Ancient Roman Civilization

 Ancient Roman Civilization: Civilization: The Imagery of a Golden Empire Historical Background of Ancient Rome

Story of the First Legend of the Origins of  Ancient Rome According to legend, Rome was founded in 753 BC by Romulus and Remus, who were raised by a she-wolf. According to the founding myth of Rome, the city was founded on 21 April 753 BC by twin brothers Romulus and Remus, who descended from the Trojan prince Aeneas and who were grandsons of the Latin King, Numitor of Alba Longa. King Numitor was deposed from his throne by his brother, Amulius, while Numitor's daughter, Rhea Silvia, gave birth to the twins. Because Rhea Silvia was raped and impregnated by Mars, the Roman god of war, the twins were considered half-divine.

The new king feared Romulus and Remus would take back the throne, so he ordered them to be drowned. A she-wolf (or a shepherd's wife in some accounts) saved and raised them, and when they were old enough, they returned the throne of Alba Longa to Numitor. The twins then founded their own city, but Romulus killed Remus in a quarrel over the location of the Roman Kingdom, though some sources state the quarrel was about who was going to rule or give his name to the city. Romulus became the source of the city's name. In order to attract people to the city, Rome became a sanctuary for the indigent, exiled, and unwanted. This caused a problem for Rome, which had a large workforce but was bereft of women. Romulus traveled to the neighboring towns and tribes and attempted to secure marriage rights but as Rome was so full of undesirables they all refused. Legend says that the Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, leading to the integration of the Latins and the Sabines.

Aeneas, son of Venus, was a heroic figure from Troy. According to legend, he founded Lavinium in central Italy. He was worshipped as the god Jupiter after his death.

When Aeneas fled from Troy, he not only carried his crippled father Anchises, he also took the house-hold gods that had protected them through the generations. This image of Aeneas and his burden symbolize the virtues of loyalty to family and to the gods.

Aeneas was the son of Anchises and Venus. He was a cousin of King Priam of Troy, and was the leader of Troy's Dardanian allies during the Trojan War. After the fall of Troy, he led a band of Trojan refugees to Italy and became the founder of Roman culture (although not of the city of Rome itself). He was the mythical progenitor of the Julian gens through his son Ascanius, or "Iulus," and Virgil made him the hero of his epic, the Aeneid  . In the Trojan War, Aeneas was one of the most respected of the Trojan heroes, perhaps second only to Hector. He engaged in abortive single combat with the Greek heroes Diomedes, Idomeneus, and Achilles; twice he was rescued through the intervention of gods. When Troy was sacked by the Greeks, Aeneas fought on until he was ordered by the gods to flee. He finally left the city, carrying his father and the household gods (see Penates) on his shoulders; his wife Creusa was lost in the confusion, but his son Ascanius escaped with him.

Aeneas and the Trojan remnant then wandered across the Mediterranean, hounded by the enmity of Juno. In one of the most famous episodes of the Aeneid, they were cast ashore near the north African city of Carthage, where they were hospitably received by Dido, the city's founder and queen. There ensued a love affair between Dido and Aeneas which threatened to distract Aeneas from his destiny in Italy. Mercury was sent to order Aeneas to depart and Aeneas, forced to choose between love and duty, reluctantly sailed away. Dido, mad with grief, committed suicide. When Aeneas later encountered her shade on a trip to the underworld, she turned away from him, still refusing to forgive his desertion of her. In Italy, Aeneas allied himself with King Latinus, and was betrothed to Latinus' daughter, Lavinia. Lavinia's former suitor, Turnus, goaded by jealousy and the machinations of Juno, declared war against the intruder, and a period of bloody fighting (the Italian Wars) followed. Aeneas was victorious, eventually killing Turnus in single combat, and went on to found the city of Lavinium. At the end of his life, Aeneas was deified at the request of his mother, Venus, and became the god Indiges. In the Aeneid  , Aeneas' most common epithet is "pius," and Virgil presents him as the exemplar of the Roman virtues of devotion to duty and reverence for the gods.

Story of the Second Legend of the Origins of  Ancient Rome Another legend, recorded by Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus, says that Prince Aeneas led a group of Trojans on a sea voyage to found a new Troy, since the original was destroyed in the outcome of the Trojan War. After a long time in rough seas, they landed at the banks of the Tiber River. Not long after they landed, the men wanted to take to the sea again, but the women who were traveling with them did not want to leave. One woman, named Roma, suggested that the women burn the ships out at sea to prevent them from leaving. At first, the men were angry with Roma, but they soon realized that they were in the ideal place to settle. They named the settlement after the woman who torched their ships. The roman poet Virgil recounted this legend on his classical epic poem . In the Aeneid  , the Trojan prince Aeneas is destined by the gods in Aeneid  his enterprise of founding a new Troy. In the epic, the women also refused to go back to the sea, but they were not left on the Tiber. After reaching Italy, Aeneas, who wanted to marry Lavinia, was forced to wage war with her former suitor, Turnus. According to the poem, the Alban kings were descended from Aeneas, and thus, Romulus, the founder of Rome, was his descendant.

 Aeneid  Virgil (Vergil) wrote The Aeneid  , a story about a Trojan hero. The Aeneid  has been compared with Homer's Iliad  and Odyssey  --partly because Virgil

was influenced by and borrowed from Homer's works. Written by one of the earliest great poets, The Aeneid  has inspired a number of the greatest writers and poets in world literature. Here are a few quotes from The Aeneid. Perhaps these lines will inspire you too! "I sing of arms and of a man: his fate had made him fugitive: he was the first to journey from the coasts of Troy as far as Italy and the Lavinian shores Across the lands and waters he was battered beneath the violence of the high ones for the savage Juno's unforgetting anger." - Virgil, The Aeneid  , Book 1, lines 1-7 

"For full three hundred years, the capital and rule of Hector's race shall be at Alba, until a royal priestess Ilia with child by Mars, has brought to birth twin sons." - Virgil, The Aeneid  , Book 1, lines 380-3 

"just as the bees in early summer, busy beneath the sunlight through the flowered meadows." - Virgil, The Aeneid  , Book 1, lines 611-12 

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"The man you seek is here. I stand before you, Trojan Aeneas, torn from Libyan waves. O you who were alone in taking pity on the unutterable trials of Troy, who welcome us as allies to your city and home- a remnant left by Greeks, harassed by all disasters known on land and sea." - Virgil, The Aeneid  , Book 1, lines 836-842

"tell us all / things from the first beginning: Grecian guile, your people's trials, and then your journeyings." - Virgil, The Aeneid  , Book 1, lines 1049-51 "Do you believe the enemy have sailed away? Or think that any Grecian gifts are free of craft? Is this the way Ulysses acts? Either Achaeans hide, shut in this wood, or else this is an engine built against our walls... I fear the Greeks, even when they bring gifts." - Virgil, The Aeneid  , Book 2, lines 60-70 

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"four times it stalled before the gateway, at the very threshold; four times the arms clashed loud inside its belly. Nevertheless, heedless, blinded by frenzy, we press right on and set the inauspicious monster inside the sacred fortress." - Virgil, The Aeneid  , Book 2, lines 335-339

"Poor husband, what wild thought drives you to wear these weapons now? Where would you rush?" - Virgil, The Aeneid  , Book 2, lines 699-700 

"If you go off to die, then take us, too, to face all things with you; but if your past still lets you put your hope in arms, which now you have put on, then first protect this house." - Virgil, The Aeneid  , Book 2, lines 914-7 

"Why are you mangling me, Aeneas? Spare my body. I am buried here. Do spare the profanation of your pious hands. I am no stranger to you; I am Trojan. The blood you see does not flow from a stem. Flee from these cruel lands, this greedy shore, for I am Polydorus; here an iron harvest of lances covered my pierced body." - Virgil, The Aeneid  , Book 3, lines 52-59 

"until an awful hunger and your wrong in slaughtering my sisters has compelled your jaws to gnaw as food your very tables." - Virgil, The Aeneid  , Book 3, lines 333-5 

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"Along the banks beneath the branching ilex, a huge white sow stretched out upon the ground together with a new-delivered litter of thirty suckling white pigs at her teats" - Virgil, The Aeneid  , Book 3, lines 508-11 "I am of Ithaca and sailed for Troy, a comrade of unfortunate Ulysses; my name is Achaemenides." - Virgil, The Aeneid  , Book 3, lines 794-6 

"Let us make, instead of war, an everlasting peace and plighted wedding. You have what you were bent upon: she burns with love; the frenzy now is in her bones. Then let us rule this people - you and Iwith equal auspices..." - Virgil, The Aeneid  , Book 4, lines 130-136 

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"Are you now laying the foundations of high Carthage, as servant to a woman?" - Virgil, The Aeneid  , Book 4, lines 353-4 "Pity your sister- as a final kindness. When he has granted it, I shall repay my debt, and with full interest, by my death." - Virgil, The Aeneid  , Book 4, lines 599-601 

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"Do not let love or treaty tie our peoples. May an avenger rise up from my bones, one who will track with firebrand and sword the Dardan settlers, now and in the future, at any time that ways present themselves." - Virgil, The Aeneid  , Book 4, lines 861-6

"The circling year completes its months since we entombed in earth the bones and remnants of my godlike father. Unless I err, that anniversary is here, the day that I shall always keep in grief and honor..." - Virgil, The Aeneid  , Book 5, lines 61-7 

"At this the loud outcries of Salius reach everyone within that vast arena." - Virgil, The Aeneid  , Book 5, lines 448-9 

"In my sleep the image of the prophet Cassandra appeared and offered blazing brands. 'Look here for Troy; here is your home!' she cried. The time to act is now; such signs do not allow delay. Here are four altars raised to Neptune; the god himself gives us the will, the torches." - Virgil, The Aeneid  , Book 5, lines 838-44 

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"I see wars, horrid wars, the Tiber foaming with much blood. You shall have your Simois your Xanthus, and your Doric camp; already there is in Latium a new Achilles." - Virgil, The Aeneid  , Book 6, lines 122-5 "all these you see are helpless and unburied." - Virgil, The Aeneid  , Book 6, line 427 "And I could not believe that with my going I should bring so great a grief as this. But stay your steps. Do not retreat from me. Whom do you flee? This is the last time fate will let us speak." - Virgil, The Aeneid  , Book 6, lines 610-3 

"There are two gates of Sleep: the one is said to be of horn, through it an easy exit is given to true Shades; the other is made of polished ivory, perfect glittering, but through that way the Spirits send false dreams into the world above. And here Anchises, when he is done with words, accompanies the Sibyl and his son together; and

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he sends them through the gate of ivory." - Virgil, The Aeneid  , Book 6, lines 1191-1199

The Daily Life, Technological and   Medical Advancements in Ancient Rome Daily life in Ancient Rome Family Family had a very solid social position since the beginnings of Rome. The Roman familia was organized as a patriarchy - it means that the whole authority rested in father‘s hands. The usual family consisted of: father,

mother, single daughters and those, who were married but still lived with their parents and siblings, unmarried and married sons with their wives

and

children,

and

slaves.

Father‘s

authority

ranged

over

all

members

of

the family; in remote past he could even decide about children's life and death (if he found a neonate child as illegitimate, he could not accept it and order to ditch it). It is interesting that the son, even if he was married or came of age, was unable to have own estate. He couldn‘t inherit

and own till the time when the father died. In relation to the slaves, Pater‘s authority was absolute: he could sell, kill, leave or set them free.

 Marriage , when a woman wasn‘t There were two sorts of marriage in Rome: 1. in manum  incident to Pater‘s authority and depends only on her husband and 2. sine conventione in manum  – women was still subject to her father, lived with her parents and siblings, and kept the succession right.

The age border that needed to contract marriage was very low – girls had to be just 12 and boys 14 (in fact, this border, especially for boys, was much higher). During the engagement ceremony, which took place before the wedding, a groom handed a coin or an iron ring to his future wife. The marriage ceremony was usually the same. In witnesses‘ presence groom and bride gave

hands to each other, and assented to marriage, and then gods were asked for blessing. When the first star appeared on the sky, bride left the feast and made to go for her new house. After her husband, who was waiting on the doorstep, had given water and fire to her, she had to say famous words: Ubi tu Gaius, ibi ego Gaia. The

births

of

the

children

were

the

most

important

events

in

family‘s

life. After a child had been born, it was brought and put in front of the father. If he picked it up, it symbolized that he had found it legitimate. A child was named when it was 10 days old. At first Roman names consisted of 2 parts, then, in the times of the Republic and later, of 3: name, kind of surname and ―alias‖. There were few names in ancient Rome, so Romans replaced them with acronyms (Marcus –M., Quintus – Qu.).

Children upbringing and the youth Both boys and girls started their education when they were 7 years old. A personal teacher, who usually was an educated slave, taught wealthier children; those, whose parents couldn‘t afford private lessons, attended school. Finally organized education system consisted of three levels. During the first stage, a teacher called litterator, taught how to read and write, at the same time calculator explained simple arithmetic. Roman children had to learn multiplication operations by heart, so it was common

that they repeated them aloud after their teacher. The next stage included lessons given by gramaticus. That teacher had to have great knowledge from Greek and Roman literature, history and grammar. The third level involved rhetorical educating. Students were acquainted with the elocution rules and gave fictional speeches. Rich Romans‘ sons completed their education in Athens or on Rhodes Island, where they attend philosophers‘ lectures or

rehearsed pronunciation.

Roman houses Roman streets were filled with the crowds of people making their way to work, school, or just walking, even in the early morning. The poor lived in dilapidated cottages or rented rooms and flats in tenement houses. These narrow and high tenements were built in a quick and dirty way, and they often collapsed or became destroyed by fire. Storeys of such buildings stuck out toward the street, that‘s why Cicero said about the Rome as about ―a city hung in air on houses‘ storeys‖. Therefore, it isn‘t

surprising that poorer citizens avoid staying in their own homes and spend their time in the city, which offered a lot of entertainment to them. Wealthy Romans couldn‘t complain about their houses - they lived in luxury

villas, surrounded by vast gardens and ponds. Roman houses consisted of three parts: a front one and a middle, which was covered with tiles and of a peristyle. There were lots of columns, flowers, pictures and a fountain in it. Under a peristyle there was a cellar. Atrium was a kind of a presentable lounge, ―family life‖ concentrated in peristyle and nearby rooms. Slaves lived close to the atrium.

Clothes A tunic was the most important part of Roman clothing. It was a kind of a long, white shirt, composed of two cotton pieces; without sleeves or with the short ones. Till III century AD wearing a tunic with long sleeves was perceived as a symbol of effeminacy. A tunic that was too long and reached ankles was also unsuitable for men. Also, Roman tunics varied in details depending on an office that was held by their owners. Tunics were worn only in house, if Roman wanted to go out; he had to put a toga on.

Toga was a piece of cotton material that was about 3 meters wide and approximately 6-7 meters long. It was very difficult to compose toga appropriately, so there were ‗special‘ slaves who had to deal with it.

Roman Food  The rich Ancient Romans enjoyed their food. Expensive food, along with a lavish villa, was an obvious way of showing off your wealth to others. If you hosted a banquet at your villa to which other Roman worthies had been invited, it had to go well if your social standing was to be maintained hence why elaborate and expensive foods were well provided. Roast peacock and ostriches and the like, would be provided. A different lifestyle also meant that the eating habits of the Ancient Romans were different to ours today. Breakfast (the Romans called this jentaculum) was taken in the master's bedroom and usually consisted of a

slice of bread or a wheat pancake eaten with dates and honey. Wine was also drunk. Lunch (the Romans called this prandium) was eaten at about 11.00 a.m. and consisted of a light meal of bread, cheese and possibly some meat. In many senses, everything was geared up towards the main meal of the day - cena. This was eaten in the late afternoon or early evening. If the master of the house had no guests, cena might take about one hour. If he did have guests, then this meal might take as long as four hours. A light supper was usually eaten just before the Romans went to bed, consisting of bread and fruit. The Romans were usually not big meat eaters and a lot of their normal meals involved vegetables, herbs and spices together with a wheat meal that looked like porridge. However, for a rich man's banquet anything exotic that could be purchased was served. Many meals were served with sauces. The Romans seemed to be particularly fond of sauces as it gave a cook the opportunity to make a dish seem a little bit more exciting that it may have been without the sauce. One particular favourite was garum which was made by mixing up fish waste with salt water and leaving it for several weeks until it was ready for use. By all accounts, it was a salty and highly flavored sauce. Sauces made from vinegar, honey, pepper, herbs and spices were also popular. The Romans seemed to be very keen on sweet food and drink. One of the favoured drinks was called mulsum which was a mixture of boiled wine and honey. One sign that a meal or a banquet had gone down well was if guests asked for bags to take homes dishes that they had enjoyed. This in particular pleased a master as it showed to everyone who was there that at least some of the courses on offer had been well received. Most food was either boiled or fried in olive oil. Very few homes needed an oven as so little food was roasted. Two Roman meals were: Baked dormice: "Stuff the dormice with minced pork or the  meat of other dormice chopped up with herbs, pepper and   pine nuts. Sew up the dormi ce and cook in a small oven. "  A sweet: "Take the crusts fr om a white loaf and break th e  bread into largish pieces. S oak them in milk. Fry them i n hot oil or fat. Pour honey over them and serve."

The writer Petronius wrote about his eating experiences in around AD 60: "After a generous rubdown with oil, we put on dinner clothes. We were taken into the next room where we found  three couches drawn up and a table, very luxuriously laid  out, awaiting us.  We were invited to take o ur seats. Immediately, Egy ptian slaves came in and poured ice water over our hands. The starters were served. On a large tray stood a donkey made of  bronze. On its back were two baskets, one holding gre en

olives, and the other black. On either side were dormice, dipped in honey and rolled in poppy seed. Nearby, on a silver grill, piping hot laid small sausages. As for wine,  we were fairly swimming i n it."

Leisure of Royalties in Rome

A gladiator (Latin: gladiator  , "swordsman", from gladius, "sword") was an armed combatant who entertained audiences in the Roman Republic and Roman Empire in violent confrontations with other gladiators, wild animals, and condemned criminals. Some gladiators were volunteers who risked their legal and social standing and their lives by appearing in the arena. Most were despised as slaves, schooled under harsh conditions, socially marginalized, and segregated even in death. Irrespective of their origin, gladiators offered audiences an example of Rome's martial ethics and, in fighting or dying well, they could inspire admiration and popular acclaim. They were celebrated in high and low art, and their value as entertainers was commemorated in precious and commonplace objects throughout the Roman world. The origin of gladiatorial combat is open to debate. There is evidence of it in funeral rites during the Punic Wars of the 3rd century BCE, and thereafter it rapidly became an essential feature of politics and social life in the Roman world. Its popularity led to its use in ever more lavish and costly games. The games reached their peak between the 1st century BCE and the 2nd century CE, and they finally declined during the early 5th century after the adoption of Christianity as state religion in the 390s, although beast hunts (venationes) were continued into the 6th century.

Technological Advancements

The Colosseum  , or the Coliseum  , originally the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo), is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire. It is considered one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman engineering. Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started in 72 AD under the emperor Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD under Titus, with further modifications being made during Domitian's reign (81–96). The name " Amphitheatrum Flavium" derives from both Vespasian's and Titus's family name ( Flavius, from the gens Flavia).

Capable of seating 50,000 spectators, the Colosseum was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine. Although in the 21st century it stays partially ruined because of damage caused by devastating earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum is an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome. It is one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions and still has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession that starts in the area around the Colosseum. The Colosseum is also depicted on the Italian version of the five-cent euro coin.

An aqueduct is a water supply or navigable channel constructed to convey water. In modern engineering, the term is used for any system of pipes, ditches, canals, tunnels, and other structures used for this purpose. In a more restricted use, aqueduct (occasionally  water bridge) applies to any bridge or viaduct that transports water instead of a path, road or railway across a gap. Large navigable  —   —  aqueducts are used as transport links for boats or ships. Aqueducts must span a crossing at the same level as the watercourses on each end. The word is derived from the Latin aqua ("water") and ducere ("to lead"). Roman aqueducts were built

in all parts of the Roman Empire, from Germany to Africa, and especially in the city of Rome, where they totaled over 415 km. The aqueducts supplied water to public baths and for drinking water, in large cities across the empire, and set a standard of engineering that was not surpassed for more than a thousand years.

The Pantheon (Latin: Pantheon, an adjective meaning "(temple consecrated) to all gods") is a building in Rome, Italy, commissioned by Marcus Agrippa as a temple to all the gods of Ancient Rome, and rebuilt by Emperor Hadrian in about 126 AD. The building is circular with a portico of large granite Corinthian columns (eight in the first rank and two groups of four behind) under a pediment. A rectangular vestibule links the porch to the rotunda, which is under a coffered, concrete dome, with a central opening ( oculus) to the sky. Almost two thousand years after it was built, the Pantheon's dome is still the world's largest unreinforced concrete dome. The height to the oculus and the diameter of the interior circle are the same, 43.3 metres (142 ft). It is one of the best-preserved of all Roman buildings. It has been in continuous use throughout its history, and since the 7th century, the Pantheon has been used as a Roman Catholic church dedicated to "St. Mary and the Martyrs" but informally known as "Santa Maria della Rotonda." The square in front of the Pantheon is called Piazza della Rotonda.

St. Peter's Basilica (Basilica di San Pietro)

This great building is the center of christianity and is the largest church in the world and center of the Roman catholic faith. The

first

church

was

build

here

on

the

site

of

St.

Peter‘s

tomb,

by

Emperor

Constantine in AD 349. In the 15th century Pope Julius II ordered the building of a new stone church and appointed Donato Bramante in 1503 as a chief architect of St. Peter‘s Basilica. He was succeeded by Michelangelo in 1547. The dome of the

church was designed by Michelangelo and is 136.5m (448f) high and 42 m () in diameter. The nave of St. Peter‘s is 218m (715 ft) and the basilica has 45 altars and 11 chapels. In 1614 the façade was finished by Carlo Maderno and in 1626 St. Peter‘s was

consecrated. The greatest architects and artists of the Renaissance were involved in the building and designing of this grandest church. Significant

works of art and the Baldacchino

include Throne

the

Pietà by of St.

Michelangelo, Peter 

the papal altar by Bernini.

An elevator brings you to the top of the dome where you will be rewarded with a breathtaking view of Rome and Saint Peter's square. Where is St. Pet er’s Basilica - St. Peter’s Square - Piazza San Pietro, Vatican city How to get to St. Peter’s Basilica – By Metro line A to station Ottaviano San Pietro.

Opening hours : Daily from 7:00 AM to 7:00PM; October to March to 6:00 PM  the Dome is open from 8:00AM to 5:45 PM 

Don’t forget that bare knees and shoulders are not permitted.

The Pietà (1498–1499) is a masterpiece of Renaissance sculpture by Michelangelo Buonarroti, housed in St. Peter's Basilica in Vatican City. It is the first of a number of works of the same theme by the artist. The statue was commissioned for the French cardinal Jean de Billheres, who was a representative in Rome. The sculpture, in Carrara marble, was made for the cardinal's funeral monument, but was moved to its current location, the first chapel on the right as one enters the basilica, in the 18th century. It is the only piece Michelangelo ever signed (See History after completion). This famous work of art depicts the body of Jesus on the lap of his mother Mary after the Crucifixion. The theme is of Northern origin, popular by that time in France but not yet in Italy. Michelangelo's interpretation of the Pietà is unique to the precedents. It is an important work as it balances the Renaissance ideals of classical beauty with naturalism. The statue is one of the most highly finished works by Michelangelo.

The Trevi Fountain is a fountain in the Trevi district in Rome, Italy. Standing 26 metres (85.3 feet) high and 20 metres (65.6 feet) wide, it is the largest Baroque fountain in the city and one of the most famous fountains in the world. The fountain at the junction of three roads ( tre vie) marks the terminal point of the "modern" Acqua Vergine, the revived Aqua Virgo, one of the ancient aqueducts that supplied water to ancient Rome. In 19 BC, supposedly with the help of a virgin, Roman technicians located a source of pure water some 13 km (8.1 mi) from the city. (This scene is presented on the present fountain's façade.) However, the eventual indirect route of the aqueduct made its length some 22 km (14 mi). This Aqua Virgo led the water into the Baths of Agrippa. It served Rome for more than four hundred years. The coup de grâce for the urban life of late classical Rome came when the Goth besiegers in 537/38 broke the aqueducts. Medieval Romans were reduced to drawing water from polluted wells and the Tiber River, which was also used as a sewer.

The Roman custom of building a handsome fountain at the endpoint of an aqueduct that brought water to Rome was revived in the 15th century, with the Renaissance. In 1453, Pope Nicholas V finished mending the Acqua Vergine aqueduct and built a simple basin, designed by the humanist architect Leon Battista Alberti, to herald the water's arrival. Coin throwing

A traditional legend holds that if visitors throw a coin into the fountain, they are ensured a return to Rome. This was the theme of 1954's Three Coins in the Fountain and the Academy Award-winning song by that name which introduced the picture. An estimated 3,000 euros are thrown into the fountain each day. The money has been used to subsidize a supermarket for Rome's needy; however, there are regular attempts to steal coins from the fountain.

Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi by Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1648-51)

Fountains of St. Peter's Square by Carlo Maderno (1614) and Bernini (1677)

Fontana del Tritone (1642)

Hadrian's Wall (Latin: Vallum Aelium, "Aelian Wall" – the Latin name is inferred

from text on the Staffordshire Moorlands Patera) was a defensive fortification in Roman Britain. Begun in AD 122, during the rule of emperor Hadrian, it was the

first of two fortifications built across Great Britain, the second being the Antonine Wall, Wall, lesser known of the two because its physical remains are less evident today. Hadrian's Wall was likely planned before Roman Emperor Hadrian's Hadrian's visit to Britain in AD 122. According to restored sandstone fragments found in Jarrow that date from 118 or 119, it was Hadrian's wish to keep "intact the empire," which had been imposed upon him by "divine instruction." The fragments then announce the building of the wall. It is entirely possible that, on his arrival in Britain in 122, one of the stops on his itinerary was the northern frontier and an inspection of the progress of the wall as it was being built. Dimensions

Hadrian's Wall was 80 Roman miles (73 statute miles or 120 km) long, its width and height dependent on the construction materials which were available nearby. East of River Irthing the wall was made from squared stone and measured 3 metres (9.7 ft) wide and five to six metres (16 –20 ft) high, while west of the river the wall was made from turf and measured 6 metres (20 ft) wide and 3.5 metres (11.5 ft) high. This does not include the wall's ditches, berms and forts. The central section measured eight Roman feet wide (7.8 ft or 2.4 m) on a 10-foot (3.0 m) base. Some parts of this section of the wall survive to a height of 10 feet (3.0 m). Construction

Hadrian's Wall was 80 Roman miles (73 statute miles or 120 km) long, its width and height dependent on the construction materials which were available nearby. East of River Irthing the wall was made from squared stone and measured 3 metres (9.7 ft) wide and five to six metres (16 –20 ft) high, while west of the river the wall was made from turf and measured 6 metres (20 ft) wide and 3.5 metres (11.5 ft) high. This does not include the wall's ditches, berms and forts. The central section measured eight Roman feet wide (7.8 ft or 2.4 m) on a 10-foot (3.0 m) base. Some parts of this section of the wall survive to a height of 10 feet (3.0 m).

Latin: Hadrian (Latin:

Publius Aelius Traianus Hadrianus Augustus 24 January 76

10 July 138), was Roman Emperor from 117 to 138. He is best known for building Hadrian's Wall, Wall , which marked the northern limit of Roman Britain. Britain . In Rome, he rebuilt the Pantheon and constructed the Temple of Venus and Roma. Roma . In addition to being emperor, Hadrian was a humanist and was philhellene in all his tastes. He was the third of the so-called Five Good Emperors. Emperors . –

Hadrian was born Publius Aelius Hadrianus to an ethnically Italian family, either in Italica near Seville, Seville, in today´s Spain, Spain, or in Rome. His predecessor Trajan, Trajan, also Hispanic himself, was a maternal cousin of Hadrian's father. Trajan never officially designated an heir, but according to his wife Pompeia Plotina, Plotina , Trajan named Hadrian emperor immediately before his death. Trajan's wife and his friend Licinius Sura were well-disposed towards Hadrian, and he may well have owed his succession to them.

Roman baths were part of the day-to-day life in Ancient Rome. Rome. The Roman Baths complex is a site of historical interest in the English city of Bath. Bath. The house is a well-preserved Roman site for public bathing. The Roman Baths themselves are below the modern street level. There are four main features: the Sacred Spring, the Roman Temple, the Roman Bath House and the Museum holding finds from Roman Bath. The buildings above street level date from the 19th century. Roman houses had water supplied via lead pipes. However, these pipes were taxed according to their size, so many houses had just a basic supply and could not hope to rival a bath complex. Therefore for personal hygiene, people went to the local baths. However, the local bath complex was also a gathering point and served a very useful community and social function. Here people could relax, keep clean and keep up with the latest news. Taking a bath was not a simple chore. There was not one bath to use in a large complex such as the one at Bath. A visitor could use a cold bath (the ), a warm bath (the tepidarium  ), ) and a hot bath (the caldarium  ). ). A frigidarium  visitor would spend some of his time in each one before leaving. A large complex would also contain an exercise area (the  palaestra), a swimming pool and a gymnasium. One of the public baths at Pompeii contains two tepidariums and caldariums along with a plunge pool and a large exercise area.

The building of a bath complex required excellent engineering skills. Baths required a way of heating up water. This was done by using a furnace and the hypocaust system carried the heat around the complex. Water had to be constantly supplied. In Rome this was done using 640 kilometers of aqueducts - a superb engineering feat. The baths themselves could be huge. A complex built by the emperor Diocletian was the size of a football pitch. Those who built them wanted to make a statement - so that many baths contained mosaics and massive marble columns. The larger baths contained statues to the gods and professionals were on hand to help take the strain out of having a bath. Masseurs would massage visitors and then rub scented olive oil into their skin. It was very cheap to use a Roman bath. A visitor, after paying his entrance fee, would strip naked and hand his clothes to an attendant. He could then do some exercising to work up a sweat before moving into the tepidarium which would prepare him for the caldarium which was more or less like a modern sauna. The idea, as with a sauna, was for the sweat to get rid of the body's dirt. After this a slave would rub olive oil into the visitor's skin and then scrap it off with a strigil. The more luxurious establishments would have professional masseurs to do this. After this, the visitor would return to the tepidarium and then to frigidarium to cool down. Finally, he could use the main pool for a swim or to generally socialise. Bathing was very important to the Ancient Romans as it served many functions. "We quickly undressed, went into the hot baths and after working up a sweat, passed on to the cold bath. There we found Trimalchio again. His skin was glistening all over with perfumed oil. He was being rubbed down, not with ordinary linen, but with clothes of the purest and  softest wool. he was then wrapped in a blazing scarlet robe, hoisted into a litter, and  trundled off." Petronius.

However, not everyone was overjoyed by them: "I live over a public bath-house. Just imagine every kind of annoying noise! The sturdy gentleman does his exercise with lead weights;  when he is working hard (or pretending to) I can hear him grunt; when he breathes out, I can hear him panting in high pitched tones. Or I might notice some lazy fellow, content with a cheap rub-down, and hear the blows of the hand slapping his shoulders. The sound varies, depending on whether the massager hits with a flat or hollow hand. To all of this, you can add the arrest of the occasional pickpocket; there's also the racket  made by the man who loves to hear his own voice in the bath or the chap who dives in

 with a lot of noise and splashing." Seneca in AD 50

As the Romans advanced west in England, building the Fosse Way as they went, they crossed the River Avon. Near here they found a hot water spring. It brought over one million litres of hot water to the surface every day at a temperature of about 48 degrees centigrade. They built a reservoir to control the water flow, baths and a temple. A town, Bath, quickly grew around this complex. Many Romans viewed the springs as sacred and threw valuable items into the springs to please the gods. An altar was also built at Bath so that priests could sacrifice animals to the gods. The waters at Bath gained a reputation as being able to cure all ills. As a result, may travel to Bath from all over the Roman Empire to take to the waters there.

Reconstruction of a 10.4-metre-high Roman construction crane  Machines

There were many types of presses to press olives. In the 1st century A.D., Pliny the Elder reported the invention and subsequent general use of the new and more compact screw presses. However, the screw press was almost certainly not a Roman invention. It was first described by Hero of Alexandria, but may have already been in use when he mentioned it in his Mechanica III. Cranes were used for construction work and possibly to load and unload ships at their ports, although for the latter use there is according to the ―present state of knowledge‖ still no evidence. Most c ranes were capable of lifting about 6 –7

tons of cargo, and according to a relief shown on Trajan's column were worked by treadwheel.

Via Appia, a road connecting the city of Rome to the Southern parts of Italy remains usable even today. The Romans primarily built roads for their military. Their economic importance was probably also significant, although wagon traffic was often banned from the roads to preserve their military value.At its largest extent the total length of the Roman road network was 85,000 kilometres (53,000 mi). Way stations providing refreshments were maintained by the government at regular intervals along the roads. A separate system of changing stations for official and private couriers was also maintained. This allowed a dispatch to travel a maximum of 800 kilometres (500 mi) in 24 hours by using a relay of horses. The roads were constructed by digging a pit along the length of the intended course, often to bedrock. The pit was first filled with rocks, gravel or sand and then a layer of concrete. Finally they were paved with polygonal rock slabs. Roman roads are considered the most advanced roads built until the early 19th century. Bridges were constructed over waterways. The roads were resistant to floods and other environmental hazards. After the fall of the Roman empire the roads were still usable and used for more than 1000 years.

1st century Roman bridge in Vaison la Romaine, France Bridges Roman bridges were among the first large and lasting bridges built. They were built with stone and had the arch as its basic structure. Most utilized concrete as well. Built in 142 BC, the Pons Aemilius, later named Ponte Rotto (broken bridge) is the oldest Roman stone bridge in Rome, Italy. The biggest Roman bridge was Trajan's bridge over the lower Danube, constructed by Apollodorus of Damascus, which remained for over a millennium the longest bridge to have been built both in terms of overall and span length. They were most of the time at least 60 feet above the body of water.

A Roman Ballista The Roman military technology ranged from personal equipment and armament to deadly siege engines. They inherited almost all ancient weapons. While heavy, intricate armour was not uncommon ( cataphracts), the Romans perfected a relatively light, full torso armour made of segmented plates ( lorica segmentata). This segmented armour provided good protection for vital areas, but did not cover as much of the body as lorica hamata or chainmail. The lorica segmentata provided better protection, but the plate bands were expensive and difficult to produce and difficult to repair in the field. Overall, chainmail was cheaper, easier to produce, cheaper and simpler to maintain, was one-size fits all, and was more comfortable to wear – thus, it remained the primary form of armor even when lorica segmentata was in use. The Roman cavalry saddle had four horns and was believed to have been copied from Celtic peoples. Roman siege engines such as ballistas, scorpions and onagers were not unique. But the Romans were probably the first people to put ballistas on carts for better mobility on campaigns. On the battlefield, it is thought that they were used to pick off enemy leaders.

Glassware from Pompeii

Roman crank handle from Augusta Raurica, dating to no later than ca. 250 AD

Roman surgery tools

Roman turbine mill at Chemtou, Tunisia

Modern oil screw press following Roman conceptual innovation

Roman harvesting machine

Donkey mills at Pompeii

Ship with spritsail, the earliest fore-and-aft rig, 3rd century AD

Roman Pentaspastos ("Five-pulley-crane"), a medium-sized variant (ca. 450 kg load)

 Medical Adavancements in Rome  Medicine in ancient Rome combined various techniques using different tools and

rituals. Ancient Roman medicine included a number of specializations such as internal medicine, ophthalmology and urology. The Romans favoured the prevention of diseases over the cures of them; unlike in Greek society where health was a personal matter, public health was encouraged by the government at the time; they built bath houses and aqueducts to pipe water to the cities. Many of the larger cities, such as Rome, boasted an advanced sewage system, the likes of which would not be seen in the Western world again until the late 17th century onward. However, the Romans did not fully understand the involvement of germs in disease. Roman surgeons carried a tool kit which contained forceps, scalpels, catheters and arrow extractors. The tools had various uses and were boiled in hot water before each use. In surgery, surgeons used painkillers such as opium and scopolamine for treatments, and acetum (the acid in vinegar) was used to wash wounds. The Greeks used temples and religious belief to try to cure people, yet the Romans developed specific hospitals which enabled the patients to be fully rested and relaxed so they could completely recover. By staying in the hospitals, the doctors (which now had different levels of qualification) were able to observe the illness rather than rely on the supernatural to cure them. Greek influences on Roman Medicine

Many Greek medical ideas were adopted by the Romans and Greek medicine had a huge influence on Roman medicine. The first doctors to appear in Rome were Greek, captured as prisoners of war. Greek doctors would later move to Rome because they could make a good living there, or a better one than in the Greek cities. The Romans also conquered the city of Alexandria, with its libraries and its universities. In Ancient times, Alexandria was an important centre for learning and its Great Library held countless volumes of information, many of which would have been on medicine. Here, doctors were allowed to carry out dissections which led to the discovery of many important medical advances, such as the discovery that the brain sends messages to the body. Greek Medicine revolved heavily around the theory of the Four Humours and texts by Hippocrates and his followers (Hippocratic Writings), who were all Greek. These ideas and writings were also used in Roman medicine. Roman Medicine also encompassed the spiritual beliefs of the Greeks. Dioscorides

Pedanius Dioscorides (ca. 40-ca. 90) was an ancient Greek physician, pharmacologist and botanist from Anazarbus, Cilicia, Asia Minor, who practised in ancient Rome during the time of Nero. Dioscorides is famous for writing a five volume book De Materia Medica that is a precursor to all modern pharmacopeias, and is one of the most influential herbal books in history. Soranus Soranus was a Greek physician, born at Ephesus, who lived during the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian (AD 98-138). According to the Suda, he practised in Alexandria

and subsequently in Rome. He was the chief representative of the school of physicians known as "Methodists." His treatise Gynaecology is extant (first published in 1838, later by V. Rose, in 1882, with a 6th-century Latin translation by Muscio, a physician of the same school). Galen Galen (AD 129–ca. 200 or 216) of Pergamon was a prominent ancient Greek physician, whose theories dominated Western medical science for well over a millennium. By the age of 20, he had served for four years in the local temple as a therapeutes ("attendant" or "associate") of the god Asclepius. Although Galen studied the human body, dissection of human corpses was against Roman law, so instead he used pigs, apes, and other animals. Galen moved to Rome in 162. There he lectured, wrote extensively, and performed public demonstrations of his anatomical knowledge. He soon gained a reputation as an experienced physician, attracting to his practice a large number of clients. Among them was the consul Flavius Boethius, who introduced him to the imperial court, where he became a physician to Emperor Marcus Aurelius. Despite being a member of the court, Galen reputedly shunned Latin, preferring to speak and write in his native Greek, a tongue that was actually quite popular in Rome. He would go on to treat Roman luminaries such as Lucius Verus, Commodus, and Septimius Severus. However, in 166 Galen returned to Pergamon again, where he lived until he went back to Rome for good in 169. Surgical instruments

A variety of surgical instruments are known from archaeology and medicial literature. Scalpels: Could be made of either steel or bronze. Ancient scalpels had almost the same form and function as those of today. The most ordinary type of scalpels in antiquity were the longer, steel scalpels. These long scalpels could be used to make a variety of incisions, but they seem to be particularly suited for deep or long cuts. Smaller, bronze scalpels, referred to as bellied scalpels, were also used frequently by surgeons in antiquity since the shape allowed for delicate and precise cuts to be made.

Hooks: A common instrument used regularly by Roman and Greek doctors. The ancient

doctors used two basic types of hooks: sharp hooks and blunt hooks. Blunt hooks were used primarily as probes for dissection and for raising blood vessels. Sharp hooks, on the other hand, were used to hold and lift small pieces of tissue so that they could be extracted, and to retract the edges of wounds.

Bone Drills: Driven in their rotary motion by means of a thong in various

configurations. Roman and Greek physicians used bone drills in order to remove diseased bone tissue from the skull and to remove foreign objects (such as a weapon) from a bone.

Forceps: Forceps were often used in conjunction with bone drills. They were used

by ancient doctors to extract small fragments of bone which could not be grasped by the fingers.

Catheters: Used in order to open up a blocked urinary tract which allowed urine

to pass freely from the body. Early catheters were hollow tubes made of steel or bronze, and had two basic designs. There were catheters with a slight S curve for male patients and a straighter one for females. There were similar shaped devices called bladder sounds that were used to probe the bladder in search of calcifications. Uvula Crushing Forceps: These finely toothed jawed forceps were designed to

facilitate the amputation of the uvula. The procedure called for the physician to

crush the uvula with forceps before cutting it off in order to prevent hemorrhaging.  Vaginal Specula: Among the most complex instruments used by Roman and Greek physicians. Most of the vaginal specula that have survived and been discovered consist of a screw device which, when turned, forces a cross-bar to push the blades outwards.

Spatula: This instrument was used to mix and apply various ointments to patients. Surgical saw: This instrument was used to cut through bones in amputations and

surgeries.

Probes and Currettes

Rectal Speculum

 Medicines

Stamp for marking semi-solid sticks of eye ointments (collyria) before they harden.

 Medicinal herbs

Some Ancient Roman herbs used in medicine were: Fennel: It was thought to have calming properties. Elecampane: Used to help with digestion. Sage: Although it had little medicinal value, it had great religious value. Garlic: Beneficial for health, particularly of the heart. Fenugreek: Used in the treatment of pneumonia.

: Used for a wide variety of ailments and conditions especially for birth  —  Silphium  control.  Willow: Is used as an antiseptic  Asclepieions in Roman Medicine

When the Roman Army conquered Greece they adopted many of their medicinal beliefs and ideas. The cult of Asclepios had spread across much of Greece and numerous temples (asclepieions) had been built in his name. These Asclepieions (or Asklepieions) were places of healing. They contained baths, gardens and other facilities designed to improve people's health. People who were being treated in the Asclepieions would sleep in front of a statue of the Greek God in the hope that he would heal them in their sleep. Though several accounts have been recovered, detailing the progress in health made by people admitted to the Asclepieions, it is unlikely that they were based on fact; they may simply have been used as propaganda. Evidence of Traveling Surgeon Tiber Island 

Tiber Island in Rome was once the location of an ancient temple to Aesculapius, the Greek god of medicine and healing. Accounts say that in 293 BC, there was a great plague in Rome. Upon consulting the Sibyl, the Roman Senate decided to build a temple to Aesculapius, the Greek god of healing, and sent a delegation to Epidauros to obtain a statue of the deity. They obtained a snake from a temple and put in on board their ship. It immediately curled itself around the ship's mast and this was deemed as a good sign by them. Upon their return up the Tiber river, the snake slithered off the ship and swam onto the island. They believed that this was a sign from Aesculapius, a sign which meant that he wanted his temple to be built on that island. The practice of reading livers was common in the Roman world. After an animal was sacrificed its liver was examined by a priest who would interpret the liver. Looking at the liver, the priest would reveal good or bad omens from it. It was thought that the gods responses were communicated through the liver and other internal organs of a sacrificed animal. Healing was sought after from religious

temples. Sacrifices were made to gods in particular Asklepios (see below) in hopes of receiving healing. Hospitals were originally built for the military. Under Gaius Marius, the Roman Army became the world's best trained and disciplined force, and some of this rubbed off onto the Medics too. The influence of superstitious quackery lessened and Roman Medicine took on a more practical approach. It was still a trial and error process, but the Medics were more observant and carefully noted down any treatment that worked and this knowledge was passed on and could be successfully utilized by the next doctor. The fifteen-year civil war that directly following the assassination of Julius Caesar led to significant medical innovations. The war was fought between the best armies of the world and yielded such high levels of injury that the newly emerged emperor, Augustus, formed a professional military medical corps. Before this, doctors had fairly low status. August, realizing that they were key in an empire and especially an army, gave all physicians that joined his new army medical corps dignified titles, land grants, and special retirement benefits! For the next five hundred years, fueled by the motivations and opportunity for medical advancement supplied by the many battles, and supported by the powers that be, this serious group advanced the study and practice of medicine to a level not seen again until late in the nineteenth century. The first Roman Medical Corps was formed by Emperor Augustus, and as he gave land grants, dignified titles, and special retirement gifts to the doctors, the profession lost its shoddy aspect and became respectable. It helped too that Medical professionals hereafter were required to train at the new Army Medical School and could not practise unless they passed. This increased the success rates in treatments. Ancient Roman medicine was, surprisingly, incredibly similar to that of the late nineteenth century. Like the modern medical practice, Ancient Roman medicine was split among different specialties, such as internists, ophthalmologists, and urologists. All surgical tasks were only preformed by appropriate specialists. Surgeons used practically the same tools as American doctors did only one hundred years ago. An Ancient Roman doctorÕs tool kit (shown in the four pictures to the right) would include forceps, scalpels, catheters, and even arrow-extractors. Similarly, Ancient Roman surgeons had a wide range of painkillers and sedatives to help in surgery, including extracts of opium poppies (morphine) and of henbane seeds (scopolamine). There is little doubt that the many folk remedies used throughout the Roman Empire were tested in battle by Roman physicians on wounded and ailing soldiers, who sifted through and found the treatments and methods with the most useful effects. Further, the bureaucracy of Rome ensured that the treatments were recorded and taught in the medical school. The Romans did not yet really understand how germs related to disease, but they did use many of the techniques that killed germs, techniques that were not reinvented until much later. For example, they boiled their tools before use and would not reuse the same tool on a patient before reboiling. Wounds were washed with acetum, which is actually a better antiseptic than Joseph Lister's carbolic acid (Joseph Lister rediscovered antiseptics in the 1860's, based on Louis PasteurÕs brand-new germ theory of disease). In Ancient Rome, it was common knowledge that arteries and veins carried blood. All surgeons knew how to use tourniquets, arterial clamps, and ligatures to stem

blood flow. They also used amputation to prevent deadly gangrene.Over the years, Roman war doctors also learned how to prevent many battlefield epidemics. They accomplished this by placing forts away from insect infested swamps. They also installed drains and sewers to transport sewage away from the men. Similarly, they invented sophisticated permanent hospitals, with specialized rooms for different tasks, and with isolation of some patients from others to reduce the spread of disease. Central heating and good ventilation also helped patients. In the case of the Roman army, it is clear that it was the wartime doctors that created most of the innovations because they were organized, they were distributed throughout the Empire, they were careful about capturing and spreading any new information or technique that worked, and they were highly motivated by the great loss of life suffered by their soldiers during the many battles.

Doctors

Roman doctors did not necessarily fare well. Many doctors were freed Greek slaves; hence the social standing of doctors was quite low. Because cure rates were so low, many people were skeptical or even scornful of doctors. Their skepticism is easily understood. Roman literature contains much which tells us about the reactions of individuals to medicine and doctors. To listen to the Roman authors is to hear tales of quackery at all levels of society. Some doctors charged excessive prices for the most worthless medicines and drugs, and others in the craft attempt to deal with and treat diseases they obviously do not understand. There were no licensing boards and no formal requirements for entrance to the profession. Anyone could call himself a doctor. If his methods were successful, he attracted more patients, if not, he found himself another profession. Medical training consisted mostly of apprentice work. Men trained as doctors by following around another doctor.

Rome had two types of physicians: The aristocrats had physicians as servants or visited the private physicians willing to pay their high prices. Those who served the general public whose reputation wasn't as prestigious. Many were illiterate, quacks, charlatans, and usually cheated the poor and needy. Unethical practices abounded. Plutarch grumbled that practitioners used all sorts of questionable methods to gain patients, ranging from escorting the prospective patient home from bars to sharing dirty jokes with him. According to Plutarch, "Some Medical Quacks would do just about anything to acquire clients, from accompanying them to alcohol dens to telling them dirty jokes. Still others were not above murdering their patients in cold blood for financial gain, for example, they might be paid and told to just 'put the patient out of his misery."

Roman Medics studied medical texts by Hippocrates, who came from the Greek Island of Cos and is generally regarded as the Father of Medicine. Actually, he was only one of a longstanding line of medical practitioners, but his personal popularity ensured that his treatises were saved by his followers while those written by his predecessors, which nobody saved, were lost to the coming ages. Archaeological sites have produced many implements used in ancient Roman surgery - some dating to 460 BC. This is the timeline Hippocrates wrote The Oath - a pledge still taken today by doctors to perform to their fullest ability.

The Hippocratic Oath

The Hippocratic Oath is an oath historically taken by physicians, physician assistants' and other healthcare professionals swearing to practice medicine ethically and honestly. It is widely believed to have been written by Hippocrates, often regarded as the father of western medicine, or by one of his students. The oath is written in Ionic Greek (late 5th century BC), and is usually included in the Hippocratic Corpus. Classical scholar Ludwig Edelstein proposed that the oath was written by Pythagoreans, a theory that has been questioned due to the lack of evidence for a school of Pythagorean medicine. Of historic and traditional value, the oath is considered a rite of passage for practitioners of medicine in many countries, although nowadays the modernized version of the text varies among them. The Hippocratic Oath (orkos) is one of the most widely known of Greek medical texts. It requires a new physician to swear upon a number of healing gods that he will uphold a number of professional ethical standards.

Making Incisions Using A Scalpel

Asclepius is the god of medicine and healing in ancient Greek religion. Asclepius represents the healing aspect of the medical arts; his daughters are Hygieia ("Hygiene", the goddess/personification of health, cleanliness, and sanitation), Iaso (the goddess of recuperation from illness), Aceso (the goddess of the healing process). The cult of Asclepios had spread across much of Greece and numerous temples (asclepieions) had been built in his name. These Asclepieions (or Asklepieions) were places of healing. They contained baths, gardens and other facilities designed to improve people's health. People who were being treated in the Asclepieions would sleep in front of a statue of the Greek God in the hope that he would heal them in their sleep. Though several accounts have been recovered, detailing the progress in health made by people admitted to the Asclepieions, it is unlikely that they were based on fact; they may simply have been used as propaganda.

Some of the main Roman Gods

Vatican Museums, Vatican City 

Vatican Museums, Vatican City 

Jupiter

Juno

Capitoline Museums, Rome

 Mars

He was the master She was the wife He was the god of of the gods and of Jupiter, the war, the strongest the main god of goddess of women and most fearsome the Romans. In his and fertility. Her god, except for hand he held symbols were a Jupiter. thunderbolts which pomegranate and a he could hurl from peacock. the sky.

Vatican Museums, Vatican City 

 Minerva

She was the goddess of wisdom, learning, art crafts and industry. Her symbol was the owl.

Vatican Museums, Vatican City 

 Neptune

He was the powerful god of the sea. His symbol was the trident.

Ceres

 Venus

She was the goddess of love and beauty.

Vatican Museums, Vatican City 

 Vulcan

She was the He was the goddess of the blacksmith of the harvest, always gods and a god of depicted carrying the underworld. If a bundle of grain. he stoked his furness too hard volcanos might erupt. He was the god of blacksmiths and volcanos.

Vatican Museums, Vatican City 

Vatican Museums, Vatican City 

Diana

Bacchus

Vatican Museums, Vatican City 

 Mercury

 Vesta

She was the He was the god of He was the She was the goddess of hunting wine and partying. messenger of the goddess of the and a goddess of Naturally, he was gods. the wings on hearth and home. the moon. one of Rome's most his helmet and She was very popular gods. sandals allowed important to him to travel very Romans. In her quickly to temple a flame was wherever a god always kept might send him. He burning as in the was the god of 'hearth of Rome' travellers and the flame should tradesmen. never go out. British Museum London

The Household Spirits In Roman religion every household had its own personal spirits which protected it. The lares were the spirits of the family's ancestors. And the  penates were kind spirits who garded the larder. Little figurines of these spirits were kept in a small household shrine, called the lararium. The spirits would be worshipped by the family on special days. Bits of food or wine might be sacrificed to them.

A little Lares figurine New Gods, New Religions With the vast size of the empire, there was of course many new gods from distant civilizations which the Romans learnt about. Romans didn't tend to think that only their gods were the right ones. If they heard of other peoples' gods they would think that these were real gods who watched over other parts of the world and whom they had simply not yet heard about. And so as they learned about these new gods, new temples were built to these new arrivals in the Roman pantheon.

Later, 'imported' gods

Vatican Museums, Vatican City 

Capitoline Museums, Rome

Isis

Pan

She was the Egyptian goddess of the earth. Her worship entailed elaborate and exotic rituals.

Vatican Museums, Vatican City 

 Mithras

He was the Greek He was the god of god of the light from Persia. mountains, half He was always goat half man. depicted slaying the Always carrying holy bull, and so the pipes with giving life to the him, we know today earth. He had many as 'pan-pipes'. followers in the Roman army. So much so, that he is often referred to as the soldiers' god.

Rome and Christianity Religion was very important to the Romans. Within the Roman Empire, Christianity was banned and Christians were punished for many years. Feeding Christians to the lions was seen as entertainment in Ancient Rome.

A Mosaic of Christ The message of Christianity was spread around the Roman Empire by St. Paul who founded Christian churches in Asia Minor and Greece. Eventually, he took his teachings to Rome itself. The early converts to Christianity in Ancient Rome faced many difficulties. The first converts were usually the poor and slaves as they had a great deal to gain from the Christians being successful. If they were caught, they faced death for failing to worship the emperor. It was not uncommon for emperors to turn the people against the Christians when Rome was faced with difficulties. In AD 64, part of Rome was burned down. The Emperor Nero blamed the Christians and the people turned on them. Arrests and executions followed. "Nero punished a race of men who were hated for their evil practices. These men were called  Christians. He got a number of people to confess. On their evidence a number of Christians were convicted and put to death with dreadful cruelty. Some were covered with the skins of wild beasts and left to be eaten by dogs. Others were nailed to the cross. Many  were burned alive and set on fire to serve as torches at night." Tacitus

The dangers faced by the Christians in Rome meant that they had to meet in secret. They usually used underground tombs as these were literally out of sight. Rome had a large number of poor people within its population and Christianity continued to grow. In AD 313, the Emperor Constantine made Christianity legal and for the first time, they were allowed to openly worship. Churches were quickly built not just in Rome but throughout the empire. In AD 391, the worship of other gods was made illegal.

 What is the history of Christianity in Rome?

The origin of Christianity in Rome is not known. But, the history of Christianity in Rome is fairly well documented. The Bible includes an epistle written by the Apostle Paul to the Christians in Rome. The book of Acts records that Paul, though Jewish, was a Roman citizen by birth. When the Jews accused Paul of bringing Gentiles into their synagogue, Paul made an appeal for Caesar to hear his case. Paul's fate while in Rome is not known. Some historians believe that he was beheaded under orders of the Roman emperor, Nero. The influence of the Apostles Paul and Peter, throughout the early church, undoubtedly impacted the history of Christianity of Rome. The Apostle Peter is known to have established his headquarters in the city, following his thirty-year ministry in the East. The Apostle Peter was martyred in Rome. In its infancy, the Church was scattered throughout the Roman Empire. Keeping the Christian community unified was a major concern of the church leaders. The structure and organization of the Roman Empire influenced the character of the early church. Because there was so many cities scattered throughout the empire, Christianity spread within the urban centers, which were populated by slaves and the poorer members of society. Christianity soon became known as "a religion of slaves." During the first century, Roman authorities used the Christians who resided in their city as political scapegoats. Christians received the blame, and punishment, for everything from plagues and economic inflation to hostile invasions by barbarians. Under the Emperor Nero, the public execution of Christians became "sports" events in which the early believers were torched, fastened to crosses and torn to pieces by dogs. In the face of these persecutions, the church in Rome birthed writers to defend the faith. These writers were known as "Apologists." The early apologists sought to explain Christian doctrine in philosophical terms to pagan intellectuals and Greek philosophers. Their writings provided a reasoned defense that served to quench the hysterical attacks of the unbelieving, but failed to convert the empire to Christianity. After facing nearly three centuries of hostility by Roman emperors, the persecution and martyrdom of Christians in Rome ended with the reforms of the Emperor Constantine (r. 306-337). Constantine was responsible for legalizing Christianity throughout the Roman empire. Constantine became a patron and protector of the church. In 380, the Flavius Theodosius (r. 379-395) made Christianity the official religion of Rome. At the close of the fourth century, the majority of Roman citizens had converted to Christianity. The separation between Church and state was all but extinguished. When the political power of the emperors collapsed with the fall of the Roman Empire, in 410, the Church and its leaders endured as the dominant influence in Roman culture and politics.

Unlike Hinduism and Buddhism which were founded rather early, Christianity was only founded perhaps in 4 BC (as historians predicted), the year when its founder, Jesus Christ, was born. It is a religion that stresses on doing good to others and developing in oneself qualities such as compassion, kindness, humility, gentleness and patience. It is also important for every Christian to be able to forgive and forget. It is as we know today, a religion that is excepted by most and widely practised by people all over the world. It was not exactly the same case as in the past, however, especially in ancient Rome. The following is a story of how and why this was so… Forty years after the death of the Roman emperor, Augustus Caesar, the new emperor Nero came to the throne at the age of sixteen. He was a wildly extravagant leader, taxing the people heavily to support his personal projects. He was also a wicked man. In the year 64 A.D. a terrible fire raged for days in the slum districts of Rome, killing thousands of people and leaving thousands more homeless. Nero is thought to have started the fire as a sinister way to rid Rome of both the slums and their occupants. However Nero used the young community of Christians as his scapegoats, saying that they had started the tragic fire. He ordered many of these Christians to be massacred in -the amphitheatre and elsewhere. The official Roman dislike of Christianity was surprising, for the Romans were usually quick to adopt the gods of other faiths into their own religion. For instance, when Rome conquered Greece, the Romans readily accepted the Greek gods and goddesses and their myths, and altered many established Roman deities to resemble their Greek counterparts. The Roman god Jupiter, for example, took on many traits of Zeus, the Greek god of the heavens. Thus, why then could they not accept Christianity?? The reasons were because…

The Romans also declared their emperors to be gods, beginning with Augustus Caesar. However, the Christians refused to take part in the worship of emperors and were as a result, so disliked by the Roman State! Christians were also seen as subversive enemies of the state in their fervent desire to make converts. Despite the persecutions, particularly under the emperors Nero and Diocletian, the number of Christians increased and, in 313 A.D., the emperor Constantine granted the Christians freedom of religion. Thus, we can now understand why Christianity was not well received by the Romans. The Christians refusal to follow the rules of the Romans definitely angered the Romans much. Christianity was even considered to be an illegal religion and Christians were even alleged to practice black magic and even cannibalism!

Famous Romans Here are some of the most famous Romans of all times. These are by far not all famous Romans. For there are too many to mention. But here are some of the most outstanding figures Roman history created - and who created Roman history.

 Marius - The great Man of the Army

Marius Vatican Museums Vatican City 

Gaius Marius was the man who organized the army into the most effective fighting machine on earth. At times it appeared nothing could withstand the mighty legions of Rome. It was Marius who changed the way the army organized itself. Men from the provinces could now sign up to serve in the Roman army, and in time become Roman citizens themselves. So too was it Marius who granted land to the veterans of the legions in reward for their services. He also won some famous battles with his new army, most famous of all the Aquae Sextiae and Campi Raudii, where his victories saved Italy and Rome from an invasion of barbarians from the north.

Caesar - General, Politician, Statesman

Julius Caesar is no doubt the most famous Roman of them all ! He conquered Gaul in a brilliant campaign which is still used in studies for training generals today. His victories in Gaul brought into the empire what should later become one of the most important new territories to the empire. The conquest of Gaul also brought the border of the empire to the river Rhine, where it should remain for centuries to come. He also led expeditions into Germany and Britain, which were at that time completely unknown to Romans. But his political enemies never stopped plotting against him and tried to take away his power. Caesar famously crossed the river Rubicon (which was the border between the province he ruled and the Italian territories of the Roman empire) and took power over Rome as a dictator. When away in Egypt he fell in love with the legendary Egyptian queen Cleopatra. Julius Caesar also reformed the calendar. With only minor changes his is the calendar we use today. One month, July, is named in his honour.

Julius Caesar  Museo della Civilta Rome

 Augustus - The first Emp eror

Augustus Museo della Civilta Rome

Augustus was the first emperor of Rome. His real name was Octavian but he was given the name 'Augustus' by the senate as an honour for his great achievements. He avenged the death of Caesar together with Mark Antony, before falling out with him. He defeated Mark Antony together with the famous Egyptian queen Cleopatra and thereafter, together with the senate of Rome, created a new constitution for the great empire. Augustus stood at the head of this empire as the emperor. He used his ruled wisely and built roads, aqueducts and buildings. Not only was Augustus the first, but he was most certainly one of the best emperors Rome ever had.

 Nero - The Madman of Rome

Nero is the most notorious Roman of all times. It is most likely that Nero was insane. He came to power because his mother murdered his step-father emperor Claudius. During his rule much of Rome burnt down in the Great Fire of Rome. Helpless to stop the fire, he is supposed to have sung as he watched Rome burn. After this he built himself a magnificent palace on some of the land cleared by the fire. To quell rumours that he had started the fire himself, he blamed the Christians for it and then had many captured and thrown to the lions in the circus.

Nero Capitoline Museums Rome

Trajan - The kind-hearted Soldier

Trajan is one of Rome's most outstanding emperors. Under his rule the empire reached its largest extent. He famously conquered the rich kingdom of Dacia north of the Danube. Trajan was one of the greatest soldiers among the emperors. But unlike many of the later warrior-like rulers, he was also known for his wisdom and dignity, and his humility when dealing with the senate. Alike Augustus, Trajan's reign was a glittering one, during which many public works, roads and harbours were built. He also set up an imperial fund which should look after the poor, especially the children. Trajan Museo della Civilta Rome

Constantine the Great - Unifier of the divided Empire

Constantine the great was the first Christian emperor of the Roman empire. He defeated all the other would-be emperors and re-united the empire, which had been divided between many rulers. He also decided to move the capital of the empire from Rome to a town called Byzantium, which he renamed after himself - Constantinopolis (Greek for: the city of Constantine). He also called together many bishops for the Council of Nicaea at which the exact nature of the Christian religion was defined. It is known today as the 'Nicene Creed'. For his many achievements he is known as 'Constantine the Great' and in the Christian church he is known as 'Saint Constantine'.

Constantine Capitoline Museums Rome

Justinian - The last 'Great' Emperor

Under the rule of Justinian, the eastern empire (the west had since fallen to the barbarians) enjoyed a last flowering. His great generals Belisarius and Narses reconquered many parts of the empire, including the city of Rome itself. So too is Justinian known to have collected the many Roman laws and created a unified code of laws, the so-called 'Justinian Code'. This code formed the basis of all systems of law in the western world. He also built many great buildings in his capital, the city of Constantinople. His most outstanding building is the great church Santa Sophia, which today is the famous mosque 'Aya Sophia' in the Turkish city of Istanbul. Justinian Museo della Civilta Rome

Literature Roman literature is a greatly varied subject matter, nonetheleast because it is such a broad and varied theme which forces us into making a vast number of simplistic generalisations. It's breadth can be understood not only in terms of the great variety of production which surely existed at the time a minor fragment of which has made it down to us through the ages but also of the vast time period and geography included within the term "ancient Rome". The Positive View of Roman Literature

Taking a positive view of ancient Roman literature we can say that certainly a great quality underlying ancient Roman culture was the ability to appreciate, accommodate and assimilate the best of what could be gained from the conquered  and allied territories. This is not a negative aspect as such and in fact came

through in many aspects of Roman society, all the way through to the openness to different cultures and ideas, religions: for example, numerous emperors and leaders being born of foreign stock, some never having even been to Rome except a few times. Roman pax Romana: The stable environment provided by Roman hegemony and the " pax

Romana" enabled a great variety of arts and literature to be both created and enjoyed by the broader population. A proverb taken from Aristotle lent itself well to Roman pragmatism: "Primum

vivere,

alternative philosophy.

deinde

being

- first live then make philosophy. An deinde philosophari" - first bread then

philosophari"

"Primum

panem,

Roman Literacy: Of course there can be no literature if there aren't literate

people to create and consume it. Rome's success and wealth created an increasingly literate population, even amongst the lower ranks, so much so that

we find grafiti written all over Pompeian walls or in the public tabernae. Roman schools gave the bare essentials and elitist Roman schooling frequently implied travel to foreign lands such as Greece or Crete where the techniques of oratorial and literary tradition could be perfected. The spread of literacy in Rome civilisation was supported by all those aspects which one might expect in a modern society:    



 

stable law and economics, stable social context to permit the individual to study, a need by society for people with higher education benefit to the individual in pursuing higher levels of education and knowledge writing/reproduction facilities eg availability of papyrus scrolls and binding facilities bookshops cultural background which gives value to the production and consumption of literature

The access to increasingly broad sources of knowledge and thinkers was also a fundamental part of the jigsaw: the creation of literature, art and progress is as much a result of the individual as it is of the environment to which he/she has access: the access to Greek work was clearly a huge effect, in many ways a dominating effect, but not the only one.

 Access

to

the

centres

of

elitist

thinking

and

literature:

which could be consulted: Last but not least the wealth of rome, its reach and focus on public works further underpinned the above through the widespread construction of Roman libraries and the great focus placed on stocking them with the works which could be found across the empire, in all languages and covering all themes. Creation of cultural centres

The Negative view of Roman Literature

Two generaly disparaging generalisations can be made of Roman literature: 



First and foremost that Roman literature was essentially a copy of that of Greece. Imperial and political propagandistic influence which stifled creativity.

Certainly both of the above are to a great extent true although the resulting body of Roman literature is proof that on the whole the net effects of the positive and negative influences was a net positive. The short list of roman writers below is proof enough. Greek influence on Roman literature:

The influence of Greece on Roman literature is undeniable, particularly so during the republican period when the Romans were an essentially agricultural and military society and hence had a language which likely lacked the flexibility of expression required of high literature. The factors already listed above which underpin literacy within society had been weak but were continuously strengthening, just as Roman dominion enabled control first of the Greek colonies in southern Italy and later on of the Greek city-states themselves.

The influence of Greece was to last throughout the growth of the Roman empire in many shapes and forms, not least because Greeks themselves were the holders of such knowledge. An examplar evidence of this is that Emperor Vespasian encouraged the foreign elite thinkers to move to Rome so that the Roman scholars might stay and learn at home rather than spending their money abroad. Sculpture and visual arts were often performed by Greeks or by Romans copying Greek originals all over the empire. However, poetry, by virtue of the very material (language) and driven by very Roman social characteristics did form connotations of its own in parallel with those of Greece. Political influence and censorship on Roman literature:

The influence of political "supervision" of literary produce went hand in hand with the concentration of power around the single figure of the Emperor. Observing this phenomenon therefore rightly starts with Caesar and Augustus. Catullus was an established and recognised poet of the time, not well regarded by some: Caesar was clearly stung by his verses and Cicero didn't appreciate the lack of morality in his poetry, yet he certainly didn't suffer censorship or public humiliation. Caesar's "de Bello Gallico" (not a poem!) evidently holds good doses of propaganda to win support from home during his campaigns in Gaul. By the time he had lain the foundations of the future empire and hence Augustus' absolute hold on power, we have the first real notions of censorship with shades of it's darker aspects beyond simple moralisation. However it is to be noted that in spite of events such as Ovid's banishment on moral account, that period of time is commonly regarded as "the Golden age" of Roman literature. However, political control of literature would inevitably carry its cost and prove detrimental in the long run: Similar examples might be had in Ptolemaic Alexandria with its world famous library which was a centre of knowledge but not necessarily a centre of innovation and creativity because of the continued controlling influence of politics. An example closer to our own times might be communist Russia or other totalitarian regimes in general. This process of increased censorship went in parallel with an increasing attention to the language itself: classical latin became increasingly nurtured, precise yet less natural. This is particularly noticeable if we compare the latin of say Cicero or Horace to that of Plautus. By the time of Emperor Nero the situation was becoming rather more dramatic and by then Roman literature was entering a long period of relative "flatness" and mediocre produce though clearly not without merit in all respects. We still find many notable works such a Petronius' "Satyricon" and from relatively later periods such as Apuleius' "Golden Ass". Roman writers

We take the opportunity to provide a simple short list of interesting Roman writers, short notes about them and a mention of the works they are known for:

L. Apuleius 

125-180AD. Came to Rome from the North African provinces. His book "Metamorphoses" also known as "The Golden Ass" is the only complete Roman novel to have reached us in which a man dabbles with magic and is turned into an Ass. He receives salvation from the goddess Isis. A book in the tradition of Don Quixote and Decameron. Interestingly Apuleius himself had to defend himself from public accusations of dabbling in magic.

Cato 

234-149BC. A statesman of the old tradition, devoted to parsimony and austerity and farming. He wrote a variety of works amongst which De Agricultura - the earliest surviving piece of Latin prose. It is said to have been influence also by what was learned of books surviving the destruction of Carthage, in particular one written by Mago - supposedly brother of Hannibal. It inspired many writers (and farmers!) after him such as Pliny the Elder.

Catullus 

84-54BC. A poet of Equestrian class. Still widely read. In spite of having some political roles his poetry was largely about his personal lifestyle and love. There are many surviving examples of his works arranged into a cohesive body of work.

Cicero 

A new man - made a great political career and was recognised as "father of the nation" for his role against the Catiline conspiracy. He wrote a great body of work, and given the generally positive view of him taken by the later Christians a good volumes of his work have made it down to us (for example some 800 letters, not to mention books and speaches): Letters and Prose work about rhetoric, philosophy and public speeches covering themes such oratory, friendship, religion, constitutionalism. His speaches against Mark Anthony known as the "Philippics" have gathered considerable fame.

Q. Horatius Flaccus aka "Horace" 

65BC-27BC Poet and Satirist. Initially in the faction against Augustus but eventually reconciled and befriended by the rich patron Maecenas. Wrote the "Carmen Saeculare" (essentially a hymn or song) for Augustus' games of 17BC. His letters and satires hold great information about daily life. His "Odes and Epodes" are more high-brow propaganda but great writing nonetheless. Perhaps a little contrived.

Julius Caesar 

100BC-44BC. Wrote very lucid, factual accounts of his Gallic wars in simple direct prose - "Commentarii de Bello Gallico". Unlikely to have been written with an impartial view, and in fact a good piece of political propaganda to maintain support from home. Some parts were completed by his aides de camp.

Decimus Iunius Iuvenalis aka "Juvenal" 

Witty satirist in the sharp tongued tradition of Lucilius. 16 poems subdivided in 5 books have made it down to us, covering a broad variety of everyday themes from Roman life.

Livius Andronicus 

Generally recognised as the first Latin author, actually a Greek who translated Greek works into Latin language, amongst which the first latin translation of Homer's epics Iliad and Odyssey.

Titus Livius aka "Livy" 

59BC-17AD One of the most important sources of ancient Roman history through his enormous work "Ad Urbe Condita" which recounted the history of Rome from before its founding in 753BC through to the reign of Augustus.

Lucilius 

approx 150-100BC. A Roman citizen of Equestrian class. Credited by Quintilian and others to have "invented" the genre of the poetical Roman satire, quite distinct from that of Greece and in fact ridiculing the language of epic poetry (parody wasn't new to Greek literature). He was highly regarded by Cicero and Horace.

Lucretius 

Lived around 99-55BC. Wrote "De Rerum Natura". A poem describing epicurean philosophy of atomism to convince the readers of the foolishness behind superstition and fear of death. Read and admired by Cicero and Virgil.

 Marcus Valerius Martial aka "Martial" 

Approx 40AD-103AD. Very witty satirist from Hispania (Iberian peninsula). Wrote twelve books of "Epigrams" containing plenty of witty satire of the world he lived in.

Publius Ovidius Naso aka "Ovid" 

43BC - 17AD. Great poet, wrote much about love. Hovered in high circles until he got himself sent away from Rome on charges of immorality - immoral literature seems to have been only half of the story, the other half probably being an affair with one of Emperor Augustus' own family. Also well known for his book "Metamorphoses" which inspired much Renaissance mythological painting.

Petronius 

27-66AD. Thought to be Petronius Arbiter - a sort of master of good taste in Nero's court. Wrote the unforgettable "Satyricon" with its famous dinner feast by the host "Trimalchio" - possibly a witty jab at Nero himself. Attracted a good number of enemies and detractors such as the truculent tigellinus, comander of Nero's guar and possibly also Seneca who had wisely retreated from public life. He had to treat carefully and was eventually caught out with an accusation of treason and committed suicide, related to us by Tacitus.

Pliny the Younger 

Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus, born Gaius Caecilius or Gaius Caecilius Cilo (61 AD – ca. 112 AD), better known as Pliny the Younger, was a lawyer, author, and magistrate of Ancient Rome. Pliny's uncle, Pliny the Elder, helped raise and educate him. They were both witnesses to the eruption of Vesuvius on 24 August 79 AD.Pliny is known for his hundreds of surviving letters, which are an invaluable historical source for the time period. Many are addressed to reigning emperors or to notables such as the historian, Tacitus. Pliny himself was a notable figure, serving as an imperial magistrate under Trajan (reigned AD 98 –117). Pliny was considered an honest and moderate man, consistent in his pursuit of suspected Christian members according to Roman law, and rose through a series of Imperial civil and military offices, the cursus honorum (see below). He was a friend of the historian Tacitus and employed the biographer Suetonius in his staff. Pliny also came into contact with many other well-known men of the period, including the philosophers Artemidorus and Euphrates during his time in Syria.

Pliny the Elder Gaius Plinius Secundus (23 AD – August 25, 79 AD), better known as Pliny the Elder, was a Roman author, naturalist, and natural philosopher, as well as naval

and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and personal friend of the emperor Vespasian. Spending most of his spare time studying, writing or investigating natural and geographic phenomena in the field, he wrote an encyclopedic work, Naturalis Historia, which became a model for all such works written subsequently. Pliny the Younger, his nephew, wrote of him in a letter to the historian Tacitus: For my part I deem those blessed to whom, by granted either to do what is worth writing reading; above measure blessed those on whom In the latter number will be my uncle, by compositions.

favour of the gods, it has been of, or to write what is worth both gifts have been conferred. virtue of his own and of your

Pliny is referring to the fact that Tacitus relied on his uncle's now missing work on the History of the German Wars. Pliny the Elder died on August 25, 79 AD, while attempting the rescue by ship of a friend and his family from the eruption of Mount Vesuvius that had just destroyed the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum. The prevailing wind would not allow his ship to leave the shore. His companions attributed his collapse and death to toxic fumes; but they were unaffected by the fumes, suggesting natural causes. Plautus 

Inspired by Greek works, wrote in the "vulgar"-common form of latin, ie not the higher latin that the likes of Cicero wrote in. Translated many humorous works from Greek, often for theatrical plays. Great reading for both humour and an insight into everyday language.

Plutarch

Plutarch of Chaeronea in Boeotia ( ca. 45–120 CE) was a Platonist philosopher, best

known

Greek

and

to

the

Roman

general

statesmen

public

and

as

author

military

of

his

leaders.

He

―Parallel

was

a

Lives‖

of

voluminous

paired

writer,

author also of a collection of ―Moralia‖ or ―Ethical Essays,‖ mostly in dialogue

format, many of them devoted to philosophical topics, not at all limited to ethics. Plutarch was born in Chaeronea, a city of Boeotia in central Greece around 45–47 CE. This date is inferred from Plutarch's own testimony ( On the E at Delphi 385B), according to which he began studying at Athens with a Platonist philosopher named Ammonius (see Dillon 1977, 189 –192, Donini 1986b), when Nero was in Greece (66/67 CE). (This assumes that he was not more than twenty years old at the time.) We know little about Ammonius and his impact on Plutarch, the main evidence being Ammonius' speech as a character in On the E at Delphi (391E394C), on god, being, generation and corruption (Dillon 1977, 189 –192). This is indicative of Ammonius' engagement with metaphysics, which must have stimulated Plutarch's interest in metaphysical questions. Plutarch must have stayed in Athens not only during his studies with Ammonius but considerably longer, so as to become an Athenian citizen ( Table Talks 628A). He also visited Rome ( Demetrius 2) and Alexandria ( Table Talks 678A; see Russell 1973, 7 –8). However, Plutarch spent most of his life in his native city and in nearby Delphi. There must have been two reasons for this; Plutarch's strong ties with his family, which apparently was wealthy enough to support his studies and travels (Russell 1973, 3–5), and his own interest in the religious activity of Delphi. The latter is testified by the fact that Plutarch served in various positions in Delphi, including that of the priest of Apollo ( Table Talks 700E), and also in his several works concerning Delphi and the local sacred rituals ( On the E at Delphi, On Oracles at Delphi, On the Obsolescence of Oracles). These demonstrate intimate knowledge of the place, its traditions, and activities. Plutarch must have died after 119 CE, the date at which he was appointed procurator of Achaea by Hadrian (Eusebius' Chronicle). Polibius 

Greek captive, great historian to whom we owe some great insights into Roman society and the roman army.

Quintilian 

35-100AD. Opened a school or rhetoric, probably taught Pliny the younger and possibly Tacitus. Reached the high position of Consul under Emperor Vespasian. The only surviving work is a book in 12 parts about oratory called "Institutio Oratoria" which in terms of the field of rhetoric places him on a level with Cicero and Aristotle.

Seneca 

Seneca is a major philosophical figure of the Roman Imperial Period. As a Stoic philosopher writing in Latin, Seneca makes a lasting contribution to Stoicism. He occupies a central place in the literature on Stoicism at the time, and shapes the understanding of Stoic thought that later generations were to have. Seneca's philosophical works played a large role in the revival of Stoic ideas in the Renaissance. Until today, many readers