UNIVERSIDADE LUTERANA DO BRASIL – ULBRA
APOSTILA DE USINAGEM
Prof. Eng. Leonardo H. Santos, MSc.
2011
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Índice 1. Introdução aos Processos de Usinagem Usinagem ......................... ............ .......................... .......................... .......................... ...................... ......... 1 1.1. Breve Histórico ......................................................................................................... 3 1.2. Princípios de Usinagem com Ferramentas de Geometria Definida .......................... ........................ .. 8 1.3. Princípios de Usinagem com Ferramentas de Geometria Não-Definida ................ ........... ..... 12 2. Velocidades na Usinagem ............................................................................................. 13 2.1. Conceitos Auxiliares ............................................................................................... 16 2.2. Superfícies Definidas Sobre a Peça ....................................................................... 17 2.3. Grandezas de Avanço ............................................................................................ 18 2.4. Grandezas de Penetração ...................................................................................... 19 2.5. Grandezas de Corte................................................................................................ 21 2.6. Análise Simplificada das Grandezas....................................................................... 22 3. Geometria da Cunha de Corte ...................................................................................... 24 3.1. Sistemas de Referência .......................................................................................... 27 4. Forças e Potências de Corte ......................................................................................... 39 4.1. Forças Durante a Usinagem ................................................................................... 39 4.2. Potências de Usinagem .......................................................................................... 42 4.3. Cálculo da Força de Corte ...................................................................................... 44 4.3.1. Cálculo da Força e da Potência de Corte no Torneamento .................. ........... 48 4.3.2. Cálculo da Força e da Potência de Corte na Furação........................... .............. ........................ ........... 51 4.3.3. Cálculo da Força e Potência de Corte no Fresamento.......................... ............. ........................ ........... 53 5. Mecanismo de Formação de Cavaco ............................................................................ 60 5.1. A Interface Cavaco-Ferramenta .............................................................................. 61 5.2. Controle da Forma do Cavaco ................................................................................ 63 5.3. Classificação dos Cavacos ..................................................................................... 64 5.4. Alteração da Forma do Cavaco .............................................................................. 66 5.5. Temperatura de Corte ............................................................................................. 72 6. Desgaste de Ferramentas ............................................................................................. 75 6.1. Medição dos Desgastes da Ferramenta ................................................................. 79 6.2. Mecanismos Causadores do Desgaste da Ferramenta .......................... ............. .......................... ................ ... 82 6.3. Sumarizando ........................................................................................................... 86 7. Materiais para Ferramentas .......................................................................................... 87 7.1. Descrição dos Materiais .......................................................................................... 88 8. Fluidos de Corte ............................................................................................................ 97 8.1. Funções do Fluido de Corte .................................................................................... 97 8.1.1. O Fluido de Corte como Refrigerante.......................... ............. .......................... .......................... ........................ ........... 98 8.1.2. O Fluido de Corte como Lubrificante ......................... ............ ......................... .......................... ........................... ............. 99 8.2. Classificação dos Fluidos de Corte ....................................................................... 100
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ii
9.1. Tipos de Abrasivos ............................................................................................... 109 9.1.1. Abrasivos Naturais ......................................................................................... 111 9.1.2. Abrasivos Artificiais ou Sintéticos ......................... ............ .......................... .......................... .......................... ................ ... 112 9.2. Granulometria ....................................................................................................... 120 9.3. Ligantes ................................................................................................................ 121 9.3.1. Ligantes Inorgânicos ...................................................................................... 121 9.3.2. Ligantes Orgânicos ........................................................................................ 123 9.4. Dureza .................................................................................................................. 124 9.5. Estrutura ............................................................................................................... 125 9.6. Especificação de Rebolos ..................................................................................... 126 9.7. Forma dos Rebolos e Perfil dos Bordos ............................................................... 128 9.8. Refrigeração na Retificação .................................................................................. 131 9.9. Seleção de Rebolos .............................................................................................. 133 9.10. Defeitos no Uso de Rebolos ............................................................................... 137 10. Análise das Condições Econômicas Econômicas de Usinagem ............................. ................ .......................... ...................... ......... 138 10.1. Ciclos e Tempos de Usinagem ........................................................................... 139 10.2. Velocidade de Corte de Máxima Produção (v cmxp) .......................... ............. .......................... .................... ....... 141 10.3. Custos de Produção ........................................................................................... 144 10.4. Vida Económica da Ferramenta ......................................................................... 146 10.5. Intervalo de Máxima Eficiência ........................................................................... 148 11. Sistemas CNC ........................................................................................................... 150
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iii
Lista de Figuras Figura 1.1 – 1.1 – Classificação Classificação dos Processos de Fabricação (Fonte: Adaptado de DIN 8580). 1 Figura 1.2 – 1.2 – Ferramentas Ferramentas de Pedra .................................................................................... 3 Figura 1.3 – 1.3 – Plaina Plaina Neolítica ............................................................................................... 4 Figura 1.4 – 1.4 – Furadeira Furadeira a Arco Egípcia ................................................................................. 4 Figura 1.5 – 1.5 – Torno Torno a Arco, 1565.......................................................................................... 1565 .......................................................................................... 5 Figura 1.6 – 1.6 – Torno Torno de Senot, 1795 ...................................................................................... 6 Figura 1.7 – 1.7 – Tornos Tornos de Maudslay, 1800 e 1848 .................................................................. 6 Figura 1.8 – 1.8 – Movimento Movimento da cunha de corte em relação à peça (Fonte: YOSHIDA,1979). .. 8 Figura 1.9 – 1.9 – Movimentos Movimentos de Corte e Avanço. ..................................................................... 9 Figura 1.10 – 1.10 – Movimentos Movimentos Ativos de Usinagem no Serramento Alternativo. ..................... ............ ......... 10 Figura 1.11 – 1.11 – Movimentos Movimentos Ativos de Usinagem no Torneamento Cilíndrico. .................... 10 Figura 1.12 – 1.12 – Movimentos Movimentos Ativos de Usinagem na Furação. .......................... ............. .......................... .................. ..... 11 Figura 2.1 – 2.1 – Direção Direção dos movimentos de corte, de avanço e efetivo no torneamento. Ângulos da direção de avanço φ, da direção efetiva efetiva η e plano de trabalho (Fonte: DINIZ DINIZ et al, 2000). ........................................................................................................................... 14 Figura 2.2 – 2.2 – Direção Direção dos movimentos de corte, de avanço e efetivo na furação. Ângulos da direção de avanço φ, da direção efetiva η e plano de trabalho (Fonte: DINIZ et al, 2000). ................................................................................................................................ 15 Figura 2.3 - Direção dos movimentos de corte, de avanço e efetivo no fresamento discordante. discordante. Ângulos da direção de avanço φ, da direção efetiva η e plano de trabalho (Fonte: DINIZ et al, 2000). ................................................................................................. 15 Figura 2.4 – 2.4 – Percurso Percurso de corte l c c, de avanço l f f e efetivo l e na operação de fresamento discordante (Fonte: DINIZ et al, 2000). ............................................................................. 16 Figura 2.5 – 2.5 – Superfícies, Superfícies, Grandezas de corte, ponto de referência D e largura nominal de corte bD no torneamento cilíndrico (Fonte: DINIZ et al, 2000). .......................... ............. .......................... ................ ... 18 Figura 2.6 – 2.6 – Avanço Avanço por dente f z z, avanço de corte f c c e f resamento avanço efetivo no fresamento discordante (Fonte: DINIZ et al, 2000). ............................................................................. 19 Figura 2.7 – 2.7 – Largura Largura de usinagem a p, penetração de trabalho ae e penetração de avanço ............ .......................... .......................... ............... 20 af no fresamento tangencial (Fonte: DINIZ et al, 2000). ......................... Figura 2.8 – 2.8 – Profundidade Profundidade de usinagem a p, penetração de trabalho ae e penetração de avanço af no fresamento frontal (Fonte: DINIZ et al, 2000). .......................... ............. .......................... .................... ....... 20 Figura 2.9 – 2.9 – Grandezas Grandezas de corte para arestas de corte retilíneas. Exemplo: torneamento cilíndrico com ferramenta com λ = 0; o ponto de corte escolhido neste caso encontra-se na ponta de corte da ferramenta (Fonte: DINIZ et al, 2000). ......................... ............ .......................... .................... ....... 22 Figura 3.1 – 3.1 – Cunha Cunha de corte da ferramenta f erramenta de torneamento (Fonte: DINIZ et al,2000). ... 24 Figura 3.2 – 3.2 – Arestas Arestas de corte e superfícies da parte de corte de uma ferramenta de torneamento (Fonte: DINIZ et al, 2000). ............................................................................ 25
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iv
Figura 3.5 – 3.5 – Planos Planos do sistema de referência da ferramenta de torneamento (Fonte: DINIZ et al, 2000). ....................................................................................................................... 28 Figura 3.6 – 3.6 – Planos Planos do sistema de referência da ferramenta numa fresa cilíndrica (Fonte: DINIZ et al, 2000). ............................................................................................................. 29 Figura 3.7 – 3.7 – Planos Planos do sistema de referência r eferência da ferramenta numa broca helicoidal (Fonte: DINIZ et al, 2000). ............................................................................................................. 30 Figura 3.8 – 3.8 – Ângulos Ângulos de localização das arestas de corte no sistema de referência da ferramenta, para torneamento cilíndrico (esquerda) e torneamento de faceamento (esquerda) (Fonte: DINIZ et al, 2000). .............................................................................. 33 Figura 3.9 – 3.9 – Ângulos Ângulos de saída, de cunha e de folga da ferramenta, representados no plano admitido de trabalho (Fonte: DINIZ et al, 2000). .......................... ............. ......................... .......................... ................ .. 34 Figura 3.10 – 3.10 – Ângulos Ângulos de uma ferramenta de torneamento (Fonte: DINIZ et al, 2000). .... 35 Figura 3.11 – 3.11 – Ângulos Ângulos da ferramenta numa fresa de faceamento (Fonte: DINIZ et al, 2000). ................................................................................................................................ 36 Figura 3.12 – 3.12 – Ângulos Ângulos da ferramenta numa broca helicoidal (Fonte: DINIZ et al, 2000). .. 37 Figura 4.1 – 4.1 – Força Força de usinagem e suas componentes na operação de torneamento (Fonte: DINIZ et al, 2000). ................................................................................................. 40 Figura 4.2 – 4.2 – Força Força de usinagem e suas componentes na operação de fresamento (Fonte: DINIZ et al, 2000). ............................................................................................................. 41 Figura 4.3 – 4.3 – Variação Variação da pressão específica de corte com a espessura de corte para diversos processos de usinagem (Fonte: FERRARESI, FERRARESI, 1977) .................................. ..................... .................... ....... 45 Figura 4.4 – 4.4 – Variação Variação da pressão específica de corte com a espessura de corte (Fonte: FERRARESI, 1977). .......................................................................................................... 46 Figura 4.5 – 4.5 – Representação Representação bi-logarítmica da pressão específica de corte em função da espessura de corte (Fonte: FERRARESI, 1977). ......................... ............ .......................... .......................... ........................ ........... 47 Figura 4.6 – 4.6 – Dimensões Dimensões características no fresamento frontal f rontal (Fonte: WITTE, W ITTE, 1998). ..... 54 Figura 4.7 – 4.7 – Dimensões Dimensões características no fretamento cilíndrico tangencial (Fonte: WITTE, 1998). ................................................................................................................................ 57 Figura 4.8 – 4.8 – Representação Representação do cavaco tipo vírgula (Fonte: WITTE, 1998). ...................... ............. ......... 58 Figura 5.1 – 5.1 – Esquema Esquema da formação do cavaco mostrando o plano de cisalhamento (Fonte: DINIZ et al, 2000). ............................................................................................................. 60 Figura 5.2 – 5.2 – Área Área de contato cavaco-ferramenta (Fonte: DINIZ et al, 2000). .................... ............. ....... 62 Figura 5.3 – 5.3 – Zona Zona de fluxo dentro do cavaco (Fonte: DINIZ et al, 2000). .......................... ............. ............. 63 Figura 5.4 – 5.4 – Formas Formas do cavaco: a) em fita; b) helicoidal; c) espiral; d) em lascas (Fonte: DINIZ et al, 2000). ............................................................................................................. 65 Figura 5.5 – 5.5 – Variação da forma de cavaco cavaco através da curvatura curvatura vertical, curvatura curvatura lateral e do ângulo de inclinação do cavaco (Fonte: DINIZ et al, 2000). ........................... .............. ........................ ........... 66 Figura 5.6 – 5.6 – Diferentes Diferentes tipos de quebra de cavacos (Fonte: DINIZ et al, 2000). ............... ............ ... 68 Figura 5.7 – 5.7 – Condição Condição limite para a quebra do cavaco (Fonte: DINIZ et al, 2000). ........... 69
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v
Figura 5.10 – 5.10 – Variação Variação da distribuição da energia de corte com a velocidade de corte (Fonte: DINIZ et al, 2000). ................................................................................................. 72 Figura 5.11 – 5.11 – Distribuição Distribuição típica de temperatura na ponta de uma ferramenta de metal duro (Fonte: DINIZ et al, 2000). ......................................................................................... 73 Figura 6.1 – 6.1 – Desgaste Desgaste de Flanco (Fonte: DINIZ et al, 2000). .......................... ............. .......................... .................. ..... 75 Figura 6.2 – 6.2 – Desgaste Desgaste de Cratera (Fonte: DINIZ et al, 2000). ......................... ............ .......................... .................. ..... 76 Figura 6.3 – 6.3 – Deformação Deformação plástica da aresta de corte (Fonte: DINIZ et al, 2000). ............. 76 Figura 6.4 – 6.4 – Lascamento Lascamento (Fonte: DINIZ et al, 2000). ........................................................ 77 Figura 6.5 – 6.5 – Trincas Trincas térmicas (Fonte: DINIZ et al, 2000). ................................................. 77 Figura 6.6 – 6.6 – Trincas Trincas mecânicas (Fonte: DINIZ et al, 2000). .......................... ............. .......................... .................... ....... 78 Figura 6.7 – 6.7 – Quebra Quebra em ferramenta (Fonte: DINIZ et al, 2000)............................ ............. .......................... .............. 79 Figura 6.8 – 6.8 – Desgastes Desgastes da ferramenta (Fonte: DINIZ et al, 2000)..................................... 2000). .................................... 80 Figura 6.9 – 6.9 – Aresta Aresta postiça de corte (Fonte: DINIZ et al, 2000). ....................... ................ ............. ... 82 Figura 6.10 – 6.10 – Desgaste Desgaste Frontal X Velocidade de Corte (Fonte: ( Fonte: DINIZ et al, 2000). .......... 83 Figura 6.11 – 6.11 – Desgaste Desgaste frontal com e sem a presença da aresta postiça de corte (Fonte: DINIZ et al, 2000). ............................................................................................................. 84 Figura 7.1 – 7.1 – Influência Influência da cobertura na vida da broca de aço rápido (Fonte: DINIZ et al, 2000). ................................................................................................................................ 90 Figura 7.2 – 7.2 – Influência Influência do percentual de cobalto e da temperatura na dureza do metal duro (Fonte: DINIZ et al, 2000). ................................................................................................. 92 Figura 9.1 - Visualização esquemática esquemática de um processo de usinagem com ferramenta fer ramenta de geometria indefinida (Fonte: STOETERAU, 2007). .......................... ............. .......................... .......................... .................. ..... 107 Figura 9.2 – 9.2 – Usinagem Usinagem com ferramenta de gume de corte indefinido pelo princípio da ação de energia (Fonte: STOETERAU, 2007). ........................................................................ 108 Figura 9.3 – 9.3 – Usinagem Usinagem com ferramenta de gume de corte indefinido pelo princípio da ação de posição (Fonte: STOETERAU, 2007)........................... ............. .......................... .......................... .......................... .................... ....... 108 Figura 9.4 – 9.4 – Usinagem Usinagem com ferramenta de gume de corte indefinido pelo princípio da ação de força (Fonte: STOETERAU, 2007). ............................................................................ 109 Figura 9.5 – 9.5 – Usinagem Usinagem com ferramenta de gume de corte indefinido pelo princípio da ação de trajetória (Fonte: STOETERAU, 2007). ...................................................................... 109 Figura 9.6 – 9.6 – Escala Escala de Mohs (Fonte: STEMMER, 2005). ............................................... 110 Figura 9.7 – 9.7 – Dureza Dureza Knoop (Fonte: STEMMER, 2005). ......................... ............ .......................... ......................... ............ 110 Figura 9.8 – 9.8 – Composição Composição química dos eletro-coríndons (Fonte: STEMMER, 2005). ...... 114 Figura 9.9 – 9.9 – Composição Composição química dos rebolos de carboneto de silício (Fonte: STEMMER, 2005). .............................................................................................................................. 118 Figura 9.10 – 9.10 – Classifi Classificação cação da granulometria em “mesh” (Fonte: STEMMER, 2005). .... 120 Figura 9.11 – 9.11 – Estrutura Estrutura aberta e fechada (Fonte: STEMMER, 2005)........................... ............. ................ ... 125 Figura 9.12 – 9.12 – Marcação Marcação de rebolos r ebolos com abrasivos convencionais (Fonte: STEMMER, 2005). .............................................................................................................................. 127
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vi
Figura 9.16 – 9.16 – Rebolos Rebolos com redução única para dentro (Fonte: STEMMER, 2005). ....... 130 Figura 9.17 – 9.17 – Rebolos Rebolos ebolos montados (Fonte: STOETERAU, 2007)........................... ............ .............. 130 Figura 9.18 – 9.18 – Perfil Perfil dos bordos dos rebolos (Fonte: STEMMER, 2005). ......................... .............. ........... 131 Figura 10.1 – 10.1 – Tempo Tempo de Produção por Peça X Velocidade de Corte (Fonte: FERRARESI, 1977) ............................................................................................................................... 143 Figura 10.2 – 10.2 – Custo Custo de Produção por Peça X Velocidade de Corte ......................... ............ .................... ....... 148 Figura 10.3 – 10.3 – Intervalo Intervalo de Máxima Eficiência .................................................................. 149 Figura 11.1 – 11.1 – Esquema Esquema da evolução das máquinas ferramenta para torneamento. ....... 150 Figura 11.2 – 11.2 – Esquema Esquema de controle manual de um torno mecânico. ....................... ....... 151 Figura 11.3 - Tomo com controle mecânico. ................................................................... 152 Figura 11.4 - Torno com controle numérico..................................................................... 153 Figura 11.5 – 11.5 – Modos Modos de armazenamento e transmissão de programas. ........ ................ ............. ... 155 Figura 11.6 - Correlação entre componentes dos controles manual e numérico. ........... 156 Figura 11.7 - Malha de controle numérico. ...................................................................... 157 Figura 11.7 – 11.7 – Representação Representação dos eixos em uma mandriladora e em uma fresadora. .... 158 Figura 11.8 – 11.8 – Sistema Sistema de movimentação de uma mesa. ................................................ 159 Figura 11.9 - Fusos e guias usados em máquinas-ferramenta CNC. ......................... ............ .................. ..... 160 Figura 11.10 - Modelos de trocadores de ferramentas e magazines utilizados em tornos e centros de usinagem. ...................................................................................................... 160
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1
A norma alemã DIN 8580 classifica os processos de fabricação conforme pode ser visto na figura 1.1, e coloca os processos de usinagem todos dentro de um grande grupo chamado “separar”. Entende-se por processo de usinagem, todo e qualquer processo no qual haja remoção, mecânica ou não, de uma determinada quantidade de material de uma peça, com o objetivo de adequar seu formato ao seu uso.
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2
Dentro dos processos de usinagem, ainda podem-se classificá-los como sendo:
Usinagem com Ferramenta de Geometria Definida
Usinagem com Ferramenta de Geometria Não-definida
Usinagem por Processos Não-convencionais
Processo s de Usinagem co m Ferramenta de Geometria Definida Definida são aqueles em que
a ferramenta possui uma aresta cortante, ou seja, um gume de corte, que descreve uma trajetória em relação à peça a ser usinada. Esse movimento resulta na remoção do material na forma de cavaco. São exemplos desse tipo de processo de usinagem os processos de torneamento, fresamento, furação, mandrilamento, brochamento, etc. Processo s de Usin agem com Ferramentas Ferramentas de Geom etria Não-definida são são aqueles
nos quais a ferramenta é formada por uma grande quantidade de grãos abrasivos, que funcionam como vários gumes de corte. Esses grão abrasivos podem ser mantidos juntos por meio de algum tipo de aglomerante, e são quebrados e/ou arrancados da ferramenta ao mesmo tempo que retiram material da peça na forma de cavaco. São exemplos desse tipo de processo de usinagem os processos de retificação, brunimento, lapidação, polimento, lixação, etc.
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3
1.1. Breve Histórico Os processos de usinagem são utilizados, ainda que de maneira empírica, desde a antiguidade. As primeiras ferramentas de que se tem notícia, que tinham o objetivo de cortar ou esculpir materiais, eram construídas em pedra, conforme pode ser visto na figura 1.2.
Figura 1.2 – Ferramentas de Pedra
Já no período neolítico, aproximadamente 6000 anos antes de Cristo, existiam dispositivos que podem ser considerados como as primeiras “máquinas” de usinagem. Um exemplo desses dispositivos é a plaina apresentada na fi gura 1.3. No Egito, aproximadamente quinze séculos antes de Cristo, também eram utilizadas ferramentas para trabalhar a madeira e a pedra, como a furadeira a arco da figura 1.4, que transformava o movimento alternativo do arco em movimento rotativo da broca.
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4
Figura 1.3 – Plaina Neolítica
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5
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6
Figura 1.6 – Torno de Senot, 1795
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7
SÉC. XIX – Revolução – Revolução industrial o
Desenvolvimento da máquina a vapor – vapor – James James Watts
o
Primeiras Máquinas-Ferramentas projetadas segundo princípios modernos
o
Fabricação em série
o
Aço ferramenta é o principal principal material de ferramentas ferramentas de de usinagem usinagem
SÉC. XX – Século – Século da tecnologia o
1900 – Taylor – Taylor apresenta o Aço Rápido
o
– Vanner Bush inventa o primeiro computador analógico 1930 – Vanner
o
1935 – É – É desenvolvido o Metal Duro
o
– É desenvolvido o primeiro computador eletrônico digital – o – o ENIAC 1946 – É
o
– É desenvolvido o primeiro transistor nos Laboratórios Bell 1947 – É
o
1950 – Primeira – Primeira máquina-ferramenta numericamente controlada, MIT
o
1960 - Primeira LASER foi construído por Theodore Maiman, Laboratórios de pesquisa Hugues
o
1968 - Borroughs produz os primeiros computadores utilizando circuitos integrados
o
'70 - BRIAN – BRIAN – Primeiras Primeiras Pesquisas sobre usinagem de ultraprecisão
o
'70 – Primeiras – Primeiras ferramentas Cermets – Cermets – Japão Japão
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8
1.2. Princípios de Usinagem com Ferramentas de Geometria Definida O material que é removido durante o processo de usinagem é chamado de cavaco. A remoção do cavaco só é possível mediante o movimento de uma cunha cortante em relação à peça, como é exemplificado na figura 1.8.
Figura 1.8 – Movimento da cunha de corte em relação à peça (Fonte: YOSHIDA,1979).
A esse movimento é dado o nome de Movimento de Corte, e ele garante que será
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9
Movimento de A Avanço Movimento de C Cor te
Figura 1.9 – Movimentos de Corte e Avanço.
Esses movimento são sempre os responsáveis pela retirada de cavacos que possibilita as operações de usinagem. Eles podem se apresentar sob diversas formas, dependendo do tipo de processo que está sendo considerado. O movimento resultante desses dois movimentos é chamado de Movimento Efetivo de Corte. Esses três movimentos de usinagem, por contribuirem diretamente para a remoção
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10
Movimento d de Avanço
Movimento Ef etivo d de C Cor te
Movimento d de Cor te
Figura 1.10 – Movimentos Ativos de Usinagem no Serramento Alternativo.
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11
Mov im ento s A tivo s d e Usinag em n o Pro cess o d e Furação
Nos processos de furação o movimento de corte é dado pela rotação da ferramenta, sendo o movimento de avanço obtido pelo deslocamento axial da ferramenta e relação à peça. Esse arranjo pode ser visto na figura 1.12.
Movimento d de Cor te
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12
1.3. Princípios de Usinagem com Ferramentas de Geometria Não-Definida A remoção é realizada pela ação de grãos, mais ou menos disformes, de materiais duros que são postos em interferência com o material da peça. Os princípios desses processos são descritos em maiores detalhes no capítulo 9. É utilizado em processos de acabamento, para melhorar características dimensionais, geométricas e superficiais.
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13
Cada movimento realizado durante o processo de usinagem é realizado em um determinado intervalo de tempo. Esse deslocamento em um intervalo de tempo resulta em uma velocidade. As velocidades principais que devem ser consideradas são a velocidade de corte e a velocidade de avanço.
Velocidade de Corte -
Resultado do deslocamento deslocamento da ferramenta diante da peça, peça, considerado considerado no tempo, para operações do tipo aplainamento e brochamento, onde os
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14
v f f n
1000 vc d
f
Onde: v f é a velocidade de avanço, em m / min f é é o avanço, em mm / revolução
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15
t c
l f v f
l f f n
Onde: t c é o tempo de corte, em min l f
é o percurso de corte, em em mm
d l f
1000 f vc
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17
tg
sen vc v f
cos
Pondo de Corte Escolhido – é um ponto qualquer da aresta de corte (principal ou secundária) “escolhido” especificamente para a análise do sistema ferramenta / peça. É um ponto destinado à determinação das grandezas, das superfícies e
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2.3. Grandezas de Avanço São grandezas que resultam do movimento de avanço. São elas:
Avanço (f )
é o percurso de avanço em cada volta ou em cada curso da
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Avanço de Corte (f c ) – é a distância entre duas superfícies consecutivas em usinagem, medida no plano de trabalho e perpendicular à direção de corte. Tem-se assim que: f c f z sen
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55
4.3.3.1.2. Cálculo do Ângulo de Penetração
s
2 1
cos 1
cos 2
Onde: φ s é o ângulo de penetração, em
l 1 D 2
l 2
D 2
o
l 1 é a posição da fresa em relação ao centro da usinagem, em mm l 2 é a posição da fresa em relação ao centro da usinagem, em mm D é o diâmetro da fresa, em mm
4.3.3.1.3. Cálculo da Espessura Média de Usinagem
hm
57,3 s
. f z . sin cos 1 cos 2
Onde: hm é a espessura média de usinagem, em mm
4.3.3.1.4. Cálculo da Área da Seção Transversal do Cavaco A b.hm
Onde: A é a área da seção transversal do cavaco, em mm 2
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56
4.3.3.1.5. Cálculo da Força de Corte por Dente F cz A.k s
Onde: F cz cz é a força de corte por dente, em N
4.3.3.1.6. Cálculo do Número de Dentes que Participam da Usinagem
z e
z . s 360
Onde: z é é o número de dentes da fresa z e é o
número de dentes que participam da usinagem
4.3.3.1.7. Cálculo da Potência de Corte
P c
z e . F cz .vc 60.10 3
Onde: P c é a potência de corte, em kW
4.3.3.2. Fresamento Cilíndrico Tangencial As figuras 4.7 e 4.8 mostram as dimensões características no cálculo do fresamento cilíndrico tangencial.
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57
Figura 4.7 – Dimensões características no fretamento cilíndrico tangencial (Fonte: WITTE, 1998).
4.3.3.2.1. Cálculo do Ângulo de Penetração
cos s 1
a p
D 2
4.3.3.2.2. Cálculo da Espessura Média do Cavaco
hm
57,3 s
. f z .
ap
D 2
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58
Figura 4.8 – Representação do cavaco tipo vírgula (Fonte: WITTE, 1998).
4.3.3.2.3. Cálculo da Área da Seção Transversal do Cavaco A b.hm
4.3.3.2.4. Cálculo da Força de Corte por Dente F cz A.k s
4.3.3.2.5. Cálculo do Número de Dentes que Participam da Usinagem
z e
z . s 360
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59
4.3.3.2.6. Cálculo da Potência de Corte
P c
z e . F cz .vc 60.10 3
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60
A formação de cavaco influencia diversos fatores ligados à usinagem, tais como o desgaste da ferramenta, os esforços de corte, o calor gerado na usinagem, a penetração do fluido de corte, etc. Assim, estão envolvidos com o processo de formação de cavaco aspectos econômicos e de qualidade da peça, a segurança do operador, a utilização adequada da máquina-ferramenta, etc. O corte dos materiais envolve o cisalhamento concentrado ao longo de um plano chamado plano de cisalhamento (zona primária de cisalhamento). O ângulo entre o plano de cisalhamento e a direção de corte é chamado de ângulo de cisalhamento ( Φ). Quanto maior a deformação do cavaco sendo formado, menor o ângulo de cisalhamento e maiores são os esforços de corte. Esta influência é marcante na usinagem de materiais dúcteis, muito suscetíveis à deformação.
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61
Nas condições normais de usinagem a formação de cavo se processa da seguinte forma: a) uma pequena porção de material ainda solidária solidária à peça é recalcada (deformação (deformação plástica e elástica) contra a superfície de saída da ferramenta; b) esta deformação plástica plástica aumenta progressivamente, progressivamente, até que as tensões de cisalhamento se tornem suficientemente grandes, de modo a se iniciar um deslizamento entre a porção de material recalcada e a peça; c) continuando a penetração penetração da ferramenta, haverá haverá uma ruptura (cisalhamento) (cisalhamento) parcial ou completa do cavaco, acompanhando o plano de cisalhamento; d) devido ao movimento relativo entre a ferramenta e a peça, inicia-se um escorregamento da porção de material deformada e cisalhada sobre a superfície de saída da ferramenta. Enquanto isso, uma nova porção de material está se formando e cisalhando, a qual irá também escorregar sobre a superfície de saída da ferramenta, repetindo o fenômeno. Conclui-se que o fenômeno de formação de cavaco é periódico. Essa periodicidade foi comprovada experimentalmente por meio da medida da freqüência e da amplitude de variação de intensidade da força de usinagem. Na usinagem de materiais dúcteis, que tem grande zona plástica e, por isso, deformam-se bastante antes da ruptura, essas quatro fases são bem pronunciadas. Já em materiais frágeis, que possuem zona plástica bem pequena e, por isso, rompem-se com pouca deformação plástica, as fases “a” e “b” são bem curtas, na fase “c” a ruptura
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62
material do cavaco. Bem próximo da interface é formada uma zona de cisalhamento intenso (chamada de zona de fluxo). Ali existe uma camada de material estacionário na interface cavaco-ferramenta e a velocidade de saída do cavaco vai aumentando a medida que se percorre sua espessura, até que se chega ao fim da zona de fluxo, onde acaba o cisalhamento e a velocidade de saída do cavaco fica constante. Esta zona de fluxo tem uma espessura da ordem de 0,01 a o,08 mm, isto é, depois disso a velocidade de saída do cavaco se estabiliza (figura 5.3). Na zona de aderência, a área de contato entre cavaco e ferramenta é total, isto é a área real r eal de contato é igual à aparente. Ao lado da zona de aderência acontece uma zona de escorregamento, como mostrado na figura 5.2. Ali o contato se dá apenas nos picos das irregularidades das duas superfícies em contato. A zona de aderência ocorre devido às altas tensões de compressão, às altas taxas de deformação e à pureza do material da peça em contato com a ferramenta.
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63
Figura 5.3 – Zona de fluxo dentro do cavaco (Fonte: DINIZ et al, 2000) .
As condições na interface, de escorregamento ou aderência, dependem do par ferramenta-peça, do tempo de usinagem e da velocidade de corte. As condições de aderência são favorecidas por altas velocidades de corte, longos tempos de usinagem e pequenas diferenças entre o material da peça e da ferramenta. Quanto menor o ângulo de saída da ferramenta, maior o comprimento de contato cavaco-superfície de saída da ferramenta e, com isso, maior zona de aderência. Quanto maior a zona de aderência, maiores a temperatura de corte e a força de usinagem.
5.2. Controle da Forma do Cavaco
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64
exemplo, quando o cavaco se enrola sobre a peça, ele tenta penetrar entre a interface peça-ferramenta, podendo causar a quebra da ferramenta. Em operações de furação um cavaco em fita pode entupir o canal helicoidal da broca e causar também sua quebra. 3 – Manuseio e Armazenagem do Cavaco – logicamente, um cavaco longo em forma de fita, é muito mais difícil de manipular e requer um volume muito maior para ser armazenado, que um cavaco curto com o mesmo peso. 4 – Forças de Corte, Temperatura e Vida da Ferramenta – ao se procurar deformar mais o cavaco visando aumentar sua capacidade de quebra, pode-se aumentar bastante os esforços de corte, com conseqüente aumento da temperatura e diminuição da vida da ferramenta.
5.3. Classificação dos Cavacos Os cavacos são classificados de diversas maneiras. Uma das mais didáticas é aquela que classifica o cavaco em tipos e formas. Os tipos de cavacos são: a) Cavaco contínuo – constituído de lamelas justapostas numa disposição contínua. A distinção das lamelas não é nítida. Forma-se na usinagem de materiais dúcteis, onde o ângulo de saída deve assumir valores elevados. b) Cavaco de cisalhamento – apresenta-se constituído de lamelas justapostas bem distintas. c) Cavaco de ruptura – apresenta-se constituindo de fragmentos arrancados da peça
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65
processo utilizado. Assim, por exemplo, o cavaco em lascas é preferido quando houver pouco espaço disponível, ou quando o cavaco deve ser removido por fluido refrigerante sob pressão, como no caso da furação profunda. Em fresamento frontal de faceamento, quando a remoção de material é elevada, prefere-se a formação de cavacos helicoidais, pois estes saltam fora do bolsão de armazenamento de cavaco entre os dentes da fresa, não tendo o risco de entupimento deste espaço.
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5.4. Alteração da Forma do Cavaco Geometricamente a forma do cavaco é determinada pela combinação de: a) curvatura vertical (ω); b) curvatura lateral (θ) e c) ângulo do fluxo do cavaco (η) como mostrado na figura 5.5.
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mesmo quando tocar a peça (5.6-b), pode se dobrar verticalmente e lateralmente e se quebrar ao atingir a superfície de folga da ferramenta (5.6-c) ou se dobrar lateralmente e se quebrar quando atingir a superfície da peça que ainda não foi f oi usinada. Para facilitar a quebra do cavaco pode-se: a) diminuir a deformação limite de ruptura, aumentando a fragilidade do material através de tratamentos térmicos ou de trabalho a frio do material (encruamento). Partículas de MnS e Pb em aços de usinabilidade melhorada também tem uma ação de aumento da fragilidade do material. b) aumentar a espessura do cavaco cavaco através do aumento aumento do avanço ou do ângulo de de posição da ferramenta. Quanto maior a espessura do cavaco, mais flexíveis eles são e, assim, se tornam mais difíceis de quebrar. c) diminuir o raio de curvatura do cavaco, cavaco, através da diminuição do ângulo de saída ou inclinação, ou da colocação de quebra-cavacos. d) limitar o espaço espaço para o fluxo do cavaco. cavaco.
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em baixas baixas velocidades velocidades de corte os cavacos, cavacos, geralmente, geralmente, apresentam boa curvatura natural e, portanto, não costumam apresentar problemas com relação à quebra. Quando as velocidades de corte aumentam e atingem a faixa que normalmente é utilizada quando se utiliza ferramentas mais resistentes ao desgaste, o problema da quebra de cavaco passa a ter muita importância.
grandes profundidades de usinagem usinagem auxiliam auxiliam o aumento da capacidade capacidade de quebra de cavaco.
a relação entre raio de ponta e profundidade profundidade de usinagem influencia influencia na quebra do cavaco, como mostrado na figura 5.8. Quando a relação a p/r é pequena, o cavaco se dobrará lateralmente, com grande ângulo de fluxo, formando um cavaco que não se quebra com facilidade. Quando esta relação é grande, além de curvatura lateral, haverá também curvatura vertical do cavaco e ele se dobrará no sentido de encontrar a superfície de folga da ferramenta e lá se quebrar.
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Figura 5.8 – Influência da relação a p/r na curvatura e quebra do cavaco (Fonte: DINIZ et al, 2000).
Assim, o meio mais adequado para se obter a quebra do cavaco é a utilização de elementos de forma colocados na superfície de saída da ferramenta, denominados quebra-cavacos.
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o coloque na posição correta sobre a superfície de saída da ferramenta, posição esta dependente do avanço e da profundidade de usinagem utilizadas. Isto nem sempre é realizado corretamente, o que faz com que, algumas vezes, o cavaco não se quebre adequadamente, mesmo com a presença de quebra-cavacos postiço. Outro ponto desvantajoso para o quebra-cavacos postiço é que ele também se desgasta e precisa ser substituído de tempos em tempos, sua utilização implica em mais um item de estoque e muitas vezes, por ser pequeno, é de difícil manipulação pelo operador. Existem diversas geometrias de pastilhas intercambiáveis com quebra-cavacos moldados na superfície de saída destinadas a quebrar o cavaco em uma determinada faixa de condições de usinagem. A cada uma dessas geometrias corresponde um gráfico, onde se tem a região de avanço-profundidade de corte típica para uma dada ferramenta. Por isso, por exemplo, uma ferramenta com quebra-cavacos moldado projetada para
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72
d) Não uniformidade do material da peça – o material usado na indústria não é muito uniforme no que concerne à sua composição química e quantidade de trabalho a frio, o que leva à variação do ângulo de cisalhamento e conseqüentemente da forma do cavaco. Além disso, em muitas operações de usinagem, a camada a ser cortada é encruada em diferentes níveis pela operação anterior.
5.5. Temperatura de Corte Praticamente toda a energia mecânica associada à deformação do cavaco se transforma em energia térmica (calor). As fontes geradoras de calor no processo de usinagem são a deformação e o cisalhamento cisalhamento do cavaco cavaco no plano de cisalhamento, o atrito do cavaco com a ferramenta e o atrito da ferramenta com a peça. O percentual de calor total devido à cada uma das fontes acima variam com o tipo de usinagem, o material
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73
Este calor é dissipado através do cavaco, da peça, da ferramenta e do fluido de corte. O percentual de calor gerado que é dissipado por cada um dos meios citados também varia com os diversos parâmetros de usinagem. A figura 5.10 apresenta a variação destas proporções em função da velocidade de corte. Pode-se verificar nesta figura que a quantidade de calor que é dissipado pela ferramenta é pequena. Porém como a região da ferramenta que recebe este calor é reduzida e não muda com o tempo, como acontece com a peça, desenvolvem-se ali altas temperaturas (até 1200 oC – figura – figura 5.11) que contribuem para o desgaste da ferramenta. O calor que vai para a peça pode resultar em dilatação térmica da mesma e, portanto, dificuldades na obtenção de tolerâncias apertadas, além de se correr o risco de danificação da estrutura superficial do material. No caso do processo de retificação, este
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74
O percentual do calor total que é dissipado pelo cavaco aumenta com o aumento da velocidade. Em velocidades de corte muito altas, a maior parte do calor é carregado pelo cavaco, uma pequena quantia pela peça e uma quantidade menor ainda pela ferramenta. Com relação à influência do material da peça nas porcentagens de calor dissipado por cada meio, quão melhor condutor de calor for o material da peça, mais calor é dissipado por ela. A quantidade de calor gerada na usinagem aumenta com a velocidade de corte, avanço e profundidade de usinagem. Este aumento da geração de calor e conseqüentemente da temperatura, acelera e é acelerado pelo desgaste da ferramenta, o qual aumenta o valor do coeficiente de atrito e conseqüentemente a força de corte. A
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Desgastes e avarias em ferramentas de usinagem podem se apresentar sob diversas formas e devidos a diversos motivos. Neste capítulo serão vistas algumas das maneiras como isso pode ocorrer bem como algumas ações que podem ser tomadas para procurar minimizar a sua ocorrência e os seus efeitos.
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77
d) Lascamento -
ao contrário contrário das desgastes frontal e de cratera, que retiram
continuamente partículas muito pequenas da ferramenta, no lascamento partículas muito maiores são retiradas de uma só vez. Ocorrem principalmente em ferramentas com material frágil e/ou quando a aresta de corte é pouco reforçada. Prejudicam o acabamento superficial da peça e, se continuam crescendo,
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Este último ocorre pois o coeficiente de dilatação térmica do metal duro é aproximadamente a metade do coeficiente do aço, que é o material do portaferramentas. Assim, quando a interface pastilha-porta-ferramentas atinge temperatura alta, que tenta dilatar os dois corpos, o aço se dilata mais que o metal duro, gerando tensões na interface que levam à trinca do material mais frágil, o metal duro.
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115
ao coríndon extra, produz rebolos de cor entre rosa claro e vermelho escuro, nos quais o coríndon mantém sua dureza (K 100 = 2150), ao mesmo tempo que sua tenacidade é aumentada. São usados na afiação e retificação de aço rápido e aços duros. A adição de cobalto leva a rebolos de cor morango, usados na afiação de precisão, onde o rebolo deve manter o perfil (brochas, filetes, estrias, etc.). Outro desenvolvimento é a do Al 2O3 zirconado, obtido pela fundição conjunta de óxido de alumínio com 10 a 40% de ZrO 2. Os rebolos tem eficiência equivalente aos de coríndon, porém são mais duráveis. O Óxido de alumínio amolece em torno de 1750°C e funde a 2050°C.
Sinterização: em que grãos finos (até 5 µm) de óxido de alumínio são transformados numa massa plástica, pela mistura com um ligante. Esta massa é extrudada através de uma tubeira de forma redonda, prismática ou mesmo tubular formando-se barras continuas que são picadas em pedaços de tamanhos iguais. Estes pedaços são levados ao forno e sinterizados. A vantagem está na estrutura de cristais pequenos e uniformes, bem como na eliminação do processo de peneiragem. Os grãos sinterizados são usados principalmente na retificação de desbaste em rebolos com ligante resinóide. A forma de varetas assegura uma ancoragem mais forte do ligante e, portanto, menos desgaste do rebolo. A estrutura cristalina, bem fina, assegura uma melhor m elhor resistência dos grãos.
Cristalização: coríndon mono-cristalino obtido pela cristalização do mesmo, no forno elétrico, numa matriz fluida ou solução, por exemplo, de sulfeto de alumínio. A pureza é elevada, como no coríndon extra, porém os limites dos grãos são formados pelo crescimento dos cristais e não pela quebra da massa de coríndon fundido. A matriz mat riz fluida é removida por um complexo processo quí mico e os grãos resultantes são lavados e peneirados. Não é necessária qualquer operação de moagem. Não ocorrem, pois, falhas e defeitos, o que assegura tenacidade bem maior dos grãos mono- crístalínos. A vantagem qualitativa é, porém, porém, obtida com acréscimo grande de preço. preço.
Coríndon de esferas ocas é uma forma de coríndon obtida pela pulverização de uma massa liquida de Al 2O3, resultando em esferas uniformes. A utilização de
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116
descoberto acidentalmente em 1851, por Edward G. Acheson, quando tentava obter diamantes artificiais com o uso de energia elétrica.
Fabricação: o produto é obtido em formas constituídas de uma grande caixa formada por tijolos refratários, empilhados a seco, isto é, sem qualquer cimento. São usuais fornos de 6 a 15 m de comprimento, 3 a 6 m de largura por 3 m de altura. Esta caixa serve apenas como continente para manter a mistura bruta que consiste de 53% de areia de sílica (quartzo branco puro, do tipo usado na fabricação de vidro) e 40% de coque de alta qualidade, à qual são acrescentados cerca de 5% de serragem e 2% de sal de cozinha. Estas percentagens correspondem aproximadamente às relações estequiométricas da reação SiO 2 + 3C → SiC + 2CO. A serragem serve serv e para deixara massa mais porosa e permitir a saída do grande volume de gás CO (monóxido de carbono) liberado durante o processo. O NaCl serve para a limpeza do produto, transformando alumínio, ferro e outras impurezas em cloretos voláteis. Em ambos os extremos do forno, a meia altura, são colocados grandes eletrodos de grafite. O forno é enchido, inicialmente, com a mistura bruta, solta, até a altura dos eletrodos. Em seguida é feita uma valeta, que é enchida com grafite e coque metalúrgico, interligando os eletrodos montados em cada e›‹tremo do forno, formando um núcleo condutor de eletricidade. A seguir é completada a carga do forno. O núcleo condutor forma a resistência de partida, para aquecer a zona central a temperaturas entre 2000 e 2600°C. Pelo comprimento do núcleo e pelos contatos pontuais das numerosas partículas de carvão, necessita-se uma tensão de partida relativamente alta, de até 500 V Tão logo, porém, que a reação se inicia, forma-se ao redor do núcleo condutor uma camada condutora de carboneto de silício, aumentando a condutividade do forno. Isto exige uma continua e progressiva redução da tensão aplicada. As correntes crescem, podendo chegar até a 40.000 ampéres, ao mesmo tempo que a tensão deve ser reduzida para valores em torno de 75 V. As potências necessárias para operar eficientemente os fornos se situam entre 1000 e 4000 kW. O núcleo de carboneto de silício vai crescendo progressivamente e o processo é
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117
grandes volumes de monóxido de carbono: 1,4 ton. por tonelada de carboneto de silício produzido. Esta massa de gás atravessa a mistura solta e as paredes do forno, onde queima intensivamente. Terminada a corrida do forno, tem-se uma camada externa de massa inalterada, que atuou como isolante térmico. Uma segunda camada de material parcialmente transformada, composta de SiO 2, Si, C, e SiC, de composição muito variada. Finalmente vem as camadas de carboneto de silício, com cristais de diferentes tamanhos, dependendo de sua distância em relação ao núcleo. O material é classificado em 3 a 5 qualidades e moído, sendo que as duas melhores qualidades são ainda submetidas a processos químicos de purificação: tratamento com ácidos para dissolver o ferro, lavagem em soda cáustica para eliminar o silício, lavagem com água e vapor para remover o grafite. O material é em seguida secado, passado por um separador magnético e finalmente classificado por tamanho de grão.
Propriedades e aplicações do carboneto de silício o carboneto de silício tem elevada dureza, situada entre o coríndon e o diamante, na escala de Mohs. A dureza Knoop, independente da orientação dos cristais, situa-se entre K 100 = 2450 e 3000. Tem alta condutividade térmica, boas características de fratura. A frio, pode ser classificado como isolante elétrico, porém a medida que aquece torna-se melhor condutor atingindo a 2000°C a mesma condutividade elétrica do que a do grafite. É usado como abrasivo, na fabricação de rebolos e Iixas, bem como na lapidação. é usado na fabricação de tijolos e outros produtos refratários. O carboneto de silício (SiC) é muito estável quimicamente, não sendo atacado pelos ácidos sulfúrico, nítrico,fluorídrico, clorídrico e água régia, mesmo em temperaturas mais elevadas. O ácido fosfórico, porém, ataca SiC de grão fino já na temperatura de 200-300°. Álcalis, Bórax, cromatos (especialmente cromato de Pb), Ferro, Cobre e Manganês atuam em temperaturas mais elevadas. A velocidade de oxidação depende de numerosos fatores, como a pureza, tamanho dos grãos, temperatura, método de ensaio, etc.. É, porém, em geral muito pequena.
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118
As propriedades do carboneto de silício, como abrasivo, variam de acordo com o tipo e a porcentagem de impurezas e da posição, dentro do forno, em que foi obtido. Distinguem-se duas qualidades de carbonetos de silício, que apresentam a cor verde e cor preta, que têm as composições químicas mostradas no quadro da figura 9.9:
Figura 9.9 – Composição química dos rebolos de carboneto de silício (Fonte: STEMMER, 2005).
A cor verde é atribuída a 10-4 até 10-5% de nitrogênio no carboneto de silício muito puro. Pequenas quantidades de alumínio ou óxido de alumínio dão a coloração azul a preto ao carboneto de silício menos puro. A dureza do rebolo verde ou preto é igual, porém o preto apresenta maior tenacidade. Os rebolos de cor verde são utilizados na afiação de ferramentas de metal duro. Os rebolos de cor preta (cinza chumbo a preto esverdeado) são usados na retificação de ferro fundido cinzento e coquilhado, aço inoxidável inoxidável 18-8, não ferrosos (latão, bronze, alumínio, cobre), assim como não metálicos (borracha, couro, celulóide, refratários, mármores, granito, vidro). O carboneto de silício é oferecido com os nomes comerciais de Carborundum, Crystolon, Silicit e outros.
Carboneto de boro (B C) - É um abrasivo muito duro, mas friável, razão porque só
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119
Diamante sintético - A mais notável propriedade dos diamantes como abrasivos é a sua extraordinária dureza, que excede a de qualquer outro material. A dureza Knoop situa-se entre K 100 = 5000 a 7000, dependendo da orientação do cristal. O diamante tem uma condutibilidade térmica bem maior do que a do coríndon e do carboneto de silício. Os grãos de diamante transmitem, t ransmitem, assim, rapidamente, o calor de usinagem para o ligante. No caso de ligante resinóide, isto pode destruir a fixação do grão e promover seu arrancamento prematuro. O revestimento dos grãos de diamante com níquel, cobalto ou metais ligados, dissipa mais facilmente o calor. O diamante, em meio ambiente, grafitiza quando a temperatura ultrapassa 900°C. O diamante é usado para retificar metal duro, quartzo, cristal, pedras preciosas, mármore, granito, materiais cerâmicos. Desenvolvimentos recentes, com configurações cristalinas controladas e diamantes revestidos, expandiram a aplicação para a retificação de materiais dúteis não ferrosos.
Fabricação: foram desenvolvidos três processos básicos para a obtenção de diamantes sintéticos. 1-Transformação polimorfa direta da estrutura hexagonal do carbono do grafite em estrutura cúbica do diamante. Este processo só está sendo aplicável, economicamente, na obtenção de diamantes micrométricos, de aplicação restrita para lapidação e polimento. 2- Crescimento de átomos de carbono ao redor de um núcleo de diamante, pela pirólise de um hidrocarboneto gasoso ou implantação de átomos de carbono. Este processo ainda está em fase experimental. 3- Transformação de carbono amorfo em diamante, sob altíssimas pressões (em volta de 100 kbar = 10000 MPa) e temperaturas (entre 2000 e 2800°C), na presença de catalisadores (níquel). A grande maioria dos diamantes sintéticos são obtidos por este processo, que se caracteriza pela sua grande flexibilidade. flexibilidade. Pela escolha apropriada das condições de síntese, isto é, da combinação de pressão, temperatura, catalisadores, composição química da matéria prima, pode-se controlar a velocidade de crescimento dos cristais de diamante numa faixa que
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120
Nitreto cúbico de boro - CBN - O mais novo abrasivo é onitreto cúbico de boro, sintetizado por R.H. Wentorf em I957 e introduzido comercialmente a partir de 1968. O CBN tem uma dureza K 100 = 4700, portanto pouco abaixo da do diamante. A diferença é que esta dureza independe da orientação dos cristais e o abrasivo é estável, sob pressão atmosférica, até 2000°C. Somente acima desta temperatura ocorre a transformação de nitreto de boro de estrutura cúbica para a hexagonal. Os rebolos CBN são usados na retificação de materiais duros, como aços rápidos e aços liga temperados.
Fabricação: o nitreto de boro de estrutura hexagonal é obtido pela pirólise do amoníaco de boro e cloro, BCI 3.NH3 → BN + 3HCI. O produto é um pó branco, macio de estrutura semelhante à do grafite. A transformação para uma estrutura cúbica é obtida em reatores, sob pressões de 50 a 90 kbar (5000 a 9000 MPa), temperatura entre 1800 e 2700°C, na presença de um catalisador (em geral lítio).
9.2. Granulometria As dimensões dos grãos e sua uniformidade são uma característica importante nos processos de usinagem com abrasivos. A classificação mais usual é a da norma norteamericana ANSI Standard B 74.12-1977 74.12-1977 “Specification “Specification for Size of Abrasive Grain", que especifica o tamanho dos grãos em "mesh“, que que representa o número de fios por polegada linear da peneira na qual os grãos ficam retidos no processo de seleção. Os grãos mais grossos são usados em rebolos para operações de corte e limpeza, enquanto que os grãos mais finos, até 1200, são usados para polimento e lapidação. O quadro ds
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121
Grãos mais finos, que passam a ser pós impalpávels, são especificados em minutos de tempo necessário para a decantação na água. Coloca-se o pó na água, agitando-se intensamente. Em seguida deixa-se repousar por “n” minutos e se extrai por sifonagem a metade da parte superior. Deixa-se então evaporar a água da parte extraída. O resíduo da evaporação chama-se pó de “n” minutos. Um pó de 1 minuto corresponde aproximadamente à peneira de 200 mesh, ou seia, d =0,07 mm. Para grãos de diamante e de CBN é usada também a classificação da FEPA (Federação Européia dos Fabricantes de Abrasivos), que especifica a abertura da malha da peneira em µm. Neste caso os números maiores correspondem a grãos mais grossos.
9.3. Ligantes O Iigante ou aglutinante tem a função de unir os grãos de abrasivo entre si e também, se for o caso, com o suporte. Os Iigantes se dividem em dois grandes grupos: Iigantes inorgânicos e ligantes orgânicos.
9.3.1. Ligantes Inorgânicos
Ligante cerâmico ou vitrificado (símbolo V) - é constituído de uma mistura de argila, caolim, quartzo, feldspato. Os componentes são moídos, peneirados e classificados, para serem em seguida misturados em proporções que variam com as propriedades que se deseja obter: Modernamente se acrescentam ainda fundentes, constituídos geralmente de silicatos de boro ou de vidros com certo teor de monóxido de magnésio, os quais baixam a temperatura de queima do Iigante,
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122
Insensibilidade ao calor calor e ao frio, porém sensível sensível a choques choques térmicos;
Alta estabilidade frente a ácidos, água, água, fluidos de corte, óleo, óleo, gases, etc..
Cerca de 75% dos rebolos fabricados usam Iigante cerâmico. A velocidade limite recomendada para o uso destes rebolos varia entre 23 e 33 m/s, dependendo da especificação do rebolo (quanto mais duro o rebolo maior a resistência a tração do Iigante, maiores velocidades permitidas), da forma (lisa, com rebaixos, etc.) e da relação entre o diâmetro externo e o diâmetro do furo.
Ligante silicioso (símbolo S) - é um Iigante constituído por silicato de sódio (obtido pela fusão de soda com areia de quartzo), misturado com um pouco de argila. O silicato de sódio é líquido, e endurece a 200°C. A queima é feita em temperatura muito mais baixa do que no caso dos Iigantes cerâmicos. Tem, pois, como vantagem, maior facilidade de execução dos rebolos e possibilidade de fabricação de rebolos grandes. Desvantagens: pouca porosidade, nenhuma elasticidade, dureza pequena. São usados nos casos em que se exige ação suave e onde é preciso reduzir ao mínimo o calor gerado pela retificação, como na afiação de fresas e na cutelaria.
Ligante de magnesita (símbolo O) - é um dos ligantes mais antigos, conhecido como cimento de Sorell. Quimicamente, trata-se de oxicloreto de magnésio, obtido pela mistura de óxido com cloreto de magnésio. A liga endurece em temperatura ambiente, embora lentamente. A reação é dificilmente controlável, sendo
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123
Deposição galvânica de metal metal sobre um suporte suporte coberto coberto de abrasivo;
Infiltração do esqueleto esqueleto poroso de abrasivo por um metal de baixo ponto de fusão.
O Iigante metálico é usado na fabricação de rebolos de diamante para a retificação de cerâmica. É usado também com corindon e diamantes, na confecção de rebolos condutores para a retificação eletrolítica.
9.3.2. Ligantes Orgânicos
Goma-Iaca (símbolo E) - é um Iigante elástico, utilizado para dar acabamentos finos em eixos de comando de válvula, cilindros de fazer papel, cilindros de laminação de aço, afiação de serras de engenho, máquina “Hemming“ de afiar facas. Não são usados para cortes pesados. É usado com abrasivo de Óxido de alumínio, em rebolos de corte, para preparação de corpos de prova para ensaios metalográficos, em virtude do corte sem descoloração que produzem.
Borracha (simbolo R) - usada para rebolos elásticos em alta velocidade. Permite a rápida remoção de material, como na rebarbação de billets e peças fundidas. Oferece ação suave na retificação de eixos de comando e pistas de mancais de rolamentos. Permitem a fabricação de rebolos de corte de menos de 0,8 mm de espessura.
Resinóide (simbolo B) - são ligantes orgânicos desenvolvidos a partir de resinas
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124
de obter qualidades distintas é a modificação das resinas fenólicas pela adição de outras resinas (epoxi, poliamidas, alquidicos ou outras substâncias orgânicas, como aldeídos (furfurol) ou acetatos). O Iigante resinóide é empregado na maioria dos rebolos de alta velocidade usados em fundições e usinas de billets. É usado em rebolos que atuam com velocidade de 45 m/s em esmerilhadoras oscilantes e de pedestal, para rebarbar peças fundidas e remover escamas e defeitos de billet s, como, também em rebolos de corte, com velocidade de 80 m/s. Tem a vantagem de dar rebolos elásticos. O Iigante é atacado por soluções alcalinas. Refrigerantes devem ter pH entre 8,5 e 9. Permitem velocidade de corte de 50 a 60 m/s em rebolos normais e de 80 a 100 m/s para rebolos reforçados com telas de fibra de vidro ou anéis de aço interno.
9.4. Dureza É a resistência oposta ao arrancamento dos grãos. A capacidade de retenção dos grãos abrasivos depende: a) do tipo de Iigante; b) do tamanho dos grãos e dos vazios; c) da espessura das pontes de Iigante, que unem os grãos entre sí, ou seja, do volume do Iigante usado na fabricação do rebolo. A força de sujeição dos grãos deve ser suficiente para que estes, enquanto com arestas vivas, possam remover material da peça. Esta força deve ser, porém, insuficiente para reter grãos desgastados e arredondados. A liberação destes grãos deve expor novos grãos de arestas vivas para a continuação do processo de retificação. Um rebolo macio (suave) solta facilmente os grãos e gasta mais rapidamente. Um rebolo duro retém fortemente os grãos de abrasivo. A dureza ideal é aquela na qual os grãos gastos e arredondados são arrancados de por si, de modo que o
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125
Extra-macio A-B-C-D-E-G
Macio H-I-J-K
Médio L-M-N-O
Duro P-Q-R-S
Extra-duro T-U-W-Z
9.5. Estrutura Refere-se ao espaçamento entre os grãos. Não tem relação direta com a densidade ou com a porosidade, pois dois rebolos, com idêntico volume de poros, poderão tê-los, num, grandes e poucos e noutro, pequenos e numerosos. No primeiro rebolo a estrutura é aberta, enquanto que no segundo é mais fechada (figura 9.11).
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126
Acabamento
Quanto mais fino o acabamento, acabamento, mais densa densa a estrutura, a fim de se ter número suficiente de arestas cortantes.
Tipo de Trabalho
Limpeza de peças peças fundidas e remoção remoção de canais, alimentadores, alimentadores, massalotes, exige geralmente estrutura aberta, a fim de assegurar rápida remoção do material e espaço adequado para o cavaco.
Retificação plana, usando rebolos de copo, exige estrutura aberta.
Retificação cilíndrica cilíndrica e sem centros centros exige exige estrutura tanto mais fechada quanto melhor o acabamento desejado.
Retificação de roscas exige estrutura fechada.
9.6. Especificação de Rebolos Para a sua identificação, os rebolos devem ter uma marcação, que é padronizada pelas normas.
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127
Figura 9.12 – Marcação de rebolos com abrasivos convencionais (Fonte: STEMMER, 2005).
A norma DIN 69100, tem uma padronização um pouco diferente, como é mostrado
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128
Figura 9.14 – Exemplo de marcação de rebolos com abrasivo de diamantes ou CBN (Fonte: STEMMER, 2005).
9.7. Forma dos Rebolos e Perfil dos Bordos As formas básicas
perfil dos bordos dos rebolos são fixados pelas
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129
Rebolo do tipo de pires (para afiação de serras circulares e de fita) PI (ISO n o 13).
Rebolos do tipo faca (para ferramentaria) FA.
Rebolos montados montados em haste de aço. São usados na retificação interna interna e de locais pouco acessíveis.
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130
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131
Os bordos dos rebolos podem ter diferentes formas padronizadas, como mostra a figura 9.18.
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132
O fluido lubri-refrigerante, na retificação, tem as seguintes funções:
Redução do atrito entre o grão abrasivo e a peça;
Refrigeração da superfície da peça;
Limpeza do rebolo, evitando que fique "carregado" de cavacos;
Proteção contra corrosão, das peças e da máquina;
Arraste dos cavacos e dos residuos do rebolo.
A retificação úmida é vantajosa do do ponto de vista:
do rebolo: aumenta aumenta a vida e a eficiência do rebolo, evitando que o mesmo fique "carregado" de material (impede a soldagem ou colagem
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133
Óleos, apesar de seu efeito lubrificante, são pouco empregados, pelo seu alto custo, perigo de incêndio e problemas potenciais sobre a saúde dos operadores. O uso de meios não miscíveis na água é hoje geralmente restrito à retificação em cheio de formas e na retificação de materiais de difícil usinabilidade. Mesmo nestas duas aplicações, têm encontrado aplicação meios miscíveis na água, quer usando concentrações mais altas (10 a 20%) quer usando aditivos EP.
Soluções e emulsões têm encontrado grande aplicação na retificação. As concentrações usuais variam de 1,5 a 2%, valores que crescem para 4-8% na retificação de alto rendimento e alta velocidade. A incorporação de aditivos de extrema pressão, tais como óleos graxos e compostos orgânicos de cloro, enxofre e fósforo tem ampliado o campo de utilização destas soluções e emulsões.
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134
o
Precisão e grau de acabamento superficial desejados
o
Superfície de contato entre a peça peça e o rebolo
o
Natureza da operação.
b) Fatores variáveis, que podem ser modificados no chão da fábrica, pela equipe de fabricação: o
Velocidade do rebolo
o
Velocidade de avanço ou pressão pressão entre peça peça e rebolo rebolo
o
Estado de retifica
o
Características pessoais do operador
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135
Ligante: Vitrificado, para rebarbação e semi-acabado, efeito mais
o
agressivo. Resinóide, borracha ou goma-laca, para acabamento finíssimo, efeito suave. o
Estrutura: Tanto mais mais densa, quanto melhor melhor o acabamento acabamento superficial superficial desejado.
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136
abaixo do valor recomendado, o desgaste do rebolo aumenta. Deve-se então empregar um rebolo mais duro. o
Ligante: Cerâmico, só pode pode ser usado até até velocidades de 30 m/s. Orgânico, admite velocidades de 48 mls, ou até mais.
Na realidade, a velocidade máxima de um rebolo, pelo perigo de explodir pela força
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b.3) Estado da retifica, influi na dureza do rebolo, que deve ser tanto maior quanto pior a rigidez e estabilidade da retifica (mancais e guias com folga, vibrações, avanços desuniformes, etc.). b.4) Características individuais do operador, afetam especialmente a dureza do rebolo. O operador dinâmico, com salário proporcional à produção ou com prêmio pelo
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Já foram analisados os diversos fenômenos causadores dos desgastes da ferramenta, dentre eles a aresta postiça de corte (APC). Afirmou-se que a velocidade de corte a ser utilizada em um processo de usinagem deve ser sempre superior à velocidade crítica (velocidade abaixo da qual se tem a formação da APC), pois abaixo dela o
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comentado em que situação cada condição deve ser utilizada diante das demais condições de usinagem e de qualidade da peça. Também comentar-se-á como os novos paradigmas da manufatura influenciam no equacionamento das condições econômicas de usinagem.
10.1. Ciclos e Tempos de Usinagem
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