Catanduanes State Colleges Virac, Catanduanes College of Health Sciences NCM 106 CARE OF THE CLIENTS WITH PROBLEMS IN ACUTE BIOLOGIC CRISIS Course Description: It deals with the principles and techniques of nursing care management of sick clients across the lifespan with the emphasis on the adult and older person with alteration/problems in acute biologic crisis.
Objectives: At the th e end en d of the th e c o urs ur s e, and an d giv gi v en actu ac tual al clients with problems in acute biologic crisis, the student should be able: 1.Academic Excellence a. Utilize the nursing process in the care of individuals, families, in community and hospital settings.
i. Assess with the client his/her condition/health status statu s through interview, interv iew, physical physic al exam examin inat atio ion, n, interpretation of laboratory findings ii. Identify actual and potential diagnosis iii. Plan appropriate nursing interventions with client and family for identified nursing diagnosis iv. Implement plan of care with client and family v. Evaluate the progress of the client’s condition and outcomes of care b. Ensure a well-organized and accurate documentation system
2. Virtues A.Observe bio bioet ethi hica call prin princi cip ples les and the core core values (love of God, caring, love security and of people Utilize the bioethical principle and core values and nursing standards in the care of client
i. Assess with the client his/her condition/health status statu s through interview, interv iew, physical physic al exam examin inat atio ion, n, interpretation of laboratory findings ii. Identify actual and potential diagnosis iii. Plan appropriate nursing interventions with client and family for identified nursing diagnosis iv. Implement plan of care with client and family v. Evaluate the progress of the client’s condition and outcomes of care b. Ensure a well-organized and accurate documentation system
2. Virtues A.Observe bio bioet ethi hica call prin princi cip ples les and the core core values (love of God, caring, love security and of people Utilize the bioethical principle and core values and nursing standards in the care of client
c. Integrate the various principles, concept and application of bioethics in the care of the client.
3. Communities (Community Service) A.Determine the th e dif di f fere fe rent nt prin pr inc c ipl ip l e s and an d tec te c h niques of nursing care management inpromot ing the health of the community .be taken part in the community projects that would require the utilization o f a p p r o p r i a t e heal health th promot omotio ion n and and dis disease ease prevention .correlate with client and their family and the health team appropriately. appropriately. Promote personal and professional growth of self and others.
Cardiac Failure
DescriptionIs the inability of the heart to pump sufficient blood to mee t t h e needs of the tissues for oxygenation and nu trients -CHF is most commonly used when referring to leftsided and right-sided failure - Formerly called Congestive Heart Failure Etiologic Factors: -Increased metabolic rate (egg. fever, thyrotoxicosis) -Hypoxia -Anemia Pathophysiology: Cardiac failure most commonly occurs with disorde rs of cardiacmuscles that result in decreased contractile properties of the heart. Common
underlying conditions that lead to decreased myocardial contractility include myocardial dysfunction, arterial hypertension, and alular dysfunction. Myocardial dysfunction may be due to coronary artery disease, dilated cardiomyopathy, or inflammatory and degenerative diseases of the myocardium. Atherosclerosis of the coronary arteries is the primary cause of heart failure. Ischemia causes myocardial dysfunction because of resulting hypoxia and acidosis (from accumulation of lactic acid). Myocardial infarction causes focal my cellular necrosis, the death of myocardial cells, and a loss of contractility; the extent of the infarction is prognostic of the severity of CHF. Dilated cardiomyopathy causes diffuse cellular necrosis, leading to decreased contractility. Inflammatory and degenerative diseases of the myocardium, such as myocarditis, may also damage myocardial fibers, with a resultant decrease in contractility. Systemic or pulmonary HPN increases afterload which increases the workload of the
heart and in turn leads to hypertrophy of myocardial muscle fibers; this can be considered a compensatory mechanism because it increases contractility. Alular heart disease is also a cause of cardiac failure. The valves ensure that blood flows in one direction. With alular dysfunction, valve has increasing difficulty moving forward. This decreases the amount of blood being ejected, increases pressure within the heart, and eventually leads to pulmonary and venous congestion. Left-Sided Cardiac FailurePulmonary congestion occurs when the left ve ntricle cannot pump the blood out of the chamber. This increases pressure in the left ventricle and decreases the blood flow from the left atrium. The pressure in the left atrium increases, which decreases the blood flow coming from the pulmonary vessels. The resultant increase in pressure in the pulmonary circulation forces fluid into the pulmonary
tissues and alveoli; which impairs gas exchange. Clinical Manifestations - Dyspnea on exertion - Cough - Adventitious breath sounds - Restless and anxious - Skin appears pale and ashen and feels cool and clammy - Tachycardia and palpitations - Weak, thread pulse Easy fatigability and decreased activity tolerance Right-Sided Cardiac Failure - When the right ventricle fails, congestion of the viscera and the peripheral tissues predominates. This occurs because the right side of the heart cannot eject blood and
thus cannot accommodate all the blood that normally returns to it from the venous circulation. Clinical Manifestations Edema of the lower extremities (dependent ed ema) - Weight gain - Hepatomegaly (enlargement of the liver) - Distended neck veins Ascites (accumulation of fluid in the peritoneal cavity) - Anorexia and nausea - Nocturnal (need to urinate at night) - Weakness Diagnostics Chest X-ray (may show cardiomegaly or vascular congestion) Echocardiogram (shows decreased ventricular function and decreased ejection fraction
CVP (elevated in right-sided failure)
*pulmonary artery pressure monitoring may be used as guide treatment in serious case of pulmonary edema Nursing Diagnoses Act ivi ty int ol erance r/t im bal ance be tw ee n ox yg en su pp ly an ddemand secondary to decreased CO - Excess fluid volume r/t excess fluid/sodium intake or retention secondary to CHF and its medical therapy Anxiety r/t breathlessness and restlessness se condary to inadequate oxygenation - Non-compliance r/t to lack of knowledgePowerlessness r/t inability to perform role resp onsibilitiessecondary to chronic illness and hospitalizationNursingManagementa. Acute phase
- Monitor and record BP, pulse, respirations, ECG and CVP to detect changes in cardiac output maintain client in sitting position to decrease p ulmonarycongestion and facilitate improved gas exchange auscultate heart and lung sounds frequently: i ncreasing crackles, increasing dyspnea, decreasing lung sounds indicate worsening failure administer O2 as ordered to improve gas exch ange and increaseoxygenation of blood; monitor arterial blood gases (ABG) as ordered to assess oxygenation administer prescribed medications on accurat e schedule Monitor serum electrolytes to detect hypokale mia secondary to diuretic therapy
Monitor accurate input and output (may requir e Foley catheter tallow accurate measurement of urine output) to evaluate fluid status If fluid restriction is prescribed, spread the fluid throughout the dayto reduce thirst encourage physical rest and organized activiti es with frequentrest periods to reduce the work of the heartprovide a calm reassuring environment to decr ease anxiety; thisdecreases oxygen consumption and demands on the heart. Chronic heart failureeducate client and family about the rationale fo r the regimenestablish baseline assessment for fluid status and functionalabilitiesmonitor daily weights to evaluate changes in fl uid statusassess at regular intervals for changes in fluid
status or functionalactivity level PharmacologicTherapyACE Inhibitors (promotes vasodilation and diur esis by decreasingafterload and preload eventually decreasing the workload of the heart.)- Diuretic Therapy. A diuretic is one of the first medications prescribed to a patient with CHF. Diuretics promote the excretion of sodium and water through the kidneysDigitalis (increases the force of myocardial contraction and slows conduction through the AV node. It improves contractility thus, increasing left ventricular output.). (Dobutrex) is an intravenous medication given t opatients with significant left ventricular dysfunction. Acatecholamine, it stimulates the beta1-adrenergic receptors. Itsmajor action is to increase cardiac contractility.Milrinone (Primacor). A phosphodiesterase inh ibitor that prolongsthe release and prevents the uptake of calcium. This in
, causing a decrease in preload and afterload The workload of the heart. Nitroglycerine (a vasodilator reduces preload) - Morphine to sedate and vasodilator, decreasing the work of theheartAnticoagulants may be prescribed. Betaadrenergic blockersmaybe indicated in patients with mild or moderate failure Client Education Include family member or others in teaching as appropriate Weight monitoring: teach client the importance of measuring and recording daily weights and report unexplained increase of 3-5pounds Diet: sodium restriction to decrease fluid overload and potassium rich foods to replenish loss from medications; do not restrict water intake unless directed Medication regime: explain the importance of following all medication instruction
Activity: help client plan paced activity to maximize available cardiac output Symptoms: report to MD promptly any of the following: chest pain, new onset of dyspnea on exertion, paroxysmal and nocturnal dyspnea Report even minor changes to MD as they may be an early signoff Myocardial Infarction Description- Occurs when the heart muscle is deprived of oxygen and nutrient-rich blood. However, in the case of MI, this deprivation occurs over a sustained period to the point at which irreversible cell death and necrosis take place. Infarction results from sustained ischemia and is irreversible causing cellular death and necrosis.
Etiologic factors - Physical exertion
- Emotional stress- Weather extremes - Digestion after a heavy meal - Valsalva maneuver - Hot baths or showers - Sexual excitation Pathophysiologic characteristic (Coronary arter y disease)
Pathophysiology Coronary artery blood flow is blo cked by atheroscleroticnarrowing, thrombus formation or persistent vasospasm; myocardium supplied by the arteries is deprived of oxygen; persistent ischemia may rapidly lead to tissue death ClinicalManifestations - Chest pain or discomfort (described as aching or squeezing pain, most common location is sub sternal, radiating to neck, jaw, back, shoulders, left arm or occasionally the right arm) -Complain of heartburn or indigestion
-pallor, diaphoresis, cold skin, shortness of breath, weakness, dizziness, anxiety, and feelings of impending doom. DiagnosticsLaboratory Tests - Electrocardiogram (12-lead) – capable of diagnosing MI in 80% of patients, making it an indispensable, noninvasive, and cost-effective tool. Reading shows ST elevation, accompanied by T-wave inversion; and later new pathologic Q wave -Cardiac Enzymes Enzymes – elevated CK with MB is enzymes >5percent (early diagnosis); elevated Troponin (early to late diagnosis); or elevated LDH with ―flipped‖ is enzymes (late diagnosis) -WBC count count – leukocytosis (10,000/mm3 to 20,000/mm3) appears on the second day after AM AMI and dis appears after ter 1 week -Positron Emission Tomography (PET) is used to evaluate cardiac
Imaging Studies metabolism and to asse ss tissue perfusion -Magnetic Resonance Imaging helps identify the site and extent of an MI -Tran esophageal esophageal Echocardiography Echocardiography (TEE) is an imaging technique in which transducer is placed against the wall of the esophagus; the image of the myocardium is clearer when the esophageal sites used. Nursing Diagnoses -Acute Pain related to myocardial ischemia resulting from coronary artery occlusion -Ineffective Tissue Perfusion related to thrombus in coronary artery -Decreased Cardiac Output related to negative inotropic changes in the heart secondary to myocardial ischemia
-Impaired Gas Exchange related to decreased cardiac output -Anxiety and Fear related to hospital admissio admission n and fear fear of death death Nur Nursi sing ng Management -Assess pain status frequently with pain scale -Assess hemodynamic hemodynamic status including including BP, HR, LOC, skin color, and temperature (every 5 minutes during with pain; every 15minutes) -Monitor continuous ECG to detect dysrhythmias -Perform 12-lead ECG immediately with new pain or changes in level of pain -Monitor respirations, breath sounds, and input and output to dtectearly signs of heart failure -Monitor O2 saturation saturation and administer administer O2 as prescribed
-Provide for physiological rest to decrease oxygen demands on heart -Keep client NPO or progress to liquid diet as ordered; maintain I access for medication as needed -Provide a calm environment and reassure client and family to decrease stress, fear and anxiety -Report significant changes immediately to physician to ensure rapid treatment of complications -Maintain bed rest for 24 to 36 hours and gradually increase activity as ordered while closely monitoring CO, ECG and painstatusPharmacologicTherapy -Nitroglycerine (to dilate coronary vessels and increase blood flow) -Morphine Sulfate (to relieve chest pain)
-Anticoagulant (heparin) and Antiplatelet (aspirin) - to prevent additional clot formation -Streptokinase (to dissolve clot) -Beta blockers (to decrease cardiac work) -Anti-dysrhythmia
Surgical Interventions -Percutaneous Trans luminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA) –involves the passage of an inflatable balloon catheter into thestenonic coronary vessel, which is then dilated, resulting in compression of the atherosclerotic plaque and widening of the vessel -Coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) – done by harvesting either a saphenous vein from the leg or the left internalmammaryartery and then used
to bypass areas of obstruction in the heart Client Education -Include appropriate family members whenever possible -Explain cardiac rehabilitation program if ordered -Explain modifiable risk factors and develop a plan with client including supportive resources to change lifestyle to decrease these factors -Explain medication regime as prescribed; identify side effects to report (provide written instructions for later reference) -Stress the importance of immediate reporting of chest pain or signs of decreased CO2 -Instruct about bleeding precautions if client is on anticoagulant therapy: use
soft toothbrush, electric razor, avoid trauma or injury; wear or carry medical alert identification.
Acute Pulmonary Failure Description Definedasafall in arterial oxygentension and a rise i n a r t e r i a l carbon dioxide tension. - The ventilation and/or perfusion mechanisms in the lung are impaired. Etiologic factors -Alveolar hypoventilation -Diffusion abnormalities -Ventilation-perfusion mismatching -Shunting Pathophysiology
-Progression of pulmonary edema occurs when capillary hydrostatic pressure is increased, promoting movement of fluid into the interstitial space of the alveolar-capillary membrane. Initially, increased lymphatic flow removes the excess fluids, but continued leakage eventually overwhelms this mechanism. Gas exchange becomes impaired by the thick membrane. Increasing interstitial fluid pressure ultimately causes leaks into the alveolar sacs, impairing ventilation and gas exchange.
ClinicalManifestations -Tachypnea -Tachycardia
-Cold, clammy skin and frank diaphoresis are apparent especially around the forehead and face -Percussion reveals hyper resonance in patients with COPD; dull or flat on patients with atelectasis or pneumonia -Diminished breath sounds; absence of breath sounds of the affected lung in patients with pneumothorax; wheezes on patients with asthma; rhonchi on patients with bronchitis and crackles may reveal suspicion of pulmonary edema Diagnostics -ABG analysis indicates respiratory failure when PaO2 is low andPaCO2 is high and the HCO3 level is normal -Chest X-ray is used to identify pulmonary diseases such as
emphysema, atelectasis, pneumothorax, infiltrates and effusions -Electrocardiogram (ECG) can demonstrate arrhythmias, commonly found with core pulmonale and myocardial hypoxia -Pulse oximetry reveals reveals a decreasing decreasing SpO2 level -WBC count aids detection of an underlying infection; abnormally low hemoglobin and hematocrit levels signal blood loss, indicating decrease oxygen carrying capacity -PA catheterization is used to distinguish pulmonary causes from cardiovascular causes of acute respiratory failure Nursing Diagnoses -Impaired Gas Exchange related to capillary membrane obstruction from fluid
-Excess Fluid Volume Volume related to excess preloadNursingManagement -Assess the patient’s respiratory respiratory status at least every 2 hours or more as indicated -Position the patient for optimal breathing effort when he isn’t intubated. Put the call bell within easy reach to reassure the patient and prevent necessary exertion -Maintain the norm thermic environment to reduce patient’s oxygen demand -Monitor vital signs, heart rhythm, and fluid intake and output, including daily weights, to identify fluid overload or impending dehydration -After intubation, auscultate the lungs to check for accidental intubation of the esophagus or main stem bronchus.
-Don’t suction too often without identifying the underlying cause of an equipment alarm. -Watch oximetry and scenography scenography values because these may indicate changes in patient’s condition -Note the amount and quality of lung secretions and look for changes in the patient’s status -Check cuff pressure on the ET tube to prevent erosion from an overinflated cuff -Implement measures to prevent nasal tissue necrosis -Be alert of GI bleeding -Provide a means of communication communication for patients who are intubated and alertPharmacologicTherapy
-Reversal agents such as Naloxone (Narran) are given if drug overdose is suspected -Bronchodilators are given to open airways -Antibiotics are given to combat infection -Corticosteroids may be given to reduce inflammation -Continuous IV solutions of positive inotropic agents may be given to increase cardiac output, and vasopressors may be given Vasoconstrictions to improve or maintain blood pressure -Diuretics may be given to reduce fluid overload and edemaClient EducationInclude family member or ot
hers in teaching as appropri ate -Weight monitoring: teach client the importance of measuring and recording daily weights and report unexplained increase of 3-5pounds -Diet: sodium restriction to decrease fluid overload and potassium rich foods to replenish loss from medications; do not restrict water intake unless directed -Medication regime: explain the importance of following all medication instructions -Instruct client and family to maintain elevation of the head of the client at least 45 degrees; position increases chest expansion and mobilizes fluid from the chest into more dependent areas Acute Renal Failure Description
-a sudden loss of kidney function function caused by failure of renal circulation or damage to the tubules or glomeruli. Etiologic factor. Prerenal caused by decrease blood fl ow to kidneys like severedehy dration,diuretic therapy, circulatory collapse,hypovolemia or shock; readily reversible when recognized and treatedb.Intrarenal – caused by disease process, ischemia, or toxic conditions such as acute glomerulonephritis, vascular disorders,toxicagents, or severe infection Post renal – caused by any condition that obstructs urine flow such as benign
prostatic hyperplasia, renal or urinary tract calculi, or tumors.
Pathophysiology -Acute renal failure is classified as perennial, intracranial or post renal. All conditions that lead to perennial failure impair blood flow to the kidneys (renal perfusion), resulting in a decreased glomerular filtration rate and increased tubular desorption of sodium and water. Intracranial failure results from damage to the Kidneys. Post renal failure results from obstructed urine flow. ClinicalManifestations *A change in blood pressure and volu volum me sign signa als pre renal nal fail failu ure, the patient may have the following: -Oliguria
-Tachycardia -Hypotension -Dry mucous membranes membranes -Flat jugular veins -Lethargy progressing to coma -Decreased cardiac output and cool, clammy skin in patient with heart failure *As renal failure progresses, the patient may manifest the following signs and symptom: - uremia - confusion - GI complaints - fluid in the lungs - infection Diagnostics -Blood studies reveal elevated BUN, serum keratinize, and potassium levels
and decreased blood pH, bicarbonate, HCT, and Hob levels -Urine studies show cats, cellular debris, decreased specific gravity and, in glomerular diseases, proteinuria and urine osmolality close to serum osmolality. -Keratinize clearance testing is used to measure the GFR and estimate the number of remaining functioning nephrons -Electrocardiogram (ECG) shows tall, peaked T waves, widening QRS complex, and disappearing P waves if increased potassium is present *Other studies used to determine the cause of renal failure :- kidney ultrasonography - plain films of the abdomen
- KUB radiography - excretory urography - renal scan - retrograde pyelography computed tomography scan and nephr otomography
Nursing Diagnoses -Excess Fluid Volume -Imbalanced Nutrition: Less than Body Requirements -Deficient Knowledge -Riskfor Infection NursingManagement -Monitor intake and output -Observe for oliguria followed by polyuria -Weigh daily and observe for edema
-Monitoring of complications of electrolyte imbalances, such as acidosis and hyperkalemia -Allow client to verbalize concerns regarding disorder -Encourage prescribed diet: moderate protein restriction, high in carbohydrates, restricted potassium -Once diuresis phase begins, evaluate slow return of BUN, keratinize, phosphorus, and potassium to normalPharmacologicTherapy -Use volume expanders are prescribed to restore renal perfusion in hypotensive clients and Dopamine IV to increase renal blood flow -Loop diuretics to reduce toxic concentration in nephrons and establish urine flow -ACE inhibitors to control hypertension
-Antacids or H2 receptor antagonists to prevent gastric ulcers -Kayexelate to reduce serum potassium levels and sodium bicarbonate to treat acidosis * Avoid nephrotoxic drugs
Client Education -Dietary and fluid restrictions, including those that may be continued after discharge -Signs of complications such as fluid volume excess, CHF, and hyperkalemia -Monitor weight, blood pressure, pulse, and urine output -Avoid nephrotoxic drugs and substances: NSAIDs, some antibiotics, radiologic contrast media, and heavy metals; consult care provider prior to taking any OTC drugs
-Recovery of renal function requires up to 1 year; during this period, nephrons are vulnerable to damage from nephrotoxinsStroke/Cerebrovascular accident Description -Is a condition where neurological deficits occur as a result of decreased blood flow to a localized area of the brain? -Thrombosis of the cerebral arteries supplying the brain or of the Intracranial vessels occluding blood flow -Embolism from a thrombus outside the brain, such as in the heart, aorta, or common carotid artery -Hemorrhage from an intracranial artery or vein, such as from hypertension, ruptured aneurysm, AVM, trauma,
hemorrhagic disorder, or septic embolism Pathophysiology -the underlying event leading to stroke is oxygen and nutrient deprivation; if the arteries become blocked, auto regulatory mechanisms maintain cerebral circulation until collateral circulation develops to deliver blood to the affected area; if the compensatory mechanisms become overworked or cerebral blood flow remains impaired for more than a few minutes, oxygen deprivation leads to infarction of brain tissue Risk factors -Hypertension -Family history of stroke -History of TIA
-Cardiac disease, including arrhythmias, coronary artery disease, acute myocardial infarction, dilated myopathy, and alular disease -Diabetes mellitus -Familial hyperlipidemia -Cigarette smoking -Increased alcohol intake -Obesity, sedentary lifestyle -Use of hormonal contraceptivesClinicalManifestations -Hemiparesis on the affected side (may be more severe in the face and arm than in leg) -Unilateral sensory defect (such as numbness, or tingling) generally on the same side as the hemiparesis -Slurred or indistinct speech or the inability to understand speech
-Blurred or indistinct vision, double vision, or vision loss in one eye (usually described as a curtain coming down or gray-out of vision) -Mental status changes or loss of consciousness (particularly if associated with one of the above symptoms) -Very severe headache (with hemorrhagic) *A stroke in the left hemisphere produces symptoms on the right side of the body; in the right hemisphere, symptoms on the left side
Diagnostics -CT scan discloses structural abnormalities, edema, and lesions, such as no hemorrhagic infarction and aneurysms
-MRI is used to identify areas of ischemia, infarction and cerebral swelling -DSA is used to evaluate patency of the cerebral vessels and shows evidence of occlusion of the cerebral vessels, a lesion or Vascular abnormalities -Cerebral angiography shows details of disruption or displacement of the cerebral circulation by occlusion or hemorrhage -Carotid Duplex scan is a high frequency ultrasound that shows blood flow through the carotid arteries and reveals stenosis duet atherosclerotic plaque and blood clots -Tran’s cranial Doppler studies are used to evaluate the velocity of blood flow through major intracranial vessels, which can indicate vessel diameter
-Brain scan shows ischemic areas but may not be conclusive for up to 2 weeks after stroke -Single photon emission CT scanning and PET scan show areas of altered metabolism surrounding lesions that aren’t revealed bother diagnostic tests -Lumbar puncture reveals bloody CSF when stroke is hemorrhagic -EEG is used to identify damaged areas of the brain and to differentiate seizure activity from stroke -A blood glucose test shows whether the patient’s symptoms are related to hypoglycemia -Hemoglobin and hematocrit level may be elevated in severe occlusion -Baseline CBC, platelet count, PTT, PT, fibrinogen level and chemistry panel are
obtained before thrombolytic therapy Nursing Diagnoses -Ineffective Tissue Perfusion related to decreased cerebral blood flow -Risk for Prolonged Bleeding related to use of thrombolytic agents -Increased Risk for Aspiration related to depressed gag reflex, Impaired swallowing -Impaired Physical Mobility related to loss of muscle toneNursingManagement -Encourage active range of motion on unaffected side and passive range of motion on the affected side -Turn client every 2 hours -Monitor lower extremities for thrombophlebitis -Encourage use of unaffected arm for ADLs
-Teach client to put clothing on affected side first -Resume diet orally only after successfully completing swallowing evaluation -Collaborate with occupational and physical therapists -Try alternate methods of communication with aphasia patients Accept client’s frustration and anger as normal to loss of function -Teach client with homonymous hemianopia to overcome the deficit by turning the head side to side to be able to fully scan the visual fieldPharmacologicTherapy -Thrombolytic for emergency treatment of ischemic stroke -Aspirin or Ticlopidine (Tic lid) as an antiplatelet agent to prevent recurrent stroke -Benzodiazepines to treat patients with seizure activity -Anticonvulsants to treat seizures or to prevent them after the patient’s condition has stabilized -Stool softeners to avoid straining, which increase ICP -Antihypertensive And antiarrhythmic to treat patients with risk factors for recurrent stroke -Corticosteroids to minimize associated cerebral edema -Hyperosmolar solutions (Manito) or diuretics are given to clients with cerebral edema
-Analgesics to relieve the headaches that may follow hemorrhagic stroke Surgical Intervention -Craniotomy to remove hematoma -Carotid endarterectomy to remove atherosclerotic plaques from the inner arterial wall -Extra cranial bypass to circumvent an artery that’s blocked by occlusion or stenosis Client Education -Educate client and family about CVA and CVA prevention -Educate client and family about community resources -Educate client and family about physical care and need for psychosocial support -Educate client and family about medication Increased Intracranial Pressure
Descriptionprolonged pressure greater than 15m m H g o r 1 8 0 m m H 2 O m e a s u r e d i n the lateral ventricles Etiology -Cerebral Edema is an increase in volume of brain tissue due to alterations in capillary permeability, changes in functional or the structural integrity of the cell membrane or an increase in the interstitial fluids -Hydrocephalus is an increase in the volume of CSF within the ventricular system; it may be no communicating hydrocephalus where the drainage from the ventricular system is impaired Pathophysiology
-Blood flow exerts pressure against a weak arterial wall, stretching it like an overblown balloon and making it to rupture; rupture is followed by a subarachnoid hemorrhage, in which blood spills into space normally occupied by CSF. Sometimes, blood spills into brain tissue, where a clot can cause potentially fatal increased ICP and brain tissue.
Clinicalmanifestations -Blurring of vision, decreased visual acuity and diplopia are the earliest signs of increased ICP -Headache, papilledema or the swelling of optic disk and vomiting -Change of LOCDiagnostics -Skull radiography -CT scan -MRI * Lumbar puncture is not performed because of brain herniation caused by sudden release of pressure*Laboratory tests are performed to augment and monitor treatment approaches; serum osmolality monitors hydration status and ABGsmeasure pH, oxygen and carbon dioxide Nursing Diagnoses -Ineffective Cerebral Tissue Perfusion related to Increased ICP -Risk for Infection -Impaired Physical Mobility -Risk for Ineffective Airway Clearance NursingManagement - Assess neurological status every 1 to 2 hours and report any deterioration; include LOC, behavior, motor/sensory function, pupil size and response, vital signs with temperature
-Maintain airway; elevate head of 30 degree or keep flat as prescribed; maintain head and neck in neutral position to promote venous drainage -Assess for bladder distention and bowel constipation; assist client when necessary to prevent Val Sava maneuver -Plan nursing care so it is not clustered because prolonged activity may increase ICP; provide quiet environment and limit noxious stimuli; limit stimulants such as radio, TV and newspaper; avoid ingesting stimulants such as coffee, tea, cola drinks and cigarette smoke -Maintain fluid restriction as prescribed -Keep dressings over catheter dry and change dressings as prescribed; monitor insertion site for CSF leakage or infection; monitor clients for signs and symptoms of infection; use aseptic technique when in contact with ICP monitor
Pharmacologic therapy -Osmotic diuretics such as Manito and loop diuretics such as Furosemide (Lasix) are mainstays used to decrease ICP -Corticosteroids are effective in decreasing ICP especially withtumorsSurgical Intervention -A drainage catheter, inserted via ventriculostomy into lateral ventricle, can be done to monitor ICP and to drain CSF to maintain normal pressure; if used the system is calibrated with transducer is leveled 1 inch above the ear; sterile is of utmost Importance Client Education -Teach the client at risk for increased ICP to avoid coughing, blowing the nose, straining for bowel movements, pushing against the bed side rails, or performing isometric exercises -Advice the client to maintain neutral head and neck alignment
-Encourage the family to maintain quiet environment and minimize stimuli -Educate the family that upsetting the client may increase ICP
METABOLIC EMERGENCIES DKA Description -Life threatening metabolic acidosis resulting from persistent hyperglycemia and breakdown of fats into glucose, leading to presence of ketones in blood; can be triggered by emotional stress, uncompensated exercise, infection, trauma, or insufficient or delayed insulin administration Etiology -Decreased or missed dose of insulin -Illness or infection -Undiagnosed and untreated diabetes Pathophysiology -In the absence of endogenous insulin, the body breaks down fats for energy. In the process, fatty acids develop too rapidly and are converted to ketones, resulting to severe metabolic acidosis. As acidosis worsens, blood glucose levels increase and hyperkalemia worsens. The cycle continues until coma and death occur. Clinical manifestations - Acetone breath - Poor appetite or anorexia - Nausea and vomiting - Abdominal pain - Blurred vision - Weakness - Headache - Dehydration
- Thirst or polydipsia - Orthostatic hypotension - Hyperventilation (Kussmaul respirations) - Mental status changes in DKA vary from patient to patient - weight loss - Muscle wasting- leg cramps- recurrent infections Diagnostics -Serum glucose is elevated (200 to 800 mg/dl) -Serum Ketone Level is increased -Urine acetone test is positive -Arterial Blood Gas analysis reveals metabolic acidosis -ECG findings shows tall tented T waves and widened QRScomplex changes related to hyperkalemia; later with hypokalemia, shows flattened T wave and the presence of Wave -Serum osmolality is elevated
Nursing Diagnoses -Deficient Fluid Volume -Risk for Injury -Risk for Skin Impaired Integrity -Ineffective Breathing Pattern -Disturbed Sensory Perception -Knowledge Deficit -Anxiety Nursing Management -Restore fluid, electrolyte and glucose balance with IV infusions and medications, analyze intake and out, blood glucose, urine ketones, vital signs, oxygenation and breathing pattern -Maintain skin integrity; promote healing of impaired skin; prevent infection by turning and positioning client every 2 hours;
provide pressure relief as indicated; manage incontinence and perspiration with skin protective barriers and cleansing; provide appropriate nutrition and oxygen support -Promote safety by analyzing vital signs, client communication, LOC and emotional response, and activity tolerance; implement falls prevention measures -Assist client to verbalize concerns and cope effectively with illness and fears -Assist client to update Medic-Alert bracelet information asappropriatePharmacotherapy -Administer IV Insulin and fluid and electrolyte replacements based on laboratory test results Client Education -Instruct client about the nature and causes of DKA (such as excess glucose intake, insufficient medications or physiological and/or psychological stressors) any new medications.
HYPEROSMOLAR HYPERGLYCEMIC NONKETOTIC COMA Description -Life threatening metabolic disorder of hyperglycemia usually recurring with DM types 2 medications, infections, acute illness, invasive procedure, or a chronic illness Etiology -Medications -Infections -Acute illness -Invasive procedure -Chronic illness
Pathophysiology -glucose production and release into the blood is increased or glucose uptake by the cells is decreased; when the cells don’t receive glucose, the liver responds by converting glycogen to glucose for release into the bloodstream; when all excess glucose molecules remain in the serum, osmosis cause fluid shifts.; the cycle continues until fluid shifts in the brain cause coma and death. Clinical Manifestations -Severe dehydration -Hypotension and tachycardia -Diaphoresis -Tachypnea -Polyuria, polydipsia and polyphagia -Lethargy and fatigue -Vision changes -Rapid onset of lethargy -Stupor and coma -Neurologic changes Diagnostics -Serum glucose is elevated, sometimes 800 to 2,000 mg/dl -Ketones are absent, urine and serum ketones are absent -Urine glucose levels are positive -Serum osmolality is increased -Serum Sodium levels are elevated and the serum potassium level is usually normal -ABG results are usually normal, without evidence of acidosis Nursing Diagnoses
-Decreased Cardiac Output -Deficient Fluid Volume -Hyperthermia -Disturbed Sensory Perception -Risk for Impaired Skin Integrity -Risk for Aspiration -Deficient Knowledge
Nursing Management -Assess the patient’s LOC, respiratory status and oxygenation -Monitor the patient’s VS; changes may reflect the patient’s hydration status -Monitor patient’s blood glucose and serum electrolytes -Administer regular insulin IV as ordered, by continuous infusion and titrate dosage based on the patient’s blood glucose levels -Maintain intact skin integrity by turning every 2 hours, use of pressure relief aids, nutritional support, use of skin moisturizers and barriers, and management of incontinence -Prevent aspiration by using appropriate feeding precautions, elevate head of bed 15 to 30 degrees during and after feeding for 1 hour; if BP is too unstable to elevate head of bed with feeding, then withhold oral feedings. Pharmacotherapy -IV infusion of NS to replace fluids and sodium, regular insulin Ivo manage the hyperglycemia, and potassium to replace losses and shifts Client Education -Instruct client and family about HHNK, symptoms to report, and administration of new medications
-Provide patient and family education to foster prevention of future episodes.
Massive Bleeding Description -Uncontrolled bleeding Etiology -Result of blunt or penetrating trauma -Gastrointestinal or genitourinary bleeding -Hemoptysis Pathophysiology -Due to the lack of adequate circulating blood volume causing creased tissue perfusion and metabolism resulting in hypoxia, vasoconstriction and shunting of the available circulating blood volume to the vital organs(heart and brain); Symphatheticnervous system stimulation, hormonal release of antidiuretic hormone and the angiotensin-renin mechanisms and neural responses attempt to compensate for the loss of circulating volume but eventually metabolic acidosis, multi organ system failure occurs. Clinical lManifestations -Cool, clammy, pale skin (esp. distal extremities) -Delayed capillary refill (>3 seconds) -Weak, rapid pulses -Decreased blood pressure (systolic pressure <90mmHg) -Rapid shallow respirations (>28/ min) -Restless, anxious, decreased LOC -Cardiac dysrhythmias (abnormalities of cardiac rhythm)
-Decreased urinary output
Diagnostics -Evidence of bleeding from thoracotomy that indicates bleeding from chest area -Abdominal or pelvic CT scan, abdominal ultrasound or peritoneal lavage indicate intra-abdominal bleeding -Endoscopy indicates upper or lower GI bleeding -Angiography procedures diagnose severe vascular damage -Extremity radiographs show long bone fractures -Hemoglobin and hematocrit from the CBC are decreased due to blood loss -Elevated serum lactate if bleeding continues and client becomes acidotic -ABGs show metabolic acidosis as blood loss continues -Baseline coagulation studies should be reviewed; initial PT/Stand platelet counts will be within normal limits but as coagulation factors become depleted, clotting times will increase and platelet counts will decrease -Serum electrolytes to assess renal function Nursing Diagnoses -Impaired Tissue Perfusion -Deficient Fluid volume -Decreased cardiac Output Nursing Management -Establish an adequate airway, breathing pattern, and applying supplemental oxygen -Give priority interventions to control bleeding such as direct pressure to wound site, or assisting with surgical interventions
-Establish IV access and begin with fluid replacement -Draw blood specimens as ordered to assist in evaluation of hemoglobin, hematocrit, electrolyte, and oxygenation andhydrationstatus -Insert an indwelling catheter and NG tube to assist in accurate recording of fluid balance status -Perform and document continuous serial assessments of hemodynamic parameters such as VS, capillary refill, CVP, cardiac rhythm, LOC, urinary output and laboratory findings
Pharmacotherapy -Crystalloids and blood products to maintain adequate circulating volume status -Sodium Bicarbonate to correct acidosis state -Vasopressor such as Dopamine Client Education -Explain procedures to the client -Support the family by explaining emergency measures BURNS Description -An alteration in skin integrity resulting in tissue loss or injury caused by heat, chemicals, electricity or radiation E
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p e s o f b u r n i n j u r y a.Thermal: results from dry heat (flames) or moist heat (steam or hot liquids); it is the most common type; it
causes cellular destruction that results in vascular, bony, muscle, or nerve complications; thermal burns can also lead to inhalation injury if the head and neck area is affected b.Chemical burns are caused by direct contact with either acidic or alkaline agents; they alter tissue perfusion leading to necrosis C.Electrical burns; severity depends on type and duration of current and amount of voltage; it follows the path of least resistance (muscles, bone, blood vessels and nerves); sources of electrical injury include direct current, alternating current andlightning d.Radiation burns: are usually associated with sunburn or radiation treatment for cancer; are usually superficial; extensive exposure to radiation may lead to tissue damage
Pathophysiology -It depends on the cause and classification of the burn; the injuring agents denatures cellular proteins; some cells die because of traumatic or ischemic necrosis; loss of collagen cross-linking also occurs with denaturation, creating abnormal osmotic and hydrostatic pressure gradients that cause intravascular fluid to move into interstitial spaces; Cellular injury triggers the release of mediators of inflammation, contributing to local and in the case of major burns , systemic increases in capillary permeability. ClinicalManifestations
-Localized pain and erythema, usually without blisters in the first24 hours (first degree burn) -Chills, headache, localized edema, nausea and vomiting (most severe first degree burn) -Thin-walled, fluid filled blisters appearing within minutes of the injury, with mild to moderate edema and pain (second degree superficial partial thickness burn) -White, waxy appearance to damaged area (second degree partial-thickness burn) -White, brown or black leathery tissue and visible thrombosedvessels due to destruction of skin elasticity (dorsum of hand, most common site of thrombosis veins), without blisters (third-degree burn) -Silver-colored, raised or charred area, usually at the site of electrical contact
D i a g n o s t i c s Rule of Nines chart determines the percentage of body * surface area (BSA) covered by the burn - ABG levels may be normal in the early stages but may reveal hypoxemia and metabolic acidosis -Carboxyhemoglobin level may reveal the extent of smoke inhalation due to the presence of carbon monoxide -Complete blood count may reveal decrease hemoglobin due O hemolysis, increased hematocrit and leukocytosis -Electrolyte levels show hypernatremia and hyperkalemia, other laboratory tests reveals elevated BUN, decreased total protein and albumin -Keratinize kinase (CK) and myoglobin levels may be elevated -Presence of myoglobin in urine may lead to acute tubular necrosis
Nursing Diagnoses -Risk for Deficient Fluid Volume -Risk for Infection -Impaired Physical Mobility -Imbalanced Nutrition: Less than Body Requirements -Ineffective Breathing Pattern -Impaired Tissue Perfusion -Risk for Impaired Gas Exchange -Anxiety -Risk for Ineffective Thermoregulation -Pain -Impaired Skin Integrity
Nursing Management -Assess patient’s ABCs; monitor arterial oxygen saturation and serial ABG values and anticipate the need for ET intubation and mechanical ventilation -Auscultate breath sounds -Administered supplemental humidified oxygen as ordered -Perform or pharyngeal or tracheal suctioning as indicated by the patient’s inability to clear his airway -Monitor the patient’s cardiac and respiratory status -Assess LOC for changes such as confusion, restlessness or decreased responsiveness -solution for chemical burns -Place the patient in semi-Fowler’s position to maximize chest expansion; keep patient as quiet and comfortable to minimize oxygen demand -Prepare the patient for an emergency escharotomy of the chest and neck for deep burns
-Administer rapid fluid replacement therapy as ordered
*For burn patient in shock -Monitor VS and hemodynamic parameters -Assess patient’s intake and output every hour, insert an indwelling catheter -Assess the patient’s level of pain, including nonverbal indicators and administer analgesics such as Morphine Sulfate IV as ordered -Keep the patient calm, provide periods of uninterrupted rest between procedures and use no pharmacologic pain relief measures as appropriate -Obtain daily weights and monitor intake, including daily calorie counts; provide high calorie, high protein diet -Administer histamine 2 receptor antagonists as ordered to reduce risk of ulcer formation -Assess the patient’s sign and symptoms of infection; may obtain wound culture and administer antimicrobials antipyretics as ordered -Administer tetanus prophylaxis if indicated -Perform burn wound care as ordered; prepare patient for grafting as indicated -Assess the neurovascular status of the injured area, including pulses, reflexes, parenthesis, color and temperature of the injured area at least 2 to 4 hours or more frequently as indicated -Assist with splinting, positioning, compression therapy and exercise to the burned area as indicated; maintain the burned area in a neutral position to prevent contractures and minimize deformity -Explain all procedures to the patient before performing them
Pharmacotherapy -Antibiotic prophylaxis will eradicate bacterial component -Pain therapy -Tetanus prophylaxis -Topical antimicrobial -Enzymatic debriding agents such as collagenase, fibrinolysindesoxyribonuclease, pain or sustains are used with a moisture barrier to protect surrounding tissue -Recommended dressings include polyurethane films (Op-site, Tegaderm), absorbent hydrocolloid dressings (Dodder) Client Education -Environmental safety: use low temperature setting for hot water heater, ensure access to and adequate number of electrical cords/outlets, isolate household chemicals, and avoid smoking imbed -Use of household smoke detectors with emphasis on maintenance -Proper storage and use of flammable substancesEvacuation plan for family -Care of burn at home -Signs and symptoms of infection -How to identify risk of skin changes -Use of sunscreen to protect healing tissue and other protective skin care Poisoning Description -Substances that are harmful to humans that are inhaled, ingested (food, drug overdose) or acquired by contact
Etiology -Carbon monoxide inhalation -Food poisoning -Drug overdose -Insecticide surface absorption Pathophysiology -The pathophysiology of poisons depends on the substance that’s inhaled or ingested. The extent of damage depends on the of the substance, the amount ingested, its form and the length of exposure to it. Substances with an alkaline pH cause tissue damage by liquefaction necrosis, which softens the tissue. Acids produce coagulation necrosis. Coagulation necrosis denatures proteins when substance contacts tissue. This limits the extent of the injury by preventing penetration of the acid into the tissue. -*The mechanism of action for inhalants is unknown, but they’re believed to act on the CNS similarly to a very potent anesthetic. Hydrocarbons sensitize the myocardial tissue and allow it to be sensitize to catecholamine’s, resulting in arrhythmias. ClinicalManifestations a.Carbon monoxide inhalation: mild exposure – nausea, vomiting, mild throbbing headache, flu-like symptoms; moderate exposure – dyspnea, dizziness, confusion, increased severity of mild symptoms; severe/prolonged exposure – seizures, coma,respiraotory arrest, hypotension and dysrhythmias B.Food poisonings: nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal cramps, fever , chills, dehydration, headache
c.Drug overdose: depends upon the substance ingested; symptoms may include nausea, vomiting, CNS depression or agitation, altered pupil response, respiratory changes such as tachypnea or bradypnea, alterations in temperature control, seizures or cardiac arrest D.Surface absorption of insecticides (organophosphates or carbonates): nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, headache, dizziness, weakness or tremors, mild to severe respiratory distress, slurred speech, seizures, and cardio-pulmonary arrest D
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The diagnosis of many poisonings is based on a thorough client history and clinical manifestations laboratory toxicology screens (serum,vomitus, stool and urine)de termine the extent of the absorption baseline blood work such as CBC, electrolytes, renal and hepatic studies enable future determination of organ and tissue damage Chest Xray may show aspiration pneumonia in inhalation poisoning -Abdominal X-rays may reveal iron pills or other radiopaque substances -ABG analysis used to evaluate oxygenation Nursing Diagnoses -Risk for Ineffective Airway Clearance -Risk for Decreased Cardiac Output -Deficient Fluid Volume
-Ineffective Breathing Pattern -Impaired Tissue Perfusion -Risk for Injury -Anxiety -Risk for Self-directed Violence -Hopelessness
Nursing Management -Assist with the management of an effective airway, breathing pattern and circulatory status -Give treatment of life-threatening dysrhythmias and conditions as ordered; continual monitoring of vital signs, cardiac rhythm and neurological status and supportive care is essential -Assist in the hastening in the elimination of the medication or poison, decrease the amount of absorption and administer antidotes as ordered -for specific treatment contact the poison center Pharmacotherapy *antidotes will vary with medication i n g e s t e d - Ipecac syrup 30ml PO followed by 240ml water is used for adults- Activated charcoal powder slurry 30 to 100g PO or per NG tube - Magnesium Citrate will be used for GI evacuation Naloxone (Narcan) for respiratory depression caused by narcotic overdose -Flumazenil (Romazicon) for benzodiazepine ingestions Client Education
-Assist the client and family in seeking the appropriate referrals and provide client education to further complications or incidence of overdose -Ensure that the client and family understand discharge instruction for follow up care or reason for admission.
Multiple Injuries Description -Is a physical injury or wound that’s inflicted by an external or violent act; it may be intentional or unintentional; involve injuries to more than one body area or organ Etiology -Weapons -Automobile collision -Physical confrontation -Falls -Unnatural occurrence to the body *Type of trauma which determines the extent of injury -Blunt trauma – leaves the body intact -Penetrating trauma – disrupts the body surface -Perforating trauma – leaves entrance and exit Pathophysiology -A physical injury can create tissue damage caused by stress and strain on surrounding tissue which results to infection, pain, swelling and potential compartment syndrome or it can be lifethreatening if it affects a highly vascular or vital organ Diagnostics -Chest X-ray – detect rib and sterna fractures, pneumothorax, flail chest, pulmonary contusion and lacerated or ruptured aorta
-Angiography studies – performed with suspected aortic laceration or rupture -Ct scan, cervical spine X-rays, skull X-rays, Angiogram – test for a patient with head trauma -ABG analysis to evaluate respiratory status and determine acidotic and alkaloid states -CBC to indicate the amount of blood loss -Coagulation studies to evaluate clotting ability -Serum electrolyte levels to indicate the presence of electrolyteimbalances
Nursing Diagnoses -Ineffective Airway Clearance -Ineffective Breathing Pattern -Impaired Gas Exchange -Deficient Fluid Volume -Decreased Cardiac Output -Impaired Tissue Perfusion -Impaired Skin Integrity -Risk for infection -Anxiety -Pain -Disturbed Body Image Nursing Management -Assess the patient’s ABCs and initiate emergency measures -Administer supplemental oxygen as ordered -Immobilize the patient’s head and neck with an immobilization device, sandbags, backboard and tape -Assist with cervical X-rays
-Monitor VS and note significant changes -Immobilize fractures -Monitor the patient’s oxygen saturation and cardiac rhythm for arrhythmias -Assess the patient’s neurologic status, including LOC and papillary and motor response -Obtain blood studies, including type and crosshatch -Insert large bore IV catheter and infuse normal saline or lactated Ringer’s solution -Assess the patient for multiple injuries -Assess the patient’s wounds and provide wound care as appropriate; cover open wounds and control bleeding by applying pressure and elevating extremities -Assess for increased abdominal distention and increased diameter of extremities -Administer blood products as appropriate -Monitor the patient for signs of hypovolemic shock -Provide pain medication as appropriate -Provide reassurance to the patient and his family
Pharmacotherapy -Tetanus immunization -Antibiotics for infection control -Analgesics for pain Client Education -Provide explanations of all procedures done -Families usually require emotional support and honest discussions about therapeutic interventions and plans
-Assist with cervical X-rays
-Monitor VS and note significant changes -Immobilize fractures -Monitor the patient’s oxygen saturation and cardiac rhythm for arrhythmias -Assess the patient’s neurologic status, including LOC and papillary and motor response -Obtain blood studies, including type and crosshatch -Insert large bore IV catheter and infuse normal saline or lactated Ringer’s solution -Assess the patient for multiple injuries -Assess the patient’s wounds and provide wound care as appropriate; cover open wounds and control bleeding by applying pressure and elevating extremities -Assess for increased abdominal distention and increased diameter of extremities -Administer blood products as appropriate -Monitor the patient for signs of hypovolemic shock -Provide pain medication as appropriate
-Provide reassurance to the patient and his family - Pharmacotherapy Tetanus immunization -Antibiotics for infection control -Analgesics for pain Client Education -Provide explanations of all procedures done -Families usually require emotional support and honest discussions about therapeutic interventions and plans
2. Assessment : A systematic procedure for collecting qualitative and quantitative data to describe progress and ascertain deviations from expected outcomes and achievements. 3. Attributes: Characteristics that underpin competent performance. 4. Benchmark: Essential standard 5. Client: An individual, family, group or community that is a consumer of nursing service.
6. Competence: The combination of skills, knowledge, attitudes, values and abilities that underpin effective performance as a nurse. 7. Competent: The person has competence across all domains of competencies applicable tithe registered nurse, at a standard that is judged to appropriate for the level of nurse beingassessed. 8. Competency: A defined area of skilled performance. 9. Context: The setting/environment where competence can be demonstrated or applied. 10. Domain: An organized cluster of competencies in nursing practice. 11. Effective: Having the intended outcome. 12. Enrolled nurse: A nurse registered under the enrolled nurse scope of practice. 13. Indicator: Key generic examples of competent performance. They are neither comprehensive nor exhaustive. They assist the assessor when using their professional judgment in assessing nursing
practice. They further assist curriculum development. 14. Performance criteria: Descriptive statements that can be assessed and that reflect the intent of a competency in terms of performance, behavior and circumstance. 15. Registered nurse: A nurse registered under the registered nurse scope of practice 16. Reliability: The extent to which a tool will function consistently in the same way with repeated use. 17. Validity: The extent to which a measurement tool measures what it purports to measure.
Pre – Test CLINICAL COMPETENCE DIRECTION: Circle the one best answer for each test question. Write your rationale for selecting the answer. To enhance your learning and test taking skill, discuss your answer and rationale with a partner.
A: Physical Examination 5 pts. Each (15 items) 1.The nurse is using a digital thermometer to take an oral temperature. After taking the oral temperature, the nurse obtains a reading of 94.2 degree F. Which of the follow-up actions is most appropriate for the nurse to do? A.used another digital thermometer to retake the temperature b.Feel the client’s skin temperature c.Takea rectal temperature d.Document the findings Rationale for your selection: _____________________________________ _______________________ _____________ _____________________________________ ______ 2.The nurse obtains an axillary temperature of 97.4 degree F on a client. In graphing the temperature, it is most appropriate for the nurse to: a.Write ―see nurse’s notes‖ above the temperature reading
b.Identify the temperature reading with an ―Ax‖ c.Graph the oral equivalent temperature of 98.4 degree d. Adjust graph 97.4 degree F on the form. Rationale for your selection:_________________________ _____________________________________ _ ___________________________________ _______________________ 3.The nurse is caring for a client who has an oral temperature of 99.6 degree F at8:00AM, the start of the day shift. The client’s RAND indicates that the vital signs should be taken once a shift. In planning care for the client, which action is most appropriate? a.Ensure that the temperature is taken promptly at 4:00PM b.Call the doctor for a more frequent order. c.Take the temperature as necessary d.Begin cooling measures Rationale for your selection__________________________
__________________________________ __ ________________ KEY ANSWER: 1.The nurse is using a digital thermometer to take an oral temperature. After taking the oral temperature, the nurse obtains a reading of 94.2 degree F. Which of the follow-up actions is most appropriate for the nurse to do? Abused another digital thermometer to retake the temperatureb.Feel the client’s skin temperaturec.Take a rectal t emperatured.Document The findings Rationale: A is the answer. Since the nurse is using a digital thermometer, it is important for the nurse to ensure that the equipment is functioning. The temperature recording should be low and should be taken again. Option B & C are not appropriate: option D should be done after verifying the temperature.2.The nurse obtains an axillary temperature of 97.4 degree F on a client. In graphing the temperature, it is most
appropriate for the nurse to:a.Write ―see nurse’s notes‖ above the temperature readingb.Identify the temperature reading with an ―Ax‖c.Graph the oral equivalent temperature of 98.4 degree Adjust graph 97.4 degree F on the formRationale:B is the answer. It is important for the nurse to identify the appropriate information on where the temperature was taken. Option A, C, & D do not accurately document the temperature information.3.The nurse is caring for a client who has an oral temperature of 99.6 degree F at8:00ARE, the start of the day shift. The client’s RAND indicates that the vital signssould be taken once a shift. In planning care for the client, which action is most appropriate? A.Ensure that the temperature is taken promptly at 4:00PMb.Call the doctor for a more frequent order.c.Take the temperature as necessaryd.Begin cooling measures Rationale: C is the answer. The
nurse can make an independent decision to take the temperature more frequently to ensure safe nursing care. Option A does not allow for through ongoing assessment. Option B & D are not necessary at this time.
Lesson A. 1CORE COMPETENCIES ―Tell me, I might forget; teach me and I might remember; involve me and I learn!‖Benjamin Franklin Definition: A competency appraisal is a process in which an individual is assessed for his or her competence in a particular area of employment. The main objective of the competency appraisal is to ascertain whether an employee is able to carry out his or her duties in a professional role. A typical scenario would involve an employee — the person being assessed for competence — and one or more of his or her seniors. It normally
Would take place in a private location, such as an unused office. The duration of a competency appraisal depends on the nature of the appraisal; the actual meeting between the senior professional and the employee typically lasts one to two hours. Legal Basis: Article 3 Sec.9 (c) of R.A. 9173/ ―Philippine Nursing Act 2002"Board shall monitor & enforce quality standards of nursing practice necessary to ensure the maintenance of efficient, ethical and technical, moral and professional standards in the practice of nursing taking into account the health needs of the nation. SIGNIFICANCE OF CORE COMPETENCY STANDARDS There are certain professions in which a competency appraisal is of critical importance, such as medical professions in which human safety is an essential priority. If patients are exposed to incompetent medical practitioners, this could be a potential threat to
the patient's health and safety. In developed nations, competency appraisal in the medical professional is highly prevalent as it is considered to be absolutely necessary; medical practitioners, particularly in their first years of practice, are monitored closely by senior medical professionals. •Unifying framework for nursing practice, education, regulation •Guide in nursing curriculum development •Framework in developing test syllabus for nursing profession entrants •Tool for nurses’ performance evaluation •Basis for advanced nursing practice, specialization •Framework for developing nursing training curriculum •Public protection from incompetent practitioners •Yardstick for unethical, unprofessional nursing practice
Phases of developing competency standards
○ 1st Phase Competency identification through Developing a Curriculum (DACUM) Workshop and series of focus group discussions with the participation of nurse experts And consumers of nursing practice such as administrators, doctors and clients○ 2nd Phase Verification of identified competencies among nursing experts from the different regions of the country○ 3rd Phase Pilot testing ( senior student in 8 nursing colleges)○ 4th Phase Benchmarking with exiting standards from 3 countries as well as International Council for Nurses (ICN) FOUR DOMAINS OF COMPETENCIES There are four domains of competence for the registered nurse scope of practice. Evidence of safety to practice as a registered nurse is demonstrated when the applicant meets the competencies within the following domains:
Domain one: Professional responsibility This domain contains competencies that relate to professional, legal and ethical responsibilities and cultural safety. These include being able to demonstrate knowledge and judgment and being accountable for own actions and decisions, while promoting an environment that maximizes clients’ safety, independence, quality of life and health. Domain two: Management of nursing care This domain contains competencies related to client assessment and managing client care, which is responsive to clients’ needs, and which is supported by nursing knowledge and evidence based research. Domain three: Interpersonal relationships this domain contains competencies related to interpersonal and therapeutic communication with clients, other nursing staff and inter professional communication and documentation. Domain four: Inter professional health care & quality improvement this domain contains competencies to demonstrate that, as a
member of the health care team, the nurse evaluates the effectiveness of care and of the team. Competencies and Indicators •
The competencies in each domain have a number of key generic examples of competence performance called indicators. •
These are neither comprehensive nor exhaustive; rather they provide examples of evidence of competence. The indicators are designed to assist the assessor when using his/her professional judgment in assessing the attainment of the competencies. •
The indicators further assist curriculum development for bachelors’ degrees in nursing or first year of practice programmes.Registered nurses are required to demonstrate competence. They are accountable for their actions and take responsibility for the direction
of nurse assistants, enrolled nurses and others. The competencies have been designed to be applied to registered nurse practice in a variety of clinical contexts. They take into account the contemporary role of the registered nurse, who utilizes nursing knowledge and complex nursing judgment to assess health needs, provide care, and advice and support people to manage their health. The registered nurse practices independently and in collaboration with other health professionals. The registered nurse performs general nursing functions, and delegates to, and directs enrolled nurses and nurse assistants. The registered nurse also provides comprehensive nursing assessments to develop, implement, and evaluate an integrated plan of health care, and provides nursing interventions that require substantial scientific and professional knowledge and skills. This occurs in a range of settings in partnership with individuals, families, and communities. Nursing students are supervised
in practice by a registered nurse. Nursing students are assessed against all competencies on an ongoing basis, and will be assessed for entry to the registered nurse scope of practice at the completion of their program. Nurses involved in management, education, policy and research The competencies also reflect the scope statement that some registered nurses use their nursing expertise to manage, teach, evaluate and research nursing practice. Registered nurses, who are not practicing in direct client care, are exempt from those competencies in domain two(management of nursing care) and domain three (interpersonal relationships) that only apply to clinical practice. There are specific competencies in these domains for nurses working in management, education, policy and/or research. These are included at the end of domains two and three. Nurses who are assessed against these specific competencies are required to demonstrate how they contribute to practice. Those practicing in direct
client care and in management, education, policy and/or research must meet both sets of competencies. Concepts and Definitions of 11 Key areas of Responsibility . SAFE AND QUALITY NURSING CARE CORE COMPETENCY 1:Demonstrate knowledge based on health/illness status of individual/ groups Indicators :○ Identifies health needs of patients/groups○ Explains patient/group status CORE COMPETENCY 2:Provides sound decision making in care of individual/groups considering their beliefs, values Indicators :○ Problem identification○ Data gathering related to problem○ Data analysis○ Selection appropriate action○ Monitor progress of action taken CORE COMPETENCY 3:Promotes patient safety and comfort Indicators :○ Performs agespecific safety measures and comfort measure in all aspects of patient care CORE COMPETENCY 4:Priority setting in nursing
care based on patients’ needs Indicators :○ Identifies priority needs of patients○ Analysis of patients’ needs○ Determine appropriate nursing care to be provided CORE COMPETENCY 5:Ensures continuity of care Indicators :○ Refers identified problems to appropriate individuals/ agencies○ Establish means of providing continuous patient care CORE COMPETENCY 6:Administers medications and other health therapeutics Indicators :○ Conforms to the 10 golden rules in medication administration and health therapeutics CORE COMPETENCY 7:Utilizes nursing process as framework for nursing. Performs comprehensive, systematic nursing assessment Indicators :○ Obtains consent○ Complete appropriate assessment forms○ Performs effective assessment techniques○ Obtains comprehensive client information○ Maintains privacy and confidentiality○ Identifies health needs CORE COMPETENCY 8:Formulates care plan in collaboration with patients, other health team members Indicators
:○ Includes patients, family in care planning○ States expected outcomes in nursing interventions○ Develops comprehensive patient care plan○ Accomplishes patient centered discharge plan CORE COMPETENCY 9:Implements NCP to achieve identified outcomes Indicators :○ Explain interventions to patient, family before carrying them out○ Implement safe, comfortable nursing interventions○ Acts according to client’s health conditions, needs○ Performs nursing interventions effectively and in timely manner CORE COMPETENCY 10: Implements NCP progress toward expected outcomes Indicators :○ Monitors effectiveness of nursing interventions○ Revises care plan PRNCORE COMPETENCY 11:Responds to urgency of patient’s condition Indicators :○ Identifies sudden changes in patient’s health conditions○ Implements immediate, appropriate interventions II. MANAGEMENT OF RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENT
CORE COMPETENCY 1:Organizes workload to facilitate patient care Indicators:○ Identifies task or activities that need to be accomplished○ Plans the performance of task or activities based on priority○ Finishes work assignment on time CORE COMPETENCY 2:Utilizes resources to support patient care Indicators:○ Determines the resources needed to deliver patient care○ Control the use of equipment CORE COMPETENCY 3:Ensures the functioning of resources Indicators:○ Check proper functioning of the equipment○ Refers Malfunctioning equipment to appropriate unit CORE COMPETENCY 4:Check the Proper functioning of the Equipment Indicators:○ Determines the task and procedures that can be safely assigned to the other members of the team○ Verifies the competence of the staff prior to delegating tasks CORE COMPETENCY 5:Maintains safe Environment Indicators:○ Observe proper disposal of waste○ Adheres to policies, procedures and protocols on prevention and control of
infection○ Defines steps to follow incase of fire , earthquake and other emergency situation III. HEALTH EDUCATION CORE COMPETENCY 1:Assesses the learning needs of the patient and the family Indicators:○ Obtains learning information through interview, observation and validation○ Defines relevant information○ Completes assessment records appropriately○ Identify priority needs CORE COMPETENCY 2:Develops Health Education plan based on assessed and anticipated needs. Indicators:○ Considers nature of the learner in relation to social, cultural, political, economic, educational, and religious factor CORE COMPETENCY 3:Develops learning material for health education Indicators:○ Involves the patient, family and significant others and other resources○ Formulates a comprehensive health educational plan with the following components ,objectives, content and time allotment○ Teaching-learning resources and
evaluation parameters○ Provides for feedback to finalize plan CORE COMPETENCY 4:Implements the health Education Plan Indicators:○ Provides for conducive learning situation in terms of timer and place○ Considers client and family preparedness○ Utilize appropriate strategies○ Provides reassuring presence through active listening, touch and facial expression and gestures○ Monitors client and family’s responses to health education CORE COMPETENCY 5:Evaluates the outcome of health Education Indicators:○ Utilizes evaluation parameters○ Documents outcome of care○ Revises health education plan when necessary IV. ETHICO-MORAL RESPONSIBILITY CORE COMPETENCY 1: Respects the rights of individual/ groups Indicator: ○ Renders nursing care consistent with the patient’s bill of rights (i.e. confidentiality of information, privacy, etc.)CORE COMPETENCY 2Accepts responsibility & accountability for own decisions and actions Indicators:
○ Meets nursing accountability requirements as embodied in the job description○ Justifies basis for nursing actions and judgment○ Protects a positive image of the profession CORE COMPETENCY 3Adheres to the national and international code of ethics for nurses Indicators:○ Adheres to the Code of Ethics for Nurses and abides by its provisions○ Reports unethical and immoral incidents to proper authorities V. LEGAL RESPONSIBILITY CORE COMPETENCY 1:Adheres to practices in accordance with the nursing law and other relevant legislation including contract and informed consent. Indicators:○ Fulfill legal requirements in Nursing Practice○ Holds current professional license○ Acts in accordance with the terms of contract of employment and other rules and regulation○ Complies with the required CPE○ Confirms information given by the doctor for informed consent○ Secures waiver of responsibility for refusal to undergo treatment or procedures○
Check the completeness of informed consent and other legal forms CORE COMPETENCY 2:Adheres to organizational policies and procedures, local and national Indicators:○ Articulates the vision and mission of the institution where one belongs○ Acts in accordance with the established norms and conduct of the institution/ organization CORE COMPETENCY 3:Document care rendered to patients. Indicators: ○ Utilizes appropriate patient care records and reports○ Accomplish accurate documentation in all matters concerning patient care in accordance with the standard of nursing practice. VI. PERSONAL & PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT CORE COMPETENCY 1Identifies own learning needs Indicators:○ Verbalizes strengths, weaknesses, limitations.○ Determines personal and professional goals and aspirations. CORE COMPETENCY 2Pursues continuing education Indicators: ○ Participates in formal and non-formal
education.○ Applies learned information for the improvement of care. CORE COMPETENCY 3Gets involved in professional organizations and civic activities Indicators:○ Participates actively in professional, social, civic and religious activities○ Maintain membership to professional organizations○ Support activities related to nursing and health issues CORE COMPETENCY 4Projects a professional image of nurse Indicators:○ Demonstrate good manners and right conduct at all times.○ Dresses appropriately.○ Demonstrates congruence of words and actions.○ Behaves appropriately at all times. CORE COMPETENCY 5Possesses positive attitude towards change and criticism Indicators:○ Listens to suggestions and recommendations.○ Tries new strategies or approaches.○ Adapts to changes willingly. CORE COMPETENCY 6Performs function according to professional standards
Indicators:○ Assesses own performance against standards of practice.○ Sets attainable objectives to enhance nursing knowledge and skills.○ Explains current nursing practices, when situations call for it. VII. RESEARCH CORE COMPETENCY 1:Gathers data using different methodologiesIndicators:Identifies researchable problems regarding patient care and community healthIdentifies appropriate methods of research for a particular patient/community problemCombines quantitative and qualitative nursing design thru simple explanation on thephenomena observedAnalyzes data gatheredCORE COMPETENCY 2:Recommends actions for implementationIndicator:Based on the analysis of data gathered, recommends practical solutions appropriate for theproblemCORE COMPETENCY 3:Disseminates results of research findingsIndicators:Communicates results of findings to colleagues/patients/family and to others
Endeavors to publish researchSubmits research findings to own agencies and others as appropriateCORE COMPETENCY 4:Applies research findings in nursing practiceIndicators:Utilizes and findings in research in the provision of nursing care toindividuals/groups/communitiesMakes use of evidence-based nursing to ameliorate nursing practice VIII. RECORDS MANAGEMENT CORE COMPETENCY 1:Maintains accurate and updated documentation of patient careIndicator:Completes updated documentation of patient careCORE COMPETENCY 2:Records outcome of patient careIndicator:Utilizes a record systemCORE COMPETENCY 3:Observes legal imperatives in recording keepingIndicators:Observes confidentially and privacy of patient’s recordsMaintains an organized system of filing and keeping patient’s records in a designated areaRefrains from releasing records and other information without proper authority
IX. COMMUNICATION CORE COMPETENCY 1:Establishes rapport with patients, significant others and members of the health team.Indicators:○ Creates trust and confidence○ Listens attentively to client’s queries and requests○ Spends time with the client to facilitate conversation that allows client to express concern.CORE COMPETENCY 2:Identifies verbal and non-verbal cuesIndicator:○ Interprets and validates client’s body language and facial expressionCORE COMPETENCY 3:Utilizes formal and informal channelsIndicator:○ Makes use of available visual aidsCORE COMPETENCY 4: Meets nursing accountability requirements as embodied in the job description○ Justifies basis for nursing actions and judgment○ Protects a positive image of the professionCORE COMPETENCY 3Adheres to the national and international code of ethics for nursesIndicators:○ Adheres to the Code of Ethics for Nurses and abides by its provisions○
Reports unethical and immoral incidents to proper authorities V. LEGAL RESPONSIBILITY CORE COMPETENCY 1:Adheres to practices in accordance with the nursing law and other relevant legislation includingcontract and informed consent.Indicators:○ Fulfill legal requirements in Nursing Practice○ Holds current professional license○ Acts in accordance with the terms of contract of employment and other rules and regulation○ Complies with the required CPE○ Confirms information given by the doctor for informed consent○ Secures waiver of responsibility for refusal to undergo treatment or procedures○ Check the completeness of informed consent and other legal formsCORE COMPETENCY 2:Adheres to organizational policies and procedures, local and nationalIndicators:○ Articulates the vision and mission of the institution where one belongs○ Acts in accordance with the established norms and conduct of the institution/ organizationCORE
COMPETENCY 3:Document care rendered to patients.Indicators:○ Utilizes appropriate patient care records and reports○ Accomplish accurate documentation in all matters concerning patient care in accordance withthe standard of nursing practice. VI. PERSONAL & PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT CORE COMPETENCY 1Identifies own learning needsIndicators:○ Verbalizes strengths, weaknesses, limitations.○ Determines personal and professional goals and aspirations. CORE COMPETENCY 2 Pursues continuing educationIndicators:○ Participates in formal and non-formal education.○ Applies learned information for the improvement of care. CORE COMPETENCY 3 Gets involved in professional organizations and civic activitiesIndicators:○ Participates actively in professional, social, civic and
religious activities○ Maintain membership to professional organizations○ Support activities related to nursing and health issues CORE COMPETENCY 4 Projects a professional image of nurseIndicators:○ Demonstrate good manners and right conduct at all times.○ Dresses appropriately.○ Demonstrates congruence of words and actions.○ Behaves appropriately at all times. CORE COMPETENCY 5 Possesses positive attitude towards change and criticismIndicators:○ Listens to suggestions and recommendations.○ Tries new strategies or approaches.○ Adapts to changes willingly. CORE COMPETENCY 6 Performs function according to professional standardsIndicators:○ Assesses own performance against standards of practice.○ Sets attainable objectives to enhance nursing knowledge and skills.○ Explains current nursing practices, when situations call for it. VII. RESEARCH
CORE COMPETENCY 1: Gathers data using different methodologiesIndicators:Identifies researchable problems regarding patient care and community health Identifies appropriate methods of research for a particular patient/community problem Combines quantitative and qualitative nursing design thru simple explanation on the phenomena observed Analyzes data gathered CORE COMPETENCY 2: Recommends actions for implementationIndicator:Based on the analysis of data gathered, recommends practical solutions appropriate for theproblemCORE COMPETENCY 3:Disseminates results of research findingsIndicators:Communicates results of findings to colleagues/patients/family and to others Endeavors to publish research Submits research findings to own agencies and others as appropriate CORE COMPETENCY
4:Applies research findings in nursing practiceIndicators:Utilizes and findings in research in the provision of nursing care to individuals/groups/communities Makes use of evidence-based nursing to ameliorate nursing practice VIII. RECORDS MANAGEMENT CORE COMPETENCY 1:Maintains accurate and updated documentation of patient careIndicator:Completes updated documentation of patient care CORE COMPETENCY 2:Records outcome of patient careIndicator:Utilizes a record system CORE COMPETENCY 3:Observes legal imperatives in recording keepingIndicators:Observes confidentially and privacy of patient’s records Maintains an organized system of filing and keeping patient’s records in a designated area Refrains from releasing records and other information without proper authority IX. COMMUNICATION CORE COMPETENCY 1:Establishes rapport with patients, significant others and members
of the health team. Indicators: ○ Creates trust and confidence○ Listens attentively to client’s queries and requests○ Spends time with the client to facilitate conversation that allows client to express concern. CORE COMPETENCY 2: Identifies verbal and non-verbal cues Indicator : ○ Interprets and validates client’s body language and facial expression CORE COMPETENCY 3: Utilizes formal and informal channels Indicator: ○ Makes use of available visual aids CORE COMPETENCY 4: Responds to needs of individuals, family, group and community Indicator: ○ Provides reassurance through therapeutic, touch, warmth and comforting words of encouragement○ Readily smiles CORE COMPETENCY 5: Uses appropriate information technology to facilitate communication Indicator: ○ Utilizes telephone, mobile phone, email and internet, and informatics○ Identifies a significant other so that follow up care can be obtained○ Provides ―holding‖ or emergency numbers of services X. COLLABORATION and TEAMWORK
CORE COMPETENCY 1:Establishes collaborative relationship with colleagues and other members of the health team Indicators:○ Contributes to decision making regarding patients‖ needs and concerns○ Participates actively in patients care management including audit○ Recommends appropriate intervention to improve patient care○ Respects the role of the other members of the health team○ Maintains good interpersonal relationships with patients, colleagues and other members of the health team CORE COMPETENCY 2:Collaborates plan of care with other members of the health team Indicator :○ Refers patients to allied health team partners○ Acts liaison / advocate of the patients○ Prepares accurate documentation of efficient communication of services XI. QUALITY IMPROVEMENT CORE COMPETENCY 1:Gathers data for quality improvementIndicators:Demonstrates knowledge of method appropriate for the clinical problems identified Detects variation in
the vital signs of the patient from day to day Reports necessary elements at the bedside to improve patient stay at hospital Solicits feedback from patient and significant others regarding care rendered CORE COMPETENCY 2:Participates in nursing audits and roundsIndicators:Contributes relevant information about patient condition as well as unit condition and patient current reactions Shares with the team current information regarding particular patient’s condition Encourages the patient to speak about what is relevant to his condition Documents and records all nursing care and actions Performs daily check of patient records/condition Completes patients records Actively contributes relevant information of patients during rounds thru readings and sharing Acute Biologic Crisis By: Raids L. Della Cru z, RN,MAN Page
with others CORE COMPETENCY 3:Identifies and reports variancesIndicators:Documents observed variance regarding patient care and submits to appropriate group within24 hours Identifies actual and potential variance to patient care Reports actual and potential variance to patient care Submits report to appropriate groups within 24 hours CORE COMPETENCY 4:Recommends solutions to identified problemsIndicators:Gives appropriate suggestions on corrective and preventive measures Communicates and discusses with appropriate groups Gives and objective and accurate report on what was observed rather than an interpretation of the event.
LesssonB.1APPLICATION OF CORE COMPETENCY IN NURSING PRACTICEPRE TEST 2ASSESSMENT OF INDIVIDUAL PATIENT NEEDS FOR NURSINGINSTRUCTIONS: Circle the one best answer for each test question. Write your rationale for selecting the answer. To enhance your learning and test taking skill,
discuss your answer and rationale with a partner. 1. The nurse is preparing to assess neuron status of an adult client who had hip fracture 5days ago and was reported to have experienced confusion the previous shift. Which statement will provide the nurse with the most appropriate information? A. ―Can you tell me today’s you know that you are in the hospital?‖c.―When did you have hip surgery?‖d.―What is your name?‖ Rationale:_____________________ ____________________________ 2.The nurse is informed that the newly admitted client is complaining of itching and has arash all over the body. The most appropriate nursing intervention initially is to:a.Inform the doctor of the objective and subjective complaintsb.Inspect the client and describe the rashc.Ask the client to try not to scratch the areasd.Check the medication record for anti-itch
medicationRationale:___________________ _________________________________ 3.T he nurse is assigned to a client who was admitted for a blood clot in the right leg.Which of the following describes the appropriate assessment technique initially?a.Inspection of the right legb.Light palpation of t he right legc.Inspection followed by deep palpation of edematous areasd.Light palpation followed by inspection of any reddened areas.Rationale:_______________________ _____________________________ Key answers 1. The nurse is preparing to assess neuro status of an adult client who had hip fracture 5days ago and was reported to have experienced confusion the previous shift. Whichstatement will provide the nurse with the most appropriate information?a.―Can you tell me today’s date?‖b.―Do you know that you are in
the hospital?‖c.―When did you have hip surgery?‖ d. ―What is your name?‖Rationale: Eliciting orientation to person is part of assessing client orientation.Options A & B encourages yes or no response, and option c may not give accuratedata if the client does not remember the date.2.The nurse is informed that the newly admitted client is complaining of itching and has arash all over the body. The most appropriate nursing intervention initially is to:a.Inform the doctor of the objective and subjective complaintsb.Inspect the client and describe the rashc.Ask the client to try not to scratch the areasd.Check the medication record for anti-itch medicationRationale:it is most appropriate for the nurse to initially gather data by using theassessment skill of inspection and then to further describe the observations. OptionsA,C, & D are follw-up nursing interventions.3.The
nurse is assigned to a client who was admitted for a blood clot in the right leg.Which of the following describes the appropriate assessment technique initially?a.Inspection of the right legb.Light palpation of the right legc.Inspection followed by deep palpation of edematous areasd.Light palpation followed by inspection of any reddened areas.Rationale: Inspection is the initial step in the assessment process that providesinformation on color, size, shape and movement of the extremity. Options B and Dare not appropriate initially and option C should not be done in this situation.
Lesson B.1APPLICATION OF CORE COMPETENCY IN NURSING PRACTICE INTEGRATINGNURSING PROCESSINTRODUCTION: Stressing the point that the entire plan of care depends on the accuracy and completeness of Assessment, this section examines how to
do an assessment in a way that facilitates the next step, Diagnosis. It addresses characteristics of an assessment that promotes critical thinking and competency indicators that relate to assessment. Finally it gives the tips for interviewing and examining patients and explains the how to’s and the why’s of the six phases of assessment. EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOMES After studying the content of this section, the students should be able to:1.Describe the five characteristics of an assessment that promotes competency, and explain how the phases of Assessment described in this section promote criticalthinking.2.Explain how the interview and physical assessment complement and clarify each other.3.Give an example of an open-ended question, a closed ended question, a leading question and an exploratory statement.4.Differentiate between cues an d inferences5.Explain why organizing data
more than one way promotes competence and critical thinking. ASSESSMENT OF INDIVIDUAL PATIENT NEEDS FOR NURSINGANA STANDARD The nurse collects comprehensive data pertinent to the patient’s health situation (ANA, 2004) SIX PHASES OF ASSESSMENT 1. Collecting of data- gathering data (information) about health status 2. Identifying cues and making inferencesrecognizing significant data and drawing somebeginning conclusions about what the data may indicate. 3. Validating the data- double checking to make sure that your data are accurate andcomplete. 4. Clustering the data- organizing or grouping related pieces of information to help youidentify patterns of health or illness (eg, Clustering data
about nutrition together, the dataabout rest together and so forth) 5. Identifying patterns/ testing first impressionslooking for the patterns and focusing your assessment to gain more information to better understand the situations at hand. For example, you suspect that someone’s data shows a pattern of poor nutrition and decideto find out what’s contributing to this pattern( does the person have poor eating habits or could it be something else, such as not having enough money to eat well?) 6. Reporting and recording data- Reporting significant data (eg. High fever) and charting onthe patient’s record.
CHARACTERISTICS OF AN ASSESSMENT THAT PROMOTES COMPETENCY1.PURPOSEFUL To promote Critical thinking, your approach to assessment must change, depending onyour
purpose and the circumstances(c0ntext) of your patient situation.For example:Are you aiming to assess all aspects of care, or are you monitoring one specificproblem?Are your assessing a hospitalized patient or someone in the home?Is the person an adult or a child?NOTE: Your aim is to gain all the information needed to ensure that your patients haveindividualized plans that are designed to help them achieve outcomes in the best waypossible, in context of their particular situation (eg, their age, culture, and level of independence) 2.FOCUSED AND RELEVANT Your assessment must be focused to gain relevant information, depending onpurpose and context as above.For example:Physician’s Data: (Disease focus) “ Mrs. Garcia has pain and swelling in all joints. Diagnostic studies indicates that she has rheumatoid arthritis. We will start her on a course of anti inflammatory drugsto treat the
rheumatoid arthritis.” (focus on the treatment modalities) Nurse’s Data: (holistic focus, considering both problems and their effect on theperson’s ability to function independently)―Mrs. Garcia has pain and swelling in all joints, making it difficult to feed and dressherself. She has voiced that it’s difficult to feel worthwhile when she can’t feedherself. She states that she is depressed because she misses seeing her two smallgrandchildren. We need to to develop a plan to help her with her pain, to assist her with feeding and dressing, to work through feelings of self-esteem, and for specialvisitations with the grandchildren.‖ ( Focus is on Mrs. Garcia) 3.SYSTEMATIC Developing a systematic approach to assessment helps you pay attention to what isimportant, learn how to prioritize, be comprehensive, and avoid omission errors.For example: •
What are your symptoms? •
Can you point out with one finger to the areas that are bothering you? •
When did they start? •
What makes them better? •
What makes them worse? •
Are you taking any medications- prescribed, over-the-counter, or herbalremedies- that may be causing some of these symptoms? •
Can you think of anything else that might be contributing to your symptoms?
4.COMPREHENSIVE AND ACCURATE The most common error that happens in critical thinking is identifying problems or making judgments based on sufficient or incorrect information. Your information mustbe factual, and as complete as is warranted by your purpose.For example:An assessment aims to get information about one specific problem is
shorter thanone that aims to get comprehensive data about all aspects of care. DISPLAY B . 1.1 :How to ensure Comprehensive Data CollectionComprehensive data collection often occurs in three phases:1.Before you see the person: You find what you can. This information may belimited( only name and age) or extensive ( medical records may be available for you to read)2.When you see the person: You interview the person and do PhysicalExamination (PE).3.After you see the person: You review the resources(consumer like patient, familyand community, significant others, nursing and medical records, verbal andwritten consultations, diagnostic and laboratory results) you used and determineswhat other resources may offer additional information (e.g. You may consult apharmacist to gain more information about a medication
regimen)Comprehensive Data Collection have several factors:1.The purpose of the assessment- example is when you do data base(start of care) assessment or a focus assessmentData base assessmentComprehensive information gathered on initialcontact with the person to assess all aspect of health statusFocus AssessmentData gathered to determine the status of a specificcondition like someone’s bowel habits2.The needs and problems commonly encountered in a particular clinicalsetting.For example: An adult assessment tool is different from a newbornassessment tool.3.Standards of care for the assessment as defined by regulatory agencies andprofessional associationsFor example: Maternal and Child Nursing Association of the Philippines/MCNAP, Operating Room Nurses association of the Philippines/ORNAP,Philippine Nurses Association/PNA etc.4.The nursing model or theory adopted by the school or
facilitiesFor example: Gordon’s Functional Health Patterns or Orem’s Self Caretheory. 5.RECORDED IN A STANDARDIZED WAY Like pilots who follow computerized or preprinted checklists (instead of relying onmemory), you must value the importance of completing a standardized tool that isdesigned to promote an assessment that is purposeful, relevant, systematic, andcomplete. NOTE: You cannot rely your brain to do it all, even if you have years of experience DISPLAY B.1.2: Major Intellectual Skills & Critical Thinking Skills R/T Assessment (Behavior Evidence Suggesting Competence in Nursing
Practice) The competent nurse: •
Applies standard and principles •
Assesses systematically and comprehensively; uses a nursing framework toidentify nursing concerns; uses a body systems framework to identify medicalconcerns •
Detects bias; determines credibility of information sources •
Distinguishes normal from abnormal; identifies risks for abnormal •
Determines significance of data; distinguishes relevant from irrelevantclusters relevant data together •
Identifies assumptions and inconsistencies; checks accuracy and reliability ;recognizes missing information; focuses assessment as indicated •
Communicates effectively orally and in writing •
Establishes empowered partnerships with patients, families, peers, and coworkers •
Sets priorities and make decisions in a timely way; includes key stakeholdersin making decisions •
Weigh risks and benefits •
Identifies ethical issues and take appropriate action •
Identifies and uses technologic, information, and human resources •
Address conflicts fairly, fosters positive interpersonal relationships •
Facilitates and navigates change •
Organize and manages time and environment •
Facilitates teamwork ( focuses on common goals; helps and encouragesothers to contribute in their own way) •
Demonstrates systems thinking (shows awareness of the interrelationshipsexisting within and across health care systems)
IDENTIFYING CUES AND MAKING INFERENCES Identifying subjective and objective data both aids in critical thinking and competencebecause each complements and clarifies the other.For example: Subjective data: States, ― I feel like my heart is racing.‖ Objective data : Right radial pulse 150 beats per minute, regular, and strong. The preceding objective data support the subjective data - what you observe confirmswhat the person is stating. Sometimes, what you observe and what the person states are different .For example:Subjective data: States, ―I feel fine.‖Objective data: Color pale, becomes easily short of breath.Above, what the person states isn’t supported by what you observe. You need toinvestigate then further to understand fully the scope of the problems.The
subjective and objective data you identified acts as cues. Cues are data that promptyou to get a beginning impression of patterns of health or illness.For example:Subjective data: ―I started taking penicillin for a tooth abscess.Objective data: Fine rash over the trunk.The above gives you cues that may lead you to infer (suspect) that there is an allergicreaction to penicillin. How you interpret or perceive a cuethe conclusion you draw aboutthe rash: you decide that rash may indicate a penicillin allergy.Your ability to identify cues and make correct inferences is influenced by your observational skills, your nursing knowledge, and your clinical expertise. Your valuesand beliefs also affect how you interpret some cues, so make an effort to avoid makingvalue judgments ( for example, inferring that a person who bathes only once a
weekneeds to be taught better hygiene when the practice may be a part of his culture. GENERAL RULE * ** Factual, relevant, and comprehensive assessment is the key to accurate diagnosis(problem and risk identification) and to developing a plan that is safe, effective, efficient,and individualized.1. Establishes rapport and trust with the patient, family and significant others.Quality Indicators:a.Welcomes the patient, family and significant others upon admission.b.Greets patient by name, introduces self and costaff c.Encourages verbalization of needs and feelings through attentive listening.d.Conveys availa bility and willingness to help by attending to needs at the soonesttime possible.2. Obtain a nursing history and document an initial physical examination throughapplication of the general principles of and follows a logical
sequence in history takingand physical examination.3. Recognizes normal and abnormal findings from common laboratory and diagnosticexamination results. As indicated by comparing results from standard listing of normalvalues/ results of common laboratory and diagnostic examination.4.Defines health needs and problems from data gathered by identifying the significantfindings from the accurate nursing history, PE and laboratory/diagnostic results. CLASSROOM ACTIVITY 1
The Nursing Interview and Physical AssessmentInstructions: Divide the class into 4 groups. Each group is entitled to answer task Part 1 and Part2. Presentation should be in a clinical setting and is limited to 15 minutes only.Part 1: Interviewing1.Practice asking open-ended questions. Restate each question below so it’s anopen ended question.a.Are you feeling better?
Bodied you like dinner? Care you happy here? Dare you having pain? 2. D making open-ended questions. For Statement below, write a reflective statement and an open-ended question that would help you to clarify what has been said. A. ―I’ve been sick off and on for a month.‖B. ―Nothing ever goes right for mock. ―I seem to have a pain in my side that comes and goes.‖d. ―I’ve had this funny feeling for a week.‖ Part 2: Physical Assessment1.Because physical assessment and interviewing go hand in hand, use the following situations to practice focusing you interview questions on areas of concern noted during the Pea. You examine and find: The patient’s hands and fingernails are filthy with ground-in dirt, although the rest of him is clean. What will you say next? Buyout examines and find: The patient has a lump on the back of his head.
What will you say next? You examine and find: The patient’s RR is 40. What will you say next? You examine and find: The patient’s right eye is red, teary, and inflamed. What will you say next? 2. Now practice focusing your PE on areas of concern voiced by the patienta.Patient states: ―I have had a rash that comes and goes.‖ What will you reply and examine? Patient states: ―My stomach has been hurting me,‖ What will you reply and examine? Patient states:‖ I find it burns when I urinate,‖ What will you reply and examine? D. Patient states: ―I feel like I’m heavier than usual, like I’m bloated with fluid, ―What will reply and examine? Example Responses to Activity 1 Part 1: Interviewing 1. Practice asking open-ended questions. Restate each question below so it’s an open ended question.
A. Are you feeling better? Tell me how you’re feeling B. Did you like dinner? How was your dinner? C. Are your happy here? How do you feel about being here? D. Are you having pain? Describe what you are feeling; tell me how you’re feeling. 2. Practice clarifying ideas by using reflection (restating what you hear) and making openended questions. For each statement below, write a reflective statement and an open-ended question that would help you to clarify what has been said. A. ―I’ve been sick off and on for a month.‖
So, you’ve been sick off and for month. What do you mean by sick off and on? B. ―Nothing ever goes right for me.‖ You feel like nothing ever goes right for you. What is been happening? c. ―I seem to have a pain in my side that comes and goes.‖ You have pain inyour side that comes and goes- can you explain more? d. ―I’ve had this funny feeling for a week.‖ You’ve had a funny feeling for aweek. What do you mean by funny? Part 2: Physical Assessment1.Because physical assessment and interviewing go hand in hand, use thefollowing situations to practice focusing you interview questions on areas of concern noted during the PEa.You examine and find: The patient’s hands and fingernails are filthy withground-in dirt, although the rest of him is
clean. What will you say next?You have a lot of ground- in dirt here. What is it from?b.You examine and find: The patient has a lump on the back of his head. Whatwill you say next?I feel a lump on the back of your head. How did it happen? Does it hurt whenI touch it?c.You examine and find: The patient’s RR is 40. What will you say next?Your breathing is a little fast. How do you feel?d.You examine and find: The patient’s right eye is red, teary, and inflamed.What will you say next?Your eyes seem inflamed. How does it feel?2.Now practice focusing your PE on areas of concern voiced by the patienta.Patient states: ―I have had a rash that comes and goes.‖ What will you replyand examine?Show me where (and examine that area). Is there anything you think causesit?b.Patient states:‖My stomach has been hurting me,‖ What will you reply andexamine? Show me where (and examine that area). Tell me more how it feels.c.Patient states:‖ I
find it burns when I urinate,‖ What will you reply andexamine?That is a common symptom of infection. Let us get a urine sample( andexamine it)d.Patient states: ―I feel like I’m heavier than usual, like I’m bloated with fluid,‖What will reply and examine?Where do you feel this bloating? Your stomach? Ankles? Where? Examinethe areas Lesson B.2Health Promotion: Screening for Prevention and Early Diagnosis Depending on where you work, your assessments may include helping withscreening for prevention and early diagnosis of common health problems.Usually screening is done at significant points during the life cycle.For example: •
Assessing infant development using standardized scales •
Measuring height, weight, and vision in school aged children •
Assessing for problem drinking and depression beginning in adolescence. •
Measuring cholesterol and fecal occult blood in adultsTo meet the goals of healthy people. Which aims to increase the length and quality of lifeof all people, all health care providers are encouraged to record health promotioncounseling that occurs during all important interactions.A key part of assessment is helping patients make informed and jointdecisions about what screening and prevention measures they should follow.The length of discussions about screening for health problems and use of medication to prevent diseases varies according to:a.The scientific evidence addressing how useful the service is.b.The health, preference, and concerns of each patientc.The decision making style of each cliniciand.Practical constraints, such as the amount of time availableNOTE:A decision can be considered
informed and mutually decided only if patients:1.Understand the risk or seriousness of the disease or condition to beprevented.2.Comprehend what the pr eventive service involves( including th e risks,benefits, alternatives and uncertainties)3.Have weighed their value s regarding the potential harms and benefitsassociated with the service. 4. Have engaged in decision-making at level at which they want and feelcomfortable (US Preventive Task Force 2004) Display B.2.1Recommended Screening for Health Promotion The Department of Health must rigorously evaluate clinical research toassess the merits of preventive measur es, including screening tests,counseling immunization and preventive medications. Lesson C.1Communication
Your ability to establish rapport, ask questions, listen, and observe is thekey to establishing the positive nurse- patient relationship needed to builda therapeutic relationship. People seeking health care are in a veryvulnerable position. They need to know that they’re in good hands andthat their main concerns will be addressed. This is where you come in asnurses. Consider the following guidelines that can help you establishtrust, positive attitude, and reduce anxiety.Display C.1.1Guidelines in Promoting a Caring Interaction/CommunicationHow to establish rapportBefore you go into the interview: Get organized : When you know what you’re going to do, you’re moreconfident and able to focus on the personDon’t rely on memory: Have a written or printed plan to guide thequestions you’ll be asking. Some nurses use the nursing data base as aguide.Plan enough time: The admission interview usually takes 30 minutes to
1hour.Ensure privacy: Make sure you have a quiet, private setting, free frominterruptions or distractions.Get focused: Take a minute to clear your mind of other concerns( other duties, worries about yourself). Say to yourself, Getting to know this person is most important thing I have to do right now.Visualize yourself as being confident, warm and helpful: Seeing yourself in this light helps you to be confident, warm and helpful your genuineinterest comes through.When you begin interview:Give your name and position: (if the person can read, give it in writing).This sends the message that you accept responsibility and are willing tobe accountable of your actions.Verify the person’s name and ask what he or she would like to be called (eg. I have your name listed here as Michael Riles. Is that correct? What would you like us to call you?”). Using the preferred name helps the person to feel more relaxed and sends the message that you recognizethat this person is an individual who has likes and dislikes. Most
facilitiesrequire that you use two unique identifiers to identify the patient (eg,asking the person his name and also checking ID bracelets)Briefly explain your purpose(eg, I’m here to do the admission interview tohelp us plan your nursing care.”).During the interview:Give the person your full attention. Avoid the impulse to becomeengrossed in your notes or in reading the assessment tool.Don’t hurry: Rushing sends the message that you’re not interested inwhat the person has to say. Sit down: This communicates that you’re willing to take your time.How to listenBe an empathetic listener To listen empathetically 1.Eliminates thoughts about how you, yourself, see the situation. 2. Listen carefully for feelings, trying to identify with how the other personperceives his situation. Don’t allow yourself to think about how you feel or how you’re going to respond;
think only about the content of what you’rehearing3.Reflect on what you’ve been told, then rephrase the feelings you have heard.4.Seek validation that you understood the message, content, and emotioncorrectly. Keep trying until you’re sure you understand. 5. Detach, come back to your own frame of reference, and separate yourself from the emotions involved.DISPLAY C.1.2 TEN CARING BEHAVIORS 1.Monitoring patients closely and telling them you know you’re doing it.Example: ―I will be checking on you every 15 minutes‖2.Inspiring someone, or instilling hope and faith ( creating a vision of ―canbe‖)3.Showing patience, compassion, and willingness to persevere4.Taking time, rather than hurrying through just to get things done.5.26.Offering companionship or pre sence7.Helping someone stay in touch
with positive aspects of his life.8.Demonstrati ng thoughtful ness9.B ending the rules when it really counts10.Showing your human side by sharing humor or stories of daily life.NOTE: Simply Being Nice and Making Work Fun Can Improve Patient Outcomes―(Studies show that) patients who come away from a positive encounter with a nurse are morelikely to follow prescribed directions, take medications, and seek follow-up care… (however if) apatient encounters a health care worker who’s in a negative emotional state, it becomes aspringboard into other negative behaviors. Down the road, their own outcomes to suffer, andthey just don’t fare well..try to make the work environment as fun as possible> If you see a staff member in a bad mood, jump in and try to derail it before itr becomes contagious.‖HowaredWeiss (Farella, 2009)
CLINICAL SCENARIO
Listening Empathetically Promotes Understanding of the Real Issues,Fostering Caring Human Responses Today Patricia/Pat is caring for Sharon, who’s just given birth to her fifth child,a healthy baby girl. Pat never has been able to conceive, has always wanted children, and feels a little envious of Sharon’s family of two boys and (now) of three girls.Pat notes that Sharon seems very quiet. Recognizing the importance of beingempathetic listener, Pat has the following conversation with Sharon.Pat: ―You’ve been pretty quiet since I came on.‖Sharon: ―I can’t help it. I’m supposed to be happy, but I’m really disappointed-I was so sure I’d had a baby boy.‖Pat: (making a conscious effort to eliminate thoughts about the fact that she’dbe happy with any child, and rephrasing what Sharon seems to be feeling): ―you feel like you’re supposed to be happy, but you really feel sort of sad?‖Sharon: ―yes‖,Pat pauses to reflect on the feeling of sadness and encourages Sharon tocontinue.Sharon: ―I was
going to name this baby after my father. He died 2 monthsago.‖Pat (connecting to what Sharon must be feeling): ―I’m sorry. That would be adisappointment. Being able to name the baby after him would have been alovely thing to do.‖Sharon (crying): ―Yes, I had it all pictured in my mind.‖Pat conveying acceptance and understanding, sits quietly, allowing Sharon tocry.Pat (detaching and coming back to her own frame of reference):―Sharon, I think you needed to cry and you may need to cry again. But right now you’ve got a very beautiful baby girl; with the longest hair I’ve ever seen, waiting to meet her mother. How would you feel if I
Brought her into you? ―Sharon: (smiling) ―Yes, I really haven’t seen her for more than 5
minutes. I’ve got to admit, I’ve always gotten along better with my girls than my boys.‖
CLASSROOM ACTIVITY 2 CRITICAL THINKING ABILITY AND WILLINGNESS AND ABILITY TOCARE 1.List five critical thinking indicators you’d like to acquire or improve. 2.Complete the following sentence, using as many words as you choose: If I were to tell someone how I think, I would say that I……….. 3.In five sentences or less, describe what critical thinking means to you 4.Give three examples of caring behaviors 5.Explain how the statements relates to willingness and ability to care: a.Health and Illness are human experiencesb.The presence of illness does not preclude health nor does optimal health precludeillness.c.An essential feature
of contemporary nursing practice is the provision of a caring relationship that facilitates healing. ASSIGNMENT 1. Improve your interpersonal skills by learning about your innate personality and how to get along well with ―difficult‖ people. Read: ―Don’t Worry Be Happy! Harmonize Diversity through Personality Sensitivity,‖ at http:nsweb.nursingspectrum.com/ce/ce236.ht m 2.Are you stressed out? Managing stress is an important part of staying healthy. Take the Life Stress Test at http://www.cliving.org/lifstrstst.htm . Thin k of something’s that you can do to reduce your stress level. 3.Practi ce empathetic listening Ask someone to tell you about an upsetting experience in his or her childhood and listen using the steps of empathetic listening taught. Discuss in the class what can happen when
you are too emotionally involved inpatient situations. Identify ways you can manage your emotions to remain empathetic, but also objective and logical. Lesson C.3Ethico-Moral /Legal Responsibilities His success of nurse- patient interaction and examination is influenced by your awareness of ethical, cultural, and spiritual concerns. As a nurse you must: 1.Provide service with respect for human dignity and the uniqueness of the patient, unrestricted by considerations of social or economic status, personal attributes, or the nature of health problems (ANA, 2004) 2.Safeguard the client’s right to privacy by judiciously protecting information of a confidential nature. 3.Be honest. Tell the person the truth about how you’ll see the data (egg. ―I have to write
a paper examining someone’s eating patterns. Would you be willing to tell me about your eating habits? 4.Respect individual cultural and religious beliefs and be aware of physical tendencies related to culture. This include being aware of: Biologic variations for example: Differences among racial and ethnic groups like skin color, texture, and susceptibility to diseases like hypertension and sickle cell anemia. •Comfortable communication patterns For example: How language and gestures are used, whether eye contact or touching is acceptable, and whether the person is threatened by being in close proximity to another. •Family organization and practices we have diverse family units and practices. We must understand them to gain insight into factors that influence health status. •
