Colin G. Calloway - New Worlds for All_ Indians, Europeans, And the Remaking of Early America (1997, John Hopkins University Press)

New Worlds for All ·+· 

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Iians, Eureas, and the Reking ofEarl ofEarl America

+ 

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Colin G. Caoway

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Jh H�k H�k Uverst P Balmor and London

© 1997 Te Johns Hopkis Uivsit Pe A ihts esed. Publse 1997 Pite i he Uie Sates fAmrica o aie reyled ppr

h Hkns Papebacks editio, 1998 46 95 Th john Hpki Uity Ps 271 N Ch tt Batimo Maa -363 wphu Libry of Cngess CataoggiPbitio Dat  b  a h  o hi bok A catao eo eo  his bk is i s b om th itih Lib lSBN

099x (pbk)

For 1taia, Gre and Alg

I am part of a that I have met.

-Afed, Lord Tnnyso, Usss

New Wod it i, for i,  for thoe t hoe who w ho became it peope pe ope remade t an in the proe they rema themelve Sidy W. Mt ad Richad Pce An Anthrpoogica Anthr poogica Appach o the Ao-Ame Ao-Ameican ican Pas: A Caribbean erspeve (ldep 976)

Contens

lustrations xi Preface ad Ackowedgmens

xii

Tmeie xvii Introductin: he Kleidoscope of Early Amerca 1 One. Imagning ad Creang a New Word  8 Two.

Heing and Disease 24

Three Te St o Lie 4 Fou A Wod o Dreams and Bibles 68 Five New Word Warfare and a New Word o War 9 S New World Domacy and New Word Foeig Polices 115 Seven New Nomads ad re Nomads 134 Eight Crossng and Meging Fronties 15 Nine New eoples ad New Soees 178 Conlusion: New Ameias and Fst meicas 9

Bibliogapical Essa 199 ndex 29

Ilustraions

Figre

The ew andscape of e new ·ord 21 Spans and Apace playing cards  48 "Cosme of e Domcad Idans of Nor Ameca  5 Zun Pubo, New Mexco  57 A Cek og cbn n e ate egeen ceury 6 T Moawk sacem Hndrck o yanogn 64 SrJon Cadwe 65 Moawk ndans  curc 82 Te pas of Th Book ofComn Pray n Moawk ad Egs 86-8 A Ho waro 00 Frenc dpcon of an roqo warror  Se de Campn and c mskers soo dow oos warros 06 ndn \varors and renc es dea Generl dard Braddok's Brs regas 106 An dan orr addresss Cooe Hery Bou 3 A Little aptive 58

e dns deeng up  ngsh Capes o Coon Bqe 60

Plan of St. Augstine, 62  A tavr cene na Motral 187

A1aps 1.

Inda eople Menne  he Text xviii 2

 New \Vol of �oement  4

Xl

ILUSTRATON

Preface and Acknowle gents

IN 14 9 THE w o R L D stood on e brink of a new era. The old word, n bo Europe and America, was about o end. Chstopher Coumbus's voy age he foowng year se n moton forces of cange ta atered te whoe panet: Euope was never te same agan afer is so-caed discovery of Amerca; Amerca was amost totay ansformed A prophecy arbed to a Spokan Indan on he Coumbia Pateau oward te end of e egteent cenr before cotact wh we Amecans, ecoed propeces recorded among ndian peopes across te connen n is forebodng �oon," warned te prope here w come om the rsng sun a dierent kind of man om any you have ye seen wo w brng wt e1 a book and w each you everthng, and afer hat te wod w  to pieces"  many ways he wods Indan peopes had ceated n oth Amerca over coun ess cenures dd fa o pieces after European Chstan mssonares and oters came o ther couny But te stor dd not end hee ndan peo peose wo surved the new war, dseases, econoc dspton, and societa dsnegraon generaed by uropean invasonpcked up te peces and set about rebudng te word hey saved what they coud om te od and used what ey coud hat was new The nvaders, mean wie, wee also ebuding te wods, recreatng wat tey coud of her European past, but addng much ta was new is short book expores te new wods a Indans and Europeans ceated ogeer n eary America and considers ow conquest changed conquered peope and conueors ake he book s not a hstor of Amercan Indans houg  nvoves ndan

Xll

eoples and teir expeences No is  a narative of Indan-whie elaions t s a colection of essays, peaps moe accuately a seres o messions, ta togee suggest ow tngs coud not ave been e way hey wee  wthou e teacio of Indian ad Euoea eoples n Amerca. Te mag or emag o ealy Amerca  was not a "moment, chaacteized by a snge dramaic and colo event such as occured at Jamestown o Plymouth Rock t was a expeence that asted loge an te Unted Sates as exised as a nao, and it invoved may deent peopes adap ng o many deent siuatos Dug ose centues most of Ameca  was stil Indan country, and even  aeas o uoean settlement, Indas remaied pat o daly le I was a wold whee Inda and uroean people  lved  wored, worsed, traveled, ad taded ogee, as wel as a world  wee, on hey feaed avoded, despsed and lled eac ote he boo s aranged topically aer an chonologicay to ovde reades  w gimpses of wat eary Ameica was ike we and whee Indas and uopeans came ino sustaned coac, ad of how ta cotac caged ngs e mee at the ont of e boo should help oient reades accusomed to more cooogca naaves ad sere as a eerence o ey evens.  Ths boo aemps to avoid geozing ndian peole nto some knd o exotc subcaegoy i Ameican isoy and ries sead o inegae tem as essentia aicipans in he making o Ameican histoy and te shapg o Amecan socees. t s nteded o pomt studens and genea eaders o enk te coona pas and ther natonal roos, wc are far less e cay ad culually neat tha ey ae ofen ortrayed ven so, ts book ells oy a o he story It suveys and gives exampes of Indan-uoea neractons oughou oh Amerca, but metions oy cdentally Acauroea ad Acan-da neacios Ahough coonia gov ements endeavoed o kee dians and Africans divded aganst eac oe, tey equenty emngled ad sometmes temaed Such as ects of the cuual kaedoscope of early Amerca mert boos n themseves. I am gael to Henry Y. K om, execuve edto and to Stanley I ue Ameican Moment sees edo, fo the nvitation o wie a boo such as ts, and to te aoal dowment fo te Humaes fo a summe sted wc aowed uneruped time to complee  I began  wiing the book a te vesy of Wyomg ad nshed t a Damou Colege I am gratel o my coeagues a bot nstuons or ei o

XV

PREFAC ND AKOWLGMNTS

leaity and suppor, especiay Serge Kan; Chrs Jocks wo ead capter 4; and Aen Koop who read caper 2. Thans to Linda Welc fo patienly  gding my transiion to a new compute sysem and o the anonymos reviewe wose geneos and construcive comments pointed out wee he manscp needed o be ne-tuned o prodce a bee boo. Reed Dear silly reprodced many o te illusaions Nancy o drew te maps Ph Robes prepared the index and Barbara O'eil hillips dd a nce job ocopy edng As sual al erors ae my own and e boo is dedcated to the people who remade my wold

PREFAC AND ACKOWLEGMENTS

XV

Timeline

c. 700-c 1550

Mississipian ciefdoms louish througout Soueas

1492

Columbus voyages to Ameic

1513

Poce de Le opes Sanish coact with Indias in Floida

1520s

ist epidemics o Od Word diseses in Noth Ameic

153-4

Giovi da Vezzao sis Alatic coas om Caolinas to Newoudlad

58

lo de Narvez leads Sanish exedition o Gulf o Mexico; ove te next six yeas Cabeza de Vaca d othe membes tave ito the southwes 

153441

Jcques Cae tvels u e S wece Rve

1539-43

Heando de Soto invades the Southest bae o Mabila, 1540

154042

Facisco Vsuez de Coonado ivades New Meco; battle of Hwikh with Zis 1540

1585-86

Eglish setlemen at Roanoke sd, Not Caoina

1598

ua de ODate establishes Sansh colony i New Meico; tkes Acom by assault, 1599

603-5

Sauel de Chamlai's voyages in e Notheast clases w Iouois, 1609

1607

gish sete aamestow, Vignia

.

XVl

1616-19

Major epidec (disease unnown) in New Engand

1620

Pyouh Coony etabled

1622

Powatan Indian go to wa against Engis in Vginia

16349

FencJesut msionaries active in Huonia

163334

Spox epideic toughout e Noreas

1636-37

Puin wa againt he equot

160s

Mayew faiy msionae acte on Marha' Vineyad

6

Goveno Kiets Wa against he Indian of owe udo Vaey and New Yok

6

econd owhaan wa agat Engih

646-7

ohn Eot' ioa wok in New gand

169

oquoi detoy Huron viage

675-76

Kg iips Wa in New Egand

680

ueo Revo dves paads o New Mexico

c.680-.170

ains Idas acquie hoe

681-8

en oe avee de La Se tave down te Msissippi and caims he Misiipi Vaey fo ou XV as ouiaa

168997

Kng Wa' Wa

169

anico de Vagas econuer New Mexco

7001701

oquois estih peace wit Fance and Btai

701

ohn awon taes aong Indian peopes of te Caoinas

703

Queen Anes Wa; Teay o Uret, 1713

703

Engish nd Indian aie detoy pans iion yte in orhe Forida

70

Fench ad Indians aid Deeed Massacuets

Map 1. India Peopls Mto  th Tx: Appoxmate  can at e

me o the t uaned contac w opa

TIMELN

XX

1715

Yamassee War against English coloniss in Sout Carolina

1720-35

French wars against the Fox Indians in e western Great Lakes

17

Tuscaroras migrate north om he Carolinas andjoin the roquos Confederacy; he Five Nations become the Six Naons Smalpox kls al the Cerokees

741

Vus Being and exei Chrikov open Russan trade with native peoples o Gul o Alaska

1744

reaty o ancaster beween the Six Nations and Virginia, Pennsylvania and Maryand

1748

King George's War between England and France

754

Albany Congress beween Si Nations and various Englis colonies; Benamin Franlin's plan o colonia union

1755

Frenc and ndians deea dwad Braddock in Ohio; batle o Lake George

1756

Seven ears War also nown as rench and ndan \var

1757

rench and ndians capture t Wiliam Henry in New York

17596

Wa beween Cherokees and English coloniss

176

oniac's Revolt Ryal roclation esablishes Appalachan Mounains as bounda to English setlement eay o Fort Sanwix: rouois cede lands souh o Ohio River o Sr Wliam Jonson rst Francscan misson esablished n Caliornia ord Dunmore's War etween Sawnees and Vginia Capain ames Cook begins ngish trade with orthwes Coast peoples Amercan Revoluon reay o Fort itt between Delawares and U.S.; rs treay etween S and ndians

X

TIMELIN

Geera Joh Suivan nvades lroqoia Massive smapox epideic o Mexico o Canada eace of Paris: Briai reognizes the idependence of is rtee former ooies and rasrs Idia ands o U.S 1786

Goveror Juan Bauist de Aa akes peae betwee New Mexio ad Comahes

790

Norhweser tribes dea Geerajosiah Harmar i Oo

79·

Norhweser res defea Geera Arhr S Cair in Ohio

79-93

George Vaover rades wi ndia peopes on aic oas

94

Geera Aony Waye deeas orweser ribes a Faen Tmbers n Ohio

1795

Teay o Geevie; orweser ibes cede mos o Oio o US andsoe Lake region begns amog e Seeas Expediio o Meriweer Les ad Wiia ak o S. os o e acic

TIMELN

Xl

New Worlds for All

Introduci ·+ .



The Kaleidoscope of Early Ameca

A

of he Ameica Revolution, the ebeling coloists soliced h sppot, o at as h euaity, o h Indan tbs o  as woodands in hei wa agaist Gea Bitain. Oe Arica agnts ivokd  shad xics o whie Amicas and Indan Amicans, poting out tha thy w both av-bon Aicans acing a commo theat a te hands o yannical Bons ''We ae sung om o como moe, we wee a bon  his bg Islad," Ameca commissioes at Psbugh told visig Mohaws, Seecas, Deawaes, ad Shawes i 776 Addssg Indan dlgats i the Wabash couy in 8 Vginia Geog Roges Ca dcaed that t Big Ki [ ndian na o Vginias n paicula, ad Amcas i gena] a vy much l  Rd ope" Le h Indians and unike the Bitish h said, h Ameicas did ot know much abo manuactuing, ad lve chiy by mang con, Hunng ad Tad as you do" Seag to he Idan tibs aond Mon tea o beha o h Contiena Cogss a Alen o Vmont mad simila caims He said he oved dias ad hunted and ought as they did In J 6, wh Congss  Phadelphia was debatig indepdence, John acoc tod vstg oqos at th Amicans and th Ioquos  w as on pol ad hav b one heat" Mos o ths was jst councl- hoic. Cla Aln and most o th oding ahes wee ieested i Inda lad no n a shaed Idia denty Bu wee the Ameicans on to somng? Was the a Indan ingedient in the mixtue o lueces that made coonsts ncent �Am cas by 75 Whe Geog Roges Cla and his agtag ay aved a T THE o u B R AK

1

Vincennes n 1779 the Spansh letenan governor n the area was socked at how mc ey esembled Indans n thei clohng and e appeance. Eght  years later anothe Spanird descrbed Amecan backwoodsmen on Floda's norhen onte as deng om he ndan neghbos only n ter skn coor language, and cunning Dd sface esembances ind cate a deepe and moe pevasive Indan mpin on Amercan cture and characer? n 106, Wlliam te Bastd dke of Nomandy, nvaded England to seze e throne fon te Anglo-Saon King Harold Deeatng and klng Harold n battle Wliam mached to London and took possesson of e cty where e had mself cowned ng n te yeas ta followed, te Noms mposed he govenmen sysem ofjstce, langage, and cltre on the conqeed nglish people Wa emerged owever, was an Anglo Norman mxure, exempled n the Engls angage Te names fo an ms deive om te Anglo-Son words of the peope who ended e lvesock: sheep, cow, and pig; te names or e animals meat derve om the  wods of e ench-speakng Normans who dined on them muon bee, and pok Eventlly, te Noman conuerors and their clre were absobed by te conqered Cange occurred and England was never the same agan, bt i remaned nglish Sc clul conluences have been  par o he gve and ake beween conered peoples and thei coneros for hosands o yeas trogot the world  woud be nusul, en, i Amerca, a conty ta prides ise and even skes is denty on te mlplcty o peoples n ts pas and pesen makep, dd no illsae e same penomenon Ate 492 Europeans nvaded eca in ever-increasng numbes Ove the cenues, they built a new naton and a new socety and changed oever e Amecan wold they had invded Bu ey became Ameicans The dea s not new Many wies have ponted the way to an ndestand ing o early erca as a wod of mied and ming peopes w a sbsan tl ndian presence rencman Hecto St Jon de Cvecoeu noed tha Ameca n he ate eghteenth centry demonstrated "at strange mxtre of blood wc yo wl nd n no oer contry Moea de Sant-My wen so far as o asser tha te Amercan s te peec mean between e Eropean and e Indan More han a hundred yeas ago redeckack son Trner n a famos stdy of te mercan fronte wic as snce been usly crtced and has len nto dsavo oeed some of te same sugges-

2

NEW WORLDS FOR AL

ons, altogh abung change to envonmenta deerminsm rahe han cuu ntecon and empoyng anguage hat today sounds dated and pehaps oensve: Te oner s the ne of mos ra and eecte Aercanzao. he weress masers e oos It ns  a Euoea  ress, sres, toos, moes o rave, an og  akes hm om e raroa ar a  s  n e brc coe srs o e gaes of vzaon an arays m n e ntng s an e occas puts   the og cabn o e Ceroee a Iroqos a uns an nan asae arou h Beore ong e as goe o ang Inan cor an owng wth a ar stc; he sout te wa cy an taes the sca n otoox nan fason In sor, a te onte he envonen s a st oo song fo e a e s acce e onos wh  rnses, or es, and so e ts msef nto e ceags an foows te an tras Le b te e as forms te wlerness, b he ooe s no te o roe  The fact s a ere s a new ro tha s Aeca n ne's vew of hsoy, e wdeness and "ee and eeed powe ansong nences on opean coonss Bt une's wldeness Ameca w agey myt opean sees oen lved n eoccped n dan owns ae ndan oods, and dea w ndan peoe on a ega bass Hman nences wee as motant as envonmenal ones n sang he new Ameca Antopologs Jac Weaheod hns hat he scae of eopes and cuues n Nort Ameca as ceaed a cu mue hat poby w not be eeaed n wod so nt we enconte le on anoe pane soan Gay Nash ponts ou hat e contnuous neacton o  dvese cuua gous n colona Ameca poduced a congomeraon of cua enttes Peope tend o constc e cltes n neacton wt one anote no i solaon Fa Shueon, consdeng e eole o eay Ameca a mxed ace, denes etncy no as sometng stac and constan bu as "a dynamc eaton beween dee cu gous, who conty mod e undestandng of emseves n gh o sftng eaonshps  w ohes So, o empe, ngs mmgants o New ngand ed to mpose he clte on te ndan eoles lvng thee, bu tey wee beng ehncally ansfomed temseves n the process o con ontng and beng cononed by he eope ey fond aeady on e gond oeans became Amecans and Aecans beame deen

THE KALEIDOSCP F EARY AMRCA

3

om Eropeans "bcause thy ad o confront signicanly dirn ni groups ta thy wold vnally incld, sometims euctanly, somtms  violny, as part o th maning o Amia. I Shuton's viw, h multiethnc chaactr o Amica was wll stablishd ong bor th  Amrican Rvolton. h nw sotes that grew ot of e intracton o peopls in ealy  Amra wre amagams, combnng Indian as wll as Eopean and Acan nuences Felix Cohn, athor o he Handbok f Indian Law, wro in i952 hat Amrican hisoians ad paid too mh attntion to militay victo ris and rritoral xpanson and ad aild o appria "that in agricl tur, n govement, n spot, n edcation and in or viws o nat ad or low mn, it is h rst Amricans who hav akn apive ti atle ld conqrors on thought tha th rea epi of Ameria was "th yet nnshd story of e Ameianizaion o the whit man Etnohsoran Jams xtel has writte ros lcid and suggstiv essays d oos n wich  xamns t cons and conc of l ures n colonil Norh Amrca "Wot th Indians, says xl, "Amer ca would not be Amrica as w ow it In siatons o cltr contact, "on cur may prdomina and a mor han  earns, bu " du caional pross s always mtal And he ndian mprin on American so y od most sgncantly n he formav, olonil era Evn Brnard aly, a hsorian o th old scool oen criticid o gnoing wom, ordnay pop, and minoritis n his view o t natios past rcognes ta what he clld  mingling o pimtivism and viizaion onsittd "an essnial ingdin of arly  Amrican ultre Euopans did no om to Amrica to bom Indians or vn in he early days, o bcom "Amricans Ty came, for th most part, to rcrate n th w Wold th ind of commnites they ad left in th Old, wth som impovemns By th eghtenth centy, howeve, raveers and com mnators rglarly compland ta h Europan slrs thy ncountred vng on h fonr wr ittl b tan r Indan nigbors ey drssed, ae und, grw corn, bavd, and vn lood li Indans  Acordng to Grman ravlr Johann Davd Shopf in the 1780s, y lso aurd "similar ways of tinng  complaints w no ithou fon daion As Davd Wbr obsvs of Spanis eprins in orth Amrca, "Howver mh ty wisd o cons e familiar, Spaniards saty numers and rsours lt em wih no hoie bt to ma onssons to

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NEW WORLDS FO A

the strange ew evioment and, on occasio, o lean om naves who undesood oca codiions beter han they." Spanis cooniss avoidd chags a chaenged heir ndamenal vaues, and ey peseved th coe of heir cuure iact, bu they aso woe India cos a dia oods, 1aied Indian wome, produced -Indian chiden ad eaned to speak Idia aguags The atu ad th degree o xchages varid ro region o egion and om me o ime, accordg to te people who inhaited and ivaded e aea Cooiss om dieen regios o Europe deveoped vaying reaios  wt deren ndan bes ad did so i a variey o cicu1nsaces His  panic  peope  the Souhwes and Frenchme in Canada he Gea Laes, ad ouisiana genealy iterminged more eey wih Indan pops an did Egsh seers on he Alanic seaboard A Franciscan ia in 63 compaind ta Spanads  Nw Mexco we ad om chidood sujct o the cusoms of [he] dians, and th dia impi o sociey is  vsie oday more ceay i New Mexico an  New Engad.  he Great akes region in e seveteet and eary eigteeth cenuries renchme ad Agoian Idias ceated wat ethosoan Rchard Whi cas a mddle goud were he Fenc ad ndian words meed a he edges and megd" and whee i came ucar wheher a parcua pacce o  way o dog things was enc or Idian Accordig to cuua goga  pers Tey J oda and Ma Kaups inteacons and cuua excanges  were greaes in Midand Ameca, were Swedsh ad Fnish settes in he Deaware Valey esabised good eaions with e oca Indans ad  produced a med backwoods cuure tha ar pioees caried to arge areas o Ameca The cuu o mmgran Sao-Kareian inns, oined o the digenous cuue o he eawar ndians, yieded a e essenia igrediets o a syncetisc Midand Amican coozing sysem Subs qunt gnraions o Scochsh immigrants adoped e Fish-dia techiues o foes colozaion ey ound in e Deawae Vaey and  pushed wes ad southwes. They added ei ow geneic ad cuua iput o eary Amecan backwoods cutue ad sociey ad ony ay repicated e pates of peace coeistence orged by inns ad ea  waes Nw Yok's Moawk Valey was he scee o tte gting during the American Rvouio, but he eigheen-century vaey was more oe a  pace we Indans ad Euopeas aked, taded and iemaied whre some ndias drn ea ad some Euopeans atooed ir aces

THE KALEIDOSCOPE F EARY AMEC

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Many colonists from many places, a many times, neacted with Indian peope, ived n nan couny, and adopted an aapte nan ways. Wring in e mide of te eigeen centy Swedis botanist Peter Km said a his counymen wo ha come o Ameca n e seventeenth cenuy '\ee accs of being aeay alf nans wen he Englis a ived" bu noted we sti see tha he Fenc, ngsh Gemans, Dutc an oe opeans who ave lived fo sevea yeas in isant povinces, near and among te nans grow so ke tem in eir beavior and thougt tat they can ony be istingushe by the dierence of hei coo" ary America in the wake of European invasion became a cacophony of aguages peoples, and cuures n his kaleoscope of uman encon es," ndians an opeans made what isoan T H Been calls ce atve adaptations" to new paces and new peopes Wa emerge was some hng dieent fo bot ndians and uopeans, om wha a gone before n his exceent iso of he Caawba nians James Mee as shown ow invasions om uope ceate a new wor fo Naive peopes in Noth Ameica A st, uopean coonists had o  ino an nian wor and adap o the Indians ways of oing tings As the opeans adapted to an then ransfome Ameca oweve eventuay e Indians ha to t into a Eopean word Lk ei new neighbos; wries Mee, nans had to ben od an new ways hat wo pemi hem o sive in he pesen an pepae fo the tue wiot ttey forsang he pas Boh goups of peopes a to make ajsmens but no at he same me pace o ate By e en of e coonia ea, nans an opeans ake had ceae new societies in Ameca Te uopean societies dispayed evence of cange many nian socieies ha canged beyond recogniion However, te ajusments made by opeans wee no insignican an they wee sometmes nament Euopean immgants bogh with tem a cago of gems guns, goods animals eigious zea and nge an cltal peconcepons tha tne meica ino a new, an oen nigt mars  wor for Indian peopes Bu ose immigans so bought wih tem pesona beongngs, inconsequentia o anyone bt themseves, mena pictes of ends an eaves tey wou not see again, pvate memoes of sigts sons, and smels in paces wee they ha spen mos f not a of thei lives. Wiing ome fom Pennsyvania in 1725, he son of Wes mmi grants ecale s paents tkng about te wod hey ha ef: equenty dng ong wine evenings woud they in merry moo poong the con-

6

NEW WORLDS FOR ALL

 vesao aot ther aive lad t midigh; ad eve afte they had ered to es, ey wod sometimes fody reall to each oher's ecoeto some ma o h, hose or ock." Sch peope dd ot leave Euope"-the en had tte meag ad ess emove appea o most of them They lef a te ad oal wod of regos distit dies famila paes a hma commies Lfe woud eve be e same fo them. Smpy by leavg the  pae o hei  ey t themseves o om aiet ces of ife ad death ad embaced a ue ow o hei paets ad aesos Tha te voved ldg a ew soety ad takg o a ew deti  As eary as he seveteeth e New gad Prtas woed that oqueg e Ameica wideess ad omg to otat wth Ame ca Idas wod te the cooss' glsh te ad heir sese of themselves as glsh peope Tei Amea expeece heateed to gve the ooists a ew dettysomethg deepy tobg o ta gs me  a ew wod Ogay, the tem Amera" reered to das e s  Amercas By the me of the Revoto,  desgated glads former ooss who wee ceatig a ew ato he oosts who dessed as Mohawk Idas to dmp Btsh tea o Boso Habo  14  wee ot tyg o dsguse themselves They wee procamg a ew Ameca ideiy Though t a, ee were Ida peope who, despte massve hages  the wod aod them peseved tact ther damet wodvew ad trba ves jst as thee wee opeas who epeeced tte o o teactio wth d peope o for whom suh teato had le mea ig ad eft o asg mpresso. evertheess, may da peope had to d ew ways of svivig, of beg da  he ew wod reaed y the vasos rom rope, ad may ropeas assmaed da eemes o ther ew detio of themseves as Ameias By i8oo oosts   Ameia had seed poa f ot ye ct ad eoomc depe dee om Gea Ba A Amea" was ow a ctze o the ew ou e Ued tates, o a Nave Ameica. Te ew Amecas gratey tred ther aes away om ope ad towrd ther" ew oy Thebackoty" of e eighteeth ey ecame heote" of the eeeh ety Bu t was a Ida oy, ad i e ts mp howeve sbe, o he peope who eeed t ad o the soees they bilt ee.

THE KALEIDOSCP F ARY AMA

7

One

Imagining nd Creating  New World

EARLY UROPEAN SAILOS t was said coud sme the pne foests of No Amerca log beoe tey od see land.ven unsee, te ad ed andace ad omse.I Th Grat Gaby, F Sott Fzgerad as Nc Caraway ook ot acoss Log sad Sod ad eet on ow te od sad ms have apeaed as "a es, gee east o e e'v wod to the rst Dut saiors ee cetes eae "ts vased tees ...ad one  padeed o the ast and geatest o a uma dea1s; for a anstoy enhaed momen ma mus ave hed s beath  te pesene of ts cotinet, comeed no a aesetic otempaon he ete udestood or desed, fae o ace o te ast tme  hstoy wt sometg comme surate to s aaty o wode Oe beat-hodgs sey ocured as Eoean exoes eoueed the Gad Canyon e Geat aes, the Mssssp Rve Bu te momets wee stoy uopeas ame to Ameca to bd ams ad tows out o te foests at beconed e They meat o ceate a ew wod, not eave c te one tey oud ee As eary as 1642, ltte moe than rty yeas afte those s u saos had tohed and, a Naaganse sahem named Matoom tod te Monau ndas o ong sad wa tey aeady new: Our fathes had pey o dee and sns, or pans were  of dee, as aso ou woods and of tkes, and ou oves f of sh ad fow Bt tese Egs ae gote ou ad ey w sythes u down e gass, ad wth es fe te tees; the cows ad horses ea e gass, ad the ogs spo ou lam bas, and we sa a be saved  e mdde of e eghteen etuy, Fec tavee Jea-

8

Beard Bossu attribued similar sentiments to a Nachez Indian on te eve of at people's war aganst e Frenc in te 1730s eore e Frenc cme no or lands, declared e Nacez we were happy wi wa we had we wlked oldy upon our paths becase then we were or own msters. Bt today we tread gropngly feang orns We walk le te slaves  which we wi soon be sne ey lready treat us as og we were" From New England o he ower Mississippi Valley ndan people saw te world tey had once known change rapidly and forever aer ropeans arived Te new world existed in te imaginaons o ropeans Tog od y 492 America was once new to ndan peoples too Nave trdiions trace riba pesences in heir homeands back to a tme beyond mmor; many trditions e ow the peope emerged ot o e grond Archaeolo gsts and many oter scholars  prefer o eplan te peoping o America as the reslt o migrtion om Asa across the Bering Srait via a osand mle-wide land bridge eposed dring he las ce age (10000  years ago) and peneraon o e ineior o e connent along ice-ee corridors There is no queson, owever ta ndian peopes were ere tousands of years before uropeans set foo in or even imagined e new  wold. Te people o Taos Peo n New Mexico seekng te en of e sared Blue Lake in 1968 delaed: We ave ed pon is land om days beyond stos records far pas any vng memo deep no e ime o  legend Te story o my people and te soy o is place ae one single soy No man can ti o us wthou lso tinking o his pace n he or o uman presence in North America, ropeans avejus minutes beore he op o te or; he Unted Sates begins ts hisoy as a naon jst momens before the bel. ike aer arrvas ndians poneered e land and bl lives and comm nties hee Kowa athor N Scot Momaday suggess a wen man set foot on e onnent of Nor America e was srey an endangered spe ces However umans possessed e abilty o un o manacure toos and  weapons to make re o speak and tink, to cooperate and mainan communiy Over tosands o years e rst Ameicans ne-tuned ese ailies and added other achievemens Tey developed a diverse array of  liesyles, accordng to te derent enroents ey inabted; a mlti  plcty of languages; and many dieren syles o archtecure Ther subss tence sraegies incded greaer or lesser degrees o aing unng and gaering ndian peples' poltica systems anged rom heocracies and

IMGIIG AND CRETIG A EW WORL

9

chiefdoms o egalaran and ud famly band soiees. Tey reaed art forms and cra speazaons; exensive ade neworks and elaborae r als o exange and ompex regons and sared relaonsps emple monds n he Oho and Mssissippi Valeys and the Soueas ntagos, anen rrgaon sysems, and aandoned li dwelngs  e Souwes legends and sores rogou e oninen, ll esed o e presene o e ancen oes e ancesors of te many deren Indan peoples  wo inhabed Nor Amera by e ime o Colmbs Colmbs changed forever e sory of e pane B e dd so by onneng wo wods of equal may no y "dsoveng a new one Knowng s some nd  easy o dismss Eropean nssence o ang Ameria he New World as noing more an Eurocenrc arrogane. Con nced a Europe was synonymos w vizaon olonzng Eropeans aed o see anyng o vale n Indan vliaons ey regarded Indan  peopes as "prmive and vewed e land as gn wldeness Lke oer man bengs hey were lnd o much a ay before em and nsead oo in wa hey waned o n a vey rea sense owever Ameca dd exs as a new world for Eropeans meria was more an js a  pace  was a seond oppornity for maty-a hance after e boodleings and e  pogroms e pages and he famines he polal and religous wars, he soa and eonom upeavas or Europeans o ge  rgh is me n he egnnng, e Amerc dream ws a Eropean dream and  exered emoona and movaonal power for generaons Colona promoional eratre nvented an mage of Ameca a never exised n a b even e rea Amea mpressed Eropes as a new and andan land  onaned, o em new peoples new plans, new geog  phy new anma fe new matc ondons and nprecedened spae Knowledge about Amera promped some Eropean solars o ren er mentl wold ey had o expand eir concepions o geogpy, hsoy nare, and eology o embrace Amera Atempng o undersd s sge new wold wes hsoan Davd Weber, rered menl adjusmens ha engaged and deed e es European mnds Eary explorers endeavored o  Ameca ino old conceps of wold geogaphy whch mandaed ha e "new ands mus be eer islands or  pennslas o he Asian manland Gradualy Eropeans ealzed ha Amer a was uy a new wod "I ound a I  was now ome no a new  wold?'

10

NEW WORDS FO AL

 wroe Swedish naturst Peer Kal afer steppng o e boa in Pla delpia n 1748. "Wenever I looked to e gound I fond everywere suc  plants as I had neve seen beoe He was, he admed sezed wh terror a he togh of rangng o many new and nkow pas of natra hsory. The Eropeans' strugge to adap to sch nfama hngs domnaed e  pas ve undred years of Aecan sory; and o mos Europeans adaptng mean conong and subjugang Mos Europeans who cae o Ameca endeavoed to esablsh see ments, socieies and epres a rrored or wee modeed on those hey eft bend he naes speak o heseves: New France Nova Scoia New Engand New Neerand New Amsteda New Yok New Hamp sie, New Sweden New Spain, New Mexco Immgrans o parcua regons of Eope brogt amlar naes om home Englsh mgans creaed new owns w old names-York, Cheser, Lancaser-wie hose o Bans bordelands doed the Appalacan egon w names ke Cmbeand, Duha Galoway and ondondery opeans mposed new naes and bondares on te exstng uan geograpy of Noth Aeca arbitrarly ncldng excldng or dssecing nerous ndian  wods n regons to whch they assgned new carogapc and poltca denites Even Amerca s a name o Eropean nvenon, afe e Iaian nagao Aego Vespucc Euopea setters soetmes dd encone epty lands as ey pene aed North Ameica But emped wold be a ore appropate tem snce ese populaton vacuus were sully e prodc of European ds eases unnng aead o conac Pigs a Plymo found clivated elds,  wic prevous Indan nbans had cleaed but then left after an epdemc n 6 Duch setes n New Neteland kese hough bandoned n dan ands were "t for use e newcomers bl on wat hey ond O ten, Euopea owns gew on he ses o ndan viages aking advanage, as ad he prevous nhabants of avorable locatons and accessbe resorces Spans colonists b a litary pos at ucson Aizona on op o Nave meican ins daing rom A.O. 80900 New owns wee gven Euopean naes o replace teir ancien Indan naes and he pae of selemen rapdly obsced e Indan pas and presence n seveneencenuy New Engand for exape, Agawam becae pswch Sawu becae Boston Nameag a he mo o the Pequot Rver becae New London; and e

IMGNN D CRETING  NW WRLD

11

river itsel became the Thames. In the Coecicut Valley, Nowottuck Pocumtc and Squaaeg faded om istoy ad cartography o be re  placed by Nortampto Deereld and Notheld, Massachusetts Names o a map eveal pattes of movemet ad accomodatio as el as  paters of coquest.  the orh o England Anglo-Saxon to names es aogside ames of Roman ad Scadiavan origi Lieise i Ne Yor Irouos place ames suvive alongsde Dutc Gera ad Eglis mes ad a fou logsde ames tat are holy "America Father  est i Oo, for exampe Idian amesiua Cillicote, Sandusky, Cuy ahoga, ad Cosocosuvive logside place ames o Europea ogiSchnbn Ates, Milan Dublias el as place names tras  plaed om te easter coloniesNe Have Ne Philadelphia Such reamgs ere par of e process of dispossessg dia peoples ad edrag he map o Nor America As he lae Bris geogrpher Bria Harey eplaied, Idi peopes became "vcims o a map Euro  pea cartograpers replced Inda t uropea ames, descibed Idia counry as ilderess, vacan land or er icogita and eectvey ex cuded dias om te ne old they ceated o pacme and paper Weeas Ida place names eded o covey the ecoogicl chaacteistics o a aea or ho  as used uropeas oe named places after locaites i Euope or ater he ne "oe he land said arley "had een eec ively edescried i he vocbula o he conuerors Setlers renamed the s rers hey came to on te as Coaste udson, he James the Cares ad so obut may rivers moutais ad lakes farher ilad eaied er originl Idia ames According o aoa scolar Vie DeloraJ ee emais a good del moe ta is sil holly India in our adscape Indeed he basic sacred geogapy o he Idia emais virualy uouced Tose sacred paces ad oer pats o e ladscape tat remai Ida represe oly a faget o e origial apestry Euopea coloists i eded o oly o tae over he nd; hey aso ere detern1ied to cange  o remae i io somehig more cosely reseblng he ord hey had le hey did no nd a e orld n Amerca they did se abou creaig one Indan peopes had made te mar on he aura ord long before Europens arived bu tei eviromeal imprn as egigile i com  parison h a s to come Europea ivaso of meica set i moio rpd ad areachg ecologcl canges Europea immigrans brough

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NEW WORLDS FO A

 plants, aimas birds and isecs ha moued their ow bologca ad zoologica vasios ad chaged the aual wold almos beyod recog ion. ll across h coien ll ave gasses ad foess disapeared swif seams sowed o a suggish pace ad le ora ad faua took hold As hisora Karen Kuerma explais, Od Wold seeds ad aimals colozed aog wih the huma migrants: "Pobaby o Europea aer the  vey rst elorers eve saw an eclusvey Ameica meadow, she wres Bids ad amals oo up seeds carried n e holds o ships ad i he gs o amals ad spread hem ar beyod he oier o coac The Egish ad he Duch impored Europea hoeybees, he rs arrvng  Virgiia i he early 1620s Idias clled hem Eglsh ies Hector S John de Crvecoeur said hat dias viewed bees' arival i he ieor of he coine as a oen o the aproach o whe sees Europeas lso mored blacklies cocroaches, ras ad house mice As eary as 609, we he coloy was jus wo yeas old sees aamesow rgiia ound "housads o as rom he Englsh ships cosumig heir ood ad hey were orced o u aga o dias or help i eedig hemseves Egish sparows ad sarigs became ubiquious i Noh Ameica i he ineeeh ceuy comeg fo esng saces wih dig enous seces das had dogs bu cas arived aboard Euroea ships irga gey imoed ed oes for hung i a aem o emulae he sportig ie o English genr Euroea cale pgs ad horses ramped da cornelds ad dove away deer and oher game o which dia eope deeded. dias complaied o he coloists bu i ime hey too adaed e ew lvesoc io hei lives. omesicaed livestoc alered he geder-based dvsios of labor in dia socieies Me had previously bee esosible o hug aims i he orests; wome eded cos i he eds aoud he villages. Now amals became par o vllage lfe re  vousy hues had rayed o he sprs of he amals hey hued now aimls could be regaded as a form of ropery Shee ad goas became ccl comoes o Navao ad ueblo ecoomy orses revoluoed e lives of dia peoles on he Grea ais poducing for a bef perod i te eightee ad nieteenh ceuries te way o lie ha poula ulure cosides ypcl o a ndian peoles at al imes he mounted dan huing bulo was a reaey rece pheomeo and a bypoduc oEuropea ivaso Eglish coloiss roduced rye, barley whea oats root cros and

IMAGNN AD CRET  W WOL

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 vaious erbs nd egetbles. They also, nadertently, mpoted new weeds: dndelos thisles sgig nettes cckeed myeed, ghtshade, ad  pntai  wc Idis caed "Engsma's Foot, because t seemed to spig up wereve te newcomes e troden & was nee known before the nglsh came ito ths couty Bluegrass nd whte cloe ntlly brougt rom nglad as fodde ad n the dung o he nmas tat te them sped qckly i res where catle gazed, nd, mixed togehe, becme own as glish gass. By te time pioees crossed he Ap  plachins to Kentucky n te lte eighteenth cetuy wte cloe nd "etucky bluegrss d aedy tke oot thee. Mewhle ae gasses ot ccustomed to pstolsm beg to dsppea as ctte seep ad goas muched ad trod ther wy nto Amec. Sps colosts who troduced Europe gazng aimls to te rd ad ecoogclly agle  lads o he Souwest geerted chan reactions tey could not hve fore see. Herds of seep catte d horses tampled grasses nd compacted sols Tey broke down egetto producig ncresed os nd gully g.  time explns Daid Weber ush grsslnds, dotted  wt trees nd bmmg wt deer ad other widlfe bega to dmns nd  some  pces, tued to desert Omnorous nd adaptble pgs, rst itoduced to te Southest by Spairds  he sxteenth centu tried  ter ew evioment. They spread thoughout Amerc "lke Vemaie upo the art The swne ot oy ed immigrnts but aso hd devastatng eects on ate or ad u ad my have elped spred aiml-boe Old Wod diseses. The itroducto o ae cttle probably lso spread n ax brucelloss ad oher diseses to the bualo heds o Not Amerc Europeas ntroduced speces of nmas new to Ameic ad hey lso ecoutered speces tve to Amerc but ew to them uopen trvelers  te ester woodlds sully commented o atleskes, wth reulso Biso beve moose rccoon musrt, cougrs llgtors ous oher ses ad reples, ad umerous ids o brds, a ttcted the uro  peas tteto, at te same tme reforcg Europea notos tht Amec  was both bountil nd a wildeess Tasomig ht wderess nto a mrket d to cvtion en tailed systematc destuction of some tive speces. ur trders dd not set out to destroy te sources o her welth, nd Europea r tdes ad Idas oe had a common nterest n restctng settemet  the lnds hey hunted. Neerheess te r trde ws te ecoomc backbone o te

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NEW WORLDS FOR ALL

Frenc empire i Caada ad o may Engs colonies, and t ad devast ng eects o Indan couny. Beoe conac wt Europeans ndan peope somemes ed aias e masse: on e nortern plas hey engged n communal buo dves a stampeded erds over cls. Mam dans on te llnos praes used re to drve buao towad ter huners who as Lous Henepn obseed n 8 "somemes k two undred i a day Afer cotc many ndans  became depede on e manuacued goods the r ade boug hem nd und   h dd o Eop markets  n h nd of e ames dans us began to parcpae n he sysemac saughte o anm popuaons w wch hey ad omery cuvaed symboic and spiral eaonships ad on whic hey had reed or muc of eir ivel hoo One etosoran as eve suggesed a ndians bed oended  wife pris or bgg epemc deae an ete by wagg  on r-beang am popuatos Beween 2 and 8, ndan huners  broug in mos nie housand beaver pes toJoh Pynco's tdig pos at Spnged Massachusetts as we as hudreds o moose, oer ox ac coon mnk, and oter skns  1654 aoe Pyncon epoed 373 pounds of beaver o ngand ech Jesu mssonary Sebasan Rases noed  73 at he ndas wit whom he ved  Mae have so destroyed te gme o her couny at for e years hey ave no oge eher eks or deer Bea and beavers ave become ve scarce Te Abenas e sad had scarcey aythng o wich o ive  but ndan con beans, and pump  kns  79, he Ameca naturs Benjamn Smh Bao warned at  beaver were on e verge of excion i the Noeas e demse o beaver popuatos ad he destructo o beaver dams had varous ad fareacng mpacts on loca ecosysems aoly Mer chant lss some o e repercussions i ew England A  beavers og 'v e dams and ponds, dsappeaed om the ew ng n e so dd oter assoced ece Fewer bac duck rng ee uck, hooe erger  goeee rere o bree on  beaver ponds n ane Wt beaves no oger abe o mann er 

musa and os were eer ooded or ozen out by ucuag pond  eve. nk n roo  bot o wc ae fog s snakes and suckers n bever owge ound  e ood o u he er wen po srank no marses and nay became eadow Larger al a e he bever  ponds so were aeced n sbe but negatve ways oose 

IMAGNG AD CRET A EW WORLD

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deer a browse on e leaves and roos of aquaic pans an escape om ies by sig i coo waer. Tee smps u ow by e beaver or foo an ams a sproue eer saks an eaves wih fe eer, rabbi, an sowsoe ae Back bears a waowe i e mois eat on he eges of beaver ows ees fee by beaer provied e brsh tha a proec e rabbi a e rumming ogs for the spigime maig of e re grose Re foxes who epee on hese n1ammas for sva now foun wer o sak Witou beave dams, steams lowed fase, aeing s abas, and caused greaer eroso he esu was more loods he deeskn ade was equaly devasatng in some aeas o the country Beween 1699 an 75, Caeson, Souh Caroina, expoed o England an average of fty-fou housand deeins each yea Caeson ad New Oleans each epored moe an oe unded tousand pounds of dee sins annay n he 750s By 705, Powata Indias in Virginia wee ing age numbes of dee fo tade: "Tey make a tis Slaughte only o e sake of e Skns, eavng te Cacases o peris in te Woods, wote Goveo Robe Beveley. The Coctaw dians of Mssssipp ad a mixed economy of faming and huning hat reied em to mainain dee popu laons by estcng hei uing By he egheenh cenuy oweve, ohe  peoples began o encoac on Chocaw dee eds scalaing conlcs ove huntig eriories gew ino war between Cees and Choctaws in te 76s e Cocaws themseves became commecialy dependent on Euopean traders and widely addcted o Eopean alcool Afte Bitain defeaed he Fenc in 63, thee was less eed o Euopean powes o cou Choctaw allegiance wit gis, and Coctaw peope could secue manufaced goods and acool ony by echaging deersins wih Eglis ades Cocaw untes depleed he deer heds in tei own teioies and began to cross e Missssppi o un e depleon of te wite-tailed dee populaion unde pessue o uopean ade alteed the Coctaw landscape and e duced the Choctaw ecoomy o a shambles by e time of e Ameican Revoluio ravelng n orida on the eve o the Rvoluton, natualis Wliam Bartam noed tha he Semioes waged "eernal wa against dee and bea o oban food, cloing, and oe necessties and conveences from he ades Baam felt ha he Seminoles caried hei nng "o an unreasonable ad peaps ciina excess, since te whie people ave dazzled tei senses wt oreign supeues

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NEW WORLDS FOR AL

Other anm popatons suered depeon. Coonsts regarded the ex tenaion of  widie as a  preude o ransormng wderness no civi zaton They waged war agans  woves, oerng bounies or her heads or ears and enstng Indans n he campagn n 1642 Pymoh Coony  passed legsaton requrng owns o set wof traps and to check em every day Bounes were so oered on wdcats, cogars and other predators Cogars were l bu etermnaed n sothen Massachusetts and Connec cu by 800 The ing o woves and oher predators may have helped deer survive he onsagh o commerca hunng. Wiam Wood, wrtng n he 630s descbed ocs of hundreds o ureys n New Engand; by 67, accordng to traveer John osseyn, Ensh and Indan hners had a but "destroyed he breed y the eary nineeenh cenry n Connectcut  wroe taveer Tmothy Dwgh, here wee "hardly any wd anmals reman ing  besdes a ew sma speces o no consequence assenger pgeons  whch early seers agreed ew overhead by he thousands and even mons and boced out the sun were etnct by he nneteenth cenur uao, once nmerous east o he Msssspp, were drven ot or extermnaed: he as buo in Kenucky was lled eay in he 9s The patern o anma desucon was not unform, however In areas  where epdemc dseases wreaed havoc among hman popuaons or  where escaaing warare created a no-man'sand beween rba hntng eitoes, anma popatons someimes ncreased sgnicany. In tme sch areas regarded as a "huners paradse atacted oher Indans and seers Indan peopes saw her wod ery changng beore ther eyes as European nvaders eed trees ceared ands, but ences and arms brdges and oads and towns and vages Indian amers had ceaed eds ou o oress  whch European colonsts sometmes ater occuped and panted as ther own u Indian vlages reocaed perodicaly, tang advanage o derent resorces and regons and aowng the naura envronmen a chance to recover Seers mmedaey set abou subdung he wlderness and remakng he naura world into wha hisorian Wam Cronon has descrbed n ew Engand as "a word of eds and fences In dong so they mposed nprecedened pressures on orh Amercan ecosystems and created peranent changes on he andscape Immigrants om Europe where forests had  been ceared and tmber was n short suppy were mpressed by he deep oress and abundant sppes o

IMAGN AND CREATN A NW WOL

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wood in eastern America. In England, hmes wee built whoy  party om ste; feces frmed om hedges or ste in New England, bh wee made exclusvey from wood. And ee was a abundace  rewod One cois in Massachuses  1630 eckned tha "all Europe is no able  ad t make s many great Fires as New Egland.  A  pore Servat ere at is t pssesse but 5  Aces of Land, may ad t give me wod for Timbe and Fre as god as e word, en many Nb le Men i England can ad t doe ndians  souhen New Egland told Rger Wliams hey hug he cniss had cme t Ameica because hey ad no el at hme n e eyes of Eglis setles, fest equled wilderess By cearg the forests colnsts could Jo Caup pis ou, strike a blow  civlzatio ad keep themselves warm a the same me Wlliam no estmaes that New Eglades cnsmed more tha 26 millio cords of ewod betwee 6 ad 18.  he eghteenth cetuy, as today, E pean visors emarked  te incedble waste f fue ad ougt Amei cans kept tei omes unnecessariy wam. dians empyed cotled es t eep the ests ee  undegwh and aacve to game Timthy Dwight oed at ndias se res ��t  pdce fes ad swee pasre r the  purpse of alug the dee  the spots on whch tey ad been idled The contolled use f e  clear deadwod educed the cace of rampat es res, sch as he es ta swept Yeowsne Park in 1988, ad pdced a parklke ality in se New Engand forests by the tme English sees arived n addition buring eurned nrients o he soi and ted the foest caopy allowg more snght o eac te grod, s at gasses ad srubs grew more xranly nda burg practces maintaied large grassy cridors ke at of the Senada Vlley, wic lae seved as major migrain rotes for Euopean settlers Euopean colss trasformed the ess, cleaing huge swats f the easen wodlands. Swedis immigants oduced he use of the axe o other selers, and wa became known as e "America axe bit deep int  Amerca forests. Forests at had bee to dense for ndians' stone tols succumbed to meal axes New echiues  oesry, ew crops, new animls, and ew labor systems altered the compso of the frests As settles pshed ndians o e lad, they convered some f he lad o famg but  left oter aeas covered i debrs ad egected te forests anged debus grew up, ceatg tue re azads.



NEW WORLDS FR AL

Lumbeng became a major colonal indusy, one hat oten empoyed Indian abores in areas were tradionl untng economies had been a bu eradcaed. Te Anglo-Dutc War (1654) and the Geat Noten War beween Russa and Sweden 16991721) disrpted Britain's Bltc sources of naval suppies. he Biis turned o Ameca and especially the whte  pine foress o New England o povide masts, ar and pitc By 75 Amerca was suppying a o Britans naval sores Northen New En glands al whe pines reed the Biis navy om dependence on Bc sources and pomped signican technoogcl changes (mass cod now be creaed om one tree instead o beng peced ogethe from two or more Scotc r) Bu aming and lumbering wreaked avoc on te envionmen Accord ng o French Canadian hisoran Denys Delge a sngle seveneenh century wasip "equired ove 2000 oak tees, many of them rom oo o 0 yeas old and measuing more an ty centimetes in diameer En gis seles borrowed om ndins e pacice o clearng land and em  poyed ndian burning echniues suc as he use o bacres Bu hey carred wa they learned to new extremes: insead of buning te oest o emove undergowt tey se res to remove te oest itsef. n the South accoding o mohy Silve by e ast quarer o te eigeenh cenu anyone raveing troug the ongea oress could witness the eecs of naval producton. n he Norh, in Willam Cronons words New England lumbeing used foress as i tey would last orever Swedis travele Peer Kalm said muc he same thng in 79: eir eyes ae ed upon he  present gain and hey are blind o he ue Ate  vco in he French and ndan was (1763) opened he teiory between e Conneccu Rive and Lake Cmplain o Engsh seles Brts colonal autorites becme concerned about their impact on ands once ocped by Abenai ndans Sees cu down he oak and pine foress of te Camplain Vale markeing their umber, potash, and agl ua produce n Quebec n 168 ovenor uy Careton o Quebec was ordeed o take measues o poect the rich timber resources aound Lake Camplan from desucton e next yea te seceary o state o e coones warned ha unresricted settlement was causng such desuction of orests in wha is now Vermon tha it posed a eat o e Royl Navys suppy o mass By 800 mohy Dwight commented the poneers n e een Mounns o Vermon appea o ave cut down their forest w an

IMAGNG AND CREAT A W WOL

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improvident hand; an evil bu oo common in most pars of te couny." In coasta New Hampshre, Dwgh reported ta foress ad no ony been cut down, bu here appeas ite reason to hope ha they w ever grow again" e was \Vong: e opening" of new ands in he West n e nineeenth centu ured armers away om norern New Engand's rocky sos and gave he oests a chance to recover many aeas o ermont and ew Hampshire are more heaviy wooded today than they were n Dwigt's time Neveheess umberng continued as a major industr n norern New ngand we ino e twenie centur Cearng foress o fams and umbering had unforeseen cimatic reper cussons. As a isorian o ew ngands coona imber economy expans, cear-cuttng produces severe and sudden changes at aect te enre fores ecosysem Shadeoving pans de, food cains are nerrpted, brds and animas mgrae, and new microbes and insecs invade The reaion  sun and, vegeation, and fauna s drastcay canged, and n he srugge o exsence oy hose thngs ha can adap o e new environmen wi suve" n e eigheenh cen, peope beieved tha cearing the and of rees canged he weather Wha they wee seeing were changes in how e andscape responded o the weaher. Forests ended o eep e ground cooe and mantain a steadier cimate Deoestaon mean ands became sunnier and hotte n the summe, ess sheered om ind dre Ceaed ands wee code in the wner, bu, exposed o sung, snow meed more pdy, so ha soi oze to geate dephs han before Spring runos began eare n deforesed egons, and ooding became more comon mohy Dwight noed hat e Coeccu Rver \Vas now e than i pobaby eve was before e couny above was ceared of is forests, he snows in open ground meng muc more suddey and fonng muc greaer eses an n oresed ground" here were s mo oods n ew ngand beween 1720 and 180 xensive deoestaon generaed devasta ng sprng loods in the Cesapeae in 1685, 1724, 738, and 172 and the wos ood in Chesapeae histor in 77i. Powng wt dra anmas created even deeper ecoogca ransf oma  ons. ndian eds seemed messy" o uropeans: ree stumps remained beans, squas, and pumpins gew amd te corn uropeans more ofen gave e eds ove to ntensve cutivaon of a singe crop owing says iam Cronon destoyed a native pan species o create an entirey new

20

NEW WORLDS FOR ALL

Th nw ladscape of t w wold. Idia i bircbark ca padl (ad y a Eupan pang) pa a nwy la and nd m (From Ptrick Campbell, Tavels in the Inor Inhbted P fNoth Ame- n the Y 179 n 2. Dmuh Ceg Liby)

habitat populated maly by domestcatd speces, and so  some sense epreseted the most co1nplte coogcal tasformaton of a New Egad ladscape" Sgle-crop cultivato removd the utrents that Indas had retained and t hasteed sol exhauson.  some areas th combnaton o deoestato gazg amas, and plowing produced wind oson Floods  produced rthe eoso The new crops Eropas ntoduced we ot ven sae om Old Wod dseass A ns kow as the blast whch devastated \heat ad ye, ad ts appeaace n New Egad aly  the seventeeth centr. Coo descbes ho t came to Ameca: A Europea weed    had bought wth t a uopean dsease that made it exceedgy dult o opea armes keepng uropea amals, to ase a ky Euopan crop he blasg o what was thus a kd o mtapho o th tt to hch Old World coogcal eatioshps had n poduced  Nv Egad ndan sttemnt ad sbsstce patts chagd  spose to chag g ecoomc and ecologca codtos h hutg faning, ad shg

IMGNNG D CREATNG  W \VORLD

21

economes  whic had formerly coned by seasol exploitaion of d  erse resrces became restrcted as  raders ecoraged tem to concen re heir aces and as selers-and her vestock, elds and eces  made roads nto wa was once Indian counry. Id people conoted a ew se o ecologc chlleges a te same me as they had to share their  wod wh ncreasig umbers of uma naders "The mes are Eceed gy er'd sad Mohega Indans peitoig te Conneccu Assemly i 1789, or rher we ae Chagd e good Tmes, Chiey y the hep of e Whe Peope In tmes past hey remembered ostagicay teir fore aers d led i peace and had pen of eerig "B alas,  s ot so ow,  or Fshng, Hug and Fowng is enrely gone Disrupted food sources ad subsisece strateges prodced fame and deed Indian popuatons more leabe to ew dseases Eropea rders came eaey ate t he Nothwes Pacc Coasno un he second hf of te egee cetry dd martme mecats om Rssia Spa, rta, and New Engad drop anco o barer for sea oer pelts  wic hey h aspored and sold a eormos prots in e mares of Chinaand coasta peoples at s were able o aod dependence on tem and o ploit the tradg tuato to heir ow adnage eereess, the reebeatios o he oemet i e trade were quicy felt The Idans deoed more eneges o htng sea oers sometmes eglectng he sg a had ways proded food o he wner N ooka Idans edured ame dung he wte monhs i he 1790s In the wer of 17991800, a group of benas reured o the neigorhood of Troy d Poton Vermot They were repored o e "n a necessious and lmos sarg condito wic probly arose om te  moose d dee (whic formely aounded hee) eig desroyed by the seers With te word changd around hem and he souces of teir traditioal subsisece wped ou hese Aeks ed o pah together a ielhood y mg and selg baskets birchbk cotes ad nes Tey le i he sprng and eer reted said te repor.  The oss of land by war ad trea rther dmished te Ida ad base Oe mor deelopme n te reaon of a ew word  merca ws hat by whch dia ad became Eropean ad and laer e errtor base of he Uited es Compeg Europea powers partoed e co nen creatg a pahwor of caims ad jursdcos ad somemes pass ig ack d forh rror they clamed but wee India peope st led

22

NEW WORLDS FOR

ALL

Sueyos dd much the same thing at te local evel, markng he and o nto unifom bocks of nividual ownershp. Europeans not oly chnged e ndscape ey so introduced new concepts of ownership to Norh Amerca Indan peopes geneally regaded lnd as someng to be share nd uiized by he mebers of he communiy ahough some groups had stronger rigts to ceran areas wih for nstnce extended famy unng rtoes  passng from geneon to geneion in some tibes They soon leed at Europeans viewed an ereny as a commodty to be bought sold n owe exclusively. Many eary and tansactions conaned e sees of ture conct: nians who beeved they ad given colonists he right to sare heir an, n retu for gfs, foun instea that hey ad sod he lnd "lock stoc and bae. Europes not oy caimed ownersip of he and; tey so caimed to own te anms tat fed hem. Havng acqured or at least occupied the lan, Europeans set about bulding a new world on t. Popular isoy tes us hat ardy poneers caved out new ives for heir faies transfomng a widerness into a ndscape of fams and tows and so indeed somdd However the new Ameica hat Euopens created on ndian and was so buit wih nian an Aicn abor Aican saves cleared eds and cltated tobacco cot on and c n a wor hat was as new to tem as it was to er European msters Mny ndan peope so were attrcted or coerced nto transfom ng ter own wo. They wored as huners, abores and porters in the r and deesn tdes, ey were drfted into sevice uner pash aor sy sems, and tey found empoyment in cooni towns an viages. By 180, he landscape of Nor Ameica ha change n another s cnt wy There were far fewer ndian people A contr that Jon Wnthrop descibed as fl of nins ely in the seventeenth centuy was now agey emptied of nins Tose ndian people wo suved dd so by aapng to  word at was vey ierent from he one their forefahers had now and ceated According to Wim Cronon, Indans "id not cese to be ndins but becme ndians w vey derent reationsps to te ecosystems in whc hey ved. e people of European descent wo occupied ands vacated by nins buit a new soce n a and of abun dnce Abdance so fostere wasteness and houghess expoiation of nt resources wc people of oher cltures sl dent as caracteis c of Amercn peope n whch ae ard �aits to brea as Amecan soce confronts te ecoogicl coseuences of past progality. ·

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IMAGNNG AND CREATNG A NW WORLD

2

Two

Healin g d Disease

JN THE WITR of1535-36,French explorerJacques Carier and his crew o 110 men were cebound  he S Lwrence Rver near he moder�day ciy of Monre. Thei shps remained ozen n the ce om November o March  A dsease we ow recoge as scuvy broke ou mog he crew Tweyve men ded,"ad l the rest were so sce,th wee hought hey should ever recover againe,only hree or fore exceped. Then,js whe Carier ered hey were doomed i pleased God to cs hs pl eye upon us,and sen us the kowedge of remede of our hehe nd recovere. The owedge cme om e oc Indns They showed the Frenchme how t e he bar nd leves of a cerain ree, which may have bee whe pne or hemock, bol them dow, nd d he decoco every oer day Accordig o em ts tree cred every nd of disese The French o:ercame her ti eluctnce o dk the su ad recovered apidly  Almos two hudred yes laer, so he soy ges, Bish nvl surgeon amed Jmes Lind ead Cter's ccou. Ld's expemens ed hm o coclude ta lme jice was the bes cre for scuy, the scouge of Brtish seamen in e egheenh ceuy Limes,rch in vim C,becme sadrd ssue on British ships,and Bish saors erned e ncame imey Te ndns who resced Caers crew lived in Hochega,  own of bou y bark oghouses d ryve hundred peope  sood at te oot of  mountn, whch Cer nmed Mont Roy,from whch he mod ern ciy of Monrel derves its nme Wen e ice broe,Crtier reurned dow he S Lwrence o Stdconn,he ndia tow ocaed on he ste of  presenday Qubec Ciy The vlley between these two major ows w

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lined wh populous villages, extensve cornelds, and ich orcads. Some sven yes aer anoe Frenchmn, Smue de Chmpain, raveled the same oue The ows were abandoned the eds  were ovegown and e !ndians wee gone. Scholars sill debae he myse of he dsappearance Wafae beween ibes no ad sou o he S Larence seems o have been a majo factor n creaing a no-ma'szone, bu epidemic diseases inoduced by Frenchmen ike Jacques aer undoubedly took a deady o The events aced out on the S. awrence River in the seenh cenu  wer� repeated across e continen and across he cenes as Indan and Euopean  patens of sckness nd heaing conveged. Whe Indas ad Euopeans me, they beneed om each others medicl knowledge and ex chged heing pracices Euopeans aso brought wih them gems and  viuses ha eped ino epidemics o kier diseases among ndan popua ons. For Indan peopes te new wod oen became a bologic night mae, in which mpoen heaes nd dsraug elatves watced helpessly as iends and lo _ ved ones sccmbed o teible plagues mpored om Euope, as wel as om Asia ad Aca. Noh Amerca Indians did no abi a dseaseee paradise prio to Eopean vsion The geat epidemc diseases and crowd necons ta vaged Euope and Assmpox diphther, meases, bubonc and  pneumonc page, choe, inuena, tphus, dysentery yeow feverwere uknown n Ameca Indn peoples faced other, ess devasatng, prob lems Bioacheologca sudes eve evdece o malnuriton and anema esulng om diea sess gh leves of fetl ad neonaa death nd infa motali}, paasic tesa econs dena pobems, espa o infections spna bda oseoyelis, nonpmonar ubecuoss, and sphils Indian people also suered thei shae of aches and  pans, bres and bises, dgestive upsets, ahtis wounds, and snakebies. To dea wh hese hings · ndan docos empoyed a ich kowledge o he heaing  propeies of plnts and what oday we would ca therapeutic medcne. They combed nowledge of anatomy and medcl botay ih cve s nd ceremonies. Tdional ative Ameican and conempoa Wesen ways of heling ae no ecessaiy in conc and ae often compemena as evdeced HEALING AD SEA

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 when Navajo medcine me nd Nao oral tradions helped ivestgaor from he Ida Healh Serce a the Cete for Disease Cool ident deer mce as the source of he "mystey ilness tha sck he Souhwes i 1993. So too i eary meca, Euoea and Indian cues coul wo togeher. Conry o he poula mode steeotpe at all Ias wee  are auned o pln lfe a uoeans toally ou o touch wh naue  mny early ploes and coonss possesse an exensive nowedge o  pats and e roperies kowlege tha moer urba Amecans have  os Europens  he seven�enh cenuy genely eieved tha or eve sickess here wee nau pa emedes if oe ony knew where to nd hem ndian heaers may of hem women ew whee o nd hem, a Europeans wee eceptve to he cures ey cou ovide Europeas who were issase wh coempora medc pracces  purgng beeng an oher drasic measues-ofen were icied o see Ida heers as at leas equ i abity o European hysicians The as now Wese medicne oeed a ''dseae cue aher ha a "heh care sysem Many Euroean obserers spoke highy o I heales a e garded Inda life as more heahl a hei ow Duchma dae Vn de Dock repore n he 650s ha he Idas  the Huso Vey know how o cure vey dgerous and eilous wous and soes y roos  eaves ad other itte higs From his ves  New Jersey n easer Penyvana, Gae Thomas recoe i 198 tha Ida heers were as ale Docors and Surgeos as ay i Euope Eglshmaoh Lawson,  who veed more than a ousad mes hough Ia counry i orth and Souh Caoia in 70? sa the Idas dsayed "exaoiar Sk an Success i deg with commo ailmes He sai ey were "te best hyscas for sakeites, and he saw hem perform "amirale Cues   which wo uzze a gea many guate Pcitoers. The cues he saw  wee oo many to repea Ofen Indans went o more than a hured  yars rom tei homes to locae the remedy ad some of heir ce hysi cas carre her Complme o Dgs contully abou them whch e Roos; Bars Berries Nuts &. a are Strng upo a Thead awso  wondered why  a the dscoveries mae y Fench a Spaish mission es noe o em was so nd to e Wor, as to have ket a Caaloge of the Dsempers they ound he Savages capale of curing  tei Mehod o Cure which mgh have bee of some Advantage to ou Matera Mdica a home nsead he lmeed Eoeas wee "ef n e ak as to how

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NEW WORLDS FOR AL

the Indns eeced eir "grea cures. Frenchmen Perre de Charlevox sad the Inds of Canada possessed secrets ad remedes which are ad ble His counyman Jean-Bed Boss emarked ha he ndans of Lousiana knew "a hosand medica ns good for ring te bood. Ther kowedge of pans' curae ropertes, sad Boss, constued are ad precos gfs whch e Creaor as no graned to eveone Movan mssor John Heckewelde who lved and worked wh ndans n Penn sylvna d Oho n e  eghenh cenu asseted hat ndan hysicians generally were perhas more ee om fanc heoies han hose of any naion on eart Ter sence is enrely founded on observao, xpeence and e  wel ried ecacy of remedes. Tere ae physcs o bot sexes, who ke con sderble pans o acquie a corect kowlege  the properes a medca  vres of ls oots n barks or e ene of er feow-me. Tey are very cael o have a a mes a fl assormen oer meces on hd which  e y gaer a colec a he pope seasos, somemes fec g em om a disce of seve dys'joey om hei omes, en ey cure or dy hem propery, e hem p n sml bdes, a preserve hem for se. ndn  eople obained houg rde lans a dd not grow ocay: Pueblo commites ded plants d hey aso obaned certan erbs omJc Apaches on he plns e ohe fors of lfe, lns ossessed power. Shamans and heaes hndled hem  ce and peromed speca ritals such as smokg and oerng pryers as hey colected prepared and adminisred hebal cues Hecewede dsssed sch uas a supesitous pcices, bu then as now Nave heang ad a val sprual dmenson as well as a physca one. Medcne men ad women were peoe wo had been gven a speca gif of  ower oen ough a deam or a vsion and hey demonsad her sprit  n te healing ceremones tey erored. Coocoochee a Mo hawk medcne womn lg on e Maumee Rver n he 1780s and 90s s eseemed for her skll n prepig ad admnseng medcnes and fo e powe of her ncons whch gave he sghts no e ue ong he Huons shmans often were mebe  rs o cring socieies: hey daosed  llnesses, ead njures se broken bones, endeed spells  owress nd orgnzed ruals o bring comfor o he sck. Missionaies

HEALING AD ISEA

27

the shmans' culual equivalens and rvs-often were mpessed by In din owledge and se o curave herbs bu hey could no condone or lerae medce healers and hei rius. Jesut Pere Brd denounced Huron shamans as socerers." They were jgges liars and cheas," he sad A ther scence conss o a owledge of a ew simpe lxaves or asrngens ho o cod applcations applcations     leavi leaving ng he est o luck nohing moe" Europeans often dispayed eually cynicl atdes owad he own  physcans; bt sc schh hosility owd he sprtal dmenson of native he ig no dou refoced he Indns deermnation to keep ther pracices secre om ping uopeans who migh oend he sprs Neverheless setters no ony used ndan remedes bu somemes dd so n acordance wih Indian customs and rtals In he days of o sckness;" said Crvecoeur we shal have ecorse to their medic knowl edge." urope botansts compiled  impessve s o pans and cures employed  by Indan hees and Indian doctos comped an mpressve recod in miniseng to Europeas As Cabeza de Vaca and hs companions  wndeed across he Amercan Sohwes n the the 1530s they earned a reputa� ion as heaes ad Indi peope bough heir sick to hem o be red. De aca also expeimented wih Indan ng prcces wih good resuls." John Lawson noed tha an Indian hah been oen found o he an man of a Mady  whch he ales o or  Peenders in Ameica, afte repeaed Applcations h deseed the Patient as incr ae" Dr. ohann Davd Schoep a German physcan ended o be disms sive of India heb medces bt he nonetheess incded many of hem n the ls of 335 pant remedies digenous o the easern Unied Staes  whch he pulished  787 he Reverend Masseh Culer a contempo r o Schoep credted Indians o many o he 379 indgenos medcnal  plas he described Englsh travee John Lawson ealy n the eigheenh cenu ad Itala vistor Luigi Casglion lae n he cenry each recorded invenories o pas and descried he cuave uses o whch ndan peopes  pt them. Indns used sassa sassaas as as a medicne medicne appying he eaves decy  wounds. Sassa Sassass proved so eective ha Eopeans came o t o t as o wounds. o a kind of wode drug and as eary as 62 ngish ships saled t irnia and Massachsetts o ade wh the Indans or i ew ngand Indans d en ther colonal neghbors used he pa ow as whe o green hellebore as an emeticGinseng was popular as a medcne in Asa  beore uropes ound i n Norh Amerca. Indi Indians ans o m sohen Cada

28

NEW WORLDS FOR A

o Cherokee country used it FrenchJess FrenchJess sen a shpment of gnseng om o Amerca o China n 178, and  became a vaable expo or te coloes Casgloi _ _ saw Indians trea wounds wh he cshed a o Chionanthw; use Spirea as a prgate le pecac; apply te pvezed roots and leaves and  leaves o Draconium (nown as su sukk- o poleca polecaweed weed in he Uited Saes) aer atcs o asma se a decocon of Aralia spinoa to eat hemaic  pans appy the ak of wch hae (Hamamelis virgniana to mors and inammatons and mae a  poice from the nside bark as a rmedy fo bng eyes eieve coughs wh a decocton of Adiantum,  wch Canadan setters leaed to se o e same purpose; and use the resin om the uds o e tacamahac tacamahac tee (Pul baamf) on he banks o te Connecc ver "or e eaent o vaous lnesses. Swedsh avee Peer Ka said ndans ndans used bayberry oots to soohe oohaches, ad he gathered a variey of other remedes fo oohaches and swellng He manned ha ndians had "an inflle a o curing veneel dsease ong ndians ad whites as wel Seneca ndans in weste New Yok coected peroeum om pools and apped  to eleve rheumatsm and  vaos aches ad pains Le many oer traveles Casglon epored the varous ces ndans had for venomos for  venomos es nda healers sed snkeoo, some o which e eroot  prodced a il juce ta coud e aken nenaly whe is eaves were apped o the bie The plan plans s maiy reduced pa reduced  pa and nam maon; ave heles ep her patents e by sucng ou he  poison, o y prevening y  prevening    spread sprea d ith a torniqeJohn torni qeJohn Ledee Lede e a Geran sugeon suge on porng the Bue Rdge Monans o Vignia n the summer of 670, w ''sng n my seep y a Monainspde; ad had no an ndan suckt o e poyson, e  poyson,  had ded ohn Lawson said ndans were the bes physcans te word in te  word or snakebies and "have peord several gea Cures Cas gion pored e mae rte and recorded how Naive emedies gad ualy ade te way no Eropean medca nowedge: The nds o Noth Amea used a oo tey ca eneg enegaa o o  ennag o  powde de teat he bte o te aesnae and hey used to sell  eded  a pow to e ropes who seted hee wanng eve o e he kow what e p ws a podu podued ed hs hs oot o m yeas eots eots wee ade n  van t dsoe i ad e oots o rious plants wee ted u t hey  wee a seess, o a eas inero o e enega o e ndans inay in

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Dr. [Jon] Tenen Tenent,t, a Scois pysic pysician ian succeed succeeded ed  ds e ye 1736 Dr. e ye coverg cover g o nformao obtned om the Ida Idans ns i Pensylvna a e Seega oo beonged o te Pola caue simplici ecto, foliis ovatoancelau ais integmis eo tiai tiai ereto described y Goovus das aso ad to dea w wouds. Jo Heckeweder aaied a a' ndan sugo coud ea ay wound a Euopea doctor coud wc may o ave been saying uc gve e se of Euopea edce a a e He sad ta "every dia dia warro is oe or ess acqued w e eang propees of roos ad pas for appg o wouds at ig be sustaed o e wat. Jean-Berd Bossu oed te cae w wc Cocaw das  Msssspp aed gunso ad aow wouds Frst a edicie a sucked e wound ad spa ou e ood. en e dessed e  wound. I e dessgs sad Bossu ey do o use  or co  presses. Insead o ake e  woud suppue ey bow no  powder ade of a oot. oer roo powder s used o d nd ea e woud ad s oer oos are used  a souio w wc e woud s bated o ep  preven gagene e egee cetury  was a ie of escaag waae  e ower Mississippi Vey: Cocaw edicie en ad pe oppor tn o appy tei sks. nd eaes eped cure Euopeas as we. Euopea edic care was  v  v  y  y onexse i seveneecenur New MexicoFancsca fras cared udeary sugca eupe bu geeay acked form edca rag. Raer a rave t a sson and eus er ecovey to a fas ucea ucea  sks, Hspac seers euety ued o Idan negbors ad reaves fo eedies as we as fo ove poios ad apodsiacs. a o  ed o e pacpag n e ave uas at accopaed cur gand ta araced e aenon of e qusto Soe Europeas owever aked a e idea of seekng cures fro Idias Accordg o e crocer Egs cooniss i e a sevetee ceu recognzed a Indas wee coparae coparae yscas, u woud o use e Mise Mises s ad covced te cooniss a e Ids eang ss wee e wok of e De Howeve wig ey gt e o provde eaig, dias geeay endeavored o keep e kowedge idden s did o preven Euo  peas o yig o e teir secres. Egs pysicias ad apoecaies

jO NEW WORLDS FOR AL

n colqnial Vinia apparenty sent heir apprences into the oods to search out Indian heba medcines. Castgion recommended that eot ot be made to obta om he ndans the _ the _ knowedge they have of the use of  pants" John Lawson advocated intmari intmariage age beween Indians and Euro  peans, not east because 'we shoud ten have a te owedge o  the Indias Sil in Medcne and Surgry When Crvecoeu vsited the n di town of Ouaga on e Susueanna River just before he Ameica Revouton he met oosts om Pennsyvania who had gone tere n search of ures om te Indan heers Cvecoeur tred to get one heaer druk to mae her ree her secrets Henry Tufts a rathe dsrepute character ved for three years or so mong the Abeais i  west Mine M ine about e sme time hing gone to e Great Indian Doctess Moy Oc, to nd a cure for a  fe wound woun d in hs thigh th igh Moy Ocket caed o h and cued him with a arge vaiety of roots, hebs bar and othe materias us had a hard time swaowng some of he potons but, ving much ath n the si of my physician, he forced them down. ufts served as an apprentice to hs heaer, hopng to earn her medcna secrets Coninced she was hoding out on him, us e Crvecoeur esotd to rm He hen eurned home ad used the owedge he had acured to  pass himef o a a physcn n the coonis Moy Ockett continued as an itiernt physcan catering to Abeis and seters ike and becomng part of he foore of wes Maine Accordng· to one egend, she heaed a sck infant named Haa Hami, thereby savng te f fee of Abaham Lincons tre ice-presdent Many Nave botaic ures made hei way ino moden pharmacoogy often ia American American fooe and a vaiey vai ey of home remedies Lie he Indians, Europeans dd not compety emrace new thngs and new deas; tey borrowed seectivey Spansh sete tended the pharmacopoea wth Naive medina herbsthey used sassafras, toacco, cacs it (as a nscobuc)ut dd not chage the teories about te causes and ues of disease or he pactce o medcne In Davd Webes words, Spaards transpantd their medica practices ntact om Ibea to the ew Word but extnded hem n anaemc fom t he onier where a but he argest towns ad mitay posts acked doctors ad hospitals." In addiion to heba curs, Indan peopes incorpoated sweat bats  pugaves and rtuas to thei epetoire of heang We Weeas eas West

HEALING D DSEA

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medicine end o see ilness as p phyc and ndividusic, mny Indian cules regded (nd sl regard) i s a sign of mblnce in e sp wod occuing when a peon's spl being w ou o hamony ih oer sps ohe pople he ea. Being o good mnd" as essen ia o one's sprl and physic we-being and t minaining hamonous elaonshps i ohe; commun enegy and riual were impoan ways o  poducing a good mind esorng hamony beween a paen and he ommuny nd beween e naurl wod nd he spii word Illesses ha smmed om ioad boos, wihcr, o u ned deams and desires eqired lsic cues such as we condced by the Fase Face sociey mong he oquois Jesui pies epoed ha he Hon ecog nze ee inds o diseases. Some ae naurl and hey ue hese wih naual remedes. Oers ey beleve are cased by he soul o he sick  peson  which deses somehing hese ey cure by obaining o he sou  wha i desies Fi he ohes ae diseses caused by a spel ha some socee h cas upon e sck peron hese diseases e cured by h daing om he paens bo he spell ha causes is scness." Huron �ews o dsese were pehaps no oo dieen om hose o Euopens who sll abued illness o sin and wchca and·sough cues n payer and plgmags o hoy shrines bu mos uropea dsmissed he iu nd heapeic aspecs o Indian helng as prmive supesion. Neverheess some paicipaed n shaed helh-preserng acves ie swea bahs ndns evideny bahed f moe oen hn opns nd aveer commened on daiy bahig. Swea bahs in wch waer ws  poued on heaed sones n a coved lodge seem o hae been unesl n Indian Ameica as a iul o clensing body nd mnd. Movin mision a Geoge Heny Loskel sid Indans esoed o swea bahs as he nea emedy o all disodes smal or gea  .  and n many cases he cue is comple" JeanBeard Boss obsered swea bas among he Chocaw Idns, who used seam cbines in which are boed a sos o medicnl nd swee smelling hebs The vapor led wh he essence nd st o hese hebs ene he paiens body hough hs  pores nd h nose nd resos his sngh Bossu urged hs onymen o e a sa bah a les hree imes a yea Mision Gabel Sagad as shoced o see Fenchmen in Cnada sha swea bah h ndans ohn Heckeweder elaed he soy o a mn who raveled m Dero o a neaby Indian  village in 784 o ke a swea bah or an unspecied ness. The man

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enjoyed a complee recovery nd declared i 4'w e best hing he had ee done n hs ife for he bene of his heah."

Unforuaely, adionl Indan cues oeed ie proecon agans the new dseases tha swept he land fe Euoeans aed in North Aeica Searaed o he Old Word for housands of yeas he eopes o Aer ica escaed grea edecs e the Black Deah,  whch ed pehaps a hid o e oplaon in foureen-centuy uoe. Bu hey were vng on boowed e Lack o exosue o bubonic lage sox and easles owed Indan eopes no opporuy o bud p unoogic ressne o such diseases Fro he oen uroeans se oo in er ica hundreds of housands of Indian eople were dooed o de in one o he greatst bioogica catastrohes i huan hisory Iord diseases accoanied Sansh conqustados no Cen and South erica at e beginning of he seen cenuy wreang haoc ong the ea civilzaons of Meico Peru and Yucan and actang their conuet by e nades. I w no ong beoe the unseen es wee a wo aong e Indian olaons of orh Aerca stabished and wel-raeed trade oues heped spread disease Indans  wo cae no contc wh uoeans and her gers oen conainaed eoples fare and who had no ye seen a Euopean; hey in un passed e dsease on o ore dsan neighbos. I is iely tha os ndian people  who wer struc down by uoean dseases le sllpo ded whou ee laying eyes on a uopean In acing he course of ioed pages aong ndian oulaions in coonia Aerca, any schoas descibe e not as epideics bu as pndecs eang hat e sae disease occued i ully eeywhere As m a  350000 eoe led in Florda when he Sanads s rred bu e polaions of e Cusa Tiucua and ohe ribes pl ed er conac Causas who canoed o Cuba t tade ay hae bough sllp bac to e Foda anand a eay as e 120s When He ndo de Soo naded he Souheas n 39 he Sanads ound a dsease had preceded e In he Caoina ucounty, hey found arge tows bndoned and oergrown wih grass whee sad he Indians there d been a es n the and wo yeas befoe In 18 S Fancs ake's ngish cw eing o underng Sans shis in he Cape Vede

HEALING D DISAS

33

Islands, brought a disease tha was pobably typhs to he Cabbea ad Florda. Idias aod St. Augsie died  gea umbers, ad said amogse themseves, i was he Inglisshe God ha made hem die so fase" The popuatio coapse coed  the seveeeh ceuy Goveno Dego de Reboedo epoed in 1657 tha the Guale ad Tmcua Idias  wee few because hey have bee wped ou wi e sickness of the page ad smalpox whch have overake hem  past yeas" Two yeas laer he new goveo of Florida said 10,000 das had died i a measles epdemic. Accodg o one schoa, e Tmcuas mbeed as may as 50,000  people before coac; by e end of e seveeeh cey, her popua o had bee cu by 98 pece he Apalachee dias of oe Forda numbeed 25,000-30,000  e early sevenee cey by e ed of he cery, less ha 8o sived Two ad half ceres afte contact wih he Spaads, a of Floida's oiginal dan peope wee goe. he pae epeated itself esewhee.  585, he Egsh estabshed a coloy a Roaoke sad in Virga Almos immediaely, local Idias began o fal i ad de Te disease was so sange t them,"  wote Thomas Harot, at they eie kew wha  was o how o cure t" coss e coine, ebo ndans in New Mexico may have sueed from a huge smapo epdec ha spead as fa soth as Chile and acoss much of Noh Ameica i 594. When hey st ecotered ropeas in 1539, he Peblos nbeed at leas 30000 ad habied beween 110 and 150  puebos By 1706, ew Mexicos Pebo popuao had dropped o 6,0 peope  18 pebos Whe de Soos Spaiards passed rough e area now known as Akasas  51-3, he regio was desely poplaed Thousands of people ed  age owns, cuvag exesive coelds aog rich ive vaeys. One hundred hry yeas laer ese thiving com munies were goe, vcms of sease and possby dought When Fench expoes aived in he mdseveneenth ceuy ey foud Caddoes, Osages, and Quapaws livng on the peripheries of the regio bt cetal Akasas was empty. Epidemc dseases coied he devastaion  1698, rechme found ess than one hudred men  he Qapaw lages afe a rece smallpox epidemic kiled most of he people.  the viage ae ohig bu grave  s," he Frech choicler epoted Idia peoples in ease Canada who had bee in conac wth Fench  tades and sheme sice eay in·he sxeenth cenuy expereced he deady repecussions of such commerce. Jesui Fater ee Bad a

34

NEW WORLDS FO AL

 woring among e Micmacs and Mliseets of Nova Scotia in  hed he India "complan at since he French mige ad cary o tade  wi  .em ey are dyig fast ad e populato s nig out or tey assert at  beore tis associatio ad iercouse a hei coties wee vey  popos ad hey e ow oe by oe deret coasts accodng as hey trac wt us ave been educed moe by disease Deadly pestece swept te coast o New Englad n -7 ias ded  eapes, ad he Massacsett Idias arond Plymot Bay wee  .  virtuay exemiated  eported by Goveor Wiam Bradford e Pgrims oud ceared elds ad good soil but few people he as being dead & abudany wasted i te late great mortaltiy whic fe i a tese  pa abot ree yeas over beoe te coming o he Engls we tou sads of hem dyed tey ot being abe t buie oe anoer; te sculs ad  boes were found n may places lying still ove grond wee thei ouses & dweligs ad bee a very sad spectacle to beod Smallpox  was a fact of ifeor deao most o huma istory A aiboe dsease ormay commuicated by dope or dst paces t eers rog e espiatory ract People ca become nfected simply by  breang Not srsigy it spead lie wlde oug Idian popula os Howeve becase eary choicles sometmes consed smllpox  w oe dseases and becase te conaos came so qucky t is dicult to dscern wic dsease w doig te ig at any paticar time By te seventee centry smpox i Europe w a cdood dsease: most aduls aving been ifeced as childen ad acured lieog immuty ad  were ot cotagous Te log traalantc cossigs te reduced e caces hat Europen crews could transmit he disease to Amerca Not unl cdre crossed e Alaic dd smalpox ad e oher lea cid ood dseaes that plagued Euope ta od  Naive America popula ions Te Spais bougt cilren to e Carbbean early but ot  ntil he  beg o te seventee centry did Duc ad Egls colos bg ter mies to New York ad New England Te arivl o sc Eopea cdre senteced osands o Idan peope to deat Smapo sruc New Engand i 1633, devataig Ida commnties o e Merimac and Coneccut Rives Bradford reported ow "it  peased God to visite tese Ideas wi a great sicness and sch a mo liie tat o a iooo aove 900. and a alfe o em dyed ad many of tem did rott bove ground o wat o brall e epdemc reduced he Pe

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HEALING AD DISA 5

quos n sothe Conneccu om  perhaps s mny as tirteen hosnd  peple o ony three thousnd, seng he sge fo ei defeat by the Engsh in 7 and i my have edced he Moaws n esern New York fom mos eigh tosand o ess han three osand. Sch mortty rates wee not unusa when vlen new dseases ct throg pevosy unex  posed poplons Indns om he Hdson Rve od Adaen Vn de Donck n 15 "th befoe te smlpo boke o mongs tem ey were ten mes s nmeous s ey re now Jon Lwson esmed ht n 701 thee was "not e sth Savage living wtin two nded Miles of  o Seemens as here wee fy Yeas ago A recen smalpox epdemc n the Con pcountry had "destroy'd whole owns A the begnnng of he seventeenth centy he Hron ndans num beed as many s  0000-40000  peope living n peps weny-egh  viages on he norhe sores of he Great Lkes n souhern Onrio. The French dened them as crc to hei pns for North Amecan empre he Hons wee he key to etensve de newoks ecng far beyond the Gea Lkes nd hei viages coud so seve as )mpingo pons fo Jesu mssonay eneprses mong moe disant trbes. Fench ders nd mssonies rived n Hon, nd i was not long before he new diseses were repng  gim hest mong the Hrons he ongoses wee nsfomed ino deth rps. The smllpo epidemc hat avged New Engnd n 1 eched Honi in . Smlpo o mesles ws thinning Huon nmbers in . A Hron ede bamng he epidemic on he Jesuis sd "The pge s eneed every odge n he vllge nd hs so educed my fmiy th tody ere are bu two of s left nd who can say wheher we wo wi srvive Inuenz suck n 7. Smpo e ued n 19 Hron popon was scythed n hf between 14 and 140. In 148-9, fmine and the tacks of he Iroqois competed e dely wok he diseses hd begun Te Huons scered, mos of te suivos beng bsobed by other ibes Smlpo continued throgho he egheenh cenuy It kied half e Cherokees in 78 nd reurned n 170; the Ctawbs of Sot Crona lost hlf heir number o he epdemic of 179 In 17 the Brtis doed ot bes fom e smpo ospi  Fo Pi o vising ndians; smalpox erpted mong e bes of he Oio Valey soon therefte Otbeks of smallpo were repored mong Inin popuations in ew Meco n 1719 17 178 1747 nd 1749; n es ecureny between 7 and 802; nd

36

NEW WORLDS FOR A

i Clfornia where Indn neophytes congegted n Spnsh sson vl

ges mde esy ges for new crowd-lng dseses. Te mssie smlpox epdec  rvged weste Norh Amerc beween 1779 nd 1783 lluses e speed w wc the dsese coud sped s entces tougout ndn coun. The epdemc seems to ve broken ou n Mco, nd  ced ndn peoples n Pe nd Gutem Spredng noh  Sps setlemens lke Sn Anono nd Snt Fe, t  ws pcked up by Indns wo vsted he re o rde or orses. I ws ten quckly rnsmtted no nd  wes·  hrough e Roces nd cross he  pns slugeng s t went. It sped no e Cndn oress, ed s mny s go  percen of te Cpewyns n e cenrl sbrctc nd by 783  ws lng Cee ndns ound Hudson By.  Abundn souces of s nd oher mne resouces spported dense  populons on the ohwes Cos befoe Euopen mme des nd ploes bought smpo n he e egheenh cenur. Wen Engls ploe Geoge Vncouver sed nto Pge Sound n 793, e met Indn  people wh pocmrked ces nd fond umn suls nd bones sceed long te bec,  grm remnde of e vges of n erle epdec. These notwese populons declned dmtcy ove he ne century. Smlpo ws pobbly he numberone lle of ndn people, bu  ws by no mens he oy fl dsese. Epdemcs o meses, nuenz, bubonc  pgue, dpe, phus sce eve, yelow fever, nd ohe undened dseses so ook e ol Alcoholsm dded o e st of er dseses mported om Europe. "A person who esdes mong them my esy obseve e fghl decese of he numbes om one perod of ten yes o noe sd Jon Hecewede menng te mpc o cohol. "Our  vces ve desroyed hem more n ou swods. Recung epdemcs owed ndn popons no oppotnt to bounce bck om ee osses. Tey cut down economc poductv, geneng unge nd mne, whch rendered hose who surved one dsese more vulneble o lcon by e ne New dseses combned  w fng bt tes, esclng wre coolsm, d genel soc upev o t ndn Amerc no  gveyrd Decesed fecund dered  populton ecove. Nncke, o te cost o Msscuses  ws once descrbed s "n snd f of Indns nd s estmed o ve d  popuon of bou 3000 n te mdseveneen cenuy. By 763 tere wee 348  people. An epdemc of yeow eve t ye ef only twenty

HEALING AD ISA 

suvors. Some 3,000 Indians nhated· Martha's Vineyad i 1642;  313 suved in 764. Mohawk populaton continued o declne to  le moe than 600 by he ime of he Revoluon At te wesen doo of te Iroquos confederacy, Seneca populaton remaned sale, bu ts was  lagey be cause tey adopted captes ad mmgan om oe communtes av aged by wa and dsease e Inos Indans of the Great Lakes reon numbered moe than ten thousand peope i 670; by 800, no moe han ve hunded surved. On e bank of the Missoui n present-day Ne braska, he Omaa India nued moe tan ree thousand n he ate 700s choera ad smapox cut their popuaton to ess han tee hunded by 802 n yeas when ndian peopes needed al their esouces to dea wth Euopeans and to cope with a word tha  was changng around tem, ter nuers wee beng seady eroded by dsease Suvors, many of them disgued by pockmaks, aced e tue bee o loved ones and whout the wisdom o edes to gde them Societies  woven ogether by es of nshp and ca  wee torn apat. Afte disease stuck Mathas Veyad n 64546, one suvo aened ta all the edes  wo ad taugh and guided te people wee dead, "and her  ws dome s buied wth hem n 70, Indians nea Chaeson, Souh Car ona, told a settler tey had forgotten mos� of thei aditons because heir Old Men ae dead In some cases, power stggles ollowed te deats o traditioa eader Old cetainies no longe appied, and longesaed  pattens of behaor must someimes have seemed reevan The mpact of such losses on India minds and sos s incaale adiona eang pacices poved powerless agains te onslaugh. Fastng, akig a sweat bah, and punging into an iy vea common ndan emedy fo many ailmensaggravaed ahe tan aevated the eect of smalpo Jus as some Europeans ooked o Indan ss and  pacces to dea w snakebites and amens ntve to or Ameca so some Indan people ooked to Euopeans to  provide relef fom Euopea sicnesses. Some beieved ta Europea wtchcraft caused he new dis eases so it made sense to comat tem w Euopean power ad medicine. Othes,  wih thei loved ones dying around tem, were willng to ry any thng May Hurons accepted bapism rom Jesu priess, regadng  as a curaive ual and hoping it could save he chdren Desite instnces of genocde and gem warae against Indan popula tio Europeans requenty proided what ep and comfort they could

38

NEW WORLDS FOR AL

Dead Indans were of no vaue to Europea missioaes seeing covets, European merchants seeking customers, or Eropean mstrs seeg a  lies; Hearing at Massasoit "teir red was sck d near no deah Goveror Wiam Bradford a he Plymouth coloniss "se him sc comfotabe hings as gave m gea conent, ad ws a means of hs recovery.'� Frech nuns mstred to sc Idis n seveeenh-ceury Quebec Most Spanis missios  eigeehcetury Clifornia ad ds  pensaries medca suppes, and medcl boos, ad some padres dspayed geuie concer o the hea of heir mission populatons The state of medica nowedge ws si dimenay in he eghteeth ceny but Europeans moivated by seferes as much as humai concern shared wt Indans wha medica advances there were Brsh Indan super intedent Sr Wliam Johnso had he Mohaws inocated agaist sm  pox and some Indians were vaccad afte Edwardjeer developed te coox  vaccine i 1796. May Indan people oercme tei suspcon o the  wte mans medce to accept e proecio i cold oer agains te  whit man's diseases Neverteess the proecto was too tle ad too ae o sop demo gaphic disaster. No a Indian popuatons suered 5 percet o 0 per cet mortay atsindeed in some areas o he coutry Idia popa tions were on the se in te eigeenth ceturybut te rest was a word newy empted of Idian nabitats. Europeans arrvg  Indan county i the w of oe or moe epdemics made accrae esimates of peco tat Idia popaton size o the bsis of head counts o srivors Seeig remant  popatios hey gned a dstotd impresson o the se and sophistcaio o te soeies at ad oce xisedand tha disored mpressio etered the story books. Ameica many beeved  was  empty  widerness a rgin and. I the county was empy ta a reet deveopme it was depopuated raer an upopaed Te new  wod of opportuniy whic ee ads opened or Eropeans in Noh Ameica ws n self a by-produc of European nvasio Hisoians worig to revse the old view of he Europea seemen of Ameica s a story o progress ad rmph have ghy stressed te  bioog cal caacysm at foowd European dscovey Bu epdemic dseases also  pagued Europea soceties ad shaered European mlies rance suered epdemcs ad famine w appaing regarity toughou the sevenee and egheenth cenres Recuent obreas o plague devsw

HEALING ND DISE 39

tated overcrowded Lonon in he seventeent centry, someimes as in 1625 kilng 25 percen of the popaton. In 1665, onon experenced the horror of te Grea Plage which id no en unil the Fie of onon estroyed mc o the city the olowng  yea. Eopean mmgants to merca i no entirely escape Old Wor diseases an tey sccmbed to some new ones Malaia weae havoc mong Spash expedions n the sixteenth cent Early settes at Jamesto, Vginia seed hgh eat rates n namilar envionments In 740, phraim an izabeth Hatwel o Concor Massachsetts waced heplessy as  ve of their yong chiren ed o the "hroa disempe hat vage New ngland. Boson sered recrent otbeaks o smalpox n the sevententh an eigteent centies Yelow eve, mporte om te Tropcs killed one ot of evey ten peope i laepha then the capit o he Unite Stes n 793 Bt wit less cowded commnies, more santary conions impoved die and greater economic oppotntes mos colonists enjoyed a healhier le an longe lfe expectncy in their new wod an d tei contempoaies in uope Though scholars isagee wey in tei estmaes  is ikely ta in what is oday te Unte States Indn popuation stood at somewee between 5 illon an 0 mion n 9 By 800, the gue had llen to aon 600000 By contrast the Eropean popaion of the Engsh coonies n eica oubed every twenty-ve yeas n the late eigeenh centy. The rs S censs n 790 coned a toal popaton of 9 mion peope By 800, orth Ameica had st ner 5 ilion whites an abot 1 millon blacks As James xtl pons ot the Indan peope wo svived  the easte Unit Stats wee being engled n a sea o whte an bac aces. he emogrphic compexon o te new wo cead by te interaction o Eropeas Inans a Aicans was vey eent n 800 fom what  a been tree centues beore. Neverheess, the Amecan poplaion of 800 coned Inan d Eropean healng pracices Indis an Eopeans ike employed fo emeies as we as docos to ce diseases an nies. The Bis lagge behn the Spaars in estbisng hospts n e ew Wo: Corte built the st hospit in Mexco Cy o Indan and Spanis poo .  and by te end o the seventeenh centy here wee moe tan one hn dred f hospals in New Span In contast the rs geneal ospit t cae fo the sick poor n the Brish coones was estbshe n Phadepia

 NEW 'ORLDS FOR ALL

in 752; Massachusets Genera Hospta, not tl 8. The rst medic school was estabshed at he Unvesty f Pensyan  76 Harad Medic Schoo, not un 783 Fr mst o the eghteenh century, American physcans who wanted a medica education had to go t Euope Wth ew taed physcans d few medical aces alae, people n rual and sma-town communtes turned in tmes of sickness to famly, neghos, cergmen, sked women ad loca healers. In many eas f the cunry, tineran Indan physicians remaned common we in the twetet cen tury, prodng healt care for Amerca's po whether Indan, whte r black. Many Indian peple peseed her beef in he ecacy f tdtin medcneboth heba and spituleen as they beneed om Eupean medcne as pacticed y whte dctors False Face societies and cig rtuals contnued among the Iroquos ong ater many Irquois had em braced Christnity. Medcne was power and Indian peope needed t daw on a the pwer ale o hem as they stggled o sre n the dsease dden and hat was e new wrd

HEALING D DISEA

41

Thr ·+ .



Te Stu of Le

JN 179, WILAM TAP or Taptco the last weowance (distct chief) of the Wicomoco ndans o Chesaeake Bay, died. Thee Englishmen com  ied and appased the inventory of hs estte. Tap owned goods and  lvestock vued at £00. His wdoe conssted of Englsh-stye cothing hats, vests, breeches, gaters nd shoes. Hs house was rnshed with chests tables nd chs, and ou eathe eds, and thee was an assortment o spoons pewter pates, table inen old oos and aer. The che had  lived in a manner compae to that o neighong Engsh pantes ut he so eft shhoos and ne a canoe guns and xes ndcatng that he had contined to pctce the traditon activites of an gonkian maeshng, huntng, nd cearing the and. The resence o shee, catle, chickens, and a spnnng wheel ndicated at s wife, Elzaeth, had added spnng,  kntting and daiyng to the taditon tss o an gokan woman  peaing ood, ming potey, and earing chiden The cash q ndins and Eropeans ws a conct eween two ways o ife; ut even as e  otagonists fought t  resere or impose thei way of e, each way of e was undergong susanil changes as a esl o con tact wth the oter. Nowhee n Noth meca did Euoeans and nd ans ght each other a te tme They had to acheve ways o coexstng, however cutousy and their dy teracons roduced changes in tei diy ives s ndns nd Euopeans eed and orowed fom each other, tey develoed o adopted new dets and new ways of rocng ood new syes of architecte, new styles of clothg and new ways of

42

spekng, nd they dded new item to te thing te ued in teir eve da live.

The dion of dieent tem nd deen wy of lng w notng new in Nort Americ Thoughout itoy nd thogo te world nomdc  hntig  people nd edenty fmng peope ve developed eciproc de lton nd ch network nctoned n Nort Amec  te edge of dieent ecoytem, wh Pn hner, fo exmpe, dng wth e tled fing people on te bnk of e Ro Gnde or he Mo River Tde netwok cricoed Indin Americ befoe Euopen rrved. ur qoe om New Mico copper fom Lke Supero, ppeone fom Mn neo mine he om e cot int, fete, tobcco hde, nd deent tn of con mde he wy co  vt ditnce Ide nd nence foowed he me trde rote, o th, fo ntnce, pottey mde  y Mhcn, Mnee, nd New Engnd Agonkn cme t eect he cermic tye of the roqoi n New Yok, o vce ve. Some ndn  peope-te Otw of the Gret Lke nd heJno n te Sowet, fo exmplegined n ely eptton  frnging tde, movng oter  peope' good to othe peope Indin eon fo tde dered omew fom open'. Tde w  w of cemening ince, prevening conic, mking nd enewng iendip; it w n ctvy edged ond by oci nd ceremon conideaon. Exitng tde newok nd tading peience povided redymde vene fo e ncorporton of Europen tder nd thei ites When Jcque Cte nd h cew viid Hoceg n i535, the Indn wee eger o tade: "Thee peope cme owd o ot in  endy ad mi  mnner  if we d been nve of he county  gng  get toe of h nd of whever ee they poeed, in ode t otin ou we tetching foh ter nd towd heven nd mking m gete nd gn ofjoy Ery Fench tder recogzed he ceemonl pect of trde nd ccommoded emelve o the cutom of e contr When Sme de hmpan opened de with he on ely n he eventeenth centu  he did o y followng on e of de gvng geneo ft which oiged on peope to e mo geneou nd encoaged em to etn

THE SUFF OF LIF

4

for moe rde the next ye. The French, sys Deny Delage "hd decoded te Amerdin system of exchnge d recognzed tht, over tme, gft give wee sure to brng  good etu Rthe thn egge n hd bg ing or mmedite pots, ery rech tdes erned the nguge of gfts nd gve hem in ceremonies tt joned the ies i  pct o geneosiy The moe vish he enh wee wit tei gits o metl d mnufctured goods, the more vish te Hurons were wh her gfts of rs Tr des n oher regos nd  te yes so dopted the Nive ustom o ceemoni gt-gg s  w o inittg tde, though tey were ey s sensve or  skied s the ench n emong Nve trding prcces to ther dvtge Nevetheess the ow of Euroen mnuctured goods to Idi count coninued ubted One n item psed om Euoen to d hds, it dd ot neces sriy sto tee It hd enteed  word of extesive contcts nd intertrib ommunctio tht mght cry it coss h  cotinent nd moe Euo  en goods ehed uon couty by bout 1580,  beore urons hd eve met  Europen Whe de Soto's conqutdos etered Cotchqu in Sout Cro  40 ey foud  Europe dk wo Csti xes, nd  osy, whh pesumby hd gotten there v Ntive trde outes om e ost or Mexico· n incised ope pte unerthed in Georgi  1984 ustes the ossibities A Atec evidenty mde the pte s n don ment or  Bibe o  box some time  the md-sxteeth entury t mde its  wy to oweste Georg, where it ws trded to  oos di Mod ctios mde the te  goget, nd t ws ny bued wit  chid  Jmes B Lngod conudes, The Cooswttee Pte ovdes  tngibe nd emrkbe exme o te cossurrents o hnge sweeng hough e Weste Hemshee  he sxteent ceury The histoy o he tt  es the histoy o te er: mnufctued by  ve of Mexco nu enced by te Chrsti eigion o Euoe, cred hundreds of mes to n unseted oner tded fo ood or gien s  git dpted fo use by note uture d ny buied wth  hid   vge soon therefte bndoed  suh sm tngs ogotten e stoies of peoes ives d hngng ifesyes Ey exoers nd chonices insisted tht Idis regded Europes  wi we nd even ttbuted to them godke quties becuse o the mpes se new technooes tey ossessed But  Idis wee westruck t st ey soon got ove it nd strted dpting the new items into the ives

 NEW WORLDS FOR

ALL

When Govanni da Verrazzano a Florentne saing for he kng of France  pu   Naragansett Bay n 1524, the Indians here evdently had not me Eroeans before They were not nteresed n ading for coth or mea goods; hey waed bue beads bels and copper trnkets objects smar to  wha .tey mgh ave obaned n nteb trade and tha occupied a famliar pce in their les A Verzano foowed te coast notheas o Mane, owever, e encounered Abenak Indans  who cleary ad had pre os experences wit Eropen saors Tey id their women, "mooned Verzzano's crew, and resed o rade for anytng bt nves shhooks, and me goods By he 620s, Montagnas Indians near e mouh of the S Lawrence were usng arge quantes of mea toos and weapons and woolen cohing they recogzed he uility of te new items, b hey ardly held Euopean ders n awe "The Engish have no sense said one Monagnais They gve s weny nives lke is for one Beave skin In te 63s Wam Wood obseved tat Indans in Massacsetts were a rst amazed  by Europen ships  pows and wndmls b n me the fres sppies of new d strange obec ath essened their admiraton and qckened their nveno and desre of pracicing sch thngs s ey see en Nchoas Denys arved  Acada in 1638, te Indns here were lready sng pota  be ron ketles, metl axes, kives, and aroweads Eropean merchans nneed nto Indian cony an venoy of mufacured goods tha ncded see axes and ives, iron and copper ketes spoons, metl hoes, ce chises, shooks, gogets, combs scissos, aws, mrors, needles, thread, himles, wooen clothng d bakets, nen srts  jackes, ats, guns and cool In tme, some Indian peoples ses exended o books d paper, spnnng wees, pewter and gasware, cna lace d sik, buces, shoes, and feaered hats Metl drlls made possble he mss prodcon of wampm Gs beads om Itly, and even om Czechosloa became a sandrd rade em Tey ooded nto Indan cony by the housands, spplanng or sppemenng adona sorces of sells and porcpne qls  he manfacre of wmpm bets ad he deraton of cohing Beadwork came o be regarded as a tradional craf n Amercan Indan lfe Wooens from Yorke lnen om Ireland strods (a ceaper cloth made from wooen rags) om he Mdnds, guns om Brmghm, ll became commonpace n Indan Ameca So pervasive was he nux of manfacued goods tat, by he me of the Amercan Rvoton Moh at Fo Hnter reporedly were vng mch better han mos

THE SUFF OF LIE

45

o hei colonial neghbos. Some o heir Oeida elatives ved n ame houses  wth chimeys ad pated widows, ate wih spoos rom pewer  plates drank om teacups ad puch bowls comed ther h with voy combs sed sk handkerchiefs ad woe whte beeches. Ate the Revol o he Moaw cejosep Brat wo ad a ew home o te Gad Rver i Ontario, eteied vistors w dnne eed o the est tble  ware Cheroee Indis sed coms, scissos pewer spoos ad a varety o mel tools adewery dan  peoples accepted Europe goods becase tey made fe easie more comfoble, warmer, and more please Scissos d metal ives llowed da women to ashio tradioa cong rom hides d sis  wih geate ease ad precsion. Metl pots were moe dube d s  porbe ha stoe or ba oes and ey could e eated decy ove a re raher th havng o drop eated stoes nto the contets. Steel hatchets suassed stoe xes Gus possessed some advantages over ows ad arows ds lso vued cei goods for aeseic ad spritul reasos Archaeoogists excavng eighteeth-centy stes i te easte Uited Stes ofte nd t dct to determie weher a setement  was nda o Euopean on he bis o he mateis eahed ndi peopes qucy becme ed ito Eopean trade newos ad by e eigteeh cety hey le the colonial neighbor wee becomig pat o an Atlac eco omy and a growng cosumer revoluo that shaped their tastes their lives ad he world tey nbited The e� goods came with hdde costsnceasng volence, decnig caft sils, ad depedecy o outsdes: As they became depedent o tde goods, some India commties found it dicult o peseve ei lads ad hei ndepedece Many dtionl ithic and ceramc ech oogies were bandoed in prefeece for Eopean manuacures. The rst Erope podcts eached the Senecs o western New Yo n e second haf of he sxteent centy; by he ed of hat centy, most Senecas had discded stone xes ad nt kives i avo of met tools n 178, Elezar Wheelock was disappoid n s eos to d among he oqois a tem of Naivemanufacre hat was "wtot the east Mtre of oreg Merchandize e cod nd oy a "smll specme A Ceek d named Hadsome Felow said n 1777: We have een sed so long to wrap up or Chdren as soo as ey ae orn i Goods proced of e wte

46

NEW WORLDS FOR AL

Popl that w cannot do  wtout it" Ahopologst Osca Lws ma taind that h Bact coud not rmmb how to mk poty a m ten yas at thy rst acquird on pots om ts tds. Wh Nativ pottr svivd, t dwt cags. Spanis mssio as among th Hopis discouagd t s of pott as bia ongs and ncod pottrs to pac Natv dsigns-which migt involv assoca ton wth am spiis and oth socs o powrwh Cisti dsigs sch as ows Mats crosss and ightpoint stas Acaoogic x cavatons at Spansh missios  Foda v Natvmad copis o Span sh pls pitcs, and tbw houg h pottry of msson Indians living in St Augstin sms to av changd ittl ov tim. As Indian  wom md Spns mn Nati pot, wh of taditon o Span s dsign o icopoatig mns o both bcm part of dy if  thi housholds A Euopan tad goods mad t way o Id conty, a pan ndia" tad cultu dvopd. Howvr it was not a simpl substttio of Idian artiacts fo Euopa goods. das oftn took nw itms and fashod tm into tradiional dsigs o sought tm for thir symboic and spal at thn th litaan v Europa toos ad impl mts bcm pt o thi vrday wod in ways Europas nthr x  pctd no undstood. East Coast Algoas usd t woo sockings hy got om Dutc ds  h svntnth cntuy as tobacco pouchs, and thy wor stl atcht bads around hi cs in pac o sto onts. Euopans oft thougt ndias w gulib tads wo  wod cag bav plts or bads ad baubls" but i th wold o ast Algon  popl colod gass bads ad m objcs oftn pos sssd pow smboic and spal signicanc ad w copoatd   to cmonial obcts ong wit at crstal, slls ad coppr   vsd wth Indan manings and put to ndan uss, tad ims bcam to a ag tt, Indian goods of Europan manufact. dians also mad tir ow vsios o Euopn thigs Spaniads appar to hav inoducd payg cads to  Sohwst i i598. Apac das atr mad  own dcks o cards ot of awid copg and modg th Spaish ons Sc th ng nght ad oth gurs o th Spanish cards mat notng to th Apacs, ty sbstitutd thi ow dsgns paintng gus i Apac costum Apprciating t' v o hard

THE SUFF OF LIF

47

a g cd d, befw, Ac g cd add f tem. (Curtey Marc Simons)

cash, Indians were ot aove akng ter o: wo Apalacees lvng near St Augsne wee aresed  1695 for contefeng Spanish ons out o tn European traders soees nclue i eir iventory of trade goods fo one re tes anfacture by ndans o oter res wih the reslt a soe arfacs and custos of igenos  parcua trial origin sea roughou a Aerca. as wee sciiatng custoers and uoea ufatuers espode to her deas ad accoodaed er refeences to ake goods seccaly or he ndian tade: e oaaws uskets wi large rgge gards fo northern nas wearg tes cot o refered colors as n e ous Hdso's Bay bankes  wch becae alost qous n nothern regons o erca Soe ndian cras sch as ase akig woo carvng a eadwork ng wee acualy slaed by uoea uences a eas Afte Vius Being and Alexe Cirkov opene tade n sea otter pes wh te Nates on te Gf o Alasa n 74-2 Russian phlk (r tades) evelope a lcrave usiness seng the els n Cna Spaars

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NEW WORLDS FOR ALL

Britons, and Ameicans soon got in on e ct. In he second half of te eghtenth centuy goods om fctoies ha a wod a  poured into Indian commnites on he Nohwes Coast producing ncreased  weath, moe eloat ceemones and n atisic orescence. When hose trbes obained stee chiels nd oher me tools from mrime trader, they sed the new tools to work wood on a sce neve before possie and o deveop new levels of rstr and ntriccy Hge totem poles-a symbol o"ndin ness in e popula imnaon, b excsive to the orwest Cost,  whee ey boe fmy and cln estspolieed. Unprecedented sp  ples of coppe owed moe eaboe decortions and crests on dance masks In the ohest, Indians sometimes resorted to making bskets fo sae o colonists as  wy of eanng a meager lvng ter thei traditon economies were dsptd Working for a mrkt nd cteing to the tses o cstomes  who migh wnt baskes for decoraton her hn se, hey took  baketmakng skis to new heighs and poduced objects of great beaty. Eropens so adptd itms o Indan manufacte into eir mateal cue In addion to bakes nd bowls peddled by Indin women n he setlemens, onemen employed Indinse hchets Coonss trveled  by Indin snowshoes, Indin toboggans, and Indan cnoes Bchbark c noes manufctued om the brk of he pape birch, wi is o white cedar and pich om the bsm , wee matched or travel in the rivers and  akes o northeas foests John McPhee, ho of The Suvival of t Bark Cane, explains he mpression hese caft mde on Eopean silos and the speed wih which Eopeans took o them: When we plorers frt e o orhes Norh ec, they ooked  wonder t ch noe we hey ght, for nohing ike them exsed n Erope There wa eoqence n he evidence hey gve of the ges o hankd he meri wee mple b e sctre ws no. A drot chnology hd ome don wh he tibes om immemor te d nowin the ixteent, he eveeeh centyhere were brk oe o  bg rver nd ocen bys coy crng h om other wod Long  bo were lowered, o be rowed by cews o o d pwrd he lor hled at er oars e Inds, to o  coe, doeny whed heir row· pddle   d esy drew y I her wke hey left  nnng m  presso Not oy were they r hey od ee whee they were gong We explorer go ot o ther sips d we thosd o mle n  brk canoes hey traveled  hem u the ene e� or brk 

THE STUFF O LI

49

noes wee e rat o the oth ontinet Nothig else iigenous o importe cou o what they oud do. Cotempoa obseres agree that bak aoes wee mpessive aft A anoymous Frehma sa e Iia oes he saw o the Great Laes i 1672 were "so ht at oe or wo me at most arry hem an yet so ae at some wll hol sx to eht persons w their belogigs Bbark aoes eable the Freh a the Brsh to peetate the orth outry Te r tae whh troue so may items of European man ufture nto Inan ountry epee tsef o trasportaio by  aoe oe with I paes. arthe south Inias use more m bersome ugout aoes but they wee a vtlmeas of tave Joh Lawso ote how setlers  the Caroas ha aopte them om their ia ehbors: May of the Wome are very hay  Caoes a w maae em w great Dexeity a S, whh ey beome austome to i ths watery Coury The European vasio of Ameia poue a ieary evouton i e Ol Wor Potoes o tomatoes squash beans pumpns an a host o oer oos htheo uown n Europe erihe peope's es impov ig eir heath an llowg them to live onger. Baes of power shifte north away om the Meiteraea as ussa Russia a Bita e e popuaions wth potatoes a plat tht thrve espte shor growng sea sos uopean populato expae matilly easg the huma pressue o a eay ovexe lan base Thousas a eveully mlons o people left er overrowe otnet i seah o more pleni l a in Ameia So epenent  e populato of Iea beome on potatoes that whe he ops fae yea ate year i the late 840s an ealy 185s as may as 1 mlio peope e a aoer .8 mllio wee poplle ito emigro to mera. ets aso ueet sustanal hage hi mera whee Europea rops a lesto atee I lifestyles  Euopea pionees too to grog Ina o n hung i Inia fashion By e e Euopeas me to meria In peopes wee owg or usuly supplemente wh beas a squash om e Rio Gae to the St. Lawene Itroue from Mexio o ha spea o a 50

NEW WORLDS FO AL

"Cstume of the Donicilaed Ins o Nor A1e,' howg  dop o me o Euo l ue. (From Geog Hiot, ra·ol hrug h Cnds, 87 Dartmouh Cll Libay)

Indian popl n Nw Mxco w gown a kd of con by 30 B.C wh, ndan fam dvopd n tra l not lnt d to t o and clnat of t omand. T maz o nda con 'c on cola cald a avl of ndan nut wa a to be t mot maa pant d accomplt of all t1 It lay a majo rol n Amcan  dt of Euopan ttl an tal o atttd dn on  con  oqo  fd to co a and ua a  acd  t. n acl tu wa an ntal pat of t ladcap on t atn d f  Gt Plan Suon t at-lod vlla of t �anda ata and Aaa on t a of  pp o Rv n ot Daota w onld  l of co a, and ot val  pop poducd allowd tm to dlop a l tad t alont po· pl fa ou on t pla  pa of  aoal cl of nc t awn a of at-ctal aa untd ulo t  alo w n va o co o of  fo pl o pupo not o conupton  alo w t id of an, vn tp of  and pump on \Va t ta of lf fo man ndan pol fo coac ad  cam  ta of f o man uopan colo

THE SUFF O L

.51

Co  ws highe in nutiton tan most oter grain crops, and it gave ger yelds. John Lawson wo taveed in Sout Carona and no e nterio Indan county in 701 was one of many colonists wo sang te  praises of corn "Te Indian Con o Maz,  proves the mos use Gan n te Wod e wrote nd had it not been for te Futlness of ts Speies,  woud ave proved· very dicut o have setted some of e Plantatons in Ameca." I grew vruay anee. "It reses no Grounds uness the arren Sands and wen planed n good Ground wll epay e Plante seven o egt hunded fod. One frar wo accompanieduan de Oate's colonzing expedion into New Mexco n 598 decared tat "ee con s God. Oae and is olowers esbsed a system of tibue y whc te loca ueo Indan  provded tem ith bo and food especily co Bu Spans aggression disruped te radtional economy tat poduced te co and famne became a grim iito in te next century In Vrgna in 607Jon Smh ound countless stetces of open elds culvated by Indians aound Cesapee ay some of em as arge as 2000 acres. Eors by Smit and te James own settles o obtan on by coecon  poduced ostlies wit he Powat Indians. European coonsts earned ta te best way t get a seure suppy of co was o earn the Indians co cutue themselves. n ew England te Pigrms a Pymou beneed om Indan knowledge and food suuses t surive er rst ad yeas. Te lgims stole caces of co eoe he Patuxet Indian Squnto cme ong and "diected tem how to se tei cone Indins in soutern New England tded agrcutur surpuses o huntng peopes farhe norh; it was easy fo em to sare surplus food  with English setters n te ntial yeas of contact  poding te basis for te rs Thgng so ngraned n te popua mytoogy abou eary America Coonists aso adapted Indian con agiul ture nto teir new way of fe "Many ways hah ter advice and endeavo been advantageous to us sad one mn, "hey being ou st instucos or te pning of tei Indan co, y teaching us to cull out te nes seed o osee e tes season to eep dstnce for oles and t measue for ls to worm it, and weed t and dress  as occason reques. fter ndan men ceaed the eds for panng, ndan women oed te soi and paned the kernes n smal hiocks omed y hand Tey so  paned  eans and pumpkin seeds, wic added nitogen o the soi Te gowing costas seed as enpoes and aso aorded shade to te

52

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 pumpkn vines. Idan peope taugh he seers how o haes cor, how o gind t no mea, and how to pesee  hogh the yea Dscssig he role of da con n Eveday L in Ear� America, David Feemn Hawke concludes at "he seles adoped he con clue eney om e das They planted whe the dians od them to-'when the whie oa  eaves reh the sze of a moses ea-and he way ey od em doppng seveal enes i holes thee o our feet apar, aer 'hilng the seedlgs  by scoopig soil oud hem or suppor, hen eizng hem  wth heng which ooded up e stems o spaw dng the lae spig, hough his las ecqe hey may have brought om England he dans lso showed em how to cook cor ad beans ogeher to make succosh how to ap maple ees fo suga, ad how o cook beans i erhe pos to poduce a dsh tha has sce become own as Boson  baed beas Con fed cooists, and i povsioned cooia armies From he Spansh nvsions of he Souheas by Po de Naez n i528 ad Heado de Soo in 19-4, to John Sivans nvaso of oqos count in 177, coloia expedios eed o the co they fond i ndian elds and  vlages o feed e oops ad keep the campagn aive Coonists fed con to ei chickens urkeys, and·pigs, adding moe mea o ei des ta was commo in Euope They expoed i t he Cribbea, where t ed saves  woig o suga panations Con om America aso smaed popua tion gowh i Afca, e abo poo or Ameicas pataons Saves d  poo whies i e sothe Uied Sates became so dependen on co as a stape food at they sccmbed o a ew dsease, a ntional amet called  pelagra (somehing tha ndians had avoded because ei cooig meth ods which incded addig wood ashes to he ood, enhanced he nacin i con) Seles panted Euopean gains wheeve they cod bt con agri ce  became a way of lfe n mch of pionee Ameica. Henr Adams i hs histoy of e Unied Staes durig homas Jeersons s admnist ion sd simpy ta ndian co was e naion cop Euopea coloss ed to manai thei old diets Vrgia planes ong  pefeed e oast beef of Old England to the abudan meas oeed n Ameca espie s Amecan origis the potao was no widely used in Eglish colones ui oh couy Bons aved i the eghee cen ry d made the cop ey had adoped a home an mporan pat of the de of baccor setes he pate by which ewcomers adoped new

THE SUFF

OF

LIF

3

oods was not saghtard as David Hacke Fscer obsees: "Native American plants such as potatoes and tomatoes rrely appeaed on te best coonal tles untl tey had become fashole n the moter counry. Inevtaly, tough setes used what was avaale to create new veties o od oods d drnks: comea epacd oatmea to poduce "grts; scotch  whsky (distilled om baey) gve way to boubon made maily rom corn and ye ndian cops combned wt Euro-nd farmng tecniques poduced  proc y eds ad an Amercan bacwoods famng cultue that bended ethc tadtons� nns setes n the Delawae Vlley bogt ter own mehods o utting, clearng settlng, and encng the ld but tey adopted ndan practices of cop seecton hoeng and mound cltvaon Colon setes aso ollowed the ndan neighbos n gatheng wld plants and beres dawng on owledge that ndan people ad accumulated duing cenues o lvng n the oests of easten Ameica Beres, wanus pecans, hckoy nuts, wld gapes, nettes, papaws, crab appes, and maple suga suppemented the des o Euopean colonists, too ndas provded Engish colonsts wh anoher major crop one culi  vatd o nhaing rater tha eang. Ae expeimenting wt sevel cash cops, coonsts n Vign ·nlly setled on ndian tobacco as the most ucave.  e Esh ound tey pefeed Caribbean to Vigian tobacco, and Jon Rofe who mared Pocontas, te daughter of Powatan, m  poted seeds om the Cabbean and began tuning tobacco into a lage scae commercial cop Te Engls expeimented with a varey of po cedues un they it upon the gt one for mass production. n ac Weatheod's ew, he na tobacco culture combned tadtionl aspects o both natve Amecan and European nowedge with some innotos developed in Vignia and neighborng tobacco colonies. Wit tobacco smong a common nd addictve socl vce in seventeenth-ceny Europe tobacco cutivaton ad expot became te bass o te pospety o coo nl Vgnia and many o its rst fames obacco smong was lso  popuar among European colonst n o Amerca Wrtng n te d egteent centu, Swedis travee Pete Ka obseed "e enc men's whoe smokng etiquette ere in Canada, nmely te pepaation of the tobacco, the tobacco pouch, the pipe e ppestem etc w deived om the aves, with e exception of te resteel and lnt May ndians ound tht Euopea curng pocesses made te new tobacco more desiale

54

NEW WORLDS FOR ALL

t their .own  varetes,

and some stopped growig tobao exept for use

i lgous ruals Idas aght Europeas ow o hun ad sh As jo Smith acowl edged� Es seers a rst were o of teir deph n Amera abe o harves he aral resores they found here: "Thogh here be s n he sea fows n he ar, and beass n he woods teir bods are so lage hey so  wld, and we so weak ad ignorat we aot mh robe em Wlam Wood who ved i he Massahuses Bay area i he 1630s, sad ha he oa Indians were experened n e owledge of al bas and divese seasons; beg o ignora kewse of the remova of shes, ow ig whe to s  rivers ad whe a roks wen i bays and we a seas Traders o te Norhwes Coast n he ate eghteenh e reed on ol Indians o suppy hem w s s as r-tradig poss d bgades aross e oen relied o ndian hunes to provde tem with es mea Fish mmgras o New Sweden n the seveteenth enury ame om a aa ad a ltre where htng was st a w of ife and tey broug er ow uig raditos and experse Most Europeas ame om soiees were htng was a gelemen's sport nd ose wo ed for food ofen did so as poahers Euopeas had o adopt e Indias' htng uure n order o sive in ther ew wod Europea ters eaed om Ids he se of anml skns as amouage deoys vos whstes ad als o ara te prey ad mehods (suh as deer rus) of ag anms They borowed om Inda woods lore o beome famiar wit amas d e abs ad habitas ad hey adoped Ida hung gear Germ gunsms n sotheaser Pennsylvaia developed the Ameran og re whh beame famos as he weapo of bakwoods ers l Danel Boone, bu mos thnqes those hunters employed ad been eaed om he Indans Eropean mssoares and oher groups et o ivilzig Idas urgd em to gve up htng ad oerate on farmng and may Indians iorpoaed ew rops poury, ad vesto io he eonomies Meawhe, my Europe setlers wo lved n e baounty were beomng more depende o ing ad ess ted o agriltre As huns hey ose o ive i ess poplaed areas moved over greaer dses d ved more e her Indian eghbors Seveeeth-euy Purans had feared he wlderess by he mid-eigeet ety bak-

THE SUF OF LI

55

county settlers wee livg ad hutg n t, mch as he Idia d. Easter eites and European travelers who veted into the Ameica back count commoly remarke i repulsio he extet o whch ones men a heir lies esembled Idias  her wy of ife Mssonay Davi McClure sai that backcount Vrginas were "geealy whe Sav ages an sbsis by hing, and ive ike he ias What they were  witessing was he emergence of a ew way of lie a· ew roier ce that dw on Idian and Eropea radios and cetered o g as a means of subsstece  ths w says Jack Weaefor "he dias Ame icaized he settlers Many coicts bewee dias a backcoury set tes os Dael Boone's bographe Joh Faragher occred o be cause they wee so aen to each other but becase tey were so mch aike ad competd for the same oest resorces But he transformation  was ot compete Backcot hes id ot usally adopt the ndan htig ehic hat requed respect reame of the pey d esa in the k. Wastel a dsrespectl hug pactces on he part of o-Amercan huters emaine a cosant soce of cio between Natives a newcomers eve as market pessues began o e mine the Idias own huig ethics ndan diets also changed consideraby ith the roductio of Euopea cros an domesc amals De Soos conqisadors bough hundeds of  pigs t the Southeast. Idia vllages soon ha her shae of chickens pigs and cate. The Cheokees wee eaing pok by the mde of the eigheeth cetr Whe Engsh explorers reached te tero of Georga a he Carolias tey found peaches growng wl  the woos ad assme they  wee an inigeous it In ct, peaches had bee oduce  Florda by Spaish or Frech coloists The Idias eveope a aste fo em a traded ad tasplaed hem father orh Whe Willam Barrm  vise dia viages  nother Florida ad Geogia o the eve o he American Revoluton he oted hat he srroudg el wee pe y stoe  with Cor, Citues Pumins Squashes, Beas Peas Potatoes, Peaches Figs Oranges &c Te Spaiads aso introce watermelos to Meso america. Idia people qucy adopte them a traded em om oe grop to aother aead of he Spash advace orhwd ate fod ubo people grog watemeos by he time he got to the Ro Gade  the 59s; the French poe Re Robert Caveie e La Salle saw them

56 NEW WORLDS FOR ALL

Zui Pueblo, New Mexic. Facisc ia estabihd a mii at uni i i29. I ati t ew reigi teacig a te ew arctetre f te misi apel estle amg taital pel sttes te Sp1iad itd w rps e eep a gats it te aily lve f Zi pepe (Egravg of  dwing by Seth stm m  kech  Rh H. Ke 85 Fo Heq Rowe hl, Ioan Rejpeing th Hstry, Cndin an .Psc f Inian Trbe  e Unied Se 6 vol. [81-7] l. 4 Douh Cllege Ly)

among he Caddoes in easten Texas  1682. La Sale als sa  peach tees in Quaaw vages in knsas Sanads  ug   i tr ad gan ceeals om Eroe and hey ug tmatoes and chiles m Me o he Pueblos n he Ro Gande addng eanen ingedens t New ea 1sne Puebo Indians i \ Meic and he Hoi ndans in Aizna ke con as he ene of hei sssence ase u ok  esaed las and livestoc nodced y the Saniads By he eighee eu shee  wee elacing dee and aneloe as fd tems wo elace ctn as e mos oula eile, O\hide and sheesin elaced deesk  ccasins and oer leaher gods oi eol also leaned knng and laksihing fom the Saniards Spansh missinaries in he 1770s emaed n the large herds  cale hrses, and sheep graing around oi vilages •

THE STUFF O LIE

57

Apaches ad Navajos aded Spaish ad Pueblo livestock, b  time e Navaos became seperds emselves, ad hey had age locks of seep by e end o he egheeh cetu. Dea canges poved a mxed bessg. Spans missioares efoced agicuur� as· a key compoe of "czatio ad msso agrclte eveualy poduced food splses a wee ess vuerable to seasonal and aual ucuaons ha wee tadional Nave resorces. Howeve, he wde varey of foods eoyed y Ida peopes befoe coact eded to e epaced y a steady de o whea, co, and beas supplemeted occaso ay wi ru ad vegetaes i seaso. Misson Idas cold expect tee meas a day, t i w a de vey igh i caboydates. The mooonos diet ws also decet in g-qty proes viams  and C ad rboav These decieces made Ida eopyes, espeially wome ad cdren, moe sscepble to dsease. Idas i Cfoia Geogia, ad Florda  the seveee ceuy expeeced a sf om a rich vaety o oods acqired by uig shig ad gaeg o a more esicted ad  less urious de at he missios, and he e sueed accordig European coact caged ow Indan peope poced ter ood, ust as coac wih Idas cnged ow Eropeas pocued heis. Spaiads troduced hoses io he Souwest ad Idia peopes ucy recog ized he ew ans as a remedous asse Hoses spread ot on o e Great Pans i he ae seveteet ad egheeth cenuies, opeig a new word o moiy o te Idia inabtas and chagg the way hey havesed te enomos heds of ua  lo. Istead o ting on oo ad by dangeous o drves Pais Idians ecame ecen moued hunes. A sophscated hoseua  lo compex evolved a bogt Pas peoples precedeed prospeiy ad became grained as he core o eir way of  ie New grops of peope moved o o e pans o tke advaage of new oppouies, emace the ew way o lie ee ad acqie new ideties as Pais Indias. Thei icreasg eciecy ad er numers subected he buao erds to ew pressres eve efoe wite hde-hues eered he aea.

When Europes cme to Ameca ey brog wi em styles o achi ecure ad ideas about e kds o oses ey waed o buld  ei ew world. They oo sca oce o Idia aciecte, regadg Idia

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homes s mpemanen dwelings. Despe the thousands of yeas n which Indan people had been buidng homes and socees in Amerca, Euro  peans saw ie evdence of he vilzaions ha had rsen and falen hee When Wilam o Normandy conquered England n 1066, London had a  popuaion of beween en and feen housand peope In ha same year a  eas as many people, and pehaps wce as many, nhabied he Indin meopois a Choa, ne  wha is now Eas S ouis. Founded n aou A.D 600 ad occupied for amos seven hunded years Cahoa was he  ars  urban cene norh of he Ro Grande a planned cy wh one hundred earhen mounds and a cy cener o sx squae mes Bu no Euopea saw Choa a s hegh: he ci wen ino decine and was gone ong before Europeas came t Amerca. ondon, on he oe hand, mush roomed t incude amos wo hdred ousnd people i he ciy and is suburbs by 1600. ndian ows exised hroughou he Souheas when he Spaniads in  vaded in he sxeenh cenury, and hee wee ndan owns a Chaco Can  yon and ohe ses n he Souhwes long beoe Euopeans aived Even aer war and dsease ad aken heir o, India villages wee ofen a arger and ar more mpressive han the nscen selemens Euopean cooss abied Bu Europeas en as now did no hink o Inds as vg  "ows. A Jack Weaherford observes NohAmeic hso did no speak o he invaders fom Europe The connen seemed sen t em because he civaons o Noh Amerca did no aways speak in oud sone Ofen spoe-d bulin eah, wood and ber. In ime Indan  peope across America wee vng n Europeasle houses. Bu n a coun ry where lad ad wood were peni housng ses became moded so ha he houses Indans adoped om Europens were deen om hose found in Europe. Moreove sees  who met mmgans o m oe pars of Europe in a new shared envromen somemes adoped oer syles rom he Od World. New Enganders suc o clapboard houses, bu ScochIish seers in Pennsylvan and elsewhere bul log cabins, which Scandnavias had iroduced t Norh Ameica. Conar o popuar opnion l ndan peopes did no inh epees o  wigwms. hey had many dieen ses of chiecue sued o hei  particuar needs ad appoprae o heir speic envronmens Consrced om he avaabe raw maerals ad followng imehonoed echnques •.

THE

STUFF

OF

LIFE

59

Indian lodgings-wheher he longouses and wigwams of he Northeas, te earth odges and epees of e Grea Pans, he pank houses of e owes Coas, o e puebos of te Soueast-seved o sheer e  peope, keeping em wam i  wner and cool in summer.Indian arcec re made arrangements of space ha cateed to peoples' socal ceemonia, and susstence needs.Algonkian wigs were tpcay vesate and mov be: Giovann da Verrazzano sad at e Indians e met on Long sland n 1524 "change hei bitaions om place o pace as crcumsnces of sua ton and season may equre. Wen people moved they often cared em o ark coverngs, porte oong hat ey lad ove the saping frames tey ad eft standing a fmilar campses.roquoian longhouses of 10 feet and more n eng, conscted fom sees of bak aid ove suc ames were multfmy dwellngs wee peope reaed by clan ough hei moher's lne ed yeaound. Souease Indian owns oen conaned counc oses ba elds, and ceremonial pazas Europen obserers vaied in e opnons of ndian housing, u some recogned s uly. Dane Gookn, an asue observer of he Indans in Massacusetts  he seveneen century, said, " ave oen odged n ter  wgs and found em as warm as e est Engis ouses Jesu missiona Josep Frn�ois au sad e Iroquos were "e mos com foraly lodged of a Ameica. Wen Wlliam Bartram visied a Yuc communy on he Caaoochee Rve in Geogia efore e Ameican Revoluon, he desced i as "e lages, mos compact and bes situaed Indan own I ever saw; the hbaons are large and neatly bu e wals of te ouses ae construced of a wooden e, en laed and plastered nside and ou w a eddis welltempered clay o mortar, wic gives them he appence of ed rick walls, and hese ouses ae neay coveed or roofed wt cypess bak or shngles of a ee Indans were not ways mpessed by he Europeans' ouses.A Mimac cef in the seveneent cen asked rench visors why men who wee ve o six fee l needed ouses sxty o eghty fee hgh: Do we not have in our dwelngs a he convenences and adanages ta you ave n  yous, suc a reposing, drnking and seepng eatng and amusing ourselves wh '" our fends .... Coonss borowed fom Indin ousing ecnues, f only emporary, as ey adjused o e new envonment. A Sem n Massacuses Bay Coony early n e seveneen cenu a setler adapted a ocal Indian

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 wgwam, addng a door at oe end and a replace a te oer However  wen European coois reoted to da-tyle houng it uualy  wa a makeift meaure ui tey could. bud a more ubtia and permaent ome: More oten Euopea emoyed American maeral nd Amecan labor n cotructing European-yle buildig pac  wome earned om Pueblo wome how o per adobe oue Inda covert bu may o te Span miio and Spanard et up  encomienda ad rartimient yem requiing ndian tow to provide eam of aborer Pueblo da woke bul Sata Fe, New Mexico; Foida Inda pe e year budg For Sa Maco in S Auguine "Te atucre o Spai' edglg empire  orh Ameca wa bu wit reparimeo labor n bot ew Mexico and Floda, coclude David Webe More ote it wa da arcitecture a caged  repone to uro  pea inluence Indian modied ad adapted er dwellg or ceue beore Eopen arved nd Pueblo da n the Souwe coinued o le  teir eted, multtored ow og ate, but by he eighee ceuy in the ete woodad, cage i da ouig were  wide pread nd peane Europea brougt ew building mei nd tooliro a ad hge, hammer ad aw They alo generated da matic cage · i Inda ocete ad demograpc cange n da cou   wc oen reued  fewer peope lvg in commuie arer apar roquoi people i ew York begn o ive  gle-fmy og cabin raer ta  te communal longoue tat tradioaly eltered many fmie o te ame clan Ioquoi vage tat fomey were urouded by p ade ow teded to be catered Cherokee tow i eeee ad e Caroia ollowed a imiar pae of dipea a peope bega to am mily plo Europeayle rather an ted commua eld hared by e  wole viage Peter Kalm wo vited e Huro a Loree o the S Lawrece Rver  te d-egeet ceury, d ta te Ida o 10ger lived i u but ad "built  er oue afer te Frec fao T�e log cabi bu wit otced-og conco and t roduced by ni and Swedi ettler nto te Deaware Valey i he mid evetee centuy became almot e adard odging o merican bac  wood pioee and wa alo eteely adoped by Ida comunie Sigle-famy ome proleraed and commual odgg ike onghoue decreaed  wch altered oc ue o pace Relaio beween peope cnged ad e bod  w ad beween clan fame ad commu

THE STUFF O LIE

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nies so.metimes weakeed In tmes of severe socal stess, chagg lvg arragemets surey had ar-reachg repercussos May das grew up n what  the cotex of ther socetes costtuted ''broe homes"

Whe DoJua de Oae ad a wagon train . of coloss se out t establsh te rs Spash setlemet i he Southwes hey brought wth em the clotes hey had bee accusomed to wearg  Meco The me had velvet sts vh hgh collars ad lace cus satee caps, ad rchly embossed ad stced leather soes om Codova  Spa he wome ad ll slk desses decoated wh gold ppng ad ace tm, wore day ad brghtly colored slppers ad coveed ther heads wh frged ad embrodered shawls mported om Mala Such clothg had o pace o the Rio Gade oter Befoe log oes istoria Marc Smmos the coo ss paced away ther ey ad took to dressg le the Idias Veve suis ad slk dresses gave place to clothes made o gamuza (cha�os) or bucks e soy taed de of deer ad telope Bucksk remaned te sadard clothng of New ecans, whether ndan or Hspac, ntl

:� · ·,'·:. ·

A Creek log cabn  the e eigteen etury, showng the dopon of Euoen ng tye t ntoe to Noth Ame by Snv ette. (Smithsonan Isuo, Naol Aropoogca Aves poo o. 169-A)

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NEW WORLDS F AL

te Santa Fe Tral opened n 182, whch meat arge quates of cheap Amecan cloh appeared n te Nev Mexcan make ad t dd ot dsap pea uni e second haf o he ieeenh cenury when raloads brougt cheap coh from ew Egland mls. Te Spanish experence n ew Mexco was mirored by oher Euo peans i othe parts o he couny Europeas o sas someimes issted on weag ter Eropea cohig howee mpaccal as _a mar of ther "ciilzaton n a land o saage and wldeness In Europe cohes symozed oe's poson n socety  ndan coun, oweer practcality sally otweghed social stats and mos colosts who etred here ound t made sense o wear ndan clog or a esion thereof Hg akng Spaiards mg y to presee a syle o dess appropate to their saus, bt commo Hspancs eplaced wo-ot shoes and oos wh ndian moccasns or moccasnlke soes Peter Kalm said tha Fench coo ists who taeled n Cada generay dressed ke he aes Backcoun try setlers n egteet-cenu America wore moccass eggigs, ad ig shrts Men om the ish borderands were ong accustomed to  weang such shs and leggngs u i Ameca tey added occasns and eechclots Youg me n backcotry Virgna reportedy were poud o their nda-lie dess ad woe  o chuc, were the sght of eggigs eechclots and are hghs caused qute a str amog young wome n he cogregato Durig e Cherokee War (7596), yong Caona men orrowed om he cohig styles of Btsh soldies and Cheoee waors Coloal mlita seig alogside Brtsh regulars durng e Frech and ndan was often wore unng srt as a mar of dentiy o dstngsh them om he redcoats Wen George Roges Cark and s gnas aried at Kaskaska dung ter aso of the llois country  te Reoto hey were dressed ndian style, n hnng shrs ad breech cloth Memers of e Bitsh da departmen ofe wore a mture of nd ad Eopea clohng and it was no ucommo o rish and Fechmen o dress compeely  ndan ate when o campaign with ndian les. Weang ndian cong was more than a mater of comfor ad prac tcalty o Eopeas  dan coun: dressng n he da fashon made a sateme and nceased eir cutura mobly n e same way, das who donned ed shts and tree-cornered has oen were a nouncng er role as cutur medators and er y to dea wh Euro-

THE STUFF O LI

63

The Moawk sachem Hedric, or eyogui wa a en1be of te Wolcla a a cove to Cstiai. e vte Loo i 1710 a 1740, a he ie ghtg alogie the Bitish a the battle ofake Geoge (75). In is etcg e weas a Egih a oa, wascoat a sit gie to hi b eoge L e alo hol a wampum tg a bea cial tatoo. Collecin of th New-Yk Historial Soiety

SirJohn Clwll, a leutat   h Eigth Rm f Ft, rvd  D dng  Rvt  td t gad w  t  Id cs.   pi by n knn i   a Inda h b gings ad 1ci   j  is a  . (King' Regmnt Cocn. ursy Th Bad f r of the Njnal I & ,

Glli on d)

 peans. As Europan colonists iving in or nar Indan county pud o Indan moccass, eggings, and huntig shits, Indian pope ivig nar coonia settements acquied shrts and jackets, trousrs and shos Coth shirts and pats  wre more comfortb than garments fashiond om hid Indans attbutd thir own m�nings and vus to the artices of cothg thy adoptd, ad thy somtimes woe Europea cothes i vey non Euopean  ways-shits hanging oos, hats on bacwrds or sidways, acets ubuttond, trousrs cut o at th tighs and wo as ggngs attactig th rdicue o uropan vsitors Lke uropans i Indan coun try, dias V1ho had contact wth Euopas oft mingd uropan ad dia cothng In 602, Captai Barthoomw Gosnod mt six Micmac In dians in a Basu shop wit mast and sa" o th coast of Main O Idan wore a  waistcoat and breeches of bac sge, mad after our sea fashon hos, ad shos o his fet" An ary French obser noted how dias in that rgon readiy utiizd Europan cothing: In Summer thy ofte war our capes, and in Witr our bdbants, which thy impove  wt trmmng and wear doube Thy ar aso qut wing to mak us o our hats, shoes, caps woons ad shirts, and o our inn to cean thir infats or we trad them  these commodities for thei rs" xander Hamton a Scottsh physician taveg in Nw ngand in th 740s, met two French Mohaws" presumby om Caughnawaga, on the oad outsid Boston h Indians wr o hosback, drssd a l mode Franfai wth acd hats,  timmd coats and r d shirts," but bhind one of them sat a pitty woman  bedaubed with wampum" At La Champan, Peter Km mt Abeni womn who wr warng Frnchwom n's waists andacts; thi funnshapd caps timmd with whit bads may so have drivd om stys won by eary uropan saiors Km noted tat Indan mn n Canada woe French acets ad shrts but pre ferd ggings to trouss vn thos who are Christians have aways rsd to wa brchs, dspite th most arnst ntratis of t msson ares," Pere Pouchot, a Frnch oce in th Sven Yeas War, sad o his Indian ais In othr times and paces, ndian pope adoptd Europan clothng amost competey. An obsere said that the members of one of John Eiots India congegatons wore Engish cothigYou shoud scarce now them om Egish peope" thr Idians in Massachusetts dssed so ie thir eighbors that ey we very on mistaen for Engish." By the rst

6

NEW WORLDS FOR AL

deade of the eighteenth ceny, Indias on Mata's Vneyad were"gen ealy cloted as he Engis ae.  Rode Isad Aexade Hamlon vised te Niantic eade get o King Geoge wo had b msef a hge manso and wose wfe "dessed ke a Engs woma  sis oops ad stays I 1759 tavee Adew Buaby sad ndans  igia ommoy dess e the Vginians and wee someimes msaen fo owe-cass whites Whe taian tavele and botast Ligi Castigioni vs ited he Penobscos o Idia Isad in Mane n 785, e oed "Te atte is o onge te anciet one made of skis bt Eopean desses and sts ad foms of Fench ad Engish sodes. Eopeas and ate wte mecas ofte assmed hat if ndian peo  pe adoted the otwad apgs o"civizaio they wod beome e white  peoe; weaig Eopeansye cotg and sing manated goods woud ease he sta ansomaton into Cstians oweve dans ie opeas oo wha ey waed om thei ew negbos o mae the ives easie moe comfobe moe podcive Eopea cothes and meta goods did not asfom Idias o Eopeas ay moe han Ind eggings and moccasins made coosts ino Indans he batte  o spiits and sos we deee tan suc sfae adjstmets

THE SUF OF LIE

6

Four

A World of Dreams nd Bibes

WHEN UROPAS FIRT ecoutered Ida peoples, they saw o cuces ad e ey recogzed as orgazed wor�p. They me shamans and wtessed dances bu dismssed Nave Amerca belef sysems as pmtve supeston or devl wosh; da ceremoes strck hem as eae als  he eyes o the Chrsa vaders, dans had o ea elgon covertg em o Crstaty would be a smple matter o lng a dark  vod wt e lgh of the Gospel da  eople for the part, mst ave bee mysed by the odd behavo o uropea "holy me, who came o ther vllages carryg Bbles and reachng about s ad damnaton but  who srey commted day acs of sacrege by falg o obseve he rtuals and roper behavor tha mataed relatosps bewee humas an sprs  e da world dan peoles espoded o spts and beeved  te power of dreams to foretel te uture ad gude eir ves Father Jacques Frm sad e Senecas had oly oe sgle dvty  he deam; Jea de Bbeuf sad deams \Vee he pcpal God o te Huros. Chsans, oo, beleved n vsos, but mssoare ssed ha dan eople ollow e juctos of te Bble, o e messages  ther dreams n he ew egous cmae creaed by Eropea vaso, may da eope read e Bble ad aeded chrch seces, but many cotued o dream as we The soders of Chrs were eterg a wold of deeply hed relgos bees every bt a complex ad sohiscaed a heir ow bu one ey  would rarely aom o eve ty to derstad. Nave relgos dd ot possess a secc eoogy o dd tey rere tha belevers gve vebl

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confessons o ait and live in obedience to a set o religious tenets stipuated by the crc. Nevetheess, reigion and tua  pemeated te eveyday ives o Indan peopes European missionaes, convnced that tere was oy one te egion and t was tes, tended to see tings as back o white good o evi ndians who conveted to Christianity mst demonstate unquestioning fa; Indians who esisted were cnging to eaten ways Fo Cistian mssonaries convesion was a simpe matter: ndian peope who had been iving in darness and sin woud receive the igt and accept svation It  poved to be not tat simpe. Te intoducton o Cstianity into ndian America boght thousands o Indian people into a new religos word which inclded piests and ministers, crces and mssons, bes and Bibes candes and cucixes, ymns and sacaments new codes of condct new concepts of heaven and e Suc strange new wods and ituas and the zea o te missionaries wo noduced tem, geneated a variety o interacions and esponses wc created sgnicant regios cange and nsped some new eigous movements. ndian eligons tended to be muc ess ecusive and intoerant tan Cristianty and Indian peope oten eplored consideed and incor poated eements o ts teacing. Sometmes ndans converted to Cstianty nd aandoned od beies. Oen od and new beiefs contined to exist side by side. Sometimes, Crisanty itsef changed as Indian peope adoptd it Tey eshaped it to t thei notions o the word eventuay mng it nto an ndian as well as a opean eigon Some ndians even sed Crstanity, and te missionaes who tagt t to them as a y o resistng white cuture o remaining Indian. Te Great Sea o Massacsetts Bay Coony boe te gue o an ndian saying "Come over and ep us a eathen pea o te bessings o Cis tanity. Rea ndians were suay mch less eager to ave Christians come to eir country and save tem or many ndian peope, Cstans did not dspe darness tey created it Te newcomers infected tei bodies, stoe teir land led teir game and treatened to seve sacred eatonsps tat ad ept the wod in bance or thosands of yeas. opean invaders not oy canged te word ndian peope inhaited, tey aso demanded at Indian peope see it in ey dierent terms and cast aside spitu certantes tat ad sustained them fom me immemora Te istoca eputaon o Crsan mssonares as decined consdeaby n ecent yeas Tere was a time wen reying pmaiy on ecords

A WORLD F EAMS N BIBL

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 writen by missonaes and sharng te assumpon ta Cistany was synonmous  wt civizaon, hsorans portayed hem as many missionares thought of temselves. Courageous an seless serans of Cris dedcaed he ves to dong God's wok and savng heaen souls Inas gave up pagan ways foun contenmen in ther new ves, a expeence te  joy a comes wt he promse of everlastng lfe nan converts lve n peace an hamony wh the pres o padre n ylc mssion communies  wihn he soun of church bells Today we are moe nclne to queston te mssonares' assumptons, nding ther arogance repellent and espsng tem as agents of culturl genocde nian people wee wenche om heir homes an concenrated no msson viages, wee tey e of new dseases or a ther rational beefs beate ou of tem Mssoares exploe er labor sole her lans and subjeced hem o seua abuse Oppresso an chaos no peace an hamony, characterzed fe n the mssons. Chrstany was a weapon of conquest, no a pat to svaon Dependng on ime and place, crcumstance an nvual experence one cou provie eampes to support any or all ve\vS of mssoares and te wo nans were eepy spiriual people but Euopeans n hose times,  whatever we tink of their assumptions an acons wee aso sptua he proucs of powerul religous movements tat enjone them to go out and conver others For some ndan people he mssonares brougt them a new regon a change ther lves on earh an gave them reason o beleve n eenal fe n he ereafte hese ndvuas renounced ter ol wys and em brace the new, woke har o mke ter msson vlages no model Chsan communies an found meanng an ope n he curch Kae Tekwta a Moawk gr (her fahe was a ohawk; er moter an adopte Algonkn) los er immeiate famy n a smllpox epiemc when she was four yeas old e eself suve he sease, but t sgred her face an weakene er eyes As she grew up she converte to Chrsany leeng o e Jesut msson a Caughnawaga (o ahnawake she evote hesef to a fe of castiy prayer an penience. After she de a twentyfour n 68o plgms began to vst her sne he Caolic Church ecare er venerable i 1943, beatie er in o an consdee recognng er as a sain e Pennacook chef Wanancet esste utan mssionay Jon Eot for four years bu n 674, when he was n his fties or

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NEW WORLDS FOR ALL

sxtes, he was won over. "I have, a my days, used to pass n an old canoe he explained, "and now you exhor me to change and leave my old canoe, and emark n a new canoe o wic I ave thero been nwiing; but now  yied mysef up to your advce, and ene into a new canoe, and do engage to pray o God eeater Some oWanalancet's peope deserted m; others  preered o sten to French Jesuit mssionares Lie the Maican and Housaonc ndans wo decded to move o the new msson own at Stoc bridge, Massacses in e 1730s, Wanaance recognzed tat conveson to Crstanity meant radcal canges and caried weigy conseqences Many more ndians ep the mssionaries at arms lengh, weighng ter words but evading heir evangesm by various sraegies o passive re ssance Howeve mc tey ae peached a, wroe a Fenc ocer n te Seven Yeas War, "tey listen very cmy & wthot l-wl bu they aways eun to her usa ren tat they ae no sucenty inegent o beieve and folow what they are tod, tha eir foefahes ived ie tem & hat hey adopt he way of ie The ndan cusom o istenng poltey we mssionaes egaed tem w the wod of God ed many press to mis neet sience as tac agreement and to see conversions wee none occured Oe peope dd not sen uiey Tey ougt toot and nai agans e ien egon tha teaened tei wod, esistng evey e or to sepaate them from he cutua and sprtu roos and saw mssonaes as mev oent orces. he Reverend Samue Krand encontered one Seneca n the 60s wo was o the xed opinion hat my contnuance tere wod be dsrucve to the nation, & nay over hrow al te tadtons & usages o he oefathers & at tere woud no be a waror remainng in thei naion n the corse of a ew years Anoer Seneca too a so at te  pessent missonay Shamans tended to denounce missionaries and thei wods, but ofen n a osing bae Missonares tyng o discred te tadiona spa eaders n an Indan commny coud pont wt eect o te samans faiure o predct e arrva o new diseases, to cre te sc or o give meaning to e caos ousands of ndian peope, however seected a midde pah o thei own maing ey head the mssonaies' message ased uestons, and ound areas of common gound beween od and new bees Accordng o Davd Weber, many of the ndians whom Span caimed as conves smpy added Jesus, Mary, and hsan sants to her c paneons and we-

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coed te Franciscans nto heir communies as addional samans." In a new word of suering and ncerainy,  people isened to preacers  wo assred them ha errestral pain was temporay, lfe in paradise an eteiy Wy not pray to te Crsians' God? Tey had nong to lose so long as hey dd no abandon heir own prayers, rials and beiefs A crcix added o a medicine bundle wold srey enhance he power o a radtiona spiriua ariac Missionares were rarely ae o eradcate ndian religios eles, wc hey never reay ndersood Nor did ey appreciate he dept of ndian spiriuay Te collision and conuence o religios beles in Norh Ameica dd no occr n a vacuum Indan people were dying of new diseases sccng to e nroads of alcohol losing teir economc independence, gting new  wars wih deadly new weapons, sggling o hold on o eir lands, and  wacing he pysical word cange around them Convert mos commoly came om communites tha were flling apar Chrisaniy promised rele om he pain and suerng,  relgios cange aso added o e rmoil ndan people and hristian missonaries shared areas of ndersanding Bo, or insance attbted naura evens o speara penomena, altog mos ndian peoples saw no suc arbtra disnction between e wo A e same me owever hey saw eir place in th world in radcally deren ways For hrisians man  was a e top o e ierarchy o creaion and Erope a the pnnace o cvlizaton ndian peope sared ther word wih animals, pans, and teir spris Were Eropeans saw a eigios vod Indian people had daily rals and cycles of ceremonies ta ssaned lfe propiatd spiris, and oered thanks 1hich elped manain baance and order in the universe and gave meaning o e word Missionares wo insisted a ndian peope sop practicing such ceremonies were asking em o invie disaster Indan nters oten relied on e power of heir dreams o elp hem  locate eir prey and foreell the kl Hunting was a ceremonial activiy as mc as an economc necessty, since only if the proper riuas were observed wod e animals consen to le emselves be aen, or agree o rern ravelng in he Carona baccountr in 70Jon Lawson repored how e Indans e met carely preseed and en burned he bones o he anmals hey killed, belevng ha f they omited ha usom he Game  wold leave heir onry and hey sould no be ae o ainan tem seves by heir Hnting A a me when ndian people were becomng

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increasgly dependet on Eopean ade goods, and commerci huig to sais he demand of the uopea  ad deesn ades eatened to undemne such t obsevaces, uopea miionaie tried to sever Indian' es o the anima word ad to sepaate hem om e world of deam. For ohe hug peoples such as the Montaga and Al goks i easten Canada whose ves depeded on maitaiig good eaios wth he ohe-ha-hman peos i their word, oowing Chrs ia teachigs w temping disaer An Agoki Idan od Jeuit mision a Pal Lejee in he 1630s tha here was a me when "my dem  were e; whe I had seen Moose o Beaves i seep, I woud take ome B then misioae ce and demaded they pay istead "Now ou deam and or popheces ae no onge epaye has spoled eveyhing or s. Pye had epaced may of the Agok customs aid he ndia, and "we sh  die because we gve hem up B hey did o l de Even as he hting ecoomy egan o colape, Monagai ad Agonn people oud hey coud use payer n taditoal  wys: hey prayed toes fo assisce i htng ams eveee a Caroy Mechan pont out, Chranty wa terng he soc uper strucre of the Idas ecoomy "A ethc o mo obgato etween hma ad God repaced he ethc o ecipocy between hman ad a ml God wa aove nature the ew eigio teachig eqied no espect o animas ad the au wod Od hug itua contined ut they ceaed to ction as a esaiig enviromen ethic The wa wa ope fo India peope o become commeca he, epodig o he ue of he maketpace he than itening to the piis of he anima arthe wes, on he oher shoe of the Grea Lakes  Onario, Huo peope alo od ways o accommodate Chistiaity he ros  wee dng pates of he ech and eu pies wee eage o ca he  word o God to the uo vilages and etaish a base fo ture missio he on were a people i crisi i he s Recet epidemic of disease c ro poplaon i haf etwee 34 ad 140 bt he mo tality ae mog chiden was much gher May uos bamed the esuits fo the disase Wih he aih the scoge of God came ito the contry, woe euit aher anosjoeph Bean, "and i propoo as he oe increased the ohe moe hem moe eveey he uos beeved tha the Jesuits were ocees who like hamas, coud ue thei  power or good o evi But he need o maitai trading aaces wh the

A WORLD F DEMS AN BIBE

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Fench prevented them from exacng vengeance on he missionaies; in deed, he rench wold no se guns o non-Chisians in he s half o he seveneenh ceny, and many Hons acceted basm o secre eams. Meanwhile, as adtiona cing pacces and ceemonies poved neective against the new klle diseases, Hon vllages led w the sck and dying Peole looked in deseaon o new answes o at least fo some souce of hope and paents bogh hei childen o he Jesi athes o bapism The esuts recoded only weny-wo Hon baptsms i n 1635, bt batisms inceased damaclly as he Hon poplaion lmmeed By 646 hee wee moe han ve hndred by 1648 abo weny-seven hunded Hons, one fh of he oulaion had been batzed Between 1632 and 1672 he esits caimed to have aped moe an steen hosand Indians some weve hosand in Honia alone Many of hese "convets saw baism as a ital hat migh ce o oec he nants in his wod no as a ll ledged accepance of Chrstianiy tha wold save the sols in he ne Howeve hee was lttle proection fo Hons in hs dangeos new wold Weakened y disease and amine, and ossibly in thei own eyes by a elgion tha ndemined the mae's ole as waio and hne the Hons sccmed to massve attacks by the Ioqois n 69 Only he ahon aenra Hons suvved as a group he es of the eople scateed hrogh o the Gea Laes egon Many of hem became incorpoated ino the  villages o the Ioqois enemies some svved a he mission own o oete on he S awrence. n New England, meanwhie, Indian peopes enconeed a dieen brand of Chisani as Engish missionaies inodced them o he tnes of Prianism tan missionaies demanded wha amoned o clual sucde om hei ndian convets inssing tha hey ive like heir Engish neghbos f hey inended o practice he Chisan eigion evetheless, many Indian peole acceped conveson as they sogh spal meaning in an ncreasingly chaoic wold homas Mayhew J began peaching o the Wamanoag Indians on Mahas Vineyad n he 1640s  wih elatively lie sccess hen, eidemc diseases swet he isand n 1643 and 16 he shamans he tadional spial leades and heaes wee nable o ce he sck Scoes of Indian eople ooked o Christiant o povide new exanatons,  not new ces, and o ll a void lef by he decline of tradtional communa ials he Indians buil heir own chch comm ny and passed the Gose om geneation o geneaion

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Bt he ndian coverts o Marta's Vieyard dd ot become Eglish or cease beng Indian. Some das who worshped  Chrstian churches cotied to ve  wgwams The made Chrsait a da regio nda me seed as preaches, pastors, ad deacos; da women foud tat Cristint honored teir traditoal roes, oered them te oppor tnty to ear to read ad write ad provided soace ad support as teir sand societ treatened to nrave amid acohoism and vioece Chrsian ndas took Christa ames, but they cotued to be ced by their da ones A deaco amed Pau, for istance, kept his Wampanoag ame, Masqattuhkooit  time some Chistian dia families began to use give ames ad surames i the European ste Bt the surames were based on traditoa ames-te descedants ofHiacoomes the rst ndian covert on Marta's Veyard, became ow b te surame Coomes As hisoria James Ronda expais, dia peope o Marthas Veard "shaped Chisian orms to seve ate pubc ad famia eeds The commual nctos oce undertake at powwow ceremoies were ow cared on n  worshp serces, taksgvg feass, ad ome devotions Sermos, praers, and psams eped  the spr space e b oss o traditonal ritas "ndia Christaiy became its ow tradto, norshing he ives o natve beievers Bombarded b cages tat threateed ter  ve istece, dias on Mara's Vieyard do ot appear to have sc cumbed to an aien reigion Instead, tey sed Christaity as a sorce o stregt, bedng od ad new ways to create a cuture that was both Crstia ad da n this wy dians oten reterreted Chrstan messages ad adapted Chrisia tual to create da Chrstat or Crstiaized versions of teir tradtona regos O the maad, joh Eiot hoped to prevet a suc compromises Eiot came to Amerca i 163 began to ear he Massachusett d agage i 64, and sarted preachig three ears ater He comped a dicioary and grammar o Massachusett and b 66,  wt e assstance of nda ransators, had trasated the etire Bibe o Massacusett For Eiot, enabig das to read te Bbe was a v rst step o te road to "cvizato Eot aso estabished a tota o fourtee prayg tows, mode Crisian commties where dan converts lved uaratined from te negatve ieces o ucoverted reatves or nsavo gsh charac tersHe ad dow hars peties or dias wo disobeyed hs res Men must work hard; women mst ear to spn ad weave They must wear their

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hair Englsh-style, stop usng bear's grease as proecto aganst mosquoes ad gve up plural wvs.Dscaded wves and chldren presumably sured msey and povey so at the nowmonogamous ehusbands and fathes could liv Chsan lvs. Elots pogram prootd soca voluton and cuura dsntgaton Not surprisngy many Idan pop rsd to accpt suc an assau on th way of lf Ida communtis hat had not y xprcd dvasta ton provd moe resstant o Putan tacngs A ther hgt lots prayig towns eld oly about lve huded peop ad the ete o dvdual convesos among se people, and ow many accepted los compete progam o socal change, emans ucrtan At atck os sowpece payng-town som nda convets w gv a Chrstan fneral sce but wr ntrd n tadtonal ashion wth wampum, bads, ad ohr ary itms As Da Madl nots "The dsre to mantan a da commuty n a Eglsh/Chstan wold etdd even to  gav John iot corded e knds o questons ndan peopl asked, as a  of prparig Indan mssonaries o the challenges ey would met among he own pope: "Can a good ma sn somtms? "I a ma commis a s  wtou owng s a s  wa  God say "God mad hl n on of h sx days. Why dd God mak hell beore Adam sd Most ndans resd to dfr to h Bble as a gud or le and hy oud das of sn ad gu, hav and ell to be alin and ev repugant.A dan covert fom ack wo tund o hs elaves wih he  word o God mt a polte but rm rebu "Our oraes ..taught us notg about our Soul, ad God, and Hav and Hell ad joy, and orment n the Le o com  We ae wl as  we are, and desre no o be troubled by hs wse ew sayngs Fo hos wo did accpt Csaiy converson may av meant some g derent om what t man o liot.Massachusett ndas beleved n a crao bu te wold was nabted by coulss manitowuk, sprs wo decd the couse of te day lvs Addng God or Chs dd no ecssaly dsupt ter woldvewPurans tought  duasc ms of a powr stgg btwn God and vl God and  vl; bu w England Algoian pops blivd hat ayng o great powr was mantou sprts possssed (ad wr) mantou so mght humans anmas, tres, ad even

76 NEW WORLDS FOR AL

some inanimate objecs. Christ could be maniou, and missionaries, like shamas, might possess manou Some people may have embraced Chrisiaiy as a way of fedig o aihilaion as the world crumbled abou hem Mssios oered Ida  people a have om some o he urmoil and provided hem owedge ad sls to deal wih he srage new wod tha ws beig ceaed Learning o ead was a way of acquiring owledge about he Egish as well as abou God; i could be used to undestad treaies laws, ad deeds in addiion o the Bible I may also have carried staus ad ivoved ru and spiritual ualites o which io woud no have bee aware Soe wome ay have bee araced to Chrstianiy because it redened geder roes or si1ply because hey wanted to earn o spin For  hese people coverso to Chsiaiy had meaig; bu at was ot ecessariy he same meang that i had fo lio However complete er covesion, he inhabias of he prayg ows coud no nd sheler om the stoms aoud the Durig Kg Philip's Wa (675-76), Indins om Naic suppored he nglsh but he coloniss  viewed l dias wih fear ad suspicio rangtow residents wee rouded up ad incacerated on eer slad in oso arbor ios mission program fell o pieces Oy four praying owns were rebuil aer e  war. Resevaios were to be he new homes or New glads defeaed ndan peope Nac, once he "agship of ios program, declned to 66 habias by 750, and o 22 by he 79s May ndia people had convered o Chisiay, perhaps as a strateg o suival, pehaps as a way o revzig hei sociees ad gvig ew meanig o thei les  a ie of crss ay more ep inact he core o traditonal belefs ad i was a good thg hey had Le liot i New nglad Spanish issioaries in the South labored o save Inda souls wth a assau on ndian cuure ha seveed nshp relaions, esriced sexual pacices lered selemet patters and pro moed new divisons o laborJesui athe Jua Rogel declared in 7: "f  we ae o gahe f, he dias mus jo i ad ive i seemes ad cuvae he so Spash mssoares egaded resettlg Idia people as  peasas vig n sedea communies as a prerequisite to Christianiy Ude he Spash msso system, ndia people bui he missios, raised ad eded the crops and soc hat fed he mission communiy, and per

A WORLD F EAMS AND BI

77

ormed te routine sevices hat sustained te mission. But e eiy e missions achieved rarely maced te goal ey prsued Te Spanish mis sions also prodced massive poplation decline, food shortages, increased demands or labor and ioence At ts heig in e mid-seventeent centry te Spanish msson sysem in the coony o La Foida ncded seveny ars n ory missions srech ing om St Agustine to the coas o Soh Caolna n e nor and he Aaachicola Rive near  present-day Talaassee in e wes Te rancis cans boasted hat more tan weny-ve hosand Crisanized Indians  lived n La lorida The mission sysem aimed o conver ndian people ino a atoic abor oce at woud so he colony ars bned "idols, attemped o stamp ou trditional ball games and ote "nristian  pracces and ied o regulate e daily lives o msson Indians Mission Indans wee baped, marred, and buried according to Catholic ies. B ndans esened and esised ranciscan eorts Guale Indians rebeed agans the missionares in 1597; Chrisian Alachees evoted in 1638 and 1647 Tmucans, in 166 Bris and Indian aids om e nor at the beginning o the eighteenh cenry eecvey broug e mission sysen to n end e ne resl o Sanish mssonay eors n the area was aban doned missons agmened commnies, and regee convers ddled around St Agusne olowing Juan de Oate's coonizing exedion ino New Mexco in 8, Sanish ranciscan missionaries esablshed temselves in almos every pebo aong e Ro Grnde e Spanis Crown saw missions as a  lne o deense roecng the colony om ndian enemies and Eopean rivls The Pebos may ave seen em in somewhat smilar erms: he missons coud sand agnst Aace enemies and against poeniay agges sive Spans soldies and colonists But Spanish pess no ony nvaded kvas (ndergrond ceremonia chambers} hey desecraed kacina masks and ted o spress Native rias and seual pracces. Many Pebos resed to accet a new aih hat treatened eir socal and sirial order othes conined o ractice ei ancestra ways behnd closed doors o moe accratey in underground kvas Some led wes to he Hopis and othe more dsan Pueblos oers reaiated in perodic obeas o vo  lence Doght, aing ouaons and increasing Navajo and Apache rads ndicated at e new religon was no a source o owerl spiritual proec on, and ta eople shoud return o ther ancient ways i ey eve ad let

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thm. I 1680, Pope, a Twa mdcn ma om Saja, sychrozd an uprsig of th drnt Publos hat drov out th Spanards fo a dozn yars h Indians lld ad mulatd my o  ars who had b tyng o samp ou th lgo and dscrad th aln paaphrala o Cathosm h Spanads rrnd but thy had larnd from t xpinc Wh hr prdssors had trd to radca all Natv riuals, frars now mor ofn ud a blind y o such pracs-a shit, as histora John Kssl dsrs t, "om crsadig ntolnc o pragmac acommo daton Idia popl manwhl bam sgd o  Spanards ad adopd mo subtl ccs of sstac Whn Dgo d Vargas nd on hs campagn of ronqus n 62, Lis a Pu Pblo adr, ap  pad bfo hm dssd n amal sks and wang a band o palm shll arod hs had; but h aso wo a rosa rod hs ck ad carrd a slv cross, an Agnus  and a oth pitd wh  n1ag o Or Lady o Gadlop A ntury o ontat wh Spash mssonas had lft ts impin May ublos apd th oward orms o Hspan Crstianty  whi png th as a om can va, and kahna, th thgs that osutd h or of hr rligo and hr Publo dny May Pblos bcm nomlly Caolic, attdng mass ad obsrvng Chrstia hol days, bu thy oud o pratic tadoal rtuals ad p r word  vw ntat. Wat ny Bowd dsbs as a "dob stadard of r a acisc and trna sisanc assurd Chrstaiy a prphal sts  Publo sociy Spaniards o b churhs o top of sis hat Indian pop rgardd as sacrd, n a dlibrat ampt to dsca Nav igos spacs ad rplac Nativ b wih Chrsta worshp ut such  polcis w pobaby not cv snc Nav prayrs and bs  rd o sadnss of pla rathr than o buldng h Hopis w mor isatd tha othr ublos from Spanish crsad ig. Tir vilags sa atop solatd msas i northn Aroa, ad hy wr b abl o p Spansh pss a arm's lgth. opi rgous ladrs no oy rssd thos Spanish mssonais who mad  t to th vllags, thy v on oasion dbatd and dnoncd h pads n pbc on oaos A vistig Francsan lamd hat th Hop rligon i 5  was "h sam as bfo thy had abo th Gospl Whn Francscan athrs Fraso Ataaso omnguz and Svsr Vez d Escalant vsid h op llags o Scond Msa n Novmbr  hy communcatd w

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the councmen "parly by sigs ad pary in Nav. The fras egan to preac, and the Hopis a rst manained they cld no uderstand. When te aes pressed them he Hopis made it clear "ta ey wed  be or ends b ot Chisians Te fstrated Franciscans hed  reats  eterna damnaion ad assraces "tha if ey sbmitted tey oud enjoy conta and sure recrse t Spans ams agans al indes o sld  a agains em as dd te rest o te Chrstan pebos o Ne Mexco but te Hps adamanty esed to give up the ays  teir ancestrs Te Franciscas ithdre qie cresalen at sc "obsinac Fve years ae Genera Tedr de Crx epoted ta Hpi priests ee "nexrabe n thei puse of remang eaten peseig tese csms and e maing  ter desoaed pebs Becase Spaniards traveig the g dstances  the Hps had o pass throug Zu viages te Hops usay eceived advance arng of teir cmng and Hop eaders presented a uned ront. Smetmes tey gave e appearace o acuescece: ey tod he Spaads at hey aed t ear ated r em t eave then ent about the ves as beore Te Hops decded ch if any pars of Spanis cue they ould accept. The racscan ar Jpero Sera broug Cahcsm to e Indans of Cafona n i769. raveing nort o te San Fancisco Bay aea, s expedin estabished he rst Catlic mission a San Dieg Oe mis sios ed ntl a chan o tenty-one mssions sretched mre an 65 mles. y 1, ndan nepytesas te cnverts ere caedumbered sme enty thusad, estimony to e dsiegraon o Nave scetes under the ammerbos o ne dseases as muc as to te per o Crs tanty. But he ac tat dia nepytes adpted Chrstan symbos and stres dd no necessaiy mean hey accepted conveson  Spansh tems Tey may ave see  the pageatry ad parapernala  Catic servces ne souces  sprita poer ic tey cod acquie itout eopadiz ng ter od bees. Spansh mssonares congregaed dan pepes  e cmmites and used nda labr to sppr te missn sysem e tey temseves ared  save· ndan sos Te ars segregated nmar ed men and omen nto separate domtores at nght to enrce Caoc mora codes impsed stict abr regmens, and resrted to  ppng brandg and soiay cnnement to keep te ndans n te pat  "cvato and salvaon ean ran�is de La Prouse a rench sea capta and scentist  vsited e missio at onterey in 76 durig a

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 voyage arod te word oted: "Sis wic ae le i Euope to Divie jstce, are here pished by iros ad stocks, ad e compaed te mis so o a slave patatio. Feipe de Nove goveor of Califoria, said  1780 ta e Idias wee "worse a saves ude e Fraciscas dia  popatos  plmmeed May dias ra away rom he missios; othes ued o vioece seve hded das laced a sccessl attack o e Sa Diego misso i 5. Mssoary eots esewhere met wi lmied success alhogh ot al  ways o te same easos Moava mssioaies wo nay covets amog e Deaware Idias i Pesylvaia ad Oio i e eigteet cetry, ad some Delawaes clearly embaced e Crisia way o ie tat missio aries sch as Jo Heckewede ad David Zeisberge bog hem Bu he Moravias ad er covers wee bidig peace missio aves i wat  was ast becomig a war zoe Te coloia ad evoltoary wars at raged  e Oo Valey i te secod hal of the ceury dsuped te mssoaes' wok disocatg tei commites ad broght disaste o e coves I 782, merica miiame btceed iey-sx pacis ad uarmed Moravia das i e vlage a Gadee e Moa  vas ad e coves mgrated o Caada i the yeas afer the Ameca Revolto Mssoaes le teir impri everywhee tey we dia people elt  capes ecitig itgies  La prayig ad sigig yms i glis, Frec Spais oquoia Algoka ad toAzteca Howeve selec ve hey migt be i wa ey accepted om Cista teachigs, dia  peope od ta Chstaity rogh faeacg chages i he word i ot ecessarly i teir wordviews. owaa Idas  Vgiia came o beleve ha whe ey died, sead o goig o a sgle aerie o all as ei acestos ad, hose who ad led wicked ives wet to a pace of edless ormet ad lames gteetceuy aveers obsered dias aedg Chstia sevices ad commeted hat dia peope appeaed to be ivig mode Chrisia lves Aexader Hamito sa ex o das i a Boso crc lsteg to a ris peace aveig wes of Abay, he came to a Moawk ow whee Dcstyle woode ad bck ouses ad tradoa ogouses cusered arod a cuc where he peace spoke to e Idias i tei ow agage o he blk of e Moocks up tis way ae Crsas Rcad Smit visiig e oquois tow o Oqaga o e ppe Susquehaa River i 769 saw oe uded dias me wome,

A WORLD F REMS AN

BIBLES

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Mohawk Indins i cur. Frntpee fm  Mhk Bk f mmn Praye, 178. (Darout Clleg Lib)

and children, caed to Sunday morning seice by a horn bown three tmes The Indns sang psas and ead from he Scrpes; the serice "was conduced wh regulaiy and soemny An Indan riest ociaed and n Indan clek the Oneida che Good Peter ansaed e sams nto Oneda Englshman Nchoas Cresswe vsted he Deawae Moravan ms son own a Schbrnn n Oho on he eve o the Amecan Revoon The ndans hed sece n a meetnghouse whch had a bel and gass  windows, istened o their ason's words throgh an nerreer and sang hymns in Deaware The sevce was condced wh "te greaes regariy orde, and decorm I ever saw n any pace o Worshp n my lfe wroe esswe in hs jorna Mssonares intended hat Indian convers shod ay he par n seadng he new regon-ndeed, hey had te choce The mission aries in James Axtes words "were on teir own forced o rey on their  wits tonges and person charisma o earn the Indans respect and o  uey he aen band o sy Sxteen friars searheaded he Fran iscn eot to spead te Gospe to the uebos n 16. There were eve more han hl a dozen esit mssionaies workng among the hry hou sand Yaqis n Sonora troughot the seventeenh ceny The press reed on Ya conves to sread he Gosel accetng that hose Yaqus  wod atach her own meanngs o histan concets and ut ther own interetaons on the missionares teachings The mssonaries had "o se  ersasion and hen e he persuaded Yaqis ke i rom thee The esult  was tosands o Yaqi bapisms and a new knd of hstaniy hat was dis incy Yaqi n many ways Recoect andest mssiores in seveneenh cenry ew Fance olowed the exame o auchn mssonares n South America and sen some Indian boys o France where they were educated o serve as mssonares on he rern to Indan couny b he  ogram had le sccess ohn Eio onded an Indian coege a Haard n 1654 o hose Indan studens who wod an as mnstes Ony s students atended and ony one grdµaed he ded of beculosis te oowing year Haards Indan coege cosed s doors n 1692 and ws uled down six years ate How ever some Indians dd become mstesthee were 33 ave reachers in ew Engand befoe he Rvoion Eio ained and odained Danie To kkohwomp as hs successo Severl gadaes rom Eeaar Wheeocs Indian schoo seed as missionares Samson Occom (72392)  was a

A WORLD F DEAMS ND BIBS

83

Mohegn Indian om Connecticut who gew p as is peole's way of lfe fell apart Like many ote ndian eople in soen New Egland, e became a Cistian dring he Geat Awaening, e revval of evangeical elgon tat swep te Ameican colonies i e 1730s and 140s A stdent a Wheelocs Chaity Schoo in eanon Conecct, Occom dese ill eat,  sued te goa o miniseing o te siitl needs o dian  eope.He le schoo in 177 and eceved a Pesbyteian icese to peach settlng at Motak on ong slad as miste to he Indian cogegaion hee He hed sevices tee times each Sday tagh scool, eormed mariages, and condcted nels ie any wte eache, bt he aso lived n Indian wigwams and led some of te sachems aditonl oles, povd ng leadersip and exendng osiality Given litte respect ad ess  ay by New Engads missony aoites Occom neveteless stc o is cllg and in e early 60s made enghy  viss to te Oneidas of ew York In 1766, he traveled to Engand on a nd-asing tou fo Weelocs ndian scool and raised £12000 an enormos sm of money in those days n 169 Welock foded Datmo College in anover, ew Ham sire osensibly wit te tenon of edcating Indias But Occom became bite and disisioed i ate lie Few Indian studets atteded amoOccom said the college esembled lba Mae (Whte Mohe) rathe tan lma Mateand te nds Occom ad aised wee dverted to oer proses Occom eted to Mohegan and lved as an inerant m ster to vaos dan gops n sothe New nglad Occom wote ymns ta became at o the hymody of nineeenh centry Ameica Aote of Wheeocs stdets he Moaw Josep an woked wih the Reveend Jon Stuart te Anglcan missionay a o Hte to trasate he Gose ito Moaw Coverted and nconveted Idians ie noted dieences beween Chstity as preached and as racticed Indans commony countered mssonary agumets by decaing "We ae bee Chsias ta  yo. Those ke Occom wo conveted duing the Gea Awaening ond fat wh the esbsed chch My aagasetts conveed to Crisiait in the 40s embracng a egious movement ha calenged te teecta eism of asm It more cosely esembled e aditonal eigio, emhaszng visos e soen rathe than te witte wod and eligios eadeh based on a calig aer than o mal edcaio. he Nar agansets bilt ei ow chch and had Narrgansett minsters Samue Niles he s Naganse ministe, said at is eoe egaded educated 84

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minisers as "Thieves, Robbers Prates, etc.  They seal he word God old he Pophes e words ey Soke: and ese Minsers Seal  Word Indans wo adered to radiion belies were oen equally su  icios of hose who presumed o teach em o ive le ChrsiansLearn  yoursef to understand he word o God beore you nderae to each ad gover ohers Irouois leaders told W heeloc  772 ndians sread Chsani in ess drect ways han oeraing as mission aes Ioos ndians wo converted o Caolicism in e seveteen cen try fomed ew missio communies at places lie Caughawaga near MonelIn e ealy years o he neeenh cetury Irouois rom Caug awaga mgaed o the Rocy Montain region o wor i he r rade as raers and gides. Some of them itemaried w oca ndian wome and broug eir ndian Catolcsm o the ibes ere ogh many ndan people ooked to Crisaniy for help in imes of crsis Crisaiy oen generaed addiiona crises and ensios in ndan commnties tuals such as he Geen Corn Ceremony unied ndian commnties brngg eope togeter in seasonal ceremoes o rayer hansgiving, and word renewal; Crsa missionaies rohibted their convers om paticiating i suc paga ris, ereby seveing ies of commity and ideni Missonaries so aemed o se p new aers of wor and beavor beween e sexesI gender-egaiaran soceies le the Huros ad he Motagnais whee wome ejoyed an inluence  own in Euroe, Fench missioaries ried o sbordinate women o re order Idia sociey alog moe "civized ines Some commities spli betwee radiona and Cstia facions The Huros were bierly facoalzed by e ime he Irouois ataced hem in 6489 Delawaes wo convered o e Moravian aih lved in separae  viages om tei nconverted relaves ad someimes experenced ridicule and resetment om them Fomely viewed wih respec by oher Irouos, Oneida eadmen by 1772 el "dessed by o brehren o accoun o or chrisan ofessio Some oortnsic Indan leaders emraced Crs aniy o add spiriua sancio i ei poiica callege o esablished eades A Natick in he sevetee cenuy Waban sed Crsiaity as a coe arod wc o ogaie a action cegig e leadership o Csmekin which esed on more radiol sral odaions Men ie Waban emloyed e missioaries as es o serve their own poltical inerests Some commnties spli even her as actios ormed aond dieren A WORLD OF DREAMS AND BIBE

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Tite page of e Bok fCmon Pe ..t which is addd T Gl accong to St.Mark, Tanslad no th Mhak Lan ag by apt" Jseph Bant (Lnd, 178). Or edis f  Bok f Cmmon Pay wee p  Mohak nly; th one hs Engh on th ooe page   "heb he .

 ·  : .

�·.

. .

Indians liesbly e ma acquainte wi the Egls aguage; a suh Wte Peope in ter vinit as hse to a Mohawk, w hee eie  asstac." (Datmou Colege Lir)

denomiaions. In aout 70, the Chrisian Wampanoag comunity at Gay Head o Marha's Vieyard spit ino Baptst ad Cogregatioal churches Most Mohawks became omina Angcans n he eary eghteeth century; heir reaives  who accepted the Cathoic faith moved away o form new commuies near the French a St gis (preset-day Akwesase) ad Caughawaga The suface hamoy Rchard Smith wnessed a Oquaga in 69 coceaed wideig divisions etwee Angican ad Presyera fac tios wi he commuiy. A across Aneca Chrisa and da peopes ad eemets miged  Queec ad norher New Egand, Aea ndians took French sans' ames as surames wore ccxes aroud their necks spoke Frech  prayed o Caoc sais, and even hung wampum es o Cahoic staues. As did Spanish ocers i he Southwes, Frech ocers i the Norheast acted as godparets at apisms o Abenaki chidre Sebastia ases sad the Aenakis' ah was "the ond that unes em to the Frech ad Abeakis hemseves rejeced ngsh missoay eors assrig eir oy aty to the Frech: We have promised o e rue o God  our eigo ad it is his we proess o stand y ut Abeakis aso kept traditiona riuas aive When rech priests frowned o dacing to dums, they daced o raes insead. The missionay experiece aso e a imprt on some mssioaries, however Me who we no da couy to cover the heahe some imes oud emseves sowy eing converted to a Idia way o ife they  were dedicated to desroy Livig and worig amog Idia peope for  years coud  produce ew eves of oerace amog previousy inoeran  ssionaes e zea o covert savages ad save their sous sometmes  ecame tempered by a apprecato o common humaity ad a desire o do some good n ths ie French Jesuis who made their homes n ndian  viages had o adap o Idia ways and some o em ecame os totay immersed i India cure. They shared da odges wth etended fam ies ad dogs ate dia food endured hunger ad cod whe he ndias dd  padded da caoes, snowshoed �hrough he forests, eared Idia aguages received da ames, ad i some cases joned the ndians  her sugge agais gish expansion As hey did in Chia ad araguay Jesu missionarie odied their  practices o accommodate the cuture of he naie peopes whom they hoped o mae ino Cahoics hey reaied tha heir est strateg ay i

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t winning accepance and support n the communites where hey lved and  peached, budng on common grond and avodng head-on con fonatons wth Nate pactces tha dd not clash openly wh Chstan eachings. They adaped he messages to sit Indan ses of oraoy,  oong o palels n ndan beef systems and behavng as much as  possible accordng to Natve protoco When Fahe Nau wanted to esablsh a msson among the Iroqois n 1735 he recognized ha he woud need o conform to Ioquois ways: he accepted adopton into he Bea can becase he expaned, "a missionay wold no be an acceptabe peson n e vage  wee he no a membe o he tibe. Mssonaes sough o discedit aditona spu eaders ye oo ove many of he ncons n ndan soceytey dispensed advce spoke n counc shaed wa tey ha, an mnsteed to the sc Seasan Rases  ved amos thy yeas among the Abena ndans at Nordgewoc n Mane He dedcaed hmsef o converng he ndans o hrsany and chngng he way o fe oever t was, he woe, necessay o conom to ter mannes and cusoms, o the end hat  gh gn her condence and  wn hem o Jesus hrs. Ye, n a  ette o hs bothe he year beoe he ded Rases conded ha he converson process had been mtua As for  what concens me pesonay,  assue you hat  see, tha  hear tha I spea, only as a savage The Engish haed Rases, eaed ha he ued hs inuence mong he ndans to incite atacs on Engish seements, and pt a price on hs head. n 724 hey ded Noridgewoc, buned the vage, ed Rases and maed hs body. Davd Banerd a yong Pesbytean mnser preachng o ndans aong he Susqehanna Rve n he 74s fond hat teir responses pompted hm to qeston and eevaate hs msson Munsee ndans ejeced hrs aniy as a coupng nuence and od Bned hey pefeed o ve as hei ahes ed and go where their ahers wee when hey ded. ea  wes n westen Pennsylvana seemed euy uneceptve The ban sares o he ndans  whose sous he had se ot o save dove Banerd no a cric peod of sou seachng, reassessng his goas and even wondeng abo hs God. More receptve ndan audences bought a renewed co men before Bained's eay deah om tbercuoss bu the ndans he met ceay moded he yong missionary's character and nenced evehng om hs evangesic method to hs psychoogca heh On he oher sde of he coninen, n the 770s, a panish pres named Francsco arcs

A WORLD

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REAMS ND BBLES

89

raveled far and wide among he Idans o te deser Souhwest, vistng Mojaves, Yavapas, Havasupas, and oters. He  would s wth Indans for ous, shared er ood ad lifestyle, and, n te opnion of a fellow Francs can, appeaed "o be bu a Indian hmsel. Not all dans accepted Garcs, owever: e was lled by Yumas n 1781 Indan peope  wo convered o Crsay dd no necessaly assm  lae European ways o lie For some peope, Chsaniy roved to be a evazng oce, povidng a broader sptua bass o whch o coe wh criss, euid agmeed commues, and manai group dentiy Oten a dsve orce n ndan commues Crsaty also on occason  lnked regees, covers, ad ndvduals fom shaered socees nto new com munes, oering a common denty as Cristia Indas embersh i Chrsan commues-even Ida ones-somemes also oered refuge from surroundg acsm and a haven om the acoolnduced chaos ta ore some radonal viages aat n some communtes-the arragan ses, or nsace-he church ecame a al suion and even a smol o ribal dentty Chsany oered new sources of srtual srength and commuty reslience as eople sruggled to lve as Idas n wha was rapidly ecomg a we man's wold An nda cogregaon coud sill be an da commuy As James Axell explans, he direco of religous change n Norh Amerca was "decdedly unear, largely because ndan relgons, unlke Crisiany, wee oleran of oher aihs Idan regons were always o he deesve, and ay canges ha occurred n coonal relgo "were mor ad selfgeneraed, no n respose o atve  pressures o conver. ev erheless, eing on he defes did no oally rob Indans of he ntiave Fequenly, hey used elemens of Crsaniy o her ow uroses "By accepg he Chrsan pres as e nconal equvalen of a aive shama ad y gvng radiona meangs to Chrsian res, dogmas ad deies,  wes Axel, "te Indans ensured he survval of nave cuure by tang on he roecve colorao of the nvaders culture. Perodcay, new religious movemens develoed n Ida county, ad messahs peaced a rurn o radona way s of le y e second af o e egheent centuy, as regory Dowd has arged, Indan eoples  he easen woodands who oug o reserve eir remanng lands om uro  pean and Amerca eansion also suggled o ecover heir wold by resorg ad eviving radtona ruals. Some messas and rohes

o

NEW 'VORLDS FR AL

 preached total rejection of he whie ma and s ways. Ida peope could become whole ag ony if ey deouced alcohol, tade goods, ad Chsaty Others oered a n1ore leible appoac In 1799, a Seeca da med Hadsome Lake, wo ad given in o alcoolism ad despa as his  wod cmbled aod hm, epeeced a vson He enouced alcoo ad began to preach a pogam of socal reom ad culural rejuveao, gg hs peope to abando wat was evil b ae wat was bes om  white cltue He lso oeed tem a elgon ha bleded elemes of Csa eacg, possbly pced up from egborg Quaers, wh tdtiol iuals such as te Gee Co Ceemoy ad the Mdwiter Ceremoy. Hadsome ae evved ad resctred radonal reigo fo a ew word Te ongouse elgion, as  became ow ed ad spread and coues oday me ad aga n Not Amerca, Chrstan mssoares establshed a foohold  Idia commties dng a ciss reaped a aves of covets ad the were pushed back o held a arm's egth as dia people kep or revved ance belefs Ida peope eared hat e best way o peseve ther reigous beles was to de them om evangelizg Eopeas, a sraeg hat iocay, ofte coviced outsdes ta te das elgio had died out. Te esul ote lay somewee beween otl accepace ad tot eeco. In sohwesten puebos, kvas sti exst logsde Catholc chrces ad Ina peope ote parcpae  Cisia as  wel as ad onl ceemoes t Gay Head ad Maspee n Massachsetts, wee Indians becme Chisans as early as he seventeent ceury, ave fok bees abo ghosts wtces ad sprts sved o he twente centry I sch stances, Crstiaty dd no eadcate old beefs; rahe  suppemeted and even stegtheed them povdg a ew broade spa basis The new  word hat emerged was oe i whc Chisan ad tadon belies ke, sometimes sepately ad someimes ogete, guded ad gave meag o peope's lves

A WORLD OF DEMS ND BIBLES

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Five

New World Warfae and  a New Word of Wa

WHEN T FRENC

rst penerated the St Lawrence Vaey in he sxteenth cenuy, hey met Idia wariors who went ino bate wearing  wooden ad leather body amor and wo fogh sading in raks om  wich y hred pojecies and inss agaist heir eemies. To men accstomed o the loodbas o Europ th ndias' conics apeared smal-scae raizd, and o paricuay oody  160, gonin and Moagais dians om the St awrence Vaey were padding Same de Campain ad his Fench companios across ae Champain \ve they encounteed a lage pary of some wo ndred oquois no dob Mo haws om te west sde o he ae T he roois bacd r caos and se aot biding a defens arrcade y h disachd mis sares o as if ter enemies wished o g "hy said at as soo as h sun shold rse ey woud attac us sad Champain and o his or ndians agreed he ndas sang and dancd al nght i ual preaaion or war ad come moning omed ans ady o do ba hee roois cis cay disguisd by hir addesss adanced before ter  waiors A is poin Campain and wo Fench comanons cocead n e ndegrow ad aing pimed heir guns oo carfu aim ad sho dow he ee ces Asoished he roquois ed ino th woods wth h Agoks and Monagnais o o heir hees his bief batte changed the ac of wa in orthasr Amrica in a  ae ta was eaed across the coinn Gus rndrd woodn amo and shieds obsoete ad made ghtng in rans sucda ndia  waors icly adoped hi-ad-run gerla actics in which mobi wa

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parties, armed with gs fougt om cover. Te Iroquois cultivaed rade relations wit e Dutch and the he Englsh o he Hudson River to obtain rearms ad soon were warrng agans negboring ribes n an eor to maan her arsenals Te conrontaion o diere naios and cultres in Nor Amerca prodced a new world of warare sch as dia peoles had never seen  also itrodced Indians ad Eropeans o new ways o ghting that changed orever ow Indians Europeans and laer A1ercans waged ther wars Indans experenced new weapons ad tactcs of mass desructon; Ero  eans earned o emulae ndian hi-ad-un acics Te "ndan way o  war was ot someting ta ad been handed down wtho chage across generaions ndians passed on to the colonsts lessos tey theselves had earned om cocts with Europeans ad om wars ougt wh ropean guns Mlry hsoras dsagree ao wether te conicts i early Aner ica fosered a unely Amercan way o war t here s o quesion tha hose conicts resened ndans ad Europeans with new chalenges ad  e asing mressions o their societies

Te rst formal militay encouer beween Indans ad Europeas in wha is now te Unied Staes occurred at te bae of Hawkh o July 7, 1540. It lstrated he colsio o diering concepts of warare and te dsparies in te milry cultres of the protagoniss he Spansh eediton o Fran csco Vsqez de Coronado was shg north i search o the rmored seve ctes of god when hey sged he ow of Hawiuh, near today's border etween Arizoa and New exco Hawkh was a typica Zuni pelo a mltsored md and adobe srcre ardly a glseig citade b the coqstadors resoved o ake ossesson o  The unis scatered a line o sacred cormeal between the Sanards and er own symbolcally closing the road Te Sanards eher misierreted or igored he ges re and wt a cry of Saago! e Sansh cavalry carged across the ne The s fog rosly or erhas an hor comig wrote Coro ado amos o e eels of or orses o re teir arrows Coroado msef  was ocked unconscios by a roc hured on he terraces of he  eblo However arrows ad rocs were o mach or armored cavaly rearms and Spanis seel Te gry Spaiards soon occpied awikuh and rew open is storehouses o cor and beans

WARFARE AND AR

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Coronado's troops occupied Hawkh unt ovember 0 ad ds pached scoutg paes o he opis i Arzoa, to the Grad Cayo, and o to e souther plais. Meawe Spansh sodiers amog e souter Tewa Peblos at Tgeux commadeeed food ad clothig ad raped Ida  wome We he das ressted e Spaards relaed  ry, saugh eg hdreds o das ey bred one dred warios a the sake he Spaards who ivaded Ameca  e sixeth cetr were prod cts o a culture of violence tha ad bee forged  her omelad by cenues of colict between Chrisas and Musms  7, Moors fom Not Aica had coqeed te beran eisa Begning n he eev eth century de he leadershp of legendary El Cd, Spaiads gadualy pushed the vades back. n 2 e yea o Columbuss voyage, he reconquita  was complee. Spas waros, ased from geerao to ge erao to gh Moors foes now had to look for new eemies ad new ads o conquer hey bough to Amerca the legacy of eigt centues o conlct aganst "heathen peopes n the Old World They were no likey to gh wi y ess butaty agnst te "eatens hey encotered i er new wold he Spansh soldies wo vaded e soeasen Unted Sates unde enado de Soo om 53 to 153 ecoered powerl chiedoms ha cod eld massed raks of warors who ought accodig to paned and coordaed straegy, and wo engaged he Spaards i pched batles. The abliy o wage organzed waae dd not cary ove o systematc co ques ad e ndans aso made small-scale gerrlla aids agais er Spas foes. e Spas-ca chrocler Gaclaso de la Vega · descbed the wafare of he peoples de Soto ecoered as consstig manly o "mbshes ad sbety and oy rarely of ptched battes Casaltes were geerally gh he sad. n occason we e batles were more heated te das "went so far as to bn towns and devastae elds bt as soon as he coqeos had iicted he desred dmage ey regatered n ther own lands to atempng o ake possesson o he lad of oes The bly of e Spash vaso echoed e slager the con qstadors ad caried o dig he coqes of Mexco twenty years earle New dseases weaked sle havoc, d Spas troops t the n da civiations of he Southeas wt a ensy om whch hey wold ever ecove De Soo a vetera of te campagns i aama carga and eu and a ma accodig o chrocler Rodrgo Ragal "ver muc

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NEW WORLDS FOR A

given o huting ad illg Idias," led a we-equpped ad dscped amy ad dd ot hesate o apply scorched-eath poces and teror tactcs o demoaize mecaly supeor eemes. Spash sodes bred vl  ages rasacked emples, ad eashed huge dogs raed for coma The Spaads' reptaon raveled eore hem: To me" sd one chef to de Soto in wods attted o hm y Garcaso de la Vega yo ae  proessioa vagaonds who wander om pace to pace gag yor vei hood by obng, sacg and muderng peope who gve yo o oense" Spansh rtaty eicied despeate esponses. Apaachee Indas  othern Foida ued ther ow viage raher ha see t fal o the Spash Even Spash veerns of he Mexica and Peruvia slaghers  were shoced y he crede feocty" of he day-log atle o Maa n Ocoe 1540 he ndans dove the Spaads ou o the own me ad aga xhased Spansh sodies �en o d at a pod neary tnged  wth the blood o he led, ad eted o he contest Evetay, the Spaiards capred he tow and se e to , u he hatans oght o Women and chdre pcked up aadoed weapos ad joed the ay, ghting o the death Some haged hemseves ather ta fa to Spansh hands; others hrew hemseves to the re Severa hosad Idans died One cod not wl thogh the sreet o he dead odies," recaed a chroncer The Spanards rested thee wees n the area recoverg om ther wods and bed over mch o he co By he end o te sxeenh cet, e power chefdoms o he Soh east had collapsed under the hammerblows o inpoted dsease ad Spansh vaso Never aga dd Europea vaders coon massed Idia armies sch as chaleged de Sotos etada Indan peopes had eaed o avoid  pched ales wh ames o deterned Eopean gumen Meltg away eoe the vades hen ug o strke whe tme and teran were s ae,  proved far more eective mehods of resstance Wth the mers terly educed Indan tes also eaed o avod gong to wa against uropeans  whot rst agg ohe Europeas as ales t tha way of hepng o preserve ra ndepedece oe oy ought me and caused creased dependence The rs Engsh settles atamesow Vrgia  67 reported how e Powhatan dias pated and dressed hemseves for bae, egaged  eaoae itals of sgg ad dancng and the omed ras eoe seadiy advacng  a ha-moo omaon I , sevea hdred

WARFARE AND 'VA

95

Powhata  warros lauched a ontal assault on James Fot The colosts bea hem back with muse e om the fo and caon sho om ther shps. But he Indans also employed geia accs, "ceepng o all foure, from the Hils, ke Beares  wih hei Bows n the mouths As souh easten ndas had eaned om bite expeece i conc wh the Spa ards, so Vgia Idia waos esoed moe often o stealth ad suprse, and oy aely o massed chages,  ther conlcs wth he Englsh The Powhatas hang overcome thei ital fea of e ose and smoke pro duced by gus made evey eot o acque reams ad moded hei accs so as to use he new weapos most eectvey The cooniss ed o eep gs from the Idas but the owhatans creased he asena  which they turned agas boh ngsh a�d nda enemes uopean musketeers could no mach Indian aches  rate of e o accuracy Powel bows and aows emaied he weapo of choce for may waors even aer eams became avalable The longbows of loda Indas  were fomdabe Cabeza de Vaca sad tha Spanish amo dd no good aganst aows ed om such bows, ad de Soto's soldes feaed and espected Indan aches who wee bo and bed  he mds o bows ad aows Idias conued to use and sometes pered, bows ad aows for both huntig and wafae Nevertheess ndas could ot aod o be wihout gs f hey hoped to suvve n a \vorld of nceasig vio ece. Guns had an udoubted psychologca mpact hey alteed he ook, soud ad smel of battle Thei smoe ad ose epaced e twang of bowstrigs ad the hum o aows; speas aows, ad wa cubs could be dodged o deleced but so lead bullets tha ateed on mpac poduced hoe  wounds as they smashed bones and toe though bodes Some dans who nvoed he war medce to brg em success  bate ad  poect them as they aced deah beeved hat  coud negate the  powe of earms-connced o e nlneablty they eposed themseles to the  whe man's bullets Othes wee  perhaps mpessed by the sptual powe of hei uropean adversaes weapons of destcto overno Wlliam Badod of Pymouth Coloy oted that he Wan1  panoag Indas wee eage fo earms by the 62s: They became mad (as i wee) afte hem and woud no sc o give any pice they could attan to or hem he  wroe The New gland colones passed aws to ty to eep gs ou o Indian hads Bu by the time of Kg Phips Wa das n New ngand had obtaned pey o eams om rench Dutch ad

96

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ilegl taders. Indians ot oly fought wit intlocs, tey wee also skied i their use ad kew how to repai them, make guits a cast bulets Purita Roger Wilams of Rode Isla said tat was between as n New Engad wee "fare less blouy a evoug te the cuell Waes o Europe"; a poessoal sole mataie that ndans ought "more fo pastime tha to coque ad ecoe ey migt ght seven yeas ad not kl seve me Iias of course ha easos fo gtig tat diered om tose of Europeans Waios went to wa to avege te deaths o relaves to gai pestge  plue a to tae captives wo ght be aopted o tully totue. Thei was tee to be small i scae lmte i extet and seasol  duaio. New Eglad dias soo eperiece a very dieet  o waae  European warfae as impote to Noth merca was te pouct o thousads of years of tactical evoution ad tecoogical innovaio Lke ias Euopeans a ha to alte tei ways of gtg afte te touc to of gnpowde The Eglis adjusted te wae to ew codtos whe they ivaed rela durg Quee Elizabet's reg late  the s teen cetuy. Sir Humprey Gilbet u a aswe to te poblem of deaig wit elusve foes wo fougt ac wit gueria tactics n the use o "coute-isugecy teoism bet ille mae woma a chil and spoiled wasted a ued y e goue, all that e 1ight; leavyig othig of he eemes  saete wc he could posse waste or con sume To by elgous colict ad dyasc val seveenthcetu Euope eoyed oly fou yeas of compete peace Dug te Thity Years Wa (684) rival amies crisscossed te cotet buig food su plies and pllagg cities Tousads of Swss tows a vilages wee de stoyed and 7.5 mllion Germas about oe tir of te populatio pe ishe beore the wa was over. mmgats om warto Euope uicly apple ei Ol Wol mili y expeiences, and te teo tactcs they ad developed tee to New Wold enemies Racia wa in Ameica poduce ew leves of savage among all the paticipats Fom the st colicts wt te Ias o te Chesapee, Egls and othe European atios tagete a villages ad food suppies as te way to wi wars agaist people wo would ot std ad ght  I 636 esclatig tesos boe out i open war betwee the Puitans and te powel Peuot Idans of southe Coecticut. ung a ite

WARFARE AND WAR

9

 lude in an ealy skrmsh, Pequot waios cle out to ther Engls  aver saies,  askng f t was tue that the Englsh lled women an chien Te nglis gave them te aswer te next yea An Engls army  mace to te  man Peuot village on te Mystic Rve suounded t  an put te Indans' ouses to e torch. As te Pequots e te estom the Engls sodies sot them down. "Tose that scaped e e wee sane with the sword wote Goveno Wlliam Brafo "Some hewed to peeces,  oes n trow wt te apes, so as tey wee ucky despatcte an ve  few escape Somewere between tee uned and seven hune Pe quots peshe Naagansett nas wo wee preset as llies of te En  gsh "stood roune aboute, sa Brafod, "a left te wole eecuton to te Englis Wen it was l ove, tey sa tey "grealy admred the  manner of Englismen's ght, but wee shocked because "it is too ous  an slays too many men Brafo admtted that t was a fear sght to see them thus fryng in te frye a e streams of boo quencng te same  an oible was the stnc & sente teeof but e fet tat e vctoy was a sweete sacce e Engis gave tanks to God fo deveng ther enemes nto hei hans an set about huntng ow the rest of the Pequots, kng the men an selng te women and chldren nto savey John Unel, oe of the Englis commandes n te equot assalt, got te cance to apply  hs alents agan  n Goveo Ket's Wa between the Dutch an he Indians of the Huson Valey n the ealy 1640s Launchng a  ngt attack on an Indian vllage, nerhll surounded it wt musketees  and toced the bulings to ush out te inhabtants Seveal unded Indians died in the attack; as many as one ousan ie in Ket's Wa he Nagansetts got a taste of he euots' mecne dung Kng Pips Wa. Haborng egees fom oher tbes, te Naagansetts had, n Englsh eyes, agned emselves with the ant-Engls confedeaon led by Metacomet In Decembe 75,  an Englis amy assaulted and buned e aragansett vilage n te Geat Swamp Fgt n Rhode Islan, kng undres of peope hey so estoyed a backsmts fogete Na agansetts wee by ths tme epang te own gns Even the Frenc, noted fo ter eatively amcble relaons w In an  peoples bured Ioquos vllages n e late seventeenth century and  launced campaigs of  genocal tent agast Fo, Natchez and Cck  asaw communies n te ealy egteent centuy n istoan Ian K. Steele's  words, Indians "leared te ad way tat hey must defen noting,  not

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even a stockaded selemen or coneds." Oy by guera wafae could hey fend o Europea campags Gus ecame iceasigly val  conlcs with oher Idias Ecoom icay movaed warfare, o secure ade ad to oba eams ad metl  weapons suplemented ad someimes replaced adoal reasos for gog o war wh ohe tries. The arms rce rased erba hoses o ew levels o tesy which combied wt deadly ew diseases to devas ate dan popuaions Captve aking was a traditoal ar of the culure of  wa n many Ida socetes, ad Iroquois waors egulaly bought ca ives back o ther vilages o ua toture or for adoton to he commu y n eite case assuagng he gie o relaves who had os oved oes Now Iroquos warors wen to war bot o acquire capives ad to maa access to huing grounds In 1649 roquois war aries smashed the con edeacy o he Huo ade ivas layig wase o uoia ad adopg many svos n subseque yeas, the oquos overa he eghborg Peus euas, and Eries By he 1660s hey wee ghg nda eoes om e St Lawrece to Virgna om ew Egad o he rea Lakes Access to eams gave Idias an advaage over less well amed egh ors u  he shig world o erial nd interehnic trade ad dipo macy such a advantage oe oved shot-ved. Weso Idias n the Carolinas oaed gus om Vrgnia ad Souh Carola by he 167s ad ued hem on e Yamassees Ceeks Cheokees, Caawbas ad Cusbos akig captves o se o Engsh slave ades, who pad for them wh gus  68 wa boke ou between e Engsh coloists ad e Wesos he Englsh ow iceased teir arms trade to oher Idas who sezed the oportunity o hel deeat te Westos he aval of uoeans somemes asomed capve kng o save adg De Soto's coustados bought aog o chas ad huma collars o ik Idias nto huma baggage ains durig the vaso of he Southeast. Spaish slavig exedos raded to eas as ealy as the 156s, adjua de Oate seenced the adul maes of Acoma o savey after te Saiads recaued te mesaop city  1599 he Egsh sod  dans no slavey n the West dies ate e Pequot War ad Kg Philps Wa. Idan peoples, deseae for metl weaos ad reams someimes  wen to war to ake captves whom hey could he baer as saves Idas ded deep o te souhe eio fo saves o trade o he Eglsh at Chaleson. Choctaws Chckasaws and othe es egaged  save rds

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A Huron wa equiped f rzed d

desv cc  e ealy seeteeh cetuy. (From a map by Samuel de Chmplain. Datt oll g  Libr ary)

Fench depiction of an Iroquois wai eed wit adioal wa cb, see axe and mske o Wafae in e eghee cenry. (Natiol Archives f Cnd, -3165)

on both ans of the lower Mississippi i he late seventeenh and early eghteenth ceuies. Hudeds o peope, capured i al cashes ad dragged eas were shipped ou o Chaleston to a rie lvg death on  plaatoss  he West Indes In 704, Cooel James Mooe of Soh  plaato Carolna ed a jo Idan-English assal on northen Florda They de sroyed oueen Spash msso ows and ook as slaves one housand me women ad children In he Souhwes, the Spaish minng minn g ronte needed slave labo and prompted Inda rads fo captves: Oes codced extensive rads agins negborg peopes; Apaches ad Comanches ook memes o oer bes o barer  New Meco for hoses ad mea  weapos Spanads shpped Apache war capes o slave  CubaI CubaI he Norheas ad the Gea Laks egonIndans egonIndans sought captves o ade o he ech n he plains, Pawnee Indas were taken capive and sold so oe hat "as "as  ecame synoymou synoymouss with slave slave n rench coones coones Schooled n 01� Word actcs and conceps of batleeld hoo, Euro  peans ooked with coemp on the Indans' Indans ' "skug "sk ug way of o f w bt they soon leaed to ear t and evenay emuaed  Indans marsmansp ofen poved to e supeor o tha o their Eglsh adversaes he Eglsh colonstss clg to matcocks ad shootg n formaton as  pactced o colonst European baleeds o as eheased on vage greens dug mlia ain g, bu Ida warors, accusomed o akng am a a sngle hum o aima er than aying dow a arrage of re, qicly recogized he supeor of nock mskes fo accuae shoong Indian wa paries moved sehiy, aacked w speed and erocity, ad the meled away o he foress n e wods of a rench ocer hey "approach ike foes ght  lke ions ad disappear lke irds New Engad cooniss n 1665 accused he Indans o acing "moe ike woves tha men of "ghing  a secret skukg manne lyng  ambushment, amb ushment, ickes and swamps y the way sde ad so kling people  a ase and gnobe manne Ten yeas laer, howeve New Engd coonss esoed to sch actcs hemselves o de confederaton raton ed y Meacome Capan Benjam Chuch fea te Indian confede in paclar employed Indan accs d Indan aes agans ndan en emes Chuch had ed mong the dinsand dinsand he pu what he had leaed o good seHe seHe odered hs men o folow he Indan custom o Mach thn and scaer ae han plod though he foest in colmns He tagh them o avod lghtng res o ea om shooing in volleys, ad to "ceep  on he bees and ge as close as possile o he enemy beoe aing am

102

NEW ORLDS FOR A

In Augst 66 Curch's men tracked Metacomet and shot m own in a  resumably "n a base an gnobe mner. Te Puritan mssonay swamp resumably swamp Jo Eo reected on te transfomaton in Engsh tactics since te Pequo W: n our r war with e nians Go peased to sow us te vaiy of our mtay sk,  managing our ams afer he Euopean moe. Now we are glad t earn e skulkg way of w . what Go's end is i eacing us suc a way of scilie  now o. Wen e Yamssee War broke out in Sou Carolia in 1715, cooial accs The nans autoties here feared they a o answer to nian accsThe seemed capable of aidg Engls settlemens a w a  w "Lng cung n the Buses and Swams at we ow not were to n em or coul folow them i we  So hat we may as well go o War wt Wolfs an Bears. As esewere e cooniss aplie Europe actics of mass escon and economc warfare were ossbe, ndian-style gea warfare where necessa,  use ndian allies were avabe Tey also oerated on te assumton, new to Norh Amerca, ha wars shou sop oly afer he eemy wa eemy  wass entrely defeaed de feaed nian warrors generaly et u after scoring a  vctoy; Europeans in sustine campaigs rove te ndians back to teir merca ceaed o be be a  vlages ad desroye eir omes. Wafare i North merca seasona acvty fougt for mted objecives. More ofen it became a series of sysematc operons unt he job was nise. t  wod be wong o tink of ferociy i war as a European imot. Archaeologic evdece suggests ta wafae was bo commonpace and brta ong before Europeans arved nans evideny klled nocomba ants on occason an, ke eir European counterats indlge in tu torresElaborate torres Elaborate ruas aready surrounded scapig wen Europeans rst recorded t. Coecting war ropiesin some ctures the heads or the ea of he vanquised enemywas common esewere  he worl, and o mny ndn peopes i ad motnt spirtua signcance. Europeans in stuonalzed t by oeng scap boutes for e air of men women a cldren, and e actice sread across muc of Norh Ameica Cooal soie fe scals as reaily as d dan waors By te eighteeh century scping was one equay by ndans a Euroeans  Norh Amerca. Dung the Revoluton, George Rogers Cark accused hs Bts val Goveor Heny Hamon of etro of buyng scalps, b he mself lfted har a he siege of Vicennes in 9 Cark omahawke and sced sever ndian risoners in  sgt of te garison and e tossed eir

WARFARE AND WAR

03

bodies no he rver. In the lae eghteenth centu, Spaniards oeed eed bountes on pas of Apace eas ndian and Eropean foms of wafae meged n oher was Coonia egstues requied sppies o moccasns for their soldies becase "h out ndan soes they can't peom tei duy Fenc sodies nvaded roqois count n the dead o winter using ndan snowsoes Solders learned to e tei weapons in new postions yng pone and om foest cover ather than in a rak of comdes European equipment was Ame icanzed to sit te terain in wic t was to be used Sodies moded o dscaded armor and noms. Heavy weapons and swods gave way to ighter and moe pacical muskets and hatchets One doesn't wea a sword in his county, wote La Salle as t is an enomos encumbrance wen wng n he woods nd useess aganst e hatchets nomaly caried here. An ndian he sad, coud bu his atchet n an enemys sull fom trty paces. Indians enlsted as alies o Eopeans from almost te eaiest concts in Nort Ameica When Spanads nvaded New Mexico in the steent centu, they defeated e Pebo Indians in sieges nd pitched battes. Bt Diego de Vagas ected Peblo allies to compete is econqest of New Mexco ae e Pueblo Revot o 68, and in te egteent centy Pebos and Spaads ougt sde by side against Apace Comance Ute and Navajo enemes The Spnish gaison at Tcson incuded thee com panes o Opata Indans n he h e second hal o te egteent egt eent centr Noth ern Pma Indans, who revoted aganst Spanish colonial ule n 175, patci  pated n Spash expeditons agins te Apaces n 779 The Spanads cme to rey on Pimas and Papagos fo assistance against te Apaches; e Pimas and the Papagos in tun acqired drect experence o the Spanis amy mita orgaizaion and tactics, poducing wat some scolars have seen as a notable Eopean milirizaion of Noern Piman culte As Fance and England batted or hegemony in Nort Ameca in te eighteenh cen hey eac employed ndan scots and aies England employed Mohaws, Moegans and Maicans in its was on the nothen ones ndans somemes comosed as muc as one sevent o even a qarte of New England coonal ames ench oces and agents sang te  wa song and ecued alies n ndian villages om he St Lawrence Valey, he Great Laes, te Ohio and the Msssspp Battlng to save France's cumbing Nort Amercn empie n te 70s te marquis de

104

NEW WORLDS F AL

Montcm couted i his amy Algos, Huros Npssgs Abeais Penobscots Maliseets Ottawas Chippewas Meomees, Mississaugas, Poawatomis Delawares Shawnees, Saus Foxes, and Iroquois rom var ous tes. The Frech depeded on hem: "It is ecessa, wroe Mo cam's ide-de-camp Los Atoie de Bougvle, to inform them of  the pas, the  pas, to const wh hem and ofte to folow what they propose. I the midst o he woods o Ameica oe can o more do wthou hem tha  without cavalr i open count. co unt. ndian tribes i tu sough European allies  her stggles agas other Europeas ad other Idias. Mny of the soced Idia wars i a d white ealy Ameca were not cearcut conics bewee Indan warors ad soders ad setters; they ptched Idias and colonsts agast oher I da ad cooniss More tha simpy wars for empre he AngloFrench concs ecame occasios for iterethic intertal and intecooa vo intecooa  vo ence he ndas who ough i the Seven Years War (17563)  partici  pated  what was esseially the rs wold war ther eors matered i a cotest tha was lso eig waged  nda Aica urope ad the West Ides ad teir lives were aeced by the outcomes o attes o the other side o the globe Europeans pad Europeans  pad their Indn a aes, es, provded hem gus ad ammuio ad  lso oered hem the opporuy o strie peopes wh whom hey  we�ee  rea  we�  ready dy at wa war.r. Enstg a sodiers in cooi armes oered escape om a wod tha was flg apart and income i tmes o wrechg dsp Rchard Johso explains ton of Idia economes Moreover, as hisoia RchardJohso it  was a way to cotue being India: uli whling, domestic seice or  noher subordiate role  the coloa economy,  allowed young me to ea heir mahood in traditona ways frowed upon by a suroudig  white societ For simiar reasons Pas ad Apache Idias in the ae nineeeh cetury seved te Unitd States as scouts es ad Idan  police. The cost was hgh. Idia men died  arge umers in atte or  dsease-ridde camps. A cesus o the Chrstia Inda tow of Naick, Massachusetts 749 a ye after Kg Georges War, showed tha one h o te women were wdows. Natc suered rher losses  the Seve Yeas Wa: he tow had twenty-ve famies i 75; e years laer, oly hiryseve Idas remaied Many men died on campag; "oters re ed home ad brought coagious sckess with tem wrote Sephen

WARFARE AND WAR

105

In i609, Samuel de Champlai ad to Frch mkteer g from cov hoot down Iroquois  waror w ave ormd rak to  rzed wa  ae , compelg e Ioqo to deveop e ay of . (From T V    1a g   of Saul d Champlin, 163. Datmouth Coege Libay)

Oe dred ory-x ear ar, da wao ad er Fr le r om oe to te a o Geera Edward Braddok's Brit e� lg a dfa tat paed  eed for Ero pe roops to adopt "dia tccs  Nort Aeca coic Stt Iisicl y oWn ntiv WHi [X.] 29984

Badger, the town's ministe It spread vey fast and cared o some whole fmies." The Indian tow o Mashpee on Cape od, suered simiar osses Wounded nd sick ndan veterans often had to se and n orde to make ends meet and pay medca bs Indins and Euopes who fought aongsde each othe as we as agaist each oter connuy rened e sateges to de wth ther enemes ways of w. Euopeans showed Indins that suvv depended on secuing and using guns; Indians tught Europeans that sccess n Amercan wafare demanded adapting to the Amercan environment The esut, n hstoian an Steees apt phrase, was a consing medey of egua ad gea warfare. In 5, Gene Edward Bddoc ed an army o Btish redcoats t a stnng defeat on the Mononghea Rive n Oho at the hands of a force of 72 French reguars 146 Canadian mita, and moe th 00 In dans, ed y Danie de Beaujeu, who appeny went nto bate, and to his death bare-chested and n ucskns ke his Indin aes Codng wth e enemy, the Bitish regas stood and attempted to ght whie Indian warrios conceaein  forest poued deady re nto thei s Bad dock was kied and his amy outed. After the atte an roquos che the Oneda Scarouady, aid the bame for the disaster squarey on Bddocks shoders The Brtish commande had resed to sten to eason and to ght Indistye. We often endeavored to adse hm, and to te him of e dger he was in wth hs sodiers Scarouady sad, but Braddock was arogant ad treated his Indian aies wt contempt hey eft hm t his te. Braddocks defeat convnced enera John orbes that  te Bitsh wee to prev in a war o empe waged in Ameca, we must compy and ea the Art of Wa, om Enemy Indians The ate of Lake Geoge, fought tat same year eween Si Wiam ohnson, coonia mitia, and Mohaw aies on one side, and Baon Die skaus rench amy and Indan ies on e oer and i whch the Mohawk chef Hendic died, ustted the minging of reguar and irreguar wfae that conict in Indian country poduced. Steee points out the my roes of te stuaton: A one trader and adopted Mohaw che, who had absoutey no convenona mitary experience strugged to conduct his campaign ie a reguar ocer A European-trained ench genera, in North  America for ony hee monhs, adopted Amendian ambush techniques success y A vetean Mohawk wior was among fory who ded aer faing to scout adequatey Ameic vounteers and Mohaws deended a

WARFARE AND A

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makesht breastwork against atack by bayonet weldig Fec regulars, rate ha scatteg to gh a gela wa i the woods."  The fa o ort Wilam He, at e souhe p o Lake George  1757 n he msacre o t garison by ance's Indan aes reveae emag dstinctons n e ate o warfare as pracced by Eopean ocers d ia wros. he captaon s volaed an a Eope w obige s to jst orelves, wrote Bougnille I me wa for  pluner scaps, an psoers expaed oe waror o the rench You ae satse wth a fot, an yo et yor enemy a me lve. Indas wo fog n te Seve Yeas' Wa got a tase of uropea-sye cocts whee artlery poded foe postios an dscpled egu as care the dayAe Brdoc's ou i 1755 e agedy at ort Wlam Heny, a James Abercombys scd assal o ort icon eoga  158 Bta manage to tr the te o e w. Moe and moe Bs egas wee dspatched to te orests of No Amerca" wa s estblshe hee o he Eropean bass wroe ogave  58 ae he sege a sagte a coeogaProects or e campg, or ames, fo aey fo seges, fo battlesIt s no longe a matte o mag a ad bt of coqeg o beg coueed. What a evotio!What a chage! Brtsh coy was ay secred by covenonal measamy efeatg army, layig sege to ctes, an captrng ey strategic objecves Nevertheless, Bris oces n soes lso adape to foest ghtng, o avo he repetion o Bradocklke isasters, a operate more eec tvey as lgh t he a of Wa is much chnge an mproved ere,  wrote oe oce i 758. Te Hghlaes ave pu o breeches. Swors n sashes ae degre n may ave ake up e Hatchet and  wea omaaws Capabe ommnders eare ow o campag  Nor Amercan forests he Bts develope moe ecen rsporton nd suppy serices, estblshe chas of ote fos, ad empoye lgh atr ae to ght  backwoos wafae Speclze rage com  paes, ke that fome by Robert Roges of New Hmpshire during he Seve Yeas' War copoe Ian tctcs n ther ghg ad Ia eemet  he cothing. hroghot the st  af of the egee cen ty Abeak Inas, le it te ech in aaa had ep Egish soers a setes a bay n Veo an New Hampshire ng te oter settemets a te slippg away throg eavly wooe tea to ther home vages  e Noh. ngls mitia compaies pursed them  wth eet success I 1759, owever, Rogers Ranges suck deep to 0 NEW WORLDS FOR ALL

Ahenaki counry and burned he viage of Odana or S Fancis on he souh side of e S. Lawence, even though he eavy casuaties ssined on he reeat home rendeed hs a pyrhic vicoy for Rogers Ragers Indan lles, lgh nfany, boamen, d foresers smoohed he way across foes errain enablng Britis egas o conon and defeat the eney in moe Euopean-syle conicssuch as occued when Gener James Wofe red hs ey on te ciy of Qebec and defeaed Moncalm on he Plains of Abraham. Te Bsh capure of Qebec n i759 and Montreal n 60 competed he defea of he French To defea ndan people who wod not sand and ght ropeas consiseny  burned heir cops ad vilges The Frenc buned roquois ows, corneds ad orchads severl imes n he lae seveneenh centry In he 73s, ey and her Indian aies aunched campaigns of annhiaion agins Fox vages in Wisconsn ad llnos Tey empoyed octaw llies to desroy Chickasaw owns and cops n Missssippi In he egheenh century, uropean pofessiona soldiers waged wars ove terroy and impe ial successios b n this "age of eason nd pehaps n eacton to the  boodengs of he previous century, hey were spposed o act wih e sain oward civilian popaons on he uopean connen Those san dards of agng w dd not apply, however when e enemy wee un civilzed peopes sch as Hghand Scots or ndians Brish oops invaded Cheroee couy n 760-61  wh oders o "desroy evey ose eve coed, every ocard, and evey vegeble po. ndans leaned o pul  bac in he face of such invsions gvng up he elds and vlages rathe han osing warrors in a sdch defense d arassng e enemy as ey reteaed Bu he loss of food nd homes ws often devastang Coon mliia' earned e essons o Noh Amercan foret wfae  beer han he Brish army, even hogh Bis oops n he egheenh ceny aso had experence of guerila wars n Scotad and Fanders uropean professionl sodies generaly too he eadng roe in ghing he enemys regua oops eavng colonia milmen ad nan aies o bae he enemys mia and ndian ales and coonists wee moe ey o experence and adop e Indias way of ghng. Bish eguas in ort Ameica woe hei regimenal uniforms designed o keep up moale and o seve miry purposes on he baleeds of urope bt whc made them easy arges for enemy marksmen ooa roops often wore a mxure of ndin ad uropean clong and accouremens. Bish aemps o govern and nance e empie hey had won from the WARFAE AND WA

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French in 1763, and to restct the movement of settlers on o Indian ands, aeated may colosts-especaly hose ike George Wasington, wo ad sbstantial investments  westen lands. Wen te Ameican coonies revolted aganst he Btish Empire in 775, many Indans tied to eman neutl, bt they were drawn nevaby o e conct Geoge Mogan Amecan Indian agen at ot Pitt, said, "They ave long been aught by contendng Natons to be bougt & sold Most ribes sded wt the Crown as thei best ope of proectig ther lands bt some-Oneidas uscaroras Catawbas, and Stocbidgessuppoted the Ameicans. The Britsh and her Indian aies aded Amercan rone setlements drng the Rvoluion, as he Fench and thei Indan ales ad raded New ngland settlements  pevious coicts. For the pat, te Amercans apped weted Euopean tactcs of oal waae n ging Indians during the Revoion, and ey appied Amecan ways of war, deveoped ove generatons of ghng Indians aganst Bitsh edcoat American amies bued Ceokee and Ioquois villages late n e season, when the corn was eiter aeady harvesd or· ry in the elds and higly ammabe Wen Geneal Jon Sulivan invaded rouos count n 9, hs amy b\rned  oty towns and spent whoe days destong conelds and orchads. Wh no ime to ase new crops, the Indias faced saaton n te comng wine. According o mlry istoan ohn elg, by te tme of he Revolu tion he cooniss saw temselves as a ybd o te Eopean and e Amercan, and they asioned their cuure and te conduc of war accord ngl George Wasngton lost more pitched batles han he won, but he employed tandrun tactcs n wearing down a speo enemy oce American rie companes oug n hunting ss and moccasns, wieded hatches, and red rom cove into Btish anks As ames Axe obseves, beaing te Bis wod have been vraly mpossbe withot sratagems and equpment gained om the ndans In some ways he Amercan  vctoy n te Revotion stemmed rom te essons ey ad leaned n pas Indan was and om te sense of n men rom deent coones had developed n ghtig common Indan enemes The devasang losses they suered, of bo and and peope, prompted Indans to oge multtribal resstance movements n the lae eghteenth centuy. In 763 the tribes o he Great Lakes and the Oo Valley unted aganst te Bris in a wa tat became nown as Pontac's Rvot, fo e Ottawa wa ce wo played a pomnent role Ae e Rvouon, con

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NEW WORLDS FOR AL

oned wth Amercan claims ta the Idias of he Old Norhwes had fofeted ei lands o te Unted Sates by rght of conquest, Mohawk Josep Brt the Mam chef Lttle Turte te Shawnee Bue Jacet, and other ria leades pached ogethe a cofedeacy that held Amercan ex  panson in cec for amos a decade gtg to restore the Oo Rive as te barre o settemet. The Ameicas demostated that tey ad no ly eanedthe lessos of Baddoc's defeat In 179, orwese Indans ambushed an amy led y Geeral Athur St Clar, ad hey iniced a crshng defea ad ne hdred casates It too the nited Sates tee  years to buid a new army Genea Atony Waye taed his me i he hash ealites of Idan gtng, advaced into India county usng scos ad aners, and hrew p defensve works at every camp The Indans caed hm the "geeral wo eve sleeps Meanwe gowig divisos  pagued e dia confederacy  Augus 4 as Wayne approached the wariors began her ritual peparatons for battle, fasig  antcpaton of e g B Waye dd o attack ad may Indas dispered in seach of food The Waye attcked O the advace of dsciplined legions taied t gh an Idi wa yet empoyng a Euopea-tyle bayoet chage agas an dia foce aeady weaened by inteal disuy ad al ose  vances, hung he outcme of e war for Ohio Wayes victoy was decsive. A his wfae had far-reachig eecs o the Idia socieies caugt up  i ndans compaed her postio betwee coendg powes to eig rapped etween te lades of a pa of scssors, whch cut wha ay bewee hem as hey cosed bu dd no damage to each ohe. Vages were red, cops rued and peopl� wet hungy Was dsrpted acie cyces of  plantg arestng, shg, ng ad gatheg Lke cooa mlitas and une Britsh regars, Idia males wee part-ime wariors Me wo were away at war cod no cea eds o patng, hn fo mea, o proec he famiies agais eemy aids. n mos woodad Idia socees wa cefs raditonaly ad tempoa and med ahoity, defeg n oma crcumsances o the wise couse of older cv o vage chiefs B in the new word of waare tat engufed oth Ameica wa chefs ose  promi ece Eropea alies bolstered tei pesige wih medas ad sppes of eams, epecing hem i re o rlly te warros for he kings campagns Generatons of Inda peope gew p  a wold wee warfae was edemic and i commies that existed o a wa foong Warfae aso ecame edemc in areas dstat fom face-o-face cotac

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wth European soldiers, as Indian peopes fet the mpact of uropean inu ences in how and why tey wen to wr. On te Great Pains bances of  power shifted around the possession of guns nd he acqusiton of hoses Aer he Spnards inoduced hem into the Southwes n the sxteent cenury hoses spead rapdly noth and easward aong outes of ading and raiding, passing hrough the Rocky Mountas, over the pains and no Canada y the early eighteent cenury. uns eneed the egon v French and British traders om te noth nd eas. Both transfomed te wafare of Plans ndans and helped tu the Pns into a caudon of conc Some ndians adopted the Spnish practice of coveg heir mouns wit armor usig ayes of hide ut amor resticted mobily and was soon abdoned. The Spansh arv in he Southwest dsrpted intert reationships thus elig competiton and intensig patterns of conic he new goods livestock and horses they brought o e Pueos made those com muniies nving targe for Apache and Navjo ides who now mouned on horseack coud crry o more plunder han eve efore n la beh A H. Joh's wods he Apaches n te seventeenth century "were catching a sing tde-evoutonzng ther lves wh horses and mel, expanding their nge and powes scorng against od enemes and new rivas on evey side scalang Apache rds heped precpite he great Puebo Revo of 1680, when n an unprecedented display of united and synchronzed acon he Pueblos drove the Spanads out of her homed for a dozen year he various Apache tibes held undsputed swy on the southe pans n he eary prt of the eghteenh century Mounted on horses and using Spanishsye ances, Apaches pushed Pueos westwd and Indan farmes on the wese trutaries of he Msssspp easward But Comanche nd a, migating south and ou of e Cooado mounans swep te Apaches om he plains. Spansh auhoites ted o keep gns ou of Apache hands but Comances obtained weapons from French tades va Osage and Wichita intemediaries By the time of te Amercan Revoluton Comanche bnds domnated an aea om as o the Nebrask bode and om the Rocky Mountains n the west to the ands of te Pawnees and Osages  he east. he Apaches found hemseves shoved father south no deset and mounain regions of Azona and New Mexco, nd ino inceasing coict with he norte ontier of New Spn. On he norte plans the Shoshones perence n te eghteenth

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NEW WORLDS FOR AL

cent illustrtes te uctaing and precaros baance of power as horses and guns arived. The easter Shoshones or Snaes who lved in souter Idaho and  wester Wyomg, had horses by abou 1700, havng obained them in rde om Ue and Comche relives arthe souh The Sho sones enjoyed a distinct edge ove moned neghbors and hey pshed o on o a hge area of he orthwesen plains  od Cee ndian named Sauk ppee who ived wt he Backeet tod r trde David Thomp son how Shoshoe cavary had changed wae on the noher pans n hs leime Recling a bale ha ook place whe he was a boy, some ime beore 1730 Saumappee descrbed how moned Shoshone ad Blac ee warrios lied p in r behind arge awhide shelds and sho arows unl nightal p n end o he skmish Horses and gns nshed hs kd o ware fo good. The Blaceet soo encouneed a ew weapo  whe Shoshone cavaly swingg hea wa clbs ode down on hem "a swi as te deer" iing many o er bes men B he Shoshones cod no  peserve heir eqesrian advtage and he Baceet had horses by he second quarter of he cenury Soo ater, he Backee began o oba gns, rst om Cree ad Assiniboine ndans o heir eas ad en diecty om Fech and Btish tders who bu posts o the Saskachewan Rve The ables were ted The Blackee gunned dow he Shoshones n thei ex encounter and then proceeded o eep he rade  earms o of Shoshone cunry When he Ameic eplorers Lews and Cak headed wes in 184-5 hey found he Shoshoes hddled in he oohis of the Rocies, fearl o Backfeet eemies Tey  wecomed te Amercans as a new sorce o trade ad eams, ad a ew cyce of war bega on he nother pais. Meanwle Sioux ndas, edged out o her Minnesot homelads by gting Obwas o Chippewas, ad arcted by te hore ad bao culture hat was deveoping o he pas, bega o move wes. Eventy, they  would esablsh hemselves as he domin power o he noter and centa pans pushing asde ess  powe tbes By the ime e Ued Sttes began to make s pesece elt o he pas, he wod here was vey dieet om what  had been  1600 Hoses ad gs had ceaed ew easos or going o w d generated new ways o wgig  wa Pains ndi raded capves, rs and horses or gns powde lead and seel edged weapons. The moued ad armed ndan wor of popa sereo pe ws a poduc o e new wod ceaed on the pas by uopean invasion o Ameica The oslg or posion hat occred n he egheenh

WARFRE ND 

11,

cenury lso brogh to the plais ew eoples who woud he defed te regon rom Amecn lecomers In  world o competo, Ps Id socees lced emendos mportnce o wre. Success  w ecme he th o sus or yog men nd  wrro cµe, n whch young men pyed fo vsos d voked scred powe s hey ode to tte ece ged n mny socees Amerc soldes sen o e ns fe 1850 cooned wo socees  hd emerged n resonse o he evoluory mpct o orses nd guns here The US Army hd o cnce o deetng moble wrros  he ow ge Insed e he coo foebes they resorted to o  wr brekg e essce nd deedence o the ns Indns hey systemcy sugered lo erds buned Idn vllges   wteme nd lled ony eds wheever possbe Immobzed wrors w srvng fmes dfed n om the froze ps o e on the esevons The perence of he ery Idn ws e ts mp on Amecn socey n mny wys We n Amerc ws sgcty derent from ht prcted  Erope  the me nd te ew wys of gg cob ued n some mesre  les o the wnng o Amec ndeendence. he Idn wrs so le n edrg mpresso  he mnds o Amercns s t he crcer o Indn eope Wr becme so common n Id coy, ws gs Ids such  ecuren ee o ely Amecn hsoy ht  ws esy o ssume ht dns were wrle y re d herefoe mered etmen s "svges The Id  ws lso some would s le  more snser m on Amec cte:  non bt o coqes could o escpe he egcy o ts volet s .

14

NEW WORLDS FOR ALL

Si

New World Diplomacy and New Wold Foeign Poces

CoNTATS BETWE DIANS and Europens ofen took the orm o  olen cononaons  wic the only dialoge was the um of ows and he cras o gune. Yet om er rs meeings Inins and Eopens so e o clvate plomatic relions an eac nesndngs ht oded boodhs. Even s Heando de Soo c his booy swah across e Southeas, e pursued his goals hrogh dipomacy s well s bche Te Eropean nsion of Nor Ameic and sbseqen ivales eween Erope powers or tral es  connenal egemony changed forever he dplomac lndscpe. nian peoples had to eveop a ange o foeign  poicy responses  hey were o survive in nceasngly peios mes ndan leaders fon i expeen o work wih as well s gans Europeans Some ibes suved, and even pspered in he new word o mpeal vaes y  playing one European power o agaist noher Some nns n some Europeans fasioned mpo new oles fo hemseves s nermeies. The diplomacy o eay Amerc ofen nvolved Inn ches werng uni orm coas and medas given o them by Eopean lies, negoaig wi Eropean emissaies wo smoed e cume an spoe on wampum bels  while mxe-bloo or oher bclal ndiials rnse er words Polia and dplomac ecisions resed moe nd moe n Euopen hansnd  Eropen an coloni capisu acng on suc eci sions in ndin cony reqire sll maevering n  nowledge o loc polics nd poicans Europens h o adjust e impei ambi ions o he reies o opeang n Indan conry and the act hat Indians cntroled mos o he connen. Europeans core Inn cies nd

115

adoptd th protocols of Naiv dpomacy vn as hy dstubd tona  poic arangmnts. Witng o hs succsso as govrno of Nw Mxco n 754, Don Toms Vez Capucin ouind h nd o saion tha rqurd Euopan pows to cvat Indan allancs and pay anton to ndian dpomacy T condion o ths govrnmn and ts cicumsancs, du to its oganiaton and th dvrsy o th natons wc suound t must  b uld mo w  slll masurs and polics o pac than thos wc povok incdns o w"  wo. T nomadc Comancs Uts and Apacs wr fomda fos, and h small forcs wc ts  povc has woud  crusd y rbs of r s  y conspid against ." Th was no an ndan naon n t rgon n whch a nd  wod dos no hav mo ct tan h xcuton o  swod" maintand Vel who ad tid o appoachs. On  matt of h  s  way to cv vsng Comanc cifs h advsd: Sit down w m d command tobacco o thm so ta hy may smok as s r custom . . . Sow m vry ma of rindshp,  whout mployng hras"  advocad.  av don so and hav n al o wn th ov y pofss for m" Lsthis succssor undrstma t nd o mas ndan ipomcy Ve mndd him a Spa acd th armd forcs to rsst Comanc attacs and at  Fnc wr compng for Comanch llgianc f is rb shoud cang s da and dca war you gac may ar  complt u of his govrnmn." Vel folowd is own advic Whn h bcm govrnor a scond m in 62 h found th Comanchs on h nk o wa wit Nw Mco H qucky dispatchd six Comanc womn captivs as missas nvig h Co manchs to com o Sana F for pac taks. Whn h Comanch dlga ton arivd a month ar ty wr armd wh guns powdr, and sho obind om t nch Vel rsablisd pac and snt thm away  w-d nd loadd wh psn som cong y stmd, adorn mns, and unls o tobacco so a, n th councls of  chfs  pincipal mn d ldrs, y igt smo and consdr wll th rsolu ton in rgad to my puposs." T conus of Amca s on porayd a a simpl soy o racal conict n wc wh nvads foug and dfad h nias. That convys h broad outns of what happnd but oscurs and distors hstorica iy Europa invadrs ntrd a wod in whch various ndi groups pusud dnt forign pocs w gard to oh ndi inds

11

NEW WORLDS FOR AL

and eemes.Europe therefore found a ready suply of Indian alies as  we as ndian eees; had they not doe so, he soy of coict from Corez to Custer, woud have been very dereBy the same oken, arrang ing alaces t one Indian natio ofen eaed te suscon or even te open hosty o others, who had ther own reasons for emity oward tha ao nteational and inercooia rivres added o and complicaed interrba rvaesuring Norh Ameica nto a kaedoscope of compe g, overlappingand chagng foreig polces Fronter dipomay n eay America voved negotiations beteen tibes and colonies ther th smpy beteen ndians and whies Ech dia trbe pursued is own se of reatos i oher ndian tbes wih one or more uropean owers and wth oe or more of te iddual colones  whch were hemseves dded as oe as uied.Just as uroeans played  varous ndan ribes aganst one another, so roquois, Creeks, Choctaws and oters mipatd l Europea powes and even rival coones of he same nation Capble Indian leaders ike Powhatan and Massasot of the Wampaoags lvaed reaos ith early Engish selers o he East Coas  par as otenal aies aganst Indian enemies o he westan eaders raveled to European captls, accepted European aget tades and mssionaes held ou he promse o ma support, and shfted ground as necessary, a in an eor o secre constan suppes o tade goods and occasona miay aid whe a te same me reserg their ndeendece I a word of ncreaing wafare, he on-agin o-agan eurlty of certan tbes ustated European allies and eemes but he Indans were marchng to ther ow dummer not o a distant moarch's In i684, an roquos chef assured the Engsh tha "Wee have u our selves under he grea Sachim Chales [] that ives over the grea ke, bu i amos the same breath he decaed, "We are a ee peope uing ourseves to  what sachem we ease An Abenki chief, speking before bot the Frech nd he Engh  52 declared "We are ales of the king of France..We love and we are srongly aached to hs ineress However, he assetd the Abekis were "etirely free and he made t cear hey ntended o rema so Success and surva  this dangerous ew world reuired iovave and s dplomay by a parcpans he he Frech mde allaces th e Montagnas Algoand oter tbes of the StLawrence Valley in the

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ealy seenteeh cetuy, hey laid e bass for adg connectons  wit Ida peoples as fa away as he Otawas ad te uros. I tme the Fech cosucted eir New Wold empie ased on a nework o llances  with dia rbes from e mo of the St. Lawence o e mot of the Msssspp As Rcad Wte has show i is pize-wig ook, The Midl Gound, eepg such aiaces tc, amd he cenigal pressues of cutral msudestadgs, colctg nterests, ad shtg bases of  powe, mean no oy costa aenton bt wllgess to compomise ad edess egotao.  her eots to bld  workae eatoshps, Indas ad Fechmen ogeer ceaed a complex ad dmic world at was ew to eeyoe. Bestowg gfts, medatg disputes, nd couselg modera to, the ec ed mpe Idia gops o hem i a precarous aiace. ndns employed dioal itas ad reciproca eatons to t Frech stngers ino real o metaphoricl speope referig to the enc as ther "fathers and "bothes. The rech caneed trde goods to dia lages a seleced chefs recogizing eir rdional role of re disug goods mog he  peope. e renc also eforced e uece of er cen chies ome cies deeloped ew roles as "aliance chefs  workig o mat the aiace that was also te souce of eir  powe Keepg he peace was o a easy as Wat, fo isance were ench ocals and dan ciefs to do ao mder? Fo Indans, denig the indvidual mderer was ofte less mpotant ta kowing e gop to  wch e beonged. f e mudee's peope wee lles, hen he  icm cold be "coered o ased y e rial of gving ad eceig gfs and smoothg oe the inciden. f he murdeer belonged to onlles, ow eer hs deed demanded egeance agas them Volece beween diid as coud ead to blood and can engeance The ec made a dieent dstction, beween mrde ad "egitmate ings in watme. Fidg a way of reconcilg such cual incongrties taxed e resiece of dins ad Euopes aike, bu both pessted since he aeate mght wel be a boodbath "e esu, cocldes Whe was a odd mperiasm where mediaton scceeded ad force ailed where coonizes gae gs to the coloized ad pararchal metphors were e heat of  pocs Te ery sccess of he Frech  estaishg and maintaining aiances  wh he  peoples of Caada ad he Gea Laes egio dermed 118

NEW WORLDS F A

teir abty to acheve such relatonshps wit the Ioquos bes of New York. The Ioquos had log-sandg ivaries  wh eghbors to he eas oh, ad west, wc Frech presece ad competio for he r trade aggavaed For mc o he seventeeth centuy, Fenc ad roqois e gged  a id of cold w  puctuated by open hostiliies ad mos ro quois sppoted the Egish coonies in the eay oud o Anglo-Fenc coicts Oher Eopeas conroted he same dlemma  dere tmes ad  placesJua Bautst de Aza, goveo of ew Mco rom 8 to 8 scored a major diplomaic coup whe he mde peace wh e Comances. n 77, supported by Pueblo lies, Aza attacked a Comche camp  southeaste Coorado and ked he wa chief Cueo Vede his vcoy ad the bass o te peace he negotated wih the omanche che Ec uercapa in 86  wich ed or a geeaton However, Aza had to pac tce some s dipomatic oowok o avod agoing he Ues and te icaila Apaces, enemes o te Comaches, who ooed w sspcon o  what ad happeed he dipomatc map of oh Ameica ws contuly changng Yeser day's eemie  s wee tomorows eds, and vice versa Ony hose eades ad peoples who chated care ad ar sighed couses could hope t suve The Five aios o he Iroquoisthe Mohaws, Oedas Oon dags, Cayugas, ad Seecswere united n a geat league of peace but by 700 they wee feelng he eecs of ecen wrfare. Tey had ost af o he  waos d bady eeded a peiod o recupetio oquos states men decided o a ew cose of acton ad aed a ew ea  Iroquois di  pomac Thogh the Frech wnted tem to rema at odds w he west ern tibes, and te glsh wated hem o remain a odd wit e Fec, the oqois succeeded  mkg peace wit everyoe, s securig thogh dipomacy wha tey had bee abe to w in  wa They st mde peace wh the wese tbes, whc ged them access to weste huntg teritoes: "Le ts peace be m ad astg roqois spoesmen sad to he fomer eemies, en we shll gow old ad gray-headed togete; else ye wa wil devour s both Then tey egotated eates  with he Fench d the Eish, infoing them ha hecefort the Iro quos woud emin el  oter peopes was, b trde wold stay ope Any inigemet o Iroquois eutray wold rs lieag the confedeacy sometng neher the rech o the Egsh cold aord t

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do. The for neutraty was not tty eectve: ectve: Mohaws someimes supported the Britsh in he east, and Senecas occasonally joined non Iroquois neigbors  the west in suppotng he Frenc Nevertheess he new  poy owed the roquos to pay te Frenc and e Engis against each other, ater ha being caught n ther cossre "o presere the Bace between us and te Frenc is te great ruing Principe o the Moder ndian Potics wrote one coonial obsee n 1750. Coon deegates recognzed e importance of retaing oquois frendship, ad Onondag fetured as sgnicanty as Wiamsbug Boston ad Quebec n the dpomay of eary Amerca oquois fotunes and roquos popuaon ebounded un the American Revouton spit the confederacy and pitted te aginst trbe. he roquos were not te oy peope to expot uropen mperi rvares he Creek confedecy-a oose coation of tows in Geogia and Abma-for a ong ime hed the baance o powe n e Soueast and  purued ad adtt dipoma to mintain that oe Bims, e Creek ce,  payed Spanards d Engsh against each other in e eary eighteenth century, mking sue that Eupeans ew the Cees were ndependent aies not sbect Ceek emissaries taveed as r as Mexico City to negoti ate wit Spanis ocis n 42 a Ceek headman decaed tat Creek nd "beonged to both the Bish and he French d to neither o them, meing that both had berty to Come there to ade. n the intenaona rivy that dominated the Souteast after te Amecn Revouon e Creek chief Aande McGay continued is pedecessors' poces, owng himsef to e courted by Spin Brtan, and te new United Stte8, but pestenty pursung Creek nterests. he Choctws of e ower Mississippi Vaey numbered bout twenty thousnd and occupied a· a· region of crc sategc signicance n the eighteenthcentury contest for empre Frenc Spanis, Engsh and  ny Americas a cast covetous eyes on ther ands and coured their support as the mao Nate power in te region. Cocaws ought ogsde the French n ther wars aganst the Natche and Chickasaws in the 30s and 40s, but the Choctw naton compsed approximatey fty tows n sever dstrcts; derent vages and even deent eent vage and ca chiefs sometmes pursued separae gs arious Coctaw groups clvd rea tops  with it h dierent Euopean powers, o tade nd support Europeans thought he Choctw opeessy dided nto actons but i a sense t was

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e Europeans who were being exploied, snce no naion dared cu he Cocaws o and-a naions fet tey ad some friends n Cocw counry. One Coctaw a warro named Red Soe, so successy success y exploied e dplomac mo created by te compeng ineress of te Brsh the French and he esblsed Cocaw ciefs, at e rose rapidy and some mes ruessy i  presige, ntl an assassin's dagge ended his caree n 1747. ew Indan peopes cod opeate fom a posion of power e way e Iroqos and Cocaws dd, b a ad to learn to suve in a new  word  were dealng wt whit men and e mpac of thei presence ws unavod abe y te mdegheent centry te Catwbas in Caoina ad declned o ess han fteen nded people, and te tre ooked blea as Indian enemes and colonal panes pessed ino Caawba cont Governor James en of Sou Carona feaed "e Tol desrcon of at poor Naion u e Catwbas svved thans argely o e ablty of Hagle, cef om 150 o 1]63, o sais e needs of s own  people we meeng own people te demands of eir coona neigbos Hagle raveed o coonl capitals, became sk in dealng wh coona and Cown ocls and managed to mantan amicable relaions w Virgnia and Noth and Souh Caroina Coonal ocias sowered him wi g and medls. However, e re maned rmy wedded to Nae radions and Caawba interess He spoke some Engs bu resed o do so in meengs wt wite ocias forcing He waked tem to negotiae n s angage He  waked a ne ine at requred nnova  nnova ton and decae anding of potenlly exposve statons n 4, for nsance a dnken young Caawba illed a colonists cild If Hagle were o etan s good sandng w hs coonia negbos, he wod ave o ecte the mrdeer. How cod he avod aienang e murderes ela ves and possbly spang a cyce of clan vengeance? Hagle made sue e ad he support of e Caawba conc nd ten e appoined a nsman of te murdere o carry ot e eecon By such def manevng Hagler avoded conct w e Engis (jsice was done) nd win Caawba socety (e whole rbe approved he executon. As James Mere noes ager baanced a rm atacment to tadtona natve csom wih a srewd ndersandng of te AngloAmecan coonl wod ndan eaders and ndan tbes often found tat hey ad o dea  wh sever Engs coonies, wc were no nied in teir ndian poicies· o n mc else. So he oquos psed sepaa latons w New Yor,

DIPLOMACY N FREIG PES

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Pennsylvania, Mayland and Virgna; Cerokees wh Sou Carolina Georgia, and Virgnia. In tha  ve complexty lay oppounes o ndan   leaders o cour coonil ocils ye keep hem at am's  lengt, to secue her good wil and their ade we avodng commimens to any one  powe B herei also ay te seeds of consion and misnesaning  powe Colonss  who were no always nie hemselves emanded ny rom the Indan bes w whom ey elt Tey adopte a "e me to yor  leader appoac and where he heyy oun no clear leaders ey eneavoe o reate hem hem Tey T ey constany expec expecte te spokesmen spokesmen o epesen epesen and ac for all heir people  ey e the woe be esponsie fo he acons of a  paricula group or vllage Suc pessures had signcant epecussons among Indian peoples Ceokee soce, o exmple, tadtionly com psed many separate an autonomous owns eac psuing ts own po ces However Engsh coonss eaties wich tey expecte to be binng on he whole Ceokee Naton case Cherokee potcl sctue se o change y te 1750s, poliicl auo was centrlized a te captal own of Co Co Moeove coonss coonss generay were mos neresed n maters relaing o w an trade and sough out te men as those esponsie as a res, e inuence of women in Cerokee polics and iplomacy seems o ave declined ndan peoples on nceasngy tha he elings wh Europeans evolved around qesions of lan Csan naons claimed e emp ands ey ond n Not Amerca as eis y rigt of isco iscovey vey nias cme o ea eae e tha in nteaonal iplomacy Eropeans asfered lans from one powe o anoer wo consng te Nave occpants of hose ands. Peace treaes negotiate by ipomas in the lls of Euopean capils rathe han arond Inia counci es she eory ack and forth ke chips a a gaming tae Abenas eaced n fur to news at heir Fench alies ha cee Aenai a o e Englis by te Teay of Uec  73 Bns nia aes wee thunderstrck o ea e ng ad graned heir las to he Unte Saes by e Peace o Pais n 783 But ndians were qck studies When Sir Wam Johnson an e Bsh Cown sogt to etend he line of setlement wesward n  n 76, he oquois oquois so em Shawnee an Ceokee hning terioes at the Treay o o Sanwix saisng te Btis whie verting settement om Iouos conry

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NEW WORLDS FOR ALL

Indians came to udersand ta gring lads to Euopeas woud be inteeted as cedng a rghs to those ads: Indan peope coud no longer pec  e able to u or plant ee Recogzing tha te European demd for and seemed sate Idan eaders sough ways to diver he ide of seemen if ey coud not l it, seling o ads o gai time and space fo er peope. Suc poces by oder chiefs o ageed younger arios, wo accused hem of beraying te be to te whtes e esut  was generatonal strgg strgges es win Indian Ind ian socieies Indan eades also ad o sep gingery  e new wod whee liace  wth Europeans was a economc necessity u cod prove to be a politca iy Cefs ceasgy found temselves avg o cto for wo constuencies, epresenng e peope's nteress to outsders and er les interests  ther peope Te coats commissios and medas an ndian cief oained fom is Euopean alles boseed is postion and sgnaled his ablty t acquie tade goods ad perhaps itay support for cheff s his people, but tey migh equay wel raise questons ou the che abiy to rema "is ow ma e itefeence of outsiders n creaing and sustang a cief redeed a eades power ase a te moe unstable Indan deegaes at teay meetgs wee ote ad-pessed to meet te demands of Eropean aes n disat captals ad ea e suppot of er ow people.

In 1633 a group of Wicomesse Indans kied thee cooiss and some cae he goveno of Maryand demanded hat e kers e aded over to te Engis for punishment, ut the ndas oeed eed to gve wampum n atoe men for te deed poting ou tha snce ta you ae eere stangers d come into our Coutrey you sould ater cofore yourseves o the Customes of ou Contey, te [sic] mpose yours upo us Many Euro  peans convced at tei ways wee supeo, found adopting the cusoms of te cunty dcut if ot mposse u if er mpei aspatons wee to succeed tey had te coice Fist and foremos Euopeans ad to ear te langges of ts new nubeed d in te hundreds Eecte conduct of usess in  word,  wc nubee such a evroe equired a constant source of erpreters of Idia Europea or ixed eritage. Jo Heckewelder, a Moavia mssionary

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among te Delaware and other Inds of the Ohio Vey in the eghteenth cenuy, wote tht "even f an Indan undestad Engish he pefes commu icatng to a whte mn ough an ntepreter. Eay Engish and Fench xporers on the coasts of New Engd and Canada kdped Natves took tem to Euope ad ate retued wth them as transatos n dengs with he Indns. One of Samue de Chm  pan's gdes in 1604  was a Mcmac chef named Messamouet, who spoke Fench because he had ready een to Fance, where he had styed wth the goveor o Bayonne In 621, the Pgms at New Pymouth wee aston shed when an Aenki amed Samoset "came body aongst em, and spo  hem n broken Engsh. Samoset had een captured by Engsh men and taken om Mane t Cape Cod where he ved among the oc Wampanoags He ntoduced the gims to Squano. Suanto, a atue Ind  who came to serve a the grms tepeter and the gide to the new and, had een kdnaped by Engshm Thomas Hunt n 16. Hunt had shpped about weny Indans to Span to be sod as saves Suanto somehow managed  escape and made his way to Engad, where he ed fo a time n London. Retung to New Engand with anothe Egsh expedton, he found his peope had been a ut wiped out y disease. The ava o the gims gve him a oe and a purpose in a wod that must have seemed qute empty. We-taveed and lingua Indians wee not unusua ut most ery interetes wee coonsts who mastered a Native angage not Indins speakng Engsh, Fench or Spansh. Success tepetes needed to be abe to do moe than oe wordfoword tansatons Indan speakes at  orma treaty coucis were generaly seasoned oatos, and the use of metapho and magey taxed the ates of a ut the most ski nte  petes Metapho s agy n use mong ese eopes sad Jesut au Le Jeune in 1636 Uness you accustom yousef to it you wl understand nothng. To convey accuratey e f sense and nuances o an Idan speaks sentments, tepeters hd to have an mate undersandng of ndan concepts, customs, and concerns. They had to dersnd Indn and Euopea wodvews as we a  wods They had to expin ituas and actons and speeches; they had to show Indians and Euopeans how to do usness n the othes terms and they sometmes hd to show them with  whom to do it Success ntepetes usuay ved among Indans fo a time and thought ke them to some etent.

 NEW WORLDS FOR AL

The new wold created by the neraction of Euroeas and Idians produced many dividuals caable of lllng sch roes. Many caves, fomer caves and chdren o mixed marriages ound a vauabe nche in Indi-whie reaons sce they and someimes ey aloe had he exeri ence, exerse ad concs n boh wolds o act as inemedaries and commncaors Jacqes Carier ook two sons o he Iroqoian cheDonnacona wh hm o France in 1534 hey leared French ad rerned wh Carer o his second voyage he ex year and Cartier's conversaios wh them  ro dced a smal FrenchIroquoian dctoay In 73 when Lousjcheron de San Dens was sen by Sieur Antoine de a Mothe Cadac o exlore wha is now orhwesern Loisana u the Mississii ad Red vers no the hear of Caddo county he ook aong as hs inerers wo brohers Perre and Rober aon As cdren he alos had accomaned La Sae's edtion (Rober was born durng La Sae's voyage across the Atanc) and had been adoted by Idias Pere had lved wh the Hasais; Rober t he Karakwas hey had made their way back to rance n 690, but had been sen to the Guf o Meco wth Ibevle Now, Sain Des ook hem o exas hoing hat eir taoed faces and ther kow edge of ave anguages wold guaratee his arty safe assage Andrew Montour,  nereer and a cuture broker on e Ohio oner  te mideigheenh cenury, ws rocen n Deaware Mim Shawee and sevea Iroquos anguages He had es o the Oneidas and he Dea  wares and on occasion soke or te Indians n coc raher han us ereg or em Someimes kow by hs nglsh name somemes by hs India ame Saeihu or ghsara Monor wore Eroean clohing and Indin face ain and oamets Simon Gry shaed a simar role or himself in he era o he Ameican Revolon aken cate in  at age foureen and adoted by he Seecs, Grty was iberated aer Pontiacs Revol 76) He sen he res of hs ife working as an inemedary and an inereter His dua ideniy hs commad o sever aguages and hs nowedge of boh ndia and whie words  m n a unqe osion n e Ohio Valley dug he ccia years o the Revolon and is afemah A one muiria conci he Indians woud alow no whie men to be  resen "b Simon Gry, whom tey consdered one o emselves Cas ing his lo with the Indians and the Brsh Giy devoted hs skills and the bes years o hs e o resevng he kind of mclural wod ha had

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ceted him and i wic e felt at home. For tat, he eaed the hate of s America cotempoaes-wo put a price on s ead-and a asting reputaton as a wite savage" James Dea, who was raise by Indas a seed he Ameicans as interete during te Revoluto was sai to spea Oneida etter tn ny othe white ma, witot a trace of a accent Te pesence of an intepete di ot ec�ssaiy mean tat negottios betwee Idans nd Europeas wet smoothy nterpretes· wede geat iuece  for treay cocs, since tey cod embelish, dstort, o sppress te wods tey ead subtly saping te drecton egotaons took. An incompeet, dishonest, o intemperate intepreter coul podce lyes of msunestadig a e peace tas. Some intepeters commae severl ian anguages, ut oe spoe tem a. So it was not uncommon fo opeans ad ias to ave teams of ntepetes n atteance at treaty cocs to esue communicaton despte multple aguage aes That cod mea a seies of tsatons befoe a speake's wods reaced the teded adiece  598 when ua de Ote ed a Spais pedition into New Mexico e found wo Meicn ndins, membes of an ealier epedto, wo had bee lg among the Peblos fo een years Tey see as Oate's prmay tepetes, trans  atg Peblo speeces nto Meica an anguages so tat ote more et Spasspekig Mexican ndians cod taslate them to Spas  748 te Oeia Sickellamy, a tereiay o te Idanwte o tie in te Ohio Vlley, we to consdeale egths to coverse t a Gern  vsito. A colost tanslate the German's words to Mahca, te a Maican woma trnsate tem to Sawee or e husand who in tr trnsated tem to Oneida Sickellamys reply wet trough he sevea taslatos in everse oder: Oea to Sawee to Mahican to Ge man More tn two tousad mles to te  west te Americn epores Les ad Clak encotere sima proems  openig dpomatic ea tios with te Flatead ndans  05 No oe in the America pary spoe Salis, te lateas' anguage o commicat te Americas elvere their speec in ngis wch raos Labice one of te party taslate into ec oussat Caroeau tasated the ec vesio into Hdatsa; s Sosoe ife, Sacagawea, wo had live among the datsas, tsated te speec to Sosoe Final a Shoshoe oy ing with te teads tsated it ito Sals. Oe woners ow much of te orga speech remained intact afte taveing te engt of ts eaboate inguistic

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NEW WORLDS FOR A

chain. But it w by such means that Europeans and Indians often attempted to commuicate across baiers of lnguage and cultue Euopeans had to le new symboc anguages as we. Fom de Soto to Lewis and Clak, expeditons into Indian counry took aong stoes of gass beads and other trade goods to ve as ts, to cury favor with ocal ches and to lubicate the wheels of dipomacy In Indan ctures the  giving and recevg o gs had syboic meanngs tat outweighed utitran vaues. Gfts denoted sincerity and good w. They symbolzed the gve's poston and ntenions The acceptance of gifts often implied cetain undestndings and appopate obigations Hatchets and ppes, wampum and beads of derent coors and  partcuar arangements, tobacco and feathes, al cared clea messages in the syboic angage of Indan country. As James Mere obseves, "Coonsts had to read a foregn e Coloists soon eaned the symbolsm and he mpcaions o gvng ad receivng gits In he winter of 6-, the Naagansett sachem Canoncus sent Goveor Wiiam adfod o Pymouth Colony a gft o sevea arows  wrapped i a snakeskn tereby poclaiming Naagansett donance  soute New Enand radfod vewed it as a batant chaenge to te  powe o the Englsh and tued to Squato for advice The goveo then sent te snaes back to Canonicus led wt bulets Canoncus esed to accept t and returned t to Plymouth y the act of mual rejection each  paty announced ts resal o subt to the othe. Colosts not oy endeavored to maste Natve symbo systems; ey also added sybos o ther own presentng chosen chefs wth medas silve  goges, swods brghtly coored miltay unforms, ad othe Euopean insgn of eadeship. Such adoments poclaimed the aegance of he chief and idented hm to hs people as a man o inuence wth powerl European backers The same sybos nd actons oten had deent meanigs o Indans and Euopeans who euently esorted to diplomatc maeuveng to get the other to accept the mpicatons of the own po toco When owhatans and Englshmen met on te Chesapeake eay n te seventeenh cenry each goup regarded tsef as domnant and tred to demonstate is supeoty. Powhatan captured and adoptedohn Smth and eems o have apponted him as a werowance o the newcomers e euv aent of a viage chief in his confedea The Engsh teefore consttuted anther subodate tibe, and Smit was a nd of subchef to Powhaan The Englsh ied to crow Powhatan a a vassa oKngJames  Powhatan

DIPLOMACY ND FOREG PS

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esed to come t Jameston, and he would not kneel when the English came to him He did accept the crown they oered him, howeve: such fts  wee appopiae om vassals Euopea dipomats had to ean ew codes of beavior Agents of pe r  powes eage or ies o of coona govenments axious to acqie Indian ands had  cub teir desie o "get dow to usiness. ndan coucis someimes went on fo weeks, wth speakes pefong eaboate ceemonies of condoence to pepae the mids of the partcpats, giig enghy ecitas of past meetgs, ad even recapituaing wha the peous speae had sid Thee was much activity away fom the counci and enghy deeraton to achieve consensus Euopeans and Ameicas oen tied to huy thgs ong but not aways th success Quker Wiam Savey noed of e negotiaions beteen U.S commissioners and roquos deegates a the reay of Canandaga in 1794 " s to no pupose o say  you ae tired of wang, tey wi ony te you camy, 'Bothe, you have  you ay of doing busness and we have ous; we desire you wod sit easiy on  you seats Lie many coloa dipomat eore hm, Savery esgned imsef to doing thigs te dan w: Patience, hen, ecomes our ony emedy, he sad Wampum bets and caumets o peace ppes were ndspensae i the success conduct o itetra and teethnic dipomac The cume is  popay assumed to have been a torougy ndia aifac, ut Fench and Mts tades spead he caumet and ts assocated ceemoes thoughout much of Noth Amerca Red-stne pipes their stems decoaed with eath ers, seed as passpots hough ndian county, and the ceemoy o smok ing a ppe a a sign of peace was obseed om te St awece Rve to the mouth o the Mssssipp The cumet ceemoy was o just a foaity ut a peequiste fo negotaon and n essenta oundaton fo good reaons. Whe La Sae enered te viages o te Quapaws in 682, te dias geeted he Frech with a cumet dce a east and an exchange of gifts; in ts way ey estaished itu es w the newcomes and ve em satus  witin the socia system Wampum, om the Agonkian wod wampumpeag,  was ognaly ash ioned om quahog shes · red and sng nto bets. Masspoduced cyindc beads obtaned om European ades soon repaced taditona shes. Woodad ndan peope used wampum fo o purposes, as gifs,ewey, an trade ems but its mos widespead use was as an essentia "

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 NEW WORLDS FO A

luricant of conc-re diplomac Intrcate designs usualy of puple agas a whe backgund, conveyed messages and deas; sometimes the symbolism w mo grpc and moe simple: belts paited red signied  wr wie bes, peace. Euopean emssares and Indian agents ound they ad o ea he lan guage of wampum diplomay and mliarze hemseves  wit s potoco nd speakes often opeed counc proceedings th enghy speeches of  welcome ugng the participants t have good houghs ad ope mnds, and oeng bels o wampum o symbolcy emove ay impedmens o the t. Speaes pucaed he wods by adig wmpm belts acoss the coucl e. he wum signed tha wa hey sad ws ue and came om the heart takng te wampum belts meant tha he ecipens had head, understood and acceped Wods no accompanied by wampum mg ot  be  bindig rejecng o as somemes happeed castg he  wampum dmacy asde dcaed a res to accept  wha he speaker sad and perhaps even a complee beakdown of negotatos. Te wampum  belt ve and receved seved as a mnemonc ecod of what took pace a coucls and treay meetngs and constued a tie's recod o is oreg reatons e oquois depostd ther wampum bes at Onondaga te  physcal ad potc cente of he league of ve (late sx) naons Te  wampum keepes wee esponsble fo sae sorage o te bes and or itepetig ter meanng nd speaes meetig i counc h uro  peans or deegates om ohe bes were abe o poduce wmpum recods m pvious meetigs and cte chaper and vese o  wa ad happened emnding the paes o ther commmes and poing ou where trans gessons ad occued. he Fenc and e Bti devoted consderable atenion o calume and  wampum diploma Recognizng te extent o whic ter impeial mbitons n Noth Ameca hnged upon ave Amerca suppo tese Od Word vals dspatched agents o lve i Indan county were tey were o tivat key chefs and ea the aguage of ndian dpomac Te Bts nd depatmen, contrary to popua seeopes was o com  posed of aughty redcoaed oces n powdeed igs who tought i be neath ter digny o st aound a couci re g wih "savages t employed ngs Scos Ish, French Caadian Ida and Ms people  who spe much o ei ives n Idan coty ofen woe Idia cong and geney smpathed ith Indn people On occaso memers of te

DIP. LOMACY ND FOREIG PES

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An Indian orator hlding a wampum belt adreses Colonel Henry Bouqe. (From Wila Smth, An Histcal Account f te Expdtn gat t Oi Idia  h yr 1764 [Phladelpha 76. Dmuh Cllege Lby)

Bish nda deparmet detied more srongly wi the ineess of te Indi ends ad elatives ha hey dd wih te eess of he Btis Crow. Me suc as Sr Wam Johso among te Mohawks, Aeder Cmero amog he Cherokees ad Maew Eliott amog e Shawees maried no he ribe and seed as e ey n betwee e das ad ei rtis "athe Mohawks at e Abay Cogress  175 efeed o Johnson as our ips ad ou oge ad ou mout Hs ome a Johnso Ha in New York became a meeg groud fo rtis and dia diplo mats: " he Sx Naos and ote dias to the Westwad sop a his house, said Cadwallade Code di ages wee ambassadors amog ther ow elatives nd  e swing  waers of ieratioal, ineethic tebal, and ntratribal pol cs ey eeded o be sklled practioes of e art ad the  protocol o ores dpomacy Tey had to be able o oow wha was going o i dia coucil meengs and i privae Tey needed o now wom o court  whom o avoid oedig and how dieret idvduals coud be expeced t eact i diee crcumsces Cod Wese had moe experece in dian dpomacy a lmost ay oe whte ma An adoped Mohawk he seed as  teeer and as Peylvaia's �ambassador to the ndan aios-e was vruly ubqtous in coonia di aais n he sum mer o 743 etrsted wth a decae missio o Oondaga to smooh ove mte betwee Pennsyvaia and he roquos, Weise sough ou e Oodaga spokesman, Caasaego or a pvate meeting  he buses: "  woud e him all my Business, and beg hs Advice ow o speak o every hg whe he Couc should be me Kowing whe t rema se was somemes as imporat as nowing what o say. For ther pa, dis had o ea how Europeas coduced eaty negottios Jus as Euopeas eaed o adop da ceremoes, wam  pum dipomc and metaphors i ei meetings wih tibal delegaons so dians ad t become accusomed t Euopea smbolism ad ew ways of doing busess. Comace dians vsg he govero o New Mexco in 762 caried cucixes as a sgn of peace ndas delt wh Europeas who insted o reerrg to hemselves as "aher ad o dians as "clde, ye  wo rarey udeood ha in may dia socees he oe of fae caried more obligatio ha authoiy dia delegaes becme accustomed o d sometimes came to expec, rum and eque oasts as bo a "ce beake nd n iceive  eacng ageemet ey had to pu up wih

DIPLOMACY AN FREG OLIES

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scibes writng dow their words ad live wh the owledge at, oce ierpeted ad put o paper those words cod take on a life of thei own ad a vey deret meaig fom wat te speaker neded. Idias as membes of a ora culue, omaly attced fa geate mportce to the  wods d w pum exchaged a a ea cofeece th to e wtte ecod mde of te ts Euopeas, as members of a clure that vaed he  writte wod atached pimar impotace to the al treaty documet rahe than o he dsussos th preceded ad produced . Their writte docmets sometmes bore lite resemance to wa Indian delegates re memered tey had agreed to sometng he Oondaga oaor Caaatego abuted to te "Pen-dI Wok of the coonsts. Indians aso ad t accep that, i Eropea eyes, gnig lad mea moe tan simpy aow ng cooists to shae s esouces; te pope ws permaenly coveyed om ndia to we hads. Euopea ambtios, iovaions, uderstdgs, ad misderstnd igs imposed o a Native Amecan backgod, gave dplomay i No Ameica a ew ad uque chaacte ad appeaance. Ida treat councls,  by whch so much of Ameica passed om Idis o whtes gew ot of he meetig of dia d Eopeans n cooia times ad conied tough mch of the eteeth cetu i Cogress  871 decared a ed o tea maig preferig to egard ndia peope as wards of e govement ahe tha as sepaae aions. Bu he Uited Sttes put a new slat o India diplomcy log befoe 87. I cooia Ameica, were Ida powe emaed fomidbe and may sought ndia favo Eropea paid cael attenion to potocol ad made a  poit of foowg Naive Ameca pocedes When he Amecan coo es became the Ued States ad Eropean vals withdew from e pic , owever, dpomay i orth Ameica eteed a new ea. he "midde  goµd aragemets that rst he Fech ad te te Bis had mi tained wit dia tibes dissolved as Amecan ivade discaded od ways of coductg Idia diplomacy ad attempted o dicate from a poso of stegt The new ato was teresed less  havng Indi aies and moe i avig India ad. e need to ulivate nda peopes ad to play he dipomatc  game acodig to ndian rles deced.  he deings with dia tes ae te Revoto Ued Staes treay commssoe dis  pesed  wih mch of the od protoco and cocie etoc Tey ook he  posio that he das had forfeited the ads by sidng with e

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NEW WORLDS FOR

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Bish i he war and ha Idian lads ow beonged o e Uied Saes "y rgh of conques. Somemes w oops a he backs, hey dcated ems o Idian deegaes, demadig hosages and eiory a he pce o  peace ad rejeced wampum es wh coemp Such posuig was o ew i Idia dipomacy ad or a me Indian powe demonsaed he msy are o Amercan reesios o haing obaied her ad y rgh ocoues. Bu Amercan powe was ew, gowig and here o say. Ftre egoiaions would e codced o Amercan, no o Nave America erms The diplomacy o Noh America was eve he same agan.

DIPLOMACY AN FREGN S

13

Sevn

New Nomads an Tre Nomads

P

many histoy books te us ta Europea col?sts were settlers and Indians were omads. I reaiy, most Idia peo  pes  e eastern woodads ad mny i other areas of te count  were hocltrss; hey moved wt te seasons ad havesed a vet o resources Whe Euopea mmgras arrived i Ameica many of tem moved equetly even atcaly, t mus have seemed o Idia eyes er migaions moivaed y e desire fo more ad o or distance om eig ors aher ha by te seasoa expoiato of wha lad ey aeady occu  pied Confroed w he ux o housads o Europeans Idia people mst ave elt muc e e ctizes o mperal Rome as hodes o Huns Gots nd Vandals invaded heir wod I he wke o suc invasons many Inda peoples ecame migras themseves Teir sociees disruped by  wars ad diseases dias moved o ew ocatios and ofe ult mt enic commuties ou o egee camps The oigna Amecan pionees Indans ecame poeers ag as hey tred to ebuid hei wod ad hei lves often n amliar envroments ad srrounded by sranges May ral egends fx he origs of patcla India peopes mly i teir stoc omeland Ahough most scors accep he eoy of miga on acoss the Beg Stat (eween Sera ad as) dng e ce age as he exaaon o ance huma presece  America, many Nave Amercas eject his "rst immigants ieetatio i favo o he ow stories of geesis i s coent ome bes recal he ow ancie migaions  eged-e Chocaws ad e Ccasaws came to e Mis ssspp omeds from he west o example-bt a seem to ave devel PULAR STEROYPS AND

134

oed ei identity as a  peole  coectio wh a parcar lace. Leg ends exaed how they came t be whee hey wee; s ves rooed hem o ther omead Indas dd not wde aiessy acoss the and; they beloged to  Nevertheless, dias dd tve equently and extensvely ong befoe Eopeas aved. Moccasin aths and canoe outes netwoks of com merce and communcaon crsscssed the couny and inked ndan com mnties as a apart as te Oho Valley and he Gul of Mexco the Geat es and �ew Engand nda paddes covered mmense distaces o lowg he waercorses of Noth America.  the weieh centuy, iter Joh McPhee head the story of a nda iving  a emote commnity  Ontaio who deveoed a ge o see New Yok Cty "He pt hs caoe in the waer ad sarted o From steam to ake o ond to otge he made hi way a hunded mes to Lake Tmskamg ad ts oet, the Oawa Rver He went dow the Oawa o the St Lawence dow te S Lawence to the Richeleu u te Richeleu to Lake Chamla, ad om Lake Cham  plain o he Hdso At the Sevey-nth See Boa Basin he e te canoe  e cstody of aendats and walked o o ow. James enimore Cooper and oher wres ceaed and peetuaed he image o Noth America efore Euroean seement as a ckless der ness n ealiy the conne was aced wh wetaveled rais A rs glace, roc cangs on he Coorado River Resevaio n Azona apear o have been aced haphazardly bu ey beong to an acent system of markers that onted ndan rnners to tas saning vast disces I he easer woodands, ndan pahs created by moccasined eet ad somemes maked by bed rees foed a elaboate web o tas The Geat War rors' Path fo exampe was fed by ndan rails om al parts of oois coury ad headed south o Shamon (Sbury, Pensyvaa) where seveal oshoot ed soh east and west coecing w ote t sys tems Athough e at served ouois war paies heading south o rid the Cheokees or he Caawbas, it was aso raveed by ouos mbassados going to meet delegates from othe tbes o commissoes fom Pensyva na, Maylad and Viga Wen an dia ost hs way  he woods as he someimes dd emaks Pa Wlace, tacing the numeros dian  aths i Pensyaa it ws as ley as o because thee wee to many tacks and he had ake he wrong oe. dians possessed emarkbe skil n woodca ad cod

NEW OMADS AD TRU OADS

1.5

make the  way through the foest wth an ease at impessed Europeans, but they "ad the same reason o eeng to the beaten ath hat motoists have o preferg aved highways to plowed elds Dipomats and messenges covered enormous disances along sc ats. Peole visited iends and relates or social, economc, and ceemoni pposes Te trac along woodand tais made e orest, in Wallace's words, "a busy ace rvees frequenty met othes on the t, smoked wth them, and shaed hospitity beore continuing on their journeys Mny Indan pas were so wel panned and pt e evel so wel, even n montanous country tere was itte reaon to change thei otes beore the comng o the automoble, ad sometimes not even ten Indian trals became bride pats, then wn roads, nd nay motor hghways As te Briis struggled to move troops and suppies throug the oests during the Seven Years Wa Generaohn Forbes acnowledged tat the ndans have oot aths    trough these deseat, by he hep o wc we make o oads A Indian ath that for centues had oowed the geat cuve o the Appalacan Mountans became the Vrgina Road by e mdeighteenth centuy (present US 1) and the maor rote or sete mgrating nto the soute baccount ndan eoples kew ntimatey te homelands they nabited, but many  new her contnent as we Consequenty, wen Euopeas arived n Nort Ameica, Indian peole were abe to sow them te way, onting out rivers and tais, interpretng the landscape, eadng tem and to other tribes, ad rovidng inormaton on trbes tey had yet to meet As the renc hisoian ernand Budel observed, "Eoens oten ediscovered te  world using oher peoles' eyes, egs and bains ndans participated n the European redscovery o Amerca, poiding gudes, maps, and a nd o  owedge deved om exensive trves oean explorers and r taders ollowed ndan canoe routes into te eat o te contnent ndans taced maps in the sand  ther toes ad nges, etched hem on bic ba and drew tem on deerskns ad balo hides hey sowed ench men the way om the St Lnce Rve to the Oo, om the Geat kes t the Mssssp, and out on to the reat ns. Beginning with Carte and Campain, e French made a practice of  idnaping ndans to seve as guides Indans showed Sanards e way across the Ameic Southwest and om Floda to te Mississipi He nando de Sotos expedtion beneted rom ang an ndan gde wo had

36

NEW WORLDS FO ALL

"such thorough owledge of the country that the night before he cold tel evertng they woud nd on the oad the foowng day. In 540 an Indan  whom Spaiards clled the Tuk gded the expedtion o Don Fancisco Vsquez de Coronado n its search o  Quv a bled rich ci moed to be somewhere on he pains. nsad of nding cties of gold he Tuk ed Coronado to the Caddo Indian vages near Wich, Kansas The Spn  ards sed him. A map dawn by a Yavapa Indan guided Juan de Oate acss he Azona desert to the Colorado River in 05; an ndan drew Ren Rbet Cavele de La Se a map of the Mississippi Rve n i68i. Engshmanohn Lawson who traveled wdely n the Carolna upcntr in 00-0 sad hat ndans were expert Traveers who could ocate  veheads ve hndred es away and gven pen and  coud drw accurate maps of he contr. On the northen pans n he late eghteenth centy Fench Canadan rader Jean Bapste Ta saw ndans mae accurate sn maps of the contes with which they wee mila. Nohng  s  waing but the degrees of latude and ongtude he sad Dug ther two and a haf yeas n the West, Lewis and Cak soicited thty mas setches, and cartogaphc devices rom ndian nfomans. The Mndan  vages on he pper Missori, whee the xpedton spent he wter of 04-5,  wee a thvng trade rendezvous and gave the Amercan exporers ccess  nowledge and nfomaion about rotes nd peoples as a west as the Rcy Montans When the expedtion eached those mountins a Shoshone chef ceated a mpoay carographc mseece  buildng up  pes of sand to depct he dauning opogrphy they wee abot to cross. e their European predecessors, Leis and Car depended on ndans to  point the way across Ameica. Indans no doubt also ed stangers away om paces-saced stes iendly  vilages teasued esources Pueblo Indians amost certay en couraged Conado to exploe the Great Pans as a way of geng rid of the Spnards Bt Euopean penetraon of America cold not have been what it ws wthout In dan parcpaon in the pocess. Amed wth owledge  gained m ndians Eropeans prodced mps o the own which often  became insrmens oconqest. Maps not oy provded valabe nforma ton to coonzers soders, and land specas; they aso heped ds  possess Indns and ender hem nvsbe. Eopean catographers ou tiney designted areas whee ndn people ived as deness empy and awang setement by Europeans.

NEW OMADS A TRUE OMAS

137

The outes Europeans fond wih Indian help became sses in ndian Amerca, own whch Eropean eploes, tes, missionaes, and lan speclatos venture. In time he rice became a oo hese same otes became he ateries �y whch immgants rom uope heaed ino ndian cotry, o ong which colonss fel hemseves pshed by going popua ton pessres in he East Sometmes poplaon moved in a seies o chan reactions: in he ecade beore the Revouon, mos mmgrans to Kentucky came rom Noth Carolna whch was isel beng ooe by emigans om Vigna and Pennsyvnia an om Gemany an Scotlan he ponees  who cononted Indians n ta "ar and bloody goun were te produc of a vast seres of popuaon pesses ta eache tough the ease coonies, back acoss e Atanc, n ino he heat of Eope Somemes, hough nddas and groups venred fa eld aher than shnng on o the next "avalabe land he massve movement o peopes from Euope, acoss e Alntic an into he inteio o oth Ameica was a momentos even in human istoy At st Amercan mgtion was smpy an ationa olet o  peope aready n moion, a spover o  patterns n rope which sen people om he German sats east as well as  west an whch sent a constant ood of hmanty om tougou Bitan to Lonon. n me howeve, e Ame can mgne beg to shape Europen movements Amecan land specla tors  looed o uope o ect he setters tey neee to elize a ucrve etrn on hei nvesments; agens, amy es, an umo ecte immi gras to aeas of Amerca where hey cou epec o n thei ow kin n Bernard Bayn's wos, "We ow oly n the vages way who te hun deds of thosds o ndividuas who setted n British ot Ameca  were,  whee pecisey they cme rom why they came, and how hey lived out ther lves. Their migraons nvolved "an nraceabe mltude of loca smal-scle exoses and coloniatons, the connous ceations o new onties n everwidenng cumfeences, the compex inemnglng o  peoples n the expandng boder aeas, an in the en he massive anser o the  westen hemsphere of peope om Aica from the Eopean mland a above al om te AngoCetic oshoe slands of Erope Ba on th mmgants popuaon shfs i Ameica "stange irtional "mutdnous and compl almost beyon descipion; mysterious  chaotic. They tanlate ino "amost antc epansion I uopean movements in oth Ameica so bewildeed a hsor sveying the om

138

NEW WORLDS FOR AL

he vantage poin of wentieth-cenry Harvard, how must hey have ap  peared to Indian people n e eigeenth cenry? n he eventeenth cenury, European immigraon to Norh neca  ad been sgnca, even devasating, bt i wa malscale compared t wa was to foow. Eropeas eashed a eres o ootods: e French in Caada and he Great Lake; e Duch, on he Hdson; e Swede and Fins, aong te eaware River; e Spaniad, n New Mexico and Floida; ad he Engh, n e Chesapeke and New England, aong wt ome Germans and Scoand began he creaon o heir New Word societies, omeme wth he ep o mpoed Aca lor Poplaon grew steadiy, even drmacay n he egheen centry, however, internal popuation gowh w es by natral causes an by maive mmigraion In 1650,  perhaps y hosad Europea ved on he eate hore o Noh America New France had a mere two thousand colon New Netherand, a te over ree ousand; and New Englad lready ouripped is vas t more an wenywo thouand n 68 Euopn poplaon edged oward one udred y hoand. By 75, tha number adjumped pat one mlion. Immigran om Europe, ofn vctims emeve of wrencng economic chages, communiy destrcon and popaon dislocaon, w�re etting and resetling arge areas o Norh Amerca. Tey came from dozens o counies, hndred o regions, and osands o commnie  leaving a connen where ad was scarce, heavly popaed, ad bey ond mos  people' reac, or a wod where and wa pentl, suppoedy noc cuped, and "ee. Mos seeneenthcen immigrans were Engi, and many came om he nobi,  gentr, and he yeoma caes n the eigteenh cenr, mos o he mmigans were nonEngsh and came om he poorer clae in Germany and Swzerand, Scoland and Ireland Many came as inden red servans, bond to or or four t seven y ears in reurn for pasage, ood, cothing, lodgig, and event eedom. hey endured appng shboard condions and suered a morli ra no much deren om ha o Acan save who were aso beng anported to Ameica, crowded aoard lave hips in chains On reaching Ameca many o he new immi   phed wes, buiding new commune on e rontier were tey rbbed sholders and exchanged blows w e Indan nhtans An eimaed nne hoand Gempeing seer, eeing amine, war, and diseae n rope, saied o he Amecan cooes in he eigeenth

NEW OMADS N

TRUE

OA

139

ceny. They cme from many dieret regos-he Palatne Asace, Baden, Bavaa, Hesse nd Swzerandd their mgratios were par o  ager popaion movemens whi German lads Bu they ded o mge ogehe ad sete ogeher Wllim Pe vied German Quakers, Moravians ad Menons t sete in Pesyvaia, and sevea thousand dd so n e ae seveneenth ceuy. I the early 1700s tere came tou sads of Geman Luerans and Refoed setlers, atacd by te romse o ceap and ad religious tolerao. Snce tey soe Deutsch, ey be came kow as Pennsylvana Du�h, atoug some Pesyvia Dutch acuy were Duch om te border egos o Hoad and German Peoe o Gema descent aso seled n Mae, New Yor New Jesey, Maryand Virgia, Georga, and he Carolas. Te pa o eigheenth cenuy Gea setement ca be see n pace names or Hermer, Mann hem, d New Bel in New York; through Gemaow, Behleem, Hover d Gesburg, Pesyvana o Fredeicksbug Vrgna and New Be, Sout Caoina. Gema place names, anguages, ad customs  becme  evlent i the mdAlaic rego. Bejin Frann, seeing German poulaion growt i Pennsylvana by mdceuy, feed a they  wod "swarm no our selemes, and by erdg ogehe estbls eir  gge and mannes, o he exclusion o ours David Hacke Fischer as idened four great mgraons rom he B sh Isles o Noth America beore e Amercan Revouto From 1629,  when he Grea Mgao began wh te settlemen of Boston, untl 640, he mainseam comrsed Engs Prits om te ease counies, such as East Agla o Massacuses Pritans eveuay domnaed e coloes o Massacues, Rode Island, Coecicu and New Hampsie. Te mdseveneh ceuy wessed sstail migao om Kent Devon, Warwcshe, ad Northamonshre o Vigna Beween 675 and 7 Qukers om e Nor Milands eed a steady migaio to te Deaware Vley For mos o he egteent ceuy however, mmgras om the nohe Bish ad Celc borderlads-User Scotand, Nouber ld orshre, d ancashre-ld he Brts vaso o America.  Fscher's wos hose immgas "gduly becme he doan gsh seag cure  a broad bet o erory hat exeded om te highlads o Aaacha rough much o e Old Souhwes They brough wh them Old Word hbs o border bellgerece wic shaed her socetes and er lves o e Amec roner. Alexis de Tocquevie,  he eary

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nineteenh centuy, emarked I conside the people of the United States as that  portion of e Engis peope who ae commissioned to explore the foess of the new wold." But Britsh migion to Ameica dew peope om idey eent egons  egons and geneations. The Scotch-Ish had a long history of emigation Wen James VI of Scoland assumed the hone a James I o Engand he invited Lowland Scots o sette i Uste pomising inexpensive ents and eligious toeation, as a means of colozing Ieand Moe tan foy tousand Lowand Scots to advantage o e oe between 160 and 640 Ove Comwel con inued e policy, and accoding to one estimate one hunded ousand Scots ed in Iead by 672 Moe people went to Ieand afte te defeat of James II at he batle of e oyne Then in e eighteenh centuy famines acked eand landlods ased en and Pesbyteian Scotch-Irsh en dured growing pesecuon Amost thee unded ousand ScotcIsh migated to Ameca in the 700s one of e most emarae fol move ments in histoy." Mosty Potestant and poo mes hey ooded into many of the same baccount aeas voed by the Germas, and many moe treed sou nto the aoinas and Georga o cossed te Ap  paachis ito Indian count emans and ScotchIsh ie wee at tacted to Pennsyvaa whee they could expect to nd fete nds d eigous toeation. Phiadelphia became a major pot of ent and Pennsyl  vania became the gteay fo Scotch-Ish invasion and setement of large ·aea of Ini America to te south ad west. By the 760s the Geat hladelphia Wagon Road, which folowed old ndian ts fom ennsyva a to eogia ws e most heavy taveed oute in Noh Ameca Scots, Ustemen ems, ngish, and Welsh stemed down it Scotch ish mgan moved apily and squted uicyJmes Loga povncil secetay of Pennsyvania expessed the commonweah's aam over the in fu, notng ta the new immigants cowd in whee tey ae not wanted" and  body tae any spot of vcant land they nd." When e autho iies ed o expe them ad buned dow thei cains te ScotchIsh simpy moved on and suatted agan Logan noed hat the Indans em seves ae lamed at the swarms of stangers" but coloni ocils en couaged Scoch-Ish peope to see on he weste oners  whee hey seed s a rt ie of defense o as soc roops aganst e In dians Peyvanias nonInian popuation leaped om 30000 in 0 to 80,00 n 1760

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The fteen-year perod fom he defeat of the Fec n 760 o te oure of he Revoluion  775 bogh at leas 500 mmgants o the Bish coonies i Not Ameica icldg more a 55000 Potesant Iris moe ha 0000 Scos more han 30000 Engs and a east ,000  peope om he Geman sas ad Swzelad. Hghand Scots eeig hard mes ig es, ad te sppession o the cla sysem n he afemah of e Jacote Rebeo i 75 made up a susanti _l popoton of te  peevoltionay mmgaton Emgrao o Ameca ecame epdemic  e ghnds ad Bis ahoties feaed at  wold depoplae he aa e moty o he grants ad he expectons of access to In dia and edeed Bis poces of ontie eglao woae co rbig to escag Idawe concs and t te lenaton of coo ss om the moe cory hat cumnated n e Amecan Revoltion Bewee 700 ad 775 mor ta 50,000 Arcan saves were tras  pored o he Ameica coones hey came i cs and ad o expeca o o eedom bt ey added to te eecs of poplaon movemes fel hroughot Idan Amerca

Europea  peoples movig io ad acoss Amerca generaed successve eacos tha aected ad dislocaed Inda peoples ogot he con ne. Americ sory teooks, nd some boos o da hstory, fe qey coin maps ta pupor o sow he locao o dan rbes i 9 hus "seg e sage for what was to foow. Sc maps often udeestmae or toly gore e reshung of da popations ta occed  te wake o Eopea coac. The moby and moveme tha  wee iega pats o tado da ife gave way o foced graos nda  peoples ed new dseases were scateed by wrare,  pursed new ecoomic oppotunies and ew wys of life, were attaced or epused y missio  vages were edged o y whe setlers, etreated rom wie soldes o gavited owad ors or ade or proeco. Theyjosled or  posio wih ew negors, ad somemes they ceaed new commties ad even ew tia o ndivid idetes in te cruce of chage ad moveme tha was ealy Amerca When Euopeas rs econtered a gop o Indan people hey usully red o idet hem as members of a parica re and he deniy at he Euopeas g hem geeraly stc. Eopeas ote aled o reaze hat er concep of re had lie meng to may dan socetes whch 142

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 were bound by amy, clan and viage aher than by a lage bal ae giace. Moeover by the me Europeans reached Indin cou the com munes hey encouered were ofen in a stae of : the·ple eects of uopea dseases Euroean rade goods and Euopean was fel ong  before Idan people eve lad eyes on a European peson, ook her tol on he scue of nda societies What Europea observers though wee tribes migh be regee camps or new communies in the maing As James Meell has demonsaed the English were bewldered by the congeres of independe  peoples scaered throughout he rver  vlleys of he Caroa neio and by e consion and poson o ames  an eo o bng orde out of chaos he Englsh sezed on the name Catawba to dee a hese eopes. The ame obscued complex ethnic eaties bu t stc Spanish nvasion of Amerca geeed demogaphic dsrution across  large aeas of  wha s now the southe Unied Staes As de Soo's con qusados cu hough the Southeas the hman landscae o he egion changed foreve. War ad disease se opuaons plummeg. Survos reed ou o he nvades w:  viages elocaed downrve o nto he uads and much of northwes Geogia and eastern Teessee became depoulad lowig Cheroee-speang eoples o move no the aea Foda suered msse depopation n the cenu afer de Sotos men  passed hrough. Those Timucuans Guaes d Aalachees who surived resetled around Chrsan mssos afer Spaads  but S. Augustie n 156 I 7034, Souh Carona mame and he Ida aes desoyed orida's mssion commuties carrig thousads o Tmucuans ad A lachees io slaver The rest scaered and one goup ed wes Wth the ecepo of a ew Native enclaves huddled aound St Augustine orda had become a virtua popuatio vacuum. By the me Wiam Bartm raveled through the Southeast on the eve o he Amercan Rvoluo, he loose aance of ows sechg across Gogia ad Aabama known as he Cree conedecy conssed of "my tibes, o remnas of conuered naons unied But he ud aue o he confederacy alowed grous o move away and esblsh new commues Dring the eghteenth centr vaous goups of Creeks gaduay sepaaed om he paren coederacy and we to the depoulaed areas o northe Florida The Spards caled hese peope cimar6n, meanig ld fo or runaways and n tme hey deveoed e own denty as Semioles The Semnoes  bui ew societes on the ele Aachua pries hedng wld cate hat had once beonged o the msso communtes; hey aso bu NEW OMADS AD TRUE OMAD

14 3

large canoes om cpress ees and traveed to Cuba,  where they traded deersks dred sh, and oney fo Spash coee sgar, tobacco, and alcoho Many notheasen Indian eopes also experienced eocaons as rva Eropean powers enetrated heir world. People compeed and sfed os ion o gain access to Euopean ading posts and tade roes Te Hud son's Bay Company, which egan operations under chater from Charles II n 670 depended on Indan middlemen o convey s obtaned om more disant hning bands to is poss on e Bay Crees Assnibones and Ojwas wee success as middlemen n the ate seventeen and ealy eigeenh cenes. After 63 va raders om Monrea came to ndan counry to dea diecly with the ndans who dd e taping The Hd sons Bay Company had no choce ut o follow sut, and the Ces and Assinioies lost er uaive mddema postion Some bands mgated  west o  o maintan hat roe; otes relocated to rse new roles, o suply fo examle the new  tradng-osts w ualo meat Come on for trade, exhaustion of earng anmal poations exoting new terioes ad esponding to changig market forces a caused recren  populaion movements in Indian merica n some cases the demogahic eecssons were dramac. e ro quois "Beave Wars of the midseveneenh centuy desoyed the Hon Conederacy Svng Hurons amagamaed nto Iroquos communies or oo ege wi othe tribes. Hons wo reetled i nothern Oho, aong  with regees om the Netra Ee, and Tobacco nations wo ad suered smar dispesal, became kown as Wyandots May India peoes whom Frenchmen me in the Grea Lakes regon in e seventeenth cent wee aready regees ring to bld new commtes n a word of chaos and  volene e Sawnee ndans who led aong e Ohio River when the ench ecountered them n he seveneen centuy also mgaed ecause of pes sue om the roquois One group went to Illnos n the 68os, en ac ceped an inviation from the Delawares o retu east and setle on he Ssqehana ver in Pennsylvana Ohe Shawnees moved sot and eas toard e Carolnas wee the Engis rst met em May Sawnees remaied i the Sotheast ad developed song es wth the Ceek Indians in Geoga ad Alabama As Englsh pessu nceased, owever, te maor i of he rbe reeated back towad teir tradiona homelands By he mideighteen cenr, most Sawnees had regoped  souhcentra 14

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Oio. There, hey foud themelve o the on ie of the bae betwee da and whte for he Ohio Rver That bae gradually wg again hem nd the Shee rereated rer nd rter ino orhwete Oio joing other dipaced dan n ew mulehnc commuie Tdiioally he Shawnees comped ve epara diiio each wih it own eponibilty-uch a  war polic eaing or riuaad eac wih i own vlage. By he ed of e Revoutio, hoe dtinco became blued a Sawnee from dere goup crowded io ew communtie By 792 a etimaed two touad peope ived n even mai owthree Shawee two Deaware, oe Ma nd an goFenc tradng potal  whi te mile of he couece of he Augaize and Maumee Rve After Geel Ahony Wae defeaed he orhweter ibe at he bae of Falle Timber in 79 ad Idia eader ceded mot of Oo to te Unied S in 79, ome Sawnee moved we to conue their reance in diaa and lno Fiay puhed acro he Mpp early  te ne eeh ceury hey me oer Sawnee Some time·durg he Amerca Revoion e Shawee ao pi, wi abou alf the tre eavg Oho nd movig eveually o Spahcamed teio in Mioui, where they buil new commuiie ear Cape Gideau n me mot Sawnee made ew home i Kana Okahoma and xa Te epeiece of the Shawnee' Deaware eghbor and relave wa mlar The Deaware or Lenni eape people rt me European we he Duch laded i he Hudo Valey dged out of heir homead in Dea  ware, New Jer and eer Peylvaia i e evetee ceuy, Dela  ware moved wet o Oio ad ten o to new ome  Oao, Kaa nd Olaoma Te eteetcenu Ameca ar Geoge Cal aid hat o other ibe o he Coninet a been o much moved and joled abou by ciilzed aio." A place name of uropean ogi took over i  wha wa oce da couty hroughou the eat woodad o � me hoe dia pace name appeared we of he Miiippi xiled ndin  people ebu commuie and amed hem Chcopee, Gneoe Seneca Oeida Cheroee Cillcothe and Miam i Olahoma Kana nd eewere Some ew Englad tbe produced atee commuiie which omeme aeed er own idepedece dia  ohn lot prayig ow in Machuet lied apart om heir relaive and aumed ew ideie a ember of heir town Alhough ome orheaer Inda  people migaed we i te wake of uropea conact many New ngad NEW NOMADS  TRUE O

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naves went north The defeat of Metacomet's esisance movemen in Kg Phip's Wa (1675-6) roduce an Algonka dasoa as Iins fom southe an central New Eglad ed oth to Abeai counry. Some joined Aenak communtes; others ke gog unt they eace Fench Caad O rbal ties wee sometmes elaced, someimes supemeted by te hat bou Inans o new Csi commuies  goup gs boe ow, an uiity and connecos etween gous incease Idivuls  who ed and moved in this wol oe assumed multe identties  te hisorica ecors An Inda mght e descrbed a a Ni muc, a Soo, a Pennacoo, a Penoscot, o a S racs da or as a o these, depeing upon whether Euopeans saw him in Massachusets, Ve mont, New Hmpshie, Mae, o Quebec Te Aenais  tur came under essue o defed her las and cultue om Eglsh expasio, ad they uled ack rom he invaders. Many wthrew ino remote regons of er omean, beyon the each o Engsh sodiers a ou o sight o Engis selers Ohes rekked nor O he baks of the St Lawrence River ench mssons  eckoned, promsng the Inians slvao rom oh he Engish a tei ow "heaten ways New communites o space Abenkis an other New Engad Indans grew up at places lke S racs, Bcancour, a Three Rvers.  in Foia an Cifonia, Indan eople  Caada who buit new lves ad ew com munties wti he soud o missio ells someimes wee dee y te nearby missio ather than y tei rbal aaio Nomally Caolic, "St rancis Inians reuned south durng he renc an Idia was a raded te Engish fors an ams  te fome homelans Ohe Abe naks veured ther ael An Aenak accomane La Sale o his expe iton own the Msssspp Aenaks wee vg  Inan commuies n the Miwes n aout 1750 and Snsh recors repored Abenis wes o the Mississipi after the Amercan Revouio, al testmoy to the coinuing ispaceme of New Engand's Native American popuaton Inians rom seven tribes in soute New Engan, bay educe  numes an lad y the tme o the Revoluton, move west ad ceae a new commuy cled roeown, in Oneida counry n New Yok Tey ound oy empoay ege tere ad were soo oce  wes agin, ut te commuity  was te geness of te ohetown tibe, ocated today n Wsconsin Athough most Inian peoe et New Engan y lad, some  went y

146 NEW WORLDS FOR AL

sea. In he aferma of the Pequo Wa and Kng Pip's Wa, e Engs sold many New Engand ndans, many women and ciden, into slavey n he Cabbean Aer desucon o heir traditoa economies n he eigeenh centry many ndn men, rom paces sc as Maspee, Maas Vneyd, and Nncket, ook wo as saors and wles Te em  ploymen owed hem o mae a vng, b he wo was dngeos Hsbands and ahers were away rom ome or months and sometmes  yes on end, and occasionly they wee buied a sea or in some dstan and Many ndan peope wo emained in New England ended povey and becme ansiens as loca ocs moved them om town to own rate an accep responsbt or paying them poor ele For mc o he coonia e, te roqos Fe Natons o psae New Yor ed the erory inact agans Indan and Eropean ie Te  phosophy o the Ioquos Leage enisaged embacng many peopes under he sheer o e Gea Tee o eace, and dispaced Indians om throgho the easen woodands too ege tee Many ndividuas were adoped nd ncorpoaed no Iroquois commutes. By the mdde o the seveneen ceny,Je su missionaies epoed a oos vages con ned "more Foeigners han natves of e counr: peoples om seven deren bes ved wh the Onondagas; and from as mny as eleven, h he Seneca In 22, he Fve Naons became Sx when he Tscarors, migrang noh ae a bloody war h te Engsh in he Carona omeands,joned e leage as ajunio membe. Ohe regees seled ong e ban o he upper Ssquehanna Rver, wee tey so seved o poec he soue bordes o oquoia. There was lso mgaion away om Iroquoia. Some Ioqois mgraed  wes n he egeent cenry Taing p residence in e Oo Vley, tey beame  nown as Mingoes, mxed wi Deawaes, Shawnees, and ohers, and esbshed new commnes, ndependen of e Fench, Brits, o Iroquos. Ohers, maiy Moaw, convered o Caholcsm. Leavng e reves in New Yor, hey moved o French mission lages on e St. Law ence Two hds of he Mohaws were ivng in Canada by 0 We are A Scaered om Or Casles and fomey We used o Lve ogether, Mohwk sad n i. Caughna emerged as a new commny o 4be of Cahoc Mohawk S. Regs was ounded on he soh ba of e S. Law rence n  by disaeced peope om Caughnawaga Te groups who moved o Caughnawaga and S Regs became e moden communies o

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Kahnawae and Awesasne. Pro-French Onondagas founded a new con1 muni a Oswegachie, near present-day Ogdensburg Iroquos power and diplomacy kep the eague esseniay ntc nd n conro of ts homeland un the me of he Revoluon. Bu he Revolu ion spl the Irouois Mos Mohawks, Onondagas, Cayugas, and Senecas fough for he Bish; most Onedas nd Tuscaroras suppored he Ameri cans Drven from heir Mohawk Valey homes Joseph Bran and hs Mo hawk relocaed o the Bish for a Nagara, which rapidly emerged as he  prime source for Brsh acks on he Amercan froner and as a regee cener for dspaced ndan peoples. General john Sulvan's expedition no Iroquois countr in 1779 drove the Senecas and many oher regees o Niagara By Noveber 779, here were 3,329 Indans dawing raons a For Niagaa: Mohaws, Senecas, Cayugas Onondagas, and uscaroas; Deawares, Chugnus, Shawnees Nanicos and Mahicans and oher peo  ples caugh up in the revouonar diaspora n the easern woodands Aer he war, mos of he Senecas returned home and seted on esevaionse lad was now camed by e Unied Saes. Bran, the Mohaws and many oher peopes preferred exe n Canada o ife in the Unied Saes, and hey accepd a gran of and fom he Bish on the Grand River n Onaro. he roquos League was permaneny spl wh one counc re a Onondaga, anoher on he new Sx Naions Resee n Onaro he Onedas, alles of he Amecan revouionares, sough sheer in suad regee camps aound Schenecady durng he war The Amercans promsed to proec heir  and, bu specuaos and agens swarmed into Oneda coun once he Revouion was won By the ealy nneeenh cenu most Onedas had migaed wes o new homes in Wisconsin and Onaro he Cheokees lso expeenced dison and reocaon dung he Rev oluon. Cherokees who prefered o move rther west and connue he gh raher han accep he Amercans peace ems bu new owns on e C�ickamauga River n ennessee and aced ndependeny om the older owns They became known as e Chicamaug Sma demographic disupon occured in the Wes Afer de Soos  passage hough Aransas� human populaons coapsed and anm popu Map 2. A Ne Work ofMovemt: Smplied map showng major oue of

Euopen entaon of Nor Ameca and e migations o Indian peopls,  1500-800.

NEW OMADS AD TRU OMADS

149

lations in he regon ourised. Regees om e Iroquos wars who had congregate n e Oio Valey n te a seventeenth century now began cossing he Mississipp o unt, as id Cocw an Cickasaw untes farher sou By e secon lf o te egeen cenu, the Cadoes and Quapaws in easten Arnsas aced an nux of Mams, Deawres Shees, Pakesaws, Peoras Cicsaws an Choctaws "e nroduction of orses y Spanirs n e Souwes pouced chain reacons as Indin peoples ransormed hemseves rom peestran o equesin sociees Apace Inans so completely assmaed oses ino heir wold and er myths at tey egare e anims  a g om eir gods no a by-prouct o Spanish invason Horses so atraced people on to the spasey popuate grassands kown as te Gea Pans and pouce population movements win e  pns Migraons hee ad been occurng snce the Mide Ages n Eu rope, wen Caoan-speakng Pawnees and Wcas from easen Teas, Souspekng Mans and Hiaas om the Oho Vey, Aapan speakng Apache peoples om notweste Canaa, an Agonian speaking Arpaoes an Gros Venes moved on o te pans e arrv of Europes n Ameca set n moon a second wave of migraons hat began n e ae seventeent century Eern rbes newy arme wt European earms,  pused Osages Omas, Poncas Iowas, Oos, Quapaws, and Missouris ou on o te pares Frenchmen s me Ceyenne Indans on e upper Mississippi in e 1660s, bu n subsequent years te Ceyennes le er Minnesoa omean and mgaed wes to e up new ves as ulo uners. The Teton or Lakoa Soux, e wesern and larges divsion o te Soux naion puse wes by ee and Ojibwa enemies armed wth enc guns, an atraced by the new way o e on te  pns, egan o move wes in he eigeen cenu Groups who spi om he iaa Inans n Nor Dako beore 700 an mgrate west became a new rbete Cowson e nore plains a n he Yelowstone Vey Sosones, wo a previousy inbted te Geat Basn and he Rocky Mounns, acqure horses and moved ou acoss e plns in e eay egeen centry. hey eeae to te Rockies aer n the cenry as oer trbes moving sou and wes pessed tem ou of the aea Comace and Kiow Inans, encountee y ealy Euopean eploers on he no ern plns, mgaed sou and pused my Plans Apache groups nto e deserts n monai o Aizona an ew Mexco e Apaces and

150

NEW WORLDS FO AL

Navajos had themselves pouced sgcant population movement n the Souhwest Apache ads, combne i� a sevee drought, pomped many eastern Puebos to migate to e Ro Grnde n the 1670s The uebo Revolt of 180 not oy dove Spanias south; it aso dspaced nan commuties as Chrisanized ndians ed wi the Spaads an oe peopes egoupe n te wake of te conct. Horses ncreased a people's moblty nge an capacy to hunt an  wage  war nians raveed over vast dstances ether on horseback or to acqure horses On at east one occasion Cow Indans om Montana aded into the desert Soutwest ndians om acoss the pains taveled to Sant Fe for horses; an datsas raide as fa west as the Rocy Mountins,  wch pans the pesence of the Shoshone woman Sacagawea in ther uppe Missoui vilages when e mecan expoes Meweer Les and Willm Cak passe hough n 804. Te wod Lews and Cak enteed on ther trek west om St ous to the Pacc was a huge arena of mgaon ad movement by o and new ndan occupts Maps n hstoy books hat puo to depict ndian Ameica at the me of Colmbus often pace Seminoes in oia and Cows in Monana as f hose ibes had ive thee for a me Such maps goe he isocaons an migraions and e consequent tiba sons and fomations that wee common houghout ndia counry after Euopean nvasion By the time the Ute Stes forme a new naon thousands of peope bo in he meca colones had pushed er into the countr housas more bo in Germany, eland Scoland or frca ha mgated to Ameca  then faned out weswar, setting and resettling new ns and bud  ng new societes. Thousands of ndan people aso parcipate in the pro cess of migration a esetement Pushed from e oigna homeands by  wa, isease or the gowing pressue of European populaton nans were atacte to new locaons by bette trae options and by access to hoses or new huntng teritores Seeng secuity i increasingly perous tmes n vduas mlis bands and trbes mgrted me an ime agan. Euopean invasion of merca created a wol in peea motion Natives and new comers alie e he homeands, moved to new ocaes met new neighbos  moved on nian and uopean mgats built new lves and commu nies  om he paces of te bh a r fom he ancestos gaves. NEW OMADS ND TRU OMDS

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Eight ·+

Crossng and Meging Fontes

T

dided Indans and Europeans in ealy Amer ca were porous: he frone opeaed as a sponge as ofen as a palsade, soakng u raher than ·separaing eople and inuences. Some Indians and some Europeans crossed over o lve in he oer's word, and some became members of the ohers sociey neractons in onie zones seved o connec and une peope as we as dvde and aenae hem, povdng new economc, socil, spiu, and sexual oppounies and creaing new ne  woks of knsip, aecion, commece, and common ineest Some peope  venued across clur boundaies and mde new ives for hemseves; ohes found hemseves living in anothe culure as a rest of coercion and rebelled agans i or adjsted o i only afer me s others reurned wit chnged ouloos new sils, nd humn conacs at enabed em to ay  valube roles as inemedaies between ndin and Euopen societes Europeans and ndans collded n compeon and open conlic but they also forged pas of cooeraon and uneasy coexistence tha cu across enc bodes. When Heando de Soos conqusados anded in Forda n 1539, ey came upon a group of en or eleven Indns, "mong wom was a Chrisian, naked nd sun-bu, his arms ooed aer heir manner, and he n no respec derng m em. The Spanards mgh easiy have ed hm, but e remebered enough Sansh to cal out, Do no kill me, caver  am a Chrsian! Do no slay ese peope; ey have gven me fe. The Chrsian Indan urned o o be Juan Ortz, a naive of Sevlle and of noble arenge. e had been a membe of Pno de Naez's disasrous HE BOUNDARIS THAT

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epedton n 1528 d had lived wth the Indans for wele years. He sered de Soto as nterpreter ntl hs death n 5�2. Mr han eght years ate and mor han a thousand mes noth, te Pgms at Cape Cod came acoss an ndan bra mound tha contned a owerl i engmatc sgn o a mnged ndan-Europen destny" Dg gng open e grae the setes dscoered the skeeton o an ad mae th ne yelow har stl on the sll and aros ojects o Eropean mactue Bred alongsde was the ody o a smll chld Jan Oz nd the unow Eopean were ealy examples of a phenomenon ta occued reglaly oe e centres and acoss he contnent: Eopeans for a ar e of easons ed wh ndans and er les and sometmes te dent tes became mngled Eropens and AngloAmecan ocey n partclar were anxos to ep Indan and whte dtnct Eropeans who ed wh and e ndans clled nto qeston assmptons of ac and cutura speorty and dem onstrated te ease wth whch ced" persons cold degenerae" to the ee o sas n ts new world We are al saages nnounced an engmatc message one o La Se's menetched on a board. Accodng to Gabel Sagard Frenchmen n the seenteenth centy become Saages themseles f they le o een a short whe wth the Saages, and almost  ose Cstan fom" Coonl egstres n Vgna, assachsetts and Conectct passed aws to tr to preent sch ndanaon" mposng  penltes on peope who n o and ed wth or e ndans Neeteless om e rs Eopeans led wt ndans and some obsees hoght tat appened w armng regarty For rades ng n ndan commntes was a way o dong sness n ndan con. Spansh trades patcpated n the ade fas at Pecos where Peo and Pns peopes crossed ther ow fronters to exchange the poducts o hntng and hotcure; Fench Canadn and Btsh rades ed and operaed n he lages o ndans and Hdatsas nconed as smlar endeos for Plans hnters and sso Valey ames Tdes n ndn cont enoyed casa sex encontes th ndan women bt tey lso cated relatonshps that ed em nto ndan nshp netwos and gae tem a pace n e communty. aage oen poed a pee ste to ccessl bsness dengs t aso ogatd raders to oow e cstoms o the socey n wch they  ed and dd bsness Some traders  eft nd wes and mxedbood chdren behnd when hey depated om

CROSING AD MERGNG FROTRS

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India cout, but othes made ew lives for hemselves: "May of tem settle among te Idas fa fom Caada may Ida women and eve come back again Swedish tavee Peer Kam sad of Caadian  tades in te egeenh century. He aso noed ta may of he Fench tapes ad raders pated and atooed emseves like he Idas aia boais Luig Casgo vistig North Ameicajust afe te Rvouon, remaked that hey oo up Idia abts, suc as smoking sang India sogs ived  wt nda wves ad imtaed da suesitios. Tey ae accus tomed, he sad, he ey ae taveig on a ve i a conray wind to hrowng a bi of lged obacco io the ai, sayig ha s way hey gve he  wnd a smoe so tha i w be favoae o hem Oe obsee de scbed Lewis orime a rader amog he Sawees as ''om og hab _i a savage. Europe govemes frequeny utlzed e xpese exerience ad coectons of suc me as members of eir da deartmens ad tese Inda agets ofte dslayed o deveoped a ea ait fo ndian ways and Id eoe. Si Wlliam Joson Btish supetede of dian aas in te oth pror o he Revoluio raded huned ad ed wi the Moawks. He dressed ke a Moawk ad paricipaed in eir cocs and  wa dances Somethg n his natua tme esods to Idia ways, obsered a cotemoay He ved for fteen yeas wih a Moawk woma Moy Bran, faeed Mohawk chdren (wo ieied cla membersip hroug their mother and were terefoe Moawks, o half-breeds) and · headed a dynasy tha domaed he Btish ndian deatme for haf a century Is ad Iouois cue mngled at Johnso Ha where, sad Johso every cone of te house was Costatly f of Idians Jo so may ave eaned moe than Mohawk ways fom is Moawk fends and gests several of em vsied glad; he hmsef never did Alexade Cameo maried a Cheokee woman and lived with e Ceokees so log tha e had almos become one of themselves. Mssoares who wet no Ida couty did so fo secic uroses ad had o to of becomng Indians emseves Tey noeheless eposed themselves to ndian iueces ad some came o apeciate the attractions of a Id way of lfe ndans dd not ry to conver ther mssoares to eir elgo but wha was goig o wen Sebastia Rasles confessed o nng ke an ndian? I he  vew of Hector S. Joh de Cvecoeu, ndian socey ed an

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"ipercepible char for Eropeans and oered qaies ackng n Ero  pean society. Beamn Frankn sad at "no European who has tasted Savage Lfe can aewards bear o ve in or socees Frakn exagger aed, b he denied a phenomenon common in eary Ameca: many Eropeans fond le in Indan commntes preferabe o e n coona owns and viages Many o hese cutra converts enered ndian cont as captives, agains heir w, b hey were sbjected to power accrave pressres by her caprs, and some came o preer ter new ife to ter old Sl ohers chose  lve w Indians wheer in preerence for he Naes' way of lfe or to escape om er own socey Some of ese "wie ndians even ogt longsde her ndian iends and reaves n ter wars agains te whies Pionees on he Aerican oner vewed the prospec of beng aken captve by Indans as a ate worse an deat Th narratives of  peope who hd ended and srvived ndan capvy eled s noon, often poray ing ndans as boodirsy savages who tomaawked nd torred men, bcheed children, nd sbeced women to nspeakabe orrors Sbse qen generaions of wiers and akers more oen pepeaed an chaenged sch notions ore receny, owever, scolars have reconsd eed he capvy narratives, which conain vable noaon on ndan socieies, on interctra neracon, and on gender reaons n eay Amer ca Capives n Inian soceties sometimes provded enograpic data and a vew o evens rom Indan con Ter words and epeences aso somemes posed srbing chalenges o Ero-Ameican assmpons abot "civilized ad savage ife Tk ng capves ad dtonaly appeased sorrwing reaves and as saged he sprts o decesed kinfok; ae Eopean nvasion, it becae a  wy of mniing poplaon eves as we as patchng he socl fbic o by war nd dsease ndan peopes who adoped members of other ribes ino eir commnes aorded whie capives the se coresy War par es oen embaked on rads specclly for capves, takng tongs and ea moccasns or e psoners he mperl wrs o England and Fnce from 1689 o 763 oered an addtiona incenve snce he Frenc often bogh  prisoners o ransom to e Engis Drng e renc and ndian wars, more an sieen hndred peope were abdced from New Engand aone Some died in capvty; mny were sold to the French and nsomed to the ·

. ·CROSING AD MERGG FROTIERS

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English or made new lves fo hemselves  Canada; ohes were adopted o Ida communties. James Axtel has epoed he reasos fo "the eaordiay drawg  powe of Inda culue. Ahogh he captives'· fate and experence de  peded on he characte of dvda captos, chance happeigs, and the deciso of bereaved reaves back n he vilages, Indian warios seem o have displayed emakbe kndess o hose who were key caddates fo adopo. Olde people, adut males, ad cryig ifats mgh be oma hawked ad eft for dead, bu wome ad chdre wee oe teaed th cosderao oce Idias escaped pruit. Contay o popu fears hen ad Howood sereopes sice, Indian waros  the eastern wooands dd o rape female capves: peseng he puy of hei wa medicine demaded sea absece, and ntecourse wih someoe whom ones cla mgh adopt was nces. Had ave  moccasis across ogh ea iregua meals ad an unfamilar de sheterig  a hasy costcted wgwam, ad eig wreched om family and home, a axed he capves resiliece,  hese eperieces also iiaed them nto the ew way of lfe Once he ek nto Ida co was over, capies faced new ordeas Arrivig at an Idia vllage, they mght have o n a gaunte bewee ranks of Idians badshg sicks ad clus (thogh sometmes tha was a sym  oic event markg passage from oe socey to aothe Susaa ohson ad her famy eered St Facs ad walked beween les of Aenakis, who ouched them ghy o the sholder as they passed) They mgh be dressed and pated Idian-stye ad hen iy adoped nto a Idia famy. I addtio, hey doless edued psychologica trauma no lke hat epeieced y people ake hostage y terrorss  the twetieth ceury. B ime ad he weah of knship eaos hey foud i Indian soiey healed may wods Some capves pefeed no o et home even whe he opportuny aose Chdre  proved espeially sscepbe to such "ndiazao The daughe of Ae Hchiso was captured y Indans whe she was aout egh years od Accordig o Pria john Wnthrop she stayed wh hem for four years by whch ime "she had forgo he ow angage, ad a her ieds ad was oath o h come om the Iis Tts Kig taken capive durng he rech ad Indan wars saw may Egish chdre hed by Idias  Cada ad eckoed hat i ook oy s mohs for them o foake ther pares, forge heir homes, rese to speak heir own aguage

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NEW WORLDS FOR AL

"&Seemigly be Holey Swolowed up wih te Indias. When Petr Km  vsied Caada i he md-egeenh cenu, is ary hed a Indin gde om e Huro msso village a Lorete Ts Ida obseved Klm "ws a Egsm by bh, ke by te Idians tirty years ago  wen e was a boy and adoped by them accoding o eir cusom  te  pace of a eation of eis klled by he eemy He became a Roma Caoc ad mared a Idia woma e dessed ke a Inda ad e spke Egs Fec, "ad my Ida dects Capve taig had been so commo duing he Fech and Ida was ha may das whom Kam saw  Caada were mixed-bloods, "and a lage umbe of he Idas ow iig owe e org o Europe. Joe ouis Gll, a romiet Aenai chie a Odaa a e time of te Amerca Revouo, was e so of wo nglish eople wo ad bee capued, adopted, coveed o Ca olicism ad maied each oter Gll"e whe cie o the St Fra cis Abeaiswas ngls by bood bu Ae by ubrigg ad �eance.  Pehaps te mos fmous story of cultual covesonand e most rong o English Puias at the mes a of Euce Wlliams I ebuay 04, a Fech ad Inda w pary aced he ow o Deereld, Massacusets ad oo capve moe  oe udred resdets. Amog em were e ow's mise, e Reveed jo Wlams ad is amly. A he Ids ed no ong e fozen Coeccu Rive they oma awked nd kled Williams's we, wo had ecety ve br and could o eep up. But he wrios caied, o puled o oboggans e captive cildren icuding Wiams's seveyeaold daughe Euice Wejoh Wms was ieaed after wo ad a a yes, e wrote a accou o is peiences, wic became a bes-seler T Redeemed Captive Returing to Zi expouded e Pua vew a capvy esed good oesans a odea  whic, w God's el, tey esised he omes of Inda savages d eir evi Jesu backes Bu Eice Wiams's expeence shed a deet lg o capes  Indin society Se sayed wt he Idans, coveed o Caolcsm ad mied an Idia om Caugawaga Despte repeated enreies om her fae d bote se resed o eu ome. Oe emssay epoted ta uice was thooughly aured o e Ida wy of lie ad "obs aely esoved o  live and dye hee and wl o so muc as give me one  easan oo. Aohe repored a he Idias "wod as soo at wth

CROSING AD MEG FTE

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Captured children iteded for ado eqenly exereed kid tremet m Ind warrors. Netet-ety engrvg (©All Rghts

A Little Captve.

servd T ode Isand Histrca Sy, RHi X3 491)

heir heas'1 as let her reun ome.To her faher's dismy an e couy me's conseato, Euice Wiliams lived wt the Inians o more n eigty years an ded mog the peoe wi wom she had mae he life, her home, a he family. Oher capes at oe times ad paces followe Eunice's exme.May  Jemison catue about age een i 78, marie a Indan, raise chi dren,  o a ens d uoses lived he fe of a Seeca Idia woma in te lae eigheenth centry. Lke Euce Willams Mary Jemson ue own he chance o eu to whie socey By he time she die, "e whie  woma of he Genesee ha had two Inia usbds, bone eight children, an lef hry-nie gandche ad foureen geatgranchiren.Jemson became an emains a omient name among the Seecas� saac Zane was capture as a boy and aopted by he Wyanos  nohwesern Oo He maried  Idia aise a amiy ad rese o et to wte soce, bu e aced as U.Sierpreer a e Treay o Geenville in . Fanos Marbois on a jouney to he Onea Inans o upste New York in 784, had a emarkable gue Th e man woe earings, "bones hung a is ose and hs ace was paine wh bans of dee colors bu he soke ceent Fech Capure uring he Fench ad Inan  was e  was adoe io he trbe ad maie an Idian woman He recaled tha he ndians ha eaed im "wh exeme sevety at s, bu ae his adoo, hey "augh me a ha my new siuation made ecessahow  hu how o bud a canoe an how t e o ie ood for mos a a time He missed France, and he ad tried o escae once but was eca ture Sice hen, he had witten letes home and eceive o ely Now e sa, " have insensby go used o he way o iving o ese peoe.I ve severa chilren  ave brothes ad oher adoted eaes. no loge hink of eavg them; my age, my cildren f me here foreve d I sh egre my coun less an  he past sce  can hoe rom time o me to see Frencmen again  Captives who d eun o cooial socey dd ot aways come ome reoicig Afte Colone Hey Bouquet deeated e dias of he Oo Valley at ushy Run in 763 he marche nto Deaware couny he next year an dicae peace erms ha equie e Idias o had over a captives aken durg the Fech an Inian wrshe Shawnees and the Delawes comied, bu wh eucance an misggs.T ey emne Bouque ha he caves "ave bee al e o us by Adoo    We have ake as

CROSING AND MEG FTIE

159

"Th Indas ivrg up th Els Caps o Ce Bq'  764.  bo f s cpvs ws a hbk xc for h pv a fr  adpv a\vnee a D\a 1ls (Fm Wim Smith, An Histocal ccun f he EXjJedn gm:n he Oh Inn  th )ar z764 [Philadephi, 1766]. Drtou Cog Liby)

much care of hese Pisoners, as i they were [our] own Flesh and  bood." They wod alwys regrd them as ther relaives and asked Bouquet o tae special care of their wel-beng: hey are become unacquaned wth  your Custms and manners, and tereore ater we reques you l use tem tende, and kndy  be a mens of inducng hem o e conent edy  wth  you. he Shawnees kew what they were ang abou having employed  precsely hat treatment to win over he whe captives to the Indian way o life. May of the Shawnees' capves proested thei beaton Wam Smith who was present  when te Indians delvered ter captes o Bou quet said that the chldren had become accustomed to ook upon he Indans·as he oy connions tey had havng  been endery reated by tem and speaking ter anguage; and tey considered her new sate n te ght o a captivity and pared rom the savages wh ers. Some o te adut captves were equly reucant to return and e Shawnees were oblied to bnd severa o their prsoners and force tem aln  o the camp and some women who had been delvered up aftewards found means to escape and un bac to te Indi ows Some who coud not mae teir escape cung o her savage acquaintaces at parng and connued many das i bitter lamentations even resing susenance. Many captives who eurned home  wee permaneny changed by he expeience For some  was a nghtmare tey never forgot. But oher$ retained lastng connections in Indan communties and rel aecton or he Indan amlies who had adopted them. Havg been captured nd adopted  by the Shawee chief Bacsh, Danie Boone had a second famly among the Shawnees. He aso had enemies among te Shawnees with whom he contested or  the rch huntng grounds of Kentucy. When he moved o Missoui he me od Shawnee acquaintances who had so treed west ahead of the advancng ine o settlemen It ws not unusua or ormer captors to  visit ormer captves bac n he settements bngg news o Indan iends and relatves. Some redeemed captives apped he  knowedge contacts and pe ence they had acqued o consuct new roes for hemselves as culure  broers and heped build a midde ground where tey eercised signcnt inuence Phneas Stevens, a ormer captive of he Abenaks and a mlita captin durng the rench and Indi wars ra a tding post a For Num  ber our (now Chalesown New Hampshre) on the upper onnecicu

CROSSING AND MEGN FNTIES

16

Rive and appaenty enjoyed he tst and the busness of Engish seers and Abeni Indins aike. Simon Gir etined an alegiance o he Sene cas, mong whom he had ived s a captive, and occpied a pvol oe as an nepee n he Ohio counr duing and ae the Amecan Revoon. The choices ese people made and the lves they lved wee aely easy howeve Wiiam Wells capued as a oy, grew to manhood among the Miamis and mried a daughter o e Miam che Lttle urle He no only accompanied the Indans on rads agains oner setlemens u he heped lue aveles on e Ohio Rive no mbush Wels fought agns Josih Harmr's amy in 1790 and he gred promnenly n e rou of Aru S Cairs amy the following yea Despie a lieong aachment to the Mims, Wes of hs own fee w eft e rbe pro o e bate o Flen Tes n 94 and enlised as a scout in Generl Anhony Waynes army, which was machng agans hs adoped people He  was nvauable as a mediao beween te Indins nd e Ameican and he me his dea ghing o  proect whie peope aginst Indns His dea symbozed hs life: dressed as an Indian, wih hs ace pained blac as was he am cstom when cononting cern dea, Wes escored the gason and the famies om Fot Dearorn (ae Chcago) in 182 oy o see them attaced and ed by Potawatomi Indans Powomi warios ied Wels, chopped o his head nd oe out his heat, an ac o respec o his couage Some people ecme "whte Indians vountarily eter o escape the own sociey or o embrace e Indians way o e When Samuel de ham  plan egan a  poicy o sending French boys to lve wth the Indians o a  wine so they coud ean the langage one youh, Eenne B, \en ndian He ved ad veled exensively with Indians n the Gea es egon, until the Huons iled him in 633. Desetes rom the Bitish amy hid among he Senecs and othe wese ries at he end of he Seven Yeas War. Ae he Revoluion, Fan�os Maos met "a rahe ne look ing squaw, whose colo and earing he sad, "did not seem quite svge. He ased he  Engsh who she was. A s she pretended not to unde snd but when pessed she old him she had een a sean in a wely  plns home i New o Stae ied of hash reatmen and worng  while ohers ested, she ran away o e Indians, who wecomed her and she had ived happiy ever snce "Hee, she told arbos, I have no mase I am e equl o l he women in e rie, I do  hat I pease wihou anyones sang anyhng abou i I work ony o mysef-! sh mar i I

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NEW WORLDS FOR

AL

 wish ad be. umaried again whe I wsh s here a sge woma as idependet as   your ciies? Ohers, it appears, had less to escape from i European society, but foud somehg enrchg i ndan socey Jean Vincent d'Ahbadie, baro de St Castin, was he· so of a oble my om the dstict of Bar in e lowe yeees He aived  Quebec in 1665 as a yog esg  he Caiga-Sles Regimet ad pobaby seved i campgns agst the oquos n 670 he was gen esponsbity for estoig he fo at Pen tgouet o eobscot Bay  Mae and assumed commad of ts sma garrso He aced s a so with e locl Abeais and heped secure hei legance t the Crown Whe hs bothe ded in 674,ean Vcet at tenytwo becme the hd baro de Saint Castin nstead of etug to France to clm his inheritance, however, he remaed wi the das ad maried he daughter o a loc chie Though he coued to serve as a vitl agent fo the Fench he became ceasgly Abeai in hs oyalties ad seme The gish, feaing hs nuence, ed to have hm assass ated Hs activies during Kg Wiam's War (6899) eaed he co ict he locl te "Castin's Wa A contempoay taveler, the baron de Lahontn; sd Cas had lved among he Abeaks fo twety yeas ate he svage way  70, Casi y retued to Face to sot out his irs He ded six years ater wthout ever seeing Maie again enne de Vard, sieu de Bougmot, ws aother echman of socl snding who ived or yes at a ime wth te ias Aivng  he lower Missou couty aound 72 Bourgmot was an exploe ad an mbassador to he trbes here, becomg a powe and a eged among hem  Alough he had a ech we he mared a Missou da woma,  who boe him a son He ved wth he ssouris for ve years, traveing o dplomatic mss�ns as far as te adouca Apaches, ad he arged fo ndin delegaions to visit ais Fo me Bougmont boasted, wth the ndins nohng is impossible  make them do what they have ever done Bourgmont ded bac home at Ceisy  Nomady in 134 our years ere, the village prest had ecoded the bapsm of "Mae Angelique, adouca save o  Ved de Bougmont wo years lae he woma mrred resumably she ived he rest o he life  ormady, the  Apache  wie of a rech husbad Me l Casti who cst the lot wh he dias, ra the sk of beg codemed as eegades by he sociey they had chos e to eave en

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 who cod abandon eir own knd t live w th ndians w dmd capale of the most henous acs. It was believed a y fought alongsid ndians against the own  peopl. Some dd Joshua T married a Wam panoag ndian woman and ived wh or nea he popl Whn ng Phi  p's War brok ou in 1675, th Wampanoag women chldren, and noncombaants ook g wih th Naraganstts of Rhode sad and Te accompaied m Th Engsh inptd th Narraganstt or of sanc ay as an act of hosit, o a pretex for wa, and aunched a wnr atack on  ibal sronghod 's o i h Gra Swamp Fgh s unclea but shory aftr th bae h was wounded and captured by e Engish n a cash  wth a Naraganstt radng paty at was seang cate H was dssd   an ndan, and hs capors had no dob of is glt Tet  potsted hat h  was  Narraganstts' psonr and had not born arms but th English accused hm of mastermindng he constcion of th Nar aganst forrss (aftr a how cod ndians have peformed such a feat alon?) Condemnd fo hang forsakn his pop and hs God Te was angd, dawn and quatrd h Engsh sck his had on a gaepost as a  warnng of a taio's su punishmn n the wars of eary Ameica som ndividuals taly tud aganst ther own nd after thy had gone to le wh ndas Accodig o Si Wam Johnson such popl ofn provd t b "he most nveterae enms of h whtsJohn Wad was capturd n 758 a thre yas of age by h Shaws, who adoptd hm H maid an ndian woan ad they ad thr chldrn H fought against he Virgnians a th ba of Poin Pasant n Lord Dunmors War, whr hs natual fath was klled. n 792, h parcpatd in a skrmsh aganst a Knucky mia tha ncuded his bor; a yar latr h was klld n a cash n which anoh bohr foug on he opposing side Anoer "renegad, Gorg Collt also fout at Pont Pleasant, exhoring his Shawnee fiends o ght on against "h wht Damnd Sons of btchs Ar th bat, Cott  was fod among th ndan dad Hs brothr who w n th Vrgiia amy denied h body hos who had own up among or livd clos to ndians uny demonstaed heir ctural allegace in ess voen ways, or oprad as nermedares beween two worlds, n he boderand aeas whr hose  words ovelapped and megd Here, whis who had ved wh ndans and now sevd as r emissaes  coonial sociey passed ndans who had lved wth whts and wr raveng as missaries ino ndan county 164

NEW WORLDS FOR AL

Fom very st contacts Indian peope tveled to Europe. Recent research suggsts at a many as two thousand Indians, fom Larado to Brzi, my have cossed he Aantc before he Pgrms se foot on Cape Cod. Spanish ench, and Engish exporers idnaped Indans and took them home as slaves, a curiostes n te hope hat they cold e gdes d inteeters on ater expeditons and a envoys to te capitls of Euope. The two sons of Doacona, whom Cte took to rance, eurned to ace  1536 after Carer's second voyage This ime Donnacona hmself and sevea other Iroquoans accompanied them None of them ever saw Canda aga: ve yeas lat they wee a dead ncluding Donnacona, "who died n rance as a good Chistan speang ench Champans Mcmc gude Messamouet, had ved in nce, and Champla took  othe Indian named Savignon back to rance wth him An ndan om the Chesapeake Bay reon was caped b the Spansh in 1559. hey gave him the name Don uis and too him to Spain, whee missionaies bapied and educated hm. He emained in Span fo two yeas and met Kng Philp II. Don Lus maaged to nd hs way home via Cua  promisng to nd god ad converts for Spain. Once back n Vrgna, he escaped o hs people nd ralied the loc ndans n a revo agnst the Spash coonists tee. Pocahontas the daughte of Powhatn mared Engshman John Rofe in 61. Three yeas aer, she and sevea other Indans saled o England wth Rolfe. There she ws eceed as a prncess met Kng ames I and Queen Anne, and had her portra panted Waiting to board ship for home n 67 Pocahonts conrcted a dsease ad died. ohn Rofe was klled n 622 when the Powhaans went to war wh the Engsh cooniss Pocahontass son, Thomas Rofe, retued o America n 164 He became a success usinessm and was an ncesto of some of the great fames of Vigna. wo Indas om Noth Carolina wee taen t Engand i 8; oth eued ater a gudes fo the Engsh. In 605, an Engsh expedion seized ve Aenais o n the coas of Mine. Two of them Maniddo and Assacomoit, were gong ack to Maine when he Englsh ship on which they wee traveing w attcked by a Spnsh eet The Engsh crew and thei Aena passengers were taken to Span d thrown to jal. Mddos fae is uknow, but the Egsh rasomed Assacomot and nine yeas after his orgal idnping he made  home to Mine Aoe of te dnaped Aenais, Dehanda led ong in Engd and thn came ack as a guide CROSING AND MERGN FNTR

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for the English. Squanto, the Patuxet Indian famous n Ameican hstor fo helpg the New Egad grims suvve ther st ad yeas so ad bee abducted Take to Sa e the made s way to Lodo and foud  assage to New England wth aohe expedtio hese idvduals were just some of he may Idia eople who vsited Euoe  wiligly o ot duig he st cenu o so of contact. Othes folowed i ate years: a delegation of "fou Moawk ings (acay tee Mohaws ad one Mahcan noe of them kigs) visted Quee Anne  70; Cheroee delegations aved i Londo n 730 72, ad 4; GovenoJames Ogeorpe too a Cee cef om Georgia to Egad i 75; Hedc oe of he fou igs who visted Lodo  70 e tued i 740; Moegan missionay Smson Occom vsited Engand ad Scotland on a nd-aisng tou  -8; reesetatves fom he Six  Natios  went to London n 7; ad several Idan deegates om New England wet to Od Engad t  potest to te ng about egal encoac mets on ter lands MohawkJose Bant went to Londo  7,  whee he vsited George III e celeated atist Geoge Romey anted hs  portrat. Bat also oied he pce of Wales n eong he Lodo igtfe He etuned after the Revouto ete Otsiquette an Oeda Idian accomaed the mqus de Lafaette to Fance n 84 ad spent seveal yeas thee Oe account desced hm as proay e most  polshed Savage n Existece He speas rech ad Englsh erfecly is Maste of Music and many Braces of olite Lteature and n his Mannes is a wel-bred ecman Otsuette etuned home ad ded whe epe setig s peope i teay negotiaos wth e Unted Sttes i hila dpha i 9. A deegao of Cree ad Cheoee Idas made e rip to Egad n 99 ed by a advetue amed Willam Augstus Bowes owes at  various mes was a solder ast actor muscian baer dipomat nte  prete ute cemst ad lawe He woe Indan clohes ad an Ida family ad masqueded as  Ida chef i te hoe of ceag a indeendent Idia stat wth Bs suport I Londo he moved eely in Btish soci and olic crces His travels dd not ed ee he ccum navigted the goe as a Saish isoner and ded n a dungeo  Hvana Ohe Euroea captals received eir share of vstg Idas who came as emissries to secure poical economic ad mita alacesEuroean govenmets were eager to impress he vsitors wt the weat ad owe

16

NEW WORLDS FOR AL

and he Indans usay received cosderale atenton. Howee, they wee not alwys mpessed wth what they saw: poety n e mdst o opulece, cooa pshmet o chldren, beggg  e streets, and mpsonment of cmals and pbc hagngs had no paraels  da socey As Eropeans t new socees  North merca, ndans ecame reguar stos to those communes too and somemes they partcpated n he e o the commy dans nd Spaards mngled n mng towns, rches, d hacedas  e Souwest and  Cora An Apache ndn Manue Gonzle ecame acade of San Jose, Caoa, ad he Cheokee cef Oconostota joned the Scottsh Socey o St drews  Charesto, Souh Caroa, beoe the Reouton. Nw gad ndas sppled the early Pgrms wth food d asssace, but, accordng to Roe Cushman  1622, the Engsh tued the fao "When any of hem are in  wt, as ofte they are n the wnte whe the co s doe we suppy them to o power, ad hae hem  ou hoses eatg ad drk ng n some areas o cooa New Egd, ndas ot oly woked aongsde Egsh neghbors; ey aso ed w tem Fontesman Dael Booe won eow as  ndan ghter ut, n he words of hs most recent ogphe, ndns kew they coud d ood, dnk, and a place to seep at the Boone homestead Whe wa ougt an abupt hat to sch peacel teracons, ds and coonss oten ecogned ddals hey knew among ther adersaes. Drng te Shawees' sege o Boonesboough n 778 oh paes changed proanes ad personl sults. As ndan atos pusued dpomac reaos wh aous cooa go emets, t ws not usul to see ndan stesmen  wg he streets of Qeec, Monrel Alany, Phladepha, Wlamsbg Chaesto, St. Auguse, New Oleas, Sa Antoo, or Santa e Thomas Jeerson recaed hat n Vga beoe the Reouon, das were  the hat of comg ote, ad n great nes to the seat of o goemet. O the edges of dan con deegates sted fonter posts and gason commandes o slar puoses ds aso cme to coonl setemes and ctes to de ad patc pae  the commutes ecoomc e. das  the  ad deerskn tades were key componets n he abo orce o eay merca ndan men hund ad apped; da wome pepaed the ss; dan caoes ans pod the sks to market Some ds lved ad worked as ndetued sents, sgnng an agreement to work or coonsts or a term o years 

CROSING AD MERGIG FRNTR

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chge for food and lodgig. dan peope cotnued to folow tadiionl  wys of ie as log as they could, but Euopea nvaso dsrpted ther diton ecoomies ad may eaed a lvg by taking advatage o new economc oppotuites Wome, whose househod faing d foragg acvies dd ot re quire huge areas of and or big them to sustaied contact w uro  peans usuay fod this easier to d ha did me. Women ook o house  wok or igt fam work in te coloial economy tasks tat esembed ter adiioal ones. Tey sold baskets, pottey and food n e makepaces of coloni tow o peddled them doo-to-doo A Delaware wom med Ha Freeman wo elated a bief sto of e lfe to the ovesee fo the  poor of Chester Couty Pennsyva  1797,  ved ad worked as a idepedet day aboe in rural Pesyvaa movg amog colol so ciey rather than mntaig tes wih tadtioal Delawe bands who had migrated  west Hanna worked for seveal farmng fmiies for  wages (3 sillgs 6  pece a week whch ws about wat wite women i the ul labo foce eared), sometmes as a ive empoyee. Late, se "moved about om pace to pce makng baskets & stayig longest were best used By the 90s, she was described as havg ogot to tk India d not liking their mer of ing so we as wte peope's n e declig  y es se worked for room ad board at local amsteads.  te 5s a ter the Briish but Fort oudou  Ceokee coutry Cherokee women brought con to te gaso someimes givg t to the sodiers but more of ten seig it at ated pices. di wome were seants wves o ms resses to te Spais moe often tha i the Engish coloies ad Spnards adoptd om them co torllas, Natve pottery ad many tecques and mplements of food pepaaon. Peblo ad other di women wove texiles i the weaving shops o Santa Fe. Mes acvies were moe seveey cutiled Raised to be warros and huntes they ote found they cold be ethe  orde to ear a iving  the coonia ecoomy tey ad to become laboes lear new skils or tke up the pow. Crstan ndans  sevententh-century Florida ceed ad mtained oads, ct umbe, opeted eies and  woked o Spnsh farms and catte anches. Some hghraig Apalacees owed tei ow rances n Vigia coloists hed Powat men to k  wolves, buid shg wers and work as gudes and unters. Tvelg past a sm Pm ukey tow in Vginia  the mdegteet century te Rveend Adrew

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NEW WORLDS FOR ALL

Buy found hat he main employment of the commu was "huning and shing for he neghboring gentr. Indan men om Natucket, Mash  pee, and othe Indan towns i New E·n  gand signed on as sailors and  whalers; ohe eed new trdes as carpenters coopes, and bacsmiths ad they became wage eaers n te colonal economy ndians aso leed new sks om hose who conquered and coonized them The Engish in Rhode Isand taught Naragnsett Indans stone ma sonr so hey would have a sled labor forceIn time however, Narragan sets earned a iving by t and incorpoted it no thei es and traditons even ung it nto a badge o Naragansett dentityFancsc iars nto duced e ndans of Pecos Puebo to carpentr; the Pecos maseed he cft and plied their skls om mssion to msson Other Indians entered the coona labo oce unde moe dect coer ionIt was not uncommon to nd Indan saves woing alongsde Afica slaves in southe Engish coloes: Indan were one uater o the sve labor orce in South Caona in the rst decade of the eghteenth cenr Sp�ards deised the cominda d artimien sysem to exract and contol a seady labor suppy om te Indi popuations they subjugated G-captve Apaches, Navajos Comanches, Utes, Pawees, and Whtan coloal New Mico worked as metees household ser  ants day laborers and shepherds although some earned tades and be ame silversmiths backmiths maons, and weaves According to Fathe Juan Agustin de Mo in 778 "Since they ae the ospng of enemy tbes, he natives o this provnce who bear long gudges never admit tem to her pueblos Thus [the gzas] are forced to ive among he Spaads  without ands, or othe means to subsist except by the bow and aow hey bewa the neglect and they e like amals. Gzaro  wee bap ed and given Spanish names, ad they wee auxiares and scouts i mpagns against eney tribes Nevertheess, hey emined ve much  membes o a servant cass Where colonia ad Nate economies oveapped, he pattens of em  ployment exploitation and entrepreneurship were not always simpleAt the end of the eighteenth centur, Seneca Indias sod baskets and beadwok to nonndians d woed for them as aborers yet the Seneca che Corn  planter hired nonIndan to operate smithies and mis on hs grant of and in Pennsylvania Whe Cheokee wrros any protested e oss of tiba ands to white settler n the 77s, Cheroee che Lite Carpente coected

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rent om white tenants.Joseph Brat aso leased land to on-Idia tnats on te Gand Rver Reserve i Ontao ar the Revouon I te West, om the time of the earest Spansh anches, some of the rst cowboys were Indias For centuies, ndans worked as cowboys, so that "cowboyng;' roncay, became part of the hetage of some da tbes Euopeans aso brought Indias to eir socetes for  puoses of cu ral and spiritua converson. Whereas rench Jesuts traveed to Indan county  search o converts, Puitan Engsh missioares preferred to estabish praying tows near English setlemets and ty to conve  dias to a Engsh way of ife as we as an Egsh religon. English colona authorties and mission groups sought to educate Indan chldren in Egish  ways John Eot hoped that hs ndia converts woud become al one it English men  169 Goveor George Yeardey of Vginia was insucted to procure teir chidre i good mutitude to be brought upp and to wok amongst us Te Idians proved euctat to part wth ther chldren, and Yeardey decided s best pa was to reocate Inda flies amog Englsh setlers Te 650 chater of Harard Colege povded for the educaion of the Esh and ndan youh of his county;' and chaiable contibuios supported constrctio of an ndian colege buldg No more than sx ndia sdents attended arvard before the Inda college was demoshed  698. Goveor Sposwood of Vrgina opened a schoo for Indan chil dren on the fronter eary in he next centuy and at one me the schoo had amost eigy pups But ndan chiefs objected: They thought t hard, a  we should desire them to change ther manners and customs, since tey did not dsre us to tu ndias I 72, te Colege of Wliam and May but he Braeton school hall for dia studets, but, says James Axte, e few who attended came too ate, eft too ealy, ad died or took sick in a urba settng At he Teay of Lancaster  74, he comssoners om Vrga invtd the roquos to send their young me t Wlliam and May to recee an Egish educatio. The Onondaga orator Caasatego thaked em or the oer, but pointed out that ndian aumni o English coeges had geer ay pved to be useess whe they returned home gettg ost in te woods and ot knowing how to re a bow ad aow Wth tonge  cheek Canasatego suggested instead that the Engsh send some o ther young me to te Irouois, ad te Indans would teach them usel tgs ike how to hunt ad oow a tal Amost hrty years ate, the Oondagas were sti

 NEW WORLDS FOR L

resisng Englsh eos to teac hei chden. In 2, e Onondaga council rejected Eleaza Wheeock's equest to educate their youth Te Indians wee appaled by how e Englsh eated Indan students, trying to beat discipne and knowedge ino them "Boe, they said, "you mst  lea of te Frenc iste i you wod undestand, and know ow to treat ndians. They dont spea oughly; nor do hey o evey lte misake t up a cub & og them. A nuber o colonia colleges begn wth the intent o providng education or Indan students Harard, Yale, Datmouth, d Wlam and My a receved nding on that bass Eeaza Wheeloc aimed to bng Indan chldren o s Cariy School n Lebanon, Connectcut where hey coud be educaed ar om the "peicious Inuence o their Paents Example. eeloc contnued his educaon msson wit te oundng o Dart mouth College n 69 but some ndi studen d gradates compained hat hey wored moe h they studied. Dartmouh produced ony ree Indian graduaes n te eghteent centur. o Indan suden and her paents, he me hey spent in Englsh coeges must ave seemed a capiviy, durg whc e captors sought to convert hem to a new way o ie. The Seneca oator Red Jacket acipated he seniments o ate generations o ndian paents on seeing e children come home om US: goverment boadng schools "You have aen a nube o ou young men to your scoos, he sad "Tey have returned to teir kndred and lo neiher white men nor ndians. However, Engish captors had muc ess success ha their ndia counteparts. Benjamin Frn and othe contemporaries acowedged in dsmay tat ndia sudens ook every oppotuny to go bac o hei own way o le Cr  vecoeu went her, sayng that housands o Europeas ae ndians and  we have no es o even one o those bornes havng om choice become European ·Nevertheess, Indian alum d coege dopou oten ganed vuabe knowedge ad sls they used to seve hei peope n tei incresng conacs wih Euopeans Samson Occom a graduate o Weelocs school, became a mssona to Indan peopes oseph Brant gaduated ad trans aed e Gospels into Mohawk. He aso bult hmel a  poa role in he ineaioa and interethnic dplomacy that  was so cucal to rouois o tnes in he revoluonay and posrevoluonay ·eras Oes played ess sible roes, but teir expeences n coonia schoos ad coloal ociety

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saped their lives. They n n eled sape the drecton o Eopean interactons n te emegng new word

As Europeans and Indans moved n and o of eac othe's socetes, sat and smoked at tadng posts and teaty councs and paicipaed n te diy exchanges tha chaacteized e in eay Ameca, ey geneed a new  word o wods Euope mgrants boght my anguages and daects to a and eady maked by ngustic dversy; during te conqes o Noh Ameica, doens of new anguages minged with ndeds o od ones  prodcg canges in them a. At te sme tme, Indan gages in enced one aohe more tan beoe as escatng warare inceased trade, migation and muiba responses o Euopean eanson cased more contcts between Indian eopes Lngisic canges and inechanges so seve as a crocosm o boader cutu nteacion between uroeans and ndans: tee ws "nguisic hybdizaion and cge n both directons, u  was not ty-y Travees feueny commened a a the anguages they head wee symptmaic of he inerminging o cutues at occued n No me ca Wiam Penn described the  peope o the Deawae Vaey as "a Co ection of ders Natons n Europe, ncudng French, Dch, Gemans, Swedes, Dnes Finns Scos Ish, and Engls; tey mnged w Dea  ware nd oter Agonianspeakng eope. A aveer n New Yok a the egining o the Revoion heard spoken on a daiy asis Egsh (oten  wit heay Ish and Scois accents) Hgh Dc ow Dc, French, ad h a doen Irouoia angages ndrew Montours sster a Moavan cnvet at New Saem Ohio ws descrbed n 179 as "a  iving oygo o the ngues o the West Speakng Engsh Fenc and si Indn  angages Eay Europeans oen deed a Indans had any "re anguage; In dan· speech stuck them as stange and guttura and "savage, not as a system o oa comncaon as rtion and compex as er own Nev eheess as Eopeans eneed Idin cony and cme no contct w Indan peope they ad o necessi o ry o maer some o e  anguages they encounered ere In 60, the bisop o Duango on a ou o inspec tion though New Mexico, ound Indans citg he catecsm in Spanis but not undestandng wat they were saying I odered e missionaes to

172

NEW WORLDS FOR

AL

 ea the lngages of the Indians," he rote. I 9, Fathe Francsco  Atanso Domngez havg vsted l the Fancscan missos of New Mex co, sad that al te Pueblo Idans spoke a knd o Sash" ut ofte not ye well. Conseqet, he arged, "i we ad te manage some mutul expanato and ndestdng, it is i sch a dsgued fashion that it s ease fo ou people to adjs to ter manne o speakig  fo them to attempt ous fo if one speaks to them rapidl even wthot atice the o  loge undestd" Mssoes n Sooa poted that Pma ndans do ot all  ke to speak the Sansh guage even though he have eaed t qte wel b costnt assocato wth the Saads lng among tem  When the ae qestioed  Sansh the ep in heir own anguage Such ligsc mblngs adjustmets, and sang occred acoss Noh  Ameca s ndians and Eropes tied to communcate wth each other opeans  pcked up Id wods where no Eopean equvet ex isted o what te saw arond tem The setters needed a ew  vocabu a: New ccmstnces;' sid Thomas Jeerson c fo ew words, new hrses d he tsfe o old wods to new ojects. So Euo  ean orowed moded, or msonouced ndian words to descbe In dan o nquel Amecan tigs. Thei vocablaes nceased to clde moose cao, sk opossum, chimuk hcko mahogan mesqite cca mze homn sqash sccotsh eican wig teee moc casn wmum tomhawk sachem sagmoe owwow, caucus, tooggan, smoke te peace pie br e hatchet ad so on Some words and hases gew ot of te teacos o ndans and whtes A uck"-the stdd tem of the deerskn tdebecame the te fo its moeta eqvaent, a doa. The result was what Jack Weatefod cs the Amecanzao of te Engsh anguage." Mode merca Englsh contns moe han a tousand wods adopted fom Algonka Ioqoian Mkogea Soan Esmo Aleuta, and ote tba laguages As Weatefod otes, Eglsh tself was a trb angage n constt evolo as note Euoean  eoples mxed on Englsh so When the  langage came to Ame the Choctaw Ojibwa, Cheokee Muskogee, Semnole and does of otes added to te Eropean til aguage of te Ages Jtes, Sxons, Ce Vngs, ad Nomas" Some Eopeas became uent seakes o Ida langages n 60 Gn de Heea Hort eorted meetg a Spish o who had had elo da chden as pamates ad knew ther lgage ette t

CROSSING AD MERNG FRONTERS

17 3

e Indans emselves, d tey were stonished to er h lk" Sexu encouners wt ndin women provided coloni trders ccess o excelen seeping dictionries. Fom is observons of nglish rders who ook edfelows mong souen Ind women s  mes of leng te cusos f he counry" rvele Jon Lwson repoed t tis Core spondence mkes hem le e Indian Tonge muc e sooner they  eng of e -n's Opinion ow h n E Wife eches e Husbnd more English n one Ng, hn  Scool-mser cn in  Wee." Per dler wom e Hudsons By Compny sen o winte wih he Cpew ndins in nowesern Cnd in 179, fond imself dreng n Cpew fte sx monts However te cnges n e uropens nguges  were supecl n gls selers incorpoed ndn onwods nto ei vocbul u ey dd no low  few new words  ler hei nden erns of ougt d speech As wi so mny othe spects of ntive cure" wrtes Jes  Axtell ndn wods were toos used t subdue e connen, no more nd no less" ndeed uopen nguges often showed  emrke endency  e min e sme in ter new eoent Alhog ngls conned t de velop, cge nd omogenize in he Brish ses nglsspeking ig oen peserved wt inml leon the nguge tey bought  wt hem nglis gionl dlecs nspnted o vrous prs of Ame c suvived somees ino te wene cent Te Ynee twng of New nglnd evidenly evoved fom the speec on s Angl wence mos urins migrted Te Americn dlnd dlec" of he Dewre Vley deved lrgely om e nguge of ngnds norhe Midnds cotish Hgnders wo seted Nort Coin's Cpe e Vey  the egeenh cenr spoke Gelic nd so did ei slves; peope stil spoke Gelc ee no his ceny Mny nglis wods sved n Aerc ong fe ey died ot in ngnd: eigteentcentr Vrgnns ced  ng  pn  set" efered o scooling s book-leng, nd sid yonder" for dist long fter suc phses were egded s rcc n nglnd By te ie of e even Yers' W Americn coonss' speec struck Brish regulr oces s foeig. e eson ws ht  hd not kept pce w cnges in e pren lnguge no h i hd cnged in Aeric Loyis  wo e o nglnd fte e Americn Revoluon stod ot ecuse of ter odfsoned wys of speking

7 4

NEW WORLDS FO AL

ndian lnguages so dispayed evidence of change. Indian peope cme io conac wth speaers of vious diects of Fench, Duch Spash Engsh, Poruguese Germn Gaec d Acan anguages and ey met moe speers of oher Indn anguages.  w use and somemes neces say fo hem o e   anguages of he peope they de  wth. Regee communes someimes poduced a babe o dieren decs: when Mohe g missiony Samson Occom wen o New Socbrdge New Yok, n 8, he found hee "a vs concourse of eope of many Natons, spekng as many as en dieren anguages Tade jgons deveoped as cean rbes-Chocaws, Chnooks and Comanches for instancepayed pivo oes in exense de networks nd oer ndians eaed ther ongues Wen European ades tapped no these networs, hey earned the ncong anguage of ade add ing heir own wods o ceae "rade pidgns n some cases e new anguage became the ingua anca.  Quebec in he eay seveneenh cenu he ench raded wth Montagnais ndins usng a hench haMonagnais pidn Micmac Indias n Noa Scoti and nohern Mane eed Basque Spanih or rench rade jargn  te deangs wth European so. he Deaware jon ws he angage of commece ad communicaon  beween ndians and cooniss n New Sweden and New Neheand Spanish emeged as the ade anguage of he Puebos n coo  New Mexco Mobian-based on Chocw bu borowing om neigh  bong daecs-became he ingua anca of ndans and ench rders on he ower Mssissippi and he Guf Coas n some areas, broen and modi ed ngsh, rench or Spsh was he means by which ndans commun caed wih Indis of ohe angage groups as we as wih uopeas he new  pas of speech poduced some asng mpressions: fo exmpe, bayou eneed he ngsh anguage va he ench, who pcked  up from the Chocaw word bayuk. - L he Europes ndans had to borow o creae words fo wha was new in hei ves God Chst Chrismas; aser, ng governor, hose, ca, c  pig, boo coc, pow gun rum, and so on. Deawae Indias ced chcens tipas, aer he wod Swedsh seers used to cl pouy, and they adoped uch wods mel suiker (sugar) d  pannekek pancae American Indian nguges geney conined and conin no pro fies bu ndians qucky acqured oanwods o fl  void  Quker shipwred on he coas of oda in 696 head the oc Indians say,

CROSSING AD MEG FTR

17 5

"Englsh son of a bitc. John Lawson sd t hose Indins wo spoke Engish "lea to swear te rs thing hey ta of. Cpve Jmes Smith herd  Indi sy,"God Damn t. Wen Smith od m wha t men the ndn"stood for some me amzed d e sad if this be te meag of tese words wha sor of peope re e whis? Traders sd it a he tme he noed, ee wen tey were in good humor Whe Les ad Crk desended the Columbia River  1805, ey met Idia peope wo swore s ooy s the Euope d Ynee saiors with wom tey trded o te Pcic cos Indin peope had itte oie bu o ear the angage o e peope  who estbished hemsees s the domn power i thei coutry. Eglsh  ws the primry angage of Idias i Mshusett by the md-eghteenth cetuy. Caus Idians  soue Forida were speig Spnsh i 174; most of the Seminoles whom Wllim Bartram isted  orhe oid on te ee of e Reoluton lso spoke and undersood Spash Sometmes s hppeed  te trnse of dia wods to Europen aguges the Idians msheard or mspronouced Euopea words addg  totly new  wod to er ngge Yaqu dias  Sono oowed hundeds of Spansh  wods, creang  hybd lagage. They misead the Cstia  wod cz (cross) as ku, nd the wod"beame permaently emedded in Yqui speech n t form. ndn laguges chged nd some died out, even beoe he U.S goemen's pograms o ingicde in e eteenth century Nevereless, Idias o dapted words nd phrses creavey Eve  wee Englsh re, or Spash eme he dias rs lagge, hose gages diered om the oignls Indns moded her new ngags ith  wods, phrses dioms, nd uees om ter own Consequety "n di Engishthe Eglis spoken by Idia peope in er day les todayoen ders om "sndard Egis in grammr spee patters nd pronutons. There re so may rieies of"dia Engsh and some people my spek"stadd Eglish or"Americn Engish  forml  pbi settgs nd their own diaec of "di Englsh  her home ommunites. Mny ndia peope eared te oquerors' laguge ly aware tha nowledge of te"dom ngage ofte oveyed power d sttus They approced te new wrten lagges i a similar way. Idi su dents at oonia oeges mght reset their essos  readg ad wrtig

6 NEW WORLDS FOR AL

Englsh, but Indin leaders often recognzed the power of the wrtten word, ether to communcae ideas and formaon at a dsnce or to depve ndan peope o ther lnds. "When  look upon Wing  am a   wee blnd and n the Dark, sad e Cheroee chef Sagnsa in 175 Iroquos leades companed in 69 ha white eople ad been able to obtin ro uos ands by te help of eir paper (wc we dont undersad) The  pen oen poved igher thn e sword n acuirng Indin ands and ndns ke t. Some parens wo sen heir chidren to cooni coleges no dot recoged tha leacy was mpotant o heir suva Lieracy so gave one sts n coonil socey. When ns and uropeans me ey each adopted some o the oe's langges o help tem suve n e new word created by heir meetng Some uropeans leaed Indian langages; colosts empoyed he language of wmpum i teir reay councls; nd ndian wods made heir way often n dsorted form into uropean langages, gng the newcomers a ex  panded vocbulary wth which o descrbe and undestand e new world Many ndis leaed Euopean languages; some ecame adep a eading nd wng; and European words made te way, often in distoed form, into ndian lnguages. But he exchange remaned n blnce or oly a  momen. Conuest and domnance lowed the uropeans to dspense wh ndian langages as ile more than a pool of new wods fo new tngs; conquest ad doinance aso placed Indi peoples in a perpeu sruggle smply o eep ther lnguages live.

CROSING AND MEGIG FRONTIER

177

Nine ·+· .

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



New Peoples and New Societes

EuROPANS CM T Aerca to creae new socees. Thei invasons added ew peoples to he huma ladscape However, he coquest of Norh Ameica was ot a smpe pocess in which Indian peoples were emoved d hei places tken by European and Aic mmgrats Euo  peans gh aspire o dspace Indians and ceae socees tha were prsie duplcates of Od Wod societies, u ey cod no. They occasony ucoveed dsurg evidence ha the societies ey were tyg to destroy  were in some especs supero o the own The mglg nd mxig of  peoples  poduced ew kds of  people d socieies, dieren om wha hd esed in Noh merica d  Europe. May of he new societies were eryonic and did o necessarly survive as perme comuies, but hy were par of the dscape of ely merica Eopea cooniss e couneed ad cosuced new social ad physc eviromes. though Eglsh coonists oe wen to grea leghs o avoid "is geaio ad proec heir supposed racl puiy, hey could ot preve the mxing of peoples ha occured houghou Noh Ameca as dias Europeans nd Afrcas me ad inemaied. Sueing he Caola backounry i the egheeh ceury o exle hstoc geogapher D. W. Meinig found tha t w "a oose pate o ehnc disrcs compis ig Egish d Scotish ades, mxed-blood packes and hutes, em nans and renegades om hlf a dozen nda ies, vaous religious secs om noher Euope, and so foh Slavehodg Caol rough  dians, Euopes, ad Aricans o cose worg relaonshps ht de

anded deveopment of new ways o iing. "Nor was this ita process smply an ecouter amog three peopes, wites Menig "Thee wee Euopeas om severa souces especaly Eglad Irelad, adFrce, as  well a Wies it years o expeence in the West ndes; oc ndans, dia slaves rom vaos and trbes, ad Blacks rom many parts o  Arca, some of whom had spent some seasos o yeas n the  Ameica ropcs Colonia socet deentiated tese peoples to categoies by rce status occpation, wealth and prlege, b n daly lfe tey woked cosey together in a emerging reo ecoomy  sc condtos, a cosderable amot of racia mixg evtably occured On the othe edg� o the content, te nothweste Pacc coast sea otte trade attracted glish, Yankee, Spash, ad Russi traders and sailos o sips tht sometmes cluded Acans, Asans, ad Sandwich sanders amog tei crews hese me met and ote mated with Cinoos, Nooks, Bella Coolas,  Aleuts, and others eaing a mxed pogey Some peope advocated c itermage as a way o allevating ethnc and cultural cocts and acceeing a uo of dia and Eopean societies e Frech experimeted wth c terg as a insumet o mpe building"in ode that .   they may orm oly oe peope and one blood Purita mister Coo Mather reerred dispaagingy to the  war  parties tt raided New Engld om Cada in the seveteent centr as composed ofhaFenched dias ad hdiazed ech Eve in  Aglo-Amerca, thee were propoents of"miscegeatio. gis ravee John Lawso ecommended coexstence and temariage a te best way to avod conict"ciiize ndans, and ga knowledge o the dias' skill n medicine and sgery hey would"become as oe People with us e said. One hdred years ate, homaseero echoed awsos sentmets At a eception for visting Delaware Mahca and Muee Indans in i802, the  presdet hed ot te promse of a ew uio o new peope  the dis  wod agee o ve under Ameican law ad stitutons: "ou w  ite  yourseves with s jo in ou geat concs ad orm one peope with us nd we shl all be Americans you wi m wit us by marage yor blood  wil m  wit ous and l spead with ours, ove this great isand Jeesoan philthropss uged acial blendg, to coporate ndns into the ew socey but the eites o ndan-wte dealings and Ameic ndian  poicy  te ealy epbic teded to excude rathe tha incde

NEW PEOJ,ES AD EW CIETIE

179

Indns. Raci inermarrages did occur, bu hey gave se to epithets le "squaw man and hf-reed, ad famies wih ndian ancesy oen denied that component o heir hertage Sometmes he ospng of Ida and Eropean parens deveoped heir own comunites and thei own ehc deny In e souher Appa  lachians, the Meungeons deveoped om a roner popuation of dan, Acan, and Eropean peope. The Lumbees of Norh Carona, who su  vve today as the agest Indan goup east of he Mississipp and he ages trbe not formay ecogized by he feder govermen, nteraed wi outsiders om rst contacts One heory taces heir orgis o Engsh coonists rom Roanoke and Coatan Idas nea Cape Haeas; oter theores sugges Cheoee, uscarora o Soa origis Thogho New France, tappers and raders ved wih ndian women,  poducng whoe commies of peope o mxed ancesry Ognay ap  ped o the ospig of rench thes and Cree Inda mothers, he e Ms came o refer to a chden o ancoda ions. Mis peopes deveoped heir own distnc ces and ways of ife, ad hey were impo tan n the histoy of he Canadn Wes According to Caadian hstoran Denys De�ge, the Ms demonstted tha a syboss of ndia ad Eo  pean cutures was not imposse whies and Indans ed togeer, each ing each other o hun and a and peoping he wod of thei magnaon i ndoEopean and Amendian aes Atogh he Canadian gover menfor whom, says ege, Mts socety repeseed he vey anth esisdesroyed ta socey n he eteenh century, he govere today recognzes Ms as a dstinct grop o ative peopes  Intrcourse and nterarrage etween Indas and Euopeans occured mos often in areas o Spanish coonzao. The auhor of one chronce of te de Soo expedion of 153943 was a Peuvan meszo, Gaclaso de a Vega known as the nca. he son of a Spash conqstador and an ncan nobewoman, he was the rs of a new ce of peope born o uions be tween he Spansh conqeos and te Nate American peopes hey con quered. Spanish conquistdos n te Southeast adced dan women and ntrcouse was common and ntraiage not unsua a Spansh froner  posts whee tere were few spanc women, but Indian women went eguay o tade After Engish ad Indan aids rom he norh de sroyed te Spanish mssons n Forda n 1704, egee ndans ooded nto S Agusne,joinng he Spansh and ndan commnies there In 76, as

8

NEW WORLDS FOR AL

Pla of St Ausne, i762, hwig te multnc po o te y and te ocat te Ind Tw  rch. (C t  Historical Siey) 1ay a 350 Ia pep lv i haf a ze tws aru St Aut. Th ty a a  ur Saar a a ra,  wrke ut lbr aagmt lv tr a trma '�p a taa ba may" w Kal Deagn a tu tly rou  cu f ah cc"  Au ah s  a maa  lac w 1  ulary bw bth fe a lav la a a e a m m th m-ve ey war  Aa whh wa a a Nher ma emt  t mt tu ew  a Spa mltay  lal t  t w te a mx wt  frm a  vat  ru r ma a e b a m raa ac  sa rat at  a  m wt ac h b 

E EOL

AND

W CE 8

ed near the post Neverteless, the Idian popuon in nd around e  post contnued to decline whe he Spnsh d mestizo populaton grew rpidly. Whe the presido was esabished i 1776, aout 240 Pims ived around Tucso. I lite more ha tweny ye, the tow's demogrpc  proe chnged dramcaly to iclude some 8 peole of dverse oigis. By 9 he Indian population of ucso hd rsen to 289 but ony 78 of these were Pis; 2 were mgrant Pagos. A hundred or so western Apaches also settled  the area. The rest o the ares popultio-out 395 peopewa Spaish or mestizo. ve Americn depopultio and Spanish fecundy esured Hspc setement n souer Arzon. Whenju de Oate esbished the rst permanent Euroe coony  ew Mico he hoped to keep ndan and Spnish peoples nd societies sepae, nd for a log tme peole were ocialy ether Idis or Spsh owever Sana Fe ws 50 mes nd six monts' travel om Mexco Cy, and ispanc settle  New Spains isolted orther province, n hstoran Andrew Knut's words "coud ot esce almost total immerson n the ways and eliefs o he lands ovewhelmg Puelo moriy Interactio ad ntercourse produced ew w of living d new nds o peope tt saied to eng pont Spaih atemts to preserve ethnic nd cultural separatio As termaige nceased, peope o mxed ancestry roier atedas early a 6 a rancisca comaed ht "l the puelos are l o iars cildren. Spaniards created new ctegories to dei d dene the "new peope. The child of a Spanish fther ad a Ida moter was a mestizo; the chd o  Spanish father ad · back moer was a mutto e osping of  meszo faher and a Spash woman were cstizos and so on Obsessed with minaiing heir status in the New Word Spnards in eghenhcentury New Mexico distingushed between Sprds orn  Od San and hose born in New Sa, betwee Inds who spoe Spah and hose who dd not In Ramon Guterezs wods "There were deed ctegores or every possle combinaon between Snard Amer india ad Blc. I Spanish colonia Tucso eople were ctegorzed s Spaniard coyote morisco and muatto A Spaird who mted wi  Acn produced a multto a Spaiard who mted wth  multto produced a morsco Coyote proby deoted someone who ws three quarters In dan d one quarter uropea. As demogrpher er Dobyns notes however "y a complcted seies of mgs  Coyote coud also e /6 Idian 5/5 Negro ad 27/512 uropen. The ery roeraton of ·



NEW WORLDS FOR A

categoies ndicates the bredown of eors to keep Indians and Europeans separate and dstinct In a sociey where status and prejudice predominated, people o mxed ancesty tended, were possibe to ide their d hertage d empasze ther Spanish blood. Consequeny ndans who cod spek Spansh and  wore Hispanic coing mght be regarded as mestizos and many mestzos tred to pass a  white Spanis coo authorites apparenty sod "cer cates of witeness to ndans who had mastered enough Spanis language nd cuture so tey cod earn te money to buy the certicate There were even dierent categores of dans: geizaros occuped the owest rks of societ  New Meico Engish coonil authoies so passed egisaton to reguate te status of mixed and noned groups o people n Virgi Indian people declned i nmber and African slaves ncreased, causng the Engsh more coce  with minaning ther posion They paced Indians n the infeior categoy of nonwits crting their bit to bear arms to test n court to marry eey, nd not to be ensaved In 1691, Virginia passed a aw prohibting  whites om intermarr ing wth "Negroes Muattoes and ndns Indans  were expected to occupy societ's owest r, og with slaves and "Free Negoes n 1705 Virnia ncuded Indians among the people sbect to its "bac code A elsewere n the Sout, wte socey moved to create a biraci system, d ndi peope found emseves cosgned to the wrong side of he diiding ine in wite eyes and accordng to wte aws tey were "bac Whatever te sts race-coscous whtes accorded them ndan peope of med ancestr became a permanent and gowing part of te mosac of Amercan sociey. Indeed, as their umbers pummeted, intermarriage was one way o bosterg popuaon i ose Indan societies that were matrlin e chldren of an Indian mother wre considered members of er c and tbe, no matter who te father  was However itermarrage s a wo-way stret dian popuaos dsplayed growing evdence o European ancestr and m Europeans who were becoming Amercans ad ndian ancestors  whether or not tey admitted t

e new socetes that Indian peope abited after European ivaso oen were ling apart. Economc dependecy, coholism, demographc

E' POPLES AND EW SOCITES

183

disastr, poltical realgnment according to European ather tan Indian interess, and seady cultul assault; a served o destabize Native commu nies. Indians' traditions polical scres socal arangements and  vaues, which had povded gdance and uniy n the pas ced nprece dented chaes Some comunes dsappeaed from hsoy as tbes nd heir members resfaced  colonial socey and coona ecords as "peopl of coor or poo peope of Indian descen petonng he auori tes fo relef or tyng o eke out a ving Thers was a new world of povery dependence and deb, and they lved subject to colona laws ather an by ribal custom Inda-European neracions poduced new peopes and tey podced new commutes Europeans creaed he concept of "Indn Euopean  pressures lso created new Indan "rbes. As seen in capter 7, the reper cussions of Europen vasion warfae disease and Cstiant, wc dslocated ndan peoples thoughout Nor merca geneed new com munies d shattered od ones Many tbes were postcontact ceatons: eiher they emerged o of he demographc chaos produced by Eropean nvason or they exsted s n e nds of Europeans wo needed some orgning label fo e bewderng array of family bands clans, temporary and permanen aiaces, coalons o vages and oose confedeaces hey enconeed n Indan merca Unaccstomed to deing wt ud bd sociees Euopeans pressed Inds to centaize and ncton as polcal unts and some ndn groups came to operae ie the "tibes Europeans assmed tey wee The Spansh nvason o te Sotheast n he sxteenh ceny poduced massve tansfomatos  India socetes. When rs enconered by Europens, tes Jerld T Mlanch the natve peoples of intror La Flord must have been ncredble o behod. Powel Mssssppan chefs demnded ibute and redistibuted resorces among he oowers Cos tumed in magncent eathe coas and beauy cfed accorements eecng ther hgh sts they went n canoped tes ced on ther subjecs shouldes and me the Eropens Great cefdoms le Coosa n Georgia, hed more tn thrty thosd inhabants. opulous towns con tned plazas and temples bui atop earten mounds By the ate seventeen cenuy, he power chiefs and hei densey seed chedoms had dsap  peared only mounds and ovegrown ns remaned n slen testmony o he civilaons tha ad once orshed there The Indans who srvved

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the Spaish onslauht "reoranized hemselves to meet the chleges of e mode world. When the Fech and the Enish penetratd te sothe eror, reees rom he chiedoms ad ew immirans had rebilt o  wee rebuildin new societies om the ri. . Lvn  eatvey smal  viaes Indan peope baded toee i loose conederacies, ecom the Caawbas Creeks Cherokees Chocaws Chcsaws and oher bes ad conedeacies o the So The ndan peopes encounteed when Enish traders rst penerated the Southeast ater the oundi o Chaes ton (1670) were aleady ''postconact societes. The new socieies o North merica wee ethnicay as wel as tibaly mixed ndan communies at adopted captes aded a European strand to her sol brc And many new communtes espelly on he ne  were most m ther beinnis muliehc soceies iin at Chaes tow New Hampshre, then te nothe onte o New Enand, as a gr in 74 Susanna Joson ond ne o ten famlies ivin in cis, d numerous dias assoatd n a endly manner with he whits oo in back i her old ae to hat ime she reclled: n these days ere was such a mxture on the oes of savaes ad setters, wito estbshed laws to ove them, ta the state o society cano easy e descred. n 774 Governo Parick Toy of oida sd the ndans in his coloy wee settled amonst our Plantatons ey have dy tercose  hem, d a as  were a Peope interwoven with s May new commities at emeed om the meein of Idias ad Europeans were short-led socia xpeimens n New Enand in he eay seventeeth century homas Moron estaished a otoous setemen a MeryMount, where Enish men led wth Indan women Puita aho  es were lmed at its impcations for Ensh cams to speority and s hreat o ther ceati a new Enand and they sppressed it Goveo Wllim Bradfod companed tat Moron and s oowes "set p a may  pole, nvin the ndian women or her cosots dr and danin out t lie so many aiies. ccused o focain ith Natve women ad spply uns to the ndias Moton was arested and xled n wese Massahusets Eih mssioes in he 173s esblshed a mode ms son commnity at Stockbrde whe Christan ndias lved losde Enish amiles and shared town ovement wth them But he Enish  populaton increased; the ndan dd not. nda ands became Ensh and ndias were radually excluded om town overnment By the end o he

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Revoluton, Stockbidge ws a white town; t stl s. What hppeed at Stockridge occured time nd agi across the couty. I oter areas, the ind of socety that so larmed Goveo Bradford d tat  proved so sot-led at Stocridge was more commo and more eduing Many ows d setlements that grew ito Amerca's cties bega  ife as tradng posts wch by ter atue encouaged cose iteaco of Ids and Europeas Scheectady, New York, fo example was on te overlad oute betwee Iroquos vlages ad Dutc setements on the Hud so Rive The commuiy o Dutch oigis ad Dutc peope was re queted by Iroquos Indas Frec trappers, Afcan saves, and, om he 1690s Egish sodiers ad seters e eghborg Abany, t  was a com muny �ee wites ad Indis led togehe taded wth eac oter slept i the same rooms, ad ate at the sme tbe" Counless ciies tows and illges acoss America bega n sma fasion, spingig up o emeg g om exsing Idan setlements at te juncton of tade outes that bougt togeter dsparate peopes Quebec Montea, Abny Plade  pia Ptsbug Caleson Detroit St Louis ad many otes a, at one ime or aoer, depeded o te r tade ad te Idas wo  provded most o ts pelts ad ts mn- nd woma-powe Frech outposts i te Mdwest  were ofte cosmopoitan commuites where Fencmen met I dias om far and nea as well a  people rom dieret pats o Europe ad Aca Detroit a muletic metropols  the twetiet centuy, was a multietic communy in e egteenth cery. We Seur de la Mote Cadilac ouded Deoit  1701 e paned to sette Idas and Euro  peas togeer, so tt ey woud ntermarry and fom oe people. A vstor to Fot tt i 772 descried e ture ciy o Pittsbugh as a vlage of about fory og ouses te headquartes of te Inda tades, and e resort o ds of deret & dstant tibes Auguste houteau and hs youge boter Pere te Fouding Family of St ous," estalsed a amy fotue ad a ciys tue o e bass of trade wi te dians o e Mississippi ad Missouri Vleys e patter was repeated aer west Reviewng the nneteecetury orgs o Pueo ooado  tde hstora Pau C Pips wote: he crde adobe fot ow as Pueblo ws home to a bizarre melage of Ameican adveturers, Frech coueus de bois Caadia Ioqois, Mexc trappers and tades egroes, and Euro  pe mmgats" Ameicn cites today ace caenges at frighte may as tey t to accommodateor excludepeopes of dieret ethnc bac-

186

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AL

Penc sketch of a v  r Voe oud •5, by Jo A. Th ld hd a e o a gop omo o Ii, o  we   m  who d to the 1s o an d  (at gh) d  ao n v. Cou  Vlm L. Cn Lby

grunds. Ths s t tly  wentith�nuy phno1: h cl f th hlg, nt t hllng lf� i dd

N l dd Indns nd Eurns rt n st in h v rld t mrgd tr ntt ut itg it xnd gnit hg nd rndd t  nuns h r gtt f di sits urs but ndn s lt utl imrt in th ts  t urns h sught  dl tm  987, t nuri afr th dtn  t Cttt  th Ud Stts t US Sn ssd  rlutn tht kn\ldgd 46t hstri dt hh ths Rubi  t nitd Stt  Ami  t th rquis ndry nd thr ndn tin r thir drtn  lightnd dmrat rinl  grnmnt nd th l    itn  idndt ndin ntin?' hrtl ftr rl run hr igd n n ltt  h New Yrk Tims, rtzg th St rlui r it misu  istr but t tn tt t us rdd th mdl r t U nstitut hs rd ulr-t is n rtl  th in m ir. s  b tt th unr d th rui

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syste1n pont to evdence such as te speech of he Onondaga oraor Ca nasatego o te commssioners o Vrgna, Mayland and Pensylvana a he Treaty o Lancaster n 744. n e nal day o e conerence (roncally July 4) Canasatego urged he colonss to seek strength n unty: "ur wse Forefathers estabsed Unon and Amy beween the Five Nations; hs has made us ormdable; s has gven us grea Weght ad Auoty wth ou neghborng Naons, e sad. We are a powerl Conederacy and by your observng the sane ehods our wse orefahers ave taen, you wl acqure es Strengh and Power herefore \vhatever efalls you never fal out one wt anoter. he message was not los on Benjamn rankln, who ater wrote that "t would be a vey strange ng  sx atons o gnoran Savages shoud be capable of fonng a Scheme for suc a Unon, and e able o eecue t n such a anner as tat t has subssed [for] Ages, and appears ndssoluble; and yet a le Unon sould be mpactcabe for ten or a Dozen Colones to vhom t s more necessary nd must be more advan tageous ome wrers nss at te Iroquos syste nd ndan deas of lberty provded ranln and oter leders the ratonale for te Anercan Revouon As had te roquos, he oundng faers created a system of government  where power was dsrbued not concentrated, were new trbes or states could jon, wee authory was derved rom te people, \vere ndvdual eedoms, group autonomy and eedom of speech were protected but  wee member groups uned on matters of conmon concern ke he rouos eage of Peace, te nted States became a haven for regee people Evdence hat the founders coped te roquos node n drawng up te Constuton however, s largely crcumstatal and nferental e fact ta hey ew aout te league and he remarkabe roquos system does not mean at hey soug to emulate t here was much n te roquos matrneal can-based system tha te founders cose no to use they rejected the dea of government by consensus ecluded women on par tcpaton, separated church and stae and proteced ndvdual rather tan communal propery rgs f he founders looed to the ndans o elp buld he new naton  was e ndans' lands, not ter sysens of govern ment, hey were nterested n he debate oer te roquos and te Constuton s part of a larger queson concernng ndan nuences on Amercan lbety Even as Euro peans sough to dsplace and destroy ndan socetes some found muc to

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admire. Indan ways seemed o nltrate heir own societies, and, a he very eas hey were exposed to Idia deas and soc values. To say hat  Amerca democracy emerged as a synthesis of European and Indan poli ca radions may be an overseme but o deny  may be placng too much weigt o he wrien record: deas and customs ed o seep sbly om one grop o aother raher than being formay ackowledged Sch ndirec ineces are dic to eslis wh ceray bu tey would be n keeping wth the ow o Indan ways o Ero-Amercan societes Many ave abued o Aerican Indans an mpact o European soca ogh From Roger Wiams and e baron de Lahotan  he seven eenh cenu o  omas Jeerson d Benjam ankin  he egh eenh, and on o he presen, umeros wers ave fond mc to admire n Indian socees rench mssona Marc escarbo compared he socl ls of Eropea sociey wih he mers e foud n icmac conies: "If oly throgh consdertons o hmty and because tese people o  whom we shl eat are men like orseves we ae reaso o be roused wh e desire o undersanding ter modes of lie Monge Rosseau, and oe sed Indian socieyha s heir udersandg o tas a yardsck by  wic o jdge Europea cvizatio Cnadan soran Aled Baey sggesed a by erng renchmen o he inequies in heir ow society conac wh the Indians was "a remoe precrsor o e rench Revoutio Hsoian Wiam Brando arges hat Indan noons of berty lered no Eropean socia hogh va repors om he New Wod Seneca Jon Mohawk and Onondaga Oren yons clam democracy as an "export tem, perhaps ave Amerca's greates coruo to he world, wc toppled Eropea moarches and resuled  e formaon o te Unied Staes. Wend (Huron) schoar Gorges Sio sees a degenerate Europe ding e srces of i own regeneration  aive Amerca "A dehmzed Euro pean civzaion; e wries, bega o redscover e reliy o uma ture and, wih he ep of ts Amerindan eache, lead e rest o te world long he pah of word socaizaon eray some  Amercan cooniss ad Euopean posopes were impressed by the eedom egaliransm and communal ethcs they saw n India sociey Indians ed in nctiong democraces enoyed "ara rghs and eedom and were_no brdened by "nnaua monarchy and govermen oppressio. Roger Wims noed a Indan chefs  ew Egland ed by "gene persasion ad wod do nohing "uto whc the

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 people e ese." Del Gookn greed  India schems won nd eted suppo by cg ogngly nd longly  uo the people, les hey shoud dese hem." Wm Penn sd  nd chefs moe by he Beh of er People" Tde Jmes Adr wo ved mog he nds of e Souhest befoe e Reoluon, sd he ds' whole costuon  ehes nohng but ley." rde John Long sd he roquos lugh  when you t o them of Kngs; f� hey cot recoce e de of smsso wh e dgy of mn" Cdwlder Code sd t ec rouos non ws n Absolute Repuck y self, goeed  ll u lck rs of Wr nd Pece y he Schems or Od Men wose Auhory nd Power s gned y d conssts whoy n te opnos of te est of he Non n he Wsdom nd ntegty. They ee execute her Resouos  y Complson or Force Upo ny of er eope" A Frenc ocer, wrtng n he closng yes of he Frech regme, commeed t Fencmen who led mog ds foud geer eedom tn tey d ee  ee c cusomed t:" Lery,' tey sy, s o wee more perfecly ejoyed,   whee no sordon s nown, bu wh s recommeded y nu reson, he eneo of old ge, o he respec of perso me. " A Mowk sd moe smply: We he no forcng es o lws mongs us." ndn commues wee lg proof h hum bengs could costc d mnn socees bsed o bery, exmpes of polcl sysems were hose who goeed deed ter uthoy from e people. Some colonss  we t le i hese socees, nd some wres docted ecg helhy doses of ndn-syle feedom nd equly to er own g socetes. John Lwso mnted th ds were e fees eope n te Wod," nd he  urged seers o emute her wys Some Euopes sw n dn socees pcces t pu clzon" o sme he Clude Chuchee ws mpressed y he sng osp ly, d pence n deng w cldre he wessed  dn commu nes n e," he sd, ll our fthes d e Frenc who he led wt he sges cosder h lfe ows on more gey mog hem th wth  us." Cecoeu mned tht ds d  er socl bod some thng sglly cptg d fr supeor to nythg o be bosed of mog us." n mred cost o urope, wee wel nd poey exsed sde by sde Recoec mssoy Gbre Sgd repored ht he Hurons mke ospy ecpocl nd re so elpful o nohe t hey  pode fo the eeds of a, so  hee re o poor eggrs  y of er

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towns nd vilges." Wilam Wood, nEngld"Pect, repoed hat the Indans were eddy to communicte he best of thei wah to the mutua good of one another Roger Wiams pointd out ht, n contrast to European socey ndins d no bears mongst hem, nor fteesse chidren unpovided or. Revoluionry wrir Thoms Paine sad tht ndian soceies acd any of those speces of umn sery which poverty and want present to ou eyes in a the tows d steets of Euope Saing n ndan socees ws not  idel; t ws an obligaon.Peope acquied ono nd estbished reciproc retions by ving tngs  not by cumung em. Obseng ow an tem given to an ndn my ps weny hnds before it stics" Wiam enn sid Weath ccate ke the bood a prts ptak." Resal to she garded s ansoca even ose beavio: in 1712, Cree ndians around Hudson By ed seven Frenchmen who woud not shre food nd ammution wit  bnd of ndians who wee ·on he  verge of ston. ndis hought Euopens  wee sesh and uncaing mny Euopes fet tat ndns wo gave hngs awy ad ied to get ah _ed wee shtless nd mrovident." Many nda socees so accorded women and chdren  measue of espect unusua in Europe n societies where women produced food s we as prepared t, hei economic oe seems to ave trnslted nto ger sttus than tht of heir European or coonia counteparts. rouoian women n paticur xerted an nuence undemed of by Euopens. A re uhory s vested  em woe Joseph Fan�os Ltau n te seventeenth century. e nd e eds nd ei aest a beong to the ey e he sos of the Councis and he rbrs of pece nd of  w    he chdren re ther domain ad it s rough ther bood tat the orde of sucession s transmtted. Whe women gave nd sustned ife risg crops nd eng chidren n e vges men took fe ghng nd hunng way om the lges. Gender etions oten chnged fter contact wth Europeans Women's pacpion n pubc rs somemes decined snce Euopens nsisted on deing w men, and he new demnds generated by te  ade nd e nceased absences of men on unng d wr expedons pced ddi oa economic budens on women Euopens nterpetd egtran gender reons as a ac of soca nd my heracy, and they sougt to subodate women i ther progr o estrctung ndn societies ong European ines men not clan mohers must dominte socey w

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Europe tavelers equently oted hat Indan peoe were indulgent  arets eschewg coporal usmet i child-rearg. Cabeza de Vaca said "ese eople love he osrng more t ay in te word ad treat tem very mildly What attactd de Vaca in the sixtent century, however, armed Puitans in he seveteent cetur They feared te eects o the New Word and its ndan inbiats, ad tey worried that in uiding a new "cviizatio i America, tey mgt ecome ie te ndans tey sought to displce e Puin mster Cotto Mater lmentd hat "to' te t Engs panter of tis county ad usuly a goverment and a discilie in their mies tat ad a suciet severy i it, yet, as if te climate ad tugt us to ndanize te etio o t is ow suc that it seems woy ld aside, d a fools dulgece to chlde is become an epidemic miscaiage of te coun ad lke to be attded with many eil consequeces crease Maer also lmentd te decine o mily gove met d te dgece of aets ad masters towd cde nd ser  vants: "Crsns in s Lad ave become too lke uto the dias e said Sbordinatio o cde, as of wome, ws part of the invaders agda for ndian socey Neverheless travee oted backcountr settes often seemed to folow di eles  ter indulgent eatmet of cdren Colonists wo orowed om dia societies ad shook o the re stats of easte elites ceatd what scolas of Frenc-Caadian stoy call "new soci tpes Denys Del�ge notes that one c oy image e impact of egitaa ad eedomlovg dia societies on coueur de ois who genery wee he sos of ideed sets ad oher memers of te underclasses. Some Europeans oud ierty d equa more reat ening ta attctve nd endeavoed to keep hem out of the socetes tey  wee uilding Oelge ots to te colons' dilemma "It was te  ver exstence of tese eatvey egaltari societies, so dierent i teir strcture ad socal ationsips om those of Euroe that xecised the geatest uece on te ewcomers ad, at te sme time peled em most  e egalitari natue of dian societies was aagoistic to te class societies of Euroe ndividu reedom theateed to udemine patte o earchy dscipine d sefrestrait. To contemoaies, the edom of ndan sociey was argely heet  wat tey saw as a wderess evo ment,  were land ws pei ad colonal auor was wea  te seveteeth cer, Wilam Hubbard worred tat te sete scatteed

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aong New England's ontier wee contnted o live whout, ya desrou o shake o a yoake f Gomt,  boh sced and Civil, and so Tns foring themseves as mc as we they d ino the mannes of the In d hey led amongst" In te 1750s Los Atone d Bouganlle com  paned that Montcalm's sodies became oupted .y te xampl of the Indans and Canadans eatng an ai pmeated with indpendnc. Te pates of commnal sang eadeshp dpendent upon he good w of one's follows inddua t and egaliaa raions tha ed  many ndn socetes contasted staky wth th ion of society atcated by Jon Wnthop in a sermon to flow Prtns aboad h Arbel: God Almigty . ath so dsposed of te Condion of mankind as in  tmes some must be rich[] some poo some high and emnen n  power d dgy; oer mean and n sjcon" Th colon and occa sonal son of deent concepts of socie is pat of he Ameica sto ica epeenc, but ow far Euopean coonss or American foundng fahes went n adopg Inda ways as ey moded Winop's son is dclt t say. Awarenss and evn admaton of Indan poica sysems and socal etics did not me tat Europeans wold adopt hem as pema nent featues of the new soces hey wee ceang Iigrnts ended to cng to many of the ow ways and to adop nw ways of fe wen and fo a  long as i sued hem t do so Ga Nash eiews h process y wc admed values came o be suppessed: Idealsc Ero saw e wd  of ot Aa as a   w d o tals s-sen Eoas mt n a nw f ntd aod t ayed u vta vs of reciocity pitlt d ommn.Yet a m pasd and Eopeas ca mo  mrous it cm vdnt at  oe  o ca wo s  ed t val w  o wo w  dv om  ad   ndas smd to mody t s s lmos ho eo  w cooz Eoas atm to d a soey with mla ca ass we bin led in t oo directo y  at a dc aond emowd ddlsm dstaosnss adz mn of wat d  xotaon o o mas In h end European mpea ambions settemen pattns aws ad tons prevad at th epene of deastc noions hat a truy nw  wod cold be ceaed tha ncorpoated the bes of Indan and uopan

NEW PEOLES AD NEW CIT

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sociees. Ultmaely, the invades of Noth Ameca succeeded in the go of bilding new societes hat wee moe ike he od ones n Erope than the Natve societes they encounered in Amerca Nevetheless those societies developed where Native Americn oots r deep. How much of wht was new i them deived fom he hman envon ment and how mch fom the physca s dict to scean, t the early settles hemelves oen egrded Indans and "wdeness as nsepaa le. Eope cooiss le he ndins whose wod they invaded  wee compeled t co od and new ways, to experiment and innovate s  wel as dhere o tditons o gidance Although mny soci expeimens did not edue by he end of he coloil ea Eopens ndns, and Acans had a ceted new societies Ech one, in James Meell's wods w sima to, yet ve deent om, ts pant clte The New Enand town meetng is a fa cy om Winthops vision o an odeed and odely societ} and dispays moe attbutes of Algon goveent by consenss hn of Pian govenment by he diviney odnd

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NEW WORLDS FOR .AL

Concluion ·+ .



New Americans and First Americans

A CCORDING

rader John Long, Sir Willam Johnson was once sittng n council wih a group of Mohawks when "he head chef old hm he had demed ast nigh ta he had gven him a ne aced coa and he beleved t was the same he en wore. Johnson smed and asked e chef he realy dreamed t The Mohaw assured hm he had "We hen sad Sr Wiam oseing Indan cusom "you mus have i Immediately he pued o hs coa and gave it o he Indan who eft the councl wel  pleased The next ime they met ohnson told he chef "hat he  was no accus tomed to dream ut tha snce he met hm at the counc he had dreaed a  ver suprsng dream. he Indan ased what  was "Si Wliam wh some hesaton tod him he had dreamed hat he had gven him a tc of and on the Mohawk Rver to uild a house on and mae a seement etendng aou ne mles in length long te anks. he che smied and todJohnson that f he elly had deamed i he shoud have i "u tha he  would never dream agan wt hm for he had ony got a laced coat whereas Sr Wiam was now entled to a arge bed on whch his ancestors had frequenty sep Joson ook possession o te land apparenty some sxy-s housd acres on he Mohawk Rver y virtue of a deed he chefs signed "and gave them some rum to nish e business he sto appeas n several versionshe Mohaw s usuay idened as Hendric u anoter renditon eatures Conad Wese and Shice  lamyand may be apocpha bu it ustraes a process repeaed tme and agan in eary Ameica: Europeans learned Indan ways to rther tei own TO NAN

195

goals and to help hem take ossessio of wa was once Indian couty As Ricard Sloki poits out, a recurre caracter and a ote symbol i America mythology is te "froter ero, wo as knowledge of bo I dia ad wite ways, but who ever que becomes an Indian imself. Someimes e works as a mediaor, but more oten e nctons as cvliza to's most eece isme agais savagey-a man wo kows ow to thnk and gt like an Indian to rn teir own meods agaist em Sloki ad i mnd ctioal characers like Haeye i James Fenimore Coopers Lt of he Mhicans, but isory rses umeros examles: Bejamn Church, Robert Rogers, Daniel Boone, and oers Uimately European power European numbers, ad uropea gems dicated hat Euroeans would prevai  e stgge for early Amerca ough we ad  where e issue ng momenarily in e baace uropean adatato of Inda ways oe eled tip te scales  42 ere were no Idas in merica, only Naive people By i8oo, the descendats of those original iabitats were called Idias Tere  were far ewer of tem, and mos lived i ways udreamed of by eir ancestors and o a racon of their aciet omelads e peole responsi ble or teir decle had tae ad alied Idian ways as tey oo over the Indias lads Despe teir deermiato to remain wo ey were, tey had also changed As ames Atel as sown, the dia presence i Amercas pas ro odly saed the ways i wic ealy Ameica histoy olded Euro  eans ad o tae accout of dias i eir wars dplomacy ad daily lives ey lived alongside Indans ad ad to ow someig about them But they did o mos of em become Idias To have become ly Indian the coloss would have ad to thk le Indians, to  ve te same tigs ta e Idins vaed, and mos importat, to idet emselves as dia ad eir ture wth naive society. O the cotray, Purias in New Egad, coloiss i New Frace and Sais nobles i New Meico sed Idias as a o to help themseves idet wha ey were o hey  wored at remaiig Engis, rench ad Spaish Nevereess the vey eorts not o change idcated tha they sensed e ressres to cage ey did not become dias, but hey dd become somethng other a wa hey, or their acesors ad bee e New Word brought ew denites for all: tere were o Indians unl Euroean vaders  lumped hem all ogeter der a sigle ame; ere were no

196

NEW WORLDS FOR A

Americans unl dscotene colonsts ooked to what dstnghed hem om he Euoea couneas.By he ealy ineeeth cenry, fome colonsts no oge thoug of themeve as Bth They wee Amecas French-speaking inbtas of the Bi cooes hat emane  the no og of emselves as Caans.Descedats of Haic settle n Native eole were formg a new Mexca naonl detiy To eJame Atel's meapor Eg cooists forge er patcua Ameican denty .. o an Inian anvi" I Ae's vew, Who he teay mpre of da cltre he cooss wold obaby no have been eady for evoltio  6, becae ey wou o have bee o fe sciely Amecnzed o stad efoe the wo a a epee na on Te Inan resece ecpate te fomato of an Amecan de . Hsan ie as to how fa he cooits ad goe  declang a ew coecve ideny y he me of e Revouon, t mos agee tha any ncve detiy they a evelope see fom e econe th e Ameca envromen an ts Indan inhabats Indans, oo were cocened bot ter detiy n s ew wol: We ae Indans, and don ish o be trasforme to whie men a grop of oquois o a misoary i i45. Lke he Eoean invaes na ad to work a remag who they wee As otwad mafesatons of cuue an ientyclong osng atte of speec economc acves, fom of uc wop, nd eve pyscal apeaacechanged at what mu smetmes ave een a iyg ae may Inan eope clg  he moe steadfasly to core value an ne stegsecoca eatios, cln membesps a kin network acent stoe tatoa beefs a tsat eed hem to sve as dan ed a vei of change Even as ey etaned ca ad bal ientes howeve some Nave Ame cas began  emace a ada" ienty  opposon o Eoeas The mltiial movement ed y Potac  3 ad y Tecmseh  the eay eeenh cen unted eole who ceasgy ee them selves as Iias memes of a dgenos Amercan ehc gop as well as of a arcla cl o tie ans ad ote eay colonts ene themseves n oppoion o nians ad das egan o dee wo they wee n oposio to Euoeans n many ways tough Inans wee becomng moe e Euoean a Euroeans wee becomng moe like da Euoean colonss borowed and adape om Indans o elp hem ve n a sbe the ew

NEW AMRICANS AND FRT MRNS

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 world. Thy appropatd Indian ways o te own uses ad came to rgard those ways, ulmatly as "Amrican ot Ida Bu wen ndians bo rowed and adaped om Eopans Eopans iteeted their stategs o svival as acts o cula sucde Tey assmd ta ndias wo changd casd big Indians ad ose wo survivd by adopng Eo pan ways becam "invsibl Most of he ew Amecans saw no Idians n their naton and saw noing ndian i mslvs I bcomig somewa k wat thy ad tied o desroy hey no oge saw anyhng disncv i Ida popl who had bcom somwhat lik hem and suvd I a soity w systms of acal dscimiao dvded hman beigs into "whts and "popl of colo old and nw Amecans ake on had eason o concea hr shaed Ida hiag ay Amca was a co woven fom may theads bt t dia stands at an hrog i av on bn gnod ogoten ad allowed o fad rom  ation's hstoy Indian popl gadally ad iexoably wee sqezed ou of t omelands ad o o e pict as uopas sttld alongsde tem ten dispossessed thm, and ly disgardd hem The new  Amercans sove to eclude he st  Ameicas om he w nation ty w bding nto wic may st Amcans meged aoymosy  Ameican isto bcame the stoy o uopeas ad i dscndas i  Ameica. Bt Indian peope ad ndia ways o if maid a pat of the naoal xpince. Dened centr-stage n  Ameica isto cp n mo m of opn coic Indians cotinued as tey ad o centes o mak history and paricipat n Amrican lfe.

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NEW WORLDS FOR A

Bibiographical Essy

The storcal iterature on coonal Amerca s vast, and the etnoistora ea re on te ndan peopes of eay Amera s exensve and growng pdy. Te  works ted here are med to tose ta consider formatve nteactons between Indas and Eropeans or povde eampes gven in te tet

Gen Wk, P, nd Intdun Readers famia w te work ofJa1nes Axe w recognize hs nuene on ths ook te's many wors ncde The Invaion Within: The Contest of Cul tu in Colonial North Amrca (985) the rst book in a projected togy and three oeons o essays on e ethnohstory o oona mera: e European and th ndian Essays in th Ethnohistory of Colnial Amera (98,  w pro  vdes the Moea de Sat-My quotaon as epgp); Aft Columbus Essays in the Ethnohto of Colnial North Amera (988) and Beyond 1492: Encounters in Colonial North Ameria (992)  ack Weatherford oes a ather moe popuazed dsusson of smar temes n Nativ Roo How th ndians Enrihed Amia (99) and ndian Givrs Ho th ndians of the Amea aformed the World (988) Crstope L Mer dssses the Spokan propey n pheti Worl ndia and Whits on the Coumbia Patau (98) mercan appeas o ndans as broer means are prnted n Con G. Caoway ed Revoluon and Coderation, n Aden T Vaugan gen ed. Ear Aman ndian Douments eaties and Las 607-78  vo 8 (994) FedeickJaon Trnes essay "Te Sgnance of e roner n Amer an Hstor was pubised n The Annual Rort f the Amercan Historial Assoiation for the Yar 893 and as een reprnted many tmes Fe Coen's omments are om "Ameanng he Whe Man n Aman Sholar  (9)

99

1-9, ad are quoed  Bce E.Joanse, Footten Founders: Benjamin Franklin, the Iroquo and the Rationale for the Amcan Revoution (982) Frank Sheton edis a collecon of essays A Mixed Race: Ethni in Ear America 993). Gary Nas explores he coson of culres n colonal Amerca n Red ite and Blac: The Peopl of ar North America,  3 e. (992) Rchar Whte, The Midd/ Ground ndians mpires, and Rublics in the Great Lakes Region 68 (99), is esseal for unersandg rencIndan elatos Te M ora and Ma Kaps xplore FnshDelawae neacons i e American Bacwoods Frontir An Ethnic and Ecoogica nteretation 989) Peer Kalm's obseaons are in Adop B Benson ed eter Kam 's ave in North Ameca 937) T H reen's essay "Creave Aapaons: eoples an  Ces s Jack P. Greee andJ R ole eds, Coonia Brtish America ssays in the New Histo of the ar! Mod ra 984); ames H Merrel oes The ndians New Wor Catawbas and eir Neighbo om European Contact throuh the ra of Remoal 989) ad" Te Csomes of Or Courey nans an Colonss n Early Amerca n ernar alyn ad lp D Mogan, eds, Strangers within the Ream Culra Margins of the irst Btish Empire (991) repned n hlp  Morgan, e. Divsity and Unit in Ear North Amica 1993) on Canup traces naonal oos n Out of the Widess The Emrgence of an American denti in Colonial New Enland 990) Dad  Webe ames Spasnan eraos n e anish rontier in North Amrica 992) a Hacke Fscher explores lral roos n Albions eed: Four Bith Folkwas in North Amerca 989)  which also ncles the remiscence of he Wes mgans n Pennsylaa .

Chapter 1 Imagining and reating a New World Soe Inan saements on he changng nare of her wol nclg Man ooms speec are reproce n Coli G. Caloway e, e Word Tued Upside Down: ndian Voicesom ar Ameca 99)  he speec of te Nachez s n Seymor eler ras an ed Trae in the ntior of North Amca, 62, by JeanBerard oss (962) O pre  Colmban Amerca, see, or eample Aln M osepy r, e, Ameca in J2: e rld of the ndian Peops before the Aal of Coumb 992), whch conans an ntrodcon by  Scot Momaay and a eploge by Vne DeloraJr Te Taos ueblo saemen s qoed by Alnso Orz n Feerck  Hoe, ed, ndia in Amrican Histo 1988) Kare Orah pperman ed America in upean Consciouess 1493-1750 995), cosiders he en o wch knowl edge of Amerca cased ropea thnkers o alte er ccepon of e wol, as oes oge Schlesger n the Wake of Coumbus The mpact of the New World on

2

BIBLIOGRAPHICA ESAY

Eure, 1492-1650 (), whch also provdes a cocse ovevew of e Europea reperussos of he "dsovey of Amea. Wlam Badon exanes Aman luenes o Europe  New Worls for Old: Repotsom the New Wor an Their Eect on the Development of Social ought in Euroe (8) Emerson Bake e al eds, Amican Begnnings Exploration Culture an Cartoaphy in the Lan of Noumbega ), provde a arographicbased dscusson of early encouers  Mae; tey lude an essay by e ae Ban Haey on aps as stuens o coques. Wos eamnng he enonena consequeces of Eropea vason and onact clude Wlam Cronon, Changes in the Lan Inians Colons an the Eolo of New Engn (83) om wh mh of e formaon n ths hapter s derved; Carolyn Merhan, Ecological Revolutions }fature Gener, an Science in New Eng!an 8) whch ares he sto of eoogal hage no nore modern tmes; ad Tmohy Slver A New Face on the Countsie nian Colonists an Sav in South Atntic Forests, 100100 (0) Wllam Barram's observaos are om hs ave rough North  South Carolina Georgia East & »st Foa (7) pas of wch are repred aog wh oer relevn  wgs n Gregoy A Waselov and Kan E oad Braund eds, Wiam Bartram on the Southeas Inians () Davd J Weber ncludes ecologca epecssos n hs ovevev The Spanh Frontier in North Ameca (2). Broade  pespeves are oeed by Aled Crosby n e Columbian Ehange Bilogcal an Cultural Conequences of 9 ) ad Ecoogcal Imperialsm e Biolocal Expansion of Europe 9001900 (8) Chales F. Caol exames ealy Englsh oads  e Timber Econom of Puritan New Englan (3) D W Meg oers a dieen pespeve n The Shaping of Ameria A eoaphical Perspective on  500 ars of Histor Vo 1, Atlantic America 00 8) Cvn Mans nsghtl b coroversal Keps of the Game nianAnimal Relations an the Fur ae (78) dscsses he sps of wdlfe, ds eases, ad Idas retaao Criues of Martns tess ae oeed n Shepad rech III ed nia Anima an the Fur ae 8) he ees o he mame de o e Northwes Coas ae suveyed  Douglas Cole ad Davd Dang, "Hsoy of he Early Perod,  Waye Sutles ed, Hanbook of North American Inians Vol  Northwest Coast (0) 3 O ndan uses of re, see Sephe  Pye, Fire in America (8) The dsusson of Choaw deer hg s drawn om Rchard Whe, The Roo of Denenc Substence Environment an Social Change among the Choctaws, Pawnees, an Navajos 83) Adopon o ad reaons to domest anmas are dsussed  Vrga Dejoh ndeso, "g Phlp's erds: ndans Colonss, and e roblem of Lveso  Early New Englad Wiliam an Ma Quart  3d ser  ():  Rober Beverley's omment on owhaan provdece s uoed n Heen C ouee, Pocahontas' Peope The Powhatan Inians of Vinia through Four Cenuies (0).

BILOGRAPHC ESY



Chapter2 Healing and Dsase The stadard work on Natve America medicine is Virg J Voge, Amican Indian Medicine (1970) Voge proides a exensive appendix "Ameica Indian Contribuons o Phamacology Jack Weatherford devotes considerae space to dan medicie in Natve Roo (99) Dea Snow edits James W Herick  qi Medical Boany (995) Boete Peoe H Heie Socke and Victoia Kreger eamine he contining roe of native ways of heaing in Medicine Womn, Curanderas and Women Doco (1989) Gadys ataqidgeon a Mohegan po  videss ists of pants and remedes in Fo/k Medicine of he Delaware and Relaed  vide Algonkian Indian (972) Maeen udele Schwarz epores how he Hanta virus  was tacked down in he Epaatory and edice Powe of History History Coping  wih the 'Mystey Iess of 993" Ehnohio 42 (995) 375-4 Jonahan D Sauers essay Chagng Percepon ad poiaton of New Word Pats i  oe i49280 is n Fredi Chiapei ed Fi Images of America: The Impac of he New Word on he Od 2  vos (976), 2:83-32 he dsingished Iroqois schoar Wam  enton traces the echange of knowedge n Contacts etween Iroquois Heraism and Coona Medicne: in Annual Ror of he Board of Regens of he Smihonian Insuion (9) nformation on medica pacces i Eoe ca e fond in Lawrence I. Coad et a., The se Medial adiion 80 BC o 10 A.D. (1995) he accon of he cre for scy y the Indians aroud Monrea is in Ramsay Coo io e Voyages of]acques Carier (1993). Denys ege discusses Norh Hron medicine i Bier Feas Amerindians and Europeans in Norhease NorheaseNorh America, 1601664 (993) Reen  hwaites ed. The Jesui Reaions and Aed Dom 73  vos. (896-191), icdes numeros oseaons of nave pacces and eiefs by Frech missioaries (he descipion of ron diseases and hei cres is om vo  33: 99).  99). Othe woks y eay tavees who pad parica ateton to India medicine and pant se ncude gh almage eer ed A New byJohn oyage o Calina by John Lawson (967); Seymor eie, tas and ed. ave in ean-Berad Boss (1962)  Adoh B he Inerior of Norh America 751762 y ean-Berad Benson ed Peer Kalm's ave in Norh America (937) Wiiam Bartram aves 1rough Norh & Souh Carolina Georga, Ea & Wes Floda (792) and  Atonio Pace as ad ed, uig Casloni Vaio avel in he Unied Sa of Norh America 178-787 (983) ohn eckeweder, Hisory Manners

and Cusoms of he Indian Naions who once inhaied Pennsylvania and he Neighboring Saes ( 876) dscusses Idia medicie and descries a swea ath eny ftss fts s accoun of his ce and his sojorn among he Aeas is in Naaie of he  Advenures Trave and Suerin� erin� of Hen Tuf (87) On Moy Ocket see uny McBde and Harad   Prs Wag the Medicie Line Moy Ocket a Pigwacket octor, in Roet S rmet, ed Norhea Indian ives

22

BIBLOGRAPHC ESSAY

i6386 (1996) 321-47 Helen H Tanner pode gimpe ino a eae' l in

"Cocochee, Moawk Medcine Woman, Amca Amcan n Indian Culture and Research Joual  3:  3 (979) 23-4  Adew L Knaut dice Hipanc reort t Pebl f medicne and eo e t dieae n The Pueblo Revolt of68: Conquest and Restance in Seventeenth-Ctu New Mexico (1995). Rchard I. Ford menn rade n pant in  n�Indan Exchange n he Sohwet in Alno Oriz, ed, Handook ofNorth ofNorth Amrican Indians, Vol. io, Southwest (1993) 711-22. Scholarip in demgphy and epidemiolgy a gwn dramaicly in he  pat tweny year yea r o o  ,  , and ola apply increangy piated teniqe to acieve ther etimate  precontat ndan ppaion and pstcontact rate  deine Nevethee, nideale diagreement remain regardng the preontact etmate Wllam H MNeill l at he rle  dieae in man ho in Paes and Peops (1976) Standard wrk or Nrt meca inclde Rell hnton American Indian Holocaut and Surviva: A Pulation Hto  since 149 (198) and The Cherokees A Poulation Poulation Hto (1990); William M. Denean, ed. e Native Pouaton of the Americas in 149 (976)  Aed Crb Crby, y, e Columbian Exchange Biologcal and Cultural Consequnces of 192 (972) and Vrn Si pdem a a Fat in the Ariginal Deppulan n America Wiiam and Ma Quartr  3 d er.  33 (976) 28999 Henry Dbyn Their Number Become Thinne Native American Population namics in at North America (983); and Jn W Veran and gla H Ubeake ed, Disease and Demgphy in the Ameica (1992) Wilia1 Badrd accont  dieae aong the nd  New ngand are in Haey Wih, ed, Wiam Bradrd, OfP/m outh Pantation (1962) Dean Snow, The Iroquois (994)  provide tatitc on dap peaance in Ab Maw decline Main T Smt rey  he trbe' dappeaance orgnl Depoplatn in te tontact Stheat, n Charle Hdn and Car men Chave eer ed, The Fotten Centures ndian and Europea in the Amrcan South, 5-170 (199) e detcton o the ndigeno pplaton of Foda  e theme o Jerald T Milanich, Florida Indian and the nvasion om ue (99). on H Hann die Apaacee poplatin clape n Apa achee  Land etween the Rivs (1988) Willad H Rollng rey the deva tatng impact o dieae in Arana in Ling n a Graeyard: Nate Amecan in Clon Aana; n eanne Waye, ed, Cultural ncounters in the Ear South Indians and upeans in Arkansas (1995), 386 Robert Byd examne deae on he Nrwet Coat in Demgrapc Ho, 177-1874' n Wayne Stle ed Handbook ofNort ofNorthh Amercan Indians, Indians, Vo 7 Northest Coast (99) 13-48 Ce Harr o at naie accnt  malpo n ie o Diater: Slpo and he Stai o egia n i782" thnohisto 41 (199) 59626 Boyd and Harri dagee t te iming and etent o pe epidec Pee C Mancl, Dead Medine Indians and Alcohol Alcohol in i n ar Amrca Amrca (995), rey the impact  lo n Naie Amerian iete dring he clnial ea Jame Caedy ey te ate  medine in the clnie in Medicine in Amca A Short Hto (991)

BILOGRAPHCAL ESSAY

23

Chapter3 Th Stuof StuofLi Li The analysis of Tapp's estate nventoy s in Stephen Potter, Commnes, Trb ute and Chi: The Develment f an Algnquian Cultue in the Ptmac VaU (1993) Extacts om Wlam Woods New England's Prspect (634) ad othe ealy Englsh colozaton lteatue ae epnted n Pete C Macall ed Ensin ing Ameica: English Plans fo the Colnizatin of Nth Ameica, 580-6 (995) The tadng at Hocelaga s epoted  Ramsa Cook ed The yages f Jacqus Cati (993). Denys Delge analyes un-Fenh tadg pattens n Bitter Fet (993) James B Langod s essay "The Coosawattee Plate is  Davd Hust Thomas ed Clumbian Cnsequences  vo 2 (990) 39- ames Atel onsdes the mpact o Eopean goods on seventeen-ety Indas in The st Consume evolutio  hs Beynd 1492 (992) ames  Meell dssses some o the hages  eeyday l n  he Customes o O Coun tey': ndans ad Coosts  Ealy meca n Benad Balyn and hlp D Mog eds Stanges within the Ream (99) Aexande Hamlton's obsea tios ae n Cal Bdenbagh ed Gentlemans P r: The Ieu of D. Alexande Hamitn, 1744 (98) Pee Pouchot's commet s om Ba egh Dnga ed Mmis n the Late Wa in Noth Noth Amica between Fance and Engand, by Piee Pouchot (99) Conenent ovevews o the nothwesten ma tme tade ae povded in Wcomb Washbun ed Handbok f th American ndians Vol  ndian-White Relatin (988) 375-9 ad n Wayne Sttles ed. Handbo of Noth Amercan ndians ol 7 Nothwest Cast (990), 9-3 Chstophe  Mlle and Geoge R amell exploe the spta assocatons o glass beads and othe tade tems  New Pespetves on ndan-Whte Co tt Cultual Symbols and Colonal Tade Joual f  f Amecan Amecan Hist 73 (988):  311-28

Among te may woks that dsuss the mpact o Natve Amec oods o Eoe s ja Weatheod Weatheo d ndian Giers (988) Motalty and emgaton gues esltng om the sh potato me ae om Keby A Mlle Emigants and Eils: end and the sh Exdu to Nth Amica (985) On ate Amean ming see R. ogas Ht ndian Agriultue in Ameca (987) oods new to Eoeans ae dscssed n eman Vola ad Caoly Magols Seeds f Change (199); and n elson oste ad da S Codel eds Chilies to Chclate: Fod the Amcas Gae the Wod (992) Pete veso lsts Pawnee cops n hs essay Takng Cae o Eath and Sk  n M osephy  ed Ameca in 192 Tamage ee ee ed A New Vage (992) awsos commets on con ae  ugh Tamage t Calina by Jhn Lawsn (1967) Dad Feeman Hawke Eday L in Ea Amica (988) and Tothy Sve A New Face on the Cuntside (990) lso discss ew oods Ncholas  Hadem eamines the adopto and nuece o ndn on  Shucs, Shocs and Hominy Bcks: Co as a  Way f  in Pinee

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BIBLOGRAPHCA ESSAY

Amica (98). Caro 0. Sauer, Seventeenth Centu North Amica (1980) taces he nothward spead of watermelons Changes  Hopi subsistence ae dscssed n E Chaes Adams "Passive Resistance: Ho Resposes to Spanis Cotact and Conques, n David Hst Thomas, ed, Clu1nbian Cnequnces,  vol  (989)  77-9; Caionia misson des ae examie in  De Nio, The Eects ects o o ean Conact on the Heath o lta Caloia ndians and obe L Hoove SpanishNave neaction and Accutuaio in the Missions oh in Thomas, ed, Clumbian Consequces  vol. 1. John Mack Faagher discusses te Indan ogins o backwoods hntng cte n Daniel Bone: The Le and egend f an Amrican Pione Pioneer er (992) David Hacket ische discusses canging and continng nglsh matera cultre n Albin's Seed (989) he poplation ges o ondon are om oy oe ndon A Scial Hto (995) ete Nabokov and Robet Easton povide an excelent oveiew o ndian lodging in Native Amrican Architetur (989). ete Kam's obseaions on changng syes o ndian housing and cloting ae in  Adol B Benson ed ed Peter Kalms aves in Nrth Amea (937). Nicoas Denys discusses changng ndian ways in W  Ganong ed  The Desrptin and Natural Histo of the Coas fNrth fNrthAmica (908) �he inomation on Oneida matei cultue at e time tim e o the Revolton is dawn om Massachsetts Massachsetts Histocal oce Bosto imothy iceing apes, ee 6 5774 that on the Cheoees om the achaeologca eors o invesigaions at Choa and Tanasee o o e ooding o hose ses by the Teco Dam in 979 n Geald F Schoed, ed, Overki Cheree Arhaeol at Chta-Tanasee (98) atick Campbel epots on his vist to Bant's ome on he Gand River in H H Langton, Langton, ed ave in the Intr Inhabited Parts Parts ofNrth ofNrthAmeca Ameca in the Ya 179 and 92 (937) Matel on changing cute n New Meico ncludng Apache payng cads s n Mac Smmons, Conad' Conad'ss and Essays n Dai e in Colnial Col nialNew Mexico (99) Daid] Weber  The SanhFrnti inNorthAmeca (199), is lso usel mateia cte o ndians and Spaniads, in loida for  ndestndng chging mateia afona and New Mexico on H Hann epots the case o counteeiing n Apalacee Conteters n St Augustne Foda Histrcal Quarter/ 7 (988)  5388 ohn Mchee,  The Surial of the ar Cane (975) povdes a lvely choncle o the conscion o brchba coes and o a 50nle canoe ti og the Mane woods Timothy J. Sannon sess new ways o loong at he cohing o ndians ad Euopens in Dessed o Sccess on the Moaw onte Hendick, Wi liam onson and the ndian ason, Wiam and Ma Quartr,  3d se se 53 (99) 34. The descitions o ndia adopions o roean cothing in he Maine aea are epoduced in Coln G Calloway ed Danland Encunters Indians and Eureans Eurea ns inNrthe inNrtheNe Ne En ( 99), and n Haald   Ps, umoi on he Wabaa ronte 5478 n Rchard W dd, Edwn A Chc and oel W Easman eds, Maine The Pine ee State State om Prehist t Prest (995),

BIBLOGRAPHCAL ESSAY

05

97-9 Examples of Indian clothng amog backcoury settlers are take om Co G. Caloway e Ameican Revolution in Indian Count: Cisis and Dive sity in Native Ameican Communities (1995) cha .

A

Chapter4 Wold ofDeams and Bible

 The ndamenta sorce for ay sudy of mssoay acttes  ortheaste North Amerca s Rebe G hwates, ed, The Jesuit Relatio and Alied Doments, 73 vos (18961901) Hey  Warer Bowde pesets a covenet oveew i Ameican ndians and Chtian Misions (198) Oher esseal seoda sources icde the works of James xtel especaly hs e nvasion Within (1985)oh Webser Gra sreys Canada deveopmets  Moon of Wintetime Missionares and the Indians of Canada in Encounte since 1534 (984) Deys Dege cosders Hro ad roqos resposes  Bitte Fet (993) George  T ker oers a ave Ameian dime  Missiona Conquest he Gospel and Nave Ameican_ Genocide (993) Samue Krand's expeees are recoued  W lgto ed, The Jouna of Samuel Kikland (1980) See acy Shoemaker "Kater Teakwthas Tor os Pah to Sahood  Soemaker ed Negotiatos of Change: Histoical Pespectiv on Native Amican Women (199) Waalacets "coversio speech recorded by Dael Gook, s  Htoical Colections of the Indians of New Engand (1792) O Waalaet see Col G. Caloway Waalaet and Kan cagams: da Staegy ad Leadershp on te ew Hampshre Froter, Histoical New Hampshie 3 (988): 6-9; o the Mahca move to Stockbrdge see Patrck razer e Mohicans of Stockbidge (1993) hap  A Frech ocers obseaos o the limited scess of mssoaes amog aces da aes are  Bian egh Duga, ed Mois on the Late Wa in Noth Ameica between Fance and Englan y Pie Pouchot (99). Sdes ha cosder how Inda peoples merged tadoal ad Chrsa beiefs iclde eeth M. Morrso, "Motagais Missoao  Eary ew race he Sycretc mperatve Ameican ndian Cultue and Reseach Joul 10:  3 (986): 1-23 ad ames . Roda "Geeratos of ath: he Chrstia Idans of Marthas Vneyad Wiliam and Ma ate!,  3 ser  38 (98)  369-9 Neal Sasbu dscusses Ida covers i "ed rtas T he rayg Idias of Massachsets Bay ad Joh lot, William and Ma Quate  3d ser  3 (197) 7- Henry W Bowde ad ames  oda, eds John Eiot's Indian Dialogues (1980) present a seres of ontrved coversaos bewee o  verted and ucoverted Idans prepared by oh Elot as a gude to the kd of ressace nda mssoares od epec o ecoter when tey etred to her peole Dael Mandell eamnes e epereces of oe pryg ow afer e heyday of the mssion ows n ew gad i "To ve more ke My Chrsa

6

BIBLOGRPHC ESAY

Neibors': Nack Indians n the Eighteent Centy" Wiiam and Ma Quar tr, 3d ser.  48 (1991): 552-79 Karen Anderson discsses missonar inteference  wth gender eations in Chain Her by One Foot: The Sbjtion of Native Women in eventeth-Cent New France (1991) Dad  Weber descrbes Franciscan missiona eorts in The Spanish Fron tier in North Amerca (1) Hen Dobyns discsses ancisco Garcs in panh Coial Tcson A Demoaphc Histo (976) chap  John H ann Apaachee (988) contains vauable inforaton on Spanish missions n loda as does erald T Mianch Fora Indians and the nvasion m Eupe (195) Daid Hst Thomas ed Combian Coeuencs  vol 2 (0) incdes a dozen ati ces on the same sbject ohn essel dscusses the Spanish and te Peblos in rom Crusading ntolerance to Pragmac Accommodaion, and  Charles Adams descrbes the Hopis in Passve Resstance both n homas ed Colm ian Conseqenc  vol 1 (189) The Domnguescalante exchange with the opis is n Ted Warner ed The Domnezscaante Joa: Their pedi tion thro Coorado Utah Aona and New Mexico in 16 (995) Ramon A Gtrrez Whn Jeu Came the Co Mothers Wt Awa: Maage exait and Power in New Mexico 50-84 (11) oers a contoversil discssion o the Spansh missionaries assat on the sexual pracces and cltre o the Pueblos Andew L. nat dscsses Pebo reactons to rancscan missonaies in  Peblo vot of 80 (195) Rbert H ackson ad dward Castio tae a citic oo at Spanish mssionary wor in ndians Franccas and panh Coonation: e mpact of the Msion stem on Caloia ndians (195) La roses obser  vaons are n Macolm Margoin no Monter in 78: e Joa/ of Jean Frano de La oe (1989) On David Brainerds epeences see Richard W Pointer Poor ndians' and he Poor n Spirit': The Indian Impact on David ainerd New land Qartr 6 (94): 4026 exander Hamiltons orney s n Carl ridenbagh ed Gtman  (48) he commn at Oquaga and Nichoas Cresswe's observatons ae discussed n Coln G Calloway e Amican Revoluon in ndian Con (995) On Yaest relaons see dwrd H Spcer e Yauis A Ctra H to (198) cha I. or normation on ather Rasles and the religios contest aong te Abenaks see Coin G Calloway ed awnand Encounts (9) chap 2 Cornelsaenen The French Relationship with the Vative Peopl of New France and Acadia (198) discsses the attempts by ater Na and Rasles to conom to nian ways Gregory vans Dowd discsses he spiral dimension o ndan wars o resistnce in A piited Restance The North Ameran ndian  for Uni 2 (1)oel Martn consders a siilar phenomenon in Sacred Revot The Mkogee' tl  for a New World (191) William Smmons and Che Sim mns eds New ight on arate Was (18) provide bacgrond on Narragan sett conversion Wilam Simmons documents the sval o native o beies oen

BLOGRAPHCA ESAY

07

 wh Europan and Aican iuncs, in Spirit of the New Engand Trb: Indian Hto and Foklore, 1620-984 (1986)

Chapter 5 New World Warfare and  a Nw Wrld f War Gnal stdis of warfar in ary Arica ind John  Fring, A Wilderne of Meres War and Waiors in Ear Amerca (1980) and Dougas Edwad Lea, As for Empire A Miitary Htor of the Brith Coonies in JVorth Ameria, 7-73 (973) Ian K S provids a n sdy of Indian and coonia concts  in Waaths nvaions of North Amera 1994) and Beaa Fort Wiiam Hen and the "Massacre (1990) Dani] Bati discusss British adjust mns n "T Adaptaion of th ish Army to Wdrnss War i 755-1763,  in Maarn U d Adapting to Conditions War and Soiet in the Eighteenth Centu (986), 56-83. Th ssays n R. Brian rgson and Ni L  W ihad,  ds, War in the Tibal Zone Expanding States and ndigeno Societies (992)  provid a broadr prspcv on t pa of uropans on naiv warr Don Hinotham givs a qu of  noion ha a uniquly Aian way of wa dvopd and a rvw of t iat in h Eay Amian Way of  War: connaissan and Appaisa, Wiliam and May Quarter  3d sr 44 (1987):  23 73  Camp's acoun of th ash w  oquois is in H P Bigg  d e rks of Samuel d Champain, 6 vos (1922-36) : 9-01; h rvan xracs ar rpind in Colin G. Caloway d., Danland Enounters (99) Dan K. Ricr cnsidrs th ipact of th nw war ad h scaaing Bavr Was of th svntnh nu n e Ordeal of the Longhouse The Peopes of the quois eagu in the Era of European Conization (1992) ap 3 Scaoadys inditnt  of Baddock is in a A Waa, Cond Weiser (1945) A hougprovokng anaysis of dirng onps of warfar as practid and  prcivd by Spaniards and Aztcs is psnd by nga Cndnnn ic and nnat Crty' Cors and  Conqus of Mxico Rrestations 33 1991) 65-10 David  Dy's ssay War in th SxnhCnry Sothas h d Soo xpdion in h ntror is in Dad Hurs hoas d. Coumbian Conequenes  vo 2 (1990 ), 211-22. Jrad T Mianich survys h impa of Spanish  xpdions n Forida ndia and the nasion m Europe (995) Spanish ac counts of h d Soo xpdiion ar rprnd in dward G Born d, Narrati of the Career of Heando De Soto in the Conut of Forida  2 vols (194) and o rcnty in Lawrnc A Cayon Vrnon as Knigh r, and dward C Moor, ds, The De Soto Chronices The Epedition of Heando de Soto to North Amria in -53,  2 vols (1993) aica Gaowy asssss h riabiiy of th  varous accounts of th d Soo xpdion in Chota Genes 0-70 (995),

 28

BIBLOGRAPHICAL ESSAY

chap. 3. Cabeza de Vaca's comments o the prowes of loda arcers are in Cycone Covey, t ad ed, Cabeza de Vaca's Advntures n the Unknown Intor of Ameca (1990) La Se ews on e useessnes of swords are quoted in Ank Muhsten La Sae, Exporr of the North Amrcan nie (994) J Frederick au discue he impact of gun in ghtig ire' wt irearms: T e go Powatn Arm Race i Eay Virginia" Amercan Indan Cure and Research Joua  3  (979) 33-50 we aric M Maoe traces smr deveopmets i eventeenhcetuy New Engand, wi moe atention o mitary techoogy, i e Skukng Way of War: chnoo and Taccs among the ew ngland Indans (99) Aed Cave gves the most compete acon of e Pequot War (996) Joh  Jurice dicuses e Westo war i he Weto Idian Ethnohto u (1964) 13-38 Frech atempts to desroy the Fox ae detaed n R David Ed mud ad oeph  eye e Fo Wa The Mquake Change t New rane (993)  R Baey examine ve n Indan Slave ad n the Southwet A Stud oSlae-takng and the  c n Indan Catves (1966) Francis enigs oe a scatig compario of ware a waged by Ida and uropeans in the seveteet century i The Inason of Amca: Indans, Coonam, and the Cant of Conqut (975) chap 9 and discusse te equo  War a ota war (chap 13) James te ad Wiiam C. Surevan dicus the edence for scping as a precotac penomenon i e Ukindes Ct or Who Iveed capng?" Wam and ar Qµart  3d er 37 (980) 45-72 On Idias in cooi aies ee Rcrd R ohson he Searc fo a sabe Idia A Aspect of the ese o Cooia ew Egad Joual of Amcan Hsto 64 (97) 623 Daie Mande cosders te impact o seice n ngih aries i Behnd the Froner: Indan Communtes n EghtenthCtu as  achuset (1996) Bougaivie view on rance Ida aes and te Seven Years  War  re in Edward  Hamon ed Advenre n the Wes: The Amercan Joua/ of ous Antone de Bouganve 7561760 (196 199) enry Dobyn discusse dan soder in e garon at Tucon and e mtaration of orer iman socey in Spansh Coona Tuson (1976) he ndan rerence to beig caugt between e bades of a pair of scisor was repored by Moraian issionary Jo eckewede in te eigteenth cetuy and i repeaed i Ia K. Seee, Waaths, ad Coin G Caoway Crown and Caumet Brth�Indan Reatons 7838 (1987) Coway aso sueys te invovement of Ida peope n te American Revouton i The Amercan Revouton n Indan Coun (1995) n e cagng iuaion on e Great ains, ee an Raymod Secoy Chang;ng !ta Patt on the Great Plans (1953) Bernad Min Rank and Waare among the Pans Indan (1940);Joh C Ewers, ntetriba Warfare a the ecusor of ndianWite Warare on te Notern Great ais, Weste stor ca Quarter 6 (1975) 397410 ad he Horse n Blackfoot Indan Cuture (195) and Coin G Coway he ntertria Baance of ower on te Grea ais 1760850 Joua of Amcan Stud 16 (1982) 24 and Snake Fonter

BIBLOGRAPHCA ESAY

09

The Este Soshones in the Eigteent Centuy," Anna/ f ming 63 (1991): 8292. Saukamappee's account is in Rchard Glover, ed, David Thompson's Narratie, 784812 (1962) he Siou move on to te pans is raced i Richard Wie, e Winning of te West: The Expnsion of te Western Siox in te Eigteenth ad Nineteenth Centuries Joual f Amican Hto 65 (1978) 31943 Peter Nbokov, wo Leings: e Making of a Crw Warrior (1982),  oers ecelen insighs ito te warrior cultre prevalent among lains Indians by the nieteeth centy izabet A H oh discsses itensiing conict beween eblos and Apches and shiig power stuggles o te souern plains in Strm Brewed in Ot Mns Wrlds e Contatin f Indians, Spanh and French in the Southwst 150-795 (975) e most recet stdy of te eblo Revolt is Adrew L Kat, e Puebl Reot f i68o (1995)

Chapter 6 New WorU Diplomacy and New World Foreign Poliies Wilbur  Jcobs eamies te role  of g givig in Indian diplomacy i Widess Politics and Indian G he Northe Cnial roner 748-1763 (1950) icard White, The Midde Grund (1991)  is he best recent study of te  compexities  of ndin-white diplomy Doroty V Joes emines treaties in Btsh colonial America in Liense fr Empire Clnialm y aty in Ear Amra (1982) Te recommendations of Goveror Toms Vle Capchin  are in Aled rnaby Thomas, e Plain· Indians and Nw Mexic, 7-778 (940) 1335 15 Wite also trces e career o Red Shoe in David G Sweet  and Ga Nas, eds, S and Surial in Clonial Amca (1981) On  the roqois, see aniel K. icter, e Ordeal of the Lnghus (1992); Francis Jennings nd Wilim  ento, eds he Hist and Cuture f Irqu Dipoma: An Intlina Guid t th atis of the ix Natins and eir Leae (985)  ad] A. rando nd Wiliam A Staa, he reaties of 1701 A rimp o roois iplonacy" Ethnhistr  (1996) 20944 Ga as pro  vides concise smaries of Iroois and Cree diplomacy i d, Whit and Black 3d ed (1992) or one Indian tribe's dealings wit one cooy, see Ton atey,  Diiding Paths: Cherkees and Suth Carlinian thrugh th Era of th eolution (1993) On ager nd he Catwbs, seeJmes  Merrell, Mindng the siness  o he ation' Hagler as Catawba eader," Ethnohist 33 (1986): 5570  and Th Indians; Nw Wrd (1989) en Sow points o  te rech inence o the di sion of the calmet  in  Irqu (99) Geoge Sabo I analyes clmet ceremonies among the Qapws nd Caddoes a  te time  of L Sale's sit  n ials of ncounter Iterpreting tive Amecn Views o Europen Explorers," i eanie Wayne

20

BIBLIOGRAPHCAL ESSAY

ed., Cultural Encunters in the Ear South (I995), 76-87 Nany L Hagendon xamnes the aee of Andew Montou as nterreter and ltre broker n a gae Connell Szasz, ed, Between Indian and ite Worlds: The Cultura Brker (1994), and aso discsses he ole of ntepees n 'A Fiend to Go between Them: The Interee as Culal Boke Dug Aglo-oquois Couns, 740 770" Ethnohist  35 (988): 6080. Yasuhide Kawshma also discsses inte petes i oest Dplomats: The Role o nepes in ndianWhite Relatons on he aly Ameian onte," meran Indan Q!rter 13 (989) 4 Coln G aloway sktches e l of Smon Giy n James A Cfon, ed Being and Becmin Indian Biographial tudies fNrth Amrian Frners (989). Exa pl e_ s of neetton by gsi chans" ae om James H eells study o Shickelay in Robet S Gume ed, Nrtheaste ndian Liv (996), 22657, andJames P Ronda, Lew and Clark among the ndia (984) he natue of the Btsh Indan depatment s dsused in Coln G aloway Cwn and Calumet (987) oldens oment onJohnson Hal s n Dumen Relating t the Clnial Hto of the tate of New Yrk (8556), 6 740. ames homas lexe povdes a bogaphy oJohnson n Lord ofthe Mohaw (1959); Los M este and onne Ps gve nfomaton onJohnsons home and his Mohawk w in Moly nt He Domestic and oca Res in ghteenhCeny New ok" in Rbe S Gmet, ed Northt Indian Live (996), 29532 he volme ontis seveal stdies of ndiduas who leaed o move between cltues o a bogaphy o lott, see Reginad Hosman, Matthew Elitt, Brih Indian gnt (964)

onad Weses tp to Onondaga n 73 s descibed n ohn Bartram Lews vans and Conad Wese,  Jouey m Pnsylvania t Onondaa in 1743 (973)  Wiliam Saveys obsevaton a Canandagua is oted n a Campisi and  Wlam  A Sana, On the Rad o Canandaiga The Treay of 794' Amrcan Indian Quarter 9(995) 46790 ote at 488

Ckapter7 New Nomas and True Nmad John Mchee discsses Indan anoe oes n e Survival fthe Bark Cane (1975) au  A  W Wallae taes anen ts n Indian Paths f Pennsylvania (993) On ndan mapmakers see Hgh almage eer, ed A Nw Vag to Carlina by John awsn (967)James P Ronda, A Chat in His Wa ndan Carogphy and the Lews and Cla xedton," Great Pain Quartr  (984) 53 Mao Lewis, ndian Maps Thei ae n te Histoy o lains Ca ogahy" Gat Plain Quarter 4 (1984) 98 and Gegoy Waseov nda Maps of te Colona Souteas," n Pee H Wood, Gegoy A Wasekov, and M Thomas Haley eds, Pwhatan' Mantle ndia in t Clonial utheast

BLIOGRAPHICA ESAY



(1989) 292-343. O the use of naps o dispossess Idias, see  B Harley "Vicms of a Map: New Egad Carography ad e Naive Americas i merso Baker e a eds Amican Begnnings (199) O he ew sources of uropea ad especiay Briish migrao i he egheeh ce see David Hacke Fische Albion's Seed (1989); Agus Cader

Revolutiona Empie: e Rise of the English-Speaking Empies frm the Fteth Centu to the i78 o s (1981) ad D W Meiig, The Shaping of Ameica, Vo 1 Atlantic Amica 492-800 (1986) Beard Baiy exaies prerevoioa paers of migraio i The Peopling of rtish Noth A1eica: An Intducon (1985) ad Voyags to the est:A Passage in the eopling ofAmeica on the Ee of the Revoluon (198) rak's cocer abo Germa imigrao is om James S Oso The Ethnic Dimnsion inAmeican Histo 2d ed (1994) Logas cocers abo he Scochish are  Richard Hofsader, Ameca at 50:A Social oit (971) O e Caawbas see James H Merre, The ndianNew Wold (989); o he chaos ad regee commiies  he Grea akes, see Richard Whie, e Middle Gound (1991) Hee H Taer, e Gaize  1792  Composie dia Com miy, Ethnohistor 5 (1978) 1539 ad Hee H aer, ed, Atlas of eat Las Indian Histo (198) Jesi obseaios o he coposiio of roquois  viages are i Rebe G  hwas ed The Jesuit Relations andAed Domen (891901) 43: 5. O e impac of Saish ivasio o da popaio movemes, see Hey Dobys Idias i he Cooia Spaish Borderads (ad especiay his ecee map Spas ad Naive America Migraos, 155 80'') i redeck  Hoie, ed, Indian in Amican Histor (1988) O or da's opuaio coapse see He Dobys, Thei Numb ecome Thinned (983), ad ed T Maich, lora ndians and the nvion fom Euope (995).  Wiard 1. Roigs discusses poaio movees i ivig  a Grave  yad i Jeaie Whaye ed Cultual Encount in the Ea! South (1995) 38 6 O he mpac of he horse o Apache ad Navajo fokore, see a Vee Harre ark Th Sang/o Hores (196) Cree Assiiboie, a Obwa igraos re discssed i Arhur J Ray India in the u ade Thei Role as Huntes e and Middlmn in the and Southest of Huon a 600-80 (19) oi G aoway seys Abeaki popaio movemes i The esteAenakis

of emont 00-800: Wa Migation and the Suvival of an Indian eope (199) va Haefei ad Kevi Sweeey race idiidua das rough diere ocaos ad chagig ba ideiies i ew gad i Waaumos Word Persoa ad riba deiy  he Agouia Diaspora, C 16112 Actes du ingt-inquime Cons des Aonuinistes (199): 21224 ad i Resiig he Redemed Captie New Perspecives o he 17 Aac o eered, William and Ma Qat,  3d ser 52 (995): 346 For he operaio of New gad sysems of poor reef as appied o dias see R Was Herdo ad a  Wcox Seka he Righ o a ame he arragase Peope ad Rhode Isad

22

BILOGRAPHICA ESSAY

Ocas in he evolutonay Era," Ethnohtory, forthcomig. John Rydford pro  vdes inormato on the origins of Indian place names in Kana in Indian Pe Names (1968)

Chapter8 Cossing nd Megng Fontie Accounts of the Chrsian among te Florida ndan are related by Luys Henandez de Bedna, the Genlema of Elva, ad Garciaso de a Vega in aw rence A Clayton Vernon aes Knght r, and Edward C Moore, eds e De Soto Chonic (993)ohn Canup dscusses te burial mound at Cape Cod in Out ofthe Wildeess (1990) on awson's comments on Englis raders ae n Hugh Talmage Leler ed, A New Voage to Calina b John Lawson (1967) Peter ans obsevaons are in Adolp  enon, ed et Kam's aves in Noth Ameia (937) ug Cas tigons obsevatons are recorded n Anonio ace, tras nd ed, Li Castigionis io (1983); Crvecoeurs vews are expressed in Lettesom an Amei can Fam (1782, and various modern edtions) ames xte dscusses the phenomenon o capives who esed to return ome n The e ndans o Colonal America" in Th Eopean and the Indian (98) on Demos reconsucts he saga o Eunice Wiliams in The Unedeemed Captive (1994) n old age, May emison related her le so to New York pys can ames Seaver he nost recent edon s A Naative o the L�f of Ma mon ed une Namas (1992) Namias eaes te experenes of severa mle captives n ite Captiv: Gende and Ethniit on Aeican onties (993) Wilam Smth's accoun o te delvey o te Shawnee captives is gven in his Htoial Aont o the Expedtion against the Ohio Indians in the ea 1764 (868) Examples o es beween redeemed captves and ndn parens" are given in van aee and Kevin weeney evsng he Redeed Captive" (995): 3 46 anos Mabois accoun is eprinted in Dean Snow Wlam arna and Chales Gehring, eds In Mohawk Cont Ea! Naratives a Nave Peop (i press) Colin G Caloways study Simon Grty: nterpreter and Itenediary and oter essays on bcultual ndividuals and shfing ideniies appear in ame A Cion, ed, Being and Beoming Indian (989) au A Hutton gives Welss bogaphy in Wlam Wes: Froner cout and Indian Agen," Indiana Magazine oHto 74 (1978): 183222 Caloway considers te renegade penonenon in Nete ed Nor Whe: hte enegades on te America Indian Fronier ste Htoa Qate 17 (1986) 66, and n ode sand enegade: he niga of oshua et in Rhode Isand Hto  43 (984): 365 and presens normation on te baon de San Casn and oter ulure crosngs in Dawn/and Enonte (99) he inormaton on Bougmont i drawn om rank

BILOGRAPHCA ESSAY

23

Noa, Bumnt: Explorer of the Missuri, 16891725 (1988). On culture bokes i genera see Magae Conel Szasz ed Betwee Indian and White rl (994), and aces Katunen, Between rl Intereters Guides and Survivo (99), which poides seen case studies om the steenh to the wentieth cenuy as we as a epiogue on te expeiences of hese peope's chden On Idians n Euope see Caoyn Thomas Foeman, Indians Abra 14931938 (1943) ad Harald  L Prins "o he Land of he Misogoches: Amercan dis Traveling to urope i he  Age of Eploaion American Indian Culre and Research Joal 17 (1993) 175-9 e so o Pete Osiquete is i n B ough ed Prceedings of the Commsiners f Indian Aai Ap-

 pointed by Law fr the Extinguhmt of Indian Titles in the State f New rk (1861) 79 J etch Wgh r reaes te stoy of a emakabe i in Wiam Autus Bwles Director Gal f the Cree Natin (97) John Mac aaghe povides instances of peace inteaction ypica on e oe i Daniel Bone (992) Masha Becke ecoves eema's i in "anah eeman An gheenhCenuy Leape Lig ad Wokg among Coonia amers, Pnsylania Mazine f Histry and Bioaphy 114 (1990) 29-9 Danie H Usner Jr meica ndias in Cooia New Oreans consides hei nvolvement in the ciys economy, i Pee H Wood, Gego A Waseov and M omas aey eds, Pwhatan antl (1989) 10-2; een C Routee discusses te adjusmes of Powaa men and women to new economic condi tions in Pocahontas's Peple (199) he eveend Andew unaby's obseaions on the Pamukeys are in his ae ugh the Middle Settlemen in the Yars 179 and 1760 (9) D W Meig icudes exampes o ndia interaction wih uo peas d Acas in e Shaping of merica Vo 1 Atlantic America 19180 (1986) om aey meos the acviies of Cheokee women a ot Loudoun in e Dividing Paths (1993) avid] Weber, e Spanh Frontier in Nrth Ameria (1992), incudes ampes o he ming of Spais ad ndian cutues and peoples athe de Mors "Account o Disoders i New Mexico 1778 in which he ds cusses he poson of  gizars is n Marc Simmos Coronad and (1991) Jon L Kessel Kia Crss and Cw The Pecs Indians and New Mexico 10 180 (99), povides he iformaon on Pecos capentes Jed  Miich sueys the actites of misso ndians i ida Indias and the Inasion om urpe (199) chap.  Magaret Coel Szasz Indian Educatin in the Amecan Clni 167 1783 (988), povdes iformao o Indian studets i coonia coeges Versions ofJames Axte's essay "The Litte ed Scoo appea in his e Eurpean and the Indian (98) and The Inasion ithin (1985) Corespondece om dian stu dens ad umni is in mes Dow McCaum ed The ette f eaar heelc Indias (192) wich aso conais he Oodaga ejectio of heeoc's oe ac Weaefod discusses he Ameicaniao of te ngish anguag in his Natie Ro (1991) chap 1 Edwad  Tutte cosides how uopeans eued a "ew wold of wods i "Boowing Vesus Semantic Shfts ew Wod Nonen

21

BILIOGRAPHICAL ESAY

ature in Euope Langages," n Fed Chiapei, ed., First Ima ofAmica, 2 vols (197), :59- Chares  Cuer, 0 Brave New Worl: Native Amecan Loanwor in Cuent Enlish (994) povides hsorca onx as we as ists Wlam L Lea eamines Indan adaaios and use of Engsh  Amercan Indian Enlh (1993)Jmes Ae assesses the med ma of dia oanwords  The Eupean and the Indian (981), quoe a 90 Dad Hake she amnes the hage ad oy i nsnted Eglsh diles i Albion's Seed (989) Edwad H Spier dssses YauiSansh ngsc bedng n e Ya  qu (1980) ad ransan missioy lngist eountes as we as broade ssues o ngs hage n hs ycls o nquest: The Impact o Spain Mexico, and the United Stat on the Indian o the Southwest, 6 (190) ay Gn cosdes de jargos and oher ements of lul hnge in Cyde A Mner , Cao A O'Coner, and Marha A Sandwess eds The Oord Hto o the Amercan West 99) cha 3 ndrew  nau uoes Gins de Heera ora  e Publo Revo o6 (99)

Chapter 9 .ew Peoples and .ew Societi O raa mg and he new peopes who deveoed see Woodra Bora The Mxg of Popuaos," n red Chiapei, ed, First mags o Ameria   vos (97) : 707- Adew  nau cosders e acuturave roesses at  wor  New Mexco ncludng e eeme amoun of mscegeaio,  e Pblo Revolt o  (99)  W Meig eores the mtehn naue of coloi Carolnan soety in e Shapin oAmerca Vo  Atlantic Ameca  (98) On e Ms see Jacquene eeso ad Jennfer S H Brown eds, e Ne Peopls Bein and Becomin M in North America (9) enys ege Bitter Feast (993), dssses he Ms as we as e corasg are of Freh and di soees Dens . K Mad rovides a gde o he hsoria eraue o the Ms in Rel ed ver, ad eyod ew eveomens  Ms Hs ory," n Con  Caoway ed, Ne Direcons in Amecan Indian Histo (1988) ha 3 On rench poes o raa mng, see Ove aa Dkason om One Naon n he oreast o New Naon n he orthwest A ook at he mergene of e Mis, Ameran Indian Culture and Rsarch Joual : 2 (98) 1 ad CorneusJJaene Frind and Foe: Aspec oFrenh-Amerindian Cultural Contat in the Stenth and Seventeenth Centues (97) - Henry Dobyns eamines he mteh harate of uson n Spanish Colonial Tuon (97) On he umbees, see Karen  Bu e umbee Probl The Makin o an Amrcan Indian Peopl (980) d Ged M Sder, Lumbe ndian Histori Race Ethnii and Indian Identi in the Southete United States (993)oh awsos recommendaons are  Hugh aage eer ed A N Vae to Carolina (97); eersons seeh o e das s  Sa  adover ed Th

BILOGRAPHCAL ESY

 

CompleteJrson (1943), 53; hs ideas are dscussed in Bernard W. Sheehan Seed ofExtinction: Jrsonian Philanthropy and the Ameican Indian (1973) On Garclaso de a Vega, see Lawrence A Cayton Vernon James Kngh r, and Edwad C. Moore, eds., e De Soto Chroni (1993) qote a i. Kaheen Deagn's obseatons on S Agstine are n her "Accommodaon nd Ressance: Te Pocess and Impact o Spansh Coonzaton n te Soheast n Dad Hrst T homas ed Columbian Conequences,  vo 2 (1990) 297-31 and her "Spansh ndan neacton n Sxteenth-Cent Forda n Wam W. hgh ed Cultures in Contact e Impact ofEuean Contac onative Amcan Cultul Institutions A.D-8 (19), 21-31On e aros "categoes of peope  podced by ethnc ntermixng n he Spanish sothwest see Ramon A Grre, en Jes Came, the Co Mothers Went Away (1991) as we as ad . Weber e Spanish Frontier in orth America (1992) andack Weatheord ative Roo (1991) who povides the normaton on "cetcates o wheness Heen C. Roun tree taces the decne in sats oVrginas ndan popaon n Pocahonta's People (199) On trbe ormaton and denty and he ceaton o new socetes see Chares Hudson and Came Chaves esser, eds. The Forgon Cenries (199}s  Mee he Indians ew ord (199) atca Goway Choctaw Genesis  7 (199) andohn H Moore e Cheyenne ation A Social and Demogaphic Histo (197)Jerad  Maich descrbes he mresson o the chedoms on he Spaards in "he ropean ntrada nto La Foda n Davd Hurst homas, ed  Columbian Consequenes  vo 2 (199) Susannaohnsons mpressons of Charlestown are repnted n Coln G  Co  way, ed DawnlandEncounte (99)homas  Buke  Mohawk Frontier e tch Community of Schenectady, ew Yrk, 66-7 (1991) exmnes the cu ur composton o one onte own Cornesaenen dscsses he ondng o eto and rench reactons to ndan berty and sharng n The French Reation  ship with theatie Peopls ofew France and Acadia (19) Wiam  oey and C. aid Rice ace he careers o he "ondng Fmy n he Fit Chouteaus Riv Baron ofEar St Louis (93) Pau hips comment on Pebo Coorado is om e Fur ade, 2  vos (191) The deate on the roqos and he Constuon and he broade nences of dans on Amercan democracy s presented n Bce  ohansen Forgotten Founde (19) Donad A Grnder he Iroquois and the Founding ofthe Ameri can Nation (1977) Donad A Gnde r and Bruce ohansen eds, Exemplar of Liber atie America and the Eolution ofDemocracy (1991) sabeh Tooker, "he Unted Saes Consuon and he roqos eage Ethnohistory 35 (19):  3-3 Bruce  ohansen and sabeh Tooker, "Commentay on the roos and he US Constton, Ethnohistory  37 (990): 279-9 Oren R. yons and ohn C Mohawks con1ments on ndans and democracy are contaned n Lyons et ., Eiled in the Land of the Free Democracy Indian atin and the US. Cotituon (99)

2

BILIOGRAPHICAL ESSAY