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DNA (Polynucleotide) DNA
NITROGENOUS BASE
PURINE
A DEOXYRIBOS DEOXYRIBOSE E PENTOSE SUGAR
PYRIMIDINE
ADENINE
CYTOSINE
GUANINE
THYMINE
A PHOSPHATE PHOSPHATE GROUP
DNA (Polynucleotide) DNA
NITROGENOUS BASE
PURINE
A DEOXYRIBOS DEOXYRIBOSE E PENTOSE SUGAR
PYRIMIDINE
ADENINE
CYTOSINE
GUANINE
THYMINE
A PHOSPHATE PHOSPHATE GROUP
DNA
Nitrogenous base is linked to pentose sugar through a nglycosidic linkage to form a nucleoside. Phosphate group group attached to5’-OH of a nucleoside through through phospho-ester linkage, and a nucleotide is formed. Two nucleotides are linked through 3’-5’ phosphodiester linkage to form a dinucleotide, and in this manner many nucleotides are linked forming polynucleotide. A polynucleotide has a free sugar at its5 ’ end and a free phosphate at its 3’ end.
Double helix model of DNA ( Watson and Crick model)
DNA is made of 2 polynucleotides. Backbone is formed by sugar and phosphate. Nitrogen bases project inside. Hydrogen bonds between nitrogen bases hold the chain together. Adenine pairs with thymine through 2 hydrogen bonds and guanine with cytosine with 3 bonds. Two chains have antiparallel polarity. Two chains are coiled in a right handed fashion. And pitch of each helix is3.4nm, and 10 base pairs in each turn.
A NUCLEOSOME
Griffith’s experiment on transformation
DNA is the genetic material
Characteristics of genetic material
Able to generate its replica.
Chemically and structurally stable.
Provide the scope for mutation necessary for evolution. Able to express itself in the form of Mendalian character.
Codons are triplets 61 codons code for 20 amino acids. Unambigous – each coden codes for only one/ particular amino acid. Degenerate – some amino acids are coded by more than one codon. Commaless – codons are read in continuous manner in a 5 ’ to 3’ direction without punctuation Universal – codes for same amino acid in any organism. AUG- initiation codon and codes for methionine. UAA, UAG and UGA are stop codons..
MUTATION
MUATION
POINT
FRAME SHIFT
SILENT
TRANSLATION
TRANSLATION
TRANSLATION
COMPONENTS OF OPERON
Structural gene
Promoter gene
Operator
Regulator gene
Inducer
LAC OPERON IN E.COLI
LAC OPERON IN E.COLI
GOALS OF HUMAN GENOME PROJECT (HGP)
Identification of all genes Determination of the sequence of the 3 billion base pairs in human DNA. To store the information in data base. Improvement of the tools for data analysis Transfer of the technology to other sectors (industries) To address the ethical, legal and social issues (ELSI) that may arise from this project.
METHODOLOGIES OF HGP
Expressed sequence tags (ESTs)- identifying all genes that expressed as RNA. Sequence annotation- sequence the whole sequence of genome, that included all coding and noncoding sequences and later assigning function to different regions in the sequence.
SALIENT FEATURES OF HUMAN GENOME
Contains3164.7 million nucleotides. Size of genes varies, average size contains 3000 bases, the largest gene dystrophin contains 2.4 million bases. Total no. genes about 30000 and99.9 % of the nucleotides are same in all humans.
Function of 50% genes are not known.
2% of the genome codes for protein.
Repetitive sequence make up large portion of genome which throw light on structure, dynamics and evolution though they do not have coding function.
USES OF HGP
To diagnose, treat and prevent a number of disease or disorder that affects human beings. Provides clues to the understanding of human biology.
THE PROCESS OF DNA FINGER PRINTING
STEPS OF DNA FINGERPRINTING
Extraction Amplification Restriction digestion Separation of DNA sequence/ restriction fragments Southern blotting Hybridisation Autoradiography
USES OF DNA FINGERPRINTING
To identify criminals To determine the true biological mother or father in case of disputes To verify an immigrant, really a close relative of a resident To identify racial groups to rewrite the biological evolution.
