American Education (Sociocultural, Political, And Historical Studies in Education), 18th Edition

Lortie, Dan. Schoolteacher: A Sociological Study. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975. This is the most complete study of the social interactions and world of the American teacher. Mann, Horace. “Fourth Annual Report (1840).” In The Republic and the School: Horace Mann on the Education of Free Men , edited by Lawrence Cremin. New York: Teachers College Press, 1958. This report contains Horace Mann’s ideas about teachers. Metlife. “MetLife Survey ofthe American Teacher (February, 2013).” www.metlife.com/assets/cao/ foundation/MetLife-Teacher-Survey-2012.pdf. This survey focuses on the job satisfaction of teachers and principals. Murphy, Marjorie. Blackboard Unions: The AFT & NEA. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992. This is a good introduction to teacher unionism. National Education Association. Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education: A Report of the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education (National Education Association, Washington DC, 1918). Classic report that determined the future of the American high school. –––. Rankings and Estimates: Rankings of the States 2015 and Estimates of School Statistics 2016 (May 2016). Retrieved from www.nea.org/assets/docs/2016_NEA_Rankings_And_ Estimates.pdf on March 7, 2017. Contains information on national teacher salaries and many other school statistics. –––. “NEA Survey: Nearly Half of Teachers Consider Leaving Profession Due to Standardized Testing.” (November 2, 2014) http://neatoday.org/2014/11/02/nea-survey-nearly-half-ofteachers-consider-leaving-profession-due-to-standardized-testing-2/. Survey reveals teacher dissatisfaction with the amount of required standardized testing. –––. “No Annual Testing in ESEA Reauthorization, Urges NEA President (January 12, 2015). http://neatoday.org/2015/01/12/no-annual-testing-esea-reauthorization-says-nea-president/. Call to end testing requirements of No Child Left Behind. Paige, Rod. “Paige’s Remarks at the National Press Club” (March 18, 2003). Go to the U.S. Department of Education website: www.ed.gov/news/speeches/2003/03/03182003.html. Robelen, Erik. “Federal Rules for Teachers Are Relaxed.” Education Week (March 24, 2004). www.edweek.org. This article discusses problems of enforcing in rural areas and with veteran teachers the highly qualified teacher provision of No Child Left Behind. Rubin, David. The Rights of Teachers. New York: Avon, 1972. This is the American Civil Liberties Union handbook of teachers’ rights. Sawchuk, Stephen. “Steep Drops Seen in Teacher-Prep Enrollment Numbers California and Other Big States Particularly Hard Hit, Raising Supply Concerns.”Education Week (October 21, 2014). www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2014/10/22/09enroll.h34.htm. This article provides different explanations for the decline ofenrollments in teacher education programs. –––. “Teacher Protections Violate Student Rights, Calif. Judge Finds.” Education Week (June 11, 2014). www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2014/06/11/36vergara.h33.html?tkn=VTTFJr WDg0tmaAjg%2FLe47iJgjNnXQuEc73xo&print=1. This article discusses the teacher tenure and dismissal California lawsuit Vergara v. California. Sawchuk, Stephen and Liana Heitin. NEA www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2014/07/25/37 Agendas Converge Amid External, Internal Education Week Pressure.” (July“AFT, 25, 2015). unions.h33.html?qs=vergara. Both unions adopt similar platforms reflecting attacks on unions and tenure laws. Schimmel, David, Leslie R. Stellman, Cynthia K. Conlon, and Louis Fischer. Teachers and the Law, 9th Edn. White Plains, NY: Pearson, 2014. An excellent law guide for teachers. U.S. Department of Education. “Highly Qualified Teachers for Every Child.” Available on the Department of Education website: www.ed.gov.

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POWER AND CONTROL IN AMERICAN EDUCATION

Issued in 2006, these are guidelines for achieving the “highly qualified teacher” requirements of No Child Left Behind. –––. “Teacher Quality: Ensuring Excellence in Every Classroom.” www.ed.gov/offices/OIIA/stm resources/march/teacherquality.html. The department provides a web guide to alternative certification and Troops to Teachers programs. –––. Meeting the Highly Qualified Teachers Challenge: The Secretary’s Third Annual Report on Teacher Quality. Education, 2004. Washington DC: U.S. Department of Education Office of Postsecondary This report describes the meaning of highly qualified teachers as given in No Child Left Behind.

Urban, Wayne. Why Teachers Organized. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University, 1982. This excellent history of teachers’ unions argues that the primary reason for the formation of these unions was protection of wages and seniority. Weingarten, Randi. “AFT President Randi Weingarten on Trump Visit to Florida Private School” AFT Press Release, March 2, 2017. Retrieved from www.aft.org/press-release/aft-presidentrandi-weingarten-trump-visit-florida-private-school on March 4, 2017. Weingarten criticizes Trump and DeVos for attemptingto defund public schools and promote vouchers and private schools. –––. “AFT President Randi Weingarten on the Confirmation of Betsy DeVos,” AFT Press Release, February 7, 2017. Retrieved from www.aft.org/press-release/aft-president-randi-weingartenconfirmation-betsy-devos on March 4, 2017. Wesley, Edgar. NEA: The First Hundred Years. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1957. This is the main source of information, in addition to srcinal sources, about the early years of the NEA.

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CHAPTER 11 Globalization of Education

Globalization of education refers to the worldwide discussions, processes, and institutions influencing local educational practices and policies. What comprises this global education superstructure? There are international organizations that directly and indirectly influence national school systems. There are multinational education corporations and schools. Government and professionals engage in global discussions about school policies. In the first issue of the journal Globalisation, Societies and Education (2003), Roger Dale and Susan Robertson state that globalization of education would be considered as an intertwined set of global processes affecting education, such as worldwide discourses on human capital, economic development, and multiculturalism; intergovern mental organizations; information and communication technology;

nongovernmental organizations; and multinational corporations. The concept of globalized educational institutions and discourses developed after the term “globalization” was coined by the economist Theodore Levitt in 1985 to describe changes in global economics affecting production, consumption, and investment. The term was quickly applied to political and cultural changes that affect in common ways large segments of the world’s peoples. One of these common global phenomena is schooling. As the opening editorial in the first edition of Globalisation, Societies and Education—the very founding of this journal indicates the growing importance of globalization and education as a field of study—states “formal education is the most commonly found institution and most commonly shared experience of all in the contemporary world.” However, globalization of education does not mean that all schools are the same as indicated by studies of differences between the local and the global. In the 1990s, the language of globalization entered discourses about schooling. Government and business groups began talking about the

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necessity of schools meeting the needs of the global economy. For example, the United States’ organization Achieve, Inc., formed in 1996 by the National Governors Associations and CEOs of major corporations for the purpose of school reform, declared that “High school is now the front line in America’s battle to remain competitive on the increasingly competitive international economic stage.” The organization provided the following definition of the global economy in a publication title that suggested the linkages made by politicians and businesspeople between education and globalization: “America’s High Schools: The Front Line in the Battle for Our Economic Future.” The growth of worldwide educational discourses and institutions led to similar national educational agendas, particularly the concept that education should be viewed as an economic investment with the goal of developing human capital or better workers to promote economic growth. Consequently, educational discussions around the world often refer to human capital, lifelong learning for improving job skills, and economic development. Also, the global economy is sparking a mass migration of workers resulting in global discussions about multicultural education. Intergovernmental organizations, such as the United Nations, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), and the World Bank, are promoting global educational agendas that reflect discourses about human capital, economic development, and multiculturalism. Information and communication technology is speeding the global flow of information and creating a library of world knowledges. Global nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), particularly those concerned with human rights and environmentalism, are trying to influence school curricula throughout the world. Multinational corporations, particularly those involved in publishing, information, testing, for-profit schooling, and computers, are marketing their products to governments, schools, and parents around the world. DOMINANT GLOBAL EDUCATIONAL IDEOLOGY: HUMAN CAPITAL AND CONSUMERISM

In Chapter 4 I discussed human capital economics as the dominant goal directing American and global education. As a reminder to the reader, human capital stresses education as a cause of economic growth and increased income. In this section, I link human capital economics to consumerism. Consumerism is a driving force in global economics. In a world of rising shopping malls, “Shop ’till you drop” is the clarion call of our age. Human capital education promises students higher incomes that can be used to purchase more and more products.

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The triumph of consumerism was made possible by the related actions of schools, advertising, and media. Mass-consumer culture integrates consumerism into all aspects of life from birth to death, including, but not limited to, education, leisure-time activities, the popular arts, the home, travel, and personal imagination. Mass-consumer culture captures the fantasy world of people with brand names and fashions that promise personal transformation, the vicarious thrill of imagining the glamorous lives of media celebrities, and the promise of escape from hard work through packaged travel and cruises to an envisioned paradise. The ideology of consumerism was articulated in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries with the appearance of industrial and agri cultural abundance. As conceived by the turn-of-the-century economist Simon Patten, consumerism reconciled the Puritan virtue of hard work with the abundance of consumer goods. From the Puritan standpoint, the danger of abundant goods was more leisure time and possible moral decay. In The Newand Basis of Civilization Patten’s 1907ofbook , hewould argues that the consumption new products leisure-time activities spur people to work harder. In Patten’s words, “The new morality does not consist in saving, but in expanding consumption.” Patten explains, “In the course of consumption . . . the new wants become complex . . . [and as a result the] worker steadily and cheerfully chooses the deprivations of this week. . . . Their investment in tomorrow’s goods enables society to increase its output and to broaden its productive areas.” The professionalization and expansion of advertising in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries was a key contribution to the

creation a global it mass-consumer culture. Advertising prompted for new of products; convinced consumers that existing productsdesires were unfashionable, and therefore, obsolete; and it made brand names into playthings in personal fantasies. The advertising profession transformed the capitalist model of buyers making rational choices in a free market into a consumerist model where the buyer was driven by irrational emotions associated with particular brand names and/or products. Consumerism is strikingly different from other ideologies that place an emphasis on either social harmony or an abandonment of worldly concerns. Many religions value the denial of materialistic desires. Different branches of represented Islam, Hinduism, and Christianity reject the way of life by the Buddhism, consumer seeking personal transformation through the buying of goods. Confucianism emphasizes the importance of social harmony over individual pursuit of wealth. Today, fundamentalist Islamic governments, such as in Iran and Afghanistan, are attempting to protect their populations from what they consider to be degenerate Western consumerism.

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The following is a list of the basic ideas that form the ideology of consumerism. Of course, consumerism is aligned with notions of human capital education. Basic ideas of consumerist ideology 1. Work is a virtue and it keeps people from an indolent life that could result in vice and crime. 2. Equality means equality of opport unity to pursue weal th and consume. 3. Accumulation of material goods is evidence of personal merit. 4. The rich are rich because of good character and the poor are poor because they lack virtue. 5. The major financial goal of society should be economic growth and the continual production of new goods. 6. Consumers and producers should be united in efforts to maximize the production and consumption of goods. 7. People will want to work hard so that they can consume an endless stream of new products and new forms of commodified leisure. 8. Differences in ability to consume (or income) are a social virtue because they motivate people to work harder. 9. Advertising is good because it motivates people to work harder to consume products. 10. The consumer is irrational and can be manipulated in his/her pur chases. 11. The consumption of products will transform one’s life.

SKILLS: THE NEW GLOBAL CURRENCY

The Common Core State Curriculum reflects the global trend to emphasize skills needed for success in employment and higher education. It is a skills-based curriculum in contrast to one emphasizing the learning of specific knowledge. “Skills have become the global currency of twenty-first century economies,” declared Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development’s publication Trends Shaping Education 2013. As I discuss in my book The Economization of Educat ion , the Organisation forand Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the World Bank, the World Economic Forum are globally promoting skill-based schooling with many nations aligning their curricula to skills considered necessary for employment and economic growth. The OECD defines skills as the “ability to do something,” which could include the ability to operate a machine (hard skill) or the ability to get along with others (soft skill). Skill-based instruction, it is claimed, will solve most


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economic problems, including economic development and growth, unemployment, and inequalities in wealth. Skills are divided into hard and soft with hard skills usually referring to such things as literacy instruction and numeracy and soft skills to character traits that will help the worker succeed in the workplace. Preschool is now considered an important time to teach soft skills, such as grit and conscientiousness, for later success in school and work. There are many questions surrounding the concept of skills. Are these skills to be general skills required by the economy or skills specifically related to a particular job or trade? What role do cultural differences make in teaching skills or are skills to be global and unrelated to a specific culture? Will skill instruction solve other global problems, such as protection of human rights and the environment? And, most importantly, is there a global skills gap? The World Economic Forum’s report Education and Skills 2.0 highlights the confusion over the question of a skills gap: One arena in which accountability matters hugely is the effort to ensure that the skills imparted by an education system match those needed by employers. This issue has recently come to prominence because of the large number of reports from American National Association of Colleges and Emp loyers who say they cannot find workers who have the skills needed to perform specific jobs even when pay levels are high. Many economists, by contrast, say that the empirical evidence does not support the existence of any significant skillslevels gap. This is an emphasis]. issue that is unresolved in countries at all income [author’s

Despite these questions about the existence of a skills gap, globally schools are adopting skill-based curricula to meet the needs of future employers. THE OECD AND HUMAN CAPITAL THEORY

The OECD is a major force in global testing and in supporting human capital education for a knowledge economy. The OECD links education to economic growth. The OECD’s 1961 founding document states as its goal “toaachieve the highest economic growth and employment and rising standard ofsustainable living in Member countries, while maintaining financial stability, and thus to contribute to the development of the world economy.” From its srcinal membership of twenty nations it has expanded to thirty of the richest nations of the world. In addition, the OECD provides expertise and exchanges ideas with more than 100 other countries including the least-developed countries in Africa.

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In keeping with its concerns with economic growth, the OECD promotes the role of education in economic development. Along with economic growth, OECD leaders express concern about nations having shared values to ensure against social disintegration and crime. The stated values of education according to the OECD are: “Both individuals and countries benefit from education. For individuals, the potential benefits lay [sic] in general quality of life and in the economic returns of sustained, satisfying employment. For countries, the potential benefits lie in economic growth and the development of shared values that underpin social cohesion.” The OECD’s global testing products, the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) and the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), are creating global standards for the knowledge required to function in what the OECD defines as the everyday life of a global economy. Also, the tests are serving as an “Academic Olympiad” with nations comparing the scores of their students with those of other nations. The result is national education policy leaders trying to plan their curriculum to meet the challenge of OECD testing, particularly preparation for TIMSS. Wanting to impress their national leaders, school officials hope their students do well on these tests in comparison to other countries. The consequence is a trend to uniformity in national curricula as school leaders attempt to prepare their students to do well on the test. Writing about the effect of PISA and TIMSS on world education culture, David P. Baker and Gerald K. LeTendre assert, “After the first set of TIMSS results became public, the United States went into a kind of soul-searching. . . . The release of the more recent international study on OECD nations called PISA led Germany into a national education crisis. Around the world, countries are using the results of international tests as a kind of Academic Olympiad, serving as a referendum on their school system’s performance.” The potential global influence of PISA is vast since the participating member nations and partners represent, according to the OECD, 90 percent of the world economy. These assessments are on a threeyear cycle beginning in 2000 with each assessment year devoted to a particular topic. For instance, international assessment of reading is scheduled for 2009, mathematics for 2012, and science for 2015. The OECD promotes PISA as an important element in the global knowledge economy: “PISA seeks to measure how well young adults, at age 15 and therefore approaching the end of compulsory schooling, are prepared to meet the challenges of today’s knowledge societies—what PISA refers to as ‘literacy.’ ” OECD Secretary-General Angel Gurría echoed the dominant global discourse on education and the knowledge economy:


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In a highly competitive globalized economy, knowledge, skills and know-how are key factors for productivity, economic growth and better living conditions. . . . Our estimates show that adding one extra year to the average years of schooling increases GDP per capita by 4 to 6 percent. Two main paths of transmission can explain this result: First, education builds human capital and enables workers to be more productive. Second, education increases countries’ capacity to innovate—an indispensable prerequisite for growth and competitiveness in today’s global knowledge economy. The OECD is contributing to a world culture of schooling through its testing, research, and higher education programs. In fact, one of its programs promotes the international sharing of educational ideas. The OECD Programme on Educational Building (PEB) promotes the exchange and analysis of policy, research and experience in all matters related to educational building. The planning and design of educational facilities—schools, colleges and universities—has an impact on educational outcomes, which is significant but hard to quantify. While OECD policies do influence developing nations and the organization’s data collection reflects concern about poor countries, the major concern is the economies of member nations. In other words, what problems are faced by the world’s wealthiest nations in educating their populations for competition in the global knowledge economy? This difference in emphasis on developed as contrasted to developing nations is captured in the definition of the knowledge economy given in a 2007 Human Capital:in “In developed OECD book theever value of knowledge and information all their formseconomies, is becoming more apparent, a trend that is being facilitated by the rapid spread of highspeed information technology [author’s emphasis].” THE WORLD BANK AND HUMAN CAPITAL EDUCATION THEORY

“Today,” declares the 2007 official guide to the World Bank, “the World Bank Group is the world’s largest funder of education.” Founded in 1944, the World Bank provides educational loans to developing nations based on the idea that investment in education is the key to economic development. improvement became a goal of announced, the World Bank in 1968 Educational when its then president Robert McNamara “Our aim here will be to provide assistance where it will contribute most to economic development. This will mean emphasis on educational planning, the starting point for the whole process of educational improvement.” McNamara went on to explain that it would mean an expansion of the World Bank’s educational activities. The World Bank continues

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to present its educational goals in the framework of economic development: “Education is central to development. . . . It is one of the most powerful instruments for reducing poverty and inequality and lays a foundation for sustained economic growth.” The World Bank and the United Nations share a common educational network. The World Bank entered into a mutual agreement with the United Nations in 1947, which specified that the Bank would act as an independent specialized agency of the United Nations and as an observer in the United Nations’ General Assembly. The World Bank supports the United Nations’ Millennium Goals and Targets, which were endorsed by 189 countries at the 2000 United Nations Millennium Assembly. The Millennium Goals directly addressing education issues are: •

•

Goal 2 Achieve Universal Primary Education: Ensure that by 2015, children everywhere, boys and girls, will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling. Goal 3 Promote Gender Equality and Empower Women: Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education, preferably by 2005, and at all levels of education no later than 2015.

These two Millennium Goals were part of the Education for All program of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), which had established as two of its global goals the provision of free and compulsory primary education for all and the achieving of gender parity by 2005 and World gender Bank equality 2015. Highlighting the intertwined activities of the andbyUnited Nations agencies is the fact that these two goals were a product of the 1990 World Conference on Education for All convened by the World Bank, UNESCO, United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). This world conference was attended by representatives from 155 governments. Discussions about the knowledge economy occur on the networks linking the World Bank to governments, global intergovernmental and nongovernmental organizations, multinational corporations. In its Knowledge and Societies book Constructing , the World Bank declares, “The ability of a society to produce, select, adapt, commercialize, and use knowledge is critical for sustained economic growth and improved living standards.” The book continues, “Knowledge has become the most important factor in economic development.” The World Bank states that its assistance for EKE (Education for the Knowledge Economy) is aimed


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at helping countries adapt their entire education systems to the new challenges of the “learning” economy in “two complementary ways. . . . Formation of a strong human capital base . . . [and] Construction of an effective national innovation system.” The creation of a national innovation system for assisting schools to adapt to the knowledge economy creates another global network. The World Bank describes this network: “A national innovation system is a well-articulated network of firms, research centers, universities, and think tanks that work together to take advantage of the growing stock of global knowledge, assimilate and adapt it to local needs, and create new technology.” Nothing better expresses the World Bank’s commitment to the idea of a knowledge economy and the role of education in developing human capital than its publication Lifelong Learning in the Global Knowledge Economy. The book offers a roadmap for developing countries on how to prepare their populations for the knowledge economy in order to bring about economic growth. The role of the World Bank is to loan money to ensure the growth of an educated labor force that can apply knowledge to increase productivity. These loans, according to World Bank policies, might provide support to both public and private educational institutions. In the framework of public–private partnerships, the World Bank supports private education in developing countries when governments cannot afford to support public schools for all. However, in many countries there are other providers of education. Private education encompasses a wide range of providers including forprofit schools (that operate as enterprises), religious schools, nonprofit schools run by NGOs, publicly funded schools operated by privateboards, and community owned schools. In other words, there is a market for education. In low-income countries excess demand for schooling results in private supply when the state cannot afford schooling for all. GLOBAL EDUCATION BUSINESS

The global education business is supported by human capital education ideology. The 1995 creation of the World Trade Organization (WTO) opened the door to the prospect of free trade in educational materials and services, and the marketing of higher education. The General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS), Article XXVIII, provides the following definition: “ ‘supply of a service’ includes the production, distribution, marketing, sale and delivery of a service.” Educational services are included under this definition. What types of educational services are covered by GATS? Writing about the effect of GATS on higher education, Jane Knight used the following classifications of educational services. First, according to Knight’s classification, is “cross-border supply” which includes distance

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learning, e-learning, and virtual universities. “Consumption abroad” is the largest share of the global market in educational services involving students who go to another country to study. “Commercial presence” means the establishment of facilities in another country, such as branch campuses and franchising arrangements in another country. The travel of scholars, researchers, and teachers to another country to work falls under the classification of “presence of natural persons.” GLOBAL BUSINESS AND GLOBAL TESTING SERVICES: STANDARDIZATION OF SUBJECTS AND GLOBAL INTERCULTURAL ENGLISH

In Chapter 8 I discussed the development of global education business, including for-profit schools, tutoring and test preparation centers, and the global publishing industry. These industries have a stake in human capital education because of its reliance on test publishing companies, the lack of enough publicly supported schools in some countries allowing room for for-profits, and the anxieties of parents, which result in sending their children to for-profit test preparation and tutoring centers. The global education businesses are contributing a global uniformity of schooling. What is the cultural effect of this uniformity? What is the effect on students preparing for the same examinations? Does the global marketing of tests and testing programs of international organizations contribute to a uniformity of world education culture and promotion of English as the global language? Is worldwide testing leading to a global standardization of knowledge in professional fields? At this time any answer would have to be speculative since there is no concrete evidence about the effect of global testing programs. However, one could argue that if students worldwide are preparing for similar tests then they are being exposed to a uniform educational and professional culture that might contribute to creating a world culture. The International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA) first demonstrated the possibility of making comparisons between test scores of different nations. Founded in 1967 with srcins dating back to a UNESCO gathering in 1958, the IEA initially attempted to identify through testing effective educational methods that could be shared between nations. According to the organization’s official history, the srcinal group of psychometricians, educational psychol ogists, and sociologists thought of education as a global enterprise to be evaluated by national comparisons of test scores. They “viewed the world as a natural educational laboratory, where different school systems experiment in different ways to obtain optimal results in the education of their youth.” They assumed that educational goals were similar between nations but that the methods of achieving those goals were different.


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International testing, it was believed, would reveal to the world community the best educational practices. The organization tried to prove that large-scale cross-cultural testing was possible when between 1959 and 1962 they tested thirteen-year-olds in twelve countries in mathematics, reading comprehension, geography, science, and nonverbal ability. The results of this project showed, according to an IEA statement, that “it is possible to construct common tests and questionnaires that ‘work’ cross-culturally. Furthermore, the study revealed that the effects of language differences can be minimized through the careful translation of instruments.” Besides demonstrating the possibility of global testing programs, the IEA claimed to have an effect on the curriculum of participating nations. After a 1970 seminar on Curriculum Development and Evaluation involving twenty-three countries, IEA officials claimed that “this seminar had a major influence on curriculum development in at least two-thirds of the countries that attended.” Through the years the IEA has conducted a number of international testing programs and studies, including First International Mathematics Study (FIMS), Second International Mathematics Study (SIMS), International Science Study (ISS), Preprimary Education (PPP), Computers in Education Study (COMPED),Information Technology in Education (ITE), Civic Education Study (CIVED), and Languages in Education Study (LES). In 1995, the IEA worked with the OECD to collect data for the Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS). IEA officials called the 1995 TIMSS “the largest and most ambitious study of comparative education undertaken.” They claimed that “It was made possible by virtue of IEA experience and expertise, developed through the years of consecutive studies, which saw research vision combining with practical needs as defined by educational policy-makers.” Today, the IEA remains a possible source for creating uniform worldwide educational practices. The organization’s stated goal is to create global educational benchmarks by which educational systems can be judged. In fact, the following mission statement includes the creation of a global network of educational evaluators. The worldwide standardization of professional knowledge might be a result of the marketing prowess of Pearson, the global corporation discussed in the last section of this chapter. Pearson markets its international computer-based tests through its Pearson VUE division. According to the company’s official history, in 1994 the Virtual University Enterprises (VUE) were established by three pioneers in the field of electronic tests, including the developer of the first electronic system, E. Clarke Porter. Pearson purchased VUE in 2000. In 2006, Pearson acquired Promissor, a provider of knowledge measurement services, which

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certifies professionals in a variety of fields. Focusing on the certification of professionals, Pearson VUE serves 162 countries with 4,400 Pearson VUE Testing Centers. “Today,” according to its company description, “Pearson VUE, Pearson’s computer-based testing business unit, serves the Information Technology industry and the professional certification, licensor, and regulatory markets. From operational centers in the United States, the United Kingdom, India, Japan, and China, the business provides a variety of services to the electronic testing market.” The range of computer-based tests offered by Pearson is astonishing and it is beyond the scope of this book to list all the tests. However, Pearson VUE provides the following categories of online tests: Academic/ Admissions; Driving Tests; Employment, Human Resources and Safety; Financial Services, Health, Medicine; Information Technology (IT); Insurance; Legal Services; Real Estate, Appraisers and Inspectors; and State Regulated. On December 17, 2007 Pearson VUE announced that it had signed a contract with the Association for Financial Professions to provide test development to be delivered globally in over 230 Pearson Professional Centers by its Pearson VUE Authorized Test Centers. On the same date it announced renewal of its contract with Kaplan Test Prep for delivery of the “Ultimate Practice Test” for another Pearson VUE test—the Graduate Management Admission Test. While Pearson VUE may be aiding the global standardization of professions and government licensing, worldwide language testing is possibly resulting in the standardization of a global English language as contrasted with forms of English associated with particular cultures or nations. As I discuss in the following text, global standardization of English, which in part involves the global reach of the U.S.-based Educational Testing Service (ETS), seems to be in the form of a global business English that allows communication across cultures in the world’s workplaces. Focused primarily on work situations, it may result in teaching a limited vocabulary. This form of English may, and again I want to stress the word “may,” limit the ability of workers to express in English their discontent and demands for change regarding economic, political, and social conditions. The trend to a global business English was reflected on a sign I saw in Shanghai that read, “Learn the English words your bosses want to hear!” Until 2000, ETS primarily focused on the U.S. testing market. In 2000, business executive Kurt Landgraf became president and CEO, turning a nonprofit organization into one that looks like a for-profit with earnings of more than $800 million a year. As part of Landgraf’s planning, the company expanded into 180 countries. “Our mission is not just a U.S.-oriented mission but a global mission,” Landgraf is quoted as saying in a magazine article. “We can offer educational systems to


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the world, but to do that, you have to take a lesson from the commercial world [author’s emphasis].” The official corporate description of ETS’s global marketing is: ETS’s Global Division and its subsidiaries fulfill ETS’s mission in markets around the world. We assist businesses, educational institutions, governments, ministries of education, professional organizations, and test takers by designing, developing and delivering ETS’s standard and customized measurement products and services which include assessments, preparation materials and technical assistance. An important role of the Global Division is standardizing English as a global language. Almost all of its products are for English language learners. The division markets the widely used Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL), Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC), and Test of Spoken English (TSE). TOEFL has long served as an assessment tool for determining the English language ability of foreign students seeking admission into U.S. universities. In 2002, ETS opened a Beijing, China office and began marketing TOEIC along with TOEFL. In addition, the Global Division offers TOEFL Practice Online, which indirectly serves as a teaching tool for English instruction. In March 2007 ETS proudly announced that the service had been extended to its Chinese market. The Test of English for Distance Education (TEDE) is used worldwide to determine if a student has enough skills in English to participate in online courses conducted in English. Criterion is a webbased Online Writing Evaluation that promises to evaluate student writing skills in seconds. In 2007 ETS’s Criterion won highest honors from the Global Learning Consortium. In addition to all these tests associated with global English, ETS offers ProofWriter, an online tool that provides immediate feedback on grammar and editing issues for English language essays. In another major step in the global standardization of English, ETS and G2nd Systems signed an agreement in 2007 for G2nd Systems to join ETS’s Preferred Vendor Network and to use TOEIC. G2nd Systems is promoting an intercultural form of English for use in the global workplace. “G2nd Systems defines the way people use non-culture-specific English in workplace environments as intercultural English, which is not the same as any national version of English that naturally includes cultural presumptions, idioms and local ways of communicating ideas,” explains Lorelei Carobolante, CEO of G2nd Systems in a news release from ETS. “TOEIC test scores indicate how well people can communicate in English with others in today’s globally diverse workplace. G2nd Systems

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recognizes that measuring proficiency in English speaking and writing capabilities allows business professionals, teams and organizations to implement focused language strategies that will improve organizational effectiveness, customer satisfaction and employee productivity.” A for-profit corporation, G2nd advertises itself as “Global Collaborative Business Environments across multiple cultures at the same time!” and “Global Second language Approach.” The corporate announcement of its affiliation with ETS states: “Today, over 5,000 corporations in more than 60 countries use the TOEIC test, and 4.5 million people take the test every year.” G2nd Systems offers instruction in an intercultural form of English as opposed to the English of particular countries such as India, Britain, or the United States. Referring to “Intercultural English— A New Global Tool,” the company explains, “Intercultural English developed in response to the new dynamics emerging in today’s global business environment, characterized by multiple cultures operating in a collaborative structure to execute projects that are often geo graphically dispersed.” Highlighting the supposedly culturally neutral form of English taught by the organization it claims: “Intercultural English is a communication tool rather than a national version of any language, and this tool is as vital as mathematics or computer literacy in facilitating normal business processes [author’s emphasis].” In summary, the expansion of international testing might result in global standardization of school subjects, professional knowledge requirements, and English. It would be interesting to analyze the content of all the various tests offered by Pearson on the standardization of professional knowledge. By using online tests Pearson is able to engage in global marketing. It would seem hard to deny that between ETS’s range of English tests, its online services in English composition, and its connection with G2nd Systems that it is having a global impact on how English is spoken and written. Can English as a global language be standardized so that it is not identified with a particular culture or nation? SHADOW EDUCATION INDUSTRY AND CRAM SCHOOLS

Across the globe from Japan to India to Cape Town to Buenos Aires to the United States, parents worry about their children’s grades and test scores because they are tied to their children’s future economic success. Consequently, they seek out test preparation or cram schools and private learning services to help their children after school hours. World culture theorists Baker and LeTendre label supplementary education providers as the “shadow education system.” From the perspective of the twenty-first century, the authors see a global growth of the shadow education system as pressures mount for students to pass high-stakes tests and the world’s governments attempt to closely link


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student achievement to future jobs. In their words, “Mass schooling sets the stage for the increasing importance of education as an institution, and to the degree that this process creates greater demand for quality schooling than is supplied, augmentation through shadow education is likely.” Baker and LeTendre predict that shadow education systems will continue to grow as nations embrace human capital forms of schooling. Simply put, as schooling is made more important for a child’s future, families will invest more money in tutoring services for remedial education and for providing for enhanced school achievement. FRANCHISING THE SHADOW EDUCATION SYSTEM

Interested in joining the for-profit shadow education system? Sylvan Learning offers franchises requiring an initial investment of $179,000 to $305,000 to people having a minimum net worth of $250,000. By offering K–12 tutoring services it is able to take advantage of government funds provided for for-profit educational services. Depending on the location, the franchise fee is from $42,000 to $48,000. Why might you choose Sylvan? The company advertises its sale of franchises by pointing out that it has served 2 million students since 1979, was ranked twenty-four times in Entrepreneur magazine’s Franchise 500 Ranking, number sixty-one overall in its 2009 Franchise 500 Ranking, and number fifty-two in the publication’s Top Global Franchises ranking. It was ranked in Bond’s Top 100 Franchises and number fifty-seven in the 2008 Franchise Times’ Top 200 Systems. In addition, the Sylvan Learning franchise brand was selected the best educational provider in Nickelodeon’s ParentsConnect’s First Annual Parents’ Picks Awards and as Favorite Kids Learning Center by SheKnows.com. If you happen to be Hispanic, you might be tempted to invest in a franchise because Sylvan Learning was identified by Poder Enterprise Magazine as one of the Top 25 Franchises for Hispanics in April 2009. Sylvan Learning’s promotion of its franchises highlights the political stake it has in the continued government funding of for-profit supplementary education services. It functions like any corporation trying to expand its reach and profits. Like any corporation it relies on having a global brand name that is impressed on the public through its $40 million advertising and marketing program. In the midst of the 2010 recession the company claimed, “Despite the economy, now is the right time to enter the supplemental education industry. According to Eduventures, Inc., the current demand is strong and the market is projected to continue with double-digit growth.” The company claimed that when in 2008 it decided to focus on “franchising to local entrepreneurs and business operators who can respond to the particular needs of each community

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while utilizing the tools, resources and brand equity of the Sylvan name” it grew by 150 percent. Sylvan Learning is also a global company with tutoring services located in the Cayman Islands, the Bahamas, Hong Kong, Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates. While this global reach is relatively small, it does indicate a potential future for Sylvan Learning as a major global education company. Kumon Learning Centers has a vast number of global franchises with over 25,000 franchises in other countries. The Kumon Learning Centers were founded in Japan in 1958 by Toru Kumon. In 2010 the company was ranked number twelve in a list of franchises that included, beginning with number one, Subway followed by McDonald’s, 7-Eleven Inc., Hampton Inn, Supercuts, H&R Block, Dunkin’ Donuts, Jani-King, Servpro, ampm Mini Market, and Jan-Pro Franchising International Inc. This is a pretty impressive list and indicates the growing global importanc e of the shadow education industry. In 2009, Kumon Learning Centers enrolled 4.2 million students in forty-six countries. Another global example is Kaplan, which started as a test preparation company and is now a global company operating for-profit schools along with test preparation and language instruction. Kaplan’s operations in Singapore, Hong Kong, Shanghai, and Beijing are advertised as meeting “students’ demand for Western-style education.” In ten European countries it offers test preparation and English language instruction. “In the UK,” Kaplan states, “we are one of the largest providers of accountancy training and private higher education. We also operate the Dublin Business School, Ireland’s largest private undergraduate college.” Kaplan operates Tel Aviv-based Kidum, the largest provider of test preparation in Israel. In Brazil, Colombia, Panama, and Venezuela, Kaplan operates English language and test preparation programs designed to prepare students for admission to schools in the United States. In summary, the shadow education system is now an important player in national and global politics. The agenda of these supplementary education services focuses on increasing revenues by lobbying for government financial support and school policies supporting assessment systems that drive students into buying their services. These companies are also seeking to expand revenues through globalization of their products and by expanding into new areas such as for-profit schools and English language instruction. CONCLUSION: LONG LIFE AND HAPPINESS

Human capital ideology dominates global education discourses. Human capital ideology supports the educational policies that will maximize profits for education businesses. Human capital ideology supports the


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testing companies and the shadow education industry because of the ideologies’ emphasis on high-stakes testing to promote and sort students for careers and higher education and for evaluating teachers and school administrators. By schools putting testing pressure on students, parents are willing to fork out extra money to the shadow education industry. Consequently, the shadow education system and multinational testing corporations are interested in public acceptance of human capital ideology and the legitimization of assessment-driven school systems. In my book A New Paradigm for Global School Systems: Education for a Long and Happy Life, I offer an alternative to the current global focus on human capital education and consumerism. I propose that school policies be evaluated on their contribution to the social conditions that provide the conditions for human happiness and longevity rather than being judged by their contribution to economic growth and income. There is a great deal of international research on the social conditions that promote happiness and a long life. My work represents one effort to try and shift thinking about educational policies. SUGGESTED READINGS AND WORKS CITED IN CHAPTER Achieve, Inc. and National Governors Association. America’s High Schools: The Front Line in the Battle for Our Economic Future. Washington DC: Achieve, Inc. and National Governors Association, 2003. Illustrates human capital ideas related to the global economy. Anderson Levitt, Kathryn, ed. Local Meanings, Global Schooling: Anthropology and World Culture Theory. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003. Emphasizes local power over global education policies. Baker, David P. and Gerald K. LeTendre.National Differences, Global Similarities: World Culture and the Future of Schooling. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 2005. Classic statement of world theorists that global education is evolving according to a Western model. Breton, Gilles and Michel Lambert, eds. Universities and Globalization: Private Linkages, Public Trust. Quebec, Canada: UNESCO, 2003. Good discussion of the globalization of higher education. Dale, Roger and Susan Robertson. “Editorial: Introduction.” In Globalisation, Societies and Education, Vol. 1, no. 1 (2003): 3–11. This introduction defines the field of educational globalization. Educational Testing Service. “ETS Global.” Retrieved on July 12, 2007 from www.ets.org/portal/ site/ets/menuitrn.435c0 bd0ae7015d9510c39 21509/?vgnextoid=d04b25 3b164f4010Vgn VCM10000022f95190RCRD. Profiles the global reach of Educational Testing Services. Goldman, Michael. Imperial Nature: The World Bank and Struggles for Social Justice. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005. This book criticizes the programs of the World Bank. International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement. “Brief History of IEA.” Retrieved on January 28, 2008 from www.iea.nl/brief_history_iea.html. A history of the early development of global testing programs. Keeley, Brian. Human Capital: How What You Know Shapes Your Life. Paris: OECD Publishing, 2007. OECD’s statement of human capital education.

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Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Directorate for Education. Trends Shaping Education 2013. Paris: OECD Publishing, 2013. OECD’s perspective on the future of global education systems . –––. “UNESCO Ministerial Round Table on Education and Economic Development: Keynote Speech by Angel Gurría, OECD Secretary–General Paris, 19 October 2007.” Retrieved on November 13, 2010 from www.oecd.org/document/19/0,3343,en_2649_33723_1_1_1_1,00. html. Example of OECD’s approach to education issues. –––. The Well-Being of Nations: The Role of Human and Social Capital Education and Skills . Paris: OECD Publishing, 2001. This book describes the OECD’s intention to use global schools to educate workers to meet the needs of global corporations. Patten, Simon. The New Basis of Civilization. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1968. Early statement of consumerism as a driving force in the modern economy. Pearson VUE. “About Pearson VUE: Company History.” Retrieved on January 9, 2008 from www.pearsonvue.com/about/history. History of Pearson’s involvement in testing. Spring, Joel. Globalization and Educational Rights: An Intercivilizational Analysis. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2001. This book calls for a global standard for educational rights. –––. The Economization of Education. New York: Routledge, 2015. Examines the increasing role of economists in influencing global education policies. –––. A New Paradigm for Global School Systems: Education for a Long and Happy Life. New York: Routledge, 2007. This book advocates basing global education on the goals of happiness and longevity. –––. Education and the Rise of the Global Economy. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1998. A study of the globalization of human capital theories of education. –––. Globalization of Education: An Introduction, Second Edition. New York: Routledge, 2015. This book provides a global perspective on the development of contemporary education systems. Stromquist, Nelly P. Education in a Globalized World: The Connectivity of Economic Power, Technology, and Knowledge. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2003. Stromquist, Nelly P. and Karen Monkman, eds. Globalization and Education: Integration and Contestation Across Cultures. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000. UNESCO. “Education for All (EFA) International Coordination: The Six EFA Goals and MDGs.” Retrieved on October 5, 2007 from http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/ev.php-URL_ID= 53844&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html. World Bank. “About Us: Organization: Boards of Directors.” Retrieved on July 17, 2007 from www.worldbank.org, para. 1. –––. A Guide to the World Bank, Second Edition. Washington DC: World Bank, 2007. –––. Lifelong Learning in the Global Knowledge Economy: Challenges for Developing Countries. Washington DC: World Bank, 2003. –––. Constructing Knowledge Societies: New Challenges for Tertiary Education. Washington DC: World Bank, 2002. World Economic Forum. Education and Skills 2.0: New Targets and Innovative Approaches. Geneva: World Economic Forum, January 2014. This report emphasizes the role of global school systems in teaching skills wanted by businesses. World Trade Organization. WTO Legal Texts: The Uruguay Round Agreements: Annex 1B General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). Retrieved on November 28, 2007 from www.wto.org/english/docs_e/legal_e/legal_e.htm#finalact.


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INDEX

Note: italics denote figures; bold denotes tables.

ability grouping 86–87 Abington School District v. Schempp 40 abstinence-only education 41–46 Achieve, Inc. 305 Addams, Jane 284 Adecco 102 adequate yearly progress (AYP) 228, 228

Alexander, Karl 84 All Deliberate Speed: Segregation and Exclusion in California Schools, 1855–1975 (Wollenberg) 155, 157, 167 Allen, Tonya 9 America First policy 211 American Association of University Professors (AAUP) 291 American Association of University Women 133 American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) 292–294, 298

Adkins, J. D. C. 159 Adler v. Board of Education of New York 297 Advanced Placement (AP) U.S. History curriculum 3 Affirming Diversity: The Sociopolitical Context of Multicultural Education (Nieto) 190, 202 African American Images 200 African Americans: bilingual culture 172; empowerment 190; ethnocentric education 199–201; Perry Preschool

American College Testing Program (ACT) 259 American Declaration of Independence (1776) 70 American education (federal and state control of schools): charter schools 229–234, 231, 233, 234; conclusion 243; “education chair” metaphor 220–221; for-profit global education corporations 235–237; home schooling 237–240; online and distance learning 240, 240–242, 242;

study 105–108, 106, 107; and Pledge of Allegiance 15; race, legal problem defining 123–127, 126; sex education 45; voter participation 26 Afrocentricity (Asante) 200 AIDS/HIV education programs 43–47 Albuquerque Indian School 160 alcohol abuse 59–61

overview 219–220; Republican Platform 2016, support of school choice and vouchers 242–243; school boards 221–223, 222; school choice 223–225, 227–229, 228; school choice and religion 225–227; see also Common Core State Standards; education; equality of opportunity in

21st Century Skills, Education & Competitiveness 93 50CAN 48

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education; No Child Left Behind Act; Race to the Top; teaching profession; U.S. Department of Education American exceptionalism 12, 20, 211 American Federation of Labor (AFL) 284 American Federation of Teachers (AFT) 9, 273, 279–280, 284–287 The American Federation of Teachers 1916–1961 (Eaton) 286 American Foundation for Children 7–8 American Home Economics Association 57 Americanization programs 16 American Legion 16 American Presidency Project 26 American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (2009) 250 American Revolution 12, 70 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) 136–137, 140 The American Teacher: Evolution of a Profession in a Democracy (Elsbree) 275 Amrein, Audrey 262 anti-bias and tolerance education 193–195 Anti-Bias Education for Young Children and Ourselves (DermanSparks, Edwards) 194 Asante, Molefi Kete 200

Beecher, Catherine 274 Bellamy, Francis 15–17 Bell, Daniel 95a Berliner, David 98, 262 Best, Amy 42 Bethel v. Fraser (1986) 24 Bible reading in schools 38–40 biculturalism 183–186 Biddle, Bruce 98 big data and student privacy 254–256 bilingual education 154, 201–205 Bilingual Education Act (1968) 204 Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 84, 255 Billups, Andrea 238 Blad, Evie 134 Blake, Mariah 19 Board of Education of Independent School District No. 92 of Pottawatomie County et al. v. Earls et al. 60 Board of Education v. James 298 Board of Island Union Free School District v. Steven A. Pico 22–23 Board of National Popular Education 274 Boston Board of Education 274 Bourgeois Blues: An American Memoir (Lamar) 189, 192 Bowles, Samuel 87 Bracey Report 264

Asian Americans: Anglo-Saxon culture 6; citizenship 70, 123–124; discrimination against 167; labor market bias 79, 79–80; school diversity 163–168, 164–165; school segregation 167–168 Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD) 282 at-risk students and social class 84–85 attendance rates in schools 25, 25–28, 50

“brain waste” 181 Branson, Zachary 272 Braun, Henry 262 Brown, Phillip 100–101 Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka 88–89, 130 Budde, Ray 229 bullying 55–56 Bureau of Indian Affairs 161–162, 187 Bureau of Justice Statistics 55 Bureau of Labor Statistics 78, 101 Burkham, David 111–114

autism 137, 138

Bush, George W. 98, 203 Bush, Jeb 240–241

Bailey, Beth 42 Baker, David P. 309, 317–318 Ball, Stephen J. 236 Banks, James 189–191 Barton, David 19–20 Becker, Gary 95, 103

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INDEX

cafeterias in schools 36, 56–57 California Bureau of Instruction 154 California State Assembly 167–168 California State Department of Education 156

Calvin Colleges 7 Capteron, Gaston 259 The Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education report 61, 281 Carlisle Indian School 159 Carneal, Michael 53 Carneiro, Pedro 103–104, 107 Carobolante, Lorelei 316 Carr, Sarah 62 Carter, Jimmy 283 Cassadore, Elenore 187 Castells, Manuel 97 categorical aid 250–252, 251 Catholic Church 38, 154 Catholic schools 225 Caughey, John 156 Cavanagh, Sean 287–288 censorship and public schooling 13, 18–24 Center for Consumer Freedom 58 Center for Public Education 234 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) 46–47, 55, 59 Chan Yong 164 character education 48–50 Character Education Partnership 49–50 charter schools 7–9, 89, 229–234, 231, 233, 234; students with disabilities 142–143 cheating behavior and high-stakes testing 263–265

Choy, Susan 277 Christianity 19–20, 38–39 Cisernos v. Corpus Christi Independent School District 157 Citizens for a Sound Economy 19 citizenship 28, 123–124 civic knowledge of students 13, 28, 29 Civilization Fund Act (1819) 157–158 Civil Rights Act (1964) 131, 171, 252 Civil Rights Restoration Act (1987) 133–134 class size reduction 104 Cleveland Arts and Social Science Academy 243 Clinton, Bill 98 Coalition of American Public Employees (CAPE) 283 Coleman, David 11 collectivist societies 183–186 College Board 11 Columbine High School massacre 53 Committee of Ten on Secondary School Studies 281 Commodore Stockton School 168 Common Core State Standards (CCSS) 256–257; anti-bias education 195; high-stakes testing 261–262; and home schooling 237; literacy and 11; multicultural education 202–205; Republican/Democratic Platforms 2016, rejection 265–267; as skills-

Chiaramonte, Perry 237 Chicago Teachers Federation 284 Chicano Education in the Era of Segregation (Gonzalez) 155 childhood, social concepts of 10 childhood obesity 56, 58–59 Child Nutrition Bill 59 child-rearing and social/cultural capital 108–111, 110 “Children of the Rainbow” curriculum 47 Chinese immigrants 124–127, 126,

based curriculum 77 common-school model in equality of opportunity 71–73, 72 The Condition of Education 200284 The Condition of Education 2008137 The Condition of Education 201085, 173 The Condition of Education 2013237 The Condition of Education 201454, 168, 171, 172, 240, 251 The Condition of Education 201625, 50, 55, 78, 85, 115–116, 231–232

163–165, 168 Chinese students, cultural worldview 181–184 Chin, Frank 167 Chiras, David D. 18 chlamydia 46 Choice Provisions in No Child Left Behind report 228

constitutionally protected prayer 41 Constructing Knowledge Societies (World Bank) 311 consumerism and global education 305–307 contraception in schools 43–46 Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO) 256

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Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) 136 counteracademic attitudes and behaviors 189 Cox, Owen 157 cram schools 317–318 crime reduction in schools 35, 39, 50–52, 51, 52 Crossroads Collaborative 48 C.S. Mott Children’s Hospital 56 cultural frames of reference 187–188 culture of power 198–199 Cummins, Mary 47–48 cyberbullying 55–56

disabilities see students with disabilities distance and online learning 240, 240–242, 242 Dobson, James 239–240 dominant cultures 186–189 dominated cultures 186–189, 198–199 dreamers 149–150 dropping out of school 85–86 Drucker, Peter 95 Drug Abuse Resistance Education (D.A.R.E.) 59, 61 drug abuse/testing 59–61 drug testing of teachers 295 Duncan, Arne 136, 162, 255, 276–277

Daddy’s Roommate (Willhoite) 47 Dale, Roger 304 Daniels, Mitch 9 Data Quality Campaign (DQC) 255–256

data and student privacy 254–256 Daughters of the American Revolution 16 deaf-blindness 137, 138 Declaration of Indigenous People’s Rights 207 The Decline of the Californios: A Social History of the Spanish-Speaking Californios 1846–1890 (Pitt, Gutierrez) 154 Delgado v. Bastrop Independent School District 156

Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Cohort 112–113 Early Head Start program 103 Eaton, William Edward 286 e-books, adaptive 236 Eckholm, Erik 55 economic goals of schooling: childrearing and social/cultural capital 108–111, 110; conclusion 118–119; family learning and success 111–116, 113, 114, 115, 116; global knowledge economy 97–99; human capital theory 94–97, 96, 99–100, 102–104, 116–118, 117; investment in schools 100–102; lifelong learning 99–100; overview 7–10, 93–94; Perry

Dell, Michael 101 Delpit, Lisa 198–199 Democratic Platform 2012 12 Democratic Platform 2016 47, 88–89, 99, 273 Department of Defensive Education Activity 256 Derman-Sparks, Louise 193–194 desegregation of schools 131, 131–132 deskilling of teaching profession 99 developmental delay 137, 138 DeVos, Betsy 7–10, 38, 242, 265,

Preschool study 105–108, 106, 107; preschool 102–104; Republican/Democratic Platforms 2016 116–118, 117; soft skills 102–104, 114 Economic Policy Institute 114 Economic Summit on Early Childhood Investment 93 The Economization of Education (Spring) 307 Eder, Jeanne 158 Edley, Christopher, Jr. 132

299–300 DeVos, Richard 7–8 Dewey, John 36–37, 61 Dick and Betsy DeVos Family Foundation 7–8 Digest of Educational Statistics25, 25 Digital Learning Now report 241 Dillon, Sam 254

education: abstinence-only education 41–46; anti-bias and tolerance education 193–195; bilingual education 154, 201–205; character education 48–50; consumerism and global education 305–307; “education inflation” 100–101; ethnocentric education 199–201;

INDEX

for-profit 235–237, 259, 312–319; free enterprise in 7–9, 37–38, 225; immigrant education 168–171, 169, 170; income inequality and 77–78, 78, 80–81, 81, 102; nutrition education 56–59; sex education 38, 41–47, 46; shadow education industry 317–319; skills-based 307–308; see also American education; economic goals of schooling; equality of opportunity in education; globalization of education; multicultural/multilingual education; political goals of public schooling Educational Testing Service (ETS) 262, 315–317 Education and Correctional Populations, Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report 51–52 Education Equality of the Feminist Majority Foundation 133 Education for All Handicapped Children Act (1975) 136, 140 Education for All program 311 Education for the Knowledge Economy (EKE) 311–312 Education Industry Association (EIA) 236 education savings accounts (ESAs) 223, 242–243 Eduventures, Inc. 318

English Only policy 211 Entwistle, Doris 84 Environmental Science: Creating a Sustainable Future (Chiras) 18 equality of opportunity in education: census and race 127–129; charter schools and 142–143; commonschool model 71–73, 72; conclusion 89; defining race, legal problems 122–124; Democratic Platform 2016 and 88–89; desegregating schools 131, 131–132; disability categories 137–139, 138; education and income 77–78, 78; Fourteenth Amendment and 129–130, 130; high-stakes testing 75, 75–76, 260–261; Immigration Act and 124–127, 126; inclusion 140–142; income inequality and schools 80–81, 81; individualized education plans 139–140; labor market bias 79, 79–80; overview 69–71, 122; public law 135–136; rich/poor school districts 82–83, 83; school dropouts 85–86; school models for 71; school segregation 132–133; social class and at-risk students 84–85; social reproduction 87–88; sorting-machine model 73–74, 74, 97; students with disabilities 135–143; tests as predictors of economic conditions 77;

Edwards, Julie Olsen 193–194 Egan, Timothy 58 Elementary School and Education Act (ESEA, 1965) 252 Eliot, Charles 281 Ellison, Larry 101 Elsbree, Willard S. 275 emotional disturbance 138, 138 empowerment through multicultural education 189–198 Endangering Prosperity: A Global View of the American School (Hanushek,

tracking and ability grouping 86–87; women 70, 78, 78–80, 79, 133–135 Establishment Clause 225–226 ethnic studies 189–190 ethnocentric education 199–201 extracurricular activities 16, 59–62

Woessman, Peterson) 77 Engel v. Vitale 39–40 English as a global language 313–317 English language acquisition 201–205 English Language Acquisition Act (2001) 202–205 English Language Learners (ELL) 172–174

and Open Testing 265–266 Family and Consumer Sciences 56–57 family learning and school success 111–116, 113, 114, 115, 116 family values, Republican Platform 2016 and 37–38 federal and state control of schools: categorical federal aid 252;

Failing at Fairness: How America’s Schools Cheat Girls (Sadker) 195–197 failing-school choice plan 224, 228 FairTest: The National Center for Fair

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conclusion 267; high-stakes testing, effects of 261–263; high-stakes tests and academic standards 257–260; influence 250–252, 251; overview 250; Republican/Democratic Platforms (2016) 265–267; student privacy and big data 254–256; test cheating behavior 263–265; tests and equality of opportunity 260–261; see also American education; Common Core State Standards; No Child Left Behind; Race to the Top Fedullo, Mick 187 Feinberg Law 297 Fichte, Johann 15 Fight Crime: Invest in Kids 56 First Amendment, Establishment Clause 225–226 Fischer, Louis 296 Florida Virtual Schools 240–241 for-profit global education organizations 235–237, 259, 312–317 for-profit schools 7–9, 89, 243 for-profit shadow education industry 317–319 Foundation for Excellence 240–241 Fourteenth Amendment 129–130, 130, 156, 171 Fourth Amendment 60–61 franchises, shadow education industry

García, Lily Eskelsen 283, 300 Gates, Bill 101 Gates Foundation see Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation Gay, Lesbian and Straight Education Network 47 gay rights issues see lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and questioning sexual orientation Gay-Straight Alliance Network 48 Gebser, Alida 296 Gebser v. Lago Vista Independent School District 296 General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) 312–313 The Geography of Thought: How Asians and Westerners Think Differently…and Why (Nisbett) 181–184 Gerry, John F. 140–141 Gewertz, Catherine 11 Gintis, Herbert 87 Glass, Gene 262 global competition 80–81, 81 Global Education Inc. (Ball) 236 Globalisation, Societies and Education (Dale, Robertson) 304 globalization and language and cultural rights 205–207 globalization of education: business of 312–317; conclusion 319–320;

317–319 Fraser, Matthew 24 freedom of conscience 294–295 freedom of religion 24 freedom of speech rights 23–24, 293–294 free enterprise in education 7–9, 37–38, 225 free or reduced-price lunch (FRPL) 115–116, 232, 234 Free Speech Clause of the First Amendment 21–22

human capital economics 305–307; overview 304–305; role of teachers 273; shadow industry and cram schools 317–319; as skills-based 307–308; testing services 313–317 The Globalization of Education (Spring) 235 global knowledge economy 97–99 global migration 150–152, 179–181 global multicultural education, responses to 207–210, 208 Godwin, William 14

Friedman, Milton 223–225 From Front Porch to Back Seat: Courtship in Twentieth-Century America (Bailey) 42 Future of Sex Education, standards 45

Goggin, Catherine 284 Golden, Andrew 53 Goldin, Claudia 101 Gompers, Samuel 285 gonorrhea 46 Gonzalez, Gilbert 155 Goodlad, John 277 Grove City College v. Bell 133

G2nd Systems 316–317 García, Emma 114

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INDEX

Gurría, Angel 309–310 Gutierrez, Ramon 154 Guttmacher Institute 45 Guzman, William 156 Hacker, Andrew 101–102 Haley, Margaret 279–280, 284 Hall, George 124 Hanushek, Eric A. 77, 262 Haurin, Donald 258 Hazelwood School District v. Kuhlemier (1988) 23 Head Start program 89, 95–96, 103 hearing impairment 138, 138 Heather Has Two Mommies (Newman) 47 Heckman, James J. 103–105, 107 Heitin, Liana 197, 280 Heritage Foundation 242 Herold, Benjamin 255 Hess, Frederick 221–223 Higher Education Act (1972) 133, 252 High/Scope Foundation 105–106 high-stakes testing: and academic standards 257–260; cheating behavior 263–265; effects of 261–263; and equality of opportunity 260–261; global service providers 313–317; model 75, 75–76; as predictors of economic conditions 77

99–100, 102–104, 116–118, 117; charter schools and 231; global education and 305–312; lifelong learning 99–100; preschool and soft skills 102–104; Republican/Democratic Platforms 2016 and 116–118, 117 Hunger of Memory: The Education of Richard Rodriguez (Rodriguez) 189 hybridization, defined 184 The Idea of Civil Society (Seligman) 17 Igoa, Cristina 186–187 illegal immigrants and student diversity 149–151 immigrant cultures 6, 12, 15–16, 57; differences in 187–189 immigrants, educational attainment of 168–171, 169, 170

Immigration Act (1965) 124–127, 126, 150–152 Immigration Act (1990) 150–152 immigration and student diversity 150–152 The Improving Education Profile of Latino Immigrants report 170 inclusion for students with disabilities 140–142 income and education, relationship between 77–78, 78 income inequality and education 80–81,

Hispanic Americans: census and race 127; educational profile of 170; ethnocentric education 199–201; exclusion from citizenship 152; labor market bias 79, 79–80; model minority image 167; racial categorization 125–127, 126; school boards 221, 222; school dropouts 85 HIV/AIDS education programs 43–47 Holland Christian Schools 7 home economics 56–59 home schooling 237–240

81, 102 Indian Education Act (1972) 161 Indian Education: A National Tragedy—A National Challenge report 161 Indian Peace Commission 158–159 Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act (1975) 162 Indicators of School Crime and Safety: 2013 55 individualist societies 183–186 individualized education plans (IEP)

Home School Legal Defense Association 237–239 Honawar, Vaishali 259, 288 Houston Board of Education 258 Huck’s Raft: A History of American Childhood (Mintz) 10 Human Capital (Becker) 95 human capital theory 94–97, 96,

139–140 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) 136–137, 141 industrialization 6, 35 Inequality at the Starting Gate: Social Background Differences in Achievement as Children Begin School (Lee, Burkham) 111–114

INDEX

329

K12 company 235 Kaplan 319

Lacks, Cecil 294 La Farge, Oliver 160 Lamar, Jake 189, 192 Landgraf, Kurt 315 language: bilingual education 154, 201–205; and cultural rights 205–207; diversity and teacher preparedness 174, 174–175; of school-age children 172–174, 173, 174; and schools 171–172; speech/ language impairment 138, 138; see also multicultural/multilingual education Lanza, Adam 53–54 Lareau, Annette 109–111 Laszloffy, Jeff 41 Lauder, Hugh 100–101 Lau et al. v. Nichols et al. 171 Lauffer, Armand 184 Lawner, Elizabeth K. 198 League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC) 156 Lee, Mary Bo-Tze 168 Lee, Robert 166 Lee, Valerie 111–114 Lemon v. Kurzman 227 lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and questioning sexual orientation (LGBTQ) 47–48, 134, 296–298 LeTendre, Gerald K. 309, 317–318

Katz, Lawrence 101 Kaufman, Marc 61 Kekelis, Linda 198 Kelly, Cynthia 296 Kennedy, Anthony M. 227 Kennedy, John F. 161 Kenney, Kylie 56 Keyishian v. Board of Regents of New York 297–298 Kidum 319 Kimmel, Mary 280 Kinkel, Kipland 53

Let’s Move website 59 Levitt, Theodore 304 Lewin, Tamar 11 liability of teachers 295–297 Liben, David 11 lifelong learning 99–100 Lifelong Learning in the Global Knowledge Economy (World Bank) 312 Light of the Feather: Pathways Through Contemporary Indian America (Fedullo) 187

KIPP academies 232–234 Klein, Alyson 254 Klein, Joel 258 Klicka, Christopher J. 238 Knight, Jane 312–313 Korean immigrants 164 Kumon Learning Centers 319 Kunjufu, Jawanza 200

local education authorities (LEA) 142–143, 228 Lodato, Neil 48 Long, Cindy 288 Loukatis, Barry 53 low academic effort syndrome 189 Lusk, Raymond 61 Lyle, Paul 61

Inequality in American: What Role for Human Capital Policies? (Carneiro, Heckman) 103–104, 107 Inheriting the City: The Children of Immigrants Come of Age (Kasinitz, Mollenkopf, Waters, Holdaway) 125–127, 126 The Inner World of the Immigrant Child (Igoa) 186–187 International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA) 28, 77, 313 investment in schools 100–102

Jacobson, Lenore 86 Jacobson, Linda 93, 239 Japanese American Citizens League 166 Japanese immigrants 123, 163, 165–166 Japanese students, cultural worldview 181–183 Jefferson, Thomas 12–13, 70 Jehovah’s Witnesses 24 Jenkins, Bruce 296–297 Jobs, Steve 101 Johnson, Mitchell 53 Jones, James 193 Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 61

330

INDEX

McCarran-Walter Act (1952) 166 McGraw-Hill Education 236, 259 McKenney, Thomas 157–158 McLeroy, Don 19–20 McMillen, Constance 48 McNamara, Robert 310–311 McWalters, Peter J. 264 maintenance bilingual programs 201–202 Mann, Horace 5, 13–14, 18, 24; equality of opportunity 35–36, 69–71, 82; human capital theory 94; quest for crime-free society 51, 53; role of teachers 273–274; teaching of moral values 38–39 A Manufactured Crisis: Myths, Fraud and the Attack on America’s Public Schools (Biddle) 98 Marshall, Peter 19–20 Martin Luther King Junior Elementary School Children et al. v. Ann Arbor School District 172 Matloff-Nieves, Susan 198 Maxwell, Lesli A. 174 Meeks, Olivia 221–223 Megan, Sharon 62 Mendez et al. v. Westminster School District of Orange County 156 mental retardation 138, 138 MetLife “American Teacher” survey 278–279

bilingual education, end of 202–205; bilingual education and English language acquisition 201–202; conclusion 211–212; differences in knowing/seeing the world 181–183; for economic power 198–199; ethnocentric education 199–201; globalization and 205–207; global migration and 179–181; global responses to 207–210, 208; immigrant cultures, differences 187–189; overview 179; racism and 191–193; Republican Party 2016/America First 211; sexism and 195–198; for social empowerment 189–198 multiple disabilities 138, 138 Mulvey, Cindy 258 Murdoch, Rupert 235

Metzger, Tom 195 Mexican American Legal Defense and Education Fund (MALDEF) 157 Mexican Americans: Anglo-Saxon culture 6; educational attainment of 168–171, 169, 170; empowerment 190; ethnocentric education 199–201; student diversity 152–153, 152–157 Michael & Susan Dell Foundation 255 middle-class families 109–111, 110 Mintz, Steven 10 Moisse, Katie 43–44

172–173, 231 National Council on Teacher Quality 174 National Crime Prevention Council 54–55 National Defense Education Act (NDEA, 1958) 252, 282 National Education Association (NEA) 15, 36, 279–283; extracurricular activities 61–62; sex education 41; teacher salaries 277–278, 278 National Education Summit on High

Montana Family Foundation 41 Morgan, Thomas J. 159–160 Morones, Alyssa 227 Mosatche, Harriet S. 198 Mueller v. Allen 226 multicultural/multilingual education: anti-bias and tolerance, teaching 193–195; biculturalism 183–186;

Schools 81 National Governors Association 11, 305 National Governors Association Center for Best Practices (NGA Center) 256 National Institutes of Health 61 nationalism 12 National Organization for Women (NOW) 133–134

National Alliance for Public Charter Schools 231–233 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) 260 National Association for Retarded Children 136 National Association for the Education of Young Children 193–194 National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion 58 National Center for Education Statistics (NECS) 25, 50, 55, 78, 84, 85, 137,

INDEX

331

National School Lunch Program 115–116, 232 National Science Foundation 255 National Service Learning Clearinghouse 17 A Nation at Risk report 97–98, 116 Native Americans: Anglo-Saxon culture 6; citizenship 36, 70, 123–124; empowerment 190; ethnocentric education 199–201; selfdetermination 161–162; student diversity 157–163, 158 Naturalization Act (1790) 70, 123, 151, 164–165 Nazism 4–5 NEA: The First Hundred Years (Wesley) 281–282 Neill, Monty 265 The New Basis of Civilization (Patten) 306 Newdow, Michael 16 A New Paradigm for Global School Systems: Education for a Long and Happy Life (Spring) 320 New York Board of Regents 39–40 Nichols, Sharon 262 Nieto, Sonia 189–191, 202 Nisbett, Richard E. 181–184 No Child Left Behind Act (2002) 41, 44, 49, 59, 253; bilingual education and 201–202; charter schools

Obesity Prevention and Treatment Act (2002) 58 O’Connor, Sandra Day 296 O’Donoghue, Steve 58 Office of Civil Rights (OCR) 134 Office of Economic Opportunity 161 Office of Indian Affairs 157 Office of Indian Education 161 Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Project 106 Ogbu, John 187–189 online and distance learning 240, 240–242, 242 Orel, Steve 264 Orfield, Gary 132 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) 77, 232, 307–310, 314 orthopedic impairment 138, 138 Out of Many: A History of the American People (Hall) 19 Oyerman, Daphna 184

229–231; high-stakes testing 257–260, 266; justification for 98; public school choice plan 227–229, 228; teaching qualifications 276–277 nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) 305 non-reservation boarding schools 159–160 normal schools 274 Notes on the State of Virginia (Jefferson) 12 nutrition education in schools 56–59

Peak to Peak Charter School 231–234 Pearson Education 235–236, 259, 314–315 Pence, Mike 8–9 Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Children (PARC) v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania 136 Perfection Salad: Women and Cooking at the Turn of the Century (Shapiro) 57 Perry, Mark 197 Perry, Rick 19–20

NYOS Charter School 232

Perry Preschool study 105–108, 106, 107 Peterson, Paul E. 77 Pew Hispanic Center 170 Pew Research Center 80, 102 Phillips-Fein, Kim 8 Pickering v. Board of Education of Township High School 291–292

Obama, Barack 47, 135, 150, 162, 231, 253 Obama, Michelle 59 Oberti v. Board of Education of the Borough of Celementon School District 140–141

332

INDEX

Packard, Ron 8, 243 Palin, Sarah 39 Palmer v. Board of Education 295 Pang, Valerie Ooka 167 Partnership for 21st Century Skills 93 Partnership for America’s Economic Success 93 Patten, Simon 306

Pilot Project Scholarship Program 225 Pitt, Leonard 154 A Place Called School (Goodlad) 277 Pledge of Allegiance 15–17, 24 Plessy v. Ferguson 122–123, 130 Plyler v. Doe 149 Pole, J. R. 70 political goals of public schooling: censorship and 18–24; conclusion 28–30, 29; controversy over 4–5; courts and 21–24; fruits of 24–28, 25, 27; historical goals of 5–7, 6; impact of 11; overview 3–4, 11–14; protected/prepared childhood, concepts of 10; and school organization 7–10; values and patriotism, teaching concerns 1 4–17; see also Republican Platform (2016) Popham, W. James 261, 263 Prater, Michele 288 Pratt, Richard 159 pregnancy rates of teens 45–46, 46 Prejudice and Racism (Jones) 192–193 Prentice Hall, Inc. 19 “prepared” childhood 10 preschool education 102–104; Perry Preschool study 105–108, 106, 107 Prince, Phoebe 55 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 77, 232, 309

The Race Between Education and Technology (Goldin, Katz) 101 Race to the Top program 231, 252–255, 276–277 racism and multicultural education 191–193 Ramsey, James 158 Raymond, Margaret 262 Reich, Robert 95, 98 Reid, Karla Scoon 237 religion and education: home schooling and 238–239; and Republican Platform 2016 and 7–10, 37–38; and school choice 225–227 religion in government 16–17 religious schools 7–10, 38–41, 210 Report of the Global Commission on International Migration 179–180 Republican Platform (2012) 12

Programme on Educational Building (PEB) 310 Prom Night: Youth, Schools, and Popular Culture (Best) 42 proms 42, 48 ProofWriter online tool 316 “protected” childhood 10 Prothero, Arianna 223 public-private choice plan 224–225 public school choice plan 223–224, 227–229, 228 The Pursuit of Equality in American

Richards, Ellen 57–58 Rich, Motoko 83 rights of teachers 290–295 The Rights of Teachers (Rubin) 292–293, 298 The Rise of the Network Society (Castells) 97 Robertson, Susan 304 Rodriguez, Richard 189 Rosenthal, Robert 86 Ross, Edward 39 Rough Rock Demonstration School 161

History (Pole) 70 Pygmalion in the Classroom (Rosenthal, Jacobson) 86

Rubin, David 292–293 Rumberger, Russell 84 Russo v. Central School District No. 1 294

Republican Platform (2016): Common Core State Standards, rejection of 265–267; and dreamers 149–150; on high-stakes testing 265–267; on LGBTQ groups 47, 135; on multicultural education 211; school choice, support for 37–38, 223–225, 242–243, 299; teaching profession and 299–300; vouchers, support for 7–9, 224–227, 242–243, 299 Reyhner, Jon 158 Rice Boarding School 160

Quindlen, Anna 16 race, defining 122–127, 126 race and census report 127–129

Sadker, David 195–197 Sadker, Myra 195–197 Sakamoto, Izumi 184

INDEX

333

334

Sandy Hook Elementary School massacre 53–54 Sanger, Margaret 19 San Miguel, Guadalupe, Jr. 155 Sawchuk, Stephen 272, 280 Schimmel, David 296 Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT) 197, 259 school boards 221–223, 222 School Boards Circa 2010: Governance in the Accountability Era (Hess, Meeks) 221–223, 222, 223 school cafeterias 36, 56–57 school choice: public-private choice plan 224–225; public school choice plan 223–224, 227–229, 228; religious schools 37–38, 210, 225–227; Republican Platform 2016 support for 37–38, 223–225, 242–243, 299 Schooling in Capitalist America (Bowles, Gintis) 88 school prayer 39–41 school tuition organizations (STOs) 227 Schrum, Kelly 42 Schultz, Theodore 95, 102 Schwarzenegger, Arnold 239 Schweitzer, Brian 93 secularism in schools 38–41, 49 Sedensky III, Stephen 54 segregation in schools 36, 132–133, 154–157, 167–168

Shore, Grace 19 Singer, Natasha 235 Skillman Foundation 9 skills, soft/hard 102–104, 114 skills-based education, global promotion 307–308 skills-based testing 77 Skutnabb-Kangas, Tove 205 SmartBook 236 Smith, J. Michael 237 social and cultural capital 108–109 social class: at-risk students and 84–85; school success and 113, 113–115, 114 social control 39 social goals of schooling: bullying and cyberbullying 55–56; character education 48–50; conclusion 62–63; crime reduction and 35, 39, 50–52, 51, 52; drug and alcohol abuse 59–61; extracurricular activities 61–62; for LGBTQ groups 47–48; moral values 38–47, 46; nutrition 56–59; overview 35–37; “protected”/“prepared” childhood 10; religion and secularism 37–41, 49; Republican Platform 2016 and 37–38, 45; sex education 38, 41–47, 46; student violence 53–55 socialization 15–17, 61–62 social reproduction 87–88

self-determination 161–162 Self-Esteem Through Culture Leads to Academic Excellence (SETCLAE) curriculum 200 Seligman, Adam 17 Sesame Street (TV program) 95 sex discrimination 134–135 sex education 38, 41–47, 46 sexism and multicultural education 195–198 Sex Respect program 43 sexual harassment 296

socioeconomic status (SES) 84, 113, 113–115, 114 soft skills 102–104, 114 sorting-machine model 73–74, 74, 97 South Poverty Law Center 194 specific learning disability 138, 138 speech/language impairment 138, 138 STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics) courses 198 Strauss, Valerie 18 strikes by union members 288–290

sexually transmitted diseases 46 shadow education industry 317–319 Shanker, Albert 229 Shapiro, Laura 57 Shapleigh, Eliot 19 Sheehan v. St. Peter’s Catholic School 295–296 shootings in schools 53–54

Student Achievement Partners 11 Student Activities Drug Testing Policy 61 student debt 89 student diversity: Asian Americans 163–168, 164–165; conclusion 175; educational attainment of immigrants 168–171, 169, 170; global migration

INDEX

and Immigration Acts 150–152; language diversity and teacher preparedness 174, 174–175; languages and schools 171–172; languages of school-age children 172–174, 173, 174; Mexican Americans 152–153, 152–157; Native Americans 157–163, 158; overview 148–149; Republican Platform 2016 and 149–150 student privacy and big data 254–256 Students Matter 272 students with disabilities 135–137; charter schools 142–143; disability categories 137–139, 138; inclusion 140–142; individualized education plans 139–140 student violence 53–55 Sturgis Charter Public School 232 Successful Charter Schools report 231 Suh, Eunkook M. 184 Sylvan Learning 318–319 Tagaki, Harry 166 Takao Ozawa v. United States 123 Tape, Joseph 167 Task Force on Indian Affairs 161 Tatum, Beverly Daniel 193 Taylor, Nathaniel 158 Teachers and the Law (Fischer, Schimmel, Kelly) 296

Teaching Tolerance Project 195 Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) 316 Test of English for Distance Education (TEDE) 316 Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC) 316–317 tests see high-stakes testing Test of Spoken English (TSE) 316 Texas Freedom Network 21 Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board 21 Texas State Board of Education 18–21 textbooks and censorship 18–23 Thomas B. Fordham Institute 21 Tinker v. Des Moines Independent School District (1969) 23 To Be Popular or Smart: The Black Peer Group (Kunjufu) 200 tolerance education 193–195 Toppo, Greg 53 tracking grouping 86–87 transgender rights issues see lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and questioning sexual orientation transitional bilingual programs 202 traumatic brain injury 138, 139 Treaty of Fort Laramie 158 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo 152–153 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) 77,

“Teachers’ Working Conditions” survey 277 teaching profession: anti-bias and tolerance curricula 193–195; changing roles in 273–276; collective bargaining rights 287–288; conclusion 298–300; deskilling of 99; language diversity and 174, 174–175; liability 295–297; and online education 241–242, 242; overview 272–273; performance-based pay 287; private lives 297–298;

309 Trends Shaping Education 2013 (OECD) 77 Trial Lawyers for Public Justice 18 Tribally Controlled Schools Act (1988) 162 Troy Female Seminary 274 Trump, Donald J. 8–9, 149–150, 243, 299–300; see also Republican Platform (2016) two-way bilingual programs 202

qualifications of 276–277; Republican Platform 2016 and 299–300; rewards of 277–278, 278; rights 290–295; strikes by union members 288–290; students with disabilities 141; test cheating 263–265; turnover 278–279; unions and politics 279–280

UCLA Civil Rights project 132 Udall, Stewart 161 Unequal Childhoods: Class, Race, and Family Life (Lareau) 109–111 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) 180 United Federation of Teachers (UFT) 286

INDEX

335

United Nations’ Children’s Fund (UNICEF) 311 United Nations Development Program (UNDP) 311 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 141–142, 311 United Nations’ Millennium Goals and Targets 311 United Nations Population Division 180 United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) 311 United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind 123–124 Universal Covenant of Linguistic Human Rights 205 Universal Declaration of Human Rights 142 University Laboratory School 232 Unsafe Schools Choice Option 228 Urban Institute 62 urbanization 6, 36 U.S. Census Bureau 81–82, 124–125, 127–129 U.S. Department of Education: charter schools 231; distance learning 240; family learning 112; global competitiveness 98; home schooling 237; school choice 228–229; school dropouts 85; student diversity 168; students with disabilities 137; student

voting rights 13–14, 26 Voting Rights Act (1965) 26 vouchers for education costs 7–9, 224–227, 242–243, 299

violence 54 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services 44, 46 U.S. Department of Labor 78 U.S. Office of Special Education Programs 135 U.S. Senate Committee on Labor and Public Welfare 161

195–198; equality 70, 78, 78–80, 79, 133–135; in teaching profession 273–275 Wong Him 168 working-class families 109–111, 110 Workingman’s Party 72–73, 103 The Work of Nations (Reich) 98 World Bank 310–312 World Commission on Culture and Development 207 World Economic Forum 308 World Trade Organization (WTO) 312

Vandivere, Sharon 62 Venable, Peggy 19 Vergara v. California 272–273 Virtual University Enterprises (VUE) 314–315 visual impairments 138, 139 Vonnegut, Kurt 293 voter participation 24–28, 27

336

IINDEX

Walcott, Dennis 43–44 WallBuilders 20 Walrop, Frank 296 Walsh, Mark 157 War on Poverty 95, 96, 252, 276 Washington, George 12 Wasserman, Miriam 87 Weaver, Wendy 296–297 Weingarten, Randi 9, 288, 299 Welcher, William 167 Welfare Reform Act (1996) 43 Wesley, Edgar B. 281–282 West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette 17, 24 White Aryan Resistance 195 “whole child” concerns 6 Why Are All the Black Kids Sitting Together in the Cafeteria: A Psychologist Explains the Development of Racial Identity (Tatum) 193 Willard, Emma 273–274 Woessman, Ludger 77 Wolf Harlow, Caroline 51–52 Wollenberg, Charles M. 155, 157, 167 women in education: empowerment of

Wozniak, Steve 101 Zelman v. Simmons-Harris 225–226 Zernike, Kate 9 Zezima, Katie 55

American Education (Sociocultural, Political, And Historical Studies in Education), 18th Edition

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