo#i+" #e+o#&* In (#+ti+e the to (e#s(e+ti%es +onstnt"y inte#(enet#te n& shmni+ #e%e"tion is +ent#" (#t o/ most Tibetn histo#i+" ++o!nts* E%en the $#et s+ho"#"y +ti%ity o/ "ms s!+h s S,y Pn0&it Tson$,( o# -myn$ .yentsQ On$(o shinin$ e5m("es o/ the #tion" n& +"e#i+" s(e+t o/ Tibetn !&&hism hs its shmni+ #e&in$* In the shmni+ !&&hist (e#s(e+ti%e the s+ho"#"y o#, o/ these "ms is &es+#ibe& in te#ms o/ these "ms h%in$ #e+ei%e& #e%e"tions /#om n& h%in$ themse"%es been emntions o/ the Bodhisattva MYJ!s#i =Tib* -m(e" n$> hose s(e+i/i+ /ie"& is s+ho"#shi(* I+ono$#(hi+""y they #e &e(i+te& ith the so#& n& boo, the emb"ems o/ MYJ!s#i s n in&i+tion o/ thei# i&entity ith him* The histo#y o/ !&&hism in In&i my "i,eise be %iee& by the Tibetns th#o!$h this shmni+ (e#s(e+ti%e* The o#, o/ men s!+h s N$#J!n o# Asn$ $#et s+ho"#s by ny #tion"ist +#ite#i is &es+#ibe& in te#ms o/ yo$i+ n& Tnt#i+
(#+ti+e n& o/ #e%e"tions :8 SHAMANI' AND 'LERI'AL UDDHISM
/#om naga n& bodhisattva =see /o# e5m("e Obe#mi""e# 193:01933>* Simi"#"y the !&&h S,ym!ni himse"/ is seen "ess s s(e+i/i+ (e#son ho "i%e& in no#the#n In&i in the /i/th to si5th +ent!#ies *+* thn s n e#th"y (#oJe+tion o# emntion o/ the !ni%e#s" +osmi+ #+hety(e o/ En"i$htenment* The %it" (oint he#e is tht s!//i+ient"y (oe#/!" "m +n "ys #eestb"ish &i#e+t +ont+t ith these /o!n&in$ /i$!#es ho e5ist #the# "i,e the D#emin$ bein$s o/ the A!st#"in Abo#i$ines on &i//e#ent ("ne o/ #e"ity tht inte#(enet#tes o!# o#&in#y #e"ity* The "ine$e o/ the te+hin$s is the#e/o#e in the shmni+ !&&hist %ie not sim("y he#it$e hn&e& on /#om the &istnt (st it is somethin$ tht is bein$ +onstnt"y #e+#ete& n& #e%"i&te& th#o!$h the e5(e#ien+e o/ +ontem(o##y "ms n& yo$i+ (#+titione#s* In this y the "ms "i,e the Sibe#in shmns o# the &i%ine#s o# (#o(hets o/ s!b0Sh#n A/#i+ +n #e"i$n h!mn bein$s ith thei# so+iety n& ith the !ni%e#se in hi+h they "i%e& by (#o&!+in$ ne n& +ontem(o##y #e&in$ o/ the t#&ition* et the "ms !n"i,e the shmns n& &i%ine#s o/ t#ib" n& (#e"ite#te so+ieties #e not #e$#&e& s (# +t i+ in$ th ei # # t on"y /o# th is 0o #"& "y en &s * The !" ti mte i m o/ Tnt #i + (#+ti +e is the sme s tht o/ "" !&&hist (#+ ti+e the +hie%ement o/ the stte o/ En"i$htenment* This is the (oint o/ (ossib"e +on/"i+t beteen the in&i%i&!tin$ n& ethi+i2in$ ten&en+y o/ !&&hism n& the n+ient mt#i5 o/ the shmni+ o#"& %ie ith its em(hsis on +omm!n" h#mony =see M!m/o#& 199)170:3>* Fo# the Tibetns Tnt#i+ o# J#yn !&&hism is the (#eemi nent y o/ +hie%in$ En"i$htenment* It is !ni%e#s""y ++e(te& tht hi"e the P#mityn the (th o/ the S!t#s "e&s to En"i$htenment it t,es mny tho!sn&s o/ "i/etimes to #e+h the $o" by this (th "one* The J#yn is the C!i+, (th the imme&ite (th n& i/ (#+ti+e& intensi%e"y it +n "e & to En"i$htenment ithin this (#es ent "i/etime* 'onseC!ent"y the !(ho"&e#s o/ the +"e#i+" st#n& in Tibetn !&&hism &o not #eJe+t Tnt# n& +"e#i+""y o#iente& (#+titione#s #e themse"%es +ommit te& to Tnt#i+ !&&hism n& #e"int on its metho&s* At most the mo#e +"e#i+" n& +&emi+ o/ Tibetn (#+titione#s es(e+i""y in the Ge"!$( t#&ition my +st &o!bt on the %"i&ity o/ those Tnt#i+ "ine$es tht &o not h%e s!//i+ient"y #es(e+tb"e +&emi+ n& te5t!" t#&ition behin& them* E%en Tson$,( the (#ototy(i+""y +&emi+ n& s+ho"#"y "m ho /o!n&e& :: 'IILIED SHAMANS the most +"e#i+" o/ Tibetn !&&hist o#&e#s the Ge"!$( s not &es(ite
the s!$$estions o/ some e#"ie# Weste#n +ommentto#s o((ose& to Tnt#* He s &ee("y +ommitte& to Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e n& his "i/e s $!i&e& by se#ies o/ +#!+i" #e%e"tions /#om %#io!s bodhisattva =see Th!#mn 19: 19; 196 n& 'h(te# :7>* THE TWO MA-OR SNTHESES) GELUGPA AND RIMED I note& bo%e tht the#e is shmni+ !&&hist n"ysis o/ the +"e#i+" t#&ition in te#ms o/ the +ti%ity o/ -m(e" n$ n& othe# Tnt#i+ &eities* We mi$ht e5(e+t the#e to be +"e#i+" !&&hist inte#(#ettion o/ Tnt# s e"" in the sense o/ (hi"oso(hi+" n"ysis o/ ht Tnt# mens n& ho it o#,s* This is in /+t the +se* Mo#e (#e+ise"y the#e #e se%e#" +om(etin$ +"e#i+" ++o!nts o/ the menin$ o / Tnt# e+h it h its on n"ysis o/ ho En"i$htenment is +hie%e& th#o!$h Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e* I sh"" be $i%in$ some ttention to these s+ho"#"y inte#(#ettions o/ Tnt# es(e+i""y in the histo#i+" n"ysis in P#t Th#ee be+!se the #$!ments +on+e#nin$ them #e o/ten +onsi&e#b"y mo#e thn n##o &o+t#in" &is(!tes* ?!estions o/ the #e"tionshi( beteen #e"ti%e n& t#ns+en&ent" t#!ths o/ the #e"ity o/ the o#"& s o#&in#i"y (e#+ei%e& n& o/ the (#e(#tions nee&e& /o# (#o(e# Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e h%e h& enti #e"y #e" so+i" n& (o"iti+" im("i+tions ithin the Tibetn +onte5t* Th!s the shmni+ ((#o+h hs ten&e& to $o "on$ ith n em (hsis on the %"i&ity o/ &i#e+t s o((ose& to $#&!" ent#y into the En" i$htene& stte n& on (ositi%e +on+e(tions o/ the nt!#e o/ En "i$htenment (tath"gatagarbha, shentong), hi"e "ms mo#e "i$ne& ith the +"e#i+" ((#o+h h%e em(hsi2e& $#&!" ent#y n& mo#e ne$ti%e inte""e+t!""y bse& +on+e(tion o/ En"i$htenment* The #e"tion sh i(s he#e # e not " ys st#i$ht/o##& sin+e the most in/"!enti" "ms in Tibetn histo#y "" ime& t some ,in& o/ synthesis beteen the ((#o+hes n& the !tho#ity o/ M&hym, (hi"oso(hy ith its b si+""y ne$ti%e +on+e(t!"i2tions #emine& %e#y $#et /o# "" s+hoo"s b!t the si$ni/i+n+e o/ these "in,$es i"" eme#$e in the histo#i+" ++o!nt o/ P#t Th#ee* In (#ti+!"# (#o(onents o/ the +"e#i+" ((#o+h h%e insiste& on the +#iti+" im(o#tn+e o/ &eC!te n& e5tensi%e non0Tnt#i+ (#e(#tion /o# Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e* Ty(i+""y this is t,en /!#thest by the Ge"!$( the most +"e#i+" o/ the /o!# !&&hist o#&e#s n& the one most SHAMANI' AND 'LERI'AL UDDHISM +"ose"y inte$#te& ith the st#!+t!#es o/ se+!"# (oe#* S!+h n insisten+e $oes "on$ ith #e"ti%e"y #est#i+te& #o"e /o# Tnt# s some thin$ to be !n&e#t,en on"y by sm"" n& tho#o!$ h"y t#i ne& n& %ette& Q"ite* This is (#ti+!"#"y so /o# those ho be+me "ms in the Ge"!$( t#&ition* Th!s !&&hist histo#y n& (#+ti+e in Tibet +n be #e& by the Tibetns themse"%es in te#ms o/ +"e#i+" !&&hism o# o/ shmni+ !&&hism* 1 This is not n eithe#0o# +hoi+e* Fo# the Tibetns the !ni%e#se in hi+h they "i%e is seen s +(b"e o/ m!"ti("e inte#(#ettions hi+h #e not n e+ess#i "y e5+" !si%e* Rti on "i ty is not s it ten&s to be in +ontem(o##y Weste#n so+iety the sin$"e &ominnt mo&e o/ "e$itimte &is+o!#se*
This s "so t#!e /o# the +to#s in the histo#i+" ++o!nt o/ the e%o"!tion o/ Tibetn #e"i$ion hi+h I sh"" (#esent "te# in this boo,* MJo# /i$!#es s!+h s Tson$,( o# Lon$+hen RbJm( mi$ht ((e# to be &ominnt"y +"e#i+" o# shmni+ in thei# o#ienttion b!t they $ene#""y o(e#te& in both mo&es seein$ them s +om("ement#y #the# thn o((ose&* 'onseC!ent"y it is not "ys esy o# e%en ((#o(#ite /o# n e5te#n" obse#%e# to ssi$n s(e+i/i+ e%ents (eo("e o# mo%ements in Tibetn histo#y e5+"!si%e"y to one +te$o#y o# the othe#* Wht too, ("+e s mo#e in the nt!#e o/ se#ies o/ syntheses beteen the to s(e+ts* y the "te nineteenth +ent!#y the#e e#e to mJo# +om(etin$ syntheses one &% n +e& b y t he Ge"! $( t # &i ti on n& o ne t he s o0 + "" e& R i me & mo%ement hi+h h& &e%e"o(e& mon$ the othe# #e"i$io!s t#&itions* As I s!$$este& bo%e th#o!$h most o/ Tibetn histo#y the shmni+ !&&hist o#ienttion s &ominnt* oth Ge"!$( n& Rime& ((#o+hes #etine& this shmni+ &ominn+e i/ ith &i//e#ent &e$#ees o/ em(hsis* In te#ms o/ !&&hist (#+ti+e this +o##es(on&e& to the &ominn+e o/ the J#yn o%e# the P#mityn o/ Tnt# o%e# St#* In P#t To o/ this boo, =' h(te#s 9 to 1> e sh"" see ho the &ominn+e o/ shmni+ !&&hism o#,e& o!t in te#ms o/ e%e#y&y #e"i$ion in the e#"y tentieth +ent!#y* P#t Th#ee ='h(te#s 19 to :> t#+es the e%o"!tion o/ the to mJo# syntheses =Ge"!$( n& Rime&> /#om ht seem to h%e been in the e#" y (e#io & to #e" ti%e"y &istin+t t#&itions o/ +"e#i+" n& shmni+ !&&hism* In 'h(te# : the #eminin$ +h(te# o/ the Int#o&!+tion some o/ the iss!es #e"tin$ to the so+i" st#!+t!#e o/ Tibetn so+ieties hi+h e#e s,et+he& bo%e i"" be int#o&!+e& in mo#e &eti" th#o!$h +om(#ison ith the The#%&in !&&hist so+ieties o/ So!thest Asi*
2
Tibetan and Theravádin Societies: A Comparison
I s!$$este& in 'h(te# 1 tht Tibetn !&&hism &i//e#e& +onsi&e#b"y /#om !&&hism in The#%&in so+ieties* In this +h(te# the to #e +om(#e& in some &eti" in o#&e# to s(e+i/y the (#ti+!"# +h#+te# o/ !&&hism in Tibet* My (i+t!#e o/ !&&hism in
The#%&in so+ieties is bse& (#im#i"y on mte#i" /#om Thi"n& n& !#m* A $ene#""y +onsistent nth#o(o"o$i+" ++o!nt o/ #e"i$ion in these to +o!nt#ies hs eme#$e& o%e# the (st +o!("e o/ &e+&es &es(ite &i//e#en+es in inte#(#ettion /#om the o#, o/ Stn"ey Tmbih =19@8 19@7 19;> * -* Te#ie" =19@6> Nie"s M!"&e# =196> Gehn WiJeye#&ene =197> Me"/o#& S(i#o =197@ 19@1> E* Mi+he" Men&e"son =19@6> n& othe#s* M!+h o/ this (i+t!#e "so (("ies to Sinh"ese !&&hism s st!&ie& by Mi+he" Ames =197; 1977> Ri+h#& Gomb#i+h =19@1> Gnnth Obeyese,e#e =1977 19@@> #!+e .(/e#e# =193> M#tin So!tho"& =193> n& othe#s "tho!$h the#e #e some s!bstnti" +ont#sts beteen S#i Ln, n& the So!thest Asin so+ieties s!+h s the in/"!en+e o/ +ste in Sinh"ese so+iety n& the !se o/ tem(o##y mon,hoo& s #ite &e (ss$e /o# yo!n$ men in Thi"n& n& !#m* We +n hoe%e# sti"" (!t /o##& n!mbe# o/ $ene#" /et!#es s +h#+te#isti+ o/ !&&hist (#+ti+e in "" these The#%&in so+ieties* TIETAN AND THERAZDIN SO'IETIES
To be$in ith in "" o/ these so+ieties the (#im#y !&&hist #o"e is tht o/ the bhi..hu, the /!""y o#&ine& !&&hist mon,* In "" o/ them too the !&&hist Sm$h hi+h in The#%&in so+ieties mens the o#&e# o/ mon,s n& =m"e o# /em"e> no%i+es is +ent#"i2e& stte0s(onso#e& n& stte0+ont#o""e& o#$ni2tion* In e+h +o!nt#y the#e #e "#$e monste#ies in the !#bn +ente#s o/ten !n&e# #oy" o# stte s(onso#shi( hi+h +t s te+hin$ =n& +e#ti/i+tion> +ente#s n& hi+h my be in%o"%e& in im(o#tnt stte #it!"* Po"iti+" #!"e is +"ose"y sso+ite& ith !&&hism both th#o!$h the i&eo"o$y o/ the %a.ravartin o# dharmar"6a, n& th#o!$h the si$ni/i+n+e o/ !&&hist s+#e& obJe+ts s!+h s the Eme#"& !&&h in Thi"n& o# the Tooth Re"i+ in S#i Ln, s /o+" (oints o/ stte (oe#* In #e+ent ye#s some o/ these !#bn monste#ies h%e be+ome +ente#s /o# "y me&ittion (#+ti+e b!t t#&ition""y me&ittion hs been monsti+ (#+ti+e +##ie& o!t in he#mit$es n& #et#et +ente#s e"" y /#om the +ity* Asi&e /#om the "#$e !#bn monste#ies n& the #et#et +ente#s ty(i+" #!#" monste#ies in The#%&in +o!nt#ies #e sit!te& ithin %i""$es n& h%e sin$"e bhi..hu, o# (e#h(s to o# th#ee t most in #esi&en+e* These mon,s h%e &istin+t"y +"e#i+" #o"e to#&s the "y (o(!"ti on* They #e+ite s+#i(t!#es te+h n& (e#/o#m #it!"s min"y in the +onte5t o/ ð o# me#it0 m,in$ +e#emonies =hi+h in+"!&e the m,in$ o/ &ontions to mon,s n& thei# tem("es>* Me#it (!unya) n& &eme#it $oo& o# b& ,#m /o#m the /o!n&tion o/ the !&&hist ethi+" +o&e hi+h is J!sti/ie& by #e/e#en+e to the imm!tb"e "s o/ +!se n& e//e+t* A++o#&in$ to this " o/ ,#m ones +tions in this "i/e o# mo#e (#e+ise"y ones intention" sttes h%e e//e+ts in /!t!#e "i%es J!st s ones /o#t!ne in this "i/e #es!"ts /#om the ,#m o/ ones (st +tions* Tmbih hs s(e""e& o!t this &i"e+ti+ o/ me#it /o# %i""$e so+iety in
no#thest Thi"n& =197 19@8>* His &emonst#tion o!"& se#%e in its essenti"s /o# "" The#%&in so+ieties* It /o#ms t "est /i#st "e%e" o/ !n&e#stn&in$ o/ ,#m in Tibetn so+ieties s e"" =see 'h(te# 1 i >* This is ht Me"/o#& S(i#o #e/e##e& to s .ammati% Buddhism = te#m &e#i%e& /#om .amma, P"i /o# ,#m S(i#o 19@1> I #e/e# to it =see 'h(te# i> s the 'arma &rientation#- The s(he#e o/ me#it ð n& #ebi#th (st n& /!t!#e "i%es is +on+e(t!""y &i//e#entite& in The#%&in s in Tibetn !&&hist tho!$ht /#om the !"timte !&&hist $o" o/ En"i$htenment =!&&hhoo& bodhi)# En"i$htenment n& nirvana =P"i nibb"na) #e #e$#&e& 'IILIED SHAMANS s bein$ m!+h the sme thin$ in The#%&in tho!$ht tho!$h not by Mhynists s!+h s the Tibetns* oth #e beyon& the s+o(e o/ the %e#$e %i""$e# o# !#bn &e""e# o# e%en the mJo# ity o/ mon,s* S(i#o #e/e##e& to this s nibbani% Buddhism5 I #e/e# to it s the Bodhi &rientation# A thi#& s(he#e o/ #e"i$io!s +ti%ity is o/ m!+h mo#e s"ien+e /o# the mJo#ity o/ the (o(!"tion* This is +on+e#ne& ith ttinin$ s!++ess n& (# os(e#it y n& %oi&in$ mis/ o#t! ne in th is "i/ e* These i ms # e +hie%e& th#o!$h inte#+tion ith the %#io!s o#"&"y $o&s n& s(i#its n inte#+tion me&ite& by host o/ (#im#i"y nonmonsti+ s(e+i"ists s(i#it0me&i!ms st#o"o$e#s e5o#+ists (#iests o/ &eity +!"ts n& the "i,e =/o# e5m("e S(i#o 197@ M!"&e# 196>* I #e/e# to it s the r ag ma ti % &rientation =see Mn&e"b!m 1977 : > in S(i#os te#ms it +o##es(on&s to ht he +""s s!(e#nt!#"ism n& #e$#&s s non0!&&hist #e"i$ion =S(i#o 197@> "on$ ith +e#tin e"ements o/ !&&hism =(ot#o(i+ !&&hism S(i#o 19@1>* We th!s h%e th#ee $ene#" s(he#es o/ #e"i$io!s +ti%ity in these so+ieties) I* The #e"m o/ this0o#"&"y +on+e#ns hi+h in #e"i$io!s te#ms is the s(he#e o/ inte#+tion ith n& (#ote+tion $inst "o+" $o&s n& s(i#its "#$e"y +##ie& o!t by #it!" (#+titione#s ho #e not !&&hist mon,s =the ragmati% &rientation)5 The s(he#e o/ ð n& #ebi#th (st n& /!t!#e "i%es &ominte& by the +on+e(t!" st#!+t!#e o/ ,#m n& the i&eo"o$y o/ me#it n& me&ite& by the !&&hist mon,s =the 'arma &rientation)5 2.
The (!#s!it o/ En"i$htenment o# nirvana, seen s es+(e /#om the +y+"e o/ #ebi#th (samsara)# This is in (#+ti+e the (#ese#%e o/ sm"" n!mbe# o/ #e"i$io!s %i#t!osi =s Webe# +""e& them> n& +onstit!tes the Bodhi &rientation# 3.
The #e"tionshi( beteen these #es is the s!bJe+t o/ some +ont#o%e#sy in
The#%&in !&&hist st!&ies* S(i#o /o# e5m("e hs #$!e& tht the /i#st s(he#e n& the se+on& n& thi#& +onstit!te se(#te n& "#$e"y &istin+t #e"i$ions =s!(e#nt!#"ism n& !&&hism>* It is e%i&ent tht s(he#e 1 n& : [ 3 #e o# iente& #o!n& &i //e#ent %"!e0 systems b!t it seems to me to m,e mo#e sense to +onsi&e# the (#+ti+es sso+ite& ith these &i//e#ent o#ienttions s Tmbih &oes s TIETAN AND THERAADIN SO'IETIES st#!+t!#""y #e"te& e"ements ithin tot" /ie"& =S(i#o 197@ 19@1 Tmbih 19@8 19;316>* S(i#o #$!es tht on"y sm"" n!mbe# o/ in&i%i&!"s o#ient thei# "i%es #o!n& nibbni+ !&&hism =\ 3> n& tht ,mmti+ !&&hism =\ :> is the no#m /o# The#%&in !&&hist (#+titione#s* This is &o!bt"ess t#!e eno!$h b!t it is "so t#!e tht s Tmbih hs shon the sm"" mino#ity o/ (eo("e +ommitte& to the o&hi O#ienttion #e im(o#t nt /o# the syst em s ho"e* This is not sim("y be+!se they (#o%i&e mo&e"s o# ins(i#tion /o# the "ess #e"i$io!s"y %i#t!osi+ #emin&e# o/ the (o(!"tion b!t be+!se thei# ttinments t h#o!$h o&hi o#iente& (#+ti+e +n be n& #e t#ns/e##e& into +ti%ity in the P#$mti+ s(he#e =\ t>* As e sh"" see this m!t!" in%o"%ement o/ s(he#es # n& 3 is t,en m!+h /!#the# in Tibetn !&&hism* THE SU''ESSFUL DOMESTI'ATION OF THE THERAADIN SAMGHA E%en in the The#%&in +o!nt#ies mny mon,s #e in%o"%e& in (#$mti+ #e"i$ion to +onsi&e#b"e &e$#ee s m,e#s n& em(oe#e#s o/ m$i+" (#ote+ti%e &e%i+es n& o++sion""y s e5o#+ists n& the "i,e* S!+h +ti%ity sh&es o// into tht o/ +!"t0$#o!(s tht /o#m #o!n& in&i%i&!" !&&hist mon,s o# o++sion""y "ymen to hom m$i+" (oe#s #e tt#ib!te&* These $#o!(s +n h%e st#on$ mi""enni" +h#+te# n& e%en /o#m the bsis /o # (o"iti+" mo%ements o((osin$ the #Q$ime in (oe#* Gene#""y s(e,in$ "" o/ this +ti%ity /#om em(oe#in$ m!"ets to "e&in$ #ebe""ions +n be +onsi&e#e& P#$mti+ in tht it is +on+e#ne& ith the this0 o#"&"y bene/it o/ those in%o"%e&* A"" o/ it too is bse& on the (#emise tht the s(i#it!" (oe# tht is bein$ t!#ne& to these P#$mti+ en&s is &e#i%e& /#om !&&hist (#+ti+e* S!+h (oe# is mo#e thn the #es!"t o/ +C!i#in$ $oo& ,#m it #ises o!t o/ the #e"m o/ o&hi0o#iente& (#+ti+e S(i#os Nibbni+ !&&hism*3 I&eo"o$i+""y in%o"%ement ith P#$mti+ #e"i$ion "et "one ith mi""enni" +!"t0$#o!(s is &e/ine& by the !tho#ities o/ The#%&in o#0 tho&o5y s m#$in" to the mon,s #o"e* It is sso+ite& "ess ith the /!""y &omesti+te& mon,s o/ !#bn o# %i""$e monste#ies thn ith the s+eti+ me&itto#s n& he#mits ho "i%e in sense t the e&$es o/ o#tho&o5
The#%&in so+iety* The #o"e o/ these /o#est0sints n& o/ thei# /o""oe#s is o/ (#ti+!"# inte#est hen it +omes to &#in$ +ont#st ith !&&hism in Tibet* 'IILIED SHAMANS Tmbih #e/e##in$ to the &is+i("es o/ one s!+h mo&e#n The#%&in sint in Thi"n& A+h#n M!n m,es &i//e#entition beteen #tion"ist n& tnt#i+ ((#o+hes* The #tion"ists #e &e&i+te& to the in&i%i&!" (!#s!it o/ nirvana, hi"e the tnt#i+s ++e(t the (#ess!#e o/ thei# "y /o""oe#s to +on%e#t the +h#ism o/ s(i#it!" ttinment into m$i+" #it!" +tion /o# this0o#"&"y en&s =Tmbih 19;)136//>* He#e the #tion"ists #e(#esent the i&eo"o$i+""y no#mti%e s(e+t /#om the (oint o/ %ie o/ &omesti+te& Stte !&&hism hi"e the tnt#i+s +o##es(on& to the !n&omesti+te& o# i"& o#ienttion* To (!t this in s"i$ht"y &i//e#ent te#ms o#tho&o5y is h((y ith nibbni+ !&&hism s "on$ s it stys ithin #tion"ist te#ms n& &oes not mo%e into the i&e# so+i" #en* Tnt#i+ he#e hs to be t,en met(ho#i+""y sin+e these mon,s =n& o++sion""y "ymen> #e not Tnt#i+ in the Tibetn sense* ; It i s t #!e hoe%e# tht in the e5("i+it"y Tnt#i+ +onte5t o/ Tibetn #e"i$ion e i"" /in& tht this ,in& o/ (#+ti+e o#iente& #o!n& the m$i+" (!#s!it o/ P#$mti+ en&s is m!+h mo#e ty(i+" n& +ent#" thn in The#%&in so+ieties* One o/ the min C!estions to be &is+!sse& in this boo, is hy Tnt#i+ =J#yn> !&&hism in Tibet sho!"& be sso+ite& ith this ,in& o/ +ti%ity* The nse# tht I sh"" (#esent is (#t"y in te#ms o/ the inte#n" (# o+e&!#es n& te +hniC!es o/ Tnt#i + !&&hism n& (#t "y in te#ms o/ the s(e+i/i+ nt!#e in the histo#i+" (e#io& n& in mo#e #e+ent times o/ Tibetn so+iety* In the The#%&in +o!nt#ies this m$i+" o# shmni+ s(e+t o/ !&&hism /o#ms ,in& o/ /#in$e t the e&$e o/ o#tho&o5 The#%&in !&&hism* '!"t0$#o!(s #e$!"#"y /o#m n& $#o in #es(onse to "y &emn& b!t # e s #e$ !" #"y s!( (# es se & n & ,e( t in the i# (" +e by #e"i$io!s o# se+!"# !tho#ities i / n& hen they +ome to +onstit!t e (o"iti+" (#ob"em* In this #es(e+t s in othe#s the #!"e#s o/ The#%&in so+ieties #e ty(i+""y +on+e#ne& to ,ee( the Sm$h the monsti+ +omm!nity in its (" +e * The (!#i/ i+ t ion o/ the Sm$h h i+h $e ne # "" y in% o"%es the #esse#tion o/ stte +ont#o" o%e# the Sm$h "on$ ith ttem(ts t the #emo%" o# s!((#ession o/ nono#tho&o5 /o#ms o/ !&&hism hs been +onstnt theme in these so+ieties* The +on+e#n o/ the Stte to +ont#o" s!+h /o#ms o/ !&&hism +n be e5("ine& by the ese ith hi+h +h#ismti+ !&&hist mi#+"e0 o#,e#s +n mo%e into the (o"iti+" #en be+ome "e&e#s o/ mi""enni" mo%ements n& +onstit!te #e" (o"iti+" th#ets* These mi""en0 TIETAN AND THERAADIN SO'IETIES
ni" #ebe""ions h%e been #e$!"# /et!#e o/ The#%&in so+ieties /o# mny +ent!#ies =Tmbih 19; +h(te# :o>* As the #e+ent +se o/ S!+h#t .oson,itiont in Thi"n& shos s!+h (o"iti+" +h""en$es to the !tho#ity o/ the stte #e sti"" (ossib"e to&y =WiJeye#&ene 1 97):30:6 Hein2e 19):730:@>* In the The#%&in +onte5t mi""en ni" mo%ements %e#y # #e"y s!++ee& in +hie%in$ (o"iti+" (oe#* It is t#!e s Tmbih (oints o!t tht mi""enni" +"ims h%e "ys been (#t o/ the #e$!"# (o"iti+" (#o+ess in the (!"stin$ $"+ti+ (o"ities o/ So!thest Asi* Mi"it#y +onC!ests o# the estb"ishment o/ ne &ynsties h%e #e$!"#"y been J!sti/ie& in te#ms o/ the +h#ismti+ stt!s o/ the #!"e# seen in !&&hist te#ms* In s!+h +ses hoe%e# e h%e se+!"# t#ns/e# o/ (oe# "e$itimtin$ itse"/ in #et#os(e+t in !&&hist te#ms #the# thn the +hie%ement o/ stte +ont#o" by +h#ismti+ +!"t0"e&e#* The +!"t 0mo%ement s themse "%es s Tmbih n otes &o not in $ene#" $et to the (oint o/ n +t!" t,eo%e# o/ (oe#) As esote#i+ +!"ts b!i"t #o!n& in&i%i&!" mste#s they h%e "itt"e styin$ (oe# /te# the "e&e#s ð tho!$h &is+i("es my #e(#o&!+e the +e""s sso+itions n& neto#,s estb"ishe& by the mste#* An& hen they boi" !( into mi"itnt #e%o"ts they #e !nb"e to "on$ ithstn& the o#$ni2e& /o#+e &e("oye& by the estb"ishe& (o"iti+" !tho#ity**** S!+h b!bb"es /o#m n& b!#st ty(i+""y in the te##ito#i" n& so+i" (e#i(he#ies o/ estb"ishe& so+ieties n& (o"ities y /#om the +(it"s o/ thei# #!"in$ (o"iti+" n& e++"esisti+" e"ites* In this sense mi""enni" !&&hism is the +o!nte#+!"t!#e n& +o!nte#st#!+t!#e to o# $ni2e& n& &omesti+te& !&&hism* =Tmbih 19;)31903:o> THE FAILED DOMESTI'ATION OF THE TIETAN SAMGHA Tmbih em(hsi2es tht mi""enni" !&&hism in the So!thest Asin +onte5t hs to be seen s (#t o/ tot"ity in hi+h estb"ishe& !&&hism n& (o"ity +onstit!te its &i"e+ti+" n& /#eC!ent"y (# mo!nt +o!nte#(#t =Tmbih 19;)3:8>* When e t!#n to Tibet e /in& /o#ms o/ !&&hism tht #esemb"e the mi""enni" !&&hism o/ the Thi n& !#mese /o#est0sints b!t hi+h #e (#t o/ %e#y &i//e#ent tot"ity* Gene#""y s(e,in$ th#o!$h most o/ the histo#y o/ !&&hism in Tibet it hs been mi""enni" !&&hism tht hs been (#mo!nt* The +o!nte#+!"t!#e n& +o!nte#st#!+t!#e hi+h e"se0 'IILIED SHAMANS he#e mi$ht h%e be+ome &omesti+te& !&&hism hs estb"ishe& on"y
"imite& (#esen+e (#im#i"y in the +ent#" $#i+!"t!#" #es* The mi""enni"4&omesti+te& te#mino"o$y (#esents some &i//i+!"ty in the Tibetn +onte5t* Domesti+te& /its e"" eno!$h n& +o##es(on&s +"ose"y to some in&i$eno!s Tibetn +on+e(ts =see 'h(te# II >* Mi""enni" hoe%e# +##ies im("i+tions o/ #&i+" b#e, ith the estb"ishe& o#&e# tht is not ((#o(#ite in sit!tion he#e !n&omesti+te& !&&hism itse"/ +onstit!tes "#$e (#t o/ the estb0 "ishe& o#&e#* Neithe# #e tnt#i+ n& #tion"ist enti#e"y stis/+to#y sin+e they my +#ete +on/!sion beteen (ossib"e in&i$eno!s n& nth#o(o"o$i+" senses o/ tnt#i+* The te#m tnt#i+ in the Tibetn +onte5t is bette# #ese#%e& to the in&i$eno!s =emi+> sense tht o/ bein$ sso+ite& ith "ine$e o/ (#+ti+e s(e+i/i+""y &e/ine& s Tnt# (gy8d) by the Tibetns* It is /o# this #eson tht I (#e/e# to !se the te#ms int#o&!+e& in the (#e%io!s +h(te# shmni+ !&&hism n& +"e#i+" !&&hism* No "et !s "oo, t the ys in hi+h #e"i$ion in Tibetn so+ieties +ont#sts ith the (i+t!#e o/ The#%&in so+ieties (#esente& bo%e* A /i#st st#i,in$ &i//e#en+e beteen The#%&in !&&hist so+ieties n& Tibetn so+ieties is the C!estion o/ #e"i$io!s "e&e#shi(* The (#eeminent (osition hi+h in the The#%&in +o!nt#ies be"on$s to the bhi..hu o# /!""y o#&ine& mon,s is t,en by the "ms in Tibetn so0 +ieties* The Tibetns h%e /!""y o#&ine& mon,s orgelong (9 P"i bhi..hu) n& /o# them s e"sehe#e in the !&&hist o#"& this is ,ey stt!s in the monsti+ +#ee# hoe%e# "ms #e not ne+ess#i"y mon,s o# e%en membe#s o/ #e"i$io!s +omm!nities* As +o#o""#y /o# Tibetns the monsti+ +#ee# itse"/ is m!+h "ess o/ sine :ua non /o# se#io!s !&&hist (#+ti+e thn it is in The#%&in +o!nt#ies* The &e/inin$ /et!#e o/ "ms in Tibetn tho!$ht is tht they #e te+he#s ="m is eC!i%"ent to the Sns,#it te#m guru), mo#e s(e+i/i+""y te+he#s o/ Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e (va6raguru, va6r"%"rya, Tib* dor6; lob!ön)# To sy tht the "ms #e by &e/inition te+he#s o/ Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e im("ies tht they too #e the most +om(etent (e#/o#me#s o/ Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e* In Tibet s in the The#%&in so+ieties e h%e been +onsi&e#in$ the #e"tionshi( beteen h!mn bein$s n& thei# nt!#" n& so+i" en%i#onment is +on+ei%e& o/ in te#ms o/ %o+b!"#y o/ $o&s o# s(i#its o/ %#io!s ,in&s ith hom stis/+to#y #e"tionshi(s hs to be mintine& =Sm!e" 1998)@90133>* Fo# the Tibetns s I TIETAN AND THERAADIN SO'IETIES h%e "#e&y s!$$este& in 'h(te# 1 Tnt# (#o%i&es the (#im#y bo&y o/ #e"i$io!s te+hniC!es by hi+h these "o+" $o&s n& s(i#its n& the $ene#" #e o/ this0o#"&"y (#ob"ems #e &e"t ith* Th!s it is to the "ms tht the Tibetn "y n& monsti+ (o(!"tion "oo,s /o# the (e#/o#mn+e o/ these #it!"s hi"e the eC!i%"ent /!n+tions in The#%&in so+ieties #e +##ie& o!t by (#+titione#s ho #e not o# not ne+ess#i"y !&&hist mon,s o# othe# #e(#esentti%es o/ s(e+i/i+""y !&&hist (oe#* 6 In this y the #e o/
P#$mti+ #e"i$ion hi+h is on"y m#$in""y ithin the S# i$hs #e o/ +om(eten+e in The#%&in +o!nt#ies is the &i#e+t +on+e#n o/ the Tibetn "ms* Rthe# thn these m$i+" n& shmni+ o(e#tions /o#min$ n on"y (#ti""y +,no"e&$e& /#in$e to !&&hist (#+ti+e in Tibet they #e n inte$#" n& /!""y #e+o$ni2e& (#t o/ it* The "ms #e not the on"y (#+titione#s in this #e b!t they #e the most senio# n& (oe#/!" n& they &i#e+t n& s!(e#%ise othe# "esse# ty(es o/ (#+titione#s =see 'h(te#s 13 to 17>* Wht "" this mens in te#ms o/ the t#i(#tite &i%ision hi+h I &o(te& bo%e /o# the The#%&ins +n no be s(e""e& o!t e5("i+it"y* The +o##es(on&in$ s(he#es o/ #e"i$io!s +ti%ity /o# Tibetn !&&hism +n be &es+#ibe& s /o""os) r# ragmati%# The #e"m o/ this0o#"&"y +on+e#ns +on+ei%e& o/ in te#ms o/ inte#+tions ith "o+" $o&s n& s(i#its n& +##ie& o!t by %#iety o/ #it!" (#+titione#s /o#emost mon$ them bein$ the "ms ho em("oy the te+hniC!es o/ Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e /o# this (!#(ose <# 'armaoriented# The s(he#e o/ ð n& #ebi#th (st n& /!t!#e "i%es $in
seen in te#ms o/ ,#m n& the i&eo"o$y o/ me#it n& me&ite& by !&&hist mon,s n& "ms* This is the (#im#y #e"m o/ +"e#i+" !&&hism 2# Bodhioriented# The (!#s!it o/ En"i$htenment he#e seen s h%in$
st#on$"y so+i" o# "t#!isti+ +om(onent n& +##ie& o!t th#o!$h Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e* The#e is some sim("i/i+tion he#e sin+e shmni+ !&&hism is "so in%o"%e& in s(he#e : th#o!$h the essenti""y Tnt#i+ (#o+ess o/ !-o*a o# &i#e+t t#ns/e#en+e o/ +ons+io!sness t the time o/ ð to P!#e Ln& s!+h s De+hen =S,t* S!,h%ti>* The#e #e "so nontnt#i+ metho&s in%o"%e& in s(he#e 3 s!+h s the so0 +""e& S]t# Mhm!&# 'IILIED SHAMANS system n& the D2o$+hen (#+ti+es* These +om("i+tions hoe%e# &o nothin$ to e,en the +ent#" ("+e in the system o/ shmni+ !&&hism hi+h is &ominnt in s(he#es I n& 3 n& st#on$"y (#esent th#o!$h the (o (#+ti+es in s(he#e :* No# &oes it e,en the (osition o/ the "ms ho #e "so the (#ime !tho#ities /o# St# Mhm!&# n& D2o$+hen* The#e #e mny ys o/ be+omin$ "m n& mny ys o/ (!#s!in$ the +#ee# o/ "m* I s,et+h some o/ these in 'h(te#s # 6 n& 17* An im(o#tnt (oint is tht the#e #e on"y "imite& &e$#ees o/ (#es+#i(tion n& #e$!"tion in #e"tion to the #o"e o/ "m* Some "ms be+ome "ms th#o!$h /o#m" n& #tion" =+"e#i+"> +#ite#i hi"e othe#s t,e "ess +on%ention" #o!tes to thei# (osition* Some #e bo#n into "m /mi"ies hi"e othe#s the #ein+#nte b "ms o# trul.u #e ((ointe& by bein$ #e+o$ni2e& s the #ebi#th o/ (#e%io!s "m* Some men n& /e omen sim("y
+C!i#e /o""oin$ s #es!"t o/ thei# (e#son" #e(!ttion /o# s(i#it!" &e%e"o(ment n& so be+ome "ms* As+#i(tion o/ "m stt!s my in%o"%e no mo#e thn the #e+o$nition o/ tht (e#son s "m by $#o!( o/ (eo("e* This /"!i&ity hs been (#t o/ Tibetn !&&hism /#om its e#"y st$es n& it #emins (#t o/ the +ontem(o##y sit!tion* It is e5em("i/ie& in 'h(te# 1 th#o!$h ++o!nts o/ the "i%es o/ ei$ht mo&e#n "ms* A"" this s!$$ests tht the Sm$h in Tibetn so+ieties is /# "ess &omesti+te& in Tmbihs (h#se thn in +ontem(o##y The#%&in +o!nt#ies o# thn it seems to h%e been in The#%&in so+ieties in #e+ent +ent!#ies* Inste& o/ bein$ +ent#"i2e& o#$ni2tion o/ mon,s !n&e# stte +ont#o" the Sm$h +onsists o/ n!mbe# o/ !tonomo!s #e"i$io!s o#&e#s on"y (#t"y +om(ose& o/ +e"ibte mon,s n& bse& #o!n& %#io!s "#$e te+hin$ +ente#s n& thei# sso+ite& "ms* In ("+e o/ the The#%&in monste#y (vih"ra, *at, et+*> e /in& the Tibetn $om(* This +n be nythin$ /#om sm"" %i""$e tem("e he#e "o+" "y (#+titione#s &o o++sion" #it!"s to si2eb"e monsti+ ton +ontinin$ tem("es +o""e$es n& #esi&enti" h""s /o# mon,s* Most o/ the "#$e# gom!a #e +ente#e& #o!n& one o# mo#e se#ies o/ #ein+#nte "ms* S!+h #ebi#th0se#ies +onsists o/ s!++ession o/ "ms e+h #e+o$ni2e& s the #ebi#th o/ the (#e%io!s membe# o/ the se#ies* These #ebi#th0se#ies h%e thei# on ho!seho"&s o# labrang, (sse& on /#om one #ebi#th to the ne5t n& !s!""y C!ite &istin+t /#om the gom!a-s on e+onomy* oth the "ms ho!seho"& n& the gom!a TIETAN AND THERAADIN SO'IETIES +n on (#o(e#ty n& in Tibetn so+ieties the one#shi( o/ (#o(e#ty "so $ene#""y im("ies the e5e#+ise o/ (o"iti+" (oe#* In the +o!#se o/ Tibetn histo#y he#e&it#y "ine$es o# es(e+i""y in the "te# (e#io& #ebi#th0se#ies o/ "ms o/ten $ine& &e$#ee o/ (o"iti+" +ont#o" o%e# "#$e #es eithe# in sso+ition ith "o+" #isto+#ti+ "e&e#s o# on thei# on* This s so (#ti+!"#"y in the +ent#" $#i+!"t!#" #e$ions he#e so+iety h& "on$ been mo#e st#ti/ie& n& +ontine& mo#e e"ements o/ stte o#$ni2tion* The best0,non e5m("e o/ s!+h #e$ime s tht o/ the D"i Lms /#om the se%enteenth to tentieth +ent!#ies ith its +(it" t Lhs b!t the#e e#e mny othe#s o/ sm""e# s+"e o# &!#tion* The &e$#ee o/ +ont#o" e5e#+ise& by s!+h #Q$imes s "imite& in +om(#ison ith the $"+ti+ (o"ities o/ So!thest Asi n& mny (#ts o/ Tibet e#e in e//e+t o!tsi&e ny s!+h +ent#"i2e& +ont#o"* In this #es(e+t I /in& &es+#i(tions o/ (#emo&e#n Tibet s +ent#"i2e& stte !n&e# the #!"e o/ theo+#ti+ $o%e#nment t Lhs !n+on%in+in$* 9 The (o"iti+" system s /# mo#e +om("e5 thn s!+h &es+#i(tion o!"& ""o* P#t One o/ this boo, ='h(te#s 3 to > ttem(ts to (#esent mo#e b"n+e& (i+t!#e* It is im(o#tnt to noti+e hoe%e# tht s!+h (o"iti+" ((#t!s s s (#esent s &ominte& n& in&ee& in "#$e mes!#e +onstit!te& by the #e"i$io!s o#&e#s* This s the #e%e#se o/
the sit!tion in The#%&in +o!nt#ies* Attem(ts to &omesti+te the Sm$h o++!##e& /#om time to time in Tibetn histo#y s i"" be seen /#om the histo#i+" ++o!nt in 'h(te#s :3 to : b!t they ne%e# h& mo#e thn "imite& s!++ess* SHAMANI' POWER AND THE STATE The "+, o/ s!++ess in &omesti+tin$ the Sm$h in Tibet is (e#h(s not s!#(#isin$ $i%en the "imite& nt!#e o/ +ent#"i2e& (o"iti+" +ont#o" in Tibetn so+ieties* This &oes not in itse"/ hoe%e# e5("in hy the !n&omesti+te& Sm$h too, the /o#m it &i& ith st#on$ "enin$s to#&s the shmni+ n& Tnt#i+* Ne%e#the"ess it seems to h%e been t#!e ithin Tibetn so+ieties tht shmni+ !&&hism s t its most e//e+ti%e in #e$ions n& t times he#e the so+i" st#!+t!#e s #e"ti%e"y stte"ess) Re"i$io!s "e&e#shi( ithin shmni+ !&&hism h& /#ee0/"otin$ n& +h#ismti+ C!"ity &e#i%in$ /#om the (e#son" 'IILIED SHAMANS (o e# o/ ( #t i+!"# "m n & #e&i "y t# ns /e #b "e int o the $e ne # " (o" it i+ " # en * '" e# i+ " !& &hism by +o nt#st s ! && his m o/ #!"es #e$!"tions n& instit!tions* It s most t home in the +onte5t o/ stte ith +ent#"i2e& $o%e#nment o# t "est o/ "#$e monsti+ gom!a ith estb"ishe& (#o(e#ty n& (o"iti+" (oe# +ontin!in$ o%e# mny $ene#tions* Wht is it s(e+i/i+""y bo!t the to /o#ms o/ !&&hism tht e5("ins thei# sso+ition ith these +ont#stin$ so+i" n& (o"iti+" +onte5ts He#e I sh"" $i%e on"y b#ie/ nse# sin+e t this st$e I h%e int#o&!+e& neithe# the &es+#i(ti%e mte#i" no# the n"yti+ +on+e(ts ne+ess#y to !n&e#stn& these (#o+esses mo#e /!""y* In b#ie/ tho!$h I see the &i//e#en+e s +onne+te& ith the y in hi+h Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e "e$itimtes n !tonomo!s #o"e /o# the (#+titione#* The essenti" (oint is tht in shmni+ !&&hism (#+titione# +n #e"te &i#e+t"y to the so!#+es o/ (oe# n& !tho#ity by +ont+tin$ the Tnt#i+ &eities n& othe# +ent#" +!"t!#e0he#oes* On+e the (#+titione# be+omes " m this &i#e+t +ont+t i th (oe# "e$iti mtes so+i" #o"e tht +n s esi"y e5ten& into the (o"iti+" s(he#e s into the #e"i$io!s* In the +"e#i+" %e#sion by +ont#st the (#+titione# ((#o+hes !tho#ity m!+h mo#e $#&!""y n& in&i#e+t"y th#o!$h the boo,s n& the estb"ishe& t#&i tions o/ inte#(#ettion by hi+h those boo,s h%e to be #e&* This is stte& C!ite e5("i+it"y in #e"tion to the +"ssi/i+tion o/ Tnt#i+ metho&s into /o!# =/o# the Nyin$m( t#&ition si5> "e%e"s* A e""0,non t#&ition sttes tht on the "oest "e%e" =.#iy> the (#+titione#s #e"tionshi( ith the Tnt#i+ $o& o# yidam =S,t* istadevatd) is s se#%nt to "o#& on the ne5t "e%e" ='#y> the #e"tionshi( is tht o/ /#ien& to /#ien& hi"e on the hi$he# "e%e"s the #e"tionshi( is no "on$e# &!"isti+ n& the
(#+ti ti one# be+omes i&enti+" i th the Tnt#i+ &eity*^ The im("i+tions o/ be+omin$ i&enti+" ith Tnt#i+ &eity i"" eme#$e in the +o!#se o/ P#t To* Fo# the (#esent it is not &i//i+!"t to ((#e+ite tht s!+h (#o+e&!#e ("+es the so!#+e o/ !tho#ity /i#m"y ithin the "ms on $#s( hi"e "ys "e%in$ o(en the (ossibi"ity /o# someone e"se to +C!i#e the stt!s o/ "m n& to be+ome in t!#n the /o+!s o/ (o(!"# esteem* S(e,in$ in te#ms o/ i&e" ty(es (!#e"y shmni+ "m hs bot h / # mo#e !tho#ity thn nyone in (!#e"y +"e#i+" #e"i$io!s system =sin+e he +n in e//e+t #e#ite the #!"es> n& /# "ess se+!#ity =sin+e his (osition is "ys o(en to +h""en$e by TIETAN AND THERAADIN SO'IETIES mo#e s!++ess/!" "m>* To the e5tent tht the (osition o/ the "m be+omes +"e#i+" i2e& this sit!tion is mo&i/ie&) it is h#&e# /o# "m to int#o&!+e mJo# +hn$es o# to +h""en$e the st#!+t!#es o/ !tho#ity b!t /o#m" o#$ni2tion" st#!+t!#e (#o%i&es him ith mo#e se+!#ity* 'e#tin"y the Tibetn t#&ition is +"e# bo!t the (#o(e# #e"tion0 shi( beteen shmni+ !&&hist "ms n& se+!"# #!"e#s* The (oint is net"y m&e in the t#&ition" &es+#i(tions o/ the /i#st meetin$ be 0 teen G!#! Rim(o+he ho is the (#ototy(e o/ the shmni+ "m n& the #e%e#e& !&&hist ,in$ T#ison$ De!tsen* Rthe# thn the "m (#ost#tin$ to the ,in$ the ,in$ is /o#+e& by G!#! Rim(o+hes $#et (oe# to (#ost#te to the "m =Do!$"s n& ys 19@ %o"* : 3@7033>* Tht this0o#"&"y (oe# is sso+ite& ith the ttinment o/ hi$he# "e%e"s on the !&&hist s(i#it!" (th is im("i+it ithin the +"e#i+" %e#sion o/ Tibetn !&&hism n& e%en s Tmbih hs &emonst#te& ithin &omesti+te& The#%& !&&hism =Tmbih 19;>* A"" t#&itions o/ !&&hism #e+o$ni2e the m$i+" (oe#s in%o"%e& in the ttinment o/ !&&hhoo&* In (#+ti+e hoe%e# in the +"e#i+" n& &omesti+te& %#ieties o/ !&&hism s!+h ttinment is seen t best s somethin$ tht my h((en in the &istnt /!t!#e* In Tnt# by +ont#st (#+titione#s +#ete& the &i%ine /o#m to be ttine& &i#e+t"y th#o!$h thei# im$intion* This (# o+ess s be"i e%e& on +e it h& been mst e# e& to enb"e them to e5e# +i se in #e"ity the (oe#s sso+ite& ith the &i%ine /o#ms they e#e ss!min$* This is (#t o/ ht the Tibetns men hen they sy tht one o/ the +h#+te#i sti+ /et!#es o/ Tnt#i+ te+hniC!es is tht the #es!"t be+omes (#t o/ the (th* Ly Tibetns #e not ne+ess#i"y ,no"e&$eb"e bo!t the &eti"e& (#o+esses o/ Tnt#i+ me&ittion* Mny h%e t "est s!(e#/i+i" +C!intn+e ith Tnt#i+ (#o+e&!#es hoe%e# n& sto#ies "i,e tht o/ G!#! Rim(o+he n& T#ison$ De!tsen o# o/ the e(i+ he#o Ges# hose %i+to#ies oe mo#e to Tnt#i+ m$i+" (oe# thn to /o#+e o/ #ms =Sm!e" in (#ess b in (#ess
+> #e i&e"y ,non* It is t,en /o# $#nte& tht the (oe# o/ "ms is +om(#b"e to n& in mny +ses $#ete# thn tht o/ se+!"# #!"e#s* As e sh"" see "ms +o!"& n& &i& !se thei# +h#ismti+ (oe# s the bsis /o# the /o#mtion o/ se+!"# #e$imes ith eithe# themse"%es o# "y +hie/tin s #!"e#* The most s!++ess/!" o/ these %ision#y "ms +#eto#s o/ ne #e"i$io!s o#&e#s o# /o!n&e#s o/ ne (o"iti+" st#!+t!#es e#e b"e to t#ns/o#m the 'IILIED SHAMANS sh(e o/ Tibetn #e"i$ion n& so+iety th#o!$h thei# +ti%ities* The#e #e +e#tin"y /i$!#es in Thi o# !#mese histo#y ho h%e ttem(te& to o++!(y simi"# # o"e* In the en& hoe%e# s Tmbih notes = 19;)31903:o> none o/ them e%e# #e""y s!++ee&e&* The im(o#tn+e o/ the +h#ismti+ (oe# o/ the "ms ithin Tibetn so+ieties is "in,e& to the e,ness o/ +ent#"i2e& #e$imes in the Tibetn #e$ion n& P#t One o/ the boo, hi+h be$ins ith 'h(te# 3 e5mines this sit!tion in &eti"* The "ms e#e on"y b"e to o++!(y thei# e5+e(tion" (osition hoe%e# be+!se o/ hi$h"y s(e+i"i2e& t#inin$ tht (#e( # e& them /o# the i# +o mb ine& sh m ni+ n & +"e#i+" #o "e n& be+!se o/ the tot" /#meo#, o/ tho!$ht /ee"in$ n& +tion hi+h s!((o#te& thei# #o" e* These iss!es /o#m the s!bJe+t mtte# o/ P#ts To n& Th#ee o/ the boo,*
P#t One
3 Tibetn So+ieties) Int#o&!+tion n& 'ent#" Tibet
I h%e s!$$este& in the (#e%io!s to +h(te#s tht the /o#ms t,en by !&&hism in Tibetn so+ieties nee& to be !n&e#stoo& in te#ms o/ the s(e+i/i+ +h#+te#isti+s o/ those so+ieties* In (#ti+!"# the shmni+ s(e+ts o/ Tibetn !&&hism on"y m,e sense in te#ms o/ the #e"ti%e"y stte"ess nt!#e o/ most Tibetn so+ieties !( to n& into the (#emo&e#n (e#io&* As I (ointe& o!t t the st#t o/ 'h(te# i the !se o/ the ("!#" /o#m /o# so+ieties is &e"ibe#te* P#emo&e#n Tibet +ontine& $#ete# %#iety o/ so+i" n& (o"iti+" /o#mtions thn is o/ten ((#e+ite& =M( # >* 1 'e#tin"y it m,es "itt"e sense to thin, o/ Tibet s st#on$"y +ent#"i2e& stte #!"e& by theo+#ti+ $o%e#nment t Lhs "tho!$h this +#i+t!#e is sti"" C!ite i&e"y be"ie%e& in (#ti+!"#"y mon$ nonTibetnists =see 'h(te# >* The D"i Lms #e$ime t Lhs s on"y one i/ in #e+ent times the "#$est o/ %#iety o/ stte /o#mtions ithin the Tibetn #e$ion* This %#iety o/ (o"iti+" /o#ms n& the $ene#" %!"ne#bi"ity n& /#$i"ity o/ +ent#"i2e& (oe# o/ ny ,in& th#o!$h most o/ Tibetn histo#y #e %it" e"ements /o# !n&e#stn&in$ the nt!#e o/ Tibetn #e"i$ion* TIETAN SO'IETIES) INTRODU'TION AND 'ENTRAL TIET 'h(te#s 3 to 7 (#esent the mJo# #e$ions o/ Tibetn (o(!"tion* Fo# e+h #e$ion I sh"" &es+#ibe the %#io!s (o"iti+" st#!+t!#es n& $i%e n o!t"ine o/ thei# histo#y* In 'h(te# @ I "oo, t the ,in&s o/ "o+" +omm!nities =$#i+!"t!#" (sto#" n& !#bn> tht e5iste& ithin these #e$ions in the (#emo&e#n (e#io&* 'h(te# "so (#esents some $ene#" +on+"!sions bo!t (#emo&e#n Tibetn so+ieties +on+"! sions tht /o#m the b+,$#o!n& /o# the &is+!ssion o/ Tibetn #e"i$ion in P#ts To n& Th#ee o/ the boo,* Tibetn so+ieties n& Tibetn #e"i$ion h%e been in (#o+ess o/
+ontin!o!s +hn$e /o# s /# b+, s e +n t#+e* The#e s no s!+h thin$ s stti+ so+iety in Tibet in the (#emo&e#n (e#io& n& the nineteenth n& tentieth +ent!#ies e#e (e#io&s o/ (#ti+!"#"y #(i& +hn$e in mny #es(e+ts* 'onseC!ent"y both in the s!#%ey e #e no !n&e#t,in$ n& in the ++o!nt o/ Tibetn #e"i$ion in P#t To ='h(te#s 9 to i > e #e &e"in$ ith so+i" n& #e"i$io!s /ie"& tht s +ontin!""y t#ns/o#min$* This (#o+ess o/ t#ns/o#mtion o#,e& &i//e#ent"y in the %#io!s #e$ions n& so+i" n& #e"i$io!s /o#ms be"on$in$ to the (st in some #es e#e sti"" #e+o$ni2b"y (#esent in othe#s into the e#"y tentieth +ent!#y* In &&ition ny (i+t!#e o/ Tibetn so+iety o# Tibetn #e"i$ion hs to &e(en& on so!#+es o/ in/o#mtion o/ %#yin$ C!"ity n& &te /o# &i//e#ent s(e+ts o/ the o%e#"" (i+t!#e* We #e m!+h bette# in/o#me& /o# e5m("e bo!t the so+i" st#!+t!#e o/ Tibetn (o(!"tions in no#the#n Ne(" he#e the#e hs been s!bstnti" mo!nt o/ mo&e#n nth#o(o"o$i+" #ese#+h thn bo!t (o(!"tions in . m o# Am&o he#e o!# min so!#+es #e #e (o#ts by e#" y t#%e"e#s the ++o!nts o/ +ontem(o##y #e/!$ees n& s!+h in/o#mtion s +n be $the#e& /#om Tibetn "ite##y so!#+es* 3 It is sti"" (ossib"e hoe%e# to (#esent n o%e#"" %ie o/ Tibetn so+ieties s they e#e in #e+ent times* ASI' 'ONSTITUENTS OF THE TIETAN E'ONOM The#e e#e to (#im#y mo&es o/ s!bsisten+e in (#emo&e#n Tibet (sto#"ism n& $#i +!"t !#e* Most o/ the Tib etn (o(!"tion e#e $ 0 #i+!"t!#"ists (shing!a)# Some =+""e& samadrog) mintine& he#&s o/ nim"s "on$si&e n $#i+!"t!#" bse* The (sto#"ists (#o(e# (drog!a) e#e s!bstnti" mino#ity* They e#e /o!n& th#o!$ho!t the #e$ion* In some #es s!+h s the no#the#n !("n&s ='hn$tn$> o# the so!th
'IILIED SHAMANS n& est o/ Am&o "most the enti#e (o(!"tion s =n& sti"" is> m&e !( o/ (sto#"ists* The drog!a #e &istin+ti%e in &i"e+t &#ess n& +!"t!#" sty"e "tho !$h /!"" y in te$# te& into the $ ene#" e+ono mi+ n& +!"t!#" system o/ the Tibetn ("te! =see E,%"" 1967>* Psto#"ism in Tibet is bse& on +tt"e in+"!&in$ y,s n& y,0+o
hyb#i&s "on$ ith ho#ses shee( n& $ots =see Dons n& E,%"" 1976>* A$#i+!"t!#e in the (#emo&e#n (e#io& in%o"%e& %#iety o/ $#ins n& %e$etb"es ith the "tit!&e0to"e#nt b#"ey s the most i&es(#e& bsi+ $#in* In #e+ent ye#s the (otto hs be+ome mJo# s!bsisten+e +#o( /o# some Tibetn +omm!nities in the Him"ys =/o# e5m("e the She#(s> b!t in the (#emo&e#n (e#io& it h& not yet h& s!bstnti" im(+t on most Tibetn (o(!"tions* Psto#"ists n& $#i+!"t!#"ists h%e "ys been m!t!""y &e(en&ent* The st("e /oo& o/ Tibet #oste& b#"ey0/"o!# moistene& ith b!tte#e& te in+"!&es both (sto#" n& $#i+!"t!#" (#o&!+ts* It "so in%o"%es s"t hi+h is (#o&!+e& in Tibet by the (sto #"ists n& s in the (#emo&e#n (e#io& one o/ the #e$ions min e5(o#ts to In&i n& te hi+h s im(o#te& "on$ "on$0&istn+e t#&e #o!tes by y,0+#%ns /#om 'hin* T#%e" th#o!$h the Tibetn #e$ion in the (#emo&e#n (e#io& s s"o n& #&!o!s* A"on$ ith the Tibetn mo&e o/ s!bsisten+e the shee# (hysi+" nt!#e o/ the Tibetn "n&s+(e hs h& st#on$ in/"! en+e on the nt!#e o/ Tibetn (o"ities* As is e"" ,non the Tibetn (o(!"tion "i%es t mon$ the hi$hest "tit!&es o/ ny h!mn (o(!"tions* The hi$hest (e#mnent Ti betn sett"ements #e t #o!n& ;88 80;68 8 me te#s hi" e the "oe# "imit o/ the Tibetn +!"t!#" &(ttion is t #o!n& :8880:;88 mete#s i n the Ne(" Him"y n& t simi"# "tit!&es in est n& no#thest Tibet* The hi$h "tit!&es the &#mti+ nt!#e o/ the "n&/o#ms n& the /#eC!ent"y t#e+he# o!s +"i mte m&e t#%e" #o!n& Tibet s"o &i//i+!"t n& o/ten &n$e#o!s* Tibetns ne%e#the"ess t#%e"e& e5tensi%e"y /o# (!#(oses o/ t#&e n& #e"i$ion =the to e#e /#eC!ent"y +ombine&>* The im(o#tn+e o/ "on$0 &istn+e t#&e ithin the #e$ion in the (#emo&e#n (e#io& s s!+h tht it sho!"& (e#h(s be +o!nte& s mo&e o/ s!bsisten+e in its on #i$ht* The "on$0&istn+e t#&in$ Jo!#neys in hi+h mny Tibetns e#e in%o"%e& #es!"te& in +ontin!in$ +ont+t mon$ the %#io!s Tibetn (o(!"tions &es(ite thei# bein$ &ist#ib!te& o%e# %st #e ithin hi+h +omm!ni+tions e#e mo#e thn o#&in#i"y &i//i+!"t* TIETAN SO'IETIES) INTRODU'TION AND 'ENTRAL TIET These t#&in$ Jo!#neys "so ,e(t the Tibetns in +"ose +ont+t ith the %#io!s othe# ethni+ $#o!(s to thei# est so!th n& est* Lin,s mon$ the /#0/"!n$ (o(!"tions o/ Tibet e#e "so mintine& in the (#emo&e#n (e#io& by the e5tensi%e (#+ti+e o/ (i"$#i m$e n& by the #e$!"# Jo!#neys o/ Tibetn mon,s /#om o!t"yin$ #e$ions to st!&y in the "#$e te+hin$ gom!a o/ +ent#" n& este#n Tibet* This is (e#h(s one #eson /o# the m#,e& +ont#st tht e5ists beteen the #e"ti%e +!"t!#" !nity o/ the Tibetn ("te! n& the hi$h &e$#e e o/ ethni + &i%e#sity /o!n& in the !("n&s o/ !nnn !#m Los n& Thi"n& to
the so!th* Tibet s b!i"t on "on$0&istn+e t#&e* At the sme time the e5isten+e o/ mJo# "on$0&istn+e t#&e #o!tes +#ete& &i//e#entition beteen (o(!"tions tht e#e +"ose to s!+h #o!tes n& those tht e#e not* A$#i+!"t!#e in most o/ Tibet s =n& sti"" is> +on/ine& to #i%e# %""eys* Mny o/ these %""eys #e C!ite sm"" +ontinin$ on"y /e %i""$es e+h* T#%e"in$ /#om one %""ey to the ne5t in the (#emo&e#n (e#io& +o!"& in%o"%e n #&!o!s t#%e#se by /oot o# ith (+,0nim"s o%e# hi$h mo!ntin (sses he#e the t#%e""e# s e5(ose& to the e5 t#emities o/ the Tibetn +"imte* In the mo#e o(en (sto#" #e$ions the th#et o/ bn&it tt+,s o/ten m&e t#%e" #is,y* In mny (#ts o/ Tibet t#%e" s im(ossib"e &!#in$ +e#tin (e# io &s o/ the ye# n & +omm!nities e#e iso"te& /o# the inte# months* On"y "on$ /e mJo# #i%e#s #e the#e "#$e# t#+ts o/ #b"e "n& n& these #es h%e +onseC!ent"y been o/ $#et im(o#tn+e in Tibetn histo#y* 'hie/ mon$ them #e the he#t"n&s o/ the to +ent#" Tibetn (#o%in+es o/ U n& Tsn$ m&e !( o/ the #b"e "n&s "on$ the Tsn$ Ri%e# n& some o/ its mJo# t#ib!t#ies* Othe# mJo# $#i+!"t!#" #es #e "on$ the "oe# (#ts o/ the /o!# min #i%e# %""eys o/ .m the este#n (#o%in+e o/ Tibet n& "on$ the este#n bo#&e#s o/ the no#theste#n #e$ion o/ Am&o* The mJo# "on$0&istn+e t#&e #o!tes nt!#""y ten&e& to #!n beteen these mo#e (o(!"o!s #e$ions h e# e th e# e e# e me &i !m 0si2 e& to ns s!+h s Lhs GyntsQ Shi$tsQ Leh .n$&in$ o# .n&2Q ith me#+hnt n& #tisn +omm!nities s e"" s "o+" (o"iti+" !tho#ities ho +o!"& he"( ens!#e the se+!#ity o/ t#&e#s* The +ont#st beteen these #e"ti%e"y (#os(e#o!s n& (#o&!+ti%e $#i+!"t!#" #es ith &i#e+t ++ess to "on$0&istn+e t#&e #o!tes the mo#e m#$in" $#i+!"t!#" #es y /#om the +ent#" #e$ions n& 'IILIED SHAMANS those #es hi+h s!((o#t on"y (sto#"ism is s e i"" see bsi+ /+to# ithin Tibetn so+iety* Si$ni/i+nt Tibetn (o"iti+" !nits h%e "ys been +ente#e& ithin mJo# $#i+!"t!#" #es hi+h (#o%i&e t5 bse to s!((o#t the stte ((#t!s hi"e the m#$in" $#i+!"t!#" #es n& the (sto#" #e$ions h%e ne%e# been mo#e thn (#ti""y in+o#(o#te& into Tibetn sttes* Hoe%e# shi/ts in the (tte#n o/ t#&e s e"" s (#obb"e "on$0 te#m shi/ts in the +"imte n& e+o"o$y h%e ment tht #es tht e#e t one time #e"ti%e"y +ent#" s!+h s the #e$ion so!th n& est o/ Mo!nt .i"sh "te# be+me m!+h mo#e m#$in"* A NOTE ON TIETAN POPULATION The#e #e no #e"ib"e (o(!"tion estimtes /o# the (#emo&e#n (e#io& b!t the 19: 'hinese +ens!s /i$!#es $i%e &eti"e& b#e,&on o/ the Tibetn
(o(!"tion /o# tht &te* Th ese /i$!#es #e (#esente& &i $#mmti+""y in #e+ent o!ulation $t las of China =Li 'hen$#!i 19@):7 33>* Ass!min$ tht they #e #e"ib"e ; e +n estimte the (#esent Tibetn (o(!"tion o/ +ent#" Tibet i*e* the (#e/ e+t!#es o/ Lhs 'ity _i$2` =Shi$tsQ> Shnnn =Lho,> n& N$C! =N$+h!> s bo!t 1*:6 mi""ion =see M( :>* This +o##es(on&s to +onsi&e#b"y "#$e# #e thn tht o/ t#& ition" +ent#" Tibet o# U0 Tsn$* We +n estimte the Tibetn (o(!"tion o/ .m in+"!&in$ the ?m&o ='hm&o> (#e/e+t!#e o/ the Tibet A!tonomo!s Re$ion s bo!t 1*63 mi""ion 6 n& o/ Am&o s bo!t i*o6 mi""ion* 7 The #es o/ este#n Tibet ithin the Tibet A!tonomo!s Re$ion &ministe#e& s the (#e/e+t !#e o/ A" i =N$#i> h%e Tibetn (o(!"tion o/ bo!t 66888* A"to$ethe# this m,es tot" o/ 3*@ mi""ion Tibetns "i%in$ ithin the Peo("es Re(!b"i+ o/ 'hin ++o#&in$ to the 19: +ens!s* The Tibet A!tonomo!s Re$ion +o##es(on&s ((#o5imte"y to the (#emo&e#n Tibetn stte $o%e#ne& /#om Lhs* Its Tibetn (o(!" tion ++o#&in$ to the 19: +ens!s /i$!#es is #o!n& 1*@9 mi""ion* As +n be seen this is "ess thn h"/ o/ the tot" Tibetn (o(!"tion o/ the 'hinese Peo("es Re(!b"i+ ith the #emin&e# "i%in$ in t#&ition""y Tibetn #es tht h%e been in+o#(o#te& into the (#o%in+es o/ Si+h!n ?in$hi Gns! n& !nnn =the so0+""e& Inne# Tibet o/ the 191; Sim" 'on%ention>* This sho!"& be em(hsi2e& be+!se se%0
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'IILIED SHAMANS e#" !tho#s =/o# e5m("e Go"&stein 199> !se Tibet to #e/e# to the (#emo&e#n Lhs stte n& its mo&e#n eC!i%"ent the Tib et A!tono mo!s Re$ion* It is &i//i+!"t to J!&$e ho m!+h these /i$!#es /o# +ent#" Tibet .m n& Am&o h%e been //e+te& by the (e#io& o/ 'hinese #!"e /#om 196o on#&s* Mny (eo("e !n&o!bte&"y &ie& eithe# in +ombt ith the 'hinese th#o!$h i""0t#etment in (#isons n& +m(s o# s #es!"t o/ the i&es(#e& /mines o/ the e#"y 197os +onseC!ent to 'hinese $#i+!"t!#" #e/o#ms* The D"i Lms Se+#et#it in In&i hs (!b"ishe& estimtes tht I*: mi""ion Tibetns &ie& s #es!"t o/ 'hinese #!"e =Tibetn Revie*, M#+h 1 9 ; (* @> ; : @;@ in +ent#" Tibet ;8:71 in .m n& :997; in Am&o* The mJo#ity o/ these #e "iste& s ,i""e& in /i$htin$ o# s &yin$ s #es!"t o/ /mine* The#e #e "so s!bstnti" n!mbe#s o/ ðs in (#ison th#o!$h to#t!#e n& th#o!$h e5e+!tion s e"" s 9888 s!i+i&es* Whi"e the#e my be some e5$$e#tion n& &!("i+tion in these /i$!#es they #e it is no +"e# o/ the #i$ht o#&e# o/ m$nit!&e* T he e5 o& !s o / # e/ !$e es i n n& / te # 19 6 9 m!st "so h%e h& s!bstnti" &emo$#(hi+ im(+t (#ti+!"#"y on #es s!+h s Din$#i n& .yi#on$ +"ose to the Ne("ese n& In&in bo#&e#s* The tot" n!mbe# o/ #e/!$ees ho "e/t Tibet s #o!n& @888o* Most o/ them sett"e& in In&i n& Ne(" he#e thei# (o(!"tion hs sin+e $#on to #o!n& Ioo888* The +!"t!#""y Tibetn +om(onent o/ the (o(!"tion o/ h!tn s beteen o*6 n& o* mi "" io n in th e 19 7os =s ee .#n 197@ >* The %#i o!s Tibetn0s(e,in$ #e$ions o/ no#the#n In&i =Si,,im Lh!" L&,h et+*> n& o/ Ne(" o!"& h%e &&e& (e#h(s nothe# :88888 (eo("e to the tot" Tibetn (o(!"tion t tht time* e+!se the#e #e mny (#t"y Tibetni2e& t#ib" (o(!"tions "on$ the e&$es o/ the Tibetn #e$ion s!+h s the Mon Le(+h ?in$ o# N5i the C!estion o/ e5+t"y ho is Tibetn +n be #bit##y* A "#$e (#t o/ the +!"t!#""y Tibetn (o(!"tion o/ h!tn /o# e5m("e s(e,s "n$!$es not m!t!""y inte""i$ib"e ith Tibetn =see A#is 19@9)5i%K5%iii Ime& n& Pomm#et 199o>* These /i$!#es hoe%e# s!$$est tot" Tibetn (o(!"tion in 19: in+"!&in$ the #e/!$ees o/ #o!n& ;*@ to 6 mi""ion* Fo# note on the monsti+ (o(!"tion o/ Tibet hi+h I be"i e%e hs been s!bstnti""y e5$$e#te& see A((en&i5 i* TIETAN SO'IETIES) INTRODU'TION AND 'ENTRAL TIET 'ENTRAL TIET) GENERAL DES'RIPTION The #emin&e# o/ this +h(te# is +on+e#ne& ith +ent#" Tibet =see M( 3> n& ith the D"i Lms $o%e#nment t Lhs hi+h /#om 17;: to 1 96 9 in+"!&e& "" o/ this #e$ion s e"" s (#ts o/ este#n Tibet =N$#i> n& .m* The Lhs $o%e#nment s ,non s the Gn&en Po&#n$ =T!sit
P"+e> o# "ess /o#m""y s the De( Sh!n$ ='ent#"V R!"e#s Go%e#nment>* It s +"ose"y "in,e& to the Ge"!$( #e"i$io!s o#&e# o/ hi+h the D"i Lm hi"e not the tit!"# he& is the most senio# in+#nte "m* The th#ee "#$e Ge"!$( gom!a o/ Gn&en D#e(!n$ n& Se# "" +"ose to Lhs h%e ("ye& n im(o#tnt #o"e in the histo#y o/ the Lhs $o%e#nment* At the +ente# o/ the Lhs stte e#e the to (#o%in+es o/ U n& Tsn$ both +ontinin$ i&e n& /e#ti"e $#i+!"t!#" %""eys "on$ the Tsn$ Ri%e# =#hm(!t#> n& its t#ib!t#ies* The #e$ions o/ Lho, Lho&#$ n& D$(o to the so!th n& .on$(o to the est "tho!$h &istin$!ishe& by Tibetns /#om the to +ent#" (#o%in+es o/ a n& Tsn$ #e +!"t!#""y n& histo#i+""y +"ose"y "in,e& to them n& my be +onsi&e#e& (#t o/ +ent#" Tibet* To the no#th "ies the 'hn$tn$ =No#the#n P"in> %st #e inhbite& by (sto#" nom&s n& ith0* o!t (e#mnent sett"ements* The (o( !" tion o/ +e nt#" Tibe t in the 19: +ens!s s #o!n& 1*:6 mi""ion* This s the most +ent#"i2e& #e$ion o/ Tibet in the (#emo&e#n (e#io&* Its so+i" st#!+t!#e t "est in the $#i+!"t!#" he#t"n&s s hi$h"y st#ti/ie& n& +h#+te#i2e& by "#$e esttes one& by #isto +#ti+ /mi"ies gom!a, in&i%i&!" "ms o# the +ent#" $o%e#nment* A$#i+!"t!#" /mi"ies e#e tt+he& to the esttes n& e#e "ib"e /o# e5tensi%e t5 n& +o#%Qe ob"i$tions in e5+hn$e /o# thei# #i$ht to o#, the "n&* This is ht I #e/e# to s the %entralized agri%ultural (tte#n =see 'h(te# @>* U h& one "#$e !#bn +ente# t Lhs in the /"t ("in /o#me& by the .yi& Ri%e# no#the#n t#ib!t#y o/ the Tsn$ Ri%e#* Lhs s the +(it" o/ the Tibetn ,in$s /#om the se%enth to ninth +ent!#ies n& it s the +(it" o/ the D"i Lms /#om the se%enteenth +ent!#y !nti" 1 9 69 * At its +ente# to&y the#e sti"" "ies the -o,n$ tem("e o# Ts!$"$,n$ hi+h ho!ses the /mo!s im$e o/ the !&&h S,ym!ni t#&ition""y b#o!$ht by the 'hinese i/e o/ se%enth0+ent!#y Tibetn ,in$ itho!t &o!bt the most s+#e& tem("e in Tibet
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CIVILIZED SHAMANS
TIETAN SO'IETIES) INTRODU'TION AND 'ENTRAL TIET =t+he"o# 19@)@9 * T#in$ 198>* The #,o# o# inne# (i"$#im$e0+i#+!it ith its h!n&#e&s o/ m#,et0st""s sti"" #!ns #o!n& the -o,n$ n& #o!n& tht #e the s!#%i%in$ #isto+#ti+ #esi&en+es n& me#+hnts ho!ses o/ o"& Lhs =* T#in$ 19;>* The (o(!"tion o/ Lhs in the (#emo&e#n (e#io& s #o!n& moo=> to 38888 (eo("e*9 The D"i Lms (#in+i(" #esi&en+e the Pot" sti"" toe#s bo%e the Lhs ("in t bo!t i*s ,i"omete#s to the est o/ the +ity +ente# hi"e his s!mme#
("+e the No#b! Lin$, "ies nothe# : ,i"omete#s to the est* The th#ee $#et Ge"!$( monsti+ +ente#s o/ Gn&en Se# n& D#e(!n$ the /i#st o/ hi+h s to be tot""y &est#oye& n& the othe#s se#io!s"y &m$e& in the +o!#se o/ the '!"t!#" Re%o"!tion "" "y +"ose to Lhs* The othe# !#bn +ente#s in U s!+h s the Ne!&on$0 Tsetn$ #e "" seem to h%e been m!+h sm""e# thn Lhs* Tsn$ in the mo&e#n (e#io& h& to "#$e !#bn +ente#s t Shi$tsQ =the mo&e#n 'hinese _i$2`> n& GyntsQ ith (o(!"tions o/ #o!n& 18888 to 16888 e+h* Shi$tsQ h& been the +(it" o/ the Tsn$( ,in$s ho #!"e& +ent#" Tibet in the si5teenth n& se%enteenth +ent!#ies* The "#$e Ge"!$( $om( o/ T#shi Lh!n(o set o/ the Pn+hen Rim(o+he /#om the se%enteenth +ent!#y on#&s s sit!te& +"ose to Shi$tsQ* The#e e#e sm""e# !#bn +ente#s t Din$#i Nye"m n& .yi#on$ "on$ the t#&in$ #o!te to Ne(" n& In&i* U n& Tsn$ "so +ontine& most o/ the o#i$in" $om( o/ the othe# #e"i$io!s s+hoo"s =S,y( Nyin$m( .$y&( n(o> "tho!$h ith the $#oth o/ Ge"!$( (oe# in +ent#" Tibet /#om the se%enteenth +ent!#y on#&s these $om( ne& someht in im(o#tn+e in +om(#ison ith the "#$e este#n Tibetn te+hin$ $om( o/ the sme s+hoo"s* 'ENTRAL TIET) HISTOR AND PRESENT SITUATION U the mo#e este#"y o/ the to +ent#" (#o%in+es hs "on$ been t the he#t o/ Tibetn (o"iti+s* It s the bsis o/ the se%enth0 to ninth0+ent!#y Tibetn em(i#e* Its #!"in$ &ynsty o#i$inte& in the #"!n$ ""ey on the so!th si&e o/ the Tsn$ Ri%e# the min #i%e# o/ +ent#" Tibet* Nm#i Lontsen o# Nm#i Son$tsen "o+" #!"e# /#om the #"!n$ ""ey $ine& +ont#o" o/ m!+h o/ +ent#" Tibet in #o!n& A*D* 788 s the "e&e# o/ n ""in+e o/ (etty #!"e#s =.i#,"n& 19: e+,ith ;9 'IILIED SHAMANS 19@)13//>* His son Son$tsen Gm(o =+* 7107;9> +om("ete& the +onC!est o/ the &Joinin$ non0Tibetn ,in$&om o/ Shn$sh!n$ in ht is no este#n Tibet* This ,in$&om o/ Shn$sh!n$ $in (#obb"y +on/e&e#tion o/ "o+" +hie/tins he&e& by the Li$mi &ynsty h& #!"e& m!+h o/ (#esent0&y este#n n& +ent#" Tibet /o# some +ent!#ies* The n #e"i$ion o/ the #oy" (e#io& =se%enth to ninth +ent!#ies> is si& to h%e +ome /#om T$si$ =I#n> %i Shn$sh!n$ n& Shn$sh!n$ is the (#obb"e so!#+e o/ othe# e#"y +om(onents o/ Tibetn +i%i"i2tion =N* No#b! 191 n& see 'h(te# :3*> Son$tsen Gm(o mo%e& his +(it" to Lhs n& b!i"t ("+e on the site he#e the D"i Lms ("+e the Pot" o!"& "te# stn&* He "so ente#e& into n ""in+e ith the 'hinese n& Ne("ese +o!#ts* The "te# t#&ition sso+ite& him ith the int#o&!+tion o/ !&&hism to Tibet b!t it is +"e# both tht the#e h& been (#e%io!s +ont+ts ith !&&hism n& tht the "#$e0s+"e int#o&!+tion o/ !&&hism &i& not t,e ("+e !nti" the "te ei$hth +ent!#y in the time o/ T#ison$ De!tsen* It s &!#in$ the #ei$n o/ T#ison$ De!tsen tht SmyQ the /i#st Tibetn monsti+ $om( s b!i"t on the no#the#n sho#e o/ the Tsn$ Ri%e#* Whi"e U s the o#i$in" +ente# o/ stte (oe# the ne5t "#$e0s+"e #e$ime in Tibet the S,y $o%e#nment inst""e& ith Mon$o" =!n> s!((o#t in the "te thi#teenth +ent!#y s +ente#e& in Tsn$ t the monsti+ $om( o/ S,y* A/te# the +o""(se o/ the S,y #e$ime in the mi&0/o!#teenth +ent!#y it s #e("+e& by the P$mo&#!( &ynsty +ente#e& t Ne!&on$ in U* The ne5t to +ent#" Tibetn sttes e#e +ente#e&
in Tsn$ =t Rim(!n$ n& Shi$tsQ>* Th!s Tsn$ n& U "te#nte& s +ente#s o/ (oe# /#om the se%enth +ent!#y on#&s !nti" the 6th D"i Lms Mon$o" s!((o#te#s &e/ete& n& s!bseC!ent"y ,i""e& the "st o/ the Tsn$( ,in$s o/ Shi$tsQ* The 6th D"i Lm mo%e& the +(it" b+, to the o"& im(e#i" +(it" o/ Lhs b!t Shi$tsQ #emine& n im(o#tnt +ente# o/ (oe# n& the Pn+hen Rim(o+he the #ein+#nte bbot o/ T#shi Lh!n(o monste#y o!tsi&e Shi$tsQ s the most senio# #ein+#nte "m ithin the Ge"!$( o#&e# /te# the D"i Lm himse"/* The D"i Lms #e$ime s #e+o$ni2e& by the Mn+h! =?in$> Em(e#o#s o/ 'hin* Whi"e the 'hinese $o%e#nment #e$#&e& the 6th D"i Lm s s!bo#&inte #!"e# the Tibetns #e$#&e& the #e"tionshi( s #eestb"ishment o/ the (#iest0(t#on #e"tionshi( tht h& TIETAN SO'IETIES) INTRODU'TION AND 'ENTRAL TIET e5iste& beteen the S,y "ms n& the Mon$o" =!n> Em(e#o#s o/ 'hin* The +om("e5 s!bseC!ent histo#y o/ the Lhs stte i"" not be $i%en he#e in ny &eti" "tho!$h some s(e+ts #e s!mm#i2e& in 'h(te# :@ =see "so Ahm& 19@8 Dhon&!( 19; 197 Go"&stein 199 Pete+h 19@3 Ri+h#&son 19; Sh,b( 197@>* The 6th n& 7th D"i Lms #!"e& th#o!$h "y #e$ents o# &esi&* A/te# the &e(osition o/ the 7th D"i Lm by the D2!n$#s n& the inst""tion o/ the @th ith the s!((o#t o/ Mn+h! #my =1@:8> this system s +hn$e& n& +binet o# +o!n+i" o/ ministe#s =,"n> s int#o&!+e&* This +o!n+i" "te# be+me ,non s the ,sh$ n& +ontin!e& to e5ist !nti" 1969* F#om 1@: the Mn+h!s sttione& to o//i+i"s =the Am0bns> n& sm"" $##ison t Lhs* A/te# 1@: e//e+ti%e (oe# in Tibet s in the hn&s o/ one o/ the ministe#s Tsn$ nob"e nme& Po"hnQ !nti" his ð in 1@;@* The @th D"i Lm too, o%e# s /o#m" he& o/ $o%e#nment in 1@61 b!t &ie& in 1@6@* The /i%e /o""oin$ D"i Lms "" &ie& be/o#e o# sho#t"y /te# be+omin$ o"& eno!$h to #!"e* 'onseC!ent"y hi"e the D"i Lm s the o//i+i" he& o/ stte the Lhs $o%e#nment s he&e& by #e$ent =&esi&> /o# "" b!t /e ye#s beteen 1@6@ n& 196* The &esi& s !s!""y #ein+#nte "m /#om one o/ /o!# $om( ithin Lhs +ity* The i3th D"i Lm s the /i#st sin+e 1@6@ to #!"e in his on #i$ht =Go"&stein 19@3>* In 1@01@9: se+on& Mn+h! #my +me to Tibet &!#in$ the G!#,h0Tibetn #* The ?in"on$ em(e#o# #ise& the stt!s o/ the Ambns n& int#o&!+e& system o/ +ont#o" o%e# the ((ointment o/ the D"i Lm n& othe# hi$h #ein+#nte "ms =Lessin$ 19;:)7871 Sh,b( 197@)1@:> hoe%e# ith the &e+"ine o/ the Mn+h! $o%e#nment in 'hin in the nineteenth +ent!#y the Ambns +me to h%e "itt"e e//e+ti%e (oe# t Lhs*18 A #itish mi"it#y e5(e&ition #e+he& Lhs in 19830198; n& im(ose& t#&e $#eement on the Lhs $o%e#nment* The Mn+h!s #es(on&e& ith ne n& mo#e inte#%entionist (o"i+y in 1986 =see S(e#"in$ 19@7 Tei+hmn 19::> +!"mintin$ in the in%sion o/ +ent#" Tibet by Mn+h! #my n& the /"i$ht o/ the 13th D"i Lm to In&i* A/te# the 'hinese #e%o"!tion the #eminin$ 'hinese t#oo(s e#e e5(e""e& /#om +ent#" Tibet n& the #e$ion "on$ ith the (o#tions o/ .m est o/ the n$t2e #emine& enti#e"y in&e(en&ent o/ 'hin !n&e# the +ont#o" o/ the i3th D"i Lm n& his s!++esso#s !nti" 196o* 1 'IILIED SHAMANS TIETAN SO'IETIES) INTRODU'TION AND 'ENTRAL TIET The (e#io& o/ #!"e o/ the i3th D"i Lm is o/ (#ti+!"# si$ni/i+n+e* M!+h o/ o!# in/o#mtion bo!t the Tibetn stte &tes /#om this (e#io& n& s!bseC!ent"y hoe%e# in e%"!tin$ this mte#i" e nee& to be #e tht the i3th D"i Lm h&
emb#,e& in the e#"y 19:os on n mbitio!s n& in the sho#t te#m t "est e//e+ti%e +m(i$n to +#ete mo#e +ent#"i2e& n& (oe#/!" stte =!#mn 19@7>* A n!mbe# o/ e5m("es i"" &emonst#te the nt!#e o/ this +m(i$n) I* The D"i Lms $o%e#nment +#ete& the /i#st Tibetn stn&in$ #my (i& /o# by t5 on "" esttes ithin Tibet* This (#o%o,e& +on/#onttion =see be"o> ith the estte o/ the Pn+hen Rim(o+he hi+h s the most (oe#/!" sin$"e s!b!nit ithin the D"i Lms #e"m* The Lhs $o%e#nment on this +on/#onttion n& the Pn+hen Rim(o+he /"e& to 'hin in 19:3 =Meh# 19@7 Go"&stein 199> The D"i Lms $o%e#nment sent se%e#" yo!n$ men to #itish s+hoo"s to #e+ei%e Weste#n0sty"e e&!+tion n& "so ttem(te& to instit!te Weste#n0ty(e s+hoo" ithin Tibet =see Dhon&!( 19; 197)166017:> In the #e"i$io!s s(he#e the i3th D"i Lm ti$htene& !( +onsi&e#b"y the system o/ monsti+ &e$#ees "e&in$ to senio# &minist#ti%e (osts ithin the Ge"!$( hie##+hy* These (osts e#e /#om no on on"y o(en to mon,s /#om the th#ee mJo# Ge"!$( monsti+ +ente#s ne# Lhs n& not /o# e5m("e to mon,s /#om the Pn+hen Rim(o+hes monsti+ +ente# t T#shi Lh!n(o =She#( 19@@> A$in in the #e"i$io!s s(he#e the "m Pon$, Rim(o+he +tin$ in sso+ition ith the D"i Lm instit!te& +m(i$n to +on%e#t non0Ge"!$( $om( in .m to the Ge"!$( s+hoo" by /o#+e he#e ne+ess#y =see /o# e5m("e eye# 19@3):39 .(stein 199):31 D* ;8>* These inno%tions +ombine& &i#e+t in+#eses in stte (oe# =th#o!$h the instit!tion o/ stn&in$ #my> ttem(ts t mo&e#ni2tion =th#o!$h Weste#n e&!+tion> n& $#ete# +ont#o" o%e# the $om(* The e//e+ts o/ these +hn$es e#e in (#t "ost &!#in$ the to #e$en+ies /o""oin$ the 13th D"i Lms ð in 1933 n& the +onse#%ti%e in/"!en+e on the Lhs #e$ime o/ the "#$e Ge"!$( monsti+ +ente#s s #esse#te&* M!+h o/ o!# mte#i" on the Lhs #e$ime ne%e#the"ess #e/"e+ts the e5+e(tion" st#en$th o/ the Lhs &minist#tion &!#in$ this (e#io&* In 196801961 the #my o/ the Peo("es Re(!b"i+ o/ 'hin in%&e& Tibet n& im(ose& the so0+""e& 1@0Point A$#eement on the Tibetns =Ri+h#&son 19;):980:93>* Resistn+e to 'hinese #!"e be$n in .m n& Am&o $#&!""y s(#e&in$ to +ent#" Tibet* In 1969 the 1;th D"i Lm /o""oe& by bo!t @8888 #e/!$ees /"e& to In&i n& the Tibetn $o%e#nment s &isso"%e&* 'ent#" Tibet "on$ ith este#n .m n& those (#ts o/ este#n Tibet !n&e# 'hinese #!"e no /o#ms the Tibet A!tonomo!s Re$ion o/ the 'hinese Peo("es Re(!b"i+* Anth#o(o"o$i+" #ese#+h ithin +ent#" Tibet hs on"y been (ossib"e /o# Weste#n s+ho"#s sin+e the "te 19os n& !n&e# #est#i+te& +i#+!mstn+es* At the time o/ #itin$ the on"y (!b"ishe& mte#i" is tht /#om Me"%yn Go"&stein n& 'ynthi e""s o#, ith (sto#" (o(!"tion t Ph" _in$ ne# L,e Dn$# =M( 3 no* I Go"&stein n& e"" 197 199 199o Go"&stein 19@>* O!# in/o#mtion on $0 #i+!"t!#" +omm!nities is bse& on o#, ith #e/!$ees* The (#in+i(" st!&ies o/ this ,in& #e #b# A2i2s on Din$#i =no* : A2i2 19@> '* W* 'ssine""i n& Robe#t E,%""s on S,y =no* 3 'ssine""i n& E,%"" 1979> n& Me"%yn Go"&steins n& E% D#$yys o#, both on %i""$es ne# GyntsQ =no* ; Go"&stein 197 19@1 19@1b 19@1+ 19@1& 197 19 D#$yy 19:>* THE LHASA GOERNMENT AND THE DONG SSTEM The Lhs $o%e#nment in+o#(o#te& s!bstnti" (#ts o/ .m in the est n& N$#i in the est s e"" s the ho"e o/ +ent#" Tibet* It s ne%e#the"ess bse& in +ent#" Tibet n& $o%e#ne& /#om +ent#" Tibet n& is the#e/o#e &is+!sse& in this +h(te#* The#e #e ++o!nts o/ the Lhs $o%e#nment by se%e#" #ite#s mon$ the mo#e #e+ent Rm Rh!" =1979> Me"%yn Go"&stein =197 19@1& 19@3 199> M#tin #!en =19@;>
n& F#n2 Mi+he" =19:>* It s st//e& by "y o//i+i"s /#om /mi"ies o/ #isto+#ti+ o# $e#( stt!s n& by mon, o//i+i"s /#om the th#ee $#et Ge"!$( $om( ne# Lhs* The#e s +o""e$e t Lhs mintine& by the Finn+e De(#tment he#e the "y o//i+i"s e#e t#ine& =Rh!" 1979):903o N* Thon&!( 19@7>* O//i+i"s e#e ((ointe& to /o#m" #n,s hi+h #n$e& /#om se%enth !( to /i#st #n, 63 'IILIED SHAMANS the hi$hest bein$ the #n, o/ the /o!# ,"n o# 'binet ministe#s =th#ee "ymen n& mon, in #e+ent times>* The enti#e b!#e!+#+y s C!ite sm""* #!en sys tht in the 19;os the#e e#e bo!t :88 "y o//i+i"s n& :38 mon, o//i+i"s =19@;)13;> hi"e Mi+he" estimtes 6880@88 o//i+i"s in "" =19:)69>* This in+"!&e& the "o+" o//i+i"s ,non s &2on$(n =Go"&stein t#ns"tes this s Dist#i+t 'ommissione#> #es(onsib"e /o# the "o+" &minist#ti%e +ente#s o# &2on$ "on$ ith thei# s!bo#&inte ste#&s n& +"e#,s* The &2on$ e#e !s!""y /o#ti/ie& b!i"&in$s in hi$h ("+es* The#e e#e bo!t 1:8 in #e+ent times =Go"&stein 197 #!en 19@;)1;1>* E+h h& one o# to &2on$(n ((ointe& /o# (e#io& o/ th#ee ye#s* These e#e $ene#""y "ymen b!t in some +ses one s mon, =Rh!" 1979);8>* They e#e o/ /o!#th o# /i/th #n, &e(en&in$ on the im(o#tn+e o/ the &2on$ the most im(o#tnt (ost bein$ tht o/ 'hie/ 'ommissione# o/ Shi$tsQ* In some #es the#e s nothe# o//i+i" senio# to the &2on$(n the #e$ion" $o%e#no# o# +hi,yb* The#e e#e si5 o# se%en o/ these min"y in the o!t"yin$ #es*1: D2on$(n +o!"& sett"e "e$" +ses b#o!$ht to them b!t thei# (#im#y /!n+tion s the +o""e+tion o/ #e%en!e on beh"/ o/ the Lhs $o%e#nment* Most &2on$(n m&e hn&some (#o/it in the +o!#se o/ thei# th#ee0ye# te#m* Rh!" =1979);3> +omments tht) The mo!nt o/ #e%en!e &!e /#om e+h &2on$ s #e+o#&e& in the Fi nn+e De(#tment in Lhs**** A &2on$(n s in /+t +ont#+to# /o# this #e%en!e n& m&e ht (#o/it he +o!"&* His in+ome o!t o/ hi+h he (i& his #e%en!e +onsiste& o/ &!es /#om the (eo("e ithin his J!#is&i+tion (#o+ee&s o/ the /ines im(ose& by him "#$e ##e#s o/ #e%en!e he h& &i%e#te& tem(o##i"y o# othe#ise to his on +o//e#s (#i%te t#&in$ in hi+h he +o!"& +om(e" t#&e#s to se"" $oo&s to him be"o m#,et #tes n& his on estte* Rh!" "so notes tht &2on$(n (#ti+!"#"y those in +h#$e o/ #emote &2on$ e#e %i#t!""y !tonomo!s* They h& h#&"y ny #e"tions ith the Lhs $o%e#nment beyon& sen&in$ the nn!" #e%en!e* Those ne#e# to Lhs o!"& be mo#e +#e/!" n& o!"& #e/e# se#io!s +ses to the .sh$ =Rh!" 1979);30;;>* We i"" /in& the &2on$ system in %#io!s /o#ms in most othe# Tibetn (o"ities in+"!&in$ the (etty sttes o/ .m ='h(te# ;> n& the monsti+ n& "te# "y ,in$&om o/ h!tn ='h(te# 7>* In these sttes s!++ession to the (osition o/ some o# "" &2on$(n be+me he#e&it#y* TIETAN SO'IETIES) INTRODU'TION AND 'ENTRAL TIET This &oes not seem to be the +se ith the Lhs $o%e#nment &2on$(n ho e#e in #e+ent times #e$!"#"y ((ointe& /o# "imite& te#m* I m !n+"e# hethe# #e((ointment s +ommon n& !n+"e# too hethe# o//i+i"s e#e #e$!"#"y sent to se#%e t &2on$ ne# to thei# on esttes*13
As Go"&stein hs (ointe& o!t =19@3> the system s in #e+ent times s"nte& to#&s the inte#ests o/ the (oe#/!" #ein+#ntion0se#ies ho se#%e& s #e$ents n& o/ sm"" n!mbe# o/ the hi$h0stt!s #isto+#ti+ =$e#(> /mi"ies* Mny o/ the #eminin$ $e#( /mi"ies (#o%i&e& "oe#0"e%e" o//i+i"s n& e#e not (#ti+!"#"y e"thy o# (oe#/!" in +om(#ison to #i+h (esnt /mi"ies* It is !n"i,e"y tht they e#e b"e to b!i"& !( s!bstnti" "te#nti%e +ente#s o/ (oe# th#o!$h thei# o++!(n+y o/ &2on$(n (ositions* S!+h "te#nti%e +ente#s o/ (oe# e#e +onstit!te& by "#$e semi!tonomo!s monsti+ esttes s!+h s S,y n& T#shi Lh!n(o n& o++sion""y by /e o/ the "#$e# #isto+#ti+ esttes (#im#i"y those o/ &e(n n& ybshi stt!s*1; The (osition o/ the "#$e# esttes nee&s (#ti+!"# e5mintion* We #e best in/o#me& bo!t one o/ the most im(o#tnt o/ these esttes S,y tho!$h I i"" "so "oo, t to othe#s T#shi Lh!n(o n& Lh$y#i* SUORDINATE UNITS WITHIN THE LHASA STATE) SA.A LHAGARI TRASHI LHUNPO The S,y estte s the "ine" +ontin!tion o/ the S,y $o%e#nment o/ Tibet &!#in$ the Mon$o" =!n> (e#io& =thi#teenth n& /o!#teenth +ent!#ies>* In the tentieth +ent!#y it #etine& +ont#o" o%e# "#$e te##ito#y in the est o/ Tsn$ =m#,e& on M( 3> s e"" s ei$ht sm""e# te##ito#ies in Tsn$ n& to in .m =see 'ssine""i n& E,%"" 1979)38033 n& M( I>* The he& o/ the S,y estte s the senio# membe# o/ the sme .n /mi"y ho h& been $i%en !tho#ity o%e# Tibet by the Mon$o"s* He s ,non s the S,y T#i+hen n& s "so the he#e&it#y bbot o/ the min S,y monste#y n& the he& o/ the S,y #e"i$io!s o#&e#* The membe#s o/ the .n /mi"y e#e be"ie%e& to (ossess (#ti+!"#"y (oe#/!" bo&y o/ #it!" (#+ti+es n& the S,y T#i+hen o++sion""y (e#/o#me& mJo# #it!"s on beh"/ o/ the Lhs $o%e#nment*6 In #e+ent times the (osition o/ S,y T#i+hen hs "te#nte& beteen to b#n+hes o/ the /mi"y* S,y =M( 3 no* 3> s st!&ie& by the (o"iti+" s+ientist '* W 'IILIED SHAMANS 'ssine""i n& the nth#o(o"o$ist Robe#t E,%""* Thei# boo, si$ni/i+nt"y tit"e& A Tibetn P#in+i("ity s bse& on in/o#mtion /#om /o!# #e/!$ees th#ee o/ them /#om the #!"in$ /mi"y o/ S,y =1979>* A Tibetn P#in+i("ity s the s!bJe+t o/ n im(o#tnt +#itiC!e by Me"%yn Go"&stein ho #$!e& tht it #on$"y (#esente& S,y s n in&e(en&ent (o"iti+" entity =Go"&stein 19@ &>* To /!#the# %"!b"e so!#+es on S,y in #e+ent times #e the !tobio$#(hi+" ++o!nts by D No#b! n& -myn$ S,y =D* No#b! 19@; S,y n& Eme#y 199o>* The #e"tionshi( beteen S,y n& Lhs s +om("e5 n& I s!s(e+t tht both 'ssine""i n& E,%"" =#$!in$ /o# the !tonomy o/ S,y> n& Go"&stein =#$!in$ /o# the s!(e#o#&inte stt!s o/ Lhs> ten& to (#esent it in in((#o(#ite"y +te$o#i+" te#ms* oth &minist#tions S,y n& Lhs e#e #e/e##e& to in Tibetn by the sme te#m sh!n$* Neithe# h& ny (o"ity0i&e (o"i+e neto#, =Go"&stein 19@1&)1@6> n& both e#e o#iente& to#&s the +o""e+tion o/ t5es #the# thn the &y0to0&y #e$!"tion o/ the "i%es o/ thei# s!bJe+ts* Go"&steins #$!ments /o# the s!(e#o#&inte stt!s o/ the Lhs &minist#tion =hi+h he #e/e#s to s the Tibetn +ent#" $o%e#nment> #e s /o""os) =I> the Lhs &minist#tion +ont#o""e& n& mono(o"i2e& the #my =:> the Lhs &minist#tion +ont#o""e& +o#%Qe t#ns(o#ttion neto#, th#o!$ho!t the enti#e #e$ion =3> the Lhs
&minist#tion +oine& money (#inte& (ost$e stm(s n& +ont#o""e& #e"tions ith /o#ei$n (oe#s =;> nyone +o!"& t,e &is(!te to the Lhs &minist#tion /o# &J!&i+tion n& its &e+ision s !tho#itti%e =6> the Lhs &minist#tion +o!"& m,e #!"es tht e#e bin&in$ on s!bo#&inte !nits s!+h s S,y s ith the t5 im(ose& in the 19:os to s!((o#t the ne stn&in$ #my n& =7> the Lhs $o%e#n0 ment h& n o//i+e tht o!"& t,e o%e# ht Go"&stein +""s #!ny se#/s* 17 Go"&steins #$!ments #e $ene#""y +on%in+in$ b!t it sho!"& be #emembe#e& tht they #e/e# to (e#io& he#e the (oe# o/ the Lhs &minist#tion s t its hei$ht* S!bo#&inte !nits s!+h s S,y n& T#shi Lh!n(o h& /#eC!ent"y ne$otite& on thei# on beh"/ ith /o#ei$n (oe#s in the (st =item 3> hi"e the #!ny se#/ o//i+e =item 7> &te& on"y /#om the e#"y tentieth +ent!#y* As /o# the (oe# o/ t5tion =item 6> the im(osition o/ t5es on T#shi Lh!n(o n& Poo in the 19:os in%o"%e& mJo# +on/"i+ts n& in the +se o/ Poo #me& mi"it#y inte#%ention =see 'h(te# ;> be/o#e the t5 s (i& n in&i+tion tht the &emn& s #e$#&e& s !n(#e+e&ente& n& !nJ!sti/ie&* Loo,in$ t the (e#io& /#om 17;: to 1969 s ho"e e TIETAN SO'IETIES) INTRODU'TION AND 'ENTRAL TIET o!"& &o!bt"ess /in& times hen the Lhs &minist#tion +o!"& inte#%ene #e"ti%e"y e//e+ti%e"y ithin the s!bo#&inte !nits n& othe# times hen it h& "itt"e o(tion b!t to "e%e them to #!n thei# on //i#s* These +hn$es in the sit!tion o!"& not ne+ess#i"y h%e been #e/"e+te& by e5("i+it +hn$es in (o"iti+" %o+b!"#y* As e i"" see $in in #e"tion to the 'hinese (oe# in este#n .m ='h(te# ;> /o#m" tit"es #e"tionshi(s o/ t#ib!te n& the "i,e +o!"& ms, ny o/ %#iety o/ (o"iti+" #e"ities* The (#ties +on+e#ne& e#e o/ten +ontent to mintin m!t!""y ++e(tb"e /i+tion #the# thn /o#+in$ !nne+ess#y +on/#onttions* On item ; the C!estion o/ t,in$ &is(!tes to Lhs Go"&steins e5m("e the +on/"i+t o%e# the s!++ession to the th#one o/ S,y in 1968 is (#ti+!"#"y inte#estin$* In 'ssine""i n& E,%""s ++o!nt the Lhs &minist#tions in%o"%ement in this e(iso&e ((e#s s the "st in se#ies o/ e(iso&es o/ me&ition &tin$ b+, to the e#"y nineteenth +ent!#y =1979)::0:@>* In the /i#st +se Lhs #isto+#t o/ the Rn$+hnb /mi"y #e"te& to the S,y #!"in$ ho!se +te& s me&ito# beteen the to b#n+hes o/ the /mi"y settin$ !( the o#i$in" ##n$ement by hi+h hene%e# the #!"e# o/ S,y &ie& he s to be s!++ee&e& by the e"&est m"e membe# o/ the /mi"y hi+he%e# b#n+h he be"on$e& to* S!bseC!ent"y the #e$ents /o# the 1:th =in 177> 13th =in 1@> n& #;th D"i Lms =in 1936> e#e s,e& to inte#%ene in &is(!tes o%e# the s!++ession in e+h +se S,ys stt!s s sh!n$ s #e+o$ni2e&* A++o#&in$ to Go"&stein Tibetn $o%e#nment o//i+i"s (#es!mb"y menin$ /o#me# o//i+i"s o/ the Lhs &minist#tion &es+#ibe& the inte#%ention in 196o s &J!&i+tion =,+he& nn$> not me&ition =b#sh!$ 19@ &)1@@01@>* This +o!"& h#&"y be t#!e o/ Rn$+hnbs inte#%ention in the e#"y nineteenth +ent!#y b!t the 1936 n& 196o e(iso&es both seem to in%o"%e n ++e(tn+e o/ Lhss #i$ht to m,e the &e+ision* Whethe# the 177 n& 1@ e(iso&es sho!"& be #e$#&e& s me&ition o# &J!&i+tion is h#& to sy* In /+t 'ssine""i n& E,%"" $#ee tht S,y #e+o$ni2e& both the s!(e#o#&inte stt!s o/ the Lhs $o%e#nment n& the D"i Lms +"im to (o"iti+" +ont#o" o%e# the ho"e #e$ion* Thei# +"ims /o# the !tonomy o/ S,y #e mo#e to &o ith the "+, o/ inte#%ention /#om Lhs in the o(e#tion o/ the S,y &minist#tion)
S,yV s (#t o/ (o"iti+" system tht in+"!&e& Lhs n& Shi$tsQ i*e* T#shi Lh!n(oV b!t this system s "#$e"y /o#m" n& h& %i#0 'IILIED SHAMANS t!""y nothin$ to &o ith the &y0to0&y b!siness o/ $o%e#nin$ the #e o/ S,yV (#o(e#* In (e#/o#min$ the essenti" $o%e#nment" /!n+tions o/ +o""e+tin$ n& ""o+tin$ #e%en!e mintinin$ J!&i+i" (#o+esses n& se"e+tin$ o//i+i" (e#sonne" the $o%e#nment o/ S,yV s nse#b"e to no one* It s not "in,e& ith Lhs s (#t o/ /e&e#tion o# +on/e&e#tion /o# the#e s no (o"i+y tht (("ie& to both Lhs n& S,yV it s not (#t o/ n em(i#e #!"e& by Lhs /o# the mino# &emn&s e//e+ti%e"y m&e by Lhs e#e too e, n& in/#eC!ent to +onstit!te n im(e#i" #e"tionshi(* The !nity o/ este#n Tibet i*e* Tsn$V s +!"t!#" n& #e"i$io!s no one (e#+ei%e& nee& /o# nythin$ mo#e thn the most s!(e#/i+i" (o"iti+" +oo#&intion* ='ssine""i n& E,%"" 1979);;> In /ootnote they &&) It is not menin$/!" to s(e, o/ so%e#ei$nty in the +se o/ S,yV* So%e#ei$nty is eithe# +on+e(t o/ inte#ntion" " hi+h &i& not (("y to these Tibetn $o%e#nments o# s!$$ests n bso"!te in&e(en&en+e tht no $o%e#nment (ossesses* ='ssine""i n& E,%"" 1979) ;; n* i1> Go"&steins mte#i" s!$$ests tht Lhss +"ims on S,y in #e+ent times ent e"" beyon& the mino# &emn&s**** e, n& in/#eC!ent in&i+te& by 'ssine""i n& E,%""* To #e$#& the #e"tionshi( beteen Lhs n& S,y s one o/ st#i$ht/o##& s!bo#&intion is ne%e#the"ess too sim("e n& in 'h(te# ; e i"" see tht mte#i" on nothe# sm"" monsti+ stte D#yb (#""e"s 'ssine""i n& E,%""s in se%e#" #es(e+ts* S,y s in some #es(e+ts s(e+i" +se be+!se o/ its /o#me# i&entity s the $o%e#nment o/ "" Tibet* The &minist#to#s o/ S,y e#e +"e#"y %e#y +ons+io!s o/ this stt!s =/o# e5m("e 'ssine""i n& E,%"" 1979)68> hoe%e# on +"ose# e5mintion most o/ the s!bo#&inte !nits o/ the Lhs &minist#tion t!#n o!t to be s(e+i" +ses o/ one ,in& o# nothe#* The /mi"y o/ Lh$y#i /o# e5m("e one& the sm"" b!t e"thy estte o/ E0y!" in U +"ime& &es+ent /#om the ,in$s o/ the #"!n$ &ynsty n& h& %#io!s (#i%i"e$es in #e"tion to the Lhs &minist#tion s +onseC!en+e =.#sten 198 !tho, 1998)36 ;06>* The he& o/ the /mi"y =$in ,non s t#i+hen> s ((#ent"y not t#ib!t#y to the Lhs $o%e#nment =.#sten 198)176> n& "tho!$h Lh$y#i s one o/ the /i%e &e(n /mi"ies its membe#s 69 TIETAN SO'IETIES) INTRODU'TION AND 'ENTRAL TIET &i& not se#%e s o//i+i"s t Lhs /te# 17;:* In +e#emoni" mtte#s they #n,e& ne5t to the Pn+hen Rim(o+he ho s the he& o/ the T#shi Lh!n(o estte* A"to$ethe# the #e$ion !n&e# the Lhs &minist#tion s /# "ess !ni/o#m in (o"iti+" st#!+t!#e thn it mi$ht "oo, t /i#st si$ht* N!me#o!s /mi"ies n& esttes h& s(e+i" (#i%i"e$es o/ one ,in& o# nothe# some #es ='hn$tn$> h& no &2on$ in othe#s =N$#i> the (#o%in+i" $o%e#no# h& no +ont#o" o%e# the &2on$ n& so on* Wht hs
o++sion""y been (#esente& =/o# e5m("e Mi+he" 19:> s #tion" b!#e!+#ti+ system +onsiste& o/ "#$e n!mbe# o/ s(e+i" +ses ith n !n&e#"yin$ (tte#n o/ mo#e o# "ess /o#m"i2e& (t#on0+"ient #e"tions =see Go"&stein 19@3>* The T#shi Lh!n(o estte s the most si$ni/i+nt o/ "" the s!bo#&inte !nits n& hi"e e &o not h%e the mte#i" /o# +om(#ehensi%e (#esenttion o/ its (osition it is o#th &is+!ssin$ some s(e+ts o/ this !nit in &eti"* It s the "#$est s!bo#&inte !nit ithin the D"i Lms stte n& it h& e5tensi%e ho"&in$s th#o!$ho!t Tsn$ "tho!$h I &o not ,no o/ ny &eti"e& &es+#i(tion o/ these ho"&in$s* 1 Mi+he" +omments tht tVhe o#$ni2tion o/ the T#shi Lh!n(o "b#n$ estteV s in&ee& %e#y simi"# to the Lhs $o%e#nment =19:)11:>* The Shi$tsQ #isto+#+y se#%e& s "y o//i+i"s /o# the T#shi Lh!n(o &minist#tion J!st s thei# eC!i%"ents t Lhs &i& /o# the D"i Lms &minist#tion n& hen the T#shi Lh!n(o e++"esisti+" n& se+!"# o//i+i"s t#%e""e& to Lhs they e#e #e+ei%e& n& ++o#&e& hono#s in +e#emony n& setin$ ##n$ements tht e#e eC!" to those #ese#%e& /o# the ministe#s o/ the ,sh$ n& the D"i Lms e++"esisti+" $en+ies =Mi+he" 19:)11:>* The monste#y o/ T#shi Lh!n(o s /o!n&e& in 1;;@ by Gen&n D#!b =139101;@6> (e#son" &is+i("e o/ Tson$,( n& the o#i$into# o/ the D"i Lm #ein+#ntion0 se#ies =see 'h(te# :@ the tit"e o/ D"i Lm itse"/ s /i#st $i%en to the thi#& o/ the se#ies>* It s b!i"t +"ose to the &2on$ o/ Sm&#!(tsQ =mo&e#n Shi$tsQ> hi+h h& J!st been sei2e& by the Rim(!n$( &ynsty sti"" /o#m""y s!bo#&inte to the P$mo&#!( &ynsty t Ne!&on$ b!t #(i&"y be+omin$ the "e&in$ (oe# in +ent#" Tibet =Wy"ie 198)3::0333 Sh,b( 197@)70@>* It s th!s +"ose"y sso+ite& ith the D"i Lms n& s the (#in+i(" #esi&en+e o/ Gen&n D#!b n& his s!++esso# the :& D"i Lm* The "tte# hoe%e# mo%e& to D#e(!n$ in 1;9; ((#0 ent"y in #es(onse to the $#oin$ (oe# o/ the .#m( o#&e# in Tsn$ 78 'IILIED SHAMANS n& to the th#et (ose& by thei# Rim(!n$( (t#ons ho h& no t,en +ont#o" o/ Tsn$ =Wy"ie 19o)3:>*19 The 1st Pn+hen Rim(o+he Losn$ 'h,yi Gyntsen =167@177:> s t!to# to the ;th n& 6th D"i Lms n& bbot o/ T#shi Lh!n(o* He s $i%en the tit"e Pn+hen =\ (n&it +hen(o G#et S+ho"#> by the 6th D"i Lm n& in 1776 the sme D"i Lm #e+o$ni2e& his #ebi#th s the bbot o/ T#shi Lh!n(o* This in+#ntion0"ine #(i&"y be+me the most im(o#tnt in the Ge"!$( o#&e# /te# the D"i Lm himse"/* Shi$tsQ "ost its "e&in$ (osition in +ent#" Tibetn (o"iti+s ith the #ise to (oe# o/ Lhs b!t it #emine& n im(o#tnt ("+e* The $om( o/ T#shi Lh!n(o ith its "#$e esttes n& the im(o#tnt Pn+hen in+#ntion0"ine #e(#esente& n "te#nti%e /o+!s o/ (oe# to Lhs* Whi"e the senio# stt!s o/ the D"i Lm &oes not seem to h%e been o%e#t"y +h""en$e& the se#ies o/ (#e%io!s #ebi#ths i&enti/ie& /o# the Pn+hen Rim(o+he s t#+e& b+, th#o!$h .e&#!bJQ =13601;3> ho s n o"&e# n& mo#e senio# &is+i("e o/ Tson$,(s thn the 1st D"i Lm Gen&n D#!b* The#e e#e in&i#e+t s!$$estions tht the Pn+hens s(i#it!" stn&in$ s in some #es(e+ts hi$he# thn tht o/ the D"i Lms =see No#b! n& E,%"" 1979>* Si$ni/i+nt"y T#shi Lh!n(o &e%e"o(e& n in&e(en&ent /o#ei$n (o"i+y /#om Lhs* The 3& Pn+hen Rim(o+he ne$otite& ith Geo#$e o$"e emiss#y o/ the #itish Go%e#no#0Gene#" o/ en$" in 1@@;1@@6 n& the Mn+h! #e$ime +onstnt"y ttem(te& to ("y o// one in+#ntion0"ine $inst the othe# st#te$y tht s +ontin!e& by the 'hinese Ntion"ist n& 'omm!nist $o%e#nments in the tentieth +ent!#y*
It is &i//i+!"t to J!&$e ho /# the to "ms themse"%es e#e +!$ht !( in the +on/"i+t* D!#in$ the nineteenth +ent!#y "" o/ the D"i Lms &ie& yo!n$ so tht (oe# s in the hn&s o/ Re$ents /o# "" b!t /e ye#s* The (osition o/ Re$ent itse"/ si$ni/i+nt"y s he"& by the Pn+hen Rim(o+he on"y /o# /e months =Meh# 19@7)33 n* 73> othe#ise it s mono(o"i2e& by senio# Ge"!$( "ms /#om Lhs n& ne#by* At ny #te the #e"tionshi( beteen Lhs n& T#shi Lh!n(o &ete#io#te& #(i&"y in the /i#st &e+&es o/ this +ent!#y /o""oin$ T#shi Lh!n(os mbi%"ent ttit!&e to #itish n& 'hinese o%e#t!#es &!#in$ the D"i Lms /"i$hts to e5i"e in 198; n& 191o* The Lhs $o%e#nment s,e& T#shi Lh!n(o in 191: to +ont#ib0 71 TIETAN SO'IETIES) INTRODU'TION AND 'ENTRAL TIET !te to the +osts o/ the #s ith 'hin b!t they (i& on"y (#t o/ the mo!nt #eC!este&* Lhs #es(on&e& to the in+#ese in tension by st#en$thenin$ its &minist#ti%e ((#t!s in Tsn$* Shi$tsQ h& (#e%io!s"y been n o#&in#y &2on$ ith /i/th0#n, "y o//i+i" it s no $i%en s(e+i" stt!s* A /o!#th0#n, +ommissione# =imme&ite"y be"o the +binet ministe#s> s ((ointe& ith #es(onsibi"ity /o# the ho"e (#o%in+e o/ Tsn$ =Go"&stein 197)3@03>*:8 Lhs h& $#ee& in the (st tht (esnts on T#shi Lh!n(o esttes e#e not "ib"e to +o#%Qe &!ties to Lhs b!t they ent b+, on this in 191@ n& im(ose& +o#%Qe &!ties on T#shi Lh!n(o (esnts t GyntsQ e5ten&in$ them to "" o/ Tsn$ in 19:3 n& im(osin$ ne nn!" t5 on the T#shi Lh!n(o estte* T#shi Lh!n(o #e/!se& to (y ny o/ the t5es n& the Pn+hen Rim(o+he /"e& to Mon$o"i in De+embe# 19:3 n& s!bseC!ent"y to 'hin ((#ent"y in the ho(e o/ /o#+in$ ne$otite& sett"ement =Go"&stein 199)# 1801:8>* The Lhs $o%e#nment #es(on&e& by ((ointin$ n &minist#to# to the T#shi Lh!n(o estte* The iss!e s not #eso"%e& n& the Pn+hen Rim(o+he #emine& in 'hin !nti" his ð in 1936* Menhi"e the Lhs #e$ime s b"e to im(ose its ne t5es on T#shi Lh!n(o* It is +"e# s Go"&stein +omments tht the /!n&ment" iss!e s the e5tent o/ the !tho#ity o/ the +ent#" i*e* LhsV $o%e#nment =199)1:8>*:1 Lhss s!++ess =b+,e& !( by its ne stn&in$ #my> m#,e& /!#the# mo%e to#&s +ent#"i2tion b!t the ho"e e(iso&e in&i+tes tht it o!"& be mist,en to ss!me tht T#shi Lh!n(o h& been t#&ition""y s!bJe+t to Lhs o# tht the Lhs #e$ime s ho"e sho!"& be seen s +ent#"i2e& stte* The Lhs #e$ime $ene#""y h& "itt"e inte#est in inte#%enin$ t the "o+" "e%e" (#o%i&e& tht the t5es +me in #e$!"#"y /#om the &2on$ o//i+es* In&ee& its bi"ity to inte#%ene e%en h& it nte& to s C!ite "imite& es(e+i""y be/o#e the 13th D"i Lms #e/o#ms* TIET AND THE GALA'TI' POLIT
M!+h o/ the (#ob"em in +on+e(t!"i2in$ the #e"tionshi( beteen Lhs n& S,y o# T#shi Lh!n(o s 'ssine""i n& E,%"" #i$ht"y note is the #es!"t o/ ttem(tin$ to inte#(#et Tibetn (o"iti+" st#!+0
'IILIED SHAMANS n& to the th#et (ose& by thei# Rim(!n$( (t#ons ho h& no t,en +ont#o" o/ Tsn$ =Wy"ie 19o)3:>*19 The 1 s Pn+hen Rim(o+he Losn$ 'h,yi Gyntsen =167@177:> s t!to# to the ;th n& 6th D"i Lms n& bbot o/ T#shi Lh !n( o* He s $i%en the tit"e Pn+hen =\ !andita %h- e n!o, G#et S+ho"#> by the 6th D"i Lm n& in 1776 the sme D"i Lm #e+o$ni2e& his #ebi#th s the bbot o/ T#shi Lh!n(o* This in+#ntion0"ine #(i&"y be+me the most im(o#tnt in the Ge"!$( o#&e# /te# the D"i Lm himse"/* Shi$tsQ "ost its "e&in$ (osition in +ent#" Tibetn (o"iti+s ith the #ise to (oe# o/ Lhs b!t it #emine& n im(o#tnt ("+e* The gom !a o/ T#shi Lh!n(o ith its "#$e esttes n& the im(o#tnt Pn+hen in+#ntion0"ine #e(#esente& n "te#nti%e /o+!s o/ (oe# to Lhs* Whi"e the senio# stt!s o/ the D"i Lm &oes not seem to h%e been o%e#t"y +h""en$e& the se#ies o/ (#e%io!s #ebi#ths i&enti/ie& /o# the Pn+hen Rim(o+he s t#+e& b+, th#o!$h .e&#!bJQ =13601;3> ho s n o"&e# n& mo#e senio# &is+i("e o/ Tson$,(s thn the Ist D"i Lm Gen&n D#!b* The#e e#e in&i#e+t s!$$estions tht the Pn+hens s(i#it!" stn&in$ s in some #es(e+ts hi$he# thn tht o/ the D"i Lms =see No#b! n & E, % "" 197 9> * Si$ni/i+nt" y T#shi Lh!n(o &e%e"o(e& n in&e(en&ent /o#ei$n (o"i+y /#om Lhs* The 3& Pn+hen Rim(o+he ne$otite& ith Geo#$e o$"e emiss#y o/ the #itish Go%e#no#0Gene#" o/ en$" in 1@@;1@@S n& the Mn+h! #e$ime +onstnt"y ttem(te& to (" y o/ / one in+#ntion0"ine $inst the othe# st#te$y tht s +ontin!e& by the 'hi nes e N tion " ist n & 'o mm !n ist $o% e# nm en ts in the ten tiet h +ent!#y* It is &i//i+!"t to J!&$e ho /# the to "ms themse"%es e#e +!$ht !( in the +on/"i+t* D!#in$ the nineteenth +ent!#y "" o/ the D"i Lms &ie& yo!n$ so tht (oe# s in the hn&s o/ Re$ents /o# "" b!t /e ye#s* The (osition o/ Re$ent itse"/ si$ni/i+nt"y s h e"& by th e Pn +h en Rim( o+h e o n"y /o# / e m onth s =Meh # 19@7)33 n* 73> othe#ise it s mono(o"i2e& by senio# Ge"!$( "ms /#om Lhs n& ne#by* At ny #te the #e"tionshi( beteen Lhs n& T#shi Lh!n(o &ete#io#te& #(i&"y in the /i#st &e+&es o/ this +ent!#y /o""oin$ T#shi Lh!n(os mbi%"ent ttit!&e to #itish n& 'hinese o%e#t!#es &!#in$ the D"i Lms /"i$hts to e5i"e in 198; n& 1918* The Lhs $o%e#nment s,e& T#shi Lh!n(o in 191: to +ont#ib0 TIETAN SO'IETIES) INTRODU'TION AND 'ENTRAL TIET !te to the +osts o/ the #s ith 'hin b!t they (i& on"y (#t o/ the mo!nt #eC!este&* Lhs #es(on&e& to the in+#ese in tension by st#en$thenin$ its
&minist#ti%e ((#t!s in Tsn$* Shi$tsQ h& (#e%io!s"y been n o#&in#y dzong, ith /i/th0#n, "y o//i+i" it s no $i%en s(e+i" stt!s* A /o!#th0#n, +ommissione# =imme&ite"y be"o the +binet ministe#s> s ((ointe& ith #es(onsibi"ity /o# the ho"e (#o%in+e o/ Tsn$ =Go"&stein 197)3@03>*:8 Lhs h& $#ee& in the (st tht T (esnts on T#shi Lh!n(o esttes e#e not "ib"e to +o#%Qe &!ties to Lhs b!t they ent b+, on this in 191@ n& im(ose& +o#%Qe &!ties on T#shi Lh!n(o (esnts t GyntsQ e5ten&in$ them to "" o/ Tsn$ in 19:3 n& im(osin$ ne nn!" t5 on the T#shi Lh!n(o estte* T#shi Lh!n(o #e/!se& to (y ny o/ the t5es n& the Pn+hen Rim(o+he /"e& to Mon$o"i in De+embe# 19:3 n& s!bseC!ent"y to 'hin ((#ent"y in the ho(e o/ /o#+in$ ne$otite& sett"ement =Go"&stein 199)11801:o>* The Lhs $o%e#nment #es(on&e& by ((ointin$ n &minist#to# to the T#shi Lh!n(o estte* The iss!e s not #eso"%e& n& the Pn+hen Rim(o+he #emine& in 'hin !nti" his ð in 1 9 3 6 * Menhi"e the Lhs #e$ime s b"e to im(ose its ne t5es on T#shi Lh!n(o* It is +"e# s Go"&stein +omments tht the /!n&ment" iss!e s the e 5t en t o/ t he ! tho #i ty o / t he + en t# " i*e * Lh s V $ o% e# n ment =199)1:o>* : Lhss s!++ess =b+,e& !( by its ne stn&in$ #my> m#,e& /!#the# mo%e to#&s +ent#"i2tion b!t the ho"e e(iso&e in&i+tes tht it o!"& be mist,en to ss!me tht T#shi Lh!n(o h& been t#&ition""y s!bJe+t to Lhs o# tht the Lhs #e$ime s ho"e sho!"& be seen s +e nt#" i2e & st t e* The Lh s #e $i me $e ne # "" y h & "i tt "e inte#est in inte#%enin$ t the "o+" "e%e" (#o%i&e& tht the t5es +me in #e$!"#"y /#om the dzong o//i+es* In&ee& its bi"ity to inte#%ene e%en h& it nte& to s C!ite "imite& es(e+i""y be/o#e the 13th D"i Lms #e/o#ms* TIET AND THE GALA'TI' POLIT M!+h o/ the (#ob"em in +on+e(t!"i2in$ the #e"tionshi( beteen Lhs n& S,y o# T#shi Lh!n(o s 'ssine""i n& E,%"" #i$ht"y note is the #es!"t o/ ttem(tin$ to inte#(#et Tibetn (o"iti+" st#!+0 'IILIED SHAMANS t!#es in te#ms o/ Weste#n (o"iti+" theo#y* The#e #e (e#h(s mo#e ((#o(#ite mo&e"s thn tht o/ /e&e#tion +on/e&e#tion o# so%e#ei$nty /o# &e"in$ ith sit!tions s!+h s tht o/ S,y o# T#shi Lh!n(o* In (#ti+!"# e mi$ht +onsi&e# the $"+ti+ (o"ity mo&e" &e%e"o(e& by Stn"ey Tmbih (#im#i"y in #e"tion to the The#%&in sttes o/ So!thest Asi =19@7)18:0131 196):6:0:7 n& see 'h(te# >* The $"+ti+ (o"ity ith its mandalaty!e st#!+t!#e bse& on n e5em("#y +ente# n& #e$ion" &minist#tions tht #e("i+te& the st#!+t!#e o/ the +ente# be#s some #e"tionshi( to the Lhs stte =n& "so to the #e"tionshi(
beteen the Mn+h! #e$ime in 'hin n& the %#io!s Tibetn (o"ities>* Re$ion" &minist#tions ithin the $"+ti+ (o"ity &#i/t histo#i+""y beteen (e#io&s o/ tt+hment to one o# nothe# +ente# n& (e#io&s o/ !tonomy* The $"+ti+ (o"ity s ho"e is e, t some st$es st#on$e# t othe#s* Wht is +ente# t one (e#io& =S,y in the thi#teenthK/o!#teenth +ent!#ies> my be s!bo#&inte entity t nothe# (e#io& =S,y in the tentieth +ent!#y> itho!t !n&e#$oin$ &#sti+ +hn$e in i&entity* The $"+ti+ (o"ity is /# +#y /#om b!#e!+#ti+ hie##+hy in the Webe#in sense =Tmbih 196):77>* 'ent#" #!"e is s m!+h mtte# o/ (e#/o#mn+e =s in the e"bo#te #it!"s o/ the Lhs &minist#tion> s &minist#tion n& the (#im#y /o+!s o/ the ho"e ente#(#ise is on the e5t#+tion o/ (#o&!+e n& the +ont#o" o/ (e#sonne"* The +ont#o" o/ "bo# (oe# is s si$ni/i+nt theme in Tibet s in (#emo&e#n So!thest Asi n& /o# the sme #eson in both +ses (o(!"tion s "o in #e"tion to the %i"b"e "n&* A +onstnt theme in &es+#i(tions o/ Tibetn (o"ities both ithin n& o!tsi&e the #e o/ the Lhs &minist#tion is +ont#o" o%e# (eo("e not o%e# "n&* I/ e ish to see the Tibetn #e$ion s $"+ti+ (o"ity +ente#e& t Lhs tht (o"ity s !n&o!bte&"y e, one e%en t its st#on$est* L#$e (#ts o/ Tibet =(#im#i"y the (sto#" #es n& the "ess (#o&!+ti%e n& mo#e #emote $#i+!"t!#" #es> e#e s+#+e"y in+o#(o#te& into the $"+ti+ (o"ity in ny #e" sense* In +om(#ison ith the t#&ition" $"+ti+ (o"ities o/ Thi"n& o# !#m the best n"o$y /o# s!+h o!t"yin$ (#ts o/ Tibet o!"& h%e been not the /!""y &e%e"o(e& s!bo#&inte (o"ities s!+h s 'hin$mi =Lnn> o# the "#$e# Shn sttes b!t the t#ib" (eo("es o/ the hi""s s!+h s the .+hin .#en n& 'hin* S!+h $#o!(s e#e on"y "oose"y sso+ite& ith the $"+ti+ (o"ity n& "i%e& m!+h o/ the time !n&e# "o+" +hie/tins n& he&men in #e"ti%e"y stte"ess (o"iti+" system* TIETAN SO'IETIES) INTRODU'TION AND 'ENTRAL TIET The n"o$y is not (e#/e+t* The $eo$#(hy n& e+o"o$y #e &i//e#ent n& the#e s &e$#ee o/ +!"t!#" "in$!isti+ n& #e"i$io!s !nity th#o!$ho!t most o/ the Tibetn #e$ion /o# "" its &i%e#sity hi+h +ont#sts ith the hi$h &e$#ee o/ &i//e#entition ithin the hi"" (eo("es o/ !("n& So!thest Asi* The (i+t!#e o/ #e$ion +h#+te#i2e& by #es o/ $#ete# n& "esse# +ent#"i2tion ith /"!+t!tin$ "in,$es beteen them is ne%e#the"ess +"ose# to the #e"ity o/ Tibet thn tht o/ +ent#"i2e& b!#e!+#ti+ stte* We i"" #et!#n to these C!estions $in in "te# +h(te#s* I h%e em(hsi2e& in this +h(te# the "imittions to the (oe# n& !tho#ity o/ the D"i Lms $o%e#nment t Lhs* The Lhs #e$ime s ne%e#the"ess the ne#est to n e//e+ti%e"y +ent#"i2e& stte +hie%e& by Tibetns in the (#emo&e#n (e#io&* The #e"ti%e"y b!#e!+#ti+ n& hie##+hi+" nt!#e o/ the Ge"!$( o#&e# (#ti+!"#"y /te# the 13th D"i Lms #e/o#ms #e/"e+te& its #o"e s somethin$ #esemb"in$ stte +h!#+h* E"sehe#e s e sh"" see in the ne5t to +h(te#s neithe#
(o"iti+" no# #e"i$io!s /o#ms e#e s st#!+t!#e& o# &omesti+te&* TIETAN SO'IETIES) .AM =EASTERN TIET>
}0
4
Tibetan Societies: K'am (Eastern Tibet)
'h(te# 3 e5mine& +ent#" Tibet n& the D"i Lms $o%e#nment* In this +h(te# e "oo, t .m the este#n (#t o/ Tibet* .m n& Am&o 1 th e #e$ion to its no#th n& the s!bJe+t o/ 'h(te# 6 #e the #es /o# hi+h o!# in/o#mtion is e,est* The on"y #e" ethno$#(hi+ #ese#+h on these #es is the o#, o/ the /o#me# mission#ies Robe#t E,%"" n& Mtthis He#mnns on Am&o nom&i+ (sto#"ists* The histo#y o/ .m n& Am&o is "so "ess ++essib"e n& mo#e s(e+!"ti%e t (#esent thn tht o/ +ent#" Tibet* These #es e#e hoe%e# %isite& e5tensi%e"y by Weste#n t#%e"e#s /#om the "te nineteenth +ent!#y on#&s n& thei# #itin$s (#o%i&e mJo# so!#+e /o# #e+onst#!+tin$ the +om("e5 so+i" n& (o"iti+" (i+t!#e o/ est Tibet in the (#emo&e#n (e#io&* GENERAL DES'RIPTION As M( ; shos .m +onsists (#im#i"y o/ the /o!# %""eys o/ /o!# $# et #i%e#s the N$" Ri%e# =S"een> D2 Ri%e# =Me,on$> D#i
'IILIED SHAMANS Ri%e# =n$t2e> n& Ny Ri%e# ="!n$ t#ib!t#y o/ the n$t2e> "on$
ith thei# %#io!s t#ib!t#ies n& the hi$h (st!#e $#o!n& o# gang beteen them* T#&ition""y it s &es+#ibe& s +onsistin$ o/ si5 gang n& /o!# #i%e# %""eys (gangdrug rongshi) "tho!$h the nmes n& "o+tions o/ the si5 gang %#y beteen "ists =Wy"ie 1 97 :) 3039 9@09 Smith 1979 Tshe0b#tn hbs0 &#!n$ 197):178>* The #es /o# +!"ti%tion #e "on$ the %""ey /"oo#s the "#$est bein$ in the Ho# sttes =T#eho#> #o!n& .n&2Q the (#esent 'hinese &minist#ti%e +ente# o/ G#2` =Tei+hmn 1 9 : : ) @ 6 0 @ 7 > * To#&s the no#th the "tit!&e #ises $#i+!"t!#e be+omes im(ossib"e n& e #e+h the nom&i+ #e$ions o/ Am&o* To#&s the so!th the +o!nt#y be+omes #e "ti %e"y "!sh ith %st /o#este& #es n& Tibetn (o(!"tions sh&e o// into %#io!s (#t"y Tibetni2e& hi"" (eo("es s!+h s the N5i =N,hi Moso> i =L o"o> n& Lis! =see G#e$o#y n& G#e$o#y 19:3 Go!""#t 1 96@ 1 969 Ro+, 19:6 19:7 1931 A* -+,son 1 9@ 19@9 Le# 197;>* .m is the most (o(!"o!s #e$ion o/ Tibet* In the 19: +ens!s its (o(!"tion s #o!n& 1*63 mi""ion* In .m s e"sehe#e in Tibet t#&e #o!tes e#e o/ %it" im(o#tn+e to the e+onomy n& the so+i" st#!+t!#e* Most tons o/ ny si2e $#e !( t J!n+tions o/ mJo# t#&e #o!tes* The bi$$est o/ these t# & in$ +ente#s s .n$&in$ /o#me#"y +""e& T+hien"! hi+h bo#&e#e& on ethni+ 'hinese te##ito#y to the est* .n$&in$ s /o#me#"y the +(it" o/ the Tibetn stte o/ 'h$"* Ro+,hi"" estimte& its (o(!"tion in 19 s 7888 to 888 =Ro+,hi"" 191):@6>* F#om 19:@ to the 196os it s the &minist#ti%e +ente# /o# the 'hinese (#o%in+e o/ Si,n$ hi+h theo#eti+""y in+"!&e& most o/ .m Go!""#t ho s the#e in the 1938s $i%es its (o(!"tion then s bo!t ;8888 =Go!""#t 1 969 )1 3> * It s the mJo# +ente# /o# t#&in$ in te hi+h s so"& to Tibet in e5+hn$e min"y /o# oo" m!s, o# othe# (sto#" (#o&!+ts o# bo!$ht ith In&in #!(ees =see Ro+,hi"" 19@6):@@0:;>* The#e #e n!me#o!s &es+#i(tions /#om the beteen0# (e#io& o/ this "itt"e ton in n##o %""ey t the +on/"!en+e o/ to #i%e#s ith its te0 #eho!ses its "mse#ies its Tibetn n& 'hinese t#&e#s n& the mission#ies ho e5ten&e& thei# hos(it"ity to +onstnt st#em o/ Weste#n e5("o#e#s en #o!te to Tibet =see D!n+n 196:)7:076 Go!""#t 1 969 ) 1 : 03 : M i $ o t 1 9 6 @ ) @ 9 / / G!ib!t 19;9)7//>* At the othe# en& o/ .m s -ye,!n&o =mo&e#n 'hinese Gy`$!>* An&#Q Mi$ot &es+#ibes this sm"" ton in the 19;os =sit!te& then s no ithin the 'hinese (#o%in+e o/ ?in$hi> s) TIETAN SO'IETIES) .AM =EASTERN TIET> esi"y the most im(o#tnt t#&in$ +ente# in no#th0est Tibet* It &e#i%es this im(o#tn+e /#om the neto#, o/ +#%n #o!tes hi+h +on%e#$e on it
by /# the $#etest %o"!me o/ t#&e t#//i+ in the othe# &i#e+tions is t#i+,"e by +om(#ison* =Mi$ot 196@)177017@> The bi$ t#&in$ +#%ns beteen -ye,!n&o n& Lhs =to e+h ye# in e+h &i#e+tion> b#o!$ht b+, +i$#ettes /#om In&i n& hi$h0C!"ity +"oth /#om Lhs /in""y t#%e""in$ est into 'hin ith oo" n& hi&es /#om the #i +h b#ee&i n$0$#o!n&s #o!n& -ye,!n&o = Mi$ot 196@)17@>*: Anothe# im(o#tnt +ente# s 'hm&o =mo&e#n 'hinese ?m&o> site o/ n im(o#tnt e#"y Ge"!$( gom!a n& /#om the 19:os to 196os the &minist#ti%e +ente# /o# tht (#t o/ .m tht s ithin the D"i Lms $o%e#nment* E#i+ Tei+hmn %isite& 'hm&o in 191 th#ee ee,s /te# its #e+(t!#e /#om the 'hinese ho h& &est#oye& the monste#y in 191:0 1913) 'hm&o *** +onsists o/ /e ymens n& tem("es n& %i""$e o/ m!& ho%e"s b!i"t on n##o s(it o/ "n& beteen n& J!st bo%e the +on/"!en+e o/ the D2 Ri%e# n& the N$om Ri%e#* The e"e%tion is bo!t io788 /eet* On so#t o/ ("te! imme&ite"y behin& #ise the $!nt #!ins o/ the on+e $#et n& s("en&i& monste#y /o#me#"y the "#$est n& e"thiest in .m* The to %""eys #e so n##o s to (e#mit o/ s+#+e"y ny +!"ti%tion* A"" #o!n& #e b#e n& someht &#e#y0"oo,in$ mo!ntins* Tho!$h mise#b"e ("+e in ((e#n+e 'hm&o #n,s ith -ye,!n&o s one o/ the most im(o#tnt +ente#s o/ Este#n Tibet* It s /o#me#"y the +(it" o/ the "m0#!"e& Tibetn Stte o/ the sme nme n& s the #esi&en+e o/ the "m #!"e# "o+""y ,non s the Tsn$&#!(* The sm"" 'hinese +ommiss#it o//i+i" sttione& he#e in those &ys ith /e 'hinese so"&ie#s ,e(t %e#y m!+h to himse"/ n& s +#e/!" not to inte#/e#e ith the "m #!"e#s* =Tei+hmn 19::)I1;0116> These tons n& n!mbe# o/ othe# t#&in$ +ente#s s!+h s =tn$> Litn$ n& .n&2Q h& si2eb"e +omm!nities o/ Hn n& H!i 'hinese t#&e#s n& o/ Tibetn n& 'hinese #tisns n& sm"" 'hinese $##isons* 3 These 'hinese $##isons in the (#emo&e#n (e#io& +onsiste& o/ on"y /e men e+h n& m&e no ttem(t to +ont#o" the 'IILIED SHAMANS TIETAN SO'IETIES) .AM =EASTERN TIET> Tibetn (o(!"tion* The (eo("e o/ .m $o%e#ne& thei# on //i#s !n&e# %#i ety o/ (o"iti+ " ## n$ements hi+h e sh"" & is+!ss sho#t"y* HISTOR AND PRESENT SITUATION
.m s (#t"y in+o#(o#te& into the e#"y Tibetn em(i#e o/ the #"!n$ &ynsty hi+h +o""(se& #o!n& A*D* ;:* Its histo#y !nti" the se%enteenth +ent!#y is sti"" !n+"e# "tho!$h then s "te# it s most "i, e"y #e$ ion o/ sm"" sttes (sto#"ist t#ibes n& #emote se"/0$o%e#nin$ %i""$es* D!#in$ the S,y (e#io& ="te thi#teenth to mi&0/o!#teenth +ent!#ies> the#e e#e "#$e S,y esttes in Weste#n .m =GonJo n& Lin$tsn$> b!t thei# &minist#to#s seem to h%e be+ome in&e(en&ent #!"e#s ith %$!e #e"t ionshi ( to the Min$ #!"e# s o/ 'hin /te# the +o""(se o/ the !n n& S,y #e$imes =Pete+h 19>* We ,no %e#y "itt"e bo!t the inte#n" &ynmi+s o/ .mb so+iety in this (e#io&* Pete# .ess"e# hs s!$$este& tht n ""in+e o/ Tibetn t#ibes n& non0Tibetn %""ey (eo("e o# rong!a &ominte& by the i#on0o#,in$ nom&i+ S!m( (eo("e s #e("+e& #o!n& 1;88 by nothe# ""in+e +ente#e& bo!t the "#$e stte o/ Lin$tsn$* The &ominn+e o/ Lin$tsn$ s in t!#n &est#oye& by the Ge"!$( o#&e#s Mon$o" ""y G!sh#i .hn in 17;8 in the +o!#se o/ his +onC!est o/ .m =.ess"e# 19;)6307>* Sin+e s .ess"e# &mits =19;)7:> e ,no "itt"e t this st$e bo!t the S!m( o# Lin$tsn$ his ++o!nt is hi$h"y s(e+!"ti%e* It is &i//i+!"t to ,no hethe# Lin$tsn$ +hie%e& nythin$ "i,e the e5tent he s!$$ests =.ess"e# 19;)7@>* I/ so it m!st h%e &e+"ine& e"" be/o#e 17;8 sin+e it ((#ent"y ("ye& no si$ni/i+nt #o"e in G!sh#i .hns +m(i$ns in .m his (#in+i(" o((onent s the (#o0n ,in$ o/ e#i =see Sh,b( 197@)186018@>* ; In "te# times Lin$tsn$ s sm"" stte in no#the#n .m =see be"o> n& its #!"e#s +"ime& &es+ent /#om the h"/0b#othe# o/ the $#et .mb e(i+ he#o .in$ Ges# o/ Lin$ =Stein 191 Pem Tse#in$ 19: U#y 196>* Ges# o/ Lin$ is o/ $#et im(o#tn+e in .m mytho"o$y he#e he ((e#s s /o!n&in$ n+esto# o/ the (eo("e o/ .m n& s +!"t!#e0he#o ho &e/ete& the &emoni+ o# non0!&&hist ,in$s o/ the /o!# &i#e+tions n& #!"e& o%e# "" o/ est Tibet*6 The sto#y is to"& in &eti" in the est Tibetn %e#sions o/ the Tibetn e(i+* Ges# is +!"t!#e0he#o e"sehe#e in Tibet hoe%e# in+"!&in$ the /# est n& his "o+"i2tion in Lin$tsn$ in .m my be se+on&#y &e%e"o(ment*6 Whte%e# the sit!tion (#io# to the 17;os the#e is no &o!bt tht m!+h o/ .m s in+o#(o#te& /o# hi"e into the Mon$o"0Tibetn #e$ime o/ the 6th D"i Lm n& G!sh#i .hn* This s the (e#io& hen most o/ the mJo# Ge"!$( gom!a o/ .m e#e /o!n&e& in+"!&in$ those o/ the Ho# sttes =.ess"e# 19;)1:016> Litn$ =tn$> n& so /o#th* In the e#"y ei$hteenth +ent!#y /te# the Mn+h! $o%e#nment inte#%ention in the +#isis /o""oin$ the D2!n$# in%sion o/ Tibet n& the ð o/ the 7th D"i Lm the bo!n&#y beteen .m n& the D"i Lms #e"m s /i5e&* This bo!n&#y (sse& th#o!$h bo!n&#y (i""# on the !m L (ss so!thest o/ /o""oin$ "ine someht to the est o/ the D#i Ri%e# =th e !((e # +o!#se o/ the n$tse>* A++o#&in$ to Tei+hmn #itish +ons!"# o//i+i" ho s #es(onsib"e /o# ne$otitin$ the 191 bo!n&#y $#eement
beteen 'hin n& Tibet tVhe +o!nt#y to the est o/ this (oint s hn&e& o%e# to the #!"e o/ the D"i Lm !n&e# the s!2e#inty o/ the Mn+h! Em(e#o# hi"e the Tibetn 'hie/s o/ the Sttes n& t#ibes to the est o/ it e#e $i%en se"s s semi0in&e(en&ent /e!&to#ies o/ 'hin =Tei+hmn 19::):>* y the mi&0ei$hteenth +ent!#y s e s in 'h(te# 3 Mn+h! s!2e#inty o%e# the D"i Lms $o%e#nment h& b e+ome (!#e "y n omin "* In the 1@9os se+on& Mn+h! #my +me to +ent#" Tibet n& e5(e""e& n in%&in$ G!#,h #my* Mn+h! (oe# o%e# the Lhs $o%e#nment s tem(o##i"y #esse#te& n& to o//i+i" #e(#esentti%es o# Ambns e#e $ in stt ion e& t Lhs * Thei# (oe# soon be+me nomin" s it h& been be/o#e* It is mo#e &i//i+!"t to e%"!te the &e$#ee o/ +ont#o" e5e#+ise& by the 'hinese $o%e#nment on the semi0 in&e(en&ent /e!&to#ies o/ .m &!#in$ the ei$hteenth n& nineteenth +ent!#ies* It s (#obb"y %e#y "imite& e5+e(t "on$ the este#n bo#&e#s* y the 178s hen Gom(o Nm$ye" one o/ the "o+" +hie/s o/ Ny#on$ in este#n .m $ine& +ont#o" /i#st o%e# "" o/ Ny#on$ n& then m!+h o/ the #est o/ .m the#e s no C!estion o/ Mn+h! in%o"%ement* A Tibetn #my /#om Lhs e%ent!""y inte#%ene& &e/etin$ n& ,i""in$ Gom(o Nm$ye" in 176 =T* Tse#in$ 196 Sh,b( 197@)1@ Tei+hmn 19::)6>* Ny#on$ s /o#m""y t,en o%e# by the Lhs $o%e#n ment ((#ent"y ith Mn+h! ((#o%" n& Lhs set !( n o//i+e +""e& the 'IILIED SHAMANS Ny#on $ 'hi ,y b =Tei +h mn 19 :: )60 7>* Th e #!"e# s o/ De #$e stt e n & o/ the Ho# sttes e#e #esto#e& to (oe# by the Lhs $o%e#nment* Tei+hmn #e/e##in$ to this sit!tion #ites) The Nti%e Sttes on the Si+h!n bo#&e# est o/ the o"& Sino0Tibetn /#ontie# on the !m L *** sent (e#io&i+" t#ib!te missions to n& e#e !n&e# the nomin" (#ote+tion o/ 'hen$&! n& Pe,in$* Some s! +h s t he $#et .in $&om o/ De#$e n& the Fi%e Ho# sttes h& /""en !n&e# the in/"!en+e o/ Lhs s #e"te& bo%e hi"e othe#s s!+h s the Stte o/ 'h$" =T+hien"!> n& the te##ito#ies o/ tn$ n& Litn$ #emine& oin$ to t hei# sit!ti on on the min #o& mo#e !n&e# 'hinese in/"!en+e* The (oe#s o/ the sm"" 'hinese mi"it#y o//i+i"s n& +ommiss#it o//i+e#s sttione& t T+hien"! .n$&in$V Litn$ tn$ n& othe# +ente#s on the min So!th Ro& h& hoe%e# &in&"e& to %nishin$ (oint hi"e the so"&ie#s o/ the /#ontie# $##isons e#e o/ten !n#me& o# e5iste& on"y in the o//i+i" im$i ntion /o# (y #o"" (!#(oses* =19::)> A simi"# (i+t!# e is $i%en by S!sie RiJ nh#t ho t #%e"e& i n this #e in
the 19os) A +o"one" ith sm"" n!mbe# o/ so"&ie#s is sttione& t e+h (ost on the #o& /#om -ye,!n&o to .n$&in$V* Tho!$h they h%e no !tho#it y o%e# the Tibetn +hie/s they #e(o#t to T+hien"! .n$&in$V on the +on&ition o/ the +o!nt#y so tht sho!"& the#e be ny &i//i+!"ty b#ein$ t#oo(s mi$ht be &is(t+he&**** In the &ist#i+t $o%e#ne& by Si+h!n the (osition o/ the 'hinese o//i+i"s is %e#y (#e+#io!s one n& $#et t+t m!st be !se& by them in &e"in$ ith the nti%es ho +onsi&e# the 'hinese s in/e#io#s in +o!#$e n& en&!#n+e**** =19o1)36> This sit!tion #emine& "itt"e +hn$e& !nti" 198; hen the Mn+h! $o%e#nment in!$!#te& ne n& mo#e inte#%entionist (o"i+y in the ,e o/ the 19830198; #itish e5(e&ition to +ent#" Tibet n& the An$"o0 Tibetn 'on%ention tht #es!"te& /#om it* The ne (o"i+y in%o"%e& im(osin$ neto#, o/ 'hinese m$ist#+ies th#o!$ho!t este#n Tibet n& #(i&"y "e& to $ene#" !(#isin$ mon$ the Tibetn (o(!"tion o/ .m* The 'hinese "e& by M WeiCi n& "te# by the noto#io!s ho E#/en$ =,non s !t+he# ho> &est#oye& se%e#" "#$e gom!a, in+"!&in$ the $#et Ge"!$( gom!a o/ 'hm&o n& TIETAN SO'IETIES) "e AM =EASTERN TIET> ,i""e& se%e#" tho!sn& mon,s n& "y (eo("e* 'hinese t#oo(s /o#+ib"y #emo%e& the $o%e#nments o/ the %#io!s (etty sttes o/ .m inst""in$ 'hinese m$ist#tes n& then in%&e& +ent#" Tibet o++!(yin$ Lhs in 1 9 1 8 = S h e " to n 1 9 1 : Te i+ h m n 1 9 : :) 1 9 03 6 D ho n& !( 197):;// S(e#"in$ 19@7>* The /"" o/ the Mn+h! $o%e#nment in 'hin "e& to $ene#" #e%o"t $inst the 'hinese in +ent#" Tibet n& este#n Tibet n& se%e#" /!#the# ye#s o/ /i$htin$ beteen 'hinese /o#+es n& "o+" Tibetns* A +ent#" Tibetn #my !n&e# the "e&e#shi( o/ the .alön 'hm( Ten&# s sent to .m n& h& estb"ishe& +ont#o" o%e# "#$e (#t o/ it hen the 191 (e+e $#eement s ne$otite& =ith Tei+hmns ssistn+e>* This $#eement #e+o$ni2e& 'hinese so%e#ei$nty o%e# the te##ito#ies est o/ bo#&e# "on$ the D#i Ri%e# =n$t2e> in+"!&in$ the Ho# sttes n& Ny#on$ th o!$h i th the e5+e(tion o/ De#$e n& Pe"y!"* The Lh s $o%e#nment #etine& #i$hts o%e# the gom !a in the #e !n&e# 'hinese so%e#ei$nty* The $#eement th!s estb"ishe& the &i%ision beteen O!te# Tibet =the #e !n&e# the Lhs &minist#tion> n& Inne# Tibet =+onsistin$ o/ the #eestb"ishe& "o+" sttes !n&e# 'hinese #!"e> hi+h h& /i#st been (#o (ose& in th e b o#t i% e Si m" 'on%ention o/ 191;* The Lhs $o%e#nment mintine& senio# o//i+i" sttione& t 'hm&o ith #es(onsibi"ity /o# este#n Tibet hi"e in 19:@ the 'hinese o#$ni2e& the Tibetn #es est o/ the D#i Ri%e# into the ne (#o%in+e o/ Si,n$ ith its &minist#ti%e +ente# t
T+hien"! =#enme& .n$&in$>* This s the /o#m" sit!tion !nti" 1 9 3 8 0 1 9 3 3 hen +on/"i+t beteen Ge"!$( n& non0Ge"!$( gom!a in the Ho# sttes "e& to /!#the# Tibetn0 'hinese /i$htin$ n& the Lhs $o%e#nments "osin$ +ont#o" o%e# the #eminin$ #es on the est si&e o/ the D#i Ri%e# =D!n+n 196:)139016 :31>* Des+#i(tions by Weste#n t#%e"e#s &!#in$ this (e#io& hoe%e# s!$$est tht s in the nineteenth +ent!#y 'hinese !tho#ity &i& not e5ten& (st the sm"" $## isons on the to m in #o &s /#om . n$ &i n$ to t n $ n& -ye,!n&o* A++o#&in$ to Ro+, #itin$ in 1931 on"y nine o/ the thi#ty0 one 'hinese m$ist#+ies estb"ishe& by ho E#/en$ e#e sti"" he"& by the 'hinese the #emin&e# bein$ #!"e& by Tibetn o!t"s =Ro+, 1931)1;>* .on$,"in$ n& 'hn$t#en$ "ys /i#"y i"& #es h& (#e%io!s"y been #!"e& by s!b+hie/s !n&e# the (#in+e o/ Litn$* A/te# the #emo%" o/ the s!b+hie/s the "o+" Tibetns tt+,e& n& m!#&e#e& the 'hinese $##ison n& sei2e& #i/"es (isto"s n& #ti""e#y *** the +o!nt#y be+me n #me& bn&it +m( =1931)1;01@>* An&#Q G!ib!t %isite& .m /e ye#s "te# in 19370193@ n& 19;8 n& +ommente& tht) In (oint o/ /+t the 'hinese $o%e#n this (#o%in+e in "5 n& esy$oin$ /shion* The so"&ie#s n& +i%i" se#%nts hose &!ty it is to +ont#o" Si,n$ #e s+nty in n!mbe#* o! meet h!n&#e& o# so o/ them on yo!# Jo!#ney "on$ the "#$e +#%n #o&s &ist#ib!te& mon$ sm"" n!mbe# o/ mi"it#y o!t(osts enti#e"y +!t o// one /#om the othe#* Th!s "tho!$h it (ossesses 'hinese nme este#n Tibet hs #e mine& t#!e to itse"/ n& in s(ite o/ its sit!tion on the m( hi+h ("+es it ithin &ys m#+h o/ its (oe#/!" nei$hbo!# it &oes not &i//e# in ny (#o/o!n& sense /#om the othe# &ist#i+ts o/ Tibet*** * =G!ib!t 19;9)1;> Mi$ot ho t#%e"e& th#o!$ho!t .m /#om ith G!ib!t)
19;@019;9
s in $#e ement
'hinese +ont#o" is "itt"e mo#e thn nomin" I s o/ten to h%e /i#sthn& e5(e#ien+e o/ its ine//e+ti%eness* In o#&e# to $o%e#n te##ito#y o/ this ,in& it is not eno!$h to sttion in iso"te& %i""$es se(#te& /#om e+h othe# by mny &ys Jo!#ney /e !nim(#essi%e o//i+i"s n& hn&/!" o/ #$$e& so"&ie#s* The Tibetns +om("ete"y &is#e$#& the 'hinese &minist#tion n& obey on"y thei# on +hie/s* One %e#y sim("e /+t i""!st#tes the t#!e stt!s o/ Si,n$s 'hinese #!"e#s) nobo&y in the (#o%in+e i"" ++e(t 'hinese +!##en+y n& the o//i+i"s !nb"e to b!y nythin$ ith thei# money #e /o#+e& to s!bsist by (#o+ess o/ b#te#* =Mi$ot 196@)9>
One $ets simi"# im(#ession o/ the ine//e+t!"ness o/ 'hinese #!"e /#om Tibetn ++o!nts o/ "i/e in .m in the /i#st h"/ o/ the tentieth +ent!#y in hi+h the 'hinese #e notb"e by thei# bsen+e* It s on"y in the 196os tht the ne 'omm!nist #e$ime be$n to im(in$e &i#e+t" y on the "i%es o/ Tibetns =see T#!n$( 19@1 ."! 196 -* No#b! 197>* In othe# o#&s .m est o/ the D#i Ri%e# s &!#in$ the (#emo&e#n (e#io& /o# "" (#+ti+" (!#(oses in&e(en&ent o/ both the Lhs $o%e#nment n& the 'hinese !tho#ities* Most o/ .m s in+o#(o#te& into the 'hinese Peo("es Re(!b"i+ in 1 9;90 1 96 8* Un"i,e +ent#" Tibet n& the #es o/ .m est o/ the D#i Ri%e# =the (#esent ?m&o (#e/e+t!#e> hi+h #etine& +e#tin &e$#ee o/ (o"i ti + " !tonomy !nti " 1969 !n&e# the D" i Lms $o %e #nm en t t Lhs the #es o/ .m est o/ the D#i Ri%e# e#e inte$#te& &i#e+t"y into the &minist#ti%e st#!+t!#e o/ the Peo("es Re(!b"i+* It s in these #e$ions tht /i$htin$ $inst the 'hinese be$n in the mi&0 196os s(#e&in$ to +ent#" Tibet in 1 9 6 9 n& +!"mintin$ in the /"i$ht o/ the D" i Lm n& oth e# Tibet n #e/ !$ees n& the en& o/ the Lhs $o%e#nment* Sin+e 1 9 6 9 the D#i Ri%e# hs #emine& the bo!n&#y beteen ht is no the Tibet A!tonomo!s Re$ion on the este#n si&e n& the (#o%in+e o/ Si+h!n on the este#n si&e =the se(#te Tibetn (#o%in+e o/ Si,n$ no "on$e# e5ists>* .m is th!s &i%i&e& beteen si5 &mini st#ti%e &i%isions =see M( :> ?m&o P#e/e+t!#e =in the Tibet A!tonomo!s Re$ion> the Tibetn A!tonomo!s P#e/e+t!#es o/ G#2` n& Ab =Si+h!n> D`$`n =!nnn> n& !sh! =? in$hi> n& the Tibetn A!tonomo!s 'o!nty o/ Mi"i in Si+h!n* INDIGENOUS STATES OF .AM) INTRODU'TION The#e is no &eti"e& ethno$#(hy %i"b"e /o# the .m #e$ion* O!# ,no"e&$e o/ the #e$ion is bse& (#im#i"y on the #e(o#ts o/ Weste#n t#%e"e#s n& on ++o!nts by #e/!$ees n& &oes not (#o%i&e the bsis /o# &eti"e& ++o!nt o/ .m so+i" st#!+t!#e* The#e is some in/o#mtion on the (o"i ti+" st#!+t!#e o/ the #e$ion hoe%e# in+"!&in$ &eti"e& s!#%ey by E#i+ Tei+hmn the +ons!"# o//i+i" in%o"%e& in the 191 'hinese0Tibetn (e+e ne$otitions n& L* S* D$ybs ++o!nt o/ the (o"iti+" system o/ D#$yb =D$yb 19o>* Tei+hmn "ists some tenty0si5 Tibetn sttes !n&e# 'hinese (#ote+ti on in the (#e01986 (e#i o&* Some o/ these mi$ht be bett e# &e s+#ibe& s stte"ess #es "tho!$h "" h& some ,in& o/ /o#m" he&* To them my be &&e& the nine o# so ( #t"y Tibet n i2e& sttes o/ Gye" #on$ n& some sttes in este#n .m hi+h e#e not o/ &i#e+t +on+e#n to Tei+hmn s!+h
s Poo* The "#$est o/ these sttes s the ,in$&om o/ De#$e hi+h s #!"e& by he#e&it#y ,in$ o# gyel!o# Fo!# othe# sttes in .m h& #!"e#s +""e& gyel!o# These e#e 'h$" Nn$+hen Lhto$ n& Lin $ts n$ tho! $h the "st to sttes e#e C!ite sm""* Most o/ the othe# tenty0one sttes "so h& 'IILIED SHAMANS TIETAN SO'IETIES) .AM =EASTERN TIET> "y #!"e#s $ene#""y #e/e##e& to de!a o# !ön!o, hi+h #e "ess s(e+i/i+ tit"es thn $ene#i+ te#ms /o# "y #!"e#s n& &minist#to#s* Fi%e h& "m #!"e#s =see "so '##s+o 1969>* In/o#mtion bo!t these sttes is s!mm#i2e& in the /o""oin$ ($es* The mo&e#n 'hinese +o!nties o/ten /o""o the o"& stte bo!n&#ies so thei# (o(!"tions in the 19: +ens!s =$i%en /#om Li 'hen$#!i 19@> #e some $!i&e to the +!##ent (o(!"tions in these #es* The +o##es(on&en+e is /# /#om e5+t ho e%e# n& the /i$!#es +n be on"y %e#y #o!$h $!i&e to the (o(!"tion in the /i#st h"/ o/ the +ent!#y* =est of the >ri River (?angtse) These #e$ions e#e $ene#""y ++e(te& s bein$ ithin the &omin o/ the D"i Lms $o%e#nment be/o#e 198; n& they #emine& so /#om 191 to 1 9 6 9 * A/te# the Ny#on$ # in 1730176 these #es "on$ ith those in the ne5t se+tion =Ny#on$ De#$e n& the Ho# sttes> be+me the #es(onsibi"ity o/ the Ny#on$ 'hi,yb* F#om 1913 he s #e("+e& by (#o%in+i" $o%e#no# =DomQ 'hi,y b Do+hi> t 'hm&o ith the #n, o/ .alön o # + b in et m in is te # = S h , b( 1 9 7@ ) :6 8 D h on & !( 197)68061 6 0 6 9 Rh!" 1979)39 !tho, 1998):130::>* 18 Most o/ this #e$ion s &ministe#e& by %#io!s t#&ition" (o"ities "tho!$h some (#ts o/ the #e$ion h& been in+o#(o#te& into the +ent#" Tibetn dzong system* In the no#the#n (#t o/ the #e$ion the#e e#e to ,in$&oms =Lhto$ n& Gy&Q> hose (o(!"tion s most"y (sto#"ist* In the +ente# the#e e#e /o!# monsti+ sttes ='hm&o Rio+he P$sh& D#$yb>* To so!the#n #es M#,m n& GonJo e#e &ministe#e& by Lhs "tho!$h not !n&e# the dzong system (#o(e#* Fin""y the ,in$&om o/ Poo in the /# so!th hi+h /o!$ht # ith the Lhs $o%e#nment in the 19:os nee&s t#etin$ s s(e+i" +se* Lhto$ s sm"" stte o/ most"y (sto#"ist (o(!"tion #!"e& by gyel!o =Tei+hmn 19::)167 n*: T#!n$( 19@1)131013:>* It ((#ent"y /e"" o!tsi&e Lhss s(he#e o/ in/"!en+e in the nineteenth +ent!#y b!t s in+"!&e& ithin the Lhs &omin /#om 191 on#&s bein$ on the este#n si&e o/ the D#i Ri%e#* It no /o#ms (#t o/ -om& 'o!nty hi+h h& (o (!" ti on o/ 6:6 87 in 19: b!t most o/ th is +o!nty /o#me& (#t o/ the t#&ition" stte o/ De#$e =see be"o>*
Gy&Q "so ,non s the +o!nt#y o/ the Thi#ty0Nine T#ibes s in the bsin o/ the !((e# N$" Ri%e# =the S"een>* Li,e Lhto$its (o(!"tion s min"y (sto#"ist* It h& t#&ition""y /""en ithin the Lhs &omin tho!$h s ith othe# (sto#"ist #es it is "i,e"y to h%e been "#$e"y se"/0 $o%e#nin$ in (#+ti+e* A++o#&in$ to Ro+,hi"" ho t#%e"e& th#o!$h the #e in 19: the (eo("e o/ Gy&Q e#e on b& te#ms ith the Ge"!$( &minist#tion t Lhs in (#t be+!se they e#e n(o #the# thn !&&hist n& they oe& ""e$in+e to the Lhs amban, not to the D"i Lms $o%e#nment* He s(e,s o/ t hi#ty0si5 "o+" o//i+i"s +""e& de!a, ((ointe& by the amban =Ro+,hi"" 19; ): 6; :780:71>* Tei+hmn &es+#ibes the #e s #!"e& by "y (n(o* Gy&Q o!"& seem to +o##es(on& #o!$h"y to the mo&e#n 'hinese +o!nties o/ D`n$$`n nb# n& Lho#on$ ith tot" (o(!"tion in the 19: +ens!s o/ 9 3 ;: 8 b!t (#ts o/ these +o!nties my h%e /""en o!tsi&e Gy&Q* 'hm&o s stte in the D2 Ri%e# =Me,on$> bsin /#om 191@ on#&s its +(it" be+me the +ente# o/ the D"i Lms &minist#tion o/ .m* The #!"e# o/ this stte #ein+#nte "m ,non s the Ph$( Lh =S+hie$e#19);36 n* ; Mi+he" 19:)93> s the bbot o/ the "#$e Ge"!$( gom!a t 'hm&o /o!n&e& in 1;3@* The stte s &ministe#e& by "m o//i +i " ,no n s th e Tsn$& #!( =Tei +h m n 19 :: )11;0 116>* The (o(! "ti on o / t he m o&e# n +o !nty o/ ?m&o is 79378* D#$yb o# D#yb =M( ; no* @> s nothe# "m stte in the Me,on$ bsin he&e& by Ge"!$( #ein+#nte "m the D#$yb 'hm$n hose monste#y s /o!n&e& in 17:1* The stte s es0 tb"ishe& ith the ssistn+e o/ G!sh#i .hn in the +o!#se o/ his est Tibetn +m(i$n o/ 1739017;1 =S+hie$e# 19);37 S+hie$e# n& D$yb 199>* As t 'hm&o the &minist#tion s in the hn&s o/ "m o//i+i" ho s "so the mn$e# o/ the labrang =Tei+hmn 19::)1:;// Mi+he" 19:)91 D$yb 198>* We h%e n ++o!nt o/ the &minist#tion o/ D#$yb by the /o#me# D#$yb 'hm$n =L* S* D$yb> hi+h $i%es &eti"e& "istin$ o/ the &minist#tion t D#$yb n& some +omments on the o#,in$ o/ the $o%e#nment) The mo&e#n $o%e#nment" st#!+t!#e o/ D#$yb $oes b+, to the "#e&y0 mentione& #eo#$ni2tion o/ $o%e#nment in i o7* Whi"e the D#$yb 'hm$n s the nomin" s!(#eme he& o/ the #e"i$io!s (#in+i("ity the e5e#+ise o/ (o"iti+" (oe# "y (#im#i"y in the hn&s o/ the %hidzöd =Gene#" T#es!#e#> ho s no#m""y ((ointe& by the Tibetn +ent#" $o%e#nment on the #e+ommen&tion o/ the D#$yb 'IILIED SHAMANS 'hm$n n& $ene#""y $o%e#ne& /o# on"y th#ee ye#s* It sho!"& be em(hsi2e& tht e #e not +on+e#ne& he#e ith Lhs $o%e#nment o//i+i"* On"y
mon,s e#e e"i$ib"e /o# the (osition o/ %hidzöd# He o!"& m,e im(o#tnt &e+isions on"y /te# +ons!"ttion ith the D#$yb 'hm$n* This si&e the (#+ti+e o/ $o%e#nment in%o"%e& +"ose +ons!"ttion ith the drön%h-en ='hn+e""o#> n& the trung%h-en =Gene#" Se+#et#y> hose #n,s /o""oe& imme&ite"y /te# the %hidzöd n& ho in %ie o/ this (#+ti+e o/ +ons!"ttion /o#me& ,in& o/ +o!n+i" o/ ministe#s "on$ ith the %hidzöd# Inte#estin$"y the $#o!( o/ these th#ee $o%e#nment ministe#s s /o# this #eson +""e& gyel @on sum, in hi+h gyel(!o) #e/e#s to the %hidzöd# =D$yb 198)17 my t#ns"tion> A++o#&in$ to D$yb Rim(o+he the %hidzöds o//i+e s !n&e# no ob0 " i$ t io n t o + on s! "t t he L h s $ o% e# nm en t bo !t i ts & e+ is io ns =198)17> tho!$h sin+e the %hidzöd s ((ointe& by Lhs e%en i/ on the 'hm$ns #e+ommen&tion the#e o!"& seem to be some s+o(e /o# inte#%ention by Lhs o# /te# 191 by the .alön sttione& in nei$hbo#in$ 'hm&o* Mi+he" mentions tht the#e s $##ison o/ /i%e h!n&#e& so"&ie#s t D#$yb =19:)9I>* This o!"& $in #e/e# to the (ost0191 sit!tion* The (o(!"tion o/ the mo&e#n +o!nty o/ h$yb is ;3@33* Rio+he s nothe# "m stte in the D2 Ri%e# =Me,on$> sin* This s one o/ the to min +ente#s o/ the T$"!n$ .$y&( =R!sse"" 197> n& the (osition o/ he& o/ stte "te#nte& beteen the th#ee (#in+i(" #ein+#ntion0"ines o/ the "#$e T$"!n$ gom!a#A P$sh& "tho!$h #e/e##e& to s stte by Tei+hmn n& othe#s s /o#m""y n !n!s!""y "#$e estte tt+he& to the .!n&e"in$ gom!a t Lhs* It is sit!te& in the N$" Ri%e# =S"een> sin be"o Gy&Q* .!n&e"in$ ((ointe& the &minist#to# o/ P$sh& ho s #e$!"#"y $i%en dzasa tit"e on his #et!#n to Lhs* 1: The (o(!"tion /i$!#es $i%en /o# the mo&e#n +o!nties o/ RioC` n& 5oi #e :@6;7 n& :97* F!#the# so!th e#e to #es mo#e &i#e+t"y in+o#(o#te& into the Lhs &minist#ti%e system* M#,m s (#o%in+e in the D2 Ri%e# =Me,on$> sin so!th o/ D#$yb* 3 It s &ministe#e& by n o//i+i" +""e& the M#,m TeJi ((ointe& by Lhs n& #esi&in$ t M#,m G#to$* Lhs #!"e o%e# this #e oe& its o#i$ins to the +m(i$ns o/ G!sh#i .hn =Se#mQ Rib!# T!",! 19)01: Tei+hmn 19::)138 196>* GonJo /!#the# no#th seems to h%e been &ministe#e& by n o//i+i" ((ointe& by the M#,m TeJi* 1; The (o(!"tion TIETAN SO'IETIES) .AM =EASTERN TIET> o/ M#,m 'o!nty in 19: s 783;8 n& tht o/ GonJo 'o!nty s 36 91;* GonJo 'o!nty hoe%e# seems to be "#$e# #e thn t#&ition" GonJo in+"!&in$ (#t s o/ Sn$en =see be"o> n& (e#h(s "so De#$e* The stte o/ Poo o# PomQ #!"e& by he#e&it#y mon#+h ,non s the .nm De( o# .nm Gye"(o s sit!te& in the "oe# (#t o/ the #e$io n o/ Poy!" ne# the Tsn$ Ri%e# =#hm(!t#> ben& so!thest o/
P$sh&* 16 The .nm De( "i,e the Lh$y#i /mi"y o/ E +"ime& &es+ent /#om the n+ient Tibetn ,in$s* In 13; Poo s /o#+e& to (y t5es to Lhs by Lhs #my =Sh,b( 197@)1@601@7> b!t it seems to h%e been most"y in&e(en&ent o/ the D"i Lms $o%e#nment =R$y0 mtsho Don0&#!b 199>* A /!#the# +on/#onttion ith Lhs in the 19:os o%e# t5es "e& to +m(i$n $inst Poo n& the &e(osition o/ the .nm De( in 19:7 =see Sh,b( 197@):3 :760:77 Dhon&!( 197)161016; R$y0mtsho Don0&#!b 199>* S!bseC!ent"y to &ist#i+t o//i+e#s ith sm"" $##ison e#e sttione& the#e =Sh,b( 197@):77> Mi+he" s(e,s o/ th#ee Lhs $o%e#nment dzong ithin Poy!" "so (#es!mb"y #e/e##in$ to the (ost019:7 sit!tion =19:)9:>* Poy!" s /#ontie# #e$ion ith si$ni/i+nt (o(!"tions o/ the Mn( n& Lo( mino#ities =R$ymtsho Don0&#!b 199)607>* The (#esent0&y omi 'o!nty hs (o(!"tion o/ :;916 tho!$h it is !n+"e# ho simi"# its bo#&e#s #e to those o/ t#&ition" PomQ* >erge, /ingts-ang, the Hor States, and 0yarong These #es "" in the no#the#n n& +ent#" (#ts o/ .m e#e in&e(en&ent o/ Lhs be/o#e the Ny#on$ t#o!b"es in the 17os b!t be+me s!bJe+t to the D"i Lms $o%e#nment /#om then !nti" 198;* The Lhs $o%e#nment #etine& some #i$hts in these #es /#om 191 t o 1 933 b!t "ost them t tht time e5+e(t /o# the se+tion o/ De#$e stte to the est o/ the D#i Ri%e#* It &oes not seem hoe%e# tht ny o/ these #e$ions e#e e%e# +"ose"y &ministe#e& /#om Lhs* De#$e =M( ; no* > s "#$e stte on both si&es o/ the D#i =n$t2e> n& Ny ="!n$> #i%e#s* It s #!"e& by he#e&it#y gyel!o =Tei+hmn 19::)16@0169 .o"ms 197 19 Smith 19@o T#!n$( 19@1)187018@ .ess"e# 193 n& see be"o>* The #!"e#s o/ De#$e +"ime& &es+ent /#om the G# /mi"y hose most /mo!s membe# s +hie/ ministe# to the +ent#" Tibetn ,in$ Son$tsen Gm(o* In the 'IILIED SHAMANS e#"y (e#io& they seem to h%e been (#im#i"y he#e&it#y "m /mi"y* They be+me +"ose"y sso+ite& ith the S,y( #e"i$io!s o#&e# /#om the thi#teenth +ent!#y on#&s n& ((e# to h%e +te& s the #e$ion" $o%e#no#s in .m /o# the S,y( #!"e#s o/ Tibet =.o"ms 197)38>* The De#$e stte /i#st be+me mJo# (oe# #o!n& 1@8o s #es!"t o/ the e5(nsionist +ti%ities o/ the De#$e #!"e#s 'hm( P!ntso$ =e#"y se%enteenth +ent!#y> n& Ten( Tse#in$ =17@01@3> =.o"ms 197)3:0 3>* The gyel!o #etine& !tho#ity o%e# the im(o#tnt S,y( gom !a o/ Lh!n&#!b Ten$ in the De#$e +(it"* The ei$hteenth +ent!#y s the hei$ht o/ De#$es (oe#* The stte +me !n&e# Lhs +ont#o" in 176 t the time o/ the Ny#on$ //i# b!t s (#ote+te& /#om Ge"!$( #e(#is"s
$inst its non0Ge"!$( gom!a by the (o"iti+" s,i""s o/ its to "e&in$ "ms -m$n .on$t#!" Lo&# TyQ =1130199> n& -myn$ .yentsQ On$(o =1:8019:> +ent#" /i$!#es o/ the Rime& mo%ement =Smith 19@8)3303;>* A/te# 191 the (#ts o/ De#$e stte on the est bn, o/ the n$tse e#e in+o#(o#te& into the Lhs &minist#ti%e st#!+t!#e !n&e# " y dzong!ön# The &minist#to# o/ Denm gom !a n& the +hie/ o/ the nom&i+ (o(!"tion #o!n& .to$ gom!a seem to h%e been in+o#(o#te& se(#te"y int o the Lhs system =Mi+he" 19:)91 93>* De#$e +ontine& se%e#" im(o#tnt gom!a (#t /#om Lh!n&#!( Ten$* Amon$ them s the min .#m .$y&( gom! a in .m Pe"(!n$ o# #b!n$* The#e e#e "so the /o!# min Nyin$m( gom! as o/ .m .to$ Pe"y!" She+hen n& D2o$+hen n& the S,y( gom!a o/ D2on$s#* A"" o/ these be+me +ti%e +ente#s o/ the Rime& mo%ement in the "te nineteent h n& e#"y tentieth +ent!#i es =see 'h(te# :@>* The t#&ition" stte o/ De#$e in+"!&es the +o!nties o/ S`#5 D`$` n& iy =i*e* Pe"y!"> ith tot" (o(!"tion o/ 1;1;@ s e"" s (# ts o/ the mo&e#n -om& n& GonJo +o!nties* The#e #e s!bstnti" nom&i+ (o(!"tions in the no#the#n (#t o/ De#$e stte* Nm,hi No#b! ho %isite& the nom&i+ #e$ion o/ D2+h!, =M( ; no* 6> in 1961 hs $i%en &es+ #i(tion o/ thes e (eo("e =Nm,hi No#b! 193 199o>* Lin$tsn$ s sm"" stte in the !((e# Ny Ri%e# ="!n$> #e #!"e& by gyel!o# Its (o(!"tion most"y nom&i+ s "ess thn 1888 /mi"ies =Tei+hmn 19::)@9 3 D!n+n 196:)1 sys 6oo>* The (#e0 TIETAN SO'IETIES) .AM =EASTERN TIET> +ise stt!s o/ this stte /te# 191 is !n+"e# b!t i t seems to h%e been mo#e o# "ess &e(en&en+y o/ De#$e ithin hose te##ito#y it "y* The Ho# sttes =T#eho# o# Ho# Pn,$ N$ M( ; no* 9> e#e /i%e sttes ith o%e#"((in$ te##ito#ies in the %""ey o/ .n&2Q on the U((e# "!n$ est o/ De#$e* The in&i%i&!" sttes e#e D#n$o D#eo .n$s# Ms!# n& Pe#i* E+h h& he#e&it#y "y #!"e# o# !ön! o =Tei+hmn 19::)@10@: Wy"ie 197:)18; .ess"e# 19;>* The min (o(!"tion +ente# s #o!n& .n&2Q* The !ön!o h& !tho#ity o%e# in&i%i&!" /mi"ies #the# thn te##ito#i" !nits so tht /mi"ies be"on$in$ to "" /i%e e#e &ist#ib!te& th#o!$ho!t the #e$ion* The Ho# sttes e#e !n&e# the !tho#ity o/ the Ny#on$ 'hi,yb /#om 17:176 to 1986* The Lhs $o%e#nment #etine& some #i$hts in the #e !n&e# the 191 t#ety b!t "ost them /te# the /i$htin$ o/ 193801933* The Ho# sttes +o##es(on& #o!$h"y to the mo&e#n +o!nti es o/ G#2` =6131;> n& L!h!o =3379> "on$ ith (#t o/ D! =;1@33>* T he s t te o / N y #o n$ o ++ !( ie & t he % " "e y o / t he N y R i% e# ="!n$> be"o .n&2Q* e/o#e the s+en&n+y o/ Gom(o Nm$ye" in the 1;os the#e h& been n!mbe# o/ "o+" +hie/tins in Ny#on$ n& the #e$ion #etine& t#ib" st#!+t!#e in the tentieth +ent!#y* A++o#&in$ to
Atens =Rbten Do#Je> !tobio$#(hy =-myn$ No#b! 197)1; 33 ;> #e/e##in$ to the 19:os the#e e#e /o!# t#ibes in Ny#on$ =Nyt NymQ .hon$ sh e n & W!" !> e +h i th +h ie/ tin n& e+h nomin""y +onsistin$ o/ tho!sn& /mi"ies* The t#ibes e#e +om(ose& o/ ten to /i/teen s!bt#ibes e+h o/ hi+h h& n A# #o 'hie/* A t#ib" st#!+t!#e is +h#+te#isti+ o/ (sto#"ist #es o/ Tibet* In Ny#on$ hi+h h& mi5e& $#i+!"t!#"0(sto#" e+onomy it is mo#e s!#(#isin$* It my #e/"e+t the #e"ti%e"y #e+ent Tibetni2tion o/ this #e$ion =see be"o n& .ess"e# 19;> "tho!$h the gom!a t 'hn&& is one o/ the o"&est Nyin$m( gom!a in .m* The (o(!"tion o/ _in"on$ =Ny#on$> 'o!nty in 19: s $i%en s 3@;16* &ther States ast of the >ri River (and 0ang%h-en) These #es e#e in&e(en&ent o/ Lhs th#o!$ho!t the nineteenth +ent!#y n& tentieth +ent!#ies* The mJo# sttes he#e e#e 'h$" tn$ Litn$ Nn$+hen Mi"i n& the Gye"#on$ sttes* A"" e5+e( t /o# Nn$+hen #e in the so!the#n n& este#n (#ts o/ .m* The#e e#e "so stte"ess #es s!+h s Sn$en in these (#ts o/ .m* 'IILIED SHAMANS 'h$" s "#$e stte in the est o/ .m ith its +(it" t the im(o#tnt t#&in$ +ente# o/ .n$&in$ =/o#me#"y T+hien"!>* It h& he#e&it#y #!"e# o# gyel!o# T+hien"! hs "on$ been the +ente# o/ 'hinese (o e# in the #e $ion* Ro +,hi"" # it in $ o/ his %isi t in 19 +om ments) T+hien"! is the most este#"y s!b0(#e/e+t!#e *** in the (#o%in+e o/ Si+h!n n& is "so the +(it" o/ the Tibetn (#in+e o# ,in$ (gyel!o), o/ 'h$"**** An #my +ommiss#y *** &ministe#s this s!b0(#e/e+t!#e besi&es /o##&in$ "" the money s!(("ies et+* ne+ess#y to the 'h inese $##isons in Tibet**** P#io# to 1@88 T+hien"! n& the +o!nt#y est o/ it /o# ne#"y h!n&#e& mi"es s not o++!(ie& by the 'hinese n& s !n&e# the #!"e o/ the .in$ o/ 'h$" b!t sin+e tht &te this t#+t hs bee n nne5e & to 'hin th o!$h the n ti%e s h%e been ""oe& to #etin thei# t#ib" o#$ni2tion* The nti%e (#in+e sti"" #esi&es t T+hien"! n& is one o/ the most (oe#/!" +hie/s o/ Est Tibet /o# mon$ th em he "one &emn&s n& obtins obe&ien+e /#om the "ms &e""in$ in his (#in+i("ity* He hs the #i$ht to "e%y &!ties on "" $oo&s t,en est o/ the +ity by 'hinese o# nti%es n& e5e#+ises e5+"!si%e +ont#o" o%e# "" his (eo("e nti%e +!"(#its ##este& by the 'hinese bein$ t!#ne& o%e# to him o# his o//i+e#s /o# (!nishment* =Ro+,hi"" 191):@;0:@7> As mentione& e#"ie # T+hien"! =.n$&in$> s the +(it" /o# the 'hinese &minist#tion o/ Si,n$ /#om 19:@ !nti" the 196os* The stte o/ 'h$"
o!"& h%e in+"!&e& "" o/ the mo&e#n +o!nty o/ .n$&in$ =7131> "on$ ith most o/ Dnb = 6@ 9; ;> n& (e#h(s "so (#ts o/ D! =;1@33> n& Jin$ =3; 61:>* On"y bo!t h"/ o/ the (o(!"tion o/ .n$&in$ in 19: s Tibetn n& #o !n& to0thi# &s o/ tht o/ Dnb* =tn$> s "#$e stte &Joinin$ the D#i Ri%e# = n$t2e> #!"e& by he#e&it#y "y de!a =Tei+hmn 19::)137 196> Ro+,hi"" s(e,s o/ to de!a, both /#om the sme /mi"y =19;3;;03;> It h& n im(o#tnt Ge"!$( gom!a# -e//#ey C!otes -* H* E&$#s estimte o/ the (o(!"tion s 3 3 6 8 /mi"ies o# (e#h(s : 8888 in&i%i&!"s t "est some o/ this s nom&i+ =19@; ) 67 see D!n+n 196:)7 9 I097>* The (o(!"tion o/ tn$ 'o!nty to&y is ;3@:@* Litn$ s nothe# "#$e stte beteen 'h$" n& tn$ #!"e& by he#e&it#y "y de!a n& ith nothe# im(o#tnt Ge"!$( gom!a# At the time o/ Ro+,hi""s %isit =19:> the#e e#e to de!a, one TIETAN SO'IETIES) .AM =EASTERN TIET> "ymn n& the se+on& his b#othe# "m =Ro+,hi"" 19;)366036@>* -e//#ey estimtes the (o(!"tion s #o!n& 688o tho!$h this seems #the# "o =19@;)7:>* The so!the#n #es o/ 'hn$t#en$ n& .on$,"in$ e#e i"& n& bn&it0#i&&en* Litn$ +o##es(on&s #o!$h"y to the mo&e#n +o!nty o/ Litn$ =;8@7@> "on$ ith _in$+hen$ ='hn$t#en$ ::@:6> Do+hen$ =:38@6> n& (#ts o/ Jin$ =3;61:>* The ,in$&om o/ Nn$+hen s in the !((e# D2 Ri%e# =Me,on$> #e to the est o/ the D#i Ri%e# b!t it /e"" ithin _inin$s J!#is&i+tion n& th!s "i,e othe# sttes +onsi&e#e& he#e s o!tsi&e the +ont#o" o/ the Lhs $o%e#nment* It s #!"e& by gyel!o, n& its te##ito#y in+"!&e& the im(o#tnt t#&in$ +ente# o/ -ye,!n&o =see bo%e>* The (o(!"tion o/ Nn$+h en s most"y nom&i+ "tho!$h the#e s some $#i+!"t!#" +o!nt#y #o!n& -ye,!n&o n& #o!n& the ("+e t Nn$+hen* Tei+hmn &es+#ibes Nn$+hen s +onsistin$ o/ some #o888 /mi"ies &i%i&e& into tenty0/i%e +"ns o# t#ibes =Tei+h0mn 19::)18>* A++o#&in$ to Tshi Tse#in$ its st#!+t!#e s mo#e +om("e5 thn this n& t#&ition""y +onsiste& o/ /o!# &ist#i+ts +"ose to the +(it" !n&e# /o!# o//i+i"s ,non s gyelts-ab =#e$ent> s!##o!n&e& by nangd; =inne# #e$ion> ith thi#ty0th#ee t#ibes n& %h-id; =o!te# #e$ion> o/ thi#ty0/i%e t#ibes* O/ the %h-id; t#ibes tenty0/i%e =the G( o# G,o$> e#e &ministe#e& /#om -ye,!n&o n& o!"& seem to be the tenty0/i%e +"ns mentione& by Tei+hmn* F#om +i#+ 188 on#&s the senio# o//i+i" t -ye,!n&o ,non s the D#!# e! $ine& +onsi &e#b" e !tonomy /#om the Nn$+hen ,in$* 17 The te##ito#y o/ Nn$+hen o!"& +o##es(on& ((#o5imte"y to tht o/ the mo&e#n +o!nties o/ !sh! =-ye,!n&o 6;;73> n& Nn$$`n =;@ :7;>* Mi"i o# M!"i s stte on the bo#&e#s o/ !nnn ith n on"y (#t"y Tibetni2e& (o(!"tion =see Ro+, 19:6 1931 .ess"e# 19:>* The #!"e# o/ Mi"i s the Mi"i 'hm$n the in+#nte "m ho s he& o/ the "#$e
Ge"!$( gom!a, n& s "ys /o!n& in the #!"in$ /mi"y o# +"ose"y #e"te& ho!se* In the 19: +ens!s the (o(!"tion o/ M!"i 'o!nty s $i%en s 181397* Tibetns m&e !( #o!n& 3888 8 o/ this othe# mJo# ethni+ $#o!(s in+"!&e& i =#o!n& :@888> Mio n& Mn =#o!n& 7888 e+h> N5i n& i =#o!n& 3888 e+h> n& Lis! =bo!t :888> =Li 19@)3:03@ 1 9 ;0 : 87 > * The i =/o#me#"y ,non s Lo"o> N5i n& i =Min+hi> #e "" Tibeto0!#mn s(e,in$ $#o!(s =see Le# et "* 197;>* The Gye"#on$ o# -y#on$ sttes e#e $#o!( o/ sm"" (#t"y Ti betni2e& sttes est n& no#thest o/ the Ho# sttes* Lm Tsen(o 'IILIED SHAMANS "ists ei$hteen o/ these in 1:8 hi"e notin$ tht se%e#" no "on$e# e5iste& =Wy"ie 197:)18:0183> -e//#ey mission#y ho o#,e& in this #e in the 1938s "ists si5 .#os,yb =t the no#thest en&> i$$$ Tmbi 'ho$ tse Wo$2hi n& Ws2e the most este#"y =-e//#ey 1 9@; ) ;@> mentionin$ tht th#ee othe#s h& &is((e#e& =see "so .ess"e# 19; m( :@> * The (o(!"tion o/ the este#nmost sttes is +"ssi/ie& s ?in$ to&y hi"e tht o/ the #eminin$ sttes is #e$#&e& s Tibetn* The t#&ition" bo!n&#ies o/ the Gye"#on$ sttes #e !n+"e# b!t they (e#h(s +o##es(on& to the mo&e#n +o!nties o/ -in+h!n #0,m _ioJin Heish!i Li5in Wen+h!n n& Moen* These +o!nties h& tot" (o(!"tion o/ ;73:93 in the 19: +ens!s o/ hom #o!n& 1;@688 e#e +"ssi/ie& s Tibetns =min"y in -in+h!n #0,m _ioJin n& Heish!i> n& #o!n& 18:888 s ?in$ =min"y in Li5in Wen+h!n n& Moen>* The #emin&e# e#e Hn 'hinese* Tei+hmn "so "ists /i%e sm"" (sto#"ist sttes =Ge0she Ton$,o# T2,o !,o Se#t> to the est o/ the !((e# Ny Ri%e# ="!n$> e+h ith "y #!"e# or !ön!o (1<* The Se#t #e !s!""y +o!nte& mon$ the Go"o$ =see 'h(te# 6> Nm,hi No#b! hs $i%en some in/o#mtion on these (eo ("e /# om his t#%e"s in the #e $i on in 19 61 =M( ; no* 7 Nm,hi No#b! 193 199o see "so G!ib!t 19;9>* So me o/ the othe# st tes seem to h%e been (#t o/ the Gye"#on$ #e$ion* The Tibetn (o(!"tions o/ these #e$ions +o##es(on& to those o/ the mo&e#n +o!nties o/ Se#t# n& mtn$ ith tot" (o(!"tion o/ 691 in 19: "" b!t /e tho!sn& bein$ Tibetn* Tei+hmns ++o!nt $i%es the im(#ession tht the m( o/ .m +o!"& be s("it !( #e"ti%e"y net"y into se#ies o/ (etty sttes ith +"e#"y &e"inete& bo!n&#ies n& this s t#!e to some e5tent* At ny $i%en time the "#$e sett"e& +omm!nities no#m""y oe& +"e# ""e$in+e to one stte o# nothe# th#o!$h thei# "o+" he&men n& !ön!o, n& t#%e"e#s "on$ the min #o&s ,ne hen they e#e (ssin$ /#om one &omin to nothe#* The mo#e #emote #es hoe%e# (#ti+!"#"y those inhbite& min"y by (sto#"ists e#e not ne+ess#i"y inte$#te& in ny e//e+ti%e y into these (etty sttes hethe# o# not the#e s some ,in& o/ (n(o ith
nomin" ""e$in+e to Litn$ o# De#$e* We h%e "#e&y met this sit!tion in the +se o/ the i"& bn&it #es o/ 'hn$t#en$ n& .on$,"in$* Anothe# s!+h #e the #e$ion o/ the D#i Ri%e# ""ey bo%e tn$ s sim ("y ,non s Sn$en =b&"n&s> n& &i& not /o#m (#t o/ ny o/ the (etty sttes TIETAN SO'IETIES) .AM =EASTERN TIET> "tho!$h Tei+hmn mentions (n(o #e+o$ni2e& by the Si+h!n !tho#i ties =19::)13 1;:>* Sn$en +o##es(on&e& to sm"" (#ts o/ the mo&e#n +o!ntie s o/ GonJo n& iy ith mo&e# n (o (!"tio n o/ (e#h(s 18888 to 16888* INDIGENOUS STATES OF .AM) DIS'USSION A"to$ethe# .m (#o%i&es bei"&e#in$ %#iety o/ Tibetn (o"ities n& it m!st be &mitte& tht e # e not %e#y e"" in/o#me& bo!t mny o/ these sttes* Some !n&e#"yin$ (tte#ns #e hoe%e# noti+eb"e* Fi#st these sttes h& %#iety o/ "e&e#shi( (tte#ns) the bo%e e5m("es in+"!&e he#e&it#y "y (#in+es he#e&it#y "ms n& #ein+#nte "ms s e"" s o//i+i"s ((ointe& by the Lhs &minist#tion* Mny o/ the "y (#in+es hoe%e# e#e sso+ite& ith (oe#/!" "ms n& gom!a =/o# e5m("e Litn$ n& >* Se+on& (#ti+!"# stte mi$ht h%e s!bo#&inte stt!s ithin "#$e# stte* 'hm&o D#$yb Rio+he n& M#,m e#e s!bo#&inte to the Lhs &minist#tion GonJo s t one st$e s!bo#&inte to M#,m* Litn$ in+"!&e& the s!bo#&inte !nits o/ 'hn$t#en$ n& .on$,"in$ !n&e# "y s!b0+hie/s =Ro+, 1931>* Most sttes o/ ny si2e in+"!&e& s!bo#&inte +ente#s o/ (oe# !s!""y +""e& s in +ent#" Tibet dzong# De#$e /o# e5m("e h& tenty0/i%e dzong, hi"e GonJo h& te"%e dzong o# !ön =Tei+hmn 19::)1@1 1@7>* The he&men o/ these &ist#i+ts e#e !n&e# %#yin$ &e$#ees o/ +ont#o" /#om the +ente# Tei+hmn &es+#ibes the he#e&it#y he&men o/ the th#ee "#$est &ist#i+ts in De#$e stte =GJi A&! n& Sesh> s (#+ti+""y semi0in&e(en&ent +hie/tins =19::):8>* A"" o/ the GonJo !ö n (o si ti ons e#e he#e&it#y n& in some +ses one /mi"y h& +C!i#e& +ont#o" o/ mo#e thn one (osition* 1 We i"" +ome +#oss this (tte#n $i n in othe# Tibetn sttes s!+h s h!tn n& L&,h* Thi#& the#e e#e sit!tions s!+h s the /i%e Ho# sttes he#e the#e e#e se%e#" "o+" #!"e#s o/ mo#e o# "ess eC!" stt!s* The sit!tion in Ny#on $ be /o #e Go m(o N m$ ye"s #is e to (o e # s ( ( # en t"y si mi "# =see T* Tse#in$ 196 -* No#b! 197>* The Ho# sttes #e$ion +ontine& ++o#&in$ to Tei+hmn =19::)@6> the "#$est t#+t o/ "e%e" +!"ti%te& "n& in the ho"e o/ este#n Ti bet**** The "!n$ Ri%e# in&s th#o!$h the mi&&"e o/ it n& /#ms
'IILIED SHAMANS hm"ets n& monste#ies #e thi+,"y &otte& #o!n&* The inhbitnts #e (#os(e#o!s n& e"thy bein$ en$$e& in the "!+#ti%e 'hinese0 Tibetn te t#&e s e"" s in $#i+!"t!#e* An inte#estin$ /et!#e o/ the Ho# sttes is tht thei# te##ito#ies e#e not st#i+t"y &e"imite& /#om e+h othe# thei# J!#is&i+tions e#e o%e# /mi"ies #the# thn "n&s =Tei+hmn 19::)@7>* Esttes in +ent#" Tibet h& simi"# +h#+te# in #es(e+t o/ both the non+onti$!o!s nt!#e o/ thei# te##ito#ies n& o/ J!#is&i+tion bein$ (#im#i"y o%e# %i""$es n& ho!seho"&s* Loo,in$ b+, on 'h(te#s 3 n& ; it is o/ten h#& to &# #i$i& &istin+tion beteen stte n& estte* The Ho# sttes #esemb"e& +ent#" Tibetn esttes in thei# "+, o/ te##ito#i" bo!n&#ies b!t !n"i,e +ent#" Tibet they h& no e//e+ti%e s!(e#o#&inte !tho#ity =e5+e(t tem(o##i"y /#om 176 to 198; i/ the Ny#on$ 'hi,yb /!"/i""e& tht /!n+tion>* We#e they sttes o# esttes The min te##ito#y o/ S,y s +"e#"y &e"imite& n& it h& t "est s m!+h o/ $o%e#nment" ((#t!s s most o/ the sttes o/ .m* Sho!"& e te#m it n estte o# stte Entities s!+h s the T#shi Lh!n(o o# S,y esttes e#e in mny ys +om(#b"e both to .m sttes s!+h s D#$yb o# Rio+he =hi+h e#e s!bJe+t to Lhs +ont#o"> n& to those s!+h s De#$e o# the Ho# sttes =hi+h e#e 1760198; si&e not so s!bJe+t>* The stte o/ P$sh& /o#me& (#t o/ the Lhs monsti+ estte o/ .!n&e"in$* The D"i Lms $o%e#nment t Lhs itse"/ o#i$inte& in monsti+ estte n& #etine& mny /et!#es #e/"e+tin$ its o#i$ins* Fo!#th the &e$#ee o/ +ont#o" e5e#+ise& by these %#io!s (o"ities o%e# thei# (o(!"tions +"e#"y %#ie& $#et"y* At one e5t#eme e#e the sett"e& %i""$e n& !#bn (o(!"tions in De#$e o# .n&2Q* At the othe# e 5t#eme e#e i"& (o(!"tions s!+h s the (eo("e o/ 'hn$t#en$ =in Litn$ stte> the (eo ("e o/ S n$ en =Tibetn /o# b&"n&s > o# the Le n$, s hi no# th o/ tn$ hom Tei+hmn &es+#ibes s t!#b!"ent n& !n#!"y n& noto#io!s =19::):83 n* 1 :8@> notin$ tht they h%e the &%nt$e o/ "i%in$ in %""ey tht is "most in++essib"e to the 'hinese =see "so D!n+n 196:) 17;01@ :>* A#es s!+h s Nn$+hen ith its most"y (sto#"ist (o(!"tion o# Ny#on$ ith its t #i b" o#$ni2tion "so seem +"ose to st te"ess (o"iti+ " system* The (eo("e o/ .m s ho"e h& #e(!ttion /o# bein$ in&e(en0 TIETAN SO'IETIES) .AM =EASTERN TIET> &ent se"/0sse#ti%e n& $$#essi%e hen +om(#e& ith the (eo("e o/ +ent#" Tibet* Fi/th the#e s ten&en+y /o# non0Tibetn (o(!"tions to be
Tibetni2e& n& in+o#(o#te& into Tibetn0sty"e (o"ities* The to most ob%io!s e5m("es #e Mi"i ith its most"y i (o(!"tion n& the Gye"#on$ (#in+i("ities hose (o(!"tion is sti"" "#$e"y ?in$* It my be tht m!+h o/ the (#esent0&y Tibetn (o(!"tion o/ .m #es!"ts /#om simi"# (#o+esses o/ Tibetni2tion sin+e the se%enth +en t!#y o# e#"ie#* In the e5t#eme so!th o/ .m ithin !nnn P#o%in+e %#io!s N5i i n& Lis! (#in+i("ities e#e !n&e#$oin$ simi"# (#o+ess o/ Tibetni2tion in the e#"y tentieth +ent!#y* Whi"e some o/ this #e$ion is o/ten +onsi&e#e& s (#t o/ Tibet most o/ the (o(!"tion is not #e""y Tibetn* In 19: Tibetns /o#me& mJo#ity in on"y one o/ the th#ee +o!nties o/ the D`$`n Tibetn A!tonomo!s P#e/e+t!#e =D`$`n ith ;:688 o!t o/ 6:@6@ th e #emin&e# bein$ most"y Lis! ith some N5i P!mi n& N!>* Tibetns /o#me& the "#$est ethni+ $#o!( in hon$&in 'o!nty =#o!n& ;6888 o!t o/ 1867:7 ith "#$e n!mbe#s o/ N5i Lis! n& i n& some i>* The 11:: (eo("e o/ Wei5i 'o!nty seem to h%e been most"y Lis! n& N5i ith some Tibetns i n& P!mi* The Tibetn nme /o# this #e$ion is Gye"tn$ =M( ; no* Io 'o#"in 19@ 198> n& it h& +"ose "in,s in the (#emo&e#n (e#io& ith the N5i (eo("e to the so!th =see Go!""#t 196@:390:;3>* LiJin$ N5i !tonomo!s +o!nty to the imme&ite so!th =(o(!"tion :919;8> +ontine& the b!", o/ the N5i (o(!"tion "on$ ith s!bstnti" n!mbe#s o/ i n& Lis! n& some i P!mi Mio n& Tibetns =Li 19@)3:039 1 9 ; 0: 8 7 >* These ethni+ +"ssi/i+tions #e not to be t,en too se#io!s"y sin+e he#e s /!#the# so!th in !#m n& Thi" n& ethn i+ i&en tit ies #e noto#io!s"y !nstb"e n& &i//i+!"t to s(e+i/y +ohe#ent"y =Le+h 19@8 Lehmn 197@>* The ethni+ $#o!(s in these #e$ions !n&o!bte&"y e#e &(tin$ %#io!s /et!#es o/ Tibetn +!" t!#e hoe%e# in+" !&in$ s(e+ts o/ Tibetn !&&hism s e#e (eo("es on the so!the#n bo#&e#s in A#!n+h" P#&esh n& /!#the# est in h!tn Si,,im n& Ne(" =see 'h(te# 7>* In the +se o/ the N5i ho #e ,non s -n$ in Tibetn this (#o+ess s !n&o!bte&"y o/ some ntiC!ity =A* -+,son 1 9@ 19@9>* The ,in$&om o/ -n$ =M( ; no* I I> ith its +(it" t the ton o/ LiJin$ =Stm in Tibetn> "#e&y h& +"ose "in,s ith the .#m 'IILIED SHAMANS .$y&( o#&e# in the e#"y to mi&0se%enteenth +ent!#y =.#m Thin0"ey 19o) o60187> n& the ,in$ o/ -n$ s(onso#e& the (#o&!+tion o/ one o/ the /i#st (#inte& e&itions o/ the Tibetn !&&hist +non o# .nJ!# /#om 1789 on#&s =Shst#i 19@>* -n$ s /i#st n enemy n& then n ""y o/ Ges# in the Tibetn e(i+ hi+h +n be #e& in (#t s n ++o!nt o/ these (#o+esses o/ Tibetni2tion o/ s!##o!n&in$ (eo("es =see Sm!e" in (#ess >* I sh"" &is+!ss the C!estion o/ Tibetni2tion /!#the# in 'h(te# @* In the /o""oin$ +h(te# e +ontin!e o!# s!#%ey ith n e5mintion o/ Am&o the (#o%in+e to the no#th o/ .m*
5 Tibetn So+ieties) Am&o =No#theste#n Tibet>
The s!bJe+t o/ this +h(te# is Am&o the #e$ion to the no#th o/ .m* Li,e .m m!+h o/ the %i"b"e in/o#mtion on Am&o so+iety +omes /#om t#%e"e#s n& e5("o#e#s in the (#emo&e#n (e#io& "tho!$h the#e is "so some nth#o(o"o$i+" #ese#+h on Am&o (sto#"ism by the /o#me# mission#ies Robe#t E,%"" n& Mtthis He#mnns* GENERAL DES'RIPTION Am&o =M( 6> +onsists (#im#i"y o/ the #es #o!n& n& to the no#th o/ the $#et ",e o/ Tso N$n(o ="!e L,e> bette# ,non in En$"ish by its Mon$o" nme o/ .o,ono# "on$ ith the !((e# #e+hes o/ the e""o Ri%e# =H!n$0Ho> o# M Ri%e#* Most o/ the Tibetns "i%in$ in this #e$ion e#e nom&i+ (sto#"ists* In &&ition to Tibetn ( sto#"ists the#e e#e Mon$o" (sto#"ists (#t i+!"#"y to the no#t h n& est o/ L,e .o,ono# n& $#o!(s s!+h s the So,(o A#i, ho tho!$h o/ Mon$o"in o#i$in h& been "most ent i#e"y Tibetni2 e& =see Ro+, 1967)6@>*
'IILIED SHAMANS The#e e#e "so s!bstnti" (o(!"tions o/ sett"e& Tibetn $#i!"t!#"ists (#ti+!"#"y in #es to#&s the este#n e&$e o/ the Ti betn ("te!* Mny o/ these $#i+!"t!#"ist Tibetns e#e in +"ose +ont+t ith %#iety o/ othe# ethni+ $#o!(s in+"!&in$ H!i o# 'hinese M!s"ims Hn 'hinese T!#,i+ (eo("e ,non s the S"# =T#i((ne# 197;> n& the (#ti""y Tibetni2e& (o(!"tion o/ the T! =Mon$!o#> ho s(e, n A"ti+ "n$!$e #e"te& to Mon$o"in =S+h#m 196;> The 'hinese S"# n& T! (o(!"tion s +on+ent#te& in the $#i+!"t!#" #e$ions to the est n& so!thest o/ L,e .o,ono# he#e the#e s se#ies o/ tons se#%in$ s t#&in$ +ente#s /o# the #e$ion* Mny o/ these e#e ""e& n& h&
'hinese $##isons* The "#$est ton in the #e$ion s _inin$ then s no the min 'hinese &minist#ti%e +ente#* The t#&in$ +ente# o/ Tn,# /#om hi+h +#%ns set o// to +ent#" Tibet s #o!n& 3o mi"es to the est =Ro+,hi"" 191)1890116 RiJnh#t 1981)133>* Othe# !#bn +ente#s in+"!&e& the o"& ton o/ To2ho! =Tei+hmn 19:1)136013@ Ro+, 1967):60:7 E,%"" 196;)@;//> n& the +ombine& monsti+ n& t#&in$ +ente#s t 'honi =Ro+, 19:> n& Lb#n$ =Tei+hmn 19:1)131;6 Ro+, 19673306o onten Gytso 19>* In the (sto#"ist #es the#e e#e t#&in$ (osts ith 'hinese t#&e#s =min"y 'hinese M!s"ims i*e* H!i o# S"#> tt+he& to$om( in ("+es s!+h s T,tsn$ Lhmo =E,%"" 1 96 : 1 96; > * Itine#nt 'hinese t#&e#s t#%e"e& th#o!$ho!t the #e$ion* The#e e#e "so mJo# "on$0&istn+e t#&in$ #o!tes hi+h ent th#o!$h the #e s!+h s tht /#om +ent#" Tibet %i -ye,!n&o in .m to the Tn,o#0_inin$ #e n& on to 'hin (#o(e#* L#$e +#%ns o/ h!n&#e&s o/ y,s t#%e"e& "on$ these #o!tes* At the t!#n o/ the +ent!#y the Lhs $o%e#nment mintine& $#o!( o/ o//i+i"s t Tn,o# to s!(e#inten& these +#%ns =RiJnh#t 1981)1;;//>* A"on$ the este#n e&$e o/ the (sto#"ist #e$ion &Joinin$ the 'hinese ("ins the#e e#e (o(!"tions o/ $#i+!"t!#"ist Tibetns s!+h s the Tebo =see E,%"" 1939 196:>* These (eo("e "on$ ith the &8 simi"# +omm!nities o/ Sh# n& Sn$s,# in Si+h!n to the imme0 oc d &ite so!th : e#e t#&ition""y #e$#&e& s (#t o/ Am&o b!t +on0 F t # s t e& m # , e& " y i th t h e & o mi n n t ( st o # " is t + ! "t ! #e t o t h e est* N Me#y "itt"e hs so /# been #itten bo!t them "tho!$h b#ie/ #e(o#t on the Sh# by Phi"i((e S$nt n& Smten .#my =ho s bo#n in Sh# +o!nt#y> in&i+tes tht they h& &e+ent#"i2e& (o"iti+" system o/ sm"" !tonomo!s /e&e#tions hose "e&e#s e#e nei0 TIETAN SO'IETIES) AMDO =NORTHEASTERN TIET>
the# he#e&it#y +hie/s no# the #e(#esentti%es o/ +ent#"i2e& (oe# no# e"e+te& +hie/s ="on&e! 1960197)16: my t#ns"tion>* In othe# o#&s "e&e#shi( s o/ /mi"i# bi$ mn ty(e #esemb"in$ tht in (#ts o/ .m n& in no#the#n Ne(" =see 'h(te#s ; n& 7>* The#e s "in,$e beteen the (oe# o/ these "o+" "e&e#s n& the +!"t o/ "o+" $o&s (shibdag5 "on&e! 1960197)16:016;>* The sm"" ton o/ Son$(n =(#esent0&y -inn> t the so!the#n en& o/ this #e$ion s nothe# o/ the t#&in$ +omm!nities on the e&$e o / t he Tibetn ("t e ! e5 +h n $i n$ Tibe tn o o" me &i +in" he# bs n& hi&es /o# 'hinese te =see A""ey 19;8>*
HISTOR AND PRESENT SITUATION In /o#me# times Am&o s o++!(ie& by the n+ient (#t"y Tibetni2e& stte o/ the Tn$!t =.y+hno% 19@> Tibetn Miny$* 3 F#om the /o!#teenth +ent!#y on#&s the #e$ion /e"" !n&e# the +ont#o" o/ Mon$o" t#ibes ith mi5e& Mon$o" n& Tibetn (sto#"ist (o(!"tion* The +ity o/ _inin$ s estb"ishe& to se#%e s the &minist#ti%e +ente# o/ the .o,ono# #e t the be$innin$ o/ the Mn+h! (e#io& in the "te se%enteenth +ent!#y =Ro+, 1967)30;>* The "#$e0s+"e +on%e#sion o/ Mon$o" t#ibes to Tibetn !&&hism o/ the Ge"!$( s+hoo" h& be$!n in the (#e%io!s +ent!#y n& Mon$o" t#ibes /#om this #e$ion e#e +ti%e in +ent#" Tibetn (o"iti+s =see 'h(te# :@>* A"" this &o!bt"ess en+o!#$e& the Tibetni2tion o/ Mon$o" $#o!(s mentione& bo%e* Am&o +ontine& mny "#$e go m!a o/ the Ge"!$( s+hoo" ith +"ose +onne+tions to the Lhs $o%e#nment n& Lhs m!st t times h%e h& +onsi&e#b"e in/"!en+e in the #e$ion* The Lhs $o%e#nment ne%e# h& ny &i#e+t +ont#o" o%e# Am&o hoe%e# n& Ge"!$( gom!a in the #e$ion e#e (o" it i+ " "y !tonomo!s * Th ey in +" !&e& n! mbe# o/ %e#y "#$e instit!tions the most im(o#tnt bein$ .!mb!m n& Lb#n$* .!mb!m =Te# Si in 'hinese> s /e mi"es to the so!thest o/ _inin$ n& m#,e& the bi# th("+e o/ Tson$, ( th e /o!n& e# o/ the Ge"!$( t#&ition =Fi"+hne# 1 93 3> hi"e Lb#n$ in Este#n Am&o s the set o/ the im(o#tnt -myn$ She( in+#ntion se#ies n& mJo# /o#+e in Am&o (o"iti+s =Ro+, 1967 * Gytso 19>* The#e e#e "so "#$e non0Ge"!$( gom!a, s!+h s the Nyin$m(+ente#s o/ T#tn$ n& Do&#!b 'hen both in the Go"o$ #e$ion =.hn&#o19)9 13@0139 161 T* Thon&!( 19;)11601:;>* D!#in$ the Mn+h! (e#io& the enti#e #e$ion s &ministe#e& t "est /o#m""y by the 'hinese mbn t _inin$* In (#+ti+e the Tibetn (s to#"ists e#e mo st"y se" /0$o% e# nin$ "tho!$h Ri Jnh #t s(e,in$ o/ the 198s +ommente& tht in +ont#st to the #e$ion to the so!th =i*e* .m> the Tibetns he#e /e# the Ambn n& the 'hinese so"&ie#s to s!#(#isin$ e5tent) hen+e it is tht the Ambns !tho#ity is !nC!estione& =RiJnh#t 1981)173>* The $#i+!"t!#" #es #o!n& _inin$ e#e s mentione& bo%e sett"e& m i n" y b y ' hi nes e M !s" ims = H!i n & S " #> * ot h H !i n & S " # (o( !" t io ns e# e in %o "% e& in mJo# #ebe" "i on in 1 71 01 @ ; &!#i n$ hi+h the monsti+ +ente# t .!mb!m s s+,e& by M!s"im t#oo(s* The sit!tion s sti"" #est"ess t the t!#n o/ the +ent!#y =RiJnh#t 1981> ith s(o#&i+ o!tb#e,s o/ /i$htin$ beteen M!s"im /o#+es n& 'hinese $o%e#nment t#oo(s* A/te# the 'hinese #e%o"!tion the M!s"ims be+me the &ominnt (oe# in the #e n& M!s"im $ene#" #!"in$ /#om _inin$ s #e+o$ni2e& s the "o+" #!"e# by the Re(!b"i+n $o%e#nment in 1916* Fi$htin$ b#o,e o!t in 19:6 beteen Tibetn t#ibes est o/ Lb#n$ gom!a n& the M!s"ims n&
this e%ent!""y "e& to /!#the# #eo#$ni2tion in 19: ith the +#etion o/ the ne (#o%in+e o/ ?in$hi* P#ts o/ Weste#n Gns! P#o%in+e e#e in+o#(o#te& into the ne (#o%in+e b!t the Lb#n$ #e hi+h h& (# e%io !s"y been &minist e# e& /# om _i nin$ s no t# ns/e##e & to Gns! =Ro+, 1967)30;3:>* The M!s"im $ene#" t _inin$ M !/en$ +ontin!e& to be the &ominnt (oe# in the #e$ion !nti" 1 9; 9 n& s "#$e"y in&e(en&ent o/ the Re(!b"i+n $o%e#nment* In 1 9;9 the enti#e #e$ion s in+o#(o#te& into the 'hinese Peo("es Re(!b"i+* The (#esent &minist#ti%e bo!n&#ies /o""o those set !( in 19:* Most o/ Am&o +ontin!es to "ie ithin ?in$hi (#o%in+e o/ hi+h it /o#ms the mJo# (#t* Fo!# o/ the si5 (#e/e+t!#es o/ ?in$hi (#o%in+e #e Tibetn !tonomo!s (#e/e+t!#es =Hinn Hibei H!n$nn Go"o$> n& /i/th Hi5i is Mon$o"in0Tibetn.2, A!tonomo!s P#e/e+t!#e* The si5th Hi&on$ is bo!t 16 (e#+ent Tibetn in (o(!"tion* The#e #e "so Mon$o"in H!i T! n& S"# !tonomo!s +o!nties to o/ them =Hnn Mon$o"in A* '* n& Meny!n H!i A* '*> ithin Tibetn !tonomo!s (#e/e+t!#es in&i+t0 'IILIED SHAMANS
in$ the ethni+ +om("e5ity o/ the #e$ion* The Tibetn #e s ithin Gns! /o#m Tibetn A!tonomo!s P#e/e+t!#e =Gnn> n& Tibetn A!tonomo!s 'o!nty =Tin2h! in W!ei P#e/e+t!#e>* The Tibetn (o(!"tion o/ Am&o in O!# min so!#+e /o# the (o"iti+" st#!+t!#e o/ Am&o in the /i#st h"/ o/ this +ent!#y is the Ame#i+n mission#y "te# nth#o(o"o$ist Robe#t E,%"" ho "i%e& t the monsti+ n& t#&in$ +ente# o/ T$tsn$ Lhmo =M( 6 no* 1:> to#&s the este#n e&$e o/ Am&o nom&i+ + o !n t # y / # o m 1 9 3 8 0 n& = E , % " " 1 9 3 9 1 9 6 : 1 9 7 191>* Anothe# mission#y0 1 93 6 1 9 3 9 01 9 ; 1 nth#o(o"o$ist Mtthis He#mnns ho s(ent mny ye#s in no#thes te#n n& este#n Am&o /#om 1 9 3 6 on#&s "so (#o%i&es !se/!" in/o#mtion =He#mnns 1 9; 9> s &oes the Ame#i+n e5("o#e# -ose(h Ro+, =1967>* The (sto#"ists o/ D2+h!, n& Se#t &es+#ibe& in Nm,hi No#b!s st!&y in the bo#&e# #e$ions beteen .m n& Am&o e#e (#obb"y not m!+h &i//e#ent /#om the (sto#"ists o/ Am&o (#o(e# =N* No#b! 193 199o>* Tibetns in the (sto#"ist #es o/ Am&o "i%e& in ru.or, en+m(ments =E,%"" 1939)7 N* No#b! 193)168> hi+h e#e o#$ni2e& into ts-o, t#ibes the te#m gy 8d is "so sometimes !se&* 6 The en+m(ment !s!""y h& n in/o#m""y #e+o$ni2e& he&mn b!t "e&e#shi( s e5e#+ise& in (#+ti+e by the $#o!( o/ s!bstnti" mi&&"e0$e& n& e" &e#"y men =E, %""
em(ty tit"e t bein$ enti#e" e5t#eme #e be+!se he i he#e nothin$ is to no& ss
1939)7>* These e#e ,non s the gen!o o# e"&e#s* The nom&i+ t#ibes #o!n& T$tsn$ Lhmo /o#me& "oose +on/e&e#+y ,non s the Shim&#o$ n& E,%""s ++o!nts o!"& seem to #e/e# min"y to the Shim&#o$ t#ibes n& thei# nei$hbo#s* At the t#ib" "e%e" E,%"" &is+!sses %#iety o/ "e&e#shi( st#!+t!#es* In some +ses the#e s no +hie/ n& &e+isions e#e t,en by +o!n+i" o/ t#ib" e"&e#s =$in gen!o)# In othe# +ses the#e s he#e&it#y +hie/ o# go*a# The (oe# o/ the +hie/ %#ies $#et"y &e(en&in$ on the t#&ition o/ the t#ibe the bi"ity o/ his (#e&e+esso#s n& on his on $i/ts n& #eso!#+es* In some t#ibes the (osition o/ +hie/ is "itt"e mo#e thn n To t#ibes h& inte#me&ite &i%isions beteen the en+m(ment n& the t#ibes* These &i%isions hi+h h& thei# on he#e&it#y "e&e#s my h%e been se (#t e t# ib es th t h & been bso #be & int o si n$ "e t#ibe* Othe# t#ibes e#e $#o!(e& into +on/e&e#tions o# sso+itions s ith the Shim&#o$* Th#ee +hie/s h& +C!i#e& s!+h $#et (oe# n& +ont#o" th#o!$h the bso#(tion o/ "esse# t#ibes n& the tt#+tin$ o/ #e/!$ee $#o!(s by e5e#+isin$ (t#o n$e n& &i("om+y +ombin e& ith mi"it#y (#oess tht they e#e #e/e##e& to s gyel!o o# ,in$ tit"e e h%e "#e&y met in .m* E,%"" "so mentions some t#ibes tht #e $o%e#ne& by the gom!a ith hi+h they #e sso+ite& I &is+!ss these "te# on* Mtthis He#mnns (#esents simi"# (i+t!#e &&in$ nothe# (ossibi"ity tht o/ the e"e+te& +hie/) The#e #e t#ibes es(e+i""y t he sm""e# ones ho h%e no +hie/ n& $o%e#n e%e#ythin$ th#o!$h the e"&e#s o/ the in&i%i&!" $#o!(s* E%en this +o!n+i" o/ the e"&e#s is not /o#m""y e"e+te& b!t #e+o$ni2e& th#o!$h thei# innte +om(eten+e* Amon$ othe# t#ibes es(e+i""y "#$e# ones these e"&e#s e"e+t n o!tstn&in$ (e#son s thei# +hie/* The#e #e "so t#ibes in hi+h the stt!s o/ +hie/ is inhe#ite& in (#ti+!"# /m i"y hen the#e is +om(etent son i/ this is not the +se someone e"se is +hosen* Amon$ othe#s this stt!s is inhe#i te& in the /mi"y be+!se it is the #i +hest n& the#e/o#e the most #es(e+te&* In "#$e +on/e&e#tion hi+h is &i%i&e& into s!bt#ibes the "tte# h%e s!b0 +hie/s ith $ene#" +hie/ o%e# them* These (ositions $in +n be e"e+te& o# inhe#ite&* The#e is "so +on/e&e#tion o/ mny t#ibes ith ,in$ t its he&* This (osition is inhe#ite&* =19;9:31 my t#ns"tion> H
e#mnns "i,e E,%"" +omments on ho the !tho#ity o/ these #!"e#s s &e(en&ent on the s!((o#t o/ the t#ib" e"&e#s n& the (o(!"tion s ho"e) 'IILIED SHAMANS The (oe# o/ the +hie/ &e(en&s enti#e"y on the /o#+e #es(e+t n& the in/"!en+e o/ the (e#son in C!estion* I/ these #e not o!tstn&in$ he hs on"y the tit"e b!t no (oe# n& (oe# "ies in the hn&s o/ the e"&e#s*
Hoe%e# the !to+#ti+ (oe# o/ st#on$ "e&e# is "so sh#("y bo!n&e& "imite& n& t+he& o%e# ith A#$!s eyes* This h((ens not th#o!$h (eo("e ho #e ((ointe& /o# this /!n+tion b!t th#o!$h the &esi#e /o# /#ee&om n& the in&e(en&en+e o/ the in&i%i&!" /mi"ies* =19;9:31 my t#ns"tion> He#mnns te""s sto#y o/ #i+h n& in/"!enti" +hie/ =o/ the Dshi t#ibe no#th o/ L,e .o,ono#> ho nte& to m##y his son to the &!$hte# o/ /i#"y e"thy mn o/ his t#ibe* He s !ni""in$ to (y the s!bstnti" b#i&e e "th tht s # #n $e& so se nt his men ho b#o!$ht on"y /e $i/ts o/ "itt"e %"!e n& too, the $i#" by /o#+e* The $i#"s /the# +o!"& not #esist &i#e+t"y b!t he mo%e& his tent to nei$hbo#in$ t#ibe* On+e the nes $ot #o!n& the +hie/ #e$#ette& his +tions n& sent the b#i&ee"th "on$ ith some ho#ses s +om(enstion the $i#"s /the# #eJe+te& them in&i$nnt"y n& #emine& in the nei$hbo#in$ t#ibe =He#mnns 19;9):3 I0:3:>* A"" these t#ibes e#e in%o"%e& in system o/ /i$htin$ /e!&in$ n& ne$otite& sett"ement #eminis+ent o/ (o(!" tions i n the hi$h "n&s o/ West Asi o# the ",ns o# o/ A/#i+n (sto#"ists s!+h s the N!e#* I sh"" $i%e some e5m("es t,en / #om E,%""s #iti n$s i n 'h(te# @* In +omm!nity o#$ni2e& in s!+h (o"iti+""y &e+ent#"i2e& n& nonhie##+hi+" mnne# ny se#%i+es #eC!i#e& /#om the o!tsi&e o#"& hethe# me&ition in &is(!te mi"it#y +oo(e#tion sto#$e o/ nom&i+ $#o!(s (#o(e#ty in gom!a th#o!$h the s!mme# o# hte%e# e"se e#e ne$otite& /o# on +ont#+t!" bsis* Re" o# /i+ti%e ,inshi( "in,s e#e !se& hen ((#o(#ite to he"( set !( the ne$otitions* M!t!" i& neto#,s ithin the +omm!nity n& t#&in$0/#ien& neto#,s beyon& it "so /it into this $ene#" (i+t!#e =E,%"" 1939) 6;066 1 96; ) @@>* The nom&s (i& no #e$!"# t5es to se+!"# !tho#ities* One +o!"& sy hoe%e# tht they (i& on +ont#+t!" bsis /o# se#%i+es tht mi$ht othe#ise be (#o%i&e& by $o%e#nment* E,%"" +omments tht) I/ # is &ete#mine& "e%ies on the e+onomi+ #eso!#+es #e %ote& o# &e+i&e& !(on by the gen!o e"&e#sV n& the go*a +hie/ V* I/ (e+e is m&e "" sh#e in be#in$ the e5(enses o/ +on/e#en+e n& t#ety0 TIETAN SO'IETIES) AMDO =NORTHEASTERN TIET> m,in$* The +hie/ o# "e&e# &e#i%es no &i#e+t mte#i" bene/it /#om his (osition e5+e(t s (osition n& in/"!en+e $i%e him !n!s!" o((o#t!nity to mss e"th* The#e is no s!+h thin$ s stn&in$ #my no# #e the#e ny (i& (!b"i+ o//i+i"s* E%en the in&i%i&!"s #eC!i#e& to hn&"e //i#s /o# the +hie/ o# #!"e# +t s his (e#son" #etine#s n& he my eithe# (y them o# ht is mo#e "i,e"y ("+e in thei# y o((o#t!ni ties to (#o/it in t#&e o# #* =1939)@o>
The gom!a ("ye& +ent#" #o "e in drog!a "i/e* The #e"tionshi( beteen nom&i+ t#ibes n& gom!a s +"ose one in%o"%in$ e+onomi+ s!((o#t o/ the gom!a by the nom&s n& the (e#/o#mn+e o/ #e"i$io!s n& othe# se#%i+es by the gom!a /o# the nom&s* The #e"i$io!s se#%i+es (e#/o#me& i"" be +onsi&e#e& in "te# +h(te#s* Non#e"i$io!s se#%i+es in+"!&e& me&ition in &is(!tes =see 'h(te# @> the sto#$e n& t#&in$ o/ nom&i+ (#o&!+e n& (#ote+tion in times o/ t#ib" +on/"i+t o# e5te#n" &n$e#* Some gom!a h& +C!i#e& (o"iti+" +ont#o" o%e# the t#ibes to hi+h they tt+he& themse"%es* E,%"" +omments tht) iVn s!+h +se the "mse#y i*e* gom!aE /!n+tions to#& the $#o!( in to ys* It hs $ene#" #e"i$io!s in/"!en+e n& t(s the (eo("e /o# +ont#ib!tions n& /ees in #et!#n /o# hi+h it !n&e#t,es to ne!t#"i2e the e%i" e//e+ts o/ "" the m"i$nnt in/"!en+es in the #e$ion to mintin itse"/ s $the#in$0(oint o//e#in$ +onstnt #e"i$io!s o((o#t!nity to the #e"i$io!s0min&e& n& to +e"eb#te /o# the bene/it o/ "" the inhbitnts so "in,e& to it the mny #e"i$io!s /esti%"s &esi$nte& in the #e"i$io!s +"en&#**** Se+on&"y the "mse#y th#o!$h its "e&e#s +ts s #!"e# /o# +e#tin t#ibes* Lmse#y #!"e ten&s to be !to+#ti+ n& in $ene#" the #f"e ("ye& by the gen!o in &ete#minin$ (o"i+y is sm""e# one hen the "mse#y is the #!"e# thn hen +hie/ is the he& o/ the t#ibe* =E,%"" 1939)79> A /e go m! a h& e5ten&e& thei# (oe# to some &e$#ee o%e# ho"e $#o!(s o/ t#ibes !"timte"y eithe# s!(e#se&in$ the +hie/s o# #e&!+in$ them to %e#y s!bo#&inte (osition* Mny t#ibes n& +hie/s h& hoe%e# mn$e& to #esist s!+h e++"esisti+" &omintion =1939)79> E,%"" &oes not in&i+te hi+h gom!a $o%e#ne& t#ibes o# $#o!(s o/ t#ibes* His &es+#i(tions o/ G!#&! one o/ to "#$e Ge"!$( mon sti+ gom!a t T$tsn$ Lhmo s!$$est n in+i(ient +ente# o/ (oe# h oe%e# E,%"" &es+#ibes the "ms o/ G!#&! s (#o%i&in$ me&itin$ 'IILIED SHAMANS #the# thn &i#e+t &minist#ti%e se#%i+es* The s!##o!n&in$ t#ibes Shmi Smts R2,&!mb n& the othe#s /o#m (#t o/ t#ib" +on/e&e#+y =Shim&#o$>* E,%"" s(e,s o/ the gom!a s be"on$in$ to the t#ibes #the# thn the #e%e#se =196;)6;>* Ro+, (#o%i&es some &eti"s /o# the im(o#tnt Ge"!$( monsti+ +ente# o/ Lb#n$ =M( 6 no* 13> hi+h ((e#s to h%e h& mo#e &i#e+t &minist#ti%e #o"e in #e"tion to the s!##o!n&in$ t#ib" (o(!"tion n& s (#o b b"y on e o/ th e go m! a E,%"" h& in min& hen s(e,in$ o/ gom!a $o%e#nin$ t#ibes ='honi my h%e been nothe# see Ro+, 19:>* Ro+, &is+!sses system by hi+h e+h o/ $#o!( o/ Tibetn n& Mon$o" t#ibes too, it in t!#n to (#o%i&e ye#s /oo& /o# the Lb#n$ gom!a (1F3D22)# Lb#n$ "so h& o//i+i"s ho &ministe#e& some o/ the s!##o!n&in$ t#ibes
n& %i""$es #e/e##in$ &is(!tes they +o!"& not so"%e to the gom!a-s J!&$es =1967)3;>* Lb#n$ s +onsi&e#b"y "#$e# n& mo#e (oe#/!" gom!a thn G!#&!* The gom!a n& the s!##o!n&in$ +omm!nity e#e sit!te& to the est o/ the Tibetn ("te! (#o(e# n& +te& s mJo# t#&in$ n& &mini st#ti%e +ente#* 'e#tin"y one mi$ht e5(e+t to /in& mo#e +ent#"i2e& n& hie##+hi+" sty"e o/ (o"iti+s in s!+h ("+e* O!# in/o#mtion is not #e""y s!+h s to ""o ny &e/inite +on+"!sions* In E,%""s The /ama 'no*s, (#t"y /i+tion"i2e& ++o!nt o/ Am&o (o"iti+s in the 19:os n& 193os he &es +#ibes Lb#n$ n& G!#&! s b!i" &in$ !( ""in+es ith the %#i o!s nom&i+ t# ibes* One s!+h ""i n+e beteen G!#&! the .i n$ o/ N$ n& the Tsh#!m t# ib e +me to &ominte este#n Am&o (o"iti+s /o# some ye#s hi"e othe# t#ibes s!+h s the N$!# n& So,(o A#i, ""ie& to Lb#n$ gom !a, s!((o#te& #i%" +"imnt /o# the +hie/ G!#&! in+#ntion =191>* E,%"" &es+#ibes ttem(ts by G! #& ! to (e #s ! &e D# $, # sm""e# monsti+ gom!a, to shi/t its ""e$in+e /#om Lb#n$ =191)373@> n& mentions ho the N$!# t#ibe ho h& #eJe+te& the !tho#ity o/ Lb#n$ some thi#ty ye#s be/o#e e#e #e+on+i"e& ith Lb#n$ =191)38>* This ,in& o/ (o"iti+" sty"e s "ess C!estion o/ (e#mnent &omintion by th e gom!a o%e# the nom&i+ (o(!"tion thn se#ies o/ ""in+es beteen se+!" # n& #e" i$io!s +ente# s o/ (oe # /o # m!t! " s!((o#t* As e sh"" see it s %e#y ty(i+" o/ +ent#" Tibetn (o"iti+s too in n e#"ie# (e#io& "tho!$h $#&!""y shi/tin$ in the &i#e+tion o/ $#ete# +ent#"i2tion o/ (oe# =see 'h(te#s :3 to :@>* TIETAN SO'IETIES) AMDO =NORTHEASTERN TIET> AGRI'ULTURAL 'OMMUNITIES The $#i+!"t!#" +omm!nities o/ Am&o e#e min"y "on$ the e&$es o/ the ("te! n& in the #e$ion #o!n& L,e .o,ono#* E,%"" $i%es some in/o#mtion bo!t them =E,%"" 1 9 39 > s &o othe# t #%e"e#s n& mission#ies b!t the#e #e no &eti"e& &es+#i(tions o/ so+i" o# (o"iti+" st#!+t!#e* The %i""$es h& he&men n& +,no"e&$e& the !tho#ity o/ "o+" +hie/s s!+h s the (#in+e o/ 'honi =M( F, no* 1; Tei+hmn 1 9:1 Ro+, 19:>* Tei+hmns +omment on th e (#i n+e o/ 'honi is o#th notin$ sin+e it #e(ets some o/ the themes e h%e +ome +#oss in .m) 'honi the #esi&en+e o/ t!si o# nti%e +hie/ #!"in$ se%e#" Tibetn t#ibes in the nei$hbo!#hoo& is (i+t!#esC!e "itt"e ("+e ""e& %i""$e b!i"t #o!n& the +hie/s #esi&en+e on the bn,s o/ the To n& o%e#"oo,e& by "mse#y +ontinin$ some Soo mon,s**** The 'honi t!si is by /# the most im(o#tnt nti%e +hie/ in Gns! n& e5e#+ises J!#is&i+tion o%e# n e5tensi%e te##ito#y* Some o/ his t#ibes es(e+i""y those "i%in$ to the so!th o/ the Min Shn #e t!#b!"ent n& not esy to +ont#o"* The +hie/ is !n&e# the !tho#ity o/ the Go%e#no# o/ Gns! P#o%in+eV t Ln2ho! b!t !n"i,e his +o""e$!es in
Si+h!n est o/ T+hien"! .n$&in$V he #etins his (oe# !nim(i#e& o%e# his Tibetns* On the est his J!#is&i+tion is bo!n&e& by 'hinese te##ito#y on the est it* /&es y mon$st the ""ess nom&s o/ the $#ss"n&s* His !tho#ity "i,e tht o/ most nti%e +hie/s in 'hin e5ten&s #the# o%e# t#ibes n& /mi"ies thn /i5e& te##ito#y n& its "imits #e the#e/o#e %$!e* =19:1)13;> We note he#e on+e mo#e the !tho#ity o%e# (eo("e #the# thn te##i to#y n& the "+, o/ ny #e" +ont#o" o%e# (sto#" (o(!"tions =the ""ess nom&s o/ the $#ss"n&s>* The +omment bo!t the nti%e hie/s in Si+h!n in+i&ent""y sho!"& be #e& in the "i$ht o/ the &te o/ the boo,* Tei+hmn h& J!st been in%o"%e& in ne$otitin$ the 191 sett"ement by hi+h these #e$ions e#e ""o+te& to 'hin n& the n e//e+ti%eness o/ 'hinese +ont#o" s yet t o be +ome ((#ent =see 'h(te# ;>* Histo#i+""y the $#i+!"t!#" #e$ions o/ Am&o e#e #es o/ +ont+t bet ee n Tibet n s n & % #iet y o/ othe # (o (! "t ion s 'hi nes e Hn n& H!i> S"# T! =Mon$!o#> n& (e#h(s most im(o#tnt /o# 'IILIED SHAMANS Tibetn !&&hism Mon$o"ins* The "#$e Ge"!$( monste#ies most"y in the $#i+!"t!#" #e$ions =s ith Lb#n$ .!mb!m n& 'honi> e#e mJo# +ente#s /o# the (#o($tion o/ !&&hism mon$ the Mon$o"s n& mny o/ the mon,s n& "ms in+"!&in$ some o/ the most /mo!s s+ho"#s e#e /#om Mon$o" /mi"ies* Pe#h(s by ne+essity in this +om("e5 m!"ti0 ethni+ sit!tion e%en the Ge"!$( s+ho"#s o/ Am&o e#e o/ten mo#e o(en0min&e& thn thei# eC!i%"ents in +ent#" Tibet*7 I/ Am&o s #e$ion o/ +!"t!#e0+ont+t m!+h the sme s t#!e in %#io!s ys o/ the #eminin$ #es o/ Tibetn (o(!"tion e5mine& in the ne5t +h(te#* He#e hoe%e# the +ont+t s not ith 'hinese n& Mon$o"in (o(!"tions b!t ith (#im#i"y (eo("e on the /#i n$es o/ the Hin&! +i%i"i2tion o/ So!th Asi n& ith the M!s"ims o/ .shmi#*
6 Tibetan Societies: Southern and Western Tibet
This +h(te# &e"s ith the #eminin$ #es o/ Tibetn (o(!"tion "yin$ "on$ the +o!#se o/ the Him"ys to the so!th n& est o/ +ent#" Tibet* Most nth#o(o"o$i+" #ese#+h on Tibetn (o(!"tions hs been +##ie & o!t in these #es =(#im#i"y /#om no#the#n Ne(" n& L&,h> n& e #e in mny #es(e+ts C!ite e"" in/o#me& bo!t them* The ++essibi"ity o/ L&,h n& othe# Tibetn #es in In&i n& o/ Tibetn (o(!"tions in Ne(" is itse"/ #es!"t o/ these (o(!" tions h%in$ been in+o#(o#te& into non0Tibetn (o"ities* This "on$ ith the $eo$#(hi+""y m#$in" (osition o/ these #es in #e"tion to most o/ the Tibetn (o(!"tion #ises the C!estion o/ ho to inte$#te nth#o(o"o$i+" &t on /o# e5m("e L&,hi o# She#( #e"i$ion n& so+iety into n o%e#"" (i+t!#e o/ Tibetn #e"i$ion n& so+iety* My on %ie is tht the &t /#om these #e$ions is %e#y im(o#tnt /o# n o%e#"" !n&e#stn&in$ o/ Tibet b!t tht it hs to be inte#(#ete& in the "i$ht o/ the #e"tionshi( beteen +omm!nities s!+h s L&,h or .h!mb! n& the i&e# Tibetn +onte5t* A mJo# (!#(ose o/ this +h(te# is the#e/o#e to (#o%i&e the bsis /o# !n&e#stn&in$ tht #e" t ionshi(* These so!the#n n& este#n #e$ions #e "so o/ inte#est
'IILIED SHAMANS e%e# in othe# #es(e+ts /o# e5m("e s (#o%i&in$ /!#the# m("es o/ t#&ition" Tibetn (o"ities =(#ti+!"#"y !tn n& L&,h>* GENERAL DES'RIPTION #eminin$ #es o/ ethni+ Tibet "ie /o# the most (#t si&e the Peo("es Re(!b"i+ o/ 'hin n& +n be &i%i&e& $h"y into so!the#n $#o!( +onsistin$ o/ Si,,im h!tn h (#ts o/ este#n Ne(" n& the In&in stte o/ A#!n+h"
&esh =M( 7> n& este#n $#o!( +onsistin$ o/ (#ts o/ te#n Ne(" (#ts o/ the Tibet A!tonomo!s Re$i on (#t s the In&in stte o/ Him+h" P#&esh n& (#t o/ m! n& .shmi# =M( @>* With the e5+e(tion o/ the e(en&ent stte o/ h!tn these #e$ions h%e been o#(o#te& into the mo&e#n sttes o/ In&i n& Ne("* +e the Tibetn (o(!"ti ons ithin the Peo("es Re(!b"i+ 'hin =PR'> e#e !nti" #e+ent"y in++essib"e to h#o(o"o$i+" #ese#+h by non0'hinese most mo&e#n e#+h on Tibetn (o(!"tions hs been +##ie& o!t s tione& bo%e ithin these so!the#n n& este#n #es* e#the"ess the (o"iti+""y sensiti%e sit!t ion "on$ the inese /#ontie# hs ment tht not "" h%e been essib"e to Weste#n #ese#+he#s on #e$!"# bsis* Most o/ these so!the#n n& este#n #es h%e t me time /o#me& (#t o/ +ent#" n& este#n Tibetn "ities b!t by the (#emo&e#n (e#io& they h& ith +o!("e e5+e(tions been (o"iti+""y in&e(en&ent o/ Tibet /o# me +ent!#ies* y the tentieth +ent!#y the#e e#e /o!# t!#""y Tibetn sttes ithin so!the#n n& este#n Tibe t) !tn Si,,im M!stn$ n& L&,h "tho!$h Si,,im s #itish (#ote+to#te n& M!stn$ n& L&,h
TIETAN SO'IETIES) SOUTHERN AND WESTERN TIET #es o/ the Tibet A!tonomo!s Re$ion =TAR> =:> h!tn n& Si, ,im (2) Tibetn #es o/ este#n Ne(" =;> Tibetn #es o/ este#n Ne(" n& =6> Lh!" S(iti L&,h n& ns,#* ARUNA'HAL PRADESH AND SOUTHERN ORDER OF THE TIET AUTONOMOUS REGION
In A#!n+h" P#&esh n& /!#the# to the no#th n& est "on$ the so!the#n /#in$es o/ the Tibet A!tonomo!s Re$ion o/ the PR' e /in& mi5t!#e o/ Tibetn0s(e,in$ (eo("es "on$ ith (#ti""y Tibetni2e& (eo("es ho s(e, othe# Tibeto0!#mn "n$!$es* These non0Tibetn $#o!(s "i%e (# ti+! "# "y in the "o e# %" "eys* Th e Tibet n s t#&ition""y #e/e##e& to them s Mn( n& Lo( "tho!$h neithe# o/ these te#ms s(e+i/ie& sin$"e &istin+t ethni+ $#o!(* The Mn( #e/e##e& (#im#i"y in mo&e#n times to the (eo("e o/ the Tn$ +o##i&o# imme&ite"y to the est o/ h!tn most o/ hi+h no /o#ms (#t o/ the In&in stte o/ A#!n+h" P#&esh =the /o#me# No #t h0 Est F#ontie# A$en+y o# NEFA>* : These (eo("e e#e &istin+ti%e /#om Tibetns b!t h & be en in+ o# (o #t e& in to the Tibet n +! "t! # " s(he#e* A#is ho %isite& the #e in 19 * @019@9 &i%i&es these into th#ee $#o!(s) no#the#n $#o!( hose "n$!$e is simi"# to the (eo("e o/ the !mtn$ (#o%in+e o/ +ent#" h!tn +ent#" $#o!( in&istin$!ishb"e /#om the Tsn$" (eo("e o/ este#n h!tn n& so!the#n $#o!( "so ,non s the She#&!,(en =19o see "so 19@9)5% 1::>* These "n$!$es #e "" Tibeto0!#mn b!t none is m!t!""y inte""i$ib"e ith +ent#" Tibetn* The #e hi+h h& se#ies o/ (etty ,in$s /#om t "est the te"/th +ent!#y s +!"t!#""y "in,e& ith Tibet /#om then o# e#"ie# n& it +me !n&e# Ge"!$( in/"!en+e in the si5teenth +ent!#y* It s t,en o%e# by the D"i Lms $o%e#nment in 17o /te# +on/"i+t beteen the Lhs #e$ime n& the ne h!tnese stte n& dzong s set !( t Tn$ the site o/ "#$e Ge"!$( $om(* It s the bi#th("+e o/ the 7th D"i Lm in 173 =see A#is 198 19>* A#is $i%es the te5t o/ the 6th D"i Lms &e+#ee in 178 hi+h #e/e #s to the settin$ !( o/ the mon, "e%y system n& in&i+tes the + ombine& (o"iti+" n& #e"i$io!s (!#(oses o/ these Ge"!$( gom!aD In (#ti+!"# hen the estb"ishment o/ the !tho#ity o/ the P#iest n& Pt#on i*e* the 6th D"i Lm n& the "#$e"y nomin" Mon$o" .in$ 'IILIED SHAMANS TIETAN SO'IETIES) SOUTHERN AND WESTERN TIET o/ TibetV s bein$ int#o&!+e& to Mn in ++o#&n+e ith +ommn& /#om he#e =it s &e+"#e& tht> mi"it#y mes!#es s!+h s n in%sion o!"& not be #eC!i#e& n& so *** it be+me (ossib"e to estb"ish !tho#ity by s,i""/!" mens* =Within the #e$ion st#et+hin$> &on /#om Nyin$sn$ n& !( /#om the In&in bo#&e# t G"in$ n& /#om A"i bin&in$ oth s t,en =hi+h (#o%i&e& /o# the /o""oin$> * * * ) =I> the +o""e+tion o/ mon, "e%y to enb "e some +omm !ni ties to be /o!n&e& =:> the +o""e+tion o/ n ob"tion o/ $#in /#om e%e#y ho!seho"& hi+h h& been b#o!$ht !n&e# !tho#ity +onsistin$ o/ n o//e#in$ o/ /ith o/ J!st ten mes!#es o/ $#in e%e#y s!mme# n& !t!mn =3> the (etitionin$ o/ the sn$h the#e /o#
%i#t!o!s #ites t bi#th n& ð "est these sho!"& be &!"te#te& ith e%i" =;> (e#mission to im(ose =#eC!isitions /o# t#ns(o#t by> st$es &on /#om Tson ith #e&y +om("in+e* Th!s the $ent"e !tho#ity =s im(ose&> by mens o/ the (!#est &esi$ns on the (#t o/ me n& my mon,s* =A#is 19o) i6> The #e +me !n&e# In&in +ont#o" in 19; ; n& 1961 =A#is 198)9>* A++o#&in$ to the 19@1 +ens!s the#e e#e : 9 ;; @ Mn( in (#esent0&y A#!n+h" P#&esh* The#e #e "so Mn( =Menb> no#th o/ the bo#&e# in the Tibet A!tonomo!s Re$ion the 19: +ens!s "iste& 7:; Menb in 'on Nyin$+hi n& M`&o$ +o!nties* Lo( #e/e##e& to the %#io!s t#ib" (eo("es /!#the# to the est s!+h s the A, n& D/"* 3 These (eo("es e#e te+hno"o$i+""y m!+h sim("e# thn the Tibetns n& e#e on"y m#$in""y Tibetni2e&* Most o/ the Lo( t#ibes $in "i%e in (#esent0&y A#!n+h" P#&esh =see F#e#0Himen&o#/ 19:>* The#e #e "so some Lo( =L!ob> (o(!"tions in the Peo("es Re(!b"i+ the 19: +ens!s "iste& :876 L!ob in Min"in$ n& M`&o$ +o!nties o/ the Tibet A!tonomo!s Re$ion* F!#the# to the est in y the#e is nothe# mino#ity $#o!( the Den$ o# Den$ =1::9@ in the 19: +ens!s see W! 199 Th# 199)1990:81>* HUTAN AND SI..IM The sttes o/ h!tn =D#!$y" \ +o!nt#y o/ the D#!$(> n& Si,,im =D#enJon$ \ %""ey o/ #i+e> e#e me&i!m0si2e& Tibetn (o"ities #e0 semb"in$ those o/ .m ='h(te# ;>* oth h!tn n& Si,,im h& s!bstnti" (o(!"tions o/ in&i$eno!s (#t"y Tibetni2e& hi"" (eo("es s e"" s "#$e n!mbe#s o/ nineteenth0+ent!#y Ne("i0s(e,in$ im0 mi$#nts =ho /o#m the mJo#ity o/ the Si,,imese (o(!"tion to&y>* In thei# (#emo&e#n /o#m they both o#i$inte& in the se%enteenth +ent!#y in #e+tion to the Ge"!$( ++ession to (oe# in +ent#" Tibet* They e#e both &ominte& by non0Ge"!$( o#&e#s* The histo#y (o"iti+s n& $eo$#(hy o/ h!tn h%e #e+ei%e& some ttention =see .#n 197@ Rh!" 19@1 M#,s 19@@ A#is 19@9 F#ey 193> b!t the#e hs been no #e" nth#o(o"o$i+" #ese#+h ith th e e5+e(tion o/ F#noise Pomm#ets o#, =199 199b> on the delog shmni+ (#+titione#s o/ the este#n #e$ion =M( 7 no* 16>* A#is &i %i &e s the Tibetni2e& (o(!"tion o/ h!tn into th#ee min +om(onents s(e,in$ m!t!""y in+om(#ehensib"e "n$!$es* These #e =1> the N$"on$ (eo("e o/ the si5 este#n %""eys hose s(ee+h n& +!"t!#e #e +"osest to tht o/ +ent#" Tibet =:> &i"e+t $#o!( in the +ent#" h!tnese %""eys =!mtn$ et+*> hi+h is +"ose to tht o/ the no#the#n Mn( n& =3> the most n!me#o!s the Tsn$"s(e,in$ (eo("e o/ the este#n %""eys* The ntion" "n$!$e D2on$,h s &e#i%e& /#om the N$"on$ &i"e+ts
n& in #itten /o#m is +"ose to stn&#& "ite##y Tibetn =A#is #9@9)5i%K5%ii>*; Tibetn !&&hist in/"!en+es in h!tn &te /#om the time o/ the e#"y ,in$s o/ Tibet =se%enth to ninth +ent!#ies>* To o/ the te"%e tem("es t#&ition""y b!i"t in the time o/ Son$tsen Gm(o =#!"e& +* 7:807;9> to s!((#ess the in&i$eno!s (oe#s o/ Tibet e#e in (#esent0&y h!tn =A#is 19@930;1>*6 P&msmbh% s he"& to h%e %isite& the h!tnese #e$ion n& me&itte& in %#io!s ("+es some o/ hi+h #e sti"" im(o#tnt sh#ines =19@9)1;:>* Se%e#" im(o#tnt Tibetn "ms %isite& n& t!$ht in h!tn in+"!&in$ the Nyin$m( "m Lon$+hen RbJm( =13801373 see 'h(te# :6> n& se%e#" .$y&( "ms in+"!&in$ the +#2y sint D#!$( .!n"e$ = 1 ;66016:9 'h(te# :7>* N!me#o!s tertön o# %ision#y t#es!#e0/in&e#s e#e +ti%e in the #e$ion /#om the e"e%enth to si5teenth +ent!#ies n& most o/ the h!tnese #isto+#+y in "te# times in+"!&in$ the (# esent #!"in$ /mi" y +"i me& &es+ent /# om th e most / mo!s o/ these Pe#n Lin$( =1;6o016:1 see A#is 19@9)17o// 19 'h(te# 17>* D!#in$ this (e#io& most o/ h!tn seems to h%e been in+"!&e& ithin the #e o/ +ont#o" o/ the P$mo&#!( n& Rim(!n$( #!"e#s o/ +ent#" Tibet %i thei# #e(#esentti%e in so!the#n Tibet the Nn$so = (#e/e+t> o/ Lho, hose +(it" s t Lh"!n$ =A#is 59)790@1>* It s nothe# .$y&( "m the /i#st Shb&#!n$ N$n$ N m$ye" =160 ;01761> ho estb"ishe& the in&e(en&ent h!tnese 'IILIED SHAMANS -i TIETAN SO'IETIES) SOUTHERN AND WESTERN TIET stte* He be"on$e& to the he#e&it#y "ine$e o/ the bbots o/ R"!n$ in +ent#" Tibet the min D#!$( .$y&( gom!a t tht time n& he s i&enti/ie& hen +hi"& s the #ebi#th o/ Pe#n .#(o =16:@K 169:> $#et D#!$( s+ho"# =see 'h(te# :7> n& #ein+#ntion o/ the D#!$( /o!n&e# Tsn$( Gy#Q =117101:11 Smith 197 A#is 19@9):o6//>* He /"e& to h!tn in 1717 hoe%e# /te# &is(!te ith the Tsn$( ,in$ o/ +ent#" Tibet ho /%o#e& +om(etin$ +n&i&te to be Pe#n .#(o s #ebi# th n& he& o/ the D#!$( o#&e#* The Tsn$( ,in$ s!bseC!ent"y in%&e& h!tn b!t the Tibetn #my s &e/ete& by N$n$ Nm$ye" s "o+" ""ies* N$n$ Nm$ye" soon be+ me th e &e / +to #! "e # o/ h !tn &es( it e se %e# " ttem(ts to &is"o&$e him by the Ge"!$( #e$ime t Lhs hi+h h& t,en o%e# +ont#o" o/ +ent#" Tibet /#om the Tsn$( ,in$s in 17;:* The +o!nt#ys Tibetn nme D#!$y!" =\ "n& o/ the D#!$(> &e#i%es /#om the &ominn+e the#e o/ N$n$ Nm$ye"s D#!$( o#&e#* The h!tnese stte s theo#eti+""y he&e& in "te# times by N$ n$ Nm$ye" s s!++esso#s ,non s the Shb&#!n$ Ri m(o+h e o# =to h!tns In&in nei$hbo#s n& the # itish> Dh#m RJ* In (#+ti+e the stte s #!"e& by #e$ent the D#!$ Desi& o# Deb 9 de!aE RJ)
The#e ((e#s to h%e been %e#y "itt"e +onsisten+y in the mnne# o/ the #e$entsV ((ointment n& $ene#""y s(e,in$ it s the st#on$ mn o/ the moment o# his nominee ho he"& o//i+e &e/en&in$ it s best he +o!"& $inst the #i%"#y o/ the (#o%in+i" $o%e#no#s* =A#is 19@9):;;> The o#$ni2tion o/ the h!tnese stte h& +onsi&e#b"e /o#m" #e0 semb"n+e to tht o/ the Lhs stte ith n in+#nte "m s he& o/ stte #e$ent bo&y o/ mon, n& "y o//i+i"s n& system o/ #o!n& thi#ty dzong o# #e$ion" he&C!#te#s* In (#+ti+e it o#,e& C!ite &i//e#ent"y* The #e$ents e#e mo#e o/ten "ymen thn "ms "tho!$h they h& to +on/o#m to semimonsti+ sty"e s &i& "" "y o//i+i"s =A#is 19@9):7: 19@>* Pe#h(s be+!se the Shb&#!n$ h& +ome to (oe# ith the ssistn+e o/ the "o+" #isto+#+y not th#o!$h the i& o/ n e5te#n" Mon$o" ""y the #isto+#+y #etine& /# mo#e (oe# thn thei# eC!i%"ents in +ent#" Tibet* The mJo# dzong e#e he#e&it#y (ossessions n& thei# #!"e#s es(e+i""y the (#o%in+i" $o%e#no#s s!+h s the P#o n& T#on$s# Pon"o(s e#e o/ten mo#e (oe#/!" thn the #e$ent himse"/* It s one o/ these "o+" #!"e#s the T#on$s# Pon0"o( O#$yen Wn$+h!, =171019:7> ho e%ent!""y o%e#th#e the en0 ti#e system n& be+me the /i#st he#e&it#y gyel!o o# %h-ögyel (9 S,t* dharmar"6a) o/ h!tn in 198@ =see A#is 19@9 Rh!" 19@1>* No #ein+#ntion s o//i+i""y #e+o$ni2e& /te# the ð o/ the then Shb&#!n$ "tho!$h t "est to "ms h%e been !no//i+i""y #e+o$ni2e&* In Si,,im the (o(!"tion (#t /#om #e+ent Ne("i immi$#nts +onsiste& o/ to +om(onents one Tibetn =o# hoti> n& the othe# an in&i$eno!s Tibeto0!#mn0s(e,in$ n& (#t"y Tibetni2e& (o(!"tion the Le(+hs =N,ne 1977>* The Si,,imese stte t#&ition""y oe& its o#i$in to Nyin$m( "m Lhtsn .!nsn$ Nm$ye" =b* 1 696> ho +me the#e /#om so!thest Tibet in the e#"y se%enteenth +ent!#y* A"on$ ith to othe# "ms .!nsn$ Nm$ye" inst""e& the /i#st 'h$ye" o# he#e&it#y "y #!"e# in 17;: ='h,#b#ty 19o>* The #!"in$ /mi"y o/ the 'h$ye"s s +"ose"y +onne+te& ith the Tibetn nobi"ity n& $ene#""y !n"i,e h!tn the Si,,imese stte #emine& on $oo& te#ms ith Lhs* A(#t /#om N,nes b#ie/ st!&y most nth#o(o"o$i+" o#, in Si,,im =M( 7 no* 17> hs /o+!se& on the Le(+hs =see Go#e# 1939 Sii$e# 197@ 19@7> ho em("oye& Tibetn0sty"e "ms b!t "so mintine& n in&i$eno!s system o/ shmni+ (#+titione#s* In 136 the &ist#i+ts o/ D#Jee"in$ n& ."im(on$ in so!the#n Si,,im e#e nne5e& by the #itish ho im(ose& (#ote+to#te stt!s on Si,,im some ye#s "te#* When the #itish "e/t In&i the stte o/ Si,,im be+me n In&in (#ote+to#te* It s nne5e& by the In&in $o%e#nment in 19@; n& in+o#(o#te& s the tenty0se+on& stte o/ the In&in Union =see Ro 19@> the #!"in$ /mi"y s #emo%e& /#om (oe#* Imme&ite"y to the so!th o/ Si,,im in West en$" the hi"" sttion o/
D#Jee"in$ n& the sm"" m#,et ton o/ ."im(on$ e#e s mentione& /o#me#"y (#t o/ Si,,im* ."im(on$ s o/ +onsi&e#b"e im(o#tn+e in e#"ie# times s the so!the#n te#min!s o/ the min t#&e #o!te beteen In&i n& +ent#" Tibet* oth D#Jee"in$ n& ."im(on$ sti"" h%e s!bstnti" Tibetn (o(!"tions n& D#Jee"in$ no "so hs "#$e +omm!nity o/ She#(s +!"t!#""y Tibetn (eo("e ho h%e mo%e& the#e /#om thei# home"n& in no#the#n Ne(" =see be"o>* TIETAN REGIONS OF EASTERN NEPAL In Ne("
itse"/ "most the enti#e /# no#th o/ the +o!nt #y /#om est to est is o++!(ie& by +!"t!#""y Tibetn =hoti> (o(!"tions mny 'IILIED SHAMANS 'IILIED SHAMANS o/ hi+h h%e no been st!&ie& by nth#o(o" o$ists* Most o/ these Tibetn0 s(e,in$ (o(!"tions #e sm"" in si2e n& in the (#emo&e#n (e#io& #emote o/ ++ess both /#om .thmn&! n& /#om +ent#" Tibet* A"" "on$ the Him"ys these hoti (eo("es t#&e& s"t n& (sto#" (#o&!+ts /#om Tibet /o# $#in n& mn!/+t!#e& $oo&s /#om In&i so s!(("ementin$ the m#$in" "i%in$ tht $#i+!"t!#e n& (sto#"ism (#o%i&e& in the hi$h Him"yn %""eys* With the e5+e(tion o/ M!stn$ in the e5t#eme no#th o/ Ne( " h i+h h & he# e& it# y ,in$ o# gy el! o, these +omm!nities e#e most"y se"/0$ o%e#nin$ i th "itt"e #e/e#en+e to Ne("ese o# Tibetn !tho#ities* Some o/ these $#o!(s be+me C!ite e"thy th#o!$h t#&in$ b!t ith the e5+e(tion o/ the She#(s ho e#e b"e to s!bstit!te to!#ism /o# t#&e mny e#e b&"y hit by the ne#0+esstion o/ Him"yn t#&e hi+h hs +ome bo!t th#o!$h 'hinese $o%e#nment #est#i+tions n& th# o!$h "te #nt i%e so!# +es o/ s!(( "y /o# s"t =se e F #e# Himen&o#/ 19@6>* We i"" +onsi&e# them in to $#o!(s the (eo("e /#om no#th o/ .thmn&! est to the Si,,imese bo#&e# in+"!&in$ the She#(s =M( 7> n& those in este#n Ne(" =M( @>* The &istin+tion is min"y /o# +on%enien+e b!t the#e is somethin$ o/ +ont#st beteen the este#n $#o!( o/ (eo("es se%e#" o/ hom h& +ti%e t#&in$ n& +!"t!#" "in,s to +ent#" Tibet =Din$#i .y&#on$ et+*> n& the este#n $#o!( ho e#e mo#e t#&ition" mo#e iso"te& n& "i$ne& +!"t!#""y mo#e ith este#n Tibet =N$#i>* St#tin$ /#om the /# est o/ Ne(" the s!bstnti" t#&in$ +omm!nity o/ W"on$+h!n$ in the !((e# %""ey o/ the Tm!# Ri%e# =M( 7 no* 1@> n& the Lhomi o/ the !((e# A#!n Ri%e# =M( 7 no* 1> h%e been &es+#ibe& b#ie/ "y by F# e# 0Hi me n& o# / =19 @6 )18 70 13 1> * Othe# st!&ies in+"!&e tht o/ Hei,o S+h#&e# on W"on$+h!n$ =19@> o/ '#o"ine H!m(h#ey on the Lhomi =196 19@> n& o/ Hi"&e$#& Diembe#$e# n& 'h#istin S+hi+,"$#!be# on the .h!mbo "so in the !((e# A#!n ""ey =Diembe#$e#
n& S+hi+,"$#!be# 19; 19 Diem0b!#$e# 199 S+hi+,"$#!be# 199>* Ne5t e +ome to the %#io!s She# ( $#o!(s o/ Ro" "in $ =M( 7 no* 19> .h!mb! =no* :8> n& Sho#!n$ o# So"! =no* :1>* The She#( #e the most intensi%e"y st!&ie& by nth#o(o"o$ists o/ "" Tibetn (o(!"tions* They +"im to h%e mi$#te& /#om .m se%e#" h!n&#e& ye#s $o ((#ent"y #e+hin$ thei# (#esent "o+tion in the e#"y si5teenth +ent!#y =O((it2 19@;>* They sett"e& in the %""eys o/ .h!mb! Sho#!n$ n& Ro""in$ so!th o/ Mo!nt E%e#est "i%in$ TIETAN SO'IETIES) SOUTHERN AND WESTERN TIET h#o!$h /#min$ some (sto#"ism n& t#&e* O((it2 estimte& thei# (o(!"tion in 1976 s #o!n& 16888 =19@;:36>*7 In the (#emo&e#n (e#io& the She#(s #e"tionshi( ith the Ne("ese $o%e#nment s #est#i+te& to the nn!" (yment o/ t5 %i She#( mi && "e m n o # ( n( o* Re+ ent "y t he y h% e b een m!+ h mo# e / !""y in+o#(o#te& into the Ne("ese stte* A"most "" She#(s #e bi"in$!" in Ne("i n& in the She#( &i"e+t o/ Tibetn n& mny h%e be+ome (#os(e#o!s th#o!$h mo!ntinee#in$ n& to!#ism hi+h h%e mo#e thn #e("+e& the &e+"inin$ t#&e #o!tes +#oss the Him"ys s so!#+es o/ in+ome* St!&ies o/ She#( so+iety n& #e"i$ion in+"!&e the o#,s o/ D%i& Sne""$#o%e =196@> 'h#isto(h %on F#e#0Himen&o#/ =197; 19;> F#ie&#i+h F!n,e =1979 19@> Mi+he" O((it2 =197 19@;> She##y O # t n e # = 1 9 @ o 1 9 @ 3 1 9@ 19@b 19@+ 199 99b> Robe#t P!" =19@o 1 9@ 7 19@9 19: 19:b 19; 199o> .th#yn M#+h =19@@ 19@> A"e5n&e# M+&on"& =19o 19ob 191> -ni+e S+he#e# = 1 9@; 1 9@@> n& -ohn D#(e# =in (#ess> mon$ othe#s* Fin""y to the no#th o/ .thmn&! e +ome to the Tibetns =Lm (eo("e> o/ o"mo = He"mb!> n& Ln$t n$ ='"#,e 19o 198b M( 7 no* ::>* In this #e Tibetns n& Tmn$s "i%e +"ose to$ethe# ith the o"mo Tibetns +tin$ s !&&hist +"e#$y to the "o+" Tmn$ (eo("e* The Tmn$ themse"%es #e n inte#estin$ +se st!&y in Tibetni2tion #e+ent st!&ies in+"!&e D%i& Ho"mbe#$s on the Tmn$ in this #e$ion =193 19; 199> n& #i$itte Steinmnns on Tmn$ (o(!"tion so!thest o/ .thmn&! =M( 7 no* :3 Steinmnn 19@ 199>* As ith the Le(+hs o/ Si,,im n& mny o/ the Tibetni2e& $#o!(s o/ .m the Tmn$ em("oy in&i$eno!s shmni+ (#+titione#s "on$ ith Tibetn0sty"e "ms* TIETAN REGIONS OF WESTERN NEPAL The %#io!s Tibetn (o(!"tions in este#n Ne(" h%e "so #e+ei%e& + onsi&e#b"e ttention /#om nth#o(o"o$ists in #e+ent ye#s* Goin$ /#om est to est e +ome /i#st to the (eo("e o/ Ts!m N!b0#i N#P! n& Gys!m&o =Sne""$#o%e 1971 A#is 19@6>* N#0P! =M( @ no* :;> hs been
st!&ie& by N#esh# -n$ G!#!n$ =19@@> n& 'h#isto(h %on F#e#0 Himen&o#/ =193> hi"e Gys!m&o =imme&ite"y to the so!th> s the s!bJe+t o/ Stn M!m/o#&s #e+ent boo, on the en+o!n0 TIETAN SO'IETIES) SOUTHERN AND WESTERN TIET te# beteen Tibetn !&&hism n& G!#!n$ shmnism =199>* The G!#!n$ n& the Tmn$ #e "in$!isti+""y +"ose"y ""ie& to the Tibetns n& thei# in&i$eno!s shmni+ (#+ti+es my #esemb"e (#e0!&&hist #e"i$ion in Tibet in some #es(e+ts* oth h%e so!"0+on+e(ts ""ie& to the Tibetn la =see 'h(te#s Io 1;> hi"e the G!#!n$ h%e son$s (!i) n##tin$ the o#i$ins o/ thei# #it!"s tht seem to (#""e" o"& Tibetn (#+ti+e =St#i+,"n& 193 see Stein 19@1>*@ To the est o/ Gys!m&o #e the (eo("e o/ Mnn$ "so ,non s Nyi0 shn$ =M( @ no* :6 Sne""$#o%e 1971 %n S(#en$en 19@>* The Th,,"i (eo("e o/ T, =no* :7> in the !((e# ."i Gn&,i %""ey #e (#t"y Tibetni2e& n& (#t"y Sns,#iti2e& t#&in$ +omm!nity tht hs been st!&ie& by Sne""$#o%e =1971 19@9> F#e#Himen&o#/ =1977b 19@6> An&#e Mn2#&o =19:> n& Mi+he" in&in$ =19:>* 'h#"es Rmb"e hs o#,e& in the n(o +omm!nity o/ L!b# "itt"e to the no#th o/ T, =19: 193 196> n& the histo#y o/ the sm"" Tibetn ,in$&oms o/ M!stn$ =Lo> n& Se#ib in the !((e# ."i Gn&,i ""ey hs been st!&ie& by D%i& -+,son =19@7 19@ 19;> n& by Rmb"e n& in&in$ =19@>* The (eo("e o/ Do"(o =M( 4, no* :@> e#e &es+#ibe& by Sne""0$#o%e =1971 197@b> F#e#0Himen&o#/ =19@6> n& 'o#nei""e -est =19@;> hose &eti"e& ethno$#(hy o/ the +omm!nity o/ T#( in so!the#n Do"(o =19@7> i"" be #e/e##e& to in s!bseC!ent +h(te#s* On M!$! =no* :> to the est o/ Do"(o the#e #e b#ie/ ++o!nts by F#e#0Himen&o#/ =19@6> n& '"#,e =19@@>* The Nyinb (eo("e =no* :9> /!#the# est $in #e the s!bJe+t o/ se#ies o/ st!&ies by Nn+y Le%ine =19@7 191 191b 19 1+ 19: 19@ 19 >* I n H!m" =no* 3o> in the e5t#eme no#thest o/ Ne(" the#e #e st!&ies o/ the %i""$e#s o/ Limi by Me"%yn Go"&stein = 1 9@; 1 9@6 19@@ 19@@b see "so F#e#0Himen&o#/ 19@6> n& o/ n itine#nt t#&e# $#o!( the H!m"i0.hym( by Hnn R!be# =198 19@ 19@b>* WESTERN TIET LAHUL SPITI LADA.H AND ANS.AR The #eminin$ #es o/ t#&ition" este# n Tibet =T N$#i> #e A"i =N$#i> P#e/e+t!#e o/ the Tibet A!tonomo!s Re$ion in the Peo("es Re(!b"i+ o/ 'hin n& the %#io!s #e$ions o/ so0+""e& In&in Tibet in to In&in sttes Him+h" P#&esh =Lh!" S(iti .inn!#> n& -mm! n& .shmi# =L&,h ns,#>* These este#n #e$ions e#e o/ +onsi&e#b"e im(o#tn+e in Tibetn histo#y (#ti+!"#"y in the e#"ie#
(e#io&* Whi"e the (o(!"tion o/ este#n Tibet s not o#i$in""y Tibe t n0 s( e ,i n$ =the "n$!$e o/ Shn$sh!n$ seems to h%e been #e"te& to .inn!#i n& m!+h o/ the L&,hi (o(!"tion hs been &es+#ibe& s D#&i+ in o#i$in> these (o(!"tions e#e Tibetni2e& t an e#"y st$e n& e5+e(t /o# (#ts o/ Lh!" n& .inn!# they "" no s(e, &i"e+ts o/ stn&#& Tibetn* A/te# the +o""(se o/ the e#"y Tibetn ,in$&om se#ies o/ &ynsties +"imin$ &es+ent /#om the ,in$s be+me "o+" #!"e#s in (#ts o/ este#n Tibet =see Pete+h 19@@ D* -+,son 19@7 19;>* The#e #e sti"" s!bstnti" #e"i+s o/ this (e#io& n& n!me#o!s o"& tem( "es n& me&ittion sites sso+ite& ith the e#"y t#ns"to# Rin+hen Sn$(o =9601866> the In&in si&&hs P&msmbh% n& N#o( n& the thi#teenth0+ent!#y D#!$( "m G&tsn$( =1191:6>* The (o(!"tion in este#n Tibet hoe%e# seems to h%e been in &e+"ine /o# mny +ent!#ies n& it is no the "est (o(!"o!s o/ the mJo# Tibetn #e$ions* In the 19: +ens!s A"i P#e/e+t!#e h& the sm""est (o(!"tion o/ ny o/ the Tibetn (#e/e+t!#es in the Peo("es Re(!b"i+ = ; 9 ; ; (eo("e &i%i&e& mon$ se%en " #$ e +o !n ti es >* It is inhbite& "most enti#e"y by (sto#"ists* Lh!" S(iti n& .inn!# "" "ie ithin the In&in stte o/ Him+h" P#&esh* A++ess to S(iti n& .inn!# hs been #est#i+te& /o# /o#ei$n #ese#+he#s b!t I sh"" m,e some !se in 'h(te# 1@ o/ E"isbeth St!t+hb!#ys o#, on .#sh in Lh!" =M( @ no* 31> n #e hi+h /te# bein$ &istnt &e(en&en+y t ti mes o/ L&,h n& the %#io!s este#n Tibetn ,in$&oms e%ent!""y be+me tt+he& to the Hin&! stte o/ .!"! =St!t+hb!#y 197 in (#ess Dtt 19@8>* L&,h =M( @ no* 3:> s me&i!m0si2e& Tibetn stte t#0 & it io n "" y # !" e& b y gyel!o t Leh ho +"ime& &es+ent /#om the n+ i en t T ib et n # o y " / mi " y* H e s ss i st e & b y s e% e# " s em i0 i n&e(en&ent "o+" #!"e#s =Pete+h 19@@ 19@ M#,s 9@@b Ri2%i 93 Sne""$#o%e n& S,o#!(s,i 19@9 198>* A/te# the #ise o/ Ge"!$( (oe# in Tibet in the mi&0se%enteenth +ent!#y the L&,hi stte s in e, inte#me&ite (osition beteen the Lhs #e$ime to the est n& the M!$h" ="te# Si,h n& Do$#> #!"e#s to the est* Fo""oin$ the Do$# #s o/ 13; to 1;1 it be+me in+o#(o#te& into #itish In&i n& the (oe# o/ the ,in$ o/ L&,h n& othe# "o+" #!"e#s s )$#et"y #e&!+e&* In +ont#st ith the Tibetn #es o/ Him+h" P#&esh L&,h 'IILIED SHAMANS 'IILIED SHAMANS "on$ ith ns,# to its so!th =M( @ no* 33> hs been o(en to #ese#+he#s /#om the mi&Ki 9@os on#&s n& the L&,his h%e been mo#e intensi%e"y st!&ie& by nth#o(o"o$ists thn ny othe# $#o!(s e5+e(t (e#h(s the She#(s =#!en 198 19ob 19: D#$yy 196 197 19
Den&"et+he n& .("nin 196 F#ie&" 193 .ntos,y n& Sn&e# 193 .("nin 191 196 Sin$h 1 9 @ @ Do""/!s 199 see "so #y 19>* M!+h o/ this o#, is hoe%e# sti"" !n(!b"ishe& =see /o# e5m("e Dy 197 19@ 199 G#imsh 193 M#,o 196 in (#ess Phy"+to! 199>*9 Este#n L&,h n& ns,# h%e #emine& Tibetn !&&hist b!t m!+h o/ the Tibetn0s(e,in$ (o(!"tion o/ este#n L&,h hs been +on%e#te& to Is"m* F!#the# est in te##ito#y no &ministe#e& by P,istn is the Tibetn0s(e,in$ #e$ion o/ "tistn b!t the (o(!"tion he#e hs been enti#e"y Is"mi+i2e& n& th!s /""s o!tsi&e the $ene#" +om(ss o/ this st!&y* L&,hi n& .shmi#i M!s"im o# .+he t#&e#s e#e si$ni/i+nt in the +onte5t o/ the oo" t#&e beteen Tibet n& .shmi# n& n!mbe# o/ them sett "e& in Lhs he#e the#e s sm"" M!s"im +omm!nity =Pete# 196:>* 'ON'LUSION With the e5+e(tion o/ the #e/!$ee0bse& st!&ies o/ Din$#i n& the GyntsQ #e$ion n& the s+tte#e& n& %#ib"e o#, o/ mission#y0 nth#o(o"o$ists in Am&o (#+ti+""y "" si$ni/i+nt nth#o(o"o$i+" #ese#+h on Tibetn (o(!"tions hs been on the +omm!nities in Ne(" n& L&,h &is+!sse& in this +h(te#* The C!estion nt!#""y #ises o/ ho #e(#esentti%e this mte#i" mi$ht be o/ Tibetn so+iety s ho"e n& =$i%en tht this is (#im#i" y boo, on Tibetn #e"i$ion> o/ Tibetn #e"i$ion s ho"e* This is &i//i+!"t C!estion to nse# in (#t be+!se the#e #e se%e#" &i//e#ent /+to#s to t,e into ++o!nt* Ethni+ Tibet &es(ite the !ni/yin$ e//e+ts o/ !&&hism t#&e n& +ommon #itten "n$!$e hs ne%e# been (#ti+!"#"y homo$eneo!s #e$ion* The mJo# (#o%in+es o/ .m Am&o +ent#" Tibet n& este#n Tibet h%e &i//e#ent histo#ies n& h%e been sh(e& in mny ys by those histo#ies* It #eC!i#es +onsi&e#b"e e//o#t /o# .mbs Am&os Lhs (eo("e n& L&,his to !n&e#stn& e+h othe# s s(o,en "n$! $es* Within e+h o/ those #e$ions the#e #e n!me#o!s +omm!nities ith &i//e#ent TIETAN SO'IETIES) SOUTHERN AND WESTERN TIET &i"e+ t s so+i" st#!+t!#es ,inshi( systems n& #it!" (#+ti+es* The s#e o/ /o",0#e"i$io!s (#+ti+es is (#obb"y (#ti+!"#"y %#ib"e b!t Tibetn +omm!nities $ene#""y seem to h%e e"+ome& &i%e#sity n& ++e(te& "o+" %#ition s nt!#" n& the &i//i+!"ties o/ +omm!ni+t ion "on$ ith the "+, o/ ny e//e+ti%e +ent#"i2e& stte th#o!$h most o/ Tibetn histo#y o!"& h%e &one nothin$ to #e&!+e this &i%e#sity* F#om this (oint o/ %ie no one (#t o/ Tibet is $oin$ to be #e(#esentti%e o# ty(i+"* The Ne("i n& L&,hi +omm!nities h%e hoe%e# in +ommon thei#
m#$in" (osition in #e"tion to the +ente#s o/ Tibetn +!"t!#e #e"i$ion n& (o"iti+" !tho#ity* MJ o# t#ns/o#mtions in Tibetn #e"i $ion s!+h s the nineteenth0+ent!#y Rime& mo%ement im(+te& #e$ions "i,e L&,h o# no#the#n Ne(" on"y s"o"y n& in&i#e+t"y* In &&ition mny o/ these +omm!nities h%e /o#me& (#ts i/ (oo#"y inte$#te& (#ts o/ So!th Asin so+i" +onte5ts n& this hs &o!bt"ess h& its e//e+ts* As(e+ts o/ She#( so+iety s!+h s the st#on$ hi$h0"o &i+hotomy note& by se%e#" obse#%e#s =O#tne# 19@ 19@b D#(e# in (#ess> o# the im(o#tn+e o/ "!0s(i#its hi+h e+hoes the Ne#i n"ga +!"t =Sin$h Ne("i 1976> my #e/"e+t thei# Ne("i +onte5t* So my the systems o/ #n,e& $#o!(s o/ %i""$es mon$ the /# este#n Ne("ese $#o!(s n& the Th,,"i =F#e#0Himen&o#/ 1 9@ 6> * The #e"ti%e"y +"e#i+"i2e& (osition o/ the L&,hi mon,s n& "ms my #e/"e+t thei# # 6o ye#s o/ histo#y ithin Hin&! stte n& ithin #itish n& in&e(en&ent In&i* Th!s the L&,hi system by hi+h the "#$e gom!a ((oint in&i%i&!" mon,s to #esi&e in %i""$e tem("es s ,in& o/ %i""$e (#iest hs not been #e(o#te& /#om e"sehe#e in the Tibetn #e$ion =Do""/!s 199>* Th!s e +nnot t,e these st!&ies s ty(i+" o/ Tibet s ho"e* Hoe%e# it hs to be #e+""e& tht no sin$"e #e$ion s ty(i+" o/ Tibet s ho"e* Lhs ith its Ne#i .shmi#i n& H!i 'hinese t#&e#s i ts #i+h #isto+#ti+ mnsions its $#et Ge"!$( monste#ies n& the i mme&ite (#esen+e o/ the D"i Lms $o%e#nment s not ty(i+" eithe# n& the ho"e i&e o/ "o+tin$ # e(#esentti%e Tibetn +omm!nity is mis+on+ei%e&* Wht e nee& to &o #the# is to b!i"& !( n o%e#"" (i+t!#e o/ the %#io!s ,in&s o/ so+i" (o"iti+" n& #e"i$io!s ' onte5ts /o!n& in &i//e#ent #e$ions o/ Tibet n& o/ the ys in hi+h th ey e#e "in,e& to$ethe# to /o#m &i%e#se n& (e#(et!""y +hn$in$ gtot"ity* F#om tht (oint o/ %ie o!# sit!tion is not i&e" sin+e o!# in/o#0
'IILIED SHAMANS
mtion on mny (#ts o/ (#emo&e#n Tibet i"" "ys be bse& on in&eC!te so!#+es b!t it is not ho(e"ess eithe# sin+e e &o h%e n e5tensi%e bo&y o/ mte#i" on i&e %#iety o/ Tibetn so+ieties* Tht mte#i" is best inte#(#ete& hethe# e #e "oo,in$ t so+i" st#!+t!#e o# t #e"i$ion in te#ms o/ set o/ %#itions on some bsi+ !n&e#"yin$ (#in+i("es* I sh"" t#y to i""!st#te this in the ne5t +h(te# in te#ms o/ the st#!+t!#e o/ the %#io!s Tibetn +omm!nities n& this i"" "so $i%e !s bsis /o# !n&e#stn&in$ the %#io!s #o"es ("ye& by Tibetn !&&hism ithin those +omm!nities*
7 Tibetan Communities
The mte#i" so /# s!$$ests tht e +n &istin$!ish in $ene#" te#ms /o!# ,in&s o/ Tibetn +omm!nities* I #e/e# to these s +ent#"i2e& $#i+!"t!#" #emote $#i+!"t!#" (sto#" n& !#bn* Centralized agri%ultural %ommunities #e $#i+!"t!#" +omm!nities in areas o/ #e"ti%e"y st#on$ (o"iti+" +ent#"i2tion* Ty(i+" /et!#es =see be"o> #e the /!""y &e%e"o(e& estte system "on$ ith ho!seho"&0#the# thn "ine$e0 bse& ,inshi( system* E5m("es #e #b# A2i2s mte#i " on Din$#i =19@> n& Me"%yn Go"&steins on the GyntsQ #e gion =19@1 19@1b 19@1+>* Remote agri%ultural %ommunities #e $#i+!"t!#" +omm!nities in areas o/ #e"ti%e"y e, (o"iti+" +ent#"i2tion* The estte system is bsent o# e5ists on"y in tten!te& /o#m ith "imite& t5 ob"i$tions + om(#e& to the +ent#"i2e& +omm!nities* The ,inshi( system !s!""y st#esses "ine$e =o# C!si0"ine$e bse& on #e$ion o/ o#i$in> #the# thn h o !seho"&* E5m("es #e 'o#nei""e -ests st!&y o/ T#( in Do"(o ; 1 9@7> Nn+y Le%ines o#, on the Nyinb in no#thest Ne(" ;191 19 b 19> the She#(s s st!&ie& by 'h#isto(h %on F#e# klaimen&o#/ =197;> n& othe#s* 'IILIED SHAMANS TIETAN 'OMMUNITIES A"" !astoral %ommunities, hethe# o5 not /o#m""y "in,e& to n estte h%e +onsi&e#b"e inte#n" !tonomy n& "ine$e0bse& ,inshi( system* E5m("es in+"!&e the Am&o (sto#"ists s st!&ie& by Robe#t E,%"" =/o# e5m("e 197> n& Mtthis He#mnns = 1 9;9> n& the (sto#"ists o/ +en t# " Tib et st! &ie& by M e"% yn Go" &st ein n& 'ynthi e"" =199o>* rban %ommunities, "" C!ite sm"" in +om(#ison to those /o!n& in the +ent#"i2e& sttes o/ Est So!thest n& So!th Asi (#esent +e# tin s(e+i" /et!#es* Thei# (o(!"tions in+"!&e me#+hnts #isto+#ti+ /mi"ies n&
#tisns n& #e o/ten ethni+""y &i%e#se* They #e !s!""y sso+ite& ith im(o#tnt monsti+ gom!a# The ho!seho"&0bse& ,inshi( (tte#n (#e&omintes in these !#bn +onte5ts s ith the +ent#"i2e& $#i+!"t!#" +omm!nities* E5m("es #e Gn$0$# =in Din$#i st!&ie& by #b# A2i2 19@> Lhs GyntsQ n& .n$&in$* In this +h(te# I sh"" e5mine e+h ,in& o/ +omm!nity in t!#n* THE 'ENTRALIED AGRI'ULTURAL PATTERN IN 'ENTRAL TIET The +ent#"i2e& $#i+!"t!#" (tte#n is /o!n& in #e$ions o/ #e"ti%e"y st#on$ (o" it i+ " +e nt#" i2 tio n* Thes e # e in $e ne #" #e s " on $ the mJo# #i%e#s he#e the#e is eno!$h "n& to $ene#te s!bstnti" $#i+!"t!#" s!#("!s* In most +ses s!+h #es #e "so +"ose to the min "on$0 &istn+e t#&e #o!tes* The ,ey e"ement in the +ent#"i2e& $#i+!"t!#" (tte#n is the estte system by hi+h (esnt /mi"ies h%e the he#e&it#y #i$ht to +!"ti%te "n & in e5+hn$e /o# the (yment o/ t5 n& +o#%Qe "bo# to (#ti+!"# estte* This system ((e#s to h%e been +ommon to "" the mJo# $#i+!"t!#" #es o/ Tibet* In &&ition to the +ent#"i2e& #es ithin the D"i Lms stte it s /o!n& in est Tibetn sttes s!+h s De#$e n& the Ho# sttes in h!tn n& in the est Tibetn stte o/ L&,h* The most &eti"e& ++o!nts tht e h%e #e /o# +ent#" Tibet =mo#e s(e+i/i+""y Tsn$>* O!# in/o#mtion on the estte system +omes (#im#i"y /#om #e/!$ee so!#+es Me"%yn Go"&steins #itin$s on %i""$e#s ne# GyntsQ =197 19@1 19@113 19@, I9@i& M( 3 no* ;>9 E% D#$yys boo, "so bse& on in/o#mnts /#om ne# GyntsQ =19:> n& #b# A2i2s ethno$#(hy o/ Din$#i =19@ M( 3 no* :> "#$e t#&in$ +omm!nity to the so!thest o/ Tsn$ (# o%in+e* 'ssine""i n& E,%""s n"ysis o/ the (o"iti+" system o/ S,y =1979 M( 3 no* 3> bse& on #e/!$ee in/o#mnts /#om S,y #!"in$ +i#+"esis "so o/ %"!e es(e+i""y hen s!(("emente& ith D No#b!s !tobio$#(hi+" ++o!nt o/ his +hi"&hoo& in S,y =19@;>* It sho!"& be note& tht "" these #es =Din$#i S,y n& GyntsQ> e#e ne# mJo# &minist#t i%e +ente#s n& on mJo# t#&e # o!tes* In othe# o#&s "" e#e sit!te& he#e the e5t#+ti%e bi"ity o/ the Lhs #e$ime mi$ht be e5(e+te& to be t its hi$hest* A"" these ++o!nts #e/e# to the 19;os n& 196os* A"on$ ith the #itin$s o/ Weste#n %isito#s to +ent#" Tibet /#om 198; on#&s n& the st!&ies o/ the +ent#" Tibetn (o"iti+" system by Rm Rh!" =1979> F#n2 Mi+he" =19:> n& othe#s they (#o%i&e #esonb"y +onsistent ++o!nt o/ the +ent#" Tibetn so+i" n& (o"iti+" system* A mJo# #e o/ &is$#eement in the "ite#t!#e is o%e# Go"&steins insisten+e tht the sit!tion o/ the Tibetn (esnts +n ((#o(#ite"y be #e/e##e& to s se#/&om) The &is(!te #e/e#s mo#e to nomen+"t!#e thn to s!bstn+e =see Mi+he" 197 Go"&stein 197 19 Mi""e# 19@> b!t it hs ob%io!s (o"iti+" o%e#tones in %ie o/ 'hinese ttem(ts to &is("y the
Lhs $o%e#nment s n o((#essi%e n& e5("oitti%e /e!&" system n& so to "e$itimte thei# o%e#th#o* I sh"" +omment on it b#ie/"y be"o* As #b# A2i2 hs em(hsi2e& the bsi+ b!i"&in$0b"o+, o/ these +ent#" Tibetn %i""$e so+ieties s the ho!seho"& =A2i2 19@; 19@) I i@//>* A"" drong!a o# /!"" membe#s o/ the %i""$e +omm!nity be"on$e& to ho!seho"& ithin the %i""$e n& bo#e its nme* These 11 membe#s #e "so #e/e##e& to s tr-el!a =t5(ye#s> ith #e/e#en+e to thei# t50(yin$ stt!s* Ho!seho"&s e#e nme& stt!s0#n,e& en t it ie s, ith inhe#ite& (#o(e#ty n& e+onomi+ ob"i$tions (sse& on no#m""y in the m"e "ine* I&e""y they +ontin!e& /#om $ene#tion to $ene#tion itho!t s!b&i%ision "tho!$h in (#+ti+e they &i& s!b divide. Tibetn %i""$e#s &e%e"o(e& se#ies o/ st#te$ies tht e#e e5("i+it"y J!s ti/ie& in te# ms o/ the (#es e# %t ion o/ the ho! seh o"&* Th es e st #t e$ ies in+"!&e& (o"yn&#o!s m##i$e the sen&in$ o/ s!#("!s 'hi"&#en to gom!as, !5o#i"o+" (mag!a) m##i$e o# &o(tion in +ses Whe#e the#e s no m"e hei# n& the #eti#ement o/ (#ents to sm"" &J+ent ho!ses so tht thei# +hi"&#en +o!"& t,e o%e# the ho!seho"& Proper. A"tho!$h ho!seho"&s e#e #n,e& e5("i+it"y in +onte5ts s!+h the setin$ t /esti%"s the#e e#e "so mny +onte5ts in hi+h the seho"&s m,in$ !( the %i""$e e#e t#ete& s eC!"* The s(onso#0 g of the mJo# $#i+!"t!#" /esti%"s /o# e5m("e !s!""y #otte& m ye# to ye# th#o!$h the ho!seho"&s ithin %i""$e* 'IILIED SHAMANS TIETAN 'OMMUNITIES The ho!seho"&s in %i""$e $ene#""y "so "" be"on$e& to the sme estte* E+h ho!seho"& s ""o+te& "n& by the estte n& h& %#io!s t5 n& %orv;e ob"i$tions to#&s it* In &&ition the %i""$e s ho"e =tht is the bo&y o/ /!"" ho!seho"& membe#s> h& ob"i$tions hi+h its membe#s e#e +o""e+ti%e"y #es(onsib"e /o# /!"/i""in$ =see Go"&stein 19@1 19@1b 19@1+ S!#,hn$ 19;>* No t "" Tibetn %i""$e#s h & th e st t !s o/ /!"" ho!seho"& mem be#s* In (#ti+!"# the#e s "oe#0stt!s $#o!( +""e& the diid%h-ung ="ite#""y sm"" smo,e>* These e#e %i""$e#s ho &i& not h%e (e#mnent "n& #i$hts n& ho "i%e& s tennts on drong!a /#ms o# s itine#nt "bo#e#s* Whi"e they "so h& t5 ob"i$tions t o n estte these e#e $ene#""y m!+h "ess one#o!s thn those o/ the drong!a# A2i2 notes tht hi"e the d8d%h-ung e#e most"y (oo#e# thn the drong!a they h& "ess ob"i$tions n& mi$ht be so+i""y C!ite mobi"e* >iid%h-ung n& drong!a, "on$ ith the t#&e#s in the sm"" tons o/ +ent#" Tibet n& the ser.y-im, t50(yin$ /#me#s ho e#e (#t0time #e"i$io!s s(e+i"ists m&e !( the b!", o/ the +ent#" Tibetn (o(!"tion #o!n& 98 (e#+ent in the Din$#i #e by A2i2s estimte* The $ene#i+ te#m /o# "" these (eo("e s miser, hi+h A2i2 t#ns"tes s +ommone# n& Go"&stein s se#/* The iss!e s "#e&y note& is "#$e"y
te#mino"o$i+" b!t the sso+itions o/ se#/ in En$"ish #e s!+h tht it hs !n%oi&b"e (o"iti+" o%e#tones* Th!s Go"&stein +h#+te#i2es se#/&om s /!n&ment""y n e+onomi+ system in hi+h e"ites he#e&it#i"y tie (esnts to #b"e "n& to $!#ntee themse"%es so!#+e o/ "bo# to o#, the "n& they +ont#o" n& th!s (#o&!+e thei# in+ome =Go"&stein 19)7:>* No one in thi s &is(!te &en ie s th t th e miser h& inhe#ite& e+onomi+ ob"i$tions to thei# esttes* In the +i#+!mstn+es it seems to be bette# to&o(t "ess "o&e& %o+b!"#y s!+h s A2i2s te#m +ommone#* Go"&stein himse"/ hs note& tht the +h#oni+ "bo# sho#t$e in +ent#" Tibet n& the (ossibi"ities o/ es+(in$ to nothe# estte o# to n #e o!tsi&e the estte system +te& s st#on$ b#,e on the (otenti""y o((#essi%e nt!#e o/ the system* As n e5m("e o/ +ent#" Tibetn $#i+!"t!#" +omm!nity e +n t,e Sm& shunggyug!a %i""$e =i*e* one one& &i#e+t"y by the Lhs $o%e#nment n& not by monsti+ o# #isto+#ti+ estte> ne# GyntsQ on the min t#&e #o!te to In&i =Go"&stein 19@1 19 @ 1b 19@1+>* Sm& h& (o(!"tion o/ #o!n& :o o/ hom ;o to ;6 =ei$ht ho!seho"&s> e#e /!"" t5(ye#s (tr-el!a 9 drong!a) n& the #emin&e# d8d%h-ung o/ the mibog o# h!mn0"ese %#iety =i*e* they e#e /#ee to mo%e beteen esttes>* The hi$h (#o(o#tion o/ mibog d8d%h-ung s ty(i+" o/ Lhs $o%e#nment0 one& %i""$es =19@1)6:>* The tot" $#i+!"t!#" "n& one& by the %i""$e n& &ist#ib!te& mon$ the ei$ht drong!a ho!seho"&s s bo!t I888 +#es thei# "n& ho"&in$s #n$e& /#om 3o to 38o +#es ith n %e#$e o/ bo!t ioo +#es =19@1)6:@>* These #e %e#y s!bstnti" "n&ho"&in$s /o# (esnt /#me#s e%en $i%en tht the (#o&!+ti%ity o/ "n& in Tibet m!st h%e been #e"ti%e"y "o* The#e s "so some (sto#" "n&* The ei$ht drong!a h o !s eh o "& s + om (" e te " y< n& " e$ " " y< mono(o"i2e& "" (o"iti+" !tho#ity n& "n& in the %i""$e =Go"&stein 9@1b)7@>* The d8d%h-ung o#,e& on the /ie"&s ""o+te& to the drong!a ho!seho"&s eithe# on &y0$e bsis o# in most +ses "esin$ "n& nn!""y /o# +e#tin mo!nt o/ o#, on the one#s (e#son" /ie"&s* As Go"&stein notes this s n o(en e+onomi+ #e"tionshi( n& $i%en the #e"ti%e "bo# sho#t$e ene#$eti+ n& +om(etent h!mn0"ese serfs +o!"& e+onomi+""y &o %e#y e"" =19@1)6:>* E"sehe#e he $i%es e5m("es o/ s!+h miser $#&!""y #isin$ to e"thy drong!a stt!s 0=197)9o093>*
The t5 ob"i$tions on the drong!a ho!seho"&s in&i%i&!""y n& s ho"e e#e !n&o!bte&"y %e#y s!bstnti") TheyV in+"!&e& t5es in ,in& =s!+h s $#in money n& nim"s> s e"" s %e#y &i//i+!"t n& %#ie& %orv;e se#%i+es* One o/ the mo#e &i//i+!"t o/ these +o#%Qe t5es s the mi"it#y t5* It #eC!i#e& the %i""$e !nit to (#o%i&e 714; men to se#%e (e#mnent"y s so"&ie#s n& he#es these +o!"& be +t!" membe#s o/ the t5(ye# /mi"ies the !s!" ( #+ti+e s /o# the %i""$e s ho"e to hi#e othe# =h!mn "ese> 'IILIED SHAMANS TIETAN 'OMMUNITIES se#/s to se#%e in thei# ("+e* The s"#ies they h& to (y these hi#e& so"&ie#s e#e s!bstnti" b!#&en* Anothe# n& (#obb"y the sin$"e most &i//i+!"t ob"i$tion s the +o#%Qe nim" t#ns(o#t t5* This t5 # eC!i#e& the se#/s to (#o%i&e +## yin$ n& #i&in$ nim"s to (e#s ons n& $oo&s !tho#i2e& by the +ent#" $o%e#nment on n o(en0en&e& bsis* =Go"&stein 19@1)6:@> T5 n& +o#%Qe ob"i$tions /o# the drong!a e#e &!ties on the ho!seho"& hi+h s nme& +o#(o#te !nit not on the in&i%i&!") So long as their %orv;e labor obligations to the lord e#e /!"/i""e& the#e e#e no #est#i+tions on &y0to0&y mo%ement o# +ti%ity n& (#ti+! "# miser +o!"& "e%e his estte to &o b!siness %isit #e"ti%e m,e o//e#in$s t monste#y et+* itho!t h%in$ to obtin ny ,in& o/ (e#mission /#om the "o#& o# his ste#& *** LVo#&s e#e not inte#este& in +ont#o""in$ miser o# inte#/e#in$ in thei# "i%es s n en& in itse"/* They e#e on"y inte#este& in ens!#in$ tht their o*n demesne land n& othe# #eso!#+es e#e o(tim""y !ti"i2e& in (#o&!+tion* =Go"&stein 197)9; his it"i+s> The mibog o# h!mn0"ese d8d%h-ung (i& sin$"e nn!" (yment to thei# o#i$in" estte0"o#&s =not to the esttes on hi+h they e#e o#, in$> tho!$h they mi$ht be #eC!i#e& to (e#/o#m "imite& o++sion" +o#%Qe o#, on the "o#&s estte in &&ition o# to s!(("y #e("+ement to (e#/o#m these se#%i+es =19@1)6:7>* The nn!" (yment #e("+e& the mo#e s!bstnti" +o#%Qe se#%i+es #eC!i#e& o/ othe# =non0"ese&> d8d%h-ung# The stn&#& te#m /o# estte "o#& s !ön!o =Go"& stein 197)7> te#m tht Go"&stein $"osses s "o#& o# #!"e#* We h%e "#e&y met this te#m (n(o in %#iety o/ +onte5ts in Tibetn so+ieties* Some o/ the semi0in&e(en&ent #!"e#s o/ .m e#e ,non by this tit"e =see 'h(te# ;>* Hoe%e# e "so s it bein$ !se& in .m /o# s!bo#&inte o//i+i"s ithin Tibetn stte* In +ent#" Tibet n& e"sehe#e the $o%e#no# o/ dzong is ,non s dzong!ön (i#e#, the (n(o o/ the dzong, see 'h(te# 3> hi"e
mon$ the She#(s !ön!o #e/e#s to the (e#son hose so"e &!ty in #e+ent times t "est s to +o""e+t t5 /o# the Ne("ese mon#+h*; Abo%e the miser in stt!s e#e the #isto+#ts o# ger! a n& the he#e&it#y "m /mi"ies o# ngag!a# oth #isto+#ti+ n& he#e&it#y "m /mi"ies e#e one#s o/ esttes "tho!$h the estte o# labrang o/he#e&it#y "m mi$ht be C!ite sm"" n& &i& not ne+ess#i"y h%e '+he& miser# e"o the miser e#e the ya*a, "o0stt!s $#o!( #e0#&e& s !n+"en n& m,in$ !( #o!n& 9 (e#+ent o/ the (o(!"tion the Din$#i #e$ion* ?a*a e#e /o!n& in most +ent#" Tibetn +o#n0!nities t "est mon$ the $#i+!"t!#"ists* They (# obb"y /o#me& #o!n& 6 to #o (e#+ent o/ the (o(!"tion* They e#e "oo,e& &on on y the mJo#ity ho %oi&e& sh#in$ &#in,in$ o# eti n$ !tensi"s ith em* M##i$e ith ya*a s #e$#&e& s &e$#&in$ to the non0y #tne# ho s himse"/ o# he#se"/ #e&!+e& to ya*a stt!s* A"" these stt!ses in+"!&in$ those o/ miser, both t5(yin $ n& tid%h-ung, e#e inhe#ite& "tho!$h the#e s mobi"ity beteen them s(e+i""y beteen the to miser +te$o#ies* On"y sm"" n!mbe# o/ #isto+#ti+ /mi"ies e#e o/ $#et ntiC!ity* O%e# time #i+h +ommone# mi"ies +o!"& ttin #isto+#ti+ stt!s th#o!$h $o%e#nment /%o# o# +##i$e into estb"ishe& nob"e /mi"ies =Pete# 196;);3>* Din$#i Tietns hoe%e# #e$#&e& #isto+#ti+ o# he#e&it#y "m stt!s s #ee+tin$ n inhe#ite& tt#ib!te o# gy8d ="ite#""y "ine$e>* The ya*a-s "o stt!s "so #e/"e+te& n inhe#ite& gyiid =A2i2 19@)6306@>* i""$es e#e o/ th#ee ,in&s those hose t5 ob"i$tions e#e to #isto+#ti+ esttes those be"on$in$ to labrang o# gom!a, n& those !+h s Sm& be"on$in$ to the Lhs $o%e#nment itse"/* Ro!$h"y ii#& o/ the +ent#" Tibetn esttes e#e in e+h +te$o#y* A#isto+#ts e#e $o%e#nment o//i+i"s s e"" s estte0one#s* A"on$ ith the #$e Ge"!$( monsti+ +ente#s #o!n& Lhs the #isto+#ti+ /mi"ies #o%i&e& the o//i+i"s ho st//e& the b!#e!+#+y o/ the Lhs $o%e#nment in+"!&in$ the &ist#i+t he&s o# dzong!ön ho #esi&e& t the dzong # &minist#ti%e +ente#s th#o!$ho!t the #e !n&e# the Lhs $o%e#nments +ont#o"* MJo# dzong $ene#""y h& to o//i+i"s mon, n& ymn system tht "so (("ie& to some senio# #n,s in the &mi nst#tion t Lhs itse"/* As e s in 'h(te# 3 e sho!"& be#e o/ o%e#systemti2in$ this (i+t!#e o/ the Lhs #e$ime n& "so o/ o%e#estimtin$ the (oe# / the $o%e#nment t Lhs* Mny o/ the "#$e# esttes in +ent#" Tibet s!+h s T#shi Lh!n(o n& S,y h& +onsi&e#b"e (o"iti+" en& /inn+i" !tonomy s &i& the (etty sttes o/ este#n .m hi+h e"" ithin Lhs J!#is&i+tion s!+h s Rio+he o# D#$y b =see 'h(te# ;>* oth the +ent#" $o%e#nment n& in&i%i&!" esttes mintine& law +o!#ts to hi+h &is(!tes mi$ht be b#o!$ht* The estte "o#&s n& 'IILIED SHAMANS TIETAN 'OMMUNITIES thei# o//i+i"s h& the #i$ht to #bit#te +on/"i+ts ithin the estte* Th!s the "#$e estte o/ S,y &es+#ibe& by '* W 'ssine""i n& Robe#t E,%"" $in on the bsis o/ #e/!$ee in/o#mnts h& to L O//i+i"s o#
tr-im!ön t its +(it" ton ho #bit#te& &is(!tes !n#eso"%e& by (#i%te me&ition o# by the "o+" o//i+i"s 6 in the %#io!s "o+" +omm!nities tt+he& to the estte* 'ssine""i n& E,%"" hoe%e# em(hsi2e in thei# st!&y o/ S,y tht &is(!tes e#e he#e%e# (ossib"e sett"e& by (#i%te me&ito#s s!+h s membe#s o/ the &is(!tnts /mi"ies /#ien&s im(o#tnt "o+" (e#son$es o# "o+" o//i+i"s o/ the S,y &minist#tion ='ssine""i n& E,%"" 1979>* S!bmission o/ &is(!te to the " o//i+i"s in%o"%e& (yments o/ /ees n& $i/ts s e"" s the #is, o/ the im(osition o/ (hysi+" (!nishment n& /ines* D No#b!s &es+#i(tion o/ &is(!te his on /mi"y s in%o"%e& in t S,y s!$$ests the !n(#e&i+tbi"ity n& e5(ense o/ s!+h (#o+ee&in$s* The " o//i+i"s e#e not s!((ose& to ++e(t b#ibes tho!$h in +t!" (#+ti+e b#ibes e#e the on"y y o/ +hie%in$ #es!"t* Ne#"y e%e#y ee, Mothe# ith b#ibe in hn& h& to $o to e+h o/ the to o//i +i"s* Mothe# #e+""s tht one o/ the J!&$es s n im(#ti" ho"y mn b!t tht his +o""e$!e h& bi$ stom+h /o# b#ibes* I/ she o//e#e& th#ee b""s o/ b!tte# o# bsin o/ s!$# this se+on& J!&$e o!"& #e("y) I sh"" s(ee& !( yo!# +se n& the mtte# i"" soon be in b"+, n& hite* When she b#ibe& him ith "oo sang note he o!"& so"emn"y intone) o! nee& not o##y too m!+h s the e%i&en+e is in+#esin$"y $!#nteein$ yo!# %i+to#y* He o!"& then &&) I m s!#e yo! i"" in the + se b! t it is mtte# o/ t ime* In&ee& it s mt te# o/ time* The o//i+i"s o!"& !nne+ess#i"y (#o"on$ +se !nti" they e#e stis/ie& ith the b#ibes #e+ei%e&* =D No#b! 19@;)30;> It seems "i,e"y tht S,y %i""$e#s o!"& sett"e thei# &is(!tes o!tsi&e the estte +o!#ts he#e%e# (ossib"eX In the +ses o/ homi+i&e n& some othe# o//enses s!+h s the/t o/ S,y estte (#o(e#ty the " o//i+i"s e#e !tomti+""y in%o"%e& n& the +hie/ &minist#to# (shab!ed) o/ S,y s #es(onsib"e /o# o#&e#in$ the ##est o/ those s!s(e+te&* The Lhs $o%e#nment +o!"& "so in%esti$te +ses o/ homi+i&e in its on #i$ht n& its "o+" o//i+i"s o!"& (#es!mb"y h%e (#o%i&e& n "te#nti%e t#ib!n" /o# "iti$nts to ((#o+h* Neithe# the esttes no# the Lhs $o%e#nment mintine& stn&in$ #my !nti" the +ent#" $o%e#nment int#o&!+e& one in the 19:os* e/o#e then the Lhs $o%e#nme nt +o!"& s!mmon "e%y o/ the (o(!"tion ithin its &omin /o# mi"it#y (!#(oses s (#es!mb"y +o!"& the "o+" esttes* The esttes n& the Lhs $o%e#nment h& n!mbe# o/ (o"i+e o//i+e#s ho +o!"& be !se& to ##est s!s(e+ts in +ses s!+h s homi+i&e ='ssine""i n& E,%"" 1979)1@3>* 'ssine""i n& E,%"" "so $i%e some in/o#mtion bo!t the +hoosin$ o/ %i""$e he&men ithin the S,y &omins* They e#e se"e+te& by the %i""$e#s th#o!$h (#o+ess o/ +onsens!s b!t the estte &minist#tion o/ S,y +o!"& %eto (#ti+!"# s!$$estions* 'ssine""i n& E,%""s in/o#mnts
he"& tht the he&men +onsi&e#e& themse"%es (#im#i"y s(o,esmen /o# thei# (eo("e n& se+on&#i"y o//i+i"s o/ the S,yV $o%e#nment n& tht the s!bJe+ts s them in the sme "i$ht**** In +hoosin$ He&mn the s!bJe+ts o/ S,y so!$ht mn o/ (#esti$e n& +h#+te# ho +o!"& me&ite thei# on &i//e#en+es n& ho o!"& not be +oe& by hi$h $o%e#nment" o//i+i"s nob"emen n& othe# (oe#/!" (eo("e* They so!$ht (#ote+tion /#om someone ho s s!(e#io# b!t not too s!(e#io#* ='ssine""i n& E,%"" 1979)9@09> 'ssine""i n& E,%""s in/o#mnts be"on$e& to the S,y #!"in$ /mi"y n& my $i%e n !n&!"y #osy (i+t!#e o/ the S,y #e$ime J!st s they e5 $$e#te its in&e(en&en+e /#om the Lhs $o%e#nment in some #es(e+ts =see 'h(te# ;>* Thei# sttement hoe%e# s!$$ests s &oes D No#b!s ++o!nt tht +ent#" Tibet h& st#on$ e"ements o/ ht mi$ht be &es+#ibe& s (t#on0+"ient #e"tionshi(s ithin its /o#m" b!#e!+#ti+ st#!+t!#e* Tibetns ten&e& to ((#o+h $o%e#nment in te#ms o/ (t#on$e n& in/"!en+e #the# thn im(#ti" b!#e!+#ti+ & e+ision0m,in$* This s o/ +o!#se t#!e o/ mny t#&ition" Asin sttes b!t it is o#th sse#tin$ $inst the ten&en+y o/ ++o!nts s!+h s 'ssine""i n& E,%""s o# F#n2 Mi+he"s =19:> to (o#t#y +ent#" Tibetn (o"ities in te#ms o/ n i&e"i2e& #tion" b!#e!+#+y* GAN TRADING FRIENDS AND OTHER HORIONTAL LIN.S ost o/ the bo%e hs em(hsi2e& %e#ti+" o# hie##+hi+" #e"tion ips hethe# b!#e!+#ti+ o# (t#on0+"ient in nt!#e* We "so s tht e#e s sense in hi+h the Tibetn %i""$e o# t "est its /!"" t50 'IILIED SHAMANS (yin$ membe#s (drong!a 9 tr-el!a) *ere eC!"s* Ho#i2ont" #e"tionshi(s e#e o/ $#et im(o#tn+e ithin Tibetn +omm!nities in+"!&in$ those o/ +ent#" Tibet b!t they h%e #e+ei%e& +onsi&e#b"y "ess ttention in the "ite#t!#e =/o# e5+e(tions see Mi""e# 1967 A2i2 19@)17 19@ 191>* Mi""e# n& A2i2 both &is+!ss the gany; #e"tionshi(* In Din$#i this s /o#m" #e"tionshi( beteen in&i%i&!"s s!+h tht e+h %i""$e# h& se%e#" othe# %i""$e#s ho e#e his o# he# gany;# An in&i%i&!"s gany; $#o!( h& ob"i$tion to s!((o#t tht (e#son in times o/ +#isis to +t s $o0beteen on his o# he# beh"/ to #bit#te in &is(!tes in hi+h thei# gany; s in%o"%e& n& to $i%e him o# he# /ee&b+, on so+i" beh%io# in $ene#" =A2i2 19@)19019@ 191>* As She##y O#tne# notes /o# the She#(s the estb"ishment n& mintenn+e o/ so+i" #e"tionshi(s beteen Tibetn ho!seho"&s s mtte# o/ mJo# im(o#tn+e n& s o/ten he%i"y
#it !"i2e& =19@) 7109o see "so M#+h 19@>* Othe# ho#i2ont" #e"tionshi(s in+"!&e& /o#m"i2e& /#ien&shi( #e0 "tionshi(s n& the (e#mnent t#&in$0(#tne# #e"tionshi(s in &istnt ("+es tht e#e n essenti" +om(onent o/ the "on$ t#&in$ Jo!#neys Tibetns !n&e#too,* In &&ition ,inshi( #e"tionshi(s e#e im(o#tnt ys o/ estb"ishin$ ho#i2ont" "in,$es hen t#%e"in$* Tibetns in !n/mi"i# ("+es o!"& no#m""y #e"y on ny #e"ti%es in those (#t s s t "est n initi" #eso!#+e* The /i+ti%e ,inshi( #e"tionshi(s /o#me& by m!t!" membe#shi( in (#ti+!"# "ms /o""oin$ =%J#0b#othe#s n& siste#s te+hni+""y those ho h%e !n&e#$one Tnt#i+ em(oe#ment to$ethe#> +o!"& "so / o#m t he bs is o/ im(o#t nt "in,$es i n* e%e#y&y "i/e* A"" these #e"tionshi(s he"( !s to #e"i2e tht e%en the #e"ti%e"y st#ti/ie& so+iety o/ +ent#" Tibet sho!"& not be seen sim("y in te#ms o/ #e"tionshi(s beteen D"i Lm n& estte "o#& o# beteen estte "o#& n& (e sn t =o# se# />* S!+ h #e" t ion s e# e si$n i/i+ nt b!t in te#ms o/ the &i"y te5t!#e o/ (eo("es "i%es they e#e (#obb"y m!+h "ess si$ni/i+nt thn ho#i2ont" #e"tionshi(s mon$ /#ien&s #e"ti%es n& nei$hbo#s* As A2i2 +omments The Din$#i (eo("e seem to h%e "itt"e /ee"in$ to#&s thei# t5in$ !tho#ities* They to"e#te the %isitin$ o//i+i"s n& they &o ht they m!st ho(in$ tht +ont+t +n be ,e(t minim" =19@) :81>* The one %e#ti+" #e"tionshi( tht s hi$h"y s"ient in mny %i""$e#s "i%es s tht ith thei# (e#son" "m o# tsa*; lama# This s enti#e"y &i//e#ent in +h#+te# /#om the im(e#son" ttit!&e to the TIETAN 'OMMUNITIES 5in$ !tho#ities* The te#m "ite#""y t#ns"tes s #oot "m b!t A2i2 s!$$ests tht he#t "m o!"& be mo#e ((#o(#ite s s!$$estin$ *the sense o/ en&e#ment tht is so im(o#tnt to the #e"tionshi( 19 @ )::3>* De%otion to ones tsa*; lama is +ent#" e"ement in Tibetn #e"i$io!s "i/e* In P#t To o/ this boo, e i"" "oo, in mo#e &eti" t the im(o#tnt "in,s beteen "m n& /o""oe#s* lg
'ENTRALIED AGRI'ULTURAL 'OMMUNITIES OUTSIDE THE LHASA GOERNMENT We &o not h%e m!+h &eti"e& mte#i" bo!t +ent#"i2e& $#i+!"t!#" +omm!nities n& the estte system in #e$ions o!tsi&e the Lhs #e$ime* Rin2in Th#$y"s sho#t ++o!nt o/ De#$e =19> &emonst#tes some (#"" e"s i th the +ent#" Tib etn syst em* Esttes e#e he"& by he#e&it # y nob"es =(#es!mb"y "so by monste#ies> n& in%o"%e& n ob"i$tion to b!#e!+#ti+ se#%i+e s in +ent#" Tibet* T5(ye# ho!seho"&s e#e "ib"e to n!me#o!s t5es n& to "bo# on the estte0one#s )on /ie"&s n& they +o!"& not mo%e to nothe# estte itho!t (e#mis sion. The#e s ((#ent"y mo#e
so+i" mobi"it y n& "tit!&e in the system thn in +ent#" Tibet =19)39;>* The estte system ((#ent"y e5iste& in L&,h !nti" 19;@ in m!+h the sme /o#m tht e h%e seen in De#$e ith the #o"e o/ the *t#&ition" L&,hi #isto+#+y $#&!""y bein$ #e("+e& by tht o/ M!s"im "n&one#s* It seems hoe%e# to h%e been mo#e o((#essi%e thn in +ent#" Tibet t "est in #e+ent times* Ho /# this #e(#esents the "e$+y o/ +ent!#y o/ non0Tibetn =Do$#> #!"e is h#& to e%"!te* Most +ommone# ho!seho"&s e#e he%i"y in&ebte& n& e#e /o#+e& to bo##o $#in e+h ye# n& #e(y it ith inte#est t the time o/ h#%est* XThe system #(i&"y &is((e#e& /te# 19;@ in (#t th#o!$h the ##i%" O/ the #my n& the in/"!5 o/ $oo&s ith its e//e+t on "o+" (#i+es b!t min"y s #es!"t o/ &e"ibe#te $o%e#nment (o"i +y tht ("+e& "o lceiling on "n&ho"&in$s =the $om( e#e e5em(te& /te# (!b"i+ (#o t es t) n& bo"ishe& the t#&ition" ob"i$tions in%o"%e& i th estte in& =.("nin 191)9;096 Do""/!s 199)7@079>* 1 Ps+"e Do""/!ss ethno$#(hy o/ the L&,hi %i""$e o/ Hemis h !$(+hen =199> the#e/o#e &es+#ibes sit!tion he#e the %i""$e#s n thei# on "n& #the# thn o#, on t#&ition" esttes* He# +!nt shos mny o/ the othe# /et!#es e /o!n& in +ent#" Tibet* 'IILIED SHAMANS The (o(!"tion is st#ti/ie& he#e on #the# In&in mo&e") the#e #e /o!# "e%e"s #oy"ty #isto+#+y +ommone#s n& "o0stt!s $#o!( tht in+"!&es (#o/ession" "o0+ste m!si+ins (mön), smiths (gara), n& itine#nt minst#e"s (beda) =199) 330;@>* The#e #e "so ho#i2ont" "in,$es beteen ho!seho"&s he#e #esi&enti" $#o!(s o/ ten ho!seho"&s (%hutso), +oo(e#ti%e +!"t $#o!(s (!-as!un), #e"i$io!s sso+itions (%h-os!un), n& o#, $#o!(s =199)1690193>* As e sh"" see in the ne5t se+tion hoe%e# both o/ these /et!#es +n be /o!n& in "ess +ent#"i2e& (#ts o/ ethni+ Tibet he#e the estte system s not t#&ition""y in o(e#tion* THE REMOTE AGRI'ULTURAL PATTERN IN NEPAL The #emote $#i+!"t!#" (tte#n is /o!n& in #e$ions he#e the#e is "itt"e o# no e//e+ti%e (#esen+e o/ ny +ent#"i2e& (o"iti+" !tho#ity* These #e !s!""y #es o/ #e"ti%e"y "o $#i+!"t!#" (#o&!+ti%ity y /#om the mJo# "on$0 &istn+e t#&e #o!tes* He#e the estte system s s!+h is bsent "tho!$h e"ements o/ it my e5ist in the /o#m o/ "imite& t5 o# t#ib!te ob"i$tions to &istnt +ente# o/ (o"iti+" !tho#ity* O!# (#in+i(" e5m("e i"" be 'o#nei""e -ests ethno$#(hy o/ T#( in Do"(o hi+h $i%es & eti"e& n& e5em("#y ++o! nt o/ one o/ thes e + omm!nities =M( 4, no* :@>* T#( in the 197os +onsiste& o/ th#ee sm"" %i""$es =Ln$ Do n& To,0,hy!> ith tot" (o(!"tion o/ ;7; (eo("e &i%i&e& into I I I ho!seho"&s*
-est &oes not $i%e the si2e o/ "n&ho"&in$s b!t they e#e +"e#"y m!+h sm""e# thn the %e#$e Ion0+#e ho"&in$s o/ the drong!a =/!"" t5(yin$ membe#s> o/ Sm& in +ent#" Tibet n& e#e o#,e& (#im#i"y by the one#s o/ the "n&* The#e s nothin$ +o##es(on&in$ to the bsi+ &i//e#entition mon$ estte "o#&s (!ön!o), drong!a %i""$e#s n& d8d%h-ung $#i+!"t!#" "bo#e#s tht e s in the +ent#"i2e& $#i+!"t!#" +omm!nities o/ +ent#" Tibet* The#e s ne%e#the"ess m#,e& &e$#ee o/ inte#n" st#ti/i+tion in T#(* -est &i%i&es the ho!seho"&s o/ T#( into /o!# $#o!(s =hi+h he +""s strates, st#t>* The /i#st to st#t shimi =73 ho!seho"&s> n& %h-ogmi =1@ /mi"ies> "" be"on$e& to nme& (t#i"ine" &es+ent $#o!(s o# # hose membe#s e#e &ist#ib!te& th#o!$ho!t Do"(o tho!$h +on+ent#te& in +e#tin %i""$es =-est 19@7 ):;1 0:; 7 :;9>* St#t!m I +onsiste& o/ "o+" /mi"ies n& in+"!&e& the he#e&it#y TIETAN 'OMMUNITIES "ms n& most o/ the "y #e"i$io!s (#+titione#s ='h(te#s 16 to 1@> St#t!m II s m&e !( o/ Do"(o /mi"ies /#om o!tsi&e the imme&ite "o+"ity* St#t!m III s $#o!( o/ ei$ht smith ho!seho"&s in Do %i""$e n& St#t I +onsiste& o/ #7 "o0stt!s bera /mi"ies* The men o/ St#t!m I +"" them the men itho!t "ine$e* The bera are the m#$in" (eo("e o/ the +omm!nity n& thei# sett"ement ++o#&in$ to t#&ition seems to h%e been #e"ti%e"y #e+ent* Thei# ho!ses he#e they h%e them n& on them #e b!i"t t the e&$es o/ the %i""$es thei# yo!n$ (eo("e /te# thei# m##i$e o/ten be+ome /o# "+, o/ othe# #eso!#+es se#%nts o# yog!o in #i+h ho!ses* =-est 19@7):;0:;9 my t#ns"tion> Se%en mo#e ho!seho"&s hose membe#s o#i$inte& /#om o!tsi&e the Do"(o #e$ion =nom&s Th,"i et+*> e#e "so m#$in" to the +omm!nity* The#e e#e %i""$e +o!n+i"s in Do n& To,0,hy! +onsistin$ o/ "" the men o/ the !((e# to st#t* E+h +o!n+i" h& %hi.y-ab o# he#e&it#y %i""$e he&mn n& the (osts o/ tr-el!o o# t5 +o""e+to# n& trungyig o# se+#et#y e#e t,en in t!#n by membe#s o/ the +o!n+i"* These +o!n+i"s met /i#"y o/ten to #e$!"te the times /o# /#min$ n& (sto#" o#, to ""o+te "n& to ne+ome#s n& to #bit#te in &is(!tes in+"!&in$ +ses o/ &i%o#+e inhe#itn+e n& the/t =19@7):@@0:@9>* \Whe#e !nb"e to #eso"%e &is(!te the +o!n+i" +""e& in the he#e&it#y "m o/ T#( .$# Rim(o+he =see "so 'h(te# 1@> o# Nyim Tse#in$ the bi$ mn o/ the Do"(o #e$ion =19@7):@9 /o# Nyim Tse#in$ see "so Sne""$#o%e 1971>* T#( s t one (e#io& s!bJe+t to the ,in$ o/ M!stn$ n& "te# to the "o+" +hie/ o/ .$beni o# .$* T#( ho!seho"&s +ontin!e& to p ay t5 o/ one #!(ee ho!seho"& to the ,in$ o/ M!stn$ !nti" 196@ =-est 19@7)1@7>* A#o!n& th#ee $ene#tions $o they +me !n&e# the !tho#ity o/ Th,"i +hie/s* In the 197os the Th,"is sti"" +te& s inte #me&i#ies ith the
$o%e#nment o/ Ne(" /o# hom they +o""e+te& -taxes bse& on ho!seho"& si2e the si2e o/ /"o+,s n& the n!mbe# o/ Peo("e in the ho!seho"&* -est estimtes tht t5es mo!nte& to bo!t j ( e#+ent o/ $#oss $#i+!"t!#" (#o&!+tion =19@7)1@;01@7>* Unti" 1969 0hen n e"e+to#" system s int#o&!+e& to othe# Th,"is h& the ;1 5ffice o/ !ön!o o# +hie/ #e(#esentin$ the Ne("i $o%e#nment n& im(n o# J!&$e =19@7):60:7>* In most #es(e+ts hoe%e# the m m!nity s se"/0$o%e#nin$* 'IILIED SHAMANS TIETAN 'OMMUNITIES The &es+#i(tions o/ She#( so+iety by F#e#0Himen&o#/ n& othe#s n& o/ (o(!"tions in the /# no#thest o/ Ne(" by Go"&stein n& Le %ine &e (i+t sit!tions simi"# to T#( in mny #es(e+ts* These +omm!nities e#e "" inte#n""y st#ti/ie& ith the hi$hest stt!s be"on$in$ to membe#s o/ the # =(t#i"ine" &es+ent $#o!(s> ho /i#st sett"e& in the #e n& the "oest to #e+ent ##i%"s* The#e s o/ten s(e+i/i+ "o0stt!s $#o!( +om(#b"e to t he T# ( be ra (e #g #, the She#( .hamendeu, F#e#0Himen&o#/ 197; 19;>* T5 ob"i$tions e#e (i& th#o!$h "o+" inte#me&i#ies s!+h s the She#( (n(o o# !embu = F# e# 0H i me n& o# / 1 9 ; 6 3 0 6 6 > b!t these +o mm !n it ie s e #e essenti""y se"/0$o%e#nin$ ith "o+" bi$ men t,in$ (#ominent #o"e* 'ONTRASTS ETWEEN 'ENTRALIED AND REMOTE ILLAGES The#e #e e%i&ent +ont#sts beteen the +ent#"i2e& $#i+!"t!#" %i""$es o/ +ent#" Tibet n& these "#$e"y se"/0$o%e#nin$ #emote $#i+!"t!#" +omm!nities in Ne("* The#e #e "so (oints o/ simi"#ity es(e+i""y i/ e +om(#e the drong!a st#t!m =/ !"" t50(yin$ %i""$e membe#s> in +ent#" Tibet ith the /!"" membe#s o/ the %i""$e +omm!nity =the shimi n& %h-ogmi in T#( the drong!a mon$ Le%ines Nyinb et+*>* In both +ses the ho!seho"& is the bsi+ !nit* The +omm!nity is m&e !( o/ se(#te ho!seho"&s n& the#e is +onsi&e#b"e em(hsis on mintinin$ the !nity n& +ontin!ity o/ ho!seho"&s* Ho!seho"&s #e mintine& s sin$"e !nits in Ne(" s they e#e in +ent#" Tibet th#o!$h st#te$ies o/ (o"yn&#o!s m##i$e mag!a m##i$e =he#e n on"y &!$hte# m##ies !5o#i"o+""y n& she n& he# h!sbn& t,e o%e# he# (#ents ho!seho"&> monsti+ism n& the #e%e#sion o/ mon,s to "y "i/e he#e they #e nee&e& to +ontin!e the ho!seho"&* The (e#/o#mn+e o/ #it!" &!ties on beh"/ o/ the %i""$e #ottes beteen /!"" %i""$e0membe# ho!seho"&s in the Ne("i e5 m("es s in Tibet* In both +ses it +om(#ises n nn!" +y+"e o/ #it!"s +on+e#nin$ the "o+" &eities n& the (#os(e#ity o/ the %i""$es /ie"&s =see 'h(te#s 9 n& 1o>* In both ty(es o/ %i""$e &is(!tes #e sett"e& he#e (ossib"e by me&ition ithin the +omm!nity o++sion""y /o#m"i2e& s in the +se o/
the T#( %i""$e +o!n+i"s* In the (#emo&e#n (e#io& se#io!s (#o b"ems mi$ht h%e $one to some e5te#n" #bit#to# s!+h s the Th,"i trim!ön =-est 19@7):6> o# sim("y #emin !n#eso"%e& s o/tenh((ene& ith the She#(s in the (#emo&e#n (e#io& =O#tne# 19@):70:@>* 7 The #emote $#i+!"t!#" +omm!nities #e "ess st#ti/ie& thn the +ent#" Tibetn e5m("es b!t the &i//e#en+es he#e +n be e5$$e#te&* He#e&it#y "ms h& hi$h stt!s hi"e the bera, .hamendeu, et+* e#e en&o$mo!s $#o!(s #e$#&e& "i,e the +ent#" Tibetn ya*n, s in/e#io# n& &istin+ti%e* E%en those ho!seho"&s ho e#e /!"" %i ""$e membe# s hi"e eC!" in mny +onte5ts e# e meti+!"o!s"y #n,e& in o#&e# in othe#s =s!+h s setin$ t /esti%" o# (#t y see O#tne# 19@>* The Tibetn #isto+#+y (ger!a) s bsent in Ne(" e5+e(t to the e5tent tht /i$!#es s!+h s the ,in$ o/ M!stn$ o# the .$beni o# Th,"i notb"es +o!"& be si& to #e(#esent the #isto+#ti+ #o"e in #e"tion to the (eo("e o/ Do"(o n& ne#by #es* The !biC!ito!s te#m !ön!o, hi+h e /i#st met s #e/e##in$ to the estte "o#& in +ent#" Tibet s (("ie& by the (eo("e o/ T#( to the Th,"i ho se#%e& s inte#me&i#y ith the Ne(" $o%e#nment * The She#(s (("ie& the sme te#m =She#( !embu) to She#(s ho +o""e+te& t5 /o# the Ne("i $o%e#nment b!t &i& not ne+ess#i"y h%e ny (o" it i+ " ! tho #i ty in +onseC!en+e* It seems to h%e been t#!e in +ent#" Tibet s e"" tht the (#im#y s(e+t o/ the #o"e o/ both the estte !ön!o n& the $o%e#nments dzong!ön s the e5t#+tion o/ #e%en!e =see 'h(te# 3>* One o/ the most st#i,in$ &i//e#en+es t ny #te t /i#st si$ht Mtes to h o! se ho "& s t t! s* I n t he " it e# t !# e o n Ti be t n s o+ ie ti es in Ne(" &i//e#en+e in stt!s ++o#&in$ to membe#shi( o/ ru, (t#i0"ine""y &e/ine& $#o!( is (e#%si%e theme =/o# e5m("e F#e#Himen&o#/ 197; n& O((it2 197 /o# the She#(s Le%ine 191 /o# the Nyinb A#is 1 9@6 ) 6;066 7 90@; on .!tn$ n& N!b0#i s e"" s sts T#( mte#i">* In +ent#" Tibet (t#i "in e" &es+ent hs been &is+!sse& min"y in the +onte5t o/ the 388 o# so #isto+#ti+ (ger!a) /mi"ies =e"" 19: Pete# 196; Go"&stein 19@3 Pete+h 19@3b>* It 4teems to h%e been !nim(o#tnt in &e/inin$ stt!s mon$ miser5 A2i2 =sttes tht stt!s /o# Din$#i miser s &e/ine& in te#ms o/ ho!seho"&s "ine$e =19@;>* The#e #e st#on$ t#+es o/ (t#i"ine" &es+ent in Tibetn histo#i+" #t!#e he#e myths o/ si5 o#i$in" n+esto#s ei$hteen min tin$es n& the "i,e #e +ommon =Smith 1979+ .#my 197>* It is i,e"y in %ie o/ n"o$ies e"sehe#e in the nth#o(o"o$i+" "ite# tht these e%e# /o#me& sin$"e enti#e"y +onsistent s+heme* In 'IILIED SHAMANS TIETAN 'OMMUNITIES /+t #e$ion" o#i$in o/ten be+me ssimi"te& to the "ine$e mo&e" in e#"ie# +ent!#ies =see Smith 1979+)1;016 n* 16> s seems to h%e o++!##e& "so ith some o/ the She#( "ine$es =O((it2 197> n& ith othe# Tibetn $#o!(s in Ne("* Line$e in the /o#m o/ the rus!a n& (hs(!n $#o!(s is sti"" n im(o#tnt s(e+t o/ L&,hi n& ns,#i so+iety =#!en 19o .("nin 191 D#$yy 19 Do""/!s 199> n& it +"e#"y #e(#esents si$ni/i+nt mo&e o/ tho!$ht in Tibetn +omm!nities o/ten =s ith T#( the She#(s L&,h n& ns,#> "in,e& to the +!"t o/ +ommon /o",0#e"i$ion
&eity*9 At the sme time s both A2i2 = 1 9@; 1 9@ > n& #!en =19o 19ob> #em#, "ine$e (r8, rus!a, gy8d) s not mtte# o/ st#i$ht/o##& i&eo"o$y o/ (t#i"ine" &es+ent* In (#+ti+" te#ms the o(e#ti%e !nit s #esi&enti" $#o!( o/ households n& thei# membe#s ho h& n sso+ite& stt!s #n,in$ n& some &e$#ee o/ +o#(o#te i&entity /o# #it!" n& othe# (!#(oses* The mJo# &i//e#en+e /#om A2i2s Din$#i mte#i" is tht in Din$#i stt!s /o# the drong!a ho!seho"&s s $ene#""y sso+ite& ith the in&i %i&! " ho!s eho" & n ot ith ny ,in& o/ &es+ent i&eo"o$y* A"" this he"(s to #e&!+e the +ont#st beteen the +ent#" Tibetn (tte#n n& those /o!n& in the so!the#n n& este#n #es* A2i2 s!$$este& some time $o tht these #es my #e(#esent t#ns/o#mtion o/ the bsi+ Tibetn (tte#n sso+ite& ith thei# mi$#tion into Ne(" = 1 9@;36> * Gi%en the i&es(#e& o++!##en+e o/ the "ine$e %o+b!"#y in s!bseC!ent ethno$#(hy in Tibetn +omm!nities it my m,e s m!+h sense to #e$#& the stte"ess (tte#n o/ %i""$e &es+#ibe& /o# the She#(s n& e"sehe#e in Ne(" s (#im#y n& the Din$#i ho!seho"&0 bse& (tte#n s se +on&# y* The# e is "i tt "e in the +ent#" Tibetn %i""$e (tte#n tht is not in the She#( %i""$e e5+e(t /o# those /et!#es &i#e+t"y +o##e"te& to the estte system* The &i//e#en+es in stt!s #n,in$ +n (e#h(s be e5("ine& by the e//e+t o/ the estte system ith the mJo# #n, &i//e#enti"s sso+ite& ith estte tt+hment n& t5 stt!s o%e##i&in$ the "ine$e /+to#* It my "so be si$ni/i+nt tht mny o/ the (eo("e o/ Din$#i e#e #e+ent ##i%"s /#om e"sehe#e in Tibet =A2i2 19@)36037>* The "ine$e systems o/ the Tibetn (o(!"tions in Ne(" n& e"sehe#e $o b+, to bo!t the e#"y si5teenth +ent!#y /o# the She#(s n& m!+h "on $e# /o# the (eo( "e o/ Do" (o =T#(> o# L&,h* We sho!"& #emembe# tht o!# in/o#mtion on Tibetn %i""$es is sti"" C!ite "imite&* I h%e "#e&y (ointe& to the #est#i+te& si2e o/ o!# +ent#" Tibetn sm("e* The bo&y o/ in/o#mtion /#om Ne(" is mo#ee5 tensi%e b!t m!+h o/ it my #e/"e+t #e+ent +hn$es* No# +n e be s!#e ho /# the (eo("e o/ Do"(o the She#(s o# the Nyinb #esemb"e the m!+h "#$e# n!mbe# o/ Tibetns in (#ts o/ .m in the $#i+!"t! # " #es o/ Am&o o# the "ess +ent#"i2 e& #e$ions o/ +ent#" Tibet ho e#e (#ti""y o# ho""y o!tsi&e the estte system* Gi%en these C!"i/i+tions I ss!me tht mny +ent#" /et!#es o/ Tibetn $#i+!"t!#" +omm!nities e#e simi"# th#o!$ho!t the #n$e o/ Tibetn so+ieties* The %#yin$ &e$#ee o/ +ent#"i2tion #es!"te& in +e#tin /et!#es bei n$ em(h s i2 e& n & oth e# s m! te& b! t I &o no t se e +om(e""in $ e%i&en+e /o# mo#e s!bstnti" &i//e#en+es beteen %i""$es in +ent#"i2e& n& # emote #es* This bsi+ simi"#ity m,es sense sin+e the &e$#ee o/ +ent#"i2tion hs !n&o!bte&"y %#ie& /#om time to time in &i//e#ent (#ts o/ Tibet* 'omm!nities tht e#e t one time !n&e# the sy o/ "o+""y +ente#e& ,in$&om o# (oe#/!" "o+" +hie/tin mi$ht /in& themse"%es Fo o# too ye#s "te# in sit!tion #emote /#om ny e//e+ti%e (o"iti+" !tho#ity* The
Tibetn %i""$e nee&e& to be b"e to &(t to these +hn$es in its (o"iti+" en%i#onment J!st s it h& to &e" ith the +hn$in$ sesons n& the #i$o#s o/ the Tibetn +"imte* Remote $#i+!"t!#" +omm!nities s e i"" see in 'h(te# 1@ ##e"y h& "#$e gom!a o/ +e"ibte mon,s* They h& neithe# the (o( !"tion no# the #eso!#+es n& most #e"i$io!s se#%i+es e#e (#o%i&e& by he#e&it#y "ms n& by (#t0time "y (#+titione#s* The#e e#e ne%e#the"ess o/ten /e mon,s in some sm"" gom!a, s in #e$ions "i,e Do"(o* The sit!tion &o!bt"ess +hn$e& o%e# time in #es(onse to the $ene#" sit!tion* We +n +ont#st the She#(s he#e n e+onomi+ !(t!#n n& the in/"!en+e o/ the ne #e"i$io!s +ente# o/ D2#on$ not /# to the no#th "e& to the b!i"&in$ o/ se%e#" ne gom!a /o# +e"ibte mon,s n& n!ns in the +o!#se o/ the tentieth +ent!#y =O#tne# 199> ith Li mi i n th e /# est o/ Ne(" he#e s e%e#" sm"" D#i$!n$ .$y& gom!a o/ o#i$in""y +e"ibte mon,s #e no ,e(t $oin$ by non0+e"ibte (#t0time "y (#+titione#s =Go"&stein 1 9@; 1 9@6> * Do"(o too seems to h%e h& "#$e# monsti+ estb"ishment t some (e#i o&s in the (st thn it &oes to&y =Sne""$#o%e 197@b>* THE PASTORAL PATTERN IN AMDO AND 'ENTRAL TIET he (sto#" (tte#n is most /!""y &es+#ibe& in E,%""s o#, on Am&o P F, no* 1:>* The bsi+s o/ the t#ib" o#$ni2tion in this #e$ion 'IILIED SHAMANS TIETAN 'OMMUNITIES h%e "#e&y been &is+!sse& ='h(te# 6>* The ho!seho"& hi+h /o#ms the bs i+ b!i" &i n$ b"o+, o/ the $ #i+! "t !# " +o mm !n ities is he #e #e ("+ e& by the tentho"& =E,%"" 197>* Tentho"&s #e $#o!(e& into en+m(ments hi+h #e o#$ni2e& i nto t#ibes* T#ib" //i"i tion ( (e#s to be no#m""y on the bsis o/ (t#i"ine" &es+ent* The #e"tionshi(s beteen tentho"&s n& bet ee n t#ibe s # e be st i""!st #t e& by "oo,in$ t some mte#i " on &is(!te sett"ement mon$ these $#o!(s ho e#e s mentione& in 'h(te# 6 in%o"%e& in system o/ /e!&in$ simi"# to tht n"y2e& by nth#o(o"o$ists in stte"ess (o(!"tions in West Asi n& s!b0Sh#n A/#i+* E,%"" $i%es %#iety o/ e5m("es in the +o!#se o/ his !tobio$#(hi+" ++o!nt Tibetan S.ylines n& the no%e" Tents $gainst the S.y5 I s!mm#i2e /e o/ them he#e*18 E,%""s Tibetn se#%nt -#"o meets Tibetn $i#" ho s on (i" $#im$e to Lhs* He hs n //i# ith he# n& ##n$es /o# he# to Join the en+m(ment =i*e* tentho"&> o/ E,%""s /#ien& D!$$!# #i+h nom& o/ the Smts t#ibe he#e he hs been t+hin$ E,%""s he#&s &!#in$ the
inte#* The $i#" hs h& se%e#" (#e%io!s h!sbn&s n& one o/ them /#om one o/ the se&ent#y Teb! t#ibe o#$ni2es #i&in$ (# ty on D!$$!#s en+m(ment* D!$$!# is #e&y /o# the #i& n& +(t!#es se%en Teb! men ith thei# ho#ses n& $!ns sen&in$ one o/ the men b+, to in/o#m the Teb!s* The //i# is me&ite& by the o//i+i"s o/ G!#&! monsti+ gom!a n& +om(enstion is ##n$e& to be (i& to D!$$!#* Hoe%e# one o/ the +(t!#e& men o!n&e& in the /i$ht &ies n& the sett"ement /""s th#o!$h* =196:);60@> Tem+ho, Tse#in$ e"thy mn o/ 76 ye#s /#om the -n$ts ""ey ho hs himse"/ +te& s me&ito# in mny &is(!tes ,i""s his son0in0" in n #$!ment* A "#$e (ne" o/ me&ito#s is ((ointe& n& he%y (yment /o# +om(enstion is m&e* Des(ite the (yment Te#n+ho, is shot n& ,i""e& hi"e +i#+!mmb!"tin$ $om(* S!bseC!ent"y the m!#&e#e# n& $#o!( o/ +om(nions #i& Tem+ho,s ho!se #e+, it n& ss!"t his i&o* Tem+ho,s son ho hs been (#e(#in$ /o# #e%en$e ith some /#ien&s (!#s!es them n& ,i""s se%en o/ them* It is !n"i,e"y tht this &is(!te o!"& be sett"e&* =196:) 130:8@> Do#Je Rin+hen o/ the Shmi t#ibe is mon, b!t be+omes in%o"%e& ith Lhmo Mtso $i#" o/ the Smts t#ibe n& "e%es the monsti+ "i/e* He ,i""s Smts mn /#om #i&in$ (#ty* The &is(!te is tie& by the he& "m o/ the "o+" monsti+ gom!a b!t hosti"ities #emin beteen the $#o!(s* Do#J e Rin+hen n& Lhmo Tso sett"e &on to $ethe# mon$ the Shmi in Do#Jes b#othe#s tentho"&* S!bseC!ent"y Smts mn the b#othe# o/ the mn ho hs been ,i""e& is +(t!#e& by the Shmi n& sett"ement is ne$otite& by $#o!( o/ inte#me&i#ies* A ne tentho"& is set !( /o# Do#Je Rin+hen n& his i/e in the Shmi en+m(ment* =196;);;KI 1> E"sehe#e in E,%""s #itin$s he mentions "on$0te#m #e"tions o/ hosti"ity beteen (#ti+!"# t#ibes) the t#ib" enemies o/ the Smts in+"!&e& the R2,&!mb n& the 'h,$m =196:) 1:1>* 'on/"i+ts mon$ these $#o!(s e#e &e"t ith by me&ition sin+e the#e s no s!(#0t#ib" !tho#ity +(b"e o/ im(osin$ ny sett"ement* E,%"" &is+!sses the (#o+ess o/ me&ition in se%e#" +onte5ts see "so 196;13 n& 197;) 11;o// the /o""oin$ +omes /#om his ethno$#(hy Iields on the HoofD In the inte#ests o/ h#mony the +omm!nity th#o!$h its "e&e#s n& +0 +e(tb"e $o0beteens t,es +tion) => to se" o// #e(#is" n& %io"en+e by se+!#in$ (!se o# +oo"in$0o// (e#io& =b> to me&ite n& se+!#e $#eement on the $i%in$ n& ++e(tin$ o/ in&emni/i+tion s s!bstit!te / o# #e(#is" =+> to se+!#e $#eement on the mo!nt o/ the in&emnity =&> to bin& the (#ties to ,ee(in$ hte%e# $#eement is #e+he& n& =e> to s!(e#%ise n&
%"i&te the (yment o/ in&emnity* =E,%"" 197)@@> In the +se o/ +on/"i+ts beteen +omm!nities E,%"" "ists (otenti" /ne&ito#s s +hie/s /mo!s "ms note& o#to#s n& men o/ //i#s* A $#o!( o/ me&ito#s o!"& h%e been ssemb"e& n& me&ition +o!"& in&ee& be "en$thy //i# s these (e#sons #e in no h!##y to home /o# they h%e o#to#i+" #e(!ttions to mintin =197)@9>* Fo#m" o#to#y mon$ the Tibetn nom&s s so(histi+te& #t ith s(e+i" "in$!isti+ !s$es n& e5tensi%e em("oyment o/ (#o%e#bs* The im(o#tn+e o/ s(ee+h /o#m" o#to#y n& ne$otition is +onstnt theme in E,%""s #i tin$ s =/o # e5m( "e 196: )16 38 ;3 n& sim 197;) 1 1;8K 11;1 197;b) 88018:>* We#e "" (sto#"ist $#o!(s s stte"ess n& se"/0$o%e#nin$ s E,11s mte#i" s!$$ests Some o/ the "imite& +ent#" Tibetn mte#i" $$ests othe#ise* Me"%yn Go"&stein n& 'ynthi e"" h%e #ent"y st!&ie& +ontem(o##y nom&i+ $#o!( t Ph" =M( 3 no* I "&st ein n & e" " 19 7 199 1998 see "so 'o5 19@ >* This no &i+ $#o!( h& t#&ition" "in,s to the estte o/ T#shi Lh!n(o) 'IILIED SHAMANS e/o#e 1969 the nom&s o/ Ph" e#e s!bJe+ts o/ Tibets se+on& $#etest in+#ntion the Pn+hen Lm bein$ (#t o/ one o/ his nom&i+ (sto#" esttes =/ie/s> ,non s L$yb LhoJn$* Li,e (esnts on $#i+!"t!#" esttes these nom&s e#e he#e&it#i"y tie& to thei# estte n& &i& not h%e the #i$ht to t,e thei# he#&s n& mo%e to the estte o/ nothe# "o#&* On the othe# hn& e+h ho!seho"& one& n& mn$e& its on nim"s n& h& #i$hts %is0k0%is the "o#&* Not on"y e#e thei# t5 ob"i$tions s(e+i/ie& in #itten &o+!ments b!t so "on$ s they /!"/i""e& these ob"i$tions the Pn+hen Lm +o!"& neithe# e%i+t them no# #e/!se them ++ess to his (st!#es* Thei# e+onomi+ ob"i$tion to the Pn+hen Lm +onsiste& min"y o/ (#o%i&in$ b!tte# /o# the te n& %oti%e "m(s o/ T#shi Lh!n(o the Pn+hen Lms h!$e monste#y in Shi$tsQ b!t they "so (#o%i&e& s!+h items s s,ins #o(es oo" nim"s n& s"t* The Pn+hen Lm s #es(onsib"e /o# " n& o#&e# in L$yb LhoJn$* He ((ointe& "o+" o//i+i"s n& /!n+tione& s n ((e""te +o!#t /o# &is$#eements o%e# "o+"0"e%e" &e+isions* His o//i+i"s to $ethe# ith the "o+" nom& o//i+i"s they ((ointe& +on&!+te& t#ienni" +ens!s o/ "" &!"t "i%esto+, n& ""o+te& (st!#es =n& t5es> to ho!seho"&s on tht bsis* E+h ho!seho"& h& +om("ete !s!/#!+t #i$hts o%e# its ""o+te& (st!#es !nti" the ne5t +ens!s* =Go"&stein n& e"" 199)7:107::> D No#b!s &es+#i(tion o/ #o%in$ #e"i$io!s mission sent by the S,y estte to +o""e+t &ontions /#om nom&s in the 'hn$0tn$ =D* No#b! 1 9 @ ; ) : ; 0 3 6 > seems to (#esent "oose# #e"tionshi( beteen estte n& nom&s*
No#b! (!t s the em (h s is on the nom & s m ,i n$ o//e #in $s n& #e+ei %in$ #e"i$io!s n& me&i+" se#%i+es in #es(onse tho!$h his ++o!nt +o!"& (e#h(s be #e(h#se& in te#ms o/ S,y o//i +i"s %isitin$ thei# e"thy nom&i+ se#/s* The mission s +e#ti n"y C!ite "!+#ti%e) E+h +ontin$ent +onsiste& o/ +ont#+to# /o!# se#%nts n& tnt#i+ (#+titione# =in this +se my $#n&/the#>**** Gettin$ s!+h +ont#+t s one o/ the s!#est ys o/ be+omin$ #i+h n& +onseC!ent"y on"y the #e(!tb"e tr-el!a /mi"ies e#e $#nte& the +ont#+ts* The "m o/ the mission s hi#e& by the +ont#+to# n& ((#o%e& by the S,y Lm**** A"tho!$h e+h o//e#in$ s #e+o#&e& to$ethe# ith the s(e+i/i+ (!#(ose /o# hi+h it s o//e#e& the monste#y #e+ei%e& %e#y "itt"e o!t o/ the tot" &ontions n& o//e#in$s**** T#&ition &e+#ee& tht the +ont#+to# ,non hono!#b"y s t#es!#e# n& the "m sho!"& t,e the bi$$est sh#e o/ the &ontions**** The #i+hest nom&s e#e &es+#ibe& s the one#s o/ mi""ion hites =shee(> n& t ho!sn& b"+,s =y,s>* S!+h men m&e the $#etest +ont#ib!tions +""e& h!n&#e& o//e#in$s) h!n&#e& shee( bo!t th#ee y,s n& "o&s o/ b!tte# n& s"t* The (oo#est (ossesse& bo!t tho!sn& shee( n& ei$hty y,s* They o//e#e& bo!t ten shee( n& some b!tte#* =D No#b! 19@;):;3303;> D No#b!s ++o!nt o/ the (o"iti+" o#$ni2tion o/ the nom&s hoe%e# so!n&s not m!+h &i//e#ent in (#+ti+e /#om tht &es+#ibe& by E,%"" o# He#mnn /o# Am&o) The nom&sV "i%e& n& mo%e& in sm"" $#o!(s e+h ith its on e"e+te& "e&e# o# (n* A n!mbe# o/ $#o!(s ithin "#$e (sto#" #e /o#me& gar!a# The +ent#" $o%e#nment ((ointe& n &minist#to# /#om mon$ the nom&s (ost tht ten&e& to be+ome he#e&it#y s the ye#s (sse&* This t#ib" o#$ni2tion so"%e& most o/ the (#ob"ems* A $o%e#no# in%#ib"y n #isto+#t /#om Lhs &ministe#e& =o# m"0&ministe#e&> the %st (#o%in+e o/ Weste#n Tibet in+"!&in$ 'hn$tn$* A mon, s ((ointe& s his +o""e$!e**** The $o%e#no# s the#e (#im#i"y to +o""e+t t5es o/ shee( $ots y,s s"t n& b!tte# /#om the nom&s* =D No#b! 19@;):70:@> A"" in "" it seems tht hi"e some nom&i+ $#o!(s (i& #e$!"# t5es =o# m&e #e$!"# o//e#in$s> to (#ti+!"# monsti+ estte n& (e#h(s s!bmitte& &is(!tes to tht estte /o# &J!&i+tion "" Tibetn (sto# "ists #etine& hi$h &e$#ee o/ !tonomy* The most in&e(en&ent o/ "" the este#n Tibetn nom&s e#e the Go"o$ o# N$o"o, $#o!( o/ (sto#"ist t#ibes on the so!the#n bo#&e# o/ Am&o noto#io!s /o# thei# /ie#+eness n& hosti"ity to t#%e"e#s n& (eo("e o/ othe# t#ibes =Ro+, 1967)1:301:9 G!ib!t 19;9 Wy"ie 197:)1 98>* Ro+, C!otes the
/o""oin$ s(ee+h by Go"o$) o! +nnot +om(#e !s Go"o$ ith othe# (eo("e* o! obey the "s o/ st#n$e#s the "s o/ the D"i Lm o/ 'hin n& o/ ny o/ yo!# (etty +hie/s* o! #e /#i& o/ e%e#yone to es+(e (!nishment yo! obey e%e#yone* An& the #es!"t is tht yo! #e /#i& o/ e%e#ythin$* An& not on"y yo! b!t yo!# /the#s n& $#n&/the#s e#e the sme* We Go"o$ on the othe# hn& h%e /#om time immemo#i" obeye& none b!t o!# on "s none b!t o!# on +on%i+tions* A Go"o$ is bo#n ith the ,no"e&$e o/ his /#ee&om n& ith his mothe#s mi", imbibes TIETAN 'OMMUNITIES 'IILIED SHAMANS some +C!intn+e ith his "s* They h%e ne%e# been "te#e&* A" most in his mothe#s omb he "e#ns to hn&"e #ms* His /o#ebe#s e#e ##io#s<e#e b#%e /e#"ess men e%en s e to&y #e thei# o#thy &es+en&nts* To the &%i+e o/ st#n$e# e i"" not he#,en no# i"" e obey o!$ht b!t the %oi+e o/ o!# +ons+ien+e ith hi+h e+h Go"o$ ente#s the o#"&* This is hy e h%e e%e# been /#ee s no n& #e the s"%es o/ none It o!"& be ni+e to h%e this s(ee+h in the o#i$in" Tibetn b!t the $ene#" &#i/t is enti#e"y +"e# (#ti+!"#"y in #e"tion to Go"o$ (o"iti+" ttit!&es* Whi"e the Go"o$ e#e e5t#eme in thei# sse#tion o/ in&e(en&en+e n& se"/0 #e"in+e the ttit!&es e5(#esse& he#e &o not seem ty(i+" /o# Tibetn nom&s in $ene#"* The Go"o$ mi$ht be &ismissi%e o/ the D"i Lm n& the o$&o,hn =the -etsn Dm( Hoto$t! +hie/ "m o/ O!te# Mon$o"i> b!t they e#e ne%e#the"ess s inte#es te& in the s(i#it!" (oe# o/ the "ms s ny othe# Tibetns* Mi+he" te""s the sto#y o/ n e#"y nineteenth0+ent!#y D#i$!n$( "m t#%e" in$ in Go" o$ +o!nt#y n& he"& !( by one o/ the "o+" men) The Go"o$ s,e& im(o"ite"y Who #e yo! 'hoe&en si& I m st!&ent o/ D#i$!n$ 'hm$on P&m Gy"tsen* The#e!(on the Go"o$ si& I nt #e"i+ o/ this "m* 'hoe&en then $%e the Go"o$ (ie+e o/ his mste#s #obe* The Go"o$ si& I sh"" see hethe# its t#!e #e"i+ o# not* He tie& the (ie+e o/ +"oth to the ne+, o/ &o$ &#e his $!n n& shot* The &o$s s,in s !n&m$e&* As #es!"t the Go"o$ be+me /i""e& ith $#et /ith n& m&e mny (#esents to 'hoe&en hose #e(!ttion s(#e& i&e"y* =Mi+he" 19:):oo n* > As e sh"" see in "te# +h(te#s this s not ty(i+" o/ the #e"i$io!s
ttit!&es ttit!&es s+#ibe& s+#ibe& to the nom&s nom&s n& othe# i"& (o(!"tion (o(!"tionss o/ Tibet Tibet = se e D No#b! 1 9 @ ; ) 3 : T* Tse#in Tse#in $ 196) :8:0 :83 n* 31>* The Go Go"o "o$$ #e$i #e$ion on "i,e "i,e othe# othe# (sto (sto#" #" #es #es ne%e ne%e#th #the"e e"ess ss s!((o s!((o#te #te&& se%e se%e#" #" "#$e gom!a n& (#o%i&e& mny notb"e notb"e "ms* THE URAN PATTERN Fin""y e i"" "oo, b# ie/"y t the !# bn +omm!nities o/ (#emo&e#n Tibet ibet** These %#ie& /#om sm"" +omm!nities s!+h s Gn$$# in Din0 TIETAN 'OMMUNITIES $#i s+#+e"y mo#e thn "#$e %i""$es to $en!ine !#bn +ente#s o/ 6 888 to 38888 (eo("e s!+h s Lhs Shi$tsQ o# .n$&in$* A2i2s &es+#i(tion o/ the ton o/ Gn$$# =M( 3 no* 2> $i%es !s (i+t!#e o/ sm"" t#&in$ +omm!nity +omm!nity** Gn$$# ith :38 ho!seho"&s ho!seho"&s s the "#$est "#$est sett"ement in Din$#i* The "o+" dzong s some 7o ,m &istnt t She",# She",# b!t s!bo#&inte o//i+e# s ssi$ne& to Gn$$# A2i2 +omments tht he h& s!+h s!+h "itt" "itt"ee o o#, #, tht tht he sV sV min" min"yy en$ en$$e $e&& in (#i% (#i%t tee b! b!si sine ness ss =19@)16>* Se%e#" t#&e #o!tes meet t Din$#i b!t the most si$ni/i+nt is tht /#om +ent#" Ne(" %i .o&#i n& n& Nye" Nye"m m hi+h hi+h +ont +ontin in!e !ess to Lhs Lhs =the =the sme sme #o!t #o!tee s the the mo& mo&e# e#nn .thmn& !0Lhs !0L hs hi$hy>* hi$h y>* Othe#s Othe #s $o to the She#( She# ( t#&in$ t#&in$ +ente# +ente# o/ .h! .h!mb! mb! to .yi#on$ .yi#on$ n& to este#n este#n Tibet Tibet** The#e The#e s sm"" mi"i t #y $##ison sttione& ne# the ton* A2i2 estimtes tht o/ the :888 o# so (eo("e "i%in$ in Gn$$# #o!n& (e#+ent e#e Ne("ese t#&0 e r s , #o #o !n !n & ; 8 ( e# e# +e +e nt nt t 5 5 0( 0( y yi n$ n $ ( t rr- el e l ! a) a) me#+h me#+hn ntt /mi"i /mi"ies es o# ts-ong! ts-ong!a, a, #o!n& d8d%hung, n& #o!n& ya *a## The#e #o!n& ;o (e#+e (e#+ent nt d8d%hung, #o!n& io (e#+e (e#+ent nt ya*a e#e e #e /e /e in&i in&i%i %i&! &!" " #is #isto to+# +#t ts s tho! tho!$h $h no (e#m (e#mn nen entt #is #isto+# to+#t ti+ i+ ho!seho"&s* The ts-ong!a e#e %#ie& $#o!( some o/ them &minis &minist#t t#ti%e i%e o//i o//i+i +i" "ss /o# /o# "y "y o# mon monsti sti++ est estte tess o# /o# /o# the the #my #my h hoo #e en$$ en$$in$ in$ in +omme#+e in &&ition to thei# o//i+i" &!ties =$o%e#nment n& b!siness $o to$ethe# to$ethe# the /o#me# /o#me# Gn Gn$$ $$## me#+h me#+hnts nts sy sy 19@ ) @;> othe#s /!""0time t#&e#s* t#&e#s* The Ne("ese Ne("ese in+"!&e& in+"!&e& /o!# (e#mnen (e#mnentt She#( She#( ho ho!s !seh eho"& o"&ss n& n& /o!#te /o! #teen en .2# .2 # =Tibeto0 =Tibe to0 Ne#> Ne #> /m i"ies i"ies s e"" e"" s s othe othe## t#nsi t#nsito# to#yy t#&e# t#&e#ss =A2i2 =A2i2 19@)7 @30@6>* Peo("e Peo("e in the s!##o!n&in$ s!##o!n&in$ /#min$ /#min$ +omm!nitie +omm!nities s ++o#&in ++o#&in$$ to A2 A2i2 i2 s Gn Gn$$ $$## s &e+ &e+&e &ent nt +omm! +omm!nit nityy in/es in/este& te& ith ith thie%e thie%es s s!s( s!s(e+ e+tt mi$#nts o/ &!bio!s o#i$ins "oose omen /o""oin$ the sin$"e t#&e#s n&< +e#tin"y not the "est<+#!e" $#ee&y &minist#to#s = 1 9@ ) 3@>* Gn$$# is the the on on"y "y ("+ ("+ee in Din$ Din$#i #i ith ith Ji" Ji" =19@ =19@) )3 3> > b! b!tt the the (#e% (#e%i i"i "in$ n$ im(#ession nonethe"ess is tht the (eo("e o/ Gn$ g a r #e not tht m!+h &i//e#ent /#om the (eo("e o/ $#i+!"t!#" +omm!nities* Most o/ them /te# "" +me /#om /# om othe# oth e# s!+h +omm!nities +omm!nit ies them themse se"% "%es es** At the othe# e5t#eme Lhs h& s e s in 'h(te# 3 (o( 0 ulation o/ :8888 to 38888 (eo("e in+"!&in$ s!bstnti" .2# H!i
.
shmi#i n& othe# /o#ei$n +omm!nities s e"" s the ho!seho"&s o/ ;he Lhs #isto+#+y n& the o//i+es o/ the D"i Lms $o%e#nment ee * -* T#in$ T#in$ 19;> n& &istin+t !#bn "i /esty"e +ente#e& on the s to+#ti+ n& e"thy me#+hnt ho!seho"&s &es+#ibe& &es+#ibe& t "en$th in +o!nts by E!#o(en %isito#s s!+h s those o/ S(en+e# 'h(mn 'IILIED SHAMANS
=193 =193> > o# He Hein in#i #i+h +h H##e# H##e# = 1199 66 66 > s e"" s in the memoi#s o/ Lhs #isto+#ts s!+h s Rin+hen Do"m T#in$ =R* D* T#in$ 197> o# Do#Je !&on !tho, =!tho, 199o>* Lhs h& +ity m$ist#te n& (o"i+e /o#+e s e"" s the e"bo#te +o!#t #it!" s!##o!n&in$ the D"i Lm b!t it s h#&"y "#$e +ity +om(#e& to mny o/ those in So!th o# So!thest Asi* go m!aa ne#by hi+h is not Most Most !#bn !#bn +ente#s +ente#s o/ ny si2e si2e h& "#$e "#$e gom! s!#(#isin$ &es(ite the em(hsis in the !&&hist te+hin$s on the &esi#bi"ity o/ sitin$ monste#ies in #emote ("+es* The tons e#e +ente#s o/ t5tion n& n& o/ t#&e t#&e** With ith thei# thei# e e" "thy thy me#+ me#+h hnts nts n& n& &min &minis ist# t#t to# o#s s they they (#o% (# o%i& i&e& e& both bo th the th e init in iti i"" /in /i nn+ n+ee n& n & in+e in +ent nti% i%ee to b!i" b! i"&& the th e gom! go m!a, a, n& the +ontin!in$ s!((o#t tht mintine& its (#os(e#ity* At the sme time mny go m!aa e#e &istnt /#om si$ni/i+nt !#bn +ente#s so tht the si2e si2eb b"e "e gom! gom! go m!aa ne%e# be+me tot""y &e(en&ent on !#bn tstes o# on the #eC!i#ements o/ $o%e#nment* Go%e#n Go% e#nme ment nt n& n& b!sin b!sines esss $o to$et to$ethe he# # s e h%e h%e "#e "#e&y &y "e#ne "e#ne&& t Din$ Din$#i #i** This his ss t#!e t#!e "so "so in the the sens sensee th th t $o $o%%e#nm e#nmen entt o//i o//i+i +i" "s s #isto+#ti+ /mi"ies n& e"thy me#+hnt /mi"ies in the !#bn +en te#s h& +"ose +"ose "in,s "in,s ith ith e+h e+h othe# othe# "in,s "in,s tht tht "so "so in+"!& in+"!&e& e& the "ms o/ mJo# mJo# gom! go m!a# a# In /+t /+t in+ in+#n #nt tee "ms "ms e e#e #e o/te o/tenn memb membe# e#ss o/ (#ominen (#ominentt "o+" "o+" /mi"ies hi"e ,inshi( "in,s beteen #isto+#ti+ n& #i+h me#+hnt /mi"ies e#e e#e C!ite C!ite +ommon +ommon** ! !sin siness ess (o"iti (o"iti+s +s n& ,inshi( ,inshi( +o!"& +o!"& th!s be Joine& Joine& to$eth to$ethe# e# in sin$"e sin$"e neto neto#, #, o/ ""in ""in+e +es* s* Thes Thesee "in, "in,$e $es s im(o im(o#t #tnt nt in +ent +ent#" #" Tibet ibet e e#e #e (e#h (e#h(s (s &e%e &e%e"o( "o(e& e& /!#the /!#thest st in Est Tibet Tibet he#e he#e no sin$"e +ente# h& the (#esti$e o# !tho#ity sso+ite& ith Lhs in +ent#" Tibet Tibet** The The im(o#t im(o#tn+e n+e o/ these these neto#, neto#,ss o/ ,ins ,inshi( hi( #e"i$ #e"i$io ion n (o (o"i "iti+ ti+" " ""i ""in+ n+e e n& n& b! b!sin sines esss inte inte#es #ests ts in s!(( s!((o# o#ti tin$ n$ n& n& ho ho"& "&in in$$ to$e to$eth the# e# the the (o"i (o "iti ti+ +"" n& n & e+ono e+o nomi mi++ "i/e "i /e o/ est e st Tib Ti b e t i s e % i & e n t " t h o ! $ h i t h s n o t ye t be b e e n & o + ! m e n t e & i n n y systemti+ y* y* In the "st +h(te# o/ P#t One I (#esent some tentti%e +on+"!sions +on+"!sions bo! bo!tt Tibetn so+i" st#!+t!#e*
8 Some Conclusions
The (!#(ose o/ P#t One o/ this boo, o/ hi+h this is the "st +h(te# is to "y &on the the so+i so+i" " b+, b+,$# $#o! o!n& n& $i $ins nstt h hi+ i+hh #e"i #e"i$i $ion on in Tibet ibetn n so+i so+iet etie iess hs hs to be !n&e#stoo&* We +n s!mm#i2e the $ene#" (i+t!#e tht hs ((e#e& in the (#e%io!s +h(te#s !n&e# se%e#" he&in$s) the Lhs stte n& the &i%e#sity o/ Tibetn so+iety the C!estion o/ Tibetni2tion n& the !n&e#"yin$ st#!+t!#" (#in+i("es o/ Tibetn so+iety* THE LHASA STATE AND THE DIERSIT OF TIETAN SO'IET I h%e +ommente& se%e#" times in the (#e%io!s ($es on the ten&en+y in m!+h o/ the "ite#t!#e on Tibetn so+iety to see Tibet (#im#i"y in te#ms o/ #e"ti%e"y st#on$"y +ent#"i2e& stte ith its +(it" t Lhs* This hs h& +onseC!en+es both /o# ho Tibetn (o"iti+s is !n&e#stoo& s ith F#n2 Mi+he"s ++o!nt =19:> o/ the Tibetn stte s n i&e" Webe#in Webe#in b!#e!+#+y b!#e!+#+y n& /o# ho Tibetn #e"i$ion is !n&e#stoo& s ith the ten&en+y to see the "#$e Ge"!$( monsti+ 139 'IILIED SHAMANS SOME 'ON'LUSIONS gom! go m!aa ne# Lhs s ty(i+" o/ Tibetn !&&hism #the# thn #e(#esentin$ one o/ se%e#" st#n&s st#n&s ithin it* In the bo%e ++o!nt I h%e st#esse& tht "ess thn thn h"/ h"/ the Tibet Tibetnn (o(! (o(!"t "tion ion ss in+o#( in+o#(o# o#te& te& in ny sense sense ithin ithin the Lhs stte n& tht +onsi&e#b"e (#t o/ the (o(!"tion ithin the bo#&e#s o/ the Lhs stte oe& (#im#y ""e$in+e to "o+" estte0ho"&e#s =s ith S,y S,y T#shi T#shi Lh!n(o Lh!n(o o# D#$yb D#$yb>> o# e e#e #e #em #emote ote /#om /#om e//e e//e+t +ti% i%ee (o"i (o"iti ti+ +"" !tho#ity* The on"y (e#io (e#io&& he henn "" the Tibet Tibetn n (o( (o(!" !"tio tionn (( ((e e#s #s to h% h%ee been in+o#(o# in+o#(o#te& te& into sin$"e sin$"e stte s the hey&y hey&y o/ the e#"y ,in$&om =o#
em(i#e see e+,ith e+,ith 19@@ 19@@ 19@>* E%i&en+e E%i&en+e /o# the st#!+ t!#e o/ tht s tte hi+ h i+hh "so "so in+" in+"!& !&e& e& se%e se%e# #"" #e #e ss o/ no non0T n0Tiib e t n ( o (! "t "t i o n is in+on+"!si%e in+on+"!si%e b!t it seems seems to h%e t,en the /o#m /o#m o/ mi"it mi"it#y #y ""i ""in+ n+ee o/ se%e#" sm""e# sttes hose #!"in$ /mi"ies #etine& (oe#/!" #o"e in its "e&e#shi(* Its +o""(se in A*D* ;: s /o""oe& by ht T!##e"" Wy Wy"ie =1973> hs +""e& the "o+" he$emoni+ (e#io& he#e "o+" #!"e#s in some +ses s!#%i%"s o/ the o"& "o+" #!"in$ /mi"ies o# o//shoots o/ the #oy" &ynsty h& t most +ont#o" o%e# "imite& #es o/ Tibet* The Mon$o" +onC!est set !( +ent#" Tibetn stte n& the#e hs been some stte bse& in U o# Tsn$ sin+e tht time =see 'h(te#s :6 to :@> hoe%e# (#ts o/ .m e#e on"y inte#mittent"y in+"!&e& ithin this +ent#" Tibetn stte n& L&,h h!tn n& othe# #es e#e in&e(en&ent o/ it* We h%e seen %#iety o/ &i//e#ent (o"iti+" /o#ms in 'h(te#s 3 to 6) #* To /i#"y /i#"y "#$ "#$ee $#i+ $#i+!" !"t!# t!#" ""y "y bse bse&& stt sttes es =(o(! =(o(!"t "tio ionn o* to 1*6 mi""ion> one =Lhs> #!"e& in the (#emo&e#n (e#io& by #ein+#nte "m n& +o!n+i" o/ ministe#s the othe# =h!tn> by #ein+#nte "m n& "y #e$ent !nti" 198@ n& "te# by he#e&it#y "y #!"e# e+h h%in$ s!bo#&inte "o+" #!"e#s n& n estte system n& (#ti""y in+o#(o#te& nom&i+ (sto#"ist t#ibes :* A %#iety %#iety o/ sm""e# sm""e# $#i+!"t!# $#i+!"t!#""y ""y bse& sttes sttes =(o(!"tio =(o(!"tionn 688 8 to Ioo888> Ioo888> most he&e& he&e& by he#e&it he#e&it#y #y "y #!"e#s #!"e#s =De#$e =De#$e Poo Poo Si,,i Si,,im m L&,h> b!t some by he#e&it#y "ms =S,y Mi"i> n& some by #ein+#nte "m "mss ='h ='hm m&o &o D#$y D#$yb b> > some some o/ the the sm""e# sttes e#e in+"!&e& s s!bo#&in te !nits ithin othe# stte sttes s (#ti+ (#ti+!" !"#"y #"y the Lhs Lhs #e$ime #e$ime n& n& some e#e s!bo#&inte to tho! tho!$h $h in (#+ (#+ti ti+e +e "#$ "#$e" e"yy in&e in&e(e (en& n&en entt o/ o/ 'h 'hin ines ese e Ne("ese o# In0&in In0&i n #e$ime #e$ imes s these th ese stt s ttes es $in $ in mi$ht mi$ ht in+"! in +"!&e &e estt es ttes es s!bo#&i s!bo #&inte nte #!"e#s #!"e#s n& (sto#"is (sto#"istt t#ibes S!bstnti" S!bstnti" $#i+!"t!#" (o(!"tions (o(!"tions on the e&$es o/ the %#io!s sttes 1 3 . ho #e in e//e+t se"/0$o%e#nin$ tho!$h they my be nomin""y tt+he& to one stte o# nothe# =Do"(o to M!stn$ the She#(s to the G!#,h ,in$ o/ Ne("> Nom&i Nom &i++ (sto# (s to#"i "ist st t#ibe t# ibes s ith i th %#iet %# ietyy o/ "e&e# "e &e#shi shi(( st#!+ st# !+ t!#e t! #es s some some e"e+ e"e+te te& & some some he#e he#e&i &it t#y #y n& n& some some Join Joine& e& to$e to$eth the# e# to /o#m /o#m +on/e&e +on/e&e#ti #tions ons o# o# in /e +ses +ses C!si0stt C!si0sttes es ith he#e&it he#e&it#y #y #!"e# #!"e# =N$ =N$> > some some #e tt+ tt+he& he& to #e"i$i #e"i$io!s o!s n& othe# othe# estte esttes s some some #e #e &ministe#e& by those esttes othe#s #e in&e(en&ent* 1 4 .
I h% h%ee "e/t stte stte n& estte estte in C!o C!otti ttion on m#,s m#,s be+!se be+!se the En$"ish En$"ish te#ms s!$$est +"e# &istin+tion beteen the to hi+h is s+#+e"y (#esent (#esent in Tibe Tibet t he# h e#ee the the sme sme te#m te#m (shun (shung) g) +o!" +o!"&& #e/e #e/e## to the Lhs Lhs stte stte o# the S,y S,y estte estte)) In $en $ene# e#"" it my be note& note& tht tht Tibet Tibetn n (o"i (o"iti ti+ +"" %o+ %o+b! b!" "#y #y hs hs +onsi&e#b"e /"!i&ity) e h%e met ,ey te#ms s!+h s !ön!o, !ön !o, gyel gy el!o, !o, n& de!a
in #n$e o/ menin$s o%e# the "st /o!# /o!# +h( +h(te te#s #s** Pn(o Pn(o /o# /o# e5m( e5m("e "e men mentt estte "o#& in +ent#" Tibet inte#me&i#y ith $o%e#nment in Ne(" =She#(s T#(> n& "o+" #!"e# in .m the +ommon e"ement he#e seems to be the #i$ht to +o""e+t t5es* We h%e met this ,in& o/ /"!i&ity o/ te#mino"o$y "so in the te#m gom!a, gom !a, the most $ene#" Tibetn te#m /o# #e"i$io!s +omm!nity n& o#& o/ m!+h i&e# (("i+tion thn the En$"ish monste#y o# =sy> the Thi *at =see 'h(te#s : 1@>* We i"" meet it $in in the +se o/ tht tht most most si$n si$ni/i i/i+ +nt nt Tib Tibet etnn o#& o#& "m "m =see =see 'h( 'h(te te#s #s 1: to 1;>* 1;>* This This $ene#"i2in$ ten&en+y hs he"(e& the Tibetn Tibetn "n$!$e n& Tibetn Tibetn +!"t!# +!"t!#"" (#+ti+e (#+ti+ess to +o(e ith the eno#mo!s eno#mo!s #n$e o/ so+i" (o"iti+" n& #e"i$io!s instit!tions tht h%e e5iste& mon$ Tibetn (o (!" (! " tions* The /"!i&ity /"!i&ity o/ Tibet Tibetn n +te$o +te$o#ie #iess +o##es +o##es(on (on&s &s to simi"# simi"# /"!i&ity /"!i&ity ithin ithin so+i so+i" " inst instit it!t !tio ions ns** O! O!## e5m e5min int tio ionn o/ the the to to ty(e ty(ess o/ $#i $#i+! +!"t!# "t!#" " +omm!n +omm!nitie itiess =+ent# =+ent#"i "i2e& 2e& n& #emote #emote>> s!$$es s!$$este& te& tht tht they they +o! +o!"& "& be seen seen essenti""y s %#ints on sin$"e bsi+ ty(e &(tin$ to the (o"iti+" sit!tion ithin s(e+i/i+ s(e+i/i+ +onte5t* M!+h the sme is t#!e o/ the (sto# (sto#"" ty(e hi+h hi+h seem seemss to en+om en+om( (ss ss %#ie %#iety ty o/ #e"t #e"tion ionshi shi(s (s to mon onsti+ sti+ est sttes tes n& "y "y !tho#ities ith "itt"e #e" inte#n" +hn$e* 'IILIED SHAMANS SOME 'ON'LUSIONS egree o/ +ent It m,e m,ess sens sense e (e#h (e#h( (s s to thin thin,, o/ the the degr +ent# #"i "i2 2ti tion on n& n& o/ t50 in&ebte&ness s %#ib"e o%e# s(+e n& time* 'ent#"i2e& #e$imes in Tibet #ose n& /e"" o%e# the +ent!#ies +ent!#ies n& %i""$es %i""$es &(te& &(te& to the o%e#"" (o"iti+" en%i#onment en%i#on ment in i n hi+h hi +h they /o!n& themse"%es t ny ny $i%e $i%enn tim time* e* The The %#ie %#iety ty o/ (o"it (o"iti+ i+" " /o#ms /o#ms in the (#emo (#emo&e &e#n #n (e#io (e#io& & "on$ "on$ ith ith the /#$i"ity /#$i"ity n& e,ness e,ness o/ +ent#" +ent#" $o%e#nment $o%e#nment he#e it e5iste& e5iste& is ,ey to the #e"i$io!s #e"i$io!s &e% &e%e"o( e"o(ment ment o/ Tibet Tibet** Des+#i( Des+#i(tion tionss o/ Tibet Tibet s +ent# +ent#"i "i2e& 2e& stte #!"e& /#om Lhs #e sti"" /#eC!ent"y en+o!nte#e& n& they m,e it &i//i+!"t to !n&e#stn& the e%o"!tion o/ Tibetn #e"i$io!s /o#ms* Whi"e most #e+ent !tho#s h%e been /i#"y +"e# bo!t the $eo$#(hi+" n& (o"iti+" "imits o/ the Lhs stt stte e the #o"e #o"e o/ #es #es s!+h s!+h s .m n& Am&o ithin the tot" #n$e o/ Tibe Tibet tnn so+i so+iet etie iess hs hs ##e ##e"y "y been been s(e" s(e""e "e&& o! o!t t ith ith the the e5+e e5+e(t (tio ionn o/ ' # # # s + o s e # "y "y n & " # # $e $e "y "y n e$ e$ "e "e + te te & s !# !# %e %e y = 1 9 6 9 > * No N o # h s t h e #e" ti ons hi( bet ee n +ent +ent# #"i "i2e 2e&& n& n& st stte te"e "ess ss #e$i #e$ion onss o/ Tibet ibet been been m&e m&e e5("i+it* et itho!t bein$ +"e# bo!t these /+to#s the e,ness o/ the Tibetn stte is ine5("i+b"e ine5("i+b"e n& its im("i+tions im("i+tions /o# Tibetn Tibetn #e"i$ion #e obs+!#e&* In (#t ( #t i+!" i+ !" # the th e &i" &i "e+ e+ti ti + bet be tee eenn mo# mo # e n& n & "ess "e ss &o mesti mes ti+ +te& te& /o#m /o #mss o/ !&&hism +!"mintin$ in the $#et syntheses o/ the Ge"!$( s+hoo" n& the Rime& Rime& mo%em mo%ement ent m,e m,ess "itt"e "itt"e sense sense ith itho! o!tt this this +ont +ontin in!i !in$ n$ +ont +ont# #st st bet be tee eenn mo#e mo #e n& n & "ess "e ss +ent +e nt# #"i "i2e 2e&& #es # es** It is no ++i&e ++ i&ent nt tht th t the Ge"!$( Ge" !$( o#&e# o#& e# $#e !( in i n +ent# + ent#" " Tibet n& tht tht Rime& Rime& o#i$in o#i$inte& te& in .m .m n& Am&o* Am&o*
I s!$$este& in 'h(te# : tht h& the (o(!"tion o/ Tibet been inte$#te& into into stte stte s e//e+t e//e+ti%e i%e"y "y +ent# +ent#"i "i2e 2e&& s s /o# e5m e5m("e ("e those those o/ Thi"n Thi"n& & !#m 'mbo&i 'mbo&i o# S#i Ln, o%e# the "st /e +ent! #ies Tnt#i+ Tnt#i+ !&&hism o!"& ne%e# h%e &e%e"o(e& n& mintine& its &ominnt #o"e ithin Tibetn so+iety* so+i ety* An e//e+ti e//e +ti%e" %e"yy +ent#" +ent #"i2e& i2e& stte stte in Tib Tibet et o!"& o!"& ne%e ne%e## h%e h%e to"e# to"e#te& te& the the ,in ,in& o/ /#e /#ee0# 0#n$in n$in$$ n& !tonomo!s !tonomo!s (oe# tht Tnt#i+ Tnt#i+ "ms n& gom! go m!aa e5e#+ise& o%e# the +ent!#ies* In&ee& s the histo#i+" ++o!nt "te# in the boo, i"" &emonst#te stte (oe#s in Tibet $ene#""y &i& thei# best to &omesti0 +te n& #est#i+t the "ms* Tht they /i"e& s n in&i+tion (#e+ise"y o/ the "imits o/ stte (oe# ithin Tibet n& o/ the in++!#+y o/ the Lhs0+ent#i+ %ie o/ Tibet* The#e #e to mJo# &i//i+!"ties &i//i+!"ties ith the Lhs0+en Lhs0+ent#i+ t#i+ %ie* Fi#st the Lhs stte itse"/ hs been mis!n&e#sto o&* Se+on& the Lhs hs st stte hs be been t,en s #e(#esentti%e o/ Tibet s ho"ehe#es s e h%e seen mo#e thn h"/ the Tibetn (o(!"tio (o(!" tionn "i%e& "i%e & o!tsi&e o!tsi&e its its bo!n&#i bo!n&#ies* es* I sh"" sh"" t,e t,e these these to to #es #es o/ &i//i+!"ty in t!#n* Fi#st the#e #e the mis+on+e(tions #e$#&in$ the nt!# e o/ the Lhs Lhs stt stte* e* These These h%e h%e n!mbe# n!mbe# o/ +!ses +!ses** Mny o/ the the best0,n best0,non on obse#% ob se#%tio tions ns o/ Tibetn Tibet n so+iet so+ietyy e#e e#e m&e m&e by obse#% obse#%e#s e#s s!+h s!+h s Si# 'h 'h# #"e "ess e"" e"" =19: =19:; ; 19: 19:> > S(en+e# 'h(mn =193> Hein#i+h H##e# =1966> n& othe#s ho e#e bse& in +ent# +ent#" " Tibe Tibett &!#in$ &!#in$ (e#io& (e#io& = 1 9:o019;os> hen the Lhs #e$ime s (#t ( #ti+ i+!" !"# #"y "y st#o st #on$ n$ n& n & h& h & be$ be$!n !n to e5e#+ e5e #+ise ise n !n( !n(#e+ #e+e&e e&ente nte&& &e$ &e$#e #eee o/ +ent#"i2e& +ont#o" =see 'h(te#s 3 :@>* These obse#%e#s s(ent most o/ thei# time in Lhs n& othe# he%i"y he%i"y +ent#"i2e& +ent#"i2e& #es in +ent#" +ent#" Tibet Tibet n& the (i+t (i +t!# !#ee they $i%e $i% e tho!$h tho !$h by n& "#$e "#$ e ++!#t ++! #tee =n& =n & %e#y %e# y %"!b"e %"! b"e>> t the "e%e" "e%e " o/ &es+#i(tion is !n&e#stn&b"y !n&e#stn&b"y s,ee& to#&s the Lhs $o%e#nment the $#et $#et stte stte mon monsti sti++ +ente +ente#s #s ne# ne# Lhs Lhs n& n& to#& to#&ss the $o%e#nment b!#e!+#+y n& its //i#s* In &&i &&iti tion on the# the#ee hs hs &o!b &o!bt"e t"ess ss been been &esi &esi#e #e to sse sse#t #t the the (oe (oe## n& in&e(en&en+e o/ the Lhs $o%e#nment in #e"tion to the 'hinese $o%e#nment s yy o/ #ein #ein/o /o#+ #+in in$$ Tibet ibetn n +"i +"ims ms to in&e in&e(e (en& n&en en+e +e /#om /#om 'h 'hin in* * It is !n/o#t!nte"y one o/ the #e"ities o/ (#esent0&y inte#ntion" (o"iti+s tht +"ims to in&e(en&en+e #e //o#&e& mo#e #e+o$nition #e+o$nition hen stte& in te#ms o/ the nineteenth0+ent!#y nineteenth0+ent!#y E!#o(en i&e" i&e" o/ the ntion0st ntion0stte te !n& !n&e# e# ntion ntion""y ""y #e(#esentti%e $o%e#nment* The #e"tionshi( beteen Tibetns n& 'hinese +n +n ho hoe%e e%e# # s+# s+#+e +e"y "y be !n !n&e &e#s #sto too& o& in te#m te#mss o/ the the #e" #e"ti tion onsh shi( i(ss bet b et e en t o nti n tion on0s 0st tte tes* s* I/ I (oin (o intt o!t o! t tht th t the th e Lhs Lh s $o%e $o %e#n #nmen mentt in the th e (#emo (# emo&e &e#n #n (e#io& (e# io& s not s!+h s!+ h stte st te I most mos t em(h em( hti ti+" +""y "y &o not im("y im( "y tht th t the Tibet Tibetn n (o( (o(!" !"tion tion s e//e+t e//e+ti%e i%e"y "y in+o#( in+o#(o#t o#te& e& ithin ithin the 'hinese 'hinese Em(i# Em(i#ee o# tht tht it sho!"& sho!"& no be #e$#& #e$#&e& e& s (#t (#t o/ the 'hines 'hinesee stte o# 'hinese (eo("e* The +ent#"i2e& ntion0stte =one ntion"ity !n&e# st#on$ +ent#"i2e& $o%e#nment> is #e+ent &e%e"o(ment in Asi* 'ent#" Tibet s mo%in$ in this &i#e+t &i#e+tion ion in in the 19:o 19:oss !n&e# !n&e# the the 13th 13th D"i D"i Lm Lms s &mini &m inist# st#ti tion on n& the#e the# e is no &o!bt tht inso/# s nyone hs ny ("!sib"e histo#i+" +"im to +onstit!te
Tibetn $o%e#nment it is the "e$itimte s!++esso#s o/ tht &minist#tion in othe# o#&s the 1;th D"i Lms &minist#tion in e5i"e* We +n s+#+e"y !n&e#stn& the nt!#e o/ Tibetn #e"i$ion hoe%e# "et "one its histo#i+" &e%e"o(ment itho!t #e+o$ni2in$ tht most Tibetns th#o!$h most o/ Ti0 betn histo#y "i%e& in +omm!nities tht e#e not !n&e# the &y0to0 'IILIED SHAMANS SOME 'ON'LUSIONS &y +ont#o" o/ ny st#on$ +ent#"i2e& $o%e#nment hethe# tht o/ Lhs some othe# Tibetn #e$ime o# the 'hinese* It is not s!#(#isin$ tht #ite#s s!+h s e"" 'h(mn o# H##e# none o/ them t#ine& nth#o(o"o$ists ten&e& to t,e the Lhs $o%e#nment t /+e %"!e sin+e it is on"y in #e+ent ye#s tht Asinists h%e be$!n to ((#e+ite the #e"ti%e"y "imite& &e$#ee o/ +ent#"i2e& +ont#o" /o!n& in mny t#&ition" Asin sttes* The mo&e" o/ O#ient" Des(otism hs s S!snne R!&o"(h #e+ent"y (ointe& o!t &isto#te& o!# (e#+e(tion o/ Asin (o"ities in ys tht #e on"y no be+omin$ e%i&ent* He#e the o#, o/ Stn"ey Tmbih on the $"+ti+ (o"ity in Thi"n& =19@7 196):6:0:7> hi+h I #e/e##e& to in 'h(te# 3 n& o/ %#io!s othe# !tho#s #itin$ on Est So!th n& So!thest Asi is "e&in$ to #ethin,in$ o/ the nt!#e o/ Asin stte /o#mtions =see R!&o"(h 19@>* Amon$ othe# thin$s this #ethin,in$ hs in%o"%e& !n&e#stn&in$ tht the +ent#" $o%e#nments o/ these sttes e#e /# /#om h%in$ mono(o"y o/ /o#+e ithin thei# te##ito#ies n& tht these $o%e#nments ##e"y e5e#te& m!+h &eti"e& +ont#o" o%e# the &i"y "i/e o/ the (eo("e they $o%e#ne&* The#e hs "so been $#oin$ #e"i2tion o/ the e5tent to hi+h these sttes e#e symbo"i+ n& #it!" entities s m!+h s o# mo#e thn st#!+t!#es o/ #e" (o"iti+" +ont#o"* S!+h #ethin,in$ is &!e /o# Tibet s e""* The Lhs #e$ime n& othe# Tibetn (o"ities e#e e, e%en in +om(#ison ith mo&e"s s!+h s Tmbihs $"+ti+ (o"ity n& both Tibetn n& 'hinese $o%e#nments e#e (#ti+!"#"y &e(t t mintinin$ the /o#ms o/ so%e#ei$nty in sit!tions he#e the s!bstn+e o/ #e" (o"iti+" +ont#o" s "#$e"y "+,in$* The (yment o/ t#ib!te /o# e5m("e s o/ten +on%enient /i+tion /o# the mintenn+e o/ t#&e #e"tionshi( =/o# e5m("e Wy"ie 19ob S(e#"in$ 19o> n& &i& not $ene#""y in%o"%e ny #e" (o"iti+" s!bo#&intion* In /+t all 'hinese #e"tionshi(s ith /o#ei$n (oe#s in+"!&in$ those ith E!#o(en (oe#s e#e /o#m""y +on&!+te& in te#ms o/ t#ib!te /#om "esse# (oe#s s!((ose&"y (yin$ hom$e to the em(e#o# =Fi#bn, n& T`n$ 19;1019;:>* We h%e seen tht 'hinese +ont#o" o%e# .m s nomin" &!#in$ the "te nineteenth n& tentieth +ent!#ies ='h(te# ;>* We +n im$ine tht Lhs +ont#o" o%e# nomin""y s!bo#&inte (o"ities s!+h s Poo o# T#shi Lh!n(o s o/ m!+h the sme nt!#e /o# "on$ (e#io&s*: The se+on& (#ob"em bo!t Lhs0+ent#i+ em(hsis s mentione& be/o#e is tht most Tibetns "i%e& o!tsi&e +ent#" Tibet* Themost (o(!"o!s #es o/ Tibet e#e .m
in the est n& Am&o in the no#thest* S!bstnti" (o(!"tions "so "i%e& ithin the bo!n&#ies o/ mo&e#n Ne(" n& In&i in+"!&in$ ht is no the In&in stte o/ Si,,im n& the in&e(en&ent Tibetn stte o/ h!tn* The t en&en+y to me#$e Tibet s ho"e into the +ent#" Tibetn stte +#etes &i//i+!"ties in se%e#" ys) 13* It (#i%i"e$es sin$"e Tibetn stte =+ontinin$ e"" !n&e# h"/ o/ the tot" Tibetn (o(!"tion> he#es the#e e#e se%e#" s!+h sttes in the Tibetn #e$ion ith si$ni/i+nt st#!+t!#" %#itions beteen them 1;* It ten&s to #ein/o#+e the %ie o/ stte (oe# in the Tibetn #e$ion s n !n+ont#o%e#si" $i%en he#es stte #e$imes s in&i+te& bo%e e#e /#$i"e e, n& "imite& in thei# +ont#o" o%e# the (o(!"tion they nomin""y +ont#o""e& 16* It (#i%i"e$es the #e"ti%e"y st#ti/ie& n& +ent#"i2e& #e$ions o/ Tibetn so+iety "tho!$h mny Tibetns in+"!&in$ s!+h e""0st!&ie& $#o!(s s the She#(s n& the Am&o (sto#"ists "i%e& in #e"ti%e"y e$"it#in n& stte"ess so+ieties 17* It (#i%i"e$es #e$ion o/ Tibet tht s #e"ti%e"y iso"te& /#om othe# "in$!isti+ n& ethni+ $#o!(s n& so ten&s to (o#t#y Tibetn so+ieties s e5istin$ in iso"tion he#es mny /et!#es o/ Tibetn so+ieties +n best be e5("ine& in te#ms o/ Tibetn +ont+t ith s!##o!n&in$ so+ieties* The /i#st th#ee (oints /o""o /#om ht hs been si& "#e&y* The "st (oint tht the Lhs0+ente#e& (e#s(e+ti%e my in%o"%e seein$ Tibet s !nne+ess#i"y iso"te& /#om its nei$hbo#s #ises to iss!es the ("+e o/ t#&e in Tibetn so+ieties n& the (#o+ess o/ Tibetni2tion* I sh"" sy somethin$ bo!t t#&e he#e n& i"" &is+!ss Tibetni2tion in the /o""oin$ se+tion* Tibetn so+ieties m!st "ys h%e oe& m!+h o/ thei# si$ni/i+n+e n& m!+h o/ thei# %ibi"ity to the t#&e #o!tes to n& /#om 'hin In&i Ne(" .shmi# n& =in e#"ie# times> I#n* T#&in$ s n int#insi+ (#t o/ the Tibetn e+o"o$i+" &(ttion n& it b#o!$ht the Tibetns into +onstnt +ont+t ith othe# s!##o!n&in$ (o(!"tions* 3 Lhs h& s!bstnti" (o(!"tions o/ Ne#is .shmi#s n& 'hinese M!s"ims n& the t#&in$ +ente#s o/ .m n& Am&o h& n eC!""y hete#o$eneo!s +h#+te#* 'IILIED SHAMANS I h%e s!$$este& e"sehe#e tht the #ise n& /"" o/ sttes in Tibet s (#obb"y +"ose"y "in,e& to the (#os(e#ity o# othe#ise o/ the t#&e #o!tes th#o!$h the Tibetn #e$ion =Sm!e" 19:>* The "#$e #e"i$io!s o#&e#s e#e "so he%i"y in%o"%e& in t#&e
n& m!+h o/ the s(e+t+!"# e5(en&it!#e on b!i"&in$s im$es n& o#nments /o# "#$e gom!a s /inn+e& in this y* T#&e s "so (e#h(s s '#o"ine H!m(h#ey hs s!$$este& =19@> n im(o#tnt met(ho#i+" #eso!#+e /o# Tibetns n& one hi+h s to some &e$#ee homo"o$o!s ith !&&hism s it &e%e"o(e& in Tibet* 'hinese so+iety to the est o/ Tibet n& In&in so+iety to the so!th e#e both so+ieties ith st#on$ +o""e+ti%e o#ienttion* Tibet s m!+h "ess so* Ho!seho"&s n& in&i%i&!"s men n& omen o#,e& o!t thei# on &estiny in thei# on y n& m&e ht they +o!"& o!t o/ the +(it" =#e" n& met(ho#i+"> tht thei# ,#m h& (#o%i&e& them ith* This $%e Tibetn so+ieties n en%ib"e /#ee&om n& o(enness +om(#e& to /o# e5m("e those o/ 'hin Ne(" o# In&i* One hs on"y to "oo, t the (osition o/ omen in Tibet to see the &i//e#en+e /#om its nei$hbo#s =see e"" 19:)1;@01; Mi$ot 196@); G!ib!t 19;9 )1 @ 01 @9 Ri2%i 193)110119 Mi""e# 19o /o# some +om(#isons>* Hoe%e# this /#ee&om &i& not im("y eC!"ity o/ o((o#t!nity "et "one o/ o!t+ome t the mte#i" o# the s(i#it!" "e%e"* Tibetn omen e#e not eC!" to men in the o((o#t!nities %i"b"e to them =see Le%ine 191b A2i2 19@ 19 ."ein 19@>* No# o/ +o!#se e#e #isto+#ts eC!" to d8d%h-ung, in+#nte "ms to the o#&in#y mon,s* This is not to &eny the ,ey ("+e o/ +om(ssion (.arun") n& o/ the "t#!isti+ moti%tion (bodhi%itta) ithin Tibetn !&&hism b!t it se#%es to ("+e it in (e#s(e+ti%e* The in&i%i&!" my h%e been n i""!sion /o# the Tibetns s /o# othe# !&&hists en&oe& ith on"y #e"ti%e e5isten+e b!t the im$e o/ the se"/0inte#este& in&i%i&!" se#+hin$ /o# the best "m n& the most e//e+ti%e te+hin$ $#&!""y b!i"&in$ !( his o# he# #eso!#+es /o# n ttem(t on the !"timte (#i2e o/ En"i$htenment sti"" sys somethin$ bo!t the s(e+i/i+ +h#+te# o/ Tibetn !&&hism* THE ?UESTION OF TIETANIATION In 'h(te# ; I int#o&!+e& the C!estion o/ Tibetni2tion ith #e/e#en+e to (o(!"tions on the m#$ins o/ the Tibetn +!"t!#" #e$ion s!+h SOME 'ON'LUSIONS the ?in$ =in the Gye"#on$ sttes> the N5i n& the i* It is (osib"e tht some /et!#es o/ .m so+i" o#$ni2tion s!+h s the t#ib" #!+t!#e o/ Ny#on$ my #e/"e+t the /+t tht these #es h& on"y n&e#$one Tibetni2tion ithin the "st mi""enni!m o# so* The#e #e +e#tin" y si$ns o/ s!+h (#o+esses* Th!s the Ho# sttes o/ .m e#e in he (#emo&e#n (e#io& /!""y Tibetn in "n$!$e n& +!"t!#e b!t Ho# gs Tibetn ethnonym #e/e##in$ to (o(!"tions o/ T!#,i+ o#i$in n& in&i+tes tht the #e$ion my h%e been T!#,i+ in (o(!"tion t some (#e%io!s time* .ess"e# hs s!$$este& tht most o/ .m s o#i$in""y not ethni+""y Tibetn =see .ess"e# 19;>* Simi"# (#o+esses o/ Tibetni2tion +e#tin"y o++!##e& in Am&o to the no#th he#e
Mon$o"in n& Ho# =T!#,i+> (o(!"tions h& been bso#be& n& "" "on$ the Him"ys he#e ho"e se#ies o/ Tibeto!#mn0s(e,in$ (o(!"tions in Poy!" in so!the#n Lho, in the In&in stte o/ A#!n+h" P#&esh n& in h!tn Si,,im n& Ne(" h& be+ome ho""y o# (#t"y in+o#(o#te& =see 'h(te# 7>* In the initi" st$es o/ this (#o+ess o/ Tibetni2tion these (o(!"tions mi$ht h%e &o(te& Tibetn !&&hism o# t "est in+o#(o#te& Tibetn0t#ine& "ms "on$ ith "o+" shmni+ (#+titione#s =s ith the Tmn$ Le(+h N5i n& the (eo("e o/ Mi"i>* In the "te# st$es "o+" "n$!$es mi$ht &is((e# in /%o# o/ Tibetn &i"e+ts s ith Shn$sh!n$ in este#n Tibet n& the D#&i+ (o(!"tions in L &,h* This too, ("+e in Am&o ith the Ho# n& So$(o A#i$ (o(!"tions n& (e#h(s "so in .m ith the este#nmost Gye"#on$ sttes* Histo#i+""y this (#o+ess $oes b+, t "est to the +onC!est o/ Shn$sh!n$ =e#"y se%enth +ent!#y> n& sho!"& (#obb"y be +onsi&e#e& s n inte$#" (#t o/ the Tibetn +!"t!#" &(ttion* Lms /#om #e+ent"y +on%e#te& n& /#in$e #es s!+h s Gye"#on$ h%e ("ye& ,ey #o"e in the &e%e"o(ment o/ Tibetn !&&hism o%e# the +ent!#ies* The most s(e+t+!"# +on%e#sion s tht o/ the Mon$o"s b!t ith the e5+e(tion o/ sm"" $#o!(s "i,e the So$(o A#i$ o/ Am&o ho e#e "i%in$ in n othe#ise Tibetn0 s(e,in$ #e #e"i$io!s in+o#(o#tion s not /o""oe& in this +se by tot" +!"t!#" bso#(tion* Mon$o" s+ho"#s st!&ie& in Tibetn gom!a n& #ote boo,s in Tibetn n& the#e s !n&o!bte&"y +!"t!#" in/"!en+e =the Ges# e(i+ s t#ns0 "te& into Mon$o"in /o# e5m("e> b!t Mon$o"s #emine& +!"t!#""y &istin+t* In some ys !&&hism "ys #emine& /o#ei$n #e"i$ion /o# the Mon$o"s =see Heissi$ 19o>* This (#o+ess o/ Tibetni2tion hs been "itt"e st!&ie& so /# =see 'IILIED SHAMANS SOME 'ON'LUSIONS A* -+,son 19@V /o# the N5i M+&on"& 19@bV /o# Ne("> tho!$h #e+ent o#, on Tmn$ n& G!#!n$ (o(!"tions in Ne(" hy in&i+te& some o/ the +om("e5ities in%o"%e&* The &o(tion o/ s(e+ts o/ Tibetn !&&hist #it!" n& the (#esen+e o/ in&i$eno!s "m /mi* "ies ithin these (o(!"tions &oes not ne+ess#i"y men tht !&&hist #it!" n& the "ms #e se#%in$ the sme /!n+tions s in Tibetn so+iety (#o(e#* Tmn$ "ms =Steinmnn 19@ 199 Ho"mbe#$ 199> seem "most e5+"!si%e"y +on+e#ne& ith (#$mti+ #e"i$ion #the# thn the .#m O#ienttion n& o&hi O#ienttion o!t"ine& in 'h(te# :* M!m/o#&s st#ess on the &i"o$i+ nt!#e o/ the en+o!nte# beteen Tibetn !&&hism n& G!#!n$ shmnism =M!m/o#& 199> is n im(o# tnt (oint b!t it is "so o#th #emembe#in$ tht the en+o!nte# in these #e$ions hs been $oin$ on /o# mny +ent!#ies n& tht (#ti+!"# G!#!n$ $#o!(s my h%e $one th#o!$h se%e#" (e#io&s o/ $#ete# n& "esse# in+o#(o#tion into the Tibetn !&&hist +!"t!#" s(he#e* M!+h the sme my be t#!e o/ (eo("e s!+h s the N5i in !nnn n& the ?in$ in Si+h!n =Gye"#on$>* In othe# o#&s it is not +"e# hethe# in #e+ent +ent!#ies the bo#&e# o/ the Tibetn +!"t!#" &(ttion
s +ontin!in$ to e5(n& in these #e$ions o# sim("y mo%in$ s"o"y b+, n& /o#th o%e# the sme te##ito#y* In ny +se these (#t"y Tibetni2e& /#in$es he"(e& Tibetn !&&hism to #etin mission#y o#ienttion ithin its on so+iety* The "ms s e i"" see in 'h(te# i 1 e#e tho!$ht o/ s tmin$ the Tibetn (o(!"tion J!st s they h& tme& the i"& $o&s o/ Tibet* Tmin$ in%o"%e& the instit!tion"i2in$ o/ the .#m n& o&hi O#ienttions ithin Tibetn +omm!nities b!t it s ne%e# on+e n& /o# "" (#o+ess* Po(!"tions on+e tme& +o!"& &#i/t b+, to#&s (#$mti+ +on+e#ns n& nee& t o be #emin&e& o/ the t#!e menin$ o/ the Dh#m Tibetn "ite#t!#e is / !"" o/ # esttements o/ sim("e mo# " (#in+i("es /o# the "y (o(!"tion =Sne""$#o%e 197@b .s+hes,y 19@3 'ho,ho#"in$ 19@>* In &&ition the#e #emine& the i"& nom&i+ n& bn&it #es ithin the bo#&e#s in+"!&in$ #e$ions s!+h s Gy&Q he#e the n(o e#e sti"" st#on$ n& the +onstnt +h""en$e o/ the bo#&e# #e$ion* S!+h mission#y +ti%ity +o!"& +e#tin"y be /!e"e& by $en!ine +on+e#n /o# the &e$#&e& +on&ition o/ these !ntme& (o(!"tions b!t it "so h& +"e# mte#i" s(e+t* The "ms n& gom!a o/ &i//e#ent o#&e#s e#e in +onstnt +om(etition /o# "y s!((o#t n& ith the +ent#" #es "#$e"y &i%i&e& into s(he#es o/ in/"!en+e &ominte& bye o# nothe# mJo# gom!a, the m#$ins (#o%i&e& s+o(e /o# e5(nsion & t times /o# the +C!isition o/ (o"iti+""y n& e+onomi+"" y im#tnt "y s!((o#te#s* The +ti%ity o/ S,y( n& .$y&( "ms t the Mon$o" +o!#t the thi#teenth +ent!#y n& the +om(etition o/ Ge"!$( n& . ii&( "ms /o# Mon$o" s!((o#t in the se%enteenth +ent!#y #e (e#(s the most &#mti+ e5m("es o/ s!+h (#o+esses* Hoe%e# the#e #e mny othe# e5m("es in+"!&in$ the .#m( s!bo#&e#s "in,s ith the #oy" /mi"y o/ N5i =see 'h(te# ;> n& the $#&!" +on%e#sion (/ ht is no h!tn into D#!$( monsti+ stte* As the st!&ies o/ M!m/o#& =199> n& O#tne# =199> #emin& !s these (#o+esses +ontin!e& into mo&e#n times* It sho!"& not be t "" s!#(#isin$ tht in #e+ent ye#s mny Tibetn "ms h%e #es(on&e& to thei# %!"ne#b"e sit!tion s #e/!$ees by "oo,in$ to the (otenti" o/ E!#o(ens Ame#i+ns n& o%e#ses 'hinese s +on%e#ts to Tibetn !&&hism n& s (t#ons o/ its instit!tions* UNDERLING STRU'TURAL PRIN'IPLES OF TIETAN SO'IETIES To +on+"!&e P#t One I sh"" mention n!mbe# o/ othe# st#!+t!#" (#i n+i( "e s o/ Tibe tn so +i et ies th t h %e eme# $e& in the (# e% io! s +h(te#s n& #e o/ #e"e%n+e in m,in$ sense o/ Tibetn #e"i$ion* The si$ni/i+n+e o/ %ontinuity n& o/ s!++ession hethe# +on+ei%e& o/ (#im#i"y in lineage te#ms o# in household te#ms sho!"& be note&* I h%e st#esse& the /"!i&ity n& /"e5ibi"ity o/ Tibetn so+iety* The +on%e#se to this /"!i&ity is the im(o#tn+e tht Tibetns tt+h to +ontin!ity* This eme#$es in "ine$e te#ms /o# e5m("e in the s(e+i" stt!s $i%en to those ho!seho"&s
ho +n +"im &es+ent /#om the /o!n&in$ "ine$es o/ She#( o# T#( %i""$e o# on "#$e# s+"e in the hi$h stt!s o/ the /e #isto+#ti+ /mi"ies ho +n +"im n+ient &es+ent =s!+h s the Lh$y#i /mi"y o# the .n #!"in$ /mi"y o/ S,y>* On the ho"e hoe%e# the im(o#tn+e o/ "ine$e n& o/ (t#i"ine" &es+ent is s e h%e seen #e"ti%e"y m!te& in Tibet* As Gnnth Obeyese,e#e notes this seems to be the +se "so in The#%&in so+ieties) On the instit!tion" "e%e" The#%& !&&hist so+ieties n& some Mhyn ones =Tibet> #e sso+ite& ith the (#im+y o/ the n!+"e# 'IILIED SHAMANS SOME 'ON'LUSIONS /mi"y s $inst the Hin&! Joint /mi"y n& "on$ ith this ith the e#osion o/ (t#i(otest" !tho#ity n& the #e"i$io!s"y sn+tione& #o"e o/ the /the#* =Obeyese,e#e 199o)17o> The +ontin!ity n& (#ese#%tion o/ the household is ne%e#the"ess n im(o#tnt Tibetn %"!e hene%e# the#e is si$ni/i+nt (#o(e#ty to (ss on to the s!bseC!ent $ene#tions* Rthe# thn ""o n e5istin$ ho!seho"& to be s("it !( Tibetns i"" $o to +onsi&e#b"e "en$ths to mintin +ontin!ity* We h%e "#e&y seen some o/ the me+hnisms in%o"%e& hi+h in+"!&e (o"yn&#o!s m##i$e =e5("i+it"y tho!$ht o/ s (#e%entin$ &i%ision o/ (#o(e#ty beteen b#othe#s> the #et!#n o/ mon,s to "y "i/e to t,e o%e# the ho!seho"& o/ &e+ese& b#othe# n& the m##i$e o/ on"y &!$hte#s to mag!a h!sbn&s ho t,e o%e# the nme n& ho!seho"& o/ the $i#"s (#ents* The em(hsis on +ontin!ity is s mi$ht be e5(e+te& e%i&ent in the #e"m o/ #e"i$ion s e""* In /+t #e"i$ion +o!"& be +onsi&e#e& the /ie"& !ar e+%ellen%e o/ +ontin!ity ithin Tibetn so+iety* A"" #e"i$io!s t#&itions ("+e $#et im(o#tn+e on the "ine$e (gy8d) of the te+hin$s n& on %"i& t#nsmission /#om one $ene#tion to the ne5t* The o#& gy8d #e/e#s to te+hin$0"ine$e s e"" s to $ene"o$i+" "ine$e n& inhe#itn+e n& it is +"ose"y #e"te& to the o#& /o# Tnt# ="so gy8d, ith s"i$ht"y &i//e#ent s(e""in$>* Te+hin$0"ine$es my be %e#y n+ient $oin$ b+, to the time o/ G!#! Rim(o+he =ei$hth +ent!#y> o# e#"ie# tho!$h they my "so $o b+, to mo#e #e+ent #e%e"tions by Tnt#i+ &eities* O/ten the#e is +ombintion o/ the to ith n initi" t#nsmission tht is #e%"i&te& th#o!$h s!bseC!ent #e%e"tions* As e i"" see in P#ts To n& Th#ee s!+h #e%e"tions (dagnang, gongter, et+*> (#o%i&e +hnne"s th#o!$h hi+h the n+ient "ine$es o/ te+hin$ +n !n&e#$o mo&i/i+tion /o# +ontem(o##y +on&itions* In this y s (ointe& o!t in 'h(te# : #e"i$ion in Tibet is not bse& on"y on "ine# &es+ent /#om (st mste#s b!t on #e"tionshi( =hi+h +n be tho!$ht o/ s (e#(en&i+!"# to "ine# histo#i+" time> to the time"ess o#"& o/ the Tnt#i+ &eities* The mintenn+e o/ the ho!seho"& is (#""e"e& by the mintenn+e o/ the gom!a, o/ n+ient (i"$#im$e sites n& most &i#e+t"y by the labrang, the "ms ho!seho"& n& (e#son" (#o(e#ty* The labrang my be (sse& &on th#o!$h $ene"o$i+" &es+ent in the +se o/ he#e&it#y "ms b!t it my "so be (sse& &on
to ((ointe& s!++esso#s 'o # th#o!$h the s!++essi%e membe#s o/ n in+#ntion0se#ies* The &e%e"o(ment n& (#o"i/e#tion o/ the #ein+#nte "m system is itse"/ st#i,in $ in&i+tion o/ the im(o#tn+e Tibetns h%e tt+he& to +ontin!ity o/ instit!tions* ; The #ein+#nte "m system is "so es(e+i""y Whe#e it is e5("i+it"y +ombine& ith the +on+e(t o/ the emntion o/ Tnt#i+ &eity "in,$e to the !n&e#"yin$ time"ess "e%e" o/ #e"ity symbo"i2e& by those &eities =see 'h(te# :6>* The 1;th D"i Lm is the (#esent0&y membe# o/ se#ies o/ #ebi#ths st#et+hin$ b+, th#o!$h histo#i+" time to the ist D"i Lm n& be/o#e him to the e#"y Tibetn ,in$s n& the mythi+" mon,ey0n+esto# o/ the Tibetn (eo("e* He is "so hoe%e# 'hen#esi$ =A%"o,itel%#> n& s s!+h he #e(#esents somethin$ hi+h is beyon& histo#i+" time* A #e"te& iss!e to the C!estion o/ +ontin!ity n& s!++ession is tht o/ (#ote+tion o/ the ho!seho"&* As e i"" see in the ne5t +h(te# the (#ote+tion o/ the ho!seho"& is mJo# iss!e in Tibetn /o", #e"i$ion n& it is tie& !( ith system o/ /o",0#e"i$ion &eities ho h%e %#io!s #o"es in #e"tion to the ho!seho"& s e"" s ith non0 !&&hist #it!"s s!+h s those o/ m##i$e by hi+h the ho!seho"& is +onstit!te& s mi+#o+osm* The gom!a n& the #e"i$io!s o#&e# "so h%e (#ote+to#s (%h-ö.yong)# Some o/ these =e*$* Peh#> #e mJo# Tibetn /o",0#e"i$ion &eities ho h%e been bo!n& by P&msmbh% o# othe# $#et "ms to +t s (#ote+to#s o/ the Dh#m* Othe#s =e*$* Mh,"> #e &eities o/ In&in o#i$in ho h%e been int#o&!+e& to Tibet "on$ ith the %#io!s Tnt#i+ +!"ts* The !se o/ mandala s+hemes in e#"y $om( s!+h s tht t SmyQ +n "so be seen s n"o$o!s to the +#etion o/ the ho!seho"& s mi+#o+osm*6 A +o#o""#y to the e,ness o/ Tibetn $o%e#nment" st#!+t!#es is tht it o/ten m,es mo#e sense to see Tibetn st#!+t!#es o/ !tho#ity "ess in te#ms o/ +ommn& st#!+t!#e in hi+h "" (oe# &e#i%es /#om the !"timte (oe# o/ the #!"e# n& mo#e in te#ms o/ the ne$otition o/ (oe# beteen mo#e o# "ess eC!" (#tne#s* In the +o!#se o/ s!+h ne$otition +on&ition" st#!+t!#e o/ $o%e#nment my be set !( b!t s!+h st#!+t!#es "ys #etin ten&en+y to /#$ment "on$ the "ines ++o#&in$ to hi+h they e#e initi""y +onstit!te&* This my e"" h%e been t#!e o/ the e#"y Tibetn em(i#e i/ the stte o/ Son$tsen Gm(o n& his s!++esso#s is #i$ht"y inte#(#ete& s #it!" ,in$shi( ++e(te& by se%e#" (oe#/!" #e$ion" #!"in$ /mi"ies* It s t#!e in %#yin$ &e$#ees o/ most s!++esso# sttes in the Tibetn #e$ion* #+I
'IILIED SHAMANS SOME 'ON'LUSIONS
The e#"y Tibetn ""in+es seem to h%e been beteen the #!" in$ /mi"ies o/ (etty sttes b!t in mo#e #e+ent times the (#tne#s to s!+h ""in+es h%e been mo#e %#ie& in+"!&in$ not on"y "o+" #isto +#ti+ /mi"ies b!t "so he#e&it#y ((ointe& n& in+#nte "ms n& e"thy me#+hnt /mi"ies* As s note& in 'h(te# @ it is (#im#i"y in the !#bn
+onte5t tht these %#io!s ""in+es #e /o#me& n& min** tine& th#o!$h +om("e5 (o"iti+" e+onomi+ n& ,inshi( "in,$es* Whi"e the s!(#em+y o/ the Dh#m s e%e#yhe#e #e+o$ni2e& these ne$otitions e#e in mny #es(e+ts ne$otitions beteen #e"ti%e eC!"s* The (#tne#s e#e /#eC!ent"y #e"te& by ties o/ ,inshi( n& m##i$e n& t#&e ##e"y seems to h%e been #e$#&e& by Tibetns s n in/e#io# o# "oe#0stt!s o++!(tion* In /+t the labrang o/ the "ms n& the #isto+#ti+ ho!seho"&s e#e o/ten s e5tensi%e"y in%o"%e& in t#&in$ s the me#+hnts (#o(e#* I h%e s!$$este& e#"ie# in this +h(te# tht Tibetn ttit!&es to t#&e h%e some simi"#ities ith Tibetn ttit!&es to #e"i$ion* In this +onne+tion e +n "so #e+"" the im(o#tn+e o/ gany; $#o!(s n& simi"# ho#i2ont" "in,$es in Tibetn +omm!nities "on$ ith the (#in+i("e o/ the eC!i%"en+e o/ "" /!"" ho!seho"&s ithin sin$"e %i""$e n& o/ the e"e+tion o/ %i""$e o//i+i"s on tem(o##y bsis =s in T#(>* Tibetns ((e# to t#et so+i" #e"tionshi(s in $ene#" s +ont#+t!" o# +onstit!tion" #the# thn s n e5(#ession o/ &i%ine"y o#&ine& hie##+hy* E%en Tibetn m##i$es /o# "" o/ the #it!" +#etion o/ the ne ho!seho"& s mi+#o+osm #e (#im#i"y +i%i" +ont#+ts ith +"e# e5(e+ttions o/ m!t!" #i$hts n& ob"i$tions n& +#e/!""y s(e+i/ie& e+onomi+ im("i+tions* The em(hsis on ho#i2ont" "in,$es hi+h hs J!st been note& $oes "on$ ith ten&en+y in t#&ition" Tibetn instit!tions to %oi& $i%in$ "" (oe# to sin$"e (e#son* This (henomenon is most /mi"i# in the /o#m o/ the ((ointment o/ to (e#sons one "y n& one monsti+ to mny dzong!ön (ositions* It is not hoe%e# sim("y C!estion o/ the #e"tionshi( beteen "y n& monsti+ (oe#* It mi$ht be mo#e ++!#te to see the "y0monsti+ #e"tionshi( s s(e+i" +se o/ the (#in+i("e o/ &i%ision o/ #es(onsibi"ity* Th!s some dzong!ön (ositions e#e o++!(ie& by to "y o//i+i"s n& in 'h(te# ; e s tht some est Tibetn sttes = n& Litn$> h& to de!a #the# thn one* A +onne+tion +o!"& (e#h(s be m&e to the +on+e(t o/ the (o"yn&#o!s m## i$e in hi+h to o# mo#e men #e seen s +o0h!sbn&s o/ the i/e n& so in sense sim!"tneo!s m"e he&s o/ the ho!seho"&* In+ti+e one h!sbn& is the senio# =the sme seems to h%e been t#!e the n& Litn$ de!a), b!t the (#in+i("e o/ m!t!" #e("+ebi"ity +"e#* The #e"tionshi( beteen D"i Lm n& Pn+hen Rim(o+he so shos t#+es o/ this ,in& o/ &i%ision o/ #es(onsibi"ity* The D"i Lma is !nC!estionb"y the senio# (#tne# b!t e"ements o/ sh#in$ o/ #es(onsibi "ity #e +"e#"y (#esent* S!+h #e"tionshi(s e#e +ommon in t he mJo# monsti+ o#&e#s n& in "#$e gom!a# To +ses ith some simi"#ities to tht o/ D"i Lm n& Pn+hen Rim(o+he #e those o/ the to he&s o/ the .#m( o#&e# !nti" the ei$hteenth +ent!#y =Shm#( n& Shn$(> n& o/ the to he&s o/ the D#i$!n$ .$y& o#&e# to&y =D#i$!n$ 'hetsn$ n& 'h!n$tsn$>* In s!+h +ses he#e the #es(onsibi"ity is sh#e& beteen to in+#ntion0se#ies the to "ms #e i&e""y o/ &i//e#ent $es so tht they +n +t "te#nte"y s e+h othe#s te+he# n& one +n +t s he& o/ the
o#&e# &!#in$ the in/n+y o/ the othe#* In (#+ti+e o/ +o!#se this &oes not "ys o#, o!t* The ten&en+y to s(e+i/y n& &ist#ib!te #i$hts n& #es(onsibi"ities +n "so be seen in the +onte5t o/ the gom!a o# #e"i$io!s +omm!nity In #e+ent #ti+"e Te# E""in$son hs st!&ie& the e%o"!tion o/ monsti+ +onstit!tions (%hayig), n& notes ho these &o+!ments instit!tion"i2e e5tensi%e #est#ints $inst the b!se o/ (oe# by those in hi$h o//i+e* He (oints o!t tht) the Lm o/ monsti+ (o"ity is "e&e# ith s(e+i/ie& n& #est#i+te& (oe#s n& *** the +omm!nity he "e&s is +"e#"y $o%e#ne& by " #the# thn by (e#son" +(#i+e< +onstit!tion" (o"ity in othe# o#&s #the# thn /e!&" o# Lmist (o"ity* =E""in$son 199o):1@> Lte# he s!$$ests tht the $#oth in si2e n& +om("e5ity o/ Tibetn gom!a "e& not to the i&es(#e& n& ((#ent"y ob%io!s so"!tion o/ +ont#o" by in+#esin$ +on+ent#tion o/ !tho#ity to +#ete /o#m o/ in&i%i&!"0+ente#e& &es(otism hethe# O#ient" o# Lmisti+ b!t #the# to in+#esin$"y e5("i+it systems /o# &e+on+ent#tion n& &ist#ib!tion o/ !tho#ity mon$ m!t!""y +o!nte#b"n+in$ /!n+tion""y0&e/ine& o//i+es* =E""in$son 199o):1> The em(hsis on &e+on+ent#tion n& &ist#ib!tion o/ !tho#ity tht E""in$son notes /o# the Tibetn gom!a is I o!"& s!$$est t#!e o/ 163 'IILIED SHAMANS Tibetn so+ieties mo#e $ene#""y n& $i%es those so+ieties n& the #e"i$io!s /o#ms tht &e%e"o(e& ithin them %e#y &i//e#ent +h#+te# /#om the so+i" n& #e"i$io!s /o#ms /o!n& in the +ent#"i2e& sttes o/ So!th So!thest n& Est Asi* This +on+"!&es the s!#%ey o/ Tibetn so+ieties +om(#isin$ P#t One o/ this boo, in hi+h e h%e s,et+he& the so+i" en%i#onment ithin hi+h Tibetn #e"i$ion hs &e%e"o(e&* In P#t To e e5mine Tibetn #e"i$ion itse"/*
P#t To
9 The itual Cosmos and Its Inhabitants
This is the /i#st o/ se#ies o/ +h(te#s tht (#o%i&e &es+#i(tion o/ Tibetn #e"i$ion s it s in the (#emo&e#n (e#io&* In 'h(te# : I &es+#ibe& Tibetn #e"i$io!s +ti%ity in te#ms o/ th#ee o#ienttions the P#$mti+ .#m n& o&hi o#ienttions* These o#ienttions #e not sh#("y &i%i&e& /#om e+h othe#* The sme (eo("e my be in%o"%e& n& the sme symbo"s my be inte#(#ete& &i//e#ent"y in "" th#ee* E+h o#ienttion #e"tes to +ommon (e#+e(tion o/ the nt!#e o/ the !ni%e#se e%en tho!$h they my in%o"%e #&i+""y &i//e#ent ttit!&es to#&s tht !ni%e#se* The !ni%e#se tht Tibetns (e#+ei%e in+"!&es $o&s n& &emons En"i$htene& bein$s n& s+#e& sites s e"" s h!mn bein$s n& thei# hbittions* It is "#e&y (e#%&e& in othe# o#&s by the symbo"i+ entities in te#ms o/ hom Tibetn #e"i$ion is st#!+t!#e&* This #it!" +osmos o# s+#e& $eo$#(hy is o!# st#tin$ (oint sin+e it /o#ms the $#o!n& in #e"tion to hi+h "" Tibetn #e"i$io!s o#ienttions h%e to (osition themse"%es* The Tibetns inhe#ite& se%e#" +om("e5 mo&e"s o/ the !ni%e#se 'IILIED SHAMANS
THE RITUAL 'OSMOS AND ITS INHAITANTS
/#om the In&in !&&hists in+"!&in$ the e""0,non s+heme o/ Mo!nt Me#! the /o!# +ontinents n& ei$ht s!b+ontinents* Within this s+heme hi+h s #e+(it!"te& mi""ions o/ times &i"y in the mandala (mendel) o//e#in$s o/ Tibetn mon,s n& "y (#+titione#s n& (inte& on tho!sn&s o/ gom!a ""s the mte#i" o#"& s the Tibetns ,ne it /o#me& (#t o/ the So!the#n 'ontinent o/ D2mb!"in$ =S,t* -mb!&%i(>* D2mb!"in$ s one o/ the /o!# min +ontinents s!##o!n&in$ the $#et mo!ntin o/ Me#! the 5is o/ the !ni%e#se in the /o#m o/ mandala# F#om the s!mmit o/ Mo!nt Me#! !(#& s st#et+he& the he%ens o/ the hi$he# $o&s* These be+me s!++essi%e"y (!#e# s one s+en&e& th#o!$h the $o&s o/ the &esi#e0#e"m th#o!$h tho se o/
the /o#m0#e"m to the $o&s o/ the /o#m"ess #e"m* e"o D2mb!"in$ e#e the he""0#e"ms s!b&i%i&e& into hot +o"& n& ++esso#y he""s n& $#&e& in te#ms o/ the intensity o/ (!nishment n& the &!#tion o/ sty* This s+heme s bo!n& !( ith the eC!""y /mi"i# im$e#y o/ the Si(Q .o#"o o# Whee" o/ Li/e in hi+h the %#io!s mo&es o/ #ebi#th =$o&s &emi$o&s h!mn bein$s nim"s h!n$#y $hosts n& he""0bein$s> e#e &e(i+te& s se+to#s o/ hee" #o!n& hi+h "i%in$ bein$s #e%o"%e& +ontin!""y !nti" they +ommitte& themse"%es to the o&hi O#ienttion n& be$n the (#o+ess "e&in$ to es+(e /#om the +y+"e o/ sams"ra# These bo&ies o/ symbo"o$y i"" ("y some (#t in the /o""oin$ +h (te#s b!t I sh" " /o+ !s he#e on th e + t!" en%i# on ment i th in hi+h the Tibetns "i%e& n& hi+h they +on+ei%e& o/ s e h%e seen s (#t o/ the So!the#n 'ontinent o/ D2mb!"in$* The menin$s tt+he& to tht en%i#onment in+o#(o#te& both (#e0 !&&hist n& !&&hist e"ements* The#e e#e mo!ntins tht e#e the homes o/ mo!ntin $o&s st#ems n& #i%e#s he#e the hi0s(i#its &e"t +%es he#e ho"y "ms h& me&itte& m#,s tht h& been "e/t in #o+,s by G!#! Rim(o+h e o# .in$ Ges# ", es hos e (t#on s(i#its +o!"& i& "ms to &i%ine the ,#mi+ +!##ents o# tendrel, hi&&en %""eys tht h& been o(ene& by see#s o/ the (st s #et#et0("+es /o# s(i#it!" (#+ti+e o# es+(e /#om (o "i ti +" t!# moi" * This ho"e st#!+t!#e o/ menin$ s mintine& in o#&e# ith the i& o/ symbo"i+ &e%i+es &ist#ib!te& th#o!$h the "n&s+(e n& o/ #e"i$io!s s(e+i"ists hose #it!"s +onstnt"y #e+ti%te& those &e%i+es* These symbo"i+ &e%i+es +ontinin$ the #emins o/ $#et "ms o/ the (st <#n$e& /#om mJo# ("+es o/ (i"$#im$e "i,e .i"sh o# Lhs to mino# #emin&e#s o/ !&&hist &eities o# mo!ntin0$o&s* Fo# (eo("e hose "i/e s "i%e& mon$ them they +onstnt"y #e+#ete& the st#!+t!#e o/ Tibetn #e"i$io!s menin$s* Tibetn #e"i$ion s "ite#""y $#o!n&e& in s!+h sso+itions hi+h e#e e%o,e& /o# Tibetn t#%e"e#s hen they +"imbe& o%e# hi$h mo!ntin (sses hose s!mmits e#e m#,e& by +i#ns to the $o&s (#ye#0/"$s n& mani*alls e#e+te& s %i#t!o!s +tion =see 'h(te# II> by !& &hists o/ th e (st hen they ",e& #o!n& %h-orten o# "on$si&e #o+,0+#%in$s o/ the $o&&ess T# * o# the +om(ssionte bo&histt% A%"o,ites%# o# hen they %isite& the gom!a, the monste#ies tem("es n& othe# #e"i$io!s +ente#s hi+h !nti" #e+ent"y e#e the most s(e+t+!"# b!i"&in$s in the Tibetn "n&s+(e n& hi+h the Tibetns to&y #e &oin$ thei# best to #eb!i"& /te# the &e%sttion o/ the 197os n& 19@os* E%en in e5i"e the Tibetns h%e #e+onstit!te& this ,in& o/ s+#e& $eo$#(hy* Whe#e%e# Tibetns h%e "i%e& /o# some ye#s the %isito# i"" /in& tht the "n&s+(e hs been $#&!""y s+#"i2e& n& b#o!$ht !n&e# +ont# o" by $ossme# net o/ #o+,0+#%in$s sm"" ysi&e sh#ines (#ye#0/"$s (lungta), la!ts;, mni0hee"s n& %h-orten, s e"" s th#o!$h the gom!a
themse"%es "most "ys the most +ons(i+!o!s n& e"bo#te b!i"&in$s in ny Tibetn sett"ement* In /+t &es(ite the Weste#n ten&en+y to see Tibetn #e"i$ion s &yin$ o# "#e&y &e& it is "i%in$ system mon$ the #e/!$ees n& mon$ the Tibetn (o(!"tions o/ Ne(" n& In&i n& hs by no mens &is((e#e& ithin the #e$ions o/ Tibet +ont#o""e& by the PR' n& the /o""oin$ &es+#i(tion i"" ++o#&in$"y be +o!+he& /o# the most (#t in the (#esent tense* A +ommon Tibetn e5(#ession /o# the !ni%e#se is nöd%h8d, "ite#""y +ontine#0+ontents) The o#"& is seen s %esse" ithin hi+h "i%in$ bein$s (sem%hen) o/ %#io!s ,in&s #e +ontine&* The to +ontine# n& +ontents #e not #e""y se(#b"e* Simi"#"y ithin the mte#i" !ni%e#se (#ti+!"# "i%in$ bein$s h%e thei# on (#o(e# en%i#onments hi+h #e to be ((#o(#ite"y mintine&* This in%o"%es s e i"" see the #it!" mintenn+e o/ h!mn ho!seho"&s #e$!"# !(,ee( o/ the &e""in$s o/ the "o+" $o&s =hi+h #e most o/ten stone +i#ns la!ts;, hi$h !( in the mo!ntins> n& the +onst#!+tion n& +#e o/ s!((o#ts (ten) /o# the Tnt#i+ &eities n& &i%ine s(e+ts ho $!i&e the 'IILIED SHAMANS (th to bodhi# This "st te#m ten, is $ene#i+ one hi+h in+"!&es im$es #e"i$io!s boo,s sh#ines o/ "" ,in&s s e"" s the %h-orten =S,t* st(> (#t #e"iC!#ies /o# !&&hist sints n& (#t !ni%e#s" #emin&e#s o/ the +!"t o/ En"i$htenment =see 'h(te# I #>* De#& W",e# hs +ont#ste& the ,in& o/ s+#e& $eo$#(hy /o!n& in stte"ess (#e"ite#te so+iety tht hs "i%e& /o# +ent!#ies o# mi""enni in the sme en%i#onment ith tht o/ o#$ni2e& stte #e"i$ions =W",e# 19@>* His s(e+i/i+ e5m("es #e Nti%e Ame#i+n (eo("es o/ the No#the#n Ro+,ies =.ooteni Ne2 Pe#+e No#the#n Shoshone> hi+h he o((ose& ith the mo#e +om("e5 Mesome#i+n n& O "& Wo#"& +!"t!#es b!t his +omments $ene#"i2e e"" to Tibet n& to the shmni+ n& +"e#i+" s(e+ts o/ Tibetn !&&hism mentione& in 'h(te# 1*: W",e# s!$$ests tht in (eo("es itho!t +ent#"i2e& stte /ee"in$ o/ s+#e&ness ithin the "n&s+(e is ss!me& #the# thn im(ose&* #io!s ("+es $#&!""y +ome to +t s /o+i o/ s!+h s+#e&ness (e#h(s be+!se o/ thei# (tness /o# (#o+esses o/ t#nsition thei# "imin" nt!#e in i+to# T!#ne#s te#ms* Fo# Tibet e +n thin, not on"y o/ the mo!ntins n& ",es sso+ite& ith the /o",0#e"i$ion &eities b!t "so o/ the +%es n& othe# nt!#" sites he#e $#et "ms s!+h s G!#! Rim(o+he o# Mi"#e( #e be"ie%e& to h%e me& it te& =see Domn 19 A!/s+hnite# 19@7>* In the mo#e +ent#"i2e& stte0bse& /o#m o/ so+i" o#$ni2tion menin$s #e im(ose& on the "n&s+(e th#o!$h b!i"&in$s* Pi"$#im$e +ente#s n& s+#e& +ities ith thei# sso+ite& +"e#$y #ise* H!mns ho "i%e ++o#&in$ to this (tte#n see, to t#ns+en& n& t#ns/o#m the nt! # " " n&s+(e # th e# thn to ++e(t it n& to "i%e ithin it* In Tibet this ,in& o/ ((#o+h is sso+ite&
ith the +"e#i+" #e"i$io!s (tte#n* The $#et monsti+ (i"$#im$e +ente#s o/ Lhs o# .!mb!m #e(#esent the t#ns+en&en+e n& t#ns/o#mtion o/ the nt!#" o#&e# s &o the /i$!#es ith hom they e#e sso+ite&) the e#"y ,in$s n& the $#et /o!n&e#s o/ monste#ies s!+h s Tson$,( n& his &is+i("es* Tibetn so+ieties in othe# o#&s h%e e"ements o/ both ((#o+hes* The Tibetn "n&s+(e is not esi"y tme& o# +ont#o""e& e%en ith mo&e#n te+hno"o$y* A$#i+!"t!#" n& (sto#" "i/e "i,e #e &i//i+!"t n& "bo#io!s s e"" s bein$ s!bJe+t to %io"ent n& +hn$eb"e ethe#* M!+h o/ the Tibetn (o(!"tion sti"" "i%es in sm"" +om m!nities in #emote %""eys* A#&!o!s t#%e#ses o%e# &n$e#o!s mo!n0 THE RITUAL 'OSMOS AND ITS INHAITANTS t i n ( s se s m y b e n ee &e & t o # e +h n ei $h bo #i n$ % " "e y n& +omm!nities +n be tot""y iso"te& /o# months t time &!#in$ in+e#* Tibetns h%e "ys t#%e"e& e5tensi%e"y /o# t#&e n& "so on (i"$#im$e b!t "on$ Jo!#neys e#e #is,y en&e%o#s in the (#emo&e#n (e#io&* In some #e$ions the (ossibi"ity o/ bn&it tt+,s s &&e& to the &n$e#s o/ the (hysi+" en%i#onment* Li/e in "" so+ieties es(e+i""y ith (#emo&e#n te+hno"o$y hs some e"ement o/ #is, n& !n(#e&i+tbi"ity b!t it is !n&e#stn&b"e tht the Tibetns #e (#ti+!"#"y +on+e#ne& ith s!+h mtte#s n& tht mJo# /o+!s o/ thei# +on+e#ns is the +ti%ities o/ the $o&s (lha) sso+ite& ith the nt!#" en%i#onment* The $o&s o/ the hi$h mo!ntins in (#ti+!"# #e +(#i+io!s n& &n$e#o!s /i$!#es sso+ite& ith i"& n& &n$e#o!s nim"s s!+h s the #$"i on$e# n& i"& y,* These $o&s ("ye& mJo# #o"e in Tibetn histo#y s n+esto#s o/ #!"in$ /mi"ies* O#i$in""y o((onents o/ !&&hism ++o#&in$ to Tibetn #e"i$io!s histo#y they be+me h"/0i""in$ (#ote+to#s o/ the !&&hist te+hin$s n& +"e#$y /te# thei# tmin$ n& +on%e#sion by G!#! Rim(o+he =P&msmbh%>* We i"" #et!#n to the tmin$ o/ the $o&s n& to the in+om("ete nt!#e o/ the Tibetn &omintion o/ the en%i#onment /te# &is+!ssion o/ the $o&s themse"%es* GODS AND SPIRITS These $o&s n& s(i#its o/ the Tibetn "n&s+(e =ho #e +on+e(t!"i2e& s m"e o# /em"e> #e not ne+ess#i"y /%o#b"y in+"ine& to#&s h!mn bein$s* They +n hoe%e# be in&!+e& by #it!" to be he"(/!" n& to (#e%ent mis/o#t!ne* This is mJo# /!n+tion o/ Tibetn #it!" both /o", #e"i$ion n& !&&hist* H%in$ +!se& o//ense to the $o&s is tho!$ht o/ s ,in& o/ (o""!tion drib# >rib is the (#ime +!se o/ mis/o#t!ne in e%e#y&y "i/e n& hs to be #eme&ie& by ((#o(#ite #it!" +tion to the $o&s* In &&ition drib m,es the in&i%i&!" %!"ne#b"e to tt+, by m"e%o"ent s(i#its o/ %#io!s
,in&s* Some &e$#ee o/ drib is "most !n%oi&b"e in e%e#y&y "i/e n& the tt+,s o/ o//en&e& &eities n& o/ m"e%o"ent s(i#its h%e to be #it!""y +ombtte& on #e$!"# bsis*3 The#e #e %#io!s +"ssi/i+tions o/ the o#"&"y $o&s n& s(i#its one o/ the best ,non bein$ tht o/ Ei$ht '"sses (lhasin degyed) /o!n& (#ti+!"#"y in Nyin$m( te5ts* The membe#s o/ the "ist %#y s"i$ht"y THE RITUAL 'OSMOS AND ITS INHAITANTS b!t ten +"sses tht #e /#eC!ent"y in+"!&e& #e "iste& n& &es+#ibe& by Phi"i((e 'o#n!) The lu #e C!ti+ &eities* O/ (#e0!&&hist o#i$in they e#e %e#y C!i+,"y ssimi"te& to the In&in n$s* They "i%e !n&e#$#o!n& in s(#in$s ",es n& #i%e#s**** TheyV +n be %in&i+ti%e hen thei# nt !#" home is &ist!#be&* The (o""!tion o/ te# the +onst#!+tion o/ b##$es n& &y,es i##i$tion o#,s "te#in$ the +o!#se o/ #i%e#s #e +ts tht +n "e& to i""ness i/ not +##ie& o!t t the st#o"o$i+""y +o#0 #e+t time* The n$s +n t,e #e%en$e by sen&in$ &iseses s!+h s "e(#osy to the #es(onsib"e h!mn bein$s* The nyen #e s(i#its $ene#""y b&"y intentione& ho "i%e in the tmos(he#e o# on the e#ths s!#/+e on ("ins n& in /o#ests* Mny o/ them "i%e in t#ees* One sho!"& be +#e/!" not to +!t t#ees on +e#tin &ys in&i+te& in the st#o"o$i+" "mn+s* The nyen +!se mny i""nesses n& +e#tin +n+e#s #e tt#ib!te& to them* They #e &es+#ibe& s h%in$ n nim" /o#m o/ bo%ine ty(e ye""o o# $#een in +o"o#* The sadag #e the "o#&s o/ the soi"* In $ene#" ne!t#" they +n be+ome i##itte& hen one o!n&s the soi" thei# &omin th#o!$h o#, e5+%tion o# b!i"&in$ ** * The tsen #e #e& s(i#its ho "i%e in the #o+,s* They #e "" m"e n& #e the s(i#its o/ (st mon,s ho h%e #eJe+te& thei# %os* Tsen ho h%e been tme& by $#et (#+titione#s o/ten be+ome (#ote+to#s o/ tem("es sn+t!#ies n& monste#ies* One m,es #e& o//e#in$s to them* The gyel!o o# ,in$0s(i#its #e si& to be the s(i#its o/ e%i" ,in$s o# o/ hi$h "ms ho h%e /i"e& thei# %os* They #e hite o/ten +##y #mo# n& #e /#eC!ent"y "o+" $o&s o/ $#et im(o#tn+e s mo!ntin &eities* The d8d #e s(i#its ho #e o(en"y m"e%o"ent**** These # e bein$s ho e#e %io"ent"y o((ose& to the &h#m in thei# (st "i/e* They +#ete obst+"es /o# the (#+ti+e o/ yo$is n& they /ee& on h!mn /"esh* Thei# +o"o# is b"+,* The mamo +onstit!te %e#y n!me#o!s +"ss o/ /e#o+io!s /em"e &eities* A"tho!$h they (#ee5iste& !&&hism they h%e been ssimi "te& by it to the m"tri.a, ,in& o/ so#+e#ess o/ the +h#ne"0$#o!n&s* These b"+, $o&&esses (e#soni/y nt!#" /o#+es tht +n be &e%sttin$ hen
they #e &ist!#be& ** * The sa, +""e& graha in Sns,#it #e m"e%o"ent ("net#y &eities ho +!se i""nesses s!+h s e(i"e(sy ** * The nöd6in, ssimi"te& to the ya. sa in !&&hism #e $!#&in &eities o/ the nt!#" #i+hes o/ the soi"* i#%n the $!#&in ,in$ o/ the no#th is thei# +hie/* He is &eity o/ (#os(e#ity* They #e "so sso0 +ite& ith me&i+ine) ten ya.sa $ene#"s m&e %o be/o#e the !& &h o/ Me&i+ine to (#ote+t "" those ho #e& his sJtra o# his mantra# The lha (#o(e# /in""y #e +"ss o/ hite &eities e""0&is(ose& to#&s h!mn bein$s* ='o#n! 199o)::70::9 my t#ns"tion> The min (!#(ose o/ these +"ssi/i+tions is to ,no hi+h ,in& o/ &eity is #es(onsib"e /o# (#ti+!"# mis/o#t!ne so tht ((#o(#ite #it!" +o!nte#0 mes!#es +n be &o(te&* In the Ei$ht '"sses "o+" n& #e$ion" $o&s s!+h s the nyen, sada., tsen, n& lha, ho my themse"%es be the obJe+ts o/ #e$!"# +!"t0o//e#in$s (#im#i"y by "y (eo("e #e in+"!&e& "on$ ith s(i#its s!+h s the & ho #e enti#e"y m"e%o"ent* A"" /#om the (oint o/ %ie o/ the "ms #e (ossib"e so!#+es o/ //"i+tion hom they my nee& to +ombt th#o!$h Tnt#i+ #it!"* I sh"" &is+!ss the "o+" n& #e$ion" $o&s in mo#e &eti" in 'h(te# io* They nee& to be &istin$!ishe& +on+e(t!""y /#om to othe# $#o!(s o/ entities "so #e/e##e& to s lha, ho #e tho!$ht o/ s mo#e e"e%te& in nt!#e* They #e the $o&s o/ the !&&hist he%ens n& the Tnt#i+ $o&s o/ !&&hist me&ittion* The $o&s o/ the !&&hist he%ens (6igtenl; de!; lha, $o&s tht h%e $one /#om the o#"&> #e bein$s ho /o#m (#t o/ the system o/ #ebi#th =S,t* sam s" ra), &es+#ibe& in mo#e &eti" in the /o""oin$ +h(te#* H!mn bein$s my theo#eti+""y t "est be #ebo#n s these $o&s J!st s they my be #ebo#n in he"" o# s h!n$#y $host o# nim"* In !&&hist theo#y in Tibet s in The#%&in so+ieties s!+h s !#m =S(i#o 197@> the $o&s o/ the !&&hist he%ens #e /itte& into the sme system s the "o+" &eities ho #e $o&s o/ this o#"& (6igten!; lha) n& +n +on+ei%b"y mo%e !( to the he%ens th#o!$h +C!i#in$ $oo& ,#m o%e# "on$ (e#io&s =see Nebes,y0WoJ,oit2 1967)306 'hime 191)38 on Peh#>* E5(e#ienti""y they #e &ist in+t* The he%en"y &eities h%e "itt"e o# no ("+e in "y (eo("es /o",0#e"i$ion #it!"s "tho!$h some o/ them #e im(o#tnt in monsti+ #it!" s (#ote+to#s o/ (#ti+!"# monste#ies o# #e"i$io!s o#&e#s s #e some o/ the mJo# this0o#"&"y &eities* Tnt#i+ &eities (sambhoga."ya /o#ms> o/ hom the (#e0eminent e5m("es #e the yidam o# (t#on &eities ho #e the +ent#" symbo"s o/ Tnt#i+ me&ittion #e thi#& $#o!(* At /i#st si$ht they seem en ti#e"y &i//e#ent in nt!#e to the o#"&"y n& he%en"y &eities* ?idam are /o#ms tht the me&itto# "e#ns to ss!me &e"ibe#te"y n& +on0 'IILIED SHAMANS
THE RITUAL 'OSMOS AND ITS INHAITANTS s+io!s"y in #it!"* Th!s t#etin$ the yidam s &eities e5te#n" to the in&i%i&!" is not enti#e"y ((#o(#ite* The yidam #e ne%e#the"ess not sim("y s!bJe+ti%e /ntsies b!t #e be"ie%e& to +o##es(on& to #e" (o tenti"ities ithin h!mn bein$s n& ithin the !ni%e#se s ho"e* In Tnt#i+ #it!" this is e5(#esse& in te#ms o/ the #e"tionshi( beteen the samayasattva (damts-ig sem!a, %oe& bein$> the &i%ine /o#m +#ete& th#o!$h the (#+titione#s me&ittion n& the 67"nasattva (yesh; sem!a o# J!st yeshe!a, is&om bein$> the &i%ine (otenti"ity tht is s!mmone& th#o!$h the #it!" n& me#$e& ith the samayasattva# Hoe%e# it o!"& be #on$ in Tibetn !&&hist tho!$ht to see the yidam, o# Tnt#i+ &eities in $ene#" s !n#e" in +om(#ison ith the o#" &"y &eities o# o#&in#y h!mn e5isten+e* In n im(o#tnt sense they #e mo#e #the# thn "ess #e" thn #e"ity s e o#&in#i"y (e#+ei%e it sin+e they +o##es(on& to !n&e#"yin$ (#o(e#ties o/ the !ni%e#se n& o/ h!mn nt!#e #the# thn to the i""!so#y #e"m o/ ,#mi+ ((e#n+e ithin hi+h h!mn bein$s o#"&"y &eities n& he%en"y $o&s "i,e h%e thei# e5isten+e* Th!s to see the o#"& in te#ms o/ the yidam n& thei# ento!#$e is /o#m o/ (!#e %ision (dagnang), by &e/inition mo#e t#!e thn the im(!#e %ision o/ e%e#y&y "i/e* One #e he#e the#e is n inte#estin$ o%e#"( beteen Tnt#i+ &eities n& o#"&"y $o&s is tht o/ (#ote+to#s (%h-ö.yong, sungma)# P#ote+to#s +n be Tnt#i+ &eities (yeshe!; %h-ö.yong) o# o#"&"y &eities (6igten!; %h-ö.yong)5 the +ont#st is beteen yesh; =S,t* 67"na), the is&om o/ the !&&h n& 6igten, o#&in#y o#"&"y #e"ity* To C!ote +ontem(o##y Nyin$m( "m Nm, D#ime& Rim(o+he) The min& o/ yeshe!; %h-ö.yong ne%e# &i%e#$es /#om the !&&hs intention they #e emnte& s /ie#+e /o#ms o/ the +o""e+ti%ity o/ the !&&hs* A"" the Gom(o /o#ms o/ Mh,"V n& "" the ngagsungma mnt# (#ote+to#sV #e o/ this ,in&* The 6igten!; %h-ö.yong h%e m&e &e+ision to (#ote+t the Dh#m o/ the !&&h to he"( one ho &oes %i#t!e to (!nish one ho &oes mis/o#t!ne* Hoe%e# thei# ment" +ontin!!m Kgod, S,t* sant"naE is not the min& o/ the !&&h*; The (oint he#e is tht the yeshe!; %h-ö.yong #e Tnt#i+ (sambhoga."ya) &eities s(e+ts o/ !&&hhoo& itse"/ he#es the 6igten!; %h- ö.yong #e o#&in#y o#"&"y &eities ho h%e %oe& to (#ote+t the Dh#m =!s!""y /te# bein$ o%e#+ome by G! #! Ri m( o+ h e o# so me othe# hi $h "m>* Whi"e both ,in&s o/ (#ote+to#s #e +ont+te& in #it!" they #e &e"t ith in &i//e#ent ys* The yeshe!; %h-ö.yong +n be e%o,e& &i0 #e+t"y by mantra, hi"e the 6igten!; %h-ö.yong #e no#m""y s!mmone& by the "m /te# he hs ss!me& the /o#m o/ Tnt#i+ &eity* The o#"&"y (#ote+to#s #e +ont#o""e& th#o!$h the (oe# o/ the %os (damts-ig), hi+h they h%e m&e to se#%e n& (#ote+t the Dh#m t the time tht they e#e s!b&!e& by G!#! Rim(o+he n& th#o!$h the se+#et nme they yie"&e& t the time o/ thei# s!bmission* The Tnt#i+ $o&s o(e#te on &i//e#ent ("ne o/
#e"ity =the sambhoga."ya) to tht o/ o#&in#y bein$s o#"&"y &eities n& e%en to the he%en"y $o&s =ho #e in /+t not o/ $#et im(o#tn+e>* They #e(#esent so!#+e o/ t#ns+en&ent (oe# tht +n be t((e& by the "ms in o#&e# to inte#%ene in the o#&in#y o#"&* At the sme time Nm, Rim(o+hes e5("ntion ""os /o# +ontin!!m ithin o#"&"y $o&s hose min&s my be +"ose# to o# /!#the# y /#om the !&&hs intention* Some o#"&"y $o&s s!+h s Genyen 'hen(o e&2! Lh&#$ .#(o the "o+" &eity o/ D#!$! ne# 'hm&o #e #e/e##e& to by nmes tht in&i+te thei# +ommitment to the !&&hist (th in this +se Genyen 'hen(o \ $#et u!"sa.a "y /o""oe#V *6 Tnt#i+ $o&s in (#ti+!"# the yidam, #e &es+#ibe& in mo#e &eti" in 'h(te#s 1: n& 13* Mny o/ them #e si$ni/i+nt (#im#i"y to those ho #e in%o"%e& in the ((#o(#ite #it!" (#+ti+es* Othe#s "i,e A%"o,ites%# #e mJo# /o+i o/ (o(!"# &e%otion* To the e5tent tht Tnt#i+ &eities my be +onsi&e#e& to h%e !tonomo!s e5isten+e they #e o/ /# mo#e e"e%te& nt!#e thn the othe# to +"sses o/ $o&s* Thei# intentions to#&s h!mn bein$s # e by &e/i nition ho""y beni$n tho!$h they my ((e# to mni/est &est#!+ti%e"y* E5+e(t /o# &eities s!+h s A%"o,itel%# G!#! Rim(o+he n& T# ho my be ((e"e& to /o# ssistn+e by nyone Tnt#i+ &eities #e o/ &i#e+t +on+e#n on"y to those ho e#e &oin$ /o#m" Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e =hi+h in+"!&es C!ite /e "y (eo("e>* The (oe# o/ the "ms #ests in thei# bi"ity to +ont+t the Tnt#i+ &eities* RELATIONSH IPS AMONG LO'AL GODS HEAENL GODS AND TANTRI' GODS The /+t tht the sme te#m lha, is !se& /o# "" th#ee +te$o#ies "o+" &eities $o&s o/ the !&&hist he%ens n& Tnt#i+ $o&s s!$$ests tht &es(ite the +"e# +on+e(t!" &istin+tions ithin Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e the#e 'IILIED SHAMANS 'IILIED SHAMANS is some s+o(e /o# b"!##in$ the bo!n&#y mon$ them (#ti+!"#"y in "y tho!$ht* One +onte5t he#e this +n be seen is in the Ges# e(i+ he#e e+h son$ be$ins ith /o#m!" in hi+h the sin$e# in%o,es his o# he# (t#on &eity* In some +ses these #e Tnt#i+ yidam s!+h s Tk#k o# G!#! Rim(o+he in othe#s &eities o/ the othe# to +"sses =Sm!e" in (#ess b>* Ty(i+""y in the e(i+ the mo#e s(i#it!""y &e%e"o(e& +h#+te#s s!+h s Ges# himse"/ o# his i/e D#!$mo in%o,e Tnt#i+ &eities* Lesse# he#oes my in%o,e the # $o&s o/ Lin$ ho be"on$ to the "o+" &eities hi"e non0!&&hist ,in$s
#e "i,e"y to in%o,e Si% o# othe# non0!&&hist $o&s ho te+hni+""y be"on$ to the +"ss o/ he%en"y &eities* Th!s the e(i+ e5em("i/ies the (osition no#m""y t,en by the "ms) one sho!"& i&e""y t,e #e/!$e in the Th#ee -ee"s o# .n+ho$ S!m o/ hom the Tnt#i+ yidam #e mni/esttion #the# thn in "esse# &eities* Hoe%e# these "esse# &eities #e sti"" so!#+es o/ (otenti" (oe# ho +n !se/!""y be +ont+te& /o# ssistn+e in this o#"& (#ti+!"#"y /o# #"i,e (!#(oses* We i"" see mo#e o/ this ttit!&e in the ne5t +h(te#* At ny #te "o+" &eities #e ((e"e& to /o# ssistn+e by "y (eo("e both on #e$!"# bsis n& in #es(onse to s(e+i/i+ (#ob"ems* In (#+ti+e the &i//e#ent te+hniC!es ith hi+h the %#io!s +"sses #e ((#o+he& he"(s ,ee( them &istin+t e%en /o# !nso(histi+te& %i""$e#s o# nom&s* As,in$ "o+" &eity /o# ssistn+e n& $oin$ /o# #e/!$e to the !&&hist &eities #e C!"itti%e"y &i//e#ent (#o+esses* To the e5tent tht e +n s(e, o/ sin$"e Tibetn (ntheon it the#e/o#e hs se%e#" &istin+t +om(onents) I* The Tnt#i+ yidam, (#ote+to#s n& othe# ++esso#y &eities ho /o#m $#o!(in$ o/ (oe#/!" symbo"i+ entities some o/ them im0 (o#tnt in (o(!"# #e"i$io!s obse#%n+e othe#s #est#i+te& to the +onte5t o/ monsti+ n& yo$i+ (#+ti+e The $o&s o/ the !&&hist he%ens ho #e o/ "imite& im(o#0 tn+e in most +onte5ts b!t in+"!&e some (#ote+ti%e &eities o/ #e"i$io!s o#&e#s7 1 3 .
The $o&s o/ this o#"& "o+" &eities o/ mo!ntins ",es n& othe# $eo$#(hi+" /et!#es* The#e #e %#io!s $#o!(in$s n& +"ssi/i+tions o/ these n& they me#$e &on#&s into the /o!#th +te$o#y 1 5 . M"e%o"ent s(i#its hose im(+t on h!mn bein$s is enti#e"yTHE 1 4 .
RITUAL 'OSMOS AND ITS INHAITANTS
h#m/!" "on$ ith m"e%o"ent h!mn bein$s o# /o#me# h!mn bein$s ho +n be +"sse& s it+hes $hosts et+* The "in, beteen =3> n& =;> is not "ys +"e# b!t the#e is i&es(#e& +on+e(tion o/ "o+" &eity h%in$ n ento!#$e o/ "esse#0"e%e" m"e%o"ent s(i#its* The $o& my ,ee( his ento!#$e !n&e# +ont#o" o# #e"ese them $inst h!mn bein$s he o# she ishes to (!nish* The $o&s o/ this o#"& =3> #e in n mbi$!o!s sit!tion* Thei# (osition %#ies beteen tht o/ "oe#0"e%e" (#ote+to#s o/ the !&&hist te+hin$s =n& s s!+h ssistnts o/ the s(e+i/i+""y !&&hist (oe#s> n& (otenti""y &n$e#o!s n& &est#!+ti%e e"ements ho h%e to be ,e(t in +ont#o" (#e+ise"y by !se o/ the !&&hist (oe#s* 'onseC!ent"y hi"e they #e $i%en o//e#in$s n& thei# i& is
#eC!este& both by "ymen n& in monsti+ #it!" the ttit!&es he"& to#&s them #e &e+i&e&"y mi5e&* The mo#e e"e%te& o/ these &eities hoe%e# my se#%e s (#ote+to#s o/ s(e+i/i+ #e$ions n& in this /!n+tion be the /o+!s o/ #e$ion" +!"ts o/ some im(o#tn+e =see 'h(te# Io>* The bo%e ++o!nt is h#&"y %e#y ti&y* In some #es(e+ts ho e%e# e%en this is n o%e#systemti2tion o/ the sit!tion* The Tibetn (ntheon is "i,e the Tibetn (o"iti+" system in tht it is n ++!m!"tion o/ s(e+i" +ses #the# thn /o#m" b!#e!+#ti+ st#!+t!#e =see 'h(te# 3>* The +o##es(on&en+e +n be t,en /!#the# ith the o#"&"y &eities bein$ eC!i%"ent to se+!"# !tho#ities "o+" bi$ men =O#tne# 19@> #isto+#ts !ön!o, de!a, n& gyel!o, to be /e#e& n& t#ete& ith #es(e+t n !n#e"ib"e so!#+e o/ (#ote+tion in times o/ # n& t#o!b"e hi"e the !&&hist Tnt#i+ &eities stn& /o# the (oe# o/ the "ms in theo#y t "est o/ n "to$ethe# &i//e#ent n& s!(e#io# nt!#e* THE TAMING OF THE GODS AND SPIRITS OF TIET y no e +n be$in to see the st#!+t!#e o/ tho!$ht behin& the i&e mentione& e#"ie# o/ the tmin$ o/ the $o&s n& s(i#its o/ Tibet* The Tnt#i+ &eities #e mo#e (oe#/!" thn the o#"&"y $o&s n& i&e""y s(e,in$ they enb"e +om(etent "m to ,ee( the o#"&"y $o&s in o#&e#* In (#+ti+e thei# s!(#em+y is "ess +"e#0+!t n& "y (eo("e in (#ti+!"# #e e"" &%ise& to ,ee( on $oo& te#ms ith the "o+" &eities* THE RITUAL 'OSMOS AND ITS INHAITANTS M!+h o/ the mytho"o$i+" histo#y o/ Tibet +n be #e& in te#ms o/ the $#&!" tmin$ o/ the en%i#onment n& its /o#+es (#o+ess tht #e+he& its +!"mintion in the +ti%ities o/ G!#! Rim(o+he the &i%ini2e& /o#m o/ histo#i+" In&in te+he# ho %isite& Tibet in the ei$hth +ent!#y* The /i#st st$e in the (#o+ess ++o#&in$ to the stn&#& !&&hist histo#ies +o##es(on&s to sto#y /i#st /o!n& in the te"/th0+ent!#y te5t ,non s the Mani 'abum =.(stein in (#ess>* The Mani 'abum &es+#ibes the /the#in$ o/ the Tibetn (eo("e by n n+est#" mon,ey ho s in /+t bo&histt% n& n emntion o/ A%"o,itel%#* Lte# he s #e$#&e& s n e#"y membe# o/ the #ebi#th0se#ies o/ the D"i Lms* This &i%ine emntion in mon,ey /o#m +onso#te& ith i"& mo!ntin0&emoness o# sinmo, he#se"/ n emntion o/ T# to (#o&!+e the /i#st Tibetns* He then $%e them the /i#st $#ins to estb0 "ish $#i+!"t!#e in the /e#ti"e %""ey o/ #"!n$ in +ent#" Tibet* =As e i"" /in& in "te# +h(te# tmin$ is +"ose"y sso+ite& ith $#i+!"t!#e* > The Mani 'abum is "so n e#"y so!#+e /o# s!bseC!ent e(iso&e he"& to h%e t,en ("+e in the time o/ .in$ Son$tsen Gm(o =se%enth +ent!#y A*D*>* At this time se+on& si nmo, hose bo&y +o##es(on&e& to the
"n&s+(e o/ +ent#" Tibet h& to be ni"e& &on by se#ies o/ 1: tem("es /o#min$ th#ee +on+ent#i+ sC!#es #o!n& +ent#" Tibet be/o#e the /mo!s Ts!$"$,n$ =-o,n$> Tem("e +o!"& be b!i"t in the ne #oy" +(it" o/ Lhs o%e# the si nmo-s he#t* This m$i+" (#o+e&!#e s inten&e& s $#n& &esi$n to se+!#e the Tibetn Demoness /o# e%e# n& sim!"tneo!s"y to +on%e#t the Tibetn (eo("e to !&&hism =Domn 19):6 see A#is 19@9)0 33 Gytso 19@ M#,o 19>* The +ti%ity o/ G!#! Rim(o+he the /o#emost o/ "" !&&hist tme#s o/ the (oe#s o/ the Tibetn en%i#onment my be ("+e& histo#i+""y t the time o/ .in$ T#ison$ Detsen ="te ei$hth +ent!#y>* G!#! Rim(o+he is #e$#&e& to&y s mJo# Tnt#i+ &eity* In the /o#m o/ n In&in Tnt#i+ &e(t he +me to Tibet t the in%ittion o/ T#i0son$ Detsen n& /o#+e& the "o+" s(i#its to ++e(t the (oe# o/ !&&hism* G!#! Rim(o+hes o%e#+omin$ o/ the s(i#its is to"& in /o",0e(i+ sty"e in se%e#" e""0,non te5ts in+"!&in$ the erna 'at-ang =Do!$"s n& ys 19@ "on&e! 19o> n& the /hadr; 'at-ang ="on&e! 19@1>* G!#! Rim(o+he is ne%e#the"ess n mbi$!o!s /i$!#e in #e"tion to stte (oe# s e s in 'h(te# : n& he hs st#on$ sso+itionsith the shmni+ si&e o/ Tibetn !&&hism* The +h#+te#isti+ sites sso+ite& ith him (#t /#om the /i#st Tibetn monsti+ gom!a t SmyQ #e sm"" +%es &ist#ib!te& in #emote ("+es th#o!$ho!t the Him"ys he#e he is he"& to h%e me&itte& n& he#e his (oe# +n no be +ont+te& =Domn 19 M+&on"& 197>* Simi"# sites #e sso+ite& ith "te# /i$!#es o/ the shmni+ t#&ition s!+h s Mi"#e( =A!/s+hnite# 19@7 H!be# 199 in (#e ss> o# G &t s n $( =St!t+hb!#y in (#ess>* So /# I h%e been s(e,in$ o/ the !&&hists* The n(o s mi$ht be e5(e+te& h%e n "te#nti%e b!t essenti""y simi"# se#ies o/ myths in hi+h the initi" tmin$ o/ the $o&s n& s(i#its o/ Tibet is tt#ib!te& to the $#et n(o te+he# Shen#b Mibo on the o++sion o/ his %isit to Tibet hi+h too, ("+e "on$ be/o#e the time o/ Son$tsen Gm( o T#ison$ Det sen n& G!#! Rim(o+he* To C!ote /#om tentieth0+ent!#y n(o histo#y the /egs he d Ri mp oc h' é Dz öd of Sh#&2 Rim(o+he T#shi Gyentsen =16901936>) When the Te+he# Shen#bV +me to Tibet he im(#te& !tho#ity to in%o,e the $o&s to e5o#+ise &emons to e5(e" the yug ,in& o/ &emonV in the y I e5(o!n&e& bo%e* =As #es!"t> no&ys the $o&s n& &emons o/ Tibet "isten to o#&e#s n& +##y o!t hte%e# ts, is ent#!ste& to them* Sin+e they "on$ $o m&e %os !n&e# the (oe#/!" o#&e#s o/ the Te+he# no i/ n(o m,es o//e#in$s to the $o&s they $i%e (#ote+tion i/ he st#i,es the &emons they #e s!b&!e& n& i/ he e5o#+i2es them they &e(#t* =.#my 19@:)3o> These myths !&&hist n& n(o &emonst#te the si$ni/i+n+e /o# (#emo&e#n Tibetns o/ e5e#tin$ symbo"i+ +ont#o" o%e# the /o#+es o/ the Tibetn "n&s+(e* At the sme time tht symbo"i+ +ont#o" seems to h%e been mo#e C!estionb"e n& "ess +on+"!si%e thn in nei$hbo# in$ (#emo&e#n
so+ieties s!+h s the ("ins o/ no#the#n In&i o# the hi$h"y (o(!"te& #e$ions o/ So!thest Asi* In s!+h #es the &ominn+e o/ the +"e#i+" #e$ime s beyon& ny #e" +ontest* In Tibet it s n& is sti"" mintine& th#o!$h +onstnt #it!" (e#/o#mn+es in hi+h G!#! Rim(o+hes initi" tmin$ o/ the "n& n& the &eities #e #een+te& =see 'h(te# 1;>* The#e #e in /+t sto#ies e5("inin$ hy the tmin$ o/ the in&i$eno!s (oe#s o/ Tibet s in+om("ete* The /o""oin$ e5("ntion is by Nm, Rim(o+he /#om hom I C!ote& be/o#e) 'IILIED SHAMANS
'IILIED SHAMANS G!#! Rim(o+he (e#/o#me& the lhasin tamdrag =#it!" to s!b&!e the $o&s n& s(i#its> ti+e* A"tho!$h G!#! Rim(o+he is himse"/ !&&h he s !nb"e to (e#/o#m the #it!" th#ee times s he inten&e& to sin+e .in$ T#ison$ Detsen &i& not #eC!est him (#t"y th#o!$h the ,in$s ne$"e+t n& (#t"y "so th#o!$h m"i+io!s $ossi( o#i$intin$ /#om the nti0!&&hist ministe#s hi+h ("+e& the ,in$ n& G!#! Rim(o+he in &i//i+!"t (osition* On nothe# o++sion hen G!#! Rim(o+he in the /o#m o/ G0 #!& s s!b&!in$ the "!0s(i#its &is$!ise& lu s(i#it ss!me& he"("ess n& &ist#esse& ((e#n+e +!sin$ st#on$ +om(ssion in the min& o/ .in$ T#ison$ Detsen ho s t+hin$ the #it!"* The ,in$ s,e& G!#! Rim(o+he to "e%e the lu "one* 'onseC!ent"y the #it!" +o!"& not be (e#/o#me&* In this +se too the ,in$ /o#$ot to s, G!#! Rim(o+he to (e#/o#m the #it!" $in* As #es!"t this lu, L! D!$(+hen s b"e to +!se $#et (#ob"ems /o# Tibet in "te# ye#s* On nothe# o++sion G!#! Rim(o+he nte& to %e#t the /!t!#e &est#!+tion o/ !&&hism t the time o/ .in$ Ln$&#m so he s!mmone& /eeb"e o#n o!t he"("ess o5 n& s bo!t to bin& it ith mnt#s* The ,in$ s this n& /e"t +om(ssion /o# the nim"* Th#o!$h the (oe# o/ ,#m the o5 s b"e to es+(e* Lte# it s bo#n s Ln$&#m n& +!se& $#et h#m to !&&hism* These sto#ies h%e n inte#estin$ s!bte5t +on+e#nin$ the #e"tionshi( beteen the ,in$ hose +om(ssion is #e" b!t hose ,no"e&$e is "imite& n& G!#! Rim(o+he ho is #e o/ the nee& /o# &est#!+ti%e #it!" in o#&e# to (#e%ent /!t!#e s!//e#in$* As e s in 'h(te# : the ,in$ "tho!$h he is one o/ the
(#otot y(i+ " /i$ !#es o/ #oy" (oe# in Tibet is #e$!"#"y (o#t#ye& s in/e#io# in (oe# n& is&om to G!#! Rim(o+he*
'ONTRASTS WITH THERAZDIN SO'IETIES He#e e my #et!#n to the +ont#st beteen Tibet n& The#%&in so+ieties int#o&!+e& in 'h(te# :* In The#%&in so+ieties s I note& (#e%io!s"y #oy" (oe# t,es (#e+e&en+e o%e# the !&&hist hie##+hy n& shmni+ #it!" is in st#i+t"y s!bo#&inte ("+e* Tibetns n& membe#s o/ The#%&in so+ieties #e "i,e in h%in$ %#iety o/ #e"i$io!s #o"es n& /!n+tions some !&&hist hi"e othe#s #e sso+ite& ith "o+" $o&s n& s(i#its* I/ hoe%e# &istin$!ishin$ beteen se(#te # e"i$ions =!&&hism n& nimism> s in Me"0 /o#& S(i#os n"ysis o/ !#mese #e"i$ion =S(i#o 197@> is (#ob"emti+ in the The#%&in +o!nt#ies it is e%en mo#e &i//i+!"t n& C!estionb"e /o# Tibetn so+ieties* In The#%&in +o!nt#ies the &eity0+!"ts +oe5ist ith !&&hism n& #e %e#y im(o#tnt to the (o(!"tion* They #e+ei%e "itt"e e5("i+it #e+o$nition /#om !&&hism hoe%e# hi+h in theo#y t "est e5ists in &istin+t n& s!(e#io# s(he#e* The #e"i$io!s s(e+i"ists ho &e" ith the "o+" &eities #e &istin+t /#om the !&&hist +"e#$y n& !n"i,e the "tte# they #e not no#m""y +e"ibte mon,s* These non0!&&hist (#+titione#s in+"!&e (#iests o/ "o+" &eities s(i#it0me&i!ms n& the "i,e* Sin+e the +e"ibte mon, hs the hi$hest #e"i$io!s stt!s in The#%&in so+iety these othe# (#+titione#s hoe%e# !se/!" #e by &e/i nition "oe# in stt!s* S!+h (#iests n& me&i!ms o/ the "o+" &eities "so e5ist in Tibetn so+ieties b!t they #e m!+h mo#e +"ose"y "in,e& to the s(e+i/i+""y !&&hist (#+titione#s ho #e &i#e+t"y +on+e#ne& ith the "o+" &eities in thei# on #it!" (e#/o#mn+es n& #e"i$io!s +#ee#s* S(i#it0me&i!ms n& othe# s(e+i/i+""y /o",0#e"i$ion s(e+i"ists +t in (#+ti+e s thei# ssistnts n& s!bo#&intes &e"in$ ith mino# +ses themse"%es n& #e/e##in$ the mo#e si$ni/i+nt (#ob"ems to the "ms* As e h%e seen the +"ssi+ tme# o/ "o+" $o&s n& s(i#its G!#! Rim(o+he s himse"/ /o#m o/ !&&h n& +ent#" #e(#esentti%e o/ !&&hist Tnt#i+ (oe#* Si$ni/i+nt"y G!#! Rim(o+he tho!$h not himse"/ mon, t the time o/ his +ti%ity in Tibet s +"ose"y +onne+te& ith the in!$!#tion o/ the /i#st Tibetn monsti+ $om( SmyQ* The hi"" o/ He(o +"ose by SmyQ s one o/ the mJo# sites sso+ite& ith his s!b&!in$ o/ the $o&s n& s(i#its o/ Tibet* In Tibet the Tnt#i+ "m is s!(e#io# to mon,s s e"" s to othe# #it!" s(e+i"ists*
The i&e# s(he#e o/ +ti%ity o/ !&&hism in Tibet +n be +onne+te& ith the e5("i+it ten&en+y o/ the "ms n& othe# s(e+i"ists to o(e#te t se%e#" sim!"tneo!s "e%e"s o/ inte#(#ettion =the i&e o/ u!dya.ausalya o# s,i""/!" mens>* This (#o%i&es !&&hist J!sti/i+tion /o# #it!" (e#/o#mn+es tht mi$ht be seen in The#%&in o# e%en F# Este#n Mhyn te#ms s m#$in" to o# o!tsi&e the (#o(e# #e"m o/ !&&hist +ti%ity* MJo# !&&hist #it!"s s!+h s "i/e0em(oe#ment #it!"s o# ts-e*ang # e e5(" ine & n& inte#(# ete& in te#ms o/ "" th#ee o/ the o#ienttions &is+!sse& in 'h(te# :) THE RITUAL 'OSMOS AND ITS INHAITANTS THE RITUAL 'OSMOS AND ITS INHAITANTS 13* The P#$mti+ O#ienttion in te#ms o/ he"th n& (#os(e#ity in ones (#esent "i/e =see S(i#os (ot#o(i+ !&&hism> 1;* The .#m O#ienttion in #e"tion to /!t!#e "i%es =see S(i#os ,mmti+ !&&hism> 16* The o&hi O#ienttion +o##es(on&in$ to (e#son" #e"ese /#om the +y+"e o/ #ebi#th =nibbni+ !&&hism in S(i#os te#ms> n& "so to the "t#!isti+ moti%tion (bodhi%itta) o/ the Mhyn !&&hist (#+titione# "e%e" not (#esent in S(i#os s+heme* 'onseC!ent"y it m,es "itt"e sense in mny +ses to tt#ib!te ny (#ti+!"# (#+ti+e to one +te$o#y o# nothe#* This is one #eson hy I s(e, o/ o#ienttions o/ the (#+titione#s #the# thn o/ ty(es o/ (#+ti+e* Most o/ those (#esent t (#ti+!"# "i/e0em(oe#ment #it!" the "y (o(!"tion in (#ti+!"# my be in%o"%e& (#im#i"y in te#ms o/ the P#$mti+ O#ienttion b!t the .#m O#ienttion is "i,e"y to be s "ient /o# mny n& the o&hi O#ienttion /o# t "est /e* The /o#m o/ the #it!" itse"/ en+o!#$es (#ti+i(nts to be #e o/ &i//e#ent (os sib"e "e%e"s o/ moti%tion sin+e ts-e*ang, "i,e othe# Tnt#i+ em(oe#ments i"" /#eC!ent"y in+"!&e s!mm#y o/ the enti#e #n$e o/ !&&hist te+hin$s s (#e"imin#y +om(onent* The %e#y o(enness o/ the system to m!"ti("e inte#(#ettion $i%es it &istin+ti%e +h#+te# /#om tht o/ The#%&in !&&hism* Within The#%&in so+ieties s(e+i/i+ (#+ti+es seem esie# to +h#+te#i2e st#i$ht/o##&"y s (#t o/ one +om("e5 o# nothe#* Dis0 $#eement mon$ nth#o(o"o$ists o#,in$ in these so+ieties =see 'h(te# :> hs /o+!se& min"y on the &e$#ee o/ +onne+te&ness beteen these +om("e5es* A++o!nts s!+h s Tmbihs =19@o> #e("+e S(i#os #e"i$ions ith mo#e inte$#te& /ie"& o/ #e"tionshi(s beteen ty(es o/ s(e+i"ists* Within s!+h n inte$#te& /ie"& mon,s my ("y #o"e in (#+ti+e s so!#+es o/ (#ote+ti%e (oe# =Tmbih 19;> ho e%e# this is o!tsi&e the (#o(e# s(he#e o/ mon,s in The#%&in so+iety n& it is si$ni/i+nt tht Tmbih himse"/ sso+ites it ith Tnt#i+ (o"#ity ithin Thi"n& =see 'h(te# :>* Whi"e
the#e #e no &o!bt eC!i%"ents ithin The#%&in so+ieties to the &i//e#ent o#ienttions /o!n& in Tibetn !&&hism the e5("i+it m!"ti("e inte#(#ettion n& "e%e"0shi/tin$ so +h#+te#isti+ o/ the Tibetn system #e bsent* In !&&hist te#mino"o$y these &i//e#en+es +n be sso+ite& ith the &i//e#ent ty(es o/ !&&hism in these so+ieties) Mhyn n& J#yn =Tnt#i+> in Tibet The#%&in in So!th n& So!thest Asi* The &o+t#ine o/ u!%iya.ausalya, s,i""/!" mens o/ te+hin$ hs been m!+h mo#e e5tensi%e"y &e%e"o(e& by the Mhyn s+hoo"s so s to ""o /o# m!"ti("i+ity o/ (#+ti+es #it!"s n& mo&es o/ (#esentin$ the Dh#m =the !&&hist te+hin$s> to +oe5ist in sin$"e so+iety itho!t thei# bein$ seen s (#ti+!"#"y in+onsistent o# +ont#&i+to#y* They #e %iee& inste& s ((#o(#ite to &i//e#ent (e#sons t &i//e#ent st$es o/ (#+ti+e* Tnt# (#o%i&e& the #it!" te+hno"o$y by hi+h the "o+" &eities e#e &e"t ith ='h(te#s 1: to 1;> n& th!s "in,e& to$ethe# the P#$mti+ n& o&hi o#ienttions* 'ON'LUSION We h%e seen tht the#e #e n!mbe# o/ &i//e#ent (ossib"e ttit!&es tht Tibetns +o!"& t,e to#&s thei# en%i#onment n& the %#io!s bein$s be"ie%e& to (o(!"te it * In b#o& te#ms these +n be s!mm #i2e& in te#ms o/ the th#ee o#ienttions &is+!sse& bo%e P#$mti+ o&hi n& .#m* We +n s!mm#i2e the im("i+tions o/ e+h o#ien0 ttion s /o""os) Within the P#$mti+ O#ienttion this o#"& is the en%i#onment ithin hi+h h!mn "i/e t,es ("+e* This is not to sy tht e%en /o# the P#$mti+ O#ienttion the o#"& is ss!me& to be sim("e $i%en in the /o#m in hi+h it ((e#s to o!# senses* The senses #e i""!so#y n& "" ((e#n+es +n be mis"e&in$* Ne%e#the"ess the o#"& is o#th t,in$ se#io!s"y* It o//e#s (ossibi"ities /o# h((iness n& (#os(e#ity n& s!//e#in$ n& mis/o#t!ne* S,i""/ !" mn$ement +n ithin "imits in+#ese the /o#me# n& #e&!+e the "tte#* P#t o/ this mn$ement +onsists o/ &e"in$ ((#o(#ite"y ith the s(i#it o#"&* Someone ho is o(e#tin$ in te#ms o/ the P#$mti+ O#ienttion sees the "o+" &eities n& m"e%o"ent s(i#its s bein$s ho h%e to be &e"t ith to ens!#e s!++ess ithin this o#"& J!st s (oe#/!" h!mn bein$s o# mte#i" /o#+es h%e to be en+o!nte#e& n& &e"t ith* Ly (eo("e m,e #e$!"# o//e#in$s to the "o+" $o&s =see 'h(te# to>* Ly (eo("e #e"y on the #e$!"# #it!"s (e#/o#me& by "ms in the gom!a n& in the %i""$e n& on thei# on #e$!"# o//e#in$s to "o+" $o&s to mintin o#,b"e #e"tionshi( ith these (oe#s* S!+h #e"tionshi( sho!"& mintin +on&ition o/ $oo& /o#t!ne (lungta) n& !s(i+io!sness (trashi) s!+h tht se#io!s mish(s i"" be %e#te&* 'IILIED SHAMANS
In +ses o/ mis/o#t!ne o# &n$e# most (eo("e #e "i,e"y to ,no /e mnt#s n& (#ye#s tht +n be !se& /o# ssistn+e s!+h s the mnt# o/ the $o&&ess T#* I/ se#io!s (#ob"ems tht my be tt#ib!tb"e to "o+" &eities o++!# hoe%e# "y (eo("e i"" nee& to +ons!"t s(e+i"ist eithe# "m o# some "esse# s(e+i" ist s!+h s s(i#i t0 me&i!m st#o"o$e# o# &i%ine#* A"" this is the #e"m o/ /o", #e"i$ion n& e i"" see mo#e im("i+tions o/ this o#ienttion in 'h(te# Io he#e the /o",0#e"i$ion (#+ti+es o/ the "y (o(!"tion #e +onsi&e#e& in &eti"* The .#m O#ienttion t#ets tt#+tion to the o#"& s to be %oi&e& t "" +osts* The o#"& is si$ni/i+nt (#im#i"y s +onte5t ithin hi+h %i#t!o!s +tion my be (e#/o#me& ith the im o/ im(#o%in$ ones +hn+es /o# /!t!#e #ebi#th* eyon& tht the o#"& is se#ies o/ si$ns shoin$ the %"i&ity o/ the " o/ ,#m* Si+,ness o"& $e mis/o#t!ne n& ð the &i//e#in$ bi"ities n& /o#t!nes o/ ones /e""o h!mn bein$s sho!"& be seen s mo#" "essons th#o!$h hi+h one "e#ns to t!#n ones ttention y /#om tt#+tion to the o#"&* In%o"%ement ith the "o+" &eities is ste o/ time n& &ist#+tion /#om the (e#/o#mn+e o/ %i#t!o!s +tion hi+h +n "one be o/ ssistn+e t the time o/ ð* The .#m O#ienttion i"" be /!#the# &is0 +!sse& in 'h(te# # #* Fin""y t the "e%e" o/ the o&hi O#ienttion se%e#" ttit!&es #e (ossib"e n& #e /o!n&* The o&hi O#ienttion im("ies on the /+e o/ it n e%en mo#e #&i+" #eJe+tion o/ the o#"& thn &oes the .#m O#ienttion sin+e one is he#e #eJe+tin$ not on"y this "i/e b!t "" "i/e ithin satns"ra# Hoe%e# /o# the Mhyn (#+titione# sams"ra n& nirvana #e to si&es o/ the sme (i+t!#e n& the i&e" (#+titi one# my #emin ithin the o#"& s n $ent o/ the !&&hs +om(ssion te +ti%ity* P#+titione#s o/ the o&hi O#ienttion o(e#te (#im#i"y in te#ms o/ the Tnt#i+ &eities* They ho(e th#o!$h the (#+ti+es o/ these &eities to #e"i2e in themse"%es the En"i$htene& min& o/ the !&&h o/ hi+h the Tnt#i+ &eities #e s(e+ts* As /o# the "o+" $o&s n& s(i#its (#+titione#s my &e" ith them in (#$mti+ te#ms s obst+"es n& (#ob"ems tht my #ise "on$ the (th to bodhi# In /+t those in%o"%e& ith the o&hi O#ienttion my be (#ti+!"#"y "i,e"y to #!n into (#ob"ems ith these entities i/ they /i" to t,e ((#o(#ite (#e+!tions sin+e s(i#its s!+h s the d8d #e o((ose& to !&&hist (#+ti+e n& i"" &o thei# best to b"o+, it* In &&ition the o&hi O#ienttion is the bsis 1@; THE RITUAL 'OSMOS AND ITS INHAITANTS o/ the "ms t#inin$ n& "ms h%e to &e" ith o#"&"y $o&s n& s(i#its on #e$!"# bsis s (#t o/ thei# se#%i+e to thei# "y +"iente"e* Fin""y the#e is the (th o/ so"it#y yo$i+ (#+titione#s o/ the %höd (#+ti+e ho %is!"i2e o//e#in$ thei# bo&y to the o#"&"y &eities n& to the Tnt#i+ &eities s t#inin$ in #&i+" nontt+hment* We i"" see some o/ the im("i+tions o/ these %#io!s /+ets o/ the o&hi
O#ienttion in 'h(te#s 1: to 1; on Tnt# n& in 'h(te#s 16 to 1 in hi+h e "oo, t the %#ieties o/ Tibetn #e"i$io!s (#+titione#s thei# +omm!nities n& thei# +#ee#s*
I8 The !ol" eli#ion and the $ra#matic %rientation
O/ the th#ee o#ienttions to Tibetn #e"i$io!s (#+ti+e e h%e J!st &is+!sse& the P#$mti+ .#m n& o&hi O#ienttions this +h(te# is min"y +on+e#ne& ith the /i#st the P#$mti+* In the P#$mti+ O#ienttion #e"i$io!s (oe# is (("ie& to &e" ith the +ontin$en+ies o/ e%e#y&y "i/e in the o#"&* I #e/e##e& to it in 'h(te# : s) the #e"m o/ this0o#"&"y +on+e#ns +on+ei%e& o/ in te#ms o/ inte#+tions ith "o+" $o&s n& s(i#its n& +##ie& o!t by %#iety o/ #it!" (#+titione#s /o#emost mon$ them bein$ the "ms ho em("oy the te+hniC!es o/ Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e /o# this (!#(ose* In 'h(te# 9 e en+o!nte#e& the "o+" $o&s n& s(i#its* They /o#m the bsis o/ ht Gi!se((e T!++i hs #e/e##e& to s the /o", #e"i$ion o/ Tibet =T!++i 198)1730:1:> n& Ro"/ Stein hs +""e& the nme"ess #e"i$ion =Stein 19@:) #91//>* Neithe# "be" is i&e" tho!$h both %oi& the m!"ti("e +on/!sions in%o"%e& in #e/e##in$ to this #e s some Tibetns n& some Weste#n s+ho"#s &o s n =see 'h(te# I >* He#e I !se T!++is te#m /o", #e"i$ion hi+h t "est s!$$ests the +"oseness o/ these +on+e(ts n& (#+ti+es to the "i%e& e5(e#ien+e o/ Tibetns* THE FOL. RELIGION AND THE PRAGMATI' ORIENTATION THE HISTOR OF THE FOL. RELIGION
Tibetn histo#y in $ene#" is obs+!#e be/o#e the Tibetn em(i#e o/ the se%enth to ninth +ent!#ies* It seems "i,e"y tht both the (sto#" n& $#i+!"t!#" mo&es o/ "i/e $o b+, t "est se%e#" h!n&#e& ye#s be/o#e tht time* 'e#tin #e"i$io!s (#+ti+es #e (#obb"y o/ simi"# ntiC!ity n& h%e m!+h in +ommon ith simi"# st#t tht +n be i&enti/ie& in mny so+ieties in So!th So!thest n& Est Asi* Fo# +om(#ti%e (!#(oses the Tibeto0!#mn (eo("es o/ the Him" ys so!the st 'hin n& So!thest Asi #e o/ (#ti+!"# #e"e%n+e =Hit+h+o+, n& -ones 19@7 Le# et "* 197;>* The Tibetn (#+ti+es in+"!&e& /#om e#"y times +!"t o/ "o+" &eit ies +omm!ni+tion ith those &eities by mens o/ s(i#it(ossession : n& +on+e#n ith &e/en+e $inst m"e%o"ent n& &est#!+ti%e s(i#its th#o!$h the $en+y o/ the "o+" &eities* The most im(o#tnt &eities e#e e%i&ent"y /#om %e#y e#"y times the $o&s n& $o&&esses o/ the mo!ntins =see S(nien 19@1b Stein 19@: 196>* St#ems n& ",es "so h& in&e""in$ &eities* Di%intion s im(o#tnt s s the sso+ite& +on+e(t o/ $oo& /o#t!ne o# "!+, (trashi)# These /o",0#e"i$ion (#+ti+es +onstit!te& ht n(o s+ho"#s "te# #e/e##e& to s the n o/ '!se (gyui bön), s &istin+t /#om the n o/ E//e+t o# drebui bön, hi+h +onsiste& o/ the (#+ti+es o/ the #e"i$io!s o#&e# o/ n e//e+ti%e"y mo&i/ie& /o#m o/ !&&hism* The n o/ '!se s +"ssi/ie& in "te# times into te"%e ,in&s o/ ,no"e&$e =see .#my 19@:)31 n& n* :>* It "so +o##es(on&s to the /i#st /o!# o/ the Nine Wys o/ n in the +"ssi/i+tion o/ the Si6id =Sne""$#o%e 197@>* These +om(#ise =I> te+hniC!es o/ &i%intion n& me&i+" &i$nosis =:> #it!"s /o# ("+tin$ o# o%e#+omin$ "o+" &eities =3> te+hniC!es /o# &est#oyin$ enemies =i*e* so#+e#y> n& =;> /!ne##y #it!"s* oth !&&hist n& n(o s+ho"#s $#ee tht these (#+ti+es e#e (#esent in Tibet t the time o/ the e#"y ,in$s =.#my 19@:)313; 3; n* I>* As I h%e "#e&y si& in 'h(te# 1 these te+hniC!es n& #it!"s h%e no s(e+i" #e"tionshi( to +ontem(o##y n s &istin+t /#om +ontem(o##y !&&hism* P#+ti+es o/ "" these ,in&s +ontin!e& into #e+ent times b!t they be+me inte$#te& ith "te# &e%e"o(ments /o#min$ the bo&y o/ te+hniC!es n& i&es +onstit!tin$ the /o", #e"i$ion o/ Tibet* The "o+" $o&s ne%e#the"ess #emine& t the +ente# o/ the /o", #e"i$ion n& its (#+ ti+es n& e sh"" be$in ith them* 'IILIED SHAMANS ATTITUDES TO THE LO'AL GODS As i""!st#tions o/ ttit!&es to the "o+" $o&s in the (#emo&e#n (e#io& he#e #e some sho#t n##ti%es bo!t these &eities* The /i#st is Ge"!$( te+hin$ sto#y #eto"& he#e by A"e5 e#2in* It is inten&e& to i""!st#te the mo#" tht the t#!e (#+titione# sho!"& not t,e #e/!$e in "o+" &eities b!t on"y in the !&&h
n& the Tnt#i+ &eities) In the no#the#n (#o%in+e o/ Tsn$ the#e s n e#th"y &eity ho s o#shi((e& "o+""y* On+e mn ho h((ene& to h%e $oite# h& to +m( o%e#ni$ht o!t on the o(en ("in* e/o#e $oin$ to s"ee( he too, #e/!$e in the "o+" &eity n& s,e& him to (#ote+t his "i/e &!#in$ the ni$ht* The &eity $#ee& n& the mn ent to s"ee(* D!#in$ the ni$ht the tten&nts n& se#%nts o/ the "o+" &eity *** +me by* Seein$ the "one mn s"ee(in$ they si& Lets et himX The "o+" &eity hoe%e# to"& them not to be+!se he h& $#ee& to (#ote+t the mns "i/e* He then s!$$este& tht they et the mns $oite# inste& be+!se the mn &i&nt #e""y nee& it**** When the mn o,e the ne5t mo#nin$ he not on"y /o!n& himse"/ s/e b!t "so he &is+o%e#e& tht his $oite# s missin$* ein$ %e#y ("ese& he #et!#ne& to the %i""$e* No it so h((ene& tht in this %i""$e the#e s nothe# mn ho "so h& $oite#* Seein$ the +!#e& +on&ition o/ the /i#st mn he too &e+i&e& to t#y the he"( o/ this "o+" &eity* He ent o!t onto the o(en ("in n& be/o#e #eti#in$ he too too, #e/!$e in the "o+" &eity* Tht ni$ht the tten&nts n& se#%nts +me $in n& on+e mo#e s,e& the &eity i/ they +o!"& et this mn* On+e mo#e the &eity h& to sy no be+!se he h& (#omise& to (#ote+t his "i/e b!t $in he s!$$este& tht they et his $oite#* Goite# $in the tten&nts n& se#%nts si& hy tht tstes te##ib"eX In /+t e"" $i%e him b+, the othe# mns $oite#* We +o!"&nt e%en /inish it it s so ho##ib"e* An& so hen the se+on& mn o,e the ne5t mo#nin$ he &is+o%e#e& tht inste& o/ h%in$ "ost his $oite# s he h& ho(e& he no h& to* This $oes to sho tht #e/!$e in "o+" e#th"y &eities +nnot be #e"ie& !(on*3 In its o#i$in" +onte5t in the Ge"!$( Lm#im te+hin$s this sto#y is t!$ht in #e"tion to the Re/!$e Te+hin$s* The be$innin$ (#+titione# is enJoine& to #eJe+t ny #e"in+e on the o#"&"y $o&s in /%o# o/ the Th#ee -ee"s o/ !&&hism* In (#+ti+e "tho!$h it my be t#!e tht the "o+" &eities +nnot be #e"ie& !(on /e Tibetns i"" i$no#e THE FOL. RELIGION AND THE PRAGMATI' ORIENTATION them* The Si6id, the n(o te5t t#ns"te& in (#t by D%i& Sne""0 $#o%e is +h#+te#isti+""y e5("i+it on the s!bJe+t hen &is+!ssin$ the nee& to (#o(itite the "o+" $o&s be/o#e +onst#!+tin$ man1lalaD Whi+he%e# bön y o/ the Nine ehi+"es yo! (#+tise I/ yo! /i" to $i%e mi",0o//e#in$s n& (!#e s+#i/i+i" +,es to the (oe#/!" "o#&s o/ this o#"& i/ yo! &o not s, them =/o# site /o#> yo!# ("+e o/ the "esse& Ones these (oe#/!"
"o#&s the "o#&s o/ the soi" the se#(ents n& the /!#ies Ksadag lu nyenE #e i#s+ib"e hoe%e# m!+h they my sti"" (#ote+t the &o+t#ine* Hoe%e# $ent"e thei# &is(osition thei# "ine$e is sti"" tht o/ the titns KlhaminE ## # o! m!st $i%e ("es!#e to the (oe#/!" ones o/ the (henomen" o#"& K6igtenE, n& h%in$ m&e them h((y yo! +n ho"& them to thei# /o#me# %os* As, them /o# site /o# yo!# o#shi( n& ("+e /o# yo! to sty n& ho"& them be/o#e itnesses to thei# oth to (#ote+t the &o+t#ine* A/te##&s yo! +n m,e them tten& to hte%e# yo! nt Th!s h((iness in (henomen" thin$s &e(en&s on =the "o#&s o/> the soi"* Fe#ti"e /ie"&s n& $oo& h#%ests e5tent o/ #oy" (oe# n& s(#e& o/ &ominion "tho!$h some h"/ =o/ s!+h e//e+ts> is o#&ine& by (#e%io!s +tions the othe# h"/ +omes /#om the (oe#/!" "o#&s o/ the soi"* =Sne""$#o%e 197@) 19@0199>* As Sne""$#o%e notes this n(o te5t is on"y sttin$ ht "" Tibetns be"i e% e "tho!$h th e !&&hist te5ts $ene#""y %oi& st t in $ it o!t #i$ht tht it is ne+ess#y to ,ee( on $oo& te#ms ith the "o+" $o&s to se+!#e $oo& /o#t!ne in the o#"& o/ e%e#y&y "i/e =197@)1:013>* A se+on& n##ti%e /#om boo, by Th!bten -i$me No#b! =Ten$tse# Rim(o+he> Ge"!$( in+#nte "m /#om Am&o n& the e"&e# b#othe# o/ the D"i Lm $i%es (i+t!#e o/ the ("+e o/ these &eities in "y "i/e* He is s(e,in$ o/ the +!"t o/ "o+" $o&s in the %i""$e he#e he s bo#n* The mo!ntin o/ .ye#i s the set o/ the &eity o/ Ten$tse# %i""$e) THE FOL. RELIGION AND THE PRAGMATI' ORIENTATION It s to#&s .ye#i tht o!# (#ye#s e#e &i#e+te& be+!se .ye#i s the th#one o/ o!# (#ote+ti%e &eity n& bo#e his nme**** The tem("e hi+h stoo& s!##o!n&e& by sh&y t#ees on the o!ts,i#ts o/ o!# %i""$e s &e&i+te& to .ye#i o!t o/ /ee"in$ o/ min$"e& "o%e n& $#tit!&e* The tem("e (#e+in+ts e#e C!ite #oomy n& o//e#e& ("enty o/ s(+e /o# the ((#o5imte"y one h!n&#e& n& /i/ty inhbitnts o/ o!# %i""$e tho!$h the tem("e (#o(e# s C!ite sm"" n& insi&e be+!se o!#s s not #i+h %i""$e it s t#i/"e !ste#e* In the +ent#e s stt!e o/ o!# (#ote+ti%e &eity in the $!ise o/ ho#semn* Li,e the othe# stt!es this eC!est#in one s m&e o/ +"y ** *
ehin& the tem("e s sm"" eminen+e on hi+h stone "t# h& been e#e+te& n& he#e the inhbitnts o/ Ten$tse# o!"& b!#n in+ense in hono# o/ o!# (#ote+ti%e &eity n& to be$ him to $#nt (e+e n& (#os(e#ity to o!# %i""$e* e/o#e $oin$ to the "t# yo! /i#st ente#e& the tem("e n& ("+e& /e /"oe#s to the e//i$ies o/ the $o&s o# /i5e& (#ye#0/"$* The#e s no monste#y in Ten$tse# n& the#e/o#e the#e s no mon, to "oo, /te# the tem("e n& s!(e#%ise the +e#emonies n& this s &one by one o/ the men o/ the %i""$e ho s ((ointe& +#et,e#* =No#b! n& H##e# 197o)6106:*> The boo, /#om hi+h this e5+e#(t is t,en (#esents #omnti+i2e& n& e!(hemisti+ %ie o/ Tibetn #e"i$ion b!t No#b!s ++o!nt is st#i$ht/o##& &es+#i(tion o/ the %i""$e#s #e"tionshi( to the "o+" $o& ho is seen s (#ote+to# hose ssistn+e is #e$!"#"y #eC!este&* A thi#& n##ti%e by An, Do#Je Nm$ye" "ymn /#om n #isto+#ti+ /mi"y o/ GonJo in .m $i%es simi"# (i+t!#e b!t b#in$s o!t the m#ti" si&e o/ mny o/ these "o+" $o&s hi+h No#b! im("ies hen he mentions tht the $o& is (o#t#ye& s ho#semn) In GonJo e+h o/ the !on /mi"ies h& its on y8llha o# "o+" $o&* The most im(o#tnt "o+" $o& hoe%e# s Do#JQ N$n$,# the #e$ion" &eity o/ GonJo* Gon(o Do#JQ o/ the .n$s# !on /mi"y ho s bo#n #o!n& 198o s be"ie%e& to be the son o/ Do#JQ N$n$,#* D!#in$ one o/ the 'hinese0Tibetn #s e#"ie# this +ent!#y Gon(o Do#JQ "e& ::I men /#om GonJo in n e5(e&ition $inst the 'hinese ho e#e in De#$e stte* The Tibetns e#e &e/ete& n& Gon(o Do#JQ n& his men e#e &#i%en b+, $inst the este#n bn, o/ the D#i Ri%e#* Hoe%e# mn &#esse& in hite n& #i&in$ hite ho#se ((e#e& be/o#e Gon(o Do#JQ in the #i%e#* Gon(o Do#JQ J!m(e& in the #i%e# n& to"& the othe# men to /o""o him itho!t "oo,in$ he&* A"" b!t one +#osse& the #i%e# s/e"y* Tht hite #i&e# s Do#JQ N$n$,#*6 /o!#th sto#y /#om +ontem(o##y Nyin$m( "m Nm, #ime& Rim(o+he te""s ho "m en+o!nte#e& Do#JQ D#$tsen e #e$ion" &eity o/ Poo hi"e es+(in$ /#om the 'hinese in 1969) One ni$ht hen Lm A s styin$ in Pem .& he s Do#JQ D#$tsen in &#em* The $o& s in n n$#y moo& n& he $%e the "m #e& torma, syin$ tht he o!"& nee& it /o# "i/e0em(oe#ment #it!"* He "so s,e& the "m to he"( him st#en$then the "o+" #i%e#* A/te##&s one o/ the "ms mon,s s,e& him to #ite (#ye# (.ul*a) /o# Do#JQ D#$tsen n& the "m !n&e#stoo& the menin$ o/ Do#JQ D#$tsens $i%in$ him the #e& torma# At tht time the 'hinese h& "#e&y +ome to Doshn$" in Pe#n .& on the othe# si&e o/ the #i%e#* E%e#yone s !n+e#tin n& tense* The "m &i& mo n& /o!n& tht the 'hinese o!"&nt +#oss the #i%e# t tht time* One &y he /e"" i"" n& h& nothe# %ision o/ Do#JQ D#$tsen ho ((e#e& s #e& #i&e# on #e& ho#se n& si& tht he s $oin$ to # be+!se the 'hinese o!"& not "e%e him in (e+e* Do#JQ D#$tsen s /o""oe& by the !at-ul =he#oes> o/ Lin$ n& the "m /o!n& himse"/ $oin$ /te# them s they ent o// to#&s Doshn$" to /i$ht*
Some &ys "te# they he#& tht 'hinese #ein/o#+ements h& +ome to Doshn$" b!t 'hinese o//i+e# h& been ,i""e& n& the so"&ie#s ent b+,* A Tibetn in Doshn$" h& &#eme& tht he sho!"& h%e no /e# the ne5t &y b!t sho!"& $o n& shoot the 'hinese o//i+e#* He ,i""e& the o//i+e# n& the sme b!""et #ebo!n&e& n& mi#+!"o!s"y ,i""e& se+on& o//i+e#* Then the 'hinese (+,e& !( n& "e/t* They &i&nt +ome b+, !nti" the /o""oin$ ye#* The "m #e"i2e& tht Do#JQ D#$tsen h& ,non /#om the be$innin$ tht the 'hinese e#e +omin$ n& h& nte& to sto( them t the #i%e# b!t h& nee&e& his he"( in the /o#m o/ the .ul*a#3 As both the $o&s #e& +o"o# n& his nme in&i+tes Do#JQ D#$tsen is one o/ the /ie#+e tsen &eities =see 'h(te# 9>* A si$ni/i+nt /et!#e o/ this sto#y is the #e+i(#o+ity beteen $o& n& "m* It is on"y th#o!$h the he"( o/ Lm As (#ye# tht the $o& hs the st#en$th to ins(i#e mn to tt+, the 'hinese* A "st sto#y $in /#om An, Do#Je Nm$ye" #e"tes n in+i&ent mon$ the #e/!$ees in%o"%in$ Do#JQ N$n$,# the GonJo &eity e h%e "#e&y en+o!nte#e&) Lm s #eb!i"&in$ his gom!a in No#th In&i hen one &y mn +me to see him e#in$ on"y hite shi#t n& t#o!se#s n& $%e 'IILIED SHAMANS 'IILIED SHAMANS him b!n&"e o/ obJe+ts #((e& in hite +"oth* The "m s,e& ho he s* I m /#om GonJo the mn si& I +me to see yo!* The "m ,ne "" the (eo("e /#om GonJo "i%in$ the#e b!t &i&nt #e+o$ni2e him* He s,e& he#e he s styin$* I h%e +ome /#om o!tsi&e b!t I m styin$ ith GonJo /mi"y in the +m( he#e* I h%e some o"& si"%e# o#nments he#e to o//e# yo!* P"ese m,e dungma ="on$ t#!m(et> o!t o/ them I "o%e the so!n& o/ the dungma# In /!t!#e I i"" +ome #e$!"#"y n& meet yo! $in* The "m s so b!sy tht he &i&nt h%e time to #e+ei%e the mn (#o(e#"y o# to o//e# him te* Lte# he o(ene& the b!n&"e hi+h &i& in&ee& +ontin mny si"%e# o#nments* Hoe%e# he /o#$ot bo!t the mns #eC!est n& !se& the o#nments /o# somethin$ e"se* Abo!t ten ye#s "te# Lm h& some &#ems n& it t!#ne& o!t tht the mn h& been the GonJo #e$ion" &eity Do#JQ N$n$,# n& s n$#y ith him* The "m m&e /e sets o/ be!ti/!" dungma n& gyelling, b!t he &ie& some ye#s /te#* These sto#ies s!$$est somethin$ o/ the beh%io# e5(e+te& o/ "o+" $o&s* They #e es(e+i""y sso+ite& ith # n& %io"en+e* They my be bene%o"ent b!t +n esi"y be o//en&e& n& thei# n$e# +n be &n $e#o!s* They my +omm!ni+te th#o!$h &#ems n& %isions (#ti+!"#"y to "ms* As e i"" see they my "so +omm!ni+te th#o!$h s(i#it0(ossession me&i!ms* We t!#n no to "oo, t ttit!&es to them in #it!"*
RITUALS OF THE LO'AL GODS In "y #it!" these "o+" Tibetn $o&s #e t#ete& ith #es(e+t n& &e/e#en+e* An im(o#tnt (#t o/ thei# +!"t is +onne+te& ith the la!ts; o# lhat-o, stone +i#ns /o!n& in (#ti+!"# t the hi$hest (oints o/ (sses b!t "so t othe# ("+es +"ose to the bo&es o/ these &eities* T#%e"e#s +#oss the (sses +##y stones !( the s+ent n& th#o them onto the +i#n hen they #e+h it ith stn&#& in%o+tion A'ye .ye so so ### lha gyello lha gyelloA =the "st (h#se mens the $o&s #e %i+to#io!s>* Stein "in,s this in%o+tion ith its o(enin$ #0+#ies ith the #"i,e nt!#e o/ the $o&s n& the i&e o/ (ssin$ th#o!$h &n$e#o!s n& st#te$i+ ("+e =Stein 19@:):87>* Sie$be#t H!mme" hs s!$$este& tht the (!#(ose o/ the +i#ns ne%e#the"ess hs s m!+h to &o ith #est#inin$ n& im(#isonin$ the THE FOL. RELIGION AND THE PRAGMATI' ORIENTATION eities s ith o#shi((in$ them =H!mme" 197o>* He +om(#es them With the th#e&0+#osses o# dö in hi+h s(i#its #e t#((e& by the "ms n& hi +h #e s!bseC!ent"y #emo%e& o!tsi&e the %i""$e n& &est#oye& =Nebes,y0 WoJ,oit2 1967)379039@ Sne""$#o%e 197 1) 1 39 1; 8 eye# 19@3)310369>* The !&&hist symbo"s in%o"%e& in the +i#ns =+o"o#e& (#ye#0/"$s tt+he& to (o"es (#oJe+tin$ /#om the +i#ns n& the stones ith ins+#ibe& mnt#s o/ten &&e& to the (i"e> #e im("i+it"y &i#e+te& to this en&* The +i#ns #e +""e& the +st"es o/ $o&s b!t the $o&s #e e5(e+te& to sty the#e n& $i%e no t#o!b"e in #et!#n /o# bein$ (#o%i&e& ith home n& #e$!"# o//e#in$s* The o//e#in$s t,e the /o#m o/ the sang #it!" the bsi+ +om(onent o/ "y o#shi( o/ the "o+" $o&s* The +ent#" /et!#e o/ sang is the b!#nin$ o/ in+ense (#ti+!"#"y J!ni(e# oo& ++om(nie& o/ten by the o//e#in$ o/ (#ye#0/"$s =see T!++i 198)1990:81>* The te5ts tht #e #e+ite& &!#in$ the #it!" in%o,e "ists o/ #e$ion" n& "o+" &eities* Sang is not me#e"y (#ote+ti%e (#+ti+e b! t n !s( i+io!s #it !" hose (e#/o#mn+e my be ho(e& to +#ete (ositi%e in/"!en+es /o# the $oo& /o#t!ne o/ the (#ti+i(nts* A /e e5m("es /o""o o/ the +onte5ts in hi+h sang is (e#/o#me& min"y /#om Am&o n& /#om She#( +o!nt#y in Ne("* Fo# the /i#st e #et!#n to the !tobio$#(hy o/ the Am&o "m T* -* No#b!* The#e s la!tse, hi+h No#b! &es+#ibes s he( o/ stones &e&i+te& to the (#ote+ti%e &eity o/ the %i""$e on sm"" hi"" ne# his Am&o %i""$e o/ Ten$tse#* He#e yo! o//e#e& !( hite C!#t2 +oins t!#C!oises n& +o#"s n& (#ye& /o# #in o# /o# s!n o# /o# $oo& h#%est o# /o# (#ote+tion /#om b& ethe# =No#b! n& H##e# 1978)63>* On+e ye# the ho"e %i""$e ent the#e "on$ ith mon,s /#om nei$hbo#in$ monste#ies b!#ne& in+ense n& e#e+te& (#ye#0/"$s* A /e &ys e#"ie# the %i""$e#s h& $one on th#ee0&y Jo!#ney to the /oot o/ the mo!ntin to b!#n in+ense !( t the i+e0"imit* Tho!$h No#b!s ++o!nt is not enti#e"y +"e# it seems tht his /mi"y "so b!#ne& in+ense &i"y to .ye#i in n e#then#e %se in the +ente# o/ the !
ho!ses +o!#ty#& /te# m,in$ the o//e#in$s n& "i$htin$ the b!tte#0"m(s in the ho!se +h(e" n& in /#ont o/ !&&h im$e in his (#ents be&#oom =197o)31>* He#e .ye#i s se#%in$ s the !-olha o# (#ote+ti%e &eity o/ the ho!seho"& =see be"o>* Tem("es o/ "o+" &eities #e #e(o#te& /#om othe# #e$ions s!+h s Lh!" =Gi"" 19@:)1:013>* Amon$ the She#(s o/ Ne(" the#e #e s /# s I ,no no s!+h tem("es* E+h #e$ion o/ She#( +o!nt#y ho0 THE FOL. RELIGION AND THE PRAGMATI' ORIENTATION e%e# hs #e$ion" &eity s!+h s .h!mb! ""h /o# the .h!mb! #e$ion* E+h is sso+ite& ith mJo# mo!ntin in tht #e$ion* Lesse# &eities o# shibdag, sso+ite& ith othe# "o+"ities #e o#shi((e& by (#ti+!"# +"ns =F#e#0Himen&o#/ 197;):I0::>* The#e #e th#ee min o++sions e+h ye# in .h!mb! /o# the o#shi( o/ +"n &eities* 'h#isto(h %on F#e#0Himen&o#/ $i%es &es+#i(tion o/ one o/ these the yer%h-ang o# s!mme# bee# #it!" (e#/o#me& in the hi$h +tt"e (st!#es n& (#im#i"y +on+e#ne& ith the e"/#e o/ the he#&s =197;):80:18>* It in%o"%es the b!#nin$ o/ in+ense the e#e+tion o/ (#ye#0/"$s n& the #e&e&i+tion o/ n!mbe# o/ y,s to .h!mb! ""h n& the +"n &eities* .th#yn M#+h =/o# the She#(s o/ Sho#!n$ o# So"! to the so!th> n& Robe#t E,%"" =/o# Am&o (sto#"ists> "so mention the (#+ti+e o/ &e&i+tin$ nim"s to the $o&s =E,%"" 197):903o M#+h 19@@)96>* In .h!mb! %i""$es to othe# +"n0&eity #it!"s #e (e#/o#me& s (#t o/ the nn!" +y+"e n& #e the o++sion /o# $the#in$s o/ +"n membe#s =F#e#0 Himen&o#/ 197;)::>* M#+h &es+#ibes the #it!" sso+ite& ith hi$h0"tit!&e (sto#"ism mon$ the Sho#!n$ She#( hi+h is bsi+""y simi"# to tht in .h!mb!* In+ense n& sho#t (#ye# #e o//e#e& &i"y in the mo#nin$ /i#e be/o#e +oo,in$ by those ho #e !( in the (st!#es ith the he#&s* A mo#e s!bstnti" #it!" is (e#/o#me& hene%e# the he#& is mo%e& to ne site n& this in%o"%es the o//e#in$ o/ b!tte# mi", n& in+ense* These o//e#in$s #e to the to min Sho#!n$ #e$ion" &eities ho #e the y8llha o/ N!mb!# Mo!ntin n& the $o&&ess o/ Womi Tso to the $o&&esses o/ othe# ne#by mo!ntins n& to othe# "o+" &eities* A "#$e #it!" (.angsung) is "so (e#/o#me& nn!""y in the %i""$e be/o#e the he#&s &e(#t!#e /o# the hi$hest (st!#es in "te s(#in$0e#"y s!mme# =M#+h 19@@ es(* 98093>* Womi Tso itse"/ is hi$h mo!ntin ",e n& is the +ente# o/ n nn!" /esti%" tten&e& not on"y by She#(s b!t by #hmin0'het#is Tmn$s Ris n& Limb!s* Fo# the She#(s this /esti%" is +on+e#ne& ith the $o&&ess o/ the ",e n& ith the y8llha o/ the ne#by mo!ntin o/ N!mb!# =M#+h 1 9@@ ) 930 9;>* -est &es+#ibes simi"# nn!" (i"$#im$e to o#shi( the "o+" &eity mon$ the (eo("e o/ T#( in este#n Ne(" =-est 19 @; 19@7)388>* S!+h (i"$#im$es #e (n0Tibetn (#+ti+e me#$in$ into the s(e+i/i+""y !&&hist (i"$#im$es to sites sso+ite& ith Tnt#i+ &eities n& ith $#et "ms o/ the (st ="on&e! 197o Nebes,y0
WoJ,oit 2 1967);87 -est 19@7)363//> s!+h s the (i"$#im$e to Mo!nt .i"sh n& L,e Mns#o%# in este#n Tibet hi+h s n& #emins s+#e& site /o# Hin&!s n& n(o /o""oe#s s e"" s /o# !&&hists =Go%in& 19@; -ohnson n& Mo#n 199>* A"" these #e e5m("es o/ #it!" +##ie& o!t (#im#i"y by "y (eo("e in non0 !&&hist settin$s* In the #it!" +##ie& o!t by "ms n& mon,s in the gom!a, the ttit!&e to the "o+" $o&s is "ess !neC!i%o+""y #es(e+t/!"* Sne""$#o%e t#ns"tes n in%o+tion to n* im(o#tnt &eity o/ this +"ss Tn$"h s $i%en in the Nyin$m( #it!" te5t !se& in She#( +o!nt#y =/#om terma +y+"e ,non s T!$JQ 'hen(o D#o .!n&#">* Tn$"h the Go& o/ the P"in is the $o& o/ $#et mo!ntin +hin =Nyen+hen Tn$"h> no#th o/ Lhs* Sne""$#o%e +omments on the y in hi+h &eities o/ this ,in& #e t#ete& "te#nte"y to th#ets n& o//e#in$s* In no y #e they (e#mitte& to inte#/e#e ith the !&&hist &o+t#ine to hi+h they #emin he"("ess"y s!bJe+t* He#e is (#t o/ the in%o+tion) F#ien& o/ !s ho no (e#/o#m the #it!" The +ommn& to +tion hs no been $i%en S!b&!e the #%in$ /ien&s +!t &on the hosti"e /oe ** * It is time /o# +tion O ,in$ o/ obst#!+ti%e /oes* Pe#/o#m the#e/o#e yo!# ((ointe& ts,* o! #e the +o!nt#y0$o& o/ the /o!# #e$ions o/ a n& Tsn$* o! #e the $o& o/ T#ison$ Detsen the Di%ine Son the .in$ ho s P#ote+to# o/ the Do+t#ine* o! #e bo!n& to the bon& o/ yo!# o#& by P&msmbh% o/ U#$yen* So he#,en no to ht is #eC!i#e& o/ yo! ** * I/ yo! &o not (#ote+t !s "i%in$ bein$s no in this "st o#"&0$e Wi"" yo! not (e#h(s be min&/!" o/ these h((enin$s) Fi#st"y ho J#(ni (#esse& the "i/e /#om yo!# he#t on the y to the no#th Se+on&"y ho P&m0He#!, /o#+e& yo! into s!bJe+tion on Mt* He(o by SmyQ Thi#&"y ho J#0,!m# h%in$ +o""e+te& to$ethe# "" $o&s n& &emons on the s!mmit o/ the /i#0/o#me& ,in$ o/ mo!ntins /o#+e& them to t,e the %o* I no m P&msmbh% ** * O Go& o/ the P"in e be$ yo! to +ome* 'IILIED SHAMANS THE FOL. RELIGION AND THE PRAGMATI' ORIENTATION o! yo!#se"/ n& yo!# /o""oin$ o/ nyen We sh"" hono# ith the most s("en&i& o/ e5+e""ent o//e#in$s ** * =Sne""$#o%e 196@):390:;:>
In this tem("e se#%i+e the o//i+itin$ mon,s t,e on the i&entity o/ P&msmbh% =G!#! Rim(o+he> ho is t#ete& he#e s tn t#i+ &eity* As P&msmbh% they #e b"e to e5e#t o%e# the $o& the sme (oe# tht P&ms mbh% o#i$in""y em("oye& to o%e#+ome Tn$"h n& bin& him to the se#%i+e o/ the !&&hist #e"i$ion* /H$ AND LA) 'ONNE'TIONS ETWEEN GODS AND HUMANS M#+h +omments in #e/e#en+e to the Womi Tso /esti%" mentione& bo%e tht on the o++sion o/ #it!" in the 19@os the She#( (#ti+i(nts %oi+e& $#et +on+e#n tht the ",e s so &#ie& !() it s +"e#"y sh#!n,en to bo!t one0thi#& its no#m" si2e &ist!#bin$ (henomenon to She#(s ho "oo, to this ",e es(e+i""y its /!""ness n& (!#ity s %isib"e symbo" o/ thei# on (#os(e#ity n& he"th =M#+h 1 9@@) 9;>0 ",e "i,e othe# s+#e& ",es o# mo!ntins =Nebes,yWoJ,oit2 1967);:> be"on$s to the +te$o#y o/ ("+es sso+ite& ith the la o# "i/e0/o#+e o/ #e$ion* This b#in$s !s to nothe# mJo# +on+e(t o/ the Tibetn /o", #e"i$ion tht o/ la =Tibetn s(e""in$ bla), hi+h is s e i"" see +onne+te& in inte#estin$ ys ith the +!"t o/ "o+" &eities =see "so 'h(te# 1;>* In&i%i&!"s "so (ossess la, n& these +ommon"y h%e thei# "o+tion in t#ees o# nim"s "tho!$h this i&e s in (#emo&e#n times (e#h(s mo#e +ommon in /o",t"es n& in the Ges# e(i+ thn in (#esent0&y (#+ti+e* The i&e o/ the n&e#in$ o/ the la s +!se /o# i""ness o# ð hs hoe%e# #emine& si$ni/i+nt n& #it!"s to #e+"" the la #e sti"" +##ie& o!t* /a is in no #e" sense !&&hist +on+e(t* It +o##es(on&s to +on+e(ts s!+h s the No#t hest Thi .h*an &is+!sse& by Stn"ey Tmbih n& is +on+e#ne& "i,e the +!"t o/ the $o&s s ho"e ith this0o#"&"y $oo& /o#t!ne not ith #ebi#th n& s"%tion =Tmbih 19@o Hein2e 19:>* As ith mny o/ the /o",0#e"i$ion +on+e(ts the i&es +on+e#nin$ the la +nnot esi"y be e5(#esse& in +ohe#ent n& +onsistent /o#m* I&es bo!t la s!#/+e in %#iety o/ +onte5ts in #it!" n& in /o", "ite#t!#e s!+h s e&&in$ son$s n& the e(i+ s e"" s in the #it!"s (e#/o#me& to +"" b+, the la o/ (e#son hen it hs n&e#e& =Lessin$ 1961 Nebes,y0WoJ,oit2 19 * 67);10;3 T!++i 198)1980193 .#my 19@ M!m/o#& 199)17//>* As e i"" see in 'h(te# 1; n im(o# tnt +"ss o/ Tnt#i+ #it!"s the ts-e*ang, +n be inte#(#ete& s +on+e#ne& ith the e"/#e o/ the la# The la is s(i#it0essen+e o# "i/e0(#in+i("e #esi&in$ in the bo&y n& (#ti+!"#"y in the e#"ie# (e#io& it s seen s +onne+te& "so ith one o# mo#e e5te#n" obJe+ts* S!+h e5te#n" obJe+ts o# #estin$0("+es o/ the la mi$ht be hi""s ",es o# $#o%es o/ t#ees* In some (#ts o/ Tibet it is +!stom#y to ("nt t#ee t the bi#th o/ +hi"&* This t#ee is the lashing, the t#ee o/ tht +hi"&s la# A++o#&in$ to -s+h,e the t#ee is J!ni(e# hi+h is (#ti+!"#"y sso+ i te & it h the "o+ " &eitie s th#o! $h its !se in san g =-s+h,e 197)33>* D!n+n =197;):;9> mentions the sme +on+e(t /o#
Est Tibet "tho!$h the#e the t#ee is the lashing o/ /mi"y not o/ n in&i0 %i&!"* The la +n "e%e the bo&y e,enin$ ones "i/e n& e5(osin$ one to h#m* It +n "so be //e+te& by &m$in$ o# &est#oyin$ its e5te#n" #estin$0("+e* The +on+e(t o/ la hs been +ommente& on by RQnQ &e Nebes,y0 WoJ,oit2 n& "so by Sne""$#o%e* oth s!$$est tht it is (#e0 !& &h is t i &e = Ne be s, y0 WoJ ,o i t2 1 96 7) ; 10 ; 3 S ne "" $# o% e 1971)1;3>* oth Stein n& T!++i #$!e tht it is +"ose"y "in,e& to the "o+" $o&s in thei# #o"e o/ (e#son" (#ote+ti%e &eities o# go*; lha =Stein 19@:)::70::9 T!++i 198)193>* These go*; lha #e stn&#& set o/ =!s!""y> /i%e $o&s ho #e bo#n t the sme time s +hi"& in othe# o#&s ho be+ome sso+ite& ith the +hi"& t the time o/ bi#th* Lists o/ t he go*; lha, s ith e%e#ythin$ to &o ith the /o", #e"i$ion #e not stn&#&i2e&* One $i%en by Nebes,y0 WoJ,oit2 "ists them s soglha o# $o& o/ "i/e ith its set in the he#t !-olha =m"e $o&> in the #i$ht #m(it molha =/em"e $o&> in the "e/t #m(it drabla =enemy $o&> t the #i$ht sho!"&e# n& y8ll ha =$o& o/ the "o+"ity> t the +#on o/ the he&* Othe# "ists s!bstit!te the sh angl ha =$o& o/ the mothe#s b#othe#> /o# eithe# y8 llha o# molha =Nebes,y0 WoJ,oit2 1967):7; 3:@03:>* To o/ the go*; lha sti"" h%e im(o#tnt #o"es in +onne+tion ith the (#ote+ti on o/ the ho!seho"& in (#emo&e# n ti mes* These #e the !-olha n& the molha, hi+h is mo#e o/ten #e/e##e& to s !-uglha# They 'IILIED SHAMANS THE FOL. RELIGION AND THE PRAGMATI' ORIENTATION #e the to most si$ni/i+nt membe#s o/ se#ies o/ $o&s sso+i ith the ho!seho"& &es+#ibe& in T!++is ++o!nt o/ the /o", #e"i$ion The !-olha =m"e $o&> no#m""y hs sh#ine on the #oo/ he#e in +ense +n be b!#ne&* This sh#ine (!-olha .-ar) is #e"te& to the la!s &is+!sse& bo%e =T!++i 198 see Stein 19@:):87>* The !-olha is asso%iated ith the men o/ the /mi"y n& ith the e5te#n" &e/en+e o/ the ho!se* The inne# &eity o/ the ho!se o# !-uglha, "so .-yimlha =ho!se &eity> o# molha (9 /em"e $o&4$o& o/ omen> hs sh#ine insi&e the ho!se in the +ent#" (i""#* It is +on+e#ne& ith the e""0bein$ o/ the /mi"y n& in (#ti+!"# o/ its /em"e membe#s* Fo# the She#(s the !-uglha is no#m""y se#(ent0&eity o# 1u#18 #b# A2i2 &es+#ibes #it!" the lhadro, hi+h /o#ms #e$!"# (#t o/ m##i$e in the Din$#i #e$ion* In the lhadro #it!" the !-uglha o/ the $i#"s /mi"y is ((#o+he& th#o!$h s(i#it0me&i!m to $i%e its (e#mission /o# the $i#" to "e%e the ho!seho"& =A2i2 19@):63>* Whe#e the b#i&e is $oin$ to "i%e in n "#e&y e5istin$ ho!seho"& the !-uglha o/ he# ne home "so hs to be t,en into ++o!nt* The i""ness o/ b#i&e in he# ne ho!se is #e$!"#"y tt#ib!te& to the !-uglha not /ee"in$ e""0in+"ine& to#&s he# in hi+h +se it hs to be on o%e# by ((#o(#ite #it!"s =T!++i 198)19>*
Othe# &eities t+h o%e# the he#th (t-ablha) n& the sto#eho!se (bangdzöd lha)# The he#th $o& +n esi"y be !(set by im(!#ity s!+h s hen +oo,in$0(ot o%e#/"os n& sang my be (e#/o#me& in s!+h +se to %oi& t#o!b"e =T!++i 198>* E,%"" mentions these s(i#its in the +onte5t o/ nom&i+ tent in his no%e" Tents $gainst the S.y, bse& on the !tho#s "on$ #esi&en+e mon$ Am&o nom&s) St#n$e Je"o!s +#et!#es they s#m t the #isin$ o/ the smo,e in ne tent n& t,e (#o(#iet#y tho!$h t times (e#%e#se inte#est in the ne he#th* e+!se o/ thei# &is("es!#e +hi"&#en &ie o# #e bo#n &e&* Thei# s(ite/!" b"os b#in$ b"in&ness st#n$e se""in$s n& the si/t #ottin$ o/ nth#5 the e#th (oison* Wht tent +n ho(e /o# (e+e i/ the he#thstone s(i#its #e n$#y =E,%"" 196;)11@> Lte# in the sme no%e" the si+,ness o/ +hi"& n& othe# im(en&in$ mis/o#t!nes #e "in,e& to the n$e# o/ the he#thstone s(i#its n& o/ the se#(ent s(i#its (lu, 196;):8:>* The ho!se mon$ $#i+!"t!#" Tibetns ='o#"in 198 /o# Gye"n $ in !nnn Do""/!s 199)1:90 1;7 /o # L&,h > n& the t ent "on$ nom&s =E,%"" 197)71076 Fe$#e 19@9> is +on+ei%e& o/ s i+# o+osm* This i&e is e5(#esse& in &eti" in the t#&iti on" son$s & s(ee+hes sso+ite& ith e&&in$s =T!++i 1977 A2i2 196>* I m o/ s!#e ho /# it s s ti"" # e""y "i%e i&e in #e+ent times b!t it *#ein/o#+es %ie o/ the #it!"s /o# (o"h n& /o# !-uglha s not sim("y #it!"s to e5te#n" &eities !( on the mo!ntins b!t (#t o/ the on$oin$ (#o+ess o/ ,ee(in$ the (#o(e# b"n+e o/ /o#+es ithin the ho!seho"&* The essenti" +om("ement to the +on+e(t o/ the "o+" &eities is Dthat o/ the m"e%o"ent s(i#its* These #e +onstnt th#et to "i/e n& ) (#o(e#ty n& m!+h #it!" +ti%ity is &i#e+te& to (#ote+tion $inst them both t the "e%e" o/ /o", #e"i$ion n& t tht o/ /o#m" monsti+ +!"t* These s(i#its #e +o!nt"ess in nme n& /o#m n& the &em#+tion beteen them n& the "oe# #n$es o/ the $o&s is b"!##e&* The /o#m" +"ssi/i+tion o/ $o&s n& s(i#its is min"y o/ +on+e#n to the monsti+ s+ho"#s n& the "ms ho h%e to &e" ith them th#o!$h #it!"* The (#im#y +on+e#n o/ Tibetn "y (eo("e is ith (#ote+tion #the# thn &eti"e& ,no"e&$e* It is /o# (!#(oses o/ (#ote+tion tht it is so im(o#tnt to ,ee( on $oo& te#ms ith the "o+" &eities* I/ e"" in+"ine& the "o+" &eities +o!"& (#ote+t the in&i%i&!" /mi"y o# %i""$e $inst the m"e%o"ent s(i#its* The $o&s hoe%e# #e "so +(b"e o/ !n"eshin$ the s(i#its on someone ith hom they #e &is("ese& eithe# th#o!$h &i#e+tin$ the s(i#its ho /o#m thei# #etin!e o# sim("y by ithho"&in$ thei# (#ote+tion* These s(i#its my be +on+ei%e& o/ s symbo"i+ #e(#esenttions o/ &iso#&e# n& o/ "+, o/ b"n+e ithin in&i%i&!" o#
+omm!nity =see Sm!e" 1998>* F#e#0Himen&o#/ in his ++o!nt o/ the She#(s &istin$!ishes beteen m"e%o"ent s(i#its (#o(e# shrindi, n& to othe# +"sses o/ mis/o#t!ne0+!sin$ entities nor!a o# $hosts o/ men $!i"ty o/ $#et sins n& (em o# it+hes =F#e#0Himen&o#/ 197;):610:67>* Wit+hes =ho #e "ys omen> h%e "so been &is+!sse& by Nn+y Le%ine So(hie Dy n& othe#s =Le%ine 19: O#tne# 19@)@9 P""is 19@; n& es(e+i""y Dy 199)3803;>* They #e n iss!e o/ some +on+e#n in Tibetn +omm!nities n& it+h+#/t my be &i%ine& s the +!se o/ mis/o#t!ne* Deth is mJo# time o/ +#isis both in te#ms o/ (#ote+0 tion $inst the s(i#it o/ the &e& (e#son n& "so in tht the#e is the #is, o/ its be+omin$ m"e%o"ent $host =see T!++i 198>* F!ne##y #it!" hoe%e# is no&ys s in othe# !&&hist so+ieties the (#e0 'IILIED SHAMANS THE FOL. RELIGION AND THE PRAGMATI' ORIENTATION se#%e o/ the !&&hist +"e#$y n& is +##ie& o!t by the "m o# by mon,s =see 'h(te# # i >* The im(o#tn+e $i%en to "o+" &eities seems to %#y beteen +omm!nities n& beteen in&i%i&!"s tho!$h some o/ this my #e/"e+t the &i//e#in$ &e$#ees o/ inte#est in these mtte#s mon$ Weste#n obse#%e#s* They e#e !n&o!b te&"y mo#e im(o#tnt in the (# e0 !&&hist (e#io& hen they o!"& h%e been the most (oe#/!" bein$s in the Tibetn s+"e o/ %"!es* y (#emo&e#n times they h& be+ome in theo#y tot""y s!bJe+t to the Tnt#i+ #it!" (oe# o/ the "ms* Deities s!+h s A%"o,itel%# n& T# ho #e Tnt#i+ (t#on &eities (yidam) n& "so mJo# obJe+ts o/ (o(!"# &e%otion #e on n "to$ethe# hi$he# "e%e" in the s+heme o/ thin$s* et the o#"&"y $o&s #e +e#tin"y tho!$ht o/ s +(b"e o/ b#in$in$ both &isese n& (#os(e#ity n& /o# "y (eo("e in (#ti+!"# they #emine& /o#+es to be #e+,one& ith into the mo&e#n (e#io&* They #e sti"" +omm!ni+te& ith #e$!"#"y th#o!$h the %#io!s /o#ms o/ s(i#it0me&i!mshi( &is+!sse& "te# in this +h(te#* In this y &es(ite thei# s!bo#&inte (osition in #e"tion to !&&hism the $o&s sti"" ("y n im(o#tnt (#t in the ho"e system o/ i&es* The !&&hist te+hin$s #e(ete&"y &es+#ibe them s / oo"ish %in n& !nt#!sto#thy s not /it obJe+ts in hom to t,e #e/!$e o# see, (#ote+tion s in%o"%e& on"y ith the //i#s o/ this o#"& n& not ith s"%tion* et ithin the +onte5t o/ this "i/e s o((ose& to #ebi#th o# En"i$htenment the $o&s +n ssist one o# +!se one h#m n& #e"tionshi(s ith them h%e to be ne$otite& (#o(e#"y* In !&&hist theo#y "" o/ these $o&s n& $o&&esses e#e o%e#+ome by P&msmbh% ho bo!n& them to se#%e s (#ote+to#s o/ the !&&hist &o+t#ine n& mny o/ them #e +""e& on #e$!"#"y in monsti+ o#shi( s in the in%o+tion to Tn$"h +ite& bo%e to (e#/o#m thei# (#ote+ti%e /!n+tion* The "o+" $o&s "on$ ith the m"e%o"ent s(i#its n& the ho"e +om("e5 o/ i&es bo!t &i%intion s(i#it0me&i!ms n& $oo& n& b& /o#t!ne #e n im(o#tnt (#t o/ the symbo"i+ "n$!$e th#o!$h hi+h the Tibetns &e" ith
(#$mti + th is0 o#"&"y +on+e# ns* They (#o%i&e +#iti+" set o/ symbo"i+ sso+itions th#o!$h hi+h the Tibetn "n&s+(e is (e#+ei%e& "n&s+(e tht #etine& into mo&e#n times the &n$e#s n& th#ets to "i/e n& (#o(e#ty ith hi+h these &eities n& s(i#its #e so +"ose"y in%o"%e&* Whi"e the "ms n& the !&&hist Tnt#i+ &eities #e(#esent so!#+e o/ s!(e#io# (oe# to the "o+" &eities t (oe# &oes not (e#h(s h%e the &i#e+t n& intimte #e"tionshi( ith the +ontin$en+ies o/ o#&in#y "i/e tht the "o+" &eities themse"%es e* The !"timte so!#+e o/ the Tnt#i+ (oe# o/ the "ms "ies in s e+tion o/ those +ontin$en+ies hi+h be+ome me#e +i(he#s in ns/i$!#e& !ni%e#se s(e+ts o/ the s+ene#y in the Tnt#i+ (#&ise* The ttention tht the "o+" $o&s #e+ei%e in &omesti+ #it!" n& the #o"e they ("ye& in the +!stion o/ i""ness n& mis/o#t!ne s!$$ests the im(o#tnt /!n+tion tht they +ontin!e to /!"/i"" /o# o#&in#y "y Tibetns* The (ntheon o!t"ine& in 'h(te# 9 is +h#+te#isti+""y /o# the Tibetns "ess #i$i& hie##+hy thn se#ies o/ inte#meshin$ (t#on0+"ient #e"tionshi(s* Th!s "y %i""$e#s ne$otite /#om (osition o/ #e"ti%e e,ness ith the $o&s th#o!$h s(i#it0me&i!ms n& #e$!"# o//e#in$s n& t the sme time see, the (t#on$e o/ the Tnt#i+ "ms ho +n ne$otite /#om /# st#on$e# (osition to ,ee( the $o&s in thei# ("+e*1: OMENS AND DIINATION Anothe# set o/ /o",0#e"i$ion be"ie/s n& (#+ti+es hi+h +on+e#n omens (tendrel) n& &i%intion =mo> is +"ose"y #e"te& to the be"ie/s bo!t o#"&"y &eities n& is +e#tin"y "so o/ +onsi&e#b"e ntiC!ity* The +onne+tion beteen &i%intion n& the $o&s be+omes e5("i+it i th th e s( i# it 0me&i!ms ho #e +hnne"s /o# +omm!ni+tion beteen $o&s n& h!mns b!t in (#+ti+e m!+h &i%intion o/ "" ,in&s is +on+e#ne& ith styin$ on $oo& te#ms ith the /o",0#e"i$ion &eities* Lte# in 'h(te# :I the #e"tionshi( mon$ $o&s omens n& &i%intion in e#"y Tibetn #e"i$ion i"" be e5mine&* He#e o!# inte#est is in ho the be"ie/s n& (#+ti+es o(e#te in the (#emo&e#n (e#io& n& to +onsi&e#b"e &e$#ee +ontin!e to o(e#te to&y* A +on+e#n ith omens n& &i%intion is omni(#esent in Tibet s in mny non0Weste#n +!"t!#es* A"" thin$s #e inte#+onne+te&* This is t#!e in the s(e+i/i+""y !&&hist sense o/ the +onne+tion o/ +!se n& e//e+t th#o!$h the ,#mi+ "in, o# tendrel =S,t* !ratityasamut!"da) n& in the mo#e $ene#" sense o/ the m!t!" +o##es(on&en+e o/ ((#ent"y &is(#te (henomen ithin sin$"e sit!tion s!+h tht the s,i""/!" obse#%e# +n #e& in the si$ns "so #e/e##e& to s tendrel, hethe# ( #ti+!"# +tion o# !n&e#t,in$ o!"& be s!++ess/!"* It is this se+on& i&e# sense tht is mo#e #e"e%nt he#e b!t it sho!"& be #emembe#e& 'IILIED SHAMANS THE FOL. RELIGION AND THE PRAGMATI' ORIENTATION
tht /o# Tibetns it is #ein/o#+e& n& mo&i/ie& by the ine%itbi"ity o/ $oo& o# b& o!t+omes th#o!$h the im(e#son" ++o!ntin$ o/ ,#m* The ,ey C!estion is hethe# (#ti+!"# sit!tion is !s(i+io!s both in $ene#" n& /o# (#ti+!"# !n&e#t,in$* This C!"ity o/ !s(i+io!sness trashi, +n be in+#ese& in %#io!s ys n& sang, the b!#nin$ o/ in+ense n& J!ni(e# t the st#t o/ mny !n&e#t,in$s =n& o/ten o/ e+h &y> hs this /!n+tion s e"" s the (!#(ose o/ &&#essin$ the "o+" &eities* At the sme time the#e is +"ose +on+e(t!" +onne+tion beteen the sit!tion bein$ !s(i+io!s n& the "o+" &eities bein$ e""0in+"ine&* The (oint in&ee& is not so m!+h tht the#e #e si$ns in nt!#e th#o!$h hi+h the /!t!#e +n be (#e&i+te& s tht "" +tions sho!"& ++o#& ith the nt!#e o/ the tot" sit!tion n& the si$ns +t s in&i+tions o/ tht sit!tion* We +n (e#h(s !n&e#stn& this bette# th#o!$h n n"o$y ith the Weste#n n& t#&ition" %ies o/ me&i+ine* At $ene#"i2e& "e%e" mo&e#n Weste#n =""o(thi+> me&i+ine i&enti/ies (#ti+!"# syn&#omes =&iseses m"/!n+tions o/ %#io!s o#$ns> ithin the tot" o# $nism n& &e"s ith them in&i%i&!""y th#o!$h stn&#&i2e& te+hniCes* The ss!m(tion o/ #e("i+bi"ity bsi+ to the s+ienti/i+ metho& en+o!#$es the Weste#n &o+to# to see (#ob"em s #e(etition o/ some (#e%io!s (#ob"em* It sho!"& "ys be (ossib"e to /in& the ((#o(#ite #eme&y /o# s(e+i/i+ (#ob"em tho!$h in (#ti+!"# sit!tion one my h%e to &e" ith mo#e thn one t on+e s e"" s ith the si&e0 e//e+ts o/ the #eme&ies !se&* y +ont#st in most t#&ition" Asin me&i+" systems in+"!&in$ Tibetn me&i+ine hi+h &e#i%es =%i In&i> /#om the G#ee, me&i+" t#&ition the /i#st (#io#ity is the #esto#tion o/ b"n+e n& h#mony ithin the o#$nism s ho"e* In&i%i&!" sym(toms #e inte#(#ete& s +onseC!en+e o/ the o#$nism bein$ o!t o/ b"n+e* T#e tment the#e/o#e &e(en&s m!+h mo#e on the tot" sit!tion thn on the in&i%i&!" sym(tom* Simi"#"y /o# the Tibetns the (e#/o#mn+e o/ the +tions s(e+i/i+ to (#ti +! "# !n&e#t,in$ h et he# th e !n&e#t,in$ is b!i"& in$ st!( e#e+tin$ (#ye#0/"$ o# settin$ o!t on t#&in$ Jo!#ney #e on"y (#t o/ the sit!tion n& (ossib"y not the most im(o#tnt (#t* One nee&s to ,no hethe# ones (#o(ose& +tion is h#monio!s ith the tot" sit!tion* S!+h ,no"e&$e is obtine& th#o!$h &i%intion =mo> n& i/ the o!t+ome is /%o#b"e it is $ene#""y #ein/o#+e& by the b!#nin$ o/ J!ni(e# n& othe# in+ense0 he#bs n& the #e+ittion o/ (#y0e#s &esi$ne& to in+#ese the $ene#" !s(i+io!sness o/ the moment* The (#esenttion o/ !s(i+io!s obJe+ts s!+h s bo"s o/ yo$h!#t (sho) o# $#eetin$ s+#%es (.at-ag) n& the e#e+tion o/ (#ye#0 /"$s (lungta, the te#m "so #e/e#s to the stte o/ n in&i%i&!"s /o#t!ne see .#my 19 9o '",os,i 1998> "so i& in this (#o+ess o/ in/"!en+in$ the /"o o/ #e"ity in ones /%o# =N* No#b! 1977) Li+hte# n& E(stein 193 'ho(he" 193);: .ie# 196@>* I/ the o!t+ome is &e/inite"y in&i+te& s !n/%o#b"e the !n&e#t,in$ i"" be &e"ye& !nti" mo#e !s(i+io!s time o# +n+e""e& "to$ethe#* .!#t S+h"bes &es+#i(tion o/ ho he +ommissione& the b!i"&in$ o/
%h-orten =S,t* sttt!a, !&&hist #e"iC!#y n& sh#ine> t the She#( monste#y o/ Se#"o (#o%i&es +se st!&y o/ ho s!+h (#o+esses o#, in (#+ti+e =S+h"be 19@9>* The /i#st ttem(t t b!i"&in$ the %h-orten +me to $#ie/ th#o!$h se#ies o/ b& omens* When S+h"be n& some She#(s ent to +!t t#ee /o# the t#ee o/ "i/e o# +ent#" (i""# o/ the %h-orten, they +!t t#ee o/ the #on$ ,in& it s +#oo,e& n& they h!#t thei# b+,s +##yin$ it b+, to the monste#y =S+h"be 1 9 @ 9 ) ; 07>* The ttem(t s bn&one& n& on"y be$!n $in on S+h"bes ne5t %isit to Ne("* On this se+on& ttem(t omens e#e $in obse#%e& in +!ttin$ the t#ee in (#e(#in$ the e#th n& in +""in$ the o#,men* The o#,men e#e b!sy nte& hi$h (y n& #ise& othe# &i//i+!"ties* This hoe%e# s not t,en s si$n to bn&on the ho"e !n&e#t,in$ b!t #the# s n in&i+tion tht the monste#y sho!"& !se its on #eso!#+es #the# thn hi#e o!tsi&e "bo#* When S+h"be hn&e& o%e# a Ne("i tho!sn&0#!(ee note s (#t o/ his &ontion the im$e o/ sttt!a on the note s t,en s /%o#b"e omen* At "te# st$es the /i"!#e o/ the oo& /o# the t#ee o/ "i/e to +#+, "tho!$h it h& been "e/t too ne# the /i#e s t,en s $oo& omen tho!$h its bein$ s+o#+he& s "ess /%o#b"e* The s(ontneo!s /o#mtion o/ thi#teen #in$s =+o##es(on&in$ to the thi#teen (oe#s o/ the !&&h> in the +"y o/ the min bo&y o/ the sh#ine s "so $oo& omen =S+h"be 19@9)3@039>* At %#io!s st$es in the e#e+tion o/ the %h-orten, J!ni(e # s b!#ne& o//e#in$s e#e m&e to "o+" &eities n& the Trashi Gye!a, (#ye# inten&e& to en+o!#$e the !s(i+io!s o!t+ome o/ n !n&e#t,in$ s #e(ete&"y #e+ite& =S+h"be 19@99>p The Ioo8880"ine ra67a!aramit" Sidra, n im(o#tnt +noni+" te5t s "so #e+ite& in o#&e# to +#ete /!#the# !s(i+io!s in/"!en+es =19@9):@>* Th#o!$ho!t 'IILIED SHAMANS 'IILIED THE FOL. RELIGION A SHAMANS
the#e s mi5t!#e o/ +he+,s tht the sit!tion s not &n$e#o!s"y in!s(i+io!s +ombine& ith +tions to in+#ese !s(i+io!s in/"!en+es* In &&ition to the #e&in$ o/ si$ns (tendrel), s!+h s those mentione& bo%e the#e #e mny s(e+i/i+ te+hniC!es /o# &i%intion =Nebes,y0 WoJ,oit2 1967 E,%"" 1973 197;b 'hime 191>* Some o/ these s!+h s those hi+h in%o"%e +o!ntin$ o// be&s on #os#y o# /in$e#0b#e&ths on boot0 st#( +n be (e#/o#me& by nyone* Othe#s s!+h s the !se o/ &i%inin$0##os o# &i%inin$0&i+e #e the (#ese#%e o/ s(e+i"ists ho my be "ymen o# "ms* Di%intion is one o/ the most +ommon +ti%ities (e#/o#me& by "ms /o# the "ity both in the ,in& o/ +ses "#e&y mentione& n& "so in sit!tions s!+h s i""ness o# the "oss o/ (#o(e#ty* Some "ms #e be"ie%e& to h%e +"i#%oynt (oe#s n& +n &i%ine itho!t ny s(e+i/i+ &i%into#y ((#t!s o# ith the he"( o/ mi##o# = te+hniC!e ,non s tra)# The#e #e "so "ymen ho +n
e5e#+ise +"i#%oyn+e ith the i& o/ mi##o# o# othe# te+hniC!e* F#e#0 Himen&o#/ &is+!sses (eo("e o/ this ,in& mon$ the She#( he#e they #e +""e& mindung =F#e#0Himen&o#/ 197;) :7:0:73>* Ast#o"o$y is "so hi$h"y &e%e"o(e& t#&ition in Tibet s in othe# Asin so+ieties ='o#n! 199o>* In Tibet it +ombines te+hniC!es /#om In&in =n& th!s !"timte"y /#om G#ee,> st#o"o$y ith those /#om 'hin* This is $in e5(e#t ,no"e&$e sso+ite& ith the monsti+ +onte5t n& the "ms "tho!$h it is "so ,non to some "ymen* The min +on+e#n is ith &ete#minin$ hethe# $i%en &y is !s(i+io!s /o# (#ti+!"# !n&e#t,in$* The#e is "so t#&ition o/ $eomn+y o# the sitin$ o/ b!i"&in$s to m5imi2e /%o#b"e in/"!en+es #e"te& to the 'hinese fLngshui =T#!n$( 19@)383038; 'ho$y T#i+hen 19@9>* The most s(e+t+!"# n& best0st!&ie& mo&e o/ Tibetn &i%intion is th#o!$h the !se o/ s(i#it0me&i!ms o# o#+"e0(#iests s they #e o/ten +""e& in the Tibetnist "ite#t!#e (@ha!a, !a*o, see Nebes,yWoJ,oit2 1967)390 ;6; F#e#0Himen&o#/ 1 9 7 ; ): 6;0 : 7: E,%"" 1 9 7 ; b): @30 : @; P#in+e Pete# 19@ 19@b 19@9 e#$"ie 19@7 19o 19: 193 199 Dy 199>* A"tho!$h the s(i#it0me&i!ms #e %e#y m!+h (#t o/ the /o",0#e"i$ion +om("e5 n& the#e is e%e#y #eson to ss!me tht they $o b+, to (#e0 !&&hist times they #e e"" inte $#te& into the !&&hist #e"i$io!s system n& n!mbe# o/ them #esi&e in monsti+ gom!a n& #e o#&ine& mon,s* These monsti+ o#+"e0(#iests +""e& by mo#e e"e%te& te#ms s!+h s sungma o# %h-ö.yong, #e (ossesse& by mJo# (#ote+ti%e &eitieso/ the monste#ies ="so #e/e##e& to s sungma n& %h-ö.yong) s!+h s (eh# o# Do#JQ Sh!$&en n& #e +ons!"te& by monsti+ n& stte ! tho#ities on #e$!"# o++sions* The best0,non n& most (#esti$io!s o/ them is the Stte O#+"e o/ Ne+h!n$ /o#me#"y t the sm"" Nyin$m( monste#y o/ tht nme sit!te& ne# the "#$est Ge"!$( monste#y D#e(!n$ n& #e"o+te& /te# 1969 in Dh#ms" he#e the D"i Lm no #esi&es* It s n& is +ons!"te& by the D"i Lm n& his &minist#tion* The Ne+h!n$ o#+"e n& its in%o"%ement in Tibetn (o"iti+s hs been &es+#ibe& by se%e#" !tho#s* It is on"y one o/ n!mbe# o/ s!+h monsti+ o#+"es some o/ hi+h e#e "so +ons!"te& by the Lhs $o%e#nment =see es(e+i""y Nebes,y0WoJ,oit2 1967);;;0;6; P#in+e Pete# 19@ 'hime 191 Ro+, 1936 D#$yy 196>* As e"" s the monsti+ o#+"es the#e #e "y s(i#it0me&i!ms /o!n& in %i""$es th#o!$ho!t the Tibetn #e$ion* These my be men o# omen tho!$h most o/ those &es+#ibe& in the "ite#t!#e h%e been men* 1; Ty(i+" te#ms /o# these (#+titione#s #e lha!a, lha.-a, n& !a*o# The most &eti"e& &es+#i(tion o/ them is $i%en by Pe#0A#ne e#$"ie ho "so &is+!sses thei# t#inin$ t "en$th* e#$"ie +omments tht tVheo#eti+""y the !a*o is in&e(en&ent o/ the "ms !tho#ity* Ne%e#the"ess "" the !a*o tho!$ht it ne+ess#y to h%e "ms b"essin$ /o# thei# o#, s !a*oA =e#$"ie 19@7)93>* e#$"ie "so mentions the in%o"%ement o/ "ms in the t#inin$ o/ me&i!ms s &o othe# !0 tho#s =F#e#0Himen&o#/ 197;):660:67>* The me&i!ms st!&ie& by e#$"ie &i%ine& by %ib#tin$ #i+e on &#!mhe& = +ommon Tibetn te+hniC!e> s e"" s th#o!$h (ossession* When in the
(o ssesse& st te th ey " so he" e& i th th e i & o/ he"in$ nim" s(i#its s!+,in$ the i""ness o!t o/ the (tients bo&y* In &&ition they (e#/o#me& the la.-ug +e#emony /o# #e+"" o/ the n&e#in$ la o# s(i#it0essen+e hi+h is no#m""y (e#/o#me& by "ms* i6 The /o!# !a*o e#$"ie st!&ie& e#e (ossesse& e5+"!si%e"y by mo!ntin &eities o# tsen on the o++sions he itnesse& they em("oye& +ommon t#i(#tite &i%ision o/ the "o+" =/o",0#e"i$ion> &eities) the lha bo%e the tsen in the mi&&"e n& the lu beneth* S(i#it0(ossession is o/ +onsi&e#b"e inte#est be+!se o/ the +on+e(t!" simi"#ity ith the system o/ in+#nte "ms o# trul.u# In+#nte "ms #e /#eC!ent"y emntions o/ (#ti+!"# bodhisattva =!&&hist tnt#i+ &eities> n& s #b# A2i2 s!$$ests they +n be #e$#&e& s h%in$ been in sense (e#mnent"y (ossesse& by those bodhisattva THE FOL. RELIGION AND THE PRAGMATI' ORIENTATION =A2i2 19@7>* Tnt#i+ #it!" "so in%o"%es ht +o!"& be &es+#ibe& s tem(o##y (ossession by the Tnt#i+ &eity "tho!$h in Tnt#i+ theo#y s I h%e "#e&y mentione& one o!"& s(e, #the# o/ the &e"ibe#te n& +ons+io!s ss!m(tion o/ the nt!#e o/ tht &eity* In n inte#estin$ &is+!ssion o/ "ms o#+"es n& it+hes in L&,h So(hie Dy hs #e+ent"y #$!e& tht sin$"e set o/ im$e#y +ente#in$ on themes o/ tmin$ +on%e#tin$ +i%i"i2in$ #en&e#in$ (#o &!+ti%e s!mme& !( in the Tibetn te#m dul*a, !n&e#"ies this enti#e #n$e o/ (henomen =Dy 197 199);190;:8 ;:7 ;3 8 0;3 1 > * The "ms #o"e in the mJo# Tnt#i+ #it!" &n+e0&#m the %h-am, is n +tin$0o!t o/ the (oe# to tme n& +i%i"i2e &iso#&e#"y n& &est#!+ti%e s(e+ts o/ #e"ity* e+omin$ n o#+"e in%o"%es tmin$ the $o& hi"e the it+h is #e(#esentti%e o/ the &iso#&e#e& n& !nb"n+e& /o#+es tht Tnt#i+ #it!" hs to o%e#+ome* As e i"" see in 'h(te# I # dul*a "so #e/e#s to the tmin$ o# +on%e#tin$ o/ h!mn (o(!"tions th#o!$h the !&&hist te+hin$s n& #e/e#s s(e+i/i+""y to the +o&e o/ &is+i("ine =iny> /o# mon,s no%i+es n& "y /o""oe#s* It my be t#!e tht the (!#s!it o/ the !&&hist En"i$htenment hs no ne+ess#y +onne+tion ith the "o+" &eities b!t the (oe# o/ Tnt# the bsi+ te+hniC!e /o# +hie%in$ En"i$htenment is /i#m"y $#o!n&e& /o# Tibetns in the #e"tionshi( o/ Tnt#i+ "ms to (#e+ise"y these "o+" &eities* F!#the# #mi/i+tions o/ this #e"tionshi( i"" be+ome +"e# s the !&&hist s(e+ts o/ Tibetn #e"i$ion #e (#esente& in s!bseC!ent +h(te#s* HOUSEHOLD AND FAMIL RITUAL) BIR! RI"#$% Pe#h(s the most si$ni/i+nt #e /o# the (#$mti+ s(e+ts o/ Tibetn #e"i$ion is tht o/ ho!seho"& n& /mi"y #it!"* Un/o#t!nte"y the#e hs been "itt"e &eti"e& ethno$#(hy on these to(i+s s yet /o# Tibetn so+iety* Some #e/e#en+es e#e $i%en e#"ie# to the +on+e(t o/ ho!se s mi+#o+osm s &is("ye& in the
e&&in$ #it!"s =on hi+h see "so A2i2 19@ )1701@@ :6: 0:63 S,o#!(s,i n& 'e+ h 19 ;>* Th!b ten Sn 0$ys &es+#i(tions o/ Tibetn t#&itions o/ +hi"&bi#th n& +hi"&+#e n& o/ ð #it!"s =19; 19;b> "so $i%e some i&e o/ the inte#e%in$ o/ s(e+i/i+""y !&&hist n& /o", #it!"s n& o/ the im(o#t n+e o/ omens n& !s(i+io!sness in these to +#iti+" #ites o/ (ss$e* The C!estion o/ ð #it!"s i"" be &is+!sse& /!#the# in 'h(te# II be+!se o/ thei# +"ose +onne+tion ith ,#m n& #ebi#th* A /e e5m("es /#om Th!bten Sn$y s mte#i" on bi#th n & e#"y +hi "& hoo& i"" hoe%e# he"( to #o!n& o!t this +h(te# =see "so S,o#!(s,i n& 'e+h 19; A2i2 19@):610:6: !tho, 1998)1@101@6>) I/ +hi"& is &estine& to h%e $oo& "i/e the (#ents es(e+i""y the mothe# i"" /#eC!ent"y h%e +e#tin !s(i+io!s &#ems in the "tte# (#t o/ the ni$ht**** Gene#""y these !s(i+io!s &#ems in+"!&e those o/ (i+,in$ n& etin$ /#!it o/ +e#tin !s(i+io!s obJe+ts s!+h s hite +on+h she"" se%e#" mo#e #e "iste&V**** I/ the +hi"& is to h%e "itt"e $oo& /o#t!ne in "i/e the (#ents i"" h%e in!s(i+io!s &#ems**** P#ents ho h%e no son my s, s(i#it!" mste# i*e* "mV to (e#/o#m +e#tin Tnt#i+ #it!"s !sin$ mandala o/ &eities tht +n b#in$ bo!t the +on+e(tion o/ boy* I/ they s, /o# s(e+i" m!"et to e# they i"" be b"e to h%e son *** =Sn$y 19;)30;> No#b! 'ho(he" notes hoe%e# tht Tibetns t#&ition""y (#e/e##e& thei# /i#st +hi"& to be /em"e both to he"( the mothe# n& be+!se it is be"ie%e& tht it i"" ens!#e he# (#ents "on$ "i/e ='ho(he" 193>* D!#in$ (#e$nn+y the mothe# sho!"& %oi& etin$ /oo& $i%en by those ho h%e not ,e(t thei# mo#" ob"i$tions no# sho!"& she be $!est o/ s!+h (eo("e* She sho!"& not e# se+on&0hn& +"othes* He# /oo& sho!"& be neithe# %e#y hot no# %e#y +o"& n& st#on$ "iC!o#s "#$e mo!nts o/ bee# n& hot s(i+y n& so!# /oo& sho!"& be %oi&e&*** * It is si& tht i/ on+e month the e5(e+tnt mothe# t,es "itt"e +onse+#te& te# b"esse& by s(i#it!" mste# o# i/ she #e$!"#"y #e+ei%es "on$0"i/e inititions o# bette# sti"" i/ she +n #e+ei%e hi$h Tnt#i+ ini0 tition it i"" be +on&!+i%e to the +hi"&s "on$ "i/e n& /o#t!ne ** * =Sn$y 19;);> Mi5e& ith these obse#%n+es #e othe#s o/ mo#e (hysio"o$i+" nt!#e) the mothe# sho!"& t,e st#on$ no!#ishin$ /oo& &o "i$ht ho!seo#, b!t %oi& he%y o#, n& /#eC!ent se5!" #e"tions n& so on* I/ t#%e""e# e%en mon, o# n!n ##i%es t ho!se +"ose to the time o/ bi#th h#m +!se& by e%i" s(i#its my "te# +ome to (ss =19;)@>* P#ye#s o# #it!"s #e s(e+i/ie& to &e" ith this e%ent!"ity* To #it!"s /o# n esy bi#th both in%o"%in$ the Tnt#i+ em(oe#ment o/ (ie+e o/ b!tte# hi+h is then $i%en to the mothe# #e &es+#ibe& =19;)>* 'IILIED SHAMANS
'IILIED SHAMANS The mothe# sho!"& $#eet the ne0bo#n +hi"& ith !s(i+io!s o#&s =19;)09> n& it sho!"& h%e the mnt#0sy""b"e dhi o# hrih &#n on its ton$!e ith s//#on te# be/o#e bein$ /i#st $i%en its mothe#s mi", =19;)9>* 17 A he#b" mi5t!#e boi"e& in the mi", o/ hite $ot b#o!$ht by $i#" +omin$ /#om so!the#n &i#e+tion sho!"& be /e& to the +hi"& so s to $i%e it is&om inte""i$en+e seet %oi+e n& +"e# memo#y =19;)9>* P!#i/yin$ #it!"s /o""o the bi#th o/ the +hi"& =19;)Io see "so 'ho(e" 193)6> n& "m sho!"& be in%ite& on n !s(i+io!s &y to (e#/o#m Tnt#i+ #it!" to st#en$then the "i/e o/ the +hi"& =Sn$y 19;)II>* On /%o#b"e &y (#ye#0/"$s sho!"& be /"on /#om the # oo/ n& o//e #in$s m&e to the /i%e (e#son" &eities (go*; Nha) n& the (#ote+to#s hi"e ho!seho"& membe#s n& $!ests et n& &#in, to +e"eb#te the bi#th =19;)11>* A "m my "so be s,e& to nme the +hi"& tho!$h the (#ents o/ten $i%e the nme themse"%es =see 'ho(he" 193)09>* The +hi"&s /i#st o!tin$ sho!"& be on n !s(i+io!s &y n& is ++om(nie& by /!#the# #it!" =Sn$y 19;)11 see "so 'ho(he" 193)@>* The o!tin$ sho!"& be to the ho"y ("+es o/ the nei$hbo#hoo& n& the (#ents (e#son" "ms* The +hi"&s /i#st bi#th&y is ++om( nie& by mo#e (#ye#0/"$s n& o//e#in$s to &eities n& (#ote+to#s %isit to "m n& nothe# (#ty /o# the ho!seho"& = Sn$y 19;)13> * '#e m!st be t,en not to !(set the +hi"&s (#ote+ti%e &eities /o# e5 m("e by ",in$ o%e# its +"othes "tho!$h ny o//en+e +n be #eme&ie& by sim("e (!#i/i+tion +e#emony ='ho(he" 193)9>* This ,in& o/ mi5t!#e o/ /o",0#e"i$io!s obse#%n+es =b!#nin$ o/ in +ense to "o+" $o&s n& e#e+tin$ o/ (#ye#0/"$s> n& o/ #it!"s in%o"%in$ the "ms ith the !n&e#"yin$ +on+e#ns ith !s(i+io!s timin$ n& ith %oi&in$ o//en+e to "o+" &eities is %e#y ty(i+" o/ the (#$mti+ si&e o/ Tibetn #e"i $ion* We note tht the "ms my h%e been in%o"%e& to +onsi&e#b"e &e$#ee b!t tht mon,s n& the +"e#i+" si&e o/ Tibetn #e"i$ion in $ene#" #e noti+eb"y bsent* =As I mentione& in 'h(te# : "m my be mon, b!t is not ne+ess#i"y one n& most mon,s #e not "ms*> As in othe# !&&hist so+ieties mon,s #e mo#e (#esent in the +onte5t o/ ð thn o/ bi#th n& thei# #o"e in this +onte5t i"" be &is+!sse& in the /o""oin$ +h(te#* The $ene#" #e o/ (#$mti+ #e"i$ion o/ e%e#y&y "i/e is &ominte& s in these e5m("es by the /o",0# e"i$ion &eities n& the em("oyment o/ the bene /i+i" (oe# o/ the "ms* 19
II The Karma %rientation& ebirth& and Tibetan alues
The se+on& o/ the th#ee o#ienttions i nt#o&!+e& in 'h(te# s 1 n& : s the .#m O#ienttion* I s!mm#i2e& this s) the s(he#e o/ ð n& #ebi#th (st n& /!t!#e "i%es seen in te#ms o/ ,#m n& the i&eo"o$y o/ me#it n& me&ite& by !&&hist mon,s n& "ms* This is the (#im#y #e"m o/ +"e#i+" !&&hism* Sin+e ,#m is the bsis o/ the mJo# !&&hist mo#" system o#iente& #o!n& the +on+e(t o/ %i#t!o!s n& non%i#t!o!s +tions n& thei# +onseC!en+es I sh"" "so in+"!&e some &is+!ssion o/ Tibetn %"!e sys0 tems in this +h(te#* .ARMA AND REIRTH) GENERAL .#m n& #ebi#th #e +ommon("+es o/ !&&hist tho!$ht in "" !&&hist so+ieties in o#i$in &o!bt"ess (#t o/ the $ene#" In&in b+,$#o!n& $inst hi+h e#"y !&&hism &e%e"o(e& =.eyes n& Dnie" THE .ARMA ORIENTATION REIRTH AND TIETAN ALUES 193>* They #e /mi"i# /#om nth#o(o"o$i+" st!&ies o/ The#%&in !&&hist so+ieties =Tmbih 197 S(i#o 19@1>* .#m "ite#""y +tion im("ies the e//e+t o/ +tions in (st "i/e on ones (#esent e5isten+e n& =mo#e es(e+i""y> o/ ones (#esent +tions on /!t!#e e5isten+es ithin +ontin!in$ +y+"e o/ #ebi#th (sams"ra)# Rebi#th n& ,#m n& thei# sso+ite& mo#" system #e im(o#tnt in Tibetn "i/e n& in the !&&hist te+hin$s o/ Tibet* The initi" st$es o/ the !&&hist te+hin$s em(hsi2e ð n& #ebi#th st#on$"y s moti%tions to
(#+ti+e* A stn&#& se#ies o/ /o!# me&ittions is !ni %e#s " mon$ Tib etn !&&hist t#&ition s =s ee Tson$,(s te 5t i n 'h(te# # >) I* H!mn e5isten+e is (#e+io!s* ein$ bo#n s (#o(e#"y en&oe& h!mn bein$ ith the o((o#t!nity to (#+ti+e the !&&hist te+hin$s is ##e n& %"!b"e o++sion ithin sams"ra# We sho!"& t,e /!"" &%nt$e o/ it o# it is not "i,e"y to #e+!# /o# mny tho! sn&s o/ #ebi#ths* 1;* H!mn e5isten+e is im(e#mnent* It my en& t ny time so it is !#$ent to (#+ti+e the te+hin$s hi"e e h%e the o((o#t!nity* Nothin$ e"se i"" he"( t the time o/ ð* 16* The +tion o/ ,#m is ine%itb"e* O!# (#esent +tions i"" //e+t o!# /!t!#e so e m!st be #e o/ the nee& to (e#/o#m %i#t!o!s +tions n& %oi& non%i#t!o!s +tions* 13* Sams"ra s ho"e is +h#+te#i2e& by s!//e#in$* We sho!"& im t "ibe#tion /#om it n& (#ti+!"#"y e sho!"& im to %oi& the intense s!//e#in$ o/ the th#ee "oe# ,in&s o/ #ebi#th =he""0bein$s (#et0s(i#its n& nim"s>* The Tibetns h%e the sme bsi+ set o/ i&es bo!t (ossib"e #ebi#ths s othe# !&&hist +!"t!#es* These i&es #e bse& on the si5 ,in&s o/ #ebi#th o# #e"ms o/ e5isten+e) the th#ee "oe# ,in&s mentione& bo%e n& the th#ee !((e# ,in&s h!mn bein$s asura =&emi0$o&s> n& deva =Tib* lha, $o&s> n& #e %is!""y &e(i+te& in the e""0,non im$e o/ the Whee" o/ Li/e $ene#""y &is("ye& t gom!a ent#n+es* MJo# int#o&!+to#y te+hin$ te5ts n& systems o/ "" Tibetn !&&hist t#&itions s!+h s the -ee" O#nment o/ Libe#tion (Tar!a Rin!o%h-; Gyen 9 G!enthe# 19@8> by Gm(o( the O#" Inst#!+tion o/ Lm Smntbh&# ('unsang /am; Shellung, .hets!n Sn$bo 19: #!yt 19@> by D2 Pe"t#!" the lamdr; te+hin$s o/ the S,y( =N$o#+hen 19@> o# the lamrim te+hin$s o/ the Ge"!$( =e#2in 19@: M!""in 19@ Wymn 19@ D#iessens 1998> "" $o th#o!$h the s!//e#in$s o/ these %#io!s mo&es o/ #ebi#th in &eti" ith he%y em(hsis on the intense s!//e#in$ o/ the th#ee "oe# #e"ms* Tibetns #e e5ho#te& to (e#/o#m %i#t!o!s +tions o# södnam =S,t* !unya) n& to %oi& non%i#t!o!s +tion o# &i$(* This system (#o%i&es the bsis o/ !&&hist mo#"ity n& it is essenti""y +ommon (#o(e#ty beteen !&&hists in Tibet n& !&&hists e"sehe#e* In The#%&in so+ieties it /o#ms the bsis o/ ht S(i#o hs +""e& .mmti+ !&&hism =S(i#o 19@1>* : S(i#os s!$$estion hoe%e# tht .mmti+ !&&hism t,es bso"!te (#e+e&en+e in The#%&in (#+ti+e o%e# Nibbni+ !&&hism is (#ob"emti+ e%en in the The#%&in +onte5t n& simi"# sse#tion in the Tibetn +se o!"& be e%en "ess ("!sib"e* To see hy e i"" sty /o# the moment ith the !&&hist te+hin$s n& then mo%e to the #e o/ "y "i/e* In /o#m" !&&hist te#ms s in The#%& !&&hism the (!#s!it o/ $oo&
#ebi#th is se+on&#y im* The i&e" is to #eno!n+e sams"ra as ho"e in+"!&in$ the s!((ose& Joys o/ the hi$he# #ebi#ths th#o!$h #e"i2tion tht "" #ebi#ths ithin sams"ra #e +h#+te#i2e& by s!//e#in$* Fo# the Tibetns this hi$he# i&e" is not the hi$hest moti%tion to be ime& t be+!se =I> the Tibetns #e Mhyn !&&hists #the# thn Hinyn in &&ition the ho"e C!estion o/ ,#m is s!bt"y !n&e#+!t both by =:> Mhyn (hi"oso(hy n& =3> by J#yn =Tnt#i+> (#+ti+e* E+h o/ these iss!es is o#th $i%in$ some ttention to he#e "tho!$h they i"" be +onsi&e#e& /!#the# in the histo#i+" +h(te#s o/ P#t Th#ee*
HINAANA ERSUS MAHAANA MOTIATION
Tibetn !&&hism is Mhyn !&&hism* In +om(#ison ith the The#%& t#&ition o/ So!thest Asi n& S#i Ln, it em(hsi2es the so+i" s(e+t o/ En"i$htenment* A++o#&in$ to the Mhyn the e#"ie# =Hinyn> t#&ition t!$ht "ibe#tion /#om sams"ra, b!t this s on"y (#t o/ ht s nee&e& /o# the ttinment o/ +om("ete En"i$htenment o# !&&hhoo&* The othe# %it" in$#e&ient s the +om(ssionte moti%tion o/ the bo&histt%* This moti%tion" stte bodhi%itta in Sns,#it =Tib* %hang%h-ub sem) is ,ey e"ement in Mhyn 'IILIED SHAMANS 'IILIED SHAMANS te+hin$* Fo# the Tibetns it is sso+ite& ith set o/ %os tht e#e t,en by Mhyn /o""oe#s* These %os &i& not #e("+e the !ratimo.sa %os o/ !&&hist o#&intion instit!te& by the !&&h S,ym!ni in hi+h his /o""oe#s e#e o#&ine& s mon,s (bhi.su), no%i+es (framanera), "y /o""oe#s =!(s,> o# thei# /em"e eC!i%"ents b!t they &o in +e#tin sense t,e (#e+e&en+e o%e# them* The Mhyn &ismiss" o/ the non0Mhyn s+hoo"s s me#e "esse# %ehi+"e =Hin0yn> "+,in$ the essenti" e"ement o/ +om(ssion hs "#$e +om(onent o/ se+t#in (#o($n&* The#e is no &o!bt tht the so+i" emotions o/ "o%e +om(ssion et+* =the /o!# brahmavihara me&ittions> e#e +!"ti%te& in e#"y !&&hism n& tht the#e hs been st#on$ +on+e(tion o/ so+i" #es(onsibi"ity in !&&hism /#om e#"y &ys =see Lin$ 19@3>* The The#%& the Hinyn s+hoo" tht (#e&omintes in S#i Ln, n& So!thest Asi +ontin!es this t#&ition* Mon,s #e in%o"%e& in so+iety in "" ,in&s o/ ys s nth#o(o"o$ists st!&yin$ these so+ieties h%e obse#%e& =see 'h(te# :>* The Hinyn0Mhyn &istin+tion is im(o#tnt "ess s n ethno$#(hi+ &es+#i(tion o/ the &i//e#en+es beteen to s+hoo"s o/ !&&hism thn s +om(onent o/ ho Tibetn !&&hists !n&e#stoo& ht they e#e &oin$* In (#ti+!"# it $oes "on$ ith s!bt"e #e"ti%i2in$ o/ the i&e" o/ the monsti+
+#ee# n& o/ monsti+ &is+i("ine s the ,ey e"ement o/ the (th to !&&hhoo&* The ne Mhyn %ie o/ !&&hhoo& s (#o(o!n&e& in the Mhyn S]t#s te5ts +"imin$ to #e(#esent the o#& o/ the histo#i+" !&&h tht ((e#e& /#om #o!n& the /i#st +ent!#y *'* on#&s* They e#e he"& to h%e been ,e(t in hi&in$ by the s(i#its n& #e%e"e& on"y hen h!mnity s #e&y /o# this mo#e &%n+e& te+hin$ =see 'h(te# I >* These st#s /o#me& the bsis o/ !&&hism in the F# Este#n so+ieties o/ 'hin -(n .o#e n& ietnm tho!$h s!bJe+t to m!+h "te# &e%e"o(ment !n&e# in&i$eno!s in/"!en+es s in&ee& o++!##e& too ith the The#%&in s+hoo"s o/ So!thest Asi n& S#i Ln,* In the (#esent +onte5t one si$ni/i+n+e o/ the Mhyn is tht it &on("ys the #o"e o/ bhi.su =/!""y o#&ine& mon,> hi+h is +ent#" to the system o/ %i#t!o!s +tion in The#%& +o!nt#ies to&y* The bhi.su in Thi"n& o# !#m #e /ie"&s o/ me#it n& o//e#in$s m&e to them #e the (#ime y to $in me#it* e+omin$ bhi.su is itse"/ the (#ime e5m("e o/ %i#t!o!s +tion (e#/o#me& no#mti%e"y ith the THE .ARMA ORIENTATION REIRTH AND TIETAN ALUES intention o/ m,in$ me#it /o# ones (#ents* Fo# the The#%&ins monsti+ o#&intion is sine :ua non /o# se#io!s (#+ti+e* In the Mhyn the stt!s o/ the "y (#+titione# is /# hi$he# thn in the The#%& n& the &i//e#en+e beteen bhi.su n& "ymn s /# s the (!#s!it o/ En"i$htenment is +on+e#ne& be+omes +onsi&e#b"y "ess im(o#tnt* The monsti+ "i/e is o#thy o/ $#et #es(e+t b!t it is by no mens essenti" e5+e(t (e#h(s in the /in" #ebi#th in hi+h the (#+titione# +t!""y ttins !&&hhoo& =see H##ison 19@>* i#t!o!s +tion s &e/ine& in Hinyn te#ms tht is +tion hi+h o!"& "e& to $oo& ,#mi+ +onseC!en+es is sti"" (#esent in the Mhyn te5ts b!t it is s!(("emente& by the ne i&e o/ the si5 !aramita =Pe#/e+tions> o# C!"ities tht nee& to be &e%e"o(e&) dana =$ene#osity> * ila =&is+i("ine o# mo#"ity> .santi =(tien+e o# en&!#n+e> virya =ene#$y o# (e#se%e#n+e> dhyana =me&ittion he#e menin$ (#im#i"y the &e%e"o(ment o/ yo$i+ t#n+e0 sttes o# samadhi), n& !ra67a =is&om o# insi$ht into the t#!e nt!#e o/ #e"ity>* Th!s the o"& hie##+hy o/ %i#t!o!s +tion +!"mintin$ in the s!(#eme"y %i#t!o!s +tion o/ be+omin$ bhi.su, n& +ont#ste& ith the s!(#eme"y non%i#t!o!s +ts o/ ,i""in$ ho"y mn ones (#ents n& so on s ine%itb"y someht e,ene&* THE IMPA'T OF MAHAANA PHILOSOPH At the sme time the (hi"oso(hy o/ the Mhyn &is+!sse& in mo#e &eti" in 'h(te# :I "so ten&s to #e"ti%i2e the mo#" bso"!tes o/ the " o/ ,#m* I/ the &i//e#en+e beteen samsara n& nirvana is i""!sion n& i"" &is((e# t
the "e%e" o/ !"timte t#!th (!aramarthasa(ya), hy sho!"& %i#t!o!s +tion be ne+ess#y t "" !&&hist s+ho"#s &e%e"o(e& n!mbe# o/ mo#e o# "ess stis/+to#y #es(onses to this ((#ent &i"emm) the ++!m!"tion o/ %i#t!o!s +tions is ne+ess#y s bsis /o# the ttinment o/ t#ns+en&ent insi$ht =(#JY>* The &i//e#en+e beteen samsara n& nirvana my be i""!so#y b!t this &oes not men tht the " o/ ,#m t the "e%e" o/ +on%ention" t#!th (samvrtisatya) is in%"i&te&* 3 The &i"emm #emi ne& hoe%e# n& the (ossibi"ity o/ t,in$ the ntinomin o(tion in hi+h +on%ention" mo#"ity be+me me#e obst+"e to be "e/t behin& by the &%n+e& (#+titione# ne%e# enti#e"y %nishe&* THE .ARMA ORIENTATION REIRTH AND TIETAN ALUES
Tibetn !&&hism is hoe%e# not J!st Mhyn b!t J#yn =Tnt#i+> n& this "e&s to thi#& y in hi+h the mo#" bso"!tes o/ ,#m e#e e,ene&* The Tnt#s e#e se#ies o/ /!#the# #e%e"tions tht too, ("+e /#om =(e#h(s> the /o!#th +ent!#y A*D* on#&s min"y in In&i =see 'h(te# ::>* Whi"e they e#e e%ent!""y +o&i/ie& in te5ts the &i#e+t t#nsmission /#om $!#! to st!&ent #emins +ent#" (#t o/ these (#+ti+es* A Tnt# is &e/ine& /o# the Tibetns not by the te5t be#in$ its nme b!t by the "i%in$ t#&ition=s> o/ (#+ti+e #e"tin$ to the +ent#" &eities n& symbo"i+ /o#ms o/ tht Tnt#* The Tibetn o#& /o# Tnt# (gyild), "i,e the Sns,#it hs the "ite#" menin$ o/ th#e&* The met(ho#i+" sense is o/ +ontin!ity th#o!$h time* Gy8d is +"ose"y #e"te& to the o#& gyild =ith s"i$ht"y &i//e#ent s(e""in$ brgyud #the# thn rgyud) menin$ "ine$e o# &es+ent $#o!(* The ,ey s(e+t o/ Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e is inte#+tion ith n& in "te# =mo#e &%n+e&> st$es se"/0i&enti/i+tion ith %#io!s %is!"i2e& &i%ine /o#ms =Tnt#i+ &eities>* This is +ombine& in the &%n+e& st$es ith (#+ti+es in%o"%in$ the mni(!"tion o/ s!bt"e ene#$y ithin the bo&y* These #e simi"# to Hin&! yo$i+ (#+ti+es n& to some Doist (#+ti+es he#e the +o##es(on&in$ ene#$y is #e/e##e& to s :i =Sm!e" 199>* Fo# the non0Tnt#i+ Mhyn !&&hists s / o# the mo&e#n The#%& En"i$htenment seems to h%e been &istnt $o" +hie%e& t the en& o/ "on$ seC!en+e o/ "i%es* The Tnt#i+ metho&s o/ the J#yn o//e# the (ossibi"ity o/ mo#e #(i& ttinment (e# 0 h(s ithin this (#esent "i/etime* Fo# the Tibetns this is n o/ten0 #e(ete& mess$e Tnt# is m!+h /ste# thn othe# /o#ms o/ (#+ti+e n& the se#io!s Tibetn (#+titione# i"" no#m""y !n&e#t,e J#yn (#+ti+e =o# D2o$+hen hi+h in%o"%es Tnt#i+ (#e"imin#ies>* Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e hoe%e# is &i//i+!"t n& is "so &n$e#o!s es(e+i""y i/ !n&e#t,en itho!t (#o(e# (#e(#tion o# itho!t +om(etent $!#!* This sets !( +e#tin tension* On the one hn& Tnt# is the s!(#eme (th n& e%e#yone sho!"& i&e""y (!#s!e i t so s to ttin
En"i$htenment s soon s (ossib"e n& be b"e to #e"ie%e the s!//e#in$s o/ sentient bein$s* In &&ition Tnt# (#o%i&es the t e+hniC!es /o# (e#/o#min$ the #it!"s essenti" /o# the e""0bein$ o/ Tibetn +omm! 0 nities* On the othe# hn& se#io!s Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e is &n$e#o!s n& &emn&in$ n e"e+t (th tht not e%e#yone is C!"i/ie& to !n&e#t,e* In (#+ti+e this "e&s to sit!tion in hi+h mny "y (eo("e n& "" monsti+ (#+titione#s h%e some ,no"e&$e o/ Tnt# "" gom!a #e$!"#"y (e#/o#m "#$e n!mbe#s o/ Tnt#i+ #it!"s b!t m!+h sm""e# n!mbe# o/ (eo("e +t!""y !n&e#t,e se#io!s Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e* Se#io!s (#+ti+e $ene#""y in%o"%es minim!m th#ee0ye# #et#et /o# the non0Ge"!$( t#&itions n& n eC!i%"ent "e%e" o/ +ommitment /o# the Ge"!$(s ho "so insist on %e#y tho#o!$h non0Tnt#i+ t#inin$ be/o#ehn&* On"y those ho h%e !n&e#$one s!+h se#io!s Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e #e "i,e"y to be #e/e##e& to by Tibetns s "ms =see 'h(te# 16>* Ent#y into Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e is by se#ies o/ #ites o/ (ss$e the em(oe#ments o# +onse+#tions (*ang, S,t* abhise.a) in hi+h the st!&ent is int#o&!+e& to the Tnt#i+ &eities n& to the mandala o# &i%ine ("+e ithin hi+h they #esi&e* The &eities n& the man%lala /o#m ,in& o/ +osmi+ &i$#m to hi+h "" s(e+ts o/ the !ni%e#se +n be #e"te&* In the e#"y &ys in In&i these #it!"s o!"& h%e +#ete& sm"" +!"t0$#o!(s o/ (#+titione#s tt+he& to sin$"e $!#!* In Tibet he#e the $!#! hs be+ome the "m t hey sti"" h%e some o/ this +h#+te# b!t they #e m!+h mo#e i&e"y %i"b"e n& both gom!a membe#s n& "y (eo("e my h%e #e+ei%e& n!me#o!s em(oe#ments into &i//e#ent +y+"es o/ &eities* As (#t o/ the em(oe#ment the st!&ent !n&e#t,es to obse#%e se#ies o/ %os* These %os sso+ite& ith Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e #e &&ition" to the to sets o/ %os =P#ti mo,s o&hi+itt> "#e&y mentione&* Th!s hi"e the The#%&in (#+titione# is (#esente& ith sim("e !ni"ine# seC!en+e &e/ine& by t,in$ Re/!$e in the !&&h Dh#m n& S#n$h; /o""oe& by the (#o$#essi%e %os o/ o#&intion (#es+#ibe& in the iny +o&e ="y /o""oe# no%i+e /!""y o#&ine& mon,> the Tibetn sit!tion is m!+h mo#e +om("e5 n& %#ie&* The Tibetns s(e, o/ th# ee &ist in+t sets o/ %os o# +ommitments (dom!a, S,t* samvara),F hi+h /o""o the t,in$ o/ Re/!$e7 I* The P#timo,s (sot-ar) %os sso+ite& ith the %#io!s iny $#&es +ommon to Hinyn Mhyn n& J#yn =Tnt#> 1;* The o&hi+itt (%hangsem) %os hi+h #e the &e/inin$ +h#+0 te#isti+ o/ the Mhyn (#+titione# n& (#e#eC!isite /o# Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e 16* The Tnt#i+ (sangngag, "ite#""y se+#et mnt#> %os in%o"%e& i
'IILIED SHAMANS
MAHAANA AND A-RAANA =TANTRI'> PRA'TI'E THE .ARMA ORIENTATION REIRTH AND TIETAN ALUES in #e+ei%in$ Tnt#i+ em(oe#ment n& th!s bein$ entit"e& to (e#/o#m Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e* These th#ee sets o/ %os #e t,en in seC!en+e n& the (#+titione# is e5(e+te& to t,e Re/!$e n& to t,e P#timo,s n& o&hi+itt %os be/o#e #e+ei%in$ Tnt#i+ em(oe#ment* The P#timo,s %os in%o"%e& my sim("y be those o/ "y /o""oe# o# genyen =S,t* u!"sa.a)# Mny o/ those "i%in$ +e"ibte "i/e in monsti+ gom!a on"y t,e the %os o/ no%i+e o# gets-ul =S,t* sramanera)# Th!s bein$ /!""y o#&ine& +e"ibte mon, o# gelong =S,t* bhi.su) is not #e$#&e& by the Tibetns s essenti" /o# se#io!s !&&hist (#+ti+e in the y tht it hs t#&ition""y been #e$#&e& in othe# !&&hist +o!nt#ies* Gi%en the +ent#"ity o/ the mon, in the s+heme o/ ,#m this $in mo!nts to n im("i+it e,enin$ o/ the #o"e o/ ,#m in Tibetn !&&hist so+iety* Wht is mo#e the stt!s o/ +e"ibte mon, m,es it im(ossib"e to (e#/o#m the se5!" (#+ti+es (t-ablam), hi+h #e he"& to be essenti" /o# the ttinment o/ en"i$htenment hi"e sti"" "i%e n& in mte#i" bo&y* The sit!tion is stte& #the# b"!nt"y b!t ++!#te"y in n e(iso&e /#om the namt-ar o# h$io$#(hy o/ !to$ the E"&e# the "te ei$hth0+ent!#y /o!n&in$ /i$!#e o/ the Tibetn me&i+" t#&ition* The o(enin$ se+tions o/ this bio$#(hy &e" ith i&t#o$m n in+#nte d".ini n& &istnt n+est#ess o/ !to$ ho +ts s Tnt#i+ +onso#t /o# s!++ession o/ In&in ho"y men* One o/ them i nme& mib m,es "o%e to i&t#o$m /te# be+omin$ into5i+te& by the bee# she $i%es him) When he s sobe# $in he /e"t $#et #e$#et t ht he h& &one b!t it h& h((ene&* Then he tho!$ht) et I h%e not "ost my is&om n& sh"" in&ee& in+#ese my ,no"e&$e o/ the Mhyn %ie o/ the stte o/ min& hi+h #e+o$ni2es the essen+e o/ "" thin$s* The %o n& inst#!+tion o/ the Hinyn is (ossib"e &is(ensb"e n& s!bsi&i#y +!se o/ !&&hhoo& b!t the +e#tin n& (#in+i(" +!se o/ !&&hhoo& is the Thi#& 'onse+#tion hi+h in%o"%es se5!" inte#+o!#seV* Fo# the bsis o/ the Thi#& 'onse+#tion is the t-ablam, the metho& o/ !nitin$ Em(tiness n& "iss* *** He ,e(t he# /o# se%en &ys s his +onso#t /o# the $#oin$ o/ his "iss o/ Em(tiness* =Re+h!n$ 19@3)1 6716@ \ !to$ Lh!n&#!b T#shi ?ut-og0amt-ar 141) Not "" Tibetn t#&itions t,e s (ositi%e %ie o/ the se5!" (#+ ti+es s the #si mib =o# #the# s !to$s bio$#(he#> b!t e%en the /e"!$( ho #e t#&ition" !(ho"&e#s o/ the %i#t!es o/ monsti+ +e"i b +y $#ee on the ne+essity o/ the Thi#& 'onse+#tion /o# the +hie%ement o/ En"i$htenment &!#in$ h!mn "i/e ='o2o#t 197)9:>* The his t o#i+" !&&h S,ym!ni himse"/ s (#o%i&e& ith /em"e +onso#t the +e"esti" +o!#tesn Ti"ottm by the $o&s /o# this (!#(ose =see Lessin$ n& Wymn
197)3703@ 37 n* :3>* The#e is b!i"t0in (#&o5 to the #o"e o/ the +e"ibte mon, in Tibetn so+iety* The im o/ bein$ mon, is to m,e (#o$#ess to#&s En"i$htenment n& the stt!s o/ mon, is s!((ose& to /+i"itte tht (#o$#ess yet the most (oe#/!" n& e//e+ti%e te+hniC!es /o# ttinin$ En"i$htenment #e not /!""y %i"b"e to those !n&e#t,in$ +e"ibte monsti+ +#ee#* The (#&o5 is on"y (#ti""y #eso"%e& by t#etin$ the se5!" (#+ti+es s &is(ensb"e =sin+e En"i$htenment +o!"& sti"" be +hie%e& itho!t them in the /te#0ð stte> o# s on"y ((#o(#ite /o# those o/ hi$h yo$i+ ttinment* Anothe# s(e+t o/ J#yn (#+ti+e "so e,ens the si$ni/i+n+e o/ ,#m n& monsti+ism* A"tho!$h in The#%& (#+ti+e the#e is n ttem(t to b"n+e non%i#t!o!s ,#m ith %i#t!o!s ,#m in The#%&in theo#y non%i#t!o!s ,#m +nnot be i (e& o!t its +onseC!en+es m!st be en&!#e& in some /!t!#e "i/e* Tnt# hoe%e# o//e#s the (ossibi"ity o/ i(in$ o!t n& e"imintin$ e%en the most te##ib"e non%i#t!o!s ,#m n& obtinin$ En"i$htenment ithin sin$"e "i/e* This is the (oint o/ the e""0,non Tibetn namt-ar o/ Mi"#e( the e"e%enth0+ent!#y (oet0sint hi+h hs been t#ns"te& into se%e#" Weste#n "n$!$es (Mill 0amt-ar 9 +ot 19:6 E%ns0Went2 1979) Lh"!n$( 19@9 see 'h(te#s :; n& :@>* Mi"#e( ,i""e& se%e#" (eo("e th#o!$h &est#!+ti%e m$i+ in the e#"ie# (#t o/ his +#ee#* A/te# meetin$ his "m M#( n& en&!#in$ mny se%e#e t#i"s he o%e#+me "" the non%i#t!o!s ,#m n& ttine& En"i$htenment* Tnt#i+ metho&s o/ &i#e+tin$ the (th o/ the +ons+io!sness t the time o/ ð s!+h s the !-o*a (#+ti+es "so ""o /o# the (ossibi"ity o/ e%&in$ the ,#mi+ +onseC!en+es o/ ones +tions =E%ns0Went2 197@):630:@7 G!enthe# 1973)@:0@; 19@0:81 M!""in 19@)1@3191>* -o*a is !n"i,e"y to b#in$ En"i$htenment t the time o/ ð e5+e(t in the +se o/ hi$h"y t#ine& (#+titione# b!t the#e is "ys the ho(e o/ ttinin$ #ebi#th in De+hen =S,t* S!,h%ti> the (#&ise"i,e (!#e #e"m o/ the !&&h Amitbh hi+h $!#ntees the s!bseC!ent ttinment o/ En"i$htenment itho!t ny s!bseC!ent #ebi#ths in "oe# #e"ms* -o*a is C!ite +ommon"y t!$ht to "y Tibetns 'IILIED SHAMANS THE .ARMA ORIENTATION REIRTH AND TIETAN ALUES ith the intention tht they i"" be b"e to (#+ti+e it t the time o/ ð =#!en 196>* In &&ition s!//i+ient"y (oe#/!" Tnt#i+ "m sho!"& be b"e to #e&i#e+t the +ons+io!sness o/ the &yin$ (e#son th#o!$h his on (oe#* A sto#y /#om the "i/e o/ the noto#io!s nineteenth0+ent!#y .mb ##io# Ny#on$ Gom(o Nm$ye" ="so ,non s Am$n see 'h(te# ;> is o#th #e+o!ntin$ in this +onne+tion) e+!se o/ the immense sins he h& +ommitte& in the +o!#se o/ his mi"it#y &%ent!#es Am$n /e"t tht he s s!#e to $o to he"" /te# his ð* The#e/o#e /o""oin$ the s!bJe+tion o/ ("+e he o!"& se#+h o!t the most #e%e#en& n&
(io!s "ms o/ tht &ist#i+t n& s, them he#e he o!"& be #ebo#n* In most o/ these +ses the te##i/ie& "m o!"& t on+e te"" him tht he o!"& be #ebo#n in the hi$hest o/ he%ens* !t +ons+io!s o/ his sins he ,e(t s,in$ the sme C!estion he#e%e# his +m(i$ns too, him* On+e hen he ((#o+he& the ;th D2o$+hen Rim(o+he n& inC!i#e& bo!t his ne5t "i/e the Rim(o+he #e("ie& tht i/ he s(o,e the t#!th Am$n o!"& be !nh((y n& (!nish him* When Am$n (#omise& tht he o!"& not the Rim(o+he si& tht he o!"& $o st#i$ht to the &ee(est he""* At on+e Am$n too, ho"& o/ him n& si& tht he s the on"y "m ho !tte#e& the t#!th* T,in$ o// the st#in$s o/ si stones /#om his ne+,
.ARMA IN TIETAN LIFE Am$ns sto#y i""!st#tes the s"ient ("+e o/ ,#m n& #ebi#th in Tibetn #eness* Li/e in%o"%es +onstnt ++!m!"tion o/ non%i#t!o!s +tion e%en /o# those not in%o"%e& in mi"it#y +m(i$ns n& mss s"!$hte# "i,e the &#e&e& Ny#on$ "e&e#* A sensib"e (e#son m,es e//o#ts to ++!m!"te me#it in the ho(e o/ some ,in& o/ b"n+e* The min mo&es o/ %i#t!o!s +tion #e simi"# to those (#+ti+e& in The#%&in !&&hist so+ieties* They in+"!&e $i%in$ to gom!a, "ms n& mon,s b!i"&in$ n& #e(i#in$ gom!a, %h-orten, mani*alls, n& othe# #e"i$io!s obJe+ts be+omin$ mon, onese"/ s(onso#in$ the #e+ittion o/ the s+#i(t!#es s(onso#in$ the (#intin$ o/ the s+#i(t!#es n& obse#%in$ the "y (#e+e(ts (e#mnent"y o# tem(o##i"y* This "st hi+h is obse#%e& in Tnt#i+ sty"e !n&e# the (t#on$e o/ the yidam A%"o,ites%# /o#ms the nyungn; #it!" /#eC!ent"y (#+ti+e& by "y (eo("e in Tibetn !&&hist +omm! nit ies =/o # e5 m("e F #e#0 Hime n&o# / 197; O#tne# 19@ D#$yy 19:>* Anothe# hi$h"y me#ito#io!s (#+ti+e is tht o/ (i"$#im$e mentione& in the (#e%io!s +h(te#* In &&ition (#o(e# beh%io# to ones /e""o h!mns n& othe# "i%in$ bein$s +o!nte& s %i#t!o!s +tion* Most nth#o(o"o$i+" obse#%e#s o/ Tibetn so+iety h%e +ommente& on the im(o#tn+e o/ södnam =%i#t!o!s +tion> s (#in+i("e #e$!"tin$ (eo("es beh%io# in these +omm!nities* This theme s /i#st em(hsi2e& by F#e#0Himen&o#/ in his (ionee#in$ o#, on the She#(s =197;> n& hs been #eite#te& by s!bseC!ent #ite#s =Gombo 196>* As se%e#" #e+ent !tho#s mon$ them #b# A2i2 Nn+y Le%ine D%i& Li+hte# n& L#en+e E(stein h%e note& the#e #e (ossib"e #es o/ +on/"i+t beteen so+i""y &esi#b"e +tion n& ,#mi+""y (ositi%e +tion n& these i"" #eC!i#e o!# ttention be"o* Fi#st hoe%e# e i"" t,e mo#e &eti"e& "oo, t the #it!"s s!##o!n&in$ ð in Tibetn so+iety to see ho ,#m n& #ebi#th inte#e%e in this +#iti+" +onte5t ith othe# s(e+ts o/ Tibetn tho!$ht*
DEATH AND REIRTH Deth is the most +#iti+" (oint o/ the "i/e0+y+"e /o# n5iety bo!t (ossib"e #ebi#th n& it is not s!#(#isin$ tht in Tibetn s in The#%&in so+ieties this is the #e !ar e+%ellen%e /o# the mon,s n& the .#m O#ienttion* F#e#0 Himen&o#/ hs &is+!sse& this to(i+ in the +onte5t o/ the She#( n& the#e h%e been se%e#" +ont# ib!tions sin+e /# om othe# #ite#s =/o# e5m("e #!en n& .%e#ne 19@b Rmb"e 19: S,o#!(s,i 19: Lose#ies 1998>* As I mentione& in the "st +h(te# the mon,s #e +e#tin"y mo#e s"ient he#e thn in othe# mJo# #ites o/ (ss$e s!+h s bi#th n& m##i$e* Deth is hoe%e# by no mens enti#e"y &ominte& by the mon,s* The ++o!nt be"o is s!mm#y o/ nothe# o/ Th!bten Sn$ys +om(i"tions =Sn$y 19;b> hi+h (#o%i&es s!#%ey o/ ty(i+" (#o+e&!#es* Whi"e someht no#mti%e in +h#+te# n& #e/e##in$ (#im#i"y to $#i+!"t!#"ists in +ent#" Tibet most o/ the &es+#i(tion #e0 'IILIED SHAMANS THE .ARMA ORIENTATION REIRTH AND TIETAN ALUES mins "i%in$ (#+ti+e in Tibetn +omm!nities =see /o# e5m("e A2i2 19@):630 :6; .("nin 191):6@0:7: M!m/o#& 199)1960::;>* In #e&in$ this ++o!nt it sho!"& be #emembe#e& tht in Tibetn !&&hist theo#y s in 'hin n& the F# Est b!t !n"i,e in the The#%&in %ie #ebi#th is not instntneo!s* It t,es ("+e /te# (e#io& o/ !( to ;9 &ys in the inte#me&ite stte o# bardo# The i&e o/ the inte#me&ite stte is not (#t i+!"#"y Tib etn it s the +ommon (#o(e#ty o/ se%e#" In&in !&&hist (hi"oso(hi+" s+hoo"s n& s &o(te& by 'hinese n& F# Este#n !&&hists s e""* The Tibetns h%e hoe%e# &e%e"o(e& the i&e in +onsi&e#b"e &eti"* The e5(e#ien+es !n&e#$one in the bardo #e &es+#ibe& in se%e#" $#o!(s o/ te5ts =L!/ 19@@ Lti n& Ho(,ins 19@9 M!""in 19@ O#o/ino 199o>* Amon$ them #e the te5ts hi+h h%e be+ome ,non in the West s the Tibetn oo, o/ the De& (Bardo T-ödröl)# These #e "it!#$i+" te5ts /o# Tnt#i+ #it!" hose (!#(ose is to $!i&e the +ons+io!sness o/ the &e+ese& th#o!$h the /te#0ð (e#io& =F#emnt"e n& T#!n$( 19@6>* Tibetn ð #it!"s th!s o#, on the ss!m(tion tht the ;9 &ys /o""oin$ ð #e (e#io& hen the +ons+io!sness o/ the &e+ese& my be n&e#in$ th#o!$h the bardo stte in nee& o/ #it!" he"( /#om the "i%in$ bo%e "" to %oi& #ebi#th in one o/ the th#ee "oe# #e"ms o/ the he""s !reta, o# nim"s* A s!mm#y o/ Th!bten Sn$ys ++o!nt o/ Tibetn ð #it!"s /o""os) The &yin$ (e#son is $i%en s(e+i""y b"esse& (i""s n& #e"i+s to et n& &#in, n& !#$e& to me&itte on his (e#son" yidam n& "m* A/te# ð the bo&y is not hn&"e& by nyone !nti" the +ons+io!sness t#ns/e#en+e (!-o*a) hs been (e#/o#me& by "m* T#ns/e##in$ the +ons+io!sness is s(e+i" tnt#i+ metho& to (#e%ent the &e+ese& /#om bein$ #ebo#n in sams"ra n& s(e+i/i+""y to s%e
him /#om bein$ bo#n in ny o/ the th#ee "oe# #e"ms by %e#y (oe#/!""y "i/tin$ his +ons+io!sness to (!#e #e"m =Sn$y 19;b)31>* Eme#$en+y (#ye#s my be o//e#e& to $#et "ms "on$ ith o//e#in$ s+#%es money (#ye# "ette# n& i/ (ossib"e stt!e o/ !&&h S,y0 m!ni =Sn$y 19;b)3:>* Mon,s #e in%ite& to +hnt (#ye#s n& to sty ith the bo&y +ontin!o!s"y !nti" it is +##ie& y* These (#ye#s #e tnt#i+ n& in+"!&e &i"y (!#i/i+tion #it!" to (!#i/y the &e+ese& o/ his b& &ee&s* An st#o"o$e# is em("oye& to &ete#mine s!itb"e &y /o# &is(os" o/ the bo&y n& to &ete#mine i/ ny &&ition" #it!"s #e ne+ess#y* Whe#e the &e+ese& (e#son hs s!++ess/!""y (#+ti+e& Tnt#i+ me&ittion t the ti me o/ ð +e#tin si$ns in&i+te tht the +ons+io!sness hs "e/t the bo&y n& tht thebo&y +n be &is(ose& o/ =19;b)3:033>* Othe#ise the st#o"o$e# hs to m,e this &e+ision* The +o#(se is she& tie& into +#o!+hin$ (osition n& #((e&* It is tie& !( (#t"y s (#ote+tion in +se it be+omes ",in$ +o#(se o# rolang =see Wy"ie 197;>* On the &y be/o#e the &is(os" o/ the bo&y b!tte# o//e#in$ s+#%es n& in+ense #e o//e#e& by /#ien&s n& #e"ti%es t "o+" tem("es n& money n& o//e#in$s #e $i%en /o# (#ye#s to be +##ie& o!t by s mny "ms s #e /e"t ((#o(#ite* A so#& #e(#esentin$ the +!ttin$ o/ the +ontin!!m o/ /!t!#e #ebi#ths o# the s"yin$ o/ the Lo#& o/ Deth is (#e(#e& /o# o//e#in$ in sh#ine o/ the G!#&ins* On the &y hen the bo&y is &is(ose& o/ the +o#(se is t,en /#om the ho!se to the &is(os" site t &n to the ++om(niment o/ (!#i/yi n$ in+ense* A /em" e membe# o/ the /mi"y stoo& by the &oo# be hin& the +o#(se n& (e#/o#me& the Ret#ie%in$ o/ Goo& Fo#t!ne #it!" ith &e+o#te& ##o n& n o//e#in$ s+#/* Some /mi"ies hoe%e# #e/#ine& /#om this #it!" /e#in$ it o!"& im(o%e#ish the &e+ese& in his ne5t "i/e =Sn$y 19;b)37>* 9 Some e"thy /mi"ies mi$ht in%ite mon,s /#om ne#by mon0 ste#ies to +hnt /o# bo!t h"/ n ho!#* The bo&y is then +!t !( n& /e& to the %!"t!#es* =In s(e+i" +ses bo&ies my be b!#ie& th#on in #i%e#s o# +#emte&*> The ho!se o/ the &e+ese& is +"ene& n& (!#i/ie& ith in+ense imme0 &ite"y /te# the +o#(se hs "e/t* To o# th#ee mon,s #e hi#e& to #e+ite the ight Thousand Oerse ra67"!"ramita SJtra in /!""* On the @th 1;th : 1st :th 36 th ;:n& n& ;9th &ys /te# the &y o/ ð mon,s #e hi#e& to (e#/o#m #it!"s /o# the $oo& #ebi#th o/ the &e+ese&* O//e#in$s e#e m&e to gom!a, tem("es n& mon,s* On the :th n& ;9th &ys "ms #e "so $i%en to be$0 $#s n& othe# %i#t!o!s +tions (e#/o#me&* O//e#in$s my "so be m&e s!b0 seC!ent"y ye# /te# the ð n& in s!bseC!ent ye#s =Sn$y 19;b);o>* In +ont#st ith the bi#th #it!"s &es+#ibe& in 'h(te# Io the mon,s (#ti+i(te e5tensi%e"y in this se#ies o/ #it!"s both s #e+ei%e#s o/ &o ntions n& s (e#/o#me#s o/ =most"y Tnt#i+> #it!"s themse"%es* As in The# %& so+ieties mon,s # e ((#o(# ite mens /o # $ene# tin$ me#it* As s(e+i"ists in ð n& #ebi#th they #e "so s!itb"e (eo("e to #emin besi&e the bo&y
!nti" it is t,en o// /o# &is(os"* The "e&in$ #o"e is ne%e#the"ess t,en by the "m ho (e#/o#ms the initi" t#ns/e#en+e o/ +ons+io!sness not by the mon,s n& "ms /et!#e (#im#i"y s!itb"e #e+i(ients /o# &ontions n& (e#/o#me#s o/ &&ition" #it!"s* In +ses o/ e(i&emi+s in Est Tibet t "est it s the %höd!a, lay Tnt#i+ yo$i+ (#+titione#s #the# thn the mon,s ho e#e +""e& on to &e" ith the &e& bo&ies n& to (e#/o#m #it!"s to 'IILIED SHAMANS
%e#t /!#t he# s(#e& o/ the &isese = T!++i 19o)9: Nm,hi No# b! 197>* 'om(#e& to the bi#th n& e&&in$ +e#emonies the#e is #e"ti%e"y "itt"e he#e tht o%e#t"y #e"tes to the P#$mti+ O#ienttion tho!$h e mi$ht note to!+hes "i,e the Ret#ie%in$ o/ Goo& Fo#t!ne +##ie& o!t by omn o/ the ho!seho"& s the +o#(se "e%es* Ne%e#the"ess +ons+io!sness t#ns/e#en+e is im(o#tnt not me#e"y /o# the $oo& o/ the &e+ese& b!t to m,e s!#e tht the "i%in$ #e not //e+te& by t#o!b"esome $host =F#e#0Himen&o#/ 197;>* He#e Stn M!m/o#&s +om(#ison beteen the ð #it!"s (e#/o#me& in Gys!m&o by G!#!n$ shmns n& by Tibetn "ms is o/ +onsi&e#b"e inte#est* M!m/o#& (oints o!t tht the G!#!n$ shmns #it!" is "so +on+e#ne& ith $!i&in$ the +ons+io!sness o/ the &e+ese& in the /te#0ð stte he#e to the "n& o/ the &e& on to( o/ ne#by mo!ntin b!t the &estiny o/ the &e+ese& in this +se &e(en&s on the (#o(e# (#ti+i(tion o/ his o# he# s!#%i%in$ #e"ti%es #the# thn on the stte o/ +ons+io!sness o/ the (e#son ho hs &ie&* The /o+!s is on #esto#in$ h#mony th#o!$h #e+i(#o+" e5+hn$es m&e in "" th#ee "e%e"s o/ the +osmos =M!m/o#& 199)::3>* The Tibetn "ms #it!" in Gys!m&o initi""y &#s bo!n&#y #o!n& e+h me#it0 m,in$ n& en"i$htenment +#ee# =199)::;>* As it +ontin!es hoe%e# n "te#nti%e &is+o!#se eme#$es &#in$ on the o"&e# shmni+ "ye#* The o//e#in$s o/ the %höd n& ts-og #it!"s n& the s!bseC!ent &ist#ib!tion o/ the ts-og o//e#in$s to the enti#e nei$hbo!#hoo& #e+o$ni2es the in%isib"e !nin%ite& &emons ho +#sh the (#ty #e,enin$ the mt#i5 o/ #e"tionshi(s ithin hi+h so+i" "i/e t,es ("+e =199)::;>* In sense this is on"y to s(e"" o!t the !nstte& shmni+ im("i+tions o/ "" J#yn #it!" hi+h &e(en&s /o# its e//i++y on the #eso"!tion o/ the +on/"i+ts ithin h!mn so+iety n& beteen h!mn so+iety n& its nt!#" en%i#onment s symbo"i2e& by the o%e#+omin$ o/ &emoni+ /o#+es n& the estb"ishment o/ the Tnt#i+ mandala# To the e5tent tht "m is in%o"%e& these im("i+tions #e (#esent sin+e they #e n essenti" (#t o/ the #o"e o/ the "m seen s ho"e* The min em(hsis in Sn$ys &es+#i(tion is ne%e#the"ess on t#yin$ to se+!#e $oo& #ebi#th /o# the &e+ese& both th#o!$h s(e+i/i+""y Tnt#i+ #it!" n& th#o!$h the ++!m!"tion o/ %i#t!o!s +tion o/ %#io!s ,in&s on the &e+ese&s beh"/ =&ontions to gom!a, "ms to be$$#s "on$ ith /!#the# (#o+e&!#es not mentione& he#e>* Deth is the+ent#" +onte5t o/ n5iety bo!t #ebi#th in Tibetn "i/e n& it is not s!#(#isin$ tht it
is &ominte& by the i&eo"o$y o/ ,#m* In othe# +onte5ts tht i&eo"o$y my be mo#e +onteste&* .ARMA AND OTHER ALUE SSTEMS I h%e "#e&y mentione& 'h#isto(h %on F#e#0Himen&o#/s e#"y #itin$s on the She#(s hi+h (#o%i&e& the /i#st nth#o(o"o$i+" st!&y o/ Tibetn %"!e system =F#e#0Himen&o#/ 197: 197; 197@>* F#e#0Himen&o#/ (o#t#ye& She#( so+iety s (e#%&e& by sin$"e %"!e system &e#i%in$ /#om the !&&hist +on+e(t o/ me#it o# %i#t!o!s +tion (södnam)# She#( Tibetns "i,e The#%&in !&&hists ttem(t to mintin s!#("!s o/ %i#t!o!s o%e# non%i#t!o!s +tions in o#&e# to +hie%e h((y #ebi#th in s!bseC!ent "i%es o# t "es t to %oi & n !n/o#t!nte one* S!bseC!ent n"yses h%e shon tht this (i+t!#e is too sim("e* D%i& Li+hte# n& L!#en+e E(stein =193> note tht Tibetn be"ie/ in ,#m +oe5ists s e /in& in othe# Asin !&&hist so+ieties ith the (!#s!it o/ o#"&"y s!++ess n& h((iness o/ten by inte#+tion ith the "o+" $o&s n& s(i#its* We h%e "#e&y seen some o/ this in the (#e%io!s +h(te#* I/ Tibetns #e +on+e#ne& bo!t thei# (e#son" sto+, o/ södnam =me#it> they #e "so +on+e#ne& bo!t the stte o/ thei# lungta o# this0o#"&"y $oo& /o#t!ne* M!+h o/ the #it!" +##ie& o!t by "ms =n& to "esse# &e$#ee mon,s> /o# the Tibetn "ity is to &o ith $oo& /o#t!ne n& ith (#ote+tion /#om mis/o#t!ne ithin ones (#esent "i/etime =see 'h(te# 1;>* A++o#&in$ to Li+hte# n& E(stein most Tibetns t#y to +hie%e o#"&"y s!++ess hi"e mintinin$ s"i$ht"y i#oni+ &et+hment /#om h((iness tht they ,no they +nnot !"timte"y ho"& on to =193):6@>* Othe# #ite#s h%e note& tht mo#" +tion /o# Tibetns is not sim("y mtte# o/ %i#t!o!s +tion ++o#&in$ to the "s o/ ,#m* Nn+y Le%ine #ote in #e"tion to the C!estion o/ se5!" mo#"ity mon$ the Nyinb o/ no#theste#n Ne(") On the one hn& one +n (oint to set o/ !n%#yin$ mo#" (#e+e(ts /i5e& in !&&hist te5t!" t#&itions to hi+h "" Nyinb o%e#t"y s!bs+#ibe* On the othe# hn& the#e #e "so im("i+it %"!es hi+h #e THE .ARMA ORIENTATION REIRTH AND TIETAN ALUES mni/este& in +t!" (tte#ns o/ beh%io!#**** The %#io!s +!"t!#" mess$es en+o!nte#e& In nothe# #ti+"e in the sme %o"!me #b# A2i2 =191> #e/e##in$ to Din$#i Tibetns in (#ti+!"# e5("ins ho the gany; system o/ J!#i /#ien&shi( essenti""y +on+e#ne& ith (#o(e# #e"tions ithin the +omm!nity (#o%i&es
(#""e" n& o++sion""y +on/"i+tin$ mo#" system to tht o/ ,#m n& %i#t!o!s +tion* She +ites e5m("es in hi+h beh%io# tht mi$ht be tho!$ht %i#t!o!s +tion on ,#mi+ $#o!n&s =s!+h s &ontions to gom!a) is #e$#&e& by /e""o0%i""$e#s s $inst e5(e+te& stn&#&s o/ +omm!n" beh%io#* A #e"te& theme is tht o/ the tr-amenma, one o/ se%e#" ,in&s o/ it+h in Tibetn /o","o#e* The tr-amenma #e !s!""y +h#+te#i2e& by (io!s omen ho s(en& "" thei# time in (#ye# n& othe# #e"i$io!s +ti%ities b!t hose tho!$hts t!#n e%i" n& !n+ons+io!s"y h#m othe# (eo("e =A#&!ssi n& E(stein 19@)3:9>* The it+h he#e s in mny +!"t!#es (!#s!es he# on se"/0inte#est t the e5(ense o/ othe# membe#s o/ he# +omm!nity* The !&&hist t#&ition itse"/ in Tibet e5("i+it"y #e$#&s the /e# o/ n !n/o#t!nte #ebi#th n& the &esi#e /o# h((iness in /!t!#e "i%es s the "oest "e%e" o/ moti%tion /o# !&&hist (#+titione#* In the e"e%enth0+ent!#y In&in te+he# Atiss in/"!enti" o#, the Bodhi!atha!radi!a, "te# to be+ome the bsis o/ the Ge"!$( lamrim s+heme this "e%e" o/ moti%tion is to be t#ns+en&e& by the &esi#e /o# "ibe#tion /#om o#"&"y e5isten+e hi+h is itse"/ to be s!(e#se&e& by the bo&histt%s &esi#e to ttin !&&hhoo& in o#&e# to #e"ie%e the s!//e#in$s o/ othe# bein$s =/o# e5m("e Wymn 19@ She#b!#ne 193 Sne""0$#o%e 19@);10; ; >* A bo&histt% mi$ht +t i/ ne+ess#y in ys +ont##y to the no#m" #!"es /o# %i#t!o!s +tion hi"e /!""y En"i$ht0 ene& bein$ is beyon& the "s o/ ,#m* Tibetn myth n& /o","o#e #e /!"" o/ t#i+,ste#"i,e /i$!#es hose ((#ent"y immo#" +ts obey hi$he# mo#"ity* Amon$ the best ,non #e D#!$( .!n"e$ =see 'h(te# :7> n& the e(i+ he#o Ges# o/ Lin$ hose +ti%ities #e /#eC!ent"y &e%io!s n& t#e+he#o!s ++o#&in$ to the #!"es o/ o#&in#y mo#"ity b!t "ys "e$itimte& by hi$he# s(i#it!" (!#(ose =Sm!e" in (#ess &>* E%en A,! Tn( the e""0,non t#i+,ste#0he#o o/ b&y n& #isC!Q /o", sto#ies is o++ sion""y +"ime& s !&&hist sint =Do#Je 19@6>* A"" this (oints to the e5isten+e ithin Tibetn so+ieties o/ % ' 1ety o/ e5("i+it n& im("i+it sets o/ %"!es* It my be ss!me& too tht in&i%i&!"s n& so+i" $#o!(s ithin (#emo&e#n Tibetn so+ieties %#ie& in the im(o#tn+e they $i%e to the &i//e#ent st#n&s in thei# mo#" system* Mon,s t "#$e Ge"!$( monsti+ +ente#s s!+h s Se# o# D#e(!n$ o!"& h%e h& &i//e#ent em(hses /#om Go"o$ (sto#"ists n& yo$i+ (#+titione#s in #emote he#mit$es o!"& not ne+ess#i"y h%e h& the sme set o/ %"!es s (esnts on "#$e (#emo&e#n +ent#" Tibetn estte o# #i+h t#&e#s in Lhs o# Shi$tsQ* REPUTATION AND RESPE'TAILIT This ,in& o/ +oe5isten+e ithin sin$"e settin$ o/ hie##+hi+" "ine# %"!e systems n& mo#e in/o#m" e$"it#in %"!e systems hs been note& in so+ieties othe# thn in Tibet n& it is o#th "oo,in$ t one s!+h n"ysis /o# the "i$ht it mi$ht th#o on the Tibetn sit!tion* Some ye#s $o in n
nth#o(o"o$i+" st!&y o/ sm"" En$"ish0s(e,in$ '#ibben is"n& P#o%i&en+i Pete# Wi"son &istin$!ishe& beteen to &imensions o/ the in&i$eno!s %"!e system hi+h he te#me& re!utation n& res!e%tability# Re(!ttion is +om("e5 o/ J!&$ments &e#i%in$ /#om /+e0to0/+e inte#+tion n& (e#son" ,no"e&$e hi"e #es(e+tbi"ity is bo!t +on/o#mity to sin$"e set o/ %"!es* Res(e+tbi"ity o#i$intes in n& #e/"e+ts so+i" st#ti/i+tion in Wi"sons o#&s it ho"&s so+iety to$ethe# #o!n& st#ti/ie& +"ss st#!+t!#e ith stn&#&s o/ mo#" o#th n& J!&$ment emntin$ /#om the !((e# +"ss o# /#om o%e#ses n& im(ose& on the "oe# st#t =Wi"son 19@3)::9>* In P#o%i&en+i n& the '#ibben $ene#""y #es(e+tbi"ity &e#i%es /#om the te+hin$s o/ +h!#+h n& s+hoo"* This is #tion" +"e#i+" system ith its !"timte o#i$in in hite E!#o(en +o"oni" so+iety* It is bse& on sin$"e !ni/o#m s+"e n& essenti""y &e(en&s on the in&i%i&!"s o# /mi"ys e//o#ts to beh%e in #es(e+tb"e ys =/o# e5m("e /o#m" m!t!" ente#tinin$>* S!+h beh%io# is e5(ensi%e so #es(e+tbi"ity is "so +"ose"y +o##e"te& ith the in+ome hie##+hy o/ the is"n&* Membe#s o/ the (o(!"tion +n esi" y #te e+h othe# s hi$he# o# "oe# on the "ine# s+"e o/ #es(e+tbi"ity* Re(!ttion hs no s!+h bso"!te s+"e o/ J!&$ment) Re(!ttion is stn&#& o/ %"!e tht +omes o!t o/ in%o"%ement ith the o#"& o/ 'IILIED SHAMANS 'IILIED SHAMANS
THE .ARMA ORIENTATION TI
#e"tionshi(s #the# thn the in&i%i&!"isti+ stn&#&s o/ #es(e+tbi" ity =19@3)::@>* Rthe# thn bein$ tot" J!&$ment o/ he#e the in&i%i&!" stoo& on "ine# s+"e (eo("e my h%e #e(!ttion in ny o/ #n$e o/ /ie"&s n& these +nnot be sim("y #n,e& $inst e+h othe#* A (e#sonV my be $oo& sin$e# (oo# /ishe#mn me&io+#e st!& ,in& /the# n& si""y &#!n,#&* In e+h /ie"& he enJoys &e$#ee o/ #e(!ttion /o# hi+h the#e is no bso"!te stn&#& n& s ho"e (e#son he is neithe# +on&emne& no# e"e%te& by ny one stt!s* The#e is no s!+h thin$ s (e#/e+t sin$e# the !"timte /ishe#mn the s!(#eme st!& the i&e" /the# o# the +om("ete &#!n,#&* S!+h stt!s s+"es #e #e"ti%e to the $i%en time n& the +t!" (e#/o#mn+e o/ (eo("e in tht time n& ("+e* =Wi"son 19@3)::@0::> Wi"sons &istin+tion is int#o&!+e& in the s(e+i/i+ +onte5t o/ the '#ibben b!t it my be s!$$este& tht in $ene#" e//e+ti%e #tion"i2tion n& +ent#"i2tion o/ so+iety im("y somethin$ "i,e #es(e+tbi"ity* The #es(e+tbi"ity %"!e system is both !ni"ine# n& "in,e& to the &ominn+e o/ +"e#i+" #e"i$ion =in P#o%i&en+i the +h!#+h ith its "in,s to the +o"oni" #e$ime>* S!+h %"!e system is o/ the essen+e o/ hie##+hy* It is not s!#(#isin$ /o# e5m("e tht Lo!is D!monts +"ssi+ st!&y o/ hie##+hi+" tho!$ht in In&i em(hsi2es simi"# !ni"ine# s+"e o/ %"!es im(ose& by the !((e# +"sses n& +on&emnin$
the mss o/ the (o(!"tion to (e#mnent"y "o stt!s =D!mont 19@8>* This s!$$ests #e"tionshi( o/ #es(e+tbi"ity ith +"e#i+" /o#ms o/ #e"i$ion n& o/ #e(!ttion ith shmni+ /o#ms* The sit!tion in the '#ibben is #the# simi"# to the en+(s!"tion o/ shmni+ #e"i$ion ithin +ontem(o##y The#%&in so+ieties he#e (#+titione#s o/ shmni+ ty(e (e#sist b!t #e s!bo#&inte to bsi+""y +"e#i+" #e$ime =see 'h(te# : n& Sm!e" 1998)1310133>* 'om(#e& ith +ontem(o##y %i""$e Thi"n& o# !#m the &isinte$#tion o/ shmni+ #e"i$ion hs &o!bt"ess $one /!#the# in the '#ibben* The#e #e ne%e#the"ess si$ns o/ its (e#sisten+e in "o+" %e#sions o/ 'h#istinity n& s!#%i%in$ A/#i+n0&e#i%e& &eity +!"ts* In Tibetn so+ieties into #e+ent times the shmni+ mo&e #etine& m!+h mo#e !tonomy s e h%e seen sin+e the &ominnt #e"i$io!s system Tnt#i+ !&&hism itse"/ $%e "#$e ("+e to the shmni+* .#m n& %i#t!o!s +tion in the The#%&in so+ieties /o#m the bsis o/ +o&e o/ #es(e+tbi"ity n"o$o!s to tht sso+ite& iththe +h!#+h in P#o%i&en+i* In Tibetn so+iet ies ,#m n& %i#t!o!s +tion sti"" #e(#esent "ine# s+"e o/ this ty(e* Sin+e mny o/ the most +ons(i+!o!s /o#ms o/ %i#t!o!s +tion =&ontions to "ms n& $om( the b!i"&in$ o/ tem("es the sen&in$ o/ son to the $om( s mon,> &emn& s!bstnti" e+onomi+ #eso!#+es the#e is +o##e"tion in Ti0 bet s e"" beteen %i#t!e n& e"th =see M!m/o#& 199):830:8;>* This +"e#i+" si&e o/ Tibetn !&&hism hoe%e# is !n&e#+!t in +on+e(t!" te#ms by the /+to#s +onsi&e#e& t the st#t o/ this +h(te# n& it +oe5ists in (#+ti+e ith othe# eC!""y st#on$ "ess "ine# n& mo#e #e(!ttion"i,e systems o/ %"!es* We +n see tht the mo#" bsis o/ shmni+ #e"i$ion hs to be +"ose# to #e(!ttion thn #es(e+tbi"ity* The#e is no stn&#& y to be shmn n& the#e is no sin$"e y to be Tibetn "m eithe#* E+h (e#son o++!(ies the #o"e in (#t"y in&i%i&!" n& i&iosyn+#ti+ mnne#* The "ms #e %"!e& be+!se o/ thei# (oe# mo#e thn be+!se o/ thei# +on/o#mity to n bst#+t sense o/ %"!es* Ly Tibetns too !n&o!bte&"y J!&$e e+h othe# in te#ms o/ #e(!ttion0ty(e +#ite#i s e"" s on #es(e+tbi"ity s+"e* Le%ines n& A2i2s #ti+"es both itness this +on/"i+t beteen #e(!ttion0ty(e J!&$ments n& the "ine# s+"e o/ %i#t!o!s +tion ++o#&in$ to the "s o/ ,#m*18 Wi"sons o#, s!$$ests mo#e bst#+t /o#m!"tion o/ these +on/"i+ts in te#ms o/ "ine# s+"e &e#i%e& /#om !ni%e#s" +"e#i+" =o# e +o!"& sy #tion"i2e&> system n& mo#e mo#(ho!s n& so+i""y +onte5t!" #e+o$nition o/ (eo("es (e#son" C!"ities* These to s(e+ts e#e both %e#y m!+h (#esent in (#emo&e#n Tibetn so+ieties s mi$ht be e5(e+te& $i%en thei# +ent#"i2e& n& stte"ess (o"es* The Tibetns h%e thei# on ys o/ #e(#esentin$ them n& e e5mine these in the #emin&e# o/ this +h(te#* 'ONTRASTS WITHIN TIETAN ALUES) WILD AND TAME In this +onte5t se#ies o/ +on+e(ts +on+e#ne& ith i"&ness n& tmin$
=o# &omesti+tion> is o#th "oo,in$ t in some &eti"* In 'h(te# Io I mentione& So(hie Dys o#, on the +on+e(t o/ tmin$ in #e"tion to L&,hi #e"i$ion =Dy 197 199>* The tme im("ies the i"& hi"e the (o"#ities o/ i"& n& tme im("y thi#& (osition o++!(ie& by the (#o+ess o/ tmin$ n& the (e#son o/ the tme#* 'IILIED SHAMANS THE .ARMA ORIENTATION REIRTH AND TIETAN ALUES To be$in ith the i"&4tme o((osition is im(o#tnt in Tibetn nim" nomen+"t!#e ith the i"& y, o# drong, i"& shee( o# #$"i (nyen) n& i"& ss o# on$e# (.yang) "" +ont#stin$ ith tme +o!nte#(#ts n& "" bein$ o/ si$ni/i+n+e in #e"tion to the +!"t o/ the Ti betn "o+" &eities* We my "so note tht the %!"t!#e o# i"& bi#& (%hagöd) ("ys +ent#" #o"e in the &is(os" o/ the &e& in Tibet n& tht the Tibetn /o# tht st#n$e +#et!#e the yeti is "ite#""y i"& mn (migöd)# T!#nin$ to i"&ness in the h!mn +onte5t +onsi&e# Robe#t E,%""s +omments on the !s$e o/ the te#m go =i"& !ntme& +ent#" Tibetn god) mon$ Am&o nom&s) =o go =son !ntme&> #m ith the //e+tion o/ /mi" y b!t o/ten (#t o/ n en+o!#$in$ # +#y +on+ise"y s!ms !( the i&e" mn* In Tibetn0 Tibetn &i+tion#y go is &e/ine& s not s!b&!e& n& "i,e hi$h (st!#$e not &omesti+te&* Son !ntme& is the +#ite#ion by hi+h men #e J!&$e& to be b"e &e(en&b"e !n&!nte& n& /it to ("y ny #o"e< e%en the !"timte one hen "i/e n& ð #e t iss!e* $*o go %hö =Hi" sons !ntme& yo!> is the !ni%e#s" +om("iment the +,no"e&$ement one o//e#s in $oo& /e""oshi( n& &mi#tion to (#ise +hie%ement o# in sim("e /"tte#y* =o go ma =son !ntme& /em"e> "so is the best y to thn, tenti/ e /o# bo" o/ yo$h!#t n& in #es(onse she i"" (#obb"y $i%e yo! se+on& he"(in$ "on$ ith the #mest o/ smi"es* =E,%"" 197)9:093> The %e#b" /o#m o/ go, s E,%"" (oints o!t mens to "!$h* This (ss$e /#om E,%"" in&i+tes tht the C!"it y o/ bein$ i" & =!n tme& to!$h> is (#ti+!"#"y sso+ite& ith nom&i+ (sto#"ists in Tibet mon$ hom it hs st#on$ (ositi%e %"!e* It seems "ess +om(tib"e ith the sett"e& "i/e o/ $#i+!"t!#"ists in #es s!+h s the $#et esttes o/ +ent#" Tibet o# ith +e"ibte mon,s in "#$e monste#y* Ne%e#the"ess s mny Weste#n obse#%e#s h%e note& +e#tin &e$#ee o/ se"/0#e"in+e s n& is +h#+te#isti+ o/ Tibetn beh%io# in $ene#" =both m"e n& /em"e>* 'onsi&e# D%i& Sne""$#o%es +omment on the sm"" She#( monsti+ gom!a o/ -ion$) Pe#h(s ht is most im(#essi%e bo!t these (eo("e is thei# st#on$ sense o/ (e#son" #es(onsibi"ity n& thei# i&e /#ee&om o/ +tion* The mon,s
#e "" the#e on thei# on #es(onsibi"ity s!bJe+t on"y to thei# obe&ien+e to n o"&e# mon, i/ they +hoose to s, him to be thei# ms0 te#* They meet no#m""y e%e#y mo#nin$ t,e te to$ethe# intone (#ye#s n& se(#te to $o bo!t thei# on //i#s nme"y tten&n+e on thei# +hosen &i%inity KyidamE in thei# on #ooms in%o+tion n& me&ittion #e&in$ +o(yin$ n& in some +ses +om(osin$ o/ te5ts "!$hin$ n& t",in$ to$ethe# %isitin$ #e"ti%es n& +C!intn+es eithe# on /mi"y //i#s o# to (e#/o#m +e#emonies in (#i%te ho!ses* =Sne""$#o%e 196@)::o> Pe#h(s the +me o/ i"&ness t "est s /# s h!mn bein$s #e +on+e#ne& is #e(#esente& by the Go"o$s o/ est Tibet hom e h%e "#e&y met in 'h(te# F# We mi$ht #e+"" the Go"o$ s(ee+h C!ote& in tht +h(te#) To the &%i+e o/ st#n$e# e i"" not he#,en no# i"" e obey o!$ht b!t the %oi+e o/ o!# +ons+ien+e ith hi+h e+h Go"o$ ente#s the o#"&* This is hy e h%e e%e# been /#ee s no n& #e the s"%es o/ none< neithe# o$&o,hn no# o/ the D"i Lm* O!# t#ibe is the most #es(e+te& n& mi$hty in Tibet n& e #i$ht"y "oo, &on ith +ontem(t on both 'hinmn n& Tibetn* =Ro+, 1967)1:@> The tme (o"#ity hoe%e# "so hs its (ositi%e %"!tion ithin Tibetn so+iety* The +#ee# o/ mon, e%en i/ %e#y m!+h mtte# o/ (e#son" #es(onsibi"ity in mny +ses is essenti""y bo!t bein$ tme&) He#e I #e/e# to o#&in#y mon,s o# tra!a, not to the "ms* The monsti+ &is+i("in#y +o&e the iny is in Tibetn D!" /#om the %e#b dulha, to tme* The #n$e o/ menin$s $i%en /o# this %e#b in -s+h,es &i+tion#y is o#th "istin$ n& m,es +"e# "in,$e beteen +i%i"i2in$ the &o(tion o/ $#i+!"t!#e n& +on%e#sion to !&&hism) =1> to tme to b#e, in o/ ho#sesV to s!b&!e +onC!e# %nC!ish o/ enemiesV sometimes e%en to ,i"" to nnihi"te =:> to ti"" to +!"ti%te ste "n& to +i%i"i2e ntion hi+h ith the !&&hist is the sme s to +on%e#t /#C* to e&!+te to &is+i("ine to (!nish dul*; rig!a, those /it /o# n& (#e&estinte& /o# +on%e#sion dul%ha, i&* /#C* "so !se& s!bstnti%e"y) dro*a ng; dul%ha yin, the bein$s #e to be +on%e#te& by me dag .y-ed.i dul%ha shog%hig my e be+ome yo!# +on%e#tsX =-s+h,e 197):@> It my be #e+""e& tht in the Tibetn o#i$in0myth o/ A%"o,ites%#s mon,ey0 emntion ='h(te# 9> the %#io!s ,in&s o/ $#in #e mon$ THE .ARMA ORIENTATION REIRTH AND TIETAN ALUES the $i/ts o/ A%"o,ites%# to his s yet !ntme& mon,ey0&es+en&nts the (#oto0Tibetns =/o# e5m("e Wn$y" 1 9@3 ) 69 on mon,eys see "so P!"
19:7):17>* A%"o,ites%#s /!n+tion th#o!$h histo#y =+!"mintin$ in his +ti%ity s the s!++essi%e D"i Lms n& othe# hi$h "ms> is to tme the Tibetns n& this +on%e#sion /#om h!ntin$ n& $the#in$ to $#i+!"t!#e +n be seen s the initi" st$e o/ the (#o+ess* So(hie Dy (oints to the (#o+ess o/ +onstnt t#ns/o#mtion n& in+o#(o#tion by hi+h the i"& $#&!""y be+me the tme&) !& &hs int#o&!+e& #e"i$ion o# +i%i"i2tion (%h-ö) into the o#"& (#o+ess &es+#ibe& in Tibetn by the o#& dul*a# >ul*a mens to +onC!e# to +on%e#t to e&!+te to +i%i"i2e =Dy 197>* It is esy to /in& +o##e"tes /o# tme %e#s!s i"& t the so+i" "e%e" =(esnts on "#$e +ent#" Tibetn estte %e#s!s nom&i+ Go"o$ (sto#"ists> n& t the #e"i$io!s "e%e" =mon,s in "#$e +ent#" Tibetn monste#y %e#s!s n&e#in$ Tnt#i+ yo$ins>* As Dy im("ies hoe%e# the #e"tionshi( beteen tme n& i"& is &ynmi+ (#o+ess #the# thn stti+ o((osition n& the ,ey e"ement he#e is the b!siness o/ tmin$* Tmin$ is the o#, o/ the "m* This is t#!e in to senses* The "m tmes &emons n& hosti"e /o#+es n& he "so tmes his &is+i("es* The "ms #o"e s tme# o/ "o+" &eities n& m"e%o"ent s(i#it!" /o#+es is +ent#" (#t o/ his #e"tionshi( to the Tibetn "y (o(!"tion n& i"" be e5mine& in mo#e &eti" in 'h(te# 1 ; * It is he#e tht his shmni+ (oe# is e5e#+ise& on beh"/ o/ so+iety s ho"e* The +"ssi+ e5m("e is tht o/ the (#ototy(i+" Tnt#i+ $!#! P&msmbh% =G! #! Ri m(o+h e> ho s mentione& in the (#e%io!s +h(te# (e#/o#me& the o#i$in" tmin$ o/ the &eities o/ Tibet n& bo!n& them to the se#%i+e o/ the !&&hist te+hin$s* In the Tibetn +on+e(tion this +t enb"e& both !&&hism n& +i%i"i2e& "i/e to be estb"ishe& ithin Tibet* P&msmbh%s bin&in$ o/ the &emons is #een+te& on &i"y bsis in the +o!#se o/ Tibetn Tnt#i+ #it!" o/ the Nyin$m( t#&ition =see Sne""$#o%e 1 96@ : 390 : ; : >* The +on+e(t is by no mens #est#i+te& to the Nyin$m( t#&ition hoe%e# n& Tme# o/ Foes P#ote+to# $inst Hosti"e Fo#+es (dradul nyen.yong) is +ommon e(ithet o/ the D"i Lm* The "m "so hs #o"e s tme# in #e"tion to his &is+i("es* Fo# &#mti+ e5(#ession o/ this e +n t!#n to #e"i$io!s son$ o# gur by the nineteenth0+ent!#y .$y&( "m T#shi se# in+"!&e& in the R!mte, e&ition o/ the 'agy8d Gurts-oD 'yemaP My on"y (#ote+to# "o#& o/ is&om +om(ssion n& (oe# Sin+e yo!# is&om is "imit"ess ("ese ,no my hi&&en min&* Sin+e yo!# +om(ssion is im(#ti" ("ese &o not i$no#e me ho is /!"" o/ /!"ts* Sin+e yo!# (oe# is st#on$ ("ese b#e, this e%i" bein$ C!i+,"y* I/ yo! s(oi" me s!(#eme mahtisattva, E%en tho!$h yo! "e& "" bein$s to "ibe#tion o! i"" h%e to $o to "ot o/ t#o!b"e J!st /o# me this !ntme& one Kma rungE5 F#om the bottom o/ the &ee(est he"" It i"" +e#tin"y be &i//i+!"t to $et me o!t so #i$ht no &o not "et yo!#
+om(ssion be sm"" ** * My (hysi+" st#en$th nes n& I m ens"%e& by myse"/* y yo!# (#ote+tion n& &is+i("ine Kdul.yongE, ("ese he"( me #e$in my he"th* I/ yo! $i%e me ##io#s e(on the so#& o/ (#JYi I $i%e my o#& tht I i"" +e#tin"y !se it this is not the em(ty t", o/ hy(o+#iti+" mn* I ("e&$e myse"/ no to +t on"y in this y* =T#!n$( 198)9; 'agy8d Gurts-o, ,> The so#& o/ !ra67d ie"&e& by the bo&histt% MYJ!s#i is +ommon Mhyn !&&hist symbo" b!t the "n$!$e he#e o/ /i$htin$ o/ st#!$$"in$ to s!b&!e onese"/ n& o/ ((e"in$ to the "m to s!b&!e one is ne%e#the"ess %e#y st#i,in$ n& (oints to the intimte +onne+tion tht e5iste& beteen tmin$ n& !&&hism n& to the e5tent to hi+h the Tibetns s (eo("e #emine& !ntme&* The /i$!#e o/ the "m s tme# hs +e#tin mbi$!ity o# #the# hs in sense both tme n& i"& %e#sions* As i"" be e5("ine& in mo#e &eti" in 'h(te# 13 the "m o# $!#! is +on+ei%e& o/ s inte#n" s e"" s e5te#n" to the (#+titione# =G!enthe# 19@@b>* The e5te#n" $!#! is !"timte"y on"y n i& to the (#+titione#s s!b&!in$ o/ his o# he# on !n&is+i("ine& tho!$hts n& emotions* E5te#n" n& inte#n" $!#!s sutra n& tantra te+hin$s monsti+ %os n& "y yo$i+ (#+ti+e sett"e& o# n&e#in$ e5isten+e "" (#o%i&e &imensions "on$ hi+h the tmin$ (#o+ess mi$ht %#y s e sh"" see in the /o""oin$ +h(te#s* Tmin$ is ne%e#the"ess one o/ the +ent#" themes o/ Tibetn !&&hist (#+ti+e* It is (#ti+!"#"y e%i&ent in the #it!"s o/ &e%otion to the 'IILIED SHAMANS
'IILIED SHAMANS "m n& in the ngöndro (#+ti+es !n&e#t,en s (#e"imin#y to Tnt#i+ me&ittion (#o(e# =see 'h(te#s 1: n& 13>* To othe# +ommon #it!" seC!en+es tht +n be seen s +on+e#ne& ith tmin$ #e the tungshag o# #it!" o/ the !&&hs o/ 'on/ession (Shedön Chet8 ;160;:6 O"s+h, n& Wn$y" 19@)13701;3> n& the Tnt#i+ (!#i/i+to#y (#+ti+e o/ J#stt% =Do#JQ Sem(> hi+h /o#ms +ent#" (#t o/ ngöndro n& n im(o#tnt int#o&!+to#y seC!en+e in Tnt#i+ e m(oe#me nts =eye# 19@3):@ 1;; 19;>* e/o#e "e%in$ the C!estion o/ the tme n& the i"& e mi$ht #et!#n b#ie/" y to the !n/o#t !nte si nmo =&emoness> ho s ni"e& &on by Son$tsen Gm(os tem("es in n e#" y n& symbo"i+""y #the# b#!t" ss!"t on the i"& /o#+es o/ +ent#" Tibet* Tht sinmo, s I note& in 'h(te# 9 h& (#e&e+esso# in nothe# sinmo, the &emoness0mothe# o/ the Tibetn (eo("e
ho /o#+e& A%"o,ites%#s mon,ey0bo&histt% emntion to bn&on his me&ittion n& /the# the /i#st Tibetns ith he#* She n& the mon,ey $%e +ont#stin$ +h#+te#s t o t he /i#st Tibetns) FV #om thei# /the# they #e h#&o#,in$ ,in& n& tt#+te& to #e"i$io!s +ti%ity /#om thei# mothe# they #e C!i+,0tem(e#e& (ssionte (#one to Je"o!sy n& /on& o/ ("y n& met =Wn$y" 19@3)69>* Whi"e the (#e/e#en+e /o# the /the#s si&e is +"e# eno!$h in the monsti+ +h#oni+"es the myth +o!"& be #e& s im("yin$ tht Tibet nee&s both the i"& n& the tme both the +e"ibte #est#ine& mon, n& the i"& n& (otenti""y &est#!+ti%e ene#$y* The sinmo s /te# "" n emntion o/ T# the Tnt#i+ $o&&ess ho is si& to #e(#esent the +ti%ity o/ the !&&h to i& sentient bein$s n& hose mnt# Tibetns i"" #e+ite in times o/ &n$e#* At ny #te both si&es #e sti"" the#e hethe# the Tibetns "i,e it o# not* Fo# "" o/ Son$tsen Gm(os s(e+t+!"# ni"in$ &on o/ the "te# sinmo, she mn$e& to s"i( /#ee C!ite C!i+,"y* 1: Tnt# ith its em(hsis on /em"e symbo"ism n& on the +om("ement#ity o/ the to (o"#ities (#o%i&e& +onte5t he#e /i# &e$#ee o/ i"&ness n& ene#$y +o!"& #emin o# #e((e# ithin Tibetn !&&hism* It is to Tnt# tht e t!#n in the ne5t +h(te#* :::
I Tantra n& the
o&hi O#ienttion
Tnt# is %it" to Tibetn #e"i$ion in to ys* As e s in 'h(te# II it (#o%i&es the te+hniC!es /o# ttinment o/ the hi$hest $o" o/ /e#e& by Tibetn #e"i$ion to its /o""oe#s tht o/ En"i$htenment* It is th!s the /o!n&tion o/ ht I h%e +""e& the o&hi O#ienttion* Hoe%e# it "so (#o%i&es the bsis /o# the "ms +ont#o" o%e# o#"&"y &eities /o# thei# bi"ity to st#en$then the "i/e0/o#+e th#o!$h the ts-e*ang #it!"s n& /o# othe# ys in hi+h the "ms
o(e#te s shmni+ (#+titione#s /o# thei# "y +"iente"e* These mtte#s #e"te to the P#$mti+ O#ienttion* Most "ite#t!#e on Tnt# +on+ent#tes eithe# on its #e"tionshi( to the o&hi O#ienttion o# ="ess /#eC!ent"y> on its P#$mti+ !s$e* The "in,$e beteen the to hs s+#+e"y been &is+!sse& in the "ite#t!#e b!t it is %e#y im(o#tnt /o# !n&e#stn&in$ ho Tibetn #e"i$ion o#,s in (#+ti+e n& ho Tnt# hs +ome to be instit!tion"i2e& ithin Tibetn so+iety* This +h(te# is min"y +on+e#ne& ith the o&hi O#ienttion* A/te# int#o&!+in$ some bsi+ Tnt#i+ +te$o#ies n& i&es I sh"" &is+!ss the &eity yo$ (#+ti+es n& the s!bt"e bo&y (#+ti+es* F!#the# s(e+ts o/ Tnt# i"" be &e"t ith in 'h(te#s 13 n& 1;* ::3 TANTRA AND THE ODHI ORIENTATION TANTRA) AN INTRODU'TION 'h(te# # # int#o&!+e& the histo#i+" seC!en+e o/ Hinyn Mh yn n& J#yn =Tnt#> the th#ee +om(onents tht m,e !( the !&&hist te+hin$s o/ Tibet* In The#%&in !&&hist +o!nt#ies s!+h s S#i Ln, !#m n& Thi"n& on"y the /i#st o/ these +om(onents is (#esent to&y* oth the theo#y o/ !&&hism =the bo&y o/ (hi"oso(hi+" i&es !se& to e5("in the nt!#e o/ En"i$htenment> n& the (#+ti+e o/ !&&hism =the %#io!s me&ittion te+hniC!es !se& to ttin the stte o/ En"i$htenment> #e he"& to &e#i%e /#om sin$"e bo&y o/ s+#i(t!#es the St#s (sutta) o/ the P"i 'non be"ie%e& to h%e o#i$inte& s te+hin$s $i%en by the histo#i+" !&&h S,ym!ni &!#in$ his "i/etime* The iny o# monsti+ #!"e "so /o#ms (#t o/ this !&&hist +non* Fo# the Tibetns the sit!tion is mo#e in%o"%e&* The iny o# bo&y o/ monsti+ #!"es hs m!+h the sme stt!s s in The#%&in so+iety "tho!$h the +t!" iny !se& %#ies in mino# &eti"s /#om the The#%&in iny sin+e it o#i$intes in &i//e#ent Hinyn s+hoo" the S#%sti%&ins* The Tibetn +non =the .n$y!#> hoe%e# is m!+h "#$e# thn the P"i 'non* As e"" s the Hinyn =Lesse# ehi+"e> S!t#s +o##es(on&in$ to those o/ the P"i 'non the#e #e "so the Mhyn =G#et ehi+"e> S]t#s hi+h e#e be"ie%e& to h%e been ent#!ste& by S,ym!ni to %#io!s nonh!mn $!#&ins n& #e%e"e& to h!mn bein$s on"y se%e#" +ent!#ies "te# hen ((#o(#ite h!mn #e+i(ients be+me %i"b"e n& the Tnt#s hi+h e#e #e%e"e& t s!bseC!ent times in simi"# /shion* In &&ition the Tibetns #e$#& the Ten$y!# se+on& +o""e+tion +onsistin$ o/ #itin$s o/ In&in !&&hist s+ho"#s n& te+he#s s "so bein$ hi$h"y !tho#itti%e* The #e"tionshi( beteen this "#$e bo&y o/ te5ts n& the theo#y n& (#+ti+e o/ Tibetn #e"i$ion is C!ite +om("e5* The Mhyn S n0s mny o/ hi+h #e (hi"oso(hi+""y /# mo#e +om("e5 thn the Hinyn te5ts /o#m the (#im#y so!#+e /o# !&&hist theo#y o# (hi"oso(hy in Tibet "on$ ith the
In&in +omment#i" "ite#t!#e n& te5ts s!+h s the Fi%e T#etises o/ Mit#ey* : These te5ts em(hsi2e the +ent#" im(o#tn+e o/ the "t#!isti+ moti%tion (bodhi%itta), the &esi#e to +hie%e En"i$htenment in o#&e# to #e"ie%e the s!//e#in$s o/ othe#s* A+C!i#in$ this moti%tion" stte is /o# the Tibetns the &e/inin$ +h#+te#isti+ o/ the Mhyn (#+titione# in +ont#&istin+tion to theHinyn (#+titione# ho is #e$#&e& s bein$ (#im#i"y inte#este& in #e"ie%in$ his o# he# on s!//e#in$* Most !&&hist (#+ti+e in Tibet hoe%e# &e#i%es not /#om the S]t#s hethe# Hinyn o# Mhyn b!t /#om the Tnt#s /#om thei# In&in n& Tibetn +omment#ies n& in (#ti+!"# /#om the o#" t#nsmissions o/ (#+ti+e sso+ite& ith them n& the +o!nt"ess "te# #e%e"tions tht /o#m (#t o/ tht o#" t#nsmission* Tnt# (gy8d, sangngag) in the Tibetn +onte5t is $ene#" te#m /o# "#$e bo&y o/ #e"i$io!s (#+ti+es "so #e/e##e& to s the J#yn o# J# %ehi+"e (dor6; t-eg!a)# This te#m im("ies tht the Tnt#s +onstit!te thi#& mJo# +"ss o/ !&&hist te+hin$s n& (#+ti+es "on$si&e those o/ the Hinyn n& Mhyn the Lesse# n& G#et ehi+"es e"" ,non /#om othe# !&&hist so+ieties* The Tibetns o/ten +ont#st the te+hin$s o/ the S]t#s s ho"e =S]t#yn o# P#mityn> ith the Tnt#s =J#yn>* oth #e im(o#tnt b!t in &i//e#ent ys* As I h%e mentione& in 'h(te# II n& i"" e5("in in $#ete# &eti" in 'h(te# :: Tnt# in In&i &e%e"o(e& in +onte5t o/ sm"" +!"t0$#o!(s e+h +ente#e& #o!n& (#ti+!"# set o/ &eities n& (#+ti+es* Whi"e the sit!tion in Tibet &i//e#s in mny ys /#om tht o/ the o#i$in" In&in Tnt#i+s the Tibetn Tnt#s #etin /et!#es o/ this o#i$in" +onte5t* Th!s the#e #e "#$e n!mbe# o/ nme& in&i%i&!" Tnt#i+ t#&itions +o##es(on&in$ to te5ts o# $#o!(s o/ te5ts in the .n$y!# n& Ten$y!# n& e%i&ent"y &e#i%in$ /#om &istin+t o#i$in" +!"t0$#o!(s* O/ these (e#h(s bo!t tenty to thi#ty #e sti"" in i&es(#e& !se* E+h o/ these Tnt#s is ho"e bo&y o/ metho&s o/ #it!" (#+ti +e n& beh%io# ++o#&in$ to one o# mo#e "i ne$es o/ s!++essi%e te+he#s =In&in $!#!s Tibetn "ms> hi+h $o b+, th#o!$h seC!en+e o/ nme& in&i%i&!"s to #e%e"tions /#om the Tnt#i+ /o#m o/ the !&&h* ; F!#the# Tnt#i+ +y+"es o#i$inte& in Tibet th#o!$h #e%e"tions (terma) to Tibetn "ms =see 'h(te# 17>* In "" +ses the#e is $#et em(hsis on %"i& "ine$e* The i&entity beteen the Tibetn o#& /o# Tnt# gy8d, n& tht /o# "ine$e =s(i#it!" o# $ene"o$i+"> hs "#e&y been (ointe& o!t* The sme o#& gy8d, is "so !se& to t#ns"te the Sns,#it te#m samt"na, ,#mi+ +ontin!!m the +ontin!ity o/ the +ti%ity o/ ,#m ithin h!mn +ons+io!sness nothe# te#m tht st#esses +ontin!ity th#o!$h time* Whi"e the#e #e te5ts sso+ite& ith e+h Tnt#i+ "ine$e n& these te5ts t,e !( "#$e (#t o/ the .n$y!# e+h Tnt# is &e/ine& essenti""y by the histo#i+" +ontin!ity o/ (#+ti+e n& the "ite##y e5(#ession is 'IILIED SHAMANS
'IILIED SHAMANS
TANTRA AND THE ODH
o/ se+on&#y im(o#tn+e* Tibetns (#+ti+e Tnt# hen they h%e been $i%en em(oe#ment (*ang), te5t!" t#nsmission (lung), /o#m" te+hin$ (tr-id), n& &&ition" &%i+e (menngag) 3 /o# (#ti+!"# (#+ti+e n& not sim("y th#o!$h #e&in$ the boo,s hi+h #e in ny +se &i//i+!"t to m,e m!+h sense o/ itho!t &eti"e& o#" e5("ntidn o/ the te#ms in%o"%e&* E+h o/ the Tibetn #e"i$io!s o#&e#s n& s!bo#&e#s hs se%e#" sso+ite& Tnt#i+ "ine$es "on$ ith the "ine$es /o# othe# nonTnt#i+ (#+ti+es n& these Tnt#i+ "ine$es /o#m the +o#e o/ both the #it!"s (e#/o#me& in the gom!a n& tem("es o/ tht o#&e# n& o/ the (e#son" yo$i+ (#+ti+e o/ /o""oe#s o/ the o#&e#* Th!s the S,y( s(e+i"i2e in the He%J# Tnt# the Nyin$m( s(e+i"i2e in the %#io!s so0+""e& O"& Tnt#s n& terma +y+"es n& the most im(o#tnt .$y&( n& Ge"!$( tnt#s #e G!hysmJ ',#s#n%# n& ."+,#* Tnt#i+ (#+ti+es #e C!ite %#ie&* Most tho!$h not "" Tibetn #it!" is Tnt#i+ in the sense o/ bein$ +onne+te& ith n& m,in$ sense in te#ms o/ one o# nothe# Tnt#i+ "ine$e* Fo# e5m("e the +ommon Tibetn #e+ittion o/ the mnt# om mani !adme ham is n e5("i+it"y Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e ith its mJo# "ine$e $oin$ b+, to the #e%e"tion #e+ei%e& by the "m Tn$ton$ Gye"(o in the /i/teenth +ent!#y =see be"o>* At the othe# e5t#eme o/ +om("e5ity the e"bo#te ms,e& &n+es st$e& by most o/ the "#$e# Tibetn gom!a #e eC!""y &e#i%ti%e /#om one o# nothe# Tnt#i+ +y+"e* Tnt# my be mtte# o/ (#i%te me&ittion =yo$> ime& (#im#i"y t se"/0&e%e"o(ment o# o/ (!b"i+ #it!" (e#/o#mn+e* In "" +ses hoe%e# the +o#e o/ Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e is the t#ns/o#mtion o/ the (#+titione# n& o/ the !ni%e#se o/ hi+h the (#+titione# is (#t* In the o#&s o/ the Si6idD The notions o/ e5te#n" n& inte#n" o/ %esse" KnödE n& essen+e K%hurlE, o/ (hysi+" \ samsaraE n& met(hysi+" \ nirvanaE, #e t#ns/o#me& /#om the nt!#e o/ the Fi%e E%i"s into the essen+e o/ Wis&om n& onese"/ is bso#be& into the m$i+" ("y* The ho"e (henomen" o#"& e#th stones mo!ntins #o+,s %i""$es sh#ines n& &e""in$s #e t#ns/o#me& into the o&y o/ Pe#/e+t EnJoyment Ksambhoga.ayaE# The o!te# %esse" o/ the o#"& is t#ns/o#me& into tem("e n& "i%in$ bein$s ho #e the inne# essen+e"" those ho &# b#eth #e t#ns/o#me& into the /o#m o/ $o&s n& $o&&esses* The /o#ms o/ $o&s n& $o&&esses ho #e the inne# essen+e be+ome the Pe#/e+t EnJoyment o/ (#ime%" bön itse"/ the o+en #e"m o/ (#ime%" b!&&hhoo& n& "" +h#+te#i2b"e (henomen" e"ements e5ist s m$i+ ("y* =Sne""$#o%e 197@)1@3>
The Si6id is he#e &e"in$ ith the se%enth n %ehi+"e =see be"o> the Wy o/ P!#e So!n& o# ehi+"e o/ the White A ($.ar t-eg!a)# The &es+#i(tion +o!"& hoe%e# J!st s e"" (("y to !&&hist Tnt# ith the e5+e(tion o/ the #e/e#en+e to ban itse"/ (bönnyid), he#e !&&hist te5t o!"& h%e %h-önyid, +o##es(on&in$ to Sns,#it dharmat"# A te#m +"ose"y sso+ite& ith the !&&hist Tnt#s is va6ra =the Tibetn eC!i%"ent is dor6e)# The va6ra s by o#i$in the th!n&e#bo"t0s+e(te# o/ the Hin&! $o& isn! b!t /o# Tnt#i+ !&&hists it is symbo" o/ the st#en$th immo%bi"ity n& t#ns+en&ent nt!#e o/ the stte ime& t by the Tnt#s* The va6ra is symbo"i2e& by n im("ement o/ the sme nme tht is !se& in Tnt#i+ #it!"* As mentione& bo%e the te+hin$ o/ the !&&hist Tnt#s is o/ten #e/e##e & to s J#yn the %J#0%ehi+"e n& +ont#ste& ith the St#yn o# P#mityn the %ehi+"e o/ the St#s o# %ehi+"e o/ the P#mits* I s!$$este& in 'h(te# I tht these to +ont#stin$ %ehi+"es /o#m the bsis o/ the shmni+ n& +"e#i+" s(e+ts o/ Tibetn !&&hism #es(e+ti%e"y* 'ONFLI'TS ETWEEN SUTRA AND TANTRA Whi"e Tibetn !&&hist s+ho"#s h%e (!t m!+h o#, into #e+on+i"in$ these to t#&itions o/ te+hin$ n& (#+ti+e the#e is sense in hi+h they #e o((ose& n& #e seen to be o((ose&* The (oint is m&e &#mti+""y in n e(iso&e /#om the "i/e o/ N#o( by the /i/teenth0+ent!#y Tibetn yo$in Lhtsn Rin+hen Nm$ye"* The s!bJe+t o/ this "#$e"y (o+#y(h" h$io$#(hy is the In&in $!#! N#o( te+he# o/ the Tibetn M#( ho s Mi"#e(s "m n& so the /o!n&e# o/ the im(o#tnt .$y&( t#&ition* N#o( is &es+#ibe& s h%in$ been bo#n in #oy" /mi"y n& #eno!n+in$ m##ie& "i/e to (!#s!e stn&#& monsti+ +#ee# #isin$ to be+ome /mo!s (hi"oso(he# n& bbot o/ the !ni%e#sity o/ N"n&& the most im(o#tnt !&&hist +&emi+ +ente# o/ In&i* One &y s he st in his st!&y his b+, to the s!n st!&yin$ the St#yn t#etises sh&o /e"" +#oss his boo,s* T!#nin$ TANTRA AND THE ODHI ORIENTATION #o!n& he s hi&eo!s"y !$"y o"& omn ho s,e& ht he s &oin$ n& hethe# he !n&e#stoo& the boo,s he s #e&in$* The omn s d".ini, Tnt#i+ initito#y $o&&ess n& she m&e him #e"i2e tht /o# "" his st!&y he &i& not !n&e#stn& the inne# menin$ o/ the te5ts* N#o( #eno!n+e& his (ost t N"n& n& ent o// to /in& his Tnt#i+ $!#! Ti"o( ho in/"i+te& ho"e se#ies o/ t#i"s n& se%e#e s+eti+ (#+ti+es on him be/o#e N#o( +me to #e"i2e the t#!e menin$ o/ the te5ts =G!enthe# 1973):;// \ Rin+hen Nm $ye " 0aro!; 0amt-ar 37 i //>* Lhtsn Rin+hen Nm$ye"s n##ti%e #e/"e+ts the nti+"e#i+" t tit! &es o/ his on +i#+"e o/ /i/teenth0+ent!#y Tibetn yo$ins =see 'h(te# :7> b!t the #eJe+tion o/ +"e#i+" ,no"e&$e s sim("y ,no"e&$e o/ the o#&s he#e ht #e""y mtte#s is inte#n"i2in$ n& #e"i2in$ the menin$ o/ the o#&s is +"ssi+ In&in si&&h #$!ment tht /o!n& mny e+hoes in Tibet* Fo# the
Tibetns s /o# the Tnt#i+ si&&hs o/ In&i the St#yn0bse& +!##i+!"!m o/ the monsti+ +o""e$es +n $i%e mste#y o/ (hi"oso(hi+" +on+e(ts b!t it +nnot $i%e the inne# e5(e#ien+e o/ En"i$htenment* The inne# e5(e#ien+e is ith /e e5+e(tions the #e"m o/ Tnt#* The sto#y o/ N#o( im("ies tht the J#yn is not #e$#&e& s in%o"%in$ ne o# &i//e#ent +on+e(tion o/ !&&hhoo& /#om the P#mityn* N#o(s boo,s +ontine& the t#!e menin$ i/ on"y he +o!"& ttin the inne# e5(e#ien+e tht o!"& m,e thei# o#&s be+ome #e"* The &i//e#en+e beteen J#yn n& P#mityn is on"y in the metho&s em("oye&* 9 The metho&s o/ the J#yn #e +"ime& by the Tibetns to be /# mo#e e//e+ti%e n& mo#e #(i& thn the o#&in#y Mhyn (#+ti+es o/ the P#mityn* They #e "so be"ie%e& to be /# mo#e &i//i+!"t n& &n$e#o!s* Thei# (#o($tion mon$ h!mn bein$s s J!sti/ie& by the &#,ness o/ the $e in hi+h they e#e #e%e"e&* Fo# the Tibetns it is these &n$e#o!s n& &%n+e& metho&s tht #e o/ (#im#y im(o#tn+e n& in hi+h the "ms #e s(e+i"ists* SUDIISIONS OF THE TANTRAS) OLD AND NEW '$M$ AND TRM$ The Tibetn t#&ition +ontins to +o""e+tions o/ Tnt#i+ "ine$es n& te5ts one initi""y t#nsmitte& to Tibet in the ei$hth n& ninth +en t!#ies n& +ontin!e& by the Nyin$m( o#&e# n& nothe# t#nsmit0 te& min"y in the e"e%enth n& te"/th +ent!#ies to the "ms ho /o!n&e& ht e#e to be+ome the ne o#&e#s o/ .$y&( S,y( n& e%ent!""y Ge"!$(* These to sets o/ Tnt#i+ "ine$es #e #e/e##e& to s the O"& (nyingma) Tnt#s n& the Ne (sarma) Tnt#s* The O"& Tnt#s #e so +""e& be+!se they #e t#+e& b+, to thei# int#o&!+tion to Tibet in the time o/ the ei$hth0+ent!#y In&in Tnt#i+ $!#! P&msmbh% =G!#! Rim(o+he>* Whi"e Sns,#it o#i$in"s /o# some o/ these te5t s #e # e(o#te& t o h%e e5is te& in e#"ie# (e#io&s none h%e s!#%i%e& to mo&e#n times n& the %"i&ity o/ these (#+ti+es hs o++sion""y been C!estione& by Ge"!$( s+ho"#s on these $#o !n&s =.(stein 199>* They #e (# +t i+ e& by " " Tibe tn !&&hist #e"i$io!s o#&e#s =in+"!&in$ the Ge"!$( ho &o(te& them t the time o/ the 6th D"i Lm> b!t they #e (#ti+!"#"y s(e+i"ty o/ the o"&est $#o!( the Nyin$m( =ho #e nme& /te# them>* The n(o o#&e# the te+hni+""y non0!&&hist o#&e# tht +"ims to o#i$inte in se(#te #e%e"tion /#om tht o/ the histo#i+" !&&h hs se#ies o/ non0 !&&hist Tnt#s +"imin$ to be t#ns"tions /#om the Shn$sh!n$ "n$!$e b!t $in itho!t ny e5tnt o#i$in"s* The O"& Tnt#s e#e #e$#&e& by Weste#n s+ho"#s /o# mny ye#s s o/ &!bio!s !thenti+ity be+!se o/ the ((#ent "+, o/ Sn s,#it o#i$in"s /o# the #oot te5ts o/ these Tnt#s n& the "o #e$#& in hi+h they e#e he"& by some Ge"!$( s+ho"#s* Hoe%e# s Sne""0$#o%e hs #e+ent"y (ointe& o!t the #oot te5ts #e +h#+te#isti+""y In&in in sty"e n& the#e is no #eson not to
ss!me $en!ine In&in o#i$in /o# them =Sne""$#o%e 19@);610;78>* They (#es!mb"y #e(#esent se(#te n& (e#h(s #e$ion""y &istin+t t#&ition o/ Tnt#i+ +!"t0$#o!(s ithin In&i /#om the t#&ition tht "e& to the Ne Tnt# "in0 e$es*18 In "te# ye#s the o#i$in" O"& Tnt# mte#i" s s!(("emente& by "#$e C!ntities o/ /!#the# #e%e"e& o# terma mte#i"* This "e& to n im(o#tnt &istin+tion ithin O"& Tnt# (#+ti+e beteen "ine$es $oin$ b+, to the o#i$in" t#nsmission o/ the O"& Tnt#s to Tibet (.ama), n& those &e#i%in$ /#om "te# #e%e"tions (terma)# This .amal terma &istin+tion is s(e+i"ity o/ the Nyin$m( o#&e#s "tho!$h terma =#e%e"e& te5ts> #e $in ++e(te& by "" t#&itions* The n(o h%e simi"# &istin+tion tho!$h in thei# +se %i#t!""y "" thei# (#+ti+es /"" into the terma +te$o#y* Terrna i"" be &is+!sse& in $#ete# &eti" in 'h(te# 17* They #e te5ts tht "i,e the Mhyn S]t#s n& the In&in Tnt#s #e he"& 'IILIED SHAMANS TANTRA AND THE OD 'IGILIED SHAMANS
to h%e been #e%e"e& to !&&hist (#+titione#s eithe# in mte#i" /o#m o# in some othe# y* !&&hist terma te5ts #e "" #e$#&e& s h%in$ been o#i$in""y #itten by G!#! Rim(o+he o# t his insti$tion n& the tertön o# /in&e#s o/ !&&hist terma #e "" he"& to be #ebi#ths o/ st!&ents o/ G!#! Rim(o+he* The n(o t#&ition h%e thei# on terma n& tertön, hi+h my h%e (#e&te& those in the !&&hist o#&e#s* As i"" be+ome ((#ent in the histo#i+" +h(te#s o/ P#t Th#ee the +on+e(t o/ terma hs ""oe& /o# %it" e"ement o/ +ontin!in$ #e%e"tion n& +hn$e ithin Tibetn #e"i$ion* Whi"e terma s s!+h #e (#im#i"y /et!#e o/ the O"& Tnt# "ine$es &i#e+t #e%e"tions /#om &eities !s!""y #e/e##e& to s dagnang ="ite#""y (!#e %ision> o++!# /#eC!ent"y in both O"& n& Ne Tnt# "ine$es* 'LASSIFI'ATION OF THE NEW AND OLD TANTRAS The Tnt#s e#e not on"y &i//e#entite& in te#ms o/ thei# o#i$ins =O"& n& Ne .ama n& terma) b!t "so in te#ms o/ thei# ty(e* The Tibetns e#e e"" #e tht the Tnt#s +ontine& i&e #n$e o/ C!ite hete#o$eneo!s mte# i"* Wht s to be+ome the stn&#& Tibetn +"ssi/i+tion o/ the Ne Tnt#s &e%e"o(e& in the thi#teenth n& /o!#teenth +ent!#ies n& s !se& in the &e/initi%e %e#sion o/ the Tibetn s+#i(t!#" +non by its e&ito# the /o!#teenth0+ent!#y s+ho"# P!tn Rin+hen D#!((* This s+heme &i%i&es the Ne Tnt#s into /o!# +"sses .#iy '#y o$ n& An!tt#yo$* The &i%ision is bse& on the ,in&s o/ (#+ti+es tht the Tnt# in C!estion is (#e&ominnt"y +on+e#ne& ith in (#ti+!"# the #e"ti%e im(o#tn+e o/ e5te#n"
#it!" n& o/ inte#n" +ontem("tion* 1: The hi$hest +"ss is the An!tt#yo$ =s!(#eme yo$> Tnt# to hi+h the He%J# G!hysmJ ',#sm%# n& ."+,# be"on$* An!tt#yo$ Tnt#s in+"!&e both the De%e"o(in$ n& 'om("etion St$es =&is+!sse& be"o>* Whi"e the symbo"ism o/ &eities in se5!" emb#+e is o++sion""y /o!n& in the "oe# Tnt#s it is (e#%si%e /et!#e o/ the An!tt#yo$ Tnt#s* M"e n& /em"e &i%ine /i$!#es +o##es(on& to the to (#im#y /+to#s o/ u!"ya n& !ra67" =metho& n& insi$ht>* Fo# the Tibetns the "oe# th#ee +"sses #e si$ni/i+nt (#im#i"y/o# (!#i/i+to#y (#+ti+es to be !n&e#$one (#io# to An!tt#yo$ (#+ ti+e n& s $ene#" so!#+e /o# #it!"s +on+e#ne& ith the m!n&ne si&&his ith this0o#"&"y (!#(oses s!+h s the in+#ese o/ e"th o# th e &est #! +t io n o/ enemie s* The An!tt#yo$ Tnt#s #e the (#eeminent so!#+es o/ te+hniC!es /o# ttinin$ En"i$htenment* The O"& Tnt# t#&ition =+##ie& on by the Nyin$m(> &o(te& nine/o"& +"ssi/i+tion into nine s!++essi%e %ehi+"es (t-eg!a, S,t* y"na)# In (#+ti+e it is not %e#y &i//e#ent /#om the Ne Tnt#s /o!#/o"& system* The /i#st th#ee +"sses #e/e# to non0Tnt#i+ te+hin$s* The /o!#th /i/th n& si5th +o##es(on& to .# iy '# y n& o$ n& +"sses se%en to nine #e/e# to th#ee st$es o/ ht #e in Ne Tnt# te#ms An!tt#yo$ Tnt#s* Othe# &i//e#en+es in+"!&e the mo#e e5("i+it"y (#o$#essi%e nt!#e o/ this Nyin$m( s+heme hi+h (#es!((oses "ine# &e%e"o(ment th#o!$h the st$es n& the i&enti/i+tion o/ the "st st$e ith the D2o$+hen te+hin$s set o/ non0 Tnt#i+ te+hin$s tht the Nyin$m( #e$#& s mo#e &%n+e& thn Tnt# =/o# e5m("e G!enthe# 19@:)1660:89 T#!n$( 19@:)7@0@1 N* No#b! 197)3;037 199o8 T!++i 19o)@701>* The D2o$+hen te+hin$s =see be"o 'h(te#s :; to :@> e#e to be+ome %it" (#t o/ the nineteenth0+ent!#y Rime& mo%ement* The n(o "so +"ssi/y te+hin$s into nine %ehi+"es o# t-eg!a, ith D2o$+hen s the ninth* The#e #e t "est to %e#sions o/ the n(o +"ssi/i+tion neithe# o/ them i&enti+" to the Nyin$m( system =.#my 19)1; 1@;>* oth #e &i%i&e& into /o!# +!s" %ehi+"es n& /i%e #es!"t %ehi+"es* In the %e#sion $i%en in the Si6id n& (#esente& in &eti" by Sne""$#o%e the /o!# +!s" %ehi+"es #e/e# to essenti""y /o",0#e"i$ion (#+ti+es =see 'h(te# io> hi"e the #eminin$ /i%e #e the te+hin$s /o# the "y /o""oe# (genyen), the o#&ine& mon, (trangsong, +o##es(on&in$ to !&&hist gelong), to "e%e"s o/ Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e n& D2o$+hen =Sne""$#o%e 197@ Reyno"&s 19)3 /o# the n(o D2o$+hen t#&ition see .% e# ne 19 3 .# m y 19):o10:o6>* I h%e "#e&y mentione& in 'h(te# : nothe# y in hi+h the +"sses o/ Tnt# #e t#&ition""y &istin$!ishe&* In .#iy Tnt# the #e"tionshi( beteen the &eity n& the tnt#i+ (#+titione# o# yo$in is +on+ei %e& o/ s mste#0se#%nt #e"tionshi(* The bsi+ (tte#n he#e is +"ose to tht o/ o#&in#y &e%otion" Hin&! o# !&&hist (#+ti+e* In '#y Tnt# the yo$in sees
the &eity s n eC!"* The #es!"ts o/ TANTRA AND THE ODHI ORIENTATION the (#+ti+e #e not /%o#s bestoe& by mste# to se#%nt b!t ssistn+e /#om /#ien&* In the hi$he# +"sses the#e is no &!"ity beteen yo$in n& &eity "tho!$h it is on"y in the An!tt#yo$ =n& the th#ee hi$he# +"sses o/ the Nyin$m( system> tht the non&!"ity is /!""y ((#e+ite& =see Lon$+hen RbJm( 0gel so 'ors um 9 G!enthe# 19@613 %o"* I 16>* This he"(s to e5("in hy it s the An!tt#yo$ Tnt#s tht (ose& #e" th#et to the estb"ishe& (tte#ns o/ so+iety (ossib"y in In&i n& +e#tin"y "te# in Tibet* The e#oti+ism o/ thei# symbo"i+ "n$!$e n& the #e" o# ((#ent /"o!tin$ o/ +on%ention" mo#"ity in%o"%e& in thei# (# +ti+es e#e on"y s!(e#/i+i " si $ns o/ th e #e " (#ob"em hi+h is tht the +ent#" $o" o/ these (#+ti+es in%o"%es t#ns+en&en+e o/ the hie##+hi+" o#&e# n& #tion" &ominn+e !(on hi+h +ent#"i2e& stte &e(en&s* This "so $oes some y to e5("in thei# ((e" in In&i t time hen hie##+hi+" (o"iti+s +o!"& no "on$e# $!#ntee (e+e/!" n& +i%i"i2e& so+iety n& the e,ness o/ the +on%ention" so"!tions s be+omin$ ((#ent* In /+t t "est /o# the Tibetns o/ the Ne Tnt# t#&itions the th#ee "oe# Tnt# +"sses n& the An!tt#yo$ (#+ti+es h%e &i//e#ent ims* The th#ee "oe# +"sses #e !se& (#im#i"y /o# %#io!s m$i+" o# (#o%ision" ims s!+h s (!#i/i+tion (#ese#%in$ he"th in+#esin$ e"th o# (#os(e#ity n& $!#&in$ $inst &n$e#o!s in/"!en+es hi"e the An!tt#yo$ Tnt# is the (#in+i(" te+hniC!e /o# ttinin$ En"i$htenment* Nm,hi No#b! hs s!$$este& tht Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e $ene#""y in Tibet hs bee*n st#on$"y in/"!en+e& by o$ Tnt# ith its em(hsis on (!#i/i+tion n& its (#e+ise n& /o#m" mo&e o/ (#+ti+e =N* No#b! 197 %o"* : 76 199ob)11:>* The s%idhana te5ts /o!n& in the TenJ!# #e %e#y sim("e n& +on+ise +om(#e& to mny o/ those in !se to&y* A"tho!$h inte#n" +ontem("tion is o/ (#im#y im(o#tn+e in An!tt#yo$ Tnt# in (#+ti+e these Tnt#s too #e !s!""y (e#/o#me& to&y in hi$h"y #it!"i2e& mnne#* At the sme time An!tt#yo$ Tnt# hs //e+te& the (#+ti+e o/ the "oe# Tnt#s* I&enti/i+tion ith the &eity o#i$in""y #est#i+te& to An!tt#yo$ Tnt# n& (e#h(s o$ Tnt# is no +ommon /et!#e o/ #it!" seC!en+es t "" "e%e"s* The im(o#tn+e o/ An!tt#yo$ Tnt# is e%i&ent n& e i"" e5mine it in some &eti" be"o* Fi#st hoe%e# e sh"" +onsi&e# the &eity yo$ (#+ti+es +ommon to "" /o!# Ne Tnt# +"sses s e"" s to "" the O"& Tnt#s* DEIT OGA IN THE TANTRAS The +ent#" (#+ti+es o/ Tnt# #e ,non in Sns,#it s seidhana =Tib* drubt-ab), "ite#""y mens /o# ttinment* They in%o"%e the e%o+tion o/ Tnt#i+ &eity (yidam), !s!""y "on$ ith his o# he# ento!#$e* It is th#o!$h this e%o+tion tht the (#o+ess o/ t#ns/o#mtion #e/e##e& to e#"ie# is ++om("ishe&* To
i""!st#te he#e is s!mm#y o/ b#ie/ n& /mo!s (#+ti+e o/ A%"o,ites%# ='hen#esi$> hi+h &e#i%es /#om the %isi on #y e5( e#i en+e s o/ the /i /te ent h0 +ent!#y "m Tn$ton$ Gye"(o) 12# Refuge and $rousing of Bodhi%itta One #e+ites the stn&#& %e#ses o/ #e/!$e in the !&&h Dh#m n& Sm$h n& o/ the #o!sin$ o/ bodhi%itta, the moti%tion to ttin En"i$htenment /o# the s,e o/ "" bein$s* 12# The Oisualization of $valo.itesvara One %is!"i2es onese"/ s s!##o!n&e& by inn!me#b"e bein$s (e#%&in$ "" o/ s(+e* E+h hs hite ei$ht0(et""e& "ot!s bo%e his o# he# he&* On to( o/ the "ot!s is ho#i2ont" moon0&is, n& bo%e tht is hite "ette# hrih# The hrih #&ites "i$ht th#o!$ho!t the !ni%e#se #e(#esentin$ the (oe# n& +om(ssion o/ the !&&hs* =This n& the s!bseC!ent %is!"i2tions #e &es+#ibe& in the %e#ses tht one #e+ites "on$ ith the %is!"i2tion*> Then the hrih t#ns/o#ms into the b#i""int hite /o#m o/ A%"o,ites%# smi"in$ +om(ssionte"y n& emntin$ "i$ht #ys o/ the /i%e +o"o#s o/ the #inbo hi+h #e"ie%e the s!//e#in$s o/ the bein$s o/ the si5 #e"ms o/ #ebi#th =$o&s &emi$o&s h!mn bein$s nim"s !reta, he""0bein$s>* A%"o,ites%# hs /o!# hn&s to Joine& to$ethe# in (#ye# t his +hest the othe# to ho"&in$ hite "ot!s ="e/t> n& +#yst" #os#y =#i$ht>* He is &o#ne& ith the si", $#ments n& (#e+io!s o#nments o/ o&histt% n& hs &ee# s,in +#oss his +hest =symbo"i2in$ his +om(ssion>* He e#s Jee""e& +#on ith sm"" /i$!#e o/ the !&&h Amitbh on it =the he& o/ the Lot!s /mi"y to hi+h A%"o,ites%# be"on$s>* ehin& him is hite moon0&is,* He embo&ies the essen+e o/ "" the !&&hs* 12# Homage and Re%itation of Mantra Mintinin$ the (#e%io!s %is!"i2tion one #e+ites sho#t %e#se o/ hom$e to A%"o,ites%# se%e#" times im$inin$ tht "" othe# bein$s #e Joinin$ in the #e+ittion* The &eity is mo%e& by the ent#ety n& #ys o/ "i$ht emnte /#om his bo&y (!#i/yin$ "" im(!#e ,#mi+ ((e#n+es n& +on/!se& i&es* The e5te#n" o#"& be+omes the S!,h%ti #e"m n& the bo&y s(ee+h n& min& 'IILIED SHAMANS 'IILIED SHAMANS
TANTRA AND THE ODHI ORIENTATION
o/ "" "i%in$ bein$s be+ome the bo&y s(ee+h n& min& o/ A%"o,ite$%#* A"" si$hts so!n&s n& tho!$hts be+ome inse(#b"e /#om em(tiness* Whi"e mintinin$ this %is!"i2tion one #e+ites the si50sy""b"e mnt# o/ A%"o,ite $%# om mani !adme him mny times* This #e+ittion o/ the mnt# is the +ent#" (#t o/ the me&ittion* 12# >issolution into m!tiness Then one &isso"%es the enti#e %is!"i2tion into em(tiness n& #ests in ones on
nt!#e itho!t +on+e(t!"i2tion o/ ny ,in&* 1# Con%lusion and >edi%ation of Merit Eme#$in$ /#om the stte o/ bso#(tion one sees "" o/ #e"ity s the mandala o/ A%"o,ite$%#* Onese"/ n& "" othe# bein$s h%e the /o#m o/ A%"o,itel%# "" so!n&s #e the si5 sy""b"es o/ the mnt# n& "" tho!$hts #e n e5(#ession o/ A%"o,ite$%#s +om(ssion n& is&om* One #e+ites the %e#se o/ &e&i+tion n& sh#in$ o/ the me#it $ene#te& th#o!$h the (#+ti+e) Th#o!$h this me#it my I C!i+,"y be+ome A%"o,itel%# n& then estb"ish "" bein$s itho!t e5+e(tion onto tht "e%e" =Gytso 19o+)17>*13 This is %e#y sho#t n& bsi+ Tnt#i+ s"dhana, b!t it +ontins most o/ the essenti" +om(onents in+"!&in$ the o(enin$ Re/!$e n& bodhi%itta %e#ses =se+tion I > the &isso"!tion o/ o#&in#y #e"ity into sinyat" o# em(tiness =se+tion 2, ; > n& the /in" &e&i+tion o/ me#it 1; =se+tion 6>* The #e+ittion o/ the mnt# he#e the /mo!s si5 sy""b"es o/ A%"o,ites%# om mani !adme him, is +ent#" to the ho"e (#o+ess sin+e it is this mnt# tht e%o,es the #e" (#esen+e o/ A%"o,ites%#* Tnt# is o/ten #e/e##e& to in Tibetn s sangngag, se+#et mnt#* In this (#ti+!"# +se s ith /e othe# %e#y im(o#tnt mnt#s the#e is n e5tensi%e "ite#t!#e on the si$ni/i+n+e o/ the mnt# n& its si5 sy""b"es* E+h sy""b"e +o##es(on&s to one o/ the si5 Pe#/e+tions (!ar amita) n& to #ebi#th in (!#e #e"m in (#ti+!"# &i#e+tion in the mandala5 e+h sy""b"e "ibe#tes bein$s /#om (#ti+!"# &e/i"ement n& /#om the ne$ti%e #ebi#th sso+ite& ith tht &e/i"ement n& so on =see .#m( n*&* Go%in& 1979>* The sso+itions o/ the mnt# #ein/o#+e the i&e o/ +om(ssion /o# "" sentient bein$s hi+h is the essen+e o/ A%"o,ites%# ho #e(#esents the !&&hs +om(ssion /o# the s!//e#in$s o/ sentient bein$s* Lon$e# sddhana my in+"!&e (#e(#to#y (!#i/i+tions o/ the en %i#onment n& o/ the (#+titione# n& m!+h mo#e e"bo#te %is!"i2tions o/ the (#in+i(" &eity hi+h "so in+o#(o#te %is!"i2tions o/ the s!##o!n&in$ &eities o/ the mandala =se+tion :>* They ty(i+""y h%e /#mo#e e5tensi%e se+tions o/ (#ise n& hom$e n& my in+"!&e "on$ seC!en+es o/ +om("e5 %is!"i2e& t#ns/o#mtions +o##e"te& ith mny &i//e#ent mnt#s =+o##es(on&in$ to se+tions 3 n& ;>* The (#in+i(" &eity my be %is!"i2e& s bo%e the me&itto# s he#e o# in /#ont o/ the me&itto#* In most o/ the hi$he# Tnt#s es(e+i""y those o/ the An!tt#yo$ +"ss =see be"o> hoe%e# me&itto#s %is!"i2e themse"%es s bein$ the (#in+i(" &eity ho my be m"e o# /em"e* One e"ement tht is not e5("i+it"y in+"!&e& in the A%"o,ites%# (#+ti+e b!t hi+h is (#ti+!"#"y im(o#tnt hen the me&itto# him se"/ o# he#se"/ be+omes the &eity is the &!"ity o/ samayasattva =Tib* damts-ig sem!a) n& 67"nasattva (yesh; sem!a), "#e&y mentione& in 'h(te# 9* The samayasattva is the initi" %is!"i2tion hose /o#+e is +onne+te& ith the mintenn+e o/ the %o (samaya) t,en be/o#e the $!#!* The 67anasattva is the &eity s #e" s(e+t o/ !&&hhoo&* The 67anasattva is %is!"i2e& s me#$in$ into the samayasattva, he#e it is bo!n& by se#ies o/ mnt# sy""b"es*
Ro$e# -+,son s!ms !( the bsi+ st#!+t!#e o/ the s"dh an a s /o""os) A s"dhana, the +onte5t in hi+h &eity yo$ !s!""y is (#+ti+e& in%o"%es t the %e#y "est the /o""oin$ e"ements) =I> t,in$ s ones s(i#it!" #e/!$e the !&&h Dh#m n& S#n$h =:> $ene#tion o/ the "t#!isti+ intention to ttin en"i$htenment o# bodhi%itta5 =3> +!"ti%tion o/ immes!#b"e "o%e +om(ssion sym(theti+ Joy n& eC!nimity to#& othe# bein$s =;> #e&!+tion o/ ones o#&in#y ((e#n+e to em(tiness (F) $ene#tion o/ onese"/ in the /o#m o/ the &eity (!#e in bo&y s(ee+h n& min& =7> bso#(tion o/ the +t!" &eity o# $nosis bein$ (67"nasattva), ho is +""e& /#om its bo&e into the im$ine& &eity o# ("e&$e bein$ (samayasattva)5 (4) initition by the &eities => #e(etition o/ mnt#s tht e//e+t the e"/#e o/ sentient bein$s n& symbo"i2e the &eitys s(ee+h n& =9> &isso"!tion o/ the &i%ine /o#m into em(tiness Whe#e the (#in+i(" &eity is s!##o!n&e& by the othe# &eities o/ the mandala, the %is!"i2tion +n be+ome C!ite +om("e5* The bsi+ st#!+t!#e o/ the mandala ssemb"y +onsists o/ the +ent#" &eity s!##o!n&e& by /o!# o# =es(e+i""y /o# the Nyin$m(> ei$ht othe# &eities ho #e +on+ei%e& o/ s s(e+ts o/ o# (#oJe+tions /#om the +ent#" yidam# E+h &eity my h%e +onso#t n& the#e my be se%e#" +i#+"es TANTRA AND THE ODHI ORIENTATION o/ s!+h &eities ith tten&nt /i$!#es &&in$ !( to se%e#" h!n&#e& &eities "" o/ hom nee& to be %is!"i2e& (#e+ise"y* The im$inti%e +ont#o" #eC!i# e& +n be +onsi&e#b"e) One is si& to h%e ++om("ishe& the $ene#tion st$e o/ the ."+,# hen one +n %is!"i2e the enti#e mandala in &#o( the si2e o/ m!st#& see& t the ti( o/ ones nose ith s!+h +"#ity tht one +n see the hites o/ the eyes o/ "" @:: &eities<n& +n mintin this %is!"i2tion ith !ninte##!(te& one0(ointe& +on+ent#tion /o# /o!# ho!#s =R* -+,son 196)3:>* In othe# t#&itions s!+h s the An!yo$ (#+ti+es o/ the O"& Tnt# "ess &eti"e& %is!"i2tion o/ the &eities is #eC!i#e& n& the em(hsis is #the# on &e%e"o(in$ $ene#" /ee"in$ o/ bein$ the &eity* The bsi+ (#in+i("e #emins the sme in tht (#+titione#s "e#n to #e("+e thei# o#&in#y (e#+e(tion o/ the o#"& &!#in$ n& to some e5tent "so o!tsi&e (#+ti+e sessions ith the %ision o/ the o#"& t#ns/i$!#e& on the (tte#n o/ the mandala# To see the enti#e o#"& #o!n& one s h%in$ the nt!#e o/ the mandala is /o#m o/ (!#e %ision o# dagnang o((ose& to the im(!#e %ision o/ o#&in#y "i/e* The mandala %ision is t#!e# n& mo#e +o##e+t thn the (#+titione#s no#m" (e#+e(tion o/ #e"ity* E%e#ythin$ in the e5 te# n" !ni %e# se + n be se en s n s(e+t o/ the entities ithin the mandala, n& the#e #e e"bo#te sets o/ +o##es(on&en+es beteen the &eities o/ the mandala n& s(e+ts o/ e5te#n" n& inte#n" #e"ity* As e i"" see the ss!m(tion o/ the #o"e o/ (#in+i(" &eity s (#t o/ the &eity0yo$ (#o+ess hs ,ey #o"e to ("y in the "ms (e#/o#mn+e o/
P#$mti+ #it!"s ithin the gom!a n& /o# his "y +"iente"e* Within the o&hi O#ienttion hoe%e# it is on"y (#t o/ the Tnt#i+ (#o+ess* We no t!#n to "oo, t the #eminin$ (#t the s!bt"e bo&y o# tsalung (#+ti+es hi+h #e t!$ht (#im#i"y ithin the hi$hest Ne Tnt# +"ss =An!tt# yo$ Tnt # > n& ithin its O"& Tnt# eC!i%"ents* ANUTTARAOGA TANTRA AND THE SUTLE OD PRA'TI'ES An!tt#yo$ Tnt# (#+ti+e is &i%i&e& into to +on+e(t!""y &istin+t st$es the De%e"o(ment n& 'om("etion St$es (ut!atti.rama, sam!anna.rama), "tho!$h in n +t!" #it!" seC!en+e (sddhana) e"ements o/ both st$es my be in+"!&e&* The De%e"o(ment St$e o# .yedrim #esemb"es the "oe# Tnt# +"sses in tht it in%o"%es the (#+titione#s %is!"i2in$ themse"%es s the &eity ithin mandala o# o#&e#e& ##n$ement o/ s!##o!n&in$ &eities* It is the se+on& o# 'om("etion St$e (dzogrim) tht is !niC!e to the An!tt#yo$ Tnt#s* This st$e +onsists o/ se#ies o/ t#ns/o#mtions o# o(e#tions +##ie& o!t ith the so0+""e& s!bt"e o# #+ne bo&y =the !&&hist te#m is i""!so#y bo&y Tibetn gyul8)# This bo&y is +om(ose& o/ %a.ra =Tib* .-orlo) o# (sy+hi+ +ente#s n"di =Tib* tsa) o# +hnne"s n& /"os o/ (sy+hi+ ene#$y o# (#n =Tib* lung) "on$ these +hnne"s* It is /#om midi n& !aint- tht the most /#eC!ent Tibetn te#m /o# these (#+ti+es (tsalung) is &e#i%e&* The bsi+ theo#y o/ the s!bt"e bo&y is +ommon to !&&hist n& Hin&! yo$i+ t#&itions n& simi"# +on+e(ts #e e"" ,non /#om 'hin n& e"sehe#e =Sm!e" 199>* t%ilia is "so +ent#" +on+e(t in in&i$eno!s me&i+" theo#y in Tibet "i,e its eC!i%"ent :i in 'hin =E(stein n& To($y 19:>* Ne%e#the"ess the s!bt"e bo&y hs been one o/ the h#&est +on+e(ts in !&&hist n& Hin&! tho!$ht /o# Weste#ne#s to ((#e+ite (e#h(s be+!se it im("ies "+, o/ se(#tion beteen bo&y n& min& hi+h Weste#n s+ien+e n& me&i+ine hs h& &i//i+!"ty in ++e(tin$ =see Sm!e" 199>* The Tibetns t times s(e, s i/ the %a.ra n& -midi #e #e""y (hysi+""y (#esent in the bo&y in the /o#m they #e &es+#ibe& by t#&ition n& it is &i//i+!"t to sC!#e s!+h n inte#n" ntomy mo#e thn ((#o5imte"y ith tht ,non to mo&e#n me&i+ine* The system o/ %a.ra n& midi &o!bt"ess hs some (hysi+" +o##e"tes b!t it is best !n&e#stoo& s ,in& o/ ment" mo&e" o/ the h!mn ne#%o!s system s seen /#om the insi&e* S!+h mo&e" is not st#i$ht/o##& &es+#i(tion b!t st#!+t!#in$ "e#nin$ the m( in%o"%es "e#nin$ to m,e sense o/ ones ne#%o!s system in (#ti+!"# y* Di//e#ent Tnt#s in ny +se s(e+i/y s"i$ht"y &i//e#ent mo&es o/ %is!"i2in$ the system hi+h o!"& seem to #emo%e ny nee& to i&enti/y the %a.ra n& n"di on one0/o#0one bsis ith entities ,non to Weste#n s+ien+e*16 With the $#oin$ ++e(tn+e o/ 'hinese me&i+ine in the West n& es(e+i""y the o#, on bio/ee&b+, e5(e#iments hi+h &emonst#te the min&0bo&y "in,$e in /o#m ++essib"e to Weste#n s+ien+e the s!bt"e bo&y is
be$i be $inn nnin in$$ to m,e m ,e mo#e mo #e sens se nsee ='om =' om/o /o#t #t 19@9 19 @9): ):@ @ 1:3 1:3>* >* The s!bt" s!b t"ee bo&y bo &y theo#y theo#y (#o%i&e (#o%i&ess y o/ !n&e#st !n&e#stn&i n&in$ n$ n& so m,in$ +ons+io!s !se o/ the stte st tess o / s"ee s "ee ( n& n& &#emi &#e min$ n$ no nothe the # (oint (oint o/ +on +ont+ t+tt ith ith shm shmni+ ni+ t#&it t#&ition ions* s* The (#o+ess o/ ð n& the e%ents o/ the inte#me&ite stte 'IILIED SHAMANS 'IILIED TANTRA AND THE ODHI ODHI O SHAMANS o# bardo, #e "so inte#(#ete& in te#ms o/ t#ns/o#mtions o/ the s!bt"e bo&y n& one one o/ the the (#im (#im#y #y e5(e e5(e#ie #ien+ n+es es o/ the the 'o 'om( m("e "etio tionn St$e St$e is (#e+is (#e+ise"y e"y the &e"ibe#te !n&e#$oin$ o/ the s!bt"e bo&y (#o+esses sso+ite& ith &yin$ =Lt =Ltii n& n& Ho Ho(, (,in inss 19 @9>* This This "e&s "e&s to the +ess +essti tion on o/ &i+h &i+hot otom omi2 i2in in$$ =+on+e(t!"i2in$> tho!$ht n& the #isin$ o/ the t he '"e# '"e# Li$h Li$ht* t* He#e e +n see sense in hi+h the Tnt#s (#o%i&e so(histi+te& #eo#,in$ o/ +ommon shmni+ (#o+e&!#es* I h%e s!$$este& e"sehe#e tht the t#inin$ o/ the shmn in%o"%es the +C!isition o/ +ont#o" o%e# se#ies o/ &i//e#ent (otenti"ities o# mo&es o/ o(e#tion ithin h!mn e5isten+e* These mo&es #e $ene#""y &es+#ibe& in te#ms o/ %o+b!"#y o/ s(i#its b!t the s(i#its my be !n&e#stoo& !n&e#stoo& s symbo"s symbo"s /o# &i//e#ent &J!stments &J!stments o# t!nin$s t!nin$s o/ the min&0bo¥%i#onment system* I/ shmns #e to o(e#te ith these mo&es mo&es o# &e" &e" ith the s(i#its they h%e to +C!i#e +C!i#e some ,in& o/ /!#the# /!#the# mo&e mo&e o# stte stte /#om hi+h they +n %ie them n& b"n+e b"n+e them ithin ithin themse"%es n& thei# so+i" +onte5t* In the (#o+ess they h%e to t#ns+en& o# $o beyon& the no#m" e5(e#ien+e e5(e#ien+e o/ the o#"& t,en /o# $#nt $#nte& e& ithi ithinn thei# so+i" n& +!"t!#" +onte5t* This I h%e s!$$este& is the menin$ o/ the symbo"i+ ð tht /o#ms s!+h +ommon (#t o/ shmni+ t#inin$ n& initition =Sm!e" 199o) 18>* We +n +onsi&e# the th#ee "oe# Tnt# +"sses +!"mintin$ in the &eity0 yo$ o/ the An!tt#yo$ An!tt#yo$ Tnt# Tnt# De%e"o(me De%e"o(ment nt St$e St$e s eC!i eC!i% %"e "ent nt to the the $inin$ o/ +ont#o" o%e# the o#"& o/ s(i#its* He#e the s(i#its #e #e("+e& by Tnt#i+ yidam yi dam ho #e +"e#"y s m!+h ithin s o!tsi&e the (#+titione#* The yidam yi dam is sometim sometimes es i&enti/ i&enti/ie ie&& ith ith the the ene#$y ene#$y &ist#ib!tion &ist#ib!tion ithin the %a.ra n & midi midi## 17 In the 'om("etion 'om("etion St$e St$e the (#+tit (#+titione ione## !n& !n&e#$ e#$oes oes &i#e+t &i#e+t sim!"tion o/ ð by mimi+,in$ the s!bt"e bo&y (#o+esses sso+ite& ith &yin$* The %ision o/ the '"e# Li$ht to hi+h this "e&s my be eC!te& ith the %ision#y stte +hie%e& by s!++ess/!" shmni+ initition =Sm!e" 1998) 18@0189>* Th!s i/ the "ms /!"/i"" C!si0shmni+ #o"e /o# thei# "y /o""oe#s =see A2i2 19@7 P!" 19@7 Stb"ein 19@7b> they #e (#e(#e& /o# &oin$ so by t#ini t#inin$ n$ ho hose se +ent# +ent#" " +om( +om(one onents nts #e st#on st#on$"y $"y #emini #eminis+ent s+ent o/ +"ssi +"ssi+ +"" shmni+ shmni+ t#inin$* t#inin$* It is not s!#(#isin s!#(#isin$$ tht the bsi+ bsi+ st#! st#!+t +t!# !#ee o/ the the Tnt Tnt#i #i++ manndala ma dala #ese #esemb mb"e "ess C!& C!&#i #i( (#t #tit itee n& n& othe othe#symme #symmet#i+" t#i+" (tte#nin$s /o!n& in t#&iti t# &ition" on" shmni+ shm ni+ +!"t!#e +!" t!#ess =see Wymn ymn 1971 1971 Sm!e" Sm!e" 199 1998) 8) 9o>* 9o>* It seems "i,e"y tht e#"y Tnt#i+ Tnt#i+ te+he#s h& +"ose "in,s ith s!#%i%i s!#%i%in$ n$ t#ib" (o(!"tions in In&i* Some o/ the mJo# Tnt#i+ (i"$#im$e sites in
In&i In&i #e sti" sti""" +"os +"osee to t#i t#ib b"" $#o! $#o!(i (in$ n$s* s* At on onee mJo# Jo# site site = S#i(#%t no&ys ,non s S#i i"m> the "o+" t#ib" (o(!"tion #etins s(e+i" sso+ition ith the (i"$#im$e site =Rmesn 197:> in nothe# =.m#(> the#e is t #&ition tht the (#iests o/ the tem("e e#e e#e /o#me#"y o/ t#ib" t#ib" o#i$in =Des =Desn nii 19 19@3 @3)1 )13> 3>** My #$!me #$!ment nt he#e he#e is ho hoe e%e %e## no nott #e"" #e""yy bo! bo!tt the (os ( osss ib "e o# i $i n s o / t he Tnt#s Tnt# s h hi+h i+h h% h%ee in ny n y +se +s e !n&e# !n &e#$on $onee "on$ "o n$ n& n & +om( +om("e "e55 se#ie se#iess o/ histo#i+" histo#i+" t#ns/o#mtion t#ns/o#mtionss in thei# Jo!#ney Jo!#ney /#om ny (!t ( !t t i % e o# i$in i$ in" " t# ib" ib " +ont +o nte5 e5t*t* The Th e hist hi sto# o# i+" i+ " o#i$ o# i$in inss o/ th e Tnt# Tn t# s #e # e !n 0 "i,e"y e%e# to be+ome %e#y +"e#* Wht is e%i&ent is tht Tnt# in Tibetn so+ieties (#o%i&e /!n+tion" eC!i%"ent to shmni+ (#+ti+e n& o(e#te th#o!$h %o+b!"#y %o+b!"#y tht my be +onsi&e#e& +onsi&e#e& s mo#e o#e so(h so(his isti ti++te& te& n& n& #tion"i2e& %e#sion o/ ty(i+" shmni+ %o+b0 !"#y* THE SUTLE OD AND THE TANTRI' USE OF SE_UALIT The &eti"s &eti"s o/ the mni(!" mni(!"tions tions +##ie& +##ie& o!t ith the s!bt"e bo&y h%e been s!mm#i s!mm#i2e& 2e& by Gi!se( Gi!se((e (e T!++i T!++i =198)1 =198)18701 870189> 89> n& &es+#ib &es+#ibe& e& mo#e /!""y e"sehe#e =/o# e5m("e eye# 19@3)1:@01;3 Lti n& Ho( Ho(,in ,inss 19@9 19@9 see see "so .%e#ne 19@ *6>* E+h o/ the Tnt#s hs &i//e#ent te#mino"o$y /o# &es+ &es+#ib #ibin in$$ thes thesee (#o+ (#o+es esse ses* s* Lte Lte## Tibe Tibet tnn !tho#s !tho#s s!+h s!+h s Tson on$, $,( ( &e%e"o(e& syntheti+ s+hemes #e+on+i"in$ these te#mino"o$ies* Pe#h(s the best be st00 ,no ,n onn se#i se #i es o/ 'o 'om( m("e "eti ti on St$e St $e (#+t (# +ti+ i+es es is tht th t ,no ,non n s the Si5 Te+ Te+hin hin$s $s o/ N#o( N#o(** This This set o/ (#+ti+e (#+ti+ess is he"& he"& to h%e been t!$ht t!$ht by N#o N #o( ( to his hi s Tibet Tib etn n st! st ! &en &entt M#( M# ( n& (sse& (s se& on th#o!$ th# o!$hh the "tte# "t te#s s &is+i( &is +i("e "e Mi"#e( to the .$y&( n& Ge"!$( t#&itions o/ Tibet* The#e #e se%e#" En$"ish &es+#i(tions o/ these (#+ti+es n& one o/ the +"ose"y #e"te& Si5 o$s o/ Ni$!m*@ The bsi+ (#+ti+e o/ the 'om("etion St$e is the b#in$in$ to$ethe# o/ the %#io!s %#io!s (sy+hi+ (sy+hi+ +!##ents +!##ents ithin ithin the +ent#" +ent#" +hnne +hnne"" o/ the s!bt s!bt"e "e bo&y bo&y (#o+ess tht is he"& he"& to h((en nt!#""y nt!#""y t the time o/ TANTRA TANTRA AND THE ODHI O DHI ORIENTATION ORIENTATION &et ð* h* The The +!## +!##en ents ts #e #e then then #is #ise& e& !( the the +hn +hnne ne"" n& n& th#o th#o!$ !$hh the the s!++essi%e %a.ra# In mny t#&itions in+"!&in$ tht o/ N#o( this (#o+ess is +on+e(t!"i2e& in te#ms o/ the ,enin$ n& #isin$ o/ 'n&"i 'n&"i =Tibetn =Tibetn tummo), # a /em"e &eity ho +o##es(on&s to the /em"e se#(ent0&eity .!n&"ini in the Hin&! Tnt#i+ system* Some ttention hs #e+ent"y been $i%en to the (hysio"o$i+" (hysio"o$i+" +o# #e"te #e"tess o/ the #o!s" n& s+ent o/ .!n&"ini n& the#e is "itt"e &o!bt tht the (#o+ess is #e" one ith mes!#b"e (sy+ho"o$i+" e//e+ts =Snne"" =Snne"" 191>* 191>* 'n&"i 'n&"i is sso+ite& ith het n& the (#+ti+es sso+ite& ith he# #e be"ie%e& to +#et +#etee het* het* This This ss &o &o!b !bt"e t"ess ss n im(#es im(#essi% si%ee tt#ib tt#ib!te !te /o# (#emo (#emo&e# &e#nn
Tibetns n& the bi"ity o/ the Tnt#i+ si&&hs to en&!#e the h#sh ethe# o/ the hi$h hi$h Him" Him"y ynn %"" %""ey eyss e e# #in in$$ on on"y "y sin$ sin$"e "e +ott +otton on +"ot +"othh is n ((#o(#ite ((#o( #ite &emonst#tion &emonst# tion o/ thei# thei# (oe# (oe#s* s* The#e #e se%e#" e""0,non sto#ies sto#ies o/ this ,in& bo!t Mi"#e( Mi"#e( ho s the (#in+i(" (#in+i(" &is+i("e o/ M#( N#o(s N#o(s Tibetn Tibetn st!&ent st!&ent =/o# e5m("e in the Mi l; Gu r bum bu m o/ Tsn$nyn Tsn$nyn He#!, \ 'hn$ 19@@ %o"* # # :303@>* :303@>* The re!a t#& t#&it itio ionn o/ +ott +otton on0 0e e#i #in$ n$ si&& si&&h hss +ont +ontin in!e !ess into into mo&e mo&e#n #n times times in the the .$y .$ y&( &( o#&e# o#&e# hi+h hi+h Mi"#e( Mi"#e(ss &is+i( &is+i("es "es /o!n&e& s e"" s in ""ie& o#&e#s s!+h s the Nyin$m(* These Tibetn si&&hs test thei# bi"ity in +#e +#eti tin$ n$ het het by &#y &#yin$ in$ o! o!tt e ett b"n b"n,e ,ets ts =D% =D%i& i&0N 0Nee ee"" 19 19@1 @1 .h .hn n&# &#oo 19)76 19)76 1@1>* Re+ent Re+ent s+ienti/i+ s+ienti/i+ st!&ie st!&iess h% h%ee &ete+t &ete+te& e& s!bst s!bstnti nti" " #ises #ises in bo&y bo &y tem(e te m(e# #t! t!#e #e in tummo (#+titione#s tummo (#+titione#s =enson et "* 19:>* As s!+h s!+h e5e#+ e5e#+ise isess my my s!$$e s!$$est st si&&h si&&h (#+t (#+ti+e i+e #eC!i# #eC!i#es es so!n so!n&& n& n& he"thy +onstit!tion n& the inte#n" mni(!"tions o/ the (# 10+!##ents in tsalu tsalung ng (#+t (# +ti+ i+ee #e # e s!((" s! (("eme ement nte& e& by e5te# e5t e#n n"" (hy (hysi si+ +"" e5 e#+i e# +ise sess (tr-ul.-or), hi+h he"( to mintin the n"di n& %a.ra in $oo& o#&e#* 'n&"i is on"y one o/ the n!me#o!s /em"e &eities in the Tnt#s* Whi"e 'n&"i he#se"/ is not st#on$"y (e#soni/ie& othe# /em"e &eities s!+h s the %#io!s /o#ms o/ J#yo$ini =Do#JQ N"Jo#m> h%e %it" #o"e s initito#y $o&&esses* The !se o/ se5!" n& e#oti+ "n$!$e is +h#+te#isti+ o/ these te5ts* As "#e&y mentione& the +ent#" &eity =i/ m"e> #e(#esents #e(#esents u!"ya n& his /em"e +onso#t (#JY* Thei# !nion is the non&!"ity o/ b"iss n& %oi&ness (s7nyat"), hi"e the inte#n" (#o+es (#o +esses ses o/ the 'om(" 'om ("eti etion on St$e St $e (#"" (# ""e" e" those th ose o/ se5!" se5 !" inte#+ int e#+o!# o!#se) se) Se5!" !nion ith n +t!" (hysi+" (#tne# =ho is #e/e##e& to in the Sns,#it te5ts s .armamudr", "ite#""y +tion se"> is em0 ("o ( "o ye& ye & on o+ +s + s io n s ( # t o/ t he 'o m(" m( " et i on St $ e* A . $ y& y & ( %e#si %e# sion on o/ these (#+ti+es is &es+#ibe& b#ie/"y in the Mil; Mi l; Gurbum Gur bum =39;399 \ 'hn$ 0 "r o! ; 0 a m t - a r 19@@ %o"* : 3 6 @ 0 3 7 8 > n& in someht mo#e &eti" in the 0"r = ;: ; : 8% 8% i0 i0 ;: ; : ;% ;% \ G !e !e nt nt he he # 1 97 (e#/o#me& e& s!++ s!++es ess/ s/!" !""y "y the the 9 7 3) 3 ) @@ @ @ 0@ 0 @ > > * To be (e#/o#m (#t ( #ti+ i+i( i(n nts ts h%e h %e to h%e h %e +C! + C!i# i#e& e& +ons +o nsi& i&e# e# b"e b "e +ont +o nt#o #o"" o%e# o% e# the th e ene# en e#$y0 $y0 /"o /" oss ithin the s!bt"e bo&y* In Tibetn so+ieties to&y the se5!" yo$ (#+ti+es &o not seem to be i&e"y (#+ti+e& (#+ti+e& "tho!$h they #e sti"" (e#/o#me& (e#/o#me& n& in Tnt#i+ theo#y h%e to be (e#/o#me& t "est on+e i/ !&&hhoo& is to be ttine& in tht "i/etime* Mny Mny Tnt#i nt#i++ yo$ o$in inss #e #e mon, mon,ss n& n& so #est #est#i #i+t +te& e& by thei thei## %o %os s o/ +e"ib +e"ib+ +yy* The The st#i+ st#i+tt ob obse se#% #%n n+e +e o/ thes thesee %o %os s im("i im("ies es /o#e /o#e$o $oin in$$ the the ttinment o/ En"i$htenment to /!t!#e "i/e* At best it +n be ttine& &!#in$
the inte#me&ite stte /te# thei# ð s Tson$,( s be"ie%e& to h%e &one =see 'h(te# 16>* In (#+ti+e ho"y n& #es(e+te& te+he# ith "#$e /o"" /o""o oin in$ $ h het ethe he## mon on,, o# no non+ n+e" e"ib ibte yo$ o$in in is ##e ##e"y "y &es+ &es+#i #ibe be&& !nmbi$!o!s"y !nmbi$!o!s"y s +hie%in$ +hie%in$ En"i$htenment En"i$htenment t "est in #e+ent +ent!#ie +ent!#ies s sin+e this this o! o!"& "& im("y im("y tht tht #ein+#n #ein+#nti tion on +nnot +nnot o++!#* o++!#* As e i"" see in "te# +h(te#s the /in&in$ o/ #ebi#ths hs be+ome n essenti" (#t o/ the Tibetn !&&hist system*1 The #o"e o/ se5!"ity in !&&hist Tnt# Tnt# is t h!s +om("e5 one* P#t"y P#t"y it is n"o$i+" the m"e0/em"e (o"#ity stn&s /o# the !nity tht the Tnt#i+ yo$in ttem(ts to +hie%e +hie%e n& so (#o%i&es +on%enient +on%enient symbo"i+ symbo"i+ "n$!$e "n$!$e to i& in +hie%in$ tht !nion* P#t"y the inte#n" (#o+esses n& the ++om(nyin$ t#ns t#ns/o# /o#m mtio tions ns in +ons +ons+i +io! o!sn snes esss in%o"% in%o"%e& e& in o#&in o#&in#y #y se5! se5!"" !nion !nion #e homo"o$ homo"o$i2e& i2e& ith the t#ns/o#m t#ns/o#mtions tions tht the yo$in !n&e#$oes* U"timte"y these #e to &i//e#ent &i//e#ent y yss o/ syi syin$ n$ the sme sme thin$ thin$ se5! se5!"it "ityy #e" #e" o# im$ine& im$ine& is !se& !se& in the +onst#!+ +onst#!+tio tionn o/ the s(e+i" s(e+i" stte o/ bein$ bein$ t hi+h hi+h Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e ims* The se5!"ity o/ Tnt# is not the#e /o# its on s,e* It is mens to n en& "tho!$h it is !se& be+!se it is n ((#o(#ite mens =see G!enthe# 1973 1979 19@6 h#ti 19@7 Go%in& 19@@>* An im(o# im(o#tn tntt s(e s(e+t +t o/ the ! !&&h &&hist ist Tnt#i+ nt#i+ +on+ +on+e( e(t! t!"i2 "i2ti tion on o/ the s!bt"e s!bt"e bo&y (#o+esses (#o+esses s mentione mentione&& in the ne5t se+tion se+tion is the homo"o homo"o$y $y +onst#!+te& beteen the +on+ent#tin$ o/ ene#$y ithin the +ent#" midi n& the #o!s" n& +on+ent#tin$ o/ bodhi%itta, the bsi+ Mhyn moti%tion o/ t he bodh bodhisa isatt ttva# va# This This "e%e "e%e"" o/ symb symbo" o"is ism m is in /+t /+t mo#e mo#e (e#%s (e#%si%e i%e n& n& im(o#tnt thn tht o/ 'n&"i n& simi"# /i$!#es* He#e s e"sehe#e both the +onte5t ithin hi+h !&&hist 'IILIED SHAMANS TANTRA TANTRA AND THE ODHI O DHI ORIENTATION ORIENTATION (# +t + t i+e i+ e is &o ne ne n& n & the th e st # !+t! !+ t! #e #e +ont +o nt ent en t n& n & symb sy mbo" o" is m o/ t he (#+ (# +ti ti+es +es themse"%es +onstnt"y o#ients the (#+titione#s to#&s the +ent#" !&&hist $o" o/ En"i$htenment hte%e# the imme&ite im o/ the the s(e s(e+i +i/i /i++ (#+ (#+ti ti+e +e bein$ (e#/o#me&* B&>H@C@TT$ B&>H@C@TT$ AND THE ETHI'AL DIMENSION OF UDDHIST TANTRA En"i$h En"i$hten tenmen mentt is the o//i+i" o//i+i" rais raison on d-Ltre d-Ltre o/ J#yn J#yn !& !&&h &hism ism n& n& is e%e#yhe#e e%e#yhe#e #e+o$ni2e& #e+o$ni2e& s the +ent#" n& !"timte $o"* This s "#e "#e& &yy t#!e in the In&in te5ts n& in&ee& se#%es to &istin$!ish !&&hist Tnt# /#om
Hin&! T Tnt#* Its most +ent#" +ent#" e5(#ession e5(#ession (e#h(s i s the homo"o$y ithin !&&hist Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e tht is &#n beteen the #o!sin$ o/ bodhi%itta Bo dhi% i%it itta ta,, n& n& the the inte inte#n #n" (#o+ (#o+es esss o/ Tnt#i nt#i++ yo$ o$ =S =Sm !e" !e" 19 199>* 9>* Bodh mentione& e#"ie# in this +h(te# is the +ent#" Mhyn moti%tion the &esi#e to +hie%e En"i$htenment to s%e "" sentient bein$s /#om thei# s!//e s!//e#in #in$s* $s* In the 'o 'om( m("eti "etion on St$e St$e o/ the the An An!t !tt t#y #yo$ o$ (#+t (#+ti+ i+es es the the &i#e+tin$ o/ ene#$ies into the +ent#" +hnne" o/ the bo&y hi+h in Hin&! Tnt# s $ene#""y +on+e(t!"i2e& s the s+ent !( the s(in" +o"!mn o/ .!n&"ini the +oi"e& se#(ent t the bse o/ the s(ine is eC!te& ith the ,enin$ n& n& s+ent o/ bodhi%itta# These 'om("etion 'om("etion St$e yo$s #e mon$ the most s!bt"e n& &i//i+!" &i//i+!"tt o/ Tibet ibetnn Tnt#i nt#i++ (#+t (#+ti+e i+es s ho hoe% e%e# e# the em(h em(hsis sis on the !& !&&hi &hist st En"i$hten En"i$htenment ment s the #e" $o" o/ (#+ti+e (#+ti+e (e#%&es (e#%&es "" Tibet Tibetnn Tnt#i+ nt#i+ (#+t (# +ti+ i+e* e* We h%e h %e "#e " #e& &yy seen se en tht th t ith i thin in the th e s"dh s" dhan anaa the +t!" &eity yo$ (#+ (# +ti ti+e +ess #e # e (#em (# emis ise& e& !(on !( on the th e (#+ (# +ti titi tion one# e#s s &isso &i sso"% "%in in$$ himse hi mse"/ "/ o# he#se" he# se"/ / into into em(ti em(tine ness ss o# sJny sJ nyat at", ", the bsi+ Mhyn !&&hist sse#tion o/ the #e"ti%ity #e"ti%ity o/ "" ((#e ((#ent nt (henomen (henomen* * O the# +om(onents s!+h s the t,in$ o/ Re/!$e n& the me&ittion on the /o!# b#hm%ih# b#hm%ih# #e stn&#& stn&#& !&&hist !&&hist (#+t (# +ti+e i+ess +ommon +om mon to "" " " The# Th e#% %& &in in n& n & Mh M hy yn n ! !&& &&hi hist sts* s* A"" s"dh s" dhan anaa in+" in+"!& !&ee the the &e/i &e/ini nin$ n$ +t +t o/ Mh Mhyyn n ! !&& &&hi hism sm the the $ene $ene# #ti tion on o/ bodhi% bod hi%itt itta, a, the "t#!i "t#!isti sti++ moti% moti%tio tionn o/ the bo&hist bo&histt% t% n& en& ith ith the &e&i &e&i+ +tio tionn o# &ist#i &ist#ib! b!tio tionn o/ the me#it me#it ttin ttine& e& th#o!$ th#o!$hh the (#+ti (#+ti+e +e nothe# stn&#& Mhyn (#+ti+e #ein/o#+in$ the (#+titione#s +ommitment to#&s b#in$in$ "" bein$s to En"i$htenment* The #e"ti%e em(hsis $i%en to these e"ements %#ies beteen (#ti+!"# s"dh s" dhan ana, a, b!t b! t thei th ei## +onstnt #e(etition s (#t o/ %i#t!""y e%e#y Tibetn Tnt#i+ #it!"seC!en+e $i%es them (#ominent (os ( osii t i on i t hi n th e t ot " bo & y o/ Tnt#i+ Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e* The o& o&hi hi O#ient O#ienttion tion th!s th!s (#o%i&es (#o%i&es !&&hist !&&hist Tnt# nt# ith n inb!i" inb!i"tt ethi+" (#mete# hi+h is on the ho"e bsent /#om Hin&! Tnt#* Hin&! Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e to&y he#e it is not sim("y (#t o/ the #it!" %o+b!"#y o/ #hmin #hmin (#iests (#iests +##ie +##ie&& o!t ithin the $ene# $ene#" " ethi+" +onte5t o/ #hmin +ti %it y /#e C!ent "y ten&s to the nti nomin nomin to the the #eJe+ #eJe+tio tionn o/ +on% +on%ent ention ion" " mo#"ity /o# the hi$he# +""in$ o/ the Tnt#i+ +!"t0$#o!( o# in&i%i&!" sad s adhu hu # Whi"e the#e #e o++sion" e"ements o/ this ttit!&e in the Tibetn +onte5t e%en the most o!t#$eo!s o/ Tibetn ho"y men #e inte#(#ete& s o#,in$ ithin ithin the ethi+ ethi+"" st#!+ st#!+t!# t!#ee o/ ! !&& &&his hism* m* I sh" sh""" s!$$ s!$$es estt in the the histo# histo#i+ i+"" +h(te#s =P#t Th#ee> tht this ethi+" s(e+t o/ !&&hism s si$ni/i+nt /o# its #e"tionshi( to tem(o#" (oe# ithin (#emo&e#n Tibetn so+ieties* so+ieties*
:;3
I) The Lm n& the Tnt#i+ Deities
A +ent#" s(e+t o/ "" Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e Hin&! o# !&&hist is the ,ey #o"e o/ the $!#!* In Tibet the ("+e o/ the $!#! is t,en by the "m* The o#& lama is the stn&#& Tibetn t#ns"tion /o# Sns,#it guru gu ru## As e i"" see in "te# +h(te#s the "m is mo#e thn is +ommon"y !n&e#stoo& by the $!#!* The "ms # o"e in #e"tion to Tnt# Tnt# n& to the Tnt#i+ Tnt#i+ &eities &eities is hoe%e# hoe%e# +ent#" +ent#" to his +ti%ities +ti%i ties n& is i s the th e s!b Je+t Je+t o/ this this +h( +h(te# te#** e/o#e st!&ents +n (e#/o#m Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e they h%e to #e+ei%e the ((#o(#ite ((#o(#ite em(oe#men em(oe#ments ts (*ang, S,t* abhise.a) n& be /o#m""y int#o&!+e& o# &mit &mitte te&& to the ma mand ndal ala# a# The em(o em(oe#m e#ment ent +e#em +e#emony ony itse itse"/ "/ hs hs the the $ene#" /o#m o/ sddh sd dhan ana, a, sin+e the "m hs to t,e on the #o"e o/ the Tnt#i+ &eity &eity in o#&e o#&e## to em(o em(oe e## the the &is+ &is+i( i("e "ess so tht tht they they +n +n s!bs s!bseC eC!e !ent nt"y "y (e#/ (e #/ o#m o# m the th e (#+ (# +ti ti+e +e n& n & them th emse se"% "%es es i&en i& enti ti// y i t h the th e &eit &e it y* The Th e em(oe#ment in%o"%es se#ies o/ /o#m" +onse+#tions in hi+h the "ms (oe# (o e# n& b"essi b"e ssin$ n$ o# %hinlab =S,t* adhisth"na), is t#ns/e##e& to the st!&ent
=see /o# e5m("e D"i Lm n& Ho(,ins 196 Thon&!( 197) 1@@011 M!ses 1971>* The "i/e o/ Tnt#i+ (#+titione#s in Tibet in%o"%es se#ies o/ s!+hem(oe#ments in e+h o/ :;; THE LAMA AND THE TANTRI' DEITIES hi+h they +C!i#e the bi"ity to (#+ti+e the sddhana o/ (#ti+!"# &eity o# ssemb"$e o/ &eities* These em(oe#ments #e no#m""y ++om(nie& by the te5t!" t#nsmission (lung) o/ the sddhana n& o/ten "so by /o#m" te+hin$ o# e5("ntion (tr-id) o/ the (#+ti+e in hi+h the sddhana te5t hi+h is !s!""y in %e#se n& o/ten C!ite +on&ense& is e5("ine& in &eti"* As mentione& bo%e (#+titione#s &o not ne+ess#i"y (e#/o#m "" o/ the (#+ti+es /o# hi+h they h%e #e+ei%e& em(oe#ments on #e$!"# bsis o# t ""* In some +onte5ts /o# e5m("e tht o/ me&ittion #et#et n em(oe#ment my in /+t be +on/e##e& in o#&e# tht $#o!( o/ st!&ents +n imme&ite"y +ommen+e to (#+ti+e the ((#o(#ite sddhana# On othe# o++sions s &is+!sse& "te# in #e"tion to the "m s (e#/o#me# o/ (!b"i+ #it!"s this is not the +se* Some em(oe#ments +##y the ob"i$tion to (e#/o#m sho#t %e#sion o/ the sddhana &i"y b!t most Tibetn #e"i$io!s (#+titione#s "y o# monsti+ +C!i#e /# mo#e (#+ti+es thn they +n (e#/o#m on #e$!"# bsis* In &&i tion mny o/ these (#+ti+es #e /!n+tion""y eC!i%"ent to e+h othe# e%en i/ they #e"te to &i//e#ent &eities o# &i//e#ent t#&itions* Fo#m""y tho!$h the st!&ent ho !n&e#$oes se#ies o/ these em(oe#ments hs been &mitte& into se#ies o/ (#+ti+es o/ &i//e#ent Tnt#i+ &eities e+h ith its on s(e+i/i+ tt#ib!tes n& (otenti"ities* A"" the An!tt#yo$ Tnt#s =the hi$hest o/ the /o!# +"sses o/ the Ne Tnt# +"ssi/i+tion> h%e the sme (!#(ose En"i$htenment "tho!$h &i//e#ent Tnt#s my be s!ite& to &i//e#ent (#+titione#s* The (#+ti+es o/ the "oe# Tnt#s =.#iy '#y n& o$> #e o/ten mo#e s(e+i/i+ n& &i//e#entite& in thei# ims* P#+ti+es to &e%e"o( +om(ssion to i& "e#nin$ to b#in$ bo!t (#os(e#ity n& to (#ese#%e he"th n& "i/e #e "" (#t o/ the Tibetn #it!" %o+b!"#y* The "ms +ent#" #o"e in these em(oe#ments he#e they int#o&!+e the st!&ent to the &eities o/ the mandala n& +on%ey thei# b"essin$ is the
(#&i$mti+ sit!tion /o# thei# +ent#" #o"e in "" Tnt# i+ (#+ti +e n& in&ee& in Tibetn #e"i$ion s ho"e* This is t#!e hethe# (#ti+!"# "ms stt!s is tht o/ #e+o$ni2e& #ebi#th o# trul.u, he#e&it#y o# (e#son""y +C!i#e& hethe# the "m is the he& o/ "#$e monsti+ +omm!nity o# ho!seho"&e# ith (#im#i"y "y o# non+e"ibte yo$in /o""oin$* The ,ey +om(onent o/ the "ms i&entity is tht he o# she is be"ie%e& to be mste# o/ Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e* The im("i+tions o/ this sttement i"" no be +onsi&e#e&* The Tnt#s s e s in 'h(te# 1: #e essenti""y "ine$es o/
'IILIED SHAMANS THE LAMA AND THE TANTRI' DEITIES (#+ti+e* In the In&in +onte5t Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e h& to s(e+ts* The /i#st s(e+t +on+e#ne& the s(e+i/i+""y !&&hist $o" o/ En"i$htenment* He#e the "ms =o# #the# $!#!s> n& thei# /o""oe#s /o#me& sm"" +!"t0$#o!(s +ente#e& #o!n& the (#+ti+e o/ Tnt#i+ #it!"s /o# the +hie%ement o/ En"i$htenment* The ,ey e"ements he#e e#e the #e+ei%in$ o/ Tnt#i+ em(oe#ments =S,t* abhise.a) /#om the $!#! e//e+ti%e"y #it!" o/ ent#y into the +!"t $#o!( n& the (e#/o#mn+e o/ (e#son" Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e (s"dhana) in o#&e# to e%o,e the (oe#s o/ (#ti+!"# Tnt#i+ &eity (istadevat" 9 Tib* yidam) n& h#ness them to#&s the ttinment o/ En"i$htenment* This s(e+t o/ Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e s!#%i%es in Tibetn so+ieties both insi&e n& o!tsi&e the monste#ies "tho!$h it hs been mo&i/ie& in %#io!s ys* Th!s membe#shi( in +!"t0$#o!( hs be+ome m!+h "ess s"ient /et!#e n& em(oe#ments #e /#eC!ent"y +on%eye& mo#e o# "ess e5("i+it"y be+!se o/ thei# $ene#" bene/i+i" e//e+t on the #e+i(ients s(i#it!" "i/e #the# thn be+!se he o# she is +t!""y $oin$ to (e#/o#m the ((#o(#ite s"dhana in the imme&ite /!t!#e* One e5m("e o/ this s mentione& in 'h(te# Io he#e e5(e+tnt mothe#s #e #e+ommen&e& to #e+ei%e hi$h Tnt#i+ inititions be+ !s e o/ the (ossib"e bene/i+i" e//e+t on thei# bbies* The se+on& s(e+t o/ In&in Tnt#i+ !&&hism is the (e#/o#mn+e o/ Tnt#i+ #it!" /o# (!#(oses othe# thn the +hie%ement o/ En"i$htenment* O/ +o!#se the enti#e +ti%ity o/ !&&hist Tnt#i+ $!#! is in theo#y +on+e#ne& ith he"(in$ othe#s to ttin En"i$htenment* Rit!"s to ttin e"th o# "on$ "i/e o# to &est#oy o((onents +ont#ib!te to these en&s by (#o%i&in$ the
#eso!#+es to (#+ti+e the Dh#m #emo%in$ obst+"es to (#+ti+e o# s%in$ (#ti+!"#"y ob&!#te enemies o/ the te+hin$s /#om ++!m!"tin$ e%en mo#e e%i" ,#m* The &istin+tion beteen the to obJe+ti%es /o# #it!" (#+ti+e is ne%e#the"ess e5("i+it* It is ("in /#om the s!#%i%in$ In&in Tnt#i+ te5ts tht In&in Tnt#i+ $!#!s h& "#$e #e(e#toi#e o/ #it!"s +on+e#ne& ith this0 o#"&"y e"/#e ttinin$ he"th n& "on$ "i/e &est#oyin$ enemies n& e%i" /o#+es n& the "i,e* These #it!"s "so /o#m n im(o#tnt (#t o/ Tibetn (#+ti +e he#e they #e +"ssi /i e& into /o!# In&in0 &e#i% e& s!b&i%isi on s) =i> +"min$ o# (+i/yin$ =:> in+#esin$ =e"th "on$ "i/e et+*> =3> em(oe#in$ n& =;> &est#oyin$ o# o%e#+omin$ (shi gy; =ang drag)# Rit!"s o/ this ,in& /o#m the b!", o/ Tibetn "ms #it!" (#+ti+e /o# thei# "y /o""oe#s* Some o/ these #it!"s i"" be &is+!sse& in 'h(te# 1 ;* In the #emin&e# o/ this +h(te#hoe%e# e i"" "oo, /!#th e# t t he i m("i+ tions o/ "ms s the te+he# o/ Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e to thei# st!&ents* THE NATURE OF THE TANTRI' DEITIES As (#e"imin#y the C!estion o/ the nt!#e o/ the Tnt#i+ &eities #eC!i#es /!#the# &is+!ssion* I (ointe& o!t in 'h(te# 9 tht the Tnt#i+ &eities #e not ne+ess#i"y tho!$ht o/ s !tonomo!s s(i#it0entities ho #e s it e#e o!t the#e somehe#e* I s!$$este& in 'h(te# 1: tht Tnt# be"on$s in its essenti"s to the shmni+ (tte#n* This im("ies tht the symbo"i+ entities o/ the shmni+ (tte#n #e "ess !tonomo!s s(i#it0entities thn symbo"i+ &e%i+es to +ti% te (#ti +!"# mo&es o/ bein$ o# (#ti+!"# ys o/ "i%in$ =see Sm!e" 199o>* This hs +onseC!en+es /o# !n&e#stn&in$ ht Tibetn !&&hist "n$!$e is syin$ hen it s(e,s s it o/ten &oes o/ the +ti%ity o/ the Tnt#i+ &eities ithin histo#y* We h%e "#e&y +ome +#oss e5m("es o/ this in the +se o/ A%"o,itel%#s e#"y in+#ntions s the mon,ey0n+esto# o/ the Tibetns n& s .in$ Son$tsen Gm(o* A%"o,itel%# is not s(e+i/i+ &eity o!t the#e* Whi"e he is mo#e (#esent in +e#tin (eo("e s!+h s the D"i Lm the Gy" .#m( o# the Gy"n$ D#!$+hen "" emntions o/ A%"o,ites%# thn in othe#s he is (#esent he#e%e# his (#+ti+e is &one n& to the e5tent tht it is &one s!++ess/!""y* We +n "so sy tht to the e5tent tht A%"o,itel%#s (#+ti+e is (#o(e#"y (e#/o#me& the !ni%e#se be+omes t#ns/o#me& /o# the (e#/o#me#s into the (!#e %ision o/ Amitbhs
(#&ise ithin hi+h e%e#yone (#t,es o/ the nt!#e o/ A%"o,itel%#* He#e the b#ie/ s"dhana $i%en in 'h(te# 1: +n se#%e s (#&i$m /o# the inten&e& (#o+ess* I/ e #e$#& A%"o,itel%# not s &eity b!t s mo&e o/ /ee"in$ +o$nition n& beh%io# then to sy tht A%"o,itel%# is (#esent hene%e# his (#+ti+e is &one is not some ,in& o/ (oeti+ sttement b!t sim("e &es+#i(tion* '"e#"y tho!$h s!+h n A%"o,itel%# hs no s(e+i/i+ e5te#n" "o+tion o# e5isten+e /o# "" tht he my be #e$#&e& s mo#e st#on$"y (#esent in (#ti+!"# (eo("e o# ("+es o# ithin (#ti+!"# #it!"s* To the e5tent tht the Tnt#i+ &eity A%"o,itel%# e5ists he e5ists be+!se he is b#o!$ht into e5isten+e th#o!$h the mi""ions o/ Tibetns ho &o A%"o,itel%# (#+ti+es &e%e"o( ((#o(#ite C!"ities n& th!s to +e#tin &e$#ee be+ome A%"o,itel%#* THE LAMA AND THE TANTRI' DEITIES A%"o,ites%# in othe# o#&s is best seen neithe# s (e#son no# s some ,in& o/ /#ee0/"otin$ s(i#it entity* He is (otenti"ity tht +n be #e"i2e& ithin the bo&y n& min& o/ (#ti+!"# (#+titione# n& th!s t the sme time ithin the ho"e /ie"& o/ Tibetn !&&hist #e"i$io!s +ti%ity* To sy tht s(e+i/i+ (e#son is n emntion o/ A%"o,ites%# im("ies tht s!+h (e#son e(itomi2es the C!"ities o/ A%"o,ites%# o# bette# se#%es s +hnne" th#o!$h hi+h the mo&e o/ bein$ symbo"i2e& by A%"o,ites%# +n be +ti%e ithin so+iety* Simi"#"y /o# the mny "ms ho #e #e$#&e& s emntions o/ MYJ!s#i the bo&histt% o/ s+ho"#shi(* O/ +o!#se the nt!#e o/ Tnt#i+ &eities is not !n&e#stoo& in the sme y by " " Tibet n s o# e% en " " "ms* Ho e%e # the (i +t!# e (# es en te & b o% e is not sim("y ,in& o/ Lmist $"oss on the mo#e st#i$ht/o##& %ies o/ "y (eo("e* E%en mJo# &eities s!+h s A%"o,ites%# G!#! Rim(o+he o# T# ho #e e"" ,non to "" "y (eo("e #e not t#ete& s the obJe+ts o/ &e%otion" +!"t in the y tht /o# e5m("e .#sn o# Si% #e in In&i* E%en /o# "y (eo("e the +ent#" s(e+t o/ the +!"t o/ A%"o,ites%# is the #e(etition o/ his mnt# not =/o# e5m("e> the m,in$ o/ o//e#in$s to his im$e o# the #e+ittion o/ (#ye#s to him to inte#%ene in thei# "i%es* Tht #e(etition !n&o!bte&"y the most +ommon sin$"e #e"i$io!s +t in Tibetn so+ieties is e5("ine& in te#ms o/ &e%e"o(in$ the +om(ssionte C!"ities o/ A%"o,ites%# &i#e+tin$ tht +om(ssion to#&s the s!//e#in$ bein$s o/ the si5 #e"ms not to#&s o#shi((in$ n e5te#n" &eity A%"o,ites%#*
In (#+ti+e it is s+#+e"y (ossib"e to #e&!+e Tibetn sttements bo!t the +ti%ities o/ Tnt#i+ &eities to ny +onsistent &o+t#ine o/ &i %ine inte#%ention in h!mn //i#s* A $oo& e5m("e is the #e"tionshi( o/ the /o!#teenth0+ent!#y "m Tson$,( /o!n&e# o/ the Ge"!$( o#&e# to MYJ!s#i the bodhisattva o/ s+ho"#shi( n& t#ns+en&ent in si$ht =see 'h(te# :7>* Tson$,( +me to be #e$#&e& s n emnti on o/ M YJ!s#i n& is &e(i+te& to&y i th th e so#& n& boo, o/ MYJ!s#i on "ot!ses on eithe# si&e to symbo"i2e his stt!s* Se%e#" e""0,non te5ts by Tson$,( #e hoe%e# &&#esse& to MYJ!s#i n& he is &es+#ibe& in bio$#(hi+" ++o!nts s h%in$ se#ies o/ +#!+i" #e%e"tions /#om MYJ!s#i &!#in$ his "i/etime* These #e%e"tions /o#me& the bsis o/ the s(e+i/i+ (hi"oso(hi+" (e#s(e+ti%e o/ the Ge"!$( s+hoo" =/o# e5m("e .s+hes,y 19@1 Th!#mn 19: 19;>* I/ Tson$,( s n emntion o/ MYJ!s#i +o!"& he (#y toMYJ!s#i h%e %isions o/ MYJ!s#i n& #e+ei%e te+hin$s /#om MYJ!s# i The +ontem(o##y Ge"!$( "m GeshQ N$n$ Dh#$yey +ommente& tht Tson$,(s to "e&in$ &is+i("es .e&# !bJe n& Gy"tsbJe s him on one o++sion in the /o#m o/ MYJ!s#i* A/te# Tson $, ( s &e th .e&#! bJe h& /m o!s se#i es o/ %isi ons o/ Tson$,( in one o/ hi+h he ((e#e& in th e /o#m o/ MYJ!s# i* Hoe%e# the GeshQ ent on to e5("in these to "ms e#e themse"%es emntions o/ othe# &eities* : I/ they e#e themse"%es emntions o/ &eities e mi$ht im$ine tht they o!"& h%e "#e&y been #e o/ Tson$,(s i&entity ith MYJ!s#i be/o#e they s him s the &eity* The sto#ies +o!"& be #e+on+i"e& by ss!min$ tht Tson$,( .e&#!bJe n& Gy"tsbJe e#e in /+t "" &eities n& e#e +ons+io!s"y (!ttin$ on (e#/o#mn+e o/ h%in$ %isions seein$ e+h othe# in &i%ine /o#m n& so on /o# the bene/it o/ thei# non&i%ine s(e+tto#s* S!+h "ine o/ #$!ment is C!ite Tibetn* In the bio$#(hy o/ hi$h in+#nte "m the s!bJe+t my be &es+#ibe& in +hi"&hoo& s (#eten&in$ to st!&y sin+e s!+h hi$h"y &e%e"o(e& bein$ hs no nee& o/ st!&y b!t +ts s i/ he &i& so to ins(i#e othe#s to st!& y* This is mo&e o/ s(e,in$ hoe%e# n& too m!+h em(hsis sho!"& not be ("+e& !(on it* Tibetns #e /!""y #e tht thei# "ms #e h!mn bein$s s e"" s emntions n& #ein+#ntions*3 It is ("in tht GeshQ N$n$ Dh#$yey &i& not /ee" it ne+ess#y to (#esent sin$"e +onsistent sto#y o/ the #e"tionshi( beteen Tson$ ,( n&
the &eity* This s +e#tin"y not "+, in "o$i+ sin+e "i,e "" Ge"!$( gesh; he h& !n&e#$one %e#y e5tensi%e n& #i$o#o!s t#inin$ in "o$i+" #esonin$* The (oint is #the# tht t the !"timte "e%e" "" o/ these ((e#n+es #e (#ti" n& &e"!so#y* The m!"ti("i+ity o/ (ossib"e e5("ntions t &i//e#ent "e%e"s o/ t#!th o# insi$ht is +h#+te#isti+ /et!#e o/ Tibetn !&&hism n& it is nohe#e mo#e in e%i &en+e thn in the +om("e5 C!estion o/ the #e" nt!#e o/ the "m s e sh"" see be"o* E"ements o/ se%e#" &i//e#ent theo#ies o/ the nt!#e n& +ti%ity o/ Tnt#i+ &eities +n be /o!n& in Tibetn sttements* They +n be best t#ete& not by t#yin$ to /o#+e them into sin$"e +onsistent mo&e" b!t by !n&e#stn&in$ the +onte5ts ithin hi+h e+h o/ them is m&e* In this (#ti+!"# +se it is min"y +onseC!en+e o/ ttem(tin$ to tie &on into o#&in#y "n$!$e mo&e o/ &is+o!#se hose #e" #e/e#en+e is to (#o+esses tht t#ns+en& (#ti+!"# in&i%i&!"s* I/ M#i0 'IILIED SHAMANS 'IILIED SHAMANS J!s#i is t,en s symbo" /o# the mo&e o/ thin,in$ /ee"in$ n& +tin$ #e(#esente& by !&&hist (hi"oso(hy o/ the M&hym, s+hoo" then it m,es sense to sy both tht Tson$,( in%o,e& MYJ!s#i n& tht /o# his +ontem(o##ies n& /o# "te# $ene#tions he *as MYJ!s#i* The /!n+tion o/ the Tnt#i+ &eity is n iss!e o/ (#ti+!"# si$ni/i+n+e hen e t!# n to t he "m s te+he#* The st!&ent is e5(e+te& to see his o# he# (e#son" "m s the !&&h* The "m s t#nsmitte# o/ the (#+ti+es is e5("i+it"y to be seen s the !&&hs Tnt#i+ /o#m o/ J#&h# =Do#JQ 'hn$>* To #e+ei%e the /!"" b"essin$ n& em(oe#ment it is im(o#tnt tht the st!&ent see the "m s the Tnt#i+ &eity ho s in t!#n n emntion o/ J#&h# J!st s he o# she hs to %is!"i2e himse"/ o# he#se"/ s the Tnt#i+ &eity* The Tibetns hoe%e# t,e this "ine o/ #esonin$ e"" beyon& the s(e+i/i+ +onte5t o/ #e+ei%in$ Tnt#i+ em(oe#ment hi+h b#in$s !s to the to(i+ o/ &e%otion to the $!#! in $ene#" n& the (#+ti+e o/ $!#!yo$ (lam; nal or) in (#ti+!"#* THE LAMA AND THE TANTRI' DEITIES to(i+ o/ most Tibetn systemti+ (#esenttions o/ the sutra te+hin$s s!+h s the Ge"!$( l am ri m "ite#t!#e* The C!"ities o/ the i&e" te+he# #e e5tensi%e"y &es+#ibe& in the te5ts =Obe#mi""e# 193:01933 %o"* I 7:0@7
G!enthe# 19@8)3303; e#2in 19@:)3o03:>* A %e#se /#om the S8trtilam.ara $i%es the +"ssi+" &es+#i(tion o/ these C!"ities) Re"y !(on the s(i#it!" /#ien& S,t* .aly"namitra, Tib* geshel ho is e""0 &is+i("ine& se"/0+ont#o""e& in me&ittionV n& b"e to +"m "" (ssionsV en&oe& ith s(e+i" ,no"e&$e ene#$eti+ in te+hin$V n& #i+h in his ,no"e&$e o/V the s+#i(t!#es h%in$ insi$ht into * inyata, ho is s,i""/!" in s(ee+h +om(ssionte in nt!#e n& ne%e# ti#e& o# &is+o!#$e& in te+hin$* =Obe#mi""e# 193:01933 %o"* i 73 e#2in 19@:)3o>; A simi"# &es+#i(tion is $i%en in Nyin$m( terma te5t /#om the se%enteenth0 +ent!#y 'ön%h-ög Chind8 +y+"e &is+o%e#e& by Ri$&2in -tsn Nyin$(o =1660 1767>) GURU DEOTION AND GURUOGA The im(o#tn+e o/ the $!#! =\ "m> is em(hsi2e& o%e# n& o%e# $in in Tibetn !&&hist te5ts n& o#" inst#!+tion* A +o""e+tion o/ .&m( te+hin$s in+"!&es the /o""oin$ ne+&ote bo!t the In&in $!#! Atis /o!n&e# o/ the .&m( o#&e# =(#e&e+esso# o/ Tson$,(s Ge"!$( o#&e#>) When Atis ##i%e& in Tibet his th#ee &is+i("es .! N$o,e n& D#om s,e& him Fo# ttinin$ the hi$h stte o/ "ibe#tion n& omnis+ien+e hi+h is mo#e im(o#tnt to /o""o the (#e+e(t o/ the Lm o# to /o""o the s+#i(t!#es n& +omment#ies Atis #e("ie& The (#e+e(t o/ the Lm is mo#e im(o#tnt thn s+#i(t!#es n& +omment#ies* Why is tht they s,e&* E%en i/ yo! ,no tht the (#im#y +h#+te#isti+ o/ "" (henomen is oi&ness n& +n #e+ite the T#i(it, s e"" yo! n& the te+hin$ i"" be +om("ete"y se(#te i/ yo! &o not (("y the (#e+e(t o/ the Lm t the time o/ (#+ti+e* =Wn$y" 19@3)1:1> Th!s the st!&ent hs to see his o# he# "m s t,in$ (#e+e&en+e o%e# the te+hin$s themse"%es* The st!&ents ttit!&e to the "m is mJo# The C!"ities o/ n !thenti+ G!#! #e mny !t in essen+e he sho!"& h%e mste#e& the S!t#s n& Tnt#s to$ethe# ith thei# Pith0Inst#!+tions He sho!"& h%e tho#o!$h e5(e#ien+e o/ the (#+ti+e o/ me&ittion he sho!"& be e5(e#t in the metho&s ((#o(#ite to the nt!#es o/ othe#s
he sho!"& h%e %st is&om (e#mete& by +om(ssion n& ith his $#et /ith he sho!"& h%e (e#/e+te& the s!(#eme Dh#m I/ yo! #e"y on s!+h G!#! he i"" "i,e the P#e+io!s -ee" /!"/i" "" yo!# ishes n& ++om("ish "" yo!# s(i#tions* =Anon 199)16> It is not eno!$h /o# the "m to h%e the im(#essi%e "ists o/ C!"i/i+tions $i%en in the te5ts* Fo# t#!e "m0st!&ent #e"tionshi( to be set !( it is he"& tht the#e !s!""y hs to be (#esent some +onne+tion beteen the to s the ,#mi+ +onseC!en+e o/ +tions in (#e%io!s "i/etime* No#m""y this #es!"ts /#om one h%in$ he"(e& o# t!$ht the othe# in /o#me# "i/e* To set !( %"i& #e"tionshi( ith "m itho!t ny s!+h bsis is %e#y &i//i+!"t* 'on%e#se"y on+e the #e"tionshi( hs been (#o(e#"y estb"ishe& i/ the &is+i("e /!"/i""s "" tht is e5(e+te& he o# she +n be +e#tin to 'IILIED SHAMANS meet the "m $in in /!t!#e "i%es* Th!s the te+he#0st!&ent #e"tionshi( beteen the Pn+hen Rim(o+h es n& the D"i Lms hi+h $o es b +, histo#i+""y to the time o/ the 6th D"i Lm "tho!$h /o# the Tibetns its o#i$ins e#e e#"ie# $in is i&e""y #enee& ith e+h s!++essi%e #ein+#ntion o/ the to "ms so tht the ist Pn+hen t!$ht the 6th D"i ho t!$ht the :& Pn+hen ho t!$ht the 7th D"i n& so on* 6 S!+h #e+!##in$ te+he#0st!&ent #e"tionshi(s #e +h#+te#isti+ o/ othe# Tibetn #e"i$io!s o#&e#s too* Anothe# e""0,non sto#y #e+o!nts ho hen M#( /i#st ent to In&i in the +om(ny o/ /#ien& Ny Lots he s!$$este& tht they both $o to see N#o( the te+he# ho s to be+ome M#(s $!#!* Ny snt inte#este&* As /# s he s +on+e#ne& his on te+he# s the on"y "m he nee&e&* When M#( met N#o( N#o( s,e& /te# his /#ien& n& seein$ him by (s y+hi+ (o e# to"& M# ( th t the#e s no ,#mi+ +onne+tion beteen Ny n& himse"/*7 The Ge"!$( lamrim te+hin$s e5(o!n& t "en$th ho it is im(o#tnt to see "" "ms n& in (#ti+!"# ones (e#son" #oot "m o# tsa*; lama s the !&&h mo#e s(e+i/i+""y s the !&&hs Tnt#i+ /o#m J#&h#* This (("ies es(e+i"" y to the " m ho $i%es one Tnt#i+ te+hin$s* A se+on& sto#y #e"tin$ to N#o( n& M#( m,es the (oint %e#y $#(hi+""y* I C!ote $in /#om Lhtsn Rin+hen Nm$ye"s 0a ro!e 0amt-arD
Ne#"y to months "te# hen he M#(V h& #e+ei%e& the symbo"i+ inititions n& inst#!+tions in the O#" T#nsmission N#o( ((e#e& to him in the s,y in the sh(e o/ the Tnt#i+V &eity He%J# ith ei$ht $o&&esses n& s,e& him hethe# he m&e obeisn+e to him o# to the t!te"#y &eity* M#( nse#e& To the t!te"#y &eity* N#o( si&) The#e he#e the#e is no G!#! Not e%en the nme o/ !&&h is he#&* The !&&hs o/ tho!sn& eons De(en& on the G!#! /o# thei# ((e#n+e*THE LAMA AND THE TANTRI' DEITIES G!#! he#e +o##es(on&s to "m in the Tibetn te5t* M#(s h!mn "ine s in&ee& not to "st "on$ n& his te+hin$s e#e +##ie& on not by his son ho &ie& hi"e M#( s sti"" "i%e b!t by his &is+i("es bo%e "" Mi"#e(* This &o+t#ine o/ the J#&h# nt!#e o/ "" "ms is s!mm#i2e& in Ge"!$( lamrim te5t by the Fi#st Pn+hen Rim(o+he =1679K 177:>) The S!(#eme"y En"i$htene& One hs si& in his (#e+io!s Tnt#s n& S]t#s tht in this &e$ene#te $e the Lo#& J#&h# mni/ests himse"/ in the /o#m o/ s(i#it!" /#ien&s n& +ts /o# the $oo& o/ sentient bein$s* A++o#&in$"y o!# s(i#it!" /#ien&s (#t /#om me#e"y e5hibitin$ &i//e#ent s(e+ts o/ bein$ #e the mni/esttions o/ the Lo#& J#&h# in o#&e# to tt#+t !s ho h%e the b& /o#t!ne o/ bein$ !nb"e to (e#+ei%e !&&hhoo& &i#e+t"y* =G!enthe# 19@@b)10 19> J#&h# =Do#JQ 'hn$ in Tibetn> is sometimes !se& s tit"e /te# the nme o/ in+#nte "ms s #e/e#en+e to this J#&h# &o+t#ine =e#2in 19@:) 18 n* I >* The i&e" ttit!&e to the "m is th!s one o/ #m (ositi%e //e+t in /+t o/ C!si0/i"i"
&e%otion*
The
$!#!0st!&ent
#e"tionshi(
is
/#eC!ent"y
homo"o$i2e& ith tht o/ /the# n& +hi"& n& seen s ,in& o/ s(i#it!" eC!i%"ent o/ the /the#0+hi"& #e"tionshi(* As #b# A2i2 hs (ointe& o!t Tibetn "y (eo("es ttit!&e to thei# (e#son" s(i#it!" te+he#s &oes in&ee& o/ten h%e this ,in& o/ (ositi%e /ee"in$ both //e+tionte n& &e%otion" =A2i2 19@)::3//>* Tibetns #e en+o!#$e& to /ee" the "in, to the $!#! s m!+h mo#e #e" n& imme&ite thn the tie to the !&&h* A"on$ ith to
o# th#ee mJo# Tnt#i+ &eities A%"o,itel%# T# n& G!#! Rim(o+he =ho is himse"/ s his nme s!$$ests $!#! s m!+h s Tnt#i+ &eity> the "i%in$ "m is the +hie/ obJe+t o/ &e%otion in Tibetn #e"i$io!s (#+ti+e* THE LAMA AS AN O-E'T OF S$>H$0$ The /+t is tht they #e His mni/esttions* The t!te"#y &eity then &is((e#e& in the G!#! N#o( ho &e+"#e&) e+!se o/ this yo!# inte#(#ettion yo!# h!mn "ine i"" not "st "on$* et it is o/ n !s(i+io!s nt!#e /o# sentient bein$s* e h((y tht the "ine o/ the Dh#m i"" +ontin!e s "on$ s the !&&hist te+hin$ "sts* @ The symbo"i+ e5(#ession o/ this sit!tion o++!#s in the s"dhana o# (e#son" Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e he#e the Tnt#i+ &eity my be e5("i+it"y homo"o$i2e& ith the "m* Th!s in s"dhana he#e the &eity is %is!"i2e& in /#ont o/ o# bo%e the (#+titione# =i*e* #the# thn i&enti+" 'IILIED SHAMANS THE LAMA AND THE TANTRI' DEITIES ith the (#+titione#> this %is!"i2tion my be +ombine& ith tht o/ the #oot "m* The (#+titione# im$ines tht his o# he# (e#son" "m in the /o#m o/ the Tnt#i+ &eity is t the +ente# o/ the %is!"i2tion* S!+h +ombine& "m0 &eity is $ene#""y e%o,e& t the st#t o/ sadhana s the +ente# o/ n ssemb"y o/ $o&s !&&hs yidam, (st In&in $!#!s n& Tibetn "ms boo,s o/ the Dh#m et+* #e(#esentin$ the Th#ee -ee"s in hom the Re/!$e is t,en* A"" o/ these #e to be seen s emntions /#om o# s(e+ts o/ ones on (e#son" "m* The (#+ titione# hs ++ess to them on"y th#o!$h his $#+e n& ,in&ness* The +t!" #e/!$e /o#m!"e !se& by the Tibetns #e /#eC!ent"y m!+h mo#e +om("e5 thn the sim("e th#i+e0#e(ete& #e/!$e in !&&h Dh#m n& Sm$h o/ the The#%&in n& F# Este#n s+hoo"s o/ !&&hism n& they no#m""y in+"!&e s(e+i/i+ #e/e#en+e to the "m* Th!s in ty(i+" ngöndro o# Tnt#i+ (#e"imin#y te5t the st!&ent is inst#!+te& to #e+ite the #e/!$e %e#ses in /#ont o/ Re/!$e T#ee %st %is!"i2e& ssemb"y o/ $o&s "ms n& te+he#s ith the (e#son" "m t the +ente# in the /o#m o/ J#&h# G!#! Rim(o+he Tson$,( o# some othe# &eity o# "m) The Lm0J#&h# is %is!"i2e& on th#one bo%e s!n moon n& "ot!s #isin$ o!t o/ n o+en o/ mb#osi* Abo%e him #e the "ms o/ the Mhm!&#
"ine$e Ti"o( N#o( M#( n& so on* A"" #o!n& him #e the te+he#s o/ "" s+hoo"s o/ !&&hism o/ In&i n& Tibet* In /#ont #e the t!te"#y &eities o/ the O"& n& Ne Tnt#s* To the #i$ht #e S,ym!ni n& the !&&hs o/ the Th#ee Times n& Ten Di#e+tions* ehin& #e the Ioo8880e#se P#JY(#mit S!t# s!##o!n&e& by "" the boo,s o/ the Dh#m* To the "e/t is A%"o,ites%# s!##o!n&e& by "" the Sm$h* The he#o0s(i#its (!a*o) o/ P&msmbh%s (#&ise the Mini, the $!#&ins o/ the Dh#m n& the $o&s o/ (#os(e#ity /i"" !( the inte#me&ite s(+e* A"" "oo, !(on the me&itto# ith ("es!#e* =.mt#!" Rim(o+he >rug!;0göndro, s!mm#i2e& /#om //* 3b0;> Th!s the %is!"i2tion #e(#esents "" these /o#ms s bein$ mni/esttions o/ the #oot "m (tsa*; lama) hims e"/ ho is i&en ti+ " it h J#&h# =Do#JQ 'hn$>* It is in /#ont o/ this %is!"i2tion tht the me&itto# t,es Re/!$e n& (e#/o#ms (#ost#tions %is!"i2in$ tht his o# he# /the# n& mothe# n& the si5 ty(es o/ bein$s =$o&s asura o# &emi$o&s h!mns nim"s !reta o# h!n$#y $hosts he""0bein$s> #e "so t,in$ #e/!$e n& (#ost#tin$) =I "on$ ith> "" sentient bein$s my mothe#s =sin+e "" h%e t some time in be$innin$"ess sams"ra been the me&itto#s mothe#> eC!" to the s,y =in n!mbe#> $o /o# #e/!$e to the !&&h0Dh#m,y o/ the Lm* =I "on$ ith> "" sentient bein$s my mothe#s eC!" to the s,y $o /o# #e/!$e to the (e#/e+t Smbho$,y o/ the Lm* =I "on$ ith> "" sentient bein$s my mothe#s eC!" to the s,y $o /o# #e/!$e to the +om(ssionte Ni#mn,y o/ the Lm* =I "on$ ith> "" sentient bein$s my mothe#s eC!" to the s,y $o /o# #e/!$e to the (#e+io!s Lm0!&&h* (>rug!;0gö)1dro, /* ;> This is /o""oe& by n e"bo#te se#ies o/ o//e#in$s to the %is!"i2e& $!#!* As "ys in Tibetn (#+ti+e it sho!"& be note& tht these seC!en+es en& ith the %is!"i2tion bein$ &isso"%e& b+, into the "m n& the "m into the me&itto#) The o//e#in$0/ie"& n& the s!##o!n&in$ /i$!#es me#$e into the ""0(e#%&in$ "m* The "m #&ites "i$ht n& be+omes one ith me* The o//e#in$s the o//e#e# n& the #e+ei%e# o/ o//e#in$s #e the sme I o//e# this o//e#in$ o/ se"/0"ibe#te& $#et Joy (>rug!; 0göndro, /* 12 b>* M!+h o/ the (e#son" #it!" +ti%ity o/ Tibetn (#+titione#s (#ti+!"#"y in the e#"ie# st$es o/ Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e +onsists o/ these e"b o# te s"dhana &i#e+te& to the "m* They seem to be (#im#i"y Tibetn &e%e"o(ment "t ho!$ h th e#e #e some In& in (#e +e&e nts =see ."in$e# 19o>*
THE LAMA AS A TRANSFORMATIONAL DEI'E I/ the "m hs to be seen s Tnt#i+ &eity he#e &oes tht "e%e the h!mn bein$s ho o++!(y the #o"e o/ "m 'e#tin"y it $i%es them %e#y hi$h stt!s b!t it "so e,ens in sense the i&enti/i+tion beteen them n& the "m #o"e* The !"timte "m is not (hysi+""y i&enti/ib"e ith the h!mn bein$ ho is $i%in$ the te+hin$s* In othe# o#&s seein$ the "m s Tnt#i+ &eity im("ies s ith ny Tnt#i+ &eity tht the e5te#n" stt!s o/ the "m n& in&ee& the ho"e $!#!0 &is+i("e "in, is on"y (#o%ision" in nt!#e* It is (#t o/ 'IILIED SHAMANS the o#"& o/ #e"ti%e t#!th o# +on%ention" #e"ity (samvrtisatya)# At the !"timte "e%e" (!aram"rthasatya) the#e +n be no se(#tion beteen $!#! n& &is+i("e* The &!"ity beteen them "i,e the othe# &i+hotomies o/ Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e =is&om n& mens samayasattva n& 67"nasattva, et+*> is !"ti mte"y to be o%e#+ome n& t#ns+en&e& =G !enthe# 19@@b) 1@0196>* Ho m!+h em(hsis is ("+e& on the &e%otion o/ one h!mn bein$ to nothe# ho m!+h on its !"timte t#ns+en&en+e %#ies s "ys ithin Tibetn !&&hism beteen t#&itions n& beteen +onte5ts ithin (#ti+!"# t#&ition* The "m is /o#m o/ the !&&h yet !&&hhoo& (tath"gatagarbha) is (#esent in "" men n& omen in&ee& in "" "i%in$ thin$s n& "" (henomen s Gm(o( Mi"#e(s s+ho"#0&is+i("e em(hsi2es in the /i#st +h(te# o/ his Qe*el &rnament (>ag!ö Targyen, G!enthe# 19@8):03>* A"" #e mni/esttions o/ !&&hhoo&* Th!s hen st!&ents #e$#& thei# (e#son" te+he# s the !&&h they #e (#oJe+tin$ onto someone o!tsi& e themse" %es somethin$ hi+h is essenti""y ithin themse"%es "so =G!enthe# 19@@b) 1>* Th#o!$h "e#nin$ to (e#+ei%e nothe# bein$ the "m in his t#!e =i*e* En"i$ht ene&> nt!#e they my $#&!""y +ome to #e"i2e this sme t#!e nt!#e ithin e%e#yone n& es(e+i""y ithin themse"%es* As (#t o/ tht #e"i2tion the &i+hotomy beteen e5te#n" "m n& st!&ent "i,e othe# &i+hotomies i"" /"" y n& be t#ns+en&e&* At this (oint the "m is no "on$e# o!tsi&e* He o# she hs be+ome s it e#e the st!&ents on bette# se"/* The "m in this sense is me#e"y symbo"i+ &e%i+e !se& /o# the (!#(ose o/ the t#ns/o#mtion* This is the essen+e o/ the &istin+tion beteen "m (guru) n& the o#&in#y te#ms /o# te+he# (gegen, lob!ön), s(i#it!" te+he# (gesh; \ S,t* .aly"namitra) o# Tnt#i+
te+he# (dot6; lob!ön 9 S,t* va6r"%arya), hi+h #e/e# !nmbi$!o!s"y to the e5te#n" te+he#* Lm is /#eC!ent"y !se& in this o#&in#y e5te#n" sense in +onte5ts he#e it my be s!bstit!te& by one o# othe# o/ these te#ms hoe%e# in the +onte5t o/ the !nion o/ "m n& Tnt#i+ &eity in sildhana the te#m !se& is "ys "m =\ S,t* $!#!>* In these guruyoga #it!"s st!&ents %is!"i2e the "m o!tsi&e themse"%es in the /o#m o/ J#&h# o# nothe# Tnt#i+ &eity n& then %is!"i2e tht the "m be+omes one ith them* These me&ittion" (# o+e&!#es m,e "i tt "e sense !n"ess n !n&e#"yin$ (#o+ess o/ the ,in& &es+#ibe& bo%e he#e the "m is !"timte"y &e%i+e /o# the st!&ents se"/0 t#ns/o#mtion is THE LAMA AND THE TANTRI' DEITIES ss!me&* They #e #it!"s in hi+h the st!&ent ttem(ts to (e#+ei%e the !&&h0nt!#e ithin th#o!$h /i#st %is!"i2in$ it o!tsi&e (#o+e&!#e hi+h is in&ee& bsi+ to "" the Tnt#i+ #it!"s ime& t En"i$htenment* The "ms s #e" h!mn bein$s hoe%e# #e "so +ent#" +to#s ithin the Tibetn #e"i$io!s system not on"y s te+he#s o/ Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e to thei# st!&ents b!t s (e#/o#me#s o/ #it!"s /o# the "y (o(!"tion* We h%e "#e&y seen "itt"e o/ these +ti%ities in 'h(te# io* We no t!#n to +onsi&e# them in mo#e &eti"* :6@
14 Tantra n& the P#$mti+ O#ienttion
In 'h(te#s 1: n& 13 e %iee& Tnt# (#im#i"y in te#ms o/ the o&hi O#ienttion* In this +onte5t Tnt# is the system o/ yo$i+ (#o+esses tht #e he"& to "e& to the +ent#" $o" o/ !&&hism the stte o/ !&&hhoo&* The "m /!n+tions both s the st!&ents +t!" (e#son" Tnt#i+ te+he# n& "so s ,in& o/ symbo"i+ &e%i+e "e&in$ to the ttinment o/ En"i$htenment* Hoe%e# Tnt# is "so %it" (#t o/ the P#$mti+ O#ienttion =see 'h(te#s 9 n& Jo> he#e it (#o%i&es the set o/ te+hniC!es th#o!$h hi+h "ms +##y o!t #it!"s /o# the "y (o(!"tion* Mny o/ these #it!"s h%e on"y nomin" +onne+tion ith the +!"t o/ En"i$htenment* Ne%e#the"ess the "ms #o"e in #e"tion to the o&hi O#ienttion is sti"" (#esent im("i+it"y n& o/ten e5("i+it"y too in the b+,$#o!n&* Tnt# "in,s to$ethe# these to ((#ent"y &i//e#ent +onte5ts* As the te+he#s o/ the Tnt#i+ (#+ti+es the "ms #e "so the (e#/o#me#s !ar e+%ellen%e o/ Tnt#i+ #it!" n& Tnt#i+ #it!" (#o%i&es the m$i+" te+hno"o$y th#o!$h hi+h the (eo("e o/ Tibet ttem(t to e5e#t +ont#o" o%e# the +i#+!mstn+es o/ thei# "i%es n& ðs* 'onseC!ent"y "ms TANTRA AND THE PRAGMATI' ORIENTATION =Tnt#i+ $!#!s> #e the most ((#o(#ite n& %"!e& (e#/o#me#s o/ these #it!"s* This &oes not men tht "" si$ni/i+nt #it!"s #e (e#/o#me& by "ms e%en hen &omesti+ #it!"s +##ie& o!t by membe#s o/ the ho!seho"& #e "e/t o!t o/ ++o!nt* The "m is the (#e/e##e& (e#/o#me# /o# mJo# #it!"s b!t the#e #e mny #it!"s +##ie& o!t by "ess im(o#tnt (#+titione#s* A &istin+tion +n be m&e he#e beteen those #es he#e the +e"ibte0mon, (tte#n &omintes n& those he#e "y #it!" s(e+i"ists (ser.y-im, et+*> #e mo#e im(o#tnt =see 'h(te# 1@>* In both +ses hoe%e# sm"" n!mbe# o/ hi$h0 stt!s "ms hethe# he#e&it#y #ein+#nte (trul.u), o# ((ointe& #e #es(onsib"e /o# +e#tin mJo# #it!"s* The #it!" (#+ti+e o/ the "ms in+"!&es mny &i//e#ent ,in&s o/ #it!"s* Des(ite n eno#mo!s %#iety in te#ms o/ /o#m n& &e$#ee o/ e"bo#tion the bsi+ st#!+t!#e o/ "most "" o/ them is the sme in tht it in%o"%es the "m (e#/o#min$ sddhana in hi+h he t,es on the i&entity o/ mJo# Tnt#i+ &eity n& then em("oys the (oe#s o/ tht &eit y /o# the &esi#e& en&s* I sh"" e5mine to ty(es o/ mJo# #it!" in some &eti" the "i/e0em(oe#ment +e#emony o# ts-e*ang, n& the #it!" &n+es (%h-am)# In the +on+"!sion to the +h(te# I sh"" "so &is+!ss some #it!"s #e"tin$ to the la o# "i/e0essen+e* The %h-am o# #it!" &n+es #e in essen+e n e"bo#te %e#sion o/ #e$!"#
tem("e #it!"s in hi+h Tnt#i+ (oe# is s!mmone& n& &i#e+te& to the &est#!+tion o/ m"e%o"ent s(i#its* oth ts-e*ang n& %h-am #e (e#/o#me& nn!""y s (#t o/ the #it!" +y+"e in mny #es n& the (e#/o#mn+e is tten&e& by the "o+" "y (o(!"tion one o/ the /e o++sions he#e Tnt#i+ #it!"s #e (e#/o#me& /o# mss "y !&ien+e* MASS EMPOWERMENTS AND LIFE EMPOWERMENT RITUALS (TS-=$0G) Tnt#i+ me&ittion s I (ointe& o!t in 'h(te#s 1: n& 13 #eC!i#es the "m to /i#st $i%e n em(oe#ment o# initition (*ang, *ang.ur) into the (#ti+!"# Tnt#i+ +y+"e +on+e#ne&* Whi"e #it!"s o/ this ,in& # e (#im #i"y & es i$n e& / o# t ho se ho # e i nt en &i n$ t o (e# /o #m t he me&ittion s!bseC!ent"y the y #e /#eC!ent"y tten&e& by "#$e n!mbe#s o/ "y /o""oe#s* S!+h tten&n+e is me#ito#io!s in itse"/ n& is TANTRA AND THE PRAGMATI' ORIENTATION be"ie%e& to ("nt ,#mi+ see&s tht my #i(en in /!t!#e "i/e hen th e (# +ti+e +n be +t! ""y !n&e#t,en* It is " so hoe %e# /e"t to +on/e# (oe# o# b"essin$ %hinlab, on the ssemb"e& +on$#e$tion* Th!s hen Se#,on$ Rim(o+he #es(e+te& Ge"!$( "m n& ssistnt t!to# to the D"i Lm $%e the em(oe#ment o/ Hy$#% to $#o!( o/ mon,s /#om one o/ the +o""e$es o/ Se# monsti+ gom!a &!#in$ my sty in D"ho!sie in 19@1 se%e#" h!n&#e& "y Tibetns "so tten&e&* It s #!mo#e& tht the em(oe#ment +##ie& (#ote+tion $inst the +ho"e# then (#e%"ent in no#th In&i* On se%e#" #e +e nt o+ +s ion s hen His Ho"ine ss the 1;th D"i Lm hs $i%en "#$e0s+"e em(oe#ments o/ the ."+,# Tnt# (#+ti+e (o(!"#i2e& in the 19:os by the then Pn+hen Rim (o+ he !( to ioo 888 Tibetns n& othe# !&&hists #e #e(o#te& to h%e tten&e&* '"e#"y "" o/ these in&i%i&!"s #e !n"i,e"y to be+ome se#io!s (#+titione#s o/ the +om("e5 n& &i//i+!"t ."+,# yo$i+ (#+ti+es t ny #te in thei# (#esent "i%es* They o!"& be !nb"e to &o this nyy itho!t /!#the# &eti"e& inst#!+tion n& in /+t the ."+,# em(oe#ment s $i%en on these "#$e0s+"e o++sions on"y em(oe#s those in tten&n+e to &o (#t o/ the ."+,# De%e"o(ment St$e (.yedrim) (# + ti+e s =see D" i Lm n& Ho(,ins 196 Dh#$yey 196 So( et "* 196>* S!+h em(oe#ments #e o/ten seen s soin$ see&s ithin the ,#mi+ +ontin!!m (samt"na) o/ those ho +ome tht i"" #i(en in /!t!#e "i/etime hen they
i"" +t!""y h%e the o((o#t!nity to (!#s!e the (#+ti+e in /!""* Atten&n+e t s!+h n o++sion is +e#tin"y me#ito#io!s +t in ,#mi+ te#ms* Mny (eo("e hoe%e# tten& be+!se o/ the in+i&ent" b"essin$ (%hinlab) in%o"%e&* In othe# o#&s tten&n+e $i%es ++ess to some o/ the (oe# tht the "m +hnne"s* Lms h%e been ,non to &ismiss the &esi#es o/ thei# "y /o""oe#s /o# em(oe#ments =n& te+hin$s in $ene#"> s n!isn+e n& s &ist#+tion /#om the "ms on se#io!s s(i#it!" (!#s!its =see Sne""0$#o%e 197@b %o"* I III0113>* I n (#+ti+e hoe%e# they #e /#e C!ent"y s,e& to (e#/o#m s!+h em(oe#ments n& they #e$!"#"y +onsent to &o so* A s(e+i" +"ss o/ #it!"s the "i/e0em(oe#ment o# "i/e0+onse+#tion #it!"s (ts-e*ang), is s(e+i/i+""y &e%ote& to the $ene#" +on/e##" o/ b"essin$s n& em(oe#ment to the #e+i(ient ith the im o/ +on/e##in$ $oo& he"th n& "on$ "i/e n& th ese i "" no be +onsi&e#e& in "itt"e mo#e &eti"* Ts-e*ang #e o/ten $i%en t the en& o/ se#ies o/ stn&#& Tnt#i+em(oe#ments to (#ese#%e the he"th o/ the st!&ents /o# /!t!#e (#+ti+e* They #e "so mo#e si$ni/i+nt"y in the (#esent +onte5t #e$!"#"y $i%en s (#t o/ mJo# seson" /esti%"s in Tibetn +omm!nities* He#e they +t s $ene#" +on/e##" o/ bene/its on the "y (eo("e ho tten& =see Sne""$#o%e 1971 P!" 19@9>* Des+#i(tions o/ these ts-e*ang #it!"s #e %i"b"e in %#iety o/ so!#+es =see in (#ti+!"# eye# 19@3)3@6039 Sne""$#o%e 1971>* These em(oe#ments !se the stn&#& metho&s o/ !&&hist Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e* The o//i+itin$ "m t#ns/o#ms himse"/ into the ((#o(#ite Tnt#i+ &eity n& then t#ns/e#s his (oe# into +onse+#te& (i""s n& "iC!i&s tht the membe#s o/ the +on$#e$tion et n& &#in,* In the +onte5t o/ me&ittion #et#et these (#+ti+es /o+!s on the te+hin$ o/ s(e+i/i+ s"dhana /o# one o/ the "on$0"i/e &eities s!+h s White T# o# Amity!s : b!t in +onte5ts s!+h s the nn!" /i/th0month +e#emony t Shey in Do"(o &es+#ibe& by Sne""$#o%e =1971)1;10 1;6> the em(hsis is m!+h mo#e on the imme&ite t#ns/e# o/ b"essin$* I#oni+""y (#obb"y the best0,non ts-e*ang in the nth#o(o"o$i+" "ite#t!#e tht (e#/o#me& s (#t o/ the Mni Rim&! /esti%" t Ten$bo+he n& t othe# She#( monste#ies =F#e#0Himen&o#/ 197; -e#st& 1979> is not /#om the "ms (oint o/ %ie ts-e*ang t "" b!t to# m0 em(oe#ment* The em(oe#ment o/ (i""s is the +ent#" (#t o/ the Mni Rim&! +e#emony n& in /+t $i%es the +e#emony its nme =\ mani!ill (# +t i+ e > ho e %e # th e to most se ni o# " m s in%o"%e& ith (e#/o#min$ these #it!"s in She#( +o!nt#y t (#esent =see 'h(te# 1@> T#!"shi$ Rim(o+he n& Ten$bo+he Rim(o+he both mintin tht the #it!" is not
ts-e*ang#2 The &eity in%o"%e& s(e+i" /o#m o/ A%"o,ites%# ,non s Pem G#n$ =Lot!s Lo#& o/ the Dn+e> is not s(e+i/i+""y sso+ite& ith "on$ "i/e n& the em(oe#e& (i""s #e inten&e& to b#in$ bo!t s(i#it!" e//e+ts (#im#i"y n& "on$ "i/e n& he"th on"y se+on&#i"y* The em(hsis on the +!#ti%e (oe#s o/ the (i""s is ht +omes th#o!$h in F#e#0Himen&o#/s ethno$#(hy n& othe# (o(!"# ++o!nts hoe%e# =see .ite n& 'hi"&s 19):;) n$b! n& ."t2e" 19)3703> n& it is not s!#(#isin$ i/ "y She#(s #e$!"#"y #e/e# to the #it!" s ts-e*ang =see "so D#(e# in (#ess>* The $i%in$ o/ +onse+#te& "iC!i&s n& /oo&s s!$$este& simi"#ity ith the 'h#istin E!+h#ist to e#"y obse#%e#s n& L* A!stine W&&e"" #$!e& tht the ts-e*ang (#obb"y o#i$inte& in Nesto#in 'h#istinity =W&&e"" 197@);;;0;;>* The "i,eness is hoe%e# mo#e (0 'IILIED SHAMANS
'IILIED SHAMANS TANTRA AND THE PRAGMATI' ORIENTATION (#ent thn #e"* The +onse+#tion o/ "iC!i&s is #e$!"# +om(onent o/ " " Tibetn Tnt#i+ em(oe#ments n& the em(oe#ment o/ me&i+in" (i""s is "so stn&#& #it!" (#o+e&!#e =Dhon&en 197):1;:1>* The etin$ o/ /oo& +onse+#te& th#o!$h h%in$ been o//e#e& to the $o&s is stn&#& (#o+e&!#e in In&in #e"i$ion hi"e the Tnt#i+ (#iests (!edanda) o/ "i em(oe# te# th#o!$h #it!"s %e#y simi"# in /o#m to those o/ Tibetn "ms i/ sim("e# in &eti"* The "inese !edanda t,es on the i&entity eithe# o/ Si% =/o# Hin&! (#iest> o# o/ !&&hist Tnt#i+ &eity =/o# !&&hist .o#n 197o Hooy,s 1977 1 9@3 19@3b> Se%e#" &i//e#ent Tnt#i+ &eities #e sso+ite& ith n& em("oye& in these #it!"s* In Sne""$#o%es Nyin$m( #it!" the +ent#" /i$!#e is Amity!s the (#in+i ( " "on$ 0"i/e &ei ty* Amity!s is /o#m o/ Ami tbh n& so is +"ose"y #e"te& to G!#! Rim(o+he the +ent#" /i$!#e in most Nyin$m( Tnt#i+ "ine$es ho is #e$#&e& s n emntion o/ Amitb h* eye# s &es+# i(ti on is +ente#e& #o!n& the $o&&ess White T# nothe# im(o#tnt "on$0"i/e &eity ho is he#se"/ +onsi&e#e& n emntion o/ Amity!s* H!mn "i/e is im(o#tnt in !&&hist theo#y be+!se it is the essenti" bsis /o# the ttinment o/ !&&hhoo& n& this moti%tion is em(hsi2e& in
ts-e*ang #it!"s* One sho!"& ish to $in "on$ "i/e n& he"th so s to be b"e to (#+ti+e the te+hin$s ith the (#o(e# Mhyn moti%tion o/ &esi#in$ to $in En"i$htenment so s to #e"ie%e the s!//e#in$s o/ othe#s* The bsi+ i&e behin& the #it!" hoe%e# is tht the " m !ses his Tnt# i+ (oe#s to +on/e# "on$ "i/e n& he"th !(on those #e+ei%in$ the em(oe#ment* As ith mny othe# Tibetn #it!"s the (#o+ess my be inte#(#ete& t ny o/ n!mbe# o/ "e%e"s n& the (#ti+i(nts #e /#ee to t,e the #it!" t hi+he%e# "e%e" they ish* In the ts-e*ang #it!" &es+#ibe& by eye# the o//i+itin$ "m /i#st (#e(#es himse"/ in (#i%te* A/te# the !s!" (#e"imin#ies o/ $oin$ /o# Re/!$e n& #o!sin$ the bodhi%itta moti%tion ithin himse"/ he ss!mes the i&entity o/ White T# n& m,es o//e#in$s n& #e+ites (#ises to he# =tht is to the $o&&ess in his on (e#son>* Then he $ene#tes the $o&&ess o!tsi&e himse"/ in torma o# o//e#in$ +,e* A"" these st$es n& those tht /o""o in%o"%e ((#o(#ite mnt#s mudrd =hn&0 $est!#es> n& #e+ittions* The ssemb"e& /o""oe#s then %is!"i2e the "m ho hs no ente#e& the #oom he#e the em(oe#ment is to t,e ("+e s White T#* They (e#/o#m the ri%emandala (mendel) o//e#in$ to him s /ee /o# the "i/e0em(oe#ment #eC!estin$ tht he (e#/o#m the +e#emony* ; They #e to"& to %is!"i2e the torma s e"" s the "m in the /o#m o/ White T# s!##o!n&e& by "ms !&&hs Tnt#i+ &eities n& so on n& to im$ine themse"%es s in he# &i%ine mnsion* Ne5t they #e(et the #e/!$e n& bodhi%itta %e#ses n& %is!"i2e tht they themse"%es h%e the /o#m o/ White T#* The s+tte#e& "i/e0essen+e is #e+""e& into the /o#m o/ White T# n& then #&ite& in the /o#m o/ st#em o/ ne+t# into the bo&ies o/ the +on$#e$tion* Simi"# st#ems o/ ne+t# #esto#e thei# &e$ene#te& "i/e #ene thei# e,ene& st#en$th n& me#it n& #e(i# thei# b#o,en %os n& ("e&$es* A"" this /o#ms (#e(#tion /o# thei# on ss!m(tion o/ the i&entity o/ White T# hi+h is the +ente# o/ the #it!"* This in%o"%es %is!"i2in$ the &eity o%e# thei# he&s n& "" the othe# &eities s me#$in$ into he# n& then im$inin$ se+on& /o#m o/ T# s se(#tin$ o// /#om he# /o#m n& me#$in$ into them* At this (oint the torma is ("+e& on the he& o/ e+h o/ the #e+i(ients o/ the em(oe#ment* The "m #e+ites (#ye# to the "ms o/ his on "ine$e #eC!estin$ e+h to Join in the em(oe#ment n& %is!"i2es the &eity &isso"%in$ into e+h o/ the (#ti+i(nts* Fin""y the "m em(oe#s the ne+t# o/ "i/e m&e /#om mi", mi5e& ith s!$# n& the (i""s o/ "i/e m&e /#om he#bs n& (otions mi5e& ith the #e"i+s o/ &e(#te& "ms n& $i%es them to the +on$#e$tion* The +e#emony en&s ith %e#ses o/ $oo& /o#t!ne /o# the in+#esin$ o/ "i/e n& ith the &is+i("es o//e#in$ !( nothe# ri%emandala in thn,s$i%in$ /o# the em(oe#ment =eye# 19@3)3@3039>* In the Nyin$m( #it!" &es+#ibe& by Sne""$#o%e mo#e o/ the em(hsis
seems to be on the +t!" em(oe#ment o/ the obJe+ts* These #e te# s(i#it n& (e""ets o/ +oo,e& /"o!# hi+h +o##es(on& #es(e+ti%e"y to the em(oe#ment o/ bo&y s(ee+h n& min&* Sne""$#o%e +omments tht the +on%ention" +onse+#tions tht (#e+e&e the &ist#ib!tion o/ the "i/e0$i%in$ s!bstn+e e#e o/ "itt"e inte#est to the %i""$e#s in Do"(o =he#e he itnesse& the #it!"> n& tht the !&&hist te+hni+" te#ms in%o"%e& e#e "" b!t menin$"ess to them =Sne""$#o%e 1971)1;:01;3>* eye# "so obse#%es tht the +on$#e$tion +nnot be e5(e+te& to h%e ny s,i"" in +##yin$ o!t the %is!"i2tions o# in (e#/o#min$ the #e0+#etion o/ #e"ity tht $oes "on$ ith them* It is essenti""y !(on the ttinments o/ the "m +on&!+tin$ the +e#emony tht its s!++ess &e(en&s =eye# 19@3)39 390398>* Sne""$#o%e s!$$ests tht the "i/e (lats-;) bein$ #esto#e& is +"ose"y #e" te& to the la o# "i/e0essen+e &is+!sse& in 'h(te# io n& to +on+e(ts s!+h s the G!#!n$(4 =M!m/o#& 199> Tmn$ bla =Ho"mbe#$ 'IILIED SHAMANS 199)16;> o# /#om The#%&in !&&hist so+iety the No#thest Thi .h*an =Tmbih 19@8)6@0@9) Hein2e 19:>* As e see in the /o""oin$ C!ottion /#om the #it!" te5t !se& t Shey the lats-; my h%e n&e#e& st#ye& o# &is((e#e& "i,e ny o/ these othe# n&e#in$ "i/e0 essen+es* The #it!" &#s it b+, n& st#en$thens it) O yo! hose s!(e#n" "i/e Klats-;E hs n&e#e& st#ye& o# &is((e#e&X The (!#e essen+e o/ the /o!# e"ements o/ e#th n& te# /i#e n& i# the h((iness n& s("en&o!# o/ "i%in$ thin$s ho &e"" in the th#ee/o"& e5(nse o/ the th#ee/o"& o#"& the ho"e essen+e &e#i%e& /#om the +om(ssionte $#+e o/ the o+en o/ b!&&hs o/ (st (#esent n& /!t!#e "" this is +om(o!n&e& s ne+t# in the /o#m o/ "i$ht #ys o/ %#io!s +o"o!#s* It see(s th#o!$h the (o#es o/ yo!# bo&ies n& %nishes into the +ent#e o/ the he#t hi+h is i&enti+" ith the sy""b"e hri, the (!#e /o#+e o/ Wis&om itse"/ th!s the e""0bein$ o/ yo!# s!(e#n" "i/e i"" be #esto#e& n& yo! i"" $in the (e#/e+tion o/ ð"essness* Pssin$ into the "i%in$ items (ts-edz;) tht "ie be/o#e !s they be+ome the $#et &mntine essen+e* E%en th!s m!st e +on+ent#te o!# tho!$htX =Sne""$#o%e 1971)1;301;;> The#e #e simi"#ities beteen the ts-e*ang n& the No#thest Thi so!"0 st#en$thenin$ (su.h*an) #it!" tho!$h the &i//e#en+es #e "so i""!st#ti%e* The No#thest Thi #it!" in%o"%es the in%o,in$ o/ the the*ada (i#e#, deva, he#e the $o&s o/ the he%ens #the# thn "o+" $o&s n& s(i# its> ho #e s,e&
to ssist in s!mmonin$ the .h*an into #it!" st#!+t!#e +""e& the !ha.h*an# The .h*an is then t#ns/e##e& to the (e#son o# (eo("e /o# hom the #it!" is bein$ (e#/o#me& n& tie& into the bo&y ith hite +o#&* The #it!"s (!#(ose is to +#ete h((iness $oo& /o#t!ne n& (#os(e#ity n& it is (e#/o#me& t "i/e0+#ises s!+h s (#e$nn+y m##i$e o#&intion s mon, o# #einte$#tion into so+iety /te# "on$ Jo!#ney (e#io& in (#ison o# #e+o%e#y /#om n i""ness* The #it!" is (e#/o#me& by "y e"&e# one o/ hose nmes (!ahm 9 S,t* Brahman) &e#i%es /#om the Hin&! #hmn (#iest b!t hi"e the e"&e# is "i,e"y to h%e been !&&hist mon, "i,e "" #es(e+te& senio# %i""$e men this is #e"e%nt (#im#i"y in tht it i"" h%e (#o%i &e& him it h the "ite# +y nee&e& to #e& the +hnts =see Tm bih 197)18@011:>* A +"ose# n"o$y in Thi so+iety is the s+#"i2in$ o/ m!"ets by (#ti+!"#"y ho"y mon,s s &es+#ibe& in Tmbihs Buddhist Saints of the Iorest# This is (#e+ise"y the ,in& o/ +ti%ity tht Tmbih s "e& TANTRA AND THE PRAGMATI' ORIENTATION to &es+#ibe s tnt#i+ in tht boo, =see 'h(te# :>* In Tibetn so+ieties the#e is no &o!bt tht the "ms #it!" is inten&e& to h%e (#$mti+ /!n+tion o# t "est is t,en by the "y (eo("e /o# hom it is (e#/o#me& s (#im#i"y (#$mti+ in o#ienttion* The "i/e0$i%in$ (oe# o/ the "m is t#nsmitte& on othe# o++sions besi&e these mJo# "i/e0em(oe#ment #it!"s* Ly Tibetns %isitin$ "m my #eC!est o# be $i%en (i""s em(oe#e& in (#e%io!s #it!"s m!"ets sm"" +"y im$es #e"i+s n& othe# +onse+#te& obJe+ts hi+h +on%eye& somethi n$ o/ the "ms (oe# n& b"essin$* These my be +##ie& #o!n& in the gau, the met" m!"et0+se tht mny Tibetns e# n& hi+h +n s E,%"" obse# %es be t,en o// n& !se& s minit!#e sh#ine to hi+h +i#+!mmb!"tion n& (#ost#tion my be (e#/o#me& =E,%"" 197;b>* Mny o/ the m!"ets n& &e%i+es +ontine& ithin the ga u are +on+e#ne& ith ht is in sense the +on%e#se o/ the "ms bi"ity to st#en$then the "i/e0essen+e o/ his /o""oe#s* They #e (#ote+ti%e &e%i+es $inst the %#io!s hosti"e n& m"e%o"ent s(i#its tht h%e "#e&y been &es+#ibe& =in 'h(te# 9> s (#esent th#o!$ho!t the en%i#onment in the /o",0 #e"i$ion %ie o/ the o#"&* Fo# the "ms (oe# +n "so be t!#ne& to (#ote+ti%e !se n& i/ ne+ess#y to &est#!+tion* THE LAMA AND MALEOLENT SPIRITS
In the mJo# #it!"s +on+e#ne& ith &e/ense $inst these s(i#its the "ms &est#!+ti%e (oe# +omes to the /o#e* The#e #e se%e#" mo&es o/ o(e#tion $inst these e%i" /o#+es =T!++i 198)1@1 // 'nte"" 196>* In the mo&e I sh"" &is+!ss he#e they #e &est#oye& in the /o#m o/ n e//i$y* This e//i$y o# lingam is m&e o!t o/ &o!$h o# o++sion""y 5 o# ((e#* The e%i" s(i#its #e m&e to ente# it n& #e then m$i+""y &est#oye& ithin it* The &e& bo&ies o/ the m"e%o"ent s(i#its #e o//e#e& to the &eities o/ the mandala, F hi"e thei# +ons+io!sness is sent to #ebi#th in the he%en o/ G!#! Rim(o+he* This ho"e (#o+ess /o#ms +"im+ti+ seC!en+e in /o# e5m("e the ts-og ="ite#""y m!"tit!&es> #it!" &is+!sse& by eye# %e#sions o/ hi+h #e (e# /o# me& /#eC !en t"y by " " gom !a +omm!nities =eye# 19@331:031>* eye#s #it!" /""s into to (#ts* In the /i#st o#&in#y torma =o//e#in$0+,es> #e o//e#e& to the &eities o/ the man%lala# In the se+on& the bo&ies o/ the &est#oye& s(i#its in the lingam are o//e#e& TANTRA AND THE PRAGMATI' ORIENTATION to the &eities* In this (#ti+!"# %e#sion o/ the #it!" the lingam is %is!"i2e& s s!(e#im(ose& !(on nothe# set o/ torma #the# thn #e(#esente& &i#e+t"y* The +#etion o/ the mandala o/ &eities n& the o//e#in$ to it o/ the &est#oye& s(i#its /o#ms the bsi+ st#!+t!#e o/ the #it!" &n+es o# %h-am s e"" n& e no t!#n to these most s(e+t+!"# #it!" (e#/o#mn+es o/ the "#$e Tibetn monsti+ gom!a# These &n+es #e (e#/o#me& on+e o# ti+e nn!""y by most mJo# monste#ies o/ "" the #e"i$io!s o#&e#s "tho!$h they #e $ene#""y bse& on O"& Tnt# =Nyin$m(> te5ts n& h%e been &es+#ibe& mny times* 7 Rit!" &n+es #e o++sion""y (e#/o#me& by "y (#+titione#s b!t the "#$e0 s+"e (e#/o#mn+es #e "" monsti+* The (#in+i(" &n+e#s in the %h-am #e(#esent the +ent#" /i$!#es o/ the mandala, s!+h s the ei$ht mni/esttions o/ G!#! Rim(o+he o# the set o/ ei$ht D#$she& &eities ho #e "so +h#+te#isti+""y Nyin$m(* A "#$e n!mbe# o/ &&ition" &n+es my #e(#esent %#io!s "o+" &eities d".ini, o# sho#t +omi+ inte#"!&es b!t #e se+on&#y to the min theme* The o//i+int &n+es in the /o#m o/ b"+,0ht (#iest o# shanag, "tho!$h s Stein notes the (#in+i(" "m #the# thn +t!""y &n+in$ this #o"e no#m""y (e#/o#ms the +e#emony in &!("i+te (#""e" to its en+tment in the &n+e =Stein 19@:)198>* Lo+" &eities #e /#eC!ent"y in+"!&e& s (#ote+to#s "tho!$h they #e se+on&#y to the %#io!s In&in0&e#i%e& $!#&ins s!+h s the %#io!s /o#ms o/ Gom(o =Mh,">* In the Thmi n& 'hion$ %h-am, Sh#"!n$ Genyen 'hen(o the "o+" (#ote+ti%e &eity o/ D2#on$ gom!a, /#om hi+h the &n+e t#&ition &e#i%es is #e(#esente& in the &n+es =.ohn 19)38;038>* In the Ten$bo+he %h-am, he hs been #e("+e& by S!## R,ye the (#ote+to# o/ the ne#by hi&&en %""ey o/ .emb"!n$ =.ohn
19)38@ n$b! n& ."t2e" 1 9 ) 3 9 0 ; 8 .ite n& 'hi"&s 19)3>* O/ten the b"+,0ht (#iest is i&enti/ie& t "est in (o(!"# inte#(#ettions ith Pe"$yi Do#JQ the !&&hist mon, in &is$!ise ho ,i""e& Ln$&#m the ninth0+ent!#y (e#se+!to# o/ !&&hism n& "st ,in$ o/ the e#"y Tibetn stte $i%in$ the &n+e n &&ition" "e%e" o/ menin$ s +ommemo#tion o/ this +t* In n #ti+"e on %h-am some ye#s $o P* H* Pott o!t"ine& thi#& n& mo#e so(histi+te& "e%e" o/ inte#(#ettion =Pott 1976>* The $#&!" &omintion o/ the $#o!(s o/ &n+e#s by the +ent#" (e#/o#me# in(#e(#tion /o# the &est#!+tion o/ the m"e%o"ent s(i#its in the lingam, #e(#esents the (#o$#essi%e b#in$in$ !n&e# +ont#o" o/ &i//e#ent s(e+ts o/ the (e#son"ity on the (th to En"i$htenment hi"e the &est#!+tion o/ the lingam itse"/ is the &est#!+tion o/ the e$o* This is eC!i%"ent to %iein$ the &emons n& e%i" s(i#its s obst+"es to ones on ttinment o/ En"i$htenment hi+h is !"timte"y ho they h%e to be %iee& sin+e t hey "i,e e%e#ythin$ e"se h%e no #e" e5t e#n" e5is ten+e* Li,e mny s(e+ts o/ Tibetn #e"i$ion the &n+es +n be t,en t %#iety o/ "e%e"s* Potts inte#(#ettion my be o%e#0so(histi+te& /o# mny o/ the "y Tibetns ho t+h these &n+es b!t e5(e#ien+e& Tnt#i+ yo$ins o!"& /in& s!+h mo&e o/ ((#o+h ob%io!s eno!$h* The "te .mt#!" Rim(o+he o/ T#shi -on$ D#!$( .$y&( "m ho s himse"/ note& #it!" &n+e# (#o(ose& simi"# inte#(#ettion in $!i&e /o# Weste#n %iee#s o/ the &n+es) Wht is +h#+te#isti+ o/ esote#i+ metho&s i*e* Tnt#V is tht hi"e these thin$s hi+h sho!"& be bn&one& =the emotions o/ +!(i&ity m"e%o"en+e n& bei"&e#ment the /i%e (oisons i*e* (#i&e "!st n $e# Je"o!sy n& i$no#n+e> #e to be #e$#&e& s inimi+" to s(i#it!" &e%e"o(ment they #e in thei# !"timte nt!#e i&enti+" ith the /i%e /o#ms o/ t#ns+en&in$ #eness* In (#+ti+e these o#"&"y emotions +n be !se& s &e%i+es in #e"i2in$ the U"timte* In the &n+es yo! i"" see yo! i"" /in& &eities $o&s n& $o&&esses (e+e/!" n& #th/!"* These #e(#esent both %i+io!s emotions tht #!n #m(nt in ones (sy+he n& the mni/o"& i""!sions o/ U"timte A#eness* The &o#nments n& $est!#es #e(#esent the C!"ities tht e no#m""y =b!t in+o##e+t"y> tt#ib!te to o!# i""!sions* T#y to see "" s (#oJe+tions o/ yo!# on (sy+he* =.hmt#!" n*&*):> 'ON'LUSION
The to mJo# ty(es o/ #it!" +onsi&e#e& bo%e &emonst#te to (#in+i(" mo&es o/ /!n+tionin$ o/ the "m in #e"tion to the "ity both o/ them +on+e#ne& (#im#i"y ith the P#$mti+ O#ienttion* In the *ang n& ts-e*ang, (ositi%e s(i#it!" ene#$y (%hinlab) is +on%eye& /#om the "ms to thei# /o""oe#s* In the ts-og n& %h-am, m"e%o"ent &emoni+ /o#+es #e s!((#esse& th#o!$h the (oe# o/ the !&&h n& the Tnt#i+ &eities* 'IILIED SHAMANS TANTRA AND THE PRAGMATI' ORIENTATION Des(ite thei# /o!n&tions in the !&&hist Tnt#s n& the o&hi O#ienttion these #it!"s #e simi"# in bsi+ +on+e(t to #it!"s +##ie& o!t by non0!&&hist shmni+ (#+titione#s in mny Asin so+ieties* We h%e "#e&y noti+e& tht the %h-am &e"s ith the "o+" &eities n& s(i#its by in+o#(o#tin$ the mo#e im(o#tnt ones s (#ote+to#s n& &est#oyin$ the #emin&e# th#o!$h the (oe# o/ Tnt#i+ #it!" hi"e the ts-e*ang st#en$thens the sme "i/e0/o#+e (la n& its eC!i%"ents> ith hi+h mny Him"yn n& So!thest Asin #e"i$ions #e +on+e#ne&* In nothe# set o/ #it!"s &e"in$ ith the la, the la.-ug, lalu, n& simi"# #it!"s &esi$ne& to &# b+, the la into the bo&y the simi"#ity to non0!&&hist #it!"s is C!ite st#i,in$* These #it!"s #e (e#/o#me& by " ms in #e s(onse to s(e+i/ i+ +ses o/ i" "ness J!st s they o!"& be (e#/o#me& by non0!&&hist shmni+ (#+titione#s =T!++i 198)19819: M!m/o#& 199)1701@9 .#my 19@>* In M!m/o#&s st!&y o/ the G!#!n$ e +n see the G!#!n$ shmn n& the Tibetn "m in +om(etition /o# the sme #it!" $#o!n&* The lalu #it!" &es+#ibe& by M!m/o#& in%o"%es the "!#in$ b+, o/ the so!" n& "so the o//e#in$ o/ #nsom0s!bstit!te o# lu to t he &emon ho hs t,en it* M!m/o#& notes tht the lalu s (e#/o#me& in Gys!m&o is mo#e $ene#"i2e& n& ste#eoty(e& thn the eC!i%"ent #it!" o/ the G!#!n$ shmn n& hs "ost the "tte# #it!"s &eti"e& $#o!n&in$ in the so+i" #e"tionshi(s o/ the %i""$e n& the $eo$#(hy o/ its en%i#onment* The sme mi$ht be si& o/ the to #it!"s o/ this ty(e one !&&hist n& one n(o &is+!sse& by Smten .#my =19@>* The s!mmonin$ o/ the la is ne%e#the"ess #it!" tht +o!"& be (e#/o#me& by shmn s e note& in 'h(te# io the la.-ug #it!" hi+h hs the sme /!n+tion is +t!""y (e#/o#me& by some Tibetn !a*o s(i#it0me&i!ms* The "m my +"im s!(e#io#ity on the $#o!n&s tht his #it!" &#s its (oe# /#om the Tnt#i+ yidam #the# thn /#om the "o+" &eities b!t the Job bein$ (e#/o#me& is essenti""y the sme s tht +##ie& o!t by the !a*o o# by the G!#!n$ shmn ith the i& o/ the "o+" &eities* The ts-e*ang is nothe# mtte# n& +n on"y be (e#/o#me& by "m sin+e the ho"e (oint is the st#en$thenin$ o/ the "i/e0 ene#$y by the "m t#ns/o#me& s Tnt#i+ "on$0"i/e yidam s!+h s Amity!s
o# White T# "tho!$h e%en the#e the No#thest Thi !ahm b#in$s bo!t simi"# en&s by in%o,in$ the the*ada# Th#o!$h "" these (#$mti+""y o#iente& #it!"s the "m t!#ns his s(i#it!" (oe#s to the this0o#"&"y bene/it o/ his /o""oe#s e%en hi"e ht he &oes +n be inte#(#ete& in mo#e so(histi+te& mnne#s #e"tin$ to the (th to En"i$htenment* The "m in these #it!"s +n be seen s obtinin$ /o# his /o""oe#s (#e+ise"y tht o#"&"y h((iness hi+h s they (#o$#ess "on$ the (th they #e t!$ht to #e$#& s &e+e(ti%e n& o#th"ess* As "ys the (#&o5 +n be #eso"%e& in !&&hist te#ms th#o!$h the &o+t#ine o/ u!"ya.ausalya o# s,i""/!" mens* Li/e n& $oo& he"th #e ne+ess#y bsis /o# (#+ti+in$ the te+hin$s t "" n& (eo("e tten&in$ the #it!" /o# P#$mti+ (!#(oses #e ne%e#the"ess e5(ose& to the t e+hin$s n& to the t#ns/o#mti%e e//e+t o/ the #it!" itse"/ n& my be &#n on#&s into the o& hi O#i enttion s + onseC!en+e* To see the #it!"s (!#e"y in te#ms o/ this0o#"&"y %e#s!s othe#o#"&"y +ont#st is itse"/ (e#h(s too +"e#i+" n ((#o+h* The #it!"s nee& to be +onsi&e#e& ithin the shmni+ o#"&0%ie hi+h s s,et+he& in 'h(te#s 9 n& 1o* The (#ti+i(nts &o not ne+ess#i"y e5(e+t ny s(e+i/i+ this0o#"&"y bene/its /#om (#ti+i(tion t the #it!"s* Wht is t iss!e is mo#e the #esto#tion o/ $ene#" stte o/ e""0bein$ h#mony n& b"n+e in the o#&e# o/ the !ni%e#se* In b#in$in$ this bo!t the "m is (e#/o#min$ n essenti""y shmni+ #o"e hi"e the stte o/ h#mony n& b"n+e in%o"%e& s .mt#!" Rim(o+hes +omments #emin& !s is "so o(en to inte#(#ettion in te#ms o/ the $ene#" !&&hist $o" o/ En"i$htenment* :79
16
Lms Mon,s n& *o#ins
'h(te#s 9 to 1; h%e int#o&!+e& th#ee #es o/ Tibetn #e"i$ion the /o", #e"i$ion S# n& Tnt# n& shon ho they +o##es(on& to the P#$mti+ .#m n& o&hi o#ienttions* We +n s!mm#i2e this s /o""os) P#$mti+ +on+e#ns #e &e"t ith by /o",0#e"i$ion (#+titione#s !sin$ te+hniC!es o/ s(i#it0me&i!mshi( n& othe# /o#ms o/ &i%intion "on$ ith %#io!s ,in&s o/ #it!"s* They #e "so (#im#y #e o/ +on+e#n o/ the "ms ='h(te#s to n& 1;>* The St# te+hin$s (#o%i&e the bsis /o# !&&hist ethi+s n& mo#"ity n& #e (#ti+!"#"y (#ominent in the +onte5t o/ ð he#e the mon,s ho #e most +"ose"y sso+ite& ith them ("y n im(o#tnt (#t* The .#m 0o#iente& !&&hist ethi+" system is hoe%e# on"y (#t o/ the Tibetn %"!e0system hi+h +n be seen o%e#"" s +ontinin$ both tme n& i"& mo&es o# (o"#ities ='h(te# I t>* Tnt# is the bsis /o# the +!"t o/ En"i$htenment b!t it "so (#o%i&es the set o/ te+hniC!es by hi+h "ms o(e#te in the (#$mti+ s(he#e n& th#o!$h hi+h they #e in%o"%e& t the time o/ ð ='h(te#s 1: to 1;>* In this +h(te# n& 'h(te# 17 e "oo, t the %#io!s ,in&s o/ (#+titione#s ho o(e#te ithin these &i//e#ent s(he#es* A/te# the s!#0 LAMAS MON.S AND OGINS %ey o/ Tibetn so+ieties in 'h(te#s : to it sho!"& +ome s no s!# (#ise to /in& tht Tibetn #e"i$io!s (#+titione#s #e +h#+te#i2e& by %#iety n& /"!i&ity o/ #o"es* The#e s #e"ti%e"y "itt"e +ent#"i2e& +ont#o" o%e# the #e"i$io!s system in (#emo&e#n times* The Lhs $o%e#nment in theo#y #ese#%e& the (oe# to #e+o$ni2e #ein+#nte "ms =see be"o> ithin its #e"m b!t its bi"ity to en/o#+e its #e+o$nition s "imite&* At "est one senio# .$y&( "m the Shm#( in+#ntion +ontin!e& to h%e #e+o$ni2e& #ebi#ths &es(ite bn /#om Lhs in the "te ei$hteenth +ent!#y* It s not
!nti" the time o/ the 13th D"i Lm =in the 19:8s> tht +ent#"i2e& +ont#o" s im(ose& o%e# e%en the monsti+ &e$#ees $#nte& by the "#$e Ge"!$( monsti+ +ente#s //i"ite& ith the Lhs $o%e#nment* This "+, o/ +ent#"i2tion ent "on$ ith sit!tion in hi+h the #o"es !n&e#t,en by "ms e#e n& sti"" #e to&y st#on$"y &e(en&ent on thei# in&i%i&!" (e#son"ities n& bi"ities* Whi"e the stt!s o/ o#&ine& +e"ibte mon, is +"e# eno!$h tht o/ "m hs m!"ti t!&e o/ %#itions) "ms my be mon, s !nm##ie& "y yo$is o# m##ie& ho!seho"&e#s they my be he&s o/ $om( o# so"it#y he#mits they my be $#et s+ho"#s o# !n"ette#e& (#+titione#s* They my "so be eithe# m"e o# /em"e "tho!$h the %st mJo#ity #e men* The#e #e s mny ys o/ bein$ "m s the#e #e "ms* This +h(te# &is+!sses the /i%e #e"i$io!s o#&e#s n& e5mines the stt!ses o/ "m mon, n& "y yo$i+ (#+titione#* 'h(te# 17 &is+!sses some o/ the "ess +on%ention" n& mo#e shmni+ /o#ms o/ Tibetn #e"i$io!s (#+titione# in (#ti+!"# the tertön o# %ision#y* THE FIE RELIGIOUS ORDERS The /i%e #e"i$io!s o#&e#s =Nyin$m( .$y&( S,y( Ge"!$( n& n(o> h%e "#e&y been mentione& on n!me#o!s o++sions n& thei# in&i%i&!" histo#ies i"" be t#+e& in the histo#i+" +h(te#s o/ P#t Th#ee* At this (oint in the boo, hoe%e# it my be !se/!" to (#esent b#ie/ syno(ti + %ie o/ these o#&e#s n& the &i//e#en+es beteen them sin+e Tibetn #e"i$io!s (#+titione#s #e $ene#""y //i"ite& ith one o# nothe# o/ these o#&e#s*: The o#&e#s &i//e# "on$ se%e#" &imensions in+"!&in$ => the im(o#tn+e o/ monsti+ism (#ti+!"#"y +e"ibte monsti+ism =see be"o> =b> the ("+e o/ the O"& Tnt#s n& o/ Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e in $ene#" n& =+> ht mi$ht be +""e& $#ete# o# 'IILIED SHAMANS "esse# +ommitment to hie##+hy n& st#!+t!#e* 3 These &i//e#en+es +n "so be +o##e"te& ith mo#e shmni+ o# mo#e +"e#i+" em(hsis n& ith &i//e#in$ (o"iti+" #o"es* O/ the /i%e o#&e#s the Ge"!$( o#&e# ; /o!n&e& by Tson$,( =o# #the# by his &is+i("es> in the e#"y /i/teenth +ent!#y is the most +ent#"i2e& hie##+hi+" n& +"e#i+"* It is +"ose"y +onne+te& to n e#"ie# o#&e# ,non s the .&m( /o!n&e& by the In&in te+he# Atis n& his Tibetn
&is+i("e n& (t#on D#omtn in the e"e%enth +ent!#y* The "#$est Tibetn monsti+ gom!a be"on$ to the Ge"!$( o#&e# n& +e"ibte monsti+ism is most em(hsi2e& in this t#&ition* The Ge"!$( be+me (o"iti+""y &ominnt in +ent#" Tibet in the se%enteenth +ent!#y n& thei# "e&in$ "ms in+"!&e the D"i n& Pn+hen Lms* The Lhs &minist#tion s +"ose"y "in,e& ith the "#$e Ge"!$( monsti+ +ente#s #o!n& Lhs =Se# Gn&en D#e(!n$ see 'h(te# i7>* Histo#i+""y =see 'h(te# :@> the $#oth o/ the Ge"!$( m#,e& #esse#tion o/ the im(o#tn+e o/ +e"ibte monsti+ism hi+h they inte$#te& ith the st!&y o/ (hi"oso(hi+" +!##i+!"!m bse& (#im#i"y on the Mhyn S!t#s n& thei# In&in +omment#ies* Se#io!s Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e in the Ge"!$( o#&e# is #ese#%e& to mo#e &%n+e&* st$es ty(i+""y /te# tenty ye#s o# mo#e o/ s+ho"sti+ st!&y n& in theo#y t "est is +##ie& o!t on"y by +e"ibte (#+titione#s ho h%e t,en /!"" gelong %os* The Ge"!$( e%ent!""y be+me the "#$est !&&hist o#&e# in Tibet* Th#o!$h the instit!tion o/ the D"i Lms they e#e /#om 17;: on#&s the #!"e#s o/ +ent#" Tibet =see 'h(te# :@>* The Ge"!$( hoe%e# ne%e# h%e #eJe+te& Tnt# n& thei# insisten+e on +e"ib+y &oes not in%o"%e &eni" o/ the ne+essity o/ the se5!" (#+ti+es /o# +om("ete En"i$htenment =see 'h(te# I I >* Thei# obJe+tions #e #the# o/ (#+ti+" nt!#e tht Tnt#i+ (#+ti+es nee& to be #e st#i+te& n& +"ose"y s!(e#%ise& =n& in the +se o/ the "ite#" (e#/o#mn+e o/ the se5!" (#+ti+es %oi&e&> in o#&e# to mintin the +o##e+t &is+i("ine n& moti%tion in the st!&ent =see the sto#y +ite& be"o #e$#&in$ Tson$,(s #e/!s" to (e#/o#m these (#+ti+es>* The othe# mJo# o#&e#s =S,y( Nyin$m( .$y&( n(o> e+h +onsist o/ $#o!( o/ in&e(en&ent s!bo#&e#s sh#in$ +ommon set o/ te+hin$ "ine$es* Li,e the Ge"!$( they h%e monsti+ t#&itions n& thei# "#$e te+hin$ gom!a, "" ith s!bstnti" +om("ement o/ mon,s e#e the +ent#" instit!tions o/ these o#&e#s LAMAS MON.S AND OGINS ithin (#emo&e#n Tibet* Un"i,e the Ge"!$( hoe%e# these o#&e#s "so mintine& +ti%e t#&itions o/ "y yo$i+ (#+ti+e* The most shmni+ n& "est +ent#"i2e& n& hie##+hi+" o/ these o#&e#s #e the Nyin$m( n& n(o* The Nyin$m( $o b+, to the e#"y (hses o/ !&&hism in Tibet =se%enth to tenth +ent!#ies>* The (tte#n o/ sm"" he#e&it#y non+e"ibte #e"i$io!s +ente#s estb"ishe& in the tenth to
te"/th +ent!#ies #emine& +ommon one mon$ the Nyin$m( "tho!$h se%e#" "#$e Nyin$m( monsti+ gom !a ith #ein+#nte "ms &e%e"o(e& in "te# ye#s min"y in .m* The n(o o#&e# "i,e the Nyin$m( $oes b+, to $#o!( o/ he#e&it#y "ine$es o/ Tnt#i+ #it!" (#+titione#s in the tenth to te"/th +ent!#ies* This o#&e# is s(e+i" +se in tht it +"ims to &e#i%e not /#om the te+hin$s o/ the histo#i+" !&&h b!t /#om tht o/ (#io# te+he# nme& Shen#b =S!(#eme shen0(#iest>* A"tho!$h te+hni+""y non0!&&hist it +n be #e$#&e& in most #es(e+ts s /i/th !&&hist o#&e#* It is (#ti+!"#"y +"ose in its (#+ti+es to the Nyin$m( ith hom it sh#es the im(o#tnt D2o$+hen t#&ition o/ non0Tnt#i+ me&ittion* The othe# to mJo# o#&e#s o# $#o!(s o/ o#&e#s .$y&( n& S,y( #e someht inte#me&ite in te#ms o/ hie##+hy +ent#"i2tion n& +"e#i+"i2tion beteen the Nyin$m(0n(o n& Ge"!$( e5t#emes* The S,y( n& .$y&( both $o b+, to the In&in te+he#s o/ Ne Tnt# "ine$es in the tenth n& e"e%enth +ent!#ies n& thei# e#"y Tibetn &is+i("es* These to o#&e#s e#e /o!n&e& by Tibetn (#+titione#s ho t#nsmitte& the yo$i+ (#+ti+es /#om s(e+i/i+ In&in si&&hs =i#( n& N#o( #es(e+ti%e"y>* These +ent#" Ne Tnt# "ine$es #e on"y (#t o/ the te+hin$s no one& n& (sse& on by these o#&e#s h%in$ been s!(("emente& by othe# (#+ti+es &e#i%e& /#om In&in o# Tibetn "ine$es in+"!&in$ the %#io!s &is+o%e#e& (terma) "ine$es =see 'h(te#s 1: n& 17>* The S,y( /o!n&e#s e#e he#e&it#y Nyin$m( (#+titione#s n& the S,y(s +ontin!e to (#+ti+e se%e#" o/ the O"& Tnt#s* oth the S,y(s n& the .$y&(s ("ye& im(o#tnt (o"iti+" #o"es in Tibetn so+ieties* The S,y( e#e #!"e#s o/ Tibet &!#in$ the Mon$o" (e#i o& n& to .$y&( s!bo#&e#s h& mJo # (o"iti +" (oe# the .#m(s s the ""ies o/ the Tsn$( #!"e#s in the "te si5teenth n& e#"y se%enteenth +ent!#ies n& the D#!$(s in h!tn /#om the se%enteenth to tentieth +ent!#ies* LAMAS MON.S AND OGINS S,y( .$y&( Nyin$m( n& to "esse# e5tent n(o "" (#ti+i(te& in the nineteenth0+ent!#y Rime& o# nonse+t#in mo%e ment =see 'h(te# :@> n& thei# mo&e#n /o#ms h%e been si$ni/i+nt"y sh(e& by Rime&* As +onseC!en+e the#e e#e bsi+""y to $#o!(s o/ o#&e#s by the mi&0 tentieth +ent!#y the Ge"!$( on the one hn& =s!b&i%i&e& into the //i"ites o/ the mJo# te+hin$ +ente#s Gn&en Se# D#e(!n$ n& Tshi Lh!n(o n&
thei# %#io!s s!b&i%isions> n& the Rime& o#&e#s =S,y( .$y&( n& Nyin$m(> on the othe#* The n(o e#e &i%i&e& into mo&e#nist /+tion =Ne n o# bön sar), +ente#e& in est Tibet ho e#e +"ose"y "i$ne& ith Rime& n& t#&ition"ist /+tion =O"& n bön nying), min"y in +ent#" Tibet "tho!$h #e"tions beteen the to $#o!(s e#e n& #emin +"ose*6 This +omin$ to$ethe# o/ the non0Ge"!$( o#&e#s s s e sh"" see in the histo#i+" +h(te#s =:; to :@> the +!"mintion o/ (#o+ess tht ent b+, se%e#" +ent!#ies* These o#&e#s h& in +ommon the e5isten+e o/ "y yo$i+ t#&ition n& n inte#est in the O"& Tnt#s n& the terma "ine$es* oth S,y( n& .$y&( hi"e bse& on the Ne Tnt#s h& be+ome &ee("y in%o"%e& ith the O"& Tnt# t#&ition* The#e s the#e/o#e "#e&y +onsi&e#b"e o%e#"( beteen the (#+ti+es o/ the th#ee non0Ge"!$( !&&hist o#&e#s hethe# /o#m""y O"& Tnt# o# Ne Tnt#* Sin+e D2o$+hen ("ye& +ent#" (#t in the Rime& synthesis n& (#o%i&e& !ni/yin$ (e#s(e+ti%e beyon& the s(e+i/i+ Tnt#i+ "ine$es n& &eities Rime& "so o//e#e& ("+e /o# the n(o o#&e# hi+h h& h& its on D2o$+hen t#&ition* y the mi&0tentieth +ent!#y the e//e+ts o/ Rime& e#e sti"" s(#e&in$ th#o!$h the non0Ge"!$( o#&e#s b!t most "e&in$ "ms es(e+i""y in the est e#e "#e&y (#o&!+t o/ Rime& te+hin$ +ente#s s!+h s She+hen o# Pe"(!n$ s m!+h s o/ thei# on s(e+i/i+ o#&e#s o# s!bo#&e#s* We i"" see some e5m("es in 'h(te# 1* The#e seems e%e#y #eson to s!((ose tht this (#o+ess i"" +ontin!e n& be st#en$thene& in the ye#s to +ome es(e+i""y sin+e the non0Ge"!$( o#&e#s in e5i"e h%e /ee# "ms n& gom!a thn the Ge"!$( so tht mny o/ thei# sm""e# "ine$es n& s!bo#&e#s #e s+#+e"y %ib"e s in&e(en&ent t#&itions* 'ELIA' AND MONASTI'ISM The iss!e o/ +e"ib+y n& o/ +e"ibte monsti+ism is s e h%e seen one o/ the (oints o/ +ont#st beteen the %#io!s Tibetn #e"i$io!s o#&e#s ith the Ge"!$( #eC!i#in$ it n& othe# o#&e#s #e$#&in$ it s one o/ se%e#" "te#nti%es* The C!estion o/ +e"ib+y in Tibetn !& &hism #eC!i#es some e5("i+it +onsi&e#tion be+!se o/ its im("i+tions /o# Tibetn #e"i$io!s (#+titione#s* 'e"ib+y hs been one o/ the mo#e +on/!sin$ s(e+ts o/ Tibetn
!&&hism /o# Weste#n obse#%e#s (#ti+!"#"y /o# those !se& to !&&hism in the The#%& +o!nt#ies he#e +e"ibte monsti+ism is no#m""y #e$#&e& s essenti" ='h(te# :>* Th!s mny e#"y ++o!nts o/ Tibet #e/e# to the (#esen+e o/ m##i e& mon,s o# m## ie& +"e#$y* I/ *e !se the $ene#i+ Tibetn te#m %h-ö!a be"o /o# #e"i$io!s (#+tition e#s the sit!tion is "ess +on/!sin$* Ch-ö!a +n be "y o# h%e t,en %os o/ +e"ib+y* Ly %h-ö!a +n n& &o m##y n& h%e se5!" #e"tions* To &es+#ibe s!+h m##ie& %h- ö!a s mon,s o# n!ns is mis0 !n&e#stn&in$* The Tibetns h%e m"e n& /em"e (#+titione#s ho h%e t,en %os o/ +e"ib+y (tra!a, ani) in "#$e n!mbe#s n& s!+h (eo("e mi$ht #esonb"y be +""e& mon,s n& n!ns* These (#+titione#s +nnot m##y n& sho!"& not h%e se5!" #e"tions t ny #te itho!t /o#m""y #et!#nin$ thei# %os* It is t#!e hoe%e# tht the ("+e o/ +e"ib+y n& monsti+ism in Tibetn (#+ti+e is &i//e#ent /#om tht in The#%&in !&&hism o# in the !&&hism o/ the F# Este#n +o!nt#ies ='hin -(n .o#e ietnm>* To !n&e#stn& this sit!tion e nee& to #et!#n to the to im(o#tnt &istin+tions beteen Hinyn n& Mhyn n& beteen Mhyn n& J#yn =Tnt#> int#o&!+e& in 'h(te# I i* As s (ointe& o!t the#e n& in 'h(te# 1: these &istin+tions beteen the !&&hism o/ Tibet n& the !&&hism o/ the The#%&in +o!nt#ies h%e si$ni/i+nt +onseC!en+es /o# the nt!#e o/ !&&hist (#+ti+e* Fo# the Tibetns s /o# othe# !&&hists +e"ib+y n& it h&#" /#om "y "i/e #e t#&ition""y #e$#&e& s ne+ess#y o# t "est hi$h"y &esi#b"e /o# non0Tnt#i+ !&&hist (#+ti+e 7 /te# the (#+titione# hs (#o$#esse& beyon& the e"ement#y mo#" t#inin$ o/ the t,in$ o/ #e/0 !$e the /i%e (#e+e(ts n& the %oi&n+e o/ non%i#t!o!s +tions* Nei 0 the# +e"ib+y no# ith&#" /#om "y "i/e hoe%e# #e ne+ess#i"y #eC!i#e& /o# the (#+ti+e o/ J#yn o# Tnt#i+ !&&hism in Tibetn so+ieties* In /+t +e"ib+y my be in((#o(#ite (st +e#tin (oint in n in&i%i&!"s s(i#it!" +#ee# sin+e the "ite#" (e#/o#mn+e o/ Tnt#i+ se5!" (#+ti+es is in+om(tib"e ith the st#i+t obse#%n+e o/ +e"ib+y* As mentione& in 'h(te#s I I n& 1: these (#+ti+es in%o"%e the !se o/ =+t!" o# %is!"i2e&> se5!" inte#+o!#se s me&itti%e te+h0 'IILIED SHAMANS
'IILIED SHAMANS
LAMAS MON.S AND OGINS niC!e in +onJ!n+tion ith the yo$i+ (#o+esses #e"tin$ to ene#$y /"os ithin the bo&y* They my be (e#/o#me& by %is!"i2tion =!sin$ n im$ine& +onso#t o# 67 dnam udrd, is&om se"> #the# thn by !sin$ n +t!" (hysi+" se5!" (#tne# (.armamudrd, "ite#""y +tion se"> n& this mo&e o/ (#+ti+e s m!+h mo#e +ommon in (#emo& e#n Tibet thn thei# "ite#" (hysi+" (e#/o#mn+e* P#+ti+e ith n + t!" (hysi+" (#t ne# hoe%e# s be"ie%e& to be mo#e e//i ++io!s thn (#+ti+e ith %is!"i2e& (#tne# n& it s in no y im(#o(e# i/ those in%o"%e& h& not t,en %os o/ +e"ib+y* P#+ti+e ith n +t!" (#tne# enb"es En"i$htenment to be +hie%e& in this "i/etime he#es ith n im$ine& (#tne# it +n be +hie%e& t best in the inte#me&ite stte (bardo) /o""oin$ ð* E%en the Ge"!$( ho ("+e most em(hsis on +e"ibte monsti+ism &o not +ontest the %"i&ity o/ these (#+ti+es* Th!s Dnie" 'o2o#t s!mm#i2es the ++o!nt o/ the eminent +ontem(o##y Ge"!$( te+he# -m(e" Shen(en =the (#esent Gn&en T#i( Abbot o/ Gn0&en> s /o""os) S,ym!ni !&&h in his "st "i/etime (#io# to en"i$htenment !se& n A+tion Se" n +t!" (hysi+" +onso#tV b!t it is si& tht "tho!$h Tson$,( "so be+me !&&h he &i& not !se n A+tion Se" be+omin$ en"i$htene& in the inte#me&ite stte inste&* Tson$,( &i& this be+!se he /e#e& his /o""oe#s o!"& imitte him itho!t bein$ (#o(e#"y (#e(#e& th!s hm(e#in$ inste& o/ enhn+in$ t hei# (#+ti+es ='o2o#t 197)9: see "s o R* -+,son 19S)3o>* As is e"" ,non Hin&! Tnt# in In&i t ny #te o/ the "e/t hn& (vamamarga) %#iety !ses #e"te& se5!" te+hniC!es* The Tibetn (#+ti+es hoe%e# &o not h%e the !# o/ &!bio!s mo#"ity n& so+i" !n++e(tbi"ity tht is to&y o/ten sso+ite& ith thei# Hin&! eC!i%"ents* They #e essenti""y (#i%te mtte# beteen the (#tne#s in%o"%e& n& thei# $!#!* E%en in the not in/#eC!ent +ses he#e the m"e (#tne# is trul.u =#ein+#nte "m> n& mi$ht te+hni+""y be +e"ibte mon, the#e my be some $ossi( b!t the#e is !s!""y no se#io!s (!b"i+ &is((#o%"* A"" this +n &o!bt"ess be +onne+te& ith the mo#e #e"5e& n& (e#missi%e ttit!&es to#&s se5!"ity o/ "" ,in&s in+"!&in$ (#e0 n& e5t#m#it" #e"tionshi(s +h#+te#isti+ o/ Tibetn so+ieties in +om(#ison ith Hin&! so+iety ith its st#on$ em(hsis on /em"e %i#$inity n& +hstity* It +n "so be sso+ite& ith the im(o#tn+e o/ #e(!ttion s e"" s
#es(e+tbi"ity %"!e0systems in Tibetn so+ieties=see 'h(te# I #> n& ith the $ene#" ++e(tn+e o/ m!"ti("i+ity o/ (ths =the +on+e(t o/ u!dya.ausalya, s,i""/!" mens ((#o(#ite to the (#ti+!"# (#+titione#>* Fo# the most (#t Tibetns #e mo#e inte#este& in hethe# "ms h%e bi"ity o# (oe# #the# thn in hethe# they #e +e"ibte (#o%i&e& tht thei# moti%tion =i*e* bodhi%itta) is not s!s(e+t* It is the#e/o#e both (ossib"e n& ((#o(#ite /o# Tibetn to be n &%n+e& (#+titione# hi"e not bein$ +e"ibte "tho!$h it is t,en /o# $#nte& tht /o# s!+h (e#son se5!"ity hs &i//e#ent menin$ thn it hs /o# o#&in#y (eo("e* In /+t sin+e mste#y o/ the se5!" yo$i+ te+hniC!es im("ies hi$h &e$#ee o/ +ont#o" o%e# Tnt#i+ #it!" someone ho is ,non to be &e(t t these (#+ti+es i"" !s!""y be #e$#&e& s hi$h"y %"!e& #it!" (e#/o#me#* S!+h "y (#+titione#s +n b!i"& !( +onsi&e#b"e #e(!ttion /o# sn+tity n& s(i#it!" ttinment mon$ "o+" (eo("e ho i"" +ons!"t them /o# s(i#it!" n& (#+ti+" &%i+e o# s, them to (e#/o#m #it!"s* The $ene#" te#m /o# Tnt#i+ (#+titione#s (nel or!a, /e#n* nel6orma) is !se& by the Tibetns to t#ns"te the Sns,#it yogin, yogini, i#e#, (#+titione# o/ yo$ =Tib* nel6or), n& I sh"" !se yo$in o# yo$i+ (#+titione# s t#ns"tion in this boo,* Fem"e (#+titione#s h%e ne+ess#y (#t in these t#&itions both s te+he#s n& s /em"e (#tne#s to m"e yo$ins =A""ione 19; Domn 19;> * The In&i n ms te#s o/ these (#+ti+es e#e "so ,non s si&&hs o# mhsi&&hs b!t the Tibetn eC!i%"ents to these te#ms (drubt-ob, drub%h-en) #e ##e"y (("ie& to "i%in$ (eo("e e5+e(t (e#h(s s tit"e o/ #es(e+t /o# "ms ,non /o# thei# Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e* The te#m nel or!ama &oes not ne+ess#i"y im("y tht ny (#ti+!"# nel6or!ama (e#/o#ms the se5!" (#+0 ti+es n& mny s!+h (#+titione#s #e in /+t +e"ibte* The ne 6or!a ma #o"e hoe%e# is &istin+t /#om tht o/ mon, in tht these (eo("e h%e not ne+ess#i"y t,en %os o/ +e"ib+y n& s ho"e #e (#+ti+in$ t#&ition in+om(tib"e ith +e"ib+y* The b!sy "i/e o/ "#$e monsti+ gom!a is in ny +se not tho!$ht o/ s +on&!+i%e to se#io!s yo$i+ (#+ti+e n& yo$ins n& yo$inis #e /o!n& in sm"" +omm!nities sometimes tt+he& to ne#by =no#m""y non0Ge"!$(> monste#ies hose "ms (#o%i&e them ith inst#!+tion* Othe# yo$ins n& yo$inis n&e# /#om +ente# to +ente# sometimes me&ittin$ in the +%es hi$h in the mo!ntins he#e /mo!s yo$ins o/ the (st s!+h s Mi"#e( (e# /o# me& the i# yo$i+ (#+ti+e* LAMAS MON.S AND OGINS Mi"#e( the $#et Tibetn "m yo$in n& (oet o/ the e"e%enth +ent!#y
is the best ,non n& the (#ototy(e o/ the nonmonsti+ yo$i+ t#&ition ='h(te# :;>* Othe# im(o#tnt e#"y /i$!#es in+"!&e the In&in te+he# ,non in Tibet s P&m( Sn$yQ =.s+hes,y 19@3 A2i2 19o> his Tibetn /em"e sso+ite M+hi$ Lb&#n =A""ione 19;)1;10:8;> n& se%e#" Nyin$m( /i$!#es bo%e "" G!#! Rim(o+he =P&msmbh%> n& his &is+i("es s e"" s the %#io!s tertön o# /in&e#s o/ #e%e"e& t#es!#es =see 'h(te# 17>* The#e #e some &istin+t te+hin$ "ine$es (#+ti+e& by these yo$is s!+h s the %höd t#&itions =T!++i 19o)@093 Gytso 196> b!t m!+h o/ thei# (#+ti+e is simi"# to tht o/ +e"ibte mon,s* The &e%e"o(ment o/ the yo$i+ (#+ti+es i"" be +onsi&e#e& /!#the# in P#t Th#ee ='h(te#s 19 to :@>* As s!$$este& in 'h(te# I I the im(o#tn+e o/ yo$i+ (#+ti+e in Tibet im("ies #e"ti%e &e(#e+ition o/ the monsti+ stt!s* A +ommon %ie is tht on+e +ont#o" o%e# the tsalung =inte#n" (sy+hi+ +!##ents see 'h(te# 1:> hs been ttine& %os h%e no menin$* In the non0Ge"!$( o#&e#s the (#im#y C!"i/i+tion /o# +tin$ s "m is to h%e !n&e#t,en t "est one "on$ #et#et =no#m""y th#ee ye#s th#ee months n& th#ee &ys> &!#in$ hi+h it is ss!me& tht one i"" h%e $ine& +ont#o" o%e# tsalung n& so be+ome +om(etent #it!" (e#/o#me#*9 'onseC!ent"y se#io!s Tibetn (#+titione# is s o# mo#e "i,e"y to be "y yo$in =o# yo$ini i/ /em"e> thn +e"ibte monsti+* No# #e "ms ne+ess#i"y mon,s* The iss!e o/ +e"ib+y "so o/ +o!#se hs im("i+tions in #e"tion to inhe#itn+e n& these i"" be &is+!sse& "te# in this +h(te#* ARIETIES OF UDDHIST PRA'TITIONER We #e no #e&y to "oo, t the &i//e#ent ty(es o/ !&&hist #e"i$io!s (#+titione# (%h-ö!a) ithin Tibetn so+ieties* Ch-ö!a in Tibetn so+ieties be"on$ to one o# nothe# o/ the se%e#" min #e"i$io!s o#&e#s o# $#o!(s o/ in&e(en&ent s!bo#&e#s =Ge"!$( .$y&( et+*> mentione& bo%e "tho!$h it is not !n!s!" /o# them to #e+ei%e te+hin$ /#om "ms o/ se%e#" o#&e#s* E+h s!bo#&e# h& one o# mo#e "#$e +ent#" te+hin$ +ente#s in the (#emo&e#n (e#io& "on$ ith sm""e# gom!a s+tte#e& th#o!$ho!t the +o!nt#y* Mon,s n& non+e"ibte %h-ö!a ent to these "#$e te+hin$ +ente#s /#om the enti#e Tibetn #e$ion /o# t#inin$ in #it!" (#+ti+e me&ittion n& !&&hist (hi"oso(hy* Whi"e mny o/ these "#$e te+hin$ +ente#s e#e &est#oye& &!#in$ the '!"t!#" Re%o"!tion (e#io& n& "" e#e b#o!$ht to stn&sti"" +omm!nities /#om most o/ the mJo# te+hin$ +ente#s e#e #e+onstit!te& in e5i"e n& #e no
$#&!""y #eb!i"&in$ thei# gom!a in 'hinese0+ont#o""e& Tibet* A mino#ity o/ the (eo("e ho !n&e#t,e s!+h st!&ies be+ome C!"i/ie& te+he#s n& #it!" (#+titione#s b"e to +on&!+t mJo# Tnt#i+ #it!" (e#/o#mn+es* These #e the "ms* In mny +ses these e5+e(tion" in&i%i&!"s #e i&enti/ie& t n e#"y $e s #ebi#ths o/ #e+ent"y &e+ese& "ms n& /te# t#inin$ they t,e o%e# the (#e%io!s "ms monsti+ estb"ishment* These #e the so0+""e& #ein+#nte "ms (trul.u)# Othe# "ms +ome /#om he#e&it#y "ine$es o/ "ms (dunggy8d), n& my inhe#it the mn$ement o/ /mi"y gom!a, "y o# monsti+* et othe# "ms h%e no s(e+i/i+ (ost to s!++ee& to n& be+ome te+he#s t n estb"ishe& #e"i$io!s +ente# o# $#&!""y $the# /o""oin$ n& be$in ne #e"i$io!s +omm!nity* E5m("es o/ some o/ these (ossibi"ities i"" be +onsi&e#e& in 'h(te# # * A"" o/ these "ms +t s (e#/o#me#s o/ Tnt#i+ #it!"s /o# the "y (!b"i+ =see 'h(te# 1;>* Most #e "so the /o+!s o/ $#o!( o/ /o""oe#s o# &is+i("es in+"!&in$ +e"ibte mon,s non+e"ibte yo$is o# o#&in#y "ymen ho themse"%es "e#n to (e#/o#m Tnt#i+ #it!" on "esse# s+"e* As I em(hsi2e th#o!$ho!t this boo, the %#iety o/ (ossib"e #o"es n& +#ee#s is itse"/ si$ni/i+nt +h#+te#isti+ o/ Tibetn so+ieties s o((ose& to the sit!tion e"sehe#e in the !&&hist o#"&* The #o"es %i"b"e /o# #e"i$io!s (#+titione#s ithin Tibetn !&&hism &i//e# /#om the +o##es(on&in$ #o"es in othe# !&&hist so+ieties n& they h%e not "ys been (#esente& &eC!te"y in (#e%io!s #it0 in$s bo!t Tibet* E#"y !tho#ities s!+h s L* A!stine W&&e"" =W&0 &e"" 197@> ith thei# #e/e#en+es to Lmism "mse#ies n& the "i,e mn$e& to +!se +onsi&e#b"e &e$#ee o/ +on/!sion beteen "ms n& mon,s s e"" s +#etin$ the mist,en im(#ession tht Tibetn mon,s e#e m##ie&* No ns(e+i"is t ++o!nts o/ Tib et st i"" o/ten #e(et s!+h mis+on+e(tions* As is no +"e# on"y sm"" (#o(o#tion o/ #e"i$io!s (#+titione#s in Tibetn so+ieties #e (#o(e#"y #e/e##e& to s "ms b!t this sm"" n!mbe# o/ (eo("e = /e tho!sn&> ("ys %e#y im(o#tnt (#t in the system* The "ms #e $#o!( ithin "#$e# +"ss o/ !&&hist #e"i$io!s ( #+titione#s* This "#$e# $#o!( in+"!&es both mon,s in the sense o/ +e"ibte %h-ö!a "i%in$ in +omm!n" #esi&en+es n& non+e"i0 'IILIED SHAMANS LAMAS MON.S AND OGINS bte %h-ö!a o/ %#i o!s ,in&s* Lms my be o/ ei the# ,i n&* We no t!#n to
"oo, t the "ms in "itt"e mo#e &eti"* THE MEANINGS OF LAMA We h%e "#e&y seen tht the te#m "m in Tibetn !s$e hs +ome to h%e i&e# menin$ thn tht o/ guru o# #e"i$io!s te+he#* In e%e#y&y !s$e "m hs &e%e"o(e& n!mbe# o/ o%e#"((in$ #es o/ menin$) =I> Lm "i,e $!#! mens (e#son" #e"i$io!s te+he#* The te#m #oot "m (tsa*; lama) #e/e#s to n in&i%i&!"s (#in+i(" (e#son" #e"i$io!s te+he#* The tsa*; lama is in mny ys the /o+!s o/ n in&i%i&!"s (e#son" s(i#it!" (#+ti+e* At the sme time it is e5("i+it ithin the t#&ition tht e%en the tsa*; lama is on"y n i& on the (th the !"timte so!#+e o/ the te+hin$ is beyon& ny &i+hotomy beteen te+he# n& st!&ent !&&h n& o#&in#y h!mn bein$ =see 'h(te# 13>* Whi"e ny te+he# o/ #e"i$io!s ,no"e&$e =be$innin$ ith the (e#son /#om hom one "e#ne& the "(hbet> my be #e/e##e& to s "m in the sense o/ #e"i$io!s te+he# the (#&i$mti+ +se is the te+he# o/ Tnt#i+ (#+ti +e the +ent#" Tibetn !&&hist te+hniC!e /o# the ttinment o/ En"i$htenment* The im(o#tnt #o"e o/ the "m in the +onte5t o/ Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e hs "#e&y been e5("o#e& t some "en$th in 'h(te#s 1: n& 13* Lm by e5tension +n men the he& o/ gom!a5 not ne+ess#i"y the &minist#ti%e he& (.-en!o, bbot> b!t the (#in+i(" te+he# #o!n& hom the $om( is o#$ni2e&* L#$e gom! a o/ten h%e se%e#" s!+h "ms in this sense* One +onseC!en+e o/ the system o/ inhe#itn+e by #ein+#ntion is tht it in%o"%es s!bstnti" (e#io& in hi+h the (#in+i(" "m =!s!""y the #ein+#ntion o/ the gom!a-s /o!n&e#> is too yo!n$ to +t s he& o/ the gom!a# Othe# senio# "ms ne+ess#i"y h%e to t,e o%e# &!#in$ this (e#io&* A %e#y "#$e gom!a in (#emo&e#n Tibet ith n!me#o!s s!b!nits mi$ht h%e h& tenty o# mo#e #ein+#nte n& othe# senio# "ms e+h ith n tt+he& labrang =ho!seho"& #e"i$io!s +o#(o#tion> e+onomi+""y &istin+t /#om the gom!a (#o(e#* 3* Lm $in by e5tension /#om =I > +n "so men someone ho is (#o(e#"y C!"i/ie& (e#/o#me# o/ Tnt#i+ #it!"* It is this men0in$ th t " "o s one to s(e, o/ m##ie& "y Tnt#i+ (#+titione#s s "ms n& in the She#( +se e%en o/ "m +"n o/ he#e&it#y (#+titione#s o/ this ,in&* As stte& e#"ie# someone ho hs (e#/o#me& th#ee0ye# #et#et is +ommon"y #e/e##e& to s "m* :*
The#e #e se%e#" /!#the# #mi/i+tions o/ the +on+e(t o/ "m* Th!s
"ms s he&s o/ gom!a, my "so be+ome im(o#tnt (o"iti+" "e&e#s by %i#t!e o/ thei# (osition* The D"i Lm Pn+hen Rim(o+he Shb&#!n$ Rim(o+he =/o#me# he& "m o/ h!tn> -etsn (m( Hoto$t! n& 'hn$,y Hoto$t! =he& "ms o/ O!te# n& Inne# Mon$o"i> #e (# eeminent e5m("es b! t mny Tibet n " ms h& si$ni/i+nt (o"iti+" #o"es both in thei# on #i$ht s he&s o/ esttes n& s o//i+i"s in "#$e# Tibetn (o"ities s e s in 'h(te#s 3 to 7 =see '##s+o 1969 Rh!" 19@1 A#is 19@9>* In &&ition the#e is the C!estion o/ in+#nte "ms (trul.u), hi+h nee&s se(#te t#etment* TR/' AND THE TRI.AA 'ON'EPT Mny im(o#tnt "ms (#ti+!"#"y those ho #e he&s o/ "#$e gom!a o# mJo# labrang ithin gom!a, o# ho #e o/ mJo# (o"iti+" si$ni/i+n+e #e trul.u, +on+e(t most o/ten i/ s"i$ht"y mis"e&in$"y #en&e#e& in En$"ish s in+#nte o# #ein+#nte "m* To be #e/e##e& to s trul.u im("ies eithe# tht the in&i%i&!" is n emntion o/ one o# mo#e s(e+i/i+ Tnt#i+ &eities o# mo#e +ommon"y tht he is #ebi#th (yangsid) o/ (#e%io!s "m hose o//i+e n& stt!s he hs inhe#ite&* F#eC!ent"y both menin$s #e +ombine&* The +on+e(t o/ #e+o$ni2e& #ebi#th (yangsid) is /i#"y st#i$ht/o##& i/ !n!s!" to Weste#ne#s b!t tht o/ emntion is mo#e +om ("e5 n& #eC!i#es some &is+!ssion t this (oint be+!se o/ its be#in$ on the ho"e i&e o/ the "m* We h%e "#e&y seen tht &is+i("es #e t!$ht to #e$#& thei# "ms s J#&h# the Tnt#i+ /o#m o/ the !&&h n& tht the "m s n obJe+t o/ s"dhana is %is!"i2e& in the /o#m o/ J#&h# o# nothe# Tnt#i+ &eity =+h(te# 13>* This stt!s o/ the "m s Tnt#i+ &eity is both $ene#i+ ="" "ms #e J#&h#> n& sit!tion" =&is+i("es #e$#& thei# in&i%i&!" #oot "ms s Tnt#i+ &eities>* The trul.u +on+e(t $oes beyon& this to im("y tht some "ms #e mo#e s(e+i/i+""y n& (e#mnent"y emntions o/ (#ti+!"# Tnt#i+ &eities most +ommon"y A%"o,ites%# MYJ!s#i o# J#(ni* 'IILIED SHAMANS 'IILIED SHAMANS We h%e "#e&y seen somethin$ o/ ht A%"o,ites%# the embo&iment o/ +om(ssion #e(#esents in Tibetn tho!$ht* MYJ!s#i =-m(e" n$> #e(#esents insi$ht (!ra67a) into the non&i+hotomi2in$ nt!#e o/ #e"ity n& he is the (t#on o/ the +&emi+ t#&ition in Tibet hi"e J#(ni ='h$n Do#JQ> is /ie#+e emntion o/ the !&&h n& #e(#esents
(oe#/!" n& i/ ne+ess#y &est#!+ti%e +tion* A ho"e se#ies o/ im(o#tnt Tibetn /i$!#es e#e #e$#&e& s emntions o/ MYJ!s#i A%"o,ites%# o# J#(ni n& se%e#" i"" be &is+!sse& in 'h(te#s :6 to :@* y i&enti/yin$ these "ms in this y the Tibetns e#e not J!st in%o"%e& in boostin$ the (#e st i$e o/ #e" i$io!s /i$!#es* They e#e "so &e/inin$ ht ,in& o/ +ti%ity those /i$!#es e#e en$$e& in n& ttem(tin$ to st#en$then tht (#ti+!"# mo&e o/ +ti%ity ithin Tibetn so+iety* In othe# o#&s the bo&histt%s b!&&hs n& $o&&esses "i,e the s(i#it!" entities o/ West A/#i+n #e"i$ions +n be !n&e#stoo& s symbo"i+ m#,e#s /o# &i//e#ent (tte#ns ithin Tibetn +!"t!#e =mo&" sttes in the "n$!$e o/ Sm!e" 199o see "so 'h(te# 19>* They e#e not sim("y bein$s e5istin$ o!tsi&e h!mnity b!t /o#+es tht e#e +ti%e ithin h!mn "i/e* The #it!"s o/ A%"o,ites%# "i,e the #it!"s o/ A/#i+n shmni+ so+ieties s!+h s the N&emb! o# the o#!b e#e &e"ibe#te ttem(ts to in%o,e n& &i#e+t these /o#+es =Sm!e" 199o>* The ne#est to systemti+ /#meo#, /o# &es+#ibin$ these #e"tionshi(s in Tibetn !&&hist tho!$ht s n &(ttion o/ the T#i,y o# th#ee bo &ies theo#y* This th eo#y seems to h%e /i #st &e%e" o(e& mon$ the "te# Hinyn s+hoo"s n& it s e5tensi%e"y &e%e"o(e& by the In&in Mhyn ='on2e 197:)1@:01@3 :3:0:33>* The &o+t#ine o/ the T#i,y s n ttem(t to &e/ine the nt!#e o/ !&&hhoo& n& the %#io!s s(e+ts o/ its mni/esttion* In this s+heme !&&hhoo& s &es+#ibe& in te#ms o/ th#ee ."ya o# bo&ies =the te#m mi$ht bette# be t#ns"te& s ("nes o/ e5isten+e>) =I> The dharma."ya =Tibetn %h-ö.u), hi+h is the t#!e nt!#e o/ the !&&h beyon& ny s(e+i/i+ mni/esttion sometimes symbo" i2e& by J#&h # o# =in the Nyin$m t#&it ion> Smntb h&# =.!nt! Sn$(o>* =:> The sambhoga."ya =Tibetn long%höd.u), +o##es(on&in$ to the /o#ms o/ the +e"esti" !&&hs n& o&histt%s s!+h s AmitbhJq A%"o,ites%# n& MYJ!s#i hi+h #e me&itte& on in Tnt#i+ (#+0 LAMAS MON.S AND OGINS ti+e n& hi+h +n be (e#+ei%e& &i#e+t"y on"y by those ho h%e #e+he& s(e+i/i+ "e%e" o/ ttinment =3> The nirm"na."ya =Tibetn trul.u), the mte#i" /o#m in hi+h the
!&&h ((e#s to o#&in#y h!mn bein$s* The histo#i+" !&&h S,ym!ni s s!+h trul.u# The (#e+ise !s$e o/ these te#ms %#ie& someht /#om t#&ition to t#&ition n& they #e sometimes s!b&i%i&e& /!#the# to m,e /o!# o# /i%e ."ya, b!t the bo%e is the bsi+ st#!+t!#e* We +n t,e the dharma."ya s +o##es(on&in$ to the (e#+e(tion o/ #e"ity beyon& time s(+e n& "" &i+hotomies o/ the shmni+ %ision n& the sambhoga."ya /o#ms s +onstit!tin$ (e#soni/ie& %o+b!"#y o/ +!"t!#" (tte#ns ='h(te# 19 n& Sm!e" 199o> o/ the ty(e +ommon"y /o!n& in shmni+ so+ieties hi+h the ((#enti+e shmn h& to mste# s (#e"!&e to +on/#ontin$ the dharma."ya #e"m o/ (otenti"ity /#om hi+h they eme#$e* The i&e o/ "ms s trul.u in the sense o/ the T#i,y &o+t#ine (#obb"y &e%e"o(e& o%e# se%e#" +ent!#ies n& i"" be e5mine& in some &eti" in 'h(te# :6* When Tibetns !se the te#m trul.u to #e/e# to "m the menin$ +n &o!bt"ess %#y o%e# #n$e /#om &ee("y si$ni/i+nt to me#e"y +on%ention"* The te#m is !se& #e$!"#"y to #e/e# to yangsid "ms in (#t (e#h(s be+!se #e+o$nition s yangsid +##ies the im("i+tion tht the "m hs +C!i#e& +ont#o" o%e# the inte#me&ite stte (bardo) n& so hs ++ess to the sambhoga."ya "e%e"* Trul.u ne%e#the"ess #emins the te#m /o# nirm"na."ya, the (hysi+" (#esen+e o/ !&&hhoo& s e"" s the o#&in#y o#& /o# "m ho is #e+o$ni2e& #ebi#th* TR/', RIMPO'HE AND THE ?UESTION OF SU''ESSION The#e #e se%e#" tho!sn& o/ these #ein+#nte (yangsid) "ms o# trul.u to&y n& they h& &ominnt (osition in the (#emo&e#n Ti betn #e"i$io!s system* Hi$h0stt!s #ein+#nte "ms #e o/ten /o!n& in the /mi"ies o/ he#e&it#y "ms o# in /mi"ies he#e othe# #ein+#ntes h%e "#e&y been i&enti/ie&* Th!s the (#esent =1;th> D"i Lms e"&e# b#othe# =Th!bten -i$me No#b! T$tse# Rim(o+he> h& "#e&y been i&enti/ie& s trul.u some ye#s be/o#e the D"i Lm s i&enti/ie& n& yo!n$e# b#othe# s "te# i&enti/ie& s trul.u# LAMAS MON.S AND OGINS Trul.u #e "so +ommon"y /o!n& in #isto+#ti+ /mi"ies 1: n& one o/ten /in&s +om("e5 inte#e%in$ o/ #ein+#ntion n& he#e&it#y ngag!a ="m> n& ger!a =#isto+#ti+> stt!s* The $ene"o$ies o/ the %#io!s .yentse n& .on$t #!" #ebi# ths in est Tibet in+"! &e n!me#o !s e5 m("es =see Smith 19@o>* Not "" gom!a n& labrang he&s #e +hosen th#o!$h the /in&in$ o/ #ein+#ntions* He#e&it#y s!++ession s t one time the most +ommon
(#o+e&!#e n& it is sti"" C!ite /# eC!ent s /o# e5m("e ith the he & b bot o/ S,y =S,y T#i+hen S,y T#i&2in> ho is ne%e#the"ess "so trul.u in the sense tht it is he"& tht "" e"i$ib"e m"e membe#s o/ the .n /mi"y #e emntions o/ Tnt#i+ &eity =no#m""y MYJ!s#i>* i3 Othe# he& "ms #e +hosen by (#o+ess o/ e5mintion n& se"e+tion s ith the Gn&en T#i( ho is bbot o/ Gn&en monste#y n& tit!"# he& o/ the Ge"!$( o#&e# n& the othe# he& "ms n& +o""e$e he&s o/ Se# Gn&en n& D#e(!n$ n& the to Ge"!$( Tnt#i+ 'o""e$es t Lhs =She#( et "* 9@@>* The C!estion o/ inhe#itn+e hs im("i+tions /o# the iss!e +onsi&e#e& e#"ie# o/ monsti+ +e"ib+y* It is (ossib"e to +ombine monsti+ +e"ib+y n& the he#e&it#y (#in+i("e by h%in$ the s!++ession $o /#om +e"ibte mon, to his non+e"ibte b#othe# o# b#othe#s son* This h((ene& / o# e5m("e in the e#"y ye#s o/ the #!"in$ .n &ynsty o/ S,y n& "so ith the "m0 (#in+e #!"e#s o/ De#$e stte in . m hoe%e# no mJo# gom!a h%e mintine& this mo&e o/ s!++ession o%e# mo#e thn /e $ene#tions* A e"thy labrang my be b"e to //o#& se%e#" i%es /o# its sons n& so (#o&!+e "#$e /mi"ies s h((ene& t ti mes t S,y b!t &emo$#(hi+ /+to#s my sti"" "e& to "+, o/ m"e hei#s es(e+i""y i/ the e5(e+ttion is tht most o/ the m"es be+ome +e"ibte mon,s* 'on%e#se"y one +ommon e5("ntion /o# h%in$ non+e"ibte he& "m s ith S,y in #e+ent +ent!#ies is tht it enb"es the dunggy8d =he#e&it#y "m "ine$e> to be +ontin!e&* >unggyiid he#e #e/e#s not me#e"y to $ene"o$i+" &es+ent b!t "so to the %"!e& s(i#it!" (#o(e#ties inhe#ent i n the "ine$e =A2i2 19@> hi+h o!"& be "ost i/ the /mi"y &ie& o!t* A "#$e /mi"y "so ""os /o# the m!"ti("e ""in+es th#o!$h m##i$e tht #e +h#+te#isti+ o/ hi$h0stt!s Tibetn "m /mi"ies* S!++ession by #ein+#ntion (yangsid, trul.u) +n "so be +ombine& ith he#e&it#y s!++ession* Some gom! a h%e both he#e&it#y n& trul.u "ine$es n& it is #esonb"y +ommon /o# t#!",! themse"%es tom##y n& h%e +hi"&#en* In &&ition sin+e trul.u #e +ommon"y /#om hi$h0stt!s "m o# #isto+#ti+ /mi"ies the#e my be e5tensi%e (#o(e#ty inte#ests in%o"%e& in s!+h &e+isions C!ite (#t /#om the (e#son" (#e/e#en+es o/ the "m +on+e#ne&* The tit"e Rim(o+he "ite#""y %e#y (#e+io!s is !se& in #e/e#en+e n& &&#ess /te# the nmes o/ ny o/ these "ms n& o/ othe# "ms o/ #e+o$ni2e& hi$h stt!s* It &oes not ne+ess#i"y im("y #ein+#nte "m (trul.u) stt!s* oth "m n& Rim(o+he #e someht e"sti+ te#ms in tht hi"e the#e #e some (eo("e hose "m stt!s is s it e#e beyon& ny #$!ment s!+h s the D"i Lm n& othe# senio# trul.u o/ the %#io!s
o#&e#s the#e #e othe#s ho my be #e/e##e& to by some (eo("e =s!+h s (e#son" st!&ents> s "m o# Rim(o+he b!t o!"& not be so #e/e##e& to by the (o(!"tion s ho"e* The te#ms in othe# o#&s #e/e# to #e"tionshi( #the# thn n o//i+e* To +e#tin e5tent the sme e"sti+ity (("ies to trul.u =in the sense o/ #e+o$ni2e& #ebi#th>* The trul.u o# yangsid stt!s o/ mJo# #ein+#ntions is not in &o!bt* It is +e#ti/ie& by the he& "ms o/ the #e"i$io!s o#&e# in C!estion n& in the (#emo&e#n (e#io& s $ene#""y +on/i#me& "so by the Lhs &minist#tion in #es he#e it h& !tho#ity* Less im(o#tnt "ms my be #e+o$ni2e& "o+""y s trul.u o/ #e+ent"y &e+ese& "o+" "m itho!t i&e# #e+o$nition bein$ obtine&* Dis(!tes o%e# the #e+o$nition o/ trul.u #e not !n+ommon n& Tibetns #e e"" #e o/ the (ossibi"ity o/ /#!&* In the (#emo&e#n (e#io& e"thy esttes e#e /#eC!ent"y t iss!e in s!+h +ses n& /o# /mi"y to h%e its +hi"& #e+o$ni2e& s mJo# trul.u m&e &#mti+ &i//e#en+e to the /mi"ys stt!s n& #eso!#+es* Me"%yn Go"&stein C!otes Lhs st#eet0son$ #i&i+!"in$ Lhs #isto+#ti+ "&y ho ho(e& tht he# !nbo#n +hi"& o!"& be the ne5t D"i Lm n& ""e$e&"y b!#ne& in+ense !n&e# he# &#ess so s to sn+ti/y he# $enit"s /o# the emntion o/ the D"i Lm) The s!n hi+h is the h((iness o/ the o#"& hs #isen in T,(o* He# e5+e""en+y M#s* Do#in$s ss hs be+ome b"+, ith soot* =Go"&stein 19:)7;> The #e"ity o/ trul.u n& the %"i&ity o/ the trul.u system s ho"e h oe%e# is ##e"y C!estione&* The +#iti+" +omments o/ the /i/teenth0+ent!#y yo$in Tsn$nyn He#!, C!ote& in 'h(te# :7 #e e5+e(0 'IILIED SHAMANS
'IILIED SHAMANS LAMAS MON.S AND OGINS tion" in this #es(e+t n& e%en they & o not mo!nt to n o !t#i$ht &eni" o/ the +on+e(t* MON.S AND NUNS
Mon, n& n!n #e o/ +o!#se E!#o(en te#ms ith (#im#y #e/ e#en+e to 'h#istin monsti+ism n& they #e not e5+t"y eC!i%"ent to ny Tibetn =o# othe# !&&hist> te#m* As +onseC!en+e thei# !s$e by Weste#n !tho#s in #e"tion to Tibetn m"e n& /em"e +e"ibte +h( hs not "ys been +onsistent* Th!s mon, is sometimes !se& to t#ns"te Tibetn gelong ( 9 Sns,#it bhi.su, P"i bhi..u) o# its n(o eC!i%"ent trangsong# A gelong is mn ho hs !n&e#$one the /!"" monsti+ o#&intion ith the +om("ete set o/ P#timo,s %os $i%en in the !&&hist iny te5ts* On"y mino#ity o/ the +e"ibte inmtes o/ Tibetn monsti+ gom!a #e /!""y o#&ine& gelong# Most h%e !n&e#t,en one o/ the to "esse# sets o/ %os genyen =Sns,#it u!"sa.a) o# gets-ul =Sns,#it sr"manera)#- Membe#s o/ "" these +te$o#ies #e bo!n& by %os o/ +e"ib+y n& no#m""y "i%e in monsti+ +omm!nity (#t /#om "y so+iety* The te#m mon, n& its eC!i%"ents in othe# E!#o(en "n$!$es #e /#eC!ent"y !se& by Weste#n !tho#s to men this mo#e in+"!si%e $#o!(* The $ene#" Tibetn te#m /o# "" th#ee +te$o#ies o/ m"e monsti+ inmtes (u!dsa.a, sr"manera, bhi.su) is tra!a#- S Its "ite#" menin$ is s+ho"# o# st!&ent (trats-ang 9 +o""e$e>* Anothe# te#m rab%hung, "ite#""y #en!n+ite =o/ se+!"# "i/e> +n be !se& in the sme sense* This !s$e &e#i%es /#om rab%hung s te#m /o# the genyen o#&intion hen tht is t,en s it o/ten is in Tibet s the /i#st st$e o/ monsti+ +#ee#* 'onseC!ent"y "" tra!a h%e no#m""y "so t,en rab%hung# The !s$e o/ mon, to #e/e# to nyone ho hs t,en rab%hung is #esonb"e eno!$h sin+e in most +onte5ts the (#e+ise o#&intion stt!s o/ n in&i%i&!" is not si$ni/i+nt b!t it +n +!se some +on/!sion hen +om(#isons #e m&e ith The#%&in o# F# Este#n !&&hist monsti+ism* Most tra!a e5(e+t e%ent!""y to !n&e#t,e the /!"" %os o/ gelong (bhi.su), b!t they my not &o this !nti" e"" &%n+e& in thei# monsti+ +#ee#s* At the sme time s!bstnti" +om("ement o/ /!""y o#&ine& gelong is n in&i+tion o/ e""0&is+i("ine& gom!a hose in0mtes #e se#io!s"y &e&i+te& to the #e"i$io!s "i/e* The Ge"!$( ("+e (#ti+!"# em(hsis on this s they &o $ene#""y on iss!es o/ monsti+ &is+i("ine n& the &esi#bi"ity o/ ith&#" /#om se+!"# "i/e* O#&ine& omen (#+titione#s =$ene#i+""y #e/e##e& to s ani o# %homo) +n on"y !n&e#t,e eC!i%"ents to the /i#st to o/ the th#ee monsti+ $#&es (genyenma, gets-ulma)# The bhi.suni o# gelongma o#&intion "ine$e is $ene#""y #e$#&e& s h%in$ &ie& o!t in Tibet s it &i& "on$ $o in the The#%& +o!nt#ies* 7 Fem"e #e"i$io!s (#+titione#s hoe%e# "ys seem
to h%e been /ee# in n!mbe# thn mon,s in Tibet* In $ene#" they #e "so "oe# in stt!s s seems to be the #!"e in most !&&hist so+ieties =A2i2 19@7b F#e#0Himen&o#/ 19@7 Wi""is 19; Tsomo 19@>* The th#ee $#&es mentione& =/i%e ith the to $#&es /o# omen> &o not e5h!st the &istin+tions mon$ monsti+ inmtes* The#e #e %#io!s &minist#ti%e o//i+es +on+e#ne& ith the #!nnin$ o/ the +omm!nity (#ti+!"#"y in the "#$e# gom!a, s e"" s (osts +on+e#ne& ith the #it!" n& te+hin$ si&e o/ the estb"ishment* In &&ition some Tibetn monsti+ gom!a, (#ti+!"#"y in the Ge"!$( o# &e# #& +&emi+ &e$#ees /te# e5ten&e& st!&y n& e5mintion* The best ,non o/ these &e$#ees is the tit"e o/ gesh;, hi+h s #&e& t %#io!s "e%e"s to $#&!tes o/ the th#ee %e#y "#$e Ge"!$( monsti+ !ni%e#sities ne# Lhs =Se# Gn&en D#e(!n$> n& o/ some othe# "#$e Ge"!$( monsti+ +ente#s*@ In mny o/ the "#$e# gom!a in (#emo&e#n Tibet the#e s "so s(e+i" $#o!( o/ mon,s ho e#e note& /o# thei# (hysi+" st#en$th n& ho /o#me& ,in& o/ monsti+ mi"iti he"(in$ to ,ee( o#&e# ithin the gom!a, em("oye& on missions o!tsi&e n& o++sion""y in%o"%e& in /i$htin$ ith othe# gom !a # The dabdob o/ Se# Monste#y ne# Lhs (#obb"y the most e5t#eme &e%e"o(ment o/ this monsti+ #o"e h%e been &es+#ibe& by Me"%yn Go"&stein =197;> n& the !tobio$#(hy o/ one o/ these mon,s hs been e&ite& by H!$h Ri+h#&son =197>* In the Am&o monsti+ gom!a &es+#ibe& by E,%"" $#o!( o/ e50mon,s o# *anlog "i%in$ on the monste#y (#emises +##ie& o!t some o/ these /!n+tions =E,%"" 197o "so 196: I96; /o# e5m("es>* The most im(o#tnt &istin+tion ithin monsti+ +omm!nity is beteen the o#&in#y inmtes =t#(> n& the "m o# "ms* He#e "m hs the sense both o/ s(i#it!" &i#e+to# o/ the +omm!nity n& o/ + h#ismti+ (e#son"ity bo!t hom it is +ente#e&* The "ms ho!se0 LAMAS MON.S AND OGINS ho"& (labrang) in gom!a o/ ny si2e is se(#te"y &ministe#e& /#om the monsti+ +omm!nity (#o(e# n& o/ten hs +onsi&e#b"e (#o(e#ty n& othe# e"th tt+he& to it* Lms it sho!"& no be +"e# my o# my not be +e"ibte mon,s* In the Ge"!$( o#&e# they h%e to be b!t in the othe# #e"i$io!s o#&e#s =Nyin$m( S,y( .$y&( n(o> this is not ne+ess#i"y so e%en /o# "m ho is +tin$ ="i,e the S,y T#i+hen> s the he& o/ +omm!n ity o/ +e"ibte mon,s* As "#e&y mentione& on"y /e +e"ibte mon,s #e #e/e##e& to s "ms* Most +e"ibte mon,s h%e #e"ti%e"y s!bo#&inte stt!s ithin the system*
NON'ELIATE CH-$D LAMAS OGINS AND LA PRA'TITIONERS Lms o!tsi&e the Ge"!$( o#&e# s e h%e seen #e not ne+ess#i"y +e"ibte* Neithe# #e thei# /o""oe#s* Th!s the non0Ge"!$( o#&e#s h%e se#ies o/ /!#the# #o"es /o# non+e"ibte #e"i$io!s %h-ö!a# It is these %h-ö!a tht e#e sometimes &es+#ibe& s m##ie& mon,s by e#"ie# Weste#n obse#%e#s n& thei# (#esen+e inte#(#ete& s e%i&en+e o/ &e(#%ity "5ity n& the $ene#""y &e$ene#te stte o/ !&&hism in Tibet =see W&&e"" 1 ;V 197@)193 o# e%en T!++i 1967)63 +ommentin$ on the m##ie& %h-ö!a o/ R"!n$>* Simi"# +omments h%e been m&e bo!t the m##ie& !&&hist (#iests o/ "i n& the .thmn&! ""ey (!edanda, va6r"%arya)# Fo# the Tibetns hoe%e# non+e"ibte (#+ti+e is not ne+ess#i"y n in/e#io# n& &e$ene#te "te#nti%e to #e" !&&hism* Non+e"ibte %h-ö!a, "i,e +e"ibte %h-ö!a, #e J!&$e& on thei# in&i%i&!" me#its n& mny "ms o/ #e+o$ni2e& hi$h stt!s #e non0+e"ibte* A +om(etent non+e"ibte yo$i (#ti+!"#"y he#mit o# n&e#in$ %höd (#+titione# is "i,e"y to be #e$#&e& s h%in$ mo#e #it!" (oe# thn n %e#$e mon,* No n+ e" ib t e " m s h %e " #e&y be en &i s+ !sse& * They in+ "! &e mny he&s o/ hi$h"y #e(!tb"e n& (#esti$io!s monsti+ gom!a# The best ,non o/ these s the S,y T#i+hen the he#e&it#y he& o/ the min S,y( o#&e# n& o/ the "#$e n& im(o#tnt S,y estte =' ho$y T#i+hen 193 Ami( 19@7 see 'h(te# 3>* The S,y T#i+hens /mi"y "i,e the (#in+es o/ De#$e in .m ho e#e "so o#i$in""y he#e&it#y "m "ine$e =.o"ms 197 19 see 'h(te# ;> +"im #isto+#ti+ &es+ent (#t /#om thei# #e"i$io!s #o"e n& e#e !n&o!bte&"y o/ %e#y hi$h stt!s in (#emo&e#n Tibet* The#e #e mny mo#e mo&est "ine$es o/ he#e&it#y "ms s!+h s the ngag!a /mi"ies &es+#ibe& by A2i2 /o# Din$#i =A2i2 19@)6306; ::o0::I>* E%en in these +ses bein$ bo#n into ngag!a /mi"y +##ies the im("i+tion o/ inhe#ite& s(i#it!" (oe#* A2i2 notes tht the Din$#i ngag!a e#e eC!" in so+i" stt!s to "o+" ger!a o# #isto+#ti+ /mi"ies* In&i%i&!"s ho #e not /#om ngag!a "ine$es mi$ht be+ome "ms o/ this ,in& th#o!$h thei# on bi"ities* We i"" see n e5m("e o/ this in 'h(te# 1 =the "m 'hn$+h!b Do#JQ o/ Ny#on$>* O/ "ess e"e%te& stt!s $in #e the so0+""e& %i""$e "ms o# ser.y- im &is+!sse& by #b# A2i2 /o# Din$#i n& +ommon in mny (#ts o/ Tibet =A2i2 19@)@709; see 'h(te# 1@>* These #e "y (eo("e ho t#&ition""y #e+ei%e& some #e"i$io!s t#inin$ n& +te& s (e#/o#me#s o/ #it!"* In Din$#i these %i""$e "ms e#e &istin+t /#om he#e&it#y "ms o/ the ngag!a ty(e* As A2i2s in/o#mnts (!t it nyone +n be+ome ser.y-im5 it is on"y mtte# o/ t#inin$* These (eo("e #e (e#h(s +om(#b"e to the %i""$e
e5o#+ e5o#+ist ists s e eth the# e#0m 0m, ,e#s e#s n& n& othe# othe# mino# mino# #e"i$i #e"i$io!s o!s e5( e5(e#t e#tss "so "so /o!n& /o!n& th#o!$h th# o!$ho!t o!t Tibet n& bo! bo!tt ho hom m e ,no ,no %e#y %e#y "itt"e "itt"e t t (#esen (#esent* t* The non+e"ibte yo$ins ho "i%e in #et#et +omm!nities o# ho t#%e" #o!n& #o!n& Tibet Tibet n& the Him" Him"y yss betee beteenn %#io! %#io!ss he#mit he#mit$e $ess n& n& othe# othe# me&ittion ("+es "so h%e si$ni/i+nt #o"e s #e"i$io!s (#+titione#s /o# "o+" (o(!"tions* (o(!"tions* F#om thei# (oint o/ %ie thei# thei# #e"i $io!s (#+ti+e (#o%i&es y o/ s!((o#tin$ themse"%es on thei# t#%e"s hi"e /o# the "y +omm!nities these the se (eo( (eo("e "e #e (#ti+!" (#t i+!" #"y #" y e//e+ e //e+ ti%e ti%e so!#+ so!#+es es o/ s(i#it s(i#it!" !" (oe# (oe#** It is most"y mon$ the %#io!s ,in&s o/ non+e"ibte %h-ö!a tht tht e /in& the most most o% o%e# e#tt e5(# e5(#es essi sion onss o/ the the i" i"& & n& n& shm shmn ni+ i+ si&e si&e o/ Ti bet betnn !&&hism* These "ms the tertön n& the +#2y "ms o# lama nyön!a, #e # e the s!bJe+t o/ 'h(te# 17 "on$ ith the shmni+ shmni+ (#+ (#+ti titi tion one# e#ss o/ the the /o", /o", #e"i$ion* :9
16 !ol" Shamans& Tertön, and Cra+, Siddhas
'h(te# 16 (#esente& the o%e#"" #n$e o/ Tibetn !&&hist (#+titione#s* Thes Thesee in+" in+"!& !&ee +e"i +e"ib bte te mon monst sti+ i+ss simi simi" "## to the the bh bhi. i..h .huu in The#%&in !&&hist +o!nt#ies b!t they "so in+"!&e #n$e o/ "y !&&hist (#+titione#s ho #e m!+h m!+h "ess "ess +h#+ +h#+te#i te#isti+ sti+ o/ The#% The#%&i &inn !&&hism "on$ ith the "m ho s n !tonomo !tonomo!s !s #e"i$io!s #e"i$io!s "e& "e&e# e# n& n& (e#/ (e#/o# o#me me## o/ Tnt Tnt#i #i++
#it!"s hs no #e" (#""e" ithin es t b"ishe& The#%&in so+iety* I #$!e& in 'h(te# : tht s!+h shmni+ sty"es o/ !&&hist (#+ti+e h%e histo#i+""y been m#$in"i2e& in The#%&in so+ieties n& to to the e5tent e5tent tht tht they they s!#% s!#%i% i%e& e& t "" e e#e #e s!bo s!bo#&i #&in nte te&& to h ht t I h% h%ee #e/e##e& #e/e##e& to s +"e +"e#i #i+ +"" ! !&& &&hi hism sm** I "so "so s!$$ s!$$es este te&& tht tht this this s! b o#&int o#&intion ion too, too, ("+e ("+e be+ be +!s !see +ent +e nt# #"i "i2e 2e&& stt st tee (oe (o e## in thes th esee so +ieti +ie ties es s b"e b" e to b#in$ b# in$ it bo bo!t* !t* A"" this this s!$$est s!$$estss tht mo#e mo#e &eti"e &eti"e&& "oo, t the i"&e# n& mo#e shmni+ en& o/ the Tibetn s(e+t#!m o!"& be o#thhi"e* This is the /!n+tion o/ the (#es (# esen entt +h( +h (te te#* #* We i"" i" " be (y (yin in$$ (#ti+ (# ti+!" !"# # ttent tt ention ion to the t ertö rtön o# %ision#y "ms ho h%e ("ye& "#$e i/ o/ten ne$"e+te& (#t in Tibetn #e"i$io!s his0 FOL. SHAMANS TRT0, AND 'RA SIDDHAS to#y to#y n& n& to the the +# +#2y 2y si&& si&&h hs s h hoo (#o% (#o%i& i&ee +"e +"e## in&i in&i+ +tio tionn o/ the the to"e#n+e o/ the Tibetn #e"i$io!s en%i#onment to#&s !n+on%ention" mo&es o/ !&&hist (#+ti+e* Whi"ee the tert Whi" tertön ön n& +#2y si&&hs #e !n&o!bte&"y !&&hist #e"i$io!s (#+t (# +tit itio ione ne#s #s they th ey #e # e o/ "" " " the th e ! !&& &&hi hist st #e"i #e "i$i $io! o!ss (e#so (e# sonne nne"" the th e +"os +" oses estt to the the /o", /o", #e"i #e"i$i $ion on o/ Tibet ibet n& n& the the %isi %ision on#y #y +ti +ti%i %iti ties es o/ the the tert tertön ön in (#t ( #ti+ i+!" !"# # be# be # some so me #ese #e semb mb" "n+ n+ee o/ the th e (#+ (# +ti ti+e +ess o/ Ti bet be tnn /o", /o ", shm sh mni ni++ (#+t (# +tit itio ione ne#s #s** The#e The #e #e # e se%e se %e# #"" ,in& ,i n&ss o/ /o", /o ", sh0 sh 0 mni m ni++ (#+ (# +ti titi ti one# on e#s s n& n & I h%e "#e&y b#ie/"y b#ie/"y &is+!sse& &is+!sse& to ty(es the s(i#it0 me&i!ms n& the o#+"e (# iest ie st s i n 'h 'h( (tt e# Io * It i "" be !se/ !s e/ !" he#e he #e to &es+ &e s+ #i be th em some so meh h t mo#e mo#e syst system emt ti+ i+" ""y "y n& n& to (#ese #esennt mt e#i #i" on t o ot he # ty( ty(es o/ (#+t (# +tit itio ione ne## not no t yet +on +onsi si&e &e#e #e& & the (st0"i/e #e%ennts (delog) n& the %ision#y Ges# b#& (babdrung)# SPIRIT0MEDIUMS ORA'LE PRIESTS REENANTS AND ISIONAR ARDS S(i#it0me&i!ms h%e "#e&y been &is+!sse& b#ie/"y in 'h(te# Io* They #e #e /o!n& /o!n& th#o!$h th#o!$ho!t o!t Tibet Tibetn n %i""$e %i""$e o# nom&i nom&i++ +omm!n +omm!nitie ities* s* They in+"!&e bot b ot h men me n n & om en n & # e , no n by % # i e t y o / nmes nm es s!+h s!+ h s lha!a, l ha. -a =$o& =$o& (e#s (e#son on $o& $o& mo!th mo!th> > !a*o !a* o =he =he#o #o ith ith #e/e #e/e#e #en+ n+ee to the the he#oes vira, o/ Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e> .-androma (d".ini )# They #e +hnne"s th#o!$h th#o!$h hi+h hi+h the "o+" &eities &eities +n be +ont+te +ont+te& & $ene#""y $ene#""y to &is+o%e &is+o%e## the +!s +!ses es o/ i""n i""nes esss n& n& mis/ mis/o# o#t! t!ne ne** The The i&iom i&iom is (#im (#im#i"y #i"y tht tht o/ s(i#i s(i#it0 t0
me&i!mshi( +ommon to m!+h o/ So!th So!the So!thest st n& Est Asin Asin so+iety so+iety in%o in%o"% "%in in$$ the the o#&i o#&in n#y #y +ons+ +ons+io io!s !s (e#s (e#son on" "it ityy o/ the the me& me&i! i!m m bein bein$$ tem(o##i"y #e("+e& #e("+e& by tht o/ the "o+" &eity =see Nebes,y0WoJ,o Nebes,y0WoJ,oit2 it2 1967 ."sn$ n& S$ste# 19@1 P!" 19@7 Pete# 19@ 19@b 19@9 Dy 199>* In some some +se +ses s s ith ith e#$"i e#$"ies es mte# mte#i" i" /#om /#om 'hn$t 'hn$tn n$$ (sto (sto#" #"ist ist b+, b +,$# $#o! o!n& n& the th e !a*o !a *o t,es t,es mo#e mo#e +ti%e +ti%e #o"e +"ose# +"ose# to the so!"0/"i$h so!"0/"i$htt o# s(i#it0Jo!#ney i&iom o/ some Sibe#in n& Ne("ese shmns =e#$"ie 19@7 198 19: 193>* Peo("e $ene#""y be+ome lha!a, !a*o, n& so on th#o!$h +"ssi+ shmni+ initition initition (#o+ess in hi+h they /"" se#io!s"y se#io!s"y i"" !n&e#$o !n&e#$o se#ies o/ %i sions n& n& &is+o &is+o%e %e## th#o! th#o!$h $h the &i$no &i$nosis sis o/ "m "m o# n e5(e#ien+ e5(e#ien+e& e& s(i#it0 s(i#it0 me&i!m tht they m!st t,e on the +#ee# o/ s(i#i (i#it0 t0m me&i!m i!m* F#e F#eC!e C!ent"y nt"y hoe%e# s!+h (eo("e be"on$ to /mi"ies 'IILIED SHAMANS ith "on$ histo#y o/ s(i#it0me&i!mshi( n& on+e the lha!a o# !a*o !a *o h%e been be en &i$ &i $no nose se&& they th ey #e # e t,e t ,enn in hn& h n& by n e5(e e5 (e#i #ien en+e +e&& s(i# s( i#it it00 me&i!m /o# t#inin$ =e#$"ie 19@7 S+hen, 199o>* These (#+titione#s (#+titione#s #e not (#ti+!"#"y !&&hist n& o!"& not no#m""y be #e/e #e /e## ##e& e& to s %h-ö %h-ö!a !a =Dh# =Dh#m m (eo (eo("e ("e>* >* They They #e sim("y sim("y men menss o/ +omm!ni+tion ith "o+" s(i#its* Th!s Robe#t P!" #e(o#ts so!the#n She#( +omm!nity !sin$ non0Tibetn s(i#it0me&i!ms /#om the Hin&! +!"t!#" #e$ion (6hdi.ri) (6hdi.ri) he henn She#( She#( Tibet Tibetn n (#+ti (#+tition tione#s e#s e#e not %i"b"e %i"b"e =P!" 19@7 19@7>* >* Tibe Tibet tnn s(i# s(i#it it0m 0me& e&i! i!ms ms ho hoe e%e %e## #e #e !s! !s!"" ""yy !n !n&e &e## som some &e$# &e$#ee ee o/ s!(e#%isi s!(e# %ision on /#om "o+" "ms =see F#e# Hime Himen&o n&o#/ #/ 197; 197; e#$" e#$"ie ie 19@7 19@7>* >* G om !a "so "so em(" em("oy oy s(i# s(i#it it0m 0me& e&i! i!ms ms o/ this this ,in& ,in& h hi+ i+hh I #e/e #e/e## to to /o""oin$ /o""oin$ e#"ie# e#"ie# Weste#n Weste#n #ite#s s o#+"e0(#iests o#+"e0(#iests =Pete# 19@ 19@b 19@9 Nebes,y0WoJ,oit2 1967 Ro+, 1 9 3 6 #!en 198b D#$y D#$yyy 196 196 Te#i 19@>* Some o/ the "#$est monsti+ gom! go m!aa in (#emo&e#n Tibet "on$ ith ith the Lhs Lhs $o $o%e %e#nm #nmen entt itse" itse"/ / h& h& (e#m (e#mne nent nt o#+ o#+"e "e0(# 0(#ie iest sts* s* The The Tibetn te#ms /o# these #e sung su ngma ma n& %h-ö.yong, $!#&in (#ote+to# o/ the the Dh Dh#m #m n& +t! +t!""y ""y #e/e #e/e## not to the h!mn h!mn me&i!m me&i!m b!t to the (os ( os s es s i n $ &e i t y* Th e N e+ h ! n $ o#+" o# +"e0 e0(# (#ie iest st em(" em ("oy oye& e& by the th e Lhs Lh s $o%e#nment ("ye& si$ni/i+nt #o"e in Tibetn (o"iti+s in #e+ent times* A"on$si&e the s(i#it0me&i!ms the#e #e s(e+i"ists in othe# mo&es o/ &i%intion in+"!&in$ +"i#%oynts =F#e#0Himen&o#/s =F#e#0Himen&o#/s mindung) ho o(e#te th#o!$h mi##o#0$2in$ n& simi"# te+hniC!es* As men0 tione& in 'h(te# to "ms #e "so /#eC!ent"y s,e& to (e#/o#m &i%i0 ntion (mo) in +ses o/ &i//i+!"ty n& one o/ the te+hniC!es they !se
(tra) "so in%o"%es %iein$ si$ns in mi##o# o# othe# #e/"e+ti%e s!#/+e* Re%ennts (delog) n& %ision#y b#&s (babdrung) h%e simi"#ities to the s(i#it0me&i!ms (#o(e#* In (#ti+!"# (eo("e t,e on the #o"e o/ delog n& babdrung s #es!"t o/ t he sme ,in& o/ +"ssi+ shmni+ initito#y e5(e#ien+e tht +h#+te#i2es ent#y to the +#ee# o/ lha!a o# !a*o !a *o## The delog =$one0#et!#ne&> is (e#son ho is be"ie%e& to h%e &ie& n& then #et!#ne& /#om the &e&* The delog is sent b+, to the "i%in$ ith mission to in/o#m (eo("e o/ the s!//e#in$s tht it them in the he""0#e"ms i/ they &o not #e/o#m thei# "i%es* The delog-s mess$e is th!s +"ose"y "in,e& to the .#m O#ienttion "tho!$h the delog themse"%es be"on$ on the shmni+ si&e o/ Tibetn #e"i$ion he#e this o#ienttion is $ene#""y m!te&* e+!se o/ the delog-s +onne+tion FOL. SHAMANS TRT0, AND 'RA SIDDHAS ith the !&&hist te+hin$s they #e $ene#""y +onsi&e#e& !n"i,e the s(i#it0me&i!ms (#o(e# to be ,in& o/ %h-ö!a# The#e #e "ite##y ++o!nts o/ se%e#" /mo!s delog, n& most #ese#+h on t h e delo delogg hs em(hs em(hsi2e i2e&& this this "ite##y "ite##y mte#i mte#i"" =E(ste =E(stein in 19 19: : 199 199ob ob Pomm#et Pomm#et 199 199>* >* Re+ent"y Re+ent"y hoe%e# hoe%e# F#noise F#noise Pomm Pomm#et #et %isite& n& &es+#ibe& to +ontem(o##y delog in este#n h!tn =Pomm#et 199 199b>* Un"i,e Un"i,e the +"ssi+ +"ssi+ delog o/ the "ite##y ++o!nts these (#+titione#s =both omen omen>> h%e h%e #e$! #e$!" "## sen sen+e +ess n& n& #e #e +on +ons!" s!"te& te& by /e""o /e""o0%i" 0%i""$ "$e#s e#s /o# &%i+e* D!#in$ the sen+es they %isit the the he"" he""0#e 0#e" "ms ms n& n& #e(o# #e(o#tt b+, b+, on thei thei# # e5(e#ien+es* The Ges# e(i+ is %e#y i&e"y ,non mon$ "" Tibetn (o(!"tions n& n& is (#ti (#ti+! +!"# "#"y "y (#e% (#e%"e "ent nt in . .m m n& n& Am&o* Am&o* It is (e#/o (e#/o#me #me&& both both by mte!#s n& by (#o/ession" b#&s =Stein 1 969 96 9 Sm!e" in (#ess in (#ess b in (#es (# esss &>* &> * O/te O/ tenn it is #e& #e & /# om mn! m n!s+ s+#i #i(t (tss o# b" o+,( o+ ,( #i nt e& te5t te 5t s o# (e# (e # / o# me& me & /# om memo me mo## y i tho! th o! t n y im( im ( "i + tion ti on o/ %isi %i sion on# #yy te+hn te +hniC iC!e !es* s* The#e The#e #e #e ho hoe%e e%e# # %ision# %ision#yy b#&s b#&s (babd (babdrung) rung),, !s!""y i""ite#te n& o/ nom&i+ nom&i+ b+,$#o! b+,$#o!n& n& ho sin$ %e#sions %e#sions o/ the e(i+ tht &e#i%e /#om thei# on %ision %ision#y #y e5(e# e5(e#ien ien+e +ess = =n$ 19 199 9 199 199o>* o>* O/ten O/ten s ith s(i#it0 s(i#it0 me&i!ms the (#o/ession is (sse& (sse& /#om (#ent (#ent to +hi"& +hi"& b!t b!t s ith ith both s(i#it0me&i!ms n& delog, the#e is %e#sion o/ the +"ssi+ shmni+ initito#y e5(e e5(e#i #ien en+e +e in h hi+ i+hh the the /!t! /!t!#e #e ba babd bdru rung ng /""s i"" hs %isions n& is &i$n &i $nos ose& e& =!s!""y =!s!""y by "m> "m> s bein$ bein$ babdrung# Attit!&es to the Ges# e(i+ %#y +onsi&e#b"y mon$ Tibetn "ms n& mon,s mon,s** Mny Mny Ge"!$( Ge"!$( &is( &is((#o (#o%e %e o/ the e(i+ e(i+ h hi"e i"e .$y .$y& &( ( n& n & Nyi N yi n $ m ( " m s $ e n e # " " y / % o # i t n & s e e i t s n e5(# e5 (#es essi sion on o/ the th e +ti +ti%i %ity ty o/ G! G!#! #! Rim Rim(o (o+h +he e n& s %ehi %ehi+" +"ee /o# /o# ! !&&hi &&hist st te+ te+hi hin$ n$s s es(e+i""y o/ the D2o$+hen s+hoo"* 'onseC!ent"y the C!estion o/ hethe#
babdrung sho!"& be #e$#&e& s %h-ö!a i"" be nse#e& &i//e#ent"y by those hoo /%o h /%o## n& n& thos thosee h hoo o( o((o (ose se the the e(i+ e(i+** The The ba babd bdru rung ng themse"%es hoe%e# $ene#""y em(hsi2e the +onne+tion o/ the e(i+ ith %h-ö =Dh#m> n& so see themse"%es s ,in& o/ %h-ö!a#< One o/ the int#i$!in$ /et!#es o/ the Ges# e(i+ is the y in hi+h it +onst +onstit! it!tes tes n #e #e o/ o%e#" o%e#"( ( bete beteen en /o", /o", #e"i$i #e"i$ion on n& n& mo#e mo#e e5("i e5("i+it +it"y "y !&&hist +on+e#ns* +on+e#ns* In (#ti+!"# mny mny ne Ges# e(iso&es h%e been #itten by Ny Nyin in $m( $m ( n& n & . .$y $y& &( ( "m " ms s mon m on$$ them th em the "te .mt#!" Rim(o+he o/ T#shi -on$ =see 'h(te# 1;> n& the
"te "te ."! ."! Rim(o+ Rim(o+he he =see =see 'h(te 'h(te## 1>* 1>* In these these +ses +ses the i&iom i&iom !se& !se& to &es+#ibe the #itin$ &on o/ the te5t is not tht o/ babdrung, b! babdrung, b!tt is +"ose# +"o se# to gon gter, r, %#iety o/ terma =see be"o>* tht tht o/ gongte be"o>* A "m "m ty(i+""y ty(i+""y hs one o# se#ies o/ %ision#y e5(e#ien+es tht ,en memo#ies o/ (st "i/e in hi+h he s one o/ Ges#s /o""oe#s* These memo#ies then /o#m /o#m the bsis bsis /o# the the +om(osition =Sm!e" in (#ess b>* Gongter, n& in some #es(e+ts "" terma, #e # e simi"#" simi "#"yy $#o!n&e $# o!n&e&& in memo#ies memo# ies o/ (s (stt "i/e "i/e in hi+h hi+h the tertön s &is+i("e o/ G!#! Rim(o+he* The s(i#it0me&i!ms defog, n& babdrung "" be# itness to n e5tensi%e %#i %#iet etyy in Tibet bet o/ h ht t I h%e h%e #e/e #e/e## ##e& e& to e"se e"seh he# e#ee s sh0m sh0mn ni+ i+ me+hnisms =Sm!e" 1998>* The bo!n&#y beteen the (#+ti+es e h%e +onsi&e#e& so /# n& the s(e+i/i+""y !&&hist %ision#y (#o+esses o/ terma n & da dagn gnan angg is no nott #i$i& #i$i& on one* e* Ne Ne%e %e#th #the" e"es ess s the the t er er tö tö n o# /in&e#s o/ t er er ma ma , to h hom om I no no t!#n t!#n &i// &i//e# e# /#om /#om s(i#i s(i#it0me t0me&i &i!m !ms s defo defog, g, n& n & babdrung in tht they #e !nC!estionb"y !&&hist (#+titione#s =+hb(> i/ no#m""y non+e"ibte n& o/ten e++ent#i+ n& +ont#o%e#si" +ont#o%e#si" in thei# beh%io#* beh%io#* Terma &is+o%e#ies n& dagnang #e%e"tions (#o%i&e the ,ey to the bi"ity o/ Tibetn !&&hism to &(t n& t#ns/o#m to its +hn$in$ so+i" n& (o"iti+" +onte5t th#o!$ho!t the +ent!#ies*
TRT0D FINDERS OF HIDDEN TREASURES The tertön #e /in&e#s o/ hi&&en t#es!#es (terma), hi+h hi+h #e s+#e& s+#e& obJ e+ts o/ %#io %#io!s !s ,in&s ,in&s es(e es(e+i +i"" ""yy te5ts te5ts be"ie be"ie%e %e&& to &te &te /#om /#om the time time o/ P&ms P&msmb mbh% h%* * In 'h(te 'h(te## 1: I #e/e##e& #e/e##e& to terma s so!#+es so!#+es o/ te+hin$ "ine$es ithin the O"& Tnt# Tnt# t#&itions* In /+t hi"e tertön n& terma #e
Nyin$m( s(e+i"ty they #e /o!n& in "" t#&itions e%en the Ge"!$( =D#$yy 191>* Th!s t he $#et Ge"!$( s+ho" s+ho"## T!,n T!,n 'h,y 'h,yii Nyim Nyim =1@3@018:> =1@3@018:> +o##e+t"y +o##e+t"y (ointe& (ointe& o!t in #e"t ion to n tt+, on the %"i &ity o/ Nyi N yi n$ m( m ( te 5t s i n+ "! &i n$ terma, by b y n ot he # G e" !$ ( s + h o" # = n & h i s o n te+h te +h e#> e# > S!m( S! m( .e .en( n(oo =1@8 =1@8;0 ;01@ 1@@ @>* >* It is bit +o#se to &e+"#e tht "" t#es!#e0&o+t#ines KtermaE e#e (e#(et#te& by /#!&s* Not on"y on"y the Nyin$m( Nyin$m( b!t "" the In&in n& n& Tibetn Tibetn s+hoo"s h%e them**** E%en mon$ o!# on %i#t!o!s se+t the Ge"!$(V Gy&+hen Sn$yQ Gytso #e%e"e& some #ites o/ Dh#m#J hi+h h& been +on+e"e& s t#es!#es in the sh#ine o/ the (#ote+to#s o/ Se$y& by D!"n$( P"&en P"&en Sn$(o n& n& e%en the ""0,noin$ ""0,noin$ -myn$ -myn$ She&( /o!n&e# o/ Lb#n$ gom!aE Lb#n$ gom!aE seems seems to h%e inten&e& to +C!i#e the (#o(heti+ &e+"#tion n& t#es!#e0s+#ments o/ M+hi$ in ++o#& ith (#o(he+y /#om t#es!#e*** * Th!s the#e o!"& seem to be no (!#(ose =in sse#tin$> tht "" t#es!#e0&o+t#ines #e Nyin$m( &o+t#ines o# tht "" #e%e"e#s o/ t#es!#e0 &o+t#ines #e &e+eit/!" /#!&s* =.(stein 199):;10:;:> As . .(s (ste tein in #i$h #i $ht" t"yy (o (oin ints ts o! o!t t the the Ge Ge"! "!$( $( "m " mss h hoo tt tt+, +,e& e& Nyin$m( terma n& n& Tnt# nt# #e%e #e%e" "ti tion onss e e#e #e not not en$ en$$e $e&& in mo&e mo&e#n #n te5t0 histo#i+" +#iti+ism* Thei# (!#(ose s to &e/en& thei# on +non o/ te5ts n& they h& no inte#est in (("yin$ the +#iti+" metho& tht they !se& on Nyi N yin$ n$m m( ( te5t te 5tss to the th e te5t te 5tss o/ t hei# he i# o onn t# &it & it ion* io n* At the th e sme sm e time ti me the# th e#ee e#e e #e Ge Ge"! "!$( $( s+ho s+ho" "#s #s o/ eC! eC!""y ""y hi$h stt!s stt!s h hoo e#e (#e(#e& "i,e T!, T!,nn 'h 'h,y ,yii Ny Nyim im to &e/en& &e/en& the %"i& %"i&ity ity o/ the non0Ge"!$( t#&itions* T!",! T!",! Thon&!( Thon&!( in st!&y bse& on te5t bo!t terma by terma by the th e 3& D o& # ! b 'hen 'hen Rim(o+ Rim(o+he he $i%es the nmes o/ :@ tertön /#om the e"e%enth to tentieth +ent!#ies =T* Thon&!( 197)190:81>* It is +"e# +"e# tht tht this this is /# /# /#om +om("ete "ist "tho!$h "tho!$h it in+"!&es most o/ the mJo# /i$!#es* Most o/ the "e&in$ Rime& "ms o/ the nineteenth n& e#"y tentieth +ent!#ies s!+h s!+h s -! Mi( Mi(m m -m$ -m$n n .o .on$ n$t#! t#!" " 'ho$$y 'ho$$y!# !# Lin$( Lin$( n& A& A&2om 2om D#!$( #e in+"!&e& in T!",! Thon&!(s "ist ='h(te# :@>* The#e #e "so mny tertön mon$ mon $ +on +ontem tem(o##y (o##y Rime Rime&& "m "ms* s* Thon&!( s!b&i%i&es the tertön, /o""oin$ Do&#!b 'hens ++o!nt ++o!nt =on =on hi+h hi+h see see "so "so Gy Gyt tso so 197 197> > into into e#th e#th tert tertön ön,, ho &is+o%e#e& +t!" mte#i mte#i"" terma o# t#es!#es t#es!#es n& sm""e# sm""e# n!mbe# n!mbe# o/ min min& & n& (!# (!#ee %ision tertön, ho /o!n& thei# t#es!#es ithin thei# on +ons+io!sness o# th#o!$h %isions* As mentione& bo%e tertön &o not on"y &is+o%e# te5ts n& te+hi te+hin$s n$s** They They /in& mte#i" mte#i" obJe+t obJe+tss s!+h s!+h s im$es im$es =Thon&!( =Thon&!( in+"!&es in+"!&es (hot (h oto$ o$# #(h (hss o/ some so me o/ thes th ese> e> n& n & they th ey "so " so /in& /i n& hi& h i&&en &en %""e %" "eys ys o# beyul
s!itb"e /o# #et#et =A#is 19@6 Reinh#& 19@ e#nb!m 198 Diembe#$e# 199o> o# /o# es+(e /#om &n$e#o!s (o"iti+" sit!tions* Se%e#" Him"yn sttes n& +omm!nities in+"!&in$ Si,,im the She#( sett"ements in Ne(" n& Pe#n .& in so!thest .m #e si& to h%e o#i$inte& in this y th#o!$h the 'IILIED SHAMANS "e&e#shi( o/ tertön =see #!en 196 e#nb!m 198 M#tin 196 n$b! n& ."t2e" 19) Jo>* S(n Hnn hs #e+ent"y $i%en (e#son" &es+#i(tion o/ the &is+o%e#y o/ to obJe+ts in hi"" in .m by +ontem(o##y n(o /em"e tertön o# .-androma (9 S,t* d".in), .n&#o .+hi Wn$mo* These e%ents too, ("+e in Se(tembe# 197* .n&#o .+hi Wn$mo " on $ it h he # b#o th e# ho is #ein+#nte "m nme& Mn$y" Lhsey T#!",! "e& $#o!( o/ Tibetns on (i"$#im$e #o!n& the hi"" o/ n#i ne# Nyin$+hi on the Lhs0Si+h!n #o&* Hnn n& to othe# Weste#ne#s e#e b"e to Join them* A/te# some &ys o/ t#%e"in$ .n&#o "o+te& the hi&in$ ("+e n& #emo%e& to obJe+ts sm"" /i$!#ine o/ Amity!s n& nine0(ointe& va6ra# Mn$y" Lhsey T#!",! to"& the $#o!( tht the obJe+ts h& been mni/este& in o#&e# to en+o!#$e /ith in the Dh#m =Hnn in (#ess>* The tertön seem to #e(#esent the i"&est n& most shmni+ en& o/ Tibetn !&&hist (#+ti+e* Most o/ them #e m"e b!t %e#y /e #e mon,s* A++o#&in$ to T!",! Thon&!( most tertön &o Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e ith /em"e +onso#t n& the (#esen+e o/ the #i$ht +onso#t is (#t o/ the +i#+!mstn+es (tendrel, see 'h(te# Jo> hi+h enb"e the &is+o%e#y o/ th e terma =Thon&!( 197):0 3>* The ty(i+"" y shmni+ theme o/ !s(i+io!sness n& o/ the ((#o(#iteness o/ +i#+!mstn+es is (#ominent in the histo#i+" terma# On the o++sion #e/e##e& to bo%e Mn$ye" Lhsey T#!",! note& tht the !s(i+io!sness o/ the o++sion h& on"y been mi&&"in$ n& tht +onseC!ent"y othe# terma +on+e"e& t the s(ot +o!"& not be #e%e"e& t tht time =Hnn in (#ess>* Tertön #e not ne+ess#i"y !n+on%ention" in thei# beh%io# b!t !n!s!" o# bi2##e +ti%ity is /#eC!ent (#t o/ the tertön #o"e* The 3& Do&#!b 'hen =ho s tertön himse"/> +omments tht tertön sho!"& not be J!&$e& by thei# beh%io#) Amon$ the /"se tertön the#e #e mny ho #e h#monio!s ith (eo("e ho seem to h%e &is+i("ine& +on&!+t n& #e /o#t!nte n& +h#ismti+* At the sme time mon$ the !thenti+ tertön the#e #e mny ho #e "oose in s(ee+h n& beh%io!# n& ho itho!t the "est hesittion $et in%o"%e& in mny
+ti%ities tht (eo("e i"" +on&emn* In tht y the tertön t,e mny $#%e obst#!+tions o/ the &o+t#ine on themse"%es in the /o#m o/ in/my n& i"" #e(!te n& they !se them /o# the (#+ti+e o/ t,in$ e%e#y e5(e#ien+e in the $#et eC!" tste* =Thon&!( 197)16@> FOL. SHAMANS TRT0, AND 'RA SIDDHAS F"se tertön- #e mentione& in this (ss$e n& it is +"e# tht the !thenti+ity o/ terma is not ne+ess#i"y t,en /o# $#nte& e%en mon$ the Nyin$m(s* Tertön, $en!ine o# othe#ise #e "i,e"y to beh%e e++ent#i+""y n& my #!n into +onsi&e#b"e #esistn+e* We my on&e# ho tertön +omes to be ++e(te& n& ho (#ti+!"# #e%e"tion be+omes #e$#&e& s $en!ine* A #e+ent st!&y o/ the "i/e o/ the /mo!s tertön Pe#n Lin$( =1;68016: I> by Mi+he" A#is s!$$ests the ,in& o/ o((osition hi+h +"ims to be tertön mi$ht #o!se =A#is 19>* The /o""oin$ ++o!nt is s!mm#i2e& /#om A#is =19)160187>* ema /ing!a Pe#n Lin$( s bo#n in 1;6o to /mi"y o/ he#e&it#y Nyin$m( "ms in the %""ey o/ !mtn$ in (#esent0&y h!tn* He "te# +"ime& to h%e se#ies o/ (#e%io!s #ebi#ths in+"!&in$ the ei$hth0+ent!#y Pe#n Se" &!$hte# o/ .in$ T#ison$ Detsen n& &is+i("e o/ G!#! Rim(o+he n& "so the /mo!s /o!#teenth0+ent!#y Nyin$m( s+ho"# Lon$+hen RbJm(* His mothe# +me /#om (sto#"ist /mi"y n& he# /the# Pe#n Lin$(s $#n&/the# s b"+,smith n& #tisn ho b#o!$ht the +hi"& !( t sm"" gom!a, hi+h he (t#oni2e& so s to "e%e the mothe# /#ee to "oo, /te# yo!n$e# +hi"&* F#om his $#n&/the# he "e#nt the +#/ts o/ met"o#,in$* He "so st!&ie& oo&o#, n& e%in$* These +#/ts e#e A#is s!$$ests to +ome in !se/!" "te# in "i/e in /b#i+tin$ the terma he &is+o%e#e&* He #e+ei%e& no /o#m" #e"i$io!s t#inin$ t "" b!t by obse#%in$ mon, n& n (#iest "e#ne& ho to (e#/o#m some #it!"s* He "so #e+ei%e& the !tho#i2tion /o# "" the te+hin$s &is+o%e#e& by the tertön Do#JQ Lin$( =13;701;86> /#om his /the#0in0" "o+" "m* His $#n&/the# &ie& in 1;@3 ent#!stin$ him n& n!n ith the +#e o/ the gom!a# To ye#s "te# he h& se#ies o/ &#ems t#n+es n& %isions +!"mintin$ in the &is+o%e#y o/ his /i#st terma, +hest +ontinin$ te5t in &,ini0s+#i(t the /ongsel Sang*a 0ying%hiid, in #o+, by #i%e#* He t#ns+#ibe& this into Tibetn n& /te# se#ies o/ %isions hi+h $%e him /!#the# inst#!+tion bestoe& the initition /o# it in (!b"i+* His ne5t t#es!#e s &is+o%e#e& in the sme ("+e sho#t"y /te##&s* A "#$e +#o& s in tten&n+e n& the &is+o%e#y seems to h%e been ime& s(e+i/i+""y t +on%in+in$ the (eo("e o/ the t#!th o/ his /o#me# e5("oit =A#is 19);1>* As on the (#e%io!s o++sion he &i%e& n,e& into the #i%e# to /in& the ent#n+e o/ the
#o+, this time be#in$ "i$hte& b!tte# "m(* He e5t#+te& n im$e o/ the !&&h n& se"e& s,!"" /i""e& ith mi#+!"o!s s!bstn+es =19);1>* FOL. SHAMANS TRTU0, AND 'RA SIDDHAS O%e# the ne5t ten ye#s he &is+o%e#e& mny mo#e te5ts most"y o/ #it!" nt!#e n& obJe+ts* In the e#"ie# ye#s he s /#eC!ent"y ++!se& o/ /#!& b!t by his "te# ye#s his +"ims h& be+ome i&e"y ++e(te& n& he +C!i#e& "y (t#ons n& &is+i("es* He h& n!mbe# o/ /em"e +onso#ts n& se%e#" +hi"&#en &yin$ in 16:1* A++o#&in$ to A#is (#+ti+""y "" o/ the h!tnese nobi"ity to&y in+"!&in$ the #oy" /mi"y +"im &es+ent /#om him =19)16>* A se#ies o/ in+#ntions o/ Pe#n Lin$( s &is+o%e#e& ith thei# set t the monste#y o/ Lh"!n$ in Tibet he#e his +hie/ "y (t#on the nangso o# (#e/e+t o/ Lho&#$ h& "i%e&* His #it!" te5ts s(#e& #(i&"y th#o!$ho!t the Tibetn +!"t!#" #e$ion n& be+me the bsis o/ monsti+ #it!" in the D#!$( .$y&( monste#ies o/ h!tn* F!#the# seC!en+es o/ in+#ntions o#i$inte& ith his son "so t Lh"!n$ n& his $#n&son t Gn$ten$ in este#n h!tn* Pe#n Lin$( s one o/ the most +ont#o%e#si" o/ tertön =see M#tin 196> "tho!$h his +"ims e#e e%ent!""y i&e"y ++e(te&* His !tobio$#(hy is /!"" o/ &en!n+itions o/ those itho!t /ith in his #e%e"tions =A#i s 19)6: 0 63> tt+,s /#om mo#e s+ho"#"y "ms =A#is 1 9 ) ;@0; 7;//> n& e%en ++!stions o/ #it!" m!#&e# =19)7>* Mny o/ Pe#n Lin$(s #e%e"e& te5ts +ontine& (ss$es (#isin$ "o+" +hie/tins n& hi$h o//i+i"s ho mi$ht o//e# (t#on$e n& s!((o#t =19)@10@:>* A#iss +on+"!sion is tht he s n o!t#i$ht /#!& e%en i/ he n& his /e""os &i& no h#m to nyone n& m&e "stin$ +ont#ib!tion to the +!"t!#" n& s(i#it!" "i/e o/ thei# #e$ions =19)6>* Pem Lin$( is (e#h(s (oo# +se on hi+h to #$!e the !thenti +ity o/ terma #e%e"tions b!t A#iss J!&$ment o/ /# !& my $o too /#* Pem Lin$( (#obb"y !se& his s,i""s s n #tisn to &#ess !( n& st$e0mn$e the (#o&!+tion o/ his #e%e"e& te5ts b!t his n!me#o!s t#n+es n& %isions ith thei# t#&ition" shmni+ "n$!$e =19)63//> seem to h%e been #e" eno!$h* ein$ (#o/ession" tertön m!st h%e in%o"%e& +onstnt (#ess!#e to (#o&!+e mte#i" #e%e"tions n& e my ++e(t tht Pem Lin$( "i,e mny shmns in (#e"ite#te +!"t!#es &e%e"o(e& #e(e#toi#e o/ t#i+,s n& &e%i+es to mintin his !&ien+es +#e&ibi"ity* S!+h &e%i+es to im(#ess the shmns +"iente"e &o not im("y tht the #e%e"e& te5ts #e "so the (#o&!+t o/ +ons+io!s /#!&* E#th terma te5ts #e e5(e+te& to be in +o&e& o# symbo"i+ s+#i(t tht hs to be t#ns"te& into the /o#m in hi+h they #e e%ent!""y t#nsmitte&
n& (#o($te&* In the (#o+ess te5t o/ one o# to ($es o/ in&e+i(he#b"e symbo"s mybe+ome se%e#" h!n&#e& ($es o/ Tibetn te5t* The#e is ("enty o/ #oom he#e /o# the ,in& o/ %ision#y (#o+esses /o!n& in mny othe# +!"t!#es =Sm!e" 199o> n& hi+h (#obb"y "so !n&e#"y the (#o&!+tion o/ the Mhyn S!t#s n& mny othe# #e"i$io!s s+#i(t!#es* In the "st n"ysis the C!estion o/ ho /# (#ti+!"# tertön #e +tin$ in $oo& /ith is "ess im(o#tnt thn hethe# thei# #e%e"tions #e ++e(te& n& ht the im("i+tions #e /o# the on$oin$ (#o+esses o/ Tibetn #e"i$io!s "i/e o/ thei# ++e(tn+e o# #eJe+tion* We sho!"& #emembe# "so tht ++!stions o/ /#!& ithin Tibetn so+iety s!+h s those o/ Pem Lin$(s +ontem(o##ies o# o/ S!m( .en(o h%e &i//e#ent im("i+tion /#om simi"# sttements by Weste#n s+ho"#s* The /o#me# mo%e ithin +om("e5 /ie"& o/ #e"i$io!s n& (o"iti+" +ti%ity ithin hi+h the (ossibi"ity o/ $en!ine s(i#it0#e%e"tions is t,en /o# $#nte&* Un"i,e the J!&$ments o/ Weste#n s+ho"#s they &o not im("y #e&!+tion o/ shmni+ (#o+ess to em(i#i+ist #tion"ity* G!#! Rim(o+he n& his +onstnt"y #ein+#ntin$ &is+i("es &o not /it +om/o#tb"y into "ine# histo#i+" seC!en+e b!t the#e is no #e son h y th ey sho!"&* They #e not (#t o/ o#"& bse& on s!+h seC!en+es*; It is inte#estin$ to +ont#st the hi$h"y in&i%i&!"isti+ +#ee# o/ Pem Lin$( ith tht o/ n im(o#tnt se%enteenth0+ent!#y t er tön Min$y!# Do#JQ &is+o%e#e# o/ the 0am% h- ö te+hin$s =S,y Dh#m see .hn&#o 1 9 ) 3 60 6 : M!ses 1971 S+hie$e# 19@)390;8>* He#e e +n see the othe# si&e o/ the terma (#o+ess) the &o(tion o/ the ne te+hin$s ithin the +onte5t o/ n o#$ni2e& +omm!nity o/ (#+titione#s* The /o""oin$ ++o!nt o/ Min$y!# Do#JQs "i/e is min"y s!mm#i2e& /#om Tse#in$ Lms boo, on the Pe"y" t#&ition =.hn&#o 19);606:>* Mingyur >or6; Min$y!# Do#JQ s bo#n in .m in 17;6 /#om /mi"y +"imin$ &es+ent /#om the n+ient ,in$s o/ Tibet* As soon s he +o!"& s(e, he si& tht he s "m /#om the .m gom!a o/ .to$ $i%in$ &eti"e& &es+#i(tions o/ the go m!a s he #emembe#e& it* One &y he h& %ision o/ G!#! Lo&en 'ho$se& one o/ the ei$ht /o#ms o/ G!#! Rim(o+he n& !n&e#stoo& ho to #e& n& #ite* At the $e o/ se%en in (!#e %ision mny d".ini to"& him o/ the im(o#tn+e o/ #e"yin$ on $!#!* Instntneo!s"y he h& %ision o/ the $#et s+ho"# n& si&&h .#m 'h$me& Rim(o+he ho s in so"it#y #et#et* At the $e o/ ten he /in""y met .#m 'h$me& ho e5mine& him 'IILIED SHAMANS
FOL. SHAMANS TRT0, AND 'RA SIDDHAS n& /o!n& tht he (ossesse& "" o/ the si$ns n& m#,s o/ n !nmist,b"e mni/esttion o/ P&msmbh% G!#! Rim(o+heV* He $%e him te+hin$s n& me&ittion inst#!+tions n& mny si$ns in&i+te& the st#en$th o/ his innte #e"i2tion* In his e"e%enth ye# he ente#e& into #et#et ith .#m 'h$me&* D!#in$ the #et#et he #e+ei%e& +ontin!o!s %isions o/ Tnt#i+ &eities ho $%e him em(oe#ments n& t#nsmissions o/ te+hin$s* These em(oe#ments n& t#nsmissions e#e #itten &on n& +o""e+te& in the thi#teen %o"!mes o/ the 0am%h-ö te+hin$s* Then Min$y!# Do#JQ (#+ti+e& n& #e"i2e& e+h o/ these te+hin$s n& (#e&i+te& tht .#m 'h$me& n& to othe# "ms o!"& be thei# (#in+i(" &h#m ,ee(e#s* In %ision he s $o&s &emons n& "o+" s(i#its #eJoi+in$ t the ((e#n+e o/ the te+hin$s n& (#omisin$ to (#ote+t them* D!#in$ the ne5t te"%e ye#s he $%e mny t#nsmissions o/ these te+hin$s to /mo!s "ms n& "o+" notb"es in+"!&in$ the i&y&h# .!nsn$ She#b ho s to be+ome the /i#st he& o/ the $#et Nyin$m( gom!a o/ Pe"y" in .m n& the "o+" ,in$* At the $e o/ 19 Min$y!# Do#JQ s in%ite& to .to$ gom!a, n& ent to "i%e the#e* He &ie& in 177 t the $e o/ :3* He s +#emte& mi& mi#+!"o!s si$ns n& his #emins ("+e& in n!me#o!s $o"&en stJ!a b!i"t n& o//e#e& by the $#et "ms /#om the s!##o!n&in$ #e$ions* In some ys Min$y!# Do#JQ s n ty(i+" tertön# He s %e#y yo!n$ hen he #e+ei%e& his (#in+i(" %isions n& he s on"y :3 t his ð* We o!"& nee& &eti"e& ,no"e&$e o/ the 0am%h- ö te+hin$s n& o/ the s!bt"eties o/ se%enteenth0+ent!#y .m (o"iti+s to ttem(t tho#o!$h n"ysis o/ the #esons /o# his s!++ess b!t +e#tin /+to#s in Min$y!# Do#JQs "i/e #e s!#e"y si$ni/i+nt* In (#ti+!"# .#m 'h$me& =17130 17@> his $!#! s both "m o/ +onsi&e#b"e #e(!ttion in his on #i$ht n& s +"ose"y in%o"%e& ith the /o!n&in$ o/ Pe"y" gom!a# .!nsn$ She#b =173701799> the /i#st he& o/ Pe"y" s &is+i("e o/ .#m 'h$me& n& h& #e+ei%e& te+hin$s /#om Min$y!# Do#JQ n& Pe"y" s to be+ome the mJo# +ente# /o# the t#nsmission o/ the 0am%h-ö te+hin$s n& one o/ the /o!# min Nyin$m( +ente#s in est Tibet* One mi$ht "oo, /o# simi"# /o#t!nte +i#+!mstn+es in the +ses o/ othe# s!++ess/!" tertön# The #o"e o/ the (#e/e+t o/ Lho&#$ n& othe# mJo# "y (t#ons in the +se o/ Pe#n Lin$( +ome to min&* Fo# the Tibetns s!+h +i#+!mstn+es o!"& be e5(e+te& s si$n tht the +on&itions #e !s(i+io!s /o# the s(#e& o/ those (#ti+!"# te+hin$s* The em(hsis on !s(i+io!s +i#+!mstn+es tht e /in& in #e"tion to terma =see Thon&!( 197
A#is 19 .hn&#o 19 !assim) , n& in /+t ith the Nyin$m( $ene#""y $in s!$$ests the +onne+tion ith /o", #e"i$ion n& ith the shmni+ si&e o/ Tibetn so+iety =see 'h(te# #o>* TRM$ AND >$G0$0G Weste#n +omments on terma h%e most"y /o+!se& on the e#th terma, mte#i" obJe+ts &is+o%e#e& in #o+, /+es tem("e +o"!mns et+* o/ten be/o#e "#$e !&ien+e* In these +ses the (ossibi"ity o/ /#!& in the /o#m o/ the mn!/+t!#e o/ &is+o%e#e& #ti/+ts o# te5ts is most s"ient* Mny terma are, hoe%e# gongter, he#e the &is+o%e#e& te5t is not n e5te#n" obJe+t b!t b!#ie& ithin the +ons+io!sness o/ the tertön# The &is+o%e#y o/ gongter is not ne+ess#i"y s(e+t+!"# o# &#mti+ //i# s the &is+o%e#y o/ e#th terma ten&s to be* Thei# si$ni/i+n+e o!"& seem to be "ess tht o/ en+o!#$in$ /ith in the &h#m o# /o# tht mtte# in the (#ti+!"# tertön, n& mo#e tht o/ (#o%i&in$ me+hnism /o# the int#o&!+tion o/ ne mte#i" hethe# (#im#i"y (hi"oso(hi+" "ite##y (#o(heti+ o# =most o/ten> #it!" into n othe#ise +"ose& +o#(!s o/ t#&ition" (#+ti+es* The sme is in /+t o/ten t#!e o/ those e#th terma tht #e te5t!" in nt!#e* Thei# #e" si$ni/i+n+e is s me+hnism /o# +!"t!#" +hn$e* A mJo# terma +y+"e s!+h s the 0am%h-ö o# the 'ön%h- og Chind8 i"" +ontin em(oe#ment #it!"s ngondrö (#+ti+es histo#i+" n& (hi"oso(hi+" te5ts n& "#$e n!mbe#s o/ in&i%i&!" s"dhana #e"tin$ to the &i//e#ent O"& Tnt# %ehi+"es n& &e"in$ ith %#io!s ,in&s o/ #it!" +tion (shi gy; =ang drag)# I/ terma +y+"e o/ this ,in& be+omes (o(!"# it i"" be+ome the s!bJe+t o/ +omment#i" "ite#t!#e n& my be e5ten&e& by s!bsi&i#y terma o/ "te# tertön# The #es!"tin$ +o#(!s my be +om(#b"e in si2e n& +ontent to the te5ts sso+ite& ith n in&i%i&!" Tnt#i+ "ine$e n& s ith Tnt#i+ "ine$e s!+h terma +y+"e +onstit!tes +om("ete (th to En"i$htenment in its on #i$ht s e"" s (#o%i&in$ "#$e #n$e o/ #it!"s &i#e+te& to the P#$mti+ O#ienttion* The symbo"i+ mte#i" o/ s!+h +y+"e =Tnt#i+ &eities mandala, et+*> my be t,en &i#e+t"y /#om tht o/ e#"ie# terma +y+"es o# o/ .ama "ine$es b!t the#e is "so s+o(e /o# +hn$e n& inno%tion s!+h s the in+o#(o#tion o/ ne /o#ms o/ &eities o# the in+#ese& im(o#tn+e tt+he& to (#e%io!s"y mino# /i$!#es* 'IILIED SHAMANS 'IGILIED SHAMANS
FOL. SHAMANS
The im(o#tn+e o/ s!+h +y+"es ithin Tibetn !&&hism is +on0 si&e#b"e sin+e they (#o%i&e "#$e (#t o/ the bsi+ +o#(!s o/ #it!"s !se& in Nyin$m( n& n(o gom!a n& e#e &o(te& in %#yin$ &e$#ees by $om( o/ the othe# o#&e#s* Anothe# y in hi+h terma h%e inte#+te& si$ni/i+nt"y ith Tibetn so+iety is by int#o&!+in$ ne histo#i+" te5ts s!((o#tin$ the +"ims o/ one $#o!( o# nothe# =see the Mani 'abum, 'h(te# :6> te5ts tht my (#o%i&e the bsis /o# "te# (o"iti+" n& i&eo"o$i+" &e%e"o(ments* Terma "so (#o%i&e s+o(e /o# (hi"oso(hi+" inno%tion* The &e%e"o(ment o/ the D2o$+hen t#&ition some o/ hi+h is t#+e& in the histo#i+" +h(te#s o/ P#t Th#ee "#$e"y too, ("+e th#o!$h s!++essi%e $ene#tions o/ terma #e%e"tions* Terma e#e (#im#i"y "tho!$h not enti#e"y Nyin$m( s(e+i"ty +onne+te& s they e#e ith the +ti%ity o/ G!#! Rim(o+he n& ith the O"& Tnt# "ine$es* The +on+e(t o/ dagnang =(!#e %ision> is !se& to #e/e# to %ision#y en+o!nte#s ith Tnt#i+ &eities n& is not #est#i+te& to G!#! Rim(o+he n& his mni/esttions* It s the#e/o#e b"e to se#%e some o/ the sme /!n+tions ithin the Ne Tnt# "ine$es* 7 Whi"e dagnang (#obb"y &i& not ""o /o# s $#et &e$#ee o/ inno%tion s terma in te#ms o/ symbo"i+ mte#i" it +o!"& ne%e#the"ess $ene#te ne #it!"s ne i+ono$#(hi+ /o#ms o/ &eities n& ne (hi"oso(hi+" insi$hts s ith the MYJ!s#i #e%e"tions tht ("ye& n im(o#tnt (#t in Tson$,(s &e%e"o(ment o/ h t be +me the Ge"!$( (hi"oso(hi+" (osition* We i"" see mo#e o/ the #o"e o/ terma &is+o%e#ies n& dagnang #e%e"tions in the +o!#se o/ P#t Th#ee* In the #emin&e# o/ this +h(te# I sh"" "oo, b#ie/"y t the C!estion o/ e++ent#i+ beh%io# hi+h hs "#e&y been ""!&e& to s (#t o/ the tertön #o"e* In /+t hi"e mny tertön +te& e++ent#i+""y by no mens "" o/ the +#2y si&&hs n& othe# #e"i$io!s e++ent#i+s e#e tertön, n& these /i$!#es #eC!i#e e5mintion in thei# on #i$ht* SAINTL MADMEN 'RA SIDDHAS AND T/SHG CH>$ As -ohn A#&!ssi n& L#en+e E(st ein note& in 19@ the i&e o/ the sint"y m&mn is e""0estb"ishe& ste#eoty(e in Tibet) One o/ the most /s+intin$ +h#+te#s tht #!ns th#o!$h the o#" n& "ite##y t#&itions o/ Tibet is t#i+,ste#"i,e /i$!#e tht is (e#(et!""y en$$e& in one so#t o/ (e#%e#se +ti%ity o# nothe#<&#in,in$ to e5+ess /o#ni+tin$ thie%in$ &e/yin$ !tho#ity ("yin$ m$i+" t#i+,s**** When
Tibetns #e C!estione& bo!t the moti%tion n& menin$s o/ these /i$!#es they "most in%#ib"y sy tht they beh%e the y they &o be+!se they #e #e""y !&&hs* =A#&!ssi n& E(stein 19@)3:@> A(#t /#om "ms s!+h s D#!$nyn =D#!$( .!n"e$> n& Tsn$nyn ho #e e5("i+it"y #e/e##e& to s +#2y (nyön!a), simi"# sto#ies #e "so to"& bo!t the beh%io# o/ e""0,non /i$!#es s!+h s Mi"#e( n& Tn$ton$ Gye"(o* A#&!ssi n& E(stein s!mm#i2e the (#in+i(" tt#ib!tes o/ the sint"y m&mn s /o""os) A $ene#"i2e& #eJe+tion o/ +!stom#y beh%io!# hi+h so+ietyt0"#$e n& the monsti+ estb"ishment in (#ti+!"# #e$#& s ((#o(#ite /o# the #e"i$io!s mn ** * :*
3*
An in+"intion to#&s bi2##e mo&es o/ &#ess ** *
A &is#e$#& /o# the ni+eties o/ inte#(e#son" beh%io!# (#ti+!"#"y ith #e$#& to so+i" stt!s mo&es o/ &&#ess &e/e#enti" beh%io!# n& so on ** * ;*
A (#o/esse& &is&in /o# s+ho"sti+ism the st!&y o/ #e"i$ion th#o!$h boo,s "one ** * 6*
The !se o/ (o(!"# (oeti+" /o#ms mimes son$s e(i+ t"es n& so /o#th &!#in$ the +o!#se o/ thei# (#e+hin$ ** * @* The !se o/ obs+enity n& %!"$# (#"n+e* =A#&!ssi n& E(stein 7*
19@)33:0333> To these e +o!"& && to /!#the# /et!#es tht eme#$e /#om the &e0 s+#i(tions o/ these "ms) they h%e $#et insi$ht n& so #e +(b"e o/ seein$ th#o!$h othe# (eo("es beh%io# n& moti%tions n& they h%e $#et ttinment hi+h is & emonst#te& by thei# m$i+" (oe#* As A#&!ssi n& E(stein note these sint"y m&men +ons+io!s"y e+ho the +#2y beh%io# o/ some o/ the Tnt#i+ si&&hs o/ In&i* A#0 &!ssi n& E(steins e5m("es #e /#om Tibetn histo#y n& se%e#" o/ them =in (#ti+!"# Mi"#e( Tn$ton$ Gye"(o Tsn$nyn n& D#!$( .!n"e$> i"" /et!#e in the histo#i+" n##ti%e o/ P#t Th#ee* S!+h /i$!#es #e hoe%e# not +on/ine& to (st +ent!#ies* The +#2y si&&h (drubnyön) hs #emine& #e+o$ni2b"e /i$!#e in Tibetn #e"i0 'IILIED SHAMANS $io!s "i/e into mo&e#n times* O/ten #o!$h n& +#!&e in thei# beh%io# ith
no #es(e+t /o# +on%ention" so+i" stn&#&s these "ms #e ne%e#the"ess #es(e+te& /o# thei# ttinment n& thei# m$i+" (oe#* Nm, D#ime& Rim(o+he &es+#ibe& to o/ these drubnyön in (ssin$ in the +o!#se o/ +on%e#stion) The son o/ the "m t Kgom!a 'V is sti"" in Tibet* He is drubnyön# The#e #e sto#ies bo!t his &oin$ mi#+!"o!s /ets "i,e /in&in$ te#0terma# He "so hs "ot o/ m$i+" bi"ity (n8!a) n& is %e#y $oo& t +!#in$ si+, (eo("e* His +h#+te# n& hbits #e C!ite #o!$h (tsid!o)# Mny (eo("e /#om his #e h%e #eC!este& him to #eb!i"& the gom!a, b!t he #e/!se& to &o it syin$ The#e !se& to be gom!a b!t it s "" &est#oye&* Wht is the !se He #e/!se& to +"im o# t,e +#e o/ the gom!a### Lm DV s "so drubnyön# He +o!"& tie nee&"es n& so#&s into ,nots itho!t ny hesittion* He s %e#y $oo& t +!#in$ i""nesses n& //"i+tions by m"e%o"ent s(i#its (dön geg)# He s "so %e#y $oo& t +!#in$ &iseses o/ nim"s* His +h#+te# s %e#y #o!$h* Tyin$ so#& into ,not is +h#+te#isti+ /et o/ drubnyön# A#&!ssi n& E(stein te"" sto#y o/ D#!$( .!n"e$ in hi+h he (e#/o#ms simi"# /et =19@)33;>* In his boo, The Crystal and the =ay of /ight, Nm,hi No#b! Rim(o+he &es+#ibes n e++ent#i+ "m hom he en+o!nte#e& in his yo!th in .m =No#b! 197b)70@:>* This mn h& been S,y( t#( b!t h& been e5(e""e& /#om his gom!a /te# b#e,in$ his %os o/ +e"ib+y* He ent into #et#et in sm"" h!t on the mo!ntinsi&e ne# his nti%e %i""$e b!t /te# some ye#s) he s!&&en"y seeme& to $o +#2y* One &y hi"e he s &oin$ his (#+ti+e he be$n to th#o "" o/ his boo,s o!t o/ the in&o then he b!#ne& them smshe& !( "" his stt!es t!#ne& e%e#ythin$ !(si&e &on n& (#t"y &est#oye& his #et#et ho!se* Peo("e be$n to +"" him The L!nti+* Then he &is((e#e& n& no one s him /o# th#ee ye#s* At the en& o/ tht time somebo&y +me +#oss him C!ite by +hn+e* He s "i%in$ in %e#y #emote s(ot #i$ht t the to( o/ the mo!ntin* E%e#ybo&y on&e#e& ho he h& mn$e& to s!#%i%e n& $et eno!$h to et !( the#e "" tht time be+!se nothin$ $#e the#e n& nobo&y no#m""y e%e# ent the#e* So (eo("e be$n to t,e n inte#est in him n& to %isit him* A"tho!$h he #e/!se& to +omm!ni+te ith them the y tht he "i%e& +on%in+e& (eo("e tht he snt
FOL. SHAMANS TRT0, AND 'RA SIDDHAS
+#2y* Inste& o/ +""in$ him The L!nti+ they be$n to s(e, o/ him s #e"i2e& bein$ sint* =No#b! 197b)79> No #b!s !n+"e ho s th e bbot o/ S,y( gom!a, ent to see him one &y ith $#o!( o/ (eo("e in+"!&in$ No#b!* A/te# b#ie/ n& e++ent#i+ en+o!nte# the "m o#&e#e& them to $o in (#ti+!"# &i#e+tion* A/te# se%e#" ho!#s ",in$ they /o!n& h!nte# ho h& b#o,en his /oot n& s !nb"e to ",* Some o/ the (#ty +##ie& him b+, to his /mi"y* The othe#s ent b+, to the "m b!t he sim("y to"& them to $o y =197b)@10@:>* E"sehe#e Nm,hi No#b! hs #e/e##e& to nothe# #o!$h "m mn in De#$e stte hose ,no"e&$e o/ the Dh#m s #est#i+te& to the sin$"e mnt# sy""b"e hJm# This mn h& "e#ne& to +hnt his sin$"e hum ith s!+h (oe# tht he s #e$!"#"y in%ite& to (#ti+i(te in mJo# #it!"s t the De#$e +o!#t* Anothe# /i#"y #e+ent /i$!#e ho e5em("i/ies mny drubnyön +h#0 +te#isti+s s the :& 'ho$"in$ Rim(o+he o/ the Neten "ine N$e&n D#!b(Q Do#JQ =+* 1@1K+* 191@> one o/ the to #e+o$ni2e& #ein+#ntions o/ 'ho$$y!# Lin$( /mo!s nineteenth0+ent!#y tertön =see 'h(te# :@> ho h& himse"/ been ,non /o# his m$i+" (oe# n& !n+on%ention" beh % io #* Th e /o""o in $ e5 +e #( ts # e t,en /#om sho#t ++o!nt o/ this "ms "i/e by O#$yen Tob$y" Rin(o+he) he s /#om n e#"y $e %e#y on&e#/!" &is("yin$ mny mi#+"es* He #e/!se& to "isten to nyone so no one +o!"& $i%e him o#&e#s* Sometimes he h!n$ his +"othes on the #ys o/ the s!n* When his t!to# t!$ht him #e&in$ he o!"& neithe# "e#n no# st!&y on"y ("y*** * When heV s o"&e# he "e#ne& #e&in$ e%en itho!t bein$ t!$ht Neten 'ho$"in$s +on&!+t s e5t#eme"y +#!&e "i,e tht o/ n In&in mhsi&&h* He &#n, "ot o/ ine n& too, "ots o/ sn!//* When (eo("e +me to see him he o!"& sen& /o# omen n& ine* H%in$ hi$he# (e#+e(tions he +o!"& imme&ite"y #e%e" his %isito#s tho!$hts n& he o!"& e5(ose ny hi&&en /!"ts #i$ht y* When $#et "ms o# &i$nit#ies +me to %isit him the se#%nt boys o!"& be o#&e#e& to +ome in n,e& hi"e b#in$in$ te n& in &&ition to /#t "o!&"y ** * He h& mny m2in$ &is+i("es n& he "so &is("ye& mny mi#+"es* One &y hi"e (e#/o#min$ tnt#i+ &n+e "i$htnin$ st#!+, his he& b!t tho!$h the stones beneth his /eet shtte#e& he neithe# /"in+he& no# inte##!(te& the #it!"* 'IILIED SHAMANS
Neten 'ho$"in$ enJoye& ("yin$ &n$e#o!s $mes* In the #e o/ his gom!aE s bi$ #i%e#* One &y he nte& to +#oss the st#em in bot* On+e in the bot he too, the o#s n& mi&st#em th#e them both o%e#bo#&* As the +!##ent se(t the bot &onst#em "" his tten&nts e#e /#i$htene& n& +"ose& thei# eyes hi"e 'ho$"in$ sim("y #o#e& ith "!$hte#**** Fin""y the bot ((#o+he& #(i&s* -!st be/o#e ente#in$ them 'ho$"in$ to!+he& bi$ #o+, ith his hn& n& si& to Genyen o#n$ n"ga "i%in$ in the #i%e# Its eno!$h noX The bot imme&ite"y be$n mo%in$ !(st#em his hn& "e%in$ &ee( im(#int on the #o+,* Tho!$h no one +n #e+h it the m#, +n be seen th#o!$h bino+!"#s* =Tob$y" 19);906 i> The &es+#i(tion o/ Neten 'ho$"in$s ð is "so st#i,in$ /o# its #e %e#s" o/ the ++e(te& no#ms /o# hi$h "m) TVoni$ht Im $oin$ to &ie* My bo&y sh"" not #emin in the me&ittion (ost!#e bin& #o(e ti$ht"y #o!n& its ne+, (!t it in s+, n& t,e it &i#e+t"y to Neten Monste#y* My trul.u i"" be imme&it e"y #ebo#n in De#$e =Tob$y" 19) 6:>* As these e5m("es in&i+te the drubnyön #o"e s not n !n+ommon one in (#emo&e#n Tibetn so+iety* Some o/ these drubnyön e#e !ne&!+te& n& e%i&ent"y none h& m!+h #e$#& /o# the +"e#i+" n& (hi"oso(hi+" !&&hism o/ the gom!a# Some o/ them hoe%e# +me /#om #es(e+tb"e "m /mi"ies =s ith the to drubnyön mentione& by Nm, Rim(o+he> o# e#e #ein+#nte "ms s ith the Neten 'ho$"in$ ho s the #ein+#ntion o/ n im(o#tnt tertön "m n& too, o%e# his (#e&e+esso#s gom!a# Othe# drubnyön +ommen+e& +e"ibte monsti+ +#ee# n& "te# b#o,e y s ith the e50S,y( mon, &es+#ibe& by Nm,hi No#b! Rim(o+he* Nt !#" "y no t e%e #y +#2y (e #son in (# emo &e#n Tibet s #e $#&e& s sint"y m&mn* The#e #e s A#&!ssi n& E(stein (oint o!t se%e#" othe# in&i$eno!s +"ssi/i+tions /o# ht Weste#n me&i+ine mi$ht #e$#& s (sy+hit#i+ i""ness none o/ hi+h +# #y ny im("i+tion o/ sint"iness =19@)3:9033i see "so E(stein n& To($y 19:>* The &e"ibe#te #eJe+tion o/ +on%ention" beh%io# +o!"& ne%e#the"ess /o# the Tibetns be (#t o/ #e+o$ni2b"e /o#m o/ s(i#it!" (th* The #e/e#en+e to the (#+ti+e o/ t,in$ e%e#y e5(e#ien+e in the $#et eC!" tste (ronyom %h-en!ö tulshug %höd!a), t the en& o/ the C!ote /#om Do&#!b 'hen Rim(o+he e#"ie# in this +h(te# in+o#(o#tes stn&#& te#m /o# this ,in& o/ yo$i+ (#+ti+e in hi+h obe&ien+e to +on%ention" so+i" &i+ttes is #eJe+te& s n obst+"e to the FOL. SHAMANS TRT0, AND 'RA SIDDHAS
yo$ins s(i#it!" (#o$#ess* Ronyom %h-en!o, the $#et eC!" tste is #e+o$ni2e& !&&hist te#mino"o$y /o# #e$#&in$ "" (henomen s "i,e n& #eJe+tin$ +on%ention" #es(onses o/ "i,e n& &is"i,e $oo& n& b&* The te#m tulshug %höd!a #e/e#s to %#io!s ,in&s o/ yo$i+ (#+ti+e in+"!&in$ the inte#n" tsalung (#+ti+es o/ An!tt#yo$ Tnt# b!t it +n "so be !se& to #e/e# s(e+i/i+""y to the (th o/ #eJe+tion o/ +on%en tion" beh%io#* The im o/ tulshug %höd!a is to $o beyon& the nee&s /o# o#&in#y so+i" #est#ints so tht the (#+titione# +ts o!t o/ the ne+essity o/ the sit!tion itse"/* A e""0,non mo&e#n e5m("e o/ s!+h tulshug %höd!a s .en(o Gn$sh# ho s one o/ the te+he#s o/ the .#m .$y&( "m T#!n$( Rim(o+he ='h(te# #>* The tit"e .en(o in this +se #e/e#s to .$y&( monsti+ &e$#ee simi"# to the Ge"!$( ge sh ; tit"e* .en(o Gn$sh# s hi$h"y t#ine& s+ho"# n& /mo!s te+he#* In his e#"ie# ye#s he s "so /!""y o#&ine& ge long n& obse#%e& monsti+ &is+i("ine /!"t"ess"y* Lte# he s ,ene& n& &o(te& the tulshug %höd!a sty"e* He too, /em"e +onso#t #eno!n+e& his %os n& be+me /mo!s /o# his e++ent#i+ beh%io#* He s si& "i,e Neten 'ho$"i n$ to b e b"e to te"" (eo("e s inne# tho!$hts imme&ite"y by J!st "oo,in$ t them n& "" his o#&s e#e n e5(#ession o/ his en"i$htene& stte* Mny o/ those ho ,ne him #e$#&e& him s t#!"y "ibe#te& bein$ "tho!$h othe#s /o!n& his +tions emb##ssin$ n& &ist!#bin$ * He &ie& in the 1978s on his y ++o#&in$ to one sto#y to eiJin$ h%in$ nno !n+e& tht he s $o in$ to t e+h the Dh#m to Mo e&on$* 9 Tibetn so+ieties in (#emo&e#n times h& mny o/ these %#io!s ,in&s o/ !no#tho&o5 !&&hist (#+titione#s* The %#iety o/ (o"iti+" systems n& the "+, o/ ny e//e+ti%e +ent#"i2e& $o%e#nment m&e it #e"ti%e" y esy /o# them to s!#%i%e n& Tibetn "y (eo("e e#e (#e(#e& to to"e#te n& s!((o#t ho"y men n& omen &es(ite thei# o++sion""y bi2##e beh%io#* The tertön e#e not ne+ess#i"y s #o!$h o# e++ent#i+ in thei# o!t#& beh%io# s some o/ these drubnyön n& tulshug %höd!a (#+titione#s "tho!$h s Do&#!b 'hen in&i+tes some o/ them +e#tin"y &o(te& s!+h beh%io#* The tertön, hoe%e# $ene#""y e#e $i%en s(+e to &e%e"o( n& /"o!#ish by the to"e#n+e o/ Tibetn so+ieties to#&s this i&e #n$e o/ sso#te& shmni+ (#+ti tione#s the s(i#it0me&i!ms #e%ennts n& ins(i#e& b#&s the n&e#in$ %höd (#+titione#s so"it#y he#mits n& e++ent#i+ "ms* Do!bt"ess mny tertön #emine& in obs+!#ity thei# #e%e"tions &is0
'IILIED SHAMANS
misse& s /#!&!"ent o# ++e(te& on"y by /e "o+" %i""$e#s b!t eno!$h e#e t,en !( n& thei# terma (#o($te& to +# ete %it" me+hnism /o# inno%tion ithin Tibetn #e"i$ion* The#%&in so+ieties s!+h s Thi"n& o# S#i Ln, "so h& e++ent#i+s n& m#$in" ho"y men n& omen n& some o/ them "so ttine& &e$#ee o/ /me n& #es(e+t* Whi"e it is &i//i+!"t to &emon st#te this +on+"!si%e"y it seems "i,e"y tht Tibet (#o%i&e& /# $#ete# s+o(e /o# s!+h (eo("e* It +e#tin"y seems t#!e tht s Tmbih notes #e"i$io!s "e&e#s in the The#%&in +o!nt#ies ho e#e (e#+ei%e& s th#et to the stte e#e e//e+ti%e"y &e"t ith n& #emo%e& =Tmbih 19;>* The +on%e#se to this to"e#n+e o/ &i%e#sity in Tibet s tht Tibetn !&&hism h& b!n&nt s+o(e /o# mo%ement n& +hn$e in +om(#ison ith !&&hism in the The#%&in so+ieties to the so!th* Whi"e the The#%&in so+ieties &e%e"o(e& (!#ist ((#o+h to !&&hism +"imin$ st#i+t &he#en+e to the o#i$in" te+hin$s o/ the histo#i+" !&&h the Tibetns $#o!n&e& thei# #e"i$ion not so m!+h in the te+hin$s o/ the histo#i+" S,ym!ni b!t in the +ontin!in$ (#o+ess o/ #e%e"tion /#om shmni+ #e"m inhbite& by bein$s beyon& the +onst#ints o/ histo#i+" time s!+h s J#&h# A%"o,ites%# n& G!#! Rim(o+he* This +on+"!&es o!# s!#%ey in 'h(te#s 16 n& 17 o/ the ty(es o/ Tibetn #e"i$io!s (#+titione#* In 'h(te# 1@ e "oo, t the ty(es o/ #e"i$io!s +omm!nity (gom!a) ithin hi+h they o(e#te& n& the #e"tionshi(s bet ee n thes e gom !a n& the so+i etie s o/ hi +h t hey /o#me& (#t* 38
-. TibetanReligiousCommunities (Gompa)
It is +ommon("+e +ommon("+e to thin, o/ (#emo&e#n (#emo&e#n Tibet s "n& o/ monste#i monste#ies es n& it +e#tin"y +ontine& some %e#y "#$e monsti+ estb"ishments* 'e"ibte monsti+ism monsti+ism in t#&ition" t#&ition" Tibetn Tibetn so+ieties so+ieties s ne%e ne%e#t #the he"e "ess ss neith neithe# e# s !ni/o#m no# s e5tensi%e s is o/ten s!((ose&* In A((en&i5 i I &is+!ss the (# o(o# o( o# ti on o/ the th e (o(! (o (!"" tio t io n in (#em (# emo& o& e#n e# n Tibet Tib et tht th t ss in%o in %o"% "%e& e& in +e"ibt +e"ibtee monsti monsti+ism +ism** Estim Estimtes tes s!+h s!+h s :6 (e#+ent to 33 (e#+ent o/ the m"e (o(!"tion ((e# to be $#et"y e5$ e5 $$e $e# #te te&* &* A mo#e mo #e ("! (" !si sib" b"ee esti es tim mte te o o!" !"&& be bo! b o!tt io (e#+ (e #+en entt to 1: (e#+en (e# +entt in the th e +ent# +en t#" " $#i+! $# i+!"t "t!# !#" " #es # es "on$ "o n$ ith i th m!+h sm""e# n!mbe# o/ omen* In some #es it s hi$he# b!t in othe#s it s +onsi&e#b"y "oe# hoe%e# mny "ymen n& "yomen e#e in0 %o"% %o"%e& e& in #e"i$ #e"i$io io!s !s (#+t (#+ti+ i+ee eith eithe# e# s /!""0 /!""0tim timee o# (#t0 (#t0tim timee #esi #esi&e &ents nts o/ #e"i$io!s +omm!nities o# s #e$!"# (#ti+i(nts in #it!" t "o+" #e"i$io!s +ente#s* As hs been "#e&y (ointe& (ointe& o!t the te#m gom! go m!aa is one o/ those $ene#i+ te#ms +ommon in the Tibetn "n$!$e* It $#o!(s to$ethe# i nstit!tions tht #e in mny #es(e+ts %e#y &i//e#ent* As one mi$ht e5(e+t "so the %#io!s ,in&s o/ so+iety ithin Tibet h%e thei# on 'IILIED SHAMANS TIETAN RELIGIOUS 'OMMUNITIES =GOMPA> +h# +h#+ +te te#is #isti ti++ ,in& ,in&ss o/ gom! go m! a# We i"" i"" "oo, "oo, t th#e th#eee mJo mJo## (tt (tte# e#ns ns +o##es +o##es(on (on&in &in$$ to the Centralized Centralized $gri%ultural, $gri%ultural, Remote Remote $gri%ultura $gri%ultural,l, n& astoral #es =see 'h(te# @> ith e5m("es o/ e+h ty(e* E5m("es E5m("es o/ the +ent#"i2e& $#i+!"t!#" $#i+!"t!#" (tte#n in+"!&e Din$#i S,y S,y n& L&,h* We i"" "so "oo, mo#e b#ie/"y t the Lhs #e$ion n& t to (#t ( #tss o/ .m* . m* In "" " " thes th esee #es # es e /in& /i n& me&i! me& i!m m n& "#$e " #$e mon mo nst sti+ i+ gom! go m!aa ith ith !( !( #& #&ss o/ /i/ty /i/ty n& n& o/te o/tenn se%e se%e# #"" h! h!n& n&#e #e&& +e"ibt +e"ibtee %h-ö!a (tr-a!a, mon, mon,s> s>** S!+h S!+h gom! go m!aa $ene#""y $ene#""y h%e t "est one #ein #ein++#n #nte "m "m (trul.u), !s!""y the #ein+#ntion o/ the /o!n&e# n& sometimes se%e#"* O++sion""y in the the no non0 n0Ge Ge"! "!$( $( o#&e o#&e#s #s the the he& he& "m "m my my be he#e he#e&i &it t#y #y #th #the# e# thn thn
#ein+#nte* These "ms #e &istin+t /#om the .-en!o, the &minist#ti%e he& o/ the +omm!nity ho is !s!" !s!""y "y e"e+te e"e+te&& o# se"e+ se"e+te te&& in some some mnn mnne# e# /#om /#om the +omm!nity* In these #es e "so /in& sm""e# ani gom!a /o# /em"e /em"e #e"i$i #e"i$io!s o!s (#+tit (#+ titione ione#s #s (ani), o/ten +"ose to the %i""$es sin+e ani #e e5(e+te& to ,ee( !( +"ose "in,s ith thei# nt" ho!seho"&s n& my "i%e the#e n& ssist ith ho!seho"& o#, /o# (#t o/ the time* It is in these +ent#"i2e& $#i+!"t!#" #e$ions tht the %e#y "#$e monsti+ gom!a, gom !a, hi+h +te& s te+hin$ +ente#s /o# the %#io!s o#&e#s n& s!bo#&e#s #e most"y "o+te&* "o+te&* The "#$est Se# n& D#e(!n$ both both ne# ne# Lhs Lhs n& be"o be "on$ n$in in$$ to the th e Ge Ge"! "!$( $( o#&e o# &e# # h& h & o%e# o% e# 188 18 888 88 tra!a e+h be/o#e 1969* Whi"e the e5isten+e o/ me&i!m0 to "#$e0si2e monsti+ gom! go m!aa is ty(i+" ty(i+" /et!#e o/ the +ent#"i2e& $#i+!"t!#" (tte#n it &oes not e5+"!&e othe# ty(es o/ !&&hist (#+ti+e* The#e #e !s!""y some he#e&it#y "ms ith thei# on /mi"y gom! go m!a# a# The#e my "so be sm"" to me&i!m me&i!m0si2 0si2ee +omm!nit +omm!nities ies o/ "y +h( eithe# ho!seho"&e#s ho (#+ti+e (#t0time o# /!""0time non+e"ibte yo$ins* S!+h +omm!nities my o# my my not /o+!s /o+!s on he#e he#e&i &it t#y #y o# #ein+ #ein+#n #nt tee "m* In the the #emo #emote te $#i $#i+! +!"t "t!# !#" " (tt (tte# e#n n /o!n /o!n&& in the the "ess "ess +ent +ent# #"i "i2e 2e&& $#i+!"t!#" #es e /in& these +omm!nities n& (#+titione#s "so e5ist b!t itho!t the "#$e monsti+ gom! go m!a# a# The#e #e sti"" tra!a, b! tra!a, b!tt t hey he y #e # e /e in n!mbe# n& #e(#esent n e5+e(tion" #the# thn #e$!"# +hoi+e o/ "i/e /o# the "o+" "o+" (o( (o(!" !"tio tion* n* O!# e5m(" e5m("es es o/ this this (tt (tte# e#nn #e #e to to +ont +ont# #st stin in$$ Tibetn0s( Tibetn0s(e,in$ e,in$ #es o/ no#the#n no#the#n Ne(" Do"(o n& the .h!mb!0Sho#!n$ .h!mb!0Sho#!n$ #e$ion n& thi#& #e Lh!" no (#t o/ In&i* In se%e#" s!+h #es the#e hs been $#oth o/ sm""0 to me&i!m0 si2e si2e non non0Ge 0Ge"!$ "!$( ( mons monsti+ ti+ gom!a in #e+e #e+ent nt ye ye#s #s** This This mybe mybe tt# ib!te & to %#iety o/ +!ses) the im(+t o/ the Rime& mo%ement =see 'h(te# :@> the e+on e+onom omi+ i+ s!#( s!#("! "!ss (#o& (#o&!+ !+e& e& by ne ne +#o( +#o(ss s!+h s the (otto (otto =F#e#0 =F#e#0 Himen&o#/ 197;> o# in #e+ent ye#s th#o! th#o!$h $h to!#is to!#ism m the +ti% +ti%iti ities es o/ #e/!$ee "ms n& tra!a h hoo h%e h %e sett"e& sett"e& in these these #e$ions #e$ions sin+e sin+e 1969* 1969* A thi#& (tte#n is /o!n& in the (sto#" #e$ions* No &eti"e& st!&ies #e %i"b" %i"b"ee o/ #e"i$io!s #e"i$io!s +omm!nities +omm!nities in these these (#ts b!t $ene#" $ene#" im(#es sion my be &e#i%e& /#om the o#,s o/ E,%"" n& Ro+, on Am&o Am&o =E,%"" =E,%"" 1 96 : 1 96; 96 ; 19 197; 7;b b 19 191 1 Ro Ro+, +, 19 19: : 19 1967 67> > N Nm, m,h hii No#b! on the .m0 Am&o bo#&e# #e$ion =Nm,hi No#b! 193 199o> n& /#om s+tte#e& +omme +omments nts in the "ite# "ite#t!# t!#ee =Te =Tei+hm i+hmnn 19::V 19::V on . .m m D D No#b! No#b! 19 @;V on the no m&s o/ the 'h n$tn$>* The The (tte#n (tte#n he#e he#e is o/ me&i!m me&i!m to "#$e "#$e monsti monsti++ gom! go m!a, a, o/ten on the e&$es o/ the nom&i+ nom&i+ +o! +o!nt#y nt#y (#o(e# (#o(e#**
They #e sso+ite& ith t#&in$ n& m#,et +ente#s n& h%e (o"iti+" n& e+onomi e+onomi++ /!n+tion /!n+tionss in #e"tion #e"tion to the ne#by (sto#" (sto#" nom&i+ t#ibes* These "#$e go "#$e gom! m!aa my be s!(("emente& by sm""e# tent0monste#ies mon$ the nom&s themse"%es =N* No#b! 193 199o>* We e5mine& the %#io!s (o"iti+" ##n$ements in Am&o in 'h(te# 6* The mJo# gom! go m!aa in the este#n #es o/ o/ Am&o Am&o st!&ie& by E,%"" n& Ro+, e#e Ge"!$(* This #e/"e+ts /+to#s othe# thn the #e"i$io!s (#e/e#en+es o/ the nom&s themse"%es* Mny o/ the tra!a t .!mb!m Lb#n$ n& 'honi e#e e#e Mon$o Mon$o"i "in n n& n& these these "#$e "#$e monsti monsti++ +ente#s +ente#s #e+ei%e #e+ei%e&& s!bstn s!bstnti" ti" (t ( t # on $ e i n t he ( st / # om M on $o" $o " (t# ( t# ons on s n& n & /# om t he Mn+ M n+h! h! im(e im (e## i" i " &ynsty* &ynsty* Se%e#" !tho#s mention mention tht (sto#"ists (sto#"ists (#e/e# the mo#e shmni+ shmni+ n& m$i+" s(e+ts o/ Tibetn !&&hism =Tei+hmn 19:: D* No#b! 19@ ; n& see 'h(te# 'h(te# >* A (#e/e#en+e /o# the non0Ge"!$( t#&itions o!"& $o "on "on$$ ith ith this this =see =see N* No No#b #b!! 19 193 3)@ )@@> @> n& n& the# the#ee e e#e #e se%e se%e# #"" "#$ "#$ee Nyi N yin$ n$m m(( gom! go m! a in so!the#n Am&o n& Go"o$ +o!nt#y =see P"t!" n*&*> in+"!&in$ T#tn$ hi+h is #e(!te& to h%e h& #o!n& :888 tra!a, m,in$ it (e#h (e#h( (ss the the "#$ "#$es estt o/ "" "" Ny Nyin$ in$m m( ( mon monst ste# e#ie iess =.hn =.hn&#o &#o 19 19 Thon Thon&! &!(( 19 19@ @> > n& n& Do Do&# &#!b !b 'h 'he en n mJo# mJo# +ent +ente# e# /o# the Lon$+he Lon$+henn Nyi N yi n $ t i $ t e + h i n $ s = T h o n & ! ( 1 9 ; 1 9 @ n & 'h(te# :@>* The +ent#"i2e +ent#"i2e&& $#i+!"t!# $#i+!"t!#" " #emote #emote $#i+!"t!# $#i+!"t!#" " n& (sto#" (sto#" (tte (tte#ns #ns &i& not e5ist in iso"tion /#om e+h othe#* St!&ents /#om o!t "yin$ "yin$ #es he#e he#e the #emote $#i+!"t!#" o# (sto#" (tte#ns (#e%i" #e$! #e$!" "#" #"yy t#%e t#%e"e "e&& to #es #es he#e the#e #e "#$e monsti+ t#inin$ +en0 'IILIED SHAMANS TIETAN RELIGIOUS 'OMMUNITIES =GOMPA> te#s n& mi$ht #emin the#e s tra!a /o# mny ye#s* ye#s* Tra!a t#ine t#ine&& t these +ente#s +ente#s o!"& $o to sett"e in mo#e #emote #es n& (e#h(s (e#h(s stim!" stim!"te te the $#oth $#oth o/ monsti monsti++ "i/e "i/e the#e /o# /e &e+& &e+&es es o# mo#e (e#mne nt" y* The mJo# (i"$#im$e +ente#s hi+h in+"!&e ho"y mo!ntins s!+h s Mo!nt .i"sh +%es sso+ite& ith G!#! Rim(o+he n& sm"" he#mit$es he#e /mo!s (st "ms h& (#+ti+e& s e"" s the mJo# monsti+ +ente#s +te& s /o+i /o+ i tt#+ tt #+tin tin$$ (i"$#i (i" $#ims ms n& (e#m (e#mnent nent sett"e# sett"e#ss /#om "" o%e# o%e# the Tibet Tibetnn #e$ion* #e$ion* The &est#!+tion o/ the mJo# monsti+ te+hin$ +ente#s /te# 1969 b#o!$ht this this (tte# (tte#nn o/ inte# inte#+ti +tion on to tem(o# tem(o##y #y en& "tho!$h "tho!$h it "so "so "e& to mny mny senio# "ms "ms sett"in$ sett"in$ s #e/!$ees in /o#me#"y /o#me#"y #emote #es #es n& # e%it"i2in $ t he
#e"i$io!s #e"i$io!s "i/e the#e* the#e* In mo#e #e+ent ye#s ye#s m!+h o/ this (tte#n hs been #e+ons #e+onstit! tit!te& te& #o!n& #o!n& #e/!$e #e/!$eee gom g om ! a n& #o! #o!n& n& (i"$ (i"$#im #im$ $ee +ent +ente# e#ss in In&i In&i n& the bo#&e# bo#&e# #e$ions #e$ions s!+h s!+h s o& o&hn hnth th in Ne( Ne(" " o& o&h$ h$y y n& S#nth in In&i n& the D"i Lms Lms #esi&en #esi&en+e +e t Dh Dh#m #ms" s" in In&i* In&i* The mJo# #e/!$ee gom! go m!a, a, +onst#!+te& by #e/!$ees /#om the bi$ +ent#" n& este# este#nn Tibet Tibetn n te+ te+hi hin$ n$ gom! go m!a, a, h%e h%e t,e t,enn o% o%e# e# the the #o"e #o"e o/ te+ te+hi hin$ n$ +ente#s /o# #emote #es in In&i n& Ne(" /o# the #e/!$ee +omm!nities n& in+#esin$"y /o# #es ithin the PR' he#e #e"i$io!s "i/e is bein$ #e+on0 st#!+te&* Whi"e &est#!+tion n& +hn$e on this s+"e is ne (henomenon ithin Tibetn so+iety the (#emo&e#n (osition s not stti+ n& +hn$es in the #e" #e"ti ti%e %e im( im(o#t o#tn+ n+ee o/ &i// &i//e# e#en entt #e$i #e$ion onss h(( h((en enee& t %#io!s io!s time ime s th#o th#o!$ !$ho ho!t !t hist histo# o#yy s #es! #es!"t "t o/ shi/ shi/ts ts in the the e+on e+onom omi+ i+ im(o im(o#t #tn+ n+ee o/ go m!aa in (#ti &i//e# &i//e#ent ent #e$ions #e$ions n& o/ the &est#!+ &est#!+tio tionn o/ gom! (#ti+! +!" "## #e$io #e$ionn th#o! th#o!$h $h ## o# thei thei## +"os +"os!#e !#e by ho host sti"e i"e (o"iti+ (o"iti+" " !tho#itie !tho#ities* s* The gom go m !a ithin Tibetn Tibetn so+ieties so+ieties /o#m &ynmi+ &ynmi+ n& shi/t shi/tin in$$ (tte (tte#n #n not not stt stti+ i+ neto#, n& in 'h(te#s :3 to :@ e i"" e5mine some o/ the histo#i+" b b + , $ # o ! n & t o t h e s e ( # o + e s s e s o / +hn$e* In this +h(te# e no e5mine e5m("es e5m("es o/ e+h o/ the (tte#ns i &enti/ ie& in mo#e &eti" be$innin$ ith the +ent#"i2e& $#i+!"t !#" (tt (tte# e#n* n* THE 'ENTRALIED AGRI'ULTURAL AGRI'ULTURAL PATTERN PATTERN In this (tte#n / o!n& in the "#$e# mo#e (#o&!+ti%e n& mo#e +ent#" i2e& i2e& $#i+!"t!#" #es o/ Tibet e /in& me&i!m to "#$e monsti+ gom! go m!aa ith s!bstnti" +omm!nities o/ tra!a, "on$ ith sm""e# ani gom!a n& %#io!s nonmonsti+ ty(es o/ +ho(* The >ingri RegionD State Gom( and o!ular Gom( The mJo# t#&in$ +ente# o/ Din$#i st!&ie& /#om #e/!$ee ++o!nts by #b# #b# A2i2 A2i2 s "#$e "#$e n& (o(!"o!s (o(!"o!s +omm!nit +omm!nityy on the mJo# mJo# t#&e #o!te /#om Lhs Lhs to .thm .thmn&! n&! =A2i2 19@>* 19@>* The #e s !n&e# !n&e# the +ont#o" o/ the Lhs &minist#tion !nti"
1969*
It h& been &e(o(!"te& &!#in$ the Ne("0
Tibet #s &!#in$ the ei$hteenth n& nineteenth +ent!#ies n& m!+h o/ the Din$#i +omm!nity in the 196os s m&e !( o/ #e+ent immi$#nts* A2i2 estimtes the (o(!"tion o/ Din$#i t 1:888 (eo("e o/ hom :888 "i%e& in the !#bn t#&in$ +ente# o/ Gn$0$# n& the #est in the s!##o!n&in$ #!#" #e* D!#in$ the time o/ the 6th D"i Lm =se%enteenth +ent!#y> She",#
'h&Q sm"" gom! go m!aa on the hi"" t She",# s t,en o%e# by the Ge"!$( n& &e%e"o(e& into "#$e monsti+ gom!a# The min &minist#ti%e +ente# /o# the Lhs #e$ime She",# dzong, &Joine& the monste#y* In the 196os the gom! go m!aa o/ She",# 'h&Q h& bo!t 388 tra!a, mny o/ them #e+#!ite& /#om Din$#i Din$#i ho! ho!seh seho"& o"&ss !n& !n&e# e# the mon, mon, "e%y "e%y system system by hi+h hi+h %i""$e %i""$e s tra !a to (#ti+ ob"i ob "i$e $e&& to (#o% (#o%i& i&ee on onee o# mo#e o#e tra (#ti+!" !"## mons monste#y te#y =A2i2 =A2i2 19@):33>* It "so h& e5 tensi%e esttes in the #e$ion* To To othe# mo#e &istnt Ge"!$( go Ge"!$( gom! m!aa "so im(ose& mon, "e%ies on Din$#i %i""$e#s* The gom!a The gom!a t She",# &i& not (e#/o#m #e"i$io!s se#%i+es /o# Din$#i ho!seho"&s "tho!$h it &i& ho"& bi$ nn!" /esti%" ith (e#/o#m n+es n+es o/ #it!" #it!" &n+es &n+es (%h(%h-am am,, see see 'h(te 'h(te## 1;>* 1;>* A+ A++o +o#&i #&in$ n$ to A2 A2i2 i2 Din$#i (eo (eo("e ("e tten&e& tten&e& the /esti%" b!t si& they ent on"y /o# the m#,et they #esente& both the mon, mo n, "e%y "e% y n& n & the othe# othe # e+ e+oonom nomi+ i+ o b " i$ i$tio tio n s t o #& #&ss the the gom! go m!aa =19@):3@>* The (#e%i"in$ (tte#n o/ #e"i$io!s (#+ti+e in Din$#i !nti" the -ö!a o# ser. se r.yy-im im## A2i2 ten t enti tiet ethh +ent +ent!# !#yy ss tht tht o/ (#t0t #t0tim imee "y "y % h-ö! estimtes tht the#e e#e bo!t 68 +ti%e se r .y - i m in the #e$ion "i%in$ in :@ %i""$e +omm!nities* These These +omm!niti +omm!nities es inhbite& inhbite& enti#e"y enti#e"y by ser. se r.yy-im im,, go m!a# a# T he ser. se r.yy-im im o/ e+h e#e e #e + ""e ""e& by the the / mi"i i"i## t e#m gom! e+h %i"" %i""$ $ee (e#/ (e #/o# o#me& me& #it! #i t!" " se# %i+es /o# sm"" sm"" $#o!( o/ nei$hbo#in$ %i""$es* %i""$es* The#e e#e "so n!mbe# o/ he#e&it#y "ms (ngag!a)# These men n& thei# /mi"ies e#e ++o#&e& hi$h so+i" stt!s n& e#e be"ie%e& to (ossess inhe# inhe#ite ite&& #e"i$ #e"i$io! io!ss (oe (oe# # b!t b!t they they e e#e #e not not tt tt+h +he& e& to "#$e monsti+ +omm!nities* The#e e#e sm"" +omm!nities o/ TIETAN RELIGIOUS 'OMMUNITIES =GOMPA> yo$ins sso+ite& ith the to mJo# (i"$#im$e sites t Tsib#i n& Ln$,o#* gom !a)) seems to L#$e0s+"e +e"ibte monsti+ism =(#t /#om the She",# gom!a h%e h%e been been #e+e #e+ent nt &e%e &e%e"o "o(m (men ent t &e#i &e#i%i %in$ n$ /#om /#om the the +ti +ti%i %iti ties es o/ th#e th#eee +h#ism +h#ismti+ ti+ "ms "ms n& /#om the e+ono e+onomi+ mi+ $#oth $#oth o/ the #e$ion #e$ion in the /i#st h"/ o/ the tentieth +ent!#y* The /i#st "m N$n$ Ten2in No#b! ="so ,non s D2t#!" Rim(o+he : +* 177019;o A2i2 19@):890:1 I> /o!n&e& =o# (e#h(s (e#h(s #eb!i"t #eb!i"t> > the Nyin$m( Nyin$m( monsti+ monsti+ gom g om ! a o/ D2#on$ in the hi""s so!th o/ Din$#i in 198:* 3 y t he 196o 196os s D2#on$ D2#on$ h& some Soo tra!a n& ani in thi#teen +omm!nities (gom!a), /o!# /o!# o/ them sm"" /em"e /em"e gom!a gom !a +"ose to the %i""$es %i""$es so tht the ani +o!"& #emin ne# thei# nt" ho!seho"&s* The /o!n& /o!n&e# e# h& been been s!++ s!++ee ee&e &e&& s bbo bbott by "m "m the the I ith ith T#!" #!"sh shi$ i$ Rim(o+he ; =b* 19:1 see .ohn 19)5i A2i2 19@):110:1;> ho s the #e+o$n #e+o$ni2e i2e&& #ein+# #ein+#nt ntion ion o/ N$ N$n n$$ Ten2in n2in No#b!s No#b!s on te+he te+he#* #* The #e"i #e"i$i $io! o!ss (#+ti (#+ti+e +e o/ D2 D2#o #on$ n$ s &e#i% &e#i%e& e& /#om /#om tht tht o/ the +ent# +ent#" " Tibet Tibetnn Nyin$m Nyin$m( ( te+hi te+hin$ n$ +ente# +ente# o/ Min&#" Min&#" Lin$ Lin$ he he#e #e T#!"s T#!"shi$ hi$ Rim(o+he n& othe# D2#on$ "ms ent /o# t#inin$*
The The D2 D2# #on on$$ "m "m "so "so %isi %isite te&& the the She# She#( ( #e$i #e$ion on +#o +#oss ss the the min min Him"yn #n$e to the so!th* He s inst#!ment" in the b!i"&in$ o/ se%e#" sm"" +e"ibte +e"ibte o# (#ti""y (#ti""y +e"ibte +e"ibte monsti+ monsti+ go m! a the#e* the#e* Thes Thesee gom! go m!aa &e#i%e &e#i%e&& thei# thei# #e"i$i #e"i$io!s o!s (#+ti (#+ti+e +e /#om /#om D2#on D2#on$$ n& n& Min&#" Min&#" Lin$ Lin$ =A2i2 =A2i2 19@):890:16>* It is /#om D2#on$ tht She#( monste#ies &e#i%e& thei# #it! #it!" " &n+ &n+ee (%h(%h-am am)) t#&i t#&iti tion on "in, "in,e& e& to the the Mni Mni Rim&! Rim&! /esti% /esti%"" =F#e#0 =F#e#0 Himen&o#/ 197; -e#st& 1979 Fntin 19@7 .ohn 19 see 'h(te# 1;> %h-am s (e#/o#me& #e$!"#"y t D2 #on$ #on$** A thi#& "m Tsib#i Tsib#i T#i(n Pem 'h$ye" =1@0196 o# 1969> /o!n&e& $#o!( o/ sm"" sm"" +omm!nitie +omm!nitiess be"on$in$ to the D#!$( . $y&( t#&ition ne# the (i"$#im$e site o/ Tsib#i =A2i2 19@):16:1@>* This "m s bo#n in L&, L&,hh b!t h& $one $one to est est Tibe Tibett t the $e o/ 1 to st!&y ith the /mo!s Rime& te+he# S,y S#i = 1 631919> D#!$(0m##ie& "m /#om Ts#i in so!thest .m*s The D2#on$ n& Tsib#i "ms +te& s (e#son" #e"i$io!s te+he#s tsa*; l am a o# he he#t #t "m "ms s to !se !se A2i2 2i2ss t#n t#ns" s"t tio ion n /o# /o# mny mny o/ the Din$#i %i""$e %i""$e#s* #s* A2 A2i2 i2 &es+#ib &es+#ibes es se%en se%en othe# othe# Din$#i Din$#i "ms "ms ho he& he&e& e& sm" sm""" mon monst sti+ i+ gom! go m!aa o# h& h& /o"" /o""o oin in$$ o/ "y %h-ö %h-ö!a !a## Th#e Th#eee o/ thes thesee e e#e #e he#e&it#y ngag!a "ms "ms #es(e+te& #es( e+te& in the +omm!n ity b!t b!t +t +ti% i%ee in in #e+ #e+en entt tim times es mo#e s (e#/o#me#s o/ #it!" thn s (e#son"#e"i$io!s te+he#s* te+he#s* She estimtes the tot" n!mbe# o/ +e"ibte #e"i$io!s (#+titione#s in the #e$ion s bo!t 988 =it is not +"e# ho this t his is i s &i %i&e& %i&e& mon mon$$ tra!a n& ani)# Sa.yaD A Religious state In the sme $ene#" #e o/ so!thest Tibet s the "#$e monsti+ estte o/ S,y &i s +!sse& t some "en$th in 'h(te# 3* y +ont#st ith Din$#i this s #e$ion #e$ion &omint &ominte& e& by monsti+ monsti+ gom!a gom! a o/ sin$ sin$"e "e o#&e# the S,y(* S,y(* ' ssine ssine""i ""i n& n& E,%"" E,%""s s st!&y st!&y o/ S,y S,y $i%es $i%es !s $"im $"im(s (see o/ the the so+i so+i" " st #!+t!#e o/ #e"i$io!s "i/e in n #e o/ "#$e stte0 s!((o#te& gom!a o/ +e"ibte mon,s* The gom! go m!aa o/ S,y e#e s!((o#te& by the S,y estte &minist#tion hi+h o ne& n!mbe# o/ sm"" esttes #o!n& Tibet s e"" s the (#in+i(" estte s!##o!n&in$ the ton o/ S,y itse"/ in est0+ent#" Tibet* This estte +o%e +o%e#e #e&& some ome :18 :1888 sC! sC!#e #e mi"e mi"ess n& n& h& h& (o (o(! (!" "ti tion on ++o ++o#& #&in in$$ t o 'ssine""i n& E,%"" o/ #o!n& 17888 o/ hom @888 "i%e& in the ton o/ S,y n& the #emin&e# in the s!##o!n&in$ #!#" #es* The#e e#e to "#$e !a in the ton o/ S,y itse"/ both &tin$ b+, to the (e#io& monsti+ gom monsti+ gom!a o/ S,y S,y (o (oe# e# o%e o%e## Tibe Tibet t ith ith 388 n& :88 :88 tra! tra!aa #es(e+ti%e"y* In the s!##o! s!# #o!n&i n&in$ n$ #e$ion #e$ ion the#e s noth nothe# e# "#$e "#$e $om( $om(
13 sm""e# gom!a ith /#om ; to 6o, tra!a e+h* Lh!n(o Some ith 2oo2oo o/ these tra!a, e#e n& 'h +omm!nities o/ #eti#e& tra!a /#om the !#bn gom!a ='ssine""i n& E,%"" 1979)33 :69: 90381 31 I ;880;8;>* A"to$ethe# 'ssine""i n& E,%"" estimte tht the#e e#e 96 tra!a, o/ hom #o!n& :3o +me /#om o!tsi&e the min S,y estte* The#e e#e "so bo!t :68 ani b!t these s(ent m!+h o/ thei# time o#,in$ o!tsi&e the ani gom!a in thei# /mi"y ho!seho"&s* A"" these gom!a b e"on$e& to the S,y( o#&e#* The#e e#e some /o""oe#s o/ othe# #e " i$io!s o#&e#s in+"!&in$ the n(o n& the#e e#e se%e#" Nyin$m( he#e&it#y "m ho!seho"&s (ngag!a), b!t ((#ent"y no gom!a be " on$in$ to othe# o#&e#s* 'ssine""i n& E,%"" &o not $i%e m!+h in/o# mtion bo!t the (#o%ision o/ #e"i$io!s se#%i+es by the S,y( gom!a o# by he#e&it#y "m ho!seho"&s* D No#b!s Red Star over Tibet, n !tobio$#(hi+" ++o!nt o/ "i/e in S,y hi+h is %"!b"e +om("ement to the 'ssine""i n& E,%"" st!&y &is+!sses his mothe#s /the# =(#es!mb"y Nyin$m(> he#e&it#y "m ho s em("oye& s the he& "m o/ one o/ the S,y $o%e#nments 'IILIED SHAMANS 'IILIED SHAMANS nn!" /!n&0+o""e+tin$ missions mon$ the nom&s o/ the 'hn$tn$ =D* No #b! 1 9@; ): 3 // see 'h(te# 4 n& be"o>* No#b! "so mentions +ons!"tin$ "m on$+h!n$ Rim(o+he bo!t his /the#s i""ness =19@;);1> b!t it is not +"e# i/ this s S,y( o# Nyin$m(* No#b! "so &es+#ibes the mo nsti+ /esti%"s o/ S,y hi+h s !s!" in+"!&e& (e#/o#mn+es o/ %h-am n& se#%e& s o++sion /o# (o(!"# +e"eb#tions n& %i""$e /i#s =19@;)30;1>* /ada.hD Tibetan 'ingdom *ithin an @ndian State In the /# est o/ Tibet the #e$ion o/ L&,h no (#t o/ In&i "so h& mi5t!#e o/ gom!a o/ &i//e#ent t#&itions min"y be"on$in$ to the Ge"!$( n& to to .$y&( s!bo#&e#s the D#i$!n$( n& D#!$(* The gom!a o/ L&,h h%e been e5tensi%e"y st!&ie& in #e+ent ye#s =Sin$h 19@@ Sne""$ #o%e n& S, o#!(s,i 19@9 19o #!en 19ob G#imsh 193>* A$in the #esons /o# the (#e+ise mi5t!#e o/ monsti+ o#&e#s +n be /o!n& in the histo#y o/ the #e$ion =Pete+h 19@@ 19@ Sne""$#o%e n& S,o#!(s,i 19@9 S+h!h 193 N* Tse#in$ 19@9 196>* L&,h s se(#te (o"ity &tes b+, to the estb"ishment o/ the L&,hi ,in$ &om on e o/ th e s!++esso # sttes to the o"& Tibetn em(i#e #o!n& A*D* 968* Lmy!#! is si& to be
the o"&est gom! a in L&,h n& t#&ition""y &tes /#om the time o/ N# o( ="te ten th +e nt!# y >* The#e #e se%e#" othe# o"& gom!a tht &te b+, to the e"e%enth +ent!#y n& seem to h%e been initi""y .&m( +ente#s) A"+hi S(it!, n& (e#h(s "so Li,i#* The L&,hi ,in$s (t#oni2e& the D#i$!n$ .$y&( /#om 1:16 on#&s n& Lmy!#! be+me thei# min +ente#* In the /i/teenth +ent!#y the #!"e#s o/ L&,h +me !n&e# Ge"!$( in/"!en+e* The o"& gom!a t A"+hi S(it!, n& Li,i# e#e #eb!i"t s Ge"!$( +ente#s n& ne gom!a s b!i"t t Ti,tse* A se+on& D#i$!n$( gom!a, Phiyn$ &tes /#om D#i$!n$( #e%i%" in the e#"y si5teenth +ent!#y* The#e /o""oe& (e#io& o/ D#!$( .$y&( in/"!en+e sso+ite& ith the "m T$tsn$ Re( ho s +"ose sso+ite o/ one o/ the most /mo!s L&,hi ,in$s Sen$e Nm$ye" =#!"e& 1717017;:>* The gom!a o/ Hemis s /o!n&e& on the site o/ he#mit$e sso+i te& ith the e#"y D#!$( mste# G& tsn$(* This gom!a be+me the D#!$( +ente# in L&,h n& #e0 TIETAN RELIGIOUS 'OMMUNITIES =GOMPA> mine& +"ose"y "in,e& to the #oy" /mi"y* Its he& "m s #ein+#ntion o/ T$tsn$ Re( n& in #e+ent ye#s it hs "so been the #esi&en+e o/ the he& "m o/ the Tibetn b#n+h o/ the D#!$( s!bo#&e# =the Gy"n$ D#!$+hen>* Othe# D#!$( gom!a e#e /o!n&e& t this time t Shey St$n n& 'hem#e* A # beteen the L&,hi ,in$&om n& the ne +ent#" Tibetn #e$ime o/ the 6th D"i Lm b#o,e o!t in 17@9* The +!ses e#e +om("e5 b! t #e/ "e+t e& in (#t th e (o o# #e "tions bet een the Ge"!$( n& the D#!$( .$y&( ho e#e no the &ominnt o#&e# in h!tn* The L&,hi ,in$ s /o#+e& to b!y he"( /#om the Mo$h!" $o%e#no# o/ .shmi#* The t#ety ith the Mo$h!"s n& the s!bseC!ent t#ety ith Lhs in%o"%e& the "oss o/ mo#e thn h"/ o/ L&,hs te##ito#y n& the en& o/ L&,hs #o"e s si$ni/i+nt Him"yn (o e# =see Pete +h 1 9 @ @ ) @ 8 0 8 > * S!bseC!ent"y the D" i Lm s #e$ent t Lhs ttem(te& to im(ose hie##+hi+" st#!+t!#e on the monste#ies o/ L&,h in hi+h both the Ge"!$( gom!a, o#$ni2e& !n&e# the "e&e#shi( o/ Ti,tse gom!a, n& the non0Ge"!$( gom! a e#e to +ome !n&e# +ont#o" /#om D#e(!n$ the "#$e Ge"!$( gom!a ne# Lhs* The inte$#tion o/ the non0Ge"!$( go m!a ne%e# too, ("+e n& L&,h /te# the Do$# +onC!est o/ 13; be+me bso#be& into the Hin&! stte o/ -mm! n& .shmi# en&in$ ny (ossibi"ity o/ inte#%ention by Lhs* Ti,tse #etine& !tho#ity o%e# most o/ the othe# Ge"!$( gom!a n& be+me in the
nineteenth +ent!#y the set o/ the ,!" Rim(o+he no the (#in+i(" Ge"!$( in+#nte "m in L&,h* Anothe# Ge"!$( gom!a, Ri&2on$ s /o!n&e& in 1:9* The#e is sm"" S,y( gom!a in L&,h t Mt#o n& sm"" Nyin$m( gom!a t T#$to, both &tin$ b+, to be/o#e the # ith Tibet b!t neithe# o/ these o#&e#s h%e e%e# h& si$ni/i+nt (o"iti+" in/"!en+e in L&,h* The si5teenth0+ent!#y ,in$ T#shi Nm$ye" "i& &on #!"e tht e%e#y /mi"y o/ mo#e thn one m"e +hi"& h& to $i%e !( one to be+ome tra!a =Pete+h 19@@)17>* R!"es n& (#+ti+es o/ thi s ,in& e5 iste& in se%e#" (#ts o/ Tibet s &i& t5 ob"i$tions by hi+h %i""$es #e #eC!i#e& to s!(("y +e#tin n!mbe# o/ tra!a# As e s the Ge"!$( gom!a in Din$#i She",# 'h&Q s s!(("ie& ith tra!a in this y =A2i2 19@>* Whi"e it seems !n"i,e" y tht mny #e$ions o/ Tibet #e+he& "e%e" o/ one tra!a (e# /mi"y =see A((en&i5 I > +e"ibte TIETAN RELIGIOUS 'OMMUNITIES =GOMPA> monsti+ism be+me /i#m"y estb"ishe& in L&,h n& L&,h to&y hs monsti+ gom!a be"on$in$ to "" /o!# !&&hist o#&e#s =n& to o/ the .$y&( s!bo#&e#s> s e"" s n!mbe# o/ %i""$e tem("es* No ne o/ the L & ,h i gom !a #e %e#y "#$e +om(#e& ith the "#$est monsti+ $om( in +ent#" o# est Tibet* Sin$h $i%es /i$!#es o/ Soo "ms =(#es! mb"y tra!a) tt+he& to Hemis n& Li,i# 3O8 /o# Ti,ts e 'hem# e n& St,n n& "oe# n!mbe#s /o# the othe#s* These /i$!#es ho e%e# in+"!&e tra!a =n& (e#h(s non+e"ibte %h-ö!a in the +se o/ the non0Ge"!$( gom!a) t sm""e# gom!a th#o!$ho!t L&,h n& ns,# ho #e //i"ite& ith these ("+es* The +t!" n!mbe#s o/ tra!a in #esi&en+e t the min L&,hi gom!a no&ys #e m!+h sm""e# thn this* To #e+ent $!i&eboo,s estimte the n!mbe# o/ tra!a t Li,i# s ioo =Hi#s+hbe#$ 198)173 S+h!tt"e# 198)18;>* The#e #e "so some sm"" ani gom!a o# %homoling in L&,h =/o# e5m("e ne# Hemis Sh!,(+hen Phy"+to! 199);:>* As in Din$#i n& S,y the min gom!a in L&,h (!t on nn!" (e#/o#mn+es o/ % h-am# Tht t Hemis hs be+ome (#ti+!"#"y /mo!s o !tsi& e L&,h b e +!se it t,es ("+e in s!mme# n& so hs o/ten been seen by %i s ito#s =Ri2%i 193)1@6 /o# &es+#i(tion see He"//e# 198>* Othe#s t,e ("+e #o!n& Ne e# in+"!&in$ those t S(it!, =M# ,o in (# es s> M t#o Sto, Leh Ti,tse n& Phiyn$ =#!en 19ob)11@>* These #e se(#te /#om the +y+"e o/ %i""$e n& "ine$e #it!"s /o+!sin$ on the "o+" $o&s =#!en 19o13 Do""/!s 199>* L & , hi t # ( hoe%e# s(ent +onsi&e#b"e mo!nt o/ thei# time (e#/o#min$ #it!"s /o# "o+" %i""$e#s* Go"&stein n& Ts#on$ st!&ie& sm "" D # i $ ! n $ b#n + h m on s te #y = (e #h ( s P hi y n$ > i n 1 9 1* T hi s gom !a h& 3 ; / ! ""0time
(e#mnent t ra!a # Go"&stein n& Ts#on$ note& tht to t#( hose +ti%ities they st!&ie& in &eti" (e#/o#me& #it!"s /o# %i""$e#s on o%e# h"/ the &ys o/ the ye# =196):;>* i""$e#s "so /#eC!ent"y 'ommissione& #it!"s to be (e#/o#me& t the mons0 te#y* The e5tensi%e in%o"%ement o/ tra!a in (e#/o#min$ #it!"s /o# "ymen in L&,h my e5("in the ((#ent bsen+e o/ he#e&it#y "ms s si$ni/i+nt #it!" (e#/o#me#s* Whi"e not o/ten &es+#ibe& t "en$th in the "ite#t!#e =see be"o> they ne%e#the"ess seem to be im(o#tnt (e#/o#me#s o/ #i t!" /o# "y (eo("e in most Tibetn +omm!n it ies* The#e is "itt"e o# no ment ion o/ them /o# L&,h he#e "" the gom!a ((e# t o h % e b e e n i n t e$#te& into se#ies o/ hie# #+hi +" st#! +t!# es s b#n+hes o/ the %#io!s mJo# monste#ies o/ +ent#" L&,h =see Sin$h 19@@>* This my be +onne+te& ith the system #e(o#te& s /# s I ,no on"y /#om L&,h by hi+h the mJo# go m! a ((ointe& #esi&ent tra!a /o# to o# th#ee ye#s t time to "oo, /te# %i""$e tem("es n& (#o%i&e #it!" se#%i+es /o# the "o+" "y (o(!"tion* Th!s the %i""$e o/ Hemis Sh!$(+hen in L&,h hs /o!# %i""$e tem("es (lha.-ang), th#ee o/ them //i"ite& to 'hem#e Ri2on$ n& Li,i#* '#et,e# tra!a /#om those gom!a #esi&e in the %i""$e /o# to0o# th#ee0ye# (e#io&* The +#et,e# is Joine& by othe# tra!a /#om the (#ent gom!a on the o++sion o/ mJo# #it!"s* The /o!#th tem("e s b!i"t some /i/ty ye#s $o by the %i""$e#s to ho"& set o/ the .n$y!# =Tibetn !&&hist s+#i(t!#es> n& is not //i"ite& to ny o!tsi&e gom!a =Phy"+to! 199);80;; see "so Do""/!ss 199>* The %i""$es st#on$est +onne+tion is ith the ne#by gom!a o/ Ri&2on$ hi+h hs #esi&en+e (labrang) n& $#n#y ithin the %i""$e /o# the +o""e+tion n& &ist#ib!tion o/ tithes n& "ons =Phy"+to! 199;;> A"" this s!$$ests mo#e +"e#i+"i2e& sit!tion /o# L&,h thn e"sehe#e in the Tibetn #e$ion* I/ this is t#!e it is (#obb"y to be e5("ine& in te#ms o/ the in+o#(o#tion o/ L&,h in the Hin&! stte o/ -mm! n& .shmi# n& s!bseC!ent"y in #itish n& in&e(en&ent In&i* Din$#i S,y n& L&,h #e the on"y +ent#"i2e& $#i+!"t!#" #es /o# hi+h I h%e #e"ti%e"y +om("ete in/o#mtion bo!t the mJo# gom!a# 3 Less +om("ete &t is %i"b"e /o# some othe# #e$ions n& it is o#th "oo,in$ b#ie/"y t the sit!tion in (#emo&e#n times in the #e #o!n& Lhs itse"/ n& in to #e$ions o/ .m* The /hasa RegionD Center of the Gelug!a State The #e$ion #o!n& Lhs s !n&e#stn&b"y Ge"!$( te##ito#y &ominte&
s it s by the Pot" ("+e o/ the D"i Lm n& ith the to "#$est Ge"!$( gom!a, Se# n& D#e(!n$ ithin /e ho!#s ", o/ the +ity* The thi#& mJo# Ge"!$( te+hin$ +ente# Gn&en hi+h is "so the set o/ the /o#m" he& o/ the Ge"!$( o#&e# s +o!("e o/ &ys Jo!#ney to the est* The -o,n$ the +ent#" tem("e in Lhs itse"/ s !n&e# Ge"!$( +ont#o" s s the Rmo+he tem("e hi+h "i,e the -o,n$ &te& /#om the e#"y #oy" (e#io&* Most o/ the othe# gom!a in Lhs e#e Ge"!$(* They in+"!&e& the to Ge"!$( Tnt#i+ 'o""e$es Gyt& T#tsn$ n& Gyme& T#tsn$ s e"" s the gom!a o/ Tsemn Lin$ Ten$yQ Lin$ Me#! 'IILIED SHAMANS
'IILIED SHAMANS TIETAN RELIGIOUS 'OMMUNITIES =GOMPA> S#( n& Shi&Q T#tsn$ t the Rmo+he tem("e =t+he"o# 19@ Domn 19>* The on"y non0Ge"!$( gom!a in the imme&ite %i+inity o/ Lhs seems to h%e been Ne+h!n$ the sm"" Nyin$m( gom!a +"ose to D#e(!n$ hi+h s the set o/ the Lhs Go%e#nments (#in+i(" o#+"e* A n!mbe# o/ im(o#tnt gom! a o/ othe# o#&e#s e#e hoe%e# ithin to o# th#ee &ys t#%e" /#om Lhs* These in+"!&e& Ts!#(! D#i$!n$ n& T$"!n$ hi+h e#e the he& gom!a o/ th#ee .$y&( s!bo#&e#s =.#m( D#i$!n$( n& T$"!n$(> n& the im(o#tnt D#!$( .$y& +ente# o/ De+hen 'h,o#* The#e s "so N"en&# hi+h s n im(o#tnt S,y +ente# n& the to min Nyin$m( te+hin$ +ente#s in +ent#" Tibet Do#Je D#$ n& Min&#" Lin$* These +ent#" Tibetn gom!a, "" o/ them &tin$ b+, to the (e#io& be/o#e Ge"!$( s!(#em+y h& ne& someht in im(o#tn+e in +om(#ison ith the nee# n& "#$e# est Tibetn te+hin$ gom!a b!t e#e sti"" the sets o/ "ms o/ $#et !tho#ity n& (#esti$e* Fi$!#es /o# the si2e o/ these +omm!nities in (#emo&e#n times #e h#& to +ome by e5+e(t /o# the mJo# Ge"!$( +ente#s o/ Gn&en Se# n& D#e(!n$* These e#e t#&ition""y s!((ose& to h%e 3388 66 oo n& @@88 tra!a e+h* In #e+ent times the n!mbe#s e#e +onsi&e#b"y "#$e# ((#o+hin$ 6888 11888 n& 16888 #es(e+ti%e"y ='hn$ n& She/ts 197;)11901:;>* E+h s &i%i&e& into to o# th#ee +o""e$es o# trats-ang n& h& se%e#" hoste"s o# .-angts-en, e+h t,in$ st!&ents /#om &i//e#ent (#t o/ Tibet =see Lo&#o 19@; Rto 19@@ She#( et "* 19@@ Rbten 19o>* The
to Tnt#i+ 'o""e$es in Lhs hose membe#s e#e gesh; $#&!tes /#om Gn&en Se# o# D#e(!n$ e#e #est#i+te& to Soo gesh; e+h* >erg; and the Rimed Gom( De#$Q in .m =see 'h(te# ;> s the thi#& "#$est in&e(en&ent Tibetn (o"ity =/te# the D"i Lms $o%e#nment n& the D#!$( mon s ti+ stt e o/ h!tn>* Its #!"in$ /mi"y e#e o#i$in""y he#e&it#y "ms o/ the Nyin$m( t# &ition =see .o"ms 197):@>* In the thi# teent h +e nt !# y th ey &o(te& the te+hin$s n& (#+ti+es o/ the S,y( o#&e#* They $#&!""y $ine& +onsi&e#b"e se+!"# (oe# n& /o!n&e& "#$e monste#y o/ the S,y( t#&ition Lh!n&#!b Ten$ "so ,non s De#$Q Gon+hen the $#et gom!a o/ De#$Q t ht s to be+ome the +(it" o/ the stte o/ De#$Q ="te /i/teenth +ent!#y .o"ms 197)31>* The #e" (oe# o/ De#$Q &tes /#om the se%enteenth +ent!#y n& #e+he& its hei$ht in the ei$hteenth n& nineteenth +ent!#ies* D!#in$ this (e#io& the he& "m o/ the monste#y +ontin!e& to be"on$ to the /mi"y o/ the ,in$s o/ De#$Q* As mi$ht be e5(e+te& se%e#" othe# S,y( monste#ies $#e !( ithin De#$Q stte =see Tei+hmn 19:: .ess"e# 19; m( :@>* This o//i+i" +onne+tion ith the S,y( &i& not hoe%e# (#e%ent the De#$Q #!"e#s /#om to"e#tin$ n& (t#oni2in$ the othe# t#&itions* The o"& Nyin$m( +ente# o/ .to$ s #e/o!n&e& in 1767 n& the th#ee othe# mJo# Nyin$m( monsti+ +ente#s in .m Pe"y" =1776 see .hn&#o 19> D2o$+hen =176> n& She+hen =1@3;> e#e "" ithin the te##ito# y o/ De#$Q s s the mJo# .#m .$y& +ente# in .m Pe"(!n$ o# #b!n$ =/o!n&e& 1@:@ see 'hn$ 1971 T#!n$( 19@1)o#//>* The#e e#e no Ge"!$( gom!a in +ent#" De#$Q b!t t he#e e#e se%e#" in t he no#th o/ the stte* One o/ the min #eminin$ n(o +ente#s D2 Ten$+hen s "so in De#$Q te##ito#y* This nonse+t#in o#ienttion +"im5e& in the mi&0nineteenth +ent!#y hen De#$Q s the "o+tion /o# the $#oth o/ the Rime& mo%ement nonse+t#in synthesis o/ "" Tibetn !&&hist t#&itions tht $#e !( (#im#i"y mon$ the th#ee non0Ge"!$( !&&hist o#&e#s =see 'h(te# :@ n& Smith 19@8>* Pe"(!n$ D2o$+hen She+hen the S,y( gom! a o/ D2on$s# n& othe# gom! a in De#$Q stte e#e mon$ the min Rime& +ente#s* F#om he#e the mo%ement s(#e& to +ent#" Tibet n& to #e$ions s!+h s Din$#i he#e it s #e(#esente& by "ms s!+h s T#!"shi$ Rim(o+he n& T#i(n Pe#n 'h$ye" n& beyon&*
These monste#ies e#e not s "#$e s the "#$est Ge"!$( +ente#s in +ent#" o# este#n Tibet* E#i+ Tei+hmn ho %isite& the #e in 191 $i%es /i$!#es o/ ;88 ;88 1888 n& 388 tra!a /o# .to$ Pe"y" D2o$+hen n& She+hen =19::):31 :3@> hi"e Lm P"t!" #e/e##in$ to the 196os $i%es oo 7 88 6o n& : 88 #es( e+ti%e" y =n*&*)1:1 @9>* The .$y&( te+hin$ +ente#s o/ este#n Tibet e#e on simi"# s+"e* E+h o/ these gom!a h& se%e#" in+#nte "ms* Pete# .ess"e# hs +om(i"e& %i"b"e in/o#mtion bo!t the gom!a in De#$Q =193> he "ists 1 Nyin$m( gom!a, @ .$y&( gom!a, :3 S,y( gom!a, @ 1 Ge"!$( gom!a, n& th#ee n(o gom!a# .ess"e# 1:8 > T 'IILIED SHAMANS TIETAN RELIGIOUS 'OMMUNITIES =GOMPA> $i%es /i$!#es /o# the si2es o/ most o/ the gom!a, b!t the #e"ibi"ity is (#obb"y "o* Fo# ht they #e o#th they mo!nt to bo!t :@8o in the Nyin$m( gom! a, bo!t ;76 .$y&( :788 S,y( 1:8o Ge"!$( n& :@o n(o m,in$ tot" o/ #o!n& @:36 tra!a# The Hor StatesD Gelug!a Gom( outside the Gelug!a State The Ho# sttes o# T#eho# =see 'h(te# ;> s +om("e5 (o"ity hose te##ito#y s &i%i&e& mon$ /i%e #!"in$ /mi"ies* This in +ont#st to De#$Q h& been Ge"!$( st#on$ho"& sin+e the +onC!est o/ the #e$ion by the Ge"!$( o#&e#s Mon$o" ""y G!sh#i .hn in 17;1 =see .ess"e# 19;)1@70 17>* Most o/ the "#$e Ge"!$( gom!a in the Ho# sttes s!+h s Gns# D2 Sm&#!b D#$yQ Pe#i D#n$$o n& the to monste#ies t the min ton .n&2Q e#e /o!n&e& t tht time thei# (!#(ose &o!bt"ess s m!+h (o"iti+" s #e"i$io!s* .ess"e# "ists :6 Ge"!$( gom!a in "" ith tot" o/ #o!n& :8o tra!a, tho!$h s ith De#$Q most o/ the n!mbe#s seem "itt" e mo#e thn $!esses =19;)1:016>* Tei+hmns /i$!#es /o# some o/ the sme gom!a #e +onsi&e#b"y "oe# =/o# e5m("e 16oo /o# the to .n&2Q go m!a #the# thn 3888 "oo #the# thn @88 /o# Sm&#!b gom!a)# The#e e#e monste#ies o/ the Nyin$m( .$y&( n& S,y( o#&e#s in the Ho# sttes =.ess"e# "ists th#ee /i%e n& si5 #es(e+ti%e"y ith #o!$h"y 2oo :88 n& 88 tra!a in tot" (e# o#&e#> b!t ith the (ossib"e e5+e(tion o/ the S,y( gom!a o/ Ny#$ t .n&2Q ith 688 tra!a, they e#e m!+h sm""e# thn the Ge"!$( go m!a =.ess"e# 19;)1@7011>* Mny o/ the "e&in$ Ge"!$( "ms in #e+ent ye#s h%e +ome /#om the Ho# sttes
=Dh#$yey 19@)10: Rbten 198)311 @6//> n& /#om othe# Ge"!$( #es in .m* THE REMOTE AGRI'ULTURAL PATTERN This se+on& (tte#n is ty(i+" o/ mo#e #emote "ess (#o&!+ti%e n& "ess +ent#"i2e& $#i+!"t!#" #es* In these #es the#e #e sometimes sm"" +omm!nities o/ tra!a n& ani b!t the#e #e ##e"y monsti+ gom!a o/ ny si2e* The "e&in$ #e"i$io!s (#+titione#s #e he#e&it#y o# ="ess o/ ten> #ein+#n te "ms o/ten o/ the Nyin$m( o#&e#* 'omm!nities o/ (#t0time %h-ö!a ho #e non+e"ibte n& &o $#i+!"t!#" o#, s e"" s thei# #e"i$io!s &!ties #e "so +ommon* He#e&it#y "ms n& "y %h-ö!a "so e5ist in the +ent#"i2e& $#i+!"t!#" #es b!t they h%e ##e"y been $i%en m!+h ttention in &es+#i(tions o/ s!+h #e$ions !tho#s (#e/e##in$ to /o+!s on the mo#e +ons(i+!o!s n& s(e+t+!"# monsti+ +omm!nities* A2i2 is !n!s!" in &es+#ibin$ both he#e&it#y "ms n& "y %h-ö!a t some "en$th in he# ++o!nt o/ Din$#i =19@)@7// ::o//>* 'ssine""i n& E,%"" mention them b#ie/"y in #e"tion to S,y n& they !n&o!bte&"y /o#me& (#t o/ the #e"i$io!s "i/e o/ the othe# #es e h%e +onsi&e#e& s e"" ith the (ossib"e e5+e(tion o/ L&,h* He#e&it#y "ms #e /# mo#e (#ominent in the "ite#t!#e on #emote $#i+!"t!#" #es sin+e they n& the sm"" +omm!nities o/ m##ie& %h-ö!a, tra!a, n& ani #e the min +to#s on the #e"i$io!s s+ene in t hese #e$i ons* I " oo, t th#ee #es o/ this ,in&* To o/ them Do"(o n& the .h!mb!0Sho#!n$ #e$ion #e in Ne(" n& thi#& Lh!" is in In&i =Him+h" P#&esh>* >ol!oD Remote Himalayan Oalleys Do"(o +onsists o/ se#ies o/ %""eys in no#the#n Ne(" =see 'h(te# 7>* This #e hs been (o(!"te& by Tibetns sin+e t "est the thi#teenth n& /o!#teenth +ent!#ies* y the mi&0tentieth +ent!#y it h& be+ome s F#e#0Himen&o#/
= 1 9 @ 6 ) 1 3 @0 1 3 >
note s somet hin$ o/ b+,te# o// the
min t#&in$ #o!tes n& (oo# by Tibetn stn&#&s* Whi "e the ,in$ o/ the tiny stte o/ M!stn$ in no#the#n Ne(" s o++sion""y +,no"e&$e& s h%in$ some !tho#ity o%e# Do"(o n& in mo#e #e+ent times Th,"i inte#me&i#ies h%e +o""e+te& t5es on beh"/ o/ the Ne("ese $o%e#nment =F#e#0Himen&o#/ 19@6)1;@ -est 19@7> the (eo("e o/ Do"(o e#e in (# +ti+e !to nomo!s !nti" %e#y #e+en t times) D o" (o ne %e # be "on $e & to ny
,in& o/ /e!&" system* The %i""$es o/ten by thei# %e#y #emoteness /#om one nothe# h%e #emine& #es(onsib"e /o# thei# on //i#s =Sne""$#o%e 197@b)1;>* Do"(o hs been &es+#ibe& in some &eti" by Sne""$#o%e =1971 197@b> n& 'h#isto(h %on F#e#0Himen&o#/ =19@6>* 'o#nei""e -est hs $i%en &eti"e& ethno$#(hy o/ the %""ey o/ T#( =19@7 see "so -est 9@; 1 9@ 196 'h(te# >* The #e"i$io!s +omm!nities o/ Do"(o #e n(o .#m .$y&( n& N$o#( = S,y( s!bo#&e#> in o#i$in* Se%e#" o/ them in+"!&e some tra!a b!t most +onsist on"y o/ "y %h-ö!a# These my "i%e t the gom!a (e#mnent"y /o# (#t o/ the ye# on"y o# sim("y +ome 'IILIED SHAMANS TIETAN RELIGIOUS 'OMMUNITIES =GOMPA> "on$ /o# #it!" (e#/o#mn+es* The o"&est +omm!nity is the n(o gom!a o/ Sm"in$ /o!n&e& in the thi#teenth +ent!#y* Sne""$#o%e s(ent some time he#e in 1967* At tht time the gom!a-s inhbitnts e#e "m n& to tra!a# The othe#s e#e (#t0time (#+tise#s ssemb"in$ /o# the (e#/o#mn+e o/ +e#emonies t ny time hen they e#e %i"b"e n& #eminin$ in #esi&en+e /o# "on$e# (e#io&s &!#in$ the inte# months hen thei# /ie"&s n& thei# nim"s no "on$e# &emn&e& tt en t io n = S ne "" $# o% e 1 9 71 ) 11 > * O t he # n + en t e# s # e t # "Q = 19 71);1> Ri n$mo =1971)71> P!n$mo =1971)77> Shi(+ho, =1971)16@ see "so -est 19@7> n& Ts#, =1971)169>* In the 1968s these e#e "" simi"# to Sm"in$ in +om(osi tion ith he#e&it #y "m n& $#o!( o/ most"y non+e"ibte "y %h-ö!a# The !&&hist gom!a h& the sme (tte#n* The min ones #e etse# =Sne""$#o%e 1971) 6// 197@b) S9//> S,y( /o!n&tion /#om the "te si5teenth +ent!#y 18 n& Shey .#m .$y& gom!a &tin$ /#om #o!n& 1@88 hose bbot the #ein+#ntion o/ the /o!n&e# s in 1967 the on"y $ene#""y #e+o$ni2e& #ein+#nte "m in Do"(o =1971)@3// 13;// see 197@b) i i /o# &te>* oth o/ these h%e sm"" +omm!nities o/ most"y m##ie& %h-ö!a #esi&ent &!#in$ t "est (#t o/ the ye#* These gom!a, "i,e most Tibetn gom!a o!tsi&e /e o/ the "#$e stte0s(onso#e& instit!tions +onsist o/ /e +ent#" b!i"&in$s s!##o!n&e& by se(#te ho!ses tht be"on$ not to the gom!a b!t to (#ti+!"# /mi"ies /#om "o+" %i""$es hose membe#s !se them hen they #e #esi&ent t the gom!a# The +omm!nities +n th!s esi"y ++ommo&te +e"ibte o# non+e"ibte %h-ö!a o# mi5t!#e o/ the to* Sne""$#o%e &es+#ibes bo!t &o2en othe# sm"" !&&hist gom!a
th#o!$ho!t Do"(o* Most o/ these h%e he#e&it#y "m n& some "y +h(* -est &es+#ibes the #esi&ent he#e&it#y "m o/ .!nsn$ 'h"in$ in the %""ey o/ T#( .$# Rim(o+he n& his +omm!nity in some &eti" =-est 19@7)::o0 ::1 3o6// the Lm .y( in Sne"" $#o%e 1971)1 S;// n& 197@b);;// is the sme (e#son>* A"tho!$h mny o/ these gom!a e#e S,y( o# .$y&( in o#i$in the #it!"s (#+ti+e& in the 196os e#e most"y Nyin$m(* Sne""0$#o%e s!$$ests tht the #e%i%" o/ !&&hism in Do"(o in #e+ent ye#s hs been (#im#i"y Nyin$m(* The "e&in$ /i$!#e in this #e%i%" s "m /#om +ent#" Tibet Shn$ Rim(o+he ho s +ti%e in Do"(o the !((e# ."i Gn&,i n& Nye0shn$ /#om the 19;os on#&s n& s #es(onsib"e /o# the b!i"&in$ o# #esto#tion o/ ho"e se#ies o/ tem("es in the #e$ion* Shn$ Rim(o+he &ie& in 196 n& his m!mmi/ie& bo&y s ("+e& in the ne gom!a t D#$ym =Sne""$#o%e 197@b)76 see "so -est 19@7)380389 196)1;o//>* A #ein+#ntion s /o!n& by .$# Rim(o+he n& inst""e& t D#$ym in 1976* The nn!" /esti%"s +ente#e& #o!n& %h-am (e#/o#mn+es t the Din$#i S,y n& L&,h gom!a too, ("+e in Do"(o too on sm""e# s+"e n& ith "y %h-ö!a #the# thn monsti+ (e#/o#me#s* Sne""$#o%e (#o%i&es &es+#i(tions o/ these /esti%"s t Shey =1971)13;//> n& etse# =197@b)69//>* oth /esti%"s in+"!&e& %h-am n& ts-e*ang5 the Shey /esti%" s the o++sion o/ the ts-e*ang #e/e##e& to in 'h(te# 1; =1971)13;//>* -est &es+#ibes simi"# /esti%" in T#( =19@7) 33703;1>* The Sher!asD 0yingma!a Revitalization The She#(s o/ .h!mb! n& Sho#!n$ =So"o> #e (#obb"y the best st!&ie& o/ "" Tibetn $#o!(s s /# s mo&e#n ethno$#(hy is +on+e#ne&* E5tensi%e in/o#mtion bo!t She#( #e"i$io!s +omm!nities +n be / o!n& in the o#, o/ Sne""$#o%e F#e#0Himen&o#/ F!n,e A"e5n&e# M+&on"& n& othe#s n& #e+ent boo, by She##y O#tne# High Religion, &e"s s(e+i/i+""y ith the +!"t!#" (#o+esses !n&e#"yin$ the /o!n&tion o/ tem("es n& monsti+ gom!a in She#( +o!nt#y =O#tne# 199>* The She#( +omm!nities e#e /o!n&e& mo#e #e+ent"y thn the %i""$es o/ Do"(o* They t#&ition""y o#i$inte& in n immi$#tion /#om .m some /o!# +ent!#ies $o =O((it2 197>* They e#e in #e+ent times "so !n"i,e Do"(o in thei# #e"ti%e (#os(e#ity n& thei# e5(os!#e to mo&e#ni2in$ n& Weste#ni2in$ in/"!en+es* The She#( +omm!nities e#e ne%e#the"ess "i,e those o/ Do"(o "#$e"y se"/0$o%e#nin$ !nti" the 196os* O#tne# hs obse#%e& tht the "+, o/ /o#m" J!&i+i" me+hnisms s s!+h tht e%en
homi+i&e +o!"& be (!nishe& on"y by ost#+i2in$ o//en&e#s !nti" they "e/t the #e$ion =O#tne# 19@):70:@>* In #e+ent ye#s She#( (#ti+i(tion in /o#ei$n mo!ntinee#in$ e5(e&itions n& the &e%e"o(ment o/ the #o!te to E%e#est s mJo# to!#ist tt#+tion h%e both b#o!$ht the She#(s to the noti+e o/ /o#ei$ne#s n& e5(ose& the She#(s themse"%es to e5tensi%e mo&e#ni2in$ Ne("i2in$ n& Weste#ni2in$ in/"!en+es* As F#e#0Himen&o#/ notes "most "" She#(s by the e#"y 19@os s(o,e some Ne("i s e"" s th ei # on Tibet n &i"e+t he#es /e (eo("e in Do"(o ,ne ny "n$!$e b!t thei# on =19@6)13@>* Anothe# /+to# in She#( #e"i$ion in this +ent!#y hs been its #e"0 'IILIED SHAMANS TIETAN RELIGIOUS 'OMMUNITIES =GOMPA> ti%e +"oseness to the th#i%in$ Nyin$m( monsti+ gom!a t D2#on$ =/o!n&e& 198:> in the Din$#i #e$ion to the no#th o/ the Him"ys* Gi%en "" this e +n e5(e+t both simi"#ities n& +ont#sts beteen the #e"i$io!s "i/e o/ Do"(o n& o/ She#( +o!nt#y* In +om(#ison ith the #es +onsi&e#e& !n&e# the +ent#"i2e& $#i+!"t!#" (tte#n hoe%e# the #e"i$io!s "i/e o/ Do"(o n& o/ the She#(s e#e #e"ti%e"y "i,e* In both #es the#e e#e "y %h-ö!a, he#e&it#y "ms sm"" n!mbe#s o/ tra!a n& ani, n& #e+ent Rime&0"in,e& mo%ement o/ #e"i$io!s #e%it"i2tion* The min &i//e#en+e is the $#oth o/ se%e#" someht "#$e# +omm!nities o/ tra!a n& ani mon$ the She#(s no &o!bt +onseC!en+e o/ the $#ete# e"th o/ the #e n& o/ its +"ose +onne+tion ith D2#on$* Some &on$#&in$ o/ the #o"e o/ non+e"ibte %h-ö!a hs ++om(nie& this $#oth o/ +e"ibte monsti+ism* The o"&e# (tte#n in She#( +o!nt#y s one o/ he#e&it#y non0+e"ibte Nyin$m(0sty"e %h-ö!a, ho be"on$e& to sin$"e "ine$e o# $#o!( o/ "ine$es =the Lm o# Se# +"n> n& most +"ose"y #esemb"e& the ser.hy- im o/ the Do"(o #e$ion* F#e#0Himen&o#/ #e/e#s to the men o/ this +"n s %i""$e "ms n& &is+!sses them t some "en$th =197;>* Some e#e e+tra!a b!t "most "" e%ent!""y m##ie& =197;)173>* Mny o/ them !n&e#too, (#o"on$e& #et#et o# ts-am, i&e""y /o# the stn&#& (e#io& o/ th#ee ye#s th# ee months th#ee &ys n& F#e#0Himen&o#/ +omments tht this s #e$#&e& s ne+ess#y (#e(#tion /o# +on&!+tin$ in&e(en&ent"y #ites /o# hi+h $#et s(i#it!" (oe#s #e #eC!i#e& s!+h s the #ite o/ Li/e0'onse+#tion ,non s Tshe0on$ i*e* ts-e*angEA =197;)173>* F#e#0 Himen&o#/ "so $i%es n inte#estin$ "ist o/ the #it!"s (e#/o#me& by one
%i""$e "m (o(!"# n& e""0sit!te& b!t on"y mo&e#te"y "e#ne& &!#in$ /i%e months in 196@* These in+"!&e& ð n& /! ne#" #it!"s #it!"s to e#n me#it /o# &e& (e#son n& .urim #it!"s on the o++sion o/ i""ness o# /o# the $ene#" e"/#e o/ n in&i%i&!" o# /mi"y =197;)1730177>* This "m "so too, (#t in the yer%hang, /o",0#e"i$ion0sty"e #it!" he"& in the hi$h (st!#es n& +onsistin$ o/ o//e#in$s to the "o+" &eities =see 'h(te# 1o>* Some o/ these %i""$e "ms e#e tt+he& to s(e+i/i+ %i""$e tem("es (gom!a)# Othe# gom!a e#e one& by sin$"e he#e&it#y "m s in Do"(o* I n . h! mb ! t he o "& es t gom!a e#e sso+ite& ith the semimythi+" /i$!#e o/ Lm Sn$ Do#JQ n& his to b#othe#s =si5teenth o# se%enteenth +ent!#y>* Sn$ Do#JQs (#in+i(" #e"i $io!s t#&ition seems to h%e been the 'hn$te# o# No#the#n T#es!#e &is+ o%e# e& in the /o!# teent h +ent!#y by G&& em+hen the As(i#tion o/ .!nt! Sn$(o in 'h(te# 1 +me /#om this +o""e+tion o/ terma# Sn$ Do#JQ is +#e&ite& ith %#io!s mi#+!"o!s /ets n& ith the /o!n&tion o/ Pn$bo+he gom!a # He &ie& in the Din$#i #e$ion ne# the /!t!#e monste#y o/ D2#on$* N$n$ Ten2in No#b! the /o!n&e# o/ D 2#o n$ s he" & t o b e hi s / i/ th #ein +#ntion* Sn$ Do#JQs to b#othe #s =tho !$ h the #e is &is(! te b o! t hethe# they #e""y e#e his b#othe#s> estb"ishe& gom!a t Thmi n& RimiJ!n$* The b#othe#s seem to h%e been (o"iti+" #i%"s n& O#tne# t#ets this s the initi" instn+e o/ #e(etin$ She#( +!"t!#" s+hem in%o"%in$ #i%"#y beteen b#othe#s =O#tne# 199)7 @ 0 @ o> * A / o !# th gom!a, h!n$ =-!nbesi> in Sho#!n$ s /o!n&e& by /#ien& o# &is+i("e o/ Sn$ Do#JQ =199)7:076> n& /i/th s /o!n&e& t .h!mJ!n$ in the e#"y nineteenth +ent!#y* None o/ these e#e +e"ibte gom!a, tho!$h the#e is some s!$$estion tht the#e my h%e been tra!a t Pn$bo+he t one time =199);>* The /i#st +e"ibte gom!a s /o!n&e& in 1917 by "o+" he#e&it#y "m Lm G!"! ith en+o!#$ement /#om the "m o/ D2#on$* This s to be+ome the gom!a o/ Ten$bo+he /mo!s in "te# ye#s /o# its monsti+ &n+es (%h-am) in the D2#on$ t#&ition n& its s(e+t+!"# (osition on the #o!te to the E%e#est bse0+m(* O#tne# em(hsi2es the #o"e t,en in the /o!n&tion o/ Ten$bo+he by .#m the senio# o/ the th#ee "y s(onso#s n& e"&est son o/ Sho#!n$ !embu (i#e #, (n(o he#e menin$ one o/ the She#(s ho +te& s t50+o""e+to#s on beh"/ o/ the Ne("ese $o%e#nment>* An ani gom!a s estb"ishe& ne#by t De%!+he in 19:6* A/te# Lm G!"!s ð in 1 933 #ein+#ntion s /o!n& n& t,en to D2#on$ /o# t#inin$* He is the (#esent in+#nte "m o/ Ten$bo+he* In 196 @ the#e e#e 3: tra!a t Ten$bo+he n& :8 ani t De%!+he =F#e#0Himen&o#/
197;)137013>* Fi%e o/ the tr a!a h& t,en the /!"" gelong %os* The n!mbe# o/ tra!a t Ten$bo+he /e"" to 1; by 19@1 b!t h& #isen $in to 3o by 193 ith nothe# 16 boys tten&in$ the gom!a-s bo#&in$ s+hoo" =F#e#0 Himen&o#/ 19;)9109:>* A#o!n& the sme time s the /o!n&in$ o/ T en$bo+he mo%es be$n to +on%e#t Thmi to +e"ibte gom!a# The gom!a s mo%e& to "#$e# site in 19:8 n& (e#/o#mn+es o/ %h-am be$n ith en+o!#$ement /#om D2#on$ "tho!$h the +hn$es =n& the %h-am) +me to tem(o##y h"t hen the bbot n& most o/ the tra!a mo%e& to the 'IILIED SHAMANS TIETAN RELIGIOUS 'OMMUNITIES =GOMPA> ne gom!a o/ 'hion$ in Sho#!n$ in 19:3* E%ent!""y mo%ement to#&s +e"ibte gom!a #es!me&* Sin+e the ð o/ the he#e&it#y "m in 196 the +omm!nity hs been +omm!nity o/ +e"ibte tra!a !n&e# the "e&e#shi( o/ his #ein+#ntion n& most o/ the #eminin$ m##ie& %h-ö!a h%e mo%e& o!t to ne#by %i""$es =O#tne# 199)1191>* M!+h the sme h((ene& t .ye#o, gom!a, hi+h h& "so been +omm!nity o/ m##ie& %h-d!a =F#e#0Himen&o#/ 19;)9309;>* Simi"# &e%e"o(ments h& been t,in$ ("+e /!#the# so!th in Sho#!n$ he#e the (#e%i"in$ (tte#n h& $in been o/ sm"" gom!a ith he#e&it#y "ms n& tt+he& "y %h-ö!a =see F!n,e 1979)09:>* The monsti+ gom! a o/ 'hion$ =o# -ion$> s /o!n&e& in 19:3 =see Sne""$#o%e #96@):1@// O#tne# 199)1;o01;:> the "y s(onso# Sn$yQ s the yo!n$e# b#othe# n& #i%" o/ .#m +hie/ s(onso# t Ten$bo+he =so s!(("yin$ O#tne# ith the othe# min instn+e o/ he# +!"t!#" s+hem>* Othe# monsti+ $om(s e#e /o!n&e& in 19;7 t T#,shin&o =the /o!n&e# s t ra !a /#om Ten$bo+he F#e# Himen&o#/ 197;)136> n& in 196 t Se#"o =F!n,e 1979)9 M+&on"& 19o 19o13 191>* This mo%e to#&s +e"ibte monsti+ism =see tb"e in F!n,e 1979)93> s /!#the# st#en$thene& hen T#!"shi$ Rim(o+he the /o#me# he& "m o/ D2#on$ sett"e& in Sho#!n$ /te# 1 969 "on$ ith mny #e/!$ees /#om the Din$#i #e$ion* T!bten 'h"in$ the ne gom !a b!i "t /o# T#!"sh i$ Ri m( o+h e in the "t e 197os is no m!+h the "#$est gom!a in the enti#e #e$ion ith o%e# h!n&#e& tra!a# #b# A2i2s ++o!nt o/ "i/e in this monsti+ gom!a $i%es $oo& im(#ession o/ the +"ose #e"tionshi( it #(i&"y &e%e"o(e& ith the s!##o!n&in$ She#( n& #e/!$ee (o(!"tion =A2i2 19@@>* In She#( +o!nt#y e +n th!s see mo%e /#om the o"&e# (tte#n o/ he#e&it#y "ms n& "y %h-ö!a to ne (tte#n o/ Nyin$m( +e"ibte monsti+ism +oin+i&in$ ith the $#ete# e+onomi+ (#os(e#ity o/ the
+omm!nity n& s ith Do"(o (e#io& o/ #e%it"i2tion &e#i%in$ he#e /#om D2#on$ n& !"timte"y /#om the Rime& mo%ement* It is inte#estin$ tht in neithe# #e hs the#e been si$ni/i+nt s!((o#t /o# the Ge"!$( t#&ition*1: /ahulD 'agy8d!a Revitalization Lh!" #e$ion o/ Tibetn (o(!"tion tht be+me in+o#(o#te& into .!"! stte #o!n& 1@88 n& is no (#t o/ the In&in stte o/ Him+h" P#&esh is nothe# e5m("e o/ the #emote $#i+!"t!#" (tte#n* The t#&ition" Tibetn nme o/ Lh!" is .#sh "tho!$h this is no !se& min"y /o# the #e$ion #o!n& .#&n$ in the h$ Ri%e# ""ey* As in Din$# i n& in She#( +o!nt#y the (tte#n in Lh!" !( to the e#"y tentieth +ent!#y s o/ he#e&it#y "ms n& m##ie& %h-o!a# Lh!" hs %e#y o"& !&&hist sso+itions ith G!#! Rim(o+he n& ith the im(o#tnt e#"y D#!$( .$y&( "m G&tsn$( hom e h%e "#e&y +ome +#oss in ne#by L&,h* Its //i"itions #emine& ith the D#!$( .$y&( o#&e# hi+h h& s e h%e seen se%e# " me&i!m0si2e gom!a not /# y in L&,h* We h%e some in/o#mtion bo!t Lh!" in the nineteenth +ent!#y /#om A* F* P* H#+o!#t ssistnt +ommissione# o/ .!"! = 1@oV 19@:>* At tht time the #e$ion ith (o(!"tion o/ some 73oo h& (e#h(s sm"" monste#ies =19@:)76>* Some o/ these my h%e been sim("y iso"te& tem("es* Othe#s seem to h%e been sm"" +omm!nities o/ "y %h-ö!a tt+he& to he#e&it#y "ms sin+e H#+o!#t C!otes Ly"" s /in&in$ tht the#e e#e on"y @ #e" "ms si+V ho h%e no othe# o++!(tion* y #e" "ms Ly"" n& H#+o!#t my h%e ment he#e&it#y ngag!a "ms o# +e"ibte tra!a# A++o#&in$ to Ly"" no "ess thn # "oo o/ the zemindars (i#e#, sm"" (esnt (#o(#ieto#s> #e "so "ms ho m##y n& +!"ti%te "n& n& h%e %e#y "itt"e o/ the mon, bo!t them* They +o!"& "" hoe%e# both #e& n& #ite* The#e e#e "so @1 n!ns ho +o!"& both #e& n& #ite =H#+o!#t 19@:)77>* The +ont#st beteen Lh!" n& the nei$hbo#in$ #e$ion o/ S(iti is int#i$!in$* 13 The tot" (o(!"tion o/ S(iti ++o#&in$ to the 1@ +ens!s s on"y ::@:* 1; Ne%e#the"ess it h& /i%e me&i!m0si2e gom!a# Fo!# o/ these +ontine& +e"ibte tra!a# These e#e the th#ee Ge"!$( gom!a o/ T(o .yi n& D#n$,# n& the S,y( gom!a o/ Tn$$y& t Hi,im* The#e s "so Nyin$m( o# D#!$( .$y& gom!a o/ m##ie& %h-i!a t Peen* A++o#&in$ to ++o!nts by In&in #ite#s /#om the 196os n& 197os the sit!tion s mo#e o# "ess the sme t tht time ith Peen #eminin$ +omm!nity o/ m##ie& %h-ö!a#1F A++o#&in$ to H#+o!#t the /o!# +e"ibte gom! a +ontine& :: tra!a in the 178s hi+h o!"& #e(#esent bo!t :6 (e#+ent o/ the m"e (o(!"tion
n e5+e(tion""y hi$h (#o(o#tion =see A((en&i5 1>* H#+o!#t "on$ ith "te# #ite#s notes tht in S(iti the e"&est son too, o%e# his /the#s "n& n& "" yo!n$e# sons ent into monste#ies* Hoe%e# these tra!a #esi&e& in thei# monste#ies on"y &!#in$ the inte#* D!#in$ the #est o/ the ye# they e#e /#eC!ent "y in thei# %i""$e +omm!nities he"(in$ ith /#min$ n& t#&in$* I/ "" this is t#!e the 'IILIED SHAMANS TIETAN RELIGIOUS 'OMMUNITIES =GOMPA> hi$h (#o(o#tion o/ tra!a in S(iti s (#t o/ "o+" &(ttion to se%e#e en%i#onment" (#ess!#e* It my be hoe%e# tht the #e"ti%e"y "#$e si2e o/ the +e"ibte gom!a in this ((#ent"y #emote #e +n be tt#ib!te& to the &e"ibe#te Ge"!$( (o"i+y o/ mintinin$ "#$e gom!a in st#te$i+ (ositions s ith She",# 'h&Q t Din$#i =see bo%e> n& the Ge"!$( gom!a in Mn =see 'h(te# 7 n& A#is 198>* The#e s si$ni/i+nt t#&e #o!te $oin$ th#o!$h S(iti to Lh!" n& .!"!* Lh!" t ny #te s n e5m("e o/ the #emote $#i+!"t!#" (t te#n* Li,e Do"(o n& the She#( #e$ion it ent th#o!$h (e#io& o/ #e%it"i2tion e#"y this +ent!#y in this +se sso+ite& ith D#!$( .$y&( te+he#s o/ Rime& b+,$#o!n&* E"isbeth St!t+hb!#ys o#, on the gom!a o/ .#&n$ in Lh!" =197 in (#ess> $i%es #the# &i//e#ent (i+t!#e o/ this (#o+ess thn O#tne#s boo, on the She#( monste#ies* Whi"e O#tne# +on+ent#tes on the (o"iti+" moti%tions o/ the "y s(onso#s =tho!$h see O#tne# 199)17019:> St!t+hb!#y em(hsi2es the s(i#it!" +on+e#ns o/ the %h-ö!a# .#&n$ gom!a s /o!n&e& in #o!n& 191: by No#b! Rim(o+he Lh!"i &is+i("e o/ the D#!$( m##ie& "m S,y S#i = 1 631919>* We h%e "#e&y met S,y S#i s the te+he# o/ Pe#n 'h$ye" o/ Tsib#i in the Di n$#i #e$ion* .#&n$ gom!a is +"ose"y "in,e& to the nei$hbo#in$ %i""$e n& most o/ the /mi"ies in the %i""$e "so h%e ho!ses t the gom!a he#e those membe#s "i%e ho #e !n&e#t,in$ # e"i$io!s "i/e* The gom!a h& 1@ sm"" ho!ses n& 3; membe#s in 193 h"/ m"e n& h"/ /em"e* Most h& t,en gets-ul =o# gets- ulma) %os n& e#e the#e/o#e +e"ibte* .#&n$ s the "#$est gom!a in Lh!" in 193 b!t the (tte#n o/ mi5e& %h-ö!a +omm!nity o/ men n& omen on"y some o/ hom h%e t,en %os o/ +e"ib+ y n& "" o/ hom h%e +"ose ties to ne#by %i""$es s ty(i+" o/ Lh!"i gom!a# Se%e#" sm"" $#o!(s o/ Lh!"i (eo("e h%e +##ie& o!t th#ee0ye# #et#ets on the Si5 Te+hin$s o/ N#o( in #e+ent ye#s eithe# in Lh!" i tse"/ o# t the D#!$( gom! a in ne#by Mn"i* This Mn"i gom!a s /o!n&e& by
the #e/!$ee "m A(o Rim(o+he $#n&son o/ S,y S#i ho #esi&e& t .#&n$ /o# some ye#s be/o#e mo%in$ to Mn"i* A(o Rim(o+he &ie& in 19@; b!t the sm"" Mn"i gom!a hs #emine& the min te+hin$ +ente# /o# the D#!$(s o/ Lh!" !n&e# the &i#e+tion o/ Ge$en .yentsQ &is+i("e o/ T#i(n Pe#n 'h$ye"* The %i""$e hs n nn!" +y+"e o/ #it!"s tht &oes not in%o"%ethe gom!a b!t the#e is "so mJo# G!#! Rim(o+he #it!" (e#/o#me& by se%e#" %i""$e ho!seho"&s J!st be/o#e the onset o/ inte# in%o"%in$ =ang $i%en by the (#esi&in$ "m* St!t+hb!#y +omments tht) It is s i/ the %i""$e#s ish to +ti%te the s(e+i" b"essin$s n& t#ns0/o#mti%e (oe# o/ the J# G!#! be/o#e the %h-ö!a #eti#e /o# the inte# to me&ittion n& yo$i+ (#+ti+es in the gom!a, sit!te& bo%e thei# %i""$e n& the %i""$e#s themse"%es emb#, on /e months o/ %i""$e /esti%ities %h-ang &#in,in$ n& othe# so+i" +ti%ities /te# the si5 st#en!o!s months o/ s!mme#* =St!t+hb!#y 197):110:1:> In St!t+hb!#ys (i+t!#e the gom!a is n e5tension o/ the %i""$e +omm!nity* The $#o!( o/ (eo("e #esi&in$ in the gom! a is in +onstnt stte o/ /"!5 s (eo("e mo%e b+, n& /o#t h bet een gom!a n& %i""$e* Men o# omen &o not ne+ess#i"y $o to the gom!a ith the intention o/ imme&ite"y t,in$ on +e"ibte monsti+ +#ee#* They my s(en& se%e#" (e#io&s o/ time t the gom!a o%e# some ye#s $#&!""y t,in$ the %#io!s sets o/ %os s they be+ome mo#e +ommitte& to the "i/e o/ %h-o!a# She +ont#sts this ith the sit!tion o/ boy o# yo!n$ mn +ons+#i(te& to +ent#" Tibetn gom!a ="i,e She",# 'h&Q in Din$#i> th#o!$h the mon, "e%y system ho h& m!+h "ess +hoi+e bo!t his #e"i$io!s +#ee#* E%en in the mo#e +ent#"i2e& #es men n& omen o/ten +ti%e"y +hoose to be+ome %h-ö!a o# tra!a, s +#ee#s s!+h s those o/ GeshQ Rbten n& Ay! .hn&#o #e+o!nte& in 'h(te# 1 &emonst#te* THE PASTORAL PATTERN As I in&i+te& t the be$innin$ o/ this +h(te# the (sto#" #es nee& to be +onsi&e#e& se(#te"y /#om the $#i+!"t!#" #es* The#e #e no #e""y &eC!te ethno$#(hi+ ++o!nts o/ #e"i$ion in (sto#" #es* O!# min +se st!&y is o/ the monsti+ n& t#&in$ +ente# o/ T$tsn$ Lhmo &es+#ibe& in some &eti " in Robe#t E, %""s % #io!s # itin$s on Am&o* Tagts-ang /hamoD The Gelug!as in astern $mdo
E,%"" n& his /mi"y s(ent se%e#" ye#s t the monsti+ +ente# n& t#&in$ (ost o/ T$tsn$ Lhmo to#&s the este#n e&$e o/ the (s0 TIETAN RELIGIOUS 'OMMUNITIES =GOMPA> to#"ist #e$ions o/ Am&o* His s(e+i/i+""y nth#o(o"o$i+" o#, on #e"i $ion is o/ten $ene#" n& !nin/o#mti%e in nt!#e =E,%"" 197o 197;b> b!t his !tobio$#(hi+" ++o!nt =196:> n& his to no%e"s =196; 191> he"( to #o!n& o!t the (i+t!#e =see 'h(te# F)# The sett"ement o/ T$tsn$ Lhmo is sit!te& ne# "#$e +%e tht +ontins /mo!s sh#ine o/ the $o&&ess P"&en Lhmo* The#e #e to "#$e gom!a, G!#&! n& Se+h! on o((osite si&es o/ %""ey ith t#&in$ (osts tt+he& to e+h* The s!##o!n&in$ +o!nt#y s o++!(ie& by the Shim&#o$ +on/e&e#+y o/ nom&i+ (sto#"ist t#ibes* We h%e "#e&y e5mine& the (o"iti+" n& e+onomi+ #e"tionshi(s "in, in$ these n& othe# Am&o gom!a to the (sto#"ist t#ibes ='h(te#s 6 n& >* Gom!a me&ite& &is(!tes (#o%i&e& sto#$e /o# (sto#" (#o&!+e n& (#o%i&e& "o+tion /o# t#&in$* It is +"e# /#om E,%""s #itin$s tht the to gom!a e#e +"ose"y inte$#te& ith the s!##o!n&in$ t#ibes th#o!$h the #it!" se#%i+es they (e#/o#me& s e"" s th#o!$h the (o"iti+" n& e+onomi+ se#%i+es they (#o%i&e&* E,%"" $i%es no &i#e+t in/o#mtion bo!t the #e"i$io!s //i"ition o/ G!#&! n& Se+h!* They e#e in /+t both Ge"!$(* G!#&! o# .i#ti gom!a =its /!"" nme s Gn&en T#shi .yi"> s /o!n&e& in 1@; by the 6th .i#ti Rim(o+he Lobsn$Ten(Q Gyntsen =1 @ 1:01@@1>* The .i#ti Rim(o+hes e#e tul.u "ine$e tht ent b+, to one o/ Tson$,(s &is+i("es* They h& (#e%io!s"y #esi&e& in Gye"#on$ G!#&! e%ent!""y be+me thei# min set* Se+h! o# Se#t#i ="so +""e& Gn0&en She&#!b Lin$> s /o!n&e& in the sme ye# s G!#&! by T#i+hen Gyntsen Sen$$e =17@01@67> /o#me# bbot o/ Gn&en in +ent#" Tibet* 17 A++o#&in$ to .i#ti Tsenshb Rim(o+he ho s bbot o/ G!#&! /o# some ye#s in the e#"y 196os the to gom!a, t tht time h& #o!n& @8o n& Soo tra!a, #es(e+ti%e"y* oth h& th#ee +o""e$es ts-ennyid =(hi"oso(hy o# &i"e+ti+s> gyiid!a =Tnt#> n& dii.-or =.&"+,# Tnt# n& st#o"o$y>* The to ts-ennyid +o""e$es e#e bse& on &i//e#ent t#&itions tht t G!#&! !se& the te5ts /#om Lose" Lin$ +o""e$e t D#e(!n$ he#es tht t Se+h! !se& the te5ts /#om Gomn$ +o""e$e =by -myn$ She&( ho s "so the /o!n&e# o/ the /mo!s Am&o gom!a o/ Lb#n$>* A++o#&in$ to E,%"" e+h monste#y h& se%e#" "ms =see 1 96; ) 39> * oth they n& the o#&in#y tra!a e#e +ons!"te& to (e#/o#m #it!"s $i%e &%i+e o# &o &i%intions (mo) on beh"/ o/ the nom&s* oth gom!a (!t on n nn!" /esti%" +ente#e& #o!n& (e#/o#mn+e o/ %h-am, hi+h s /o""oe&
t G!#&! t ny #te by the ty(i+""y Ge"!$( Festi%" o/ the !tte# Im$es = 1 96 : ) @9 / / 1 96;)3o// see T* -* No#b! 19:>* In /+t "tho!$h E,%""s "te# o#, em(hsi2es the nom&i+ (drog!a) +onte5t o/ T$tsn$ Lhmo the sett"ement s sit!te& in the bo#&e# #e beteen (sto#"ists n& the $#i+!"t!#" (eo("e o/ the %""eys (rong!a), n& the#e e#e both rong!a n& drog!a in the ne#by #e* A$in ++o#&in$ to .i#ti Tsenshb Rim(o+he most tra!a t both go m!a e#e /#om /#min$ +omm!nities "tho!$h the#e e#e some drog!a mon,s t e+h* &ther +am!les of astoral $reas #ie/ &es+#i(tions o/ inte#+tions ith (sto#"ist (o(!"tions o++!# th#o!$ho!t the "ite#t!#e on Tibet n& it is o#th +itin$ /e o/ these to i""!st#te the sit!tion e"sehe#e* The S,y missions to the 'hn$tn$ nom&s =see 'h(te# @> #e(#esente& &i//e#ent ,in& o/ #e"tion beteen nom&i+ t#ibes n& monsti+ gom!a to tht in no#theste#n Am&o he#e it s mo#e the (#+ti+e /o# the nom&s to +ome to the gom!a hen they #eC!i#e& #it!"s &i%intions o# othe# #e"i$io!s se#%i+es* The S,y missions in+"!&e& tnt#i+ "m s e"" s +o""e+to# o/ t5es =o# &ontions see 'h(te# @ n& D* No#b! 19@;):;>* No#b!s $#n&/the# +te& s "m on one o/ these missions (e#/o#min$ #it!"s to %e#t sno/""s n& %"n+hes t#etin$ &iseses o/ h!mn bein$s n& nim"s (e#/o#min$ sang n& ts-e*ang #it!"s n& e5o#+isin$ e%i" s(i#its = 1 9@;)3803:>* No#b! mentions the nom&s (#e/e#en+e /o# Tnt#i+ #it!" n& yo$i+ (oe#s =see 'h(te# F)# Anothe# /+et o/ the (sto#"ist0$om( #e"tionshi( +n be seen /#om the !tobio$#(hy o/ the Ge"!$( in+#nte "m Rto .hyon$" hose gom!a s in D#$yb in +ent#" .m =see 'h(te# 1>* Rto .hyon$" $i%es b#ie/ &es+#i(tion o/ the #e"tionshi( beteen his labrang (i#e#, the "ms (e#son" ho!seho"& ithin the monste#y> n& the /o!# nom& /mi"ies ho "oo,e& /te# the labrang-s ;8o y,s n& &#is =/em"e y,s> " on$ it h thei# on he#&s* Rto .hyon$" &es+#ibes %isit he (i& to the nom&s /te# #et!#nin$ /#om his st!&ies in +ent#" Tibet) I /o#m""y ente#e& e+h o/ the /o!# tents to $#eet in&i%i&!""y the membe#s o/ e+h /mi"y* They s,e& me to (e#/o#m n in+ense +e#emony Ksang, see 'h(te# ioV n& so to$ethe# !( the hi"" e +"imbe& 'IILIED SHAMANS 'IILIED SHAMANS
to hi$h"n& t#+t bo%e the tents he#e they b!i"t /i#e o/ /#$#nt J!ni(e# bo!$hs hi"e I #e& the ((#o(#ite (#ye#* I h& b#o!$ht "on$ some +onse+#te& (i""s +""e& %hinten, hi+h e no &isso"%e& in te#* When e%e#yone h& tste& this &#in, the he#&e#s set o!t some in b!+,ets /o# thei# y,s* =Rto 19@@)1@@> Rto .hyon$"s &es+#i(tion o/ the +onse+#te& (i""s "tho!$h not s(e +i/i+ to the (sto#" +onte5t is o#th C!otin$ sin+e these n& simi"# +onse+#te& obJe+ts be"ie%e& to t#ns/e# some o/ the (oe# o/ Tnt#i+ !&&his m / #om the "m to the "ity e#e st("e o/ Tibetn !& &hism* We h%e "#e&y met these (i""s in the +onte5t o/ the ts-e*ang #it!" in 'h(te# 1;) S!+h (i""s o/ b#"ey /"o!# mi5e& ith me&i+in" he#bs n& the $#o!n&0!( #e"i+s o/ sints /#$ments o/ thei# $#ments ho"y obJe+ts n& +onse+#te& by s(e+i" Tnt#i+ +e#emony e#e (o(!"# th#o!$ho!t Tibet* It s tho!$ht tht i/ eten J!st be/o#e ð they o!"& he"( one to bette# #ebi#th* I h& the#e/o#e b#o!$ht /#om Lhs $oo& n!mbe# mny o/ hi+h h& been $i%en me by the D"i Lm himse"/ n& the#e s "#$e sto+, ,e(t in the labrang s e"" ith #e+o#&s o/ thei# so!#+es n& the (#ti+"es they +ontine&* I s to"& tht some he"& #e"i+s e%en o/ Mi"#e( n& M#(* Anyone s,in$ t the labrang /o# s!+h (i""s o!"& be $i%en them in n en%e"o(e be#in$ oo&b"o+, stm( testi/yin$ to thei# +ontents n& thei# so!#+e* =Rto 19@@)1@@> As I mentione& t the st#t o/ this +h(te# E,%""s mte#i" on the (#e&ominnt" y Ge"!$( monste#ies o/ este#n Am&o my $i%e mis "e &i n$ (i+t!#e o/ ( st o#" ist #e" i$ion* Nyi n$m ( n& othe# non Ge"!$( (#+ti+e s "so (#ominent n& nom&i+ (eo("es s!+h s the Go"o$ (#o%i &e& mn y o/ the "e&in$ "ms o/ the Rime& mo%ement in the "te nineteenth n& e#"y tentieth +ent!#ies* They e#e t#&ition""y mo#e inte#este& in yo$i+ (oe#s thn in s+ho"#shi(* F!#the# #ese#+h on #e"i$ion in the (sto#" #es o!"& be e"+ome n& it is to be ho(e& tht the #the# s,et+hy (i+t!#e I h%e &#n he#e i"" be /i""e& in by #ese#+h in (sto#" #es ithin the Peo("es Re(!b"i+ o/ 'hin o%e# the ne5t /e ye#s* Wht e my note in +on+"!sion tho!$h is the %ontinuity beteen the th#ee #e"i$io!s (tte#ns &es+#ibe& in this +h(te# /o# the +ent#"i2e& $#i+!"t!#" #emote $#i+!"t!#" n& (sto#" #es* The sme TIETAN RELIGIOUS 'OMMUNITIES =GOMPA> m!"ti/+ete& n& (o"y%"ent instit!tion the gom! a, +n s I h%e note&
se%e#" times "#e&y be ny o/ %#iety o/ thin$s) #emote he#mit$e the #esi&en+e o/ he#e&it#y "m +omm!nity o/ non0+e"ibte %h-ö!a, o# monste#y o/ +e"ibte tra!a# In (#emo&e#n Tibet it +o!"& e%en be the set o/ $o%e#nment /o# "#$e #e$ion* Gom!a %an "so be mi5t!#e o/ to o# mo#e o/ these /!n+tions n& +n $#&!""y +hn$e o%e# time /#om one to nothe#* The gom!a is n &(tb"e n& /"e5ib"e instit!tion "i,e mny o/ the bsi+ b!i"&in$0b"o+,s o/ Tibetn so+iety s!+h s the ho!seho"& o# s!+h (o"iti+" #o"es o# #o"e0"be"s s !ön!o o# de!a# A $#o!( o/ Tibetns mo%in$ /#om sy Lh!" th#o!$h +ent#" Tibet to the nom&i+ t#ibes o/ Am&o o!"& en+o!nte# (eo("e (hysi+""y C!ite &i//e#ent /#om themse"%es s(e,in$ &i"e+ts they +o!"& h#&"y !n&e#stn& "n&s+(es n& %e$ettion %e#y &i//e#ent /# om those they e# e /mi"i# ith b!t the (o"iti+" n& #e"i$io!s st#!+t!#es o/ the "n&s th#o!$h hi+h they t#%e"e& o!"& be b!i"t !( o/ /mi"i# n& !ni%e#s" e"ements* We i"" /in& this sme +ombintion o/ &i%e#se (ossibi"ities ithin +ommon %o+b!"#y in 'h(te# i hen e "oo, t the "i%es o/ some m o&e# n "ms n& &is+!ss the t#Je+to#ies those "i%es h%e t,en th#o!$h the s(+e m((e& o!t in this n& the (#e%io!s +h(te#s* 336
18 Some ecent /amas
We h%e +ome +#oss %#iety o/ +ont#sts ithin the Tibetn #e"i$io!s s ystem
in the (#e%io!s +h(te#s) S!t# n& Tnt#i+ (#+ti+es P#$mti+ .#m n& o&hi o#ienttions +e"ibte n& "y (#+titione#s tme n& i"& %"!e systems +ent#"i2e& $#i+!"t!#" #emote $#i+!"t!#" n& (sto#" (tte#ns* eneth "" o/ these I s!$$este& in 'h(te# i e +n &istin$!ish the !n&e#"yin$ +ont#st beteen ht I h%e +""e& the shmni+ n& +"e#i+" s(e+ts o/ Tibetn #e"i$ion* In this +h(te# e e5mine the "i%es o/ some #e+ent "ms to see ho the +"e#i+" n& shmni+ s(e+ts mni/est in (#+ti+e* The o"&est o/ these "ms s bo#n in the mi&0nineteenth +ent!#y n& the yo!n$est T#!n$( T#!",! in 1 9 3 9 * The ++o!nts #e most"y t,en /#om (!b"ishe& !tobio$#(hies o# /#om bio$#(hies by the "ms &is+i("es n& so ten& to em(hsi2e e%ents in the s!bJe+ts s(i#it!" "i/e #the# thn the (#o$#ess o/ his o# he# +#ee# in the Tibetn #e"i$io!s system* They ne%e#the"ess +ontin m!+h o/ inte#est* We be$in i th some " ms /# om the most +"e#i+" en& o/ Tibetn #e"i$ion) the ge sh; o/ the Ge"!$( o#&e#*
SOME RE'ENT LAMAS 'LERI'AL LAMAS) SOME GELUGPA GSHV I/ the Ge"!$( #e the most +"e#i+" o/ Tibetn !&&hist o#&e#s then the gesh;, the (#o&!+t o/ the "en$thy (hi"oso(hi+" n& s+ho"sti+ t#inin$ system t the $#et Ge"!$( monsti+ +ente#s e#e the most +"e#i+" (eo("e in the Ge"!$( system* The#e is ne%e#the"ess s e i"" see mo#e thn one y o/ bein$ gesh;# My /i#st e5m("e is +ontem(o##y "m GeshQ Rbten ho hs $i%en (#ti+!"#"y &eti"e& ++o!nt o/ his !(b#in$in$ in este#n Tibet n& his t#inin$ t Se# in The /ife and Tea%hings of Gesh; Rabten# Gesh; Rabten GeshQ Rbten ho +me /#om .m "i,e most o/ the "ms in this +h(te# s n o#&in#y tra!a- #the# thn trul.u =#ein+#nte "m>* He +ommen+e& his st!&ies n& his monsti+ +#ee# t the #e"ti%e"y "te $e o/ 1 @ * !is "i/e i""!st#tes ho s!+h tra!a %an o#, his y $#&!""y th#o!$h the Ge"!$( monsti+ system* It "so i""!st#tes the obst+"es he mi$ht h%e to o%e#+ome* GeshQ Rbten s ob%io!s"y &e&i+te& to (!#s!in$ monsti+ +#ee#* He
ente#e& the monsti+ "i/e $inst his (#ents ishes n& ith "itt"e s!((o#t /#om them* His "i/e t Se# s mte#i""y %e#y &i//i+!"t /o# the /i#st /e ye#s n& it s on"y "te# hen he be+me t!to# to yo!n$ #ein+#nte "m tht he +o!"& be s!#e o/ eno!$h to et* The /o""oin$ ++o!nt is s!mm#i2e& /#om Rbten =19o> n& Ri,on Instit!te "e/"et) GeshQ Rbten s bo#n #o!n& 19:8 in /i#"y e""0o// $#i+!"t!#" /mi"y in %i""$e in the Ho# sttes =T#eho#> #e$ion o/ .m bo!t 6o mi"es so!thest o/ the "#$e Ge"!$( monste#y o/ D#$yQ* He s the se+on& o/ /o!# +hi"&#en* His mothe# &ie& hen the +hi"&#en e#e C!ite yo!n$* The thi#& +hi"& $i#" be+me n!n hi"e the yo!n$est son e%ent!""y ente#e& Se# gom!a ne# Lhs* The e"&est son Rbtens e"&e# b#othe# s o#i$in""y $oin$ to be tra!a, n& ent to st!&y ith n !n+"e ho s "#e&y tra!a, /o# some ye#s in mo!ntin #et#et* Rbtens /the# be+me too o"& to #!n the /#m so Rb0tens b#othe# #et!#ne& to t,e o%e# the ho!seho"& m##ie& n& h& th#ee +hi"&#en* Rbten &e+i&e& t the $e o/ bo!t 1@ to be+ome mon, t D#$yQ* To &o so he o!"& h%e to st!&y /o# some ye#s in one o/ the th#ee mJo# Ge0 'IILIED SHAMANS SOME RE'ENT LAMAS "!$( te+hin$ +ente#s ne# Lhs so he s,e& his /the#s (e#mission to $o the#e ith the intention o/ #et!#nin$ to D#$yQ /te# his st!&ies* His /the# #e/!se& sin+e he nte& him to sty t home n& the Jo!#ney to Lhs s "on$ n& &n$e#o!s* To ye#s "te# he &e+i&e& to "e%e itho!t his /the#s (e#mission ith the i& o/ e"thy #e"ti%e ho s t#%e"in$ to Lhs* His /the# &is+o%e#e& his &e(#t!#e b!t $#ee& to "et him $o n& $%e him some /oo& n& money* Rbten ent to Se# gom!a, he#e he s t,en +#e o/ by tra!a in the T#eho# hoste" /#ien& o/ his !n+"es* He s ssi$ne& to te+he# gesh; -m( .e&#!b in Se# 'hQ 'o""e$e n& /te# +o!("e o/ months too, the gets-ul o#&intion* He +ontin!e& his st!&ies !n&e#$oin$ +onsi&e#b"e (o%e#ty n& &e(#i%tion* Si5 ye#s "te# he #et!#ne& to T#eho# in o#&e# to %isit gesh; -m( .e&#!b ho h& $one b+, to .m n& be+ome the bbot o/ D#$yQ monste#y* A/te# n #&!o!s Jo!#ney Rbten met the gesh;, ho to"& him tht he sho!"& h%e #emine& t Se# n& sent him b+, to +om("ete his st!&ies* His !n+"e the tra!a, ssiste& him b!t &%ise& him not to te"" his /the# ho o!"& not nt him to $o* +, t Se# he s +hosen to be the t!to# to yo!n$ trul.u =#ein+#nte "m> Gons# Rim(o+he n& #e"i$io!s ssistnt to nothe# trul.u, so he s no mte#i""y m!+h bette# o//* A/te# nothe# Io ye#s he ente#e& the .#m =o# "oe# gesh; $#&e> +"ss n& /te# $#&!tin$ /#om this s &mitte& to the hi$hest (gesh;
@haram!a) +"ss* y no he h& t,en gelong %os* D!#in$ these ye#s he "so too, n!me#o!s tnt#i+ inititions n& (#+ti+e& me&ittion hene%e# (ossib"e* He o!"& no#m""y h%e #emine& in this +"ss /o# nine ye#s b!t in 1969 /te# to ye#s he "e/t /o# In&i* He +ontin!e& st!&yin$ in the #e/!$ee monste#y t !5&!# n& s e5mine& /o# n& #&e& the gesh; lharam!a tit"e in 1973 t the $e o/ ;3* A/te# be+omin$ gesh; he Joine& Nm$ye" T#tsn$ =the D"i Lms ("+e gom!a) n& be+me one o/ the D"i Lms #e"i$io!s ssistnts* He +ontin!e& to t!to# Gons# Rim(o+he n& othe# Tibetn &is+i("es* In 1979 the D"i Lm s,e& him to be$in te+hin$ Weste#n st!&ents n& he +C!i#e& mny o/ these &!#in$ the #eminin$ ye#s o/ his "i/e* A/te# to %isits to E!#o(e he s ((ointe& the bbot o/ the Tibetn Monsti+ Instit!te t Ri,on in Sit2e#"n& in 19@@* A(#t /#om GeshQ Rbten the#e e#e /i%e Tibetn tra!a /#om the Ge"!$( n& S,y( o#&e#s t the instit!te* The +!##i+!"!m s bse& on tht t Se#* GeshQ Rbten &ie& in 197> These #e the b#e bones o/ GeshQ Rbtens sto#y* In the +t!" n##ti%e the o((osition o/ his /the# to his ente#in$ the monsti+ +#ee# the &i//i+!"t y o/ his e#"y ye#s t Se# n& (#ti+!"#"y his &e%otion to gesh; -m( .e&#!b his tsa*; lama, #e st#on$"y e5(#esse&* GeshQ Rbten "so $i%es &eti"e& ++o!nt o/ his (hi"oso(hi+" st!&ies t Se#* He mentions Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e se%e#" times in his ++o!nt =Rb0 ten 1 9 o ) 6 : 063 7 ; @> b!t the em(hsis is mo#e on the S!t# te+hin$s hi+h /o#me& the bsis o/ the Se# +!##i +!"!m =the Fi% e T#e ti se s by In&i n s+ho "#s : n& the +omment#ies on these o#,s by Tson$,( n& his s!++esso#s>* In his on te+hin$ too GeshQ Rbten em(hsi2e& the +"e#i+" si&e o/ the !&&hist t#&ition* The +!##i+!"!m t Ri,on s bse& on tht t Se# n& the se+on& h"/ o/ his !tobio$#(hy hi+h +onsists o/ Tibetn !&&hist te+hin$s is (#im#i"y (#esenttion o/ the S!t# (th "on$ t#&ition" Ge"!$( lamrim "ines "tho!$h it "so in+"!&es the Tnt#i+ (#e"imin#y (#+ti+es o/ me&ittion on J#stt% n& guruyoga ( 1WD1241< , 1;;01;6>* Rato 'hyongla GeshQ Rbten s n o#&in#y t#( t Se# n& "i%e& in +onsi&e#b"e (o%e#ty !nti" ne#"y 3o ye#s o"& he be+me the t!to# o/ trul.u# The#e e#e mny trul.u t Se# Gn&en n& D#e(!n$ sin+e most Ge"!$( trul.u e#e t#ine& t one o# nothe# o/ the th#ee min gom!a# An !tobio$#(hy by Rto .hyon$" Nn$ Losn$ 3 (M y / if e and /ives), m,es n inte#estin$ +ont#st to GeshQ Rbtens n##ti%e* The /o""oin$ ++o!nt is s!mm#i2e& /#om Rto .hyon$"s !tobio$#(hy =Rto 19@@>)
Rto .hyon$" s bo#n in 19:3 in (#os(e#o!s $#i+!"t!#" /mi"y in the sm"" %i""$e o/ O(ho# some /i%e &ys t#%e" so!th o/ 'hm&o in the stte o/ D#$yb in .m* His (te#n" $#n&/the#s b#othe# s senio# o//i+i" in the D#$yb $o%e#nment n& the /mi"y h& be+ome e"thy th#o!$h t#&in$ Jo!#neys to 'hin n& In&i* At the $e o/ /i%e he s i&enti/ie& th#o!$h &i%intion n& o#+"es s the #ebi#th o/ the 9th .hyon$" trul.u# He s t,en to the labrang o# "ms ho!seho"& t .to$ gom!a, monste#y /e ho!#s y /#om O(ho# hi+h h& been /o!n&e& by the :& .hyon$"* ; At the $e o/ ei$ht he be$n t#inin$ ith gesh; Tse#in$ 'h(e" ho h& st!&ie& /o# :8 ye#s t Se#* The /o""oin$ ye# he s o#&ine& s genyen by D#$yb Rim(o+he t the gom!a in the ne#by ton o/ en&!m* At the $e o/ 13 he s sent to +ent#" Tibet n& s en#o""e& s membe# o/ Rt& monste#y sho#t &istn+e so!thest o/ Lhs* This gom!a h& .-angts-an o# hoste" /o# st!&ents /#om D#$yb s &i& Gn&en n& D#e(!n$ n& his (#e&e+esso# the 9th .hyon$" h& st!&ie& the#e* He "i%e& t Rt& /o# II ye#s in th#ee0#oom (#tment ith yo!n$ tra!a s tten&nt* 'IILIED SHAMANS SOME RE'ENT LAMAS He s o#&ine& s gets-ul by T$t#$ Rim(o+he n& st!&ie& the S!t# +!##i+!"!m t Rt&* He "so tten&e& +"sses t D#e(!n$ Se# n& othe# gom!a #o!n& Lhs* At :8 he s o#&ine& s gelong by Pon$, Rim(o+he* He too, the gesh; lharam!a &e$#ee in 19;@ t the $e o/ :3* He then ent on to st!&y Tnt# t Gy&t& T#tsn$ one o/ the to Ge"!$( Tnt#i+ +o""e$es in Lhs* At :6 he too, ye# o// t#%e"in$ #o!n& Tibet n& to h!tn* Lte# he %isite& In&i n& Ne(" he#e he h& been in%ite& by some Ne("ese !&&hists to he"( /o!n& monste#y* He +ontin!e& his st!&ies t Gy&t& T#tsn$ n& /te# sho#t %isit b+, to .m s ((ointe& he& o/ ne s+hoo" o(ene& by the 'hinese in GyntsQ in +ent#" Tibet* He "e/t Tibet in 1969 n& s membe# o/ the +ommittee set !( by the D"i Lm to #ite te5tboo,s /o# the Tibetn #e/!$ee s+hoo" system* In 197: he ent to Lei&en he#e he s em("oye& /o# /o!# ye#s +t"o$in$ the Tibetn mte#i" in the RiJ,sm!se!m %oo# o",en,on&e* He s!bseC!ent"y sett"e& in Ne o#, he#e he #eno!n+e& his monsti+ %os n& $ot o#, /i#st s Tibetn "n$!$e te+he# n& "te# s sto+,#oom +"e#,* S!bseC!ent"y he s one o/ the /o!n&e#s o/ the Tibet 'ente# in Ne o#,* Rto .hyon$" too, his gesh; lharam!a &e$#ee t :3 GeshQ Rbten ho be$n his /o#m" st!&ies /o!# ye#s "te# too, his t ;3* In /+t Rto +o!"& h%e t,en his &e$#ee e%en e#"ie# thn this he +omments)
I s to be the /i#st mon, o/ my +"ss to t,e the lharam!a e5mintion be+!se s n in+#ntion I h& the (#i%i"e$e o/ bein$ &%n+e& #(i&"y in my st!&ies* In+#ntions $ine& thei# &e$#ees no#m""y in si5 o# se%en ye#s b!t be+!se o/ his te+he#V .n+ho$s &%i+e I h& (#o"on$e& my st!&ies to e"e%en* Re$!"# mon,s on the othe# hn& e#e +hosen /o# the e5mintion by thei# bbots min"y by senio#ity n& some h& to it s mny s tenty ye#s /o# thei# &e$#ee As Rto "te# mentions t Gy&t& T#tsn$ they m&e (oint o/ t#etin$ the trul.u J!st "i,e e%e#ybo&y e"se* This s h#&"y the $en e#" #!"e in Tibet* In /+t &es(ite Rtos +omments mny o/ the b0 bots o/ Gn&en =the tit!"# he&s o/ the Ge"!$( o#&e#> n& o++!(nts o/ othe# senio# Ge"!$( (ositions in #e+ent ye#s e#e trul.u# Rtos "i/e is inte#estin$ both /o# the +ont#st beteen the (#o$#ess o/ trul.u n& n o#&in#y tra!a th#o!$h the system n& /o# its in&i+tions o/ the ,in&s o/ o((o#t!nities n& +hoi+es tht e#e %i"b"e to me&i!m0"e%e" trul.u# Fo# e5m("e /te# $inin$ his gesh; lharam!a &e$#ee he +onsi&e#e& #et!#nin$ to his monste#y in .m n& st!&yin$ Tnt# (#i%te"y #the# thn +ontin!in$ his Tnt#i+ st!&ies t G y&t& T#tsn$ * He C! otes his te+he#s +om men ts he n he s!$$este& this) es he #e("ie& tho!$ht/!""y in theo#y tht o!"& be (ossib"e* Mny be/o#e yo! h%e &one so* !t s!+h +o!#se o!"& t,e yo! m!+h "on$e# thn seson o/ o#, t Gy&t& n& /in""y not be s tho#o!$h* F!#the#mo#e (eo("e #e $oin$ to #es(e+t yo! mo#e i/ yo! h%e Gy&t& &e$#ee n& tht /o# te+he# is im(o#tnt**** !t /in""y he +on+e&e& this i"" h%e to be yo!# on &e+ision* Some /te# $inin$ thei# gesh; &e$#ee #et!#n &i#e+t"y to thei# on monste#ies n& eithe# te+h o# &e%ote themse"%es the#e to me&ittion* Othe#s #eti#in$ to he#mit$es +on+ent#te e5+"!si%e"y on #e"i$io!s (#+ti+e* Mny #et!#n to thei# homes to o#, n& te+h mon$ the (eo("e* The mJo#ity hoe%e# o!"& +hoose to $o on to hi$he# !&&hist st!&ies n& ht tht mens is intensi%e st!&y o/ the Tnt#s* =Rto 19@@)1:;> /ing Rin!o%h-e
The Ge"!$( gesh; are t the most +"e#i+" en& o/ Tibetn #e"i$ion* The e5tensi%e (hi"oso(hi+" st!&y n& the e"bo#te system o/ &e$#ees n& e5mintions #e #eminis+ent o/ the !ni%e#sities o/ me&ie%" E!#o(e n& in&ee& $o b+, to the st#i,in$"y simi"# !&&hist !ni%e#sities o/ si5th0 to te"/th0 +ent!#y In&i "tho!$h the system s e see it no s +ent#"i2e& +onsi&e#b"y by the i3th D"i Lm =see 'h(te# :@>* These hi$h"y +"e#i+" "ms #e ne%e#the"ess "" Tnt#i+ (#+titione#s s e"" t "est to some &e$#ee* In&ee& the most senio# (e#sonne" in the system h& to !n&e#$o e5tensi%e Tnt#i+ t#inin$ e%en /te# the i3th D"i Lms #e/o#ms* These most senio# Ge"!$( (ositions e#e ((ointe& /#om mon$ those ho h& se#%e& s ge.ö =P#o+to#> n& s!b seC!ent"y s lama umdzed =Mste# o/ Dis+i("ine> n& .-en!o =Abbot> o/ one o/ the to Tnt#i+ +o""e$es in Lhs* These "st to (o st s e#e on"y o(en to ho"&e#s o/ gesh; lharam!a /i#st +"ss &e$#ees* F#om he#e 'IILIED SHAMANS ((ointment to the he&shi( o/ one o/ the Gn&en +o""e$es n& to the (osition o/ b bo t o/ G n& en n& ti t!" # he& o/ the Ge "! $( o#& e# /o""oe& by st#i+t s!++ession* 6 We +n see ho this o#,e& o!t in (#+ti +e in the "i/e o/ Lin$ Rim(o+he ho t his ð s both Abbot o/ Gn&en (Ganden Tr-i!a) n& Senio# T!to# to His Ho"iness the D"i Lm* The /o""oin$ ++o!nt is s!mm#i2e& /#om n !tobio$#(hy by Lin$ Rim(o+he himse"/ =Lin$ 193> n& n obit!#y by She#( Rim(o+he =She#( 19;>* Lin$ Rim(o+he s bo#n in 1983 t b(! s+#e& site ne# to Lhs hi+h is sso+ite& ith the &eity ',#sm%#* He s #e+o$ni2e& t n e#"y $e s the #ebi#th o/ the 6th Lin$ Rin(o+he 7 ho h& been t!to# to the 13th D"i Lm* He s t,en to Lhs n& enth#one& in the !s!" mnne#* At the $e o/ ten he s en#o""e& in Lose" Lin$ 'o""e$e t D#e(!n$ n& the /o""oin$ ye# #e+ei%e& genyen n& gets-ul o#&intion /#om the 13th D"i Lm* At the $e o/ :8 he too, gelong %os $in /#om the 13th D"i Lm n& the /o""oin$ ye# &es(ite his yo!th s (e#mitte& to t,e the gesh; @haram!a e5mintion in hi+h he s #&e& se+on& ("+e* At this (oint he ente#e& Gy&t& T#tsn$* At the $e o/ :; he be+me ge.ö o/ Gy&t& T#tsn$ n& in 1933 s one o/ the "ms in +h#$e o/ the /!ne#" #ites /o# the 13th D"i Lm* In 1937 t the $e o/ 3; he s ( (ointe& the he& "m o/ Gy&t& T#tsn$ n& soon /te##&s s ((ointe& one o/ the ssistnt t!to#s to the 1;th D"i Lm* In 19;1 he s ((ointe& -!nio# T!to# n& in 1 96 3 Senio# T!to#* In 1 9;9 he s "so ((ointe& Sh#( 'hJQ the se+on& (ost in (#e+e&en+e in the Ge"!$( o#&e#* He s bbot n& (#e+e(to# hen the 1;th D"i Lm too,
gelong %os in 1 96; %isitin$ 'hin ith him sho#t"y /te##&s* He "so ++om(nie& the 1;th D"i Lm to In&i in 1967 n& ++om(nie& him on his /"i$ht to In&i in 1969* A/te# the ð o/ the Abbot o/ Gn&en in Lhs Lin$ Rim(o+he s ((ointe& to this (ost the hi$hest in the Ge"!$( o#&e#* He s enth#one& in 1976 t o&h$y in In&i "so be+omin$ bbot o/ the Ge"!$( gom!a t o&h$y* In 197 he %isite& Sit2e#"n& "on$ ith T#i+hn$ Rim(o+he the D"i Lms -!nio# T!to# /o# the +onse+#tion o/ the Ri,on Instit!te* He %isite& E!#o(e $in in 19@: n& No#th Ame#i+ in 198* In 19@: he (i& his /i#st %isit to the th#ee mJo# Ge"!$( $om( =Gn&en Se# D#e(!n$> hi+h h& been #e/o#me& in So!th In&i n& s enth#one& s bbot by the mon,s o/ Gn&en* He &ie& in 193 #eminin$ in bso#(tion in the stte o/ +"e# "i$ht /o# te"%e &ys* His #ebi#th s s!bseC!ent"y /o!n&* Lin$ Rim(o+he seems not to h%e been $#et"y o#iente& to#&s Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e be/o#e he ente#e& Gy&t&* In his !tobio$#(hy he SOME RE'ENT LAMAS mentions on"y +o!("e o/ inititions #e+ei%e& &!#in$ his +hi"&hoo& in m#,e& +ont#st to /o# e5m("e the e"th o/ Tnt#i+ em(oe#ments "iste& /o# the e#"y ye#s o/ the D"i Lms -!nio# T!to# T#i+hn$ Rim(o+he =D2emy Rin(o+he 19:)9016>* y the time he "e/t Gy&t& hoe%e# n& s ((ointe& Assistnt T!to# to the 1;th D"i Lm he h& s(ent /o!#teen ye#s st!&yin$ Tnt# n& o!"& h%e been &ee("y stee(e& in Tnt#i+ (#o+e &! #es * Th e &es +# i(t ion o/ his ð im( "ies th t he h & t t in e& &%n+e& mste# y o/ these (# o+esses s o!"& be e5(e+te& o/ "m o/ the stt!#e o/ the Gn&en T#i(* It s no#m" /o# Gn&en T#i( i/ not "#e&y trul.u s in Lin$ Rim(o+hes +se to initite se#ies o/ #ein+#ntions hi+h $in im("ie& to Tibetns tht he +o!"& mintin +ont#o" o/ +ons+io!s0 ness &!#in$ the inte#me&ite stte n& #ebi#th (e#io&s* Tromo Gesh; Rim!o%h-e The "i/e o/ /o!#th Ge"!$( ge sh; , T#omo GeshQ Rim(o+he i""!st#tes nothe# set o/ (ossibi"ities* He#e e h%e n e5m("e o/ n o# &in#y mon, ho /o""oe& his s+ho"sti+ st!&ies ith (#o"on$e& #et#et s he#mit /o!n&e& his on monste#y n& initite& n #ein+#ntion se#ies* T#omo GeshQ Rim(o+he s!bseC!ent"y be+me the te+he# o/ the A!st#in "m An$#i, Go%in& n& it is /#om Go% in&s !tobio$#(hy The =ay of the
=hite Clouds tht I s!mm#i2e the /o""oin$ ++o!nt =Go%in& 19@;) @ &I I, 1170::>) N$n$ .e"sn$ s bo#n in #o!n& 176* He st!&ie& s n o#&in#y mon, itho!t trul.u stt!s t one o/ the $#et Ge"!$( gom!a in the %i+inity o/ Lhs e%ent!""y +C!i#in$ gesh; &e$#ee in&i+tin$ mste#y o/ the t#&ition" In&in0 &e#i%e& (hi"oso(hi+" +!##i+!"!m* Rthe# thn (!#s!in$ monsti+ +#ee# he ith&#e /o# 1: ye#s into so"it#y me&ittion "i%in$ s he#mit in %#io!s #et#ets n& +%es in so!the#n Tibet n& (e#/o#min$ %höd (#+ti+e* A/te# some 1: ye#s he s &is+o%e#e& by %i""$e#s ho "i%e& in the ne#by %""ey o/ T#omo* They (e#s!&e& him to sett"e in D!n$,# gom!a, sm"" gom!a ne#by* D!n$,# gom!a #(i&"y $#e into mJo# +ente# o/ st!&y n& o#shi( n& N$n$ .e"sn$ +C!i#e& /o""oin$ in mny #es o/ Tibet* He s (#ti+!"#"y +on+e#ne& ith &e%e"o(in$ the +!"t o/ Mit#ey n& en+o!#$e& the b!i"&in$ o/ tem("es to him in mny ("+es* D!#in$ %isit to the G!#! Rim(o+he (i"$#im$e site o/ 'ho#ten Nyim he n& his /o""oe#s s %ision o/ %#io!s b!&&hs n& bo&histt%s hi+h s t,en s n 'IILIED SHAMANS in&i+tion o/ his hi$h s(i#it!" ttinment* No ,non s T#omo GeshQ Rim(o+he he &e+i&e& to t#%e" th#o!$ho!t the Him"ys te+hin$ not on"y to Tibetns b!t to (eo("e o/ othe# ntions* He "so ent on n!mbe# o/ (i"$#im$es to In&i* T#omo GeshQ &ie& t D!n$,# gom!a in 193@ /te# (#e&i+tin$ his #et!#n* He &ie& in me&ittion (ost!#e n& the bo&y #emine& !n+hn$e& n& e#e+t /o# se%e#" ee,s shoin$ no si$ns o/ &e+y* E%ent!""y it s (#ese#%e& n& ("+e& in memo#i" st!(* His #ebi#th s /o!n& in the /mi"y o/ Si,,imese nob"emn th#ee o# /o!# ye#s "te# /te# +ons!"ttions o/ the monste#ys on o#+"e (#iest n& the Lhs Go%e#nments o#+"e t Ne+h!n$* The +hi"& s t,en to D!n$,# /te# stis/yin$ the !s!" tests n& t the $e o/ @ sent to Se# to be$in st!&ies /o# his gesh; &e$#ee* He#e e +n see "m ho /te# his initi" s+ho"#"y t#inin$ mo%e& #i$ht into the shmni+ en& o/ Tibetn !&&hist (#+ti+e "i%in$ s so"it#y he#mit n& %höd (#+ti tione# be/o#e bein$ &o(te& by "o+" %i""$e#s n& inst""e& in monste#y* As the tten&n+e o/ T#i+hn$ Rim(o+he =D2emy 19:):1> n& othe# hi$h "ms t his ð in&i+tes he h& be+ome /!""y ++e(te& into the Ge"!$( system* Th!s the Ge"!$( o#&e# /o# "" o/ its +"e#i+" em(hsis o//e#e& #n$e o/ (ossibi"ities in%o"%in$ &i//e#ent mi5es o/ +"e#i+" n& shmni+ !&&hism* A"" senio# Ge"!$( "ms h& tho#o!$h t#inin$ in both s(e+ts* When e t!#n to the "ms o/ the othe# th#ee o#&e#s mo#e s(e+i/i+""y
o/ the Rime& mo%ement e /in& simi"# #n$e o/ %#ition* I/ e +n sy tht the Rime& "ms #e mo#e shmni+ n& the Ge "!$( #e mo#e +"e#i+" this is mo#e +omment on the o%e#"" #n$e thn on ny (#ti+!"# in&i%i&!"s* The Rime& mo%ement "so (#o&!+e& $#et s+ho"#s n& the Ge"!$( in+"!&e& /mo!s Tnt#i+ me&itto#s* The &i//e#en+e is #e" hoe%e# n& it is (#ti+!"#"y noti+eb"e in the +se o/ those Rime& "ms ho h& "itt"e o# no /o#m" +&emi+ t#inin$* SHAMANI' LAMAS) PRODU'TS OF THE RIMED MOEMENT Ch-ögyam Trung!a Tul.u My /i#st Rime& e5m("e hoe%e# is o/ .$y&( trul.u "m ho #e+ei%e& n +&emi+ t#inin$ +om(#b"e to tht o/ the to Ge"!$( SOME RE'ENT LAMAS trul.u e h%e +onsi&e#e& Rto .hyon$" n& Lin$ Rim(o+he* The#e #e hoe%e# si$ni/i+nt +ont#sts beteen the +#ee# o/ 'h$ym T#!n$( the I #th T#!n$( T!",! o/ S!#mn$ n& tht o/ my Ge"!$( e5m("es* This ++o!nt is t,en min"y /#om his !tobio$#(hy Born in Tibet =T#!n$( 19@ I >* 'h$ym T#!n$( s bo#n in 19;o in the (sto#"ist +omm!nity o/ GeJe on the hi$h ("te! +o!nt#y o/ Nn$+hen in the no#thest o/ .m* His /the# one& "itt"e "n& "o+""y b!t h& "e/t 'h$yms mothe# sho#t"y be/o#e his bi#th n& he s b#o!$ht !( by his mothe# n& he# se+on& h!sbn&* #io!s si$ns ++om(nie& his bi#th* A /e months "te# %isitin$ Ge"!$( "m s,e& tht the +hi"& sho!"& be $i%en to his monste#y T#shi Lh(!$ he#e 'h$yms mothe#s !n+"e s mon,* e/o#e this +o!"& h((en hoe%e# he s i&enti/ie& s the #ebi#th o/ the 18th T#!n$( Trul.u, bbot o/ the S!#mn$ $#o!( o/ gom!a, by se#+h mission /o""oin$ (#o(he+y o/ the 17th Gy" .#m( ho s %isitin$ Pe"(!n$ gom!a in .m t the time* The +hi"& s t,en to D&tsi Ti" one o/ the to min S!#mn$ monste#ies he#e he s to "i%e /o# the ne5t /e ye#s* He#e he (sse& the test o/ bein$ b"e to #e+o$ni2e the mon,s he ,ne n& obJe+ts he h& (ossesse& in his (#e%io!s "i/e* A month "te# he %isite& Nm$ye" TsQ the othe# min S!#mn$ monste#y he#e he s $i%en the genyen %os by Gy" .#m( n& enth#one& s the ne trul.u# He seems to h%e been on"y ye# o# so o"& t the time* His mothe# +me "on$ to sty t D&tsi Ti" !nti" he s /i%e* At /i%e he be$n st!&y ith t!to# mo%in$ sho#t"y /te# to #et#et +ente#
some y /#om D&tsi Ti" he#e the#e s "ess &ist#+tion* At ei$ht he s o#&ine& s gets-ul by -m$n .on$t#!" o/ Pe"(!n$ one o/ the #ebi#ths o/ the /mo!s Rime& "m -m$n .on$t#!" =1130199 see Smith 19@o>* The -m$n .on$t#!" #ein+#ntions o/ Pe"(!n$ n& She+hen h& been st!&ents o/ the "oth T#!n$( Trul.u n& e#e te+he#s o/ the 11th n& the se+on& the She+hen #ein+#ntion s T#!n$(s (#in+i(" me&ittion te+he#* Anothe# o/ his $!#!s Di"$o .yentse Rim(o+he s one o/ the #ebi#ths o/ nothe# (#in+i(" Rime& "m -myn$ .yentse On$(o =see 'h(te# :@>*18 At the $e o/ ii T#!n$( s mo%e& to nothe# #et#et +ente# he#e he be$n the Tnt#i+ (#e"imin#y (#+ti+es o# ngöndro# The ho"e #e h& no been t,en o%e# by the 'hinese b!t the to S!#mn$ gom!a e#e sti"" !n&ist!#be&* Sho#t"y /te# T#!n$( ent on to!# to Lhto$ n& then to She+hen he#e he nte& to st!&y ith -m$n .on$t#!"* He st!&ie& +&emi+ s!bJe+ts s e"" s me&ittion t the semin#y t She+hen b!t soon h& to #et!#n to S!#mn$ he#e one o/ the senio# "ms h& &ie&* A/te# %isit to D#"m Lh,n$ in P$sh& n& to the mJo# .#m( gom!a o/ 'IILIED SHAMANS .#m Ge#! ne#by he st!&ie& #it!" &n+e (%h-am) /o# some months be/o#e #et!#nin$ to She+hen /o# /!#the# st!&y* He "so %isite& D2on$s# .yentsQ 'h,yi Lo&# nothe# #ein+#ntion o/ -myn$ .yentsQ On$(o t the S,y( gom!a o/ D2on$s#* In 196@ his (#in+i(" t!to# t She+hen .en(o Gn$sh# +me to te+h t S!#mn$ n& mny st!&ents +me to st!&y ith him the#e* In the min (#t o/ .m =in Si+h!n (#o%in+e> the #esistn+e mo%ement $inst the 'hinese #e$ime h& be$!n to $#o n& mny #e/!$ees e#e "e%in$ /o# +ent#" Tibet* Se%e#" im(o#tnt gom!a in+"!&in$ Pe"(!n$ n& D2on$s# e#e &est#oye& n& thei# tra!a ##este& o# ,i""e&* T#!n$( (sse& the e5mintion /o# the .yor!ön n& .-en!o &e$#ees =#o!$h"y eC!i%"ent to the Ge"!$( gesh; &e$#ee> n& he s o#&ine& s gelong by R"(Q Do#JQ Rim(o+he the #e$ent bbot o/ D&tsi Ti"* In 1 96 9 o(en /i$htin$ $inst the 'hinese be$n in the S!#mn$ #e$ion* Nm$y" TsQ s &est#oye& n& mny tra!a e#e ,i""e& o# +(t!#e&* D&tsi Ti" s "oote&* T#!n$( es+(e& to In&i* S!bseC!ent"y T#!n$( st!&ie& t O5/o#& n& in 197@ /o!n&e& one o/ the /i#st Tibetn me&ittion +ente#s in the West Smy`0Lin$ in S+ot"n&* He s se%e#e"y inJ!#e& in +# +#sh in 1979* In 19@o he #eno!n+e& his %os n& m##ie& s!bseC!ent"y mo%in$ to the Unite& Sttes n& 'n& he#e he /o!n&e& se#ies o/ Tibetn me&ittion +ente#s the min ones bein$ in e#mont 'o"o#&o n& No% S+oti* T#!n$( T!",! &ie& e#"y in 19@ n& s +#emte& t his +ente# in e#mont* The +e#emony s +on&!+te& by his /o#me# te+he# Di"$o .yentse n& tten&e& by
mny senio# Rime& "ms* Fo""oin$ his ð T#!n$(s !&&hist o#$ni2tion J#&ht! s he&e& by n Ame#i+n &is+i("e Ose" Ten&2in =Thoms Ri+h> ho himse"/ &ie& in 1991* T#!n$(s son Sn$ Ose" Rn$&#" s then ((ointe& the he& o/ J#&ht! by -m$n .on$t#!" Rim(o+he ith the +on+!##en+e o/ Di"$o .yentse Rim(o+he n& the .#m .$y&( hie##+hy in In&i* T#!n$(s son s to be t#ine& in Ne(" n& h!tn by Di"$o .yentse Rim(o+he* II As in the +se o/ Rto .hyon$"s !tobio$#(hy this "ms e#"y "i/e is /!"" o/ the nmes o/ $#et n& /mo!s "ms b!t he#es /o# Rto .hyon$" these e#e Ge"!$( "ms s!+h s Pon$, Rim(o+he o# T$t#$ Rim(o+he e he#e /in& senio# Rime& "ms s!+h s the to .yentse #ein+#ntions Di"$o .yentse n& D2on$s# .yentse n& the to .on$t#!" #ein+#ntions o/ Pe"(!n$ n& She+hen* A"tho!$h T#!n$( s .#m .$y&( trul.u, his te+he#s in+"!&e& "ms /#om the Nyin$m( n& S,y( o#&e#s* She+hen SOME RE'ENT LAMAS he#e he st!&ie& /o# some time s s e s in 'h(te# 1@ Nyin$m( +ente#* This is enti#e"y ty(i+" /o# Rime& "m o/ T#!n$ ( s $ene#tion* The &i//e#en+es beteen the non0Ge"!$( o#&e#s e#e essenti""y &i//e#en+es o/ (#+ti+e n& st!&ents ent to the most /mo!s n& #e(!te& te+he#s #e$#&"ess o/ /o#m" //i"ition* The Ge"!$( h#&"y /i$!#e in T#!n$(s !tobio$#(hy ith the e5+e(tion o/ the e#"y #eC!est /o# him to be+ome mon, t Ge"!$( gom!a, n& the D"i Lms %isit to est Tibet in 1967* T#!n$( mentions %isitin$ Ge"!$( gom!a on one o++sion =19@1)1:601:7> J!st s Rb ten mentions %isitin$ Nyin$m( gom!a =Rbten 19o)73>* The#e s no obJe+tion to s!+h %isits n& T#!n$( mentions tht he s inte#este& in /in&in$ o!t somethin$ bo!t the Ge"!$(* In &&ition hi$h "ms /#om one t#&ition mi$ht o++sion""y be s,e& to $i%e inititions o# te+hin$s to the membe#s o/ the othe#* We i"" +ome +#oss n e5m("e o/ this in the ne5t +se st!&y* With /e e5+e(tions hoe%e# Ge"!$( "ms t#ine& t Ge"!$( +ente#s n& Rime& "ms t#ine& t Rime& +ente#s n& +ont+t bet e en the m s "imite&* The Tnt#i+ inititions n& te5ts tht T#!n$( mentions "so in+"!&e ty(i+" Rime& te5ts s!+h s the Rin+hen Te#&2& the $#et +om(i"tion o/ Tnt#i+ (#+ti+es o/ terma o#i$in m&e !n&e# the !s(i+es o/ the nineteenth0+ent!#y Rime& "ms* T#!n$( #e+ei%e& the em(oe#ment /o#
this %st +y+"e o/ Tnt#i+ te+hin$s /#om -m$n .on$t#!" o/ She+hen =T#!n$( 19@1)@30@ ; > n& s!bseC! ent" y $%e the em(oe#ment himse"/ on to o++sions =19@1)30; 1301;:>* Tnt#i+ (#+ti+e s mo#e +ent#" +om(onent o/ T#!n$(s t#inin$ /#om n e#"y $e thn it o!"& h%e been /o# the Ge"!$( "ms e h%e +onsi&e#e& b!t /o# him s /o# the Ge"!$( the#e s mi5 o/ Tnt#i+ n& +&emi+ st !&y* T#!n$( s e s too, n +&emi+ &e$#ee simi"# to the Ge"!$( gesh; &e$#ee "tho!$h s ith the Ge"!$( trul.u, his st!&ies e#e b#ie/e# thn those o/ n o#&in#y mon, s!+h s GeshQ Rbten n& e#e inte##!(te& by o//i+i" &!ties s!+h s %isits to his monste#y o# the $i%in$ o/ Tnt#i+ em(oe#ments* The shmni+ si&e o/ T#!n$(s "i/e +me o!t mo#e in his "te# +ti%ities in the West* As ith most Rime& "ms %isions ("ye& n i m(o#tnt (#t in T#!n$(s "i/e* An e5m("e is the e5(e#ien+e t T$ tsn$ in h!tn in 197 hi+h he b#ie/"y mentions in the 19@1 E(i"o$!e to Born in Tibet =19@1):6:>* This %ision be+me the bsis o/ 'IILIED SHAMANS SOME RE'ENT LAMAS me&ittion" (#+ti+e t!$ht to his Weste#n st !&ents in the e#"y 19@os The S&hn o/ the Embo&iment o/ A"" the Si&&hs* .en(o Gn$sh# ho be+me T#!n$( Rim(o+hes #oot $!#! s hi$h"y !n+on%ention" "m =see 'h(te# 17> n& T#!n$( /o""oe& in his /ootste(s* T#!n$( o/ten s(o,e in /%o# o/ the +#2y is&om o/ the siddha t#&ition n& he s e%i&ent"y &ee("y in/"!en+e& by .en(o Gn$sh#s &o(tion o/ siddha beh%io#* T#!n$( t!$ht stn&#& Tnt#i+ (#+ti+es to his Weste#n st!&ents t,in$ his st!&ents th#o!$h shin; =S,t* samatha) me&ittion J#yo$ini n& ',#sm%# (#+ti+e* His +ti%ities ent e"" beyon& those o/ t#&ition" te+he# o/ !&&hist (hi"oso(hy n& me&ittion hoe%e#* T#!n$( sso+ite& ith A""en Ginsbe#$ n& othe# e""0,non Ame#i+n (oets n& himse"/ #ote (oet#y in En$"ish =see T#!n$( 19@:>* N#o( Instit!te the +o""e$e he /o!n&e& t o!"&e# 'o" o#&o o//e#e& +o!#ses not on" y in !&&hist (hi"os o(h y b!t in (intin$ &n+e thet#e (sy+hothe#(y (hysi+s n& +#eti%e #itin$* In his "te# ye#s he "so be+me inte#este& in -(nese +!"t!#e n& int#o&!+e& ne non0!&&hist Shmbh" t#inin$ bse& on the symbo"ism o/ Tibetn /o", #e"i$ion* His st!&ents (#&e& in C!si0mi"it#y /ie"& !ni/o#ms +hnte& in%o+tions to Tibetn /o",0#e"i$ion &eities n&
st!&ie& -(nese +""i$#(hy n& m#ti" #ts* T#!n$( s si& to h%e in&!"$e& he%i"y in "+oho" n& othe# &#!$s n& to h%e h& n!me#o!s se5!" //i#s* The bi2##e e%ents t N#o( Instit!te +!se& the o++sion" s+n&" in the Ame#i+n (#ess n& +onsi&e#b"e +on/!sion in the Weste#n !&&hist +omm!nity* T#!n$(s bi2##e beh%io# sho!"& be seen in the +onte5t o/ ht s n !n(#e+e&ente& (osition /o# Tibetn "m* He s one o/ the /i#st "ms to te+h in the West n& bein$ #em#,b"y s!++ess/!" t +omm!ni+tin$ ith Weste#ne#s he #(i&"y +C!i#e& "#$e /o""oin$* y the 19@os he s in +h#$e o/ the "#$est !&&hist o#$ni2tion in No#th Ame#i+ ith se%e#" tho!sn& &e%ote& /o""oe#s mny o/ them tt#+te& by his !n+on%ention"ity n& (#e(#e& to en+o!#$e it /!#the#* The#e e#e /e $!i&e "ines /o# T#!n $( t o /o ""o* Wht is ne%e#the"ess st#i,in$ is the e5tent to hi+h he s sim("y s he si& /o""oin$ in the /ootste(s o/ the +#2y si&&h (drubnyön) t#&ition n& (#ti+!"#"y o/ his on #oot $!#! .en(o Gn$sh#* .en(o Gn$sh#s st!&ents in Tibet o!"& h%e #e& thei# "ms e++ent#i+ities in te#ms o/ the Tibetn +!"t!#" b+,$#o!n& he#e s!+h beh%io# m#,s n o++sion" n& e5(e+te& &e(#t!#e /#om &ee("in$#ine& (tte#n o/ #es(e+t /o# t#&ition" ,no"e&$e n& is in ny +se J!sti/ie& s n e5(#ession o/ the !&&hs is&om n& +om(ssion* T#!n$(s Weste#n st!&ents b#o!$ht &i//e#ent set o/ e5(e+ttions n& it is !n&e#stn&b"e tht they e#e +on/!se& t times by his te+hin$ s e"" s stim!"te& by his !n&o!bte& bi"ity to #e+h the min&s n& he#ts o/ his Weste#n &is+i("es* et mny o/ his &is+i("es ent on to st!&y ith othe# mo#e +on%ention" Tibetn "ms n& T#!n$( himse"/ #etine& the #es(e+t o/ othe# senio# Rime& "ms s thei# tten&n+e t his +#emtion n& thei# s!bseC!ent in%o"%ement ith J#&ht! in&i+te&* Othe# trul.u /#om simi"# Rime& b+,$#o!n& s!+h s T#thn$ T!",! =o/ the Nyin$m Instit!te in e#,e"ey '"i/o#ni> So$y" Rim(o+he =hose o#$ni2tion Ri$( is no +ente#e& in Lon&on> o# Nm,hi No# b! Rim(o+ h e = ho se tt" e& in It" y> h %e no t been s o! t# $eo!s "y !n+on%ention" s T#!n$( b!t they h%e sh#e& his i""in$ness to m,e o#i$in" n& +#eti%e &(ttions o/ thei# Tibetn t#inin$* T#thn$ T!",!s system o/ me&ittion on Time S(+e n& .no"e&$e $in o#i$intin$ in (e#son" %ision is +se i n (oint =T#thn$ 19@@>* None o/ the Ge"!$( "ms in the West h%e to my ,no"e&$e mo%e&
