UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN POSTGRADUATE POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL DEPARTMENT TEACHER EDUCATION
COURSE CODE: GCE 751 COURSE TITLE: PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING
TOPIC: DRIVE REDUCTION THEORY (C. HULL) PAPER SUMBMITTED BY: Adeleye Adewale Richard : Eso Oluwabukola Oluwakemi: Fabunmi Fabunmi Olakunle John : Fashola Olufunke Olamide :
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LECTURER IN CHARGE: DR. AYO HAMMED NOVEMBER 2011
DRIVE REDUCTION THEORY INTRODUCTION
A popular theory of the 1940s and 1950s that attributed behavior to the desire to reduce tension produced by primary (biological) or secondary (acquired) drives. Many psychologists believed that all motivation depended upon the pleasure experienced when basic needs are met. A person who is hungry, for instance, eats in order to reduce the tension that hunger produces. All human behavior could be attributed to the pleasure gained when these drive-induced tensions were reduced. The terms drive theory and drive reduction theory refer to a diverse set of motivational theories in psychology. Drive theory is based on the principle that organisms are born with certain physiological needs and that a negative state of tension is created when these needs are not satisfied. When a need is satisfied, drive is reduced and the organism returns to a state of homeostasis and relaxation. According to the theory, drive tends to increase over time and operates on a feedback control system, much like a thermostat. In Freudian psychoanalysis, drive theory refers to the theory of drives, motivations, or instincts that have clear objects. Examples include what Freud called Eros and Thanatos, the drives toward Life and Death, respectively. According to such theorists as Clark Hull and Kenneth Spence, drive reduction is a major cause of learning and behaviour. Primary drives are innate drives (e.g. thirst, hunger, and sex), whereas secondary drives are learned by conditioning (e.g. money). There are a number of drive theories. The Drive Reduction Theory grows out of the concept that we have certain biological drives, such as hunger. As time passes the strength of the drive increases if it is not satisfied (in this case by eating). Upon satisfying a drive the drive's strength is reduced. The theory is based on diverse ideas from the theories of Freud to the ideas of feedback control systems, such as a thermostat. Drive theory has some intuitive or folk validity. For instance when preparing food, the drive model appears to be compatible with sensations of rising hunger as the food is prepared, and, after the food has been consumed, a decrease in subjective hunger. There are several problems, however, that
leave the validity of drive reduction open for debate. The first problem is that it does not explain how secondary reinforcers reduce drive. For example, money satisfies no biological or psychological needs, but a pay check appears to reduce drive through second-order conditioning. Secondly, a drive, such as hunger, is viewed as having a "desire" to eat, making the drive a homuncular being—a feature criticized as simply moving the fundamental problem behind this "small man" and his desires. In addition, it is clear that drive reduction theory cannot be a complete theory of behavior, or a hungry human could not prepare a meal without eating the food before he finished cooking it. The ability of drive theory to cope with all kinds of behavior, from not satisfying a drive (by adding on other traits such as restraint), or adding additional drives for "tasty" food, which combine with drives for "food" in order to explain cooking render it hard to test. DRIVE REDUCTION THEORY BY CLARK HULL
Clark Hull was born in 1884. He did his undergraduate work at University of Michigan (1913) and later earned his Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin in 1918. He spent most of his professional career at the Institute of Psychology at Yale University (1929 until his death in 1952). At the age of 24 he contracted polio and suffered disabilities as a result of it. Hull used the word drive to describe the state of behavioral arousal resulting from a biological need. In Hull's system, drive was the energy that powered behavior. But drive was not pleasant. Drive was an uncomfortable state resulting from a biological need, so drive was something the animal tried to eliminate. The animal searched for food in order to reduce the hunger drive. Hull believed the animal would repeat any behavior that reduced a drive, if the same need occurred again. Therefore Hull's theory was called a drivereduction theory of motivation. The Drive reduction Theory is also known as Drive Theory or Hull’s Motivational Theory. Hull's theory inspired an enormous amount of research. No other psychological theory was so daringly precise. Hull used specific formulas to predict the likelihood of specific behaviors. He specified that the probability that a particular stimulus would lead to a particular response (the "excitation potential") using a formula. You do not have to memorize this; it is offered as an example of the precision to which Hull aspired: Excitation potential = S H R [D x K x J x V]...where....
S H R was the number of reinforced training trials D was the amount of biological deprivation or drive K was the size or magnitude of the goal J was the delay before the animal was allowed to pursue the goal V was the intensity of the stimulus that set off the behavior Major influences on Hull's thinking included the work of Pavlov, Darwin, Thorndike and Tolman. His theory was an attempt to create a synthesis of the theories of these researchers plus Newtonian physics. He became interested in hypnosis, and wrote a book entitled Hypnosis and Suggestibility in 1933. During the 1940's and 1950's Hull's work was much-cited in the psychological literature. He is best known for his Drive Reduction Theory which postulated that behavior occurs in response to "drives" such as hunger, thirst, sexual interest, feeling cold, etc. When the goal of the drive is attained (food, water, mating, warmth) the drive is reduced, at least temporarily. This reduction of drive serves as a reinforcer for learning. Thus learning involves a dynamic interplay between survival drives and their attainment. The bonding of the drive with the goal of the drive was a type of reinforcement, and his theory was a reinforcement theory of learning. Hull believed that these drives and behaviors to fulfill the drives were influential in the evolutionary process as described by Darwin. Movement sequences lead to need reduction as survival adaptations. He assumed that learning could only occur with reinforcement of the responses that lead to meeting of survival needs, and that the mechanism of this reinforcement was the reduction of a biological drive. Hull was only interested in operational descriptions of what was observable. He did not deny cognitive aspects such as purpose, ideas, intelligence, insight, values, or knowledge, but since these characteristics could not be directly observed, he did not include them as part of his theoretical constructs. He devised a complex calculus to quantify behavior. Hull's work has been criticized because he assumed that his laws of behavior, which were derived from experiments with rats, would account for all human
behavior, including social behavior. While his theory is not considered a major contributor to current understanding of learning, nonetheless he contributed to the methodology for experimentation in learning theory. Hull had several graduate students who went on to make contributions to the body of knowledge concerning learning. Neal Miller developed a social learning theory that was successfully applied to psychotherapy and understanding neurosis. Carl I. Hovland studied and wrote about the psychology of war. O.H. Mowrer developed a two-factor learning model and demonstrated that fear is an acquirable drive. His most famous student was Kenneth W. Spence, who developed and extended Hull's theory and developed a discrimination learning theory. OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS Drive (motivation) caused by an imbalance; it’s the effort that will be expended for the need to be resolved. Primary Drives: hunger, thirst, sex and shelter. Secondary Drives : money, material possessions, social status, fame etc… Homeostasis (Biological term): the relaxed state for an organism where all needs are being met. It’s the state that organisms strive to exist in. Tension: a negative state where needs are not being met. Theory: Hull viewed all motivation as originating from biological variances (needs). According to Hull, behavior could be considered as an external display of an individual’s quest to fulfill deficiencies (Hull, Principles of Behavior). “When a rat is placed under a drive (hunger, for example) its level of discomfort is high and it is driven to seek ways of exchanging a “product” (the labour of activities such as bar-pressing) for a source of comfort (food pellets). If the rat is successful in obtaining food then the necessity for work will progressively decrease until satiation is reached, when work will stop. Applications of that reasoning would lead to the conclusion that the underlying form of all learning curves approximates to a simple positive growth function” (Mills, 1978).
LIMITATIONS OF DRIVE REDUCTION THEORY
There are several problems that leave the validity of drive theory open for debate. The first problem is that it does not explain how secondary reinforcers reduce drive. For example, money does not itself satisfy any biological or psychological need, but it reduces drive on a regular basis by a pay check. Secondly, drive reduction theory has trouble explaining why humans and other animals voluntarily increase tension by exploring their environments, even when they are not hungry or thirsty. Also, Drive reduction theory lost favor over the years because it failed to explain human actions that produced, rather than reduced, tension. Many people enjoy riding roller coasters or skydiving, for instance, despite the fact that such activity may cause fear and anxiety. Each variable used by Hull was given a precise operational definition, to aid research and replication. Hull hoped to make psychology as scientific and precise in its predictions as physics or chemistry. However, things did not work out that way. Many predictions based on Hull's equations did not come true. Researchers responded by altering the system, adding variables or subtracting others, adjusting parameters, trying to make it all work. Researchers realized that Hull’s theory was never going to work because there could not be such a simple system for predicting animal behavior. Again, there are limits to the utilization of Hullian Theory, “The empirical data that support Hullian theory are derived almost entirely from infra-human populations, especially rat. The complexity of building so comprehensive a behavior system necessarily delays the specifications of cross species generalizations from within-species data. Therefore, the vast amount of research on functional relationships between various Hullian constructs appears to have little direct applicability to humans. Another problem is the relatively stable environment in which the studies have been conducted. Performance in educational setting, in contrast, involves complex responses in relatively labile [fluctuating] environments” (Cellura, 1969).
Furthermore, Drive Theory is unable to explain human actions that create, and not reduce, tension (e.g. addictions or risky behavior such as bungee jumping). It also cannot explain why organisms will yearn for an experience or resource long after the biological imperative has been satisfied.
IMPLICATION OF DRIVE THEORY ON LEARNING ON THE NIGERIAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM •
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Regarding learning, habit is formed when an action is met with an outcome that reduces need. Hull “defined habit strength as the strength of the bond between a stimulus and a response…the bond was literally considered learning” (Wilson, 2005). Key to Drive Reduction Theory is the idea of reinforcement. For example, “a hungry rat that is allowed to eat after having pressed a bar will reduce its hunger drive. Drive reduction would then reinforce bar pressing” (Balkenius, 1994). The strength of a habit “will continue to increase each time a response reduces drive” (Wilson, 2005). Therefore, a rat will associate pressing a bar with satisfying hunger. Since humans are more complicated than rats, there is some difficulty adapting the concepts of this model to support modern theories of learning. However, “[Hull] maintains the first step in learning is to identify and eliminate competitive responses. These responses are tendencies to react which an instructor would consider inappropriate. Furthermore, the teacher should not be content with teaching one solution to a problem but instead, whenever possible, should introduce a variety of techniques for solving problems” (Dubin, Okun , 1973). Hulls Theory sheds light on learning and motivation, and its principles can be applied to any classroom. Hull theorized that a need generates drive; for example, the need to satisfy curiosity can produce a motivating force. This triggers a response to reduce the drive and feel satisfaction through the acquisition of new learning. Although Hull's theory doesn't account for all types of learning, there are some key ways teachers can implement Drive Reduction Theory to facilitate education in the classroom. They are:
1. Foster the desire to learn by building on students' intrinsic curiosity. Scaffold teaching by presenting new information at a level slightly higher than students' current level of knowledge. Puzzling questions and the element of surprise are other ways to spike curiosity and encourage learning. 2. Reinforce learning gradually and continually. Drive Reduction Theory posits that giving more reinforcement results in more learning. Teachers should meet students' achievements with constant challenges that are increasingly difficult. 3. Motivate students to learn with rewards. The need for achievement is a fundamental human need. Reducing this drive by implementing task-specific rewards or by recognizing and praising top achievers promotes learning in the classroom. 4. Capture the students' attention. Learning only occurs when students are engaged and focused. Use novelty and creativity in teaching methods. For example, educators can implement Internet research periods or use videoconferencing and educational software. 5. Involve students in the learning process. Drive Reduction Theory depends on active learning, so encourage, allow and value student responses to learning materials. Also provide hands-on opportunities. Practical learning maximizes attention by allowing students to experiment and problem solve on their own. 6. Satisfy students' curiosity. Foster an open attitude, answer questions and make sure that each student is on the same page before moving on to a new theme. •
Drive Reduction Theory suggests that attention is necessary to learning, and using technology is one way to grab students' attention. CONCLUSION
The drive theory of motivation provides the foundation for behavioral learning Theory and, unlike instinct theory, still has its proponents. Extrinsic reinforcers (For example, money or good grades) are viewed as incentives that activate acquired drives. The behavior that is instrumental in getting each incentive is learned through a combination of both drive reduction and reinforcement processes. Although Drive Reduction theory is now considered inadequate to explain the entirety of human behavior and motivation, it’s still regarded as “one of the most influential ideas in psychology ever” (Balkenius, 1994). Key to motivation is identifying the needs of an individual and promoting an environment or a
behavior that satisfies them. Elements of it have been used in other psychology theories, and it has also been adapted for a wide variety of practices including education, scientific research, health science (particularly dieting and body building theories that urge the creation of smaller and easier to obtain goals than drastic hard to reach ones) and marketing tactics (e.g. promoting brand loyalty or impulse buys) (Rossiter & Foxall 2008).
REFERENCE
Balkenius, C. (1994). Biological Learning and Artificial Intelligence. Lund University Cognitive Science, 3(2), 6. Cellura, R. (1969). The Application of Psychological Theory in Educational Setting: An Overview. American Educational Research Journal, 6(3), 353-4. Dubin, S., & Okun, M. (1973). Implications of Learning Theories For Adult Instruction. Adult Education, XXIV(1), 5-6. Mills, J. (1978). Hull's Theory of Learning: ll. A Criticism of the Theory and its Relationship to the History of Psychological Thought. Canadian Psychological Review, 19(2), 125. Motivation and classroom Learning; http://www.edb.utexas.edu/borich/pdfdocs/chapter7.pdf Rossiter, J., & Foxall, G. (2008). Hull-Spence Behavior Theory as a Paradigm for Consumer Behavior. Marketing Theory, 8(123), 128. Wilson, J. (2005). Hull’s Quantitative Equation on Human Performance. Journal of HYPERplasia Research, 5(2), 1-4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drive_theory http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Drive-reduction_theory http://sites.google.com/site/motivationataglanceischool/drive-reduction-theory http://www.ehow.com/how_7937828_use-drive-reduction-theoryclassroom.html
